'iyf PRINCETON, N. J. *^ Divisio}} Section mo :> THE ILLUSTRATED BIBLE TREASURY. THE ILLUSTRATED BIBLE TREASURY BY Major-General Sir Charles Wilson, K. C. B. Professor A. H. Sayce, LL. D. ; Lieut.-Col. Conder, R. E. ; Dr. E. Naville Dr. John Hall ; Professor Willis J. Beecher ; Professor M. B. Riddle ; Dr. Ira M. Price Canon Tristram ; Canon Taylor ; Canon Bonney Professor James Robertson ; .Archdeacon Sinclair ; Professor Marcus Dods Professor George Adam Smith ; Professor J. Rendel Harris ; Wm. Carruthers, F. R. S. Professor W. M. Ramsay, D. C. L., LL. D. Pbofessor J. D. Davis ; Professor B. B. Warfield ; Professor J. F. M'Curdy Dr. Talbot W. Chambers ; Dr. F. N. Peloubet, and others AND A NEW CONCORDANCE TO THE AUTHORIZED AND REVISED VERSIONS, COMBINED WITH A SUBJECT-INDEX AND PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCRIPTURE PROPER NAMES edit^ by WILLIAM WRIGHT, D. D. WITH UPWARDS OF 350 ILLUSTRATIONS AND A NEW INDEXED BIBLE ATLAS 33 EAST I7TH STREET (UNION SQUARE) NEW YORK Copyright, 1896, by THOMAS NELSON & SONS. ElfctrotgptTi anli ^rintcti at E^e jaifacrsitic i^vcss, CambriOsf, iHass., S3. 5. NOTE BY THE EDITOR. THE Bible in its original form is an Oriental book. Oriental men wrote it, and em- ployed the familiar objects around them as signs and symbols by which to make known God's purpose of mercy to men. Hence the natural features and customs of Oriental lands are so worked into the texture of the Bible that every expression in the Book has its reflection somewhere in the East. And so the deepest spiritual thoughts of the Bible are moulded by Oriental expressions, and the most fervent aspirations of patriarchs, prophets, and apostles towards God only find a tongue in thoughts which had their natural birth in Oriental lands. Even Almighty God spake only to Oriental men, and His words were in the familiar forms of their mother tongue ; and our blessed Lord, Himself an Oriental, pointed out the common things that lay along His path as pictures and parables of God's ways with men. On the other hand, our English Bible is a Western book, and to some extent draws a Western veil over the face of the Oriental book. A translation bears much the same relation to the original that the wrong side of velvet bears to the right side. The English version embodies the substance of the Hebrew and Greek originals, but the burning words often lose their fire in translation, and the artistic finish, as well as life and color, are sometimes quenched in our cold and formal expressions. It has therefore been the aim of the publishers of this " Illustrated Teachers' Bible " to get behind the veil of Western words and ideas, and to enable the reader to study the Book amid the surroundings and in the very atmosphere in which it was composed ; and it is hoped that the Book, with its wealth of illustrations, will speak through both eye and mind to the heart. It is a present-day fact that all the important work of our time is being done by experts, and it is not well that so vital a matter as Bible elucidation should be left in unskilled hands. And perhaps never before have so many Bible experts of recog- nized eminence united in the production of so small a work. Each speaks with a voice of authority in his own department of Scripture knowledge ; and it is hoped that by their united guidance, under the Spirit of God, Bible readers will reach more surely the divine substance beneath tlie literary form, and become themselves experts of the AVord of God, which alone makes wise unto salvation. vtt LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. J. Vernon Bartlet, M.A., Mansfield College, Oxford. Professor Willis J. Beecher, D.D., Theological Seminary, Auburn, New York. Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., etc. WiLLLAM Carruthers, F.R.8., F.L.S., late Keeper of the Natural History Department, British Museum, and late President of the Linnsean Society. The late Rev. Talbot W. Chambers, D.D., New York. Lieut.-Colonel Condek, R.E., LL.D., D.C.L., M.R.A.S., late of the Palestine Exploration Fund Survey in Palestine. Professor A. B. Davidson, D.D., Free Church College, Edinburgh, Professor John D. Davis, Ph.D., Princeton, New Jersey. Rev. James Denney, D.D., Broughty-Ferry. Professor Marcus Dods, D.D., Free Church College, Edinburgh. Rev. Robert M'Cheyne Edgar, D.D., Dublin. Principal T. C. Edwards, D.D., Theological CoUege, Bala, Rev. William Ewing, late of Tiberias. Mrs. Gibson, Cambridge. Rev. Samuel G. Green, D.D., Religious Tract Society, London. Albert Gunther, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., late Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum, and President of the Linnsean Society. Rev. John Hall, D.D., New York. Professor J. Rendel Harris, M.A., Cambridge. Mrs. Lewis, Cambridge. Rev. R. Lovett, M.A., Religious Tract Society, London. F. W. Madden, M.R.A.S.. Author of "Jewish Coinage." E. W. Maunder, F.R.S., Roj'al Observatory, Greenwich. Professor J. F. M'Curdy, Ph.D., LL.D., University College, Toronto. Dr. Edouard Naville, Egyptian Explorer, Geneva. Rev. F. N. Peloubet, D.D., Auburndale, Mass. Professor IraM, Price, D.D., University of Chicago. Professor W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., The University, Aberdeen. Professor M. B. Riddle, D.D., LL.D., Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa, Professor James Robertson. D.D., The University, Glasgow. Professor A. H. Sayce, LL.D., Oxford. Rev. C. Anderson Scott, B.A. The Venerable Archdeacon Sinclair. D.D., London. Professor George Adam Smith, D.D., LL.D., Free Church College, Glasgow, Tlie Rev. Canon Isaac Taylor, M.A., LL.D. The Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram, LL.D., D.D., F.R.S., Durham Cathedral. Professor B. B. Warfield, D.D.. LL.D., Princeton, New Jersey. Major-General Sir C. W. Wilson. K.C.B., K.C.M.G.. F.R.S., R.E., etc. Rev. William Wright, D.D., British and Foreign Bible Society, London. Viii NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS. THE contents of The Illustrated Bible Treasury have been carefully arranged for easy reference. A few minutes' study of the List of Contents (pp. xi-xii) will enable the student to turn at once to the place where any required information is to be found. The Treasury is divided into eight sections : — 1. A General Introduction. 2. Helps to the Study of the Old Testament, including an analysis of the Books (arranged in the order of Scripture), with additional articles on the Canon, Monu- mental Testimony, etc. 3. Helps to the Study of the New Testament, arranged like the preceding section. 4. History and Chronology, a series of articles (arranged in chronological order) extending from the times of the Patriarchs to the close of New Testament History. 5. Geography, including articles on the Historical and Physical Geography, and the Geology of Palestine, and the Topography of the chief places in Bible Lands. The names in the Topography are arranged alphabetically. 6. Bible Science, in six parts : Astronomy; Birds; Mammals; Minerals; Plants; and Reptiles, Fishes, and Insects. The contents of each part are arranged alphabetically. 7. In this section will be found Notes on Bible Antiquities, Jewish Worship and Sects, Divine Names, etc., all arranged in alphabetical order. 8. An Analysis of the Books of the Apocrypha. A Combined Concordance, Subject-Index, and Index of Proper Names follows the Helps proper. Three styles of type have been adopted to distinguish clearly the different classes of the contents, the words of the Concordance proper being printed thus, ADOPTION ; those of the Subject-Index thus. Adoption ; and those of the Index of Proper Names thus, AARON. The Concordance is specially useful in this, that it contains references to the text and marginal readings of both the Revised and the Authorized Version. Special sections on Messianic Prophecies, Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament, etc., are incorporated in their alphabetical places in the Concordance. The meanings of obsolete and ambiguous words are given in all cases. The incorporation of all these features in the Concordance has, it is believed, made it the most useful, handy Concordance ever published. At the end of the Concordance will be found a Bible Atlas containing all the maps that are necessary for Bible students. These have been specially engraved from the latest surveys, and carefully revised by the leading authorities on Biblical geography. A beautiful relief map has been specially prepared from the raised map issued by the Palestine Exploration Fund. The position of Bible places can be easily ascertained by reference to the Index which accompanies the Bible Atlas. For the sake of those who may only occasionally refer to The Illustrated Bible Treasury, a Complete Index to the whole work will be found on pp. 4-10. The titles of sections are there distinguished by italic capital letters, and the titles of special articles by italic small letters. References to illustrations are also added in brackets. NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS. The Complete Index contains references to special sections of the Concordance. The pages of Concordance references are given in bold type. Illustrations varied in character, and numbering upwards of 350, are distributed throughout tlie Treasury. With a few exceptions, they have been prepared specially for tills book. Every effort has been made to obtain the latest photographs of scenes in Bible lands, and to collect examples of ancient monuments illustrating the words of the Scriptures. CONTENTS. Note by the Editor vii List of Contributors viii Note ry the Publishers ix List of Illustrations 1 Index 4 Arabic Words used in Names of Places, etc 10 Abbreviations 10 SECTION I. — GENERAL INTRODUCTION. Bible Study Bible Study for Sunday-School Teachers Our English Bible , The Title of the Bible Origin op Alphabets SECTION IL— THE OLD TESTAMENT. Language and Text Canon of the Old Testament Transmission op the Old Testament The Divine Library Book of Genesis Monumental Testimony to the Old Testament — Part I Book of Exodus Book op Leviticus Book of Numbers Book of Deuteronomy Book of Joshua Book op Judges Book of Ruth First Book of Samuel Second Book of Samuel First Book of Kings Second Book op Kings First Book of Chronicles Second Book of Chronicles Book of Ezra Book op Nehemiah Book of Esther Monumental Testimony to the Old Testament — Part II Hebrew Poetry and Music Book op Job Book of Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes The Song op Songs Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel The Minor Prophets 73 81 84 8.5 89 90 92 94 98 100 100 103 107 SECTION III. —THE NEW TESTAMENT. Language and Text 117 Introduction 125 Gospel op St. Matthew 126 Gospel of St. Mark 128 Gospel op St. Luke 130 Gospel op St. John 131 The Acts op the Apostles 132 The Epistles of St. Paul 137 Epistle to the Romans 137 First Epistle to the Corinthians 138 Second Epistle to the Corinthians 140 Epistle to the Galatians 141 Epistle to the Ephesians 142 Epistle to the Philippians 144 Epistle to the Colossians 145 First Epistle to the Thessalonians 14(") Second Epistle to the Thessalonians 147 The Pastoral Epistles 147 Epistle to Philemon 148 Epistle to the Hebrews 149 The General Epistles 150 The Revelation 154 SECTION IV. — HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE. History of the Patriarchs 156 The Exodus, and the Crossing of the Red Sea . . 163 Chronology op the Bible 166 History and Chronology op the Nations op the Bible 178 Jewish History from Ezra to Christ 190 The Life op Jesus 193 The Parables and Miracles op Jesus 210 The Herodian Family 212 The Early Life of St. Paul 213 The Travels op St. Paui. 215 SECTION V. — GEOGRAPHY OF BIBLE LANDS. Palestine : Its Historical and Phtsical Geo- graphy 231 Palestine : Its Geology 240 CONTENTS. Topography of Bible Lands 241 Jewish Woeship, Feasts, etc 324 Mountains op the Bible 2U1 l Money and Coins 330 KivEBs and Lakes op the Bible 2C2 Weights 345 SECTION VL— TREASURY OF BIBLE SCIENCE. Astronomy op the Bible 263 Birds 2CC Mammals 274 Minerals 284 Plants 286 Reptiles, Fishes, Insects, etc 306 SECTION VII. — TREASURY OP ANTIQUITIES, ETC. (Alphabetically arranged). Calendar op the Hebrews 319 SECTION VIII. —THE APOCRYPHA. Book of Baruch and Epistle of Jeremiah 347 The Prayer op Manasses 348 The Song op the Three Children 348 The Story op Susanna and the Elders 348 Bel and the Dragon 348 Additions to Esther 348 1 and 2 Esdras 348 Tobit 348 Judith 349 Wisdom of Solomon 349 Ecclesiasticus 349 Maccabees 349 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SCENES IN PALESTINE, ETC. Absalom's Tomb ASCALON Beersheba, Rachel's Tomb Well Bethany Bethlehem 57 BOZRAH CfsAREA Philippi 205 Cana Carmel, Mount Damascus Traditional Scene op St. Paul's Escape Dead Sea En-oannim Gerizim, Sacred Rock on Mount GiBEON Hebron Hermon, Mount Jericho Jerusalem — Bird's-eye View Fort .\ntonia From Mount Scopus From the Mount op Olives Gethsemane Golden Gate Mosque of Omar Olive Tree in Gethsemane Part of Temple Wall Pool op Siloam Stables of Solomon Supposed Pillar of the Temple The Way up to Zion Valley of Hinnom Wailing-Place of the Jews Jezreel Jordan, The, above Jericho At the Place of Christ's Baptism The Fountain of the Lebanon, Mount Lydda Mamre, Abraham's Oak Abraham's Oak, sketched fifty years ago. Nazareth Frontixpiece, and Solomon's Pools Samaria Sba op Tiberias 125 192 Old Tower ^ Shechem SiDON Sinai Convent on Mount Tabor, Mount Tyre Valley of Jehoshaphat Wady es-Suweinit Wilderness of Sin 61 236 159 158 132 ,116 239 , 243 197 235 245 230 247 237 198 248 CO 234 53 71 225 249 127 129 207 253 208 107 252 03 62 87 251 101 65 52 196 204 233 256 1.57 299 124 90 258 199 203 115 50 121 201 114 109 58 51 ILLUSTRATIONS OF ST. PAUL'S JOURNEYS, ETC. acro-corinthus ; 140 Antioch 133 Appian Way 230 Athens 215 Areopagus 220 Attalia 218 C^SAREA 224 Cnidus 227 Corinth, Ruins at 139 Dbrbe 218 Ephesus 143 Temple op Diana 222 Laodicea 154 Lystra 147 Malta, St. Paul's Bay 228 Modern Corinth 221 Myra 223 Nile I6I Paphos 216 Patmos 152 Peega 217 Philippi 144 PUTEOLI 229 Rome 13(; The Colosseum 149 Smyrna 155 Syracuse 260 Tarsus 214 CiLiciAN Gates 219 BIRDS, MAMMALS, REPTILES, FISHES, ETC. Acridium Peregrinum 310 Antelopes 278, 281 Arabian Camel 276 Bactrian Camel 276 Bat 275 Bearded Vulture 270 Bison 283 Bittern 266 Boar, Wild 276 Buzzard 268 Chromis Niloticus 307 Cicada 311 Cobra 312 Coney 277 Coral 306 Crane 266 Crested Cormorant 266 Cuckoo 267 Cyprinodon Cypris 308 DuooNG 275 Fish prom the Sea op Galilee 307 Gazelles 93 Gecko 308 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Goat, Wild 279 Heron 209 HipporoTAMUs 270 Hoopoe 269 Kestrel 268 Kite 269 Lion 281 Moles 281 Monitor 309 Moufflon 277 Oryx Antelope 274 t)EYX Beatrix 274 OSPKEY 209 Owls 271 Partridge 271 Pelican 272 Raven 272 Sacred Ibis 273 Stork 273 Syrian Bear 275 Fox 278 Goat 279 Sheep 283 Tryscalis Ungciculata 310 Turtle-Dove 267 Uromastyx Spinipes 309 Viper 313 Vulture, Egyptian 267 Vulture, Griffon 268 PLANTS. Balm of Gilead 287 Bulrush 289 Calotropis 303 Camphirb or Henna 289 Capee Plant 290 Carob Tree 290 Cassia Cinnamon 290 Cedar of Lebanon 286 Chestni't or Plane Tree 290 Christ's Thorn 288 Cinnamon 291 Citron 291 Coriander 291 Cucumber 292 Cummin 292 Cypress 292 Darnel 304 Dates 301 Fio 293 Flax 293 Frankincense Tree 293 Gourd, Wild 294 Grapes 305 Gum Cistus 295 Jujube Tree 288 Lemon Grass 289 Lentil 295 Lilies 295, 296 Mandrake 296 Melon 296 Millet 297 Mustard 297 Myrrh 298 Myrtle 298 Oaks 298-300 Oak, Abraham's 299, 300 Olive Tree 300 Pistachio Tree 298 Pomegranate 301 Reed 302 Rest-Harrow 288 Rue 302 Saffron Crocus 302 Shittah Tree 303 Spikenard 303 Storax Tree 304 Sycomoee 304 Thyine Tree 305 Wheat of Egypt 305 Wormwood 305 ANCIENT MONUMENTS AND INSCRIPTIONS. Amorite 179 Anak, Son of 178 assur-nazir-pal, monolith of 90 assur-bani-pal, llon hunt 98 Assyria — Attacking a City with Battering-Ram 341 Defeat of Evil by the God of Light 39 Sacred Trees 40 The Goddess Istar 181 The God Nebo 97 The God Nisroch 64 Winged Lion 104 Winged Man-headed Bull 100 Baal, Phcenician God 64 Babylonia — Account of the Deluge 41 FisH-GoD 182 SuN-GoD 79 Tablet mentioning Arioch and Chedorlao- mer 35 Bblshazzar, Clay Tablets op 105, 182 Cartouches of the Pharaohs 44, 45, 66 Cuneiform Inscription from Ur 43 Cyrus, Cylinder of 70 Damascus, Native op 183 Egypt — Clay Tablet from Tel el-Hesy 54 - — Foreign Captives making Bricks 47 Osiris, Judge of the Dead 184 Ra, the Sun-God 185 esar-haddon, cylinder of 76 Gath, Chief of 188 Hittite Inscription 186 King 178 HiTTITES 187 Judah-Melech, Chief op 178 Meneptah II 162, 163 Meneptah, Black Tablet of 101 Menti Sati 184 MoABiTE Stone _ . . . . 75 Nabonidus, Clay Tablets of 80, 105, 182 Nabopolassae, Cylinder op '. 99 Nebuchadrezzar II., Brick of 102 Philistine 188 I'HffiNiciAN Writing 22 Ramses II 46 RosETTA Stone 24 Samas-Rimmon II 180 Sargon, Cylinder op 170 Sennacherib, in his Chariot 94 2 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Sennacherib, on his Throne 344 Capture op Lachish 7S Cylinder op 119 Semitic Family brinoinq Gifts into Egypt 42 Shalmaneser II., Black Obelisk of 74, 77 Shalmanezer II., Monolith op 67 Shishak takings Jews into Captivity 73 SiLOAM Inscription '23 Syrian 179 Thothmes I IGO Thothmes III 44 Tiglath-pileser III 66 Siege of a City 95 TiRHAKAH, Head op 67 Titles op 72 Seal op 80 ANTIQUITIES, ETC. 339 317 316 316 317 317 280 318, 320 265 320 320 320 72 ooo 314 329 321 322 322 326 Grinding at the Mill 323 322 83 316 193 86 264 318 33 340 Rings op Gold and Silver 330 342 342 Shepherd and Sheeppold 282 343 343 346 50 325 337 Temple, Notice FORBIDDING Stbangbrs to enter. 224 83 330 Winepress 346 C OI.NS. Coin op Coponius 337 Coin op Hadrian 336 Coin op Herod Agrippa 1 335 Coin op Herod Agrippa II 226 Coin op Herod Antipas 335 Coin op Herod Archelaus 335 Coin op Herod Philip II 335 Coin op John Hyrcanus 1 334 Coin of Pontius Pilate 332 Coin op Vespasian 336 Coins op jEgina 331 Coins op Alexander Jann.«;us 334 Coin op Antiochus Epiphanes 350 Coins op Antigonus 334 Coins op Herod the Great 123, 332, 335 Coins op Sardis 139, 143 Copper Coin op Chios 226 Copper Coins 162, 191, 334, 335 Farthing 332 Half-shekel 334 Mite 332 Penny 130 Piece op Money 128 Shekels 238, 334, 335 MANUSCRIPTS AND VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. Alphabets, Tables op 20, 21 Codex Alexandrinus 118 Bez^ 119 Laudianus 119 SiNAITICUS 117 Vaticanus 118 Coptic New Testament 122 Fragment op the Oldest known Manuscript op THE Bible 26 Lewis Syriac Manuscript 120 Manuscript in Square Hebrew 22 Old Septuagint 27 Samaritan Manuscript 25 Vulgate 28 Wyclipfe's Folio Bible 15 MAPS AND PLANS. Ancient World At end. Assyria At end. Canaan (as divided among the twelve tribes) . A( end. Decapolis 203 Egypt At end. Esdraelon, Plain op 237 Jerusalem, Ancient At end. Environs At end. Section 251 Malta 228 Map of the Exodus 164 Map of St. Paul's Journeys At end. Palestine (illustrating the Old Testament) ...At end. Palestine (Southern division) At end. Palestine (Northern division) At end. Palestine (Central division) At end. Pale.stine (ilkistrating the New Testament).. At end. Sea of Galilee 195 Skull Hill 254 INDEX. Figures in bold type (thus 816) refer to the Concordance ; other figures to the Dlustrated Treasury. Aaron, 48, 49, 328 ; liis rod, 286, 325, 1. Abaua, R., 244, 262. Abarim, Mt., 261. Abilene, 241. Abimelech, 56. Abner, 60. Abraham, Abram, 38, 41, 47, 156, 168, 4; his oak, 158, 300. Absalom, 60. [//l. 61.] Acacia (Shittah), 302. Accho, 235, 211. Aceldama, 254. Achaia, 138, 241. Acre (Accho), 241. Acfs oftliP Apostles, 132 ; Chronology of the, 135. A.D. (Anno Domini), 166. Adam, generations of, 167. Adamant, 284. Adder (Serpent), 312. Adonijah, 62. Adria, 227, 241. AduUam, 59, 241. Advocate, 315. ^non, 241. Agabus, 224. Agate, 284. Agorah, 331. Agriculture, 315. [III. 339.] Agrippal.,135, 212;II., 212, 226. Ahasuerus (Xerxes) 71, 72, 175. Ai, 53, 241. Aijeleth Shahar, 86. Ajalon, 241; vale of, 236. Akabah, 241. Akkadian language, 181. Alabaster, 284. Alamoth, 86. Alexander, the copper- smith, 222. Alexander the Great, 175, 190, 349. Alexandria, 241 ; ver- sions written at, 29, 118 ; Jewish colony in, 190 ; church of, 128. Alexandrian MS. of N. T., 118. Algum, or Almug, 286. Almond, 286. Aloes, 287. Alpha, 315. Alphabets, Origin of, 19 ; tables of, 20, 21. Altar, golden, 325 ; bra- zen, 326. [See Con- cordance, 10.] Al-taschith, 86. Amalekites, 178 ; wars of, 45, 59. [///. 178.J Amber, 284. Amen, 315. Amethyst, 284. Ammonites, 158, 178, 238, 241 ; wars of, .55, 59, 71 ; in connection with prophecies, 100, 109. Amon (Egyptian god), 185. Amomum, 237. Amorites, 178 ; early settlements in Baby- lonia, 41, 156 ; wars of, 49. [///. 179.J Amos, Book of, 108. Amphipolis, 219. .\mraphel, 43, 158, 181. Anakim, 179. [///. 179.] Anathema, 315. Anathoth, 241. Anchor, 315. Andrew, 197. Angel, 315, 12. Anise, 287. Ant, 306. Antelope, 274. [/Z;. 274, 278, 281.] Anti-Lebanon, 232. Antimony, 234. Antioch, 215, 241, 13; the church in, 134. [III. 133.] Antioch in Pisidia, 217, 221, 241, 13. Antiochus Epiphanes, 175, 190 ; the Great, 175, 190. Antipas, Herod, 191, 212, 198, 202, 209. Antipater, 191, 212. Antipatris, 241. ANTIQUITIES, ETC., TREASURY OF, 314-346. Antonia, Fort, 225, 253. [III. 225.] Anzan, 186. Ape, 274. Apocalypse, the, 154. APOCRYPHA, THE, 347-350. Apollonia, 219. Apollos, 138, 150, 221. Apostles chosen, 200 ; names of, 13. Apostles, miracles of, 135, 13. Appiau Way, Appii Forum, 228. [///. 230.] Apple, 287. Aquila's verSon of O. T.,29. Aquila and Priscilla, 137, 221. Arabah, 238, 241. Arabia, 232, 241. Aramaeans, 179. [III. 179] ; Aramaean alpha- bet, 20. Aramaic, 23, 179 ; in Daniel, 105 ; in the Gospels, 126, 128; re- places Hebrew among the Jews, 190 ; siioken by Jesus, 195. Ararat, 179, 241, 261. Archelaus, 191, 212, 194. Arcturus, 264. Areopagus, 220. [III. 220.] Argob (Bashan), 242. Arioch, 40, 43, 156, 158, 181. Aristarchus, 226. Aristobulus, 176, 191. Arkj 60, 325. 15. Arkites, 179. Armageddon, 241. Armenia, 179, 241. Armour, 315, 15. [III. 316.] Arnon, R. 262. Arrowsnake, 270. Artaxerxes Longima- uus, 70, 71, 175. Artaxerxes, Ochus, 190. Artemis (Diana), 216, 222. Artillery, 316. Arvad, 241. Asaph, 82, 87. Ascalon, 235, 241. [III. 236.] Ascension, the, 209 ; foretold, 16 ; pur- poses of, 16. Ash, 287. Ashdod, 241. Asherah, or Astarte, 294. Ashteroth Karnaiui, 241. Ashtoreth, 182. Asmonsean Period, 190- 191 ; chronology of, 176. Asp (Serpent), 312. Ass, 274. Assassins, 316. Assos, 223. Assur, Asshur (capital of AssjTia), 179. Assur, god of Assyria, 180. Assur-bani-pal, 76, 98, 174, 180. [III. 98.] Assur - nazir - pal, 180. [///. 96.] Assyria, geography of, 241; history of, 179; chronology of, ISO; Assyrian invasions oi Palestine, 65, 74 ; As- syrian monuments, 74- 76 ; Assyria in comiec- tion with prophecies, 94, 95, 98, 100, 108, 112. [111. 39, 40, 64, 97, 104, 181. 340.] Assyrian Eponym Ca- non, 166. Astronomy of the Bible, 263-265. Athens, 220, 242. [III. 215.J Atlas, index to Script- ure. See after Con- cordance. Atonement, Day of, 48, 319, 324; by Christ, 17. AttaUa, 217. [111. 218.] A. U. C. (Anno urbis conditae), 166. Augustus, 176. Auranitis. See Hau- KAN. Authorized Version, 18. Avenger, 316, 18. Avim, 181. Baal, 183, 18. [III. 64.] Baal-zephon, 165. Babylon, Babylonia, geography of, 242 ; his- tory of, 181 ; chrono- logy of, 182; Babylo- nian monuments, 39- 41. 74-80, 104; its su- premacy, and the cap- tivity of the Jews, 66, 174 ; its faU, 78, 174 ; Abraliam's connec- tion with, 156, 158 ; in connection with pro- phecies, 94, 95, 98, 100. (See also pp. 102-104, 151, 19. [///. 35, 41, 80, 182.] Badger skins, 274. [HI. 275.] Balaam, 49, 19. Balm, 287. [III. 287.] Bauias, 238. Baptism, 316, 20. Barabbas, 209. Barada, 244. Barley. 287. Bam (Garner), 322. Barnabas, 134, 150, 215, 217. Baruch, 99, 103 ; book of, 347. Bashan. 238, 240, 242; Mt., 261. Basilisk, 306. Bat, 275. [///. 275.] Battlement, 316. [III. 316.] Bay-tree, 287. Bdellium, 284. Beacon, 316. Bean, 288. Bear, 275. [HI. 275.] Beard, 316. [///. 316.] Beast, wild, 275. Beautiful Gate, the, 327. Bed, 317. Bee, 306. Beer-lahai-roi, 242. Beeroth, 242. Beersheba, 242. [III. 158, 159.] Beetle, 306. Behemoth, 276. [///. 276.] Bekah, 331, 345. Bel and the Dragon, 348. Bel, Bel-Merodach, 182. Belshazzar, 80, 104, 183. [///. 182. Ben-hadad, 64, 74, 172, 24. Benjamin, 242, 24. Berea, 220. Bernice, 212, 226. Beryl. 284. Besor (Brook), 262. Betliabara, 242. Bethany, 205, 242, 25. [///. 132.] Betliel, 157, 159, 160, 242, 25. Beth'er, 242. Bethesda, 198, 242, 252. Beth-horon, 53, 242. Bethlehem, .56, 193, 242. 25. [III. 57, 116, 192.J Bethphage, 242. Bethsaida, 203, 242, 25. Bethshean. 242. Beth-shemesh, 242. Beza'sMS. of N.T.,119. Bezek, 242. Bible Stt'dij, 11-13 ; for S. S. Teachers, 13, 14 : 0\tr English, 14-19; Title of the, 19 ; HIS- TORY AND CHRO- NOLOGY, 156-230. INDEX. [special article on chronology, 166-177]. Bible, the word, 19 ; the Hebrew, 32 ; Bible iu- troduotiou, 19. Bier, 317. Biid.-<, 266, 273. Birth of Christ, the, 166, 177, 194. Birthright. 317. Bishops' Bible, the, 17, 18. Bison, 283. Bithynia, 242. Bitter Lakes, 163, 165. Bittern, 2()6. [///. 266.] Bitumen, 284. Blasphemy, 27. Blood, prohibited as food, 28 ; of Christ, 28 Boar', wild, 276. [HI. 276.J Bochini, 5.5. Bondage, of Israel, 29 ; spiritual, 29. Bonnet (Head-dress), Book's of the O. T., 37- 115; of theN. T., 126- 155. Bottle, 317. Bow and arrows, 317. [III. 317.] Box, 288. Bozez, 242. Bozrah, 243. \nL 239.] Brass, 284 ; money, 331. Bramble, 288. [///. 288.] Brazen altar, 327. Brazen sea, 327. Bread, 317. [///. 317.] Breastplate (coat of mail), 318; of high- priest, 284, 328. Breeches Bible, the, 17. Bricks, 318. [///. 47.1 Brier, 288. [///. 288.] Brigandine, 318. Brimstone, 284. Bronze, 284, 316. Broom, 288. Buckler, 318. Bull, wild, 274. Bulrush.. 288. [///. 289.] Burial, 201. 33. Burning bush, 289. Burnt ofierings, 33. Cae, 330. Caesarea, 130, 236, 243 ; Paul at, 224, 226. [III. 224,] C*sarea Philippi, 203, 243. [III. 243.1 Caiaphas, 177, 208. Calah (Nimrud), 179. Calamus, 289. [III. 289.] Calendar. 318-319. Caligula, 135. Calvary, 208, 253, 261. Cambyses, 188. Camel, 276. [III. 276.] Camphire, 289. [///. 289.J Cana, 243 : Jesus at, 197- 199. [///. 197.] Canaan, Canaanites, 183, 240 ; the name, 231 ; early settlements in Babylonia, 41, 42, 1.56 ; tlie patriarchs in, 156- 1.59 : a province of Egypt, 73 ; conquest of, M-56, 168, 234; wars, 54, 55 ; worship, 323. Cananaean, 346. Candlestick, golden, 326. [III. 326.] Cane, 289. Cankerworm (LocuBt), 309. Canon of 0. T., 30-33; Hebrew, 32. Canticles. See Sono or SONQS, 92. Caper-berry, 289. [III. 290.] Capernaum, 198, 199-203, 203, 243. Caplitor, 183. Cappadocia, 243. Captivity, the, 67, 98, 174. See Jeremiah, 98 ; Lamentations, 100 ; EzEKiEL, 100 ; and Daniel, 103. Carbuncle, 284. Carchemish, 98, 243. Carmel,234, 235, 243, 261. [III. 235.] Carob-tree, 289. UH. 290.] Cart, 318. [III. 318.] Casluhim, 183. Cassia, 290. [III. 290.] Cat, 277. Caterpillar, 306. Catholic Epistles, the, 150. Cattle, 277. Cauda (Clauda), 227, 244. Cedar, 'm. [III. 286.] Cenchrea, 243. Chalcedony, 284. Chaldsea, Chaldseans, 41, 156, 182, 243 ; in con- nection with prophe- cies, 112. Chaldee (Aramaic), 23. Chameleon (Mole), 281. Chamois, 277. Chariot, 318; (Horse), 280. [III. 280.] Chasidim, 190, 321. Chebar, R., 100, 262. Chedorlaomer, 42, 158. Cherith (Brook), 262. Cherubim, 325, 327, 39. Chestnut tree, 290. [///. 290.] Chief prie.sts, 328. Chinnereth. See Sea OF Galilee. Chios, 243. [III. 226.] Cliittim, 183,244. Chorazin, 243. Christ, Ufe and work of, 40 ; death and resur- rection, 41 ; his hu- miliation, 41 ; his ex- altation, 42 : liis mission, 42 ; his mir- acles, 211, 42 ; para- bles, 210, 42; teach- ings and discourses, 42 ; his character, 43 ; glory of, 43 ; divine nature and offices, 44 ; prophecies re- garding, and fulfil- ments, 44 ; types of, 44. Christians. 134, 142, 216. Christain Church, early history of, 132, 134. [See Paul, Early Life, 213 : Teavels, 215 ; Concordance, 45. Chronicles, Firxt Bonk of, 68; Second Book of, 69. CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE BIBLE, 156-230. Chronology of Ihe Bible, 166-176 ; data for, 167 ; the " received," 166, 167. From Adam to the Deluge, 167 : to Abra- ham's entrance into Canaan, 167-168 ; to the Exodus, 168; to the Hebrew mon- archy, 169 ; of the un- divided monarchy, 169, 171 ; of the divided monarchy, 170, 171- 173 ; of Judah alone, 170, 173-174; of the Captivity, 174. Babylonian period, 174 ; Persian period, 174-175 ; Grecian or Macedonian period, 175 • Maccabaean pe- riod, 176 ; Roman period, 176. Of New Testament, 177 ; of the life of Christ, 193-209 ; of the Acts and Epistles, 135. Of Assyria, 180 ; of Babylonia, 182 ; of Egypt, 185. Chrysolite, 284. Chrysoprase, 284. Chushan-rishathaim, 73. Cicada, 311. CiUcia, 244. Cinnamon. 291. [77/. 291.] Circumcision, 45. Cities of refuge, 49, 53 ; Levitical, 49, 53, 328. Citron, 291. [III. 291.] Clauda, 227, 244. Claudius, 135. Claudius Lysias, 225. Clay (Rocks), 285. Cloak, 318. Coast of Palestine, 235. Coat, 318. Coat of mail, 318. [HI. 318, 320.1 Cochineal, 307. Cock, 266. Cockatrice (Serpent), 312. Cockle, 291. Codexes, 118,119. [III. 117, 118, 119.] Coele-Syria, 231. Coins. 330-338. Colossee, 145, 244. Culossians, Epistle to the, 145. Comforter, 320. CONCORDANCE TO THE BIBLE, 1-311. Coney, 277. [///. 277.] Copher, 291. Copies of N. T., 117. Copper, 284. Cor, 330. Coral, 306. [III. 306.] Corban (Korban), 320, 338. Coriander, 291. [III. 291.] Corinth, 138, 220, 244. [III. 139, 140, 221.J Corinthians, First Epis- tle to the, 138 ; Second Epiitle to the, 140. Cormorant, 266. [III. 266.] Corn, 291. Cornelius, 134. Cornet, 83. Cos, 223. Costus (Cassia), 290, Cotton, 292. Council at .Jerusalem, 135, 217. Courts, Temple, .{27. Covenant, tlie Old and the New, 19. Coverdale's Bible, 16. Crane, 266. [III. 266.] Cranmer"s Bible, 17. Creation, 37 ; Baby- lonian accounts of, 39. Crete, 148, 183, 229, 244. Cricket, 306. Crimson, .307. Crispus, 220. Crocodile (Dragon), 307 ; (Leviathan), 308. Crocus (Rose), 302. Cross, 320. Crown of thorns, 288. Crucifixion, the, 209, 320. Cruse, 320. [///. 320.J Crystal (Pearls), 311. Cubit, 330. Cuckoo, 267. [III. 267.1 Cucumber, 292. [III. 292. 1 Cummin, 292. [///. 292.] Cuneiform writing, 156. [III. 43.] Cup-bearer, 320. [III. 320.] Cursive MSS., 117, 119. Cush, 183. Cymbals, 83. Cypress, 292. [fll. 292.1 Cyprus, 183, 216, 244. Cyrenius, 177. Cyrus, 70, 80, 174, 188 ; in connection with propliecy, 97, 104. [III. 70.] Dagger, 320. [//;. 320.] Dagon, 182. Damascus, 183, 244 ; wars, 65, 74, 109 ; Abra^ ham's victory near, 158 ; Paul's conversion near, 134, 213 ; rivers of, 244, 262. [///. 245 ; native of, ///. 183.] Dan, 244. Dancing, 83. Daniel, Book of, 103, 154 ; Apocryphal addi- tions to, 348. Daric, 331. [III. 72.] Darius, 70, 174, 188 ; the Mede, 104. Darnel, 292. [III. 304.] Dart, 320. Date (Palm), 301. [///. 301.] David, 58-61, 68, 17t 58 ; (Psalms), 86-88. Day, 263, 318, 344, 59. Dead Sea, 238, 240, 244. 262. [III. 247.] Death, spiritual, 61 ; eternal, 61 ; of Christ; 61 ; of saints and oi the wicked, 61. Debir, 246. Decapolis, 203, 238, 246. ■ [///. 203.] Dedau, 183. Dedication, Feast of, 319, 95 ; Jesus at. 205. Deer (Fallow Deer), 278. Delta, 164, 256. Deluge, 40. [///. 41.] Demetrius, 222. Denarius (Penny), 333. Derbe, 217, 218. [III. 218.] Desire (Caper-berry) , 289. Deuteronomy, Book of, 51. Devil, the, character and work, 66. Diamond, 284. Diana, 221. [III. 222.] Dibou, 74, 246. Didrachm (Shekel), 333. Dill (Anise), 292. Diotrephes, 153. Disciples, 197, 70. Dispersion, 134, 1.51, 320. Divided monarchy, 63- 67; chronology of the, 170, 171-173. Divine Library, 19, 36- 37. Dodanim, 184. Dog, 277. Door, 320. Dor, 235. Dothan, 246. Douay Bible, 18. Dove, 267. INDEX. Dove's duiig, 292. Drachm, 331. Dragon, 278, 307. Dram, 331. Dreams, 75. Dress, 320. \IU. 314.J Dromedary, 278. Drusilla, 212, 226. Dugong (Badger Skins), ■275. Easle, 267, 268; gier- eagle, 270, 268. Eastern Palestine, 238. Eastern Range, 232. Ebal, Mt.,51, 53, 261. Ebed-tob, 43. Ebenezer, .W. Ebionites, 29, 329. Ebony, 292. Eccksia.ites, Book- of, 90. Ecclesiasticus, Book of, 31, 349. EcUpse, 265. Eden, 39. Edom, Edomite, 184, 246; Israel in, 49; wars, 60, 65 ; in con- nection with prophe- cies, 100, 110, 115. Edrei, 246. Eglon, 246. Egypt, Egyptians, 184, 246 ; chronology of, 185 ; Solomon and, 63 ; Abraham in, 157 ; .Jo- seph in, 160 ; Israel in, 162 ; Exodus from, 45, 163 ; invasions of Pa- lestine, 66, 73, 98 ; Egypt in connection with prophecies, 100, 103; the flight into, 194; alphabet, 20. [///. 184.] Egyptian version of N. T., 123. Ekrou, 246. Elah, Vale of, 236, 246. Elam, Elamites, 94, 100, 1.56, 186. Elath, 246. Elders (Synagogue), 343. Elephant, 278. Elijah, 64, 65, 80. Elisha, fio, 80. Elm, 292. Elohim, 88. Elymas, 216. Embalming, 321. [III. 321.] Emerald, 284. Emin, 186. Emmaus, 209, 246. Endor, 59, 246. En-eglaim, 246. En-gannim, 246. En-gedi, 247. Engines, 321. English Bible, Our, 14, 18. Enoch, Book of, 153. En-Rogel, 217. Ephah, 330. Epheswns, Epis/le to the, 142. Ephesus, 247 ; Paul at, 221 ; books of N. T. written at, 131, 139, 152. [///. 143, 222.] Ephod, 328. Ephraim, Mt., 261. Ephratah (Bethlehem), 242. Ephrem's MS. of N. T., 119. Epistles, General. 150- 153 ; of St. Paul, 137- 150 ; Pastoriil, 147, 148. Eras of clironology, 166. Esar-haddon, 174, ISO, 181; in connection with prophecy, 76, 94. [III. 76.] Esau, 1.59. Esdraelon, 232, 237, 247, [III. a5j Esdras, Books of, 348. Eshool (Brook), 262. Essenes, 321. Esther, Book of, T2 ; Apo- cryphal additions to, 84. Etham, 16.5. Ethiopia, Ethiopians, 112. [See CusH, 186.] Euphrates, 247, 262. Eutychus, 223. Evangelists, 125. Evil-Merodach, 78, 182. Ewe, 282. Exile. See Captivity. Exodus, Book of, 45. Exodus, The, 43, 45, 163- 165. [ni. 164.] Ezekiel, Book of, 100. Ezion-geber, 247. Ezra, Book of, 70. Ezra, 31, 70, 71, 175 ; to Christ, .Jewish history from, 190-191. Fair Havens, 226. Faith, 89-90 ; examples of, 90. Falcon, 269. Fallow Deer, 278. Farthing, 332. [III. 332.] Father, 321. Fathers, their citations from N. T., 123. Feasts, Jewish, 319-324, 95 Felix, 1.35, 212, 226. Ferret, 278. Festus, 135, 226. Fig, 292. [/«. 293.1 Fir, 293. Firstfruits, 99. Fish, 307. [///. 307, 308.] Fitches, 293. Flag, 293. Flax, 293. [111. 293.] Flea, 308. Flute, 83. Fly, 308. Former prophets, 32, 61. Fowl, 268. Fox, 278. [III. 278.] Frankincense, 293. [III. 293.] Frog, 308. Frontlets. 322. Fruits, 106. Gadara, 247. Gaius, 1.53. Galatia, 141, 217, 218, 221, 247. Galatians, Ermtle to the, 141. Galba, 135. Galilaeans, 195, 322. GaUlee, 195, 199, 202, 237 ; Sea of, 199, 202, 237, 262. [III. 195.] Gall, 294. GaUey, 322. [III. 322.] GaUio, 221. Gamaliel, 213. Garlic, 294. Garment, 322, 107. Gamer, 322. [III. 322]. Gate, 322. Gath, 247; [chief of , /Zi. 188]. Gaulanitis, 2.38. Gaza, 235, 247. GazeUe (Roebuck), 282. [III. 93.] Gebal, 247. Gecko, 278. [III. 308.] Gems, 284. Genealogical table of the Herodian family, 212. Genealogies, 109. General EpiMles, The, 150-153. \ GENERAL INTRO- DUCTION,W-iH. Genesis, Book of, 37. Geneva Bible, 17. Gennesaret, 202, 237, 248; lake of. See Sea op Galilee. Gentiles, the gospel for, 130; first Christian, 134, 137 ; Paul and the. 213, 215, 217 ; Court of the, 327. Geography of Palestine, Physical and Histori- cal, 231-238. GEOGRAPHY OF BI- BLE LANDS, 231-262. Geology of Pale.itine, 240. Gerah, 332, 345. Gerar, 158, 248. Gerasa, 248. Gergesa, 2(r2, 248. Gerizim, Mt., 28. 53, 175, 176, 198, 261. [///. 198.J Gethsemane, 208, 248, 2.54. [III. 129, 208.] Gezer, 248. 6h6r, the, 238. Giants. See Rephaims, 186. Gibeah, 248. Gibeon, Gibeonites, 53, 248. [///. 248.] Gier-eagle, 268, 270. Gihon, 2.52; river, 262. Gilboa, 59 ; Mt., 248, 261. Gilead, 238, 250 ; Mt., 261 ; balm of, 287. Gilgal, 250. Girdle, 322. Girgasites, 186. Gittith, 86. Glede, 268. [HI. 268.] Gnat, 308. Goad, 322. Goat, 279. [HI. 279.] God, his names, 113 ; his character, 113 ; his glory, 114. Golan, 238. Gold, 285; money, 332, 333 Golden Gate, 253. [HI. 207.] Golgotha, 209, 250. [HI. 254.] Gomer, 186. Gomorrah, 250. Goshen, 43, 162, 164. Gospels, the, 125. Gourd, 294. [HI. 294.] Grape (Vine), 304. [III. 305.] Grass, 294. [HI. 289.] Grasshopper (Locust), 309. Great Bible, the, 16, 17. Great Quicksands, 227. Great Sea, the, 262. [See Mediterrane- an.] Greaves, 322. Grecians. 322. Greek alphabet, 19, 21 ; langiiage. 23, 117, 126, 347 ; influence on Jew- ish religion, 190 ; Greek period, 190 ; chronology oi, 175- 176- .Greek versions of O. T.. 28. 29. Greyhound, 279. Grinding, 322. [HI. 322, 323.] Grove, 294. Gum tragacanth (Spi- cery), 303. Hnhaklnik. Book of, 112. Habergeon, 3'22. Ho(jfjai, Book of, 112. Hagiographa, 32. Hair, 322. Hallel, 83. Hallelujah, 83. Hamau, 72. Hamath, Hamathites, 186, 2.50. Haraii, 1.57, 159. Hare. 279. Harness, 322. Harp, 83. [III. 83.J Harrow, 322. Hart, 279. Hauran, the, 238, 2.50. Havilah, 186. Hawk, 268. Hay, 294. Hazor, 53, 100, 2-50. Head-dress, 323. Heath. 2.94. Hebrew alphabet, 20. 19 ; language, 1.56: Bible, 32 ; Biblical Hebrew, 22, 36. [See Old Tes- tament, 22-37.] Hebrews, Epistle to the, 149. Hebron, 250 ; the Patri- archs in, 1.58, 160; Da- vid in, 60. [HI. 60.] Hedgehog, 280. Helbon, 2.50. Hellenists. 323. Helmet, 323. Heman, 82, 87. Hemlock, 294. Hen, 266. Hernia (Camphire), 289. Herb, 294. Hermon, Mt., 238, 250. [///. 234.] Herod the Great. 177, 191-193; Agrippa I., 135, 212; II., 212, 226; Antipas, 191, 198, 202, 209,212; Philip I., II., 212. [///. 226. 335.] Herodian family, 212. Herodians, 323. Herodias, 212. Heron, 269. [///. 269.] Heshbon, 250. Hexapla, 29. Hiddekel, R., 262. Hierapolis, 2.50. High-places, 323. High-priest, 328 ; breast- plate of, 328 ; vest- ments of, 328. Hi^h-priests of Macedo- nian period, 176. Hin, 330. Hind, 279. Himiom, 250. [HI. 251.] Hiram, 62. Historical Books, the, 31. HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE, 156-230. History of the Patri- archs, 1.56-162; of the Nations of the Bible, 178-189; of the Jews from Ezra to Christ, 190-191. Hittites, 186. [HI. 179, 187.] Hivites, 187. Hobah, 2.50. Holofemes. 349. Holy Ghost, 323. Holy Land. See Pales- tine, Canaan. Holy of HoUes, 32.5, 327. Holy Place, 325, 327. Holy Sepulchre. 254. Holy Spirit, his names, 134 ; emblems of, 134 ; offices and attri- butes. 134. Homer, 330. Honey (Bee). 306. Hoopoe (Lapwing) , 269. [in. 269.] INDEX. Hor, Mt., 49. 261. Horeb (Sinai), Mt., 2(U. Horites, 187. Hornet, »«. Horse, 28(1. Horseleecli, 3(IS. Hosea, Boole uf, 1(»7. House, Ii24. Hflleli, Lake, 262. Husks, 2:)4. Hyaena, 280. Hyksos kings of Egypt, l.i7, 162, 1S4. HjTcanus I., II., 176, 191. [///. 334.J Hyssop, 2i)4. Ibis (Heron), 269: (Swan), 273. [III. 273.J Iconiuni, 217. 250. Idolatry. 139: instances of, 139. Iduniaja. See Edom, 246. Immanuel. 140. Incense. 32-'). lukhoru. 324. Inn, or khan. 194. \Ill. 193.) //(.wr/.s.eCc, 306-313. Instruments, musical. 83, 86. [HI. 86.] Iron, 285, 143. Isaac, 158, 159. Isaiah, Book of, 94. Isaiah, (*>, 67. Ishbosheth, 60. Ishmael, 1.58. Ishmaebtes, 187. Israel (Jacob), 160. Israel, kingdom of, 64, (Tribes) 2(>0 ; chrono- logy of, 171-173. li-rml, Israi-lite.-<, brief indfxt(i III)- /li.s/oryof : Migration to Egypt, 162 ; bondage in Egypt — the Exodus — the Red Sea — Sinai, 45, 162- 165 ; stages in the growtli of Israel, 47 ; the Law — the wan- derings — settlement of tribes east of Jor- dan, 49 ; second giving of the Law, 51 ; death of Moses, 52. Conquest of Canaan. 53 : division of the land. 53, .54 ; death of Joshua. 54. T)ie Judges, 55, 56; Samuel, 59. Reign of Saul, 59 ; of David. 60. 68 ; of Solo- mon. 62-63 [Chronol- ogy, 171]. Revolt of ten tribes, 63 ; the kingdoms of Is- rael and Judah. 64-65 ; fall of Israel. 65-67 [Chronology, 171-173J. Judah alone — fall of Jerusalem, 6G [Chro- nology, 172-174]. The Captivity, 103 [Chronology, 174]. The Restoration (Ezra), 70-71 [Chronology, 177]. From Ezra to Christ, 190-191. Italy, 149, 250. Itursea, 238. Jabbok, River, 238, 262. Jabesh-gilead, 250. .Tabneel. 250. Jacinth, 285. Jackal, 280 ; (Beast) 275 ; (Dragon), 278; (Fox), 278. Jacob. 1.59. 162, 145. Jacob's Well, 198. [HI. 1.58.] Jaddua, 175. Jaffa (Joppa), 259. Jairus, 202. Jaiii'-s, E))i.sHf of St., 150. .Tames, St., 150, 218. .lamnia (Jabneel), 250. Janiufus, Alexander, 176, 235. [in. 334. J Jason, 220. Jasper, 285. Javan, 187. Javelin, 324. Jebel (= mouutaiu), 261. Jebusites, 187. Jeconiah's captivity, era of, 166. Jeduthun, 82, 86. Jehosliaphat. Valley of, 250. [III. 109.] Jeliovah, 88. Jeremiah. Book of, 98, 100 ; Epistle of, 347. Jeremiali, 98-103, 147. Jeremiah's Grotto, 253. Jericlio, 53, '238, 242, 2-50. [III. ,53.] Jeroboam, 63. Jerome, 29, 123. Jerusalem, 43, 236, 2.50- 254 ; occupied by Jebu- sites, Ibi ; under Da- vid, 60, 68; under Sol- omon, 63 ; despoiled by Jehoash, 174 ; be- sieged by Seimache- rib, 76 ; taken by Neb- uchadrezzar, 66, 174 ; rebuilt (Ezra, Nehe- miah), 70-72, 175 ; un- der the Maccabees, 175, 176 ; under the Ro- mans, 191 ; fall of, 177, 191 ; Jesus at, 195, 198, 203, 206-209 ; early church at, 132, 134, 149, 213 ; Paul at, 217, 221, 224 ; first council at, 135, 217. [///. 71, 101, 249.] Jesus Christ, names, titles, and offices of. 148-149. [See Christ.] ye.sjf.v. Life of, 193-20!) ; Parables and Mira- cles of, 210-211. Jesus Sirach, 349. Jewish Calendar, 318- 319 ; worship, feasts, etc., 324-328; (S>Tia- gogue), 343. Jeicish Uistorij from Ezra to Christ, 190- 191. [Eor brief index to Jewish history, see Israel.] Jezreel, 254 : (Esdrae- lon), 247. [///. 65.] Job. Book oj, 81, 84. Joel, Book of, 108. Jolin the Baptist, 196, 198, 201, 202. 149. John Mark, 216-218. John, .St.. Gospel of, IZl : First Ejiistle of, 1.52; .Sccniii/ Epistle of, US; Third Ejjistleof.Wi; Revelation of, 1.54. John, St., 131-134, 197, 209, 149. Joktanites, 187. Jonah, Book of. 110. Jonali's fish, 308. Jonathan, 59, 60. [///. .58.] Jonath- elem-rechokim, 86. Joppa, 235, 2.54. Jordan, River, 238, 254, 262 : crossed by Israel, 53 : baptism of Jesus; in, 196; valley. 232, 238, 240. [///. 52, 196, 204.] Joseph, 160. Josephus, 32. Joshua, 49. .54. Joshua, Book of, hi. Jot. 329. Jubilee, feast of, 151. Judaea, 236, 254 ; wilder- ness of, 254. Judah, 236, 254. Judah. kingdom of, 64- 67; (Tribes). 260 ; chro- nology of. 173. Judaizers, 32.^. Judas, 207, 208. Judas Barsabas, 218. Judas MaccabiBus, 176. Jude, Epistle of St., 153. Jndqes, Book of, 55. Juditli, Book of, 349. Julian Period, 1()6. Juniper, 295. Justus, 220. Kadesh. Kadesh - bar- nea. Kedesh, 49, 254. Kadnionites, 187. Kanah (Brook), 262. Karkar. 74. Kedarites, 187. Kenath, 255. Kenites, 187. Keseph, 332. Kesitah, 332. Kestrel, 268. [III. 268.] Khan (Inn), 194. Kibrotli-hattaavah, 49. Kidron (Brook). 255. 262. Kingdom of God. 155. Kings, First Book of, 62 ; Second Book of, 65. Kings, Kingdoms of Is- rael, Judah, 62-67. [See Chronology, 171- 174; Tribes, 260.] Kir-haraseth, 74, 2.55. Kirjatli-jearim, 255. Kirjath - sannan or -se- pher, 255. Kishom, River, 255, 262. Kite. 269. [/?/. 269.] Knops, or knobs, 2.95. Laban, 1.59. Lachish, 76, 2.55. Ladanum.295. [///. 295.] Lakes, 262. Lamb, 282. Lamentations, Book of, 100. Language of the 0. T., 22-29 ; of the JV. iT., 117- 123. Laodicea, 2.55. [///. 1,54.] Lapwing, 269. Latin Alphabet, 19 21. Latin Version of N. T., 123. Latter prophets, 32. Laudian MS., 119. Laver, 326. Law, the, 31-32, 45, 47, 48, 51, 52, 56, 71-72, 340. Law of Holiness, 48. Lawyers, 342. Lazarus, 205. Lead, 285. Lebanon, 232, 261. [III. 233] ; cedar of. 290. Lectionaries, 120. Leeks, 295. Lehabim, 187. Lentils, 295. [///. 295.] Leopard, 280. Leviathan, 308. Levites, 328, 161. Leviticns, Book of, 48. Le\vis Syriac MS!, 120. Lice, 309. Lign aloes, 295. Ligure. 285. Lily, 296. [111. 296.] Lime-tree (Teil), 304. Linen. 293. Lion, 280. [III. 281.] Litra. 345. Lizard, 309. Locust, 309. [///. 311.] Lod (Lydda), 2,5,5. Log, 330. Lord's Prayer, the, 166. Lord's Supper, the, 208. Lot, 1,58. Lots, Feast of (Purim), 72. Love-apples, 296. Lower Galilee, 237. Ludim. 187. Lake, Gospel of St., IZd, 132. Luke, St., writings of, 130, 135, 1,50; with Paul, 219, 223, 226, 230. Luz, 255. Lycaonia, 217, 255. Lycia, 255. Lydda, 255. [III. 256.1 Lydia, 219. Lystra, 217, 218. [III. 147.] Maccab^an Period, 190191; chronology of, 176. Maccabees, Books of the 349 Mace'donia, 140, 222, 229, 255. Macedonian (Grecian) period, 190 ; clirouo- logy of, 175-176. Machpelali, 1.58, 250. Magdala, 255. Magi (Wise Men), 194. Magog, 187. Mahalath, 86. Mahalath Leannoth, 86. Mahanaim, 160, 255. Malachi. Book of, 113. Mallow, 296. Malobathron, 296. Malta, 228, 256. [///. 228.] Mammals, 274-283. Mamre, 158, 255. [III. 157.] Manasseh, priest, 175. Manasses, Prayer of, 348. Mandrake, 296. [III. 296.] Maneh, 345. Manna, 296. Mantle, 329. Manuscripts of O. T., 22-29, 30-34; of N. T., 117-123. [///. 22, 25, 26, 120.] Marble, 171. Mariamue. 212. Maritime Plain, the, 232, 236. Mark, Gospel of St. ,128. Mark, St., 128, }51, 218. Marriage. 329. Mars' Hill (Areopagus), 220. Martha and Mary, 205. Mary, motlier of Jesus, 193-19.5, 172. Mary Magdalene, 209, 172. Masada, 238. Mascliil, 85. Massoretes. Massoretic text. 26, 34, 36. Mattathias, 175. Matthew, Gospel of St., 126. Matthew, St., 126, 200. Matthew's Bible, 16. Mazzaroth, 265. Meals, ,329. [HI. 329.J Measures of len^h, weight, and capacity, 3.30, 344-.345. Medeba. 74, 2.55. Medes, Media, 187 ; in connection with pro- phecy, 94, 111. JNBEX. Mediterranean, the, 202, 232, 202. Megiddo, 66, 74, 255. Melcliizedek, 43, 158. Melita, 236. Melons, 237. [///. 296.] Memphis, 184, 246. Menahem, 74, 94, 97. Meneptah, 43, 162, 163. [///. 163.] Mercy-seat, 325. Meribah, 49. Merodach - baladan, 76, 180. Merom, Waters of, 53, 262. Mesha, 74, 172, 188. Meshech, 188. Mesopotamia, 23, 55, 73, 1.57, 256. Messiah, 44, 176 ; pro- phecies of, 176. Melals, 284-285. Meteors, 265. Meturgeman, 27. Micah, Book of, 110. Michmash, 256. [III. 58.] Michtam, 86. Midianites, 49, 55, 188. Migdol, 165. Miletus, 223, 256. Millet, 297. [III. 297.] Millo, 251. Minerals, 284-285. Muuii, 188. Minor Prophets, 32, 107- 116. Mint, 297. Miracles, 211 ; of the O. T.,178; of Jesus, 211; of the apostles, 135. Miriam, 49. Misbna, 86. Missionary Journeys of St. Paul, 219-230. Misthia, 217. Mite, 332. [HI. 332.] Mitre, 323. Mitylene, 223. Mizmor, 85. Mizpeh, 256. Mizraim, 184, 246. Moab, Moabites, 158, 183 ; wars of, 55, 60, 65, 74 ; in connection with prophecy, 95, 100, 109, 112. Moab, Plain of, 49, 51, 238. Moabite stone, 22, 74, 188. [7//. 75.] Mole, 281. [///. 281.] Money, 330-338 ; the word, 332. Money-changers, 337. Months, Jewish, 319. Monumental Testimony to the Old Testament, 39-44, 73-80, 105. Moon, 264. Mordecaij 72. Moresheth, 110. Moriah, 251, 254; Mt., 261. Morning star, 264. Moses, 37, 45-52, 52, 87, 180. Moth, 3U. Mountains, 261. Mourning, 338. MouiBon (Chamois), 277. [///. 277. J Mouse, 231. [III. 281.] Mugheir, 1-56. Mulberry, 297. Mummy, 321. Music, sacred, 59, 82, 83, 181. Musical instruments, 83, 86, 182 ; setting (of psalms), 86,87 ; terms, 86. [W. 86.] Mustard, 297. [III. 297.] Muth-labben, 86. Myra, 223, 226. [III. 223.J Myrrh, 297. [///. 298.] Myrtle, 297. [///. 298.] Mysia, 219. NabathjEans, 188. Nabonidus, 78, 80, 104, 182. [III. SO, 105.] Nabopolassar, 98, 174, 182. [///. 99.] Naboth, 64. Nahum, Book of. 111. Nain, 201, 256. Naked, 338. Names, titles, and offices of C'hrist, 44- 45 ; of the Holy Spirit, 134. Nard, 298. Nathan, 60-62, 67. Nathanael, 197. Nations of the Bible, 178-189. Nativity, the, 194. Nazareth, 256 ; Jesus in, 194, 195, 199, 202. [III. Frontispiece, 124.] Nazarite, 49. Neapolis, 219, 223. Nebo, Mt., .52, 261. Nebo (god), 97. [III. 97.] Nebo (Babylonian pro- phet), 182. Nebuchadrezzar ( o r -nezzarl, 66, 76, 174, 182, 349 ; in connection with prophecy, 98, 100- 104. [///. 102.] Necho (Pharaoh), 98, 103, 174. Negeb, 234, 240. Neginah, 86. Neginoth, 86. Nehemiah, 31, 70, 71, 83. Nehemiah, Book of, 71. Neliiloth, 86. Nergalsharezer (Neri- ghssar), 183. Nero, 135. Nettles, 298. New moon, feast of the, 179. NEW TF.STAMENT, 117-155 ; books of, 125- 156 ; chronology of, 177 ; Lfoiyuage and Text of, 117-123 ; copies of, 117 ; versions of, 120; incidents in O. T. referred to in, 239 ; prayers in, 269 ; pas- sages quoted from O. T., 269 273; poe- try in, 82. [III. 120]. Nicodemus, 198, 203, 209. Nicopolis, 223. Nigella sativa, 298. Night hawk, 269. Nile, 161, 256, 262. [III. 161.] Nimrud, 179. Nineveh, 174, 179, 180, 257 ; Jonah in, 110 ; in connection with pro- phecies. 112. Nisroch(god), 186. [III. 64.] Nitre, 285. Nob, 59. Noph (Memphis), 184. Numbers, Book of, 49. Nuts, 298. Oak, 298. [HI. 298, 300.] Oaths, directions con- cerning. 187 ; ex- amples of, 187. Ohartiah, Book of, 110. Obs'ilete and ambiguous words. See Concord- ance. Offerings, 327. Oil tree, 300. Old Latin version of O. T.,29. Old Syriac version of N. T.,120. OLD TESTAMENT, 22-115; books of, 37- 115 ; Lanyuaye and Text of, 'i'i-26 \Caiion of, 30-33 ; the Word of God, 32; Tran-smissiun of, 33-34 ; Divine Li- brary of, 36-37 ; Mon- umental Testimony to, 39-44, 73-80, 105-162 ; chronology of, 166- 176; history of, see Israel ; quotations in N.T. from, 271 ; para- bles in, 193 ; prayers in, 206 ; prophecies in, 211. Oleaster, 300. OUve, 300. [III. 300.] Olives, Mt. of, Ohvet, 206, 207, 208, 209, 248, 261. [///. 127.] Olympiads, the, 166. Omega, 338. Omer, 330. Omri, 64, 65, 74. Onesimus, 148. Onions, 300. Onycha, 300. Onyx, 285. Ophel, 251. Ophir, 63, 64, 188. Opobalsamum (Stacte), 303. Organ, 83. Origen, 29. Orion, 264. Ornaments, 338, 191. Orontes, 232, 257. Osiris, 185. Osprey, 269. [III. 269.] OssLfrage, 270. Ostrich, 270, 271. Oven, .338. Owl, 270, 271, 273. [III. 271.] Ox, wild (Antelope), 274. Padan-aram, 256. Palestine: its Historical and Pltys'cal Geogra- phy, 231-239 ; its geo- logy, 240; the name, 231. Palestinian Version of N. T., 123. Palm, 301. PalmaChristi, 301. Palmerworm (Locust), 311. Pamphylia, 216, 257. Pannag, 301. Paphos, 216. [///. 216 ] Papyrus (Bulrush), 288. Parables. 210 ; of the 0. T., 193 ; of Jesus, 193,42,43. Pai'aclete, 358. Paraleipomena, 68. Parallelism in Hebrew poetry, 81. Paran, 257. Partliia, Parthiaus, 188, 257 Partridge, 271. [HI. 271.] Pass^es in the N. T. quoted from the Old, 271-273. Passover, 32, 45. 48, 53, 69, 70, 324, 326, 95, 194 ; Christ's last, 208, Pa.ttornl Epistles, The, 147-150. Patara, 223. Patmos. 131, 154, 257. [///. 1.52.] Patriarchs. History of the, 38, 156-162. Paul, St.. 132-135 ; Early Life of, 213-214 ; Trav- els of, 215-230 ; Epistles of. 137-148. Peacock, 271. Pearls, 311. Peletliites, 189. PeUcan, 271. [III. 272.1 Pella, 257. Peniel, 160. Penny, 333. [III. 130.] Pentateuch, 31, 37, 53 ; the Samaritan, 28, 53. Pentecost, 32, 48, 132, 319, 324. Peraea, 191, 206, 238. Perga, 216. [III. 217.] Pergamum, 257. Perizzites, 188. Persia, Persians, 72, 188, 257 ; Persian kings, Ust of, 174; Persian period, 190; fC;hrouology,174- 175.] Peshito, 29, 121. Peter, St., First Epistle of, 151 ; Second Epis- tle of, 151. Peter, St., the proba- ble source of informa- tion in St. Mark's Gos- pel, 128 ; with Christ, 197, 202, 203, 208, 209; visits church at Sama- ria, 134 : his Epistles, 151 ; and the Gentiles, 134, 218; with Paul, 213 Pethor, 257. Petra 257. Pharaoh, 184 ; of the Op- pression, 43, 163, 185 ; of the Exodus, 163, 185; Title, 185, [lll.H, 45, 66, 338.] Pharisees, 191, 206. Pharpar, R., 244, 262. Philadelphia. 257. Philemon, Epistle to, 148. PhiUp, 197. Philippi, 144, 219, 222. [///. 144.] Philippians, Epistle to the, 144. Philistia, Philistines, 188, 236; wars, 55, 59, 60 ; in connection with prophecy, 95, 100, 108, 112, 113. [HI. 188.] Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 108, 113, 189. 235, 257. Phoenician alphabet, 19, 20, 25. [HI. 22.] Phrygia, 257. Phut, 189. Phylacteries (Front- lets), 322. Piece of money, 333. Pigeon, 267. Pi-haliiroth, 165, 257. Pilate, 135, 177, 191, 209. [///. 332.] Pine tree, 301. Pipe, 83. Pisgah, 257, 261, Pisidia, 257. Pison, River, 262. Pistachio nut (Nuts), 298. [III. 298.1 Pistic nard (Spitenard), 303. Pithom, 162, 164, 257. Plain of Esdraelon, 232, 237, 247 ; of Moab, 49, 51. 238 : the Maritime, 232, 236. Plane (Chestnut), 291 ; (Pine), 301. Plants, 286-305. Pleiades, 265. Ploughing, 340. [111. 310.] Poetical books, 32, Poetry, 49, 81-83. INDEX. Pomegranate, 301. [III. 301.] Pompey, 176, 191. Pontius Pilate, 135, 177, 191, mi. Pool of Bethesda, 19S, 252 : of Hezekiah, 251 ; of Siloarn, 252, 259. Poplar, 301. Porcupine, 266. Porpoise skins, 274. Potiphar, 160. Potter's field, 254. Pound, 333, 345. Prayers, in O. T.,206; Christ's, 207. " Preacher, the," 90. Precious slones. 284-285, 207. Priests, 48, 328, 209 ; of Mace. Period. 176. Printed te.xt of N. T., 123. Priscilla, 137, 221. Promised Land, 52, 53. Proper mnnes. See Con- cordance, where they appear thus, MOSES. Prophecies, Messianic, 33, 211. " Prophets," the (i. e. books of), 31, 32 ; T/ie Minor. 107-115 ; for- mer and latter, 32. Prophets in early Israel, 52, 211 ; under the Jewish monarchy, 59, 61, 67. Proselytes, 340. Proverbs, Book of, 81, Psalmody, 59, 82. Psalms. Book of _, 81-83, 85 ; classification ac- cording to subjects, 88. Psaltery, 83. Ptah, 185. Ptolemais (Accho), 235, 241. Ptolemies. 174. 176, 190. Ptolemv, Canon of, 166. Publican, 200, 340. Publius, 228. Pul. See TioLATH. Pulse, 301. Purim, Feast of, 32, 72, 319, 348, 95. Purple, 311. Purslain, 301. PuteoU, 223, 257. [///. 229.] Pygarg, 281. Pyramids, 184. Quail, 272. "Quicksands, Great," 227. Quotations from O. T. in the New, 33, 271- 273. Quotations by the Fa- thers, 123. Ra, 185. [///. 185.] Rabbah, 2.57. Rabbath, 257. Raliab, 53. Rains, 340. Ram, 232. Ram, or battering-ram, 341. Ramah, 257. Ramoth-gilead, 64, 258. Ramses, or Rameses (towai), 162, 165, 258. Ramses I., 43, 134. Ramses II. (Pharaoh of Oppression), 43, 163, 184. [///. 46.] Ramses III., 73,185. Ratz, 333. Raven, 272. [///. 272.] "Readings, various," M, 117. Reaping, 341. Rebah, 333. Rebekah, 159. Red Sea, 163, 258 ; cross- ing of the, 165. Reed, 301. [I/l. 302.] Rephaim, 189. RrpHles, etc. ,306-Sn. Restoration, the, 70-71, 80, 175. Resurrection, the, 209. Revelation, the, 154. Revised Version, 18. Revolt of the ten tribes, 63, 64, Rezeph, 258. Rezin, 65, 74, 179. Rhepium, 228. Rheims Testament, 18. Rhodes, 223, 258. Rie, 302. Rimmon, 182. Rimmon-nirari III., 74. Rings, 330. [III. 330.] Rivers, 262. Rocks, 285. Rod, 286, 341. Roe, roebuck. 279, 282. " RoUs, the Five," 32, 34. [ni. 33.] Roman period, 191 ; chronology of, 176. Romans, Epistle to the, 137. Rome, 258; Paulat,22S; church at, 137 ; books of the N. T., proba- bly written at, 128, 130, 144, 151. [///. 136, 149.] Rose, 302. Ruby, 285. Rue, 302. [///. 302.] Rulers (Synagogue), 343 : divinely appoint- ed, 230. Rush, 302. Ruth, Book of, 56. Rye or Rie, 302. Sabbath, 39, 341, 230 ; Christ and the, 199, 200, 203. Sackclotli, 341. Sacrifices, 324, 327, 231. Sadducees, 191, 206, 341. Saffron, 302. [///. 302.] Salamis, 216. Salchah, 258. Salem, 43. [See Jeru- salem.] Salim, 258. Salome, 191. Salt, 285. Salt Sea. See Dead Sea. Saltwort (Mallow), 296. Salutations, ?A\ ; exam- ples of, 232. Salvation, 232233. Samaria, Samaritans, 198, 236, 258, 342 ; capi- tal of Israel, 172 ; taken by A.ssyriaiis, 66, 76, 173 ; rebuilt by Herod, 176 ; in con- nection with proplie- cies, 108, lo:), in ; breach with tlie Jews, 70, 190, 198 ; temple of, 27,174,176,191: Chris- tian church in, 134. [///. 258.] Samaritan Pentateuch, 28, 53. 167, 168. Samas-Rimmon II., 181. [///. ISO.] Samothrace, 219. Samuel, 56, 59. Snmiif'l, First Rook of, 58 ; Second Book of, 60. Sanctuary, 32'i, 327. Sandals, 342. [///. .342.] Sanhedrin, 176, 191, ,342; Jesus before the, 209. Sapphire, 285. Sardauapalus. See As- sur-bani-pal. Sardine, or sardius, 285, Sardis, 259, [/;/. 158.] Sardonyx, 285. Sarepta, 2.59. Sargon, his wars, 76, 173, 180 ; in connection with prophecy, 94, 100. [///. 17(1.1 Satan, names of, 234. Satyrs, 282. Saul, 59^ 171. Saul, see Paul. Scarlet, 307. SCIENCE, TREA- SURY OF BIBLE, 263-313. Scorpion, 311. Scribes, 31, 33, 191, 342, Script, BibUcal, 23. Scriptures, 19, 32, 237. Scythia, Scythians, 189, 2.59. Scythopolis, 259. Sea, of Galilee, 199, 202, 237, 262; the Dead, 238, 240, 244, 262; the Mediterranean, 202, 232, 262. Sea, brazen, 327. Seah, 330. Seal, 342. [///. 342.] Seal skins, 274. [III. 275.] Seamew, 267. Sea monster, 283. Seasons, 264, 319. Sects, Jewish. See Treasury of Anti- quities, ETC., 315-346. Seir, Mt.,160, 261. Sel'a(town), 259. Selah, 86. Seleucia, 216. Seleucid kings of Syria, 174. 176, 190 : Era, 166. Semites, 189. [///. 42.] Semitic alphabets, 21 ; languages, 22, 189. Seneh,242. Sennacherib, his wars, 66, 76, 173, 180 ; in con- nection with pro- phecy, 94. [///. 39, 78, 94, 343.] Septuagint, 29, 190 ; Books of Kings in, .58 ; Psalms in, 85; Minor Propliets in, 107 : chro- nology in, 167, 168. [///. 26,] Sergius Paulus, 216. Sermon on the Mount, 200. Serpent, 312. [111. 312.] Shalmaneser II., 74, 172, 179. [III. 67, 76, 77.J Shalmaneser IV., 66, 76, 94, 173, 179. Sharon, 236, 2-59, Sheba, 63, 189. Shechem, 236, 2.59 ; Jo- shua at, 53 ; the Patri- arclis at, 1.57, 160. [111. .55.] Sheep, 282. [///. 282, 283.] Sheepfold, 342. Shekel, 333, 34.5. [///. 334, .335.] Sheminith, 86. Shephelah, the. 234. 2.'6. Shewbread, 326, 244; Feast of, 326. Shield, 343, 244. [III. ,343.] Shiggaion, 86. Shiloh, .53, ,59, 259. Shinar, 1.56, 181. Shir, 85. Shisliak, 73, 170, 171, 185, [III. 73.] Shittah. sliittim wood, 302. [///. 303.J Shittim (town), 49, 259. Shoes (Sandals) , 342. Shoshauuim, 86 ; -eduth, 86. Shuhites, 189. Shunem, 65, 259. Shur, 165. Shuslian-eduth, 86. Shushan (Susa), 186. Siddim, Vale of, 158. Sidon, or Zidon, 259. Sidonian alpliabet, 20. Signet (Seal), 342. Signs, 265, 246. [III. 265.] Silas, 218, 219, 220. Siloam, Siloah, or Shi- loah, 252, 259. [///. 252] ; inscription, 23. [III. 23.] Silvanus, 218. Silver, 285 ; money, 336. Silverliiig, 336. Simon, Maccabaeus, 176, the Cyrenian, 209 ; Peter, see Peter. Sin, Wilderness of. [III. 51.] Sinai, 45, 49, 261. [III. 50j ; desert of, 50 ; convent of, 118, 121. [///. 121.] Sinaitic MS. of N. T., 118 Singing, 83. Sion. See Zion. Sling, 343. [///. 343.] Slavery, 149. Smyrna, 259. [III. 155.] Snail, 313. Snake (Serpent), 312. Soap, 343. Sodom, 1.58, 259. Sodom, Vine of, 303. Solomon, 62-63, 69, 171 ; (Psalms), 87, 88 ; (Pro- verbs), 89 ; (Song of Songs), 92. [///. 63, 90.] Song of Soiifjs. The, 92. Song of the Three Chil- dren, 348. Songs, 82; of Moses, 45, 47, 52 ; of Hannah, 61 ; of Mary, 193. Sorek, 259 ; Vale of, 236. Sowing, 343. Spain, 229. Spear, 343. Span, 254. Sparrow, 272. Spelt, 303. Spicery, 803. [///. 303.] Spider, 313. Spikenard, 303. [///. 303.] Spirit, Holy, 323, 256. Square character, 23. Stacte, 303. [///. 304.] Star, 264 ; of Bethehem, 265. Stater, 336. Stephen, 134, 213. Storax (Stacte), 303. Stork, 272. [///. 273.] Subject Indcr. See Con- cordance, where sub- jects appear thus. Faith. Succoth, 165. Sulphur, 285. Sunierian language, 181. Sum of monev, 336. Sun, 263. Susanna and tlie Elders, Story of, 348. Swallow, 266, 273. Swan, 273. Swine, 283. Sword, .343. Sycamine, 304. Sychar, 2.59. Sycomore, 304. [///. 304.J INDEX. Symbols of evangelists, 125. Symmachus, 29. Synagogue, 343. Synoptic Gospels, 12B. Syracuse, 228, 259. [III. 260.] Syria, Syrians, 231, 232, 259; wars of, 60, 65, 109, 110 ; in connection with prophecies, 113. Syriac V^ersion of O. T., 29 ; of N. T., 120-121. Taanach, 74, 259. Taberah, 49. Tabernacle, 45, 49, 324, 265. Tabernacles, Feast of, 32, 48, 70, 71, 291, 319. 324, 265, 95; Jesus at, 203. Table of the Lord, 265 ; of shewbread, 326, [///. 325.1 Tables of stone, the, 265. Tabor, 259. [III. 201.] Tabret, 83. Tadmor, 259. Talent, 336, 345. Talmud, 26. Tamarisk tree, 304. Tares, 304. Target, 344. Targums, 26. Tarshish, 259. Tarsus, 213, 259. [III. 214, 219.] Tartan, 76. Tatian's MS. of N. T., 121. Teil, 304. Tekoa, 108. Tel el-Amarna Tablets, 25,43, 73. Tel Hum. [III. 199.] Teman, 184. Temple, Solomon's, 63, 68, 69, 171, 251-253, 327 ; the second, 70, 72, 112, 175, 191, 329 ; Herod's, 349. 350. [///. 62. 107, 253] ; on Mount Geri- zim, 28, 175, 176, 191; Jesus in the, 198, 203, 206 ; Paul in the, 206 ; music, 82-83 ; of Diana, 221. Temptation, the, 196. Ten Tribes, revolt of, 63. Tent, 344. [III. 344J ; (Tabernacle), 324. Terah, 157. Testament, 19. TESTAMENT, THE OLD, 22-115 ; THE NEW. 117-155. [See Old and New Testa- ment.] "TextusReceptus," 34, 123. Thebes, 112. 184. 246. Theodotion, 29. Theopliilus, 130. Thesxulonians, First Epistle to //ie,146; ,SVc- ond Ei/i.ille to the, 147. Thessalonica, 146, 219, 260. Thistle, 288. [III. 288.] Thomas, 209. Thorn, 288. [111. 288.] Thothmes 1. [III. 160.] Thothmes III., 185, 255. [///. 44.] Three Taverns. 228. Thresliing. 344. Throne, 344. Thyatira, 260. Thyine. 304. [///. 305.] Tiberias, 260. Sea of, see Sea or Galilee. Tiberias. 135. Tiglath-pileser, his wars, 65, 76, 173, 179; in connection with prophecy, 94, 100, 108, 113. [111. 66, 95.] Tigris, 260, 262. Tih, 240. Timbrel, 83. [III. 84.] Time, 344. Timothy, 146, 147, 218, 220, 221. Timothy, Fir.ft Epistle to, 147 ; Second Epis- tle to, 148. Timsah, Lake, 163. Tin, 285. Tindale's Bible, 14. Tirhakah. 76, 180, 185. Tirzah, 260. Tittle, 344. Titus, 148. 216, 229. Titus Epistle to, 148. Titus (Emperor), 177. Tobit, Book of, 348. Topaz, 285. Tophet, 254. Topography of Bible Lands, 241-260. Tower, 344. Trachonitis, 238. Transfiguration, the, 203. Treasury, 338, 282. Trees. See Plants. Tribes, partition of Ca- naan among, 49, 53, 54, 260. Tribute, 336,283. [///. 337.] Troas, 219, 223. Trumpet, 83. Trumpets, Feast of, 319, 284 Tubal,' 189. Turtle (Dove), 267. [III. 267.] Tunes, Psalm, 83, 86. Tyre, 78, 109, 202, 223, 260. [Ill.lU.] Uncial MSS., 117. Unicorn, 283. [III. 283.] Unity of tlie O. T., 33; of the N. T., 125. Unleavened Bread, Feast of. See Pass- OVEB. Upper Galilee, 237. Ur, 41, 156, 260. Urim and Thummim, 328. Usury, 337. Uz, 189. Valley op Hinnom, 250 ; of Jehoshaphat. 250; of Jordan, 238 ; of Elah, 236 ; of Sorek, 236 ; of Ajalon, 236. Vatican MS. of N. T., 118. Veil, 325; rending of, 209. Vermilion, 285. Versions, of English Bible, 14; of the O.T., 28-29, 34 ; of the N. T., 120. Vespasian. 177. [///. 336.] Vessels, Temple, 291. Vetches (Nettles) , 298. Vine, 304. Vineyard, 344. Viper (Serpent). 312. [III. 313.] Vowel points, 25. Vulgate, 14, 29, 123. [Ul. 28!] Vulture, 267, 268 ; (Gier- eagle), 268. [III. 268, 270.] Walnut, 305. Waters of Merom, 53, 262. Wax (Bee), 306. Weasel. 283. Weeks, Feast of, 324. Wiights, 345. Well. 346 ; Jacob's, 198. [///. 158 .J Western Range, 232. Whale, 283. Wheat, 305. [///. 305.1 Wilderness. 346 ; of Ju- daea. 196, 236 ; of Paran, 2.57; of Sin [111. 51 J of Shur, 165. Willow, 305. Wine-press, 346. [///. 346.] Winnowing, 346. Wisdom, tlie, 89. Wisdom of Solomon, the. 349. Wisdcm of the son of Sirach, 349. Wise men, 194. Wolf. 283. Words obsolete or am- biguovs. See Con- cordance. Worm. 313. Wormword, 305. [III. 305.] Writing, 23, 30. Writings, the, 32. 85. Wyclitte's Bible, 14. [III. 15.] Year, .Jewish, 319. Yoke, 346. ZaccHjEus, 206. Zacharias, 193. Zamzummin. 25, 189. Zared (Brook). 262. Zarephath. 260. Zealots, 346. Zcchariah, Bocl< of, 113. Zemarites. 189. Zer>haniah, Book of, 112. Zerubbabel, 70, 113, 174, 327. Ziklag, 59. Zion, 251 ; mount, 261. [///. 87.] Zoan, 1.58, 165, 184, 246 Zoar, 260. Zorah, 260. AKABIC WORDS USED IN THE MODERN NAMES OF PLACES, ETC. ^Ain or en, a well ; ' ' Ayun (pi.), wells. Bohr, sea. Beit, house. B%r or heer, fountain. Birkel, pool. Jebel, mountain. Kefr, village. Khurbet, ruins. Nahr, river. Nebi, prophet. Has, headland. Tel, mound ; hill. Uin , mother. Wndy, stream ; valley. ABBREVIATIONS. A.V. Authorized Version. H.V. Revised Version. Vulg Vulgate. LXX Septuagint Version. MS Manuscript. Lat Latin. Gr Greek. Heb Hebrew. Arab Arabic. Aram Aramaic. Chald Chaldee. Pers Persian. Syr Syriac. Egypt Egyptian. ff. following. cf. compare. i.e. that is. viz namely. e.g for example q.v which see. 10 yAcsiJiiLE OF Clay Tap.i A.MAKXA, IN UrFEK EgYPT. a^^ Letter from Aziru, the rebel son of Abil Asherita, a disafTectefl Egyptian official, sent with presents of ships, choice oil, weapons, etc., to the king of Egypt. No. 35, now in British Museum. This tablet is in perfect condition. TTie Tell el-Amarna tablets consist of official dispatches and letters, dotinrj B.C. HtSO, and v.-ere addressed to the two Pharaohs, Amcnophis III. and IV., from kimjs and governors of Palestine and Phoenicia. THE ILLUSTRATED BIBLE TREASURY. SECTION I. — GENERAL INTBODUCTION. BIBLE STUDY. BY KEY. JOHN HAiL, D.D., NEW YORK. lAPPILY the reader of the Bible is now provided witli many lielps to the understanding- of its saeretl ci^nteuts. We have liiilit in tile department of i:eo.t;rai)hy. The researehes anioni;- the anti(iuities f)f the historic kingdoms of the Ori- ent have not only removed difficulties, hut brought addi- tional evidence of its veracity. The words and phrases peculiar to the Scriptures have been explained, and the circumstances in which the various books were written have been detailed. It is not intended, therefore, in this article, to enter on lines alono; which readers are so satis- factorily conducted elsewhere, but to indicate certain "methods which the ordinary reader can adopt, and which, in the experience of the writer, have contributed to interest, intelligence, and editicatiDn. In the use of these methods, as in all meilitation upon inspired truth, we must not fail to look for the guidance of that Holy .Spirit whose it is to lead into all truth, not only interpreting it to the understanding, but applying it to the heart, and so to the life. The first of these methods may be described as comparison. One begins with" the creation of Adam in the book of Genesis, and reads of his representative character and consequent respon- sibility. He is "the first Adam," and who can tell how much is dependent on him? Now let the mind follow the name till it reaches "the last Adam," and a distinct view is obtained of Christ's standing in the room and stead of a fallen race, anrl of His representative character. Death was to follow the sin of the fir.st Adam. If " the last Adam" is to .save men. He must not only teach the truth, and awaken love and ad- miration l)y His wondrous life, l)iit He mu.st suffer death. If we are to be saved, it must be, not through our imitation of Christ, but through the shedding of His jirecious blood. Having ac- cepted Him, and been born again, tlien the soul is moved to purify itself, as He is |iure ii .loliii ,i. .3). There is something mysterious in the creation of woman, as descriV)ed in the second chapter of Genesis, a rib being taken from the silaced after the history, and before the prophecies, so that the reader may well say — and how many have felt it! "These are perfect pictures of what I have felt in myself and seen in others." But it is proper, in conclusion, to refer in this connection to the New Testament. Why have we four Gospels, and not one continuous biograjihy? so many thoughtful young students of the Word have asked. Well, an edifice is to be built, and the service of the architect is secured. Suppose it to be a church. He is not content with one drawing. He has the front of the building on one, on another the side, on another the inside, so that an estimate of the whole structure, as he designs it, may be formed. Something like this appears in the four-fold delineation of the unique, matchless life and teaching of the blessed Redeemer, Son of God and Son of man. Matthew was a Hebrew, and his Gospel comes first. It is specially adapted to Jews, and quo- tations from the (ild Testament are frequent in its Images. It traces the genealogv' of the Mes- siah only from Abraham. It clears off from the spiritual substance of the old law the Pharisaic and other additions and pen'ersions. It gives the evidence of the Messiahsliip of Jesus as a Jew might be exijected to understand it. Let the reader of this Gospel keeji this in mind, and the fitness of the incidents and addresses reported will be apparent and deeply interesting. It is fittingly at the beginning — '"' To the Jew first." But the word is to go also to the Gentile. Mark's name suggests some Roman connection, and his brief memoir of Jesus is just such as would interest a practical Roman. We have no lengthened reports of doctrinal truth, but we have the Saviour going about doing good. The incidents are concisely given, and we pass rapidly from one to another. See, for example, how much more frequently we meet the word ".straightway" in Mark's Gospel than in any other. Then we come to Luke, closely identified with the Gentiles, his Gospel particularly adapted to them. He begins his narrative with' the miracu- the advantage of comparing the predictions of j lous elements leading up to the birth of the holy the Old Testament with references thereto, or with their recorded fulfilment, in the New. This is less needful, however, than one other element in Bible study to which it is proper to refer. There are figures of speech, allusions to incidents not described at length, in many chapters of the projdiets. These figures and references are often intellifrible when we understand the conditions of national life at the time these prophets de- livered their messages. For example, one reaches the prophet Zechariah, and learns in the open- ing verse that his message was given him in the " second year of Darius." Now to search in the historical books and learn something of the time there referred to, is a way to get some light upon, not only the tenor, Idit even the details of the prophetic "announcement. Or, to put it other- wise : Isaiah does his prophetic work in the days of T'zziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Let one know what is reported in the historical books of these rulers, and the condi- tion of the people they ruled, and he will com- prehend the better the "utterances of the prophet. Before concluding, it is proper to look at another feature of revelation, which may be de- scribed as the structure of the two Testaments. History is memorable, and we have given to us the Child Jesus, and then traces the genealogy back, not only to Abraham, but — that it may be seen that He" is for the whole race — he closes his third chapter with the words, "which was the son of Adam, which was the son of God." AVlier- ever a kindly interview between a Gentile and the Master occurs, Luke records it. He is a phvsician, educated therefore, and he produces a "memoir of the Redeemer which may well interest thoughtful people all over the world, and to the end of time. Then we come to John, a later vrriter than the others, and in whose time not a few educated Greeks and Romans haM;< TIO.V WITH Seb«J atCrtiiJi.f Hu* tmvpj5fKil?nl;rfe>faOiK»u:tw|>(H- I ocfcoiitnrof tmjictwof pfil^jcroil tc<>a/biintHiffiiiiiHfin(ttiictpoi»\^ -^-^ -'■— ■■'-- -^'■•- ticti tt»nmj; {f uwjtritf feidrc i.\t<( «i'0 «iiirt» utmi af ipnitj'iigr uau ?iftartp vpntpu tftriiof p(&' rr la ro mf^tf p*" ^ ^ «i iitsftmasi {(CIS \Wi<&ftirfbpf a? '- amtsr wa« * of rociff fhir tiirlic iic Jj^ fit!' puigr IS uinjgx& of riift1t|fir iJftf fwr (yttliqwiintP3 ir fainr ('""re ntf ftoutr rfiitdiirmow bffo:u op rafi-* - i« tt Itttt aid a.ptitte; mt ttnui^ . Uihft fejflrf fll'f nnnifSflf n>* fedtam ro riffr oitttnt uc iicmc: •^iWT n't p \»cct{of ptt^ n> ai a p» n^m. SKjr of ii(^Jic uc^ctoBiic I'f fl»c« aimv^0> Of If pHjJlf ut tD icum'(>f tmi pr lufj ' Lflli»6t>iwicitt»of pf rifpugcof gn, nii? t Of pr nljiti'M^t o( mr} xBftPii^ iioii uipffir moic ;f loiini o pautr i -j aiftodJ^Qjuiutjc imic tiftjuii frfiup iw fo.'pc jjfqin>mlt;'C?'iJ&t tJtwijifl) tticcmws wcc(m0 to cntti- l|f t» 8ic;cd3cmctDiutriwtB ru:/ijwtr ttir ft)j f^m^ ro Jjau fi»ar fif UYt* upixgr ftf aftt»i|« ninqr icn- pr mm'' , laigit Aujimi inatt ixpfr to j'^rtju- .^l ttitsofl}! Of pfgUOjeOf of laipmw- 11 ^mrpjjf Slid pnigr lit j anlinoiac of ipu nipdn siaiwif if Uf pf.fpOc w w wtf'ftotut-afmripCH? tufuinf lueiwi lYiiKjiof ft miifu^ngif.'tm irfni isf aife to twtj opf w pc utti^ Lof Bifflip tmi- fc isoufK c^difpfft sm &;for C>i(ptiC't u!f pf «rtutm pc flaiiiK }jiair \k mm * uru i»f a rcr inttn.«ftetao5i^of|f«r£Dtr<'i fiDcpUieHnOf " u£ai£«i i i'f^ !te»^oft3ftf«t» ♦ w'^cnsyccriif j>ojtaT(tepfto^ | ^fjaK ftj!iii'$}a«nJaj!iroia:-iAMt2tft'jr; !| pmd fci&p m. tatasj uot-i a«'> pi; \;ir plf wi^S^c u»t •j&co to (piital fl«G5||l,^ » y. aX FnoM Wycliffe's Folio Bible (one-fourth size of original). Egeitou Slauusciipt in British Museum. Beginning of Isaiah. 15 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. him, of lixiiig- once for all the English standard of Bible translation. Where the great task of translating the New Testament was achieved is not known. On leav- ing England, about the middle of 1524, Tindale landed at Hamburg. It is supposed that he went to Wittemberg, but of this there is no evidence. It is certain that in 1525 he was in Cologne, super- vising, at the office of Peter Quentell, a well- known printer of that city, the issue of the first English New Testament eVer printed. The pro- gress of the work was stopi)ed by a bigoted Komanist named John Cochla?us. Tindale and his amanuensis, a friar named Koye, fled to Worms, carrying safely with them the sheets already finished. There the printer I'eter Schcetfer completed the Testament begun at Cologne, which was quarto in size, and also printed another edition of it in octet ro. Of each size 3000 copies were printed, but of these only three are now known to exist. One, a fragment of the quarto, is in the British Museum; the second, an imperfect copy of the octavo, is in the library of St. Paul's Cathedral ; the third, also octavo, and lacking only the title, is in the library of the Baptist College, Bristol. These Testaments began to reach England in 1521), and by order of the bishops they were soon pronounced to be full of pestilent errors, and burnt at Paul's Cross. Tindale had expected the book would receive this treatment, but it made him only the more reso- lute to complete the task he had undertaken. The chief aiil(l read in printed form in his mother tongue. It is a thick small octavo, containing 381 folios or 7G8 pages, the page of type measuring 5 inches by2A. Gen- esis and Numbers are printed in black-letter, the other books in Roman type. This is one of the rarest and most precious of English books. The British Museum and the British and Foreign Bible Society possess very fine copies. Each book has a prologue written in the clear and beautiful English of the text. As in the New Testament, so here — Tindale translated directly from the original text, using Luther and the Vulgate as aids. There are many marginal notes, and a./ew of these are strongly controversial, not a surprising fact when it is borne in mind that the authorities of the Bomish Church of that day hated alike the gospel and its restraints, and all who tried to make the gospel known to the common people. In 1534 Tindale issued a second edition, in which, however, the only book altered was Genesis, which was printed in Roman type, and from which almost all the notes of the "first edition were omitted. In 1534 Tindale issued at Antwerp, from the printing office of Martin Lempereur, a very care- fully revised edition of his New Testament. This, like the Pentateuch, is a thick small octavo, the page of type measuring 5^^ inches by 2^. This book is a noble example of Tindale's thorough- ness and care. Many of his most felicitous phrases are found here : — e.{/. " he came to him- self," for the earlier " he remembered himself; " "and am no more worthy," f or " am not wor- thy;" "consider the lilies," for " behold the lilies," etc. Tindale was equally great whether translating or, after further years of study, re- vising his existing translations. By 153G, the year of his martyrdom, at least seven editions of his Testament had been published and circulated. There were also other "pirated" editions, of which, unfortunately, only one solitary specimen is known to have survived. This is in the British Museum, and is known as Joye's edition. III. CO VEH DALE'S BIBLE. — In the year 1535 appeared a folio volume of the highest biblio- graphical value, because it is the first complete English Bible issued from the press. A second edition, also in folio, entirely reset, was printed by Nicolson in 1537, at St. Thomas' Hospital, South- wark. No conclusive evidence has yet been ad- duced to prove where the 1535 edition was printed, but most probably Zurich is entitled to the honor. From Genesis to 2 Chronicles, and also the New Testament, the text of the book is practically Tindale's. The portions of the Old Testament done indeiiendently by Coverdale were Job to Malachi, and are translations not from the Hebrew, but from a Swiss-German Bible, printed in six little volumes at Ziirich, 1.527-29. Cover- dale's original title-page describes the book as " translated out of Douche and Latyn into Eng- lishe." Coverdale was cast in a different mould fi-om Tindale. He was less heroic, less uncom- promising, less scholarly. But he achieved one remarkable literary feat. To this day, wherever the Psalms are read, according to the Prayer- book version, they are practically as Coverdale translated them for his 1.535 Bible. IV. MATTHEW'S /?/£/,£', 15.37. — During the later part of his life in Antwerp, Tindale was chaplain to the English merchants of the Steel- yard. He was succeeded in this office by John Rogers, a man ever famous as the first Protestant martyr under Mary Tudor. When Tindale was betrayed in 1535 and imprisoned, Rogers appears to have succeeded to his papers. In 1537, the year after Tindale's martyrdom, Rogers, who for reasons unknown to us seems to have assumed the name of Thomas Matthew, printed at Antwerj) and sent over to England a large edition of a splendid folio English Bible. This contains all Tindale's translations in their latest forms, and for those books which Tindale had not been able to finish, the text was taken from Coverdale's version. This 1537 Bible is, so far as text is concerned, the true editio prhiceps. It also bears upon the title- page the words " Set forth with the King's most gracious license." Henry VIII. had been induced, ))robably by Cromwell, "to sanction the issue of this Bible, "although at the very time he did so the translations of Tindale, of which the book was full, were all under proscrii)tion. There are in Matthew's Bible twenty preliminary leaves conveying much useful Biblical information to the reader, and a large number of side-notes, chieflv expositorv. V. THE GBE AT BIBLE, 1539-15il. — '^ext in 16 OUR ENGLISH BIBLE. order comes the Great Bible, so called because of its size — the page of type measures 13} by 7^ inches. This was the eilition which Cromwell, as vicar-general, ordered to be " set up in some convenient place" within every church. The preparation of it was undertaken by ( 'overdale at Cromwell's suggestion, and by bis sujiixirt it was printed at the royal press in Paris, but when complete, it was seized by order of the Inquisi- tion. Largely through Bishop Bonner's influ- ence ( !), he then being amliassador. large quanti- ties of the sheets were secured and sent to Lon- don. It was issued as a book by the English printers Grafton and Whitchurch, and no less than six other editions were printed within two years. For the first of them Cranmer wrote a jireface, often reprinted, and hence these editions are often called "Cranmer's Bible." Coverdale took the Matthew's Bible of 1537 as the basis of his new revision, but the source of most of the numerous improvements in rendering was a Latin version of the Hebrew of the Old Testament, by Sebastian MUnster, published in 1534-35. VI. THE GENE VA niBLE, 15C0. — Numerous editions of the English Bible and of the English New Testament were published during the reign of Edward VI. Only one M'as issued while Mary Tudor was on the throne. The fiery persecution originated by that queen sent large numbers of English Reformers and scholars to the Continent. Many of these made Geneva their place of exile. There, in 1557, a new edition of the New Testa- ment was issued in verse form, the work in all probability of Wm. Whittingham. In 1.560, two years after the accession of Elizabeth, an entirely hew edition of the Bible was printed at Geneva. As this became for no less than seventy-five years tlie Bible of the English people, it deserves more than passing notice. Three men, out of the little company of British Reformers gathered at Geneva, gave" themselves to this work. Other members of that Christian church, then under the pastoral care of John Knox, found the money for it. It has been proved bv Anderson {Annals of Enf/lish Bible, ii. 319-323), "that the translation was the work of W. Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, and Thomas Sampson. These men, thinking " they could bestow their labours and study on nothing more acceptable to God, and comfort- able to His Church," gave themselves " for the sjiace of two years and more, day and night," to this work. Begun about January 1.5.58, the last sheet was printed April 10, 1.560. The Geneva Bible is the most scholarly by far of all the early editions. It was printed in such a style and shape as to be of use to those who read and studied for edification. It is a handy l)Ook, small quarto in size, printed in clear lioman type — the first English Bible in which this tyjie is used. The only illustrations are ina])s and jilans, and engravings of the ob.iects in the tabernacle and temple. The fulsome royal dedications of earlier editions are rejilaced by a. letter, "To the most virtuous and noble Queen Elizal)eth," in which the jiath of duty is very clearly set before that august lady. Between"l.539 and 1558, though little or nothing was done in England to advance Bil)lical scholar- ship. Continental reformers were very active. Leo Juda's Latin version of the Old Testament, Beza's Latin Testament of 1.5.5t>, and the revisions by Calvin in 1.545 and 1.551 of the Olivetun I'rench Bible of l,5.f5, were all valuable aids to Biblical scholars. Of all these heliis Whittingham, Gilby, and Sampson freely availed themselves. In revising the Old Testament, they took the text of the (Jreat Bible, and their work consisted in carefully and thoroughlv going over this, coni- l)ariiig it with the Hebrew' text, and bringing the English translation, wlierever in their judgment it was needful, into stricter verbal arc'uracv. A large number of the alterations they introduced can be traced to the influence of the Latin versions of Pagninus and of Leo Juda, and to the French Bible of 1556. In the New Testament, the text was Tindale's, revised carefully in the light of Beza's text and notes (1556), and of Whitting- ham's own 1557 Testament. The notes of this Bible, which are exceedingly numerous, are distiuctlx Calvinistic. They have suffered in general estimation from the fact that a few which are either curious or extreme have been usually selected as examples, just as the re- putation of" the text itself has suffered from the fact that in Gen. 3. 7 the word " breeches " occurs, and hence the edition is commonly called the "Breeches Bible." The fact is that the notes form a thorough, sound, and most hel])ful com- mentary on the three lines, i)ra(tical, expository, and doctrinal. As exami]les of the three classes we quote (1) Gen. 13. 11, " Lot, thinking to get Paradise, found hell;" ('2) Mark 15. 1, "For the Romans gave them no authority to put any man to death ; " (3) upon Mat. 16." 18, the note to the words, " Upon this rock will I build my church," is, "LTpon that faith whereby thou hast confessed and acknowledged Me : for it is ground- ed upon an infallible truth;" and upon Mat. 16. 19, "The preachers of the Gospel open the gates of heaven with the word of God, which is the right (true) key: so that where this word is not purely tavight, there is neither key nor au- thoritv." \u: THE BISHOPS' BIBLE, 1568. — Neither Elizabeth nor her bishops had much sympathy with Genevan views on doctrine and church polity. Consequently the rapid popularity of the Geneva Bible was the reverse of acceptable to them. As early as 1563 it was decided to prepare a new version. Archbishop Parker began to move in the matter. It was finally arranged that certain of the bishops should each do a portion of the work, hence the name ultimately given to it of the Bishops' Bible. Soon after the accession of Elizabeth, the Great Bible had been ordered to be replaced in all the churches. But the early and wide circulation of the Geneva Bible called the attention of many readers to the defects of the 1.5;J9-41 text. Nomi- nally to meet these criticisms, but really in order to supplant the Geneva Bible, in 1568 the large handsome folio first edition of the Bishops' Bible was published. On the title-i>age to the Old Testament is a portrait of Elizabeth, on that pre- fixed to the book of Joshua, the Earl of Leicester, and as an initial to the first Psalm a portrait of Burleigh. The volume is embellished with a large number of engravings, and is printed in bold black-letter. In 1571, copies were ordered to be placed in all the churches. In comparison with the Geneva Bible the Bish- ops' is lacking on both the practical and the scholarly sides. The Geneva is a compact, read- able book, easily handled ; the Bishops' a very large folio, weighing many pounds. The Geneva availed itself of the best Biblical scholarship of the day; the Bishops' was a mosaic of different workers, some well, some badly etiuipjied for their task, but all inferior to the Geneva editors. The work in the New Testament is of a higher quality than in the Old. The chief novelty which the Bishops' Bible contained was a new version of the Psalms ; bxit this did not long succeed in holding its own against Coverdale's translation. In 1572, when a second and revised folio edition was issued of the Psalms, the 1568 and the Coverdale texts were ininted side by side, and after that date the 1568 text disajipear'ed. In 1569 a good, readable qiiartn edition of the Bishops' Bible was printed, con- taining many im])ortant corrections in the text, none of which are found in the 1572 folio. Had this smaller eflition lieen supported by royal and ecclesiastical authority, it might have become a formidable rival to the Geneva. As it was, the Geneva became more and more the Bible of the 17 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. people in their homes for private study; the Hishops', the Bible imblicly read in the churches. VIII. TJf/': RllEIMS TESTAMENT AND noUAY /llJiLK. —iiy 1582 even the Roman Catholic Churi'h had been driven to undertake an Knji'lish version of the ISible. This was not due to any desire to place the Sciijitures in the hands of the laity. They were there alreaarent absence of any uni- form method, followed alike l)y all the companies, of rendering words and i)lnases. The text of Beza's Latin and Greek Testament of 1598 most nearly represents the text the re- visers followed; and the two English versions whose influence can be most clearly traced throughout are the Geneva Bible (15G0), and the Rheims Testament (1582). X. THE REVISED VERSION OF ISSl AND 1885. — The work of King James's revisers re- mained practically untouched for 270 years. It is true that during this time many small changes were introduced into the text by successive print- ers, but no officially recognized revision took place. This M'ork had become needful : (1) Be- cause the Greek Testament text had been care- fully studied in the MSS. and existing authori- ties, and many weak points in the A. V. had thus become evident. (2) Because in the course of nearly three centuries words and phrases had become obsolete or changed in meaning. (3) Be- cause Greek and Hebrew scholarship had de- veloped to a much higher degree than was possi- ble in the seventeenth century. Many schemes for a revision were proposed, and scholars singly or in groups attempted the task, but it was not until 1870 that any decisive step was taken. In that year both liouses of Convocation passed a resolution in favor of re- vision. Two bodies of revisers were appointed — twenty-five for the Old Testament, and twenty- six for the New. The scholars invited to take part were chdsen from as widely representative sections of the church as possible. Of the in- structions given to the revisers, the most im- portant were : to introduce as few alterations as possible into the text of the A. V. ; that the text to be adopted be that for which the evidence is decidedly preponderating; to make or retain no change in the text on the final revision except two-thirds of those present approved. Two companies of scholars in America co- oi)erated in the work. The University Presses of Oxford and Cambridge found the money, receiving in return the copyright of the version. The New Testament was issued in 1881, the Old Testament in 1885 ; the former occupying eleven, the latter fourteen years of patient labor. At the date of writing (1896) there is no evi- dence that the 7?. V. will rai)idly replace the A. V. in public use, although it has become an indis- pensable aid to all private study of the Bible. Many of the criticisms levelled against either the renderings or the English of the R. V. are but proofs that many people care more for the old familiar rhythm of words known from childhood than for accurate expression of the meaning of the original. Still careful study has convinced all unprejudiced minds that the R. V. is an enor- mous stride forward in English Biblical scholar- ship. In the Old Testament the prophets and poetical books, and in the New Testament the Epistles, have become luminous with meanings not so clearly discernible in the old version. Though possibly not the final stage in the long and steady growth of the English translation of the Scriptures, it is at once a tribute to English and American scholarship and a boon to the Eng- li.sh-speaking race. 18 GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS. THE TITLE OF THE BIBLE. BY PROFESSOR JAMES ROBERTSON, D.D., AUTHOR OF " EARLY RELIGION OF ISRAEL." BIBLE is the English form of a Greek word h'lhUa, which simply means books. Such a com- prehensive title woiiui naturally be employed at a time when literary productions were not so abun- dant and varied as to require specific classifica- tion ; and when a number of books of one class came to be associated toj;cther and regarded as of s]ifrial siiinificance, they might be more defi- nitclv described as tlif hoohs. Thus " the books " nicutioned in Dan. 9. i, R.I'., were evidently the saired writings of the time; and so, down to a much later i)eriod, the whole collection of sacred Scrii)tures was sufficiently designated as " the books " or " the sacred l)ooks." The ( ; reek name /;/7;//(f was taken over into the Latin sjieech, and, from its resemblance in form to a Latin singular noun, as well as from the fact that the collection of books was then a completed whole, it was used as a singular noun, as we now use it in English. The Bible is one book, but it is made up of many books. Jerome called it a " divine library." SCRIPTURE or Scriptures, in a similar way, was first of all a general term, meaning simply "writing" or "writings." Then came the more precise designation "The Scripture" or "The Scriptures," as we find these terms employed in the New Testament to denote what were the sacred books of the .Tews at the time, and we now speak of Scripture, Scriptures, or Holy Scripture when we mean the collected writings h(dd sacred by the Christian Church. 'TESTAMENT is the English form of a Latin word which was used as "the rendering of the Greek word diatla-ke, used by St. Paul in 2 Cor. ;?. 14, which is better translated Cnvrixtnt. The Law was based upon a covenant, and the book of the Covenant (Ex. 24. 7) was the obvious name for a writing embodying it. And as the gospel is a new covenant contrasted with the old, we speak of the Old and the New Covenant when we mean the two dispensations ; and the terms the Old and the New Testament have come into use to desig- nate the Scrijitures which embody the record of the one or the other. THE WHOLE BIBLE is one, for it contains the connected record of God's dealings with man- kind for the purpose of their salvation, and the revelation of His will made known to man in pursuance of that one purpose. Hut it is a book consisting of many books, given forth at sundry times and in divers manners, each having had its special occasion and its mode of composition, though all inspired with one Divine purpose. BIBLE INTRODUCTION. —When we take up an ordinary book, we can generally gather from its title-page when and by whom it was written, on what snb.iect, and with what purpose. But the names given to the Bible as a whole, being so comprehensive and general, do not convey such precise information; and it will be found that many of the books of which it is composed do not bear' their dates or their author's names. Yet, just as when we are introduced to a stranger we desire to know something about him in order that we may hold intercourse with him, so we naturally ask for some information about the Bible tliat shall prepare us for listening to its voice speaking for itself. We desire to know something of the several books, to learn how they were brought together, and how they have been preserved to our own day. Such information goes Ijy the name of Bible Introduction. ORIGIN OF THE PHCENICIAN AND HEBREW ALPHABETS. BY CANON ISAAC TAYLOR, AUTHOR OF THE ALPHABET.' (Seepage 20.) The ojiinion now generally accepted is that the Pho'nirian alphabet, the ' parent of all other alphabets, was derived from the P^gyptian hiero- glyiihics through the medium of a cursive Hiera- tic form ust^d about 2500 B.C. in the older empire. The discoverv was made by M. Emanuel de Roug^, whose theory of the probable ])rocess of derivation is set forth in the first table, where the first column exhibits the hieroglyphic picture signs, the second the cursive Hieratic forms, and the third the earliest known forms of the Phoenician letters derived from them. A later and more cursive form of the Phoenician ali)habet (col. iv.) is called the Sidonian, because used in the inscription on the coffin of Eshmunazar, king of Sidon, and also in the Siloam inscription at .Jerusalem. From this arose the Aramean (col. v.), chiefly known to us by inscriptions from Nineveh. It is distinguished by the opening out of the loops of the letters. The Hebrews, on their return from exile, brought this with them from Babylon, and it became the parent of what is called the square Hel)rew, an early form of which, used at Jerusalem in the Herodian period, is shown in col. vi. Col. vii. exhibits the tenth- century alphabet of the earliest dated codex, which "practically differs little from the Hebrew of our printed books. DERIVATION OF THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS. BY CANON ISAAC TAYLOR, AUTHOR OF " THE ALPHABET." (See l)nge 21.) The oldest Greek inscriptions are written in an alphabet often called the Cadmcan, almost identical with the ])rimitive Phoenician, both of which may be assigned to the tenth or ninth century b.'c. The resemblance will be seen by comparing the Semitic letters in col. viii. with the earliest (ireek forms given in col. ix., which, like the Plm-nician, were written from right to left. The Greeks must have acquired the alpha- bet from the I'ho^nician trading-posts on the shores of the .Egean. Col. x. is of somewhat later date, when the direction of the writing had been changed to that from left to right. In al- most every state and island we find differences in the forms of the letters; but the Greek alpha- bet graduallv assumed two main forms — an East- ern form, used on the eastern shores ol' the /Egean and in the islands, wliieh liecanie the parent of the later Greek alphabet; and a Western form, used on the mainland of Greece and in Euboea, from whose Chalcidian colonies in Italy the Latin alphabet was derived. The mediaeval book hands, an early specimen of which is shown in col, xiv., were "derived from the Roman capitals. 19 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. Egyptian. Hiero- it- , u • Hieratic, glyphic. Phceni- CIAN. Sec. IX. SlDO- NIAN. Sec. V. Ara- MEAN. Sec. V. to III. Hebrew. Sec. I. Sec. X. Names. Values. 1 ^ 2. i^ f Xr H H X Aleph 'a 2 %- ^ ^ 3 ^ b :d :3 Beth b 3 Q s, 7 0 K X :i Gimel S 4 -> -^ A <\ ^ 7 ^ t Daleth d 5 ni m ^ \ 1 -^ n ft He h 6 K^ ^ V n T 1 ) Vau V 7 & £ I -v T r 1 Zayin z 8 •

U Teth 't 10 w f ^ ^ \ \ ^ Yod y 11 ^ 1 y y ;^ t) D1 Kaph k 12 .£» ^ / / 4 U V Lamed I 13 k If > ? y ^ ^ iJD Mem m 14 ^ *^ 7 J ^ >? J ) Jl Nun n 15 — -f* 1 \ ^fi "7 f Samekh s 16 o o V y y 'Ayin 'a 17 S ^ 7 ■) -) a i> Pe / 18 ^ / r r rr ^ r Tsade is 19 /] A ? V T^ r> ^ V Qoph l' 20 <=> ^ ^ ^ 1 > 1 ^ Resh r 21 m ^ w •^ U; >o ^ ^t^ Shin sh 22 ] f f ' X /. /> J-1 X) .Tau t VI. VII. 20 TABLE OF ALPHABETS. Semitic ^ Pioto- Cadmeaii. types. R. to L. L. to R. Greek. Eastern. Latin. Western. Latin. Uncial. Sec. V. a alpha. JL A /I A A A A A CI /3 beta 9 J ^ ^ ^ B B B b y gamma 7 7 A r r ( I iota \ ^ ^ 1 1 / I K kappa •y ^ K /c K K A, lambda / n/1 i- i-r ^ A V b/ I. L L fl mu 7 ^ 1 r r /n n m. V nu 1 ^ t^ i^ A/ /V N N ^.l $ •T' i r = + x X .X 0 omicron o o a oc a-^ o 0 0 TT pi ? 1 T r P f7 p p p p san r r n n koppa 9 9 ? 9 9 ^ '^ p rho \ \ t^ p I^P /^ fl r O" sigma V ^ i i ^ ^ i s r T tau f r T T T T r Vlll. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. 21 SECTION II. — THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR J. RENDEL HARRIS, M. A. SEMITIC LANGUAGES.— T\ie: Hebrew lan- guage is one of a large group of dialects of West- ern Asia (and of Europe and Africa as affected by Asiatic colonization) which have been named Phcenician Marks On a foundation stone of the Temple at Jerusalem. comprehensively Semitic languages, after Shem, the eldest son of Noah, who was supposed to be the ancestor of most of the peojjles si)eaking the languages in question ( in »!■ hnnj-nagps ini-lude the Assyrian and Babylonian, the Arabic, the Hebrew,' the Saiuaritan* the Aramaic, the Syriac, the Phoenician, the Punic or Carthaginian, the Ethiopic, and a number of other tongues or dialects known to us imperfectly by means of inscriptions. inn Lie AL HEBIiEn-.—The Old Testament, omitting the Apocrypha, is written in Hebrew, with the exception of the following portions, which are written in Aramaic, Dan. 2. 4 to 7. 28 ; Ezra 4. 8 to 6. 18, and 7. 12-26. A single verse of Jeremiah (10. 11) is also written in Aramaic. The Hebrew of the Old Testament is closely related to the language of the peoples bordering on Palestine in early times, as may be seen by comjiarison with theMoabite Stone "(p. 7.5), an in- scrii)tion set up by Mesha, king of Moab, in the ninth century b.c, or with Phoenician inscrip- tions. As a spoken language it fell into disuse about the time of the return of the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity, having been disi)laced by the A'ramaic; but it remained in use as a lit- erary language, and as a sacred language to be ;ised in the offices of religion. ? rubrmwi?^ Portion of Manuscript (Ex. 20. 7) in Square Hebrew. (From a Photograph.) The earliest dated Hebrew MS. in the British Museum. Twelfth century. 22 THE LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. lilJiLICAL AllAMAlC— The Aramaic lan- guage is properly the siieecli of the northern portion of Syria ihcliulert Vietween the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris, known to us as ITpper Mesopotamia, but in the Bible by the name of Aram, or Fadan-Aram. (Note tliat in Gen. 31. 47 Laban the Syrian calls the " heap of witness" by the Syriacname Jegar-Sahadutha, ■ji&i^ *;'^-i*«.^v The Siloam Inscription. From a Photograph of an Itnpression traced in 1881, showing the Phoenician character. About 700 B.C. The inscription, which was cut on the wall of the conduit which fed the Pool of Siloam, states that the excavators beg:an to work at the ends and met in the middle of thi- tunnel. When as yet the two bodies of niiuers were separated by a dis- tance of three cubits, thev heard each other's voices : tlic^' licwed awav " pickaxe ajjainst pickaxe," and the waters flowed from the sprinj; to the pold, a distance of one thousaiui two hundred cubits (2 Kings 2(1. 20 ; 2 Chr. 32. 30). This is the oldest extant Hebrew record of the kind. It was discovered by a boy wading in the conduit in 1880. '7 ^ )» 7-1, '"/■ »r »• -f •|»JI''»T B^ ^J^-^ -^J) y_y •a^p -A t f ■^ Q Facsimile of Writing of the Siloam Inscription. T anart of f'zra is written in .\rainaic-. it has been sui>iiosed that the Jewsxibandonccl tlicir national sjjcech in Babylon, and lironght hack the Aramaic with them at the return from the Cap- tivity; but this is probably a mistake. The lin- guistic changes in Palestine were gradual, and due to intercour.se with neighboring jieoples. Owing to this misunderstanding, the Aramaic portions of the Bible are often called Chaldee; but there is nothing in the language to connect it with Chaldea. In later times (third and second centuries B.C.), under the (ircck intlnences re- sulting from the conquests of .\lcxander, the Aramaic and the Hebrew were both in danger of displacement by the Creek language; but a suc- cessfxd reaction against furcign influences took l)lace in Palestine, wliich led to the rigid exclu- sion of the (ircck language and literature from the Rabbinical schools. BIBLICAL SCI{IPr. — T\w Bible (O.T.) has come down to us written in what is called the square character; but this is not the jirimitive writing of Israel. The s(iuare character is a nioditication of the original script, which was no doubt the character in use in Phwnicia, and which, from the celebrated Siloam inscription, we know to have been current in Jerusalem in the eighth century B.C. The same kind of writ- 23 ^' t> ,.irri;riW'^'3-l-i1^tY£.4'.^tf?.uVf£;ni!?iJn'i±?=i:TV<(;i-.ij'riv/sg-;' l\Jl.M^*lg.^»5^^»*.■illf\■VJlli-'■xf'OiJ''■»^■>-•«a«^ - '•" ' *" <7r^' II-j.^i-wi«Jri,l'-">-''l'^i^A>»>iO!t5plli-vai-<-il*«tii-l^l!;,i ,|r-i„,:/^,».i&>;t.i-V-'L.--Jiy-,'%ir,^,,r^ UV>V''i-»^v..AVL.l->--»«£Cl-'<,';t-l<{<-'lllv'«iii.l ■ ■-^/;.\j.-j^.ll„ov.,,if.jr^oi>jirt«'OL«-")iJH>>:airlr31^vifvLvi^1irft.^Ul*l^<')Kr«rV)in>>±iii/tM'l^ RosETTA Stone. (From a J'/wtogritjih.) A Slab of Black Basalt, found by the French in 1798 at Rosetta, and deposited in the British Museum in 1802. (198-195 B.C.) The inscription, in honor of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, king of Egypt, is in Greek and Egyptian, the latter in hiero- .i..„i,: _:.; .c .1 ;.„i_ — j .•_ j ij .1: j, jj^^ pcoplc. The inscription fumisl -^ "^- ' — •.- '■■^- I of the ancient Egyptian language. 24 flyphios or writiiig of the priests, and in demotic or writing of thTpcople. The inscription 'furnished the key to the ecipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics and the interpretation I " ■' ■ ■" ... THE LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. ing, with slight motlifteations, is employed in Samaritan MSS., and is also found on the old Hebrew coins. But the square character was already euiiiloyed in Helirew AISS. when the Sep- tuafiint translation was made in Alexandria in the third century n.c. ; and in our Lord's time the letter ijml o'i the square Hebrew alphabet was l)roveri>ial for its minuteness (" one yod or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law," Mat. ."). 1><). Whether there are still earlier forms of writino- involved in the tradition of the text of the Bible we do not know for certain. There are traces of the influence of a syllabic writing; cf. the Zamzummim of Deut. 2. 20 with the Zuzim of Gen. 14. 5, wlieve the two names ajqiear to have been derived from the same si^ns. We know also from the tablets discovered at Tel! cl-Amarua in Egypt that in the time of Abraham, and earlier, regular corresi^ondence was carried on between Egyptian and Palestinian officials in the Baby- loiiian language ; and from this it is supposed that the Phcenician alphabet was not at that time current in Palestine. VOWEL /'O/A'y.S'.- In the Hebrew language, as in most of the Semitic tongues, the consonants only were written, aufl the vowels were left to be inferred. This defect is remedied in the printed Hebrew by an elaborate system of vowel points, known as "the Massoretic (or trdili/iaiiii/) punctu- ation. These points are due to attempts on the part of Jewish doctors to fix the pronunciation so as to exclude various readings or misumlcrstand- ings of the text. (They have no final autliority, as they can hardly be earlier than the sixth cen- Part of the 20th Chapter of Exodus (Samaritan). yfjhMr^htA^^ • w £W '^^^ 'id ^^ /^ (Arabic in Samaritan Characters.) Facsimile of Samaritan Manuscript, about 1219. Now IN Cambridge University. The MS. is bilingual, the first column being written in Sttmiiritan, the secoud in Arabic with Samaritan characters. THE OLD TESTAMENT. tury A.D.) The Massoretes, as they are called, alUiwcil, however, a slight margin of change by means of ;nin()tations, headed Kethih (i.e. writ- ten) unci h'cr'i (i.e. read). When snch a note is attachfd to the text, it implies that the scribe is to follow one form or oxiircssion, and the reader another. By this we nuiy sec the care which the Kabbinic editors took, that they might not tam- per with the text. An interesting case of primi- tive change of the text is to be found in Jiulg. 18. 30, where the idolatrous priest is said to be descended from Gershom, the son of Manasseh. Originally, it was (jershom, the son of Moses, but by inserting an ;;, and with the aid of subsequent vowel points, Moses was made into Manasseh, in order to avoid the dishonor to the Jewish legis- lator involved in his idolatrous descendant. The correction apjiears to have been made before the time of the translation of the Septuagint ('250 B.C.), but the added letter (iiiiii) is not incorporated in the Hebrew MSS., but slightly suspended above the line, whence it is known as the " suspended nun." From this it would appear that the rever- ence of the Jews for the correct transmission of the text is extremely early. SOUllCES OF THE P HINTED TEXT.— The editors of the text of the Old Testament are at a disadvantage in comparison with those of the New Testament, in that, while the books they have to edit are oldci-, the copies are nnudi younger. No M.S. of the Old Testament is reck- oned to be earlier than the ninth century A.i>., and it has been thought that those MSS. which are extant are all descendants of a common an- cestor not earlier than the second century A.u. No doubt the Jewish custom of destroying or burying worn-out MSS. has much to do with ourpresent poverty. A similar deficiency in the evidence will be found in what we call, in the New Testament, the quotations of the fathers. [See p. 123.] The quotations made by the fathers go back very nearly to the time of the sacred writers them- selves. But from Jewish fathers {i.e. the Tal- mud) almost nothing is to be gained for the imi)rovement of the text. We have, however, two sources of evidence which are of great value — the Turf/iims and the Ver-wjiis. TAHGUMS. —A Targum or oral interpreta- I'sALTEK Fragment, prom Septuagint, Psalms 11. 7 to 15. 4. Tlie earliest manuscript of any portion of the Bible at present known to be in existence. Written on papyrus, in uncial, in the third century. Found in Egypt in 1892. Now in the British Museum. 2G THE LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. tion became necessary as soon as the sacred books were read In a langnage which had ceased to be the ordinary spectli of the peoiile. Wlicn tlic Biblical Ucl'ircw was no lonjjer undcrstooil by the Araniaii'-spcakinf;- jieoples (.lust as aWyclill'e liible wonld be unintelligible to a modern Knglish con- gregation), it became necessary for the reader or for an assistant interpreter {MctinyeiiKin) to give the equivalent Aramaic when the Hebrew was read. From Neh. 8. 8, it has been supposed that the practice of an oral interpretation is as old as the return from the Captivity. This oral Targum was at ttrst of the simplest kind, but it gradually became more elaborate, and in order to fix and limit the interpretation, the Targum itself was reduced to writing; and these written Targums arc amongst our most valuable helps both for tixinj;- the text as read in the Jewish synagogues and for determining the interpretation which the Jews attached to dilHcult passages. The princi- pal Targums are as follows : — 1. The Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch. 2. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel on the Prophets and Historical Books. The date of these Targums is uncertain. The Targum of Onkelos may be as old as the second m^ "fJPPPWf*'"'"''' JljiH iwipimi H"."!iilWiPii'iiWiP"^ CS&tti' I'SALitU, FROM St iHlHTY-TWu LkAVES CONTAINING PSAIMS 11. Written on papyrus, in mixed capitals aiul uncials, in tlie sixth century. Found among the rubbish of an ancient Convent at Tiiebes iu 1836. Now in the British Museum. 27 THE OLD TESTAMENT. century a.d., and the Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel (whom the Rabbis make out to have been a (lisci))le of Hillel, and so earlier than the Chris- tian era) must be later than that of Onkelos. As an exami)le of the Targum of Ben Uzziel, we may take the opening verse of Isa. 42, "Behold my servant, the Messiah, I will bring him near; my beloved in whom my Word is well pleased." FA'A'.S'/OA.V. — We now come to the transla- tions made in early times from the Hebrew, the importance of which, both for the determination of the true text and for Its explanation, can hardlv be over-estimated. SAM Alt I TAN PENTATEUCH.— ThQ Sama- ritan Pentateuch ought hardly to be counted amongst the versions, for it is little more than the Hebrew text written in the Samaritan (or Old Hebrew) characters. It is extant in MSS. of very nearly as great age as the Hebrew, and does not vary so much from it as would have been ex- ])ected. Some of the changes apjjear to be wil- ful, such as the addition to the Ten Command- ments of a precept to build an altar on Mount Oerizim, accompanied by a re-anangcnient of the text so as still to present the appearance of a table of " ten words." If we could rely upon the S;nnaritan text, it would, when taken with the Hebrew, give us an tXTLlCil TAAIx 'ATIO ;n LlS.XO US NCllBlOB ! ^ si ^w \ • - Xcfxj-rnlt:- ■*^ ••■iifa^uiJu €■■'■■"■ i I - .■!;>r J • ucntffcnt i^LtiAi uzxdtffht \ ■ .' ^ir UTCtrcafctisjyi ^Ar.vw • ' The Latin Bible of St. Jerome's Version (Job 1). (Commonly known as the Vulgate.) From a photograph of a copy written hi 840, adorned with large miniatures and initial letters in gold and silver. Now in the British Museum. 28 THE LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. authority for the text of the rentateuch as early as the time of Ezra. ]?esiiles tlie Samaritan I'en- tateuch there is also a Saniaiitau 'rarjiuiii. The Samaritan Hible is limited to the I'entateiich. SEI'rV.UirXT rtHS/OX.— The ehief au- thority, outside the IMassoretie (or traditional) text, for the recovery of the primitive form of the Old Testament is the translation maatched an emltassy to Eleazar the high-priest at .Terusalem with the view of obtaining copies of the sacred books of the Jewish law, and mak- ing translations of the same. Accordingly, su- perb copies were sent, and a body of translators, seventy or se\enty-two in number, to whom qiuirte'rs were assigned in the island of Pharos, where they made the requisite translation. A later form of the tradition says that the trans- lators were all shut up in seiiarate cells, and that when they had tinished their work, the transla- tions were fortance. It is constantly quoted by the writers of the New Testament. OrHER GREEK VERSIOXS.—TXie. remain- ing (ireek versions belong to a later date, and the translators of them arc lictter known. When the great Christian scholar ( )rigen was engaged ujion the study of the (ireek Old Testament in the city of Alexandria in the early jiart of the third cen- tury, he arranged the extant translations side by side in parallel columns for the purpose of study, and with them he placed the Hebrew text and a transliteration of the Hebrew text into (ireek letters. This work he called the Hc.ai phi (or six- fold), on account of th(^ six columns into which each ]>age was divided; and these .six columns contained as follows : — Hebrew text. Hebrew text in Greek letters. 4. 5. Translation Translation of of the Symmachus. Seventy. Translation of Aquila. (i. Translation. of Theodotion. If this work of Origen had come down to us. we should have had three(ireek translations to com- pare with the Septuagint. Unfortunately, there is nothing preserved beyond a number of" quota- tions. Of the translators mentioned, Aquila was a Jewish proselyte from Pontus, who wrote in the beginning of the second century. He was a very literal translator, and aimed at rendering eveii the untranslatable Hebrew particles. Theodotion was also a , Jewish proselyte, from Ephesus. He (X'cuiiicd himself not so m'uch with making a fresh translation as with reforming the text of the Sei>tuagiut; and his rendering of Daniel was accepteii by the church as a substi- tute for the inexact version of the Seventy. His date is somewhere in the later half of the second century. Symmachus belongs to the end of the second century ; he was an Ebionite {i. c. he was a believer in Christ as the Messiah, but a disbeliever in the incarnation). SYRIAC I'ERSIOX.—The Syriac version, otherwise called the Peshito (which means either simple or riih/ide), was made direct from the Hebrew, with occasional reference to the Sep- tuagint; the Old Testament was made as early as the hrst century. It was very likely made in the first instance for Jewish proselytes. There is also another Syriae version made "direct from the Septuagint as it stood in the Hexapla of Origen. Of.D LATIX VERSrOX. — The Old Latin, as it existed before the days of .Tcrome, is merely a translation of the (ireek of the Scjituagint. 'J7/E r 1'L(tATE.— The Latin Vulgate is the revision of the Latin Old Testament made by Jerome in Pethlehem between the years .392- 404 A.D.. by direct reference to the Hebrew, of which language he had made himself master somewhat late in life. The work of revision is very unc(puilly done ; some books underwent very little changi "^ "^hers were much more carefiilly treated. I''^'^^*i-ticular, the Psalter, which Je- rome trans''"*' 1 afresh fi-om the Hebrew, had already bee' P''|lce revised by him on the basis of the Septua y^^^' these revisions are known as the Roman ar^' ''^lican Psalters. The new Hebrew translatif'^^*^^ |ud very slow reception, and the old Psal' t'."' J>iu the Septuagint was not dis- placed fi'i" "'."clcsiastical use until the sixteenth century.'^" Hirious jiarallel to the Poman con- .servatisuvJ"" -r the Psalter M'ill be found in the Psalter ofYj'e English Prayer-book, which does not follow '^'le text of the" Authorized Version, but that oi the Great Pible of ir);«)-l540 a.d., though frequent efforts have been made to change it. 29 THE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR JAMES ROBERTSON. THE WHOLE COLLECTION^ of books con- tained in the Bible is usually spoken of as the Canon, or Canonical Scripture, any single book being said to be in the Canon or Canonical. "We speak also of the Canonical books or the Canon of the Old and New Testaments respectively. It is not, however, till the time of Origen, in the third century of the Christian era, that we find Scrip- ture spoken of in such terms ; and the usage is explained as follows : — THE WORD CAXON meant originally a " reed " or " rod," and the name was applied to a measuring rod; so that when a thing was in ac- cord with the standard measure, it might be de- scribed as agreeable to the canon or established rule. Before Origen's time, the truth recognized by the church had come to be spoken of as the canon or test of doctrine, and the liooks that were in accordance with tlie traditional rule of faith, and embodied it, were therefore said by Origen to be canonized or canonical. But since the ' Scriptures themselves contain in written form this standard of faith, they themselves came to be spoken of, in an active sen.se, as the Canon, or rule by which other books or state- ments might be tested. THLS TWOFOLD USE of the terms canon and canonical thus iuijilies on tb' one hand (1) that each imlividual liook of ScrW-Kre comes up to or agrees with a certain stam , and on the other (2) that the whole colloitivf - < rm a stand- ard or measure of truth. It is tl^ , ore iuijior- tant to inquire how the collectior- - ^"' made, and what was the guiding i)rinciiile ir .,,,., nocess. PREPARATION FOR THE (f •'''' ^".— It is evident first of all that there ni,. their number or to gather them into one collection. (iRADUAL COLLECT I OX OF THE CANON. — The Babylonian Captivity rudely shook the people from their indillerence, finally cured them of their old idolatry, ojiened their eyes to see wherein the trespass of the nation had consisted, and set the thoughtful-minded to ponder the prosi)ect that lay before them. Driven far from the Holy Land, deprived of the ordinances of a sacred sanctuary, the pious captives were not utterly bereft of their faith in God or of their hope "in the fulfilment of His i>romises. Even the mass of the people must have come to reflect upon the internal and essential elements of their religion, which could not pass away with the ces- sation or interruption of its outward obser- vances. Sacrifice and ritual were in abeyance, but the nation's God was eternal. His purpose could not be broken, the promises made to the fathers could not be frustrated. The one i)art of what proi)lietic men had spoken had been swiftly and sadly accomplished in the disi)ersion of the nation, the other would be fulfilled when it turned to God in hearty penitence. It was a time to reflect on the past, and to take its lessons to heart for the future. They that feared the Lord must have sjioken often together ; a)id anx- iously would they turn to the" sacred books — now- their sole visible symbol of national unity — for guidance and comfort. THE .SCIlIIiES or Scripturists, a professional class who occupied themselves with the preser- vation and study of the sacred texts, arose in such circumstances ; and the most prominent character that meets our view after the return from the exile is Ezra, who is described as " a ready scribe in the law of Moses, which the Lord God of Israel had given " (Ezra 7. 0). All Jew- ish tradition ascribes to him a very imjjortant, though not very clearly defined, activity in the collection of the Canon." In iiartieular he is de- scribed as the restorer of the Law ; and the part he plays along with Xehemiah {Neh. R-10), after the wall of .Jerusalem had been built, indicates the particular attention he had given to the law- books. On that oicasion. for a whole week " from the morning until mid-day.' the Law was sol- emnly read in the audience of the i)eople ; and no doubt from that time onwards the reading of the Law formed part of the regular worshi)). THE LAW, which was at this time thus for- mally introduced into religious service, was, it is generally believed, the Pentatem-h as we now have it. It therefore, from this time [lossessed all the attributes which we ascribe to canonical Scripture. It is quite easy to understand how the books of the Law should have rei'cived this particular attention, and been thus prominently brought forward at this time. The great task before the leaders of the new community was the consolidation of the restored state, in civil order and national i)urity, in face of heathen contam- ination and the dangers from internal weakness and corruption. The Law was based upon the covenant which was the cliarter of national ex- istence; the lesson of the jiast was that dis- obedience to (Jod's voice and conformity with heathen ways had brought national disaster; and it was felt that the only hope of safety for the future lay in the emphasis of the conditions of the covenant, and the observance of the ordi- nances of religious worship and dailv life, which it is the function of the l^aw to enforce. It was an attempt to go back, sobered by experience, to lead the old national life over again in a new sjiirit. ENLAROEMENT OF THE CANON. ~^^[fi have no such ))recise indication of the time and manner in which the other books of sacred Scripture were added to the collection. Such books as existed besides the Law were no doubt carefully preserved by the scribes, and thereby brought more and more into public notice; and there is a tradition, embodied in a letter pre- fixed to the second book of Maccabees, how that Nehemiah, " founding a library, gathered to- gether the Ijooks concerning "the kings and prophets, and the things of David, and epistles of kings concerning holy gifts." There is no mention here of the Law, which had already been collected, nor of Ezra, who had a chief share in that work; and there is nothing improb- able in the supi)osition that Nehemiah, as head of the state, should have given orders and taken measures for the better preservation of such remaining sacred books as were in tlie scribes' hands. THE CHIEF HISTORICAL BOOKS were by that time written, as well as the greatest part of the prophetical books ; and jirecisely to such books the attention of the thinking jiartof the nation would be turned for knowledge of the past history, and for instruction and consolation in their iiresent position. Accordingly, we find that the liooks which, in Uic Hebrew Bible, im- mediately follow the Pentateuch, are the books Joshua, judges. Saninel, and Kings, which give a connected history of the nation from the death of Moses to the Babylonian Cajitivity, and all the books which we call'prophetical, with the excep- tion of Daniel. THE TITLE ''PROPHETS" is given to this whole addition, the historical books being writ- ten in a prophetic spirit, and iiiesuiiial)ly by ])rophetic men; but we have no precise notice of the circumstances under which the addition was made. It nuist have been after the time of Malachi (wdio was somewhat later than Nehe- miah), and probably a considerable time later, and when there wa.s" no longer any hope of other Ijrophetical books being written." At all events the earliest available notices on the subject speak of the Law and the Prophets together, or give clear indication that the i)rophetical books were then in the Canon. Thus Jesus Sirach (somewhere about 200 n.c), author of the apo- cryphal work generally known as Ecclesiasticus, si)"eaks in one place (ch. 49. 10) of the " twelve prophets " (usually called the minor projihets) in such a way as to leave no doubt that these twelve writings were then, as they have con- tinued to be, classed together; and his grandson (about 1:32 B.C.), who translated the work into Greek, speaks of his grandfather being familiar with " the Law and the I'ro))hets, and the other books which follow them." After a time, though it is imjiossible to fix a date for the lieginning of the practice, it was customary to read jinrts of the jn'ophetical Scrijitures in tlie stated w- the learned men who l)usic(l themselves with the ]>reserva- tion of the books. Tlicse men came to be known as the "masters of the tradition," and as the HebreM'word they used for tradition is Mtistiora, we speak of them as tlie Massorctcs. Besides keeping; alive and handing on the vocal reading, they took great pains that tlie texts sliould be kept entire, for this purpose counting up the number of words, and e\en the number of let- ters, in the different books, noting expressions that occurred but once or rarely, drawing at- tention to peculiar modes of wnriting and the like. These notes were sometimes ^^Titten i)artly at the foot or on the margins of the page.s, l)artly embodied in taljles by themselves ; and the whole of this material is spoken of as the Massora. OXE THING the Massoretes did which has been of special value in the transmission of the text. They devised a system of notation, which, without interfering with the traditional con- sonantal text, indicates precisely the mode in which the text was to be i)ronounced. These symliols are known as the vowel-points. They are a series of dots and strokes placed above, below, or in the heart of the consonants, and de- noting precisely how the words were read by the scholars of the time. But they are regarded as forming no ]mrt of the sacred text, and the Pentateuch rolls which are used in the Syna- gogue are written in the bare consonants as originally received. Closely connected with the vowel system is the system of accents, which in- dicate the manner in which the words and clauses were separated or conjoined, and also form a kind of musical notation, according to which the Scrip- tures are to be melodiously' recited. The text, with this array of symbols, is called the Masso- retic text; arid it gives us what was the tra- ditional reading at the time the work was accom- plished. THE VAL UE of the INIassoretic text may be estimated by the labor and care it exhibits. A work of the kind described was necessarily a gradual and protracted one, and the Massoretio text, with all its equipment, cannot be placed earlier than the seventh century of the Christian era. But just because it was a protracted work it gives us a tradition reaching back to a much earlier time ; and though we are inclined to pity or to lilame the Jews for their slavish adherence to the " traditions of the elders " in matters of the Law, it is a cause of thankfulness that, in the handing down of the text, they diil not al- low themselves to deviate in the smallest details from what they had received. There remain in the text, as they have handed it down, evident indications of what had been slips of the j)en or mistakes of the eye of the transcribers, but the Massoretes allowed even these to stand, con- tenting themsehes with drawing attention to their presence rather than alter by " one jot or tittle" the sacred books which were before them. MANUSCRIPTS of an earlier date than the Massoretic text unfortunately we do not possess. Had such existed, they woulfi have enabled us to compare the text of" the Massoretes with the older transcripts on which they worked. It would seem, however, that when the text was finally agreed upon and fixed, the older docu- ments were either deliberatelv destroved or al- lowed to perish by neglect. The fact remains that the oldest manuscripts of the Hebrew books known to be in existence date from about two centuries after the comi)letion of the work of the Massoretes, and are simply examples of their text. THE VEJiSIONS, however, make up for the manuscripts. [See i)p. 28, 29.] Long before the vowel system of the Mas.soretes was elaborated, translations had been made from the l)arc conso- nantal text, and a study of these versions enables us to infer what was the condition of tlie Hebrew text at the time the translations were made, and the sense in which the texts w eic read. The most valuable of these for comjiarative purjioses is the Septuagint [see p. 29], which was begun at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Philadeli)hus (284-246 B.C.). Making allowance for errors of transcribers and mistakes of translators, we may conclude that the Hebrew text of most of the books, at all events, was substantially the same as that preserved by the Massoretes, and that it was, on the whole, understood by the translators in the sense in which the Massoretes ha\e pre- sented it. VARIOUS READINGS, of course, were bound to occur for many reasons. The possibility of reading the same consonants with different "sets of vowels was one fertile cause, an example of which will illustrate the matter. In Gen. 47. 31, it is said that " Lsrael bowed himself upon the bed's head ; " but the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (11. 21) quoting, as New Testament writers were in the habit of doing, from the Greek translation then current, in referring to the same incident says, he " worshipped [lean- ing] upon the top of his staff'." In the unpointed Hebrew the three letters MTH rejiresent a word which the Massoretes pronounced mittah, mean- ing a bed — while the Septuagint translators read it as mutfi'h, a staff'. THE RECEIVED T^A'T. — The text which is found in the modern printed Hebrew Bibles is that of the Massoretes ; and it is accepted liy Jews and Christians alike as faithfully repre"- senting the work of these ancient scholars. Of recent years there has been a revived study of the Massora ; and scholars, from the notes and writings left by the Massoretic authorities, have been able to note inaccuracies which had crept into the printed texts and been perpetuated. These corrections, however, are in the field of the niceties of the vocalization and accentuation of the language, and do not affect the substance or meaning of the books. It has frequently l)een urged that scholars should not be content with a simple acceptance of the Massoretic text ; but that, aided by the versions and by critical ap])liances, an attJempt should be made to get behind it and restore a more accurate approximation to the original autographs. The task, however, is a much more serious one than that of revising the te.Hiis re- criitus of the New Testament, where manuscripts of a high antiquity come to the critic's aid. For this reason the revisers of the Authorized Ver- sion " thought it most prudent," as they say in their preface, " to adopt the Massoretic text as the Ijasis of their work, and to depart from it, as the authorized translators had done, only in ex- ceptional cases." 'Where the Massoretic text itself offered alternative readings, the revisers have exercised their own judgment in selecting ; and " in some few instances of extreme difficulty a reading has been adopted on the authority of the ancient versions, and the departure from the Massoretic text recorded in the margin." 31 Obverse of an unbaked Babylonian Tablet, Mentioning Dflr-makh-ilani, son of Eri-Aku, probably Arioch, king of EUasar ; Tudkliula, probably Tidal, king of nations ; and Kudur-Lagamar, king of Elam, probably Chedorlaomer, king of Elam. Now in the Britisli Museum. i^Froui a Fhotogruph.) Gen. 14 1. Edge op the Same, Showing the characters "-Aku" (the last two characters of Arioch) written " round the corner," in continua- tion of line 9. Reverse of the Above. .35 THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE DIVINE LIBRARY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. We have seen by what i)rocesses the books of the Old Testament have been brovight together, and how the Canon as a whole has been preserved. The three divisions indicate tlie order in whieh the collection took place. The order in which the several books were composed is another question. The whole collection now lies before us — in whatever order the books may be ar- ranged— forming a library of sacred literature, piously ]ircserved by the Jews, and received by the Clnistian (diurcli as part of Holy Scripture. A glance at tlie collection as a whole reveals some outstanding characteristics which it may be profitable to note. VAlllETY OF CONTENTS. — The subjects \\ith which the books deal are most diversified. There is history going back to primeval times, and coming down to the period after the return from the exile. There is law, in its higher moral aspects, and in its minutest details, bearing upon daily life and religious ceremony. There is prophecy, ever insisting on the .iustice and faith- fulness of God, re-affirming His covenant rela- tion to Israel, and reaching forth to issues affect- ing the whole human race. And there is the outpouring of the religious spirit in sacred poetry, and its reflections on the dealings of Providence with a world full of evil. And the remarkable thing is that these elements do not present themselves in such sharp isolation that we can classify the books satisfactorily accord- ing to their subjects. The law-books are full of history ; the historical books contain prophecy ; the prophetical books need to be read in connec- tion with the history; poetry is not confined to special books, and speculation assumes poetical forms. DIVERSITY OF STYLE. — In keeping with the variety of contents may be observed a diver- sity of style, each subject exhibiting a vocabu- lary and diction suitable to itself, and each writer chaiacterized by his own style. There is the stiff formal sententiousness of the law, the simple but flowing style of narrative, the lofty strain of the prophets, sometimes hurried away by the rapidity of their own thoughts, at other times rapt into the noblest poetry in their antici- pations of future glory. The Psalter is a harp of many strings, now pathetic and plaintive, again joyously jubilant; and the speculative books search out new modes of expression, or coin new words to express the new ideas with which they sti'uggle. DIFFERENCE OF DATE. — Some of these books, or parts of them at least, go back to the very earliest time at which literary activity was in exercise in Israel, and may even have been handed down orally before being committed to writing. Of many "of them the precise date can- not be determined, and in some books early and late matters are found side by side. But they extend over the whole tteld of Old Testament history from the early days of Moses to a con- siderable time after Ezra and Nehemiah ; and no age during this period is without its contribu- tions to this literature. Could we arrange the compositions in the order in which thev were produced, it would be very different from that in which they appear in the Canon. But even if this were possible, the result, however interest- ing to the student of literature, would not only separate what is united by affinity of subject but would obliterate to a great extent the unity in which the whole is bound together. UNIFORMITY IN LANGUAGE. — Yet with all this diversity there is a striking uniformity. The language itself does not exhibit marked phases, like other languages, falling into dialects and historical periods. The Hebrew of the ear- liest writings is substantially the same as that of the later book's. No doubt there are varieties of style and exi)ression, to be explained by the personality of the writer, the subject treated, or the locality of the writing; but there are no distinct dialects. Only in the very latest books are there signs of decay, but these are slight compared with the change to Aramaic, which came to be the spoken language of the Jews in later time, and of which the canonical books contain exami)les. [See Language, p. 2'2.] In all probability the work of the Massoretes tended in some degree to obliterate shades of difference which may have existed in the ori- ginal autographs ; yet it must be concluded that at an early time the language stereotyi)ed it.self and assumed a flxity which it i (reserved to the end — a proof, it may be, that the people early ])ossessed documents of an authoritative cliar- UNIFORMITY OF TO A^JS. — So also, with all the diversity of individual style and subject, and with a marked advance in the ideas and'a widen- ing of the horizon of the writers, there is a singular permanency and consistency in the pre- sentation of the great fundamental truths which the Old Testament embodies. The weakness and sinfulness of man, the holiness and righteous- ness of God, the grace of God as the source of all blessing, the rule of God as the law of the uni- verse, the faithfulness of God as the pledge of all good — these are so engrained in the whole texture of the Old Testament that it is difficult to fix a date at which they were first recognized; and the relations of these truths to one another are the hinges on which the whole of the revela- tion turns. The manifestation of them in the history of Israel is the connecting bond between all the books, the whole constituting the record of the first stages in the work of redemption. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE BOOKS de- serves attention in this connection. Although the position of a book in the Canon does not, as has been already said, guarantee the relative date of its composition, nor even mark strictly its relative place in the history of which it forms a ])art, yet the arrangement corres]3onds in a general way with the march of the history. The Pentateuch starts with jirimitive times, and the succeeding historical books continue the history to the Exile. The three great prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel stand in the historical order of their api)earance, and though the pre- cise chronological order may not have been maintained among the "Twelve," yet here also early books stand early, and the latest of them come last. And in the third division of the Canon there is a prepondei'ance of late or post- Exilian compositions. THE PROGRESSIONof the revelation, more- over, underlies the order of the books. The Law- books exhibit the choosing and preparation of a select people, and the covenant relation in which they were placed. The historical books show hovv this relation was in history ignored or falsi- fied on the human side; and the prophetical books are ever holding it up as an ideal, exhibit- ing its divine side and its educational meaning. And then the Psalms, in particular, and the wisdom books also, show the highest ])oint that was attained in Israel in the assimilation and exemplification of the religion as foinided in the Law and enforced in the Projihets. By the ex- perience of failure and the collapse of external supi)orts, as well as by the iiositive teaching of prophetic men, the whole of the older econ- omy was made preparatory to a better dispensa- tion. THE GROUPING of the books within the various divisions of the Canon should be ob- served. In some cases this has proceeded on 36 THE BOOK OF GENESIS. arbitrary or artificial lines. The " twelve " prophets have from earliest times been f;roupecl together, although some of them are prob- ably earlier than the greater prophets which stand before them. And, though in a general way a chronological order of the twelve has been observed, this order is not by any means to be taken as holding in individual cases. Still more arbitrary has been the placing of the " five rolls " together, irresyiective of their connection with other books. Thus the book of Ruth is separated from Judges, and the book of Lamentations from .Jei'eniiah; and our version does well to place them as it has done. In other cases, however, the groui)ing of the books not only corresponds with the coherence of the subject, but has actu- ally arisen out of a substantial attinity of the original literary materials. The two books of Samuel are not two independent compositions placed together, but are simply two parts of one whole. So are the books of Kings ; and these again ajjpropriately follow the books of Samuel, not only as the natural continuation of the his- tory, but as being based on the same or the same kind of original materials. THE PENTATEUCH is the best example of what has just been said. The five books of which it is composed are parts of one complex whole ; and so they are called by the Jews the five-fifths of the Law, each of them being individually spoken of as a fifth. It is no doubt true that each of these parts may be read separately and has its indi\ iilual cliaracteristics. Thus, Genesis is mainly narrative. Leviticus is almost entirely legal, Deuteronomy is hortatory in tone and legal in contents, while Exodus and Numbers are partly historical and partly legislative. Yet they are a' connected series, following the historical order of the events, and dependent one upon another. And not only so, but there are literary and other features of one book which are found in others, underlying strata, so to speak, running in parallel lines through the whole, showing that the several books have one connecting concep- tion, and that the whole must be taken together. In other words, we have not five separate inde- ]iendent works, but one great work divided into five. The critical work of detecting and classi- fying these features, while it throws light upon the literary history of the books, should tend to strengthen our belief in the credibility, and our estimate of the value, of the books, bv bringing the different " sources " as so many different wit- nesses in their favor. THE AUTHORSHIP of many of these books remains unkno^\^l, or can, at most, only be con- jectured with varying ]irobability. If we ques- tion the books themselves on the subject, it will be found that many of them refuse to give any clear indication of the writers from whose hands they came. The prophetical books, indeed, for the most part bear the names of the men whose words they contain, although, even here, the ^Titers of the books may not have been through- out the speakers of tlie words. Jeremiah, we know, was indebted to his friend Haruch for help in ])utting down his pr()i)he(^ies (Jer. 3G), and a similar thing may have been the case with others. And, not to speiik of Job, Ecclesiastes, etc., the whole of the historical books from Joshua to Esther are entirely anonymous, if we except por- tions of Ezra and Xelu'iuiah, and in regard to most of them it is certain that different materials have been united by editorial hands. Accord- ingly, there have been endless discussions, 'and the inost diverse opinions have been held, as to the authorship of many books or parts of books in the Canon, so that certainty on the subject seems out of the question. The authorship of the Pentateuch has been the subject of the most keen and even bitter controversy, for a special reason. Moses occupies so prominent a position in the history of these books, and it is so ex- pressly mentioned in several ])laces that he wrote the Law at the Divine command, that, as the terms Law and Podaieucli came to be synony- mous, the whole of these books came to be re- garded as his composition, and to deny this was regarded as tantamount to a denial of his legis- lative work. It is, however, imjiortant to dis- tinguish between the position of Moses in his- tory and the literary process through which the law-books may have come into their present form, and, in general, not to assume on this sub- ject more than the books themselves state or wan-ant. It is nowhere stated in Scripture that Moses wrote the whole of the Pentateuch, and it is undeniable that some things, at all events, con- tained in these books did not come from his hand. The books, indeed, in many literary fea- tures resemble the succeeding historical books, which are composed of different materials. At the same time, the unique position of Moses at the head of the people, the distinct and reiter- ated statements that he was a writer as well as a leader, and the unvarying association of his name with the Law, are sufficient justification for calling the Pentateuch the books of Moses. They may have passed through various modifi- cations before they attained their present form, but they are to be "accepted as honest and unpre- judiced records ; and the events in which Moses was concerned may be taken as vouched for by his authority. The position of certain modern critics that "Moses wrote no part of the Penta- teuch, or even did not sustain the office of law- giver which the books assign to him, has no sup- port in the books of the Old Testament, and can only be maintained by an arbitrary and violent treatment of the documents. For the rest, the anonymity of the historical books rather en- hances tlian detracts from their value. They come to us with the sanction of public acknow- ledgment. The writers evidently have put down what was matter of common knowledge and credence; they write as men whose judgments will be confirmed by the general conscience, and whose statements of fact will not be disputed. The books are not jnivate compositions, but the 'public testimony of the nation. THE BOOK OF GENESIS. THE NAME Genesis is Greek, meaning genea- logy, and has been, not inaptly, ai)iilie(l to the opening l>ook of the Bible, which begins with the generations (or origins) of the heaven and the earth, and traces from its source the genea- logy of the chosen jieople. In the Hebrew Bible the book bears no title, but is simply indicated, like the other books of the Pentateuch, by its opening word " In the beginning." In Jewish literature, where a more precise indication is to be given of its contents, it is sometimes called " The book of Creation." CONTENTS'. — It is evident from the first glance that the book is designed to be the first book in the collection. It goes back to the earliest possible commencement, " the begin- ning," when God created the heavens and the earth; and it indicates at its close that it is the ojjening of a long historv \\hi(-h is to follow. And as the whole Old Testa nicnt is the national religious literature of the people of Israel, this first book is obviously intended to trace the his- tory from its source. All the nations of the world that have become historical have asked THJiJ OLD TESTAMENT. themselves whence they came, and have given various answers to the question as to the origin of all things. The book of (Genesis, looked at by itself, may be rc'garridu." In .Suinerian, wine was called '//es-dhi, " the draught of life." A second tree is mentioned in early Babylo- nian hymns on whose heart the name of the god of wisdom is said to be inscribed. T//E DELUGE. — 1\\ 1872 George Smith dis- covered the Babylonian accountof the deluge, Sacred Tree, with Eagle-headed Deities. (^Photograjylied from Sculptures in the liritish Museum.) 40 MONUMENTAL TESTIMONY TO THE OLD TESTAMENT. Account op the Deluge. From the library of Assur-bani-pal at Nineveh (GC8-G26 b.c). Now in British Museum. The " Creation Scries " and the " Gisdubar or Gilsamish Series " give Babylonian and Assyrian aeconnts of the Creation, and the Babylonian acconnt of the" Flood, in many particulars resembling closely that given in the book of Genesis. which ,strikinp,ly re.semlilps that of f Jenesis. It is contained in a h)nn jiocni wiiii'h was coni- l)ose(l in the a^eof Ahialiam, but the Chalihean tradition of the dehifie, of which the account in the poem is but one out of many, must j;'o back to a very much earlier date. Xisutliros, the Chalda'an Noah, was rescued alonj;- with his family, servants, and goods, on account of his rifrhteousness. The god Ea warned him in a dream of the coming tiood, and ordered him to build a ship, into which he should take every kind of animal so that " the seed of life " might be pre.served. The deluge lasted seven days, and all life per- ished exce])t that which was in the ark. The ship or ark grounded on " the mountain of Nizir," to the north-east of Assyria. After seven day.s Xisuthros sent forth a dove, which "found no rest, and turned back." Then he sent forth a swallow, which also returned. Lastly he sent forth a raven, which "waded, croaked, and did not turn back." .So he knew that the earth was dry, and after .sending forth the animals, he built "an altar on the. summit of the mountain and oll'ered sacrifice. Then " the gods smelt the sweet savor," the goddess Istar lifted up the bow of Ann, and Bel agreed never again to send a deluge and destroy all man- kind. Henceforth " the sinner " was to " bear his own sin, the evil-doer his own iniquity." Xi.suthros and his wife were translated, like Enoch, and did not see death. The " bow of the deluge " is referred to in an old Babylonian hymn, the word for " bow " being the same as that used in Hebrew. UR OF THE CHALDEES.— \]r, now Muixheir, was one of the (diief cities of Babylonia, and was situated on the western side of the Ku- jihrates. The name means "the city " in Baby- lonian. It was the seat of a dynasty of kings who reigned before the age of Abraham, and was famous for its temjtle of the moon-god, whose other famous temi)le was at Haran in Mesojiotamia. ABRAM. — Contract -tablets show that in the age of Abraham Canaanites — or "Amorites" as the Babylonians called them — were settled in Babylonia, and that a district outside the walls of Sippara had been assigned to them. Sev- eral of the names are distinctly Hebrew, and in 41 THE OLD TESTAMENT. r^ ; ^ Vy^Vva A Semitic Family Bringing gifts into Egypt in the time of Abraliam. (The inscription says the sixth year of Usertsen II., about 2400 B.C.) {From a tomh of the Ulh century at JJem-IIassan, Upi>er EuiU't-) a tablet dated in the reign of tlie grandfather of Amraphel (Gen. 14. 1), one of the witne.sses is called " the Amorite, the son of Abi-ramu," or Abram. CHEDORLAOMER'S CAMPAIGN. — Many cen- turie'i before the age of Abraham. Canaan and even the Sinaitic Feninsiila had been con- (luered liv Babylonian kings, and in the time ot Abraham hiinself. Kalivlonia was ruled by a dynasty which claimed sovereignty over Syria MONUMENTAL TESTIMONY TO THE OLD TESTAMENT. ^4v^^). The contents are most various : the* prohibition of blood as food (17); laws of consanguinity (18) ; reverence for parents; Sab- bath observance; prohibition of idolatry; rules for the Peace Offering; duties to one's "neigh- bor;" forlddden mixture of cattle, seeds, rai- ment ; heathen and superstitious observances ; reverence for the aged ; kindness to the stranger ; just weights, etc. (19). Ch. 20 contains laws simi- lar to those in ch. 18. Ch. 21 and 22 are con- cerned with holiness in the priests. In ch. 23 there are ordinances for the recurring feasts ; in 24 prescriptions for the holy oil, with an incident of one who blasi)hemed (iod's name and was pun- ished, foUowed by certain laws binding equally on an Israelite and a stranger. The law of the jubilee and the redemption of the land is con- tained in ch. 25 ; while ch. 2(i, after reiterating the laws against idolatry, closes with a solemn blessing and curse for the keeping or breaking of the covenant. 6. The last chai)ter (27), which appears to be sui)plementary, relates chiefly to vows, tithes, and things devoted. ARRAXGEM EXT . — The foregoing summary is sufficient to show how little regard has been paid to literary jonn in the composition of this book. The laws are arranged in separate collec- tions, but all the laws on one subject do not come together, and there are repetitions in tlif- ferent parts (cf. especially ch. 18 with 20). As a rule, the various sets oif laws are introduced by a heading, bearing that the " Lord spake," usually to Moses, but sometimes to Moses and Aai-on", commanding them to sjieak " unto Aaron and his sons," or to " the children of Israel," and ch. 19-26 form, as has been said, a collection by itself. Bearing in mind the short time — only a' month — covered by the book, it looks as if, just as Moses was enjjoined to make the Taber- nacle "after the pattern that was shown him in the mount," so the book of Leviticus contains the detailed ordinances for its service, and for the life of the people, the substance of which was communicated to liim at Sinai, but here arranged in smaller collections for the conve- nient use of the priests who were to see them administered. CHARACTERISTICS. — A\^nrt from the liter- ary form, there are some notable characteristics of* the book of Leviticus. The greater part of the legislation relates to offerings and matters of a ritual or ceremonial character, the " Law of Holiness," however (ch. 19-26). going beyond these, and in this respect resembling the book of Deuteronomy. Then it is to be noted that the book does not give any account of the origin of sacrifice. It seems to take for granted that many of the things here regulated are already in existence. The very first laws are introduced with the words, "If anv man of vou bring an offering to the Lord," et'c. (1. 2 ; 2. 1 ; 3. 1). So the rules for vows (27), and many of the prescrip- tions in regard to rending of the clothes, and so forth, assume the practice of certain well-known customs. It is implied, in short, that the people had forms of worship and observance ; but these are here made matters of regulation. And they are not only regulated, but put on a strietlii reiir/ioits i- (8). The Passover is observed, and directions are given to enable those who should be ceremonially unfit to ob- serve it at the i)roper time to do so a month later (9). A transition to the next section is made by a description of the manner in which the jjillar of cloud guided the movements of the people (9. 15-23) and the silver trumpets were employed to sound the signal (10. 1-10). 2. The .irionapdn (10. 11 to 22. 1) covers the pe- riod spent on the journey to Moab, extending f romthe twentieth day of the .second month of the second year to the fo"rtieth year after the Exo- dus. But it does not even give a condensed ac- count in historical order of the doings of the peo- ple during this long iieriod, and leaves unnoticed a great deal that nmst base passed. All that it gives is a series of ejiisodes on the journey, with varioiis laws connected with the events, "till the people " came into the plains of .Moab. beyond the Jordan at Jericho." Such memoralde events were the murmurings at Taberah, imnished by burning (11. 1-3); at Kibroth-hattaavah, where the quails were sent, and where also the Spirit came upon the seventy elders, and they jirophe- sied (11. 4-3.5); and at Kadesh, on the return of the spies, when the sentence of exclusion from the Promised Land was pronounced (13, 14). The revolt of Aaron and Miriam is punished by the leprosy of Miriam (12); a man is stoned who gathered sticks on the Sabbath (15. 32-36); and dire judgment falls on Korah and his company for their wickedness (IC, 17). Among the laws which are interspersed in the narrative, the law of the red heifer for purification (19) is prominent ; and there are also regulations for the offerings (15. 1-31); and for fringes on the garments (15. 37-41) ; and the ordinance that Aaron and his sons should bear the iniquity of the people (18). Then follows an account of the journey from Kadesh, round Edom, with the successful en- coimter with Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan, till they come into the l)lains of Moab. The episodes by the way are the death of Miriam (20. 1), the faithlessness "of Moses and Aaron at INIeribah (20. 2-13), the death of Aaron at Mount Hor (20. 22-29), and the visitation of the flerv serpents (21. .5-9). 3. The t/iirif part of the book (22. 2 to .36) relates episodes that occurred in the jilains of Moab : the blessing pronounced bv Balaam (22. 2 t< > 24. 25), the idolatry at Shittini (25), a second numliering of the people (26), the a])pointment of Joshua as the successor of Moses (27. 12-2.3), the allocation of territory to the two and a half tribes east of Jor- dan (.32), with directions for the partition of the western land among the remaining tribes (34), and for the api)Ointment of Levitical cities and cities of refuge (35). There is also a chapter in- serted on an encounter with the Midianites (31), and a list of the stations on the wilderness jour- ney (33. 1-49) ; while various laws are interspersed in the narrative — on inheritances, the relation of Israel to the heathen nations, and on feasts and offerings (27. 1-11 ; 28-30 ; 33. 50-56 ; 36). ( HARA CTElilS TICS. — The book of Numbers exhibits the literary features of the book of Ex- odus, in that it mingles narrative with legislation, and shows a certain disregard of strict chrono- logical order. It is remarkable, also, for the pieces of old poetrv embedded in the narrative (21. 14, 15, 17, 18, 27-30) and for the jioetical form of Balaam's utterances (ch. 24), as now exhibited in the 7i'. r. More remarkable, however, is the brevity of the book com])ared with the space of time to which it refers. There is, in fact, scarcely any record of about thirty-eight years of the" time si)ent in the wilderness. Whereas the journey to Sinai can be traced from the Ked Sea to the foot of the holy mount, and the events at Sinai itself, and of the subse(iuent march to Kadesh, are treated at length, the long years of penal wandering are passed briefly over," and only a list of the stations preserved, with records of out- 49 THE OLD TESTAMENT. View of SIount Sinai (Ras Sufsafehj. {From a Photograph.) Standing occurrences by the way. The narrative becomes fuller again in tlie closing year, but tlie contrast is very complete between tlie record of this book and tlie fulness of detail relating to the first fourteen months after the Exodus. SITUATION. — Tlxf: blank thus left by the book can be ]iartially suiiplied from our know- ledge of the desert and the mode of life which prevails among its inlial)itants at the jireseiit day. The narratives of modern travellers have led us to modify many of the older ]ifiimlar conceptions of the wilderness. It is now known that the desert of Sinai was capable of supporting a large popu- lation at the time to which this book refers. Professor Palmer, who knew it well, estimated the whole number of Arabs ea|iable of military service in 1882 at about .50,000 ; and there are traces of a departed fertility and actual culti- vation, which prove that the state of things has changed greatly for the worse since the times of the Pharaohs. We should not, therefore, think of the whole host of Israel as engaged day after day in a weary march through the desert. We may rather imagine them having, like a modern Aral) tribe, their headquarters for a considerable time at one spot, where the Tabernacle would stand, like the sheikh's tent, and the Levites and heads of tribes Avould have their quarters, while the great mass of the ])eople would be scattered with their flocks and herds among the valleys and on the hillsides, ready to l)e suminoned, on necessity, to tlie ral- lying point of the Tabernacle. And it is not difficult to perceive the benefit of a life of this kind, in view of the future destiny of the peojile. The bracing air and the alarms "and hazards of the desert would inure to hardness a race that must have lost nerve and self-reliance in its downtrodden position in EgjT)t. And thus they would be i)repared for the arduous task of the conquest of Palestine that lay before them. The generation of weaklings, who took alarm at dan- ger and re])ined under hardship, died off; but the host of invaders that fell upon the Canaanites combined the enthusiasm of a conquering race with all the freshness of the sons of the desert. The Tabernacle. 50 THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY. Wilderness of Six. Jilt a riiotwjruph hi/ t'laiu.) THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY. N^AME. — L.i]ie the other books of the Penta- teuch, the book of Deuteronomy bears no proper title in the original, but is merely desifinated by a phrase in the oi)ening verse, " These are the words," or, more briefly, '• Words." The name Deuteronomy is of (ireek origin, and comes from the Septuagint translators. In the passage (ch. 17, 18), which ordains that the coming king shall " write him a copy of this law in a book," the translators combined the word copi/ (i.e. double or duplicate) with the word hni-, producing the compound of which Deuteionoiuy is the equiva- lent, meaning Second Law or Ucpeated Law. The Jews also, when they bestow a significant name on the book, call it " Repetition of the Law," employing the Hebrew words in the passage re- ferred to. These titles are so far ap]iroi>riate in that the book contains a second formal enuncia- tion of the I>aw. similar to the pr(iiiiulgatii)n at Sinai; but they are misleading if taken to imply that it luerclv rejieats laws recorded elsewhere.' LITEIiAUy J'(>J!.U.~The book naturally fol- lows that of Numbers, the scene being the'same in both — the plains of Moal) — and the foregoing history is presupposed. It is also the proper con- clusion of the whole I'entateuch, bringing down the narrative to the death of Moses. Yet in liter- ary form it is ditl'erent from all the previous books. It contains lioth narrative and legisla- tion, as do E.xodus and Numbers, yet these are thrown into quite another form. ' The bulk of the book, in fact, is in the form of addresses de- livered bv Moses. The history is a recapitula- tion by him of past events, and the laws are not, as before, given forth directly in (iod's name, but are enunciated by the aged' leader in his own name as the substance of the constitution under which the people of Israel are to live. The book is hortatory, and the whole time allowed for the addresses is only forty days ; for it ojiens on the eleventh month "of the fortieth year of the Exo- dus (1. o), the mourning after the death of Moses lasted thirty days (34. S), and we learn from Josh. 4. 19 that the Jordan was crossed on the tenth dav of the first month of the fortv-first year. C(hyTEiyrS. — After briefly stating the situ- ation, the book begins at once with the first ad- dress,whichis introduce iry (I—I. 40). Tlie theme is (iod's goocbiess and guidance in the past as motives for the faithful performance of His will. The second address, which is introduced at ch. 4. 44, extends to the end of ch. 26. The first l)art, which is introductory, and closes with ch. 11, repeats the Decalogue, "recalling the circum- stances under which the covenant was made at Horeb, and laying special emi)hasis on the first two commandments — recognition of Jehovah as the only God, and abstinence from all idolatry. At ch. V2 begins what may be called specifically the code of legislation which has given this book its name. It lays down the " statutes and judg- ments " to be observed in the Land of I'romise. All places of idolatry are to be destroyed, and one central sanctuary is to be recognized. All forms of heathen superstition are to be put down (13). Israel, as a holy people, is to keep it- self pure (14. 1-21); injunctions for tithing and firstlings and the Sabbath year are followed by a calendar of the national festivals (15) ; and tlien come a series of ordinances for the administra- tion of justice (16-19), the law for war (20), rules of procedure in certain civil and criminal cases (21), and prescriptions of a social and individual character, relating, e.f/. to kindness to animals, lirotection of strangers, and so forth (22-25). Ch. 26 is the conclusion of this whole section, revert- ing to the covenant on which all the legislation rests. The third, address begins at ch. 27. It is com- manded that, on their entrance into the land, the iieoi)le shall inscribe the law on Mount Ebal, anil pledge themselves there with sacrifice to its pcrfi)ruiance (27). The blessing and the cur.se are stated at length (2S), and fidelity to the cove- nant is again insisted ui)on (29, :\0). " The more formal addresses being closed, Joshua THE OLD TESTAMENT. is solemnly appointed as the successor of Moses, the written law is consigned to the priests and elders with the injunction to read it ]Hiblicly every seven years, and Moses is commanded to cominit to the people, in the form of a song, a recital of all fJod's great deeds for them (31) ; the song itself is contained in ch. 32, followed (in 33) by the "blessing," also in poetical form, " wherewith Moses the man of God blessed the children of Israel before his death." The closing chapter (34) tells how the aged lawgiver, at (iod's command, went up unto Mount Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, viewed the Promised Land which he was not to enter, and " died there in the land of Moab, according to the word of the Lord." CH.-iRACTEHISTICS. — 'Sot only in form, but in substance, the book of Deuteronomy is distin- guished from the other books of the Pentateuch. Though it contains a code of laws, the legislation is presented in a different aspect. Moses here does not so much jjromulgate law as enforce it, and explain its moral purpose. He appears more in the attitude of a prophet than in that of a legislator. The law is Ijased on the covenant ; and iust as at Sinai the covenant is solemnly ratified in connection with the giving of the tables (Ex. 19. 4, 6; 23. 20, 33; 34. 10, 16), and an exhortation, similar to those of Deuteronomy, closes the body of Levitical legislation (Lev. 26), so here the stipu- lations of the covenant are ever in the foreground, and the law is enforced on the, strength of it, and with reference to the new situation of the people. That situation was momentous. They were now at last ready to enter in and possess the land promised to" their fathers — now to begin the work for which the past training had been pre- paratory. A " holy nation," a consecrated host, bound together and bound to Jehovah by the great deeds He had done for them in the past, they are reminded of the conditions of the cove- nant, and confronted with its sanctions and safe- guards. There is a conspicuous absence of ritual legis- lation in Deuteronomy. It was not to the priests that the addresses were delivered, but to the whole people : the task before the nation was laid upon the nation, not upon its priests or leaeal to them most powerfully. On every high hill and' in every shady grove the rites of "a heathen worship would be seen, the seductions to its observance wo\ild be in the very air. To meet such temptations, to fulfil such atask, the mere observance of ritual and the performance of ceremonies would lie of little avail. " Take heed to yourselves" is the M-arning ever recurring in this book. The aged leader — the first of the prophets — alternates between lessons from the past and warnings for the future, and even when enunciating the very least of the legal require- ments, he infuses into them the abiding princi- ples of the covenant. LAW ANT) PROPHECY. — In the book of Deuteronomy we see law in its noblest attitude, and we see the intimate connection between law and prophecy, which, though sadly broken and marred in the subsequent national life of Israel, was recognized as fundamental by the projjhets, and appealed to by the Saviour as' His witness in the Old Covenant." Sharp was the conflict between prophet and priest as time went on, and much did the priests deserve the denunciations hurled at them ; but with the Law itself the prophets had no quarrel. On the contrary, it is because the Law is forgotten that they reprove jiriest and people together. It may seem as if they made light of ceremony, and even denounced sacrifice ; but this is simp'ly because these were elevated into meritorious "acts by a ijeople indifferent to the weightier matters 'of the Law. The rever- ence with which the prophets speak of the Law itself, and the fervent love of it expressed by psalmists, prove that the Law, when rightly understood as the mark of a consecrated life, the constitution in "a kingdom of priests," was indeed a schoolmaster leading to Christ. r The Jordan above Jericho. iFroiii a Photograph.) 6? THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. (I-n>,na I'l, ;ICHO. . rhotnrhr THE BOOK OF JOSHUA. ITS PLACE. — In the Hebrew Bible the book of Joshua is the first of tlie series, extending to the end of Kings, called the " former prophets " [see p. 32], but it is usually spoken of by us as the first of the historical" books. It is, how- ever, very intimately connected with the Penta- teuch, which immediately precedes it, for it takes u]) the narrative where "Deuteronomy leaves it. Joshua is the successor of Moses, aiid the work done under him is the completion of what had been begun, the fulfilment of the promise of which all the Pentateuch is full. Moreover, in its literary features it has many resemblances to the five books, so that some critics include all the six books together under the name of the He.rateiicli. It is to be remarked, however, that if ever they were united, the separation of the Pentateuch must have taken jilace early, for the Samaritans, though they have the Pentateuch, have not the book of Joshua. The book is anony- mous, for though the name of Joshua is attached to it, this is because he is the principal person- age in its history. COXTEXTS. — The book (1) narrates the con- quest of Canaan by the Israelites, (2) describes the partition of territory among the tribes, and (3) contains at the Cfjnclusion a solenm atldress by .Joshua to the assembled peo])le. The first i)art (eh. 1-12) is in narrative form. It tells how Joshua prepares the tribes for the crossing of the Jordan (1), and sends the two spies, who lodge at the house of Rahab.and bring back an encouraging report (2). The camj) moves from Shittim, and after three davs the miracu- lous passage of the river is effected (3, 4), and the rite of circumcision and the ordinance of the Passover are observed on the soil of the Promised Land (5. 1-12). Jericho is taken (5. 13 to C 27), and Ai is attacked, at first unsuccessfully, but after the discovery of Achan's sin and its liunishment, is taken (7 to 8. 29). The covenant is confirmed at Ebal and Gerizim (8. 30-35). The Gibeonites impose upon the people, and secure a treaty of peace (9); whereupon a league of kings in the neighborhood is formed to resist Israel, but their power is broken by the decisive battle of Beth- horon (10). The scene then shifts to the extreme north, where a powerful confederacy under Ja- bin, king of Hazor, is defeated near tlie Waters of Merom (11). With this victory the conquest of the land is practically accomplished, and a list of the conquered kings is given in ch. 12. The second part (13-22), while historical in style, is topographical and statistical in matter. It gives a general view of the whole land to be divided (13. 1-7), and describes the boundaries of the territory that had already been assigned to the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh, on the east of the .Jordan (13. 8-3.3). Then, having bestowed Hebron upon Caleb for a special inheri- tance (14. 6-15), Joshvia and Eleazar divide by lot the western territory, Judah, E])hraim, and "half Manasseh receivingtheir portions first of all (1.5- 17), and then the remaining tril)es, after the setting up of the Tabernacle at Shiloh (18 to 19. 48), a si)ecial inheritance being given to Joshua him- self (19. 49-51). The tribe of Levi received no territory, but the Levitical cities and the cities' of refuge were specially set niiart (20 to 21) ; where- upon the two tribes and a half are sent home to their own borders, with a solemn charge to main- tain the national unity and religion, in token of which they set up the commemorative altar of Ed (22). The f/ilrd and concluding part (23-24) is in the hortatory tone and style of Deuteronomy. .Joshua solei'unly addresses the people, warns them against the idolatrous iiractices of the Ca- naanites, assmihlcs tliciii at Slieclicni, wliither the bones of .losi'iih had been lirougbt, and there renews the covenant. A record of the events is inserted in the book of the I^aw, and a memorial stone set up under the oak that was by the 63 THE OLD TESTAMENT. Sanctuary of the Lord (23 to 24. 28). A brief ac- count of tlie death and burial of Joshua and of Eleazar closes the book (24. 29-33). THE SITUATION.— T\\e book exhibits the tribes of Israel at length on the soil of the land l)roniised to their fathers, anil i)laced in circum- stances to carry out the work to which they were called : it is the comiiletion of the history of the Pentateuch, the introduction to the history that is to follow. And brief as the record is in coni- ])arison with the magnitude of the issues, it gives a wonderfully grai)hic picture of the situa- tion : — 1. The roiiqiicfit is narrated in the account of a few battles ; and. but for the statement that "Joshua made war a long time with all those kings " (11. 18), and a comparison of the dates men- tioned, we should not, on a superficial glance, Clay Tablet from Tel el-Hesy (LAcmsH). Letter to Zinirida, governor of Sidon and Lachi.sh, part of the general diplomatic correspondence car- ried on between Anien-hotep III. and IV. and their agents in various Palestinian towns, supposed to have been written in reply to one of the Tel el- Aniarna tablets written by Zimrida. Found by Mr. Bliss. Now in the Imperial Museum, Constanti- nople. (Reproducer! hy pcrmi^^ion of the Palestine Exjiloration Fund.) perceive that it was an arduous and sustained conflict. Caleb, at the time he received his in- heritance, said it was five-and-forty years since Moses had given him a special promise (14. 10), referring to the time the spies came back to Kadesh. Taking off the thirty -eight years of wandering that followed, there remain at least seven years spent in taking possession of the land. It is verv noteworthy that the book gives no detailed account of the occupation of the largest and i)erhaps the most difficult part of the whole land — the central hill country that fell to the lot of Ephraim. Entering by the pass that leads up from Jericho by Ai, Jo.shna's force like a wedge l)enetrated the "heart of the country, and the de- cisive battle of Beth-boron laid the" whole south- ern part of it at his feet; its subjugation being summarily described in chai)ter Id. 4?)-43 (see the R. )'.). An eqxially decisive battle in the north l)roke the ])ower of resi-stance in that quarter. Yet " the hill country of Israel " is only men- tioned in a verse that enumerates the jiarts of the land stibdued (see 11. 10, li. V.), though the subjugation of it is hinted at as a task of more thaii ordinary difficulty (17. 14-18). So also there is a significant absence of names in the great centraldistrict from the list of conquered places in 12. 9-24; and it is curious to read (8. 30-.35) of the proceedings at Shechera (in the very heart of the central district), immediately after the cap- ture of Ai, and before any word has been said of the subjugation of the territory in which She- cliem lay. ^ Some have supimsed that the tribal records of Ephraim had been lost or were not available when this book was written. At all events, the omission is another instance of the incompleteness of the materials embodied in the book. 2. The ijartition of territory seems to have been a work of great care. In regard to seven at least of the tribes it is stated that the delimita- tion was done as the result of a survey and from written notes (18. 4-9;; and the officials of the Palestine Exidoration Fund, who had ample op- })ortunity of testing the accuracy of these lists, have observed that the boundaries of the tribes were '' almost entirely natural — rivers, ravines, ridges, and the watershed lines of the country; " that the names of to-\\-ns put down in the several trilies follow a consecutive order, so that their identification is the more easy ; also, that the territories of individual tribes in many cases consstitute well-marked physical districts" of the country; and that the proportion of territory to population varied with the fertility of the country. Such facts not only nicrease" our in- terest in these chapters, which have been called the Domesday Book of ancient Palestine, but heighten our estimate of the care with which the facts were preserved and of the accuracy of the record which contains them. THE OUTLOOK. — The tribesmen of Israel, hardened by the experiences of the desert, but inexperienced in the arts of a settled life, are here confronted with nations, enervated, no doubt, by the vices of idolatry, and probably want- ing in cohesion, but superior in the appliances of civilization, and at home in the land. In the end the invaders maintained their groimd, and succeeded in establishing their language, laws, and religion in the country. The firm hold which the Canaanites had of the" low-lying parts, how- ever, shows that the struggle was both long and severe; and the extent to which the Israelites were affected by the local idolatry is a proof how strong that ho'ld was. Nevertheless, the fact that the invaders, in face of such odds, achieved the success thev did, witnesses to the feeling of unity that kept" them together. They were not a nu"mber of tribes who wandered automatically into a land in search of sustenance. And how- ever much they declined from the right way as time went on, "thev must have been strung to a higher tension during the life of Joshua. This can only be explained by the impression made upon th'em in the lifetime of Moses, as recorded in the books of the Law. 64 THE BOOK OF JUDGES. Shechem. (From a Plinluiirri/i/i hi/ JIaso.n Good.) THE BOOK OF JUDGES. ITS KAME. — The book of ,Tiulp;es has re- ceived its name from the series of distinguished leaders whose exploits are recorded in its pages. They are called judges, not i)riraarily in the judicial sense of the name, but in the sense com- hion in Olil Testament Scripture ((/. Ps. 4.3. 1 with Ex. 2. 14) of defenders of acaii.se; for they ^\•ere raised up on emergency to take the lead in a national crisis, and to assert the nation's inde- l)endence. So they are called saviours (ch. .3. 9; 2. 16, R. v.). No doubt they would receive, from this very fact, a special deference, and be ap- pealed to as authorities when the immediate crisis was past ; thus it is said of Deborah that the people resorted to her for judgment (4. 5), and Samuel, the last of the linei appears as a civil head of tlie whole people. The office was not hereditary. The attempt of Abimelech, the son of Gideon, to make himself a successor to his father, with even kingly power, was aliortive. But Samuel's apiiointment of his own sons as judges (1 Sam. s. 1^ marks the transition to the settled organization of a monarchy. CONTENTS. — The book naturally divides itself into three portions. — 1. An introduction (1. 1 to 3. 6); 2. The main jiart of the liook (3. 7 to 16); and 3. A supplement (IT to 21). 1. The introduction is in two parts. The former l)art (1. 1 to 2. 10) goes l)ack to the situation of the first half of the book of Joshua, giving a view of the condition of the tribes soon after the war of conquest, or, at all events, not long aftiM- .Joshua's death. Some of the very words of the ))of)k of Joshua are rei)eated ; and the pur)iose seems to be to show how imperfectly the tribes had per- formed their duty of taking full possession of the land. Hence this part appropriately closes with the threatening of the angel at Bochim (2. I-.')). The other part of the introduction (2. 11-19) is more jirospective than retro.spective. It is ap- ]>:nently the proper continuation of the book of Joshua, for it also repeats its words, and more- over it takes up the narrative where it had been dropped. Its point of time is the age when .Joshua and all the elders who outliv-ed him had passed away; and it gives a general outline of the whole period, w hich is to be more fully related in the succeeding chapters. 2. The main part of the book (3. 7 to 16. 31) is oc- cupied with the exploits of the judges, with the occasions which called them forth, and the result of their activity. There is an almost stereotyped form employed": the children of Israel do evil in the eyes of the Lord ; the Lord delivers them into the hand of this and the other oppressor, who oppresses them so many years; they cry unto the Lord, and He raises up a deliverer, whose deeds are then related; deliverance is afforded, and the land has rest so many years. There are in all twelve jiersons mentioned in this way (counting Dcborrih and Barak as one, for they acted togctlici); l)iit there is no indication that tliey arc meant to correspond with or rei)re- sent the twelve tribes. Of six of these the ex- ploits are related at some length — viz. Othniel, .son of Kenaz, who shook off the oi)pression of Mesopotamia (3. 7-11); Ehud, of Benjamin, who delivered Israel from the oppressi(>n of Moab (.3. 12-;!()); Deborah and Barak, who achieved a great victory over Sisern. the general of Jabin, king of the northern f'anaanites (4, fi); Gideon, of Maiiasseh. who re)mlscd the IMidianites (6. 1 to 8. .32); .Tephthali, of (iilead, who fought with the Ammonites (10. 6 to 12. 7) ; Samson, of Dan, who contended with the Philistines (13 to 16), 56 THE OLD TESTAMENT. In regard to the other six, -we are told almost nothing beyond the i)eriod of their judgeships and some ifamily details. Tliey are: Shamgar, who routed some Philistines with an ox -goad (3. 31); Tola, of Issachar (10. 1, 2); Jair,of Gilead (10. 3-5); Ibzan, of Bethlehem (VZ. 8-10); Elon, of Zebulun (12. 11, 12); and Abdon, of Pirathon (12. 13-15). We have also a circumstantial and picturesque account of Abimelech's attempt to i pose as king, with his disgraceful fall (8. 33 to 9. 157). 3. As an appendix there come in two separate episodes belonging to the period of the Judges, and serving to illustrate the unsettled and law- less state of the country — viz. the story of Micah and his image worship, in connection with the .settlement of the Danites in the north (17, 18) ; and that of the outrage at Gibeah, which occa- sioned the inter-tribal war in which the tribe of Benjamin was almost annihilated (10-21). CHRONOLOGY. — "ihe chronology of the period of the Judges is peculiarly difficult, es- pecially when cr)miiared with other statements of Scripture referring to the period. In 1 Kings 6. 1 it is said that the Temjile was built 480 years after the Exodus. Now, if we add together the numbers given in this book for all the judges together, we get a total of 410, Mhich is evi- dently too high. And this has led many to the opinion, probable in itself, that as the sphere of each judge was local, their activity may have, in many cases, been so far contemporaneous. Jephthah is probably speaking in round numbers when he says (Judg. 11. 20) that the Israelites had held the country for .300 years, — i.p. from the close of tlie desert wandering to his own day. The statement in Acts 13. 20, that the period of the .ludges lasted V^) years, is based on a doubtful reading of the passage (see the altera- tion in the li. V.). The frequent recurrence of the number 40 (or of 20 or 80) in the book of Judges would seem to indicate that arithmetical precision was not aimed at, but that the time was com)3uted by generations ; and a comparison of the genealogies that fill up the space between the occupation and the reign of David brings out a result agreeing most nearly with the state- ment of 1 Kings 6. 1. THE SITUATION. — Thebookof Joshua pre- pares us in part for the spectacle presented by the book of .Judges. After the strain of con- quest and the flush of victory comes reaction. Deprived of a national leader, the several tribes are left to work out their own destinies; and, as has happened elsewhere, the comforts of peace ])rove more dangerous than the perils of war. The historian has no hesitation in ascribing their misfortunes to their forgetfulness of the national God, which meant compliance with the customs around them, and indiilerence to the dangers of their position. And then ]\Ioabites, Ammonites, and Amalekites on the south and east, Canaan- ites in the north, the roving Midianites from the desert, and the warlike Philistines on the south- west, in turn seize the opportunity when the tribes are secure; and the struggle for the mas- tery is from time to time renewed. The struggle had an educative influence, not merely in the strenuous eft'ort which it called forth, but in that it kept alive the feelings of tribal brotherhood and the national unity; and, above all, in that it brought the peojile ever back again to the recognition of the national God, the only pledge of their ]irosperity. In their distress they cry linto God, and every experience of His deliverance is a new reminder of their own duty. THE PERIOD, on the whole, is one of decline. There are proofs, no douV)t, of daring faith and noble effort on the part of individuals, but the mass of the people seemed to have yielded too soon to the seductions of idolatry and the plea- sures of ease. All the history shows that the Law was too highly pitched for" the life of a people such as they were ; it was an ideal to be set be- fore them, liot the transcript of their practice. At the same time, the fact that they held their ground through the period of the judges, and could be roused to enthusiasm when a crisis came, proves that they had such a Law, and possessed a consciousness of their mission, and an assurance of divine guidance. The period culminates in Samuel, in whose days there is a return to the standpoint of Moses "and Joshua, and a transition to established rule by the kings, and to the sustained authoritative guidance of the prophets. THE BOOK OF RUTH. ITfi CONNECTION. — Tixe book of Ruth, though placed in the Hebrew Bible among the Hagiographa as eople that they turn to God in penitence, and receive a token of divine favor in the victory of Eben-ezer (5. 2 to 7. 14). He continues his work of wise administration, going in circuit from place to place (7. 15-17). till events bring about a new development of the national life (8. 1-5). The abuses of the hereditary priestly power, and the desire of the people for a king, prepare the way for the monarchy ; and Samuel, by divine command, accedes to" their request, though he warns them of the danger (8. 6-'22). Saul, the son of Kish, is secretly anointed king (9. 1 to 10. 16), and his appointment is ratified by lot, .and vindi- cated by a successful exploit against the Ammon- ites (lo' 17 to 11. 15); and then Samuel solemnly lays down office (12). 2. The remainder of the book contains an ac- count of the reign of Saul, the first king of Israel. But Samuel continues to exercise so much in- fluence, and the affairs of David bulk so largely, that Saul can hardly be regarded as the most pro- minent character in the narrative. The bravery of the king and his son Jonathan are proved in war with the Philistines and Amalekites (13. 14) ; but Saul has to be reminded that he reigns by the will of God, and after he has twice disobej'ed the tlivine command given by the ])ropliet, sentence of rejection is pronounced against him (13. 8 ff. ; 15. 9 if.). Then David comes into view. Chosen by God, he is anointed by Samuel (ic. 1-13); ap- pears as minstrel to ease Saul's iiiclanrholy (16. 14- 23); distinguishes himself in the encounter with Goliath, gaining the friendship of Jonathan and the applause of the people (17. 1 to 18. 7). This popularity excites Saul's jealousy, who seeks by stratagem, and then by open hostility, to destroy David (18. 8 to 19. 1). David becomes a fugitive, first to Ramah, where Samuel was, then to the country of the Philistines, who send him Ijack to Judah'(19. 2-21. 15). There gather about him at the cave of Adullam a number of disaffected men, and Gad the seer joins him; but he has to send his parents to Moab for safety, while Saul wreaks vengeance on the priests at Nob for their sus])ected complicity with the outlaw (22). David, however, shows himself to be a true jiatriot by engaging in war with the Philistines, the eneiiiies of his country (23. Iff.), and wins the ailmiration of the nation by sparing Saul when he had him in his power. Meantime Samuel dies, and the eyes of all Israel are turned to David as the coming ruler. Yet he is still persecuted from place to i)lace by Saul (23-20), and finally seeks shelter with Achisli, king of Gath, who assigns him Ziklag for resi- dence. His dependence on Achish. however, threatens to force him to fight against his own people, but the danger is happily averted (29, 30). Saul, driven to the extremity of despair, consults the witch of Endor as to the result of the ap- proaching battle, but hears only the same sen- tence which Samuel had pronounced when alive (28). His army is defeated by the I'hilistines at Gilboa, and he falls upon his own sword and dies (31). THE SITU A TIOX.—The outstanding event in the history of this period is the institution of the kingly power. It is a proof that there was some- thing unique in the national life of Israel that up to this time they had no kings, like the peoples around them. Moreover, when the monarchy was actually established, it was set upon a differ- ent basis from that of mere political ex])ediency or the successful usurpation of a bold leader. The fate of Abimelech in the period of the Judges, and the unfortunate issue of Saul's reign, both show how ineffectual such a monarchy would have been in controlling the national life of Israel. Samuel's hesitancy to yield to the people's demand was not the' expression of jealousy and disappointment at being himself superseded. For he was not superseded, and the safeguards which, in God's name, he imjiosed upon the king kept up the continuity of national consciousness. The Lord was still the King and Ruler of Israel, whether Moses, Samuel, or David was the visible head. Saul, refusing to acknowledge this, was rejected; David, with all his personal faults, never lost sight of it ; and succeeding kings stood or fell according to their faithfulness or unfaithfulness to it. So it will be found that a good reign, in the view of the Bible historians, is one in which the jnoplietic voice is freely uttered and carefully obeyed ; a bad reign is one in which the king " forgets the Lord." THE P Ji OP HE TS.— Accordingly we see here, side by side with the constitution of the mon- archy,' the beginning of pro])hecy as a settled constituent of the religious life. "All the peo- ple knew that Samuel was established to be a prophet of the Lord " (3. 20). The function is spoken of as a well-known thing, for Moses was regarded as the typical prophet who receives revelations of God's will, " not in dark speeches," but iffainly (Num. 12. 8), and autlioritativelj' communicates it to the jieople. But it is in the time of Samuel that we first see prophecy as a continuous and even organized institution ; and so he is in the New Testament sjioken of as the first of the long line of prophets who foretold the days of the gospel (Acts 3. 24). His weighty words to Saul, " To obey is better than sacrifice " (15. 22), are the substance of all jirophetic teach- ing, and the part he took in the settinj;- up of the throne of David associates projdiecy in its early phases with the judiuiso to be fulfilled at the end of the dispensation in David's Son and Lord. SACRED MUSIC— The use of music in the companies of the proi)hets is something new in the history, and the custom seems to have been continued, for we I'ead of Elisha calling for a minstrel when the prophetic influence was com- ing upon him (2 Kings 3. 15). jVnd in later times the author of the books of Chronicles speaks of the sons of Asaph and others i>rophesying with harps, with jisalteries, and with cymbals (1 CJir. 25. 1-3, II. v.). It is significant that David, to whom the nation looked back as the sweet singer of Israel, and whose i)salms were sung in the Temple services, should have come to the throne just when this musical activity is so pronounced, and should have been so much in the company of Samuel and the projjhetic men of the time. Sacred music as well as prophecy from this date seems to have become a regular factor in the religious life and worship of Israel. 69 THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. ITS CONNECTION. — The second book of Samuel is simply a continuation of the first, the two havin;; been originally an unbroken compo- sition. The whole bears' the name of Samuel, because his influence was paramount in the or- ganizing of the monarchy, though he himself disappears from the history before the close of the first book (1 Sam. 25. 1). This book contains the account of David's reign till its very close, though his death is not related till the opening of the book of Ivings, because Solomon was actu- ally proclaimed king before his father's death. CONTENTS. — The whole reign of David, with which this book is concerned, is given as forty years — vis. seven years over Judah in Hebron and thirty-three years over all Israel in Jeru- salem (1 'Kings 2. 11, cf. 2 Sam. 2. 11). These two unequal periods may be taken as dividing the book into two unequal parts. 1 . The reign of seven years in Hebron is briefly described in ch. 1-4. This portion, taking up the narrative after the battle of Gilboa, con- tains David's pathetic lament over Saul and .Jonathan (1), his own appointment as king over Judah (2. 1-4), and the message of commendation sent by him to the men of Jabesh-Gilead for their kindness in burying Saul (2. 5-7). The remaining chapters give an account of the setting up of Ishbosheth, Saul's son, as king at Mahanaim by Abner; the contest between the house of Saiil and the house of David, ending in the fall of Ishbosheth and the extinction of the dynasty of Saul through the murder of Abner by Joab, and the assassination of the prince himself. David's lament over Abner is given (.3. 33, 34), and he clears himself of complicity in the death of Ishbosheth by executing the murderers. 2. The second part of the book (5-24) is of Hebron. {From II Vhotograpli.) varied contents. We have first an account of David's victories, and of his work in consolidat- ing the kitu/dom, now again united. He attacks Jerusalem, and makes it his capital (5. 1-16); and, after another victory over the Philistines (5. 17-25), brings to Jerusalem the Ark of the Cove- nant (6), and makes ])lans and arrangements for a more permanent and imposing exhibition of the national worshi]). In this connection was given to him through Nathan the promise of a lasting dynasty (7). We are then told somewhat briefly how the territory of Israel was extended from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates by victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edom- ites, and Syrians (8. 1-14); and the account of the nation's prosperity closes with a description of the court, and an enumeration of its officials (8. 15 to 10. 19). The chapters that follow deal first of all with David's domrsfic history, and show how it af- fected the closing portion of his reign. His sin in the matter of Bath-sheba, wife of Uriah (11), is followed by humiliation and trouble in his own household, which take shape in the rebellion of Absalom (12 to 15. 12). Civil war compels David to flee from the capital, but his army gains a signal victory, and he returns to Jerusalem (15. 13 to 19. 40). But .iealousy between Judah and the other tribes, which David seems too weak to con- trol, breaks forth in the revolt of Sheba, the son of Bichri, which is quelled by Joab (19. 41 to 20. The remaining chapters of the book are taken up with various .^irpplemevtary matters. These are : an account of the famine, and the means by which it was removed (21. 1-14) ; lists of David's mighty men, with notices of their exploits (20. 23-26 ; 21. 15-22 ; 23. 8-39) ; a psalm of thanksgiving by David (22), and his " last words," also in poeti- cal form (23. 1-7) ; and, finallv. an account of the numbering of the people, with the visitation of the ]ilague, and the purchase by David of the threshing-floor where the angel appeared when the plague was staved (24). THE LlTERAliY FEATURES of the books of Samuel show that this was an independent THE SECOND BOOK OF SAMUEL. comiiosition, from a rtift'ereiit hand than that which wrcitc tlie books of Kings. Tlie Law is not once quoted, and only once referred to (1 Sam. 10. '1')), whereas the books of Kings continually treat it as the standard by which the actions of the rulers were to be tested. In the books of Sanmel also there is no distinct reference to authorities for the facts recorded, whereas the author of Kings refers to writings in whicdi fuller details are to be found. Since there is no mention of the Captivity in the books of Samuel, nor even any hint of the decline of the kingdom of the ten tribes, it has been concluded that the books were written before the deportation of the inhabi- tants of the northern kingdom by the Assyrians ; but the writer of the books of Kings has before him the downfall of both kingdoms. The appearant'C of the books suggests that, though the writer makes no mention of written, sources from which he drew his materials, he freely incorporated in his narrative jiieces found in writing, or handed down orally. The song of Hannah, for example (1 Sam. 2. 1-10), David's elegies over Saul and Jonathan and over Abner, and the poetical pieces at the close of the second book, one of which (2 Sam. 22) is found in the book of Psalms (Ps. 18), are evidently not given as the compositions of the historian himself. The lists of heroes, and statistical and antiqua- rian tables which occur in the second book, may 4^.. OR Pillar op Absalom, in the \ ali. have been drawn from state records, for among the officials at the court there appear a " re- corder " (or, perhaps, chronicler), and a " scriVie" or secretarv (see 2 Sam. 8. 16-18, and rf. 20. 24). pnOPfTETTC rnsronrAXS.—Tho names of some of the jiropheticmen of this period, Nathan, Cad. and Samuel himself, are given in the first book of tlie Chronicles as writers of history (1 Chr. 20. 20, 1{. I '.), and the second book mentions histori- cal works w ritten by other projihetic men in later reigns. What the "works referred to may have been, or whether they are incorporated with the existing historical books, it is hard to say. Kut there is nothing at all improbable m the supposi- tion that these men thus early occupied them- selves with the writing of the nation's history. The prophets were men looking at the ])ast and at the future, seeking to make the experience of the one a lesson for the other ; and as they singly and collectively endeavored to rouse the national spirit and maintain it at a due level, it is most rea- sonable to suppose that in tlieir societies, and in the addresses they gave to the pcojjle who re- sorted to them, tlie facts of the nation's history would be the text of their exhortations. The his- torical books are all more or less imbued with the prophetic spirit, and written from a prophetic point of view; and this is the reason for the name the .Tews gave to these books — "the for- mer prophets." 61 THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE FIRST BOOK OF KINGS. COXXECTIOX. — The two books of Kings evi- dently form one whole, and they are counted as one t)bok in the Hebrew Canon. The division into two was introduced in the old versions, which reckoned the books of Samuel and the Kings as a continuous series, calling them the four books fif the KhujiUimSfOY of the Kinr/s, a title which is retained in our A. V. The division into two is less hapi)y in the case of the Kings than in that of Samuel; for 1 Kings breaks off at an arbitrary jioint of no special significance in the history. The name given to these books is qiiite appropri- ate, for they relate the history of the kings from the accession of SolouKjn to the Babylonian Cap- tivity. This whole jieriod may be divided into three great secttions, inarked by great facts in the history of the monarchy — i-lz. 1. The ]3eriod of the undivided kingdom under Solomon (1 Kings 1-11) ; 2. The history of the divided king- dom (1 Kings 12 to 2 Kings i") ; and 3. That of the remaining kingdom of Judah, after the ten tribes had been swept away (2 Kings 18-25). For con- venience, however, we shall follow the division imposed upon the English version. CONTENTS.— The i\Tst book falls into three divisions. 1. The rpir/it of Solomon (1-11) forms a well defined section of the book. There is a close connection between the beginning of the book and the close of the second book of Samuel, inasmuch as David, though old and infirm, is still reigning, and does not disappear from the history till Solomon is on the throne. The suc- cession is secured by the prudence of Nathan, David's trusty adviser, in the face of an attempt to set Adonijah on the throne (1). Solomon, being publicly i)roclaimed king, receives from his father a charge as to the measures he should take for the security of his throne, a charge which he executes on David's death (2). The young king, being invited in a dream to choose for himself, asks wisdom in iireference to wealth and great- ness (.3. 1-15), and soon after gives a proof of his wisdom in deciding a difficult case presented to him (3. 16-28). Great as well as wise, he has high officers placed up and down the country for administration. The people are numerous" and contented, and his fame spreads into neighbor- ing lands (4). In particular Hiram, king of Tyre, Pillar ln Quarrt beneath .Jerusalem. (From a l^hotof/rcijf/i.) Supposed to have been prepared for one of the temples. 62 THE FIRST BOOK OF KINGS. enters into alliance with him, enf;af!;inj<- to f uniish, in exchange for the produce of the land, materials for the construction of the Tenijile and royal palace at Jerusalem. The operations are de- scribed in detail (.5-7), and tlie narrative con- cludes with an account of the consecration of the Temple and the king"s prayer of dedication iS). There is, however, (//(fi^Z/fv sidr to this niagui- ficence. It is remarkeil early in the book (3. 1-3) that Solomon made affinity with the king of Egypt and took his daughter to "wife, and that the king and people sacriticed iu the high places. And again, after the dedication of the Temple (9. 1-9), there is a warning that if the people should prove unfaithful to their own religion, their land would be laid desolate, and the Temple ruined. And it is signiticant that, following on this warning, comes an account of the foreign relations of Solomon ; his intercourse with Hiram being again referred to, his alliance with the king of Kgvpt, his trade by sea with Ophir, and the visit of the queen of Sheba to Jerusalem (9. in to 10. 13). Wealth and luxury abounded at the capital and court (10. l-i-'JSi); and the foreign wives whom he &iAi.;.t.o KB' Solomon, Jerusalem. (Fmia a I'/ioloyrtijih bii Boxfils.) Supposed to be the foundations of the first temple. married turned away the king's heart from the (Jod of his fathers" and lerl hira into idolatry (11. 1-8). Whereupon liis unfaithfulness is sol- eiimlv denounced, and the disruidion of his kingdom foretold (11. r»-13) ; the historian enume- rates the "adversaries" who were raised uji in Solomon's time, showing the quarters from which trouble was to arise ; and the reign ends with an ominous forecast of the impending sidiism (11. 14-13). 2. We may take as the next period, the time from the death of Solomon fill the (irrrssion of Ahab to the northern throne (12. 1 to 16. '28). The discontent of the people under Solomon's exac- tions burst out at his death, and Jeroboam, son of Nebat, headed the revolt, was acknowledged by the northern tribes, and widened the breach by setting up sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel, and ajipointing to priests' offices men who were not of Levitical birth (IL'. 1 to 14. io). During this period the two kingdoms were in sharp antagonism, Rehoboam and Aliijain being but weak govern- ors, the former sullering humiliation at the hands of Egypt (14. 21 to 1.5. s). Asa, however, intro- duces reforms, and is successful in his encounters with Israel (15. 9-24). The dynasty of Jeroboam 63 THE OLD TESTAMENT. comes to an end with the death of his son Nadab, after a reign of two years (15. 25-30). A usuri^er, Baasha, conies to the throne and holds it for twenty-four years (15. 31 to IG. 7), being succeeded by his son Elah, who, after two years' reign, is murdered by his servant Ziniri (IG. 8-10). This murderer is" immediately attacked by Orari, the head of the army, who has in turn to wage war with Til)ni for four years, the result being the victory of Omri and the founding of the dynasty that was known by his name (16. il-'_'8). 3. From this po'int to the end of the book the historv falls mainly within the reigns of Ahab, .son of Omri, in the kingdom of Israel, and Jehosh- aphat, son of Asa, in the kingdom of Judah. Both of these kings had long reigns, Ahab's last- ing twenty-two years and Jehoshaphat's twenty- five, and as Jehoshaphat came to the throne in the fourth year of Aliab's reign (22. 41), their reigns are nearly contemporaneous throughout. More- over, they were allied by marriage, Jehoshaphat's .son, Ahaziah, having married Ahab's daughter, a union that was of fatal influence on the south- ern kingdom. Ahab's wife was the notorious Jezebel, daughter of the king of Phoenicia, through whom the worship of the Tyrian Baal and Aiitarte was made the state religion of Israel. It was in protest against this idolatry that Elijah the prophet came forth, and waged the contest with the court and court partv which is described at length (16. 29 to 19. 14). The designation of Elisha and Jehu to carry on the reforming work which Elijah had begun (19. 15-21) is the premoni- tion of the fate in store for Ahab's house. Ahab NiSROCH. An eagle-headed Assyrian deity, from a bas-relief discovered at Calah (Nimrud) on the walls of the palace of Assur-iiazir-pal, king of Assyria, 883-858 B.C. Now in the British Museum. Sennacherib was killed in the temple of Nisroch (2 Kings 19. 37; Isa. 37. 38). Figure op Baal, the Male Sun-God of the Ph(enicians, carried in Procession. himself shows his tyranny in his treatment of Naboth ; and though .successful at first in war against Ben-hadad of Syria (20, 21), he suffers de- feat and is mortally wounded at Ramoth-Gilead fighting against the same power (22. 1-40), Jehosh- aphat, king of Judah, being present with him as an ally. Jehoshaphat's own reign is described in a few' verses (22. 41-.50), the chief facts being that he was In alliance with Ahab ; that he was unsuc- cessful in his maritime expedition to Ophir; that he did that which was right in the eyes of the Lord, but that the high places were not taken away. The book closes abruptly in the middle of the reign of Ahaziah, the son" of Ahab. LITER AR Y FEA TURES. — The literary form of the Ijooks of Kings is quite different froin that of the books of Samuel. There is an almost stereotyped framework, resembling that of the book of Judges, within which the events of the successive reigns are placed. Wlien the name of a new king is introduced, it is stated how old he was when he came to the throne, how many years he reigned, and, in regard to the kings of judah, what was his mother's name. Then a general character is pronounced upon his reign, the events are recorded at greater or less length, and at the close a reference is usually given to another authority for fuller details. When the divided monarchy is to be treated, the usual proceeding is to give the record of the northern kingdom first, and then the corresponding record for the southern, the history thus falling into periods longer or shorter. And this course is followed so closely that sometimes the same event is twice related, if it concerns the two kingdoms. These features make it probable that the book is composed from other written materials, or at least largely based upon them. And the frequent references to books of Chronicles of the kings of Judah or of Israel favor the inference that state records of the respective kingdoms, containing lists of officials, statistical matters, and memo- randa of events in the difl'erent reigns were available for the jmrpose. There were also, in all probability, narratives of the doings of Elijah, Elisha, arid other prophets, preserved in the prophetic circles, which would furnish informa- tion of another kind. A work extending over so long a period could not be the expression of the direct personal knowledge of any one writer, and could only be composed in the way indicated. 64 THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. Tower at Zbrin (Jezreel), with the Mountains op Gilboa in the Distance. Supposed site of the palace of Ahab. (Froma Photograpli, by penuifsiuH of the Photuchrom Co., Ltd.) THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. COXTE]^TS. — We may arrange the second book of Kings in the foUbwin.o- divisions : 1. To the death of Jehiishnpltat. Tlie book commences where the first book had abniptly closed; or, one should rather say, the di\ision has been arbitrarily made in the middle of the reign of Aliaziah, son of Ahab, whose death is foretold by Elijah (1). The translation of the prophet himself is then narrated, Elisha receiving his mantle as a token of succession to his office (2). The alliance between the two kingdoms still sub- sists, and Jehoram, the son of Ahab, induces Jehoshaphat, along with the king of Edom, to join him in a punitive expedition against the Moabites, whose king, Mesha, had revolted from Israel on the death of Ahab (3). Then comes a section (4. 1 to 8. 15) on the wonders wrought by Elisha, in increasing the widow's oil (4. 1-7), healing the son of the widow of Shunem (4. 8-37), providing food for the people (4. 38-44), healing Naaman's lejirosy (5), aiding the king of Israel against his Syrian enemies (0, 7), and announcing to Hazael that he should be king (8. 7-15). 2. To the end of the Itoiise of Otirrl. — Jehosha- l)hat's son and successor, Jehoram, who married Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel, was succeeded by his son, Ahaziah, who was involved in the ruin of the house of Ahab. For Joram of Israel, while sick of wounds he had receiveil In battle, was suddenly attacked by his general Jehu. Jezebel also was put to death, and Ahaziah, the king of Judah, who had come to Jezreel to visit his kinsman, shared their fate. Jehu, acting as the executioner of the divine sentence, roots out the Baal worship, kills all the members of the royal family on whom he can lay liands, and becomes tlie first of a new djTiasty (li, lo). Hear- ing the news at Jerusalem, Athaliah, the queen- mother, puts to death all the seed-royal and seizes the throne. One child only escapes her fury, the infant Joash, who is kept hidden in the chambers of the Temple for six years, at the end of which time he is publicly exhibited to the people by Jehoiada the priest, and set upon the throne, Athaliah being put to death (11). 3. Old mi 1 1 at ion of the Northern Kincfdom. — With the disajipearance of the house of Omri, the alliance of the two kingdoms falls to pieces. Joash introduces reforms in Jerusalem, but has to buy off an invasion of Hazael of Damascus (12). The house of Jehu waxes stronger (13. 1-13, 22-25), inflicting humiliation also upon the king- dom of Judah (14. 1-lG) ; and the northern king- dom may be said to have reached its culmination in the time of Jeroboam II., who reigned for forty-one years, and extended the kingdom to its ancient boundaries (14. 23-29). At the same time also, under Uzziah, who had a reign of fifty-two years in Jerusalem, the southern kingdom en- joyed unwonted i)rosiierity. 4. Decay a ml doiviifall of the Northern King- doin. — From its climax of greatness the northern kingdom very swiftly declined to ruin after the powerful hand of Jeroboam was relaxed. His son Zechariah was the last of the dynasty of Jehu, after whom there is a rapid succession of usurpers; and meanwhile the colossal power of Assyria is gradually making itself felt till Tiglatti-pileser falls upon Israel, takes a great l)art of the territory and carries away many of the inhabitants. Assyria, in fact, makes profit of the rivalries of the kingdoms of Damascus, Israel, and Judah, coming to the help of one or another, and gaining at each move an advantage for itself. Thus Jotham, the successor of Uzziah in Judah, sufiers from a hostile combination of Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus (15. 32-38); and his successor Ahaz is so hard i)ressed that he makes oft'ers of submission to Tiglath-pileser on condition of receiving help (hi. l-H). So the king of Assyria comes against Rezin of Damascus and kills him; Hoshea the king of Israel becomes 66 THE OLD TESTAMENT. tributary to save his tlirone; but later on, Shal- maneser IV., ttudiuK "conspiracy in him," sends an army auainst liim, which after a siege of tliree years takes S:iiiiariu, and puts an end to the north- ern kingdom, many of the i)eople being carried away and foreigners settled in the land (16. 9 to 17. 41). .'5. The sin-vii>iuf/ Kiiir/dom of Jiulah. — Thus the kingdom of the ten tribes comes to an end. and the rest of the book is concerned with the remaining kingdom of Judah. Hezekiah was in the sixth year of his reign when Samaria was taken, and his reign is remarkable for the friend- ship between him and the prophet Isaiah, and the reforms that he endeavored to carry out. His deliverance from the army of Sennacherib is memorable, and his restoration from a dangerous illness, when he made a display of his wealth to TiGLATH-PILESER III. 745-727 B.C. From a bas-relief on the walls of the palace of Tiglath-pileser III. discovered at Calah (Nimrud). Now in the British Museum. ambassadors from Babylon, gave occasion to a warning of the doom from that quarter that was to overtake his kingdom (18-20). Manasseh and Amon were degenerate succes- sors of Hezekiah, whose impiety accelerated the national doom (21). There was a brief bright space in the reign of Josiah, who sought the Lord in his youth, in whose reign the Law-book was discovered in the Temple, and a more thor- ough reformation of religion was set on foot. But Josiah fell fighting at Megiddo, in an at- tempt to intercept the march of an Egyptian army to tight with Assyria (22. 1 to 2.3. 30); and his successors are mere puppets or vassals of either the Egyptian or the great eastern empire. Je- hoiakim is set on the throne by the Egyptians in iireference to another son of "josiah, vpho had by the will of the people reigned three months. But when the Babylonian supremacy supervened he had to own allegiance to a new" master; and his successor Jehoiachin was so hard pressed that he surrendered to Nebuchadrezzar (or Nebuchadnezzar), and was led away with 10,000 of the inhabitants, his uncle Zedekiah being set on the throne. (). Fall of Jerusalem. — This was the last king of the house of David. Nebuchadrezzar, finding him unfaithful, marched an army into Judah, Cuyj Kill- of tlie North aud South, Nem-a,b-Ra, son of the Sun, Cartouche of Phakaoh-necho II. 66 Neku. fNecho II.) 2 Kings 23. 2». THE SECOND BOOK OF KINGS. and after a siege of about three years, took and destroyed Jerusalem, carrying captive or kilhng lar-'-e numbers of the inhabitants, and apiionitnig (iedaliah go\eiu()i The people, however, rose ■JH".^ in the history of the kings. His fixed principle is that faithfulness to God and observance of His statutes and ordinances ensure prosperity, and that unfaithfulness entails disaster. Writ- nig from a point of time at M'hich the truth of this principle had been fully contirmed by the luinof the nation, he can estimate all the suc- ( essive reigns by its standard, and pronounce ludgment oh the whole course of the history. This is in fact the prnphotic stand iioiiit : and il we were to remove from the books of Kings all that may be included under the prophetic ele- ment, the residvie would be but a chronicle of bare and not very interesting facts. Not only cii .M.iNMiriM >ii' Sii u,An:.i.-ri; II.. \i\\r. ..f A^syki.' i/Vo,,, a J'h,Aoui-ai>li l^!i Cl.vi;kl .v.mi Uavik.^.) B.C. 850. Now in the British Museum, No. 88. His campaigns in Western Asia,. S(JO to 825 B.C.. have a particular interest, tor here we find the Assyrians first coming in contact with the Israel- ites. against him and killed him, and then fearing the vengeance of the king of Babylon took refuge in Egypt. Thus was the land wasted of its inhabi- tants, the independence of Israel was gone ; and the book closes when thirty-seven years of the Captivity had passed, Jehoiachin being a state j)risoner"in Halnlon ('ili. 31 to 2.5. 30). THE POL XT OF r/£(r from which the books of Kings are written is made jiretty plain by the writer himself. Whatever materials he may have had access to, and may have emi)loyed, he has a controlling plan in the presentation of them. His whole aim is not to furnish the greatest pos- sible amount of information ; for he passes lightly over many things that he must have kno%\'h minutely, and employs a scale of propor- tion, in the treatment of different sul)jects, out of all keeping with the degree in which they bulked Head of Tirhakah, The Egyptian Pharaoh, wlio succeeded in recapturing Memphis from Esarhaddou, king of Assyria. The defeat of this rising was the work of Esarhaddon's son and successor, Assur-bani-pal. are the doings of Elijah and Elisha narrated at length and with evident predilection, but at many points of the history M^e find prophets appearing at critical times and intervening with authority in iniblic affairs. Nathan plays a more prominent part than either David or Solo- mon at the accession of the latter to the throne ; Ahiiah of Shiloh tells Jeroboam the fate that would befall him (1 Kings 11. 29-.39), and Shema- iah similarly warns Rehoboam (1 Kings 12. 22- 24). And so it is all down the history. We know from other sources how Isaiah, who is mentioned in Kings, and Jeremiah who is not, were in- volved in the momentous events of their time, though their connection with them is not re- corded in these books. In like manner there may have been other prophets who were actively engaged in these events, although their names are not mentioned in the historical narrative. It is not to be lost sight of that whereas the author of the books of Kings refers in somewhat general terms to the written sources of his work, the author of the Chronicles speaks with greater minuteness of the same or similar sources by the names of their authors. Among these are Gad, Nathan, and other prophetic men who, as they appear in the history, jirobably occupied them- selves in writing down the events. 67 THU OLD TESTAMENT. THE FIRST BOOK OF CHRONICLES. THE NAME by which the books of Chronicles are designated in the Hebrew Bible is Affairs of the Bays (or Times), i.e. " journals " or " annals." The two are counted as one book, in the Jewish Canon [see p. 3J.] The division into two was made by the Greek translators, who also ga^'e to the books the name of Paraleipomena, mean- ing " things omitted or passed over." This name, however, suggests an erroneous idea that the books were intended to supplement antece- dent historical books. For it is plain that the author wrote independently and with another purjjose. Jerome remarked of these books that they form " a chronicle of the whole of sacred history," and after him some editions of the Vul- gate entitled the books "Chronicles" or "Book of Chronicles," a title which our translators have adopted. THE PLACE of these books in the Hebrew Bible is to be noted. In our version they are placed after Kings, so as to keep the historical books together; but their original position is in the third division, among the Hagiographa. [See Aeeangejiext of the Caxox, p. 3'2.] An obvious explanation of this fact is that the books are of much later date than the antecedent his- torical books. For evidence of this, there is the mention of Cyrus (2 Chr. 36. 22) ; and again, the descendants ojf David are traced to the sixth generation after Zerubbabel (1 Chr. 3. 19 If.), which would bring the date of composition I down to the close of the Persian period, or the early part of the Greek period, say about 330 B.C. In the Hebrew Bible the Chronicles stand last in the whole collection, though this is not to be taken as a proof that they were the last writ- ten. I THE PL AX is seen at a glance to be different i from that of the books of Kings, or, indeed, of any ! other book of the Old Testament. Beginning at Adam, and extending, in the genealogies at least, to a period long after the return from the Cap- ^ tivity, the Chronicles aim at presenting a view of i the whole of sacred history do-wai to the writer's j time ; whereas the antecedent books form a sue- ' cession, each taking vip the narrative where the j preceding book had dropped it. And though many : things contained in those books are necessarily repeated, sometimes in identical or similar terms, yet the writer of the Chronicles has a standpoint of his own, as a brief glance at the contents will show. THE CONTENTS of the first book embrace the history dovm to the death of David. Indeed, nineteen chapters (11-29) are devoted to David's reign, while the ten remaining chapters (1-10) have to suffice for the whole earlier history. These introductory chapters are mostly in tlie form of genealogical tables, the aim of which becomes apjiarent when the author leads all up to the tribe of Jvidah (1, 2) and the succession of kings of the line of David (3); and again, when the genealogical tables of the twelve tribes (4-8) culminate in the tribe of Levi (6), who served at the Temple, and the tribe of Benjamin (7. 6-12 ; 8. 1-40), of which a great proportion of the in- habitants of the restored Jerusalem consisted (8. 28, 32, 33). The purpose evidently is to trace the fortunes of the Davidic line, and to show the connection of the restored Jerusalem with the old order of things ; for the author presently leaves out of view the affairs of collective Israel, and proceeds, in a series of genealogies which end Avith Saul (9. 1 to 10. 14), to the history of the royal house of David. The exclusive regard to the kingdom of Judah is shown in the omission of David's reign at He- bron. The author hastens on to the reign at Jerusalem fll. 1 to 12. 40), with the removal of the Ark to the house of Obed-edom (13), and the build- ing of the royal palace (14). The festive transfer of the Ark to Jerusalem is described at length (15, 16) ; David's purpose to build the Temple is unfolded, and though the execution of it is post- poned, a blessing is pronounced upon him and his descendants (IT). After a summary state- ment of the wars with neighboring nations, and a list of the chief state officials (18. 15-17), we have an account of the numbering of the people, followed by the breaking out of the plague, and the fixing of the site for the Temple, with pre- parations for its erection (21, 22). Then come lists of the Levites and priests according to their courses and offices (23-26) ; as also of the divi- sions of the army, chiefs of tribes, and court functionaries (27). David then makes formal provision for the succession of Solomon, charg- ing him especially to carry out the arrange- ments for the building of the Temple, and dies "in a good old age, full of days, riches, and honour." THE POINT OF FZ-E" If of the WTiter of the Chronicles is mainly explained by the date at which he wrote. Though national independence had departed from the Jewish i)eople, two things remained: the TemjAe and its worship subsisted, and the seed of David still survived. Prophecy was silent, but round these two things centred the hopes of the people for a better future ; these two things knit them to the better days of the past. Looking back to those days, we need not wonder if a halo of glor>' surrounded all that was dearest in memory, andso the author dwells with predilection on those things of which a memorial, though faded, still remained. The book is in one aspect the result of the work that had been done by Ezra in consolidating the people around the Temjile and its worship; in another aspect it shows influences at work that tended to the exclusive separation of the chosen people, and even exhibits the dangers of such separation in the direction of a pride and satisfaction in formal worship. THE SOUJiCES of information which were accessible to the writer of these books are partly mentioned by himself, and may be partly in- ferred from the nature of the details. The re- gisters and genealogies have the appearance of having been carefully preserved. Moreover, the " book of the kings of Judah and Israel," what- ever it was, to which he refers so often (2 Chr. 16. 11; 25. 26, etc.), was evidently some well- known compilation, similar to or jtartly identical with the existing books of Kings; and other works with similar names are also mentioned. It is most probable that by that time many works of a historical character were in exist- ence. It was a time when all known documents of the past would be carefully treasured, and when even forgotten ^^Titings, which had not attracted the attention of former historians, would be sought out, and their materials pre- served in the pages of newer compositions. Books were beginning to be multiplied, and the author of the Chronicles seems anxious to assure his readers that he had done his best to verify his facts. 68 THE SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES. THE SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES. THE COXTEXrs of the second book, which is simply a continuation of the first, reveal the same plan and purpose — CfS. to exhibit promi- nently all that related to the observances of religion; and the author's pre-occupation with the house of David and the kingdom of Judah goes so far that he only mentions the kingdom of Israel when its affairs touched closely those of the southern kingdom. There are nine chap- ters devoted to the reign of Solomon, six of them being given to the building and service of the Temple (2-7), and two chapters sufficing (8, 9) for the general arrangements in the ad- ministration of the kingdom. In narrating the history of the kings, the chronological order is followed; but it is to be noted that the author dwells at greater length on reigns in which religion Avas better observed, and also that he gives prominence to the pro- phets who appear from time to time to remind the kings and the people of their duty. The reigns that are thus dwelt upon are those of Asa (14, 15), whose •' heart was perfect all his days; " of Jehoshaphat (17. 1 to 21. 1), in whose time "pro- vision was made for the instruction of the peo- ple in the Law by itinerating priests and Levites (17. 7-9); of Hezekiah (29-.32), which furnishes the congenial topics of the cleansing of the Temple, the observance of a great Passover, and sundry ordinances for the support of the priests and Levites ; and of Josiah (3-1, 35), with the finding of the Law-book, the observance of the Passover, and the general reformation of religion that took place. THE PRIESTLY TONE of the books of Chronicles may be recognized in the carefully preserved genealogies of the Levitical families, in the manifest interest the author takes in all that relates to the service of the Temple, and in his minute acquaintance with its details. This was to be expected of one writing at the time and in the circumstances in which he was placed, when the observance of the ritual was the greatest remaining symbol of the nation's glory. But it should not make us overlo(jk the fact that he is careful to emphasize the activity of prophetic men inthepre-Exilian period when prophecy was an ojierative factor in the national life. Ahijah the Shilonite (10. 15) and Shemaiah " the man of God " (11. 2 ; 12. 5), Azariah the son of Oded (15. 1), and Hanani "the .seer" (16. 7), and the martyr prophet Zechariah (2-t. 21), are piously commemo- rated ; and the writer, in referring to the works from which he drew materials for his book, cites them by the names of the prophetic men who composed them. THE CREUTBILITY (ii the books of Chroni- cles has been too rashly called in question by some writers, who have' represented the author as drawing upon his imagination, or at least magnifying and multiplying features of the past in the light of the situation in which he lived. We must, no doubt, allow that his bias and the circumstances of his time determined the se- lection of his materials, and led him to dwell on matters which the author of the book of Kings, for example, passed over or touched lightly in his pages. But the book of Kings itself" plainly indicates that many things oc- curred of which it contains no record; and there is no proof that the author of the Chron- icles drew upon his imagination for the events he records. Clay Cylinder op SENN.iCHERiB. (From a rhotorji-ajiti bij Clarke and Davies.) With a cuneiform accoimt of eiglit campaigns of Sen- nacherib, king of Assyria, from 705-681 B.C. Now in the British Museum. In 701 E.c, Sennacherib entered Judah and laid siege to Jerusalem to punish Hezekiah. Pressed by famine, Heze- kiah was compelled to yield, and purcliascd peace by tribute, for which he stripped tlie temple of its gold. Satisfied with this, Sennacherib returned to Assyria. Two years later he again invaded Palestine and laid siege to Lachish. The account of this campaign is as follows: — " Six-and- forty of the strong cities, and the strongholds and the ham- lets'round about them, belonging to Ilezckiah the .lew, I besieged and captured. Two hundred thousand and one hundred and fifty .souls, young and old, male and female ; horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen and shcej) without num- ber, did I make to be I)ro\iglit tbiTcfTnin, and I counted them as spoil. Hezekiah himself, like unto ii bird in a cage, did I shut up within his house in .IcrusaUm. I cast up mounds against the city, and I turned back every man who came fortn. The feur of the glory of my majesty over- powered Hezekiah : and his captains and his mighty men of valor, which he had brought into Jerusalem to defend it, laid down their arms. Thirty talents of gold, eight hun- dred talents of silver, precious stones, ivory, treasures, his daughters, the women of his palace, muuiuiaus C?) ... he sent unto my palace in Nineveh." THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE BOOK OF EZRA. TnE NAME of Ezra has been given to the l)Ook which introduces into the history of jiost- Kxilian .Judaism the scribe who exercised a most powerful inttuence on its future development. But the book neither professes to have been written by liim, nor does it contain all that we know of nis activity. Certain portions of it, which are written in the first person — viz. ch. 7. 27 to 9. 15, are no doubt from his hand; but tiiis very circumstance seems to indicate that the rest, in which he is spoken of in the third person, are not. And it will be found that an account of the most important part of his work is contained in the book of Xehemiah. These two books, in fact, go together as one whole, and in the Jewish Canon they are reckoned as one book. So, in the Talmud and by Josephus, the two are sometimes spoken of collectively as the book of Ezra, and sometimes its two parts are called first and second Ezra. ITS PLACE in the Hebrew Bible is immedi- ately after the book of Daniel, among the Hagio- grapha. In this way its account of the Restora- tion continues the history of the time of the Exile, which is the standpoint of Daniel, and along with Nehemiah it carries on that history as far as the sacred books have carried it ; the books of Chronicles closing the Canon with. a comprehensive survey of the whole. In our ver- sion on the other hand, the books of Chronicles, which bring down the history to the eve of the Return (though the genealogies extend further), stand immediatelv after the books of Kings, and then Ezra and Nehemiah foUow. And it will be observed that the books of Chronicles break oil at a sentence which is found completed in the opening of the book of Ezra. THE TIME covered by the two books of Ezra and Nehemiah together is about a century ; for the narrative of Ezra begins in the first year of the reign of Cyrus, 538 B.C., and that of Nehemiah stops soon after the thirty-second year of Aitax- erxes, 432 B.C. A great part of this space, how- ever is left without record, as we shall see pre- sently ; and we mav distinguish three periods : 1. The period that elapsed from the first return oi exiles to the completion of the Temple ; 2. The time of Ezra's activity as leader of the second colonv of returned exiles; and 3. The period when' Ezra and Nehemiah are seen together in the work of reformation at Jerusalem. The first two periods are embraced in the book of Ezra ; the last, in the book of Nehemiah- ^ THE CONTEXTS of the book of Ezra thus fall into two sections, ch. 1-6 giving an account of what happened before he arrived at Jeru- salem and ch. 7-10 narrating Ezra's own journey and the planting of the colony that accompanied 1 Cvrus having issued a decree permitting the return of exiled Jews to their own land, a colony under Zerubbabel, or Sheshbazzar, accompanied by Joshua the high-priest, took advantage of the edict, and, arriving at Jerusalem set up an altar for burnt offering and celebrated the Fejist of Tabernacles (1, 2). In the second year the foundations of the Temple were laid (3) ; biit the work of building was impeded by the Saiuaritan.s, whose offers of assistance had been refused, till the reign of Darius (4. 1-5). In the second year of that king's reign the work was resumed under the earnest instigation of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, though the adversaries did then- utmost to hinder it (5) ; and finally, in the sixth year of Darius — i. e. the year 515 B.C. — the Temple was finished, the dedication was cele- brated in a joyous feast, and the Passover was observed in the same month (6). 2. A period of fifty-seven years now elapses Portion of a Baked Clay Cylinder op Cyrus, Son of Cambyses, king of Babylonia, about 538-529 B.C. (From a Photograph.) Inscribed in the B.ibvlonian character, with an account of his conquest of Babylonia and of the chief events of his rei-n in that country. Cyrus attributes his success to the gods Marduk, Bel, and Nebo. Now in the British Museum. till the seventh year of Artaxerxes I., cijlled Longimanus-f. e. 4.5S B.C. In that year Ezra obtained leave to bring a second colony to the 70 THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH. holv city, receiving orders to the local governors, ancf offerings for the holy house. The journey occupietl four months (S." 1-32, cf. 7. 8-10) ; anil Ezra, delivering his credentials and presents to the i)roper authorities (8. 33-3(5), set about inquir- ing into the condition of the inhabitants (,7. 14). When he found that the people, and even the Levites. had contracted mixed marriages and adoitted heathen customs, be " sat down astonied till the evening sacriflce" (9. 1-4); and then, in the hearing of the people, made public confes- sion of the national sin (9. 5-15). This so moved the people that a public assembly was convened, at which it was agreed that all cases of trespass should be searched out. In two months this work was completed (10. 1-17); and the book closes abruptly w-ith a list of those who had of- fended, and who pledged themselves to put away their strange wives (lu. 18-44). THE KIXGS named Ahasuerus and Artax- erxes, in ch. 4. (;, 7, are by some supposed to be Cambyses, the son and successor of Cyrus, and the so-called I'scudo .Snierdis, whose reigns nrade up the interval of eiglit years between the death of ( 'yrus and the accession of Darius. It is more likely, however, that they were Xerxes I. (the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther) and Artaxerxes I. In that case, the passage, ch. 4. 6-23, would not come in strict chronological sequence, but would form an anticipation, the narrative there- after returning at verse 24 to the point at which the digression was made. Bird's-eye View of Jerusalem. From the South-east. THE BOOK OF NEHEMIAH. THE XAME of this book is given to it from the i)rincipal personage who appears in its pages, in the same way as Ezra's name is given to the book which is a"com|)anion to this. Certain parts are here also, as in the book of Ezra, written in the first person — r/s. ch. 1-7: 12. 27-43; 13. 4-31, and these we may accejit as the work of Nehe- miah himself. This book and the book of Ezra proi)erly form one whole, as has been explained under '• the book of Ezra." THE CONTEXTS form the sequel to the nar- rative of the book of Ezra. Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in the .seventh year of Artaxerxes, and after the events that are related of him im- mediately on his arrival, we hear nothing more of him till the arrival of Nehemiah, thirteen years later. In the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, Nehemiah, who was cui)bearer to the king, being sad at the reports he had received of the condi- tion of Judah, (1) obtained leave of alisence, and was sent to Jerusalem as governor of the city. The favor shown to the Jews, and the dignity conferred on a Jewish governor, gave offence to the .Samaritans (2. 9, 10); but Xehemiah at once took measures for the re])airing of the city wall, the local authorities giving him vigorous aid (2. 11 to 3. 32). He had to keep his workmen under arms to repel threatened attacks of Ammonites and Arabians (4). At the same time, he did not neglect the relief of the poor in the city (5). In tifty-two days the walls were completed' Mean- time he had to exercise great jn-udence in elud- ing the machinations of his enemies (G) ; but the work was com])leted, and faithful men were put in charge over the city and the gates (7. 1-4). About a week after this, Ezra again comes on the scene. There is a great assembly, at which he publicly reads the Law, sui)ported by priests and Levites, who explain what is read,' the ser- vice being continued from early morn till noon (8. 1-12). Then came a celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles, during which there was another public reading of the Law (8. 13-18). After this " the seed of Israel separated themselves from all strangers" (9. 1-3), and entered into a solemn covenant to observe the ordinances of the Law (9. 4 to 10. .39). The po]iulation of the city was increased by bringing within the walls a number of inhabitants from the surrounding country (11), and there was a formal service of dedica- tion of the walls (12). Nehemiah was recalled to Persia in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (13. 6); and when he returned to Jerusalem (at some undefined time), he found that the high- 71 THE OLD TESTAMENT. priest, who was related to the Samaritan gover- nor, had actually assigned a chamber in the Temple to Tobiah, the governor's associate. Nehemiah cast forth the furniture of Tobiah, and cleansed the chamber, being still engaged in similar work for the protection of the purity of the worshi]), when the book abruptly closes (13). 7'IfE PERIOD embraced in the narrative of the book of Nehemiah is only about twelve years, unless Neheiniah's absence at the court of Persia was prolonged. It was, however, a momentous period in the history of the Jews. After the pre- carious position of the struggling community at the time of Ezra's arrival, the time of the joint activity of Ezra and Nehemiah looked quite pros- perous". The building of the wall and the orderly arrangement of the city under a governor of their own race, with all the i^restige of the Per- sian empire, gave the Jews an advantage which the Samaritans might well envy. Above all, we observe now the high regard paid to the Law, and the reading of it as a regular institution, which, more than all walls, more than all im- perial favors, tended to foster community of in- terest, to preserve the national separation of the Jews, and to tit them for the task they had yet to perform in the divine purpose of redemption. From this time onwards there was given special attention to the i)reservation of the sacred Scrij)- tures, and under a soil that seemed far from fer- tile lay the seed that was betimes to germinate into a "new life. Daeic. THE BOOK OF ESTHER. THE NAME of the Hebrew maiden who at the court of Aliasuerus, king of Persia, was the means of saving her people at a crisis in their history, has been given to the little book recording tlie incidents ; and the " roll of Esther," or " the roll," as it is usually called, ijar excellence, is to the Jews one of the most highly valued of the Old Testament writings. ITS PLACE in the English Bible has been determined by the desire to bring together the whole of the historical books. But even thus, it is not in its strict chronological order; and, moreover, in the Hebrew Bible it stands in the third division of the Canon, or Hagiographa, and is reckoned one of the Ave rolls. [See p. 32.] THE CONTENTS are familiar. Ahasuerus, believed to be Xerxes I., the successor of Darius, having repudiated his queen Vashti, Esther is selected from among the fairest maidens of the emi)ire to take her place. She is a Jewess, brought up by her kinsman Mordecai, who sits at the king's gate ; bvit she conceals her lineage. Haman, a court favorite, takes offence at the Avant of respect shown to him by Mordecai, and contrives a plot for the massacre of the Jews and the confiscation of their iiroperty. Casting lots for an auspicious day on which to present his re- quest to the king, he obtains the desired decree. Mordecai makes known the ])lot to Esther, and entreats her to intercede with the king for her nation, which she determines to do. In further- I ance of her plan, she invites the king and Hainan j to a banquet. Hainan, taking this as a token of | royal favor, flatters himself with the success of ! his scheme, and prepares a gaUows for Mordecai. The king, in a sleepless night, has the state re- cords read to hiin, and learns that Mordecai had once discovered a plot against him, for which he had not been rewarded. AVhen he meets Haman next day he asks him, " What shall be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honour '?" and Haman, thinking only of himself, suggests a state pageant and a proclamation, and is ordered to carry out the suggestion in honor of Mordecai. Esther reveals the plot of Haman, who is hanged on the gallows he had ijrepared for his enemy ; and orders are issued to the Jews in all the pro- vinces to defend themselves against the attack which Hainan's proclamation had authorized. In memory of their deliverance, and with reference to Hariian's casting of lots, the feast of Purim (i.e. "lots") is instituted. The feast continues to be observed to the present day. THE HISTORICAL VALUE of the book can scarcely be called in question. The reference to the feast of Purim at an early date (2 Mace.) as " the feast of Mordecai," and the continued cele- bration of it to the present time, can have no other explanation. All that is known of Xerxes also agrees with the part he ])lays in the book. He was fickle, capricious, iiiled by court favorites, extravagant in his habits. The "third year of his reign, at which the book opens, which would be about 482 B.C., would answer to the time at which his army was collected for the disastrous war with the Greeks, and between that and the seventh year, when Esther was made queen, would fall iiis defeats at Thermopylae and Salamis, 480 B.C. mQ^S Nonh"and South, Ra-nefer-[A]tm[u]-xu, son of the Sun, Tahrq. (Tirliakah.) Titles of Tirhakah, from ms Caetodches. (2 Kings 19. 9.) - 72 MONUMENTAL TESTIMONY TO THE OLD TESTAMENT. MONUMENTAL TESTIMONY TO THE OLD TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE, LL.D. PART II. {Contimied from page 43.) CHrftHAN-RTSHATHAIM' S COJSTQUEST OF ISRAEL. — We have learned froni the Tel el- Araarna tablets that Palestine had been invaded by the forces of Aram-naharaim (A. V. " Meso- potamia ") more than once, long before the Exodus, and that at the time they were writ- ten, the king of Aram-naharaim was still in- triguing in Canaan. It is mentioned among the countries which took part in the attack upon Egypt in the reign of Ramses III. (of the Twentieth Dynasty), but as its king is not one of the princes stated to have been conquered by the Pharaoh, it would seem that he did not actually enter Egypt. As the reign of Ramses III. corresponds with the Israelitish occupation of Canaan, it is probable that the Egyptian monviments refer to the oppression of the Isra- elites by Chushan-rishathaim. Canaan was still regarded as a province of Egypt, so that, in attacking it, Chushan-rishathaim would have been considered to be attacking Egvpt. SHISHAK'S INVASION OF ./UDAH. — SM- shak (Shashanq in Egyptian), the founder of the Egyptian Twenty-second Dynasty, has given on the southern "wall of the temple of Karnak, a list of the places he captured in Palestine. Shishak taking Jews into Captivity. Fmin a Wall nf Karnak (Lepsius). Shisliak liolds in liis hand strings, le.ading various captives supposed to have been taken in his invasion of Judah. (2 Clir. 12. 2-9.) 73 THE OLD TESTAMENT. Most of them were in Judali, but there are a few (e.ii. Megiddo and Taanach) which belonged to the northern kingdom. TJIK MO A 111 TK STONE. — In 1868 an inscrip- tion was found at Dhiban, tlie ancient Dibon, which proved to be an account by the Moabite king Mesha (2 Kings 3. 4) of his successful re- volt from Samaria, and of his buildings in Moab. He calls himself the son of Chemosh- melech, who " reigned over Moab thirty years." " Omri, king of Israel, oppressed Moab many days, for Chemosh [see 1 Kings 11. 7] was angry with his land." Then Mesha revolted in the time of Ahab. He overthrew the Israelites, took Medeba (Num. 21. 30), Ataroth (Num. 32. 3), Jahaz (Isa. 15. 4), and Nebo (Isa. 15. 2), where there hail been an altar to " Yahveh " (Jehovah), and he rebuilt Korkhah, Aroer, Bezer, and other fortresses. It is clear from 2 Kings 3. 5, that the chief successes of Mesha were gained after Ahab's death, though we learn from the in- scription that Medeba was captured in the middle of Ahab's reign. But the independence of Moab was not gained till the reign of Jehoram. The Korkliah of the inscription seems to be the Biblical Kir-haraseth (2 Kings 3. 25). The language of it hardly differs from Hebrew in vocabulary, grammar, or expres- sions. THE HITTITES.— Modern research has com- pletely vuKlicated the historical accuracy of the Bible in describing Hittite kingdoms to the north of Palestine (1 Kings 10. 29; 2 Kings 7. 6). Hittite monuments have been found in northern Syria, as well as in Asia Minor. They are characterized by a peculiar style of art, originally modified from that of early Baby- lonia, as well as by a system of hieroglvph"ic writing, which has not yet been deciphered. The human ligures represented on the monu- ments wear shoes with upturned ends, and their beardless faces have a strangely protru- Black Obelisk op Shalmaneser II. Second row of bas-relief enlarged. (From a Phoiograph.) sive nose and upper jaw. Composite animal figures, like the double-headed eagle, are also common. We learn from the Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions that in the age of the Exodus the Hittites were a very poM'erful peo- ple, able to contend on equal terms with Egypt, and that their power and influence extended wpstw;n-d as far as the shores of the ^gean. Tliey had descended from the Taurus, and over- run a coiisidiM-able part of northern Syria, es- tal)lishinii' themselves in their two capitals of Carchcniish (iili hit Ci.ARKE and Davies.) When the power of the Syrians of Dnmascus was broken by Shalmaneser there was a general submission to the Assyrian king. Jeliii, king of Israel, was among those who .sent tribute. With rows of bas-reliefs on the four sides, with nu aocount of the expeditions undertaken by Shalmaneser during the thirty-five years of his reign, and with scenes representing the paying of tribute by the kings whom he had conquered. First row showing the tribute of Sua : the second, the tribute of Jehu, son of Omri ; the third, the tribute of the :Musri ; the fourth, of Marduk-ablu- usur ; the fifth, of Garparuuda. This obelisk, found at Nimrud, is now ia the British Museum. 77 THE OLD TESTAMENT. thirty-seventh year (5G7 B.C.) he defeated the Pharaoh Amasis, and occupied apart of Egypt, as well as " Phut of the lonians." Similarly, the prophecy of Ezekiel against Tyre (26. 7-14) has been coiifirmed by a Pabylonian contract- tablet, dated at Tyre in the fortieth year of Nebuchadrezzar, which shows that Tjre had already been captured by him. The name of his son, Evil-Merodach, is written Amil- Marduk, " the man of Merodacli." Most of the larger inscrii)tions of Nebuchadrezzar are filled with accounts of liis buildings in Babylon {rf. Dan. 4. 30). [See Illustration, p. 102.] THE FALL OF BAB YL ON. — A chronicle drawn CaPTUKE 01 1 HI, I II }- 1 II r'lbH BY SENroetry of the prophets. It should also i)e remembered that the New Testament, as well as the Old, contains poetry of the Hebrew type. Thus (Mat. 8. 20) : The foxes have holes. And the birds of the heaven have nests ; But the Son of man hath not where to lay his head. The first two lines have perhaps been taken from a popular pastoral ode. Mat. 25. 34-36 is also in- fluenced bv the old poetic stvle. THE MATTE It OF BIBLE POETRY. ~\. The poetry of the Bible, although varied in its contents, has throughout the stamp of religion — i. e. of the religion of .lehovah. It was the ex- pression of the highest and deepest sentiment and emotion of Israel, but the thought and the feeling were excited by religious and moral mo- tives. Thus, what is more directly of a histor- ical or political character is pervaded by an underlying religious spirit. 2. The Bible poetry is siiiijilf and lucid. It not only deals with fa- miliar and homely themes, but it embodies its conceptions in simple phrase ; its images are bold and clear; it depicts the sublime and the grand in the i>hysical universe, and the most common and impressive of natural phenomena. 3. It is ■u/iir/rsn/. Its themes are of world-wide signifi- cance ; it deals with problems of the inner life, yet only with such as have a genuine and per- petual hmnan interest; it is subjective, and yet clearly objectirized in experiences that are com- mon or possible to all. Its intuitions are the voice of the universal human consciousness wit- nessing to the truth of God. SI-E( I A L CLASSIFICATION. — Poetry is usually classified as epic, dramatic, lyric, and di- dactic. The first-named can hardly be said to be found in the Bible. Certain compositions have a quasi-dramatic form. But the lyric and didactic poetry of the Bible is unequalled. A more spe- cific distribution is as follows : — 1. Lyrical Poetry. — The composition of this, the most characteristic and influential class of sacred poetry, extended over at least a thousand years, and embraced a great variety of subjects. No stage or crisis in the national history was with- out its songs. Most characteristic of the early periods were the triumphal odes which celebrated deliverances from peril through .Jehovah. These exercised a dominant influence upon the compo- sition of the Psalms. Of more importance even than the political vicissitudes of Israel were the inner religious and moral struggles, all of which found expres- sion in poetical form. These were not only con- tests with idolatrous or semi-idolatrous worship^ but were more i)articularly conflicts within the social sphere. The hard lot of the poor and un- fortunate became of peri)etual significance from the fact that they comprised nearly allJehovah's true worshippers, while the rich and powerful were usually oppressors and persecutors. The Psalms of the poor and helpless are very numer- ous, and are a fitting jirchule to the fortunes and issues of the early ( liristian church. But fur- ther, the unremitting conflict within Israel, and the national calamities generally, encouraged the hope of a coming Deliverer. Thus in the Psalms as well as in the utterances of the prophet-poets we have the need of redemjjtion variously ex- pressed, the advent of a Redeemer foretold, and the nature of His kingdom portrayed. Outside of the Psalms we have the more strictly historical poetry. Besides the blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49), we have .such splendid lyrics as Miriam's song (Ex. 15), the songs of Moses (Deut. 32, 33), the song of Deborah (.Judg. 5), the " Song of the Bow " (2 Sam. 1), and the hymn of Hezekiah (Isa. 38). 2. Didactic Poetry* is of wide range and dis- tribution. It is principally gnomic (consisting of maxims), as in the Proverbs. Yet the book of that name is not entirely of this character, since much of it (ch. 1 to 9 and 31) is reflective. Such also is the book of Ecclesiastes. Even many of the I'salms, too, are really reflective poems, though in a lyrical guise, e.g. Ps. 14, 37, 49, 50, 78, 104-106, 139. 3. Semi-Dramatic Poetry. —The book of Job can hardly be called a drama strictly, since the basis of the drama is action, and in this great work, action is presented only in the prologue and epilogue. The main portion of the book is a philosophical dialogue of a most elaborate kind. Since, however, there is a regular alternation of pai'ts among the speakers, aiid the whole is en- closed within a dramatic framework, the term " semi-dramatic " may be devised for the occa- sion. The same term "may be applied to the Song of Solomon, which has' also a distribution of parts, while the substance of the jjoem is lyrical. 4. Elegiac Poetry. —A subordinate division may be distinguished by this name. It consists of a few compositions, which are not only of a pathetic character, but are also marked by a very carefully elaborated and peculiar poetic struc- ture. Besides the Lamentations, the longest and most perfect specimen, there are several elegies in the i>riiphetii- writings which exhibit similar featui-fs i)f matter anil i'nrm. TEMPLE MUSIC Ai\L> PSALMODY. — Con- siderable obscurity still rests upon the subject of the service of praise in the ancient Jewish Church. What we know of it applies mostly to the ritual of the Second Temple. In the books of the Law, nothing is said either of music or of its use in the public services, the only reference to the subject being the rules for the blowing of the silver trumpets by the priests on the fea.st- days (Num. 10. 1-10). David was the originator of the liturgical service of song. But before his time there must have been more or less hymn-singing both in the Tabernacle and in the gatherings of the "sons of the prophets" (1 Sara. 10. 5). According to 1 Chr. 15. 17, David instituted an orchestra with three leaders : Heinan, Asaph, Ethan or Jeduthun, all of them Levites. These ]3ioneers founded school.i of musical perform- ance, as we learn from the titles of several of the Psalms. Levites were chosen for this func- tion partlv because of its sacred character, and partlv because they had the leisure necessary for regular and constant training of voice and mind. The divisions of the orchestra and choir may be 82 HEBREW POETRY AND MUSIC. outlined as follows, according to the instruments played : — I." rEUCUssiox INSTRUMENTS. — 1. " Cvnibals " were used (1 t'hr. 15. IG ; Ps. 150, etc.) to boat time. These were plates of brass struck tog,ether. In Ps. 150 two kinds are mentioned. In the one case four pieces were employed, two in each hand ; in the other, only two were used, i.e. one in each hand. 2. The " timbrel " or " tabret," which was usu- ally jilayed by women (Ex. 15. 20; Judg. 11.34; TlLIBra3L. 1 Sam. 18. 6; Ps. fiS. 25). This was a i)opular in- strument for festive occasions (Isa. 5. 12 ; 24. 8), and was always a sign of jov and peace (Job 21. 12: Isa. 30. 32;' Jer. 31. 4). II. STRixfiED IxsTKUMEXTS. — 1. " Psalterics." These were perhaps nearer the modern harps, or possibly nearer still to the Grecian lyre. They were set to the soprano register (1 Chr. 15. 20, cf. Ps. 46, alamofh). 2. "Harps." These were set an octave lower (1 Chr. 15. 21 ; Ps. 6. 1, shein hi itli). These therefore had longer strings than the psalteries, and per- haps corresponded somewhat to our bass-viols. At any rate their music was solemn and grave. With "this corresponds the effect produced by the " harp," when played by David before Saul as contrasted with the stirring tones of the " psaltery " or lyre. The harjis were to " take the lead " (1 Chr. 15'. 21). The head of the " harpers " would therefore seem to have had the direction of the orchestra, and probably to have opened the pieces generally. Compare the title so often 1 IAN Hakper. occurring in the headings of the Psalms, " to the chief Musician " or musical director. III. Wind Ixstrhmknts. — 1. The pastoral pipe, or reed-flute, translated "organ" in A.V. (Gen. 4. 21; Job 21. 12; 30. 31; Ps. 150. 4). This was used in the second Temple, especially in ren- dering the "Hallel" (the group of Psalms of praise, 113 to 118, which were sung at the Pass- over and other festivals). 2. The "pipe" (Isa. 30. 29; cf. 5. 12; 1 Kings 1. 40) was the most popular of this class. It M'as not used within the Temi)le itself, but probably in processions ((/. Ps. 87. 7). 3. The " trumpet," also the " cornet " (Ps. 81. 3 ; 98. 6 ; 150. 3). These were used by the priests in convoking assemblies, and also by heralds in announcing the ap])roach of a monarch. They had importance for the temple service, inasmuch as they introduced the festal seasons, and were blown' at the formation of processions. The priests, as distinguished from the trained Levites, did not sing or play, and therefore used these simpler instruments. The distinction between them is mainly that the trum]iet gave a deep hoarse sound, while the cornet (Heb. s/(o/a?')gave a cdear note, like the bugle or clarion. In great processions the singers went first, and the minstrels followed. Around the singers danced a band of women playing timbrels and cymbals (Ps. 68. 25). ' SIKGING. — In the second Temi)le the whole congregation did not usuallv sing, but all joined in the Amen (1 Chr. 10. .36). In the " Hallel" " (see above) they repeated the first line of each verse, and after the second line, they fell in with the "Hallelujah;" cf. Jer. 33. 11 for the practice of the first Temple, where Ps. 118 is quoted ; also Ezra 3. 10 if., which likewise implies responsive singing by the congicgation. So Nehemiah (12. 27, 28, 31,' 38) appointed two companies of re- sponsive singers at the dedication of the city wall. The germ of this institution may be found in Miriam's company of women answering the singing of the men. Antij>Jui>ni/ singing was performed in such cases as Ps. 24 and 121. From 1 Chr. 25. 5, 6 we learn that women took at least occasional part in the Temple singing {cf. 13. 8). According to the Talmud, boys also formed a iiart of the choir, as we are told that the sons of the Levite singers stood below the platform to add their higher notes to the deeper voices of the men. In the second Temple a large ])latform or pul- pit, raised by a few stejis, led from the outer court to that "of the jiriests. On this the orches- tra was placed, consisting of at least twelve players :nine harps, two psalteries, and one cym- bal" On certain occasions the flute (" organ ") was added. The following scheme may serve to exhibit the essential features of the Temple service of praise : — {Levites. Boys. Women. Conrjrcgatiou. /nMnimeiits. Trumpets and Cornets. rPsaltery (lyre or lute). Harp (viol). i Flute. 1^ Cymbal. J''uncliovs. Processions and leasts. Treble (alamolli). Bass (.iheminifli), to lead. Oeeasioual. To beat time. Ordinary and Antipfional Singing. Amen and responses. MUSICAL TERMS AND TUXES. — The musical notes occur mostly in the superscrip- tions of the Psalms. For an explanation of these, see Book of Psalims, j). 86. Remains or sam])les of some of the Temple melodies are supjiosed to be found in the " Gre- gorian ])salm tunes." This is not at all impos- sible, when we remember that the earliest Christian congregations were Jewish. It will be understood, of course, that in the ancient style the songs were all rhylhrnical and metri- cal, and were sung in chanting or recitative style. THE OLD TESTAMENT. THE BOOK OF JOB. BY PROFESSOR A. B. DAVIDSON, D.D., EDINBURGH. CONTENTS. — Th^e Book of Job is so called from the name of the man whose history forms the subject of it. It consists of these parts : — 1. The prologue (ch. 1, 2), written in prose. This (lescrilies .Job, a man living in the land of Uz, on the borders of Kdom, famed for wealth and piety. The man " was perfect and ui)rij;ht, fear- ing God and eschewing evil." In the council of heaven, where the "sons of God" assembled to report on their service, the sincerity of Job's piety is called in question by one of these angels, the Adversary, or Satan. Satan receives permission to put Job to the proof, with the reservation that he shall not afflict him in his person. Suddenly Job is stripp'ed of all his possessions, and bereaved of his chil- dren. He manifests the liveliest grief, but bows beneath the hand of God : " In all this Job sinned not, nor ascribed wrong to God." Again the hea- venly council convenes, and again Job is the sub- ject of commendation on the i^art of God, who upbraids Satan with instigating Him unjustly against His servant. The reply of Satan is that the trial of .Job was not close enough ; if touched in his own flesh, he would renounce God. Satan is permitted to afflict Job himself. He goes forth and smites him with a fatal leprosy. His deeper afflictions only reveal greater deeps in Job's reverent piety : " We receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not also receive evil ?" Then the narrative informs us how Job's three friends, having heard of his afflictions, come to condole with him. Moved by their presence, .Job loses his self-control, and breaks out into a pas- sionate cry for death (ch. 3). 2. The debate between .Job and his friends on the subject of his afflictions (ch. 4-31), written in poetry. " This debate consists of three circles of speeches : ch. 4-14, \b-J.l, and 22-31. Each of these circles comprises six speeches, one by each of the three friends, with a reply from Job. In the last round, however, the third disputant, Zophar, fails to reply. This appears to be a con- fession of defeat ; and Job resumes his speech and carries it through a series of chapters, in which he pathetically contrasts his former great- ness with his present humiliation, protests his innocence of all offences, and adjures God to reveal to him the cause of his afflictions (ch. 26-31). 3. The speeches of Elihu, ch. 32-37. A youthful listener to the former debate, named Elihu, now interposes, expressing his dissatisfaction both with Job and his friends. He is shocked at the irreverencejof .Job in attributing unrighteousness to God in his afflictions, and dissatisfied with the arguments of the three friends, who ought to have been able to show Job to be in the wrong. In a long series of arguments he controverts Job's sentiments : and, though he virtually occu])ies the same iiosition as the friends, insists rather more than they do that sufferings proceed from the goodness of God, who seeks bv them to re- strain men from sin (.33. 29, 30 ; 36. 8-10). 4. The speeches of the Lord out of the storm- cloud (ch. 38 to 42. 6). In .answer to .Job's repeated demand that God would appear and allow him to plead before Him, the Lonl addresses .Job out of the storm-cloud. In a series of pictures from the material world and animal life He makes all His glory to pass before. .Job, who is humbled, and lays "his hand uiion his mouth. His former knowledge of God he felt to be but like hearsay ; now his eye saw Him, and he abhorred himself in dust and ashes. 5. The epilogue (ch. 42. 7-17), in prose. This describes how Job is restored to a prosperity double that which he enjoyed before ; he is again blessed with childi-en : his friends return, and he dies full of days. With the exception, jierhaps, of the speeches of Elihu, all these five parts are generally acknowledged to belong to the origi- nal form of the poem. THE AGE OF THE BOOK cannot be ascer- tained with any precision. It must be distin- guished from the age of Job himself. Job be- longs to the patriarchal age, but the book is a genuine product of the thought and religion of Israel, though the author has thrown a certain color over it which is in keeping with the age of his hero — e.g. in the use of the ancient patri- archal names for God. The problem of the suf- ferings of the righteous in God's providence is one that would not arise before great calami- ties had fallen iipon the people of God, which, in spite of its sins, was God's people, and, com))ared with the nations, not undeserving of the name of " righteous." This problem is touched upon already in Jer. 12. 1-3, and even more fully in Hab. 1.12-17, but a discussion of it so broadband all- sided as is found in Job, indicating a state of the problem so aggravated, and a degree of reflection on it so developed, is probably even later than these proidiets. ITS MEANING. — It is not quite easy to bring all parts of the book under a single conception or to perceive any unity in it, and some writers content themselves with signalizing several gen- eral truths which it teaches. The prologue, for instance, shows that even just men may be vis- ited with severe afflictions, and that it is wrong to judge such men by their trials, and consider them to have been guilty of great sins. Again, the murmiiring of Job under his afflic- tions, and his impugning the righteousness of God in afflicting him.'teach us that it is presump- tuous in man to arraign God before the bar of human reason, seeing His ways are beyond the comprehension of man, whose true wisdom is to fear God and eschew evil. These and other truths are no doubt to be learned from the book, but probably the author had some more definite object in view. The sub- ject of the book is the afflictions of the right- eous, and it presents to us the various opinions of men regarding them, as M'ell as exhibits to us the demeanor of the just sufferer under them : — 1. There is in any case a certain amount of ideal delineation in' the prologue (ch. 1,2) — e.g. in the scenes in heaven, the approbation of Job's life expressed by God, the dialogue between the Deity and Satan", and in the supernatural calami- ties that fell on Job. Now it might be supposed that the object of the prologue was not to offer any real exi)lanation of Job's afflictions, but just to exjiress in a dramatic way that afflictions are sent by God, even upon innocent men (cf. 1 Kings 22). In this case we who read the book would have no more clue to the meaning of Job's sufferings than he himself and his friends had; neither would the author have any new light to cast ui>on the problem, beyond that which he makes the speakers throw upon it in the debate. The debate arises thus : Job's impatient and despairing complaints in ch. 3 disappoint his friends. They are not what they would have ex- l>ected from him ; and they imi)ly forgetf ulness of the princii)le th.at no good man" is ever cut off by such extraordinary afflictions as his. These afflictions imply sin ; "but they are meant to wean the good man "from it. Let .Job therefore put away his sin, and all will be well. Tliis ]irinciple upheld by the friends that afflic- tion implies sin and God's disfavor, just as pros- THE BOOK OF PSALMS. peritv implies His favor and is a token of it, was no nu'i-e thrarti in those days. It was part of the jteople's relifiion. First, the principle must be true, otherwise God is unrij;htcous. And sec- ondly, the principle was i)rofoundl.v important, because it was part of men's idea of justification. They could not realize that they enjoyed (Jod's acceptance and were ri^ht in His sijjht, unless they had an external token and seal of it in health and imisperity. Jolt's own conscience accused him of no siiis to account for his unexampled sulVerinfis, and he was compelled to deny the principle. It can be readily seen what the denial cost him: it made God unjust; it blotted out to him the sun of rifihteousness in the heavens, and obliterated the moral world ; and it made religion a delusion. .\part from this, however, when the author allows Job by his arguments to drive his op- ponents from the field, and to show that the principle that it is always well with the righteous and ill with the wicked" is not a principle liroad enough to e.xplain God's providence, it may be inferred that the author has put his own opinion into Job"s mouth. If now the sjieeclies of the Almighty be con- sidered, they perhaps add another idea. God makes all His glory to pass before Job, His great- ness in creation, His manifold wisdom in the singular and varied instincts bestowed upon the lower creatures, and His power in the rule of the nations and the world of mind. Job is humbled, and lays his hand uiion his mouth. The author leaves the conclusion to be drawn that the proviart of the debate he appears to lose his religious equilibrium, he gradually recovers it. He assures himself that as he knows God, God knows him — his witness is on high. And he ajijieals to (iod his witness aaainst God his jiersecutor. He rises to the con- ception that religion is recii>rocal. The soul's consciousness of (iod gives (iod; in this con- sciousness God gives Himself. And whatever darkness may be about him now, he foiown that his Redeemer liveth, and that he shall see God. The Divine speeches also in this way acquire a deeper meaning. Job's longing that God should appear is granted. It is true that God does not explain his afflictions. But His manifestation in answer to His suffering creature supersedes explanations. Job feels that formerly he had only heard of God, but now his eyes see Him. And his problem, which, like a rock in the sea, before raised angry surfs, is now submerged in the deep tide of his sense of God. Finally, the epilogue also now falls into place : restored to jieace, and raised to higher knowledge of God through his trials victoriously borne. Job re- ceives the seal of this in his restoration. THE BOOK OF PSALMS. BY THE VEN. ARCHDEACON SINCLAIR, D.D. POSfTTOX rx THE OLD TESTAMEXT.— The Hebrew division's of the Old Testament were Tlir Lair, fhr Prophets, the Writiii;/K (cf. Luke 24. 44, where "the Psalms" stand for "the Writings"). In some manuscripts the Psalms come first in the third division ; in others. Job. XAME. — The Greek word i/zaA/aos stands for the Heb. miziiior, a song with musical aecom- jianiment. The Septuagint translators called it Psalms (Luke 24. 44), The Book of I'salms (Luke 20. 42), or The Psalter. In the Hebrew Bible it is called Sepher TehiUiin, or Ti/liin, Jiook of Praises, or shortly. Praises. One psalm (14.')) is called a Pr. ise. The title of the eollertion jirob- ably arose from its use as the hymn-book of the second Temi>le. Another Hebrew title was Tr- phillofh or i'rai/ers (72. 20). Five i)salms are so called — 17. hi;, no, 102, 142. X r.U/S E /.'I XG. —the Massoretic Hebrew text and the .Septuagint both number I.")!*, but make out the niunber in different ways. The Scjituagint joins !> and 10, and 114 and'llS, but divides 116 and 147. The Septuagint adds a .short jisalm as 1.51st, but expressly says that it is outside the number. It is an account in the first jierson in seven verses of the slaughter of Goliath, and be- gins, " I was little among my l)rethren." THE FIVE ifOOA'.V. — This division is from ancient times, and is indicated in the Massoretic text by headings. Each book ends with a dox- ology,"the 150th Psalm being itself the doxology to tlie fifth book and to the whole collection. Book I. contains Psalms 1-41. " II. " " 42-72. " III. " " 73-89. " IV. " " 00-100. " V. " " 107-150. The division is noticed by the Mid rash, an early Jewish conimentarv, and by .lerome. THE TITLES. — 'Senrly'nW the p.salms in the first three books, and some of those in the fourth and fifth, have ancient titles. The titles indi- cate — 1. The Character of the I'salm. 2. Musical setting. .3. Liturgical use. 4. Supposed author, or the collection which has that author's name. 5. Sujiposed liistorical occasion. 1. Titles i.mhcatixc} Cuahactkii. — " Psalm " (M^izmor), prefixed to fifty-seven, mostly with the name of the author, generally David. ".Song" (.S7;//-), iirclixed to thirty, generally l)recede

  • anger is greater than a hero; and he that ruleth his spirit than he that takctli a city" (10. 32). "The heart of the righteous meilitates in order to an- swer; but tlie mouth of tlie wicked bubblethover with evil things " (15. 28; cj'. 15. 2; 10. 14). The fundanientai concejition of the AVisdom is that the world is a moral constitution, in all the phenomena of which, and of the life of men, God is jiresent. To the wise man all things are but the reflec- tions, infinitely various in their colors, of the mind of God. This mind and thought of (Jod is especially reflected in the social ortler and moral life of man. The single ju-overbs exhibit in a great variety of ways iiidi\ idual illustrations of this ; they are flashes of light from the infinitely 89 THE OLD TESTAMENT. numerous facets of the Divine conception under- Ivinj; the universe. But in cli. 1-9, and particu- larly in ch. IS, this general world-conception, esiiecially on its moral side, is personified as a being, called Wisdom herself. There is a world-plan, an articulated moral and intellectual framework, on which all i)henomena rest. This world-plan was a con(ei)tion at first in the mind of fiod — His thought, before crea- tion, of the whole system of things, i)articularly f)f the moral human" economy. The formation of this conce))tion in the Divine mind was the first of his works: "The Lord created me as the l)e- ginning of his way, the first of his works of old. 1 was set up of old, from the beginning, or ever the earth was " (8. 22, 23). Then this Divine conception. Wisdom, is con- ceived as projected out of the mind of God, and liaving existence beside (Jod : " When there were no depths, I was brought forth ; when he estab- lished the heavens, I was there " (8. 24, fl;'.). And finally, this Wisdom or world-conception was (Jod's artificer in the creation of all things. Cre- ation was just this Wisdom realiziiig herself and taking form. With an intoxicating joy Misdom •' i)layed " before (iod, and creation is the emliodi- meut of all her movement in this play ; and the sphere where her delights were highest and her realization of herself most i)erfect was the habi- table earth, the moral world of the sons of men. This eliMpter of Proverbs is one of the most beautiful things in Scripture. Though the Wis- dom here be as yet only a ]>ersonification and not a person, the iirofounci idea was taken up among the other Messianic thoughts of Israel, to which it lent depth by suggesting the relation of the Messiah to creation and the universe; and those things said here of Wisdom were afterwards seen verified in the Son of (Jod — •• The AVord was with (iod;" "All things were made by him;" and, " He is before all things, and in hiui do all things subsist." ECCLESIASTES, OR THE PREACHER. THE TITLE of the book in Hebrew is Kohe'- letli, a word of uncertain meaning. Its sense is probably " one who calls together an assembly," or " he who addresses an assembly; " in English, "the preacher " In this sense it was taken by the Greek translator, who rendered it Erdesiustes, one who speaks in the ecclesia or assembly. Amidst all the peculiarities of the book several things are clear : — 1. The l)ook has a single idea running through it, which all its parts illustrate. 2. The name of Preacher assumed by the writer shows that he has a practical aim, and . and enjoy i;ood. This is all that the the- oretical iihilcisojiliy leaves possible to man. Without cirtunilocution the author states his fundamental idea: ■•All is vanity; what gain is there to man in all the labour in which he labours under the sun?" In other words, human life is without result. And in this it is like the whole order of things, which goes on in an eternal round, accomplishing nothing. The sun rises and sets, and again he rises and sets. The wind circles from north to south, anil it returns upon its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, and the sea is not full. All things recur, and there is nothing new, no progress made, under the sun. If a tiling happens of which it is said, "This is new," it is not new : it has been long ago, only the past is forgotten : and so that which is now present will be forgotten in the time that is to come (1. 1-11). Then in ch. 1, 2, the author gives an account of the experiments or reflection which led him to this conclusion. He inquired into •' all that is done under the sun" — by which he means not merely the whole variety of human activity, but all the events that happen to man in his life — and he found that all was without result, for " that which has been made crooked cannot be straightened, and that which is vvanting cannot be counted" (1. 15; 7. 13), a i)roverbial saying which means that man is imprisoned in a fixed system which he is without power to alter or amend, and out of which he can wring no result or gain, just because it is fixed. Such is the author's meaning when he says that all is vanity. It is not, as we are apt to sup])ose, that the world is imsatisfying, and that the hu- man soul craves something higher than the world can give. It is that all men's efforts are without result. INIan can accumulate no gain, can realize nothing which can be called an eft'ect. All is vanitv and without result, because man is con- fined "bv a fixed determination of everything on all sides of him by God. All the events of human life are in the hand of God; man has no power over them more than he has over the wind (8. 8). There is a time to be born, and a time to die ; a time to weep, and a time to laugh ; a time to love, and a time to hate: all is in the hand of God, whether it be love or hatred man knoweth it not — all is before them (3. 1-9 ; 9. 1). " I Imow that, whatsoever God doeth, it shall be for ever : no- thing can be put to it, nor any thing taken from it" (3. 14). This is why human life is vanity. The work of God is there"; man can neither put to it nor take from it. Even the injustice in the judgment seat, and the oppressions of which men com- plain, and against which they are helpless, are ordinations of (iod. There liaay be a time for judging them, for there is a time for everything, but their object in God's hand is to bring home tcf man a true idea of what he is — that he is nothing, and (iod is all. Their object is to jirove men, and teach them to fear God. Obviously nothing is left to man but to rejoice in his works, for that is his jjortion — (2. 24; 3. 12, 22; r>. 18-20; 8. 1.5; 9. T-K); 11. 9 ff.). Even over this man has no power; it also is in the determina- tion of God (7. 13, 14). Power to enjoy what good there is in life is the (/i/t of God (2. 24, 25; 3. 13; 5. 19); and though it may generallv be assumed that He desires men to have this enjoyment (9. 7), there are cases where He denies them the gift (G. 2-8). The Preacher is, of course, no sensual- ist. The " good," enjoyment of which he recom- mends, consists of the simple pleasures of life — eating and drinking, the pleasure to be derived from activity in work or business (9. 7-10; 11. l-(>, 0, 10). He is a God-fearing num, and ends as he begins, with inculcating " the fear of God " (3. 14; 5. 7 ; 12. 13). He recognizes, too, that God's government of the world is moral : there is a time when God shall judge the righteous and the wicked (3. 17), though, on ac'count of the uncertainty and delay of this judgment, men are endioldcned to do evil (8. 11). And it is part of the " vanity " of things that the race is not to the swift, northe battle to the strong (9. 11) ; and that there be righteous men unto whom it happeneth according to the work of the wicked, and the converse (8. 10, 14; 9. 1-3). These are inexi)licable anomalies in God's gov- ernment; nevertheless, the Preacher continues to hold to the general belief that it is moral (8. 12, 13). Such anomalies and inex])licabilities of Providence, however, always dri\'e him back to his i)ractical counsel: "Wherefore I commend mirth, for a man hath no better thing under the sun, than to eat, and drink, and to be merry " (8. 15). Thus man is speculatively impotent to compre- hend the world and " the work of (lOd" (3. 11; 7. 24; 8. 17), and practically helpless to alleviate its evils; he is bound within an iron system which is unalterable. Even within the bounds of the present life a man can .ichieve no result : the events of life are so entirely out of his hand, whether to control or even to calculate, that he cannot realize any purpose or aim which he may set before him (C. 10 ; 9. 1 ; 3. 14). And even if in this life he should succeed in accumulating something that might be .called a " gain," whether material as wealth or mental as " wis- dom," or, as we might say, " culture," the " vanity " of life lies here, that he can neither retain these gains nor transmit them ; and after all, life is without result. 1. Man cannot retain his gains, for death sur- prises him : the wise man dieth even as the fool, and there is no remembrance of either of them forever (2. 16). And in the grave there is no work, nor knowledge, nor wisdom (9. 10); the dead know not anything, neither have they any more a reward (9. 5). The Preacher strikes" here the saddest and deejiest note of his feeling. It is obvious that his complaint that life has no " profit " because man cannot retain its gains, is a complaint that man cannot retain himself: " What shall it iirofit a man if he gain the world and lose himself ?" (3. 19-21). 2. Further, life is without resixlt, because the wise man cannot transmit his wisdom : the man that Cometh after him may be a fool (2. 18, 19). The idea of a progress of the race through the accumulated gains contributed to it by indi- viduals does not occur to the Preacher. The Preacher's practical jihilosophy naturally follows from his theoretical view of life. The limitations of human life being what they are, " there is nothing l)etter for a man than that he eat and drink, aiul enjov good in all his labour, for this is the gift of (iocl to him " (3. 13). It need not be said that this enjoyment which he recom- mends is not the life of the sensualist, nor even of the volui)tuarv. It is a glad but sober and serious use of the blessings of life — "sorrow is better than laughter;" " it is better to go to the house of mourning, than to the house of feastmg : for that is the end of all men ; and the livmg will lav it to heart " (7. 1-8). This enjovnient is the gift of God to men, and it is the oiilv siihcrc in \vhi('h man has a certani freedom. .Some iirincii)le. therefore, is necessary to regulate his action within it. This principle the Preacher calls irisdoni, by which he means practical insiiilit into things, iirudence, circum- spection, and moderation. This will teach a man 91 TIUS OLD TESTAMENT. how to avoid " the falsehood of extremes." Kven in religion a man ought to be calm and meditative, and to restrain over-impiilsiveness (5. 1-7 ; 7. 10, 17). So in regard to evil ruler.s, a wise man will not hastily take part in con.si>i- racies, but will wait the judgment of God upon injustice (8. 1-7). And in regard to present evils, it is foolish to be sentimental over them, and wonder why the former days were better than these (7. 10). And as for ric"he.s, the possession of whicli so many covet, it is not to be forgotten that they harass a man with many cares, while the sleep of the la- boring man is sweet ; that where there i,s nuich M'ealth there are many hangers-on ; that liches may fly away, and a man may have nothing to leave to the son whom he has begotten ; and that (rod may not give a man power to enjoy the wealth which he possesses. Therefore the good that is in the v>resent is to be enjoyed in the fear of God, and it is not wise to " think " too much (3. 1-1; 5. 6; 7. 18; 9. 1-10). These advices of the Preacher are sincere enough ; they are not iron- ical, though there is a certain self- mockery in them. The Preacher prepares for Christianity by showing the need of it, and the insufiiciency of the Old Testament, if arrested before it reaches its true goal. He is a voice " crying in the night;" and his cry may justly be called pro- phetic. 1. His complaint that human life is without result is a double complaint : that the individual life has no continuity, and therefore no goal and final aim. The life and immortality brought to light in the gospel would have changed his " vanity of vanities " into an activity of gladness. 2. His feeling that God is outside of man, an all-determining force, would have disappeared before the words of our Lord : " God is a Sjnrit, and they that worship Him must worship Him in si)irit." The human mind and the divine mind may have fellowship independently of external events. 3. External events, however, have also their place. But they will appear either a confused chance or an inexplicable ordination, as they did to the Preacher, unless there be the assurance that life has an etui before it, i)ersonaI immor- tality, and that God is present in our life. Then our whole being will be absorl)ed in pursuing the end, and we will feel that God is pursuing it with lis, making all things work together for it. With this view the Preacher would no more have felt the world an external machine crushing him to pieces ; he would have felt it under his feet, and been able to say to himself, " All things are yours." THE SONG OF SONGS. THE TITLE " Song of Songs " is a superlative, meaning " the matchless song," just as " slave of slaves " means the most abject slave, and " vanity of vanities," absolute vanity. The addition "which is Solomon's," according to usage, as- cribes the authorshi)) of the song to Solomon. This superscription, however, like those of the Psalms, is no part of the original composition. It can at once be perceived that the theme of the book is love (8. .'5-7), and that there are various speakers introduced. Some of these speakers reaiipear at various places all through the book, and this implies that there is a certain action or movement in the piece, though it may not have such regularity as to entitle the ])oeni to be called a drama. Unfortunately no indica- tion is given of the entrance of the different per- sons who speak, and their identity can only be inferred from the sentiments which they ex- press. In /(. V. the change of speaker is marked by a space l)Otween the verses. This is a help so far, though it affords no clue to the number of the interlocutors nor to their identity. 1. There are certainly three who take part in the dialogue — the Shiilamite, Solomon e of a spiritual THE SONG OF SONGS. relation according to the apostle's words regard- ing marriage, " 1 si)eak concerning Christ and the chnrch " (Eph. 5. 3'2). The Shulaniite was sup- posed by some to be I'haraoh' s daughter whom Solomon married (Lowth, (irotins); by other more modern writers, a Galilean maiden whom he made his queen (l)elitzsch). This theory dis- tinguished between a historical and a higher spiritual sense. A true, chaste human love was celebrated in the book, though with the design of suggesting a love which was divine. 3. Following certain indications in the poem, many modern writers have come to the conclu- sion that the " l)el()ve(l " of the Shulamite is not Solomon, but a youth who had won her affections before she accidentally encountered the royal chariot and attracted the attention of the king (6. 10-13). This view gives a different asjiect to the poem. It becomes the celebration of a pure affection, which holds out against the tempta- tions of a court, and is strong enough to resist all the seductive arts of a monarch. The poem thus becomes virtually a regular drama with ac^ts anil scenes, a progress and a happy issue. Such is the prevailing modern vleAv. 4. On this theory the book has an ethical mo- tive; it celebrates the triumph of ])ure mono- gamous affection over a love which is merely sensual. The theory, however, has great im- probabilities. It is too complex and intricate. Some simpler conception of the book is more likely to be the true one. Many scholars have beenof opinion that the book was made up of a series of love songs, though they acknowledged their failure to find any thread binding them into a unity. A theory of what may have been the thread on which the pearls were strung has been suggested by Wetzstein (Prussian consul at Damascus), from his observation of the marriage customs of the Syrian peasants beyond the Jordan. The first seven days of married life is called the kimj^s week, from the custom of treating the young pair as a king and queen for the week. On the Wed- ding-day the bride performs a dance {of. 6. 13), durmg which the graces of her person are cele- brated in a song by those who look on {cf. 7. 1-7). Similar laudatory "poems are addressed to her or put into the mouth of the husband during the remaining days (rf. 4. 1-7). The manly beauty of the husband is eulogized in the same way, naturally partly in songs put into the mouth of the young wife {cf. 5. 2-10, or at least 10-16). On the mon-ow of the wedding night, the i)air are enthroned upon a dais formed of a threshing- sledge, which is covered with rich carpets and cushions {cf. 3. (i-ll). Without going into details, it is supposed that the husband, "the king," is comi)ared to Solo- mon, the richest and most splendid monarch kno^^Tl, while the bride is called the Shulamite (6. 13) — that is, Abishag (Shunem = Shulam), the loveliest maiden in all Israel (1 Kings 1. 3, 4; cf. S. of Sol. 1. 8 ; 5. 9 ; 6. 1). The daughters of Jerusa- lem are the village maidens who do homage to the " queen," while the threescore warriors (3. 7) are the friends of the bridegroom, who enthrone him and bear him in his rustic litter. (Samson had only thirty companions, Judg. 14. 11.) On this theory our feet would at least touch solid ground. The book would reveal to us some- thing of the home life of Israel. It would show how the common people were able to idealize their simple and natural joys, and for a few days at least, once in their life, break the dull monotony of their toil and the hardness of their existence. The book would be a companion picture to the idyll of Ruth. Its theme would be wedded love. Possibly the Song has not yet given up its seci-et. Whatever be the idea "of the poem, it is impossible not to feel the charm of its poetry and the intense love of nature pervading it — a feeling which the poetry of the Hebrews alone among ancient nations exhibits in common with modern poetry. It is nature in her fresh life in spring that the poet feels, when the earth is radiant with flowers and everywhere breathes out perfixmes (2. 11-13). And the delights of na- ture are enhanced by the variety of animated life in the land, the doves that hide in the clefts or sit by the pools (2. 14 ; 5. 12), the sheep that come up snow-white from the washing, the goats that hang on the slopes of Gilead (4. 1 ; 6. 5), the gazelles leaping on the hills and feeding among the lilies (2. 9; 4. 5), the little foxes that siioil the vines, and even the more terrible lions and leopards that have their dens in the mountains (4. 8). 'Gazelles Leaping on the Hills." (Song, ch. 2. R.V.) 93 THE OLD TESTAMENT. ISAIAH. BY PROFESSOR WILLIS J. BEEC'HER, D.D. THE DATE WHEX THE PROPHET LIVED. — The l)ook is named from Isaiah, the son of Amoz, who prophesied in the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Isa. 1. 1, and many other passages). Tradition says that he snrvived into the reign of IManasseh, and was martyred by him. Considering the length of the career thus indicated, it probably began after Uzziah was smitten by leprosy (2 Kings 15. 5; 2 Chr. 2(5. 21), leaving affairs in the hands of the inexperienced .Totham (see such allusions as those in Isa. 3. 4, 12). HIS TIMES. — Isaiah abounds in allusions to Babylon, Elam, and Media. The AssjTian records i testify that there had been a time when Rimmon- nirari III. and his predecessors took tribute from ; substantially all the western nations except Judah. Then, after many years of silence, they tell us of an Assyrian king making a campaign i against Uzziah, he being at the head of a confed- I eracy extending northward to Hamath. Appar- ently the Assyrians defeated his forces with i great slaughter, and tlie confederacy went to I pieces. Among others, Menaheni of" Israel, on the throne, doubtless, through Assyrian intrigue (Hos. 4-10), paid tribute (2 Kings 15. 19). Tiglath-pileser III., otherwise known as Pul or Porus, became king of Assyria, 745 b.c. He was Sennacherib in ms Chariot. From Koyunjik. the founder of a new dynasty, though the revolu- tion was not. perhajjs, a bloody one. He was not then a young man, and had probably held high military rank under his predecessors. He was the commander who took the tribute from Meua- hem, and many hold that these events occurred after his accession, but his name does not occur in the Assyrian inscriptions that speak of the time of Mehahem. He began his reign by wars in which he estal)- lished the .\5syrian power in Babylonia. Then for four years, 74.3-740 B.C., his centre of military operations M-as Arpad, fifteen miles north-east of Aleppo. AVithin this time, presumably, occurred his deportation of the Israelites east "of the Jor- dan (1 Chr. 5. 6, 23. 26). In 734 B.C.. he invaded Palestine, making large deportations from the north (2 Kings 15. 29), receiving tribute from Ahaz of .Judah, and subduing the Philistines and other peo])les. The two following years Damas- cus was his centre of ojierations i and aljout 720 B.C. he marched to Babylon, and formally seated himself on the throne there. The next king was Shalmaneser IV., who wa.s also king of Babylon, and he. in 722 B.C.. was followed by Sargbn. He. like Tiglath-pileser, was the first king of a new dynasty. He is the king who destroyed Samaria, and who made the famous expedition to Ashdod, 711 b.c. (Isa. 20). Sargon's son Sennacherib became king of As- syria. 705 B.C. Two years later he placed a vice- roy on the throne at Babylon. His great expedi- tion to Palestine was in foi B.C. At his death, in the reign of Manasseh of .Judah, his son F.sar- haddon succeeded to both thrones. These kings made deportations from both Israel and Judah, on a much larger scale than those of Nebuchadrezzar in later times. They had three great ambitions — namely, to maintain their posi- tion as kings of Babylon, "to extend their dominion to the ZSIediterranean. and to excel their prede- cessors in building. Year after year they warred with an anti-Assyrian party in Babylonia, who were always in alliance with the Elamites, and often witli iMedes and Armenians, and were ac- customed to send ambassadors to ask other peojiles to make common cause with them against the Assyrian. [See Assyria, p. 170, and Babv- LOXI.V, p. 181.] IVIany of the Babylonian references in Isaiah fit these times, and do not fit the times of Cyrus, to which it has Ijeen ciistomary to refer them. The prophet was a political leader, as well as a preacher and poet. He advocated the policy of ISAIAH. the sei)arateness of Israel, opjiosinp: the Assyrian allianee of Ahaz. and ecjiially oiiiiosing; all" alli- ances with the neiiililioriiiij,' jieoples, or with Egypt, or with the r.abylonian-Klainitic combi- nation aji'ain Assyria. During;- his life the As- syrian and I'vabylonian oniiiires were part of the time identical — the jireat oppressing' l)Ower; and part of the time IJabylon was a dan^;erous seducer, striving- to lead the chosen people into disastrous hostilities with Assyria. If we would under- stand Isaiah, we must attend to these too nuich neglected facts. AXAL YSTS. —The book, as it stands, consists of two principal parts, the first containing thirty- nine chapters, and the second twenty-seven. The tirst part contains five groups of prophe- cies: first, the introihntory discourse (ch. 1); second, four prophecies cJ-i", 5, 6, 7-12): third, a series of •' Burdens " on Babylon, Philistui, Moab, etc. (ia-23); fourth, other prophecies ('.'4-35); fifth, a historical sketch and included messages (30-39). The second ])art is divided into three divisions by the phrase, " No peace to the wicked," closing 48 and 57. Each of these divisions has three sub- divisions, and each of the subdivisions is resol- SiEGE OF A City with Battering-eams. Archers shooting from behind Frames. (Frniii (I l')ifili}!iriiiih hii Cr.Ar.Ki; and Davies.) Impaled prisoners and shield. Marble slab from the S. W. palace at Nimrud, describing the campaigns of Tiglath-pileser III. Now in the British Museum. vable into three separate, though often closely connected, little jioems. rienerally, though with several exrcjitions, the little poems coincide with the ]ircscnt chai)ters. There is anionirthem con- siderable dillerence in length, suliject, and style; yet they are not put together in a merely arbi- trary aiiil numerical manner, but so as to form a gemiine piece of composition, with unity of sub- ject and of feeling, and even with progressive action of a certain sort. It is one of the finest poems existing in anv language. rOXTEXT;^ AXh DATES OF THE PJiO- P/fE('lES.—We need to distinguish three things — the uttering, the writing, and the col- lecting of the prophecies; and we need further to distinguish between certain facts that are undisputed and other facts that are (luestioned. No one disputes that Isaiah, the son of Amoz, was the principal utterer of these i)rophecies, and no one disputes that the book we now have is the scriptural book of Isaiah mentioned in the New Testament, and then already ancient. The claim of the book to divine authority rests on these undisjnited facts, and is indcpcnclcnt of the questions whether the iirophecics were writ- ten do\vn and <'ollected by Isaiah himself or by others, whether in his lifetime or later. Ch. 1 is introductory, and may have been writ- ten when the projdiecies, or some of them, were collected. At the time, strangers were devour- ing the land, its cities had been burned, Jerusa- lem was isolated, but the nation was revolting more and more, and its rulers were character- istically murderers (ver. 7-8, 5, 15, 21). This fits THE OLD TESTAMEXT. :i _ l:rHIC MOSTTMBST OP ASSTB-KAZIE-PAI.. (From a Photograph by CuKKE AXD Daties.) King of Assyria. 8S3-85S B.C. Father of Shalmaneser n. Found near the entrance of the temple of the God of War, Ximrud. Xow in the British Museum. This kins ""as a sreat conqueror, and overcame Xorthem Srria *fS E.c. He removed the seat of government frohi Asfur to Calah (Ximmd), where he bnilt a great palace. The remains of the palace of this king were found at Ximrud. the time of ilanasseh and Esar-haddon C2 Kings : tations and remonstrances upon this, and closes 21 ; 2 Chr. 33). I with another fervid Messianic utterance (4. 2-6). Ch. 2-4 begin by citing a Messianic hynon al- In this discourse the prophet expresses his anxi- ready familiar (2. 2-4, cf. Mic. 4. 1-4), bases exhor- I ety because the nation has inexperienced rulers. 96 ISAIAH. while disaster is impending: (3. 4, 12, 25, etc.), and tliis iirouiise in its various aspects. This was the in ch. b he speaks of the disaster as havinji' come (ver. 13. 14, etc.). This tits the time of Menahem and mil, when the Assyrians overthrew L'zziah's confederacv. Ch. 6 is dated in the year of Uzziahs death. It tells of the prophet's reconsecration, when his work had become hard and dreadful by reason of the obduracy of the people. Ch. 7-12 were spoken to encourajre the '• dis- ciples" (8. K)). at a time when the Assyrian was approaching Jerusalem from the north (10. L'8-:i2), perhaps when Samaria was invested. In this dis- course the iirophet recapitulates six earlier pro- phecies of the time of Ahaz (7. 1-9. 10-2.5 ; 8. l-l, 5-.'*, II-IC. ; 9. 8 to 10. 4). He closes the discourse with a hvmn (12). The •• Burdens " (13-23) and the followinjr dis- courses (24-35) were probably grouped to-icther because of similarity of character, and not purely for chronological reasons. Several of these pro- phecies are assigned by some scholars to later prophets than the son "of Amoz, largely on the basis of the allusions to Babylon and the Medes and Elamites; but all conclusions of this kind need careful reconsideration. Ch. 3G-39 were ^^Titten in their present form after 081 B.C., the date of the death of Senna- cherib (37. 38), but they consist mainly of prophe- cies and a song that were uttered many years earlier. The theme of ch. 40-6G is the servant of Jeho- vah. The many pieces that compose the poem, diverse as they "are, all bear upon the theme. The servant is Israel, yet not the political Israel, but Israel the people" chosen by God for the sake of mankind. The servant is sometimes a typical Israelite; and as the work is written from the point of view of a typical Israelite, it is some- times not easy to distinguish the author from the servant. The Xew Testament authors regard the mission of Israel as culminatingly fullilled in Jesus t'hrist. and regard him as in "the highest sense the only t\i)ical Israelite, and apply to him whatever is said concerning the servant. A\'here prophecy is thought of as essentially equivalent to prediction, these twenty -seven chapters are regarded as a prolonged prediction of Cyrus and his times by Isaiah, the son of Amoz. Another phase of opinion still connects them with the time of Cyrus, but regards them as written in that time by a prophet who is some- times si)oken of as the gieat unknown, or as the second Isaiah. But this poem, except in a few of the pieces (for example, 44. 24 If. ; 64. 10-12, etc.). presents a situation thoroughly unlike that of the time of Cvrus. and not differing from that of the time of the son of Amoz. For ex- ample. Jerusalem is standing with her cities around her, and her exiles are still many of them in i)risons. The cun-ent theories must be .so nioditied as to tit these facts. ISAIAH AS THE KVAXGELICAL AX£> MESSIAXir PROPHET. — In this character he is more iironiinently citeil in the New Testament, and more studied "among Christians than any other prophet. Everj- part of the book presup- l)o.ses that a certain doctrine was then current in Isiael — the doctrine that Israel was a chosen i)eo- ple, not for its own sake, but as a part of God's IHirpose for the nations; that God had made a promise to Abraham, to Israel, to David; a ]>ro- mise conditional in some of its asjiectson Israel's obedience, but in itself irrevocable and eternally operative ; a promise which connected itself with the day of the Lord always impending, with the last (lays, with the birth of a ))romised Seed. with an endless kingdom, with a holy anointing; a promise in virtue of which there sliould some time be universal peace on earth, with universal righteousness. one truth which the jirophet princi])ally used for rebuking, or consoling, or encouraging" the indi- ~1F- Statue dedicated to the Uoh .\ebo ey kijimon- NiR.vRi III., King of Assyria. 810-783 B.C. From the N. W. palace at Xiinrud. Now iu the British Museum. viduals or the nation of his own time ; and this The Messianic and evangelical parts of the I was the one great legacy that he left to later book consist in the repeating and unfolding of I generations. 97 THE OLD TESTAMENT. JEREMIAH. ///.V TIMES. — Some decades intervene be- tween the (leath of Isaiah and the earliest pro- j)hesvin^ of Jeremiah. The twenty-nine years of Hezekiali were followed by the fifty-five years of Manasseh, the two years of Amon, the thirty- one years of Josiah, the eleven years of Jehoia- kim. the eleven years of Zedekiah. Manasseh was a remarkably "wicked, idolatrous, and bloody kinj;-, l)nt repented in his later years. Amon apostatized. He i)erislied by conspiracy. Josiah was the }i,Teat reformer. The succeeding kings were weak and, on the whole, bad. Manasseh was tributary to Esar-haddon, king of Assyria and Babylon, who made successful expeditions to Palestine and Egypt. The latter (lied 6G8 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Assur- bani-])al in Assyria, and by another son Samas- sum-yukin (Sabsduchinus) in Babylon. The former more than once marched through Pal- estine to Egypt ; the latter practised intrigue against Assur-bani-pal among the Palestinian peoples and elsewhere. He perished " by fire," w^hen Assur-bani-pal captured Bal)ylon, iU« n.r. From this time till the later years of Nabopo- lassar, king of Babylon, who reigned U2G-GU5 u.c, the history is obscure. In the time of Josiah the hold of the oppress- ing nations upon Judah and the parts of Pales- 'KsrTW'^::w^^m^^p^ X.,v Lion-hunt by Assuh-bani-pal. 668 b.c. (Fium a I'hotograph of a marble slab iii the British Museum.) From Sculptures discovered in the ruins of the Palace of Assur-bani-pal at i!fiueveh. tine farther to the north had evidently been relaxed. Then Egypt became ambitious to take advantage of the weakening of empire in Meso- l)otamia. In 608 B.r., Pharaoh-necho marched an army through Palestine, slew Josiah, dethroned Jehoahaz, and put Jehoiakim on the throne of Judah (•_' Kings 23. 29-37). In 605 B.C., Nebuchad- rezzar succeeded his father Nabopolassar. That vear he carried off Daniel and others 'Dan. 1. \). The following year (his " first year ") he fought the decisive battle of Carchemish (Jer. 46. 2), and l)ecame sovereign of all the Palestinian region. Judah was restless under his oppression, and suffered again and again from invasions and deportations for twenty-three years, until the country was depoynilated. and the carrying into exile complete. The most imi)ortant "of these successive operations were that when Jehoiacliin was taken away, .597 B.C., and that when the Temple was burned, 587 B.C. [.See Assyria, p. 179, Babylonia, p. 181, and Egypt, ]i. 184.] Jeremiah's ]irophesving began in the thirteenth year of Josiah, 626 b.c. (Jer. 1. 2; 25.1,3), and covered the time following to the Exile. HLS LIFE AKIJ WORK. — He was of priestly descent (1. 1). His prophetic career Ijegan at an early age (1. 6). Five years previously the boy- king, Josiah, had begun to seek the" Lord, and he had one year i)reviously initiated his work of reform (2 Clir. 34. 3;, the great crisis of the reform JEREMIAH. Pointed Clay Cylinder op Nabopolassar. 626-605 b.c. Brought from Babylon by the Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania. coming five years later (34. «). We must hold that .Teremia'h took a prominent part m this movement, though our information on the ])oint is in(li>tinct. In later years he was the leader of a small minorit^' in Judah against three great wrongs — the religious apostasies of his people, their neglect of justice, and the false patriotism that led them to break faith by repeated revolts against Babvlon. His services in this last mat- ter were recognized by the Babylonian authori- ties (.S9. 11-14: 40. 1-5). THE WRITTXU OF HIS PROPIIhCIES.— We have an account (.3roniinent, and lived amony: the best. The many simply submitted to their fate, and became sul),iects of" the deporting king in the regions whither he had sent them (Jer. 29. 4-8, etc.). To the extent to which they accepted the situation, they were doubtless fairly well treated by the government, while all sym]itoms of restiveness ■were severely dealt with'(Jer. 29. 21-23). liotli Jerei'uiah and Ezekiel inform us, each in many places, that exiles from Northern Israel were then living in the dilferent parts of the Ua- bylonian empire, and that these were to become oiie with the exiles from Judah, and were to i)ai'- ticipate in the return to the Holy Land (Jer. :!. 12, 18; 30. 3; 50. 19, 20; 51. 5; Kzek. 11. 14-20; 37. 15-28; 39. 25; 47. 1.3-23; 48, etc.). To under- stand the position of Ezekiel, we must think of him as surrounded by a few hundred recent immigrants from Judah, mostly peojile of good social standing, in the midst of a large and long- settled Isiaclite population, living there among people of other races. THK TIME DATA TJST EZEKIEL. — In 2 Kings 25. 27; Jer. 52. 31; Ezek. 1. 2, we have THE OLD TESTAMENT. dates given in the year of the exile of Jehoiachiu, and in Ezek. 33. 21; 40. 1, in the year of "our exile." In these instances, the eleventh year of Jehoiakim, the year in which Jehoiachin was (tarried away, 597"b. of the restored Holy Land, the proi)het"s constant theme is the coming re- storation. The apocalypse is dated twenty years after Ezekiel's tirst ijrophecy, and one of the prophe- cies against Egypt ('29". 17) is dated three years later. We have no information as to the time of Ezekiel's death. DATE AND AUTHOllSHIP. — Jewish tradi- tion attributes the writing of Ezekiel, along with other books, to the men of the Great Synagogue. A later tradition explains tliis by saying that the reason why I<:zekiel did not write "his own pro- phecies was that projihecy could not be written outside the Holy Land. The true understanding of the ti'adition doubtless is, however, that Eze- kiel was himself counted as one of the men of the Great Synagogue, along with Daniel and his friends, and Haggai and Zechariah. There is no reason for doubting that the prophet him- self wrote the prophecies at the times when he uttered them, or soon afterwards. A^E VAN) An ironical suggestion is oiTered to the transj:;ressor8 to resort to their sacred places and sacrifices for relief (ver. 4, r>). (c) They are reminded of their manifold chastisement : famine, drought, blasted and withered (■riii>s, death by plague and battle and earth(iuake ; and now, since these have failed of their due ellurt, they must prepare to meet their final doom (ver. 0-13). 3. Ch. 5, (!. (r/) A lamentation is uttered over the impeudiug ruin of Israel (5. 1-3). (0) Repeated adjurations are made to " seek Jehovah and live " (ver. 4-9). (e) Charges of various sorts of injustice are renewed, Avith a prediction of the sad time that is coming to those who refuse to " seek good and not evil " (ver. 10-17). {(I) The absurdity of their desiring the intervention of Jehovah is set forth (ver. 18-20). (c) Their religious gatherings, so mixed with idolatry, their'sacriflce and worship, are loathsome toJehovah ; they and their idols alike shall go into exile (ver. lil-27). (/') With all the prestige, self-confidence, luxury, and selfishness of the nobles of Samaria, they shall be the first to go into captivity (G. 1-7). (j/) Pestilence, with all its domestic horrors, makes another pre- lude to the loss of home and country through the dreaded Assyrian (ver. 8-14). III. Ch. 7-9. — the framework of this section is a series of visions setting forth in striking im- ages the threatened judgments. 1. Visions of locusts, of fire, and of a plumbline testing the houses and sanctuaries of Israel (7. 1-9). 2. These are followed by the only narrative contained in the prophecy : the attempt of the priest of Bethel to silence Amos and secure his expulsion from the kingdom of Jeroboam, with the announce- ment by the prophet of his awful fate (ver. 10- 17). 3. The vision of a basket of summer fruit so speedily devoured, with its application to the people who have earned swift and lamentaljle destruction by their dishonesty and rapacity (ch. 8). 4. A vision of the Temple smitten and shat- tered, and falling upon the devoted heads of the congregation of Israel so that none shall escape (9. 1-tJ). 5. Yet in a brighter future a remnant, the true Israel, shall be saved, while the " sin- ners " shall perish. The redeemed shall return to the old laud, shall rebuild and replant it, and shall flourish under the blessing of the God of the covenant (ver. 7-15). CHARACTER AND snZE. — tiext to Isaiah and Jeremiah, Amos is the greatest of the pro- phets. Both in matter and form his prophecy stands quite in the highest rank of Biblical com- positions. He was the pioneer prophet in giving systematic expression to the faith of the true Israel. He was the founder of that great school of which Isaiah and Micali were the leading later representatives, and whose cardinal IAH AND HIS PROPHECY. HIS TOniCA L HE TTIXd. — Though nothing is known of Obadiah personally, we can infer his date at least from the main motive of his brief projjhecy, which is suggested by the conduct of the hostile Kdomites exulting 'over the fall of Jerusalem. This can only be the taking of the city by Nebuchadrezzar in .'587 b.r. Where Oba- diah M'as at the time we do not know. THE PROPHET'S MESSAGE. — The chap- ter consists of two jjarts : — I. Ver. 1-9. — Its substance is that Edom is to be destroyed, in spite of its rocky fastnesses, its numerous allies, and its far-fameil wisdom. II. Ver. 10-21. — This section shows that Edom's fate is earned by its people's cruelty to Israel (Judah), which the prophet warns them to aban- don (ver. 12-14). For the day of Jehovah's ven- geance upon all nations is at'hand, in the course of which Judah, united with "Joseph," shall consume Edom, and occupy its own ancient domain (ver. 15-211. CHAUACTEUAyD STrLE. — The singleness of purpose in the prophecy reminds one of Nahum. Its explanation is the ancient enmity between Juilah and Edom ; and here we are tolil how the long account is to lie closed. The brevity of the prophecy gives little scope for the exer- cise of lofty powers. Its strength, however, lies in its severe plainness and energy of expression {rf. Ps. 137. 7). THE BOOK OF JONAH. HISTORICAL SETTIXG. — The narrative l)ortion of the book relates to the earlier years of Jeroboam II. All that we know of Joiiah, be- yond what is here told, we learn from 2 Kings 14. 25, which tells how he predicted to Jeroboam his victories over the Syrians. In the present in- stance he appears as a prophet with an altogether unique mission — viz. that of preaching repent- ance to the great city of Nineveh. The Assyrians were in his time much reduced in power, and were playing no great part in the affairs of the world. They had had much calamity, and were therefore perhaps the less unwilling to hear a messenger of evil. The result of his mission was that they took to heart his message, and the pre- dicted riiin of their city was postponed for over a centurv and a half. CONTENTS OF THE BOOK. — I. Ch. 1 tells the story of Jonah's commission, his refusal to obey, his flight westward, his miraculous arrest, ending in his being swallowed by a mighty fish and held a jirisoner for three days. II. Ch. 2 is a psalm of thankfulness for deliv- erance from the fish. III. Ch. 3 relates the preaching of Jonah, and the repentance and reprieve of the Ninevites. IV. Ch. 4 records Jonah's anger at the sparing of the city, and the rebuke which he received when he bewailed the withering of a sheltering gourd, though he had had no compassion on the manv thousands of souls in Nineveh. CHARACTER AND FOR^[. — The motive of the story is plain — to rebuke the exclusive spirit of Israel, and its rejoicing over the calam- ities of outside nations. The lesson is the more telling from the fact that Assyria had been, and was again to be, the most powerful and danger- ous foe of Palestine. In form, the book is not a prophecy in the ordinary sense at all, and the only justification for its place among the Pro- phets is its educative character. MICAH AND HIS PROPHECY^ HISTORICAL SETTING.— Micah was a resi- dent of Western Judah. The little town of More- THE MINOR PROPHETS. sheth, his home, hud been a depeinlency of the famous Philistian city of (iath, hut since the conquests of Uzziah (2 C'hr. 20) the whole ay the brief revolt of Manasseh. But the conditiiin of the whole of Western Asia, in- cluding Palestine, portended a speedy upheaval. Above all, Nineveh was beginning its memoral)le decline after the death of its king, Assur-bani- pal (li(;8-020 B.C.). Morally and religiously the Jewish nation had imi)roved but little since the degeneracy that had followed the death of Heze- kiah, and Josiah's reform (021 is. c.) had not yet begun, if we may judge from the invectives' of the prophet against idolatrous practices. Zeph- aiiiah was apparently a descendant of King Heze- kiah. THE PROPHET'S MESSAGE.— Zeplmmah spoke and wrote primarily for the correction and warning of Judah and Jerusalem, though he draws illustrations from the sins and fates of other peoples. The culmination of these is found in the iniquities, the pride, and the speedy fall of Nineveh. A division into four parts is as fol- lows : — I. The threatening: ch. 1. — 1. The whole world — that is, the Semitic world — is to undergo ex- emplary punishment, particularly Jerusalem and its apostates from Jehovah (ver. 1-0). 2. The classes of people that are to be thus visited — the royal house, the noliles, the wealthy traders, the careless and defiant generally — are character- ized, and their chastisement set forth in lan- guage largely figurative (ver. 7-18). II. The lesson from the nations: ch. 2. — Crod's own people are warned to repent in time (ver. 1-3), and so avoid the doom that is about to fall upon the Philistines (ver. 4-7), Moab (ver. 8-11), Egypt, under the name of Ethiopia (ver. 12), and finally Assyria and Nineveh (ver. 13-15). III. The "remonstrance : ch. 3. 1-7. — i;el)ellious and obstinate Jerusalem is urged to repent by the righteous and reasonable God, in view of coming woes ; for the lesson of the fate of other nations has so far been unheeded. IV. The promised redemption: ch. 3. 8-20.-1. The faithful remnant is bidden to wait and trust. It shall survive the ruin of the nations, be joined by exiled brethren from far and near, and rest in quiet content (ver. 8-13). 2. Joyous thanksgiving is now in place, for Jehovah is in the midst of .lerusalem, to comfort and bless His people. Their reproach is taken away; dispersion and captivitv arc at an end (ver. 14^20). CHAliAC'I'ER AND STYLE. — The lessons of the time are skilfully drawn, and are enforced with the earnestness of conviction and lofty mo- tive. There is no great originality of thought or expression, but the style is forcible and pointed, and rises towards the close to lyrical grace and sweetness. HAGGAI AND HIS PROPHECY. HIS TOItK 'AL SE y'77A7,'.— None of the minor prophets belongs to the long period of the Exile. For an account of it we must have recourse to Ezekiel and the second part of Isaiah. Haggai was the earliest of the prophets of the restora- tion. After the return (536 b.c), many years elapsed before the people began seriously to re- build the Temple. In 520 v,.v., Haggai urged them to undertake the work. Four months later he was joined Ijy Zechariah. In four years the Temple was completed. AVe know nothing fur- ther of Haggai personally. THE MINOR PROPHETS. Tllh: VnOI'IIKT'S MESSAGE. — TXvi four sections of the iirojilieey are the following : — I. C'h. 1. — The iieoi)le':irc veiuinded of the deso- lation of the Temple, while they are living in comfortable homes. Such neglect has already l)rous;ht ui)on them failure of crops and general scarcity. The result of the appeal is that all, from the highest to the lowest, set themselves to the work of restoration. II. Ch. 2. 1-9 is uttered to cheer the workers. The glory of this latter house, they are assured, will be greater than that of the former. III. Ch. •_'. 10-li> is a further reminder of the connection between neglect of duty towards (iod and national prosperity. Hitherto the people have been as though they were " unclean " in (xod's sight, and therefore had been excluded from His favor. Henceforth they are to be blessed. IV. Ch. 2. 20-23 is a promise to the leader Ze- rublKibel, that he will be honored and shielded by JcliDvah when the nations shall be in commo- tion and terror at His aji)>r()arhing judgment. CIIAHACTHII AAJ) ST) LE. — fhe prophecy is partly historical, explanations and connection's being duly made in the progress of the discourse. Especially noticeable is the exact dating of the several sections, and the methodical character of the whole narrative. I'oetical form is not neg- lected, but in general the style is plain and un- adorned. ZECHARIAH AND HIS PROPHECY. HIS rORICAL SE TTIXG. — According to Ezra 5. 1; 6. 14, Zechariah was a coadjutor of Haggai in promoting the rebuilding of the Temple, and according to his own statement he prophesied in 520 and 518 B.C. (1. 1, 7; 7. 1). The issues with which he deals are the same as those which con- fronted Haggai — the maintenance of the na- tional worship, and the correction of national vices. THE PBOPHET'S AfESSAGE. — Bxxt the mode of approaching these problems is quite different from that adopted by Haggai. The greater portion of the prophecy consists of risioiis intended to present motives for confi- dence and effort. Outside opposition should come to naught, and the Jewish leaders had the might of Jehovah on their side. An introdiic- tioh (1. 1-fi) contains a general exhortation to rej)entance, and a warning to the people not to imitate their fathers, who did not listen to the prophetic word. Thereafter we have two large sections: — I. Ch. 1. 7 to G. 15 contains nine symbols, mostly visions, accompanied by their interpretations : — 1. Ch. 1. S-17, a vision of the horses of Jehovah, which, as His messengers, report to Him; along with His reply. 2. Ch. 1. 18-21, four horns, representing the op- ponents of Israel, are broken. '■i. Ch. 2, a man with a measuring-line lays out the restored Jerusalem. 4. Ch. .3, Joshua the high-priest is accused by Satan, and acquitted, and is honored with com- missions and revelations from Jehovah. 5. Ch. 4, the beautiful symbol of the golden candlestick and two olive trees, with the i)racti- cal application of encouragement to Zerubbabel. (). Ch. 5. 1-4, a flying roll recording a curse upon immoral actions. 7. Ch. 5. .5-11, an ephah measure containing a woman is seen carried away to Kabylon. 8. Ch. G. 1-H, four chariots, eai'h having horses of a particular color, are the four heavenly spirits charged to carry out ( iods jiurjioses in the earth. 9. Ch. 6.9-15, the syniliolical action of crowns of silver and gold being made and placed upon the head of Joshua the high-priest, who thus repre- sents the Messiah -priest upon His throne. II. In ch. 7, the projihet, in answer to a ques- tion as to observance of a ('ertain fast, replies that the true fast is justice, mercy, and piety, which had been so much neglected in earlier generations. This suggests, in ch. 8, the com- ing Messianic time, when the city shall be pop- ulous and ha])i)y under the rene\Vey in- troducing objections to the truths stated by him, and then replying to them, with emphatic addi- tions to his 'original statement. This form of treatment serves to bring out very clearly the points at issue : and there is ])crhaps no prophecy which irivcs in equal space so fvdl a i>resentatioh of contcmporai-y moral and religious life. Poetic form is not much observed, but in its place comes the more purely rhetorical style, witli reasoning as the principal motive. ll.n 116 SECTION III.— THE NEW TESTAMENT. LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR J. RENDEL HARRIS. LANGUAGE. — The New Testament is written entirely in the Greek language. TEXT. — The existence of a number of various readings in the text of the New Testament neces- sitates an incjuiry into the materials from which the text is derived, and into the causes which have produced the divergent readings. Most of these divergences are mere trifles, caused by careless copying and insufficient correction. The materials of textual criticism are visually reckoned under the heads of Copies, Versions, and Fathers, which might be perhaps better grouped as — 1. Copies + Patristic Citations from Copies. 2. Versions + Patristic Citations from Ver- sions. COPIES may be classified according to the materials ujion which they are written — Papyrus, Vellum, and Paper ; or according to the hands in which they are written — Uncials (large letters), and Cursives (running hand). Uncial MSS. are usually denoted by capital let- ters borrowed from the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew alphabets; and Cursives, by Arabic numerals. But the same sign may mean different MSS. in different parts of the New Testament. For con- venience the books are grouped under the heads of Gospels, Acts and Catholic F-iiistles, Pauline Epistles, and Apocalypse; and the eiuuneration of authorities is made de noro with each group. Sometimes this is indicated by writing a few letters above the sign representing the MS., as D P'"'', E Act^ or bv adding a subscript numeral, as Do, Ej. Only a few fragments of the New Testament exist "written on papyrus. It is, however, almost certain that that was the primitive material upon which the Apostolic documents were written (c/. HCeNCHMeiON^^" roNOyTOcecTiH AAHecoconroH THCOeiCTONK--^-* epxoMeNOc icoyN rN oycoTi M 6 Axoyci M epx^ AYTON kXi Xm AV/napoih j^OeYreinAAiNe/-p OpocMONocAYP-- Facsimilb from Codex Sinaiticus (John G. 14, 15). 117 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 2 John 12: "I did not wish to write with paper and ink"). Of MSS. written on vellflin, the most im])ortant iire those belonfrinj; to the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, which pass under the name of tlie "Five Great Uncials." They are as follows : — 1. ){ (Alei>h; fourth century) — the Codex .Sinai- ticus, discovered by Tischendorf in 1844 (and 18.09) in the monastery of St. Catherine, on Mount Sinai. The greater part of this MS. is now in St. I'etersburg. It contains the whole of the New Testament complete, together with the Epistle of Harnabas, and a large part of the Shepherd of Hernias. The last twelve verses of Mark are wanting; but it isstispicious that the page where they should occur apjicars to he a cancel. 2." K (Vaticanus ; foiuth century) is in the Vati- can Library at Home. It contains the New Tes- - t i.1! t St t ' ■ ~- K- h f.' w e T» rri^. -r f or»it>j\» i.'/^.i,.^6«>CA-^ € ^T <>iC W oc'>«'T*.IC. c c N H x/'; >; £Ky ftlw; W6 f O > 4M->.T«"rHC«.y^-iA' C V M M e tTM-^;!'?; r ;. co;^ -roi "-'rf '"T T'- ' '!' Ko'ueMpCi.ry' *;/,■-_. .": C UJ A f iK4> OPU> Tcro « Toy n-' ,■ _ . ■Ml I'CH CACt* ■v" •■ -^ict'Mc€oec6«scoy ^ ^ r o w *1 r * >, A I *,'cttL(c . -^ Y "^ '' ' ' Y ••■' *•"'■ * f x*-' JCCT-MMf rijsifc'L £■ MC*." rciJN^eoy^'fCi woioyfi MOfiyTci Una \6yri T *. I C YytiC A 1 *. M C-'m € 1 C f- 1; -T <. A * i ■■■>_. -I'll H.> ( h«.'>vt ^,'■c' k • ■^f^. .A,:iy-ra>-t'r, t . ■ ;. nta vilAYToc." i, 1 • .-ICoY , , li o 1 tf 1 C Y : O i-i <*'•_■ J. 'oiAtil -» A .V.1 n(r ic .\i a: ■■ • ,-j ».'.■ MAT*. ,.-r:,'--'-.«CT*A ..'k- hn A#rt . ; ^. ^■ --roycu^A f i > 1 c *.'"Ttv r ii-i ^Oi-iOM'l . »r4-re !:4rr«-. J.- .-» . r , ,i«.^-roYT- • • /. J n pfSc .v.t'MTT,""<« .' t ' ■ ~-i jcc ■ s'a O v' C^ t'-r i I- o r, . : ■'- ■'": X' ^ M'l H M." .- - .- 1 V f*-' o'j .rA'l'i"^ Y r ' 'Y^^ -T 'v Specimex of Codex Xaticavvs (one-fourth size of original). '1 Thes. 3. 10-18, and Heb. 1. to 2. 1, 2. tament as far as the middle of Heb. 9. 14 ; bvit the rest of Hebrews, as well as the Pastoral Epistles and the Apocalypse, are wanting. AVhether these later Ijooks were ever contained in the Codex is uncertain. A modern Cursive band has com- l)leted the Hebrews and has added the Apoca- lyijse. N and B jjrobably jiroceeded from a com- mon workshop, jierhaps the library at Ca-sarea; and this may explain why both lack the last twelve verses" of Mark. (On the other hand, it may be regarded as reasonably certain that these twelve verses are not part of the primitive text.) 3. A (Alexandrinus ; fifth century) is now in the British Museum, where it is exposed to view in one of the show cases. It came to England in 1628 as a present from Cyril Lucar, the Patriarch of Constantinople, to King Charles the First. There seems no reason to doubt the tradition which assigns the Codex to Alexandria. This % V-^NApX'MHNdxqroCKAiOXorocH' Jr TH*OCTOMaT('KAiaCHNO\Orac» Codex Alexandrinus: Fifth Century.— John i. 1. Evapxn 'J»'o \oyoQ KaxoXoyoq ^ | vpoQ tov ^[lolv Kai 2'[£o]f t/i/ o \oyoq. 118 LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. MS. contains the tiist Epistle of Clement and a part of the second Epistle. 4. C (Ephra>mi Syri rescriiitus: fifth ceutury) derives its name from the fact that the original text of its Greek Bible was washed out in the twelfth century in order to make room for a (xteek translation of some works of St. Ephrem the Syrian. The MS. is now in Paris, hut almost nothing is known of its origin and history. It is suspected that the MS. needs to be re-read. About three -fifths of the New Testament have been recovered from its i>ages. 5. D (Codex Bezie; sixth century) derives its name from Beza the Reformer, who presented it in 1581 to the University of ( ambridge, in whose public library it is exposed to view. Beza ob- tained it from some monastery in the south-east of France. This MS. is a bilingual, and contains, besides the Greek text of the Gospels and Acts, a parallel Latin version of great antiquity. ni^ .'THpoyKiTA. KAiereMcToAYToiM TTojpey ec e A I A 1 ATenrsi en oj' 1 ivi tuivi OiAeM AeHTAl AyToy MpX Al^TOTiAAeiisi TTOyccTAX Y AC K Al ^UDXOMTecTA icxej»ci hJ HceioM *rib4ecAeTUJt-4AincAicoiNi 1 hjjS Abb ATO^ ec u ivj ci qpjc^ic^o Abiy^e j» eji^ec eres di5cij^ijl» AXiTeoTi lUixjy coe)»eRXl^slTXJeUexe syic^S eTpjLicAK>Tescr>AiMibxj^ cnA>JcixjcAbArJT S^icJACnAxjTecr»ci^FAjp;v3rAevS Codex Bez.e. (From a. I'/iotograjiJt.) Luke 6. 1, from the Beza Manuscript in the Cambridge University Library. This is ijrobably the most remarkable of all Greek MSS. of the New Testament, in the num- ber and peculiar character of its textual varia- tions. It has at least one passage in the Gospels to which no parallel can be found anywhere else. It is an insertion in the text after Luke (>. 5 as follows: — "And on the same day"' (/.'■. the Salj- bath)j " seeing some one working on the Sal>bath, he said to him, ' iMan, if thou kno« est w iiat thou doest, blessed art thou; but if thou knowest not, thou art accursed, and a transgressor of the law." Closely related to the text of D in the Acts is E Act^ or Codex Laudianus (sixth century), a (irseco-Latin Codex iirescnted to the University of Oxford by Archbishoii Laud. This MS. is also interesting from the fact that it is the very copy employed by the Venerable Bede when writing his Retractations on the Acts. A number of Uncial MSS. and some Cursives also are written with gold and silver inks upon vellum which has been stained purple. These magnificent books were probably prepared for THnCKKAHCFi^ Toyicy Codex Laudianus: Sixth Century; Greek Text.- Acts xx. 28. Tiiv iKKXrjatav | tov kIvoio'Ju royal hands. One of the most valuable is Codex X (sixth century), of which scattered leaves exist in Rome, London, Vienna, and in the convent of St. .John in Patmos. The whole number of Uncial MSS. known to the critical world is estimated at something over 120; but in this enumeration a niimber of MSS. are couiited more than once, on account of their appearing in the difierent classes (Evan., Acts- Cath., Paul., and Apoc.) described above. The Codex Sinaiticus counts for four in such an enumeration. The Cursive MSS. are, as might be expected on account of their later dates, much more numer- ous; probably we might set their number at between L'-loo" and jr.du (the enumeration being rei)eated for the ditl'crent groiips of books as before). Of all this nund)er, only a very few have been rendered availal)le for criticism by exact collation; a fact which is much to be regretted, as there are preserved in Cursive MSS. many rare and curious readings which are of great anti- quity, and yet have no attestation in Uncial MSS. It is not meant that all Cursive MSS. deserve 119 THE NEW TESTAMENT. comi'lete and exhaustive collation, but most of them doscive a more careful study than they have hitlicrto received. It is also readily to be admitted that they are, relatively to the Uncial MSS. and the versions, of much less value in the iletermiiiatiou of the text. But we must bear in mind that the texts of Cursive MSS. are merely the descendants of lost Uncial MSS., and that the maxim that " all various readings are early " api)lies to them as well as to the more imposing lincial MSS. Where a number of Ctirsive MSS. can be proved to come from a common lost origi- nal, it is often possible to restore the lost (lin- cial) ancestor by a critical comparison of the texts that are descended from it. LECriONARlES. — A word must be said in passing of Lectionaries, or copies of the Gospels, or the Acts and Epistles, arranged for reading in churches. Tliey are very numerous, and almost unknown as to text; but enough is known to enable us to attirm with certainty that they often contain fragments of very early texts. When the lectionary js made up out of lessons from the Gospels, it is commonly called an Ei-anr/elis- tariiDi) ; when the lessons are taken frora the Acts and Ejiistles, it is known as an Aj)ostolos or Pra.rdjKislo/os. VERSIONS. — AVe come now to versions, a class of witnesses to which greater weight is continually being assigned in the determination of the text. The great value of the versions lies in the evidence which they furnish as to the state of the New Testament text at the time when it was translated. Many of the versions are of the Portion of Manuscript in Syriac (Luke 7. 44-47). (From a Photograph taken by Mrs. Lewis.) Found in the convent of Sinai in 1892.by Mrs. Lewis, and now in the Cambridge University. highest antiquity — in fact, three of them are commonlv ci-edited to the second century — and this means that, if their evidence had come down to us unchant;ed from the time of the first trans- lation, wc sliduld have the equivalent of three Greek iNISS. wliich would be at least 150 years older than any existing copies. Unfortunately versions are only cojnes in a different language, and are subject "to the same tendencies to revi- sion and textual change as are ordinary Greek MSS. It becomes, therefore, of the first impor- tance to edit the versions as nearly as v>ossible in the forms in which they stood when first made. A polished Vuli;ate must be carried back to the rough and probably barbaric ancestor from which it is derived, and "the evidence of the ancestral translation will be of the highest value. It is, for textual purposes, the evidence of the version. We may divide the earliest versions into the following" groups : — 1. Syriac! Versions. 2. Latin Versions. 3. Egyptian Versions. Each of these versions is believed to go back in some form to the second century; and this may be taken as proved for the first two groups. The third group has not yet been adequately studied. 1. Syriac Versions. —The Syriac New Testa- ment is known to us in the following forms : — (1.) Old Syriac (Lewis Syriac) from Mount Sinai, discovered in palimpsest in 1892 by Mrs. Lewis. The washed-out text which has been covered by ler/enda sanctorinn (or rather saiicta- rmn, for "the stories are tales of good women), was probably written in the fifth century. The text is a very remarkable one, and is often in close agreement with that of the Codex Bezas and Old Latin versions. It often, by a slight change of order of the words or sentences, adds greatly to the meaning, {e.//., Mark 16. :S, " And they said one to the other, ' Who shall roll us away the stone from the door of the sepulchre?' for it was very great; " an arrangement which is also found in the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter in the second century ; John 17. .30, " And needest not that thou should'est ask any one," &c.) The following account of the history of this MS. has been furnished by Mrs. Lewis : — LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. The Palimpsest manuscript, which contains the text of tlie Old Syriac Gospels, was found by us in the Convent or Mount Sinai in February 1892. Its value as a fourth or fifth century manu- script was at once recognized by Mrs. Lewis ; and she therefore insisted on our photographing the whole of its 304 pages. In the following July a portion of the und?r writing was, at our re- quest, read from one of our photographs by the late Professor Bensly, and by Mr. F. C. Burkitt, and was by the fornier identified with the ver- sion known as the Curetonian. In February 1893, the text was copied from the manuscript itself on Mount Sinai by Mr. Rendel Harris, whose friendship with the monks had prepared the way for our discovery, by Professor Bensly, and by Mr. Burkitt. Their transcript was published by the (aiubridgc University Press in 1894, with an Jntroduction by Mrs. Lewis ; but as it was not quite <(>ni]>letc, we went to Sinai for the third time in February 1895, and there Mrs. Lewis copied the remainder of the text, excepting what seemed quite illegible. The version has many points of resemblance with the Curetonian, but it has also many strik- ing differences. Chief amongst these are the canonical sequence of the Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (that of the Curetonian being Matthew, Mark, John, Luke), the omission of Mark 16. 9-20, and of a long uncanonical inter- Convent op St Catherim', Moim Sinm. (With Jebel Musa in the rear.) (From a I'liotograp/i by Mrs. I^EWIS.) polation (found also in Codex Bezae) after Mat. 20. 28. It contains several remarkable readings, such as — Mat. 1. 16, "Joseph, to whom was espoused Mary the virgin, begat Jesus, who is called the Christ." (This is followed, ver. 17-25, by the usual account of our Lord's supernatural birth.) Luke 23. 48, " Woe unto us, what hath befallen us ? woe unto us for our sins ! " John 4. 27, " They [the disciples] wondered that with the woman he was standhu/ and speaking." John 8. 57, " And hath Abraham seen thee ?" John 16. 30, " And needest not that thou should- est ask any man." The value of this version lies chiefly in the fact that it disputes with Tatian's Diatessaron the honor of being the very first translation of the Xew Testament made from the Greek, and that it is written in the mother tongue of our Lord, of His disciples, and of the evangelists them- selves. The Greek text of the Gospels is so often affected by Syriac idioms that a right under- standing of these is absolutely essential to its adequate elucidation. Agnes S. Lewis. Makgaret D. Gibson. (2.) Old Syriac, from the Nitrian Desert (com- monly called Cureton's Syriac, after its discov- erer, who detected it amongst the treasures brought from the Svrian convent in the Nitrian Desert to the British Museum). This is so nearly the same text with the Sinai version, that they must stand in some close genealogical relation; probably neither of them is very far from the primitive translation, the Sinai Syriac being, however, the nearer of the two. Unfortunately the Cureton text is very imi)erfect. (3.) Tatian's Hanihony of the Four Gospels must be considered with the two foregoing ver- sions ; for although it is not extant in the original Syriac, but only in Armenian, and Arabic ver- sions derived from it, yet it is certain that it was in close agreement with the old Syriac version. But whether this is due to the fact that Tatian's Harmony was itself the first form of the (iospels in Svriac, and that the earliest editions of the separate Gospels in Syriac were based upon it, or whether the Tatian Harmony was made out of a previously existing translation of the Four Gos- pels into Syriac, is not yet perfectly clear. We incline to believe that Tatian made use of an already existing translation of the Four Gospels when he constructed his celebrated Harmony (?160 A.D.). (4.) The Ppshifo is the next stage in the his- torv of the version. This is a revision of the Old Syriac in order to bring it into closer agreement with the (ireek text, as well as, no doubt, to im- prove the diction and clear it of harsh or ungram- Portion of the Gospel of St. IVIatthew (ch. 1) in" Coptic. (From a Photogrcqjh.) Now in the British Museum. LANGUAGE AND TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. matical forms. The result of the revision is a version of such beauty that it has been often called the queen of the versions. It does not contain the Apocalypse, nor 'J John, 3 John, 'J Peter, and Jude. (5.) T/i c J'li ilo.n'ii id II ,Sijriac is a Syriac version, made apparently in the interests of literal trans- lation by Philoxeuus of Mabug in 508 a.d. Its first form appears to have been lost, but we pos- sess it in a later recension made by Thomas of Heraclea in tiH! a.d. From him it is often known as the Harkleau or Heraclean version. (li.) TlieJcni.Milcni or J'li/est in id ii Si/riac is the last, but not chronologically latest, nor critically least version, of whicli sc\ oral :\ISS. have recently come to light (especially from Mount Sinai), in the form of lectionaries, as well as a number of fragments. The history of this version is still a problem, but enough of "the text has come to light to show that it is in very close connection with the Tatian Harmony and'with the Old Syriac, as well as with many" of the best Greek MSS. It would be a safe prediction that this version will, before long, attract a good deal of attention. Its base is certainly very early, and it has the addi- tional interest that it probably comes nearer than all other Syriac dialects to the speech of our Lord and His apostles. Closely connected with the early Syriac version, and probably, in the first instance, clerived from it, is the Armenian version. 2. The Latix Version is known to us in a variety of forms. The copies are usually dis- tributed as follows : — (1.) Old Latin. — An African version made in the second century, known to us by the quota- tions of Cyprian in the third century, and, as far as the Gospels are concerned, in the Codex BoV)i- ensis (Cod. A) at Turin, and the Codex Palatinus at Vienna (Cod. c). (2.) European Latin. — A European version, of which the chief representatives, as regards the Gospels, are the Codex ^"ercellencis (Cod. a) of the fourth century, the Codex Veronensis (Cod. b) of the fifth century, and the Codex Colbertinus (Cod. ^0 of the eleventh century. (;5.) The Itala and the lAttin Vtdgate. — The work of revision of these Old Latin texts pro- duces various modified types of text (called by Augustine the Itala, perhaps South Italian or Ne- apolitan), in greater accordance with the Greek, which lead up to the great work of Jerome, who in 383 A.D. was commissioned by Pope Damasus to revise the Latin Bible. The result of his la- bors is the Latin VulMite, of which a vast number of MSS. are extant. Probably the best text of all is the Codex Amiatinus (Cod. Am.), which was written shortly before the year 716 a.d. at Jarrow in Northumberland, by the command of Ceolfrid the Abbot, as a votive oUering for the Pope of Rome. Ceolfrid died on the .journey to Rome, • and the fortunes of the book after his death are unknown ; it was proljably jiresented to the Pojie in due course, and ultimately found its way into the mona.stery of Monte Amiata, after which it is named. It is now in Florence. 3. The E<;vpti.\x New Testament appears in a number of translations and dialects, of which the chief are — (1.) Coptic or Memphitir.. —The Coptic or Mem- I)hitic version of Lower Egypt, sometimes called Rohairic, which is supposed to have been made as early as the close of the second century. (2.) thebaic or Sahidir. — The Thebaic or Sa- hidic version of Upi)er Egypt, which is assigned to a slightly later date than the Memphitic. (3.) Fa ijijCun ir. — The Fayyum version, of which fragments ai'e reported to have recently been re- covered. None of these versions or dialects have as yet been pi'operly edited or studied. Closely connected with the Egyptian versions, but not necessarily wholly dependent upon them, is the version in Ethiopic", which is still the eccle- siastical language of the Abyssinians. Other versions of more or less importance are the Gothic, the Slaronic, the Anglo- Saxon, &q,. FATHERS. — As we have already said, the Greek copies of the New Testament, as well as the versions made from the (freek, derive great col- lateral confirmation from the citations made by the Fathers of the church. And here we have the advantage that almost every quotation made by a Patristic writer is a dated landmark in the his- tory of the text ; so that from a study of Origen's works we recover large portions of the MSS. which he used in the third century ; from a study of Cyprian's works we restore the Latin Bible of Carthage in the same century; from the quota- tions of Aphrahat, the fourth-century Persian father, we derive great accessions to our know- ledge of the old Syriac version, and so on. It need hardly be said that the importance of such examinations of the texts underlying Pa- tristic writings is very great. Yet we are still quite at the beginning of the studies which en- able us to make a proper use of these valuable materials. PRINTED TEXT.—1\\e first printed text of the Greek New Testament was brought out by Cardinal Ximenes in the Bible which is known as the Complutensian Polyglot. This splendid work is named after the University of Alcala in Spain, whose Latin name is Complutum. Al- though this is the first printed New Testament (1.514 A.D. ), it is not the first published; for the issue of it was delayed, and the cardinal was an- ticipated by Erasmus, who brought out in 1516 an edition which was published by Froben, the printer of Basle. The work of Erasmus was done too hastily, and in one passage at the end of the Apocalypse, his MS. l)cing defective, he sujiplied the defect by retranslating from the Vulgate. Of later editions, the most famous are those which bear the name of I'.cza the Reformer, of Steiihen, the Paris luintcr and scholar, and of the Elzevir Inothers of Lcy.lcu in Holland. The folio edition of Stephen in ii").'')!) has become the stand- ard text in many of the countries of Eiirojie. On the other hand, the Elzevir edition of 1624 was characterized by its printers, in their second edition of lO;;:!, as icxlmn ab oin ni/ms ricijifiim, "text received by evcrylKxly," and hence is com- mr)nly kno\\n as tlie Textiis Receptus. Of "recent editions the most important are those of Tischcndorf, Tregelles, and Westcott- Hort, and the text that underlies the Revised Version. Coin op Herod the Gkeat. 123 124 INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. TIBEEIA3 FROM THE WeST. (From a Photograph.) INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR M. B. RIDDLE, D.D., LL.D. UXITY. — The New Testament is a collection of twenty-seven distinct writings, from eight (or nine) different hands. Of these writers, four were apostles — St. Matthew, St. John, St. Paul, and St. Peter; two were companions of the apostles — St. Mark and St. Luke ; two were our Lord's brothers, probably not apostles — St. James and St. Jude. The books are usually classed as Historical (Ave), Didactic (twenty- one). Prophetical (one); though the writings of the first class include much more than one-half of the entire matter. The unity of tlie whole is remarkable : all the books find" their centre in Jesus Christ our Lord. The four Gospels narrate His life on earth ; the fifth historical book tells how the new life, that came from Him through the Holy Spirit, passed from Jerusalem to Rome. The epistles, written by men of varied personal character and temperament, set forth the signifi- cance of the Gospel facts, as revealed to them, according to our Lord's promise (John IC. 12, 1.3). The single prophetical book, however it is to be interpreted, shows the Lamb as King, to become Victor on earth, where His church is preparing through conflict to share His triumph. OIIDER. — In our English Bible the order is not chronological. In ancient manuscripts there was much variation in position ; the seven Gen- eral Epistles were usually placed immediately after Acts, the Gospels coining first, though not always in the order now universal. The Pauline Epistles seem to have been arranged according to length, so that the earliest and the latest stand together (1 and 2 Thes., with 1 and 2 Tim. and Titus). PnoOfiESS OF DOCTRIXE.— There is evi- dent in these writings an advance of Christian thought toward maturity; but the progress is not alonjT divergent lines, nor can all the books be classified according to assumed tvpes of doc- trine. Biblical Theology properly discusses the theology of the several writings ; but the theology of the New Testament is one," whatever progress is discernible. Moreover, the advance in St. Paul's teaching, as indicated by a comparison of Thessalonians with Ephesians, is almost as marked as that between the General Epistles of St. James and St. John, which are regarded as presenting the respective extremes in the pro- gress of doctrine. The Gospels cannot be classi- fied by any such principle ; for while St. John, from "its 'purpose, presents the most mature statements, there is no appreciable advance in doctrine from St. Matthew to St. Luke. The same Lord Jesus Christ was apprehended by all the writers in substantially the same way. THE GOSPELS. The four Gospels were written primarily for different circles of readers ; each has its peculiar design, and each evangelist has his distinctive method. Only by a comparison of all four can a complete view be obtained of the history of our Lord's life on earth, and thus of His person and work. One fact should be noted : the four Gos- pels place the emphasis on the closing events. More than one-half of all the narratives describes the events of the last year — one of conflict ; more than one-third is devoted to the few weeks which closed with the death and resurrection of our Lord. From early times the " symbols " of Rev. 4. 7 have been assigned to the four Evangelists, but in different ways. That of Jerome is usually accepted : Matthew, the man ; Mark, the lion ; Luke, the calf; John, the eagle. But this does not suggest very dearly their distinctive peculi- arities. A eomi)arison"of the methods employed l)y the evangelists confirms the view of Goclet: St. Matthew gives long discourses — he writes as a preacher ; St. Mark depicts events as they oc- curred, one after the other— he is a chronicler^* 25 THE NEW TESTAMENT. St. Luke arranges the incidents with reference to their relations —lie is a historian; while St. John selects such facts and discourses as prove a }ii ven truth — he is a theologian. The Gosiiel of St. John, evidently written lust, is properly dis- tinf;uisheortunate neighbor ; the barren fig-tree ; the Lord at the house of a Pharisee ; the prodigal son ; the unjust steward ; Dives and Lazarus ; the ten lepers; the importunate widow; the Phari- see and the pul)lican ; the visit to Zaccha-us ; the parable of the pounds ; the mockery by Herod ; the penitent robber; the walk to Emmaus; and the Ascension. TtME AND PLACE OF WRITIXG. — Tos- sibly the Gospel was written at Ca?sarea, about 00 A.D. But this would make it of earlier date than the Gospel of St. Mark, probably earlier than the Gospel of St. Matthew. It is safer to place it immediately before the Acts. The con- clusion of that treatise suggests that it was writ- ten at the time the narrative closes (63 a.d.), or soon after. The Gospel, therefore, was proba- bly written at Rome, about 63 a.d. At that time " eye-witnesses " were still living ; bvit there would lie a desire for written records, to give "certainty" to Theophilus and others respect- ing the facts they had learned by oral instruction (L4). The Gospel must have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem. In 21. 24 it is stated that our Lord predicted that Jerusalem " shall be trodden down of the Gentiles." This has been used to prove that the Gospel was written after the city was destroved. But such an argument implies that the writer wilfully inisreported our Lord's prediction. Aside from the insu- perable moral objection to this view, there is a literary difficulty. If the writer purposely in- serted this clause because Jerusalem had already THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN. been destroyed, he would certainly have mod- ilied more of the discourse for tlie same rea- son. The date assigned above agrees with the view that the Synojttic .(rospels are indepen- dent narratives, "written within the limit of a few years. sr.VM.inr.—l. Xlie prolofxue; the birth of John the l?aptist; the birth at Bethlehem and the boyhood of Jesus (1, 2). 2. Tlie baptisui and temptation (3 to 4. 13). 3. The ministry in Galilee (4. 14 to 9. 50). The order in "the early part of this division agrees with that of .St. Mark, though many of the incidents are not narrated by the latter. The period of opposition in Galilee, fully detailed by I St. Matthew and St. Mark, is very briefly referred I to in this (iospel. j 4. The Penwan ministry (9. ,'51 to 18. 34). This part of the narrative is almost entirely 1 peculiar to this Gospel. Some of the incidents, especially those recorded in 11. 14 to 13. 9, may belong to the Galihwan ministry. With the bless- ing of the little children (,18. 15), the three ac- counts become parallel. 5. Events at Jericho (18. 35 to 19. 28). ti. The final conflicts at Jerusalem (19. 29 to 21. 38). 7. The Passover, and subsequent events; the death and burial (22. 1 to 23. 56). 8. The resurrection and ascension (24). THE GOSPEL OF ST. JOHN. THE WRITER. — The Fourth Gospel has, from the earliest notice of it, been attributed to the apostle John, the younger son of Zebedee and Salome. His mother was probably the sister of our Lord's mother (19. 25). The historical evi- dence has been strengthened by recent discov- eries. It is now quite certain that this Gospel was used by Justin Martyr; that it was one of the four combined in the "Diatessaron of Tatian (about 170 A.D.). It was accepted by Irenaeus, the pupil of Polycarp, himself the friend and pupil of St. John. The internal evidence is equally strong. Though the apostle does not name himself, he indicates that he is the writer. Hence to deny that he wrote it is to assert that this book, so spiritual in tone, is a forgery. The New Testament history is silent respecting this apostle after the council at Jerusalem (50 A.D.'j.but he was undoubtedly in Ephesus during his later years. Banished thence to Patmos, pre- sumably in the reign of Domitian, he returned to Ephesus, and there lived to an extreme old age, the last survivor of the Twelve. To this fact the last chapter of the Gospel refers, and the incidents there recorded seem to have been ap- pended in view of the approaching death of the aged apostle. He is often styled " the Apostle of Love," but his writings, anil the notices of him in the other Gospels, reveal a man of strong character. His "love" implied hatred of evil, and his writings denounce it. TIME AXn PLACE OF WRITING. — \t Ephesus, as is generally held, not long before the death of the apostle, and probablv at the request of Christians in that city. Ch. 21. 24 ("and we know that his testimony is true ") sug- gests that others desired to attest the truth of the record as coming from the apostle. This late date, nearly a generation after the writing of the other (Gospels, shows that the leading facts about Jesus Christ were already known to Chris- tians. This (Josprd is therefore, in a certain sense, su|iiik'ini'iitary ; but there is no evidence that it was intended' to supply omissions in the other narratives. The design is statfd in the book itself, and the many events and dis( ourscs found only in this (fospel are in accordance with it. < ■JIAl! A< Ti: i; I ST [(S.-yXw style is unusually simi)le, tliat of an aged man of clear perceptions and earnest convictions, himself an eye-witness of what he narrates. Tlie thought is" unusuallv profound, and from early times it has l)pen called the "spiritual" Gospel'. Describing himself as "the disciple whom Jesus loved," the writer makes his narrative a response to that love. But, as the last survivor of the Twelve, he makes fre- quent comments on the events and savings lie records. .Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between what he reports our Lord as saying and what he himself says. This Gospel contains the fullest discourses in opposition to the Jews, and in the private intercourse of our Lord with His disciples. This accords with its design. PURPOSE AND PLAN OF THE GOSPEL.— The purpose is stated in ch. 20. 31 : " But these are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God ; and that believing, ye might have life through his name." The facts are selected with this design — to present our Lord as an object of faith and the source of life. But the contents of the Gospel show that the selection has also been made to contrast the un- belief, and the faith which met the Incarnate Word when He " dwelt among us." In the pro- logue the plan of the (iospel is at least suggested (1. 11-14). " The Word became flesh : " of this the proof is given. " He came unto his o^vn,and they that were his own received him not " {R. V.) : thus the unbelief of the Jews is indicated. " But as many as received him, to them gave he the right to become children of riod, even to them that believe on his name " (/■'. V.) : here the blessed results of faith are set forth. Accordingly the (iospel emphasizes the three great truths: the person of Christ; the rejection of this incarnate Saviour; the new life granted to believers as children of God. SUMMARY. ~\. Prologue (1. 1-18): the pre- existent Word; witness of John the Baptist; the incarnate Word declaring the Father; rejected by " his own," and received by believers. 2. The opening manifestati'on of Jesus to His disciples and to the Jews (1. 19 to 4): the testi- mony of John the Baptist (1. 19-.34) ; the manifes- tation to the first disciples (1. 35-51); the first sign at Cana (2. 1-12); the first public manifesta- tion at the Passover (2. 18-25) ; the first cleansing of the Temple; the interview with Nicodemus (3. 1-21); the ministry in Juda>a (3. 22-36); the brief ministry in Samaria (4. 1-42); the second sign (4. 46-54). 3. The growing unbelief and opposition (.5-12) : the Sabbath miracle at Jerusalem, and the per- secution which followed (5); the feeding of the five thousand, and the discourse at Capernaum, resulting in the withdrawal of most of the dis- ciples ((i); the conflict at .Icrusalcm at the Feast of Tabernacles (7, 8); the healing of the man born blind (9 to 10. 21); the Feast of Dedication, and the withilrawal to Perrea (10, 22-42); tlic raising of Lazarus at Bethany, and the witlidrawal to Kphraim (11); the public entry to Jerusalem, and the unbelief of the .Tews (12)." 4. Jesus reveals Himself to the faith of His dis- ciples (1.3-17): at the last supper (13); in the last discour.se, promising the Comforter (14-16); in the "high-priestly" prayer (17). 5. The apparent victory of unbelief (18, 19): in 131 THE NEW TESTAMENT. n Bbthant. (^From a Photograph by Bonfils.) John 11. 18. Gethsemane ; before the Jewish rulers ; in the denial by Peter, and before Pilate (18); in the mockery, the death, and the burial (19). 6. The real victory of Jesus the Christ, the Son of God (20) : His appearance to Mary Magdalene, to the disciples, and a week later to the eleven, when Thomas confessed Him (20. 1-29); the pur- pose of the Gospel (20. 30, 31). 7. Epilogue (21) : the appearance by the Sea of Galilee to seven disciples; the promise to the be- loved disciple (21. 1-23) ; final attestation and comment (21. 24, 25). [While this Gospel in its design is less of a his- torical narrative than the Synoptic Gospels, it gives more notices of time than they do. A his- torical outline of our Lord's ministry can only be constructed by arranging the events in ac- cordance with the feasts mentioned by St. John.] THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. BY PROFESSOR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., LL.D., ABERDEEN. The "Acts of the Apostles" is, in the strictest sense, the second book of an historical work, of which the " Gospel according to St. Luke " forms the first book. The second book takes up the subject from the death and resurrection of the Saviour, and describes the great steps and criti- cal stages by wliich Christianity spread over tiie world, and was at the same time formed into an organized and universal church. But the author's conception of "the world" was practically con- fined to the Roman world : in Luke 2. 1 he uses the expression "all the world" to indicate the Roman empire, and so also in Acts 11. 28. Hence, when he describes the spread of the gospel, he never alludes to the steps by which it spread from the Holy Land to the south and the east, but carefully describes those by which it spread to- wards the west over the Roman world ; and yet there is no reason to doubt that the baptism of the Ethiopian (Acts 8. 27 ff.), and the presence of many Christians in Damascus (9. 2, 10, 19), are signs of a process by which the religion diffused itself southwards and eastwards. There can, in- deed, be no doubt that the author of these two books considered Christianity to be given to the whole world, Jew and Greek, barbarian and Scythian; but the development of the church seemed to him to have been determined by its history in the Roman world (i.e. the civilized part of the world), and hence, in practice, he describes that history alone. The historv follows the stages of development. 1. THE PBIMITIVE CHURCH IN JERU- SALEM, ch. 1-.5. — In the first place, the state of the church at the ascension is described; then follows the account of the quickening of the church at Pentecost. The brethren, depressed for the time at the loss of their leader, became conscious for the first time of a new spirit and new power; and their changed and ennobled nature soon impressed with wonder even their opponents (4. 13). The general condition of tlie first simple community — its unselfish spirit, the voluntary offering by 'many of their whole pro- perty for the benefit of the poor, and the exist- ence within it, even at that time, of false and unworthy members — is described in consider- able detail. The presence of divine grace and THE NEW TESTAMENT. favor in the ooiniminity is attested by the power over disease jiranted to Peter and Jolin (A. 1 ff.). '>. HTKl'llKN, ch. G-7. — The apostles found that the superintendence of the poor requiretl too much time, and seven deacons (the noun is not used here, hut the cognate verb) were ap- pointed for tlie purpose. Among tliem Ste- phen was distinguished by his bold preaching. This stirred up a persecution, in which Stephen was stoned, and the brethren scattered as far as Damascus, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Antioch. The result was that the gospel was preached far more widely. Saul here enters on the scene, having probably now reached the age for public life (the thirtieth year). He took a rather prominent part in the murder of Stephen. 3. THE DISPERSION, ch. 8-9. — Philip, one of the deacons, founded at Samaria the first church outside of Jerusalem. The apostles, who had remained in Jerusalem during the persecu- tion, sanctioned this new foundation by Peter and John, who visited Samaria. On their way back to Jerusalem, they preached in many vil- lages ; while Philip preached in the cities of the coast, going as far north as Cajsarea, the Roman capital of Palestine. Saul went to Damascus with authority to bring back as prisoners the Jewish Christians who had settled there ; but, as he approached Damascus, Jesus appeared to him by the way, and he was converted. A long pro- cess of peaceful development, with the founda- tion of new congregations throughout all Judiea and Samaria and fialilee, then took place (9. 31). The development is not described in detail, but it evidently lasted for many years, and Peter was very active in it, "going through all parts" (9. 32). It continued'without any interruption until the persecution by Herod in the spring of ■44 A. D. (12. Iff.). 4. PETER AND CORJSTELI US, ch. 10. — Dnr- ing this period Peter, ordered by a special revela- tion, went from Joppa to Csesarea, and admitted into the Christian brotherhood the first uncir- cumcised Gentile — namely, a Roman centurion called Cornelius. This important step in the widening of the church provoked opposition in Jerusalem, where the Jews at first blamed him, but accepted his argument that God had ordered the action. 5. THE CHURCH IX ANTIOCH, ch. 11. — Antioch, the great metropolis of Syria, and even Cyprus, were affected by the dispersion. The congregation in Antioch was marked out from all other congregations by the admission of Greeks. The importance of this new church was felt in Jerusalem, and Barnabas was sent to An- tioch; he associated Saul with himself, and they consolidated the congregation during 43 A.u. The nickname " Christians," first applied to the Antiochian brethren by the pagan population, was soon accepted by the adherents of the new religion as their regular name. The charity which, as the result of divine revelation (11. 28), was extended by the richer brethren of Antioch to the poor suliferers in .Jerusalem during the great famine that occurred in 45 and 40 a.d., had an important effect in uniting and consolidating the churches in Syria and in Judaea. Barnabas and Saul administered the charity in Jerusalem (12. 25). 6. PAUL. — From this point the further devel- opment of the Christian church centres in the activity of the apostle Saul, who is henceforth called by his Greek (or Roman) name Paul, while he appears mainly in Greek (or Roman) sur- roundings. By a series of three wonderful jour- neys, he planted Christianity first in the south- ern cities of the Roman proVince of Galatia (ch. 13, 14); next, led by the divine revelation along a strange road (IG. 0-9), in the provinces of Mace- donia and Achaia (ch. 16-18); and finallv in the province of Asia (ch. 19). To consolidate'his new congregations, and bring them into close union with Jerusalem as the centre of the whole church, he Instituted on this third journey a general con- tribution in the four provinces 'for the benefit of the poor Christians in Jerusalem (Acts 24. 17; Rom. 15. 20 ; 1 Cor. 10. 1 ; 2 Cor. 8. 19 to 9. 1 ff.). He ordered the money to be set apart week by week by each member in each church ; and at last he sailed for Palestine with a numerous b(jdy of delegates, in charge of the whole sum (20. 4). His intention now was to leave the work in these eastern provinces to others (20. 25), while he him- self went on to Rome (19. 21), and thereafter to Spain, the great seat of Roman civilization in the west (Rom. 15. 24). These intentions point unmistakably to a scheme already mapped out in Paul's mind for the evangelization of the Roman empire. His first intention was to reach Jerusa- lem in time for the Passover of 57 a.d. ; but, in order to avoid a conspiracy against his life, he postponed the journey so as to arrive in time for Pentecost, May 28, 57 a.d. (though many authori- ties prefer the date .58 A.D.). 7. THE TRIAL OE PAUL, Ch. 20-28. — At this point the narrative becomes far more minute and detailed, marking that the author considered this part of his subject to be specially important. Not merely the stages of the trial at Jerusalem and Cai-sarea, with the speeches of Paul in his own defence, but also the previous voyage to Palestine and the .subsequent voyage by Crete and Malta to Rome, are described very fully. Further, whereas very little is said about the conduct of the Palestinian Christians towards Paul, the relations into which he was brought with the various Roman officials, Lysias, Felix, Festus, Julius, and with the crew of the slii_p bound for Rome, are stated very clearly. This would suggest that the author was concerned to bring out that there had existed at first no an- tagonism between the Roman government and the Christians; and that the trial of Paul at Rome resulted in his acquittal, which implied that evangelization was not illegal. Many au- thorities have concluded from the abruptness of the ending of the book that it was never com- pleted by the author; and this opinion may be regardetf as highly probable, for the description of the final trial and acquittal of Paul before the supreme court in Rome is required in order to complete and explain the plan of the work. IJATE AND AUTHOR. — m^ny characteris- tics suggest that the date of this history belongs to the period following 75 a.d. There were al- ready in existence many histories of the Saviour (Luke 1. 1) when the plan of this historv was con- ceived, and it has been- suggested that the dates in Luke 3. 1 were calculated lietween 79 and 81 A.D. The marked insistence on the fact that Jesus and afterwards Paul were repeatedly pro- nounced by Roman officials to be guiltless of any crime against the Roman law (Luke 23. 2, 4, 14, 22; Acts 18. 16; 24. 23; 25. 25; 20. 31; 27. 3; 28. 31, and presumably in the final trial at Rome), taken in connection with the fact that the Acts was composed in a time of persecution (14. 22), after Christianity had been declared by the govern- ment to be illegal and a capital offence, would lead to the belief that the author was guided to a certain degree by the desire to "appeal to the truth of history against the immoral and ruinous policy " of persecution. The book, then, was in- tended to contain among other things " a tem- perate and solemn record of the facts concern- ing the formation of the church, its unswerving loyalty to the Roman government, its friendly reception l)y many of the Romans, and its tri- umphant vindication in the first great trial at Rome." Further, if the book is unfinished, the reason may probably lie in the death of the writer; perhaps an incident of the persecution. With regard to the author, his personal ac- quaintance with many of the facts and person- ages of the history is shown by the marvellous 134 CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS AND OF THE EPISTLES. viviilness and accuracy of the narrative, espe- cially where the scene lies in Greek lands or seas. The j)ortraiture of I'aul, in partic^ular, is so life- like, and marked by so many touches of loving' admiration, as to show the liand of a friend and disciple. The term "we" often occurs in the narrative of ch. Iti, -'(), '_'!, '27, 28, marking that the author was personally engaged in the inci- dents there described. His tastes and ideas (so far as they are disclosed under the veil of anony- mity and impersonality in which he shrouded himself) are of the Greek type, and he certainly hail no Hiving for the .lews. JIc was evidently a uiau i)f giiod education, and possessed a iHinsider- alde range of knowledge and reading. Many lit- tle touches show an interest in medical details. All these ehai'acteristiis agree with and confirm the very early tradition that the author was Luke, the friend and "the beloved physician" of Paul (Col. 4. 14; 2 Tim. 4. 11). In .Tesus' lifetime .... Luke 10. 9, 17 Lame man at Temple gate . . Acts 3. 2. Death of Ananias .... Acts 5. ,5. Death of Sajjphira .... Acts .5. 10. Many sick healed .... Acts 5. 10. Apostles delivered from jirison . Acts 5. 19. Great miracles of Stephen . . Acts 6. 8. Miracles of Philip .... Acts 8. 6. Saul's blindness .... Acts 9. 3. Ananias recovers Saul . . . Acts 9. 17. I'eter heals .Kneas .... Acts 9. 33. MIRACLES OF THE APOSTLES. Dorcas restored to life . Peter delivered from prison . Klyiuas smitten with blindness . Cr'ililile healed at Lystra Damsel with spirit of divination Special miracles througli Paul Eutychus restored to life Viiier's bite harmless Publius' father healed . Acts 9. 40. Acts 12. G. Acts 13. 11. Acts 14. 8. Acts 16. 16. ( Acts 19. 11, cf. [ 2 Cor. 12. 12. Acts 20. 10. Acts 28. 5. Acts 28. 8. CHRONOLOGY OF THE ACTS AND OF THE EPISTLES. AFTER PROFESSOR W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., LL.D. EsiPKiiORS OK Rome and Phocuratous ok Jud.ea. 30 32, 33 35 37 41 43 44 45 (46) 46 47 48 49 49 50 51, 52 51 53 53-56 54 55 56 56 57 57-.59 59 59 60 61,62 62 63-66 Crucifixion. Pentecost, May 26. Martyrdom of Stephen. Conversion of Saul. Pirst visit of Saul to Jerusalem. Herod Agripjia I., King of .Juthea and Samaria. Saul brought to Antioch by Barnabas. Death of Herod. Saul and Barnabas visit .Jerusalem with relief for the brethren in time of famine. The famine at its worst. First Missionary Journey of Saul and Barnabas. (Autumn). Return to Antioch. Council ot Jerusalem. Second Missionary Journey, with Silas. Expulsion of Jew's from Rome. St. Paul at Athens and Corinth. Epistles to the Thessalonians. St. Paul leaves Corinth, and visits .Jerusalem (March). Antioch. Epistle to the Galatians. Third Missionary Journey. Ephesus. At Ephesus. First Epistle to the Corinthians. Leaves Ephesus, and visits Macedonia and Corinth. Second Epistle to the Corinthians, from Macedonia. Epistle to the Romans, from Corinth. Leaves Corinth for Jerusalem. Arrest in the Temple. At Ciesarea. Paul sails for Rome. (October). Sails from Fair Havens. Shipwreck at Malta. (March). Reaches Rome. Epistles to I^hilemon, Colossians, Ephesians, and Philippians. St. Paul tried and acquitted, early in the year. Journeys in Macedonia, Asia Minor, Crete, and per- haps Spain. First Epistle to Timothy. Epistle to Titus. Winters at Nicopolis. Sent to Rome. Second trial at Rome. Second Epistle to Timothy. Martyrdom of St. Paul, in the thirty-fifth year of conversion and sixty-eighth of age. Tiberius, Emperor. Pontius I'Uale, Procurator. Caligula, Emperor. Claudius, Emperor. Cuspius Fadas, Procurator. TUieriiis Alexander, Procurator. VcnHdlus Ciimamis ami Felix,, Joint-procuratora. * Felix, sole Procurator (52). Nero, Emperor, Porcius Festus, Procurator. Albinus, Procurator. Gessius Florus, Procurator. Galba, Emperor. ♦ Tacitus say that Cumanus ruled only in Galilee; Josephus, that he was Procurator of all Palestine, and th:it Felix succeeded him in 52. 135 {i^r~--.-»-^ THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS. THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL.* BY PROFESSOR MARCUS DODS, D.D., EDINBURGH. St. Paul contrived, in a remarkable degree, to maintain a connection with tlie churches he founded. The care of all the (ientile churches (2 Cor. 11. 28) he exercised not merely by occa- sionally revisiting them, but by letter. Of the letters" thus produced we possess thirteen. The originals have indeed naturally disappeared ; they were written by amanuenses, and authenticated by the addition of a paragraph in St. Paul's own writing (Gal. 0. 11), or by his signature (2 Thes. 3. IT). ■Vvith the exception of the three pastoral epistles to Timothy and Titus, which are still questioned by some" critics, the epistles ascribed to .St. Paul in our New Testament are generally and justly received as his. These thirteen epistles all belong to the later half of St. Paul's ministry. The first eighteen years after his conversion "give us not one epistle. In the year 52 or 53 a.d. the two epistles to the Thessaionians were written. Then follows another blank period till 58, when, within the space of one year, the four great epistles to the Corin- thians, Galatians, and Romans were produced. Again there occurs an interval of five years till 63, when the four "prison Epistles" ajjpeared ; and finally, yet another gap, until 6G-08 a.d., when he sent the pastoral letters to Timothy anil Titus. In the character of these grovips there is a marked ditference, while within each group the epistles belonging to it resemble one another. In the earliest group there is a reflection of St. Paul's preaching to the heathen, in which the second coming and the kingdom of Christ are in the foreground. The second group exhibits the doctrines of grace in conflict with Judaism, and also shows us m detail the difficulties Christianity had to overcome in the social ideas and customs of the Roman world. The third group is char- acterized by a calmer spirit, a higher reach of Christian thought, more consti'uctive statements regarding Christ's person. In the fourth group we have chiefly instructions regarding church order, interspersed with passages of remarkable beauty and richness. THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS. ITS DATE.— Although this epistle stands first amonff the Pauline letters, this position has been accorded to it, not because it is the earliest in point of time, but partly owing to its doctrinal importance, and mainly "on account of its being- addressed to the metropolis of the world. Its probable date is the early spring of the year 58 A. It. The previous winter months had been spent by St. Paul in Greece (Acts 20. 2, 3); and while in Corinth he was the guest of Gains, in whose house this letter was written (16. 23; 1 Cor. 1. 14). He must have written it a week or two before leav- ing ; for at the time of writing he intended to sail direct from Greece to .Syria (15. 25), to hand over to the authorities at .Jerusalem the funds he had collected among his Gentile chvirches in aid of the poor .Tews. But at the last moment he altered his route to baffle certain .Jews who had laid a plot against him (Acts 20. 3). The letter may have been entrusted to Phebe, a deaconess of Cenchrea, who was travelling to Rome (16. 1), but between Corinth and the metropolis there can have been no lack of persons coming and going. ITS PUBPOSE. — Ht. Paul's primary purpose in writing to the Romans was to explain why during the many years of his missionary journey- ings he had never yet reachtul Rome, and to pave the way for his intended visit. He had many friends among the Christians of Rome (ch. 16)"; and it is likely that in a friendly way they had been chiding him with attending so niu'ch to others and so little to them. He assures them that this was due to no oblivion of the claims of rtome, nor to any intentional neglect ou his part. On the contrary he, himself a Roman citizen, had intensely felt the attraction of Rome, and had "oftentimes" (1. 1.3) purposed to visit it. and had only been hindered by work from which he could not escape. " St. Pa"ul had conceived the great idea of Christianity as the religion of the Roman world," and finding that wherever he went there was a constant reference to the great centre and source of law and government and unity, he could not but be continually possessed with the thought : " I must also see Rome " (Acts 19. 21). St. Paul takes the opportunity of presenting an exposition of his "gospel" rnore systematic than we have in any other of his letters. Why, if he expected so soon to see his friends in Rome? Possibly because it was said that he shrank from bringing his bare and simple gospel into the try- ing light of the metropolis. It is not this, he says, that hinders him from coming to Rome. " I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ" (1. 16). And having good reason to know the precarious- ness of life, and the delays which may hinder and retard the best intentions, he at once proceeds to give the main outline of his habitual teaching. It was natural that, while proposing greatly to extend his mission, he should wish to make clear to the church of the imperial city, the centre of the Gentile world, what his gospel was, and that it was applicable to Gentiles as \\ell as to Jews, to metropolitans as well as t" provincials. The letter is a justification of his mission to the Gentiles. ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF THE ROMAN CHURCH.— 'ihe precise form which this exposition took was partly determined by the character of the church "addressed. The origin of the church in Rome is obscure. .Jews had been numerous in Rome for a hundred years before the date of this letter. Under Augustus they formed a colony on the farther side of the Tiber. Under Nero they had several synagogues, and outside the walls the remains of "more than one Jewish cemetery have been discovered. But the number of Christian Jews must have been small, or they cannot have detached themselves from the synagogue ; for when Paul visited the city, their leading men declared they had never heard of him, and knew nothing of ('hristianity save by vague rumor (Acts 2S. 21, 22). Yet that I there were some .Jews in the Roman church ap- j j)ears from the salutations (ch. 16), where such names as Mary, Apelles, Aquila, and Priscilla, I and those of St. Paul's " kinsmen " appear (cf. 1. ♦ Conybeare and Howson date Paul's Epistles as follows : — Thessaionians, 52, M a.d. ; Galatians, 57: Corinthians, 57; Romans, .18 ; Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, and Philippians, 62 ; 1 Timothy and Titus, 67 i 2 Timothy, 68. for Prof. Ramsay's Chronology, see p. 1.35. 137 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 17, ff.). In the main, however, the church was composed of (ientiles. This appears not merely from the names in oh. IG, l)ut from such expres- sions as, "I si)eak to you that are Gentiles" (11. 13). Some of the names are those borne by slaves and f reedmen ; and yet there are indications that the church even then contained some jjersons of culture (Philol(jnus) and standing. Rome, whither all things drifted, could not fail to hear of the Christ. Whether l)y persons present at the first Pentecost or by those who had met St. I'aul in Ephesiis or in ("'orinth, the gospel had been carried thither, and had borne fruit. COXTEXTS OF THE EPISTLE. — ThQ epistle may be divided as follows: — 1. An epistolarv introiluction, 1. 1-1.5. 2. Tlie theme stated, 1. 16, 17. 3. Proof of the universality of guilt, 1. 18 to 3. 20. 4. Righteousness is God's gift received by faith, 3. 21 to 5. 11. 5. The relation of Christ and His righteousness to all men, 5. 12-21. 6. Those who participate in Christ's death par- ticipate also in His life, 0-8. 7. The relation of Israel to the salvation of the Gentiles, 9-11. 8. Resulting duties as individuals and as mem- bers of societv, the state, and the church, 12. 1 to 15. 13. 9. Epistolary conclusion, .salutations, and bene- dictions. The theme of the epistle is this : The Gospel is the power of God unto salvation, because it pro- claims a righteousness furnished by God, and therefore satisfactory to God, and which man has not to earn but only to receive. What comes of man's conduct, and what likelihood there is of his working out a righteousness for himself, have been sufficiently manifested in the ungodly and immoral condition of the empire. This state of things has evoked the wrath of God. But the .Jews are as decisively condemned by their law as the Gentiles are by their conscience. All alike are guilty, and unable to earn righteousness, (ienfile and Jew alike must accept God's favor as a gift, if they are to have it at all — must believe that, irrespective of their merit or demerit. God loves them, and claims them as His chilrlren. Thus was Abraham himself justified. In Christ this undeserved love or grace is revealed. And it need not surpri.se any person that by the right- eousness of one many 'should be bles.sed, for by the sin of one many were made sinners. And the abandonment of tlie idea that we must earn God's favor will not make us indifferent to holiness. On the contrary, dying with Christ, we .shall with Him rise to newness of life, to God, and to all the hope and glory that come of fellowship with God. But the very triumph St. Paul feels in depict- ing a salvation so perfect and so applicable to Gentiles fills him with pity for his own country- men, and in ch. 9-11 he aims at showing that the'ir refusal of the gospel and their consequent rejec- tion have been the occasion of the ingathering of the Gentiles: if "the casting away of thein be the reconciling of the world, what' shall the receiving of them be but life from the dead?" He cannot think their rejection is final. Then he gives in detail a wonderfully rich exhibition of the conduct appropriate to' those in whom works the power of God to salvation. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. BY PRINCIPAL T. C. EDWARDS. {Abridged from his Commentary.) COniXTHAXI) ITS CHUnCH. — The Corinth known to the apostle Paul was not the wealthy (ireek city of Homer and Thucydides. Destroyed by the Romans in 1-KJ n.c, it was rebuilt by Julius Ca-sar exactly a hundre'!), therefore in 58 or 59 a.d. (living the summer of 58 or 59 a.d. to a missionary jour- ney in Macedonia, Achaia, and Asia, during wliich he did not touch at Ephesus, we arrive at the conclusion that he wrote the first epistle from Kphesus in the spring of the previous year, 5G or 57. Hut when he was in Macedonia oh liis way to Achaia (.1 Cor. IC. 5; 2 Cor. 8. 1; 9. 4) he wrote his second epistle, a few months later than the first. ('OXTKXTS OF THE EPII^TLE. — ^Ye may divide it into eight main divisions : — 1. The factions in the church. First argu- ment: The gospel is essentially the proclama- tion of salvation through Christ. This is proved from the nature of the message, from the char- acter of the church, and from the power of the ministry. Second argument: The gospel is a divine revelation through the Spirit. Third argument: (iod has ajjpointed teachers, and defined their work (ch. 1 to 4). 2. Church discipline : The case of incest; the practice of going to law before heathen tribunals. A statement of the difference between actions indifferent and actions in their very nature sin- ful (.5, C). 3. Marriage and celibacy ; application of the Christian doctrine to particular cases. Digres- sion on Christian liberty, with special reference to circumcision and slavery (7). 4. Concerning t)ie eating of meats offered to idols. Reconciliation of the two opposite Chris- RuiNS AT Corinth. (From a Pfioto'iraph h>i PniLii" H. Finch AM.) tian conceptions of liberty and love, exempli- fied in the apostle's own conduct; the . 1-1.5). It is of the nature of the Spirit, received as the inheritance Ijy promise, to war against the flesh (ver. lG-2o). " It becomes those who are heirs of the Spirit to be charitable and helpful, and to be sincere in sowing to the Spirit, lor what is so-mi will be reaped (5. 20 to 6. 10). The conclusion, written by St. I'aul himself, summarily sets his gospel of freedom and spiritu- ality in contrast to the outward character of the religion taught l)y the Judaizers. What do bodily marks, circumcision or uncircumcision, count for in a religion of the Spirit ? Marks such as he bore, a seamed back and a scarred face — these indeed testifying to fidelity in Christ's service — are the only marks that coiiut. The extraordinary compression, richness in argument, and convincing character of this epistle make it a masterpiece, even among St. Paul's writings. His clear perception of the suflficiency of Christ for all .saving purposes is unequalled, as also is his boldness in proclaiming and in carrying to its logical consequences the truth that He alone is sufficient. The freedom and the spirituality of true religion are once for aU demonstrated. THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. THE PERSONS AT>T>RESSED. — St. Paul by " one body on the cross " (ch. 2. 16), and thus had resided in Ephesus for more than two years brought into union with God, the unity of all (Acts 19. S, 10), and was consequently very well members in the one body of Christ (4. 1-16) — this acqu-^inted with many persons in tlie city and is the theme of the epistle. " In Christ all things, neighborhood. Yet abundant as are his personal both which are in heaven and which are in earth, references in his other epistles, in this there are are gathered together in one " (1. lO). This is the no salutations, no references to his experiences purpose which through all ages has lieen running in Ephesus, nor any allusions or teaching which secretly towards accomplishment, and now in might indicate that a church with special and Christ "is made manifest (1. 9, 10; 3. 1-13). "In distinguishing characteristics was in view. I Christ dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead In the Kpistle to the Galatians, and also in the ; bodily," and as He is. as it were, the body and Epistle to the Colossians. which was written fulness of God, so the church is " Christ's body, simultaneously with that to the Ephesians, the the fulness of Him that fiUeth all in all." object of writing and the character of the church "Here, for the first time [explicitly], we hear addressed are at once apparent from the direct Christians throughout the world described as confutation of certain errors ; but in this epistle together making up a single Ecclesia, — i.e. as- the teaching is positive and general. All this .sembly of (Jod, or church; and here, for the first tends to open the question whether the title of time, "we find the relation of Christ to i)ie or a the epistle is correct. Marcion, earlv in the church conceived as that of a Head to the body." second century, entitled it " To the Laodicenes ; " But "the unity of which it [the epistle] speaks and from the best MSS. the words "at Ephesus " has in itself nothing to do with organization, are wanting in the first verse. Beza suggested though, no doubt, a sense of it might be expected that the epistle was intended as a circular letter to help towards the growth of organization, for the churches of the provinces of Asia, and The units of the one church spoken of in the this suggestion has been generally adopted. This epistle are not churches, but individual men." letter would then be that which" the Colossians But this imity is not worked out in a dogmatic were instructed (Col. 4. 16) to receive "from interest, but to its practical issues. The epistle Laodicea." and the address might either be left is ethical, not doctrinal. The real basis of unity blank, or be filled iip in the case of transcripts is elaborately exhibited, that the force of the with the name of the particular churches to , appeals to unison of spirit in all its practical which it was delivered. CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE. — The gen- eral subject of the letter is in obvious agreement with its supposed circular character. It is the unitv of the church which is mainlv in view. rnanifestations may be' felt. Ch. 4-6 form the real body of the epistle. In these we find its motive, its object, and its sul)Stance. There is one body and one spirit, tlirrrfore must all that separates man froiu man be put pside. Lowli- The unity formed by Jew and Gentile, redeemed i ness, meekness, foroearance must be cultivated 142 THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. (4. 1-3); each mau must exercise his {lifts for the growth of the whole Ixvly (ver. 4-U>); Gentiles must forfcet their uiilniniiinp; in vice, and put on the new man presentoil in (.'lirist (ver. 17-24); and as one nieiuher of tho body cannot counterwork another member, so neither can one Cliristian lie, or cherish angeij or defraud or corrupt another (ver. 25-o2'). Love is to be the guiding principle of the new life, but not such love as leads to impurity, which ought not even to be named by the heirs of (iod's kingdom; persons thus dignified must be wise, and find worthy ex- pressions of mirth ^.'). 1-21). In opposition to Gnostic asceticism, which taught that the radical relationships of life must be abjured if men would be holy, it is in these relationships that the highest Christian grace, the very love which Christ bore to man, is to be cultivated (5. 22 to G. 9). Finally, and perhaps sug- gested by the presence of the armed soldier guard- ing him, St. Paul counsels them to put on the whole armor of God, and commends to them Tychicus, the bearer of the letter. liELATION ro orilEIl NEW TESTA- MENT LITERATUliE. — That the Epistle to the Ephesians was written after, but on the same day or withi n the same week as, that to the Colos- sians appears from Col. 4. 7, " All my state shall The JMosQUE and Casile of Ei-Ht;sus. (.From a Pholograph by Flimi.) Tychicus declare unto you," compared with Eph. ()."21, "But that ye alu'o may know my state, and how I do, Tychicus shall make known to you," etc. Tj-chicus was the bearer of both letters. The similarities of thought in the two epistles are also marked and obvious. The reconcilement of all things in Christ in fulfilment of (iod's eternal purpose is common to the two (Eph. 1. 10; Col. 1. 19, 20); so too is the conception of Christ as the Head of the church (Eph. 4. 1."); Col. 2. 10); the practical exhortations, although more compres.sed in the Epistle to the Colossians, yet follow the same order, and embrace similar topics. Considering that the epistles were written at the same time, these similarities were to be ex- pected. The differences discernible, as well as the fact that a separate epistle was addressed to the C!olossians, arise from the more definite erroneous teaching which prevailed in the church of Colossi. Hence also the calmer and more meditative style of this Eiihesian epistle. There are also ideas in this e])istle which have been more elaborately treated in Romans. The prominent Tauline tloctrines of salvation Ijy grace, of the purpose of God as determining his- tory, of the mystical union of tlie believer with Christ, of the invalidity of circunicision and Jewish birth, are common to the two epistles. With St. John's teaching this epistle is connected by its reference to the church as the Kride of Christ (.5. 25; cf. Rev. 21. 9); with St. Peter also in his first epistle analogies have been found in our epistle. Coin of Saedis. 143 THE NEW TESTAMENT. THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. l)ATE. — 't\vi Epistles to the Philippians, Ephesiaiis, C'olossians, and Philemon, havinfj; been written while Paul was under arrest, are desif^nated "Prison Epistles" (Phil. 1. 13, 17; Eph. :i. 1; Col. 4. 10; Philem. 9). From the early summer of 58 a.d. to the spring of 63 a.d. he was detained a jjrisoner. Of this period the first two years were spent in Caisarea, the last two in Rome, and some interveninji' months on ship- board. Some good critics have supposed that one or more of these epistles were written from Ca^sarea. But the liberty to preach, which St. Paul was enjoying when he wrote them (Col. 4. 3, 11 ; Eph. G. 19), seems to point to Rome ; and it is obvious that, wliile at Ca^sarea his expecta- tion was to go to Rome, at the time of writing these epistles he looked forward to being in Asia Minor. The mention of Cassar's household (Phil. 4. 132) determines the place of origin of this epistle. It cannot be placed very early in the Roman im- prisonment, for time must be allowed for the illness and various movements of Epaphroditus (2. 25-30). On the other hand, it would seem to be earlier than the other three from Rome (cf. Philem. 22). THE CHURCH AT PHILIPPI. — Vhilipvi ':."'-'*. ;_lj««/ Ruins at Philippi. (From a Pliotograph hy BoxFILS.; was a place of great importance. Surrounded by a fertile district, and possessing valuable mines, it also commanded the great highway from East to West, and was on this account attractive to St. Paul. The town which originally occupied the site was known as Krenides (" Fountains ") ; but Philip II. of Macedonia, having improved it, named it after himself. In St. Paul's time it was a Roman "colony" (Acts 16. 12) \.p. a settle- ment of veterans who had served their time in the army. Hence it is Rome that Paul meets in Philippi (Acts 16. 35; prfetors, 36, 38); here that Paul's Roman citizenship can be pleaded ; and here that appeal can V)e made to the sense of dignity associated with membership of a great community (Phil. 1. 27; 3. 20). That he keenly felt the ignominious treatment to which he, a Roman citizen, was sub.iected in this Roman city is apparent from the narrative in Acts, and also from his reference to it in Phil. 1. ;!0 and 1 Thes. 2. 2. But apparently this mal- treatment drew out more powerfully the affec- tion of the Philippians, so that " onceand again," after he left them, they sent him pecuniary aid (Phil. 4. 16). The Macedonians themselves were a remarkably stanch and steadfast people, very different from their Greek neighbors; but how far the church at Philippi was Macedonian we have no means of knowing. The first converts seem to have been foreigners. That women play so large a part in the church (Acts 16. 14, 40 ; Phil. 4. 2, 3) is characteristic. OCCASION OF THE EPISTLE. — ^payihTO- ditus had been the bearer of some pecuniary aid sent to St. Paul by the Philippians, and" had thrown himself so Vigorously into the work of Christ in the metropolis that he became alarm- ingly ill (Phil. 2. 30). On recovering, and hearing how" anxious his friends in Philippi were, he proposed to return to them ; and St. Paul felt that he covild not allow him to go without put- ting in his hands a written acknowledgment of their kindness. Hence this letter was intended to be a simple letter of friendship. Into friendly ears the apostle pours a frank account of his ex- pectations, his present circumstances, his state of mind. But he also sought to use this oppor- tunity of abating a spirit of rivalry and discord which apparently had manifested" itself among the Philippians (1.27 to 2. 11; andespeciallv4. 2,3). CONTEXTS OF THE E PI STLE.-The epistle opens with the customary salutation, thanksgiv- ing, and congratulation (1. 1-11), and then passes to a description of the writer's circumstances, mak- ing light of his own troubles, and finding much food for thankfulness in the fact that the gospel was rather helped than hindered by his imprison- ment. And he believes that whatever is await- THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. ine him, whether death or acquittal, this also will work for pjood (1. l'_'-'_>(>). (hie thino- only he is anxious about, that the I'hilippians should live in unity, not seeking every man his own things, hut "the things of others, as Christ, the great example, did (1. I'T to 2. 11). In his absence they must learn to depend on themselves and on "Ood, and to become lights in the world, not needing to receive from others, but themselves giving spiritual impulse. Then he promises to send Timothv, and does send Epaphroditus (2. 19-30). At this point in the epistle occurs a break. He seems to be closing with the words, " Finally, my brethren, rejoice in the Lord," to which he re- turns in 4. 4, " Rejoice in the Lord alway : again I will say rejoice." The interpolation 'between these two points consists of a warning against Judaizers, backed by a remarkably terse arid im- pressive account of his own apprehension of Christ, and a contrast between those who looked for resurrection in the likeness of Christ and those whose •' end is perdition." Resuming at 4. •2, he rebukes the spirit of discord, naming two female members of the church, Euodias and .Syntyche ; and passes on to ethical exhortations which may be supposed to have been relevant to the character of the church addressed (4. 2-9). The epistle concludes with a most courteous and delicately drawn reference to his condition, and to the kindness of the Philippians. The especial value of this epistle consists in its illustration of St. Paul's heroism, tenderness, and elasticity of spirit. Far from being depressed or bewildered by his long imprisonment, he is filled with hopefulness and cheery self-forgetful- ness. Nothing that the future holds can be other than welcome to him. To live is Christ ; to die, gain. The enthusiasm with which he speaks of the furtherance of the gospel, and dirt'cts atten- tion to this result of his hardships, the sympathy he manifests in speaking of Eiiai)hro(litus, the delicacy with which he alludes to the gift of the I'hilippians, the joyous courage that breathes through the whole, reveal a spiritual athlete of the highest type. The doctrinal passages are also rich and com- pact. In 2. .5-11 we have the Pauline account of Christ's humiliation, or transition from the Di- vine to the human condition. This self-sacri- ficing entrance into human form and the human lot is used as the unrivalled example of self- abnegation in the interests of others. It is an ethical not a dogmatic statement, but all dog- matic accounts of the humiliation of Christ must square with this. In ch. 3. 1-12 again we have the Pauline attitude towards Christ, and the contrast between the righteousness which man can work out and that which God bestows in Christ. A man who hopes to earn God's favor by his own righteousness can make no use of Christ; but he who under- stands the righteousness of God as revealed in Christ, sees its perfectness, casts away his own, and gladly accepts God's offer of tllis perfect righteousness. But while abandoning his own righteousness as a ground of God's favor, he is all the more zealous in seeking to acquire a real fellowship with Christ in holiness, a real accept- ance into his own character of the righteousness and spirit of Christ. This is that which he pur- sues with his whole energy ; thus he seeks to live with Christ in the new risen life which antici- pates and assures the life above. THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. COLOSSI AND ITS CHURCH. — Colossiii was situated in South-western Phrygia, but within the proconsular province of Asia. It lay on the south bank of the river Lycus, and on the main road from Ephesus to the "great plateau of Asia Minor. In the fifth century B.C. it was kno^vn as a great and prosperous city, but the still more advantageous position of its neighbor Laodicea, a few miles down the river, gradually told on Colossre ; and in the time of St. Paul, al- though a large number of Jews had been intro- duced into it, and although the city had become rather Greek than Phrygian, it yet had somewhat fallen from its formergrandeur and importance. Since the twelfth century, only the ruins of the great church of St. Michael have marked its site. " So completely was Colossne forgotten, that the idea arose that the Colossians to whom St. Paul wrote his epistle were Rhodians, so called from their famous Colossus." Colossie thus lay almost in the track of .St. Paul's first and second great missionary jour- neys; but hitherto he had been prevented from visiting the prosperous cities which lay in the valley of the Lycus, and his route had passed east and north of them, so that in this letter he classes the Colossians with those " who had not seen his face in the flesh " (ch. 2. 1). And yet, in writing to them, he was not breaking his rule never to builil on another man's foundation ; for the probability is that Epajihras, who had intro- duced them to the faith a. 7), although a Colos- sian (4. 12), owed his own knowledge of the truth to St. Paul, whom he may have met in Ejihesus. To this "beloved fellow-servant." at any rate, .St. Paul owed his knowledge of the danger.s to which the Colossian Christians were now exposed. Earnest but misled and misleading teachers were proclaiming a method of salvation which not only promised to satisfy the hunger for righteousness, but also, by combining a philoso- phical scheme of the universe, flattered intel- lectual pride. That these teachers were Jews is apparent from their enjoining circumcision and the observance of the Mosaic ordinances (2. 8, 11, It), 20). But with their Judaism thev combined a "philosophy" (2. 8) which taught "that angels (or principalities and powers) were mediators in the work of creation and redemption, and there- fore deserving of worship (2. 18 ; 1. 1(5) ; and that sanctiflcation could only be accomidished by as- cetic neglect of the body, and by severe restric- tions (2. 20-23). This was taught as a mystery under the seal of secrecy (2. 3) to the ini'tiatecl few. These characteristics identify the teaching as the Gnostic Judaism of the first" century. CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE. — It was chiefly with the view of dissipating these errors that .St. Paul wrote this epistle. And the method he pursues is to show that all the advantages which those novel reinescntations fallaciously promise are already ami really given in Christ. After the usual epistolary greeting, in which he includes Timothy along "with himself, and the thanksgiving for their faith and love which so commonly forms the introduction of his letters (1. 1-8), St. Paul prays for their growth in spirit- ual wisdom and the knowledge of God (1. 9-13). He thus glides almost imperceptibly into the real theme of the epistle. To the intellectual exclusiveness of the Gnostic he opiHiscs the gospel which he i)reached to " every creature " (1. 2.3), a gospel which jnoelaims that ""every man" may become perfeet, and not the few initiated onfy (1. 28). To the Cnostic theory of intermediate "beings interposed between God a"nd the world, saving Him from the pollu- tion of contact with matter, he opposes the sole 145 THE NEW TESTAMENT. mediation of Christ in creation and redemption. Christ is the real Mediator, being on the one band the imajic of tlie invisible God, and on the other the tirstl)()rn of all creation. In Him were all things (treated, even all principalities and powers. Neither was God distributed among subordinate beings, each of whom possessed and represented some one of His attributes, but in Christ dwelt the fulness or totality of the Godhead ; so that in Him all power, wisdom, and redemption can be found, and to seek help from angels is gratuitous humility (1. 14-23; li. 9 ; 2. 18). In Christ ye are complete, he says, for He is the head of all principality and po\ver; it is from Him they derive whatever powers they have. Hold therefore the Head (2. 19) and you will lack nothing; and be not in bondage to the Mosaic ordinances, for in Christ you are emancipated from them. In Him you have a spiritual circum- cision, and He has cancelled the written l)ond of ordinances, and has nailed it to the cross as a conqueror nails to a trophy the weapons of his slain foe (2. 1.3-lii). If you died in Chrisfs death, then these ordinances' are for you abolished (2. 23); and if with Christ you are raised again to newness of life, then this is your salvation from carnality and ear thliness — this, and not any mere careful restriction of yourself from this or that. You are lifted to a new world, and vour life is hid with Christ in God (2. 20; 3. 4). From this exposition of the essential principle of all holiness he passes to a warm exliortation to spe- cial virtues and particular duties (3. 12; 4. 6), and concludes with some personal details and salu- tations. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. THESSALONICA AXD ITS CHURCH. — Thessalonica (now Sutoidki), originally known as Ematliia or ThermEe (" Wells." " Bath "), lay at the head of the Thermaic Gulf, which deeply indents the Macedonian shore, and it covered the slope which runs up from the water's edge towards the rich country inland. It was named Thessalonica by Cassancter, who rebuilt it, and called it after his wife, a half-sister of Alexander the Great. In St. Paul's time it was a free city governed by seven politarchs (Acts 17. 6, 8). Its public asseinbly or Demos is also mentioned in Acts 17. 5. Constantine almost chose it as his new capital ; and still it has a population of 70,000, an active trade, and stands next to Constantinople as the second city of Turkey in Europe. Lying on the great Via "Eguatia, which con- nected Rome with the East, and almost 100 miles from Philippi, it was inevitable that St. Paul should find his way to it. As his custom was, he first appealed to the Jews (who have now about twenty synagogues in Saloniki) ; but after three Sabbaths' he was no longer ailmitted to the sj-na- gogue, and shortly after he was expelled from the city. But his' preaching had not been in vain. A few Jews, a multitude of " devout Greeks," and a considerable number of women, accepted his teaching. PVHPOSE OF THE LETTER.— Com\>eUed thus suddenly to leave a church in its infancy, the apostle was naturally anxious to hear of its welfare, and as he himself was prevented from returning, he sent back Timothy (2. 17; 3. 2). And as soon as this messenger returned and brought back tidings of their steadfastness, St. Paul at once sent this letter of congratulation, thankful- ness, and counsel (3. G). This gives us both the piirpose and the date of the epistle; for in Acts 18. 5 we are told that it was at Corinth that Timothy overtook the apostle. The letter may therefore be dated late in ri2 or early in 53 A.u. The report lirought by Timothy was not wholly favorable. Insinuatiniis against the characte'r and motives of .St. Paul were rife. Greek vice was following the Thessalonians into the Chris- tian church. The persecution to which the Chris- tians were expo.sed, although it did not avail to destroy their faith, made them more ready to listen "to highly-colored representations of the coming of Christ. This produced in some minds the impression that ordinary occupations might be suspended, while others again were disturljed because they feared that their friends who had died before' the coming of Christ, might lose the joy and glory accompanying that event. St. Paul's" purpose in writing was therefore complex. CONTENTS OF THE EPISTLE.—lnthe first three chapters St. Paul's object is to encourage the Thessalonians; and in order to this he ac- knowledges with thankfulness their faith and its fruits, and reminds them that they had become exemplary to all within the two great provinces of Maced'onia and Achaia and elsewhere. The faith of the Thessalonians seemed to illustrate both the power which accompanied the preach- ing of Paul and the unusually striking effects of it (ch. 1. 1-10). In the second chapter he first expatiates on the former and then on the latter of these features. In ch. 2. 1-12 he repels the insinuation of mercenary motives, and appeals to the Thessalonians themselves as witnesses of his blameless and industrious life. In ch. 2. 1.3-16 he appeals to their steadfastness under persecu- tion in proof that his gospel was the Word of God ; and in ch. 2. 17 to 3. 13 he continues his self- defence, but now against the charge of fickleness or cowardice, explaining that it was from no want of will or lack of interest he had not re- turned to visit them. To this is added a supplementary portion intro- duced by, " Finally then." And 'in this supple- ment he' first warns his readers against forget- fulness of the Christian commandments, and especially against unchastity (4. 1-8). He also ex- horts them to diligence in their callings (4. 9-12), some having been led to abandon their ordinary employments owing to their expectation of the Lord's" coming, and others having been drawn into curious questionings, especially regarding the fate of those who had died before" the Puron- sia (Second Coming). St. Paid assures them that those who have died in the Lord are at no disad- vantage, and that as the time of His coming is unknown they must live as children of the light to whom the" " day " is welcome (4. 13 to 5. 11). The epistle then p'asses into a series of admoni- tions, not as a river Icses itself in a marsh, for the.se instructions are not made at random, but are ])ointedly directed against actual dangers in the Thessalonian church. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. DATE .UVJ) OnJECr.— The second epistle was written in order to remove certiiin inisunder- stantlinirs of what had been said in the first re- frardinfi' the eomin*!; of the Lord. Tlie impression liad been created that " tlie day of the Lord was at hand" (ch. 2. 2), and St. Paul feels called upon to explain more accurately his meaninj;'. The letter therefore may be placed a month or two after the first. Silas and Timothy are still with St. Paul, and are included with him in the open- ing inscription of the epistle. Some critics have supposed that this letter was really the first ; but not only does this second epistle directly refer to the first (ch. 2. 15), but the first is throughout implied. In the first the allusions to St. Paul's recent visit are numerous and vivid; in the second such allusions are rare. The Poroiisia, which in the first was spoken of as imminent, is in the second more guardedly spoken of. f'O A' y'AWy.S. —Encouragement is given to the Thcssalonians under persecution by the assur- ance that their sulVerings will not be forf^otten, that the coming of Christ will end all injustice and oppression, and that opportunity is given them of glorifying (iod {1. 1-12). Neither are they to be disturbed by the non-intervention of the Lord's coming amljudgment, as if this had been definitely announced as speedily to take place. On the "contrary, certain events "must first happen; especially must lawlessness be mani- fested in a person "ijef ore the personal coming of Christ destroys it (2. 1-12). They themselves were chosen to salvation, and this they will attain by holding fast what they had been taught (2. 13-17). After asking for their prayers, he concludes by giving stringent instructions regarding such members of their church as walked disorderly, being carried away by the expectation of an im- mediate second coming. :^^- Mound uarking the Site of Lystra. (From a Photograph by Prof. Ramsay.) THE PASTORAL EPISTLES. BY THE LATE KEV. TALBOT W. CHAMBERS, D.D. These three epistles are so closely connected in thought, aim, and style that, as airadinit. they could not have been composed at widely dillerent intervals of time. Their geuuiiieuess anil authen- ticity have been severely assailed, but always on internal grounds, the external evidence being conclusively in their favor. The difficulty of find- ing a place for them in the record of Paul's tra- vels in the Acts has led most critics to believe that Paul was released from his first imprison- ment, and after a few years of toil, during which he wrote two of these "epistles, was again imiiris- oned at Rome, whence he sent the second letter to Timothy. The writings do not discuss df>c- triues. but give directions for the training and governing of churches, ami tlie ]iro]ier treatment of individual members, old and young, official and unofficial, backsliders and heretics. They are full of practical wisdom; and countless i>as"- tors through many centuries have felt the value of the guidance, warning, and encouragement here given. FIRST TIMOTHY. Timothy was from Lystra (Acts 16. 1). He was the son of a Greek father and a Jewish mother named Eunice, from whom, as also from his grandmother Lois, he had received a devout training in the Old Testament (2 Tim. 1. 5; 3. 14, 15). Paul calls him his " true son in the faith," whence it is inferred that he had received the gos- jiel through Paul's preaching during his first sojourn in Lystra. At all e\ents. on the apostle's second visitto Lystra, he found the mother and son already converted, although the father con- tinued an unbeliever. .\s Timothy was well re- jiortcd of l)y the brethren, Paid circumcised him and took him as one of his chosen companions (.\(ts 111. 22). The connection continued intimate and unbroken till the close of the aiiostle's career. The time and place of writing cannot be cer- tainly fixed. The former must have been be- tween the .years 64 and 67 a.i>. Rut the occa- sion and purport of the epistle are very plain. 147 THE NEW TESTAMENT. Heretical teachers had arisen at Ephesus, where Timotliy was stationed, and the apostle s'ves directiiins which the young man required, and which have a i)ern>auent value for all youthful ministers. No systematic order of thought, such as is found in Romans and Elphesians, meets us here, but a free outpouring of the apostle's heart. The letter has been justly compared to pearls of varied size and color looselv strung on one thread. COXTENT.S. — Vh.. 1. After the usual ad(h-ess, the writer guards Timothy against false teachers of the law (ver. ;3-ll), against whom he recites his own experience of the gospel (ver. 12-17). In ch. 2 he passes to worship, and specifies the mode and suljjects of prayer (ver. 1-8), adding the direction that women should be simple in attire, and " learn in quietness" (ver. 9-1.5). In ch. 3 he states the qualifications of a bishop or overseer (ver. 1-7), and of a deacon (ver. 8-13), adding a lofty enco- mium of the church. In ch. 4 he predicts the rise of a false asceticism (ver. 1-5), and urges Timothy to fortitude and diligence in his ministry. Ch. 5 prescribes his duties toward men, youiig or old (ver. 1), women also (ver. 2), widows, the older and the younger (ver. 3-1(5), elders (ver. 17-22), with some personal counsels (ver. 23-25). Ch. 6 sets forth the duties of slaves (ver. 1, 2), warns against the love of money (ver. 3-10), eloquently summons Timothy to a spotless life (ver. 11-16), says what he is to charge the rich (ver. 17-19), and ends with a renewed summons to vigilance (ver. 20, 21). SECOND TIMOTHY. This epistle was written from Rome during Paul's second imprisonment, probably about 67 A.D., and is the last of his extant writings. After the address and a fervent thanksgiving for Timo- thy's early training (ch. 1. 1-5), he exhorts him to boldness and fidelity (ver. 8-14), adducing two ex- amples — one of desertion, the other of faithful- ness (ver. 15-18) ; summons him to exercise forti- tude (2. 1-13), to reprove " profane babblings " ver. 14-21), and to guard well his own concuict (ver. 22-26) ; predicts a serious outbreak of im- morality covered with a show of piety (3. 1-9), against which he is to be encouraged by Paul's example (ver. 10-13), and the diligent use of the Holy Scriptures (ver. 14-17); exhorts him to con- tinuous activity (4. 1-5), apjtealing to his own example (ver. 6-8), gives various personal direc- tions (ver. 9-15), and concludes with an assurance of his confidence in his Lord (ver. 17, 18). THE EPISTLE TO TITUS. Of Titus nothing is known with certainty, save that he was a Gentile, and Paul's " true son after a common faith." He is not mentioned in 1 Cor., but he is mentioned nine times in 2 Cor., and always with strong regard. This has been ex- plained on the supposition that Titus was the bearer of the second letter to (Corinth. His name does not occur in the Acts, but there is no rea.son to doubt that he is the Titus mentioned in Gal. 2. Paul refused to allow Titus to be circumcised, preferring to use him as a Gentile apostle to the (xentiles. When taunted l)y the Judaizers with inconsistency because he had circumcised Tim- othy, Paul replied by taking Titus with him to Galatia; and he found him a zealous helper. From Ephesus, Paul sent him to Corinth to get the contributions of the church there forwarded to the poor saints in Jerusalem. He afterwards rejoined Paul in Macedonia, and cheered him with the tidings he brought from Corinth. The epistle tells us that he was left by Paul in Crete to organize the church there. That was probably on Paul's return to Asia from Rome after his first imprisonment. While in Crete he received the Epistle to Titus, written when Paul was at Nicopolis (in Epirus). The last mention of Titus is 2 Tim. 4. 10, from which we learn that he had been in Rome with Paul during the -second im- l)risonment of the latter, and that he had been sent into Dalmatia, doubtless on some important mission. There is no record either of the time or of the place of the death of Titus. CONTENTS. — T\\e: apostle tells Titus what sort of a man an elder required to be (1. .5-9), and why such men were needed (ver. 10-16); pre- scribes the virtues of domestic life — namely, what belongs to aged men (2. 1, 2), to aged women (ver. 3-5), to young men (ver. 6-8), to slaves (ver. 9, 10), and states as the reason that this is the design of the gospel (ver. 11-15); and adds the virtues of social life — namely, submission to civil rulers, readiness to co-operate in the general wel- fare, and gentle behavior toward all men (3. 1-3), the reason for which is that believers were once like the heathen, but had been changed, not by themselves, but by divine grace (ver. 4-7). Then follows a charge about dealing with errors and errorists (ver. 8-12), after which come some per- sonal directions (ver. 12-15). THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON. BY PROFESSOK MARCUS DODS, D.D. It is interesting to find this .«hort note, on a merely domestic matter, preserved among the epistles of St. Paul. It was written to intercede for a runaway slave with his master, and it illus- trates the multifarious services the apostle was invited to render. " It is only one sainjile of numberless letters which must have been written to his many friends and disciples by one of St. Paul's eager temijerament and wariii aflections in the course of a long and chequered life." Philemon was resident in Colosspe (Col. 4. 9). He had been brought to the faith by St. Paul (Philem. 19) ; and as it seems that as yet St. Paul had not visited Colossw, it is probable that Philemon had heard him in Ephesus. He was a thorough -going Christian (4-7), loving and helpful, and the dis- ciples in Colossae, or a section of them, met in his house (2). Apphia was probably his wife, and Archippus his son. Philemon's slave Onesimus (or "Profitable," a common name for a slave) had run away, not empty-handed (18) ; and, having found his way to Rome, and being somehow brought into con- tact with St. Paul, he was by him persuaded to abandon his old mind and' his old ways (10). Paul had devoted and active friends around him in Rome: but this energetic slave, trained to watch a master's wants and to execute promptly what was entrusted to him, became almost in- dispensable to the apostle (11. 13). " ' Profitable,' who was aforetime unprofitable to thee, now is profitable to thee and to me." Paul would gladly have retained his services, but he acknowledges the claim of his master, and, besides, would not deprive Philemon of the jdeasure of voluntarily sending him to minister to him (14). The note, short as it is, is valuable in two respects : — 1. It gives us a clear view of the uprightness and courteousness of Paul. Nothing could be more winning and persuasive, nothing inore sym- pathetic and considerate, than the terms he uses in restoring the runaway to his master's good graces. THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. 2. But the letter shows us Christianity at work in connection with slavery. No institiition was more deeply rooted in the ancient world, and none more alien to the spirit of Christ. Yet St. Paul does not set himself to uproot it. Rather he niijjht seem to give it his countenance liy thus restorinji a runaway to his master. But ('hris- tianity (and Paul as its representative), by admit- ting slaves to the brotherhood of the church, and by appealinfi' to the brotherly feeling of the mas- ters, introduced iirincijiles which would not be stayed in tlicir ()]icrati()n till slavery was seen to be unchristian, and abolished. The Christian spirit does not work the less surely because it works indirectly. Rome- InIEI.Ihi; op the COLOSSKtni (I-rom 11 I'hotoyraph.) THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. BY PRINCIPAL T. C. EDWARDS. THE HEADERS. —TheenTliest superscription of the epistle is ■' To the Hebrews." Like all the epistles of the New Te.stament, it was addressed to Christians (ch. .3. 1). And that these were not a section of a church composed of .Tews and Gen- tiles, but themselves constituted a purelv Hebrew church, is evident from ch. .5. 12; 6. 10; 10.32; 12. 4; 13. 7-24. The epistle contains no reference to Gentile memliers. But these Christian Hebrews cannot be supposed to have dwelt apart, like the sjTiafTogue of the Hebrews in Rome, or like the Jewish community in Alexandria. That would have been inconsistent with their beinj;; Chris- tians at all. If we believe the testimony of Euse- bius, the church in Jerusalem had no Gentile element within it before the second century, and it was, in the later part of the apostolic age, the only well-known church in which the division into Jews and Gentiles had no i)lace. The words, "They of Italy salute you" (13. 24), suggest that the author was in Italy when he wrote. It is true that the words may mean that there were with the author Italian Chiistiaiis who sent salutation to their Hebrcwbrctbicn. but that is less probable. We arc at lil)erty to supply from the previous sentence the word '' saints," Which will make it the salutation of the whole church in Italy: "The saints of Italy salute you." As- suming the jiiobability of the'ei)istle having been written from Italy, it follows with at least equal probability that it was sent to the church in Je- rusalem. It is true that the present generation of Christians in that church "hail not resisted unto blood" (12. 4). But that need not allude to the absence of martyrs in the past (10. .32). It has been argued that the church in .Jerusa- lem was not the one to which the epistle was ad- dressed, because that (church was poor, so much so, that Paul had made a collection among the Gentile Christians to help the mother church. 149 THE NEW TESTAMENT. But the words of the historian show that the occasion was a prreat famine in the time of Clau- dius Caesar; and we infer from Rom. 15. 20 that this charity was needed only by a portion of the church. Apart from these special circumstances, the epistle tells us that the wealthy members of the Jerusalem church took the spoiling of their goods with jov. T/IE DATE OF THE EPISTLE. — Sn-pvos- ing that the letter was addressed to the church in Jerusalem, it must have been written between the martyrdom of James, its bishop, and the de- struction" of the city in 70 a.d. We infer this from the author's entire silence with regar.'{ A.D.) by the fanatical Jews. It is natural that he would address his letter " to the twelve tribes which are of the Disper- sion" (1. 1, n.V.), since these Jewish Christians scattered abroad would be the objects of his special solicitude. Though not often referred to in the New Testament, there must have been manv such. COXTEXTS OF THE EPISTLE.— ISio special occasion appears for the writing of the epistle, other th.an the errors of practice it rebukes. Its teachings are mainly moral precepts, added to each other without any obvious plan. Hence it is called " The Christian Book of Proverbs." SUM.VARr. — Ch. 1. Address and greeting (ver. 1); the disciplinary nature of trials (,ver. 2-4) ; the need of prayer for wisdom (ver. 5-8) ; the fading away of riches (ver. 9-11) ; the heart the source of temptation, not God the giver of good (ver. 12-18) ; pure religion consists in doing good (ver. i;i-27). Ch. 2. Respect of persons forbidden (ver. 1-9), since the whole law must be kept (ver. 10-13) ; faith apart from works is dead (ver. 14-20), illus- trated bv the case of Abraham and of Rahab (ver. 21-26). Ch. 3. Warning to teachers, based upon the use of the tongue (ver. 1-12) ; the peaceableness of heavenly wisdom (ver. 13-18). Ch. 4. Warnings against evil pa.ssions and the friendship of the world (ver. 1-10), against judg- ing the brethren (ver. 11, 12), against planning without regarding God's will (ver. 13-17). Ch. 5. Reproof of ill-gotten wealth (ver. 1-6); admonition to patience (ver. 7-11), against oaths (ver. 12); the prayer of faith illustrated by the case of Elijah (ver. 13-18). Conclusion : the blessed effect of turning another from the error of his wav (ver. 19, 20). I)yirE OF (r/?/r/A'e. — Two views are held — (1) that the epistle was written before the council at Jerusalem 50 (a.d.); (2) that it should be dated shortly before the death of St. James (63 a.d.). The former view makes it the earliest written book of the New Testament, and is based upon the following reasons : exclusively Jewish Chris- tian communities did not exist outside of Jud;ea after that time; the lack of fully-developed Christian doctrine points to an early date; and the trials referred to were probably incidental to the persecution in the days of Herod Agrippa. But these are not conclusive. The errors combated point to the later date, since they indicate a perversion of the doctrine of free grace and a lax morality resulting from this, amounting to dead orthodoxy. Such a tendency, though most readily developed among .Jewish Christians, would require time to rea(^h the form of error opposed in the epistle. While this date (between 60-63 a.d.) places the letter after the earlier group of Pauline epistles, it does not necessarily involve anv reference to them by St. James. It is generallv admitted that Jerusalem was the place of writing. THE FIRST EPISTLE OF ST. PKTER. THE APOSTLE PETER ifi not mentioned in tlie Acts after the council at Jerusalem (50 a.d.), but (ial. 2. 11 refers to a subsequent visit liv him to Antioch. His history after that incident has been overlaid with legends. It is impossible that he spent twenty-five years in Home, though it is probable thathis last years were passed there, and that he there sulTered martyrdom. It is less probable that he and St. Paul were put to death at the same time. If " Babylon " (in 1 Pet. 5. 13) is to be taken literally, that city was the scene of his labor during some part of the interval be- tween the visit to Antioch and his arrival in Rome. Many hold that the term is a mystical name for the latter city, which is i)ossible, but scarcely probable. St. Paul makes no reference to Peter's presence there. PLACE OF yVUFTING, ANT) OTHER CIR- CUMSTANCES.—Ks indicated above, either Babylon or Rome was the place of writing, more probably the former. Mark was with the apostle when he wrote (5. 13); but this fact does not de- cide in favor of Rome, since Mark was absent from that city at some time between 62 and 66 A.D. {cf. Col. 4. 10 and 2 Tim. 4. 11), having gone eastward. He might have been with St. Peter during this journey, or at an earlier period, be- fore either visited Rome. The date of the epistle is uncertain. Some place it in 61 a.d.. before St. Paul's Roman im- prisonment; others, in 63 or 64 a.d., after the release of that apostle. The probabilities are slightly in favor of the latter date. It was ad- dressed to Christians in certain regions of Asia Minor (1. 1). Strictly intcri)reted, the language points to Jewish Christians, but it is now gen- erally held that all Christians are included in the address. The occasion of the epistle was impending trial, probably not State persecution, but social and personal opposition and reproach. Hence the tone of consolation and encouragement, even in the exhortations. As often remarked, the kevnote is "hope." CONTEXTS.— The epistle accords with the character of the apostle. The style and language present resemblances to his speeches, as recorded in the Acts. Here also, as in the Epistle of St. James, the thoughts are linked together, without any obvious unity. SU^[^fARY. — Ch. 1. Address and greeting (ver. 1, 2) ; thanks to God for the living hope from the resurrection of Christ, to strongtlien them in trial through the salvation foretold by prophets and now preached to them (ver. 3-12)"; exhorta- tions to holy living, in view of the cost of re- demption and the fact of regeneration (ver. 13-25). Ch. 2. Patient submission to trials and wrongs, enforced by the example of Christ. Ch. 3. Wives and husbands to live in obedi- ence and holiness (ver. 1-7) ; loving and forbear- ing fellowship among all, from their relation to Christ, who suffered for us (ver. 8-22). Ch. 4. For the same reason past sins should be forsaken, and lives of holiness be lived to the glory of God through Christ (ver. 1-11) ; fiery trials are for their profit, and may become an occasion of rejoicing (ver. 12-19). Ch. 5. Exhortation to the elders (ver. 1-4); ad- monition to the younger to submit to the elder (ver. 5); all are warned to be humble, to be sober and watchful (ver. 6-10). Cow'Iuding doxology (ver. 11), followed by a reference to Silvanus, the bearer of the letter (ver. 12), salutations, and a brief benediction (ver. 13,14). THE SECOND EPISTLE OF ST. PETER. THE GENUINENESS OF THE EPISTLE. — The early evidence from Christian writers in support of" this epistle is not so strong as in the case of most of the New Testament books. But, as it claims to be written by the " ai)ostle " Peter, it must be regarded as genuine, or as a wilful forgery. Internal eviih^ice disprnves the latter view. It differs l)ut slightly from the first epis- tle in style an-21): Jesus is the Son of Goil; fellowship with God is through Him. The second division is sometimes separated into two parts: (iod is righteous (2. 21) to 4. (i); God is love (4. 7 to 5. 5). But these are two sides of the same truth, since the apostle presents (iod as holy love. The whole ei)istle is based upon the fact tliat God is love, and the special aspects are indicated by the two main divisions. The two truths are illustrated by their opi)osites; the contrast between believers and the world is sharply stated, for " the apostle of love " sets forth ("iod's wrath against sin. In the iJ. r. the passage about the "heavenly witnesses " (5. 7) is omitted, and no marginal no- tice inserted. It certainly has no place in the epistle, except on the authority of the Latin Vulgate, and it is not found in the earliest MSS. of that version. It does not appear in any Greek Mi5S., save two which were written not long before the invention of printing. External and internal evidence are equally strong against it. The omission cannot affect the doctrine of the Trinity, for the Fathers who discussed and for- mulated the statements of that doctrine never refer to this passage. THE SECOND EPISTLE OF ST. JOHN. This and the third epistle were not so gen- erally known and received in the early church as the other writings of the apostle, largely because of their brief, personal character. But no motive could exist for forging letters of this kind, and the internal evidence points conclusively to the apostle as the writer. As he calls himself '• the elder," at one time an opinion was current that " John the Presbyter " was the writer. But it is, to say the least, doubtful whether any person of that name and title ever existed other than the apostle John. DESTIXATIOX. — The second epistle is ad- dressed " to the elect lady and her children " (ver. 1). AVhile this might refer to a church, it is more naturally applied to an individual Chris- tian woman. There are other views — " the lady Electa," and "the elect Kyria;" but both of these are attended with grammatical difficulties. The name of the person addressed is therefore unknown. Some of her children had met with the apostle, who rejoiced in their conduct (ver. 4). But as the error opposed in the first epistle was prevalent, he writes to warn against it, not being yet able to carry out his purpose of visit- ing her (ver. 12). The occasion and design thus indicated are the same, if the epistle was ad- dressed to a church. COX TEXTS. — Address and greeting (ver. 1-3); joy in the conduct of her sons (ver. 4); exhortation to abound in love (ver. 5, G) ; warn- ing against deceivers (ver. 7, 8), who should not be received or greeted (ver. 9-11); closing words: the hope of visiting her, the greeting from her sister's children (ver. 12, 13). THE THIRD EPISTLE OF ST. JOHN. Gaius (rrCaius), to whom this letter was sent, cannot be identified with any person thus named in the rest of the New Testament (Acts 19. 29; 20. 4; Rom. IG. 23; 1 Cor. 1. 14). He lived not far from Ephesus, as is indicated by the epistle, which was occasioned by his hospitality to some Christian teachers, apparently sent by "the apos- tle (ver. 2^). As these teachers were about to travel again, the apostle asks Gains to continue his hospitality to them (ver. 5-8). It would ap- pear that Diotrephes, prominent anions; the Christians of the place where Gaius lived, had interfered on a previous occasion, intercepting a letter from the apostle, refusing to receive the brethren, and threatening those willing to re- ceive them (ver. 9-11). Demetrius, probably the bearer of this letter, is commended (ver. 12). The conclusion is similar to that of the second epistle. This letter and the second also are of great his- torical value, revealing as they do the inner life of the Christian comniunities (if Asia Minor at the close of the first century. There are evidences of speculative error, personal ambition, occasional insubordination to apostolic authority, and of an opposition on the part of local leaders to travel- ling evangelists. The recently -recovered " Teach- ing of the Twelve Apostles " shows a similar state of things. THE EPISTLE OF ST. JUDE. THE WJlITEIi. — lle calls himself "brother of James," probably referring to " the Lord's brother," James the Just, the writer of the Gen- eral Epistle. He does not claim apostleship. Nothing further is known of him ; nor is there positive evidence as to when, where, and why the epistle was written. It is referred to by early Christian authors, but there are also early doubts respecting its place in the canon. These doubts can be accounted for, partly from the brevity of the epistle anil the comparative obscurity of the writer, and partly from the contents of the letter. The resemblance to 2 Peter, and the reference to two apocryphal books (" Assumption of Moses," ver. 9; " Book of Enoch," ver. 14, 15), would nat- urally raise difficulties. But as the evidence in favor of the epistle is prei)onderant, these ap- parent difficulties account for the doubts, with- oiit furnishing grounds for rejecting the book. While it is general in its address, its contents indicate that it was designed for a single church, made up mainly of Jewish Christians. PECULI.iMITIES. — As there are several ref- erences in the New Testament to uninspired, and even heathen, writers, the citation from the " Book of Enoch" and the reference to another ajjocryphal writing do not furnish a valid objec- tion to the acceptance of the epistle. The evident relation to 2 Peter only calls for a discussion as to which epistle was first penned, without affect- ing the authority of either. A literary depend- ence of one upon the other is now generally ad- mitted, the theory that both were based upon an earlier iloeument being very improbable. In the absence of positive external evidence, the ques- tion of priority turns upon internal peculiarities, which are not altogether decisive. The Epistle of Jude is more forcible and lucid in style, and its references to the false teachers do not indicate so long a period of activity as do those of the other epistle. The priority of Jude would proba- bly be conceded, were it not so difficult to believe that St. Peter would use the work of a teacher so little known. But this objection ignores the fact that the dependence of 2 Peter upon Jude does not impugn the genuineness of the former epistle ; while the dependence of Jude upon 2 Peter im- plies that nearly all of the briefer epistle is bor- rowed from the" longer one. The date is in doubt. If written before 2 Peter, a very early date is still improbable in view of the contents. If written after, it must have pre- ceded the destruction of Jerusalem. The earliest probable date is 64 A.n., the latest, 67 or G8 a.d. COXTEXTS. — XddYC^9, and greeting (ver. 1, 2); occasion of writing (v r. 3, 4); condemnation of false teachers, illustrated by Biblical exam- ples (ver. 5-7); a description of their wickedness, and a woe pronounced upon them (ver. 8-16); exhortations — to remember the teaching of the apostles foretelling such mockers (ver. 17-19), to keep themselves in the love of fiod (ver. 20, 21), how to deal with those who had been perverted; and closing doxology (ver. 22, 23). 153 THE NEW TESTAMENT. THE REVELATION. BY PROFESSOR B. K. WABFIELD, D.D., LL.D., PRINCETON, N. J. AUTlIOli. — The Book of Revelation repre- sents itself to be written by a John so described as to be distinctly identified with the ai>ostle John, whose long residence in Asia and banish- ment to Patmos by the Emperor Domitian are historically attested from the time of Justin Martyr (about 150 a.d.) onwards. After the third century, however, doubts as to the apostolic ori- gin of the book were widely spread in the East. These doulits have been revived in modern times upon sul)stantially the same grounds, which turn chiefly upon the unlikeness of the Revelation to John's other writings. A closer study of John's books, however, reveals a deei)er resemblance between them, and leaves no reason, on such internal grounds, for setting aside the historical testimony. DATE. — Exceptionally strong and consistent historical testimony, beginning with Irenaeus (about 175 A.D.), who had special opjjortunities for knowing the truth, assigns the book to the later years of the reign of Domitian, about 95 or 96 A.D. Nevertheless, there has existed in recent times a strong tendency to date it as early as 68 A.D. This opinion is supported chiefly by an appeal to certain passages in the book, which are Laodicea — Entrance to the Stadidm. (From a I'liotiMji-iiph hy FRITH.; supposed to inijily that Jerusalem and the Temple were still undestroyed (e.g. 11. 19), or to identify the emperor who was on the throne (13. 1.3; 17. 7-12), when the book was written; as well as to the dissimilarity of this book to John's other writings, which is supposed to be best explained by assuming a long interval between their com- positions. The proposed interpretation of the passages apjiealed to does not seem, however, to be .lustifled ; and the differences between Revelation and the other wi-itings of John are not such as lapse of time will account for. On the other hand, the fitness of the later date to the historical situation in the book, and to the stage of develop- ment of the churches descriljed iii its opening chapters, is becoming ever plainer as historical research proceeds. LITERARY FORM. — In entitling itself " The Revelation of Jesus Christ which God gave him, to show unto his servants," the book announces itself as a divine disclosure, or, in other words, as a prophetical book. It is important to observe, however, that it is a prophetical book of a par- ticular class. This class is designated liy the Greek term Apocalyp.'^e ("Revelation"), and is characterized by its use of symbolical visions as the vehicle of prophecy. The model for this mode of projihecy was set by the book of Daniel. In the Apocalypse of John, the Divine Spirit makes use of that literary form which had been wrought out as the natural expression of per- secuted believers, in order to enhearten the suf- fering church. CONTEXTS.— The woes of the churches de- picted in the Revelation furnish only the start- ing-point for its real message. Its text may be said to be those glorious words of the departing Lord, " In the world ye shall have tribulation : liut be of good cheer ; I have overcome the world " (John 16. 33). As the victory of Christ over the world is evinced in the triumiih of that kingdom of God which He came to estalilish. the theme of the book comes to be the gi-adual triumph of the kingdom of God ; and as this triumph culminates in the .second coning of Christ, it is the return of the Lord in glory to which all the movement of the book advances. It may thus be conceived as the bridge cast over the chasm which divides the first and second Advents. In Old Testament prophecy the Advent in glory was not sharply distinguished from the Advent in humiliation ; and when Christ came announ- cing!; the kingdom of heaven, men looked for an immediate trium](h. The contrast between these high expectations and the reality of a jier- .secuted chixrch, required a revelation of the real course of things to preserve the church from de- spair. The Apocalypse does for the church what the spiritual vision of the love of God in Christ so often does for the ini"s grandfather, one of the wtnesses to which is called "the .Vmorite, the son of Abiramu," or Abrani. Abram was therefore a name in use at the time among the Canaanites in Babylonia. In migrating to the west, Terah only did what multitudes of Babylonians and "Amofites" were constantly doing. Midway to Canaan he stoi)])ed at Haran in .^lesopotamia." This was a city which had been built by Babylonian kings, and had a Babylonian name! It stood, moreover, in a pe- culiarly close connection with ITr. The patron deity of Ur was the moon-god, whose great temple rose in its midst, and the patron deity of Haran was also the same moon-god, whose tem- ple there had been founded and embellished bv Babvlonian rulers. A native of Ur would thus have found himself thoroughly at home in Haran. Even in Canaan, Al)ram was under Babylonian influence and Babylonian government. The cul- ture and law of Canaan were Babylonian, and its educated classes used the Babylonian language and literature. He was still within the limits of the Bal)ylonian world. Abram first pitched his tent under the " tere- binth" of Moreh, before Sliochcm (now Nahltts); then he moved to Bethel mow Jlrittn), after- wards to Egypt. Here he was still among friends. Egypt was ruled at the time by " Hyksos" con- querors from Asia, at whose" court an Asiatic 167 HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY. was likely to be welcomed. The Hyksos capital was at Zoan (now ,Sdii), in the north-eastern part of the Delta, so that a traveller from Asia would soon find himself in the presence of the Pharaoh. We are told that Ahram was rich, among other things, in camels, an animal which was pecu- liarly Asiatic, and was not employed in Egypt till the Christian era. The fact is a sign of his Asiatic origin: it was only the Asiatic iimni- graut from Arabia or Palestine who was accom- panied by the camel. When the ])atriar(h returned to Canaan, he was deserted liy his nephew I^ot, who settled himself in the Canaanitish town of Sodom, and so became a Canaanitish citizen, for which punishment afterwards overtook him. It came first in the form of captivity. The Canaanitish princes of the vale of Siddim, the southern part of which is the Dead Sea, rebelled against their Babylonian masters, and an army was accordingly led against them by Chedorlaomer of Elam, who was now suzerain lord of Babylonia. Under him marched his vassals Amraphel of Shinar, or Northern Babylonia, Arioch of Ellasar, and Tidal, king of " nations." The names of all these kings have been found on the cuneiform tablets of Babylonia. At the time of the invasion, Abrani was living at Mamre or Hebron, the confederate of the three Amorite chieftains of the place. When he heard that his nephew was among the captives of the invading army, he i)ursued it in company with his Amorite allies, and falling suddenly upon its rearguard by night, near Damascus, recovered the captives and the spoil. In Southern Palestine the conqueror was greeted by Melchizedek, the priest-king of Jeru- salem, with bread and wine. At a later date we hear of another priest-king of Jerusalem, or Uru-Salim, " the city of Salem," as he writes the name. This was Ebed-Tob, whose letters to the Well at Beersheea. Egyptian Pharaoh in the century before the Exodus, written upon clay tablets "in the Baby- lonian language and characters, have been dis- covered at Tel el-Amarna in Upper Egypt. P>bed- Tob tells us that he did not derive his royal dignity from his father or mother, which ex- plains why Melchizedek also was "without de- scent" (Heb. 7. 3). The tithes offered bv Abram were an old Babylonian institution, and the rsrd or " tithe " paid to the priests is often mentioned in the inscriptions. Abram had a son, Ishmael, by the Egyptian " bondwoman" Hagar. The name of Ishrnael is found in Babylonian documents of the age of Khammu-rabi. When Ishmael was thirteen years old. Abram and all his family were circumcised. In Egypt, circumcision had been practised from time immemorial ; now God ordained that it was to be the seal and token of the covenant made between Himself and Abram's seed. At the same time, Abram's name was changed to xVbraham. The name was regarded as representative of a l>erson or a thing, and the change of name ac- cordingly denoted that Abraham was no longer a Babylonian. Soon after the change of name, the guilty cities of " the plain," or vale of Siddim, were destroyed by a rain of " brimstone and flre." Abraham had interceded for the sinners in vain ; Lot and his daughters alone escaped, and became the ancestors of Ammon and Moab. We next find Abraham at Gerar (now Uin el- Jerdr), south of Gaza, which in later days was in the territory of the Philistines, whose name is used proleptically in Gen. 26. 1. The rule of Abimelech, king of Gerar, extended as far east as Beersheba, " the Well of the Oath," where he confirmed to Abraham, by an oath, the well which the servants of the i)atiiarch had dug. It was while he sojourned in the land of Gerar that Isaac was born to Abraham ; and it was here also that "God did tempt" him to sacrifice his only son,, in accordance with the Canaanitish ritual, which, in times of danger or distress, commanded the jjarent to offer up the first-born son by fire. From Beersheba, Abraham took Isaac a three davs' journey to a mountain " in the land of Mo- ria'h." But the sacrifice was stayed at the last moment, and a ram was substituted for the human victim. Abraham was taught that God did not require so terrible an offering as Canaan- itish and Babylonian religion commandey consecrating it to (Jod. Such conse- crated stones were common in the Semitic world — in I'hcenicia, in Arabia, and inBal)ylonia — where they were called Beth-els or "Houses of (iod," the common belief being that the (li\ iuity was actually immanent in them. The " Black Stone " at Mecca, still reverenced by Mohammedan \n\- grims, was originally one of these. At Haran. Jacob was himself deceived by the craft of his uncle Laban. For seven years he herded the flocks of Laban, "consumed" by the drought in the day and by the frost at night, with no wage except the promise that at the end of that period he shoiUd marry his cousin Rachel. But when the liride's veil was withdrawn he found that her elder sister Leah had lieen given him in her place. For another seven years, tliere- fore, he "served for Rachel." Tlien children were born to him — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Ju- dah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah by Leah, Gad and Aslier by her maid Zilpah, Joseph and Ben- jamin by Rachel, and Dan and Naphtali by her inaid Bilhah. But Benjamin was not born "until after Jacob's return to Palestine ; and there, near Bethlehem, on th(> way from Bethel, Rachel'died in giving him birth. After the marriage with Rachel, Jacob grew rich in sheep and goats. This excited the jealousy of Laban and bis sous, and Jacol) in consequence fled secretly back to Canaan, carrying with him his wives a"n