lectio .»M7B8 THE MUMMY EonUott : C. J. CLAY and SONS, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE, ffilasgofo: 263, ARGYLE STREET. dambrtose : DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO. E«tpjtg: F. A. BROCKHAUS. £etogorfe: MACMILLAN AND CO. THE MUMMY CHAPTERS ON EGYPTIAN FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY BY E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, Lot. D., F.S.A., KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM WITH EIGHTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS SECOND EDITION CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1894 [All Rights reserved} (JTamimlisc PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS from plates prepared by Messrs Harrison & Sons, London. DEDICATED TO JOHN PEILE, LlTT.D., MASTER OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE. CAMBRIDGE A MARK OF GRATITUDE AND REGARD / PREFACE. The chapters contained in this book were originally- written to form the Introduction to the Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, which I wrote for the Syndics of that institution ; they are intended to supply the information necessary for under- standing the object and use of the antiquities described therein. In the hope, however, that they may be of service to all such as are interested in the antiquities of Egypt, it has been decided to publish them in a separate form. The monuments and remains of ancient Egypt preserved in the great museums of Europe and Egypt are chiefly of a sepulchral character, and we owe them entirely to the belief of the Egyptians that the soul would at some period revivify the body, and to the care, consequent on this belief, with which they embalmed the bodies of their dead, so that they might resist the action of decay, and be ready for the return of the soul. The preservation of the embalmed body, or mummy, was the chief end and aim of every Egyptian who wished for everlasting life. For the sake of the mummy's safety tombs were hewn, papyri were inscribed with com- positions, the knowledge of which would enable him to repel the attacks of demons, ceremonies were performed and services were recited ; for the sake of the comfort of the mummy and his ka t or genius, the tombs were decorated with scenes which would remind him of those with which he was familiar when upon earth, and they were also provided with many objects used by him in daily life, so that his tomb vi PREFACE. might resemble as much as possible his old home. Following up the idea that the mummy is the most important of all objects, I have given an account of the various methods of embalming ; of the amulets and other objects which formed the mummy's dress ; of the various kinds of coffins and sarcophagi in which he was laid ; of the ushabtiu and other figures, stelae, vases, etc., which formed the furniture of a well appointed tomb : and also of the most important classes of tombs hewn or built in different dynasties. In the series of articles which form this account I have given the information which the experience gained from the service of some years in the British Museum has shown me to be the most needed both by those who, though possessing no special knowledge of Egyptian antiquities, are yet greatly interested in them, and by those who have formed, or who are about to form, Egyptian collections. Frequent reference has been made to the great national collection in the British Museum because the an- tiquities there are accessible to all. With a view of applying the facts stated in these articles to a particular case, an account of an Egyptian funeral beginning with the process of mummifying the body and ending with its deposit in the tomb has been added. In the somewhat lengthy chapter on the Rosetta Stone, the evidence of the principal Greek writers on Egyptian hieroglyphics is brought together. The statement of the facts connected with the history of Egyptian decipherment, as well as the extracts from the papers on this subject col- lected by Leitch in his edition of the Miscellaneous Works by the late Thomas Young, London, 1855, and by Dean Peacock in his Life of TJiomas Young, London, 1855, seems to show that the labours of Akerblad and Young were of more importance than is usually attributed to them ; the views of Egyptologists quoted at the end of that chapter will indicate the prevailing opinion of experts on this matter. E. A. WALLIS BUDGE. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Pyramid of Me dum . , . , . . . 12 Statue of Chephren 13 The Shekh el-Beled . 16 The entrance to the tombs at Beni-hasan . . . . 20 The Colossi at Thebes 35 Seti I. in battle 39 Rameses II. when a child 41 The Rosetta Stone inscribed in honour of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes . . .108 Egyptian Funeral Procession. I. From the Papyrus of Ani . 168 Egyptian Funeral Procession. II. From the Papyius of Ani. 170 View of the Coffin Chamber . . . . . . 172 Mummy of Artemidorus 186 "Canopic"Jar . 196 Ushabti figure of the Scribe Pa-mer-ahu . . . .211 Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with stand for holding a portion of a mummied body or papyrus . . . . . .215 Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai, a priestess of Amen, about B.C. 900 . . . . .216 Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set . . , , . ,218 Egyptian gods : — Amen-Ra ... e .... . 269 Amsu 269 Ra 270 Heru (Horus) . . 270 Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) 271 Chensu . .271 Chensu Nefer-hetep 272 Atmu . , . . 9 e o , . . 272 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Egyptian gods {continued) : — page Nefer-Atmu . . . . . . . . 273 Ptah 273 Ptah-Tatenen 274 I-em-hetep (Imouthis) 274 Chnemu (Chnoumis) 275 Chepera 275 Tehuti (Thoth) 275 Set 377 Ausar (Osiris) 277 Auset (Isis) 278 Nebt-het (Nephthys) 278 Anpu (Anubis) 280 Shu 280 Hapi (Nile) 281 Hapi (Apis) 281 Ur-mer (Mnevis Bull) 283 Mestha 283 Hapi 284 Tuamautef 284 Qebhsennuf 284 Sati 285 Anqet 285 Sebek 286 An-heru 286 Bes 287 Bast 289 Net (Neith) 290 Mut 290 Maat 291 Het-Heru (Hathor) 291 Shu lifting Nut from Seb 292 Nut 293 Seb .......... 293 Serq (Selk) 294 Maahes 295 Seker 295 Ta-urt (Thouerisj 296 Sefech-Aabu 296 Sphinx 298 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX The lady Nai Woman kneading bread The Scribe Kha-f-Ra . Limestone statue Statue of Ti . Statue of Ra-nefer Section of the Tomb of Rameses IL Plan of the Tomb of Rameses II. Three Mastabas at Gizeh Entrance to a Mastaba at Sakkarah Plan of a Mastaba with four serdabs Longitudinal section of a Mastaba Transverse section of a Mastaba . Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab Upper chamber, pit and sarcophagus chamber of £ Mastaba at Gizeh with double pit Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh . West wall of a chamber in the tomb of Ptah-hetep Winnowing wheat ..... Netting wild fowl ...... Bakers making bread Cattle on the march ..... The Great Pyramid and the three small Pyramids Section of the Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh . Mastaba CONTENTS. The Egyptian Race and Language PAGE. ... 1-6 The Land of Egypt 7 Egyptian Chronology 10 The History of Egypt, Dynasties I.-XXX ... i ] -64 „ „ Persian Rulers of Egypt 65 „ ,, Macedonian Rulers of Egypt ... 65 „ „ The Ptolemies ... 66 „ „ The Romans 67 ,, „ The Byzantines ... 68 ,, ., The Muhammadans 68 List of Egyptian Dynasties and the dates assigned to them by Egyptologists 69 List of Nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt 7o-75 List of the Cartouches of the Principal Egyptian Kings 76- -107 The Rosetta Stone :— Greek writers on hieroglyphics. Hecataeus, Hellanicus, Democritus, Herodotus 112 Diodorus, Strabo, Chaeremon, John Tzetzes, Hermapion, Clement of Alexandria, Porphyry, Horapollo... TI 3 Labours of Kircher and Jablonski... 125 Young and Champollion and their successors 127 Young's hieroglyphic alphabet 141 Champollion's method of obtaining a hieroglyphic alphabet... H5 Opinions of Egyptologists on the labours of Young and Champollion 148- ■152 Modern hieroglyphical literature ... 153 An Egyptian Funeral I 53- 173 Mummy, Methods of Mummifying 173- -189 Mummy Cloth and Akhmim Embroideries 189 Canopic Jars and the inscriptions upon them ... 194 Chests for Canopic Jars... 20T The Book of the Dead 202 CONTENTS. PAGE. Pillows .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2IO Ushabtiu figures ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 211 Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures... ... ... ... ... ... 215 Sepulchral Boxes ... ... ... ... ... ... 216 Funereal Cones or models of Loaves of Bread... ... ... 218 Stelae ... 218 Vases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 222 Objects for the Toilet, Mirrors, Tweezers, Hair-pins, Combs, Fans, AV//-pots, Oils ... ... ... ... ... 225 Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc. ... ... ... ... 230 Scarabs. Their signification. Funereal, ornamental and his- torical scarabs. Texts engraved on scarabs. Scarabs of Amenophis III. Phoenician Scarabs. Scarabs found at Ialysos, Kamiros, Tharros, Arban, Babylon, etc. Scarabs used by Gnostics ... ... ... ... ... ... 231 Amulets : — The Buckle or Tie || — Hieroglyphic texts ... ... 256 TheTetjj 259 The Vulture 260 The Collar ^? 260 The Papyrus Sceptre J ... ... ... ... ... 261 The Pillow ^ 261 The Heart ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 The Anch ^ 263 The Utchat ^ 0 263 The Nefer J 264 The Sam | 264 The Horizon fOj ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 264 The Shen Q 264 The Crown of the North ^ 265 „ South ^ 265 The Menat 265 CONTENTS. xiii PAGE. The Cartouche c * ... ... ... ... ... 265 The Neha [p 265 The Serpent's Head <^gD 265 The Disk and Plumes < jj^ 265 The Frog 265 The Staircase ... ... ... ... ... ... 266 The Fingers ... ... ... ... ,.. ... 266 Figures of the Gods : — Amen-Pa A ra< ^ G J 2 68 1 MMM — fl I i I Amsu 270 Ra ^n. ^ Heru (Horus) 271 Menthu-Ra = —3 \>° 3 271 Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) ^) ^ 271 Chensu (Chonsu) ^ 0 % J) 272 /WWW I — 21 1 — I A H~kM 272 pt \ *AAAAA l_l \\ A/VWV\ Hapi (Apis) I A Ausar-Hapi (Serapis) j Mnevis in Mestha "|| (j ^ □ \ Hapi Tuamautef * Qebhsennuf fjf X I and Anqet ; Anher ^ ^ - m - The four children of Horus Sati Sebek J] A Bes Sechet ■1 1 ' " 1 'l Menhit c= /VWSAA 114 Nit (Neith) Maat Het-heru (Hathor) ODD Nu and Nut 0 ^ CONTENTS. XV PAGE. Seb %*j$ 294 Serq(Selk) (l^SfiP^) ^94 Maahes (j jl J^. 294 Neheb-ka ^| JU^^) 295 Seker^^ 295 Ta-urt (Thoueris) o^ll^^ 297 Figures of Animals, etc., sacred to the gods : — Ape ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 297 Hippopotamus ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 Cow ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 Lion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 Sphinx ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 Bull ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299 Ram ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299 Cat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299 Jackal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299 Hare ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 299 Hippopotamus ... ... ... ... ... ... 290 Hedgehog 299 Shrew-mouse ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Stag ... ... ... : 300 Ichneumon ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Crocodile ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Vulture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Hawk ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Ibis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Oxyrhynchus ... ... ... ... ... 300 Phagrus... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Fishes 4 Latus 300 j Silurus ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Lepidotus ... ... ... ... ... 300 Frog 300 Toad ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 Scorpion ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 Uraeus ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 301 Beetle ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 xvi CONTENTS. PAGE Figures of Kings and Private Persons 301 Coffins ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 306 Sarcophagi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 Egyptian Tombs : — Mastabas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 318 Pyramids 328 Theban Tombs ... ... ... ... ... ... 343 Egyptian Writing Materials : — The Papyrus ... ... ... ... ... ... 349 Palette ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350 Reeds and Ink •• 35 2 Egyptian Writing : — Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic |> 353 Coptic Writing and Language ... Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes : — Apis Bull 35 6 Antelope 356 Cat 356 Crocodile ... 356 Shrew-mouse 356 Ichneumon ... 356 Ibis 357 Hawk 357 Frog 357 Toad • 357 Scorpion 357 Beetle 357 Snake ••• 357 Fish 357 Cippi of Horus ... 358 The Egyptian Months, and their names, in Coptic, Greek, and Arabic 363 Egyptian and Coptic Numbers ... 364 A List of Common Hieroglyphic Characters ... ... ... 366 A List of Common Determinatives 375 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT. 1 The date of the period when the land of Egypt was taken Antiquity possession of by the race of people which we are accustomed Egyptians to call Egyptian is unknown. None of the researches which have been carried on by historians, philologists, anthropolo- gists and archaeologists has, up to the present, given us any information from which we may reasonably hope to arrive at a decision as to the time when this event took place. And just as we know nothing of the period of the advent of the invaders, so also we know nothing of the aboriginal people whom we may assume they found living there when they arrived. The Egyptian aborigines are thought by some to have been a dark-skinned race, and to have belonged to the negro family. Whatever may be the truth on these points, it is pretty clear that no traces of their works or buildings have come down to us, and as skulls belonging to their time have not been found, any statement as to their race characteristics must be based on pure assumption. About the race to which the Egyptian known to us from mummies and statues belongs and his characteristics, there is 1 Among the books which derive their information about the history of Egypt from native sources, and are all important for the study of Egyptian History, must be mentioned : — Champollion-Figeac, Egypte Ancienne, Paris, 1839 ; Rosellini, Momimenti Storici, Pisa, 1832-1844 ; Bunsen, Aegyptens Sielle in der Weltgeschichte, Gotha, 1 844- 1 85 7 (English translation with supplementary addi- tions by the late Dr. Birch, Vols. 1-5, London, (857) ; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter, Berlin, 1849; Lepsius, Kbnigsbuch, Berlin, 1858; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens, Leipzig, 1859 (English translation by Danby Seymour and Philip Smith, B.A., 2 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1881) ; Birch, Egypt from the earliest Times to B.C. 300, London, 1880; Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, Gotha, 1884 ; Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, Berlin, 1887, with Einleitung. Geographic des alten Aegyptens, Schrift und Sprache seiner Bewohner, by Diimichen; and Mariette, Apercu.de V Histoire Ancienne d Egypte, Paris, 1867. Interesting and popular works on this subject are contained in Maspero, Histoire Ancietine des Peuples de V Orient, 1st ed., 1875, and Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de V Orient, Paris, 1882. / . B. M. B 2 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Asia the original home of the Egyptians. Evidence of skulls and an- tiquities. no doubt whatever. He was a Caucasian, and it would seem that he came to Egypt from an original home in Asia. He wandered, or was driven, forth from there, and travelling in a south-westerly or westerly direction, after a number of years arrived at a place to the north of the Red Sea, probably the Isthmus of Suez, the " bridge of nations." Of the time occupied by the immigrant in making his way from Asia to Egypt nothing can be said ; it is quite certain, however, that when he arrived he brought a high civilization with him. Following the statement of Diodorus Siculus, 1 it was the fashion some years ago to state in books of history that the ancient Egyptian was a negro, and some distinguished historians still make the statement that " the fundamental character of the Egyptian in respect of physical type, language, and tone of thought, is Nigritic." 2 That neither the Egyptian nor his civilization is of Nigritic origin is proved by the inscriptions and by the evidence of an ever-increasing number of statues of kings, and of high officials in their service, who lived during the earliest times of the rule of the invaders over Egypt. Prof. Owen's opinion on this subject is as follows : " Taking the sum of the correspondence notable in collections of skulls from Egyptian graveyards as a probable indication of the hypothetical primitive race originating the civilized conditions of cranial departure from the skull-character of such race, that race was certainly not of the Australioid type, is more suggestive of a northern Nubian or Berber basis. But such suggestive characters may be due to intercourse or 'admix- ture' at periods later than [the] Xlllth dynasty; they are not present, or in a much less degree, in the skulls, features, and physiognomies of individuals of from the Illrd to the Xllth dynasties." 3 If the pure ancient Egyptian, as found in mummies and represented in paintings upon the tombs, be compared with the negro, we shall find that they are abso- lutely unlike in every particular. The negro is prognathous, but the Egyptian is orthognathous ; the bony structure of the 1 Bk. iii. 3. I. (ed. Didot, p. 128). 2 G. Rawlinson, Ancient Egypt, 1887, p. 24. 3 Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland \ Vol. IV. p. 239. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 3 negro is heavier and stronger than that of the Egyptian ; the Features hair of the negro is crisp and woolly, while that of the Egyptian. Egyptian is smooth and fine. The Egyptian was usually of slender build, with broad shoulders, sinewy arms and legs, and long hands and feet. His head was small, with large eyes, full cheeks, broad mouth, lips inclined to be full, and square chin. The nose was short and not aquiline. It will be observed, too, that if we add that the Egyptian was dark complexioned, the above particulars will agree very w r ell with their general description by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 16, 23) : " Homines autem Aegyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati 1 magis quam maesti oris, gracilenti et aridi, ad singulos motus excandescentes " When an Egyptian had an aquiline nose, it indicated that he had Semitic blood in his veins ; the aquiline nose was hardly ever met with in Upper Egypt. 2 But it is quite as impossible to show that the Egyptian was a Semite, as some have attempted to do, as that he was a negro. The language of the Egyptian as known to us by the Opinions inscriptions which he left behind him belongs wholly neither onthe° larS to the Indo-European nor to the Semitic family of languages, affinity of The only known language which it resembles is Coptic, and Egyptian- this is now pretty well understood to be a dialect of the language of the hieroglyphics. Benfey 3 endeavoured to show that the Egyptian had sprung from a Semitic stock, and De Rouge\ 4 Ebers and Brugsch 5 have followed in his steps. 1 See also Herodotus, ii. 104. 2 Here and elsewhere I have reproduced passages from my Prefatory Remarks on the unrolling the Mummy of Bak-ran, privately printed, London, 1890. See Ebers, Aegypten und die Bucher Moses, i. p. 46 ff. and Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, p. 25. 3 The whole of the facts which favour the theory that the Egyptian is allied to the Semitic languages are collected in his work Ueber das Verhaltniss der Aegyptischen Sprcuhe zum Semitischen Sprachstamme, Leipzig, 1844. 4 Memoire sur F inscription du iombeau cTAhmes, p. 195. " e (- presque toujours un fait curieux a ete mis en evidence, a savoir, que la grammaire de la langue antique se rapproche bien plus decidement des caracteres propres aux idiomes semitiques." 5 Wbrterbuch, I. Vorrede, ss. 9- 12. " Es steht mir namlich fest, dass die altagyptische Sprache, d. h. die alteste Gestaltung derselben, im Semitischen wurzelt und dass wir von hieraus alle jene Erscheinungen zu erklaren haben, welche sonst ohne jede Ausflosung dastehen warden." B 2 4 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Barthelemy, de Guignes, Giorgi, de Rossi and Kopp pro- claimed unhesitatingly the identity of Coptic with Hebrew, 1 but Quatremere in his Recherclies critiques et historiques stir la lattgue et la litter attire de VEgypte, p. 16, declared that Coptic was without affinity with any other language, and that it was a mother tongue. Dr. Lepsius tried to show by the names of the numerals and alphabets that the Indo-European, Semitic and Coptic families of languages were originally identical, 2 and Schwartze 3 asserted that Coptic was analogous to the Semitic languages in its grammar, and to the Indo-European languages by its roots ; but that it was more akin to the Semitic languages in its simple character and lack of logical structure. Bunsen and Paul de Lagarde thought that the Egyptian language represented a pre-historic layer of Semi- tism, and tried to show that the forms and the roots of the ancient Egyptian could be explained neither by Aryan nor Semitic singly, but by both of these families together, and that they formed in some way the transition from one to the other. 4 Stern in his Koptisclie Grammatik, p. 4, says : — " Es besteht eine alte Verwandtschaft zwischen der aegypti- schen, welche dem hamitischen Stamme angehort, und den semitischen Sprachen, wie sich unverkennbar noch in der pronominalbildung und in manchen gemeinsarnen Wurzeln zeigt ; doch scheint sich das aegyptische von den asiatischen Schwestern friih getrennt zu haben und seinen eigenen Weg gegangen zu sein Die allgemeine Stammverwandtschaft der beiden Sprachen ist durch weitgehende Lautverschiebun- gen und Veranderungen verdeckt." Prof. W. Wright thought that "we have not a few structural affinities, which may perhaps be thought sufficient to justify those linguists who hold that Egyptian is a relic of the earliest age of Semitism, or of Semitic speech as it was before it passed into the peculiar form in which we may be said to know it historically." (Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, p. 34.) 1 Renan, Histoire Generate des Langues Semitiques, p. 80. 2 Ueber den Ursprung und die Verwandtschaft der Zahlwdrter in der Indo- Germanischen, Semitischen und Koptischen Sprache, Berlin, 1836. 3 Das alte Aegypten, pp. 976, 1033. 4 Renan, op. cit., p. 82. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 5 Quite recently Dr. Erman has discussed 1 the question of the affinity of the language of the hieroglyphics with the Semitic dialects, and he is of opinion that a relationship undoubtedly exists. To support this view he prints a list of Egyptian words with what he and I believe to be their Semitic equivalents, and he thinks that the number of such words might be considerably increased if we were able to recover the radicals which are hidden in their hieroglyphic forms. His arguments are carefully thought out and his facts ably put together, and he has made an important contri- bution towards the settlement of a difficult subject. On the other hand Renan, Max Miiller, and others, do not admit the connexion between Egyptian and the Semitic languages in any way whatever. Renan does not seek to deny that the proposed relationships between Coptic and Semitic dictionaries have something seductive about them, but he cannot admit that they form any scientific proof ; he considers them to be accidents rather than organic analogies, as shown by the following list : — 2 Hebrew. nfiN for nfiSN anta V»N for IfiJM ^] anti 2 See however Wright {Comparative Grammar, p. 33), "An examination of the Coptic alone readily suggests several considerations in support of this view [i.e., that Egyptian is descended from the same stock as the Semitic languages]. For example, there is the marvellous similarity, almost amounting to identity, of the personal pronouns, both separate and suffixed — a class of words which languages of radically different families are not apt to borrow from one another " Egyptian. Coptic. Sin g- *■ (] anuk I £.rtOK /WWW „ 2. m. Q g entuk thou itOOK /www „ 2. f. <2 entut thou fteo „ 3. m. ^ 6 entuf he n/GOCJ /wwv\ „ 3. f. o (g entus she ft-GOC 1 Z.D.M.G., Band XLVI. pp. 93-129. 6 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptian. Coptic. Hebrew. Plur. i. enen we ^ , or =====■ two other names for the country are Jj A Q @ Beqet, apparently having reference to Egypt as an olive-bearing land, and 1 Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 55-61. The question of Pronominal forms in Egyptian has been discussed by this writer in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical ArchcBolo^y, March, 1888, pp. 247-264, and in this paper he states that pronouns like anuk, entuk, entuf etc., are formed of a series of demonstrative elem ents ; anuk = a + nu 4- k, entuk = en + tu + k, entuf = en + tu — f. 2 Etudes Archeologiques, Lingnistiques et Historiques, dediees a Dr. C Leemans, Leide, 1885, pp. 105-107. 8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ^ Baqet. © Native names of Egypt. Nomes of Egypt. Upper Egypt was commonly called -=^-0 © Ta-qemd, " the land of the South," and Ta-meK "the land of the North." A ^ Ta-res or Lower Egypt ^ = f^ Ta-meh, "the land of the Upper and Lower Egypt were represented in the inscriptions — — > r*£s fa^ \> by the following: J J •III!, 33 © ©© © © ' © © ' ^ w \> The Hebrews called Egypt " Mizraim," and the Assyrians and Babylonians Miisar ; it is given this latter name in the cuneiform despatches of Tushratta, King of Mitani, about B.C. 1550. Upper Egypt extended from Aswan (Syene) to Memphis, and Lower Egypt, beginning at Memphis, included the Delta and sea-coast. From the earliest times Egypt appears to have been divided into a series of districts which the Egyptians called liesp zEEEE, and the Greeks NoyLtot or Nomes. Each nome had its capital city and temple for worship, its own feasts, its own sacred animals and trees, and its own protecting deity. The limits of each nome were most carefully marked, and the amount of cultivated land, the amount of land available for agricultural purposes after a high Nile, and the canals with their various branches, were all known. 1 Each nome with its independent administration, formed, practically, a small but complete state. The number of the nomes according to classical authors varies ; Diodorus, who says (i. 54) that the nome dates from the time of Sesostris, gives thirty-six, Pliny 2 forty-five. The number usually given in Egyptian lists is forty-two : twenty- two in Upper Egypt, and twenty in Lower Egypt. Hepta- nomis, or Middle Egypt, appears to have been the district between the Thebaid and the Delta ; its seven nomes are said to have been Memphites, Heracleopolites, Crocodilopo- lites, Aphroditopolites, Oxyrhynchites, Cynopolites, Hermo- polites. The Greater and Lesser Oases were considered to be parts of Heptanomis. 1 A list of the nomes is given at the end of the chapter on Egyptian History. 2 He calls them praefeduras oppidorum, (v. 9, 9). The nomes and their chief towns are given by Ptolemy, Geographiae^ iv. 5, ed. Mercator, pp. 105-108. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 9 Over the early history of Egypt there hangs a mystery The greater than that which shrouds the origin and home of the ^iK Egyptian ; of the period which preceded Mena (Menes), the Egyptian first historical king of Egypt, nothing is known. According Hlstory " to Manetho a race of demi-gods and kings from This, near Abydos, and from Memphis ruled over Egypt before the advent of Mena, and these may possibly correspond with the shesu Hern or " followers of Horus " of the Turin papyrus, the list of kings on which begins with god-kings and ends with the rule of the Hyksos at the end of the XVI Ith dynasty or about B.C. 1700. The work of Manetho of Sebennytus on Early Egyptian history is, unfortunately, lost. He was alive about historians - B.C. 271, and is said to have been a contemporary of Ptolemy I. ; his Egyptian history was composed during the reign of Ptolemy II. Philadelphia, B.C. 286-247. Extracts from this work are given us by Josephus {contra Apion. I., 14), which refer to the reigns of the kings of the XV — XlXth dynasties. In Eusebius and Julius Africanus (fragments of whose work 7revTa/3i/3\[ov xP ovo ^ or i i,c ° v ar e preserved in Eusebius) there are given a list of Egyptian dynasties, and the number of the years of the reign of each king. This list is one of the most valuable documents which have come down to us, for Manetho, by reason of his position as priest and his knowledge of the ancient Egyptian language, had access to, and was able to make use of, the ancient Egyptian literature in a way which no other writer seems to have done. The thirty dynasties of Egyptian kings he Lists of divides into three periods, thus : Dynasties I. — XL, Dynasties Kin 2 s - XII.— XIX., and Dynasties XX.— XXX. It must, however, be understood that the Egyptian did not group the kings into dynasties, and this fact is evident from the Tablet of Abydos and the Tablet of Sakkarah. The Tablet of Abydos, discovered by Dumichen in the Temple of Osiris, at Abydos, in 1864, gives the names of seventy-five kings, beginning with Mena or Menes, and ending with Seti I., the father of Rameses II. ; it is not a complete list, and there is nothing to show why certain names are omitted. The Tablet of Sakkarah, discovered by Mariette at Sakkarah, was inscribed during the reign of Rameses II., and it gives 10 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Uncer- tainty of Egyptian Chrono- logy. the names of forty-seven kings, agreeing closely, in the matter of selection of names, with the Tablet of Abydos. The name of Mer-ba-pen, the sixth king of the 1st dynasty, is that which begins this list. The Tablet of Karnak was disco- vered at Karnak by Burton and was taken to Paris by Prisse. It was inscribed during the reign of Thothmes III., and contains the names of sixty-one kings. Notwithstanding the fact that in the arrangement no chronological order has been followed, the tablet is of great value, for it mentions the names of some of the kings of from the XHIth to the XVIIth dynasties, and gives the names of those of the Xlth dynasty more fully than any other list. The names of the kings in Manetho's list are in many instances corrupt ; by the help of the monuments, however, the greater number can be corrected, and the value of the document is the more assured as more of the historical inscriptions become known. The chronology of Egypt has been, and must be for some time yet, a subject of difficulty and of variety of opinion. The fixed points in Egyptian history are so few and the gaps between them so great, that it is quite impossible to establish an accurate system of chronology : approximate dates are all that can be hoped for at present. Nearly every student of Egyptian chronology arrives at conclusions different from any of his predecessors, and how widely different they are is seen from the fact that the date given for Menes by Champollion-Figeac is 5867, by Bockh 5702, by Bunsen 3623, by Lepsius 3892, by Lieblein 3893, by Mariette 5004, and by Brugsch 4400. The system of chronology by Brugsch, which is based on the calculation of three generations to a century, is generally used throughout this book. B.C. 4400 Founding of Memphis. Dynasties I-VI. Mena or Menes, the first historical king of Egypt, came from This near Abydos in Upper Egypt. He left This, and journeying northwards, arrived at the head of the Delta, where, having turned the Nile out of its course, he founded the city of Memphis and built the temple of Ptah. The name Memphis, in Egyptian T A Men-nefert, /www 0 d era EGYPTIAN HISTORY. I I means the " fair site " ; the sacred name of the place is genius of Ptah " ; from this name it seems that the Greek name for Egypt Aijvtttos is derived. The worship of the gods, the temple services, and the cult of Apis were intro- duced by Menes, who is said to have been devoured by a crocodile. Teta wrote a book on anatomy, and continued building 4366 at Memphis. Ata. In the reign of this king a great famine happened. 4300 He is said to have built pyramids at Kochome near Sak- Famine in ' Egypt karah, but there is no evidence that he built the famous Step Pyramid 1 there. Hesep-ti. The 64th chapter of the Book of the Dead is 4266 said to have been found at Denderah during his reign, and Antiquity the 130th chapter also dates from that period. t h e £, ea( j. Mer-ba-pen. With this king's name the Tablet of Sak- 4233 karah begins. During the second dynasty an earthquake swallowed up a great many people at Bubastis, and the succession of females to the throne of Egypt was declared valid. Sent, the last 4000 king of this dynasty, revised a work on medicine, and he Early appears to be the first king of whom contemporaneous monu- knowledge ments remain. in ^P 1 - During the rule of Nefer-ka-Seker, the first king of the Illrd dynasty, the tribes of the land to the north-west of the Delta rebelled : according to Manetho's statement, the moon Eclipse of first grew very large and bright, and then became dark, and the moon * the rebels were so terrified that they fled away in terror. The monuments of the IVth dynasty are numerous, and the tombs of this period, particularly, show to what a high state of culture and civilization the Egyptians had attained. Of the first king, Seneferu, very little is known : he invaded 3766 1 The steps are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31 and 29 J feet in height ; the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south, 352 feet ; east and west, 596 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. The shape of the pyramid is oblong, and the arrange- ment of the chambers inside is peculiar to itself. means " the temple of the B.C. 12 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Copper mines worked in Sinai. the peninsula of Sinai, and having conquered the hostile tribes there, established copper mining at Wady Ma'arah. He dug wells, and built forts and temples there for the use of the miners and overseers, and from the remains of the working of his mines, which may be seen there to this day, it is clear that the copper industry must have been very large at that period in Egypt. Sinai was called Mafkata, " the land of the bluish-green stone." Seneferu is Pyramid of said to have built the Pyramid of Medum, called in Egyptian Q C/id, and in Arabic El-Haram el-Kadddb^ " the false Medum. The Pyramid of Medum. B.C. 3733 Great pyramid built and Denderah founded. pyramid." This pyramid is about 115 feet high, and is built in three stages ; the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. It was never completed. Chufu, or Cheops, the next king of Egypt, is more famous as the builder of the great pyramid of Gizeh than as a warrior, and little more is known of his military expeditions than that he continued the wars against the tribes of Sinai which his predecessor Seneferu had so ably begun. He appears to have built many towns, and the famous temple of Denderah is said to have been founded during his reign. As the pyramids were tombs, they will be described in the chapter relating to tombs. Statue of Chephren, King of Egypt, B.C. 3666 [Museum of Gizeh]. 14 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 3666 The Sphinx. Repairs to ihe Sphinx. Caviglia excavates Sphinx. Chafra, or Chephren, is also more famous as the builder of the second pyramid than as a warrior, and with his name is coupled that of the Sphinx. The age of the Sphinx is unknown, and few of the facts connected with its history have come down to these days. Some years ago it was generally believed to have been made during the rule of the kings of the Middle Empire over Egypt, but when the stele which recorded the repairs made in the temple of the sphinx by Thothmes IV., B.C. 1533, came to light, it became certain that it was the work of one of the kings of the Ancient Empire. The stele records that one day during an after-dinner sleep, Harmachis appeared to Thothmes IV., and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. At the end of the inscription part of the name of Cha-f-Rfi or Chephren appears, and hence some have thought that this king was the maker of the Sphinx ; and as the statue of Chephren was subsequently found in the temple close by, this theory was generally adopted. An inscription found by Mariette near one of the pyramids to the east of the pyramid of Cheops shows that the Sphinx existed in the time of Chu-fu or Cheops. The Egyptians called the Sphinx hu \ \ J£a5> and he represented the god Harmachis, i.e., Heru- em-chut ^ / rd. " Horus in the horizon," or the rising sun, the conqueror of darkness, the god of the morning. On the tablet erected by Thothmes IV., Harmachis says that he gave life and dominion to Thothmes III., and he promises to give the same good gifts to his successor Thothmes IV. The discovery of the steps which led up to the Sphinx, a smaller Sphinx, and an open temple, etc., was made by Caviglia, who first excavated this monument ; within the last few years very extensive excavations have been made round it by the Egyptian Government, and several hitherto unseen parts of it have been brought to view. The Sphinx is hewn out of the living rock, but pieces of stone have been added where necessary ; the body is about 1 50 feet long, the paws are 50 feet long, the head is 30 feet long, the face is 14 feet wide, and from the top of the head to the base of the monument the distance is about 70 feet. Originally there EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 15 probably were ornaments on the head, the whole of which was covered with a limestone covering, and the face was coloured red ; of these decorations scarcely any traces now remain, though they were visible towards the end of the last century. The condition in which the monument now appears is due to the savage destruction of its features by the Muhammadan rulers of Egypt, some of whom caused it to be used for a target. Around this imposing relic of antiquity, whose origin is wrapped in mystery, a number of legends and The superstitions have clustered in all ages ; but Egyptology has f^em shown, I., that it was a colossal image of Ra-Harmachis, and blem of therefore of his human representative upon earth, the king ^cb^ of Egypt who had it hewn, and II., that it was in existence in the time of, and was probably repaired by, Cheops and Chephren, who lived about three thousand seven hundred years before Christ. 1 b Menkaura or Mykerinos is famous as the builder of the 3633 third pyramid at Gizeh. The fragments of his inner wooden coffin and a small fragment of his basalt sarcophagus are The oldest preserved in the British Museum, together with the remains JjJ^JJy of a human body which were found with them in the third pyramid at Gizeh. The reputation which this king left behind him is that of a good and just ruler. The kings of the Vth like those of the IVth dynasty are famous rather as builders than as warriors. The rule of the first king, Userkaf, extended as far as Elephantine. Sahura, 3566 the second king, suppressed revolts in the Sinaitic peninsula and founded a town near Esneh. An, Heru-men-kau, 3400 and Tet-ka-Ra also made expeditions into Sinai, and caused Copper reliefs to be cut on the rocks with the usual inscriptions in worked in which they are called the conquerors of the land. In the Sinai, reign of this last named king Tet-ka-Ra or Assa was written the famous work entitled the " Precepts of Ptah-Hetep." 33 66 A single complete copy of this work, dating from the Xlth or Xllth dynasty, is extant ; it is preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, where it was brought by Prisse. 2 If all 1 Budge, The Nile, Notes for Travellers in Egypt, 2nd ed., pp. 194, 195. 2 The hieratic text has been published by Prisse, Facsimile cTun Papyrus Egyptien, Paris, 1847. The best analyses of the text are by Chabas in Revm Arch., Serie I. t. xv., p. I ff. and in Aegyptische Zeilschrift, June and July, 1870. The Shekh el-Beled. From Sakkarah [Gizeh Museum, No. 492]. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 17 other monuments of the great civilization of Egypt were wanting, these " Precepts " alone would show the moral worth of the Egyptians, and the high ideal of man's duties which B c they had formed nearly 5 500 years ago. Of Unas, the last 3333 king of the Vth dynasty, we know little except that he built a pyramid at Sakkarah, which was opened in 188 1. The kings of the Vlth dynasty seem to have extended their operations further south, for their names are found at El-kab, Abydos, Aswan, and elsewhere. Teta and Pepi I. 3266-3233 built each a pyramid at Sakkarah, and the rule of the latter seems to have embraced all Egypt. He renewed the Egyptian rule over the Sinaitic peninsula, and the inscriptions at Wady Ma'arah show that copper mining was carried on there during his reign as busily as ever. Among Pepi's staff was a young man called Una, who had been a favoured The career servant of Teta ; Pepi employed him in many ways and of Una ' distinguished him by entrusting the care of an expedition against the Aamu and Heru-sha, who are supposed to be Semitic and Asiatic enemies of Egypt respectively. Troops were brought from Ethiopia and led against them by Una ; the Egyptians were successful in defeating them, and having wasted their land, they returned to Egypt bringing many captives with them. To quell the tribes in revolt to the north of the Heru-sha territory it was necessary to send troops in ships. As a mark of the king's favour Una was sent to the quarries of Turah (in Eg. ^> r^^i Re-du) to bring back a block of stone suitable for the king's sarco- phagus. The ability and fidelity of Una made him an acceptable officer to Merenra, the successor of Pepi I., who 3200 sent him to the quarries to bring back a block of stone for the royal sarcophagus, to Aswan and Elephantine for granite to build a shrine and to make the doors of his pyramid, and to Alabastron for a large slab of fine white limestone. Nefer- ka-Ra, or Pepi II., succeeded his brother Merenra; he built a pyramid and made an expedition to Sinai. The last ruler of the sixth dynasty, Nitaqert (Nitocris), was a queen ; she 3133 enlarged the pyramid of Mykerinos and covered it over with slabs of granite, and the remains of a fine basalt sarcophagus which were found in a chamber near that of Mykerinos seem to indicate that the queen's body had been laid there. B. M. C 1 8 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Working During the first six dynasties it is clear that the Egyptians per mines were masters of the copper mine district in Sinai, that they of Sinai. were able to beat off the tribes on their western borders, that they defeated the two great warlike bodies of the Aamu and the Heru-sha, and that they were at peace with the Ethio- pians, upon whom they could call for assistance in time of war. As builders they were unequalled, and their art had advanced so far that they were never successfully imitated by later generations. Their religion and government were well founded, and their education was of a very high character. So far as is known there was no other nation, except the Babylonians under Naram-Sin and Sargon, which was so highly civilized at this remote period. DYNASTIES VII-XI. Unknown Of the history of Egypt of this period nothing is known ; Egyptian tne names of the kings who reigned cannot even be arranged history. in accurate chronological order. Towards the end of this period a number of kings named Antef and Menthu-hetep ruled ; they appear to have been of Theban origin. Menthu- hetep, with the prenomen of Neb-taui-Ra, is styled, on a stele on the island of Konosso, the conqueror of thirteen nations, and his name appears on rocks which lie beside the old road from Coptos to the Red Sea through the valley of Hammamat. The mightiest king of this period seems to 2500 have been Seanchkara, who was able to send forth an expedition to the land of Punt, the land of the gods, the peculiar home of the god Bes m, and the land of sweet Great ex- spices. The expedition set out in the eighth year of the Punt* 0 " t0 king's reign, under the leadership of Hennu ; it consisted of 3000 men, among whom were stone-cutters, soldiers, etc. On their road they dug four wells, and having arrived safely on the shores of the Red Sea, they took ship and sailed probably for the southern part of the Arabian peninsula. The expedi- tion returned successfully, bearing with it great quantities of spices, precious stones, and other products of the East. XIIth Dynasty. 2466 The kings of this dynasty, like the Antefs and Menthu- heteps, were of Theban origin, and under their rule Egypt EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 19 comes forth into the light of day as a mighty power. As they were able to defend their country from the assaults of their hereditary foes in Ethiopia, and from the tribes on their eastern and western borders, the arts and sciences flourished, and large works connected with the storage of Nile water were undertaken. The period of their rule, following as it did absolute anarchy, is one of the most interesting in the history of Egypt ; and Thebes, which hitherto had not been Thebes the seat of government, became the chief city of the Egyptian capYtaTof empire. Egypt- Amenemhat I. made himself master of Egypt after very b.c. hard fighting, and during his rule of twenty-nine years he 2 ^ 66 defeated the Uauat, an Ethiopian tribe, the Matui, a people who lived in the desert to the west of Egypt, and the Asiatics. He wrote a series of " Instructions " for his son Usertsen, whom he seems to have associated with him in the rule of the kingdom during the last ten years of his life. Conspiracies were formed against him, and he relates that his foes crept into his chamber at night to kill him. Amenemhat I. is famous as the founder of the temple of Amen-Ra, " the king of the gods," at Thebes, but although he beautified Thebes by this temple, he did not forget to establish another at Memphis, and at the other venerable cities of his kingdom. He followed the custom of the kings of the earlier dynasties and built a pyramid for his tomb. During his reign the story of Senehet was written. For an account of this remarkable papyrus see the article by Goodwin in Frasers Magazine, No. 422, 1865, arid for a translation see Records of the Past, 1st ed., Vol. VI., pp. 131-150. The original is preserved in Berlin, and a facsimile was published by Lepsius, Denkmaler, Abth. VI., Bl. 104 ff. Usertsen I. is famous as being the king who set up 2433 obelisks at Heliopolis and who beautified that city by Rise of building splendid temples there. These works were under- Heliopolis taken by him after taking counsel with his chief advisers, and in the record 1 of the proceedings of the solemn assembly at which this took place, Usertsen's orders for the prompt 1 The leather roll giving this interesting text was purchased by Brugsch in 185S, and is now preserved at Berlin. C 2 The entrance to the tombs at Beni-Hasan. Xllth dynasty. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 21 building of temples to the sun are preserved. Fragments of an obelisk set up by this king still exist near the modern town of Begig in the Fayyum, and portions of inscriptions remain at Karnak, which show that he continued the building operations which his father began there. In the forty-third year of his reign Ameni Amenemhat, a high official, set out for Ethiopia with four hundred soldiers to quell a rebellion which had broken out there. This expedition was perfectly successful, and having smitten all the tribes of Kash without losing a man, returned to the leader's city in the nome of Meh, near Beni-hasan of to-day, bringing much gold with Tombs at them. Ameni Amenemhat was one of the feudal lords of j^?" Egypt, and he led this expedition in the place of his father, who was too old to go on military service. Another high official called Mentu-hetep built a well at Abydos, of which, however, no trace has been found. Like so many of the kings who went before him, Usertsen caused the mines in the Sinaitic peninsula to be regularly worked. Amenemhat II. sent men to Nubia to dig for gold, and 2400 he opened the mines in the valley of Hammamat; he appears to have lived some time at Tanis and to have had building operations carried on there like Usertsen I. In the nineteenth year of this king's reign Chnemu-hetep became governor of Menat-Chufu, near Beni-hasan, an office held before by his father and grandfather. In the thirty-third year of Amen- emhat's reign he associated his successor Usertsen II. with him in the rule of the kingdom. In the sixth year of Usertsen II. thirty-seven people 2366 belonging to a branch of the Semitic race called Aamu, in the country of Absha, brought a gift of eye-paint to Chnemu-hetep, in whose tomb this interesting scene is depicted. Some writers have seen in this a representation of the visit of Jacob's sons to Egypt to buy corn, but there is no visi of ground whatever for this opinion. Of the wars of this king- Semitic & r *> peoples to nothing is known, and of his buildings only one mention is Egypt, made, and that is on a slab in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. With the coming to the throne of Usertsen III. a new 2333 period of prosperity began for Egypt. He recognized very soon that the tribes of Nubia had to be put down with a 22 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptians conquer Nubia. Egyptian fortresses in Nubia. B.C. 2300 Ancient irrigation works in Egypt. The Fayyum. Building of the Labyrinth. strong hand, and he marched into that country, and did not leave it until he had wasted the land, destroyed the crops and carried off the cattle. In the labours of Usertsen III. to suppress these peoples we have the counterpart of the expeditions of the English against the Mahdi and his Sudani followers. He foresaw that it was hopeless to expect to master these people if the frontier town of Egypt was Aswan or Wady Halfah, hence he went further south and built fortresses at Semneh and Kummeh. In spite of these, how- ever, he himself was compelled to lead an expedition into Ethiopia in the nineteenth year of his reign, and having conquered the country he built a temple at Elephantine to the local gods and probably another at Amada. In Egypt proper he seems to have carried on building operations at Tanis and Heracleopolis. In Amenemhat III. we have the first Egyptian king who seriously set to work to make the fullest possible use of the inundation of the Nile. At the fortresses which his prede- cessor Usertsen III. had established, he stationed officers to record and report the increase of the Nile, and " runners" must have conveyed the information to the king in Egypt. Amenemhat III. will, however, be best remembered as the builder of Lake Moeris in the Fayyum. The Egyptians called the Fayyum ™g Ta-she, " the land of the lake " ; the name Fayyum is the Arabic form of the Coptic word $I0JUI "the water," which in turn is taken from ^^^^ Pa-iuma. The Egyptian original of the name mu-nr, or t=t •^ 5f nter-ur, M great Moeris is /WW\A ^> — AAAAAA water." The Birket el-Kurun to the west of the Fayyum was originally identified with Lake Moeris, but both it and the famous Labyrinth were situated in the eastern part of the district. The Labyrinth was also built by Amenemhat III., and is said by Herodotus (ii. 148) to have contained twelve courts, six facing the north, and six the south, and three thousand rooms : fifteen hundred above ground, and fifteen hundred below. In Egyptian it was called the "temple at the mouth of the Lake " " <=> 5 * ^ and the stone [ A AAAAAA AAAAAA 7 EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 23 for building it seems to have been brought from the Valley of Hammamat. The copper mines in the mountains of Sinai were diligently worked during this reign. b Amenemhat IV. reigned conjointly with his sister Sebek- 2266 neferu, and beyond continuing the mining operations of his ancestors he seems to have done nothing. We may see in collecting the results of the rule of the Xllth dynasty over p OW er of Egypt, that its kings had extended their sway about 250 Jj^&ijJ, miles south of the first cataract, and that they had lost dynasty, nothing of their possessions either in the eastern desert or in the Sinaitic peninsula. Mighty public works like the Laby- rinth and Lake Moeris had been successfully carried out, an active trade was carried on with the natives of Punt, and with the country to-day called Syria, and with the districts further east. Agriculture flourished, and the whole land was in a most prosperous condition. And if the living were well cared for, the dead were no less so. The tombs built for high Beauty of officials and gentlemen attest the care of the sorrowing ^Eof relatives, while the sculptures and paintings employed to XHth adorn them indicate that the artistic knowledge of the dynasty * Egyptians had arrived at a very high pitch. Dynasties XIII-XVII. According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows : — Dynasty XIII, from Thebes, 60 kings in 453 years The XIV, „ Chois, 76 „ „ 484 „ „ XV, Hyksos, 6 „ „ 260 „ Kings." XVI, Hyksos, 10 „ „ 251 „ „ XVII, from Thebes, 10 „ „ 10 „ There are no monuments by which these figures can be checked, and there is no other authority for them besides Manetho. The Turin papyrus gives traces of 136 names for the period corresponding to that of the XII Ith and XlVth dynasties. Among the rulers of the XI I Ith and XlVth dynasties were many who were not of royal descent. Se- mench-ka is known to us by his statues found at Tanis, and according to Mariette he seems to have been an officer who rebelled and then seated himself on the throne. Sebek- 24 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. hetep II. was the son of a private individual, and Nefer- hetep's parents appear not to have been royal. This latter king built largely at Abydos, and as a worshipper of the local gods he is represented at Konosso and the islands of the first cataract. Of Sebek-hetep III., brother of Sebek- hetep II., Sebek-hetep IV., and Sebek-hetep V. little is known ; of Sebek-hetep VI. the best memorials are the rock tombs at Asyut. The names of many kings belonging to this period are known from the monuments, but a greater knowledge of the history of that time is necessary for arranging them in chronological order. It seems pretty certain that few of the kings reigned many years, and that the country was divided into a number of little states which were always at war with each other, and against whomsoever was king. Such a condition of things was, of course, highly favourable for a foreign invader, who would naturally be attracted by reports of the wealth of Egypt. The hardy tribes of desert dwellers, Semites and others, who crowded on the eastern and western borders of Egypt, delayed not to take advantage of the distracted and divided state of the Attacks of country, and making a successful attack on the north-east the Semites provinces of the Delta, they pressed in, and having taken upon the . . . Delta. possession of Memphis, became masters of Egypt. Their attack would probably be rendered less difficult by the fact that a great many of the inhabitants of the Delta were of Semitic origin, their ancestors having settled there in the Xllth dynasty, and their opposition to their kinsmen would be, in consequence, less stubborn. The sole authority for the Manetho history of this invasion is Josephus, who, quoting Manetho, "Hyksos " says > " There was a king of ours, whose name was Timaus. Under him it came to pass, I know not how, that God was averse to us, and there came, after a surprising manner, men of ignoble birth out of the eastern parts, and had boldness enough to make an expedition into our country, and with ease subdued it by force, yet without our hazarding a battle with them. So when they had gotten those that governed us under their power, they afterwards burnt down our cities, and demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the inhabitants after a most barbarous manner : nay, some they EGYPTIAN HISTORY. ^5 slew, and led their children and their wives into slavery. At length they made one of themselves king, whose name was Salatis ; he also lived at Memphis, and made both the upper and lower regions pay tribute, and left garrisons in places that were the most proper for them. He chiefly aimed to secure the eastern parts, as foreseeing that the Assyrians, who "Hyksos" had there the greatest power, would be desirous of that king- kings " dom and invade them ; and as he found in the Saite [Seth- roite] Nomos a city very proper for his purpose, and which lay upon the Bubastic channel, but with regard to a certain theologic notion was called Avaris, this he rebuilt, and made very strong by the walls he built about it, and by a most numerous garrison of two hundred and forty thousand armed men whom he put into it to keep it. Thither Salatis came in summer time, partly to gather his corn and pay his soldiers their wages, and partly to exercise his armed men, and thereby to terrify foreigners. When this man had reigned thirteen years, after him reigned another whose name was Beon for forty-four years ; after him reigned another, called Apachnas, thirty-six years and seven months : after him Apophis reigned sixty- one years, and then Jonias fifty years and one month ; after all these reigned Assis forty-nine years and two months. " And these six were the first rulers among them, who were Manetho all along making war with the Kgyptians, and were very derivation desirous gradually to destroy them to the very roots. This of whole nation was styled Hycsos, that is, 1 Shepherd-kings ' ; ' for the first syllable Hyc, according to the sacred dialect, denotes a king, as is SOS, a shepherd — but this according to the ordinary dialect ; and of these is compounded HYCSOS : but some say that these people were Arabians." Now, in another copy it is said, that this word does not denote kings, but on the contrary, denotes Captive Shepherds, and this on account of the particle Hyc ; for that Hyc, with the aspiration, in the Egyptian tongue again denotes Shepherds, and that ex- pressly also ; and this to me seems the more probable opinion, and more agreeable to ancient history. [But Manetho goes on] : — " These people whom we have before named kings, and called shepherds also, and their descendants," 26 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. as he says, "kept possession of Egypt five hundred and eleven years." 1 On the whole it seems that these observations of Manetho are correct. Of Salatis, the first Hyksos king, nothing is known historically, and there are no monuments known which can correctly be asserted to be the work of the kings of the first Hyksos dynasty. The country from which The the Hyksos came, also, is unknown. Some Egyptologists Kings. 1 " 61 ^ consider the Hyksos to be Cushites, and some think they are to be identified with the Accadians ; others, again, believe them to be Phoenicians or Semites. The features of the statues that have come down to us which are attributed to the Hyksos, have the following characteristics : The eyes are comparatively small, the nose is broad but aquiline, the cheek bones are prominent and the cheeks thick, the mouth is broad, the lips thick, and the chin protrudes slightly. From these facts some have stated decidedly that the Hyksos cannot have been Semites, but it must be proved that the monuments attributed to the Hyksos were really made by them, before this question can be considered to be definitively disposed of. Of the two meanings of the name Hyksos put forth by Josephus, the first being Manetho's explanation, and the second that of Josephus, based on another copy of Manetho's work seen by him, the former seems to be the more correct, and we may perhaps give the Egyptian MjMiyP X$\ as an equivalent of ^Hyksos." it. The Shaasu are a well known enemy of Egypt, who came from the deserts east and north-east of Egypt, and " Hequ-shaasu " or " princes of the Shaasu " would be a name such as we might expect the Egyptians to bestow upon the invaders, just as they spoke of Heq CJieta, " Prince of Cheta." The kings belonging to this period, made known to us by the Egyptian monuments, are Apepa I., Apepa 1 1., and Nubti. Of Apepa I. very little is known, but of Apepa II. a number of monuments remain, and among others one which records the submission to him of a number of Ethiopian tribes. Bar-Hebraeus relates that there " reigned in Egypt the fourth king of the Shepherds called Apapus, fourteen years. Josephus, Contra Apion, i. 14, translated by Whiston, p. 610. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. It was this king who dreamed dreams, and who made Joseph Joseph in ruler — according to the writings of Chaldeans — and it Egypt ' seems that these kings were called "Shepherd Kings" because of Joseph's brethren." 1 It is known from a granite stele 2 found at Tanis, a city formerly inhabited by the Apepa kings, that the four hundredth year from the reign of Nubti fell in the reign of Rameses II. Dr. Birch, 3 Wiedemann 4 and other Egyptologists, compare this period of 400 years with the 430 years of the bondage of Israel in Egypt, and, as Israel in the Exodus probably took place during the reign of the E syP 1, immediate successor of Rameses II., we may assume that the statement of Bar-Hebraeus was based on some trustworthy tradition. It has also been pertinently remarked that it would be easier for Joseph to hold high office under the Shepherd Joseph and kings than under the rule of an ancient hereditary aristocracy. jJ^d SheP " The Shepherd kings worshipped a god called Sut or Sutech, Kings." who was to the Egyptians a veritable abomination. They lived in the cities of Tanis and Avaris, on the east side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. They adopted the manners and customs and writing of the Egyptians, and whatever may have been their severity when they first began to rule, they were of great service to the Egyptians. It is doubtful, however, how far south their rule extended. The names of a number of kings whom Wiedemann attributes to this period are to be found in his Geschichte, pp. 295-297. The kings of the XVIIth dynasty were of Theban origin, The kings and are famous as those who defeated the Shepherd kings and of Thebes expelled them. According to Manetho, "under a king whose Hyksos. name was Alisphragmuthosis,. the shepherds were subdued by him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of Egypt, k £i£oa*j ^oiaiil ^k)? U^o?o *V?^>? lAai^Anlo ^] 1 Ed. Bruns, p. 14, at the top ; ed. Dedjan, p. 13, at the top. 2 An English translation is given by Birch in Records of the Past, V., p. 33 IT. 3 Egypt, p. 76. 4 A eg. Geschichte, p. 294. 28 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. but were shut up in a place that contained ten thousand acres: this place was named Avaris." Manetho says that " the Shepherds built a wall round all this place, which was a large and strong wall, and this in order to keep all their possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but that Thummosis the son of Alisphragmuthosis made an attempt to take them by force and by siege with 480,000 men to lie round about them ; but that, upon his despair of taking the place by that siege, they came to a composition with them, that they should leave Egypt, and go without any harm to be done them, whithersoever they would ; and that, after Retreat of this composition was made, they went away with their whole "Hyksos." f am ili es an d effects, not fewer in number than 240,000, and took their journey from Egypt, through the wilderness, for Syria : but that, as they were in fear of the Assyrians, who had then the dominion over Asia, they built a city in that country which is now called Judea, and that large enough to contain this great number of men, and called it Jerusalem." 1 Of more value than this account of Josephus for the expulsion of the Shepherd kings, is the mutilated papyrus 2 in the British Museum which treats of Apepa and the native Theban Seqenen- king Tau-aa-qen or Seqenen-Ra III. According to it, Ra IIJ * Egypt belonged to her foes and had no king, although Seqenen-Ra, who is described as a heq or prince, was master of a town in the south. Apepa received tribute from all parts of the Delta, and part of it he devoted to building temples to his god Set. He wished all Egypt, both south and north, to worship this god, and to pay tribute to himself, and he sent a messenger from Avaris to Thebes requiring Seqenen-Ra to worship Set alone. This king returned answer saying that he could worship no god but Amen-Ra. Some time after another messenger of Apepa arrived with threats, which caused Seqenen-Ra much trouble, and he gathered together his generals and councillors to decide upon a plan of action. What the decision was the mutilated state of the papyrus prevents us from knowing, but there is no doubt about the ultimate result of their deliberations. One of the officers of 1 Contra Apion. I. 14, Whiston's translation, p. 61 1. * For the text see Select Papyri, ed. Birch, pi. 2. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 29 Seqenen-Ra was called Baba, the son of Re-ant, and he had a son called Aahmes who was born in the city of Eileithyia. Aahmes This Aahmes became an officer on board a ship of war called g enera i the " North," and in the inscription on the walls of his tomb it is said that he went with the king to besiege the city of Avaris. He was next promoted to a ship called Cha-em- Mennefer, and he took part in the battle fought upon the canal of Pat'etku of Avaris. Here he performed mighty deeds of valour, and he distinctly says, " We took Avaris, and I carried off as captives from thence one man and three women, in all four heads." 1 The war of independence begun Egyptians by Seqenen-Ra III., was brought to a successful issue by Hyifsos!^ Aahmes or Amasis I., and Egypt was delivered. Seqenen-Ra probably lost his life in battle with the enemy, and must in any case have been seriously wounded, judging by the smashed skull and broken bones which his mummy exhibits. Dynasty XVIII. . B.C. Aahmes I., son of Ka-mes and his wife Aah-hetep, was 1700 the first king of the XVIIIth dynasty, and the first native ruler of all Egypt for a period of about five hundred years. Having captured Avaris, Amasis marched into Asia, where he captured the town of Sharhana, the JH^tt? of Joshua xix. 6, and made himself master of the land of T'ahi. Returning Egyptian to Egypt he marched into Nubia and defeated several tribes conquests ° J r _ in Asia am who had rebelled systematically for many years past. Nubia. Having made the borders of his country safe from invasion, Amasis began to build at Memphis and Thebes and other places. Thebes, the home of the kings who had expelled the Hyksos, became the first town in Egypt, and Amen-Ra, who hitherto had enjoyed the reputation of a mere local god, became the head of Egyptian deities. Amenophis I., son of 1666 Amasis L, marched into Nubia, and brought it into subjection to him, and in the north of Egypt he defeated a people called the Aamu-kehak. In the reign of this king the horse is first represented on the monuments. 1 Records of the Past, VI. p. 8. 30 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGV OF EGYPT. .c. 1633 Thothmes I., like his father Amenophis L, marched into Nubia 1 and defeated the rebel tribes ; he made the people slaves and carried off much spoil to Thebes. Soon after his return to Thebes he set out with his army on an expedition to Mesopotamia, passing through the Arabian desert and Palestine by the way, and finally arrived on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris. This expedition was the last in which the officer Aahmes took part, and he again distinguished himself by his personal bravery as" on former occasions. To Limits of commemorate this expedition Thothmes I. set up two stelae temtory^n near tne Euphrates to mark the limits of Egyptian territory. Asia. it would seem that no Egyptian king ever possessed per- manent hold upon the country of Mesopotamia, I U r^/i Nehem (compare A . A or |2o*Oli A» A\ and it is clear that Egypt only held even a nominal dominion over it as long as each king on his accession marched into the country to terrify the nomad tribes afresh, and to decide what amount of tribute each petty king or head of a tribe should pay to Egypt. The governors of cities in Mesopotamia and Ruthen, or Syria, made treaties among themselves and planned wars against each other, or a common foe, without any reference to the authority of Egypt over them. Each king of Assyria, if he wished to maintain his authority, found it necessary on his accession, or soon after, to undertake a series of military expeditions to punish the peoples who, on the death of a king, always revolted. If this were necessary for a power actually resident in Mesopotamia, how much more necessary would it be for a remote and shadowy power like that of Egypt. Thothmes I. continued the buildings at Thebes, and set up two granite obelisks. Towards the end of his reign he associated his daughter Maat-ka-Ra, or Hat-shepset, with him in the rule of the kingdom. 1600 Thothmes II. married his sister Hatshepset and became king of Egypt. The tribes of Nubia were again re-conquered, and the Shaasu were once more defeated. After a short reign, the greater part of which was occupied in continuing the buildings at Karnak, the king died and Hatshepset his sister- 1 The office of "Prince of Cush" is first mentioned in the reign of Thothmes I. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 31 wife reigned in his stead. This queen was one of the most capable women who ever reigned in Egypt ; she is famous as the builder 1 of the beautiful temple at Der el-Bahari, and Hatshepset for the remarkable expedition to Punt planned by her and e i-Bahari. carried out in the ninth year of her reign. Ships were made ready and sailors collected ; a multitude of gifts were stowed in each ship, and the necessary guard of soldiers for each told off ; a number of Egyptian ladies and high officials prepared Expedition to accompany the expedition, and the direction of the whole was put into the hands of the queen's most beloved servant. The inhabitants of Punt received the expedition in a very friendly manner, and having loaded the servants of Hat- shepset with rich gifts of gold, ivory, balsam, precious stones, plants, trees, ebony, apes, greyhounds, etc., etc., sent them back to Egypt. When these things had been safely brought back to Thebes, Hatshepset received them with joy, and dedicated the greater part of them as an offering to her father Amen-Ra. In the sixteenth year of her reign Thothmes III. became associated with her in her rule over Egypt. At Karnak she set up two magnificent granite Obelisks obelisks in memory of her father Thothmes I. According to at Karnak - an inscription on the base of the one still standing, the granite for it was hewn out of the quarry in Aswan, and was brought to Thebes, and was polished and inscribed and set up within seven months. The height of this obelisk is 105 feet, and if the weight be taken into consideration, and the difficult site, among a crowd of buildings, upon which it was to be set up, it will be easy to judge of the resources and skill of the Egyptian architect and mason of that period. Of the end of Hatshepset nothing is known. During her lifetime she wore male attire, and put on the robes and ornaments which belonged to kings only. In the inscriptions she is always described as king "of the North and South, Maat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hatshepset," and the verbs and pronouns relating to her are masculine. After her death her brother Thothmes III. caused as many traces of her rule as possible to disappear. 1 The statue of her architect Sen-mut is preserved at Berlin. 32 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Thothmes III. was one of the mightiest kings who occupied the throne of Egypt, and during his long reign of fifty-three years 1 he carried the arms of Egypt to the utter- most parts of the world as known to the Egyptians, and showed himself to be a wise and great king. While Hat- shepset was amusing herself with her expedition to Punt and the building of her temple at Der el-Bahari, the desert tribes on her eastern and western borders were making prepara- tions ready to revolt, and they showed their contempt for the authority of Egypt by refusing to pay tribute. The Meso- potamians, over whom the power of Egypt must ever have been of a shadowy nature, boldly declared themselves free, and their neighbours and kinsmen living in Syria and in the districts to the north and north-east of Damascus followed Conquest their example. The conquests made by Amasis I. and Asilby 6 ' 11 Amenhetep I. were all forgotten, and Thothmes III. had Thothmes practically to reconquer the world. In his twenty-second year he set out from Tanis, and passing through the desert of Sinai he marched to Gaza, a city which had remained faithful to his authority. A few days later he set out for Megiddo, which he found to be occupied by the governor of Kadesh, who had made a league with all the tribes living between the Mediterranean and Nineveh. Sixteen days after Thothmes left Gaza he engaged the enemy, who seeing that the Egyptian king himself was fighting against them, lost all heart, and leaping down from their chariots, decorated with gold and silver, fled to Megiddo, throwing away their arms as they went. As the gates of this town had been shut by those inside, the fugitives had to be pulled up over the walls. The number of the enemy slain by the Egyptians was Fall of enormous, and Megiddo was taken with little difficulty. The Megiddo. c hi e f s of the allied peoples seeing that their league was destroyed, and that Megiddo was in the hands of the enemy, immediately brought offerings of gold, precious stones, horses, corn, oxen, etc., etc., and submitted to Thothmes. The news of the defeat of the league reached the remote parts of Meso- potamia, and their governors, in due time, also sent gifts of 1 This number includes the years which he reigned conjointly with his sister ; he reigned alone thirty-one years. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 33 propitiation to the king. The names of the places conquered Defeat of by Thothmes were inscribed by his orders on some of the {e^ue™*" pylons at Karnak ; of the 360 places there mentioned, com- paratively few can be identified with Biblical sites with any certainty. For the next few years the Retennu or Syrians and the Babylonians brought their appointed tribute regularly, and to make the relations between himself and the former nation of an amicable character, Thothmes married a princess of their country. In the twenty-ninth and thirtieth years of his reign he marched again to Syria and captured Tunep, Aradus, Carchemish and Kadesh on the Orontes. The remaining years of his life he employed in making expeditions against the Retennu and the Mesopotamians, into whose country he marched as far as Ni. The tribes of Ethiopia and Sinai sent him valuable gifts, which are duly enumerated in the inscriptions containing the annals of this king. A good idea of the different objects of the tribute sent from the various countries may be obtained from the paintings on the tomb of Rech-ma-Ra at Thebes, where we see depicted horses and chariots, collars of gold, vases weighing 2,821 pounds of gold, tables of cedar, plants, ivory, ebony, corn, cattle, copper, lapis-lazuli, silver, iron, wine, etc., etc. On the south the Egyptian empire reached to the southern confines of Nubia, on the north-east to Lake Van, on the east to the Tigris, and on the west to the great desert on the left bank of the Nile. Notwithstanding the warlike activity of Thothmes III., he was able to carry on great buildings at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes, Elephantine and nearly every town in Nubia. Four of the obelisks set up by Thothmes have come down to us : one is now near the Lateran at Rome, one at Constantinople, one in London, and one in New York. B.C. Amen-hetep II. had been associated with Thothmes III. 1566 in the rule of the kingdom, and immediately he began to reign alone he found himself plunged in wars with the tributary peoples, who on the death of Thothmes III. declared themselves free. He marched into Mesopotamia Conquest and captured Ni and Akati ; he made war on the Shaasu and A f Ja. eStern the Nubians, and defeated both peoples. Thothmes IV. maintained the authority of Egypt from 1533 B. M. D 34 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Mesopotamia to the borders of Nubia, but he is better known as the repairer of the Sphinx at Gizeh. In the first year of his reign he removed the sand which had covered up the monument, in consequence of an after-dinner sleep in which Harmachis appeared to him and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. Thothmes set up between the paws of the Sphinx a tablet about fourteen feet high, in which he inscribed an account of this vision and a statement of the works which he carried out at Heliopolis and Memphis. In Amen-hetep III., or Amenophis, the Memnon of the Greeks, the successor of Thothmes IV., Egypt gained a king having some of the ability and energy of Thothmes III. In the fifth year of his reign he marched into Nubia to quell a mighty rebellion which had broken out against the Egyptian rule among a number of confederate tribes. He also held the Mesopotamians in subjection, for we learn from large scarabs inscribed during his reign that his empire extended from Neherna, or Mesopotamia, to Karei, or the land south of Nubia. From these same scarabs we learn that Amenophis was a w mighty hunter," and that during the first ten years of his reign he slew 102 lions with his own hand. He built the oldest part of the Serapeum at Sakkarah, a temple to Amen-Ra at Karnak, a larger temple to the same god at Luxor, with an avenue of Sphinxes leading to it, and the temple of Mut to the south of Karnak. On the western bank of the river he built a large temple, the dedication of which was described on a stele found behind the Colossi, which also were set up by this king. These wonderful statues were about 60 feet high, and from that on the north, called the Colossus of Memnon, a sound was said to issue each morning when the sun rose. The upper part of it was thrown down by an earthquake, it is said, about B.C. 27; the damage was partially repaired during the reign of Septimius Severus, about A.D. 160 who restored the head and shoulders of the figure by adding to it five layers of stone ; but after that Memnon's Colossus spake no more. At El-Kab, Aswan, and Soleb Amenophis III. also built temples. Four important events in the life and reign of this king are recorded by large steatite scarabs. The EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 35 The Colossi set up in honour of Amenophis III. Thebes. D 2 36 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Historical scarabs of Ameno- phis III. The Tell el-Amarna tablets. Marriage with Thi. B.C. 1466 Heresy of the disk worship- pers. first records his lion hunts ; the second the coming of Thi, the daughter of an Asiatic father, to Egypt, accompanied by 317 of her women ; the third the marriage of Amenophis and Thi, and the fourth the building of a large lake 3,600 cubits long by 600 cubits wide for his queen near the town of T'arucha, which the king opened on the 16th of Choiak in the eleventh year of his reign, by sailing across it in his barge called Aten- neferu. The tablets inscribed in cuneiform recently found at Tell el-Amarna prove that Amenophis III. married a sister and daughter of Kallimma-Sin, king of Karaduniyash, a country probably lying to the north-east of Syria; Gilukhipa the sister of Tushratta, king of Mitani, and Satumkhipa daughter of Tushratta; and Thi the daughter of parents who were not royal. The country of Mitani also lay to the north- east of Syria, and we know that like Tiglath-Pileser I., king of Assyria, about B.C. 1120, Amenophis III. went thither frequently to hunt lions. 1 The kings and governors of places as remote as Babylon promptly claimed the friendship of their new kinsman, and their letters expressing their willingness to make alliances offensive and defensive, are some of the most interesting objects of the " find " at Tell el-Amarna. Of Amen-hetep IV., or Chu-en-aten, the son of Amen- hetep III. and the Mesopotamian lady Thi, very little is known ; he built a temple at Heliopolis, another at Memphis, one at Thebes, and some in Nubia. He is famous, however, as the leader of the heresy of the " disk worshippers," that is to say of those people who worshipped the disk of the sun, Aten in preference to Amen-Ra, the national god of Egypt. He showed how much he detested the god Amen, by setting aside his name Amen-hetep and adopting that of Chu-en-aten, " the brilliance of the disk." The worship of the disk was of some antiquity, and seems to have been a mono- theistic worship of Ra which originated in Heliopolis. Amenophis III. seems to have encouraged this form of religion somewhat, and it is certain that he named his barge Aten-neferu, " the most beautiful disk." The native Egyptian 1 See The Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum, by Bezold and Budge, p. xviii. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 37 priesthood disliked the foreign queen, and the sight of her Ameno- son with his protruding chin, thick lips, and other charac- quarrels' teristics of a foreign race, found no favour in their eyes ; that wi . th the such a man should openly despise the worship of Amen-Ra pnests ' was a thing intolerable to them. In answer to their angry words and acts, the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father's name. Rebellion then broke out, and Chu-en-aten left Thebes and founded a new city for himself at a place between Memphis and Thebes, now called Tell el-Amarna. After a few Founding years the queen Thi came to live there, and there Chu-en-aten xeUd-** passed the rest of his life with his wife and seven daughters. Amarna. In the twelfth year of his reign he celebrated his victories over the Syrians and Ethiopians, but it is doubtful if they were of any importance. After the death of Amenophis IV. there is some confusion in Egyptian history ; the immediate successors of the "heretic The king" were Se-aa-ka-Ra, Tut-anch-Amen, Ai, of whom but j^g S retlc " little is known. The last king of the XVIIIth dynasty was Heru-em-heb, the Horus of Manetho, who seems to have been a native of Het-suten, the Alabastronpolis of the Greeks, or Tell el-Amarna. He made an expedition into Nubia and the lands to the south of that country, and he carried on buildings at various places, and restored temples at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes and elsewhere. The Nineteenth Dynasty. B.C. Of the events which led to Rameses I. becoming sole 1400 king of Egypt nothing whatever is known. Some suppose that he was connected with Horus, the last king of the XVIIIth dynasty, but there are no proofs which can be brought forward in support of this theory. He seems to have carried on some small war with the people of Nubia, and to have been concerned in a treaty with the Cheta ; he also built War with a little at Thebes. He is famous, however, as the father of Che,a * Seti I., and grandfather of Rameses II. ; the former was probably associated with him in the rule of the kingdom, but how long it is not possible to say. While Amenophis IV. was quarrelling with the priests of EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 39 Amen about the worship of the disk, and during the rule of his feeble successors, the peoples of Nubia and the Shaasu and the nations of Syria and Mesopotamia became more and more independent, and as a result ceased to fear the arms of Egypt, and consequently declined to pay the tribute imposed upon them by the mighty Thothmes III. and Amenophis III. Under the rule of Rameses I. the Egyptians were forced to sign a treaty which fixed the limits of their country and those B of the Cheta ; hence when Seti I. ascended the throne he 1366 found it necessary to make war against nearly every nation that had formerly been subject to the Egyptians. From the reliefs sculptured on the walls of the temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak we see that he attacked the people who lived north of Palestine, the Retennu or Syrians, the Shaasu, the Cheta, and in returning to Egypt passed through the land of Limanen. At the city of Chetam, on the frontier of Egypt, he was received by the priests and nobles of Egypt, who said to him : " Thou hast returned from the lands which thou hast conquered, and thou hast triumphed over thy enemies. May thy life be as long as that of the sun in heaven ! Thou hast washed thy heart on the barbarians, Ra has defined thy boundaries." Seti then sailed up to Thebes, where he presented his captives and booty to the gods in the temples there. From the lists of vanquished peoples inscribed by Conquests Seti it is found that his rule extended over Mesopotamia, ^ s ^ estenl Punt or Somali land, Nubia, and the lands on the west bank of the Nile. Cities like Kadesh on the Orontes, Tyre, Reseph, Migdol, etc., he not only conquered, but also built fortresses in them. During the reign of Seti the Cheta who, without, in my opinion, the slightest evidence for the theory, have been identified with the Hittites of the Bible, reappear in history. Seti set up an obelisk at Kantarah, "the bridge" uniting Asia and Africa, he built at Heliopolis, Memphis and Abydos, and at Karnak he began several buildings, some of which were finished by Rameses II. His name is often found in Nubia on rocks and stelae, and he worked the gold mines there, and sank wells in the rock to obtain water for his workmen. Seti associated his son Rameses II. with him in the rule of the kingdom when he was but twelve years old. According to the 40 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 1333 Sesostris. Pentaurt's poem on the defeat of the Cheta. The Cheta kings. monuments Seti reigned about twenty-seven years. The name Seti is connected with the god Set, who though at one time worshipped by the Egyptians, was subsequently consi- dered to be the father of all evil ; in several places it is seen that his name has been carefully chiselled out. Rameses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks, was perhaps the greatest king that ever ruled over Egypt. He was a man of commanding stature, of great physical strength and personal bravery, a great builder and a liberal patron of the science and art of his days. Around his name has gathered a multitude of legends, and the exploits of other warriors and heroes who reigned hundreds of years after him have been attributed to him. Before he came to the throne he led an expedition into Nubia and defeated the peoples there ; and he brought back to Egypt much spoil, consisting of lions, gazelles, panthers, ebony, ivory, gold, etc., etc. In the fifth year of his reign he set out on a campaign against the Cheta, which was the most important event in his life ; his victory over this foe was considered so great a triumph that an account of it illustrated by sculptures was inscribed upon the temples of Thebes, Kalabshi and Abu Simbel, and a poetic description of the battle with a vivid outline of the king's own prowess was written down by Pen-ta-urt, a temple scribe. The Cheta were a confederation of peoples, nomad and stationary, who first appear in the time of Thothmes III., to whom they paid tribute. In the time of Rameses I. they made a treaty of friendship with the Egyptians, but in the time of Seti I. they fought with them. The kings of the Cheta at this period were Sapalel and his son Maru-sar ; the latter had two sons Mautenure and Cheta-sar. Mau- tenure was king of the Cheta when Rameses II. marched against them in his fifth year, and Cheta-sar was king when the Cheta and the Egyptians made a new treaty in the twenty-first year of the reign of Rameses, at which time they seem to have reached the summit of their power. According to an inscription which appears to be the official statement concerning this memorable battle, Rameses II. was in the fifth year of his reign in the land of T'ah, not far from Kadesh on the Orontes. The outposts kept a sharp look-out, Raraeses II., when a child. 42 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Defeat of the Cheta Rameses II. the warrior. and when the army came to the south of the town of Shabtun, two of the spies of the Shasu came into the camp and pre- tended that they had been sent by the chiefs of their tribe to inform Rameses II. that they had forsaken the chief of the Cheta, and that they wished to make an alliance with his majesty and become his vassals. They then went on to say that the chief of the Cheta was in the land of Chirebu to the north of Tunep some distance off, and that he was afraid to come near the Egyptian king. These two men were giving false information, and they had actually been sent by the Cheta chief to find out where Rameses and his army were ; the Cheta chief and his army were at that moment drawn up in battle array behind Kadesh. Shortly after these men had been dismissed, an Egyptian scout came into the king's presence bringing with him two spies from the army of the chief of the Cheta ; on being questioned, they informed Rameses that the chief of the Cheta was encamped behind Kadesh, and that he had succeeded in gathering together a multitude of soldiers and chariots from the countries round about. Rameses summoned his officers to his presence, and informed them of the news which he had just heard ; they listened with surprise, and insisted that the newly received information was untrue. Rameses seriously blamed the chiefs of the intelligence department for their neglect of duty, and they admitted their fault. Orders were straight- Capture of way issued for the Egyptian army to march upon Kadesh, and as they were crossing an arm of the river near that city the hostile forces fell in with each other. When Rameses saw this, he " growled at them like his father Menthu, lord of Thebes," and having hastily put on his full armour, he mounted his chariot and drove into the battle. His onset was so sudden and rapid that before he knew where he was he found himself surrounded by the enemy, and completely isolated from his own troops. He called upon his father Amen-Ra to help him, and then addressed himself to the slaughter of all those that came in his way, and his prowess was so great that the enemy fell in heaps, one over the other, into the waters of the Orontes. He was quite alone, and not one of his soldiers or horsemen came near him to help him. Kadesh. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 43 It was only with great difficulty he succeeded in cutting his way through the ranks of the enemy. At the end of the inscription he says, " Everything that my majesty has stated, that did I in the presence of my soldiers and horsemen." In the poem of Pen-ta-urt the king is said to have been sur- rounded by 2,500 chariots. The defeat of the chief of the Cheta and his allies was crushing, and Rameses was able to demand and obtain much tribute. In the eighth year of his reign he led an expedition against towns in southern Syria, and Ascalon among others fell into his hands, and within a few years Mesopotamians, Syrians, dwellers on the coast, Libyans, the Shaasu and Ethio- pians all submitted to him. In the twenty-first year of his reign he made a treaty with Mautenure, chief of the Cheta at Egyptian Tanis, the favourite dwelling-place of Rameses. This treaty [hTcheta. sets out at full length the relations which had existed between the two nations for some time before, and each party solemnly promises not to make war on the other, and to assist the other in war if required ; to cement the alliance Rameses married a daughter of the chief of the Cheta called Maa-ur-neferu-Ra. Notwithstanding his activity in war, Rameses II. found Rameses time to make himself famous as one of the greatest builders builder, that ever sat on the throne of Egypt, and his name is found on stelae, obelisks, temples, etc., etc., from Beyrut in Syria to remote Napata. He built a temple of granite at Tanis, a town which seems to have been founded four hundred years before his time by Nubti, one of the so-called Hyksos kings. Near this city ran the wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis, which Rameses is supposed to have built to keep out the Asiatics. At Heliopolis he set up obelisks, none of which has come down to our time ; at Memphis he added largely to the temple of Ptah; and at Abydos he completed the temple begun by his father Seti I. At Thebes he finished the buildings begun by his father and grandfather ; he repaired the temples of Thothmes III. and Amenophis III., adding walls and doors, and occasionally usurping monuments of the kings who went before him; he set up statues of himself and two splendid obelisks before a building which he 44 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. made adjoining the temple of Amenophis III.; on the western side of Thebes he finished the temple originally dedicated to Rameses I., and consecrated it to his father Seti I. ; he restored the temple of Hatshepset at Der el-Bahari ; he built a temple at Medinet Habu, and at Thebes, his greatest work of all, the Ramesseum. The statues of himself which he placed in this last place are among the largest and finest known. At Bet el-Wali at Kalabshi in Nubia he built a beautiful little rock temple, on the walls of the court of which are some well executed sculptures representing the bringing of tribute to Rock him by Asiatics and Ethiopians. At Abu Simbel, the temple at c i ass i ca i Aboccis, he hewed out of the solid rock a large temple Simbel. to Ra Harmachis to commemorate his victory over the Cheta ; it is the largest and finest Egyptian monument in Nubia, and for simple grandeur and majesty is second to none in all Egypt. It is hewn out of the rock to a depth of 185 feet, and the surface of the rock, which originally sloped down to the river, was cut away for a space of about 90 feet to form the front of the temple, which is ornamented by four colossal statues of Rameses II., 66 feet high, seated on thrones, hewn out of the living rock. The large hall inside contains eight columns with large figures of Osiris about 17 feet high upon them. Among other matters the inscriptions give a list of the children of Rameses. The gold mines in the land of Akita, now Gebel Alaki, which were worked by Seti I., appear not to have been very profitable, by reason of the scarcity of water. The well which he sank to the depth of 120 cubits supplied little or no water, and the works in the mines were stopped. In the third year of his reign Rameses sent men to bore another well, and they found abundant water at the depth of twelve cubits. Rameses II. is generally thought to have been the Oppression oppressor of the Jews in Egypt, and it was probably for him jg^ e that they built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Raamses. Rameses reigned sixty-seven years, and at his death he left Egypt one of the largest and most powerful kingdoms upon earth ; under him this country reached its highest point of prosperity and glory. The tribute brought in by conquered nations enriched the country, the hosts of foreign workmen EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 45 employed by the king produced articles of luxury and beauty, art and literature flourished unfettered, and the tombs and sepulchres of the dead were scarcely less splendid than the palaces of the king or the houses of his nobles. After the death of Rameses Egypt declined rapidly, chiefly through the inertness and want of national spirit possessed by the hosts of foreigners who lived there, and the country became a mart and a home of traders rather than of warriors. B.C. Mer-en-Ptah, the thirteenth son of Rameses II., had been 1300 associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom before he ascended the throne. The chief event in his reign was an expedition against the Lebu, Kehak, Mashuash, Akauasha, Tursha, Leku, Sharetana and Shekelasha in the fifth year of his reign. The Lebu, thought by some to be the Libyans, under Maroi, the son of Titi, had advanced to the city of Pa- Bairo, and were preparing to march upon Heliopolis and Memphis ; Maroi himself had reached Pa-aru-shep, when the god Ptah appeared to Mer-en-Ptah in a dream and promised Defeat of him victory. On the third day of Epiphi the hostile forces jjjjjj joined in battle. Maroi fled, about thirteen thousand of his people were slain, and all his and their property fell into the hands of the Egyptians. The Akauasha have by some been identified with the Achaeans, the Sharetana with the Sardinians, the Shekelasha with the Sicilians, the Lebu with the Libyans, the Tursha with the Etruscans, the Leku with the Lycians, etc., etc. These identifications, based on a suggestion made by de Rouge, cannot be accepted, lacking as they do any historical evidence in support of them. It is quite certain, however, that the tribes against which Mer-en- Ptah fought were comparatively close neighbours of Egypt. The Exodus is thought by some to have taken place during The the reign of this king. Exodus - Of Mer-en-Ptah's successor, Seti II., but little is known ; his reign was very short, and was not distinguished by any remarkable event. The rule of the XlXth dynasty was brought to an end by the reigns of Amen-mes and Se-Ptah. 4 6 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Twentieth Dynasty. B.C. 1200 Egyptians defeat the allied nations. For some years after the death of Mer-en-Ptah Egypt was in a state of anarchy, " each man did as he pleased, and there was no one who had authority over his fellows. The Land of Egypt was under chiefs of nomes and each fought against the other." After a time " a Syrian called Arsu," (j ^ l^^fll"^ - ^)^' ar ° Se amon £ them and speeded in Expedition to Punt, and open- ing of old trade routes. diverting the tribute to himself and finally in making himself master of the land. Rest and peace were not restored to Egypt, however, until the gods set their son Set-Necht upon the throne, who very shortly after associated his son Rameses III. with him in the rule of the kingdom. On the death of Set-Necht Rameses III. reigned alone, and having established the worship of the gods in the temples, and restored the customary offerings, in the eighth year he set out with his troops for the north-eastern borders of his country to do battle against the allied forces of the Mashuash, Leku, Shekelasha and other Asiatic peoples, who had come to the land of the Amorites partly by land and partly by sea ; the Egyptians were victorious and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy. A year or two after Rameses attacked the Mashuasha, who appear to have settled in the western part of the Delta and further south, and they were defeated with great slaughter, About this time he seems to have carried on some small wars in Nubia. In addition to his wars, he fitted out and despatched an expedition to Punt, which returned safely, bringing many marvellous things and treasures ; he worked the turquoise mines in the Sinaitic Peninsula, and the copper mines in the land of Ataka. He also opened up for trade the old road between Kosseir on the Red Sea and Coptos on the Nile. With the spoil which Rameses obtained from his successful wars, and the wealth which he gained from his mines and trading enterprises, he lavishly endowed the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis and Thebes. At Tell el-Yahudiyeh he built a granite and limestone temple, at Heliopolis he restored temples, at Memphis he restored the temple of Ptah, he added to the temple of Thothmes III. at Medinet Habu, and at the EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 47 same place he built what has been generally called his "palace," and a magnificent temple to Amen-Ra. The " palace " consisted of two square towers, the four sides of which were symmetrically inclined to a common centre. The interior chambers were ornamented with sculptures, on which were depicted scenes in the domestic (?) life of the king. The temple at Medinet Habu is of remarkable interest, and on the Medinet walls are sculptured battle scenes on land and sea, in which a ^ bu Rameses is victorious over his enemies. Near Karnak he Karnak. built a temple to Ptah, and he added buildings to the temple of Amen-Ra there ; he began to build the temple of Chonsu, and it would seem that he repaired many of the temples and shrines set up both at Karnak and Luxor. The most important document for the history of the reign of this king is the famous Harris Papyrus No. i,now preserved in the Harris British Museum. It was found in a box, in a rough-hewn Pa Py rus - rock chamber in the earth, near Medinet Habu. This papyrus enumerates the gifts which he made to the gods of Thebes, Heliopolis and Memphis, and concludes with a statement of the principal events of his reign. This wonderful papyrus, which measures 135 feet by 17 inches, was published in facsimile by the Trustees of the British Museum, with an introduction and translation by Dr. Birch. B.C. Of Rameses IV. little is known beyond the fact that he 1166-1133 carried on the works in the mines in the valley of Hammamat with great diligence ; he was succeeded by Rameses V., of whom also very little is known. Of Rameses VI., the most important remains are his tomb in Biban el-Muluk ; on the walls the risings of various stars are given and much astro- Astro- nomical information. This tomb was originally made for {JJJjJjJ*^ Rameses V. Rameses VII. and Rameses VIII. were the Thebes, next rulers of Egypt ; the most important event in the reign of Rameses IX. was the attempt to break into and rob the royal tombs at Thebes in his sixteenth year. The robbers were caught and prosecuted by the government, and after an official examination of the tombs had been made by the chief officers of the city, to find out exactly what Robbery of damage had been done, the band of thieves were properly JJJJJjL punished. The robbery had gone on for some years, and 4 8 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. appears to have been continued in the nineteenth year of the reign of Rameses IX. The reigns of Rameses X. and Rameses XI. are of no interest. Of the reign of their successor Rameses XII. an interesting though fabulous story- is recorded. A stele found near the temple of Chonsu at Karnak states that the king was paying his usual visit to Mesopotamia to receive the tribute from the tribes subject to him. Each chief brought his offering of gold, etc., but the Princess of chief of Bechten brought his eldest daughter, who was a most Bechten. b eau tiful girl, and gave her to the king. She found favour in his sight, and he married her, and gave her the official title of " royal spouse." Some time after they had returned to Egypt, a messenger came to the king from Bechten saying that a young sister of his wife Ra-Neferu, called Bentresh, was grievously ill, and entreated him to send a physician to heal her. A very learned scribe called Tehuti-em-heb was despatched, but when he arrived in Bechten he found that the illness of Bentresh was caused by an evil spirit, and he was unable to cure her. Another messenger was sent to Egypt and he asked that the god Chonsu himself might be sent to cure Bentresh, and the king having asked the god to consent to this proposition, prepared a suitable shrine and sent the god to Bechten, where he arrived after a journey of one year and five months. As soon as the god was brought into the sick maiden's chamber, he addressed the demon who possessed her and drove him out from her. The demon acknowledged the authority of the god, and promised to depart to his own place if a great feast was prepared in his honour ; the chief of Bechten gladly made a feast, and the demon departed. The god Chonsu was detained in Bechten three years and nine months, and at the end of that time he returned to Egypt, his priests bringing rich gifts with them. Although it is proved now that this narrative is a romance and not history, it is nevertheless of great antiquity, and is most important as show- ing the belief in demoniacal possession at that remote period. The country of Bechten is unknown, but if, as is stated, seven- teen months were spent in reaching it, its situation must have been very far from E gypt. With the reign of Rameses XIII., the XXth dynasty comes to an end. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 49 The Twenty- first Dynasty. With the death of Rameses XIII. a new period of dis- " Priest- order came over the government of Egypt, and for nearly one ^"f 5 rule hundred years there seems to have been no legal king seated Egypt, on the throne. The chief priest of Amen called Her-Heru- se-Amen had little by little gathered the power of a king into his own hand, and finally he declared himself " King of Upper and Lower Egypt," and thus became the first of the b.c. so-called " priest-kings " of the XXIst dynasty. His dwelling- noo-iooo place was Thebes, and the buildings which he carried out there, instead of being inscribed with the records of glorious victories over the foes of Egypt, were decorated with inscrip- tions of a purely religious character. The tribes that were subject to Egypt, and were at that moment unprepared for war, paid their tribute to him as the successor of the Pharaohs, but it was not to be expected that a ruler who devoted more time to the service of Amen than to war, could maintain his sovereignty over restless and warlike peoples like the Cheta, or Retennu, of whom he calls himself the conqueror. During his reign the mummies and coffins and funereal furniture of some of the kings of the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties were brought from their tombs and deposited together in one place, now called in Arabic Der el-bahari, Der el- where they were discovered by an Arab in 1871. For the Mummies, account of the recovery of these by Brugsch-Bey and Maspero, see Maspero, Les Monties Roy ales de Deir el Bahari, fasc. 1, torn. IV., of the Memoiresoi the French Archaeological Mission at Cairo. Her-Heru was succeeded by his grandson, Pi-net'em I., the son of Pi-anchi, the high-priest of Amen, the husband of Maat ka-Ra, a princess who belonged to the old line of kings ; Pi-net'em II. married the royal daughter and royal wife Het-Hert-hent-taui, but appears never to have been actually king. Wiedemann doubts the existence of this king. 1 Of Paseb-cha-nut, Men-cheper-Ra and his son Pi- netem III. but little is known ; they were succeeded by Paseb-cha-nut II., during whose reign Solomon captured 1 A eg. Geschichte, p. 536. B. M. E 50 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYrT. Solomon the town of Gezer, and having conquered the Canaanites king^f 5 there, became king of Palestine. It is thought by some that Palestine, his Egyptian wife was the daughter of one of the kings of the XXIst dynasty. The history of this period is very uncertain, and definite conclusions respecting it cannot be arrived at without fuller information. The Twenty-second Dynasty, Babylon- ian origin of kings of XXIInd dynasty. B.C. 966-800 Conquest of Pales- tine and capture of Jerusalem. Various theories have been propounded concerning the origin of the kings of this dynasty ; the father of its first king Shashanq I. was called Nemart, a name which has been identified with that of Nimrod. From the fact that the names Usarken, Thekeleth, common to several of its kings, resemble the Assyrian and Babylonian names Sarginu, ** Sargon," and Tukulti, " Tiglath," it has been generally assumed that they sprang either from a purely Semitic race in Mesopotamia itself, or from Semites who had been settled in the Delta for a considerable time. That they were of foreign extraction is certain, because the determinative placed at the end of their names is that of a man from a foreign country ; 1 and the people called Ma, of whom Nemart styles himself the prince, have been proved by De Rouge to be simply the Mashuasha. Shashanq L, the Shishak (pQfttf) of the Bible, the pro- tector of Jeroboam, who lifted up his hand against Solomon (1 Kings xi. 26), led an expedition against Rehoboam, king of Judah, and took away from Jerusalem " the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house, he even took away all : and he took away all the shields of gold which Solomon had made." (1 Kings xiv. 25, 26.) The list of the cities and districts, about 138 in number, captured by Shashanq during this war is inscribed upon the south wall of the temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak. The wife of Shashanq was called Kerama, and their son Aauput. Of the acts of Usarken (Sargon) L, Thekeleth (Tiglath) I., Usarken II., and Shashanq II. but little is known, and the 1 De Rouge, Milanges tCArcheobgie, t. I, p. 87. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 51 reigns of these kings were uneventful. During the reign of Thekeleth II. a rebellion broke out among the peoples to the south and north of Egypt, and it is stated that on the 25th of Mesori, in the fifteenth year of his reign, an eclipse of the moon took place. Shashanq III. made great gifts to the temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes. He reigned fifty-two years ; and an Apis bull which had been born in his twenty-eighth year, died in the second year of the reign of his successor Pamai. During the reign of Shashanq IV. three Apis bulls Death of died, the last in the thirty-seventh year of his reign. Apis bulls ' The Twenty-third Dynasty. B.C. Of the history of Peta-Bast, its first king, nothing is 766 known from Egyptian monuments, and for the events of the reign of his successor, Usarken III., we have to rely upon the information supplied by a stele recording the invasion Conquest and conquest of Egypt by Pianchi, king of Ethiopia. When j£ fj^jj the kings of Egypt sent to that country in the Vlth dynasty, the Ethio- no opposition was offered by the natives to their felling trees, pian * but in the Xllth dynasty the Egyptians found it necessary to guard against them at the first cataract by lightly-armed, swift soldiers. From the Xllth to the XXth dynasty Egypt maintained her authority over Ethiopia, and her kings built magnificent temples there, and ruled the country by a staff of officers under the direction of the " Prince of Cush." In the unsettled times which followed the death of Rameses II., the Ethiopians saw that the power of Egypt to maintain her supremacy abroad was becoming less and less. For many years they paid their customary tribute to his feeble suc- cessors, but at the same time they looked forward to a time Defection when they could cast off the yoke of Egypt. They had ofEthl °- adopted Egyptian civilization, the hieroglyphic form of writing, and the language and religion of Egypt ; they seem to have wished to make a second Egypt in Ethiopia. When during the reigns of the kings of the XXIst and XXI Ind dynasties they saw that the power of Egypt continued to decrease, they boldly resolved to found a kingdom of their Ethiopians own, and they chose Napata, now called Gebel Barkal, as the y™J o a m site of their capital. Brugsch thinks {Egypt under the 52 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Pharaohs, 2nd ed., 1881, Vol. II., p. 235) that the founder of the kingdom was one of the descendants of Her-Heru, the priest-king of the XXIst dynasty, and he points out that many of them bore the name of Pianchi. Early in the eighth century before Christ Pi-anchi was king of Napata, and his rule probably extended at least as far north as Thebes. In the twenty-first year of his reign news was brought to him that Tafnecht, prince of Sais and Memphis, had revolted, that a league formed chiefly of governors of towns had placed him at its head, and that all Lower Egypt was in his hands. Pianchi's Pianchi at once sent troops against the rebels, and on their to^gypt* 11 way down tne Nile tne y met a number of soldiers belonging to the army of Tafnecht, and these they defeated. The Ethiopian troops seem not to have been unvaryingly suc- cessful, for it was necessary for Pianchi himself to come to Thebes ; thence he marched to Hermopolis, which surrendered after a three days' siege. Nimrod, who had defended it, delivered up to Pianchi his wives, palace, horses and every- thing he had. Pianchi set out once more for the north, and every city opened its gates to him until he reached Memphis. Here he met with strong opposition, for Tafnecht had brought several thousands of soldiers into the city, and every part of the wall was guarded by them. Pianchi, Capture of however, brought his boats up to the very walls of the city, Memphis anc * a ^ ter a v ig° rous assault captured it ; there was a mighty and Sais. slaughter, and it would seem that some thousands of men were slain. The rebel princes came in one by one, and tendered their submission to the Ethiopian, and thus Pianchi became master of Egypt. At Memphis, Heliopolis and Thebes he offered sacrifices to the great gods of Egypt, and no acts of wanton destruction of cities or buildings are recorded of him. *- c - The Twenty^Fourtii Dynasty. 733 Bocchoris This dynasty is represented by a single king called Bak- aiive* en-ren-f (Bocchoris), who reigned but a very few years ; many legends concerning him are extant in classical writers, but the Egyptian monuments scarcely mention him. According to Manetho he was burnt alive by Sabaco the first king of the XXVth dynasty. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 53 The Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. b - c - 700 The kings of this dynasty were Ethiopians, who following up the success of Pianchi, made themselves masters of all Alliance of Egypt. The first king, Shabaka, is known from the Egyptian and 5 * 16 * inscriptions to have beautified the temple of Karnak, and his Sabaco. name is found on many buildings there to which he made additions or repairs. He is best known as being the king of Egypt to whom Hoshea (2 Kings xvii. 4), having ceased to send his customary tribute to the king of Assyria, went for help. Some think that Shabaka (Hebrew NiD, which Schrader would point MID) was not king of all Egypt, because Sargon, king of Assyria (B.C. 721-705) styles him simply shil- tanna, " prince." 1 Sabaco seems to have been known in Nineveh, for among the ruins of the palaces at Kouyunjik Egyptian were found two impressions from his seal or scarab, in which fo^nd at he appears wearing the crown of Lower Egypt in his right Nineveh, hand he holds a stick or club, and he is in the act of slaughter- ing enemies. His cartouche stands above, together with his titles and the legend recording the speech of some god, 11 1 give to thee all foreign lands." 2 Sabaco was succeeded by his son Shabataka, concerning whom the Egyptian inscriptions tell us very little. During the reign of this king Sargon of Assyria died, and was succeeded by Sennacherib, who within a few years set out to suppress the rebellion which had broken out in Syria and Phoenicia. The prince of Ekron, Padi, who had been set upon the throne by Sargon, was seized by a crowd of rebels, who had obtained help from Hezekiah, king of Judah, and Hezekiah, made prisoner ; Hezekiah himself likewise appealed to the jud?h° f Egyptian king for assistance. Sennacherib marched on provokes the wrath Judaea, and at Altekeh he met the allied forces of Jews and G f t h e Egyptians. The battle was short and decisive, the Assyrians Assvrian s- were victorious, and Sennacherib having wasted the country with fire, and destroyed the towns, captured and plundered Defeat of Jerusalem, where Hezekiah had shut himself up " like a bird ^ zeklah in a cage." Padi was restored to the throne of Ekron, and capture of Jerusalem. 1 See Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 1883, p. 269. * A full description of these fragments is given in the chapter on scarabs. 54 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Judaea became an Assyrian province. Sennacherib, hearing of the advance of Tirhakah king of Ethiopia, determined to march on the Delta, and it was during this march that an epidemic broke out among his troops, and a catastrophe Assyrian destroyed nearly all of them ; he returned to Nineveh without troyed deS " navm S performed upon Hezekiah the vengeance which he had threatened. The ultimate failure of his expedition probably caused his sons to despise him, and shortly after- wards two of them, Adrammelech and Sharezer, smote him with the sword, and he died (2 Kings xix. 37). Shabataka reigned twelve years, and was put to death by Tirhakah, who succeeded him. B.C. 693 Taharqa, or Tirhakah niTpri, shortly after his accession to the throne, made an offensive and defensive alliance with Alliance of the Phoenicians under Baal king of Tyre, and probably also Hezekiah w ^ ^ p e0 pi e G f Cyprus; Hezekiah king of Judah also Tirhakah. joined in the league. Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, marched to Palestine by way of Beyrut, where on his return to Assyria he set up a memorial slab at the head of the Nahr el-Kelb side by side with those of Rameses II. Without difficulties other than those caused by thirst and heat his army marched into Egypt, and Tirhakah having fled, Capture of Memphis fell into the hands of the Assyrian king. From by e Esar- S Memphis he marched to Thebes, and having plundered the haddon. c ity, and placed the rule of the whole country under twenty governors, some Assyrian, some Egyptian, he returned to Assyria laden with spoil. On the death of Esarhaddon, after a reign of thirteen years (B.C. 681-668), Tirhakah returned to Egypt and entered Memphis boldly ; he drove out the Assyrians that were there, and openly attended the burial of an Apis bull in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. As soon Assurbani- as the news of the return of Tirhakah to Egypt reached dftionto 6 " Assurbanipal, the son of Esarhaddon, in Nineveh, he set out Egypt. with his army for Egypt ; he came up with the Egyptian troops at Karbanit, and completely defeated them, and Tirhakah, who had remained in Memphis, was obliged to flee to Thebes ; when Assurbanipal followed him thither, he fled into Nubia. When the Assyrian king had reappointed governors over the chief towns of Egypt, and established EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 55 garrisons there, he returned to Nineveh. Soon after this Niku, governor of Memphis, headed a rebellion against the Assyrian rule, but he was promptly sent to Nineveh in chains ; Assurbanipal so far forgave him, that when he heard of new successes of Tirhakah in Egypt, he sent Niku back to his country to rule over all Egypt under the direction of Assyria ; soon after his arrival Tirhakah died. Tirhakah Tirhakah's built a large temple at Gebel Barkal, and restored temples ^Nubia. and other buildings at Thebes. Rut-Amen, son of Sabaco (?), succeeded Tirhakah, and in consequence of a dream, set out to regain for Ethiopia the rule over Egypt. Without very much difficulty he captured Thebes, and advanced on Memphis, where he was opposed by the Assyrian governor ; in the fight which ensued Rut- Amen (the Urdamanah of Assurbanipal's inscriptions) was victorious, and again Memphis fell into the hands of the Ethiopians Ethiopians. Once more Assurbanipal marched to Egypt, capture where he defeated Rut-Amen's army, and advanced on Memphis. Thebes, whither the rebel king had fled. Having arrived there, the sack and pillage of the city by the Assyrians followed. A stele found at Gebel Barkal relates that Nut-Amen, a king "Stele of of Ethiopia, had a dream, in consequence of which he set out Dream." to regain the rule over Egypt, and that having gained authority over Thebes and Memphis and the Delta, he returned to Ethiopia ; in the Nut-Amen of this stele, and the Urdamanah of the cuneiform inscriptions, we have probably one and the same king. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty. B C Psammetichus I., the first king of this dynasty, was the 666 son of a governor (Niku ?) of Memphis and Sais in Lower Egypt, and had been associated with Nut-Amen in the rule of the country. When the Ethiopian king retired to his own land, Psammetichus became king of Egypt. He married Shep-en-apt, a daughter of Pianchi, and thus secured himself from any attack by the Ethiopians ; and by the help of the Ionian and Carian soldiers whom Gyges king of Lydia sent to him, he was able to overcome the Assyrian governors who, one after another, made war upon him, and resisted his FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Defeat of the Assyrians. Revival of arts and sciences, and liter- ature flourishes. B.C. 612 Necho's Canal. authority. A decisive battle took place at Memphis ; the Assyrians were utterly routed, and Psammetichus found himself firmly seated on the throne of Egypt. A permanent settlement was assigned by him to the Ionians and Carians, and his favour to these foreign soldiers so exasperated the Egyptian troops, that 200,000 are said to have forsaken Egypt and settled in Nubia. Psammetichus appears to have decided that it was useless to attempt to make great con- quests of remote countries, as did the kings of old, but set to work to consolidate his kingdom, and to defend its borders. He was a devout worshipper of the gods, and he repaired and rebuilt many of the decayed buildings at Heliopolis, Mendes, Memphis, Abydos and Thebes. He lived at his birthplace, Sais, and made it the capital of his kingdom. He was a wise patron of the arts and sciences, and during his rule the great renaissance of art took place. The statues and wall paintings of the first empire were diligently copied, many new copies of ancient religious works were made, and the smallest and greatest monuments of this period, as well as objects of ornament, are characterized by a high finish and elaboration of detail, which was the peculiar product of this time. Necho II., son of Psammetichus I. and Shepenapt, continued the policy of his father, and added a considerable number of foreign troops to his army ; he gave the Greeks every facility to enter and settle in Egypt, and he assisted the commercial enterprise of the day as much as possible. With the view of joining the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, he dug a canal from a place near Pithom, a little above Bubastis, on the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, which passing first through the plain, flowed through a valley between the spurs of the Mukattam hills, in a southerly direction, until it emptied itself into the Arabian Gulf. It was an indirect connecting of the Medi- teranean with the Red Sea by means of the Nile, and did not correspond with the Suez Canal, except in the reach from the Bitter Lakes to Suez, in which it followed a somewhat similar course. 1 About 120,000 men perished during the work, and when an oracle announced that he was only work- ing for the good of foreigners, Necho desisted from his under- 1 Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, p. 626. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 57 taking. Necho also sent Phoenician seamen to sail round Africa, bidding them to set out from Suez and come home by- way of the Strait of Gibraltar ; on their return, they stated in proof of their having accomplished their task, that they had seen the sun rise on their right hand as they sailed from east to west. A few years before Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 604-558) Rise of ascended the throne of Babylon, Necho set out on the march Babylonian to Mesopotamia, and on the road was opposed by Josiah Empire, king of Judah, at Megiddo. Then Pharaoh Necho "sent ambassadors to him saying, What have I to do with thee, thou king of Judah? / come not against thee this day, but against the house wherewith I have war : for God commanded me to make haste: forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he destroy thee not. Nevertheless Josiah would not turn his face from him, but disguised himself, that he might fight with him, and hearkened not unto the words of Necho from the mouth of God, and came to fight in the valley of Megiddo. And the archers shot at king Josiah ; and the Death of king said to his servants, Have me away ; for I am sore J osiah * wounded. His servants therefore took him out of that chariot, and put him in the second chariot that he had ; and they brought him to Jerusalem, and he died, and was buried in one of the sepulchres of his fathers." 1 Necho went on his way to Carchemish, but did not go any farther into Mesopo- tamia. On his return he marched to Jerusalem and deposed Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, whom the Jews had set up as king in the place of his father, and made Eliakim (Jehoiakim), another son of Josiah, king in his stead ; he also imposed a tax of one hundred talents of silver, and a talent of gold. 2 Soon after Necho had returned to Egypt he heard that a Babylonian army was marching into western Asia, and he again set out for Carchemish, where it was encamped. On his arrival there he found that the Babylonian forces were com- manded by Nebuchadnezzar II., and in the battle which Nebuchad- followed the Egyptian king was utterly defeated ; his troops, j^des 11 ' Libyans, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, were slain by thousands, Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar marched through Palestine to the borders of Egypt. Necho reigned sixteen years, and was buried at 1 2 Chron. xxxv. 21-24. 2 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4. 58 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Sals ; he was succeeded by his son Psammetichus II., whose reign of a few years was, comparatively, unimportant. 59i Apries, in Egyptian Uah-ab-Ra, Heb. SHDH (Jeremiah xliv. 30), made an attack upon Tyre and Sidon by sea ; Sidon was captured, and the Cyprian fleet which attempted to resist him was destroyed. The Babylonians marched to Capture of besiege Jerusalem during his reign, and Nebuchadnezzar Jerusalem. j iav j n g already had Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin, kings of Judah, brought to him in fetters at Babylon, determined to punish the new king Zedekiah who had rebelled against him. Not- withstanding the presence of some troops of Apries, Nebu- chadnezzar took Jerusalem, and having blinded Zedekiah and slain his sons before his eyes, set up Gedaliah as king in his stead. Multitudes of Jews flocked to Egypt, where they were received by Apries, and this act of the Egyptian king drew upon him the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar. After a siege Fall of of thirteen years, Tyre fell into the hands of the Babylonian ryre ' king, who thus became master of Phoenicia and Egypt, for Apries had no army to set in the field against him. In a dispute which broke out between the Cyrenians and the Libyans, Apries sent an Egyptian force to help the latter people, for he had a treaty with their king, Adikran. The hostile forces met in battle, but the Egyptian troops were defeated with a great slaughter, and their countrymen were enraged and asserted that Apries had intentionally sent them against the Greeks that they might be destroyed. When the troops returned to Egypt a rebellion broke out among them, Defection and Apries sent Amasis, an officer, to put it down ; but while and^defeat ne was a ddressing the disaffected troops, a soldier placed a of Apries. helmet on his head, and declared him king, and all the other soldiers agreeing in this, king he became. Apries then sent Fatarbemis to bring Amasis to him, and because he was unsuccessful in his mission, he gave orders that his nose and ears should be cut off. Soon after this, Apries marched against Amasis, and in the battle which took place at Momemphis, on the Canopic arm of the Nile, his troops were defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner and led back to his palace at Sai's ; he was shortly after strangled and buried with his fathers in the temple of Neith. Before the death of EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 59 Apries Nebuchadnezzar II. is said to have invaded Egypt, and to have sailed up as far as Aswan. 1 B.C. Amasis II. became sole king of Egypt after the death of 572 Apries, and as he had married Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra, daughter of Psammetichus II. and of Nit-aqert, a sister of Apries, the Egyptians regarded him as, more or less, a legal successor to the throne. He continued the policy of his predecessors towards foreigners, and gave the Greeks many valuable trading Greeks privileges ; in his reign Naucratis became a very important f^^^ city, and the centre of Greek influence in Egypt. In addition and rise of to Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra he married Ladike, said to be Naucratla - the daughter either of Critoboulos or Battus or Arcesilaus the Cyrenian ; according to Herodotus he was the first king of Egypt who conquered Cyprus. The same historian says (III. 1; that Cambyses, king of Persia, made war upon him because, having demanded from Amasis his daughter to wife, the Egyptian king sent to him Nitetis, the daughter of Apries, as his own daughter ; when the damsel declared who she was, Cambyses was greatly enraged, and determined to invade Egypt. During his long reign of forty-five years Amasis repaired and added to the temples in many parts of Egypt, and he worked the mines in the valley of Hammamat. He did not live to see the invasion of the Persians, but he left the country in such a flourishing condition that it formed very rich spoil for them. Psammetichus III., together with his army, formed of 528 Greek and Egyptian troops, marched against the Persians and did battle with them at Pelusium, but he was utterly routed, and the conquering host took possession of Egypt, Egyptians and marched on to Memphis, whither the remainder of the cfmbyse? Egyptian army had fled for protection. The reign of Psam- metichus lasted but a few months, and he was taken captive to Persia, where he suffered a miserable death. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty. Cambyses, the first king of the Persian dynasty, seems to 527 have been of a revengeful disposition, for, according to legend, when he arrived at Sais he is said to have ordered the mummy of Amasis to be dragged from its tomb, and having caused it 6o FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Desecra- tion of mummies and tombs by Cam- byses. Restora- tion of Temple of Neith at Sais. B.C. 521 The coin- age and good govern- ment of Darius. Red Sea Canal. to be illtreated had it burned. Tradition, in general, states that this king caused many barbarous acts to be performed by his soldiers, and the wrecking of many tombs and statues in Egypt is said to date from his reign. His expeditions against the Nubians and the people of the Oasis proving disastrous, he returned to Memphis in exasperation and grief, and finding the whole town in festival, on account of the appearance of a new Apis bull, he ordered this god to be brought to him, and, in a fit of rage, stabbed it in the thigh. Another view of the character of Cambyses is, however, given by an inscription on the statue of a naval commander under Cambyses and Darius, preserved in the Vatican. This officer, called Ut'a-Heru-en- pe-resu, states that when Cambyses came to Sa'fs he ordered the temple of Neith to be cleansed, he restored its revenues and sacred festivals, he performed all the rites there, and established the offerings according to what the kings before him had done. When Darius was king of Egypt the same official was appointed by him to re-establish the school of scribes in Egypt, and he seems to have had some influence in preserv- ing Sais from the destruction which Cambyses spread over the country, and he probably helped Darius to establish the beneficent government in Egypt for which he is famous. Cambyses died from a wound in the thigh, accidentally caused by his own dagger while mounting his horse. On ascending the throne Darius Hystaspes, the successor of Cambyses, set to work to improve the condition of the country, and to repair the damage done to the prestige of Persian government in Egypt by Cambyses. He deposed Ary- andes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, appointed by Cambyses, and caused him to be slain, because he had made an attack on Cyrene, and because of his cruelty and misgovernment. Darius established a coinage, rearranged the taxation of the country, and completed the canal to join the Red Sea and the Medi- terranean which Necho had begun. The course of this canal can still be traced by the inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and in Persian, Median, and Assyrian cuneiform, which cover the rocks near which the canal passed. As stated above, Darius re-established the school of scribes in Egypt, and spared no pains to improve the condition of the people, and to increase EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 6l the trade of the country by land and sea. Towards the end of his reign, while the Persians were fighting the Greeks, Egypt threw off the Persian yoke, and set up Chabbesha as king ; Darius never recovered his hold upon Egypt, and died after a reign of about thirty-six years. Soon after Xerxes I. ascended the throne, he marched to 486 Egypt to reassert the Persian supremacy ; he broke through the defences which Chabbesha had set up on the mouths of Persians the Nile and in the marshes, and taking possession of the E^^ uer country compelled the Egyptians to send a contigent of two hundred ships to assist him in his attack upon Greece ; the crews of these ships distinguished themselves by their bravery at the battle of Artemisium. After the murder of Xerxes by Artabanus, Artaxerxes I. became king of Egypt, but 465 towards the end of his reign the Egyptians, headed by Inarus, king of Lybia, assisted by a fleet of two or three hundred Athenian ships, again revolted and refused either to pay taxes, or to acknowledge the Persian authority. Artaxerxes sent a force of 300,000 or 400,000 to put down the revolt, and a battle took place near Papremis ; the Persians, owing to their overwhelming numbers, were at first victorious, but were subsequently beaten, and those that escaped from the general massacre fled to Memphis for refuge, and were besieged there by the Egyptians. Soon after this Artaxerxes sent more Fall of troops to Egypt, and these having surrounded Memphis, the Memphis. Athenians were compelled first to withdraw, and secondly to burn their ships ; Inarus was wounded in an engagement and taken captive to Persia, where he was crucified or impaled. Amyrtaeus, the governor of a town in the Delta and an ally of Inarus, fled to the marshes, and the Persians appointed Pausiris and Thannyras, their sons respectively, rulers over the Delta in their stead. Xerxes II., the next king of Egypt, was murdered by his brother Sogdianus, and towards the end of the reign of Darius II., his successor, the Egyptians once more rebelled, and regained their independence under Amyrtaeus of Sai's about B.C. 405. The Twenty-eighth Dynasty. Of Amen-rut or Amyrtaeus, the only king of this dynasty, 40 o very little is known ; his native city was Sai's, but it is not 62 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY* OF EGYPT. likely that he is identical with the Amyrtaeus who assisted the ill-fated Inarus to rebel against the Persians. The Twenty-ninth Dynasty. B.C. 399 Naifaarut L, or Nepherites, the first king of this dynasty, was a native of Mendes, and he associated his son Nectanebus with him in the rule of the kingdom. He supplied the Lacedaemonians with wood for building one hundred triremes and half a million bushels of grain at the time when Agesilaus was fighting against the Persians. 1 He reigned six 393 years, and was succeeded by P-se-mut or Psammuthis, who was in turn succeeded by Haker. Of Haker, or Achoris, the inscriptions say nothing, although his name is found inscribed on buildings and temples at Thebes, and in the quarries of Ma'sara and Turah. Towards the end of his Egyptians reign Achoris became an ally of Evagoras, king of Cyprus, waragainst ^ ut tne king of Persia, against whom they began a war, Persians, succeeded in destroying their united fleet, and shortly after Achoris died, having reigned twelve or thirteen years. He 379 seems to have been succeeded by Naifaarut II., who was, however, soon deposed on account of his unpopularity with the people. The Thirtieth Dynasty. To Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus L, the son of Naifaarut I., the first king of this dynasty, fell the task of continuing the war which Achoris, his predecessor, and Evagoras, king of Cyprus, had begun against Artaxerxes II. The Persian king attacked Cyprus with great determination, but Evagoras met his forces with about one hundred ships and six thousand soldiers, and succeeded in partially stopping the supplies of grain for the enemy, in consequence of which a rebellion broke out among them. He increased his fleet as much as he was able, and with the addition of fifty ships from Egypt, attacked the Persians with all haste ; in the great battle which followed, however, his ships were scattered or sunk, 378 Persian attack upon Cyprus. 1 Wiedemann thinks that the king of Egypt who assisted the Greeks in this matter is, from chronological grounds, more likely to have been Achoris. {A eg. Geschichte y p. 698.) EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 63 and the Persians sailed on to attack Salamis, Evagoras fled to Egypt to obtain supplies from Nectanebus to carry on the war, but when he returned he found that his capital was besieged, and that his allies had fled. He straightway tendered his submission to the Persians, who finally decided to accept from him a yearly tribute and to consider him a vassal of Persia. The war against Evagoras being at an end, the Persian king next directed his attention to an attack Persian upon Egypt, and placing the Persian troops under the com- mand of Pharnabazus, and his Greek troops under that of Egypt. Iphicrates, he advanced against Egypt with nearly a quarter of a million soldiers and three hundred ships of war. Nec- tanebus on his part fortified each of the seven mouths of the Nile, giving particular attention to strengthening the defences Egyptians on the Pelusiac mouth, and he flooded the whole country Ddta!* 16 round. When the Persian generals saw this they deter- mined to make their attack by the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, and after a battle they succeeded in capturing the fort which commanded it, and reduced its defenders to slavery. A dispute next arose between Pharnabazus and Iphicrates as to an immediate attack upon Memphis, and while the former was opposing the march upon this city by the latter, the Egyptians themselves mustered a strong force there, and in the battles which followed the arrival of the allied army of Persians and Greeks were generally successful. Soon after this, owing to the inundation of the Nile, the Persians with- Retreat drew to Syria, and Iphicrates returned to Athens ; thus the p^^ns attack of the Persians, notwithstanding their immense army, came to nought. Nectanebus restored and added to many of the temples of Egypt, and after a reign of eighteen years was ^ B. C. succeeded by T'chehra, or Teos (Tachos), who reigned but 360 two years ; the Egyptian inscriptions make no mention of this king. From Greek historians we learn that Teos levied a tax on the Egyptians to carry on the war, and that, contrary to the advice of Agesilaus, one of his allies, he advanced to attack Phoenicia. During his absence the Egyptians revolted, and sent messengers to Syria to invite Nectanebus II, the lawful heir to the throne of Egypt, to come and take pos- session of his country. The allies of Teos forsook him, and FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 358 Persian attack upon Phoenicia. Persians capture Cyprus. Persians capture Memphis. Flight of Nectane- bus. he fled to the court of Artaxerxes II. and of Ochusthe Persian kings, where, after a time spent in riotous living, he died. Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus II., was the last native king of Egypt, and having been helped by Agesilaus to overthrow a native of Mendes who aspired to the throne, he assumed the rule of the kingdom without further opposition. After the death of Artaxerxes II., Ochus determined to make an attack upon Egypt and Cyprus and Phoenicia, the kings of which had joined forces with each other and with the Egyptians to make themselves independent. Tennes, the king of Sidon, successfully expelled a number of Persians from Phoenicia, but when he heard that Ochus himself was coming to take vengeance upon him for this proceeding, he sent messengers to him to tender his submission, and to promise him his help in invading Egypt. The Persian king promised to overlook the past, but marched on Sidon, not- withstanding, and surrounded it ; Tennes betrayed the city and led Artaxerxes and his army into it, whereupon the Sidonians destroyed their fleet and set fire to their houses with themselves and their wives and families inside them. The treachery of Tennes availed him nothing, for he was put to death by Artaxerxes. Phoenicia, and soon after Cyprus, fell into the hands of the Persian king, who now made ready in earnest to conquer Egypt. In a few small preliminary battles fought on the north-east frontier of Egypt, victory rested with the Persians, and when Nectanebus learned this, and saw that Pelusium was attacked in a systematic manner, he and his troops withdrew to Memphis ; the Persians advanced through the Delta, and captured Bubastis, and their march to Memphis was a triumphal progress rather than the march of an enemy upon the capital of Egypt. Fear seized Nectanebus when he heard of the approach of the Persians, and having gathered together all the money that he could conveniently carry, he fled from his troubles, some say to Ethiopia, and some say to Macedon, where according to Pseudo-Callisthenes he became the father of Alexander the Great. Nectanebus, during his reign of seventeen or eighteen years, obtained the reputation of being a devout worshipper of the gods, and a sorcerer. The mines EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 65 in the valley of Hammamat were worked during his reign, and he added to and repaired many of the temples at Philae, Thebes, Edfu, Heliopolis, etc. With the flight of Nectanebus the history of Egypt as an independent country comes to an end. Persian Rulers of Egypt. B C When Artaxerxes III., Ochus, became sole king of 3^0 Egypt, he emulated the barbarous acts of Cambyses ; the principal towns were looted and destroyed, the temples were Ochus overthrown, and their sanctuaries pillaged, the Apis bull was ] ^^ rs killed and eaten by the king and his friends, and the ram of Mendes was slain. Ochus returned to Babylon with much spoil, and after a reign of twelve years was probably poisoned by Bagoas the Egyptian, who, it is said, thus avenged the slaughter of the Apis bull. Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, next sat on the throne of Egypt, but in the third year of his reign he and his family were slain by Bagoas. Arses was succeeded by Darius III., who narrowly escaped poisoning by the hand of Bagoas ; the plot was, however, discovered, and Darius freed himself from the traitor by causing him to drink poison, and he died. Darius was defeated Defeat of by Alexander the Great at Issus, and the Greeks marched on j?*" s us at Egypt and took possession of it without any difficulty. Macedonians. Alexander the Great founded the Alexandria near Rakoti, 332 Eg. <= ^ > n ^ ^ Raqetit, Copt. p^Kcf , and endeavoured to make it the central market-place of the known world. He was tolerant of the Egyptian religion, and sacrificed to Amen, Alexan- the god of Libya, who greeted him as his son. After about a f d j year spent in Egypt, Alexander set out on his expedition against Darius king of Persia. Having conquered all the east, and travelled nearly alone into China, he came back to Babylon, where he was poisoned at a banquet ; his body was brought in great state to his city Alexandria and was buried there. B. M. F 66 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. B.C. 30s 286 Alexan- drian Library founded. Septuagint made. 247 222 20s 182 170 117 81 42 Death of Cleopatra. 27 Egypt be- comes a Roman Province. Ptolemies. Ptolemy I., Soter, son of Lagus, founded the Alexandrian Library. Ptolemy II., Philadelphia, built the Pharos, founded Berenice on the Red Sea, and Arsinoe ; he employed Manetho to compile a history of Egypt and its gods from native autho- rities, and caused the Greek version of the Old Testament to be made. Ptolemy III., Euergetes I. Ptolemy IV., Philopator, founded the temple of Edfu. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Ptolemy VI., Eupator, died in this year. Ptolemy VII., Philometor. Ptolemy VIII., murdered by Physcon. Ptolemy IX., Euergetes II. or Physcon, reigned conjointly with Ptolemy VII. (B.C. 170—165). Ptolemy X., Soter II., Philometor II., or Lathyrus reigned conjointly with Cleopatra III. ; he was banished B.C. 106, and recalled B.C. 87. Ptolemy XI., Alexander I., made co-regent. He was banished B.C. 89 and slain B.C. 87. Ptolemy XII., Alexander II., is slain. Ptolemy XIII., Neos Dionysos or Auletes, became king of Egypt ; he died B.C. 52. Ptolemy XIV., Dionysos II., banished his co-regent Cleopatra VII., Caesar arrived in Egypt to support Cleopatra, and Ptolemy XIV. was drowned. Ptolemy XV., brother of Cleopatra VII., appointed her co- regent ; he was murdered at her wish. Ptolemy XVI., Caesarion, was named co-regent. Antony ordered Cleopatra to appear before him, and was seduced by her charms ; he killed himself, and Cleopatra died by the bite of an asp. Romans. Caesar Augustus became master of the Roman Empire, and Cornelius Gallus the first prefect of Egypt ; under the third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Candace, Queen of the Ethiopians, invaded Egypt, but was defeated. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 67 A.D. Tiberius. In his reign Germanicus went to Egypt, sailing 14 up the Nile from the city of Canopus to Thebes, where he visited the temples of Luxor and Karnak, and heard the priest read on the pylons the names of conquered nations which still exist on them by the score. Passing over to the other side of the river, Tacitus tells us (II., 61) that he saw the stone image of Memnon, which, when struck by the sun's rays, gave out the sound of a human voice, and there is little Germani- doubt that he visited the Tombs of the Kings, the Ramesseum through 61 and the temples at Medinet Habu. He passed on to Syene, Egypt, where he visited the island of Elephantine, and either going up or coming down the river, he saw Lake Moeris and the Pyramids. Caligula. 37 Claudius. 41 Nero. In his reign Christianity was first preached in 55 Egypt by Saint Mark. The Blemmyes made raids upon the ?^™ yes southern frontier of Egypt. Egypt. Vespasian. Jerusalem destroyed, A.D. 70. 69 Domitian builds temples to Isis and Serapis at Rome. 82 • Trajan. The Amnis Trajanus, or canal which joined the 98 Nile and Red Sea, re-opened. Hadrian. He visited Egypt twice. 117 Marcus Aurelius. 161 Commodus. 180 Septimius Severus. 193 Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large number of 211 young men to be massacred in Alexandria. Macrinus. 217 Elagabalus. 218 Decius. 249 Valerianus. 253 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invaded Egypt. 268 Aurelian. Zenobia dethroned A.D. 273. 270 Probus. 276 Diocletian. " Pompey's Pillar" erected A.D. 302. The 284 Copts date the era of the Martyrs from the day of Diocletian's accession to the throne (August 29). Constantine the Great. 324 F 2 68 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 337 Constantius. 379 Theodosius I., the Great, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire. Byzantines. 395 Arcadius, Emperor of the East. 408 Theodosius II. 450 Marcianus. In this reign Silco invaded Egypt, with his Nubian followers. 474 Zeno. 481 Anastasius. 527 Justinian. 610 Heraclius expelled the Persians from Egypt after they had held it, under Chosroes, for ten years. MUHAMMADANS. 638 'Amr ibn el-'Asi conquers Egypt, and the country becomes Arab con- a part of the Muhammadan empire for about nine hundred quest of Egypt. years. I5 !7 Selim I., of Constantinople, deposes Tuman Bey, and Egypt becomes a Turkish Pashalik. 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte stormed Alexandria, battle of the Pyramids, and French fleet destroyed off Abukir by the English. 1801 The French compelled by the English to evacuate Egypt. 1805 Muhammad 'Ali appointed Pasha of Egypt. 1848 Ibrahim Pasha. 1849 Death of Muhammad 'Ali. 1854 Said Pasha. During his reign the Bulak Museum was founded, and the excavation of the Suez Canal began. 1863 Ismail, son of Ibrahim Pasha, made Khedive. Suez Canal opened, 1869. 1882 Massacre of Europeans at Alexandria, bombardment of the town by the English fleet in July ; Egypt was occupied by English troops, and 'Arabi Pasha defeated. 1885 Murder of Gordon, and abandonment of the Sudan. 1892 English troops continue to occupy Egypt. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 6 9 List of Egyptian Dynasties and the Dates assigned to them by egyptologists. 1 2 Dynasty. From Lepsius. Champolli Figeac. J Thinis "2 802 C 867 IJ Thinis c 6t c III Memphis 7 778 < 7l8 IV Memphis 7 1 2d. C T2I J) v Elephantine 2,840 A 67 7 VI Memphis 2 7/1 A A. A.2 C VTT v 11 1>1CI11UI11o ••• a r y>'> 4. zzz VTTT V ill AT pm nni c 2,522 A 1 A7 IX TTpra pi pnnnl l q lltlaLlCUUUllo 2 674. a 047 x 2 c6c ■2 OA7 XI Thebes 2,423 3,762 YTT 1 lie DCS . . . 3,7°3 YTTT A.111 Thebes . . . 2, ljU 3,4 J 7 YTV AI V 2 Tf»7 4, 1U/ Jj u5°o 3,500 3,358 3,249 3,o6i 2,851 2,398 2,214 1,703 1,462 1,288 1,110 980 810 721 715 665 527 406 399 378 340 2,320 2,300 1,740 1,651 i,575 1,269 1,170 1,068 981 908 812 773 664 525 414 408 387 340 4,400 4,i33 3,966 3.766 3,566 3,3oo 3,100 2,500 2,466 2,233 1,800 1,700 1,400 1,200 1,100 966 766 733 700 666 527 405 399 378 340 1 Konigsbuch, Berlin, 1858, Synoptische Tafeln, taf. 4-8. 2 UUnivers. Egypte Anaemic, Paris, 1839, p. 269. 3 Notice des Principaux Monuments du Musee d Boulaq, Paris, 1869, p. 15. 4 The Ancient Egyptians, ed. Birch, 1878, Vol. I, p. 28 ff. 5 Egypt under the Pharaohs, ed. 1880, Vol. II, pp. 341-346. FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. LIST OF NOMES 1 NOME. CAPITAL. I. Q^D 2. 6. or O. 4. ^4-^ 5 Ta-kens les-Heru Ten Uast Herai Aati Sechem Abtu Amsu Uat'et Sut Tu-hef Atef-chent Atef-peh Un T AJ v. O o or 0© 0@ 4^ Tcbt Nexeb Sent Uast Annu qemat Qebt Ta-en-tarert Het Abet Apu Tebt Shas-hetep Nut-enth-bak Saut Kes ©, or 1 1 1 1 © 1 1 1 1 Chemennu a © 1 See Brugsch., Diet. Geog., p. 1358, f. ; and Diimichen LIST OF NOMES. DEITY. 1 o ta Jl vw/v> r 1 ^ _ (UPPER EGYPT). GREEK NAME. Elephantine Apollinopolis magna Eileithyia Latopolis, Esneh Thebes, or Hermonthis Coptos Tentyris Diospolis parva Abydos Panopolis Aphroditopolis Hypselis Hieraconpolis Lycopolis, Asyfit Cusae Hermopolis in Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, p. 24, AT. Ch?iemu HeruBehutet. Nexeb. Amen-Ra Menthu Amsu Het-Heru t Het-Heru. Chnemu Heru, Ap-uat Het-Heru, Tehut% Hathor Het-Heru, Hathor An- her Amsu Hathor Horus Hathor Thoth 2 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. LIST OF NOMES NOME. CAPITAL. "44 » \^ — 9. tjl o. m "ST " -IT Meh-mahet Sepet Uab Am-chent l Mdten CD - fl /wwvs W Hebenu Ka-sa Het-bennu Pa-mat 'et Suten-henen Sendxent Tep-dhet LIST OF NOMES 2 NOME. , DI 2 - 6. Aneb-het' Ad Anient Sepi-res Sepi-7tieht Ka-set CAPITAL. /vww "35) IP* Men-nefert Sechem Nut-ent -Hdpi Teqd Sai't Chasuut 1 In the western part of this nome was the Fayyum, ( | Ta-shet. LIST OF NOMES. 73 (UPPER EGYPT)— continued. GREEK NAME, DEITY. Heru, Kynonpolis LA Anpu, Hipponus Anpu, Oxyrhynchus Sut Heracleopolis Magna Nilopolis (?) Her-sefiu Chnemu Aphroditopolis Het-Heru, Horns Anubis Anubis (LOWER EGYPT). GREEK. NAME. Memphis Letopolis Apis Sais Choi's DEITY. y era Ptah Ileru Het-Heru Amen-Rd Nit Amen-Rd Horu Hathor I /vww\ I 3 See J. de Rouge, GV9- o © DQ 20. ^ Nefer- Anient Nefer-Abet Ati (or Ami) Ka-kam Ka-hcbes Teb-neter Heq-at Chent-abt Tehuti Char Behutet A m-chent A m-peh Sept LIST OF NOMES CAPITAL. ^ w <3 1 — 1 0 1 ^ 3 O en "' o © © CJ )__ AWWA D\ O © en AAAAAA I AAA/W\ ?J^J| Of* Sent-nefert Thekut Pa-Ausiir Het-ta-herdbt Hebes-ka Theb-netert Annu Tdnt Pa-Tehuti Pa-ba-neb-Teitet Pa-chen-en-A ment Pa-Bast Pa-uai Pekes (LOWER EGYPT) GREEK NAME. Metelis Sethroe (?) Busiris Athribis Kabasos Sebennythos Heliopolis Tanis Hermopolis Mendes Diospolis Bubastis Buto Phakussa LIST OF NOMES. -continued. DEITY. m - a i 7S Hu Atmu Ausar Osiris Heru-chent-chathi Auset Isis An-her Ra Heru Horus Tehuti Thoth Ba-neb-Tettet A men-Ra Bast Uat Sept LIST OF THE CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL EGYPTIAN KINGS. The oval CZDI in which a name of a royal person is written, is called cartouche. The first oval contains the pre- nomen, and the second the name ; these are quite distinct from his titles, suten net, placed before the prenomen, means " King of the North and South," and se Rd means " Son of the Sun." Other common titles are ^37 r^~! neb taut, " lord of two lands," ^ Horus, ^ " the golden Horus," " lord of diadems," ^ « mighty bull," ^ J " beautiful god/' etc., etc. The title Pharaoh niTjD finds per da, "great house." names were very sim- often of the prenomen its origin in or □□, or In the early dynasties kings' pie in form, and consisted only. In addition to the pre- king often had what is termed a " banner " name, which was written in a rectangular enclosure ; e.g. : — nomen and name a Heru ka neyt ur peh peh, u Horus, mighty bull, great of valour," formed the " banner " name of < ^ = ^ St i^l ^ a y» e £ eru was Amenophis II. ; his prenomen ; and in Amen- hetep neter heq Annu, " Amenophis, god, prince of Heliopolis," was his name. Each prenomen and name had a meaning, but many of these are very difficult to translate. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 77 Dynasty* I., from Thinis, b.c. 4400. Mena. Hesep-ti. a a V. ./I Teta. Mer-ba-pen. Ate0. Semen -Ptah. Ata. Qebh. Dynasty IT., from Thinis, b.c. 4133. .3. n (TgTI Neter-baiu. 10. 1 u Ka-kau. Ba-en-neter. 12. Mem Uat'-nes. Senta. x 4 . H (" SOP— 1 Per-ab-sen. 15. 0 Nefer-ka-Ra.t 6. I Nefer-ka-seker. Het'efa. * Manetho's grouping of the kings into dynasties is only used here for con- venience ; the ancient Egyptians had no such division. t Though O Ra is generally placed first in the cartouche, it is generally to be read last. 78 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYTT. 8. $ Dynasty III., from Memphis, b.c. 3966. T'at'ai. 19. 20 21. ■ } Set'es. 29 Q Q V Neb-ka. Serteta. Ser. Ahtes. .5. 51 c° ^ Teta. Neb-ka-Ra. r°iu] s- a is. Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Huni. Dynasty IV., from Memphis, b.c. 3766. Seneferu. Tet-f-Ra. xufu. (Cheops.) Shepses-ka-f. 33. jy§ c 0 ^ u ] xa-f-Ra. (Chephren.) Sebek-ka-Ra. (°= U u U ] Men-kau-Ra. (Mycerinus. ) I-em-hetep. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. Dynasty V., from Elephantine, b.c. 3366. * m (JED « ( JW Usr-ka-f. Sah-u-Ra. Nefer-ka-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Kakaa. Nefer-f-Ra, son of the Sun, Shepses-ka-Ra. Nefer-%a-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-a-ka-u. 0 -J ^ ^fe* ^ /www ^ Usr-en-Ra, son of the Sun, An. 4i - 3L .'"in 1 UXJ* 1=3 u Men-kau Heru. 42 Tet-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, 43- «g C ^TH] Unas. Assa. Dynasty VI., from Memphis, b.c. 3266. « K (ID Teta or Teta - mer - en - Ptah. (Teta beloved of Ptah.) 8o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ] ¥ 0 a Usr-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Ati. 46. | 0 o AO 3* l^D Meri-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (I.). 47- 4' Mer-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-em-sa-f. Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (II.). 49- ?# (e^^kg ] so. M R^l Ra-mer-en-se (?)-em-sa-f Neter-ka-Ra. 5 1 - ( ED Men-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Netaqerti. (Nitocris.) Dynasties VII. and VIII., from Memphis ; Dynasties IX. AND X., FROM HERACLEOPOLIS, B.C. 3 IOO. 5, 1 u Nefer-ka. 53- Nefer-seh . . . . »• K (JUS. J Ab. Nefer-kau-Ra SJ-S %ar#i. 3 Nefer-ka-Ra. r-ka-Ra. Nefer-ka- Ra-Nebi. 59- ■ M ( flu©-* Tet-ka-Ra-maa CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 81 Mer-en-Heru. 1 Nefer- ka - Ra- xentu. Se-nefer-ka-Ra. Senefer-ka. Ka-en-Ra. 64. Nefer-ka-Ra-t-rer-1 (?). Nefer-ka-Heru. Nefer - ka - Ra- Pepi - senb. Nefer-ka-Ra-annu.* Nefer-kau-Ra. Nefer-kau-Heru. <*■ m C°Ttr] Nefer-ka-ari-Ra. Dynasty XL, from Thebes. 71. □ 72. a Erpaf Antef. 111 Men-[tu-hetep]. Antef. 74- 75 a/VWV\A Antef. CZZJ Antef (?). *1 I Neter nefer, Beautiful god, Antef. Antef. * After this name the tablet of Abydos had .... kau-Ra t Erpa, usually translated "hereditary prince" or "duke," is one of the oldest titles of nobility in Egypt. B. M. G 82 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Son of the A n1 -pf Son of the x - Sun Antet * Sun An-aa. Nub-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Antuf. Aha-Heru-Ra-apu-maat, son of the Sun, Antuf-aa. Aha-renpit-Ra-aput-maat, son of the Sun, Antef-aa. =3- » Quy] Senefer-ka-Ra. Ra 8 5 . (TjfC:^ Usr-en-Ra. 86. m (w/j Neb-nem-Ra. Son of the Sun, Men0u-hetep (I.). Se-Ra-Men^-hetep (II.). 8 9 . m f[o]^^i ^ c^^n Neb-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Menfl-hetep (III.). <3 \ A -J— I \ AAAAAA U y'l Neb-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (IV.). CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 83 Neb-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (V.). Se-anx-ka-Ra. Dynasty XII., from Thebes, b.c. 2466. Sehetep-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen -em-hat (I.). xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (I.). Nub-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (II.). xeper-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (II.). xa-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (III.). 9 8. m r^^i % CWK^i Maat-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (III.). Maa-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-em-hat (IV.). - k CD»ED Sebek • neferu - Ra. G 2 8 4 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. O a — a or. m g V- XU-taiu-Ra. o, Jg 0u] xerp-ka-Ra. i°5- Dynasty XIII., B.C. 2233. D . . . em -hat. 04. n Sehetep-ab-Ra. Auf-na. Seanx-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ameni-Antef-Amen-em-hat. Semen -ka-Ra. 08. ^ ggg ^ o V s\ Sehetep-ab-Ra. 09. m «j] ka. 113 <=k V „ Net'em-ab-Ra. 1 1 112. <=» V A Sebek-[hete]p-Ra. Ren Set'ef Ra. 114. 4& @ A; — a 9) ^ v Ra-xerp (?)-xu-taiu Sebek-hetep (I.). 111 16 Semenx-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Mer-menfitu. 0 V - /l ( nas i xerp-seuat'-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (II.). CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. '■ m G3J ^ (El xa-seshesh-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-hetep. ? O ^ - lid Ra-het . . . . se, son of the Sun, Het-Heru-se » m si ¥ xa-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (III.). CI ¥ O Q Het-1 r, xa-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (IV.). Uah-ab-Ra-aa-ab. 122. 123 xaa-xeru-Ra. Neb-f-a(?) a-mer-Ra. 124. Nefer ab-Ra. Mdfij ¥ para xa-anx-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (V.). Mer-xerp-Ra. Men-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Anab. 86 128 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. O 129 xerp-uat'-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (I.). xerp-seset-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (II.)- Sesusr-taiu-Ra, x er P (?)-Uast-Ra. 3- m (HIS ¥ 551 xerp-uah-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-hetep. Dynasty XIV. « m (3D » (MM Mer-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Ai. Mer-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Ana. 35. m (on-^nfj Seanxensehtu - Ra. ^ ^^^^ < " ^ ^ ^ AAVNAAA^l Mer-xerp-Ra-an-ren. .37. M Hf^l Seuat'-en-Ra. 38. ^ r^u] xa-ka-Ra. - m CM) 1 1 Ka-meri-Ra. neter nefer. Mer-kau-Ra. G Seheb-Ra. Mer-t'efa-Ra. 142. ^ u Sta-ka-Ra. Neb-t'efa-Ra Ra CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 87 ■44. m p¥is Uben-Ra. o Her-ab-Ra. 46. m ( e^Pm j 47- m (opiu Seuah-en-Ra. 48. m Nil *a *a V. . Neb- sen -Ra. Se%eper-en-Ra. •49. m QU) Tet-xeru-Ra. Dynasty XV., "Shepherd Kings. Aa-peh-peh-Set, son of the Sun, Nub-Set (?). - . . Banan. Abeh (?) - en - %epes. Apepa. Dynasty XVL, "Shepherd Kings.' » i 5 GEJu ¥ QMD Neter nefer Aa-ab-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Beautiful god. Apepa. I I I <-«=» /WWV i or neter nefer Aa-qenen-Ra. Dynasty XVII., from Thebes. I I I 3 Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa. 88 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-aa. Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-qen. ■» m R11 ¥ (MSB Uat'-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Karnes. Suten hemt Aah-hetep. Royal wife. Aah-mes-se-pa-ari. Dynasty XVI II., from Thebes, b.c 1700. Neb-peh-peh-Ra, son of the Sun, Aahmes. (Amasis I.) Neter hemt Aah-mes-nefert-ari. Divine wife. Ser-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep. (Amenophis I.) m cz§u\ ¥ (Ml Aa-xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes I. ) :6 5 . | CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. O 8 9 o Aa-xeper-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-xau-Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes II.) Mat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hat-shepset-xnem-Amen. (Queen Hatshepsu.) :6 7 . J 0 P MB Men-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes III.) 168. 6,. }■ Aa-xeperu-Ra, son of the Amen-hetep neter heq Annu. Sun ' (Amenophis II.) (MM Men-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes %a-xati. (Thothmes IV.) 0 M I 1/ /www Neb-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep heq-Uast. (Amenophis III.) 171 OH] 1 ? Suten hemt 0i. (The Mesopotamian wife of Amenophis III.) 172. V S_l 0 I ftAAW Jt — /— T V I /WWW I A A Nefer-xeperu-Ra-ua-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter heq Uast. (Amenophis IV.) 0^ ^21 © *N ^ x u_en_ Aten. 90 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Suten hemt urt Nefer-neferu-aten Neferti-i0. Royal wife, great lady. Anx-x e P eru "^ a J son °f the Sun, Seaa-ka-next-xeperu-Ra. Neb-xeperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tut-anx-Amen heq Annu resu (?). ■76. J! ^iiM^l ¥ (owffl Xeper-xeperu-mat-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Atf-neter Ai neter heq Uast. •77. m (SsP^i ¥ (P^Svrl ^ ^ \ * V y I /ww\a/| « /— 1 \ /w«v\a \ r r\ > «4 V&V /| Ser-xeperu-Ra-setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-meri-en-Heru-em-heb. Dynasty XIX., from Thebes, b.c. 1400. *mQ2D ¥ OSS Men-pehtet-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu. (Rameses I.) Men-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-Seti. (Seti L) -* m GnEi ¥ (HMD Usr-mat-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu-meri-Amen. (Rameses II.) Suten hemt Auset-nefert. Suten mut Tui. Royal wife. Royal mother. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 91 S3- $ 84. I ^] ¥ (HMD Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-hetep- her-mat. (Meneptah I.) O I 1 1 1 1 n 1 1^ /www _y| Men-ma-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Araen-meses-heq-Uast. (Amen-meses.) Usr-xeperu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Seti-meri-en-Ptah. (Seti II). 86. XU-en-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-se-Ptah. (Meneptah II.) Usr-xau-Ra setep-en-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meri Amen-merer meri-Amen, Set-ne^t. (Set-Next.) Dynasty XX., from Thebes, b.c. 1200. Usr-mat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses-heq-Annu. (Rameses III.) Usr-mat-Ra setep-en- son of the Sun, Ra-meses-meri-Amen- Amen, Ra heq mat. (Rameses IV.) Usr-mat-Ra s-xeper- son of the Sun, Ra-mes-meri-Amen-Amen en-Ra, suten-f. ( Rameses V. ) 92 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 191 Ra-Amen-mat- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses neter heq Annu. (Rameses VI.) meri-neb, 1 192. J. Ra-usr-Amen-meri- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-ta-neter- setep-en-Ra, heq-Annu. (Rameses VII.) 193- O Ml Ra-mat-usr-xu-en- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-meri- Amen, Amen. (Rameses VIII.) 194. n m o 1 AWAAA J\ Q III Neb ta S-\a-en-Ra Meri- Lord of the Amen, land, neb xau Rameses-se-Ptah. lord of crowns, (Rameses IX.) , 9S . m C olU.^\ Nefer-kau-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen- setep-en-Ra, x^-Uast (?). (Rameses X.) Ra-xeper-mat setep- son of the Sun, Ra-mes suten (?) Amen. Ra, (Rameses XL] 197. mGES) ¥ (mm J Usr-mat-Ra setep- son of the Sun, Amen mer-Ra-meses. nu-Ra, (Rameses XII.) Men-mat-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen xa setep-en-Ra, Uast (?) neter heq Annu. (Rameses XIH.) CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 93 Dynasty XXL, from Tanis, b.c. iico. I. 199. 200. q Q \ VV I AAAAAA /WWW ./I _/_T ] Ra-neter-xeper setep-en son of the Sun, Se-Mentu meri-Ra. Amen, (Se-Mentu.) Ra-aa-xeper setep- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Pa-seb-xa-nu. en-Mentu, (Pasebxanu I.) r Aa-seh-Ra, son of the Sun, J 202. 203. 3 ¥ CUB Setep-en-Mentu-Ra, son of the Sun, Meri-Mentu-Amen- em-apt. (Amenemapt.) Is □ * 2 3 Het' heq son of the Sun, Meri-Amen Pa-seb-xa-nu. (Pasebxanu II.) Dynasty XXL, from Thebes, b.c. iioo. II. - m now i ¥ OSES] Neter-hen-hetep en- son of the Sun, Amen, Prophet first of Amen, Her-Heru-se-Amen. (Her-Heru.) 205. 1 i Neter hen hetep en Amen Pa - an% Prophet first of Amen Pa - anx« 94 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. - m cwr \ Pai-net'em (I.). 207. O Xeper-xa-Ra-setep- son of the Sun, en-Amen, Amen-meri-Pai- net'em (II.). 208. J (1 Suten mut Hent-taiu. Royal mother, Hent - taiu. 2 ° 9 * ^ ^ Prophet first of Amen, Masaherfl Prophet first, Men-^eper-Ra, child Royal, Amen-meri Pai-net'em. 2i °- AS w 2 II. 1 ! O w Neter hen hetep en Amen-Ra, Pai-nat'em (III.). Prophet first of Amen-Ra. 212. 1 ? (33 Suten herat Mat-ka Ra. Royal wife. Dynasty XXII., from Bubastis, b.c. 966. 2 1 214. Xeper-5e\et-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri-Shashanq. setep-en-Ra, (Shashanq I.) xerp-^eper-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-meri Uasarken. setep-en-Ra, (Osorkon I.) CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 95 215- Het'-Ra-setep-en-Amen son of the Amen-meri Auset-meri neter heq Uast, Sun, 0ekele0. (Takeleth I.) ■ «B s ( EH Ra-usr-mat setep-en- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Uasarken. Amen, (Osorkon II.) xeper-sexem-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri Shash[anq]. setep-en-Amen, (Shashanq II.) 21 Het'-xeperu-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-meri Auset- setep-en-Ra, meri Qekeled. (Takeleth.) Usr-mat-Ra son of the Sun, Amen-meri-se-Bast Shasha[n]q. setep-en-Ra, (Shashanq III.) 220. Usr-mat-Ra setep- son of the Sun, Amen-meri Pa-mai. en-Amen, (Pa-mai.) Dynasty XXIII., from Tanis, b.c. 766. o 222 Se-her-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Peta-se-Bast. Aa-xeper-Ra son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meri Uasarkena. setep-en-Amen, (Osorkon III.) FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 23 Dynasty XXIV., from Sais, b.c. 733. f -9 ^ <=>~N I ^^^^ MAMA \ _/A AAAAAA 2 $^— ^ /] Uah-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Bakenrenf. Dynasty XXIV., from Ethiopia, b.c. 733. T AAAAAA V. ./I Suten Kasta. • King Kashta. 25. «o> 1 o ] 1 Q Men-xeper-Ra, son of the Sun, P-anxi. Amen-meri P-anxi, son of the Sun, P-anxi. Dynasty XXV., from Ethiopia, b.c. 700. o 7. m Qu] % (i^u] Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Shabaka. (Sabaco.) Tet-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Shabataka. Ra-nefer-tem-xu, son of the Sun, Tahrq. (Tirhakah.) I 0 \^ M Neter nefer Usr-mat-Ra setep- lord of two God beautiful, en- Amen, lands. Amenrut. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 97 Dynasty XXVI., from Sais, b.c. 666. o m ¥ RE] Uah- ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psemtfek. (Psammetichus I.) Nem- ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Nekau. (Necho II.) Nefer-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psem0ek. (Psammetichus II.] 234. 0 (33 Haa- ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Uah ab-Ra. ( Apries. ) xnem- ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ahmes-se-net. (Amasis II.) Anx-ka-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Psem#ek. (Psammetichus III.) Dynasty XXVII. (Persian), b.c. 527. Mesu0-Ra, son of the Sun, Kembatfet. (Cambyses. ) B. M. H 9 3 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Settu, son of the Sun, Antariusha. (Darius Hystaspes.) 239- Lord of two lands, xshaiarsha. (Xerxes the Great. 240. Artaxshashas. (Artaxerxes.) 241. Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Anflerirutsha. (Darius Xerxes.) Dynasty XXVIII., from Sais. Senen-en-Ptah-Mentu- son of the Sun, (xabbesha.) setep, Dynasty XXIX., from Mendes, b.c. 399. Ba-en-Ra neteru- son of the Sun, Niafaaurut. meri, xnem-mat-Ra, son of the Sun, Haker. Ra-usr-Ptah-setep-en, son of the Sun, Psemut. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 99 Dynasty XXX. from Sebennytus, b.c. 378. S-net'em-ab-Ra son of the Sun, Next-Heru-hebt-meri- setep-en-Amen, Amen. (Nectanebus I.) xeper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Ne%t-neb-f. (Nectanebus II.) Dynasty XXXI.,* Persians. Dynasty XXXII., Macedonians, b.c. 332. Setep-ka-en-Ra-meri- son of the Sun, Aleksantres. Amen, (Alexander the Great.) neb taiu Setep-en-Ra- son of the Sun, Phiuliupuas. meri-Amen, (Philip Aridaeus. ) Ra-haa-ab-setep- son of the Sun, Aleksantres. en-Amen, (Alexander IV.) Dynasty XXXIII., Ptolemies, b.c. 305. m (Mm ¥ CSMD Setep-en-Ra-meri- son of the Sun, Ptulmis. Amen, (Ptolemy I. Soter I.) Neter mut, Bareniket. Divine Mother (Berenice I.) * The word "dynasty" is retained here for convenience of classification. H 2 IOO FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Ra-usr-ka-meri Amen, son of the Sun, Ptulmis. (Ptolemy II. Philadelphus.) Sutenet set suten sent suten hemt neb taiu Arsanat. Royal daughter, royal sister, royal wife, lady of the two lands (Arsinoe). - 1 v H: (3130D Suten set suten sent Pilatra. Royal daughter, royal sister (Philotera). Neteru-senu-ua-en-Ra-setep-Amen-xerp (?)-en-anx, son of the Son, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri Ptolemy (III. Euergetes I.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah. Heqt nebt taiu, Barenikat. Princess, lady of the two lands, (Berenice II.) Neteru-menx-ua-[en]-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-xerp (?) anx, son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Auset meri. Ptolemy (IV. Philopator,) living for ever, beloved of Isis. Suten set suten sent hemt urt nebt taiu Royal daughter, royal sister, wife, great lady, lady of the two lands, Arsinai. Arsinoe (III., wife of Philopator I.). CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. IOI Netem>meri-ua-en-Ptah-setep-Ra-usr-ka-Amen-xerp-anx:, O son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (V. Epiphanes) living for ever, beloved of Ptah. 261. Ptolemy VI. Eupator, wanting. 262. Suten set sen hemt Royal daughter, sister, wife, Qlauaperat. (Cleopatra I.) Neteru-xu (?)-ua-Ptah-xeper-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat (?), O son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (VII. Philometor I.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah. 264. Sutenet set suten sent hemt suten mut neb taiu Royal daughter, royal sister, wife, royal mother, lady of the two lands, Qlauapetrat. (Cleopatra II. wife of Philometor I.) 265. Ptolemy VIII. Philopator II. wanting. en-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat x Neteru-xu (?)-ua-en-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari-mat xerp anx, O son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (IX. Euergetes II.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah. 102 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 267. Suten net King of North and South, lord of two lands. 01 Neteru-menx-mat-s-meri-net-ua-Ptah-xerp (?)-setep-en-Ra- Amen-ari-mat, O O III Ra-se neb x^u Son of the Sun, lord of diadems, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy X. (Soter II. Philometor II.) 268. O mum Suten net, Neleru-menx-ua-Ptah-setep-en-Ra-Amen-ari- mat- King of North and senen-Ptah-anx-en, South, ¥ (ssisaiiiiH Ptualmis t'etu-nef Aleksentres anx t'etta Ptah meri. Ptolemy (XI.) called is he Alexander, living for ever, beloved of Ptah. O son of the Sun Heqt neb taiu Erpa-ur-qebh-Baaarenekat. Princess, lady of two lands, Berenice (III.) 270. Ptolemy XII. (Alexander II.), wanting. P-neter-n-ua-enti-nehem-Ptah-setep-en-ari-mat-en- Ra-Amen-xerp-anx, son of the Sun, Ptualmis anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri. Ptolemy (XIII.), living for ever, beloved of Isis and Ptah. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 272. 0 O ] Neb taiu Lady of two lands, Qlapetrat t'ettu-nes Trapenet Cleopatra (V.), called is she Tryphaena. 273 Heqt taiu Queen of two lands, Qluapeter. Cleopatra (VI.). 274. O Suten net neb taiu King of North and lord of two lands, South, Ptualmis Ptolemy (XIV.), ids Ra se neb ^aa Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri. son of the Sun, lord of diadems, Caesar, living for ever, of Ptah and Isis beloved. Dynasty XXXIV., Roman Emperors, b.c. 27. ~ = c 275- Suten net neb taiu King of North and lord of two lands, South, A Auteqreter Autocrator, Ql A Ra se neb x^u Kiseres anx t'etta Ptah Auset meri. Sun's son, lord of crowns, Caesar (Augustus), living for ever, of Ptah and Isis beloved. 276. *Q$ Suten net neb taiu £ ^ A Auteqreter Autocrator, Ra se son of the Sun, QUI neb xjiu lord of diadems, am] Tebaris Kiseres an% t'etta. Tiberius Caesar living for ever. 104 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 277. Heq hequ Autekreter Ptah Auset-meri King of kings, Autocrator, of Ptah and Isis beloved O son of the Sun, Qais Kaiseres Kermeniqis. Gaius (Caligula) Caesar Germanicus. 278. nQs Suten net neb taiu (¥:§fg ] Auteqreter Kiseres Autocrator Caesar, III Ra se neb x^u Sun's son, lord of crowns, A Q ^ 3 Qlutes Tibaresa. Claudius Tiberius. 279. 4 V neb taiu Heq hequ-setep-en-Auset meri Ptah King of North and lord of two Ruler of rulers, chosen one of Isis, South, f O lands, beloved of Ptah. QUI se Ra neb %au Sun's son, lord of crowns, Autekreter Anrani. (Autocrator Nero). 280. Merqes Auflunes (Marcus Otho). 5QO III Sun's son, lord of crowns, 281. Vitellius (wanting). Kiseres netx Autukreter. Caesar .... Autocrator. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. ffi CElsgS ] Suten net (?) Autukretur Kisares Autocrator Caesar, Suten net (?) Uspisines net% Vespasianus ..... Autekretur Tetis Keseres. Autocrator Titus Caesar, Sun's son, lord of crowns, Uspesines net%. Vespasianus .... * <°- ~ (¥S5sE I Autukretur Kiseres. Autocrator Caesar, Sun's son, lord of crowns, Tumetines netx» Domitianus .... Autukreter Kiseres. son of the Sun Autocrator Caesar. Neruas netx- Nerva Autukreter Kaiseres Neruaui. Autocrator Caesar Nerva, 106 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. s the Sun's son, Traianes net% Arsut Kermineqsa Ntekiqes. lord of crowns, Trajan (Augustus) Germanicus. Dacicus. 287. ESSE] Autukreter Kiseres Trinus. Autocrator Caesar Trajan, s the Sun's son, lord of crowns, Atrines net%. Hadrian Suten hemt Sabinat Sebesta anx t etta. Royal wife, Sabina, Sebaste living for ever. <0? Ff King of the North and South, lord of the world, ilQO 2 2 ^7 2 the Sun's son, lord of crowns, Autukreter Kiseres Gites Alis Atrins. Autocrator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus, Antunines Sebesflesus Baus netixui. Antoninus Augustus Pius 290. ^ ^ 2 the Sun's son, lord of crowns, Autekreter Kaiseres. Autocrator Csesar, Aurelais Antanines netx anx t'etta. Aurelius Antoninus, .... living for ever. CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 291. Autekreter Autocrator Kesers Caesar Luki Lucius Aulli Aelius Uara an% t'etta. Verus, living for ever. 292. 83 trains] Autekretirs Kisaures Autocrator Caesar, O 222 C the Sun's son, lord of crowns, Kamtaus A-en-ta-nins netex- Commodus. Antoninus Sauris netx. Severus .... 294. Autocrator Caesar Antanenes netx- Antoninus [Caracalla] Kat netix- Geta 296. Autocrator Caesar Taksas netx- Decius 108 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Rosetta Stone 1 and the Stele of Canopus. Finding of the Rosetta Stone. Stele of Canopus and Rosetta Stone compared. The following remarks upon the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics may be fitly introduced by a des- cription of the remarkable objects of antiquity whose names stand at the head of this chapter. The Rosetta Stone is a slab of black basalt, which is now preserved in the British Museum (Egyptian Gallery, No. 24). It was found by a French artillery officer called Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, in 1799, but subsequently came into the possession of the British Government at the capitulation of Alexandria. It is inscribed with fragments of 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 lines of demotic, and 54 lines of Greek. A portion of the stone has been broken off from the top, and the right-hand bottom corner has also suffered injury. It now measures 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 4! in. x 1 iin. We may arrive at an idea of the original size of the Rosetta Stone by com- paring the number of lines upon it with the number of those upon the Stele of Canopus, which is inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek, measures 7ft. 2in. x 2ft. 7in. x ift. 2in., and is inscribed with 36 lines of hieroglyphics, 73 lines of demotic, and 74 lines of Greek. The demotic inscription is on the edge of the stele, This stele was set up at Canopus in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III., Euergetes I. (B.C. 247 — 222), to record the decree made at Canopus by the priesthood, assembled from all parts of Egypt, in honour of the king. It records the great benefits which he had conferred upon Egypt, and states w r hat festivals are to be celebrated in his honour, and in that of Berenice, etc., and, like the Rosetta Stone, concludes with a resolution ordering that a copy of this inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek and demotic, shall be placed in every large temple in Egypt. Now the Rosetta Stone is inscribed with 32 lines of demotic, and the Stele of Canopus with 73 ; but as the lines on the Rosetta Stone are rather more than double the length of those on the Stele of Canopus, it is pretty certain that each 1 A cast of the Rosetta Stone is exhibited in the Fitzwilliam Museum. :i.iiir:"-ii'." : „: -si- tiiruVT.-.i'.-.-j THE ROSETTA STONE. document is of about the same length. The Stele of Canopus has 74 lines of Greek to 54 on the Rosetta Stone, but as the letters are longer and wider, it is clear from this also that the Greek versions occupied about the same space. Allowing then for the difference in the size of the hieroglyphic characters, we should expect the hieroglyphic inscription on the Rosetta Stone to occupy 14 or 15 lines. When complete the stele must have been about twelve inches longer than it is now, and the top was probably rounded and inscribed, like that of the Stele of Canopus, with a winged disk, having pendent uraei, that on the right wearing 4/ , the crown of Upper Egypt, and that on the left , the crown of Lower Egypt ; by the side of each uraeus, laid horizontally, would be e^c»-, and above ^ ^ la anch, " giver of life." The inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone form a version of a Contents decree of the priesthood assembled at Memphis in honour of stone. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, King of Egypt, B.C. 195, written in hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek. A facsimile 1 of them was published by the Society of Antiquaries 2 in 1802, and copies were distributed among the scholars who were anxious to undertake the investigation of the texts. The hieroglyphic text has been translated by Brugsch in his Inscriptio Rosettana, Principal Berlin, 185 1 ; by Chabas, V Inscription hieroglyphique de JeRosetta Rosette, Paris, 1867; and by Sharpe, The Rosetta Stone in Stone * hieroglyphics and Greek, London, 1 87 1, etc. The Demotic text has been studied by M. de Sacy, Lettre a M. Chaptal sur V in- scription egypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1802; by Akerblad, Letter a M. de Sacy sur V inscription egypt. de Rosette, Paris, 1 802 ; by Young, Hieroglyphics (collected by the Egyptian Society, arranged by Dr. T. Young, 2 vols., fol., 100 plates, 1 823-1 828), pi. xff.; by Brugsch, Die Inschrift von Rosette nach ihrem dgyptisch-demotischen Texte sprachlich und sachlich erklart, Berlin, 1850 ; Salvolini, Analyse Grammatical Raisonnce de 1 Other facsimiles are given in Lepsius, Auswahl, Bl. 18, and in Arundale and Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities, pi. 49, p. 1 14. 2 The Greek version of the decree of the Egyptian Priests in honour of Ptolemy the Fifth, surnamed Epiphanes, from the stone inscribed in the sacred and vulgar Egyptian and the Greek characters, taken from the French at the surrender of Alexandria. London, 1802. Nichols. I 10 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. diff events textes cies anciens Egyptiens, Vol. I., Texte hierogly- pJiiqne et demotique de la pierre de Rosette, Paris, 1836. This work was never finished. The Greek text has been edited by Heyne, Commentatio in i?iscriptio?tem grcecam monumenti trinis titulis insigniti ex Aegypto Lotidiniim apportati, in torn. xv. of Comment. Soc. R. Se. Gott., pp. 260-280; Ameilhon, Eclair- cissements stir Vinscription grecque du monument trouve a Rosette, Paris, 1803; Drumann, Commentatio in insct-iptionem prope Rosettam inventam, Regiomont, 1822; and Drumann, Historisch-antiquariscJie Untersnchnngen iiber Aegypten, oder die Inschrift von Rosette aus dem Griecliischen iibersetzt und erlautert, Konigsberg, 1823; Lenormant, Essai sur le texte grec de Vinscription de Rosette, Paris, 1842; Letronne, Recueil des inscriptions grecques et la tines d'Egypte, Paris, 1842 ; by Franz in Boeckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Grcecarum, t. iii., 1853, p. 334 ff> No. 4697, etc. Beneficent The inscriptions upon the Rosetta Stone set forth that RolemyV. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, while king of Egypt, consecrated Epiphanes. revenues of silver and corn to the temples, that he suppressed certain taxes and reduced others, that he granted certain privileges to the priests and soldiers, and that when, in the eighth year of his reign, the Nile rose to a great height and flooded all the plains, he undertook, at great expense, the task of damming it in and directing the overflow of its waters into proper channels, to the great gain and benefit of the agricultural classes. In addition to the remissions of taxes which he made to the people, he gave handsome gifts to the temples, and subscribed to the various ceremonies which were carried on in them. In return for these gracious acts the priesthood assembled at Memphis decreed that a statue of the king should be set up in a conspicuous place in every temple of Egypt, and that each should be inscribed with the name and titles of " Ptolemy, the saviour of Egypt." Royal apparel was to be placed on each statue, and ceremonies were to be performed before each three times a day. It was also decreed that a gilded wooden shrine, containing a gilded wooden statue of the king, should be placed in each temple, and that these were to be carried out with the shrines of the other kings in the great panegyrics. It was also decreed THE ROSETTA STONE. 1 1 1 that ten golden crowns of a peculiar design should be made and laid upon the royal shrine ; that the birthday and Festivals coronation day of the king should be celebrated each year Ptolemy with great pomp and show; that the first five days of the Epiphanes. month of Thoth should each year be set apart for the performance of a festival in honour of the king ; and finally that a copy of this decree, engraved upon a tablet of hard stone in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek characters, should be set up in each of the temples of the first, second and third orders, near the statue of the ever-living Ptolemy. The Greek portion of the inscriptions appears to be the original document, and the hieroglyphic and demotic versions merely translations of it. Although it is nearly certain that, without the aid of the Greek inscription found on the socket of an obelisk at Philae, and the hieroglyphic inscription found on the obelisk which belonged to that socket, the hieroglyphic alphabet could never have been recovered from the Rosetta Stone, still it is Rosetta around this wonderful document that all the interest in the base of he decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics clings. For decipher- many hundreds of years the interest of the learned of all Egyptian countries has been excited by the hieroglyphic inscriptions of p h e j^ §ly " Egypt, and the theories propounded as to their contents were legion. Speaking broadly, the references to this subject by classical authors 1 are not very satisfactory ; still there are some remarkable exceptions which will be referred to presently. In- asmuch as the names of Roman emperors, as late as the time of Decius, were written in hieroglyphics, it follows that the Late use of knowledge of this subject must have been possessed by some phics?*" one, either Greek or Egyptian, in Egypt. " For a hundred and fifty years after the Ptolemies began to reign, the Egyptian hieroglyphics appear to have been commonly used, and the Egyptians were not prohibited from making use, so far as it seemed requisite, according to ritual or otherwise appropriate, of the native language and of its time-hallowed written signs." 2 Little by little, however, the Greek language dis- 1 See Gutschmid, Scriptorum rerum Aegyptiacarum Series, in Philologus, Bd. X., Gottingen, 1855, ss. 712 ff. 2 Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, Vol. II. p. 243. 112 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. placed the Egyptian, and the writing in common use among the people, called to-day "demotic" or " enchorial," and anciently " epistolographic," completely usurped the place of the " hieratic " or cursive form of hieroglyphic writing. Al- though the Greeks and Romans appear not to have studied hieroglyphics thoroughly, only repeating, generally, what they were told about certain signs, nevertheless writers like Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Hermapion, Chaeremon, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Horapollo, contribute information on this subject of considerable value. Greek To Hecalaeus of Miletus, 1 who visited Egypt between u V p 0n B.C. 513-501, we owe, through Herodotus, much knowledge Egyptian Q f Egypt and he must be considered the earliest Greek writer hierogly- oy 1 phics. upon Egypt. Hellanitus of Mytilene, B.C. 478-393, shows in his Alyv7TTLaKa that he has some accurate knowledge of the meaning of some hieroglyphic words. 2 Democritus wrote upon the hieroglyphics of Meroe, 3 but this work is lost. Herodotus says that the Egyptians used two quite different kinds of writing, one of which is called sacred (hieroglyphic), the other common 4 (demotic). Diodorus says that the Ethiopian letters are called by the Egyptians " hieroglyphics." 6 Strabo, speaking of the obelisks at Thebes, says that there are inscriptions upon them which pro- claim the riches and power of their kings, and that their rule extends even to Scythia, Bactria, and India. 6 Chaeremon of Naucratis, who lived in the first half of the first century after Christ, 7 and who must be an entirely different person from Chaeremon the companion of Aelius Gallus (B.C. 25), 1 See De rerum Aegyptiacarum scriptoribus Graecis ante Alexandrum Magnum, in Philologus, Bd. X. s. 525. 2 See the instances quoted in P/iilologus, Bd. X. s. 539. 3 ITfpt twv Iv Mtpoy Upuiv ypafifidrwv. Diogenes Laertius, Fit. Democ, ed. Isaac Casaubon, 1593, p. 661. 4 Koi rd fitv avrutv ipd, rd St Stj/jlotiko. KaXktrai. Herodotus, II. 36, ed. Didot, p. 84. 5 Diodorus, III. 4, ed. Didot, p. 129. 6 Strabo, XVII. I, § 46, ed. Didot, p. 693. ' According to Mommsen he came to Rome, as tutor to Nero, in the reign of Claudius. Provinces of Rome , Vol. II. pp. 259, 273. THE ROSETTA STONE. 113 derided by Strabo, 1 and charged with lying by Josephus, 2 Greek wrote a work on Egyptian hieroglyphics 3 irepl rcov lepcov ^ rs ypafifjudroov, which has been lost. He appears to have been Egyptian attached to the great library of Alexandria, and as he was phYc? ly " a " sacred scribe," it may therefore be assumed that he had access to many important works on hieroglyphics, and that he understood them. He is mentioned by Eusebius 4 as XcuprjfAwv 6 Upoypa/jLfjbarev^, and by Suidas, 5 but neither of these writers gives any information as to the contents of his work on hieroglyphics, and we should have no idea of the manner of work it was but for the extract preserved by John Tzetzes (Tfer^?, born about A.D. 11 10, died after John A.D. 1 180). Tzetzes was a man of considerable learning and E^pfiln" literary activity, and his works 6 have value on account of the hierogly- lost books which are quoted in them. In his Cliiliades 7 (Bk. phlcs * V., line 395) he speaks of 0 AIjutttlos lepoypafi^arev^; Xaiprj- fjL(ov, and refers to Chaeremon's BcBdy/jiara tcov lepcov ypafifid- tcov. In his Exegesis of Homer's Iliad he gives an extract from the work itself, and we are able to see at once that it was written by one who was able to give his information at first hand. This interesting extract was first brought to the notice of the world by the late Dr. Birch, who published a paper on it in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera- ture, Vol. III., second series, 1850, pp. 385-396. In it he quoted the Greek text of the extract, from the edition of Tzetzes' Exegesis, first published by Hermann, 8 and added remarks and hieroglyphic characters illustrative of it, together with the scholia of Tzetzes, the text of which he emended in places. As this extract is so important for the history of 1 reXwfitvoQ Si to irhsov wt; dXa^vjv /cot IdidjrriQ. Strabo, XVII. I, § 29, ed. Didot, p. 685. 2 Contra Apion., I. 32 ff. On the identity of Chaeremon the Stoic philo- sopher with Chaeremon the 'itpoypan/xartvg, see Zeller, Hermes, XI. s. 431. 3 His other lost work, AlyvirriaKa, treated of the Exodus. 4 Praep. Evang., v. 10, ed. Gaisford, t. I, p. 421. 5 Sub voce 'lipoy\v av7ivv eK(j)wvijaei<} Ai6io7rtKws eiTrio Transla- " Now, Homer says this as he was accurately instructed extract thC m a ^ l earmn g by means of the symbolic Ethiopian characters For the Ethiopians do not use alphabetic characters, but depict animals of all sorts instead, and limbs and members of these animals ; for the sacred scribes in former times desired THE ROSETTA STONE. 115 to conceal their opinion about the nature of the gods, and therefore handed all this down to their own children by alle- gorical methods and the aforesaid symbols and characters, as the sacred scribe Chaeremon says." 1. "And for joy, they would depict a woman beating a Accuracy , . „ ' of Tzetzes' tambourine. statements [The drum or tambourine was used in the temples proved, for festival services, and a woman beating a tam- bourine is the determinative of the words fl ® seker, " to beat a tambourine," and techennul\ 2. " For grief, a man clasping his chin in his hand and bending towards the ground." [A man, seated, with his hand to his mouth, $k r y is the determinative of the word J "^s^ (j ^/ jj ^ ^jj chadndn, "grief." A seated woman with head bent and hands thrown up before her face, is the determinative of < ^ > "|j^ hath, " to weep."] 3. "For misfortune, an eye weeping." [The weeping eye ^= [ s the determinative of the common word ^SE^ rem, " to weep." ] 4. " For want, two hands stretched out empty." [Compare at, " not to have," " to be without." Coptic A.T.] 5. " For rising, a snake coming out of a hole." [Compare = ^5 per, " to come forth, to rise " (of the sun).] 6. " For setting, [the same] going in " [Compare = ^ a<7> u to enter, to set " (of the sun).] 7. " For vhnfication, a frog." 1 [The frog j^gp^3\£} htfennu, means 100,000, hence fertility and abundance of life.] 1 But compare Horapollo, (ed. Leemans, p. 33), "A7rAa S« avQpwov ypatyoi'rtQ, fSarpaxov Zioypafovan'. I 2 u6 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Accuracy 8. " For soul, a hawk ; and also for sun and god." of Tzetzes' £Cv £\ statements Compare TS, ba, "soul," \\ neter, "god," and proved. JlEaSs Heru, " Horus " or "the Sun-god."] 9. " For a female-bearing woman, and mother and time and sky, a vulture." |~^^ ^ unit, " mother," is the common meaning of a vulture, and at times the goddess Mut seems to be identified with nut, "the sky." Horapollo says that the vulture also meant "year" (ed. Lee- mans, p. 5), and this statement is borne out by the evidence of the hieroglyphics, where we find that ^ ° = \o rcnpit * " ycan "1 10. " For king, a bee." [Compare suten net, " king of the North and South."] i t. " For birth and natural groivth y and males, a beetle." [The beetle ^ ^eperd was the emblem of the god Cheperd ^ (j ^j, who is supposed to have created or evolved himself, and to have given birth to gods, men, and every creature and thing in earth and sky. The word ^ <=I=> means " to become," and in late texts ^ < ^ > jj^'j| cheperu may be fairly well rendered by "evolutions." The meaning male comes, of course, from the idea of the ancients that the beetle had no female. See infra, under Scarab.'] 12. " For earth, an ox." 0)1^ ^' iet means ^ e ^' anc * ^555^ means "ox"; can Chaeremon have confused the meanings of these two words, similar in sound ? ] 13. "And the fore part of a lion signifies dominion and protection of every kind." THE ROSETTA STONE. 117 [Compare ha, " chief, that which is in front, Accuracy . « . »n* °f Tzetzes' duke, prince. ] statements 14. " A lion's tail, necessity" proved. [Compare pf ^ pch, "to force, to compel, to be strong."] 15, 16. " A stag, year ; likewise the palm!' [Of the stag meaning " year " I can give no example. The palm branch | or ^ renpit, is the common word for " year."] 17. "The boy signifies growth." [Compare which is the determinative of words meaning "youth " and juvenescence.] 18. "The old man, decay" [Compare the determinative of fj^^^/yj 1 dau, " old age."] 19. " The bow, the swift power." [The Egyptian word for bow is QL^ pet. Compare ^ pet, " to run, to flee away."] "And others by the thousand. And by means of these characters Homer says this. But I will proceed in another place, if you please, to explain the pronunciation of those characters in Ethiopic fashion, as I have learnt it from Chaeremon." In another place 2 Tzetzes says, " Moreover, he was not Extract uninitiated into the symbolic Ethiopian characters, the Tzeizes. nature of which we will expound in the proper places. All this demonstrates that Homer was instructed in Egypt," val /JLtjv ovSe twv AIQiottikwv / / » \ <■» > / \ m a •%. I Greek deocoprjfjiaL aoi ava iraaav otKOu/nevrjv fiera yapas pacriKeveLv, translation tV „ ... U05 L\ei = 1 1 J ™™ =^ Effvntian — ^ /VW ^ A 1 LJ 1 ^-^ > > ... > I I I ^ — ' teS. 1 n m (eji^o] ^ (MMil] " s <*» R5 > 1 s ive to thee all lands and foreign countries with rest of heart, O king of the north and south, Usr-maat-Ra-setep-en-Ra, 1 Hermann, p. 146, 11. 12-22 ; Bachmann, p. 838, 11. 31-37. 2 Liber XVII. 4. The rosetta stone. 119 son of the Sun, Rameses, beloved of Amen-Ra." Seoyevvrjro^ KTurrrfi r?}? olfcovfievr)? = (| P^j^^ | i f f "born of the gods, possessor of the two lands" (i.e., the world). f O earcos 67T a\r]0ela<; Becnrorr}^ BiaStf/Aaros, rrjv AlyviTTOv Sofacra? teefCTrjfiivcx?, 6 aykaOTTOLrio-a*; 'HXlov irbXcv = ^ \f\ . , . „ I 21 ^ " [the mighty bul] ]' restin ^ u P° n Law, lord of diadems, protector of Egypt, making splendid Heliopolis with monuments." "HXto? 0eb$ /jueyas 8e a demele et signale, dans Clement's l'ecriture egyptienne sacree, les elemens phonetiques, lesquels on hiero- en sont, pour ainsi dire, le principe vital 1 Clement glyphics. d'Alexandrie s'est, lui seul, occasionnellement attache a en donner une idee claire ; et ce philosophe chretien etait, bien plus que tout autre, en position d'en etre bien instruit. Lorsque mes recherches et l'etude constante des monuments egyptiens m'eurent conduit aux resultats precedemment exposes, je dus revenir sur ce passage de Saint Clement d'Alexandrie, que j'ai souvent cite, pour savoir si, a la faveur des notions que j'avais tirees d'un examen soutenu des inscriptions hieroglyphiques, le texte de l'auteur grec ne deviendrait pas plus intelligible qu'il ne l'avait paru jusque- la. J'avoue que ses termes me semblerent alors si positifs et si clairs, et les idees qu'il renferme si exactement conformes a ma theorie de l'ecriture hieroglyphique, que je dus craindre aussi de me livrer a une illusion et a un entrainement dont tout me commandait de me defier." 2 From the above it will be seen what a high value Champollion placed on the state- ments concerning the hieroglyphics by Clement, and they have, in consequence, formed the subject of various works by eminent authorities. In his Precis (p. 328), Champollion gives the extract from Clement with a Latin translation and remarks by Letronne. 3 Dulaurier in his Examen dun passage des Stromates de Saint Clement d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1833, again published the passage and gave many explanations of words in it, and commented learnedly upon it. (See also 1 Precis dti Systhne hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens, Paris, 1824, p. 321. 2 Precis, p. 327. 3 See also (Euvres Choisies, t. I. pp. 237-254. THE ROSETTA STONE. 121 Bunsen's Aegyptens S telle , Bd. L, p. 240, and Thierbach, Erkldrung auf das Aegyptische Schriftwesen, Erfurt, 1846.) The passage is as follows : — OepTe?) tcl B' e£a\AaTTOi/Tes, rd Be 7roWa^u}^ pieTaa-^rj/naTi'^ovTe^ ^apar- "For example, those that are educated among the Transla- Egyptians first of all learn that system of Egyptian charac- extract ters which is styled EPISTOLOGRAPHIC ; secondly, the HIERA- from TIC, which the sacred scribes employ ; lastly and finally the HIEROGLYPHIC. The hieroglyphic sometimes speaks plainly by means of the letters of the alphabet, and sometimes uses symbols, and when it uses symbols, it sometimes (a) speaks plainly by imitation, and sometimes (J?) describes in a figurative way, and sometimes (c) simply says one thing for another in accordance with certain secret rules. Thus (a) if they desire to write sun or moon y they make a circle or a crescent in plain imitation of the form. And when {b) they describe figuratively (by transfer and transposition without violating the natural meaning of words), they completely alter some things and make manifold changes in the form of others. Thus, they hand 1 Clem. Alex., ed. Dindorf, t. III. Strom, lib. v. §§ 20, 21, pp. 17, 18, Clement of Alexandria on hiero- glyphics. 122 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Three kinds of Egyptian writing. down the praises of their kings in myths about the gods which they write up in relief. Let this be an example of the third form (c) in accordance with the secret rules. While they represent the stars generally by snakes' bodies, because their course is crooked, they represent the sun by the body of a beetle, for the beetle moulds a ball from cattle dung and rolls it before him. And they say that this animal lives under ground for six months, and above ground for the other portion of the year, and that it deposits its seed in this globe and there engenders offspring, and that no female beetle exists." From the above we see that Clement rightly stated that the Egyptians had three kinds of writing : — epistolographic, hieratic and hieroglyphic. The epistolographic is that kind which is now called " demotic," and which in the early days of hieroglyphic decipherment was called "enchorial." The hieratic is the kind commonly found on papyri. The hiero- glyphic kind is described as, I. cyriologic, that is to say, by means of figurative phonetic characters, e.g., ^^\ \ ^=s=* emsuh, "crocodile," and II. symbolic, that is to say, by actual representations of objects, e.g., "goose," \^ "bee," and so on The symbolic division is subdivided into three parts : I. cyriologic by imitation, e.g., j^, a vase with water flowing from it represented a "libation"; II. tropical, e.g., ^-=»^, a crescent moon to represent " month," ^ , a reed and palette to represent "writing" or "scribe"; and III. enigmatic, e.g., ^ , a beetle, to represent the " sun." 1 In modern Egyptian Grammars the matter is stated more simply, and we see that hieroglyphic signs are used in two ways : I. Ideographic, II. Phonetic. mdu. "water" is an instance of the first AAAAAA ' method, and ^ p ^ | m-s-u-h, is an instance of the second. Ideographic signs are used as determinatives, and are either ideographic or generic. Thus after ^ (j ^ mdu, " cat," a cat is placed, and is an ideographic determinative ; but {== g=* , heaven with a star in it, written after & <^^> \ kerh, is a ! Champollion, Precis, p. 278. THE kOSETTA STONE. 123 generic determinative. Phonetic signs are either Alphabetic as ^ a, J by ^zz^ k, or Syllabic, as men, N$£ chen, etc. Porphyry the Philosopher, who died about A.D. 305, says of Pythagoras : 1 — Kal iv Alyv7TT(p fiev to?? lepevat arvvrjv Kal tt\v aoiav Pytha- iijifiaOe, Kal rrjv Alyv7rr[a)v §wvr)v, ypafju/judrcov Se rpiaaas y?™*^ 8ia r flt Cyriologic, by means of the first Clement into ( 2 . Hieroglyphic I letters of the alphabet. composed of J fa. Cyriological by [6. Symbolical I imitation. comprising/ b. Tropical or the J metaphorical. \ c. Enigmatical. The next writer of importance on hieroglyphics is Horapollo Horapollo, who towards the close of the IVth century of our era composed a work called 'lepoyXvcpLKa ; this book was translated into Greek by one Philip, of whom nothing is known. Wiedemann thinks that it was originally written in Coptic, which, in the middle ages, was usually called 1 Porphyry, De Vita Pythagorae, cd. Didot, § II, p. 89, at the foot. 124 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. " Egyptian," and not in ancient Egyptian. 1 In this work are given the explanations of a number of ideographs which occur, for the most part, in Ptolemaic inscriptions; but, like the list of those given by Chaeremon, no phonetic values of the signs are given. Nevertheless the list is of considerable interest. The best edition of Horapollo is that of Conrad Leemans, 2 but the text was edited in a handy form, with an English translation and notes by Samuel Sharpe and Dr. Birch, by J. Cory, in 1840. In more modern times the first writer at any length on hieroglyphics was Athanasius Kircher, the author of some ponderous works 3 in which he pretended to have found the key to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, and to translate them. Though a man of great learning, it must be plainly said that, judged by scholars of to-day, he would be considered an impostor. In his works on Coptic 4 there are, no doubt, many interesting facts, but mixed with them is such an amount of nonsense that Jablonski says touching one of his statements, " Verum hie ut in aliis plurimis fucum lectoribus fecit Jesuita ille, et fumum vendidit"; from the same writer also, Kircher's arrogant assertions called forth the remark, " Kircherus, in quo semper plus inest ostentationis, quam solidae eruditionis." 6 It is impossible to understand what grounds Kircher had for his statements and how he arrived at his results ; as for his translations, they have notJiing correct in them. Here is one taken at random from Oedipus 1 Aegyptische Geschichte, p. 151. The sepulchre of Gordian was inscribed in Egyptian. "Gordiano sepulchrum milites apud Circeium castrum fecerunt in finibus Persidis, titulum hujus modi addentes et Graecis, et Latinis, et Persicis, et Judaicis, et Aegyptiacis literis, ut ab omnibus legeretur. " Erasmus, Hist. Rom. Scriptorum, Basle, 1533, p. 312, at the top. 2 Ilorapollinis Niloi Hieroglyphica. edidit, diversorum codicum recenter collatorum, priorumque editionum varias lectiones et versionem latinam sub- junxit, adnotationem, item hieroglyphicorum imagines et indices adjecit C. L. Amstelod, 1835. 3 Obeliscus PampJulius, Ilieroglyphicis involuta Symbolis, detccta e tenebris hi h(cem asseritur, Rome, 1650, fob Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc ett, universalis hieroglyphicae veterum doctrinae, temporum injuria obolitae instau- ratio. Rome, 1652-54. Tomi I-IV, fob 4 Prodromus Copt us, Rome, 1 636. Lingua Aegyptiaca restituta. Rome, 1643. 5 Jablonski, Opuscula, t. I. ed. Water, 1804, pp. 157, 211. THE ROSETTA STONE. 125 Aegyptiacus, t. Ill, p. 431, where he gives a translation of an inscription (A) printed on the plate between pp. 428 and 429. The hieroglyphics are written on a Ptah-Seker-Osiris figure and read : — ma • e i t'et an Ausar chent amentet neter aa neb " Saith Osiris, at the head of the widerworld, god great, lord of v — (p— , etc I — (D— r^^i Re-stau Re-stan (i.e., the passages of the tomb)" and his translation runs: — "Vitale providi Numinis domi- nium, quadruplicem Mundani liquoris substantiam dominio confert Osiridis, cujus una cum Mendesio foecundi Numinis dominio, benefica virtute influente, omnia quae in Mundo sunt, vegetantur, animantur, conservantur." Other writers on hieroglyphics whose works Kircher consulted were John Peter Bolzanius Valerianus, 1 and Mercati, 2 but no good results followed their investigations. In the year 1770 Joseph de Guignes determined the existence of groups of characters De Guig- having determinatives, 3 and four years later he published his ^ega^ Memoire? in which he tried to prove that the epistolographic and symbolic characters of the Egyptians were to be found in the Chinese characters, and that the Chinese nation was nothing but an Egyptian colony. In 1797 Zoega made a step in the right direction, and came to the conclusion 5 that the hieroglyphics were letters and that the cartouches contained royal names. A few years later Silvestre de Sacy published a Silvestre de Sacy and Aker- 1 Hieroglyphica, sen de sacris Acgyptiorum aliariunque gentium litteris blad. Commentatorium libri VII. y duobus aliis ab eruditissimo viro annexis, etc., Basil., 1556. 2 Degli Obelischi di Roma, Rome, 1589. 3 Essai sur le moyen de parvenir a la lecture et a l'intelligence des Hiero- glyphes egyptiens. (In Memoires de r Academic des Inscriptions, t. XXXIV. pp. I-56.) 4 Ibid., t. XXXIX. p. 1 ff. 6 De Usil et Origine Obeli scorn m, Rome, 1797, fol., p. 465. 126 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. letter on the inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone, 1 and the work of this learned man was soon after followed by that of Akerblad who, in a letter to M. de Sacy 2 discussed the demotic inscription on the recently discovered Rosetta Stone, and published an alphabet of the demotic characters, from which a large number were adopted in after times by Young and Champollion. It would seem that Akerblad never gained the credit which was due to him for his really clever work, and it will be seen from the facts quoted in the following pages, how largely the success of Young's labours on the Demotic inscription on the Rosetta Stone depended on those of Akerblad. But side by side with the letters of de Sacy and Akerblad and the learned works of Young and Champollion, there sprang into existence a mass of literature full of absurd statements and theories written by men having no qualifications for expressing opinions on hieroglyphic matters. Thus the Comte de Pahlin in his De Ve'tude des Absurd HieroglypJies? hesitated not to say that the inscription on one the°con S - 0f °^ ^ e P ort i coes °f the Temple at Denderah contained a tents of translation of the hundredth Psalm, composed to invite all texS Uan people to enter into the house of the Lord. The same author said that to produce the books of the Bible, which were written on papyri, it was only necessary to translate the Psalms of David into Chinese and to write them in the ancient characters of that language. 4 Lenoir considered the Egyptian inscriptions to contain Hebrew compositions, 6 and Lacour thought that they contained Biblical phrases. 6 Worse than all these wild theories was the belief in the works of the Kircher school of investigators, and in the accuracy of the Warbur- statements made by Warburton, 7 who, it must be confessed, ton's views on an Egyptian 1 Lettre au Citoyen Chaptal, au sujet de F Inscription igyptienne du alphabet. Monument trouve h Rosette, Paris, 1802. 2 Lettre sur F inscription egyptiennc de Rosette, Paris, 1802. 3 Published at Paris in 5 vols., 1812. 4 Lettres sur les Hieroglyphes, Weimar, 1802. 5 In Nouvelle explication des Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1809-10, 4 vols.; and Nouveaux Essais sur les Hieroglyphes, Paris, 1826, 4 vols. 6 See his Essai sur les Hieroglyphes igyptiens, Bordeaux, 1821. 7 In his The Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated, to which is adjoint an Essay on Egyptian Hieroglyphics, London, 1738, 2 vols. THE ROSETTA STONE. 127 seems to have recognized the existence of alphabetic characters, but who in no way deserves the praise of Bailey, the Cambridge prize essayist, " Vir singulari quodam ingenii acumine praeditus, Warburtonus ; qui primus certe recenti- orum ad rectam harum rerum cognitionem patefecit viam." 1 Here naturally comes an account of the labours of Young Young and and Champollion, two men who stand out pre-eminently as ^^' n the true discoverers of the right method of decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics. As much has been written on the works of these savants, and as some have tried to show that the whole merit of the discovery belongs to Young, and others that it belongs to Champollion, it will not be out of place here to make a plain statement of facts, drawn from the best sources, and to give the opinions of the most eminent Egyp- tologists on this point ; a few details concerning the lives of these remarkable men must, however, be first given. Dr. Thomas Young" was born at Milverton, in Somerset- shire, on the 13th of June, 1773. His parents were both members of the Society of Friends. He lived during the first seven years of his life with his maternal grandfather, Mr. Robert Davis, at Minehead, in Somersetshire. At the age of Early life two he could read fluentlv, and before he was four he had Q ^ Young read the Bible through twice. At the age of six, he learnt by heart in six weeks Goldsmith's Deserted Village. When not quite seven years of age he went to a school, kept by a man called King, at Stapleton near Bristol, where he stayed for a year and a half. In March 1782, when nearly nine years of age, he went to the school of Mr. T. Thompson, at Compton, in Dorsetshire, where he remained four years. Here he read Phaedrus's Fables, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Horace expur- gated by Knox, the whole of Beza's Greek and Latin Testa- ment, the First Seven Books of the Iliad, Martin's Natural Philosophy, etc., etc. Before leaving this school he had got through six chapters of the Hebrew Bible. About this time he learnt to use the lathe, and he made a telescope and a micro- scope, and the Italian, Persian, Syriac, and Chaldee languages Young's all occupied his attention. From 1787 to 1792 he was private °t u dies l tutor to Hudson Gurney, at Youngsbury, in Hertfordshire, 1 Hieroglyphicontm Origo et naturei, Cambridge, 1816, p. 9. 128 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. where he seems to have devoted himself to the study of English, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Ethiopic, as well as to that of natural Philosophy, Botany, and Entomo- Young's logy. 1 In 1792 Young began to study Medicine and Anatomy ^tudief m London, and in 1793 he entered St. Bartholomew's Hospital as a pupil. In 1803 he read a paper before the Royal Society, and was elected a Fellow the following year (balloted for and elected, June 19). Shortly after he attended medical lectures in Edinburgh and Gottingen, and he subsequently went to Cambridge, where he took the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (1803), and afterwards that of Doctor of Physic (1808). In 1798 Young received a splendid bequest from his uncle Dr. Brocklesby, consisting of his house in Norfolk Street, Park Lane, his library, his prints, his pictures, and about £10,000 in money ; hence he was free to form his own Discovers scheme of life. In May, 1801, he discovered the undulatory theory of 7 theory of light, and his paper on this subject was read before ^ght- the Royal Society in the November following ; in the same year he accepted the office of Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. In 1802 he was appointed Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, and on the 14th of June, 1804, he married Eliza, the daughter of J. P. Maxwell, Esq., of Cavendish Square, and of Trippendence, near Farnborough, Kent. The attention of Young was called to Egyptian inscriptions by Sir W. Rouse Boughton, who had found in a mummy case at Thebes a papyrus written in cursive Egyptian characters, and to a notice of this which Young prepared for his friend, he appended a translation of the demotic text of the Rosetta Stone. As the details of his studies on the Rosetta Stone belong to the history of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics, they are given further on (p. 141 fT. ), but the reader will understand Young's position better by reading Dean Peacock's chapter on " hiero- Young's glyphical researches" printed in his life of Young, pp. 258-344, hiero-° f and Mn Leitch's notes in the third volume of the collected glyphs. Works of Dr. Young. In 18 16 Young was appointed 1 For the list of books read by him at this time, see the Life of Thomas Young, by G. Peacock, London, 1855, pp. 14-17. THE ROSETTA STONE. 129 Secretary to a Commission for ascertaining the length of the seconds pendulum, for comparing French and English standards, etc., and in 1 81 8 he was appointed Secretary of the Board of Longitude and Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. In 1825 he became Medical Referee and Inspector of Calculations to the Palladium Insurance Company. In 1826 he was elected one of the eight foreign Associates of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In February, 1829, he began to suffer from repeated attacks of asthma, and by the April following he was in a state of great weakness ; he died on the Young's 10th of May, not having completed his fifty-sixth year. An death * excellent steel engraving of Young, by R. Ward, from a picture by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A., forms the frontis- piece to his life by Dean Peacock, which, according to J. J. Champollion-Figeac, "exprime fidelement la douceur, la grace, les traits d'une figure toute rayonnante d'intelligence." 1 Jean Francois Champollion, surnamed le Jeune, the immortal discoverer of a correct system of decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics, was born at Figeac on December 24, 1790. His family came originally from Champoleon in the Cham- High Alps, where a branch of it still holds property. As a physical boy he made rapid progress in classical studies, and he devoted and . himself at the same time to botany and mineralogy ; at a very studies, early date however he showed a natural taste for oriental languages, and like Young was, at the age of thirteen, master of a fair knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldee. 2 In 1805 his brother J. J. Champollion-Figeac brought him to Paris, and caused him to be admitted to the Cours de TEcole des Langues Orientales, and introduced him to Silvestre de Sacy. Soon after his arrival in Paris Champollion turned his attention to the study of the hieroglyphic inscription on the Rosetta Stone, but his powerful friend de Sacy advised the elder brother to warn the younger off a study which ne pouvait donner aucnn resultat. In 181 2 he was nominated Professor of Ancient History to the faculty of Letters at Grenoble, 1 Lettre au Diredeur de la Revue Britannique au sujet des Recherches du Docteur Young, Paris, 1857, p. II, 2 On the subject of Champollion's studies, at Grenoble, see Chroniques Dauphinoises, par A. Champollion-Figeac, t. III. pp. 153, 156, 157-238. B. M. K 130 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. where he still carried on his oriental studies. When he arrived in Paris he found that the old Egyptologists maintained Cham- that hieroglyphics were a symbolic language, and seeking hi°ero°- nS to ver ify this theory, he wasted a year. He made up his glyphic mind, however, to work out this question without having studies. PtlC regard to the theories of others, and he sketched out a plan for a large work on Egypt in several volumes. The first part of this appeared at Grenoble in 181 1, entitled Introduction; it was never sold, for only about thirty copies were printed, but it appeared, without the analytical table of Coptic geographical names, under the title VEgypte sous les PJiaraons, 8vo., 2 vols., 1 8 14. About this time Young, in England, was studying the texts on the Rosetta Stone, and had actually begun to make a translation of the demotic section, making use of the results obtained by de Sacy and Akerblad, to the latter of whom great credit is due for his acuteness and insight. Whatever may be said as to Champollion's ignorance of Young's results, it is quite certain that he must have known of those of Akerblad, and we know (see p. 135) that a printed copy of Young's paper on the Rosetta Stone had been put into Cham- Champollion's hands by de Sacy. In a very short time acquainted Champollion discovered where his predecessors had broken Young's down, and having already written De Ve'criture Hieratique des labours. Aficiens Egyptiens, Grenoble, 182 1, on September 17, in the following year, he read his Me moire on the hieroglyphics and exhibited his hieroglyphic Alphabet, with its Greek and Demotic equivalents, before the Academie des Inscriptions. Champollion's paper created a great sensation, and Louis XVIII. wished a statement concerning it laid before him, and M. le Due de Doudeauville determined that an Egyptian Museum should be formed in the Palace of the Louvre. In the same year Champollion published his Lettre a M. Dacier y relative a V Alphabet des Hieroglyphes phonetiques, in which he showed beyond a doubt that his system was the correct one. In a series of Memoires read at the Institut in April, May and June, 1823, he explained his system more fully, and these he afterwards published together entitled Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens, Paris, 2 vols., 1824. A second edition, revised and corrected, appeared in 1828. In THE ROSETTA STONE. June, 1824, Champollion arrived in Turin, where he devoted Cham-^ himself to the study of papyri. Early in 1825 he arrived in [ravels. Rome, and thence he went to Naples, where all the museums were opened for him. In 1826 he returned to Paris. In July, visits 1828, he set out on his long planned voyage to Egypt, and Egypt ' returned in March, 1830, bringing with him a fine collection of antiquities, and a number of copies of inscriptions which filled about two thousand pages. As soon as he returned to France he set to work to publish the rich results of his travels, but while occupied with this undertaking, death over- took him on the 4th of March, 1832. Louis-Philippe ordered that busts of him, executed at the expense of the civil list, should be placed in the galleries of the palace at Versailles, and in the rooms of the Egyptian Museum of the Louvre ; he also ordered that marble for another bust should be given to Champollion-Figeac, and that the carving thereof should be entrusted to the famous sculptor Etex. An etched portrait of Champollion le Jeune will be found in Les Deux Cham- pollion, leur Vie et leurs CEuvres, par Aime Champollion- Figeac : Grenoble, 1887, p. 52. In addition to the works of Champollion mentioned above, the following are the most important : — Rapport a son Excellence M. le Due de Doudeauville, sur C1 ^. m ", ** . pollion s la Collection Egyptienne a Livourne, Paris, 1826. works. Lettres a M. le Due de Blacas d'Aulps relatives au Musee royal Egyptien de Turin (avec Notices chronologiques par Champollion-Figeac) : Paris,' 1824-26. Notice sur les papyrus hieratiques et les peintures du cercueil de Petamenoph (Extr. de Voyage a Meroe par Cailliaud de Nantes), Paris, 1827. Notice descriptive des Monuments Egyptiens du Musee Charles X, Paris, 1827. Catalogue de la Collection Egyptienne du Louvre, Paris, 1827. Catalogue des Papyrus Egyptiens du Muse'e du Vatican, Rome, 1826. K 2 !32 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Young's labours on the Rosetta Stone in 1814. Corres- pondence between Young and de Sacy. Monuments de V Egypte et de la Nubie, iv vols., fol., 440 planches. Publie par ordre du Gouvernement, pour faire suite a l'ouvrage de l'Expedition d'Egypte, Paris, 1 829-1 847. Lettres ecrites pendant son voyage en Egypte, en 1828, 1829, Paris, 1829; 2me edition, Paris, 1833; collection com- plete. A German translation by E. F. von Gutschmid was published at Quedlinburg, in 1835. Grammaire Egyptienne, aux Principes generaux de Vecri- tnre sacree Egyptienne appliques a la representation de la langue par lee ; Avec des prolegoinhies et un portrait de Vediteur^ M. Champollion-Figeac, Paris, 18 36-1 841. Dictionnaire Egyptien, en e'criture kie'roglyphique, publie d'apres les manuscrits autographes par Champollion- Figeac, Paris, 1841. The results of Dr. Young's studies of the Rosetta Stone were first communicated to the Royal Society of Antiquaries in a letter from Sir W. E. Rouse Boughton, Bart ; the letter was read on the 19th of May, 18 14, and was published the fol- lowing year in Archceologia,N o\. XVIII. pp. 59-72. 1 The letter was accompanied by a translation of the demotic text on the Rosetta Stone, which was subsequently reprinted anonymously in the Museum Criticum of Cambridge, Pt. VI., 181 5, together with the correspondence which took place between Dr. Young and MM. Silvestre de Sacy and Akerblad. In 1802 M. Akerblad, the Swedish President at Rome, published his Lettre sur V inscription Egyptienne de Rosette, adressee au citoyen Silvestre de Sacy, in which he gave the results of his study of the demotic text of the Rosetta Stone ; M. Silvestre de Sacy also had occupied himself in the same way (see his Lettre au citoyen Chaptal, au sujet de V inscription Egyptienne du monu- ment trouve a Rosette : Paris, 1 802), but neither scholar had made any progress in the decipherment of the hieroglyphic text. In August, 18 14, Dr. Young wrote to Silvestre de Sacy, asking him what Mr. Akerblad had been doing, and saying, " I doubt whether the alphabet which Mr. Akerblad has given us can be of much further utility than in enabling us to decipher the proper names ; and sometimes I have 1 Letter to the Rev. S. Weston respecting some Egyptian Antiquities. With 4 copper plates. London, 18 14. THE ROSETTA STONE. 133 even suspected that the letters which he has identified resemble the syllabic sort of characters by which the Chinese express the sounds of foreign languages, and that in their usual acceptation they had different significations : but of this conjecture I cannot at present speak with any great confidence." 1 To this M. de Sacy replied : . . . . * Je ne vous dissimule pas, Monsieur, que malgre l'espece De Sacy's d'approbation que j'ai donnee au systeme de M. Akerblad, AkerbTacTs dans la reponse que je lui ai adressee, il m'est toujours reste works, des doutes tres forts sur la validite de l'alphabet qu'il s'est fait Je dois vous aj outer que M. Akerblad n'est pas le seul qui se flatte d'avoir lu le texte Egyptien de l'inscription de Rosette. M. Champollion, qui vient de publier deux volumes sur l'ancienne geographie de l'Egypte, 2 et qui s'est beaucoup occupe de la langue Copte, pretend avoir aussi lu cette inscription. Je mets assurement plus de confiance dans les lumieres et la critique de M. Akerblad que dans celles de De Sacy M. Champollion, mais tant qu'ils n'auront publie quelque of a ™* ts resultat de leur travail, il est juste de suspendre son juge- pollion's ment." (Leitch, Vol. III. p. 17.) Writing to M. de Sacy in results * October of the same year, Young says : " I had read Mr. Akerblad's essay but hastily in the course of the last winter, and I was not disposed to place much confidence in the little that I recollected of it ; so that I was able to enter anew upon the investigation, without being materially influenced by what he had published ; and though I do not profess to lay claim to perfect originality, or to deny the importance of Mr. Akerblad's labours, I think myself authorised to consider my own translation as completely independent of his ingenious researches : a circumstance which adds much to the proba- bility of our conjectures where they happen to agree. It is only since I received your obliging letter, that I have Young on again read Mr. Akerblad's work ; and I have found that it £b ou ^ d ' s agrees almost in every instance with the results of my own 1 For these letters I am indebted to the third volume of the Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S., &c, ed. John Leitch, London, 1855- 2 L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ou recherches sur la Geographie , la Religion, la Langue, les Ecritures, el V Histoire de VEgypte, Paris, 1814. 134 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. investigation respecting the sense attributed to the words which the author has examined. This conformity must be allowed to be more satisfactory than if I had followed, with perfect confidence, the path which Akerblad has traced : I must however, confess that it relates only to a few of the first steps of the investigation ; and that the greatest and the most difficult part of the translation still remains unsupported by the authority of any external evidence of this kind." (Leitch, p. 1 8.) Nearly three weeks after writing the above, Young sent another letter to M. de Sacy, together with a Coptic and demotic alphabet derived partly from Akerblad, and partly from his own researches, and a list of eighty-six demotic words with the words corresponding to them in the Greek version. Of these words, he says : " Three were observed by de Sacy, sixteen by Akerblad, and the remainder by himself." In January, 1 8 1 5, Akerblad addressed a long letter to Young, together with which he sent a translation of some lines of the Rosetta Stone inscription, and some notes upon it. Regarding his own work he says : " During the ten years which have Akerblad's elapsed since my departure from Paris, I have devoted but a about* 5 f ew moments, and those at long intervals, to the monument his own of Rosetta For, in fact, I have always felt that the results of my researches on this monument are deficient in that sort of evidence which carries with it full conviction, and you, Sir, as well as M. de Sacy, appear to be of my opinion in this respect I must however give you notice before- hand, that in most cases you will only receive a statement of my doubts and uncertainties, together with a few more plau- sible conjectures ; and I shall be fully satisfied if these last shall appear to deserve your attention and approbation If again the inscriptions were engraved in a clear and distinct character like the Greek and Latin inscriptions of a certain antiquity, it would be easy, by the assistance of the proper names of several Greek words which occur in it, some of which I have discovered since the publication of my letter to M. de Sacy, and of many Egyptian words, the sense of which is determined ; it would be easy, I say, to form a perfectly correct alphabet of these letters ; but here another difficulty occurs ; the alphabetical characters which, without doubt, are THE ROSETTA STONE. 135 of very high antiquity in Egypt, must have been in common use for many centuries before the date of the decree ; in the course of this time, these letters, as has happened in all other countries, have acquired a very irregular and fanciful form, so as to constitute a kind of running hand." (Leitch, p. 33.) In August, 18 1 5, Young replied to Akerblad's letter, and dis- cussed the passages where his own translation differed from that of Akerblad. In July, 18 1 5, de Sacy sent a letter to Young, which De Sacy contains the following remarkable passages : " Monsieur, Young outre la traduction Latine de I 'inscription Egyptienne que vous *2 ainst mavez communiquee, fai recu posterieurement une autre tra- pollion. duction A nglaise, imprimee, que je fiat pas en ce moment sous les yeux, Vayant pretee a M. Champollion sur la demande que son frere tn'en a faite d'apres une lettre quil m'a dit avoir recue de vous Je pense, Monsieur, que vous etes plus avance aujourd'hui et que vous lisez une gra7ide partie, du moins, du texte Egyptie?i. Si fai un conseil a vous donner, dest de ne pas trop communiquer vos decouvertes a M. Champollion. II se pourrait faire quil pretendit ensuite a la priorite. II cJierche en plusieurs endroits de son ouvrage a faire croire qu'il a decouvert beaucoup des mots de V inscription Egyptienne de Rosette, fai bien peur que ce ne soit la que du charlatatiisme ; fajoute meme que fai de fortes raisons de le petiser Au surplus, Je ne saurais me persuader que si M. Akerblad, Et. Quatremere, ou Champollion avait fait des progres reels dans la lecture du texte Egyptien, Us ne se fuss en t pas plus empresses de faire part au public de leur de'couverte. Ce serait une modestie bien rare, et dont aucun d'eux ne me parait capable" (Leitch, p. 51.) In a letter to de Sacy, dated 3rd August, 18 1 5, Young says : " You may, perhaps, think me too sanguine in my expecta- tions of obtaining a knowledge of the hieroglyphical language in general from the inscription of Rosetta only ; and I will confess to you that the difficulties are greater than a super- ficial view of the subject would induce us to suppose. The Young number of the radical characters is indeed limited, like ° n h ^ ro " glyphics. that of the keys of the Chinese ; but it appears that these characters are by no means universally independent of each FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. other, a combination of two or three of them being often em- ployed to form a single word, and perhaps even to represent a simple idea ; and, indeed, this must necessarily happen where we have only about a thousand characters for the expression of a whole language. For the same reason it is impossible that all the characters can be pictures of the things which they represent : some, however, of the symbols on the stone of Rosetta have a manifest relation to the objects denoted by them. For instance, a Priest, a Shrine, a Statue, an Asp, a Mouth, and the Numerals, and a King is denoted by a sort of plant with an insect, which is said to have been a bee ; while a much greater number of the characters have no perceptible connexion with the ideas attached to them ; although it is probable that a resemblance, either real or metaphorical, may have existed or have been imagined when they were first employed ; thus a Libation was originally de- noted by a hand holding a jar, with two streams of a liquid issuing from it, but in this inscription the representation has degenerated into a bird's foot. With respect to the epistolo- graphic or enchorial character, it does not seem quite certain that it could be explained even if the hieroglyphics were perfectly understood, for many of the characters neither resemble the corresponding hieroglyphics, nor are capable of being satisfactorily resolved into an alphabet of any kind : in short, the two characters might be supposed to belong to different languages ; for they do not seem to agree even in their manner of forming compound from simple terms." (Leitch, PP- 5 5) 56-) Writing to de Sacy in the following year (5th May, 1 8 16) touching the question of the alphabetic nature of the inscription on the Rosetta Stone, he says: "Si vous lisez la lettre de M. Akerblad, vous conviendrez, je crois, qu'au moins il n'a pas ete plus heureux que moi dans ses lecons Coptes del'inscrip- tion. Mais le vrai est que la chose est impossible dans l'etendue que vous paraissez encore vouloir lui donner, car assur^ment l'inscription eiichoriale n'est alpJiabetique que dans un sens tres borne Je me suis borne dernierement a l'etude des hieroglyphes, ou plutot a la collection d'inscriptions hiero- glyphiques Les caracteres que j'ai decouverts jettent deja quelques lumieres sur les antiques de l'Egypte. J'ai THE ROSETTA STONE. 137 reconnu, par exemple, le nom de Ptolem^e dans diverses Young de, inscriptions a Philae, a Esne et a Ombos, ce qui fixe a peu „^e"f the pres la date des edifices ou ce nom se trouve, et c'est meme Ptolemy, quelque chose que de pouvoir distinguer dans une inscription quelconque les caracteres qui expriment les noms des per- sonnages auxquels elle a rapport." (Leitch, p. 60.) On 10th November, 18 14, Champollion sent to the President of the Royal Society a copy of his LEgypte sous les Pharaons y and in the letter which accompanied it said, " La base de mon travail est la lecture de l'inscription en caracteres Egyptiens, qui est Tun des plus beaux ornemens du riche Musee Britannique ; je veux parler du monument trouve a Rosette. Les efforts que j'ai faits pour y reussir n'ont point ete, s'il m'est permis de le dire, sans quelques succes ; et les resultats que je crois avoir obtenus apres une Young and etude constante et suivie, m'en font esperer de plus grands Konror^" encore." (Leitch, p. 63.) He asked also that a collation of respond, the Rosetta Stone with the copy of it which he possessed might be made, and suggested that a cast of it should be presented to each of the principal libraries, and to the most celebrated Academies of Europe. As Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, Young replied saying that the needful collation should be made, and adding, "Je ne sais si par hasard M. de Sacy, avec qui vous etes sans doute en corres- pondance, vous aura parld d'un exemplaire que je lui ai adresse de ma traduction conjecturale avec l'explication des dernieres lignes des caracteres hieroglyphiques. Je lui avais deja envoye la traduction de l'inscription Egyptienne au commencement du mois d'Octobre passe ; l'interpr^tation des hieroglyphiques ne m'est reussie qu'a la fin du meme mois." (Leitch, p. 64.) In reply to this Champollion wrote, " M. Silvestre de Sacy, mon ancien professeur, ne m'a point donne connaissance de votre memoire sur la partie Egyptienne et le texte hieroglyphique de l'inscription de Rosette : c'est vous dire, Monsieur, avec quel empressement je recevrai Cham- l'exemplaire que vous avez la bonte de m'offrir." We have acquainted seen above from the extract from a letter of de Sacy that a with copy of Young's work was lent to Champollion between workfn May 9 and July 20, 1815. l8l S- FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. On August 2, 1816, Young addressed a letter 1 to the Archduke John of Austria, in which he reported further progress in his hieroglyphic studies, thus : " I have already ascertained, as I have mentioned in one of my letters to M. de Sacy, that the enchorial inscription of Rosetta con- tained a number of individual characters resembling the corresponding hieroglyphics, and I was not disposed to place any great reliance on the alphabetical interpretation of any considerable part of the inscription. I have now fully demonstrated the hieroglyphical origin of the running hand, 2 in which the manuscripts on papyrus, found with the mummies " (Leitch, p. 74.) The principal contents of Young's letters, however, incorporated with other matter, were made into a more extensive article, which was con- tributed to the Supplement of the Encyclopedia Britannica, Young's Supplement, Vol. IV. He made drawings of the plates, published, which were engraved by Mr. Turrell, and having procured separate copies, he sent them to some of his friends in the summer of 1 81 8, with a cover on which was printed the title, " Hieroglyphical Vocabulary." These plates, however, were precisely the same that were afterwards contained in the fourth volume of the Supplement, as belonging to the article Egypt. The characters explained in this vocabulary amounted to about two hundred ; the number which had been immediately obtained from the stone of Rosetta having been somewhat more than doubled by means of a careful examination of other monuments The higher numerals were readily obtained by a comparison of some inscriptions in which they stood combined with units and with tens. 3 Young's article in the Encyclopedia Britannica obtained great celebrity in Europe ; and was reprinted by 1 This letter was printed in 1816, and circulated in London, Paris, and- elsewhere ; it did not appear in the Museum Criticum until 1821. 2 " Que ce second systeme (l'Hieratique) n'est qu'une simple modification du systeme Hieroglyphique, et n'en differe uniquement que par la forme des signes." Champollion, De V Ecriture Hieratique des Anciens Egyptiens : Grenoble, 182 1. We should have expected some reference by Champollion to Young's discovery quoted above. 3 Young. An Account of some recent discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature, p. 17. THE ROSETTA STONE. 139 Leitch in the third volume of the Works of Dr. Young, pp. 86-197 \ ^ contains eight sections : — I. Introductory view of the latest publications re- lating to Egypt. II. Pantheon. III. Historiography. IV. Calendar. V. Customs and Ceremonies. VI. Analysis of the Triple Inscription. VII. Rudiments of a Hieroglyphical Vocabulary. VIII. Various Monuments of the Egyptians. This article is of very great importance in the history of Value of the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, and had Young taken article in the trouble of having it printed as a separate publication, Encydo- there would have been less doubt in the minds of scholars as ^BHtan- to the good work which he did, and results borrowed from it nua - by Champollion would have been more easily identified. 1 It has already been said (p. 130) that Champollion pub- lished at Paris in 18 14 the two first parts of a work entitled UEgypte sous les Pharaons, ou recherc/ies sur la GeograpJiie, la Cham- Religion, la Langue, les E oritur es et VHistoire de VEgypte Snathe* avant V Invasion de Cambyse ; these parts treated simply of ^£^^ y the geography of Egypt. In a note to the Preface he tells us that the general plan of the work, together with the introduc- tion of the geographical section and the general map of Egypt under the Pharaohs, was laid before the Societe des Sciences et des Arts de Grenoble, 1st September, 1807, and that the printing began on the 1st September, 18 10. On p. 22 of his Introduction, referring to the Rosetta Stone, he says : " Ce monument interessant est un decret des pretres de l'Egypte, qui decerne de grands honneurs au jeune roi 1 Ich halte mich daher verpflichtet, alles auf unsern Gegenstand beziigliche dem Leser nachtraglich genau mitzutheilen und zwar mit einer um so grossern Gewissenhaftigkeit, je hoher durch dessen Kenntniss die Achtung gegen den trefflichen Forscher steigen wird, der besonders in der Erklarung der symbolischen Hieroglyphen so Manches zuerst aussprach, was man ohne den Artikel der Encyclopaedic gelesen zu haben, meistens als das Eigenthum Champollion's zu betrachten gewohnt ist. Schwartze, Das A lie Aegypten, p. 446. 140 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Cham- pollion's hiero- glyphical studies in 1810. Akerblad attributes correct values to fourteen Demotic characters. Ptolem£e Epiphane. Ce decret est ecrit en hieroglyphes, en langue et en ecriture alphabetique Egyptiennes, et en Grec." Now by the words "en langue et en ecriture alphabetique Egyptiennes " we are clearly to understand that part of the Rosetta inscription which is written in demotic. Having referred to the studies of de Sacy and Akerblad, and spoken of the words in demotic which the latter scholar had rightly compared with their equivalents in Coptic, " que nous y avons lus ensuite," Champollion adds in a foot-note, " Ce n'est pas ici le lieu de rendre compte du resultat de l'etude suivie que nous avons faite du texte Egyptien de l'lnscription de Rosette, et de l'alphabet que nous avons adopte. Nous nous occuperons de cet important sujet dans la suite de cet ouvrage. En attendant, nous prions le lecteur de regarder comme exacts les resultats que nous lui presentons ici." From this it is clear that as early as 1810 Champollion claimed to have made progress in the decipherment of the demotic text (texte Egyptien) of the Rosetta Stone, and it is now time to ask how much he was indebted to Akerblad's letter for ideas and results. A comparison of Plate II. at the end of Akerblad's Lettre sur V hiscription Egyptienne de Rosette, with Plate IV. in Champollion's Lettre a M. Dacier relative a V Alpliabet des Hieroglyplies Phonetiques, will show that sixteen of the characters of the alphabet printed by Akerblad in 1802 were retained by Champollion in 1822 ; also, if Akerblad's alphabet be compared with the " Supposed Enchorial Alphabet" printed at the foot of Plate IV. ac- companying Young's article EGYPT, printed in 18 18 and published in 18 19, it will be found that fourteen of the characters are identical in both alphabets. Thus it seems that a greater degree of credit is due to Akerblad than has usually been awarded to him either by Young 1 1 Mr. Akerblad was far from having completed his examination of the whole enchorial inscription, apparently from the want of some collateral encouragement or co-operation to induce him to continue so laborious an inquiry ; and he had made little or no effort to understand the first inscription of the pillar which is professedly engraved in the sacred character, except the detached observation respecting the numerals at the end ; he was even disposed to acquiesce in the correctness of Mr. Palin's interpretation, which proceeds on the supposition that parts of the first lines of the hieroglyphics are still remaining on the stone. Young, An Account, p. 10. THE ROSETTA STONE. or Champollion, 1 or, indeed, by writers on Egyptology generally. 2 Having seen what foundations Young and Champollion had for their own works on the demotic text to rest on, we may return to the consideration of Young's hieroglyphical studies. On the four plates which appeared with his article EGYPT, he correctly identified the names of a few of the gods, Ra, Nut, Thoth, Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys, and he made out the meanings of several Egyptian ideographs. His identifica- tions of kings' names were, however, most unfortunate. Thus of Amenhetep, he made Tithons ; of Thi (a queen), Eoa ; of Usertsen, Heron ; of Psammetichus, Sesostris ; of Nectanebus, Proteus; of Seti, Psammis ; of Rameses II., Amasis ; of Au- tocrator, Arsinoe, etc., etc. He correctly identified the names of Ptolemy and Berenice, although in each case he attributed Young's wrong values to some of the hieroglyphic characters which gjyphic formed these names. The hieroglyphic alphabet given by alphabet. Young was as follows : — 206. 3 ^ true value BA. 207. e 11 R. 208. e W erte n T\ 209. 1 j) I. ,10. ^ Ke, K!l „ SE. 211. / JUL, JUt£. „ M. 1 " Feu Akerblad essaya d'etendre ses lectures hors des noms propres grecs, et il echoua completement." Champollion, Precis , I ed., p. 14. 2 See Schwartze, Das Alte Aegypten, pp. 160, 162. 3 No. 205, which is omitted here, is really two demotic characters the values of which are BA and R : to these Young gave the value bere, and so far he was right, but he failed to see that what he considered to be one sign was, in reality, two. In Nos. 213 and 214 his consonants were right but his vowels were wrong. We are thus able to see that out of a total of fourteen signs, he assigned correct values to six, partly correct values to three, and wholly wrong values to five. Champollion-Figeac in his Lettre au Directeur de la Revue Britannique au sujet des Recherches du Docteur Young sur les Hieroglyphes Egypttens, p. 5, gives Young no credit whatever for the three partly correct values assigned to hiero- glyphic characters by him. 142 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 212. true value N. 21"?. oXe 5) r or L 214. n I 1 OC M s. 215- □ n • » p. 2l6. q >) F. 217. X )> T. 2l8. 1 CO 5J CHA. In 1822 Champollion published his famous Lettre d M. Dacier relative a V alphabet des Hieroglyphes Phonetiques, in which he stated his discovery of the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet in the following words : " Vous avez sans doute re- marque, Monsieur, dans mon Memoire sur l'ecriture demotique Egyptienne, que ces noms etrangers etaient exprimes phon£- tiquement au moyen de signes plutot syllabiques qu'alpha- betiques. La valeur de chaque caractere est reconnue et invariablement fixee par la comparaison de ces divers noms ; Cham- et de tous ces rapprochements est resulte l'alphabet, ou plutot system 15 ^ e s y^ a baire demotique figure sur ma planche I., colonne deuxieme. L'emploi de ces caracteres phonetiques une fois constate dans l'ecriture demotique, je devais naturellement en conclure que puisque les signes de cette ecriture populaire Etaient, ainsi que je Fai expose, empruntes de l'ecriture Jiieratique ou sacerdotale, et puisque encore les signes de cette Ecriture Jiieratique ne sont, com me on Fa reconnu par mes divers memoires, qu'une representation abregee, une veritable tachygraphie des hierographes, cette troisieme espece d'ecriture, V Jiieroglyphique pure, devait avoir aussi un certain nombre de ses signes doues de la faculte d'exprimer les sons ; en un mot, qu'il existait egalement une serie d 'hieroglyphes phonetiques. Pour s'assurer de la verite de cet aper^u, pour reconnaitre Fexistence et discerner meme la valeur de quelques-uns des signes de cette espece, il aurait sum* d'avoir sous les yeux, ecrits en hieroglyphes purs, deux noms de rois grecs prealable- ment connus, et contenant plusieurs lettres employees a la fois dans Fun et dans Fautre, tels que Ptolemee et Cle'opdtre, Alexandre et Berenice, etc." (p. 5). Throughout this work there THE ROSETTA STONE. 143 appears to be no mention whatever of Young's identification of any letters of the hieroglyphic alphabet, although on p. 2 Champollion says : " A l'egard de l'ecriture demotique en par- ticulier, il a suffi de la precieuse inscription de Rosette pour en reconnaitre l'ensemble ; la critique est redevable d'abord Cham^- aux lumieres de votre illustre confrere, M. Silvestre de Sacy, admits et successivement a cellesdefeu Akerblad et de M. le docteur A a ^ b iad's Young, des premieres notions exactes qu'on a tirees de ce and monument, et c'est de cette meme inscription que j'ai deduit ^oufs? la serie des signes demotiques qui, prenant une valeur syllabico-alphabetique, exprimaient dans les textes ideo- graphiques les noms propres des personnages etrangers a l'Egypte." That Champollion should not have known of Young's article EGYPT is a thing not to be understood, espe- cially as advance copies were sent to Paris and elsewhere as early as 18 18. From the facts given above we are enabled to draw up the following statement as to the amount of work done in the decipherment of the Egyptian language by the early workers in this field. Barthelemy 1 and Zoega 2 had come to the conclusion Statement long before the labours of Akerblad, Young, and Cham- ^labours pollion, that the cartouches contained proper names. Aker- of Zoega, blad drew up an alphabet of the demotic character, in which Young and fourteen signs appear to have had correct values attributed ^JJJJJjl to them. Young published a demotic alphabet in which the greater number of Akerblad's results were absorbed ; he fixed the correct values to six hieroglyphic characters, and to three others partly correct values ; he identified the names of Ptolemy and Alexander, the numerals and several gods' names. Champollion published a demotic alphabet, the greater part of which he owed, without question, to Akerblad, and a hieroglyphic alphabet of which six characters had had correct values assigned to them by Young, and the 1 Caylus, Recueil d? Antiquites Egyptiennes, Etrusques, etc., Tom. V. p. 79. 2 In De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum, p. 465. Conspiciuntur autem passim in Aegyptiis monumentis schemata quaedam ovata sive elliptica planae basi insi- dentia, quae emphatica ratione includunt certa notarum syntagmata, sive ad propria personarum nomina exprimenda, sive ad sacratiores formulas designandas. 144 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Cham- pollion's alphabet. values of three others had been correctly stated as far as the consonants were concerned. There is no doubt whatever that Champollion's plan of work was eminently scientific, and his great knowledge of Coptic enabled him to complete the admirable work of decipherment, which his natural talent had induced him to undertake. The value of his contributions to the science of Egyptology it would be difficult to over- estimate, and the amount of work which he did in his comparatively short life is little less than marvellous. It is, however, to be regretted that Champollion did not state more clearly what Young had done, for a full acknowledg- ment of this would have in no way injured or lessened his own immortal fame. 1 Briefly, the way in which Champollion recovered the greater part of the Egyptian alphabet is as follows. It will be remembered that, on account of breakages, the only name found on the Rosetta Stone is that of Ptolemy. Shortly before Champollion published his letter to M. Dacier, he had published an account of an obelisk, 2 recently brought to London, which was inscribed with the name of a Ptolemy, written with the same characters as that on the Rosetta Stone, and also contained within a cartouche. It was followed by a second cartouche, which should contain the name of a queen. The obelisk was said to have been fixed in a socket, bearing a Greek inscription containing a petition of the priests of Isis at Philae, addressed to Ptolemy, to Cleopatra his sister, and to Cleopatra his wife. Now, he argued, if this obelisk and the hieroglyphic inscription which it bears are really the result of the petition of the priests, who in the Greek speak The names of the dedication of a similar monument, it follows of necessity and emy tnat tne cartouche must contain the name of a Cleopatra. Cleopatra. The names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra having, in the Greek, some letters which are similar, may be used for comparing 1 We have seen above that Champollion did know of Young's work, yet in his Pricis du Systeme Hieroglyphique, p. 1 8, he says that he had arrived at results similar to those obtained by Dr. Young, without having any knowledge of his opinion. 2 Observations sur VObelisque Egyptien de tile de Philce, in Revue encyclo- pidique, Mars, 1822. THE ROSETTA STONE. 145 the hieroglyphics which are used in each ; and if the characters which are similar in these two names express the same sound in each cartouche, their purely phonetic character is at once made clear. A previous comparison of these two names written in the demotic character shows that when they are written phonetically several characters, exactly alike, are used in each. The analogy of the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic methods of writing in a general way, leads us to expect the same coincidence and the same conformity in these same names, written hieroglyphically. The names Ptolemaios and Cleopatra written in hieroglyphics are as follows : — Now in No. 2 cartouche, sign No. 1, which must represent Recovery K, is not found in cartouche No. 1. Sign No. 2, a lion lying ° f the . down, is identical with sign No. 4 in cartouche No. I. This alphabet, clearly is L. Sign No. 3, a pen, represents the short vowel E ; two of them are to be seen in character No. 6 in No. I cartouche, and considering their position their value must be AI of ato?. Sign No. 4 is identical with No. 3 in No. 1 cartouche, and must have the value O in each name. Sign No. 5 is identical with sign No. 1 of No. 1 cartouche, which being the first letter of the name of Ptolemy must be P. Sign No. 6 is not found in No. 1 cartouche, but it must be A, because it is the same sign as sign No. 9, which ends the name KAEOI1ATPA ; we know that signs 10 and 11 always accompany feminine proper names, because we see them following the names of goddesses like j] § Isis, and |J § Nephthys. Sign No. 7, an open stretched out hand, must be T. It does not occur in No. 1 cartouche, but we find from other cartouches that ^ takes the place of , and the reverse. Sign No. 8 must be R ; it is not in No. I cartouche, No. 1, Ptolemy. No. 2, Cleopatra. B. M. L 146* FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. and ought not to be there. In No. 1 cartouche sign No. 7 must be S, because it ends the name which in Greek ends with S. Thus from these two cartouches we may collect twelve characters of the Egyptian alphabet, viz., A, AI, E, K, K, L, M, O, P, R, S, T. Now let us take another cartouche from the Description de V Egypte, t. III. pi. 38, No. 13, and try The name to make it out ; it reads : — Alexander. No. 3. ^ 4 1 SI Now signs Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8, we know from car- touches Nos. 1 and 2, and we may write down their values thus : — ■ AA..ZE..TP. The only Greek name which contains these letters in this order is Alexander, therefore let us assign to the signs ^z^>, ^aa, and — «— , the value of K, N and S respectively. We find on examination that the whole group corresponds, letter for letter, with the group which stands in the de- motic text of a papyrus in the place of the Greek name AAEXANAPOZ. We have, then, gained three new pho- netic signs K, N, and S, and have determined the value of fifteen in all. Again, let us take the cartouche of another lady : — fll 5 © ^| Y7 3/WAAAA4I , ^ I The name Now signs Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 we know, and we may Berenice. wr jt e them down thus : — . RNAI . . The only female name which contains these letters in this order is that of Berenice, and to ^ and Z5 we may therefore assign the values B and K respectively. Thus we have gained two more signs. THE ROSETTA STONE. 147 If we take two other cartouches, viz. :- we find that we are able to read the first at once KAISRS, which is clearly Kaiaapos or Caesar ; in the second the only sign we do not know is (9. Writing down the values we know we have A.TAKRTR, which is clearly AvTOKparop\ thus the value of the second character must be U. In this manner Champollion worked through the names of all the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors, and eventually succeeded in making out the value of one hundred and eleven signs. At the foot of Plate I., in his Lettre a Monsieur Dacier, he writes his own name in hieroglyphics thus : — Sha- m - PU - LL - I - O - N. The following are the letters of the Egyptian alphabet with their values as now accepted by Egyptologists : — <=> r ox I 3 k L 2 148 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Opinions of Egyptologists on the Labours of Young and Champollion. In favour of Young. The first idea of certain hiero- glyphics being intended to represent sounds was suggested by Dr. Young, who, from the names of Ptolemy and Berenice, had pointed out nine, which have since proved to be correct ; the former taken from the Rosetta inscription, and the latter deduced with singular ingenuity from the enchorial of the same monument. [M. Champollion fils seems to be unwilling to allow this : but the fact is evident ; and surely he has accomplished too much to stand in need of assuming to him- self the merits of another. Note 1, p. 1.] Working upon this basis, M. Champollion, with happy suc- cess, made out four or five others, as also about thirty synonymes ; ^and by the ingenious application ot these, the merit of which is all his own, he has been able to turn to effect the discovery, and to decipher therewith a great number of the names of the Ptolemies and of the Roman emperors — Salt, H., Essay on Dr. Young's and M. Cha7npolliorts Phofietic System of Hieroglyphics ; London, 1825. Amidst this mass of error and contradiction, the application of the phonetic principle by Young, in 18 1 8, had all the merit of an original discovery and it was only by a comparison of the three kinds of writing that he traced the name of Ptolemy up in his own way, In favour of Champollion. His [Young's] translations, how- ever, are below criticism, being as unfounded as those of Kircher. How far even, in the decipherment, he proceeded correctly, may be doubted. . . . But even here [in interpretation] there is much too incorrect in principle to be of real use ; much of it is beneath criticism. — Birch, Hieroglyphs ■, p. 196. It is even to this day a common habit of Englishmen to couple the name of their countryman, Dr. Thomas Young, with that of Cham- pollion, as sharing with him the glory of this discovery. No person who knows anything of Egyptian philology can countenance so gross an error But it is not true that he discovered the key to the decipherment of hieroglyphics, or even that his labours assisted Cham- pollion in the discovery. When the key was once discovered and re- cognized as the true one, it was found that one or two of Young's results were correct. But there was nothing in his method or theory by which he or anyone else could dis- tinguish between his right and his wrong results, or which could lead him or anyone else a single step in advance If anyone has a right to be named in con- junction with Champollion, it is not Young, but Akerblad, to whom he does full justice (as he does indeed to Young himself) at the very be- ginning of his letter to M. Dacier. — RENOUF, Hibbert Lectures; Lon- don, 1880, pp. 12-16. THE ROSETTA STONE. 149 In favour of Young. from the demotic into hieratic, into hieroglyphs. — B IRCH, Hieroglyphs ; in Wilkinson, The Egyptians, pp. 195, 196. Fast gleichzeitig mit dem alten Jomard ; hatte Dr. Young das Gliick aus den hieroglyphi- schen Texten die Bezeichnungen flir die Einer, Zehner, Hunderte, und Tausende richtig herauszuer- kennen und iiberdies den hierogly- phischen Konigsnamen — CMS » und ihre entsprechende griechische Form Ptolemaios und Berenike gegeniiberzustellen, eine Entdeck- ung, die ihm allein gebiihrt und die den Ausgangspunkt der spateren Entzifferungen bilden sollte Dr. Young's gliickliche Zusammen- stellungen der oben aufgefuhrten agyptisch-hieroglyphischen Eigen- namen mit ihren entsprechenden griechischen Vorbildern sollten ihm plotzlich die Augen offnen und ihn [i.e., Champollion] auf den rechten Pfad fiihren.— BRUGSCH, Die Aegyptologie, pp. 9, 1 1. Ein solcher Ring mit Hiero- fand sich nun auch an den betref- fenden Stellen der Inschrift von Rosette und er musste den Namen des Ptolemaus bilden. Es war der bekannte englische Naturibrscher Thomas Young, der im Jahre 18 19 /;/ favour of Champollion. Saeculi enim hujus et initium usque quum cognitio hieroglyph- orum, quibus veteres Aegyptii in sacra dialecto scribenda utebantur, densissimis tenebris scateret, ita quidem ut fere omnia, quae antea vel eruditissimi homines summo ingenii acumine explorasse sibi visi sunt, si hodie forte legimus risum vix tenere possimus : hoc lapide detecto postquam omnium animi ad spem enucleandi tandem istud monstruosum et perplexum per tot saecula quasi involucris involutorum genus signorum arrecti sunt, unus vir Champollio Francogallus ex- stitit, qui mira sagacitate incredi- bilique studio adjutus totam hiero- glyphorum rationem nulla fere parte relicta luce clarius explanavit et exposuit. — Brugsch, hiscriptio Rosettanaj Berlin, 185 1, pp. I, 2. Unabhangig von Young kam gleichzeitig ein junger franzosischer Gelehrter, Francois Champollion, zu der gleichen Vermutung und ihm war es beschieden, sogleich ein vollig richtiges Resultat zu erhalten. — ERMAN, Ac gyp ten, p. 14. Young, qui, le premier, fit l'application du principe phone- tique a la lecture des hieroglyphes. Cette idee fut, dans la realite, le Hat lux de la science Toute- fois, malgre quelques succes re- marquables, Young ne sut pas la feconder ; il avait bien reconnu dans les hieroglyphes les noms de Ptolemee et de Berenice, mais sans reussir a assigner a chacun des signes qui les composent leur verita- ble valeur ; ses autres lectures sont fausses, quoiqu'il ait rencontre juste dans la determination de la valeur FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ISO In favour of Young. diesen scharfsinnigen und vollig richtigen Schluss machte und wenigstens fur einige Zeichen des Namens den Lautwert feststellte. — Erman, Aegyplen, p. 14. Der erste, der es that und von dem richtigen Grundsatze ausging, dass die Konigsnamen alphabetisch geschrieben sein miissten war der beruhmte englische Physiker Thomas Young (geboren 1773). Er erkannte in der haufigsten in dem Dekret von Rosette vorkommenden Gruppe den Namen Ptolemaus, er vermochte ein spater zum grossen Teile bestcitigtes hieroglyphisches Alphabet aufzustellen und sie iiber das System der agyptischen Schrift vollkommen richtige An- sichten zu bilden. So haben wir denn in Young den eigentlichen Entzifterer der agyptischen Schrift zu sehen, wenn es ihm auch nicht gelang, der Sprache selbst Herr zu werden. — Wiedemann, Aegypt- ische Geschichte, p. 29. In the first work of Champollion, his essay De VEcriture hieratique des Anciens Egyptiens, published in i82i,he recognized the existence of only the first of these three ways of representing words, supposing that all the Egyptian characters represented ideas. When he dis- covered the erroneousness of this opinion, he used all possible efforts to suppress the work in which he had stated it. That work, however, contained a valuable discovery. . . In favour of Champollion. alphabetique de plusieurs caiac- teres. Quelques minces qu'ils soient, ces premiers resultats con- stitueraient en faveur du docteur Young un titre considerable, s'il ne les avait pas compromis lui-meme en s'engageant dans une fausse voie, et en publiant des traductions tout aussi imaginaires que celles de ses devanciers. La solution du probleme etait reserve'e au genie de Champollion le jeune ; e'est un honneur que personne ne peut lui disputer. — Chabas, E Inscription de Rosette^ p. 5. Wenn wir die Frage so stellen : Wer hat zuerst einige hieroglyphi- sche Zeichen in ihrem Lautwerthe richtig bestimmt ? oder besser gesagt, zufallig errathen, so miissen wir antworten : das war Th. Young ; den Schliissel zur Entzifferung der Hieroglyphenschrift jedoch hat er nicht gefunden. Francois Cham- pollion, geb. den 23. December 1790, gest. den 4. Marz 1832, er ist es, den die Wissenschaft der Aegypto- logie in dankbarer Verehrung als ihren eigentlichen Begriinder nennt — DUMICHEN, Geschichte des alien Aegypiens, Berlin, 1878, s. 304. Zwei grosse Manner, in England der auf vielen Gebieten des Wissens ausgezeichnete Thomas Young, in Frankreich Francois Champollion, begaben sich zu gleicher Zeit, aber unabhangig von einander, an die Arbeit. Beider Bemiihungen lohnte schoner Erfolg. Champollion aber wird mit Recht vor seinem brit- ischen Rivalen als Entzifferer der THE ROSETTA. STONE. hi favour of Young. In the year after this pub- lication, Champollion published his Lettre a M. Dacier, in which he announced the phonetic powers of certain hieroglyphics and applied them to the reading of Greek and Roman proper names. Had he been candid enough to admit that he was indebted to Dr. Young for the commencement of his discovery, and only to claim the merit of ex- tending and improving the alpha- bet, he would probably have bad his claims to the preceding and subsequent discoveries, which were certainly his own, more readily admitted by Englishmen than they have been. In 1819 Dr. Young had published his article "Egypt" in the Supplement to the Encyclo- paedia Britannica ; and it cannot be doubted that the analysis of the names " Ptolemaeus " and "Bere- nice," which it contained, reached Champollion in the interval between his publication in 1821 and 1822, and led him to alter his views. . . . . . The Grammaire Egyptienne ought to have been given to the public as his sole bequest in the department of Egyptian philology. It was published from a manuscript written in 1 831, immediately before his last illness. Shortly before his decease, having carefully collected the sheets, he delivered them to his brother, with the remark, " Be care- ful of this ; I trust that it will be my visiting card to posterity." Even the warmest admirers of Cham- pollion must admit that he left his system in a very imperfect state. Few, probably, will deny that he held many errors to the close of his life, both in what respects the In favour of Champollion. Hieroglyphen genannt werden miissen. — Ebers, Aegypten in Bild und Wort ; Leipzig, 1879, Bd. ii., s. 49. Un savant anglais du plus grand merite, Th. Young, essaya de re- constituer Palphabet des cartouches. De 1 8 14 a 18 18, il s'exerca sur les divers systemes d'ecriture egyp- tienne, et separa mecaniquement les groupes differents dont se com- posaient le texte hieroglyphique et le texte demotique de l'inscription de Rosette. Apres avoir deter- mine, d'une maniere plus ou moins exacte, le sens de chacun d'eux, il en essaya la lecture Ses idees etaient justes en partie, mais sa methode imparfaite ; il entrevit la terre promise, mais sans pouvoir y entrer. Le veritable initiateur fut Frangois Champollion — MASPERO, Histoire Ancienne ; Paris, 1886, pp. 729, 730. Ce fut en 1 8 19, que le Dr. Young declara le premier que les car- touches, ou encadrements ellip- tiques, dans le texte hieroglyphique de l'inscription de Rosette, corres- pondaient aux noms propres grecs et particulierement a celui de Ptole- mee du texte grec, et aux groupes, du meme nom, dans le texte inter- mediate en ecriture egyptienne demotique ou vulgaire, groupes qui avaient ete deja reconnus et de- composes par MM. Silvestre de Sacy et Akerblad. II allait encore plus loin en supposant que chaque signe du cartouche representait un son du nom de Ptolemee et en cherchant a les definir reellement un a un par une analyse tres in- genieuse Plusieurs signes 152 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. In favour of Young. reading of the characters, and in what respects the interpretation of the texts.— Hincks, On the Num- ber^ Names, and Powers of the Letters of the Hieroglyphic Alpha- bet, in Trans. Royal Irish Acad., Vol. XXL, Section Polite Litera- ture, pp. 133, 134, Dublin, 1848. In favour of Cha7npollion. avaient ete faussement interpreted et la preuve la plus evidente en etait qu'il ne reussissait pas a lire d'autres noms que ceux de Ptolemee et de Berenice. II faut done avouer que, malgre cette decouverte, les opinions du Dr. Young, sur la nature du systeme hieroglyphique, etaient encore essentiellement fausses et que cette decouverte elle-meme serait probablement restee infruc- tueuse et a peine signalee comme decouverte dans la science, si on avait suivi le chemin que son auteur lui-m&ne avait propose. — Lepsius, Lettre d M. le Professeur F. Rosel- linisuv Y Alphabet Hieroglyphique; Rome, 1837, p. 11. Seyffarth It could hardly be expected that the system of decipher- reject therS ment proposed by Champollion would be accepted by those Cham- } who had rival systems to put forth, hence we find old theories system. S revived and new ideas brought to light side by side with Champollion's method of decipherment. Among those who attacked the new system were, Spolm, the misguided Seyffarth, GoulianofT and Klaproth. Spolm and Seyffarth divided hieroglyphics into emphonics, symphonies and aphonics, by which terms they seem to imply phonetics, enclitics and ideographics. Their hopelessly wrong theory was put forth with a great show of learning in De Lingua et Uteris veterum Aigyptiorum at Leipzig, 1825-31. Goulianoff 1 did not accept Champollion's system entirely, and he wished to consider the phonetic hieroglyphics acrologic ; this also was the view taken by Klaproth, who bitterly attacked Cham- pollion in his Lettre sur la decouverte des hicroglyphes acrolo- giques, adressee a M. de Goulianoff, Paris, 1827, and also in his Examen critique des travaux de feu M. Champollion sur les Hicroglyphes, Paris, 1832. To the first of these two works Champollion published a reply entitled Analyse critique de la 1 See his Essai sur les Hieroglyphes d' Horapollon, Faris, 1827. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 153 lettre sur la decouverte des hie'roglyphes acrologiques par J. Klap- roth (Extr. du Bulletin de Ferussac), Paris, 1827, in which he showed the utter worthlessness of the theory. In 1830, when the correctness of Champollion's system was fully Persis- tcncc of demonstrated, Janelli published at Naples his Fundamenta f a i se Hermeneutica Hieroglyphicae, in three volumes, in which the systems of old symbolic theory of the hieroglyphics was re-asserted ! tation. and there were many who hesitated not to follow the views of Francois Ricardi, feu Charles d'Oneil, the soundness of which may be estimated by the title of one of his works, " Decouverte des Hierogly plies domestiques phonetiques par lesquels, sans sortir de chez sol, on pent deviner rhistoire, la chronologie ( ! ! ), le culte de tons les peuples anciens et modernes, de la mime maniere, qu'on le fait en lisant les hie'roglyphes e'gyptiens selon la nouvelle methode ; " Turin, 1824. 1 Little by little, however, Champollion's system was accepted. In 1835 Leemans published his edition of Horapollo, in which the results of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics were ably applied, and two years later Richard Lepsius published his famous Lettre a M. F. Rosellini sur V alphabet hierogly- phique, wherein he discussed the whole question of the decipherment, and showed that Champollion's method was, without any question, correct. About this time students, who worked on Champollion's plan, sprang up in Holland, Italy, France and England, and the misguided Seyffarth alone continued down to 1855 to write and protest against the new system. An Egyptian Funeral. The funeral of a poor Egyptian was, probably, very much like that of one of the present day. After the body had been steeped for a short time in bitumen or natron, or perhaps merely rubbed with these substances, the few personal orna- ments of the man were placed on it, he was wrapped in one 1 Another of his works was entitled, Triomphe sur les impies obtenu par les adorateurs de la tres-sainte Triniti et du Verbe eternel, sous le gouvernement des sixie~me et septtime rois cTEgypte au Vie sihle apres le deluge. Sculpte en signes hicroglyphiques stir /' Obelisque Barberinus et maintenant explique ; Geneva, 1821. 154 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. piece of linen, and with his staff to support his steps, 1 and his sandals to protect his weary feet in the nether-world, he was laid in a hole or cave, or even in the sand of the open desert, to set out on his last journey. Trusting in the might of a few amulets that were buried with him, he feared not to meet his foes in the grave. The funeral of a king or a member of the royal family, or of a wealthy person, was a very magnificent ceremony, and it is, perhaps, impossible to realize exactly what an imposing sight it must have been. Treating of the burial of a king in Diodorus Egypt, Diodorus says (I. 72), that when a king died all the tiantfrnual mna bitants of the country wept and rent their garments ; the temples were closed, and the people abstained from sacrifices and celebrated no festival for a period of seventy-two days. Crowds of men and women, about two or three hundred in number, went round about the streets with mud on their heads, and with their garments knotted like girdles below the breasts (cnv&ovas viroKciTcio tcov fjLaarcov), singing dirges twice daily in praise of the dead. They denied themselves wheat, they ate no animal food, and they abstained from wine and dainty fare. No one dared to make use of baths, or unguents, or to recline upon couches, or even to partake of the pleasures of love. The seventy-two days were passed in grief and mourning as for the death of a beloved child. Meanwhile, the funeral paraphernalia was made ready, and on the last day of mourning, the body, placed in a coffin, was laid at the entrance to the tomb, and according to law, judgment was passed upon the acts of the king during his life. Every one had the power to make an accusation against the king. The priests pronounced a funeral oration over the body, and declared the noble works of the king during his life, and if the opinion of the assembled multitude agreed with that of the priests, and the king had led a blameless life, they testified their approval openly ; if, on the other hand, the life of the king had been a bad one, they expressed their disapprobation by loud murmurs. Through the opposition of the people many kings have been deprived of meet and proper burial, Compare Psalm xxiii. 4. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 155 and kings are accustomed to exercise justice, not only Diodorus because they fear the disapprobation of their subjects, but [ian^mfai. also because they fear that after death their bodies may be maltreated, and their memory cursed for ever. It is very doubtful if the above description of the mourn- ing is not somewhat exaggerated, and there appears to be no authority in Egyptian inscriptions for the statement that many kings were deprived of their meet and proper burial because of the disapproval of their past lives shown by the people. This account by Diodorus is more valuable for the indication of the great and solemn respect which was shown to dead kings, as sons of the god Ra, and as lords of the land of Egypt, than for its strict accuracy of detail. The customs observed at the burial of kings would be respectfully imitated at the funerals of the nobles and officials of his court, and the account by the same writer of what happened after the mummy of an Egyptian gentleman was prepared for burial, must next be considered. According to Diodorus (I. 92), when the body is ready to be buried, the relatives give notice to the judges and the friends of the deceased, and inform them that the funeral will take place on a certain day, and that the body will pass over the lake ; and straightway the judges, forty in number, 1 come and seat themselves in a semi-circle above the lake. Then the men who have been commissioned to prepare a boat called /3api9, 2 bring it to the lake, and they set it afloat under the charge of a pilot called Charon. 3 And they pretend that Orpheus travelling in Egypt in ancient times, was present at a ceremony of this kind, and that he drew his fable of the infernal regions partly from his remembrance of this 1 Is it possible that Diodorus has confused the forty judges at the lake with the forty-two judges or assessors of the Book of the Dead, before each of whom the deceased was supposed to declare that he had not committed a certain sin ? 2 In Egyptian : J bam. 3 Wiedemann compares the Egyptian kare t " Schiffer." The dictionaries give A < ~~^ > gare, a "ship," and ^ < ^~^ > % f\ ^ qdre, "coach- man," " cart-driver." i 5 6 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Diodorus ceremony, 1 and partly from his imagination. Before the coffin tSniSnal. containing the dead man was placed in the boat on the lake, every person had the right to bring accusations against the deceased. If any accuser succeeded in showing that the deceased had led a bad life, the judges made a decree which deprived the body of legal burial ; if, on the other hand, the accusation was found to be unjust, the person who brought it was compelled to pay heavy damages. If no one stood forth to bring an accusation, or if an accusation seemed calumnious, the relatives of the deceased ceased to mourn and began to praise the dead man and his virtues, and to entreat the gods of the infernal regions to admit him into the place reserved for good men. The Egyptians never praised the birth of a man, as did the Greeks, for they believed that all men are equally noble. The people being gathered together, add their cries of joy, and utter wishes that the deceased may enjoy ever- lasting life in the underworld in the company of the blessed. Those who have private burial places lay the bodies of their dead in the places set apart for them ; but those who have not, build a new chamber in their house, and set the body in it fixed upright against the wall. Those who are deprived of burial, either because they lie under the ban of an accusation, or because they have not paid their debts, are merely laid in their own houses. It happens sometimes that the younger members of a family, having become richer, pay the debts of their ancestors, secure the removal of the condemnatory sentence upon them, and give them most sumptuous funerals. The great honours which are paid to the dead by the Egyptians form the most solemn ceremonies. As a guarantee for a debt, it is a customary thing to deposit the bodies of dead parents, and the greatest disgrace and privation from burial, wait upon those who redeem not such sacred pledges. In this account also there are many details given for which proof is still wanting from the Egyptian monuments. 1 Thus Orpheus brought back from his travels in Egypt the ceremonies, and the greater part of the mystic rites celebrated in memory of the courses of Ceres, and the whole of the myth of hell. The difference between the feasts of Bacchus and of those of Osiris exists only in name, and the same may be said of the mysteries of Isis and those of Osiris. Diodorus, I. 96. AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 157 An attempt may now be made to describe briefly what Egyptian happened after death to the body of a man of high rank who ^nf" 1 departed this life at Thebes towards the end of the XVIIIth according or beginning of the XlXth dynasty, that is to say about B.C. m0 nu- 1400. The facts are all known, and therefore nothing need ments - be invented ; it is only necessary to gather them together and to bring them to a focus on the person of one man. We must imagine then that we are living on the east bank of the Nile, near the temple of Amen-Ra, " lord of the thrones of the earth," in the fifteenth century before Christ. One morning before the day has dawned, even before the officials who conduct the early services in the temples are astir, we are awakened by loud cries of grief and lamentation, and on making inquiries we are told that Ani, the great scribe of the offerings of the gods in the temple of Amen-Ra, is dead. As he was the receiver of the revenues of the gods of Abydos, as well as of Amen-Ra of Thebes, first prophet of Amen, and the precentor who stood on the threshold of the temple morning by morning to lead off the hymn of praise to the sun, his death naturally causes great excitement in the temples and the immediate neighbourhood ; as his forefathers for five or six generations have been temple officers of the highest rank, it is certain that his funeral will be a great event, and that numbers of the hereditary aristocracy and government officials will assist at the ceremony. He leaves no wife to mourn for him, for she is already dead, and is now lying in a chamber of a splendid tomb, not yet finished, however, nine miles away across the river, awaiting the coming of her hus- band. She was called Tutu, and belonged to one of the oldest and most honourable families in Thebes ; she was a member of the famous college of singers of Amen-Ra, and also a member of the choir of ladies, each one of whom carried a sistrum or a tambourine in the temple of that god. Ani began to hew out the tomb for himself and his wife many Tomb years ago, and during his lifetime he spared neither pains nor expense in making it one of the largest and finest ever known for a person of lower rank than a king. Ani was not a very old man when he died, although his step was slow and his back somewhat bent ; in stature he was of middle height, and of Ani. 158 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. his features had a kind but dignified look, and though com- paratively few loved him, all respected him for his uprightness and integrity. He was a learned man, and knew the literature of Egypt well ; he himself wrote a fine, bold hand, and was no mean artist with his pencil. He was a tried servant of the king, and loved him well, but he loved his god Amen more, and was very jealous for his honour, and the glory of his worship in the temple of the Apts. All his ancestors had been in the service of the god, and it was even said that the oldest of them had seen Amen, who, until the expulsion of the Hyksos by the kings of Thebes, had occupied the position of a mere local deity, suddenly become the national god of Egypt. Whether Ani believed in his innermost heart any or all of the official religion is another matter ; his official posi- tion brought him into contact with the temporal rather than the spiritual affairs of the Egyptian religion, and whatever doubts he may have had in matters of belief, or concerning the efficacy of the magic of his day, etc., etc., he said nothing about them to any man. For some days past it had been seen that Ani's death was to be expected, and many of his colleagues in the temple had come to see him from time to time, one bringing a charm, another a decoction of herbs, etc., and a few had taken it in turns to stay in his room for some hours at a time. One Death night his illness took a decidedly serious turn, and early in the morning, a short time before daybreak, when, as the Orientals say, the dawn may be smelled, Ani died. The news of his death spreads rapidly through the quarter, for all the women of his house rush frantically through the streets, beating their breasts, and from time to time clutching at their hair, which is covered with handfuls of the thick dust of the streets, after the manner of Anpu in the Tale of the Tivo Brothers, and uttering wailing cries of grief. In the house, parties of mourning women shriek out their grief, and all the members of the house add their tears and sobs. The steward of the house has, however, sent across the river to the cher-heb or priest who superintends and arranges the funerals of the wealthy and great, and informed him of Ani's death, and as quickly as possible this official leaves his AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 159 house near the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings, and together with his assistants, makes his way with all haste to Ani's house. Having arrived there he takes Ani's body into Ani's his charge, and proceeds to discuss the method by which the gi ven to body shall be preserved, and the style of the funeral. While ^imSs his assistants are taking away the body to the embalming house, he sends quickly to the western bank of the Nile, and summons his chief mason to his presence ; after a short time he arrives, and the cher-heb instructs him to go to Ani's tomb with a body of men, and to finish hewing whatever chambers and pillars remain in a half completed state, to plaster the walls, and to paint upon them scenes for which he supplies him with details and notes. The cher-heb knows that for many years past Ani, and one or two of his friends among the scribes, had been writing and illuminating with vignettes a fine copy of the " Book of the Dead " ; he remembers that this work remains unfinished, and he therefore sets a skilful scribe to finish it in the style in which Ani would probably have finished it. Parties of professional mourners are next organized, and these go round about the city at stated times, singing in chorus, probably accompanied by some musical in- strument, funereal dirges, the subjects of which were the short- ness of life and the certainty that all must die, and the virtues of the dead man. These dirges were sung twice daily, and Dirges for Ani's friends and colleagues, during the days of mourning, thought it to be their duty to abstain from wine and every kind of luxury, and they wore the simplest and plainest garments, and went quite unadorned. Meanwhile it was decided that Ani's funeral should be one of the best that money could purchase, and as while he was alive he was thought to be in constant communion with the gods, his relatives ordered that his body should be mum- mified in the best possible way, so that his soul ba, and his intelligence ytt\ when they returned some thou- sands of years hence to seek his body in the tomb, might find Object hisLJ&z or "genius" there waiting, and that all three might balmment. enter into the body once more, and revivify it, and live with it for ever in the kingdom of Osiris. No opportunity must 1 6o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. be given for these four component parts of the whole of a man to drift away one from the other, and to prevent this the each limb of it may meetly be identified with a god, and the whole of it with Osiris, the judge of the dead and king of the nether world. The tomb must be made a fit and proper dwelling-place for the ka, which will never leave it as long as the body to which it belongs lies in its tomb. The furniture of the tomb must be of the best, and every material, and the workmanship thereof, must also be of the best. The cher-heb next goes to the embalming chamber and orders his assistants to begin their operations upon Ani's body, The em- over which formulae are being recited. The body is first washed and then laid upon the ground, and one of the assistants traces with ink on the left side, over the groin, a line, some few inches long, to indicate where the incision is to be made in the body ; another assistant takes a knife, pro- bably made of flint, and makes a cut in the body the same length as the line drawn in ink by his companion. Whether this man was then driven away with sticks, and stones thrown after him, as Diodorus states, or not, is a moot point upon which the inscriptions give us no information. The chief intestines and the heart and lungs were then carefully taken out and washed in palm wine, and stuffed with sweet smelling spices, gums, etc. They were next smeared all over with an unguent, and then carefully bandaged with strips of linen many yards long, on which were inscribed the names of the four children of Horus 1 who symbolized the four cardinal points and of the four goddesses who took the intestines under their special protection. While this was being done a set of four alabaster jars was brought from the stores of the cher-heb 's establishment, and in each of these one of the four packets of children of Horus, in the form of four figures made of metal, with the face of a man, with the face of an ape, with the face of a jackal, and with the face of a must be preserved in such a way that hawk." AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 161 embalmed intestines was placed. Each jar was inscribed with a formula, and all that was wanted to make it the property of Ani was to inscribe his name upon it in the blank spaces left for the purpose. Each jar had a cover made in Jars for the form of the head of the child of Horus to whom it was intestines - dedicated. The jar of Mestha had the head of a man, and in it was placed the stomach ; it was under the protection of Isis. The jar of Hapi had the head of an ape, and in it were placed the smaller intestines ; it was under the protection of Nephthys. The jar of Tuamautef had the head of a jackal, and in it was placed the heart ; it was under the protection of Neith. The jar of Qebhsennuf had the head of a hawk, and in it was placed the liver ; it was under the protection of Serqet. The inscriptions on the jars state that the part of the deceased in it is identified with the child of Horus to whom the jar is dedicated, and that the goddess under whose charge it is protects it. The covers of the jars are fastened on by running in liquid plaster, and they are finally set in the four divisions of a coffer on a sledge with a vaulted cover and a projecting rectangular upright at each corner. It was of the greatest importance to have the intestines 1 preserved intact, for with- out them a man could not hope to live again. The brain is Removal next removed through the nostrils by means of an iron rod r curved at one end, and is put aside to be dried and buried with the body ; at every step in these processes religious formulae are recited. The body thus deprived of its more perishable parts is taken and laid to soak in a tank of liquid natron for a period of seventy days. At the end of this time it is taken out and carefully washed and dried, and it is seen that it is of a greenish-grey colour ; the skin clings to the The body bones, for the flesh beneath it has shrunk somewhat, but the ^o^? m hair of the body is well preserved, the nails of the hands and feet still adhere to the skin, and the face, though now drawn and very thin, has changed but little. Longitudinal slits are next made in the fingers and toes and the fleshy parts of the arms, thighs and legs, which are then stuffed with a mixture of sweet spices and natron, and sewn up again. The cavity in 1 In mummies of the best period the intestines are sometimes found in packets beneath the bandages. B. M. M 162 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. the skull is now filled up with a mixture of spices, powdered plaster and natron, and the nostrils through which it was in- serted are plugged up with small linen pledgets dipped in some astringent ; obsidian eyes are also inserted in the eye- sockets. Large quantities of gums, spices, natron, as well as a very little bitumen, are pounded and well mixed together, and with them the breast and stomach are carefully packed through the slit in the side ; while certain formulae are being recited, a gold plate inscribed with the utchat, or eye of Horus, is laid upon it to indicate that this god watched over this body as he did over that of his father Osiris. The nails of the hands are stained with henna (Arab. 'U^), anc * on the The orna- little finger of the left hand is placed Ani's gold ring, in the thTbody bezel of which is mounted a handsome steatite scarab in- scribed on the base with his name and titles. The ring was supposed to confer upon the deceased some power, but what that power was is not yet exactly made out ; it is certain, however, that no one was buried without one or more, and if the relatives of the deceased were not able to buy them in gold or silver, they made use of faience rings, glazed various colours, and even of small strings of beads which they tied on the fingers in lieu of rings. The legs are then brought closely together, and the arms are laid on the body with one wrist crossed over the other. The cher-heb next provides a large and handsome scarab made of green basalt which is set in a frame of gold, over the back of it is a horizontal band of the same metal, at right angles to which, on the side of the tail of the beetle, runs another band which joins the frame ; at the head of the scarab is a gold loop through which is now threaded a thick gold wire sufficiently long to go round Ani's neck. This scarab was part of the stock in trade of the cher-heb, and all that was necessary to do to make it Ani's property was to inscribe his name and titles upon it in the blank line left for the purpose at the head of the flat base. The scarab This done the scarab was covered with a thin gold leaf and the heart. ^id upon Ani's breast at the neck. 1 The inscription upon it 1 According to some rubrics of the thirtieth chapter the scarab was to be placed "within the heart" of a person after the ceremony of "opening the mouth" AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. was one of the verses of the 30th chapter of the Book of the Dead, and contained a prayer, addressed by Ani to his heart, that there might not be brought against him adverse evidence when it was weighed in the balance in the judgment hall of Osiris, that he might not be obstructed or driven back, and that his name might not be overthrown by those powers who made it their business to harass the newcomers among the dead in the nether-world. The prayer ends with a petition that no false evidence may be borne against him in the pre- sence of the god. And now the bandaging begins. The body is first of all Process of smeared all over with unguents. Pieces of linen are then banda g in 2- torn into strips about three inches wide, and one edge of each strip is gummed. On one end of each of these the name of Ani has been written in hieratic characters to facilitate the identification of the mummy during the process of bandaging ; a number of these strips are dipped in water, and the embalmers having bandaged the fingers, hands, and arms, and toes separately, begin to bandage the body from the feet upwards. The moist bandages cling tightly to the body, and the gummed edge enables each fold of the bandage to obtain firm hold ; the little irregularities are corrected by small pledgets of linen placed between the folds and gummed in position. These linen bandages are also held in position by means of narrower strips of linen wound round the body at intervals of six and eight inches, and tied in a double knot. Over these fine linen bandages passages from the Book of the Dead, and formulae which were intended to give power to the dead, are written. One end of a very thick bandage of eighteen to twenty-five folds of linen is laid under the shoulders, and the other is brought over the head and face, and rests on the upper part of the chest ; this is held in position by a bandage wound round the neck, and tied in a double knot at the back of the neck. The same plan is adopted with respect to the feet, but before the bandage (Naville, Bd. II, 99), had been performed ; this rite, however, took place in the tomb. M 2 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Process of bandaging. Names of the ban- dages. which secures all is tied, thick pads of linen are laid on the top of the feet to prevent any injury happening to them when the mummy is made to stand upright. 1 The bandaged arms having been pressed closely into the sides, and the fore-arms and hands having been laid upon the stomach, the bandaging goes on again, while formulae are recited by the cher-heb. Each bandage had a special name, 2 each bandage gave power to the deceased, and was inscribed with words and figures of gods, which also gave him power, and the adjustment of each in its proper position required both care and judgment. More folds of linen are laid on the body perpendicularly, 3 1 Referring to the embalming of the feet, the following extract is of interest. "After these things perform the embalming operations on his right and left arms, and then the and the children of Horus, and the children of Chent-aat, shall carry out the embalming operations on the two legs of the deceased. Rub the feet, legs, and thighs of the deceased with black stone (?) oil, and then rub them a second time with the finest oil. Wrap the toes in a piece of cloth, draw two jackals upon two pieces of linen with colours mixed with water perfumed with Snti, and each jackal shall have his face turned towards the other ; the jackal on the one bandage is Anubis, lord of Hert ; the jackal on the other is Horus, lord of Hebennu. Put Anubis on the right leg, and Horus on ihe left leg, and wrap them up in fine linen. To complete the embalming of the legs, take six measures of anchamu flowers, natron and resin, and mix with water of ebony gum, and put three measures on the right leg and three measures on the left. Then put some fresh (?) send flowers made into twelve bundles (?) on the left leg, and twelve bands of linen, and anoint with the finest oil." Maspero, Le Rituel de PEm- baumement, pp. 43, 44, in Memoire sur Quelques Papyrus du Louvre (Extrait des Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits, torn, xxiv., i re partie ; Paris, 1875). ra 2 E.g., one of the bandages of the nostrils was called |] 1" " " ' 1 1 ^ smen ; a head bandage jj^ ^ and the other 5 nehiy hehtheihsu. the two bandages of the cheek bandages of the top of the head anchth dnchth su. the two j mehut'ati. 3 While the head was being bandaged the following petition was recited by one of the embalmers :— " O most august goddess, O lady of the west, O mistress of the east, come and enter into the two ears of the deceased ! O doubly powerful, eternally young, and very mighty lady of the west, and mistress of the east may breathing take place in the head of the deceased in the nether world ! Grant that he may see with his eyes, that he may hear with his two ears, that he may breathe through his nose, that he may utter sounds from his mouth, and articulate with his tongue in the nether world ! Receive his voice in the hall of truth and justice, and his triumph in the hall of Seb in the presence of the great AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. and more bandages are wound round the body horizontally, until, little by little, it loses its shape beneath them. When a length of about three hundred cubits has been used in folds and bandages, a coarse piece of linen is laid on the body, and is sewn up at the back. Over this again a saffron- coloured linen sheet is laid, and this having been deftly sewn over the head, down the back, and under the feet, is finally held in position by a perpendicular bandage of brownish coloured linen, passing from the head to the feet and under them up the back to the head, and by four horizontal bandages of the same coloured linen, one round the shoulders, one round the middle of the body, one round the knees, and one round the ankles. Thus the mummy is complete. During the seventy days which have been spent in Ani's embalming Ani's body, the coffin makers have not been idle, coffin ' and they have made ready a covering of wood to be laid on the mummy, and two beautiful coffins. The covering, in the form of a mummy, is slightly vaulted, and has a human face, bearded, on it ; it is handsomely painted outside with collar, figures of Nut, Anubis, and Ap-uat, the full names and titles of Ani in perpendicular lines of inscription, the cartouches of the king in whose time he lived, and scenes in which Ani is adoring the gods. On the inside of the cover, on the purple ground, are painted in a light yellow colour pictures of the horizon, the spirits of the East, in the form of apes, adoring Ra, the lion gods of the morning and evening with a disk on their united backs, etc., etc. 1 The inner coffin is equally god, lord of the west. O Osiris (i.e., the deceased), the thick oil which comes upon thee furnishes thy mouth with life, and thine eye looketh into the lower heaven, as Ra looketh upon the upper heaven. It giveth thee thy two ears to hear that which thou wishest, just as Shu in Hebit (?) heard that which he wished to hear. It giveth thee thy nose to smell a beautiful perfume like Seb. It giveth to thee thy mouth well furnished by its passage (into the throat), like the mouth of Thoth, when he weigheth Maat. It giveth thee Maat (Law) in ITebit. O worshipper in Hetbenben, the cries of thy mouth are in Siut, Osiris of Siut comes to thee, thy mouth is the mouth of Ap-uat in the mountain of the west." (See Maspero, Le Ritnel de PEmbaumement, p. 27, in Memoire sur Quelques rapyrus du Louvre (Extrait des Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits), torn, xxiv., I re partie ; Paris, 1875). 1 A fine example of such a covering is that of Nesi-pa-ur-shefi, preserved at Cambridge. FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. handsome, and carpenter and artist have expended their best labour upon it ; before Ani was embalmed he was measured for it, and due allowance having been made for the bandages, it fits the mummy exactly. It is in the form of a mummy, and the sycamore planks of which it is made are about two inches thick ; the bottom is in one piece, as is also each of the sides, the rounded head-piece is cut out of a solid piece of wood, and the foot-piece is also separate ; all these parts are pegged together with wooden pegs about two inches long. On the cover is pegged a solid face, carved out of hard wood, which is thought to have a strong resemblance to that of Coffin Ani ; bronze eyelids and obsidian eyes are fixed in it, and a tation. en carved wooden beard is fastened to the chin. Solid wooden hands are next fastened to the breast. The whole coffin, inside and out, is next covered with a thin layer of plaster ; over this a coat of light yellow varnish is painted, and the Scenes scenes and inscriptions are painted on it in red, light and th^coffin 11 dark g reen > wnite and otner colours. At the head is Neph- thys, and at the foot is I sis, each making speeches to Ani, and telling him that she is protecting him. On the cover outside is Nut, and between two series of scenes in which Ani is represented worshipping the gods, are two perpendicular lines of inscriptions recording his name and titles ; at the foot of these are figures of Anubis and Ap-uat. The sides of the coffin are ornamented with figures of gods in shrines, the scene of the weighing of the heart, Ani drinking water from the hands of a goddess standing in a tree, Shu lifting up Nut from the embraces of Seb, etc. Inside the coffin are painted figures of a number of gods and genii with instructions referring to them, and the goddesses Nut and Hathor ; the first covers Ani with her wings, and the second, as mistress of the nether-world, receives Ani into her arms. Around the edge of the coffin near the cover, from head to foot, run two lines of inscription, one on each side, which repeat at considerable length the name and titles of Ani. The outer edge of the coffin, and the inner edge of the cover are " rabbeted " out, the one to fit into the other, and on each side, at regular inter- vals, four rectangular slots about i^in. x 2in. x fin. are cut; to fasten the coffin hermetically, tightly fitting wooden dowels, four AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. inches long, are pressed into the slots in the coffin, and pegs driven from the outside of the coffin through them keep them firmly in position. Ani's body having been placed in this coffin, the cover is laid upon it, the ends of the dowels fit into the slots in the sides, and coffin and cover are firmly joined together ; wooden pegs are driven through the cover and dowels, the " rabbets " fit tightly, the little space between the coffin and cover is " stopped " with liquid plaster, and thus the coffin is sealed. Any injury that may have hap- The outer pened to the plaster or paintings during the process of sealing 00 n ' is repaired, and the whole coffin is once more varnished. This coffin is, in its turn, placed inside an outer coffin, which is painted, both inside and outside, with scenes similar to those on the inner coffin ; the drawing is, however, more free, and the details are fewer. The outer coffin being sealed in the same way as that inside it, Ani is now ready to be carried to his everlasting home in the Theban hills. On a day fixed by the relatives and friends, all the various articles of funereal furniture which have been prepared are brought to Ani's house, where also the mummy in its coffins now lies awaiting the funeral ; the cher-heb sees that the things necessary for a great man's funeral are provided, and arranges for the procession to start on the first auspicious day. This day having arrived, the cher-heUs assistants come, and gather- ing together the servants and those who are to carry burdens, see that each has his load ready and that each knows his place in the procession. When all is ready the funeral train sets The out from Ani's house, while the female servants wail and procession, lament their master, and the professional mourners beat their breasts, feign to pull out their hair by handfuls, and vie with each other in shrieking the loudest and most often. They have not a great distance to go to reach the river, but the difficulties of passing through the narrow streets increase almost at every step, for the populace of Thebes loved the sight of a grand funeral as much as that of any European country to-day. After some few hours the procession reaches the river, and there a scene of indescribable confusion happens ; every bearer of a burden is anxious to deposit it in one of the boats which lie waiting in a row by the quay ; the animals which 68 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Funereal offerings. Ani's personal property carried to the tomb. draw the sledge, on which Ani's bier is laid, kick out wildly and struggle while being pushed into the boats, people rush hither and thither, and the noise of men giving orders, and the shouts and cries of the spectators, are distracting. At length, however, the procession is embarked and the boats push off to drop with the current across the Nile to a place a little north of the Temple of Thothmes III., opposite Asasif. After an hour spent in disembarking, the procession re- forms itself in the order in which it will march to the tomb, and we see for the first time what a splendid funeral has been provided. In the front walk a number of men bearing tables and stands filled with vases full of wine, beer, oil, perfumes, flowers, bread, cakes, ducks, haunches of beef, and vegetables ; one man carries Ani's palette and box of instruments which he used for writing and drawing, another carries his staff, another his bed, another his chair, others bring the ushabtiu figures in a box with a vaulted cover and made like a tomb ; and following them comes the stele recording his name and titles and prayers to the gods of the nether-world; and behind them, drawn by two men, is a coffer surmounted by a jackal, on a sledge decorated with lotus flowers, in which stand the four jars which contain Ani's intestines. Next follow the men bearing everything which Ani made use of during his life, as, for example, the palette which he carried when he followed his king to war in order to keep the accounts of the army and to make lists of all the precious things which were brought to his lord as gifts and tribute, and the harp on which in which is laid the mummy of Ani, placed in a boat which is mounted on a sledge drawn by four oxen ; at the head of the chest is a figure of Nephthys, and at the foot a figure of Isis, the boat is supplied with oars as if it were really destined to row down to Abydos, so that the body might be buried there, and its soul pass into the nether- world through the "Gap" ^ ^ @ Peka (i.e., the ' Gap') the place whence, according to the Egyptian belief, souls, under the guidance of Osiris, set out on their last journey. At the head of the boat stands a white- robed Sam priest wearing a panther skin ; he holds a bronze he played in his leisure AN EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 169 instrument for burning incense in the left hand, and with the right he scatters water on the ground from a libation vase J. Behind the boat follow a number of white-robed priests, one of whom has his head powdered. 1 Next follow more funereal offerings and flowers carried in boxes suspended from the ends of poles which the men who carry them balance on their shoulders. After these come a number of women with breasts uncovered and dishevelled hair, who in their wailing lamenta- tions lament the dead and praise his virtues. Among these would probably be the female servants of Ani's house, whose grief would be genuine, for they would feel that they had lost a good master and a comfortable home. Meanwhile the procession has moved on and has entered one of the rocky defiles to the north of Der el-Bahari, whence, winding along through the valley of the kings, they hope to reach a remote place in the Western valley. The progress of the train is slow, for the ground is rough and rocky, and frequent halts have to be made ; on the right hand and on the left, kings and nobles are buried in splendid tombs, and almost every hill which they climb hides the mummy of some distinguished Egyptian. A few miles further on, at some Ani's tomb little distance upon a hill, a rectangular opening is seen, and J2 un-re ; while a priest in white robes reads from a roll of papyrus or leather. The act of embalming has taken away from the dead man all control over his limbs and the various portions of his body, and before these can be of any use to him in the nether-world, a mouth must be given to him, and it must be opened so that his ka may be able to speak. The twenty- first and twenty-second chapters of the " Book of the Dead " refer to the giving a mouth to the deceased, and the vignette of the twenty-second chapter (Naville, bl. xxxiii) represents a priest called the "guardian of the scale," ^ fljj^i^^^ dri mdx^t, giving the deceased his mouth. In the vignette to the twenty-third chapter a priest is seen performing the opera- tion of opening the mouth \f <=> < ~~ > drit apt re y with u x the instrument r rv — and the deceased says in the text, " Ptah 1 has opened my mouth with that instrument of steel with which he opened the mouth of the gods." 2 When the mouth of the deceased had been opened, his ka gained control of his speech, intelligence and limbs, and was able to hold inter- course with the gods, and to go in and out of his tomb whenever he pleased. When the formulae are finished and all rites performed, Ani's relatives arid near friends withdraw from the mummy chamber and make their way up the stairs, through the long passage and into the first chamber, where they find that animals have been slaughtered, and that many of the assistants and those who accompanied the funeral are 1 Some copies read Shu. ? /□ VIEW OF THE COFFIN CHAMBER (from N.-iville, fin, At/afti,,!,, TciUtltvKl. Address of Nephthys ai the tool of the bier. i: Speed, „f ud.li - t - r *jU*c (jwjjl uuj^XAI JJilj ,j^^c f-kj^' an d sa Y s that it varies very little from mineral pitch, for which it can be substituted if one takes the trouble to procure it. Mummy About three or four hundred years ago Egyptian mummy a°drug. formed one of the ordinary drugs in apothecaries' shops. The trade in mummy was carried on chiefly by Jews, and as early as the twelfth century a physician called El-Magar was in the habit of prescribing mummy to his patients. It was said to be good for bruises and wounds. After a time, for various reasons, the supply of genuine mummies ran short, and the 1 Materia Medica (ed. Kiihn, in Medicorum Graecorum Opera, torn, xxv., Leipzig, 1829, p. 101). 2 See Abd el-Latif, Relation de VEgypte, tr. by De Sacy, Paris, 1810, p. 273, and Abdollatiphi Historice AZgypti Compendium, Ed. White, Oxford, 1810, p. 150. MUMMY. 175 Jews were obliged to manufacture them. They procured the bodies of all the criminals that were executed in gaols, and of people who had died in hospitals, Christians and others. They filled the bodies with bitumen and stuffed the limbs with the same substance ; this done, they bound them up tightly and exposed them to the heat of the sun. By this means they made them look like old mummies. In the year 1564 a physician called Guy de la Fontaine made an attempt to see the stock of the mummies of the chief merchant in mummies at Alexandria, and he discovered that they were made from the bodies of slaves and others who had died of the most loathsome diseases. The traffic in mummies as a drug was stopped in a curious manner. A Jew at Damietta who traded in mummies had a Christian slave who was treated with great harshness by him because he would not consent to become a Jew. Finally, when the ill-treatment became so severe that he could bear it no longer, the slave went to the Pasha and informed him what his master's business was. The Jew was speedily thrown into prison, and only obtained his End of the liberty by payment of three hundred pieces of gold. Every mummy. Jewish trader in mummy was seized by the local governor of the place where he lived, and money was extorted from him. The trade in mummy being hampered by this arbitrary tax, soon languished, and finally died out entirely. 1 The hieroglyphic word for mummy is ' ox v8 jffl Egyptian I A __Z1 iljj name Q f Sdhu, and the word used to indicate the act of making a dead the em- man into a mummy is ^ | g or _£_ n-— ^ qes ; it means to " wrap up in bandages." The Coptic forms of the latter word are KGC, KKC, KUOC, KUXOC, KUOUOCG, and they were used by the Copts to translate the Greek ivTCMpiaa/jbbs, ra^r), ivracj)td^€tv f OairTeiv, etc.; the word JULIoXum, "mummy," is also given by Kircher, Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta, Rome, 1643, p. 183, at the foot. The mummifier was called peqKUOC ; compare CTYO& [aaav ol evra^iaaraX rbv TerparJX. 3 1 Pettigrew on Mummies, p. 4. 2 Lagarde, Der Pentateuch KoJ>tisch, Gen. 1. 2. 3 Lagarde, Librorum Vet. Test. Canon. , Gen. 1. 2, p. 51. balmed body. 176 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Antiquity of em- balming. Ancient Egyptian work on anatomy. Whether the art of mummifying was known to the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, or whether it was introduced by the new-comers from Asia, is a question which is very difficult to decide. We know for a certainty that the stele of a dignitary preserved at Oxford was made during the reign of Sent, the fifth king of the second dynasty, about B.C. 4000. The existence of this stele with its figures and inscriptions entreating the god of the dead to grant sepulchral meals, points to the fact that the art of elaborate sepulture had reached a high pitch of perfection in those early times. The man for whom it was made was called ^5E^ (j Shera, and he held the dignity of ^ 0 neter hen or "prophet"; the stele also The inscriptions contain prayers asking that there may be granted to the deceased in the nether world, " thousands of oxen, linen bandages, cakes, vessels of wine, incense, etc.," which fact shows that religious belief, funereal ceremonies, and a hope for a life after death, had already become a part of the life of the people of Egypt. During the reign of king Sent, the redaction of a medical papyrus was carried out. As this work presupposes many years of experiment and experience, it is clear that the Egyptians possessed at a remote period ample anatomical knowledge for mummifying a human body. Again, if we consider that the existence of this king is proved by papyri and contemporaneous monuments, and that we know the names of some of the priests who took part in funereal ceremonies during his reign, there is no difficulty in acknowledging the great antiquity of such ceremonies, and also that they presuppose a religious belief in the actual revivification of the body because of which hoped-for event the Egyptians took the greatest possible care to preserve and afterwards to hide the bodies of the dead. Though there exists, to my knowledge, no monument of a similar nature to that of the stele of Sent which would prove beyond doubt that mummies were made in the first dynasty, still it seems tolerably certain that they were made, and there is little doubt that the Egyptians possessed all the anatomical knowledge necessary for this purpose. We know from Manetho that Teta, the second king of the first dynasty, suten reck or M royal relative." MUMMY. 177 about B.C. 4366, wrote a book upon anatomy, and that he busied himself in making experiments with drugs. The mother of this king, a lady called Shesh ^j, 1 earned fame for herself by inventing a hair wash. From the fact that the bodies of some ancient Egyptians who lived during the first four dynasties, have been found in a skeleton state in sarcophagi which had never been opened since the time they were cemented, some six thousand years ago, until the present day, it has been argued by some that mummification was not practised during the early dynasties in Egypt. Some system of preservation must have been adopted, however, because the bones are discoloured, and smell strongly of bitumen. The knowledge of the way in which the ancient Egyptians mummified their dead is obtained from the works of Greek historians, and from an examination of mummies. According to Herodotus, 2 " When in a family a man of any consideration Account of dies, all the females of that family besmear their heads and HeTo^ faces with mud, and then leaving the body in the house, they dotus. wander about the city, and beat themselves, having their clothes girt up, and exposing their breasts, and all their relations accompany them. On the other hand, the men beat them- selves, being girt up in like manner. When they have done this, they carry out the body to be embalmed. There are persons who are appointed for this very purpose ; they, when the dead body is brought to them, show to the bearers wooden models of corpses made exactly like by painting. And they show that which they say is the most expensive manner of embalming, the name of which 3 I do not think it right to mention on such an occasion ; they then show the second, Three which is inferior and less expensive ; and then the third which "fem^ is the cheapest. Having explained them all, they learn from balming. them in what way they wish the body to be prepared ; then the relations, when they have agreed on the price, depart f but ' the embalmers remaining in the workshops thus proceed to embalm in the most expensive manner. First they draw out First the brains through the nostrils with an iron hook, taking part of JJ 6 *^ balming. 1 Papyrus Ebers, Bd. II., Ghssarium Hieroglyphicum , by Stern, p. 47. 2 Bk. II. 85. 8 i.e. j Osiris. B. M. N FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. it out in this manner, the rest by the infusion of drugs. Then with a sharp Ethiopian stone they make an incision in the side, and take out all the bowels ; and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it with palm-wine, they next sprinkle it with pounded perfumes. Then having filled the belly with pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, frankin- cense excepted, they sew it up again ; and when they have done this, they steep it in natrum, leaving it under for 70 days ; for a longer time than this it is not lawful to steep it. At the expiration of the 70 days they wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in bandages of flaxen cloth, smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians commonly use instead of glue. After this the relations, having taken the body back again, make a wooden case in the shape of a man, 1 and having made it, they enclose the body ; and thus, having fastened it up, they store it in a sepulchral chamber, 2 setting it upright against the wall. In this manner they prepare the bodies that are embalmed in the most expensive way. Second " Those who, avoiding great expense, desire the middle ofem°- way, they prepare in the following manner. When they have balming. 1 Really in the form of the god Osiris. 2 Compare rapixtvii 8t b AiyvirriOQ- ovtoq fx'ev yt — \syco 5' idi'ov — ^tjpcivag rbv vtKpbv ZvvStiirvov Kai %VfiTOT^v tiroiTjiraTO. Lucian, De Luctu, §21 (ed. Dindorf, Paris, 1867, p. 569). Alyvirrioi St rd ti>repa t%,t\6vTiq rapixevovaiv avrovc, kcci (tvv tavrnlg virtp yi)g txovaiv. Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhoniai'um Instilationum lib. III. cap. 24 (ed. J. A. Fabricius, Leipzig, 1718, p. 184). Mortuos limo obliti plangunt : nec cremare aut fodere fas putant : verum arte medicatos intra penetralia collocant. Pomponius Mela, lib. I. cap. 9 (ed. Gronov., Leyden, 1782, p. 62). Aegyptia tellus Claudit odorato post funus stantia saxo Corpora, et a mensis exsanguem haud separat umbram. Silius Italicus, Punicorum lib. XIII. 11. 474-476 (ed. H. Occioni, Turin, 1889). Balsama succo unguentaque mira feruntur Tempus in aeternum sacrum servantia corpus. Corippi, De laudibus Justini, lib. III. U. 22-25 (ed. Antwerp, 1581, p. 4). MUMMY. i/9 charged their syringes with oil made from cedar, they fill the abdomen of the corpse without making any incision or taking out the bowels, but inject it at the fundament ; and having prevented the injection from escaping, they steep the body in natrum for the prescribed number of days, and on the last day they let out from the abdomen the oil of cedar which they had before injected, and it has such power that it brings away the intestines and vitals in a state of dissolution ; the natrum dissolves the flesh, and nothing of the body remains but the skin and the bones. When they have done this they return the body without any further operation. " The third method of embalming is this, which is used Third only for the poorer sort. Having thoroughly rinsed the abdomen in syrmaea, they steep it with natrum for 70 days, balming. and then deliver it to be carried away." 1 According to Genesis L 3, the embalming of Jacob occupied 40 days, but the period of mourning was 70 days. From Egyptian documents it is known that the length of the period from the death of a man to his burial varied ; in one case the embalming occupied 16 days, the bandaging 35 Period of days, and the burial 70 days, i.e., 121 days in all. In a ^" mment second case the embalming occupied 66 days, preparations varied in for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days ; in all 96 days. len S th - Elsewhere we are told that the embalming lasts 70 or 80 days, and the burial ten months, 2 The account given by Diodorus (I. 91) agrees w r ith that Account of of Herodotus in many particulars, but some additional details ^Dio- 1 ^ are given. According to it, if any man died, all his relatives dorus. and friends threw dust or mud on their heads, and went round about through the town uttering cries of grief as long as the body remained unburied ; during the interval between the death and the burial, they abstained from the use of baths and wine, they partook of no choice foods, and they put not on fine apparel. The methods of embalming were three in number ; the most expensive, the less expensive, and the poorest of all. The first method cost one talent of silver, about Cost of embalming a body. 1 Cary's translation, pp. 126, 127. 2 For the authorities see Wiedemann, Hey-odots Ziveites Buch, p. 358. N 2 i8o FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ^250; the second twenty minae, about £6o\ and the third cost very little indeed. The people who practise the art of embalming belong to a class of men in whose families this profession is hereditary, and they set down in writing a statement of the various methods of embalming practised by them and the cost of each, and ask the relatives of the dead man to decide upon the method to be adopted. When this question has been settled, the embalmers take the body into their charge, and they hand it to those who are fully acquainted with the process of embalming. The first of these called the " scribe " (ypajuLfiarevs) makes a mark on the left side of the body, which is laid upon the ground, to indicate where the incision is to be made. Next, a man, called the "ripper up" (irapa(ix i(JT ^)y "with an Ethiopian stone (\lOov AWlottlkov) makes a cut in the side lengthwise of the size indicated by the scribe. Having done this, he flees away in all haste, pursued by his assistants, who hurl after him pieces of stone and call down curses, that vengeance may come upon him for this crime ; for the Egyptians hold in abomination anyone who wounds or commits an act of violence upon the human body. The embalmers (rapixevral) are held in high honour, and are treated with much conside- ration, because they are friends of the priests, and are allowed to enter the sanctuary as if they were ceremonially pure. Having assembled around the body, one of them puts his hand into it through the cut that has been made, and draws out everything that he finds inside, with the exception of the heart and reins (lungs ?) ; others clean the intestines, and Details wash them with palm-wine and balsams. Finally, having of em- treated the body first with oil of cedar and other materials balming. J of this nature, and then with myrrh, cinnamon, and other sweetsmelling drugs and spices suitable for embalming purposes, they bring it into such a state of completeness, that the eye-lashes and eye-brows remain uninjured, and its form is so little changed that it is easy to recognize the features. The greater number of the Egyptians who keep the bodies of their ancestors in magnificent chambers, enjoy the sight of those who have been dead for several generations, and they feel great satisfaction in seeing the features and form of these MUMMY. 1S1 bodies, and look upon them, to a certain extent, as contem- poraries. With reference to the fleeing away of the paraschistes it is difficult to understand what Diodorus had in his mind. A little further on he says that the embalmers were great friends of the priests, and as this was certainly the case, the man who performed the operation probably merely fulfilled a reli- gious obligation in fleeing away, and had very little to fear. In some particulars Diodorus appears to have been mis- State- informed, and in any case the knowledge he possessed of diodorus mummies could hardly have been at first hand. He lived too n °t wholly late (about B.C. 40) to know what the well-made Theban worthy, mummies were like, and his experience therefore would only have familiarized him with the Egypto-Roman mummies, in which the limbs were bandaged separately, and the contour of their faces, somewhat blunted, was to be seen through the thin and tightly drawn bandages which covered the face. A good example of a mummy made about this date is that of the lady Mut-em-Mennu, which is preserved in the British Museum, No. 6704 ; in this mummy the features of the face can be clearly distinguished underneath the bandages. A curious idea about the fate of the intestines taken from Fate of the the body obtained among certain Greek writers. Plutarch 1 mtestines - says, in two places, that when the Egyptians have taken them out of the body of the dead man, they show them to the sun as the cause of the faults which he had committed, and then throw them into the river, while the body, having been cleansed, is embalmed. Porphyry 2 gives the same account at 1 Ol tov veKpbv dvare'pvovTes e'8ei^av rw 17X10), eiV ai/TO. pev els tov norapbv KareffaXov, tov be ciXXov acoparos rj8q Kadapov yeyovoTOS empeXovTai. Plutarch, VII. Sap. Conv., XVI., ed. Didot, p. 188. Cf. also 'Enel KaXcos el^ev, ^>°" rrf P AlyinrTioi tcov veKpcov Trjv KoiXiav e^eXovres Kai npbs tov rjXiov dvacr)(l£ovTes eKfiaXXovatv, cos alriav dndvTcov (Sv 6 uv$pamos rjpapTev. Plutarch, De Carnitnn Esu, Oratio Posterior, ed. Didot, p. 1 219. 2 'EfceTvo pevToi ov napaTrepnTeov, oti tovs dnodavovTas tcov ev yeyovorcov orav Tapixcviocriv, 18 ia ti)v koiX'iuv etjeXovres Kai els ki^cotov evOevTes peTa. tcov aXXwv, oov 8ianpaTTOvrai vnep tov veKpov, Kai ttjv kl(3(otov Kparovvres npbs tov rjXiov papTVpuvrai, evbs tojv vnep tov vexpov noiovpevov Xoyov tcov rapi^vTcov, IS2 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. greater length, and adds that the intestines were placed in a box ; he also gives the formula which the embalmers used when showing the intestines to the sun, and says that it was translated by Ekphantos into Greek out of his own language, which was presumably Egyptian. The address to the sun and the other gods who are supposed to bestow life upon man, the petition to them to grant an abode to the deceased with the everlasting gods, and the confession by the deceased that he had worshipped, with reverence, the gods of his fathers from his youth up, that he had honoured his parents, that he had neither killed nor injured any man, all these have a sound about them of having been written by some one who had a knowledge of the "Negative Confession" in the 125th chapter of the Book of the Dead. On the other hand it is difficult to imagine any Greek acquainted with the manners and customs of the Egyptians making the statement that they threw the intestines into the river, for when they were not placed in jars separate from the body, they were mummified and placed between the legs or arms, and bandaged up with the body, and the future welfare of the body in the nether-world depended entirely upon its having every member complete. General An examination of Egyptian mummies will show that the ofs r tate" eSS accounts given by Herodotus and Diodorus are generally ments^ of correct, for mummies both with and without ventral incisions and are found, and some are preserved by means of balsams and Diodorus. g um s, and others by bitumen and natrum. The skulls of mummies which exist by hundreds in caves and pits at " Ecttl be Ka\ 6 Xoyor, ov r]ppr)vev(T€V "EK(pavTOS A it rrjs Trarpiov biaXfKTov, toiovtos. 'i2 beanoTa fjXie, /cut 6eo\ ndvTts 01 ttjv £corjv rots' dvdpamois bdvTes, 7rpo(rb^aa6e pe kcu irapdboTe toIs d'ibiois 6eo1s avvoiKov. 'Eyoo ydp tovs Oeovs, o'iis oi yoveis pot napebei^av, evaeftcov biereXovv oaov XP^ V0V tv r< £ eKelvco alcovi tov ft'iov ei^ov, tovs tc t6 acopd pov yevvtjauvTas eTijicov del' tcovtc dWiov dvOpconcov ' ovt€ aTreKTeiva, ovre napaKaTadfiKrjv dneaTeprjaa, ovre aAXo ovbev dvqiceo-TOv bieTrpa^dprjv. Ei be ti npa Kara tov epavTov fiiov fjpjprov rj (paycov r) nicov cov pr) BepiTov rjv, ov bi epavTov fjpapTov, dXXa bid tovtu (bel£as tx]v KificoTov, ivj r) yaoTqp f)v). Porphyry, De Abstinentia, lib. IV., io, ed. Didot, P- 75- 1 Wilkinson reads " Euphantos" {Ancient Egyptians, iii. 479). 2 Wiedemann {Ilerodots Zweitcs Buck, p. 354) adds ovlkra. in brackets. MUMMY. 183 Thebes contain absolutely nothing, a fact which proves that the embalmers were able not only to remove the brain, but also to take out the membranes without injuring or breaking the bridge of the nose in any way. Skulls of mummies are found, at times, to be filled with bitumen, linen rags, or resin. The bodies which have been filled with resin or some such substance, are of a greenish colour, and the skin has the ap- pearance of being tanned. Such mummies, when unrolled, perish rapidly and break easily. Usually, however, the resin and aromatic gum process is favourable to the preservation of the teeth and hair. Bodies from which the intestines have been removed and which have been preserved by being filled with bitumen are quite black and hard. The features are preserved intact, but the body is heavy and unfair to look upon. The bitumen penetrates the bones so completely that Bodiespre- it is sometimes difficult to distinguish which is bone and bltumenf which is bitumen. The arms, legs, hands, and feet of such natron, mummies break with a sound like the cracking of chemical matic sub- glass tubing ; they burn very freely, and give out great heat. stances - Speaking generally they will last for ever. When a body has been preserved by natron, that is, a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, the skin is found to be hard, and to hang loosely from the bones in much the same way as it hangs from the skeletons of the dead monks preserved in the crypt beneath the Capuchin convent at Floriana, in Malta. The hair of such mummies usually falls off when touched. The Egyptians also preserved their dead in honey. 'Abd Bodies cl-Latif relates that an Egyptian worthy of belief told him hoTey! that once when he and several others were occupied in exploring the graves and seeking for treasure near the Pyramids, they came across a sealed jar, and having opened it and found that it contained honey, they began to eat it. Some one in the party remarked that a hair in the honey turned round 'one of the fingers of the man who was dipping his bread in it, and as they drew it out the body of a small child appeared with all its limbs complete and in a good state of preservation ; it was well dressed, and had upon it numerous ornaments. 3 The body of Alexander the Great 3 'Abd el-Latit, tr. Da Sacy, p. 199 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Bodies preserved bybitumen and salt only, Oldest mummy in the world. Character- istics of mummies ot different periods. was also preserved in " white honey which had not been melted." 1 The bodies of the poor were preserved by two very cheap methods ; one method consisted of soaking in salt and hot bitumen, and the other in salt only. In the first process every cavity was filled with bitumen, and the hair disappeared ; clearly it is to the bodies which were preserved in this way that the name " mummy" or bitumen was first applied. The salted and dried body is easily distinguishable. The skin is like paper, the features and hair have disappeared, and the bones are very white and brittle. The oldest mummy in the world about the date of which there is no doubt, is that of Seker-em-sa-f, 2 son of Pepi L and elder brother of Pepi II., B.C. 3200, which was found at Sakkarah in 188 1, and which is now at Gizeh. The lower jaw is wanting, and one of the legs has been dislocated in transport ; the features are well preserved, and on the right side of the head is the lock of hair emblematic of youth. An examination of the body shows that Seker-em-sa-f died very young. A number of bandages found in the chamber of his pyramid at Sakkarah are similar to those in use at a later date, and the mummy proves that the art of embalming had arrived at a very high pitch of perfection already in the Ancient Empire. The fragments of a body which were found by Colonel Howard Vyse in the pyramid of Mycerinus at Gizeh, are thought by some to belong to a much later period than that of this king ; there appears to be, however, no evidence for this belief, and as they belong to a man, and not to a woman, as Vyse thought, they may quite easily be the remains of the mummy of Mycerinus. The skeletons found in sarcophagi belonging to the first six dynasties fall to dust when air is admitted to them, and they emit a slight smell of bitumen. Mummies of the Xlth dynasty are usually very poorly made ; they are yellowish in colour, brittle to the touch, and fall to pieces very easily. The limbs are rarely bandaged separately, and the body having been wrapped carelessly in a 1 Budge, History of Alexander the Great, p. 141. 2 Maspero, Guide du Visiteur au Musee de Bou/aq, 1883, p. 347. MUMMY. number of folded cloths, is covered over lengthwise by one Character- large linen sheet. On the little finger of the left hand a munraries scarab is usually found; but besides this there is neither of different amulet nor ornament. The coffins in which mummies of this penods ' period are found are often filled with baskets, tools, mirrors, bows and arrows, etc., etc. Mummies of the Xllth dynasty are black, and the skin is dry ; bandages are not common, and in the cases where they exist they are very loosely put on. Scarabs, amulets, and figures of gods are found with mummies of this epoch. From the XHIth to the XVI Ith dynasties mummies are very badly made and perish rapidly. From the XVI I Ith to the XX 1st dynasties the mummies of Memphis are black, and so dry that they fall to pieces at the slightest touch ; the cavity of the breast is filled with amulets of all kinds, and the green stone scarab inscribed with the XXXth chapter of the Book of the Dead was placed over the heart. At Thebes, during this period, the mummies are yellow in colour and slightly polished, the nails of the hands and feet retain their places, and are stained with henna. The limbs bend in all directions without breaking, and the art of careful and dainty bandaging has attained its greatest perfec- tion. The left hand wears rings and scarabs, and papyri inscribed with chapters of the Book of the Dead are found in the coffins, either by the side of the mummy, or beneath it. After the XX 1st dynasty the custom arose of placing the mummy in a cartonnage, sewn or laced up the back, and painted in brilliant colours with scenes of the deceased ador- ing the gods and the like. In the period between the XXVIth dynasty and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander, the decoration of mummies reached its highest point, and the ornamentation of the car- tonnage shows the influence of the art of Greece upon that of Egypt. The head of the mummy is put into a mask, gilded or painted in bright colours, the cartonnage fits the body very closely, and the feet are protected by a sheath. A large number of figures of the gods and of amulets are found on the mummy itself, and many things which formed its private pro- perty when alive were buried with it. Towards the time of FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Character- the Ptolemies, mummies become black and heavy; bandages mummies anc * body are made by the bitumen into one solid mass, of different which can only be properly examined by the aid of a hatchet, peno s. s uc h mummies are often wrapped in coverings inscribed with scenes and texts, copied, without any knowledge of their meaning, by an artist who altered them to suit his own fancy or purpose. About B.C. ioo mummies were very carefully bandaged ; each limb was treated separately, and retained its natural shape after bandaging, and the features of the face, somewhat blunted, are to be distinguished beneath the bandages. About A.D. 50 the desire on the part of relatives and friends to see the face of the deceased resulted in the inser- tion of a piece of wood, painted with his portrait, over the face of the dead man. The mummies, from this time on to the fourth century, are of little interest, for they become mere bundles ; scenes were painted, athwart and along the bodies, in which the deceased is represented adoring ill-shaped Egyptian deities ; but little by little the hieroglyphic inscrip- tions disappear, and finally those in Greek take their place. Greece- A remarkable example of a very late Graeco-Roman mummy, mummies, probably of the fourth century A.D., is British Museum No. 21,810. The body is enveloped in a number of wrappings, and the whole is covered with a thin layer of plaster painted a pinkish-red colour. Over the face is in- serted a portrait of the deceased, with a golden laurel crown on his head ; on the breast, in gold, is a collar, each side of which terminates in the head of a hawk. The scenes painted in gold on the body are : I. Anubis, Isis, and Nephthys at the bier of the deceased. 2. Thoth, Horus, uraei, etc., referring probably to the scene of the weighing of the heart. 3. The soul revisiting the body, which is attempting to rise up from a bier, beneath which are two jars ; beneath this scene is a winged disk. Above these scenes in a band is inscribed, in Greek, "O Artemidorus, farewell." APTEMIAWPH, €Y*YXI ; and above the band is a vase ^ , on each side of which is a figure of Maat ^ . Mummies of children of this period have the hair curled and gilded, and hold bunches of flowers in their hands, which are crossed over their breasts. Mummy of Artemidorus. To face p. 186. MUMMY. IS 7 In the early centuries of our era, mummies of wealthy people Descrip- were wrapped in royal cloth made wholly of silk. 1 When ^m^ies Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, and his disciple John took up h y Pisen- their abode in a tomb in the " mountain of Tchemi " (niTCJOOT ft CTkjULI = u^Ki ^ the necropolis of Thebes) they found it filled with a number of mummies, the names of which were written on a parchment roll which lay close by them. The two monks took the mummies and piled them up one upon the other ; the outer coffins were very large, and the coffins in which the bodies were laid were much decorated. The first mummy near the door was of great size, and his fingers and his toes were bandaged separately (rteCfTK.S. ft XIX rtCJUL neq^X^TX KKC ft OTv vtKpibv airo\r]^ofxai irapa tov SwT^pof dtpdaprov avTo. — See Life of Antony by Athanasius. (Migne, Patrologiae, Ser. Grsec. lorn. 26, col. 972.) 2 De Bysso Antiquorum, London, 1776, pp. 70, 71, • Herodote, Paris, 1802, p. 357. 4 Bcitrage, Gottingen, 181 1, pt. 2, p. 73. FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Jomard thought that both cotton and linen were used for bandages of mummies ; 1 Granville, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1825, P- 2 74» zlso embraced this view. The question was finally settled by Mr. Thomson, who after a twelve years' study of the subject proved in the Philosophical Magazine (Illrd Series, Vol. V., No. 29, Nov., 1834) that the Mummy bandages were universally made of linen. He obtained for made of his researches about four hundred specimens of mummy linen. cloth, and employed Mr. Bauer of Kew to examine them with his microscopes. " The ultimate fibre of cotton is a transparent tube without joints, flattened so that its inward surfaces are in contact along its axis, and also twisted spirally round its axis : that of flax is a transparent tube jointed like a cane, and not flattened nor spirally twisted." 2 The coarse linen of the Egyptians was made of thick flax, and was used for making towels, awnings and sail-cloth ; 3 the fine linen, *066vr} } is thought by some to be the equivalent of the trn?P ptDN of Proverbs vii. 16. The Greek 2iv$a>v = Heb. \H&, was used to denote any linen cloth, and some- times cotton cloth ; but the ctlvSovos fivacrivris with which mummies, according to Herodotus (II. 86), were bandaged, is certainly linen. The Egyptian word usually translated by " byssus " is p g shens, Coptic cgeitc ; ordinary words for linen are J|j^ mdk, 0 ^> 5 mennui, ^ 5 nu y Coptic n^T = oOovlwv /3vacnv(ou (Rosetta Stone, 1. 17). One piece of very fine texture of linen obtained at Thebes had 152 threads in the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each inch, and a second piece described by Wilkinson (Ancient Egyptians, III. 165) had 540 threads in the warp, and no in the woof. 4 One of the cities in Egypt most 1 Description de VEgyfte ; Memoires stir les Ilyf ogees, p. 35. 2 See Yates, Textrinum Antiqaorum ; London, 1843, p. 262, where the whole subject is carefully discussed. 3 Comp. ^ ?|7^ Ezekiel, xxvii. 7. 4 See also an interesting letter by De Fleury to M. Deveria on " Les Etoffes Egyptiennes " in Rev. Arch., t. XXI, Paris, 1S70, pp. 217-221. MUMMY CLOTH. famous for its linen industry was flojg>t& Apu, the Pano- J^P^j* polis of the Greeks, 1 the ^JULIJUL or ctjjuuit of the Copts, centre of and Akhmim 2 of the Arabs ; but as Egypt exported great ^vers. quantities of this material, and also used immense quantities for bandages of mummies, it is probable that other cities also possessed large linen manufactories. 3 The length and breadth of mummy bandages vary from Mummy about 3 feet by 2 \ inches, to 13 feet by 4^ inches ; some are bandages * made with fringe at bolh ends, like a scarf, and some have carefully made selvedges. Large linen sheets several feet square are also found in tombs. The saffron coloured pieces of linen with which mummies are finally covered measure about 8 feet by 4 feet. Usually two or three different kinds of linen cloth are used in bandaging mummies. Mummy cloths are with very few exceptions quite plain, and it is only in the Greek times that the fine outer linen covering is decorated with figures of gods, etc., in gaudy colours. Several square pieces of linen in the Museums of Europe are ornamented with blue stripes, and it is pretty certain that the threads which form them were dyed with indigo before they were woven into the piece. As far back as the time of Amenophis III. it was customary to inscribe texts in the hieratic and hieroglyphic characters upon mummy cloths, and at that period large vignettes accompany the chapters from the Book of the Dead ; after the XXV Ith dynasty hieratic only appears to have been used for this purpose, and the bandages, which are rarely more than four inches wide, are frequently so coarse that the text is almost illegible. Badly drawn vignettes, drawn in outline, usually stand at the top of each column of writing. The marvellous skill which the Egyptians displayed in Duration making linen did not die out with the fall of the native industry 1 YlavCjv iro\ic, \ivovpyiuv Kal \160vpyujv KaroiKia 7raXaia, Strabo, XVII., I. 42. in Egypt. - Akhmim has a population of about 10,000 souls, and of these 1000 are Christians. In the map published by Yates {Textrinum Antiquoram, p. 250) to show the divisions ot the ancient world in which sheep's-wool, goat's-hair, hemp, cotton, silk, beaver's- wool, camel's-wool, camel's-hair and linen are found, the only other districts where linen wos made besides Egypt are Colchis, Cinyps, and a district near the mouth of the Rhine. 192 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. sovereigns of Egypt, and the Copts, or native Christians of that country, carried on the industry with splendid success until the twelfth century of our era. Although they ceased to mummify their dead, for the hope of the resurrection of the body given by Christianity practically killed the art of embalming, they continued to dress them in garments which are remarkable for the beauty of the embroidery and Discovery tapestries with which they are decorated. A great "find" tfan necro- of fine exam P les °f tnis work was made at Akhmim, the poiisat ancient Panopolis, in 1884. The graves at Akhmim are Panopohs. a k out f eet deep, and are not indicated by any mound. The bodies appear to have been buried with natron sprinkled over them, for many of their garments are covered with crystals of this substance ; and they appear also to have been buried with their best clothes on. The head was provided with a band or cap, and was sometimes supported on a pillow. The body wore a tunic, and the feet had stockings, sandals or shoes upon them ; the head, breast, arms, and fingers were decorated with ornaments. The condition in life of the deceased was indicated by inscriptions on rectangular wooden tesserae (see p. 188), or by his tools, which were buried with him. The body was entirely covered over with linen and laid upon a board, and thus dressed was then deposited in the Ornaments earth. The chief ornaments found in the tombs at Akhmim tne^odieT are: hair-pins and combs made of wood or bone; earrings of several shapes and forms made of glass ; silver and bronze filigree work, gold with little gold balls, and iron with pendent agates ; necklaces made of amber, coloured glass, and blue and green glazed faience beads ; torques, or neck-rings, made of bronze ; bracelets, open and closed, made of bronze, iron, glass and horn ; finger-rings of bronze ; and bronze belt buckles made in the form of a Christian cross. A large number of ivory crosses are also found ; the cross which is found so often on these objects was not used merely as an ornament, but as a special symbol and emblem of Christianity. 1 Age of the The most ancient and the greater number of the tombs which necropolis. 1 I owe these details to Forrer, Die Graber und Textilfunde von Achmim —Panopolis. Strassburg, 1891, pp. 12, 13. This book contains 16 plates on which are photographed, in colours, 250 pictures of the textile fabrics and the other most interesting objects found at Akhmim. MUMMY CLOTH. 193 contained these belong to the second or third century after Christ, and the most recent to the eighth or ninth century; 1 they are taken from bodies of Christians and heathen which were buried with or without coffins, or in private or common burial places. The Museum of Gobelins possesses a piece of cloth, the threads of the woof of which are made of pure silk, and this is said by M. Gerspach, 2 the Director of the National Manufactory at Gobelins, to belong to a period subsequent to the eighth century, because silk does not appear in Egyptian tapestries until that century. It may then be considered that the Coptic linen work found at Akhmim covers a period of eight centuries, viz., ii-ix. M. Gerspach adds, " II est fort probable que les Coptes ont continue, pendant plusieurs siecles encore, une fabrication dans laquelle ils excellaient ; ils ont vraisemblablement travaille a ces milliers de pieces representant les grands hommes de l'lslam, montrant des villes, des paysages et des animaux que possedait le calif Mostansser-Billah et qui furent brulees au Caire en 1062 avec les immenses richesses accumulees dans le Depot des eten- dards M (p. 2). Of the character, style, design, and antiquity Gerspach of Coptic linen work he says, " Le style est plus ou moins pur, Snen°work mais il denote constamment une gran de liberte decomposition a pd de- sitins. et de facture ; il est exempt de minuties et de subtilites, meme lorsque nous ne comprenons pas tres bien la pensee de l'artiste. Quand il ne se rattache pas a la decoration romaine ou a Tart oriental, il est original, il a un caractere propre, une saveur particuliere, qu'il soit fin comme nos dentelles ou epais et obtus comme les ornements des races inferieures ; il constitue alors, dans une manifestation intime et populaire, un genre special qu'on nommera peut-etre bientot le style copte. A premiere vue, en effet, on retrouve l'antiquite dans les pieces les plus simples, qui sont aussi les plus anciennes ; en general, ces morceaux sont d'une seule couleur pourpre ou brune, avec 1 According to Forrer (p. 26), the foundation of the cemetery at Akhmim may be dated in the first or second century after Christ, and the decay of the art of the best kind is to be sought at the end of the seventh or in the course of the eighth century after Christ. 2 Les Tapisseries Coptes, Paris, 1890, p. 2. This most interesting work contains 153 reproductions in one or more colours of the most important designs found on Akhmim linen. B. M. O 194 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. des filets clairs en lin ecru. Le dessin est sommaire, net, sobre, bien combine, harmonieux, d'une grande franchise plastique, dans le style qu'adoptera ulterieurement Tart heraldique ; naturellement, dans la figure il est plus faible que dans l'ornement, car le tapissier, avec sa broche, ne trace pas aussi facilement que le ceramiste avec son pinceau ; nous devons excuser les tapissiers Coptes, leurs successeurs de tous les temps et de tous ies pays ayant comme eux fait plus ou moins de fautes de dessin Les tapisseries polychromes 1 sont generalement posterieures a cette premiere serie, mais il importe de faire remarquer que certains modeles primitifs n'ont pas ete abandonnes et qu'on les retrouve dans les tissus modernes du bas Danube et de l'Orient Jusqu'ici 2 le dessin est clair et lisible ; maintenant nous arrivons a une suite inferieure ; les lignes se compliquent et les formes deviennent epaisses ; l'ornement est encore dans un bon esprit, mais les figures sont faibles Avec les siecles suivants, nous tombons dans une decadence relative, moins profonde que celle de la mosai'que au IX e siecle ; le corps humain est contourne, strapasse ; les tetes sont bestiales ; les animaux sont difformes et fantastiques, pourvus de sortes de tentacules ; ils se transforment en ornements ; la flore n'est meme plus ornemanisee ni conventionelle ; certains motifs sont incomprehensibles ; l'ornement, mieux tenu, presente toujours des combinaisons inte>essantes ; . . . . meme dans leurs fautes, les Coptes cotitinuent a prouver qu'ils sont decorateurs." Canopic Jars or Vases. " Canopic jars " is the name given to the series of four jars in which the principal intestines of a deceased person were placed. They were thus named by the early Egyptolo- gists, who believed that in them they saw some confirmation of the legend handed down by some ancient writers that Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who is said to have been buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was worshipped there under the form of a jar with small feet, a thin neck, a swollen body, and 1 Of the fourth century. 2 Fifth century. CANOPIC JARS. 195 a round back. Each jar was dedicated to one of the four genii of the underworld, who represented the cardinal points, and each jar was provided with a cover which was made in the shape of the head of the deity to whom it was dedicated. The names and characteristic heads of each are : — 1. Mestha g^/^ or Amset f^P]^>^|^[^J> man-headed. 2. Hapi the dead - Ad dog-headed. 3. Tuamautef *^ ^ ^ jackal- headed. 4. Zljj ^ |^ HI Qebhsennuf, hawk-headed. Mestha represented the south, Hapi the north, Tuamautef the east, and Qebhsennuf the west. These four gods are, in some texts, said to be the children of Horus, and in others the children of Osiris. Each jar was hollowed out and re- ceived one of the larger intestines after it had been steeped in bitumen and wrapped up in bandages ; the covers of the jars were then fastened on by plaster. Mr. Pettigrew examined the contents of one set of vases, and it was found that the vase dedicated to Mestha contained the stomach and large intestines ; that dedicated to Hapi, the small intestines ; that dedicated to Tuamautef, the lungs and heart ; and that dedi- cated to Qebhsennuf, the liver and gall-bladder. Canopic jars A S e °^ first appear about the XVIIIth dynasty, and they continue in use until the XXVIth dynasty, after which time the Egyptians appear to have been somewhat careless about them, and either to have preferred to bury the intestines inside the body or to have forgotten the significance of their use. In the XVIIIth dynasty they are made of the most beautiful alabaster and arragonite, and fine calcareous stone ; in the XXVIth dynasty they are still made of these substances, but green and blue glazed faience and wood also appear. Later they are made of terra-cotta, and the covers are all made in the same shape ; sometimes they have the shape of a vessel of the same dia- meter at the bottom as at the top, the gods being traced upon them, in outline, on the outside surface. Frequently the jars are made of wood, painted with bright colours, and sometimes solid wooden models only are found in the tombs, a fact which shows sometimes the poverty of the deceased, and some- times probably the dishonesty of the funeral furnisher. When the intestines were not buried in jars they were returned to the O 2 a i s. 196 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. body, and figures of Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf made of wax, sheet silver, gold or porcelain, were laid upon the parts which these gods were supposed to protect. On the alabaster and stone jars the inscriptions were incised, and on wood and faience they were painted or traced in out- line in ink. In papyri of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, the vignettes of the 17th chapter of the Book of the Dead show that Canopic jars were placed in a sepulchral chest, upon the sides of which were painted figures of the four gods, in the form of men, but each having its characteristic 14 Canopic " Jar. CANOPIC JARS. I 9 7 head. Out of the cover there rises the sun with the head and arms of a man, and in each hand he holds "f* dnch, " life." {Papyrus of Ant, pi. 8.) On papyri and coffins of a later period the jars are shown arranged in a row under the bier. In the 151st chapter of the Book of the Dead the four gods are shown standing in the mummy chamber, one at each corner ; the inscriptions which refer to them read : — met' an Mesfla Says Mesthd, 9 0 XN 1 J\ 1 i - a nuk Mes0a / am Mesthd I se Ausar Speech of _ _ . . Mestha. son thy, O Osiris. ^WW>> C—L un - a em ^\ ftANW sau serut na Come have I that may be I in protection thy. Make to flourish I & □ Ptah ma pa - k men sep sen utu en rtan ma utu en house thy, firm, firm, hath commanded Ptah, as conwianded Ra t'esef Rd himself? i www met' an Says 1 - na A □ Hapi Hapi, nuk I am A □ Hapi Hapi se Ausar Speech of son thy, O Osiris. ^ api " /ww\a r i un - a em I III sau - k 0es - k Come have I that may be I in protection thy. Tie up [/]for thee © — °! in o ?i tep at - k hui nek head and limbs thy, smiting down for thee %efta enemies I I I k thy FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. xer erta - na nek tep t'etta beneath ihee. Give I to thee head [thy] for ever." III. Speech of Tuamau- tef. met an Says Tuamautef Tuamautef 0 nuk " I am 21 se - k son thy menu loving em ta k thee. \^ >WW\A I - na T Heru Horus net' tef Ausar to avenge father [my] Osiris, an nek nek ta - a su allowing to be done to thee destruction his. Place I it <3> xer ret - k t'etta sep sen under feet thy for ever and ever" Speech of Qebh- sennuf. met' an Qebh - sennuf Says Qebh - sennuf 1 „ Jfcu nuk se - k Ausar "lam son thy Osiris. s III i - na un - a em sau - k temt - a Come have I that may be I in protection thy. Gather together 1 kesu - k bones thy a at - k an - na nek I limbs thy, bring I for thee saq collect CANOPIC JARS. 199 I » ? - ^ ab - k ta - a nek su her auset - f em ^at - k ^My/ //y, place I for thee it upon seat its in body thy, WW\A J J serut - na pa - k flourish I house thy." The inscriptions on the outsides of the jars, which are sometimes accompanied by inscribed figures of the four gods, vary considerably ; some consist of a few words only, but others occupy several lines. These inscriptions show that each of the four gods was under the protection of a goddess ; thus Isis guarded Mestha, Nephthys guarded Hapi, Neith guarded Tuamautef, and Selket or Serqet guarded Qebhsennuf. The following are examples of the formulae inscribed on these jars : — 1 1 ams - ii 1 n pm^^ met' an Auset sam - a t'et setep - a Speech of Says Isis, " Conquer I the foe, make I S1S ' sa her Amse0 enti am - a sa protection over Amseth who is in me. The protection of Ausar sa Amse0 Ausar Amse0 Osiris [is] the protection of Amseth, [for] Osiris [is] Amscth." 1 These inscriptions are taken from the set of Canopic jars exhibited in the British Museum, Nos. 886 to 889 ; they were made for the commander of soldiers ft / 1 Nefer-ab-Ra-em-xut, Psammetichus, son of Neith, son of Ta-ta- O □ o-=> nub-hetep. See Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions, 1st Series, pi. 114. 2 Here follow the name and titles of the deceased. 200 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGVPT. Speech of Nephthys. met' an Nebt-het hap - a seseta ari - a Says Nephthys, " Hide I the secret thing, make I i □ bessa her Hapi protection over Hapi c± \\ enli who is am - a sa in me. The protection of j Ausar sa Hapi Ausar pu Hapi Osiris [is] the protection of Hapi, [for] Osiris [is] Hapi." III. TUAMAUTEF. Speech of Neith. met' an Says O o Net setua - a Neith, '''•Make pass the morning I, <2>- semaser - a hru neb her ari maket en make pass the night I of day every in making the protection of Tuamautef Tuamautef a \\ enti which is ^CD- am - a sa Ausar in me. The protection of Osiris sa Tuamautef j]<2>. * Ausar pu is! [is] the proteciioti of Tuamautef [ for] Osiris IV. Qebhsennuf. 1p} 1 (1 U \ www I Tuamautef Tuamautef." Speech of Serqet. met' an Says A Serqet Serqet, seqctet 3 -<2>- maket sa - a hru neb ari maKet en u protection my day every in making protection of Qebh-sennu-f Qebh-sennu-f CHESTS FOR CANOPIC JARS. 20 1 entet am - a sa Ausar sa which is in me. The protection of Osiris [is] the protection of Qebh-sennnu-f Ausar pu Qebh-sennu-f Qebh-sennuf, [for] Osiris [is] Qebh-sennu-f" Frequently the first parts of these inscriptions read, Variant ' ~~ 1 w 1 ^ en ^ em aam • mti /www dm-d. H I embrace with my two arms that which is in me the variants for A Q { } being 0 ® ( ] sexen and h f X /www 1 0 0 I waw V 0 1 /www t > ' I frequently also they only contain the names and titles of the deceased preceded by the words ^ dmyi % er "watchfully devoted to," which are followed by the names of the four gods. Often the same formula is repeated on all four jars. Chests for Canopic Jars. The chests, or coffers, which held Canopic jars were made of wood, and were usually painted black ; they were fitted on a kind of sledge with two runners, the ends of which were rounded. They are about two feet square. On one end are traced in outline figures of Neith and Serqet, and on the other Isis and Nephthys ; on the one side are Mestha and Hapi, and on the other Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf. By the side of each god is inscribed the formula which is given in the 151st chapter of the Book of the Dead, and by the side of each goddess is inscribed the formula which is found on Canopic vases. (Excellent examples of chests on sledges are Nos. 8543a:, and 8543 3rd Egyptian Room, British Museum.) The inside of the chest is divided into four equal spaces by wooden partitions, and in each stood a jar. The use of such chests is certainly as old as the Xllth dynasty. 202 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead not a 'Ritual.' Early printed copies of the Book of the Dead. The collection of chapters, or distinct compositions, which the ancient Egyptians inscribed upon pyramids, walls of tombs, sarcophagi, coffins and papyri, amulets and other objects which were buried in the tombs with the dead was called " Rituel Funeraire" by Champollion, and this mislead- ing name was adopted by De Rouge\ who, in his Etudes sur le Rituel Funeraire des Anciens Egyptiens, 1 brought forward reasons for so doing, and considered that all he had said "justifie suffisamment, suivant nous, le titre choisi par Cham- pollion." Champollion's grammar shows that he had studied every part of the so-called Ritual, and the many short passages which he translated prove that he recognized the nature of its contents, and rightly appreciated its great value from a religious point of view ; it is quite clear, however, that he never completely analysed a single chapter of it, and that he never translated any passage from it of considerable length. Had this remarkable man lived to examine the work further he would have seen that it was not a " Ritual." 2 This collection of chapters was entitled " Todtenbuch " by Lepsius, in 1842, and by the name "BOOK OF THE Dead" it is now most generally known. The earliest publications of parts or whole copies of the Book of the Dead were made by Cadet (J. Marc), Copie figuree d'un rouleau de Papyrus, trouve a Thebes , dans un tombeau des Rois, Strassburg, 1805 ; Fontana, Copie figuree d'un rouleau de papyrus trouve en Egypte, publiee par Fontana et expliquee par Joseph de Hammer, Vienna, 1822 ; Sen- 1 In Revue Archeologique, N.S., torn. i. i860, pp. 69-100, 234-249, 337-365. 2 Dieser Codex ist kein Ritualbuch, wofiir es Champollion's Bezeichnung " Rituel Funeraire" zu erklaren scheint ; es enthalt keine Vorschriften fiir den Todtenkultus, keine Hymnen oder Gebete, welche von den Priestern etwa bei der Beerdigung gesprochen worden waren : sondern der Verstorbene ist selbst die handelnde Person darin, und der Text betrifft nur ihn und seine Begegnisse auf der langen Wanderung nach dem irdischen Tode. Es wird entweder erzahlt und beschrieben, wohin er kommt, was er thut, was er hort und sieht, oder es sind die Gebete un 1 Anreden, die er selbst zu den verschiedenen Gottern, zu welchen er gelangt, spricht. Lepsius, Vorwort (Todtenbuch), p. 3. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 203 kowski, Exemplum Papyri Aegyptiacce quam in peregrinatione sua repertam Universitati Cracoviensi dono dedit, Petropoli, 1826 ; x Young, Hieroglyphics, London, 1823, fol., plates L— VI.; Hawkins, Papyri in the Hieroglyphic and Hieratic character from the Collection of the Earl of Belmore, London, 1843, fol., plates 1-8 ; and Rosellini, Breve notizia intorno un frammento di Papiro funebre egizio essistente nel ducale museo di Parma ; Parma, 1839, 8vo ; Description de VEgypte, ed. Jomard, Anti- quites, torn. ii. The most important publication, however, was that of Lepsius in 1842, who under the title of Das Lepsius Todtenbuch der Aegypter, reproduced the complete text of {he > TurS a papyrus at Turin, which contained 165 chapters. The Papyrus, custom of inscribing chapters of Books of the Dead upon the walls of the sarcophagus chambers of tombs is as old as the Vth dynasty, but at that epoch large, well-spaced hiero- glyphics, arranged between lines, occupy the walls conjointly with architectural decorations ; 2 towards the Vlth dynasty the space allotted for decorative purposes becomes narrower, the hieroglyphics are smaller, and the inscriptions overflow into the passages and chambers, the walls of which, in earlier times, were left blank. The pyramids of the Vth and Vlth dynasties which have inscriptions on their inner walls are those of Unas, Teta, Pepi I., Pepi II., and Seker-em-sa-f ; this set of inscriptions is usually called the " Pyramid Texts, " The Pyra- and they have been published with a French translation by mid Texlb * Maspero in Recueil de Travaux : Unas, torn, iii., pp. 177-224, and torn, iv., pp. 41-78 ; Teta, torn, v., pp. 1-60; Pepi I., torn, v., pp. 157-199, torn, vii., pp. 145-176, torn, viii., pp. 87-119; Pepi II., torn, ix., pp. 177-196, torn, x., pp. 1-28, torn, xi., pp. 1-30, torn, xii., pp. 53-95, I36-I95- During the Xlth dynasty the custom of writing chapters of the Books of the Dead upon wooden coffins or sarcophagi became common ; examples of the texts of this period, written upon coffins in the hieratic character, have been Texts in- scribed up- on coffins. 1 This book was published at the expense of the Academy of St. Petersbuig, and never came into the market. ' Maspero, La Religion Egyptienne, Waprfo les Pyramides de la V e et de la VI e Dynast ie (in Revue de PHistoire des Religions, Paris, 1885, p. 124). 204 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Texts writ- ten upon papyri. Vignettes and orna- mentation of papyri. published by Lepsius 1 and Birch. 2 At this period Books of the Dead were also written upon papyrus. 8 After the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt by the kings of Thebes, copies of the Book of the Dead were usually written upon papyri, and these papyri are of various lengths and widths. The roll of papyrus was often placed in a rec- tangular niche in the wall of the tombs, or in the coffin by the side of the mummy ; sometimes it was placed between the legs, and sometimes it was fastened under the bandages. The length and style of execution of the work depended entirely upon the fancy of the relatives of the dead man. Books of the Dead, illuminated and plain, formed part of the stock in trade of the Egyptian undertaker. If the purchaser were rich he would probably select the best copy he could buy ; if poor he would be content with a simple undecorated text. In these "stock" copies blank spaces were left to receive the names of the deceased for whom they were purchased. Copies are extant in which, through omission or neglect, no name whatever has been inserted. The numerous badly-written and incorrect copies which are so common in the museums of Europe are probably the result of cheap work ; careless work, however, exists in the most beautiful papyri, and some of the finest known contain blunders which show not only that the scribe was careless, but also that he did not understand what he was writing. Books of the Dead are written in the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and are ornamented with pictures of the gods, sacred animals and birds, mythological scenes, re- presentations of the funeral procession, etc., etc., painted, at times, in as many as thirteen colours. The titles of the chapters, catch-words, and certain passages are written in red, and the text in black. Hieroglyphic texts are usually written in perpendicular lines, and those in hieratic in horizontal lines. The vignettes and scenes were probably executed by one class of men, and the text by another, and it seems some- times as if the relatives of the dead spent nearly all the 1 Aelteste Texte des Todtenlnichs, Berlin, 1867, 4to. 2 The Coffin of Amamn, London, 1886, fol. 3 For the fragments found with the mummy of An-Antef, see B.M. First Egyptian Room, Case D. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 205 money which they could afford to spend upon a copy of the Book of the Dead on the artists' work for pictures, while they left the execution of the text to an inferior scribe. Although many of the faulty readings which occur in the Book of the Dead are to be attributed to the carelessness of the scribe, it is quite certain that a very large number were the result of his ignorance, and that, at times, he did not know which was the beginning or end of the text which he was about to copy. In proof of this M. Naville 1 has reproduced from a papyrus the 77th chapter copied from the wrong end, and on the opposite page he gives the restored text in the right order. An examination of papyri shows that frequently more than one artist and scribe were employed in making a single copy of the Book of the Dead ; but it is also evident that in some instances both the vignettes and the text were the work of one man. According to M. Naville the Book of the Dead is known to us in four recensions : — 1. That of the Old and Middle Empires, which is usually The recen- written in hieroglyphics. Book°of he 2. The Theban recension, which was much used from the Deac1, the XVIIIth-XXth dynasty, also written in hieroglyphics. 3. The redaction closely resembling that of Thebes which obtained after the XXth dynasty, and which was written in hieratic ; in it the chapters have no fixed order. 4. A text of the Sai'te and Ptolemaic periods written both in hieroglyphic and hieratic characters ; this text shows that the Book of the Dead at this epoch had undergone a thorough revision, and in it the chapters have a fixed order. The texts of the earliest recension are, for the most part, written in hieroglyphics upon tombs and sarcophagi, but texts written upon papyrus in hieroglyphic and hieratic characters took their place, probably because they cost less money, and 1 In his Einleihmg, pp. 42, 43. 206 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. because the relatives of the deceased could make them as long or as short as they pleased. It is probable that Books of the Dead were not written in hieratic during the XVII Ith dynasty. Acom- I n September, 1874, at a special meeting of the second P lete edj- International Congress of Orientalists, a resolution was passed Book of to the effect that for the furtherance of Egyptian studies an the Dead edition of the Book of the De ad, or the "Bible of the Old contem- ' plated. Egyptians," as critical and complete as possible, should be steadily kept in view. It was further resolved that such an edition should contain the text of the Book of the Dead in three forms : — 1. Under the Old Empire ; 2. Under the Theban dynasties of the New Empire ; 3. Under the Psammetici (XXVIth dynasty). 1 A Committee was formed which was composed of Messrs. Birch, Lepsius, Chabas and Naville, and M. Naville M. Naville undertook the labour of this work. At the instance undertakes Q f Lepsius the Berlin Academy voted a sum of ^,000 to make 1 J u ' theedition. marks for preliminary expenses, and the Prussian Govern- ment voted 4,800 thalers for its publication. When M. Naville began to collect materials for his edition, he found that the texts of the Old Empire were so few while those of the XXVIth dynasty were so many, and had so few actual variants in them, that he abandoned the idea of making an edition of the texts of the first and third recensions, and at the Fourth International Congress of Orientalists held at Florence, in September, 1878, he asked the Committee to Change allow him to alter the original plan, and he stated his inten- tion of confining himself to collecting carefully all the neces- sary texts for a critical edition of the Theban recension of the Book of the Dead. He believed that in order to obtain a correct text of this recension, accurate copies of carefully written papyri must be published, from which, by comparison, the text may be emended. In 1886 M. Naville gave to the world the two volumes which contained the results of his twelve years' labour, under the title of Das Aegyptische Tod- tenbuch der X VIII. bis XX. Dynastie, Berlin, 2 fol. The first 1 Transactions of the Second Session of the International Congress of Orien- talists, held in London, in September, 1874, London, 1876, p. 442. 2 Lepsius unfortunately died before the work was issued. Egyptologists are indebted to Dr. Dillmann of Berlin for the issue of this valuable work. of pi an. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 207 volume contains the text 1 and vignettes which were ably drawn by Madame Naville, and the second contains the variants. In a small quarto volume published a few months later, we have four chapters in which are discussed the Theban edition of the Book of the Dead, its history, its im- portance and the manner in which it was written ; the descrip- tion of the texts used by M. Naville, remarks on each chapter of the Book of the Dead, and a list of the chapters in hiero- glyphics. The texts of the Theban recension contain many corrupt readings, but it is of the greatest importance to have the material at hand from which a critical edition may one day be made, and M. Naville has rendered invaluable service to the science of Egyptology by bringing it together. 2 Among the most valuable publications of texts of the Recent Theban recension of the Book of the Dead must be mentioned, P nr ^ ted 1 copies or Photographs of the Papyrus of Nebseni* in the British Museum, texts. 1876, fol. ; Facsimile of the Papyrus of Ani (published by the Trustees of the British Museum, 1890, fol.); Papyrus Fuiieraire de Nebset, ed. Pierret. 1872 ; and the papyrus of Shuti-Qenna, by Leemans, Papyrus Egyptien Funeraire HieroglypJiique du Musee a Leide, 1882, Livraison 5, Part III. A useful example of a hieroglyphic text of the Book of the Dead not earlier than the XXVIth dynasty, is that which Lepsius published in 1842 from a papyrus in Turin ; the text is full of blunders and difficulties but, notwithstanding this fact, the work is a standard one for reference, and is of consi- derable value. Of hieratic texts belonging to a period subse- quent to the XXVIth dynasty, the copy published by De Rouge is an excellent example. 4 An English translation of the Book of the Dead was Transla- published by Birch in the English edition of Bunsen's Egypt's Book°of h< Place in U?iiversal History, Vol. V, pp. 161-333, an d a French the Dead, translation by Pierret, entitled Le Livre des Morts des Anciens 1 M. Naville bases his text chiefly upon British Museum Papyrus 9,900, and the papyri which he calls Ca and Vb. 2 See the review of this work by Maspero in Revue de VHistoire des Religions^ Paris, 1887, pp. 263-315. 3 B.M. No. 9900. 4 Rituel Funeraire des Anciens Egyptiens, Paris, 1861, fol. 208 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egyptiens, appeared in Paris, in 1882 ; both these were, how- ever, made from the text of the Turin papyrus. 1 A German translation of the first fifteen chapters was published by Brugsch in A eg. Zeitschrift, 1872, pp. 65-72, 129-134, and specially interesting chapters have been discussed by Birch, 2 Maspero, 3 Lefebure, 4 Guieysse, 5 Pierret, 6 and others. A number of " supplementary " chapters were published by Pleyte {CJia- pitres sitpplementaires du Livre des Morts, 162, 162*, 164-174) with translation and commentary, at Leyden in 1881, and Schiaparelli has translated and commented upon a large por- tion of one of the Books of the Dead in // libro dei funerali degli antichi Egiziani? Antiquity The age of the Book of the Dead is unknown, but it is Book of certain that parts of it are as old as the beginning of Egyptian the Dead, civilization, and Theban tradition in Egypt asserted that the 130th chapter was as old as Hesep-ti, f j— the fifth king of the 1st dynasty ; the 64th chapter is variously stated to belong to the time of this king and to that of Men-kau-Ra (Mycerinus) of the IVth dynasty. 8 The 178th chapter must also be at least as old as the time of this last king, because it is inscribed on the cover of his wooden coffin, which is now preserved in the British Museum (1st Egyptian Room, No. 6647). 9 The oldest chapters appear to have been composed at Heliopolis, the great sanctuary and home of religious learning in Egypt, which was to the 1 A complete list of the words in this papyrus is to be found in Lieblein, Index Alphabetique, Paris, 1875. 2 The Chapter of the Pillmv, Aeg. Zeit., 1868, p. 52; the Chapter of the Heart, ibid., 1880, p. 56 ; and the Chapter of the Tie, ibid. 3 Le Chapitre de la Boucle, in Memoire sur quelques Papyrus du Louvre, Paris, 1875. 4 Les yeux oTHorus, Paris, 1874. 6 Ritucl funeraire Egyptien, Paris, 1876. 6 Etudes Egyptologiques, p. 85. 7 Estratto da/ Volume VIII delle Memorie delta R. Accademia dci Lincei, Torino, 1882 and 1S90. 8 Naville, Einleitung, p. 31. 9 I am aware that doubts have been thrown upon the age of this cover by a French writer, but it seems to me that the appearance and condition of the wood preclude any possibility of the theory that this cover was " restored " at a later period of Egyptian history being correct. THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 209 Egyptians what Jerusalem was to the Jews and Mecca is to the Mussulmans. The growth in the length of the chapters and the increase in their number was probably slow but sure ; and that revisions should take place from time to time is only what was to be expected. The commonest name for the Book of the Dead in Egyptian Egyptian is ° RD ^ ® pert em hru, which is gene- the Book rally translated by " coming forth, or going out, by day ; " Dead, this was probably only a conventional name, and may account for the difficulty which scholars have had in agreeing as to its meaning. Another name is ^ |)(| ^ | ^J^|j Re en sedqer^u^ "The Chapter of making strong the beatified spirit." (Naville, Einleitung, p. 24.) The author of the Book of the Dead was said to be the god Thoth. The Book of the Dead is composed of a series of chapters, 1 each one of which formed a distinct composition, which could be added to or omitted from a papyrus according to the wish of those who were causing a copy to be made. 2 Cham- pollion divided the book into three parts: — chapters 1— 1 5, 16-125, an d 126 to the end ; but had this scholar lived to devote more time and attention to the subject he would have seen that these divisions 3 were purely arbitrary. The Book of the Dead treats of the dead man's journey The object through Amenti, and in it he speaks to the incorporeal gods Book of and beings who reside there, uttering the formulae which will the Dead - deliver him from the foes who wish to impede his progress, reciting prayers, and chanting hymns to the great gods, with all of whom these compositions were supposed to enable him 1 A Theban papyrus never contains more than ninety chapters. 2 Es ist aber auch eine unrichtige Vorstellung, dass dieses Buch ein einziges Ganzes, eine in sich abgeschlossene von Anfang bis Ende fort schreitende Beschreibung der Seelenwanderung sei, welche von eincm Verfasser so und in dieser Ausdehnung herriihre. Es ist vielmehr eine Sammlung verschiedener fur sich bestehender Abschnitte, die sich auf die Zukunft der Seele beziehen, unter denen einzelne mehr oder minder wichtige Stellen einnehmen, auch im Allgemeinen nach einer gewissen Regel, die aber nicht immer unverbriichlich ist, angeordnet sind. Lepsius. 3 This subject is discussed by Lepsius in the Vorwort (p. 5) to his edition of the Todtcnbnch. B. M- P 210 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. to prevail. It contains texts which were ordered to be in- scribed upon amulets and bandages for the benefit of the dead ; it contains a plan of the mummy chamber and the arrange- ment of certain pieces of furniture in it ; it contains the text of the confession of the deceased in the presence of the forty- two assessors, and the scene of the weighing of the heart in the judgment hall of Osiris ; it has a representation of the Elysian Fields, etc. In our limited space here it is impossible to give the briefest summary of the chapters of the Book of the Dead and their contents ; the above notes are only in- tended to indicate the best books and chief authorities on a work which is so often referred to in these pages. Pillows. Materials The pillows ^ which the Egyptians were accustomed to pillows are put under the heads of mummies were made of wood (syca- made. more generally), granite, alabaster and calcareous stone. They vary from six to ten inches in height, and are often made in three pieces, viz., the curved neck-piece, the column and base. The column is usually round or square, and the base is oblong. The neck-piece is sometimes supported by two columns or pillars, fluted (B.M. No. 17,102), but it may be joined to the base by six supports (B.M. No. 2543), or even by twenty-one (B.M. No. 18,155). Pillows are made also in the shape of animals, e.g., B.M. No. 20,753, which is in the shape of a stag, the horns being curved downwards to form the neck-piece. Neck-pieces and columns are sometimes ornamented with ivory studs (B.M. No. 2541). The base is frequently dispensed with, and the supports are made in the form of the necks of ducks, the ends terminating in their heads and beaks. Such examples have usually the ends of the neck-piece ornamented with carvings of figures of the god Bes (B.M. No. 18,156), and sometimes with grotesque figures (apes ?) wearing plumes, and being led along by chains (B.M. No. 2256^). Such animals greatly resemble those represented on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II. The column of a Omamen- wooden pillow is ornamented in various ways, and the name of pniows° f the deceased is often written upon it in hieratic or hierogly- phics. One example (B.M. No. 2529*2) is inscribed with lion- Ushabti figure of Pa-mer-ahu. To face p. 211. USHABTIU FIGURES. 211 headed gods, J J anc * ut ' at an d neferu on the front, a figure of Bes Jj^ on the back, and a dog-headed ape holding an eye on each side. Another example (B.M. 2556^) is inscribed on the top of the neck-piece with lotus flowers and an ut'at . On each end of the base are also inscribed lotus flowers, and beneath are versions of the 55 th, 61st and 62nd chapters of the Book of the Dead ; this pillow inscribed was made for Aaua, the son of Heru, a prophet of Menthu, plllows * lord of Thebes, the son of the lady of the house Nes-Mut. ~*~l^N^$fj' The use of the pillow is very ancient, and goes Antiquity back at least as far as the Vlth dynasty ; the beautiful pillow, example in alabaster from Abydos now in the British Museum, No. 2533, made for the high official (j^^fj Atena, probably belongs to this period. For the use of models of the pillow as an amulet, see the article "Amulets." Pillows similar in size and shape are in use to this day among the tribes of Nubia, and they are found among the natives in several places along the west coast of Africa ; that the ancient Egyptians borrowed them from the peoples of the south is not likely, but that the use of them by the Ethiopians, copied from the Egyptians, spread from the Sudan southwards is most probable. Ushabtiu Figures. 1 Ushabtiu, J ^ ^ 1 1 was the name S* ven h Y the The work- Egyptians to stone, alabaster, wood, clay, and glazed faience in the figures of the god Osiris, made in the form of a mummy, wor id. which were deposited in the tombs either in wooden boxes or laid along the floor ; sometimes they are found lying in the sarcophagi and coffins. They were placed there to do certain agricultural works for the deceased, who was supposed 1 Observations on these figures by Birch have appeared in Aeg. Zeit.> 1S64, pp. 89-103, and 1865, pp. 4-20 ; Mariette, Catalogue des Monuments a" Abydos, pp. 46-48 ; and by Loret, Recueil de Travaux, pp. 90, 91. 212 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. to be condemned to sow the fields, to fill the canals with water, and to carry sand from the West to the East. The ushabtiu figures of the Xlllth dynasty are made of granite, wood, and calcareous stone ; the last substance was, however, that most commonly used. The use of faience for this purpose appears not to have been known at that epoch. Generally the hands are crossed over the breast, but sometimes they are covered up in bandages. The hands do not hold any agricultural im- plements as in the later dynasties ; and the inscriptions upon them consist usually of the name and titles of the deceased, and resemble very closely those on the stelae of this period. The breasts of sepulchral figures of this period are sometimes Descrip- inscribed with a scarabseus having its wings outspread. Blue, usAaftm g reen > brown, and red glazed faience figures appear during the at various XVIIIth dynasty, and continue until the XXVIth dynasty, by epochs* which time this substance has taken the place of stone, wood, or metal. In this dynasty the figures first begin to carry a hoe, mattock and basket. During the XlXth dynasty the dress of these figures changes, and they are represented as wearing the garments which the people for whom they are made wore during their lifetime. In the XXVIth dynasty these figures still hold the hoe, mattock and basket, and they stand on a square pedestal and have a rectangular upright plinth down the back. They were cast in moulds, and are easily distinguishable by their light bluish-green colour. Between the XXI Ind and XXI Vth dynasties ushabtiu figures seem not to have been placed in the tombs, and after the XXVIth dynasty they are made with less care, the inscriptions grow gradually shorter, and finally the figures become very small and bear no inscriptions whatever. Ushabtiu Ushabtiu figures are generally inscribed with the Vlth tion" P chapter of the Book of the Dead, which appears on them in three forms ; the following, from Mariette, Catalogue des Monu- ments d'Abydos, p. 48, is an example of the first form : — USHABTIU FIGURES. 213 I ^ I .6. 5. ^ ^ I 1 r^^i The second form (Mariette, Catalogue, p. 58) reads: — IJiKkflkjSllJLIMH-'Mi i«Hk^i-fc£:kii~y Ikkri—Alff-H t Jl Q T ? ^ T £^ ere s ° me c °pi es a( ^d (j (j ^ ^ ^ XVIITth nl iM, j j , dynasty. MAAM The third form, which agrees with the text of the 6th chapter found in papyri of the XXVIth dynasty, reads: — a risabti apen ar aptu Ausar er O ushabtiu figures these, if is decreed Osiris to arit kat nebt arit am em neter ^ert do labours any [which] are to be done there in the u?tderworld i astu hu - nef set'ebu am em se behold^ be there suit ten down for him obstructions there for a perso?i 2I 4 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. I I I er x ert _ f beneath him. □ maku - a ka - ten \wheii\ call ye. ap - tu - ten Watch ye er at ennu moment neb arit am every to work there, =^11 serutet plough I (11, 1 I I AAAAAA AMMA AMAM J*: semehi ut'ebu 7£/#^ a/a&r canals, se x et ^ fields^ er er er carry o III sa sand en 0/ Abtet er Amentet 0es rer to west. Again I I I maku - a here am I ka - ten \ivhen~\ call ye. That is to say, the deceased addresses each figure and says, " 0 ushabtiu figures, if the Osiris," that is, the deceased, " is decreed to do any work whatsoever in the underworld, may all obstacles be cast down in front of him ! " The figure answers and says, " Here am I ready whenever thou callest." The deceased next says, " O ye figures, be ye ever watchful to work, to plough and sow the fields, to water the canals, and to carry sand from the east to the west." The figures reply, " Here am I ready when thou callest." The 6th chapter of the Book of the Dead, which also forms a part of the 151st chapter, is part text and part a representation of the chamber in which the deceased in his coffin is laid. In the representation of the funereal chamber which accompanies the 151st chapter of the Book of the Dead, two ushabtiu figures only are shown, and the same text is written by the side of each of them. See Naville, Das Todtcn- bnc/i, Bl. clxxiii, Einleitung, p. 180. Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure. To face p. 215. PTAH-SEKER-AUSAR FIGURES. 215 Ushabtiu figures were placed in tombs in large numbers ; Ushabtiu in the tomb of Seti I. nearly seven hundred were found. The ^xvith figure was inscribed, in the later times, after the XXV Ith and dynasty, and laid in the model of a coffin or sarcophagus dynasties, made of wood, terra-cotta, or stone. On the coffins were painted figures of the four genii of the underworld, Anubis and other principal sepulchral deities, with appropriate in- scriptions, and these models bear a striking resemblance to the coffins made in Egypt from B.C. 500-300. The inscrip- tions on figures of this period are frequently written in a very cursive and almost illegible hieratic, and in demotic ; some- times, however, they have the form and brevity of those inscribed on the ushabtiu figures of the Xlllth dynasty. Ptah-Seker-Ausar Figures. This name is given to a large class of wooden figures, standing on pedestals, made in the shape of the god Osiris as a mummy. The god wears on his head horns, the disk and plumes , his hands are crossed over his breast, and in them he holds the flail /\ and crook The figures are Descrip- sometimes hollowed out, and contain papyri inscribed with tion of figures. prayers and chapters from a late recension of the Book of the Dead. Frequently the papyri are found in hollows in the pedestals, above which stand small models of funereal chests, surmounted by a hawk ; in the hollows portions of the body, mummified, were often placed. Many figures are quite black, having been covered by bitumen ; others are painted in the most vivid colours, with blue head-dress with yellow stripes, green, red and yellow collar, face gilded, and body covered with wings of a blue and green colour. The god Ptah-Seker-Ausar D ^ < ^ > appears on stelae in company with Osiris, Anubis and other gods of the dead, and he is addressed on figures made in his honour, because he was supposed to be specially connected with the resurrection. He is sometimes represented in the form of Osiris (Lanzone, Dizionario, pi. xcvii), and with all the attributes of this god ; the other forms in which he appears 2l6 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Forms of Ptah- Seker- Ausar. Contents of inscrip- tions. are : — i. As a little squat boy, with a beetle on his head ; and 2. As a hawk wearing a crown and feathers *$^> standing on a throne before which is a table of offerings in a shrine. In this form he is often painted on the outsides of coffins. Behind him is a winged uraeus wearing a disk, and nt'ats The inscriptions upon Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures vary greatly in length ; at times they are written in perpendicular lines down the front and back of the figure, and continue round each of the four sides of the pedestal ; at others they consist of a very few words. Be the inscription long or short, the deceased prays that Ptah-Seker and Ausar (Osiris) will give sepulchral meals of oxen, ducks, wine, beer, oil, and wax, and bandages, and every good, pure, and sweet thing to his ka. The formulae of these figures greatly resemble those found on stelae of a late period. The British Museum possesses a remarkably fine collection of these figures, and as they come from several distinct places, and have many varieties, they are most instructive. Sepulchral Boxes. Orna- mentation of sepul- chral boxes. In addition to the chests placed in tombs to hold Canopic vases, the Egyptians made use of a smaller class of wooden boxes to hold ushabtiu figures, papyri, articles of dress and other things. They vary in size from six or eight inches to two feet square. Some are made perfectly square, with sides that slant slightly inwards like the pylon of a temple, being higher than they are wide: others are oblong in shape, and each end rises above the level of the cover. Some have two and others four divisions. The outsides are usually orna- mented with scenes in which the deceased is represented adoring Ra, or Anubis, or one of the principal gods of the dead, and with figures of Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf, painted in bright colours upon a black or white ground. The boxes from Thebes are decorated in the same style as the coffins from that place. Frequently the orna- mentation consists of j|, |, (|), ^P^, J J J, etc., etc., arranged in symmetrical rows, above them being figures of Osiris, Isis, SEPULCHRAL BOXES. 217 Nephthys, and other gods of the dead. The inscriptions sometimes resemble those found on chests for Canopic jars, but frequently they contain prayers in which the deceased entreats the gods to give him gifts of cakes, bread, beer, wine, ducks, oxen, wax, oil, bandages, etc., etc. Such inscriptions are at times very brief, at others they cover the whole box. An interesting class of sepulchral boxes comes from ^°* es Ahmim, the ancient Panopolis, which deserves special Akhmh mention. The largest of them in the British Museum (No. 18,210) is 3 J feet long and 3 feet high. Each side tapers slightly towards the top, and is in the shape of a pylon. The hollow cornice is ornamented with yellow, black, and red lines upon a white ground. Beneath it are two rows of ornaments : the first is formed by jj ^ jj ^sS\ jj ^, and the second by repeated several times. Beneath each line is a row of five-rayed stars >lc^c^c^r^c- The front of the box is ornamented with an ^ uraei wearing disks and a winged disk Behind is a hawk upon a pedestal, before which is an altar with offerings. On the right hand side is Thoth with both hands raised, pouring out a libation ; and on the left is a hawk-headed deity with both hands raised also pouring out a libation. On the back of the box is a hawk, with extended wings, and sceptres ^. On the right hand side of the box is a figure of the deceased, kneeling, having his left hand raised, and above him are two cartouches PQ Behind him are three jackal-headed deities, each having his left arm raised, while his right hand is clenched and laid upon his stomach. On the left hand side of the box the deceased is represented in the same attitude, and behind him are three hawk-headed deities. These six gods form the vignettes of the 1 1 2th and 113th chapters of the Book of the Dead ; the hawk-headed were called Horus, Mestha, and Hapi, and the jackal-headed Horus, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf ; they are figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, Tav. xxvi. In two sides of the box are two pairs of rectangular openings about six inches from each end ;* the use of these is unknown to me. 1 For the description of a similar box see my article in Proc. Soc. Bib. Arch., 1886, pp. 120-122. 218 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Funereal Cones. This name is given to a large number of burnt terra-cotta conical objects which are found near tombs chiefly at Thebes, in the districts called 'Asasif and Kurnah ; they were used from the Xlth to the XXVIth dynasties. They vary in size, but the ordinary length is ten inches, and the diameter three inches. The face, or flat part, of the cone at its thickest end contains inscriptions in relief which record the name and titles of the person in whose tomb they were found ; the inscriptions appear to have been made by a stamp with the characters incuse. The inscribed end of the cone is variously coloured blue, red, or white. Dr. Birch thought 1 that they were used for working into ornamental architecture, or to mark the sites of sepulchres ; it is more probable, however, that they are merely models of bread or cakes which were placed in the tomb A A. It is not likely that they were seals, because they have been found of a rectangular shape with several copies of the same inscription stamped upon them. Stelae is the name given to the tablets of granite, cal- careous stone, wood, or faience, which the Egyptians used in large numbers for inscribing with decrees and historical records of the achievements of kings, biographical notices of eminent officials, priests, and private persons, hymns to Ra and other gods, and notices of any events of importance. The greater number, however, of those which have been found belong to the class called sepulchral, and are inscribed with the names and titles of deceased persons, their pedigrees, and the principal events in their lives. They were placed inside tombs, either in the corridor leading to the mummy chamber, or at the door, or at the foot or the head of the bier, or let into the wall ; sometimes they are rectangular and sometimes they are rounded at the top. The styles of stelae, the arrange- ment of the scenes upon them, and the inscriptions, vary with Sepulchral Stel,e or Tablets Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians^ iii: p. 437. SEPULCHRAL STEL/E OR TABLETS. 219 the different dynasties. From the Ist-VIth dynasty 1 stelae are rectangular in form, and sometimes are made to resemble the outer facade of a temple. The inscriptions are comparatively short, and merely record the names of the relatives of the deceased who are represented on the stele, and the prayers to Osiris for cakes, bread, meat, wine, oil, milk, wax, bandages, ducks, oxen, etc., which are put into the mouth of the deceased. A remarkable inscription found in a tomb 2 of the Vlth dynasty is that of Una, who was born in the reign of Teta, and held service under this king ; under Pepi, the successor of Teta, he brought stone from the quarries of Ruau, and conducted an expedition against the nomad tribes to the east of Egypt, and in the reign of the following king, Mer-en-Ra, he died full of days and honour. During the Xlth dynasty the stelae have many of the characteristics of those of the Vlth dynasty, but the execution is better. A large number Stelae of of the stelae of the Xllth dynasty are rounded, the inscriptions Middle and scenes are carefully executed, and are often painted with Empire, many colours ; sometimes on the same stele the figures are in relief, while the inscriptions are incised. As a rule the contents of the inscriptions are repetitions of the titles of the deceased, praises of the king, bald statements of the work he has done for him, prayers to the god for sepulchral meals, and an address to those who pass by the stele to make mention of the dead man in appropriate funereal formulae. The scenes usually represent the several members of the family of the deceased bringing to him offerings of the various things for which he prays. From the XUth-XVIIth dynasty, biographies on stelae 3 are rare. Stelae of the XHIth and XlVth dynasties are characterized by their uniformity of colour, when painted ; the workmanship is, however, poor, the inscriptions are badly cut, and the hieroglyphics are thin and small. The stelae of the XVIIIth dynasty are usually rounded at the top, and have 1 The oldest stele known is preserved at Gizeh and at Oxford, and was made for Shera, a priest of Sent, the fifth king of the Ilnd dynasty, about B.C. 4000 ; it is figured in Lepsius, Auswahl, PI. 9. 2 Compare the interesting inscription published by Schiaparelli, Una tomba egiziana inedita, Rome, 1892. 3 The inscription of Chnemu-h jtep, one of the most valuable of this period, is inscribed on the walls of his tomb. 220 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. very little in common with those of older dynasties. In earlier times the deceased was represented as being surrounded by his parents, brothers and sisters, wife and servants, but at this epoch the gods take their places, and he stands alone before Osiris, god and judge of the dead. In many stelae of this period the name of the god Amen has been carefully chiselled out, by order of the " heretic king," Amenophis IV. A remarkable characteristic of stelae at this time is the length Stele of and fulness of the inscriptions upon them. In the earlier times, Amasis. p r j va te matters in the life of the deceased were passed over with little or no mention ; now, however, full biographies become the rule, and the inscriptions cover not only the stelae, but the walls of the chamber in which the mummies were laid. Sometimes such biographies are almost the only authorities for the history of a period, and the inscription of Amasis is an example of this class of documents. Amasis was a naval officer who was born about the time of the final war of the Egyptians against the Hyksos, and he was present at the capture of the town of Avaris, during the reign of Amasis I., king of Egypt. He was specially honoured by this king for his prowess in battle, and he served in various campaigns undertaken by his successors, Amenophis L, and Thothmes I. The stelae of the XlXth dynasty show a great falling off both in design and execution. The figures of men and women are poor, and their limbs are made out of all proportion to the rest of their bodies. The mode of wearing their clothes, too, has changed, a large portion of the body is entirely covered by the dress, and the figures wear a heavy head-dress, which falls squarely upon the shoulders. The hieroglyphics are carelessly engraved, and lack the spirit which indicates those of the XVIIIth dynasty. During the XXth dynasty the use of stelae appears not to have been so general, and from about B.C. 1000-650 they almost disappear. The stelae which belong to this period are few and small, and the designs are generally poor imitations of stelae of an older date. The cause of this decline is not quite evident, but it may be either the result of the disquietude caused by the unsettled condition of Egypt through foreign invasions, or the consequence of some religious schism. It will be noticed SEPULCHRAL STEL.E OR TABLETS. 221 that ushabtiu figures, as well as stelae, become fewer and poorer during this same period. The stelae of the XXVIth pj|^ of dynasty exhibit the features which are characteristic of the Empire, sculptures of this period. They occur in large numbers, they are larger in size, the hieroglyphics are small, but cleanly cut, and they have a beauty which is in itself sufficient to proclaim the time to which they belong. The inscriptions are copied from ancient texts, and as neither the scribe nor the sculptor understood at times what he was writing, frequent mistakes are the result. After the XXVIth dynasty stelae were made of all possible designs and forms ; the hieroglyphics are badly cut, the inscriptions are the ordinary formulae, in which the deceased prays for sepulchral meals, and it is quite clear that the placing of a stele in the tomb had become a mere matter of form with the greater number of the Egyptians. In Ptolemaic times ancient models were copied, but the inscriptions are as often in Greek or demotic, or both, as in hieroglyphics. Stelae bearing bilingual inscriptions, in hieroglyphics and Greek, or hieroglyphics and Phoenician, are also known. Subsequently it became the fashion to make the figures of the gods on stelae in high relief, and the attributes and costumes of Greek gods were applied to those of Egypt. The greater number of the wooden stelae in European museums belong to the XXVIth and subsequent dynasties. They are rounded at the top, they usually stand upon two pedestals having steps on each side, and they vary in size from 6 ia by 4 in. to 3 ft. by 20 in. The inscriptions and Ornamen- 7 11 . , . , . , tation of scenes upon them are usually, painted in white, green, red, stela yellow, or black, upon a light or dark brown ground. On the xxvith back are at times figures of the sun shedding rays ^ and dynasty. standards of the east ^ and west jf. The large tablets have three registers; in the first are the winged disk ^^7, with pendent uraei wearing the crowns of the north and south, the jackal-headed gods Anubis and Ap-uat, emblems of " life " and " power " | j, etc. ; in the second register are the boat of the sun, in which stand a number of gods, Ra, Horus, Chepera, Maat, Anubis, etc., and the deceased, or his soul, kneeling at a table of offerings in front of the boat 222 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. in adoration of Ra ; in the third register the deceased makes adoration to a number of gods, and below this comes the inscription. The smaller, and more numerous, tablets have in the rounded part, the winged disk with pendent uraei, and the inscription 55 © Behutet neb pet "[Horus of] Behutet, lord of heaven." The scene which follows is divided into two parts : in the one the deceased stands or kneels by the side of an altar in adoration before Ra-Har- machis l|j , and in the other he adores Nefer-Atmu. Below the scenes are two inscriptions which read from the middle of the tablet to the sides, and contain, the one an address or prayer to Ra when he rises, the other, an address to Ra when he sets. Frequently a tablet is inscribed with the prayer to Ra-Harmachis and Nefer-Atmu for sepulchral meals. Inlaid Wooden stelse were sometimes inlaid with glass figures stelse * and hieroglyphics of various colours in imitation of the scenes and inscriptions on tablets of an earlier date. A remark- 91 able example of this class of work is B.M. 5 — 25 which, I according to Dr. Birch, is inscribed with the name of Darius, and represents this king making offerings to Anubis, who is seated on a throne under a winged disk and stars ; behind the god is Isis, with horns on her head, and a sceptre in her hand. Stelae in That sepulchral stelae were sometimes made of glazed glazed faience. faience, we know from B.M. No. 6133, a fine example of a light blue colour, in which the deceased Amen-em-apt, a royal scribe, is standing in adoration before the god Osiris, who holds a flail and crook. This interesting object was probably made about B.C. 1000, when the art of making glazed faience of a fine blue or green colour was at its greatest perfection. Vases. The Vases found in Egyptian tombs are made of alabaster, diorite, granite, basalt and other kinds of hard stone, steatite, bronze, wood, terra-cotta, faience, and glass. The shapes of vases are various, but the following are the most VASES. 223 common: ft, J, g, >Q , 0, 0,^7, ^37. Vases were U s s e es of placed in the tombs to contain the offerings of wine, oil, unguents, spices, and other offerings made to the temples, or to the dead in their tombs. Among hard stones capable of receiving a high polish, granite, diorite and alabaster were those most commonly used for making vases. Granite and diorite vases are usually without inscriptions, and were made during all periods of Egyptian history. Vases of alabaster are very much more numerous, and as this material was com- paratively easily worked, and readily lent itself to form sym- metrical and beautiful shapes, it was a great favourite with the Egyptians. They were sometimes inscribed on the front, the flat part of the rim, or the top of the cover, with inscriptions recording the names and titles of the deceased persons with whom they were buried ; thus they are valuable as giving the Valu ? of names of kings and officials of high rank, pedigrees, etc., and as tion"on showing at the same time the wonderful skill of the Egyptian vases * alabaster worker at a period nearly four thousand years B.C. Alabaster vases were in use from the IVth-XXVIth dynasty, and the Persian kings had their names inscribed upon them in Egyptian and cuneiform. Arragonite, or zoned alabaster, was used for large vases and liquid measures ; a beautiful example of this material is B.M. No. 4839, which has two handles and a cover, and is inscribed with its capacity " eight hen and three quarters." Vases in glazed A." .' I I I I I I I steatite are not common, and I believe the oldest to be B.M. No. 4762, which is inscribed with the name of Thothmes I., B.C. 1633. Vases in bronze are ancient, tolerably numerous, and of various shapes ; among them must be classed those, in the shape of buckets with handles, which are ornamented with scenes in relief, in which the deceased is represented adoring various deities ; they belong chiefly to the period of the XXVIth dynasty. Models of vases in wood were also Models made and placed in the tombs. They were sometimes ofvases> painted to resemble glass (B.M. No. 9529^), and were some- times covered with plaster and gilded, examples of which are B.M. No. 95292 and 9529// both were made for the tomb of Rameses II. ; the former is inscribed Jo^> j uatcliu, 224 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. a stibium," and the latter i mestemety " stibium.'' Glass vases. Vases in glazed faience. The use of glass for vases is very ancient, and Dr. Birch states that 1 the earliest dated example of Egyptian glass is a small dark blue fragment inscribed with the prenomen of Antef III., of the Xlth dynasty. The next oldest example is a small vase or jug with one handle, of a fine turquoise- coloured, opaque glass, ornamented in yellow, with a border round the neck, and three trees round the sides, and inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III., 2 B.C. 1600; the handle has stripes of white and dark blue, and round the neck where it joins the thick part of the vase, is a row of white spots. The vase is 3 J in. high, and its greatest diameter is i^-in. ; the British Museum number is 4762. Vases made of varie- gated and striped glass are represented on the walls of tombs of the XlXth and XXth dynasties, and it seems that the terra-cotta and wood vases, or models of them, belong to that period. The next oldest examples are the small black, opaque glass vases, V7, mottled with white spots, which formed part of the funereal paraphernalia of the princess Nesi-Chensu, about B.C. 1000. 3 Transparent glass seems not to have been made in Egypt much earlier than the XXVIth dynasty. Vases in faience glazed with a blue or green colour are at least as old as the XlXth dynasty ; a beautiful example of this date is B.M. No. 4796, with lotus leaves, rosettes, and a line of hieroglyphics around the outer edge, in white or light yellow, upon a lavender-coloured glazed ground. The inscrip- tion records the name and titles of Rameses II., about B.C. 1333. About B.C. 1000, small vases VJ and libation jars "Q were glazed with a beautiful light bluish-green ; the vases of Nesi-Chensu are fine examples of this work (B.M. No. 17,402, and 13,152). During the XXVIth dynasty flat, circular, convex vases or bottles made of glazed faience became common ; the neck and lip were in the form of the capital of a papyrus column, with an ape at each side, and where the 1 Catalogue of the Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle , p. 179, and Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, Vol. II; p. 142. (C Beautiful god, Men-cheper-Ra, giver of life. 3 The No. of the B.M. vase is 17,043. OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 225 body of the vase joins the neck it is ornamented with rows of inscribed papyrus flowers and pendants. On the upper part of the flat band which goes round the vase, is inscribed n \/ I J " May Ptah open a happy new year for its owner," and ^ ^ \Jf | J " May Sechet open a happy new year for its owner." These vases were probably given as gifts, and they all appear to come from Lower Egypt. The oldest vases known are made of terra-cotta and red earthenware, and are of various shapes and sizes. They were sometimes glazed or painted and varnished, to imitate por- phyry, diorite, and variegated stone and glass, and sometimes they were ornamented with floral designs, figures of animals, geometrical patterns, etc., etc. Vases in this material were inscribed, in hieratic or hieroglyphic, with the names and titles of the persons in whose tombs they were found, and sometimes with sepulchral inscriptions. It is not possible, in the absence of inscriptions, to date terra-cotta vases accurately, and all the evidence forthcoming tends to prove that the various kinds of vases which were thought to belong to the XVIIIth or XlXth dynasty belong to the XXIInd or later. Objects for the Toilet. The Egyptian lady, in making her toilette, made use of the following objects : — Mirror, in Egyptian ^^^Q un-hrd, "lifting up the Egyptian aaaaaa I X mirrors. face," or ^j^"^^^^ nMM-hriiy "object for seeing the face." The mirror was made of bronze, and in shape was nearly round (B.M. No. 2728a:), or oval (B.M. No. 2733), or oval flattened (B.M. No. 2732), or pear-shaped (B.M. No. 2728^). Mirrors were kept in bronze cases or wooden boxes. The handles were made of ivory (B.M. Nos. 22, 830, 2734), wood, bronze, or faience (B.M. No. 2736), and were usually in the shape of the lotus in flower J . Wooden handles were inlaid with gold (B.M. No. 2728 a), or were painted with the colours of the lotus plant and flower (B.M. No. 18,179) ; they L\ hi. o 226 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Descrip- were sometimes square, and sometimes terminated in a mirrors. hawk's head (B.M. No. 2733), or they were carved in the shape of a figure of Bes (B.M. No. 2728$). Bronze handles of mirrors were also made in the shape ox the lotus plant and flower, but the flat space where the handle widens out into the flower was ornamented with the head of Hathor in relief (B.M. No. 2728^); they were also made in the form of figures of women, with their arms raised (B.M. Nos. 20,773, 2718^). The mirror was further ornamented by supporting the bronze disk on each side with a pair of uraei (B.M. No. 20,756), or with a hawk of Horus (B.M. No. 2731). The metal of which mirrors are made has been shown to be almost pure copper, a very small percentage of tin and other substances being present. The use of mirrors in Egypt appears to be of great antiquity, but the date of their first appearance is not known exactly. The greater diameter of the mirror varies from three to twelve inches. Tweezers. Pairs of tweezers, for removing hairs from the head or face, were made of bronze, the ends being, at times, in the form of human hands ; they vary in length from about two to six inches. Hair-pins are usually made of wood, bone, ivory, metal, or alabaster, and vary in length and thickness ; the heads are sometimes ornamented with gold and silver bands or heads, and sometimes terminate in the figure of an animal or bird. Combs are made of wood or ivory, and when they have but a single row of teeth the back is carved into serrated edges, and its sides are ornamented with various devices, annular or otherwise. Double combs, i.e., combs with two rows of teeth, have the one row of teeth thicker and longer than the other. Combs used for merely ornamental purposes terminate with figures of animals, etc., etc. The date of the first appearance of combs in Egypt is unknown, and it has been thought that they were not introduced until a comparatively late period. Fan. The feathers of the fan were inserted in a handle made of wood or ivory, or both, having the same shape as the handles of mirrors I ; both sides of the handle were OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 227 sometimes ornamented with heads of Hathor in relief (B.M. No. 20,767). Kohl pots. Of all the necessaries for the toilet these Stibium objects are the most commonly found, and the varieties tubes.*"* 1 known are very many and very interesting. The object of the kohl jar was to hold the kohl y or stibium, or antimon}', or copper, with which ladies were wont to stain the eyelids and eyebrows. The simplest form consisted of a hollow tube of alabaster, steatite, 1 glass, 2 wood, or ivory, from three to six inches high ; alabaster tubes are usually uninscribed (B.M. No. 2574), wooden tubes are made in the shape of a column with a palm leaf capital (B.M. No. 2591), ivory or bone tubes are Different sometimes made in the form of figures of Bes (B.M. ^[ b ^ f No. 2571), and sometimes are ornamented with spirals vases. (B.M. No. 6184). Faience tubes are white, blue, or green, and have inscriptions on them in black ; fine examples of this class are B.M. No. 2572 inscribed with the prenomen of Amenophis III., and the name of his wife Thi ; and B.M. No. 2573, inscribed with the prenomen of Tut-anch-Amen, and the name of his wife Anch-nes-Amen. B.M. No. 2589, is a fine example of kohl tube in glass, made in the form of a column with a palm leaf capital. Kohl tubes were some- times made of the common reed, and carried in a leather bag (B.M. No. 12,539) 5 the single tube was sometimes repre- sented as being held by a monkey or some other animal (B.M. No. 21,895). The tube was often formed of a hollow sunk in a jar made of alabaster, stone, steatite, granite, or porphyry ; steatite jars are glazed, and ornamented with J and p in hollow work (B.M. No. 2645). Such jars often had the rim, which supported the cover, turned separately, and in the centre of the cover, inside, a small boss was made to enable it to rest firmly on the jar ; these jars rested upon square stands supported by four legs. The outsides of porphyry jars are sometimes ornamented with raised figures of apes and uraei. Kohl jars had sometimes two tubes, and Stibium vases ■ B.M. No. 273 6 is inscribed f§ \ ^ ^fe f S " Menlhu-em-hat, son of Heq-ab, lord of watchful devotion." 2 See B.M. No. 24,391, made of light blue glass banded with gold. Q 2 more than one tube. 228 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. were made of wood, with a movable cover on a pivot (B.M. No. 2595), of obsidian, with a figure of Bes in relief (B.M. No. 2599), °f ivory, with each tube in the form of a lotus column (B.M. 22,839), an d of stone. Kohl pots with three tubes were also made, and an interesting example in terra- cotta is B.M. No. 2612, which is in the form of a "triple" crown. Kohl pots with four and five tubes are very common in wood, and several examples exist in faience. B.M. No. 2605 is inscribed on each tube, 1 and contains two, or more, different powders ; and B.M. 2606*2, with five tubes, probably a votive offering by a friend or relative of the de- ceased Amasis, a scribe and overseer of works, is inscribed : — Different kinds of eye-paint used at different seasons of the year. U-1 J,CJ — U /WVAAA U I 1 /wwv. ( . ) , , , , WAMA ^— ' I O MHO The following texts are inscribed upon a remarkable brown wood stibium-holder, in the possession of Sir Francis Grenfell, G.C.B. It contains five tubes, each of which held 2 These inscriptions show that one kind ot eye-paint was to be used from the first to the fourth month of the inundation season ; a second from the first to the fourth month of the season of coming forth ; a third from the first to the fourth month of the period of growing ; and also that a fourth was to be used every day. OBJECTS FOR THE TOILET. 229 a different coloured substance ; on one side is a full-face figure of Bes, and on the other an ape. It came from Der el-bahari. O □ ( = O 1 w L \ /www u (WWW IP -Jl or 0 w /www K I 0 V /www £^ vww\ /www MWA O 1 /WWW ^ 0 0 111 5?v A set of four or more kohl tubes were also formed by the compartments of a wooden box which was generally inlaid with ivory. The studs in kohl tubes were used for fastening the cover. The stick with which the kohl was applied to the eyes was The kohl made of wood, bronze, glass, etc., and was thicker and more shck ' rounded at one end than at the other. The thick end was moistened, and dipped in the powder in the tube, and then drawn along the eyelid ; the stick generally remained in the tube, but often a special cavity, either between or behind the tubes, was prepared for it. The black powder in the tube was called in Egyptian mestem < var - tf^^Sffl mest ' emut l Copt COHJUL, CTHJUt, Arab. U U£> whence the word Kohl, Gr. (TTifjLfMi, stibium ; it seems to have been the sesquisulphuret of antimony, but sulphide of lead, oxide of copper, J ° black oxide of manganese, and other powdered substances were also used. The act of painting the eyes with kohl was called P "oq'o sem t et > anc * ^ e P art P amte d semtL The custom of painting the eyelids, or the parts immediately under them, is contemporary with the earliest dynasties, 230 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Antiquity of use of eye- paint. Alabaster vases of Atena. and we know that in the Xllth dynasty 1 mestchem was brought from the land of Absha, by people of the Aamu, as an acceptable gift to the king of Egypt. This custom seems to have been common all over the East, and it will be remembered that Jezebel "set her eyes in stibium" (OT^ 2 Kings ix. 30), and that the daughter of Zion was told that her lovers would seek her life, even though "she rent asunder her eyes with stibium," 2 in allusion to the wide open appearance which stibium gives to women's eyes in the East. Oils, unguents, scents, etc., were kept in alabaster, diorite and porphyry jars, or vases, of various shapes, Q =5= O \J \ SJ. Sets of alabaster jars and flat vessels were arranged on a table in the tomb, and sometimes contained unguents, sweetmeats, etc., and sometimes were merely votive offerings. A fine example of a votive set in alabaster is (B.M. No. 4694) inscribed with the name Atena, from Abydos, which com- prises a wide mouthed jar on a stand, five smaller jars with pointed ends, and four flat saucers, the whole standing on a circular table of the same material. The shapes of the jars are of great beauty, and the alabaster is of the finest. The custom of placing alabaster jars in tombs is, at least, as ancient as the IVth dynasty, and it lasted until the XXVIth dynasty ; examples are known inscribed with the names of Unas (B.M. No. 4602), Pepi I. (B.M. No. 22559), Mentu- em-sa-f (B.M. No. 4493), Amasis I. (B.M. No. 4671 a), Thothmes III. (B.M. No. 4498), Amenophis II. (B.M. No. 4672), Rameses II. (B.M. No. 2880), Queen Amenartas (B.M. No. 4701), etc. Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc. Judging by the enormous quantity of beads which are found in Egyptian tombs, Egyptian ladies must have thought very highly of the necklace as an ornament. Beads are of all shapes, round, rectangular, oval,. and oblong, and were made of 1 In the sixth year of Usertsen II. The scene of the presentation of the mestchem is painted on the walls of the tomb of Chnemu-hetep at Beni-Hasan ; see Lepsius, Denkmaler, II. ff. 13 1- 1 33. 2 Tr3? T 13 ? ^IPO"*'? J eremiah iv - 30- SCARAB. 231 mother-of-emerald, carnelian, agate, lapis-lazuli, amethyst, rock crystal, onyx, jasper, garnet, gold, silver, glass, faience, clay, and straw. The necklace was ornamented with pendants Egyptian jewellery made in the form of figures of the gods, or of animals sacred to them, or of amulets to which magical powers were attri- buted. Each kind of stone was supposed to possess special properties, and the Egyptians arranged their necklaces in such a way that the wearer was supposed to be protected from the attack of all evil powers and baneful beasts. Breasts of mummies and mummy cases are painted in imitation of rows of beads of various precious stones, or of collars made of beads, interspersed with pendants in the shape of flowers, etc. Rings were made of gold, silver, bronze, precious stones or faience ; sometimes the bezels were solid and did not move, sometimes they were inlaid with scarabs, inscribed with various devices, or the name of the wearer, and revolved. During the XVIIIth dynasty, a very pretty class of ring was made at Tell el-Amarna, in blue, green, and purple glazed faience ; examples are very numerous, and every Egyptian collection of importance contains several. Bracelets were made of gold or silver, and were at times inlaid with precious stones and coloured paste ; after the XXVIth dynasty the ends of bracelets, owing to Phoenician influence, terminated in lions' heads. Scarab. Scarab, 1 or Scarabaeus, 2 is the name given by Egyptolo- Descrip- gists to the myriads of models of a certain beetle, which are Egyptiar found in mummies and tombs, and in the ruins of temples and beetle - other buildings in Egypt and other countries, the inhabitants 1 Scarab, from the Greek OKapa&oQ, or GKapa ftcioq, perhaps a transcription of the Latin scarabaeus ; compare Zr\vciptov, a transcription of denarius. The Copts called > ^ o p / 9 this beetle (T^-XoYKC , and the Arabs J Lui-\r5- , phir. ^Jlju^, Jj*5»-, P^r. \jLxs>- and P lur - ^J\j4 • See also Payne Smith, Thes. Syr., col. 1188, and Duval, Lex. Syr., col. 714. 2 The old plural scarabees we find in "You are scarabees that batten in dung." Elder Broth er, Beaumont and Fletcher, 232 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. of which from a remote period had trading and other rela- tions with the Egyptians. The beetle which was copied by the Egyptians in this manner belongs to the family called by naturalists Scarabceidce (Coprophagi), of which the Sccu-a- bceus sacer is the type. These insects compose a very numerous group of dung-feeding Lamellicorns, of which, however, the majority are inhabitants of tropical countries. The species are generally of a black hue ; but amongst them are to be found some adorned with the richest metallic colours. A remarkable peculiarity exists in the structure and situation of the hind legs, which are placed so near the extremity of the body, and so far from each other, as to give the insect a most extraordinary appearance when walking. Habits of This peculiar formation is, nevertheless, particularly service- tian beetle a ^ e to * ts P ossessors m rolling the balls of excrementitious matter in which they enclose their eggs ; whence these insects were named by the first naturalists Pilulariae. These balls are at first irregular and soft, but, by degrees, and during the process of rolling along, become rounded and harder ; they are propelled by means of the hind legs. Sometimes these balls are an inch and a half, or two inches in diameter, and in rolling them along the beetles stand almost upon their heads, with the heads turned from the balls. These manoeuvres have for their object the burying of the balls in holes, which the insects have previously dug for their reception ; and it is upon the dung thus deposited that the larvae, when hatched, feed. It does not appear that these beetles have the instinct to distinguish their own balls, as they will seize upon those belonging to another, in case they have lost their own ; and, indeed, it is said that several of them occasionally assist in rolling the same ball. The males as well as the females assist in rolling the pellets. They fly during the hottest part of the day. 1 Latreille, in the Appendix to Cailliaud's Voyage a Me'roe, Paris, 1823-27, 2 1 See J. O. Westwood, An Introdtiction to the Modem Classification of Insects ; London, 1839, Vol. I. p. 204 ff. 2 Tom. ii. p. 311. " Cet insecte est d'un vert parfois eclatant ; son corselet est nuance d'une teinte cuivreuse a reflet metallique." Compare y£lian, De Nat. Animal^ iv. 49; Aristotle, Hist. Animal., iv. 7; Pliny, Nat. Hist. , xi. 20 ff., and xxix. 6. SCARAB. 233 considers the species which he has named Ateuchus Aegypti- orum, or rjXtofcdvOapos, and which is of a fine greenish colour, as that which especially engaged the attention of the early Egyptians ; and Dr. G. W. Clarke affirms that it is eaten by the women of Egypt because it is considered an emblem of fertility. Horapollo, and other 1 ancient writers, state that a female scarabaeus does not exist. According to Horapollo Descrip- (ed. Leemans, p. 11), a scarabaeus denotes an only begotten, 2 beetle by generation, father, zvorld, and man. It represents an only Horapollo. begotten, because the scarabaeus is a creature self-produced, being unconceived by a female. The male, when desirous of procreating, takes some ox dung, and shapes it into a spherical form like the world. He next rolls it from east to west, looking himself towards the east. Having dug a hole, he buries it in it for twenty-eight days ; on the twenty-ninth day he opens the ball, and throws it into the water, and from it the scarabaei come forth. The idea of generation arises from its supposed acts. The scarabaeus denotes a father because it is engendered by a father only, and world because in its generation it is fashioned in the form of the world, and man because there is no female race among them. Every scara- baeus was also supposed to have thirty toes, corresponding with the thirty days' duration of the month. 3 Latreille thinks that the belief that one sex only existed among scarabaei arose from the fact that the females are exceedingly like the males, and that both sexes appear to divide the care of the preservation of their offspring equally between them. 1 'O Kavdapog ddr}\v %u>6v lori, Aelian, De Natura Animal., x. xv. ed. Diclot, p. 172, Kavdapog yap nag appqv, Porphyry, De Abstinentia, iv. 9, ed. Didot, p. 74. 2 For the word scarabeus applied to Christ compare, " Vermis in cruce : scarabeus in cruce : et bonus vermis qui haesit in ligno bonus scarabeus qui clamavit b ligno. Quid clamavit? Domine, ne staluas illis hoc peccatum. Clamavit latroni : Hodie mecum eris in paradise Clamavit quasi scarabeus : Deus, Dens mens, quare me dereliqnisti ? Et bonus scarabeus qui lutum corporis nostri ante informe ac pigrum virtutum versabat vestigiis : bonus scarabeus, qui de stercore erigit pauperem." See the exposition of St. Luke, by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan {Opera, Paris edition, 1686, torn. I. col. 1528, No. 113). 3 " En comptant pour un doigt chaque article des tarses, on reconnaitra que cet insecte avait ete bien attentivement examine." Mulsant, Histoire Natnrelle des Coleopteres de France, Lamellicornes ; Paris, 1842, p. 48. 234 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. his head, anc The Egyptians called the scarabaeus ^ (j Che- perd y and the god whom this insect represented was called CJieperd. This god usually wears a beetle on sometimes he has a beetle, with or without outstretched wings, in the place of a head. 1 The god Chepera was the " father of the gods," and the creator of all things in heaven and earth. He made himself out of the matter which he himself produced. He was identified with the rising sun, and thus typified resurrection and new birth generally. The word ^_ ^ j which is usually translated " to exist, to become, to make," also means " to roll," and the " roller," or " revolver," was a fitting name for the sun, according to the Egyptian ideas of that luminary. The abstract noun ^ | ) j clieperu, may very well be rendered by u evolutions." Scarabs may, for convenience of consideration, be divided into three classes : — I. Funereal scarabs ; 2. Scarabs worn for ornament ; 3. Historical scarabs. Of the first class the greater number found measure from half to two inches in length, and they are made generally of faience or steatite, glazed blue or green ; granite, basalt, jasper, amethyst, lapis- lazuli, ruby, carnelian, and in the Roman period glass also, are often used. Upon the flat base of the scarab the Egyptians engraved the names of gods, kings, priests, officials, private persons, monograms, and floral and other devices. Sometimes the base of the scarab takes the form of a heart, and sometimes the scarab is united with the u'tat ^J;, or eye of Horus ; it is also found united with a frog, the emblem of " myriads " and of " revivification." Rarely the back of the scarab is ornamented with a pattern made up of a number of small scarabs. Such small scarabs were set in rings, and placed upon the fingers of the dead, or were wrapped up in the linen bandages with which the mummy was swathed over the heart. They represented the belief of the Egyptians in the revivification of the body, and 1 See Lanzone, Dizionario^ pi. cccxxix. SCARAB. 235 in the renewed life after death, which was typified by the Sun, who renewed his life daily. Among funereal scarabs must be mentioned those of Descrip- green basalt, which were specially made to be laid upon funereal the breasts of mummies. Of this class there are many scarab - varieties, but the form most approved by the Egyptians seems to have consisted of a scarab of fine, hard basalt, let into a gold border, to which was attached a fine gold wire for hanging round the neck. The folds of the wings of the beetles were indicated either by lines of gold painted on the back, or by pieces of gold inlaid therein. Occasionally, the scarab itself is let into a mount of solid gold (B.M. No. 7876), and sometimes the scarab is joined to a heart, and pierced for suspension, the heart being ornamented with hieroglyphics meaning " life, stability, and protection " J (B.M. No. 7925). On the back of the scarab we at times have a figure of a bennu bird and the inscription ^ °* ^ <>. ^^j " the mighty heart of Ra" (B.M. No. 7878), at others the boat of the Sun LQi , ufats ^S^S> the bennu or phcenix , and Ra ^(B.M. No. 7883); and sometimes the scarab is human-headed (B.M. Nos. 15,516 and 7999). One instance is known where the back of the scarab is ornamented with incised figures of Greek deities (B.M. No. 7966). In late times this class of scarab was made of blue and green faience, and inserted in pectorals of the same material, upon which were painted the boat of the sun, and figures of Isis and Nephthys, one at each end of the boat ; the scarab occupied the middle of the boat (B.M. Nos. 7864 and 7865). The bases of large funereal scarabs were usually inscribed with the text of the 30th chapter of the Book of the Dead, but this was not always the case. Some scarabs have only scenes of the deceased adoring Osiris (B.M. No. 7931), and others figures of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys (B.M. Nos. 7930, 15,500 and 15,507). At times Descrip- the inscriptions are merely written with gold or ink (B.M. [^"^1 Nos. 7915 and 15,518). As such scarabs formed part of scarabs, the stock-in-trade of the Egyptian undertaker, the names 236 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. of the persons with whom they were buried are not found inscribed upon them, although blank spaces are left (B.M. No. 7877) ; frequently scarabs have neither figures nor inscriptions upon their bases. A remarkable example of funereal scarab is B.M. No. 18,190, which was taken from the mummy of Thothmes III., found at Der el-Bahari. This object is made of steatite, glazed a greenish (purple in some places) colour. A frame of gold runs round the base, the two sides of which are joined by a band of the same metal across the back ; a thin layer of gold covered the back, but parts of this are hidden by the remains of the mummy cloth which adhere to it. The base is inscribed with a figures of Thothmes III., kneeling ; on his head is the crown Jjj^ , in the right hand he holds the whip jf \ , and with the left he is making an offering. Before him is a dog (?) seated, and behind him a hawk. Above is the sign J nefer, and the legend " Ra-men-cheper, triumphant before the gods for ever." [QPg] ^ jjjj^ The surface of the base was covered with a layer of gold, parts of which still remain. This scarab is 3 inches long. On the upper end of the gold frame was a loop by which the scarab, by means of a chain, was attached to a bronze collar round the neck of the mummy. The The chapter from the Book of the Dead called 30B by chapters ^ Naville (Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch, pi. xliii.), engraved heart. upon scarabs, is one of a series of seven chapters, relating to the heart, which are entitled : — Chap. 26. Chapter of giving a heart to N. 1 in the under- world. Chaps. 27, 28 and 29. Chapter of not allowing his heart to be carried off from him in the underworld. Chap. 29B. Another chapter of a heart of carnelian. Chaps. 30A and 30B. Chapter of not allowing to be repulsed the heart of N. in the underworld. According to a papyrus in Berlin, Ba in Naville's edition, chap. 26 is entitled " Chapter of a heart of lapis-lazuli ( ® J 1 N. = name of the person for whom the scarab or papyrus was made. SCARAB. 237 chesbef) " ; chap. 27, " Chapter of a heart of opal (?), (□n IrV m 1 1 neshem) " ; chap. 29 B, " Chapter of a heart of carnelian(?) (P ? ! sehert)" '; and chap. 30 B, "Chapter of a 0 a o heart of green jasper ( ©<=k R ntekt)." The most im- portant of these chapters is the 30th, which exists in two different versions, called 30 A and 30B ; but it appears that the former was never inscribed upon scarabs. According to the rubric found in a papyrus at Parma (see Naville, Todtenbuch, 2 Bd. ii. bl. 99), this chapter was found during the reign of Mycerinus in Hermopolis, under the feet of the majesty of this god, by Heru-ta-ta-f his son. This interesting text reads : — of a met her x e P er en me ^ ~ f mesesbeb em chapter To be said over a scarab of gree?i jasper bound round with smu ant - f em het' ertau en smu metal, ring its [being'] of silver, to be placed on ihi 'Ski; t:i %u er x e X " f qementu re pen em a blessed one* over throat his. Was found chapter this in ""® ffi — 0 1 1| D wmi^ Mil <=> c^a 1 ^ 1 1 /wwva -4!>%52&M' xemennu x er re \ en ten en neter pen -s Hermopolis under the feet of the majesty of god this, {^jj/j'^} ? %S - J-! -K,k M 1' her tebt en bat qemau em na neter upon a slab of steel of the south with the writing of the god 1 Quoted by Birch in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1867, P 17. - First published by Birch in Aeg. Zeitschrift, 1867, p. 54. a I.e., the deceased. 2 3 8 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. The chapter of the heart. t'esef himself em ra_ ha the time ( em u u ] hen of the majesty /WW\A I en 0/" } v suten net King of the North and South, Ra-men-kau f Men-kau-Ra \ [Mycerinus maatxeru an triumphant, by "«k k suten se 7^ Heru A — 0 ta - ta qern Found su em 1 mi ua - f way his I son He?-u - fata - f. er arit sap to make inspection I I I em er pau of the temples. According to some copies of the 30th, or 64th chapter, 1 at the end of which this statement is sometimes added, it was found during the reign of Hesep-ti, the fifth king of the first dynasty. Chapter 30 B belongs to the Psychostasia, in which the heart of the dead man is weighed against the feather, [S > emblematic of Law ; in the vignette which sometimes accompanies this chapter, the deceased is seen being weighed against his own heart, in the presence of Osiris, the pointer of the scales being watched by the cynocephalus ape of Thoth. The text of this chapter, found upon scarabs with many variants, is as follows : — 2 re Chapter en of tern ertat not allowing 4- xesef to be repulsed [Name] 1 it ab the heart I ab en of em neter xert t'et - f ab - a en { H % C f d°e?eied me } in ihe u » derworld - Says he, " O Heart mine of 1 Goodwin, On a text of the Book of the Dead belonging to the Old Kingdom, in A eg. Zeitschrift, 1866, p. 55 ; Lepsius, Das Todtenbuch, p. 12. a Naville, Das Todtenbuch, bl. xliii. SCARAB. 239 |g£ ® II mut-a sep sen mother mine. Twice. er <=> w hati - a en x e P er_ a- em Heart mine of evolution mine. Not may aha em meteru obstruction against me in evidence. em sexesef iV2tf w^y be repulse il er - a er - a ..^ai k em t'at'anut 2 em ari requ - k by the Powers. Not may be made separation thy 1 embah ari maxet from me in the presence of the guardian of the scale. Thou art /waaa The ^ chapter > of the entek heart. u flfk ka-a genius my at - a am x at -a Chnemu seut'a in body my, Chnem, making sound per er bu nefer hen limbs my. May est come forth thou to the felicity [to which] go I I I I I en n am em we there. Not may 9 WM MM Q sexen overthroiv ren name en n oicr A ill en senit Shenit arm re6> 'v«8<=>^J||^ 2 I.e., the four children of Horus. 3 Var. ^ em ahau firm. 240 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 0 I I I nefer en n neter en setem en at the ut'a weighing of metu words. qemtu be told I i i <=>r- L -il I I I ker erma falsehood [against me] near au Pleasant to us, pleasant [is] the hearing of joy of I ab heart em 13 neter the god, 0 embah neter aa neb Amentet mak in the presence of the god great, lord of the underivorld. How 1 1 1 OenO - k un#a em matxeru great art thou rising up in triumph / Scarabs worn for ornament. Historical scarabs of Amcno- phis III. The second class of scarabs, i.e., those worn for ornament, exists in many thousands. By an easy transition, the custom of placing scarabs on the bodies of the dead passed to the living, and men and women perhaps wore the scarab as a silent act of homage to the creator of the world, who was not only the god of the dead but of the living also. To attempt to describe this class of scarabs would be impossible in anything but a special work on the subject. The devices and inscriptions are very varied, but at present it is not possible to explain one half of them satisfactorily. The third class of scarabs, i.e., the historical, appears to be confined to a series of four, extant in many copies, which were made during the reign of Amenophis III., to commemorate SCARAB. 24I certain historical events. They are of considerable interest, and the texts inscribed upon them refer to : — I. The slaughter of 102 lions by Amenophis III., during the first ten years of his reign ; the text reads : — :. f ^ ^ ^ a anx Hem ka ne%t x a em maat May live the Horus, bull powerful, diademed with law, semen hepu sekerh taui \*°an esia0 ^ ur °f laws, pacifier of the two lands, Hem nub aa x e P e ^ bu sati Horns the golden, mighty of valour, smiler of foreign lands, 1 A - 4 - \% suten net Neb-maat-Ra se Ra en x at_ f { K ^ g a^sLZT H } s ™ of the ™*> of body his, Amen-hetep heq Uast ta an^ suten hemt 61 Amenhetep, pri?ice of Thebes, giver of life, [and] royal spouse Thi. <=> • !w k X- er x et mau an en hen-f em satet-f In respect of lions, brought . majesty his from shooting his ' of Ameno- t'esef saa em renpit ua neferit er renpit met' mau phis III. own, beginning from year first up to year tenth, lions 8. G II hesau saa sen fierce, one hundred and two. B. M. r 242 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. II. The limits of the Egyptian Empire, and the names of the parents of Thi, wife of Amenophis III. ; the text reads : — «-f & ^ w« * anx Heru ka ne%t x^ em maat May live the Horns, bull powerful, diademed with law of Ameno- 1 U □ » <=> A phis III. t < t semen hepu sekerh taui { &r l£&L3i r **"} estMisher °f /aws > pacifier of the two lands, Heru nub aa X e P e ^ hu Sati Horus the golden, mighty of valour, smiter of foreign lands, 4-G5D ¥ Q ftgyn suten net Neb-maat-Ra se Ra Amen-hetep heq Uast ta anx suten hemt urt 6i anx# of life, {and} royal spouse, mighty lady, Thi, living one — /VWWV M U. (IN V> N VSA /VWvAA ren en tef - s Iuaa ren en //^ r ^ r ^ \ oui <=» — IO -ra xx meht er N harina *V] as far as Neharina. 2 III. The arrival of the bride of Amenophis III. in Egypt from Mesopotamia, with three hundred and seventeen of her women ; the text reads : — * Historical scarabs of Ameno- renpit met x er ben en Heru ka ne%t x^ phis III. Year tenth under the majesty of Horus, bull powerful, diademed 4 u m ^w*.^ em maat semen hepu sekerh with law, {^2/222*} establisher of laws, pacifier of taui Heru nub aa x e P e s hu the two lands, Horus the golden, mighty of valour, smiter of d Jxs^ I I ok <» O Sati suten net neb ari x et foreign countries, {^iZuh!''') thc lord maki "S iA '"S s > Neb-maat-Ra, setep Ra se Ra Amen-hetep heq Uast Neb-madt-Rd, chosen of the sun, son of the Sun, {^pfi^*"'} 1 The land south of Nubia. 2 ^OOU Aj-£3 Mesopotamia. 3 Published by Brugsch, ^<^. Zeitschrift, 1880, p. 82. R 2 244 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY" OF EGYPT. ta anx suten hemt urt 0i giver of life, royal spouse^ mighty lady, Thi, Historical scarabs of Avneno- phis III. ren en tef-s the name of father her [was] Iuaa Iuaa, anx# the living one — y. MAW ren the name en of III mut-s 0uaa bait an - it en mother her [was] Thuaa. A wonderful thing they drought to !■->'■! p va i - hen-f an^; ut'a senb set ser en majesty his, life, strength, health, the daughter of the prince of WAAM AAAAAA \ Neherna Mesopotamia, hetep en and the chiefs of Saflarna Satharna, Kirkipa Kirkipa xenra - s women her. e n "' o u. @@ mi set s'aa x em t met' sexef Women, 300 +10+7 IV. The construction of the lake of Queen Thi in the eleventh year of the reign of Amenophis. The text of this scarab was first published in Rosellini, Monumenti Storici, tav. xliv. No. 2. It was partly translated by Rosellini, then by Hinks (in Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxi. Dublin, 1848, Sec. "Polite Literature," On the age of the Eigh- teenth Dynasty of Ma net J 10, p. 7), and by Birch, Records of the Past, Vol. XII. p. 41. The text printed below is corrected from Stern's copy in A eg. ZeitscJirift, 1887, p. 87, note 2. The scarab is dated in the first day, the third month of sowing 1 1 Hathor. SCARAB. 245 of the eleventh year of Amenophis III., | q ^ TflTfrT ®. The first few lines of the inscription containing the king's titles are the same as the beginning lines of the scarabs of the series. The making of the tank is described as follows : — 9 1 s — 1 & Hist0 K ricaI IJrU 1-u. o 1 \> + sc f a ;; abs of Ameno- utu hen-f ant mer en suten hemt phis III. Ordered majesty his the making of a lake for the royal spouse, 1- oia k -sr~ - 5- w urt 0i em tema-s en T'aru .... ??iighty lady, Thi in town her(?) of T'aru .... A— HI If ^ ~* If au - f meh ab - f meh Length its [7cas] cubits 3000 + 600, breadth its cubits 600. o III ari en hen - f heb tep s'et em Made majesty his festival of the entrance of the waters on abet % emt sat nru met'-sas %ent hen - f en third of sowing? day sixteen. Sailed majesty his in lir 511 /vww\ cr-=i uaa Aten - neferu em - %ennu-f , 7 7 . f " Aten-neferu " (i.e., 1 ., 7 . ., the boat I „ Dhk 0 / Beaut } es »)' } 7/*tfi* it. Of the inscriptions found on scarabs by far the greater Inscrip- number consists of the names of kings. Names of priests karate! and ladies who took part in the services connected with the 1 ^ ^©T-aruxa (?). 2 Hathor. 3 Stern [j wwv\ ^fff 5 ^ ten te X en > "disk of saffron." 246 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Publica- tion of Catalogue of Scarabs by Birch. Loftie's Essay. Murray and Smith. various gods are common enough ; so also are those of the singers of Amen-Ra. Scarabs inscribed with the names of kings are important historically, because sometimes they form nearly the only memorials of kings and royal personages, and they fill up gaps in the lists of kings of Egypt of whom, otherwise, nothing would be known. The names of the kings most commonly found are Thothmes III., Amenophis III. and Rameses II., and of these that of Thothmes III. is the commonest. The use of the scarab by the Egyptians to denote the idea of resurrection is probably as old as their settlement in the Nile Valley, and scarabs are found inscribed with the names of nearly every king of every dynasty, beginning with that of Mena, the first king of the first dynasty, and ending with that of the Roman Emperor Antoninus. The first published classification of scarabs was made by the late Dr. Birch in his Catalogue of the collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle} pp. 103-167, 236-242, in which he described 565 objects of this class. The arrangement he followed in this subdivision was: — 1. Names of mythological personages and emblems. 2. Historical inscriptions, names of kings, and historical representations. 3. Titles of officers. In 1884, the Rev. W. J. Loftie published his Essay of Scarabs? which contained a description of his collection 3 of 192 scarabs, inscribed with royal names, and excellent drawings of each. His collection, like those of the Museum of the Louvre and the British Museum, was arranged chronologically ; 4 the principle of the arrangement he ex- plained in his interesting preface. In my Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection of the Harrow School Museum} pp. 14-29, I gave a description of nearly one hundred and fifty scarabs, and translations of most of the inscriptions. In 1888 a cata- logue of the scarabs and scaraboids from Egypt, Kamiros, and 1 Printed by the Duke of Northumberland for private distribution, London, 1880. 2 London, small 4to. , no date. 3 Purchased by the Trustees of the British Museum in 1S90. 4 Loftie, op. cit., p. xxxi. 5 Harrow, 1887. SCARAB. 247 Tharros was published by Dr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Hamilton Smith, in their Catalogue of Gems, pp. 46-58. In 1889 Mr. Flinders Petrie published a collection 1 of drawings of 2,363 scarabs, with a few pages of introduction. The idea of this work was excellent, but the plates should have contained a tolerably complete set of examples of scarabs, carefully indexed. The title Historical Scarabs was a misnomer, for the only, strictly speaking, historical scarabs known, the series of the four of Amenophis III., were omitted. Scarabs inscribed with certain kings' names were made Persis- and worn as much as a thousand years after the death of the certain*" kings whose names they bear. This fact is indisputable, names .... r ... . - upon and if any proof were required it is furnished by the scarabs scarabs. dug up at Naucratis by Mr. Petrie. From the scarab-moulds found there, and the material from which they are made, and from the design and workmanship, it is clear that the scarabs of Naucratis are not older than the Vllth century B.C.; yet many of them bear the prenomens of Thothmes III., Seti I. and Rameses II., 2 etc. As the paste of which these are made is identical with that of scarabs bearing the names of kings of the XXVIth dynasty, there is no possible doubt about this fact. Scarabs inscribed with the names of two kings Double furnish another proof. Thus in the British Museum, Nos. names ' 4033 and 4035 bear the names of Thothmes III. and Seti I.; No. 16,580 bears the names of Thothmes I., Thothmes III., and Seti I.; No. 17,126 (a plaque) bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses II. ; No. 17,138 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses III.; No. 16,837 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Rameses IX.; and No. 16,796 bears the names of Thothmes III. and Psammetichus. That scarabs of a late period are found in tombs of the Vlth, Xllth and XVIIIth dynasties is not to be wondered at, for tombs were used over and over again for burial by families Exact who lived hundreds of years after they were first hewn out, scarabs 0 and who had no connexion whatever with the people who impos- sible. 1 Historical Scai'abs ; A series of Drawings from the Principal Collections. Arranged Chronologically. London, 1889. 2 Naucratis, London, 1886, Plate XXXVII., No. 63, etc., PI. XXXVIII., No. 182. 248 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYrT. Chrono- logical arrange- ment of names possible. Scarabs of Ialysos, Kamiros, and Tharros. were first buried in them. When a scarab is found bound up in a mummy, the date of which can be ascertained from the inscriptions upon it, that scarab can be used with advantage as an authority by which to compare other scarabs ; 1 when, however, a scarab is dug up with a lot of miscellaneous stuff it is of little value for the purpose of comparison. From the lowest depths of the Vlth and Xllth dynasty tombs at Aswan, scarabs have been dug up which could not have been a day older than the XXVIth dynasty, if as old. In some of these tombs, carefully closed with beautifully fitting blocks of stone, were found also red terra-cotta jars inscribed in hieratic which could not have been a day older than the XlXth dynasty, yet the inscriptions on the walls proved beyond a doubt that the tombs were made for officials who lived during the Xllth dynasty. It must then be clearly understood that the objects found in a tomb do not, necessarily, belong to the period of the tomb itself, and all the evidence known points to the fact that it is nearly impossible to arrange a collection of scarabs chronologically, except so far as the order of the names is concerned. Comparatively little is known about the various local manufactures of scarabs, or of their characteris- tics, and hundreds of examples of them exist which can neither be read nor explained nor understood. What has been said of the scarabs of Naucratis applies equally to those found at Ialysos and Kamiros in Rhodes, and at Tharros in Sardinia, places associated with the Phoenicians or Carthaginians. At Ialysos, faience and steatite scarabs are rare. Of the three found there preserved in the British Museum, two are steatite and one is of faience. One of the examples in steatite is fractured, whereby the design or inscription is rendered illegible, and the other is inscribed with ^ tet, emblem of stability, on each side of which is an uraeus j^. The example in faience measures ih inch in length, and is inscribed with the prenomen of Amen-hetep III., ^ . 2 Scarabs are rare in Kamiros 1 Such a scarab, however, may quite well be older than the mummy upon which it is found. 2 Brit. Mus. Reg. Nos. 72-3-15, no; 70-10-3, 130 and 131. SCARAB. 249 also, so far as concerns the tombs, and in those in which black and red vases were obtained no scarabs were found ; many specimens were, however, found in a well on the Acropolis, 1 and among them were some inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III., 2 having all the characteristics of those of the XXVIth dynasty found at Naucratis. The scarabs found at Tharros do not go farther back than the period of Carthaginian supremacy, that is, not farther than the middle of the Vlth century B.C. 3 A steatite scarab, found at Thebes in Bceotia, inscribed with anch " life," and a winged gryphon wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt t belongs to the same period. 4 At Kouyunjik there were found two pieces of clay, of Impres- the same colour and substance as that employed by Assur- scarabs banipal for the tablets of his library, bearing impres- jjjjjj!^ sions of an Egyptian king slaughtering his enemies, and hieroglyphic inscriptions, probably from a scarab. The king holds a club or weapon in his raised left hand, and his right holds some instrument which rests on the heads of a number of captives. The inscriptions read J ( jfjj I f j J neter nefer Shabaka neb dri yet, " Beautiful god, Shabaka, the lord, maker of things" (the first king of the XXVth dynasty, about B.C. 700). Behind the king are the signs 4HN sa " protection," ^ anch " life," and *w ha u increase [of power]." In front of the king is the speech of A /ww^ IW] I ^37 , some god A 1 ^ ^ ta-nd nek set nebu y " I give to thee all foreign lands." The Brit. Mus. Registration Nos. of these interesting objects are 51-9-2, 43, and 81-2-4, 352 ; as there is on the former also the impression of the seal of an Assyrian king, it has been thought 5 that the impression 1 No. 132 in Table-Case E in the Kouyunjik Gallery. 2 Murray, Catalogue of Gems, p. 13. 3 Brit. Mus. Reg. Nos. 64-10-7, 895,915, 1998. 4 Murray, op. cit., p. 13, and King, Antique Gems and Rings , Vol. I. p. 124. 6 See Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1867, pp. 173, 174. 250 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. formed the seal of a treaty between the kings of Egypt and Assyria. Shabaka (Sabaco) was a contemporary of Senna- cherib, B.C. 705-681. Use of The Phoenicians borrowed the use of the scarab from Phoeni- by Egypt, and as their country was overrun by Shalmaneser II., cians. King of Assyria B.C. 860-825, and by many of his successors, it is only natural that the scarab inscribed with devices to suit the Assyrian market should find its way to Nineveh and Babylon, the Phoenician adopting in return the form of gem commonly used by the Assyrians for seals. A good example of the Phoenicio-Assyrian scarab is No. 1029, exhibited in the table-case in the Phoenician Room of the British Museum. It is made of green jasper, and measures if in. in length. On the base is inscribed a man, who stands adoring a seated deity ; above is a seven-rayed star, and between them is ^ cinch, " life." Beneath is inscribed in Phoenician characters, fcTlDD mnS, " Belonging to Hodo the Scribe." For other examples see the specimens exhibited in the same case. As an example of the adoption of the chalcedony cone by the Phoenicians, see No. 1022, on which is inscribed a man at a fire altar and the name Palzir-shemesh in Phoenician characters. The scarab in relief, 1 with outstretched wings Use of inlaid with blue, red and gold carved upon an ivory panel Babylonia f° un d at Abu Habbah, about five hours' ride to the south- west of Bagdad, together with a number of miscellaneous ivory objects, is a proof of the knowledge of the scarab in Mesopotamia. That the panel was not carved by an Egyptian workman is very evident. 2 Scaraboids in agate and crystal, etc., are a small but very interesting class ; at times the device is purely Egyptian, and the inscriptions in Phoenician letters are the only additions by the Phoenicians. Brit. Mus. Nos. 1024 and 1036 are tolerably good examples of them. The former is inscribed on the base with three hawks with outspread wings, and two of them have disks on 1 See Table-Case G in the Nimroud Gallery. 2 The two rectangular weights (?) found at Nimroud by Sir A. H. Layard {Nineveh and Babylon, London, 1867, p. 64) have each, on one face, the figure of a scarab inlaid in gold in outline ; the work is excellent, and is a fine example of Phoenician handicraft. SCARAB. 251 Scarabs in Babylonia. their heads ; these, of course, represent the hawk of Horus. The Phoenician inscription gives the name Eliam. The latter is inscribed with a beetle in a square frame, and on the right and left is an uraeus JL ; each end of the perpendicular sides of the frame terminates in ^ dnch y and above and below it is a figure of Ra, or Horus, hawk-headed, holding a sceptre ^fj . The name, inscribed in Phoenician characters, is " Mer- sekem." In 1891, while carrying on excavations at Der, a place about three and a half hours to the south-west of Bag- dad, I obtained a steatite scarab inscribed with an uraeus j^, anch , and an illegible sign, together with an oval green transparent Gnostic gem inscribed with the lion-headed serpent XNOYBIC. Both objects were probably brought from Lower Egypt, and belong to a period after the birth of Christ. 1 Dr. Birch describes in Nineveh and Babylon (London, Scarabs 1853, PP- 281, 282) a series of eleven scarabs which Sir Henry Arbanf 1 Layard dug up at Arban, a mound situated on the western bank of the Khabur, about two and a half days' journey north of Der on the Euphrates, and about ten miles east of the 'Abd el-Aziz hills. With one exception they are all made of steatite, glazed yellow or green or blue. Two of them are inscribed with the prenomen of Thothmes III. (Nos. 304, 309) 2 ; one bears the prenomen of Amenophis III. (No 320), with the titles u beautiful god, lord of two lands, crowned in every land " ; one is inscribed r^j ^ (j (s^ men Cheperd at Amen, " established of Chepera, emanation of Amen " (No. 322); two are inscribed pj^J (No. 303) and Jp^j (No. 318), and belong to the same period ; one is inscribed Scarabs with a hawk-headed lion and a hawk (No. 273) ; one bears the legend, " beautiful lord, lord of two lands," i.e., the North and South (No. 321) ; one is inscribed with a human-headed 1 The numbers are G. 475 and 24,314. 2 These interesting objects are exhibited in the Assyrian and Babylonian Room, in the Northern Gallery of the British Museum. found at Arban. 252 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. beetle, with outstretched wings, in the field are uraei and J J of beautiful workmanship (No. 302) ; and one is inscribed with jj and an uraeus having on its head (No. 307). The scarab in haematite (No. 313) is inscribed with the figure of a king seated on a throne, and a man standing before him in adoration ; between them is With the exception of this last scarab, it is pretty certain that all belong to the period of the XVIIIth dynasty, for they have all the appear- ance of such antiquity, and they possess all the delicacy of workmanship found upon scarabs of this time. The design on the hsematite scarab appears to be a copy from an Egyptian scarab executed by a foreign workman, but it may be that the hardness of the material made the task of engraving so difficult, that the character of the design was altered in consequence. The presence of these scarabs at Arban is not difficult to account for. Thothmes I., one of the early kings of the XVIIIth dynasty, carried his victorious arms into Mesopotamia, and set up a tablet to mark the boundary of the Egyptian territory at a place called Ni, on the Euphrates, and the authority of the Egyptians in that land was so great that when Thothmes III. arrived there several years after, he found the tablet still standing. The kings who immediately succeeded Thothmes I. marched into this land, and that their followers should take up quarters on the fertile banks of the Khabur, and leave behind them scarabs and other relics, is not to be wondered at. The antiquities found at Arban are of a very miscellaneous character, and, among other things, include an Assyrian colossus inscribed "Palace of Meshezib-Marduk the king" (B.C. 700), and a Chinese glass bottle 1 inscribed with a verse of the Chinese poet KEIN-TAU, A.D. 827-831 ; it is possible that the scarabs described above may have been brought there at a period subsequent to the XVIIIth dynasty, but, in any case, the objects themselves appear to belong to this period. Use of The Gnostics inscribed the scarab on the gems worn by scarab by faem, and partly adopted the views concerning it held by the Gnostics. 1 British Museum, No. N. 13S0. SCARAB. 253 Egyptians. On an oval slab of green granite, 1 in the British Museum, is inscribed a scarab encircled by a serpent having his tail in his mouth. The same design is found on another oval, 2 but the beetle has a human head and arms ; above the head are rays, and above that the legend CIAAM^; to the right is a star, to the left a star and crescent, and beneath the hind legs three stars. The scarab is an antiquity which is readily bought from the native of Egypt by modern travellers of every nationality ; it is easily carried, and is largely worn as an ornament by ladies in their necklaces, bracelets and rings, and by men in pins and rings. As the number of visitors to Egypt has been Modem steadily increasing for many years past, it follows of necessity ture Q f " that the demand for scarabs has increased also, and the price scarabs, of these objects has risen in proportion. The late Sir Gardner Wilkinson, during one of his visits to Egypt, anchored his dJiahabiyyeh 3 opposite Kurnah at Thebes, and in the afternoon a native brought him a bag full of scarabs, many hundreds in number, which he had that day taken out of the ground in a tomb from under the coffin of a mummy. These scarabs were of a fine green colour and made of steatite ; they were all inscribed with the name and titles of Thothmes III. Sir Gardner Wilkinson bought a handful of these for an English pound, but each scarab might now easily be sold for two pounds. The supply of scarabs varies year by year, some years but few are to be had, and some years they are very common. The supply cannot be inexhaustible, although the demand for them appears to be so. The native has discovered Modem that the European not only wants scarabs, but that he wants [JJ e nu 0 f C ' scarabs inscribed with the names of particular kings ; and as scarabs, these are not always forthcoming, he has found out the way to make them. The imitation of scarabs by the modern native of Egypt began about sixty years ago. At first the number produced was few, and they were so clumsily made that it was soon apparent that they were forgeries. In later 1 G. 455, Table-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room. 2 G. 483, Table-Case N, Fourth Egyptian Room. 3 Arab. Juu^J • 254 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. days, however, the native has brought skill and thought to bear upon the matter, and he sets about his work in a syste- matic way. He has seen what the old faience scarabs are made of, and he can now make a paste very much like that of which they are made. From the old broken ushabtiu figures, scarabs and beads, he chips off the thin layer of Process of green or blue covering for his use. A large number of manufac- genuine moulds for scarabs have been found, and from ture of these and others which he makes like them, he turns out large numbers of scarabs ready for glazing. For glaze he uses the pieces which he has collected from broken genuine scarabs, etc., and he spreads this over the paste with a blow-pipe. When he wishes to make steatite scarabs he obtains the steatite from the mountains where the ancient Egyptians found it. There is a large amount of artistic skill in many natives, and with a little practice they are able to cut very good scarabs. The discoloration of the genuine scarab is easily imitated by keeping them in wet sand, earth and ashes, and if he wants to glaze them he makes use of the same method as in glazing his paste forgeries. For inscriptions he usually follows slavishly those inscribed on genuine scarabs, of which he keeps a good supply. In this matter, however, he is greatly helped by the act of an English traveller, who wrote out for one of these imitators a list of all the most important kings of Egypt ! which he now imitates with great success. He sells hundreds, perhaps even thou- sands, of his scarabs yearly, and many of them bring a high price. One has only to see the excellent way in which some of the natives can make a fine and correct reproduction in stone from a sculpture in a tomb or temple, to understand how well the native can imitate such things. Colours and other materials and tools can now be easily obtained in Egypt, and through the support of numerous purchasers who have bought readily for some years past, the production of forgeries of anti- quities in general, and of scarabs in particular, 1 has become 1 And this, notwithstanding the statement, " Generally speaking, forgeries — except of one or two obvious kinds — are very rare, and there is nothing like the amount of doubt in the matter which is often supposed to exist." Petrie, Histo- rical Scarabs , p. 6. SCARAB. 255 a very profitable business. At more than one place in Egypt Modern scarabs, bronze figures, etc., etc., have been so well imitated ture of that experts were deceived and purchased them. Genuine ^ l s iqul " ushabtiu figures and bronze statues of gods are cast in moulds found among the ruins of ancient Egyptian towns, wooden Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures and boats are made from the planks of old coffins, and as it is evident that the substance itself is genuine, the unwary collector is thrown off his guard. In certain dealers' houses at Thebes and elsewhere, the visitor will always find a large assortment of forgeries, even on the tables set apart for genuine antiquities, and he will be able to compare and judge for himself. The reverence shown by the Egyptians to the scarab, as an emblem of the Creator, was not shared by neighbouring nations. Thus Physiologus, after describing how scarabs roll Physiol<> up their eggs in balls of dung, and how they push them Sarabaeus? backwards, and how the young having come to life feed upon the dung in which they are hatched, goes on to say that we may learn of a certainty that scarabs are heretics 1 who are polluted by the filth of heresies ; that these balls, which are formed of filth and nastiness, and which they roll backwards and not forwards, are the evil thoughts of their heresies, which are formed of wickedness and sin, and which they roll against mankind, until they become children of error, and by being participators in the filth of their heresies they become other beings and like unto them. See Land, Anecdota 1 The ignorance of the habits and manner of life of the scarabaeus which is displayed by certain Syrian writers upon natural history is marvellous ; here is a specimen : " The scarabaeus receiveth conception through its mouth, and when it cometh to bring forth, it giveth, birth to its young through its ears. It hath the habit of stealing, and wherever it findeth small things and things of gold and silver it taketh and hideth them in its hole. And if pulse be found in the house it taketh [it] and mixeth [it] up with [other] things, chick-peas with beans, and bears with lentils, rice with millet and wheat, and everything which it findeth it mixeth up together in ihe place where it hideth itself. It thus doeth the work of the cooks who mix such things together to make to stumble those who buy pulse at the shops. And if any man taketh note of it and smiteth it, it taketh its vengeance upon [his] clothing. If having collected pieces of money and taken them forth to the race-course or to play with them, they be taken away from it, it wandereth about and turneth hither and thither, and if it findeth them not it straightway killeth itself." Ahrens, Das Buck der Naturgegetisiatide, text, p. 41, translation, p. 62. 256 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Syriaca, torn. IV. p. 77, cap. 56. Bar-Hebraeus, commenting in nCViK' i^oK*, on Psalm lxxviii. 45, and referring to the words ^CUK' A^Kta r^^csijj ^_cvcn>\s. i.tx. (Heb., OHS. n 1 ?^ ihJT, he sent among them the gad-fly, LXX., 'E^Tre- o-reiXev et9 auTou? Kvv6^vtav) y " he sent against them crowds of insects and they devoured them," includes the scarab (|^ r>lo plur. )Ir>I^I>; ]Asai£iI*> plur. ^Alsa^^) among noxious creatures like dog-flies, scorpions, ants, etc. . m . rd\.c\lv> KliJCU n^ix-o rdna.TO r^^u'io^i^o Kli5ai-ax.o Amulets. The I. The Buckle or Tie /§. This amulet, called by the Buckie of ~ fi ^ Isis. Egyptians | ( (|) Bet, is one of the commonest objects found among collections of Egyptian amulets. It was most com* monly made of red jasper, carnelian, red porphyry, red glass or faience, and sycamore wood ; sometimes it was made entirely of gold, and sometimes, when it was made of sub- stances other than gold, it was set in gold, or covered over with gold leaf. Buckles are usually uninscribed, but fre- quently when two or more are found together the 156th chapter of the Book of the Dead is engraved on them. The buckle was placed on the neck of the mummy, which it was supposed to protect ; the red material of which it was made represented the blood of Isis. The formula which is inscribed on buckles reads : — Re en 0et ent x enemet t^tl er %e% Chapter of the buckle of red jasper placed on the neck en x u senef ent Auset hekau of the deceased. The blood of Isis, the incantations AMULETS. 257 /www ^ rJJ VJ ill J2T -11 1 m ^ dJ \J 11L _Z1 & ent Auset %ut ent Auset ut'at em of Isis, the power of /sis, a char?n for the Li ft 1 mzi - sa ur pen sau ari protection of mighty one this, protecting [him from] the doing of betaut - f pu what to him is hateful. The rubric of this chapter reads : — C W □ «©> \cz* /VWAA © fk 0 Rubric of c=4~ v 1 — 1 lit c -S^m 2S» t'et-tu re pen her 0et ent %enem of Book of Is to be said chapter this over a buckle of red jasper the Dead * rill k = ? fTWk«? mes -Ok em mau nu anxam anointed with water of ancham flowers, men^u - Ok her %ati ent nehet erta - Ok made of the heart of a sycamore tree, and placed <=> :*< - %\% iif^r er x e X en X u P en ax aritu - nef on the neck of deceased person this. If makes one /www _ O J £^ s'at ten un - nes %ut en Auset em {JS?**} ^ * * the power of Isis 1 See Birch, The Amulet of the Tie, Aeg. Zeit., 1871, p. 13 : and Maspero, Mimoire sur Quelques Tapyrtts du Lotcvre, p. 8. B. Bit S 258 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT ]l I I sail - f haa protecting him, rejoices Heru se Auset Horus, son of /sis, su an not a -f er hand his is to t'era is blocked en *=5* o I uat way nebt any o o maa - f er-ef against him, □ o -^-fl <=> 5, pet a - f er ta ar hand his is to heaven, hand his is to earth If re% - tu known is sat book A/WAAA ten this, A un - nef is he Ausar Un-nefer maatxeru au Osiris Unnefer, triumphant ! em ses en in the follozuing of — l=n^\^. 1 1 1 untu - nef sebau Are opened to him the gates 1 H Qn em neter-xertet of the underworld, au is II U \\ I I I pertu beti wheal and barley em in h a tatu - nef x a ta em /ho] reap. AMULETS. 259 II. The Tet This object, which represents a mason's The tet of Osiris. table and not a Nilometer, as a religious emblem symbolizes Osiris the lord of Tettu, great god of the underworld. The meaning of the word tet is " firmness, stability, preservation," etc, The tet had on it sometimes the plumes, disk and horns, , and was painted on mummies and tombs. The amulet itself was placed on the neck of the mummy which it was supposed to protect. Tets are made of faience, gold, wood gilded, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, and many other substances, although the rubric of the 155th chapter, of which y is the vignette, states that they are to be made of gold. This chapter is entitled : — re en tet en c ' Chapter of a tet of 111 nub tata er gold placed on the ?ieck en of The Chapter of the tet the deceased P and reads :- -j O uben - k - nek " Rise up thou, /VWM V urtu - ab pen pest - k nek O resting of heart this, shine thou, 9 1 urtu ab ta - k - tu her ma - k it - na O resting of heart, place thou thyself upon place thy. Come I, 1 an-na nek tet en nub ha - k am - f bring 1 to thee a tet of gold, rejoice thou in it" 1 1 Papyrus of Ani, pi. 33 ; the text given by Naville, Das Todtcnbuch, Bl. clxxx., differs from this. S 2 260 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The Vul- ture of Isis. This chapter was to be " said over a tet of gold, made of the heart of sycamore wood, which was to be placed on the neck of the mummy." The tet enabled the deceased to enter in through the gates of the underworld, and if this chapter were known by him, he would " rise up as a perfect soul in the underworld, he would not be repulsed at the gates there, and cakes would be given to him, and joints of meat from the altars of Ra." III. The Vulture According to the rubric of the 157th chapter of the Book of the Dead, a vulture of gold was to be placed on the neck of the mummy on the day of the funeral ; it was supposed to carry with it the protection of " Mother " Isis. The chapter reads, " Isis has come, she has gone round about the towns, she has sought out the hidden places of Horus in his coming out from the swamp of papyrus reeds. His son has stood against evil, he has come into the divine boat, he has commanded the princes of the world, he has made a great fight, he makes mention of what he has done, he has caused himself to be feared and estab- lished terror of him. His mother, the mighty lady, makes his protection and brings (?) him to Horus." Amulets of the vulture inscribed with this chapter are very rare. IV. The Collar tisex- The rubric of the 158th chapter of the Book of the Dead orders a collar of gold to be laid upon the neck of the deceased on the day of the funeral. It was to be inscribed : — atf-a Father my 1 sent-a sister my, mut - a mother my, Auset sefexi - ua Isis I Unbandaged am I, /VAAAAA I I I A III maa-ua nuk ua am sefe%i maa-sen Seb see L I am one among the unbandaged ones [who] see Seb. is Amulet collars are found made of red jasper, carnelian, etc. AMULETS. 26l V. The "Papyrus Sceptre" I uat'. This amulet is The P a Py \j rus sceptr* usually made of mother-of-emerald or of faience like unto it of Thotn - in colour, and the hieroglyphic word which it represents, < §° i ~^ I uaf % means "verdure, flourishing, greenness," and the like ; it was placed on the neck of the deceased, and indicated the eternal youth which it was hoped he would enjoy in the underworld. This amulet was sometimes inscribed with the 159th chapter of the Book of the Dead, where it is described as f/wvwv pa 0 anm ^ o uat' en nesem, " an uat' of mother-of- emerald." The next chapter says that a rounded tablet, on which is a figure of the J in relief, is to be placed on the neck of the deceased ; it was supposed to be given to him by Thoth, and to protect his limbs. VI. The Pillow urs} This amulet is usually made of haematite, and is generally uninscribed ; it is a model of the large pillows of wood, alabaster and stone which are placed under the heads of mummies to "lift them up." When inscribed the text is a version of that of the 166th chapter of the Book of the Dead. No. 20,647 in the British Museum reads : — 0es - tu Rise up from I I I mentu non-existence, st'erfl O prostrate one. - es3 - Chapter of the seres - Pillow. Watch over <=> ^ sen tep-k er x ut they head thy at the horizon 0es - u se%er - k exalted, ovcrthroiuest thou x eft - k enemies thy, maatxeru - k triumphest thou 9 1 her over an - u what do they erek against thee, 1 See Birch, The Chapter of the Pillow, in Aeg. Zeit., 1868, pp. 52-54. 262 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 1 (sic) T utu er ari nek Hem net' tef - f as] has commanded to be done for thee Horus, the avenger of father his i III I tepu nu Ausar pen at - k Osiris this. Cut test off thou heads of xeft - k an enemies tiiy^ not AAAAAA nehem - sen k shall carry away they 1 w 1 ^2>- lot erek er heh apt - k from thee for ever head (?) thy / ® 1 I ! tepu 1 1 1 mak sat Ausar ari em peru Verily slaughter Osiris maketh at the coming forth of the heads nu x e ^ - f of enemies his, I n I I I an nehem - sen [tep] f er - f may remove they [head] his from him er heh for ever I VII. The Heart I) JO Amulets of the heart are made of carnelian, green jasper, basalt, lapis-lazuli, and many other kinds of hard stone. The heart was considered to be the source of all life and thought, and it was the part of the body that was specially taken care of in mummifying. It was embalmed and put in a jar by itself, and it could not be replaced in the body until it had undergone judgment by being weighed in the balance against p, representing " Law." The heart was symbolised by the scarab, upon which the formulae relating to the heart were inscribed ; and sometimes a heart amulet was inscribed with one of the chapters of the heart on one side, and a scarab on the other (B.M. No. 8003). AMULETS. 263 Sometimes the heart is human-headed, with the hands crossed over it (B.M. 15,598), and sometimes a figure of the soul, in the shape of a hawk with outstretched wings, is inlaid on one side of it (B.M. No. 8005). The chapters in the Book of the Dead which refer to the heart are the 26th, the " Chapter of giving to a person his heart in the underworld " ; The the 27th, 28th, 29th A, " Chapter of not allowing the heart of Q f h ^ er a person to be taken away from him in the underworld " ; Heart. 29 B, " Chapter of a heart of carnelian ; " 30 A , and 30 B, u Chapter of not allowing the heart of a person to be turned away from him in the underworld." The most important chapter of the heart, and that most commonly found, 29 B, is translated in that portion of this Catalogue which describes the green basalt heart in the Fitzwilliam Museum ; for the text of the others see Naville, Das Todtenbuch, Bll. XXXVII- XLIII. ; and for translations see Birch, On formulas relating to the heart, in A eg. Zeit., 1866, pp. 69, 1867, pp. 16, 54 ; and Pierret, Le Livre des Morts, pp. 103-114. An interesting example of the heart amulet is described by Birch 1 ; on one side are >c=k Net, '* Neith " and the bennu bird, with the legend ® ^fc^. £f Nuk ba yeperd, " I am the soul of Chepera ," and on the other is the common chapter of the heart. The bennu bird or phoenix was an emblem of the resurrection. VIII. The Amulet of Life j- any. This object is found in every material used by the Egyptians for making amulets, and formed a very common ornament for the living and the dead. Necklaces were frequently composed of pendants made in forms of ^j* f jj, and and sometimes neferu " good luck," were added. IX. The " Symbolic Eye" or ^\ ufaL This amulet was made of glazed faience, wood, granite, haematite, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, gold, silver, and many other materials. Ut'ats are either right or left, and they are also made double or quadruple ; they are sometimes made in 1 Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in Almvick Castle, p. 224. 264 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. hollow-work, and are sometimes ornamented with a number of others in relief. Some have on their obverse a head of Hathor (B.M. No. 7357) or a figure of Bes (B.M. No. 21,547) ; on their reverse they frequently have names of kings, private The persons, or gods. They are sometimes made with wings, and amulet of ~ theufat. have an arm and hand holding •¥* "life," projecting (B.M. No. 7378); and some have a ram and two lions on them in relief. The two ut'ats, right and left, represented the two eyes of the sun > the one symbolising the northern half of the sun's daily course, and the other the southern half ; they also represented the sun and moon. On sepulchral boxes the ut'ats are often accompanied by neferu JJJ . The vignette of the 163rd chapter of the Book of the Dead contains two ut'ats, winged, with human legs, and the vignette of the 167th or " Chapter of bringing the ut'at," is ; the 140th chapter was to be recited over an ut'at made of lapis-lazuli, and offerings were to be made to it. The word ut'a ^ J ) means " to be in good health, safe, preserved and happy," and the popularity of this amulet in Egypt was probably due to the fact that those who wore it, whether living or dead, were supposed to be safe and happy under the protection of the eye of Ra. Miscel- X. The amulet Nefer T or " Good Luck," was laneous <= — - > ^ amulets. commonly made of glazed faience or of carnelian, and was much used by the Egyptians for necklaces. XI. The amulet Sam | or P^^^J represented " union " ; sometimes it is made thus X and then probably represents sam-ta, the union with the earth or u funeral." XII. The amulet Chut rO) represented the disk of the sun on the horizon, and was often made of jasper or hard stone. XIII. The amulet Shen Q represented the orbit of the sun, and is made of lapis-lazuli and of carnelian. It is often found on sepulchral stelae and boxes, but its exact use is unknown. AMULETS. 265 XIV, XV. The amulet of the Tesher crown ^ repre- sented the crown of Lower Egypt ; and Het' Q represented the crown of Upper Egypt. XVI. The amulet of the Menat ^^Qof^ signified Miscel- /awva 1 ^1 laneous "joy " and " health," and perhaps " life." 1 It is always worn amulets, by Ptah at the back of his neck, and it is frequently an emblem of the goddess Hathor. XVII. The Cartouche Q is thought by Pierret {Diet. (T Arche'ologie Egyptienne, p. 118) to be nothing more than an elongated seal (see No. XIII), and to represent natural reproduction and eternity. XVIII. The amulet Neha [f 3 " protection " ; it was made chiefly of haematite, and is found in the breast of the mummy. XIX. The amulet of the Serpent's head is made of stone, red jasper, or paste to imitate red jasper, and carnelian. It was placed on mummies to prevent their being bitten by snakes and other reptiles in the underworld. The 34th chapter of the Book of the Dead, entitled, " Chapter of not allowing a person to be bitten in the underworld by a serpent," is sometimes found engraved upon this amulet. In later times glass and faience models of serpents j^, |», were worn by men and women round the neck ; they were probably connected in some way with Isis. XX. The amulet of the Disk and Plumes Q$ probably represented the head-dress of Seker, the god of the resurrection ; the feathers [J^ often occur without the disk. The use of this amulet is unknown. XXI. The Frog ^ represents " myriads." This amulet is made of steatite, jasper of various colours, faience, etc. ; it 1 For a discussion on this amulet see Lefebure, Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch., 1891, PP- 333-349. 266 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. is often found with The frog emblem of the resurrec- tion. Ring amulets. and J, and was probably placed with these on the neck of the mummy, although examples are known which were taken from the chest. The frog-headed goddess tJeqt is a form of the goddess Hathor, the wife of Chnemu ; she was considered to be connected with the resurrection. On lamps of the Greek and Roman periods found in Egypt the frog often appears on the upper part, and one is known 1 which has the legend CPU) €IMI ANACTACIC, "I am the resurrection." The use of this amulet appears not to be older than the XVIIIth dynasty. XXII. The Stairs ^ or J ( /]. This amulet is usually made of glazed faience, but the use of it is unknown to me. In the vignette of the I ioth chapter of the Book of the Dead it is figured placed in a boat (Naville, Das Todte?tbuch, Bl. CXXIII.) ; in the 22nd chapter the deceased says, "I am Osiris, lord of Re-stau (the passages of the tomb), and of those who are at the top of the stairs"; and in the 85th chapter the deceased says, " I am the lord of the stairs, I have made my nest on the borders of the sky." XXIII. The amulet of the two Fingers, the index and medius, is found in the interior of mummies, and is generally made of haematite or obsidian. The use of the amulet is unknown to me. In every Egyptian collection of importance a large number of rings, having a gap in each, will be found ; they are made of gold, red jasper, obsidian, red glazed faience, shell, stone, and glass. Those made of gold have a small ring at each end for a wire to pass through (?), and they may thus have been used as earrings or pendants for necklaces ; on the other hand they may have been used as amulets. Some believe that they were used as buttons. Figures of Gods. The gold, silver, bronze, wooden and faience figures of gods in Egyptian collections may be reckoned by thousands, and they vary in size from half an inch to fifteen inches or Figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, p. 853. FIGURES OF GODS. 267 more. Bronze statues were usually cast in moulds, in one or more pieces, the core being made of sand or earth. When cast in pieces the limbs were soldered together and the edges smoothed with a file or scraper. The core is frequently found Method of inside the statue, where it was left by the workmen to ture. strengthen the casting. Figures of gods in gold are com- paratively few, the gods most often represented in this metal being Amen-Ra, Chensu, and Nefer-Atmu ; figures of these gods were also made of silver and plated with gold, and a figure of the god Set, made of bronze plated with gold, is also known (B.M. No. 18,191). Bronze figures of gods were sometimes inlaid with gold, and the eyes were made of gold or silver with obsidian pupils. Glazed faience figures of gods are very common, and certain gods were made of this substance, which up to the present have rarely been met with in bronze. They were usually cast from moulds, and follow fairly closely the design and patterns of the bronze figures ; they do not occur earlier than the XXVth or XXVIth dynasty, and although wretched copies of them were made for hundreds of years after, they do not appear to have continued in use among all classes of people in Egypt. It may be mentioned in passing that the natives of Egypt at the present day make use of the old moulds, found chiefly in Upper Egypt, to cast figures of the gods in gold and silver which they sell to the traveller as genuine antiquities. Figures of the gods of Egypt are found among the ruins of houses and in temples and tombs. According to M. Mariette 1 those found among the ruins of towns are of two kinds: I, those placed in a niche, cut in the form of a Uses of shrine, which represented the divinity to the service of which fe 1 ^ the inhabitants of the house were attached, and before which, on certain days, offerings were laid ; 2, those which were placed in crevices of the walls of the inner chambers of the house, and which were supposed to be able by magical influence to protect the inhabitants of the house from spells and the results of incantations, and from other malignant influences. The use of this latter class of statues or small 1 Catalogue General des Monuments d'Abydos, p. I. 268 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. figures is as old as the XVIIIth dynasty, at least. The figures of gods found in temples are very numerous and are votive. The Egyptians seem to have believed that the gods inhabited statues or figures, made in their honour, and on this account they often made them very beautiful, so that they might form worthy habitations for them. On certain days prayers were said before them, and offerings were made to them. As figures of many different gods are found in the same temple, it follows that a worshipper wishing to place a figure of a god in a temple was not bound to offer one of the god to whom the temple was dedicated ; supposing the temple to be one of Ptah, he could offer a figure of Ra, or Chnemu, or of any god he pleased. Figures of gods were supposed to answer questions, for it will be remembered that when Chensu was asked if he would go to the land of Bechten to cure a daughter of the prince of that land of her sickness, he inclined his head in assent. When he arrived in that land, he held a conversation with the demon that possessed the maiden, and when the demon agreed to come out from her, provided that a feast were made in his honour, the god Funereal through his priest, assented. Figures of gods other than bronzes. Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys are not commonly found in tombs ; it is true that many examples in faience are found in the wrappings of mummies, but in these cases they were simply used as amulets like the buckle, tet, pillow and many others. Figures of gods made of every sort of material were also buried in the sand around temples and tombs with the view of guarding them from every evil influence. The following is a list of the most important of the gods and goddesses of whom figures were made in bronze and glazed faience : — Amen-Ra f\ t ~ J ° J) and Mut and Chensu formed the I /www I i_ 1 great triad of Thebes ; the word Amen means " hidden." Amen was said to be the son of Ptah, and he seems to have Amen the usurped the attributes of all the other gods. Before the ex- god of** pulsion of the Hyksos by Se-qenen-Ra his position was that Egypt. of the local god of Thebes ; subsequently he became the national god of Egypt. He was said to be the maker of things above and of things below, and to have more forms FIGURES OF GODS. 269 than any other god. He made the gods, and stretched out the heavens, and founded the earth ; he was lord of eternity and maker of everlasting. The Egyptians affirmed of him that he was ONE, the ONLY ONE. In bronze figures he stands upon a plinth, he holds the sceptre j in his left hand, and on his head he wears the disk and feathers JJ^ ; at times he holds a scimitar (B.M. Nos. 28, 29). He is also represented seated on a throne, and the throne was some- times placed inside a shrine, the top of which was ornamented with uraei, winged disk, etc., and the sides and back with hollow-work figures of Isis, Nephthys, and Osiris (B.M. No. 11,013). On the pedestals he is called "Amen-Ra, lord of the thrones of the world, the president of the Apts (i.e., q j I " ' ■ L Q ^ He is, at times, one of a triad consisting of Amen, Amsu, and Ra (B.M. No. 1 8,68 1 ). The faience figures of this god are similar to 00 fflfl 0D| flOO., /OQQQ OQQQ DD .•U*tf4lft - hot Amen-Ra. Amsu. FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The god of procre ation. forms of Ra. the bronze J/j, and he appears together with the other members of his triad, Mut and Chensu. Ames or Amsu jj-|J-_»--^|, ^F^j, commonly read " Chem," is a form of Amen-Ra, and represented " genera- tion " or the productive power in nature : figures of him, in bronze and faience, are tolerably numerous. Ra <==> ^ O ^j, the Sun-god, was also the creator of gods and men ; his emblem was the sun's disk. His worship was very ancient, and he was said to be the offspring of Nut, or Different the sky. He assumed the forms of several other gods, and is at times represented by the lion, cat, and hawk. In papyri and on bas-reliefs he has the head of a hawk, and wears a disk, in front of which is an uraeus Jj. When he rose in the morning he was called Heru-chuti or Harmachis ; and at night, when he set, he was called Atmu, or u the closer." Ra. Heru (Horus). FIGURES OF GODS. 271 Ra the warrior, During the night he was supposed to be engaged in fighting Apepi, the serpent, who, at the head of a large army of fiends, personifications of mist, darkness, and cloud, tried to overthrow him. The battle was renewed daily, but Ra always conquered, and appeared day after day in the sky. Bronze and faience figures of this god represent him hawk- headed and wearing disk and uraeus. Menthu-Ra s=> %^ 0 in bronze figures is hawk- headed, and wears the disk, in front of which are two uraei, and plumes ; at times figures have two hawk's heads on a single body. Horus the morning sun, son of Isis and Osiris, is usually called " the avenger of his father," in reference to his defeat of Set. Figures in bronze and faience represent him hawk-headed and wearing the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. This god was distinguished in name only from Heru-ur, the elder brother of Osiris. Harpocrates, or Heru-pa-Chrat {§), the morning The god of youth. Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates). Chensu. 272 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Different forms of Chensu. sun, in bronze or fa'fence wears the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt or the triple crown J^j^, or the plumes (Jj, or is quite bald ; over the right shoulder a lock of hair falls, and the tip of a finger of the right hand rests on his lips. He is represented naked, as being in the lap of his mother Isis. Chensu ^ 0 ^ J) was associated with Amen-Ra and A/VWVA I 'I i 1 Mut in the Theban triad, and was god of the moon. In bronze figures he is human-headed, and wears a crescent and disk ; in faience figures he is made like a mummy, and holds sceptres of different shapes in his hands. His second name was Nefer-hetep, and he was worshipped with great honour at Thebes. Chensu-pa-chrat ^ has all the attributes of Harpocrates, and figures of him in bronze are not rare. A very fine specimen is B.M. No. 11,045 Tmu or The night- of the day or night, usually represents the night-sun Sun. Atmu (j~|^^^ the "Closer" He j5 Ms*-*' Chensu Nefer-Hetep. Atmu. FIGURES OF GODS. 273 wears the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt ; in the right hand he holds ^ and in the left |. Nefer-Atmu, the son of Ptah and Sechet or Bast, represents the power of the heat of the rising sun. Figures of this god were made in gold, silver, bronze, and faience. In metal, he stands upright, wearing lotus flowers and plumes on his head, in his right hand he holds I and in the left Sometimes each shoulder is inlaid in gold with an ut'at (B.M. No. 22,921). In faience he has the same head-dress, but stands on a lion ; in faience, too, he is often accompanied by his mother Sechet or Bast (B.M. Nos. 2 50^, '260a). Ptah D \ U , the " Opener," perhaps the oldest of all the The oldest d r\ Jl god of gods of Egypt, was honoured with a temple and worshipped Egypt, at Memphis from the time of the 1st dynasty. He is said to be the father of the gods, who came forth from his eye, and of men, who came forth from his mouth. Nefer-Atmu. B. M. Ptah. T 274 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. He is represented in the form of a mummy, and he holds a sceptre composed of | usr t " strength," anc/i, " life," and te/, " stability." Bronze and faience figures of this god are tolerably common, and resemble each other in form and design. At the back of his neck he wears the mendt (^j. The god With reference to his connexion with the resurrection and resm-rec- the nether world, he is called Ptah-Seker-Ausar, and is tion. represented as a little squat boy, with bent legs, and his hands on his hips. Sometimes he has his feet on the head of a crocodile ; on the right side stands Isis, on the left Nephthys, at his back is a human-headed hawk emblematic of the soul, on each shoulder is a hawk, and on his head is a beetle, the emblem of Chepera, the self-begotten god. In faience figures of this god are very common, but in bronze they are rare. Imouthis I-em-hetep 0 t\ J), the Imouthis of the Greeks, the scribe. ^ a □ i_l was the first-born son of Ptah and Nut. He is represented Ptah-Tatenen. I-em-hetep. (Imouthis). FIGURES OF GODS. 2/5 both standing and seated, holding a sceptre 1 in the right hand, and Q in the left ; at times he holds on his knees an open roll, upon which is inscribed his name. The bronze figures of this god are usually of very fine workmanship, often having the inscriptions inlaid in gold ; in faience, figures of this god are very rare. Chnemu Q ^ % % the "Moulder," the Xvovfm, The _H Li _ "mould- Xvovftis, Xvovftc, Kvrjrf) or Kvovcjyis of the Greeks, is one of er " of the oldest gods of Egypt, and was especially worshipped man * in Nubia, at Philae, where he is represented making man out of clay on a potter's wheel, and at Elephantine. Like Amen-Ra he is said to be the father of the gods, 1 and Chnemu. Chepera. Tehuti (Thoth). Father of the fathers of the gods, the lord who evolveth from himself, maker of heaven, earth, the underworld, water, and mountains /www r^rss] AVWV |\> r \/1 . /www ty^i I I I T 2 276 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. Thoth the accurate scribe of the gods. The murderer of Osiris and opponent of" Horus. with this god and Ptah and Chepera he shared the name of " creator of men." Chnemu put together the scattered limbs of the dead body of Osiris, and it was he who created the beautiful woman who became the wife of Bata in the Tale of the Two Brothers. In bronze and faience, figures of this god represent him with the head of a ram, and wearing plumes, £)P$ ; these figures are tolerably common. Thoth, in Egyptian Tehuti , the " Measurer," was the scribe of the gods, the measurer of time and inventor of numbers. In the judgment hall of Osiris he stands by the side of the balance holding a palette and reed ready to record the result of the weighing of the heart as announced by the dog-headed ape who sits on the middle of the beam of the scales. In bronze figures he is represented with the head of an ibis, but he has upon it sometimes horns and plumes. In faience figures he has also the head of an ibis, and occasionally he holds an ut'at between his hands in front of him (B. M. No. 4900). Set or Sut jl ^ ^fj , Gr. HqO, was one of the sons of Seb and Nut, and was brother of Osiris, and husband of Nephthys. His worship dates from the Vth dynasty, and he continued to be a most popular god in Egypt until the XlXth dynasty ; kings delighted to call themselves " beloved of Set," and to be compared to him for valour when the records of their battles were written down. He probably represented the destructive power of the sun's heat. Between the XXIInd and XXVth dynasties a violent reaction set in against this god, his statues and figures were smashed, his effigy was hammered out from the bas-reliefs and stelae in which it appeared, and from being a beneficent god, and a companion of Amen and his brother-gods, he became the personification of all evil, and the opponent of all good. His persistent enmity of Osiris will be mentioned below. Set, or Sutech, was chosen by the Hyksos for their god. Bronze figures of Set are very rare indeed. The British Museum possesses two examples, Nos. 18,191 and 22,897; each represents the god standing upright, in each he has the characteristic animal's FIGURES OF GODS. 277 head, and wears the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, ; each figure was originally gilded, and each has a hole drilled in a projecting piece of metal, from which it was suspended and worn. When I bought the larger figure it was bent double, evidently by a violent blow, given probably when the reaction against this god's worship set in. Faience figures of Set I have never seen. Set. Ausar (Osiris). Osiris, in Egyptian Ausar the great god and king of the underworld, the judge of the dead, was the son of Seb and Nut, and husband of Isis ; he was murdered by his brother Set, who was in turn slain by Horus, the son of Osiris, and the 14 avenger of his father." According to Plutarch {De Plutarch's hide et Osiride, xii.-xx.) Osiris was the wise and good king Qgj^s. of Egypt, who spent his life in civilizing his subjects and in improving their condition. Having brought them out of degradation and savagery, he set out to do the like for the other nations of the world. Upon his return his brother Set, 278 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. together with seventy-two other people, and the queen of Ethiopia, made a conspiracy against him. They invited him into a banqueting room, and by an artful device made Osiris get into a box which Set had previously caused to be made to fit him. As soon as Osiris had lain down in it, the conspirators nailed the cover on it, and having poured molten lead over it, they carried it by river to the sea,. the waves of which washed it up at Byblos. As soon as Isis heard of what had happened, she set out to search for her husband's body, and eventually found it ; but having carried it off to another place, it was accidentally discovered by Set, who forthwith broke open the chest, and tore the body into fourteen pieces, which he scattered up and down the country. Isis then set out to search for the pieces of her husband's body, and she found all but one ; wherever she found a piece she buried it, and built a temple over it. He was the type of all mummies, and the deceased is made like unto him, and named after him. Bronze figures of this god represent him as a mum- Auset (Isis). Nebt-Het (Nephthys). FIGURES OF GODS. 279 mified figure wearing the crown <^Jj> , in his right hand he holds the whip ^\ , and in the left the crook J . Figures of this god in faience are not very common. Isis, in Egyptian Auset r J? 3 , was a daughter of Seb and The family dJ \J l!i of Osiris. Nut ; she married her brother Osiris. Bronze figures repre- sent her 1, standing and wearing jj upon her head, and 2, seated suckling her naked child Horus, who is sitting on her knees, at her left breast, and wearing disk and horns X^X upon her head. In faience many figures of both kinds are found. In funereal scenes Isis stands at the foot of the bier mourning the deceased. Nephthys, in Egyptian Nebt-het ]J^^}> was also a daughter of Seb and Nut ; she married her brother Set. Bronze figures, which are not common, represent her standing draped in a long tunic, and wearing "jj on her head ; in faience, figures of this goddess are very numerous, and follow the style and design of those in bronze. A number of rectangular faience pendants have been found in which Isis, Nephthys and Harpocrates or Horus stand side by side. IN WW^ M Anubis, in Egyptian Anpu Ijn^^fjj was > according to some legends, the son of Nephthys and Osiris, who mistook that goddess for Isis ; elsewhere he is said to be the son of Ra. He is always represented as having the head of a jackal, and he is one of the chief gods of the dead and the nether- world. He presided over the embalming of the mummy, he The god led the mummy into the presence of Osiris, and watched over the ceremony of weighing the heart, and he is often repre- sented standing by the bier with one hand laid on the mummy. The belief that this god acted in this capacity survived for some centuries after Christ, and a remarkable proof of this fact is given by a light green, glazed faience plaque in the British Museum, No. 22,874. On the obverse Persist- Anubis, jackal-headed, in relief, stands by the side of a bier be in the shape of a lion, also in relief ; on the reverse, in relief, liefsamong the Copts. 28o FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. are two lines of inscription in Coptic which read, £.c IHC € TUUItK, " May she hasten to arise." At each end is a pierced projection whereby the plaque was fastened to the mummy. The plaque is an interesting example of the survival of ancient Egyptian ideas among the Egyptians after they had embraced Christianity. Anubis is sometimes confused with Ap-uat \Jf ! ^jj , " the opener of the ways," another jackal-headed god, and the attributes of the one are ascribed Anpu (Anubis). Shu. Sunlight and moisture. to the other. Bronze and faience figures of this god represent him standing and having the head of a jackal. Shu, in Egyptian ^ 9 was the first-born son of Ra and Hathor, and brother of Tefnut , he is supposed to symbolise the air or sun-light, and in papyri and on coffins he is represented in the form of a man, standing with both arms raised, lifting up Nut, or the sky, from the embrace of Seb the earth. In bronze and faience figures he is in the form of FIGURES OF GODS. 28l a man kneeling on his right knee and supporting the sun's disk and horizon with his upraised arms on his shoulders. There is in the British Museum (No. 11,057) a ^ ne example of an aegis in bronze with the heads of Shu and Tefnut, ° ® ^j, his sister, upon it. Shu is bearded and wears two pairs of plumes upon his head ; Tefnut has the head of a lion and wears a disk and uraeus ; B.M. No. 389 is an example of these gods in faience. Standing figures of Shu, in faience, have sometimes ^ on his head. J > the g° d of the Nile, is depicted as a /WW\A 1 I man, sitting or standing, holding a table or altar on which are vases for libations, vOvOPv' and lotus flowers and Hapi fruits, he also has a clump of lotus flowers ^ upon his head. The Nile- The British Museum possesses a figure of this god, No. 1 1,069, g ° d " which represents him standing upright, with a table of Hapi, the god of the Nile. 282 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT. offerings of plants, fruits and flowers before him. On his head he wears Jj^, and in front is an nt'at Apis or Hapi "the second life of Ptah," and the incarnation of Osiris, was the name given to the Antiquity sacred bull of Memphis, where the worship of this god was worship. most ancient, having been introduced from Heliopolis by Kakau, a king of the Ilnd dynasty. He is variously called " the son of Ptah," " the son of Tmu," " the son of Osiris," and " the son of Seker." In bronze Hapi is sometimes repre- sented in the form of a man with a bull's head, between the horns of which are a disk and an uraeus wearing a disk. Usually, however, he is in the form of a bull having a disk and an urseus between the horns ; on the back above the shoulders is engraved a vulture with outstretched wings, and on the back, over the hind quarters, is a winged scarab. The bull usually stands on a rectangular pedestal, on the sides of which are inscribed the name and titles of the person who had the bull made ; on the same pedestal is frequently a figure of this person kneeling in adoration before him. Figures of Apis in bronze are commoner than those in fai'ence. According to Herodotus (II. 27-29) Apis was the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another offspring; "and the Egyp- tians say, that lightning descends upon the cow from heaven, Descrip- anc j that from thence it brings forth Apis. This calf, which Apis bull, is called Apis, has the following marks : it is black, and has a square spot of white on the forehead ; and on the back the figure of an eagle ; and in the tail double hairs ; and on the tongue a beetle." When Apis was dead he was called Ausar Hapi or j j( ^*>S^' or Serapis by the Greeks, and he is represented on coffins in the form of a bull with disk and uraeus on his head ; on his back is the mummy of the deceased, above which the soul in the form of a hawk is seen hovering. The place where the Apis bulls that lived at Memphis were buried was called the Serapeum, and Mariette discovered at Sakkarah their tombs, dating from the time of Amenophis III. down to that of the Roman Empire. Above each tomb of FIGURES OF GODS. 283 an Apis bull was built a chapel, and it was the series of chapels which formed the Serapeum properly so called. The Mnevis bull, in , worshipped at Heliopolis, is thought by some to represent the same symbolism, and to be identical in form with Apis ; he is called the " renewing of the life of Ra." Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf, the four The gods children of Horus (see Canopic fars, p. 194), are common in Ordinal glazed faience, but rare in bronze. points. Sati ^* ^, together with Anqet °^ and Chnemu, formed the triad of Elephantine, and she seems to resemble Nephthys in some of her attributes. She usually stands up- right, holding in her right hand, and | in her left. The British Museum possesses one example, No. no, in bronze, in which she is represented seated. On her head she wears the crown of Upper Egypt, in the front of which is an The Mnevis Bull. Mestha. 284 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Other forms of Isis. urseus ; a pair of horns follows the contour of the white crown, and above them is a star. No. 11,143 is a fine bronze figure of a woman, standing upright upon a pedestal ; the right arm hangs by her side, but the left arm is bent, and her hand, holding an object, is laid upon her breast. She has the same head-dress as No. 110, and I believe her to be the same goddess, although she is labelled Hesi-Sept. [Isis-Sothis or the Dog Star.] Dr. Birch probably had some reason for thus labelling it, but it is unknown to me. The British Museum possesses one example also in faience, No. 13,664, in which the goddess stands upright. the sun, and his worship is as old as the XHIth dynasty. The British Museum possesses one example of this god in bronze, No. 22,924, in which he stands upright, and has the head of a crocodile surmounted with disk, plumes and uraei, destroying power of which have disks and horns Hapi. Tuamautef. Qebhsennuf, FIGURES OF GODS. 285 Anher J/ ( the leader of the celestial regions," which Shu supports, is usually represented wearing plumes [[], and holding a dart; he is at times called ^ D neb mdb, " lord of the dart" The British Museum possesses a glazed faience pendant, No. 11,335, upon which this god is represented in relief, standing upright and wearing plumes ; in his right hand he holds ^ and in the left the sceptre | . This sceptre is usually composed of and | arranged perpendicularly one above the other. He is sometimes called An-her Shu se Ra, " An-her Shu, the son of Ra." Bes JJP^j a g°d whose worship in Egypt dates from a very remote period, seems to have possessed a double character. He is represented as a grotesque person with horns and eyes on a level with the top of his head, his tongue hangs out, and he has bandy legs. He wears a crown of Sati Anqet 286 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The various aspects of Bes. Worship of Bes of foreign origin. feathers on his head, and a leopard's skin thrown round his body. As a warrior, or the god of war, he is armed with a shield and sword, and sometimes he has a bow ; he was also the god of music and the dance, and in this character he is represented as a tailed creature, half man, half animal, playing a harp, or striking cymbals together and dancing. It is thought that he symbolized the destructive power of nature, and in this capacity he is identified in the Book of the Dead with Set ; as the god of joy and pleasure figures of him are carved upon the kohl jars, and other articles used by Egyptian ladies in their toilet. The worship of this god seems to have been introduced into Egypt from Neter ta, i.e., the land which was situated by the eastern bank of the Nile, supposed by the Egyptians to be the original home of the gods. Figures of this god in bronze and faience are very common, and they represent him as described above. Faience figures were made as much as fourteen inches long, Sebek. Anheru. FIGURES OF GODS. 287 and were sometimes in relief and sometimes " in the round." The British Museum possesses a large mould (No. 20,883) used for making flat figures, presented by F. G. Hilton Price, F.S.A., who obtained it from Bubastis ; it also possesses a beautiful figure in the round in blue glazed faience (No. 28,112), about fourteen inches high. A remarkable example of the use of the head and face of this god is furnished by a bronze bell in the British Museum (No. 6374). The plumes on his head form the handle, and the head, hollowed out, forms the bell. Bronze and faience statues of this god, to which have been added the distinguishing characteristics of many other gods, also exist. B.M. No. 17,169 is a bronze ithyphallic bird with two pairs of outstretched wings and the legs of a man, from the knees of which spring serpents, the arms of a man, and the head of Bes. Above the wings is a second pair of outstretched arms, with clenched fists, and on each side of his head, in relief, are the heads of a ram, a dog-headed ape, a crocodile, and a hawk (?). Above the head are two pairs of horns, two pairs of uraei and two pairs of plumes, between which is a disk. In this figure are united the attributes of Amen-Ra, Amsu, Horus, Chnemu, Sebek, and other gods. No. 1205, a bronze cast from a genuine bronze, makes this poly- theistic figure stand upon crocodiles ; the whole group is enclosed within a serpent having his tail in his mouth. A very interesting example of a similar kind of figure in faience is described by Lanzone in his Dizionario, p. 21 1, tav. lxxx., and compare B.M. No. 11,821. It need hardly be said that such figures belong to a very late period, and they are found imitated on gems inscribed for the Gnostics ; see B.M. Nos. G. 10, 11, 12, 151, 205, etc. On the Metternich stele Bes is represented in much the same way as in the bronze figures, Bes. Various forms of Bes. 288 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. but in the pair of outstretched arms and hands he holds sceptres of jj, j, knives, \s^\^, etc., and in those which hang by his side he holds | and ; he has on his head in addition eight knives and the figure ^ "myriads of years." He stands on an oval in which are a lion, two serpents, a jackal, crocodile, scorpion, hippopotamus and tortoise. This scene is repeated very accurately on a Gnostic lapis-lazuli plaque in the British Museum, No. 12, on the back of which is an address to IAU) ZABAW0 = PP with whom this polytheistic deity was identified. Figures of the god Bes are common on gems and seals other than Egyptian, and on a small Babylonian cylinder in the possession of Sir Charles Nicholson he is represented in the Ionian art. Bes in form in which he ordinarily occurs On a red carnelian cylinder in the British Museum (Reg. No. A) he is en- graved, full face, wearing plumes, and holding a lotus flower in each hand ; on each side of him is a male bearded figure, with upraised hands and arms, supporting a winged disk. This seal was inscribed for Arsaces, and belongs to the Persian period. Sechet ^ ® ^j, also written J 3 ^jj, was the wife of Ptah, and was, in this capacity, the mother of Nefer-Atmu and T-em-hetep ; she was the second person of the triad of Memphis. She represented the violent heat of the sun and its destroying power, and in this capacity destroyed the souls of the wicked in the underworld. In bronze and faience figures she has the head of a lion, upon which she wears the disk and uneus, and she holds ^ in her right hand and J in her left ; she is sometimes seated, when her hands are laid upon her knees. Bast jj ^ ^jj represents the heat of the sun in its softened form as the producer of vegetation. She has often the head of a lion, but, properly speaking, the head of a cat is her distinguishing characteristic ; in her right hand she holds a FIGURES OF GODS. 289 sistrum, on her left arm she carries a basket, and in her left hand she holds an aegis. She was chiefly worshipped at The Lady Bubastis, Pa-Bast, where a magnificent temple was built in fig Bubas " her honour. Bronze figures of this goddess are tolerably numerous, and she is repre- sented, both sitting and standing, wearing the disk and urseus on her head. In faience, standing figures hold a sceptre (B.M. No. 236), or (B.M. No. 233), or an aegis (B.M. No. 11,297) ; when seated she often holds a sistrum, B.M. No. 272 ; a fine large example of the goddess seated is B.M. No. 277. Such figures are sometimes inscribed with the prayer, "may she grant all life and power, all health, and joy of heart," * 0 1 f\ www " 1 1 j ^37 ^^O, or, "I am Bast, the lady Menhit 8 0 (J o t) represented the /WWW /Nil » > power of light or heat, or both ; in faience Bast she is represented as an upright woman, walking, having a lion's head, upon which she wears a disk and uraeus ; in her right hand is and in her left | Mut the " mother," was the wife of Amen, and the The /Vp v) universal second member of the Theban triad ; she is called the M lady mother. of Asher," h ' J L , the name given to a district to the south of the great temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak, where her temple was situated. She symbolized Nature, the mother of all things. In bronze and faience figures she is represented as a woman, seated or standing, wearing a head-dress in the form of a vulture, surmounted by the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt ; she holds in her right hand, and J in her left. Net , or Neith, the "Weaver" or "Shooter," was a Th e Lady of Sais. counterpart of the goddess Mut, and was also identified with B. M. U 290 FUNEREAL ARCH/E0L0GY OF EGYPT. Hathor ; she wears the crown of Lower Egypt ^ on her head, and she is often represented armed with bow and arrows tolerably common. In bronze and faience figures of this goddess are v3 /jU. Net (Neith). The god- dess of Right. Maat ^ ^JJ , the " daughter of Ra and mistress of the gods," symbolized Law, and she is always represented with P maat, emblematic of Law, upon her head ; in papyri two Maat are shown together, each wearing jj, but sometimes this feather alone takes the place of the head. In figures of bronze, lapis-lazuli, and faience she is represented sitting down. ^ Het-Hertthe Hathor, in Egyptian j^j , or " house of Horus," is identified with Nut, the sky, or place in which she brought forth and suckled Horus ; she was the wife of Atmu, a form of Ra. She is represented as a woman FIGURES OF GODS. 291 cow-headed, with horns and a disk between them, and shares with Isis and Mut many of their attributes. 1 She is often represented as a cow coming forth from the mountain of the west. The worship of Hathor is exceedingly ancient, and Tne god- she was supposed to be the goddess of beauty, love, and joy, fi ne art. and the benefactress of the world. The forms 2 in which she is depicted on the monuments are as numerous as the aspects from which she could be regarded. Full length figures of this goddess in bronze and faience are comparatively few, 3 but plaques and pendants of faience upon which her head is inscribed or painted are common. For a fine example in bronze of Hathor, cow-headed, wear- ing horns, disk, uraeus and plumes, see B.M. No. 22,925. The British Museum also possesses two interesting bronze hollow- work portions of menats in which Hathor is represented in Maat Het-Heru (Hathor). 1 A list of the gods with whom she is identified is given in Lanzone, Dizionario l p. 863, 864. 2 On a pendant, B.M. No. 302, she is represented at full length, in relief. 3 For a fine example, see B.M. No. 22,925. U 2 292 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. profile. No. 20,760 shows the goddess wearing an urseus on her forehead, and four ursei on her head ; she has the usual head-dress of women falling over her shoulders. Beneath is a Hathor-headed sistrum, with pendent uraei, resting on . Beneath in an oval is the cow of Hathor, wearing \^y, FIGURES OF GODS. 293 standing in a boat. Above, on each side, is an uraeus. One wears the crown of Upper Egypt, j^, and the other wears the crown of Lower Egypt. This beautiful object was found at Der el-Bahari, and is inscribed with the prenomen of No. 300 represents the goddess Amenophis III. f o |j) with a vulture head-dress, wearing Below, in relief, are a figure of the goddess, and a floral ornament ; it is inscribed " Hathor, lady of heaven." /VAAAAA AA/WVA /WW\A was the god of the sky and the husband 0 o Nu of Nut. Nut " ~J),the sky, the wife of Seb; and mother of The god- F=qU dessof Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys, Anubis, Shu, and Tefnut, was the sky. represented by a woman having a vase of water 0 on her head, and holding in her right hand and J in her left. She was painted on the outside of coffins, and was supposed Nut. Seb. 294 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. to protect with her wings the deceased within. Figures of this goddess in bronze or faience are unknown to me. Seb ^gv^ JJ , was the husband of Nut, the sky, and father of Osiris, Isis, and the other gods of that cycle ; figures of this god in bronze or faience are unknown to me. Serq P < ^ > S I SP^ daughter of Ra, wife of Horus, and identified with Sesheta and Isis, symbolized the scorching heat of the sun. A bronze figure in the Louvre (see Pierret, Pantheon Egyptien, p. 17 ; Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. ccclxii.), gives her the body of a scorpion, and the head of a woman wearing disk and horns, by which she is identified with Isis. There is a similar figure in the British Museum, No. 11,629, on the base of which is inscribed jl ? A " * S ^ S ' ^ ver °^ Life," and a small bronze scorpion. B.M. No. 18,667 also gives her the head and arms of a woman with disk and horns. The figures of this goddess, other than bronze, are usually made of lapis-lazuli. Serq. Maahes [J ^ |1 1^ is represented as a man, lion- headed, wearing a disk and uraeus ; a few figures of this god in faience are known.* * See Lanzone, Dizionario, p. 272. FIGURES OF GODS. 295 is a god mentioned in Neheb-ka ^ {J U m | the Book of the Dead (chap. xvii. 61 ; chap. xxx. 3, etc.), and pictures of him are found upon coffins. In bronze figures he has the body of a man, and the head of a serpent ; in wood he has the body of an animal, and the head of a serpent, and holds in his paws (B.M. No. 11,779), in faience he has an animal's body and a serpent's head, and either holds 0 0 outstretched in his paws (B.M. No. 11,795), or raises them to his mouth (B.M. No. 1197). He sometimes wears plumes and horns. Maahes. Seker ^jj or Socharis, a form of the night-sun, is represented as a man, hawk-headed, holding /\, | and J in his hands ; for Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures, see page 215. There are among the Egyptian gods in the British Polytheis- 22,930) of a poly- They have hawks' Museum two examples (Nos. 1419 and 22,930) of a poly- o f c ^jg res theistic figure of considerable interest 296 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. ithyphallic 1 bodies, human legs and feet, each of which stands on a crocodile, and human hands and arms ; the front of the head is in the form of a jackal's head, surmounted by plumes and disk, and the back is in the form of a ram's head, sur- mounted by a disk and uraeus. In the right hand is a whip J\ 9 and in the left an object which I cannot identify. Each group stands on a pedestal with a circle formed by a serpent having his tail in his mouth. These figures have much in common with those described under the name Bes, and may be variant forms of this god. Another figure of interest is No. 24,385, which represents a seated woman, with the head of a sheep, surmounted by disk, uraeus, and horns; behind this head-dress is the tail of a scorpion. The right hand is laid underneath her left breast, which she touches with her finger and thumb, and the left rests upon her knee. The Museum of the Louvre possesses Ta-urt (Thoueris). Thoueris, lion-headed. Sefech-Aabu, or Sesheta. 1 In No. 22,930, the hawk's body is more distinct, and has a head, sur- mounted by a disk, and the feathers of the tail rest upon a hippopotamus. FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND REPTILES. 297 a similar figure with the addition of a naked child whom she holds upon her knees, and whom she is about to suckle. Lanzone (Dizionario, p. 841, for the figure see tav. cccxi.) thinks that the sheep and scorpion headed god represents Isis, and the child, Horus. Ta-urt q _|^ < H5^ or Thoueris, was the wife of Set, and she is usually represented in bronze and faience with the head and body of a hippopotamus, the hind-quarters of a lion, and the tail of a crocodile. On her head she wears a modius which is sometimes surmounted by a disk, horns, and plumes 55 . Sefex-Aabu or Sesheta is a form of the goddess Hathor which was worshipped in Hermopolis, and was also adored in Memphis from the earliest dynasties. Figures of Animals, Birds and Reptiles, Sacred to the Gods. The figures of animals found in the temples, tombs and ruined houses of Egypt may, like those of the gods, be divided into three classes: — 1. Votive; 2. Those worn as amulets either by the living or dead ; 3. Those which stood in houses. They are made of bronze, steatite, basalt, fai'ence, wood, wood gilded, lapis-lazuli, wax, and many other materials. Those in bronze, stone, and wood were usually made for temples, and to stand in tombs ; those in faience, lapis-lazuli, and other precious stones were placed on the bead-work, or under the folds of the wrappings of mummies, or were worn suspended to necklaces, by the living ; those placed in the walls of houses, but which are not sufficiently well distinguished to give many details, were usually made of faience cast in moulds. The animals and reptiles of which figures are most commonly found are : — 1. Ape, dog-headed, ^ , wearing disk and crescent, Animals sacred to Thoth and Chensu. Figures in bronze, stone, wood the gods, and faience, in which he is represented sitting, sometimes on a pedestal with steps, or standing, are common ; sometimes 298 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. he holds (B.M. No. 1442), and sometimes a goat (B.M. No. 11,910). 2. Hippopotamus ^ ^ ^ , Ta-urt, Thoueris, standing on the hind-quarters of a lion, and holding the tail of a crocodile ; figures in bronze and faience are common. The most beautiful example of this composite animal in green basalt is preserved in the Museum at Gizeh, a cast of which is exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery of the British Museum, No. 1075. 3. Cow, sacred to Hathor, with disk between her horns, 4- Lion , couchant or running, sacred to Horus. Examples are very common in faience. Frequently the body of the lion has a lion's head at each end of it, and sometimes there is a lion's head at one end, and a bull's head at the other ; on the back, between the two heads, is the disk of the sun, Jg^> the whole representing the sun on the horizon rd . The two heads, facing in opposite directions, are supposed to represent the south and north, i.e., the sun's course daily. An example in which each lion's head has two faces, one looking towards the south and the other towards the north, is figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. cvi. 5. Sphinx Jbas , couchant or sitting on his haunches, sacred to Harmachis. Figures in bronze and faience are tolerably common. Sphinx. FIGURES OF BIRDS, ANIMALS, AND REPTILES. 299 6. Bull fej, sacred to Apis or Mnevis, having disk and uraeus between his horns, and the figures of a vulture with outspread wings and a winged scarab on his back. Figures in bronze and stone are more common than in faience. 7. Ram, "^j, sacred to Chnemu or Amen-Ra ; figures in bronze and faience are tolerably common. 8. Cat (V, sacred to Bast, lady of Bubastis. Large Animals JS)' 7 & sacred to votive figures of the cat were made of bronze and wood, the tlie S ods - eyes being inlaid with obsidian and gold ; B.M. No. 22,927 has the eyes, and a large number of the hairs of the body, inlaid with gold. The smaller figures worn for ornament by the votaries of Bast are made of bronze, stone, rock-crystal, faience, &c. ; in the smaller figures the cat is represented with one, two, or more kittens, and the top of the J sceptre is often ornamented with a cat. 9. Jackal , sacred to Anpu (Anubis), or to Ap-uat In bronze figures, which are plentiful, he stands on a pedestal which fitted on to the top of a sceptre or staff ; faience figures are not very common. A large number of wooden models from the top of sepulchral boxes are known. 10. Hare ?, sacred to Set (?), was the abomination of Horus Jj o ^ JiLJ f| 1^ , according to the 1 1 2th chapter of the Book of the Dead; figures of this animal in faience are fairly common. B.M. No. 11,897 has a head at each end of its body. 12. Hippopotamus sacred to Set or Typhon ; many large and beautiful examples of this animal in glazed faience and steatite exist in public and private collections. 13. Stag ^=ff- Figures in which the animal is repre- sented with its legs tied together ready for sacrifice are known in bronze, e.g., B.M. No. 1696. 14. Hedgehog, a few examples of which, in bronze and faience, are known. 300 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 15- Shrew-mouse, sacred to Horus(?), examples of which are commoner in bronze than in faience. 1 6. Ichneumon. Examples in bronze, in which the animal wears disk and horns and plumes, are known, but figures in faience are rare. 17. Crocodile ^s?=>, sacred to Sebek ; examples in bronze and faience are fairly common. Birds !8. Vulture \N, sacred to Mut ; figures of this bird in sacred to _o*tf the gods, bronze and faience are few. 19. Hawk sacred to Horus ; votive figures are made of bronze, stone, and wood, and the hawk wears either the crown of Upper or Lower Egypt, or both crowns united. In smaller figures worn for ornament, it wears a disk (B.M. No. 1889) or ^f, (B.M. No. 1850), or plumes (B.M. No. 1859) ; it is often man-headed, when it represents the soul, "1^, and sometimes two hawks are on one pedestal, and each has the head of a man. A form of Horus, worshipped in Arabia under the name of Sept P c -^/\ < f\ = ' * s °ften found in hard stone and wood ; figures made of the latter material are generally found on the small chests which cover the portions of human bodies placed in the pedestals of Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures. When complete they have plumes on their heads. 20. Ibis '^J^ ' sacre d to Thoth ; figures in bronze and faience are not rare. 21. Frog and Toad. Figures of both reptiles are common in bronze and faience. 22. Fish The five kinds of fish of which figures in bronze and faience are known are the Oxyrhynchus, Phagrus, Latus, Silurus, and the Lepidotus ; of these the Oxyrhynchus, Silurus, and Lepidotus are the commonest. The Oxyrhyn- chus fish, B.M. No. 1953, has on its back horns, disk, and uraeus ; fish were sacred to Hathor, Isis, Mut, and other goddesses. FIGURES OF KINGS AND PRIVATE PERSONS. 3OI 23. Scorpion 3§P, sacred to Serqet. Figures in bronze have often a woman's head on which are horns and disk, and if mounted, the sides of the base have inscriptions upon them which show that the scorpion was regarded as Isis-Serqet. faience are not rare. Scarab emblem of the god Chepera (see p. 234). The largest scarab known is preserved in the British Museum (Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 74), and is made of green granite ; it was probably a votive offering in some temple, and was brought from Constantinople, whither it was probably taken after the Roman occupation of Egypt. The scarabs worn for ornament round the neck, and in finger-rings, were made of gold, silver, every kind of precious stone known to the Egyptians, and faience. B.M. No. 11,630 is an interesting example of a horned scarab ; B.M. No. 2043, in faience, has the head of a hawk, and B.M. No. 12,040 has the head of a bull. Figures of Kings and Private Persons. Figures of kings and private persons were placed in temples or tombs either by the persons they represented, or by those who wished to do honour to them. Figures of Uses of kings occupied prominent places in the temples, and services statucs - were performed before them, and offerings made to them as to the gods, among the number of whom kings were supposed to have entered. The Rosetta Stone states (11. 39-42) that the priests of all Egypt decreed that a figure or statue of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, should be placed in the most con- spicuous part of every temple, that the priests should thrice daily perform services before it, and that sacred decorations should be placed upon it. The custom of placing such figures in temples and tombs is as old as the IVth dynasty at least, for many examples of this period are known ; as we are certain that religious services were held in tombs during The lady Nai. XlXth dynasty. [Museum of the Louvre]. FIGURES OF KINGS AND PRIVATE PERSONS. 303 the earlier dynasties, figures of deceased persons must have been placed in them, and it would seem that the custom is as old as the settlement of the Egyptians in Egypt Votive Votive stcitucs figures of the gods were rarely colossal, but figures of kings were made of every size, and their heights vary from a few inches to several feet ; the colossi of Amenophis III., of Heru-em-Heb, and of Rameses II., are examples of the extreme size to which figures of kings attained. In the earlier dynasties there can be no doubt that the artist endeavoured to make the form and features of the figure exactly like the person for whom it was made ; how well they succeeded is evident from the most cursory examination of the figures of the first six dynasties exhibited in European museums, or in the Museum of Gizeh, which is particularly Woman kneading bread. [Museum of Gizeh]. 304 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. rich in figures of this period. The famous Shekh el-Beled is what may well be termed a "speaking likeness," and the other figures of that date show that he is not a solitary success of the Egyptian artist. In later times conventional representa- tion was adopted in forming the figure, with the result that the sculptor lost the art of portraiture once and for all. Figures were made of granite, basalt, and other hard stones, limestone, gold, silver, bronze, wood, steatite, faience, and terra-cotta. Standing figures have the arms placed at the sides of the body ,and the hands usually hold a roll ; sometimes, however, The scribe Kha-f-Ra. Vth dynasty. Limestone statue. Vth dynasty. [Museum of Gizeh]. [Museum of Gizeh]. FIGURES OF KINGS AND PRIVATE PERSONS. 305 they hold a sceptre, or weapon, or flowers, or and figures made in the form of Osiris have the hands crossed over the breast. Figures kneeling or sitting on the ground hold with both hands tablets or altars, or shrines engraved with funereal inscriptions, before them ; figures seated on thrones or chairs have the hands laid flat on the knees. All figures were draped, and the pedestals or plinths on which they stood were usually inscribed with the names and titles of the persons for whom they were made ; at times the various Statue of Ti. Vth dynasty. [Museum of Gizeh] B. M. Statue of Ra-Nefer. Vth dynasty. [Museum of Gizeh] X 306 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. members of the deceased's family were sculptured in relief, with their names on the seat. Groups of two or more figures, husband and wife, brother and sister, father, mother and child, were placed in tombs, and from the biographical notices inscribed upon them many valuable historical facts have been gleaned. Coffins. Egyptian coffins are usually made of wood, but under the Ptolemies and Romans hard stone came into use. Oldest ^ e °^ est c °ffi n m ^e world is probably that of coffin in Mycerinus, a king of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3633, the world. w j 1 j c j 1 j s preserved in the British Museum, No. 6647 ; it was found, together with the remains of a wrecked mummy, by Colonel Howard Vyse in the third pyramid of Gizeh, and was presented by him to the British Museum in 1837. The stone sarcophagus of Mycerinus, of which only a very small fragment has been preserved (B.M. No. 6646), and parts of the coffin and mummy, were lost by the wreck of the ship in which they were being brought to England, on the Spanish coast, on the western side of the Strait of Gibraltar. The coffin, without paintings, had originally a human face, formed of several pieces of wood pegged together on to the cover, and the well-cut inscription in two perpendicular lines down the cover reads : " Osiris, King of the North and South, Men-kau-Ra, living for ever. Heaven has produced thee ; thou wast conceived by Nut ; thou comest of the race of the god Seb. Thy mother Nut (the sky) spreads herself over thee in her form of heavenly mystery. She grants that thou shalt be a god ; never more shalt thou have enemies, O Men-kau-Ra, King of the North and South, living for ever." On the cover, just over the knees of the mummy, are two raised projections resembling knees. It has been stated 1 that this coffin was made during the New Empire at the expense of some pious person who wished to keep fresh the memory of Mycerinus. Of the coffins of the Vlth dynasty, the fragments of that belonging to Seker-em-sa-f 2 appear to be the only remains ; 1 See Aegyptische Zeitschrift, 1892, p. 94. 2 Maspero, Guide du Visiteur au Musee de Boulaq, p. 311. COFFINS. 307 but it is tolerably certain that coffins during the first six dynasties were made of plain wood, that they had a human face, and that the inscriptions were short and cut into the cover. Coffins during the Xlth and Xllth dynasties are usually Coffins rectangular in form, with a cover consisting of one flat ^"2500 plank about 2}^ inches thick. Both coffin and cover are very rough, and the paintings consist of large stripes of blue, red, white, green, and yellow colours, interspersed with lotus flowers and pictures of funereal offerings, sometimes very rudely drawn. Many of the coffins of this period are, however, of the greatest interest, and B.M. 6654 and 6655 are good typical examples. The former is inscribed on the outside Omamen- with one line of well-cut hieroglyphics, and is inlaid with ° f 5f^5 ; the inside of the coffin and both inside and outside of coffins - the cover are inscribed in hieratic with a number of chapters of the Book of the Dead of the period of the Ancient Empire ; this coffin was made for an official called Amamu. 1 The latter, made for Mentu-hetep, is of the same form, and is also inscribed in hieratic with chapters from the Book of the Dead. 2 At the same period, coffins w r ith human faces were also made ; they were formed of rough pieces of wood, badly put together, and are characterised by a rude, gaudy style of ornamentation. A striking contrast to these is the gilded wooden coffin of An-antef, B.M. No. 6652, a king of the Xlth dynasty, who ruled at Thebes about B.C. 2500. The hard- wood face is beautifully carved, and is intended to be a portrait of the deceased ; the eyes and eyelids are made of black, white, and blue obsidian, inlaid ; the feather work and star ornaments on the coffin appear to have originated at this period. The ordinary ornamentation of coffins at this period is a large collar, beneath which are figures of the uraeus and vulture, emblematic of dominion over the north and south, and under the feet are kneeling figures of Isis and Nephthys, who mourn the dead Osiris. The coffins of the period between the Xllth and the 1 A facsimile of the text and an English translation were published by Birch, Coffin of Amamu, London, 1886. 1 For facsimiles of other hieratic texts on coffins of the Xlth dynasty, see I^psius, Aelteste Texte dcs Todtenbuchs, Berlin, 1867. X 2 308 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Coffins about about B.C. 1700. The finest coffins made about B.c 1400. XVIIIth dynasties are imitations of those with the gilded featherwork and bright colours of the Xlth and Xllth dynasties ; at this period many articles of furniture, vases, etc., were placed in the mummy chamber, either near the coffin or arranged by the walls. During the XVIIIth dynasty coffins were made very much larger, and were painted inside and outside in black ; the face is either gilded or coloured a bright red, the eyes are often inlaid ; on the breast is a vulture, and the inscrip- tions, which divide the lower half of the cover into a series of rectangular sections, are painted in yellow. With the XlXth dynasty there appears a class of coffin very beautiful to behold. Inside and outside both coffin and cover are profusely decorated with scenes of all kinds, large figures of gods and genii, vignettes from the Book of the Dead with appropriate inscriptions, and a number of emblems and decorations formed of rows of amulets, all painted in the brightest colours, and covered with a bright, yellow, shining varnish. Immediately over the mummy of a royal person, or of a wealthy man, was laid a slightly convex covering of wood, made in the form of a mummy, painted with the scenes alluded to above, and varnished. On the inside of this covering the boat of the sun, the mummy with plants growing out from it, and other scenes were traced in yellow, on a mauve or purple ground. The mummy and this covering were placed in a coffin with a cover having a human face, and the hands, in relief, were crossed upon the breast. The lower part was ornamented with scenes in which the deceased is represented adoring various gods in shrines ; these scenes are divided into two groups by one or more perpendicular lines of inscription which record the name and titles of the deceased. This coffin, with the mummy and its wooden covering, was then placed inside a larger coffin, upon the outside and inside of which were painted scenes similar to those on the inner coffin, but with less attention to details. The inside of the cover of the outer coffin was often left blank. A very fine example of a set of two coffins, and the wooden covering of the mummy, is that of Nesi-pa-ur-shefi, which is described in detail in the " Catalogue of the Egyptian COFFINS. 309 Antiquities in the Fitzwilliam Museum." A third, and even a fourth, coffin was sometimes used for one mummy. The coffins of the XXth dynasty are good imitations of the best examples of the XlXth dynasty ; the paintings are, however, neither so fine nor so carefully executed. From the XXIst to the XXVIth dynasty coffins exhibit Coffins many varieties of decoration ; they are sometimes painted ^° u l 0Om black, or the wood is left altogether in its natural colour, and the faces are often red. Sometimes they are painted with inscriptions in many colours on a white ground, and the scenes on the covers are divided into two groups by perpen- dicular inscriptions between them. Faces of coffins of this period are also flesh coloured and gilded, and the eyes, made of obsidian, are inlaid between eyelids of the same material or of bronze. Notwithstanding the fact that mummies of this period are protected by cartonnage cases, they are laid in two and even three coffins. Akhmim coffins of this period are covered with rows of gods and elaborate collars, and are profusely inscribed with extracts from the Book of the Dead ; the mummies inside them have gilded masks and are usually covered with a network of glazed faience bugle beads, upon which are laid figures of Nut and the four children of Horus in smaller bead work. These coffins belong to a class which has little in common either with those of Memphis or Thebes. Favourite scenes on coffins from the XXIInd to the XXVIth dynasties are the weighing of the heart, and the soul visiting the body. After the XXVIth dynasty the art of coffin making Decay of degenerated, and as a result the examples of this period ^ctureof known to us exhibit rough and careless work, the scenes of coffins, the weighing of the heart, etc., spread right across the cover, and the inscriptions show that the copyist had very little or no knowledge of their meaning. On the other hand very handsome coffins, in the form of a man, in granite and basalt, became fashionable, and the high polish and beauty of the cutting of the figures, inscriptions, etc., show that although the art of mummifying was decaying, and the national re- ligion of Egypt changing, attempts were made to imitate ancient art in its best forms. 3IO FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Under the Ptolemies and Romans the forms of coffins and their decorations altered very much. Coffins are now made of thin pieces of wood, and are usually rectangular in shape, and the inscriptions upon them, like those on coffins of the earlier dynasties, are rarely extracts from the Book of the Dead. Sandals, pillows, red pottery, and papyri were often Grseco- buried with the dead at this epoch. Stone coffins, covered coffinsand fig ures an d inscriptions, are also common, but they are their found chiefly in Lower Egypt. In the early centuries of decoration. ^ e d eca y G f the art of making coffins followed that of mummifying, and the coffins are large, badly shaped and ugly, the inscriptions upon them are copies of old formulae, but so carelessly written and so full of mistakes that they are unintelligible. The custom of laying mummies in old tombs increased greatly, and chapels, serdabs, pits and sarcophagi-chambers were alike used for piling up mummies by hundreds and thousands ; and one single roll of papyrus or parchment laid in a tomb contained the names of all those who were buried there. This was practically the end of the Egyptian system of mummifying and burial. Within a hundred years of the preaching of Christianity at Alexandria by St. Mark, a large part of the population of Egypt had become Christian ; the resurrection of the body of Christ made the Egyptians hope for the resurrection of their own bodies, and though they could not eradicate from themselves all traces of their old belief, they abandoned gradually the making of their dead into mummies, and were content to lay their bodies in the earth, wrapped in linen cloths only, to await revivification. Coffins of all periods were closed by dowels, let into cavities in the sides and cover, through which pegs of wood were driven ; these were covered with plaster and painted, and were thus invisible. Sarcophagi. Sar- Egyptian sarcophagi are made of black or green basalt, the^ 1 ° f granite, agglomerate and limestone. During the first six Ancient dynasties they are rectangular, and the cover is either flat like a plank, or vaulted. Running round the edge of the SARCOPHAGI. inside of the cover is a projection about two inches deep, which is carefully chiselled to fit a hollow corresponding in size in the sarcophagus, and after the cover was lowered upon it, a layer of fine cement was run in between, and the sarco- phagus became hermetically sealed. Not content with this, holes were drilled sideways through the cover and the sarcophagus, and into these pegs of wood were driven. Covers have usually at each end one or more projections, whereby it is easy to lift them ; the magnificent sarcophagus of Chufu-anch (IVth dynasty), preserved at Gizeh, 1 has two rounded projections at each end of the cover. The sarco- phagus of Mycerinus (IVth dynasty) found in his pyramid at Gizeh resembled a small building ; it was beautifully sculptured, but was absolutely without ornament. Sarco- phagi of this period have their sides made to represent the openings, vestibules, and doors of mastabas, and the in- scriptions upon them usually contain only the names and titles of their owners, and prayers that sepulchral gifts may be made to the deceased on the specified festivals. Of the sarcophagi of the Vll-Xth dynasties nothing is known. During the Xlth and Xllth dynasties, rectangular wooden Sar- coffins seem to have superseded, in some measure, stone sarcophagi, royal examples of which of this period are Middle unknown. A granite sarcophagus of this period at Florence Empire ' resembles in form, style of inscription, etc., those of the first six dynasties. Sarcophagi from the XHIth to the XVI Ith dynasty are unknown. In the XVII Ith dynasty the sarcophagi of Memphis are in the form of a mummy, and are made of granite ; they are very sparingly ornamented. A perpendicular line of inscription runs from the breast to the feet, and the surface of the cover on each side of it is divided by three or more lines of inscription at right angles to it into sections on which are inscribed figures of gods. The sarcophagus of Ai is a good example of the work of this period. 2 1 For a cast see B. M . No: 1 1 1 1 . 2 For a scale drawing and inscriptions, see Lepsius, Denkmaler, Bl. H3d-g. 312 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. In the XlXth dynasty sarcophagi become somewhat smaller, but otherwise differ very little from those of the preceding dynasty. They are usually made of granite, but alabaster, as in that of Seti I., was also used. This magnificent object and its cover were inscribed inside and out with scenes and inscriptions from the " Book of being in the Underworld," inlaid with a pigment of a light greenish- blue colour. The cover was broken in trying to open it, but the sarcophagus itself is intact, and is preserved in Sir John Soane's Museum ; the inscriptions were published by Bonomi, Sarcophagus of Oi Meneptah, London, 1864, and for translations see Records of the Past, vol. X., pp. 79 ff. The chief idea which underlies these scenes is that, just as the life of a man is identified with the course of the sun by day, so the life of the soul after death is identified with the passage of the sun in the nether-world, through which he was supposed to travel during the night. The scenes represent the various parts of the nether-world, and the beings who dwell in them : Isis and Nephthys, Horus the son of Isis and Osiris, Seb and Nut, the four children of Horus, are all inscribed on sarcophagi of this period, and all were supposed to assist in protecting the deceased, who was identified with Osiris. In this dynasty, large, painted, wooden sarcophagi, in the form of mummies, are also common at In the XXth dynasty, granite was much used for sarco- phagi, but the form has changed, and the deceased is represented lying on the cover. He wears a thick, square beard, his hands are freed from their bandages, and hold in them ■¥-, T7, and m\ ; beneath the long tunic the feet appear, and on the sides of the sarcophagus are figures of the four children of Horus and of other funereal gods. A most interesting example of this period is the sarcophagus of Rameses III., which is made in the form of a cartouche C > ; the cover is preserved in the Fitzwilliam Museum (for a description of it see the Catalogue), and the sarcophagus is in the Museum of the Louvre. On the head, outside, is the figure of Nephthys, with outstretched wings, emblematic Thebes. SARCOPHAGI. 313 of her protection of Osiris ; the inscriptions give the names and titles of the king, and refer to the course of the sun in the nether-world. On the other side, by the feet, is Isis, also with outstretched wings ; on one side is Ap-uat, and on the other Anubis, each jackal-headed. The two sides are ornamented with scenes and inscriptions referring to the passage of the sun, who is being towed along in his boat through the various divisions of the nether-world by their gods, and to his attack, defeat, and slaughter of Apepi, his chief enemy. Two scenes at the feet, in which Neith and Isis promise to put together the limbs of Osiris, complete the ornamentation of the outside. 1 At the head, inside, are the solar disk, a mummy with a disk and star on his head, and a head of a goddess on each side holding out an arm, the hand of which supports a being who pours out water on the head of the deceased in the form of a mummy. On the sides are figures of an ithy- phallic god, hawks, etc., forming scenes from the " Book of being in the Under-world." At the foot is the god Chepera in a disk around which are twined the folds of a serpent ; above is the head of a ram being adored by figures of the king, by the sides of which are the cartouches of Rameses III. On the bottom of the sarcophagus is the figure of Hathor, goddess of Amenta, with wings outstretched to receive the deceased. The sarcophagi of the XXVIth dynasty are usually rectangular, and are made of green and black basalt, and variegated hard stone. Many of the scenes and inscriptions upon them are copied from sarcophagi of the XlXth and XXth dynasties, but long extracts from the Book of the Dead are characteristic of this period, and some sarcophagi Sar- are covered entirely with such funereal inscriptions, 2 with the New the exception of the spaces occupied by the figures of the Empire, deceased and Nut, on the outside and inside of the cover respectively, and the figure of Hathor on the bottom inside. 1 For a fuller description of this sarcophagus see De Rouge, Notice des Monuments au Musee du Louvre, Paris, 1872, pp. 173-175, and Seyffarth, Beitrage, 2-5, Bl. 6. 3 E.g., the sarcophagus of Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra, B.M. No. 32. 3H FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Such sarcophagi are beautifully sculptured, carefully inscribed, and the attention given to detail is marvellous. After the XXVIth dynasty sarcophagi are sometimes rounded at the head, and the covers have human faces ; they are ornamented with rows of figures of gods, the four children of Horus, a number of genii of the netherworld, and inscriptions which state that they have taken the deceased under their protection. Rectangular sarcophagi which taper slightly towards the feet, and are narrower at the base than at the top, are also common. In the XXXth dynasty massive sarcophagi of granite, basalt and agglomerate, highly polished and beautifully sculptured, become very plentiful ; they are found chiefly in Lower Egypt. The inscriptions and scenes upon them are extracts, more or less complete, from the " Book of being in the Under-world," and, in arrangement, they greatly resemble those of the earlier dynasties ; a fine example of this period is the sarcophagus of Nectanebus L, B.M. No. 10. Sar- Under the rule of the Ptolemies and Romans wooden of P the §1 sarcophagi became very common ; they consisted of two Graeco- parts, viz., the board upon which the deceased in his coffin period? was laid, and the rectangular, vaulted cover, which is, at times, as much as eighteen inches high. The planks from which the covers are made are rarely more than an inch thick, and they are let into four rectangular uprights, which are often made of a hard wood with a fine texture. The vaulted cover has, at times, a gilded hawk upon the top, and a cornice running round the four sides ; it was fastened to the board, upon which the coffin stood, by its uprights, one at each corner, which, projecting slightly below the lower edge of the sides, fitted into four rectangular cavities cut in the board. The inside and outside of the vaulted cover are painted in gaudy colours with figures of the gods, the signs of the Zodiac, and inscriptions in hieroglyphics ; when the deceased was a Greek, his name and that of his father were also inscribed in Greek. The mummies which belong to such coffins are covered over with a linen cloth on which is painted the god Osiris, with the features of the deceased, wearing the atef crown, and holding f and ^\ ; on each THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 315 side of him are two of the children of Horus. The scenes and inscriptions on the sarcophagi of this period show that the people of Egypt had ceased to attach any importance to their meaning, and they appear simply as funereal decorations, without which the sarcophagi would have been incomplete. The Egyptian Tombs. The extreme care which the Egyptians took to preserve the bodies of their dead would have been all in vain, if they had not provided secure resting places for their mummies. To guard the mummy intact and ready for the return of the Double soul, it was necessary to provide tombs which should be ^ pose 0 safe from the attacks of human beings and from the Egyptian prowlings of wild animals, and also out of the reach of the infiltration of the waters of the Nile, or of the inundation itself. If the preservation of a mummy was regarded as a sacred duty to be performed by the relatives of the deceased, who were morally bound to show all honour to it, and to spend their money freely on whatever was necessary for its adornment, it follows of a necessity that a house or tomb meet for the habitation of the ka y and for the soul after it had been decreed triumphant in the judgment hall of Osiris, must also be provided. The size and beauty of a tomb and its furniture depended, as much as the making of the mummy, upon the means at the disposal of the relatives of a deceased person. Every person in Egypt knew perfectly well that to ensure the resurrection of his body, after the pure soul had returned to inhabit it, it was necessary that every part of it should be preserved in a fitting state, but nevertheless, every person was not able to afford the costly embalming, and the still more costly furniture and tomb and procession which were, no doubt, held by the wealthy to be absolutely necessary for " living a second time." The burial of the very poor of Egypt must have been much the same in all times and in all dynasties. The body, having been salted only, was laid in the sand to a depth of three or four feet, without covering, without ornament, and even without a coffin ; sometimes even the salting was 316 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Drying dispensed with. The drying up qualities of the sand of Eg^ptkn^ Egypt are very remarkable. Some few years ago Sir C. sand. Holled Smith, K.C.B., while making some excavations among the ruins of a temple at Wady Halfah, on the west bank of the river, dug up a box, which, having been opened, was seen to contain the body of a European ; on making inquiries he found that an English engineer had died there about a dozen years before. The hair and beard and features were unaltered as far as appearance went, but the skin had dried up like parchment, and the body had become much smaller. In tombs of the lower classes of the Ancient z. Three Mastabas at Gizeh. 2. Entrance to a Mastaba at Sakkarah. 3X8 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Empire, the remains of the dead consist chiefly of light yellow bones. Sometimes the body of the dead was protected by walls of poorly made bricks, and a vaulted roof. The tombs of the wealthy were made in the shape of mastabas, pyramids, and series of chambers hewn in the mountains on the eastern and western banks of the Nile. The mas- One of the earliest forms of the building which marks tabatomb. the site Q f an Egyptian tomb is the mastaba, 1 the finest examples of which were built at Sakkarah ; it was called 4. Longitudinal section of a Mastaba. 5. Transverse section of the chamber of a Mastaba. mastaba by the Arabs because its length, in proportion to its height, is great, and reminded them of the long, low seat common in Oriental houses, and familiar to them. The mastaba is a heavy massive building, of rectangular shape, the four sides of which are four walls symmetrically inclined towards their common centre. The exterior surfaces are not 1 From the Arabic "A m The facts here given on the subject of mastabas are derived from the excellent articles of M. Mariette in Revue Archeologiqne, S. 2 me , t. xix. p. 8 ft". THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 319 flat, for the face of each course of masonry, formed of stones laid vertically, is a little behind the one beneath it, and if these recesses were a little deeper, the external appearance of each side of the building would resemble a flight of steps. The stones which form the mastabas are of a moderate size, and with the exception of those used for the ceiling and architrave, have an average height of 18 or 20 inches. The height and length of the mastaba vary ; the largest measures about 170 feet long by 86 feet- wide, and the smallest about 26 feet long by 20 feet wide ; they vary in height from 13 to 30 feet. The ground at Sakkarah is formed of calcareous rock covered to the depth of a few feet with sand ; the foundations of the mastabas are always on the solid rock. The plan of the mastaba is a rectangle, and the greater axis of the rectangle is, without exception, in the direction from north to south. Moreover, at the pyramids of Gizeh, where the mastabas are ar- ranged symmetrically, the plan of their arrangement is like a chess-board, the squares of which are uni- formly elongated towards the north. Mastabas then are oriented astronomically towards the true north, and in the cases where they are a few degrees out, this difference must be attributed not to design but to negligence. It has been asserted that mastabas are only unfinished pyramids, but properly considered, it is evident that they form a class of buildings by themselves, and that they have nothing in common with the pyramid, save in respect of being oriented towards the north, this orientation being the result, not of a studied imitation of the pyramid, but of a religious intention, which at this early period influenced the construction of all tombs, whatever their external form. The mastabas at Sakkarah are built of stone and brick ; the stone employed is of two kinds, the one being very hard, and of a bluish-grey colour, and the other being comparatively soft, and of a yellowish colour. The bricks also are of two kinds, the Plan and position of mastabas. Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab. Orienta- tion of mastabas. 320 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. one yellowish, and the other black ; both sorts were sun-dried only. The bricks of a yellowish colour seem to have been used entirely during the earliest dynasties, and the black ones only appear with the second half of the IVth dynasty. However carefully the outside of the mastaba was built, the inside is composed of sand, pieces of stone thrown in without design or arrangement, rubble, rubbish, etc., and but for the outside walls holding all together many of them must have perished long since. The eastern face of the mastaba is the most important, for, four times out of five, the entrance is in it ; it is sometimes, but very rarely, bare. Some yards from the north-east corner is, at times, a very high, narrow opening, at the bottom of which the masonry of the mastaba itself assumes the form of long vertical grooves, which dis- tinguish the stelae of this epoch ; a stele, with or without inscription, sometimes takes the place of this opening. At a distance of some feet from the south-east corner is generally another opening, but larger, deeper and more carefully made ; at the bottom of this is sometimes a fine inscribed calcare- ous stone stele, and sometimes a small architectural facade, in the centre of which is a door. When the eastern face has the opening at the south-east corner which has just been described, the mastaba has no interior chamber, for this opening takes its place. When the mastaba has the fagade in the place of the opening, there is a chamber within. When the entrance to the mastaba is made on the north side, the fagade is brought back to the end of a kind of vestibule, and at the front of this vestibule are set up two monolithic columns, without abacus, and without base, which support the architrave, which supports the ceiling. The entrance to the mastaba is The stele in mas- tabas. 7. The upper chamber, the pit, and the sarcophagus chamber of a Mastaba. THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. sometimes made from the south, but never from the west ; the top of the mast-aba is quite flat. The interior of the complete mastaba consists of three The parts, the chamber, the serdab, and the pit. Having entered JJjjJjj the Chamber by the door in the side, it is found to be either without any ornamentation whatever, or to be covered with sculptures. At the bottom of the chamber usually facing the 8. Mastaba at Gizeh with double pit east, is a stele, which, whether the walls are inscribed or not, is always inscribed. At the foot of the stele, on the bare ground, is often a table of offerings made of granite, alabaster, or calcareous stone ; two obelisks, or two supports for offerings, are often found at each side of this table. Besides these things the chamber has no furniture, and it rarely has a door. B. Iff. y 322 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Not far from the chamber, oftener to the south than to the north, and oftener to the north than to the west, is a lofty but narrow nook hidden in the thickness of the masonry, and built with large stones ; this nook is called the Serdab. 1 Sometimes Use of the serdab has no communication whatever with the other the serdab. p ar t s G f the mastaba, but sometimes a rectangular passage, so 9. Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh. Vth dynasty. narrow that the hand can only be inserted with difficulty, leads from the serdab into the chamber ; in the serdab statues of the deceased were placed and the narrow passage served x Aserddb, c«>Ly«j , strictly speaking, is a lofty, vaulted, subterranean chamber, with a large opening in the north side to admit air in the hot weather. 10. West wall of a chamber in the tomb of Ptah-hetep. Vth dynasty. Y 2 324 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. to conduct to them the smoke of incense or perfume. The interior of the serdab is never inscribed, and nothing but statues, inscribed with the names and titles of the persons whom they represented, have ever been found in them Statues were at times placed in the court in front of the mastaba. The pit, square or rectangular in form, but never round, leads to the chamber where the mummy was laid ; it is situated in the middle of the greater axis of the mastaba nearer to the north than the south, and varies in depth from 40 to 80 feet. The top part of the pit where it passes through the platform on which the mastaba stands, is built of fine large stones. There was neither ladder nor staircase, leading to the funereal chamber at the bottom of the pit, hence the coffin and the mummy when once there were inaccessible. At the bottom of the pit, on the south side, is an opening into a passage from four to five feet high ; this passage leads obliquely to the south-east, in the same direction as the upper chamber, and soon after increases in size in all directions, and thus becomes the sarcophagus chamber. This chamber is exactly under the upper chamber, and the relatives of the deceased in standing there, would have the de- ceased beneath their feet. In one corner of the lower chamber stood the rectangular sarcophagus made of fine calcareous stone, rose granite or black basalt; the top of the cover was rounded. The upper chamber contained no statues, ushabtiu figures, amulets, canopic jars, nor any of the numerous things which formed the furniture of the tomb in later times ; in the sarcophagus were, at times, a pillow or a few vases, but little else. When the body had been placed in the sarcophagus, and the cover of the sarcophagus had been cemented down on it, the entrance to the passage at the bottom of the pit was walled up, the pit itself was filled with stones, earth and sand, and the deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary chances of disturbance. The tombs of the mastaba class stop suddenly at the end of the first six dynasties ; of tombs belonging to one of the first three dynasties, M. Mariette found 4 at Sakkarah ; of the IVth dynasty 43 ; of the Vth dynasty 61 ; and of the Vlth djmasty 25. The mastabas of the first three dynasties THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 325 have but one upper chamber, which is built of brick, the stelae are very deeply cut, the hieroglyphics and the figures are in relief, and display more vigour than at any other time ; the inscriptions are terse, and the use of phonetic signs less common than in later times. These tombs can hardly be said to be oriented at all, for they are, at times, as much as twelve degrees west of the true north. In the second half of the IVth dynasty, mastabas have a size and extent hitherto unknown ; they are either built entirely of black brick or of stone. Their orientation becomes accurate, the figures and hieroglyphics are well executed, the formulae become fixed, and the statues in the serdabs, which are very numerous, unite the vigour of those of the first half of the IVth with the delicacy of those of the Vth dynasty. The famous wooden statue of the Shekh el-Beled belongs to this time. In the Vth dynasty mastabas are not so large, but they are always built of stone ; inside there are more chambers than one, approached by long passages, and the statues are not so characteristic as those of the latter half of the IVth dynasty. The mastabas of the Vlth dynasty show a decided decadence, and lose their fine proportions ; the figures are in light relief, the formulae become longer, and the chambers are built of brick and covered with thin sculptured slabs of stone. The walls of the upper chambers of mastabas were Omamen- frequently covered with scenes which, according to M. Mariette, are without any representation of divinities and mastaba. religious emblems, the names of deities, and characters em- ployed in the course of writing naturally excepted. The inscription which asks the god Anubis to grant a happy burial to the deceased, after a long and happy old age, to make his way easy for him on the roads in the underworld, and to grant the bringing to the tomb a perpetual supply of funereal gifts, is inscribed in bold hieroglyphics over the entrances to the tomb, and upon the most conspicuous places on the stelae in the upper chamber. The scenes depicted on the walls of the mastabas are divided by Mariette into three classes: 1, Biographical, 2, Sepulchral, and 3, those relating to funereal gifts. Biographical scenes are found in tombs of all periods. The deceased is 326 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. represented hunting or fishing, taking part in pleasure excursions by water, and listening to music played before him accompanied by the dancing of women ; he is also represented as overseer of a number of building operations Scenes in which many workmen are employed. It is tolerably scriptions. certam that these scenes are not fictitious, and that they were painted while the person who hoped to occupy the tomb was still alive, and could direct the labours of the artist. The prayer that the deceased might enter his tomb after a THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 327 long and prosperous life has a significance which it could not possess if the tomb were made after his death. The sepulchral scenes refer to the passage of the mummy in a boat to Amenta. The scenes relating to sepulchral gifts Bakers making Bread. From a Vth dynasty Tomb at Sakkarah. Cattle on the March. From a Vth dynasty Tomb at Sakkarah. 328 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. represent the deceased, having colossal proportions compared with the other figures, sitting or standing with a round table before him, upon which fruits, flowers, vegetables, ducks, haunches of beef, etc., etc., are placed. These offerings are sometimes carried in before the deceased on the head or hands of servants and others, who often lead beasts appointed for slaughter ; they were brought into the tomb in an appointed order, and an endowment to ensure their pre- sentation in the tomb on the specified festivals and seasons was specially provided. The scenes in the tombs which represent agricultural labours, the making of wine, etc., etc., Endow- all have reference to the bringing of funereal gifts ; and it ment of . © © /ww\a r— ] <=i__ tombs. seems that certain estates ^1 nut ent pa t 'etta, " estates of the house of everlasting" {i.e., the tomb), were set apart to supply palm branches, fruit, etc., for the table of the dead. The act of bringing these gifts to the tomb at the appointed seasons was probably connected with some religious ceremony, which seems to have consisted in pouring out libations and offering incense, bandages, etc., by the ^ fjj^ 7 ^ cher heb or priest. The Egyptian called the tomb ^ pa t'etta, " the everlasting house," and he believed that the ka or "genius" of the deceased resided there as long as the mummy of his perishable body, cka, was there. The ka might go in and out of the tomb, and refresh itself with meat and drink, but it never failed to go back to the mummy with the name of which it seems to have been closely connected ;' the ba or soul, and the chu or intelligence did not live in the tomb. The Pyramids. The royal tombs of the early dynasties were built in the form of pyramids, and they are, to all intents and purposes, merely mastabas, the greater parts of which are above 1 Herz und Leib vereint bilden das oder die Personlichkeit des Menschen, I das dem Individuum eigenthiimliche Wesen, die ihn von andern unterscheidetund mit seinem Namen in engster Verbindung steht. Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie, p. 181. THE PYRAMIDS. 329 ground ; they consist of the chamber in which funereal gifts were offered, the passage and the sarcophagus chamber. The Pyramids 1 . , . , , , , , are tombs actual pyramid contained the passage and the sarcophagus chamber, but although the chamber, sometimes called temple or chapel, in which funereal gifts were offered, was a building separate from the pyramid, it nevertheless formed an integral part of the pyramid plan. On the western bank of the Nile, from Abu Roash on the north to Medum on the south, is a slightly elevated tract of land, about twenty-five miles long, on the edge of the Libyan desert, on which stand the 33Q FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGVFT. pyramids of Abu Roash, Gizeh, Zawyet el-'Aryan, Abusir, Sakkarah, and Dahshur. Other places in Egypt where pyramids are found are El-lahun in the Fayyum, and Kullah near Esneh. The pyramids built by the Ethiopians at Meroe and Gebel Barkal are of a very late date (B.C. 600- 100) and are mere copies, in respect of form only, of the pyramids in Egypt. There is no evidence whatever to show that they were built for purposes of astronomical observations, and the theory that the Great Pyramid was built to serve as a standard of measurement is ingenious but worthless. The significant fact, so ably pointed out by Mariette, that pyra- mids are only found in cemeteries, is an answer to all such theories. Tomb-pyramids were built by kings and others until the Xllth dynasty. The ancient writers who have described and treated of the pyramids are given by Pliny (Nat. Hist., xxxvi. 12, 17). If we may believe some of the writers on them during the Middle Ages, their outsides must have been covered with inscriptions ; these were probably of a religious nature. 1 In modern times they have been examined by Shaw (172 1), Pococke (1743), Niebuhr (1761), Davison (1763), Bruce (1768), Denon and Jumard (1799), Hamilton (1801), Caviglia (1817), Belzoni (1817), Wilkin- son (183 1), Howard Vyse and Perring (i8^y-^8) } Lepsius (1842-45), and Petrie (1881). TtabuUd- j t a pp ears that before the actual building of a pyramid pyramid, was begun, a suitable rocky site was chosen and cleared, a mass of rock if possible being left in the middle of the area to form the core of the building. The chambers and galleries leading to them were next planned and excavated. Around the core a truncated pyramid building was made, the angles of which were filled up with blocks of stone. Layei after layer of stone was then built round the work, which grew larger and larger until it was finished. Dr. Lepsius thought that when a king ascended the throne, he built for himself a small but complete tomb-pyramid, and that a fresh coating of stone was built round it every 1 M their surfaces exhibit all kinds of inscriptions written in the characters of ancient nations which no longer exist. No one knows what this writing is or what it signifies." Mas'udi (ed. Barbier de Meynard), t. ii. p. 404. THE GREAT PYRAMID. 331 year that he reigned ; that when he died the sides of the pyramid were like long flights of steps, which his successor filled up with right-angled triangular blocks of stone ; and that the door of the pyramid was walled up after the body of its builder had been laid in it, and thus it became a finished tomb. The explanation of Dr. Lepsius may not be correct, but at least it answers satisfactorily more objections than do the views of other theorists on this matter. It has been pointed out that near the core of the pyramid the work is more carefully executed than near the exterior, that is to say, as the time for the king's death approached the work was more hurriedly performed. During the investigations made by Lepsius in and around the pyramid area, he found the remains of about seventy- five pyramids, and noticed that they were always built in groups. The pyramids of Gizeh were opened by the Persians violation during the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ ; it is of P?™" 0 mids by probable that they were also entered by the Romans, Khalif the Mamun (a.D. 813-833) entered the Great Pyramid, and Persians - found that others had been there before him. The treasure which is said to have been discovered there by him is probably fictitious. Once opened, it must have been evident to every one what splendid quarries the pyramids formed, and very few hundred years after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, they were laid under contribution for stone to build mosques, etc., in Cairo. At the end of the twelfth century Melik el-Kamil made a mad attempt to destroy the pyramid built by Mycerinus ; but after months of toil he only succeeded in stripping off the covering from one of the sides. It is said that Muhammad f Ali was advised to undertake the senseless task of destroying them all. The most important pyramids and groups of pyramids are the following : — The Great Pyramid. This, the largest of the three pyramids at Gizeh, was built by Chufu ^® ^ > ^ or Cheops, the second king of the IVth dynasty, B.C. 3733, who called it jfj* .A, Chut. His 332 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. name was found written in red ink upon the blocks of stone Pyramid inside it. All four sides measure in greatest length about of Cheops. eac j^ k 1lt ftiQ length of each was originally about 20 feet more; its height now is 451 feet, but it is said to have been originally about 481 feet. The stone used in the construction of this pyramid was brought from Turra and Mokattam, and the contents amount to 85,000,000 cubic feet. The flat space at the top of the pyramid is about thirty feet square, and the view from it is very fine. The entrance (a) to this pyramid is, as with all pyramids, on the north side, and is about 43 feet above the ground. The passage A B C is 320 feet long, 3^ feet high, and 4 feet wide ; at B is a granite door, round which the path at D has been made. The passage at D E is 125 feet long, and the large hall E F is 155 feet long and 28 feet high ; the pas- sage E G leads to the pointed-roofed Queen's Chamber H, which measures about 17 x 19 x 20 feet. The roofing in of this chamber is a beautiful piece of mason's work. From the large hall E F there leads a passage 22 feet long, the ante- chamber in which was originally closed by four granite doors, remains of which are still visible, into the King's Chamber, J, which is lined with granite, and measures about 35x17x19 feet. The five hollow chambers K, L, M, N, O were built above the King's Chamber to lighten the pressure of the superincumbent mass. In chamber o the name Chufu was found written The air shafts P and Q measure 234 feet x 8 inches x 6 inches, and 174 feet x 8 inches x 6 inches respectively. A shaft from E to R leads down to the subterranean chamber S, which measures 46 x 27 x 10^ feet. The floor of the King's Chamber, J, is about 140 feet from the level of the base of the pyramid, and the chamber is a little to the south-east of the line drawn from T to U. Inside the chamber lies the empty, coverless, broken, red granite sarcophagus of Cheops, measuring j\ x 3j x 3J feet. The account of the building of this pyramid is told by Herodotus 1 as follows : " Now, they told me, that to the reign of Rhampsinitus there was a perfect distribution 1 Bk. ii. 124-126. 334 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. of justice, and that all Egypt was in a high state of prosperity ; but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over Herodotus them, plunged into every kind of wickedness. For that, building having shut up all the temples, he first of all forbade them to Great 3 °ff er sacrifice, and afterwards he ordered all the Egyptians Pyramid, to work for himself ; some, accordingly, were appointed to draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain down to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones when transported in vessels across the river, and to drag them to the mountain called the Libyan. And they worked to the number of 100,000 men at a time, each party during three months. The time during which the people were thus harassed by toil, lasted ten years on the road which they constructed, along which they drew the stones, a work, in my opinion, not much less than the pyramid ; for its length is five stades (3,021 feet), and its width ten orgyae (60 feet), and its height, where it is the highest, eight orgyae (48 feet) ; and it is of polished stone, with figures carved on it : on this road then ten years were expended, and in forming the subterraneous apartments on the hill, on which the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial vault for himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from the Nile. Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid itself : of this, which is square, each face is eight plethra (820 feet), and the height is the same ; it is composed of polished stones, and jointed with the greatest exactness ; none of the stones are less than thirty feet. This pyramid was built thus ; in the form of steps, which some call crossse, others bomides. When they had first built it in this manner, they raised the remaining stones by machines made of short pieces of wood : having lifted them from the ground to the first range of steps, when the stone arrived there, it was put on another machine that stood ready on the first range ; and from this it was drawn to the second range on another machine ; for the machines were equal in number to the ranges of steps ; or they removed the machine, which was only one, and portable, to each range in succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone higher ; for I should relate it in both ways, as it is related. The THE SECOND PYRAMID. 335 highest parts of it, therefore, were first finished, and after- wards they completed the parts next following ; but last of all they finished the parts on the ground, and that were lowest. On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and garlic, for the workmen ; which the interpreter, 1 as I well remember, reading the inscription, told me amounted to 1,600 talents of silver. And if this be really Herodotus the case, how much more was probably expended in iron Ending tools, in bread, and in clothes for the labourers, since they of the occupied in building the works the time which I mentioned, pyramid, and no short time besides, as I think, in cutting and drawing the stones, and in forming the subterraneous excavation. [It is related] that Cheops reached such a degree of infamy, that being in want of money, he prostituted his own daughter in a brothel, and ordered her to extort, they did not say how much ; but she exacted a certain sum of money, privately, as much as her father ordered her ; and contrived to leave a monument of herself, and asked every one that came in to her to give her a stone towards the edifice she designed : of these stones they said the pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three, before the great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in length." (Cary's translation.) The Second Pyramid. The second pyramid at Gizeh was built by Cha-f-Ra, ^Qj^_oJ, or Chephren, the third king of the IVth dy- nasty, B.C. 3666, who called it "?s^ I Z\ J , tir. His name has not been found inscribed upon any part of it, but the frag- ment of a marble sphere inscribed with the name of Cha-f-Ra, 1 Herodotus was deceived by his interpreter, who clearly made up a transla- tion of an inscription which he did not understand. William of Baldensel, who lived in the fourteenth century, tells us that the outer coating of the two largest pyramids was covered with a great number of inscriptions arranged in lines. (Wiedemann, Aeg. Geschichte, p. 179.) If the outsides were actually inscribed, the text must have been purely religious, like those inscribed inside the pyramids of Pepi, Teta, and Unas. 336 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. which was found near the temple, close by this pyramid, confirms the statements of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, that Chephren built it. A statue of this king, now in the Gizeh Museum, was found in the granite temple Pyramid close by. This pyramid appears to be larger than the Chephren. Great Pyramid because it stands upon a higher level of stone foundation ; it was cased with stone originally and polished, but the greater part of the outer casing has disappeared. An ascent of this pyramid can only be made with difficulty. It was first explored in 1816 by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823), the discoverer of the tomb of Seti I. and of the temple of Rameses II. at Abu Simbel. In the north side of the pyramid are two openings, one at the base and one about 50 feet above it. The upper opening leads into a corridor 105 feet long, which descends into a chamber 46^ x 165 x 22j feet, which held the granite sarcophagus in which Chephren was buried. The lower opening leads into a corridor about 100 feet long, which, first descending and then ascending, ends in the chamber mentioned above, which is usually called Belzoni's Chamber. The actual height is about 450 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 700 feet. The rock upon which the pyramid stands has been scarped on the north and west sides to make the foundation level. The history of the building of the pyramid is thus stated by Herodotus 1 : " The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned Pyramid fifty years ; and when he died, his brother Chephren suc- Chephren. ceeded to the kingdom ; and he followed the same practices as the other, both in other respects, and in building a pyramid ; which does not come up to the dimensions of his brother's, for I myself measured them ; nor has it sub- terraneous chambers ; nor does a channel from the Nile flow to it, as to the other ; but this flows through an artificial aqueduct round an island within, in which they say the body of Cheops is laid. Having laid the first course of variegated Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by forty feet, he built it near the large pyramid. They both stand on the same hill, which is about 100 feet high. Chephren, they said, reigned fifty-six years. Thus 106 years are reckoned, during 1 Bk. a. 127. THE THIRD PYRAMID. 337 which the Egyptians suffered all kinds of calamities, and for this length of time the temples were closed and never opened. From the hatred they bear them, the Egyptians are not very willing to mention their names ; but call the pyramids after Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept his cattle in those parts." (Cary's translation.) The Third Pyramid. The third pyramid at Gizeh was built by Men-kau-Ra, [q D jYjJ, the fourth king of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3633, who called it < ^ > JS,, Her. Herodotus and other ancient authors tell us that Men-kau-Ra, or Mycerinus, was Pyramid buried in this pyramid, but Manetho states that Nitocris, a °erinus. queen of the Vlth dynasty, was the builder. There can be, however, but little doubt that it was built by Mycerinus, for the sarcophagus and the remains of the inscribed coffin of this king were found in one of its chambers by Howard Vyse in 1837. The sarcophagus, which measured 8 x 3 x 2\ feet, was lost through the wreck of the ship in which it was sent to England, but the venerable fragments of the coffin are preserved in the British Museum, and form one of the most valuable objects in the famous collection of that institution. The formula on it is one which is found upon coffins down to the latest period, but as the date of Mycerinus is known, it is possible to draw some interesting and valuable conclusions from the fact that it is found upon his coffin. It proves that as far back as 3,600 years before Christ the Egyptian religion was established on a firm base, that the doctrine of immortality was already deeply rooted in the human mind. The art of preserving the human body by embalming was also well understood and generally practised at that early date. The pyramid of Men-kau-Ra, like that of Chephren, is Pyramid built upon a rock with a sloping surface ; the inequality of cerinus. the surface in this case has been made level by building up courses of large blocks of stones. Around the lower part the remains of the old granite covering are visible to a depth of B. M. Z 33* FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. from 30 to 40 feet. It is unfortunate that this pyramid has been so much damaged ; its injuries, however, enable the visitor to see exactly how it was built, and it may be concluded that the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren were built in the same manner. The length of each side at the base is about 350 feet, and its height is variously given as 210 and 215 feet. The entrance is on the north side, about thirteen feet above the ground, and a descending corridor about 104 feet long, passing through an ante-chamber, having a series of three granite doors, leads into one chamber about 44 feet long. In this chamber is a shaft which leads down to the granite-lined chamber about 20 feet below, in which were found the sarcophagus and wooden coffin of Mycerinus, and the remains of a human body. It is thought that, in spite of the body of Mycerinus being buried in this pyramid, it was left unfinished at the death of this king, and that a succeeding ruler of Egypt finished the pyramid and made a second chamber to hold his or her body. At a short distance to the east of this pyramid are the ruins of a temple which was probably used in connexion with the rites performed in honour of the dead king. In A.D. 1196 a deliberate and systematic attempt was made to destroy this pyramid by the command of the Muhammadan ruler of Egypt. The account of the character of Mycerinus and of his pyramid as given by Herodotus is as follows : ''They said that after him, Mycerinus, 1 . son of Cheops, reigned over Egypt ; that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him ; and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people, who were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their employments, and to sacrifices ; and that he made the most Pyramid j ust decisions of all their kings. On this account, of all the of My- J cerinus. kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praised him most, for he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when any man complained of his decision, he used to make him some present out of his own treasury and pacify his anger. This king also left a pyramid much less than that of his father, being on each side 20 feet short of three plethra ; it is quadrangular, and built half way up of 1 Bk. ii. 129, 134. THE PYRAMIDS OF ABU ROASH AND ABUSIR 339 Ethiopian stone. Some of the Grecians erroneously say that this pyramid is the work of the courtesan Rhodopis ; but they evidently appear to me ignorant who Rhodopis was ; for they would not else have attributed to her the building such a pyramid, on which, so to speak, numberless thousands of talents were expended ; besides, Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, and not at this time ; for she was very many years later than those kings who left these pyramids.' (Cary's translation.) In one of the three small pyramids near that of Mycerinus the name of this king is painted on the ceiling. These pyramids lie about six miles north of the Pyramids of Gizeh, and are thought to be older than they. Nothing remains of one except five or six courses of stone, which show that the length of each side at the base was about 350 feet, and a passage about 160 feet long leading down to a subterranean chamber about 43 feet long. A pile of stones close by marks the site of another pyramid ; the others have disappeared. Of the age of these pyramids nothing certain is known. The remains of a causeway about a mile long leading to them are still visible. These pyramids, originally fourteen in number, were Other built by kings of the Vth dynasty, but only four of them are £[\ a h ™ y now standing, probably because of the poorness of the dynasty, workmanship and the careless way in which they were put together. The most northerly pyramid was built by dynasty, B.C. 3333 ; its actual height is about 120 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 220 feet. The blocks of stone in the sepulchral chamber are exceptionally large. Sahu-Ra made war in the peninsula of Sinai, he The Pyramids of Abu Roash. The Pyramids of Abu sir. Sahu-Ra, the second king of the Vth z 2 340 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. founded a town near Esneh, and he built a temple to Sechet at Memphis. The pyramid to the south of that of Sahu-Ra was built ^ Q£JP<=>] ^ ( Q^?] " Usr-en-Ra, son of the Sun, An" This king, like Sahu-Ra, also made war in Sinai. The largest of these four pyramids is now about 165 feet high and 330 feet square ; the name of its builder is unknown. A-busir is the Busiris of Pliny. The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah. This pyramid is generally thought to have been built by the fourth king of the 1st dynasty (called Uenephes by Manetho, and Q^J^J Ata in the tablet of Abydos), who is said to have built a pyramid at Kochome (i.e., Ka-Kam) near Sakkarah. Though the date of this pyramid is not known accurately, it is probably right to assume that it is The oldest older than the pyramids of Gizeh. The door which led into pyramid. pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of the stelae in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^-, 32, 31 and 29I feet in height ; the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south 352 feet, east and west 396 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly face the cardinal points. The arrangement of the chambers inside this pyramid is quite peculiar to itself. Pyramids inscribed with funereal texts. better known as The Pyramid of Unas ^<|^(]Pj|, M Mastabat el-Far'un," i.e., " Pharaoh's Mastaba," called in Egyptian Nefer-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M. Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son. Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of each side at the base 220 feet. Owing to the broken blocks of sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to give exact measurements. Several attempts had been THE STEP PYRAMID OF SAKKARAH. 341 made to break into it, and one of the Arabs who took part in one of these attempts, " Ahmed the Carpenter," seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in red ink. It is probable that he is the same man who opened the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, A.D. 820. A black basalt sarcophagus, from which the cover had been dragged off, an arm, a shin bone, and some ribs and fragments of the skull from the mummy of Unas were found in the sarcophagus chamber. The walls of the two largest chambers and two of the corridors are inscribed with ritual texts and prayers of a very interesting character. Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about thirty years. The Mastabat el-Far'un was thought by Mariette to be the tomb of Unas, but some scholars thought that the " blunted pyramid" at Dahshur was his tomb, because his name was written upon the top of it. The Pyramid of Teta ( g (| , called in Egyptian Tet-asu, lies to the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and was opened in 1881. The Arabs call it the "Prison Pyramid," because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined. Its actual height is about 59 feet ; the length of its sides at the base is 210 feet, and the platform at the top is about 50 feet. The arrangement of the chambers and passages and the plan of construction followed is almost identical with that of the pyramid of Unas. This pyramid was broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the sarcophagus chamber have literally been smashed to pieces by the hammer blows of those who expected to find treasure inside them. The inscriptions, painted in green upon the walls, have the same subject matter as those inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the Vlth dynasty, reigned about fifty years, and was murdered by one of his guards. The Pyramid of Pepi I., or (^H Q] ^ ( □ P J " Ra " meri, son of the Sun, Pepi," lies to the south-east of the 342 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of pyramids at Sakkarah, where it is called the Pyramid of Shekh Abu Mansur; it was opened in 1880. Its actual height is about 40 feet, and the length of the sides at the base is about 250 feet ; the arrangement of the chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different. It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from the quarry, it was more easily injured. The granite sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments of which were found lying about on the ground ; the cover too, smashed in pieces, lay on the ground close by. A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also found in the sarcophagus chamber. The inscriptions are, like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas and Teta, of a religious nature ; some scholars see in them evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi, who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty. The pyramid of Pepi I., the second king of the Vlth dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, fifty-three years, was called in Egyptian by the same name as Memphis, i.e., Men-nefer, and numerous priests were attached to its service. The Pyramids of Dahshur. The These pyramids, four of stone and two of brick, lie about Pyramid. three and a half miles to the south of Ma ?tabat el-Far'un. The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 700 feet ; beneath it are three subterranean chambers. The second stone pyramid is about 321 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is 620 feet ; it is usually called the " Blunted Pyramid," because the lowest parts of its sides are built at one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger of the two brick pyramids is about 90 feet high, and the length of the sides at the base is about 350 feet ; the smaller TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 343 is about 156 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is about 343 feet. The Pyramid of Medum. This pyramid, called by the Arabs El-Haram el-Kaddab, jgjjjjyj^j or "the False Pyramid," is probably so named because it is Middle unlike any of the other pyramids known to them ; it is said j^Ijf^i to have been built by Seneferu (PT^^¥]' the first kin S inpkn ' of the IVth dynasty, but there is no indisputable evidence that he was the builder. The pyramid is about 115 feet high, and consists of three stages : the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. The stone for this building was brought from the Mokattam hills, but it seems never to have been finished ; as in all other pyramids, the entrance is on the north side. When opened in modern times the sarco- phagus chamber was found empty, and it would seem that this pyramid had been entered and rifled in ancient days. Tombs of the Theban Empire. Egyptian tombs belonging to a period subsequent to the mastabas and pyramids, i.e., about the Xllth dynasty, usually have the three characteristic parts of these forms of tomb, viz., the chapel, the passage to the sarcophagus chamber, and the sarcophagus chamber itself excavated in the solid rock ; sometimes, however, the chapel or chamber in which the relatives of the deceased assembled from time to time, is above ground and separate from the tomb, as in the case of the pyramid. Tombs having the chapel separate are the oldest, and the best examples are found at Abydos. 1 On a brick base about 50 feet by 35 feet, and four or five feet high, rose a pyramid to a height of about 30 feet ; theo- retically such a tomb was supposed to consist of chapel, 1 Abydos etant surtout une necropole du Moyen Empire, c'est la petite pyramide qui y domine. Des centaines de ces monuments, disposes sans ordre, herissaient la necropole et devaient lui donner un aspect pittoresque bien different de l'aspect des necropoles d'un autre temps. Mariette, Abydos, torn. II. Paris, 18S0, p. 39. 344 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Tombs at Abydos. Tombs at Beni- Hasan. Tombs at Aswan. passage and pit, but at Abydos, owing to the friable nature of the rock, these do not exist, and the mummy was laid either in the ground between the foundations, or in the masonry itself, or in a chamber which projected from the building and formed a part of it, or in a chamber beneath. This class of tomb is common both at Thebes and Abydos. Tombs hewn entirely out of the solid rock were used at all periods, and the best examples of these are found in the mountains behind Asyut, at Beni- Hasan, at Thebes, and at Aswan. The tombs at Beni-Hasan are about fifteen in number, and they all belong to the Xllth dynasty ; they have preserved the chief characteristics of the mastabas at Sakkarah, that is to say, they consist of a chamber and a shaft leading down to a corridor, which ends in the chamber containing the sarco- phagus and the mummy. The tombs rise tier above tier, and follow the course of the best layers of stone ; the most important here are those of Ameni and Chnemu-hetep, which are remarkable for possessing columns somewhat resembling those subsequently called Doric, hewn out of the solid rock. The columns inside the tomb have sixteen sides. The bold headland which rises up in the low range of hills which faces the whole of the island of Elephantine, just opposite to the modern town of Aswan, has been found to be literally honeycombed with tombs, tier above tier, of various epochs. In ancient days there was down at the water's edge a massive stone quay, from which a broad, fine double stair- case, cut in the living rock, ascended to a layer of firm rock about 1 50 feet higher. At Thebes and at Beni-Hasan, where such staircases must have existed, they have been destroyed, and only the traces remain to show that they ever existed. At Aswan it is quite different, for the whole of this remark- able staircase is intact. It begins at the bottom of the slope, well above the highest point reached by the waters of the Nile during the inundation, and following the outward curve of the hill, ends in a platform in front of the highest tombs. Between each set of steps which form the staircase is a smooth slope, up which the coffins and sarcophagi were drawn to the tomb by the men who walked up the steps at each side. At the bottom of the staircase the steps are only a few inches TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. deep, but towards the top they are more than a foot. On each side of the staircase is a wall which appears to be of later date than the staircase itself, and about one-third of the way up there is a break in each wall, which appears to be a specially constructed opening leading to passages on the right and left respectively. The walls probably do not belong to the period of the uppermost tier of tombs, and appear to have been made during the rule of the Greeks or Romans. In the hill of the tombs at Aswan there are three distinct Tombs of layers of stone which have been chosen by the ancient dynasty at Egyptians for the purpose of excavating tombs. The finest Asw an- and thickest layer is at the top, and this was chosen princi- pally by the architects of the Vlth dynasty for the sepulchres of the governors of Elephantine. The tombs here belong to the Vlth and Xllth dynasties, and of the former period the most interesting is that of Sabben, which is situated at the top of the staircase. Sabben was an official who lived in the found on the right hand side of the doorway. The entrance to this tomb is made through a rectangular opening, in which is a small doorway about one-third of the height of the open- ing, that is to say through a door within a door. The walls inside were covered with a thin layer of plaster, and upon them were painted scenes in the life of the man who was buried there. Of the Xllth dynasty tombs, the most interesting Tombs of is that of Se-renput, in the front of which there originally ^Tiastyat stood a portico. The scarped rock was ornamented with Aswan, inscriptions, rows of cattle, etc., etc., and passing through the doorway, a chamber or chapel having four rectangular pillars was reached. A passage, in the sides of which were niches having figures in them, leads to a beautifully painted shrine in which was a black granite seated figure of the deceased ; thus the serdab and the stele oi the mastaba became united. On the right hand side was a tunnel, which, winding as it descended, led to the sarcophagus chamber which was situated exactly under the shrine containing the figure of the deceased. Se-renput lived in the time of Usertsen I., and was an officer in the service of this king when he marched time of Pepi II., whose cartouche 34^ FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Tombs of the XHth and XVIIIth dynasties similar in plan. Biban el-Muluk. into Ethiopia ; thus the date of the tomb is well known. 1 Like the tombs of the Vlth dynasty the walls inside were covered with a layer of plaster upon which scenes and inscrip- tions were painted. During the XVIIIth dynasty tombs on the plan of the rock-hewn tombs of the Xllth dynasty were commonly built, but the inscriptions, which in ancient days were brief, now become very long, and the whole tomb is filled with beauti- fully painted scenes representing every art and trade, every agricultural labour, and every event in the life of the deceased. The biography of the deceased is given at great length; if a soldier, the military expeditions in which he took part are carefully depicted, and appropriate hieroglyphic descriptions are appended ; the tribute brought to the king from the various countries is depicted with the most careful attention to the slightest detail of colour and form. The mummy chamber was made exactly under the chapel, but the position of the pit which led to it varied. Under the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties the tombs of kings and private persons possessed a size and magnificence which they never attained either before or since. The finest specimens of these periods are the famous Tombs of the Kings which are hewn in the living rock in the eastern and western valleys at Thebes; those in the latter valley belong to the XVIIIth dynasty, and those in the former belong to the XlXth dynasty. The royal tombs here consist of long inclined planes, with chambers at intervals, receding into the mountains ; according to Strabo these tombs were forty in number, but at the time of the death of M. Mariette, only about twenty-five were known. The tomb which we may consider to have been the model during the palmy days of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, is that of Seti I. ; the walls of the staircases and chambers are covered with inscriptions and scenes from the " Book of being in the 1 For a full account of this tomb, see my paper in Proc. Soc. Bib. Arch.> November, 1887, p. 33 ff. A tomb of great importance was discovered at Aswan in 1 892 by Signor E. Schiaparelli, who published the hieroglyphic text with a commentary in his valuable paper Una Tomba Egiziana Inedita del la Via Dinastia, Roma, 1892. TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 347 Underworld," and their excellence and beauty is such that they cannot be too highly praised. Under this king, Egyptian funereal art seems to have been at its culminating point, for neither sculptor nor painter appears to have produced anything so fine after this date. The tomb is jjg^jj* entered by means of two flights of steps, at the bottom of which is a passage terminating in a small chamber. Beyond this are two halls having four and two pillars respectively, and to the left are the passages and small chambers which lead to the large six-pillared hall and to the vaulted chamber in which stood the sarcophagus of Seti I. Here also is an inclined plane which descends into the mountain for a considerable distance ; from the level of the ground to the bottom of this incline the depth is about 150 feet; the length of the tomb is nearly 500 feet. The designs on the walls were first sketched in outline in red, and the alterations by the master designer or artist were made in black ; this tomb was never finished. Each chamber in this tomb has its peculiar ornamentation, and there is little doubt that each chamber had its peculiar furniture ; it is thought that many articles of furniture, pieces of armour, weapons, etc., etc., were broken intentionally when they were placed in the tomb. 1 Of the tombs belonging to the period between the XXth and the XXVIth dynasty, nothing need be said, for they call for no special notice ; in the XXVIth dynasty, however, the renaissance of Egyptian Therenais- art naturally showed itself in the tombs of the period, and in sance ' some few instances an attempt was made to reproduce tombs after the plan and with the elegance of those of the XlXth dynasty. It must be noticed .that the inscriptions on the walls are of a funereal character, and consist usually of a series of chapters of the Book of the Dead. That the tombs described above are those of wealthy people goes without saying ; it now remains to refer to the tombs of the extremely poor. They were sometimes buried in the crevices of the rocks, and at other times in the desert, either near the great necropolis of the town or in 1 On les tuait de la sorte afin que leur ame allat servir l'ame de l'homme dans l'autre monde. Maspero, V Archeologie Egypticnne, p. 159, 348 FUNEREAL ARCILEOLOGY OF EGYPT. The tombs of the poor. Graeco- Roman tombs. Egyptian tombs used by Christian monks. solitary places. A cave or hollow in the mountains afforded a place of sepulture unto many, and numerous rock caves exist in the mountains to the west of Thebes and other places, where the mass of decayed mummies and bones is several feet deep, and where skulls and skeletons, some with their skins shrivelled upon them, and others with bare bones, line the sides up to the ceiling. Sometimes pits were dug as common graves for the whole town, and sometimes the pit and passage of a forsaken tomb served to accom- modate hundreds of bodies. The absence of valuable fur- niture and ornaments rendered the bodies of the poor of no account to the pillager of tombs, and the inaccessible situation of the places where they were buried made it un- likely that they would be disturbed that others might be put in their places. The funereal furniture of the poor consisted of very little more than what they wore day by day, and, provided they were protected by a few amulets and figures of the gods in faience to guard them against the attacks of evil-disposed demons, and by a scarab, the emblem of the resurrection and the new life, they probably laid down the burden of this life with as firm a hope in the mercy of Osiris as did the rich man in the mastaba or pyramid. Under the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors the arrangement of the tombs changes greatly ; the outer chapel or chamber disappears entirely, and the character of everything appertaining to the service of the tomb shows that a great change has taken place in the religious views of the people, for although ancient forms and obser- vances are kept up, it is clear that the spirit which gave them life has been forgotten. In the early centuries of the Christian era the tombs in the mountains of Egypt formed dwelling-places for a number of monks and ascetics, and it would seem that the statues and other objects in them suffered at their hands. An instance of the use of a rock-hewn tomb by Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, is made known to us by an encomium on this saint by his disciple John. 1 The tomb in which 1 For the Coptic text and a French translation, see Amelineau, Etude sur le Christianisme cn Egypte au Septieme Sihle> Paris, 1887. EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 349 Pisentios lived was rectangular in shape, and was fifty-two feet wide ; it had six pillars and contained a large number of mummies. The coffins were very large and profusely de- corated, and one of the mummies was clothed in silk, and his fingers and toes were mummified separately ; the names of those buried there were written on a small parchment roll (ft OTXOJUL^piOIt ft X CO JUL JUL JULeJUL&p Copt. XUOJUL, "a book." Papyrus letters and legal documents were fastened by being tied round with a piece of papyrus string, and upon this a piece of clay was laid, which, being impressed with a ring or scarab, formed a seal, called in Egyptian The British Museum possesses among its seals impressions in clay of the seal of Shabaka, found at Kouyunjik (see p. 249) ; a seal (No. 5585) ascribed to Shashanq by Dr. Birch (in Layard, Babylon and Nineveh, London, 1853, p. 1857), which q " " " * reads T?TflT JtTfrT - AA - ; an oval seal (No. 5584) bearing the name of a private person and the prenomen of Amasis II. O^O Jk and an oval seal (No. 5583), bearing the name of The palette of the Egyptian scribe, called \ 1]"°^ mesthd, was made of basalt (B.M. No. 12,778), calcareous stone inlaid with lapis-lazuli (B.M. No. 24,576), and ivory (B.M. No. 5524), but more commonly of wood. In shape it was rectangular, and its size varied from 10 in. x 2 in. to 16 in. x 2 J in. ; its thickness was usually | of an inch. At one Naifaarut, the first king of the XXIXth dynasty. EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 351 end were circular, or oval, hollows to hold ink, the former being in the shape of ^, and the latter of a cartouche c — x . About a third of the length of the palette from this end a sloping groove was cut, which from about the middle of the palette to the other end had an equal depth, for holding the reeds for writing. These were kept in their place either by a piece of wood gummed into the palette about a third of the way above the groove, or by a piece of wood, forming a bridge, under which the reeds could pass freely, and which was left uncut when the groove was made. A sliding cover over the longer part of the groove protected the ends of the reeds from damage. The hollows in the palette for holding the ink are usually two in number, one for red ink and one for black ; these being the colours most commonly used for writing upon papyri. Some palettes have as many as a dozen hollows, and these probably belonged to scribes whose business it was to ornament papyri with scenes painted in many colours. The dates of palettes can often be determined with accu- racy because, in addition to the name of the owner, the name of the king in whose reign he lived is given. Thus Royal B.M. No. 12,784 was made in the reign of Amasis I., B.M. 5513 P alettes - in that of Amenophis III., and B.M. 5514 in that of Rameses II. ; from these three examples we see that the form of the palette changed very little in a whole dynasty. The inscriptions upon palettes were usually in hieroglyphics, but B.M. No. 5524, made of ivory, is inscribed in hieratic, and B.M. No. 5517, made of wood, also has upon it an inscription in. hieratic. The palette of a scribe was some- times placed in the tomb with its owner (see in the Papyrus of Ani, pi. 7, where it lies under the bier), and votive palettes are known, as for example B.M. No. 12,778. This object is made of green basalt, and at the end where the coloured inks were placed is a scene in outline in which the deceased is represented making an offering to Osiris, behind whom stand a goddess and Thoth. The places for the ink are outlined, but not hollowed out, and the groove is only cut a part of the length ; the reeds which still remain are fastened in with plaster, and it is perfectly clear that this 352 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. palette was never used by a scribe. On each side is an inscription in hieroglyphics, which records the name and titles of the deceased, and which prays that appropriate sepulchral meals may be given to the deceased, and that he may enter in, and come out from the underworld, without repulse, whenever he pleases. Inscriptions on palettes are often dedications to the god Thoth, "lord of divine words." Stone and fai'ence palettes with eight, ten, or twelve small vases for ink were also used. which the Egyptian wrote, was about ten inches long, x Vth or Jth of an inch in diameter ; the end used for writing was bruised to make the fibres flexible, and not cut. After the XXVIth dynasty an ordinary reed, similar to that which the Arabs and other Oriental nations use for writing at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut like a quill, or steel pen. The average sized palette will hold about ten writing reeds easily. The ink which the Egyptian used was made of mineral and vegetable substances, mixed with a little gum and water. The substance which coloured the ink, black, red, blue, green, white, or yellow, was carefully rubbed down on a rectangular slab of granite, basalt, or marble, with a hard stone muller, and then thrown into a vessel, where the necessary quantity of water and gum was added to make it the consistency of moderately thin cream. The profes- sional scribe probably carried about with him pieces of colour similar to the specimens in blue, green, and red which are preserved in European museums, and rubbed down a little at a time according to his need. The green and blue colours are preparations from copper, which can, I understand, be successfully imitated at the present time; fine examples are B.M. 5565, 5571 = I ch; a = I h; X = J, TCH, like Turk. ^ ; (T = ^* K. Coptic The knowledge of the ancient hieroglyphics was fast dying wnting ' out, and the phonetic values of many of those in use at this period were altered. The name Copt is derived from kxs, the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name for MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 355 Egyptian, AlyvTrnn^ . The Coptic language is, at base, a dialect of ancient Egyptian ; many of the nouns and verbs found in the hieroglyphic texts remain unchanged in Coptic, and a large number of others can, by making proper allowance for phonetic decay and dialectic differences, be identified without difficulty. The Coptic dialect of Upper Egypt, called " Sahidic " Dialects of Coptic (from Arab. Juoc^), or Theban, was the older and richer dialect ; that of Lower Egypt was called Boheiric, from the province of Boheira in the Delta. The latter dialect has been wrongly called Bashmuric, and as it appears to have been exclusively the language of Memphis, it has obtained generally the name " Memphitic " ; the dialect of Bushmur on the Lake of Menzaleh appears to have become extinct about A.D. 900, and to have left no traces of itself behind. The Coptic translation of the Bible was considered by Renaudet, Wilkins, Woide, and George, to be as old as the second century of our era ; more modern scholars, however, are inclined to assert that it is not older than the eighth century. For an account of the revival of Coptic studies in Europe, see Quatremere, Recherches Critiques et Historiques sur la Langue et la Litterature de VEgypte, Paris, 1808, and for a list of the printed literature of the Copts, see Stern, Koptische Grammatik, pp. 441-447. The recognition of the fact that a knowledge of Coptic is most valuable as a pre- liminary to the study of hieroglyphics, probably accounts for the large and increasing share of the attention of scholars which this language receives. Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes. The most common of the animals, reptiles, birds, and fishes which the Egyptians regarded as emblems of or sacred to the gods, and therefore mummified with great reverence and care, were :— Bull, Antelope, Jackal, Hippopotamus, Cat, Monkey or Ape, Crocodile, Ichneumon, Hedgehog, Shrew- mouse, Ibis, Hawk, Frog, Toad, Scorpion, Beetle, Snake, and the Latus, Oxyrhynchus and Silurus fishes. 2 A 2 356 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Apis Bull, in Egyptian ^ ^ Hap, mummies are tolerably common ; they were mummified with great honour, and buried in sarcophagi at Sakkarah. The oldest are pro- bably those of the XVIIIth dynasty. Antelope, in Egyptian Q ^ |1 1^1 kahes or I mahet'y mummies are rare ; a good specimen is B.M. No. 6783a. Cat, in Egyptian ^ ^ man, mummies are very common, and exhibit many methods of bandaging with linen of two colours ; they were placed in bronze or wooden cases, made in the form of a cat, the eyes of which were inlaid with obsidian, rock-crystal, or coloured paste. Wooden cat-cases often stand on pedestals, and are painted white, green, etc. Mummified kittens were placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, which, at times, are surmounted with figures Greek of cats. Diodorus says (I., 83) that when a cat died all the concerning i nmates °f the house shaved their eyebrows as a sign of the cat. mourning, and although the statement by the same writer that the Egyptians slew a Roman who had accidentally killed a cat may be somewhat exaggerated, there is no doubt that the animal sacred to Bast was treated with great respect in Egypt, and that dead bodies of the animals were sent to be buried, after embalmment, to Bubastis. The cat was fed with specially prepared bread soaked in milk, and chopped fish. of animals Crocodile, in Egyptian ^ emsnh, mummies etc. of a large size are not common ; small crocodiles, lizards, and other members of that family were embalmed and placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, the tops of which were frequently surmounted by a figure of this reptile in relief. Ichneumon mummies were placed in bronze cases, made in the shape of this animal. Shrew-mice mummies are not common ; they were placed in rectangular bronze cases, surmounted by a figure of this animal. MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 357 Ibis, in Egyptian (~D J ^ hahu> mummies > embalmed, and buried in earthenware jars, stopped with plaster, are very common. The Hawk, in Egyptian JQ^*^ hdk > when mum " mified, was placed either in a rectangular bronze case or in a bronze case in the form of a hawk. Frogs, in Egyptian 8 A ^ hcqet, and Toads, when em- balmed, were placed in cases made of bronze or steatite. Scorpion, in Egyptian [1*^^33? Serq t mummies are very rare ; they were placed in rectangular cases, inscribed with the name of Isis-Serq, which were surmounted by figures of the scorpion, with the head of a woman wearing disk and horns (B.M. No. 11,629). Beetle, in Egyptian ^ ^ or ^ x e P er > rarely ^"^^ abeb % mummies were deposited in cases of wood (B.M. No. 8654a:) or stone (B.M. No. 2880). Snake mummies are very common, and were either Mummies placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, or wrapped o^* e P tlles > in many bandages and laid in pits. Bronze snake-cases usually have a figure of the snake coiled up in relief upon them, but sometimes the head, which is human and erect, wears the double crown and uraeus (B.M. No 6881c); one example having the head of a hawk is also known (B.M. No. 6879). The uraeus serpent, in Egyptian ^^UUL Ardrt, was the most commonly mummified. Fish were mummified largely, and were either placed singly in cases of bronze or wood, or several were bandaged up in a bundle and laid in a pit prepared for the purpose. Many fish were known to the Egyptians, and the commoner sorts were (j ^ ° dnnu = (pdypos, ^ aba, j bctu ; the usual name for fish in general was 358 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. [| /vwwx ant were the boat of the Sun. ClPPI OF HoRUS. These curious and interesting objects are made of basalt and other kinds of hard stone, and calcareous stone ; they are in the shape of a rounded tablet, and vary in size from 3 in. x 2 in., to 20 in. x 16 in.; the Metternich stele is, however, very much larger. The scenes engraved upon them represent the triumph of light over darkness, the victory of good over evil, and cippi were used as talismans by those who were initiated into the mysteries of magic, to guard them from the attacks of noxious beasts, and from the baneful influence of Set, the god of all evil. To give an idea of these magical objects, a description of an example, in a good state of preservation, now in the British Museum (No. 957a) is here appended. 1 On the front, in relief, is a figure of Horus, naked, standing upon two croco- diles, which are supported by a projecting ledge at the foot of the stele. Horus has the lock of hair, emblematic of youth, on the right side of his head, and above him, resting on the top of his head, is a head of Bes, also in relief. His arms hang at a little distance from his sides ; in the right hand he holds two serpents, a scorpion, and a ram or stag, Scenes on and in the left two serpents, a scorpion, and a lion. On the right is a sceptre, upon which stands the hawk of Horus wearing horns, disk and feathers, 2 and on the left is a lotus- headed sceptre with plumes and two menats* (see p. 265). To the right and to the left of the god, outside the sceptres, are eight divisions ; those on the right represent : — 1. Oryx, with a hawk on his back, in front is inscribed polis of the sixteenth nome of Upper Egypt. 1 A faulty copy is given in Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. III., pi. XXXIII. , " Horus, lord of Hebennu," i.e., the metro- The inscription reads 11 , " Behutet, great god. CIPPI OF HORUS. 359 2. Ibis-headed god, Thoth, ^^^^l^.' " lord of Chemennu, lord of divine words," and the god Her-shef «—> hawk-headed, wearing the triple crown 3. " Heka, lord of enchantments," c -^ ) ^37 8 LJ, hawk- ^ A 1 11 headed, holding a serpent in each hand ; " Neith, mighty lady, divine mother, lady of Sai's" ^ Jj 1 ~~ M ~ ®* 4. Hawk-headed god, mummified, wearing disk and hold- ing a serpent in each hand ; the inscription is ® 1 tfc\ J , ' f~\ /WWW I _ZI — M ^ * Chensu, lord of Sam-behutet." a , with the body of a hippopotamus, 5. Isis, jj holding a snake ; on her head she wears a disk and horns. 6. Ptah, in the form of a squat child standing on a pedestal with four or five steps; the inscription is ^ ^ |^ ^<0$: Ptah ser da, 11 Ptah, prince, mighty " 7. The goddess Serqet, scorpion-headed, holding a serpent with both hands ; the inscription is |1 -y " Serqet, lady of life." ~~ ! 8. Goddess, wearing disk and serpent, 3Q, on her head, Scenes standing between two serpents; the inscription reads ^37 HorasT "Nebt hetep." The eight scenes on the left hand side of Horus repre- sent : — 1. Goddess, having a disk and two scorpions on her head, which is in the form of two serpents' heads, standing on a crocodile ; she holds a serpent in her right hand, and a serpent and a scorpion in the left ; on the crocodile's head is a bird. The inscription reads, ^ ^ LJ ^37 J ^ 2. Crocodile, with disk and horns, on a stand ; behind it a serpent Usert, ^ The inscription reads,"^ | " great god " 3. Isis suckling Horus among papyrus plants, under a canopy formed by two serpents, called Nechebet -j~ J] q and Uatchet J^, wearing the crown of Upper and Lower 360 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT. Egypt respectively ; under each serpent is a scorpion. The inscription reads j ^ ^37®Jj " Isis, lady of Cheb." 4. Crocodile-headed god Sebek [^J]'^ 3 ^ seated. This scene is rendered incomplete by a break in the cippus. 5. Hawk-headed god wearing the crown of Lower Egypt, and holding a serpent in his hands ; he is called jj^ ^/waaaajJ^, " Horus, son of Osiris, born of Isis." 6. Hawk of Horus wearing horns and plumes standing on ; behind him is Q sen, and a goddess, wearing disk and horns, and having the body of a scorpion, called " Isis-Serqet " jj ^ |1 ^ => . 7. Horus, in the form of a boy, holding /\ over his left shoulder, seated on a crocodile, under a canopy formed by two serpents ; the inscription reads, ^ P l T1 jffi l$ft' 8. The goddess Uatchet J ^, wearing crown of Lower Egypt, on a papyrus sceptre ; behind her Hu ^= and Sau each holding a knife. Above the two crocodiles on which Horus stands are two small scenes in each of which is a crocodile, one being on a stand ; that to the right of Horus has on his head