BX 5455 .W5 v.l Whately, Richard, 1787-1863. The use and abuse of party feeling in matters of Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/useabuseofpartyfOOwhat_0 THE USE AND ABUSE PARTY FEELING IN MATTERS OF RELIGION, CONSIDERED IN EIGHT SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, IN THE YEAR MDCCCXXII. AT THE BAMPTON LECTURE TO WHICH ARE ADDED, FIVE SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OP OXPORD, A DISCOURSE BY ARCHBISHOP KING, Wiitf) j^otes anD appendix. BY RICHARD WHATELY, D.D. ARCHBISHOP OF DUBLIN. THIRD EDITION. LONDON: B. FELLOWES, LUDGATE STREET. LONDON : CLAY, rRlNTti;, UKEAD-&TUliliT-HILL. TO EDWARD COPLESTON, D. D. PROVOST OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD, AS A TESTIMONY OF AFFECTIONATE RESPECT, AND AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE OF GRATITUDE, FOR THE INESTIMABLE ADVANTAGES OF HIS INSTRUCTION, AND OF HIS FRIENDSHIP, THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED BY HIS FAITHFUL AND OBLIGED FRIEND AND SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. ,h£C. dec ^^^^ ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION. To the present edition of these Lectures I have subjoined, besides Jive other Sermofis preached be/ore the University, a Discourse by Dr. King, formerly Archbishop of Dublin, tenth Notes and Appendix. The principles maintained, and the temper recommended, in that Discourse, tend so much towards the attainment of the objects pro- posed in these Lectures, that the Reader will I trust see a sufficient reason for subjoining it to them. Both of these additions are also to be had separate. b CONTENTS. Introduction p. 1 LECTURE I. NATURE AND USES OF PARTY-FEELING. 1 Cor. xii. 12, 13. As the body is one, and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body : so also is Christ. For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body. I. Nature of party-feeling — consisting in the attachment felt for a Body or society, as such, and in zeal for a common cause. — Tendency of mankind to unite them- selves in communities of various kinds — originating in the tendency to aiford and to desire sympathy, p. 19, 20 ; importance of this principle — productive of discord as well as of concord p. 24 II. Final causes of this principle — 1. increased ardour in a common pursuit — 2. cooperation — 3. mutual regu- lation— 4. division of labour p. 26 III. Application in religious concerns. — Christian com- munity instituted by our Lord — brotherly love incul- cated, p. 33 ; advantages of the Christian communion of saints — increase of zeal, p. 34 ; regular government of the Church, p. 36 ; diversity of offices ... p. 38 IV. Regulation of this principle, p. 41 ; plan of the en- suing lectures p. 45 b 2 viii CONTENTS. LECTURE II. PARTY-SPIRIT. James iii. 14 — 17. If ye have hitter envying and strife in your hearts, fjlory not, and lie not against the truth. This wisdom descendeth not from above, but is earthly, sensual, devilish. For where envying and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work. But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality and without hypocrisy. I. Character of party-spirit. 1. Preference of the means to the end, p. r>0. — Causes of this. Regulations and institutions which are valuable only for the sake of preserving the society, p. 53 ; distinctive marks, p. 53. 2. Over-readiness to form parties. 3. Uncandid par- tiality, p. 57. II- Faults connected with party- feeling — 1. Vanity and ambition, p. 60. 2. Love of novelty, p. Gl. 3. Love of controversy, p. 61. 4. Pride and revengefulness, p. 63. III. Effects of party-spirit — 1. Extinction of charity, p. 65. 2. Scandal to the cause of truth, p. 67. 3. Propagation of error p. 68 IV. Objection alleged. Necessity of parties, p. 74. Answer to the objection, p. 75. Utility of general rules . p. 78 LECTURE III. A CARNAL MIND THE CAUSE OF DIVISIONS. 1 Cor. iii. 3. Whereas there is among you envying, and strife, and divisions, are ye not carnal, and walk as men ? Necessity of a Christian temper for preventing the evils of party-spirit, p. 84. I. Evil passions, which lead to CONTENTS. ix party-spirit, how to be checked. 1. Desire of taking the lead, p. 84. 2. Love of novelty to be kept under control, p. 87. 3. Restraint of a disputatious spirit, p. 94. 4. Love of triumph to be repressed, p. 96. II. Rules for keeping in check the spirit of party. 1. Preference of the means to the end to be guarded against, p. 98. 2. Cautions against the tendency to separate into parties, p. 103. 3. And against un- charitable bigotry p. lOG LECTURE IV. ALLOWABLE DIFFERENCE AMONG CHRISTIANS. RoM. xiv. 13. Let us not therefore judge one another any more : but judge this rather, that no man put a stumbling-block, or an occasion to fall, in his brother's way. Judgment and treatment of those who really or appa- rently differ from us, without being at all or in any high degree blameable, p. 113. I. Cautions against misunderstanding another's meaning, p. 114; a com- plete adoption of the sentiments of any party, not to be inferred from a partial coincidence, p. 115; false conclusions from another's principles not to be forced upon him, p. 120. II. Allowance to be made for the weakness of our brethren, p. 122 ; gradual instruction of those who are babes in Christ, 127. III. Allow- ances to be made for differences of natural temperament or acquired taste, p. 131 ; some such differences allow- able and unavoidable, p. 133 ; characteristic diversity of style in the inspired writers, p. 134 ; our own pe- culiarities to be kept within due bounds, and those of others viewed with candour p. 141 X CONTENTS. LECTURE V. CHRISTIAN CONDUCT TOWARDS OPPONENTS. 2 Tim. ii. 24, 25. The servant of the Lord must not strive ; but he f/entle unto all men, apt to teach, patient, in meekness instructing those that oppose themselves; if God peradventure will give them repentance to the acknowledging of the truth. Treatment of those who are guilty either of heresy or schism, p. 144. I. Party-spirit to be expected in our opponents, p. 149 ; errors and maintainers of error to be opposed separately rather than collectively, p. 150 ; differences in doctrine to be extenuated rather than aggravated, p. 154. II. Bitterness of spirit how to be encountered. Duty of " gentleness and patience with all men," p. 156. Decided and unqualified condemna- tion of offenders by our Lord and his Apostles, not to be too closely imitated by us, p. 158 ; bitterness in our own party to be censured, p. 158 ; the pride of our opponents not to be unnecessarily wounded, p. 159. III. Controversial eagerness in our opponents to be expected, p. 164 ; rashness and imprudence in contro- versy to be guarded against, p. 166 ; means to be used for repressing an excessive prevalence of controversy. 1. Some errors to be left unnoticed, p. 169. 2. A didactic rather than a polemical style to be adopted, p. 172. 3. An erroneous system not to be combated in detail, but as a whole. 4. Distinction between such reasoning as is calculated to reclaim those who are in error, and such as is intended to warn others against it p. 177 CONTENTS. xi LECTURE VI. FOOLISH AND UNLEARNED QUESTIONS AVOID. 2 Tim. ii. 23. Foolish and unlearned questions avoid, knowing that they do (jender strife. Recapitulation of the preceding, and outline of the fol- lowing discourses p. 181 I. Cautions respecting the subject-matter of our dis- cussions, p. 183. 1. Presumptuous inquiries, and attempts at explanation of inscrutable mysteries, p. 184 ; mistake of expecting a distinct knowledge of whatever is revealed, p. 188; familiar acquaintance with terms apt to be confounded with accurate know- ledge of things, p. 191. 2. Minute and insignificant questions, p. 196. 3. Undue attention to speculative questions, p. 198. II. Cautions respecting the lan- guage of religious discussions, p. 201. 1. Ambiguity of terms, p. 202 ; fatalism and free-will, p. 203 ; uses of the word Person, p. 204 ; controversies concerning regeneration, p. 204. 2. Undue importance attached to forms of expression, p. 206 ; utility of varying the analogous terms employed, p. 206. 3. The fixed phraseology of a party to be avoided .... p. 208 LECTURE VII. CONDUCT WITH RESPECT TO DISSENTERS. CoL. iv. 5. Walk in wisdom towards them that are without. Existence of schism one of the appointed trials of Chris- tians, p. 212 ; the laity as well as the Clergy bound to oppose schism p. 217 xii CONTENTS. I, Duty of adorning and recommending the Church we belong to by an exemplary life, p. 220 ; fallaciousness of forming any judgment respecting our Church from the conduct of some of her nominal members, p. 222 ; II. Duty of zeal in the propagation of truth and refu- tation of error, p. 226 ; occasional dissent considered, p. 228 ; utility of indirect opposition to sectaries, p. 231 ; importance of supplying the want of places of worship, p. 233. III. Duty of conciliation, p. 238 ; Cluist's kingdom not of this world — hence we are neither to overlook the sinfulness of schism because the law does wisely in affording it toleration, p. 239 — nor to resort to any secular means of producing con- formity p. 241 LECTURE VIII. DIVISIONS WITHIN THE CHURCH. 1 CoR. i. 12, 13. Every one of you saith, I am of Paul ; and I of Apollos ; and I of Cephas ; and I of Christ. Is Christ divided ? Neither heretical opinions nor separation from the Church, but merely internal disunion censured by the Apostle in this passage, p. 244 ; advantages of a religious society sufficiently secured in the English Church, p. 246 ; advantages of our Liturgy as a standing mo- nitor, p. 247 ; mischievous consequences of forming parties within the Church p. 249 I. Rules for preventing or mitigating the spirit of party within the Church, p. 253. 1. Caution against ex- tremes, p. 254 ; moderation of St. Paul, p. 256. 2. Im- portance of correctly inculcating such doctrines as have CONTENTS. XIU been most abused, p. 257. 3. Allowances to be made for differences of taste and temper, p. 259. 4. Im- putation of bad motives to be avoided, p. 260. 5. The language of a party to be avoided, p. 262 — but the terms to be employed in their ordinary and unappro- priated sense, p. 263. 6. A similar caution to be observed with respect to the names of parties. II, Two opposite classes of errors to be guarded against, p. 268. 1. Injudicious introduction of religious conversation couched in certain fixed forms of expression, p. 269 ; indifference as to the sin of schism, p. 270 ; injudicious austerity, p. 270 ; tendency to presumptuous explana- tion and to exclusively elementary preaching, p. 271. 2. Opposite faults — aversion to religious conversa- tion— dread of being " righteous" overmuch — prefe- rence of orthodoxy to vital religion, p. 273 ; Defective inculcation of the great doctrines of the Gospel, 274 ; all parties to be opposed as parties p. 275 III, Difficulties and encouragements in pursuing the course recommended, p. 276. 1. Liability to un- friendly suspicion from each party, p. 277 ; loss of celebrity, p. 278. 2. Patient zeal may be expected to wear out obloquy and suspicion, p. 279 ; support to be hoped for from the candid and judicious on both sides, p. 279 ; we are to be encouraged by the hope of approbation and final reward from Him who seeth in xiv CONTENTS. SERMON I. [Preached before the University, Jan. 30, 1821.] THE CHRISTIAN DUTY OF OBEDIENCE TO RULERS. Heb. xii. 11. No chastening for the present seemeth to he joyous, hut grievous : nevertheless afterward it yieldeth the peaceahle fruit of righteousness unto them that are exercised thereby. Office of the preacher, not to settle disputable points of history, but to draw useful instructions from acknow- ledged facts p. 283 I. Gratitude for our deliverances p. 286 II. Christian duty of obedience to rulers. This duty is virtually destroyed by the doctrine of the Social Com- pact, p. 290 ; governors responsible for the use of their power, but not to their subjects, p. 298 ; errors in the maintainers of this principle which have tended to bring it into disrepute : 1st, that the divine commands apply peculiarly to kings ; 2dly, that they extend to illegal exercise of power ; 3dly, that no allowance is to be made for extreme cases p. 300 III. Moderation should be learned from the history in question. The intemperately violent, produce oppo- site results to those they aim at . . . . . p. 306 CONTENTS. XV SERMON II. [Preached at the Lent Assizes, Oxford, March 8, 1821.] THE CHRISTIAN DUTY OF OBEDIENCE TO THE LAWS. Deut. xi. 1. Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, and keep his charge, and his statutes, and his judgments, and his commandments, alway, I. Human laws, positive as well as moral, entitled to obedience, support, and respect from the Christian, for conscience' sake, p. 320 ; Christians bound to ab- stain from perversion and abuse of them .... p. 333 II. The law not to be the guide of our conscience : 1st, it omits whatever is not an object of compulsion, and whatever cannot be clearly defined ; 2d, its punish- ments are not proportioned to the moral guilt of offences ; 3d, it looks only to the outward action, not to the heart p. 335 SERMON III. [Preached before the University, May 29, 1822, and republished in 1831.] NATIONAL BLESSINGS AND JUDGMENTS. Deut. xxx. 9, 10. The Lord will again rejoice over thee for good, as he rejoiced over thy fathers : If thou shalt hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to keep his commandments. Temporal advantages and disadvantages generally, but not invariably, awarded both to States and individuals according to their good or ill desert, p. 34G ; this award xvi CONTENTS. regular and invariable, with respect to the Israelites under the Mosaic law, p. 347 ; opinion of some, that the same system extends to nations universally, from their having no future retribution to expect, p. 348, I. Objection to this opinion — States not being persons, are incapable of reward or punishment .... p. 352 II. Explanation of the system pursued with respect to the Jews as a nation ; they were designed to furnish a specimen or representation of God's moral govern- ment, p. 354 ; importance of rightly understanding the Old Testament with a view to the New .... p. 359 III. States appear to be more regularly rewarded and punished in this world than individuals : 1st, from their indefinite duration of existence ; 2d, from the difficulty of determining what are national goods and evils p. 365 Appendix added to the second edition p. 372 SERMON IV. [Preached before the University, Whitsunday, 1821.] USE OF HUMAN LEARNING IN MATTERS OF RELIGION. 1 Cor, ii. 4. My speech and my preaching was not with enticing words of man's wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power. I. Human learning and eloquence superseded by the gift ' of tongues, and other miraculous powers .... p. 383 II. These being now withdrawn, the pursuit of such studies becomes essential to Christian ministers, p. 389 ; reasons for first bestowing and then withdrawing these miraculous gifts — analogy to the case of the Israelites, p. 392 CONTENTS. xvii III. Human studies, to be sanctified, 1st, by their dedi- cation to religious uses, p. 399 ; 2d, by being kept in due subordination to religion, p. 404 ; 3d, by being personally and practically applied, p. 405 ; and, 4th, by constant reliance on the divine blessing . . p. 409 SERMON V. (Preached before the University, Nov. 5, 1821.] CHRIST THE ONLY PRIEST UNDER THE GOSPEL. Heb. vii. 24—27. This man, because he continueth ever, hath an unchangeable priesthood. Wherefore he is able also to save them to the uttermost that come unto God by him, seeing he ever liveth to make intercession for them. For such an High Priest became us, who is holy, harmless, undefiled, separate from sinners, and made higher than the heavens ; who needeth not daily, as those high priests, to offer up sacrifice, first for his own sins, and then for the people's : for this he did once, when he offered up himself. Discussion of political questions relative to Roman Ca- tholics unsuitable to the preacher, p. 416. One of the chief abuses of the Greek and Romish Churches the change of the Christian ministry into a different kind of office from that which the Apostles instituted . p. 418 I. The word Priest used to answer both to 'lepeve and to UpEojivrtpoq, which correspond to two distinct offices, p. 418 ; the former an offerer of sacrifice, and medi- ator, p. 421 ; the latter not, p. 422 ; no priest in the former sense under the Gospel, except Christ . . p. 426 xviii CONTENTS. II. Office of the Christian Priest or Presbyter . . . p. 426 III. Errors arising from overlooking the above distinc- tion ; 1st, Complaints of priestcraft, not applicable against our religion, p. 432. 2dly, Corruptions in the Romish Church springing from the change of Upevfiv- repoc into 'lepive, p. 441. 3dly, Disposition to attempt serving God by proxy, and substituting the religion of the priest for that for the people p. 444 Introduction to Archbishop King's Discourse , p. 453 Discourse on Predestination, &c p. 465 Appendix, No. I p. 523 No. II p. 543 BAMPTON LECTURES. INTRODUCTION. To oppose the progress of false doctrines and of schism was among the principal objects pro- posed by the Founder of these lectures. It is undoubtedly necessary for this purpose that the various articles of the orthodox faith, especially such as from time to time may chance to be controverted, should be expounded and main- tained ; and the duty of Church-union incul- cated. But it is perhaps no less necessary, with a view to the same object, that we should be put on our guard against such conduct as may lead others into those faults, though we remain free from them ourselves ; and that the cause of truth should be, as far as possible, protected from the detriment which it may receive from injudicious friends, as well as from enemies. B 2 Introduction. Erroneous tenets may be unintentionally aided in their progress, even by those who do not adopt them ; and schisms fostered, by those who do not join in them. To suggest therefore such cautions as may be requisite for avoiding these evils cannot be deemed a superfluous task; especially, as less attention has been bestowed on this department than on most others ; and as better success may often be hoped for, in preventing a malady, than in curing it. Having been led, with this view, to attempt a delineation of Party-spirit, and the faults of conduct and of temper connected with it, it was of course necessary to characterize that natural and allowable feeling of attachment to the Body we belong to, of which Party-spirit is the excess ; lest I should be understood as favouring the contrary extreme, and condemning all social- feeling in religious matters, short of that which extends to the whole of our fellow-creatures. The principle, whose use and abuse in the concerns of religion forms the subject of the ensuing discussion, can hardly be said to have any well-estabhshed and precisely appropriate name in our language ; and is in fact most Introdiiciion. ?> commonly denoted by the French expression, " Esprit de corps " Party-spirit" being a term seldom employed but in an unfavourable sense : while " Social-feeUng" again, or " Philanthropy," would convey too wide a signification ; the principle in question being a certain limited social-feeling, distinct from that which connects together all mankind. That species of the feehng in question which more particularly falls under my present consideration, the Apostles seem to have denoted by a word (iX,a8e\0/a) which our translators render " Brotherly-love : " but the use of this last term in that precise signification is not altogether established. I have therefore adopted the term " Party -feeling'' for this pur- pose; not as completely unexceptionable, but as appearing, on the whole, the best that could be found, without resorting to a foreign language. The discussion of this subject falls naturally under three heads. I. The description of Party- feeling, as to its use, and its abuse : II. The rules and cautions to be observed, generally, for securing the advantages, and avoiding the evils, B 2 4 Introduction. in question : III. The application of these rules to the present state of the Church in this country. I. The first of these heads forms the subject of the first two discourses ; in which the proper degree, and right direction, of Party-feehng, and also its excess and perversion, are, respectively, treated of. In the discussion of the former branch, I have endeavoured to characterize generally that principle in our nature which attaches men to any Society or Body of which they may be members; (which seems to arise from the dis- position to afford, and to delight in, mutual sympathy) — to point out the final causes for which it was implanted by the great Author of nature, i. e. the good purposes to which it is subservient, when well regulated : which are principally, first, increased energy in pursuit of a common object ; secondly, regular cooperation ; thirdly, mutual control and regulation; and fourthly, an advantageous division of labour : — and lastly, to offer some observations on the right employment of it in the Christian Church ; whose Founder, " knowing what was in Man," Introduction. 5 enlisted the principle in question into the service of his religion. In proceeding to describe, under the name of Party-spirit, the excesses and misapphcations of this principle, I have noticed three faults as most especially characteristic of that spirit : viz. first, a disposition to prefer the means to the end, — the Body itself, and whatever tends to support and strengthen it, — to the object itself which it originally proposed ; secondly, an over- readiness to form parties, on insufficient grounds; and thirdly, a narrow-minded and uncandid bigotry. To these are added, as causes and concomitants of Party-spirit, first, the desire of taking the lead; secondly, fondness for novelty ; thirdly, love of disputation ; and fourthly, the Pride which delights in triumph and in insolent revenge. The evil consequences of Party- spirit are also noticed : viz. first, the extinction of Christian Charity ; secondly. Scandal to the cause of Religion ; and thirdly, the establishment and propagation of Error ; which is the more readily received, in proportion as men are blinded by the spirit of Party. 11. In treating of the next head, viz. the rules 6 Introduction. to be observed, generally, for avoiding the evils above described, it appeared advisable, for the sake of affording a convenient aid to the me- mory, to arrange these rules under four heads : treating first of those which relate generally to the discipline and regulation of our own minds; secondly, of those which concern our conduct towards others ; thirdly, of those relating to the subject-matter on which we may be engaged ; and fourthly, of those which regard the lan- guage we employ. Accordingly I have endeavoured, in the third lecture, to delineate, and to suggest rules for cultivating and cherishing in ourselves, such dispositions as may most effectually counteract the faults described in the preceding discourse. The third and fourth lectiu-es are devoted to the consideration of those principles which ought to direct our judgment and treatment of those who differ from us ; whether that difference shall, upon consideration, appear to be innocent and allowable, or deserving of censure. With a view to the former of these cases, the principal cautions to be observed are, first, to beware of mistaking the meaning of any one, and Introduction. 7 imputing to him sentiments which he does not really entertain ; secondly, to make due allow- ance for weakness of intellect, backwardness in knowledge, and inaptitude for accurate statements ; and thirdly, to allow also for such differences of natural or acquired temper and taste as imply nothing sinful ; — differences which even divine inspiration, as we may perceive from the cha- racteristic style of composition of each of the sacred writers, does not entirely do away. In treating of the rules to be observed in our conduct towards those who appear culpable, it was necessary to revert to the same heads which had been before considered in a different point of view; viz. in treating of the regulation of our own temper. For we must be prepared to find our opponents liable to the same faults which we are to guard against in ourselves ; such as, first, party - spirit ; secondly, unchristian bitter- ness ; and thirdly, fondness for controversy ; and it should be our study both to counteract, or at least avoid promoting, those faults, and also to take precautions against the ill effects which may result from them. With respect to the last of these three heads especially, several 8 Introduction. cautions are suggested against rashly laying ourselves open to the arts of a subtle disputant : and against fostering insignificant heresies by imprudent opposition ; or infliaming the contro- versial spirit by assuming the polemical style, where the didactic w^ould be more suitable. And it is recommended to take a comprehensive view of any question that may be agitated, instead of being exclusively occupied in answering every cavil that may be brought forward : and care- fully to suit the course of argument adopted, to the peculiar object which may be in each case proposed ; whether that be, to reclaim those who are tainted with error, or to warn others against being seduced by it. With respect to the subject-matter of the dis- cussions we may be engaged in, the Apostle Paul's precept must be observed, to avoid " foohsh and unlearned questions" as gendering strife ; under which head I have placed all such inquiries as are likely to lead to controversy respecting, first, matters too abstruse and mysterious for the human faculties to comprehend ; secondly, ■minute and trifling ; or thirdly, altogether specu- lative, and unconnected with practice. And Introduction. 9 under the first of these heads, two mistakes are noticed, which have an especial tendency to lead to presumptuous speculation ; first, the ex- pectation, oftentimes ill grounded, that full and distinct notions may be attained of whatever is revealed in Scripture ; and secondly, the mistake of supposing that we understand more clearly than we do, any thing of which the name is very famihar to us. The cautions suggested with respect to the language employed are, first, to be duly on our guard against the ambiguity, of terms ; secondly, not too rashly to judge of men's doctrines from their phraseology, — insisting too strongly on their employing the same terms with ourselves ; and thirdly, to avoid adhering too closely to any such fixed set of expressions as have been made, or are hkely to become, the cant-language of a party ; which has a tendency not only to gender " strifes about words," but also, both to deaden men's attention to the tJmigs signified, and to lead to erroneous theories for explaining the doc- trines in question. III. The third point originally proposed being the application of the principles above laid down 10 Introduction. to the existing state of the Christian Church in this Country, this subject naturally divides itself into two branches : the case of Separatists from the Church, and that of adverse parties within the Church, requiring, each, a distinct consi- deration. For in the one case. Party - feeling requires to be wisely regulated, and kept within proper bounds ; in the other case, it is to be deprecated, and as far as possible extinguished, altogether. In what relates to our conduct towards Dis- senters, I have endeavoured to point out the middle course between intolerant bigotry on the one hand, and disregard of the virtue of Christian concord on the other ; and have recommended, as the most effectual means of counteracting the prevalence of schism, first, an Exemplary Life ; secondly. Zeal in the inculcation of truth ; and thirdly, a conciUatory and Christian mildness. With respect to the internal disunion which exists, or which may at any time be likely to arise, among the members of our Church, I have summed up and applied to the case in question such of the fore -mentioned rules as appeared the most likely to counteract the Introduction. 11 Spirit of Party within that Church : adding some cautions against certain opposite extremes which seem at present most prevalent : and con- cluding with a short sketch of the difficulties which those must be prepared to encounter, who determine to keep clear of the Spirit of Party, and to steer between opposite extremes ; as well as of the encouragements by which they are to be supported. In the whole of the remarks that have been offered, there is Httle, I am aware, that can claim the praise of originahty, except of arrange- ment and application. But I conceived it would be no unprofitable task, especially in times hke the present, to collect into a small compass, and exhibit in an orderly form, a number of such principles of conduct as are most requisite with a view to the counteraction both of Heresies and of unchristian Divisions ; and which, though no one of them can be strictly said to be unknown, are yet only to be met with loosely scattered in the works of various authors ; and are, in practice, perpetually overlooked. The utility of copious disquisitions on particular points of doctrine, is not disputed ; but it is hoped thai 12 Introduction. there may be also no less utility in a collection of such general maxims as are intimately con- nected with the attainment of truth in all matters of doctrine ahke, and with the preservation both of Christian Faith and Christian Peace. In historical illustrations of the matters under discussion, I have been more sparing than some perhaps might deem advisable : but as thfe ne- cessary limits of the present work would have precluded the possibihty of introducing a collec- tion of many instances to illustrate each point, (which in fact would have occupied several volumes) so on the other hand, the selection of Si few such instances, might have been attended with this disadvantage ; that since differences of opinion would have existed with respect to each case brought forward, some might have been incKned to doubt the justness of the principle itself laid down, in consequence of their not admitting its applicability in the instance ad- duced : so that the force of the reasoning might sometimes have been weakened, by its being supposed to rest on the examples brought for- ward by way of illustration. I have therefore thought it better, for the most part, to state Introduction. 13 only the general reasonings by which each posi- tion is supported ; leaving each of my readers to select for himself, from the numerous and well- known examples that may be found, such as may appear to him to afford the most suitable illustration. And if by this means I shall in any instance have avoided also the risk of giving unnecessary offence to any one, I shall have suc- ceeded the more completely in conforming to the principles which I have all along studied to inculcate. ,^?i^^r OF LECTURE I. NATURE AND USES OF PARTY-FEELING. 1 Cor. xii. 12, 13. As the body is one, and hath mamj members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body : so also is Christ. For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body. No original and essentially inherent principle of our nature is in itself either mischievous or useless. The maxim, that Nature does nothing in vain, is not more true in the material, than in the moral world. And as each organ of the human body (however liable to become the seat of disease, or to exceed its due proportion) is calculated to promote, in its natural and healthy 16 Nature and uses [lp.ct. I. state, some beneficial end ; so, in the mind also, whatever mischievous excesses and perversions any principle of action may be liable to, (through our frail and sinful nature,) we may be assured that if it shall appear to be really a universal principle of our nature, it will be found, on a careful examination, to have been designed, and to be wisely adapted, to promote (when under due guidance) some good purpose. The good purposes indeed to which some of our natural propensities tend are so manifest and so important, as sometimes to have drawn off men's attention from the propensities them- selves, and led them to regard a desire of those ends as the sole principle of action ; thus, in many cases, mistaking (as has been well ex- pressed) " the wisdom of God for the wisdom of man%" and overlooking the wise contrivance of his providence in implanting such feelings and desires as lead us (as it were blindly) to the accomplishment of what He sees to be beneficial purposes. One of the most important of these princi- ples, and one which is not in general sufficiently » Smith's Moral Sentiments. LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 17 attended to, is that which binds together the members of any community, class, or party, and renders the Body to which they belong, consi- dered as a Body, a distinct object of attachment. Not indeed that this part of our constitution has been by any means overlooked altogether ; but it is seldom, if ever, that a comprehensive view of it has been taken : some particular branches of it have been noticed fully, while the wide extent and variety of its operation has been dis- regarded : and its evil or beneficial effects have been viewed separately, without tracing them up to their source, as modifications of what may be reckoned one common, innate principle of the human heart. Thus, the soundest among the ancients, while they very wisely pronounced Man to be by na- ture a social Being, impelled to form communi- ties, not by any consideration of the advantages thence accruing, but by a sort of instinctive tendency, yet confined their attention almost exclusively to the 'political union ; which is only one among many which man has a tendency to form. And various writers have made just remarks on the extravagances of party-spirit, c 18 Nature and uses [lect. I. without however perceiving, or at least without pointing out, that these are only the abuses and perversions of a principle, which, being essential to our nature, exists, in a greater or less degree, in all mankind; which is in itself (like all our other propensities) neither virtuous nor vicious ; but is calculated, under the control of reason, to lead to important benefits. That it is not common to take a general view of this principle, in all its various bearings and modifications, is evident from this, that it can hardly be said even to have a name in our lan- guage. The practical effects of a man's attach- ment to his country, to his faction, to his fraternity, to his sect, and the like, are so dif- ferent, both in nature and in importance, that our attention is drawn off from the sameness of the general feeling which is at the bottom of all ; and which appears different, chiefly from its being directed to different objects. And it is the same with other principles also : for in- stance, those who are not at all habituated to the investigation of human nature, are apt to be startled at being told that the principle which actuates the conqueror in subjugating empires, LKCT. I,] of Party-feeling. 19 is essentially the same as may often be seen in a child who is anxious to take the lead in directing the sports of his playfellows ; and that, im- mensely as the effects differ, the cause in each may rightly be called by the same name, ambition. That principle then which I am now speaking of, that party-feeling, (if I may be allowed to give it such a name, in default of a more precise one,) may be described as a certain limitation of the general social principle which binds to- gether the human species. It consists in the attachment and regard men are disposed to feel towards any class, Body, or association they may belong to, in itself, and towards the fellow- members of the same, as such, over and above any personal regard they may have for them individually ; and in a zeal for the prosperity of the society, and for the objects it peculiarly proposes, over and above what is felt for those objects in themselves, and what would be felt for them by each individual, supposing him singly to pursue them. It must be added, that men have a natural tendency to sympathize and unite with those who coincide with them in any c 2 20 Nature and uses [lect. i. point ; and hence are led to form these commu- nities or parties, as well as to feel towards those in which they may be placed, that attachment and zeal which have been just mentioned. Those who delight in analysing the complex principles of our nature, and referring them to their simplest elements, may perhaps without much difficulty trace up that of which we are now speaking, to our natural desire of sympathy, and disposition to afford it. We take a pleasure in meeting with persons with whose situations and sentiments we can sympathize : we are pleased likewise with the idea of their sympathy with us ; from which consequently we derive additional ardour also in a common pursuit, and increased confidence in a common opinion : and hence arises a mutual attachment between those among whom this mutual sympathy exists. Whether however this, or any different theory be adopted ; or whether the party-feeling we are speaking of is to be referred to any more simple principles of our nature, of which it is the necessary result, or is to be regarded as itself one of the primary elements, as it were, of the human mind, is a question of no consequence LECT. 1.] of Party-feeling. 21 to our present object : only let its existence and universality be admitted, and its effects referred to it, as their immediate source ; not to any calculations of reason, upon views of expediency. That there is such a principle in our nature, as far at least as regards the political union, was, as has been just remarked, strongly main- tained by the wisest of the ancient philosophers. Cicero in particular (whose testimony is in this case of the more weight, from his being occupied rather in retailing the most approved doctrines of others, than in giving the results of his own inquiries) makes the desire of uniting in societies an essential characteristic of our nature. He denies that men are led to this, merely with a view to the mutual supply of their wants ; for if a man, says he, could command all things need- ful or desirable for himself by the virtue of a magic wand, he would still covet the social union : and he maintains, that, as bees do not assemble for the purpose of building a honey- comb, but, being congregated by a natural in- stinct, employ themselves in this joint work, so men also are drawn together by a natural 22 Nature and uses [lect. 1. associating principle, and not, originally, from a mere view to those advantages which result from their union.'' But moreover, even in those cases where a coalition of any kind is formed manifestly and distinctly for the sake of promoting some com- mon purpose, still the zeal and the mutual attachment of the persons concerned, is not, even then, to be measured by the value, {i. e. the original value,) even in their own eyes, of the advantage proposed. Their being engaged in a common pursuit, is generally found to bind them to each other, and to increase their eager- ness for the object pursued, to a degree which even they themselves would never have anti- cipated. What exertions and what sacrifices have been produced by patriotism {i. e. attach- ment to the political community we belong to) is well known. It has often led men to resign cheerfully all personal objects, and even life itself, for the sake of the community ; and thus to forego all their own share of those common advantages, for whose sake alone, as some See Lectures on Political-Economy, Lect. IV. LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 23 pretend, the community itself was formed. In this case indeed there is an obhgation of duty ; the force of which has often, no doubt, had great influence in producing such conduct. But we cannot pronounce a sense of duty to be in ge- neral the sole motive, nor, always, even a part of the motive, which leads to these results, if we consider both how little of a general sense of duty has apparently been felt by men who yet have plainly shewn themselves not destitute of patriotism, — how little many of them have been disposed, in any other case, to sacrifice their own to their neighbour's good ; — what flagitious actions, in violation of duty, some have perpe- trated, with a view to the benefit of their Coun- try;— and lastly, how much of the same zeal and attachment is daily shewn by the members of such factions, sects, or parties, as have not that claim upon the conscience. In fact, human conduct altogether would be an inexplicable riddle to any one who should deny or overlook the existence of party-feeling as a distinct, and powerful, and general principle of our nature. Every page of history might teach us, if the experience of what daily passes before our eyes 24 Nature and uses [lect. i. were not sufficient, how slight an attraction is enough to combine men in parties, for any object, or for no object at all,— how slender a tie will suffice to hold them together, — whether a community of interests, or of situations, or of opinions, (or even the colour of an ornament, as in the celebrated case of the rival parties in the Byzantine circus;) and with what eagerness, often w^hat disproportionate eagerness, men engage in the cause of the party they have espoused. Even when they unite for the sake of some object which they previously had much at heart, what an accession of ardour do they receive from their union ! like kindled brands, which, if left to themselves, separately, would be soon extinct, but when thrown together, burst into a blaze. But to the considerations which have been thus briefly touched upon, we must add this cir- cumstance, that the principle we are speaking of is not only a source of union, but also of divi- sion ; — of discord, no less than of concord ; since it implies in its very nature, hostility to every thing that opposes the interests and ob- jects of the party adopted ; a jealous aversion to LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 25 every rival party ; and a tendency to subdivide, and separate into fresh parties, upon any point in which a certain number coincide with each other, and differ from the rest. And hence it has had a principal share in producing and keep- ing up almost all the contests that have ever existed, from the most gigantic wars between nations, down to the most obscure local contro- versies ; and has even given rise probably to more dissensions between individuals than were ever produced by merely personal feelings. Now if we consider all this, we cannot but admit that of all the principles which actuate the human mind, this is one of the most remarkable, and in its effects most momentous. It was observed in the opening of this lecture, that every one of our natural propensities is cal- culated to answer, under the control of reason, some good purpose : and the final cause of the one now under discussion, it is not difficult to perceive. Party-feehng has an evident tendency, under wise management, to promote the objects of the Body, whatever they may be. Whenever (as is often the case) it tends to frustrate those 26 Nature and uses [lect. I. very objects, that is always from some excess, im- prudence, or mismanagement ; such as has often occasioned courage to lead to defeat instead of victory. The object indeed which is proposed by a party may be itself bad ; and then, the party-feeling, or whatever else conduces to the accomphshment of such a purpose, becomes mischievous : but this is to be laid to the account of the depravity of the persons concerned ; and does not prove party- feeling to be itself an evil. For, no one w^ould deny such quahties, for instance, as industry or intrepidity to be in themselves valuable ; though if possessed by an unprincipled man, their effects are injurious. Supposing then the object pro- posed by a party to be a proper one, (and it is their fault if they propose any that is not) party- feeling, if it conduces to that object, must be allowed to be a useful principle. Now that it has this tendency, is evident even from what has been already said. The strength of any feehng, and the ardour of any pursuit, are heightened by mutual sympathy, and by mutual conscious- ness of that sympathy ; and men feel encouraged and confirmed in their common belief by a sort LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 27 of tacit appeal to each other's authority. More- over, a party have the advantage of acting in concert, and thereby of cooperating far more effectually than if each acted singly and inde- pendently, in pursuit of the very same objects. They may consult together, and jointly form plans for simultaneous exertion ; deriving strength, like the bundle of lances in the well known fable, from mutual support. They have likewise the benefit of mutual control and regulation, so necessary to prevent any individual member from interfering, by his own fault or imprudence, with the common benefit of the Body ; whence arise, in political communities, the advantages of civil government. And lastly, they possess the ad- vantage of a division of labour ; by which each member may have that office assigned him for which he is best qualified, or which, at least, he may the better discharge, from being enabled to confine his attention to it. But indeed, besides this subordinate distribution of offices, the very formation of societies for the attainment of any good ends, may be regarded as in itself a kind of beneficial division of labour: and the tendency to form them, as implanted with a view to that 28 Nature and uses [lect. I. benefit ; since by this means the exertions of each individual, by being hmited to a narrower sphere, are bestowed with greater effect. And hence, in the case of the pohtical union, the general prosperity of mankind is better promoted by the judicious exertions of each individual in the service of his own country, than it would be, if this general prosperity were the main and im- mediate object pursued by each, without any division into separate communities. Such then being the nature, and such the final causes, of party-feehng, it remains to in- quire how far the Christian religion is accom- modated to this part of our constitution. It is a remarkable characteristic of the Gospel, that it aims, at correcting indeed, and elevating, but not, at destroying our nature. Unlike the stoical philosophy, which taught men that they were to eradicate every passion, and hve merely by the dictates of reason : — unhke most false rehgions, which inculcate precepts decidedly un- natural, such as, to renounce society, to abstain from innocent enjoyments, and submit to self- inflicted tortures, — Christianity conforms to our LECT. I.] of Party -feeling. 29 nature wherever it is not depraved ; and thus affords a strong presumption of its having pro- ceeded from Him who " knew what was in man." And as there is no natural propensity, that is in itself evil, so there is none that in itself is condemned by Christianity; though it seeks to direct all of them to higher objects. Our Lord does not require men to despise applause, and to follow virtue solely for its own sake, without any thought of their conduct being seen and approved ; but to seek the praise of their " Father who seeth in secret, and who will reward them openly :" He tells them not, to be indifferent about the future, and improvident ; but to lay up " for themselves treasure in heaven," rather than accumulate the perishable goods of this world : He does not exhort them to root out the feeling of pity, as a weakness, but to minister to the poor and helpless, for his sake ; and not to renounce human affections, but to love all mankind, including even their enemies. And instead of exhorting his disciples to lay aside all party-feehng, and labour singly for their own salvation and that of other men generally; — instead of merely leaving a set of doctrines and 30 Nature and uses [lect. I. precepts, to be adopted and obeyed by each insulated individual who might approve of them. He combined his followers himself into a distinct society, which we term the Church ; of which He is himself the head, and all Christians the members ; of which He appointed the first governors, who founded, on one common prin- ciple, various distinct visible Churches on earth, independent of each other, but harmoniously agreeing in their subjection to the one heavenly Ruler; and which He promised to be with always, even unto the end of the world. This Christian fraternity then,' this " communion of " We are wont to speak of the founding of the Church — the authority of the Church — the various characteristics of the Church — and the like, as if the Church were, originally at least, One Society in all respects. But from the period when the Gospel was planted beyond the precincts of Judasa, this manifestly ceased to be the case. And as Christian societies were formed among people more and more unconnected, and dissimilar in character and circumstances, the difficulty of con- sidering the Church as one society, increases. Still, from the habitual and unreflecting use of this phrase ' The Church,' it is no uncommon case to confound the two notions, — and sometimes to speak of the various societies of Christians as one, sometimes, as distinct bodies. ****** " The Church is undoubtedly one ; and so is the Human LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 31 saints," branching out into several distinct Chris- tian Churches, had a formal institution ; it has a Race, one ; but not, as a society. The Church was, from the first, composed of distinct societies, which were called one, because formed on common principles. It is one Society, only in reference to its future existence. The circumstances of its having one common Head, Christ, — one Spirit, — one Father, — are points of unity which no more make the Church one So- ciety on Earth, than the circumstance of all men having the same Creator, and being derived from the same Adam, renders the Human Race one Political Community. ****** " Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War contains an account of the transactions of two opposed parties, each made up of many distinct communities : on the one side were Democracies, on the other, Oligarchies. Yet precisely the same use is made by the historian of the terms * the demo- cracy' and * the oligarchy' as we find Scripture adopting with regard to the term ' the Church.' No one is misled by these, so as to suppose the community of Athens one with that of Corcyra ; or the Theban, with the Spartan. When the heathen writer speaks of ' the democracy of,' or 'in' the several demo- cratical states, we naturally understand him to mean distinct societies formed on similar principles. And so, doubtless, ought we to interpret the sacred writers, when they, in like manner, make mention of the Church of or in Antioch, — Rome, — Ephesus, — Corinth, Bic. ****** " The Church is one then, not as consisting of one society, but because the various societies or churches were then mo- delled, and ought still to be so, on the same principles ; and because they enjoy common privileges; — one Lord — one 32 Nature and uses [lect. I. solemn initiation, in the sacrament of baptism ; — it has rules of belief and of conduct for its mem- bers, in the holy Scriptures ; it has a distinct object, the propagation and preservation of the faith, and the spiritual welfare of its members; — it has in each separate branch of it on earth, regular governors to watch over its concerns ; and it stands opposed, in spiritual warfare, to the corruptions of unregenerate human nature, and the wiles of Satan, who is called " the God Spirit — one Baptism." — Hinds's Rise and Progress of Chris- tianity, Part III. ch. ii. The same author shews, in other parts of this valuable work, that when Christian Unity or Oneness is spoken of in the New Testament, it generally means the Unity of dispensa- tion for the various classes of converts : — that Christianity did not distribute its privileges in different degrees, as the former Dispensation did, in respect of the " Proselyte of the gate" — the " Proselyte of righteousness," and the " Hebrew of He- brews;" and again, of the Priests, the Levites, and the Israelites of other tribes ; but that there was to be " one Faith, one Baptism," one participation of every privilege, for all nations and for every portion of the Church, as far as the intellectual powers, and the opportunities, of each individual, admit. And as the jealousy of the Jews on this point was the main ground of irritation and enmity on religious matters. Christians are hence exhorted to preserve the Unity {kvoTrfra) of the Spirit in the bond of peace. See Eph. iv. 5. LECT. I.] of Party feeling. 33 of this world." The hmited social-feeling, — the fraternal spirit, which Christ and his Apostles strove to cherish, was not designed indeed to supersede universal philanthropy, but it was manifestly considered by them as a distinct duty from that. When our Lord said, " A new commandment I give unto you. That ye love one another," He cannot properly be interpreted as recommending general benevolence. The injunction to cultivate that, though undoubtedly a divine precept, could not justly have been designated as a new one, since even the heathen, however imperfectly they practised this duty, were by no means ignorant of it. He mani- festly had in view the mutual love of Christians fls such. And in hke manner the Apostles, when they exhort us to " add to brotherly- kindness, charity," — to " honour all men, and love the brotherhood," — " to do good unto all men, but especially unto them that are of the household of faith," — are evidently drawing a marked distinction between the two virtues, of philanthropy, and the spirit of Christian brother- hood. Thus did Christianity take advantage of this D 34 Nature and uses [lect. I. associating and coalescing principle of our na- ture, and enlist it, as it were, into her own service, by giving it a new direction ; in order to secure, in the most important of all concerns, those advantages which are the final cause of its being implanted in our minds. What these advantages are, has been already slightly mentioned. All of them seem to have been proposed and secured, by the embodying of the Christian Churches, each having its own distinct government on earth, and all owning a common allegiance to one Sovereign in Heaven. The increased zeal, — the encouragement, — and the consolation, which men derive from the consciousness that others sympathize in their sentiments, their hopes, and their wishes, seem to have been regarded by the Apostles as of no small importance. Paul especially takes fre- quent opportunities to remind his converts of their being fellow-members of the Body of Christ, — of his own prayers for them, and sym- pathy with them, and anxiety for the success of their common cause, — and of the regard and interest felt for them by the members of the other local churches. " We being many," says LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 35 St. Paul to the Romans, " are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another ;" and again, " Be kindly afFectioned one to another, with brotherly love ;" and again to the Corin- thians, " Whether one member suffer, all the members suffer with it, or one member be honoured, all the members rejoice with it." And to the Thessalonians he writes, " We are bound to thank God always for you, brethren, as it is meet, because that your faith groweth exceedingly, and the charity of every one of you all toward each other aboundeth, so that we ourselves glory in you in the churches of God, for your patience and faith." He seldom indeed begins an epistle to any church without his own and his fellow labourers' prayers and good- wishes ; or concludes it, without mentioning the sympathy and interest felt for them by their Christian brethren, in all the other Christian societies. The proofs indeed of the divine origin of the Gospel are so strong, and its importance to each individual believer so great, that, considering the case abstractedly, it might seem needless to attempt confirming a man's faith in it by D 2 3C Nature mid uses [lect. i. appealing to the authority of others who beheve the same ; or heightening his zeal in the cause, by setting before him their example. And cer- tainly, the early converts at least, were not led to embrace the Gospel by any tendency to comply with prevailing notions. But such is human nature, that we cannot completely trust to a man's always conforming his belief to rea- son, or his practice to his belief; but must resort to the aid of every secondary motive that ' can be brought into play. Now of these there is certainly none that have more influence, on faith, and feeling, and practice, than the ex- ample and sympathy of others. Where indeed is the man who can presume to say, that bis faith would be equally firm, if no one held it besides himself? or that his feelings and his conduct would be the same, if he found that, in both, he stood perfectly single ? Again, the regular government of any society, and the mutual instruction and assistance, the admonition, exhortation, and correction, which its members may receive from each other, with a view to the furtherance of the common cause, and their being enabled by this means to LECT. I.] of Party -feeling. 37 combine their exertions, — to act in concert, on plans jointly devised, — and to hold together in one Body, or in several Bodies acting on com- mon principles, instead of interfering with each other, are among the advantages to be derived from their imion. And these accordingly vv^ere not overlooked by the Apostles : " Obey them," says Paul, " that have the rule over you, and submit yourselves ; for they watch for your souls as they that must give an account :" and again, " Let us consider one another, to provoke unto love and to good works ; not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is, but exhorting one another." " Ye younger," says Peter, " submit yourselves to the elder ; yea, all of you be subject one to an- other." " Confess your faults," says James, *' one to another, and pray one for another, that ye may be healed." And Timotheus, whom Paul so carefully instructs in his episcopal du- ties, and charges to " preach, reprove, and exhort," was especially left by him at Ephesus, to " charge some, that they preach no other doctrine ;" and thus to prevent disorders in the Church. 38 Nature and uses [lect. i. Lastly, one of the most important advantages which the members of any embodied society possess, is, the distribution of distinct offices among different individuals ; which is usually called the division of labour. In the political community it is well known how much the in- crease of national wealth, and the other objects proposed by the civil union, is by this means promoted :^ but any other kind of association also may, upon the same principle, secure to itself similar, if not equal advantages : and the Christian Church especially, may possess them in a most important degree. Besides the benefit of having a certain number of Christians set apart as ministers of the Gospel, (not indeed as the only persons engaged in God's service, but as more peculiarly and exclusively devoted to it, and withdrawn from other occupations,) besides this, I say, there is an opportunity for a still further division of labour among these last ; — still narrower spheres of action may be taken by different Christian ministers, without any fear that other departments should be neglected. ^ Political-Economy, Lect. VI. LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 39 Some may devote themselves more especially to the instruction of youth, others, to the edifi- cation of their adult hearers ; some, to the critical study of the sacred text, others to the ascertaining and defending of the doctrines con- tained in it, or to researches into the belief and practice of the primitive churches ; and some again may employ themselves chiefly in collect- ing the results of the learned labours of others, throw^ing them into a popular form, illustrating, and enforcing them : some, may be champions of the faith against heretics, — some, commen- tators,— some, missionaries. In short, the diver- sity of useful employments, in the common cause of our religion, may be no less than that of the spiritual gifts among the ancient Chris- tians : a diversity which, as it tended ultimately to the promotion of a single end, the Apostle Paul exhorted them to regard as a bond of more perfect union, not a source of jealousy or divi- sion : and he compares it to the diversity of functions of the several members of the body, which cooperate for the common welfare of the whole. " As the body," says he, " is one, and hath many members, and all the members of 40 Nature and uses [lect. i. that one body, being many, are one body : so also is Christ. For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body For the body is not one member, but many. If the foot shall say. Because I am not the hand, I am not of the body ; is it therefore not of the body ? And if the ear shall say. Because I am not the eye, I am not of the body ; is it therefore not of the body ? If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing ? If the whole were hearing, where were the smelling ? . . . . Ye," says he, " are the body of Christ, and members in parti- cular." And again, " Are all apostles ? are all prophets ? are all teachers ? are all workers of miracles ? have all the gifts of healing ? do all speak with tongues? do all interpret?" These diverse gifts and offices were intended, as he continually reminds his converts, to con- duce the more effectually to the one common end, the stability, and edification, and augment- ation of the community. — Such being then the advantages, and such the divine sanction of the Christian communion of Saints, it is clearly the duty of every behever in Christ to use his best endeavours for preserving its vigour and its LECT. I,] of Party-feeling. 4i harmony. He is an unworthy and useless mem- ber, who has no spirit of fellowship with his brethren, — no inclination to unite, sympathize, and cooperate with them : is a corrupt and mischievous member, who either himself creates, or provokes others to create, groundless divi- sions and dissension in it. The one fault may be characterized as a deficiency in that party- feehng we have been speaking of, (a deficiency at least in that particular branch of it which concerns the Christian, considered as such ;) the other, as an excess and abuse of that same feel- ing. The one may be compared to the fault of a citizen who is destitute of patriotism, and in- different to the welfare of the State ; the other, to that of the factious and rebelhous, in whom a similar coalescing principle is directed to a dif- ferent object, and pushed to a vicious extreme. It has been already observed, that party- feeling is a source of disunion as well as of union, — of dissension as well as of agreement ; since attachment to any party implies hostility to every opposed or rival party. And in addition to this, it has also been mentioned, as a part of our constitution, not only that men feel 42 Nature and uses [lect. i. attachment to the party or community of which they are already members, but also that those who have any thing of doctrine, sentiment, or practice in common, are inclined to coalesce and combine together, into a Body, and keep that Body distinct from such as differ from them on these points. When therefore this tendency is carried to excess, any minor point of coincidence will unite with each other, and separate from the rest, part of the members of that Body so formed. And hence it is the very nature of this feehng, when not duly controlled, to produce not only bitter animosity between opposite par- ties, but also internal divisions in each ; — not only to inflame them one against another, but also to subdivide and multiply them ; and thus to destroy its own works, by separating into hostile factions the very persons whom it had originally drawn together. Men are loth to re- cognize the operation of the same principle in different cases, when its operation is in the one beneficial, and in the other mischievous ; but an attentive observer will be compelled to admit, that the same inclination to combine with those who agree with them on any point, or have any LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 43 thing in common with them, and to keep apart from, or oppose, all others, together with a strong attachment to the party they belong to, has often led the same men, at one time to per- form the most important services to the State, in contests with foreign enemies, and, at another time, when uncontrolled by virtuous principle and sound discretion, to produce in that very State the most ruinous factions : and that the same spirit which supported the infant Church against its pagan enemies, became, when per- verted and corrupted, the fruitful source (es- pecially in the more flourishing state of the Church) of furious contentions, and obstinate schisms. Our Lord, who saw the excesses and depra- vations to which party-feeling is liable, as well as its advantages, — its abuses as well as its utility, — charges his disciples to "have peace one with another ;" and offers up, in their pre- sence, a solemn petition to the Father for their unity. And his apostles also are frequent and earnest in exhorting their converts to maintain the strictest union and most perfect concord among themselves, and to be on their guard 44 Nature and uses [lect. I. against such as " caused divisions among them." Those who, in their dread of strife and party- violence, would seek to preserve this union by abstaining from all mention of every doctrine that is likely to afford matter of controversy, — by laying aside all formularies, and confessions of faith, — and by regarding with indifference all varieties of opinion among professors of Chris- tianity,— would in fact put an end to the very existence of the society itself, whose integrity and concord they would preserve. In preventing hurtful contentions, by giving up every thing that is worth contending about, they would be rooting out the wheat along with the tares ; and for the sake of extirpating noxious weeds, would be condemning the field to perpetual sterihty. And after all, it would be but an apparent union that would result ; since the members of the same nominal Church could have but little sym- pathy with each other's sentiments and designs, when they knew them to be essentially at variance with their own. It seems indeed httle less than a contradiction, to speak of a religious community, whose members are radically different in religion. LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 45 We are not then to hold a society together by renouncing the objects of it; nor to part with our faith and our hope, as a means of attaining charity ; but rather seek to combine the three ; and by earnest zeal, without violence or bigotry, — by firmness, accompanied with moderation, dis- cretion, and temper, — by conciliating adversaries, without sacrificing the truth, — and by hearty yet mild cooperation with friends, to obtain the ad- vantages of party-feeling, yet avoid its evils ; and promote peace, without falhng into indifference. In most ages of Christianity indeed, the excess and abuse of party - feeling has been the more prevalent, or at least the more conspicuous, of the two opposite faults just noticed : and the cautions and admonitions of our Lord and his Apostles against it, are still as applicable as ever, and will continue to be so, as long as human nature shall remain the same. It is proposed then, in the remainder of these lectures, to offer some remarks on the evils which arise from the perversions and the inordinate violence of party- feeling, and on the means by which those evils may be prevented, or cured, or alleviated. In the course of this discussion, my object 46 Nature and uses [lect. I. will be, not to defend our faith against heretics, and our Church against separatists, by bringing home the charge of error against the one, and of schism against the other ; (for in this most important office, there are perhaps enough, who are, and have been, successfully employed ;) but rather to warn the orthodox and the churchman against such errors in their own conduct as may occasion, or aggravate, or prolong, the evils of heresy and schism in others ; — to examine, in short, and guard against the faults, not so much of our opponents, as of ourselves ; a subject which is not at all less necessary to be attended to, than the other, but which is not so often dis- cussed, and is much more likely to escape our attention. If it be possible (as it certainly is) that he who himself holds the truth, may con- tribute to occasion another's falling into error ; and that a schismatical party may be produced, or its violence exasperated, or its existence pro- tracted, by those who do not join it, it cannot but be of high importance to consider the means of avoiding such faults : especially when it is recollected, that the arguments used against ad- versaries, however sound and ingenious, may, LECT. I.] of Party-feeling. 47 in many instances, never reach them at all ; or when they do, will often be hstened to with prejudice; so that frequently they will do little more than confirm those who are already con- vinced : whereas the admonitions addressed to our own brethren, will be likely to obtain a hearing at least, if not a favourable and a pro- fitable hearing. Before however we seek for preventives or remedies for a disease, it is desirable that we should thoroughly understand the nature of it. I propose therefore in the ensuing lecture to consider the nature and origin of the excess and abuse of party -feeling, — the combination of it with other principles of the human mind, and the effects to which it has led. May He of whose body we are members, — who has pro- mised his support to the Church militant on earth, — and through whom we hope to join the Church triumphant in heaven, — vouchsafe to aid our exertions, — to direct our inquiries, — and to lead us, by his Spirit, into all the truth ! LECTURE II. PARTY-SPIRIT. James iii, 14 — 17. If ye have bitter envying and strife in your hearts, glory not, and lie not against the truth. This wisdom descendeth not from above, but is earthly, sensual, devilish. For where envying and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work. But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality and without hypocrisy. As there is no original principle of our nature that is not designed to answer some good pur- pose, so there is none that is not liable to become mischievous, when ill - regulated, and LF.CT. II.] Partij-sph'it. 49 misdirected, and excessive : and those which, under the control of moral principle and dis- cretion, are the most beneficial, are commonly the most hurtful also, when they escape from that control. Such accordingly is the case with that party-feeling which has been already de- scribed, as the principle which leads men readily to combine and embody themselves, in parties and societies, of various kinds ; — which heightens their zeal in any common cause ; and which makes the Body they belong to, an object of regard in itself, distinct from the individuals composing it : sometimes indeed when no regard is felt for them ; nay, even when (from the nature of the case) each one of them is a rival, and an object of jealousy. This principle then, under various names and characters, produces energy and cooperation in various departments of human life. In the form of patriotism, it preserves the existence, and promotes the prosperity of States ; and in many other shapes also exerts a most extensive and important, and often, most salutary influence. Its excesses and perversions are proportion- ably mischievous. It is liable not only to prevail E 50 Party-spirit. [lect. II. in too great a degree, so as to become too pre- dominant, but also to operate unduly, in cases where it ought to be excluded ; and again to pursue its objects by improper means. All these may be called, (conformably to the received language of the best moral writers) excesses, of various kinds ; in the same manner as we usually reckon among the excesses of anger, not only its extreme violence, but, also, its being too easily excited, — too permanent, — directed to wrong ob- jects,— and the like. I. The most remarkable, and most properly characteristic, excess of party-feeling, is the ten- dency to prefer the means to the end; — the per- manence, and prosperity, and aggrandizement, of any party or society, to the objects themselves which it proposes, or professes to propose, and for the sake of which, it is established. When men shew an extravagant and dispro- portionate eagerness for that which is the object of their joint efforts, it is not always easy to pronounce how much of this fault is fairly to be laid to the account of excessive party-feeling, and how much may be attributed to an original over estimate of the end proposed : but M hen LECT. 11.] Party-spirit. 51 they become comparatively indifferent to that very end, and yet still adhere and devote themselves to the party, — when (as is frequently the case) the original purpose seems nearly or entirely for- gotten, by every member of the Body, and yet the Body itself still holds together in full force, and maintains its distinct existence, — we may then decidedly call such a disposition an excess of party-feeling. And something of this nature is usually intended by the term, party-spirit ; that name being most commonly applied in an unfa- vourable sense. Instances of this are very numerous. Many remarkable ones have occurred among the Jesuits, who having been formed into a compact and carefully-regulated society, evinced a pro- portionate degree of the party-zeal and attach- ment which are thus generated and kept alive. Had their object been originally the propagation and maintenance of the Gospel of Him whose name they adopted, and had they kept steadily to that object, the institution might have been highly beneficial. But, as in other cases, so, most remarkably in this, zeal for the security and influence of their order, nearly swallowed ! 2 52 Party-spirit. [lect. II. up their zeal for their own professed object : they were often ready to compromise the cause of rehgion, for the sake of advancing the in- terests of the Body : and there are even said to have been individuals among them, who were ready to sacrifice in the cause of the society, every selfish object, — every comfort and enjoy- ment of life, and even life itself, though at the same time they were not even believers in the truth of Christianity. Thus too, examples abound in every page of history, and present themselves continually be- fore our eyes, of men who with little or no mixture of personal motives, but acting almost entirely from a perverted patriotism, are ready to sacrifice without scruple, for the glory and aggrandizement of the State, not only them- selves, but also the lives, and the property, and the happiness of their fellow-citizens, (consi- dered individually,) though the security of these is the very object of civil society. One circumstance which most specially tends to lead the members of any party into a forget- fulness of their legitimate and original purpose, is the necessity, or at least expediency, of paying LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 53 attention to other objects, distinct from this. Almost every society has some regulations and institutions, whose immediate end is the pre- servation of the society, and which have no intrinsic value ; hke the fortifications of a town, which are worthless in themselves, but are essen- tial to the security of the citizens' habitations and goods ; and whose defence is therefore the more carefully attended to, because, were these abandoned, nothing would remain that could be effectually defended. Of this character are many parts of the constitution of our own Country, and of other States ; which have no immediate tendency to increase the happiness of the subject, but only, to maintain a proper balance in the government, — to secure the due enactment and administration of laws, — and in short, to preserve the society in its existing form. These accordingly are guarded with com- mendable vigilance, as important rights, and are sometimes termed, not improperly, the bulwarks of the constitution. Moreover, it is generally found desirable that a party should have some external marks and badges of distinction, — often an arbitrary 54 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. symbol, — to indicate their internal sentiments and dispositions ; that the members of it may be kept apart from others, and mutually known among themselves, and held together. These are like the standards in an army ; which the soldiers are taught to defend at all hazards, because, though, in themselves, not worth de- fending, they are the signs by which they are to distinguish friend from foe, and by which they are to be kept together in proper order. Accord- ingly we find the members of any sect, society, or other body of men, (especially if living mingled with others,) always disposed to adopt as a mark, either some peculiarity in their lan- guage, habit, or mode of living, or the observ- ance of some peculiar ceremony, often having as little natural connexion with the objects of the party, as the military standard has with war. All these signs of distinction have the effect, not only of keeping the party united and entire, but also of increasing men's attachment to it. The human mind is so formed, as to take an interest in every thing that is, in any way, a peculiarity; and party-feeling is roused and in- vigorated by every circumstance which reminds LECT. II.] Party-sjnrit. 55 the partisans of their being a distinct Body, and of the tie subsisting between them. And here it may be worth while to remark, by the way, that one advantage, at least, of the numerous ceremonies and marks of distinction which were enjoined to the Israelites, may be perceived from what has been just mentioned. A small nation, surrounded by idolaters, whose profane rites had so much that was seductive to uncultivated minds, needed something more to preserve them from contamination, than the intrinsic purity and sublimity of their rehgion. Every distinctive sign or observance that could remind them hourly of their being a peculiar people, and separate them widely from the rest of mankind, was requisite to preserve the essen- tial parts of their institutions from being lost or corrupted. Now as every thing that men have been long accustomed to prize and regard, (from what- ever cause,) becomes endeared to them by association, and at length appears, in their eyes, intrinsically precious, we need not wonder at finding that these secondary objects of a society, when they have occupied (as must frequently 56 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. be the case) the larger portion of their attention, should in time come to be regarded as primai-y; and should at length usurp an undue portion, if not the whole, of their regard ; — that while the fortifications (to pursue the illustrations above employed) are sedulously guarded and kept in repair, the city itself should be suffered to fall to decay ; and that men should cling to their standard, while they forget the cause in which they were enlisted, or remember it only as a pretext, without any sincere and hearty attach- ment to it. This may well be called, in the Apostle James's words, " lying against the truth," and " hypocrisy." This undue preference then of the means to the end, — of the distinctions of a party, to the original purpose of it, — may be regarded as one grand characteristic of party-spirit. II. Another kind of excess which deservedly bears the same name, consists in an over readi- ness to form and fall into parties, on frivo- lous grounds, or on improper occasions ; by which ic often happens, (as was remarked in the last discourse,) that a society is broken up by the undue operation of the same principle that LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 57 originally helped to form and maintain it ; and perhaps, while weakened by these groundless internal divisions, and split into a multitude of petty factions, falls an easy prey to some com- mon enemy, whom its combined force might have resisted. III. Lastly, party-spirit is justly charged upon those who go all lengths of bigoted partiality and narrow-minded prejudice, in matters relating to their party ; — who are wanting in candour and charity towards those of another party, and unfair in any contest with them ; who are strangers, in short, to that " wisdom from above, which is not only peaceable and gentle," but also " without partiality." The great historian of Greece % who described, with such frightful vividness of colouring, the political party-spirit of his own times, and who pronounced, with the prophetic power which results from wide experience, acute observation, and sound judgment, that the like would be ever liable to recur, though in various forms and degrees, has proved but too true a prophet. » Thucyd. b. iii. 58 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. Much of his description may be apphed with very shght, or without any, alteration, to many subsequent periods, not excepting the present ; and especially in what relates to that kind of party-spirit which has been last mentioned. No assurances, he says, or pledges, of either party, could gain credit with the other; the most reasonable proposals, coming from an opponent, were received, not with candour, but with suspi- cion ; no artifice was reckoned dishonourable by which a point could be carried ; all recom- mendation of moderate measures was reckoned a mark, either of cowardice, or of insincerity ; — he only was accounted a thoroughly safe man, whose violence was blind and boundless ; — and those who endeavoured to steer a middle course, were spared by neither side. It is worth remarking also, with reference to the branch of party-spirit formerly noticed, how completely the welfare of the State, (the pro- fessed object of each party,) was sacrificed with- out hesitation by both ; nay, how each so far forgot their originally real object, a prepon- derance in the government of an independent State, that each, by turns, were ready to subject LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 59 themselves, as well as their fellow-citizens, to a foreign yoke. That all this should sound as much like a prophecy concerning the affairs of the Christian Church, as a narrative of what took place in the secular affairs of heathens, is matter of sorrow, of shame, and of wonder. They indeed were not ignorant of the evil of such conduct ; but they had not such strong motives for abstaining from it : they knew that " where envying and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work ;" but they knew not that " the wisdom which is peaceable and gentle, descendeth from above," — from Him who has promised so richly to reward it; they knew not whose children the peace- makers should be called ; nor the blessing pro- nounced upon the merciful. But the fact is. Christians, as well as Pagans, are apt to apply their knowledge of what is right and wrong, to the case of their neighbours, instead of their own ; and to employ their moral judgment in detecting and justly censuring the faults of the opposite party, while they are blind to the same faults in themselves. No improvement in religious and moral knowledge (if we thus look 60 Party-sjnrii. [lect. II. only to the mote in our brother's eye) can answer any purpose, but to increase our con- demnation. Besides the faults already mentioned, as, pro- perly speaking, excesses of party-feeling itself, there are many other propensities also, which have an especial tendency to mix themselves with this feeling, — to call it into action, — and to aggravate its mischiefs. Such are vanity and AMBITION ; fondness for novelty ; love of dis- putation, in those who are, or believe them- selves, skilful disputants ; and lastly, that proud spirit, which delights in humbling, mortifying, and insulting others, and triumphs in taking vengeance for any opposition or affront. Both the love of power and the love of fame, are so effectually gratified by a man's being one of the leaders or principal supporters of a party, that he has hence an obvious temptation to form or to cherish a party, in order to increase his own influence, and shew his importance ; espe- cially if (as is often the case) no other avenues to power and distinction appear to lie open to him. And many, doubtless, who have been influenced by these or other corrupt motives. LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 61 have been themselves by no means aware of the bias under which they were acting ; but have effectually deceived their own consciences, by exaggerating, to themselves, as well as to others, the importance of the cause they were engaged in." Again, the love of novelty, — the pleasure men have in the idea of being original-thinkers, or, at least, of being able to shake off established prejudices, — to judge for themselves, and to despise the notions of the vulgar, — these, have a strong tendency to induce men to broach new doctrines or schemes of their own, or to adopt those proposed by another ; and thus to create and strengthen parties.'^ Controversial ability also, real or supposed, contributes powerfully to generate, and keep up, and inflame party-spirit, by creating in the able disputant a fondness for controversy*^; in the Wesley seems to have been, in a most remarkable degree, unconscious of the ambitious feelings by which he was so much influenced. <= Priestley, and many other unitarian writers, afford some of the most striking instances of the operation of this principle. * Many examples might be found among the metaphysical theologians who have written on the Calvinistic questions. 62 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. same manner as the possession of military skill, and the command of warlike troops, is apt to encourage a delight in war. Every one na- turally feels a pleasure in doing that which he is conscious of doing well ; especially if it be what has long been his accustomed employment. And though no one probably ever acknoxdedged, even to himself, a feeling of mortification at the abolition of a party, and the dropping of a con- troversy, which might have employed the elo- quence of his tongue and pen, or a regret that his sword should rust in inglorious peace, yet no one who is acquainted with human nature, can doubt the existence of such feelings. Now controversy being almost always either the offspring or the parent of party, it is not wonderful that a love of disputation should almost always either give occasion to, or exas- perate, party- spirit. And that the most trifling subject (if no more important one be at hand) will furnish, to those who are so disposed, mat- ter for furious debate, division into factions, and narrow-minded bigotry, is remarkably exempli- fied in the celebrated dispute between the Realists and Nominalists, which so long and so LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 63 vehemently agitated the pubhc mind; till the Reformation quelled it, by diverting the attention of the disputants to a more interesting subject : a sufficient proof that religion was not the cause of these acrimonious contests, but only furnished the matter of them ; — it was the field on which the combatants engaged, but did not excite them to the battle. Lastly, all the proud, insolent, and resentful feelings of mankind, and the delight they take in triumphing over an opponent, have a powerful influence (when men are once engaged) in keep- ing up and embittering the spirit of party. Their zeal and animosity, however small at first, are inflamed by opposition ; and they become attached to the party in whose ranks they have fought. If there be not, as some have supposed, a love of contention for its own sake, inherent in some men, it is certain that a haughty resent- ment of every provocation, and a delight in humbling, mortifying, and triumphing over, an adversary, are dispositions but too general. Now the breaking down of party distinctions, and the silencing of controversy, destroys the hope of such triumphs ; and every kind of compromise 64 Party-spirit. [lECT. II. and concession is most revolting to a proud, angry, and jealous spirit. These haughty and insolent passions therefore, as well as those above-mentioned, contribute greatly to call forth and to cherish party-spirit, which, in turn, fos- ters and inflames them. Intemperate violence and bitterness of hostility has indeed been above reckoned as itself one of the excesses of party- feehng : and in fact, the influence of the male- volent passions and of party-spirit on each other being mutual, men are sometimes, by their at- tachment to a party, led to indulge in a malignant triumph, and sometimes, by their delight in such a triumph, become attached to a party. A long catalogue of other feelings might be added, which under particular circumstances, and in particular individuals, tend to promote party-spirit, and to aggravate its mischiefs ; but these which have been mentioned are not such as are occasionally and accidentally connected with it, but are its natural forerunners, or con- comitants, whatever be the nature of the party, of the cause, or of the contests it leads to. The baneful effects of party- spirit, and its LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 65 train of accompanying evil passions, are too common (unhappily) and well-known, especially in the Christian Church, to need being much insisted on. In fact, ecclesiastical history con- sists mainly of a detail of them. 1. Of these effects, the most obvious and the most shocking, is the extinction of Christian Charity, — of that spirit of meekness, forbear- ance, and benevolence, which are characteristic of the Gospel. If one should go through Paul's description of charity,'' reversing every point in the detail, he would have no incorrect descrip- tion of party-spirit, as it has appeared in almost all ages of the Church. — Party-spirit is not "long-suffering nor kind;" party- spirit " en- vieth, vaunteth itself, is puffed up ; " (making men feel a pride in their own party, and hostile jealousy towards all others.) " Party - spirit seeketh her own ;" (narrowing men's views to the welfare of their party, and incUning them « The 'AyctTrr; delineated by the Apostle, seems, in his de- scription, to have embraced all the sanctifying eiFects of the Holy Spirit, and consequently to have conveyed an idea more comprehensive than the widest sense of our word Charity : hut it certainly is described as including this. 66 Party-spirit. [lect. II. to sacrifice the interests of all others to it ;) " Party- spirit is easily provoked ; thinketh evil ;" (being ever ready to attribute to an adversary the worst motives and designs ;) " rejoiceth in iniquity, and rejoiceth not in " the truth;" catch- ing eagerly at every unfair advantage, and lead- ing to an indifference about Gospel-truth, which was the object originally professed. What bitter animosity and alienation of the minds of Christians from each other have arisen from this spirit, — what mutual revilings and ana- themas ; — what wars and massacres, oppression and persecution have ensued, it is unnecessary, as it would be painful to describe : — painful, not so much because Christians were the objects, as because they were the authors, of these cruelties : for that our Lord's followers should suffer from hatred and malice, is no more than they were taught, by Him, occasionally to expect ; but that they should themselves be the prey of such evil passions, against which He so earnestly warned them, and should substitute intestine " strife, and confusion, and every evil work," for the mutual love which He inculcated as the characteristic by which " all men should know his disciples," LECT. II.] Party-spirit. G7 is matter of grievous disappointment, and of shame. 2. The Scandal to the cause of truth which hence arises, is another, and one of the heaviest evils of party-spirit. The acrimonious, and often frivolous, contests among Christians, and the bigotry and mutual hatred between sects, have always been matter of scornful triumph to the infidel, and a stumbling-block to the weak ; and this the more, inasmuch as it is those who are seemingly most zealous in the cause of religion, that display the most of this fault. Hence we hear it commonly said, " these very good people who talk so much about a Christian spirit, are quite as harsh in their judgments and as bitter against their opponents, as the most ungodly : their religion therefore serves only to sour their temper ; or, at best, their professions are but mere cant and pretence." And thus Christianity is regarded as the source of those evils, for which her genuine spirit, if really dwelling in our hearts, is the most effectual cure. The reproach is indeed unjust ; since experience shews that any human transactions and opinions, F 2 68 Party -sj)irit. [lect. ii. however trifling, may serve as a basis from v^hich this spirit may arise in all its extravagance and violence. But still the scandal will exist ; and whatever condemnation they incur who transfer to the religion, the censure which is due to its professors, — or whatever certainty we may feel that such stumbling-blocks shall always be to be found, by those who seek for them, — still there is not therefore the less heavy judgment to be looked for by those who " give occasion to the enemies of the Lord to blaspheme." " It must needs be that offences come ; but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh." 3. Lastly, another evil effect of party-spirit is the establishment and propagation of Error. Falsehood, like poison, will generally be rejected when administered alone ; but when blended with wholesome ingredients, may be swallowed unperceived. The mixture of truth and false- hood in the fallacious arguments of the sophist, is one way in which this may be effected : but another is, the connexion of sound and erro- neous notions, from their being both held by the same party. It is notorious that each member LECT. II.] Party-spirit, 69 of any religious or other party usually adopts their doctrines and practices, in the mass ; feel- ing himself bound, (as it were, by his allegiance to it,) to make no exceptions, and distinctions ; and regarding Mm as an adversary in disguise, who would analyse this compound, and try each point separately by the test of reason or of revelation. Whatever therefore may chance to be wrong, in this set of opinions and principles, is likely to pass unobserved, or to be disguised as to its real character by its artificial connexion with so much that he has been accustomed to venerate. It is true indeed that sound doctrines also, and valuable precepts, may in this way find admittance with some, who might otherwise have rejected them ; but while this advantage is enjoyed by truth and falsehood alike, we cannot but acknowledge (if we allow truth to be in itself the stronger) that whatever tends thus to put them on a level, is, on the whole, less favourable to the cause of truth, than of error. Not to mention that what is thus admitted in the mass, without separate attention and exami- nation, even though it chance to be true and right, cannot have the same beneficial effect on the 70 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. mind, as if it were left to stand on its own claims, and were received because it is true and right. And hence, it is a great recommendation of our Church, that She appeals in all things to the Scriptures, the only collection of unmixed and infallible truth ; and challenges a trial of her doctrines and practices, both collectively and separately, by that test. Had She (like the Church of Rome) demanded unhesitating assent to them on her own authority, even though She had been free from all the errors which, in that church, have been blended with the truth, and as it were sanctified by their union with it, still our belief and our practice would not have been so properly scriptural, nor so profitable to ourselves^ f Those therefore (it may be observed by the way) who, on any question that arises, appeal, at once, and finally, to what our Church teaches, urging that they have been long since fully and fairly convinced of her conformity to Scripture, and that therefore they may safely acquiesce in her decision : though they eventually arrive at a true conclusion, are not proceeding in the way most conformable to the spirit of our Church, nor most conducive to her honour. Let them search the Scriptures themselves, with candour and diligence ; secure that the conclusions fairly drawn from them, cannot of course be at variance with the doctrines of an orthodox Church : LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 71 The principal ill-effects then of party-spirit may be classed under the three heads just men- tioned; viz. 1st. The uncharitable temper which it generates and fosters ; 2dly. The scandal and scorn it occasions in the " minds of them that are without ;" and 3dly. The tendency it has to disguise, and propagate, and support, error. I have endeavoured also to sketch out the character of those excesses themselves which are deservedly stigmatized under the name of party-spirit ; as consisting either in a preference of the means to the end; — (of the institutions and the distinctions of a party, to its original object) — or in an over-readiness to form parties on slight occasions ; or in a bigoted attachment to our own party, and excessive hostility against its rivals. And the other passions have been also enumerated which most tend to engender which doctrines will therefore derive confirmation from such an inquiry, when their conformity to Scripture is thus exhibited. It is true of every Church, that a sincere member of it must (in one sense or the other of that word) hold the doctrines of that Church. But it makes all the difference, whether he holds the doctrines because he is a member of the Church, or continues a member of the Church because (on scriptural grounds) he holds her doctrines. See Romish Errors, Ch. iv. 72 Party spirit. [lect. II. and aggravate party-spirit ; viz. men's ambition of being leaders or active supporters of a party, with a view to power or credit; fondness for novelty; the love of disputation ; and delight in triumphing over and insulting opponents. A Society or Body of the character of that to which Christians, as such, belong, — whether considered as the one Body of Christ, the uni- versal Church united by allegiance to one hea- venly Ruler, or as each of the distinct Christian communities, under its own governors on earth, — such a Society is, in itself, and to those who are imbued with the genuine spirit of the Gospel, peculiarly safe from all these excesses ; much as almost every Church has suffered from them, through the frail and corrupt nature of its mem- bers. For in the first place, its ultimate object, the salvation of souls, is not one which, from its own character, is liable to be lost sight of; since it is one which ought at least to occupy more earnest and sedulous attention than all others besides. Moreover, its internal concord, and the avoiding of causeless divisions, are inculcated by its divine Founder and his followers, upon the most powerful motives, when they teach all LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 73 Christians to regard tliemselves as sons of the same heavenly Father, — sanctified by the same Spirit, — members of Christ's body, and joint- heirs with Him of immortaUty. Nor can any society be, in itself, less liable to uncharitable bigotry than that which aims at bringing into subjection to one spiritual Master, all mankind, — and that, with a view to their own present and future happiness ; and whose prescribed and appropriate means of accomplishing this, are, mild persuasion, and good example. And lastly, a Christian society, is one whose essential cha- racter and spirit is especially and decidedly opposed to the indulgence of such evil passions as inordinate ambition and vanity, — or an idle craving after novelties of our own devising, while the infallible and final revelation of God's will is before us ;— or a disputatious, and a resentful and insolent temper. If therefore (as unhappily is too often the case) the Christian religion has been made the occasion of " envying and strife," and the Church, a scene of " confusion and every evil work," the fault lies with Christians themselves ; and frequently (as was formerly remarked) with 74 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. both of two opposite parties ; — with the intem- perate and injudicious of the orthodox ; as well as with the heterodox ; — with those who pro- voke and aggravate schism, as well as those who join in it. It will be the object (as has been above in- timated) of the ensuing lectures, to suggest such cautions and rules of conduct as may be useful in preventing or alleviating the various evils of party-spirit, both by checking the excessive ten- dency to create, or keep up, parties and controversies, on insufficient grounds ; and also by introducing, as far as is possible, modera- tion and discretion into the conduct of those already subsisting. But there is an objection, which (as it stands on the threshold) it may be as well, before we enter on this branch of the design, to touch upon slightly, though it will be more fully considered hereafter. There are many who contend that all the evils arising from party are chargeable on that party who are in the wrong ; because one party requires to be opposed by another. They urge, that, " if bad men combine, good men must unite," for self-defence ; since LECT. II.] Pm'ty-spirit. 75 otherwise, the advocates of error, though fewer in number, and weaker in their cause, may, by acting in concert, prevail over the defenders of truth, when scattered, and, as it were, fighting in detail : nor must we, they add, deal too favourably with any adverse party ; and too readily quash controversy with them, from their errors not appearing at first sight very important or dangerous ; because we know not what ex- cesses they may hereafter, (if they gain strength) be drawn into, by the influence of their leaders. We must watch therefore, say they, and combine to oppose, the smallest beginnings of heresy and schism ; considering the magnitude not merely of the errors which our opponents openly main- tain, but of all those likewise which, (in our judgment) are of a kindred nature, and which consequently we may expect ultimately to result from them. Now that there is a great portion of truth in these arguments, if rightly explained and duly modified, is undeniable : and it will be allowed, I trust, that whatever there is of truth in them, has been, not admitted merely, but enforced and insisted on, in this, and still more in the 76 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. preceding, discourse ; in which the uses of party- feehng were pointed out, — the benefits resulting from the institution of the Christian Church fully dwelt upon, and the recommendations of our own genuine and apostohcal branch of it, set forth. While we adhere therefore not only to the Christian faith, but to the social union which Christ estabhshed, and to the ordinances and institutions of our own Church, as deriving legi- timately from Him all the authority it pretends to exercise, we are, so far, conforming to the principles of the argument before us. But it is plain that these principles, pushed to an extreme, and applied without any modification, will justify the formation of parties, and the excitement and prolongation of controversies for every cause, however slight ; and will thus introduce into the Church of Christ innumerable divisions and interminable strife. For if all the evils of party are to be laid to the account of those whom we think in the wrong, (i. e. of our opponents) the inevitable con- sequence must be, that we shall see no need for any caution against these evils, in our own con- duct. If we are to consider merely the danger LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 77 of suffering an adverse or suspected party to gain strength by being neglected, without taking into account also the danger of strengthening, irritating, or even generating, a hostile party, by opposition, we shall be perpetually provoking schisms, and widening every breach, and bring- ing on, in short, the very diseases we are pro- fessing to cure. And if we are to reckon ourselves at full liberty to charge men with bad designs, and their doctrines with bad tendencies, which are not obviously apparent, or avowed, we shall often be the means of aggravating the errors we injudiciously oppose, and creating the heresies we rashly impute ; not to mention the violation of Christian charity we are guilty of, and the angry contentions we give rise to. The tendency however of such conduct as this, may be learnt from experience as well as conjecture. Its effects have been abundantly tried ; for it has been common in all ages of the Church ; and an attentive study of history will convince us that it has eradicated very few heresies and schisms, compared with those it has produced and exasperated. It is our present object to seek out a middle 78 Party-spirit. [lect. ii. course between this fault and its opposite ; — between narrow-minded bigotry and intemperate party - spirit, on the one hand, and careless indifference on the other. I am well aware however that it is impossible, from the nature of the case, to do more towards this object than suggest ge?ieral observations, and lay down general rules; which must be apphed, in each individual instance, by each individual's atten- tive judgment, and good-sense. Even were the highest degree of learning, wisdom, and elo- quence employed in such a task, it could not, here, supply, in any degree, the want of private discretion. It must not however be hence concluded that all attention to such general remarks and maxims, is useless. For, in fact, the same objection (if it be any) will lie against all moral precepts whatever. When ethical writers, for example, instruct us to steer a mid- dle course between avarice and profusion, or cowardice and rashness, and describe to us these opposite extremes, they are compelled, after all, to leave it to our individual discretion to decide in each single case that occurs, whether the danger is to be shunned or encountered, — the LECT. II.] Party-spirit. 79 profit, to be sought, or rejected. Even the law of the land, when it defines what sort of wrongs shall be entitled to compensation, is forced to leave a discretionary power for deciding what actions come under its definitions, and what compensation shall be awarded in each. In like manner both our Lord and his apostles lay down general precepts, which no one would presume to call useless, yet which it rests with our own common sense to apply in each instance. They exhort men to rebuke a brother when in fault ; yet forbid us to be rash or severe in judging another ; — they urge us to be zealous for the faith, yet to be gentle, peaceable, and ready to make allowances ; — to oppose and separate our- selves from heretics ; yet to avoid strife and divisions : with innumerable other rules of the same kind, which they (necessarily) leave us to apply, for ourselves, in practice, according to the best of our own judgment. It may be useful however to make these ge- neral precepts somewhat less general, by so developing the principles of them as to apply them to our own times and circumstances, and thus obtain the full benefit of apostolical 80 Party-spirit. [lect. II. instruction. And such is the design of these lectures, as far as relates to the proposed sub- ject of party-spirit and controversy. In the ensuing discourse, the requisite cau- tions relative to the temper of our own minds will be considered : and afterwards those relat- ing to our treatment of others. I will conclude by reminding you, that how- ever httle hope any individual may feel of being able, by his own exertions and example, mate- rially to diminish the evils of party-spirit, it is not the less important to him, individually, that he should use his best endeavours against those evils ; and at least keep himself clear of any share in producing them ; " Be not thou," says Paul, " a partaker in other men's sins ; keep thyself pure." However great and incurable these sins may be, he who has had no share in them, will be saved from sharing in their punish- ment ; and he who has done his best, however ineffectually, to lessen them, will be not the less amply rewarded by Him who " seeth in secret," — who is Himself the dispenser of success or failure, — and who alone can fully estimate our intentions and our endeavours. LECTURE III. A CARNAL MIND THE CAUSE OF DIVISIONS. 1 Cor. iii. 3. Whereas there is among you envying, and strife, and divisions, are ye not carnal, and walk as men ? The carnal mind of which Paul here speaks, and which he elsewhere calls " death," and declares to be a state of " enmity against God," consists, evidently, (according to the Apostle's use of the expression,) in a predominance of the base and corrupt propensities of unregenerate human nature ; — that sinful nature which we inherit from our first parents, and which he sometimes designates by the appellation of " the old man, which is corrupt according to the G 82 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. deceitful lusts ;" as distinguished from " the new man, which after God is created in righteousness and true holiness ;" — that state in which all those evil passions are subdued by the sancti- fying influence of the Holy Spirit, and the whole heart subjected to the dominion of Christ. To the depraved views then, and sinful desires of " the natural man," unrenewed by the grace of the Gospel, the Apostle attributes the divi- sions which prevailed at Corinth. James also speaks the same language, when he says, " From whence come wars and fightings among you? come they not hence, even of your lusts?" And it is worth remarking that neither Apostle is, in that place, charging his hearers with hold- ing heretical opinions, nor blaming one sect in particular ; but rebuking them generally for party-spirit and discord ; which they attribute to a " carnal mind," and corrupt passions. And accordingly, various passions are found, under different circumstances, to lead men into the faults here censured ; — to sow divisions among them, — combine them in sects or fac- tions, — and inflame them with party-hatred LECT. III.] the cause of Divisionfi. 83 against each other. Sometimes self-interest^ may chance to be the first mover of discord ; sometimes even timidity will induce men to join a party, that they may avoid the censure and ill will of its members. Such appears to have been the case with Peter on the occasion where he incurred Paul's rebuke, for his weak compliance with the prejudices of the Judaizing Christians, in sepa- rating himself from the gentile-converts who did not comply with the Mosaic law ; and thus fostering the schism which was then growing into strength. The evil passions however which are more pecuharly and intimately connected with party- spirit, together with those depraved views, and excesses of feeling and of conduct, which may properly be regarded as constituting that spirit, are those which were noticed in the last lecture; and it was there proposed, that (those faults having been characterised, and their tendency * It happens but too often, it is to be feared, that a dis- senting chapel is regarded as a profitable speculation, by such persons as Paul describes 1 Tim. vi, 5. " of corrupt minds, and destitute of the truth," " vojxii^ovTOJv iropiirfxov elvai t^v eiiffijieiav, looking upon religion as a gainful occupation ;" for so the passage ought evidently to be rendered. G 2 84 A Carnal Mind [lECT. III. pointed out) we should next inquire for the best methods of preventing or lessening them ; and should consider in the first place the requisite cautions, as to the temper of our own minds, for avoiding the evils in question. No one indeed who calls himself a Christian, can seriously question the necessity of putting on a Christian temper ; nor can any one who candidly examines his Bible, find any difficulty in ascertaining what that temper is ; but those who have persuaded themselves that all the mischiefs of party are to be charged on those who in point of opinion are on the wrong side, (i. e. in other words, on their opponents,) will be apt to take but little care as to the spirit that actuates themselves. Men must be first con- vinced how wrong those may be in disposition and conduct, who are on the right side, before they can be brought to that candid self-exa- mination, and diligent watchfulness, which are necessary in order to derive practical benefit from the precepts of Scripture. I, The desire of taking the lead, was mentioned as one of the passions which most LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 85 frequently aid in producing and keeping alive the spirit of party. And it is one which must be carefully watched, and strenuously repressed by the Christian ; since it will be continually spring- ing up as temptations occur, and not only leading frequently to mischievous results, but corrupting the motives of even our best actions. EA^en he who has engaged in the worthiest cause with the purest intentions, when he finds himself likely to obtain fame or influence, will often be de- ceived, by the desire of these so intruding itself into his mind, as in time to encroach upon, and at length supplant, his original honest zeal. His principle of action will thus have become " car- nal," even while his conduct remains the same ; and he will " walk as men," even while engaged in the service of God. But, if rivals should then spring up, who threaten to eclipse his reputation and curtail his influence, such a man will be very likely to find some pretence for raising a party, that he may be the leader. For Caesar was not the only man who would rather be the first in a village than the second at Rome. And he who is thus led to create a schism, will infect with the spirit of party, not only himself, but 86 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. as many followers as he can collect. To this source Paul traces expressly many of the divi- sions which prevailed in his own days ; the authors of which he designates as ambitious " to make a fair shew in the flesh ;" and " desiring to have the Galatians circumcised, that they might glory in their flesh ;" i. e. that they might not only escape persecution, and gain credit with the Jews, for subjecting gentiles to the law; but also might have converts of their own to boast of. Accordingly our Lord was careful to repress the first germs of this spirit in his disciples, who very early manifested a tendency towards it. " There was a strife among them," we are told, " which of them should be accounted the greatest;" on which occasion He tells them, " He that is greatest among you, let him be as the younger; and he that is chief, as he that doth serve." And on another occasion. He cor- rects this temper in them, by setting a child in the midst of them, as a pattern of that lowliness which He required of them. Against so besetting and so dangerous a sin, it is necessary to be always on our guard ; not LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 87 only by strict and frequent self-examination as to the purity of our motives, and fervent prayer for genuine and single-hearted zeal, but some- times also by concealing something of the bene- ficial influence we may be exerting, when we can do so without diminishing that benefit ; and by studiously putting forward others, not only to aid in our labours, but also to take a share in the credit of them, if it be so great as would be likely, if undivided, to intoxicate our minds with pride, and thus to corrupt our motives. And since even those who do not aspire to be leaders of a party, often feel their importance in- creased, and their self- estimation flattered by being active members of it, especially if it be a small party, and they are thus more effectually separated fi-om the common mass, we must be careful to guard against the excess of this feehng also, and to keep in subjection the carnal temper, of loving for its own sake to be of consequence, and to be in any way distinguished. II. The love of novelty is another powerful and general principle of our nature, whose ten- dency to create and foster divisions in the Church, was above adverted to. That a great 88 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. portion of mankind have a delight in striking out, or adopting, some new idea, even though it have httle else to recommend it, is notorious ; and is exemplified by numberless instances both in philosophy and in the common affairs of life. But perhaps there is no instance of it so re- markable as the heresies which arose in the Christian Church, during the life-time of the Apostles : those who had received the faith from the mouths of men who wrought miracles in confirmation of their divine commission, were yet led away by giving ear to the daring inno- vators whom St. Paul complains of as " preach- ing other doctrine " from his own ; and who corrupted with their own idle devices the pure stream of divine truth, even close to the foun- tain-head. " The time will come," says he to Timothy, " when they will not endure sound doctrine, but after their own lusts will heap up to themselves teachers, having itching ears ; and they will turn away their ears from the truth, and will be turned unto fables." b It is worth remarking, that the existence of heresy in the very times of the Apostles, may serve to guard us against being LECT. III.] tJie cause of Divisions. 89 At the various fanciful systems therefore which have since arisen, and have flourished, each in its day, to the detriment of Christian truth and unity, we need not wonder. And especially was that to be expected which took place at the Re- formation ; when so many changes were neces- sary, in order to get rid of the corruptions introduced by the Romish Church, that those who were not strictly on their guard against the love of innovation, naturally caught at the op- portunity of rushing into every new -devised extravagance of doctrine or practice that pleased their intoxicated fancy. All freedom of dis- cussion had been so long bound up, as it were, shaken in our trust, by its existence among us. Had no diversities of doctrine arisen till after the departure of the Apostles, some might have been led to doubt whether the promised Comforter had not deserted his Church. But since errors existed even during the ministry of inspired and infal- lible guides, we are prepared always to expect them. The only difference is, that then, the Apostles, proving their divine mission by their miraculous powers, were at hand, ready to satisfy any candid inquirer which was the true and which the false doctrine ; whereas now, the reference must be made, since miraculous attestation of infallibility is withdrawn, to the writings those inspired teachers have left behind. 90 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. in the icy fetters of Romish thraldom, that when these were suddenly dissolved and broken up, it was nothing strange if a furious flood burst forth, which for a time spread general devastation and confusion ; and of whose ravage many sad ves- tiges remain to the present day. We cannot therefore too much admire the moderation of our Reformers, who maintained their calm good sense and the rationality of their zeal, in the midst of such prevailing wildness and turbulence. They seem to have had no craving after novelty for its own sake ; and (unlike those who rejected every thing connected with the ancient abuses) they never altered for the sake of altering ; but kept steadily in view their original object of re- jecting only what had been the mischievous innovations of the Romanists, and restoring the Church of Christ to its original purity. But the danger which they withstood, though then peculiarly strong, is not now, nor ever will be, removed, while human nature remains the same. Most sedulously are we still bound to guard against the temptation of novelty, when we consider that it had power to seduce even the hearers of the Apostles themselves. LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 91 With this view, we must constantly bear in mind, that however the case may be with other subjects, in Rehgion, whatever appears to be new, (if it relate to any point of considerable importance,) carries with it, so far, a presump- tion against its being right. In philosophy, we know not that there may not hereafter be disco- veries made, even of greater magnitude and importance than all that have gone before : so that, there, though a rash prejudice in favour of every thing new, is to be avoided, the pursuit of novelty and of truth may often chance to coin- cide. In rehgion, on the contrary, a full and final revelation having been made, no discovery, properly so called, (of any high importance,) is to be expected ; not merely because the book which contains all we know of the divine will has been so long before us, (for so also has the book of nature, in which nevertheless we are daily reading new truths, which had escaped the researches of our predecessors,) but because that book was designed by the Almighty to convey such instruction as He judged needful for all ; which purpose it would not have answered, had its true meaning in essential points been hidden 92 A Carnal Mind Llect. hi. till now. If therefore, for instance, a new mode of interpreting or of translating Scripture be proposed to us, which materially alters its doc- trines from what have been uniformly received % we have no need (however plausible it may appear) to rest the question upon critical re- searches into the ancient languages ; our ready answer may be, that Plato or Aristotle indeed may have designed to write mysteriously, and to conceal their doctrines from all but the most acute philosophers ; and that Polybius or Livy may have been accidentally misunderstood, till modern researches cleared up their narratives ; but that if the true sense and doctrine of the Bible was not understood by any, for so many centuries, it cannot be called (at least a final) Revelation. Elucidations indeed of minor points, may be looked for, and may be very valuable ; — fresh topics of evidence may be expected (in <= It is accordingly, with much skill, and often with success, urged by the Romanists, that their's is the ancient faith ; and that the novelties of the Reformation are to be rejected at once on the sole ground of their being novelties. In fact this is a plain begging of the question ; which is, whether the Refor- mation were or were not a Restoration of the original religion, by rejecting the innovations and corruptions of later ages. LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 93 these later times) to supply the defect of recent miracles; — prophecies may become intelligible, by their fulfilment ; — and fresh arguments in support of the essential doctrines may be brought forward. All this furnishes ample scope for the utmost conceivable ingenuity and originality of thought : the unremitting labours of a whole life would be insufficient for accomplishing all that would be desirable on each of these points ; so that no excuse is left for indolence and con- tented ignorance : but still, unless our faith be the same in the main, with that of the early Christians, we may be well assured that it is unsound. We should studiously repress therefore all craving "to be wise above that which is writ- ten;" and endeavour to divert into some other channel any eager desire we may naturally and reasonably feel for discovering (what may be strictly called) new truths". A boundless field lies open before us ; nor need we fear that the stores of useful knowledge to be drawn from the study of nature and of science, will ever be exhausted. See Elements of Logic, B. iv. eh. 2. 94 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. III. A similar procedure may perhaps be sometimes adopted with advantage, when we are taking precautions to guard ourselves against another fault, often connected with the fore- going, a love of disputation. He who is con- scious of being a skilful and successful disputant, if, on candid and careful self-examination, he find himself tempted, by the desire of exercising his talent, to raise or prolong controversies un- necessarily, and thus excite or keep up a spirit of party, in himself or in others, will do well to direct his attention to other subjects, on which he may innocently, and even usefully, employ his acuteness in argument. Above all, let him never venture to frame and bring forward argu- ments, on any point connected with religion, contrary to his real sentiments, and with a view of merely exercising his skill, by trying what can be said on that side of the question ; for it is very likely that he may thus be ensnared by his own ingenuity, and adopt in earnest the erro- neous conclusions he has been defending in sport, through a partial admiration of the plau- sibility of his own arguments*. « See Essay I. 2d Series. LECT. III.] tJie cause of Divisions. 95 It is however the more difficult to keep clear of the fault now under consideration, because controversy is sometimes necessary, for the de- fence of our own faith against assailants, and the correction of the errors of others : and it becomes difficult to restrain within due bounds those who have been thus, as it were, trained to war, and to keep them from taking a delight in controversy ; so that even their instructions will be delivered with something of a polemical air ; and they will often (to say nothing of the other dangers above alluded to) provoke hostility, by seeming to court it. The greater the difficulty however, the more unremitting is the care de- manded of us ; we must continually examine our own hearts, whether our zeal be purely for the good cause, or for the controversy itself, which we are engaged in ;— whether we are seeking such arguments as we verily think most likely to convince the erroneous, or such as will be the most approved and admired by our own party, and the bye-standers ; — whether we are adopting the most persuasive and concihatory forms of expression, and modes of procedure, or the most brilliant and striking ; — whether, in 96 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. short, we are labouring for truth alone, or for triumph. IV, The disposition last alluded to, — the love of triumph, — the desire of displaying our supe- riority, or of revenging an affront by mortifying and humbling an opponent, has been formerly mentioned as one of those evil passions which the most frequently promote and embitter party- spirit ; and it is but too common an accompani- ment of a disputatious temper. He who delights in argument, will exult in the display of his skill, rather than mourn over the faults of the mis- guided ; and, seeking victory rather than truth, will take more pleasure in exposing and con- founding, than in mildly reclaiming them. How utterly contrary such a temper is to the whole spirit of Christianity, is too obvious to need being insisted on. He who can contemplate the Son of God weeping over Jerusalem, the scene of such perverse past opposition, and of his impending crucifixion, and can hear the awful appeal of Paul, " Who made thee to differ from another ? or what hast thou that thou didst not receive ?" yet can proudly triumph in his own supposed rectitude, and insult the errors of LRCT. III.] the cause of Divinoufi. 91 a vanquished opponent, may perhaps he an acute theologian, but can have very Httle of the heart of a Christian. A man of such a temper indeed will generally do more harm than good to his own cause ; but if he should chance to be the instrument of benefit to the Church, he may l)e fitly compared to some of those scourges who were raised up by Jehovah from among the gen- tiles to inflict just chastisement on his people ; and were afterwards themselves destroyed for their pride and cruelty ; and may be classed with those whom Paul mentions as " preaching Christ, even of envy and strife ;" the success of whose labours indeed he rejoiced at ; but whom we cannot suppose to have shared in that benefit which many of their humble hearers may have derived from their preaching. If we would avoid not only the risk of detri- ment to the Church, but the certainty of con- demnation to ourselves ; — " lest, after having preached to others, we should ourselves be castaways," — we must not too hastily reckon ourselves safe in the rectitude of our cause ; but must make it a matter of anxious care, in our defence of that cause, to " let that mind be in H 98 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. us which was also in Christ Jesus ;" and to conform not only our faith to the doctrines of his religion, but also our temper, to its spirit. We shall thus be the better prepared for guarding against party-spirit; — and our minds will be, as it were, a less fit soil for its growth. But the spirit itself must also be carefully watched, and every tendency towards it vigor- ously checked. 1. The most remarkable characteristic of party-spirit — the disposition to prefer the means to the end, — the party itself, and whatever tends to maintain it, — to the object it originally pro- posed, has been formerly described, and its ill effects pointed out. We must guard against it by keeping steadily in view what are the ends proposed, and what, merely the institutions that preserve the society, and the marks that distin- guish and hold it together. Not that we are to neglect these ; but to value and pursue them as means, and in proportion as they conduce to the original object. To relinquish that very object for the sake of them, or to regard it with com- parative indifference, — or to uphold the party, when that object no longer appears desirable. LRCT. 111.] the cause of Dwisions. 99 is not only a glaring inconsistency, but is also productive of various evil consequences. How ready many have been to abandon the points originally regarded as the fundamental principles of their sect or church, — or how indifferent in maintaining them, — though they remain as firmly attached as ever to the same party, is well known. Few Presbyterians pro- bably of the present day would attach much importance to most of the scruples respecting our Liturgy, and church-government, which ori- ginally operated so strongly in producing the schism. But a breach once made is not easily closed; and the lapse of time, though it may have worn away the original causes of the separa- tion, renders a reunion more difficult than ever. The scion which has long been severed from the parent stock, cannot easily be reingrafted. Among the members however of the Romish communion, an instance may be found which is much more remarkable, from the circumstance that, that Church claiming infallible authority, whoever admits her doctrines or practice to be in any point erroneous, has virtually denied that claim, and thereby convicted her (in his own n 2 100 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. judgment) of a false and impious assumption of the power of the most High. Yet notwith- standing this, it is well known that there are many Romanists who (though not unbelievers in the Christian revelation) do not scruple, pri- vately, to avow their rejection of several of the most fundamentally erroneous tenets of their Church, and their disapprobation of many of its ordinances ; who are even ready to ridicule many of the superstitions it has sanctioned, and would even be sorry to have it supposed that they really made a full confession to their priests ; — yet would shudder at the very men- tion of openly renouncing that Church ; and would be even proud of their adherence to it, as to the only true and cathohc church, and the only one possessing decisive and infallible authority. It is indeed a common remark, that the name is in general the last thing men v^ill consent to part with ; and that a sect will often be brought insensibly to explain away or abandon most of their primary and fundamental tenets, while they would shrink from the proposal of breaking up the sect itself. Now in the case of those who LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 101 see good reason for giving up those points of distinction, and renouncing those objects, which originally formed their party, it is clear that the prohibition of causeless divisions enjoins the dis- solution of the party itself ; and that it is only a vicious party-spirit that can still hold it together as a distinct body. But may not a similar spirit operate on the members of a society whose object ought iiot to be abandoned, and whose fundamental principles are not erroneous ? They also may surely be guilty of preferring the means to the end ; — the party itself, and whatever tends to support it, — to the original purpose of it ; and as the former class are right in aban- doning their original principles, but blanieable in still maintaining their party, — so, these last are right in adhering to the Body they belong to, but highly culpable in forgetting or neglect- ing its main object. But such is human nature, that without continual watchfulness, this ten- dency to prefer the means to the end will con- tinually shew itself; and men will be less zealous for those objects which are pursued because de- sirable, than for one which appears to them desir- able, only because they have been accustomed 102 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. to pursue it. And since this infirmity is in- herent in human nature, we must not rashly flatter ourselves that the orthodoxy of our cause will preserve us from it. If in our contests with Romanists, or with sectarians, we ever find cause to censure their obstinate adherence to a party whose errors they are convinced of, let us be careful that we on our part fail not to shew as much sincere and practical attachment to our faith as to the outposts and bulwarks that defend it ; — that we appear not, warmly interested for the reformation, while we are indifferent to the religion itself that is reformed, or more zealous for the mitre than the cross, — for the Church, than for the Gospel. Our Lord stands emi- nently distinguished from the teachers of false religions, by his never allowing respect for Him- self, and zeal for the propagation of his religion, to stand as a substitute for the essential points of conformity to his commands, and personal holiness : " Why," says He, " call ye me Lord, Lord, and do not the things which I say ?" and He declares that even they who have wrought miracles in his name, will, if found workers of iniquity, be rejected by him. LECT. III.] the cause of' Divisions. 103 Since then the just boast of our Church is its conformity to the institutions of the Apostles, and its tendency to promote the religion they taught, it should be regarded as a kind of trea- son against that Church to profess zeal for its form, while we are careless of its spirit ; and to maintain its institutions, while we are forgetful of the ends it proposes. 2. With respect to another branch of party- spirit formerly mentioned, the tendency to create needless divisions, and to fall into parties on insufficient grounds, it is difficult to give rules sufficiently precise to be practically useful ; since, after all, it must be left to each man's private discretion to determine what are insuffi- cient grounds. Let it however be carefully kept in mind, that all controversy, and all separation of Christians into opposed parties, are in them- selves evils. It may be necessary to incur them, for the sake of a greater good ; but then the burden of proof must always lie on ourselves, to shew that necessity. No general rule indeed can enable us to estimate the importance of any point that comes before us ; but it is a very 104 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. useful general rule, that important points alone can authorize contests and divisions ; and that they must not be wantonly and hastily excited. And not only a separation from the Church, but the encouragement, countenance, and support af- forded, either to any such open schism, or to the formation of hostile parties within the Church, (as well as any conduct which provokes others to act thus,) must be justified by very sound and powerful pleas of conscience, (not of taste or convenience,) or will expose us to the condemna- tion of those whom the Apostle commands to be " marked and avoided " for " causing divisions." All separation, in short, of both kinds, and all excitement of it, must be either a duti/, or a s'm. This rule is not only an important one to be observed, but, obvious as it appears, is so little even thought of by many, that it is not un- common, to hear persons vindicate or excuse certain sects, by alleging, that they do not in fact differ materially in doctrine or usages from the Church of England ; as if such disagreement were the sole measure of the fault : whereas in fact there may be sometimes perhaps even less blame incurred by those whose opinions are LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions . 105 chargeable indeed with error, but are such as manifestly preclude them from conscientiously joining in our communion, than by those who violate the peace of the Church, when they might have preserved it, without offence to their conscience. To extenuate the charge of heresy, is often to aggravate that of schism. The well-known contests in the Church re- specting the time for the observance of Easter, and the use of leavened or of unleavened bread for the celebration of the Lord's supper, are deplorable instances of the tendency of man- kind towards that kind of party-spirit we are speaking of. And let it be remembered, that these and similar cases are not to be contem- plated with mere wonder and censure, but re- garded as warnings to ourselves. We may often be guilty of cherishing the very same spirit with those to whose principles we are the most de- cidedly opposed. The misconduct and folly to which we are tempted never appears such to ourselves at the time ; but we may be enabled to see it in its true light by contemplating the operation of similar principles in others ; espe- cially in those who lived so long ago, that time 106 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. has worn off the gloss which concealed from themselves the deformity of their faults. But if we fail to recollect that human nature is still essentially the same as it has ever been, we shall miss the important benefit to be derived from contemplating the errors of another. Societies indeed may innocently be formed and supported by Christians without any such cogent necessity, and that for purposes con- nected with religion, provided no opposition be implied : but let the members of them be ever on their guard, (keeping in view those universal propensities of human nature which have been just mentioned,) lest the evils of party-spirit should arise out of institutions originally harm- less. A double care therefore is in such cases necessary, to keep in check that carnal mind which leads to " envying, and strife, and divisions." 3. Lastly, the self-confident and uncharitable bigotry which was mentioned as characterizing party-spirit, must be repressed by the most earnest endeavours, and most fervent prayers, for the Christian virtues of humility and of LECT. III.] the cause of Divisions. 107 charity : nor must we ever forget that our being on the right side will be no security against the want of these virtues. We must not suppose that the stern bigotry with which the Romanists are charged is to be wholly imputed to their Church's claim to infallibility ; it is not so much the effect as the cause of that claim : that Church did but sanction, and organize, and as it were regularly cultivate, those errors which sponta- neously spring up and flourish, as in their natural soil, in the corrupt and carnal mind of the na- tural man^ Let it be remembered also, that openness to conviction, and readiness to make allowance for those in error, are not incompatible with the most sincere belief in the truth, and the warmest zeal for its propagation. In fact, a disdain of hearing arguments on both sides, and a bold condemnation of those who differ from us, are no credit to our cause ; since they are at least as likely to be arrayed on the side of a false religion ; whereas it is the character of truth to bear discussion ; it is the spirit of the Gospel f See Origin of Romish Errors. 108 A Carnal Mind [lect. hi. to be long-suffering, and loth to form harsh judgments. But besides those more unchristian feeUngs which lead to the fault in question, it frequently happens also, that a rash and arrogant confi- dence arises principally from mere ignorance, thoughtlessness, and inexperience. Those who have been long accustomed to attentive obser- vation and deep reflection, will have often detected errors in systems which at first sight appeared unexceptionable ; and will have been many times startled by unexpected objections ; hence they in time acquire an habitual cautious- ness in forming and maintaining their opinions ; a cautiousness indeed, which, in feeble or ill- regulated minds, is apt to end in excessive scepticism. A defect accordingly of this cau- tiousness prevails in those who are inexperienced and unpractised in diligent investigation ; and leads them to an excess of undoubting con- fidence. There is a kind of indolence also, (the Greek historian expresses it most precisely by the word aTdXaLTTwpta), which often leads to the same LECT. III.] the cause of Division x. 109 result. To " prove all things, and hold fast only that which is right," is too troublesome a task to man)^ ; who are accordingly contented to adopt a whole system of doctrines and senti- ments, in the mass ; to maintain it dogmatically, and refuse to hear any thing that can be urged on the other side. To beheve as a certain Church believes, — to hold all the tenets of a certain party, or theological school, — is a com- pendious creed, which does not much tax a man's intellects or his industry. This presumption then, and this indolence in the search after truth, must be guarded against, by those who would preserve Christian candour. It is not however meant to be insinuated, that of all, even the humblest, believers, it is to be expected that they shall be prepared to discuss, profoundly and learnedly, every article of their faith, and to answer satisfactorily every objec- tion. Those who want either the capacity or the opportunity, for so qualifying themselves, (who must ever constitute a great majority of believers,) should abstain (as indeed every man should abstain) from discussing questions of 110 A Carnal Mind [lECT. III. which they are not competent judges ; and should follow, in them, with humble and honest simplicity of heart, the direction of the best guide they can find : using however the best of their own judgment, as far as their qualifications extend, and fervently praying for spiritual aid. But of those who profess to be supporters, defenders, or teachers of their faith, candid in- quiry, and openness to conviction may on all points fairly be expected. Not that they should be always wavering in faith, and sceptical ; but always " ready to give, to every one that asketh them, a reason of the hope that is in them ;" which implies that they should be ready candidly to hear reason also. They should cultivate then an humble, and sincere, and earnest desire of truth ; not maintaining what they have not honestly ascertained, nor too much forgetting the investigator, in the advocate^. Above all, let nothing unfair and uncandid, — no sophistry or misrepresentation, be enlisted in the holy cause of truth ; to which it will, in the end, do more dishonour and detriment than service. g Elements of Logic, b. iv. ch. 3. LF.CT. III.] the cause of D'msions. Ill Let us not hire the Syrians to fight the Lord's battles''. And finally, remembering that Charity not only " is not puffed up/' but also " thinketh < no evil," we must be careful to do no injustice, nor shew any unnecessary harshness, to our opponents. The consideration however which we ought to have for those who differ from us, and the principles on which we should regulate our judgment concerning them, and our treatment of them, will form the subject of the next and succeeding lectures ; in the former of which I propose to speak of the cautions requisite to avoid dealing hardly with those who may not be deserving of blame ; and in the latter, of the charity, tempered with discretion, which we are bound to shew towards the culpable. h 2 Chron. xvi. 2, 3. LECTURE IV. ALLOWABLE DIFFERENCE AMONG CHRISTIANS. Rom. xiv. 13. Let us not therefore judge one another any more : but judge this rather, that no man put a stimi- hling-block, or an occasion to fall, in his brother's way. In the passage before us, and likewise in several others, (especially in the first Epistle to the Corinthians,) the Apostle Paul labours most ear- nestly to guard his converts from condemning too hastily or too severely, those who differ from them, in any point which does not call for such harshness and judgment ; — from founding hostile parties on such grounds of difference ; — and LECT. IV.] Allowable Difference, 8fc. 113 from offending and shocking the consciences of their brethren by conduct which may be in itself harmless. "With this view he strongly represents to them the comparative insignificance of many of their causes of dissension ; — their agreement in the essential and fundamental points ; — the diversity, and even inequality, both of the na- tural and of the spiritual gifts, bestowed on different individuals ; — and the forbearance and consideration to which all the members of Christ's Body are entitled from each other. It is proposed then in the present lecture (in pursuance of the design formerly laid down) to offer some remarks on the cautions we should observe in our judgment and treatment of those who really or apparently differ from us, without being at all, or in any high degree, blameable ; that we may avoid the mischiefs arising from unmerited or excessive censure ; — from an over- scrupulous requisition of complete uniformity in all points ; — or from any other want of consi- deration for the allowable differences among Christians. This deficiency of forbearance and of discretion is of course often found in those who have not taken due pains to keep themselves 1 114 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. free from error, in doctrine and practice ; and is in them a heavy aggravation of those errors : but it must be remembered, that the same fault may be committed by such as are themselves correct ; and it will be necessary to proceed on the hypothesis, that this is the case with those to whom these cautions are addressed; because each man must, of course, in his own opinion, possess this advantage ; and since his own sentiments cannot but appear to him the most correct, no one could apply to himself cau- tions which proceeded on the supposition of his being in error. Supposing then our own system of doctrines and maxims to be correct, what are the dangers of our condemning others unfairly ? I. The first and most obvious, and perhaps most common, of these is, the danger of mis- taking their meaning ; — attributing to them such notions and sentiments as they do not really entertain ; — and thus perhaps regarding with bitter hostility those who may not in reality differ from us at all. How common a source of dis- sension this is, seems to be indicated by the use of the word misunderstanding, as applied to LECT. IV.] among Christians. 115 disagreements in general ; as if the ordinary cause of these was, the parties not rightly apprehend- ing each other's meaning. These mistakes then may arise, either from men's misinterpreting the expressions employed by others ; or reasoning from them in a different manner, so as to regard them as leading to conclusions which the others do not admit ; or from their associating in their own minds the sentiments professed, with others with which they have no necessary connexion, but which are supposed always to go along with them, and to be entertained by the same persons. To this last kind of mistake those are espe- cially liable who have accustomed themselves to maintain an entire system or set of opinions and maxims, in the mass, without any separate ex- amination of the merits of each ; and who have associated principally with such as proceed on the same indiscriminate plan, of adopting or re- jecting collectively all the tenets of each party. Such persons naturally calculate on finding a similar disposition in all others ; and if they meet with any one who maintains a single doctrine (in itself perhaps unimportant) which belongs to the system of some suspected party or sect, they I 2 116 Allowable Difference [lrct. iv. at once regard him as holding the entire system, and belonging to the party. And though there may be no natural or necessary connexion be- tween the opinion in question and the rest, — nay though he may expressly disavow them, — still they will often have so indissolubly asso- ciated the two ideas in their own minds, that it will seem to them no less incredible, that any one should hold the one opinion, and not the rest, than if they followed demonstrably from each other. It may be said indeed, and with some degree of truth, that since parties and systems do exist, this mode of judging is allowable ; since there is at least a strong presumption, that he who main- tains one of the characteristic tenets of a sect, belongs to that sect ; and, listening to the same instructors as the rest, has adopted, as men usually do, the same principles with them, throughout. Few accordingly would doubt that a person who held the doctrine, for instance, of works of supererogation, held also that of the corporal-presence ; though there is no natural connexion between the two ; only they are both among the distinguishing tenets of the Romish LECT. IV.] among Christians. 117 Church. But it must be remembered that j^re- sumptions, though they may afiPord more or less strong grounds of suspicion, are not to be con- strued into decisive proofs; they may be suffi- cient perhaps to put a man, as it were, upon his trial; yet not enough to convict him of error. If every coincidence in any point with the senti- ments of a party whom we think erroneous, is at once to authorize the conclusion, that the coincidence extends to all other points likewise, it is evident that we are proceeding on the supposition, not merely that so7ne men adopt opinions in the mass, but that Jione discriminate ; — not only that parties exist, but that every man is to be reckoned among the devoted members of one or another. Such probably were among the uncharitable and rash judgments which Paul so strongly con- demns. Nothing can be more natural than that those among the early converts who observed certain days, and abstained from certain meats, should be censured as Judaizers and heretics ; — their opponents rashly inferring, that they agreed altogether with those who adhered to the cere- monial law, and who, trusting for salvation to the 118 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. works of the Mosaic institution, had, virtually, cast off their faith in Christ. That this however was in some cases an unfounded and unjust in- ference, we have the express authority of the Apostle himself. It were to be wished that we had to search far in ecclesiastical history for instances of similar injustice : but it is to be feared that such take place every day. One perhaps of the most remarkable is to be found in the readiness with which some Arminian di- vines impute a complete adoption of all the tenets of the Calvinistic school, even to those who expressly renounce them, if in their expla- nation of any one doctrine they appear in any degree to take the same view of the subject with Calvin, or with any of his followers. It may be that their views are erroneous : so, as Paul im- plies, were the scrupulous observances of the weak brethren among the Romans and Corin- thians : still, a person's holding one error does not authorize us to impute others to him. It may be that there is a Calvinistic party, who maintain, as such, a complete system of doc- trines, and adhere to them with indiscriminate bigotry : still we have no right to conclude, that LECT. IV.] among Christians. 119 no one who in any respect coincides with them, can be exempt from the full spirit of that party. It may be even that the doctrines in question appear to us to follow logically from the one maintained ; still we have no right to charge with those consequences one who disavows them ; since it surely is but common charity to regard him as inconsistent, rather than wholly errone- ous ; — as a bad reasoner, rather than a heretic. For as it is notoriously common for men to be so inconsistent as not to admit the true conclu- sions which follow from the principles they hold, it is no great stretch of credulity to suppose that they may sometimes be equally inconsistent with respect to false conclusions also. As for the Calvinistic questions themselves, it would be foreign to our present purpose to enter into any discussion of them : but it must be acknowledged, that that want of charity which has been just described is too often to be found on both sides ; and that some Calvinistic divines have been but too ready to attribute to such as do not coincide with their peculiar views, the rejection or neglect of the great doctrine of the atonement, and other essential parts of the 120 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. Gospel-scheme, even when there has been no ground for such a charge, except that such are the notions of the Socinians, who are also among their opponents, and to whose system it is thence presumed, all their opponents must incline. We may indeed point out to any one the danger of the doctrines he maintains, in case others should deduce from them such conclu- sions as appear to us to follow : but even this must be done with great caution. It is indeed, in itself, an allowable mode of arguing against any doctrine, to shew that it necessarily leads, or even may be understood to lead, to absurd and mischievous consequences : and where this can fairly be done, our procedure cannot justly be complained of by our opponent himself ; but it should be remembered that it is not to him alone we are responsible for any evil we may by this means occasion, either to him or to others. We must therefore, in every case, weigh care- fully the practical good and ill effects likely to result, on each side, before we resolve on adopt- ing this mode of confutation. For it will often happen, that men may thus be led actually to adopt and support false doctrines, which originally LECT. IV.] among Christians. 121 they never thought of, when it can be made clear to them that these are inevitable conse- quences of their principles : they may be so bigoted to these, that rather than renounce the premises, they will admit the conclusion ; and thus will have been driven into heresy by im- prudent opposition. Nor is it always enough to say, that this is their own fault ; our culpabihty is not the less, if we have been the occasion of the fault. The Apostle Paul says, " Through thy knowledge shall the weak brother perish, for whom Christ died?" Here it is imphed that he must himself be in fault ; else he could not be doomed to perish ; but does this excul- pate the others ? By no means : " When," says he, " ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak conscience, ye sin against Christ." Let not then the heresies, into which any persons have subsequently fallen, be deemed of itself a sufficient proof that their meaning was not in the first instance mistaken, and that the charges brought against them were not originally unjust*. a There seems good reason for suspecting that this took place in the case of the Arian heresy at its first origin ; and still more, in that of Nestorius. 122 Alloivuhle Difference [lect. iv. And let those who would guard against need- less controversy, and all the other evils of party-spirit, use every precaution against mis- taking, in any way, another's meaning ; and thus running the risk both of judging harshly one who may not deserve it, and of creating the very heresy they impute. Let the most candid and favourable construction possible be put on every profession, till we are compelled to understand it otherwise ; where the case will allow of it, let blame be laid rather on the form of expression, than on the doctrine intended to be conveyed ; let us in each case, endeavour to begin by as- certaining points of agreement, rather than of difference; and lastly, where it is manifest that incorrect notions are entertained, let it always be considered whether they may not be attri- buted rather to weakness of intellect, and inap- titude for accurate statements, than to culpable perversion of the truth. II. For besides the danger of doing injustice to others by imputing to them doctrines which they do not hold, another fault which is to be guarded against, is that of not making due LECT, IV.] among Christians. 123 allowance for our weak brethren. Notions, not so much erroneous, as imperfect and inadequate, and those too, imperfectly and inadequately ex- pressed, must be expected from those of feeble understanding, or of uncultivated mind ; who may nevertheless, for their honest endeavours after improvement in religious knowledge, — their sincere faith, and diligent obedience, — be ac- cepted by Him in whose sight the wisest and ablest are but mere weakness and ignorance. It behoves us therefore to use the utmost care that we confound not intellectual deficiencies with heretical perversity of will ; and that we neither harshly condemn, nor perplex and mislead, those of humbler abilities. Will it be said, that the Christian faith being one, all who are to be saved by it must hold the same ? and that the Gospel being a revelation to all mankind, and especially to the poor and weak, all must be required to take the same view of it ? If by this is meant, that every thing is placed within the reach of each man's capacity that is requisite for his own salvation, this is undoubtedly true, and does not at all invalidate what has been just said. But if it be meant, 124 AUowahle Difference [lECT. IV. that all Christians are on a level in point of intellectual advantages, or that the most acute and most learned can understand no more of the Gospel-scheme, than the dullest and most illi- terate, such a notion is contradicted by Scripture, no less than by common sense and experience. The parable of the talents proves that, in some respects at least, all Christians are not placed on a level; and that though all are bound to im- prove their gifts to the utmost, more will be required of those to whom more is given. And Paul's exhortation to " receive him that is weak in the faith, but not to doubtful disputations," and his repeated and earnest recommendations of forbearance towards weak brethren, as well as his mention of babes in Christ, who must be " fed with milk and not with strong meat," sufficiently prove, if proof be needed, that feeble- ness of understanding, or backwardness in know- ledge, may be expected to make the faith of some more imperfect than that of others ; and that a tender consideration for such infirmities is to be expected from the abler and more advanced Christian. Those indeed whose defect is ignorance, should LECT. IV.] among Christians. 125 be exhorted to learn ; and if they fall short of that right understanding and full comprehension of the Gospel-scheme, which they might have acquired, they may justly be admonished of their fault in contenting themselves with imper- fect, superficial, and inaccurate views, when a more complete and correct faith was within their reach. But still it is neither just nor expedient to confound even this blameable backwardness in religious wisdom, — this slender proficiency, and, as it were, childhood in faith, — with decided rejection of the true faith. It is not only more charitable, but every way more prudent, to treat them as imperfect believers, rather than as obstinate heretics. There is danger, if they are abruptly and severely thus charged, that they may be led, even by what we say, to suppose that to be a distinct mode of faith, which in fact is rather a deficiency of faith ; and may be partly alarmed, partly provoked, and partly flattered, into embodying, maintaining, and propagating, as a peculiar system, what is merely the result of their own slight and inaccurate acquaintance with Scripture. These therefore should rather be commended for whatever they have already 126 Allowable Differmce [lrct. iv. attained of a right faith, and encouraged to proceed further. We should point out and dwell on, our agreement with them, as far as they have gone in laying a right foundation ; and endeavour to build on that the complete super- structure. The Apostle Paul's discourse to the Athenians affords an admirable example of this temperate and judicious procedure^ But with respect to those whose capacity is weak, or who have an inaptitude for expressing themselves with precision and regularity, great care must be used that we neither censure them unfairly, nor unnecessarily alarm and dishearten them, nor perplex them with statements above their comprehension. For in the first place there are some whose faith is by no means itself very deficient, but who (either from nature or education) are utterly incapable of giving any thing approaching to a clear and systematic account of the doctrines they really hold. And besides this, there are also many whose notions b The force of this address is in a great degree lost in our translation, which renders ^uaiccunortaTipov^ by " too super- stitious," instead of " very much addicted to the veneration of divine Beings." LECT. IV.] among Christians. 127 are in themselves very confused, indistinct, and inadequate, compared with those of the more intelligent and better instructed ; and yet these notions, if they are the best they have the power to acquire, — if held in humble and sincere piety, — and if bringing forth the fruits of per- sonal holiness, — may constitute a very sufficient and saving faith to themselves. Such persons may, by rash censures of the incorrectness of their belief, and imprudent requisitions of assent to precise metaphysical statements, suited to a different class of intellects, be brought to believe themselves heretics ; and may thus be either cast into a fatal despondency, or perhaps tempted to enlist under the banner of some heterodox teacher, who holds out to them a more flattering prospect. And let it not be doubted that under such circumstances, very indistinct notions, and a very inadequate statement of them, (though highly culpable in those of better abilities and opportunities,) may be sufficient for these babes in Christ, till, by the patient and gradual in- struction which we are bound to afford, their minds become more enlarged, their mode of 128 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. thinking in some degree regulated, and their capacity for religious knowledge, together with the knowledge itself, progressively increased. How imperfect is the knowledge of a peasant respecting the process of germination in the seed which he sows, — the growth of the plant, — and its fructification! and how confused and imperfect an account would he in general give, even of the little he does understand ! Yet his practical knowledge is sufficient to enable him to prepare the soil for the reception of the seed, to raise the corn to maturity, and to gather in the harvest. How little did the ancient mariners understand of the magnitude, and distance, and motions, of the heavenly bodies! Yet by these they were enabled to steer their course in safety. So also may the word of God be " a lantern to our steps and a light unto our paths," even though we may have but a very imperfect under- standing of the divine dispensations. And as the knowledge of the humblest peasant respect- ing the operations of nature in the vegetable kingdom, bears a greater proportion to that of the ablest philosophers, than theirs does, to a full and perfect understanding of these mysterious LECT. IV.] among Christiaiis. 129 processes ; so also does the religious knowledge of the wisest and most learned, fall much more short, (not only of a perfect understanding of God's dealings, but) even of what he may himself hope to understand in a better world, when he " shall know even as also he is known," than the faith of the humblest behever does, of his. And as the strongest intellect may be bewildered by prying too deeply into the counsels of the most High, and seeking to explain what is, to man, in his present state, inexplicable ; so, per- sons of inferior powers and attainments may be led, not to knowledge, but to error, by hastily proposing to them such statements and explana- tions as surpass their capacity ; though they may be intelligible and instructive to the abler and more advanced. No vain clamours there- fore about deceiving the people, — no groundless charges of keeping the vulgar in ignorance, and preaching a different gospel to different persons, should deter us from following, at once the dic- tates of sound sense, and the example of the Apostle Paul ; or induce us so to perplex and confuse " those who are weak in the faith," as really to incur the blame of deceiving them, K 130 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. for the sake of avoiding the appearance of it. For it should be remembered that, practically speaking, all truth is relative. That which may be to one man a true statement of any doctrine, may be, in effect, false, to another, if it be such as cannot but lead him to form false notions ; and that which gives him, if not a perfectly cor- rect notion of things as they are, yet the nearest to this that he is capable of, may be regarded as, to him, true. Such is the account given in the book of Joshua, of the sun's being made to stand still : had a more correct statement of the fact, according to the Copernican system, been given, it would have been (to those whom it was addressed to) uninteUigible. Thus also, angels may perhaps perceive both deficiencies and misapprehensions in the faith of the wisest of men : and there are, we are told, mysteries, which even " the angels desire to look into." While we endeavour then cautiously and gra- dually to promote the advancement both of our- selves and others, we must beware of hastily taxing with wilful blindness those whose views LRCT. IV.] among Christians. 131 are limited only by the lowness of their position : as they rise in abilities and attainments, the horizon will gradually widen around them, and a larger and larger prospect will be spread before their eyes of the boundless extent of divine wis- dom and perfection. III. But besides those mental differences among Christians which have been now men- tioned, there are others also, which imply no inequality, but which require to be no less care- fully attended to, by those who would judge fairly of all their brethren. Mutual censure, jealousy, or contempt, bringing in their train all the evils of party, will often be engendered in the first instance by contrarieties of natural tem- perament; or varieties of acquired tastes and feelings ; where neither side is deserving of blame, except in not making due allowance for the other. Among the early Christians, and particularly in the Corinthian Church, much dissension and uncharitableness seems to have arisen from a kind of rivalry among those who possessed different supernatural endowments : and accordingly, K 2 132 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. Paul, in his earnest exhortations to concord, finds it necessary to dwell very strongly on arguments which to us at the present day are apt perhaps to appear too obvious to need being insisted on. He remarks, that though there are diversities of gifts, they all proceed from " one and the self-same Spirit, dividing to every one severally as he will ;" — that this diversity is ex- pedient for the welfare of the whole body, in the same manner as the diversity of offices of the different m.embers is to the natural body ; — that they have one supreme head, even Christ, " one faith, one baptism, one hope of their call- ing ;" — and finally, that charity is of more value than all their miraculous gifts together. In these days there are indeed no supernatural gifts ; but there is hardly perhaps less diversity. In natural or habitual tempers and qualifications, men are as different (and as likely to disagree in consequence of that difference) as the Corin- thians. Men differ in mind as much as in form and features ; their intellects vary in kind, pro- bably more than in degrees of excellence ; and their tastes and feehngs, perhaps more still. Some are calm and sedate ; others have strong LECT. IV.] cmong Christians. 133 and lively feelings ; and of these last, some are more inclined to be vehement and impetuous ; others, more tender and gentle ; some again are cheerful and sanguine ; others, grave, serious, and decisive, — others, timorous and melancholy : and in respect of intellectual character also, some are chiefly remarkable as accurate thinkers and clear reasoners, while others possess a more lively and brilliant imagination : with innumer- able other such varieties. Nothing perhaps has ever been written on this subject more satisfactory than Cicero's judi- cious and elegant treatise in the first book of the Offices : in which he describes in a masterly manner several varieties of natural character; remarking, that none of these being intrinsically faulty, each man ought to conform to his own nature, provided he keeps within due bounds, — that the same conduct may be suitable and proper for one individual, which might be unbe- coming, and consequently wrong, for another, under similar circumstances, — and that no one therefore should be found fault with for not coinciding precisely in all points with another, however excellent that other may be. These 134 Allowable Difference [lect. IV. observations are as applicable now as ever : for let it not be supposed that they concern the heathen world only, or are to be applied in the secular affairs alone., of Christians ; and that all Christians, as such, are required to be precisely similar. Our religion was designed to renew indeed and ameliorate, but not to subvert our nature; — to amend mankind in general, — but not to contradict the essential principles of the human character ; — to exalt and purify each individual, — but not to destroy his individuality. Whatever points are faulty indeed, must be cor- rected by our religion, or it will not have done its proper work ; but many differences of taste and temper will still remain, which will give a certain tinge even to the religion itself of each man, — which are nowise hurtful, but may even be rendered serviceable to the general cause, — and which ought no more to be made a source of mutual jealousy and of dissension, than the diversity of spiritual gifts among the early Christians. A remarkable proof of this, if any be needed, is to be found in the differences of style in the writers of the New Testament. If any thing LECT. IV.] among Christians. 135 can be supposed likely to assimilate in the greatest degree, men originally different, it would surely be their being not only devoted to the same great cause, the propagation of the Gospel, but also all of them supernaturally qualified for that w^ork, by the inspiration of the same Spirit : yet it may be questioned whether even any pro- fane writers, who agree in general principles, exhibit in their manner of writing a greater diversity of natural character than these do, in their general cast of sentiments and manner of thinking ; and this, to such a degree as to be still very perceptible even through the disguise of a translation. What man of judgment, well versed in the rest of the New Testament, if we suppose him by some accident to have remained ignorant of some one of Paul's epistles, would be likely, when that epistle should be put before him, to mistake it for one of John's ? yet the same Spirit was at hand to lead into all truth both these writers ; it was one Gospel which was preached by both ; as well as by Peter and the other apostles ; who yet differ in their manner of inculcating the same fundamental doctrines, fVom both those above - mentioned, and from 136 Allowable Difference [lect. iv. each other. Nay, the pecuharities of manner in Peter and John especially, coincide remark- ably with the differences of their respective tempers and dispositions, as depicted in the Gospels, and in the book of Acts. We recognize in the writings of the one Apostle the vehe- mence and forward zeal which characterized him, though the weakness which had formerly blemished his character, was removed : while the epistles of the other breathe that pecuhar spirit of tender and fervent love, together with a remarkable simplicity of character, which are precisely what we should expect from " the be- loved disciple." And in Paul's writings again, we find that singular warmth of feeling, and unconquerable energy, which characterized the conscientious persecutor, though these had re- ceived a new direction from divine inspiration, and were modified in the Apostle by the mild spirit of the Gospel. And if we would seek for yet further proofs of the same point, we may find them in the varieties of style which characterize the different Prophets. In fact, what has been now observed is no LECT. IV.] among Christians. 137 more than one illustration out of many, of the truth of the maxim, that miracles were not wrought unnecessarily. It was requisite for the propagation of the Gospel in its purity, and for the edification of the infant Church, that the holy Spirit should " lead the Apostles into all [the] truth," and should pour out other super- natural gifts on other Christians ; so far there- fore did his influence extend'' : but it was not requisite that all individuahty and distinction of character among Christians should be done away, where these peculiarities had no evil in them ; or that similar spiritual gifts should be bestowed on all. Here therefore the diversity was both permitted and even augmented. This divine work may be compared to that which took place " in the beginning :" " God saw every thing that He had made, and, behold, it was very good;" but all things were not made alike; the variety in the creation is infinite. But as the Christian's life is designed to be a <= These considerations may serve to expose the fallacy of which those are guilty, who, from the appearance of such diversities as have been here mentioned, argue against the inspiration of the sacred writers. 138 Alloivahle Difference [lect. iv. state of discipline, those on whom extraordinary gifts were bestowed, were of course left at liberty either to make a right use of them, or to abuse them in various ways ; and among others, by making them a source of pride, of jealousy, and of party-spirit. The same is the case with all the natural gifts which men now enjoy, and with all the diversities of character which exist among them. Much as we may wonder at the envy, and strife, and mutual prejudice, which existed at Corinth or at Rome, similar injustice is prac- tised every day, in no less a degree. For how common is it for those of an ardent disposition and lively feelings (which temper will of course shew itself in their religion, if they are duly impressed with it) to censure, as cold formalists, destitute of a spiritual mind, and of all true zeal and devotion, those who have not the same fervent and rapturous emotions as their own ; and among these, many, who, though they have a calmer and cooler temperament, and less ex- alted sentiments, yet possess a piety no less sincere, deep-rooted, and practical ; and " love the Lord their God with all their heart," though that heart be not susceptible of such LECT. IV.] among Christians. 139 vivid and intense feeling as another's. These last, on the contrary, are but too apt, while they value themselves on being rational and sober- minded, to brand too hastily the other class, as visionary enthusiasts, and fanatics. Again, some have a peculiarly strong perception of the beauties and sublimities of sentiment and ex- pression in the sacred writings ; and do not merely assent to their infallible truth, but feel their divine character : in their own language too these persons are in general richly figura- tive,— powerful in their exhortations, — and deeply affecting the heart of those whose disposition is like their own : these are often derided as empty, fanciful, and unsound, by calm and close, and severe reasoners, who have but little liveliness of imagination, or sensibility of taste : and who themselves, in turn, are often contemned by the former, as no more than dry scholastic theo- logians, who have nothing of the spirit of the Gospel. Some again shew in religious concerns an active, forward, and sanguine temper: others are more steady, quiet, and cautious in their proceedings : and each are but too prone to 140 Alloivahle Difference [lect. iv. depreciate the others ; the one, as officious and unsafe characters, the other, as hikewarm and destitute of zeal. Similar observations might be made with re- spect to a multitude of such cases, in which, either from nature or education, the temper and turn of mind of one man will materially differ from another's ; though when duly modified and regulated, neither will be in any degree blame- able ; but will rather conduce to the benefit of the whole Body. Nor have any of those whose gifts are different, either in degree or in kind, just cause either to complain, or to boast of their own lot; — to envy, or to disdain their neighbour's ; since all have their respective ad- vantages and trials. Yet are these diversities continually occasioning mutual contempt and jealousy, hostile prejudice, and division. But if (as may be seen in the chapter from which my text is taken) so much tender con- sideration is due even to the infirmities and mistakes of our brethren, how much more must it be unchristian to deal hardly with them, where there is in fact no infirmity nor fault of any LECT. IV.] among Christians. 141 kind, but merely a difference of taste, temper, or mode of thinking! And since such differ- ences must always exist, what a fruitful source of dissension and party-animosity must that kind of uncharitableness be, which makes no allow- ance for such differences ! All these peculiarities indeed are liable to run into excess ; but this is the case also with the common and universal tendencies of human na- ture ; which nevertheless, when duly moderated, are not mischievous, but beneficial. It should therefore be our care, if we would deal candidly with all, and repress every ten- dency to party-spirit, to guard against these excesses in ourselves, instead of merely cen- suring them in others of an opposite character. The extreme of a disposition totally unlike our own, we can detect without any extraordinary acuteness or watchfulness ; but that is not what most concerns ourselves; to watch our own peculiar propensities", — to guard against our own besetting sins, — is both the hardest task, and, to ourselves, incomparably the most important. It is however one besetting sin of men, of See Aristotle, Eth. Nicom. b. ii. 142 Allowable Difference, Sfc. [lect. iv. almost all dispositions, not to make sufficient allowance for each other; and to be too ready- to conclude, when satisfied that they them- selves are right, that all who, in any respect, differ from them, must be wrong. Had due caution against this want of charity, and narrow- minded self-estimation, been employed, on both sides, at the times when each schism in the Church was arising, most of them probably would have withered in the bud ; had it been employed on either side, many of them perhaps would have been speedily suppressed ; and at any rate, the party which practised such mode- ration, would have kept itself free in the sight of God from the sin of uncharitable bigotry. If we deal with others as we should wish them to deal with us, we shall be using the most likely means indeed to produce a similar conduct in them ; but whether we succeed or fail in our endeavours after harmony and mutual charity, we shall be approved in his sight whose precepts we are fulfilling ; who has promised, that if we " judge not, we shall not be judged ;" and who bestows on the peace-makers, the blessing of being called his children. LECTURE V. CHRISTIAN CONDUCT TOWARDS OPPONENTS. 2 Tim. ii. 24, 25. The servant of the Lord must not strive; hut he gentle unto all men, apt to teach, patient, in meekness instructing those that oppose them- selves ; if God peradventure will give them re- pentance to the acknowledging of the truth. After pointing out the advantages of that prin- ciple of our nature which combines and holds together those whose sentiments and proposed objects are the same, and also its perversions and abuses, it naturally followed, to offer some remarks as to the manner in which this principle should be regulated, and those abuses prevented. 144 Christian Conduct [lect. v. With this view, some cautions were proposed, first as to the discipUne and regulation of our own temper, generally, and without any parti- cular reference to the persons who might stand opposed to us : the principles which ought to guide us in our judgment and treatment of others, being reserved for a distinct considera- tion. And it seemed natural to distribute into two classes all who might, really or apparently, be at variance with us ; and to consider first the requisite cautions for guarding against a harsh judgment or injudicious treatment of persons, either not at all, or in no high degree culpable; — whose difference from ourselves might be either not real, or not blameable, or unimportant ; (which was the object of the last discourse ;) treating afterwards (as is proposed at present) of the conduct to be observed towards those whom we cannot but conclude to be essentially erroneous. In treating of this subject, it will not be necessary for the purpose now in hand to be- stow a separate consideration on the two evils of Heresy and Schism ; which, though in them- selves distinct, are usually found together, — LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 145 have a natural tendency mutually to generate each other, — and are each of them, for the most part, the more readily cured after the removal of the other. Both are faults ; and the remarks which I am about to offer will apply alike to both. To determine however what errors are to be regarded as essential, and to adduce arguments in confutation of them, would be foreign to the plan originally laid down ; which was to point out and guard against the faults of the orthodox, rather than of the heterodox, and to suggest proper cautions against that most frequent self- delusion, which persuades men, that since their own creed is correct, and the opposite party are in the wrong, they themselves must be irre- proachable. The Apostle Paul plainly shews, by his earnest and repeated admonitions both in the epistle now before us, and in many others, that, though far removed from that latitudinarian liberality of sentiment which regards all modes of faith with indifference, and though as zealous for the purity as for the propagation of the Gospel, yet he was fully sensible what disgrace and detriment to the good cause was likely to L 146 Christian Conduct [lect. v. result, from the injudicious conduct, or un- christian violence, of its supporters. He warns both Timothy and his other converts, that heresies and schisms must be expected to arise in the Christian Church ; — that these were among the trials by which it has pleased God that man should be exercised and disciplined here below ; — and that we are to guard against the danger, not only of adopting false doctrines, but also of falling short of the requisite discretion and charity, in defending the truth : he expands, in short, and enforces the admonition of our Lord, that his followers being " sent forth as sheep among wolves," (which in a greater or less degree must ever be the case, as long as his sincere disciples have any concern with those who are not such,) it is requisite for them to be " wise as serpents and harmless as doves." While therefore they are firm in adhering to the truth, they must be careful not to impede its progress by maintaining it indiscreetly; — and while they guard against the danger of sacri- ficing any part of their faith for the sake of conciliation, they must nevertheless " be gentle unto all men, apt to teach, and patient." LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 147 It is indeed most necessary for every one who would do good service to the cause of true reU- gion, that he should not only be acquainted with the doctrines of the Gospel, but also with the nature of Man ; — that he should be watchful, not only to keep his own faith pure, but also to win over others, by the most patient and well- timed, and conciliatory instruction ; — and should be fully aware, not only of the faults he is to guard against in himself, but also of those which he must expect to meet with in his opponents. Whoever understands human nature, will be prepared to find in many men, not only erro- neous opinions, but other faults also, indepen- dent of those errors ; and must shape his own conduct accordingly. Such are those excesses which have been described in the foregoing dis- courses ; and which are not essentially connected either with a right or a wrong faith, but will occasionally be met with in all men. We must calculate on finding in our oppo- nents. Party-spirit, in all its various degrees and modes of deformity ; and without withholding our reprobation from the principle itself, or neglecting to counteract it, we must make all L 2 148 Christian Conduct [lect. v. charitable allowance for an infirmity so natural, and from which many of those whose faith is right are so far from being exempt. Bitter Re- sentment of opposition must also be looked for ; especially from those who have been opposed with bitterness ; however just the condemnation of their tenets. We must expect too to en- counter that Pride which will not endure the appearance of concession : and, in the adroit and practised disputant, that love of Controversy, which keeps up a debate for the sake of display- ing argumentative skill, and aims more at vic- tory than at truth. All these faults, which we are now considering how to encounter in our opponents, have been already noticed, with a view to the cautions requisite for avoiding them in ourselves ; and it cannot be too strongly im- pressed on our minds, that since they all tend to engender the like faults on the opposite side, those who are themselves the most guilty of them, and the most ready to tolerate or en- courage them in their own party, will usually meet with the most of them in their adversaries; — and that consequently, to cultivate candour, gentleness, modesty, and aversion to controversy, LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 149 in ourselves, and in those cooperating with us, is the most likely way to lead " those that oppose themselves," to do the same. It may be desirable however to lay down some additional cautions with a view to each of these points, separately, for regulating in the best manner our treatment of those in error : it being often useful to distri- bute the remarks that are to be made, under different heads, even where these are (as in the present instance) so closely connected, as not to admit of any very nice distinction between the observations brought forward under each. I. First then, with regard to the spirit of party, which may exist, or may be likely to arise, in our opponents ; we must bear in mind, that it is in general much easier to break and dis- perse a hostile body than to overxvhelm it. A common pressure may rather tend to conso- lidate the mass, which might have been shat- tered by well-directed blows. Men may even be driven to make common cause with those from whom they materially differ in many points, for the sake of repelling a common attack. And, as was formerly remarked, persons not destitute of good sense have often been led, in 150 Christian Conduct [lect. v. the eagerness of a contest, to embrace such erroneous notions of their party, as they would have rejected, if singly proposed to their un- biassed judgment, but which they adopt without examination, when regarded as parts of a system which they have pledged themselves to uphold. If therefore we are always forward to class together, and oppose collectively, all who appear to us to coincide in the objects they propose and the errors they maintain, and if we always take for granted as a matter of course, and im- pute to them this coincidence, we shall in fact be fostering that spirit of party which is but too apt to spring up spontaneously, and which is so powerful an aid to the cause of falsehood. On the other hand, the more we avoid (where it can be avoided) distinctly recognizing the existence of a party, and enroUing among its members all who in our judgment may be suspected of pro- perly belonging to it, the less firmly and heartily united, and the less numerous, shall we find that party. When, in short, we have to contend both against heretical doctrine and party-spirit, each affording strength to the other, the wisest way will be to combat these two evils separately; — LECT. V.J towards Opponents. 151 first to endeavour by all fair means to dissolve or weaken the union of those who are banded together against the truth; and thus to assail error on more fair terms, unsupported by ex- trinsic aids. And not only should that fault be guarded against, which was mentioned in the last discourse, of falsely attributing to any one an entire adoption of all the tenets of a party, from his 'partial coincidence with it, but we should not even be over-ready to point out such coincidences in error as really exist ; but rather draw the attention of our opponents to the dis- crepancies existing among themselves ; and mark out the variety of the devious paths into which those have strayed, yA^o have once wan- dered from the truth. It is neither wise nor just to allow those who differ considerably from each other in their erroneous tenets, to derive mutual support and encouragement in those errors from supposing their mutual coincidence in doctrine to be greater than it is. And even in those points wherein they do coincide, as we cannot be bound in duty to dwell upon that coincidence, (since it is even more fair that each opinion should stand on its own merits, and be 152 Christian Conduct [lect. v. tried, independently, by the tests of reason and Scripture) so, neither will it be expedient, in many cases, thus to class together the advocates of an error. For it is not, in general, a likely mode of inducing any one to renounce an opi- nion, to tell him that it is held by many besides himself; or that it is supported by ancient au- thority ; even of such as were in their time accounted heretical. If indeed an appeal be made to that authority, it will then be requisite to shew that it is not such as ought to be relied on : or again, if our opponent be of a candid and modest temper, he may be led to reconsider, and ultimately to renounce his tenets, if it be proved to him that they have been before broached, and were then condemned by the main Body of Christians. All I am contending for is, that this procedure should not be adopted universally and indiscriminately. Those who are to a certain degree infected with the passion for novelty, yet have not sufficient boldness to be satisfied with standing perfectly alone, will often be more en- couraged by the authority of a considerable sect, than overawed by the censure of the majority. And moreover, if we explain to any one that he LECT. v.] towards Opjmnents. 153 is in fact an Arian, a Sabellian, or a Socinian, besides that it will be, in some cases, doubtful whether he is not more likely to be confirmed than shaken in his opinions, there is danger also that he may hereafter be led to advance a step farther, and adopt the entire system of those who furnish him with this confirmation. As a general rule then, let each false doctrine, and each individual promulgator of it, (when a proper occasion offers,) be opposed separately; but let not the orthodox lend their aid to the combining of errors into a system, and of here- tics, into a sect. It will generally (where prac- ticable) be found the wisest (as it is for the most part the fairest) plan, to attribute, as far as possible, each erroneous notion that is main- tained, to the individual, who may chance, on each occasion, to be its advocate, rather than to his party ; that he may not be led, by us at least, to derive support to his opinions from the authority of others ; and that they may not feel themselves called upon to regard him as their champion, and to rally in support of a common cause. As long as we make no sacrifice of the truth, nor suffer any heterodoxy to prevail 154 Christian Conduct [lect. v. unrefuted, we need not fear that any one will escape censure who deserves it. It is prudent however, as well as charitable, to urge even this censure no further than is un- avoidable, and to endeavour (where we honestly can) to mitigate the spirit of party in our oppo- nents, by extenuating rather than aggravating the differences between us; which in fact may often be (even when real and essential) yet not so great, as they might be represented. We should not lengthen the distance they have to retrace in order to regain the right path. And not only should the caution be observed which was formerly mentioned, of not too hastily charging any one with such consequences of his doctrines as he distinctly disclaims, but it will often be both the wisest and the fairest procedure, not even to wait for that disclaimer, but to take for granted, where the contrary is not distinctly avowed, that he cannot intend to admit such and such absurd conclusions, which would seem to follow from his principles ; erro- neous as he may be, in maintaining those prin- ciples. In a dispute, for instance, with one whose doctrines may seem decidedly antinomian. LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 155 it would be wise to ask him, plainly, but in such a manner as to vindicate our full expectation of an answer in the negative, whether he can really beUeve that a life of abandoned profligacy is becoming a Christian, or can be persevered in without danger to his eternal welfare ; adding, that though his expressions seem to lead to no less, yet it is probable they are so understood by himself as not to imply that inference ; and that if he holds it to be false and dangerous, he ought to be cautious not to employ such lan- guage as may lead others to it. Again, to the defender of transubstantiation, we might say, " Your account of this Sacrament appears to me fundamentally erroneous ; but I cannot con- ceive any right-minded person to hold, that the observance of this ordinance is in any way beneficial to hardened sinners, who have no purpose of amending their lives, and whose thoughts are not even at the moment engaged in what they are doing, — that it is desirable for such men, so disposed, to partake of the Lord's supper, — or that they can receive the body and blood of Christ to their souls' health. If indeed you will distinctly avow such conclusions. 156 Christian Conduct [lect. v. you must stand chargeable with the conse- quences ; but if not, you ought to be very careful to protest against them, and to qualify the state- ment of a doctrine which may appear to lead to them." By this procedure, men may often be led, heartily to abjure the mischievous conclusions which are not forced upon them ; and may in time perhaps relinquish the principles also which they shall perceive to have this pernicious ten- dency ; or at least will be induced so to modify and explain them as to render their errors com- paratively harmless, even though they continue to adhere to them. And it is surely better that they should be inconsistently right, than con- sistently wrong ; and that their hostility to truth should be mitigated, where it cannot be extin- guished. II. With regard to the bitterness and fierce resentment, which are sometimes to be encoun- tered, and always to be apprehended, we must remember that nothing so much tends to excite and aggravate them as the like temper in our- selves; and that consequently it is no less pohtic LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 157 than Christian-like, — no less suitable to the wisdom of the serpent, than the harmlessness of the dove, — to imitate the example of our great Master, " who, when he was reviled, reviled not again ;" and to obey the Apostle Paul's precept, of being " gentle and patient with all men." Not that we should bestow no censure on wilful blindness to the truth, or intentional sophistry and misrepresentation : but, as we are bound by the law of that charity " which thinketh no evil" to avoid imputing these faults, where a milder interpretation is admissible, so, where we are compelled to pass a severer censure, it is still requisite to preserve a dignified mildness even in rebuke ; and, without undervaluing the importance of a right faith, to shew a tenderness for the persons even of those whose faults we condemn ; remembering that " while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us and that we hope to obtain mercy only on condition of being merciful. " If any man (says Paul%) obey not our word by this epistle, note that man, and have no company with him, that he may be ashamed : yet count him not as an enemy, but * 2 Thess. iii. 14. 158 Christian Conduct [lect. v. admonish him as a brother." Above all, let no j)ersonal resentment be admitted; nor let the indignant feelings of wounded pride for personal affronts, and the desire of taking vengeance for them by triumphant sarcasm, be disguised in the specious garb of zeal for God's honour. Many, I fear, are apt to deceive themselves, by con- sidering as a laudable zeal for the glory of God, what is, in fact, zeal for their own credit. Nor must the example of our Lord and the Apostles, in their decided, severe, and unqua- Hfied condemnation of some offenders, be more closely imitated than the similarity of the cases will warrant. Those only whose judgment is i7ifallihle, and whose insight into the human heart is supernatural, are authorized to pro- nounce without reserve or hesitation on the errors, and on the motives, of an opponent. And whenever unchristian wrath, malignant satire, and bitter revihng, have been employed against those at variance with us, he is the most judicious advocate of true rehgion, as well as the best exemphfier of its spirit, who is the first to condemn such conduct in his own party. He will thus, both remove the prejudice likely to LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 159 arise against doctrines which have been enforced with intemperate violence ; and, by pacifying as far as possible those whom that violence has provoked into resentful obstinacy, may lead them to examine their own tenets calmly, — to weigh the arguments on both sides, — and to renounce the errors with which they are no longer harshly reproached. To this end, we should not only avoid and condemn all bitterness of invective, but also take every fit opportunity to express friendly feelings, and use mild and conciliatory language, towards our adversaries ; giving them credit, where we can with justice, for sincere zeal in the cause of what they regard as the truth, though it be a " zeal not according to know- ledge ;" and manifesting, not scorn and hatred, and insolent exultation, but regret for their errors, and anxiety (on their own account) for their correction. Care must be taken however not to testify such compassion for the erroneous as savours too much of contempt; lest mortified pride should harden them against conviction, even more than their resentment of a harsher rebuke. 160 Christian Conduct [lect. v. For pride is one of the most powerful obstacles to a conversion from error, and one whose adverse influence we must be ever watchful to counteract. Will it be said, that those who indulge this feeling have only themselves to blame ? and that if they do not with humility seek for truth, they do not deserve to attain it ? What, alas ! would be the fate of the best of us, if no more favour were shewn him than he justly deserved ? Who will dare to say, that his own inquiries after truth have always been as dihgent, as candid, and as humble, as they could possibly have been ; and that he is ready to be tried before God's tribunal on his own merits ? Those persons indeed who are too proud to receive the truth when enforced in an arrogant style, and are ashamed to renounce errors with which they have been contemptuously taunted, — such persons, I say, — have, themselves, perhaps no right to lay blame on us : but will not He justly condemn us who " endured such contradiction of sinners against Himself," — who so patiently laboured to convert the arrogant and self-sufficient from their errors, — and who sent his apostles to LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 161 preach remission of sins, even to those who had crucified their Master ? May not He fairly ex- pect that we should bear with the frowardness of our brethren^ for his sake, who, faultless himself, deigned to set us an example of humility, long- suffering, and unwearied benevolence ? It is not indeed requisite, nor would it be justifiable, to sanction and encourage the faults of any one. We are not called upon to approve or to foster the pride of our opponents. But we are far from doing this, when we are merely using precautions not to offend and provoke it : on the contrary, such forbearance has an obvious tendency to allay it. The less the wound is chafed, the more likely it is to heal. With this view, not only should a scornful deportment towards our opponents be avoided, but all opportunities should be taken of testi- fying our assent to whatever may be right in their tenets, and our respect for whatever is laudable in their characters. And full allowance should be made for the magnitude of the dif- ficulties on which they may have stumbled, and the strength of the arguments which may have contributed to mislead them. In no case more M 162 Christian Conduct [lect. v. clearly than in this, do expediency and justice coincide \ For since, in matters not admitting of demonstration, not only apparent, but real probabiKties may exist, — not only specious, but valid arguments may be adduced, — on opposite sides, — and since even unanswerable objections may be brought against conclusions, which are nevertheless true, and which are to be esta- blished by the preponderance of evidence, — it is plainly both equitable and prudent, to admit the full force of an adversary's reasons ; without which indeed it is impossible satisfactorily to answer them. To treat his arguments as frivo- lous and childish, and his conclusions as palpable absurdities, will be more likely to pique his pride in defending them, than to open his ears to conviction. Men are usually more ashamed to acknowledge and renounce an alleged absurdity, than to maintain it ; especially when they think (as is usually the case) that something plausible may be urged in its defence. The by-stander too will often be prejudiced against the cause of those who shall appear to have triumphed too Elements of Rhetoric, Part I. ch. iii. § 7. LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 163 insolently, and too hastily ; and will be led, from perceiving that the absurdity has been over- stated, to overlook it altogether. It should also be remembered, that since men are usually no less jealous of names than of things, and their pride revolts at formal con- cessions, and at distinct acknowledgments of error, it is wise as well as charitable to shew some indulgence towards this infirmity ; by sometimes leading them obliquely, as it were, to the admission of the truth ; — by allowing them to explain as they will (where they manifest a disposition to concede) their own expressions, even though these may not be in themselves the most correct; — and by not insisting, when the substance of the truth is secured, on their adopting, in every case, that form of stating it at which they have taken offence. If we would hope for such forbearance towards our own frail- ties as may not be inconsistent with justice, we must not deny the same to our erring brethren. But when we see the members of any Church or Body of men, coming forward to modify and soften down some objectionable tenets, or vir- tually to abandon some of the worst practices M 2 164 Christian Conduct [lect. v. that have prevailed among them, — as, for in- stance, the denial of education to the poor, — and when we find them met by bitterly triumphant reproaches for inconsistency, we cannot but perceive that the desire of victory is predomi- nating over the love of truth ; and that the ob- ject really nearest the heart of the self-deceived controversialist, is not so much to diminish the empire of error, as to compel the adverse party, either, for consistency's sake, to adhere to their errors against their conviction, or else, to humble themselves before an exulting antagonist, and confess themselves vanquished. There is per- haps no one cause that contributes more to harden men in error and in misconduct of any kind than the dread, that a confession of having been wrong, will be met by humiliating exultation. III. Lastly, we must be prepared to meet with in those opposed to us that fondness for disputation, and that controversial ardour, which are so common among men of all opinions : and much judgment and vigilance will be requisite both in preventing or mitigating its excesses, and in guarding against the evil effects of it : in LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 165 guarding, I mean, against the advantage which may be taken of incautious neghgence, by a keen, practised, and unfair disputant, who is more eager for victory than for truth. We must in short not only strive to repress, both in our- selves and others, a disputatious spirit, but also (since, after all, we cannot hope that it will ever altogether cease to exist) we must be careful not to expose ourselves rashly to its assaults. If one who is ill-informed and unskilful, presume to step forth as a champion of his faith, against able and learned adversaries, on points where that ability and learning are likely to avail ; — or if he who is well versed in one department of knowledge, will venture to engage in discussions of other matters, with which he is unacquainted, — if he will quit his own proper post, as it were, to repel attacks on another quarter, — it is not the goodness of his cause that will secure him from an overthrow, which may do discredit to that cause itself. But besides this, the ablest advocate of truth must remember, that if he is himself candid, singlehearted, and anxious only for fair investigation, he must not calculate on always finding his opponents the same ; nor 166 Christian Conduct [lect. v. must, in honest and unsuspecting frankness, lay himself open to the arts of sophistry and mis- representation. He should in fact endeavour to be an adept in all the wiles and fallacies of controversy; not in order to practise, but to guard against, and, where needful, to detect and expose them.'' One of the commonest arts of those engaged in the defence of error, is to represent their opponents as maintaining the opposite error. And this is the easier, because in fact it will often happen, that it shall be no misrepresentation ; nothing being more common than for an eager disputant to overstate his own doctrine in his zeal against that which he is combating ; and thus unconsciously to be hurried by his own impetuosity into the contrary extreme This danger is of course to be carefully shunned ; but even the appearance of it is also to be guarded against: not only lest our opponents should avail themselves of that appearance, to obtain Elements of Logic. " Fallacies." '1 The Arian heresy appears to have in this manner origi- nated in a rash and intemperate opposition to the Sabellian. LECT. V,] toivards Opponents. 167 an unfair advantage over us, but also lest others should be led by our incautious language, into errors from which we are ourselves exempt. The charges brought by many Socinians against their opponents, of being Tritheists, and Antinomians, — and by Romanists, against theirs, of denying all divine authority to the Church, are among the numberless instances of the readiness of controversialists to resort to this mode of attack. And however groundless in any instance such a charge may be, much blame will still attach to those who heedlessly lay themselves open to it, and are not constantly watchful " to abstain from all appearance of evil," We cannot indeed exercise too sedulous a vigilance on this point, on account of the con- stant liability of all men, when warmly engaged in controversy, to lose sight for the moment of every thing except the matter in debate, — to think of nothing but of proving their present point, — and to resort to every means of accom- phshing the purpose they have in hand ; regard- less of the future mischiefs that may arise, in a different quarter, from the errors to which they may have unconsciously been giving countenance. 168 Christian Conduct [lect. v. They seem to be violating the command given to the Israehtes, in their sieges, not to cut down trees which afford food for man, to con- struct their warhke engines ; but to keep sacred from the ravages of war, what would be useful in the future days of peace ^ The imprudent controversialist will often suggest fresh doubts, on points not necessarily connected with that in dispute, which will per- plex, and perhaps ultimately drive into heresies of some other kind, men whose notions on those points had been originally, though not perhaps very distinct, yet not materially erroneous ; they will be startled perhaps at having a new view of some doctrine presented to them, by his incau- tious expressions ; — something which is stated or implied, incidentally in the course of his argument, which is to them paradoxical and offensive, and against which they raise objections. Thus new adversaries assail him from different quarters ; — advantage is taken of his inadver- tencies, not only by his original opponents, but by all who, from weakness, are disposed to e Deut. XX. 19. LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 169 misunderstand, or, from unfair prejudice, to misrepresent him ; — and thus heresies are in- definitely multiplied, like the prolific heads of the fabulous hydra, by the unskilful attempt to destroy the first. Not only however must we provide against the arts of controversy, and the mischiefs which may arise in the course of it, but the disputa- tious spirit itself must also be, as far as possible, checked and counteracted ; which may in no small degree be accomplished by judicious care. 1. The first point is to set a good example ; that is, to make it plain that we have not our- selves any delight in controversy ; but regard it as always an evil in itself, though sometimes a necessary evil. On this principle such errors as are either of small importance, or not likely to spread, either from their palpable absurdity, or from their having nothing inviting about them that will engage the passions of men in their support, or from the insignificance of their promulgators, it is better to leave unnoticed, than to raise a controversy about them. Many obscure here- sies are mentioned by ecclesiastical historians. 170 Christian Conduct [lect. v. (besides probably many others that escaped their attention) which died away of themselves, from being passed by with silent contempt ; and many others also might perhaps as readily have be- come extinct, had they not been fanned into a flame by ill-judged opposition. Pubhc attention is drawn to that which is made matter of public debate. Mankind are so formed as to take an interest in every kind of contest, however indif- ferent they may originally have been, as to the subject of it ; though the subject will subse- quently derive importance in their eyes from the contest itself. They are naturally led too, to conclude that there must be considerable weight in that which is very strenuously opposed ; ■ — that it must be a formidable adversary, against whom formidable preparations are made. And those who are fond of controversy, seize the opportunity of displaying their skill, and enter the lists on one side or the other : too often led by the desire of giving better proof of their abihties, to embrace the more paradoxical^. And when heresies, which, if disregarded, might have See Preface to Essays, Second Series. LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 171 sunk into speedy oblivion, have been thus mag- nified into serious evils, the opposers of them appeal to the magnitude of those evils, to prove that their opposition was called for : like unskil- ful physicians, who, when by violent remedies, they have aggravated a trifling disease into a dangerous one, urge the violence of the symp- toms M'hich they have themselves produced, in justification of their practice. I am well aware indeed that those who dehght in a contest will be ever ready to reproach such as are averse to taking up arms, with being in the interest of the enemy, — to regard as tainted with error every one who, on any occasion, thinks it not advisable to combat it : but he who sincerely " labours for peace," must prepare himself to endure the censure of those who are ever eager to " make them ready to battle." It is not meant to be insinuated, that we are to regard with uniform unconcern the encroach- ments of false doctrines : in fact, the very caution against noticing insignificant heresies and those unlikely to spread, implies, (according to the well known maxim, that an exception proves a rule) that against such as are important, and threaten 172 Christian Conduct [lect. v. to prevail, those should step forth, as champions of the true faith, who are qualified for the task. It is impossible indeed to mark out by any precise rules, what errors, in each conjuncture of circumstances, ought to be combated, and what, disregarded. That must be left to the discretion of each individual. Only let it be remembered, that the exercise of that discretion is called for, not only to decide whether any doctrine is false, and intrinsically dangerous, but also whether more evil is hkely to arise, in each instance, from attacking or from neglecting it. 2. It may be said indeed, and with truth, that not only is controversy on many occasions un- avoidable, but also, that whoever is engaged in inculcating truth, is virtually, at the same time, opposing error ; — that to abstain ordinarily from all mention of any point, except those which are never controverted, would be to abandon all the essential doctrines of our religion — and that con- sequently we cannot abstain from combating heresy, unless we abstain from preaching the Gospel. All this is undeniably just, as far as regards the matter of our discussions ; but the manner of them is a point of great importance LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 173 also ; and it is to that, that I am at present inviting your attention. For, by controversy, or disputation, is commonly understood, not every course of argument whose conclusion has ever been denied, but that v^^hich has the manner and tojie of opposition ; — which is brought forward with the air of an advocate, rather than of a teacher, — and seems designed rather to silence an adversary than to convince and enlighten an unbiassed hearer^. Now it is too commonly the case with those who have been much accus- tomed to polemical writing, that every thing they say savours of this spirit of opposition ; they seem always to be arguing against some adver- sary ; and even their instructions are deHvered rather in a controversial than a didactic form. This fault it is the more important to guard against, because nothing is so likely to generate opposition as the appearance of thus expecting and challenging it. But besides this, it is desirable, even when opposition has been raised, still, as far as is prac- ticable and safe, to adhere to the didactic style g Elements of Rhetoric, Part I. ch. iii. § 1. 174 Christian Conduct [lect. v. of reasoning, rather than the polemical ; ac- cording to the precept of Paul, which directs the minister of the Lord " not to strive, but in meekness to instruct those that oppose them- selves." The method of instruction (by con- veying an implied and incidental rather than a direct opposition to the contrary doctrines, while at the same time it suppresses no part of the truth,) is calculated not only to avoid the unnecessary aggravation of hostile feelings, but also to gain a more favourable hearing for the truth : whereas it gives something of a para- doxical air to any doctrine, to put forward very prominently the circumstance of its being a dis- putable point. In fact, the very argument itself which is urged, that in teaching the truth, we are of necessity, virtually, combating falsehood, will alone prove the sufficiency of the method now recommended. If we are but careful to keep back nothing of " the whole counsel of God," we need not fear that error should flourish uncorrected. To those who are sincerely desirous of com- plying with the Apostle Paul's precept, and will habitually direct their attention to it, there will LECT. v.] towards Opponents. 175 be no great difficulty in adhering, as far as the case will allow, to this instructive style, which appears rather " ready to teach" than to contend, A few cautions however I will briefly advert to in conclusion, not as pretending to any novelty, but as being highly important, and very frequently overlooked. 3. Let it be remembered then, that, instead of turning aside to reply to every cavil, or to notice, in the first instance, even every fair objection, that may be brought forward, it is wiser to begin at least, in each instance, by distinctly explaining our own tenets, and giving such reasons for them as will refute the opposite conclusions in the very process of establishing our own. And when we do find it necessary at all to notice the contrary doctrines, then, to make it our first business to examine the whole system adopted by our opponents, and the consequences it leads to ; and to shew how strong are the objections which Me against it ; instead of combating it in detail, and merely seeking flaws in this or that particular argument : to act, in short, (for the most part) principally on the offensive; and since great difficulties (as has been already 176 Christian Conduct [lect. v. observed) may lie against each of the opposite conclusions, not to undertake to remove every one that may be urged against our own, but to consider which side labours under the greatest. Such a procedure is so far from being (as some might, at first sight, suppose) at variance wdth the plan above recommended, of avoiding controversy as much as possible, that it is in fact a natural result of it. It is surely no incon- sistency, that they who are averse to war, should, when it is absolutely unavoidable, prefer acting on the offensive, and carrying on their attacks with vigour, that they may the sooner accom- plish their object. But moreover, the method I have been recommending is in fact the least polemical in form, that could be adopted. To be exclusively occupied in repelling and adducing objections, tends to prolong indefinitely a con- test, in which neither of the disputants will be ready to acknowledge his inferiority; and has besides an immediate reference only to the oppo- nent and the controversy, as such, rather than to the establishment of the truth ; since our refuta- tion of an antagonist's reasoning does not, of LECT. v.] towards Opponents. Yll itself, prove that his conclusions are not true*". Whereas if we direct our main attack against those conclusions themselves, at the same time shewing strong reasons in support of our own, the pride of the disputant will not be so much mortified, and he will be more likely to acquiesce in the truth, when he is thus " in meekness instructed." 4. It should also be remembered, that as, in the case of legal punishments, some are designed to reclaim the offender, and some, merely to deter others by his example ; so, in our oppo- sition to heresies and schisms, the object is sometimes to convert and recall the erroneous, and sometimes to warn others against being seduced by them ; and that a somewhat different mode of procedure should be adopted, according to the object proposed. To point out the ab- surdities and the mischiefs, to which any error naturally leads, is the more likely way to deter men from falling into it: but to trace up the mistake to its origin, — to explain the difficulties and clear up the misconceptions, which first •> Elements of Rhetoric, Part I. ch. iii. § 7. 178 Christian Conduct [lect. v. gave rise to it, will generally be the more effi- cacious method of reclaiming those already in- fected. Which procedure is in each case to be adopted, must be decided according to the cir- cumstances of that case : but that this decision may be made, not at random, but by deliberate judgment, it is useful to keep in mind the dis- tinction which has been mentioned. After all however, we must still expect often to meet with such obstinate heresies and schisms, as no combination of zeal with wisdom and gentleness can subdue. Often shall we have the severer mortification of seeing them fostered and aggravated by the injudicious violence of those who are on our side. And sometimes, doubts may suggest themselves to an individual, whether the good effects of his own prudence and moderation, may not be entirely frustrated by the misconduct of others. But such regrets and such doubts can bring but a transient pang to the breast of him whose hopes are firmly anchored on the rock of divine providence. While he is doing that, which, if all men did it, would cause " truth to flourish out of the earth, and righteousness to LECT. v.] toivards Opponents. 179 look down from heaven," he will feel assured, that, for himself at least, his " labour is not in vain." He will rest satisfied that, whether his own efforts are successful or not, God's pur- poses will be fulfilled, when his unerring wisdom shall see fit : and while thus fighting under the banner of Christ, yet with humble resignation trusting the event to providence, he will be enabled to say with pious confidence, not only "thy kingdom come," but also, "thy will be done." N 2 LECTURE VI. FOOLISH AND UNLEARNED QUESTIONS AVOID. 2 Tim. ii. 23. Foolish and unlearned questions avoid, knowing that they do gender strife. In the text which was selected for the last lecture, Paul seems to have had in view the manner of a Christian Minister's discourses ; and in the one now before us, (which immediately precedes it) the matter of them. On each of these points there are cautions required, in order to afford useful instruction, and to avoid strife. And as in teaching and maintaining the great doctrines of our faith, care must be taken to avoid indiscreet violence, so also with respect LECT. VI.] Foolish Questions avoid. 181 to the points themselves in discussion, there is no less exercise of discretion, in selecting such as are proper to be treated of, and avoiding those which lead to unnecessary controversy. Novif since the object proposed in these discourses was to suggest such rules as might be useful in guarding against the evils of party- spirit, and in preserving the peace of our Church, as far as that is possible without sacri- ficing its doctrines ; — and since in every question that may arise that is likely to lead to controversy, or to generate party, there are three points to which our attention should be directed, — first our own temper, or that of our coadjutors, — secondly those really or seemingly at variance with us, whether culpable or not, — and lastly, the matters themselves which are the subjects of discussion, it seemed natural to distribute under these heads, the cautions to be suggested. And though the classes thus con- stituted are not in themselves so distinct as to preclude the possibility of their occasionally encroaching on one another, so that some of the observations referred to one head, must frequently, in some measure, anticipate what 182 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. is to be said on another, it is nevertheless a convenient aid to the memory to treat of them separately ; in order that our judgment, in each individual case that occurs, (which after all must depend on a multitude of nice considera- tions) may be aided by some sort of method, that shall enable us the more readily to take a comprehensive view of them all ; and may thus at least be not more perplexed than is necessary. Of these heads the two former have been treated of in the three foregoing discourses ; in which such remarks were offered as seemed most important, on the regulation of our own temper, and on our judgment and treatment of those who differ from us. It remains to say something of the subject-matter of the discus- sions ; taking into consideration at the same time (as is obviously necessary) the language, which is the instrument and vehicle of those discussions ; and to suggest such rules of procedure as may conduce to the objects proposed. It will be the business of the concluding dis- courses to apply what shall have been said, to the present state of the Church, both with re- spect to the sects which have separated from it. LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 183 and to the parties which exist, or which may be likely to spring up, within it. I. First then with regard to the doctrines themselves on which we are occupied, all in- quiries should be avoided which relate to matters, first, too deep and mysterious ; or, secondly, too iniiiiite and trifling; or, thirdly, too speculative, and remote from Christian practice. Such were probably what the Apostle had in view when he cautioned Timothy to abstain from " foohsh and unlearned questions," aTratSevrovs ^rjTrjaeis, the pursuit of which indicates a want of proper train- ing and mental disciphne with a view to the full understanding of the true character of the Gospel, and of the subjects proper to be dis- cussed by the Christian, as such''. For since it is evident that the epithets " foolish and un- learned," when apphed to inquiries, must have reference to the inquirer himself, speculations even concerning the most interesting and sublime subjects may be foohsh and unlearned to us, if they surpass the limits of our faculties, and * HenaiSevfjitpov yap Lgtiv £7ri roaovTov TUKpifieg ETrii^r]Te~iv Kad' iicairrov yivoQ, £(j> oaov fi rov wpayfjiaTOi: (pvtrig iivict^tTai. Arist. Eth. Niconi. b. i. c. 3. 184 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. are such as we cannot, without presumption, engage in. 1. That there are subjects connected with religion, which it is unprofitable or worse than unprofitable to discuss, no one would venture to deny. And it is no less undeniable, that, among these, are to be reckoned such as are neither laid open to us by Revelation, nor are comprehensible by our reason. But men are, in general, far less ready practically to conform to this maxim, than to admit its truths. And more especially is presumptuous inquiry the besetting sin of those who are free from any propensity to gross vice, and are not sufficiently occupied or interested in the business of the world, to be in much danger of temptations from that quarter ; but being ha- bitually engaged in abstract studies, and chiefly influenced by the desire of knowledge, are espe- cially liable to the faults arising from the excess and perversion of that desire. The agitation of questions respecting the hidden counsels and na- ture of the Most High, has a peculiar tendency (as Paul warns us) to " gender strife ;" since men are less likely to agree in the bold theories they form respecting points on which they can LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 185 have no correct knowledge, and which are in fact uninteUigible to them, than in their opinions on matters which are within the scope of fair rea- soning, or which may be understood by the aid of revelation. And since every disagreement in opinion leads to controversy, and is likely to array the disputants in hostile parties against each other, it is particularly important, with a view to the object originally proposed, that we should abstain from, and earnestly deprecate, in- quiries on those subjects on which (besides that it shews an unbecoming presumption to enter upon them) disagreements are most hkely to arise, and no satisfactory decision can ever be expected. The heresies which arose in the earlier ages of the Church, respecting the doctrine of the Trinity, seem to have chiefly arisen from the prevailing taste for arrogant metaphysical dis- cjuisitions on that inscrutable mystery ^ And in the present day the rash attempts that have been made by some to explain, on the abstract principles of justice, the counsels of the Most High in the no less incomprehensible mystery of See Hampden's Bampton Lectures. 186 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. the atonement % have probably had no small share in giving growth to the prevaihng heresies on that point. And when, as too often hap- pens, the opposers of any wild and presumptuous theory, instead of condemning, as they ought, the very inquiry itself, and deprecating " foohsh and unlearned questions," fall, themselves, into a like error, by pretending to substitute their own explanations of the point, for that which they object to, they aggravate and perpetuate the evils of daring speculation, and mischievous, as well as fruitless, contention. Where all are in fact in the wrong, the parties are not likely to come to an agreement : like men who should rashly venture to explore a strange land in utter darkness, they will be scattered into a thousand devious paths. The evil too is perpetually increasing, as long as this proud spirit, which will not admit any Hervey is one of the most remarkable of the writers of this stamp ; not on account of any superior ability displayed in his works, or from their being more strongly marked with the character in question, than those of many others ; but from the extensive circulation which the piety of his senti- ments, and the gaudiness of his style, have procured for them. LECT. VI.] Questions amid. 187 thing but what can be explained, — this pre- sumptuous craving after forbidden knowledge, (the very sin by which our first parents fell) continues to be cherished. For the very offer of an explanation of any of the mysterious arti- cles of our faith, encourages those who are dis- satisfied with that explanation, to withhold their behef from the doctrines till more clearly un- folded. And if every fresh scruple thus raised, be met by a fresh attempt at explanation, there is no setting bounds to the multiphcation of errors and of contentions'^. Since however every one, though he might condemn in others, as impious, the disposition to pry into inscrutable mysteries, would be un- wilhng to reckon among these the subject of his own discussions, the difficulty is to determine where the fine should be drawn. And as it would be manifestly impossible within the compass, even of several discourses, to enumerate the va- rious points, on which presumptuous inquiries have been instituted, and to assign the limits of allowable discussion in each, it will be best to See Appendix to Elements of Logic. Article " Person." 188 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. mention briefly the principal causes which lead men to mistake the true boundaries of the human faculties. The pride which disdains to acquiesce in the belief of what is inexplicable, and the thirst for knowledge, so natural to man, but so liable to be carried to excess, have been already adverted to, as the original causes and first movers of pre- sumptuous inquiry : but what I have now in view, is, the misconceptions to which these feel- ings contribute to give rise, and through the medium of which they operate : which are principally these two ; first, that men are apt (however distrustful they may be of the powers of unaided reasoii) to expect a full, distinct, and scientific knowledge of whatever is revealed in God's word ; and secondly, that whatever is familiar to them, and is a common subject of their thoughts and discourse, they usually con- sider as comprehensible by their faculties, and clearly intelligible. The former of these errors should be guarded against, by steadily keeping in view the purposes for which a Revelation was given ; viz. not for the increase of our speculative knowledge, but LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 189 for our instruction in what is needful to be known, in order to our serving God, and con- forming our lives to his commands ^ Whatever does not conduce to this end, however satisfac- tory the knowledge of it might be to our minds, is withheld from us ; in great measure perhaps for the express purpose of making a trial of our faith. We must remember therefore that, though enabled by revelation to know what reason could not discover, — and though we ought to have the most undoubting confidence in the truth of God's word, — in the certainty of what is thus made known to us, yet we now " know but in part ;" we see indeed many of the wonders of divine providence ; but we " see in a glass darkly." Nor is God revealed to us as He is in Himself, but as He is r^elatively to ourselves. And even the relations in which he stands to us are but imperfectly developed, though as far perhaps as our present faculties can comprehend them. We stand, in short, (as many passages of Scripture seem to indicate) in somewhat the same relation to our heavenly Father, as that of little children e Essay IV. First Series. 190 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. towards their parent ; who communicates to them indeed enough to entitle him to their love, confidence, and cheerful obedience ; but whose character and designs are very imperfectly and indistinctly understood by them^ Hence it is that Scripture frequently gives us, in different places, such accounts of the divine attributes and dispensations, as would, if under- stood literally, be utterly inconsistent and con- tradictory ; for the express purpose, as it should seem, of teaching us to limit and modify one statement by the aid of the other, — to con-ect the misapprehensions which might arise from either, if considered separately, — and to be aware how partial and imperfect an insight we are intended to have into the divine mysteries^. There cannot be a more striking instance of this, than the Scripture accounts of the doctrines of predestination and free-will. It is but too well known what bitter and interminable con- troversy respecting these doctrines, has been introduced into the Church by those who have f Essay V. First Series. g See Archbishop King's Discourse on Predestination, ap- pended to this volume. LECT. VI.] Questions anoid. 191 paid an exclusive attention to each of them respectively; and who have thought themselves warranted to seek for a full and clear under- standing of the subject, on the ground that it is to be found in a divine revelation. Those will indeed have but faint and imperfect notions of it, who adhere to the rule of giving a fair portion of attention to all parts of Scripture, and never interpreting any passage so as to be irrecon- cileable with another ; but they, and they alone understand the word of God as it was designed to be understood. If on any such mysterious subject as this, our notions are perfectly distinct and full, there is strong ground of suspicion at least, (for that very reason,) that they are in- correct. With regard to the other mistake just noticed, — that of confounding familiar acquaintance with accurate knowledge, and imagining ourselves capable of clearly understanding the nature of whatever we have been much accustomed to think and speak of, (a mistake which is very common in other subjects, as well as theology) it should be guarded against by deep and habitual reflection on the innumerable mysteries which 192 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. daily surround us, — and on the scanty and in- distinct conception we have, of many phenomena whose existence we cannot doubt, and which we liave continually before our eyes. The union, for instance, of corporeal and intellectual attri- butes in every one of us, and the mutual action of the mind and body on each other, are so familiar to us from constant use, as to have long since ceased to strike us with any degree of wonder; and hence we are apt to forget how utterly inexplicable they are. Many are to be met with who will lay down precise dogmas as to the nature of the soul, anathematizing all who disagree with them ; while natural philo- sophers have not yet decided whether Heat, Light, and Electricity are Substances or Attri- butes. It is the same in numberless other instances ; and among these, in respect of many of the doctrines both of natural and revealed religion, which, men, who have been perhaps acquainted with them from their earliest infancy, and accus- tomed to think and converse much upon them, are thus insensibly led to regard as far more comprehensible by the human mind than in fact LECT. VI.] Qiiestiom avoid. 193 they are. Hence they not only often venture to attempt explanations of matters beyond the reach of the human faculties, but even regard such explanations as a necessary part of Chris- tian instruction, and are ready to censure as unbehevers, such as profess to receive the doctrines in question, with implicit faith and reve- rence, but object to the explanation proposed, — abstain from any such attempt, — and acquiesce in them with awe, as unfathomable mysteries. It is indeed a remarkable fact, that a man is usually less offended with those who profess to understand what he does not, than with those who acknowledge their inability to comprehend, what he holds to be clearly intelligible ; since these last will appear to entertain a suspicion at least, (of what is probably the truth) that he has been deluding himself with empty fallacies, and grasping a phantom. Those however who are more charitably dis- posed, are content to reckon one who thus con- fesses his ignorance, among the babes in Christ, who, though not heretical, are yet very backward and deficient in religious knowledge : whereas he is perhaps in fact further advanced than o 194 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. themselves. And if they will continue to study and meditate with patient and humble diligence, they will perceive more and more the vastness of the obscurity that is around them ; and will attain at length to that most valuable and fun- damental branch of wisdom, the knowledge of their own ignorance. They will find, hke Simo- nides, that the longer they reflect on the nature of the Deity, the more difiicult and mysterious it will appear. Even the words which are most familiarly employed in our reasoning, and which seem to occasion no perplexity or embarrassment in it, will, many of them, be found, on attentive ex- amination, to convey ideas, of which we have but a very indistinct comprehension, and which lead, by a very few steps, into an unfathomable abyss of darkness. Such are " Time," " Space," " Eternity," " Infinity," " Cause," — and in short most of the terms employed in the discussion of questions even of natural religion. Let any, for instance, consider, that since our only idea of time, is derived from the succession of impressions on our minds, it follows, that to a Being who is eternal and omniscient, there can be no such LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 195 thing as past and future, " but" (as the poet'' well expresses it) " an eternal Now does ever last ;" which notion seems alluded to in our Lord's words, " Before Abraham was, I am." And he will perceive at once how easily we may be lost in inexplicable mystery, by attentively reflecting on the meaning of the most common and familiar terms ; and how much more, though without perceiving it, we are likely to be bewil- dered, by rashly employing them in their rea- soning, without such reflection. Indeed there are probably few men of sound judgment, who have carefully attended to the improvement of their faculties, that do not re- member the time when many things appeared to them perfectly simple and intelligible, which they now regard as difficult and obscure. And in no point perhaps is the advantage of a judi- cious and truly philosophical cultivation of mind more apparent, than in its guarding us against the common error of regarding the things spoken of as easily comprehensible, in proportion as the names of them are common and familiar. The Algebraist and the Logician, being accustomed Cowley. o 2 196 Foolish and unlearned [lrct. vi. to the use of arbitrary symbols, are well aware of the important fact, that we may reason justly, even where the terms employed are utterly unmeaning to us. And if they are careful to make due application of this principle, they will not forget, that, though it may often be a great convenience to have a name, for something of which we have but a very imperfect idea, we must not thence suppose that we have attained to the knowledge of it. 2. Besides the unfathomable mysteries which we have now been speaking of, it was mentioned in the opening of this discourse, that another class of subjects, from which we should abstain if we would avoid questions which gender strife, is, the minute and insignificant : such as, though they are not beyond the reach of the human faculties to decide upon, yet being either alto- gether unworthy of discussion, or not of suffi- cient consequence to justify the risk of raising dissension, should be avoided on the principle formerly laid down ; that controversy should always be regarded as an evil in itself, to be incurred only when necessary for the sake of some important good. For it should be LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 197 remembered, that not only does every question that can be raised, lead to differences of opinion, disputes, and parties, but also, that the violence of the dispute, and the zeal and bigoted spirit of the party, are by no means proportioned to the importance of the matter at issue. The smallest spark, if thrown among very com- bustible substances, may raise a formidable conflagration ; and when men are disposed for strife, the discussion of any question, however insignificant, may engage them in a contest, in which the zeal and animosity of the disputants will inflame each other, to a degree which appears to calm observers almost incredibly disproportionate to the magnitude of the point itself Witness the long and acrimonious controversies which distracted the Church con- cerning the proper time for the observance of Easter ; and concerning rtie use of leavened or unleavened bread at the Lord's supper. We of the present day, viewing these disputes from a distance with the eye of sober reason, and per- ceiving of how little consequence it is in itself, whether one day or another be set apart by the Church for the celebration of a religious festival, 198 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. or whether the sacramental bread be leavened or not, provided these points be so fixed as to produce a decent uniformity, at least among the members of each Church, can hardly bring ourselves to believe, that the most important doctrines of the Gospel were not made the sub- ject of more eager contentions, than such trifles as these ; and that for these the peace and unity of the Church were violated, and Christian charity too often utterly destroyed. But we should not forget that human nature is still the same as it ever was ; and that though the con- troversies of one age may often appear ridiculous in another, the disposition to contend about trifles may remain unchanged. 3. Not only however should we avoid the risk of causing needless strife by the discussion of such questions as are in themselves trifling, but those also are to be regarded as, to 7is, insig- nificant, which, however curious, sublime, and interesting, can lead to no practical result, and have no tendency to make us better Christians, but are merely matters of speculative curiosity'. ' The speculations of many divines respecting the doctrine of the Millennium may perhaps be referred to this class. LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 199 Paul is frequent and earnest in his exhortations to his converts to confine themselves to such studies as tend to the edification of the Church, — the increase of the fruits of the Spirit, — the conversion of infidels, — and the propagation of the essential doctrines of the Gospel. And that these doctrines are of a practical tendency, — that the Christian revelation is not calculated to gratify our thirst after knowledge for its own sake, but to instruct us in what is useful to be known with a view to our salvation, is one of the most remarkable characteristics of the true religion. All the systems framed by human superstition, enthusiasm, and imposture, whether Pagan, Romish, or Mahometan, abound, as might be expected, in mythological fables and marvellous legends, well fitted to interest and gratify the curiosity of the credulous, but not even pretending to be of any practical import- ance. Our religion, as might no less be expected of one which comes from God, reveals to us the Father, that we may worship, and thank Him, and trust in his kind providence ; — the Son, that we may humbly rely on his atonement, and seek his mediation, and prepare to be judged by Him 200 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. at the last day; — and the Holy Spirit, that we may implore His inward aid, and be led by his suggestions. I would not be understood indeed to preclude all thought or mention of any subject connected with religion, whose practical utility we are unable to point out : only let all controversy at least, and every thing that is likely, under exist- ing circumstances, to lead to controversy, on such points, be carefully avoided. When once a flame is kindled, we cannot tell how far it may spread. And since, though we may be allowed, we cannot be bound in duty to discuss specula- tive points of theology, the blame of occasioning needless dissension must lie with those, who so discuss them as to incur a risk that hostile parties may arise out of their speculations. That questions of no practical importance may " gender strife," and divide Christians into sects filled with the most bitter animosity, para- doxical as it may be, is but too clearly evinced by experience : and the faultiness of those who by their pride and party-spirit are the immediate causes or promoters of such schism and strife, does not exculpate the others, whose imprudent LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 201 speculations first called into action their evil passions. II. The cautions to be observed with respect to the language of religious discussions have been in great measure anticipated by w^hat has been already said, both in this, and the fore- going discourses. Words being not merely the vehicle for conveying our thoughts to others, but also the instrument of thought itself, on abstract subjects, all rules for forming correct notions ourselves, — for rightly interpreting and judging of the faith of another, — and for con- ducting controversy, and imparting instruction, discreetly, must have an immediate reference to the proper use of language. It is however so common a fault to overlook the importance of words in influencing our thoughts, that it may be advisable to lay down distinctly and separately some maxims relative to this point, and to keep them steadily in view. The rules most important to be observed with respect to the use of language, are, first, to be aware of the ambiguity of words, and watchful against being misled by it ; since the same word not only may, but often must, be used to 202 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. express different meanings : secondly, (since on the other hand the same meaning may be expressed by different words) to guard against attaching too great importance to the use of any particular term : and lastly, to avoid, as much as possible, introducing or keeping up the use of any peculiar set of words and phrases, as the badge of a party. 1. The neglect of the first of these cautions has probably contributed more than any other cause to the excitement of groundless and unsa- tisfactory disputes, leading to all the evils of strife and division. If one of the principal terms be understood in different senses by the respec- tive parties, who in reality perhaps differ very little (originally at least) in their sentiments, there is but small chance of their bringing the discussion to a close. For men are in general prone to mistake words for things, and to regard those as real, which are in fact only verbal controversies ; and yet are usually so indignant at being cautioned against this mistake, — they regard it as so high an affront to be suspected of being unconsciously engaged in a logomachy — Elements of Logic, B. iv. ch. 4. LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 203 that he who proposes to terminate a contest by- proving that it turns on the ambiguity of words, must prepare himself to incur, from the eager controversiahsts of both parties, even more ill-will than they feel towards their opponents. Experience affords but too many instances to illustrate what has been said. The questions respecting fatalism and free- will (mysterious as the subject undoubtedly is in itself) have been greatly perplexed, and the true character of the difficulty mistaken, through the ambiguity of such words as " possible," " may," " can,^' and others of that class, which relate sometimes to power, and sometimes to contin- gency. For instance, in one sense it is true, and in the other, false, that a man of strict integrity may defraud his neighbour ; i. e. he has it in his power, if he will ; (otherwise there would be no merit in his honesty) but we may be certain that he will not. On the other hand, when we say that a sick man may recover of his disease, we mean not that it depends on his will to do so, but merely that we are not certain of the event. And thus the attribute of prescience, since it is manifestly incompatible with doubt and 204 Foolish and tmlearned [lect. vi. uncertamUj in the Being who foresees, has been represented as incompatible with free-agency in him whose conduct is foreseen. The word " Person" again, when its ambiguity has not been clearly explained, seems to have had a share in occasioning many apparent, and, ultimately, many real heresies. In its ordinary colloquial sense it always implies a distinct mh- stance : in its theological sense, being a literal, or rather perhaps an etymological, translation of the Latin word Persona, which has not that meaning, and answering to the Greek Hypo- stasis, it is apphed by the Church to express the distinction which she affirms to exist between those whose identity of substance she expressly maintains^ Many a doubt might be satisfied, and many a cavil silenced, by the simple expe- dient of clearly stating this ambiguity. In the controversies also concerning regene- ration, though much real difference of sentiment has prevailed, much more also has probably appeared to exist, and much perplexity has been introduced into the discussion, from the different 1 In the Nicene Creed, where the Son is declared to be " of one substance with the Father." LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 205 senses in which the word has been used ; some- times to signify the act of Jirst entering upon a Christian hfe, sometimes that hfe itself, — and that regenerate state, in its full maturity and vigour of action. Many persons are the more liable to fall into the error now under consideration, from their too hastily making their appeal to the language of Scripture, without sufficiently considering in what different senses the same word is often used in different places by the sacred writers ; who seem indeed not to have designed to draw up and adhere to a strict technical vocabulary", but to have aimed only at making their meaning clear in each separate passage that they wrote. The different uses of the word " Faith" by the Apostles Paul and James, is a famihar instance of this ; but is only one out of many that might be adduced. Indeed so far are the inspired writers from endeavouring (all of them in com- bination) after a uniform mode of stating any doctrine, that even each one of them seems to have sought for a variety of terms and phrases for expressing his ideas' more forcibly and clearly. See Essay III. § 2. Second Series. 206 Foolish and unlearned [lect. vi. 2. This ought surely to be an example to us to adhere to the other maxims above laid down. W e should learn from it not to exact too rigidly an adherence to any particular form of expres- sion,— attaching undue importance to a name, where the substance of any doctrine shall appear, on a candid examination, to be correctly held. The observance of this rule would probably have allayed the controversy which took place on the article in the Nicene Creed, relating to the procession of the Holy Ghost, in which there seems to have been no essential difference between the parties. And we should also learn to observe that other caution above-mentioned, of avoiding the peculiar and characteristic lan- guage of a party; viz. the constant and unvaried use of certain fixed technical words and phrases, in the statement of each doctrine : to which kind of fixed phraseology the term " cant" is most commonly applied. Many evils arise from this practice. In the first place the constant recurrence of the same terms, usually causes the hearer to become in time inattentive to the things signified. The sounds are so familiar to him, that at length LKCT. VI.] Questions avoid. 207 they affect him little more than as mere sounds, which do not rouse the mind to earnest re- flection. Whereas every variation in language tends to dispel this inertness of the under- standing, and to awaken attention. In the next place, since our language when treating of heavenly things must be borrowed by ana- logy from things more level to our capacity, and since these analogies cannot but be very imperfect, the constant employment of the same'' analogical expressions in each case respectively, will be apt to suggest to the hearer and fix in his mind some incorrect theory on the subject, by leading him to suppose the analogy more com- plete than in fact it is. The obvious preventive of this evil is to vary as n)uch as possible the analogies made use of, that each may serve to correct the erroneous notions that might be sug- gested by another. Of this procedure we have most striking examples in the numerous and ever-varied parables by which our Lord illus- trated each subject He was treating of ; and in " See some excellent observations on this subject in Pro- fessor D. Stewart's Philosophy of the human Mind. See also the Introduction to Dr. King's Discourse. 208 Foolish and unlearned [i,ect. vi. the multiplicity of different metaphors employed by the Apostles in explaining each article of the Faith. Lastly, it is obvious that causeless divisions and all the evils of party-spirit must be greatly promoted by adopting and uniformly adhering to a fixed set of expressions calculated to become the badges of a party. For by this means, over and above all the real differences of opinion which exist, a fresh cause of opposition and separation is introduced among those who would perhaps be found, if their respective statements were candidly explained, to have in their tenets no real ground of disunion. I would not be understood as questioning the necessity of retaining such creeds and articles of faith as are requisite for limiting the vagueness of men's interpretation of Scripture, and main- taining in the members of the Church, an agree- ment as to essential points; — but, as suggesting a caution against falling into a pernicious ex- treme, — that of too constant an adherence, without necessity, to a single form of expression on each point, and too hasty a censure of all who vary from it". In fact, the very expediency o See Essay on the '* Omission of Creeds, &c. in Scripture." LECT. VI.] Questions avoid. 209 of these fixed formularies of our Church esta- bhshes the pomt for which I am contending: for since that expediency consists in their helping to keep together, as a distinct Body, the mem- bers of that Church, which in this case is a desirable effect, it follows, that where no such object is, or ought to be, proposed, the means which lead to it should be avoided. There is nothing that tends more strongly than this practice, to generate and to prolong causeless divisions among Christians. For, every peculiarity (as was formerly observed) which characterizes any class of men, however insig- nificant it may be in itself, is generally cherished by them with undue regard ; and serves to heighten their zeal, and strengthen their union as a party. Nor will the consequences of such divisions be by any means as trifling as their causes ; for when parties are once firmly esta- blished, and arrayed against each other, their opposition will usually increase ; and the differ- ences between them, which were originally little more than imaginary, may in time become serious and important. I shall have occasion however again to advert p 210 Foolish Questions avoid. [lect. vi. to this point in the subsequent discourses, and especially in speaking of the dissension and party- spirit existing within the bosom of our Church. In the next discourse, the case of the dissenters from our Church will be considered, and an application made, of the foregoing prin- ciples, to the open schisms existing in the present day. It would indeed be vain for us to hope (since even the Apostles could not effect so much) entirely to remove these evils ; but we shall be following the safest guides, and doing the utmost benefit to the Church that human weakness and depravity will allow, if we carefully and habi- tually study and endeavour to conform to tJieir principles and their practice, who are at once the most unerring instructors, and the most perfect models. LECTURE VII. CONDUCT WITH RESPECT TO DISSENTERS, Col. iv. 5. Walk in wisdom towards them that are without. Though we cannot on every occasion discern fully the reasons of God's dealings with us, we may be well assured, that the situation, what- ever it may be, in which we are placed, has its appropriate duties annexed to it ; and that the greatest present difficulties and afflictions, since they afford scope for the exercise of some cor- responding Christian virtues, may be made con- ducive to our eternal benefit. Like the insect which gathers honey even from poisonous weeds, the true Christian will derive spiritual advantage p 2 212 Conduct ivith respect [lect. vii. from temporal evils ; and fully trusting that " all things work together for good to them that love God," will (without presuming to explain all the counsels of the Most High) set himself earnestly to profit by all his dispensations, and to practise those duties which the existing circumstances especially call for. To the early Christians it must have been one of their most grievous trials to live in the midst of unbelievers ; among whom must have been included many who were not only their fellow- citizens, but also their relations and friends. And in addition to this, there were also many heresies, which had sprung up among themselves, and which must have been a heavy addition to their temptations and afflictions. To both these circumstances the Apostles fre- quently advert ; and point out to their converts the duties thence arising, — the Christian virtues which were to be thereby exercised. The pre- valence of infidelity furnished a secondary motive, (and no one who understands human nature will depreciate the utility of secondary motives,) to a life of such purity and rectitude, as might do credit to their profession, and recommend their LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 213 faith : and the springing up of heresies furnished a trial of their vigilance, their patience, and their steady zeal in the cause of truth. " There must be," says Paul, " heresies among you, that they which are approved may be made manifest :" and again, with reference to the idolatry of the Gentiles by whom his converts were surrounded, he cautions them to " walk in wisdom " towards these ; he requires that the elders of the Church be such as " have a good report of them which are without ;" and he rebukes the sins of a large proportion of the Jews, in that, " the name of God is blasphemed through them among the Gentiles." So also Peter exhorts the Christian women so to conduct themselves, " that if any obey not the word, they also may, without the Word, be won by the conversation of the wives, while they behold your chaste conversation coupled with fear :" and again ; " having a good conscience, that whereas they speak evil of you as of evil doers, they may be ashamed that falsely accuse your good conversation in Christ." The conduct of Christians of the present day should be actuated, as far as the circumstances in which they are placed correspond, by similar 214 Conduct with respect [lect, vii. motives. Many of our countrymen who are living in foreign regions, especially in the Easty are in the midst of Pagans ; and most solemnly they should be warned of the peculiarly awful responsibihty they lie under, and of the strong additional motive they have for leading a Chris- tian life ; inasmuch as if, by their sinful lives or apparent indifference about religion, they en- courage a contempt for the Gospel, or a pre- judice against it, they will have to answer for the evil effects produced by their example ; and will have a fearful account, not only of their own souls, but also of those of the heathen whose conversion they will thus have impeded. The same considerations will apply to the case of those that have friends, who are either alto- gether indifferent about religion, or unbelievers : there can hardly be a more painful trial. But it is our fault if we do not make a spiritual advantage of it, by regarding it habitually as a motive for redoubhng our vigilance and zeal. And as far as regards the practical application of what has been said, we may properly reckon as of the number of " those which are without," both Romanists, and Dissenters from the Church. LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 215 Not that we are to consider them as on a level with Pagans, and as excluded from the Gospel- covenant ; but the question is not now con- cerning the magnitude or the nature of their errors, but concerning the rules of conduct to be observed by ourselves, with a view to the maintenance and propagation of the truth. It will hardly be denied that there is such a thing as the sin of Schism ; and that it is incurred by those who, without sufficient grounds, separate themselves from our communion, whether to enrol themselves as adherents of an usurping foreign Church, or to join any sect of protestant dissenters. And the mere adherence to any such church or sect, even in persons originally brought up in it, though it may be denied to be strictly speaking, schismatical% must be * " Schism and Heresy, considered merely as ecclesiastical crimes, may be illustrated by tlie analogous case of political crimes. The schismatic renounces his allegiance to the eccle- siastical government under which he has been living; the heretic adopts practices and opinions contrary to its laws. The schismatic therefore is, as it were, in rebellion against his Church ; the heretic, a violater of its laws." «*****•« " If a Church has been formed by the secession of members 216 Conduct with respect [lect, vii. admitted to be culpable ; supposing the society in question to be unscriptural in principle or in usages. It is clearly therefore a Christian duty in every member of our Church who is per- suaded of her scriptural character, not only to remain in that communion, but to discourage separation from it ; — not only to abstain from adopting, but to give no countenance to, erro- neous doctrines or practices ; and, in every part of his conduct, to consult the welfare and peace of his church, and regard himself as engaged in her cause. There are indeed some who would be ready from another Church, on disagreefhent of principles, each seceder is both a schismatic and a heretic, because of liis former connexion ; but the crime does not attach to the Church so formed ; and accordingly is not entailed on suc- ceeding members who naturally spring up in it. If the schism was founded in error, the guilt of error would always attach to it and its members ; but not that of schism or heresy. On the same principle, the present King of Great Britain's claim to the allegiance of his subjects is not affected by the question of William the Conqueror's right to the throne formerly ; nor would an American traitor stand excused, who should plead in defence of his treason, that the disunion was unjustifiable, to which the United States owe their independence."— Hinds' " Rise and Progress," Vol. II. LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 217 to censure such sentiments as these, in a layman at least, as savouring of narrow-minded bigotry, and uncharitable party-spirit ; as if every one who contends that schism ought to be opposed as in itself sinful, must needs regard it as an unpardonable sin, which at once excludes those guilty of it from salvation : but it surely is not necessary, in order to keep clear of such in- tolerant harshness as this, that we should adopt such a notion of charity as removes, in fact, the principal occasion for the exercise of that virtue; for the chief province of charity and forbearance evidently consists in forgiving, and making al- lowance for those who are in fatdt, — in treating with candour and with personal kindness those whose principles we disapprove ; but if there be no fault in schism, there is nothing to forgive; — if there is nothing wrong in those who disagree with us, there can be no great exercise of charity and liberahty in allowing that disagreement. This indifference clad in the garb of candour, is, as I have said, the most frequently met with, and the most expected, in those who are not engaged in the ministry. Laymen are indeed but too apt to consider themselves as little more 218 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. than by-standers in the dispute between the Church and her opponents. They perhaps give her the preference indeed, but rather as a matter of taste than of conscience ; or at least, rather, as umpires between two contending parties, than as making the cause their own. And many a one may be found who would allow, and even expect, in the Clergy, some zeal in that cause, yet would seem to regard it as altogether their concern ; not as one in which he himself has a common interest. These sentiments often arise not so much from weakness or perversity, as from thought- lessness, and want of due attention to the sub- ject. For every sincere and candid Christian, if he can be brought to reflect attentively on the solemnity with which the Church was in- stituted, as a Body not of Ministers merely, but of Christians at large, and on the earnestness with which its divine Founder and his Apostles inculcated the duty of preserving its harmony and promoting its welfare, both in respect of the first Christian Church, that of Jerusalem, and of the others subsequently founded, will hardly fail to be convinced, that if he would claim a LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 219 share in the benefits of Christ's redemption, he cannot be indifferent to his institutions ; and that therefore, as he is not only permitted, but bound, to withdraw from our Church, if he finds her doctrines or institutions essentially at variance with the word of God ; so, if he finds her to be, in doctrine and practice, scriptural, he is no less bound to endeavour to shew him- self a faithful, and as far as his opportunities extend, a useful member of the society he be- longs to. The rules by which we should be guided in using these endeavours, in what relates to our deahngs with those at variance with the esta- blished Church, may most conveniently be classed under three heads, of Correctness of life. Zeal, and Conciliation : first, that we should be careful to preserve such an irreproachable purity and rectitude of conduct as may adorn and recom- mend the society to which we belong; next, that we should be active, according to our opportunities, in maintaining and propagating the truth ; and lastly, that we should manifest such gentleness, such candour towards the opi- nions, and such tenderness towards the persons. 220 Conduct ivith respect [lect. vii. of those opposed to us, as may both moderate the acrimony of party, and win over those who are in error. I. With respect to the first of these points, it might be supposed, on a superficial view, that to each individual Christian the direct and primary motives to personal holiness, are so powerful as to need no addition ; so that he would either be sufficiently influenced by these, or would be callous to all others. But if we either reason from those general principles of our nature which have been already treated of, or attend to the lessons of experience, we shall not fail to arrive at the conclusion, that men are very powerfully influenced in their moral conduct by the secon- dary motive of anxiety for the credit of the Body they belong to ; of which indeed they sometimes appear even more careful than of their own. The Apostles seem to have been fully aware of this natural principle, and to have had a view to it in many of their exhortations ; as appears from the passages which have been already cited, and others of a similar character. The dread of bringing disgrace on the whole Body, and the desire to recommend and adorn it, seem to have LKCT. VU.j to Dissenters. 221 been recognized by them as useful additional incentives to vigilance and active virtue. Nor were they enforcing a motive which reason will not sanction, and which is suited only to the weakness of our nature ; but one which is per- fectly sound and rational. Men are not only more likely, but also more strongly hound, to conduct themselves well, when the credit of their rehgious profession is concerned : they are not only more easily deterred, by a sense of shame, from any such misconduct as may bring a scan- dal upon the whole Body, but they in reality incur greater guilt if they fall into it ; since our conduct is to be estimated not merely by its intrinsic character, but also by its tendency to lead to an acceptance or rejection of the truth by others. Now that the world are in general very much influenced in their judgment concerning any religious persuasion by the lives of its professors, is undeniable ; and however rash and ill-founded such a judgment may often be, still we must remember that it will be formed. It is not uni- versally true, but it will always be believed by many, that those whose lives are the most correct. 222 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. are the most correct in faith also ; and that unchristian conduct is a symptom of erroneous doctrine : and whatever blame may attach to those who suffer themselves to be misled by applying this criterion, the sin of him who occa- sions the scandal will not be thereby lessened. I have said, that the conduct of the members of any rehgious persuasion does not afford a safe criterion for judging of the correctness of that persuasion : it is indeed abstractedly true, that the purest Christian faith leads to the most vir- tuous conduct; but this test cannot fairly be apphed in practice, without many cautions and exceptions ; since under different circumstances men's lives are influenced in very different de- grees by their respective systems of faith. And to conclude from the immoral lives of some ministers or others members of our Church, that the doctrines of that Church are less scriptural than those of some sect whose partisans are more correct in manners, without distinguishing between that which is the natural and proper tendency of any system of faith, and that which results from the abuse, or from the practical dis- regard of it, would be a perversion of our Lord's LECT. VII. J to Dissenters. 223 admonition, to " know the tree by its fruits." Such an appUcation indeed of that maxim, in its metaphorical sense, would be no less rash, than it would be of its literal sense, were we to draw a similar general conclusion from the instance of the barren fig-tree which Jesus cursed, and to judge of the nature of the whole species from that individual. Of the circumstances which ought to be taken into consideration in any such case, one of the principal is, the more active zeal of the smaller and weaker party, which makes them usually both more bitter in spirit, and also more strict in many points of morality Each individual, in proportion as he feels himself a more important portion of the body he belongs to, is likely to It is worth remarking, that the most ordinary popular use of the words "moral" and "morality" is much more limited than, what may be called, the philosophical sense of them. A man would not usually be said to lead an immoral life, who was clear of all offences against the laws, and also chaste and temperate ; though he might be proud, insolent, contentious, selfish, illiberal, &c. And yet, so irregularly and promiscuously are the two senses introduced, that every one would allow modesty, gentleness, liberality, &c, to be " moral virtues." 224 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. take a livelier interest in its welfare ; and thence will usually be both more Hable to the excesses of bigotry and animosity, and also more careful to bring no scandal on his party. It is but just therefore that men should be warned to take this circumstance into considera- tion, when they institute any comparison between the moral conduct of Churchmen and of Dissen- ters ; and to remember that the activity in Chris- tian duties which they now perhaps admire in some sect, would be put to a severe trial, if their's were to become the prevaihng and estabhshed religion. The friends of the Church again should be exhorted to aim at securing the advantages which He on both sides, while they keep clear of the concomitant evils ; — to emulate the dili- gence, and strictness in morals, to be found in some Dissenters; yet retaining a liberal and candid spirit. Another circumstance, which ought not to be overlooked by those who are comparing Church- men with sectaries, in respect of Christian prac- tice, is, that those who are indifferent to all religion, are, for the most part, from motives of LECT. VII.] to Dissenter,H. 225 convenience, nominally, members of the Esta- blishment : and that persons whose lives do no credit to their profession, are much more hkely to be excluded from the communion of a sect, than from that of our Church ; which thus ranks among her seeming adherents some who do not even profess any regard for her doctrines or institutions, I would not be understood as giving any opinion as to this lenity in the exercise of the Church's discipline ; or rather this absence of discipline. The very circumstance that our Church's authority is supported by that of the Law, has had the effect of the almost entire abandonment of all exercise of it. But it is surely fair that the fact should be admitted, and allowance made for it in forming our judgments. The greater our difficulties however, the greater should be our diligence ; the more liable we are to suffer from unjust prejudices, the more vigilant we should be to avoid giving occasion for any well-grounded charge. And each mem- ber of any Church is doubly bound by his alle- giance to Christ who is the Head of it, not only in direct obedience to his commands, but also Q 226 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. for the benefit of a society instituted in con- formity with his directions, both himself to adorn the doctrine of his Saviour in all things, and likewise to promote to the utmost of his power the same conduct in the fellow-members of his Church. Especially should he avoid even the appearance of tolerating in any of them a laxity of morals for the sake of their adherence to the Church, — of regarding orthodoxy of profession as a kind of compensation for an unchristian life : remembering how solemnly our Lord excludes from the number of his disciples all the workers of iniquity who " call Him Lord, Lord, and do not the things which he says^" IL With respect to that Zeal for the refuta- tion of error and the propagation of truth, which was mentioned as requisite to be added to purity of morals, it is to be remembered that this, if combined with discretion and temper, has no tendency to diminish the esteem or good will of our opponents. It is a mistake to think that we can obtain the favour of those who differ from us, by professing latitudinarian principles. On <= See Errors of Romanism, Ch. v. § 8. LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 227 the contrary, those who have themselves any conscientious zeal, always think more favour- ably of such as, in that respect, resemble them- selves, even though disagreeing with them in religious tenets, than of those who regard the matters in question as insignificant, when they are really among the essentials of religion. What Protestant, for instance, would not think more favourably of the spiritual condition of a sincere Romanist, than of one who should regard with indifference the points at issue between the two Churches, as trifling and unimportant ? It is therefore not less impohtic than it is unwarrantable, to adopt that spurious liberality of sentiment which makes hght of heresy and schism. Neither prudence nor conscience will allow us to withhold censure (when the occasion calls on us to express our sentiments) from those who are either fundamentally erroneous in doc- trine, or violators of Christian concord ; though that censure must be free from unchristian asperity. Not that every member of the Church is called upon to step forward as her champion against sectaries ; but every one is bound to be cautious of affording, directly or indirectly, any q2 228 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. encouragement to their fault ; nor must he sup- pose, that he is free from all participation in that fault, so long as he does not formally renounce the communion of the Church. I allude more especially to a sort of occa- sional dissent, which is sometimes practised and defended by persons who profess no disappro- bation of our Church, but object to some parti- cular minister of it, as incompetent, or unsound in his preaching, in comparison with some dis- senting teacher to whom they have access. The excuse is plausible ; nor would I be understood to question the sincere good intentions of many who offer it ; much less to do away the force of the admonition which is thus given to a minister, when his flock desert him ; and especially when he finds that even the judicious and sober-minded part of them, who are not unfriendly to the Church, nor foolishly eager for novelty, com- plain of his preaching, as unedifying or dis- gusting, and withdraw from their attendance on his ministry. But still, those who urge this plea should be reminded, that if any doctrines decidedly heretical are broached, or gross im- proprieties committed, complaint may be made LECT. VII.] to Dissenten 229 to the proper authorities. This indeed is an unpleasant office ; and is often avoided by all, on the plea, that it does not belong to any one in particular''. But each Christian is bound, in such a case, to consider how he vv^ould act, if his own temporal interests were at stake ; — whether he would not find then some means of procuring redress, if his rights were withheld from him, — and how he can answer to his conscience, for being more remiss in what concerns God's honour ^ That cases of this kind do occur, in which men are kept back, by such feelings as I have alluded to, from seeking such redress as might actually be obtained, will hardly be denied. On the other hand, it must be acknowledged, that very just and serious ground of complaint may exist, where nothing can be so taken hold of as to be made the ground of ecclesiastical censure. Those who, in such a case, forsake their parish- church, to attend on the ministry, not of a dissenting teacher, but of some other clergyman belonging to the establishment, have been sometimes perhaps too severely censured for the practice. For though those are justly to be blamed who, " having itching ears," are seeking to gratify their taste for eloquence, and to exercise their critical skill, — or who are actuated by a wanton love of variety, — it would surely be going too far to say that no circumstances can justify those who in singleness of heart are anxiously seeking spiritual instruction, for resorting to the expedient in question. 230 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. and service, than in what relates to the perish- able goods of this world. If again (as will most frequently be the case) it be only a deficiency in the edifying inculcation of Gospel truths that is complained of, for this evil, lamentable as it certainly is, our Church has provided the best remedy that the case will admit, both in the public reading of the Scrip- tures themselves, and also in a Liturgy so framed as not only to be agreeable to the general tenor of the Gospel, but likewise to inculcate its lead- ing doctrines. If our Church (as was the case before the Reformation,) kept the Scriptures a sealed book to the unlearned, and assigned to the personal sincerity of the minister an influence in the efficacy of the Sacraments^;— or if, like some of the reformed Churches, she admitted neither the public reading of the Scriptures, nor the use of an established liturgy, but trusted ^ The Church of Rome does indeed admit that the ofRcial acts of a vicious Priest may be valid ; but makes the inward intention of the Priest requisite to the efficacy of every sacra- ment he administers ; so that if he designedly withhold this intention, there is no true sacrament. The Council of Trent anathematizes those who deny this position. LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 231 every thing to the extemporaneous effusions of the preacher, the excuse in question would have gi-eat weight. But as it is, men should consider whether the immediate advantage gained is not more than counterbalanced by the violation of an important general rule, — by the gradual de- preciation thus produced of the duty of pre- serving christian harmony, — by the countenance afforded to schism, — and the extenuation in the eyes of men in general, of the evils it produces. At any rate, they should at least not overlook the objections which lie on this side of the alternative. Let it be remembered however, that whatever degree of blame may, in each case that occurs, attach to those who forsake the Church, the Minister is not the less heavily responsible, whose unsound, or neghgent, or indiscreet preaching, has aided to drive into dissent those entrusted to his care. Although however we are bound to avoid giving any encouragement, direct or indirect, to heresy or schism, and to keep clear of even the appearance of regarding them with indif- ference : and though such as are well qualified 232 Conduct with resj)ect [lect. vii. should be ready, when fit occasions offer, to defend the cause of the Church, — to warn the unwary, — and to admonish the erroneous, yet the most advisable plan, generally speaking, will be, to oppose sectaries, not so much by directly preaching against them, as by diligence in afford- ing religious instruction, as far as we have opportunity. And this not with respect to the controverted points merely, but in all the essen- tial truths of the Gospel as maintained by our Church, especially those most dwelt upon by our opponents. Such a procedure is not only the least likely to produce irritation, but at the same time the most efficacious with a view to the object proposed. It will refute the charges so often brought against Churchmen, of remiss- ness and of indifference about the great truths of Christianity ; — it will deprive of all excuse those who desert the Church professedly for the sake of hearing those doctrines preached ; — it will remedy that ignorance which is the soil on which errors are the most likely to spring up ; — and it will remove all appearance of that corrupt and unchristian party-spirit, which is more zea- lous for the Church than for the Gospel, and LECT. vii.J to Dissenters. 233 which rather values our Religion for the sake of the Estabhshment, than the Establishment for the sake of the Religion. Most sedulously in- deed must we guard in every way against affording either any just ground, or any shew of truth, for the accusation of adhering to the Church because it is established by the State, and resting her spiritual authority on the law of the land. Against the members of any legally established Church, indeed, this accusation will always be brought by her opponents, whether it be well founded or not ; but they must for that reason be the more dihgent by their life and doctrine to refute the charge. If indeed the members of our Church, while they oppose Dissenters, fail to use their best exertions, in every way, for promoting the spiritual improvement of their fellow-subjects, they cannot complain, or wonder, at finding that their zeal in the cause is attributed to impure motives ; — to self-interested views, or to political considerations, and to a regard for the Church chiefly as a part of the Constitution. And most especially should we be active in remedying that evil which has been but too 234 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. prevailing an occasion and excuse for schism, the want of sufficient places of worship, and of ministerial attendance, of the established Church. In places where this deficiency prevails in any great degree, to caution men against attending on dissenting teachers, might seem like con- demning them to perish by famine, lest they should use unwholesome food. And those who severely censure them, yet shew themselves indifferent about supplying the defect in ques- tion, or more ready to expend money on archi- tectural ornaments for a small number of Churches, than, (when that is the alternative) on provision for the spiritual wants of multitudes of their brethren, will, naturally, and perhaps not altogether unjustly, be regarded as more zealous against schism, than against irreligion ; — as careless whether their brethren be Christians, provided they be not sectaries. We sometimes indeed hear it urged, in reply to this, that in some of the places respecting which the complaint is made, the churches are not filled ; so that though they would be inade- quate to the wants of the population, supposing all were well disposed to the Establishment, LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 235 there is even more than a sufficient supply for as many as choose to avail themselves of it ; the rest being manifestly Dissenters, not from necessity, but from choice. But any man of judgment who considers the case attentively and candidly, will readily perceive how fallacious it would be to conclude, on such grounds, that the deficiency in question had originally no share in introducing or multiplying sectaries ; or that the removal of it would have no tendency to diminish the number. When the ill-supplied spiritual wants of a large population afford an inviting opportunity, dissenting teachers take occasion to estabhsh themselves; and the fire which is thus kindled in the dry tree, may subsequently extend to the green. The sectaries come not to supply our deficiencies, but to tahe advantage of them ; — not merely as occupiers of a waste spot, but as invaders, ambitious of conquest; though they first assail that part of the frontier which is undefended. It cannot be expected that, when once established, they will not labour strenuously, and often successfully, to increase their party, by drawing over church- men to their side : and thus the waters which 236 Conduct ivith respect [lect. vii. by being confined within too narrow a channel, have once begun to overflow, may in time form such a breach in its banks, as shall at length draw off the whole stream into a different course. And no less fallacious would it be to conclude, that to make an adequate provision such as we are speaking of, to meet the wants of our popu- lation, would have no tendency to recall into the fold those who have strayed. For, not to mention that the fault, if it still remained, would then rest entirely with them, the very circum- stance of their perceiving that the members of the Church take an interest in their spiritual welfare,^ — ^display a zeal no less active than that of sectaries, and more free from any suspicion of impure motives, — and are forward to make pecuniary sacrifices in the cause of religion, — would at least excite their attention, and would be likely to awaken their respect and their grati- tude,— to soften all unfriendly prejudices,— and thus to prepare their minds for the reception of the truth. Can there be any one who will dare to say that they do not deserve such pains being taken LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 237 for their conversion, because they were to blame in deserting the Church on insufficient grounds ? And will he be content to be judged himself before God's tribunal, on the same principle, of receiving no more favour than he can in strict justice claim ? In fact had the Apostles shewn no patient forbearance towards inattention or perversity, and refused to labour in the instruc- tion of any except those who had made the most of all their advantages, and had sought for truth with the utmost diligence and candour, it is to be feared that comparatively very few either of Jews or Gentiles would have been con- verted. With respect to the persons of whom the duty in question is especially required, and the manner in which it should be performed, in each particular case, it would neither be possible, nor desirable, on the present occasion, to lay down rules. Each man's conscience must decide as to the nature and extent of his own obligations ; only let it be well considered in the first place whether there is not an obligation, somewhere; — whether every costly work, which is not a work of necessity or of charity, is not a reproach to 238 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. this nation, so long as the want I have been speaking of remains^ in any one instance, unsup- phed ; — and whether we ought not therefore, somewhat to moderate our boasting and self- congratulation on account of what has been lately accomplished in this way ; and to feel, as a Body, more of sorrow and shame that so much should still remain to be done. III. Lastly, our zeal must be free from all personal bitterness, illiberal bigotry, and all those faults in short which have been formerly described as constituting and as promoting party-spirit. It is a difficult, but a most important duty, to steer the middle course between lukewarmness and repulsive severity ; — to oppose Dissenters as such, without being wanting in charity towards them as men, and as Christians ; — to be steady in maintaining the sinfulness of schism, yet without censuring as unpardonable those who fall into it ; — to " mark and avoid those who cause divisions among us," yet without any narrow-minded and hostile aversion. But this difficulty, which is one of our appointed trials, must not be allowed to discourage us. He LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 239 " who endured such contradiction of sinners against himself," and laboured so zealously, yet so patiently, to convert men to the truth, may surely expect a similar union of charity with zeal from his followers. He who is deficient either in persevering activity in the cause of true Religion, or in discreet and conciliatory mildness, has not profited as he ought by the examples of our Lord and of his Apostles. On the rules to be observed for thus concili- ating those opposed to us, without compromis- ing the truth, or appearing to countenance error, it is not necessary at present to enlarge ; having treated fully in some former lectures of the cau- tions requisite, generally, in our treatment of those who differ from us ; the application of which to the case of dissenters from our Church is sufficiently obvious. I will conclude therefore by briefly mentioning one principle, which, though in the present day, it would be admitted by almost every man when distinctly stated, is yet in practice perpetually overlooked ; and from the neglect of which, men of opposite dispositions are led into oppo- site errors. The principle I mean is, that as 240 Conduct with respect [lect. vii. Christ's " kingdom is not of this world V legal coercion is an improper instrument for producing conformity to the Church, or assent to her doc- trines. This, as a general maxim, the majority would, I trust, not be disposed to deny : yet if it were practically kept in view, two contrary mistakes, which are very prevalent, would be avoided. On the one hand, the legal toleration which our laws very wisely afford to Dissenters, — determining that no man shall be hable to punishment for his religious opinions, but shall f It is with wonder, with grief, and with shame, that 1 have seen this declaration of our Lord's, interpreted as strictly con- fined to the present tense, and as uttered with a kind of mental reservation, that He meant his kingdom to become hereafter one " of this world," maintained by secular coercion. " But the very idea is blasphemous, of attributing such a subterfuge to Him who ' came into the world that He might bear witness of the truth.' The immediate occasion indeed of our Lord's making this declaration to Pilate, was his desire to do away the expectation so strongly prevailing both among Jews and Gentiles, of a temporal Messiah about to establish a triumphant kingdom : but no occasion would have led Him to make the declaration, had it not been true : and it would not have been true, had He meant no more than that his kingdom was spiritual, in the sense of its having dominion over the souls of men, and holding out the glories and the judgments of the other world ; for this was what the infidel LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 241 be accountable for them only to his own con- science and to God, — seems to have led many to consider both Orthodoxy and Conformity as matters of no great consequence in a moral point of view : as if, because the question is, and ought to be, left to our individual discretion, we were not most awfully responsible for our use of that discretion. Now to conclude thus, of any doc- trines, or of any nonconformity, that they are not sinful, because they ought not to be punish- able by law, what is it but to imply that if they were sinful, they ought to be punishable by law ? which is to allow, in other words, the propriety of employing coercion in religious matters ; and thus to mistake the nature of Christ's kingdom. Jews expected, and expect to this day ; they look for a king- dom both of this world and also of the next ; — for a Messiah who shall bestow on his followers not only worldly power and splendour, but also the spiritual blessings of a future state, besides. They did indeed expect the Messiah to reign over them for ever in bodily person : but the main part of their expectation would have been fulfilled, had He merely founded a temporal kingdom, and delegated (as the Lord did of old, to the Kings) his power, to his anointed, in whom his Spirit should dwell. Jesus accordingly not only claimed spiritual dominion, but renounced temporal : He declared not merely that his kingdom is of the next world, but that it is not of this world." — Errors of Romanism, Ch. v. § 4. R 242 Conduct ivith respect [lect. vii. On the other hand, the very same mistake leads men of contrary sentiments into an opposite error. Whoever, in his zeal for the Church, is disposed to treat Dissenters, either individually or collectively, with any degree of harshness, — to seek to influence them by any secular mo- tives,— either of fear or of hope, — to appeal, in short, to their self-interest ; — whoever grudges the toleration extended to them, — or endeavours to molest them in any way, and to abridge their civil rights, further than may be strictly requisite for self-preservation, on the ground of the erro- neousness of the tenets maintained, — is, virtu- ally, if not avowedly, drawing the conclusion, that heresy and schism ought to be checked by coercion, because they are in themselves sinful. Now this is precisely the converse of the mis- taken inference above-mentioned, that since they ought not to be so checked, they are not to be considered as sinful : and both these errors spring from the very same misapprehension concerning the respective provinces of legal and of religious restraint, and concerning the spiritual character of Christ's kingdom. The legitimate modes of warfare by which we are to " contend for the faith," are those which LECT. VII.] to Dissenters. 243 have been alluded to in this discourse ; viz. by an exemplary life, — by zeal tempered with dis- cretion, in persuading, exhorting, instructing, — and by manifesting a charitable, conciliatory, and, in short, truly Christian spirit. It is not enough however that we " walk in wisdom towards those that are without" the pale of our Church, unless we are also most careful to preserve internal concord among ourselves. Nothing will more weaken our efforts in behalf of the Church against her opponents, than intes- tine divisions : which, besides that they draw off the attention of the members of any society from the common cause, will also dispose those most violent in party, to welcome the aid of foreign auxiliaries against a rival faction ; while they furnish to the adversary a theme of triumphant reproach. Discreet conduct therefore in what relates to parties within the Church being of such high importance, and that case differing in some re- markable circumstances from the foregoing, the subject will be reserved for a distinct considera- tion in the concluding lecture. R 2 LECTURE VIII. DIVISIONS WITHIN THE CHURCH. 1 Cor. i. 12, 13. Every one of you saith, I am of Paul ; and I of Apollos ; and I of Cephas; and I of Christ. Is Christ divided? The Apostle's admonitions to the church of Corinth, both in this passage and in several others of the same Epistle, are of the highest importance to Christians of every age and Coun- try. But in order to appreciate them rightly, and apply them profitably to ourselves, we must keep in mind two circumstances which are very often, practically at least, overlooked : viz. first that the Apostle is not here accusing his converts LECT. VIII.] Divisions, 8fc. 245 of holding any erroneous doctrines, but of divi- sions, party-spirit and contentions : secondly, that he does not seem to be alluding to any open schism as having taken place among them, but merely to intestine discord ; — not, in short, to any separation from the Church, but to dis- union within the Church. These circumstances, I say, ought constantly to be remembered, in our application of Paul's precepts ; not, of course, with any view of de- preciating the importance of a right faith, and extenuating the evil of heresy ; nor of implying that the sinfulness of schism is diminished by an avowed secession from the Church ; but to guard against the mistake, (by no means unfrequent,) of too hastily setting our conscience at rest by the plea of being neither heretics nor dissenters. For it- is not uncommon to hear men appeal to the soundness of their doctrine, and their strict conformity to the Church, when they would clear themselves from any imputation of being promoters of division ; though perhaps there is, notwithstanding, so nmch of the spirit of party in their proceedings, that they are introducing, or preparing the way for, all that train of evils 246 Divisions within [lECT. VIII. which have been formerly described. If, hke the Corinthians, who said, " I am of Paul, and I of Apollos," they range themselves under distinct leaders, and distinct denominations, welcoming as brethren those who adopt a certain fixed phraseology, and regarding with bigoted aversion or jealousy, all others, they may, without for- saking either the Church or its doctrines, be guilty of fostering discord, and of manifesting that carnal spirit which the Apostle so strongly reprobates. I have noticed in a former discourse the argu- ments by which the separation of Christians into parties is sometimes defended or excused ; viz. that it is necessary for the friends of religious truth to combine, for the better promotion of their object ; and that a party must be opposed by a party ; lest those who are weaker, both in numbers and in cause, should prevail, by firm union and cooperation, against the insulated efforts of those who are on the right side. Now it is most important to remember, that the advantages proposed by such a combination are secured (as far as that is possible without more than counterbalancing disadvantages,) by the LECT. VIII.] the Church. 247 union of those who hold the orthodox faith in the bond of such a society as our Church ; and that consequently the above arguments will not justify (unless further reasons can be shewn for it) the subdivision of one Church into sundry parties. I say, such a society as our Church ; because there may be, and in fact are. Christian communities so constituted, that the most fun- damental differences of doctrine may creep in, without occasioning any formal separation ; so that those who are nominally members of the same Christian society, may in reality be as widely at variance on the most essential points of faith, as any, the most hostile, sects. With- out articles of Religion, — without a creed, or an established liturgy, a Church may remain one indeed, as long as her members happen to coin- cide in their sentiments ; but, as they must be expected, in course of time, to slide insensibly into a variety of different tenets, so, when this has taken place, their union becomes an empty name. But this is not the case with the Church of England. She furnishes on certain points a common authority, to which all her members may appeal. Articles of faith, and a Liturgy, 248 Divisions loithin [lect. viii. furnish, so far as they are wisely framed, a barrier against the intrusion of any material error ; it being unlikely that those who honestly conform to both, should entertain any such fundamentally different notions as ought to pre- clude them from belonging to the same rehgious community, and holding together as becomes a Christian brotherhood. If indeed a mere assent and subscription to certain formularies were all that was required, a gradual departure from the spirit of these, if not from the letter, might often take place unobserved. But a well-framed Liturgy which is in constant use, operates as a continual check upon the preacher, — a corrector of his errors, if he venture to teach any thing in- consistent with it, — a reprover of his negligence, if he omit, or slightly pass over, any important doctrine, — a guide, to direct him to spiritual truth. A Liturgy ought to be such as to afford not only a help to congregational worship, but also a pattern of zealous and earnest, yet sober-minded, and calm, and rational Christian instruction ; and to be in short, a standing monitor both to the minister and his congre- gation ; which serves, according to the existing LECT. VIII.] the Church. 249 circumstances, either to prevent, or to detect and tacitly censure, or as far as possible to supply, any deficiencies in the preacher. If therefore the charge so often brought for- ward even by those who profess a complete approbation of the genuine doctrines of our Church, that the national Clergy do not preach the Gospel, be in any instance well founded, or if in any instance the doctrines of the Gospel are debased by the admixture of fanatical extra- vagancies,— in either case, the Minister, when he is reading the Liturgy, testifies with his own mouth against the errors of his own preaching. And thus the congregation are warned either to supply what is wanting, or to reject what is faulty, or to inquire respecting what is doubtful ; or, if the occasion call for it, to lay a complaint before the proper authorities. As far as human means can be effectual, it seems scarcely possible that better provisions than a Liturgy and Articles may afford, could be made against the suppression or perversion of Gospel truth ; or at least against the necessity of having recourse, for the sake of opposing such evils, to the formation of subordinate associations. 250 Divisions within [lect. viii. and party-distinctions within the Church. And when any such has arisen, there seems no suf- ficient reason for raising an opposite party to counteract the evil, if the Church itself thus fur- nishes a sufficient bond of union, and acknow- ledged common authority. And if any Church does not sufficiently furnish this, — if its formu- laries are in any respect defective, or ill-adapted to the present times, that is a reason for endea- vouring to remedy the defect, and to improve those formularies, so as to fit them for their proper purpose, rather than for introducing such division into the Church as they were expressly designed to prevent. The risk thus incurred (if it be not something more than a risk) of widening the breach, — of strengthening instead of weaken- ing the party we oppose, — of plunging, in the heat of a contest, into the contrary extreme from theirs, — of diminishing Christian charity, — and of drawing off men's attention from the essentials of religion to controversial bickerings, — is not in this case counterbalanced by any adequate benefit. Sometimes however we find it urged by men who profess to admit these principles, that they LECT. VIII,] the Church. 251 themselves seek not to form any separate party within the Church ; nor pretend to more than to be genuine Churchmen ; but that those whom they combine to oppose, are disguised sectaries, and covert heretics ; outwardly professing indeed an attachment to our Church, but in reahty holding sentiments hostile to the spirit of her doctrines and institutions. But it should be remembered, that, on the one hand, if any thing be taught or practised which can be proved contrary to the authorized formularies of the Church, this evil can be checked in a regular way, according to the constitution of that Church, without any need of forming a party for the purpose ; and that on the other hand, if nothing of this kind can be proved, we are neither honouring nor serving the Church by combining against any such concealed hostility. We are not honouring her, because we are in fact im- plying that her Articles and Liturgy are so defective as to permit those who conform to them to be nevertheless fundamentally erro- neous : nor are we effectually serving her, because we are setting a dangerous example of presump- tion, which an opposite party may easily follow. 252 Divisions within [lect. viii. They may as easily contend on their side, that, of all who profess conformity, they alone are the genuine Churchmen ; and that their inter- pretation of the language of the Articles and Liturgy, — their judgment as to the true spirit of them, — are alone to be received as correct. Some varieties of opinion, no doubt, exist, and must ever be expected to exist, among the members of our Church ; nor would it be possible, were it desirable, that any religious community should be so constituted as com- pletely to preclude all such differences. But our reformers seem to have designed to leave a certain latitude on points which they regarded as not of fundamental importance ; and if we would approve ourselves genuine disciples of those illustrious men, we must not seek to narrow the basis on which they reared their noble edifice, nor to exclude any whom they intended to admit. As however there are some differences which do not, so there are also others which do, imply the existence of principles adverse to the spirit of our Church ; and the prevalence of these ought doubtless to be guarded against." For I would not be under- LECT. VIII.] the Church. 253 stood to contend that all varieties of doctrine are to be regarded with indifference, as long as those who maintain them profess their adherence to the Chm'ch ; only let not these be made a plea for the formation of parties ; which seldom fail to produce greater evils than those they propose to remedy. By reference then to the Articles and the Liturgy, let each false doctrine or irregular practice be exposed and checked, as it arises ; not however by an appeal to these, avowedly human, compositions ; as if they were to decide (instead of the Scriptures themselves) what doctrines are to be received as part of the Christian faith ; but as decisive of the question, who ought, and who ought not, to remain a member of our Church \ But let not those who appear sincerely desirous of adhering to that Church be either driven into dissent by being hastily charged with it, or formed into a party within the Church by being opposed in the spirit of party. I. On the means of preventing or mitigat- ing the spirit of party in the Church, it is not * See Errors of Romanism, Ch. iv. § 7. 254 Divisions within [lECT. VIII. necessary here to enlarge ; as the subject has been fully discussed in the preceding discourses ; and as it is easy to apply the rules there laid down, to the case now before us. It will suffice there- fore to touch briefly on a few of the cautions most important to be observed ; and to offer some remarks as to their application in the present state of the Church. 1. Our first care should be, to avoid all extremes. Extremes in doctrine, extremes in practice, extremes even in manner, besides being in themselves faulty, have also a strong tendency not only to combine into a party those who approve of them, and who are of a disposi- tion to go all lengths in that which suits their inclinations, but likewise (by a reaction which seldom fails to take place,) to encourage oppo- site extremes, and generate opposite parties. Excessive austerity, and excessive self-indulg- ence ; — morality without faith, and faith without morality ; — overscrupulous attachment to forms, and disorderly contempt of forms ; these and many similar extremes both in preaching and practice, are always found mutually to promote each other, and to separate into hostile parties LECT. VIII.] the Church. 255 those who fall into them''. So plain indeed are the lessons both of reason and of experience, on this point, that they would not perhaps be so often disregarded, were it not that (in some measm-e perhaps through the ambiguity of lan- guage) moderation is so frequently confounded with insincerity, indifference, or timidity ; — indiscretion and extravagance, with decision of character, and an unhesitating, uncompromising, devoted zeal. And thus while the lukewarm and careless censure those who are zealous and energetic, as prone to extremes, men of a more •> " Let no minister think it a proof of success or of faith- fulness to the Gospel, that he retains one class of his congre- gation, and disgusts the other ; but rather, if such should unhappily be the case, let him examine his conduct with scrupulous anxiety, lest some imprudence even in the declara- tion of the truth, — some want of conciliation in the performance of the commission entrusted to him, may have deprived him of that blessed reflection and highest consolation, ' / take you to record this day, I am pure from the blood of all men,' Actsxx." Sumner's Apostolical Preaching, c. iii. — I gladly take this opportunity of bearing testimony to the practical utility of this excellent treatise, as well as to the good sense and candour which it evinces ; and of acknowledging my obligations to it for many of the principles laid down, and arguments adduced, in the course of these Lectures. 256 Divisions within [lECT. VIII. ardent temperament, on the other hand, are sometimes apt to accuse of lukewarmness, such as are perhaps no less active and earnest than themselves, but more careful to preserve in their sentiments and conduct the golden Mean. No one however need be at a loss how to regulate his behaviour on this point who has before him the example of the Apostle Paul. He certainly cannot be suspected of being lukewarm, — of a want of hearty and thorough devotedness to his Master's cause, — or of not setting before his hearers " the whole counsel of God ;" yet he neither so preached faith in the meritorious sacrifice of Christ as to omit enforcing the necessity of personal holiness, nor so preached good works as to lead men to trust in them for salvation : he did not so teach the doctrines of assurance, and of spiritual influence, as not to exhort them to " work out their own salvation with fear and trembling ;" nor did he so dwell on the importance of their own anxious exer- tions, as to keep out of sight the doctrine, that " it is God which worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure ;" — or to be backward in expressing his full confidence that " He who LECT. VIII.] the Church. 257 had begun a good work in them, would perform it until the day of Christ." In all points, in short, he is as striking an example of the dis- cretion which steers a middle course between contrary excesses, as he is of sincere, and earnest, and uncompromising zeal. The natural tendency of all men, when dis- gusted with the extravagances of one extreme, to rush into the opposite, is to be counteracted by constantly keeping in mind, that when any error or absurdity becomes prevalent, there is a very strong presumption at least that it must owe that prevalence, in part, to some admixture of truth and reason. And in fact the more unreasonable and extravagant any system may be, the stronger is the presumption that this absurdity must be blended with something just and rational which gives it currency. We must be careful therefore not to cast away the gold with the dross ; but diligently to ascertain, and carefully to separate and preserve, whatever is valuable in the mass. 2, And hence arises another rule, of very high importance, which is too frequently overlooked ; 258 Divisions witJmi [lect. viii. that, instead of abstaining from all mention of such important doctrines as have been the most perverted and abused, — or regarding them with suspicion, and touching but slightly on them, as dangerous in their tendency, we should be, on that very account, the more dihgent and con- stant in enforcing them. The great doctrines of justification by faith and of spiritual influence, afford a most remarkable instance to illustrate what has been said. How absurdly and how mischievously they have been perverted by enthusiasts, is but too well known ; and it is to be feared that many, who are far from rejecting those doctrines, have yet been thus led to regard them as unsafe, and, in their teaching, to keep them very much in the back-ground. Whereas they ought for this very reason to teach them the more assiduously ; not only because the neglect, is no less an evil than the abuse, of them, but because the very best security against that abuse is to preach the doctrines rationally, in their genuine and uncorrupted form^ Indeed «^ In the vast savannahs of America, travellers are often, it is said, threatened with destruction from fires, which having LECT. VIII.] the Church. 259 the Champions of truth may derive from the Advocates of error many a useful lesson for counteracting the progress of that error, if they will but study to imitate whatever there is of good in the system of their opponents, while they avoid the evil. 3. To these cautions should be added, a dis- position to make the most considerate and candid allowance for differences of taste and temper, such as were noticed in a former dis- course ; differences which, when good-sense and charity are not wanting, are rather an advantage than a detriment to the common cause ; but which, in the absence of these, are perhaps a more frequent occasion of mutual aversion and intestine discord, than even the most decided disagreement in matters of faith. If then we been kindled by some accident, among the luxuriant but sun-scorched vegetation, spread, before the wind, with a rapidity which precludes all hope of escape by flight. Their only resource, when thus pursued by the conflagration, is, to kindle the grass before them, and thus leave the flame which follows them no fuel to sustain it. An analogous expedient to this may in many cases prove equally suc- cessful. s2 260 Divisions withi?i [lect. viir. are sincerely desirous of preventing, as far as in us lies, these ill effects, it must be our study to restrain within due bounds our own peculiarities, rather than to criticise too strictly those of another ; to judge favourably of those who differ from us in moral or intellectual character, where there is nothing sinful in such difference ; and if they offend us by narrow-minded and uncharitable self-conceit, to be careful that we are not guilty of the same offence towards them. 4. Another branch of charity most essential for the preservation of unity and peace in the Church, is, to avoid as far as possible all impu- tation of bad motives. For " charity thinketh no evil;" i. e. puts the most favourable inter- pretation that the case will allow, on the conduct of another ; and even where that conduct is faulty, is unwilling to attribute it to the worst intentions. The fact is, that since scarcely any human action springs entirely from a single mo- tive,— what is right, having usually some alloy of human infirmity, and what is wrong, not un- frequently, some mixture of good, — almost every one's conduct will admit of two interpretations. LECT. VIII.] the Church. 261 Many a man's activity, for instance, in matters connected with religion, may be attributed either to zeal for God's honour and service, or to a restless and busy disposition, and a love of dis- play ; and there may be truth in each suppo- sition, though neither be the whole truth. Men's self-partiality generally leads them to give the more favourable explanation of their own mo- tives; and an uncharitable temper too often tempts them to put the harsher construction on another's. Now if we not only charge with the worst intentions those whose conduct is in any respect censurable, but assign bad motives also (as may often be done with much plausibility) even to the best actions of those against whom we have a prejudice, we are evidently taking the most effectual means to promote mutual ill-will and division. If therefore it is our object to prevent these evils, we must not only abstain from hastily forming any such harsh judgments, but even where we cannot but suspect corrupt motives, still, we should abstain as much as possible from openly imputing them, and thus exciting acri- monious feelings : especially when the conduct 262 Divisions within [lect. viii. resulting from these motives, whatever they are, is, in itself, good : we should " rejoice that Christ is preached," even when we believe that He is " preached of envy and strife." And even when this is not the case, — when any one's con- duct is such as to call for censure, — still it is not only charitable, but also expedient, with a view to promote peace, that some credit should, if possible, be given for good intentions. It may be that he deserves this credit ; but if not, still it is possible that he will deserve it ; — that being thus mildly reminded of what his motives ought to be, he may be more profited by this gentle and oblique admonition, than by a severe rebuke. 5. Another point respecting which the most constant watchfulness is requisite, in those who would maintain harmony and union among Christian brethren, is one which has been already mentioned in the former lectures ; viz. the em- ployment of such terms and phrases as have been made, or are likely to become, the badges of a party. The powerful influence of these, as it were, technical terms, in producing and keep- ing alive, and aggravating the spirit of party, has been already noticed; and the mischievous LECT. VIII.] the Church. 263 effects set forth, of adhering" to any such fixed modes of expression. But there is another caution belonging to this head which must not be omitted, as it is of no small importance, and is often neglected by those whose intentions are the most pure. There are many who systematically abstain altogether from the use of such terms as have been thus drawn into the service of a party, and made the Shib- boleth by which the members of it are mutually recognized. Now such a procedure is not surely the most likely to break down party-distinctions ; but tends rather to establish them the more firmly, by strictly confining the words and phrases in question to that use to which they have been thus appropriated. The most effectual method by which to defeat the object of one who should design to form or support a distinct party, is, for those who do not belong to it, not only not to avoid, but even studiously to employ the charac- teristic language of that party ; sometimes, if ^ Mr. Foster, in his Essay on the aversion of men of taste to evangelical Religion, has some excellent observations (Letters third and fourth) on the peculiarities of language adopted by divines; with a view to some other disadvantages attending it. 264 Divisions within [lect. viii. there be in it no intrinsic unfitness) in the same sense in which it is used by them ; sometimes, and perhaps oftener, (if the general rules of lan- guage permit,) in a different sense ; sometimes again, employing, in both cases, other, equivalent, terms also ; studying to vary as much as possible (so that no impropriety nor ambiguity be ad- mitted) the modes of expression adopted, for conveying the same sense. By this means, the use of the terms in question will speedily lose its peculiar force and significancy as indicative of a certain set of opinions : and besides that we shall avoid those other ill consequences formerly men- tioned % as resulting from such a restricted em- ployment of a certain peculiar phraseology, its influence as the badge of a party will be destroyed. 6. The last caution I shall suggest for the prevention of party-spirit within the Church, and which is closely allied indeed to the fore- going, but which is too important not to be distinctly mentioned, is, to avoid as much as possible the names of parties : I mean, not merely that we should abstain from assuining any such distinctive appellations, but also that we should Lecture VI. LECT. VIII.] the Church. 265 be very much on our guard against contributing to bestow them. However justly descriptive, and however unexceptionable in themselves, any such terms may be, — from whatever causes they may have arisen, ^ — by whomsoever they may have been first applied, whether reproachfully or boastfully, — their tendency to form and to maintain parties, can hardly be disputed. It is better therefore that the use of them should be as far as possible avoided. I say, as far as pos- sible, because many of them have been so esta- blished by long usage, that it would often be difficult to abstain from them without much obscure circumlocution : but even in this case much good may be effected by a constant care to avoid introducing them unnecessarily. This plan, if steadily pursued, will have a tendency to bring many of them, gradually, at least into comparative disuse. Of the terms in question some are framed expressly for the occasion ; such as those which are derived from the names of founders or leaders of parties ; as Calvinist, Arminian, Hutchinso- nian : these would be, if the plan now suggested were adopted, employed as seldom as possible ; 266 Divisions within [lect. viii. and where circumstances will admit of it, dis- continued altogether. Others again are words taken from common use, employed, as logicians speak, in the second intention, and appropriated as appellations of parties : these should be, in conformity with the above rule, employed very frequently, but in their ordinary and unappro- priated sense ; with a view to do away the force of them as names of parties. For the oftener they occur, when not used in that restricted sense, the less fitted they will be to convey that sense. We should by no means therefore avoid the use of such terms as, " Serious," " Evan- gelical," " Religious," or, " Orthodox ; " but carefully abstain from using them to designate particular parties in the Church, or sets of opi- nions. And we should not only refrain from gathering round the standard of a party, like the Corinthians, who said, " I am of Paul, and I, of Apollos," and refuse any distinctive appel- lation but that of " Christians of the Church of England," but we should also be careful not to lend our aid, by bestowing any such appellations^, However reproachful any appellation may be in its first origin, we must not conclude that, when established by use as LECT. VIII. j the Church. 267 to the combination into a party of those whose opinions or practices we may think objection- able. And if ever an occasion occurs, (for occasions undoubtedly sometimes do occur,) which calls for a deviation from our general plan, and renders it expedient for the advocates of any right measure, or the opponents of any alarming the name of a party, it -w-ill not be voluntarily retained, and boastfully cherished, by those who are attached to that party. The name of " Quaker," for instance, which was originally applied in derision, is no longer regarded, by the members of that sect, as reproachful. And such titles as " Saints," " Evangelical," " Liberal," &c. originally applied in bitter irony, are the more easily turned to the purpose of those on whom they are bestowed, because, as soon as these readily adopt them, they lose their ironical force and become lau- datory. On the other hand it should be remembered, that however honourable, and at the same time fairly applicable, in itself, any appellation may be, — however clearly it may describe the characteristics which ought to belong to every Christian, as, for instance " orthodox" or " evangelical," — it cannot be innocently assumed as the badge of a party. Those of the Corinthians who said, " I am of Christ," using this title to distinguish them from other members of the same Church, were no less censured than those who said, " I am of Paul," or " I am of ApoUos." 268 Divisions within [lect. viii. abuse, to combine for the purpose of accom- plishing their object, we should nevertheless not lose sight of that rule ; but carefully avoid either assuming any distinctive appellation, or in any other way incurring the risk of giving unneces- sary 'permanence to such a combination. We should on the contrary take especial care that it be dissolved as soon as the object proposed has been effected. For from the operation of that principle of our nature which has been formerly described, and against which we should be ever on our guard, there is a strong tendency in parties to perpetuate themselves, when the circumstances which gave rise to them have ceased to exist, and when, consequently, they can no longer answer any good purpose, but may be productive of unqualified evil. II. With respect to the parties actually ex- isting in our Church, an attempt to characterize them distinctly, and to describe fully the respec- tive faults which are most prevalent in each, would not only be invidious, and perhaps mis- chievous, but would in fact be in some degree foreign to the purpose of these lectures. It LECT. VIII.] the Church. 269 would be invidious, inasmuch as it might con- tribute to the too common mistake of unfairly classing among the members of a party those who are not devoted adherents of it ; and attri- buting to them an entire adoption of sentiments with which they only partially coincide : and it might be productive of mischief, by combining more strongly those who are thus classed to- gether and distinctly recognized as a party. And as for the peculiar faults to which each class respectively are the most prone, these, how great and dangerous soever, do not so pro- perly fall under our present consideration, as that one fault which is common to all, the Spirit of Party. A very brief mention therefore will suffice of some of the most prominent of two opposite classes of errors, (opposite, I mean, chiefly, as being the errors of persons who are opposed to each other,) which in the present day call for especial caution in avoiding them. 1. On the one side then, we should be warned against, first, the fault of not only introducing rehgious conversation injudiciously, indiscrimi- nately, and with something of irreverent famiha- rity, but also of employing in it constantly that 270 Divisions within [lect. viii. fixed and uniform phraseology, which has been above spoken of; and regarding with suspicion, as irrehgious, all who do not adopt the same set of expressions. 2. Another fault commonly to be met with in the same persons, is their permitting a vicious party spirit to swallow up that just and proper social-feeling, — that attachment to the Church, which they ought to cherish : so that while they regard with jealousy or aversion even the most sincerely pious members of that Church, who do not coincide in their pecuhar views, they make light of the guilt of schism, and are forward to give the right hand of fellowship to dissenters from her communion, provided they will but adopt those peculiar views, and make common cause with their party. 3. An unreasonable and injudicious austerity of manners, and a disposition to confound together things sinful in themselves, things merely inexpedient, or dangerous, and things indifferent, is another error which often accom- panies the foregoing; and which is sometimes productive of very serious ill-consequences, by producing feelings of disgust towards Religion LECT. VIII.] tJie Church. 271 itself, and by driving many (according to the principle above laid down) into the opposite extreme^. 4. There are also two faults in the preaching of some well-intentioned Ministers, which those most frequently fall into who are characterised by the peculiarities above-mentioned. The one is the error which has been treated of in a former lecture'', of attempting to explain too much, — of overlooking the boundaries of the human faculties and by presumptuously en- deavouring fully to develop the most subhme and inscrutable mysteries of our Religion, afford- ing matter of triumph to the infidel, and of perplexity to weak brethren. 5. The other fault is that of those who con- fine themselves too much to the inculcation of a few fundamental doctrines ; — whose preaching is so exclusively elementary, that they scarcely proceed beyond the first rudiments of the Christian faith ; and are perpetually occupied in laying the foundation, while they forget to rear the superstructure : so that sometimes a s See Sumner's Apostolical Preaching, c. 8. ^ Lecture VI. 272 Divisions ivithin [lect. viii. multitude of discourses from a preacher of this description will be found to be, in substance, but one ; all being strictly confined to the same topics, and differing merely in the order of their recurrence. That this fault is less pernicious than the opposite one, of omitfmg the great fun- damentals of Christianity, must be distinctly acknowledged ; but it is no less certain that it is a fault ; and how much such a practice is at variance with that of the Apostles, no one who carefully and candidly studies their writings can doubt. In fact we may even lead our hearers into Antinomianism and the like pernicious errors, with which we are not at all affected ourselves, if we lay before them a -partial and imperfect view of the doctrines of the Gospel. The preaching of the Truth will not produce its appropriate effects, unless we are careful to preach the whole Truth, as well as nothing but the Truth. The faults to be guarded against on the oppo- site side, being of course, generally speaking, the contrary extremes to those just mentioned, it is not necessary to enter into any full description of them ; such as, a disposition to dread, as LECT. VIII.] the Church. 273 savouring of Methodism, any mention of reli- gious subjects, except on the most solemn occasion, and in the most sacred places; — a leaning tow^ards over-indulgence, and unsafe, if not sinful, compliance with the prevailing fashions of the world, from an excessive dread of the imputation of being " righteous overmuch," without sufficient care to keep on the safe side in doubtful matters ; — and a tendency towards that erroneous attachment to the Church, which is ready to tolerate in those who are free from any taint of schism, and vehemently hostile to all sectaries, if not gross vice, at least the absence of sincere and vital Christianity ; and to have but little fear either of lukewarmness or religious ignorance, in comparison of heterodoxy or dissent'. It is to be observed however, that many who are by no means chargeable with any such laxity of sentiment as this, manifest, never- theless, on the same side, much of the same narrow-minded bigotry and party -spirit with those who fall into the above-mentioned excess. The most prominent fault in the preaching of ' Errors of Romanism, Ch. v. § 8. T 274 Divisions ivithin [lect. viii. the class of persons now under consideration, is that which has been already adverted to ; viz. that in their dread of enthusiastic and antinomian excesses, they are apt to keep in the back-ground the great fundamental doctrines of Christianity ; and to dwell almost exclusively on such moral precepts, as might equally well have been de- livered by a Pagan or a Jew ; so that while those just mentioned lay a right foundation, without building upon it, these, on the contrary, are apt to build without a foundation. Nor are they justified in thinking it sufficient, if at the great festivals of our Church they direct the attention of their hearers to points of faith, in appropriate and distinctly doctrinal discourses. Even a more frequent statement, proof, and in- culcation, of those points of faith, is far from being sufficient, if that faith be still kept apart from practice, as a distinct consideration ; instead of being made, in the most conspicuous manner, the groundwork of it, — the motive from which it is to spring, — the tree of which it is the fruit. If we place before us, as a model, the writings of the Apostles, we shall plainly see that it is not enough that the faith should be sound, and LECT. VIII.] the Church. 21S the conduct, right also, unless that conduct be made to arise out of that faith. The faults however which have now been adverted to, as the most prevalent in the two opposite parties respectively, not only are less the appropriate subject of our present considera- tion, than the party-spirit which is common to both ; but are so far of less practical importance, that they may be expected to diminish in pro- portion as that spirit itself is subdued, which con- tributes, above all other causes, to foster them. It should therefore be our first and most con- stant care, earnestly to protest against this ; and to maintain a steady opposition to both parties, as parties ; while we study, at the same time, to preserve the most friendly union possible with the members of both, considered as individuals; doing full justice to the merits of each, and care- fully selecting and adopting whatever is right in their sentiments and practice. And if those who are disposed, either by their own temper, or from the result of their experience, to reckon every one among the adherents of one party or another, — find themselves perplexed and at a T 2 276 Divisions within [lECT. VIII. loss in which class to place us", we may regard this circumstance with self-congratulation, as a presumption that we have been successful in steering a middle course between opposite ex- tremes, in keeping ourselves untainted with the spirit of party, and in preserving unbroken, as far as possible, the bond of charity with all men. III. That such a system of conduct however as I have been recommending will uniformly obtain full credit from all parties, and readily succeed in producing the general conciUation at which it aims, I am far from supposing. Indeed, it would be neither honest nor wise to deny, that the middle course, which you have been all along exhorted to follow, has its own peculiar dis- advantages : nor can these Lectures perhaps be more suitably closed, than by a distinct k It is observed by Aristotle, (Pol. b. 2.) that the con- stitution of Sparta had its elements so nicely blended, as to leave men in doubt to what class to refer it ; some calling it a Royalty, some, an Oligarchy, others reckoning it Aristocratical, and others again as rather Democratical : a strong indication, as he observes, of its being so judiciously tempered, as to keep clear of the faults of each of the simple forms of govern- ment. LECT. viii.] the Clinrch. 211 statement of these disadvantages, together with the counterbalancing benefits : not only that the suggestions which have been offered may not be thought the result of over-sanguine views and miscalculation of difficulties, and may be allowed to be at least sober and deliberate ; but also that any one who is disposed to approve them, may be duly prepared for the obstacles he will have to encounter, if he practically adopts the principles I have been inculcating, 1. Let him be warned then, that he must ex- pect to incur, if not hostility, at least unfriendly suspicion, from the violent, the narrow-minded, and the uncharitable, of all parties ; who are frequently the larger, and almost always the more forward and active, portion of each. For a time at least, he will find that every word and action will be scrutinized with uncandid jealousy, and not seldom misrepresented. By many of each party he will be considered as a disguised adversary, the more to be dreaded and disliked for not professing open hostility : while others regard him with contempt, as a weak, a luke- warm, or a timorous character, meanly seeking to retain the favour of both parties, by a partial 278 Divisions within [lect. viii. sacrifice of the truth ; while some again who are not disposed to judge so harshly, or so contemp- tuously, will yet doubt whether it be safe to afford him their hearty cooperation. 2. In addition to this disadvantage he must expect also, even when he has surmounted un- friendly opposition, to forfeit, for the present at least, much of the celebrity which he might otherwise have attained, and the desire of which is so natural to man. For, unquestionably, equal talents will obtain very unequal shares of ap- plause, in the Advocate of a party, and in the Peace-maker. The former, besides that he is heard with partiality, and eagerly praised, by those whose cause he defends, has also the advantage, that there is in the very tone of con- troversy itself, something spirited and energetic, which attracts attention, and excites a general interest ; and likewise, that if by his exertions a party is formed, or revived, or raised into cele- brity, he will not fail to partake of that celebrity ; and perhaps will have his name transmitted to posterity among the distinguished champions of the cause ; while he on the contrary, who is labouring to extinguish controversies, and to LECT. VIII.] the Church. 279 suppress parties, must expect, and even hope, that if his efforts are successful, both their name and his own will be buried in peaceful oblivion. He must be ready to exclaim with the disin- terested hero of classic fiction, Haec dira, meo dum vulnere, pestis Pulsa cadat, patriam remeabo inglorius urbem Let him hope however that by patient zeal, he may in time wear out both Obloquy and Sus- picion ; — that by unconquerable gentleness, he will at length disarm hostihty ; — that by his firmness and activity, he will gradually do away the imputation of weakness and insincerity; — and that whenever the storm of angry passion shall subside, the steady though quiet current of sound reason will prevail. He may trust at least, that if he incur the censure of the intemperate and bigoted on both sides, the candid and judi- cious on both sides will support him by their approbation. And let him remember, that in proportion as he is advancing in the good opinion of the members of opposed parties, he is also promoting their benefit. In proportion as they ' Virg. vEn. h. 11. 280 Divisions, 8fc. [lect. viii. become reconciled to him, they will also approach towards a reconciliation with each other. And finally, let those who are disposed to re- gret that injustice is done to their abilities, or to their intentions, — to grieve at meeting with calumny, or with unmerited neglect, — remember, that " there is nothing covered that shall not be revealed, and hid, that shall not be known :" — that He in whose service they are engaged, — who has blessed the Peace-makers as His own children, — and " to whom all hearts are open," — shall one day, by the brightness of His pre- sence, clear away all obscurity, and dispel all falsehood and delusion ; and that on that day their Father which seeth in secret. Himself, shall reward them openly." SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. SERMON I. THE CHRISTIAN DUTY OF OBEDIENCE TO RULERS. Heb. xii. 11. No chastening for the present seemetJi to be joyous, hut grievous : nevertheless afterward it yieldeth the peaceable fruit of righteousness unto them that are exercised thereby. Every page of history may furnish instruction to a well-constituted mind. If the man of worldly wisdom can find there maxims of worldly con- duct, and learn to judge of the future by the past, the Christian, whose mind is rightly imbued with the wisdom that is from above, may also derive from the study another and still more precious kind of knowledge, by contemplating, 284 Christian Duty of [serm. i. in a religious point of view, the nature of man, and the moral government of God ; and may supply himself with rules, not only of public expediency, but also of private duty. To lead the mind to such contemplations, and to deduce such maxims from the most im- portant recorded events, is no unsuitable task indeed to the historian, but is one of the proper and especial offices of the preacher : on the other hand, that which more pecuharly belongs to the historian, as such, — the office of not only recording unquestionable facts, but of ascertain- ing the truth in doubtful cases, weighing con- fficting evidence, detecting the errors of received accounts, and verifying the most minute par- ticulars that have any bearing on the events in question ; — all this, I say, it is more suitable and more safe for the preacher to abstain from. Let him leave to others the business of investigating, and of clearing up history, and be content with applying to a religious use that which is already well estabhshed and generally known. Respecting the events to which the present anniversary directs our attention, we have a sufficiency of authentic information for this SERM. 1.] Obedience to Rulers. 285 purpose. Disputable as many points may still be, there is enough, and more than enough, of what is admitted on all hands, at least by all reason- able and moderate men, to furnish abundance of profitable meditation and practical wisdom. I say, by reasonable and moderate men, because it would be impossible to take such a view of the events in question, as should coincide at once with the opposite prejudices of the perverse and violent of each party. If there be any who will not admit, that, in the unhappy civil contest we are alluding to, there were good and conscien- tious men on both sides, or that both sides were to a certain degree blameable ; — if any should maintain, on the one hand, that Charles made no encroachments on the rights of his people, or on the other, that his condemnation to death was a lawful or justifiable measure ;— such per- sons, as they could not be brought to acquiesce in any one view of the events in question, so neither could they, it is to be feared, be led to moralize profitably on them, till the violence of their prejudices were softened. Omitting then all consideration of what may fairly be regarded as doubtful points, and taking 286 Christian Duty of [SERM. I. that view of the general outline of the events in question which is commonly received, among right-minded and moderate men, let us inquire with what sentiments a Christian ought to re- flect on them, and what lessons he may learn from them. A heavy judgment no doubt did this nation at that time suffer, in the calamity of a civil war, and of the other mischiefs which ensued ; but both national advantages have sprung, and, if we are not wanting to ourselves, personal improve- ment may be derived, from the chastisement inflicted on our ancestors, by the fatherly hand of him who is wont to bring good out of evil. " No chastening," says the Apostle, " for the present seemeth to be joyous, but grievous : nevertheless afterward it yieldeth the peaceable fruit of righteousness to them that are exercised thereby." Very strongly indeed is our gratitude called for, when we contemplate the whole course and consequences of this chastening dispensation. We might indeed have derived a salutary warning from it, and obtained spiritual benefit, had nothing but unmixed evil (of a SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 287 temporal nature) been the result : but on the contrary, how great and how unexpected are the national advantages which we now enjoy ! Let any one but consider, how many were the chances, humanly speaking, against our attaining ultimately that free, peaceful, and secure con- dition with which this country has since been blessed. Two parties were inflamed against each other, not by personal animosity merely, but by the most violent and rooted opposition of principles : the long duration of the war which ensued tended to inflame their mutual hostility, and to harden their hearts to acts of violence : still, hopes might have been entertained of re- concihation and peaceable adjustment, had not the blood of the unhappy King been shed ; which doubtless was a measure purposely re- sorted to by those whose ambitious views made them adverse to any such favourable termination. They wished by this act to cut off their partisans from all chance of a compromise, — all hopes of pardon. We all know what dismal scenes of violence and anarchy ensued; yet from this chaos it pleased God ultimately to work out peace and order. Our constitution, both in 288 Christian Duty of' [serm. r. Church and State, emerged unimpaired, and with its principles more clearly ascertained, and more firmly fixed than before ; and we escaped, not only at the time, but, it is to be hoped, for ever, that alternative of evils which generally concludes a civil contest ; turbulent democracy, or rigid despotism. Does not all this call for the warmest and most devout gratitude, from those at least who beheve that " the Most High ruleth in the kingdoms of men ?" More especially when we consider that Divine Providence was pleased to bring it about, through the instrumentality of men's follies and crimes, rather than of their wisdom and virtue. How fortunate, that is, how providential was it, for this nation, that the intemperate violence and selfish ambition of the revolutionists of that day, which might have been tolerated in a minor degree, should have been pushed to such an excess, as effectually to open the eyes of honest men, to disgust them with their pretended doctrines of liberty, and to show them the natural consequences of a spirit of insubordination, and the advantage as well as duty of submitting to regular government. These SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 289 truths we also may learn, as well as our ancestors, from the contemplation of the same transactions. If we would escape the condemnation of neglect- ing the lesson which this page of history affords, the spirit of devout gratitude for our deliverance, which it ought to inspire, should be accompanied by the spirit of dutiful obedience (on Christian principles) to lawful authority. With respect to the much-agitated question concerning this Christian duty of obedience, it may be observed, that at first sight, if we con- fined our attention to the language of Scripture, there would, appear to be no room for doubt on the subject. No language can be plainer than the Apostle Peter's, when he says, " Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake :" or Paul's exhortation, " Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers ; for there is no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God : whosoever therefore resisteth the power resisteth the ordinance of God." Such expressions as these would seem to be, to a Christian at least, too decisive to admit of any dispute ; especially when we con- sider that those rulers, for whom this divine 290 Christian Duty of [SERM. I. right to obedience was claimed, were not Chris- tians, but Pagans. When, however, tyrants, who abused their power by the most inordinate oppression, claimed still an abject submission from their subjects, on the ground of these precepts, and when weak or perverse men so interpreted them as avowedly to make no allow- ance for the most extreme cases, and after having called the King " the Lord's anointed," so em- ployed the phrase as to imply, that even if he were a ferocious monster, like Nero or Caligula, all opposition to his most lawless attempts would be sacrilege, the minds of many men were so revolted by these extravagancies, that they rushed into the opposite extreme, of either re- jecting the authority of the Apostle, or nullifying his precepts by an unwarrantable laxity of inter- pretation. Hence probably sprung the doctrine of the Social Compact% as it was called ; according to which, every member of society was to be re- garded as having voluntarily waived some part of his natural independent rights, for the sake, and on the condition, of enjoying the advantages a Vide Locke. SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 291 of good government. The stipulation therefore being for obedience on his part, and good govern- ment on the part of his rulers, he is bound in conscience, they said, by this agreement, to obey them, as long as they perform their part. And it seems to follow^ no less inevitably, (how far soever the advocates of this theory may have been from admitting, or intending to teach, such a conclusion,) that whenever the ruler is guilty of any fault, great or small, the compact being violated'', the subject is at once released " Every violation of the compact on the part of the go- vernor releases the subject from his allegiance, and dissolves the government. I do not perceive how we can avoid this consequence, if we found the duty of allegiance upon compact, and confess any analogy between the social compact and other contracts. In private contracts, the violation or non- performance of the conditions, by one of the parties, vacates the obligation of the other. Now the terms and articles of the social compact being no where extant or expressed ; the rights and offices of the administrator of an empire being so many and various ; the imaginary and controverted line of his prerogative being so liable to be overstepped in one part or other of it : the position that every such transgression amounts to a forfeiture of the government, and consequently authorizes the people to withdraw their obedience, and provide for them- selves by a new settlement, would endanger tlie stability of u 2 292 Christian Duty of' [SERM. I. from his allegiance ; the very ground of that allegiance being, by the nature of the compact itself, no other than the exact fulfilment of the corresponding stipulation on the other side. And since the governors cannot be expected to detect and proclaim their own faults, the sub- jects, being thus necessarily left themselves sole judges of the existence and amount of miscon- duct in their rulers, the ultimate result of the doctrine is, in plain words, no other than this ; that the people are bound to obey the magistrate as long as they think proper : a doctrine which, if acted upon, would expose all the world to the horrors of anarchy, till a ruler should be found, not only faultless, but able to convince his sub- jects that he was so. It is a convenient circumstance in this system, that it will enable its advocates, without any sacri- fice of consistency, to declaim in the strongest every political fabric in the world, and has in fact always supplied the disaffected with a topic of seditious declamation. If occasions have arisen, in which this plea has been resorted to with justice and success, they have been occasions, in which a revolution was defensible upon other and plainer prin- ciples. The plea itself is at all times captious and unsafe." — Paley. Moral Philosophy, Vol. II. chap. iii. pp. 140, 141. SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 293 terms in praise of loyalty, and even to load with anathemas all who may violate its duties, and yet to reserve a gap, as it were, in the bulwark they are raising, which will allow them to pass through whenever they are disposed. Their loyalty is only conditional; and the condition, viz. that of perfection in the ruler, is impossible : so that this hypothetical obligation can never restrain them in real life ; and the most fair- sounding professions amount, practically, to no- thing at all. " What ! " they will say, " are we to acknow- ledge the right divine of Kings to govern wrong?" The right which is here described, purposely, in the most paradoxical and revolting form, if rationally and candidly explained, is one which we cannot deny, without denying in fact all right whatever of all governors, as such, to the obedience of their subjects. E. g. Let us deny their right to govern wrong ; what then remains ? " They have a right to govern well :" and who is to be the judge of the goodness of their measures ? " The people, of course ; since there is no third party concerned." It must be the governed themselves who are to decide 294 Christian Duty of [serm. i. (either in what concerns them generally, or in the case of any individual among them) on the conduct of the governor. It follow^s then, that every man is bound in conscience to conform to the magistrate's commands, {recommendations they should rather be called, on this system,) whenever he and his fellow-subjects believe in their consciences that the directions are rea- sonable and right. And is he not also bound in conscience, under similar circumstances, to con- form to the recommendations of his neighbour, or any other private individual ? The magistrate therefore will be only an adviser ; and will have no more rightful power than any other citizen. E. g. Suppose a tax to be levied, (to take the example of one of the least popular acts of government,) a man is bound, it seems, in con- science to pay it, provided he understands and approves of the grounds and purpose of it, and judges that he is reasonably and properly called on to contribute : but suppose a neighbour solicits his subscription to some charity or public work, if he thinks in his conscience, or his friends assure him, that the work is a good one, and that he is fairly expected to subscribe, is he SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 295 not, in this case also, bound in conscience to comply with the solicitation ? He may indeed refuse to contribute ; but he cannot, without a contradiction in terms, deny that he ought. According to this system therefore of conditional obedience, a governor is completely on a level with a private citizen ; and has, as a governor, no rights whatever. When governors shall be so perfect, as never to propose a measure that is not faultless, and when subjects also shall be so infallible in their judgments, and so candid in their dispositions, as universally to perceive and acknowledge this perfection, then, and not till then, may a peace- able and permanent government be established on such principles. Whatever currency this doctrine has obtained, is to be attributed, in great measure, to the mis- representations and the perversions to which the opposite doctrine has been subjected. Of the principal of these it will be worth while to give a brief summary, after having first laid down what that doctrine is which has been thus abused by some, and misrepresented by others ; in order, if possible, to give precision to those 296 Christian Duty of [serm. i. vague notions which are afloat on the sub- ject. The relations existing among mankind, in which there are duties required on both sides, may be divided into two classes ; those in which the parties are mutually responsible to each other, and those in which they are not. To the former class belong all partnerships, mercantile bargains, and in short the great mass of voluntary deal- ings between man and man. In all these cases, not only is each party bound in conscience to the fulfilment of his part of the agreement, but, each being responsible to the other for that fulfilment, if either party fail in performing his engagement, the other is at once released from his obligation by the dissolution of this condi- tional compact. If a merchant, e. g. engage to supply another by a certain day with goods of a certain quaUty and quantity, at an agreed price, should he send them later than the time stipulated, or of an inferior quality, the other is not bound to make the purchase. He may indeed indulgently overlook the failure ; and may be expected in generosity to do so, if it chance to be of no great consequence ; but that SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 297 must be left to his own free choice : no one would say that he was bound by his contract, when the condition on which his promise was understood to depend, was not fulfilled. The other class of relations is of a widely different nature. It comprehends not only that between governor and subject, but between parent and child, — between kindred in general, between husband and wife,— and between every man and his neighbours. In all these cases, there are indeed obligations on both sides, but the parties are 7iot mutually responsible to each other. Parents are no less bound in conscience to take care of their children, than children to honour their parents ; and to God the parents are responsible for the performance of this duty ; but let not children suppose that every neglect of duty on the part of the parent absolves them from theirs. The fifth commandment is not con- ditional ; it does not say, " Honour thy father and thy mother as long as in thy opinion they behave well." The same is the relation between married persons : they are bound by their vows before God's altar to mutual care, and kindness, and fidelity ; but if each party were at liberty. 298 Christian Duty of [serm. i. on any supposed neglect or unkindness in the other, to regard the marriage as dissolved, what would become of society ? In like manner also, every man is bound in conscience to make a good use of the wealth, hfe, and abiUties, with which God has blessed him, no less than his neighbours are bound to abstain from invading his property, or injuring his person. But if (as he easily may do) he make an ill use of his property or talents, in such a manner as to be amenable to no hiunan law, his neighbours can inflict no punishment, except blame, desertion of his society, and absti- nence fi'om friendly offices. Should they regard him as accountable to them for the use he makes of his property, and as having forfeited his right to it, by the neglect of his duty, all property must be at an end under such a system ; since every one who might think that his neighbour did not make the best use of his wealth, would hold himself authorized to plunder him without scruple. So also is the governor bound to make a good use of his power, no less than his subjects are, to obey him ; and he is accountable to God for so doing ; but not to them : for if this merely SEllM. I.] Obedience to Riders. 299 conditional right to obedience be once admitted, it must, as I have already endeavoured to shew, destroy all government whatever. The governor's power, it is true, is intrusted to him by Providence, not as so much private property, but solely and exclusively for the good of the governed ; and to him I would urge the different character, and the heavier weight, of the responsibility he lies under ; as being bound, not merely to have the public good in view, (which is the case with all, even in the manage- ment of their own property,) but to make the public good the only object of his government, to the exclusion of all personal considerations. And I would tell the subjects, (as the Apostle does,) that this power is indeed intrusted to the governor for their good; but not intrusted hy them : for if this were the case, and if he were responsible to them for the use of his power, they would, in fact, be the rulers, and the nominal magistrate would be but their deputy. And if a similar principle were admitted in those other cases which have been above-mentioned, the whole fabric of society must inevitably fall to ruin. 300 Christian Duty of [serm. i. In these last cases, indeed, the pvmciple I have been contending for is pretty generally admitted ; and as it is equally applicable to the case of government, it would not probably have been so often overlooked there, but for the many perver- sions and misrepresentations to which it has been exposed, and the extravagant and unwarrantable lengths to which it has been pushed. One of the erroneous notions which has been entertained respecting the precepts in question, and which has contributed to bring them into disrepute, is, that they apply exclusively, or peculiarly, to Kings ; an absurdity so gross, that those who have never chanced to meet with it, may perhaps think it undeserving of serious attention. It is indeed almost too evident to require proof, that all magistrates and members of the legislature, lawfully constituted, have alike a divine right to obedience. It is evident not only from reason, and from the express words of the Apostle, but also from the argument he uses, viz. that civil government is necessary for the welfare of society. Neither monarchy nor re- public can subsist without subordination ; which is therefore, in both alike, constituted, by divine SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 301 authority, a moral duty. In those Countries indeed which have a King as the highest ma- gistrate, the highest reverence is, on that ac- count, due to him : but on the very same ground, a proportionate obedience and respect is no less strictly due to subordinate magistrates also, and even to the humblest ministers of the law. " Render therefore unto all their due : tribute to whom tribute is due ; custom, to whom custom ; fear, to whom fear ; honour,, to whom honour." Another error which has tended to raise a prejudice against the doctrine of unconditional obedience, is that of extending the duty to illegal commands. Now it is clear, both from the nature of the case, and from the Apostle's words, that obedience is due to governors, as such; not from any inherent personal sanctity, but by virtue of their office. Their authority therefore resting on established law, cannot extend beyond it. Paul himself more than once insisted on his rights as a Roman citizen, and protested strongly against the illegal conduct of those magistrates who confined and punished him without trial. 302 Christian Duty of' [SERM. I. If indeed a ruler exhort and recommend his subjects to do something which he cannot legally enforce, if it be not wrong and unreasonable in itself, and if he be such an one as to merit their confidence, they are right and praiseworthy in cheerfully complying with his wishes ; but they have no right to stigmatize as rebels those who may think differently in any such case. If how- ever he attempt to enforce it as a right, they will do well to withstand such a violation of the laws, as might afterwards lead to more hurtful encroachments. In fact, a timely, steady, and mild resistance, on legal grounds, to every un- lawful stretch of power, (as in the well-known case of the ship-money,) will prove the most effectual means, if uniformly resorted to, for preventing the occurrence of those desperate and extreme cases which call for violent and dangerous remedies. And, though bound to obey the laws and the magistrates as long as they remain in authority, the subject is fully authorized to attempt, by all legal and consti- tutional means, the removal of any that he may think bad. Lastly, another error which has been some- SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 303 times maintained by the advocates of our doc- trine, and much oftener falsely attributed to them, is that of making no allowance for extreme cases. The soundest principles, when pressed to an extravagant excess, become absurd. If a ruler should systematically employ his power to promote the misery and ruin of his people, (which in less favoured constitutions may easily take place under the sanction of the laws, but hardly can, in this, without the violation of them,) doubtless they would not be bound to submit to the oppression of such a merciless tyrant. Though even here it were better to avoid the ambiguity and confusion which results from saying, that in such a case resistance would be lawful: it is better to say, that law itself should be dispensed with, when the abuses of it become so intolerable, as to destroy the very objects for which law is instituted. It would be fruitless, as it is needless, to attempt laying down beforehand what those cases are. Every man must judge for himself on each occasion, when it is that such an extreme case of oppres- sion occurs, as to render submission a greater public evil than the violation of an important 304 Christian Duty of [SERM. I. general rule. When the occasion does not occur, (and in this country nothing is now less probable,) it is unprofitable, and worse than un- profitable, to dwell on the subject : and when it does occur, let each remember that he will be awfully responsible before the tribunal of God, not only for the justice of his decision, but also for the purity of his motives. Let it not be said that to recognize these extreme cases is to nullify the principle formerly laid down, and make obedience depend on the good conduct of the rulers. Extreme cases do not constitute the rule, but the exception; and similar exceptions must be admitted in every general rule ; and may fairly be left to the dis- cretion of the wise and candid, without shaking the authority of the rule itself: whereas if it be once admitted that there is a mere voluntary compact between governor and subject, it will follow from the very nature of such a compact, that it is dissolved by the smallest as well as by the greatest violation of its conditions ; and that though the subjects may be pleased indulgently to overlook minor faults, it must rest entirely with their own choice to shew this indulgence or not. SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 305 In the other relations formerly mentioned, few would deny that the general rule holds good ; though in them also, extreme cases may occur which would e. g. absolve the child from obedience to his parents, and suspend a man's control over his own property. Let these ex- ceptions be allowed ; but let them be allowed as exceptions. Who would suffer a city to be burnt, rather than stop the conflagration by puDing down a house without the owner's leave ? Who would suffer a shipwrecked crew to perish with cold and famine, rather than shelter and feed them at his neighbour's expense, before he could ask his permission ? Yet how mischievous would it be to found on such cases as these a gene- ral rule, that any man may invade another's pro- perty whenever he sees an advantage in so doing ! How far resistance was or was not justified in the case now before us, it is not my purpose to inquire. Few reasonable men will be disposed to deny, on the one hand, that it was in great measure provoked by unwise and unjustifiable encroachments, and, on the other, that it was carried to an unwarrantable excess by ambitious and turbulent men. Had the moderate on each X 306 Christian Duty of [srrm. i. side possessed but sufficient influence, it is pro- bable they would have prevented or put a stop to most of the evils that ensued. And this leads me to consider the third and last of those benefits which we ought to derive from the study of this portion of history : it ought to teach men of all parties the advantages and the duty of moderation. There will always be some men of the description of those that will learn from no experience but their own ; but the wise will take a lesson from that of their ancestors. The events of that period are a most remarkable illustration of the maxim which was laid down long ago by the most judicious of the ancient philosophers, that any system cannot be more effectually overthrown than by pressing it to an unreasonable excess ; and that the violent and incautious advocates of any measure are taking the sure means to defeat their own object. The supporters, he says, of an oligarchical form of government, and those of a democracy, destroy their respective constitutions, if they carry the principles of them to an immoderate length'. The candid and judicious reader may <^ Arist. Pol. et Rhet. SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 307 find these truths strikingly exemphfied in the history before us ; which exhibits the intem- perate zeal of both parties producing results opposite to those which they respectively aimed at. He may see how the bigoted advocates of established abuses, and opposers of all amend- ment, contributed to bring about a complete revolution ; while those who were never satisfied without perpetual and total changes, at length, by their restless turbulence, occasioned the restoration of the original constitution. He will perceive how the most rash and violent sup- porters of the Church Establishment were in fact aiding the efforts of its enemies towards its entire overthrow ; and how, on the other hand, the Presbyterian party, the most intolerant exacters of rigid uniformity, led the way, by their inveterate hostility to our Church, to the predominance of the Independents ; whose sys- tem annihilated all establishment, and all unifor- mity, by erecting each congregation into a distinct and insulated church. Lastly, it may be clearly perceived, that while the advisers and abettors of the most violent and arbitrary mea- sures, who would have had no bounds set to the 308 Christian Duty of [SERM. I. royal prerogative, were the chief agents in pro- ducing the total overthrow of the monarchy itself, and the violent death of their unhappy Sovereign ; — the intemperate advocates of the popular rights, who were not satisfied with any restrictions on regal power, and could brook no submission to any but a repubhcan government, were in fact the means of establishing an abso- lute military despotism. Surely men of all parties ought to learn from such a course of events, if not the intrinsic excellence of moderation, at least the prudence of it ; even if they cannot be taught that the middle way is the best, they may perceive from experience that it is the safest; and even though not cured of an extravagant attachment to their favourite political objects, may at least learn to be cautious not to defeat those very objects by a rash and violent pursuit of them. But in fact there would be no great difficulty in explaining the intrinsic advantages of modera- tion, if men's tempers could but be brought into a proper state. The fault is generally more in the heart than the head. For it is surely very intelligible in the abstract, that a man may SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 309 adhere to the mean in forming his opinions, yet not be the less sincere or less firm in maintaining them ; and may be zealous for the accomplish- ment of an object, though he be mild and cautious in the manner of doing it. Why then are such men so often stigmatized as lukewarm, temporizing, and inconsistent ? It is not from mere weakness of understanding, but from the evil passions which generate party spirit, and in turn spring from it. Turn to the word of God, and you will find a medicine for this disease. The Gospel incul- cates humility: am I then, let a man ask himself, distrustful of my own judgment, backward in deciding on points which I have not perfectly studied, ready to learn, open to conviction, will- ing to confess myself mistaken ? for these are the fruits of humility. The Gospel, again, teaches charity: let a man then examine himself whether he is free from all bitter hostility, all jealousy and envy, love of contention, and eagerness to enjoy a triumph ; whether he makes all candid allowance for others, and pities, even while he censures, their failings. The Gospel teaches dis- interested public spirit, not only by its precepts. 310 Christian Duty of [serm. i. but by the example of Him who " came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many :" let every one try therefore whether his judgment is unbiassed by personal ambition, and the desire of private advantage ; whether he is seeking purely the glory of God, and the welfare of his Country, or his own credit and advancement. If these principles were but acted on, if pride, bitter animosity, and selfishness, were but ex- cluded, pohtical dissensions, though they might not be entirely suppressed, would be neither violent nor mischievous. We should much oftener attain truth, and we should never fail of attaining moderation. Let us then be instructed by the faults and the sufferings of our ancestors, which are this day commemorated ; that the chastening of the Lord may not lose its due effect on us. And let it not be forgotten, that the want of mode- ration will be tenfold more blameable in us than in them ; not only because we have the benefit of their example, but also because we are placed in much more favourable circumstances in this respect than they were. The principles of the SERM. I.] Obedience to Rulers. 311 constitution were not then fixed and known as they now are ; the extent of the respective pri- vileges, rights, and duties of the King and his subjects was but vaguely and doubtfully laid down. Even those who the most strongly con- demn the unfortunate Charles and his adherents, cannot in fairness but acknowledge, that great allowance should be made for the uncertainty which prevailed as to the nature of the consti- tution ; and that had he lived in the present day, he might have been an unexceptionable ruler. The same allowance ought in candour to be made for the opposite party also; many of whom may have been led into excess, partly, by having no definite view of their object, and not well knowing where to stop, and when to consider their rights as sufficiently secured. We of the present day can never have any such excuse to plead for the want of moderation. Our rights and the rights of our governors are too clearly ascertained, to leave us any pre- tence for sacrificing either for the sake of the other; and if we have any thing to complain of, there are lawful and regular means of endea- vouring to procure its amendment. Though our 312 Christian Duty of [serm. i. constitution may not be faultless, nor exempt from abuses, it has at least the rare and precious advantage of containing within itself the means of its own indefinite improvement and perpetual correction, without any need of resorting to lawless violence and revolution. Severely shall we suffer both in this world and the next, if, neglecting the lesson that is before us, we endanger, by intemperate violence on either side, the corruption or subversion of such a constitution. And let it be remembered, that since excesses on each side mutually pro- voke and aggravate each other, every one is responsible, not only for his own injudicious violence, but also for that which he has contri- buted to inflame and foster in his opponents. Let our gratitude for the deliverances we have experienced, and the advantages we enjoy, lead us to show ourselves not unworthy of those bless- ings, by striving to avoid the faults of our ances- tors, and to profit by their calamities. Let a spirit of obedience to our rulers, which, in this Country at least, is compatible with all reason- able liberty, be cherished on Christian principles ; that is, let it appear plainly to be, as the Apostle SERM. I.] Obedience to Riders. 313 directs, " not only for wrath, but also for con- science sake :" it should not be such merely as the laws enforce, but accompanied with alacrity and respect. We are not indeed bound to pro- fess such principles as would flatter princes into their ruin, nor to applaud or justify any thing that is vicious ; but we are bound " to do to others as we would have them do to us :" we should treat our rulers therefore as we should think it just to be treated ourselves, were we in their place ; and make allowances for the difficulties of their situation : bearing in mind, above all, that we ourselves shall have to give an account before God's judgment-seat, not for what we think we should have done as rulers, but for what we have done as subjects. And, lastly, we should cultivate in all our conduct, and in all our sentiments, the spirit of forbearance and mo- deration, springing from the Christian virtues of humility, charity, and disinterested pubhc-spirit. So shall we profit duly by the former chastening of the Lord, and obtain the promised benefit, " the peaceable fruits of righteousness to them that are exercised thereby." SERMON II. THE CHRISTIAN DUTY OF OBEDIENCE TO THE LAWS. Deut. xi. 1. Thou slialt love the Lord thy God, and keep his charge, and his statutes, and his judgments, and his commandments, ahvay. The Law which Moses delivered to the Israel- ites, was dictated, we know, by the Almighty himself: who designed to become, for especial purposes, himself the Lawgiver and King of this his peculiar people. It was sanctioned therefore by an authority, and enforced by a power, which can accompany no human laws. For who could hope to escape detection, when transgressing or evading a law, of which the all-seeing God was SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 315 the guardian 1 or to be too strong for punish- ment, when it was his Maker who denounced it ? If the people failed to detect, or were negligent in duly punishing, any offender, the Lord de- clared that He would Himself vindicate the honour of his law, by visiting him with those temporal judgments which formed the sanction of it; such as sickness, loss of property, and untimely death. Moreover, this Law, and this alone, was sanc- tioned by reward as well as punishment. Human laws threaten, but cannot promise ; because they could not make good their promises* : the only * " Society could not distinguish the objects of its favour. To inflict punishment, there is no need of knowing the motives on which the transgressor acted ; but judicially to confer reward on the obedient, there is. " All that civil judicatures do, in condemnation to punish- ment, is to find out whether the act was voluntarily committed. They inquire not into the intention or motives, any farther, or otherwise, than as they are the indications of volition : and having found the act voluntary, they concern themselves no more with his motives or principles of acting ; but punish, without scruple, in confidence of the offender's demerit. And this with very good reason ; because no one in his senses can be ignorant of the principal transgressions of civil laws, or of their malignity, but by some sottish negligence that has 316 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. reward held out for obeying them is exemption from punishment, and security of person and property. But God promised, and bestowed, as rewards of obedience, all those temporal goods, which, in the ordinary course of Providence, are dispensed with great irregularity ; insomuch that good conduct can only be said to be generally and on the whole more likely to secure these advantages than a contrary behaviour. Whereas, hindered his information, or some brutal passion that has pre- judiced his judgment; both which are highly faulty, and deserve punishment. " It is otherwise in rewarding the abstaining from trans- gression. Here the motive must be considered : because as merely doing ill deserves punishment, a crime in the case of wrong judgment being ever necessarily inferred ; so merely abstaining from ill cannot for that very reason have any merit. " In judicially rewarding, therefore, the motives must be known : but human judicatures can never come to the know- ledge of these but by accident : it is only that tribunal which searches the mind and the heart that can do this. Therefore we conclude, that reward cannot, properly, be the sanction oj human laws." — Warburton's Div. Leg. 4to. p. 60. 1788. The State may indeed be said to reward, or, more properly speaking, to pay, public services, (not, mere submission to the laws) by the salaries annexed to public offices ; in the same manner as an individual pays wages to his servants. SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 317 under that extraordinary dispensation, those who diUgently kept God's law, obtained from his especial providence, prosperity, long life, and a blessing on their offspring. A law so established, it was clearly the interest, in the highest degree, as well as duty, of each man to obey. But it was not sufficient, it seems, that commands thus given should be obeyed ac- cording to the strict letter of them, from the mere hope of reward and fear of punishment ; it was required, also, that the Israelites should feel all that devout reverence for them which their divine authority demanded; all that love and gratitude and loyalty towards their heavenly King and Lawgiver, which his condescension, in thus favouring them, deserved : " Therefore thou shalt love the Lord thy God, and keep his charge, and his statutes, and his judgments, and his commandments, alway :" And again, " Hear, O Israel : the Lord our God is one Lord : and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart." Chap. vi. ver. 4,5,6. And again : " It shall come to pass, if ye shall 318 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. hearken diligently unto ray commandments which I command you this day, to love the Lord your God, and to serve him with all your heart and with all your soul, that I will give you the rain of your land in his due season," Chap, xi, ver. 13. And the same sort of lan- guage is held in numberless other passages. It is plain, that under such a system of govern- ment, every reasonable and well-disposed man would feel himself bound, not only to abstain from transgressing the Law, but to conform conscientiously to the spirit and intention of it, as well as to the letter ; not seeking for any evasions, but fulfilling the divine commands cheerfully and heartily, as a point of sacred duty, and not of mere prudence only. And accordingly their great historian Josephus re- marks, with much truth and wisdom, on the wide difference of the system of conduct pre- scribed to his own people from that of the Gentiles : " While all other nations," says he, " regard religion as a part of virtue, the Jews alone .consider virtue as a part of re- ligion." That Christians are bound to obey, in the SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 319 same manner, and on the same principle, all the precepts of our Saviom- and his Apostles, no right-minded man can entertain a doubt : for our election into " the faith that is in Christ Jesus," is a motive to affectionate and grateful obedience, from us, as much stronger than the election of the Israelites to be God's pecuhar people, which is urged as a reason for their obedience, as eternal happiness is greater than temporal prosperity, and as heaven itself exceeds Canaan. But it has been questioned, how far obedience to human laws is to be considered as a Christian's duty ; — whether he is bound to maintain and to reverence them as a point of conscience before God, or merely to submit to them as a matter of prudence for his own sake. Certain it is, that some persons seem to submit to the laws, — in the same manner as they do to the changes of the seasons, and the rising and setting of the sun, — merely because they cannot help it : and to make no scruple of violating or evading them, whenever they are sure of im- punity ; at least in the case of any act that is not clearly sinful in itself, antecedently to all law. Such notions appear to have been very preva- 320 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. lent among the early converts to Christianity; who had so far the appearance of an excuse for it, that the magistrates who enforced the laws, as well as the legislators who framed them, were not Christians, but Pagans. To these therefore they thought no respect was due : their acknow- ledgment of Christ released them, they thought, from obedience to all human authority ; and though they submitted, as a point of prudence, when it was necessary, with a view to avoid punishment, they did not regard their submission as any part of religious and moral duty. This notion is often alluded to in the Apostle's Epistle, and always with the strongest reprobation : " Let every soul be subject," says Paul, " unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, re- sisteth the ordinance of God. . . . Wherefore ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath, but also for conscience sake :" i. e. you must submit, not merely for the sake of avoiding punishment from the wrath of men, but also as a duty towards God. Peter also says, " Submit your- selves to every ordinance of man, for the Lord's SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 321 sake as free, and not using your liberty for a cloke of maliciousness ;" (or, sedition) i. e. not regarding the freedom which Christ has brought you (which in truth is a deliverance from the bondage of sin, the world, and the Devil) as a pretext for disobedience and sedition ; " but as the servants of God." Now the meaning of the sacred writers cannot have been merely, that their converts should abstain from all things that are wrong in themselves : for that would not have imphed reverence for the laws, but would have been equally a duty, had these never existed. Their meaning must have been, that since the laws even of these Pagans (though of course in some points erroneous) were, on the whole, beneficial to society, therefore it was the will of God that they should be obeyed throughout, wherever they did not interfere with his immediate commands ; and obeyed heartily, for his sake, and as a point of Christian duty ; and that since governors are necessary to administer laws, therefore those governors, idolaters though they were, must be respected, for conscience' sake, as God's ministers for a good purpose. It is plain, indeed, that 322 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. when the Apostle says, " Rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil ;" he is speaking, as I have said, of the general tendency of these human institutions ; for we know that on many occasions the rulers persecuted Christianity : and then, the Apostles set an example of open and strenuous refusal to obey them, and of a bold resistance even unto death ; and this without the least inconsistency : for since " the servant is not above his master," the rulers, though God's ministers, could not have any claim to obedience, when they stood opposed to God Himself. But do not these commands, so forcibly laid down, to " submit to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake," extend with equal or even superior authority to us of the present day ? We are not under a Pagan, but a Christian government : our laws therefore, it may be sup- posed, will, in many instances, be expressly regulated by a regard for the precepts of Chris- tianity ; and will, at least, in few or no cases be decidedly hostile to it. They are not indeed, like the laws of the Israelites, the dictates of infallible wisdom ; and if in any point they are SERM. II.] Obedience to the Lawn. 323 found to be unwise and inexpedient, we are fully authorized to endeavour, by peaceable and regular means, to procure their amendment : but in the mean time we should remember, that they are at least as much sanctioned by divine authority as the laws of the Roman empire, under which the primitive Christians lived : that therefore whatever is instituted (unless it be plainly in opposition to our Christian duty) has a claim to our obedience and respect, for con- science' sake, on the ground that it is instituted ; and that, of our performance of this as well as every other duty, we shall give an account before the judgment-seat of Christ. Some persons, however, who do not deny the Christian duty of respect for the laws, yet pay little or no regard to it a Christian duty ; because the laws being enforced by coercive power, the fear of punishment leads men to obedience, even when conscientious feehngs are wanting. But it is an utter mistake to suppose, that because penalties are denounced, therefore it is a matter of indifference whether men are actuated by the mere fear of these penalties, or by a higher motive : the laws are neither so well Y 2 324 Christian Duty of' [serm. ii. obeyed, nor is the obedience that is paid, in itself, of so much worth, when men are influenced only by the wish to avoid punishment. This may easily be perceived, if we but bestow a little consideration on the points in which the obedience of a good Christian differs from that of one who is not. In the first place, his motive being different, stamps even the very same action with a far different value. Many are the Christian duties which a right-minded man will be practising, even when he is doing the very same things as another, who wants this principle. For, in a moral point of view, it is the disposition of the heart that is every thing : the motive, not the conduct, is the proper object of praise : external actions are signs indeed and necessary effects of a right disposition ; but no one supposes that these have at all the nature of virtue, unless they proceed from a good principle. Industry and courage, e. g. are called by those names, and are reckoned laudable qualities, not on account of the advantageous effects merely which are produced by them, but with a view to the motives also from which they spring : for no SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 325 one would attribute industry to a machine, because it is in constant motion, or courage to a torrent, because it rushes impetuously forward ; inasmuch as these are mere inanimate Beings, which act but as they are acted upon. And if a man were impelled solely by the fear of punish- ment, to labour or to fight, he would not be much more entitled than these to the praise of the virtues in question. A sincere Christian, therefore, will mahe duties, if I may so express myself, even of the most ordinary actions of hfe, which have nothing virtuous in them, when practised by worldly men, from worldly motives. According to Paul's precept, whatsoever he does, he " does it heartily, as unto the Lord, and not unto man :" and whether " he eats or drinks, or whatsoever he does, he does all to the glory of God." And in conforming to the laws, even where he could not do otherwise without personal danger or inconvenience, yet if he does that with zealous good will, for conscience sake, which others do from fear of punishment, he will receive that praise from the Searcher of hearts, which the others have no claim to. 326 Christian Duty of [SERM. II. Supposing then that it were possible for the very same obedience to the laws to be produced by the fear of punishment, as by conscientious principles, it might indeed, in a political point of view, be regarded as indifferent which motive operated ; but it would not be at all the less important for a preacher of the Gospel, as Paul was, to instil right motives into his converts, and to make their obedience spring from a sense of Christian duty. " The law," he says, " is not made for a righteous man, but for the law- less and disobedient, for the ungodly and for sinners :" that is, it is bad men alone against whom the penalties of the law are denounced, and whom the fear of those penalties alone can keep in that conformity to the law which a vir- tuous man practises from a higher motive. In fact, however, it is very far from being true, that the laws will be equally well obeyed, when men are influenced only by fear of punish- ment. Besides that there are many cases in which the laws may be violated without any apparent risk of detection, the spirit of them also may often be evaded, without infringing the letter : so that a man who is not restrained by SERM. 11.] Ohediejice to the Laws. 327 conscience, may take advantage of any imper- fection of a law, to defeat the intention with which it was enacted. Whereas, he who con- siders obedience to the laws as a part of his duty to God, and remembers that it is to Him, who cannot be deceived, and not to fallible man, that he must give an account at the last day, will be guilty of no secret violations, nor seek for any evasions, of the law, where its tendency is beneficial ; but looking to the spirit as well as the letter of it, will honestly study to comply with its intentions. Let it not be said, that though a good Chris- tian will indeed do all this, yet there is no reason for calhng his conduct a compliance with the law, and describing it as a distinct branch of duty; — for that he would have pursued the same line of conduct, as right in itself, had no law ever been laid down. Such is not the fact : there are indeed many things which we should be bound to do or to abstain from, were there no law on the subject ; but there are many others also, which are morally right or wrong, in con- sequence of the law. To take an obvious and famihar instance ; all systems of laws that have 328 Christiati Duty of [serm, ii. ever existed have forbidden a man to steal ; i. e. to appropriate to himself his neighbour's property ; but there is nothing to determine what is his neighbour's property, except the law of the land. Thus, there have been, and are still, parts of the world in which the soil is not appropriated, except by actual occupation ; in them therefore, to take possession of an unoc- cupied spot of ground would be perfectly allow- able ; while in other countries it would be no better than robbery. We find Abraham accord- ingly, and the other Patriarchs, freely pasturing their flocks, and even sowing corn, in the land of Canaan, where they were strangers, with- out being accused of any encroachment. But Abraham purchased, for money, of the Hittites, a cave for a burying-place, because it was neces- sary to have permanent possession of that, and to exclude others. Water also being scarce in that country, wells seem to have been considered as private property much earlier than land. So also, it is by law only that custom becomes pay- able upon any kind of merchandise ; but when that law is established, the payment of it be- comes no less a point of conscience than that SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 329 of the purchase-money. " Render/' says the Apostle, " unto all their dues : tribute to whom tribute is due ; custom to whom custom ; fear to whom fear ; honour to whom honour." Not that human laws are, as some have con- tended'', the foundation of justice ; but only, in some cases, the guide of it. The authority of justice is established in our hearts by the Creator; but the boundaries of her dominion depend in great degree on positive institutions. We are bound by the law of nature to respect the rights of others, and to " render," as the Apostle bids us, "unto all their due;" but it is for human laws to mark out zvhat their rights and dues shall be. It is the dictate, in short, of natural justice, that we should conform to established regula- tions in things originally indifferent; and practise, not only that which is commanded because right, but also that which is right because commanded. It is perfectly correct therefore to reckon obedience to the laws as one distinct branch ■ of the Christian's duty, since there are some things to which he is bound in consequence of the laws. And he is bound, even in these cases, " Hobbes, &c. 330 Christum Duty of [serm. ii. in conscience, not merely in prudence, to con- form to these human institutions, as sanctioned by divine authority. In this, therefore, as in every other part of our conduct, as our Maker is our All-seeing and Almighty Judge, let our conscience be a watchful and an uncorrupt wit- ness ; and let us act justly, not from the fear of man, but from the love of God. The laws, however, have a claim not only to obedience, and obedience on Christian principles, but also to support ; — it is not enough, as some seem to suppose, that we should ourselves abstain from infringing them, if we encourage, or connive at, or are indifferent about, the violation of them by others ; — if we are so studious of our private ease, and so careless of the public good, as to be content that offenders should remain unpunished, so we may remain unmolested ; and would rather the laws should be exposed to contempt, than ourselves to trouble or vexation. How far it is the duty of each individual, under various cir- cumstances, to lend his aid towards the mainte- nance and enforcement of the laws, could not be explained without a detail which would be un- suitable to this occasion ; nor indeed would it be SERM. II.] Obedience to tJie Laws. 331 possible, in the fullest discussion, to lay down rules that should exactly draw the line in every case that might occur. It must be left, after all, to each man's own conscience, to decide as to the kind and degree of support which he ought to give to the laws ; only let him remember, that it is his conscience he is to consult ; not merely his convenience ; — that though the magistrate is esjjecially bound, he is not alone bound, to watch over the observance of the laws ; and that since the Apostle tells us we are to consider human institutions as the ordinance of God, those persons show but little reverence for Him, or zeal in his service, and have therefore small claim to his favour, who are careless and uncon- cerned about the maintenance of those insti- tutions. I have endeavoured to show, that the laws are entitled, first, to obedience, and, secondly, to support, from the Christian, for conscience' sake. There is another point also in which the conscientious Christian will manifest the influ- ence of the same principle ; I mean, in his respect for all the decent solemnities which accompany the administration of justice, — for 332 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. the persons, the places, and all the other circum- stances connected with it. Tumult and clamour, rudeness and indecorous levity, are not indeed very suitable to any serious occasion of impor- tant business ; but in a court of justice they assume something of the character of profane- ness, in the eyes of one who considers that God himself (who, as the Apostle Paul says, " is not the author of confusion, but of peace") has given his express sanction to the laws, and calls the dispensers of them his ministers. The Judge is said, according to the law of this land, to repre- sent the King : but the sincere Christian will remember, that both judges and kings are, by virtue of their office, representatives of the Almighty Himself; for whose sake therefore he will honour them, and maintain a decorous, and reverent, and orderly demeanour during the discharge of their functions : especially because other men also, even those who are not of them- selves very considerate in their conduct, and are chiefly led by appearances, will generally be the more likely, in practice, to pay a conscientious and scrupulous obedience to the laws, when they see them treated with these outward marks of respect. SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 333 These are the intrinsic claims which all sys- tems of law have, in their own nature, upon the Christian : but the institutions of this land seem designed with an express view to maintain some- what of a religious veneration for the laws, and every thing connected with their administration. The very practice of previously assembhng in a place of worship, and listening to a minister of the Gospel, when such business is about to be entered upon, is calculated to cast a tinge of religious solemnity over that business, and to remind us, that whatever relates to the laws, is, in an especial manner, connected with our duty as Christians. Another circumstance, and the last that I shall mention, as distinguishing and characterizing a good man's obedience to the laws upon Christian principles, is, that he will be guilty of no per- version and abuse of them. Since such a man disdains, in his own case, to avail himself of the letter of the law, so as to escape the spirit of it, much less will he, in his dealings with another, take advantage of the letter in opposition to the spirit, and turn the law to a purpose for which it 334 Christian Duty of [SERM. II. was not designed, by enforcing his legal rights, when he is conscious that they are not fair and equitable. Much less still, will he convert the law, which was designed for pubUc protection, into an instrument of private revenge and mali- cious oppression. The very sacred character itself with which the laws are invested, so far from sanctioning such a perversion of them, makes it rather a kind of sacrilege thus to con- vert God's blessings into a curse. What can such persons expect at their own final judgment, if they are but half as hardly dealt with as they deal with others ? And yet they surely will be judged, by Him, who has charged us to do as we would be done by, and who has declared, that the measure we give to others shall be measured to us in turn. And let it be remembered, that even a just and proper prosecution may be sinful in the sight of God, if revenge and malice are the grounds of it. For as I before remarked, that the very same obedience to the laws which would be not at all praiseworthy, if springing from fear of punishment, is acceptable in God's sight, when practised by a sincere Christian for conscience' SRRM. II.] Ohedience to the Laws. 335 sake, so, here also, the very same conduct which would be perfectly right in a man whose motive was right, may draw down the heavy displeasure of God, on him who is acting from unchristian feelings. He will be punished, not for what he does, but for what he is. But of all abuses of law, the greatest and most pernicious, because to it all the rest may gene- rally be referred, is the setting up of the laws as a system of morahty, and making them the guide of our conscience. This error is the more dan- gerous, because there is so much of Truth incor- porated with it. It is certainly true, that we ought to do what the law enjoins ; and hence the mistake of supposing that this is sufficient, though we do nothing more. It is true, that we ought not to do what the laws forbid ; the error is in reckoning every thing right that is not for- bidden by them, and every thing that is, as wrong in exact proportion to the punishment they denounce against it. These mistaken notions are still further fos- tered by the ambiguous use of the words lazvjul and unlawful; which are sometimes employed 336 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. with reference to the law of the land, and some- times to the law of God, and the dictates of a sound conscience ; so that the same thing may be lawful in one sense which is unlawful in another. I have said, that this abuse of law is the source of almost all others ; for though pro- fligate men may be found, who will turn the letter of the law to their own advantage, while they are aware that their conduct is unjust, the generality of men satisfy their own consciences, while they are acting in this manner, by per- suading themselves, that since the law is on their side, there can be nothing morally wrong in their conduct. The error I am now speaking of seems the reverse of that formerly mentioned : the one party do not allow, or do not enough consider, that obedience to the laws is a duty ; the other regard it as their whole duty. The one do not feel themselves bound in conscience to conform to established institutions, as such; but profess to be regulated only by what is right or wrong in itself, antecedently to all institutions ; not re- garding any thing as right because commanded, or wrong because forbidden : the other look only SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 337 to what is commanded and forbidden by law, and measure their conduct by no other rule. These are the two opposite extremes ; and yet we sometimes find them united in the same person : for though there are not many who would distinctly profess either of these false notions, yet it is not uncommon to see even the same man acting upon both occasionally. At one time, if it suits his convenience to infringe positive regulations, he will plead the law of nature, and urge, e. g. that wild animals are the natural property of any one who can seize them ; or that all men have a natural right to import whatever goods they please, without making any payment, except to the seller ; and that though the law has limited these rights, and guarded the hmitation by penalties, yet if he chooses to risk the penalty, he is doing nothing morally wrong : forgetting that whatever property he possesses is his by the law of the land, and by nothing else : and yet at another time, perhaps, the same man, when pressing his legal rights to the most unfair extreme, will justify his hard-deaUng, by urging, that he does nothing contrary to law. 338 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. It is not my present purpose to shew, by a detail of arguments, that the law, taken as a code of morahty, is both an imperfect and an incorrect one, and that we must not allow it to have a decisive voice in the private court of our own conscience ; for I am aware that many would think it a waste of proof in defending a self-evident truth. And yet they might be found, in practice, to have their own conduct often perverted by looking to this defective standard. For it is a mistake to suppose that we are safe from the influence of an error, when we have once acknowledged it to be such. Many false notions which we have confuted and condemned in theory, will still be apt to mislead us in con- duct. I will refer, therefore, in regard to the nature and the prevalence of this mistaken notion, to the authority of one whose name would deserve to have some weight, even if his arguments on this point were not so clear and convincing as they are, the acute and judicious Dr. Paley- " Every system of human laws," says he, " considered as a rule of life, labours under the two following defects : 1st, Human laws omit SERM. II.] Obedience to tlw Laws. 339 many things as not objects of compulsion ; such as piety to God, bounty to the poor, forgiveness of injuries, education of children, gratitude to benefactors. The law never speaks but to com- mand, nor commands but where it can compel ; consequently those duties which by their nature must be voluntary, are left out of the statute- book, as lying beyond the reach of its operation and authority. " 2d. Human laws permit, or, which is the same thing, suffer to go unpunished, many, crimes, because they are incapable of being defined by any previous description : of which nature are luxury, prodigality, partiality in voting at those elections in which the qualifica- tions of the candidate ought to determine the success, caprice in the disposal of men's fortunes at their death, disrespect to parents, and a mul- titude of similar examples. " For this is the alternative : either the law must define beforehand, and with precision, the offences which it punishes, or it must be left to the discretion of the magistrate to determine upon each particular accusation, whether it con- stitute that offence which the law designed to z 2 340 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. punish, or not ; which is, in effect, leaving to the magistrate to punish or not to punish the individual who is brought before him, at his pleasure ; which is just so much tyranny. Where, therefore, as in the instances above- mentioned, the distinction between right and wrong is of too subtile or too secret a nature to be ascertained by any preconcerted language, the law of most countries, especially of free states, rather than commit the liberty of the subject to the discretion of the magistrate, leaves men, in such cases, to themselves." Thus far Dr. Paley : to which should be added another consideration, which still more unfits the laws for being made a standard of right and wrong. Even in those cases which law can reach and punish, its punishments are measured out, not by the degree of wickedness in the offender, but by the necessity and the difficulty of preventing the offence ; prevention being the end of human punishments Now these distinct principles are so far from always coinciding, that they are sometimes even opposed : e, g. the <= See Letter on Secondary Punishments. Appendix, No. I. SERM. II.] Obediejice to tJie Laws. 341 facility with which an offence may be committed, and the greatness of the temptation to it, are certainly, in a moral point of view, palliations of its enormity; but in the eye of the law they are equivalent to aggravations ; for the greater the temptations in any case which allure men to offend, the greater must be the punishment that shall deter them ; otherwise the crime would not be prevented. On the other hand, it often happens, that in cases where prevention or ready detection are supposed to be easier, as in breach of trust, and perjury, the punishment is by no means adequate to the depravity of heart in the offender. So erroneous are the judgments we shall form of our own or another's conduct, if we measure it merely by the standard of the law ! But the most important point to be considered is, that human laws look solely or chiefly to the external action, as it affects society ; the inward disposition of the heart, which in the sight of God is every thing, being perfectly known by none but Him. Human laws accordingly cannot scrutinize the causes of bad actions, but regard only the effects of them ; and consider them not as sins, but as crimes. The Mosaic Law, therefore. 342 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. was in this respect different from all others ; from its being given and enforced by the all- seeing God Himself. His law forbids what human laws would in vain forbid, not only to steal our neighbour's goods, but to covet them : his law enjoined what no other law could, to " love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thy neigh- bour as thyself" Yet even this law the Jews, in our Saviour's time, were accused by him of so narrowing to the strict letter of it, as to neglect its spirit; instead of so extending its precepts, and en- grafting its principles on their hearts, as to render themselves acceptable in his sight who gave it. " Ye have heard," says- He, " that it was said by them of old time. Thou shalt not kill ; and. Whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment : but I say unto you. That who- soever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment. — Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time. Thou shalt not commit adultery ; but I say unto you. That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her, hath committed adultery with her already in his heart." Surely then we of the SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laws. 343 present day, whose national laws are but human institutions, and enforced by human means, but whose rule of life is the example and the pre- cepts of Christ and his followers, enforced by the prospect of eternal happiness or misery, ought still more to be careful that we regulate our hearts by the principles of the Gospel, in- stead of satisfying our conscience by outward conformity to the law of the land. Yet there are some Christians, it is to be feared, who, even though they do not make human laws their only standard, are too apt to regard the Bible as a system of laws of the same kind: thinking nothing wrong which is not there distinctly forbidden, — nothing a duty, which is not expressly enjoined. Let them look to the blessings pronounced by our Lord, that they may understand better the character of his commandments. He looks to the general tone of conduct, and general disposition of mind : his blessings are upon " the pure in heart," — upon "the meek," — upon "the peace-makers," — upon " them that hunger and thirst after right- eousness." We are taught by the same autho- rity to love one another, — to have our " treasure and our heart in heaven," — to " set our affection 314 Christian Duty of [serm. ii. on things above, not on things on the earth," — and to copy the example of our great Master. And even where specific precepts are given, it is only for the sake of better illustrating the general principal to be inculcated : no one can suppose that our Lord's commendation of the poor widow who cast in her last mite, or his censure of the Pharisees for choosing out the highest seats at a feast, were designed merely to establish rules in those particular cases, and not rather to enforce generally the importance of a liberal and of an humble disposition Since therefore the principles of the Gospel are so plain, as to make it no less unnecessary, than it would have been inconvenient, to enume- rate a great multitude of specific precepts, we should strive to impress those principles on our hearts, instead of looking in Scripture for precise and definite rules. We should, in short, judge ourselves by the same standard by which we shall be judged hereafter by Christ himself : and instead of inquiring, in any case, whether we are strictly bound to do so and so, — whether there is any harm, or any great harm, in this or that, — we should rather ask ourselves, whether we are See Essay VIII. § 2. Second Series. SERM. II.] Obedience to the Laivs. 345 living and feeling as becomes the redeemed of Christ, and heirs of immortality. He who is a sincere and faithful servant of Him, will have, through the aid of his Spirit, no difficulty in discovering what his duty is, in any case, because he will inquire for it with candour and singleness of heart ; and he will practise it zealously " as unto the Lord, and not unto man." For his sake we should respect indeed and obey human laws ; but without exalting them into a standard of morality, instead of the law of God, which should be within our own breast. For his sake we should regulate indeed our conduct dili- gently ; but without being satisfied as long as that conduct is unpunishable by men, unless our heart also be pure and blameless before God. And remembering, that though we may live free from the penalty of human laws, and even from the censure of human opinions, we shall yet have to give an account hereafter of those secret actions and thoughts and motives, which no human court can try ; we shall be continually preparing to abide the scrutiny of an unerring Judge at the last day, and to receive at his awful tribunal the sentence of our final doom. SERMON III. NATIONAL BLESSINGS AND JUDGMENTS. DeUT. XXX. 9, 10. The Lord will again rejoice over thee for good, us he rejoiced over thy fathers: if thou shall hearken unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to keep his commandments. That right and wrong conduct are likely, on the whole, to lead to good and bad success, respec- tively, in the present hfe, — and that the general tendency of each particular virtue and vice is to produce corresponding worldly advantages and disadvantages, — is a doctrine which, in a specu- lative point of view at least, few would be dis- posed to controvert. And though this general SERM. III.] Blessings and Judgments. 347 rule admits of such numerous exceptions, that a right-minded and considerate man would not venture, in the case of any individual, to infer that his success in life had precisely corresponded with his deserts, or decidedly to promise, e. g. prosperity to the honest, frugal, and industrious, and denounce- certain ruin to the profligate, yet he would not feel the less convinced of the cer- tainty of the general rule, that such conduct will, for the most part, be attended with such consequences. Nor are States exempt from the influence of the same causes which, in the affairs of indivi- duals, produce these results. National perfidy seldom fails in the end to occasion such a gene- ral distrust as must lead to national evils ; unprincipled aggression will usually provoke, sooner or later, a formidable retahation : and, on the other hand, moderation and good faith have manifestly a general tendency to promote peace and internal prosperity. It is also a point sufficiently acknowledged, that to the Israelites these goods and evils were dispensed uniformly and regularly ; the Mosaic law being sanctioned by temporal rewards and 348 National Blessings [serm. hi. punishments/ which were of course awarded by an extraordinary and especial providence, ac- cording to their obedience or disobedience. But whether this system, which was confessedly pecuhar to them, so far as it extended to indi- viduals, was also peculiar to them, nationally considered, or not, — whether, in short, States and individuals are both under the same plan of divine government, viz. that in both, good and ill conduct lead generally, but not constantly, to success or misfortune ; or whether the two cases are distinguished, and the rule which holds good only for the most part in the case of parti- cular persons, is invariable in the case of nations, — is a question on which differences of opinion exist. And the discussion of it seems not un- suitable to the present occasion. To dwell on the advantages of the restoration of the kingly government, and on the evils from which it dehvered us, might be deemed a superfluous task ; but it may be interesting to inquire how far, and in what manner, those advantages and a That these were at least its principal sanction, is admitted even by those who will not allow that the doctrine of future retribution made no part of this revelation. SKiiM. III.] and Judgments. 349 those evils are to be attributed to the public conduct of our ancestors ; — whether they took place according to the same general rule only, by which temperance and integrity and industry tend, in private life, to promote each man's health and reputation and prosperity; or, ac- cording to some distinct and pecuHar system of divine government, which dispenses to nations regular temporal retribution. The inquiry is not unimportant, both because, if the latter doctrine be admitted, (and not other- wise,) it will be allowable, as well as natural, to reason back from political events to national character and conduct ; and regard the Deity as giving, in every instance of public success or calamity, his judgment on the cause at issue : and also, because if this opinion prove to be unfounded, every one who maintains it is so far laid open to the cavils of the irreligious scoffer ; who will thence take occasion to deride the doctrine of divine providence altogether. The question is, moreover, very intimately connected with the right understanding of the Old Testa- ment ; since we cannot be said thoroughly to comprehend the Jewish economy, unless we 350 National Blessings [serm. hi. know, not only what belonged to it, but also what was and what was not peculiar to it. The belief then that temporal rewards and punishments are constantly awarded to nations, according to their conduct and character as communities, is founded, partly, on the sup- posed necessity of this system, in order that divine justice should be in all cases administered; which, in respect of States, must be, it is urged, in the present world, if at all, since they have no existence in the world to come ; and, partly, on those numerous passages of Scripture, especially in the books of Moses, which promise victory and national prosperity to the Israelites, on con- dition of their obeying God's laws, — denounce defeat and captivity as punishments for disobe- dience,— and, again, hold out the hope of a restoration of national prosperity, when they shall repent of their transgressions, and return to the Lord their God. And accordingly, numerous instances are recorded of the fulfilment of these promises and threatenings, both in the case of the nation of the Israelites, and of the individuals belonging to it ; for this system of temporal rewards and SERM. III.] and Judgments. 351 punishments extended, in a great degree at least, as was above remarked, to each single member of God's chosen people, as well as to that people itself, considered collectively''. That this regular distribution of worldly goods and evils to those ind'widuah was an extraordinary dispensation of Providence, and is not to be looked for in the world at large, is admitted by all. But this, it is alleged, is because there is no longer any need for such an interference of Providence : a future life having been distinctly revealed in the Gospel ; and the rewards and punishments of another world affording a sufficient sanction to its precepts. There is no reason, it is urged, why the same system as that under which the Israelites lived should not be still continued with respect to nations; since for them, there is no future state. This doctrine is supported by the authority of several respectable names ; and, among others, the acute and judicious Leslie seems to have favoured it. " Now let us consider," says he, " that at the day of judgment there is no *> See Gen. xxxix. Exod. xx. 12. Numb. xiv. 36. Judges ix. 56. 2 Sam. iii. 28. 1 Kings xiii. 22., &c. 352 National Blessings [serm. hi. representation of nations ; but every man suffers for his own sin. National judgments are only in this world ; and hence it is observable, that no wicked nation has ever yet escaped a national judgment in this world. Though God may bear long with them, yet if they do not repent, by a national sorrow and amendment, judgment over- takes them, even here. For nowhere else are there any national, either mercies or judgments. And as all nations have been wicked in their several degrees, so have they every one been severally punished, according to their demerits, even before the sons of men." I. The arguments urged in favour of this opinion have certainly, at first sight, a plausible appearance : and I have endeavoured to set them forth as distinctly and fairly as possible : but they will be found, I apprehend, on an attentive examination, to be less solid than specious. For, in the first place, when it is urged, that, in order to the vindication of the divine justice, nations must necessarily receive their due meed of reward and punishment in this world, because they will have no existence in the next, it may SF.RM. III.] amlJvdgments. 353 be answered, that neither have they any exist- ence now, distinct from the individuals com- posing them. They are not moral agents ; they are not persons ; and accordingly they are not capable of reward or punishment. A nation, in short, or any other kind of community, con- sidered as such, and apart from the individuals belonging to it, is a Being which has no distinct existence, except in our minds. It is a notion framed by us for our convenience, in order that we may be enabled to designate with the greater precision a number of really existing individuals, who bear a certain relation to each other, when we would speak of them collectively, and with a view to that relation. There is no more common source of confu- sion of thought, than the tendency to mistake words for things, and to entangle ourselves in a labyrinth formed by the language we employ : nor are men of the greatest ability exempt from the risk of being thus ensnared, whenever they are not carefully on their guard against this particular error. And the case before us is one instance out of many, in which this seems to have taken place : in which, T mean, the notions 354 National Bles.migs [skrm, hi. framed by our own minds, for the purposes of reasoning and conversing, come at length to be regarded by us as distinct Beings, actually existing independent of our conceptions and expressions. We are so familiarly accustomed to talk of nations as illustrious or degraded ; as victorious or defeated, prosperous or depressed ; — we so commonly attribute to them, in ordinary dis- course, virtue or injustice, happiness or misery, and in short every mode of action and of feeling, that it is not wonderful we should sometimes be insensibly led to forget that they are not persons, but merely conceptions of our ov^^n minds ; having no agency, or capacity for suffering or enjoyment, distinct from that of the particular persons of whom they consist. II. But it may be demanded, how, if nations are thus, as such, unfit objects of reward or punishment, God's dealings with the Jewish nation can be explained. The answer to this would be found, I apprehend, in a careful inves- tigation of the design of the Mosaic dispensation. It appears to have been part of that design to SERM. III.] and Judgments. 355 exhibit to mankind a sensible specimen, or rather representation, by way of proof, of that moral government of God, the system of which is but imperfectly displayed in the world at large ; and which is to be completed, and fully realized, only in a fiiture state. It would be inconsistent with the present occasion to enter into a full explana- tion and defence of this hypothesis : let it be allowed, however, to adopt for the present, the supposition, merely as a supposition, that the Mosaic dispensation was, in part, designed for the purpose just mentioned ; that we may examine how far the peculiar circumstances of that dispen- sation correspond with and are explained by it. 1. It would manifestly be necessary then, \N'ith a view to the object in question, that the Israelites should be exhibited as uniformly and regularly rewarded or punished, according to their obe- dience or disobedience to the di\-ine commands. 2. And moreover, in order that the correspond- ence of their situation with their conduct might be more conspicuously displayed, it was necessary that they should be nationally as well as indi- vidually prosperous or unfortunate, in conse- quence of their good or ill conduct ; since the Natio7inl Blessingn [seum. hi. fate of individuals would have been too obscure to engage general attention. 3. It was requisite, for the same reason, that the obedience required of them should not consist in moral rectitude alone ; because in that case the correspondence of their circumstances to their behaviour would not have been sufficiently manifest. For moral virtue consists, chiefly, in purity of motives, and propriety of inward feelings ; concerning which other men cannot with any certainty form a judgment. It was requisite therefore that their obedience should be tried in the practice of ex- ternal rites, and in a conformity to certain posi- tive ordinances. For these observances, though originally matters of indifference, assume a moral character, and become duties, when enjoined by divine authority ; and the obedience or dis- obedience of a People on such points, is a matter open to general observation, and on which no one would be liable to mistake. 4. Lastly, with the same view, it was no less requisite that the rewards and punishments also, which should be the sanction of such a law, should be of a nature no less palpable and open to general observation ; and should therefore SERM. III.] and Judgments. 357 not consist in any thing inward and invisible, as in peace of mind, and in horrors of conscience ; nor in the hopes and fears of a future state ; but in the immediate and conspicuous distribution of outward worldly prosperity and adversity. The close correspondence, in all points, of the dispensation actually given, with the foregoing description, is no slight presumption that the object of that dispensation was, in part at least, such as I have supposed, viz. to exhibit to man- kind, (to those, that is, who should be, in early times, neighbours to the Israelites, or have any intercourse with them, and subsequently to us, and to all others who should read their history, and view their present fate,) to exhibit, I say, a striking picture of God's moral government, — to convince all men of his superintending provi- dence,— and to instruct them in the principles of justice, by which his dealings with them will be regulated. Nor is it any valid objection to the expla- nation here offered, to say, that the national blessings and national chastisements sent upon the Israehtes, as a people, independent of what was enjoyed or suffered by individuals, could be 358 National Blessings [serm. hi. no instance of the divine administration oi justice ; inasmuch as a nation, considered as a nation, is (as has been above remarked) no real personal agent, nor capable of reward or punishment. For though it cannot properly be said to afford an instance or example of God's moral govern- ment, it may nevertheless serve equally well to furnish a figure and representation of that government, for our instruction ; which is the object we have been supposing designed. Its not being really a distinct Being, does not render it the less fit for that purpose; since men are able to form a distinct conception of it ; which is all that is requisite, A sufficient knowledge respecting a country may be obtained from a map ; although that consists of paper and ink, and the other of land and water. In fact, there are, throughout the Mosaic law, innumerable cases in which representations or figures are given of the divine justice, which can- not be regarded as themselves instances of it. E. g. There are many occasions on which beasts are commanded to be put to death, as if cri- minal : as, when a beast approached the holy mountain, or occasioned the death of any man : SERM. III.] and Judgments. 359 not that a brute can be supposed a moral agent, and in itself a fit object of divine punishment ; but yet the lessons of justice, of reverential piety, and of purity, which were by this means conveyed, were not the less intelligible. The main part indeed of the Jewish ritual consisted of figures, — representations, — types, — of the various parts of that more perfect and final dis- pensation, whereof we enjoy the reality. A lamb without bodily blemish could have no real and intrinsic merit in the sight of God ; but the sacrifice of this, represented the meritorious offering of Christ. In like manner, " the blood of bulls and of goats" had in itself no efficacy in taking away sin ; but this was the appointed purification from legal pollution, representing the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice in " taking away the sins of the world," and procuring pardon and justification for those who have faith in him. The present occasion will not permit me to dwell on the numberless similar points which might be mentioned, in which " the law was our schoolmaster, to bring us unto Christ :" but I cannot refrain from observing, that many an 360 National Blessings [SERM. Ill- eiTor prevailing among Christians might be cured, if they would but diligently listen to the voice of this schoolmaster, and profit by the lessons which the Old Testament, if rightly understood, is capable of affording. To instance in the point more immediately under our present consideration, — the repre- sentation of God's moral government given in his dealings with the Israelites ; — we may observe, in the first place, that though reward was pro- mised to their obedience, as well as punishment denounced against their transgressions, yet they are no where taught to regard this reward as the natural and just consequence of obedience, in the same manner as punishment was of disobedience; or to claim it on any other ground than that of express promise". On the contrary, they are studiously and frequently reminded, that it was of God's free mercy, " because He had a favour unto them," that He had selected them for his pe- culiar People, and set before them these rewards, on condition of their practising that obedience which He had a full right to demand of them. Now, considering Christians as standing (which Essay 1. First Series. SERM. III.] and Judgments. 361 they evidently do) in a situation strictly analo- gous to that of the Israelites, how precisely does this correspond with the scheme of the Gospel, as described by Paul ; " The wages," says he, " of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord :" and again, " By grace ye are saved, through faith ; and that, not of yourselves ; it is the gift of God." And how plainly does it confute the notion of those who speak of immortal happiness as the just and natural result of a well-spent life, inde- pendent of the promises of God, through Jesus Christ, to those who trust in his merits alone. Again ; we are taught in the Old Testament that the nation of the Israelites were arbitrarily chosen out of the world, as the object of God's special favour'' : but of them, all without excep- tion were freely admitted to a participation in this favour, and to the privileges and advantages consequent upon it ; the peculiar protection and blessing of the Lord being promised to every one of them, on condition of his conformity to the divine commands ; that conformity being all See Essays on the Difficulties in the Writings of 6t. Paul, &c. Essay III. on Election. 362 National Blessings [^serm. hi. along studiously represented as a matter com- pletely in their own power ; and consequently the promised rewards as within their reach. Does not this instruct us in what light to view Gospel election ? The Christian Church stands in the place of the Jewish ; it possesses corre- sponding benefits and privileges ; nor can these be reasonably supposed subject to any limitation which did not exist in the other case : the offers and promises of the Gospel, therefore, (since that is confessedly not restricted to any par- ticular nation,) must be regarded as held out to all mankind ; except those who have, (for inscrutable reasons) been permitted to remain in ig7iorance of it. How God will deal with those who never heard of Christianity, it is not for us to inquire ; but all others must be regarded, if we would be guided by the analogy of the Mosaic dispensa- tion, as standing in a corresponding situation with the Israelites — as being called and elected by God out of the world, by the very circumstance of the Gospel's having been preached to them, no less than the Israehtes were by his special selection of that nation ; and consequently, as SERM. III.] and Judgments. 363 having corresponding offers and promises held out to them, which it rests with each of them to accept or reject at his peril. Bat to proceed with the discussion of the point more immediately before us. The view which has been taken of one of the purposes designed to be fulfilled by God's chosen people of old, viz. that of affording, by a view of their fate, instruction and admonition to the whole world, is strikingly confirmed by the present state of the Jews. They still exist as a distinct people : they are degraded, — dispersed, — utterly ruined, as a nation ; and yet there is no reason to suppose that each individual Jew necessarily is, or ought to be, peculiarly miserable, above the individuals of any other nation. But they are a standing evidence of the fulfilment of pro- phecies ; and their situation as a people, serves to represent to each individual Christian, the fearful judgment 4ie will incur if he prove un- worthy of the divine favour. Thus is the Jewish nation still employed, without their own concurrence, in fulfilling the office originally as- signed them, of furnishing a lesson to mankind. 364 National Blessings [SERM. III. Now their having been selected with this view imphes that the system constantly and uniformly pursued with respect to this nation, of temporal retribution, must have been peculiar to them. I say, constantly and uniformly, because since good and ill conduct have a general tendency (as was formerly observed) to produce corre- sponding results in the present world, it must of course be expected that in very many instances, though not invariably, other nations also should by their crimes bring down merited punishment. And of this several instances are recorded in the Old Testament ; as in the judgments sent upon the nations of Canaan, the Amalekites, and the Babylonians. But this was not confined to nations : we also find recorded in the same book several instances of individual tyrants and perse- cutors among the Gentiles, whose sins were visited by exemplary temporal judgments ^ But that the regular and unvarying administration of this system, both with respect to individuals, and to a nation, was confined to the children of Israel, might be proved even from an e Converse instances may be found also ; as that of the Egyptian midwives. sERM. III.] and Judgments. 365 examination of the Old Testament itself, few and scanty as are its incidental notices of the affairs of the Gentiles. And an unbiassed examination of all profane history will lead us to the same conclusion. III. The study of history, however, zmthout this unbiassed mind, may serve even to confirm the theory whose erroneousness I have endea- voured to shew. Those whose minds are pre- disposed towards this opinion will meet with much that seems to favour it. For in political transactions, as well as in those of private life, the general rule is, as has been said, that virtuous and vicious conduct tend to produce corresponding temporal results ; and this rule cannot but have the appearance of being more uniformly observed in the case of States than in that of individuals, from the circumstance that the former have an indefinite duration of exist- ence ; whereas particular persons, from the limited and short duration of the human life, will often escape the operation of those causes which were perhaps progressively leading to their worldly advantage or loss ; and the general 366 National Blessings [serm. hi. system of temporal retribution will thus have been interrupted in its course. Some, e. g. who have practised hypocrisy, or whose virtues have been misrepresented, may reach the termination of their lives before their true characters are understood by the world ; though it may be plain, that had they lived longer, they would have received ample justice ; and others who by their negligence or prodigahty have been evidently on the road to distress and discredit, or by their laudable exertions, to affluence and respectability, may be prevented by death, and even by no very premature death, from meeting with those consequences which seemed to await them. Whereas in the case of States, while the evils or advantages which spring from the con- duct of one generation may often be suffered or enjoyed by another, yet the same single object, — the nation, — will appear receiving its due reward or punishment. So various too are the transactions in which every nation is involved, and the events which befall it, during a long course of years, that public success or calamity may almost always be traced up, with a show of plausibiUty, to some SERM. III.] and Judgments. 367 public virtue or crime, either recent or remote, by those who are inchned to such a theory. And this is the more easy, because it is in many case;s so doubtful what it is that is properly to be called the nation, — whether the existing government, or the legitimate government, or the majority of the people, — that a man may often represent the same event either as a blessing or a calamity to the nation, according as may suit the purpose of his argument. The event, e. g. which we are this day commemo- rating, those who were attached to our consti- tution in Church and State, of course, regarded, as a great blessing ; while by the puritans or repubhcans, on the other hand, it was considered as a national calamity ; and these again rejoiced in the subversion of the regal government, which we commemorate as a heavy judgment; and, as is well known, boasted of their success as an evident declaration of the Deity in favour of their cause. But a candid and impartial appeal to expe- rience will lead us, I apprehend, to the same result as the foregoing reasonings, viz. that in political as well as in private transactions, the 368 National Blessing.s [serm. hi. system of God's moral government is, to make good and bad conduct lead, for the most part, but not invariably, except in the case of the Jews, to temporal success or disaster. The notion that it is requisite for the vindication of the divine justice to expect a distribution of national reward and punishment distinct from what is enjoyed or suffered by individuals, I have endeavoured to refute as fanciful, and as growing out of men's tendency to mistake the conceptions of their own minds for real Beings possessing an independent existence. And I have endeavoured to shew likewise that the confirmation which this notion has been sup- posed to derive from the sacred writings is founded on a mistaken view of the nature and design of the Mosaic dispensation. If the view which I have taken of this subject be correct, it need not be apprehended that the profit to be derived from the contemplation of the events recorded in history will be thereby diminished. On the contrary, all human affairs, both pubhc and private, being under the guidance and control of an all-wise Providence, which has SEiiM. iii.l (mcl Judgments. 369 appointed that the general tendency of good and bad conduct shall be to produce temporal advantages and evils, but which has also per- mitted many exceptions to the general rule, — ordaining among the trials of this present world the occasional prosperity of the wicked and affliction of the righteous, — we shall be enabled, by taking a right view of the existing constitu- tion of the world, to receive the moral lessons it is calculated to afford, without being dismayed at the chastenings with which the good are visited, or misled as to the justice of any cause by the success of its adherents; — without being puffed up with national pride on account of the advan- tages we have obtained, — and without judging rashly and uncharitably of those whose present lot has been less fortunate ; — and lastly, without incurring the triumphant scoffs of infidels, by maintaining an untenable notion of divine Pro- vidence. If then our judgment is guided by right prin- ciples, we may derive useful religious and moral instruction from the contemplation of human affairs ; and more especially of such political events as history records : not that these are B B 370 National Blessings [serm. hi under any different system of divine government ; but because, from their being more conspicuous and better known, we are enabled to take a wider and more comprehensive survey of them. And of these, such as are, hke the event we this day commemorate, remote from the times in which we hve, may in this point of view be the most useful to us ; because we are more hkely to take an unprejudiced, dispassionate, and just view of them, than of those recent transactions in which we have a more immediate personal interest. Many profitable lessons may be drawn from a view of the event now before us ; but none more evident or more valuable than this : that extreme violence in any cause generally and naturally tends to produce such a violent reaction as ulti- mately defeats the proposed object. The depo- sition and murder of the King may be traced, in great measure, to intemperate violence in the support of the royal prerogative : similar violence in the opposers of the encroachments of sove- reign power led to the estabhshment of a usurping sovereign, and, subsequently, to the restoration of the royal family: and finally, the inconsiderate SERM. III.] andJudgments. 371 eagerness with which the restored king was welcomed, without due precautions being taken for securing pubhc hberty, led to a series of fresh encroachments, which ended in the final expulsion of that family. It is our own fault if we fail to learn from this, that the truest friend to Hberty is the supporter of regular and moderate government ; and that the firmest bulwark of royal authority is the judicious advocate of the subject's rights. By adhering to such principles, and keeping clear of the violence of opposite parties, we shall be taking the best means within our reach to prevent the recurrence of such national calamities as revolution and civil war. But whatever may be the events which it may please God in his unsearchable wisdom to bring about in this world, we have his assurance that " all things work together for good to them that love him ;" and that in the next Hfe, if not in this, the day of retribution will come, in which He will judge the world in righteousness, and " reward every man according unto his works." B B 2 APPKNDIX. I WAS induced, in 1831, by the peculiar aspect of the times, to republish the above discourse, in a separate form, and to append to it some further considerations illustrative of the application of its principles. These remarks are here subjoined, in the same form in whicli they were then published. ****** At the present time, when so much alarm prevails in respect of an apprehended pestilence, it is likely that such as entertain opinions opposite to those of the pre- ceding discourse, will take occasion to set them forth the more strongly, and to represent a national judgment as about to be sent, by a special interposition of Pro- vidence, to punish the sins of the people, or of their governors. It is undoubtedly as judicious, as it is a pious course, to avail ourselves of such an occasion as the present, for impressing on men's minds the much-neglected con- siderations of the shortness and uncertainty of life, and the importance of preparing for another world during SERM, III,] Appendix. 373 the period of youth and health. The apathy with which these things are usually contemplated, is only an instance of the disregard which is the proverbial offspring of familiarity ; and accordingly, the awfulness of the idea of death, is augmented beyond all proportion, when it is presented in any unusual form. It is useful, therefore, to take advantage of the impression thus produced, to induce men to think seriously of their eternal interests. And it is very profitable also, to contrast the alarm, the anxiety, and the sedulous caution, which are usually called forth by the expected inroads of a bodily disease, with the carelessness too commonly manifested in respect of what is incalculably more important, — those disorders of the soul which concern our condition for ever in the next world. But it does appear to me a dangerous, as well as aa unwarranted procedure, to represent all cases of disease, defeat, famine, or other temporal affliction, as instances of divine vengeance, for the sins, either of the sufferers themselves, or of their fellow-citizens ; and to lead men to suppose that worldly prosperity and adversity are allotted regularly, and in exact proportion, either to individuals or to nations, as signs of the divine favour and disfavour. In respect of nations, the argument from the supposed necessity of apportioning rewards and punishments to them in this world, on account of their having no existence in the next, has been fully treated of in the foregoing Discourse: in which I have endeavoured to clear away that confusion of thought, which results from the careless employment of figurative language. But I would further suggest, that the argument is as unsafe in practice, as it is in itself unsound. If we 374 Appendix. [serm. hi. presume to represent, as altogether necessary to the vindication of the divine justice, a certain course of dis- pensations, which yet experience shews does not uni- formly take place, at least, (to take the lowest ground,) which we cannot satisfactorily prove to have uniformly taken place, we are going so far towards shaking men's confidence in the divine providence ; and they may even be led to suspect that the doctrine of rewards and punish- ments in the next world, is as untrue, or as doubtful, as they will have found, or appeared to find, that of the re- gular apportionment of temporal prosperity and adversity. Whole nations of the unfortunate South-American Indians were consigned to bitter slavery — were mas- sacred— were hunted down like wild beasts, and most of them finally extirpated by the Spaniards, who took possession of the treasures, and of the fertile lands of these poor wretches, and have since multiplied into a great people. Now, whether it be true or not, few will be induced to believe, that these unhappy Indians, igno- rant though they were of true religion, were especial objects of divine displeasure, compared with their Spanish oppressors, who achieved such victories over them. The same may be said of the unhappy Africans, as compared with the slave-dealers; who, for generation after generation, carried on (as some still do) a gainful trade, by tearing these poor creatures from their country, crowding them on board unwholesome slave-ships, where multitudes of them were swept off by infectious dis- eases, and finally consigning them and their posterity to bondage. It is true that the Philistines, the Babylonians, and other Pagan nations, were often employed as a scourge SERM. III.] Appendix. 375 to punish the backsHdings of God's pecuHar people, when those nations themselves were, perhaps, equally or more wicked, except for the circumstance that they did not sin against the light of revelation. But such cases are the very reverse of those just mentioned; vis. the infliction of the most horrible cruelty and injustice hy those who were called to be God's people, by professed Christians, on such as had 7iot received the light of reve- lation, and were comparatively inoffensive. If again, any one studies the accounts of the Vaudois, one of the most interesting nations on the earth, when he sees the members of a pure and apostolical church en- during for successive generations every species of cala- mity, (which they might have escaped by apostasy,) subjected to rapine, imprisonment, exile, slaughter, and every refinement of cruelty, all which they endured with unflinching fortitude, for the truth's sake, always ready to return good for evil to their persecutors, he will hardly be brought to think that these men could be (compared with their Romanist neighbours, who escaped these afflictions) peculiarly the objects of divine displeasure. These, and many similar instances, which history can supply, must lead men either to doubt the reality of a divine Providence, or to conclude that such a view of it as I have adverted to, is erroneous. But if men adopt that view, there is this further danger : that if they escape visitations of disease, and other temporal afflictions, they will be likely to exult uncharitably over those who suffer them, and to regard their own exemption (by parity of reasoning) as a proof of their being acceptable in God's sight. If, for instance, this Country should escape (as it 376 Appendix. [SERM. Ill, has for the last 160 years) the attacks of pestilence, to which other nations have been exposed, there is surely reason to fear, that the principle I have been speaking of, may lead us to a dangerous self-conceit ; — to a belief, that so long an exemption is a sign of our having sur- passed in morality, to a much greater degree than we have, the rest of the world. If, again, the apprehended calamity should fall on us, there is a danger of another kind to be apprehended, from the inculcation of the doctrine that a whole jieople are subjected to such a visitation for the sins oi^part; — that divine vengeance falls indiscriminately on the most, and on the least guilty, as a punishment for the wicked- ness of the generality. For under such a persuasion, each man's natural self-partiality will be apt to lead him to look to the sins of his neighbours, or of his rulers, rather than to his own, as calling down the divine ven- geance. And many may thus be led to think it merito- rious to cut off those " who trouble our Israel:" even as the covenanters did in the time of tlie civil war; who began by confessing, with apparent humility, the national sins, and proceeded next to depose and put to death their rulers, whose criminality they thought exposed them- selves to judgments from heaven. Such a procedure seems perfectly consistent with such a principle. Among the Israelites, such a dispensation vcas established; and a corresponding procedure was, naturally and rightly, founded on it. Divine judgments were sent on the people, including the innocent, for such violations of the divine law by individuals, as could be distinctly ascer- tained ; and every one, accordingly, was authorized and called on, to avert the divine wrath by " executing SERM. HI.] Appendix. 377 judgment" on those individuals. When a plague raged among the Israelites, on account of the corrupting in- tercourse of some of them with the Moabites, Phinehas, without any special commission, " arose and executed judgment, and so the plague ceased." When, again, their army was defeated through the transgression of Achan, he was, consistently and rightly, put to death. When they were afflicted with famine, " for Saul and his bloody house," seven men of his family were put to death, and " the Lord was intreated for the land." These, and numberless similar instances, were cited as precedents, and acted on by the covenanters ; with perfect fairness, supposing we are under a like dispensation. Let us at least consider to what our principles, if consistently fol- lowed up, will lead us. No doubt all the dispensations of Providence, whether adverse or prosperous, are sent for some wise and good purpose. Sickness, and other afflictions, may serve as a profitable chastisement, by awakening a sinner from his careless and irreligious state, and checking his devoted- ness to the present life and its enjoyments. Health and prosperity, again, may serve as a useful moral discipline, no less than their contraries ; but chastisement is a very different purpose from retribution. The allotment of good and evil, according to the character of each man, (which is properly retribution) is reserved, under the christian dispensation, for the next world. Before the Gospel was revealed, the Israelites were regularly, and other nations occasionally , punished by temporal infflc- tions, proportioned to their transgressions ; but the Apostle Paul points out, as one of the characteristics of the Gospel, that in it God has " commanded all men 378 Appendix. [SERM. III. everywhere to repent, inasmuch as He has appointed a DAY in which He will judge the world in righteous- ness." The novelty and peculiarity of this announcement consisted, not in declaring the Deity to be the judge of the world, (for this the Jews knew, and most of the Pagans believed) but in declaring that He had appointed a t/ay for that judgment, before Christ's tribunal in the next world. Men were thenceforth to look for a retribu- tion, not, as before, irregular and uncertain, but pre- pared for all men, according to the character of each ; — not, as before, immediate, in the present life, but in the life to come. Let Christians then be exhorted, conformably to the Apostle's doctrine, habitually to turn their thoughts to that GREAT DAY ; and to wean their affection from " the things on the earth, and set them on things above." It is true that some men, who are nearly strangers to such a habit, may be, for a time, more alarmed by the denuncia- tion of immediate temporal judgments for their sins, than by any considerations relative to " the things which arc not seen, and which are eternal." But the effect thus produced is much less likely to be lasting, or to be salutary. In the first place, if they escape the pestilence, or other visitation with which they have been thi-eatened, there is danger of their relapsing irretrievably into care- lessness, if not into disbelief, or contempt of a religion, whose denunciations (as they will have been taught to apprehend) of temporal judgment, they will have seen not regularly fulfilled. And besides this, such an alarm, while it lasts, is not calculated to produce the most salutary effects, because it SERM. III.] Appefidix. 379 does not tend to make men spiritually-minded : and any reformation of manners it may have produced, will not have been founded on Christian principles. He who is temperate, for the sake of avoiding sickness, — honest and industrious for fear of discredit and poverty, &c., will indeed be the more likely to attain the temporal objects he aims at ; but is not the more acceptable in the sight of God, if he is acting on no higher motive than the goods and evils of the present world can supply. " Verily I say unto you, they have their reward." Now since the general tendency of mankind is towards an over devotion to the good things of this world, (which, after all, are not promised to the Christian) while there is a comparative carelessness about the things which " eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive, which God hath prepared for them that love Him," in the next world ; every effort should be made, by each Christian, and by each Christian Pastor, to counteract this tendency. We should carefully impress on our own minds, and those of our hearers, that to look for temporal retribu- tion, is inconsistent with the profession of a religion, whose Founder was persecuted and crucified, and whose first preachers were exposed to "hunger, and thirst, and cold, and nakedness," and every kind of hardship, and were " made the offscouring of all things ;" so that they declared that "if in t/tis life only they had hope in Christ, they were of all men most miserable." We should con- sider, too, that these very sufferings proved a stumbling- block to the unbelieving Jews ; not mei ely from their being unwilling to expose themselves to the like, accord- ing to the forewarnings of Jesus, "in this world ye 380 Appendix. [serm. hi. shall have tribulation," &c. ; but still more, from their regarding these sufferings as a mark of divine displea- sure, and consequently a proof that Jesus could not have come from God. Because He was " a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief," they " did esteem Him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted," and " they hid their face from Him." And it should be remembered, that the Jews, who had been brought up under a dispensation sanctioned by temporal rewards and punishments, were less inex- cusable in this their error, than those Chrisfians, who presume to measure the divine favour and disfavour by temporal events. Let not men be taught, then, that those who are exposed to the ravages of disease, are more the objects of divine wrath than the rest of mankind ; any more than those Galilaeans whom Pilate massacred, " were sinners above all the Galilaeans," but let them be told, " except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish :" all, that is, who persist in sin will be infallibly judged in the next world, whatever may be their lot in this. Those again, who are striving to lead a Christian life, are not to be taught that they are therefore to expect exemption from worldly afflictions, from painful disease, or untimely death ; but they should be taught, that " all things work together for good" (that is, spiritual and eternal good) " to them that love God :" that if they strive to make a right use of all the painful trials that may be sent on them, their " light affliction, which is but for a moment, worketh for them a far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory ;" and that they ought not to be disheartened by their temporal sufferings, as if these were a mark of divine displeasure, SRRM. 111.] Appendix. 381 but to look to tlie example of tlic Lord Jesus, and " rejoice in liim always." " But you will say, that a man cannot be clieerful with the fear of death before his eyes ; that it will weigh upon his spirits, in spite of all he can do to shake it off. Feai", indeed, is hard to be reasoned with, and the fear of death is hardest of all ; but though it may not be reasoned with, it can be prayed against. True it is, that the chance of taking the cholera is a very fearful thing, if we are not fit to die : the prospect of a sudden and painful disease carrying us off in twenty-four hours, is a very terrible one, if death is without hope to us. But what, if fear be taken usefully, and make us set about obtaining that which will make us justly bold? What, if the thought of this new disorder, which kills those whom it does kill, in so very short a time, should lead us to think seriously of death, and why it is that we fear it? What, if it should make us see clearly what is the sting of Death, and labour and pray earnestly to be delivered from it ? What, if it should lead us to seek the Lord while he may be found ; to turn to him in all sincerity, who died and rose again for us, that we might not fear to die, because our hope is to rise as he is risen ? Truly, if the fear of the cholera leads us to seek this only real way of not being afraid of it, it will be, both to our bodies and our souls, not so much a cui'se as a blessing^" In truth, there is no temporal good or ill that may not become either a blessing or a curse, according to the use made of it ; so that we know not rightly what (of these " These words ave taken from an excellent little tract On Cholera, circulated by Dr. Arnold, at Rugby. 382 Appendix. [SERM. III. tilings) we ought to pray for, or to pray against. We should therefore never pray absolutely and uncondition- ally for any thing, but what we are sure is good for us : viz. for God's grace to enable us to bear both prosperity and affliction with a Christian mind, and "so to pass through things temporal, that we finally lose not the things eternal." When we offer up any prayer for life and health, plenty, peace, and worldly comfort, or for deliverance from worldly afflictions, we should always add, in words, or mentally, with devout resignation to Providence, "not my will, but thine be done ;" we should beg to be blessed with as much, and only as much, of worldly advantages, as the All-wise shall see will not prove a snare to us, by fixing our heart too much on the earth: we should beg Him to spare us no temporal afflic- tion, that he sees to be for our real and eternal benefit ; and we should " commend to his fatherly goodness all those" (whether ourselves or others) "who are any way afflicted or distressed, in mind, body, or estate ; that it may please Him to comfort and relieve them according to their several necessities, giving them patience under their sufferings, and" (either in this life or the next) "a happy issue out of all their afflictions." SERMON IV. USE OF HUMAN LEARNING IN MATTERS OF RELIGION. 1 Cor. ii. 4. My speech and my preaching was not with enticing words of man's wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power. Certainly the Gospel did not owe its propaga- tion to human eloquence or wisdom, any more than to the influence of human power and worldly splendour. The deficiency of temporal advantages in its first preachers, compared with the magnitude of the object they effected, might of itself have led us to conjecture, even had there been no record of the miraculous pouring 384 Use of human Learning [serm. iv. out of spiritual gifts upon them, that they must have been favoured with some supernatural and extraordinary aids. And the choice of such instruments, supported by such aids, is exactly suitable to the tjharacter of a divine dispensation, and what we might reasonably have expected to find in it. Had the great and the wealthy, the learned and the eloquent, been employed in the work, there never could have been the same complete certainty that the religion came from God. Hence it is that, as Paul says, " God hath chosen the foohsh things of the world to confound the wise ; and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty, and base things of the world, and things which are despised, hath God chosen ; yea, and things which are not, to bring to nought things that are : that no flesh should glory in his presence." This point we find him anxiously and re- peatedly impressing on the Corinthians, to guard them against either undervaluing his doctrine, or mistaking its character. It is pro- bable that they in common with the Greeks in general, or perhaps in a still greater degree. SERM. IV.] in matters of Religion. 385 were disposed to set a very high value on the devices of human ingenuity, rhetoric and philo- sophy ; or, as our translators have rendered it, " the enticing v^^ords of man's v^risdom ;" (the word Elements of Logic, B. iv. chap. 4. § 2. 0 Acts xiv. 13. EE 2 420 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. be appropriated respectively to the different orders of those Ministers, instead of being apphed indiscriminately. But no mention is made, by the sacred writers, of any such office being established by the Apostles, as that of " Priest" in the other sense, viz. 'lepevs ; — Priest, in short, such as we find mentioned, under that name, in Scripture. Now this alone would surely be a strong pre- sumption that they regarded the two offices as essentially distinct; for they must have been perfectly familiar with the name ; and had they intended to institute the same office, or one very similar to it, we cannot but suppose they would have employed that name. The mere circum- stance that the Christian religion is very different from all others, would, of itself, have been no reason against this ; for the difference is infinite between the divinely-instituted religion of the Jews, and the idolatrous superstitions of the heathen ; and yet, from similarity of office, the word 'Upevs is applied by the sacred writers to the Ministers of both religions. The difference of names, then, is, in such a SERM. v.] under the Gospel. 421 case as this, a matter of no trifling importance, but would, even of itself, lead us to infer a difference of things, and to conclude that the Apostles regarded their religion as having no Priest at all, (in the sense of 'lepevs,) except Christ Jesus ; of whom indeed all the Levitical Priests were but types. It is next to be considered what was the nature of that office which was exercised by the Jewish and by the Pagan Priests; and which, according to the Apostle, belonged, after the establishment of Christ's kingdom, to Him alone. The Priests of the Israelites were appointed by the Almighty himself, for the express purpose of offering sacrifices, in the name and on the behalf of the people ; they alone were allowed to make oblations and burn incense before the Lord : it was through them that the people were to approach Him, that their service might be acceptable. A very great portion of the Jewish rehgion consisted in the performance of certain ceremonial rites, most of which could only be duly performed by the Priests, or through their mediation and assistance ; they were to make 422 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. intercession and atonement for offenders ; they, in short, were the mediators between God and man. It is true the Israehtes were a sacred nation, and are called in Scripture a " kingdom of Priests ;" but it is plain that this is not to be understood as admitting them all indiscriminately to the exercise of the sacred offices just men- tioned ; since the most tremendous punishments were denounced (of whose infliction examples are recorded) against any who, not being of the seed of Aaron, presumed to take upon them to burn incense and make oblations. But it was requisite to impress on the minds of the Israelites that they were not to entertain the notion (which appears to have been not uncommon among the heathen) that religion was the exclusive concern of the Priests : they, on the contrary, were required to worship God themselves, — to conform to his ordinances, — to keep themselves pure from all defilement, moral or ceremonial, — and to practise all their duties out of reverence to God, their Lawgiver and King ; they were, in short, to be Priests in piety of heart and hoHness of life. And in the same SERM. v.] under the Gospel. 423 sense Peter calls Christians " a royal Priesthood;" and John, in the Apocalypse, speaks of them as " Kings and Priests ;" evidently meaning that they were dedicated to Christ, and were bound to offer up themselves as " a living sacrifice" devoted to Him. Whenever accordingly the title of Priest is applied at all to any of Christ's followers, it is apphed, not to any particular order of men among them, but to all Christians. They are, all without exception called figura- tively Kings and Priests : but they are (as Chris- tians) Kings without subjects, and Priests with- out a people ; in reference merely to the exalted state of glory to which they are called, and to their oblation of themselves, — their souls and bodies, to God's service. We are told to present ourselves a " lively" (i. e. living) " sacrifice," in contradistinction to the victims slain at the Altar; and this is called our " reasonable" (i.e. rational) " service," as contrasted with the offer- ing up of Brute-hea&i^, under the old Dispensa- tion. But the true and proper Priest under the gospel-dispensation, is, the " one Mediator be- tween God and Man, the man Christ Jesus." There may have been another intention also 424 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. in calling the Israelites (as well as the Christians afterwards) a kingdom of Priests ; viz. to point out that the mysteries of their rehgion (which among the Pagans were in general kept secret among the Priests, or some select number, whom these admitted to the knowledge of them) were revealed, as far as they were revealed at all, to the whole of this favoured nation. Many parts indeed of the Mosaic institutions were but im- perfectly understood by any, as to their object and signification ; but nothing seems to have been imparted to the Priests which was withheld from the people. This very striking distinction is remarked by Josephus, who observes, that such religious mysteries as, among the heathen, were concealed by the Priests, were imparted to the whole Jewish nation. That there was, however, a distinct order of Priests, properly so called, set apart for a pecu- liar purpose, is undeniable and undisputed. Among the Pagans, whose institutions appear to have been, in great measure, corrupt imita- tions of those of the patriarchal religion, we find, as before. Priests, who were principally, if not exclusively, the offerers of sacrifices, in SERM. v.] under the Gospel. 425 behalf of the State and of individuals, — inter- cessors,— supplicating and making atonement for others, — mediators between man and the object of his worship. This peculiarity of office was even carried to the length of an abuse : (I speak now of the abuses introduced into the institutions of the Pagans, in contradistinction to the absurdities of their faith :) there seems to have been, as has been already hinted, a strong tendency to regard all religion as exclusively the concern of the Priests ; — that they were to be the sole deposi- taries of the mysteries of things sacred ; — that a high degree of holiness of life and devotion were required of them alone ; — that they were to be religious, as it were, instead of the people ; — and that men had only to shew due respect to the Priests, and leave to them the service of the Deity ; just as they commit the defence of the State to soldiers, and the cure of their diseases to physicians. Against such notions (as was before remarked) the Israelites were studiously cautioned ; and not without reason ; since they are but too common in the present day, when they are still more groundless and unreasonable. 426 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. The office of Priest, then, in that sense of the word which we are now considering, viz. as equivalent to 'Upevs, being such as has been described, it follows that, in our religion, the only Priest, in that sense, is Jesus Christ Him- self; to whom consequently, and to whom alone, under the Gospel, the title is applied by the inspired writers. He alone has offered up an atoning sacrifice for us, even the sacrifice of his own blood ; He " ever liveth to make intercession for us ;" He is the " one Mediator between God and man ;" " through Him we have access to the Father ;" and " no man cometli unto the Father but by Him," H. As for the Ministers whom He, and his apostles, and their successors, appointed, they are completely distinct from Priests in the for- mer sense, in office, as well as in name. Of this office one principal part is, that it belongs to them (not exclusively indeed, but principally and especially) to preach the Gospel, — to in- struct, exhort, admonish, and spiritually govern, Christ's flock. His command was, to " go and teach all nations ;" — to " preach the Gospel to every creature :" and these Christian Ministers SERM. v.] under the Gospel. 427 are called in the Epistle to the Hebrews, " those that bear rule over them, and watch for their souls, as they that must give an account." Now it is worthy of remark, that the office we are at present speaking of made no part of the especial duties of a Priest, in the other sense, such as those of the Jews, and of the Pagans. Among the former, it was not so much the family of Aaron, as the whole tribe of Levi, that seem to have been set aside for the purpose of teaching the Law : and even to these it was so far from being in any degree confined, that persons of any tribe might teach publicly in the synagogues on the Sabbath day ; as was done by our Lord Himself, who was of the tribe of Judah ; and Paul, of the tribe of Benjamin ; without any objection being raised. Whereas an intrusion into the Priest's office would have been vehemently resented. And as for the Pagan Priests, their business was rather to conceal, than to explain, the mysteries of their religion; — to keep the people in darkness, than to enlighten them. Accord- ingly, the moral improvement of the people, among the ancients, seems to have been 428 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. considered as the proper care of the legislator ; whose laws and systems of public education generally had this object in view. To these, and to the pubKc disputations of philosophers, but by no means to the Priests of their rehgion, they appear to have looked for instruction in their duty. That the Christian Ministry, on the contrary, were appointed, in great measure, if not prin- cipally, for the express purpose of giving reli- gious instruction and admonition, is clearly proved both by the practice of the apostles themselves, and by Paul's directions to Timothy and to Titus. Another, and that a peculiar and exclusive office of the Christian Ministers, is, the admi- nistration of the sacraments of Baptism and of the Lord's Supper. But this administration does not at all assimilate the Christian Priest- hood to the Pagan or the Jewish. The former of these rites is, in the first place, an admission into the visible Church ; and therefore very suit- ably received at the hands of those whose especial business is to instruct and examine those who aKe candidates for Baptism, as adults, or SERM. v.] under the Gosjyel. 429 who have been baptized in their infancy ; and in the second place, it is an admission to a par- ticipation in the gifts of the Spirit, which consti- tute the Church, "the Temple"^ of the Holy Ghost." The treasury, as it were, of divine grace is then thrown open, to which we may resort when a sufficient maturity of years enables us to understand our wants, and we are inclined to apply for their relief. It is not, let it be observed, through the mediation of an earthly Priest that we are admitted to offer our suppli- cations before God's mercy-seat ; we are autho- rized, by virtue of this sacred rite, to appear, as it were, in his presence, ourselves ; needing no intercessor with the Father, but his Son Jesus Christ, both God and man. " Having therefore," says Paul, " boldness to enter into the holiest by the blood of Jesus, by a new and living way, which he hath consecrated for us, and having an High Priest over the house of God, let us draw near with a true heart, in full ^ See Hinds' " Three Temples." It ought to be kept in mind that it is only to Christians collectively, — that is to the Church, that this term is applied. Individual Christians are called " living stones," but never, temples. 430 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. assurance of faith, having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and our bodies washed vv^ith pure water." The sacrament of the Lord's Supper, again, is not, as the Romanists unwarrantably pretend, a fresh sacrifice, but manifestly a celebration of the one already made. And the rite seems plainly to have been ordained for the express purpose (among others) of fixing our minds on the great and single oblation of Himself, made by the only High Priest, once for all ; — that great High Priest who has no earthly successor. And all the communicants are ahke partakers, spiritually, of the body and blood of Christ, {i. e. of his Spirit,'^ of which these are the emblems) provided they themselves are in a sanctified and right frame of mind. It is on the personal holiness of the communicant, not of the Minister, that the efficacy of this Sacrament depends ; he, so far from offering any sacrifice himself, refers them to the sacrifice already made by another. Such being then the respective offices of these e " It is the Spirit that quickeneth ; (i. e. giveth life) the flesh profiteth nothing," &c. John vi. 63. See note on the Eucharist. Essays. Second Series. Appendix II. SERM. v.] under the Gosj)el. 431 two orders of men, (both now commonly called in English " Priests/' but originally distinguished by the names of 'lepevs and Upea-^vrepos,) we may assert, that the word in question is ambi- guous; denoting, when thus apphed to both, two things, essentially distinct. It is not merely a comprehensive term, embracing two species under one class, but rather an equivocal term, applied, in different senses, to two things of different classes. At least it must be admitted, that what is most essential to each respectively, is wanting in the other. The essential charac- teristic of the Jewish Priests, was, (not their being Ministers of religion ; for that, in a certain sense, all the Levites were ; but) their offering sacrifices, and making atonement and interces- sion for the people : whereas of the Christian Minister the especial office is religious instruc- tion, and the administration of rites totally different in their nature from the offering of sacrifices ; — totally precluding the idea of his making himself the mediator between God and man. The confounding together, then, through the ambiguity of language, two things thus essen- 432 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. tially distinct, may well be expected to mislead, not only such as are ignorant of the distinction, but all who do not carefully attend to it, and keep it steadily in view. III. I propose, in conclusion, to point out a few of the errors which have thus arisen. 1st. In the first place, the enemies of our faith, craftily endeavouring to confound in all points our rehgion with the various systems of superstition that have deluded mankind, have gained great advantage over the unwary by the ambiguity in question. They have designated all religions that have ever prevailed as so many systems of imposture, devised by Priests for the purpose of establishing their own influence, by keeping the people in ignorant subjection. That this description by no means fairly applies to the religion of Moses, has already been remarked ; but when it is apphed to Christianity, it can only be by taking advantage of the casual ambiguity of a word, to confound a distinction, which it implies the grossest igno- rance to overlook, or the grossest dishonesty to suppress. The following passage from a discussion, in a SERM. v.] under the Gospel. 433 well-known periodical work, (professedly re- specting the religion of the Hindoos, but whose author is, evidently, and with scarcely even a pretence of concealment, directing his attack against every religion, except Deism,) may serve as a specimen of the ingenious misrepresentation which has been employed on this topic. The writer evidently possesses no common talents ; — his whole dissertation is elaborate, and skilfully composed ; — there is much reason (though not unmixed with error) in what he says of the Bramins and of the Romish Priests; — and it requires no small degree of caution and of pa- tience to apply the test which shall decompose, as it were, his sophistry, — shall precipitate the falsehood from the truth with which it is com- bined,— and exhibit his poison in its genuine and malignant form, " The Priest," he says, must always have an interest in rendering religion not, as rational as possible, but the reverse The advantage of the Priest con- sists in his being able to persuade the rest of his fellow-creatures that they do not understand the will of the Supreme Being, but that he does But nothing is more simple than to know what F F 434 Christ the only Priest [serm. v. is the will of a Being of perfect wisdom and goodness But if, on the other hand, the Priests can persuade the people that the will of God is something very unaccountable, subject to the influence of all manner of weak and wicked passions, with unbounded power for their gratification, .... it is very easy in that case for the Priests to frighten the people with an idea that they cannot know the will of God, and that infinite evil may fall upon them in consequence ; but that the Priest does know it ; and that they therefore can do nothing better than throw themselves upon the Priest, and follow implicitly his directions The Priests in consequence become a species of intercessors. If a man has offended the Deity, they alone can interfere to mollify him. Their prayers only are of any value : and they invent a system of sacrifices, and other rites, for the same pur- pose," &c. &c. It would occupy too much space to cite pas- sages, as might easily be done, from the same article, which prove that the author intends to apply, the greater part, at least, of this and similar descriptions, to our religion, as well as to SERM. v.] under tlie Gospel. 435 that of the Hindoo idolaters. That his account of the origin of priestcraft, even among them, is not altogether correct, but is, in some measure, the reverse of the actual course of things, I shall have occasion briefly to point out hereafter. But the appHcation of this character to Christianity is a sophism which no man of acuteness could employ, who was not either wilfully misleading others, or himself blinded by the obstinate prejudice of a corrupt heart. If we are but careful to keep in view the two meanings of the word " Priest," — the broad distinction between 'lepevs and Upe