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 Buffalo. 
 
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THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 AND RELIGIOUS PEDAGOGY 
 
Other Works by the Same Author 
 
 THE SUNDAY SCHOOL OF TO-DAY. 
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. A Complete Text 
 Book. 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOL TEACHING. 
 
 THE HISTORY AND USE OF THE PRAYER 
 BOOK. 
 
 HANDBOOK ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. 
 
 THE MAKING OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 FROM THE EXILE TO THE ADVENT. 
 
 AGELESS HYMNS OF THE CHRISTIAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 A HANDBOOK OF RELIGIOUS PICTURES. 
 
 THE SUNDAY SCHOOL PROBLEM SOLVED. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S HANDBOOK OF BIBLE 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 STEREOPTICON LECTURES ON THE MIS- 
 SION FIELDS OF THE CHURCH. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Child Study and Religious 
 Pedagogy 
 
 In Simple and Practical Form 
 
 Fully Illustrated 
 
 By / 
 
 THE REV. WILLIAM WALTER SMITH, A.M.,M.D. 
 
 Graduate Student of Teachers' College, Columbia University. Member of the General Board 
 
 of Religious Education. Secretary of the New York Sunday School Commission. 
 
 Sunday School Field Secretary for the Second Department. 
 
 WITH FOREWORD 
 
 By 
 
 THE REV. ROBERT P. KREITLER 
 
 f 
 
 APR 7 1966 
 
 MILWAUKEE a 
 
 THE YOUNG CHURCHMAN CO. n ^WJT^ 
 
 London: A. R. Mowbray & Co. -^ f\1^J)%'^.ZPL'S^^^\^ 
 1912 '^-- ^ 
 
 First Unitarian 
 
 Church School 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
COPYRIGHT BY 
 
 THE YOUNG CHURCHMAN CO. 
 1912 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 To THE Host of Faithful Teachers of Religion 
 IN America, "Who have Liberty enough, and Time 
 enough, and Head enough, and Heart enough, 
 to be masters in the Kingdom of Life." 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I.— THE CHILD AND CHILD-STUDY, OR 
 THE PROCESS OF MIND GROWTH. 
 
 The Whom of Teaching. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Child in the Sunday School 
 
 The Purpose of this Course — What "the Child"' ]\Ieans — 
 The Teacher's Power — Impressions of Early Environment — 
 The Psychology of the Child — The Nervous System — Com- 
 plexity of the Human Body — The Brain's Relation to tlie 
 Nerve Centers — Cerebrum and Cerebellum. 
 
 Chapter II. — How We Think and Learn 
 
 Stream of Consciousness — Acquiring New Ideas — Apper- 
 ception Explained — Realizing an Idea — Definite Stages of 
 Thinking — What "Paying Attention" Is — Types of Atten- 
 tion — How Not to Gain Attention — Law of Voluntary 
 Attention. 
 
 Chapter III. — Education and Character 
 
 Memory and Its Value — Types of INIemory — Will — Types 
 of Will — Opposition of Knowing. Feeling and Willing — 
 Deliberation — Deliberation, Reflection, and Willing — In- 
 stincts, Native and Acquired — Habits — Habit, the End of 
 School Work — Sub-conscious Field of Habit. 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Stages of Develofaient ----- - 
 
 /. Primary Age, 1-6 years old. 
 I. Physical Characteristics: Restlessness — Activity — Love 
 of Play — Emulation — Savagery. II. Mental Characteris- 
 tics: Dependence — Faith and Trust — Personification — 
 Self-Unconsciousness — Imitativeness — Curiosity'- — Imagina- 
 tion — Concreteness — Conscience Undeveloped — ]\Iemorj' 
 Weak — Sex-unconsciousness — Tabular Summary of Traits 
 During Kindergarten and Primary Ages. 
 
 Chapter V. — The Stages of Development 
 
 Primary Age Continued. II. Later Childhood, 6 to J2 years. 
 Later Childhood. I. Physical Characteristics: Tireless 
 Activity — Hero-Worship — Senses ]Most Noticeable Fea- 
 ture — Irresistible Impulsiveness — Courage — Truant Pro- 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 clivitit'S. IT. Mental Characteristics: Risinj^ Desire for 
 liKlepencIeiiee — 8ense of Humor Crude — ]3ominance of 
 ]*reseiit — Iniitativeness — Group Ajje — Ketentiveiiess of .Mem- 
 ory — JJesire for Affection — Collecting' Instinct — Owner- 
 ship — Constructiveness — Certainty — Rise of Conscience. 
 Tabular Summary of Characteristics During Later Child- 
 hood. 
 
 Chapter VI. — Stages of Development 
 
 ///. Early Adolescence, 12 to IS years old. 
 I. Bodily Changes: Age of Awkwardness — Bodily Changes 
 Predominate — Sex- Attraction. II. Mental Changes: Novel 
 in Age of Romance — Solf-Conscious and Sensitive — Age of 
 Ideals — Developing Reasoning — "Storm and Stress"' Period 
 — Conversion Period. 
 
 CiiAPTEU VII. — Stages of Development 
 
 A do lesccnce Con t in tied. 
 What is Conversion? — Curve of Conversion — So-called 
 "Gang" Age — Strengthening of Conscience — "Aufkliining" — 
 Development of Will — ]\Ioral Sense — Dime Novel Stage — 
 Ritual and Adolescence. 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Stages of Development 
 
 IV. Later Adolescence, J8 to 25 years old. 
 Chief Characteristics: Philosophic Insight — Adult Age — 
 Limitations of Progress — Summary of Chief Characteris- 
 tics — Tabular Summary of Development Traits During 
 Adolescence — Relation between Body and ^lind — Types — - 
 Sex-Differences — Motor and Sensory Types — Temperament — 
 Temperament and Christianity — Working Table of Tem- 
 perament — Suggestion to Teachers — Tabular Summary of 
 All Development Traits. , 
 
 PART II.— THE CURRICULUM. 
 
 The What of Teaching. 
 
 Chapter IX. — Grading the Sunday School 
 
 What is a Graded School — Practical Grading — How to 
 Grade a Small School — Principles of a Well-rounded Cur- 
 riculum — Curriculum of S. S. Commission of New York — 
 Psychological Principles of Child Nature — Best Practical 
 Way to Grade. 
 
 PART III.— THE LESSON AND ITS PREPARATION. 
 The Wherewithal of Teaching. 
 
 Chapter X. — How to Prepare the Lesson 
 
 How to Prepare to Study the Lesson — Herbartian or Formal 
 Steps — The Opposite or Deductive Method Has Its Formal 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Steps Likewise — A Tliird Kind of Kocitation is tlio So- 
 called "Qucstion-and-Answer," or "Heuristic" Recitation — 
 Informational Studies — Review Lessons — Logical Studies — 
 Lesson Title — Question Method in Introduction— Correla- 
 tion — Deduction Versus Induction — Reviews — Examina- 
 tions — Tj'pes in Teaching — '"Point of Contact" — How ]\Iuch 
 Children' Know — Child's Vocabulary — Grafting Unknown 
 to Known. 
 
 PART IV.— THE CLASS. 
 
 The How of Teaching. 
 
 Chapter XI. — How to Interest Scholars and Secure At- 
 tention 
 
 Attention and Interest — What Interest Is — How to Hold 
 Attention — Will Basis of Voluntary Attention — Physical 
 Means in Obtaining Attention — Troublesome Pupils — Kill- 
 ing Interest — False Views of Interest — Fatigue — Signs of 
 Fatigue. 
 
 Chapter XII. — How to Keep Order and Conduct the Reci- 
 tation Properly 
 
 What is Order — Use of Secondary Ends as ^Motives to 
 Order — Difference Between Securing and Maintaining 
 Order — Securing Ordei- — Agencies for Keeping Order — 
 Restlessness Cause of Disorder — Emotions as Incentives to 
 Order — Pupils Innately Disorderly — Penalties — Disorderly 
 Teachers — Right JNIethod of Conducting Recitation — Review 
 Steps — Balancing Recitation with Instruction — How to Se- 
 cure Balance. 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Questioning and Teaching 
 
 Importance of Questioning — IMethod of Sunday School 
 Questioning — Kinds of Questions — Curiosity Kindled by 
 Questions- — How to Learn — How to Question — Character of 
 Questions — Questioning Older Pupils — Proper Recitation 
 Balance in Questioning. 
 
 Chapter XIV. — How to Use Stories, Illustrations, and 
 Objects 
 
 Illustrations and How to Use Them — To What Does Illus- 
 tration Appeal — Dangers in Illustration — Characteristics 
 of a Good Illustration — Marks of a Good Story — Points to 
 be Remembered in Story -Tel ling — Brief Rules — How to 
 Learn How — Varieties of Illustrative Material — Types of 
 Pictures — Graded Stereoscopic Work — INIanual Work — 
 Map-^Making in Relief — In Flat — ilodelic Work. 
 
 Chapter XV. — Clinching Our Teaching for Permanent 
 Results 
 
 Training of Memory, Habits, and Will — Kinds of Memory 
 Wanted — Laws of Memory — How to ^Memorize — Reason- 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 ing — Forgetting — jMemoritcr Work^Roasons for Written 
 Answer ^Vork — Quest ion-and- Answer Books — S])('cialization 
 in Habit Formation — Kiiles of Habit Formation— Elements 
 of Moral Training — Cultivation of Doing. 
 
 PART v.— THE SCOPE AND AIM OF RELIGIOUS 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The Why and the Who of Teaching. 
 
 Chapter XVI. — The Will axd Character 
 
 Training the Will — Desire and Will — Choice and Deeision — 
 Training the Judgment — Every Lesson Must Function in 
 Doing — Music and Will — Inter-relation of Intellect, Feel- 
 ing, and Will — Will-breaking — "Call" of the Teacher. 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 Personality plus something ! This is the ideal held before 
 tlie Sunday School teacher to-day. In the "something" is 
 included a knowledge of the elements of child study and 
 pedagogy. For we are discovering, as the author of the Book 
 of Proverbs stated long ages ago, "life itself" (and he said 
 "the very soul") "without knowledge is not a blessing." The 
 result of this discovery has been to awaken a desire for helpful 
 guide books which will relate many of the intricate studies 
 hitherto associated only with secular education, to those of 
 the Sunday School and religious education. A higher type 
 of leadership is being sought, a trained leadership, which 
 shall be able to cope with the complex and progressive prob- 
 lems of the child in its religious life, as adequately as has 
 been done in every other direction. 
 
 The upheaval and change in secular educational methods 
 have already affected, to a considerable degree, those of re- 
 ligious education as we find them in the Sunday School. A 
 frank questioning, both of the older • methods of Sunday 
 School work, and of our right to lose the benefit of the newer 
 ways, is heard with becoming insistence. We are, therefore, 
 glad to welcome a book which places within our reach the 
 knowledge and experience of a growing class of helpful lead- 
 ers in secular, and also religious educational circles. 
 
 The practical difficulties in the training of teachers for 
 tlie Sunday School are so many and, to some, so great, that 
 
xii FOREWORD 
 
 much of advice given in l)ooks of this character sounds like 
 counsels of perfection. This is especially true of the small 
 country school^ or of those where teachers are few and hard 
 to retain, or where busy clergymen have neither time nor 
 ability to devote to this admittedly important subject. They 
 would seem insurmountable^ if there were not accumulating 
 a goodly array of testimony from every type of Sunday 
 School, under all sorts and conditions of environment, mani- 
 festing a keen interest in the Forward ]\[ovement of Religious 
 Education. 
 
 That there is an increase in the campaign for trained 
 Sunday School teachers is evident to those alive to the trend 
 of affairs in this particular. The need for another edition of 
 Dr. Smith's manual of 1903, on "Sunday School Teaching," 
 after several editions had been exhausted, is a hopeful sign. 
 That this manual found its way into widely scattered places, 
 with demands for a more comprehensive treatment of its 
 subject, gives an indication of how rapidly the movement is 
 progressing. The larger text book, "Religious Education," 
 coming from our author's pen in l!)Oi), contained a wealth 
 of material for leaders of training classes, and students in 
 theological seminaries. The vei'v richness and variety of its 
 contents ])r()\ed eiiibarrassing to tlic average lay teacher, so 
 that the necessities of tlic siluaiiou (Icinandcd a volume such 
 as this present work. 
 
 It should be liclpful lo tliose who are familial' with llie 
 "Religious Education," following as it does the larger work 
 in its general order and plan. Eventually, the ideals cm- 
 Ijodicd in "Some ]*]lemenls of Child Sludy and Sunday School 
 I*edagogy" must ))ecome of real value to lay teachers in 
 Sunday Schools everywhere. Tiie book will aid those who 
 are teachers in the ]<jpisc()])al (liurch, because it is in accord 
 with the demands of the official 'IV-acher Training ('ourse 
 of the General Board of Religious Education of that C!hurch. 
 
FOREWORD xiii 
 
 The Board requires sixteen hours on eliihl study and religious 
 pedagogy. 
 
 This further effort of so experienced a Sunday Seliool 
 leader and trained pedagogue as the author, will be of worth 
 to those who are seeking teacher's certificates, or diplomas, 
 in Training Schools for Eeligious "Workers. In fact, any 
 Sunday School teacher, realizing the seriousness of his or 
 her work, with all its op])ortunities; appreciating the demands 
 of the child for efficient methods, and believing in the need 
 for raising the standard of Religious Education, will find a 
 careful study of this book repaying many times the effort 
 expended. No one can answer the question, "Have I done 
 everything to fit myself for the high task of teaching in the 
 Sunday School ?"' until there is some acquaintance with the 
 problems so well stated and explained here. 
 
 The suggested volumes for collateral reading, with one 
 of prime importance at the head of each chapter, and the 
 complete bibliography at the end, should make it possible 
 to select for the Home, as well as for Reference Libraries 
 and special study, vital and influential books. Many are of 
 utmost value to parents. Rop.Eirr P. Krkitler. 
 
 Mount A^ernon, New York, 
 
 January, 1912. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY AND 
 RELIGIOUS PEDAGOGY 
 
 SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER I. 
 THE CHILD IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 SUGGESTED KEAUIXG: — The Study of Child Nature, Elizabeth 
 Hunison. 
 
 Note. — Undei- each C'liapter we shall recommend some one book 
 with the urgent suggestion that teachers who can spare the time, 
 and desire to master this course thoroughly, either purchase this book 
 or borrow it from a library, reading it parallel with the course, in 
 order that such reading may illuminate and assist in applying the 
 principles which in such a brief text book as this are necessarily 
 condensed. 
 
 sum:\l\ry. 
 
 r 1. Child Nature, or the Process 
 I of Mind Growth, Educational 
 
 Teaching demands Knowledge of J Psychology-. 
 
 ! 2. Pedagogj', Education, How to 
 
 t^ Teach. 
 
 Old Education considered only — L Teacher; 2. Material. 
 New Education considers — L Child first; 2. Material; 3. Teacher. 
 Old Education concerned with either Heart or Head Side. 
 New Education with Heart and Head, building up Conduct or Char- 
 acter. 
 Character is the result of Hei-edity, acted upon by Environment. 
 Thus "Every Lesson must function in Doing To-day." 
 Education is the Opening of Powers, Unfolding of Life. 
 Heredity gives power to respond to Impressions from without. 
 Early Environment (and Heredity) count for most. 
 
JIIK EIJO.MKNTS OF CHILD .STL DY 
 
 Xorvous System is ^ 
 
 Infancy is a IVriod of Plastifity. Hence Period important for 
 
 Education. 
 The New Tsycliology is unitary; tlie Old divisional. 
 Man repeats his race-evolution in his development, physical and 
 mental. 
 
 fUrain 
 
 Cerebrum. 
 Cerebelhim. 
 
 Pons Varolii and Medulla Oblongata. 
 S]jinal Cord and Centers. 
 Nerves ( Neurons ) . 
 ^ Nerve Endings. 
 
 All Tissues are uMiervated by Neurons. At least three billion such 
 
 Neurons. 
 
 r («) Inconscious, Involuntary Action 
 
 !.„.>.. • li • i (Simple Refle.K). 
 
 Impressions may result in ^ ,,, ,, . r i ^ i i- 
 
 1 (o) Conscious, Involuntary Action. 
 
 (^ (c) Conscious, Voluntaiy Action. 
 
 Muscular Functions are Eocalized on the Brain Cortex. 
 
 Sensory and ^lotor Nerves communicate with such Centers on the 
 
 Cortex. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE CHILD IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 In the sixteen brief Chapters of this Handbook, we are 
 undertaking to cover the two foundation subjects which lie 
 at the bottom of all proper teaching, whether of the Sunday 
 School or of the Day School. These two subjects are : The 
 Study of the Child and Religious Pedagogy. The Study of 
 the Child is variously called Child Xature, Child Psycho- 
 logy, the Process of Mind Growth, and Psychology. When 
 we view Psychology from the standpoint of its application 
 to Education or Teaching, we call it Educational Psycho- 
 logy. Its study and the application of its principles lead 
 directly to what is termed "Pedagogy," or, in collegiate 
 circles, simply "Education." As the student reads the Chap- 
 ters on Psychology, attention should constantly be focused 
 on the application of the principles of mind-growth to the 
 actual work of the Sunday School. This Study of the Child, 
 by which the child's interests and mental development are 
 made the basis of both our method of teaching and the sub- 
 jects to be taught, constitutes the difference between the Old 
 Education and the New. The Old Education considered all 
 children alike, and treated them all alike. The only factors 
 considered were the Teacher and the Material. The New 
 Education looks at the child first, and sees his needs, and 
 then the opportunities to develop his powers. Just because 
 the New Education begins with the child's interests, or what 
 
4 TlIK KLKMKNTS OK (.'HI LI) yTUDY 
 
 someone has termed "The Boy"s End of the Sunday Se-hool,"' 
 it is vital and attractive. 
 
 Again, the New Education realizes that ''Life'' spells 
 "Conduct"; that the i^rimary reason for all education is bet- 
 ter living. Therefore, character is the ultimate end, and not 
 merely the ultimate end, but the pi'cscnt end of the Xew 
 Education. Therefore, the teacher is concerned not merely 
 witli emotions and feelings, not merely with intellectual ac- 
 quirements — thougli l)oih of these are essential and ought 
 to be secured — but with the functioning or application of the 
 principles of each Lesson, which are stirring the heart and 
 quickening the intellect, to practical present-day living. This 
 is what is meant by the oft-quoted statement that "The Dis- 
 covery of the Child marks the Xew Movement in Education." 
 
 What "the Child" Means. 
 
 The Child is a bundle of Possibilities. Two elements are 
 concerned in his making — the one is Heredity and the other 
 is Environment. "Heredity" means his inherited constitu- 
 tion and tendencies. His inheritance from his forefathers 
 influences his body, his face, his nature, his modes of action ; 
 influences his brain, his ways of thinking, his likes aud dis- 
 likes; influences his nerves and his temperament. 
 
 "Environment" means his surroundings, everylbiiig thai 
 goes to make up such surroundings; his homo, his parents, 
 his school life, his reading life, the country in wliicli he lives, 
 the climate, everything he sees, and feels, and hears, and 
 tastes, and touches, and smells. There is not a single impres- 
 sion received from without that does not, in some way or 
 other, influence him. or tend to alter his character. 
 
 Until recently it was thought that Heredity was far more 
 powerful than Environment; that Heredity was so powerful 
 that a child was horn to good or evil in his life. To-day all 
 classes of students. Clergy, Physicians, Social Eeformers, 
 
TllK lIllLU IX THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 5 
 
 Settlement Workers, etc., st<anil shoulder to shoulder in the 
 belief that Environment, or Education, is the more import- 
 ant; that, no matter how bad the Heredit}' may be, there is 
 every opportunity for the up-building of a good character, 
 provided the Enviromneut be elevating and positive. Much 
 that was hitherto attributed to inheritance is now, by common 
 agreement, seen on examination to be due to one's surround- 
 ings. The child is essentially a creature of imitation. Ho 
 is a "chip off the old block" merely because he has been with 
 the ''old block'' so long, has seen him, and imitated him. 
 and therefore shows the father's characteristics, obtained, 
 not so much by inheritance, as by Environment. "It lies 
 not in our stars, but in ourselves, whether we shall end 
 life with diadems upon our heads, or fagots in our hands, 
 whether we shall choose the kingdom and stars, rather than 
 herbs and apples." Heredity is important, and should never 
 be disregarded; but Heredity neither condemns nor makes 
 a man. 
 
 To the teacher belongs the responsibility for character 
 building and character determines destiny. The teacher in 
 the Public School and in the Sunday School, alike, is con- 
 cerned with the child's whole life, not merely the part of it 
 with which she comes in contact in the fulfilment of her 
 official duties. If the principles taught in Public School and 
 Sunday School are not lived during the hours outside, then 
 Public School and Sunday School, alike, fail in their primary 
 purpose and object. The lessons learned must be lived — 
 lived in the home, lived on the play-ground, lived among 
 companions on the street, lived in society. If they are not 
 lived, they are not learned ; and the secret of the jSTew Educa- 
 tion, both secular and religious, lies hidden in this practical 
 end. As we shall state more fully in a subsequent Chapter, 
 the teacher who undertakes this course should constantly bear 
 in mind that every lesson must function or result in doing, 
 
6 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 ill living, in application, not in some far-off day, but in this 
 present everyday existence. 
 
 That is to say, one's education is the opening of his 
 powers, the unfolding of his life, the development of him- 
 self. The germ lies in Heredity, and Heredity functions his 
 innate self -activity, under which he possesses the tendency 
 to respond, by an expression to every incoming impression, 
 that may be received througli any of his senses. That is Life. 
 Life means the power to respond to impressions from with- 
 out. This power to respond to impressions from without 
 makes the self-active, self-directing being. What a child in- 
 herits are not compelling instincts, but potential faculties. 
 These may respond to one impression in one way, and to 
 another impression in another way. It depends upon the 
 teacher what impression shall be presented to the instinct. 
 If a good impression be given, good action and, therefore, 
 good character, results. If a bad impression be given, evil 
 consequences ensue. No child is born vicious or virtuous. 
 It is only by his own action, and by the impressions tliat are 
 given him in his Environment, that he can become the one 
 or tlie other. He is not even predisposed towards virtue or 
 vice. But the germ of his action lies in Heredity. The out- 
 ward Environment only elicits or restrains, stimulates or 
 represses what is already present. It can add nothing that 
 is new. 
 
 Impressions of Early Environment. 
 
 It was a Prelate of the Roman Cliurch wlio once said 
 "give me the child and you can have tlie man." It does not 
 matter much what we do with the grown-up man. Few new 
 habits and alterations in character occur after tlie age of 
 twenty-one, and some educators, such as Dr. Alford A. Butler, 
 go as far as to say that the years before the age of ten count 
 more than all the succeeding years in life. Early impressions 
 
THE CHILD IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 7 
 
 last, and the strength of those impressions is seen by the fact 
 that, as old age falls upon us, our memories go back, not to 
 the intervening years, but to tlic carl}^ days of childhood, 
 where never failing and never fading impressions are lying 
 dormant, but existing. 
 
 And the reason for this is clearly seen. Both President 
 Butler and Professor Hill have pointed out the significance 
 of Infancy. Infancy spells plasticity, moldability, power to 
 be educated, the opportunity to change habits, to make a 
 new character to be influenced by Ideals. And man, of all 
 the animals, is the most educatable, because he has the most 
 prolonged infancy. The colt can stand when a few hours 
 old. At the age of three years, it can do all that it is ever 
 capable of doing; but no living creature is more ignorant, 
 more defenceless, more entirely at the mercy of others than 
 the human being. First, he is a creature of instinct, then 
 rapidly one of imitation, and impulse, and finally of habit 
 and permanent action. "Character is a bundle of habits," 
 and only as we form those habits, one by one, do we form 
 character. The man is of good character who has more good 
 habits than he has bad ones, and vice versa. The man who 
 has done an action once, twice, or a thousand times, has 
 formed a habit, strong in proportion to the number of times 
 he has done that action in that way, and "the aim of Educa- 
 tion is to build up a character efficient for the best." This 
 applies to all education. It is character building, that is, 
 habit-forming. 
 
 The Psychology of the Child. 
 
 The Xew Psychology is the outcome of the past fifteen 
 years of experiment and research. It is the reaction from 
 the Old Psychology (which was what we might term Divi- 
 sional Psychology, somewhat similar to Phrenology), to a 
 unifying and unitary idea of the brain working as a whole. 
 
8 THE ELEMENTS OF ClIir.D STUDY 
 
 N'ot all animals have brains^ but all life has some kind of 
 intelligence ; and, in the higher forms of life, this intelligence 
 is centered in a nervous system. While probably every cell 
 of a body, whether of a man, or a butterfly, or a tree, has its 
 self-activity and power, yet in the forms of life that rise 
 above the single celled animal, we find the cells working in 
 unison, dominated by a single self, acting towards a definite 
 end, accomplishing certain results in the Environment in 
 which the living organism is placed. The probability is that 
 some kind of intelligence, blind though it may be in its 
 origin, goes down through the entire animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms; and it may even be that the future will show its 
 presence in the mineral world. 
 
 All Education and all training come by action upon tliis 
 central system of intelligence, embodied in a nervous system. 
 All life is more or less inter-related. If we accept the present 
 theory of Evolution — that all intelligent men do accept — we 
 shall find that the child represents the history of the human 
 race. It has in its early stages a good deal of the animal 
 about it. Every child has over 130 rudimentary organs 
 which are atrophied and are disappearing, as the need for 
 them has passed away. As wc pass up the range of animal 
 life, each child represents in his history every stage of animal 
 life as developed since the world began. We are in turn the 
 invertebrate, the proto-vertebrato, the metazoan, the verte- 
 brate, the quadro-mammal, the bi-mammal, and, finally, the 
 man. This, of course, shows Heredity, but it shows even 
 more: Heredity influenced thus widely by Environment. 
 And the Child represents iMan in liis lowest stages, to be 
 "evoluted" by education and Environment into a higher type 
 still, a man of noble character. 
 The Nervous System. 
 
 It would be well for the teacher to secure and read very 
 carefully either Talks to Teachers, by Professor James, or 
 
THE CHILD JN THP] SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 Professor James' Briefer Course, or, probably better still, 
 the illustrated chapters on Psychology found in Eeligious 
 Education, by Dr. W. W. Smith. 
 
 Space will not permit us to give the fullest details here, 
 and yet they are needed by one who would fully comprehend 
 the rationale of teaching. The Brain and Spinal Cord to- 
 gether form one completely unified nervous system. That 
 nervous system is the center of intelligence, the center in 
 which all impressions, all knowledge, all education from with- 
 out are received, and from this center emanates all action, all 
 fining, and consequently all character. The brain is merely 
 
 part of the spinal cord 
 doubled in upon itself. 
 The spinal cord runs 
 in the vertebrae, or 
 haek-lione, and sends 
 out, Ijct^veen the ver- 
 tebrae, thousands of 
 branching nerve fibres. 
 Every individual cell in 
 the body is connected 
 with the brain by nerve 
 fibres, at least one set 
 running to the cell from the spinal cord and brain, and tbe 
 other set running from the cell to the spinal cord and brain ; 
 that is, the one efferent and the other afferent. 
 
 The spinal cord is composed of nerves, nerve cells, and 
 nerve fibres. The nerve cells have dark cell bodies, with a 
 black nucleus (see picture No. 1) ; the nerve fibres are whitish 
 so that when we see groups of cells and nerve fibres placed 
 in position, the cross section of the spinal cord (see picture 
 No. 2), would give the appearance of gray matter and white 
 matter — the gray matter due to the cell bodies and nuclei, 
 and the white matter due to the fibres. The nucleus of a 
 
 Cut No. 1. A Nerve Cell. (KolUJcer.) 
 
10 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 N /f 
 
 |V_ ROOT 
 
 
 -%^3 BUNOLK 
 
 ■''^ 
 
 
 '[.'m 
 
 ^ 
 
 '(/■Jl cm5s.tr<\ 
 
 ■"(f-ir^ 
 
 YRAMlOf I. \ 
 
 ■U-r----\ 
 
 
 ;'sNTERO-;i 
 
 
 'LATERAL ;\ 
 
 
 ■-.'-.cr.Nom&l 
 
 
 J»^- \ : 1 
 
 
 .,f~ -u 
 
 Cut No. 2. Scctionn of the lgi>iiiul Cord. (A. E. Schajcr.) 
 
THE CHILD IN THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 11 
 
 cell seems to be the life of the cell. It might correspond to n 
 cell brain. Every kind of a cell lias a nucleus — the three 
 kinds of muscle cells, kidney cells, liver cells, spleen cells, 
 lung cells, the various kinds of gland cells, and hundreds of 
 others, all definitely shaped, but all with nuclei, which appear 
 darker than the renuiinder of the cell. 
 
 Cut No. 4. Cerebrum from tiide. 
 (Vail Oehuchten.) 
 
 Cut No. 3. Cerebrum from 
 Above. (Van Oehuchten.) 
 
 The brain (pictures Nos. 3 and -1) is shaped somewhat like 
 an English walnut, with deep convolutions and ridges, and a 
 central fissure, or cleft, along the middle line. The convolu- 
 tions give folds to the brain. Along the outer edge is the 
 gray matter, and in the interior of the brain is the white 
 matter, so-called. The gray matter is gray because of the 
 grouping of cell bodies and nuclei, all ranged in rows along 
 the surface. Some idea of how they are arranged is seen in 
 the following diagram. (Picture No. 5.) The fibres of 
 every nerve cell connect with the fibres of all other nerve 
 cells, so that an impression reaching any individual nerve 
 can make connections with any other nerve in the entire 
 
12 
 
 THE ELEMENTS t)F CHILD STUDY 
 
 
 body, and especially any nerve cell in the brain. This inter- 
 lacing and inter-weaving of nerve cell connections in the 
 brain is shown very nicely in the following diagram. 
 (Pictnre No. G.) From the center of the brain these group- 
 ings of nerve fibres accumulate, and run 
 down in great neiTC trunks through the 
 spinal cord, forming ascending and de- 
 scending telephone wires, through which 
 the nerve currents, or impressions from 
 without or within, can run only in the 
 one direction. (Picture No. 7.) The 
 cross section of a nerve trunk shows 
 these bundles of isolated fibres, corre- 
 sponding very closely to the buried sub- 
 way telephone and telegraph wires in 
 the streets of our large cities. 
 
 Owing to the many convolutions and 
 dippings in the brain surface, a much 
 larger area is given for the grouping of 
 nerve cell bodies in the gray matter. 
 AMiile the weight of the entire brain is 
 only about one-forty-sccond of the weight 
 of the whole body, it lias been found 
 that the supply of blood is one-eighth 
 of that used by the body. This free 
 Cut No. 5. Supply of blood determines our powers 
 
 The Layers of the Cortical ^f thinking and consciousness. 
 
 Gray Matter of the Cere- '^ 
 
 irum. (Meynert.) It has been settled by experiment 
 
 that the weight of the brain of educated persons is greater 
 than that of the uneducated. The weight of the brain in- 
 creases in gradual progression. The use of alcohol, tobacco 
 and other stimulants, hinders cerebral development and men- 
 tal power. 
 
THE CHILD IX THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 13 
 
 CrT No. 6. Biagram SJtoic'uifj Neurone Connections. (Smith.) 
 
 EPINAI. BAKGVTOM 
 
 .POsrehioR root. 
 
 Cut No. 7. 
 Diagram Stwtcing Ascending and Descending Columns. {A. E. Schafer.) 
 
14 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 The Complexity of the Human Body. 
 
 This nervous system controls the entire human body. 
 How complicated and varied this process is may be gathered 
 from the statement that there are not less than 240 bones; 
 446 muscles; 14,000 indentations or attachments of those 
 muscles to the bones; not less than 10,000 nerves, with an 
 equal number of veins and arteries; 1000 ligaments; 4000 
 lacteals and lymphatics; 1000 glands, and not less than 
 200,000,000 of pores. Every one of these several kinds of 
 aggregations of tissue cells is composed of from thousands 
 to tens of thousands of individual cell bodies, each with its 
 nucleus, and each with its tiny filaments of nerves, connect- 
 ing it to the brain, receiving impressions from the brain, and 
 sending impressions to that organ. 
 
 The nerve cells are practically infinite in number, each 
 individual nerve fibre being a Neuron ; each Neuron composed 
 of a branching nerve cell with a nucleus and dendrites, or 
 roots, an axis, cylinder or nerve proper, and the cell ending 
 at the outward termination. Even if we knew the exact 
 arrangement of each neuron in a man's brain, it would take 
 a model as large as a Cathedral to make them visible to the 
 naked eye. Dr. Thorndike's last figures are that the nerves, 
 as estimated, number 3,000,000,000 of neurons. Each of 
 these is in itself a complex organ, and is capable of many 
 connections. It is evident, therefore, that tlie brain is com- 
 plicated enougli to register the most complex human experi- 
 ence. 
 
 It is only through these nerves that we evolve, that we 
 learn, that we act; in a word, that we live and know life. 
 It is oneself, the ego, the mind, the man who uses our brains. 
 We are not brains, and it is not the brain,properly speaking, 
 that does the work. It is the man behind the brain. This 
 point is most important in the process of education. It 
 would be well for teachers who desire to pursue this interest- 
 
THE CHILD rX THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 
 
 15 
 
 ing study further to read Brain and Personality, by Pro- 
 fessor William H. Thompson, and the Chapter in Religious 
 Education, above referred to. 
 
 The Brain's Relation to the Nerve Centers. 
 
 While the brain is in control as chief over the entire 
 nervous system, little centers, or relay stations, are provided 
 
 along the spinal cord, so that 
 "Reflex Actions" may take 
 place involuntarily, and even 
 without consciousness. These 
 Centers are little brains, as it 
 were, presiding over special 
 functions, such for example as 
 tlie Centers devoted to the 
 breathing, to the action of tlie 
 heart, to the acts of IS'aturc. 
 
 We have any one of three 
 diiferent processes, possible as 
 the result of an impression. 
 (1) An impression may come 
 from along a nerve to the 
 spinal cord, and, uncon- 
 sciousl}', the expressions go 
 out along another nerve fibre, 
 resulting in action. (2) An 
 Cut No. 8. (Smith.) impression is received, acted 
 
 upon by involvmtary reflex, and then, afterward, the action 
 telei)honed to the brain, as shown by the diagram No. 8. The 
 action proceeded from the spinal cord, but the knowledge of it 
 went to the cerebrum. (3) An impression is received from 
 without, telephoned through the spinal cord to the brain 
 under a deliberate fiat of the will, so that through the efferent 
 nerves an expression results. We call these three kinds of 
 
IG 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 actions, Simple Eeflex, Involuntary, and Voluntary. (Picture 
 
 Ko. 8.) 
 
 The Cerebrum and the Cerebellum. 
 
 The brain consists of two large hemispheres (together 
 called the Cerebrum), of the Cerebellum, or little brain 
 or hind brain as it is sometimes called, and of the Brain 
 Stem, known as the Pons Varolii and Medulla Oblongata. 
 The use of the Cerebellum is supposed to be control over 
 the equilibrium of the body. The Cerebrum is the Intel- 
 lectual Center, and certain definite functions are localized 
 on the surface, or Cortex, of the Cerebrum. This has been 
 proved by study and experiment. There is a consensus of 
 opinion that the thin, gray rind of the Cortex is definitely 
 specialized. 
 
 Two facts have been proved : the higher the animal 
 stands in the grade of intelligence, the more numerous are 
 
 ("UT Xu. !•. (it A.I. 1(1. 
 
 LocaUsutioii of Cerebral Finutions. (ScJiarfvr and llursJcy.) 
 
 the folds and convolutions of the Cortex, or surface of the 
 brain (there are, however, a few exceptions) ; and the cere- 
 bral functions have been definitely localized along certain 
 portions of the Cortex. There are Sensory and Motor Xerves, 
 that is, those that minister to Sensation, and those that 
 minister to Motion. Some of the efferent nerves are motor, 
 
THE CIIIIJ) IX THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 17 
 
 aud some arc not. Some of the motor nerves are voluntary, 
 and some are involuntar}^ Moreover, each motor nerve is 
 connected with some particular muscle, not with muscles in 
 general; and precisely as motor nerves are each of them 
 connected with some particular muscles, so they have their 
 origin in different parts of the brain. 
 
 Two diagrams of the localization of these motor func- 
 tions are-sho\^'n (Pictures ISTos. 9 and 10), the one showing 
 the localization on the interior surface of the cerebrum, and 
 the other along the middle line, as the surface dips down into 
 the hemispheres. Thus the intelligent movement of the body 
 muscles, from the head to the legs, originates in definite 
 spots on the surface of the brain. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What is the purpose of this Course of study? 
 
 2. Contrast the Old Education with the New. 
 
 3. Discuss the Relative Influences of Hereditj^ and Environment 
 
 •on Character. 
 
 4. Explain "Every Lesson must Function in Doing To-day." 
 
 5. Explain and Discuss "Heredity." 
 
 6. How is "Character a Bundle of Habits"? 
 
 7. How does the New differ from the Old Psychology? 
 
 8. Describe the Nervous System. 
 
 9. Why is its study important in Sunday School teaching? 
 
 10. Picture the complexity of the human body. 
 
 11. What three kinds of Nerve Action may follow Impressions? 
 
 12. What do we mean by "Localization of Functions" in the brain? 
 
SVJJ.AIJUS OF CHAPTER 11. 
 HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 
 SUGGEiSTED KEADlNCi: — Talks to Teachers, Professor James. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Thinking is like an ever-flowing "Stream of Consciousness," in which 
 are Straws in the Focvis and in the Margin, rehxted by — 1. Con- 
 tiguity, or 2. Similarity, or both. 
 Two Laws: 1. Present Thoughts have been caused by those passed. 
 
 2. Coming Thoughts influence present ones. 
 There are thus Masses or Constellations of Ideas. 
 /- 1. We know our Thouglits. 
 ! 2. States of Thought are always changing. 
 In Consciousness J .3. Consciousness is continuous. 
 
 I 4. Consciousness is selective in Attention given 
 1 or Thouglits chosen. 
 
 Ideas may be Images or Concepts: Particular or General. 
 Education is the Acquiring of a Stock of Ideas, and Relating Them. 
 Ideas can enter mind only in certain order. Mind's door is closed to 
 
 their entree out of order and time. 
 Illustration of Concept of Apple, of Orange, of Rubber IJull, acquired 
 
 by Association of Ideas. 
 Apperception is grafting New Ideas (Knowledge) to Old: Relating 
 
 Ideas into Classes: Introducing the New to the Old. 
 We realize an Idea by paying Attention to it. 
 Attending to an Idea helps it to result in Action. 
 Thus speaking of an Idea increases its I'resentative Activitj', and 
 helps it to Realize Itself. 
 
 r 1. Sense Perception, almost subconscious 
 
 „,, „j. r mi ■ 1 • I 2. Understanding (Analvsis). 
 
 Ihe Stages of Thinking are J , . , . , . ' , q ., • > 
 
 " ° ] .3. Heilection (Analysis and Synthesis). 
 
 1^4. PhiI()so])hic Insight. 
 
HOW \\E THINK AND LEARN 19 
 
 Attention is — 1. Involuntary, or 2. Voluntary. 
 
 No Education without Attention. No Memory, no Will, no Action, 
 
 no Character without Attention. 
 A Native Variation in Attention-Power. 
 Cannot secure Attention by Demand. It is not given to Uninteresting 
 
 things. Thus object must change, give new Ideas, present new 
 
 Sides, to gain and hold Attention. 
 Voluntary Attention comes in Beats. It cannot be continuously 
 
 sustained. 
 Will and Permanent Interest are necessary to hold Attention. 
 
CHAPTER 11. 
 
 HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 
 
 Stream of Consciousness. 
 
 Professor James^, the originator of the most striking ex- 
 ample that Ave have to explain mental workings, likens think- 
 ing to snccessive sets, or waves, of feeling, of knowledge, of 
 desire, of deliberation constantly passing ( Pictnre No. 11), 
 
 ^^fe<*.■vvl of C o-n'ic » o u.<=»"nc *«. 
 
 Ci;t No. 11. 
 
 (Smith.) 
 
 and repassing in the mind. On the surface of the stream 
 float sticks and straws. Sometimes one idea is prominent, 
 sometimes another. No one idea stands alone. The thought 
 is always conii)]ex. Sensations of our body, memories of 
 
HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 21 
 
 distance, feelings, desires, all grow into one general thought 
 of the moment. One can stand on the shore and fix the eye 
 
 
 e ^ 
 
 fb«^M'5> a^\c\ N\aV<J^» 
 
 ■\1 
 
 Cut Xu. 12. (t^mith.) 
 
 upon a particular stick, as it floats along. That represents 
 the thought in the Focus, or Centre, of Attention. (Picture 
 No. 13.) 
 
 So in the ever-flowing stream, the most striking thought 
 is the brightest in the centre, while the others are grouped 
 around it in the fading margin; other sticks, as it were, 
 further down or up the stream. This Margin, or Fringe, 
 which is faint at first and haz}^, is liable at an}^ moment to 
 be seized on by our attention, and brought into the centre. 
 Giving attention to any subject is bringing it into the focus 
 of our attention, and holding it there. 
 
 Two great laws can be illustrated by this idea : ( 1 ) The 
 thoughts that are present in this ever-flowing stream have 
 been conditioned by the thoughts that have gone. This 
 seems easy to understand. One can trace back, step by step, 
 each thought from the present one, and see how each in turn 
 has been caused by, and is dependent upon, its predecessor. 
 (2) But the second law is harder to understand at first. 
 
22 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 It is that the thoughts that are coming have been inflnenccd 
 by the thoughts that are here. 
 
 "Wliat !" you may ask, "do you mean to say that thoughts 
 yet unborn are influenced by the thoughts I am now think- 
 ing?" Yes, in a way, because it is not so much the single 
 thouglit that comes to us as a group of ideas. It is a state 
 of mind rather than an idea. Why it is that we can say, 
 starting from the same word, "Father, who art in Heaven," 
 or "Father, what'er of earthly bliss Thy sovereign will 
 denies?" Why is not the word "Father" followed by the 
 same sequence of words in every instance? It is like the 
 constellation of the Great Dipper, where the stars are always 
 in the same relation to each other, or like the mast of a ship, 
 which is visible before the hull comes into view. So thoughts 
 are below the threshold of consciousness, with a small portion 
 of the group of ideas appearing gradually into the conscious- 
 ness. 
 
 As Professor Adams puts it: "Other ideas, weak in them- 
 selves, owe their recall to the influence of their friends. 
 The masses of ideas of which we have already spoken come 
 iiito consciousness, or arc driven from it, in a body. If, for 
 any reason, one idea belonging to a mass finds its way into 
 consciousness, it forthwith drags in a whole mass along with 
 it. This is known as 'mediate recall,' because certain ideas 
 are recalled by means of, or through the mediation of other 
 ideas. If in Sunday School we use the words 'Saint Peter,' 
 we find that the whole mass of ideas connected with Saint 
 Peter's life and character swarms into the consciousness of 
 the older pupils. These ideas are raised by mediate recall, 
 the words 'Saint Peter' being the means." James gives four 
 characters to this consciousness: (1) Every "state" tends to 
 i)C part of personal consciousness. We know that the thought 
 is oiir thought, and know ourselves as thinking it. (2) Within 
 each ))ersonal consciousness, states arc always clianging. No 
 
HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 23 
 
 state once gone can be recalled, and be identical with wliat it 
 was before. It may concern itself about the same object, or 
 the same quality, or the same species, but it is not the same 
 state. It does not occur in the brain precisely as it was before. 
 To be an identical sensation, it would have to occur again 
 in an unmodified brain, which is a physical impossibility. 
 (3) Each i^ersonal consciousness is successive, continuous. 
 There is no break, or breach, or interruption. There is no 
 time when we are not thinking, even though we are asleep, 
 and seemingly dreamless. The stream of consciousness, at 
 any rate in the sub-conscious self, is continuously going on, 
 and all times in our lives we are conscious that the stream of 
 our life-thought has been continuous. (4) The stream of 
 consciousness is always interested more in one part of its 
 object than in another, and welcomes, or rejects, or chooses, 
 all the while it thinks. The phenomena of selected attention 
 and deliberation are seen. Accentuation and emphasis are 
 noted in every impression we have. We find it impossil)le 
 to dispense our attention impartially over a number of im- 
 pressions. 
 Acquiring New ideas. 
 
 Not all images or ideas that come into the mind need 
 be dated. They may be mere pictures of an object, or of a 
 class or type of objects. If the object be the picture of an 
 individual thing, it is called a product of the Imagination. 
 If it be a type, or class, we say it belongs to a conception, 
 or is a Concept. We may call both Ideas. Such would be 
 a general statement, which is in fact a rule or law expressed 
 in ordinary language. Thus, "a square has four sides," is 
 a general statement that is always true, while to the statement 
 "thieves are rich," there are many exceptions. So some 
 general statements are more universally true than others, yet 
 so valuable are general statements that it is no unfair test 
 of one's intellect to note the proportion between particular 
 
2-4 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 and general statements in conversation. Intelligent people 
 are never contented until they can converse in general terms, 
 stating general rules, and examining their truth. 
 
 Our Education or Life Experience — that is, our Environ- 
 ment — fills the mind with a vast army of ideas, and, in one 
 sense, Education is but the grouping of useful ideas into 
 classes and types; and the lack of Education is having failed 
 to have acquired and grouped such ideas. 
 
 It is important to note that a certain definite order is 
 pursued by nature in the way our minds group these ideas. 
 Our minds are closed, as a rule, to the entree of certain ideas 
 before a certain age. This is one of the most important 
 statements for every teacher to realize; for false, crude, fan- 
 tastic ideas are conveyed by too early and injudicious teach- 
 ing. Forcing a child is dangerous, not merely to the health, 
 but to the mind as well. 
 
 ^Yllen Ideas come into the mind they are associated. We 
 will see this under the illustration of the apple in Apper- 
 ception. The stream of consciousness is ever flowing on, and 
 every wave in it is, in some way or other, determined by the 
 character of the waves just passed; and it, itself, influences 
 the waves that follow. These ideas seem to be selected accord- 
 ing to (1) Similarity and Analogy, where the mind calls 
 upon an idea in the stream, because there is some likeness, 
 or repetition, or analogy in it to something in the thought 
 just passing. We flow along, rapidly passing from thouglit 
 to thought; so that we can frequently trace back clear con- 
 nection between our ideas. (2) Contiguity, where tlie mind 
 tells us that the objects thought of in a particular state 
 were next to the object recalled from a previous experience. 
 The Alphabet and the Lord's Prayer are familiar examples, 
 cited here by James. We thus build up useful systems of 
 association by the orderly acquisition of new ideas, and 
 re-adjustment of thoughts already acquired. 
 
HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 
 
 25 
 
 As an illustration of thinking, let us make a diagram of 
 a small cross section of the brain, and let each dot stand for 
 one element in an idea. Let us suppose that a small child 
 has already become acquainted with a large gray rubber ball. 
 We now introduce him to a small red apple. The thing that 
 strikes his eye first is the color, then the shape; and, as he 
 relates the new to the old (and nothing can be known save 
 
 Cut ^'o. 13. (Sviitli.) 
 
 by comparisons with former knowledge), he says that this 
 is a red, rubber ball. The size does not bother him, because 
 he merely thinks it is a small red rubber ball. Lines of asso- 
 ciation — telephone wires, as it were — are set up between cells 
 containing the ideas of the redness and roundness of the 
 apple, and the cells containing the ideas of grayness and 
 
2G THE ELE.MENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 roundness of the rubber ball. Each cell is connected with 
 every other cell, and so he proceeds to add to his knowledge 
 the slight difference in shape between the apple and tlic rubber 
 ball, as in the stem and lower end of the apple; the new 
 knowledge given in the smell, as compared with the smell 
 of the rubber ball ; the smoothness of the rubljcr ball, as com- 
 pared with the stickiness of the apple; the incompressibility 
 of the apple as compared with the compressibility of the rub- 
 ber ball, and, finally, the taste of the one as compared with 
 the taste of the other. Comiiaring the two, he first sees the 
 resemblances (synthesizes), then he sees the difi:erences 
 (analyzes), and finally learns by this comparison that an 
 a])ple is different from a rubber ball. In the same way he 
 miglit learn about an orange, and compare that again with 
 tlie apple and the rubber ball. All knowledge, therefore, 
 comes from grafting the unknown to the known. 
 
 Apperception Explained. 
 
 This is rather a hard name for a simple thing. It is 
 merely the process through which knowledge is introduced into 
 the mind, by connecting it with that already there. An im- 
 pression no sooner enters our consciousness than it is drafted 
 off in various directions, making associations with former 
 knowledge and impressions already there. If I mention the 
 word "Apple," it will recall to your mind the taste, appear- 
 ance, and form, either of all apples in general, or of some par- 
 ticular apple that you remember. You can only understand 
 what I mean by tbe term "Apple'' by having this previous 
 knowledge. If you have never experienced an apple, I can 
 only make myself understood by comparing the apple to some 
 fruit about which you have known. This process of joining 
 the new to the old is called Apperception. It is really the 
 point of |)roceeding from llic known lo ihe unknown. 
 
HOW WE Tlll^'lv AND LEAllN 27 
 
 In later life, the tendency to leave the old impressions 
 nndisturbed by new ideas leads to what we call "Old Fogy- 
 isni," or Conservatism. (The chapter in James' book, deal- 
 ing with this subject, is most delightful reading.) We might 
 illustrate Apperception by saying that a new idea corresponds 
 to a new person coming into a room, unacquainted with anyone 
 there. Step by step, he is introduced to this one, and to the 
 next, and to the third, until he has met everyone. When he 
 is fully introduced to every one, he is known to every one. 
 He is the new idea received by, amalgamated with, the old 
 ideas already present. This process of Apperception is thus 
 the association of ideas. 
 
 Realizing an Idea. 
 
 As Professor Adams says : "We may be said to realize an 
 idea when we give it our full attention, and let it develop its 
 full meaning, and exercise its full force upon us. Some ideas 
 realize themselves within the mind itself; they exhaust them- 
 selves by becoming distinct and vivid; they require nothing 
 further. If we have a clear and vivid idea of red, for ex- 
 ample, we are satisfied, we ask no more; the idea leads to 
 nothing beyond itself. But if the idea of an action becomes 
 vivid in the mind, there is a strong tendency for that idea to 
 pass over into action. If we think earnestly about a certain 
 action, we find ourselves impelled to perform that action. 
 If you make a clear picture in your mind of yourself per- 
 forming some action, you will find that, the longer you 
 dwell on this picture, the stronger becomes your inclination 
 to perform the action; and if you retain the picture long 
 enough, the inclination becomes practically irresistible. This 
 fact explains whatever is genuine in those parlor tricks gener- 
 ally known as thought reading. 
 
 "To the teacher the moral ai)i)lication is ol)vious. Temp- 
 tation reallv consists in the effort of an idea to realize itself. 
 
•2S THK KLK.MKXTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 J f the idea is evil, then the temptation is to do evil ; but the 
 teacher ought to remember that the same force may be used 
 towards good. We may be tempted to good, as well as to 
 evil. The teacher's fight must be to put good ideas into the 
 mind, and keep them there ; he must be concerned more with 
 good ideas than with evil ones. The moment the teacher 
 speaks of an evil idea, he increases its presentative activity, 
 and thus, to some extent, aids it to realize itself. We must 
 fight evil indirectly by supplying ideas of good. This is the 
 teaching of St. Paul when he says, "^All uncleanness, or covet- 
 ousness, let it not be once named among you.' We must 
 nurture the mind with ideas of good, and starve it in respect 
 of ideas of evil." 
 
 Definite Stages of Tliinking. 
 
 When sensations come into the mind through perception, 
 they go through the several processes of Attention, Analysis, 
 and Association. We can represent this process by the four 
 divisions of thought: (1) Sense Perception. This is the 
 first stage of thinking, and cannot properly be called ^'think- 
 ing" ; for, though our minds are acting, it concerns sensations 
 practically sub-conscious, and never entered into real con- 
 sciousness. When, however late, the small child realizes its 
 sensations, it at first does not combine them. Each sensation 
 stands alone and unrelated. (2) Understanding analyzes and 
 combines sensations (Synthesis), and secures Perceptions. 
 Thus, I see a pear. Its weight and smoothness reach my 
 mind through the touch; its size, color, etc., enter my mind 
 through the avenue of the eye: and its taste through the 
 mouth; and so I receive my idea of a pear as one of the 
 fruits by a combination of the multitude of single sensations. 
 We gather the general idea with each kind of sensations 
 acting from a particular point. Thus, no reader sees all 
 (■he words on the page, nor more than one-half of the letters 
 
HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 29 
 
 in these words. (3) The next stage of thought is Reflection, 
 combining Anal3'^sis and Synthesis. It reaches principles and 
 laws. It is the clearing-up time, the AufM'drung of the Ger- 
 mans. It asks, ''How?" and "Why?" (4) The highest stage 
 of reason is Philosophic Insight, which sees the cause of all 
 things, namely, God. It sees the world as explained by the 
 principle of Absolute Person. Reflection does not begin much 
 before adolesence, that is twelve or thirteen, while Philo- 
 sophic Insight is seen about seventeen or eighteen. 
 
 What "Paying Attention" is. 
 
 Attention is fixing the mind upon a particular idea, bring- 
 ing that idea or thought into the centre or focus of the mind, 
 and then persistently holding it there. There are two kinds 
 of attention: (a) Involuntary, and (b) Voluntary; or Atten- 
 tion that is spontaneous and without efEort, and that with 
 effort; the one passive, the other active. The attention with 
 effort is the process of fixing the mind, with deliberation, 
 on objects uninteresting, or less interesting in themselves. 
 Voluntary attention cannot be continuously sustained. It 
 comes in beats, and each beat, each effort, expends itself in 
 the single act, and must be renewed by a deliberate pulling 
 of our minds back again. Interest is the outcome of Atten- 
 tion. It is the Self-Activity of our Impulses seeking to find 
 satisfactory outlet for their desires and yearnings. 
 
 Attention is the basis of all education. Without attention 
 there is no perception of what takes place in the world with- 
 out. AVithout attention there is no Memory. We would live 
 in a region of forgetfulness, our past swallowed up in oblivion. 
 Without attention there would be no action; for Willing is 
 merely paying attention until we bring ourselves to act 
 steadily and persistently upon an idea, which we hold in 
 vision. The chief difference between an educated and un- 
 educated man is the capacity of the former for close, contin- 
 
;^o THE ele:\ients of child study 
 
 nous, concentrated attention. Even jSTewton tliouglit that the 
 main difference between himself and ordinary men consisted 
 in his greater power of attention. 
 
 Types of Attention. 
 
 Tliere is a native difference or variation among individuals 
 in the concentrativeness of their attention; in other words, 
 in the intensity and scope of their field of consciousness. It 
 is unlikely, thinks James, that those who lack it can gain it 
 to any extent. It is probably a fixed characteristic. Both 
 mind-wandering and the rapt attention classes are typos that 
 remain. However, it is the total mental condition that 
 counts in life, not one side of it. 
 
 How Not to Gain Attention in the Sunday School. 
 
 We cannot secure Attention by simply demanding it. 
 This results in seeming attention, but real mind- wandering 
 and inattention. Claiming it, demanding it, entreating it, 
 will be useless. Nothing can keep the child's attention fixed, 
 save interest in the subject. It will not be obtained by ap- 
 peals, or a loud voice, by stamping, by clanging of a bell. 
 Attention will not attach itself to uninteresting things, and 
 so soon as the lesson, or the method oC its delivery, becomes 
 uninteresting and monotonous, the mind of the child is bound 
 to wander. Therefore, the subject must be made to change 
 its asjiect, to show new sides, new and interesting phases. 
 From an unchanging subject the mind, even of an adult, 
 must wander. Either the stimulus must vary, or some new 
 attribute discovered in the subject. 
 
 The Law of Voluntary Attention. 
 
 Of course, spontaneous or involuntary attention does not 
 have to be elicited. It is present naturally and of itself, 
 Rut most of life and most of learning depend upon voluntary 
 
 or (l('lil)erale attention, that is, aitonlion wilh an elTort of Ihe 
 
HOW WE THINK AND LEARN 31 
 
 will. The great law of voluntary attention is that it cannot 
 be continuously sustained. Our minds wander, and we have 
 to bring back our attention every now and then by using a 
 distinct effort of the will. This holds the topic in view for 
 a moment, then the mind wanders off for a certain number 
 of seconds, or minutes, on some other diverging, spontaneous 
 interest. Then the process of deliberate recall must be re- 
 peated. 
 
 The sustained attention of the genius, sticking to his sub- 
 ject for hours, is, for the most part, of the passive sort. 
 Such a man is full of original and copious associations, which 
 lead the attention along from one thing to another in an 
 interested manner. Unless the subject, to which you wish 
 3'Our pupils to attend, really reaches their vital interest, you 
 will be able to hold them only for a few brief minutes. To 
 keep them where you would woo them, you must make the 
 subject so interesting that their minds will not wander. The 
 subject must be one that concerns their present lives, and 
 whose utility is recognized at once. 
 
 We shall see Avhen we take up the question of Will in a 
 subsequent Chapter, how closely related it is to Attention, 
 and when in a Chapter on Interest we deal with the relation 
 of Interest to Attention, we will again show in another way 
 how fundamental is the study of tlie Psychology of the Child 
 for proper teaching. 
 
32 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. E.xpLain clearly "the Stream of Consciousness." 
 
 2. What two laws hold true regarding the nature of Thinking? 
 
 3. Explain the Personality of Thought. 
 
 4. Compare "a Product of the Imagination"' and "a Concept." 
 
 5. Also compare "General" and "Particular" Statements. 
 
 6. With reference to Ideas, what is Education? 
 
 7. What are the laws of Contiguity and of Similarity? 
 
 8. Reproduce the drawing showing the Acquirement of Knowledge 
 
 of an Apple, and explain. 
 
 9. What is "Realizing an Idea"? 
 
 10. What effect has Thought on Action ? 
 
 11. What, then, is Temptation? 
 
 12. Name and explain the Four Stages of Thinking. 
 
 13. How do Involuntary and Voluntary Attention differ? 
 
 14. How can we not gain attention in the Sunday School ? 
 
 15. State the law of Voluntary Attention. 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER III. 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 SUGGESTED READING : 
 
 The New Psychology, Professor Gordyj or 
 Character Building, Coler. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Memory is not a Faculty, but an Act of the Mind, by which it 
 Retains and Reproduces Impressions. 
 
 Nothing is totally forgotten. Always some Impression is left on the 
 mind. 
 
 Memory depends on — 1. Attention; 2. Retention; 3. Recall; 4. Recog- 
 nition; 5. Localization. 
 
 rp rT.^- (I- Visual; 2. Tactual or Motor; 3. Mixed. 
 
 Types of Memori v , _,, . ' , ^ ^n -.-rr , 
 
 ^^ \ I. Thing Workers; 2. Idea Workers. 
 
 To Train Memory, we must note the Kind needed, whether Verbal 
 
 (Memory of Words) or Things and Facts, i.e., whether Abstract 
 
 or Concrete. 
 Will, here, stands for the Act that cannot be Involuntarily performed. 
 All Thought tends to become an Act, a Willing, the Result of Choice 
 
 and Action on that Choice, through Inhibitary or Motor Nerves. 
 Willing is the End of All Thinking. 
 Will can be Trained and Educated. 
 Variations in Will are native or hereditary. 
 
 Types of Will : Such are Precipitate or Obstructed. Races differ, too. 
 Balky Will a Balance, or Deadlock of Ideas. 
 Watch the Tj'pe, and treat each Type tactfully. 
 
 So have Repression by Inhibition or by Substitution. Latter better. 
 Moral Act lies in Willing, which in turn lies in Deliberate Attention. 
 Deliberation is Weighing Pros and Cons: Paying Attention to each 
 
 side, phase, alternative. Result is a fiat. 
 Instincts are Impulses, Hereditary Tendencies, Potential Capacities. 
 
 They equal Heredity. 
 Instincts can be either — 1. Developed; 2. Altered; 3. Repressed. 
 
34 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Habit is alwajs an Acquired Reaction on an Instinct. 
 
 Education therefore is a Mass of Tendencies to Reaction: a Mass of 
 Ideas Acting on Instincts. 
 
 Man lias more Instincts than Animals ; but guides them more by 
 Reason and Ideas. 
 
 Instincts are Transitory; Come at Definite Times. Live or Wane 
 according to Use. 
 
 Habits are Instincts Trained by Use: Re-actions formed by Ex- 
 perience. 
 
 Aim of All Education is Habit-formation, that is Character-building. 
 
 "No Impression," even sub-conscious, "without Expression." 
 
 No escape from Influences, good or bad, around us. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 Memory and Its Value. 
 
 It would be of no value to leani if we did not remember. 
 All the impressions that might come crowding to the brain 
 through the sight;, the hearing, the smell, the taste, the feel- 
 ings, would be as nothing, unless we stored them in our 
 memories, and were able to recall them for future service. 
 Memory is the Act of Mind by which it retains and repro- 
 duces these impressions. It is not in any way a faculty. It 
 is due entirely to Attention. As Professor James put it in 
 his marvellous book, which we recommend all teachers to 
 read (Talks to Teachers) : "Our brains are wax to receive, 
 and marble to retain." 
 
 Names, dates, and what-not leave their impressions on our 
 brain cells, become inter-related, correlated, welded together, 
 and are indelibly retained. Practically nothing is totally for- 
 gotten. Professor Ebbinghaus has proved that the process of 
 forgetting is vastly more rapid at first than later. No matter 
 how long ago we have learned a poem, and no matter how 
 complete may l)c our inability to reproduce it now, the first 
 memorizing will still show its lingering effects in the abridg- 
 ment of time required for learning it over again. Things 
 which we are quite unable to recall definitely have, neverthe- 
 less, impressed themselves in some way upon the structure 
 of the mind. We are different for having once learned them. 
 
3(5 THE ELEMENTS OF CIirLD .STIDV 
 
 Our conclusions from certain premises arc probably not just 
 what they would be, if there were not those modifications of 
 the brain cells. The very fact that when we ivlearn we recog- 
 nize that we have known the fact before, shows that it has 
 not been totally forgotten. 
 
 Memory depends upon five factors: (1) Attention, which 
 in turn depends upon (a) our Personal Interest, and (b) our 
 Paying Attention, (2) Betentioji, (3) Recoil, (4) Becognition 
 and (5) Localization. Any one of these may fail, although 
 the failure in most cases depends upon Eecall. 
 
 A — ttention, 
 
 K — etention, 
 
 E — ecall, 
 
 E — ecognition, 
 
 L — ocalization. 
 Definite Attention may be lacking on the part of the 
 learner, and the memory, Retention, in itself may be weak; 
 but generally the trouble has been that we have not thought 
 enough about the subject, have not formed enough connect- 
 ions, have not made a good association of ideas, have not 
 really woven the unknown to the known, and so cannot rapid- 
 ly Recall. Recognition fails in a few cases, though rarely, and 
 when it does it is generally due to some form of disease, 
 known as Amnesia. In such cases a person may see a knife 
 and not recognize it, or sec a word and not know it, or hear 
 a word and not interpret it; or, finally, may reproduce and 
 re-know past experiences, but without the power to Locate 
 them. They are all in the past, but where is not recalled. 
 
 An example of recalling: — Suppose a lady went to a re- 
 ception held in ]\rrs. Jones' parlor. (See drawing No. 14) 
 Let us now have one dot to represent a great many brain cells. 
 We will put a dot (a) for Mrs. Jones' parlor — that takes in 
 the fittings of the room, the floor, the tapestries, the furniture, 
 aufl people in general. We will put another dot (b) to repre- 
 
EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 37 
 
 sent the corner of the room where the piano is, and where 
 Mrs. Smith is standing as a guest. Tlie third dot (c) will 
 represent Mrs. Jones in lier evening attire^ introducing Mrs. 
 Smith to a lad}^, Mrs. Brown. AVe will put four dots for 
 particular facts concerning Mrs. Brown — (d) for her face; 
 
 Ini-*. Stktxa if P^s'-y*^ 
 
 e. "»"»"» °- ~m to e. V i "\t 
 
 Cl-t No. 14. (fimith.) 
 
 I 
 
 (e) for her high, squeaky voice; (f) for her name, and 
 (g) for her evening costume. (See Picture N^o. 14). 
 
 The next day Mrs. Smith meets Mrs. Brown on the street, 
 and is greeted effusively. An invitation is given by Mrs. 
 Brown for Mrs. Smith to call on her "At Home" Day, 
 
.38 THE ELEMENTS OF C'lllIJ) STIDV 
 
 Wednesday. Mrs. Smilli cannot recall her name. There is 
 first of all the same face represented by (d). There is 
 her high, squeaky voice (e), but a different costume, (g), 
 which, of course, does not resemble her former costume. Her 
 name (f) cannot be recalled. Mrs. Smith meditates, "Who 
 is she ? Where did I meet her ? Where have I seen that face, 
 and heard that voice?" And, after much thinking, as they 
 part, slie recalls the corner of the room (b), where the piano 
 stood, and Mrs. Jones (c), introducing her to some lady who 
 had a high voice and the same face. Suddenly Mrs. Smith 
 recalls that it struck her at the time that the names were 
 very similar, that is, they were all common names. She 
 thinks, "My name is Smith. My hostess' name was Jones. 
 Now what other names were there — Robinson, Brown, Taylor, 
 etc ? Oh, I have it now ! It was Brown." 
 
 Thus in this roundabout way, the mind went from the 
 face and voice (d) and (e), to tlie name (f), whereas it 
 should have gone directly to the name, and would have, if the 
 Face, Voice, and Name had been thought about, paid-atten- 
 tion-to, and properly associated at the introduction. Tlius 
 again we see that memory depends upon th(> ])roper associa- 
 iion of ideas. 
 
 Types of Memory. 
 
 There are different types, or kinds, of Memory, which 
 depend largely on inheritance, although somewhat on the 
 training of the Will. Tlic A^isual Type remembers things in 
 terms of visual images, or mental pictures. The Aural 'l\pe 
 sees things in terms of hearing, chiefly. Tlie Tactual Type 
 remembers in terms of touch. The IMixed 'JVpe of menuiry 
 is probably the most common of all, and is most valuable. 
 
 Professor Thorndike says that individual intellects may 
 be divided into two classes roughly; those al)le to work with 
 ideas, and those able to work wi(h things. Some children 
 
EDICATTOX AND CHARACTER 30 
 
 manage numbers, words, symbols, and fail in measuring 
 boards, catcliing fish, or l;il)oral(U'y work. 
 
 For convenience in Sunday School teaching, you may 
 divide your scholars into two nuiin types and. the mixed type : 
 the Visual type, the IMotor type, and the Mixture of the two. 
 
 The Will. 
 
 Since Character is Conduct, and Conduct means but a 
 series of habits or actions, and as all new habits are primarily 
 formed by AYilling, it is necessary to examine the Will. In 
 the narrow sense of the word. Will refers to such acts in life, 
 either Muscular or Mental, as cannot be inattentively per- 
 formed — that is, require a delil)erate fiat on the part of the 
 Mind, in order to be executed. 
 
 All thought tends to become an act; all attention tends 
 to eventuate in Willing, in a motor re-action, that is. It may 
 only be an alteration of the heart-beats, or a blush, or a sol), 
 or what-not. 
 
 It may be the outcome of a single idea, or the result of 
 weighing a number of ideas; a contest or battle of motives, 
 the result of deliberation. This deliberation results in a 
 choice, a fiat, a decision. There are two sorts of nerves: (a) 
 those of Inhibition or arrest, that stop or prevent an action; 
 and (b) those of Motor action, that perform. The contest, 
 the weighing, is the balancing of ideas. Hesitation is the 
 deadlock of ideas. It may result in action through Motor 
 nerves, or refraining from action, through the nerves of 
 Inhilntion. The nerves are very delicate, and a strong idea 
 in the focus may become uttei'ly neutralized by faint con- 
 tradictory ideas coming in from the margin, and replacing 
 the focal thought, which, if retained, would have resulted 
 in a very different action. Our conduct, then, is the result 
 of the comjiounding of our impulsions and inhibitions. 
 
40 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Willing is the consummate end of all tJiinl-ing and all 
 feeling. No impression evev enters the body that does not 
 result in some action; "no Impression witliout a correspond- 
 ing Expression" is the universal law on which one can abso- 
 lutely rely. Yet Will is not a thing. You cannot put your 
 finger on it, and say, "this is pure will." It is a process that 
 occurs as the result of the Association of ideas, guided and 
 controlled by self. 
 
 Types of Will. 
 
 There are definitely inherited types of Will, just as there 
 are of Attention. That is, there are ways of thinking that 
 are natural to a certain person, which thinking and delibera- 
 tion and resolve may be slow or rapid, may be logical or 
 illogical, depending upon the heredity and subsequent train- 
 ing. Will can be trained as well as Attention and Memory 
 can be trained, and it is our part as teachers to train the will. 
 In fact, the major portion of all our teaching is concerned 
 with definite and deliberate Will training. When we have 
 trained Will, we have made Character. 
 
 There are tivo main types of Will (a) Precipitate, and 
 (b) Obstructed. The former type is seen in the maniac; the 
 latter in certain melancholiacs, where perfect "abulia," or 
 inability to will an act, is present. Eaces differ in types of 
 Will. The Southern races are impulsive; the Northern, as 
 the English, are repressive. Tlie former is the lower type, 
 for it has few scruples, and acts regardless of consequences. 
 'I'he strongest minds will weigh consequences, deliberate, 
 consider pros and coits. The Bailey Will is the extreme of 
 deadlock. The balance of ideas refuses to be broken. The 
 child, or tlie horse, cannot act, however hard he tries. The 
 Will refuses to break the deliberation. So long as the in- 
 hibiting macliinery is active, the child finds the obstacle insur- 
 mountable and im]iassable. "Then make him forget, drop 
 
EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 41 
 
 the matter for a time^ springing it suddenly on liini later in 
 some other way, before lie has time to recognize it, and likely 
 as not he can act. Don't try to 'break his Will'." "Better 
 break his neck than his Will," says James. 
 
 Allowance must be made in the case of those children 
 whose wills verge toward the extreme impulsive type, or 
 toward the extreme pondering type. A teacher must not irri- 
 tate the former Ijy forever checking their natural tendencies 
 to jump at actions, or the latter by hurrying them on to 
 what seem to them hasty decisions. Too vigorous opposition 
 to their natural lient will make the one class confused and 
 sulky, and the other nervous and tearful. We must bring 
 each toward the golden mean of action, that is neither rash 
 nor tardy by sympathetic and ingenious treatment. AVith a 
 pupil of the impulsive extreme, get him to agree to the simple 
 rule that, before he acts in any important situation, he is 
 to write on a bit of paper what he is going to do, and why 
 he is going to do it. 
 
 "AVhen in great doubt, do either or both," is a maxim 
 which these pondering children are often quite willing to 
 follow, and which soon improves greatly the power of prompt 
 attention. It should be their guide in all unimportant decis- 
 ions, and is not a bad rule for them even in really vital ques- 
 tions. 
 
 Just as there are two types of Will, there are two types 
 of Inhibition — that by repression, and that by substitution. 
 The latter is the one to select. Eeplace the deadlock by a new 
 inhibiting idea — the former quickly vanishes from the field. 
 Action through substitution is better than repression. "He 
 whose life is based on the word 'No,' is an inferior person 
 in every respect to what he would be if the love of truth and 
 magnanimity possessed him from the outset." Build up 
 character by a positive, not by a negative, education. 
 
42 Till'] KI.K.MKXTS OF ClIIIJ) STIDY 
 
 Tlius it is tliat Jaiiics i^ivcs us the rule tiial "X'oluntary 
 ac-lion is, at all times, the resultant of the couipounding of 
 our impulsions with our inhibitions/' The matter of training 
 the will, and the rubles for doing so, will be considered by us 
 in a subsequent chapter. We will merely say here, in answer 
 to the question: ''Jii what does a moral act consist when re- 
 duced to its simplest and most elementary form?" that the 
 moral act consists in the effort of attention by which we hold 
 fast an idea, which, but for the elTort of attention, would be 
 driven out of the mind by tlie other psychological tendencies 
 that are there. "To think is the secret of wdll, just as it is 
 the secret of memory." This is the happy way in which it 
 is expressed by James. 
 
 The Opposition of Knowing, Feeling, and Willing. 
 
 Like the three angles of a triangle, no two are on the top 
 at the same time. 'J'herefore we cannot Know intensely, and 
 Feel intensely, and Will intensely at the same moment. If the 
 feelings are uppermost, the intellect and will are in abeyance. 
 Mob rule is an example of this. If the intellect is upper- 
 most, the head has gained control of the feelings; and the 
 I'motions are therefore in abeyance and the result is cold 
 intellectuality, and self-control. When we ivill, we have some 
 emotion and some intellect, l)ut the willing is the uppermost 
 act. That is why we call an angry num mad, because his 
 knowing powers have become disarranged. When Carpenter 
 was lecturing he forgot his pain, because pain is a feeling; 
 and when he was lecturing, he was. exercising his intellect very 
 vigorously. The expression, "wild with grief," illustrates the 
 same law. One does not make much jii'ogi'ess in those studies 
 where the interest is so liUle that we have to put forth a 
 great deal of elTort to keep our minds on them. The will is 
 used so energetically to concentrate the atteuliou. Ihat there 
 is little enei'gy left for knowing. So that, when your pupils 
 
KDlt'ATlOX AS\) CIIAILVCTKR 43 
 
 are amused they learn little; because aniuseiiicut — a feeling — 
 is a hindrance to that concentration of mind that is study, 
 ()i- knowing. And yet tliere is a certain inter-dependence l)e- 
 tween knowing, feeling, and willing. When we feel we know, 
 and when we know we feel. Bodily wishes and pains, ail 
 feelings, in fact, depend upon knowing. 
 
 Deliberation. 
 
 "The word Deliberation is used in ordinary speech to 
 mean any state of mind in which some to2)ic is considered 
 attentively. It then means little more than a state of atten- 
 tion. In a more restricted sense, it describes a state of readi- 
 ness to will, with mental choice between one or more possi- 
 bilities of action. In such cases the state of mind is likely 
 to include different, and more or less opposed, methods. We 
 think over the alternatives, have ideas favoring this or the 
 other, and balance the Pros and Cons. From the inside, it is 
 tlie presence of images and pictures, plus emotions of doubt 
 and uncertainty. From the outside, it is a state of hesitation 
 before action. The termination of this hesitation, or conflict 
 of ideas, is sometimes marked by a feeling of decision or 
 choice. We must not confuse the fact of decision with the 
 feeling of decision. The fact of decision means that one 
 motive has conquered, that one idea or act has prevailed, and 
 it may have little or no feeling of choice accompanying it. 
 The term fiat of the will is applied to a feeling which may be 
 analyzed as a sort of, 'Go ahead, let the act occur.' The feel- 
 ings concerned in the life of conduct are, in the main, made 
 of intellectual and emotional stuff. The only ends which 
 follow immediately upon our willing, seem to be movements 
 of our own bodies. Whatever feelings and havings we may 
 will to get, come in as results of preliminary movements, 
 wliich we nuike for the purpose. The only direct outward 
 
44 THE EIJvMKXTS OK CHILI) STUDY 
 
 ell'ec't of our will arc bodily iiiovoiiieiits/' unless we except 
 Telepathy. 
 
 Deliberation, Reflection, and Willing. 
 
 Let us make a diagrammatic scheme to illustrate this pro- 
 cess. In the drawing herewith, let us suppose that the reader 
 ^. were the guest of a lady at dinner. ''.Fhe 
 
 /'" : '*. menu has proceeded to the dessert course, 
 
 /' ; "^ and a tidy waitress enters the rooms with 
 
 -'•^ — '»; ^» _ a tray of plates containing pieces of cohl 
 
 Cut No. 15. mincC JDic. 
 
 It chances that you have been afflicted with chronic dys- 
 pepsia, and that the physician has forbidden your eating pie, 
 and especially cold mince pie. The sensations and ideas 
 entering the mind having nothing to do with the argument 
 under which you decide whether or not to eat that particular 
 piece of mince pie, we will call the Indifferent arguments, and 
 number them a' b', etc., in the drawing. They w^ould be such 
 things as the sight of the waitress, the tray, the pattern of 
 the plates, the fork beside you, with which to consume the 
 pie. Your first impression, then, would probably be a feeling: 
 ''Oh, here comes pie, mince pie, just what I love." "The 
 pie, mince pie, just what I love," would correspond to 
 the arguments a, b, and c Tro, that is, the arguments in 
 behalf of the act. There arise at once opposition arguments, 
 that we will call a', b", and c". Tliey would be sucli as "Yes, 
 but the Doctor said I mustn't eat pie, and especially mince 
 pie, and especially cold mince pie." 
 
 At once some other arguments Vro enter your mind, so 
 that there ensues a mental dialogue about as follows: "But 
 then I have not been sick in tliree months, and maybe it 
 won't hurt me. Well, but when I was sick, I was sick in bed 
 foi- two weeks, and I had the doctor every day, and it cost 
 mc $2 a visit. Oh ! but this is such a small piece of mince 
 
EinCATION AND CHARACTER 45 
 
 pie, and tlieii I am so very hungry. I was leaving space for 
 the dessert, and you know I cannot be hnpolite to my hostess, 
 and — and — and" — to a prolonged extent. "Yes, but when I 
 was sick, I was very, very sick, and I suffered so terribly that 
 I resolved that I would never again take the risk of eating 
 mince pie, and most of my suffering has been caused by mince 
 pie." 
 
 ]\Ieanwhile your mental and visible eyes have been centered 
 on the piece of pie. Eemember that we said in a previous 
 section that the moment one looks at, or pays attention to, the 
 idea of an act, there is a tendency for that act to realize 
 itself. Moreover, the situation is never a fair one. One is 
 always prejudiced, and when prejudiced the tendency in- 
 variably is, even when one strives to be just, to minimize 
 the arguments against the act, and magnify the arguments 
 for it. In fact, you can put it down as a rule that, if 
 the arguments seem equal for any act in life, the thing 
 that you should do is what you do not want to do, because 
 of the almost certainty of a biased view of the arguments. 
 So that, gazing at the pie, you presently remark to your- 
 self, a remark that really constitutes the act of decision. 
 '"Well, anyhow, my digestive organs are my own, and it is 
 nobody's business if I do suffer. I will take the risk." With 
 that final remark, and perhaps a mental toss of the head, you 
 look away from the arguments Con, until they are practi- 
 cally obliterated from the mind, and you focus your attention 
 on the strength of the arguments Pro, with the inevitable 
 result that down goes the mince pie and you become a willing 
 victim. That is Willing. 
 
 Instincts — Native and Acquired. 
 
 Instincts, or Impulses, or Hereditary Tendencies, or 
 Potential Capacities, or Points of Reaction, are all names for 
 practically the same thing. Instincts include Eeflexes, and 
 
40 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 all other actions or tendencies to action; that is, feelings and 
 acts whicli are nnlearned, and are in ns apart from all train- 
 ing and experience, are instincts. Thus we see that Character 
 or Conduct, heing a hundle of habits, and habits being the 
 result of either (1) developing instincts and training them, 
 or (2) altering them by substitution of other actions, or 
 (3) by repressing or killing them, instincts lie at the bottom 
 of all life. Every habit, every action, or, as James puts it, 
 "every acquired reaction, as a rule, is either a complication 
 grafted on the native reaction, or a substitute for the native 
 reaction, which the same subject originally tended to provoke. 
 The teachers' art consists in bringing about the substitution 
 or complication of reactions," impressions from without, that 
 is, environment. 
 
 Our Education implies, therefore, the acquisition of a 
 mass of tendencies or possibilities of reaction. Every action 
 is either the outcome of instinct, or acquired, as the result 
 of training or experience. Animals arc commonly thought of 
 as being par excellence creatures of instinct. As a matter of 
 fact, men have more instincts, manifold more and moi'c varied, 
 than do animals. Only the instincts are less easily recog- 
 nized because they are so readily trained into habits, and so 
 influenced by intellect and reasoning. It would be well to 
 examine carefully the long list of instincts and their uses, 
 given on pages 94 and 102 of Religious Education. We shall 
 speak of certain of these, such as love, animosity, imitation, 
 emulation, consciousness of power, ownership, constructivc- 
 ness, etc., in other places of Ihis book, wbciv we treat of Ihe 
 develo])ment of the child. 
 
 Transitoriness of Instincts. 
 
 James gives us the law of the transitoriness of instincts: 
 "Many instincts ripen at a certain age, and then fade away. 
 A conse(|uence of this law is that if. during the iimo of such 
 
EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 47 
 
 an instinct's vivacity, objects adequate to arouse it are met, 
 a hahit of acting on them is formed, which remains wlien the 
 original instinct has 2)assed away; but that if no such objects 
 are met with, then no habit will be formed; and, later on 
 in life, when the animal meets the objects, he will altogether 
 fail to react, as at the earlier epoch he would instinctively 
 have done. ISTo doubt such a law is restricted. Some instincts 
 are far less transient than others — those connected with feed- 
 ing and self-preservation may hardly be transient at all ; and 
 some, after fading out for a time, recur as strong as ever; 
 e. g., the instinct -of pairing and rearing young. To detect 
 the moment of the instinctive readiness for the subject is, 
 then, the first duty of every educator. As for the pupils, it 
 would probably lead to a more earnest temper on the part of 
 college students if they had less belief in their unlimited 
 future intellectual potentialities, and could be brought to 
 realize that, whatever physics and political economy and 
 philosophy they are now acquiring are, for better or worse, 
 the physics and political economy and philosophy that will 
 have to serve them to the end." 
 
 Habits. 
 
 Tendencies to reaction or response, which are formed in 
 whole or in pai't by experience or training, are called Habits. 
 The instincts become hal)its as soon as experience focuses or 
 alters them. Practically, all of human behavior is a series 
 of habits. The essential nature is the same, whether the 
 habit is partially formed and rarely used, or fully formed 
 and always used. Any tendency for something to go with 
 something else, mental or physical, is either a case of pure 
 instinct or habit. Habits not in action, and the possibilities 
 of forming hahits, are called Poivers. The inborn qualities 
 which are the partial basis for the development of mental 
 powers, as it were instincts of possibility, are called Capacities. 
 
48 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 The ultimate aim of Church, Sunday School, Eeligion, and 
 Day School, is really Character, or habit-forming. The par- 
 ticular point of view by Avhich the Church differs from the 
 world is to set as the ultimate sanction or rule for good con- 
 duct, not merely society or our fellow men, but God; and to 
 refer the basis of all action or thought to the moral law Avithin 
 us, expressing God's definite will. 
 
 Habit, the End of School Work. 
 
 Sow a thought and reap a doed, 
 Sow a deed and reap a habit, 
 Sow a habit and reap a character. 
 Sow a character and reap a destiny. 
 
 "I wonder," queries Professor Seeley, "liow fully the 
 teacher enters into the thought that education is to trans- 
 form into hal)it whatever ought to belong to our nature?" 
 
 The Sub-Conscious Field of Habit. 
 
 We have spoken of the fact that everything experienced 
 influences us at some time, even though we may seemingly 
 have forgotten the experience, or fact. AVe said that some 
 time or other we acted differently, as the result. So evil im- 
 pressions, long-forgotten stories with impure taint, or under- 
 hand motive, sneaky actions we saw, bad examples we set, 
 careless words or acts on the part of a teacher, at the time 
 passed over lightly; all, and every one of these, will at some 
 future time influence a word, a deed, or at least a thought. 
 Truly "no man liveth unto himself." Every boy and girl 
 should be especially shielded from harmful words and sights, 
 and should be especially subjected to pure and lofty, noble 
 and idealistic surroundings. Many a boy has entered the 
 Sacred Ministry, or labored in the Missionary Field, as tlic 
 outcome of a noble teacher's life and words; and, above all, 
 consistent and consecrated, devoted life. It was the Sunday 
 School teacher of the present authoi- himself who was the 
 
EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 49 
 
 means of his entering God's Avork in the Church's Ministry. 
 Good (not "goody") books, early read, will in after years 
 almost invariably bear sweet fruition. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What is Memory? 
 
 2. On what does Memory depend? 
 
 3. Explain "Types of JNIeniory." 
 
 4. How can one train Memory? 
 
 5. What is Will? 
 
 6. What is the tendency of all Thinking? 
 
 7. What are the Types of Will? 
 
 8. What is a "Balky" Will? 
 
 9. In what way can we gain repression ? 
 
 10. What is Deliberation? 
 
 11. What are Instincts? 
 
 12. What can be done with Instinct? 
 
 13. What is a Habit? 
 
 14. What, therefore, is Education in terms of Instinct? 
 
 15. What is said of the Transitoriness of Instincts? 
 
SYlJ.Ar.US OF t'HAl'TJ<:i; l\^ 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD IN THE 
 PRIMARY AGE 
 
 SUGGESTED READING:— The Mi>u of a Child, Ennis Richmond. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 L Infancy — 1 year. 
 
 2. Kindergarten or Primary — I-G. In- 
 stinct and Impulse. 
 Divisions of Child Growth J 3. Childhood — G-12. Imitation and Habit. 
 I 4. Adolescence or Youth — 12-18. Moral 
 Crisis and Ideality or Romance. 
 Later Adolescence — 18-25. Decision. 
 Primary Age. 
 
 PlIYSrCAI, ClIAUACTERISTICS. 
 
 Restlessness. Hence use Motion throughout. Proper seating, etc. 
 Activity. Hence Constructive Motion. 
 
 Grosser muscular movements develop first. 
 
 Activity must — 1. Act, or 2. Die, or 3. Explode. Seek Purposeful 
 Action. 
 
 Repression brings — 1. Irritability and Nervousness; 2. Friction; 
 3. Unhappiness; 4. Weakened Character. 
 
 Rightly used brings Good Habits, i.e.. Character. . 
 
 Love of -Play. Educational Value great. 
 
 Symbolic, Constructive, Imaginative. 
 
 Games, Contests, Competitions, Dramatizations, etc. 
 Emulation. Rivalry of a Generous Sort only. 
 Savagery. We reproduce Race History, i.e.. Recapitulation. So show 
 
 Diflferent Interests and Nature at DifTerent Ages. Savagery 
 
 brings Credulity. 
 
 Mental Characteristics. 
 
 Dependence. Child clinging and loving. Avoid Harshness. Teach 
 Inter-relation of Life. 
 
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY AGE 51 
 
 Faith and Trust. Especially along Religious, Symbolic, and Mystical 
 Lines. Fetishes, Anthropomorphism, etc. Credulity passes 
 about tenth year. 
 
 Personification. Very powerful. Nature and even Toys alive to 
 child. Use it. 
 
 Self-Unconsciousness. Seemingly self-assertive. Use in Recitation, etc. 
 
 Imitativeness. Now imitates Parents. Later Companions. In Ado- 
 lescence. Imitates Ideals. 
 
 Curiosity. Develop Inquiring Attitude. Now concerned with the 
 Concrete and Material. Is the chief means of gaining Facts and 
 Ideas. Feed it well. Kept up, it means the Student and the 
 Philosopher. 
 
 Imagination. Very active. Lives in the world of jNIake-believe. 
 Prefers it. Hmall children do not "lie." Due to imperfect 
 Imagination, too vivid and imperfect Perceptions. Educate out 
 of Untruth by indicating error of perceptions. 
 
 Concreteness. So the Story Age, the Biography Age, and the History 
 Age. L'se only Stories here. A Story is a concrete, detailed, 
 picturesque portrayal, so detailed and concrete as to afford an 
 actual mental picture. Few or no relationships, and no abstrac- 
 tions. 
 
 Conscience does not appear much before the age of ten. It is devel- 
 oped, not born in one: and must be read through Education. 
 Obedience is best taught in the first three j'ears of life. Distin- 
 guish carefully between Penalty and Discipline. Former does 
 not develop moral character. Sin is only possible under a moral 
 personality, obtained through human environment, i.e., Social 
 vSuggestion. 
 
 Memory at this age is both strong and weak: strong, because Reten- 
 tive; weak, because not closely Attentive. Language is gained. 
 first in nouns, then verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. It 
 is lost in i-everse order. 
 
 Sex-Unconsciousness now. So Sexes together in School: From S-12, 
 are sex-repellant, so we separate. From 12, are sex-attracted, 
 so still separate to get Attention to work. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD IN THE 
 PRIMARY AGE 
 
 The Steps of the Child's Development. 
 
 AVe liavc seen iliat instincts^ motives, iiiipidses, desires, 
 and interests of the child liave a definite method and process 
 of development. They unfold and ripen at well recognized 
 stages, or periods, in life. Not onl}- is his bodily growth an 
 orderly progress, but his mental activity as well. Both of 
 these influence and determine our method, and our curriculum. 
 These definite stages, or steps, reach from infancy to man- 
 hood. The lines of demarcation arc not by any means clear 
 and distinct in the separation. 
 
 These divisions are: (1) Infancy, or Babyhood, the suck- 
 ling period, only to the first year. (2) Early Childhood, the 
 Primary Age, from one to six years, sonuHimes called the 
 Kindergarten Age. These two stages are divided by Dr. 
 Alford Butler into the Age of Instinct, from one to three, 
 and the Age of Impulse, from three to six. (3) Childhood, 
 from six to twelve years of age, sometimes divided into the 
 Primary School Age, from six to eight and one-half or nine 
 {i.e., Third grade Day School) and Cbildliood, from then 
 lill Adolescence. Di". r>iill('r again iiinkcs Iwo divisions 
 oC this period: fi'oiii six lo nine, ilic Age of Imita- 
 lion, iind from nine to twelve, tlie Age of llabil. (I) Youth 
 or Adolescence, from twelve to eighteen or nineteen years of 
 age, sometimes divided into Early Adolescence, from twelve 
 
])KVKLOPMENT IN THK PIUMARY AGE 53 
 
 to sixteen (tlie Ag'o of Moral C/i'isis), and Middle Adolescence, 
 from sixteen to nineteen, the Age of Koniance and Ideality. 
 (5) Later Adolescence, from eighteen to twenty-five, the Age 
 of Decision. (6) Manhood, from twenty-five years onward. 
 
 I. — The Primary Age, One to Six Years Old. 1-3, Age of Instinct; 
 3-6, Age of Impulse. 
 
 1. — Physical Ciiakacteristics. 
 
 Restlessness. — The small child can keep still about forty 
 seconds; the teacher probably thinks it is less than that. 
 Therefore, the Kindergarten School will provide for move- 
 ment and motion; the opening and closing Hymns will be 
 marching songs; the Offertory will be taken to a marching 
 collection hymn; Mbtion hymns will be used; the children 
 \\'ilhbe encouraged to come forward and point out people and 
 objects in their pictures, on the sand table, or the blackboard. 
 'J'iiere will be constant motion every few ]uinutes for the wee 
 children. The effort will constantly be made to keep the 
 child's hands, or feet, or tongue, all in action. Perhaps the 
 one pervading thought in the matter of discipline or control 
 will be the self-activity of the small child. 
 
 Of course. Kindergarten chairs should be used, and they 
 should be of the right shape and height. A great mistake is 
 constant'ly being made in the selection of such chairs. The 
 Mosher Hygienic Chair, with slab back and saddle scat, is 
 good, and so is the chair with the straight back and desk ai'm, 
 at which the child can do nurnual work in picture mounting, 
 drawing, sewing, etc. Kindergarten taljles should also be 
 used where possible. 
 
 Aclirifi/. — This instinct is closely akin to restlessness, but 
 it is also different, because it is constructive. One can have 
 motion just for motion's sake, but Activity is positive action. 
 
 The chihl nuist be doing, or he cannot grow. "Growth 
 advances from the more general, or fundamental, muscles. 
 
54 THE EI.KMKXTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 to tliose tliat are set'ondarv, or accessory. A child uses its 
 larger muscles, those that move the larger joints and limbs, 
 and develops them before it trains the smaller muscles that 
 move the smaller joints. A child can run, jump, roll, skip, 
 kick, strike, lean, push, and pull, before it can write, sew, 
 carve, draw, tie, knit, and manipulate a musical instrument 
 skilfully, march, or dance gracefully." "The skilful use of 
 the hands and feet is acquired after the general and untrained 
 use of the same has been developed," says Haslett. 
 
 He is by nature rhythmical, and loves music. He will 
 move his body constantly in response to the music. About 
 the third 3^ear is the beginning of a nascent stage for singing. 
 Music may well consume the major portion of the instruction 
 hour. Pictures, models, blackboard, sand table, action exer- 
 cises, and stories, may occupy the remainder. In Harrison's 
 Study of Child Nature it says: "Making a restless child 
 keep still is a repression of this nervous energy, which irri- 
 tates the whole nervous system, causing ill temper, morose- 
 ness, and general uncomfortableness. If this force could 
 be properly expended, the child would be always sunny- 
 tempered. This legitimate and natural investigative activity 
 needs only to be led from the negative path of destruction 
 into the positive one of construction. Instead of vainly at- 
 tempting to suppress the new-born power of the young pio- 
 neer, or searcher after truth, guide it aright. Give him play- 
 things, which can be taken to pieces and put together again 
 without injury to the material. The positive method of 
 training builds up the cheering, optimistic character which is 
 so much needed. Who are the men and women that are lift- 
 ing the world upwards and onwards? Are they not those 
 who encourage more than they criticize?" 
 
 The baby's world is "a big, booming, buzzing confusion," 
 but gradually order and system arise out of chaos. The 
 mind, clouded at first, becomes clear and active; it learns to 
 
DEVELOPMENT IX THE PRIMARY AGE 55 
 
 know certain objects and the simplest relationships within 
 a very limited sphere. The law of activity must constantly 
 be remembered: "Activity must act, explode, or cease to 
 generate." If it stops acting entireh^, it spells death; for 
 the body without activity is dead. If it lessens in amount, 
 it brings lowered vitality, and indicates some abnormal con- 
 dition. Therefore, you must choose one of the only two 
 alternatives left, either purposeful action or an explosion; 
 for activity can no more be confined than steam in a boiler. 
 
 When the policy of repression has been followed, certain 
 definite and harmful results occur under such refinement of 
 cruelty. Saying "Don't," or "Be still," and enforcing this 
 mandate by strict discipline, may bring the outward repres- 
 sion, but results in (1) irritability and nervousness; (2) fric- 
 tion, with probable defiance and stubbornness developed, 
 which may last all through life ; ( 3 ) unhappiness, and a sense 
 of alienation, under which sympathy is lost between the 
 teacher and the child; and (4) weakness of will and char- 
 acter, which is the most serious result of all. If activity be 
 directed, proper development, both of body and of mind and 
 of character, results. ^Yliether the boy become a gentleman 
 or a rowdy depends upon the outlet given to his energy. This 
 energy must have an outlet, and it is the teacher's responsi- 
 bility, and not the boy's, if that energy be not guided aright. 
 Each action of this energy traces deeper the pathway of habit. 
 Activity rightly guided means right habits. Activity wrongly 
 guided means wrong habits. It means a lawless and undis- 
 ciplined character, while activity, rightly guided, means the 
 making of a noble character. And so obedience is active, not 
 passive. It is activity under law. 
 
 But with this activity is the desire for change, change 
 of posture, or of method of recitation, or of subject. Dullness 
 and sameness are fatal to good order. Therefore make fre- 
 quent alteration, both in the position of the children, and in 
 
56 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 the method of developing the lessons, varying from the rou- 
 tine plan occasionally, and especially presenting an attractive 
 programme on stomiy and dull days; and in the subject, or 
 at least in its treatment so far as may be. 
 
 Love of Play — which to the child is serious and earnest 
 work. The educational value of play is now fully recognized 
 by the day schools. The play instinct is Nature's way, and 
 so God's way of developing body, mind, and character. And 
 so in the Sunday School and the Church, the play element 
 is constantly apparent. Games, contests, competitions can 
 all be used. Missionary and Bible games that can be played 
 in the home, in the social gathering, in the club, or even at 
 odd hours in the Sunday School, now exist in abundance. 
 Dramatization, or theatrical presentation, of Bible scenes and 
 characters has been developed in some schools with good suc- 
 cess, and a number of books outlining such dramas and mys- 
 tery plays have been published. Tlie play element can per- 
 vade the entire Kindergarten and Primary School, without 
 detracting at all from the religious spirit. The opposition 
 between the play spirit and the religious is thus removed. 
 We teach our children that play has no connection with re- 
 ligion, and then we wonder why religion does not seem more 
 attractive to them, as they grow older. 
 
 When Emulation is used as an instinct in conjunction 
 with the play element, it should l)e very carefully and wisely 
 planned. The impulse to imitate another, so as not to seem 
 inferior, was developed largely by the Jesuits. When it does 
 not engender strife, it is a good motive. It is manifested in 
 rivahy, in group-work, in the employment of incentives as 
 prizes, honors, awards, etc. The tone of the school or class 
 is kept up by a spirit of emulation, the pride in keeping tra- 
 ditions alive. All individual improvement results from the 
 basal instinct of rivalry. 
 
DKVKLOr.MKNT IN THE PRIMARY AGE 57 
 
 SavcKjerij. — In liis lilV-liistorv, tlic cliild repeals the his- 
 tory of tlie liumau race, physical and psychological, social 
 and religious. This is known as the Eecapitulation Theory. 
 It is explained very fully in The Pedagogical Bible School 
 by Professor Haslett (pp. 318-225). We have also referred 
 to it before in speaking of the Evolution of the Child (p. 1). 
 
 Little children are savages. They manifest such untliink- 
 ing cruelty at times, that any explanation of it is difhcult 
 apart from the theory of savage characteristics of ancestors 
 being repeated in the cliildren. Instincts are inherited hal)- 
 its. They are our ancestors' ways of acting, handed on (o 
 their offspring. They are individual habits that have become 
 racial. The Culture Epochs Theory attempts to determine 
 what those interests are, the time of their natural appearance, 
 and the proper food for their nourishment. Passing through 
 the stages of racial history in its pre-human development, 
 the child ascends from savagery to civilization in a broad and 
 general way, with, of course, individual variations. This 
 would explain, in a very helpful form, many of the seemingly 
 crude and fantastic croppings-up of savage instincts witli 
 which Ave meet in the younger child. They are instincts to 
 be trained and repressed to a degree, not, perhaps, entirely, 
 because their entire repression would result in weakness and 
 cowardice; but trained to noble expression and high outlets. 
 
 Children, in their resemblance to savage and primitive 
 man, are very credulous, and open to all kinds of suggestion. 
 They agree to everything. Imagination runs riot in them, 
 and they possess a maze of ideas witliout definite phxn. It 
 is for us to guide them into the more sober world of reality, 
 not in a prosaic manner that will destroy all imagination and 
 symbolism, but, with reverent and glowing touch, to discern 
 the true and the false in the world around. 
 
58 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 2. — Mental Characteristics. 
 
 Dependence on Others. — The child clings to its mother 
 and teacher, and gladly follows every suggestion made by 
 either of them. It shows affection to an extreme degree. 
 All coldness, or harshness, will at once drive the child of this 
 period away. Only a person of very low moral qualities will 
 deceive, or be harsh, with a child. Well has Scripture said: 
 "Whosoever oifendeth one of these little ones who believe in 
 Me, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged 
 about his neck, and that he were drowned in the midst of the 
 sea." 
 
 This dependence on others can be trained into a realiza- 
 tion of the inter-relation of all life, so that, while on the one 
 hand the child is taught to be self-dependent or independent, 
 he will, nevertheless, realize that "no man liveth to himself," 
 and that, therefore, cordial and trustful relations should be 
 constantly cultivated. 
 
 Faith and Trust. — Ideal faith is noticed especially along 
 Religious, Symbolic, and Mystical lines. The child has its 
 fetiches, which it often deifies and seems to worship. The 
 contents of a small child's pockets will show a collection of 
 fetiches closely akin to the age of savagery. It is intensely 
 anthropomorphic. God is literally to him an old "Man." He 
 knows Jesus Christ as a person with a body, and does not 
 realize that God the Father, and God the Holy Ghost are 
 pure spirit. In fact, he cannot appreciate what a spirit 
 is. A great many adults have crude ideas of God. The 
 mother of a three-year-old child told the writer that she had 
 not instructed her little girl about God at all, waiting until 
 she became older, that she might understand better. Some- 
 one else, however, told the child, and the little girl came to 
 her mother for fuller information. Then the mother told 
 her fully. The child had been taken some weeks previous 
 to the circus to see Buffalo Bill. Ever since that visit, her 
 
DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY AGE 59 
 
 ideal and hero had been Buffalo Bill. She talked of him 
 constantly, and when she set chairs for her dolls at pla3dng 
 tea, she set an empty chair for Buffalo Bill, pretending that 
 he was present. When told about God, the child looked up 
 at her mother and said: "Well, mamma, then I must set a 
 chair for God, mustn't I?" The mother took her literally, 
 and said "yes." The next time the child was playing, there 
 were two chairs set, one for God, and one for Buffalo Bill. 
 JSTo harm is done, probably, by this kind of anthropomorphism, 
 and the child outgrows it in time. 
 
 Probably the tenth year is the general turning point, 
 when the period of childish credulity passes away. Great care 
 should be exercised in the use of symbolism at this time, for 
 the child's idea of a symbol may be vastly different from that 
 which the teacher holds. The child explains one thing by 
 another thing. He makes chairs to represent a train of cars. 
 He knows the train of cars, and he knows the chairs. He 
 makes the one stand for the other. He never has the chairs 
 represent what he does not understand ; and so the illustration 
 of the text, "My soul doth magnify the Lord," by the use of 
 a magnifying glass, is totally unpedagogical ; for, while the 
 magnifying glass magnifies or makes larger the object over 
 which it is placed, the term "magnify" in the text has a very 
 different significance. Many symbols used by the adult 
 teacher, therefore, are totally foreign to the child. The sym- 
 bol must be the child's symbol, the child's way of looking at 
 the thing. Symbolism to the adult is a representation of 
 spiritual truth by means of material things. To the child, 
 the symbol stands for the object. 
 
 Personification. — Not only does the child personify re- 
 ligion to a marked degree, demanding clear, definite, personal 
 teaching about God, but it personifies concrete, inanimate ob- 
 jects. Literally, it talks to the sun, moon, and stars. To its 
 playthings it attributes life. On a railroad train, one day, a 
 
(iO Till-: KLKMKXTS OF CHIIJ) STUDY 
 
 little lour-vear-old yomigster was looking at a J'lviglit train, 
 and luid been talking to its mother about this kind of a train. 
 As the passenger car pulled away from the freight, the child 
 looked out of the window and said, "Good-by, Mr. Freight 
 Train." Similar instances are constantly found with children 
 of this age. 
 
 This element can be widely used by the kindergarten 
 teacher through similar occasional presentation of inanimate 
 objects used in teaching. It will throw her in accord witli 
 the child's mind, and create the sympathy between her and 
 the child. This does not mean "baby talk."' The child does 
 not talk "baby talk" because he wants to, but because he can- 
 not help himself. x\s we have said, the larger muscle motions 
 develop first, then the more delicate ones; and Ave help the 
 child talk correctly, not by talking "baby talk," but by speak- 
 ing in adult language towards which he is striving, and which 
 he will articulate correctly wlicn he can nuike his muscular 
 connections. 
 
 Utter Self-Unconscioiisiicss. — A small child is seemingly 
 self-assertive, and "pushes himself forward." For example, 
 he is not afraid of front pews in Church, while adults are 
 exasperatingly averse to them. INfany parents and teachers 
 are apt to chide children for this self-assertion. It is not 
 that the child is self-assertive, rather it is self-unconsciousness. 
 It would be a good thing if he could keep that self-uncon- 
 sciousness to a greater degree. 
 
 This self-unconsciousness can be used in the Kiiulergarten 
 and Primary through recitation, or declamation of memorized 
 work, under which for a few minutes at each session certain 
 children, who have been given definite uuMuory work, stand 
 up before the class and recite it. 
 
 Tmitativenesf!. — Man especially iniiiales; animals do not. 
 to any great extent. We make use of this tendency in every 
 phase of education. "Watch me, see how I can do or say it," 
 
DEVEUir.MENT IN THE PRIMARY AGE 61 
 
 is a standard phrase. This is especially true of all types of 
 manual work, where learning hy doing — that is, by imitation 
 — is almost invariably the best way of teaching. It is also 
 true regarding personal habits, such as reverence, love of 
 truth, honesty, loyalty, etc. 
 
 In the Kindergarten and Primary ages the children imi- 
 tate their parents. In the next state. Childhood, they imitate 
 their companions. In Adolescence they imitate noble deeds 
 and ideals. This early stage of imitation is frequently lost 
 sight of, and attributed to heredity. 
 
 Curiosity. — In the best sense it is a desire to know, the 
 seeking after truth. It is one of the very best instincts to be 
 cultivated. The Inquiring Attitude, Avhicli we speak of later 
 on, is the foundation stone of all education and scholarship. 
 
 In Childhood, it confines itself to material objects, the 
 concrete. Theoretic curiosity about rational relations does 
 not awaken until adolescence is reached. Answer a child's 
 everlasting interrogation-point, especially as to concrete 
 knowledge, and you need never trouble about order. His ab- 
 sorption will be absolute and complete. Curiosity is uni- 
 versal. There is no question of arousing it. Only supply 
 material to satisfy it. Moreover, remember, that "curiosity 
 in the child will become love of truth in the man." It is 
 met by taking the child by the hand and leading him into the 
 wide, wondrous realm of truth — investigation. It is Long- 
 fellow's : "Come and wander witli me. 
 Into regions yet untrod; 
 And read what still is unread 
 In the manuscripts of God." 
 
 And this attitude toward curiosity marks the trend of the 
 entire method we should pursue in all education. Follow 
 truth, no matter where she leads; only be certain that it is 
 the truth, and tliat sure foundations underlie the path we 
 tread to her abode. 
 
62 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 It is the t-hikrs period of accumulation. He is gathering 
 facts. The whole vista of a new world is open hefore him. 
 Until adolescence he will ask '"Fact questions," and constantly 
 "Who? Where? What?" will be on his lips. Without curi- 
 osity, he could never learn. First he is destructive, and then 
 constructive ; first he pulls apart to see what things are ; later 
 on, but not before ten or eleven, he puts together. Keeping 
 up an air of mystery, and nuiking it a practice, occasionally, 
 at least, not to tell everything, but to leave something remain- 
 ing to be discovered of an interesting character, will often 
 keep the chikrs interest. 
 
 Imagination is very active, and the perceptions are crowd- 
 ing on him so that he prefers to live in the life of make- 
 believe, rather than in that of reality. While his perceptions 
 are active, they are not keen, nor accurate. His imagination 
 is almost uncontrollable ; fancy runs riot in his growing brain, 
 and the world of make-believe is often more real than 
 the world he sees and hears. The stories that he tells, which 
 we call falsehoods, are true stories from his world of make- 
 believe, in which he is living, and they should be treated ac- 
 cordingly. Every writer on Childhood, with scarcely a single 
 exception, James, Butler, Coe, Harrison, Birney, Eichmond, 
 Forbush, Hall, How, all say that the child's so-called "lies" 
 are disturbed imagination, and seldom intentional. This 
 wonderful imagination is, no doubt, closely allied with his 
 early memory. Many a child has suffered at the hands of 
 his parents for words which they have ruthlessly called "lies," 
 though closely prompted by a vivid imagination, and seemingly 
 true to the utterer. "It is one of the most difficult things," 
 says How, "to define exactly where the knowledge of untruth- 
 fulness comes in. Probably no two children are alike in this, 
 and it requires the utmost tact, and utmost knowledge of the 
 particular child's character, to determine the point where the 
 one thinff ends, and the other besrins." Most children's lies 
 
DEVELOPMENT IX THE PRIMARY AGE 63 
 
 are simply the work of tlie imagination. They intend no 
 liarni or deception whatever. At this age they are unable 
 to distinguish l^etween fact and fancy, and the imagination 
 uses both interchangeably. The child unconsciously colors the 
 story in the telling. He is more or less inclined towards 
 superstition the first four or five years of this period. The 
 wilder and more unreasonable the superstitious stories, the 
 readier is the child to take them up, and nourish his marvel- 
 enjoying mind upon them. 
 
 Concretencss. — At tirst the child can appreciate only the 
 concrete, that is, only some thing — some picture, some object, 
 some story — which will give him a mental image, or mental 
 picture actually portraying the thing to his mind. He cannot 
 appreciate the abstract. 
 
 The real difference between the developed and undevel- 
 oped mind lies in the appreciation of the abstract, rather 
 than the concrete. The undeveloped mind deals more with 
 the concrete. The developed mind deals more with the ab- 
 stract. The child sees things as they are, and does not, at 
 first, see their relationships to one another. He knows by 
 pictures, or types. And, because it is a picture age, it is 
 jyar excellence a story age, reached by stories, and illustra- 
 tions, and parables. 
 
 There should be a clear distinction drawn between story, 
 hiography, and history. A story is a detailed, concrete por- 
 trayal of an event, or a portion of an event, or a man's life, 
 or a portion of his life, so concrete and detailed that an 
 actual mental picture is created. The story age runs from 
 about eight-and-a-half to nine years. The small child never 
 wearies of repetition. The same story, told in precisely the 
 same way, is its demand, and woe betide the mother who 
 varies a line from a story as she told it first. "Tell it the 
 way you told it l)efore, ]\Ianima. You have not told me just 
 as it was," is his constant demand. 
 
64 TllK KI.KMKXTS UF CIIIIJ) STL'J)Y 
 
 Biogmi)liy is less detailed, but more complete. Biography 
 must have a beginning and an ending; it must bo presented 
 as a whole — the man's whole life. Dr. Butler tells the story 
 of a little child of ten who burst out crying when his teacher 
 told him about David and Goliath, only. "You didn't tell 
 about David as a baby/'' he wailed. This Biography age runs 
 from about the eighth or ninth year to twelve years of age. 
 
 History is still different. History means relationships, 
 and generally rests on cause and effect. It is the man and 
 his times, that is, the man in the setting of his times. Thus 
 the same Bible material may be at one time story, at another 
 biography, and at another history, depending upon the treat- 
 ment, and the age of the child. 
 Conscience Undeveloped. 
 
 The Conscience of the small child is not yet developed. 
 His moral nature is guided by Impulses or Instincts, rather 
 than by Conscience. Questions of Conscience are not for the 
 small child. The child exercises little effort in choosing be- 
 tween a right and wrong situation. Conscience is very vague. 
 Conscience is developed, or rather it is read and interpreted, 
 through mental knowledge. Conscience does not a])pear 
 strongly in a child until, at least, the age of ten. A child 
 does not think of moral quality in the abstract. For a young 
 child, good is what is ])ermitted, evil is what is forbidden. 
 His religious ideas are few and vague; he is not iinmoi-al, he 
 is unmoral. The sccoiul ]K'riod, that from eight to twelve, 
 is the era of Conscience-building. The purpose of instruction 
 in his second stage is, so to educate conscience and the whole 
 moral nature that the child, being impressed with a deej) 
 sense of God's authority and love, should be obedient to and 
 helpful to others, and so, in right doing, find his own happi- 
 ness. 
 
 Mrs. Birncy says it is in the first tliree years of a chihrs 
 life that the habit of Obedience is most easilv inculcated. "If 
 
DI<]VEI.Or.MENT IN THE PRIMARY AGE (io 
 
 paivuls would only l)car this in mincl^ they would save them- 
 selves inueli needless friction and anxiety. The wee toddler, 
 just beginning to walk and talk, is quick to detect the ditt'ei- 
 ence between the voice of autliority, and that of irresolute 
 command. I believe in giving reasons as early as one can ; 
 but in the matters of nursery discipline, the child must early 
 be taught to obey, because he is told to do so. The child's 
 needs in connection with his physical well-being are much 
 the same from day to day, while his wishes are subject to 
 many variations. 
 
 "One of the simplest ways of insuring obedience to law, 
 and a willingness to accept the discipline which aids in the 
 establishment of right habit and thought, is by a continual 
 direction of the child's mind to the rights of others. It he 
 has broken his companion's toys, he should replace them 
 with his own; not because he will punish himself thereby, 
 but because his little friend would have to do without them, 
 on account of his carelessness, and that would not be right. 
 The application of the principles of justice is, in the daily 
 lives of children, a powerful factor in character building. 
 
 ''In punishing children, the ditference between penalty 
 and discipline should be kept in mind. Penalty is the inevit- 
 able price demanded by broken law, and, though it may teach 
 knowledge by experience, it does not necessarily develop the 
 moral nature of the child. True discipline is corrective, and, 
 when given by either parent or teacher in wisdom, and a spirit 
 of love, tends to strengthen the will of the child to desire the 
 good, and to avoid the evil. Choose, of course, the discipline 
 which leads and directs, rather than tlint which threatens 
 and coerces through fear." 
 
 Only one sanction is as yet known to the infant — that 
 of success or opportunity ; the knowledge of good and evil has 
 not yet emerged. The formation, therefore, of the earlier 
 ha]>its is a nornuil phenomenon. Doubtless the young child 
 
66 THE ELEMENTS OF t'llILD STUDY 
 
 sometimes pi'csents an ugly spectacle of apparent selfishness 
 in the satisfaction of its a])petites, and of passionate resent- 
 ment to restraint in their indulgence. But in such behavior 
 it is only following its "nature." Children's dislike of re- 
 straint upon ])leasure, until developed intelligence discerns 
 its reasonableness, is both natui-al and inevitable. 
 
 Psychologists tell us that, roughly and generally speaking, 
 the awakening of the moral faculty occurs somewhere 
 about the age of thi-ce years. The rudimentary stage of con- 
 science is called out chiefly l)y enforced obedience to com- 
 mands — obedience compelled by punishments. It gradually 
 learns the content of moral law, however, partly by instruc- 
 tion and correction, partly by imitation, and, later, by reflec- 
 tion. Thus there grows up very slowly a moral ideal, whose 
 fulness enlarges as experience widens. But from first to last, 
 the content of the moral law is learned from enviroliment. 
 And when conscience has thus been suthciently developed to 
 enable the child, unaided, to condemn its own actions, it 
 ceases to be innocent with the innocence of good and evil. 
 Now, for the first time, sin becomes a possibility; for there 
 is no sin without a law, and an apprehension of the claim of 
 law. 
 
 Memory Strong and Weak. 
 
 In one way the chihrs memory at this age is iveaJi, because 
 psychologically he does not have the strong ]iower of atten- 
 tion, so essential in training memory. He forgets rapidly 
 because he docs not take time to attend properly, and associate 
 his ideas and weave ihem into a net-work that will be I'claincd. 
 But ])hysiologically the memory of early childhood is strong, 
 since tlie brain structures of children are very o))en to impres- 
 sion, so that the things that it has stored away in early child- 
 hood will never be forgotten. In fact, tests have been made 
 showing that, in certain cases of aphasia where language has 
 
DEVELOPMENT IX THE PRIMARY AGE 67 
 
 been forgotten, the last parts of speech to pass a\va\' in order, 
 are verbs, nouns (the nouns or names of things being the lirst 
 things stored awa}^ in the memory and the verbs next), and 
 pronouns. Adjectives and adverbs and smaller parts of speech 
 follow later. 
 
 This seems to be the reason why aged people can remem- 
 ber their experiences of childhood more clearly than those 
 of later years. The experiences of later life are not so deeply 
 set in the brain structure. Thus we see that this age and the 
 next are the best ages for learning the Catechism, as the child 
 cannot read until he has reached the third grade in the Day 
 School, when he is between eight and eight-and-a-half years 
 old. 
 
 Sex-unconsciousness. 
 
 ■ During this period the children are so absolutely sex-un- 
 conscious that no one ever thinks of separating them in 
 Kindergarten, or in Primary School. This instinct, however, 
 shows a most marked change during the next two periods. 
 Childhood and Adolescence. During childhood there is sex- 
 repellence. The boy says : "I wouldn't play with girls," and 
 the girl says, elevating her little nose, "I wouldn't be seen 
 playing with boys," and so they are separated to prevent them 
 from fighting. During Adolescence they are sex-attracted, 
 and, for the opposite reason, the school separates them, in 
 order to set anv work out of them. 
 
68 
 
 'INK l-:i.K.MI<:.\'l'S OK CHILD 8TUDY 
 
 Tabular Summary of Traits During Kindergarten and 
 Primary Ages. 
 
 1-3, Instinct. 
 3-(; ]nii)ulst'. 
 Physical CirAKACTEKi.srics- 
 Restlessness, 
 Activity, ■ 
 Savagery, 
 Symbolic Play, 
 Timidity, 
 Sex-Unconsciousness. 
 
 ,M i:\TA I. ClIAKACTEKlSTlCS 
 
 Frankness, 
 
 Faitli and Trust, 
 
 Scl f -unconsciousness, 
 
 l)ej)endent, 
 
 1 magi nation Age, 
 
 Imitates Parents, 
 
 No Time Thought, 
 
 Egoistic Feelings, 
 
 Concrete, 
 
 Story Age, 
 
 Curiosity, 
 
 No Conscience. 
 
 lielieves Everytiiing. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION'. 
 
 1. Name the Stages of a Child's Mental Development. 
 
 2. What are the Key-words of the Primary Age? 
 
 3. How can we use Restlessness to advantage? 
 
 4. How does Activity differ from Restlessness? 
 
 5. How can we use Activity best? 
 
 6. Why is the policy of Repression dangerous? 
 
 7. How is the Play Instinct educative? 
 
 8. Explain the Recapitulation Theory. 
 
 9. What are some results of Savagery in this Age? 
 
 10. How does Dependence figure in Kindergarten educalidii? 
 
 11. How do Faith and Trust Instincts affect religious ideas, 
 
 cially? 
 
 12. How does child's Synd)olism differ from adult's? 
 
 13. How does his Personification afl'ect educaiion? 
 
 14. How can we use Self-unconsciousness and Imitat ivciicss? 
 
 15. Why should not Curiosity bo repressed? 
 
 10. What effect has over-vivid Imagination on '{■rnnifuliicss of 
 children? 
 
 17. At what age does Conscience appear? 
 
 18. When is Obedience best taught? 
 
 19. Explain the difference between Penalty and Discipline. 
 
 20. What is the condition of Memory in the Primary Age? 
 
 21. In what order is language gained? 
 
 22. How do the Sex Feelings alter in tlie different Ages? 
 
 (spe- 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHArXER V. 
 DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD 
 
 SrcaiKSTKI) ItKADIXC :— CiiiLDiiooi), BiniC!/. 
 
 SU.\LAL\KY. 
 Child hood, 6-12. 
 
 Physical Characteristics. 
 Tireless Activity. Use mucli At-tion in teaching. 
 Hero Worship. Present heroic cliaracters. 
 Senses are Active. Hence much Questioning, jNIanual Work, etc. 
 
 Gains Facts and Knowledge thus. 
 Impulsiveness leads to thoughtlessness. Impulses are forming Habits. 
 
 Personal Habits are "set"' hy end of this period. 
 Courage and Daring seen now. Will make any sacrifice for love of 
 
 God or man, who seems a licro. 
 Truant Proclivities. Make children contented with Home, etc. 
 
 Mental Characteristics. 
 
 Independence. Xeeds guidance; but unseen. Punishments especially 
 should be along "Natural" lines now. Develop sense of "Neces- 
 sary Perception," i.e., that certain things can only be won in 
 life when certain other things have been first performed. 
 
 Crude Sense of Humor. Due to not comprehending. 
 
 Dominance of the Present. Lives only in to-day. 
 
 Imitates. Now imitates companions, while before it was parents. 
 
 Best ]\lemory Age for Catechism, Chants, Hymns, Prayers, etc. Note 
 that the Catechism should be taught inductively, not as a systeuL 
 i.e., not deductively. 
 
 Desire for Affection. Wants it bestowed privately by elders. 
 
 Noisy, but should not be quenched; but guided. 
 
 Collecting Instinct. Use in Sunday School Collections. 
 
 Ownersliip. Can be well appealed to in having children buy their 
 supplies. 
 
 Constructiveness develops usefully in IManual Work. 
 
 Desire for Certainty demands tru^ statements. Questions are Fact, 
 not Thought type. 
 
 Conscience very strong now. Teaching should be by Substitution, 
 not Prohil)ition ; Positive, not Negative. 
 
CHAPTEK V. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD 
 
 Second Period, Later Childhood, from 6-12 years of age; 6-9, 
 Age of Imitation; 9-12, Age of Habit. 
 
 This stage of bo3'hood and girlhood is the great teaching 
 period, especially in Sunday School. The Day School succeeds 
 in holding children a little longer, often through college 
 courses. Tlie Sunday School is apt to lose the children, par- 
 ticularly boys, just as the age of puberty approaches, the 
 critical time when they most need religion and loving guid- 
 ance. 
 
 1. Physical Characteristics. 
 
 Tireless Activitij. — This is not so manifest, perhaps, as at 
 the Primary x\ge; but still it is a feature. Children love 
 action. Doing is their first thought. The best way to teach 
 the Bible now is by doing Christian work, bringing into play 
 both good works and handicraft in class illustration. Give 
 the child something to do, and his interest is at once attracted 
 and held. He may weary soon of doing the same thing. That 
 is natural. Change then to something else. His games now 
 are active games, sport or romping, not sedentary. The 
 heroic attracts him, both from its phase of courage and daring, 
 and from its activity and doing. 
 
 Tlero-ivorship is manifest at every turn. Use it, then. 
 Present Jesus Christ, the Hero-King. Give the Old Testa- 
 ment Heroes, and the Apostolic Record of Brave Deeds. Let 
 him read Miss Yonge's Book of Golden Deeds, and see how 
 
DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD 71 
 
 he devours it. Tales of Travel and Adventure form the main 
 part of his reading. It is his Old Testament time of life. 
 
 The Senses are still the most noticeable feature, and the 
 highly alert child is seeking information at ever}^ source. He 
 is "a perambulating interrogation point." Be patient with 
 him then, for it is the learning period. Give him all he 
 asks, quietly, gently, clearly, patiently. So long as he is 
 really anxious to acquire, take time fully to explain all he can 
 well comprehend. His inquiries often appear foolish to you. 
 They are not so to him, for he has not learned to see things 
 as you see them. Mrs. Kennedy tells us that a child now 
 "is always hungry, mentally and physically." 
 
 Irresistible Impulsiveness marJiS this period. The child 
 is thoughtless to a dangerous extreme. Impulse, instinctive 
 action, is uppermost. Conscience is Just rising into power. 
 Yet just because impulses are active, that is, action-forming, 
 it is, par excellence, the Habit-forming age. As such, it is 
 of paramount significance, for character-building is Habit- 
 training. All the high moral and Christian Habits are to be 
 formed now. Love of honesty, honor, truth, purity, faithful- 
 ness, courage, gentleness, kindness, love of study, neatness, 
 promptness — in fact all the Personal Habits — are "set" by 
 the end of this period. The habits of reverence, gentleness, 
 courtesy, like their opposites, are absorbed by the child from 
 those with whom he is most closely associated. It is in 
 these attributes that an "ounce of example outweighs a pound 
 of precept." The habits may alter in the upheaval of Puberty, 
 but it is unlikely. "The boy is changing," says Forbush, 
 "from a bundle of instincts to a bundle of habits; the trails 
 are becoming well-travelled roads. Boyhood is the time for 
 forming habits, as Adolescence is the time for shaping ideals. 
 It is the era for Conscience-building, as the latter is for Will- 
 training." 
 
72 THE ELK^fKXTS OF CIITI.l) ST['DY 
 
 Tliis characteristic is at supreme importance. Tlic child 
 can be led to undertake almost any line of action desired. 
 He will rush into all sorts of thoughtless and heedless 
 ' 'scrapes/' or, on the other hand, he will develop high and 
 noble characteristics. 
 
 Courage, Daring, Fearless Recklessness. — He is adventure- 
 some, and he loves hearing and reading of such adventures. 
 Xo sacrifice for man or God will be too hard for him to 
 endure now. Give him work to do that demands sacrifice, 
 either in the home, or the town, or the Church. Give him 
 tales of missionary adventure to read. Combine the heroic 
 with the daring, and make him see the distinction between 
 the two. 
 
 The fiffhting instinct offers a useful illustration of the 
 general superiority of substitution over repression as a means 
 for inhibiting instincts. If punishing boys for fighting would 
 cure them of it, the instinct would be its own cure ; foi- fight- 
 ing itself brings physical pain enough. As we all know, mere 
 repression is here a most uneconomical preventive; whereas 
 the su])stitution of orderly boxing and wrestling, foot-ball, 
 l)asket-l)all, and the like, often succeeds admira])ly. You can- 
 not push the jSTiagara Eiver back into Lake Erie and keep it 
 there, but you can, by creating new channels for it, make it 
 drive the wheels of factories in the service of man. So often 
 with the impulses of human nature we can guide wisely. 
 
 Truant Proclivities. Truancy is closely related to the 
 migrating instinct, and is even seen at the eighth or ninth 
 year. More boys run away from home about that time, or at 
 the age of eleven, than at any period of life. Home life, if 
 not agreeable, strengthens the truant tendency. Moral delin- 
 quency is often the cause of giving the impression to the 
 instinct resulting in truancy from home, school, etc. Well-fed 
 children, however, are not so likely to run away as those who 
 are poorly fed. Scolding, nagging, punishment, and abuse. 
 
UKVELOPiMENT 1)1" R IXC CHILDHOOD 73 
 
 are very apt to drive cliiltlreii away. 'J'lic part of Suiiday 
 School and Day School teachers is to make the children con- 
 teuted, and to endeavor to cahu the restlessness which gives 
 them tlie desire to rove. Especially one ought not to feed the 
 instinct hy tales of the Jesse James robberies, or of liuntuig 
 Indians, or killing wild animals. 
 
 2. Mental CiiARxVCTErasTics. 
 
 Rising Desire for Independence. — This is not so strong 
 as later ; but tlie boy does not want to "be tied to his mother's 
 apron-strings." He has friendships, but not close ones. lie 
 is not chummy yet. Apron-strings are needed badly, but 
 they must be unseen. The mother who stands at the door on 
 a Saturday morning, as her ten-year-old Johnny is leaving 
 with some companions for a long walk in the country, and 
 sliouts out to him : "Johnny, see that you are back home by 
 half-past twelve, or you will get no lunch," is most unwise. 
 John's companions are almost sure to say to him : "Humph ! 
 tied to your mother's apron strings, eh?" The judicious 
 mother will have her quiet talks with Johnny, give him advice 
 rather than reprimand, lead him and guide him, but all 
 behind the scenes, dealing with him alone, not even before his 
 brothers and sisters. When he comes home from school, 
 although he may have had his lunch at the noon hour, she 
 gives him a little bite in the afternoon, and realizes that "the 
 way to a boy's heart is often through his stomach." 
 
 Punishments, especially during tJiis period, must be alotig 
 natural lines. Always follow N"ature's method. Let the deed 
 bring its own results, and let the punishments always be con- 
 nected in some direct way witli it as a natural consequence. 
 Have the child learn that no sin or wrong doing can he com- 
 mitted that does not, in some time or other, bring its punish- 
 ments. Thus, retributive punishment is never inflicted in 
 anger. Arbitrary punishment, such as scolding, shaking. 
 
74 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 whipping, shutting in a dark closet, etc., liave no connection 
 in the child's mind with the wrong act, and a feeling of in- 
 justice is certain to rise in him. 
 
 But retributive punishment deals with each duty on its 
 own plane, and with retributive punishment should come re- 
 wards when due. This does not arouse hostility, nor in any 
 way destroy the feeling of independence on the part of the 
 child. "Unless the man has a will within him," says Emer- 
 son, "you can tie him to nothing." And "the entire object 
 of true education," says Euskin, in his Traffic, "is to make 
 people not merely do the right things, but to enjoy the right 
 things — not merely industrious, but to love industry — not 
 merely learned, but to love knowledge — not merely pure, but 
 to love purity — not merely just, but to hunger and thirst 
 after justice." And so the farther the child's self-government 
 is advanced, the higher his ideals of right and wrong, the 
 finer will be his education. 
 
 Develop in him the sense of necessary perception. Let 
 him realize that certain things must be done in order that 
 other things may be enjoyed. Most children, when riglidy 
 trained, can be brought into obedience without being forced 
 into it. "Character is to be praised, rather than clothes, 
 effort which helps to strengthen the character rather than any 
 external gift or attraction whatsoever, and, little by little, 
 will come the realization that free will is not the liberty to do 
 whatever one likes, but the power to compel oneself to obey 
 laws of right, to do whatever ought to be done in the ve]'y 
 face of otherwise overwhelming impulse." 
 
 Dr. Butler, in his Churchman's Manual, gives several 
 pages of splendid advice along this line, and his book is 
 worthy of careful study. Now is the time when authority 
 must be respected, and the spirit of the present age — thf, 
 spirit of revolt against all authority — must be savagely com- 
 batted. Certain phases of life in our cities are disquieting 
 
DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD 75 
 
 to a great many youths, since they show how proper laws i"iiay 
 be broken at the will of selfish, inconsiderate people, as may 
 be seen in any elevated or subway car. Boys soon think it 
 mannish to do such things and, like their older brothers, take 
 a certain crade pleasure in defying the regulations of the 
 company by showing this spirit. One of the noblest heritages 
 of life, and one of its most useful adjuncts, is this delerniined 
 respect of authority and law. 
 
 Crudity of the Sense of Humor. — The younger cluld's 
 sense of humor is rather irritating to the adult. Children 
 are always giggling at things that in no way strike ^]m adult 
 as funny. They see incongruities in sets of ideas, wliicli do 
 not seem incongruous to adults. The child is apt to laugh 
 at anything he does not understand and in this age of child- 
 hood will show a sense of humor which seems inexplicable to 
 the adult. In the later adolescent age, the silly giggling of 
 the teens, under which young girls will go off into gales of 
 laughter at absolutely nothing is based not upon a sense of 
 humor, but upon unbalanced nerves. 
 
 While this, like the other passing traits, will presently 
 change for the better, under normal and favorable conditions, 
 the tendency of the coarse and raw joking of the press, and 
 especially the Sunday papers, renders the conditions abnormal, 
 and cannot but have an evil influence on the susceptible mind 
 of the child. 
 
 Dominance of the Present. — The future, and especially 
 the future life and the Infinite, have no hold on him. Ho 
 does not see that far. Light-hearted, and full of play ani 
 fun; attracted by the active, not the contemplative, side of 
 life; alive, not dead, in anything, he is absolutely, yes indif- 
 ferently, care-free. Nothing in the way of reputation influ- 
 ences him. Save for rivalry, assertion of self, etc., he "goes 
 ahead his own gait," no matter what may be said. He calls 
 all activity, "Fun." 
 
7G THE KI.KMKNTS OK CIlll.l) STUDY 
 
 liiiilalireiicss. — He follows tlu- Leader in evei'ylhing. 
 Here imitation has elianged i'roni the preeeding i)efiod. In 
 llic former age, lie imitated liis i)arents. Now he imitates 
 Ills comiianions, and so begins to elumge in liis resemblance 
 to the eharacteristics of liis parents. 
 
 Great Reicntirciicss of Aleiiiory. dnring the years from 
 eight to ten in partienlar. It is then tliat we can store the 
 mind with tlie rieliest gems of Catechism, Creed, Chants, 
 Psalms, Scripture, Hymns, Selections, etc. No other period 
 will ever prove so good. Eeasoii has not developed. Reflec- 
 tion is consequently feeble. Some of what is memorized may 
 not be fully understood; the harvest will be gleaned later. 
 Lay the foundations, towards the close of that period, so firm 
 and sure, the reasons for the Faith, so clear, that, 'mid the 
 seething storm and stress of the succeeding age, with the fires 
 of questioning and doubt enkindled, the foundations will h: 
 there, on which the subsequent superstructure of a reasonable 
 faith will be npreared. The best period for learning a foreign 
 language ends before fourteen. Thus power of absorption 
 forms the characteristic of the period, and verbal memory is 
 at its highest activity. 
 
 If, when the child has reached the third grade day school 
 — that is, about eight, or eight and a-half years of age — we 
 teach the Catechism by the Inductive Method, considered in 
 tlie chapter "How to Plan a Lesson," we shall not only inter- 
 est him, but both teach the Catechism at an age when it never 
 Avill be forgotten, and when he will learn it verbatim et litera- 
 tiin et punctuatii)} , and also gain the advantage of having 
 this piece of memoriter work out of the way, and time loft 
 for additional Memory Cems dui'ing the succeeding ycirs. 
 If the Memoriter work be wisely planned, it is possible witii 
 keen delight to the scholars to learn, between the ages of six 
 and fifteen, the Catechism, all the Chants of the Church 
 includinc: the Te Deum and the Benedicitc, about fortv .^c- 
 
DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD 77 
 
 lected liymns, about t\vcnt3'-Hvc selected Collects, about 
 twenty-five selected Psalms, and ten or fifteen special pas- 
 sages of the Bible, such as the Beatitudes, the Sermon on the 
 Mount, St. John XIV., the Eternal City, etc. Under the 
 former system, the Catechism has been the dark thunder-cloud 
 hanging over and depressing all the years of the Sunday 
 School. There is a right and wrong way of teaching tlie 
 Catechism, an enjoyable way and a disagreeable way. It 
 depends entirely upon the process whether we are in accord 
 or no with the child's nature. The Catechism taught as a 
 system is deductive. In the Day School to-day, even the 
 formal studies, so-called, i.e., Grammar and Arithmetic, are 
 taught generally by the inductive method. 
 
 The Catechism can well be taught by the Inductive 
 method, and at least one book issued to-day. The C^iiurch 
 Catechis:h Illustrated and Explained, treats the Cate- 
 chism in this manner. Separate truths, taught topically, will 
 reach even the youngest child. Like the stones in a mosaic 
 table, they can be prepared in any order desired. By and by, 
 after the individual truths have been selected to meet tlie 
 particular needs of the child at this early age, they can be 
 woven together into a system after the age of twelve or 
 thirteen. This is the only proper way to teach the Catechism, 
 or to liandle the material of any study for this age. 
 
 Desire for Affection. — The boy is not a mere animal, how- 
 ever. Among his Emotional Instincts we note Love as one 
 of the deepest; and although it is true, as Paolo Lombroso 
 remarks, that "the child tends not to love, but to be loved, 
 and exclusively loved," yet this love marks the dawn of 
 social and altruistic instincts coming a little later. Train 
 Obedience, and the child comes out of this period with a 
 splendid respect for authority, withoTit knowing why. Com- 
 paring the girl with the boy, we find that, though custom 
 may make the girl slightly more conventional than the boy. 
 
78 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 yet the same traits of character are manifested. Probably 
 the more active side, the heroic, courageous aspects may be 
 seen more in the boy, and appealed to quicker. They are 
 more fond of pets, because of this. 
 
 We squash the small child under eight almost to a pulp 
 or a jelly fish in our love for him, and we hold the boy .md 
 girl — especially the former, of the grammer and high school 
 ages — off at arms" length, when his very soul is yearning, 
 and his nerves throbbing for demonstrations of affection. 
 This affection should never be shown in public, not even in 
 one's own family. The mother who welcomes her boy when 
 he comes home from school with a good hearty hug, and a 
 piece of cake, will keep that boy's confidence, and guide him 
 through many a dangerous temptation in life. We know of 
 one wise mother, a widow, with only one son, who guide*! 
 that son during a period of "wild oats" by encouraging him 
 to tell her of his escapades; and, while never chiding him. 
 advising him and warning him against dangers and sin. 
 In the end the boy became a fine, noble, manly citizen. She 
 would have had notliing but disappointment had she not 
 adopted this plan. Had she repelled the boy, sin would have 
 gone on just the same, but secretly, and she would never have 
 saved him. 
 
 Something should be said regarding the noise and dis- 
 turbance created by children of this ])eriod. There must be 
 noise, but it should be noise with a i)urpose — noise that is 
 definitely guided and planned. Children are noisy because 
 they are alive, and the more alive they are the more noisy 
 they are. If ])ropei'ly guifled, however, so the noise becomes 
 an ideal for self-activity, and occurring at tiie ))roper time 
 and the proper place, there is no reason why it should be 
 discouraged. 
 
 The CoUectiiig Instinct. — The children are interested in 
 making collections of flowers, minerals, coins, stamps, and 
 
DEVELOP^[EXT DURING CHILDHOOD 79 
 
 other curiosities. It is not ditficult to turn tins interest 
 towards Biblical objects. Competitive games and contests 
 arouse them; so should the effort to surpass former Sunday 
 School records. "Fair Play" is constantly on their lips in 
 their games. Suggest the fornuition of a school collection 
 of religious pictures, of scrap books or files of models, or of 
 Bible illustrated nuiterial. Xeat, clean lesson books, careful 
 notes, etc., may be secured in this manner. 
 
 Ownership. — This instinct arises in the second year of 
 life. Private o\vnershi|) cannot be practically abolished until 
 human nature is clianged. 
 
 Loan a child a lead pencil, and he will use it mechanically ; 
 give it to him, and he will use it with still more interest; let 
 him buy it, and it at once is suffused with the halo of owner- 
 ship. That is the reason why it is advised that, no matter 
 how poor or wealthy a school may be, the children be required 
 to buy the picture-mounting book or note book, while the 
 school supplies the pictures. Similarly, in distributing Bibles 
 and Prayer Books, it is far better to let the children pay, say 
 one-half the cost, in order that they may value it. Owner- 
 ship, if it costs something, creates interest of a very strong 
 kind. In some schools even the lesson books are sold to the 
 scliolars. Just as in many public schools to-day. Magazines 
 which we receive free we seldom read. Those that we pay 
 for, we read to get our money's worth. 
 
 Coiistnictiveness. — Up to the eighth or ninth year, child- 
 ren do little else than handle things, tear apart, explore, 
 which is the early stage of construction. Later, they put 
 togetlier, when they have learned how to do it. So education 
 siezes on the early years for construction and object-teaching. 
 
 Certainty. — The instinct for Certainty appears soon after 
 the child begins to learn and know. It is one of the earliest 
 instincts of intelligent life, often seen before the third year. 
 While the child is very credulous he is being prepared for an 
 
so Till-: Kfj-::\iFA"rs ok i iiiu) stidv 
 
 ai'tcf life oL' investipition, proof, and (.•erlaiiily. Children 
 first want empirical proof, testing by the use of sensations 
 and the muscles. Authority and testimony are appealed to 
 soon after. They quote others as witnesses. Asseveration is 
 a common mode of bringing assurance — "honest, trulv. deed 
 and double, honor bright, hope to die, sui-e as fate, honest 
 and true, black and l)hie, hiy mo down and cut uie in two," 
 are a few of the many terms of adjuration children invent to 
 satisfy their instinct for the true. 
 
 Rise of Conscience. — This is the era for Conscience build- 
 ing, as well as for broad information. Conscience is strong, 
 and the questionings of the growing mind show eager desire 
 for information. He still deals with the Fact Questions, and 
 is a walking interrogation point. His questions are ''Where ?" 
 ''When?'' "What?" And only towards the end of this period 
 do they begin to be Thought Questions. The child believes 
 in heroes, and does not admire the contemplative life of the 
 hermit. The religion that attracts him now is the religion 
 of action, and not so much of creed and rite. He admires 
 rules, but he wants to see the reason for them. They must 
 be clear-cut, definite, practical, meeting his present-day needs 
 and temptations. He is very ])articnlar that others shall live 
 up to rules, even though he may not always do so himself, 
 and he secretly honors them for doing so. He is led l)y ex- 
 ample far more than by precept. His standard will 1)0 to do 
 as he sees others do. He will seldom reason oiil tlio logic of 
 right and wrong. 
 
 Sfi/le of the Teaclipr's Tmiiiing. — Hui'ing ibis entire 
 period. Substitution should be used instead of Prohibition — 
 positive rather than the negative attitude. "Do not read that 
 book," or "You must avoid that class of books," is to increase 
 the curiosity of the average boy to see what is in them. To 
 carefully praise a good book, and tell one or two of its strik- 
 ing incidents, will excite Ihe bov's desire to read it. The 
 
DI'INI'ILOI'.MKNI' l)li;iX(; Cllll.DUOOJ) 
 
 SI 
 
 l)<)y"s in(iM'i's( is _<;-raspL'(l strongly bv everylliing tlial belongs 
 (o llu' active and to the realistic side of lii'e. Personal ex- 
 ploits, biogi'apliies of heroic characters, history presented as 
 (1i-anuitization and adventure, these all unite to create a new- 
 interest in Bible history and biograjjliy, and, through coniu'c- 
 (ion with them, an interest also in Biblical geography, in 
 niannei's and customs, and in the social and religious lii'e of 
 the lustorical hooks. This same interest extends to stories 
 of pioneering, adventure, and invention, and calls for the use 
 of the record of niissionaiy heroism as material for instruc- 
 tion in (Christian courage. 
 
 Childhood. 
 
 (J!) — Imitation. 
 1)- 12— Habit. 
 Physical CnARACTERiSTics — 
 Less Eestlessness, 
 Still Active, 
 Truancy, 
 
 Desire for Reality, 
 Daring Courage, 
 Sex-Repellent. 
 
 MeXTAL CUARACTEUISTICS- 
 Sliyness, 
 Independence, 
 Indifference, 
 Grouj) Age, 
 Memory Age, 
 Imitates Companions, 
 Lives in To-day, 
 Desire for Affection, 
 Hero Age, 
 Biography Age. 
 Collecting Instinct, 
 Conscience Rising, 
 Demands Reality. 
 
 QUESTION'S FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. Name the Physical Characteristics of Childhood, G-12. 
 
 2. What Physical Characteristics especially affect Sunday School 
 
 Teaching, and how ? 
 
 3. What Mental Characteristics especially affect Sunday School 
 
 Teaching, and how? 
 
 4. When is the "Habit-forming Age"? 
 
 5. How does Conscience differ now from the preceding stage? 
 0. How does Imitation alter in the different stages? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER VI. 
 EARLY ADOLESCENCE 
 
 SUGGESTED READING:— The Boy Problem, Forbush. 
 
 SmOIARY. 
 
 Adolescence — 12-18. 
 
 Bodily Changes. 
 
 Awkwardness. Due to unequal growth of body parts. Use positive, 
 not negative methods in this age. Point always Forwards. 
 
 Sex-Bodily Changes Predominate. Youth should have the fullest, 
 purest, plainest, direct teaching from Parents now on Duties of 
 Self and Sex. 
 
 Mental Changes. 
 
 Sex-Attraction Powerful. Cultivate Idealism of the Opposite Sex. 
 Provide Social Intercourse and Training in polished manners 
 and noble ideals. Need of an adult and intimate woman friend 
 for girls now. 
 
 Novel and Romance. Beware of average, untrue, sentimental novel. 
 Give only a very few of the best and those most replete with 
 high ideals of inspirational nature. Give rather Biography, 
 Travel, Heroism, in place of Novels, usually. 
 
 Self-Conscious. Sensitiveness is apparent. Pride assumes high place. 
 
 Age of Ideals. Lives in the Fulure. Ideal is a Possibility to strive for. 
 
 Reasoning now begins to function strongly. Cause and Effect are 
 seen. Analysis and Synthesis appear. We grow now to think, 
 not so much about Things, as about References to Things, that 
 is to Relationships, or Philosophic Insight. 
 
 Storm and Stress Period. Leads to Doubt and Inquiry. Infidel Read- 
 ing. Must prove the Faith. Sceptical Period is followed by a 
 Lull. Doubts must be frankly met and settled. Teach Doctrine. 
 
 Conversion Period. A Psychological and Physiological, rather than a 
 Spiritual Phenonomon. Every soul has a Capacity for Religion, 
 the Instinct of Religiosity. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 EARLY ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Third Period, Youth or Adolescence, 12 to 18: 12-16, Age of 
 Moral Crisis; 16-19, Age of Romance and Ideality. 
 
 This entire period of youth, from 12 to 18, is divided 
 into Early Adolescence and Middle Adolescence; Later 
 Adolescence is from 18 or 19 on to 21. 
 
 1. — Bodily Changes. 
 
 It is the Age of Awkwardness. — The bones have grown 
 more rapidly than the joints, so that the child is unable to 
 balance himself properly, and hence is awkward. He has 
 not gained his new adjustment in equilibrium. He is so 
 awkward that he will stumble over a shadow on the floor, 
 and, if the shadow is not there, he will imagine it is there 
 in order to stumble. 
 
 Some of the suggestions which Mrs. Birney gives in her 
 splendid book. Childhood, previously recommended, are of 
 great value here. The wise parents will never speak to the 
 children of the Awkward Age, for it only increases their 
 painful self-consciousness. The entire treatment of the awk- 
 ward boy, "climbing fool's hill," and the silly, giggling girl, 
 will be positive, not negative. Elders will help them to over- 
 come their awkwardness and self-consciousness, to look for- 
 ward, to be uplifted, to direct themselves in enthusiastic 
 activity. 
 
 The prudent moiher will never scold her boy for the 
 assumption of mannish airs and proud braggadocio. Espe- 
 
84 THE ELEMENTS OE CHILD STUDY 
 
 cially will parents strive to make the boy feel at lioiiie in his 
 home, free at all times to talk about his escapades, free to 
 bring his companions, even unexpectedly, to call or dine. 
 The unwise mother will be annoyed at the disturbance, and 
 try to make her home a prim prison. 
 
 Bodily Changes Predominate. — The mysterious change of 
 Puberty has come. Manhood or Womanhood is developing. 
 The body is growing with extreme rapidity, and the brain 
 not so much. The brain changes are extremely dependent 
 on the bodily alterations. By fifteen tlie brain stops increas- 
 ing in size, the large arteries have added in diameter, the 
 Iciiiperaturc has risen almost to a fever heat, the voice 
 changes, tlie height of the body is increased. The child re- 
 (juires more sleep, and more rest, and more food; yet generally 
 he is getting less rest, and less sleep, and less food. The most 
 careful and loving watch-care should now be given, and right 
 instruction imparted as to the laws of purity, morality, and 
 health. AVithout any doubt, the position taken by The 
 Ladies' Home Journal is correct, regarding the necessity 
 for full information on the part of parents and teachers. 
 The only criticism has been that the Jouknal did not dare 
 to speak plainly enough to a mixed audience. This question, 
 however, is to-day one of the most serious that is confronting 
 our Nation. Those things that are of the utmost concern to 
 life, and health, and happiness; those things that ought to be 
 the purest, and* sweetest, and the truest; that knowledge 
 which in itself, rightly given, will do the utmost good, and 
 will never do harm, has been entirely omitted from the edu- 
 cation of our public schools; has been entirely overlooked by 
 parents and teachers, and has been left to the ignorant, wrong- 
 minded information derived from chums, because, as we shall 
 show later on, this age of adolescence, when bodily passions 
 are at a fever heat, is the age of close, chummy friendship. 
 The boys and girls confide only in their chums. Oh, if 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 85 
 
 parents biit knew the infinite liann that is done by ignorance, 
 they would never hesitate on this matter ! 
 
 One of our leading Church papers a short time ago said : 
 "It is easier and more pleasant for us to close our eyes to the 
 pressing need for teaching our children plainly the things 
 that make for personal purity, than to warn them against 
 those things that would violate it. Not only is ignorance of 
 vice no protection against it, but it is positively a menace 
 to the purity of a child, or young adult." A committee of 
 the Diocese of Massachusetts presented a careful report on 
 the subject to a convention of that Diocese several years ago. 
 
 We have dealt more fully with this subject in the larger 
 text book on Eeligious Education (pages 139-145 — pages 
 that it would be well for every parent of growing boys and 
 girls, no matter how young the children may be, to carefully 
 and fruitfully read). 
 
 Many parishes are providing lectures by Christian physi- 
 cians to boys and girls of the adolescent period, separately, 
 on the physiology and hygiene of life. A special course is 
 furnished for the Sunday School of St. Agnes' Chapel, New 
 York, and it is not infrequent in other parishes. Many 
 parents and teachers ask for books of guidance for them- 
 selves. Most of the books advertised for this purpose are 
 more liarmful tlian helpful, but tliere are a few, which we 
 note 1)elow, that will stand the fullest test, and do much 
 good. Among them are Ennis Eiehmond's Through Boy- 
 hood TO ]\[;\NH00D, and the Kev. E. Lyttleton's The Train- 
 ing OF THE Young in the Law's of Sex; The Nobility of 
 Parenthood, by Dr. Wilson, Physician of the University of 
 Pennsylvania ; Start Your Children Eight, by Dr. How- 
 ard; Four Epochs of Life, by Dr. Elizabetli Hamilton 
 Muncie; The Eenewal of Life, by Morley; Herself, by 
 Dr. Edith B. Lowry. The Vir Series, known as the Self and 
 Sex Series, are standard books, and perfectly safe. There 
 
86 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 are four series for males^ and four for females; the former 
 being written b_y the Eev. S3dvanus Stall, and the latter by 
 Dr. Mary Wood Allen. They are What a Young Boy 
 Ought to Know; What a Young Man Ought to Know; 
 What a Young Husband Ought to Know; What a Man 
 OP Forty-five Ought to Know, and the corresponding 
 series for girls. They can be put into the hands of the purest- 
 minded girls without ever a blush. In fact, this entire sub- 
 ject ought to be treated from absolutely common sense stand- 
 points, and not as if it were a forbidden and prudish topic. 
 Certain it is that almost the most dangerous and most active 
 part of our youthful growing nature should not be passed 
 unnoticed by parents and teachers. The harm lies from 
 knowledge gained from unwise companions. 
 
 Sex-Attraction is Substituted for Indifference. — One 
 should be trained in courteous, well-bred, high-minded, pure, 
 noble respect and worsliip. ^Tdealism" is a good term. Pol- 
 ished manners may be a veneer, covering vulgarity and low 
 tliought; but liigh-minded Idealism is inspiring. Tlie Social 
 Nature now turns to close, intiiiialo friendship in (lie same 
 sex — chums, we call them. 
 
 We i^ointed out previously that up to tlie age of eight 
 they are sex-indifferent ; that from eight to twelve they are 
 sex-repellent; but from twelve years on they are sex- 
 attracted, the boys casting "sheep's eyes" at the girls, and the 
 girls casting "sheep's eyes" at tlie boys. Nature intended 
 them to be together; we separate them in school in order to 
 get any study done at all, but there is every reason that the 
 Home and the Church should provide for social intercourse, 
 for the building up of manners and etiquette, and for the 
 cultivation of courtesy and chivalry, for the high ideals and 
 noble inspiration that should characterize one's attitude to- 
 ward the other sex. This politeness should not be veneer, 
 but should go down to the utmost depths of our nature. A 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 87 
 
 gentleman is a gentleman at heart, not merely one trained 
 in ontward manners. Teat-li the j^oung man to place the 
 girl, whom he adores with that 3'onthful, hut innocuous 
 '•'puppy-love," upon such a lofty pedestal of idealism, that 
 wrong thoughts of her are impossihle. Let the yoimg girl 
 dream of her "Prince Charming," but let that Prince Charm- 
 ing be the true prince in heart and life principles. "Next to 
 God, in the eyes of a young man, is the woman in whom he 
 believes." If parents and teachers in the Church do not 
 teach young women absolutely to respect themselves and hold 
 high ideals, our young men cannot help but be dragged 
 down. The lady who permits her escort at the after-theatre 
 restaurant to put! cigarette smoke across the table, without 
 any doubt lowers the ideal. If the home and the Church ai-e 
 open to our young people of both sexes, in social gatherings, 
 and if the leaders are truly virtuous, dignified, and gentle, 
 right ideals and high motives can be inculcated and "set" 
 into habits. Talking and teaching and reading will never 
 do it alone. 
 
 In that splendid handbook of the Junior League, Making 
 Men and Women, by Miss Pobinson, we have some advice 
 that is worth quoting verbatim, and worth reading with 
 precision : 
 
 "Every girl should have some adult friend, who is a friend 
 indeed, at this time of life, some one who will talk boys M'ith 
 her, and who will not consider her bo3^-infatuation silly ; 
 some one to whom she may talk as freely as to other girls. 
 If that someone can be a teacher or Junior leader, who can 
 be such a friend to all the girls that they will talk together in 
 her presence, she has a wonderful opportunity opened before 
 her. An inestimable injury is done our girls by those who 
 love them best, through ignorance that leads to the very 
 prevalent luihit of teasing them about the boys. 
 
88 THE ELK.MENT8 UE CHILI) STUDY 
 
 "'J'lie parent or teacher who can keop up the '^ehum' rela- 
 tionship between tlie boys and girls during the early years of 
 Adolescence^ nntil the sense of sex has become established in 
 purity and sacredness, has done much for the girls as well as 
 for the boys. The 'boy age/ thus pushed back until the age 
 of sixteen or seventeen, may be more intense in its mani- 
 festations, but will be fraught with far less danger to the 
 girls. 
 
 "To the developing girl of this period, life is full of ques- 
 tions and puzzles. To the mother belongs the privilege of 
 answering these questions, and unfolding the holy things of 
 life; but many mothers do not realize the saving powder thus 
 committed to them. The girls must turn elsewdiere with the 
 questions which come to every girl, and the teacher or Junior 
 leader must be prepared to be the mother to them. 
 
 "How shall these questions be met? As something to be 
 ashamed of and concealed? Never; for they are as much 
 a part of girl nature as is the pretty face and bright, fresh 
 complexion. They must be treated as sacred, and yet with 
 a freedom that shall not tend to morbidness. Information 
 should not be forced upon girls, except in cases where health 
 demands it; but questions should be answered honestly, rev- 
 erently, and without the slightest embarrassment." 
 
 2. — Mental Changes. 
 
 The Novel in the Age of Romance. — President Butler, in 
 one of his class lectures, dealing with the fondness of the 
 adolescent for the romantic and sentimental, stated that, in 
 his opinion, it was wise to curb rather than to feed these 
 over-urgent passions at this time, at least before sixteen or 
 seventeen. At this time the child needs guiding and suli- 
 duing influences, rather than to have his imagination fed by 
 Avild day-dreams, and air-castles of romanticism. Day-dream- 
 ing and air-castles are needed, as we shall show later, but not 
 
EAHI.Y ADOJ.ESCENCE 89 
 
 along these lines of unreality; and so lie urges that the novel 
 be kept from our young people, and that in its place be given 
 books of biography and travel and heroism, all of which arc 
 possible of realization. If the novel were true to life, it would 
 perhaps not be so dangerous ; but it is not. Every novel ends 
 one way, at least if it is to have a sale — "then they married 
 and were hapjjy ever after." Moreover, the novel of to-day 
 is not what it was a single generation ago. A quotation from 
 The London TELEGRArii of recent date says : "It is common 
 knowledge with everyone who reads books that, during the last 
 generation, the English novel has steadily claimed a greater 
 freedom. Subjects are now dealt with at which the mid- 
 A^ictorians would have hid their faces. There is a realistic 
 treatment and a frankness of language concerning matters 
 of sex, which the last three-quarters of the nineteenth century 
 would not tolerate. Let it be remembered that we have not 
 advanced. We have gone back." 
 
 Mrs. Lamoreaux, in her little book on the Unfolding 
 Life, has written some bright and interesting paragraphs 
 upon "The Beading Craze," which deserve to be quoted in 
 full : 
 
 "The flame of hero-worship is fed from two sources — the 
 life of someone near to the child, and the passionate delight 
 in reading Avhich characterizes the years from about ten to 
 fifteen, and is especially marked from twelve to fourteen. The 
 choice of books will naturally be governed by the strongest 
 interests. We are not surprised, therefore, that every page 
 must teem with life and chronicle some achievement, prefer- 
 ably in the physical realm ; for, in the thought of the Junior, 
 'Greater is he that takcih a city, than he who ruleth his own 
 spirit.' 
 
 "Toward ilie latter ])art of this period the sentimental 
 novel, with all of its frolli and perverted ideals of life, appeals 
 
itO TIIK KLKMKNTS OK CllllJ) STUDY 
 
 to the girl, and it is an o})t'n ([lu'stion wliieli is more pernicious, 
 'Deadwood Dick and the Indians/ or 'Love at Siglit/ 
 
 "When it is remembered that during these years the de- 
 sire for reading is so great that it will be satisfied, surrep- 
 titiously if not -openly, that tlic lieros and heroines strengthen 
 ideals of their own type in the soul of the child, that these 
 are the years in which taste is being formed, not only in read- 
 ing l)ut in living. Nurture again has a great task outlineil. 
 'What is the best M-ay to keep a boy from eating green ap- 
 ples?' a prominent Sunday School worker often asks, in a 
 convention. The answer never varies : 'Give him ripe ones 
 to eat !' The child who has plenty of well-selected, whole- 
 some literature Avill have no appetite for the baneful. Bi- 
 ography of the heroic type, exploration, adventure and charm- 
 ing romances, like the Waverlcy Novels, A\ill help to lay 
 sane and pure foundations of character. The missionary 
 boards are now putting out books as thrilling and stirring in 
 their situations as any yellow-ljaeked novel. These the chil- 
 dren devour, and the spiritual heroism makes its silent appeal 
 along with the physical. 
 
 "This delight in reading makes com})aratively easy the 
 formation of the habit of daily Bible reading. If 'the life 
 is more than meat,' then the time taken by the fatlier or 
 mother to select fascinating Bible biographies and stories, 
 and tactfully to supervise the I'eading, is, at least, as wisely 
 expended as that used in ti'aining a grape-vine, or sewing a 
 lace edge on a ruffle. Is it not strange tliat there is such 
 distorted persjiective and false balance of values in regard 
 to what is worth while? The cares of this world crowd out 
 so many sujDreme things. IMany a temi)talion in later life 
 would have its antidote if tlie Holy Spirit could bring tlie 
 needed Scriptui'c to mind: but, because some one substituted 
 the lesser for the greater, solicitude for external api3earance 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 91 
 
 insteiul of innoi- furnishing, the Word is not there to be 
 recalled." 
 
 There are several spU'udid lists of books which can be 
 recommended for general reading. Such a list is given in 
 A Mother's List of Books for Children, by Arnold; 
 Finger Posts to Children's Reading, by Field, in the lists 
 of the Church Library Association; in Margaret Sangster's 
 lliGiiT liEADiNO FOR GiRLS, and in tlic special lists of mis- 
 sionary books pul)lished in The Sunday School Pkorlem 
 Solved, the catalogue of the New York Sunday School Com- 
 mission. A very wise care should be exercised with regard to 
 the popular ephemeral novel, issued with such glaring head- 
 lines, as the ^'Six Most Popular Novels of the Day," or llu^ 
 "Five Best Selling Books." Each season now sees a num- 
 ber of books for Avhich one can find no raison d'etre but their 
 impropriety. 
 
 Self-Consciousness and Sensitiveness are painfully evident. 
 Personal care of dress and appearance shows itself. Pride 
 assumes a high place. Ideals of dress are lived up to most 
 fastidiously. Miss Uhl tells the story of giving a cheap 
 scarf-pin one Christmas to a youth in her class in St. George's, 
 New York. The next Sunday he came, wearing it in a soiled 
 cravat, but with his hair brushed and his shoes shined. The 
 succeeding week, the tie containing the pin was spotless ; next, 
 the clothing was more neat, the hands and nails immaculate. 
 Other improvements in dress and manners followed. Miss 
 Uhl declares, "It took just one year to live up to the ideal of 
 the scarf-pin." But it was worth while. 
 
 Age of Ideals. Lofty aspirations attract and hold. De- 
 sires to do something in sacrifice and devotion — enter the 
 Ministry, Church Work, etc. — appeal strongly. The altruis- 
 tic feelings of humanity take hold on him. Drs. Starbuck 
 and Coe have made minute searches as to the appearance and 
 power of such altruistic hopes and ideals. The lad is full of 
 
02 THE ELEI\rENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 duy-drcains aud plans. We see him follow Ideals as fads and 
 fancies, holding staunchly to each one for a short time, and 
 then dropping it for another. 
 
 Day-dreaming may be carried too far, yet we must let the 
 person see the castle ahead, as in Cole's picture of Youth on 
 the Voyage of Life. If we expect achievement, we must re- 
 member Joel's ideal of people in the Age of Prosperity Avhen 
 he says, "Your young men shall see visions." "Ideals," says 
 Professor Jones, "are the most wonderful things in the 
 world." They correspond to the apple in front of the horse's 
 nose. Ideals are never realized ; for, when an ideal is realized, 
 it ceases to be an ideal, and becomes a fact. An ideal is the 
 ''vis a frontc," the force from in front. We can put it tersely 
 by saying that before the age of eight, the child is ruled by 
 the "vis a tergo'' by the force from behind, usually the slip- 
 per; that from eight to twelve he is guided by the "vis mter- 
 nus," the force from within, his own impulses and desires; 
 that from twelve years on, his mainspring is the "vis a fronte," 
 the ideals and visions ahead. 
 
 Reasoning and Developing Reasoning is Seen noiv. Cause 
 and effect are grasped. Analysis and synthesis combine. A 
 new world is opening, and the long vista of Investigation and 
 Inquiry dawns before him. Things and persons will be loved 
 for a time, then doubted and dropped. Questioning the 
 foundations, reasoning, "Why?" will be uppermost in every- 
 thing. The Youth may appear fickle and fanciful. Life 
 grows larger, past ideals are insufficient. Let us see how this 
 works out according to the psychology of our previous study. 
 The child now sees cause and effect, because he sees relations, 
 because he compares events. He lias formerly taken his 
 knowledge as unrelated facis, and now he relates those facts, 
 and weaves them into a system. In the early stage, the think- 
 ing process was synthesis, and then analysis. Now it is 
 synthesis, analysis and re-synthesis. Formerly he cut Ihe 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 93 
 
 stones of his mosaic pattern^ now he arranges them together 
 to form the pattern. Now he can handle abstract thoughts, 
 and think without images or pictures. 
 
 When reason has developed Avell, we have secured the 
 change between youth and manhood. The bulk of adult 
 thinking is not so concerned with things, as with references 
 to things. We can figure for ourselves about hours and cents, 
 about feet and pounds, with never an image of real money, 
 or the articles for which money is paid, or the merchandise 
 weighed and measured. We can live in a world of symbols 
 which stand for, and refer to, material things. This, as we 
 have said before, shows somewhat the difference between tlie 
 developed and undeveloped man. 
 
 The appreciation of relationships — "relativity" we call it 
 — is the first real glimpse of the world. We have not reached 
 the proper view of our environment until we see that all 
 things are connected. It has been well said that "most of the 
 world is asleep because it has been taught facts alone." 
 When we see relationships in their full significance, we reach 
 the stage of philosophic insight, and have our new view of 
 the world. Insensibly, instinctively and without escape, Ave 
 are led up to God as the unit and Centre through whieli all 
 things in the universe are unified and related. 
 
 "Storm and Stress" Period. When puberty has well ad- 
 vanced, the bodily and mental changes send the Youth 
 through a fiery, seething furnace of unrest, of questioning 
 old faiths, of realization of sin, doubt, and anxiety, both of 
 his religious faith and its verity, and of his own salvation. 
 Conscience is acting vigorously, and it drives the youth to 
 personal investigation. He devours infidel and even atheistic 
 books. He is an object of solicitude to home and Church, 
 wlio imagine he is wandering into irreligion and godlessness. 
 Never mind ! Starbuck's figures prove that not more than 
 five per-cent (a mere fraction), ever drift permanently away 
 
94 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 at tliis time. Almost all come back to the fold, with faith 
 better grounded for tlie proving and testing. They remain 
 steadfast forever then, or ai-e overturned in the second up- 
 heaval, that often ensues in Later Adolescence or Early 
 Manhood. 
 
 The sceptical age, Avhich may be between twelve and llf- 
 teen, is followed by a period of diminished scepticism in re- 
 ligious questions. Between fifteen and eighteen, there is no 
 such persistent exercise of doubt as there is in the earlier 
 period. There is rather indifference or unreasoning accept- 
 ance, Avhichever it may be, of religious questions. After the 
 age of eighteen, for many men the great wave of doubt comes, 
 and for many women about two years earlier. There are two 
 chief causes for adolescent scepticism. (1) An instinctive 
 tendency to doubt, a rebellion against authority of all kind. 
 (2) The re-action of reason upon new facts put before it 
 without proof. 
 
 The Youth demands proof. He does not deny the teach- 
 er's statements, at all because he doubts the teacher, but 
 because he naturally needs proof. He wants to Iniild up a 
 logical system. There is no time in a person's life when his 
 reason is so unflinchingly logical, so indifferent to consequen- 
 ces, as now. x\nd since it is the age of doubt, it should be met 
 with the utmost sympathy. There should be no word of 
 reproach. Our religion will bear investigation. We should 
 not form (l()ul)ts in them by suggestion, but when they do 
 arise, we should have wisdom and courage to deal with them 
 properly. Do not treat doubt as wicked or, on the other hand, 
 as "smart" and commendable. 
 
 The Sunday School is not the place to drag in mooted 
 questions of criticism, but it is the place to settle doubts 
 Avhen they arise, and a doubt should never be allowed to linger 
 and lurk unanswered. As wc said before, when a pupil comes 
 with a (luery during this Age of Doubt, answer the child. 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 95 
 
 Do not turn him away. If you do not know, say so frankly. 
 It will not be to your discredit. No one is supposed to know 
 everything. But when you say '"I don't know," be sure to add, 
 "But I will find out," and then never fail to find out. Do 
 not "bluff" the boy off. If you have not ability enough to 
 transfer the knowledge from your source of information, then 
 take him to someone who can deal with him first-hand. At 
 any rate, under no consideration, let the doubt lurk. Some 
 of the saddest instances of the result of this policy have come 
 to the knowledge of the writer. One bright Yale man in 
 post-graduate work in Columbia, said he had not been in 
 Sunday School since his college days, because he had asked 
 his teacher a question which she could not answer, and he 
 thought if she did not know, the whole of religion was a fraud. 
 In a Washington Sunday School Institute, a teacher stated 
 that a lady had committed suicide, who, on her deathbed, 
 blamed her Sunday School teacher for not answering her 
 doubts. 
 
 One must watch carefully for this period, for the Course 
 on Christian Doctrine, wliicli should be given at this time, 
 may be given too early or too late. A teacher in one of our 
 large city schools said that she had given the Course on 
 Doctrine to girls of thirteen, who appeared absolutely unin- 
 terested. They queried, "Why should anyone want to prove 
 the Eesun-ection of C-hrist, or His Divinity? Does not the 
 (*i'eed say so? Does not everybody believe it? Was not that 
 enough?" The next year she was teaching the Apostolic 
 Church, and they were that year in the Age of Doubt "and 
 Investigation. Then they were asking her to prove the very 
 questions that she had proved the year before, and which did 
 not ])roperly occur in their text book. Doctrinal material 
 should be given in full during this time, and the child cannot 
 have too miu'li of it. 
 
90 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Nor should we be afraid of science. Science to-day is 
 swinging back from the materialistic towards the spiritual 
 interpretation of the world, and scientific men are ranging 
 themselves in increasing numbers in the battlements of the 
 Faith. 
 
 It is the Conversion Period. The psychology of conver- 
 sion shows that this phenomenon, with its "sense of sin/' is a 
 physiological and psychological, rather than a spiritual, de- 
 velopment. It gives the ripe and fitting time, however, for 
 Christian and Spiritual teaching. Like other instincts (love, 
 curiosity, altruism, etc.), the Instinct of Eeligiosity should 
 be seized and made use of. It is the Conversion 2)eriod, and 
 should be used as such by the Church. 
 
 Sin, however, and its realization by those who have fallen 
 into its meshes, is a very real thing. It is the transgression 
 of God's law. It is passing over the line. It is the failure 
 to come up to the highest ideals which God intended us to 
 reach. Modern studies in Criminology show how real sin is, 
 and they also show how sin and disease are yoke-fellows, and 
 that perhaps three-fourths of all the disease with which this 
 world is inflicted is due directly or indirectly to sin, — sin on 
 one's own part, or sin on the part of one's ancestors. 
 
 And yet every soul, normally constituted, has the capacity 
 for religion. "It is Imman to be religious. It is something 
 less than human, or more than human, or somehow extra- 
 human, not to be religious." Miss Harrison, in her wonderful 
 Study of Child Kature, has a splendid sequence of pages 
 covering this toi)ic. No teacher should fail to read it. She 
 points out that all religion is based on the need of the soul, 
 the hungering after something higher and better. There is 
 a ceaseless craving for satisfaction which lies at the bottom 
 of religion, and she also shows how the present age attenipts. 
 to satisfy the deepest needs of human nature with husks, 
 rather than kernels; with leaves and chaff, rather than fruit; 
 
EARLY ADOLESCENCE 97 
 
 witli a more abimdaut supply of physical comforts aud sensu- 
 ous pleasures, constituting the very means for thwarting the 
 religions life. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. Name the Bodily Changes at Adolescence. 
 
 2. What difficulty does Awkwardness present? 
 
 3. How should Sex-development be met in Education at this Age? 
 
 4. How should Sex- Attraction be met? 
 
 5. What duty have the Church and Sunday School in the matter 
 
 of developing High Ideals and Social Intercourse? 
 
 6. What advice is given regarding the Reading of Novels? 
 
 7. What place has Pride at this age? 
 
 8. Why are Ideals most powerful factors in Character-training? 
 
 9. Explain Reasoning and its development. 
 
 10. What is meant by the "Storm and Stress Period"? 
 
 IL How should we meet the Age of Doubt? 
 
 12. What is Conversion? 
 
 13. How is Conversion to be dealt with? 
 
SVM.AIU'S OF CHAPTER VJL 
 
 PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE.— Continued 
 
 SUUGESTED KEADINC:— The Teaciu.nu of Bihle Classes, Sec. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Conversion is a Crisis, a Psycliological and Pliysiologit-al process, 
 rather than a Spiritual one. 
 
 According to the llughlings-Jackson Tlieory, there is a Transfer of 
 Brain Powers now from Lower Levels to Higher ones. 
 
 Three Stages — 12-16; 16-18; 18-24; e.g., Ferment, Crisis, and Recon- 
 struction. 
 
 Signs of Ferment are Doubts, Ideals, INIiiid-wanderings, Storm and 
 Stress, and Altruism. Life may appear inconsistent witli it. It 
 is the direct action of the Instinct of Religiosity. 
 
 Second Curve is between 17 and 19. The Thiid is between 30 and 33. 
 Neither are so sliarji and may readily be overlooked. 
 
 During Adolescence, the Child personalizes Religion. It is the time, 
 therefore, for Church Activity and Service. 
 
 Cang Age. Boys are in "Gangs" and Girls are in "Cliques." "Gang" 
 is a bad name for this Instinct, tlirough "auto-suggestion." 
 Parents fail to understand and sympathize with youth enough 
 now, though the youth yearn to cling to and confide in older 
 per.sons. Use this Instinct in Class and Club-organization, 
 tlirougli {a) "Following tlie Leader"; {h) Self-government. 
 
 Conscience needs strengthening. Give Laws and Sanctions for Con- 
 duct. Guide by Ideals. Conscience is Moral Judgment, plus 
 Feeling of 01)ligation. 
 
 Enlightenment, Aufkliirung, Clearing-up Time. ]\feans a Ncw-view- 
 of-the-World. Settlement of Doubts comes now. Peace and Calm. 
 
 Will is developed at this time. Shows strong Personality and Deter- 
 mination. Moral .sense of Right and AV'rong is not .so strong 
 in Boys as in Girls. Crime and Destruction apt to develop. 
 Bravery is so great tliat we actually gain bj' making Church 
 
TERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE 99 
 
 Doitiaiids and God's Service hard. The liardcr the "Call" the 
 
 more eager men are now to obey. 
 Kitual Appeals to the Adolescent, because it seems "an outward and 
 
 visible sign of an inward and spiritual"' Faith, due to Ethical 
 
 Dualism, of old tribal remains. Girls like the Ritualistic and 
 
 Symbolic more : Boys the Spectacular. 
 Prayer-Life of Adolescent apt to waver now, and Prayer to be 
 
 dropped. Renew it by Providing Prayer Material. 
 
CIIAFTKi; \11. 
 PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE.— Continued. 
 
 What is Conversion? 
 
 How do we exjjlain Conversion, psycliologically and ]jhysi- 
 ologically, if it be not primarily a spiritual and religious 
 phenomenon? Its peculiarity is a crisis, a bearing down and 
 depression of the physical and moral forces of life. Then, 
 suddenly, in an ascending curve, there comes a rise. First 
 tliere is a lull, then a storm, then peace. Tiie outcome is not 
 a child, but a man. If the Hughlings-Jackson Three-Level 
 Theory of tlic brain be true, there is at this time a final and 
 complete transfer of the central powers of the brain from the 
 lower levels of instinct and motor power to the higlier levels. 
 And this "personalizing of religion," as C^oe calls it, comes 
 to boys and to girls differently. With boys it comes later, is 
 more violent and stronger. It is more apt to come willi them 
 when alone. Witli girls, it is less violent, but there are times 
 of storm and stress, and weary tossing up and down in seas 
 of doubt. It is apt to come to girls in a Church sei'vice, more 
 than Avhen alone. But there is apt to I»e more doubt with 
 boys tlian with girls. 
 
 "Next to the ])hysical birthtiiue. Ibis hour of psychical 
 birth is most critical." The adolescent period may be divided 
 into three stages: from twelve to sixteen, from sixteen to 
 eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four, roughly ; termed 
 the stages of Ferment, Crisis, and Ee-construction. It is the 
 time for definite religious work, when religious feelings arc 
 
PEPvTOD OF ADOLESCENCE 101 
 
 deepest, and the soul is most easily and naturally stirred. 
 The golden time for Conversion is from about fourteen to 
 nineteen. Sixteen is the year when the curve is highest, ac- 
 cording to most of the studies that have been made. Social 
 activities, the appeal to the senses of individual independence, 
 and the feeling of enthusiastic altruism, are so strong at this 
 period, that they should be appealed to. Christian activity 
 and the power of service should l)e utilized, and thus strength- 
 ened and fixed. 
 
 The adolescent youth should feel, that the work which he 
 is doing, the part he plays in the Church's activity, is of value, 
 and appreciated by those for whom he works. Let him have 
 something to do, and let that something be of a character as 
 shall suit his gifts and interests so far as possible. 
 
 And the services should be planned to meet the needs of 
 this stage, both those of the Church and of the Sunday School. 
 The Music, the Address or Sermon, the Eeception of the 
 Offerings, the Closing service, all should be arranged to be of 
 a nature appealing to manhood. The Hymns should suit the 
 needs of adolescent nature. The trouble has been that the 
 Cluirch has planned chiefly to reach adults, rather than the 
 young people. 
 
 Curve of Convention. — Professor Starbuck wrote a book 
 a few years ago Avhich is a study of The Psychology of 
 CoxvERSioN'. He made a very detailed research, and his 
 results are incontestal)le. Professor Coe, a devout Methodist, 
 who would l)e inclined to accept the old view of Conversion, 
 brought out his book in 1900, on The Spiritual Life. He 
 accepts Starbuck's Curves., Stanley Hall, the author of 
 Adolescexce, that enormous two-volume study of this sub- 
 ject, accepts Starbuck's Curves; President Butler and Dr. 
 A. A. Butler; Professor James and Edwin F. See; Dr. Wil- 
 liam B. Forbush and Professor Haslett, in fact, every writer 
 on this subject to-day accepts Starbuck's Curves, so that prac- 
 
102 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 ticall}' tlicy can be coiisklored as standard. These are the 
 Curves: they are wortli careful study: 
 
 Cut No. 1G. 
 
 Somewhere between thirteen and sixteen, differing with 
 boys and girls, comes the first rise in tlie Curve, sharp and 
 distinct. There is no .mistaking it. The signs will be tlie 
 Doubts, the Ideals, the Mind Wandering, and Storm and 
 Stress, and the sudden Desire to do something for the Church, 
 or for mankind. 
 
 It may come with a life that is very inconsistent, for, 
 practically it has very little to do with life;. it is an inclination 
 to altruism, to do good, to do better service. The eliihl may 
 be very inconsistent and seemingly indifferent to religion. 
 You say, "Oh, that child is not fit for Coiifii-mation." Yet, 
 it is undoubtedly the leading of the Spirit. It is undoubtedly 
 the time when the iron is white-hot. Now remember that 
 the iron does not become white-hot because you are going 
 to mold it. It becomes white-hot because it is in the 
 fire. So it is with conversion. This stoi'm and stress 
 period, this upheaval, this grace, does not come properly from 
 a religious source. It comes from a physiological and psy- 
 chological one, as we have said before. It is the time when 
 the iron is white-hot, when the child is moldable, when the 
 
PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE 103 
 
 instinct of religiosity can be reached and touched. It is the 
 time to strike for God. Tlie change of life and conduct will 
 follow after, not come before. 
 
 We have often asked, "How can you expect a child to be 
 good until you have given him God's power in Holy Baptism 
 and Confirmation?'' How can you expect him to be good any 
 more than' you can expect a sick person to walk without 
 strengthening his muscles? If one has lain in bed for a 
 moiilh. he can readily say, ^'I cannot walk." No, nor would 
 he e'er be able to walk until he got up and practised. 
 
 This period may last two weeks, two months, possibly a 
 year ; but is more likely to be very short than at all long. The 
 iron does not stay white long. Then there is a sudden drop 
 of indifference. Then somewhere between seventeen and nine- 
 teen, there is a second rise in the Curve, not so high as before, 
 nor so sharp and strong; l)ut longer and broader — that is, 
 extending over a greater period. This is a second chance to 
 reach the child. Not being so sharp, it may be overlooked; 
 whereas it would take a blind man to overlook the first curve. 
 The drop occurs again, and somewhere between thirty and 
 thirty-three there is a last rise, not so high as the second time, 
 and of alwut the same duration. But if the man has not been 
 reached then, where is he? He is in the home, sleeping late 
 on Sunday mornings, or reading the Sunday newspaper, or, 
 perchance, playing golf or riding the automobile. He is usually 
 not in a place where he can be reached. And the woman, 
 where is she? In the home, occupied by home duties, in 
 society with its distractions; but by a beautiful coincidence, 
 it sometimes happens that tlie woman, marrying young, has 
 her little child, now in the first period at twelve or thirteen. 
 This child is reached, and "a little child shall lead them" is 
 sliown by mother and child coming hand in hand to God's 
 Altar. Scarcelv well is it to run the risk of waiting for this 
 
104 THE Er.E^r f:\ts of CKIIJ) stfdy 
 
 last period, liowovoi', for the Y. M. C. A. figures show tliat 
 only five per-cent are reached after the age of twenty-one. 
 
 During this period of adolescence, the child now passes 
 out of the stage where the whole family or the entire race is 
 initiated into a religion because of the belief of the chief 
 leader. He no longer speaks of "our church" or "our" posi- 
 tion, whatever it may be, in the impersonal way so customary 
 a year or two earlier. He forms his own views. He is a 
 Christian because he personally embraces Christianity. He 
 must stand on his own feet. This is the natural and appro- 
 priate time to put the question, "Do you believe?" It is the 
 natural and appropriate time for tlie personal assumption of 
 the vows made for one in Baptism, or for otherwise serving 
 God in the Church. 
 
 Only two points in this connection can be touched upon 
 here. The first is an eagerness for service. The young per- 
 son is now ready, not only to follow a leader, but to fight 
 for and champion a cause. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the scholar arrives at the period for 
 grasping a specific truth, and does not find that truth, if he 
 is ready for a new stage of spiritual development, and is still 
 fed only on thought suitable for earlier stages, his spiritual 
 development is in danger of being impoverished, or even per- 
 manently arrested. 
 
 At this period of development, there are lulls between the 
 crests of the waves. Their explanation is largely physical, for 
 the hills are probably given us tliat the child's body may 
 gather power. It is the law of rhythm that goes all through 
 life. Nature shows it in the hibernation of Winter, and one 
 should not be discouraged, if, for a year or two, ])ersons of 
 various ages show a lull ol" interest, even in religion. There 
 is little to do during such a time, but to wait until the lull 
 passes away, and the interest arises once more. 
 
I'KIUOD OF ADOLESCENCE 105 
 
 \\liei), Uicrt'i'oi'c, Dr. Stanley Hall s})c'aks of Conversion 
 as a natui'al regeneration, and a "pliysiologieal second-birth"; 
 and Dr. Starbuck calls it a "distinctively adolescent phenome- 
 non," tliey are simply reducing this critical religious experi- 
 ence to the terms of physiology and psychology, recognizing 
 that the ordinary development of life is according to the laws 
 of CJod. 
 
 The So-called "Gang" Age. — The use of this word, 
 "Gang," applied to boys, is one of those singularly inconsist- 
 ent lapses of speech which do more harm in a single word than 
 many labored chapters can correct. "Give a dog a bad name, 
 and hang it." Give defenceless and ingenuous boys at this 
 age a class name that allies them with criminals, and they will 
 hardly thank you; nor will instructors who have any concep- 
 tion of auto-suggestion. The boys are going in gangs, and the 
 girls are going in cliques. The father suddenly awakens to 
 the fact that his lads and he have grown apart. The peculiar 
 self-centeredness and sensitiveness of this period are the 
 causes of it. And yet the adolescent youths are yearning for 
 sympathy. As we noted under the preceding period, they 
 yearn to be loved, but they will not show it. "Wise are the 
 parents who keep in touch with their children now, who en- 
 courage confidences, who never scold or repel them, but who 
 do advise and guide them ; who get them to tell even of wrong 
 doings, and wild oats, and shady actions, aiming all the while 
 to guide and lead and help them. A child will form an 
 attraction for one older and wiser than himself, and when he 
 respects and loves, will devotedly yield his life rather than be 
 untrue. The best teacher now is an older woman, or man who 
 remembers his own adolescent age. The unfortunate trouble 
 with men at this time is that they do not remember it. 
 
 The extreme danger of following a harmful, wicked leader 
 is obvious. "Leading straight" is a pre-requisite of a friend. 
 Only genuine sympathy on the part of a teacher can hold a 
 
106 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 class at this age. "Tlic follies of youtli," the lad's "'conceit," 
 the girl's "frivolity," become unbearable to any save one who 
 can "understand." 
 
 Use this gang instinct in class organization. Tlie gang- 
 instinct means two things — following the leader, and self- 
 government. The Day School recognizes it, and in New York 
 we get the leader of the gang, with his gang, into the club, 
 in the night school, and from there to the educational classes 
 below. Form every class in the Sunday School into the nearest 
 approach to a gang, and give it a name. You cannot call it 
 "St. Philip's Gang," "St. George's Gang," "St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Gang" — that will scarcely do. Nor do the names 
 "class" and "club" quite satisfy. A good plan is to call every 
 girls' class a "Guild," and every boys' class a "League." Let 
 them elect their own officers, but not the teacher as one. Tjct 
 the teacher be merely the director, "the power behind Ibc 
 throne." Let one youth be president, one, treasurer, one, secre- 
 tary, and all the rest, vice-presidents. Give everj'body an office. 
 Let them take turns in conducting the class recitation. You 
 will probably think the lesson will not be so well taught. 
 Tliey will certainly think it better. You will have to do more 
 work, study harder, have the class leader each week at your 
 home, and possibly spend hours going over the material with 
 him or her; but the co-operation on the part of the class, the 
 interest taken by them in their woi'k, M-ill well repay the effort. 
 School after school, teacher after teaclier. are bearing Avitncss 
 to-day to the Pedagogical value of this plan. Many a Day 
 School teacher, working out this system in the Sunday School, 
 has said, "I never got such woi-k out of my scholars before, 
 as T do now." 
 
 T}ie Strenr/tJi cuing of Conscience. — Conscience now needs 
 definite laws and sanctions for its actions. Hitherto the boy 
 has lived his parents' lives without protest, he has done what 
 his teachers, his society, required. Now he must stand by 
 
PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE 107 
 
 himself. He looks forward and not backward, up and not 
 down. He may look up and forward to evil and sin, or he 
 may look forward to ideals that are righteous, and noble, and 
 generous and true. His mind is marvellously receptive to sug- 
 gestion. The brain is quick to perceive, the muscles to act. 
 Jf evil inclinations manifest themselves, counteract their influ- 
 ence, not by dwelling upon them, but by substituting some- 
 thing else that is noble. Someone has said : "\Ye grow toward 
 goodness rather by pulling ourselves up to it, than by pushing 
 ourselves away from evil." 
 
 A thorough treatment of conscience is given in Huckell's 
 A Modern Study of Conscience. 
 
 The Century Dictionary defines Conscience as : "The Con- 
 sciousness that the acts, for which a person believes himself 
 to be resjionsible, do or do not conform to his ideals of right; 
 the moral judgment of the individual applied to his own con- 
 duct, in distinction from the perception of right and wrong 
 in the abstract, and in the conduct of others. It manifests 
 itself in the feeling of obligation or duty, the moral impera- 
 tive — I ought, or, I ought not; hence, the Voice of Con- 
 science." 
 
 The latter part of the Century Dictionary's definition of 
 Conscience permits us to divide this much debated subject 
 into two parts, which can then be separately handled and set- 
 tled. There is the moral judgment of the individual, which, 
 like his literary or artistic judgment, can be developed by 
 training, until it becomes his reasonable adviser in all matters 
 that come within its province ; and it is the function of moral 
 judgment, thus trained and reliable, or, on the contrary, un- 
 trained or mistrained and unreliable, to present the case aris- 
 ing in any moral crisis before the individual mind. At such 
 a moment Conscience, apprehending the presentation, dis- 
 charges its whole function of the feeling of obligation by 
 
108 TlIK KI.KMKX'IS OK CIIILIJ STl l)\' 
 
 issuinii,' llic moral iiii])('rativc — J)() this; or, l}u[riiiii Froiii (loiii<:' 
 it. 
 
 The Enii(jhleninfnl , the Clcuring-uiJ Tune. — The yoiiili is 
 easil}^ guitled and led out of his erratic doubtings, into definite, 
 clear convictions on any subject. Give him logical, reasonable 
 proof, and lie is saiisfied. ITis reason is so active that it 
 demands ])roor. Tiiis pci-iod has l)een called the "Aufl\lar- 
 uug," the "clearing-up" oC ilie unsettled questions. The 
 youlli is eager for facts and reasons. His animated face shows 
 it. "The niasklike, impassive face at this age," says Foi'busli, 
 "is a sign of a loss of youth, or of purity." "He who is a man 
 at sixteen, will be a child at sixty." Starbuck fixes the acme 
 of tlie doubt-period at eighteen, the commencement of Later 
 Adolescence. The Storm and Stress Period ends in a Crisis. 
 There is at first the lull, then the storm, then peace; and at 
 the end, when peace comes, we find we liave Man or Wonum in 
 place of Boy or Girl. 
 
 The youtli has gone through the turbulent rapids, and 
 has come out into the quiet lake l)eyond. Xo wonder a father 
 said the otlier day: "I nnderstand now why my l)oy wrote 
 home from college, 'Father, I can't explain how I am dilferent, 
 l)ut somehow there seems to be rolled away from me a great 
 load. I look at the world ditferently. I seem to be lighter- 
 headed, and it is all so mucli brightt'r around me." "' Of course 
 it was, it was tlie Enlightenment. 
 
 Pcrclopiiiriil of Will. — We have referred Ix^forc lo Ihe fact 
 that Will is developed during this ])erio(I, and we supply a 
 special chaptei- toward the end of the book which treats of the 
 Development aiul Training of Will. 'I'he father looks one day 
 into the eyes of what he thought was liis little boy, and sees 
 looking out the unaccustomed and free spirit of a young and 
 uncon(|U('ral)lc personality. "Some mad parents," remarks 
 James, "take tliis time to begin the charming task of break- 
 ing the child's will, which is usually set about with the same 
 
TERIOD OF ADOLESf'EXCE 100 
 
 energy and inii)lcnients as Uie heating of carpets." But tlie 
 boy is too big to be licked, or to be mentally or morally 
 coerced. Haslett says, "Most fights occur at this stage. The 
 youth is apt to cause more real commotion and trouble to the 
 hour, than at any other time between birth and maturity. 
 Tt wouhl seem tliat he smells fight and contention in the very 
 air he lireathes. If he cannot fight, then smaller ones are 
 encouraged to engage in a friendly scrimmage — trouble he 
 must have." 
 
 Some reformers tliink that if a change for a purer moral 
 life does not occur before the age of twelve, it is not likely to 
 be accomplished, except at great cost afterwards. The forces 
 and qualities that are present and dominate before puberty are 
 likely to be strengthened l)y the change. Hence the argument 
 for the early and careful religious and moral training of chil- 
 dren. It is an illustration of the great fact tliat life tends 
 to hold together, each stage preparing for the following stage. 
 
 "The moral sense in hoys is not as acute as in girls. 
 Boys do not make such fine distinctions in relation to right 
 and wrong. Swearing, stealing, lying, incendiarism, murder, 
 etc., are crimes to be avoided, as the boy of thirteen or four- 
 teen views things. Acts must be very wrong, very violent and 
 harmful, or he will not l)e so likely to think them serious. 
 Girls mention immodesty, untidiness, pouting, carelessness, 
 masculinitv, etc., as wrong. With them it is taken for 
 granted tliat the baser and more violent crimes are violations 
 of right. The first crime that comes under the ban of the 
 law is vagrancy, including petty acts of pilfering. This is 
 tlie age Avhen boys are apt to become general nuisances, imi- 
 tating in no small degree their superiors in this line." 
 
 Tt is the dime novel, the "yellow-hack literature" stage. 
 General meanness develops fast when once started. Crime 
 against property follows that of vagrancy, as a rule. Destruc- 
 tiveness manifests itself, witli native tendencv to torture and 
 
110 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 destroy. This is the age wlicn orchards arc apt to be visited 
 frequently by boys; buildings, notices, and fences disfigured. 
 Crime against persons follows that against property. Dr. 
 Marro finds that before fifteen, crime against persons is rare 
 compared to the ten years following that year. Most frequent 
 infractions in prisons are by young men. Sikorski reported 
 tliat the most frequent infractions against the rules of the 
 military school were from thirteen to fifteen. A study made 
 l>y Dr. Marro of over 3,000 students in academies in Italy, 
 shows that conduct is good at eleven, but falls away down to 
 the lowest point at fourteen, and gradually rises until the 
 highest point is reached at eighteen. 
 
 We hesitate whether more to be afraid of or alarmed for 
 this creature, who has become endowed with the passions 
 and independence of manhood, while still a child in foresight 
 and judgment. He rushes now into so many crazy plans and 
 harmful deeds. This age — particularly that from twelve to 
 sixteen — is the most critical and difficult to deal with in all 
 childhood. It is because the boy now becomes secretive. He 
 neither can nor will utter himself, and the very sensitiveness, 
 the longing and overpowering sense of the new life, is often 
 so concealed by inconsistent and even barbarous behavior. 
 tliat one quite loses both comprehension and patience. The 
 more difficult the task assigned, the more likely will the 
 adolescent youth undertake it. Things must not l)e made 
 too easy for liim now. IC there is a fair amount of wortli 
 in a 25crson, he is willing to 1)C considered ca])able of a dilli- 
 cult task. 
 
 Tlie Church and its work should not be made too light for 
 the youth, nor should the Christian life be presented as a 
 flowery ■|)ath. The narrow, stony road will appeal to young 
 manhood just because it is so ditlieult. It ]ias been argued, 
 and argued well, that the scarcity of men in the Church is 
 largely due to the ease with which people can enter its mem- 
 
PEIUOJ) OF ADOLESCENCE 111 
 
 bership. The Christian path, iu its Christo-centric character, 
 has now a splendid hold upon the eager youth, furnishing 
 a logical, clear, doctrinal system on which to build. Now can 
 be comprehended, for the first time, the meaning of the 
 Sacrifice of Christ, the New Testament ideas, the Atonement, 
 and the Messianic Forecast. 
 
 Eitual and Adolescence. — Professor Haslett, a Congrega- 
 tionalist, in his Pedagogical Bible School, points out the 
 importance of ritual during the pubescent j^eriod. Many 
 others have done the same. There are two periods in life 
 wlien ritual appeals. First, in tlie Kindergarten and Pri- 
 mar}^, ritual appeals, because of its poetic symbolism and 
 teaching. The ritual of the younger school, therefore, ouglit 
 to be expressive of deep meaning, and the children should 
 be taught the meaning of each form and act. The more 
 there can be of ritual — and we are speaking of it in its 
 broadest sense of action, and symbol, and form — the more 
 will tlie school and its conduct appeal to the smaller children. 
 
 But in the Adolescent period, ritual is desirable for 
 another reason. Unconscious ethical dualism is almost cer- 
 tain to be present. In The Boy Problem, Forbush states: 
 "Ethical Dualism, a trait of semi-development, and one with 
 which we are familiar among American negroes, is charac- 
 teristic of immaturit}'. It is the trait of the person who has 
 not yet accepted the responsibility for his own life. None 
 of us entirely shakes it off. Not only is the Sunday boy 
 different from the Monday boy, the boy praying different 
 from the boy playing, the boy alone or with his parents 
 or his adult friends different from the boy with his com- 
 rades, but, as in savagery, the ethics of the boy with his 
 "gang" is different from that with other boys. It is the old 
 clan ethics. This idea that loyalty is due only to one's tribe, 
 and that other people are enemies, and other people's prop- 
 erty is legitimate prey, is just the spirit whicli makes the 
 
11-2 TlfE ELE:\rENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 'gang' dangerous, and which suggests the need of teaching 
 a universal sociology, and of transforming ti)e clan alle- 
 giance into a chivalry toward alL The clan is a step higher 
 than individualism; 1 would recognize it, l)ut 1 would lead 
 its members to ])e knights rather than bandits."' 
 
 This ethical dualism is a 2)hase of that ))eculiar self-con- 
 sciousness and desire for show, to make an impression, at 
 this age. The youth is particular that his gloves shall he 
 new and si^otless, but is not so insistent that there shall be 
 clean hands under the gloves. This enters into his religion, 
 and is the exjjlanation of the fact that the ritual of this 
 period differs largely froiu the ritual of the Kindergarten 
 and the Primary. The ritualism of the Kindergarten and 
 I'rimary Periods is the ritualism of the symbolism, with 
 that deeper mystical meaning which apjieals to the very 
 young child. The ritual of the Adolescent is the ritual of 
 Show, "an outward and visible sign," as it wei-e, of "an in- 
 ward and spiritual faith." The life nuiy not accord with 
 the profession, and yet often the only thing to hold the life 
 is the profession. Teachers and clergy, as well as ])arents, 
 should realize this condition, and be very patient with the 
 inconsistent lad or maiden. 
 
 While girls are more interested in the ritualistic and 
 symbolic; boys enjoy the spectacular jihases of the ritualism 
 more. fJirls ai'e more impressed with theii' meaning than 
 boys. "Those (liurches ihat ])i-actice ("ondi'mnlion, eni'iched 
 by splendid ritual, are in accord with the real nature of 
 things, and should be inlluential in arousing the (^luirches 
 at large to make ])r()|)cr ])i'ovision for this critical stage 
 of life," wi'ites ITaslett, a Congregational ist. 
 
 Strangely and yet naturally, the adolescent boy is now 
 in a particulai'ly dangerous ])osition, just because of his 
 Ethical Dualism. ITe realizes, more or less sub-consciously, 
 the inconsistency of it all : be has dropped his private pray- 
 
rKlllOD OK ADOLESCENCE 113 
 
 ci-s. He will not ackiiowlcd^u that lie lias dropped tlieiii, 
 and ii' you were to ask him the I'rauk question, he would 
 almost certainly tell an untruth. Save him from temptation 
 by avoiding such a question, but lead him indirectly to a 
 renewal of his prayer life, and through it to his hold on 
 God, by putting prayer material in his way. 
 
 There is a very strong statement by Dr. Butler, quoted 
 from Professor See : "I know of no better method than that 
 of a young teacher of boys, whose statement I condense : — 
 One Aveek before a talk on Prayer, and l)efore I have an- 
 nounced the subject, I hand each boy an envelope, say the 
 contents are confidential, and I know he will comply, as a 
 l)ersonal favor. In each envelope is a note, saying that I 
 am subject to certain temptations, and that I am liable to 
 discouragement. I request that, in saying his evening pray- 
 ers, he will mention me to the Heavenly Father, and will 
 continue this until our next meeting. I add, that by carrying 
 out this request he is helping me more than he can fully 
 understand. It is remarkable how the boys, aged from 
 fourteen to seventeen — a time when many boys who have 
 been in the habit of daily prayer are gradually relinquish- 
 ing it — respond to this personal request. Without asking, I 
 discern by the warmth of their greeting, or by some remark, 
 that they are responding to what is, in most cases, an entirely 
 new conce})tion of private prayer — that of praying for some- 
 one outside of their own family. In some cases, boys who 
 have already discontinued daily prayers, are led to resume 
 them. When the day comes for the talk on Prayer, all are 
 better prepared to listen and learn from it w^hat I am able 
 to offer. As I have not neglected to bear them in mind daily, 
 a sympathy springs up between us which was not apparent 
 l)efore. A channel to the boy's soul has opened." 
 
 Another method would be simply handing each of the 
 older l)oys and girls — from twelve or thirteen years up in 
 
114 THE ELEMENTS OF CIllIJ) STUDY 
 
 the ►Sunday School Senior grades — prayer cards ol' the Graded 
 Praj^er Card series of the Commission — not with the pre- 
 sumption or intimation even, that they are not saying their 
 prayers, but with the suggestion that perhaps they might 
 find some of these prayers usefuh And perhaps you might 
 obtain a pledge from them to make use of the prayers on 
 the prayer card. In this way you will not subject them to 
 loss of their self-esteem by a public avowal of retrogression, 
 or lay them open to the temptation to tell an untruth to hide 
 the conditions. And this practical Christianity is more im- 
 portant and significant than we realize. It lies in the very 
 jicart of the future of our nation. 
 
 As the plant wizard Burbank has said : "The wave of 
 public dishonesty wliicli seems sweeping over this country 
 is chiefly due to a lack of proper training — breeding, if you 
 will — in the formative years of life. .■ . . The child is the 
 purest, truest thing in the world. Its life is stainless, open 
 to receive all impressions, just as is the life of tlie plant, 
 only far more pliant and responsive to influences, and to 
 influences to which no plant is capable of being responsive." 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. Wliat is Hughlings-Jackson Theory, and liow does it aflVct the 
 
 Adolescent Period? 
 
 2. Wliat are the Three Stages of this Period? 
 
 3. What arc the signs of the First Stage? 
 
 4. What opportunity do the Three Stages ofTer? 
 
 5. How does the child regard religion in Adolescence? 
 
 6. Explain the "Gang Ago," and tell fully how it a fleets Education. 
 
 7. What methods can be used best for Classes and Clubs under this 
 instinct? 
 
 8. What is Conscience? 
 
 9. How can we help its development at this time? 
 
 10. What is the "Enlightenment," and what does it mean for 
 Religion ? 
 
PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE 115 
 
 11. What dangers arise from the development of Will at Adolescence? 
 
 12. How can we best present the Cause of Christ? 
 
 13. How does Ritual appeal? 
 
 14. How does the Ritualistic appeal differently to boys and girls? 
 
 15. What is said on the Prayer Life of Adolescent youth, especially 
 the boy, and what can we best do for him ? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LATER ADOLESCENCE 
 
 SUGGESTED READING:— The rsYciioLOGY of Religion, Slarl)uck. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Later Adolescence. — Every man is his own World-builder. Vie\v-of- 
 the-World is due to "apperceptive basis," through Education 
 and Experience. 
 
 Adult Age. — Little room for Education, as Character-building, now 
 remains. Only Intellectual Equipment hereafter possible. Busi- 
 ness and Personal Mannerisms (the "set" of Life) are formed 
 by this time. Senescent Progress has brought Mental Stability. 
 Open-mindedness, so hard to cultivate, much needed now to save 
 the Adult from stagnation and recrudescence. 
 
 Relation of Mind and Body. — Important, for we cannot educate Mind 
 without Sound Body. Teachers are concerned with the entire 
 child. Health, Home, Companions, Exercise, Morals, Hygiene, 
 Tenements, etc. Y^et one out of fifteen is defective. Important 
 to watch for Eye and Ear Defects. 
 
 Types of Children. — Helpful to Guide us. Note Growth and Develop- 
 ment Types; Sex Types, Motor and Sensory Types, etc. 
 
 Temperament. — Precise nature unknown. Probably botli Phjsiological 
 and Psychological. Seldom find pure Temperament. All mixed. 
 General divisions are: 1. Sanguine, 2. Phlegmatic, 3. Nervous, 
 4. Melancholy. 
 
 Sanguine usually Blond, Quick Excitement, Small After-EIIect. 
 Phlegmatic usually Blond, Small Excitement, Small After-EU'ect. 
 Nervous usually Brunette, Great Excitement, Great After-Effect. 
 Melancholy usually Brunette, Small Excitement, Great After- 
 
 Effect. 
 Races differ in Temperament. Southern Impulsive; Norlliern 
 Restrained. 
 
 Siitjf/eslioiis. — Koc]) a Development Note-Book, a Page for the Type, 
 Temperament, diowtli, and Progress of Each Pupil. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LATER ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Fourth Period, Later Adolescence, Age of Decision, Philosopiilc 
 Insight, 18 to 25. 
 
 Now in the after-peace of the budding manhood, with 
 faith and doubts at rest; with Will and Action in power; 
 new thoughts of the permanence of life come to the youth — 
 the dominance of law, the grasp of the broad View-of-the- 
 world, which PJiilosopMc Insight now unfolds. Family life 
 appeals to him. Habits of business are now formed. The 
 typical aspects and mannerisms, peculiar to each profession, 
 as carpenter, tradesman, minister, artist, etc., are appearing. 
 The final turns and twists of life are now well-nigh unalter- 
 able, set and fixed to the limit of the grave. 
 
 The late Professor Davidson has said that every man is 
 his own world-builder. No two men see the world alike. 
 Tlie world is the same objectively, but your view-of-the-world 
 is not my view-of-the-world, l)ecause your "apperceptive 
 basis" — tliat is, the ideas which you have accumulated, tlie 
 education that you have passed through, the environment 
 which has been your tutor — have not been the same as mine. 
 If your view-of-the-world were the same as my view-of-the- 
 world, your education and your life would have been the 
 same as mine. Probably your very face would look like mine ; 
 but as your education has differed, your view-of-the-world. 
 that is, your apperception of it, necessarily differs from mine. 
 And so whatever view-of-the-world, whatever philosophy of 
 life the youth in later adolescence may have reached, it is 
 
118 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 his own philosophy, his own view-of-the-workl. Good or 
 bad to him, the world is as he sees it after the great recon- 
 struction period. We are responsible for the presentation of 
 the world to him, and, in a sense, responsible also for the 
 groundwork that he possesses to appreciate the world. 
 Adult Age, Manhood and Womanhood, 25 and onward. 
 
 Little room for much education, as Character-building and 
 Habit-forming factors, now remains. Henceforth it can be 
 but an intellectual equipment. It is not likely to affect life 
 very extensively, though some gain and advance, or retrogres- 
 sion, may result. Remember in dealing with adults that, 
 wliatever their idiosyncracies may be, you cannot alter them 
 either by advice or complaint. You may change particular 
 actions, but seldom the general trend. The dam may block 
 the stream, but never curb the spring. The young lady 
 who says, "I will marry John in order to reform him," had 
 better reform him before she marries him, or she almost 
 certainly will not succeed. It is doubtful whether she will 
 succeed very much even before marriage. Occupations always 
 react on life, and men become circumscribed in their own 
 ruts. You may broaden; but not divert them. Moral im- 
 provement, especially with strong will-power, may take place ; 
 but only by gradual substitution of ncAV habits, with the old 
 ones growing deeper and harder each year. It takes upheavals 
 to alter lives then. 
 The Limitations of Progress. 
 
 Professor Minot has pointed out in an almost dishearten- 
 ing manner, the senescent progress which brings about a 
 mental stability; for, while most men are not alike, and the 
 rule will not hold absolutely true, the great majority of men 
 lose their power of learning at about twenty-five years of age. 
 Few men after twenty-five are able to learn much. They who 
 cannot, become laborers, mechanics, and lower clerks. It is 
 only by keeping tlie brain as it wore in a state of infancy, 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 
 
 119 
 
 in a state of plasticity and progress by keeping alive a con- 
 tinual assimilation and association of new ideas; only by de- 
 liberately forcing oneself to be open-minded, rather than con- 
 servative, that we can avoid this mental stagnation. 
 
 Most men become mentally hazy after a certain age, and 
 would rather jog along in the old way than be disturbed by 
 the mental readjustment necessary to the acceptance of hew 
 ideas, and consequently open to intellectual progress. One of 
 the most important things should be to make the later ado- 
 lescent youth realize what will surely come, unless he delib- 
 erately sets his face and his mind continually, and with keen 
 receptiveness — open-mindedness is the best term, after all — 
 to receive new ideas. 
 
 And our American people are becoming more and more 
 to-day an open-minded people. Old men with gray hairs are 
 oft-times as eager for the new as are the most enthusiastic 
 of adolescent youths. The marvellous advances of this cen- 
 tury in scientific discoveries, in mechanical inventions, etc., 
 have revolutionized the world. It is one of the most encourag- 
 ing of progressive steps in the evolution of ideal humanity. 
 It also shows us how important is the formative period, 
 theoretically before the age of twenty-five, practically before 
 the age of fifteen. Upon it, and upon our work for it, with 
 growing boys and girls, depends the future of humankind, 
 as well as the future destiny of our country and this world. 
 
 Summary of the Chief Characteristics of Adolescence. 
 
 Physical. 
 
 Period of rapid growth. 
 Heart increases in size. 
 Larnyx and lungs enlarge. 
 Large arteries increase. 
 Muscles grow rapidly. 
 Vocal cords elongate. 
 Shoulders broaden out. 
 Senses strengthened. 
 
 Mental and Spiritual. 
 
 Assertion of selfhood, variously 
 described as self-assertion, 
 self-sufficiency, self-feeling, 
 and braggadocio. Egoism de- 
 veloping later into altruism. 
 
 Social organization with same 
 sex. Also known as "gang 
 instinct." 
 
120 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Circulation becomes more rapid. 
 
 Skin becomes more sensitive. 
 
 Voice deepens. 
 
 Needs more sleep and food. 
 
 The beard grows. 
 
 Brain stops growing by 15. 
 
 Changes peculiar to male. 
 
 Period of least mortality. 
 
 Team work in games. 
 Kostlcssncss of mind, 
 l^'nthusiasm in sports. 
 Appearance of lighting instinct. 
 Full energy. 
 Secretiveness toward parents and 
 
 others. 
 Feeling of loneliness. 
 Desire for sympathy. 
 Wandering instinct. 
 Longing for the remote and 
 
 strange. 
 Possessed by Ideals. 
 Desire for quick results. 
 Bashful with other sex. 
 Time of liero worship. 
 
 Tabular Summary of Development Traits during Adolescence. 
 
 YOUTH Oil ADOLESCENCE— 12-18. 
 
 12-15 — Moral Crisis. 
 15-18— Ideality. 
 
 Physical Ciiaracteuistics. 
 
 Awkwardness. 
 
 Less Active. 
 
 Adventure. 
 
 Constructiveness. 
 
 Recklessness. 
 
 Sex-attracted. 
 
 Bodily Changes. 
 
 Mental Characteristics. 
 
 Diplomatic. 
 Confidence. 
 Self-conscious. 
 "(Jang" or "Set" Age. 
 IMiilosophic Ago. 
 Imitates Noble Deeds. 
 Ideals. 
 
 "Chum" Friendships. 
 Abstract Age. 
 History Age. 
 Systematization. 
 Conscience Set. 
 Age of Doubts. 
 Storm and Stress. 
 Desire for Ritual. 
 Etliical Dualism. 
 Conversion Crisis. 
 Sex Dangers. 
 On "Fool's Hill." 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 121 
 
 Relation Between Mind and Body. 
 
 IMan is a unit, altlunigli pospcsscd of Body, IMind, and 
 Spirit; and, in his development, all three should he trained 
 and exercised in harmonious proportion to each other; for 
 there is a most intimate interdependence between the three. 
 It will not do to educate the Mind for the sake of the Spirit's 
 welfare, and neglect the Body; for the Body affects strongly 
 both the Mind and the Spirit. '"Hima Mens in Corpore t>ano," 
 is more supreme than ever to-day, in this age of Strenuous 
 Muscular Christianity. 
 
 Dr. "Warner, in his Study of CiriLDKEN, illustrates the 
 common types of degenerate or feeble bodies, which create 
 feeble minds. Encourage all healthy, manly exercises and 
 sports, for they are ennobling and uplifting. Care of the 
 body, fresh air, cleanliness, sufficient sleep, and proper propor- 
 tion of food, are of more influence than sermons in securing 
 alertness of attention, in developing habits of purity of 
 thought and of action, and in the avoidance of the evils of 
 impurity, use of alcohol and tobacco, and enervation of brain 
 and body. 
 
 Enfeebled bodies result in Malnutrition, Stuma, even In- 
 sanity; and always cause listlessness, inattention, poor reason- 
 ing, and loss of memory. It is certainly fully within the 
 province of the Sunday School Teacher to take an interest in 
 the physical condition of the children; visiting their homes, 
 advising and correcting injurious conditions, whenever pos- 
 sible. The physical culture and out-door games of the present 
 generation have done much to improve our American Youth, 
 and we are already beholding a much taller and stronger race. 
 Yet tenement homes, rapid living, stimulating foods, and late 
 hours are producing a harvest of nervous, fidgety, restless, 
 over-active, over-sensitive or under-active, feeble-minded chil- 
 dren. It is estimated that one out of every fifteen children 
 
122 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 from the tenements will be "defective" to a greater or less 
 extent. 
 
 In Sunday Schools, special classes of such peculiar chil- 
 dren should be formed, in which they are dealt with apart by 
 themselves, under particularly qualified teachers. A careful 
 distinction should be noted, however, between tliese abnormal 
 conditions and (a) the active restlessness of rapidly growing 
 childhood, which is seen previous to puberty; (&) awkward- 
 ness and shy sensitiveness of puberty; {c) giggling, self-con- 
 scious, seemingly silly period of girlhood in the 'teens. All 
 of these periods are transitory, and are certain to be outgrown. 
 It would be well for every teacher to glance at the illustra- 
 tions in Warner's book, in order to recognize the most com- 
 mon types of abnormal children. 
 
 Beyond abnormal conditions, temporary or chronic illness, 
 indigestion, disturbance of life, eye-strain causing headaches, 
 and a number of common physical disturbances needing the 
 physician rather than the priest, medicine rather than ser- 
 mons, are frequently the fruitful causes of ill-temper and gen- 
 eral wickedness. It is beginning to be recognized to-day that 
 the Day School is responsible for the physical condition of the 
 children, and compulsory treatment for trachoma (granular 
 eyelids), pink-eye, glasses, adenoid growths in the nose and 
 throat, is the rule in our large cities. The Sunday School 
 teacher is equally responsible, and lier duties do not end with 
 tlie teaching of the Sunday School lessons. The child who 
 sits forward with staring eyes and holds tlic book too close 
 in reading, probably needs glasses, of which no one has 
 thought. A frank talk with the parents is the part of the 
 earnest teacher. 
 
 The inattentive child may be "deaf in one ear and liard 
 of hearing in the other," and middle ear disease that begins 
 in youtli is a serious affection. Nervous children should have 
 more rest and food and sleep. Tlie Sunday School teacher 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 123 
 
 should be concerned with tlie wliole child and be interested in 
 his entire development and sound health of body, as well as 
 of mind and soul. 
 
 In the long run, there will scarcely be a class of ten schol- 
 ars witliout one child, at least, who has defects of vision or of 
 hearing, which impair his power of learning; and it is found 
 by long experience and testing in Day Schools that the schol- 
 ars are frequently entirely unaware of their physical condi- 
 tion. Pupils have been found among college students who are 
 totally deaf in one ear, or blind in one eye, without being in 
 the least aware of it. As we have said before, we are con- 
 cerned as teachers with the whole child, and nothing in that 
 child's life should fail to interest us. Even the question of 
 the child's hours for sleep, and time for study, and feeding, 
 and clothing, and companions, are of vital concern to us as 
 teachers. All our good words may be entirely vitiated by 
 untoward conditions in the home. 
 Types of Children. 
 
 We all recognize that Classes of any line of objects pre- 
 sent certain similar characteristics, and that all individuals 
 in each class have differences, or peculiarities, that distin- 
 guish or differentiate them from others in the same class. 
 ]\Ien, for instance, are a type. They have many similarities. 
 Yet each differs from every other man. In a bushel of wheat 
 all grains look alike. Yet all, microscopically, differ. 
 
 In tlie human family we see manifold types. There are 
 types of Eace. All Chinese look alike to those who do not 
 know them. Yet no Chinese boy mistakes some stranger for 
 his father. Among Americans, we see Yankees, Southerners, 
 Westerners, Cowboys; we have types of bankers, salesmen, 
 clerks, doctors, bookmakers, artists, carpenters, etc., each dif- 
 fering most conspicuously from the other types. (See Gal- 
 ton's Hereditary Genius.) We have age types, by which 
 one age of civilization differs from all its predecessors and 
 
124 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 followers (see Kidd's Social Evolution) ; we have dillVrcnt 
 religions types of many and various forms; we liave marked 
 temperamental tyjDes^, as quick, slow, defective, normal, con- 
 crete, abstract, auditory, etc. ; we have growth and develop- 
 ment types, wliicli are wliat particularly concern us here. 
 Within the type much difference exists. Learn the tyi)e of 
 childhood, and then master the individual dilJerences or idio- 
 syncracies within it. A hundred babies seem alike, in tlie 
 type of Infancy. Yet no mother fails to know her own. 
 
 Sex-Differences 
 
 In capacities no great differences between the male and 
 female type have been demonstrated. The most marked is the 
 female superiority in the perceptive and retentive capacities; 
 girls, for instance, notice small details, remember lists, and 
 spell better than boys. 
 
 Although the male and female types are closely alike in 
 intellectual capacities, there is an important difference in the 
 deviations from the type in the two cases, namely, that the 
 males deviate more. The highest males in any quality are 
 more gifted than any of the women. Thus, though girls in 
 general rank as high, or higher, than boys in high school and 
 college, they less often lead the class ; thus there are far more 
 eminent intellects among men than among women, and also 
 twice as many idiots. 
 
 Motor and Sensory Types. 
 
 Professor Adams remarks : "(a) ]\l()t()r children are those 
 that respond very readily to any outside influence, and this 
 response takes the form of immediate action. They are quick. 
 eager, alert. They waste no time in making up theii- minds, 
 and immediately act upon whatever conclusion they ai'rive at. 
 They are quick in temper as in intellect. On the other hand, 
 they lack perseverance. They learn quickly, but do not retain 
 particularly well what they have learnt. As a compensation, 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 125 
 
 they do not retain anger long, and are generally more for- 
 giving than sensory children. The defects of the motor child 
 are hastiness in forming judgments — he jumps at conclu- 
 sions — and a certain fickleness, which, however, does not pre- 
 vent him from being usually rather attractive. 
 
 "(&) Sensory children are slower in responding to any 
 stimulus. They receive all manner of impressions, and make 
 no sign. They are passive as compared with the motors, but 
 their minds are active enough, and their conclusions are often 
 sounder than those so speedily reached by the motors. The 
 difference between the two temperaments is most marked in 
 the greater tenacity of the sensory children. Their weakness 
 lies in a certain timidity, born of the desire to see all sides 
 of a question before coming to a decision. The resulting slow- 
 ness and hesitation render sensory children less attractive to 
 the ordinary adult, and to the superficial teacher, who desires 
 immediate results. But the thoughtful teacher, who studies 
 and understands child nature, finds that, on the whole, his 
 best work can be done with the less immediately responsive 
 children. Girls have usually the motor temperament, and 
 boys the sensor3^ But to apply this distinction without refer- 
 ence to the individuals of a given class would be very unwise." 
 Temperament. 
 
 The influence of Temperament on Education, and there- 
 fore on Sunday School teaching, is not to be neglected. While 
 seldom will absolutely pure temperaments be found, there 
 are certain definite marks or types of Temperaments which 
 can be observed, and of which use can be made all through 
 our contact with children. 
 
 Temperament seems to lie in a domain intermediate be- 
 tween Physiognomy and Physiological Psychology. It is not 
 a psychological notion, but a medical one. The average 
 Psychologist is afraid of it because it seems to him to trench 
 too much upon Phrenology, though Professors Wundt and 
 
12G THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Tichnor make note of its importance, placing it after the 
 Emotions. The old Greeks originated the notion, Galen and 
 Hippocrates exploited it. They saw a fourfold relationship 
 between mind and body, whereby the same disease, for in- 
 stance, affected variously differing temperaments. The best 
 modern division is: 1, Sanguine; 2, Bilious; 3, Lymphatic; 
 4, Nervous. Tlie theory is, however, the same, that some 
 physical condition of the body influences and controls the 
 feelings. 
 
 There are very few examples of unmixed Temperaments, 
 and it is rare to find the pure type. The usual mode is to 
 single out the Nervous Type and set it aside. This type is 
 rapidly increasing in proportion in our present period age. 
 Observation and experience are the main aids at diagnosis. 
 Few books are found in English, though plenty in French, 
 and a few in German. 
 
 Good Physiognomies (Fowler and Wells, etc.) give some 
 treatment of it and types of faces; and Dr. Warner in his 
 Study of Children reproduces some pictures of types. Prac- 
 tically, although it is obscure, it concerns our whole treatment 
 and attitude of behavior towards Children. The same mode 
 of discipline will call out vastly dissimilar results in differing 
 persons. In one we arouse regret; in another reform is 
 wrought; in a third, naught but stubborn rebellion and oppo- 
 sition respond to our dealings. Parents cannot define it; but 
 they see its effects and say : "I have to treat this child differ- 
 ently from the other one." 
 
 The precise limitations and differences of the several kinds 
 of temperament are so important that we would advise every 
 teacher to read carefully the chapters upon this subject in 
 Mrs. Birney's Childhood, as it is of the utmost importance 
 in the Sunday School and home. 
 
 According to Thorndikc : — ''The Combination of slowness 
 and weakness makes the lethargic temperament; the combina- 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 127 
 
 tion of intensity and narrowness makes the fanatic; the com- 
 bination of weakness and breadth is often the basis of what 
 we term superficiality. Of the traditional four temperaments, 
 the sanguine approximates closely to the combination, quick- 
 weak-broad; the choloric approximates closely to the com- 
 bination, quick-intense-narrow; the phlegmatic is, of course, 
 slow; the melancholic or sentimental is weak, and commonly 
 somewhat narrow and slow. The traditional temperaments 
 emphasize certain emotional differences, the phlegmatic being 
 especially hard, and the melancholic or sentimental especially 
 easy to excite emotionally," 
 
 Here are a few suggestions given l)y Mrs. Birney: "TJie 
 sanguine temperament, according to one authority, is pro- 
 claimed by a tolerable consistency of flesh, moderate plump- 
 ness, light or chestnut hair, great activity of the arterial sys- 
 tem, a strong, full and frequent pulse, and an animated coun- 
 tenance. Persons thus constituted are easily affected by exter- 
 nal impressions, and possess greater energy than those of the 
 phlegmatic temperament. 
 
 ''The pliJegmatic temperament is indicated by a pale, white 
 skin, fair hair, roundness of form, and repletion of cellular 
 tissue. The flesh is soft, the vital actions are languid. All 
 indicate slowness and weakness in tlie vegetative, effective. 
 and intellectual functions. 
 
 "The external signs of the nervous temperament are fine, 
 thin hair, delicate health, more or less emaciation and small- 
 ness of the muscles, rapidity in the muscular actions, vivacity 
 in the sensations. The nervous system in the individuals so 
 constituted preponderates greatly, and they ex]iil)it extreme 
 nervous sensibility. 
 
 "TJie melancholy temperament is characterized by black 
 hair, a dark yellowish or brownisli skin, black eyes, moderately 
 full but firm muscles, and harshly expressed form. Those 
 endowed with this constitution have a decided expression of 
 
128 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 countenance. They manifest great general activity and func- 
 tional energy. 
 
 "Children of sanguine and nervous temperaments are very 
 receptive, manifesting in their mentality the same sensibility, 
 which is characteristic of their physical organism. They are 
 easily guided by suggestion, and parents who liave mastered 
 this potent law are not only equal to emergencies, but are 
 much more sure of the obedience, affection, and confidence 
 of their children than the parents who mistakenly force issues 
 with their children, and who expect to find in them such self- 
 control and reasoning powers as they themselves do not 
 possess, 
 
 "The child of nervous temperament is apt to be timid, and 
 his fears of all kinds should be tenderly dealt with. The child 
 of nervous or sanguine temperament, who has what is termed 
 'Tantrum^,' should be left alone, the mother or nurse with- 
 drawing to an adjoining room when their preventive measures 
 have failed. 
 
 "The child of phlegmatic temperament is slow, mentally 
 and physically. He takes life easy, largely because of his lack 
 of sensibility. While children of sanguine and nervous tem- 
 peraments should lead quiet, regular lives, free from mental 
 or physical strain or excitement, the phlegmatic child needs 
 stimulation, and he is positively benefited by pleasureable ex- 
 citement that would be harmful in either of the two cases." 
 
 Temperament and Christianity. 
 
 Temperament has exerted a great influence on the history 
 of Christianity, and it would be suggestive to read what Pro- 
 fessor Haslett, in his Pedagogical Bible School, has said 
 regarding the stages and phases of Temperament which have 
 influenced the world, and produced tJio shiinioful (ItH'ds of 
 Christianity. — Haslett, pp. 2'?3/f. 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE 129 
 
 A Working Table of Temperament. 
 
 The following tabic will help greatly in deciding how to 
 deal with temperament, only remembering that it is seldom 
 that we find a pure or unmixed temperament. 
 
 EXCITABILITY. AFTER-EFFECT. 
 
 Sanguine — Blond Great Small 
 
 Phlegmatic— Blond Small Small 
 
 Nervous — Brunette Great Great 
 
 Melancholy — Brunette Small Groat 
 
 Different races have diiferent characteristics, or different 
 temperaments. The Southern race are impulsive, the san- 
 guine temperament. The Northern races are nervous. The 
 English are phlegmatic. No race is absolutely pure to-day. 
 The English language is not a pure language, but is a mix- 
 ture, or polyglot; so the probability is that no person has 
 absolutely pure temperament, and any combination of two 
 or of all four may be found. That is what makes tempera- 
 ments so hard to distinguish. It would be of great service 
 for all teachers to read the subject of Temperament as treated 
 in Eeligious Education, heretofore mentioned. 
 
 A Suggestion to Teachers. 
 
 Look for these types and combinations in your classes. 
 Make up a note-book, write the child's name at the top of 
 the page, and watch his development for three months. Keep 
 notes of your treatment of him, and the result. The very 
 fact that you are keeping biographical notes makes you inter- 
 ested as never before, and will be far more valuable than many 
 a course in child study; for you are learning to engage in 
 child study for yourself. Compare the children tempera- 
 mentally and according to the stages of their development, 
 and you will acquire a knowledge of the material with which 
 YOU have to deal not learned in books or schools. 
 
130 
 
 Till'] KLKMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Tabular Summary of All Developmental Traits (i.e., Instincts to 
 
 be trained into Habits): 
 
 Pkihary Age, 
 1-6. 
 1-3, Instinct 
 3-6, Impulse 
 
 Childhood, 
 6-12. 
 6-9, Imitation 
 9-12, Habit 
 
 Youth or Adoles- 
 cence, 12-18. 
 12-15, Moral Crisis. 
 15-18, Ideality. 
 
 Physical Characteristics. 
 
 Restlessness 
 
 Activity 
 
 Savagery 
 
 Symbolic Play 
 
 Timidity 
 
 Sex-unconsciousness 
 
 Less Restlessness 
 
 Still Active 
 
 Truancy 
 
 Desire for Reality 
 
 Daring Courage 
 
 Sex-repellance 
 
 Awkwardness 
 
 Less Active 
 
 Adventure 
 
 Constructiveness 
 
 Recklessness 
 
 Sex-Attraction 
 
 Bodily Changes 
 
 Mental Charactekkstics. 
 
 Frankness 
 
 Faith and Trust 
 
 Self-unconscious 
 
 Dependent 
 
 Imagination Age 
 
 Imitates Parents 
 
 No Time Thought 
 
 Egoistic Feelings 
 
 Concrete 
 
 Story Age 
 
 Curiosity 
 
 No Conscience 
 
 Believes Everything 
 
 Shyness 
 In dependence 
 Indifferent 
 Group Age 
 Memory Age 
 Imitates Companions 
 Lives in To-day 
 Desire for Affection 
 Hero Age 
 Biography Age 
 Collecting Instinct 
 Conscience Rising 
 Demands Reality 
 
 Diplomatic 
 Confidence 
 Self-conscious 
 '"Gang" or "Sot" Age 
 Philosophic Age 
 Imitates Noble Deeds 
 Ideals 
 
 "Chum" Friendships 
 Abstract Age 
 History Age 
 Systematization 
 Conscience Set 
 Age of Doubts 
 Storm and Stress 
 Desire for Ritual 
 Ethical Dualism 
 Conversion Crisis 
 Sex Dangers 
 On "Fool's Hill" 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What is meant by "every man is his own world-builder"? 
 
 2. How do we gain our View-of-the-World? 
 
 3. Why is Adult Age the "Fixing" period? 
 
 4. What is the "Set" of life? 
 
 5. Why is the Teacher to be concerned with the Body as well as 
 
 the Mind of her pupils? 
 
LATER ADOLESCENCE * 131 
 
 6. In what definite tilings is slie to take special concern? 
 
 7. What is meant by Types of children, and how docs the study of 
 
 Types help the teacher? 
 
 8. What is Temperament, and what arc the names of the chief 
 
 Temperaments? 
 
 9. Give the table explaining the characteristics of each Tempera- 
 
 ment, and show how it can be made of use in Education. 
 10. What suggestions are given as to the record of life's development? 
 
.SYLLAIUI8 OF ClIAl'TER IX. 
 
 GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL, THE PRINCIPLES 
 OF A CURRICULUM 
 
 SUGGESTED READING: — 
 
 The Sunday School of To-day, timitli. 
 
 The Churchman's Manual of Methods in the Sunday School, 
 
 Butler. 
 The Organized Sunday School, Axlell. 
 The Outline of a Bible School Curriculum, Pease. 
 The Graded Sunday School in Principle and Practice. Meyer. 
 The Modern Sunday School, Cope. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 A Graded Sunday School is one in which the Subject-Flatter, as well 
 as the Method of Presenting it, is Graded in Definite Courses, 
 adapted to the Personal Needs and Interests of Each Age of 
 Cliild-Developnient. 
 
 The Joint Commission of the General Convention of the Chureli 
 recognizes tlie Laws of Child-Development, accepting the Periods 
 we have Studied in Child-Psychology. 
 
 Practical Grading. Children Differ in Mental Capacity, according to 
 Age and Race and School Opportunities. Day School (irading 
 the best to follow. Ninety per cent will agree, Age and (irade 
 alike; but five per cent will differ at eacli end. CliiUlren appre- 
 ciate and accept this plan. 
 
 Small Schools can be fully graded by a two-year or a three-year 
 Cycle, combining Ages and Grades, and ruiniing one-half or one- 
 third the full Curriculum each year. 
 
 Principles of a Proper Curriculum: 1. Emotions (Heart or Feelings) 
 plus 2. Intellect (Head), plus ;5. Will (Doing, Action, Habit, 
 Character). These must all find provision in rrrri/ Lesson. 
 
 Application in a Full Curriculum. 
 
 Kindergarten and Primary. ]-(> and (i-S or !). 
 
 {(i) Appreciate only Concrete, and hence no Idea of Time or Space. 
 No Chronology. Old Testament Stories iuid Life of Clirist 
 Stories the best Material. No "System"' can be taught well till 
 
(iUAI)IX(; TUK SUNDAY SCHOOL 133 
 
 Adolescence. ]5iit the Imlividiial Tiuilis of a System can be 
 
 taught Topically. 
 (6) Appreciate Half-tone Pictures. Child needs a Vivid Mental 
 
 Picture. Use Different Pictures of a Subject that Children may 
 
 learn that All are but Human Ideas, and not Real Pictures or 
 
 Portraits. 
 Provide Activity and ]\Iotion on part of Children. 
 Principles of the Kindergarten: but not alivmjs the Methods are 
 
 actually applicable in the Sunday School. Thus, First Gift is 
 
 used in Old Testament Stories. Second Gift is met by Israel's 
 
 Wars and Dramatization. So all through. 
 
 Grammar Scliool. 
 
 Use Heuristic or Source Method. 
 
 Grade I. Best ]\Iemory Age: Hence Catechism. 
 
 Pictorial Age: Hence Symbolic Church Year. 
 
 Worshipful Age: Hence Prayer Book. 
 Grades II. and III. Primitive Traits: Hence Old Testament Stories. 
 Grade IV. Concrete Life of Christ. 
 
 Historic Perception: Hence Maps. 
 
 Concrete Still: Hence Fact Questions. 
 
 Little Reasoning: Hence no Deductions nor Principles. 
 Grade V. Concrete Ethics, Principles of Christ's Teachings. 
 
 Biographical Study of Heroes of Apostolic Church. 
 
 Conscience Rising: Hence Ethics. 
 
 Biographical Age: Hence Bible Characters. 
 Grade VI. Old Testament History. 
 
 Weld Old Testament Stories of Earlier Study together now. 
 
 Abstraction Begins: Hence Historic Relationships. 
 
 Historic Vision of Preparation for Christ. 
 Grade VII. Life and Works of Christ, the Messiah. 
 
 Life now is "Christocentric": Hence Christ Appeals to Heart. 
 Grade VIII. Christian Doctrine. 
 Conversion Age — Storm and Stress — Doubts — Ideals. 
 Hence Answers in Doctrine and Ideals of Life Work and Service. 
 
 H if/lb School and Posl-flraduatc Hcltools. 
 
 Electives of Apostolic Church Historj', ]\rodern Missions, Epistles, 
 Christian Socialism, Prophets of Old Testament, Prayer Book, 
 Making of Bible, Hymns, Non-Christian Religions, etc. 
 Issue a Folder, Giving Scheme of a Graded School, so that All 
 Teachers, Pupils, and Officers know the plan and the Parents as 
 well, in order to cooperate with it. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL, THE PRINCIPLES 
 OF A CURRICULUM 
 
 What is a Graded School? 
 
 Every official Sunday Scliool organization to-day, of the 
 Episcopal Church — the Joint Commission of the General Con- 
 vention, the Joint Diocesan Lesson Committee, the Sunday 
 School Federation of Commissions and Institutes, all diocesan 
 Sunday School organizations, usually known as Commissions, 
 have, after a decade of general discussion and investigation, 
 unanimously come to the same conclusion, and define the 
 Graded School as one that has a definite order of studies, 
 graded, therefore, according to subjects or topics of lessons, 
 based pedagogically and psychologically upon the child's na- 
 ture, which we have been studying, and realizing the fact that 
 the child's interests differ at different stages of his develop- 
 ment, and that the door is shut to the entree of certain ideas 
 before a definite time. Tliis kind of grading is usually called 
 "Subject-grading," and tliis kind of a school a "Subject- 
 graded School." 
 
 It means that a vast amount more can be taught a child, 
 with a saving of energy and time and worry, taught in an 
 interesting and attractive and pleasing manner, taught in 
 accordance with child-nature, rather than opposing it, ilian 
 lias ever been secured witli the old notion of a school (Day 
 School or Sunday School alike) based, as we have said, upon 
 the adult's ideas, rather than the child's. Grading applies, 
 therefore, to lessons as well as to organization. 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 135 
 
 The Eeport of the Joint Commission of the General Con- 
 vention states clearly that "a school should be graded in ac- 
 cordance with the recognized laws of child development. 
 There are well-marked periods in child-life. The earliest runs 
 until about seven years. The second is from seven to nine 
 or ten, roughly speaking. The third runs from nine or ten 
 to about thirteen. The fourth covers approximately the ages 
 of thirteen to seventeen. It is convenient to have the school 
 divided into departments according to these periods, and espe- 
 cially desirable where there is facility for using separate rooms 
 or buildings. 
 
 "But actual separation of pupils is not so important as 
 a differentiation in the lesson material, and the way of 
 handling it. In the Beginners' and Primary Grades, the chil- 
 dren will not be expected to do much home work. 
 
 Grading is pedagogically recognizing Cliild-Psychology, 
 i.e., child-development. Good Grading must, therefore, plan 
 (1) to adapt the Topical Subject-matter or material to the 
 right age; (2) to meet the particular moral, practical, and 
 mental Eequirement of each period of development; (3) to 
 supply All the Eeligious Instruction Material, Collateral, Cor- 
 related Subjects, etc., consistent with the broadest possible 
 Eeligious Education, giving due regard to, and practical co- 
 operation with, the Public School Work of the children. It 
 supplements, not supplants, the Day School. (4) It will, of 
 course, in doing this, adjust questions to the comprehension of 
 the children. It will be adjustment, not in the same material, 
 but differing material, suited to each age. In all Schools, 
 this grading should be done by a specially qualified teacher. 
 It will seldom be the Superintendent, who is qualified in 
 ]\Ianagement, not Education. It may be one of the regular 
 class teachers, or a Special Grading Officer. 
 
13(5 TiiK I';lkaii<;.\is of cm LI) study 
 
 Practical Grading. 
 
 In looking at the studies suggested in each grade, we must 
 first evidently allow for locality, since it is apparent that 
 children in some schools are fully one year in general behind 
 those of other schools in mental ability. This is due some- 
 times to race, sometimes to locality, as between city and 
 country, sometimes to the condition of the Day Schools. This, 
 of course, affects the order of studies, and instead of a child 
 being able to enter the Grammar School at eight or nine, it 
 does not come in till ten. Thus what often appears to be a 
 dissimilar topic at a certain age will not be, if we stop to 
 justly regard the mind of the child. Again, the ages for 
 certain classes of facts are not definitely established, but only 
 serve approximately as guides. We may safely infer that at 
 most not more than two years' difference should be allowed 
 for divergence of opinion as to the position of the main topics 
 for the Grammar School Grades. 
 
 In undertaking to grade a school, it must be remembered 
 that the Day School Grade must be tlic ?nain guide. Make 
 a carefully tal)ulated list on paper of cacli child, with address, 
 age, and Day School Grade. On ihe arcrage, it will be found 
 tliat five jDer cent are one grade ahead of their age, and five 
 per cent one grade beliiiid. That is, ninety per cent will 
 agree, year with grade. In tlie slum districts oL' a city, tlie 
 minimum of five i^er cent delicients will amount to fifteen 
 per cent, or even more, in cultured districts, the pi'ogressives 
 will rise to about the same propoi'tion, nfteim jier cent. I'lac- 
 iiig the gi-ading strictly n\)on the standing in Day School does 
 away with dissatisfaction, grumbling, and open rebellion. The 
 "Gi-ading Teacher" is relieved of seeming ai'hiti'ariness, for 
 he lias no option. The child recognizes its place in Day 
 School, and most naturally falls into the same place in Sun- 
 day School, with the added advantage of learning to ])lace the 
 Sunday School and the Day Scliool on the same pai' nt the 
 
GRADING^ TllK SUNDAY SCHOOL 137 
 
 start. In large schools, each grade is a year ; in small schools, 
 two grades combine to form a two-3'ear cycle. 
 How to Grade a Small School. 
 
 It is a very simj^le tiling to grade even the smallest country 
 School so that each child has its distinct grade, year after 
 year, and a definite, progressive, well mappcd-oiit subject- 
 curriculum. 
 
 If, for example, we say that there are to be eiglit grades 
 above the Primary, i.e., running from eight years of age to 
 eighteen, we can give any nomenclature we wish to those 
 grades, the best one being the Public School names for the 
 corresponding ages approximately. The School is too small 
 for sixteen classes, eight each of boys and girls. Half that 
 number would be all it could possibly manage, perhaps 
 even less. 
 
 Now manifestly every child, no matter how few the grades, 
 lives through ten years in passing from eight to eighteen. 
 Again, a year or two one way or the other does not make 
 any essential difference in the choice of a subject to be taught. 
 Now, if we take, for illustration, the eight grades or a Graded 
 Series above the "Beginning Reading" age, number them, 
 say, I., II., III., etc., up to VIII., we can arrange them this 
 way for a two-year course, each year having but four grades 
 taught, and the cycle completing all the eight. We then put 
 the two years (or two grades) of children together, thus: 
 
 Ages. First Year. Second Yeau. 
 
 8 and 9 Grade fe ^^^__^.,.,^ Grade II. 
 
 10 and 11 Grade IIJ,^^^^=>-Giade IV. 
 
 11 and 13 Grade V—- ==^^^:==-^i radc VI. 
 14 and 15 Cirade VII . - — ' Grade VIII. 
 
 A child entering the (Jrammar School at eight takes Grade 
 I., is nine the next year and takes Grade II., is ten the next 
 year and take Grade III., is eleven the next year and takes 
 G]"ade lY., etc., right down through the curriculum. There 
 
138 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 is a definite progression, with larger classes, fewer teachers, 
 and gi eater adaptahilitv to the small school. Thus the odd 
 grades are all running the first year, and the even ones all 
 the second. 
 
 An essential to this scheme is a printed folder — a leaflet 
 that shows the sequence and biennial arrangement, so that 
 teachers and pupils understandingly enter into the fulfilment 
 of the course. The Curriculum will therefore run as follows 
 in the little printed folder : 
 Small School Curriculum. 
 
 Our Grading and Curriculum. 
 Primary and Kindergarten Grades. 
 
 Stories from the Old and New Testaments. 
 
 Kindergarten Methods. 
 Class 1920 — Grades III. and IV. — Tuo Years' Course. 
 
 1st Year — Old Testament Stories, Catechism and Christian Year. 
 
 2nd Year — Old Testament and Prayer Book. 
 Class 1918 — Grades V. and VI. — T^co Years' Course. 
 
 1st Y^ear — Junior Life of Christ. 
 
 2nd Y''ear — Early Christian Leaders or Christian Etliics. 
 Class 1916 — Grades VII. and VIII. — Tico Years' Course. 
 
 1st Y^ear — Advanced Old Testament History or Biography. 
 
 2nd Year — Senior Life of Christ. 
 Class 1914 — High School — Three Years' Course. 
 
 1st Year — Church Doctrine. 
 
 2nd Year — Apostolic Church. 
 
 3rd Year — Church History. 
 
 Post Graduate School. 
 
 Bible and Normal Classes for Adults. 
 
 The details of a resultful folder for the School of over 
 
 one-hundred pupils is given in Eeligious Education and in 
 
 The Sunday School of Today. The latter book should be 
 
 in the hands of every Principal and Superintendent. 
 
 The Principles of a Well-rounded Curriculum. 
 
 The child is a unit. His physical life is manifested 
 
 through his Emotions (heart or feelings), his Intellect 
 
 (head), and his will (doing or acting). N"o education is 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 139 
 
 complete ■without due provision for the training of each of 
 these in jDroper proportion, and with consistent correlation 
 with the so-called secular or Day School studies. 
 
 Thus in a well-rounded Curriculum we must in each 
 grade, even in each lesson, take account of (a) the Child's 
 Interests, that is the Instincts, which are our only material to 
 train into Habits, (h) Worship, (c) Missions, which train 
 his heart and his life in the realm of Love, (d) Memory 
 ^York, (e) the Subject-matter of Instruction (Curriculum), 
 M'hicli concerns his intellect, (/) Self -activity, by which he 
 learns self-expression in doing, and finally (g) Christian 
 Work, the Society to which he will belong at each stage of 
 liis education, through which he will practically carry out the 
 Teachings of Christ in Christian Altruism and Service to his 
 fellows in the world. 
 
 It will depend upon the nature of the Lesson topic, the 
 age of the Class, and the amount of time, which points shall 
 be emphasized each week. 
 
 We now insert a summary of the Standard Curricula as a 
 guide to Superintendents and Principals in selecting a proper 
 norm for local adaptation. 
 
 As we have said, the Episcopal Church has, throughout, 
 led in this Forward Movement. Its Curricula have been so 
 wisely planned, and so well adapted to the psychological prin- 
 ciples of Child Development and in the Child's Interests and 
 Needs, that they have been universally taken as the basis for 
 the Curricula of all Christian Bodies. We, therefore, present 
 the Curriculum of the New A'ork Commission, the basis of 
 them all, as the General Standard, because it so fitly corre- 
 lates the topics of the Curriculum with the aim of the 
 Teacher; the w^ork and Self-expression of the Child; and the 
 Societies for personal activity. 
 / Other Curricula are found in the Special Lesson Sys- 
 
 / tems of the Joint Diocesan, the Blakeslee, the Syndicate 
 
140 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 A GRADED SUNDAY SCHOOL SCHEME ACCORDING TO THE 
 
 COMPILED BY THE REV WM WALTER SMITH, M.A., M D.. MEMBER OF THE GENERAL BOARD OF REUCIOUS EDUCATION. 
 
 ^HSiL 
 
 *o. 
 
 ^"„i.".,;re';y.\"n" 
 
 Till: lEACItER 
 
 cu.a,cct.UM 
 
 HO. 
 
 COCHSCTtX.. 
 
 ""ivxk,'r 
 
 Kinder- 
 go rlen 
 
 III 
 
 ■JO 
 
 Dolnc .Mollon. 
 ronerel.-. One- 
 self. .Names. 
 
 To develop a 
 kind, lovln*. Joy 
 ous child. by 
 teacblni; ot 
 
 wisdom. love, 
 and care . Ineul 
 eating ol.edlenee. 
 
 il'orshlp. as cen' 
 lerlng In the 
 (Teed. Lords 
 Prayer, and Ten 
 loramandmenls 
 
 Wond.r Stories 
 of Old Test ond 
 Life of Christ. 
 Nature. (,od. and 
 Ills Works. 
 
 1 
 
 S S Commission Kloder- 
 
 Pictures, half and onc-ceol. 
 
 2 
 
 1 u Chicago Kindergarten 
 
 Material with Book. 
 
 3 
 
 syndieale Primary Lessons 
 Ibree V.or Course, Or 
 
 Teacher's Monuol. 
 
 6 
 
 saa.lay School Lessons for 
 Voang Children t Palmer) 
 Two V.ars 
 
 Picture Cards. 90c per 100 ; 
 
 ■Bible Lessons lor Little 
 
 Beginners^' tCuahmuD) 
 Two Years 
 
 p.nny Pictures. CraglD • 
 o T * .N T Stories. Plc- 
 
 miiinrr 
 
 II 
 
 ,-,0 
 
 t b e r .. All 
 Iblois* «eeo. 
 beard, felt. Col 
 leetlng. Con 
 
 ivnsrlene.-'' Obe' 
 dieof. Love. In 
 addlltoo to the 
 
 Tbe Bome Mote- 
 rial Itiogrnpb- 
 
 ■Love. Life, and Light" 
 1 Mabel Wlisoni. 
 
 Pleturc Cords. 30c per 100. 
 
 Guromtii 
 
 Junior 
 
 III 
 
 9-12 
 
 leellnn. * Group 
 
 Ueadinf;. Geogra- 
 phy. Slo«rapby 
 History. Renllly 
 ,uid facta 
 
 T.. .'Stal.llsb P,r 
 s..n:il Habits 
 aloni; Moral am 
 
 it',-, o'cnillon' o 
 1..1W and Duty 
 
 ral.ehism Telt 
 and M e a n i n g. 
 
 7 
 
 Catechism Illustrated and 
 ICspialned. 
 
 Step Catechism ; Meaning 
 of Words; Pictures. The 
 Catechism by Ward or Me 
 Pherson 
 
 Player Book 14 
 c b u r c b Year 
 
 8 
 
 Our Book of Worship. 
 
 Tbe Teacher's Prayer Book. 
 I'lctur.'s; Patterson Chart. 
 Smith's History, etc. 
 
 9 
 
 Story of the Christian Year 
 
 Slnley. Liturgical Year 
 
 n 1 d Testament 
 
 10 
 
 Hero Stories of O T. 
 Year 1 . PfH. 1 & 2 
 
 S S C Manuals; Pictures; 
 Maps . .Models. 
 
 Glories 
 
 11 
 
 Hero Stories of U T. 
 Year 11. Pis. 1 4 •-'. 
 
 Life of Christ 
 (Junior ) 
 
 12 
 
 Junior Life of Cbrlst. 
 I'ts. 1 & 2 
 
 S. S. C. Teacher's .Manual : 
 Stokoes Four Gospela: 
 Stalker's Lite of Christ; 
 I'i.tures. Maps. 
 
 Cbrlsllan Ethics 
 
 L) 
 
 lM'wx'i'l,"'l''ic'"I' o'r""" 
 
 S. S. C. Manual. 
 
 Lead.-i's" ' 
 
 U 
 
 Stories of Christian Lead- 
 ers Pis 1 Si 2. 
 
 S S C .Manual. 
 
 Grammar 
 Senior 
 
 Middle 
 
 Inter- 
 mediate 
 VI 
 VII 
 VIII 
 
 12 1. 
 
 Broader Vlew^ 
 Love of History 
 tbe berolc. dor 
 lui;. cblvolry Al 
 
 relatlona, proofs 
 
 To _^ ■"/j'',". 
 Ideal Hero and 
 tlie T 03 tb. 
 I'lepurotlon fo 
 ills coming 
 
 1 d Testomen 
 History or Biog 
 
 10 
 
 Old Testament Worthies 
 
 S. S. C. Manual. < 
 
 lU 
 
 old 'Testament History 
 Pta. 1 & 2, and Prepura- 
 llon for Christ Kiile. 
 
 remple Primers. Fry. S S.C. 
 Manuals. Maiis. etc.. Fair- 
 weather. 
 
 s. s. C. Manual : Butler's 
 How to Study the Life of 
 Cbrist ; .Ma|is. etc. ; Con- 
 structive Studies lUn. Chi- 
 cago 1 ; s s c. Manual. 
 
 the Messioh. 
 
 17 
 
 Senior Life, Messianic. 
 PIS 1 « 2 
 
 Apostolic Church 
 History. 
 
 18 
 
 S Paul and the Lariy 
 Church. Pts. 1 & 2. 
 
 Hlitb 
 
 Senior 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 15 1 
 
 Svst.ms. Phllos 
 ,.pt,y. Construe 
 live Ima^lnatloD 
 the luturo, Bus 
 Iness I'rospeels 
 Ideals of Lovt 
 and Aetloa 
 
 To secure deil 
 nite recognition 
 of one's persona 
 Rclnllon to 
 Cbrist. and tb. 
 building of a 
 strong. Intelll 
 gent CbrlstloD 
 ehnraeter "'Tbi 
 Coll to romp ■' 
 
 Cburcb Uoctrini 
 and Catechism 
 prov.d, or— 
 
 19 
 
 The Doctrines ot tin 
 Church (Smith or Brad- 
 
 \Iaclear on the Creed; 
 Vonge on tbe Creed. 
 
 Sr Teaching o 
 Christ tbe .Mes 
 
 20 
 
 Teachings of Christ tbe 
 Messiah, rts. 1 & 2. 
 
 S S c Manual ; Slolker s 
 S. Paul . Maps. etc. 
 
 Church History 
 
 21 
 
 The Hlstoiy of the Church 
 Tbe Kingdom Growing 
 rllradneri. 
 
 Colls^ Turning Poinls. etc. 
 Maps. I'Ictur.s. .Mission- 
 ,iv Hoards Periodicals. 
 
 Post- 
 
 Graduote 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 Ill 
 
 182 
 
 Il-formatlnns. 
 Polities. S.)ela 
 .ind clTle values 
 Altruistic Works 
 
 ■Tbe Call tc 
 i;o" Persona 
 work for Cl.rls 
 and His King 
 dom 
 
 History of Mis 
 slops 
 
 22 
 
 General Pamphlets on Mis 
 sions. 
 
 Hoard Test Books. 
 
 Non-Christian 
 Iteiiglons. 
 
 2.-i 
 
 rbilstlanliy and World 
 
 Books cited io it. S. S. C. 
 
 Manual 
 
 itciigious Peda 
 gogy 
 
 2.1 
 
 Manuals on Tcacher-Truin 
 
 S S C Tc«t Book. 
 
 Sociology 
 .Methods o 
 Chureb Work 
 
 2.-, 
 
 General Pamphlets on So 
 . iology t 
 
 Geneial licndlns. 
 
 ll..oks cited in it. 
 Ibioks suggested In it. 
 
 liaiil.l nn Hie Prayer Book 
 
 Makiug Bible. 
 
 im; 
 
 .Making Bible (Smith 1. 
 
 i:plstles 
 
 >: 
 
 in:;;:;Va:;T:r'p\ 
 
 Hymns 
 
 Hist of I'rayei 
 Book 
 
 Adult 
 
 Post- 
 
 Graduate 
 
 21 
 
 All above. Als< 
 new Interests In 
 Poetry. Art. Mu 
 sir. Noture. So 
 <lal l'eellO|;s. 
 
 To deepen Ihf 
 Heaiizatlon o 
 Mnns Value nnil 
 Obligation 10 So 
 rlely Principles 
 functioning In 
 riolng 
 
 Choice by class 
 from above top 
 lea Intensive 
 study of Kpis 
 lies.-'llomlletrea 
 Study of tbe Bi 
 hie for Devotion 
 al Knds 
 
 
 N..T1-.— Courses 12. 1.1. 10. 111. are mutually com 
 plementnry No. i:i foiluwa 12 and gives Ni:w muto- 
 rial only. .No IS in like mjinner coinpli t.s .No. 10 
 All four may lie used bv a sebool In M-rlrs. or any of 
 them laieh is a comidcle course ID llself. 
 
 This Chart may be secured 
 
 r the School of 100 Pupils up 
 
 111 for rirst " ■ '■ 
 
 In Pn-parmlo 
 
 b(] No's ;;. s. 11. i;:. I7. ih. -jl iIk Snond War iv.r Third 
 from the New York Sunday School Commission. Inc.. 416 Lafayette Street. 
 
GRADING TITE SUNDAY SCITOOL 
 
 141 
 
 THREE-FOLD DIVISION-INTELLECT. FEELINGS. AND WILL (doing.) 
 
 FIELD SECRETARY SECOND DEPARTMENT, SECRETARY OF THE NEW YORK SUNDAY SCHOOL COMMISSION. Inc. 
 
 ""cuung' 
 
 MEMOnT n-ORU 
 
 ^^o" 
 
 '^t'r^'^.Wr 
 
 Fof^J.^K 
 
 "TbIII"' 
 
 UIS3I0X8 
 
 LECTUMS 
 
 Stories ood II- 
 lustrnliODs. Coa- 
 creie. Topical 
 
 Hystrni IiDlta- 
 llve S^lf-ncilv 
 lly Bible nnd 
 Natuiv IrurhR 
 <r>rrt-lntPd wtlb 
 l).i-alo;;. Creed, 
 and Lords. 
 
 Lord's Prayer. 
 Creed. Hymns. 
 Private Dally 
 Prayers. U 1 b I r 
 Tens 
 
 Age 
 
 of 
 Impulse 
 
 Hymns. Motion 
 Songs. Move- 
 ments. Marcb- 
 Ing, Games. Ri-c 
 1 t a t 1 n s. I'U- 
 tures. Sand- 
 table. Black 
 board, etc. 
 
 Babies' 
 Branch. 
 Foal Roll. 
 
 Blrlbday. 
 and Ml.ssloD- 
 «ry Boies. 
 Junior Auill 
 lary 
 
 Occasional at 
 
 part of a Ser- 
 vice, with par- 
 ents. Personal 
 Dally D e V 
 tlons. 
 
 Stereoptlcon 
 Lectures on Mis- 
 sionary Stories. 
 SlmpK- Prayers 
 for Missions. 
 
 Stereoptlcon 
 Lectures oa Mtt- 
 slons and Bible 
 and Natare Sto- 
 ries. 
 
 More BuBE'Sllvp, 
 witb Kr,nl»-r In 
 Itlailve on tlic 
 part of the pu- 
 pils 
 
 Psalm ::3. Otbrr 
 Psiilms. Uvmns, 
 \h-ca\og. i^lorlii 
 Tlbl. Pi I CqU- 
 tbism 
 
 Ace 
 of 
 Imita- 
 tion 
 
 The snme: but 
 1. ss .^f bodily 
 
 More rccltatWe. ' 
 
 lllury. M 1 n- 
 iRterlne Cbll- 
 dren-s Lcasuc 
 Guild o( the 
 Holy rblld. 
 
 Weekly In Cb 
 ut Special Ser 
 vices as above 
 Private Pray- 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Writ trn Ad 
 
 Note nooks 
 BlograpblcQl 
 At 11. HIstorl 
 ral. with Maps. 
 Pictures. Models. 
 Note Bks.. Writ- 
 too Work. Dlble 
 CItpplngs. 
 
 Hymns. AH Can 
 lidos. Chaotii. 
 i:i Coltecls. En 
 tire Catecbism 
 Bible Passape^ 
 In longer aclec- 
 tloQS. Psalms, 
 etc. Older Pray 
 
 Age 
 
 of 
 llabit 
 
 Manual work. 
 Written answers. 
 Bible nnd pic- 
 ture Note Books 
 .Map-roiiklng (at 
 10) tn clay, 
 sand, pulp : Map- 
 t.-lorlng In crny 
 ■ <os. colors, dyes 
 .Modtls made and 
 dr.nwQ Symbolh 
 UriiwInKs. etc 
 
 Siercogrnphs 
 rtcporls on Prin- 
 ciples lived So 
 clal Work 
 
 Brolbrrbood 
 of David. 
 Older Guild 
 n t Holy 
 Cblld 
 Jun-r(5 P S 
 
 Junior Aux- 
 iliary. 
 
 At 12 years, 
 Knlsbts of 
 .sir Unlnbad 
 Knlcbts of 
 Kins Arthur. 
 
 Scouts. 
 Queens of 
 AvBlon 
 
 Older Private 
 Pra Weekly 
 Public Wor 
 ship. Afterio. 
 required twice 
 a week. Week- 
 d a y Services 
 Noonday Pray- 
 er for Missions 
 Cblldren'a Ku- 
 charlst. 
 
 Missionary Blog 
 r a p b 1 es. with 
 Story Studied 
 ;ind Told: Stere- 
 opUion Lectures. 
 Stereographs ol 
 Mission Fields- 
 Regular Mission- 
 ary Lessons, Map 
 making, models. 
 
 dressed dolls. 
 Missionary Boies 
 prepared Pic- 
 ture a of t h t 
 lie Ids 
 
 Lccturea on Dl 
 ble Stories. Child 
 heroes. MIsalOD 
 ary Biographies. 
 
 Same as ebov?. 
 wltb more wrlt- 
 K'Q Work Dls- 
 
 lUSSloD. SCCUH' 
 
 ■ oDtrul or rerlto- 
 tlon by pupils. 
 
 Nlcene Creed. 
 Hymna. Colletts, 
 Psulma. 1 Cor 
 Hi. Scrm. on Ml 
 sun Older Pniy 
 t-rs, Review o( 
 Canticles More 
 Prayer Book Se 
 
 Ace 
 
 of 
 
 M..rftl 
 
 Crisis 
 
 All of above 
 Add much Allru- 
 iMlc and Soitiil 
 W o r k . Lonyer 
 ICssays nnd Bl 
 oirrsipliles. Group 
 or gnng (Club, 
 rtrcanlzntlon, Be- 
 jiorls on work 
 (lone. etc. 
 
 Jr Aujlllory. 
 Jr O I- S. 
 i;ullds of S 
 Jobn and S 
 Maty. Wblt.- 
 
 rrosa t;ullds 
 Jun Urollii'i'- 
 b o d of S 
 Andrew 
 
 All above Holy 
 
 Self - examlan- 
 il..n (ildei 
 l-iayers. Medl 
 lullun, Devo- 
 tlunul Reading: 
 of lilblc. etc. 
 
 Study of the 
 llUtory of Mis- 
 sions Longer es- 
 say s, readings, 
 sillily of Missy 
 books Needs ol 
 Itie l-lelds. Best 
 opportunities for 
 wuik Particular 
 Prayers for Mia- 
 
 Lectures on Hu 
 [Dun Physiology 
 nnd Morals and 
 llenllb by Pbysl 
 rians HfBtorv of 
 Missions and Of 
 the growth of 
 the Cliurcb, Ch. 
 History. Cb. Id 
 America, 111. by 
 Stereoptlcon. etc 
 
 Historical and 
 broad Dlscus- 
 Monnl . Kssays. 
 IVrlltm Work 
 ronslriicti vo 
 ritib Idea. Svlt 
 muDngimeot. 
 
 Selections from 
 Bible Passages 
 csp. S. Jobo. S 
 Miittbew. R.v . 
 and M*sslaolt 
 Propbecleg, In 
 trospectlve Ma 
 terlal 
 
 Romance 
 
 and 
 Idvullty 
 
 Research work 
 on Special Top- 
 ics. Class con- 
 ducted by pupil 
 Uiidtra. Confer- 
 ences and DIs 
 cusslons. rather 
 than Itecltatlons 
 
 S r of a 1 1 
 above. Sr <; 
 1' S. Auxil- 
 iary. B S A . 
 l/ltlifrj f 
 
 <;ullds of s' 
 Paul nnd S 
 Catbarln.-.eli 
 
 All above Add 
 Worship at 
 Salnia' Days. 
 
 with Reports 
 .\ 1 1 f a bo v e, 
 
 vl.es. Mission 
 .iry Boxes. Con 
 (1u<t ..f Junior 
 Aiixlll«rv 
 
 Lectures OD Jew 
 Isb lire and cua 
 toms, History of 
 Israel, of Christ 
 Aposi Cb.. Mis 
 slun.'*. Making 
 Bible. Discover 
 1 es In Bible 
 Lands. 
 
 More Personal 
 Itesearcb Few 
 Questions. Sug- 
 L'fiillve respon- 
 -.lvi-aes.1. rupll- 
 leaders. Pupils 
 plao own work. 
 
 Selected Master 
 plecea from lit- 
 erary gema. Bib- 
 Ileal. Secular. 
 Poetical. OptloD- 
 
 Age 
 
 of 
 
 Decision 
 
 Same as above 
 More Individual 
 contribution to 
 discussion. re 
 search. tbca.-s 
 
 Woman's 
 
 Auxiliary 
 Bro. of H- An- 
 drew. Daucb 
 t.rs of Ibe 
 Kloir. Sanct 
 uary (bop 
 
 As above 
 
 Mission Study 
 riassea. Boxes. 
 Work. Prayers. 
 Noontide I'rny- 
 eis. etc All OS 
 
 Lectures on lives 
 of M a r t y r • . 
 Saints. Prayer 
 Book . History. 
 Social Work. 
 etc.. tn addition 
 to above aub 
 J t c t a. Qeoeral 
 
 Teaching. Use of 
 siereoptlcdta oc 
 
 Same as abovc- 
 
 Optlooal 
 
 Age 
 
 Conserv- 
 
 at lam 
 
 Same as nbovc. 
 
 .Same as 
 
 As above. 
 
 As above. Great- 
 er giving. 
 
 As above. 
 
 yean. 12. 13 or 14. 13 
 
 10. IT. 18. 20. 21. and Electlyes. I'or tbc SMiLL Scbool, uw 
 
 ■ trade eath year. 
 
 New York. Mounted on rollers and clolh-backed. 14jil7 inches, 50 cents; on paper, 25 cents. 
 
142 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Graded Lessons, etc., but they all follow the same sequence 
 of Topics, and the same general plan, less elaborately 
 worked out. 
 
 Of course, in churches that do not have Lessons on the 
 Christian Year, Prayer Book, and Catechism, these topics are 
 replaced by Biblical Material. 
 
 The Curriculum of the New York Sunday School Commission. 
 
 This Curriculum is practically the fStandard to-day as an 
 all-round curriculum, for the Episcopal Church and for other 
 Eeligious Bodies. It follows the same subjects as the official 
 Curriculum of the Joint Commission of the Episcopal 
 Church (now the General Board of Eeligious Education) and 
 of the Sunday School Federation. In fact it was the norm 
 or basis from which these two were compiled, but it also 
 presents in tabular form certain other essential points, which 
 must be constantly borne in mind hj every teacher in the 
 education of the child. The Curriculum evolved by that Com- 
 mission was a gradual growth, an evolution, unfolded step by 
 step by the production of a Series of Lesson Manuals, each 
 one a link in the Curriculum. 
 
 Psychological Principles of Child Nature under which this Cur- 
 riculum is Planned. 
 
 The Kindergarten and Primary Schools. Commenc- 
 ing at the Kindergarten and Primary Schools, there should be 
 rather a sharp line of separation drawn at five-and-a-half or 
 six years of age, putting none under the former age in the 
 Primary School proper. The Primary School itself would 
 then include from six (or thereabout) up to the reading age, 
 usually eight or eight-and-a-half. Do not call either school 
 "Infants." No one is an "infant" over one year old. A 
 baby name yields baby work. 
 
 The system should be based upon two principles : (a) That 
 very small children can appreciate only the concrcie, and have 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 143 
 
 no proper conception of either time or space. Naturally they 
 cannot have, for both of these realizations are only possible 
 through actual experience, and the child's experience up to 
 this period is but limited ! Hence, on the one hand, Bible 
 Stories are best suited to the ability of such minds; and, in 
 the second place, the order of these stories is best not chrono- 
 logical but topical, according to subject and moral; making 
 each story a concrete and graphic whole, a polished mosaic as 
 it were, ready finished, to be fitted into the complete historical 
 scheme as it is presented at a later age. 
 
 All educators agree that the appreciation of a "system" 
 involves abstract elements, such as relationships, cause and 
 effect, chronology, space, etc. Then a ^'system'' is unpeda- 
 gogical for instruction, prior to adolescence, when reflection 
 and causal relations are developed. The individual truths of 
 a system, concrete and topical, can be taught very early, in 
 the Kindergarten and Primary Age. They are parts of the 
 great system of Truth. Each can be taught in detail, and, 
 as such, will be complete in itself. Later on, they will be 
 welded into the general "system," of which they form a part. 
 
 Such stories, well taught, particularly in this period, when 
 memory is vital, strong, and retentive, are almost never for- 
 gotten. They form a groundwork for future grasp of the 
 general History of the Bible. 
 
 (6) It is agreed to-day by the best artists in educational 
 circles, that very young children can appreciate detailed 
 pictures, such as half-tones, etc., and do not care for inartistic 
 and crude outline representations. The artistic sense is closely 
 akin to the religious instinct, and it can and should be deeply 
 awakened at an early period in childhood. 
 
 Therefore, it is felt by many that such outline devices as 
 dotted-line cards for sewing, pricking-in pin-holes, coloring 
 with crayons or paints, etc., though excellent so far as they 
 go, are not the hest that can be used. But manifestly some- 
 
14-1 TILE EI.K.MKNTS OK C'lllED STUDY 
 
 thing should be supplied in addition to the description of the 
 Bible Story and the illustrations of it in colored chalks on 
 the blackboard, both of which are essential. 
 
 We must give the child, concrete as he is, a vivid mental 
 picture of the subject, something he can comprehend and 
 visualize. More and more to-day we are becoming a visualiz- 
 ing people. More and more we depend upon pictures and 
 illustrations in our current reading to convey to us, adults 
 even as we are, the rapid and proper conception of tlie whole 
 subject in hand. Give the child, therefore, a picture. Use 
 pictures right through, even up to, and including, Bible Class 
 work. Give several representations of the same subject, that 
 an erroneous conception may be prevented l)y the realization 
 at the outset, that all of such illustrations are but human 
 ideals, human imaginings, of the noblest possible trutli cm- 
 bodied in a Story that appeals to every age and race. 
 
 We must provide for the child's self-activity, his own 
 self-expression, the doing side, his sliare in the lesson under- 
 taken. Give him something active and pi'aetical to do. It 
 will color the whole lesson, because it is the share that he 
 contributes to the work. Teach the lesson vei-hally, using 
 large wall pictures, blackl)oard drawings, and models, if the 
 last ])e ap])lical)le to the subjects. Then give out a penny or 
 half-cent })ictui'e l)earing upon the topic, one lo each child. 
 Provide each child with a Picture jMounting Note iJook. Bet- 
 ter let him buy the book liimself, thus ]>r()vidiiig wisely I'oi' 
 the value of ownersliip, which is a most I'l-uitful iusiiuct in 
 arousing interest, and let the school supply the ])ictiii'es. The 
 cost of the pictures, even for a large school, is money well 
 expended. Large one-cent pictures are heltt'i- (linn hall'-ccnt. 
 which are too small for the best ap])i'eciation at that age. The 
 ])ictures are gummed in by the children, during the time 
 allowed each session Un- manual woi'k, using little gummed 
 stickers, flavored with wintorgreen, purchased at (il'teen cents 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 145 
 
 per liuiidrcd from Dcnuison (No. a34). There is no muciJuge 
 nor dirt in the operation. Tims a Picture Bible is provided, 
 through whicli the chikl is tauglit not only the lesson hut re- 
 ligious art; and the parents are interested in the study o£ 
 God's Word hy seeing the hook taken home each week, and 
 thus directly aligned with the work tlie Sunday School is en- 
 deavoring to do. 
 
 The pictures are tahulated by kinds and makers in the 
 Picture Handl)ook (Sunday School Commission, 9 cents, 
 postpaid), and we would urge the reader to carefully study 
 the remarks relating to the choice and use of pictures in the 
 graded school. 
 
 The principles of the Kindergarten — as enunciated by its 
 great exponent, Froebel — are always applicable to every kind 
 of teaching in every place, Sunday School as well as Public 
 School. Some of the methods of the Kindergarten, however, 
 are not always adaptable for use in the Sunday School. 
 
 The Kindergarten Gifts stand for principles. For ex- 
 ample, the First Gift is applied in the Sunday School by the 
 wonderful teaching of the Old, Testament and Life of Clirist 
 courses, Wonder Stories, so-called, written in picture language, 
 that are so much more comprehensive to the young child than 
 to us who have lost our early vision. Such Bible stories are 
 closely akin to child nature at the early stage. Their glowing 
 life-forms speak tenderly of the loving character of the good 
 God. 
 
 The Second Gift Period, where children begin to want 
 noise and motion, is met by the tramp of Israel marching in 
 the Exodus, and the Conquest, and by dramatization. Much 
 of the noise and movement of the younger children, usually 
 so distracting, can be made valuable teaching assets in the 
 kindergarten school. 
 
 In the Primary School there will be the same principles 
 of exercise or activity as in the Kindergarten, save that the 
 
146 THE ELEMENTS OF CH1].D STUDY 
 
 exercise will be in the line of Manual Work, or movement in 
 recitation, Blackboard, Sand Table, Marching. There will 
 not be the so-called "exercises," nor the use of the gifts. 
 
 Children can be taught for a longer period without weari- 
 ness. The same general subject matter, however, will appeal. 
 Old Testament Stories, Nature Stories, and Life of Christ 
 Stories. The duties of Eeverence, Obedience, etc., are incul- 
 cated. 
 
 The aim would be to plant in the heart of the cliild a})pre- 
 ciation of God's Power, "Wisdom, Love, and Care for His 
 children as the ground for inculcating obedience and love; 
 inspiring reverence and worship as centering in the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments. 
 
 THE MAIN SCHOOL. 
 Grammak or Elementary School.— Junior and Inter- 
 mediate Departments. 
 
 This corresponds to the Grammar School, or Elementary, 
 in secular education, and it is often called by tliat name. It 
 will embrace children from the reading age to Confirmation 
 or beyond, say fourteen or fifteen 3'ears old. The best method, 
 as suggested, is the Heuristic or Source IMetliod, so potent 
 and so popular to-day. This demands actual recourse to the 
 original sources of information and instruction, i.e., the 
 Bible, the Prayer Book, Church History, etc., as the original 
 source of study, the nearest we can get to the sources. It 
 means putting the Bible. Prayer Book, etc., tangibly into 
 the very hands of the children for reference and individual 
 home study, both in the Sunday School hour and in tlie 
 home preparation of tlie lessons. 
 
 Grade III. — Grammar School. (About 8 or 1) years old). 
 Catechism, Prayer Book, Church Year. 
 
 There are three sul)jccts with which a child of the Epis- 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 147 
 
 copal and Lutheran Churches in this first grade ought to be- 
 come acquainted, in outline at least. 
 
 (a) The Text of the Catechism, because it is the very 
 best memoriter age of the whole child life. What is learned 
 noAv is practically never forgotten. 
 
 (h) Some Knowledge of How to Use the Prayer Book. 
 Here we require the child to attend Public Worship at least 
 once a week, not as compulsory Church, but as a training in 
 the Services. But to attend either intelligently or enjoyably, 
 he must know how to use the Prayer Book. So, while we 
 spend one-half a year on the Catechism, which is an abundant 
 period, if we teach it rightly, with the use of the Step Method, 
 we devote the second half-year to the study of the Prayer 
 Book. 
 
 (c) Some knowledge of tlie Christian Year. This should 
 come noAv for three reasons. First, the great hindrance to a 
 proper series of lesson manuals in the Past was the distortion 
 of any Course by a desire to conform its teaching to the 
 Church Year. ISTow no course, even one on the Life of Christ. 
 can be mapped out in due proportion, if we follow the brief 
 Church Year. The Church Year was never intended for 
 Sunday School Lessons, but for Public Services. It needs to 
 be taught, however, for a clear appreciation of the Services. 
 Teach it, in connection with the Catechism and Prayer Book, 
 every Sunday through the Course, devoting five minutes 
 thereto, using the Deaconess Patterson Chart, Pictures of 
 Events and Saints, the Coloration of the Day or Season, and 
 the Ehyme of the Christian Year. A good plan for a brief 
 and interesting lesson is to mount a series of large cards 
 (22x28 inches) with all the penny pictures on that subject 
 (say Christmas or St. Thomas Day), adding a strip of 
 colored ribbon to tlie card for the color of the day, keeping 
 the series on hand in tlie Library, to be loaned out as required 
 each Sundav. 
 
148 THE ELKxMENTS OE CHILD STUDY 
 
 Grades IV. and V. — Grammar School. (About 9 or lU to 
 11 or 13 years old). 
 
 01(1 I'cstaiiu'nt Stoi'ies. 
 
 Sonic schools arc able to combine the study of (Jrade III.. 
 with direct Bible Work, and begin the First Grade of the 
 Main School with Old Testament Stories, which we liavc 
 hei'cin put as Crade 11., and make a comliination lesson each 
 Sunday, dividing tlie time between Old Testament Stories 
 and the Catechism, Prayer Book, and Church Yi'ar. 'I'licre 
 is no objection to this plan, cither practically oi" pc(hig(>gi- 
 cally, provided neither subject be neglected, and the hour be 
 sufficiently long for uninterrupted study. The only danger 
 seems to be the neglect or perfunctory teaching of the 
 Catechism, which, as foundation pi-inciples, is too significant 
 to be set aside to secondary place. 
 
 Grade VI. — Girnuiiiar Srliool. (About 11 or 12 years old). 
 
 Life of Jesus C*hrist. 
 
 XoTE ox Map AVork vhom this Ckade ox. 
 
 Befi'inninff with this "rade, or even at the age of ten in 
 the previous gi-ade, maps ai'c im})erative to successful teach- 
 ing. There should be three series of nuips, almost constantly 
 in use from this age forward in all the grades, right through 
 the so-called Bible Classes. 
 
 (1) SnuiU class uuips, showing the physical contour of 
 the Holy Land and the Roman l^hupirc, since much of the 
 Histoi-y of the Chosen People was coiulitioned directly by 
 their environment. 
 
 (2) Many small outline maps, in which the pupils may 
 insert cities, rivers, journeys, etc., both enabling them to 
 locate properly and permanently, and ))roviding for interest, 
 self-activity, and comparison. 
 
 (3) A good set of the best descriptive and historical maps 
 obiainahlc. These shoiihl l)c foi' wall use, not too large, 
 
GRADING THE Sl^XDAY SCHOOL 149 
 
 with not too many and confusing names and drawings ; clear, 
 accurate, and distinct. There is a great room for study and 
 judgment in the selection of such maps. Some of the 
 cheapest are the best, while the most costly are the most inac- 
 curate. It is better to have many small, clear maps scattered 
 through each room, than a few large and expensive ones. 
 Five maps of St. Paul's journeys, for example, hung low 
 down where children can study them at finger-end, costing 
 $1.00 each, are infinitely more resultful than one $5.00 map 
 hung high, and out of clear range. 
 
 Orade VII. — Grammar School. (About 13 or 13 years old). 
 Junior Teachings of Christ, or Apostolic Leaders. 
 
 In some schools this grade is omitted, and the scholars 
 pass on to Grade VIII., on Old Testament History. There 
 is a choice offered of either one or two courses. Some schools 
 take up both courses, and move the Old Testament History 
 Course one year further on still. 
 
 Grade VIII. — Grammar School. (About 13 or 14 years old). 
 Old Testament History or Biography. 
 
 Now is the age when the Historical Appreciation is tuell- 
 developed, and the Concrete Stories of the Old Testament, 
 studied without special regard to chronology and historic 
 setting in the early grades, can be welded together into a 
 l)right and vivid outline course on Old Testament History. 
 We therefore take this subject up now. 
 
 Grade I. — High School, or Secondarij School. (Al)out 13 
 
 or 14 years old). 
 
 Life of Christ as the Messiah. 
 
 After an appreciation of the Preparation of the World 
 for the Coming of Cod's Son, Jesus Christ, our Lord, most 
 naturally comes the Study of the Divine Clirist as the Messiali, 
 fulfilling all Prophecy. So Ave take up tliis subject, Avith 
 deeper Thought-Questions, as contrasted with the simpler, 
 
l:)0 THE ELEIMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 concrete Fact-Questions tliat characterize the Study of His 
 Life in the earlier Grade. As in tlie former Grades, Picture 
 and Map Work ought to he prominent. Picture Biographies, 
 written in Note Books, with drawings, maps, and longer 
 essays, with certainly some original research work, ought to 
 be main features in these classes, if really productive work 
 be expected. 
 
 Grade II. — High School. (x\))0ut 14 or 15 years old). 
 Christian Doctrine, or Teachings of Christ, the Messiah. 
 
 It is felt by a growing number in the Church, that our 
 Religious Schools owe it to the youth they take in hand, to 
 educate them fully for their complete spiritual environment. 
 Every scholar therefore ought to have a thorough course in 
 Church Doctrine and Teachings, and not alone the selected 
 few of the Confirmation Class. Hence a course of Church 
 Doctrine is inserted at this point. This is the age of doubt — 
 of intellectual stonn and stress, of settling one's own faith 
 and religion. It is seen in the deeper, abstract, philosophical 
 thought-questions that now crop up; in the reading of infidel 
 books, not because they attract, but because they seem to 
 answer the surging questions of doubt, and give an ansAver 
 to the active reason. Statements now arc not taken for 
 granted. Reason demands proof. Facts are carefully 
 weighed. A reason for the faith is demanded, and should be 
 given fearlessly, candidly, fruitfully. 
 
 Hence this Doctrine Course should be intellectual, pro- 
 gressive, fearless, and thorough, going on the source method 
 directly to the Catechism, Prayer Book, and Bible, giving a 
 complete review of the Faith once delivered to the Saints. 
 
 Fosi-Gnuluaie School. 
 In the Post-Graduate School, tlie following subjects may 
 be taken, and it would be a good ])lau to allow tliein to be 
 chosen as elective courses, thus giving an incentive to the 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 151 
 
 older scholars by an attractive list of studies, and the prin- 
 ciple of choice on tlie part of the High School students. 
 
 The list should include Apostolic Church History, Church 
 History, the Epistles of the Xcw Testament, the Prophets of 
 the Old Testament, the Church at "Work Socially (Christian 
 Sociology), Modern IMissions, History of the Prayer Book, 
 Making of the Bible, Hymns and Hymn Writers, Non-Christ- 
 ian Religions and CJhristianity, and Eeligious Pedagogy. 
 The Best Practical Way to Set About Grading. 
 
 Many so-called graded schools fail in a few months, and 
 sometimes throw out the graded system as the result, because 
 neither officers, teachers, pupils, nor parents understand 
 what they are doing, or what the graded system is, or what 
 part they play in the curriculum of the school. 
 
 Make a List first of all pupils, arranged alphabetically, 
 by name. Indicate age, address, and Day School Grade. 
 Arrange in Classes l)y the Day School Standing all third 
 grades together(i.('., al:)out 8 years old) ; all fourth grades, 
 etc. If the school be too small for single grades of separated 
 boys and girls, use the plan given for the small school. 
 Either place boys and girls together, or combine the two 
 adjoining grades in one class, according to the Small School 
 Grading Plan. 
 
 Then next, do not fail to use a little Printer's Ink. 
 Most schools fail right here. After a year, the teachers and 
 pupils become discouraged and Avant all one subject. Or 
 Miss Jones wants to teach the "interesting book Miss Brown 
 has," and sees no reason why her class may not have it. It 
 is because the Teachers and Pupils do not know what tlie 
 system is, do not grasp the Curriculum, do not sec wliat 
 wheel each one is in the general machinery. 
 
 Issue a little folder like the sample l)elow. Print an 
 abundance of them. Circulate them freely. Give one to 
 every scholar, every parent, every teaclier. Sow them broad- 
 
152 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHIJ.l) STUDY 
 
 cast in the town. It is good and conservative advertising. It 
 works well every time. Here is the sample. 
 
 [Pace 1] 
 
 St. Andrew's Church School 
 of Christian Practice 
 
 Fifth Avenue and 
 
 One-hundred-twenty-seventh Street 
 
 Harlem 
 
 New York City 
 
 School Session Meets at Nine-Thirt}) Sharp 
 Each Lord's Da^ Morning 
 
 Teachers' Training Class, Mondays, 8:15 P.M. 
 
 (The Attendance of ever}) Teacher is Expected, 
 for Efficient IVorff) 
 
 OUR MOTTO: 
 
 Every Scholar present Every Sunday. 
 
 Every Scholar present ON TIME. 
 
 Every Scholar Studying Every Lesson Each Week 
 
 at HOME. 
 
 Every Scholar Saying Private Prayers at Home, 
 
 Morning an& Evening. 
 Every Parent Helping the Scholar in Home Work. 
 Every Scholar in Attendance at at least ONE 
 
 CHURCH SERVICE EACH WEEK. 
 
 Every Scholar a Christian, a Churchman, and a 
 
 Becoming Example. 
 Every Young Person in Every Home, from Three 
 
 to Twenty-one a Scholar with US HERE. 
 
 1912--1913 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 153 
 
 [Page 2] 
 
 OUR GRADING AND CURRICULUM 
 
 The KinJergarlen School (to 6 years). 
 
 Stories from the Old Testament, New Testament, and 
 Nature. Kindergarten methods. 
 
 The Primary School (to Third Grade Public School). 
 Similar Stories with older treatment. 
 
 The Grammar School. 
 GRADE, PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 
 III. — Class of 192! — Catechism, Christian Year, Old 
 Testament Stories. 
 
 IV.— Class of 1920— Use of Prayer Book, Old Testa- 
 ment Stories, Christian Year. 
 
 V. — Class of 1919 — Junior Historical Life of Christ. 
 
 VI. — Class of 1918 — Early Christian Leaders. 
 
 VII. — Class of 1917 — Old Testament History as the Prep- 
 aration for the Messiah. 
 
 VIII.— Class of 1916— Life of Christ the Messiah. 
 
 The High School. 
 
 IH — Class of 1915 — The History of the Apostolic Church. 
 II H — Class of 1914 — Christian Doctrine. 
 H— Class of 1913— Church History. 
 
 The Posl-Craduate School. 
 Normal and Bible Classes. 
 Elective Subjects. 
 
 Special Classes will be organized for Young Men and for 
 Young Women. 
 
 (Note — All Scholars will be assigned to Classes ONLY 
 by the Principal or the Superintendent.) 
 
154 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 [Page 3] 
 
 SCHOOL RULES 
 
 We want no unnecessary Rules. Rules are only intended 
 for USE. They are to help each one to help each one 
 else, so that, without selfish infringement of rights, each 
 one may do his work, "mind his own busmess" and as- 
 sist others to do likewise. Therefore ALL Scholars should 
 delight for the good, honor, and welfare of the School, in 
 seeing that these few Rules are properly KEPT. 
 
 For All 
 
 Be REGULAR and Always on TIME. This School ex- 
 pects it, just as Public School does. Study the Les- 
 son AT HOME FAITHFULLY each week. 
 
 For Teachers 
 All the Rules on "Rule Sheet" with such items below 
 as concerns them. 
 
 For Scholars 
 Always get Special Permission from the Teacher to leave 
 
 the Class at any time during Lesson Hour. 
 'tS'Remember that Inattention, Loud Talking, Noise, etc., 
 
 disturb the rights of OTHERS. You have rights, 
 
 respect theirs. Do not injure the School. 
 We Expect Just the Same Conduct in EVERY WAY in 
 
 the Church School that you show in Public School. 
 
 This will guide you, in place of many Rules. This 
 
 is primarily a School. 
 «3rYOU ARE EXPECTED to Attend at least ONE 
 
 SERVICE IN CHURCH A WEEK. This is not 
 
 "Compulsory Church," but our duty to train you in 
 proper Worship, just as we do in the Bible. You will 
 be marked for this the following Lord's Day. 
 
 A REPORT will be sent HOME to your Parents regularly 
 showing Attendance, both at School and Church, 
 Conduct, Offering, and Study of Lesson. 
 
 All Diplomas, Certificates, Honors, and Graduation de- 
 pend on the high Standing of these Records. It is 
 to your personal advantage to stand well. 
 
 Remember that the Purpose of this School is YOUR 
 GOOD, to help YOU to become a worthy, noble 
 man or woman, a credit to your God, your Church, 
 your Home, your Country. Help us to maintain a 
 high standard for the School, and to make it the 
 best and most helpful School in Harlem. 
 
 Bring EVERY other Yo-jng Person, not already connected 
 with any School, and we will try to help such a one 
 as well. The Spirit of JESUS CHRIST, our Saviour, 
 is the Spirit of Service and Helpfulness to OTHERS. 
 
 i 
 
GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL 155 
 
 [Page 4] 
 
 LIST OF OFFICERS AND TEACHERS 
 
 The plan of putting "Class of/' etc., is far better psy- 
 eliologically than Class I., Class II., etc., or even than Class 
 A, Class B, etc. The moral effect on the pupils is to keep 
 them banded together as a Class \init, and to hold them in 
 the School until the graduating point. They do not drop out 
 so readily in this way. Some Schools prefer not to commence 
 "Class of" nomenclature until adolescence (say 13 or 13 
 years old), using "Grade I.," etc., earlier, with the idea in 
 mind that young children may be discouraged by looking 
 too far ahead. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What is a Graded Sunday School? Explain Fully. 
 
 2. On what principles is the Graded Sunday School based? 
 
 3. What is practical Grading? 
 
 4. What basis of Grading is the best to follow? Why? 
 
 5. How would you grade a small school? Map out a definite plan 
 
 for such a school. 
 G. On what principles would a proper Curriculum be based? 
 Explain. 
 
 7. Show how these principles are followed in the sample Curriculum 
 
 given. 
 
 8. Explain the principles of the Kindergarten and Primary Schools, 
 
 showing why certain studies are taken, how they are treated 
 and how psychological instincts are met by such treatment. 
 
 9. Do the same for Grade I., Grammar School. 
 
 10. Map out a definite Curriculum from Grade II., Grammar to 
 
 High School, showing i:)rinciples and their application. 
 
 11. What subjects should be considered in the High and Post Grad- 
 
 uate Schools? 
 
 12. What mechanical devices are helpful in securing intelligent co- 
 
 operation of teachers, pupils, and parents? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER X. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 
 
 SUGGESTED HEADING: 
 
 How TO Plan the Lessox, lirotrn. 
 
 How to Conduct the Recitation, McMurry. 
 
 The IMethod of the Recitation, McMurry. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 The Lesson. 
 
 Needful Steps: 1. Prayer — [a) For Guidance at Start; {h) For 
 Application and for Pupils' Needs, at the End. 2. Wide Reading. 
 3. Keep at least One Lesson Ahead of Pupils, enabling one to 
 plan out Home Study for the Class, and Assign New Lesson 
 Intelligently at the Close of Hour. 4. Have a Good Teacher's 
 Reference Bible and use it. 5. Use a Proper Text Book — Source 
 Method, if possible. 
 
 Proper Text Books Should Have: 1. Broad, Suggestive Preliminary 
 Review Questions; 2. Questions for Home Study with Written 
 Answers; 3. Questions for Class Discussion; 4. Research Ques- 
 tions; 5. Manual Work. 
 
 These all follow the Standard Ilcrliartian Steps, i.e., 1. Preparation; 
 2. Presentation; 3. Association or Elaboration; 4. Generalization, 
 Recapitulation, Reproduction; 5. Practical Application. 
 
 Otlier Points in Lesson Preparation — 
 
 Lesson Title. Striking, Now, Attractive. 
 
 Question Metliod best for Introduction. 
 
 Correlation with Other Fields of Knowledge. 
 
 Induction a Better Method tlian Deduction, and always to be 
 
 used with Younger Cliildren. 
 Importance of Frequent Reviews. 
 Examinations test our Work as well as that of the Pupils. 
 
 Show the way the Class liave Apprehended the Teaching. 
 Typos in Teaching an Aid to Time in saving Repetition of Same 
 Characterislics. 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 157 
 
 Gain the "Point of Contact" in Teaching. 
 
 Children do not See Cause and Effect when young. 
 
 What One Knows, One Knows only by Experience. 
 
 The Small Child Knows only the Concrete. 
 
 What is First, as Cause, may be Last as Experience to tlie 
 
 Child. 
 Always Proceed fi'om the Known to the Unknown. 
 How Much Children Know. 
 
 Compare Country and City Children. 
 Explore Children's Minds. 
 Note Their Small Vocabulary. 
 Apperception is only Grafting the Known to the Unknowr 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 
 
 How to Prepare to Study the Lesson. 
 
 (1) There is one tretnendous, priinordinl "First Step" 
 for a Sunday School Teacher to take, in commencing the 
 preparation of the Lesson Study; and yet, strange to say, 
 it is the one step above all others that many teachers entirely 
 omit. It is prayer, for if ever we require the help of God's 
 Holy Spirit, "to guide us unto all Truth," to take of the 
 tilings of God and show them unto us, it is here where we 
 are preparing to guide other immortal souls than our own 
 into the "Way of Truth," into the plains of peace. 
 
 The first law of the lesson is that of Prayer, not a prayer. 
 Between jirayer and a prayer there is all the difference that 
 there is between heat and cold. A Prayer may be dead, cold, 
 formal, lifeless. Prayer is the spirit permeating tlie charac- 
 ter. Prayer is a state; an atmosphere surrounding a life. 
 The right knowledge of the Sunday School Lesson is possible 
 only through the help of tlio Spirit. Prayer is tlie breatli 
 of the Spirit. 
 
 What a teacher ought to do is to kneel down at first, and, 
 as it were, bury the liead in tlio arm and sliut out tbe world. 
 It may not be so much what the teacher says, l)ut the atmos- 
 phere that will pervade her, as a result of that five minutes 
 of communion with God. There will be a zeal, an interest, 
 an alertness, an apj^lication, a patience to dig out details, and 
 go into the deepest research. The ])ractieal application of 
 the spiritual truth to tlie lives of scholars will never come 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 159 
 
 from mere cold, intellectual preparation. It needs God's 
 Spirit. And the shorter the time for preparation, the more 
 necessary is this primal period of Prayer. 
 
 There is another period of Prayer that will come later 
 on, at the close of the lesson. The first was the communion 
 with God, getting in touch with Him, obtaining His guidance, 
 and the atmosphere of the Holy Spirit. The closing Prayer, 
 after the work has been done, as a Prayer of Application. The 
 teacher now kneels, and, with the lesson material in mind, 
 and the individual scholars, their natures and their needs, 
 in view, bears each name personally before the Throne of 
 Grace, that His Spirit may prepare the hearts of the scholars 
 to receive the ingrafted word, and guide the teacher into the 
 selection of the right material, the right treatment, and the 
 right words to make God's work most effective. 
 
 The teacher herself will be spiritually uplifted and will 
 gain perhaps more than the scholars as the result of these 
 Periods of Prayer. "It is axiomatic," says Professor Burton, 
 "that the teacher who gains no spiritual help from his study 
 will impart none in his teachings." If his method of study 
 is such that it brings him no uplift or strength, it can hardly 
 have a different effect upon his pupils. Dr. Trumbull adds : 
 "The teacher's spirit, the teacher's character, and the teach- 
 er's life impress and influence the pupil quite as much as 
 the teacher's words." 
 
 (2) The second recommendation is "Read! read! read!" 
 There is no way to absorb the general, all-around knowledge 
 necessary for teaching any lesson for a half-hour, without 
 prolonged, patient Eeading. The Sunday School is no place 
 for "shirkers." It is no place for the lady of fashion, who 
 desires merely the "honor" of being a teacher in Church, and 
 has "no time to prepare the lesson until Sunday morning." 
 Read much and read widely. Do not be content with just 
 enough knowledge to answer the printed Questions. Do not 
 
160 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 be content, either, Mith tlie small condensed summary, con- 
 tained in the Teacher's Aid. Get other books recommended, 
 either by purchase, or from some library. There are few- 
 schools that Mali not gladly make a strenuous effort to supply 
 books to any teacher who is really willing to study, and 
 perfect knowledge. The difficulty is that the generality of 
 teachers take up teaching as a "side play." 
 
 The teacher should visit the public schools, and should 
 spend a week seeing the various studies of the particular 
 grade which she is teaching in the Sunday School. She 
 should also examine their Public School text books, in order 
 that she may know how much they know, and may correlate 
 the Public School work with the Sunday School work. 
 
 (3) Keep at least one entire Lesson ahead of your pupils, 
 both in order that you may be able to give suggestions to 
 them, in assigning work for the next Lesson, that they may 
 avoid the difficulties you have discovered ; and also that, when 
 you come to teach that lesson, it may be a second review to 
 you, thoroughly familiar in all its phases and sides, from 
 your own first review that week. Thus you will study two 
 lessons a week; one in advance and in review for the teaching 
 that ensuing Sunday. 
 
 In a well-ordered Sunday School, if the entire session is 
 to be one hour in length, the opening service ought not to 
 take more than five or ten minutes. The lesson period should 
 have forty minutes assigned to it, which leaves fifteen minutes 
 to the routine work of the school, i.e., marking the class, 
 taking up the collection, giving out the library books, an- 
 nouncements, and closing service. 
 
 The forty minutes of the lesson liour should never be 
 interrupted. It is not the time for the Superintendent or tlie 
 Secretary to go from class to class, and chat with the young 
 ladies. It is the period sacred to the teachers and the pupils. 
 Ten minutes before that period is ended, some signal should 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 161 
 
 be given from tlie desk^ which means that there remain ten 
 minutes, five of which can be devoted to finishing the present 
 lesson, gathering up loose ends, etc., and live minutes to talk 
 over and explain the succeeding lesson. The teacher ought 
 to be able to say, when that point is reached : "Now, scholars, 
 open 5'^our text books, and we will talk over next Sunday's 
 lesson." 
 
 One should make it a general rule that on Monday, or not 
 later than Tuesday, one will study the advance lesson. On 
 Thursday, and not later than Friday, one will review the les- 
 son to be taught on the next Sunday; which, of course, has 
 been first studied on the Monday or Tuesday of the preceding 
 week. Thus, all through the week, the lessons will be in 
 mind, and material along the line of illustrations will be 
 constantly acquired, as the teacher lives through the week 
 days intervening. 
 
 (4) Have a Teachers' Reference Bible, if possible — such 
 as the cheap $3.75 book known as the "Combination Bible," 
 which has both Authorized and Revised Versions with all 
 the usual Aids, Concordance, and Maps. At least have a 
 small Bible of your own, and mark it in ink, as need requires 
 for subsequent use. (IMrs. Menzie's Marking system is not 
 a bad one to use) . 
 
 (5) The Text Booh is the crux of the teaching. With 
 Question-and- Answer Books you can do little but parrot-work. 
 You are a machine. Your individuality is taken away. Most 
 of the suggestions following will be useless with such a book. 
 With any other System supplying Questions for which An- 
 swers are to be sought from the Bible (or even printed sec- 
 tions of it), or from the Prayer Book, you have some measure 
 of freedom. 
 
 The best Text Book, however, is one that is built on the 
 Heuristic {i.e., Finding) or Source Method, and it becomes, 
 then, barely more than a guide for research, a suggestive 
 
162 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Handbook Outline for study. The development of the Les- 
 son in Class then lies more in your own hands. 
 
 Text Books to-day on this method have the following 
 characteristics: (a) Broad, suggestive Eeview Questions, for 
 Eapid Oral Answers, covering a wide outlook, and making 
 pedagogical connection of the new lesson, with those of the 
 series thus far. (b) Questions for Home Study with Pre- 
 pared Answers, written in order, first, to fix the knowledge 
 more firmly through pedagogical act of driving it home by 
 writing it down; second, to ascertain that sufficient home 
 study has been accorded it. (c) Questions for Class Discus- 
 sion, based on the general Home Study, new, live, interesting, 
 provoking active expression, in place of the usual dead, dry, 
 monotonous recitation. (d) Questions to be assigned for 
 Particular Eesearch, such as certain obscure Geographical, 
 Historical, Archseological, or Critical points, (e) Provision 
 in the amplest form for the use of Maps, Pictures, Illustra- 
 tive Objects ; for the development of Practical Handwork, the 
 making of Maps, Objects, drawing of routes, insertion of 
 cities on outline maps, etc. Such Lessons demand work, hard 
 work. They are difficult to teach, and are apt to be most 
 unsatisfactory under incompetent, lazy, or indifferent teach- 
 ers; but they are the best; the ideal, to be sure; but just in 
 accord with the present Day School System, and at once recog- 
 nized as such, and appreciated and respected accordingly by 
 all bright, earnest scholars. 
 
 All forms of Teaching have definite logical steps or 
 method. As Inductive Teaching is the more usual form 
 to-day, there are many who Avrongly imagine that this type 
 is the only one to which formal steps may be adapted. We 
 will study the formal steps in this type first, before consider- 
 ing the other types. 
 
HOW TO PRl'JPARE THE LESSOX 1G3 
 
 The Herbartian or Formal Steps in Inductive Studies. 
 
 The teaching scheme which follows we owe in its complete- 
 ness to the disciples of the German philosopher and educa- 
 tionist, Herbart, of whom, as compared with another f anions 
 inventor of methods, it has been well said Herbart magnified 
 the work of the teacher; Froebel magnified the work of the 
 child. It is just because Herbart thought so much about the 
 teacher's part in education, that his ideas have spread so 
 rapidly. His hints come rapidly to hand and are capable 
 of immediate application. This teaching scheme consists of 
 five divisions or stages, which may be adapted, according to 
 subject and circumstances, either to a single lesson or to a 
 series — one, or perhaps two, of the divisions forming a single 
 lesson of the series. These steps are : 
 
 (a) Preparation. Just as the farmer plows his ground, 
 and prepares it for seed, you should prepare your class for the 
 new lesson. Write out Questions, making up new ones, differ- 
 ent from those in your text book. Be prepared to call up the 
 related knowledge that is lying dormant in the minds of 3^our 
 children. This step corresponds to the Preliminary Review 
 Questions at the beginning of each lesson. No matter how 
 hurried the time may be, these must never be omitted, because 
 they form the connecting link which joins the unknown to 
 the known. Imagine the farmer saying: "Oh, Spring is so 
 late, and I have so much to do, and so many fields to plant, 
 and my time is so short, I will omit the plowing, and will 
 just sow the seed!" The plowing is essential to the growth 
 of the seed, and can never be omitted, and yet some teachers 
 think the review unessential. The Eeview Questions should 
 be broad and striking, welding together all the previous ana- 
 logous material ; not minute in detail. For example, suppose 
 the class has had four lessons on the Life of David, up to his 
 meeting with Goliath. A poor Review Question would be. 
 
104 'I'llK KLKMENT.S OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 "111 what city was J)avid born?"' A good Review Question 
 would be, "Will someone, whom I shall name, tell me in four 
 sentences the four chief events of David's life up to our 
 present lesson?" The scholars begin to think. "Four chief 
 events; does she mean foui* in one lesson; or one in each of 
 the four; or two in one and one of each of the other two? 
 What are the four chief events?" Every scholar is mentally 
 reviewing and welding together all the preceding lessons. 
 
 Of course, with younger scholars this method of historic 
 ])erspective would not be used, but the Review Questions 
 would, nevertheless, be of a broad, inclusive nature. 
 
 (b) Presentation. Just as Preparation theoretically cor- 
 responds to the Review Questions in a properly-prepared 
 Heuristic Book, so Presentation corresponds to the Questions 
 for Home Study, only you want to prepare your own set, for 
 your own benefit, if you can. At any rate, you intend to 
 instruct, and not simply hear recitation; so you will present 
 new material. In other words, you will sow tlie seed in the 
 ground prepared. 
 
 (c) Association or Elahomtion. It is not what we eat, 
 but what we digest, that is of use. It is not what you recite 
 glibly to the child, rattling it off perchance from scribbled 
 notes; but what he appropriates that is to "build up character, 
 efficient for the best." Apperception, we say, is to assimilate 
 the new material. Simply put, this means you are to be 
 sure the children understand, take in, appreciate Avhat you 
 teach them. Build up your illustrations ai'ound your teach- 
 ing. The whole benefit of all subsequent teaching may be 
 lost if you carelessly miss making the connecting link clear 
 and lucid. 
 
 (d) The fourtli, step is variously termed Oeneralization, 
 Classification, Recapitulation, Reproduction, Review. It is 
 really getting at the principle, so that the knowledge can be 
 re-stated by the pupils in a new form, in a wide, general 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 165 
 
 manner, as 2:)art of the whole field of knowledge. Many of the 
 Thought Questions contained in Questions for Discussion in 
 Class are intended to embody this idea. 
 
 One of the best ways to accomplish this would be by 
 stopping every five minutes or so, and ask a scholar to tell 
 the class what has been covered during the preceding interval. 
 Or this may be secured in another way — having talked about 
 a journey, we can review it by drawing it on the map; or, 
 when we have discussed an object, by explaining a model of 
 it, or describing a picture that may be reproduced. One can 
 teach the story of the Nativity, and review it by a series of 
 pictures by which the salient points surrounding the Nativity 
 are re-elucidated. 
 
 (e) The last step is Practical Application; in religious 
 fields expressed by the Avords, '"'The Moral." Sometimes this 
 is to be stated; sometimes hinted at; sometimes left for the 
 scholars to see it plainly written all over the topic. If Habit 
 and Character be our aim, then there comes in the Inquiry, 
 "How have the Teachings of the various Lessons functioned, 
 or applied practical!)^, in the outside, daily lives of your 
 children?'' This is the real test of all good work; and it is 
 probably not too strong a point to insist on, that the teacher 
 who is not influencing the lives of the scholars in some way 
 for good, is failing in the best ideals of character-building. 
 
 The Opposite or Deductive Method has its Formal Steps Likewise. 
 
 (1) "TJic first of the Formal Steps in the Deductive 
 Recitation is the presentation of the new prohlcni to he solved, 
 the (picstion to lie answered, or the example to he known. 
 This direct offering of new matter is assumed to arouse curi- 
 osity and effort, without any preliminary stirring up of 
 motivation by formal appeal to old interests." 
 
 (2) "The second stage is not the presentation of some 
 new facts, hut the offering of some general truth that must 
 
l(i() THE ELEiMEXTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 he learned as a truUi, and is Uien available for use as a rule, 
 or law. Upon tlio suggestion that this is the fourth, or gener- 
 alization, stage of the other kind of lesson, it becomes apparent 
 that this deductive lesson is applicable, not to informational, 
 but to logical, studies. In the deductive lesson, one jumps 
 upon the shoulders of one's ancestors, and sees from that 
 higher view-j)oint." 
 
 "(3) The third slage is the sohdion of llic /inihlciii. (I) 
 The fourth stage is drill upon many problems." 
 
 "To put the matter more simply: The deductive lesson 
 has four stops — the case in hand, the generalization, tlie 
 application, and drill. Though apparently much easier, 
 because offering less steps than the inductive lesson, it is in 
 reality, in most instances, a more difficult method when 
 adequately and successfully followed. To teach the rule, or 
 the generalization, as a truth of authority, requires an appeal 
 to memory and to the understanding at once, without the aid 
 of the details that lend interest to the inductive lesson." 
 
 "A Third Kind of Recitation is the so-called 'Question-and- 
 Answer,' or 'Heuristic' Recitation." 
 
 "This kind of recitation assumes that, before it there has 
 been either a series of other kinds of recitations, by which 
 the jDupils have accumulated information, or else that there 
 has been a study lesson l)y way of preparation for the (juiz- 
 zing." 
 
 "(1) Open into the subject loitli questions that have the 
 goal in view. To this arfirmative principle, there is a negative 
 correlate. Do not begin with questions upon topics well 
 forward or otherwise within the subject." 
 
 "(2) Proceed ivilli questions that apportion the time duly 
 as between the topics, emphasizing those of importance, mini- 
 mizing the relatively unimportant. , This principle also has 
 its negative correlates. AYe should not delay too long upon 
 any points. We should skip no essential points." 
 
Il(n\" TO PREPARE THE LESSON 
 
 1G7 
 
 "(3) Let the questions follow in logical order. This may 
 be the order of sequence in timO;, or of nearness in space, or 
 of cause-and-effect, or of any other normal association of 
 ideas. The correlate of this is:— Do not digress from the 
 main line of the review." 
 
 "(4) Move forward. Do not circle about any topic. Do 
 not revive a topic already passed — unless to use it in another 
 important connection." 
 
 "(5) Approach the concluding topics in such a manner 
 as to prepare for the ending. The negative correlate of this 
 principle is : — Avoid an anti-climax." 
 
 '•'(G) End ivith questions that develop the conclusion 
 fully; and stop." 
 
 There are other forms of Lessons which are not studied 
 particularly in the Sunday School, such as Scientific Studies, 
 Exercises and Eeading Lessons. All of these have their formal 
 steps as well, but the study of them does not concern our 
 purpose now. For the sake of clearness we will summarize 
 the formal steps in three types of Lessons which we have 
 considered. They are given by Professor Chancellor, in his 
 "Class Teaching and Management," page G2. 
 
 
 Informational 
 
 Studi 
 
 ies. 
 
 
 Review Lessons. 
 
 
 Inductive Eecitatiox. 
 
 
 Heuristic (Questiox-axd- 
 
 1. 
 
 Preparation ( sub-step, 
 
 aim). 
 
 
 Answer) Recitatiox. 
 
 2. 
 
 Presentation. 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Direction. 
 
 3. 
 
 Association. 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 4. 
 
 Generalization. 
 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Route. 
 
 5. 
 
 Application. 
 
 
 
 , 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 Stations. 
 Sections. 
 Approach. 
 Arrival. 
 
 Logical Studies. 
 Deductive Recitatiox. 
 
 1. Presentation of problem (or example). 
 
 2. Rule for solution (or answer). 
 
 3. Solution (application of rule). 
 
 4. Drill upon problems (under the rule). 
 
1(!8 THK ]-:i.K-MKXT.S 01^^ CHILD STUDY 
 
 The Lesson Title. 
 
 Dr. Marianna C!. Brcv.'n says that the lesson title very 
 often may seem unimportant. If unimportant, then uninter- 
 esting. But while we dismiss the matter of tlie lesson title 
 as uninteresting, we forget that the cliild judges of the 
 interest of what is to follow by this same neglected title. 
 "Tell a child that you are going to talk about 'Samuel/ 
 and if the child does not happen to already know of Samuel, 
 you might as well have said Methuselah, or any other name. 
 Tell the same child that you are going to talk about 'A little 
 Boy to whom God spoke,' and you have aroused both his 
 sympathy and his curiosity." 
 
 The Question IVIethod in Introduction. 
 
 Dr. Brown says: "The introduction ought almost always 
 to be according to the question method. Without some response 
 from the cliild, we cannot tell when we have come in contact 
 with his life, or when we have aroused his interest. Each 
 Sunday he comes to Sunday School in a different mood. 
 Some days a single reference to a subject would arouse his 
 entire being. Other days that subject is far from his 
 tlioughts. We want to have his answers, in order io know 
 when our introduction has accomplished its work. 
 
 Correlation. 
 
 This is a much abused word for a very simple thing. It 
 means merely the realization that the child is a unit, and 
 that the Sunday School should take cognizance of the facts 
 that have been taught in the Day School ; that tlie so-called 
 secular knowledge of the child is a part of his general 
 knowledge; that the Sunday School teacher should learn just 
 how far the child has studied in the Day School, and should 
 make use of that knowledge in cross references in the Sunday 
 School lesson. 
 
now TO PRl^M'AllK TllK JJ<:8S0N 109 
 
 Deduction Versus Induction. 
 
 Of course, wc have all learned in school the merely abstract 
 definitions, that Deduction means jjroceeding from the general 
 to the particular, and Induction means proceeding from the 
 particular to the general; that Deduction states the rule, and 
 then seeks or supplies examples; that Induction supplies ex- 
 amples, and then seeks the rule. However, in teaching there 
 is room for both; each has its place. At the Opening of a 
 lesson. Induction ought to be the means employed; but, as 
 we advance and gain knowledge, Deduction is useful to revise 
 our work, and secure our rules. Both are used in Day School ; 
 although Induction is the more general method. 
 
 As we apply this in our Sunday School work, we see that 
 the Catechism is par excellence a pure example of the deduc- 
 tive method. Yet, for memory's sake, as well as for practical 
 religious reasons, we want to teach the Catechism at an early 
 age. How can it be done ? There was a time when we recog- 
 nized a distinction in Day School studies, by speaking of the 
 subjects of arithmetic and grammar as the formal studies. 
 Yet in the Kindergarten to-day, grammar and arithmetic 
 are frequently taught by the inductive method. In languages 
 this is called the Natural Method. 
 
 A generation ago we learned the rules of grammar first, 
 and then applied them. jSTow we learn the language, and then 
 the rules. The younger the scholars, the more necessary the 
 Natural or Inductive Method. High school students can 
 frequently well dispense with the Inductive Method, and use 
 the Deductive Method. The point is, that Deduction cannot 
 be appreciated until the child can see relations, the cause and 
 effect, the abstract. 
 
 Now the Catechism can be taught, and is taught in the 
 best schools, by the Inductive Method. The individual truths 
 are taught, illustrated by the Inductive setting of the particu- 
 lar examples of Old Testament or New Testament; then later 
 
170 THE ELE.MENTS OF Cllll.J) STUDY 
 
 the Eule is fomiulaictl. Dr. A. A. Butlei- has covered this 
 point very fully in his (Jiiuuciimans ]\Iaxual^ on page 112, 
 following. 
 
 The Importance of Reviews. 
 
 "Comparatively few untrained teachers appreciate the im- 
 portance of reviews," says See. "With some this is simply 
 the result of neglect or thoughtlessness; with others, the 
 positive feeling that time spent on reviews is time largely 
 lost." A teacher's appreciation of the impoi'tance of the 
 Eevicw will be measured to some extent by the time he spends 
 upon it in the class session. Gregory says that the best 
 teachers give about one-third of each lesson hour to reviews. 
 
 Examinations. 
 
 It is always advisable to test the results of our teaching, 
 to make sure that the knowledge has been actually acquired. 
 Just as the scientist always verifies his conclusions, so the 
 teacher should never be satisfied until he has tested the results 
 of his teaching. This testing is useful, both for testing one's 
 own knowledge and methods, and for aiding the scholars in 
 clearing up their misunderstandings, or lack of knowledge. 
 
 These examinations can be held either in writing, or orally. 
 Many schools hold them twice a year, requiring the attendance 
 of the pupils, and giving them choice of ten out of fifteen 
 questions presented, and preparing the questions with the 
 hektograph or mimeograph. Sometimes scholars arc kept 
 back. Sometimes they are definitely promoted, and sometimes 
 they are allowed to go on with "conditions" to be made up in 
 the subject, and passed during the succeeding year. Usually 
 the Term Grade counts for half, and the examination for 
 half, the Term Grade being composed of Attendance at Sun- 
 day School and Church, and Prejiaration of the Lesson at 
 home, as well as Eeeilation in Class. Seventy Per-cent. makes 
 a good passing grade. In some cases where the term grade 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 171 
 
 has reached sevcnty-fivc or eighty Pcr-eent., sehohirs are 
 allowed to dispense with the Avritten examination, although 
 we rather welcome the written examination, because it secures 
 helpful review of the term's work. 
 Types in Teaching. 
 
 In secular education, Types play a large factor; and the 
 general trend of opinion to-day is to make a most prominent 
 use of them, so far as possible in every department. The plan 
 of typical elements, typical characters, typical bays, countries, 
 rivers, mountains, typical industries, etc., forms the ground- 
 work of numberless lesson-plans. The idea is a good one : 
 (a) because it supplies the foundation for grouping certain 
 characteristics which belong to classes; (b) it aids in gener- 
 alizing, forming concepts, practically being a model form of 
 unifying knowledge. To that extent it is labor-saving, 
 memory-relieving. The child does not have to master the 
 characteristics of each new object. He has left only the few 
 peculiar and unique dissimilarities, or differences, which dif- 
 ferentiate it from others of the general type. 
 
 There is abundant scope, whatever be our recpiircd system 
 of lessons, for opportunity to use this little hint, and develop 
 our topics occasionally on the type form. The children will 
 at once appreciate our approach to Day School work in this 
 particular. 
 
 The "Point of Contact" in Teaching. 
 
 This is the title of a delightful little book by Patterson 
 Du Bois. In it he sums up most attractively a galaxy of 
 fundamental points of Philosophy and Psychology, some of 
 which will prove of inestimable assistance to most of us. 
 What is first as cause, may he last in discovery to the child. 
 What is truly Tcnown must he hnoiun hy experience. A child 
 I'nows at first only the concrete. In all teaching, proceed 
 from the Known to the Unlcnown. Therefore find the Point 
 
172 TllK ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 of Contact, that is, the Point of Interest on the CliihVs Life- 
 plane, and make it the Point of Departure and Sympathy in 
 all teaching. The great fault in our Sunday School teaching 
 has been that we have not sought the child's penetrable point. 
 Wo have approached him through adult ideas, upon an adult 
 plane. 
 
 (1) What is first as cause may he last in discovery to the 
 child. This means that the small child, as wc have said 
 before, is concrete, docs not reason, literally does not think; 
 it means that he docs not sec Cause and Effect; he docs not 
 see how tliis thing came about; nor does he see why he should 
 not do tliat thing, nor what it will lead to in effect. In ibis 
 rule is summed up in a nutshell much of the essenfial elements 
 of sound teaching. 
 
 (2) ^Vhat is truly Iniown must he hnown hy experience. 
 Du Bois tells the story of an older sister trying to answer the 
 question of her little brother Robbie — "Tell bow sidewalks 
 were made." To the high school girl, the sidcwall\s were 
 laid on the ground, so she began to explain the ground and 
 its history first. To the child, the ground was liiddcn under 
 the sidewalks. His first experience Avith earth was not the 
 underlying ground, but the overlying sidewalks. 
 
 (3) The child at first Jcnows only the concrete. 'I'bis 
 has been alluded to frequently before, and needs only ilic 
 merest references here. Tt means that we must deal with 
 things, with objects, })icturcs, those ideas that will cause the 
 formation of mental images, products of the imagination. 
 How Much Children Know. 
 
 Professor Hall, in a s\vce|)ing investigation of Boston 
 school children, just after entering school (say from six up), 
 found tliat twenty per-cent. of tliese did not know that wooden 
 things were made from trees; forty-seven per-cent. never saw 
 a pig ; and over thirteen per-cent. did not know their cheek, 
 foi-ehend. or throat; eighty per-cent. did not know what a 
 
now TO riJKI'ARK THE LESSON 173 
 
 beehive was; over ninety per-eont. did not know their ribs; 
 eighty-one pcr-cent., tlieir kings; eiglity per-ccnt.^ their lieart, 
 and seventy })t'r-crnt. (iieir wrist; twenty-one per-cent. did 
 not know the dill'erence between tlieir riglit and lel't luinds, 
 and thirty-five per-cent. had never been in tlie country in 
 their lives. Most of them thought many animals were no 
 larger than their pictures. 
 
 From the above statistics, it seems not too much to say 
 that every teacher, starting with a new class, must make sure 
 that his efforts along certain lines are not utterly lost, and 
 should explore carefully, portion by portion, his pupils' minds, 
 determine precisely what is already known, and realize that 
 the knowledge most common to children of a given locality 
 will be that of their earliest surroundings, and that rarer 
 knowledge will come later; that the country child will know 
 country and not city things; and the city child, city things 
 and not country. 
 
 The Child's Vocabulary. 
 
 The average vocabulary of a child two years old may be 
 less than 300 words. A child of seven has 2500 ; and one 
 from eight to ten knows from 3000 to 4000 words. There 
 are few persons living who have a vocabulary of more than 
 15,000 or 20,000 words. Some African tribes have less than 
 300, and by using the term Vocabulary, we mean knowledge 
 of words. 
 
 Tlie actual speaking vocabulary is probably not more than 
 one-fourth, or one-fifth of that number. It is notorious that 
 I young lady, for example, will survive with a vocabulary of 
 possibly eight adjectives, such as "Perfectly awful," "Just too 
 sweet," "So lovely," etc. It is probably true that, speaking 
 with precision, there is but one exact word to express the 
 sense of any one thought. It is because we are not taught 
 to grasp the precise shade of meaning, and to be accurate in 
 
174 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 our conversation, that our vocabulary is so meagre, instead of 
 rich and vivid. Nouns form sixty per-cent of the average 
 vocabulary of a child; verbs twenty per-cent; adjectives nine 
 per-cent; adverbs five per-cent; pronouns two pcr-ccnt. 
 
 How to Graft the Unknown to the Known. 
 
 In technical language, this is the Apperception, already 
 referred to. It is not always easy for the teacher, knowing 
 so little of what the child's mind really has experienced, to 
 find the point of contact at once. One needs quick thought, 
 keen observation, rapid adaptability to sudden- unfoldings of 
 contact-points, in order to adjust knowledge to the child's 
 capacities. The story Du Bois gives from Miss Harrison's 
 experience strikes at the right method. Practically, it is 
 putting yourself, so far as may be, on the child's plane, and 
 endeavoring to picture to your own mind what he knows, what 
 he likes, where his interest and curiosity will lie. We may 
 often "miss the point, and even fall below the child's level"; 
 l)nt we shall soon find that out. 
 
 And so all our abstract teaching at an early age entirely 
 misses the point, and too often far worse ; for it docs positive 
 mischief. What do hymns of heavenly longing mean to a 
 ebild who knows naught of death, and who is brimming over 
 with life? Arguments and proofs are dangerous to a child- 
 mind that has not yet reached the period of doubting. All 
 Bible Stories for the early years are a point of contact, for 
 the child is interested in stories, the concrete. It does not 
 make one whit of difference whether they come in chrono- 
 logical order. Each set story is a piece of mosaic, cut and 
 carved, ready to be lifted into the proper place in the great 
 pattern of history. The aim is to fit the unknown to the 
 known without gaps, by easy, gliding steps as it were. 
 
 Pains and suffering, agony, killings, and liorrors, too, are 
 foreign to the child-mind. He may delight in tliem, because 
 
HOW TO PREPARE THE LESSON 175 
 
 lie loves actions, such as they are full of; and we grant that 
 he never appreciates the horror and enormity of them, but 
 neither does he comprehend them. Also details of things, 
 too minute and multiplied, are not point of contact methods. 
 Wholes are better, for discrimination and reflection have 
 not proceeded far enough to grasp details to any profound 
 extent. Put youself in your pupil's place. The danger lies 
 in the material, rather than in the words we select, for we 
 are apt to be cautious on this line. The same lesson for all 
 these grades is the fruitful cause of this error. Give subjects 
 suited to the age you teach. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. In preparing the Lesson, what first step is advised, and why? 
 
 Explain. 
 
 2. State the other steps to follow, and explain. 
 
 3. What outline should a proper text-book have? 
 
 4. Show how this outline follows the standard Herbartian Steps. 
 
 5. Why is the Lesson Title important? 
 
 6. What is the best method for the Introduction? 
 
 7. Discuss Induction versus Deduction. 
 
 8. Why are frequent Reviews important? 
 
 9. What do we mean by Correlation? 
 
 10. How do Types aid in teaching? 
 
 11. What rules are given under the "Point of Contact"? 
 
 12. How much do small children know at each age, roughly speaking? 
 
 13. What is Apperception, and what does it mean educationally? 
 
SYLLA]}US OF CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HOW TO INTEREST SCHOLARS AND SECURE ATTENTION 
 
 SUGGESTED READING— 
 
 The Art of Securing Attention, Fitch. 
 How TO Hold Attention, Hughes. 
 How to Interest, Mutch. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Attention is (a) Involuntary; (b) Voluntary. Former is spon- 
 taneous or passive. Latter is with Effort. Attention will not 
 attach itself to uninteresting Ideas. Tlierefore constant change 
 necessary. 
 
 Herbartian Doctrine of Interest is the basis of Modern Education. 
 It means tliat tlie Object or Idea, in wliich we are interested, is 
 actually, and vitally necessary to our Self-expression. 
 
 Same thing may elicit Immediate or Derived Interest according to 
 conditions. Latter ensues when the End is somewhat remote. 
 Voluntary Attention only can be given to it. 
 
 Interest is thus in the pcrsoyi, not in the thing. 
 
 How to Hold Attention. Not by Clamor or Appeals. Nor by Unin- 
 teresting tilings. Therefore present new aspects and ideas. 
 
 The Will must be used in Voluntary Attention, and Direct Effort 
 made to fix the mind in thinking. 
 
 After Early Childhood, one can acquire an Interest at times. 
 
 Attention responds best along lines of personal inclination. 
 
 There is a Native Variation in Attention-power. 
 
 Phj'sical Means to Aid Attention. Attitude — sit up. Keep still. 
 Look at Teacher, facing him. Look intently at the work to be 
 done. Use Proper Seating and Arrangejnent of Forms. Place 
 Troublesome Pupils near the Teacher, and away from others. 
 
 Kill Interests, not wanted, by satisfying them. 
 
 False Views of Interest. Interesting not always Easy nor Pleasure- 
 able. May also have an Interest, but in the wrong thing. 
 
 Any thing, not naturally interesting, may become interesting, by 
 beinfj linked Avith an interesting thing. 
 
now TO INTEREST SCHOLARS 177 
 
 Personal Ownership also lends power to Interest. 
 Fatigue. 
 
 Normal — (1) Weakening of Attention; (2) Judgment unreli- 
 able; (3) Loss of Self-control; (4) Lessened Work-rate. 
 Abnormal — (1) Depressed Mouth-angles; (2) Horizontal Fore- 
 head Furrows; (3) Eye-wandering; (4) Dark Color under 
 the Eyes. 
 
CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 HOW TO INTEREST SCHOLARS AND SECURE ATTENTION 
 
 Attention and Interest. 
 
 We have already stated the great law of Attention — that 
 Attention cannot attach itself to uninteresting ideas, and we 
 have already defined the two kinds of Attention: (1) Invol- 
 untary, passive or spontaneous; and (2.) Voluntary, or Atten- 
 tion with an effort. The former is that given immediately 
 to interesting things, and the latter to things where the inter- 
 est is somewhat remote. 
 
 At the foundation of any proper conception of the new 
 Education lies the appreciation of the true doctrine of Inter- 
 est. It may be said that Herbart and Professor Dewey are 
 responsible for the clear analysis of Interest, and its laws, 
 which first revolutionized modern teaching. When once the 
 teacher grasps the doctrine of Interest, as set forth by Her- 
 bartian Societies, and as exploited by Professor Dewey in the 
 Herbart Year Book, his attitude toward tlic child, and his 
 method of teaching, will be completely changed. 
 
 What Interest Is. 
 
 The gist of Professor Dewey's argument is that "genuine 
 interest is the identification, through action, of the self with 
 some object or idea, because of the necessity of that object 
 or idea for the maintenance of self-expression. . . . When we 
 recognize that there are certain powers within the child 
 urgent for development, needing to be acted upon, in order 
 
HOW TO INTEREST SCHOLARS 179 
 
 to secure their own efficiency and discipline^ we have a firm 
 basis upon which to build." 
 
 Thus a time-table can be of utmost interest^ if it concerns 
 our own journey, or that of some friend. Hard work ceases 
 to be a drudgery when connected with some definite and 
 appreciated result. This, therefore, is what we mean when we 
 say, "Create Interest." It does not mean a false Interest set 
 up by colored chalk-lines, or bright figures, or pictures with 
 no meaning in themselves. It does not purpose jingly tunes, 
 or nonsensical motions for the Attention, held momentarily 
 and aunlessly. It means all the real, intrinsic connection of 
 the subject with the child's own vital past experience, with 
 his own impulses to thought and action, giving self-exi^ression 
 to his own native or acquired wants and tendencies, and thus 
 an interest in the subject in hand. Any other means, used 
 to hold Attention, maintain Order, secure study, and gain 
 Answers to Questions, are false, and worse than useless, being 
 positively injurious, and creative of the permanent habit of 
 Divided Attention, or Mind-wandering. 
 
 The same thing may elicit either Immediate or Derived 
 Interest, according to circumstances. Thus, riding a bicycle 
 would be Immediate Interest on a bright, cool day, Avhen 
 running along a good country road, leisurely riding for pleas- 
 ure, in utmost enjoyment of every present moment. But 
 riding the same wheel, on a hot, sultry day, on a dusty, poor 
 road, up a steep hill, seeking to reach a certain destination 
 on time, would represent Derived Interest, not Immediate or 
 Spontaneous. That is. Derived Interest comes when the end 
 is somewhat remote. Much of life is of this type. Tlie busi- 
 ness man plods through a lal^orious or unpleasant task, day 
 after day, not for its intrinsic pleasure, not for the salary at 
 the Aveek's end, not even for the things that salary can buy at 
 home ; l)\it, ultimately, for the love he bears his wife and 
 family — Derived Interest, because tlic end is remote, and 
 
180 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 effort bridges over the chasm between. Someone h.as said that 
 all life is ruled by two basal motives. Love and Duty; that 
 the latter is really the former, where an ideal devotion to a 
 principle demands a love that stands paramount to the love 
 attaching to a person or a thing. 
 
 Thus the Interest is not in the thing, but in the person. 
 You can never "make things interesting." They must be of 
 a nature (and so well presented) as to attract the internal, 
 natural interest of the individual approached. He already 
 possesses the Interest ; you merely give him the material. He 
 already has the hunger; you give him the proper food. A 
 full table does not create hunger, it satisfies it, already there, 
 though perhaps dormant. Everyone, always and at all times, 
 has some Interest, unless he be unconscious or dead. He is 
 bound to manifest that interest in something, if the right 
 thing can be found and given to him. If he be lethargic, 
 the fault is not in him, but in the material or its presentation, 
 and so ultimately in the teacher. 
 
 How to Hold Attention. 
 
 We have just pointed out in the previous chapter how 
 Voluntary Attention cannot be continuously sustained, that 
 it comes in beats, that we are able to set the mind's eye upon 
 a thought in the focus for an instant only, when we find it 
 wandering again, and have to recall it by direct effort of the 
 will. No amount of demand, though it may elicit outward 
 appearance of Attention, will gain the real, inward Attention, 
 which will result in Memory, without an inherent power to 
 interest the pupils. 
 
 "Negatively, then. Attention is not to be secured by 
 clamor on the part of the teacher," says See. "It may not 
 be claimed by any appeals. The teacher, who in loud tones 
 calls for attention, is not so apt to secure it as the one who 
 lowers liis voice, or ceases for the moment altogether. The 
 
HOW TO INTKPvKST SCHOLARS ISl 
 
 pause in the vibniUoiis of tlie inacliincry aboard sliip causes 
 the passengers to awake, whereas an inci'ease in the vibrations 
 might only lull to a sounder sleep. 'Xothing,' says Gregory, 
 'can be more unphilosophical than the attempt to cojnpel the 
 wearied attention to a new eifort by mere authority. As well 
 compel embers to rekindle. into a blaze by blowing.'" 
 
 Attention will not attach itself to uninteresting things. 
 Therefore, the subject must be made to change its aspect, shoAv 
 new sides, and new and interesting phases. From an un- 
 changing subject, the mind, even of an adult, must wander. 
 Either the stimulus must vary, or some new attribute must be 
 discovered in the subject. The nervous system soon tires 
 under the strain of continuous attention to the same thing. 
 
 The Will the Basis of Voluntary Attention. 
 
 While the Attention of children in Early Childhood is 
 chiefly that of the spontaneous. Involuntary, passive sort, 
 beyond that period Attention is generally Voluntary and 
 determined. "Will, Action, Attention, Interest are closely re- 
 lated and connected together. Interest is the guiding star 
 of the group. 
 
 In this last analysis, "Will is an effort of the Attention, 
 and Attention with an effort means Will. We have shown 
 the converse of this before by stating that there is no Willing 
 without Attention. After Early Childhood the individual is 
 capable of acquiring, to some degree at least, an Interest. 
 He is able to attend to a subject, and concentrate his Atten- 
 tion and actually become interested in it. It is true that 
 children, too, are apt to become interested in that to which 
 they attend. 
 
 Attention responds most easily along the lines of personal 
 inclination. The child will attend to those things that he 
 likes best. The Sensory child will give attention most readily 
 to things of practical interest; he will notice their general 
 
182 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 aspects, but not details. He is able to conceutratc his atten- 
 tion. The Motor-minded child is troubled through a vacillat- 
 ing attention. 
 
 There is, however, you will recall, a Native Variation of 
 Attention. 
 
 James explains it thus : "There is unquestionably a great 
 native variety among individuals in the type of their Atten- 
 tion. Some of us are naturally scatter-brained, and others 
 follow easily a train of connected thoughts, without temptation 
 to swerve aside to other subjects. This seems to depend on a 
 difference between individuals in the type of their field of 
 consciousness. In some persons this is highly focalized and 
 concentrated, and the focal ideas predominate in determining 
 association. 
 
 "In others, we must suppose the margin to be brighter, 
 and to be filled with something like meteoric showers of 
 images, which strike it at random, displacing the focal ideas, 
 and carrying association in their own direction. Persons of 
 the latter type find their Attention wandering every minute, 
 and must bring it back by a voluntary will. The others sink 
 into a subject of meditation deeply, and, when interrupted, 
 are 'lost' for a moment before they come back to the outer 
 world." 
 Physical Means in Assisting the Will in Voluntary Attention. 
 
 One means to secure attention is to demand ihe proper 
 attitude. Do not let the scholars slide down ou llio benches, 
 or wriggle, or loll. Make them sit up straight, witli llie back 
 at right angles, and look at the teacher. Opening a book and 
 looking at the words will frequently bring an inteivst wIioih^ 
 abstract thinking would not. It is also imporiant lliat llic 
 teacher and the scholars always see each oilier. 'J'o see both 
 ends of the fonn, it is necessary that the teaclier shoiiUl sit 
 at a little distance from his pupils. The exact spot for his 
 chair would be the apex of an equilateral triangle, whose base 
 
HUW" TO INTEREST SCHOLARS 18.3 
 
 is the front form. Perhaps there is not enough room to 
 allow this, in which case the teacher will find two difficulties : 
 one, that the head must be constantly moving to see the ends 
 of the front form, and, second, that she must speak louder 
 than is convenient for the first form, in order to reach the 
 seats behind. 
 
 In the Sunday School, unfortunately, where separate 
 rooms are only beginning to be used, the matter must be 
 compensated by sitting nearer the class, and making up for 
 this disadvantage by distinct vigilance. A clear distinction 
 must be made between loudness and clearness of the voice. 
 One may make one's self distinctly heard without speaking 
 in anything like a loud tone. 
 
 Troublesome Pupils. 
 
 The bad boys and the restless girls (Motor Type) should 
 be placed to the teacher's right and left, that a reproving 
 hand may call them to order. Incidentally, each one is away 
 from another troublesome pupil, by being next to the teacher. 
 The best place for a reserved, sly, tricky pupil, who is of the 
 sensory type, is in the middle seat in front of the teacher, 
 who can observe his every movement. There is nothing that 
 paralyzes the movements of the mischievous child of this 
 type as the unsympathetic eye of the teacher. The third 
 kind of pupil, the studious, sensory type, should also be in 
 front, in order that the teacher's eye, with a kind smile of 
 sympathy, may draw out the response in ihe recitation. 
 
 Killing Interest. 
 
 Professor Adams remarks: ''To arouse and sustain In- 
 terest is of such vital moment in teaching, that scarcely any 
 attention has been given by writers to the almost equally 
 important subject oC satisfying, or allaying, Interest. It is 
 perhaps impossible to have too much Interest in a lesson, 
 but it is quite common to have that Interest badly dis- 
 
IS-t THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 ti'ibuicd. In the course of teaching there is frequently 
 struggle of Interests, and if the teacher desires to guide the 
 pupil in one direction, he must study the clash of Interests 
 in order the more effectively to favor the one that he desires 
 to prevail. He must learn the art of killing Interest, as 
 well as the art of rousing Interest. 
 
 ''Xow the best way of killing Interest is not by opposing 
 it, but by gratifying it. So soon as an Interest has been 
 satisfied, it dies a natural death. In all cases he must try 
 to avoid rousing any Interest that is likely to be more power- 
 ful than the main line of Interest that runs through the 
 lesson. In spite of all his endeavors, however, the teacher 
 will often find that he has called up powerful Interests that 
 compete with the Interest he has mainly in view; and, in 
 any case, even the subsidiary Interests he arouses must be 
 dealt with as they arise, or they will form a powerfully dis- 
 tracting force. Side issues must be treated in such a way as 
 to satisfy all the interest they excite, while the main subject 
 of the lesson is managed so as to maintain the Interest to 
 the end." 
 
 False Views of Interest. 
 
 One may confuse the interesting with the easy, and argue 
 that Interest means making things too easy. This is untrue, 
 because many difficult things may be quite interesting, and 
 the easiest things very dull. Nor need the interesting be 
 necessarily pleasurable. In fact, many acts that are inter- 
 esting are positively painful; as, for example, putting up 
 a heavy dumb-bell, or a tug of war. 
 
 Then some teachers are at fanlt, either in failing to 
 arouse any mental zest in a class, or in arousing Interest 
 in the wrong thing. The teacher shows the class pictures. 
 They are thoroughly interested, but they have no Interest 
 wlialever in the pictures, or the fact that the pictures illus- 
 
now TO INTEREST SCHOLARS 185 
 
 irtilc. 'J'oo oL'tcii pifturcrf, or the story, or the spoc-iiin'ii may 
 remove as much interest by distraetiiig tlie pu})!!, as it could 
 ever add by its concreteness. 
 
 Professor James has shown us, however, that "Any ob- 
 ject, not interesting in itself, may become interesting tlmnigh 
 becoming associated with an object in which an interest 
 already exists. The two associated oljjects grow, as it were, 
 together. Again, the most natively interesting object to 
 anyone is his own personal self, and its fortunes. Lend tlie 
 child his books, pencils, etc., then give them to him, and see 
 the new light with which they at once shine in his eyes. 
 Thus, in teaching, begin with subjects in the line of tlie 
 child's own personal, native interests; and then, step by 
 step, connect your new teaching and new objects with these 
 old ones." This is what is involved in the old Herbartian 
 doctrine of "Preparation," often so difficult of comprehension. 
 
 Fatigue. 
 
 It is important that even the Sunday School Teachers 
 learn to recognize the manifest signs of fatigue in the class, 
 and not spoil the good effect of a lesson by "overdoing it." 
 There are two recognized kinds of fatigue (a) normal, and 
 (&) abnormal, (a) Normal Fatigue is the proper result 
 of all work, mental or physical. It is the hending of the 
 bow-strings, which spring back again on release. Eest, sleep, 
 and food, correct normal fatigue, (h) Abnormal Faligiie 
 is snapping and cracking the bow, pushing the expenditure 
 of energy beyond recovery. Then a diseased condition usu- 
 ally ensues. 
 
 Signs of Fatigue. 
 
 (a) Normal. — (1) A definite weakening of Attention. 
 After half an hour, few adults can pay attention well. (2) 
 An increasing unreadiness and inaccuracy of judgment. 
 It is unwise to endeavor to solve difficult problems at night 
 
18G THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 timC;, or to worry over an unpleasantness in the evening. 
 The best plan is^ steadfastly to refuse to consider such tilings 
 when wear}^, to determine to rest and sleep. In the morn- 
 ing, the clouds will have passed away, and not only will 
 your judgment be clearer, but numy of the shadows which 
 Avere caused merely by fatigue A\'ill have disappeared. (3) 
 Loss of Self Control, Temper, etc. When the husband comes 
 home tired at night, cross and irritable, the wise wife says 
 nothing, but "feeds the brute," and lets him rest. Soon the 
 irritation has passed away, and many a family Jar is avoided 
 in this common sense manner. (4) Lessened Work-rate. 
 Not only is it difficult to do work wlicn fatigued, but it 
 literally docs not pay; for less work is accomplished than 
 \\ould be if proper rest and recuperation were taken. Note, 
 tliat the concentrated attention of Adults can be held for 
 forty-five minutes only, with useful results; that of children 
 of Adolescent age, not over thirty minutes; small children 
 of the Primary age not over fifteen minutes. 
 
 (h) Abnormal. — (1) Depression of the Mouth Angles. 
 (2) Presence of Horizontal Forehead Furrows: These hori- 
 zontal forehead furrows are a chafacteristic expression of 
 the weak minded and the insane, showing the result of 
 abnormal fatigue in their lives. (3) Eye-wandering and 
 positive inability to preserve fixation of the eyes. Note, this 
 does not mean ordinary restlessness. One of the tests of 
 insanity is dancing eyes where the pupils cannot be held 
 and concentrated. It may also occur with ordinary abnormal 
 fatigue. (4) Dull, dark color under the eyes. These signs 
 are of value only because a Sunday School Teacher may 
 liave children in the class abnormally fatigued during the 
 week, from either (1) overwork, (2) unwholesome confine- 
 ment in unsanitary homes, (3) injurious shocks, or bad 
 treatment. 
 
 No one should draw a positive conclusion from only one 
 
HOW TO INTEREST SCHOLARS 187 
 
 of these signs, as for example, a "black eye." Taken all 
 together, however, they form a clinical picture of which 
 there can be no doubt. Just as we have a typical face that 
 is pathonomic of consumption, so we have one that definitely 
 proclaims Abnormal Fatigue. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What are the two kinds of Attention? Explain each kind. 
 
 2. What is the great law of Voluntary Attention? 
 
 3. What is the Herbartian Doctrine of Interest, and how does it 
 
 affect the problem of Attention? 
 
 4. What is the difference between Immediate and Derived Interest? 
 
 5. What kind of Attention is necessary for the latter? 
 
 6. How does the New Doctrine of Interest differ from the older one? 
 
 7. How can we hold Attention? 
 
 8. What is said of the Will in Voluntary Attention? 
 
 9. How does the Interest of the Adult differ from that of a Child? 
 
 10. How does Personal Inclination affect Attention? 
 
 11. What is said of a Native Variation in Attention power? 
 
 12. What are some of the Physical IMeans to aid Attention? 
 
 13. Why do we sometimes have to kill Interest, and how is it done? 
 
 14. What are some of the False views of Interest? 
 
 15. How can a thing, not naturally interesting, be made so? 
 
 16. How does Personal Ownership increase Interest? 
 
 17. What are the kinds of Fatigue, and what are the signs of each? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HOW TO KEEP ORDER, AND CONDUCT THE 
 RECITATION PROPERLY 
 
 SUGGESTED HEADING : 
 
 How TO Keep Oroeh, HikjIks. 
 A Primer on Teaching, Adcniis. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Order is "Conscious Recognition of Law and Cooperative Submission 
 to Constituted Authority." It is "work systematized," thus 
 positive, not negative. 
 
 Order is essential to the highest development of Life. Thus Order 
 pertains to every phase of School Regime. "Rules of Order" are 
 seen in every form of Business, every Organization, etc. Lack 
 of Order, interfering with others' Rights, both disturbs Society 
 and Oneself. 
 
 Disorderly Schools are due to (1) Weak Teachers. (2) Poor Stan- 
 dards of Work i-equired. (3) Ai-bitrary Rules, with no real 
 Principles behind them. 
 
 Secondary Ends or Motives as Incentives to Order, i.e., Prizes, Praise, 
 Rewards, Punishments, etc., lower Ambition, Self-restraint, and 
 Zeal for Work. 
 
 Securing and maintaining Order require dillVrcnl measuics. 
 
 Securing Order. (1) Begin on Time. (2) Nip Disorder in tiie bud. 
 (3) Be Even-handed. (4) Be Orderly yourself. (5) Be Cheerful 
 and Good-humored. (6) Appeal to the Best Motives in Pupils. 
 Take it for granted that they will Recite, Study, J5ehave, etc. 
 (7) Take Each Pupil on his own Best Approachal)le Basis. 
 
 Agencies for Keeping Order. I. Coercive: (1) Punishments; (2) 
 Will Power; (3) Command; be sure to gain complete and orderly 
 control of Class the first day of conducting tiie Recitation, and 
 never let the scholars obtain the upper hand. Avoid always 
 Personal Vengeance and Retributive Punishments. IT. Kjcccu- 
 tive: (1) Give each Child sometliing to do; (2) Posture at 
 
now TO KEEP ORDER 189 
 
 Work; (3) Facing Tcuclier; (4) Conceit Work in Ixcciting. 
 III. Incentive: Such Agencies work from within. Are the 
 highest and best type to use. End of all Education is to lender 
 one Self-controlling. (1) Natural Interest in the Subject; (2) 
 Motives or Instincts, good or bad, as may be. 
 
 Restlessness is the Cause of much Disorder. Restlessness is Energy 
 running to Waste. A Restless Class is more than Ready to 
 Respond and Recite. Want to Do. Give Opportunity for Self- 
 expression, Manual Work, Recitation, and Questioning. 
 
 In Selecting Motives as Basis for Order, ask whether they will — 
 
 (1) Develop Spontaneity of Character; (2) Make Pupils Self- 
 reliant, yet Dependent on C4od; (3) Make them Selfish or Widen 
 Human Sympathies. 
 
 Some form of Manual Work the Best to Express Mental States. 
 Two Classes of Disorderly Pupils — (1) Rebels; (2) Xon-rebels. 
 
 Latter the most dilTicult to reach. 
 Penalties: Ought only to follow a Knoua Choice of Action. Should 
 
 be '"Natural"' Punishment, the Direct Consequence of the Deed. 
 Disorderly Teachers. ( 1 ) Consciously ; ( 2 ) Unconsciouslj'. ( 1 ) In- 
 
 difi'erent; (2) Weak; (3) Haphazard; (4) Ignorant; (5) Using 
 
 Wrong Methods. 
 Order in the Recitation. ( 1 ) Secure Order at Entrance to Class ; 
 
 (2) Begin some Topic at once; (3) Get '"Point-of-Contact"; 
 (4) Proceed from the Known to the Unknown; (5) Present New 
 Lesson Material, usually by Development or Question Method ; 
 (6) Review often. 
 
 Class Room Methods of Recitation. (1) Lecture Method ; (2) Semi- 
 nar Method; (3) Recitation or Topic Method; (4) Question or 
 Conversational jMethod. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HOW TO KEEP ORDER, AND CONDUCT THE 
 RECITATION PROPERLY 
 
 What is Order? 
 
 "Order is Heaven's first law," and it is certainly also 
 the first law of the Class. Without Order, no good teaching 
 can he secured. Many of the suggestions given in other 
 chapters, such as size of class, readiness and personality of 
 the teacher, method of. teaching, illustrating, questioning, 
 etc., affect Order. James II. Hughes, Inspector of the 
 Toronto Schools, has wiitten a helpful brochure upon this 
 subject. He defines good Order as "the conscious recognition 
 of law, and a co-operative submission to constituted author- 
 ity." It places no restraint on those who are well disposed. 
 Law is perfect liberty to those who do right. Good order 
 does not mean merely freedom from disorder. It is positive, 
 not negative. "Order is work systematized." Our evil ten- 
 dencies and our Avcaknesses serve to lead us away from Order 
 and Duty. 
 
 'I'herefore, Order is essenlial, not merely that tlie recita- 
 iion may be conducted, not merely that the teacher may he 
 safe from confusion and noise; but that the pupils may 
 receive the benefit of the development of orderly liahits of 
 life. The teacher who fails to keep order fails, therefore, 
 ill one of the very highest duties. The great Aim of all 
 Educative Tendencies is to bring the individual into "con- 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 191 
 
 scions^ intelligent and co-operative obedience to the Divine 
 Law-giver." 
 
 The Sunday School class is one of the very agencies of 
 most use in the training and education of this habit of order. 
 Thus, it is not only for the sake of the teacher, nor yet for 
 the sake of the individual lesson to be taught, that order 
 must be maintained. An orderly school is one in which there 
 is a special place for everything, and in which everything is 
 in its place. The books of the pupils are arranged in proper 
 order. The scholars are properly seated. The Morale of the 
 school is high. The proper discipline and quiet, necessary 
 to good work, are observed. It is the place where everyone 
 minds his own business, and helps others to mind theirs. 
 
 Every place in life, every institution, every kind of busi- 
 ness, every organization, such as the school or the society, 
 must have rules, conventions, sanctions, and standards for 
 conduct. In fact, the very name "Eules of Order," indicates 
 the recognition of this fact. People who are associated in 
 any definite enterprise, recognize the necessity for such con- 
 ditions, and the children will recognize this necessity quite 
 as fully as will the adult. If the problem of discipline and 
 order be left in their hands, with proper explanation of con- 
 sequences ensuing through defeating the aim of the school, 
 it will be found that the problem of order has largely disap- 
 peared. Those who violate such rules interfere with the 
 success of the organization, and thereby harm theitisolves. 
 
 "In schools that arc really disorderly, tlie imiiblc! is 
 usually to be found in one or more of three coiuiuon condi- 
 tions: the character of the teacher, which may be positively 
 bad, merely weak and unimpressive, or ultra-sentimental ; Ihe 
 character of tlie work required, which may be eitlier upon a 
 low plane, or so presented to tlie children that they fail to see 
 the good in it, and to realize its worth ; or the enforcement 
 
l!ii> THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 o£ coiiventions resting u])()n no sound moral priiieiplo. The 
 last mentioned has already been sufficient!}' considered." 
 
 The Use of Secondary Ends as Motives to Order. 
 
 The use oi; interior or Secondar}' Ends or means as 
 motives to good conduct is never to be commended, save in 
 immediate and present emergency. '"The trouble with the 
 world/' says Professor Gilbert, "in so far as it is wrong is, 
 of course, that people are pursuing wrong ends, commonly 
 minor or secondary ends, under the mistaken notion that 
 they are primary. People chase wealth, social position, and 
 political power for themselves, and so enter upon an endless 
 pursuit, and are never happy. These objects pursued are 
 elusive, because they are not real ; they are means to ends, 
 and are not properly ends at all, or are merely secondary 
 ends. By secondary ends in school, I mean prizes, marks, 
 and punishment. A\^e do right to wonder at the perversity 
 of humanity in thus following unworthy ends, when we see 
 that in most schools secondary ends are held before children 
 until their pursuit becomes haljitual. How can we expect 
 children who have been taught to study for marks, or prizes, 
 or to avoid punishment, instead of pursuing with a live in- 
 terest, knowledge itself, to acquire a love for truth? How 
 can we expect children, when tliey grow up, to ])ursue social 
 service through tlie use of available means, instead of ]mr- 
 suiiig these means as if they were fbe (Mids Ihcmselves?" 
 
 The Difference- Between Securing and Maintaining Order. 
 
 These are two very different operations, and must l)e 
 carried on in diverse ways. It is not possible for a teacher, 
 taking charge of a class, to secure Order at once by the same 
 measures that will be used a little later to maintain it. The 
 teacher should have the sympathy of each member in the 
 class, and however much discipline may be used, tbis bond 
 of sympathy should ever exist. I'ules should l)e U'w \ l)ut 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 193 
 
 tliosc rules should he al)S()lulely respected and oheyed. Loose- 
 ness, laxness, and freedom, are hoth had for the pupils, and 
 destructive of confidence in tlie teacher. Firmness is admired 
 l)v the scholars, while Aveakness and wavering are despised. 
 
 Securing Order. 
 
 Begin on 'Time. This will depend to a large extent upon 
 the conduct of the school, and the business method of the 
 superintendent. As Dr. Butler says: "The orderly officer 
 hegins on time, and ends on time, exactly on time, knowing 
 that nohody else will he on time if he is not. 'But the 
 organist has not arrived,' or 'the choirmaster is ahsent.' Well, 
 what of it? Shall we allow one disorderly man to ruin the 
 order of fifty or three hundred pupils? When the tardy 
 officer arrives, and finds the School in session, he will need 
 no other rebuke. Begin on time. Not by banging the bell, 
 or crying 'Silence.' If the School does not immediately obey 
 the first tap of the bell, and you have been superintendent 
 for two months, blame yourself, not the School. The worst 
 thing to do is to keep banging the bell, or to tell the organist 
 to turn on the full organ. I heard of an officer who banged 
 his bell eighteen times ; but his noise did not produce silence ; 
 it never does." 
 
 Nip Disorder in the Bud. Secure Order as soon as you 
 enter the class. Do not wait for ten minutes, or even five. 
 Drawbridge urges: "Be quite determined and definite in 
 your own mind as to what to allow, and what to forbid. 
 Make it equally clear as to the class exactly what they may, 
 and may not, do. When any boy seems inclined to overstep 
 the bounds you have drawn, nip the tendency to insubordina- 
 tion in the bud, before the culprit is conscious of his ten- 
 dency, and before the others have noticed anything amiss, 
 l^eace at any price is sure to end in war; and to leave an 
 
I'Ji THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 undefined boundary between the lawful and the unlawful, 
 ^\ill have the same effect." 
 
 Be Even-handed, ever the same in expecting and securing 
 order. Do not be fickle and changeable. Do not reprove the 
 boy one day, and smile at the same action the next, or vice 
 versa. Do not rebuke one pupil, and pass by the same action 
 in others. While the teacher's moods may vary, she should 
 never be inconsistent, but should maintain the same standard 
 of order and discipline throughout both each session and 
 succeeding weeks. Insubordination on the part of the pupil 
 implies poor government of the teacher. 
 
 Be Orderhj yourself. Force of example counts for a good 
 deal. If the teacher be "belter skelter," slip-shod, disorderly 
 in habit or dress, unsystematic in method or recitation, 
 rambling in the manner in which he speaks and questions, 
 the class will almost certainly develop the same condition. 
 
 "Be clieerful and good-humored, and put the class in a 
 good humor," says Drawbridge. Frequently a joke has 
 averted a riot. Not a display of force and anger, but the 
 exercise of tact and sympathy, is what is needed. The man- 
 agement of a restive class, and the control of a fresh horse, 
 have many points of resemblance. In each case a gentle 
 woman's hand can often achieve what no display of force and 
 violence would ever accomplish. The latter may drive in the 
 symptoms of unrest and disorder, the former alone can win 
 over the spirit and the will, and secure the desired disposi- 
 tion. Children prefer order, if they arc managed witli 
 patience, knowledge, and tact; l)ut if the (restive horse, or) 
 child once gets out of hand, it is very diflficult to undo tlic 
 mischief which has resulted from one's weakness. 
 
 Appeal to the hest motives of your pupils, and trust to 
 their higher instincts. Develop positive, and not negative, 
 habits. Take it for granted that Ihcy will study. Be more 
 \\\;\n sur[»i'iscd ihat they do not know. If Ihc teaclicr expects 
 
now TO KEEP ORDER 195 
 
 * 
 no liomc work^ she will get none, li' she apologizes i'or re- 
 quiring promptness, study, punctuality, Cliureh Attendance, 
 she Avill lower the ideals regarding these especial habits for 
 all the children. 
 
 A superintendent has been known to literally beg tlie 
 Sunday School to attend the ensuing Children's Service, say- 
 ing if they only would stay, he would make the Service very 
 short, and then they could "go out in the delightful weather." 
 Such a plan without any doubt causes disrespect to the 
 Church and the School. Take the highest standard througli- 
 out. In everything appeal to the best, the noblest, the highest. 
 There is good in everything, and high ideals can be aroused. 
 
 Of course, eacli pupil requires its own individual and 
 personal hind of management. It is wise to appeal to the 
 heart of the one, to the sense of right of another, to the love 
 of order in a third, to the religious feelings of a fourth, and 
 to the sense of shame in a fifth. Love, sympathy, tact, 
 patience, knowledge, all are necessary. 
 
 Expect to he obeyed. — "They can conquer who believe 
 they can." If you have no confidence in yourself, do not 
 make a parade of your weakness before the class. 
 
 The following anecdote will illustrate this most important 
 consideration: At a clerical meeting, a very aged clergyman 
 told a story of his early childhood. He said, "The gardener 
 once accused me, to my mother, of having done something- 
 wrong. My mother looked me in the face and said to my 
 accuser, 'No, I am sure Master John could not have done 
 such a thing.' " He added, "But I had done it, you know." 
 He went on to say that he had never forgotten the lesson he 
 learned that day. All through his life, he had tried to follow 
 her wise method of rebuke. Show children that you expect 
 much of them, and they will not disappoint you. We all 
 live up to tlic estimate which others have of us; and those 
 who expect much of others are not disappointed. 
 
I'M; TIIK Kl.E.MENT.S OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Agencies for Keeping Order. 
 
 (a) Coercive Agencies. Such are those that endeavor to 
 compel the will of the child. All punishments, and the mere 
 dominating will-power of the teacher, which latter borders on 
 hypnotic control or personal force, are the lowest forms of 
 control; external, negative, and the least effective. The child 
 so influenced lacks spontaneity and executive activity. 
 Hughes says: "Teachers should try to realize the terribly 
 destructive influence on character exerted by frequently re- 
 ])eated violations of rules, even in regard to matters that are 
 in themselves, or in their direct results, comparatively trifling. 
 Our actions indicate what we are, because our actions are the 
 expression of the present condition of our mental and moral 
 natures. Actions repeated confimi habits of similar actions. 
 Our acts mould our characters, because they decide whether 
 Conscience and "Will increase or decrease in clearness and 
 power. Ten years in a school where rules may l)e violated, 
 where the consequences of breaking a rule are estimated by 
 their effects on the discipline of the school, instead of their 
 influence in destroying character, will endanger a boy's pros- 
 pects in time and eternity. Disrespect for rules in the pupil 
 leads to disregard for law in the citizen, and disregard for 
 the laws of men leads to indifference to the laws of God. 
 AMien teachers realize this truth, no honest teacher will con- 
 tinue in the profession without koci)ing order.*' 
 
 Rules. Some of these, such as fear, etc., have been 
 already considered. According to ^Ir. Grout, with the older 
 pupils the opening day is most important. "Begin with the 
 assurance of success firmly fixed in your own mind, or in as 
 near that state of mind as i)ossible. One who enters the room 
 timidly, and deprecatingly, is bound to have trouble, and that 
 soon. Even if you cannot help shaking in your shoes, use 
 all your powers of self-control lo api)ear uneoiuerned, and 
 
now TO KKEl' ORDER 197 
 
 as familiar with lii-st days as willi your breakfast. Every 
 eye is on you for the first few liours and days, to see of what 
 stuif you are made; and just as soon as the shyness of novelty 
 has worn off, if not sooner, some irresponsible person will 
 do it just to sec what teacher will do. If you hesitate then, 
 you are lost — for the time at least. Do something yourself, 
 and do it quickly, so quickly as to take away the breath of 
 the insurgent." Mr. Grout continues to say that ''I find 
 that boys more often need sharp, short checks than girls, as 
 girls are naturally more tractable than boys. But a boy 
 rarely bears ill-will toward a teacher for giving him his 
 deserts, while a girl's sense of justice is much less keen, and 
 she may bear a long grudge for a punishment that was emi- 
 nently fair and just. A great deal of care can be used to 
 advantage in punishing girls, as they are very sensitive to 
 ridicule, and a reprimand that will only make a boy grin 
 sheepishly will often move a girl to tears and a long period 
 of sulks. 
 
 "Avoid, as you would the Evil One himself, any appear- 
 ance of personal vengeance, or even of purely retributive 
 punishment. Strive in every way to show that your punish- 
 ments are to prevent future offences, not to 'pay up' for past 
 misdeeds." 
 
 (6) Executive Agencies. These are better. Give the 
 child something to do. Hold his attention and interest by 
 providing some direct outlet to his self -activity, either physi- 
 cal and manual, or mental. The will of the scholar learns 
 to yield willingly, almost unconsciously, to the will of tlie 
 teacher. This habit gains by practice, just as other habits do. 
 It is absolutely impossible for disorder to exist in a class 
 where each pupil has some definite work. Proper attention 
 should be given, even in a Sunday School Class held in pews 
 in a church, to posture, so that children sit upright, not 
 lounging listlessly, which produces disorder by the very atti- 
 
ms TIIK ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 tudc assumed. The position of eacli scholar with regard to 
 the teacher is also significant. Each child should face the 
 teacher, being seen and seeing at all times, and not merely 
 when individually reciting. The eye of the teacher shonld 
 take in every child with one sweep. Concert work, i.e., 
 answering, reciting, or reading together, all the class at once, 
 is excellent for gaining order at first. This is not always 
 practical, where more than one class occupies the room ; for, 
 of course, the only way to uphold the Order of the whole 
 School is that each class, as well as each child, should remem- 
 ber Order. 
 
 The Chapter on Manual AVork, that follows to\\ard the 
 end of this book, suggests a great many helpful points in the 
 line of executive agencies. 
 
 (c) Incentive Agencies. The ultimate aim of all dis- 
 cipline is to render a person self-controlling. Even external 
 restraint should end in independent powers. So long as dis- 
 cipline has to be exercised from without, no child is in the 
 condition to do his best work. He acts under restraint. It 
 is only wdien control works within outward, that the progress 
 of any person can be secured. Therefore incentive agencies 
 are the best. Interest is, of course, the very highest, for it 
 is, as we shall soon see, the spontaneous outgoing of the 
 child's own impulses and desires. There is no question of 
 Order or Disorder, where the right sort of luterest is active. 
 Hence in modern Day Schools, where the true ideas of In- 
 terest prevail, the factor of Order and its Incentives has 
 practically disappeared. 
 
 The most effective Internal or Incentive Agencies, beyond 
 natural Interest, are the Motives, good or ))ad, as they may 
 be. Wlien the child becomes a man, his j^rogress in life ami 
 his usefulness to society will depend largely on the kind and 
 force of his motives. Some men fail from want of moiives; 
 ])ut the majority Avho fail do so Ijecause they do not exercise 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 199 
 
 the good ones they possess'. It is the inculcation and educa- 
 tion and training, by practice, of good and high motives or 
 ideals in life, that is the Teacher's chief aim in all teaching. 
 At first, we suggest motives ; but as children grow older, they 
 originate motives themselves. 
 
 Restlessness the Cause of Much Disorder. 
 
 One of the jioteut obstacles to securing Order is the rest- 
 lessness of children, especially of younger children. They 
 seem to find it impossible to keep still. Hands, legs, heads, 
 eyes, bodies — all seem to exemplify that theory of the ancient 
 philosopher of perpetual motion. Ivestlessness is energy run- 
 ning to waste. The fault is not in the child, but in the 
 teacher. He is not giving them an opportunity of using their 
 energy in a proper way. The scientific remedy for a disease 
 is not to drive in the symptoms, but to cut out the root of 
 the trouble. 
 
 We have already spoken of exercise, and motion, and 
 outlet to energy, in the Primary and Kindergarten. It is a 
 mistake to restrain the healthy activity of children, especially 
 a mistake when this energy can be used in a liighly helpful 
 way to accpiire knowledge. Often a child's body is restless 
 because no one has found sufficient employment for his mind. 
 'J'he child cannot be expected to sit still for five minutes 
 while an adult pours forth a torrent of words in which he has 
 no immediate interest. The very fact that such talking re- 
 quires thought on his ]iart, almost of a necessity insures lack 
 of attention in him, and consequent restlessness. When being 
 properly questioned in school, or when al)Sorbed with a puzzle, 
 or a game, children are absolutely still; jiliysicnlly they have 
 no superfluous energy to waste in restlessness. 
 
 The proper method is not to shut the safety valve wlien 
 there is steam to be let off, but to provide channels that will 
 run the machinerv, and secure results. The restless class is 
 
•im THE ELKMKXTS OF CJILIJ) STUDY 
 
 one that is more thau ready to respond to a good teacher. 
 It is the very time and the very class in wliicli the teacher 
 should be most silent, and the class most active and voluble. 
 All teaching requires co-operation on the part of the pupils, 
 and there can be no proper teaching without that response. 
 Eestlessness gives opportunity for self-expression, for manual 
 work, for questioning, for re-production. Somcoiw has said, 
 "The l)e\il tempts a busy person, but an idle person tempts 
 the devil." 
 
 In assigning lessons, it is often a good plan to make cer- 
 tain individuals responsible for certain questions, or parts of 
 questions, apportioned to them in advance. This is necessary 
 where time is limited, and where search for illustrations is 
 called for. 
 
 Some of the questions are too comprehensive in character 
 to be dealt with in the time between two lessons. It is sug- 
 gested that, at the beginning of the course, such questions 
 be assigned to individuals as special topics, to be reported on 
 at convenience. 
 
 Written examinations at the close of the course will be 
 found l)oth instructive and interesting. Such examinations 
 are sti'ongly advised. Questions for examination may be 
 framed by ilie IJeetor or Teacher. In conducting examina- 
 tions it is a good ])lan to assign e.x.iniination nunduM's, which 
 will serve to identify the i)a|)ers, llie name of tlu' student 
 appearing on no |)ai'i of (lie paj)er. 
 
 Emotions as Incentives to Order. 
 
 in suggesting motives as Tncenlives to Order, the teacher 
 should show great wisdom and eai'c>, thai they nuiy be ajipro- 
 j)riate to the moi-al development of the children. "The surest 
 way," says ITuglies, "to destroy sincerity, and develop hypo- 
 crisy and formalism, is to try to make little children assume 
 that they are fully developed Christians." 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 201 
 
 All of these motives have been fully considered before, 
 iluglies says: "Fear^ Love of Praise, Ambition, Emulation. 
 Competition, Pride, and the Desire to Please, have disadvan- 
 tages as well as advantages. All the others are decidedly 
 beneficial in their influence on character. 
 
 "The same motives will not equally influence all pupils. 
 Motives should, therefore, be varied. The motives first named 
 should be used as little as possible. They may be exceedingly 
 useful, however, in starting pupils to work earnestly; and 
 earnest work is the surest means of lifting a human being, 
 of any age, to a higher moral sphere. 
 
 "'Wlien fixing motives for the guidance of pupils through 
 life, the teacher is doing his grandest work. In selecting 
 motives he should be guided by the following considerations : 
 (1) Do they develop spontaneity of character? (2) Do they 
 make pupils self-reliant, without weakening their conscious- 
 ness of dependence on God? (3) Do they make men selfish. 
 or do they widen their sympathies, and increase their love 
 for humanity and God? 
 
 "The final test of a permanent motive — Does it lead tc 
 independence of character, sufficient to develop our individ- 
 uality as perfectly as God intended it to be developed, with- 
 out destroying our sympathy for our fellow-men, or weaken- 
 ing our faith in God? The best motives are not merely 
 ineffectual, they are injurious, if they are aroused without 
 producing their intended result in action." 
 
 j\f r. Gilbert remarks : "Some form of productive work, 
 whether with pen, jDcncil, brush, scissors and paper, or car- 
 penter's tools, is the' individual's chance. It compels mental 
 activity; it assures at least some learning. It also discloses 
 to the teacher the pupil's mental state. The thing portrayed, 
 or made, often speaks much more plainly of the state of mind 
 than the spoken words; though, of course, all these forms of 
 i-ear(ion must be stimulated and utilized." 
 
202 TlIK KI.IOMIONTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Pupils Innately Disorderly, 
 
 Tliei'L' arc Iwo classes ol' disordcily ])upils, the rebels and 
 the non-rebels. The rebels will usually give very little trouble, 
 partly because there are so few of them, and partly because 
 the teachers recognize that they should be disciplined in the 
 school. Open defiance is easily met. But those who arc not 
 openly rebellious, and are disorderly, are very difficult to 
 handle. 
 
 Some are careful and definite, and some are careless and 
 irregular. It is these that give the most trouble of all, and 
 in whom it is very difficult to develop habits of order and 
 definiteness. 
 
 Penalties. 
 
 There is a place for punishment in a child's training, 
 but punishment is a Penalty attached to a choice. It should 
 never be a brute force applied to compel action against choice. 
 Dr. Henry Clay Trumbull has said, rightly, "No child ought 
 ever to be punished luilcss he understood, when he chose to 
 do the wrong in question, that he was thereby incurring the 
 penalty of that punishment." 
 
 Moreover, as we have said previousl}', punishments should 
 be natural punishments. That is, they should be direct con- 
 sequence of the deed. Nothing weakens the child's character, 
 and his respect for law, quicker than the feeling that wrong 
 may be done with impunity, and the beginning of dereliction 
 should be carefully watched. Much attention can well be 
 given to this problem of discipline, both in the home and in 
 the school. Discipline should always be studied, not from 
 the end of inimediate correction, but for its value for train- 
 ing both habits and ideals. 
 
 Disorderly Teachers. 
 
 Disorderly Teachers are those (1) "Whose standard of 
 order is low," says Hughes. "Men cannot rise above their 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 203 
 
 ()\\ a slaiidards;, and tlie}^ cannot lift others above the standards 
 they fix for themselves. (2) Those ^yllo think it is 'easiest 
 to keep jDoor order.' (3) Those who allow the pupils to think 
 that submission is a compliment to the teacher. (4) Those 
 who think children like disorder. Children enjoy being 
 controlled, much better than having their own way. (5) 
 Those who know the value of order, and know that they do 
 not keep good order, but who do not make any conscious 
 effort to increase their power to control, or to improve their 
 methods of discipline. (6) Those who say 'Disciplinary 
 power is a natural gift,' and on this account justify their lack 
 of effort. (7) Those who try to stop disorder by ringing 
 a bell, striking a desk, etc. (8) Those who themselves are 
 noisy and demonstrative. It is a blunder to attempt to drown 
 disorder by making more noise than the pupils are making. 
 (9) Those who speak in a high key. A high-pitched voice is 
 exhaustive to the teacher, and irritating to the pupils. (10) 
 Those who roll their eyes — but do not see. Teachers should 
 cultivate the power to see every pupil at the same time. 
 (11) Those who hurry. Haste rarely produces speed, and 
 always leads to disorder. (12) Those who do not see any 
 use in being 'so particular about trifles.' (13) Those who 
 have order only while they are in the room. (14) Those 
 who believe in lecturing their classes. Formal lecturing on 
 morals and duty does little good to any pupil. (15) Those 
 who have not sufficient Avill-power to insist on obedience. 
 'Do you always do what mamma tells you?' said a visiting 
 minister to a little girl. 'Yes, I guess I do, and so does papa,' 
 was the reply. (16) Those who get angry and scold, or 
 threaten, when executing the law. Anger destroys dignity, 
 and many pupils lose respect for law itself because their 
 teachers adininister law in an undignified manner." 
 
204 THE E]>K.MENTS OF fllllJ) STUDY 
 
 The Right Method of Conducting the Recitation. 
 
 1. First of all, .secure Order, the very moment you enter 
 the Class Form, not ten minutes later, after the spirit of 
 unrest has swept through the scholars. 
 
 2. Attack some educational subject of general interest, 
 that will hold the attention of the pupils until the school 
 has formally opened. With a progressive teacher, and ambi- 
 tious, wide-awake children, this advance topic, the one most 
 interesting, uppermost in tlie minds of the children, eager 
 themselves for it, will be — the Lesson itself. It will be the 
 reverse of a certain class, conducted by a "wise young man" 
 in a large city on the 8t. Lawrence, who persuaded his boys 
 to come regularly to Sunday School, and preserve order, on 
 condition that the Ijesson lasted no longer than fifteen 
 minutes, and the rest of the period be devoted to general 
 "talk" on baseball and kindred topics. Granted that there is 
 a place for baseball, and many like subjects, between the 
 teacher and his pupils; yet the place is not the Sunday School 
 Lesson Period. 
 
 3. In commencing to teach the lesson, conscioush/ look 
 out for the Faint of best Contact, which will seldom be the 
 same. It may even be determined by certain local, secular 
 happenings during the week, which form an entree to general 
 interest. 
 
 4. Pj-oceeding then from the Known to the Unknown, 
 deliberately tale up tlie Freparation or Introduction of the 
 Lesson, using broad, sweeping Opening Questions, linking 
 the new Topic to the former Chapters in the Series. The 
 Aim of the new Lesson should be clearly presented. It holds 
 Attention and Curiosity. 
 
 5. Fresent the Netv Lesson, using Leading and Subsidiary 
 Questions, drawing out first the personal contribution of the 
 Pupils' own study and research, rather than contributing 
 your own investigation. Use Illustrations to clarify their 
 
now TO KKKl' ORDER 205 
 
 misunderstandings; (iucslion i'urliier to make sure of their 
 full comprehension ; have a clear, perspicuous outline or skele- 
 ton, which will bind the parts of the Lesson clearly and 
 coherentl}^ together; secure frequent subsidiary Eeviews each 
 few minutes, gathering together loose, disjointed ends; rouse 
 animated Class Discussions on live topics, but do not let them 
 lead oft* from the main subject, nor consume an undue pro- 
 portion of time; fix the new Ideas firmly in memory by 
 lleview, by Eepetition; and finally bind the whole Lesson 
 together by a rapid Review of all the Points made, and Appli- 
 cation of them in general, though it is to be remembered that 
 not every lesson need necessarily have a '^moral" stated. Very 
 often the stating of an obvious moral spoils the entire point 
 of it. 
 
 Review Steps. 
 
 Three Progressive steps are involved in the reviewing of 
 a lesson: a repetition of it, a second view, or viewing-again- 
 of-it; and a nev\^ view of it. The repetition of it may be, to 
 a certain extent, mechanical. The second view of it, or a 
 viewing-again-of-it may comprehend simply those elements 
 which were recognized in the first view, or original learning, 
 of the lesson. This is valuable. The new view of it, however, 
 seeing it in new aspects and relations, is by far the most 
 im))ortant phase of reviewing. 
 
 The reviews should be prepared by tlic teachers and 
 students as carefully as tlie original lesson. Of the methods 
 of conducting the lesson in the class-room, there are four 
 tbnt slionld have special attention 
 
 Class Room Methods. 
 
 1. The Lecture Method. V>\ this method the teacher pro- 
 ceeds with an orderly and, for the most part, uninterrupted 
 presentation of the thought of the lesson. This method 
 
206 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 calls for little or no preparation in advance b}' the student. 
 This method is chiefly for adults. 
 
 2. The Seminar Method. By this method the members 
 of the class are assigned topics, in the line of which they 
 make original investigations, and report their findings to the 
 class, instead of being called upon to make recitations from 
 specified portions of books. It is almost needless to add that 
 this method used exclusively is only suited to more mature 
 students, and those with trained minds, although with older 
 boys and young men it is possible to make such original 
 investigation an incidental feature of class work. 
 
 3. The Recitation, or Topic, Method. By this method 
 the student is expected to prepare stated lessons from a 
 text book, and to present what he has learned by topics as 
 they are called for by the teacher. 
 
 4. The Question, or Conversational, Method. By this 
 method, after careful preparation by the teacher and student, 
 the former elicits the knowledge that the student has of the 
 subject in as orderly a fashion as possible by a series of 
 questions, often resulting in the play of conversation between 
 teacher and student. 
 
 Balancing Recitation with Instruction. 
 
 Dr. Eoads has an entire chapter dealing with this subject, 
 a comparison of which few teachers stop to think. The men- 
 tion of it, therefore, will be of value. He says, rightly, that 
 under our present inane system, we have almost all the time 
 given to Instruction, with little or no Home Study, and there- 
 fore small amount of Eecitation; while in the Day School 
 this condition is precisely reversed. Thus the Sunday School 
 has become too far a pouring-in process. This is working to 
 the manifest disparagement of the Sunday School, which is 
 despised in the eyes of the bright Public School child. 
 
 Therefore, wisely balance Instruction with Eecitation. 
 Demand, expect, and enforce Home Study. Secure definite 
 
HOW TO KEEP ORDER 207 
 
 Recitation of tlie assigned task. See that tlic reproduction 
 and elucidation of the set stint of Home Work be not dis- 
 l^laced by the needful Class l^iseussiou. 
 
 How to Secure Balance. 
 
 1. Assign for definite Home Study all within the range 
 of the children's time, books, comprehension. Exercise and 
 cultivate their own mental powers. Let them "pick their own 
 brains, before coming to pick yours." 
 
 2. Have each scholar make particular note of difficulties, 
 inquiries, doubts, questions, etc., he finds arising, which he 
 himself cannot meet. If he comes across a specially new and 
 illuminating discovery, let him contribute it to the class. 
 
 3. Instruction, new knowledge, should be the bait to the 
 class, the prize that brings them there. There are, if the 
 teacher be enthusiastic, "seekers after Truth," and the teacher 
 knows more than the pupils. Thus the little "philosophers" 
 will seek the source of Truth. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What is Order? 
 
 2. Why is it essential to the highest development? 
 
 3. How is it seen in business, in organization, etc.? 
 
 4. Why is lack of Order immoral? 
 
 ,'). To what are disorderly schools due? 
 
 G. What are "Secondary Ends," and why are they dangerous? 
 
 7. What means are advised for securing Order? 
 
 8. What means for keeping Order? 
 
 9. What are the three divisions of these means? 
 
 10. Which is the highest, and why? 
 
 11. What is said of Restlessness? 
 
 12. What should be the guide in selecting Motives for Order? 
 
 13. Why is Manual Work advantageous? 
 
 14. What are the classes of Disorderly Pupils? 
 
 15. What is said of Penalties? 
 
 10. What are the classes of Disorderly Teachers? 
 
 17. What rules are given to secure Order in Recitation? 
 
 18. State the Four Methods of Class-room Recitation, and explain 
 
 each. 
 
 19. Which is used for the varying ages? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHArTER XIH. 
 QUESTIONING AND TEACHING 
 
 SUGGESTED READING: — 
 
 Art of Questioning, Fitch. 
 How TO Question, Home. 
 Adult Bible Classes, Wood. 
 Adult Class Study, Woo(i. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 The Two Most Needful Things for any Teaclior in Classroom Work 
 are — (1) Expert Questioning; (2) Expert Story-telling. 
 
 Questioning is Needed — (1) To Find Out what a Child Knows, for 
 further Teaching; (2) To Discover Misconceptions; (.3) To 
 Secure his Activity and Attention; (4) To Test the Result of 
 the Teacher's Work. 
 
 Lesson Books should not contain Question-rt)jrf-.4j(.s//r;-. Pioper Ques- 
 tioning should make Each Pupil a Diligent Seeker after Truth, 
 by Stimulating Action. 
 
 Kinds of Questions, according to Character — (1) Descriptive 
 ( What ? ) ; ( 2 ) Narrati ve ( How ? ) ; ( 3 ) Kxpla natory ( Why ? ) 
 
 Another Divisicm, according to Purpose — (1) Fact Questions: (2) 
 Thought (Questions. Fact Questions entirely up to nine years. 
 Fact and Thought u]i to twelve. Tliouglit ])n'p()ndciatiiig from 
 twelve on. 
 
 Divisions aceoiding to Lesson — (1) Preliminary — Preparation. 
 (2) Leading Questions — Presentation: (.*{) Frequent Review 
 Questions — .\ss()ciation : (4) I'^inal Kexicw (,)ii('sti(ins — Kecapitn- 
 lation and Ajjplication. 
 
 It is only by wise Questioning that we arous(> Curiosity. A child 
 mentally healthy should naturally (juestion hack to satisfy his 
 hunger for Knowledge. '['eaciiers who repress this spirit of 
 Questioning, make youth, draw in, in ignorant silence, the rest 
 of their lives. 
 
QUESTIONrNG AND TEACHING 20!) 
 
 Jlow to l^i'iUii to QiK'stioii — (1) J^i.sti'ii to <^>iicstioiis of Cliildicn ; 
 (2) Ask Questions of Otlicrs; (3) Write New (Questions to l-lacli 
 Lesson ; ( 4 ) Study (Question Jiooks. 
 
 Nature of rro])er Questions; (1) (Simple; (2) Sliort; (3) Giving 
 no Information; (4) With Short Answers; (5) With Entire 
 Sentences for Answers; (0) Not Vague; (7) One Possible An- 
 swer Only; (8) Not Unanswerable: (9) Seldom Answerable by 
 "Yes" or "No"; (10) Without Doubt as to Meaning; (11) Defi- 
 nite; (12) Composite Enough to Require Thought; (13) Ani- 
 mated and Lively; (14) Never Kepeat Wrong Answers; 
 (15) Give Eesearch Questions; (10) Name Pupils after Stating 
 (Question; (17) Question in Uncertain Order; (18) Give Alert 
 (Questions to the Inattentive; (1!)) Give Questions with Short 
 Answers for Younger Children; (20) A Simple Question Need 
 not be Easy. 
 
 Older Pupils and Adults. They are to be taught to Think and 
 Reason. Guide them by Indirection. Get Chass Discussion. 
 
 Pupils in All Classes should be heard Talking More than the 
 Teachers. 
 
CHAl'TF.R XIII. 
 
 QUESTIONING AND TEACHING 
 
 The Importance of Questioning. 
 
 Two of the most noted leaders in Education now living 
 have, each in his own educational work, emphasized the im- 
 ])oi'tance of Questioning and Illustrating. The one has said 
 that, of all things, the teacher ought to be expert in question- 
 ing. The other has said that, of all things, . the teacher 
 ought to be able to illustrate irelt hij storij-telling. We miglit 
 combine the two opinions, and state tluit the two essentials 
 of a proper recitation are Questioning and Illustrating. All 
 lesson books are provided with questions, but all (|uestions 
 are not good Questions. All teachers question, l)iit I'cw teach- 
 ers question either properly or well. 
 
 The true educator should not only spend nu)i(> time in 
 questioning than in lecturing, but the questions should bo 
 those of a teacher, and not those of an examiner. 
 
 Questions are important, (t) to find out Avhat the child 
 knows in order to ])rcpare him for fui'thcr learning, i.e., the 
 Point of Contact, in order to graft the unknown to the known. 
 (2) To discover his misconceptions and diHicuUies, in order 
 to clear them out of the way. {'■)) To secure his activity and 
 attention during tlu; teacbing boiir. (I) To test the result 
 of what has been taught. 
 
 it is not easy to ask pi'o|»(M- ((lu^stions. "Any fool can 
 ask a (|ii('slion," says the ])i-o\('i'b, and 'Mv. Holmes naively 
 
(^l KSTIONIXC;^ AND TKAClllNC; 211 
 
 adds: "No J'ool ciiii ask a wise one." It takes carel'iil study 
 of till' niaierial taught to I'l-ame judicious questions. 
 Method of Sunday School Questioning. 
 
 All leading educators arc agreed on the point that Lesson 
 Books should not, as a rule, contain Question-and- Answer. 
 The Answer should be sought for. Fitch does allow that 
 the Episcopal Church Catechism is the most ideal bit of 
 Question-and-Answer Production ever framed; but even this 
 must be cautiously used. The general use of Question-and- 
 Answer Books is unpedagogical, unnatural, about fifty yeai's 
 behind the times, and, fortunately, rapidly passing away. 
 Xor should the answers to the questions for home study be 
 found directly Avith the questions. The pupil should search 
 for them, as near to the original Source as possible. xVgain, 
 while questions in text books for home study are proper guid- 
 ing-strings for teacher and pupils, the best and the most 
 natural work in class will be accomplished with the lesson 
 books laid aside, with new and original questions asked, and 
 the lesson "developed" apparently (though not really, for all 
 has been carefully planned at home) off-hand by the teacher. 
 Imagine a teacher in geography in public school (and remem- 
 ber your ])U})ils live five days in that atmosphere) reading 
 with difficulty, through a pair of glasses, questions on tlie 
 location of Xew England Manufactories, as she bends over 
 a cramped and scrawly paper. Says Fitch : ''That is the best 
 questioning which stimulates action on the part of the hearer, 
 and gives him a habit of thinking and enquiring for himself 
 — which makes him rather a skilful finder, than a patient 
 receiver of the truth." There is only one kind of action we 
 can surmise as likely to be "stimulated" by much of the 
 Sunday School Questioning. 
 Kinds of Questions. 
 
 Professor F. A. Manny, quoting from Fitch, gives three 
 kinds of Questions: (1) Descriptive Questions, mere fact. 
 
212 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 with typical word "What?" (2) Narrative, process or method, 
 with typical word "How?" (3) Explanatory, iiicaning or use, 
 with typical word "Why ?" 
 
 Perhaps a simpler and better division of Questions, rrom 
 the viewpoint of internal character is that of Professor Mc- 
 Murry, into Fact Questions and Thouglit (Questions. The 
 former are "Wlio?" "Wliere?" "Wliat?" the latter are "How?" 
 and "Why?" Fact Questions sliouhl be the almost exclusive 
 type before tlie age of 8 or 9; tliey shoukl predominate, with 
 some 'J'houglit (Questions, from that age to Adolescence (Pi 
 years on) ; while they should he subsidiary lo Thought (^hies- 
 tions from Adolescence onwai'd. This is hecause the former 
 are concrete, and belong to the concrete age, the age of Ac- 
 quisition; while the latter are more abstract, and come in 
 gradual!}', as Reflection develops. 'J'his differentiation should 
 be constantly borne in mind. 
 
 Professor McMnrry, looking at it from the viewpoint of 
 the lesson, recognizes (1) Preliminary Questions. One 
 should start off with some broad, searching, all-round Eeview 
 Question, that gets the pupils at once in touch witli the lesson 
 for the day; rounds them up, so to speak; collects their wits; 
 connects the new with the old ; focuses the gist of the previous 
 lessons, and unites them all together into a well-knit scheme. 
 Sorne large "left-over problem" from a previous lesson; some 
 wide generalization that would come from the comparison of 
 a large number of formerly considered facts — such are excel- 
 lent "starters." 
 
 (2) Leading Questions, around which shorter, subsidiary 
 ones are welded. These leading questions form tlie backbone, 
 or skeleton, of the lesson plan, in the new material. 
 
 (3) Frequent Review Questions, which sum up the points 
 made thus far in new work. Children's memories arc short 
 at first, and their "weaving ability" limited. The younger 
 th(> cljildi'cn, the morc^ needful this "•ntbei'ing together of 
 
QUESTIONING AND TEACHING 213 
 
 points and loose ends. Every five minutes or so, sum up, with 
 "Let's see wliere we are. Wliat new facts have we learned?'' 
 This recapitulation drives new material home "appercep- 
 tively." 
 
 (4) Final Eeview Questions that gather up the scheme of 
 the entire lesson. Thus we also connect the present lesson 
 with a few words on the following one for next week. We 
 have here again the "formal steps'" of teaching reproduced 
 in Questioning, i.e.. Preparation, Presentation, Association 
 or Comparison, Generalization, Application. 
 
 Curiosity Kindled by Questions. 
 
 It is chiefly hy wise questioning, even before the lesson 
 has been taught, that we are able to kindle in a child the 
 feeling of Curiosity. To make him feel the need of instruc- 
 tion, and bring his intellect into a teachable condition, the 
 child should, from the start, become accustomed, not only to 
 being questioned but, to question. Unless the child were a 
 questioner at the outset of his life, he could make no progress 
 in knowledge; and if the child were forced to stop his ques- 
 tions, there would be an end at once to his advancement. 
 
 Questioning is an appetite, and the child who has no 
 inclination to question is in danger of mental death and stag- 
 nation. Unfortunately the child's questioning meets witli 
 rebuff on every side, from the impatient parent, who says 
 "Don't bother me with questions," to the Sunday School, 
 and sometimes tlie Day School, teacher, wlio "bluffs off" ques- 
 tions because he is afraid lie migiit be unable to answer them. 
 Sooner or later, the child comes to feel tliat the fewer ques- 
 tions he asks the better it will be; and, by the time he has 
 reached youth, he who was brimming over with questions in 
 childhood, seeking knowledge of the world, seems to be willing 
 to live and die in ignorance, rather than draw criticism and 
 attention to himself by asking questions that might either 
 
2U THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 annoy others, or seem discreditaMe to liinisell'. "'riiat boy's 
 questions will worry my life out. Jle is always asking ques- 
 tions; and such questions. 1 ean"t stand it." This is said 
 ijy many a father oi- mother whose child is full of promise, 
 largely because he is full of questions. 
 
 How to Learn How to Question. 
 
 Holmes tells us (1) Listen to the questions of children; 
 (2) Ask cj[uestions often of others; (;5) Write questions out 
 at home on each lesson. This should always be done to clarify 
 the lesson in your own mind, and give you confidence and 
 ease, no matter if the lesson be supplied with good questions 
 already. ]\lake up new ones, (-i) Study C^uestion Books. 
 This is about the only use we can see in most of the Series 
 of such manuals extant. 
 
 Character of Questions You are to Form. 
 
 Fitch gives the following helpful and ])regnant sugges- 
 tions and maxims : 
 
 1. The language of questions. Cultivate great simplicity 
 of language. Use as few words as possible, and let them be 
 such as are adapted to the age and capacity of the class you 
 are teaching. Eememher that {[uestions are not meant to 
 display your own learning or acquirements, but to draw out 
 the thoughts of the children. Jt is a great jioint in (pu'stion- 
 ing to say as little as possible; and so to say that liitle as to 
 cause the children to say as much as possible. Conduct your 
 lessons in such a way that, if a visitor or superintendent be 
 standing by, his attention will he directed, not to you, but 
 to your |)U])ils; and his aduiiralion excited, not by your skill 
 and keenness, but by the aiuounl of lucntal activity disjilayed 
 on their part. 
 
 2. Do not give infoiinalion in (he questions. Do not tell 
 riiucli ill. your questions. Never, if you can help it, com- 
 municalc a fact in youi- (piestion. Contrive to educe every 
 
<,)rJ^S'll()XIX(; AM) IKACIIIXG 215 
 
 fact from the class. Jt is lu'tter to ynxw^v for a inomciit , ami 
 to put one or two sulionlinate quest ions, willi a view to hriiiii- 
 ing out the truths you arc .scckiii_ii', than to tell anything 
 which the cliiklren could tell you. A good teacher never con- 
 veys information in the form of a ([uestion. II' he tells his 
 class something, it is not long hefore he makes his class tell 
 him the same thing again: hut Ids question never assumes 
 the same form, or employs the same jjhraseology as his pre- 
 vious statement; for, if it does, the form of the question really 
 suggests the answer, and the exercise fails to challenge the 
 judgment and memory of the children as it ought to do. 
 
 3. Get entire sentences for answers. \ teacher ought not. 
 in fact, to he satisfied until he can get entire sentences for 
 answers. These sentences will generally he paraphrases of the 
 words used in the lesson, and the materials for making the 
 paraphrases will have hcen developed in the course of the 
 lesson, hy denuinding, in succession, meanings and equivalents 
 for all the principal words. Eememhcr that the mere ahility 
 to fill up a parenthetical, or elliptical, sentence, proves nothing 
 heyond the possession of a little tact, and verbal memory. 
 It is Avortli while to turn ai'ound shai'ply on some inatten- 
 tive member of the class, or upon .some one who has given 
 a mechanical answer, with "^'Tell me what we have Just learned 
 about such a jierson." Observe that the answer required 
 to such a <|uestion must necessarily be a whole sentence; it 
 will be impossible to auswei- it without a real elt'ort of thought 
 and of judgment. 
 
 -I. ])o vol /ml r(i(/ne (/iicsl ions. It is of gi-eat importance. 
 also, that questions shouM be delinite and unmistakable, and. 
 for the most ])art, that tlie\- admit of but one answer. An 
 unskilful teacher puts vague, wide ([uestions, such as ''What 
 did he do?" "What did .\braham say?"" "irow did Joseph 
 feel at such a time?"" "What lesson ought \\v to learn from 
 this?"' questions to which, no doubt, he sees the right answei', 
 
216 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 because it is already iu his mind; Init M'liicli, perhaps, admit 
 of several equally good answers, according to tlie way the 
 different minds look at them, lie does not think of this; he 
 fancies that what is so clear to him ought to be equally clear 
 to others; he forgets that the minds of the children may be 
 moving on other rails, so to speak, even though directed to the 
 same goal. So, when an answer comes which is not the one 
 he expected, even though it is a perfectly legitimate one, he 
 rejects it; while, if any child is fortunate enough to give the 
 precise answer which was in the teacher's mind, he is com- 
 mended and rewarded, even though he has exerted no more 
 thought on the subject. 
 
 5. Do not ash Questions iliat cannot he answered. For 
 similar reasons it is generally necessary to abstain from giv- 
 ing questions to which we have no reasonable riglit to expect 
 an answer. Technical terms, and information children are 
 not likely to possess, ought not to be demanded. Nor should 
 questions be repeated to those who cannot answer. A still 
 more objectionable practice is that of suggesting the first 
 word or two of a sentence, or pronouncing the first syllable 
 of a word which the children do not recollect. All these 
 errors generate a habit of guessing among the scholars, and we 
 should ever bear in mind that there is no one habit more 
 fatal to accurate thinking, or more likely to encourage shal- 
 lowness and self-deception, than this. It should be discoun- 
 tenanced in every possible way; and the most effective way 
 is to study well the form of our questions, to consider well 
 whether they are quite intelligible and unequivocal to those 
 to whoni they are addressed, and to limit them to those points 
 on which we have a right to expect clear, definite answers. 
 
 6. Do not give questions tliat onhj require "Yes" or "No" 
 for an answer. There is a class of questions which hardly 
 deserve the name, and which are, in fact, fictitious or ap- 
 parent, but not true questions. I mean those which simply 
 
QUESTIONING AND TEACHING 217 
 
 require the answer "Yes" or "iSTo." Nineteen such questions 
 out of twenty carr}^ their own answers in them; for it is 
 almost impossible to propose one without revealing, by the 
 tone and inflexion of the voice, the kind of answer you expect. 
 For example : "Is it right to honor our parents ?" "Did 
 Abraham show much faith when he offered up his son ?" "Do 
 you think the author of the Psalms was a good man ?'' "Were 
 tlie Pliarisees really lovers of truth?" Questions like these 
 elicit no thought whatever; there are but two j)ossible answers 
 to each of them, and of these 1 am sure to show, by my 
 manner of putting tlie question, which one I expect. Such 
 questions should, therefore, as a general rule, l>e avoided, as 
 they seldom serve any useful purpose, either in teaching or 
 examining. For every question, it must be rememl)ered; 
 ought to require an effort to answer it; it may ])e an effort 
 of memory, or an effort of imagination, or an effort of Judg- 
 ment, or an effort of perception; it may be a considerable 
 effort, or it may be a slight one, 1)ut it must l)e an effort ; and 
 a question Avhich challenges no mental exertion whatever, and 
 does not make the learner think, is worth nothing. Hence, 
 however such simple affirmative and negative replies may look 
 like work, they may co-exist with utter stagnation of mind on 
 the part of the scholars, and with complete ignorance of 
 what we are attempting to teach. 
 
 7. Make questions that are clear, and without doubt as to 
 meaning. Do not have those that are capable of two or moi-e 
 answers, as "Who was an Apostle of Jesus?" 
 
 8. Mal-e questions as sliort as possible. One question 
 seen recently had thirty-four words in it. Lawyers' "hypo- 
 thetical questions" may be interesting to us, but not to chil- 
 dren. You need not state numerous facts, as a preliminary 
 to your interrogation point. 
 
 9. Place i/our qnestions in definite, progressire, pJanned- 
 oiil onlcr. You Avaiit oi'flcr in recit.ition. 
 
21S TJIK KLK.MKNTS OF CHILD STUJ)Y 
 
 1(1. Asli- (jite-stiuiis of a coinpufiite enaiKjIt cliitniclrr tliat 
 ijoitr (iiistrers require Ihottghi. 
 
 11. (Juentioim should he aniniated and lireJi/. not dull 
 and dead. Live issues should be selected, and the manner 
 briglit. 
 
 12. Wrong answers should xot he repealed, since this 
 only assists in making the wrong impression stronger. 
 
 13. Throw out questions for research and personal indi- 
 vidual investigation, perhaps eveu from other than usual 
 lesson sources. Let pu])ils question each other, thus ])rovok- 
 ing the spirit of incjuiry. Tlw gist and hasis ol' all fruiirul 
 recitation work in class will he the cultivation of "The In- 
 (piiring Spirit,'" so that pmiils constantly ask "Who?" 
 "What?" "How?" "When?" etc. 
 
 14. Propound the question first, and c<dl Uie name of tlie 
 sludent wlio is to answer aflerward. This will insure the 
 attention of all, because of the uncertainty as to the jjcrson 
 wlio is to recite. Xo intiuuition should be given to the student 
 whom you intend to call on, e\(Mi hy looking at him while tlie 
 question is being fi-amed. 
 
 15. Questions sliould not he aslied of memhers of lite class 
 in regular rotation, either in alphabetical order, or in the 
 order of their seating. In order to insure an o])portunity for 
 all to recite, the names of members of tlie class might be 
 written on slips, sliuffled together, and then drawn out at 
 random. 
 
 10. Address questions to tlie inatlenlirc. but (hi not re- 
 ]ieat the question if, in their inattention, they have not heard 
 it. Questions should be put with promptness and animation. 
 Alert questions will stimulate prompt rt'plics. U'hile ques- 
 tions shouhl follow one another without delay, reasonal)le 
 time should be given for an intelligent rejdy. 
 
 17. Tn his Priimer. Professor Adams ])oints out that: 
 "7/ is a niishdre to asl,- (jiieslions irhirh iiirolrr Uiikj ansirers, 
 
Qri:STI()XI.\(i AX]) TEACHING 219 
 
 l)iii'(iciil;wly in the e-ase ol' tlie younger jnipils. It is one 
 thing to know; it is another to express. A child may know- 
 not onlv tlio story implied in- a ])aralile, l)ut also the under- 
 lying meaning, and yet he unahle to "(Jive an aeeount of the 
 ])aral)le.' At the early stages all (piestions should he direet; 
 i.e., they should be real (piestions demanding definite an- 
 swers.'' 
 
 ]8. Again according to Professor Adams: "To he si in pie. 
 a quesfion need not he east/. 'Who is the author of the hook 
 of llehrews?" is a simple, hut very dillieult, question. A\'hat 
 is specially meant hy simplicity in cpiestions is what may he 
 called their singleness, i.e., only one thing should l)e asked 
 at a time. Teachers who do not prepare their work not 
 infrequently stumble into questions which involve several 
 independent ansAvers ; and, still more frequently, they change 
 the form of the question two or three times before they finally 
 leave it for the pupil. This careless "^thinking aloud,' this 
 making up of questions that ought to have been carefully 
 l)repared beforehand, is disconcerting to the pupils, who fre- 
 quently answer some of the rejected forms of the question 
 instead of the final form." 
 Questioning Older Pupils. 
 
 The teacher of older pupils must never forget that he 
 is not doing elementary teaching. He is leading his pupils 
 to think, to relate thoughts, to secure a vision. He aims to 
 make the student think for liimself. The difference between 
 the questioning of younger pupils, and that of elementary 
 ones, marks the difference between Eastern and Western 
 courses. In the East, students commit verbatim material 
 to memory. In the West, students are trained to independ- 
 ent thought and criticism. It spells the difference between 
 Confucius and Socrates. 
 
 The more a teacher and an older class are in sympathetic 
 touch, the (|U('stioning will lessen in importance. \i best, 
 
220 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 questioning is a drawing out process. 'JMie adult class is 
 best led by indirection. The suggestion is thrown out. A 
 question is projDounded 021 which there are several sides, and 
 which will arouse discussion. Pupils are led to question 
 each other, and to question the leader. Everyone is aroused 
 to seek knowledge and other's views until there is a perfect 
 whirlwind both of contriluition and oC cooperation. 
 
 Proper Recitation Balance in Questioning. 
 
 lu younger classes we should expect that thc' [)upils will 
 be heard about Iwo-ihirds of the time, and ihe teacher's 
 voice one-third, though of course this statement is only 
 approximate. As regards lecturing and (piestioning with 
 younger classes, questioning should predominate; and, as 
 we have seen from the statement at thc beginning of this 
 paragraph, the questioning should be mainly on the part of 
 the pupils. Of course, the teacher has to he the leader, and 
 guide the recitation. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. What are the two most needful things for a teacher in class- 
 room work? 
 
 2. Why is Questioning needed? 
 
 3. What should proper lesson books not contain? Why? 
 
 4. Wliat arc the Divisions of Questions according to Clia racier? 
 
 5. What are the Divisions of Questions according lo Purpose? 
 G. What are the Divisions of Questions according to Lessons? 
 
 7. Explain each. 
 
 8. How do we arouse Curiosity? 
 
 9. What is the danger of repressing children's Questions? 
 
 10. How can we learn to question ? 
 
 11. What are proper Questions? 
 
 12. How do we deal differently with Older Pupils and Adults in 
 
 this matter? 
 ];5. What slioiild he ilic ratio in conversation as lo tlic 'j'caciifr and 
 tlie Pu])ils in any class? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER XIV. 
 HOW TO USE STORIES, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND OBJECTS 
 
 SUGGESTED READING:— 
 
 Pictures and Picture Work, Hervey. 
 Stories and How to Tell Them, St. John. 
 Handwork in the Sunday School, Littlefield. 
 Manual Work for the Sunday School, Sexton. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Imagination is very strong in Early Childhood. Develops shortly 
 after Perception. It is met by Stories and Illustrations. Illus- 
 trations are Pegs on which to hang Truth. 
 
 Illustration appeals to — (1) Eye; (2) Memory; (3) Touch; (4) 
 Imagination; (5) Reason. 
 
 Dangers in Illustration — (1) Use too many; (2) Use too broad; 
 (3) Use carelessly. 
 
 Characteristics of Good Illustration — (1) Main Story; (2) Side 
 Lights. 
 
 Marks of a Good Story — (1) A concrete, striking Beginning; (2) A 
 Climax; (3) Sometimes Rhythm, Recurrence; (4) Unity. 
 
 Points in Story-telling — (1) Use Direct Discourse; (2) Choose 
 Actions; (3) Use Concrete Terms; (4) Cultivate Taste; (5) Be 
 full of the Story, and do your hcf<t. 
 
 Brief Rules— (1) See it; (2) Feel it ; (3) Shorten it ; (4) Expand 
 it; (5) Master it; (6) Repeat it. 
 
 How to Learn How to Illustrate — (1) Study Models, (a) Ancient, 
 (6) Modern; (2) Prepare Carefully. 
 
 Illustrative Material — (1) Objects of Nature; (2) Human Activi- 
 ties; (3) Anecdotes from History; (4) From Literature; (.1) 
 Current Anecdotes; (G) Offhand Sketches; (7) Religious Art. 
 
 Types of Pictures — (1) For Small Children, those of God's Love, 
 Care, Action, Symbolic, etc. Seldom of Pain and Suffering. Nor 
 the Abstract nor most Old IVIasters. (2) Use the best ^fodern 
 Painters. 
 
222 THE ELEMENTS OF CJIIIJ) STUDY 
 
 Distinguisli between Imaginary and Real Pictures. (I) Use Real 
 for Scenery always, as the setting- to the Bible Story; (2) Point 
 out that no Bible Picture is real; but imaginative. 
 
 Stereoscopic Work should also be carefully graded, and used in all 
 Schools. 
 
 Manual Work. I. Illustrative Book Work. Appeals to all (Irades, 
 but especially to Kindergarten and Prinuiry. (1) Picture Mount- 
 ing; (2) Picture Moxmting and Pasted Bible Clippings: (3) Pic- 
 ture Mounting and Written Description; (4) Picture Mounting 
 and Essays. II. Map-making in Relief. (1) Pressed j\Iaps 
 colored; (2) Sand Table; (3) Paper Pulp. III. :\Iap-niaking in 
 the Flat. IV. Modelic Work. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 HOW TO USE STORIES, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND OBJECTS 
 
 Illustrations, and How to Use Them — Stories and Parables. 
 
 We have already taken notice of the strong part whicli 
 Imagination plays in the child-life. Imagination develops 
 shortly after Perception, and requires wise training, just 
 as the former power does. We recognize that a child exag- 
 gerates, and seemingly lies, because it does not perceive 
 properly; and we accordingly educate the perceptions to 
 truer discernment, through more careful observation. The 
 Imagination is of value, because through Stories and Illus- 
 trations we reach the child's mind, and the child's interests. 
 in a concrete form. 
 
 This is the avenue of approacli, the Point of CJontact, 
 by which Bible trutlis may be imparted, without dulness. 
 Stanley Hall once said that of all things which a teacher 
 should know how to do, the most important, without any 
 exception, is to l)e al)le to tell a story. It is almost the 
 main part of teaching. The child's thirst for stories is 
 marvellous. Froebel has called Story-telling a "veritable 
 spirit bath, in wliich eye, hand and ear, open to the genuine 
 story-teller.'' Stories win attention. They fix the truth 
 in the mind. They are the pegs, as it were, on which facts 
 are hung. Tliey arc the jncturesqne eye glasses, througii 
 which triitli enters the intellect. 
 To What Does Illustration Appeal? 
 
 The Eev. Tl. S. Holmes in Sunday Scttool Science says 
 that Illustration ajipoals: "(1) to Sight. It attracts the Eye. 
 
224 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 It lays before it pictures, maps, objects, and causes it to see 
 in these things likeness of truth, or evidences of what has 
 occurred, or the places where things have happened, in their 
 relations to the pupil's own time and place. (3) To Memory. 
 It appeals to the memory, and asks it to reproduce from its 
 store the full particulars of something which it suggests in 
 part. (3) I'o Touch. It comes to tlie hand, and asks it to 
 help in giving an idea of length, breadth, height, etc., by 
 serving itself as a measure. (4) To Imagination. Here 
 it opens a wonderful world. Here are aroused similes, 
 metaphors, vivid portraits in the picture gallery of the brain. 
 It is the world of illustrative fictions; not falsehoods, but 
 fictions, figments, things made in this enchanted chamber 
 of the brain. (5) To Beason. It lays hold on the logical 
 faculties, and makes them serve. Comparisons are made 
 between truth and natural objects." 
 Dangers in Illustration. 
 
 Several dangers are mentioned by the same author that 
 are worth considering here: (1) Some persons use too much 
 lUiistration. They are like college boys, wlio spend too 
 much time on the football field to the neglect of their studies. 
 It is as if a house were all decoration outside, with no 
 furniture witliin. (2) t^oriie Jlhisiraiions are too broad. 
 Fiction and ti'utli are too mueli blended, or, I'nther, there 
 has JK'on too mueli fiction. The I'ruth is lost sight ol' in the 
 haystack of fiction. These Ilhistrations caiTy aid to some 
 thouglit far from their purpose. ^Piiey often defeat the end 
 of their use. Of such beware. (;)) Ilhislndlous arc used 
 too carelessly. 'J'hey illustrate too much, and so defeat their 
 own end. Some persons occasionally use Illustrations only 
 for effect, to cover up insunieient ])reparation. 
 Characteristics of a Good illustration. 
 
 Dr. llervey, a master in illustrating, has devoted an 
 entire book to PicturI': Work. ITe notes two distinctions 
 
HOW TO USE STORIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 225 
 
 to be always borne in mind: (1) The Main Story, the skele- 
 ton on which we build. "Not merely for children, but for 
 grown folk, too, is picture- work a means of teaching. In a 
 densely populated quarter of New York City there is to-day 
 a minister who is not content with mere word pictures. He 
 brings into the pulpit the objects themselves — it may be a 
 candle, a plumb-line, a live frog, an air pump. With him 
 the method is a success, as it has been with others. Does 
 tliis seem crude ? So are the mental processes of every forty- 
 nine out of fifty the Avorld over. AVe never can know anything 
 without having something to know it with. A 'like' is the 
 key that enables us to unlock, and to enter, the door of the 
 unknown." (3) Us Side TAglits, or environment, so to 
 speak. 
 
 The Main Story corresponds to the outline of a picture, 
 the skeleton; the side lights to the finished background, the 
 filled-in atmosphere. It has been claimed by some educators 
 tliat the wood engraving or line-cut picture, being outline 
 and sketcliy, appeals more to tlie smaller child, while the 
 half-tone does to tlie older pupil. This does not at all fol- 
 low from a study of child-nature. Granted that the small 
 child does draw at first only in outline; granted, also, that 
 he is highly imaginative and symbolic, and that he reads 
 more into that outline sketch than do we adults, yet the small 
 child does not draw in outline because lie u-ants to, but 
 because lie lias to. The grosser and larger nuiscular move- 
 ments are developed first, then the more delicate and highly- 
 specialized ones. The child does not talk "baby-talk" because 
 he wants to, but because his tongue cannot yet imitate accu- 
 rately the more delicate sounds in specialized muscular 
 action. You do not help him to get nearer the right pro- 
 nunciation by talking "baby-talk" back to him. He will 
 realize his imitative struggles all the sooner by hearing the 
 right syllabization. So with stories and pictures; the full 
 
220 THE EJ.KMKNTS OF CHIIJ) STUDY 
 
 and iiatuval jxji'trayal. the pit'tuiv as Xatuic |>rt'si'nt.s it, 
 witli all its baokgniimd. and liiihls and shadows, is the nioiv 
 correct mode of ]>roscntati()n. 
 
 The Marks of a Good Story. 
 
 "(1) The stonj ntiisl have a bcgiitniiKj. runrrcte, iiilcr- 
 esl-compelling , curiositij-puiaing. 'All things have two 
 liandles: beware of the wrong one." {'i) It uiusi liave a 
 cliiiKix, properl}' led up to, easily led down from; and that 
 never missed. (3) Many good sioric^ hare rhijUnn. recui-- 
 rence, repetition of the leit iiiolir. "The 'i'hree Bears' is a 
 favorite for this reason, among others, 'i'he commands of 
 the Lord to Moses were regularly rej)i'ated thrice in tiie 
 Bible story: in the book of Daniel, tiie sonorous catalogue of 
 flute, harp, sackbnt, and the rest, comes in none too often for 
 the purposes of the story-teller. (4) All good stories have 
 unity; parts well subordinated: tiie nuiin lesson unmis- 
 takably clear; the point, whether tactfully liidden or l)rought 
 out by skilful questions, never missed." Dr. Hoads puts it 
 another way: "(1) The Illustration must l)e transparent, 
 and not in itself so attractive as to fix the attention. (2) 
 Yet it should be so interesting as to give the ti'utli a fresh 
 setting. (3) The Illustration is foi- the Trutli. not the 
 Truth for the Illustration." 
 
 Points to be Remembered in Story Telling. 
 
 Says Dr. Hervey again: "(1) Use dirccl i/isconrsc That 
 is, have the story vivid, put, so far as may l)e, in running, 
 personal, descriptive form, leaving out the tliii'd person. 
 It will require an effort to keep yourself (in your end)ar- 
 rassment) from taking refuge behind ihe indirect form, 
 saying, for example 'And when he came to himself, he said 
 that he would rise and go to his father, and tell him that he 
 had sinned.' (2) Choose actions, rather than descriptions, 
 the dvnamics. rathei- than Ihe statics, of your subjects — 
 
now TO USE STORIES AXU ILLUSTRATIONS 227 
 
 your story will tlius have 'i^'o," as all BiMe stories have. Those 
 of us who have grown away from childhood tend to reverse 
 the true order, to place the emphasis on the question, 'What 
 kind of a man is he,' and not on, Svliat did he do?' J^et 
 what lie did tell what he was." (3) Use concrete ieniis, not 
 abstract: tell what was done, not how somehody felt, or 
 thought, when something was done ; he ohjective, not sub- 
 jective, (-i) A stonj-teJler should have taste. To form this 
 taste it is indispensable that he should not merely read, but 
 drink in the great masters : Homer, Chaucer, Bunyan, Haw- 
 thorne, (The Woxder Book, for example), and, above all, 
 the Bible itself. Xo one can absorb these without uncon- 
 sciousl}' forming a pure, simple style, and getting a more 
 childlike point of view and way of speech. Modern writers 
 and modern ways of thinking are, in general, too i-etlective, 
 self-conscious, subjective, and, where children are concerned, 
 too direct, bare, "preachy." (5) The secret of sionj-teHing 
 lies — first of all, in being fall — fall of the ston/. the picture, 
 the children; and then in being morally and spiritually up 
 to concert-pitch, which is the true source of power in any- 
 thing. From these comes spontaneity ; what is within must 
 come out; the story tells itself: and of your fulness the 
 children all receive. Dr. l^oads enlarges: "Be spiritually- 
 minded always, and deepen the spiritual life, so that spiritual 
 analogies and truths may be seen in all that is seen, or read, 
 or experienced. The teacher must have a clear understanding 
 of the truth he would illustrate. He cannot show what he 
 does not see.'' 
 Brief Rules. 
 
 Finally Di-. Hervey sums uj) his suggestions as to the 
 story: "(1) See it. If you are to nuike others see ii, you 
 must see it yourself. (2) Feel il. H' it is to touch your 
 class, it must first have touched you. (3) Shorten it. It 
 is |)rol)altlv too long, l»revity is llie soul of story-telliug. 
 
228 THE ELKMKNTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 (-4) Expand il. It is probably meagre in necessary back- 
 ground, in details, (o) Master il. Practise, l^epetition is 
 the mother of stories ■well told ; readiness, tlie secret of classes 
 well held. ((!) liepcai il. Don't be afraid of re-telling a 
 good story. The younger cliildreii are, the better they like 
 old friends. But everyone loves a 'twice-told talc' "' ]Ie 
 adds: "The 'wholes' of Scri])ture narrative, whole books, 
 wliolc lives, whole stories, told as wholes by the teacher, or 
 by a single ])uj)il, and not })ick('(l out })ieceuieal by the 
 teaclier from halting individuals — tiiese are tiie things that 
 in the class give interest, and that in the mind live, and grow, 
 and bear fruit. 'Moral power is the effect of large, unbroken 
 masses of thouglit; in these alone can a strong interest be 
 developed/ and from these alone can a steady will spring." 
 
 How to Learn How. 
 
 Hervey, Holmes, Koads, Gregory — everyone who has writ- 
 ten on Teaching — add suggestions on cultivating this Art 
 of Illustration; for it is an art, one of the greatest arts. 
 Ijike every other art, it demands study (incessant study), 
 and — practice. Here is the gist. 
 
 Study Models. As in all imitative arts, we learn best 
 by noting how others acted and spoke, (a) Ancient models. 
 Socrates, a master in the art. Christ, the most ideal Story- 
 teller. Read His Parables, without a word of alteration or 
 enlargement, and you have the most attractive stories. If 
 you ever tell the like, you may be Avell satisfied. The Art 
 of Illustration reached perfection in Him. Read the dis- 
 courses of Jesus, and see what wealth of illustration is in 
 them. 
 
 (h) Modern. Read Spurgeon, especially John Plough- 
 man's Talks. They are homely, terse, rugged, telling. 
 I»ead Moody, whose Bible stories are marvellous. As he 
 ])ut it, he "simply took the old, dead skeletons, and put 
 
HOW TO USE STORIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 229 
 
 living flesh on tlioir bones, and made them walk among us." 
 Eveiy teacher should own and read one volume of Moody. 
 In English literature, study Chaucer. Mark how he made 
 such a picture of his Canterbury pilgrims that, not only the 
 color, the action, and the characters of the scene, but also 
 the very atmosphere of the jolly crowd, has been clear and 
 vivid for more than four centuries. Macauley boasted that 
 he would write a history which would supersede the latest 
 novel on the tables of the young ladies of the day. How 
 did he accomplish tliis? Eead his History op England, 
 and learn the secret of the power to picture. Another 
 modern writer, who should be- commended for her exquisite 
 style, and brilliant picturing — although we may not always 
 agree with what she says — is Marie Corelli. Study George 
 Eliot's Silas Marnek, 'Vhere the interest never flags, the 
 proper perspective is always maintained, light and shade 
 are in due proportion, and the lesson to be learned is taken, 
 not as a bitter dose, but as one drinks in the fresh air of 
 a clear, May morning." Study it, and learn how to tell a 
 story. Hawthorne's Wonder Book is another picturesque 
 model. Beware of most present-day writers, for the gener- 
 ality of them are too reflective, self-conscious, suljjective; 
 and, Avhere children are concerned, too direct and bare. 
 
 3. Prepare Carefully. It is easier — at least it is 
 lazier — to provide many things, than to prepare much. 
 
 The mind uses, by preference, its most familiar know- 
 ledge. Each man borrows his illustrations from his calling; 
 the soldier from the camps; the sailor from tlie ships, etc. 
 So in the ol)jects of study, each student is attracted to the 
 qualities which relate it to his business, or experience. 
 Therefore, try to keep well within tlie range of your pupils' 
 plane of experience in selecting your story, or illustration, 
 and in building it out. 
 
 Old Testament Stories and Life seem somewhat nearer 
 
230 THE ELE^fEXTS OK CiillJ) STri)Y 
 
 to eliildreii than Xew Testament, and, espeeially, than the 
 History of Acts. It is the reason why, so many prefer to 
 give but a simple and brief outline of Christ, and His Life. 
 and then to take nj) the Old Testament biographically, not 
 historically, Avhieli would coiiie much later, after historical 
 concepts have arisen. 
 
 Varieties of Illustrative Material. 
 
 1. Objects of Nature. Find where the sun, moon, stars, 
 grass, birds, etc., are used in the Bible, and compare with 
 modern things. Use the wonders of American Xatural Lil'c 
 and Scenery in a similai' way. 'I'hc coumion objects ol' 
 to-day, in our American A\!()nderiand, will sj)eak just as 
 powerfully as Palestine did under Christ's uuignetic hand. 
 
 2. Ifuiiiaii Actlritics and Orcajxilioits around us, of the 
 kind the child can appreciate. We live in the most magnifi- 
 cent scientific age known. Use it to help on Christ's King- 
 dom. Not onh' great Iniildings operations, tremendous 
 works, great ships, l)ut the marvels of science and discovery 
 are at our back. 
 
 o. Aiiccddios, Stories (Parables I'l'om l)il)U'. early Eng- 
 lisli Writers, etc.). Biographies from jModern and Present-day 
 History, American and European History, Classical j\Iytho- 
 logy. Old Legends (See Gould's I.kohnos ok tiiI': Pathi- 
 AHCiis AM) Pi!oriii<:'rs, Miller's (ii.i.M I'sks Tiii;()i(;ii EiKifs 
 Windows, Stall's Eivk-^Fim tk Oi-.-ii-ct Si;i!M()\s: Miss 
 Yonge's Book ok (ioi.DKX Dkkds. etc.) Allegories, Similes, 
 and, la.stly. Illustrations IVom vivid preacbei-s ; I'oi' lliey puli- 
 lished their sci'mons to li('l|) s])i-en(l the Ti'uth. nol to remain 
 on shelves. 
 
 ■1. K.vj)ressire l^i/iiihols. Ti//ies. etc.. as the ('ross. the 
 Anchor, Crown, XP, dES, 'I'riangle, etc. 
 
 ."). Carreiil Aner(l(jles. Study the cui'rent newspapers 
 and magazines. IMuch that is suggestive and inipr(>ssive will 
 
now TO rSK SIOKIIIS .wd illistrations 2:u 
 
 foiue ti) Jiaud. Many a talc of local biaverv. .self-dcnial. 
 self-sacriHcc ol' toiii forts, or lilV, (k'votioii to duty, to religion. 
 to God, to ^lissions, etc., will be round in almost every issue 
 of a paper, or magazine. If the cliildrcu know the people, 
 or the locality of the event, it will win personal interest. 
 The story can be briefly and \i\i(lly recast in your own 
 language, for presentation and elucidation of the lesson. 
 To preserve this material until needed, that is, until it natur- 
 ally suits the. lesson at hand, begin an p]nvelope Filing 
 System.* 
 
 G. Sketches, illustrative of Pictures, .Models, Scenes. 
 Symbols, etc., made hy teacher or scholars. 
 
 T. h'eligious Art, es2:)ecially Religious Pictures, is dealt 
 with very fully in a special Book on Eeligious Pictures, Ijy 
 the same Author. It is hoth a matter of telling interest. 
 and of vital importance, to secure the right point of view 
 toward the cultivation of this artistic instinct. 
 
 Types of pictures and their selection are of supreme 
 import; for one of the greatest mistakes we can make is to 
 select pictures, ill-adapted to particular ages. Some selec- 
 tions are positively harmful and injurious. This is not the 
 fault of the pictures, hut their abuse, their itse at tiie wrong 
 
 * (jet cheap iiiaiiilhi envelopes, tuck in the flaps (or cut them ofT 
 entirely), writing the general topics you will need on the upper 
 left-hand corner, and file in a box or drawer (the box in which the 
 envelopes were bought will do if you strengthen the corners with 
 cloth, gummed tape). Into these envelopes put all clippings you can 
 secure, of suggestive use. Copy mottoes, ]iassages, stories, etc.. where 
 you cannot clip, and file the memos in the same way. If the system 
 grows very large, special envelopes can be made of heavy inanila, and 
 the whole filed in ordinary chiffonier drawers, three rows to a 
 drawer. Tliis plan is far better than a clipping book, for it is diffi- 
 cult to find sucli material at once when wanted, without an index, 
 which means excessive work. By this suggested system, the en- 
 velopes are their own index, being arranged in order, as in a dic- 
 tionary, or encjclopaedia. 
 
232 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILI) STUDY 
 
 age, or tiiiu'. Pictures that arc concrete are in themselves 
 better for children than those which are mystical, or abstract. 
 Pictures that show actions, even in war and killing, are 
 attractive to small children, because of their action. It has 
 been shown that such pictures do not work injury to the 
 child, for it is not the pain, or the killing, that he cares for. 
 or even realizes, but the vividness of action and doing. 
 Pictures of God's Love and Care, of Jesus Blessing Children, 
 or Healing the Sick, of the Nativity and Childhood, of 
 Country Life in Egypt and Palestine — all these appeal to 
 the younger children. 
 
 Most of the Italian Masters' pictures are formal works 
 of art, but with no appropriate religious content for us, as 
 far removed from our conception of everyday life as a Latin 
 Bible would be for a text book; and the German pictures, 
 a principal alternative, for the most part entirely lack tiiat 
 artistic fire which gives woj'ks of art their reason for 
 existence. 
 
 Graded Stereoscopic Work. 
 
 In even the humblest Sunday School, the stereoscope 
 and stereographs are to-day hecoming an almost indispensable 
 adjunct. The subjects involved arc principally scenes from 
 the Holy Land, its people, places, and customs. Neverthe- 
 less, there ought to be grading in their use, a se(|uencc or 
 order, by which the pupils are conducted in a systematic. 
 rather than a haphazard, fashion through the land that Jesus 
 trod. 
 
 Manual Work. 
 
 "Manual Work" means, of course, anything done with 
 the hands. In this broad usage the term includes all written 
 and illustrative work. Technically, liowever, it is generally 
 confined to-day to the following Types of Work, which are 
 brief! V summarized and described below. All are used at 
 
now TO USK STORIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 2;}3 
 
 tlie same time, syiiclironous, not consecutive. For older 
 scholars of the Adolescent Age, boys and girls alike, there is 
 nothing that "takes" so well as tlie advanced forms of ]\Ianual 
 V/ork, especially Note Books and IMaps. The fatal ''leak at 
 the top" is almost overcome by its proper use. The general 
 divisions are : 
 
 I. Illustrated Book Work. 
 
 II. ]\rap-Making in Belief. 
 
 III. Map-Making in the Flat. 
 
 IV. Modelic-Work. 
 
 I. — Illustrated Book Work. 
 
 It was formerly thought that, since small children were 
 fond of pictures, Bible Pictures were only of use in the 
 lower grades of the Sunday School. For many years their 
 use has been confined to a topical illustration of some Bible 
 Story, or Ethical Lesson. To-day it is being realized that 
 this is a very small field, and that their power is, perhaps, 
 greatest as a means of self-expression in the higher grades. 
 
 Even in adult reading of current literature it is note- 
 worthy that illustrations and pictures are the chief means 
 used to impart ideas and descriptions. People look at the 
 pictures in current literature, and scarcely do more at best 
 than glance rapidly over the reading matter. A picture 
 will convey in a comprehensive, vivid, picturesque instant 
 a grasp and detail in any subject that it would require pages 
 of print to explain. Moreover, we aie of a concrete, rather 
 than abstract or abstruse, type of mind in this age. The eye- 
 gate appeals to our understanding far better than the ear- 
 gate, and the picture eye-gate best of all. Thinking of a 
 historical scene or object requires visualizing. If we have 
 only a literary descri])tion, the process of visualizing is most 
 complex, though not so dilTicult perhaps as with a verbal 
 description. A picture visualizes at once — gives it all in a 
 
•234 TIIK KIJvMKXTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 flash, as it wcic. I'ictiu'fs ;iic (hus of xaliit' in r\i'i'y stage oi" 
 education, with the adult I'lillv as nuicli as witli the youngest 
 child. 
 
 In all ('(liicalion of the modem tvpe, it is recognized to- 
 day, that "means of self-expression" are necessary. The 
 student, youn^- or ohi. must do in order to understand. The 
 object must ]>reee(le the symbol. The concrete must antici- 
 pate the abstract. True education says that doing must 
 come before learning; that we understand l)y our recon- 
 structing, or at least I'epresenting, wluit we are to learn by 
 nde and principle later. Education thus, secidai- and I'elig- 
 ious alike, is ineeting in scll'-expi'ession the wants, and crav- 
 ing, and desires, of the pupil. 
 
 Some of such "Means of Self-Expression"" are, Represent- 
 ing the Subject by the Use of Pictures, by l)i-a\\ ing. by .Maps 
 (relief, putty, clay, plasticine, pa]H'r-j)ulp, ink, erayon. waU'r 
 colors, and even pyrography). Written Description of the 
 Subject-matter in the form of Notes or Essays, l)y Construct- 
 ing 01)jects or ^lodels, ])y Ikcproducing Bible Seem 
 simple Plays and J)ramatization, etc. It is importaid. 
 wise, that Exi)ression ot Christian Teacliing and Alti'uistic 
 Principles be given actually in suggested works of charily 
 and kindness, in practically living the lift' foi' which the 
 principles and teaching stand. 
 
 Grade J. Piciurcs in lite Kiii(l('r;/(irlcii (iml rrliuanj 
 Schools. Picture ]\I(mnting Books (X. ^■. Sunday School 
 Commission), in which piclures of the lialf-iaMit or penny 
 series ai'c pasted in with Dennison stickers, to illustrate a 
 to])ical lesson. 
 
 (Inn/r If. I'vpUs from S /o !l. ur 10 l<> 11. Old llihirs 
 or Teslamenls are clipped. nniL-in;/ a hariiioiii/ of the Old 
 Tcslaiiieiif. or life of Clirisl. or .\posiolic CJiurch. Clippings, 
 and pictures to illustrate them, aie mounted in Picture 
 Moiintiu"- i>ooks. and a l*ictui-c lliMc llui< fdrmeil li\- each 
 
 in 
 ike- 
 
now lO ISI-: STOKIKS and ILIASTRATIONS 235 
 
 child. CliildrL'ii oJ' this grade (.-an ol'lcii (h» this work, wIkmi 
 thcii' wi-itiiig is still too labored and i-iudc i'(jr written 
 elaboration. Jievereiu-e is taught by earel'iilly burning waste 
 portions of the old, used Bibles. Sometimes the book covers 
 are beautifully ilhiniinated. 
 
 Grade III. Fictures are nioaiited in hools in historica! 
 sequence as before, and a brief description icrilten beside 
 them, or on the ojjposite page, in addition to the study given 
 to the lesson in connection with the Lesson Manual. There 
 are two types of children, one the mental type, the other the 
 manual type. The lattei- ty]K\ is the "bad" boy or giid. 
 Keali/ce that Ijadness is often extreme nervousness and activity, 
 and will disappear at once with the use of Manual ^Methods, 
 self-expression, such as are supplied by this notebook work. 
 This is successfully done with pupils from 10 to V2 or lo 
 years of age. 
 
 Grade lY. Fictures and Mounting Fioolcs. as aboce. irilli 
 inucli longer essays or fuller notes or long tlieses, forming 
 an original biography, or history, of tlic subject studied. 
 Drawings, maps, etc., are added, and often quite elaborate 
 books prepared, reaching up to adult life and Bible Classes. 
 This work begins at Adolescence, 12 years onwards. 
 
 Thus we cover all the divisions of the Sunday School, in 
 a graded picture notebook scheme. 
 
 Kindergarten and Primary in Grade I. 
 
 Grammar School in Grades II. and II T. 
 
 High School and Post-Graduate School in Grade 1\'. 
 
 II. — Map-Making in Relief. 
 
 {a) The Klenim Belief Maps of Egypt, Palestine, and 
 Eoman Empire, may be colored with water or oil colors. 
 (b) The Sand Table Map may be used in all grades. Even 
 adidts delight in it. The best proportions are three units 
 one \\i)\- hv four the other. While I'ockawav or I'iver Bottom 
 
23G THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Sand, or groimd Glass Quartz, arc the best materials, (c) 
 Paper Pulp (white or olive green), clay, or even putty, can 
 be moulded. For the use of the I'ulp, see the Commission 
 Bulletin, Vols. II. and III. (25 cents a volume) or INIr. Little- 
 field's Hand Work. Clay and Putty do not dry well. They 
 are used on glass, or the Ixiavd may he painted. I'ldp is ihc 
 best, though flour and salt ai'c used. The ^laps arc maih' in 
 Map-Boards and, when dry, are pried oil' with a broad kuil'e. 
 and pasted on cardboard. They may be colored as desired 
 with oil colors, water colors (Diamond Easter Egg Dyes, or 
 Japanese WatSr Colors on cards). 
 
 Another excellent material is Plasticine, a kindergarten 
 clay that comes in colors. The maps are made during two or 
 three Sunday School Sessions, in a separate room, uiuler a 
 special teacher, who takes the regular teacher and the jnipils 
 apart for this work; or they may be done outside of school 
 hours, some afternoon or evening, as arranged, ^[iich time 
 is saved, as the Bible Events and History are clinched readily 
 by these maps, and Bible Geography becomes a matter of cer- 
 tain visualizing, not of dead rote memory, to say nothing of 
 vital interest. A good "key" for the dimensions and rela- 
 tions of Palestine is given in Sexton's Manual Woijk. 
 
 The only Maps needed in the Avhole course are: 1. In Old 
 Testament History, Palestine, some colored for Pre-b].\odus 
 and some for the Conquest, Solomon's Kingdom, and Sul)se- 
 quent Fortunes of Israel and Ju(hdi ; Egypt and Sinai, for 
 the Exodus; Mesopotamia, for the Exiles. 3. In the Life 
 of Christ, Palestine, with A'ew ^I'cstamcnt Divisions, and 
 Galilee, showing Esdraelon, for the (ialilean ]\finistry, which 
 requires more space to outline it. ;}. In the Early Christian 
 Cluirch, Poman Em])ire only, for St. Paul's Journeys. Only 
 six inaps in all are essential. 
 
U0\^^ 'J'O USE STOlllKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 237 
 
 \\\. — Map-Making in the Flat. 
 
 The Historical Maps of the Jiittlolield, Bailey, Biakeslec, 
 Harrison, McKinley, and Hodge tSerics "jover every possible 
 style, price, size, and subject desired. Tliey range from 45 
 cents a hundred, to 10 cents apiece. Hi general, we would 
 recommend the following use, running parallel with the Ke- 
 lief Maps. Use them in prolusion, letting every pupil have 
 them, with water or oil colors. 
 
 (a) For Old Testament History, get the full set of Little- 
 field Maps for coloring witli crayons. There are fifteen in 
 the set in all. The several Bailey Maps, especially the Key 
 Maps, are valuable for rapid line making, and for Eeviews 
 and "Tests." 
 
 (6) For the Life of Christ, use the Littlefield Map, for 
 it gives Palestine in larger form; use Bailey Esdraelon for 
 Galilean Ministry, use Bailey Key Map for places. 
 
 (c) For the Apostolic Church, use the Littlefield Map 
 for Early Apostolic Journeys, use Bailey Eoman World, and 
 Key Map of Eoman World for St. Paul's Journeys. Note 
 carefully that no map work should be begun before the age 
 
 of TEN or ELEVEN. 
 IV.— Modelic Work. 
 
 Models are essential to a clear understanding to-day. 
 They have long been seen in the Hay School. They are 
 rapidly coming into the Sunday School. Hundreds of dollars 
 are being spent in their manufacture. Every good Sunday 
 School is putting in a Museum. The list is constantly being 
 enlarged. Note carefully that some models can be used at 
 all ages, some only after "Historic Perception" has developed. 
 Those usable before ten are the Houses, Tent, Sheepfold, 
 Scroll, Well, Water Jar, Lamp, Tomb, and Water Bottle. 
 All these, and the others, can be used for all ages above ten. 
 Some of them combine splendidly with the Sand Table. 
 Under Models, would also come the Flowers of Palestine, 
 
238 THE ELEMENTS OF CHII.I) STIDV 
 
 and stereoscopic Pictures, coiuiuoiily called Stereograpiis. 
 Avliicli portray real scenes in the three dimensions. 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. Wliy do Stories and J llustrat ions aiipcal |);uiicularly to I'larly 
 
 C'hildliood? 
 
 2. To wliat powers and organs docs I llust ration apix-ai? 
 ."]. W'liat are the dangers in the use of Illustration? 
 
 4. What are the Characteristics of good Illustrations? 
 
 5. What are the Marks of a good Story ? 
 
 (i. What points should be remembered in Story-telling? 
 
 7. State Dr. Hervey's Brief Rules. 
 
 8. How can you learn how to illustrate? 
 
 !). What Illustrative ^laterials are at your command? 
 
 Itt. What can you say as to Types of Religious Pictures? 
 
 11. Distinguish between the use of Imaginary and Real Pictures. 
 
 12. Give the outlines and grades of Manual Work. 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER XV. 
 CLINCHING OUR TEACHING FOR PERMANENT RESULTS 
 
 SUGGESTED READING: — 
 
 How TO Strexgtiiex the MEiroRV, Holbrook. 
 
 Charactek-Buildi.ng, Colcr. 
 
 Making of Character, .MncVuiiii. 
 
 Child Nature and Child Nurture, .S7. John. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Teaching useless without a ilemory to retain it. 
 
 Teaching useless without Habit and Action, i.e. Character, resulting 
 from jMemory. 
 
 Habit is the result of Definite Willing. 
 
 Memory-training depends, in mode of production, upon whether we 
 desire to gain Verbal or Visual ]\Iemorj'; Abstract or Concrete. 
 
 Laws of ilemory: (1) Absolute Faith in it: (2) A Powerful First 
 Impression; (.3) Personal Interest: (4) Manifold Associations: 
 (5) Repetition, with a Diflerence; (G) Tlioroughness and System. 
 
 How to ]\remorize. Verbal ;^^emory. (1) Bright, fresh Mind: (2) 
 Analyze Material: (3) Learn in Connected Clauses: (4) Recall 
 by Summons from Within, not by looking at Book. 
 
 Reasoning. Is merely deliberately Willing to face and look at 
 Facts, weigh one group against anotlier. look at each side fairly. 
 
 I'se of Types. Saves time, and gives ch'arer mental impressions with 
 less mental energy expended. 
 
 Forgetting. Never forget entirely. Our I'.rains and Cliaracters are 
 certainly altered by every Impression, even seeminyh/ forgotten. 
 
 Verbal Memoriter Work to be used only for (1) Rules and Formulfp: 
 (2) Specially worthy Gems — Proverbs, Sayings, ilottoes, 
 Poetrv. etc. 
 
240 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Written Answer Work needed in Lessons ( 1 ) To Assure Home 
 Study: (2) To force Child to Formulate his own Answer; (3) To 
 make him think over it, shorten it, etc., for the purposely small 
 blank spaces left; (4) Written Answer stands out like Italic 
 type, and so is visualized the more; (5) Gain is made also by 
 Muscle Memory. 
 
 Question-and-Answer Books are totally condemned by all live Edu- 
 cators. 
 
 The Church Catechism, however, can well be taught memoriter, and 
 developed by the Inductive Method. 
 
 Habit. All Impressions, even Sub-Conscious, influence Habit and 
 Character in some way, at some time. 
 
 Habit-formation is highly specialized. Cannot train Habits in gen- 
 eral; but only each particular Habit. 
 
 Rules for Habit-forming. (1) Strong Initiative; (2) Allow no Ex- 
 ceptions; (3) Act on New Resolution; (4) The Strokes of Be- 
 havior give the new "Set" to Character. 
 
 Moral Training. ( 1 ) Repress, or Train, Harmful Instincts ; ( 2 ) De- 
 velop Good ones. 
 
 Cultivation of Doing and Habits. ( 1 ) Mere Manual Activity ; ( 2 ) 
 Personal Habits; (3) Moral or Ethical Habits; (4) Duties 
 to God. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 CLINCHING OUR TEACHING FOR PERMANENT RESULTS 
 
 The Training of Memory, Habits, and Will. 
 
 There would bo little use in teaching, unless it left a store 
 of interwoven, related knowledge, as an impress upon life and 
 character. It is essential, therefore, that, in the preparation 
 and teaching of every lesson definite regard should be paid 
 to proper Memory Training. 
 
 It is also important, since Education is Cliaracter-build- 
 ing, and since character is but the acquirement of a particu- 
 lar bundle of habits, for us to realize in our work, that the 
 ultimate aim of the Clmrcli, Sunday School, Eeligion, and the 
 Public School is really Character, or Habit-forming. 
 
 Action and Character are, in general, the result of Habit; 
 Habit is the result of Attention to particular and definite 
 Ideals or Ideas; and Voluntary Attention is the result of 
 definite "Willing. "Thus your pupils will be saved, first, by 
 the stock of ideas which you furnish them; secondly, by the 
 amount of voluntary attention that they can exert in holding 
 to the right ones, however unpalatable ; and thirdly, by the 
 several habits of acting definitely on these latter." It is a 
 definite, deliberate, clear-cut programme, therefore, which is 
 set before the Sunday Teacher. 
 
 Let us consider it in detail. 
 What Kinds of Memory are Wanted? 
 
 Is it a memory of Words, Verbal Memory (as that cul- 
 tivated in Memoriter Work), or of Things and Facts (as His- 
 
242 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 tor}-, etc.). Is it primarily Coiurele Meiiiori/. aeeuratu repro- 
 ductions of visual images, pictures, sounds; or an Abstract 
 Memory, such as holds the gist and general meaning of what 
 has heen taught, and can reason hottci- about the facts learned 
 than most visualizing memories? llavi' you ever noticed that 
 those children wlio learn to retite the Catechism most ac- 
 curately, are least able to explain it, and that the other class, 
 who stumble over it, letting slip small words, can cover the 
 sense and meaning of the answers with far more under- 
 standing than do the former group? W'v "do not have mem- 
 ory,'' says James, "Imt memories": and you must bear in 
 mind each time tlie kind you are seeking to cultivate. 
 The Laws of Memory. ' 
 
 Dr. Koads puts them in popular language. 
 
 1. Absolute Faith in Mem on/. Do not depreciate it, as so 
 many do, simply saying that they have a i)oor memory, and 
 that there is no use in trying to learn. We do what we believe 
 we can do. All ha\e some memoiT. I'sc what you have. 
 Expect memory to recall. Demand it. Train it. Have 
 patience with its failures and weaknesses. A child t-annot 
 carry a strong man's load. 
 
 'i. A First, Poirerfnl I in pression Itetjis to iiiol-e n fact or 
 tlioiigltt cling to the meniori/. (Jive a startling efi'eet at first, 
 vivid impressions, strong emphasis, clear outlines of the skele- 
 ton. Do not surround it l)y too nuiny, and misleading, and 
 diverting, side-lights. Keep to the sul)jcct, and do not wander 
 off in digressions and discursions. Strong contrasts of one 
 fact, set against either an entirely opposite one, or a similar 
 one, in which the points of dissimilarity are emphasized, will 
 aid in tliis impression. 
 
 According to Thorndike: ''As a rule, it is more econom- 
 ical to put things together energetically, than to put them 
 together often; close attention is better than repetition. The 
 active recall of a fact from within is, as a rule, better than 
 
CLIXCHIXG OUR TEACHING 243 
 
 its impression from without; for recall is a helpful way to be 
 sure of close attention, and also forms the connection in the 
 way in which it will later be required to act. Furthermore, 
 if children are taught to memorize by recall, tliey are saved 
 from wasting time in reading over and over, or studying at 
 length, facts which they have already committed to memory. 
 In memorizing by recall one not only knows a fact; he also 
 knows when he knows it."' 
 
 3. Personal Interest in the learner. We reuiember what 
 we have interest in. Note the scores carried in the brain of 
 the small base-ballist ; the names and records stored by the 
 race-goer; the formulae constantly used by the chemist, and 
 many similar instances. Develop curiosity, and so interest 
 in the truth ; stir up motives of personal regard for the acqui- 
 sition of that knowledge. The motives that help to hold At- 
 tention are those of most avail in ^Memory. 
 
 ■±. Manifold Associations. All educators lay particular 
 stress on this, for it is the scientific basis of Memory. We 
 not only comprehend, and understand, and "assimilate," new 
 truth by connecting it "apperceptively'' with the old and 
 familiar truth; but we remember and recall it in the same 
 way. Thus, associating the fact that Palestine is about the 
 same shape as New Hampshire, helps us to remember it, for 
 we all recall New Hampshire's contour. 
 
 ]\rost memory devices are false, cumbersome,' extraneous 
 and complicated; but natural association is demanded for all 
 good memory. The so-called mnemonic systems are wholly 
 useless and artificial, and ultimately involve more waste of 
 energy, more toil, and strain, and work, than straight out-and- 
 out learning. They recommend irrational methods of think- 
 ing, and are only of use for detached facts, not otherwise 
 easily associated. James illustrates by the use of the 
 mnemonic "Vibgyor"" to recall the colors of the spectrum. 
 
244 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 He notes the consequent injury of "cramming," which 
 seeks to stamp in things temporarily hy intense application, 
 with few, if any, associations formed, just to carry one over 
 an ordeal. It does not lead to the results desired by the per- 
 manent, retentive memory. If it did, it could be recom- 
 mended as a labor-saving plan. The same facts gone over 
 day by day, slowly, repeatedly thought about, and thus assso- 
 ciated with many other facts, Avould have had woven around 
 them a mass of friendly associations, any one of which would 
 have fixed it firmly in the mind. 
 
 5. Bepeiiixon. Mere rote repetition will not, necessarily, 
 aid in fixing facts in memory. It should be slightly varied 
 to secure and retain high interest, and then each repetition 
 will be just as helpful as the first impression. Again, repeti- 
 tions, conducted not all at once, hut at separated intervals, 
 are of more benefit than continuous work. 
 
 6. Thorougliness and System. The habit of desultory 
 novel-reading — reading to forget — is one of the injurious and 
 pernicious habits of the present day. It ruins good memory. 
 While it is true that "the secret of a good memory lies much 
 in what we learn is best to forget," because we cannot carry 
 everything in mind, and hence should discriminate; yet, the 
 constant reading of what we determinedly do not intend to 
 remember, is destructive of good memories. The Memoriter 
 Work assigned in various Lesson Systems, is not to be neglect- 
 ed, without harm. ]\Iuch more should be learned than is 
 learned to-day, and teachers need not be afraid of imposing 
 too hard a task on the pupils. 
 
 How to Memorize. 
 
 Suppose you, or your scholars, have (1) a piece of Scrip- 
 ture to learn by heart, or (2) General Facts of a Lesson of 
 either (a) an Historical Character, or (&) a Doctrinal, and 
 therefore abstract, character to store up in mind. These are 
 two distinct cases. The former calls for Verbal Memory ; the 
 
CLINCHING OUR TEACHING 245 
 
 latter demands Eational Memory. A'ekbal Memory. The 
 mind should be bright and fresh, not tired and wearied. Ke- 
 tention is a necessary part of memory, and the brain cells are 
 not in fit condition to retain when wearied. As a rule, ac- 
 cording to Fitch, the mind is in its highest cerebral activity 
 within one or two hours after the morning meal. This may 
 var}-, though, with different persons. Select the right time, 
 suited to your condition and nature, sit down and read over 
 once, twice, three times, or more, the whole passage to be 
 learned. Then begin, little, by little, to anah'ze, and think 
 about each line: learning and repeating it, clause by clause 
 (not just five words more, etc.), going back and saying the 
 previously committed clauses, until all is learned. Do not do 
 this by rote and mechanically, but think about it; recall, 
 when at loss, not by looking at the book immediately, but 
 by analyzing and thinking. Eepeat the selection later on in 
 the day. Eecall it early the next day, without looking at the 
 book, and then verify tlie recall, if necessary. If you are of a 
 visual type, you may have a reproduction in your mind of 
 the very page; but this is not at all necessary, or even the 
 best kind of memory. The secret of all memory-training 
 (never forget it) is Thinking, Thinking, Thinking. 
 Reasoning. 
 
 Reasoning, as we liave sliown in an earl}- Chapter, is 
 only the process of judging facts; of willing first, adding one 
 group of facts, and then adding another group; of setting 
 one off against the other. Reasoning can l>e taught onlj- by 
 teaching deliljeration. Only b\- causing pupils to stop and 
 think; only by mercilessly causing them to apply definite 
 logical steps in a mental argument, can they be taught to 
 reason. 
 The Use of Types, 
 
 Many of the advantages of inductive teaching can be se- 
 cured through compromise In'tween an out-and-out indue- 
 
24G THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 tion, and a mere statement of conclusion — namely, through 
 the t3'pe method. The thorough study of one typical case 
 of a class, or law, gives a basis of real experience which serves 
 to interpret, though not to prove, the general statement. 
 Knowledge about such a type also serves as a centre of at- 
 traction for later knowledge of things like it. 
 Forgetting. 
 
 We do not forget, however, very rapidly mucli tliat we 
 have learned. Professor Ebbinghaus proved conclusively that 
 nothing is ever wholly forgotten. The process of forgetting 
 is vastly more rapid at first than later on. We never descend 
 quite so low in any forgotten piece as to reach the zero-line. 
 
 Things that we are totally unable to recall have, never- 
 theless, left their impress. We are different beings for hav- 
 ing once learned them. Our brain-paths have been impressed; 
 and altered. Our actions may differ, our conclusions must 
 be different, than would have been the case had we never ex- 
 perienced such impressions. It is the old point of "no im- 
 pression without expression." Somehow, we will always be 
 different for the act of memorizing. 
 
 Never fail to divide the Memorizing Process into its parts : 
 Attention, Eetention, and Recall or Reproduction. It is the 
 last part that most often fails. The child who says, "1 know, 
 but I cannot remember it," is not the same kind of a child 
 as the one who never knew. It may even be that, much later 
 on, by quiet, "unconscious cerelu'ation," as it lias been termed, 
 the seemingly forgotten thought may flash out suddouly n])on 
 his mental vision. The brain-paths were for the lime hlocked, 
 and the associations were not formed. 
 
 In Professional Tjifc, stored away, sciiii-rorgoilcn fads arc 
 particularly numerous. The Lawyer, the Doctor, llie Scien- 
 tist, can tell you but a meagre niiml)er of liis laws, facts, 
 formulae, rulings, prescriptions, etc. Rut tiirough his well- 
 ordered systems, indices, files, etc., he can go at once to the 
 
CLINCHING OUR TEACHING 247 
 
 exact spot where the knowledge is in print. Others, never 
 having had that knowledge, not only could not trace it up; 
 but, if under their eyes could not comprehend it, so new, so 
 strangely unconnected would it prove. 
 Memoriter Work. 
 
 Here is what Fitch tliinks of "'Learning by heart." It is 
 to be used : 
 
 1. For Formulae and Eules, as in Arithmetic, and all 
 exact Sciences. Also Definitions, Axioms, etc. — that is, such 
 statements as have been reduced most carefully to the simplest 
 form of expression, and are to be applied with perfect ac- 
 curacy. 
 
 2. Special things that deserve to be rememhered as of 
 particular value in themselves. Such should be Mottoes, 
 Texts, Proverbs, Verses of Poetry, Selections from great Writ- 
 ers, embodying high thoughts or fine language. Formularies 
 of the Faith, Wise Maxims and Sayings — all such are worth 
 storing up most precisely, and recalling most frequently. The 
 possessor of such a storehouse has an invaluable treasury of 
 wealth to draw upon for all occasions. The words themselves 
 have a purpose and beauty all their own. This memorizing, 
 however, Avill be worse than bad, unless we think and reflect 
 on what we learn. 
 
 None of this applies to useless learning. To use memory 
 for other than tlie storing-up of beneficial knowledge, is 
 wrong, and illegitimate. The several pages of hints that 
 Professor Fitcli gives, as to just what would be of value to 
 learn by heart, should he carcrully conned ))y all teachers. 
 Some memory work should be ])err()nued by everyone. 
 
 According to James: "The excess of old-fashioned verbal 
 memoi'izing, and tlie immense advantages of object-teaching 
 in the earlier stages of culture, have, perliaps, led those who 
 philosophize about teaching to an unduly strong reaction; and 
 learning things by heart is now probably too much despised. 
 
248 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 For, when all is said and done, the fact remains that verbal 
 material is, on the whole, the handiest and most useful mate- 
 rial in which thinking can be carried on — I should say, there- 
 fore, that constant exercise in verbal memorizing must still 
 be an indispensable feature in all sound education. Nothing 
 is more deplorable than that inarticulate and helpless sort of 
 mind that is reminded by everything of some quotation, ease, 
 or anecdote, which it cannot now exactly recollect. Nothing, 
 on the other hand, is more convenient to its possessor, or 
 more delightful to his comrades, than a mind able, in telling 
 a story, to give the exact words of the dialogue, or to furnish 
 a quotation, accurate and complete." 
 Reasons for Written-Answer Work. 
 
 Written Answer Work always should l)o demanded for 
 the following reasons : 
 
 1. AVe know thus that the child has studied the lesson, 
 and done the work demanded. 
 
 2. He must delve harder, and thereby form more asso- 
 ciations in order to formulate the statement which is to be set 
 down as an answer. It must be in his own language, and not 
 a copied text. 
 
 3. He must dwell on it still longer, in order to make 
 it short enough to be inserted in the purposely small space left 
 in which to write the answer in tlie Source-Mctiiod text books. 
 
 4. The contrast between the ])rinted question and the 
 written answers drives the answer home visually; for it stands 
 out just as italics would, mikI is not hoinogcneous with the 
 questions. 
 
 5. The child actually gains by what we term Muscle Mem- 
 ory, the mechanical action of having written it, and gone 
 through the muscular motions. There are certain types of 
 Aphasia, or Amnesia, that is, of word-forgetting, under which 
 tbe patient can recall a word by writing it. It docs not mat- 
 
CLINCH ING OUR TEACHING 249 
 
 tei" wliether lie writes on |)a])er, or in the air. It is the inusclo 
 motion that reealls it. 
 Question-and-Answer Books. 
 
 The prineijilc of such books is wrong, rataliy and "'U'eto- 
 .tally wrong." Fitch has not a good word to say lor them. 
 Neither has McMurry, nor James. Why? Look at the facts 
 in the light of what we have just studied. The questions arc 
 not to be learned, usually, only the answers. The answers 
 are isolated, disconnected, incomplete, garbled statements, 
 often about one-fifth of a statement, of which the balance lies 
 in the Question itself. In some of these books, the difliculty 
 is partially met, by repeating the (Question in the Answer, 
 making it a complete statement. This is l)etter, perhaps, but 
 still incorrect. It assumes that there is to be no real contact 
 between scholar and. teacher, that all questions asked are to 
 take a particular form, and admit of but one possible answer. 
 There is no room for freedom, for intelligence on the part of 
 either teacher, or scholar. It is all a formal piece of almost 
 mechanical work, with no real room for Self-activity, for 
 proper Questioning, for appeal to the pedagogical Heuristic 
 or Source Method, etc. 
 
 Some of the ideas contained in the Church Catechism 
 are entirely beyond the experience of children of seven and 
 eight years old; but the ideas contained in it, which do appeal 
 to little children, are so great and important that Ave have 
 all we can do before the child leaves tlie infant school to 
 fill these ideas with content, and set them in an atmosphere 
 of reverence and love. For instance, in order that a child 
 may grasp something of the meaning of the phrase, ^'Coni- 
 munion of Saints," the word "Saint" must have meaning and 
 associations for him. Thus, we do not think time wasted if 
 we devote six lessons to filling with content the word "Saint," 
 or half the year to the first two paragraphs in the Creed, 
 before the children have presented to them the words of either 
 
250 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 one or the other. I do not mean to say that little children 
 should never learn by heart wliat tliey do not fully under- 
 stand; they do not fully understand the Lord's Prayer — who 
 would stay them from that? But there, and in similar eases, 
 we have a form of words ol' permanent value, which will hll 
 with ever-increasing content as life goes on; and of whicii the 
 chihl has ahvady a vague and misty notion concentrated round 
 the ever-familiar word "Father."' 
 Specialization in Habit Formation. 
 
 Professor Thorndike says: "All that can he done to put 
 together what ought to go together is, first, to teach the neces- 
 sary form, and to arrange circumstances with more or less of 
 prohability that the pupil will supply the desired movement. 
 A motor act, for which no present use or hearing is seen, 
 such as singing a solitary note over and over, or writing 
 exercises, or drawing lines that express no fact of moment, 
 can arouse little interest. And since notes are to be used 
 always in songs, the curves be written always in words and 
 sentences, the lines to be drawn always in a picture of some- 
 thing, it is safe to follow the law of habit-formation, and so 
 make them from the start." 
 
 There is no general training possible. There is no such 
 thing as disciplinary value of studies. Nothing can be taught 
 merely with the idea of helping in general, and, therefore, 
 nothing should he taught unless it has a definite use in itself. 
 
 Again, apply this same law to our personal conduct. 
 "There is no way of becoming self-controlled except by to- 
 day, to-morrow, and all the days, in each conflict controlling 
 oneself. There is no possibility of gaining general accuracy, 
 and thoroughness, except by seeking accuracy in every situa- 
 tion, by trying to be tliorough in every task, by being accurate 
 and thorough rather than slip-shod and mediocre, whenever 
 the choice is offered. No one becomes honest save by telling 
 the truth, or trustworthy save by fullilliug each obligation he 
 
CLINCHING OUR TEACHING 251 
 
 accepts. No one may win the spirit of love and service who 
 does not, day hy day, and hour hy iiour, do each act of kind- 
 ness and help which chance puts in his way, or liis own 
 thoughtfulness can discover. Tlie mind does not give some- 
 thing for nothing. The price of a disciplined intellect and 
 will is eternal vigilance in the fornuition of hahits." 
 Rules of Habit Formation. 
 
 I'rofessor James gives the great laws under which we i:an 
 launch New Habits, and strengthen, or break off. Old Ones. 
 
 1. In acquiring a New Habit, or leaving off an Old One, 
 we must take care to coiiiiiieiire with as strung an inUiaiive 
 as possible. Eeinforce the right motives and surroundings, 
 and put just as many obstacles as you can in the way of the 
 old ones. If it deals with the body, use the muscles you wish 
 to make active. If the Will, use it. If an evil habit, do not 
 run within the slightest possible range of the temptation. 
 Change surroundings, break off companions, make the break 
 absolute, not partial and incomplete. Stamp the new ideal 
 into the mind strongly, and so vigorously that it remains 
 fastened there, and even crops up at times when no need 
 occurs. This is the point in pledge-signing, in oath-taking, 
 in going before God's Altar for impressiveness, etc. It makes 
 a strong and powerful initiative ; it stamps in a vivid, never- 
 dying, ineffaceable impression. With this new Ideal, it will 
 be the height of courage, not of cowardice, to rvm away from 
 the forbidden field, the place of strong temptation. 
 
 2. His second maxim is, "Never suffer an Exception to 
 ovcur, until the new Ilahit is securely rooted in your life. 
 Each lapse is the unwinding of the ball of twine. It is im- 
 portant that you never allow a single slip to occur. Every 
 gain on the wrong side undoes the effect of many more con- 
 quests on the right side of the war." So, too, in strengthen- 
 ing a habit already formed. Use it constantly, not occasion- 
 ally; systematically, not with breaks. 
 
252 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUJ:)Y 
 
 3. Another potent rule is, "Use every Emotional Prompt- 
 ing to act on your Neiv Resolution, and seize the first oppor- 
 tunity for so doing. Have no hesitation, or wavering." Act 
 quickl}^, before you doubt your power. "JIc who iiesitates 
 is lost." Completely surrender yourself to the certainty that 
 you will never, never, never fail in your resolution. Kemeni- 
 ber that every resolve you nuike, every good impulse thought 
 of, but not acted upon, every intention to do good, or to help 
 the poor, or to make some sacrifice, every motive that ends 
 simply and solely in the pious wish, docs infinite lianii. There 
 is a certain warm abode, ])i-overl)ially paved with good inten- 
 tions. Thousands of good intentions unfulfilled, stimuli un- 
 reaeted to, diminish our resolution, decrease our will aiul self- 
 reliance, precisely as unused muscles, which become soft and 
 flabby. 
 
 4. Thus note his last advice. '']^on"t ])reacli too much 
 to your pupils, or abound in good talk in the abstract. Lie 
 in wait, rather, for the practical oppoi;tunities, and thus at 
 one operation get your pupils both to think, and feel, and do. 
 The strokes of behavior are what give the new set to the 
 character." It is thus the action that is the main thing. 
 He cites the pathetic instance of Darwin, who utterly lost 
 all appreciation of art, poetry, music, painting, etc., through 
 total application to facts of science. We pave our lives with 
 good intentions of what "we intend to do some tlay, when 
 we have time." 
 
 Elements of Moral Training. 
 
 The training of Character is correspondingly comple.x. 
 Useful instincts must be given a chance to exercise them- 
 selves and become habits. Harmful instinctive responses 
 must be inhibited through lack of stiniulus, through the sub- 
 stitution of desirable ones, or through actual resultant dis- 
 comfort, says Thorndike. 
 
CLINCHING OUR TEACHING 253 
 
 We would urge that every teacher of chihlren, parent or 
 professional teaelier, read earet'uUy Miss Harrison's valuahle 
 Study of Child Nature, since it contains so much in Cliap- 
 ters II., III., and TV. of pregnant suggestion and definite 
 statement as to tlie training and significance of Habit. She 
 shows liow the little things of life, such, for example, as 
 "plain living and high thinking,'' such as "luxurious sur- 
 roundings," and "indulgence in condiments and pastry," such 
 as "pride in dress and looks''; in fact, she shows how all 
 even the most insignificant points of environment, count 
 strongly in the making of Character. 
 
 Cultivation of Doing. 
 
 To children of action the schools have been in the past, 
 least well-adapted. Children often complain of school, that 
 there is nothing to do; boys, who apparently get little within 
 school, learn quickly and surely in the world of business and 
 industry; students who could not manage their college studies, 
 become eminent managers of men. 
 
 Here are some suggestions: 
 
 Mere Manual Activity. — Doing, in order to understand 
 better. Things in connection with the lessons — maps (drawn, 
 modelled, relief, clay, pulp, colors, etc.) objects referred to in 
 lessons (of paper, wood, metal, or on paper, drawn or 
 painted), Syudiols. Schemes, Ontlines, Written Work in 
 general. 
 
 Personal Habits. — Cleanliness, Neatness, Order, Punctu- 
 ality, Dress, Politeness, Gentleness of Voice and Manner, 
 Manliness, Courage, Kindness, Pity and Love for all Ani- 
 mals, etc. 
 
 Moral or Ethical Habits. — Duty to Fellowmen. Honesty, 
 Truthfulness, Honor, Purity, Soberness, Sobriety, Unselfish- 
 ness, Laws of the Land, Ideal of the Si)irit of the Laws, 
 Health Regulations, etc. 
 
254 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Hahits of Duty to God and EeJlgious Ohligations. — Ob- 
 servation of the Lord's Day, of Worship (public and daily 
 morning and evening, private), of Thanksgiving, of Holy 
 Communion, of Giving, of Temperate Language, avoidance 
 of even the least forms of Oaths or Swearing, etc. 
 
 It is the province and duty of the Teacher to enquire how 
 these teachings are practically fulfilled in the doing, to suggest 
 ideals for fulfilment — positive, not negative. "Do this good 
 thing" is far better than "Do not do this bad one." James 
 says, "Everything that a man can avoid under the notion that 
 it is bad, he may also avoid under the notion that something 
 else is good." Cultivate the good side — high ideals. "He 
 whose life is based upon the word 'no,' who tells the truth 
 because a lie is wicked — is in an inferior situation in every 
 respect to what he would be if the love of truth and mag- 
 nanimity possessed him from the outset." It is James' "ex- 
 pulsive power of the higher emotion." 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. On what three things does the Value of Teaching depend? 
 
 2. For what purpose is all Teaching? 
 
 3. On what does IMemory-training depend? 
 
 4. What are the Laws of Memory ? 
 
 5. What Eules are given for Verbal Memory? 
 0. What is Reasoning? Explain. 
 
 7. What is the value of the use of Tvi>es? 
 
 8. What is said about Forgetting? 
 
 !). For what should Verbal Memoriter Work be used? 
 
 }(). Why is Wl•itten-Ans\ver-^Vork to be demanded? 
 
 11. What is said of Question-and-Answer books, and of the Cate- 
 
 chism? 
 
 12. What is said of Habit-formation? 
 
 13. What are the Rules for Habit-formation? 
 
 14. What are the Rules for INIemory training? 
 
 15. By what means can the Doing Side be cultivated? 
 
SYLLABUS OF CHAPTER XVI. 
 THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 
 
 SUGGESTED READING: 
 
 Education in Religion and Morals, Coe. 
 The Sunday School Teacher, Hodges. 
 Unconscious Tuition, Huntington. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Will and Judgment born in the Storm and Stress Period. Will 
 arises when Intellect and Reason a.re ripe to guide it. 
 
 Stubbornness is not strong Will; but Aveak Will. Prompt decision, 
 the habit of meeting and doing unpleasant things, make Will. 
 
 Yielding to Appetites weakens Will, such as (a) Vicious Feeding: 
 (6) Perfumery; (c) Praise; {d) Pride, etc. 
 
 Self-denial is as primary and essential a principle in Life as Self- 
 assertion. 
 
 Desire is Impulse plus Appetite. 
 
 Will is trained by (1) forcing Deliberation; (2) Desiring that the 
 Higher Appetite shall prevail over the Lower one. 
 
 One kind of Willing is higher than another kind, i.e., Thinking is 
 higher than Walking, etc. 
 
 Training Judgment. Reasoning is going from tlie Known to the 
 Unknown, through other Known facts; reaching Beliefs tliroiigh 
 Beliefs. It is not mere Association of Ideas, as animals liavo. 
 
 So to tiaiu Will and Reasoning, train (1) to think, to weigli, to 
 deliberate; (2) To rule out, so far as can bo. Personal Con- 
 siderations, likes and dislikes. 
 
 Education is Will-training, i.e., Cliaraclor-forniing; i.e., i'.undlcs 
 of Habits, of Action. 
 
 Christianity is Social Service; not merely Knowing and Thinking; 
 but Living the Life. 
 
 Thus "Every Lesson must function in Doing" in the present-day life 
 of the pupil. 
 
256 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Effect of Music on Will. Important as Opening ]\Iarcli and Service. 
 
 Grown-up Hymn Books unsuited to Youngest Children. 
 A School can be "directed" and ruled entirely and best by Music, 
 
 rather than by Bell or Voice. 
 Intellect, Feeling, and Will, though inter-related, are never equally 
 
 strong at any one time. 
 One is uppermost and other two are in abeyance at any moment. 
 Never "break" the Will, always Train it. A broken Will is far worse 
 
 than a broken leg or arm. Handicaps more in life. 
 The "Call" of the Teacher. Best Definition is Thring's: "A Teacher 
 
 is one who has Liberty enough, and Time enough, and Heart 
 
 enough, and Head enough, to be a Master in the Kingdom of 
 
 Life." 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 
 
 The Training of the Will. 
 
 We ]iave noted tliat the Stress and Storm time sees tlie 
 l)irtli of two new factors, most influential for future good or 
 evil; Will and Judgment. Hitlierto, the child's life has been 
 chiefly one of Feeling, guided as he has been almost blindly 
 by Emotions and Impulses. He has not had the light of In- 
 tellect to guide him. Will has not been dominant, perhaps 
 chiefly because Intellect and Eeason have not been there to 
 stir it. He has been wisely held in check by Divine Provi- 
 dence, until development fitted him to care for himself. Ani- 
 mal Instinct has protected him. He has been practically an 
 animal ; now he becomes a man, with Intellect and Will in the 
 ascendency. The Will must be trained, rather than broken. 
 This is done, more or less consciously, by the presentation of 
 vivid examples that hold and attract the mind, and bestir 
 action. Prompt decision, the habit of doing unpleasant things 
 the moment we see them in our judgment to be riglit, without 
 risking long deliberation and hesitation; the resolve never to 
 break Ideals, nor suffer an exception to a noble conception, 
 such things in life soon go to form a strong, decisive Will. 
 Stubbornness is not strong Will, but the contrary; a Will too 
 weak to do what is right and proper. 
 
 It is a significant fact that Froebel, in his Educatiox 
 OF Man, refers to the weakening of Will by indulgence of 
 appetites, especially by stimulating and highly seasoned food. 
 
258 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 He even states that nine-tenths of intemperate drinking be- 
 gins, not in grief, and destitution, but in vicious feeding. 
 
 Miss Harrison, in her Study of Child-Nature, speaks 
 of the Aveakening power of indulgence in perfuuieiy, resulting 
 in lowered ideals. She points out also the harmful effect of 
 injudicious praise of a child's curls and cheeks, ratlier than 
 actions and beauty of conduct. 
 
 She adds significantly: "Even our Sunday Schools, with 
 their prizes, and exhilutions, and sensational pi-ograniuies, are 
 not exempt from the crime. I have seen the Holy Easter 
 festival so celebrated by Sunday Schools that, so far as its 
 effects upon the younger children were concerned, they might 
 each one as well have been given a glass of intoxicating 
 liquor, so upset was their digestion, so excited their brains, 
 so demoralized their unused emotions. Need I speak of 
 the relish side of the dress of children? John Ruskin, the 
 great apostle of the beautiful, claims that no ornament is 
 beautiful which has not a use." 
 
 Self-denial is as true and essential a principle of life as 
 is self-assertion. "Without self-surrender and self-sacrifice, 
 nobody could be a person at all. To become a person, one 
 must both affirm and deny himself. One involves the other. 
 They are not totally different things. They are diverse aspects 
 of the same thing. They belong together as indissolubly as 
 the two sides of the board do. To get we must also give, to 
 advance we must surrender, to gain we must lose, to attain 
 we must resign. From the nature of things, life means choice 
 and selection, and every positive choice negatives all other pos- 
 sibilities. Every choice runs a line of cleavage through the 
 entire universe. If I take this, I give up that." 
 Desire and Will. 
 
 Desire really means Impulse plus Appetite, the instinctive 
 cravings of the animal system demanding satisfaction. The 
 Impulses, the Desires, form appetites. Comjjeting Desires, 
 
THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 259 
 
 or rather competing motives, arc presented to a child. The 
 Will is trained by, first, causing a child to deliberate, and,, 
 secondly, causing him to desire that the lower motives shall 
 be ruled by the higher, until this principle becomes more and 
 more the basis of his life. 
 Choice and Decision. 
 
 There is, moreover, the difference of value in Willing. 
 One kind of Willing is higher than another. As Professor 
 James puts it: "Writing is higher than walking, thinking is 
 higher than writing, deciding higher than thinking, deciding 
 'no' higher than deciding S^os' — at least, the man who passes 
 from one of these activities to another will usually say that, 
 each later one involved a greater element of inner work than 
 the earlier ones, even tliough the total heat given out, or the 
 foot-pounds expended by the organism, may be less. Just 
 how to conceive this inner work physiologically is yet possible: 
 but psychologically we all know what the word means. We 
 need a particular spur, or effort, to start us upon inner work ; 
 it tires us to sustain it; and, when long sustained, we know 
 how easily we lapse. When I speak of "^energizing,' and its 
 rates and levels and sources, I mean, therefore, our inner as 
 well as our outer work."' 
 Training the Judgment. 
 
 The child tends to believe what first comes into his mind, 
 no matter from what source; and, as he has not rational power 
 of reasoning, he is both credulous and incredulous. He has 
 nothing to guide him in deciding what he ought to believe. 
 What reason does for the snuill child is to cause him to aban- 
 don beliefs that are plainly at variance with his experience. 
 "Eeasoning, then, is the act of going from the known to the 
 unknown through other beliefs, of basing judgments on 
 Judgments, reaching beliefs through beliefs." 
 
 "It is not Association of Ideas, merely, such as animals 
 have. This difference constitutes the main differentiation 
 
2G0 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 bctweeji animals and men. iVnimals go on from idea to idea, 
 without seeing the end in- view, without tliinking or reasoning 
 about it. One idea calls up the next, and so on. It is not a 
 mental picture, or image, or concept, with the animal; rather 
 an impulse, or instinct. ]k'asoning only seems at times to 
 lead to false conclusions, because one or more of the starting 
 points, the premises, we call them, is false and incorrect. If 
 we saw ^all around' the subject, all sides of it truly, we would 
 not differ in reasoning. Wrong theories nuiy lead to false 
 assumptions, and so sidetrack reasoning." 
 
 Two things must, therefore, be done to train the reasoning 
 or judging power of your pupils. (1) Train them to think, 
 to reason, to weigh sides, not "jumping at hasty conclusions"; 
 but "thinking twice, before speaking once." Yery soon this 
 becomes a fixed habit, that will go on through life, making a 
 quiet, deliberate type of mind. (2) Educate so as to lessen, 
 so far as you can, the power of personal considerations, indi- 
 vidual likes and dislikes in selecting the premises on which 
 they base their decisions. Create in them such a love of the 
 Truth, the Right Side, the Just, as will be able to overcome 
 the personal equation. We believe what we ivant to believe. 
 That is, we obstinately persist in holding up the attractive, 
 though wrong, idea before the mind; and, at the same time, 
 as stubbornly set our faces, like flints, to the admission of the 
 true and right notions. 
 
 Education as Character-Building is Will-Training, if "the 
 purpose of religious education is to build up a character for 
 the best," and Character is a bundle of habits, that is, a bundle 
 of repeated actions, and action is Willing. The only way to 
 obtain force of Character is to secure it by definite training 
 of the Will. 
 
 Brotherhood means social service. 'No one will go to 
 Heaven alone; no one will save himself alone. The whole 
 idea of Christianity and of the Gospel is Service. Now Ser- 
 
THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 261 
 
 vice cannot be learned by precept, by sermons, b}' intellectual 
 mandates. Cbristian living can only be learned by Cbristian 
 doing; and Christian character, i.e., Christian habits, must 
 be done and lived, day by day, if the child is to be a real 
 Christian, that is, a Christ man. "If a man does what is 
 useful and right, he will soon gain proper ideas of social 
 efficiency, and of morals. If he learns to do the right thing 
 in a thousand particular situations, he will, so far as he is 
 capable, gain the poAver to see what act a new situation de- 
 mands." As Thorndike puts it : "There is no way of be- 
 coming self-controlled except by to-day, to-morrow, and all 
 the days in each conflict, controlling one's self. ISTo one 
 becomes honest save by telling the truth, or trustworthy save 
 by fulfilling each obligation which he accepts. No one may 
 win the spirit of love and service, who does not, day by day, 
 and hour by hour, do each act of kindness and help which 
 chance puts in his way, or his own tlioughtfulness can dis- 
 cover. The mind does not give something for nothing. The 
 price of a disciplined intellect and will is eternal vigilance in . 
 the formation of habits." 
 Every Lesson Must Function in Doing. 
 
 The Application of the principles behind the definition as 
 the building up of a "character efficient for the best" means 
 that ere/-//- lesson taught in the Day School or the Sunday 
 School must function in the daily present-day life of the 
 scholar. It is not a lesson of principles and precepts for some 
 far-off day in life, but it is a lesson of application to the 
 daily life between Sundays, to the life before ne.vt Sunday. 
 It means that the teacher should deliberately supply outlets 
 for self-activity, opportunities for serA'ice, applications of the 
 lesson to the child's own personal conduct in honesty, truth- 
 fulness, purity, and right-mindedness. There may be any 
 amount of "Education" in the old sense of knowledge, with- 
 out the slightest result in the building of Christian character. 
 
262 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Character, therefore, is being, not talking; is living, not 
 
 knowing. 
 
 The Effect of Music on the Will. 
 
 Much has been written on this subject. James, in his 
 lecture on the Value of Psychology, deals with it very fully. 
 It is well recognized in the treatment of the insane. A recent 
 opera in New York had to be taken off the stage entirely 
 because of the effect upon the musicians, players, and the 
 audience. 
 
 According to Miss Lee : It is wonderful to notice the effect 
 of music on children; they respond so unconsciously, but so 
 unmistakably. 
 
 The vigorous entrance march, played not too fast, with 
 well-marked beat and simple theme, will generate in the 
 children a mood of briskness and order. The change of music 
 to a slower and softer tone, and then to silence, will change 
 the "feeling-tone" of the children themselves, and it will not 
 be necessary to call for "silence," for the piano has "spoken," 
 and they have responded. The piano "speaks" so much more 
 effectively, unobtrusively, and impersonally, than superinten- 
 dent or bell, that it is well in our Primary Sunday School 
 to minimize our order "from the desk," and let the piano, 
 with its double chord, tell the children to stand up and 
 sit down. 
 
 The ideal children's hymn-book lias yet to l)e written. 
 Grown-up people's hymn-books contain little that is appro- 
 priate to our "Infant Sunday School," though that little is 
 often very good. Hymns for little child i-on uiust bo quite 
 short, in an easy metre, free from difficult words, ])hrases, or 
 inversions, simple and unified in thought, and, if possible, 
 involving some kind of refrain. Hymns should be, for little 
 children, a Joyous expression of feeling. Therefore the sing- 
 ing of them should be a pleasure, and not a labour. They 
 should be permeated with religious feeling; they are hymns, 
 
THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 263 
 
 not songs; they are, in most cases, pra3'ers sung to God, 
 As such, tl)en, they must be treated. A quieting gesture every 
 now and then will remind the children not to "shout." 
 
 In ahnost ever}^ School there will be some pupils whose 
 hearts will respond to good music. A certain school within 
 our acquaintance, appreciating this, turns it to a fine and 
 subtle use by giving an appropriate music in of if of two or 
 tliree bars, mostly taken from the Oratorios, to each of tlie 
 Psalms that are used for recitation. These are quickly learned 
 and recognized by the School, and are played before the reci- 
 tation of each Psalm in lieu of other announcement. 
 
 The same school frequently uses some Wagnerian motifs 
 to cover the diminishing hum at the close of the lesson, and 
 as calls to order. 
 Inter-relation of Intellect, Feeling, and Will. 
 
 As Gordy puts it : "Although intellect, sensibility, and 
 will, are but different names for the one mind, as feeling, and 
 willing and knowing, there is scarcely a moment in our 
 waking hours when we are not doing all three at the same 
 time. Examine our minds whenever we will, we shall find 
 ourselves knowing, and generally feeling, and thinking, and 
 willing. Nevertheless, we cannot know intensely, and feel or 
 will intensel}^ at the same time; or feel intensely, and know 
 or will intensely, at the same time. 
 
 "The practical rules Avhich are based upon this law arc 
 so evident that it is needless to enlarge upon them. You 
 know that when your pupils are annised, tliey do not study 
 much, ])ecause amusement — a ])]easurable feeling — is a hin- 
 drance to tliat eoncenti'ation ol' mind which we call study- 
 knowing. 
 
 "jSTotwithstanding this opposition, there is an interde- 
 pendence of knowing, feeling, and willing. When you hurt 
 your hand — feeling — you know that you hurt it, and you try 
 to relieve the pain — willing." 
 
204 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Will-Breaking. 
 
 James and Trumbull both inveigh against the pernicious 
 idea that the way to correct faults was to break the Will. 
 A broken will is about as useless as a broken bow. The child 
 with a broken will is handicapped more than by one arm, or 
 one leg in tlie struggle of life. Without a will of some kind, 
 good or bad, there can be no progress. There are thousands 
 of weak-willed men in this world to-day, wlio have their 
 parents to blame for a failure in business and in life. Better 
 let the child's will be bad, rather than broken. Fortunatel}^, 
 there is no necessity for its remaining bad, any more than for 
 its being broken. It is for the teacher and tlie parent to avoid 
 this fatality by cautious training. 
 The "Call" of the Teacher. 
 
 A passing word may not be amiss, at the conclusion of 
 this training course to teachers, as to their divine call and 
 special privilege to work in God's Vineyard. The best defini- 
 tion of the function of the teacher has been given by Thring : 
 "A Teacher is one who has Liberty enough, and Time enough, 
 and Heart enough, and Head enough, to be a Master 
 in the Kingdom of Life." "A jMaster in the Kingdom of 
 JAi'c" — tliink of it! TJic most important work in tlie entire 
 Churcli to-day is the work of tlic Sunday Scliool Teacher. 
 If one had to take a choice (thank (Jod, we do not!) between 
 closing the doors of the Cburcli for a season, or closing tlie 
 doors of the Sunday School, we would judge the Sunday 
 Scliool of greater importance. Someone has remarked that 
 we of the clergy stand in tlic pulpit. We have before us in 
 tlie congregation an assembly of bottles. Some of these bot- 
 tles are corked, and some are uncorked ; some liave wide necks, 
 and some have narrow ones. We stand and sprinkle over them 
 a sponge filled with hyssop and water. The corked bottles 
 are those who are either dull mentally or physically — they 
 receive nothing. The narrow-necked, uncorked bottles, drink 
 
TJIE Wll.J. AND THE CHARACTER 265 
 
 in a few drops liere and there, but only a few. 'J'liey are 
 either inattentive, or too young, or too indilferent, or tlie 
 prcaclier talks over their heads. The wide-necked, uncorked 
 bottles, are eager to drink in all that they can, but even they 
 miss much. None of the bottles are filled. A great many drops 
 fall between the bottles and are wasted. The Teacher is tlie 
 one who takes each bottle individually, and places it under the 
 faucet, and turns on the Avater and fills the bottle. In the 
 Mission Field, to-day, and in the Church at home, it is the 
 individual Teacher who counts for the most. 
 Liberty Enough. 
 
 There is the freedom to teach what one believes. The 
 Sunday School is no place for teachers who have not settled 
 their own doubts. It is no place for destructive criticism. It 
 is the place for constructive criticism. It is the place for 
 sound doctrine in the foundations of belief. "The prophet 
 should give no uncertain sound," and so the Sunday School 
 Teacher must be one of positive conviction; and those points 
 of scholarship that are proved, and on which educators uni- 
 versally agree, have their place in the Sunday School only in 
 positive teaching. There is plenty that is sure and settled in 
 the Faith to build up character. We have no need to draw 
 on platitudes of scholarship, or tread uncertain ground. 
 Time Enough. 
 
 There is the opportunity for sufficient and proper study 
 and preparation; for the personal acquaintance with the 
 children by frequent calling upon them in their homes; for, 
 at least, three hours a week of solid study. Three things 
 every Teacher who is worthy of her calling should undertake : 
 Three hours a week for study; two hours a week for calling, 
 and one hour a week for the Teacher-Training Class. Work 
 that is worth doing for God at all, is worth doing well. As 
 Drawbridge says: "In those Sunday Schools where little or 
 nothing is expected of the teachers, they get bored, and soon 
 
2GG THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 k'avc. And their classes have usually anticipated their de- 
 parture. Where the ideal is a high one, and the leader of the 
 school is an enthusiast, the teachers discover that teaching is 
 very interesting. Their pupils simultaneously begin to ap- 
 preciate Sunday School. It is a very great mistake to have 
 a lov^^ ideal for those whom one would iniinence, on the ground 
 that it is easy to expect too much from them. The fact is, 
 that people always endeavor to rise to one's estimate of them, 
 and they respond to a high ideal much more readily than to a 
 low one. There is mncli more heroism and self-sacrifice in 
 human nature than pessimists suppose. That is a mean and 
 foolish proverb which says : 'Blessed is he that expecteth 
 nothing, for he will not be disappointed.' Those who expect 
 most of their fellows are the ones least disappointed in them." 
 Heart Enough. 
 
 There is the personal element of sympathy, and love, 
 without which no Teacher can be a success. It is "the smile 
 that won't come off." It is the quality that Dean Hodges 
 calls Cheerfulness. In his little brochure on The Sunday 
 School Teacher, he says, "The good teacher has a bright 
 face. All good Christians are good-looking. The teacher, 
 who represents the Christian religion, ought of all people to 
 liave a cheerful countenance. That is a vital part of his in- 
 struction. St. Paul showed his profound knowledge of human 
 nature when he enjoined those who show mercy to do it with 
 cheerfulness. He knew very M^ell how the long face, the 
 sombre manner, the artificial pathos and piety of some benevo- 
 lent persons, spoil their gifts. There is a look in the faces 
 of some of the people who are seen in electric cars carrying 
 limp-covered Bibles under their arms, which is, of itself, an 
 argument against the Christian religion. The natural man, 
 beholding such disciples, says within himself, 'From this re- 
 ligion, good Lord, deliver us.' It is true that the warning, 
 'Be not rigliteous overmuch,' is written in the book of Eccle- 
 
THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER 2G7 
 
 siastes, which is not tlie host book in tlie Bible. If we talce 
 righteousness to mean simple, interior goodness, it is not pos- 
 sible to be righteous overmuch. Nobody can be too good. It 
 is quite possible, however, to be righteous overmuch in tlie 
 matter of expression. There is an oppressive goodness which 
 defeats its own purposes. It is highly desirable, in order to 
 give effective instruction, that the Sunday Scliool Teaclicr 
 be a human being, and tlie children ought to be informed of 
 that encouraging fact Ijy the teacher's behavior." 
 Head Enough. 
 
 There is the wide, collateral study which goes beyond the 
 paltry preparation of the individual lesson, and reaches out 
 to the widest and hroadest phases of a ripened Education. 
 One cannot know too much about any subject, and there is 
 probably no line of Education where teachers seem so afraid 
 to know any more than they will need to teach in a particular 
 lesson hour, as the Sunday School. If one is teaching the 
 Life of our Blessed Lord, it is not enough to read the meagre 
 Teachers' Notes, which, at the best, only serve as crutches for 
 lame teachers; one should read each week two or more of the 
 many excellent lives of Christ. No two men have ever viewed 
 the Master from the same viewpoint. No two have ever 
 written duplicate biographies. Each one tells something new. 
 Just as the same landscape looks different from varying moun- 
 tains, so the lesson topic should be viewed from many stand- 
 points. Therefore, read Stalker, and Farrar, and Geikie, and 
 Edersheim, and Andrews, and Dawson. Dip into each of 
 them. Eead between times. Use odd moments. Cultivate 
 the hungering and thirsting after knowledge. Once get the 
 Vision, and the Study becomes absorbing. There is time for 
 it — plenty of time in everyone's life — time snatched from 
 the w^asted moments, from the light gossip, from the bridge- 
 whist, from the idle novel, from the too much sleep, and 
 God's Avork is Avorthy of it all. 
 
268 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION. 
 
 1. When are Will and Judgment born? 
 
 2. What is Stubbornness? 
 
 3. How is yielding to appetite weakening to Will? 
 
 4. What is said of Self-denial? 
 
 5. How is Will trained? 
 
 6. How is one kind of Willing higher than another kind? 
 
 7. What is Reasoning? 
 
 8. How do we develop Reasoning? 
 
 9. What is Education, in terms of Will? 
 
 10. What is Christianity, in terms of Action? 
 
 11. What Maxim follows regarding the teaching of a lesson? 
 
 12. Discuss eflects of Music on the Will. 
 
 13. What can you say of the interrelation of Intellect, Feeling, and 
 
 Will? 
 
 14. What is the danger of a "broken" Will? 
 
 15. State the best definition of a Teacher. 
 
List of Reference Books Suggested 
 
 Those Marked With Dagger (t) Are Essential to a Futx 
 
 Knowledge of this Course. Those Marked with Star (*) 
 
 . Abe Especially Helpful and Illuminating. 
 
 Note. — All these books may be secured through the New York 
 Sunday School Commission, Inc., 416 Lafayette Street, New York; 
 The Young Churchman Co., Milwaukee, Wis.; or any other book 
 retailer. 
 
 I.— THE TEACHER'S WORK. 
 
 Unconscious Tuition. Huntington. Flanagan. 15 cts. 
 
 The Sunday School Teacher. Hodges. 8. S. Commission. 10 cts. 
 
 Character Building. C. S. Coler. Hinds & Noble. $1.00. 
 
 The Making of Character. MacCunn. Macmillan. $1.25. 
 
 II.— PROCESS OF MIND GROWTH. 
 
 t*TALKS to Teachers. Prof. William James. Holt. $1.50. 
 
 *The New Psychology. Prof. Gordy. Hinds & Noble. $1.25. 
 
 *Brain and Personality. W. H. Thompson. Dodd, Mead. $1.20. 
 
 The Pedagogical Bible School. Samuel B. Haslett. Rcvell. $1.25. 
 
 "The Study of Children. Dr. Francis Warner. Macmillan. $1.00. 
 
 t*A Study in Child Nature. EUzaheth Harrison. Chic. Kinder- 
 garten Co. $1.00. 
 
 t" Childhood. Mrs. Birney. $1.00. 
 
 *The Mind of a Child. Ennis Richmond. Longmans. $1.00, 
 
 *Child Nature and Child Nurture. Prof. E. P. St. .John. Pilgrim 
 Press. 50 cts. 
 
 t*THE Boy Problem. Rev. Wm. B. Forhiish. Pilgrim Press. $1.00. 
 
 Adolescence. Stanley Hall. 2 vols. Scribner's, $7.50. 
 
 *The Psychology of Religion. Prof. Starbuek. Scribner's. $1.50. 
 
 t*THE Spiritual Life. Geo. A. Coe, Ph.D. Revell. $1.35. 
 
 A Modern Study of Conscience. Rev. Oliver Huckel. Winston 
 Press. 75 cts. 
 
 *The Training of the Young in Laws of Sex. Rev. E. Lytfleton. 
 Longmans. 75 cts. 
 
270 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 The Vir Series. The Vir Pub. Co. $L00 each. 
 *Making Men and Women. Miss Robinson. Eaton & Mains. 75 cts. 
 Education IN Religion AND Morals. Geo.A.Coe,Ph.D. Revell. $L35. 
 Up Through Childhood. Prof. Geo. A. Hubbell. Putnams. $L50. 
 
 III.— THE LESSON. 
 
 t"THE Teaching of Bible Classes. Edwin E. See. International 
 
 Y. M. C. A. Paper, 40 cts. 
 ^^ Adult Class Study. Prof. Irving Wood. Pilgrim Press. 75 cts. 
 Adult Classes. Prof. Wood. Pilgrim Press. Paper, 25 cts. 
 t*How TO Conduct the Recitation. Chas. McMurry. Flanagan, 15c. 
 
 IV.— RELIGIOUS PEDAGOGY. 
 
 ■"'Religious Education. Rev. W. W. Smith, M.D. The I'oung 
 
 Churchman Co. $2.00. 
 t*A Primer on Teaching. Prof. Adams. T. & T. Clark. Scribner's. 
 
 25 cts. 
 Elements of Religious Pedagogy. Prof. F. L. Pattee. Eaton & 
 
 Mains. 75 cts. 
 t*HAND Work in the Sunday School. Littlefield. S. S. Commis- 
 sion. $1.00. 
 t*PiCTURES and Picture Work. Dr. Walter L. Hervey. Revell. 35c. 
 *Stories and Story Telling. Prof. E. P. St. John. Pilgrim Press. 
 
 50 cts. 
 Story Telling. Edna Lyman. McClurg. $1.00. 
 t*Kow to Interest. Rev. Wm. G. Mutch. S. S. Commission. 15c. 
 t*TiiE Art of Securing Attention. J. J. Fitch. Flanagan. 15c. 
 t*How TO Hold Attention. Prof. Hughes. Barnes, 50c. 
 t*Hovv^ TO Keep Order. Prof. Hughes. Flanagan, 15c. 
 t*TiiE Art of Questioning. J. J. Fitch. Flanagan, 15e. 
 t"How to Question. Prof. H. H. Home. Pilgrim Press. 3 cts. 
 *How TO Train the Memory. Quick. Barnes, 15c. 
 John Ploughman's Talks. Spurgeon. Funk & Wagnalls. 12 cts. 
 *Glimpses Through Life's Windows. Miller. Altemus Pub. Co. 
 
 50 cts. 
 Five-Minute Op.ject Sermons. Sylvanus Stall. Vir Pub. Co. $1.00. 
 Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets. Rev. S. Baring-Gould. 
 *A Book op Golden Deeds. Yonge. Macmillan. $1.00. 
 Wonder Book. 2V. Haxvthornc. Altemus. 50 cts. 
 t*MANiTAL Work for the Sunday School. Sexton. The Young 
 
 Churchman Co. 75 cts. 
 History of England. Macauley. Harpers. $1.25. 
 Silas Marner. George Eliot. Altemus. 50 cts. 
 *FiNGER Posts to Children's Reading. Taylor. McClurg. $1.00. 
 
LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS SUGGESTED 271 
 
 *What Shall a Young Girl Read? Myt. gangster. S. S. Times Co. 
 50 cts. 
 
 v.— GRADING THE SUNDAY SCHOOL. 
 
 t*THE Churchman's Manual of Sunday School Methods. Rev. 
 A. A. Butler, D.D. Y. C. Co. $1.00. 
 
 t*THE Sunday School of Today. Rev. W. W. Smith. Revell. $1.2-5. 
 
 The Modern Sunday School. Rci\ H. E. Cope. Revell. $1.00. 
 
 The Organized Sunday School. Axtell. The Cumberland Press. 
 50 cts. 
 
 The Outline of a Bible School Cukriculum. Prof. Pease. Uni- 
 versity of Chicago Press. $1.50. 
 
 The Graded Sunday School. Rev. Henry Meyer. Eaton & Mains. 
 75 cts. 
 
 VI.— HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 
 
 Education of Man. Froebel. Appleton. $1.50, 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 A 
 
 Acquiring now Ideas, 23. 
 
 Activity, .">.•? 
 
 Adolisooncf. Awkwardness, 83. 
 
 Bodily Changes, 83. 
 
 Oharacteri-stics of. 119. 
 
 Development of Will, 108. 
 
 "Gang" Age, 105. 
 
 Mental Changes. 88. 
 
 Traver Life of, 113. 
 
 Ritual. 111. 
 
 Sex Instruction, 85. 
 
 Social Intercourse, 86. 
 Affection. Desire for, 77. 
 Aim of Education. 7. 
 Analogy. Law of, 24. 
 Apperception. 24, 25, 174. 
 Apperception Explained, 26. 
 "Application." 165. 
 "Association." 164. 
 Association of Ideas. 27. 
 Attention and Interest, 178. 
 Attention. How not to get, 30. 
 
 Mow to hold, 180. 
 
 Invohintarv and Voluntary, 29, 
 30. 
 
 Types of. .SO. 
 
 Variation in. 182. 
 
 Will, basis of. 31, 181. 
 
 Biographv Age. 64. 
 
 Book Work Illustrated, 233. 
 
 Brain, Cortex of. 16. 
 
 Effect of Stimulants on, 12. 
 
 Weight of. 12. 
 
 White and (Jray matter in, 11. 
 
 Cells, Nerve. 14. 
 
 Tissue, 14. 
 Cerebellum. 10. 
 Cerebrum. 11. 12, 16. 
 Certainty. Instinct of, 79. 
 Character, 5. 
 
 Effect of Heredity upon, 4. 
 
 Influence of Environment upon. 4. 
 Characteristics. Table of, 68, 81, 
 
 119. 130. 
 Child, Concreteness in, 63. 
 
 Curiosity of. 61. 
 
 Dependence of, 58. 
 
 Effect of Music on. 54. 
 
 Imitativeness in. 60. 
 
 In Sunday School, 3. 
 
 Knowledge of, 172. 
 
 Motor Type of, 39, 124. 
 
 Personification of, 59. 
 
 Psychology of, 7. 
 
 Savagery in, 57. 
 
 Sensory Type of, 124. 
 
 Self-Unconsciousness, 60. 
 
 Types of. 123. 
 
 Visual Type of, 39. 
 
 Vocabulary of, 173. 
 Choice and Decision. 259. 
 Collecting Instinct, 78. 
 Concreteness, 63. 
 Conscience, Definitions of, 107. 
 
 Rise in Puberty, 80. 
 
 LTndeveloped in small children, 64. 
 Consciousness, Stream of, 20. 
 Constructiveness, Instinct of, 79. 
 Conversion Period, 96. 
 Cortex of Brain, 16. 
 Courage, 72. 
 Curiosity, 61. 
 Curriculum for Small School, 138. 
 
 Principles of well-rounded, 138. 
 
 Large School Standard, 140, 142. 
 
 D 
 
 Decision and Choice, 259. 
 Deduction versus Induction, 169. 
 Deliberation. 43, 44. 
 Dependent Age. 58. 
 Desire and. Will, 258. 
 Disorder. 199, 202. 
 "Doing," Cultivation of, 253. 
 Doubting Period, 95. 
 Dualism, 111. 
 
 E 
 Education, 3. 
 
 Aim of, 7. 
 
 In Infancv. 7. 
 "Elaboration," 164. 
 Enlightenment, 108. 
 Environment, 4. 
 
 Early Impressions of, 6. 
 Ethical Dualism, 111. 
 Examinations, Value of, 170. 
 
 F 
 
 Faith and Trust of Children, 58. 
 Fatigue, Kinds of, 185. 
 
 Signs of, 185. 
 Foreword, vii. 
 Forgetting, 35, 246. 
 Functioning In Doing, 5. 
 
276 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 ■•Gang" Age, 105. 
 
 Grading, Practical Ways of, 136. 
 
 The Small School, 134. 
 
 What it is, 135. 
 Grammar School, 146. 
 
 H 
 
 Habits, Formation of, 47, 48. 
 
 Rules of formation, 251. 
 
 Specialization in formation, 250. 
 
 Sub-conscious Field, 48. 
 
 Training of, 241. 
 Hand Work (see Manual Work). 
 Heredity, 4. 
 Hero Age, 70. 
 Heuristic Method, 166. 
 High School, 149. 
 History Age, 64. 
 Human Body. Complexity of, 14. 
 Humor, Crudity of in Children, 75. 
 
 Ideals, Age of, 91. 
 
 Ideas, Acquiring of new ones, 23. 
 
 Association of, 27. 
 Illustration, Dangers in, 224. 
 
 Good, 224. 
 
 How to Use. 223. 
 
 Variety of, 230. 
 Imagination, 23. 
 Imitation in Child, 60, 76. 
 Impressions of Early Environment, 
 
 6. 
 Impulsiveness, 71. 
 Independence, 73. 
 Induction versus Deduction, 169. 
 Infancy, Development during, 7. 
 
 Education duiing, 7. 
 Inhibition, 41. 
 
 Types of, 41. 
 Instincts, Educational Value of, 46. 
 
 Native and Acquired, 45. 
 
 Transitoriness of, 46. 
 Interest, Basis of Attention, 29. 
 
 False Views of, 184. 
 
 How to Kill, 183. 
 
 What it is, 178. 
 Inter-relation of Intellect, Feeling, 
 and Will, 263. 
 
 Judgment, Training of, 259. 
 
 K 
 Kindergarten School, 142. 
 
 L 
 
 Lesson Correlation, 168. 
 
 Functioning of. 261. 
 
 How to Prepare. 158. 
 
 Introduction, 168. 
 
 Plan of Development, 163. 
 
 Keview, 170. 
 
 Title, 168. 
 "Lies" of Children, 62. 
 
 M 
 
 iManhood. 118. 
 
 Manual Work, 232. 
 
 Map-\A'ork in Grammar School, 148. 
 
 Historical, 237. 
 
 In Flat, 237. 
 
 Relief, 235. 
 Memoriter Work, 244, 247. 
 Memory, Kinds Wanted, 241. 
 
 Laws of. 242. 
 
 Retention in, 76. 
 
 Training of, 241. 
 
 Types, 38. 
 
 Value of, 35. 
 
 Weak in Childhood, 66. 
 Mental Characteristics, 58. 
 Modelic Work, 237. 
 Moi'al Training, Elements of, 252. 
 Motor Children. 39, 124. 
 Music, Effect of, 54. 
 
 \ 
 
 Nerve Cells, 14. 
 Nerves, 8, 9, 16. 
 Neuron, 14. 
 New Education, 3. 
 Novels, Reading of, 88. 
 
 O 
 
 Old Education, 3. 
 Order, Agencies for keeping, 196. 
 Definitions of, 190. 
 Difference between Securing and 
 
 Maintaining, 192. 
 How to Secure. 193. 
 Incentives to. 198, 200. 
 Use Secondary Ends as Motives, 
 192. 
 Ownership, Its Educational Value, 
 79. 
 
 Pedagogy, 3. 
 Penalties, 202. 
 Personification, 59. 
 I'hysical Characteristics, 53. 
 Play, Love of, 56. 
 Post-Graduate School, 150. 
 "Preparation," 163. 
 "Presentation," 164. 
 Primary School, 142. 
 Psychology of the Child, 7. 
 Puberty (see Adolescence). 
 Punishment, 65, 73. 
 Pupils, Troublesome, 183. 
 
 Q 
 
 Questlon-and-Answer Books, 249. 
 Questioning, Character of, 214. 
 
 Curiosity Kindled by, 213. 
 
 How to Learn How, 214. 
 
 Importance of, 210. 
 
 Kinds, 211. 
 
 Method of in Sunday School. 211. 
 
 Methods of Propounding, 218. 
 
INDEX 
 
 UeadinK, 90. 
 
 Ueasoninjr, Dovi'lopment of, 92, 245. 
 "Recapitulation." 1()4. 
 Recitation, Balancing? Instruction 
 with. 206. 
 
 Method of Conducting, 204. 
 Rocolloction. 36. 
 Reflection. 44. 
 Relation between Mind and Body. 
 
 121. 
 Remembering, 37. 
 Restlessness, 53. 
 Reviews, Importance of, 170. 
 
 Steps in, 205. 
 Ritual, 111. 
 Romance, Age of, 88. 
 
 S. Andrews Church School, 152. 
 Savagery in Children. 57. 
 Self-Consciousness, 91. 
 
 Sense Perception, 28. 
 Sensitiveness, 91. 
 Sensory Children, 124. 
 Sex-attraction, 67, 86. 
 Sex-differences, 124. 
 Sex-instruction, 84. 
 Sex-repellance, 67. 
 Sex-unconsciousness. 67. 
 Similarity, Law of. 24. 
 Source Method, 166. 
 Spinal Cord, 9. 
 Stereoscopic Work, 232. 
 Storm and Stress Period. 93. 
 Storv Age. 63. 
 
 Marks of a good one. 226. 
 Story-Telling, How to Learn How, 
 228. 
 
 Rules for, 227. 
 Stream of Consciousness, 20. 
 Sub-conscious Self, 23. 
 Sunday School, Child in, 3. 
 
 Graded (also see Grading), 134. 
 
 How to Grade a small one, 137. 
 
 Teacher, "Call" of, 264. 
 
 Definition of, 264. 
 
 Disorderly, 202. 
 Teaching, Deductive Method, 165. 
 
 Inductive Method, 162. 
 
 "Point of Contact," in, 171. 
 
 Types in, 171. 
 Temperament, Influence on Chris- 
 tianity, 128. 
 
 Influence on Education, 125. 
 
 Race Characteristics, 129. 
 Text Books, Question-and-Answer, 
 249. 
 
 Source Method, 166. 
 Thinking, 28. 
 Tissue Cells, 14. 
 
 Training, Elements of Moral, 252. 
 Truancy, 72. 
 
 Trust and Faith of Children, 58, 
 Types of Attention, 30, 
 Types of Children, 123. 
 Types of Memory, 38. 
 Types of Will, 40. 
 
 U 
 
 Use of Types, 245. 
 
 V 
 
 Value of Memorv. 35. 
 Visual Children. 39. 
 Vocabulary of Children, 173. 
 
 W 
 
 Weight of Brain, 12. 
 Will, 39, 253. 
 
 Breaking of, 41, 264. 
 
 Development during Adolescence, 
 108. 
 
 Effect of Music on, 262. 
 
 Training. 40, 241, 257. 
 
 Types. 40. 
 Womanhood, 118. 
 
 Written-Answer Work. Reasons for, 
 248. 
 
 First Unitai 
 
 CHURCH School, 
 
 BUFFALO. 
 
BV1534 .S647 1912 
 
 The elements of child study and 
 
 Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 
 
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