/^r: Bk 145 .K9 1874 Kurtz, J. H. 1809-1890. Text-book of church history TEXT-BOOK -;Y-^rr7s^ V '4^ U SfcP^:>31922 CHURCH HISTORY. Dk. JOHN HENRY KURTZ, W0»E8S0R OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DORPAT; AUTHOR OP "A MAKFJI, OP SACRED BISTORT," " THE BIBLE AND ASTRONOltfY," ETC. ETC. VOL. I TO THE KEFORMATION. PHILADELPHIA: SMITH, ENGLISH & CO., 710 Arch Strekt. 1874. Entered, according 'x> Act ot Oon ;r ws, in the year 1860, by LIXDSAY & BLAKISTON, In the CIrrk'« Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of PennsylTania. aTEREOTTPED BT J. F40AN PBIHTO M Sherman & Co. Prinlers, Phila. EDITOR'S PREFACE, The author of the following work was born Dec. 13, 1809, at Montjoie, in the district of Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhenish Prussia. In early life he contemplated becoming a merchant ; but as the desire to study theology soon became predominant, he entered (1839 I, after a five years' course at the Gymnasia of Dortmund and Soest, the University of Halle. TJllmann and Tholuck were then lecturing there, and the latter especially exerted a decidedly favourable influence upon our author's theological training. He subsequently completed his studies at Bonn, and then went as a private teacher to Courland. He would soon, however, have • . turned to his native country, but for an appointment in 1835 as chief teacher of Religion in the Gymnasium at Mitau. Whilst occupying this post, he produced several works which laid the basis for his present reputation : "The Mosaic Sacrifice," Mitau 1842; " The Bible and Astronomy," Mitau 1842 -3d ed. Berlin 1853 (transl. by T. D. Simonton, and publ. by Lindsay & Blakis- ton, Philadelphia, 1857); "Suggestions in vindication and proof of the Unity of the Pentateuch," Kouigsb. 1844 ; " The Unity of Genesis," Berlin 1846; "Symbolical Signification of the Tabernacle," Leipsic 1851 ; " Text-book of Church History," Mitau 1849, 3d ed. Mitau 1853, 4th ed. Mitau and Leipsic 1860; "Mani'il of Sacred History," Konigsb. 1843, 6th ed. 1853 '^' editor's preface, (trans), by Chas. W. Schaefifer, D. D., publ. by Lindsay & Bla- kiston, Philad. 1856); "Biblical History illustrated," Berlin 1847, 3d. ed. 1853; and "Manual of Church History" Mitau 1852, 2d ed. 1853. ^ His literary labours soon gained for him flattering atten- tion ; the honorary degree of Doctor of Theology was con- forred upon him, and in 1850 he was called co the cuair of Church History in the evangelical University of Dorpat, Livonia (founded in 1632 and revived in 1802), which he continues to occupy. He has also been appointed to the honorable post of Counsellor of State to the Emperor. The present edition of the " Text-book of Church History" IS, to a large extent, a reprint of the Edinburg translation. But as that translation, avowedly, tampered with the original work care has been taken, in this edition, to make the renderino- con- form strictly to the author's sense. This proved to be a more serious task than was anticipated, in some cases requiring an entire reconstruction of the plan of the work, and in others the translation of wliole pages of matter omitted in the Edinburg issue. The number of pages thus added amount to about fifty inelud.ng pp. 371-82, 387-99, and the whole of the section treating upon Hus. The verbal alterations necessary are too many to be enumerated, although in making these no mere pri- vate taste was indulged. Wherever the translation fairly con- veyed the author's .ense, it was allowed to stand; and it is due to the Edinburg edition to say, that this was very largely the case. It IS probable that no book, original or translated," was ever issued, in which the author, or editor, did not see room for improvement. But the verbal changes made in the present in- stance, were required in justice to the theological stand-point of Dr. Kurtz. Mr. Erdesheim (the translator of the Edinburg edi- tion), by omitting a qualifying word, or substituting one of a different import, has kept Dr. Kurtz from saying, in many in- editor's preface. V stances, what he desired to say, or has made him utter something which he would be unwilling to endorse. This is especially true of statements relating to Predestinarianisra, the Sacraments, and the Church. As an illustration of the injustice thus done to the author, the reader is referred to § 119, 6, (2), where, in reference to John Euchrath of Wesel, Dr. K. says : " In opposition to transubstantiation he advocated the doctrine of impanation." The Edinburg translation has it : " His views were certainly not Romish." Indeed it became very evident, upon comparing the Edinburg issue with the original, that the alterations were de- signedly made, for the purpose of adapting a Lutheran work to a Puritan market. This is not only doing great injustice to the author, but to the Church at large. One of the best apologies for denomination- alism is, that it is overruled for the more manifold development of the excellencies of Christianity. And this benefit, so far as it may hold in fact, must exhibit itself no less in the literary than other labours of Christians of different confessions. Why then should not a Puritan or Presbyterian be allowed to speak or write as a Presbyterian, an Episcopalian as an Episcopalian, a Reformed as a Reformed, and a Lutheran as a Lutheran? The truth is not all on one side. And no one mind, imbued with true moral earnestness, is capable at once of appreciating and presenting fairly, the various sides of truth. Instead, there- fore, of distorting a work like the present, by forcing it into the pattern of a foreign mould, it should be permitted to set forth facts in its own way. Doubtless Dr. Kurtz is fallible, and will find many to dissent from some of his statements. But he is a responsible man, and ready, it is to be presumed, to make cor- rections whenever convicted of errors. We say this the more unreservedly for not being of the same Church with the respected author. The merits of this work which the reader will please notice uj 1* VJ editor's PREFACE. the author's Text-hook, not his Manual (the latter being a much larger work) of Church History, are so obvious, that they need not be pointed out in detail. It combines lucid conciseness with full comprehensiveness to a rare degree. And although it can- not, of course, supi)ly the place of larger works on the subject, already issued, or in course of publication, it will tend to satisfy a great want in this department of literature. It is proper to add, that whilst the Edinburg translation was made from the third edition of the original work, the edition now offered to the public contains all the improvements of the fourth edition of the original, which was published within the last three months. J. H. A. BOMBERGER. Philadelpuia, July 16, 1860, TABLE OF CONTENTS, INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. § 1. Idea of Church History Page 26 g 2. Division of Church History 26 1. Different Tendencies apparent in Church History. 2. Tlie Several Branches of Church History, 3, Principal Phases in the Historical Development of the Church. g 3. Sources and Auxiliaries of Church History 32 §4. History of Church History 33 THE PREPARATORY HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH; OR, THE WORLD BEFORE THE COMING OF CHRIST IN ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. §5. Survey of the History of the World 42 g 6. Primeval Preparation of Salvation 42 g 7. Different Purposes which Judaism and Heathenism were intended to serve 43 g 8. Heathenism...- 45 1. Religious Life among the Heathen. 2. Moral Condition of tlie Heathen. 3. Intellectual Culture of the Heathen. 4. Greek Philosophy. 5. Social Condition. g 9. Judaism 51 1. Judaism under Special Divine Discipline. 2. Judaism after tlie Retirement of the Spirit of Prophecy. 5 10. Tlie Samaritans F>? (7) 8 CONTENTS, § 11. Conununications between Judaism and Heathenism... 54 1. Influence of Heathenism on Judaism; 2. of Judaism on Heathenism, g 12. The Fulness of Time 56 HISTORY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH BY CHRIST; ITS CONSTITUTION IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. (Finst Century.) g 18. Characten.«tics of this Primitive History 67 I. THE LIFE OF JESUS. g 14. Jesus Christ the Saviour of the World 59 II. THE APOSTOLIC AGE. g 15. Feast of Pentecost — Activity of the Apostles before the calling of Paul 61 ^16. Labours of the Apostle Paul 62 g 17. Labours of the other Apostles 64 1. Peter's Bishopric at Rome. 2. Two or Three James's ? 3. Jolin's Exile. g 18. Constitution, Life, Discipline, and Worship of the Church 66 1. The Charismata. 2. Bishops and Presbyters. 3. Other Church Offices. 4. Life and Discipline. 5. Wor.ship. g 19. Apostolic Opposition to Sectarians and Heretics 71 1. The Convention of the Apostles. 2. The Basis of Apostolic Teaching. FIRST SECTION. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHURCH IN ITS ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM. g 20. Characior and Boundaries of this Phase or Development; 79 FIRST PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM OF CULTURE (100-323). 1. KELATIOXS liETWEEN THE CHURCH, THE SYNAGOGUE, AND HEATHENISM. g21. Hostilities and Persecutions of the Jews 82 ? 22. Attempts at Restoration and Reaction on the part of the Syna- gogue and the Samarita.ns , 8? 1 Dositheus. 2. Simon I\Iagus. 3 .Menaiider. CONTENTS 9 g 23. Persecution of Christians in the Roman Enipiie 84 1. To the Time of Trajan. 2. To the Time of Marcus Aurelius. 3. To the Time of Septimius Severus. 4. To the Time of Decius. 5. To tiie Time of Diocletian. 6. Diocletian. 7. Constantine. g 24. Positive Reaction on tlie part of Heathenism 92 1. Apollonius of Tyana. 2. Neo-PIatonism. 3. Lucian. 4. Celsus, Pyrphyry, Hierocles. §25. Spread of Christianity 94 II. D.A.NGERS ACCRUING FROM A LEAVEN OF JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM REMAINING IN THE CHURCH. §26. Survey 95 Gnosticism. §27. Ebionism and Ebionite Gnosis 97 1. The Nazarenes. 2. The Ebionites. 3. The Elkesaites. 4. The Pseudo-Clementine System. §28.. Gentile Gnosticism 101 1. Cerinth. 2. The Gnosticism of Basilides. 8. The Gnos- ticism of A''alentine. 4. The Gnosticism of the Ophites. 5. The Gnosticism of Carpocrates. 6. The Antitactes. 7. Saturninus. 8. Tatian. 9. Bai'disanes. 10. Marcion. 11. Hermogenes. § 29. Manichceism 108 1. Person and History of the Founder. 2. The System and Sect. III. DEVELOPMENT IN THE GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, LIFE, AND DISCIPLINE OF THE CHURCH. §30. Internal Organization of the Church Ill 1 Ordines ^lajores et Minores. 2. Synods. 3. Unity and Catholicity of the Church. 4. The Pnmacy of Rome. §31. Celebration of Public Worship 116 Disputes about the (Observance of Easter. §32. The Administration of Biiptism 118 1. Catechumens. 2. Discussion about the Baptism of Heretics. 3. The Dogma concerning Baptism, g 33. The Administration of the Lord's Supper 12' 1. The Sacramental Liturgy. 2. The "Disciplina Arcani." 3. The Dogma of the Lord's Supper. 4. The Sacrificial Theory. I 34. Reading, Sermon, Prayer, and Praise 123 1. The Doctrine of Inspiration. 2. The New Testament Canon. 3. Translations of the Bible. 4. Hymnology. 10 CONTENTS. g 35. Places of Public Worship and Influence of Art..., 126 g 36. Life, Manners, and Discipline 121 1. The Christian Life. 2. Ecclesiastic.il Discipline. 8. As- ceticism. 4. Begiiuiing of the Worship of Martyrs. g 37. The Montanistic Reformation 131 1. Phrygian Montanisni. 2. Montanism in the West. 8. Doc- trine and Practice. g 38. Ecclesiastical Schisms 18ii 1. The Schism of Hippolytus at Rome. 2. Of Felicissimus at Carthage. 3. Of Novatian at Rome. 4. Of Meletius in Egyppt. IV. TEACHING AND LITERATURE OF THE CHURCH. § S9. Theological Schools and their Representatives 135 1. The Apo.stolic Fathers. 2. The Apologetical Writers of the Second Century. 3. The School of Asia Minor. 4. The School of Alexandria. 5. The School of North Africa, t). The School of Antioch. 7. Apocryphal and Pseudo- Epigrapliic Works. g 40. Development of Doctrine and Dogmatic Controversies 141 1. The Trinitarian Question. 2. TheDynamistic Monarcbians. 3. Praxeas and Tertullian. 4. Noetus, Callistus, and Hip- polytus. 5. Beryllus and Origen. 6. Sabellius and the Two Dyonisii. 7. Paul of Samosata. 8. The Millennarian Controversy. §41. Tlieological Literature 147 1. Apologetics. 2. Polemics. 3. Dogmatics. 4. Criticism and Exegesis. 4. Historical Literature. 6. Practical Theology. SECvjND PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL FORM (323-692). I. STATE AND CHURCH. g 42. Fall of Heathenism in the Roman Empire 161 1. Constantino the Great and his Sons. 2. Julian the Apos- tate. 8. Final Destruction of Heathenism. 4. Resistance and Apologies of the Heathen. I 43 The Christian State and the State Church. , 155 1. The Emperors. 2. General Synods. 8. Ecclesiastical Law. CONTENTS. 13 §65. The Mohiimmedan Counter-Missions 250 1. Fundamental Idea of Islamism. 2. Service performed by Mohammedanism in Providenee. THIRD PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM. (692-1453.) 1. MOVEMENTS IN THE EASTERN CHURCH, IN CONJUNCTION WITH SIMIL.\U DEVELOl'MENTS IN THE WESTERN CHURCH. § 66. Iconoclastic Controversy in the East (726-842) 253 1. Leo the Isaurian. 2. Constantinus Copronymus. 3. Irene. 4. Theodora. g 67. Schism between the Greek and the Roman Church, and Attempts at Union (857-1453) 256 1. Commencement of the Schism (867). ^ Leo the Philoso- pher and Basilius II. 3. Completion of the Schism in 1054. 4. Attempts at Re-union. 5. Andronicus IIL and Johannes V. Palieologus. 6. Johannes VIL Palseologus. II. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE EASTERN CHURCH. § 68. Theological Science and its Representatives 261 1. Revival of Classical Studies. 2. Aristotle and Plato. 3 Scholasticism and Mysticism. 4. Theological Sciences 5. Distinguished Theologians. g 6;t. Dogmatic Controversies (the Hesychastic Controversy) 266 § 70. Government, Worship, and Manners 268 1. The Arsenian Schism. 2. Public Worship. 3. Monasticism. 4. Reformatory EfTorts. . §71. Gnostic and Manichasan Heretics 270 1. The Paulicians. 2. The Children of the Sun. 3. The Eu- chitcs and Bogomiles. ? 72. The Orthodox Slavonic-Greek Churches 274 1. Greece. 2. The Chazar.s. 3. The Bulgarians. 4. The Russians. ? 73. The Heretical Churches of the East 27" 1. The Nostorians. 2. The Monophysites. 3. The Maronites. 2 14 CONTENTS. SECOND SECTION. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN ITS MEDIAEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. I 74. Character and Extent of this Phase of Development 284 1. Its Character. 2. Its Periods. FIRST PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Cent. 4-9.) I. ESTABLISHMENT, SPREAD, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE GERMAN CHURCH. § 75. Christianity and the Germans 287 1. Predisposition. 2. Profession of Christianitj'. 8. Mode of Conversion. § 76. Victory of Catholicism over Arianism 290 1. The Goths in the Countries along the Danube. 2. The Visi- goths. 3. The Vandals. 4. The Suevi. 5. The Burgun- dians. 6. The Rugians and St. Severinus. 7. The Ostro- goths. 8. The Langobards. 9. The Franks. g 77. Victory of the Romish over the British Confession.., 296 1. British Confession. 2. Ireland. 3. The Picts and Scots. 4. Romish Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. 5. British Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. 6. Victory of the Ro- mish over the British Confession. g 78. Conversion of Germany , — 302 1. South-Western Germany. 2. South-Eastern Germany. 3. North - Western Germany. 4. St. Boniface. 5. The Saxons. g 79. The Slavonians within the Boundaries of Germany ill I. The Moravian Church. 2. Introduction of Christianity into Bohemia, ^ 80. The Scandinavian Nations 313 g 81. Christianity and Islamism 316 CONTENTS. 15 n. INDEPENDKNT DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMANIC CHURCH. I 82. The Papacy and the Carolirigiaiis 318 1. Origin of the States of the Church. 2. The Carolingian Dynasty. 3. The Papacy till the Time of Nichohis I. 4. Nicholas I. and Hadrian II. 5. John VIII. and his Suc- cessors. §83 The Papacy and the Metropolitan Office 326 § S4. State of the Clergy 3-^ 1. The Higher Clergy. 2. The Inferior Clergy. 3. Injunction of Celibacy. 4. The Canonical Life. §85. Monasticisin 333 1. Benedict of Nursia. 1. Benedict of Aniane. 3. Nunneries. 4. Large Monasteries. 2. Stylites, Recluses, and An- chorites. §86. Ecclesiastical Property 337 Benefices and Secularization. §87. Ecclesiastical Legislation 339 1. Collections of Ecclesiastical Law. 2. The Forged Decretals of Isidore. § 88. State of Intelligence, Ecclesiastical Usages, and Discipline 342 1. Religious Education of the People. 2. Popular Christian Poetry. 3. Social State. 4. Administration of Justice. 5. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Penances. §89. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 348 1. Liturgy and Preaching. 2. Church Music. 3. The Sacri- fice of the Mass. 4. The Worship of Saints, Relics, Im- ages, and Angel'^ : Pilgrimages. 5. Ecclesiastical Seasons and Places. 6. The Fine Arts. I 90. State of Science and of Theological Literature 353 1. Monastic and Cathedral Schools. 2. Celebrated Theologians before the Time of theCarolingians. 3. During the Reign of Charlemagne. 4. Under the Reign of Louis the Pious. 5. During the Reign of Charles the Bald. 6. Theological Sciences: Exegesis. 7. Systematic Theology. 8. Prac- tical Theology. 9. Church History. § 91. Development of Doctrine and Dogmatic Controversies 361 1. The Adoptionist Controversy. 2. Controversy about the Procession of the Holy Spirit. 3. Controversies of Pas- chasius Radbertus. 4. Controversy about Predestination. g 92. Reformatory Movements 361 1. Opposition of the Carolingians to Image Worship. 2. Ago- bard of Lyons and Claudius of Turin. 16 CONTENTS. SECOND PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDI^VAli AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Cent. 10-13.) I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. I 93. Missionary Operations during that Period 370 1. The Scandinavian Mission. 2. The Slavonian Magyar Mis- sions. 3. Missions among the Fins and Letonians. 4. Missions among the Mongols. 5. Missions in Mohamme- dan Countries. 5 94. The Crusades 382 § 95. Islamism and the Jews in Europe 386 1, Islamism in Sicily. 2. Islamism in Spain. 3. The Jews in Europe. II. HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. g 96. The Papacy and the Holy Roman German Empire 389 1. The P.apacy to the Death of Sylvester II. (904-1003). 2. To the Synod of Sutri. 3. To Gregory TIL (1046-1073). 4. Gregory VII. 5. To the Settlement of the Dispute about Investiture. 6. To Innocent III. (1 123-1198). 7. Innocent III. (1198-1216). 8. To Boniface VIIL (1216- 1294). ? 97. The Clergy 407 1. Political Influence. 2. The Pataria. § 98. The Religious Orders 410 1. The Order of Clugny and that of Camaldoli. 2. The Cister- cians. 3. New Orders. 4. The Mendicant Order.s. 5. The Beguins and Beghards. 6. The Knightly Orders. § 99. Ecclesiastical Jurisprudence 419 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND CONTROVERSIES. I 100. General View of Scholasticism 420 1. Nurseries of Scholasticism. 2. Metaphysical Basis. 3. Ob- ject and Method of Scholastic Theology. § 101. The Seculum Obscurum (Tenth Century) 424 g 102. Division among the Dialecticians (Eleventh Century) 426 1. Authors. 2. Eucharistic Controversy. 2. Controversies of Anselm. CONTENTS 17 j 103. Separation and Re-union of Dialectics and Mysticism 430 1. The Conflict. 2. Reconciliation. 3. Renewed Controversies. g 104. Highest Stage of Scholasticism (Thirteenth Century) 435 1. Celebrated Scliolastics. 2. Raimundus Lullus. 3. Biblical and Practical Opposition. 4. A German Mystic. 5. His- torians. IV. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. § 105. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 439 1. The Sacraments. 2. New Festivals. 3. Worship of Images, Relics, and Saints. 4. Hymnology. 5. Ecclesiastical Music. 6. Ecclesiastical Architecture. 7. The Plastic Art and Painting. I 100. Popular Life and National Literature 445 1. Popular Life. 2. Popular Culture. 3. National Literature. § 107. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Indulgences 450 V. OPPOSITION TO THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF ECCLESIASTICISM. g 108. Active Opposition to Prevailing Ecclesiasticism 451 1. The Cathari. 2. Sect of the Holy Spirit. 3. Revolutionary Reformers. 4. Prophetic and Apocalyptic Opposition. 5. The Waldenses. g 109. Reaction in the Church 461 1. Crusade against the Albigenses. 2. The Inquisition. THIRD PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Cent. 14 and 15.) I. THE HIERAPvCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. {110. The Papacy 463 1. Boniface VIII. (1294-1303). 2. The Papacy in its Baby- lonish Exile (1309-1377). 3. The Papal Schism and the Reforming Councils (1378-1443). 4. The Last Popes be- fore the Reformation (1443-1517). g 111. The Clergy 471 I 112. The Monastic Orders 473 1. The Benedictines and Olivetans. 2. The Dominicans. 3. New Orders. 4. Hermits. 5. The Brethren of the Com- mon Life. 2* B io CO NTE NTS. II. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. g 113. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 478 1. New Festivals in Honour of the Virgin. 2. Preaching. 3. Catechization. 4. Hymnology. 5. Chui'ch Music. 6. Architecture, the Plastic Art, and Painting. § 114. Popular Life and National Literature 482 1. Religious Associations. 2. The Friends of God. 3. The Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit. 4. National Literature. g 115. Ecclesiastical Discipline ,,. 487 1 . The Inquisition. 2. Procedure against Witches. III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. g 116. Scholasticism and its Opponents „ ... 490 2 117. German Mysticism 492 IV. REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. I 118. The Reformation in Head and Members 495 1. French Reformers. 2. German Reformers. 3. An Italian Reformer. § 119. Attempts at Evangelical Reformation 499 1. Wycliffe and the AVyclifBtes. 2. Bohemian Reformers before Hns. 3. Hus and Jerome of Prague. 4. The Husites. 5. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. 6. Netherland Reformers. 7. An Italian Reformer. I 120. The so-called Revival of Learning 51C 1. The Italian Humanists. 2. The German Humanists. 3. Erasmus. 4. Humanism in England, Scotland, France, and Spain. 5. The Study of the Scriptures. I AA i, Ai c E a'OaT o-'X, 'r1 \ TH]30L0GIG:S.L/ INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. §1. IDEA OF CHURCH HISTORY. The Christian Church is that Divine institution for the sal- vation of man, which Jesus Christ has founded on earth. Itfe aim is to have the salvation wrought out by Christ communicated to, and freely appropriated by, every nation and every individual. Outwardly, the Church manifests itself in the religious fellowship of those who, having become partakers of this salvation, co- operate in their own places, and according to the measure of their gifts and calling, towards the extension and development of the kingdom of God. Christ the God-man, who is exalted to the right hand of power, is the sole Head of the Church ; the Holy Spirit, who is sent by Christ in order to guide the Church to its goal and perfection, is its Divine Teacher; — the Word and the Sacraments are the ordinary means through which the Holy Spirit works in and by it. As the Church has originated in time, and has passed through a certain development, it has also a History. But its course is not one of continual progress. For, side by side with the holy government of its Divine Head, and the sanctifying influences of the Paraclete, we also descry in its administration a merely human agency. From the sinful- ness of our nature, this agency may prove unholy and perverse, and thus resist, instead of co-operating ; obstruct, instead of advancing ; disturb the progress by introducing impure elements, instead of preserving it in, or restoring it to, its purity. But even amidst all this error and pervcrseness atta>ehing to human agency, the guidance and can- of Christ and of His Spirit have '3 {2r>) 26 INTRODUCTION. mJinifested themselves in this, that Divine truth has not beei suflFered to perish in human error, Divine power through humar, weakness and rebelliousness, or the Divine salvation by man's iniquity. Nay, amid all hindrances, the Divine has developed and progressed ; and even these temporary obstructions have been made subservient for preparing, procuring, and manifesting in the Church the complete triumph of Divine power and truth. From these remarks, it will be gathered that it is the task of Church History not only to exl.ibit proper developments in the Church, but also all obstructions and aberrations, — at least so long as they have remained in some relation to the Church. ^2. DIVISION OF CHURCH HISTORY. The many and extensive ramifications of Church History ren- der it necessary to arrange its subject-matter, both as to length, — i. e., into definite periods, during each of which some tendency, hitherto influential in the general development, reached its ter- mination, and in turn gave place to new influences which com menced to affect the development, or to give it a new direction ; — and as to breadth, — i. e., with reference to the various ele- ments of tendency and development, which made their appear- ance at any one stage. In the latter respect two points claim our attention : 1. The arrangement according to national churches, so far as these have followed an independent and distinctive direction ; or according to particular churches, which may jiartly have owed their origin to some division in the Church universal, occasioned by marked differences, in doctrine, worship, or con- stitution.— 2. The arrangement according to the grand object towards which every movement recorded in ecclesiastical history tends. This common manifestation of ecclesiastical life, which appears in all national and particular churches, has, howeveiv assumed in different churches a peculiar and distinctive shape. The idea of history, and especially that of a universal history of the Church, implies that it must mainly be arranged according to periods. But the question as to which of the other two classifications is to be prominently brought forward, depends partly on the course of history itself, and partly on the plan on which it has been constructed. In general, the arrangement according to national churches must remain subordinate, at least so long as their union and co-operation I as not been interrnpted, TENDENCIES IN CHURCH HISTORY. 27 either by following entirely different tendencies, or through a sundering of them into particular churches. 1. Different Tendencies apparent in Chnrcli History. — The Christian Cliurch is inteuded to embrace all nations and tongues. Hence, it must always be its aim to enlarge its domain by the conversion of non- Christiau nations and individuals. The History of the Extension AND Limitation of Ciiristianitv, which exhibits either the progress or the various obstructions put in its way, must therefore form an essential part of Church History. Again, though the Church is under the invisible guidance and the unseen care of the Holy Spirit, as a visi- ble and terrestrial institution. It requires, for its continuance and pros- perity, a secure outward position, and a stable and consistent internal arrangement, constitution, and order. Hence, Church History has also to chronicle the history of Ecclesiastical Constitution, both in refer- ence to the outward position of the Church towards the State, and to its internal organization, government, discij^line, and legislation. The history of those ecclesiastical divisions (schisms) which had their origin only in different views about church government, and especially aljout the administration of discipline, belongs to this branch of the subject. — Of still greater importance for the prosperous progress of the Church, is the development and the establishment of doctrine. The Holy Scrip- tures are, indeed, the sole source and rule of faith, and a sufBcient directory in all that concerns the knowledge of salvation. But the words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seed-corn of knowledge, Avhich, under the superintendence of the Spirit, who sowed it, must unfold into a glorious harvest ; that so the fulness of truth which they contain may be increasingly understood, and become adapted to all stages and forms of culture — to faith, science, and life. It is, there- fore, also the task of Church History to follow the Development of Ecclesiastical Doctrine and Science, in all the ways and by-ways (heresies) over which it has passed. — The Church also requires public worship, as the necessary expression of the feelings and aspirations of the faithful towards their Lord and God, and as a means for edifica- tion, instruction, and strength to the congregation. In the Word and the sacraments, the Church indeed received from its Lord the immov- able ground-work of all worship ; still, it had to seek out and to adopt the most suitaljle and effective form, under which these Divine powers and gifts might be perfected and applied. Hence the History of Worship must also form an essential element in Church History. — Lastly, the Church had to introduce the leaven of that new life, of which it is the depositary, into practical life, and into the manners and customs of the people. This, then, implies another element in Church History, — that of Christian life among the people. — ■ It is impossible to determine the historical succession of these varied manifestations of tlie life of the Church, according to abstract and logical principles 28 I N T R O U U 0 T I O N , or to arrange them in the same manner at all periods. It will there fore be necessary, in each case, to adopt a division which at everj period will first present those elements which appeared most promi nently, and exercised a decisive influence upon all the others. 2. The seceral Branches of Church History. — The above branches of Church History are severally of such importance, that they have fre- quently been treated as independent sciences. This method renders it possible to enter into fuller details, and, what is even more important, to treat each science according to its own peculiar principles, and in the most satisfactory manner. — The history of the spread of, or of the obstructions to Christianity, is then viewed as the History of Missions. That of ecclesiastical government [ecclesiastica politia), of worship and of Christian manners, is called Ecclesiastical Jrchceology — a name inaptly chosen, since it confines the vange of inquiries to ancient times, and groups together heterogeneous elements. Let us hope that writers on this subject will in future separate these different elements, and follow the development of each to the present time, treating of them as of the history of Ecclesiastical Constitution, of Christian Worship, and of Christian Culture. The history of the development of doctrines may be arranged into — a) the History of Dogmas, in which the genetic development of the doctrines of the Church is traced ; b) Syniholics, in which the established doctrinal views of the Church universal, and of individual churches, as laid down in their confessions (or symbols), ai-e presented in a systematic manner (in "Comparative Symbolics," these confessions are critically examined, and placed side by side with each other) ; c) Patrisiics, which treats of the subjective development of doctrine, as it appears in the teachings of the most eminent eccle- siastical authorities (the Fathers — limiting that expression chiefly to the first six or eight centuries of the Church) ; lastly, d) the History of Theology generally, or of individual branches of theological science, which details the scientific treatment of theology, or of its individual branches, in their historical course of pi'ogress. The History of Theo- logical Literature exhibits and criticises the literary activity of the Church generally; Patrology, that of the Fathers. Lastly, the science of Ecclesiastical Statistics presents a general view of the results of universal Church History during a definite period, and describes the state of the Church in all its relations, as it appeared at every period of its history, furnishing, "as it were, a cross-section of history." Literature. 1. History of Missions : Bhunhardt, aU. Benedicti. Par. 1666. 1 Voll. io\.— Butler, Lives of fte Saints N^ew ed Dublin 1838. DIVISION IN CHURCH HISTORY. 31 3. Principal Phases in the Historical Development of the Chvrch.-—\M the history of civilization we meet with three successive forms of culture: the Oriental, the Graeco-Roman, and the Germanic. The kingdom of God was to jjenetrate, and unfold itself, in each of these, in a manner peculiar to each, and thus attain its most complete development. The earliest Church (the Israelitish theocracy) represents its development in the Oriental form ; the ancji^nt Christian Church its development in the Grasco-Roman form ; the modern Church its development in the Germanic form. The Middle Ages exhibit the struggle between the superannuated classic form of culture, and the modern ; whilst the later development of the Church received its main impulse from the Germanic-Christian culture, which was matured by the genial influ- ences of the Reformation. This division of the History of the kingdom of God on the earth, according to the diiferent forms of civilization, seems to us so essential, that we derive from it the principle of our division of Church History, as follows : I. Antecedent History of Christianity : Preparation for it in the He- brew oriental form of culture ; simultaneous adaptation of the univer- sal form, for its manifestation in the Grteco-Roman form. II. Primitive History of Christianity : The perfect exhibition of the plan of salvation by Christ and his Apostles. Conflict between the Jewish and Greek forms of culture : Adctory of the latter. First cen- tury (Apostolic period). III. History of the Development of Christianity, on the basis of its original character. A. In the Ancient Cla.ssic Form: First Period, from a. 100-323, or to the final victory of Christianity over Graeco-Roman heathenism. . Second Period, from 323-G'J2, or to the completion of the doctrinal development of the ancient Church (680) and the alienation between the Oriental and Occidental Churches (092). Third Period, from 092-1453, or to the taking of Constantinople. Decline of the influence of the ancient classic form of culture on the history of the Church. B. In the Cennanic Form. 1. In the Middle Ages: First Period, including tiie 4th-9th centuries, or from the founding of Ihe Church among the Germans to the end of the Carlovingian period. Second Period, from the 10th-13th centuries, to Boniface VIII., or the age of the papacy, monasticism, and scholasticism. Third Period, embracing the 14th and 15th centuries, to the Reform- ation ; decline of the factors prominent in the Middle Ages ; frequent refoi'matory movements. 2. In the Modern Germanic Form: First Period, embracing the 16th century, the period of the Reforma tion. Second Period, the 17th century, the j^eriod of crtbodoxy. 3 iJ-i INTRODUCTION. Third J'eriod, the 18tli century, the a<2;e of deism, naturalism, ration- alism. FourOi Period, the 19th century, the ajic of the revival of a Christian and Church life (unionism, confessionulisui) in eontlict with commu- nism, pantheism, and materialism. § 3. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 1. The sources of Church History are partly primary (origi- nal), such as monuments and original documents, — partly SECONDARY (derived\ among Avhich we reckon traditions, and reported researches of original sources which have since been lost. Monuments, such as ecclesiastical buildings, pictures, and inscriptions, are commonly only of very subordinate use in Church nistory. But archives, preserved and handed down, are of the very greatest importance. To this class belong also the acts and decrees of ecclesiastical councils; the irgesia and official decrees of the Popes {decretals, bi'iefs) and of Bishops (pasto7-al letters) ; the laics and regesta issuing from imperial chancellories, so far as these refer to ecclesiastical aflairs ; the rules of monastic orders, litu7-gies, confessions of faith, letters of personages influential in church or state ; reports of eye-wit- nesses ; sermons and doctrinal treatises of acknowledged theolo- gians, etc. If the documents in existence are found insufficient, we must have recourse to earlier or later t7-aditions, and to the historical investigations of those who liad access to original documents which are now uo longer extant. a. CoLLECTioxs OF CouxciLS: J. Harditiii, coucill. colhx^tio regia maxima. Par. 1715. 12 vols, folio.— J. D. Matisi, concill. nova et am- pliss. coll. 31 vols. fol. Flor. et Tenet. 1759 ss. b. Acts of the Popes: F/i. Jcf'e, Regesta pontiff. Rom. (to the year 1198). Berol. 1851. 4. — The decretals of the Popes are collected and treated of in the Corpus jur. Canon., ed. Bohmer (Hal. 1747. 2 vols. 4.) and liicliter (Lps. 1833 ss. 4).— />. Cherubim, bullarium Rom. Ed. lY. Rom. 1G72. 5 vols. fol. — C. Cocqiielines, bullarum. privileg. ac diplo- matum ampliss. collectio Rom. 1739. 28 vols. fol. — Barberi, bullar. Magn. (1758-1830), eont. by Ji. Segretus (to 1846). Rom. 1835-47. 14 v^ols. fol. c. Rules of Moxastic Orders : Luc. Rolstaiii codex regularum monastic, et canonic. 4 vols. 4to. Rom. IGCl, auct is a .Var. Brockie. 6 rols. fol. Aug. Yind. 1759. ,e operation of political influences, HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY". 39 fts from time to time they were brought to bear on the history of the (Jliurch. Tlic present work belongs to the class just named, but aims at furnishing fuller details, and more copious extracts from the sources, than the works of Guericke or Lindner. Students of Ecclesiastical History are also under manifidd obligations to the conductors of the " Zeitschrift flir historische Theologie" (Journal of Historical Theo- logy), edited since 1851 by IlUjen, and latterly by Nier developing and carrying out the great work. It must not be imagined, however, that those results of the develop- ment of Judaism and of heathenism were either entirely or generally understood and applied, since human liberty might resist, and shut itself up against these methods which the Lord, in His grace, took for training mankind. A comparatively small portion only of the Jewish and heathen world, elevated above the generality, and feeling their need of salvation, from the first accepted the offer of the Gospel. All the rest shut their minds and hearts to its claims, opposed it tcith more or less pertinacity, and commenced a determined contest against the Church, as soon as it appeared formally constituted. Judaism opposed Christianity, because it attached exclusive value to the husk in which the fruit had ripened to maturity, while it rejected the fruit itself — and, because Jewish pride and exclusivenoss could not brook the idea that the Gospel should place the Gentile on the same level with the Jew. Heathenism opposed the Church because it regarded Divine Wis- dom as folly. Divine Power as deceit, and built itself up in the pride of its human wisdom, in the fanaticism of its unbelief or misbelief, HEATHENISM. 45 &nd in the self-reliance of its power and wealth. This decisive contest, in which the Church was to display, and on which it brouj^ht to bear, the strength and the resources with which the Lord had endowed it, became the more bloody and desperate, as the Church spread and increased despite all persecutions and oppressions, and as both Juda- ism and hoathenism could not but see the certain approach of their final doom. §8. HEATHENISM. Full of native vigor, and surrounded by a nature so lavish in her gifts, mankind soon denied the existence of a living, a per- sonal, and a supra-mundane God. Nature, with her inexhausti- ble fulness of life and of enjoyments, seemed so near, and so much more worthy of devotion and worship than this Personal God, in His supra-mundane elevation. Thus originated heathen- ism— in its general character, a state of absorption in the great life of Nature, a deification, or, in one word, the worship and SERVICE OF Nature (Rom. i. 21, if.), which also conditioned the character of its morality. Heathenism most decidedly prepared the way for the spiritual work of the Church by its intellectual culture, especially its philosophy. But the political state of heathenism, with its struggles after universal dominion, as well as its commercial actimty, likewise proved accessory to the pro- gress of Christianity. 1. The Religious Character of Heathenism. — Those hidden powers in the life of Nature, and of the soul, were not viewed abstractly, but regarded as revelations of the eternal spirit of Nature. Such ideas were further developed by speculation and mysticism, by natural magic and by divination, and applied to all the I'elations of human life. Under the influence of certain prominent individuals, or of geograpihical and ethnographical peculiarities, the various systems of the worship of nature arose in this manner. The common charac- teristics of all these systems, which, indeed, is connected with the very essence of heathenism, consists in a line of demarcation between the esoteric religion of the priests and the exoteric worship of the multitude. The former may be characterized as a sj^eculative and ideal Pantheism ; the latter, as a Polytheism full of myths and ceremonies. Let it not be supposed that heathenism was entirely devoid of every element of truth. Not to mention these remains of original revela- tion in heathenism which, with various f. oerrations from pristine purity, lay at th? foundation of, or were incorporated in, its systems, thcis<< 46 PREPARATORY HISTORY. religions of nature have, in their unnaturally early development, anti- cipated some of those religious truths Avhich, in the arrangement of Divine revelation, only unfolded gradually, and at a comparatively late period. At the same time, hovrever, they have perverted and distorted these truths into falsehoods and caricatures. Among them we reckon, for example, the pantheistic theories concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation, the dualistic perversion of the real existence of evil, traced back to an uncreated principle, etc. To the same class also belongs, more especially, the practice of offering human sacrifices, which prevailed under every form of the worship of nature — a dread- ful, in some sense a prophetic, cry for help on the part of man, con- sciously forsaken by God, and which could only on Golgotha be resolved into hymns of praise and of thanksgiving. The almost incredible deeds of self-devotion and renunciation, such as hecatombs, sacrifices of children, emasculation, prostitution, etc., attest the power and energy with which, in its high-day, the worship of nature had kept hold on the hearts of -its adherents, and show the enthusiasm which it had called forth. Another evidence in the same direction is the almost irresistible charm which, during the whole course of the earlier historj' of Israel, heathenism seems to have had for the chosen race. Even this circumstance proves that heathenism was not merely a lie and a piece of imposition. The worship of nature could not have wielded such power if this lie had not concealed some elements of truth ; the charm which it exercised lay in its anticipations of a future salvation, however Satan might have distorted them ; while the mysterious manifestations of natural magic, and of the power of divination, appeared to confirm its Divine claim. But the fate reserved for every unnatural and premature development also befell the worship of nature. The remains of truth were swallowed up in the gigantic lie; the powers of life and the capacity of development, which had been forced on bej'ond their real strength, were soon used and con- sumed ; the blossoms fell off without giving place to fruit. Mysteries and oraclos, magic and divination, became either empty forms, or the means of gross imposition and low trickery. Ultimately, a haruspex could not meet his fellow without laughing. Among some, unbelief ridiculed everything ; among others, misbelief assumed the most disso- lute or extravagant shapes; while an unthinking religious eclecticism vainly endeavoured to infuse fresh life into decrepid and dying heathen- ism. Most miserable impotence and emptiness — such was the final issue of a worship of nature, once so vigorous and lively. 2. Moral Condi/ion of fJie IlrriiJicn. — The morals of a people always keep pace with their religion. It •is as so witli the heathen nations also, whose moral life was earnest, vigorous, and genuine, or weak, defective, and perverse in measure, as religious earnestness increased or de- creased. The moral defects of heathenism sprang from its religious deficiencies. It was a religion adapted for time, not for eternity ; and H E A T 11 E N I S M . 47 tho gods shared all those failings Avhich are connected with our piesenl state of existence. Thus religion lost all that power by which it ele- vates man above the defilements connected with our present state Myths, Avhich in part were exceedingly immoral in their tendency, sanctified or excused — by the example of the gods — even gross immo- rality. Voluptuousness, which symbolized the generating power in tho divine life of nature, was not unfrequcntly made the centre and the climax of worshi'j. Heathenism wholly ignored the great truths con- nected with the general idea of humanity ; it was only conversant with those connected with nationality, and the excellencies it cultivated were merely civic virtues. Eastern despotism, as well as Western conceit and pride of nationality, slighted the common rights and the dignity of man. A foreigner or a slave had neither position nor claims. As the value of an individual entirely depended on his politi- cal position, the place belonging to woman was wholly ignored or mis- understood. Generally speaking, she was regarded only as the hand- maid of man ; Avhile, in the East, polygamy degraded her to the lowest level. Still, notwithstanding these fundamental and great defects, in the high-day of its vigor, heathenism often displayed considerable moral earnestness and energy, at least in those departments of moral life (such as in the state and in civic relations) which the breath of Pantheism or of Polytheism had not laid desolate. But when the ancestral faith had become empty and powerless, when it ceased to animate and to pervade these departments of life, they also lost the moral dignity formerly attaching to them. The general decadence reached its climax during the degenerate times of the Roman Empe- rors. When the Church entered on its career of spiritual conquest, it found heathenism in a state of indescribable moral degradation. 3. The Infellectnal Culture of iJie Heathen. — The intellectual culture of heathendom exercised a twofold and an opposite influence upon the Church. Partly heathen science and art prepared the Avay for, and formed a link of connection with, Christianity ; partly, it obstructed its progress, and facilitated a relapse into heathenism. To the mental activity of the Greeks and Romans, mankind and the Church are indebted for general culture and for that preparatimi of the way to which we have already adverted. In this respect we would specially point to the philosophy, the poetry, and the historical productions of these nations. The ph'losophical investigations carried "on in the East were chiefly of a theosophic character, and for the purpose of develop- ing the esoteric worship of nature into the various speculative religious systems. Oriental poetry served the same purpose with reference to the exoteric religion of the people. Historical works — in tho proper sense of that term — Avere not produced in the East. -The mental cul- ture of the Greeks and Ptomans, as expressed in their philosophical, poetic, and historical writings, prepared, in respect both of form and of SUBSTANCE, the way for the Christian Church. It furnished forms, 4* t8 PREPARATORY HISTORY. Vihich, from their depth, distinctness, and correctness, their ready adaptation and general suitableness, proved most fit for presenting an(J developing the new truths which were to issue from the Holy Land. It also produced certain ideas and views, derived from a profound con- templation and study both of nature and of mind, of historj' and of life, which, in many respects, even opened the way and prepared a soil for the great realities of salvation. — On the other hand the East, not less than classical antiquity, contributed elements of culture which were to prove a liindrance to, and a corruption in, the Church. The hostile and antichristian, the distinctively heathenish substance of their philosophy and theosophy, as well as their study of mysteries, were by and by introduced into Christianity, along with the forms of culture under which these hostile elements had formerly appeared. Had such attempts against the purity of the Church proved successful, it would have become essentially Pagan. The mysterious depths of Christianity attracted, indeed, heathenism ; but then, to those highly cultivated Gentiles who boasted in the conceit of their sublime wis- dom, the Gospel appeared too simple, too void of philosophy and specu- lation, to meet the demands of the age. Tlicy deemed it necessary to enrich it with the accumulated stores of eastern and Avestern wis- dom, that so it might indeed lay claim to be an absolute and perfect religion. Only classical, i. e., Greek and Roman culture, direcfly yirepared the way for the Church. The influences of Eastern forms of culture on the history of the kingdom of God were entirely confined to Judaism. The si/i)ibols of the East became the form in which the Divine substance, communicated by Old Testament prophets, appeared and developed. On the other hand, the iliaJectirs of classical antiquity furnished an appropriate medium by which to present the truths of Christianity when the symbolic covering of Judaism had been laid aside, and the truths of salvation were to appear in their pure and spiritual character. 4. Greek PhilosnpJn/. — Our remarks about the form and the substance of heathen culture, and their preparatory or disturbing influences on Christianity when it entered on its world-mission, apply more particu- larly to Greek Philosophy. However, even where these speculations prepared the way for the truth, we must distinguish betAveen their merely negatice tendency, which served to destroy heathenism, and the positive, in so far as both in substance and in form they led the way towards Christianity. From the first this negative tendency appeared in Grecian philosophy. It undermined the popular creed, prepared the downfall of idolatry, and led to the self-despair of heathenism, which pointed to Christianity for deliverance. With Socrates [oh. 399 b. c.) commenced the positive preparation for the truth, accomplished by Greek philosophy. If, in deep humility, he confessed his ignorance, if he based all wisdom on " Know Thyself," if he traced his deepest U E A T H E N I S Al , 49 thouglits and motives to Divine suggestions (his ^a'.fioviov), if he wil- lingly surrendered the enjoyments of this w;nld, and expressed a con- fident hope in that which was spiritual and eternal, — we may be allowed to regard all such expressions as, in a certain aonse, the faint echoes, or, rather, as the prophetic anticipations, of Christian doctrine and life. The speculations of Plato even more closely and fully approximated Christian views. That philosopher {ob. 348) collected the scattered germs of his great predecessor's teaching. In his profound, specula- tive, and poetic mind, they sprung up and unfolded to a new mode of contemplating the world, which came nearer that of Christianity than any other system outside revelation. The philosophy of Plato spake of man as claiming kindred to the Deity, and led him beyond what is seen and sensuous to the eternal prototypes of the beautiful, the true, and the good, from which man had fallen ; thus awakening in him a deep longing for the blessings he had lost. If the system of Aristotle {ob, 322) was farther distant from Christianity than that of Plato, he ren- dered even greater service by presenting his views in a form of which Christian science afterwards made so large use in its inquiries and dog- matic statements. These two thinkers represent the climax of philo- sophic speculation among the Greeks, and the farthest limits within which inquiries like theirs could prepare the way for the Gospel. As, consciously or unconsciouslj^ philosophy had formerly contributed to the decay of popular religion, it now entered on a process of self-de- struction, and with increasing clearness disclosed the utter helplessness of heathenism. This phase appears most distinctly in the three forms of philosophy which, at the time when the Church appeared on the stage of the world, claimed the most numerous adherents : we mean, Epicureanism, S/oicism, and S/xepiicisiii. In the philosophy of Epicu- rus [ob. 271), pleasure was considered the highest good. The world was left at the mercy of chance, the soul was represented as mortal, and the gods as enjoying their pleasures, entirely careless of this world. In opposition to Epicurean Deism, Stoicism (of which Zeiio, ob. 260, was the founder) propounded a peculiar kind of Pantheism, in which the affairs of the Avorld were made to depend on the unavoidable neces- sities of fate. Meantime the world was hastening towards a great catas- trophe, from the flames of which a new world was to issue, which, in turn, was destined to describe a similar cycle. To despise pleasure and pain, and, in case of necessity, to put an end to an existence which had missed its aim — such was the climax of wisdom. The sage, who had reached this elevation, from which he could command himself and the world, had become his own god, and found all satisfaction in him- self. Lastly, Scepticism (of which Arresilaiis, ob. 240, and Carneades, ob. 128, were the founders) appeared to controvert the principles of Stoicism. Since it was manifestly impossible to ai'rive at truth, this system placed the sum and substance of theoretical wisdom in refrain- 5 D 50 PREPARATORY HISTORY. ing {irtoxrj) from every conclusion ; and that of practical wisdom in abstaining from all passion, and from every strong emotion. 5. Political Condition of Heathen Countries. — The leading tendency in heathenism — to procure salvation by the unaided power of man — implied an endeavour to combine every force and capacity into a colossal unity (Gen. xi. 4, 6). When heathenism had renounced allegiance to the personal and living God, and rejected His method of salvation and of union, it was impelled, by a kind of inward necessity, to con- centrate the mental and physical powers of mankind, and through them all powers of nature, and the products of the various zones and coun- tries, and to subject them to one person, that so this person might be acknowledged as the personal and visible representative of the Deity, This felt necessity gave 7-i.s-e to, even as its perverseness led to the ruin of, one empire after the other, until, in the Roman Empire, the goal was reached, while, at the same time, this tendency was finally arrested and destroyed by the spiritual power of the kingdom of God (Dan. ii. 14; vii. 13, 24). This aim after a universal empire has, as all the tendencies of hea- thenism, its twofold aspect ; and we must distinguish between the ways of man and those of God, between the ungodly purposes of man and the happy results to Avhich, in the Divine government, they Avere made subservient. Although we only refer to the Roman Empire, it should be borne in mind that all the great monarchies were only a repetition and a more vigorous continuation of one and the same tendency and endeavour. Hence our remarks about Rome equally apply to other empires. The universal domination of one power prepared the way for the Church, in so far as, by the union of nations into one empire, the various stages and elements of civilization, Avhich otherwise might have remained isolated, were combined into a more universal civiliza- tion, which rendered it comparatively easy to circulate the fresh blood poured by the Church into the veins of nations. This union, which was first brought about by the conquests of Alexander the Great, was completed when Rome became the mistress of the world. Gradually the Greek language, which, when the Gospel was first preached, was understood and spoken throughout the Roman Empire, obtained uni- versal domination, — as it were a temporary suspension this of the judgment by which languages were confounded, and which indicated the rise of heathenism (Gen. xi.), — that thus the return to God, and the reception of His Gospel, might be facilitated. Impelled by a principle similar to that which, in the state, led to attempts after concentration of power. Industry and Commerce sought to grasp all wealth. But while, for very different purposes than those of the Gospel, commerce opened ways through deserts and over seas, and joined the most distant countries and zones, without knowing or willing it, in the arrangement of God it served an important purpose for thp diffusion of the ";lad tidings. JUDAISM. 51 §9. JUDAISM. Israel was jiade tJ dwell in a country which, like its people, occupied a central and yet isolated position in the Old World. There, in quiet seclusion, undisturbed by the traffic of the nations, should it, as the bearer and medium of tlie revelation of God's grace to mankind, al)ide in security against all the agitations of heathen conquest and oppression. Too often, however, did Israel forget its proper position and calling, too often mix in with affairs of the world wliich did not concern it ; too often backslid from God, and stoop to the religion, worj^hip, and manners of adjacent heathen tribes. Hence its frequent chastisements under the hard yoke of Gentile invaders. But the holy seed which continued faithful, even in times of the most general defection ; and, above all,tlie patience and faithfulness of God, did not sutt'er its high vocation to be forfeited, but led the nation to a glorious end, notwithstanding the tinal rejection of salvation by the irre- ligious masses of the people. 1. Judaism under Special Diciiie Tuition and Discipline. — Abraham was chosen and called alone (Isa. li. 2). As Creator, God called the seed of promise from the dead body of Sarah ; as Saviour, He delivered the chosen race from the oppressive bondage of Egypt. The patri- archal family was constituted in the Holy Laud ; while in order that the family might, unimpeded, develop into a great nation, it had to go down into Egypt. From this strange land^¥o6'eA' brought up the people, and gave them a theocratic constitution, laws, and worship, to serve as the means by which they were to fulfil their mission, and to be types of, and a schoolmaster unto, future perfectness (Gal. iii. 24 ; Heb. x. 1). The Exodus from Egypt constituted the birth of the nation ; by the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, Israel was set apart to be a holy nation. When, under the leadership of Joshua, the Israelites took possession of the home of their ancestors — a country adapted for the purposes which the people were to serve — the last condition of their independent existence was fulfilled. Under the fostering care of a devout priesthood, the purely popular institutions of the theocracy should now have borne rich fruit ; but, during the administration of the judges, it soon appeared that these appliances were insufficient, and two other agencies were called into operation. The proplietiral office was a special but continuous institution, intended to serve as the month-piece of God, and to act as the conscience of the commonwealth ; while the royal office was designed to afford external security, and to bestow internal peace upon the theocracy. Then followed the con- d2 preparatory history. quests of David, which gave the Jewish commonwealth a becoming political importance, while the temple of Solomon fully developed ita typical worship. But, despite prophetism and royalty, the people became increasingly estranged from their peculiar destiny, and hence unable to maintain their high position. The division of the kingdom, continued internal feuds, improper alliances, growing apostasy, and conformity to idolatry, brought after them Divine judgments, 'n conse. quence of which the nation became subject to the heathen. These chastisements remained not altogether unimproved. Cyrus allowed the return of the captives, and their reorganization into a state ; and pro- phets were again commissioned to direct the formation and the develop- ment of the community. — Amid these occurrences, prophecy served not only for present instruction, reproof, and admonition, but kept before the public mind the promise of a coming salvation, thus supply- ing comfort and hope even in the most troublous times. The happy periods, when David had conquered and Solomon exercised his glorious sway of peace, served as basis for depicting the future transcendent glory of Messiah's kingdom ; while the aberrations, the sufferings, and the humiliation of the people, during the period of their decadence, led those who cherished such hopes to look for a Messiah who should suffer for the sins of the people, and take upon Himself all their misery. And, when prophetism had done the work allotted, it ceased — to resume and complete its message when the fulness of time had come, 2. Judaism after the Cessation of Special Divine Tuition. — The period had now arrived when the immediate guidance of Divine revelation was to be withdrawn. Furnished with the results and experiences of former teaching, followed by the law as schoolmaster, and by prophetic prediction as by a lamp, the chosen race was now to give evidence of its calling. The annihilation with which the fanaticism of Antiochus Epiphanes threatened the Jewish commonwealth was happily averted, and under the Maccabees the nation once more obtained political inde- pendence. But, amid the increasing corruption of the Maccabean i-ulers, the intrigues of Rome again deprived the country of this boon. The religious persecutions of the Syrians, and, after them, the oppres- sion of the Romans, transformed the national feeling of attachment to their ancestral religion into extreme exclusiveness, fanatical hatred and proud contempt of everything foreign, and changed the former longing for the Messiah to merely political, extravagant, and carnal expectations. True piety decayed into petty legalism and ceremonial- ism, into works and self-righteousness. The priests and scribes Avere zealous in fostering this tendency, by increasing external ordinances and perverting the sense of Scripture ; thus rendering the mass of the people only more insusceptible to the spirituality of that salvation, ft'hich was now so near at hand. T n E S A iM A R I T A N S . 53 The institution of synagogues proved of great imjwrtance for the development of Judaism daring the period succeeding the return from Babylon. They owed their origin to the consciousness that, after the cessation of prophecy, it was both desirable and duty, not only to con- tinue the symbolical services of the temple, but also to seek edification by a careful study of the truths -which God had revealed in the law and by the prophets. But in these synagogues the tendency to enlarge the Mosaic law, and to hedge it about by rabbinical enactments, the aim after an'external legalism and work-righteousness, national pride and carnal anticipations of Messianic times were nursed, and from them they spread among the body of the people. On the other hand, the synagogues, especially those out of Palestine (among the Diaspora), proved, from their missionary influence, of great use to the Church. These meetings, in which the Holy Sci'iptures of the Old Testament were, every Sabbath, read in the Greek version of the LXX. and explained, offered to the heathen, who felt their need of salvation, pre- cious opportunities of becoming acquainted with the revelation and the promises of God under the Old Covenant ; while to the first mes- sengers of the Gospel they afi'orded an opportunity of announcing the Gospel to numerous assemblages, composed of Jews and Gentiles. The strict, traditional, exclusive, and carnal direction of Judaism was more particularly represented and developed by the sect of the Pharisees. To them the Sadducees were opposed, who, estranged from the pecu- liar genius of the people and hostile to traditionalism, sympathized with the Romans and the Herodians — in theory Rationalists, in prac- tice Epicureans. A third sect, that of the EssInes, consisted of a close association of men, who retired from the world in order to carry out the original idea of Moses concerning the priesthood (Ex. xix. 5. 6), and whose direction was that of mysticism and ascetism. As each of these three parties (the orthodox, the rationalistic, and the mystical)- represented more or less unhealthy aberrations from genuine Judaism, they could not prepare the way for the Church, but either occupied a position of antagonism, or else sought to introduce dangerous corrup- tions {I 48). But with all these perverse and growing tendencies, a holy seed of genuine spirituality remaiiied in obscurity and retirement (John i. 47 ; Luke i. G ; ii. 25, 38) — a soil this, prepared by the Lord for receiving the salvation offered by Christ. I 10. THE SAMARITANS. CoMP. Th. Chr. J. Juynhole, Comm. in hist, genti Samarit. Lugd. Bat. 184G, 4to. — Jos. Grimm, die Samarater u. ihre Stellung in d. Welti- gesch. Munch. 1854. The Samaritans originated at the time of the Captivity, •"rooi a mixture of Jewish and heathen elements. After the 54 PREPARATORY HISTORY. return from the Babylonian exile, they wished to amalgamate with the Jews ; but their overtures wei-e rejected on account of the heathen defilements which the Samaritans had contracted. The reformatory labours carried on among them by ilfana.sse, a Jewish refugee, who sought to purify their religion, and to base it on the Pentateuch (of which the text, however, was in some particulars purposely altered), and who gave them a temple and worship on Mount Gerizim, only served to increase the hatred of the Jews. The Samaritans kept by the Judaism which Manasse had brought among them, and remained equally strangers to the developments and the perversions of Rabbinism. Their Mes- sianic hopes were consequently more pure and their exclusive- ness less violent. These circumstances enabled them more impartially to examine the claims of Christianity ; while the hatred and contempt with which Pharisaical Judaism treated them, disposed them more favourably towards the Gospel, which was likewise disowned and persecuted by the synagogue (John iv. 41 ; Acts viii. 5 etc.). On the other hand, Chris- tianity also suffered from the attempts at change and reaction made by that party, in the spirit of the heathen principle of eclecticism, which was inherent to Samaritanism from its com- mencement (§ 22). ^ 11. COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM. The conquests of Alexander the Great brought the various elements of civilization in tlie ancient world into contact and connection. The Jews (of the Diaspora) who lived beyond the limits of Palestine, especially those who resided in Egypt, which was really the focus of this movement, were necessarily affected by the influences brought to bear upon them. The Jews of Eastern Asia maintained more intimate fellowship with the ex- clusive Rabbinism of Palestine ; and the heathen (Chaldaic-Per- sian) elements which there invaded their religions views and customs, became, mainly through the Talmud, the common pro- perty of Judaism as it existed after Christ. — But the heathen, also, contemptible as they mostly seemed to the Jews, having become convinced of the profound truths of the Israelitish sys- tem, and of the emptiness and impotence of their own religion, yielded, in exceptional, but by no means rare, cases, to the better influences of Judaism. JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM. 55 1. Influence of Heathenism upon Judaism. — This operated most power- fully in Eijypt. Thus the sect of the Essenes, which had found its wa\ thither, underwent various modifications, and, under the name of T/ierapeitke, occupied an influential position. The Jewish Hellenism of Alexandria embodied the main principles of this party ; enlarged, however, by elements of Grecian culture, and reared on a broader basi^, chiefly of Platonic philosophy. Of this school Arisiobulns (slj^^^dftjj riji Miouaftos ypa^rji, about the year 175), the author of "the Book of Wisdom," and the Alexandrian Jew Fhilo {ob. 39, a. d.), were the principal representatives. Ilis Platonism is peculiarly modified by Old Testament elements, and by Essene and therapeutic views. Hence his speculations have served as the ground-work of heathen Neo-Platonism, of the Jewish Cabbala, of Gnosticism, and even of the philosophy of some of the Fathers. He taught that originally all nations had ob- tained some knowledge of Divine truth, but that Moses alone had been the founder of true philosophy ; that the legislation and teaching of Mosaism was the source whence Grecian philosophy and Grecian mys- teries had drawn their inspiration. The deep things of Scripture could only be understood by means of allegorical interpretation. God was rb bv, and matter to /nrj liv ; the xoa/xoi vorjroi was an intermediate world (corresponding to Plato's world of ideas), and consisted of innu- merable spirits and potencies (angels and souls of men), which, viewed in their unity, and as proceeding from the Word of God — the %6yoi n'Sta^froj which from all eternity had been in God — had in creation come forth fi-om God — the Jioyoj rtpo^opta:oj (thought and word). The visible world was an imitation of the xou/toj voritoi, — imperfect, however, on account of the physical incapability of the Hi/le, etc. 2. Influence of Judaism upon Heathenism. — Generally speaking, heathen nations extended toleration to Judaism. Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies, and in part the SeleucidjB also, accorded them the free exercise of their religion, and even certain privileges. Rome recog- nized Judaism as a " religio licita." Still the Jews were, for the most part, despised and hated by the heathen (Tac. calls them, " despectis- sima pars servlentinm, — teterrima -d, Vers, uber den Plan, den d. Stifter d. christl. Rel. zum Besten d. Menschen ent- warf (Essay on the Plan which the Founder of Christianity devised for the Welfare of Man). 5th ed. by Eeuhuer. Wittenb. 1830. K. Base, Leben Jesu (Life of Jesus). Leipz 1829. 4th ed. 1854.— E. Fr. Sfianss, d. Leben Jesu krit. bearb. Tllb. 1835. 2 vols. 4th ed. 1840. — C. H. Weisse, die ev. Gesch. krit. u. philos. bearb. (Evangel. Hist, treated critically and philosophically). Leipz. 1838. 2 vols. — A. F. Gfrorer, Gesch. d. Urchristenthmus (Hist, of Origin. Christianity). Stuttg. 1838. 3 vols, in 5 parts. — C. F. v. Ammon, die Gesch. d. Lebens Jesu. Leipz. 1842-47. 3 vols. — Br. Baver, Kritik. d. evang. Gesch. d. Synopt. (Crit. of the Evang. Hist, of the Synopt.). Leipz. 1841. 3 vols. A. Kcander. das Leben Jesu (trans, in Bohn's Series, London 1852). — O. Knilibe, Vorlesungen li. d. Leben Jesu. Hamb. 1849. — J. P. Lange, das Leben Jesu. 3 vols. Heidelberg 1847. — .4. Thohick, d. Glaub- jTurdigkeit d. ev. Gesch. (the Credibility of Gospel Hist.). 2d ed. JESUS CHRIST THE SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD. 59 ilamb. 1838. — /. H. A. Ebrard, wissensch. Kritik d. ev. Gescli. (Scien- tific Crit. of Ev. Hist.). 2(1 ed. Erlang. 1850. — Z'. Wieseler, ahvonol. Synopse d. 4 Ev. (Cbronol. Synopsis of the Four Gospels). Hamb. 1843. I 14. JESUS CHRIST THE SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD. "When the fulness of time was come, God sent forth His Son, made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons" fGal. iv. 4, 5). According to promise, the Son of David was born at Bethlehem. After John the Bajotid, the greatest and last of the Old Testament prophets, had, by the preaching and the Imptism of repentance, prepared Plis way, Jesus commenced, when about tliirty years old, that glorious work in which He fulfilled the law and the prophets. Accompanied by twelve chosen disciples. He ])a.-se(l through Palestine, everywhere proclaiming the kingdom of Gild, helping, healing, and confirming by signs and miracles both His Divine mission, and the doctrine about His person, office, and kingdom. The Pharisees gainsayed and persecuted Him ; the Sadducees discarded Him ; while the people alternated between hailing and rejecting Him. After continuing in this work for three years. He made solemn entrance into the city of His royal ancestors amidst the acclamations of the people. But manydaj-s had not elapsed, when the same multitude, disappointed in their hopes of a political and temporal Messiah, cried out, " Crucify Him, crucify Him ! " Thus, according to the good pleasure of the P'ather, He died on the cross, a sacrifice for the sins of the world. By His suffering, the God-man procured a righteous- ness of infinite and eternal value, in virtue of which, whosoever in faith appropriates it, has all his sins forgiven, and is justified before God. But death could not hold the Prince of life. He burst the gates of Hades and the bonds of the grave, and on the third day rose with glorified body. Thus has He brought life and immortality to light, that we also might in Him share the same. For forty days He still continued on earth, subject to the limitations of humanity. He promised to His disciples the gift of the Holy Ghost, and set them apart to preach the Gospel to all nations. Then He again took unto Himself His Divine form, which He had put off in His incarnation, ascended into heaven, where, as God-man, He now sitteth at the right hand of power — the Almighty and ever-present Head of the Church, the Lord of all. whether in heaven or on^ earth, and who at the completion 5* 60 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l — 100 A. D.) . of all things, shall return to this earth, visibly, and in I[is own and His Father's glory. 1. Despite many learned and ingenious inquiries into the subject, it has as yet been impossible exactly to fix either the year of Chrisfs birth, or that of His death. In the Christian era, which was proposed by JJionysiim Exiguus in the 6th cent., adopted by Beda Venerabilis, and introduced into common use by Pepin and Charlemagne, the year 754 after the building of Rome is assumed as the starting-point. But this is manifestly erroneous, as Herod the Great died (750 or) 751 p. U. c. Sandementius (de vulg. aeras emendatione, Romge 1793) on historical grounds, and Fr. Munter (der Stern der Weisen — the Star of the Wise Men — Copenh. 1827) on astronomical grounds, fix on the year 7 before our era as that of Christ's birth; Wieseler {tit supra) on the year 4, Seyjfarth (Chronol. s. Leipz. 1846) on the year 2, Weigl (theol. chronol. Abhandl. liber d. wahre Geburts- u. Sterbejahr J. Chr., Sulzb. 1849) on the year 5, before the present era. Many of the Fathers, appealing to Isa. Ixi. 1, 2, and Luke iv. 19, supposed that Christ had only taught during o)ie year, and hence that (Luke iii. 23) He was crucified in the 30th year of His life. But although the synoptic Gospels speak of only one (the last) passover during the ministry of Christ, John (ii. 13 ; vi. 4 ; xxii. 23) refers to three such feasts, and besides (v. 1) to a io^tri t^v 'loD^attor. 2. Among genuine non-biblical testimonies about Christ, probably the most ancient is a Syriac letter of Mara, addressed to his son Sera- pion (see Cureton, Spicil. Syriacum. Lond. 1855), written about the year 73. Mara, a man thoroughly versed in Greek philosophy, but not satis- fied with the consolations it offered, writes from his place of exile a letter of comfort and instruction to his son, in which he ranks Christ along with Socrates and Pythagoras ; he honours Him as a wise king ; he chai'ges the Jews with His murder, declares that thereby thej^ had brought upon themselves the destruction of their commonwealth, but tliat Christ continued to live in the new law which He had given. From the same period dates the testimony of Jo.sephii.s, the Jewish his- torian. In that portion of the passage of Josephus which is undoubt- tedly genuine, Christ is extolled as having wrought miracles, and been a wise teacher of truth ; His death on the cross under the administra- tion of Pilate, and the foundation of the Church, are also mentioned. F. H. Schoedel, (Vindicije Flaviana;, Lps. 1840) has contended for the i^xnuineness of the lohole passage in Josephus. The following, how- .*er, are spurious records : 1 ) the Syriac correspondence between Christ «,nd Abgariis, King of Edessa, in which the latter entreats the Lord to vr 1851. IV.) 4. The vwiyoj axr;^i of Celsus is in great part preserved in the reply by Origen. That writer introduces first a Jew, who disputes the aecGunts furnished in the Gospels ; then a heathen philosopher, who 04 SKCTION I. FIRST PERIOD (lOO— ;;23 A. D.). fchows the absurdity both of .Tudaism and of Christianity. Origen identifies the writer as Celsus the Epicurean, about the year 150 ; but from his own remarks, he appears rather to have been an eclectic phi- losopher. His polemics are acute but superficial, sarcastic but disho- nest. According to him, Christ was a common Goeta. — Porphyry wrote fifteen books xatk Xptanavwi'. He was desirous of proving that there were contradictions in the Bible, ransacked the dispute between Paul and Peter in Gal. ii., declared that the prophecy of Daniel was a "vaticinium post eventum," and challenged the allegorical interpreta- tions of Christians. He was also the author of a system of heathen (Neo-Platen.) theology [Ix tCjv Xoyi^ov ^aoao^U). Of both Avorks only fragments have been preserved. — Hierocles (2 books of Xoyot. ^aa^ij- >fi;) only repi'oduced shameless falsehoods about Christ and Christians, and placed Jesus far below ApoUonius of Tyana. ? 25. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. Amid the many persecutions through which the Church had to pass during that period, the Gospel rapidly spread through- out the whole Roman empire, and even beyond its limits. So early as 110, Abgar Bar Many, a Christian prince, reigned at Edesi^a, the capital of the kingdom of Osrhoene, in Mesopota- mia. At the same period Christianity had found a lodgment in Persia, Media, Bactria, and Parthia. In the third century it had spread to Armenia. The Apostle Thomas is said to have already carried the Gospel to India. In Arabia, Paul had laboured (Gal. i. It). In the third century Origen was called to that country by a riyovasvoi rr^c, 'Apaf3taj, who wished to be in- structed in Christianity. On another occasion he went thither in order to settle an ecclesiastical dispute (§ 40, 5). From Alexandria (§ It) the Gospel also spread to other countries of Africa — to Cyrene, and among the Goi^yta (the aboriginal Egyp- tians). The Church of Proconsular Africa, especially that of Cartha'je, its capital, was in a vigorous, thriving slate, and kept up close communication with Rome. In the third century Mau- ritania and Numidia numbered so many Christian communities that Cyprian could collect at Carthage a synod of eighty-seven bishops. Rome remained the central point for the Church in Europe. Colonies and teachers from Asia Minor formed in Gaul a number of flourishing churches (such as those of Lugdu- num, Vienna, etc.). At a later period seven missionaries from Italy arrived in Gaul. Among them, Si. Dioni/.sius founded the Church at Parin Among the Roman colonies in the countries SURVEY. 95 of the Rhine and of the Danube, flourishing churches existed so eai'Iy as in the third century. The insufficiency and the decay of heathenism were the negative, the DiV'ue power of the Gospel the positive, means by which the Gos pel spread with such astonishing rapidity. This Divine power mani fested itself in the zeal and self-denial of Christian teachers and mis- sionaries, in the saintly walk and conversation of Christians, in the depth of their brotherly love, in the unshaken steadfastness and confi- dence of their faith, — above all, in the joyousness with which they met martyrdom under the most exquisite tortures. The blood of martyrs was the seed of the Church ; and not unfrequently did it happen that the executioners of Christian martyrs immediately followed them in similarly suffering for the Gospel. — In special instances, miracles and signs — the echoes of the apostolic ago — may have led to analogous results. This is borne out by the evidence of men such as Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen, who in confirmation appeal to heathen eye-witnesses. II. DANGERS ACCRUING FROM A LEAVEN OF JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM REMAINING IN THE CHURCH. §26. SURA^EY. Of almost greater danger to tlie Church than even the direct hostility and persecution of Jews and pagans, were certain Jewish and heathen elements imported into the Christian com- munity. The unspiritual, unbending, and narrow formalism of the one, and the ungodly, antichristian tendency of the other, not only reappeared, but claimed equal standing with what really and distinctively was Christian. The attempt to force Christianity into tlie narrow-minded particularism of the Syna- gogue produced Ebionism ; the desire to amalgamate with Christianity Grecian and Oriental theosophy introduced Gnosfi- cism. These two directions were also combined into a Gnostic Ebionism, — a system for which the doctrines of the Essenes served as point of transition and connecting link. — The Church had to put forth all its energies in order to defend itself against this dangerous admixture of other creeds, and to clear its soil from weeds which spread so rapidly. What of antichristian Judaism had int uded was speedily overcome and cast out 96 SECTION I. — FIRST P E R I 0 D .(lOO— 323 A. D.). Bat much more difficult was the contest with Gnosticism ; and although the Church ultimately succeeded in uprooting on its own soil these weeds, many of their seeds were for centuries secretly preserved, and sometimes of a sudden sprung up into fresh crops. However, these contests also brought blessings to the Church ; from them it issued with views more enlarged and liberal, with the deep conviction that scientific culture was necessary for its theology, and prepared by victory, for new struggles. Gnosticism must ultimately be traced to a peculiar and powerful tendency inherent in many minds during the first centuries. A deep conviction that the old world had run its course, and was no longer able to resist the dissolution which threatened it, pervaded the age. It also impelled many, by a syncretism the boldest and grandest that history has recorded — we mean, by the amalgamation of the various elements of culture, which hitherto had been isolated and heteroge- neous— to make a last attempt at renovating what had become anti- quated. While under one aspect this tendency was intended to oppose Christianit}^ (by Neo-Platonism), under another the Church itself was drawn into the vortex, and by an amalgamation of Oriental theosophy, of Grecian theosophy, and of Christian ideas, a widely ramified system of most extravagant religious philosophy came forth from the crucible of this peculiar kind of speculation. This system bore the general name of Gnosticism. Various sects of Gnostics viewed the Scriptures in a diiferent manner. Some, by means of allegorical interpretations, sought to base their system on the Bible. Others preferred to decry the apostles as having falsified the original Gnostic teaching of Christ, to attempt recasting the apostolic writings in accordance with their own views, or by Gnostic spurious writings to make up a Bible after their own fashion. The teaching of primitive sages, handed down by tradition as secret doctrine, they placed above Sacred Writ. — Gnostic speculation husied itself with stick questions as the origin of the world and of evil, or the purpose, means, and goal of the development of the world. To solve these problems the Gnostics borrowed from heathen- ism its theory about the origin of the world, and from Christianity the idea of salvation. All Gnostic systems are based on a kind of Dual- ism of God and of matter (vX*;). Only that some, with the Platonists, regarded matter as unreal (having no real existence) and Avithout form (= ^)j w), hence as not directly hostile and opposed to the Deity; while others, in accordance with the views of the Parsees, supposed it to be animated and ruled by an evil principle, and hence to be directly opposed and hostile to the Good Deity. The theogonic and cosmogonic process was explained on the principle of an emanation (rtpo/SoXr;), by ^vhich from the hidden God a long series of Divine formations (atiLrfj) EBIONISM AND EBIONITE GNOSIS. 97 had emanated, whose indwelling Divine potency diminished in mea- sure as they removed from the original Divine Source. These ^ons are represented as being the media of the creation, development, and redemption of the world. The original matter from which the world was created consisted of a mixture of elements, derived partly from the kingdom of light (the rt%r^puy.a), and partly from the Hyle {vatspt~/^a, ;tfi'"M*)- This mixture was diiferently represented as brought about naturally, by the fall or by a contest. The tcorld was created by one of the lowest and weakest ^ons, called the 6>i^toDpyoi. Creation is the preparation and the commencement of redemption. But as the Demiurgos cannot and will not accomplish the latter, one of the highest ^ons appears in the fulness of time as Redeemer, in order to accomplish the deliverance of the captive elements of light by the imparting of yt/wuij. As matter is in itself evil, the {pneumatic) Saviour had only an apparent body, or else at baptism descended into the psychical Messiah, whom the Demiurgos had sent. The death on the cross was either only an optical delusion, or the heavenly Christ had left the man Jesus and returned to the Pleroma, or else lie had given His form to another person (Simon of Cyrene), so that the latter was crucified instead of Jesus (Docctism). According as the pleromaticor the hylic element prevails, the souls of men are naturally t'lthev pneu- matic, and in that case capable of yvuxjij ; psychic, when they cannot attain beyond Ttiarii ; or hylic, — the latter class comprising the great mass of men who, left in hopeless subjection to the powers of Satan, only follow their own lusts. Salvation- consists in overcoming and eliminating matter, and is accomplished through knowledge (yruxrtj) and asceticism. As it was believed that matter was tlie seat of evil, sanctijication was sought physically rather than ethically, arid thought to consist in resisting matter and abstaining from material enjoy- ments. Hence originally the system implied an exceedingly strict code of morals, but, in point of fact, frequently became the very oppo- site, and degenerated into Antinomianism and Libertinism. This is partly explained from the low views entertained by some about the law of the Demiurgos, and partly by the not uncommon occurrence of a sect passing from one extreme to another. ^27. EBIONISM AND EBIONITE GNOSIS. CoMP. Gie.feler, Nazaraer und Ebioniten, in the kirchl. hist. Arch IV. 2; Credner, EssUer und Ebioniten, in Wi)ier's Zeitschr. I. 2. — A. Schlie- mann, die Clementinen u. der EbiOnitismus. Ilamb. 1841 ; A. HiJgenfeld, d. clement. Recognitt. u. Ilomilien. Jen. 1848 ; G. Chlhorn, d. Homilien u. Recogn. d. Clemens Rom. Gottg. 1854; — also, Hilyenfeld, das Ur- christenthum (Orig. Christian.). .Jena 1855 ; and the same author's JUdische Apokalyptik. Jena 1857. — • D. Chwolsohn, die Ssabier u. d. Ssabisraus. St. Pctersb. 1856, 2 Bde. 9 a 98 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. P. ). Those Jewish Christians who, after the destruction of Jerusa- lem, continued in ecclesiastical separation from their Gentile brethren, either formed a separate sect or fell into open heresy. The former bore the name of Nazarenes, the latter that of Ehion- ites. These designations, however, were at first not exclusively applied to each of these parties, and their distinctive use dates from a later period. In the sect of the Elkesaife.^ or Sampi.vniJi(vfi ('D3 7'n)- But there is probalily some T misunderstanding about this statement. The sect rather appealed to the Holv Ghost ('D^ 7'n) <'^s their teacher, and po.'^se.^sed a book foi K B I O N I S ,M AND E B I 0 N 1 T E G .\ i> S I S . 99 the initiated, whicli bore tlie same title. Their doctrines were a mix- ture of Essene, Jewish, heathen, naturalistic, and Christian elements. The law — especially that of the Sabbath and of circumcision — was held to be binding; but they rejected sacriiices. They practised fre- quent ablutions, both for the forgiveness of sins and for the cure of dis- eases. In the Lord's Supper bread and salt were used. The use of flesh was forbidden ; but marriage was allowed. Christ was regarded as being the Son of God by the Virgin. Next to Him they placed the Ilvsiua aytov, in the form of a female figure. The Elkesaites inhabited the eastern shores of the Dead Sea. According to Epiphanius, they were the same as the Sampseaus = 'Hxiaxoi. — More recent investiga- tions [Chwolsohn, I.e.) render it probable that they are identical with the Zabians or Mandceans of the present day. Mediaeval Arabic wri- ters call 4hese Zabians (from ^^^^ = }j2\D' ^Mtn^tuv, to wash) Moytasilah, i. e., those who wash themselves. They mGx\t\oi\ EI chasaich as their founder, Avho taught two principles (the male and female). The earlier view of the original identity of the Zabians with the ancient Hemerobaptists and Disciples of John, may still be retained (^ 22) ; for the latter may easily have laid the basis for the formation of the sect of Elkesaites, and have perpetuated their Gnostic dualistic elements through Elkesai. 4. The Pseudo-Clemextine System originated in the latter half of the second century. It was derived from a didactic work of fiction which, however, claims to be regarded as a true story. Clemens Ro- 7nnnus, a noble Roman, philosophically educated, had, from a desire after information, travelled to the East, where he met with Peter, and became the companion of his missionary journeys. The peculiar doc- trinal views of the work are gathered from the sermons and the discus- sions of Peter; the historical romance is elaborated in the scenes of recognition and conversion of the father, the mother, and the brothers of Clement. Peter is brought forward as the representative of what is alleged to have been genuine and original Christianity ; Simon Magus, his antagonist, represents every form of supposed spurious Christianity, from his own teaching and that of his adherents (§ 42, 1) to that of the Apostle Paul, according to whom the law was abolished in Christ, and that of Marcion, according to whom the Creator of the world was not the Supreme God (§49,10). The alleged motive for the composition of the book is this, that Peter, the founder and first bishop of the Church at Rome, had, shortly before his death, appointed Clement his successor, and enjoined him to intimate this to James in Jerusalem, as the head of the Church, so as to obtain his acknowledgment. — The Pseudo- Clementine romance is preserved in various modifications. The two oldest forms of it are — 1) the Homilice XX. Clementis (the first com- plete ed. by M. Dressel. Giittg. 1853), in Greek; and 2) the Recogni- tiones Clementis, in a Latin translation by Rufinus, in which the histo- rical and romantic element is further carried out, while the doctrinal 100 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). part is less full and somewhat expurgated. ScJdiemann regarded the Recognitioues as a later revisal of the Homilies ; Hilgenfeld arrived at an opposite conclusion ; VhUiorn modifies the statement of Schlie- viann, and supposes that the Homilies themselves were recast after some original work, and that both the latter and the Homilies had been used in the composition of the Recognitiones. — The Si/sfeiii nfihe Cle- mentine Hotnilies is based on Stoic Pantheism combined with Jewish Theism, and proceeds on the supposition that genuine Christianity was exactly identical with genuine Judaism. The author discovers some elements of truth and others of error in all the principal modifications of Christian, of Jewish, and of heretical religion. He controverts the popular belief and the philosophy of the heathen, the sacrificial worship of the Jews, the Chiliasm of the Ebionites, the ecstatic prophetism of the Montanists, the hypostatic Trinitarianism of the Catholics, the Demiurgos, the Docetism, and the Antinomianism of the Gnostics. From the Ebionite system he adopts his idea of the identity of Judaism with Christianity ; with the Essenes, he agrees in insisting on absti- nence from meats, frequent fasts, ablutions, and voluntary poverty (but he recommends early marriages) ; with the Catholics, as to the rccessity of baptism for the forgiveness of sins, etc. According to this writer, God is pure existence {avdrtavsti), originally a unity of body and soul. He reveals Himself as the Living One by expansion and con- traction [exraaui and ovaro'Krj, of which we have a representation in the heart of man). By this process the world was created, when the IJvsvjxa [ao^ta) and the aCj/xa [vX*]) were separated and placed in antago- nism. Thus the Monas became a Dya», forming the first Syzygia (union) of antagonisms, which was followed by others, consisting of the Divine and the non-Divine (in nature : heaven and earth, day and night, light and darkness, life and death, etc. ; among men: Adam and Eve, and after that, in inverse order, Cain and Abel, Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob). Satan had originated from an ungodly mixture of the four elements. Adam was the primal prophet who had already possessed perfect and absolute truth. In order to stem the growing corruption, Adam appeared under difi'erent names and forms, but always bringing one and the same truth. Thus he reappeared in Abel, in Enoch, in Noah, in Abraham, in Isaac, in Jacob, in Moses, and at last in Christ. But along with these revelations prophets of falsehood also came. Thus John the Baptist was the counterpart of Christ, Simon Magus (the disciple of John) that of Peter. In holy Scripture also Divine is to be distinguished from diabolic prophecy. Allegorical interpretations are to be rejected. GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 101 §28. GENTILE GNOSTICISM. CoMP. Massuet, diss, prteviae in edit. Irenoei. — A. Neander, genet. Entw. d. vornehmst. gnost. Syst. (Genet. Develop, of the Princ. Syst. of Gnost.). Berl. 1818. — F. C/ir. Banr, d. chr. Gnosis in ihr. gesch. Ent^y. (Chr. Gnost. in its Ilistor. Develop.). Tiibg. 1835. — /. Matter, krit. Gesch. d. Gnosticismus. Aus d. Franz. (Crit. Hist, of Gnost. from the French of J. M., by) von Ch. H. Ddnier. 2 vols. Hellbr. 1833.— J. J. Schmidt, Etudes sur Irenee et les Gnostiques, Brux. 1856. The many and diverse systems of Gentile-Christian Gnosticism may all be arranged under two great classes, according as notions derived from Grecian philosophy — more especially from Pla- tonisra and the study of the mysteries — or Dualistic and Parsee views prevailed in them. This arrangement almost coincides with that of the more prominent representatives of that class of heretics into Egyptian and Syrian Gnostics. However, it is impossible to keep them always quite separate, since the various forms of Gnosticism closely appro.ximate and frequently merge into eacli other, and since, during their development, these here- sies did not remain stationary. Gnosticism reachetl its highest point during the first half of the second century, especially during the age of Hadrian. In apostolic times (§ 19), those Jewish, heathen, and Christian Gnostics elements — which at the commencement of the second century appeared separated, attracted or repelled each other, developed and assumed form — had been a " rudis indigestaque moles.'' Even in the system of Cerinthus, who, as it were, stands on the boundary-line between these two ages. Gentile and Ebionite Gnosis are mixed up. But, not many years afterwards, Alexandrian Gnosticism was fully developed by Basilides, whose system is moulded after the doc- trines of Stoicism, and by Valentine, who adopted the views of the Platonists. Another class of Egyptian Gnostics based their systems rather on Grecian and Egyptian mysteries than on Greek philosophy, and mixed the fables of heathen mythology with the facts of Scripture history. Among such attempts we class the various systems of the Ophites, which already sliow a certain hostility to Judaism, and a tendency towards Antino- mianism. These tendencies increased and attained their climax in Garpocrates, who placed Christianity on exactly the same level with heathenism. — Of Syrian Gnostics, Saturniniis is the 9* 102 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.) . most prominent ; next to him Tatian, whose system, however, has even more of asceticism about it. The Gnosticism of Bar- desanes, although he was both a Syrian and a Dualist, approxi- mated that of Valentine ; in life and doctrine he accommodated himself to the views of the Cathohcs. The Gnosticism of Mar- cion belongs also to the Syrian school. Setting aside the principles of emanation, of secret doctrine, and of allegorical interpretation, and laying greater stress on Pistis than on Gnosis, Marcion approximated more closely to orthodox views than any other heretical teacher had done ; while, by his rejection of the Old Testament, and fanatical hatred to Jewish Christianity, he at the same time occupied a position of greater antagonism to tlie Church than others. The direct opposite of his system was that of the Pseudoclement (§ 48, 4). Lastly, independent of all these modifications of Gnosticism, 3Iamchceism — a combination of Parseeism, of Buddhism, and of Christianity (§29) — made its appearance during the third century. 1. Cerintul's ^Yas a junior cotemporary of the Apostle John in Asia Minor, He was the first to propound the peculiar Gnostic dogma of the Demmrgos, who, as Creator of the world, is represented as sub- servient to the Supreme God, without, however, knowing Him. Jesus also, who was the son of Joseph and of Mary, kuew Him not, until at baptism the avu, Xptnroj descended upon him. Before the crucifixion, which is regarded as merely a human calamity, without any bearing upon salvation, he again left the man Jesus. Cains of Rome, who ascribed to Cerinthus the authorship of the book of Revelation, charges him also with carnally chiliastic views. 2. The Giinsticifin of Busilidet. — Basilides (BauafiS*;^) was a teacher at Alexandria about the year 130. It is the characteristic and funda- mental idea of his system, that every development of God and of the world was brought about by an influence from beneath upAvards — not, as in the theory of emanation, from above downwards. His system commences with pure non-existence. 'Hv on fiv ovhiv. Hence, the principle from which everj-thing originates is o ovx tor ^fo^, who from out of Himself [i% ovx oi'Tcoj') brings Chaos into being. This Chaos, though itself ovji; ov, is yet the rtai'Trtsputa tov xoaixov. Thence two son- ships [viotritii), of which the one was already weaker than the other, ascended to the blessed place of not-being (non-existence — to. i)rtfpz6(T|«ta) ; while a third, which still required purification, had to remain behind in the rtavartf p/xia. The latter, then, is the object of redemption. Next, the great Archon ascended from Chaos to the very boundary of the blessed place, of which he knew nothing, and founded there the Ogdoas; after him came a second Archon, who founded the GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 103 Hehdoinas (the planet-sky). He reigned over the terrestrial world until Moses revealed the name of the great Archon. Only Jesus, the first-born of the third sonship, that had remained behind, obtained and spread the knowledge of the highest God and His kingdom. The sufferings of Christ were necessary for His own salvation, i. e., that He might be purified from the elements of the Psyche and of the Hyle. Then He ascended to the higliest God, whither, gradually, all other pneumatic natures are to follow Him. Ultimately, God pours out i/reat Itjnorance over all stages of existence, that their blessedness may 11.-* ',e disturbed by their knowledge of still higher bliss. Such, accord- ing to Clemens Alexandrinus and Hippolytus, are the fundamental ideas of the system of Basilides. Ireiueu.s and Epiphaaius attach that name, however, to a totally different system — doubtless describing the later sect of the su-called Pseudo-Basii.idians. In their system, the great Archon alone is represented as the highest God, the " pater innatus." But between the great Archon and the Archon of the Heb- domas not less than 365 spiritual spheres (^= 'ASpalaj, 'Aj3paaa|) inter- vene. Since the ovx Civ ^soj and the Tiavarti^fiia. had been discarded, it became necessary to adopt certain dualistic, emanatistic, and docetic views, such as that beneath the Pleroma lay an eternal Hyle, which attracted some particles of light and fixed them down in matter, etc. The Pseudo-Basilidians fell into Antinomianism and Libertinism. Basilides himself left twenty-four books iljyyjjT'txa, and his son Isidore a work entitled rf^ti-xa. — (Comp. G. UJdhorn, das basilid. System. Gottg. 1855. Also, A. Hilgeiifeld, Die Jlid. Apokalyptik. App. pp. 289, etc. Jena 1857). 3. Tlie Gnosticism of Valentine. — Valentinus, a teacher in Alex- andria and at Rome about the middle of the second century, was of all Gnostics the most deep, ingenious, and imaginative, and his system is equally remarkable for its speculation and its poetry. Its fundamental idea is, that, according to a law inherent in the Divine Being, the yEons emanated in pairs, and with the difference of sexes. Every such holy marriage of iEons he designates a Syzyyia. Connected with this is another peculiar view, according to which the three catastrophes of terrestrial history (creation, the fall, and redemption) had already occurred in archetype in the history of the development of the Pleroma. On this basis he reared a grand and most poetic Epos, consisting of a partly Christian and partly mythological theogony and cosmogony. From the Bv^j (or Avrortdt'cop) and his 'Kwoia (or 2ty)j) emanated fifteen pairs of ^ons, which, with the Father of all, formed the Pleroma. SD^ttt, the last and lowest of these .^ions, impelled by a burning desire, forsakes her husband in order to throw herself into the Bythos, for the purpose of embracing the Great Father himself. She is indeed pre- vented from carrying this into execution — but a rupture has taken place in the Pleroma. Disorder and passion (her £ni5>i;^»;cft;) is eliminated and driven forth from the Pleroma. This, then, is an 9 104 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—325 a. D.). abortion, an txtpw^ua, which still possesses, however, an ^Eonic nature {xdtu 2o(j)ta). To redeem and to bring her back into the Pleronaa — such is the object of the development of the vrorld. For the purpose of providing a Saviour and future husband for her, all the ^ons com- bine in emanating a new iEonic Being, glorious above all measure — • the Swr^p, or heavenly Jesus. Meantime, the xd-tu 2o^(,'a, which is alsc called 'Axa/jL^^, gives birth to the various grades of life in the Cosmos. All hylic natures are under the government of Satan, all psychical under that of the Demiurgos, while she herself directs those that are pneumatic. To his chosen people, the Jews, the Demiurgos sends a Messiah, the xdrw ^^ptriT'of, on Avhom at baptism the di/w Swr'^p descends. The Demiurgos is astonished, but submits to the will of the higher deities. The Pneumatics are led to perfectness by yviLaij, the Physical by rttWij. Ultimately, Achamoth returns with the Pneumatics to the Pleroma, where she is united to the Soter, and the Pneumatics to the angels of the Soter. The Demiurgos and his pious ones occupy the fortoi ■rrji ^iootritoi ; but from the depths of Hyle bursts forth a fire which consumes them and itself. — Among the numerous disciples of Valentine we mention Heracleon, the first commentator of the Gospel according to John. 4. In its original form, the Gnosticism of the Ophites consisted of u phantastic combination of Grecian mythology and biblical history, both being mystically interpreted, just as the heathen mysteries had been by philosophers. Under all the modifications of this system, a prominent part was assigned to the Serpent (o^tj, J^n^)> either as being the evil principle, or else as the Agathodsemon. This is explained from the circumstance that, both in Egyptian worship, in the Grecian mysteries, and in biljlieal history, the serpent was prominently brought forward. Hippolytus describes, under the name of Naassenes, one of the earliest forms of Ophite Gnosticism, of which the system is com- paratively simple. In it the serpent was the Agathoda^mon. More fully developed than this was the system of the Gnostic Justinus, who adopted the whole Grecian mythology. He regarded the Nachash as an evil demon. The Peratics, a party of which Euphrates and Chelbes were the founders, taught that it was necessary to leave Egypt (which was a representation of the body), to pass {}tipq,v) through the Red Sea (the things that pass away) into the wilderness, where, indeed, the gods of destruction (represented by the fiery serpents which destroyed the Jews) awaited us, but where also Christ the Saviour (represented by the serpent which Moses had lifted up) brought salvation and deliverance. The Sethians maintained that originally there had been two races of men — one psychical, at the head of which stood Abel, the other hylic, at the head of which was Cain. But with ^eth commenced a third race, that of the Pneumatics or Gnostics. The Hylics had peri'^hed in tha Flood, but returned in the descendants of Ham. At GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 105 last Seth appeared a second time in Christ. In direct opposition to tiiis sect, the Cainites declared that all those persons who in the Old Testament had been described as ungodly, were genuine Pneumatics and martyrs of truth. The first who distinguished himself in the contest with the God of the Jews, Avas Cain ; the last, who brought this contest to a victorious termination, by bringing, in his deeper wisdom, the psychical Messiah to the cross, and thus destroying the kingdom of the God of the Jews, was Judas Iscariot. Their Antino- mianism led to the most shameless excesses. — The Ophites, whom Irenfeus and Epiphanius describe, seem to have indulged in abstruse transformations of the biblical history in Gen. i. — iii., and to have derived their views originally from the system of Valentine. Accord- ing to them, the Sophia-Achamoth precipitated herself into Chaos, where she gave birth to Jaldabaoth, the Creator of the world, who in turn renounced allegiance to his mother. But he was also disowned by the star-spirits which he had created, and by Ophiomorphos, or Satan. From a feeling of jealousy, Jaldal)aoth had interdicted man from the tree of knowledge ; but the serpent Achamoth persuaded him to disobey, and thus procured him liberty and knowledge. Jaldabaoth selected the Jews as his favourite people, sent prophets to them, and at last a Messiah, who was to obtain for them dominion over the Gentiles. On him the Ano-Christ descended, but the wicked Jalda- baoth now caused his own Messiah to be crucified. Before that, how- ever, ^ the heavenly Christ had already forsaken that Messiah, and, invisible to Jaldabaoth, sat down at the right hand of the latter ; thus withdrawing from him any elements of light which he still retained, etc. — The book PisUs Sophia (ed. Schwartze et Petermann, coptice at lat. Berol. 1851) is one of the latest and best productions of Ophite Gnosticism, strongly tinged, however, with the views of Valentine. 5. The Gnos1ici}ssa (about the year 170), was a very learned man, and an able religious poet. In his sermons he did not oppose the teaching of the Church, but by his hymns diffused his Gnostic views. The same remark applies to Harmonius, his son, who also was a poet. A Syriac copy of Bardesanes' work rtspl Et/xap/u/vj^j has been recently discovered. It refutes the delusions of Chaldee astrology, but is itself pervaded by the views of Zoroaster. His view of the world was likewise greatly modified by Greek philosophy. He holds to three distinct principles of all being: the *v(ji5, or laws of nature, the VXfia^pLivi^, or blind fate, and the God of Christianity, Avho exec uted the plan of Redemption. 10. Marcion, a native of Sinope and the son of a bishop, was a man of energetic but pugnacious disposition. Being excommunicated by bis father on account of his pride, he betook himself to Rome, where Cerdo, a Syrian Gnostic, imbued him with his own peculiar views (about 150). The absolute and irreconcilable antagonism between jus- tice and mercy, between law and gospel, between Judaism and Chris- tianity, formed the fundamental idea of his system. Hence, besides the two principles of Syrian Gnosticism — the good and the evil God — he introduced a third, the just God, who was the Creator of the world and the Lawgiver. To the latter Judaism was subject, as heathenism to the evil God. At last the good God, who hitherto had been wholly unknown, in free grace resolved on delivering man from the dominion of both these deities. For this purpose he sent his Logos (who, how- ever, differed from him only modaliier not persunaliter) into the world in what appeared to be a body. By way of accommodation, this Logos gave Himself out to be the Messiah promised by the God of the Jews ; He announced forgiveness of sins by free grace, and to all who be- lieved imparted the powers of a Divine life. The Demiurgos, indig- nant at this, put Him to the cross (to apparent death), when He went to preach in Hades to those of the heathen who are susceptible of the Gospel, next cast the Demiurgos into Hades, and called the Apostle Paul to be the teacher of believers. — In a work — the Antitheses — he endeavoured to show that the antagonism betweeri the Old and the New Testament was irreconcilable. Of all the apostles he only recog- nized the authority of Paul ; the rest, he thought, had relapsed into Judaism. But he also rejected the pastoral letters (of Paul) and that to the Hebrews, and acknowledged only ten of the epistles of Paul and a mutilated edition of the Gospel according to Luke. He disapproved of all pomp and ceremonies in public worship, to which he also ad- mitted catechumens and heathen. Strict asceticism, the use of only 80 much nourishment as was absolutely necessary, and abstinence from marriage, were incumbent on the " Electi." The moral earnestness and the practical tendency of his teaching gathered around him many adherents, and this sect continued much longer than other Gnostics. 9* 108 SECTION 1. — FIRSI PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). To his query, " whether he knew him," Polycarp, who met him in Kome, replied : 'Krt^yvuiaxu rbv rtpcototoxov tov Satava. 11. Hermogenes, a painter in North Africa (about the end of the second century), equally rejected the Catholic doctrine of creation and the Gnostic theory of emanation, since both made God the author of sin. He therefore assumed an eternal chaos, in the resistance of which against the creative and formative agency of God all that was evil and deformed had its origin. His views were refuted by Tertullian. I 29. MANICH^ISM. CoMP. Beansobre, hist. crit. de Manicheisme. Amst. 1734. — F. Chr, Baur, d. manich. Religionssyst. Tubg. 1831. — /. E. Colditz, d. Entsteh. d. manich. Religionsystems, Leipz. 1838. — D. Chwolsohn, die Ssabieru. d. Ssabismus. St. Petersb. 1856, 2 Bde. Independent of Christian Gnosticism, which developed in the Roman empire during the second century, and more or less under the inflnence of Grecian forms of culture, and yet possibly con- nected with Elkesaism (§ 27, 3), ManichcBum sprung up in the Persian empire towards the end of the third century. In many respects its principles and tendencies coincided with those of Gnosticism, especially with that form of it which the Syrian Gnostics had adopted. But Manichasism differed from Gnosti- cism chiefly in employing Christian ideas and notions merely as a gloss for heathen theosophy, in bearing no reference whatever to Judaism, in prominently bringing forward, Instead of Pla- tonic views, Persian Dualism, and combining it with Buddhist ideas. From the first, also, it laid claim not merely to the title of an esoteric religion destined for a few choice spirits, but to form a church of its own, with a regular constitution and an organized worship, — an attempt whicli, as the result proved, was not wholly unsuccessful. 1. Concerning the person and history of the founder of the sect, the accounts of the Latin and Greek Fathers often vary from those of Per- sian writers. The former are all derived from the reports of a discus- sion which Bishop Archelaus of Cascar had with Manes or Manichaus, and wdiich still exist in a corrupt Latin translation. In them the origin of Manichseism is traced to Scythianus, a Saracen merchant, an extensive traveller, who lived at the time of the apostles. A pupil of his, Te-ebinthis, who also called himself Buddas, wrote by his direc- tion foi r books — of which, after his death, Eubricits, a liberated slave, 'jbtainel possession. E. adopted the doctrine of the books, carried it INI A N I C H ^ I S M , 109 out more fully, in Persia became the founder of a new religion, and called himself Manes. He was even admitted to the royal court, but failing in an attempt to restore a sick prince, the jealousy of the Magi caused his downfall. But he escaped from prison, and found a place of concealment in an old castle Arabion, in Mesopotamia. Meanwhile he had become acquainted with the sacred writings of the Christians, and derived from them many additions to his system. Then he showed great energy in spreading his views, sending letters and messengers, especially among Christians. This led to the above- named debate with Archelaus, in which he was completely refuted. Soon afterwards he was seized by command of the King of Persia, flayed alive (277), and his stuffed skin was set up as a warning to others. — Later Persian accounts are much more credible [Herbelot orient., Biblioth. s. v. Mani, and Silv. de Sacy Memoires, etc., Par. 1794). According to these, Mani, the founder of this religion, had sprung from one of the families of the Persian Magi. Although professing Christianity, and invested with the office of presbyter, he continued to cherish his early Parsee views. Amid the religious movements which, after the overthrow of the Parthian Arsacidse and the accession of the Sassinidae (227), had the revival of the ancient national faith for their aim, he conceived the idea of founding a new and universal religion, by combining Christianity with Parseeism. Accordingly, in 270, under the reign of Shapur I. (Sapores), he came forward as reformer and founder of a new party, claiming to be the Paraclete promised by Christ (John xvi. 13 etc.). Excommunicated by the Christians and persecuted by the Magi, he had to flee, and travelled through India as far as China, all the time gathering fresh materials for his religious system. After that he lived for a period in a cave in Turkistan, where he composed a work, full of gorgeous imagery, intended to express in symbols his doctrine (the " Ertenki Mani," the Gospel of his adhe- rents). He then returned to Persia. The new king, Hormnz, pro- tected him ; but Behrain (Varanes), his successor, obliged him to dis- cuss his system with the Magi, declared them victorious, and caused Mani to be flayed alive (277). Soon after the founder's death the sect spread throughout the Roman empire. On account of its origin among the hostile Persians, Diocletian persecuted the party ; while, on the other hand, the opposition of the Catholic state-church of the Roman Empire secured for it, at a later period, protection in Persia. By secret tradition the sect seems to have continued to the middle ages, when it frequently reappeared. 2. The ancient Persian Dualism formed the fundamental idea in the SYSTEM of Mani. The good God and his twelve ^Eons (Ornuizd and his Amshaspands and Izeds) were from all eternity opposed by Satan and his demons (Ahriman and the Dews). Attracted by the beauty if the kingdom of light, Satan made an inroad upon it. God ap- pointed an ^on ( " Vie mother if life" ) to be the guardian of the 10 110 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). boundaries of the kingdom of light. This ^ou gave bii:h to the ideal man, who, together with the five pure elements (fire, light, etc.), entered into the contest, but succumbed and became a prisoner. God now sends another ^on, "the living Spirit," to assist him ; but he arrives too late, as the powers of darkness have already swallowed up a portion of his luminous essence (the soul of the world, or the "Jesus patibilis" ). The ideal man, so far as preserved, i.e., Christ (or the "Jesus impatibilis" ), is now transported to the Sun. From the mixture above mentioned God had caused the visible world to be formed by the " living Spirit," in order that the captive particles of light might gradually regain strength and freedom. Besides "the soul of light," every man has also an evil soul. The former is to gain victory and dominion over the latter by appropriating the elements of light scattered in nature, and principally in plants. This process of purification is superintended by the ideal man Christ, who resides in the Sun, and by the living Spirit, who resides in ether. On the other hand, the Demons attempt, by means of the false religions of Judaism and heathenism, to bind souls more closely to the king- dom of darkness. At last Christ Himself descends from the Sun in what appears to be a body, in order, by His teaching, to give liberty to the " souls of light." But the apostles misunderstood and falsified His doctrine ; Mani, the promised Paraclete (not the Holy Ghost) is to restore it to purity. As such, he was the head of the Church. Under him were twelve apostles (magistri) and seventy-two bishops, besides presbyters, deacons, and evangelists. The community consisted of catechumens (auditores) and the elect for perfect). The latter were to practise the strictest ascetism, to abstain from flesh, from eggs, milk, wine, etc., and had to remain unmarried (Signaculum oris, manuum et sinus). Baptism and the Lord's Supper — the former with oil, the latter without wine — formed part of the secret worship of the perfect. Oil and bread were regarded as those pure products of the soul of the world, which, in vegetable life, struggled after freedom (or the "Jesus patibilis"). Their principal festival was the anni- versary of the martyrdom of Mani, when they bowed in worship before a splendid pulpit, the symbol of their divine teacher. — (Cf § 54, 1.2; §71; ^08,1.) INTERNAL OROANIZATluN OF THE CHURCH. Ill III. DEVELOPMENT IN THE GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, LIFE, AND DISCIPLINE OF THE CHURCH. ^ 30. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. CoMP. Ziegler, Vers. e. pragm. Gesch. d. kirchl. Verfassungsformen in den 6 ersten Jahrhli. (Pragm. Hist, of the Forms of Eccles. Con- stit. during the First 6 Cent.). Leipz. 1798. — J. W. Bickell, Gesch. d. Kirchenrechts (Hist, of Ch. Law). I. II. Erkf. \M^.— R. Rothe, d. Anfange d. chr. K. u. ihrer Verf. (Early Hist, of the Chr. Ch. and of its Const.). I. Wittb. 19,?,1 .— W. Palmer, Treat, on the Ch. of Christ. Oxf. 1838. — J. Kaye, Some Ace. of the Ext. Disc, of the Ch. of Christ, London 1855. During the second century the Episcopate (§ 18, 2) became more and more a settled institution in the Church, till gradually the bishop was regarded as the superior of the presbyter. Among those who prepared the way for this result, Ignatius of Antioch {oh. 101) is the best known. In every bishop he sees Christ, while in his opinion the college of presbyters represents the apostles. But the later idea of an apostolic succession of bishops, which we find in the writings of Cyprian, appears not to have occurred to Ignatius. — The liierarchical tendency, inherent in the system of Episcopacy, was fostered and nourished by the idea of a special priesthood as of Divine institution. Old Testament views were transferred to the New Testament Presi- dents of churches. The distinction between the "ordo" or xxi^ijoj, and the " plebs " or xadj (xaixoi), once introduced, soon led to priestly claims of pre-eminence. As the congregations became larger, the functions, rights, and duties of the various office-bearers were more accurately determined, and new offices instituted for those on whom the more menial work devolved. Thus the clergy were arranged into " ordines viajo7-es" and " minores.'''' The rural congregations which had been founded by the labours of Christians in neighbouring cities were provided with presbyters from these cities (the Parochi). If they increased in numbers and inflnence, they chose a bishop of their own (;fwpf- rtiaxoTtocy Where, in large cities, one church was not sufficient, affiliated churches were founded. Thus the bishop had gradu- ally a diocese assigned to him. As the bishops of towns natu- rally took precedence of those in rural districts, so the metro- 112 SECTION 1. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). politans, or bishops of capital cities, over those of provincia' towns. But the title Melropolitan occurs for the first time in the decrees of the Council of Nice (325). In the common con- sultations which took place in the various capitals (the Pro- vincial Si/noch) — which at first only took place when occasion required, but afterwards became a regular institution — the metropolitan presided. Again, among the metropolitans, those who presided over churches, which apostles had founded (sedes apostoliccs), especially those of Rome, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alex- andria, Ephesus, and Corinth, claimed pre-eminence. The idea of the unity and catholicity of the Church was maintained and carried out with increasing firmness, and became associated with that of the centering of that unity in the Apostle Peter, from a misapplication of Matth. 16 : 18, 19. Rome, as the metropolis of the world, where Peter and Paul had suffered martyrdom, claimed to be the cathedra Petri, and transferred the idea' of a sole ecclesiastical representation to its bishops, as the successors of Peter. — The love of the brethren towards one another led to a closer connection of the churches, which was preserved by mutual communications. Christians on a journey, furnished with a certificate and letter of commendation from their respective bishops (epistolae formatse, ypa^^uara ■atvrcuifiiva.'), were sure of fraternal hospitality. — At first the congregations retained a voice in the choice of the clergy, the decision being frequently left to confessors. — (Cf. § 45 etc.) 1. The " Ordines Majores" Averc composed of the bishops, presby- ters, and deacons. As chief ruler, the Bishop had supreme direction of all affairs connected with his church or diocese. His exclusive privilege it was to ordaiu presbyters and deacons, to confirm those who had been baptized, to absolve the penitent, commonly also to consecrate the communion elements, and, at a later period, to vote in synods. The Presbyters were now only regarded as the advisers and assistants of the bishop. They took part in the direction of congregational affairs, in the dispensation of the sacraments, in preaching, and in the cure of souls, but only by special commission, or with the express sanction of the bishop. At a later period, when the requirement of churches demanded it, and the authority of bishops was sufficiently recognized not to require such safeguards, presbyters were entrusted with the entire and independent cure of souls, with preaching, and (at least in part) with the dispensation of the sacraments. — The reverse of all this took place with regard to the official position of the Deacons {Levitae). Their authority grcAV as the duties originally assigned to INTERNAL C'UGANIZ ATION OF THE CHURCH. 113 lliem Avere enlarged. From having at first only to take charge of the P'jor, they gradually came to take part in public worship and in the direction of the congregation. When commissioned by the bishop, they baptized, they prepared the communion elements, they distributed the cup, carried, after the close of public worship, to the sick or to prisoners the Lord's Suppei-, announced the commencement of the several parts of public worship, conducted the prayers of the church, read the Gospel, and preserved order during worship. Frequently they were also commissioned to preach. They commonly stood ia more intimate personal relation wath the bishop than did the presby- ters; they were his intimate associates, accompanied him on his jour- neys, and frequently acted as his delegates and representatives at councils. — Among the " Ordines minores" the office of Ledores, avar/vJ^atat,, was the oldest. According to Cyprian, confessors were chosen in preference for this purpose. At a later period, the oflBce of lector was commonly the first step in clerical promotion. The lectores read the larger sections from the Bi1)le, and were the custodians of the sacred '• codices." An office introduced at a period subsequent to this was that of Sv.bdiaconi, vTCobiaxovoi, who, as assistants of the deacons, filled the first rank in the Ordines minores, and hence (unlike the others) were also ordained by imposition of hands. For the purpose of conducting the service of praise, the office of Cantores {■^aXtal) was instituted towards the close of the third century. The Acnhjihi accom- panied the bishop to wait on him. The Exorcists took spiritual charge of those who were possessed [htpyovixBvoi, Sat.ixoui^6i.ievoi), over whom they made the prescribed prayers and uttered formulas of exorcism. As the latter also took place in baptism, their official duties brought them likewise into connection with the catechumens. The lowest rank was occupied by the Ostiarii or Jaiiifores (^upiopoJ, TiVKapoi). — The larger churches employed special Catechists for the instruction of catechumens (doctores audientium) ; and, where requisite, as in those churches of North Africa in which the Punic language was used, Hermeneut.e, whose duty it was to translate the portions of Scripture that were read. — It was the duty of the Deaconesses (commonly widows or females advanced in life) to l^ake charge of poor and sick females, to give advice to the inexperienced of their sex, and to take the oversight of female catechumens. They were not regarded as belonging to the clergy. — The clergy were ordained by the imposition of hands. Those who had only lately or during dangerous sickness been baptized [Nenphyti, Clinici), those who had been excommunicated or had mutilated themselves, were not admitted to orders. 2. The assembly of the apostles at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) served as the first model for mceiiiKj in Synods, and agreeing on resolutions in such assemblies. But a similar institution had prevailed among the heathen. Under Roman domination, the ancient politico-religious alliances in 10* H 114 SECTION I. IMilST 1' E U 1 O D (100—323 A.T>.). Greece and Asia Minor had indeed lost their political importance ; but their meetings [xowai avvo^ou, concilia) continued, as before, in the capitals of provinces, and under the presidency of the Roman governors. Even the similarity of the name seems to indicate that these meetings were not without influence on the later institution of ecclesiastical synods. From the peculiar circumstances of the times, thej, oouUl not take place before the latter half of the second century. Tht Christians, who frequently could only hold their worship secretly and at night, were of course prevented from planning any such stated meetings for deliberation at a period earlier than the time of Commodus. But when a season of rest was granted them, during -which their ecclesiastical arrangements could be made more freely and openly, these meetings of synods were instituted. The montanistic movements in Asia Minor (§ 37), and soon afterwards the disputes about the celebration of Easter (I 32), gave the first occasions for these deliberations. At the com- mencement of the third century, the Provincial Synods had already become a regular and continuous institution. At the time of Cyprian, not only bishops, but presbyters and deacons also took part in the synods, and the people were at least allowed to be present. It was as if no resolution was to be arrived at without the knowledge, and, in a certain sense, the consent, of the congregation. Since the Council of Nice (325), bishops alone were allowed to vote, and the presence of tho laity was more and more discouraged. The 7^esolvtions of a Synod v^eve communicated to congregations at a distance in Synodal Letters [Epiatolce Synodicce), and, so early as the third century, they were (according to Acts xv. 28) ascribed to the immediate direction of the Holy Spirit. — (Cf. H3, 2.) 3. The Unify and CailioUcity of the Chvrcli. — (Comp. A. Moliler, die Einheit d. K. (The Unity of the Church). 2d ed. Tlibg. 1843. — J. E. Ilnllter, C_> prian's Lehre von d. Einheit d. K. (The Doctr. of Cypr. as to the Unity of the Church). Hamb. 1839. — Jnl. KoxtUn, die kath. Auffass. V. d. K. in ihrer ersten Ausbild. (The Cath. View of the Ch. in its Early Arrangm.). In the " deutsche Zeitschr. flir chr. Wissen." for 1855. No. 33 etc. — /?//. Jarobi, die kirchl. Lehre v. d. Tradit. (The Doctr. of the Church Concerhing Trad.). 1. Berl. 1847.~J. H. Friedlkh (Rom. Cath.), Schrift, Tradit. u. kirchl. Schriftausleg. nach den Zeugniss. d. erst. 5 Jahrh. (Script., Trad, and Eccles. Interpret, of Script, according to the Tostim. of the First Five Cent.). Breslau 1854.) — The mission of Christianity — to become the religion of the world, to take possession of all nationalities and all languages, to pervade them by one spirit, and to unite them under one Head in heaven, implied that the Church M^as to be one and universal (catholic). An outward bond of connection was to express the inward unity of the Spirit. But the desire to form and consolidate a united and catholic Church might readily lead into error and dangers. Not heresy only, juid immorality or apostasy, but every diiference in outward form, con- INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. 115 otitution, and wor.'-hip, was regarded as a separation from the one catholic Church (the body of Christ), and from communion with Christ, and hence as implying the forfeiture of the hope of salvation. — This view became more prevalent in the second century, in proportion as the unity of the Church was endangered by heresies, by sects, and divisions. It was finally established, and, as it were, obtained its "magna charta" in the Church by the treatise of Cyprian, " de Unitate EcclesiEe." In the position of monarch over a congregation, assigned to the bishop as Christ's representative, Ignatius of Antioch finds a guarantee for the preservation of the unity and catholicity of THE Church. According to Cyprian, the unity of the Church took its rise from the Apostolate, and is based on the Episcopate. The promise of Christ (Matt. xvi. 18) was given to Peter as the representative, not as the chief, of the apostles (.John xx. 21). Through ordination, the apostolic office, with the promise attaching to it, had passed from the apostles to bishops. By their monarchical office the latter represented, in individual communities, and by their co-operation throughout Christendom, the unity of the Church (Episcopatus unus est, cujus a singulis in solidum pars tenetur). As formerly the apostles, so now the bishops, are on a footing of perfect equality ; each of them is a suc- cessor of Peter, and an heir of the promise given indeed to Peter first, but given to him for all the others. He who renounces the bishop separates from the Church, and : Habere non potest Deum patrem, qui ecclesiam non habet matrem. Extra ecclesiam nulla spes salutis. The largest view taken of the promise in Matt, xvi 18 is that by Origen : nirpa yap rtttj o Xpirrroi} /ia^j^ri^j. AiXtxtav -T'o rTfrpM xal Ttavtl IltT'p'J. Besides the writings of the apostles, tradition, as preserved in the so- called Apostolical Churches, served as the rule and test of catholicity in government, worship, and doctrine. Indeed, since the apostolic writings were as yet neither generally diffused nor acknowledged, this tradition was, previously to and for the purpose of the settlement of the New Testament canon, even placed above the writings of the ape sties. The common consciousness of the churches, based upon Scripture and tradition, presented the fundamental truths of Christianity as a " Regiila fidei," which was to form the standard for the development, the acceptance or the rejection, of any doctrine. Thus the profession made at baptism, or the Symbolum, was gradually enlarged into the Symbolum apostolicuin in its present form. 4. The Primary of Pome. — (Comp. Th. Katercamp, u. d. Primat d. Ap. Potrus und s. Nachfolger (The Primacy of Peter and of his Suc- cess.). Mliust. 1820. — Rothensee, d. Primat d. Papstes in alien chr. Jahrh. (The Primacy of the Pope during all Chr. Ages). 3 vols. May. 183G.— F P. Kenrik, The Primacy of the Apost. Sec vindic. 4th. ed. N.York IS.Io. — Against the Primacy: D. BiondeJ, traits hist, de la Primaut6. Genfevi 1641. fol. — CL Sabnasiiis, de primatu PapEe. Lugd, 10 116 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. £>.). 1645. — Ellendorf (ii Rom. Cath. lawyer), der Primat d. rym. P. Darmst. 184a.—/. E. Riddle, The Hist, of the Papacy. Lond. 185G, 2 vols.— I'/j. Greenwood, Cathedra Petri. Lond. 1856.) — The claim of the See of Rome to the Primacy over the wliole Church is based on the view that the promise in Matt. xvi. 18 applied solely and exclusively to Peter, as chief of the apostles and head of the Church, and on the assumption that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of this prince of apostles, and hen:e the lawful and sole heir of all his prerogatives. Although the fable about Peter's episcopate at Rome was originally derived from the heretical, pseudo-Clementine writings (| 27, 4) — a very suspicious authority — it was the more readily credited, as, considering the very different interpretation put at that time on Matt. xvi. 18, the inferences afterwards to be made from it could scarcely be foreseen. During the whole of this period neither did the Roman bishop nor any other person think of setting up any such claim. The only admission made, was that Rome was the chief among the apostolic communities, that there apostolic tradition had been preserved in greatest purity, and that hence the bishops of Rome were entitled to be specially heard on questions which, for decision, were to be submitted to all the bishops. In the meantime, the bishops of Rome rested content with, and sought to make the most of, such admissions. Nor does even the much- vaunted statement of Irence^is (3, 3) go further than this: Ad banc enim (sc. ecclesiam Rom.) a'gloriosissimis duobus App. Petro et Paulo fundatam propter potiorem principalitatem necesse estomnem convenire ecclesiam, h. e. eos qui sunt undique lideles, in qua semper ab his, qui sunt undique, conservata est ea quae. est ab Apostolis traditio. Still, the opposition of Asia Minor to the Roman observance of Easter (^ 32, 1), and that of Cyprian about the baptizing of heretics (| 32, 2), proves that even the tradition of Rome was not regarded as absolutely and unconditionally binding. — (Cf. §46.) §31. CELEBRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. See R. AH, der chr. Cultus. Bd. II. Das Kirchenjahr mit s. Festen u. die Fastendisciplin. Berl. 1858. So early as the commencement of the second century the Lord's day was generally observed. Being a day of joy, the attitnde in prayer was that of standing (and not, as on other days, kneeling) ; and fasting was likewise interdicted. Among tlie otiier days of the week, Wednesday and Friday were, in remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, observed in public wor- ship as days of vigil (dies stationum, in accordance with the idea of a militia Christiana). Being regarded as days of humi- liation and reper ':ance, tliey formed a kind of complement and, CELEBRATION OF PUBI, iC WORSHIP. Ill at the same time, of contrast to tlie Lord's da}'. Thus the idea of Christian feast-days, wiiich afterwards was much more fully developed, found a certain expression in the apportionment of the various days of the week. Soon afterwards distinctively Christian festivals were introduced amona; the Gentile Chris- tians after the analogy of the feasts observed by the Jews and the Jewish Christians, although in the case of the latter these feasts had been modified to bear a Christian aspect. The Pas- chal or Eaater festival was regarded in a very comprehensive manner, and divided into a Ttaoxo. atavpaai-i^ov and avaatdaiixov , But so deep and overpowering were the effects of this remem- brance of Christ's sufferings, that it was felt insufficient to ob- serve only one day (that of His death). By and by it was therefore preceded by a season devoted to mourning, repentance, and fasting. After remaining for some time unsettled, it was gradually fixed as of forty days' duration, and became the Quad- ragesima (tersaapaxoijtrj) of the Christian calendar. The solemni- ties of Quadragesima closed with those of the Great Week, while the Easter vigil i^navvvxi^i) formed a transition to the festival of the Resurrection. Easter was followed by the Feast of Pente- cost, in remembrance of the origin of the Church. The fifty days intervening between these two festivals (quinquagesima) were regarded as a season of joy, when the communion was daily celebrated, fasting was interdicted, and the attitude in prayer was standing, not kneeling. Special solemnities distin- guished the fortieth day, being that of the Ascension. In the East the Festival of EjDiphanij was introduced. It took place on the 6th of January, in celebration of the baptism of Christ when He had manifested Himself as the Messiah. But at that period we do not yet find any trace of an observance of Christ- vias day. — (Cf. § 56.) 1. Disputes ahovt the Observance of Easier. — (Comp. K. L. Weitzel, d. Gesch. d. Passahfeier d. 3 erst. Jahrh. [Hist, of Easter-observ. during the First 3 Cent.] Pforzh. 1848.— (?. E. Sieitz in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1856, IV.). — During the second century Easter was celebrated on three diiferent principles. The Judceo- Christian Ebionites (§ 27, 2) observed the Paschal Supper on the 14th of Nisan {^= tj <,b', i. e., = 14), and considered that in this respect an exact adherence to Old Testa- ment customs Avas of chief importance, especially since Christ, who had died on the loth, had on the 14th kept the Paschal Supper with His disciples. The Jewish Christians who were connected with the Catholic Church, and whose practice was adopted in Asia Minor generally, 118 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). celebrated Easter at exactly the same time as the Jews ; but they put a Christian interpretation upon the feast, omitted the Paschal Supper, and declared that the remembrance of the death of Christ was the point of chief importance. In their opinion, Christ had died on the 14th Nisan ; so that, in the strict sense, He had not celebrated the real Paschal Supper in the last year of His life. Hence they observed on the 14th Nisan their Ttd'^x"' atavpu^atfiov, and on the 16th the rtdax^ av(}.cirdijvfxov. The fast before Easter closed at the moment when Christ was supposed to have expired (at 3 o'clock in the afternoon), and was followed by an agape and the Lord's Supper, instead of the Jewish Paschal Supper. — Different from these two Judaising observances was that in use among the Gentile Christians of the West, which, both in substance and in form, had no connection with the Jewish Paschal feast. In order not to destroy the harmony with the observance of the day of the resurrection on the Lord's day, it was resolved to retain not only the annual return of the t8', but also to celebrate it on the same days of the week. Hence, when the i6' did not happen on Friday, the ftdaxo, ofavpuisifioi' Avas always celebrated on the first Fridaxj after the i8', and the Tiaoxa- dvantdaiixov on the Lord's day following. Besides, the Western churches observed the anniversary of Christ's death as a day of mourning, and the fast before Easter only terminated with an agape and the Lord's Supper on the day of the resurrection. For a considerable period these different customs of observing Easter con- tinued without calling forth any controversy. The subject was first discussed during the stay of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, at Rome (160). Anicehis, Bishop of Rome, supported his mode of celebrating Easter by the tradition of the Roman Church, while Polycarp appealed to the circumstance that he had sat down at a Paschal feast with the Apostle John himself. Although an agreement was not arrived at, yet to give evidence of their entire ecclesiastical fellowship, Anicetus allowed Polycarp to administer the Lord's Supper in his church. But in the year 196 the discussion broke out afresh between Polyci'ates, Bishop of Ephesus, and Victor, Bishop of Pome. The latter went so far as to wish for a cessation of ecclesiastical communion with the churches of Asia Minor. But this step was generally disapproved. Especially did Irenams, in name of the Galilean bishops, pronounce in this respect against Victor. The general Council of Nice (325) decided in favour of the Roman observance, which, after that period, became that in common practice (§ 56, 3). I 32. THE ADMINISTRATION OF BAPTISM. CoMP. J. W. F. Rofling, das Sacr. d. Taufe (The Sacr. of Bapt.). 2 vols. Erlg. 1846. From tlie commencement baptism was regarded as necessary \n order to hai 3 part in the salvation of Christ, and as the con- THE ADMINISTRATION OF BAPTISM. 119 dition for being received into the fellowship of the Church. The Fathers generally connected baptism and regeneration. Hence, in theory, the Bajdiam of Infants was generally recog- nized, although it was not universally introduced. Tertullian alone decidedly opposed it. All grown-up persons who wished for baptism were called Catechumens (audientes), and as such had to undergo a preparatory training under a Christian teacher. Some, however, voluntarily and purposely deferred their baptism to the hour of death, in order that by baptism, all the sins of their lives might be certainly removed. After having received instruction by the catechist, the catechumens were to prepare for baptism by prayer and fasting ; they had solemnly to renounce the devil and all his works {abrenuntiare diabolo et pompa3 et angelis ejus), and to make a confession of their faith before undergoing the sacred rite. In the third century, exorcism, or setting free from the power of tlie devil, was added, with a spe- cial formula hitherto in use only in the case of those possessed by evil spirits. Baptism was performed by thrice immey^sing, during which the formula of baptism was pronounced ; sprink- ling was only common in case of the sick (baptismus clinico- rum) ; the water of baptism was set apart for the sacred rite. Immersion was followed by anointing (;tpi.o,aa), as the symbol of spiritual priesthood, and by laying on of hands, according to Acts viii. 26 etc. Soon afterwards immersion came to be regarded as the negative part of baptism (the putting away of sin), and anointing and imposition of hands as its positive coun- terpart (the communication of the Spirit). In the East, presby- ters and deacons were allowed to administer both baptism and the chrisma. In the West, it was thought that Acts viii. indi- cated that bishops alone had the right of the laying on of hands. Hence, when the bishop himself had not administered baptism, the imposition of hands and the chrisma were afterwards im- parted by him, by way of confirmation (confirmatio, consigna- tio). The usual seasons of baptism were Easter, especially the Sabbath of the Great Week (^baptism into the death of Christ, Rom. vi. 3), and Pentecost ; in the East, also the Feast of the Epiphany. No importance was attached to the place where baptism was administered. Soon sponsors (avdboxoi) were intro- duced at the baptism of children, their duty being to make a confession of faith in room ard in name of the infant. 10* 120 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) . 1. The gradation among catechumens, according to which each class bad special privileges, commenced about the middle of the second century. Its first traces are found in the writings of TerhdUan. He distinguishes between novitioli and edocti or aquam adituri. Only the latter were allowed to take part in the homiletic portion of public wor- ship. Origen also speaks of two classes of catechumens, and the Apos- tolical Constitutions of three : 1. Andientes, daspow^fi-ot, who were allowed and bound to attend the sermon ; 2. Genvjlectentes, yowxxivovtii, who were also allowed to kneel at, and take part in the first portions of the prayers of the Church ; and, 3. Conipetentes, ^utilofjuvoi, who, having finished their period of instruction, looked forward to baptism. The time of probation was fixed at between two and three years. 2. Controversy ahoid the Baptism of Heretics. — From the close of the third century, it was a subject of controversy whether a baptism administered by heretics was valid or not. The churches of Asia Minor and of Africa answered this question in the negative ; while Rome received, without rebaptizing them, such heretics as had been baptized in the name of Christ, or of the Holy Trinity. In the middle of the third century, this subject excited violent discussion. Stephen, Bislwp of Rome, refused to tolerate any other practice than that of Rome, and renounced ecclesiastical fellowship with the churches of Asia Minor (253). The opposite view was zealously defended by Cyprian of Carthage, whose ideal of one church, in which alone there was salvation, seemed endangered by the practice of Rome. It was also advocated by Firmilian ofCcesarea, in Cappadocia. Three synods held at Carthage — the last and most influential in the year 256 — pro- nounced decidedly in favour of this view. By friendly suggestions, Dionysius of Alexandria endeavoured to lead Stephen to more concilia- tory views. The Valerian persecution, which soon afterwards broke out, proved a greater inducement to harmony and peace than any friendly counsels. Thus the dispute remained unsettled. But gradu- ally the Romish practice came more generally into use, and was at last confirmed by the first General Council 'f Nice. 3. The Dogma conceridng Baptis7n. — Bnnmhas saj^s: ava&aivofnt) xafjrtofopouvrf 5 iv tyj xapSi'a, — Hermas : ascendunt vitae assignati ; Justin regards the Avater of baptism as a v6up rrji ^to/jj, i^ ov ava/ycwr^^ficv ; according to Ireninus it elfects a ivi^aii rtpoj tt(}>^p5i.ai' ; TertuUian says : supervenit spiritus de coelis, — caro spiritual iter mundatur ; Cyprian speaks of an unda genitalis, a nativitas secunda in novum hominem ; Ferniilian says : nativitas, quae est in baptismo, filios Dei generat ; Origen calls baptism ;^apKJ^aT'cdi/ ^luuv ap;t^" '"^ rt.riyr^v. — Of the baptism of blood in martyrdom, TertuUian says: lavacrum non acceptum reprae- sentat et perditum reddit. Hermas and Clemens A\cx. suppose that oious heathens and Jews had preaching and baptism in Hades. ADMINISTRATION OF THE LORD'S SUPPER. 121 § 33. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE LORD'S SUPPER. CoMP. F. Brermer (Rom. Cath.), Verricht. u. Ausspend. d. Euchar von Cliristus bis auf unsere Zeit. (Administr. of the Euchar. from the Time of Chr. to our Days). Bamb. 1824.— TV?. Harnack ii. Kliefoth, 11. cc. in ? 18, 5. — R. Rothe, de disciplina arcani. Heidelb. 1831. — J. W. F. Hofing, d. Lehre d. alt. K. vom Opfer (The Teach, of the Old Ch. abt. the Sacr.). Erlg. 1851. — Ph. Marheineke, ss. Pp.de proesentia Chr. in Ccena Dom. sententia triplex. Heidelb. 1811. 4. In answer to this, /. D6lliii;/cr (Rom. Cath.) die Lehre v. d. Euch. in d. 3 ersten Jahrh, (The Doctr. of the Euch. in the Three First Cent.) May. 182Q.—Rinck, Lehrbegr. vom h. Abdm. in d. erst. Jahrh. (Doctr. of the L. Supper in the First Cent.), in the "hist, theol. Zeitschr." for 1853. III. — Ebrard, d. Dogma v. h. Abdm. 2 vols. Frkf. 1845. — Kahnis, d. Lehre v. Abdm. Lpz. 1851. — L. J. Ruckert, d. Abendm. Lpz. 1856. At first the Lord's Supper was always connected with an agape (§ 35), But when Trajan published a stringent edict against Hetaeria (§ 18, 5), the Christians intermitted the agapes, of which the proliibition was iinpl'ed in the al)ove edict, and •connected the observance of the Lord's Supper with the ordinary homiletic public worship on tlie I^ord's day. This continued the practice even after the celebration of the agape was again resumed. In connection with the arrangement about the cate- chumens, public worship was divided into a missa catecbume.n- orum and a missa fidelium. From the latter, all who had not been baptized, who were under discipline, or were possessed by an unclean spirit, were excluded. Tliis gave rise to the view, that a mystery attached to the celebration of the Lord's Supper {disciplina arcani). The circumstance that originally the agape and the J>.ord's Supper were celebrated together, led to the custom of making voluntary offerings (oblationes) for the pur- pose of procuring the provisions requisite for the agape. — The bread used in the sacrament was the same as that in coranioa use, hence leavened (zou-bj aproj) ; the icine also was, as in com- mon use, mixed with water (zpaua), which Cyprian regarded as symbolical of the union of Christ with the Church. In the African and Eastern Churches, John vi. 53 was interpreted as applyitig to the communion of children, who (of course, after baptism) were admitted to this ordinance. As early as the third century simple forms expanded into an elaborate sacra- mental liiurrjy, which has remained the basis of all later pro- 11 122 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D. J. ductions of this kind. At the close of public worship the deacons carried the consecrated elements to the siclv and to the prisoners of the congregation. In some places, part of the con- secrated bread was carried home and partaken in the family at morning prayers, in order thus to set apart for God a new day. Confei^sion, in the proper sense of the term, did not precede the communion. The discipline exercised by the Church, and the liturgical arrangements in use at the time, were such, that special confession seemed not requisite. — (§ 58, A.) 1. At the time of Justin Martyr, the Sacramental Liturgy was still very simple. The common prayer which closed the public worship was followed by 2i fraternal kiss ; after that the elements were brought to the bishop, who set them apart in a prayer of thanksgiving and praise (fv-^-aptsT'i-'a). The people responded by an Amen, and the presbyters or deacons carried to all present the consecrated elements. From the above prayer the whole service obtained the name of the Eucharist, evidently because it was held that, by the consecration prayer, the common became sacramental bread — the body and blood of the Lord. The liturgy in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitu- tions, which may be regarded as the type of public worship at the close of the third century, is much more complete. There the missa cate- chiimenoriim included prayer, praise, reading of the Bible, and the sermon (| 34). At the close of the sermon, catechumens, penitents, and those who were possessed, were successively dismissed. The missa fdelinm then commenced with a general intercessory prayer. After this followed various collects and responses, then the fraternal kiss, a warning against unworthy communicating, the preparation of the elements, the sign of the cross, the consecration prayer, the words of the institution, the elevation of the consecrated elements — all being accomp.anied by suitable prayers, hymns, doxologies, and responses. The bishop or presbyter gave the bread with the words, Sw;ua XptOT'oC; the deacon the cup, with the words, Alua Xpicrrov, riotr^pwv ^<^^i. At the close, the congregation, on their knees, received the benedictiim of the bishop, and the deacon dismissed them with the words, ' AnoXvia^i iv Etp};i'jy.— (Cf. I 59, 4.) 2. The Diciplini Arcani. — Neither in Justin Martyr nor in Irenasus do we find any trace of the view that the sacramental portions of public worship (among which the rites of the Lord's Supper with their prayers and hymns, the Lord's Prayer, the administration of baptism, the symbolum, the chrisma, and the ordination of priests, were in- cluded) were regarded as mysteries {fxvotxri xarpfta, rt^Btij), to be carefully kept from all unbaptized persons, and only made known to members of the Church {ovfi^varaLi). Justin, in his apology, addressed specially to the heathen, even described in detail the rites observed in READING, SERMON, I'll AVER AND PRAISE. 123 the Lm-il's Supper. The view to which we referred originated at the time of TertuUiau (170-180), and was specially due to the institution of the catechumenate, and the division of public worship to which it led, from the second part of Avhich all uubaptized persons w^ere excluded. 3. The Vogma of the Lord's Supper. — This doctrine was not clearly developed, although it was generally realized that the Lord's Supper was a most holy mystery, and indispensable food of eternal life, that the body and blood of the Lord were mystically connected with the bread and wine, and that thus those who in faith partook of this meat enjoyed essential communion with Christ. On this supposition alone can we account for the reproach of the heathen, who spoke of the sacrament as feasts of Thyestes. (^ 23). Ignatius calls the Lord's Supper a ^d^fiaxuv d^ai'acytaj, and admits ivxv.^i'Otio.v oopxa tlvai, -tov (jwr^poj ; Justin says: oapxa xai alfxa i8t6dx^Vf^fv ilvac. According to IrencEus, it is not "communis panis, sed eucharistia ex duabus rebus constans, terrena et coelesti ;" and in consequence of partaking it, our bodies are "jam non corruptibilia, spem resurrectionis habentia." TertulUan and Cyprian also adopt similar views, while at the same time they represent, in some passages, the Lord's Supper rather as a symbol. The spiritualistic Alexandrians, Clement and Origen, consider that it is the object of the Lord's Supper that the soul should be fed by the Divine Word. — (Cf. I 58, 2.) 4. Tlie Sacrificial Theory. — When once the idea of a priesthood (§ 30) had gained a footing, the cognate notion of sacrifice could not for any time be kept out. The Lord's Supper offered several points of connection for this view. First, the consecrating prayer, which was regarded of such importance as to give its name to the whole service (fu;tapi3rt,'a), might be regarded as a spiritual sacrifice; next, names derived from terms applied to sacrificial worship were given to those offerings which the congregation made for behoof of the Lord's Supper (rtpocf^opai.', oblationes). And as the congregation brought its gifts for the Lord's Supper, so the p)riest offered them again in the Lord's Supper ; and to this act also the terms rtpos^fpftr, avoj^iptw, were applied. Ultimately, as the prayer, so the Lord's Supper itself, was designated as ^vaia, sacrificium, although at first only in a figura- tive sense.— (Cf. §58, 2.) §34. READING, SERMON, PRAYER AND PRAISE. CoMP. Chr. W. F. Walch, krit. Unters. vom Gebrauch d. h. Schr. in d. 4 erst. Jahrh. (Crit. Inq. into the Use of the Script, during the First Four Ce^it.). Lpz. 1779. — T. G. Ifegehnaier, Gcsch. d. Bibelverbots (Hist, of the Prohibition of the Bible). Ulm. 1783. — E. Leopold, d. Predigtamt im Urchristenth. (The office of Preach, in the First Ages) 124 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). LllnelD. 1846. — M. Gerhert, de cantu et musica a prima eccl. fetate Bamb. 1774. 2 Voll. 4. — L. Biicliegger, de Orig. s. Poeseos. Frib. 1827 • — E.Bvhl, der Kirchenges. in der griech. K. bis auf Chrysost. (Ch Music in the Gr. Ch. to the Time of Chrys.), in the "hist, theol. Zeitschr." for 1848. II. Following the arrangement in the Jewish synagogue, the reading of the Scrijjtvres (awyrcooK, lectio), formed the funda- mental part on every occasion of public worship. The person officiating was left free to select any portions of the Bible. In general, this duty was assigned to special readers, although, by way of distinction, tlie gospels were frequently read by the deacons, the congregation standing as a mark of their respect. — Besides the canonical writings of the Old and New Testaments, other edifying works, such as the productions of the apostolic Fathers (especially the Shepherd of Hermas and the Letter of Clement), the Acts of Martyrs, and certain apocryphal works, were also read in some congregations. After reading, the bishop, or by his order the presbyter, the deacon, and occasion- ally the catechist (Origen), delivered a lecture or practical discourse (ojutxi'a, xdyoj, sermo, tractatus). In tlie Greek Church this speedily assumed the form of an artificial and rhetorical composition. The Word of God having thus been read and explained, the congregation responded in prayers, which either the bishop or the deacon conducted, at first ex tempore, but at a comparatively early period according to a fixed liturgy. At short intervals the congregation responded to each prayer by Kvptf ixirjaov. In the third century, when the forms of public worship became more composite, suitable prayers were introduced at various stages of the service, designed respectively for cate- chumens, for those who were possessed, and for those under discipline. These were followed by a general prayer of the church for all classes of men, for all states and requirements in the congregation, and lastly by the prayers which introduced the celebration of the Eucharist. Singing of Psalms and Hj/mns had been in use since aposiolic times (§ 18, 5). — After the second century, tliis pai't of worship was enlarged and developed. 1. The Docirine of Inspiration. — At first theologians (following Philo) regarded the prophetic inspiration of the sacred writers as something merely passive, as an ezoraaij. Athenagoras compared the soul of the prophet to a flute, Justin Martyr to a lyre, touched by the Holy Spirit as by the plectrum. But the pretensions of the Montanistic READING, SERMON, PRAYER AND PRAISE. 125 prophets brought this view into discredit. Some of the writere of the Alexandrian school held that, in a certain sense, the Holy Spirit had also influenced the choicest minds in the heathen world. This theory- led to a lower view of inspiration generally. Origen, especially, was wont to teach a certain gradation in the inspiration of the Bible, according as human individuality appeared more or less prominently in the sacred writings. 2. Marcion was the first to collect a New Testament Canon, about the year 150 [I 28, 10). The list known by the name of Muraiori's Canon dates from about twenty years later. It consists of a fragment found by Muratori, containing an index of the sacred writings received in the Roman Church. Irenreus, Terlidlian, Clemens Alexandrimis, Origen, and Eusebins, are our principal authorities for a -still later period. From the time of Irenceus and the Muratori fragment, the Four Gospels, the Book of Acts, the thirteen Epistles of Paul, the Epistle to the Hebrews (which, hoAvever, in the West was not regarded as of Pauline authorship), the First Epistles of Peter and of John, and the Book of Revelation, were universally recognized as canonical. Hence Eusebius designates them djxoXoyovfitva. Opinions differed about the Epistle of James, the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third Epistles of John, and that of Jude {avYi.'KfyofiBva). A third class of writings, which laid no claim to canonicity, Eusebius designates as vo^a (the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, the "Acta Pauli," etc.). — (Cf. ^ 59, 1.) 3. Translations of the Bible. — As Hebrew was almost entirely unknown, even the learned perused the Old Testament only in the translation of the LXX. In the second century, several Latin transla- tions circulated, among which the Itala was that most in repute. Since the second century, a Syriac translation also existed. It was called the Peshito, i. e., plana, simplex, as it gave the words of the original literally and without circumscription. — (Cf. ^59, 1.) 4. Hyninology. — When Pliny (§23, 2) referred to the practice " carmen Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invioeni," he must have alluded to special hymns, with hypophonic responses on the part of the congregation. Tertulliaji and Origen bear frequent testimony to the existence of numerous hymns adapted for public and family worship The Gnostics (Bardesanes and Harmonius) seem for a time to have been more distinguished than the Catholics in the composition of hymns, and thereby to have stimulated the latter to greater zeal. Among Catholic hymn writers, Athenogenes, a martyr, and Nepos, an Egyptian bishop, are mentioned. A hymn ftj Scor^pa, by Clemens Alex., ha.s been handed down. Socrates ascribes to Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, the introduction of antiphonies (between different choirs in the con- gregation). However, the statement of Theodoret, that about the year 11* 126 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100- -323 A. D.). 250 Flavian and Diodor, two monks of Antioch, had imported this form of worship from the national Syrian into the Graeco-Syrian Church, appears to us more trustworthy. — (Cf. § 59, 2.) I 35. PLACES OF PUBLIC WORSHIP AND INFLUENCE OF ART. CoMP. G. Kinl-el, Gesch. d. bild. Klinste (Hist, of Art). I. Bonn 1845. — Ch. F. Bellermaim, die alt. chr. Begrilbnissstat. (The Anc. Chr. Places of Sepult.). Hamb. 1839.— J?'. Miinier, Sinnbild. u. Kunst- vorstell. d. alt. Christen. (Emblems and Artist. Ideas of the Anc. Christ.). Altona 1825. — F. Piper, Mythol. u. Symbol, der chr. Kunst. (Mythol. and Symb. of Chr. Art). Weim. 1847. The first unequivocal mention of buildings specially designed for public worship occurs in the writings of Tertullian (at the close of the second century). At the time of Diocletian, a splendid church stood close by tlie imperial residence in the city of Nicomedia, and proudly overshadowed it (§ 23, 6). At the commencement of the fourth century, Rome numbered more than forty churches. We are, however, entirely ignorant of the form and arrangement of these churches. But the Apostolic Con- stitutions already enjoin that they should be oblong, and so placed as to point to the east. Tertxdlian and Cypj-iaii men- tion an altar for the preparation of the Lord's Supper, and a desk for reading. During the times of persecution Christian worship required, of course, to be held in secret — in caves, in deserts, in places of sepulture, and in catacombs. But even at other times the Christians liked to celebrate worship in places where believers were buried (cemeteru-s) and in catacombs, in order to manifi"^t that communion in Christ continued beyond death and the g.^n . — (Cf. § 36, I, 4;. The Arts. — The early Cliristians inherited fi-om Judaism a dislike to the arts. This feeling was not a little increased by their antagonism to the artistic worship of heathenism, by a spirit of outward separation from the world, which was called forth and fostered during the early persecutions, and by a one-sided interpretation of the statement of Christ concerning the worship of God in spirit and in truth. But, considering the artistic taste of the Greeks, this aversion could not last. How strong the reaction had become, even at the time of Tertullian, may be gathered from his violent opposition. The first distinctively Christian works of art consisted of emblems, used, however, only in domestic and private life, on the walls of dwellings, cups, rings, etc. ; next the catacombs were adorned ; and, lastly, in the fourth century, the churches. The emblems most in use were the monogram of the LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. 127 name Christ, consisting of an intertwining of the letters X and P. Frequently the letter P terminated in an anchor, and the letter X was surrounded by the letters o and w (Rev. i. 8). A symbol much in use was that of a fish, of which the name, ix^vi, served as an anagram ('1)^5. Xp. ©£ou Tioj Scor^p), and which at the same time reminded of the water of life and of the water of baptism. Besides, we also meet with the representation of a ship, of a dove, of an anchor (Heb. vi. 19), of SLji-iherman (Matt. iv. 19), of a crown (Rev. ii. 10), of a vine (John sv.), of & palm-tree (Rev. vii. 9), of a cock (John xviii. 27), of a phoenix (as symbol of the resurrection), of a hart (Ps. xlii. 1), of a lamb (John i. 29), of a shepherd who carries ou his shoulder the lost sheep that had been found (Luke xv.), etc. — By and by these symbols led to the use oi types. Old Testament histories were now depicted : from that it re- quired only another step to delineate New Testament events. — So late as the year 305, the Synod of Illiheris (Elvira) interdicted the use of pictures in churches. — During this period, onl}' Gnostics (the Carpo- cratians) and heathens (as in the Lararium of Alexander Severus, I 23, 4) made use of images of Christ. From Isaiah liii. 2, 3, the Catholics inferred that the outward appearance of the Saviour had been the opposite of atttractive. — (Cf. §57, 4; 60, 3.) §30. LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. CoMP. G. Arnold, erste Liebe, d. i. wahre Abbild. d. ersten Christen (First Love, i. e., Faithful Portrait, of the First Chr.). Frkf. 169G. — C. Schmidt, essai hist, sur la societe dans le monde Rom. et sur sa trans- form, par le christianisme. Strassb. 1853. — J. A. and Aug. Theiner, die Eiufuhrung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit bei d. chr. Geistl. (In- trod. of the Oblig. to Celibacy among the Chr. Clergy). 2 vols. Altenb. 1828. Whore, as in the persecutions of that period, the chaff is so thoroughly separated from the wheat, the Divine power of the Grospel and the rules laid down by strict ecclesiastical discipline would of necessity produce a degree of purity, of moral earnest- ness, and of self-denial, such as never before had been seen in the world. But what attracted most admiration among the heathen, who were so much accustomed to mere selfishness, was the brotherly love practised (§ 60, 2 ', the care taken of the poor and bick, the ready and large-hearted hospitality, tlie sanctity of the marriage relation, and the joy with which martyrdom was borne. Marriages with Jews, heathens, and heretics, were disapproved of; commonly also second marriage after the death of a first husband. Christians avoided taking part in public amusements, dances, and spectacles, as being "pompa diaboli." According to 11 128 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.;. Eph. vi. 10 etc., they regarded the Christian life as a militia Ghristi. But since the middle of the second century, as in out- ward constitution and worship, so in the ethical views concerning the Christian life, the depth, liberty, and simplicity of apostolic times gave place to a spurious, catholic externalisra and bone' age. Ecclesiastical teachers still, insisted, indeed, on the necessity jf a state of mind corresponding to the outward works done. But already this outward conformity was over-estimated, and thus gradually the way was prepared for work-holiness and the opus operatum (1 e., attaching merit to a work in and by itself). This tendency appears very prominently so early as in the case of Cyprian (de opere et eleemosynis). With this the Alexandi'ian theologians also combined a theoretical distinction between a higher and lower morality, of which the former was to be sought by the Christian sage (o yiwortzoj), while an ordinary Christian might rest satisfied with the latter. This laid the foundation for all the later aberrations of asceticism. — (Cf. § 61.) 1. The Christian Life. — The spirit of Christianity also pervaded domestic and civil life. It manifested itself in family worship, in the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the family (|33), in making the sign of the cross before undertaking or doing anything, and in adorning the dwellings and furniture with certain symbols (| 35, note). The rites of marriage were consecrated by the Church, but, as yet, the validity of a union was not considered as depending on this. The wearing of garlands and of veils by brides was disapproved, as being heathen sym- bols ; but the custom of using a marriage ring was early in use, and was viewed as a Christian symbol. Tiie practice of the heathen to burn the dead bodies reminded of hell-fire ; the Christians, therefore, preferred the Jewish practice of burial, appealing to 1 Cor. xv. Chris- tian families observed the anniversaries of the death of their departed members with prayer and oblations, in token of their continued com- munion Avith them (| 33, 4). 2. Ecclesiastical Discipline. — (For the literature see | 31, 1.) Here- tics, apostates, and pertinacious transgressors, were, according to apos- tolic injunction, excluded from the communion of the Church {excom- municatio), and only restored after having given sufficient proof of their penitence. From the great number of those who, during the Decian persecution, made recantation, it became necessary to fix a certain rule of procedure in such cases, which remained in force till the fifth century. Penitents had to pass through four stages of discipline, of which each lasted, acc(n-ding to circumstances, one or more years. In the first (the rtpdoxXavcrtj), the penitents, arrayed in the garb of mourn- ing, stood by the church-door, entreating the clergy and congregation LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. 129 to receive them again ; in the second (the axpoaan;), penitents were allowed to be present, although in a separate place, during the reading of the Scriptures and the sermon. In the third [vrtorttoiaii] , they were also allowed to be present, and to kneel at prayer ; while in the fourth (ouo-fatTis), they might again join in all the parts of public worship, with the exception of the communion, which, howcA^er, they might witness, standing. After that, they made a public confession of their sins [i^ofioxoyrjsi.i), and received absolution and the fraternal kiss (pax, reconciliatio). This administration of discipline was only shortened or rendered milder " in periculo mortis." But this extreme strictness in dealing with penitents also led to the opposite extreme of excessive laxity. Confessors, especially, frequently abused their privilege of procuring the restoration of penitents by means of what were called xecommeiuhdory letters [libeUt pads), a practice which tended seriously to injure the administration of discipline. On the other hand, some went so far as to deny that the Church had the right of absolving and restoring those who had been guilty of mortal sin (1 John v. 16), such as theft, murder, adultery, or apostasy. But these extreme views did •not mislead the Church. — (Cf. ^ 61, 1.) 3. Asceticism. — The asceticism (tyxparfta, continentia) of the hea- then and of the Jews (the Pythagoreans, the Essenes, the Therapeutge) was either the result of dualistic views, or the manifestation of a false spiritualism. In opposition to this tendency, Christianity propounded it as a principle: Yidvra. vjxC^v iativ (1 Cor. iii. 21; vi. 12). At the same time it also admitted, that from the disposition, the requirements, or circumstances of an individual, a sober asceticism was warrantable, and might even prove relatively useful (Matt. xix. 12; 1 Cor. vii. 5, 7). But the Gospel neither insisted on it, nor ascribed to it any merit. Views such as these prevailed so late as the second century (they occur, for example, in Ignatius). But after the middle of that century, a much greater value was attached to asceticism. It was regarded as a higher stage of morality, and as ensuring superior merit. — Along with this change, the ideas connected with asceticism underwent a modification. In general, it meant frequent and protracted fasts and cclibacii, or at least abstinence from conjugal intercourse (after 1 Cor. vii.; Matt. xix. 12). — Continued prayer and meditation served to foster the spiritual life of ascetics. Most of them, also, voluntarily relin- quished their worldly possessions, in application of Luke xviii. 24. After the middle of the second century their number rapidly increased, till they formed a distinct class in the community. But as yet they were not bound by irrevocable vows to continue this manner of life — The idea tiiat the call to asceticism devolved more especially on the clergj-, resulted from their designation as the xXjypoj 0£oi3. So early as the second century, a second marriage on the part of clergymen waa held to be unlawful (on the ground of 1 Tim. iii. 2) ; Avhile in the 130 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). third, it was considered their duty, after ordination, to abstain from conjugal intercourse. The attempt to make this obligatory was first made in the year 305, at the Council of Elvira, but proved unsuccess- ful.— The shameful practice, on the part of certain ascetics and clerics, of taking to themselves (perhaps in misinterpretation of 1 Cor. ix. 5) religious females as sorores (aSeX^al), seems to have originated in the second century. The idea was, that being joined to them in spiritual love, they were unitedly to defy the temptations of the flesh. In the middle of the third century this practice was widely spread. Cyprian frequently inveighs against it. The abuse went so far, that these so- called " sorores" slept in the same bed with the ascetics, and indulged in the most tender embraces. To prove the purity of their relation- ship, they were wont to appeal to the testimony of midwives. So far as we can gather, Paul of Samosaia, in Antioch, was the first bishop to encourage this practice by his own example. In the popular par- lance of Antioch, this more than doubtful relationship went by the name of yvvalxBi Bvviiodx-toi [.tubintrodvctce, agapetas, extraneae). At last bishops and councils passed strict injunctions against it. — During the Decian persecution some Egyptian Christians had fled into the • wilderness, Avhere avoiding, on principle, all intercourse with their fellow-men, they led a life of strict asceticism. These were the first Anchorites. One of them, Paul of Tliehes, lived almost ninety years in the wilderness. His existence had been forgotten by his cotem- poraries, when, in 340, S. Antoniiis discovered his remains, from which life had but lately departed. His body was found in the attitude of prayer. 4. The Beginning of Martyr- Worship). — Martyrdom was early lauded as a lavacnnn sanguinis in which sin was washed away, an ample sub- stitute for baptism. The anniversaries of the death of martyrs, desig- nated birthdays to a higher life (yfi/t^-^ta, natalitia martyrum) were observed with prayers, oblations, and the Lord's Supper at their graves, in token of continued communion with them in the Lord. Hence their remains were gathered with great care, and solemnly interred. Thus I'olycarp's, at Smyrna (| 23, 3), were collected and preserved as tiima- ■fspa xi^ixiv jioXvti'Ki^v xai SoxijUtirfpa vrtfp ;tpv)ffi.oj', in order that his ■j.fvs- ^Xtoj/ ev ayyaT^idafc xai. ;t*P? f-i '^* '^'^*' rtporj^Xrixotuii' /xvyjfjirjv xai rHv fuTAov- rciv aaxTjaiv tt xai itoifxaaoav might there be performed. — The relics were not yet thought to possess miraculous virtues, nor do we find any trace oi praying to saints. But itwas confidently believed, that at the throne of God they eSectually interceded for the Church militant on earth, as they had been often asked to do before their departure. The living, also, felt it to be their duty constantly to pray for departed saints. High respect was likewise paid to confessors (§ 23, 5) during their life, and they Avere allowed to exercise great influence in the affiiirs of the church, as in the choice of bishops, the restoration of the fallen, etc. THE MONTANISTIC REFORMATION. 131 ^37. THE MONTANISTIC REFORMATION (about 150 a. p.). CoMP. G. Wernsdovf, de Montanistis. Gedan. 1751. — A. Neander, Aiitignosticus (Transl. by J. E. llyland, Lond. Bohn.). — K. Hesselberg, Tertullian's Lehve (The Doct. of Tert.). Dorp. 1848.— [^1. Sclmegler, d. Montan. u. d. chr. K. d. 2 Jahrli. — Montan. and the Chr. Ch. of the Second Cent. — Tubg. 1841. — F. Clir. Baiir, das Wesen d. Montanism., in the Tlibg. Jahrb. for 1851. IV.] However rigorous the moral demands which the Church of the second and third century made upon its members, and however strict the exercise of its discipline, parties were not wanting who deemed the common practice and views insufficient. Among tliese the Montanids^ were the most notable. The movement originated in Phrygia, about the middle of the second century. Its leading characteristics were : a new order of ecstatic pro- pliets, with somnambulistic visions and new revelations ; a grossly literal interpretation of scriptural predictions ; a fanati- cal millenarianism ; a self-confident asceticism ; and- an exces- sive rigour in ecclesiastical discipline. Thus, without dissenting from the doctrinal statements of the Church, Montanism sought to reform its practice. In opposition to the false universalism of the Gnostics, the Montanists insisted that Christianity alone, and not heathenism, contained the truth. In opposition to Catholicism, they maintained that their own spiritual church was really a step in advance of apostolical Christianity. If Mon- tanism had universally prevailed, Christianity would speedily have degenerated into mere enthusiasm, and as such run its course. This the Church recognized at an early period, and hence protested against these views as a heretical aberration. It could not but be seen that their much-vaunted purity of doc- trine was always, more or less, at the mercy of the disordered imagination of some Montanist prophet. Still, their moral ear- nestness and zeal against worldliness, hierarchism, and false spiritualism, rendered important service to the Church, both in the way of admonition and of warning. 1. Fhrijijian Montanism. — About the middle of the second century, Montanus, a native of Ardaban, appeared at Pepuza, in Phrygia, as a prophet and reformer of Christianity, to which he had only lately be- come a convert. He had visions, and while in a state of unconscious- ooss and ecstasv , prophesied of the near advent of Christ, and inveighed 11* 132 SECTION I.— I'IRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) . against the corruption in the Church. Maximilla and PrisciUa, twf females, were infected with his enthusiasm, became likewise somnam- bulistic, and prophesied. Part of the congregation recognized him as a divine prophet, and believed his predictions and teaching (Montanis- t£e, Kara^puyfj, Pepuziani). Others regarded him and these two females as possessed, and would have called in the aid of exorcism. Meantime opposition only served to feed the delusion. Monianus felt convinced that in him was fulfilled the promise of Christ concerning the Faraclete, who was to guide the Church into all truth. His adhe- rents declared that they alone had received the Holy Ghost. They called themselves 7tvtvfxati.xoC, and designated the unbelieving Catho- lics as ■^vxi'xoi. The movement spread, growing in error as it pro- ceeded. The principal ecclesiastical teachers of Asia Minor (Claudius Apollinarius, Miltiades, Rhodon, etc.) rose against it as one man, and by word and writing contended against Montanism. Several synods also solemnly pronounced against it (about 170). They suc- ceeded in arresting the spread of this delusion. 2. Montanism in the West. — The sentence of condemnation pro- nounced in Asia Minor was approved of at Rome. But the Christiana of Gaul, who had always kept up close intercourse Avith the Mother Church in Asia Minor, and who, under the pressure of the Aureliau persecution, cherished at that time more lively expectations of a coming millennium, refused entirely to condemn the Montanistic movemeitt. Accordingly, they addressed conciliatory letters, both to Asia Minor and to Rome. Irenceus, at the time only a presbyter, went to Rome, and persuaded Bishop Eleuthenis to adopt mild and conciliatory mea- sures. But soon afterwards, when Praxeas, a confessor from Asia Minor (§ 40, 3), arrived in Rome, he and Cajns, a presbyter and a fanatical enemy of rnillenarianism, so wrought upon Bishop Victor by a description of the proceedings of the Montanists, that he withdrew the epistles of peace which he had already written. From that time the Roman Church remained strenuously opposed to Montanism. Still, the movement met with considerable sympathy in the West, especially in Proconsular Africa. This translocation, however, proved otherwise useful, by removing much of the fanaticism and sectarianism which had (U'iginally attached to the party. TertuUian, a presbyter of Carth- age (about the year 201), and the most eminent teacher in the West, of his time, was by far the ablest champion of Montanism. He devoted all his energy and talents to gain adherents to his principles. But the stigma of sectarianism and the reproach of heresy attached to them. Still the sect of Tertnllianists continued in Africa for a long time. 3. Doctrine and Practice. — It is the fundamental idea of Montanism tliat Divine revelation gradually and increasingly developed. This progression had not reached its climax in Christ and His apostles, but was destined to do so during the era of the Paraclete, whic h had com- ECCLESIASTICAL SCHISMS. 133 menced with Monfanns. The patriarchal period was the period of infancy in the kingdom of God ; the period of the law and of prophecy, under the Old Covenant, its childhood; in the Gospel it entered upon ihe period of youth : while in the Montanistic effusion of the Spirit, it finally attained the full maturity o{ manhood. Its absolute completion may be expected to take place in the millennium, which was regarded as at hand. The following were the principal reformatory ordinances of the Paraclete : Second marriage was to be considered fornication ; — much greater importance was to Ix* attached to fasting : on the "dies stationum" it was absolutely unlawful to partake of anything, and two weeks before Easter only water and. bread or dry meat (|^7pofttyla^) were allowed ; — those who had been excommunicated were to con- tinue in the " status poenitentige" during the remainder of their lives ; — martyrdom was to be sought after ; to Avithdraw in any way from persecution was, in measure, to apostatize ; — virgins were to appear onlv veiled, and, generally, women to renounce all luxury and orna- ments: — worldly iscience and art, and all worldly enjoyments, even those which appear to be innocent, were treated as a snare laid by the enemy, etc. I 38. ECCLESIASTICAL SCHISMS. It so happened that sometimes in one and the same conp:rega- tion there were those who advocated the administration of lax and of ria:orous discipline. Each of these parties, of course, wished to enforce its peculiar views, to the exclusion of all others. From snch controversies, accompanied as they fre- quently were by disputes between presbyters and bishops, and by doctrinal divergences, various schisms arose which continued for a period, even althou,2:h outward circumstances seemed at the time to render ecclesiastical union more than ever desirable. We read of four such schisms durint? the period under review. 1. The Srhiftm^ of nippolytiix at Borne (about 220-235). — (Comp. J. D/'ifliiiger. Hipp. n. Callistus. Regensb. 1853. — Wordstvorth, S. Hippol. and his Ago. Lond. 1853.— TF: E. Taylor, Hippol. and the Chr. Ch. of the Third Cent. Lond. 1853. — Art. " Hippol." in Herzog's Encycl., in the translate publ. by Lindsay and Blakiston, II. 570, 18(30.) — After a life full of curious adventures, Callistus (Calixtus), a liberated slave, was in 217 raised to the see of Rome, not without strenuous opposition from the more strict party in the Church. They charged him with a c innivance at every kind of transgression, equally inconsistent with Christian earnestness and destructive of all discipline. Besides, they also accused him of holding the Noetian heresy (?40, 4). The opposi- lion was headed by IPj'ipolytti.'i, a presbyter, whom his adherents elected 12 134 SECTION I. —FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). counter-bishop. The schism lasted till the time of Pontimius, the second in occupation of the see of Rome after Callistus. The chiefs of both parties having been banished to Sardinia, a reconciliation took place between their adherents, who united to choose another bishop (235). 2. Tlie Schism of Felicissimus at Carthage, about the year 250, was in reality an opposition to the episcopal authority of Cyprian. The (modei-ate) strictness of that bishop in dealing with the lapsed was only made a pretext. Several presbyters at Carthage were dissatisfied with the appointment of Cyprian as bishop (248), and sought to withdraw from his jurisdiction. At their head was Novntns. They ordained, of their own authority, Felicissimus, Avho afterwards became the chief of the party, as deacon. Wlien, during the Decian persecution, Cyprian for a short time left Carthage, they accused him of dereliction of duty and cowardice. But Cyprian soon returned, and his opponents turned his strictness towards the lapsi to account for exciting people against him. The bishop had protested against the readiness with which some confessors had, without fully examining into the circumstances, given libellos paci,s to the lapsed, and deferred the consideration of such cases to a synod, to be held after the persecution had ceased. An eccle- siastical visitation completed the breach. The dissatisfied presbyters at once received the lapsed ; renounced the authority of Cyprian, although, when the persecution broke out afresh, that bishop himself introduced a milder discipline ; and elected Fortiinatus as counter- bishop. Only after considerable trouble Cyprian, by a combination of prudence and firmness, succeeded in arresting the schism. 3. In the Schism of Novatian, a Freshyter at Rome (251), the cause of dispute was of an almost opposite character from that just described. Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, exercised a mild discipline ; a practice opposed by the more strict party, under the presbyter Novatian. When Novatvs of Carthage arrived at Rome, he joined the discontented party, although his own views on ecclesiastical discipline had been the very opposite of theirs, and incited them to separation. The strict party now chose Novatian as their bishop. Both parties appealed for recognition to the leading churches. Cyprian pronounced against Novafian, and contested the sectarian principles of his adherents, according to which the Church had not the right to assure forgiveness to the lapsed, or to those who, by gross sin, had broken their baptismal vows (though they admitted the possibility that, by the mercy of God, such persons might be pardoned). The Nwatians also held that the Church, being a communion of pure persons, could not tolerate in its bosom any who were impure, nor readmit a person who had been ex- communicated, even though he had undergone ecclesiastical discijiline. On this ground the party called itself the Ka^apot. Owing to the moral earnestness of their principles, even those bishops who took a iifi"erent view from theirs wei-e disposed to regard them more favcura- IHEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 135 bly ; and almost through the whole Roman empire Novatian com- munities sprung up, of which remnants existed so late as the sixth century. 4. The Schism of Meletius in Egypt. — During the Diocletian persecu- tion, Meletiiis, Bishop of Lycopolis, in Thebais, had, without being authorized, arrogated to himself the power of ordaining and of other- wise interfering Avith the rights of his metropolitan, Petrus, Bishop of Alexandria, who for a season had retired from his diocese. Warnings and admonitians were in vain. An Egyptian synod then excom- municated and deposed him. This gave rise to a schism (306) which spread over Egypt. The general Council of Nice (325) offered to all Meletian bishops amnesty, and the succession in their respective sees in casQ. the Catholic counter-bishop should die. Many submitted, but Meletius himself, with some others, continued schismatic, and joined the party of the Arians. IV. TEACHING AND LITERATURE OF THE CHURCH. 1 39. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR REPRESEN- TATIVES. The earliest Christian writers had enjoyed intercourse with, and instruction from, the apostles. On that account they are commonly caHed Apostolic Fathers. In their case, as in that of the apostles themselves, the immediate requirements of practical life formed the burden and the motive of their writings. But the literary contest with heathenism, which immediately suc- ceeded, gave a more scientific character to Christian authorship. This contest gave rise to a long series of apologetical works, which in great part date from the second century. The scientific tendency of Christian theology developed even more fully in the Ihird century during the controversy with Judaising and paganising heretics. In opposition to those dangerous aberrations, three peculiar types of doctrinal views developed within the Catholic Church after the close of the second century. They are commonly distinguished as the schools of Alexandria, of Asia Minor, and of North Africa. — Since the close of the first century, another branch of lilcrature, though one of very doubtful value, had also appeared. We allude to the apocry- plio.l and pxead(>-epi(/7-aphic writiiigs, which arose partly with loG SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (lOO— 323 A. D.). the view of spreading certain heresies, partly for apologetital purposes, and partly to give sanction to certain ecclesiastical ordinances. This species of literature seems to have attained its highest point during the second and third centuries. — (Cf § 47.) 1. The Apostolic Fathers. — (Comp. A. Hit gei if eld, die ap. V. Halle 1853. J. H. B. Luhkert, d. Theologie d. ap. V. in the " Luther. Zeitschr." for 1854. IV. Lechler, d. Apost. u. nachapost. Zeitalter. Stuttg. 1857). Of these seven are mentioned : (1.) Clement, -Bishop of Borne (Philippians iv. 3), from whom we have ap Epistle to the Corinthians, containing admonitions to concord and humility. (2.) Barnabas, the well-known companion of the Apostle Paul. The letter, preserved under his name, betrays, by its allegorical inter- pretations, the Alexandrian ideas of the author, and breathes contempt for the Old Testament, and its ceremonial. It contains, however, some ingenious views, and gives evidence of deep piety. Its authenticity is doubtful. (3.) PIermas (Rom. xvi. 14). The Iloi,nr,v (Pastor) ascribed to him was perhaps written by a later Hernias, the brother of the Roman Bishop Pius, about the year 150. The work derives its name from the circumstance that in it an angel, under the guise of a shepherd, instructs the author. It contains visions, "mandata," and "simili- tudines." It is still in dispute whether the Greek copy recently brought from Greece, is really a transcript from the original, or only a retrans- lation from the old Latin version. (4). Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (| 23, 2). We possess seven letters of his, which on his journey to martyrdom he addressed to various churches (one of them to Polycarp). Of the two Greek re- censions, the more lengthy is manifestly a paraphrase. They are distinguished above all other writings of this time by energetic oppo- sition to Judaistic and Docetic heresy, by a most decided confession of the Divinity of Christ, and by strenuous assertions of the authority of bishops as the representatives of Christ. Bunsen, Lipsins, and others, maintain that a still shorter recension (in Syriac translation), of only three letters, represents the genuine works of Ignatius ; while Banr, Hihjenfetd, and others, deny the genuineness of all the three recensions. (5.) Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (§ 43, 3), a disciple of the Apostle John, has left a letter addressed to the Philippians. (G.) Papi-as, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, likewise a disciplo of John, collected the oral traditions of the discourses and deeds of the Lord (?toyi,'coi' xvptaxwi' fljjysyais), of which only a few fragments have been handed doAVU. Credulity, misunderstanding, and an unbounded attachment to millennarian views, seem to have characterized thia work. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 137 (7). A letter addressed to Diognetus by an unknown author, "who calls himself /.la^t^tri? ruiv artoaToXi^v. It is manifestly erroneous to regard Justin Martyr as its writer. The letter ably refutes the ob- jections of Piognetus to Christianity. Unlike the other Fathers, the author regards the heathen gods not as demons, but as empty phantoms. The institutions of the Old Testament he considers to have been human, and indeed partly inept, arrangements. The best edition of the Apos- tolic Fathers is that by Cotelerlns, Paris 1G78, folio ; the latest edition, that by Hefclc, 4th edition. Tiib. 1855. 2. Among the numerous Apologetical Writers of the second cen- tury (complete collections of their works, so far as extant, comp. ^ 63, 1, were published by Pnid. Maraiius. Par. 1742. 2 VoU. fol. and by C. T. Otto. Jen. 1842, etc.) the first place must be assigned to Justin Martyr, who was born at Sichem in Samaria, and died as martyr in the year 166. As a heathen, he successively sought after truth in the various philosopliical systems, among which he was most attracted by that of Plato. But it was only when an unknown venerable man, whom he met by the sea-shore, directed him to the prophets and apostles, that he found satisfaction. In the thirtieth year of his life he became a convert to Christianity, which, while continuing to wear his philosopher's cloak (pallium), he enthusiastically defended by writings and discussions. But thereby he also called forth the special hatred of heathen sages. Crescois, a Cynic at Rome, was his most bitter enemy, and left nothing undone to secure his destruction. In this he succeeded. Under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and about the year 160, Justin was scourged and beheaded at Rome. (Comp. Semisch, Justin Martyr, transl. by J. E. Ryland. Edin. T. and T. Clark.) 3. The School of Asia Minor. — This school may be traced back to the labours of John, and was distinguished by its firm adherence to the Bible, its strong faith, its scientific liberality, its conciliatory tone, and its trenchant polemics against heretics. The greater part of its numerous and formerly so celebrated teachers are known to us almost only by name. One of its oldest representatives was Melito, Bishop of Sardis, avLo died about 170. Of his numerous writings, which bore on all the important ecclesiastical questions of the time, only a very few fragments have been preserved. Eusebius and Jerome have pre- served a list of eighteen different tractates by that Father. After Melito, Irex^cs, a disciple nf Poly carp, was the most celebrated teacher of that school. He went into Gaul, where ho became presbyter, and, after the martyrdom of Bishop Pothinup (| 23, 3), was elevated to the see of Lyons. He died a martyr under Septimius Severus in the year 202. The best editions of his writings are those by R. Massuet, Paris 1710; ani by A. Stieren, Leipsic 1847. — The learned Hippolvtus, presbyter, and afterwards schismatic Bishop at Rome (g 38, 1), oh. 12 * 188 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) . 235, was a disciple of Irencms. Such was the authority in which Hippolytus was held, that, soon after his death, his friends erected a statue of him in Rome, bearing on the back of the chair a list of his numerous writings. It was dug out on an island of the Tiber in the year 1551. The best edition of his writings is that by /. A. Fabricius, Hanib. 1716. 2 vols. 4to. supplemented by S. Hippolyti Episc. et Mart. Refutat. omn. ha;res. Libr. X. quae supersunt. ed. Duacker et Schnei- dewin. GiJtt. 1850. 4. The School of Alexandria. — The principal task to which the repre- sentatives of this school set themselves, was to oppose a true churchly Gnosis to the spurious Gnosticism of heretics. In this attempt, some of them, however, were entangled in dangerous philosophical aberra- tions. Still, most of them were distinguished by classical culture, by logical acumen, by liberality and originality. The centre of this theo- logical tendency was the Catechetical School of Alexandria, which, from an institution for the instruction of educated catechumens, became a theological seminary. The first celebrated teacher in this institution was PantvEnus [oh. 202). He was surpassed by Clement of Alexan- dria, his pupil and successor. Impelled by a desire for knowledge, this writer, when still a heathen, had travelled about ; and having acquired considerable learning, arrived at Alexandria, where he was attracted by, and converted under, Pant^nus. During the persecution under Septimius Severris (202), he withdrew, according to Matt. x. 23, by flight from the vengeance of the heathen. But to his death in 220 he continued to work and to write for the Church. (Best edition by J. Potter, Oxon. 1715. 2 vols, fol.) However great his fame, it was sur- passed by that of Origen, his pupil and successor, Avhom heathens and Christians equally admired for his learning, and who, from his unwea- ried diligence, bore the designations of Adamantius and XaT^xevtipo^. He was distinguished as a philosopher, as a philologian, as a critic, as an exegetical, dogmatic, apologetic, and polemic writer. Posterity has, with equal justice, honoured him as the founder of scientific the ology, and disowned him as the originator of many heretical views. He was born at Alexandria, of Christian parents, about the year 185, and trained by his father Leonidas, and by Pantcemis and Clement. When still a mere boy, he encouraged his father to undergo martyrdom under Septimius Severus (in 202), provided for his helpless mother and her six orphan children, and was appointed by Bishop Demetrius teacher in the catechetical school (in 203). In order to do justice to his new office, he applied himself with all diligence to the study of philosophy, under the tuition of Ammonius Saccas, a Neo-Platonist. In private life he was exceedingly abstemious, and from his j'outh a strict ascetic. In his zeal for Christian perfection, and misunderstand- ing the passage in Matt. xix. 12, he made himself a eunuch, — a step which he afterwards felt to have been wrong. Meantime his fame THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 139 increased daily. In obedience to a highly honourable call, he labc-red for some time in the mission in Arabia. The excellent Empress Julia Mammcea summoned him to Antioch (218) ; and in the year 228 he undertook, for ecclesiastical purposes, a journey to Palestine, where the the bishops of Ccesarea and Jerusalem ordained him presbyter, though in opposition to the canons of the Church. His own bishop, Demetrius, who had at any rate been jealous of the fame of Origen, resented this invasion of his rights, recalled him, and in two synods held at Alexan- dria (in 231 and in 232), caused him to be deposed and excommunicated for heresy, self-mutilation, and contempt of ecclesiastical canons. Origen now betook himself to Cfesarea, where, honoured and assisted by the Emperor Philip the Arabian, he opened a theological school. Here his literary activity attained its climax. During the Decian persecu- tion he was imprisoned, and finally died at Tyre, in 254, in consequence of the fearful tortures which he had borne with calmness. — (Comp. E. R. Bedepe lining, Origenes. Bonn 1841. 2 vols. G. Tknmasius, Origenes, Nuremb. 1837. (Best editions of his works by C. delaRue, Paris 1733. 4 vols, fol., and by Lommaiszch, Berlin 1831, 26 vols.) — Among the successors of Origen at Alexandria, Dionysius Alexandrinus (since 233) was the most celebrated. In the year 248 he was elevated to the see of that city, and died in 265. He was not equal to Origen in point of speculation. But indeed his Charisma was rather the xvSipvriaii. Even his coteniporaries called him the Great. During the Decian per- secution he displayed equal prudence, calmness, courage, and constancy. Amid the ecclesiastical disputes of his time, he had ample opportunity of manifesting the generosity and mildness of his character, his faithful adherence to the Church, and his zeal for the purity of its teaching. Everywhere the influence of his self-denial and amiability was felt. — Gregory Tuaumaturgus had attended on the teaching of Origen at Caesarea. Converted, as a youth, under Origen, from paganism to the Gospel, he clung with the deepest affection to his venerated teacher. He afterwards became bishop of his native city, Neo-Caesarea, and on his death-bed enjoyed the consolation of leaving to his successor no more unbelievers in the city (17) than his predecessor had left be- lievers. He was designated a second Moses, and it was thought that he possessed the power of working miracles. — (Cf. ^ 47, 3, 4.) 5. The School of North Africa was distinguished by its realism and its practical tendency, thus representing the opposite extreme to the idealism and the speculations of the Alexandrians. Its peculiarity was that of the Western mind generally, and chiefly manifested itself in the controversy with Gnosticism. Its representatives, although them- selves classically educated, rejected classical science and philosophy, as apt to lead astray. They laid great stress on purity of apostolical tradition, and insisted on sanctification of the life and strict asceticism. Its first and greatest teacher was Tertullian, the son of a heathen 140 SECTION I. — FIRST PE RI O D (100—323 A. D.j. centurion at Carthage. While a pagan, he distinguished . imself as an advocate and rhetorician. He was converted late in life , and, after a considerable stay at Rome, vras ordained a presbyter at Carthage {ob. 220). Naturally he was impetuous and energetic; in his writings, as in his life, he appears a strong man, full of glowing enthusiasm for the foolishness of the Gospel, and equally strict towards himself and others. He originated the Latin ecclesiastical language; his "Punic style" is terse, rich in imagery and rhetorical figures ; his thoughts are acute and deep. Although himself trained in heathen lore, he was fanatically opposed to it, and equally so to Gnosticism. His zeal in favour of strict asceticism, and against every kind of worldliness, led him to become a Montanist in 201. There his peculiar mode of think- ing and feeling, the energy of his will, the ardour of his affections, his powerful imagination, his tendency towards the strictest asceticism, and his predilection for realism, found full scope for development. If, withal, he kept free from many aberrations of Montanism, this must be ascribed to his clear understanding and, however much he may have despised it, to his thorough scientific training. (Best edition of his works by Fr. OeJder, Leipsic 1854.) Comp. g 37. — Thascius C^cilius Cyprianus was first a heathen rhetorician, afterwards Bishop of Carth- age, and died a martyr under Valerian in 258. Although trained by the writings of TertrUlian ( " da magistrum !" ), he kept clear of his extravagances. He was equally distinguished by warm and firm adhe- rence to the idea of one, holy, visible Church, and by zeal, faithful- ness, vigour, and prudence in the cure of souls and the administration of his congregation. His life and writings give ample evidence of these qualities. (Comp. Eettherg, Cypr. nach sein. Leben und Wir- ken. — Cypr., his Life and Works — Gott. 1831. — G. A. Poole, Life and Times of Cyprian, Oxf. 1840.) — L. Coel. Lactantius Firmianus [ob. 330), by birth a heathen, afterwards teacher of elocution at Nicome- dia, and then tutor to Crispus, the imperial prince, who was executed in 326 by command of his father (Constantine the Great). His apolo- getic writings show that he was modest, amiable, and learned. They abound with evidences of his culture, affectionateness, and clearness. Frani the purity of his Latin style and the elegance of his diction, in which he far surpassed all other Fathers, he was called the Christian Cicero. But his writings are destitute of depth and acumen, and on theological qiiestions he frequently commits blunders and oversights. — To this school belong also Minvdii.s Felix, Commodianvs, and Arnobiiis, all of them apologetic writers. — (Cf. § 47, 5.) G. During this period the School of Antioch (^ 47, 1), of which the presbyters Dorolheus and Liician were the founders, first appeared. The latter died a martyr in 311. Through his influence, that school from the first gave its main attention to the critical, grammatical, and historical interpretation of the Scriptures. — There is said tc have been DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE, ETC. 141 a Christian school at Edessa, as early as the second century, -where Macarius expounded the Scriptures in the third century. 7. The greater part of the very numerous Apocryphal and Pseudo- EPiGRAPHic Works were composed to promote the spread of heretical, chiedy of Ebionistic and Gnostic views. Many of them, however, must also be traced to Catholic authors. Their chief purpose seems to have been, through a kind of pious fraud, to exalt Christianity by " vatici- nia post eventum," or to fill up any gaps in its history by myths and fables already existent, or specially devised for that end. The subjects chosen were either connected with the Old or with the New Testament, Among the latter we reckon Apocryphal Gospels, Acts of Apostles, Apostolic Letters and Revelations. In these gospels reference is not made to the teaching of Christ, probably because it was thought that the canonical gospels had given sufficient details on that subject. On the other hand, they dwell largely on the history of the childhood of the Lord, and furnish fabulous, though pretendedly documentary sup- plements to the accounts of Christ's sufferings. Besides, a number of spurious ancient heathen and Jewish oracles were circulated and fre- quently quoted for apologetic purposes (§ 41, 1). g 40. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES. CoMP. F. Chr. Baur, d. chr. Lehre v. d. Dreieinigkeit (The Chr. Doctr. of the Trinity). I. Tubg. 1841.— C A. Meier, d. Lehre v. d. Trinitat. I. Hamb. 1844. — /. A. Bonier, d. Lehre v. d. Person Christi. 2d Ed. I. Stuttg. 1845.—^. A. Kahnis, d. Lehre v. h. Geiste (The Doctr. concern, the H. Sp.). I. Halle 1847. — Lobeg. Lange, Gesch. u. Lehrb. d. Antitrin. vor d. nicten. Synode. Leipz. 1851. — (//. Corrodi) krit. Gesch. d. Chiliasm. (Crit. Hist, of Millenar.) 4 vols. Zur. 1794. Art. " Chiliasmus," in Herzog's Encj^cl. I. p. 657 etc. Philad. In its friendly or hostile contact with heathen culture, Chris- tianity had to appear in a scientific form, in order thus also to prove its claim to recognition as a universal religion. It must therefore soon have been felt necessary to develop the doctrines of the Gospel. During the three first centuries, however, the dogmas of the Catholic Church were not yet fully formed and established. Before this could be accomplished, Christian truth had freely to develop in individuals ; — besides, as yet, no gene- rally recognized medium for the decision of these questions, such as the later universal councils, existed; — the persecutions left nc time Or quietness for such purposes ; — and all the energies of the Church were engaged in defending Christian truth 142 SECTION I. — FIRST PER.OD (100—323 A. D.). against the inroads of heathen and Jewish elements, which in Ebionism and Gnosticism presented so threatening a front. But, on the other hand, the internal collisions and discussions which took place at that period prepared the Church for unfold- ing and ultimately establishing Christian doctrine. Among these we reckon the contest between the Catholics and the Mon- tanists (§ 3*7). — The discussions about Easter and about baptism (§ 31, 2 ; 32, 2) had also a dogmatic bearing, while the various schisms (especially that of Novatian, § 38) tended to fix the dogma concerning the Church. Nor must we leave out of con- sideration the 3Iillenarian discussions. But of greatest im- portance by far was the Trinitarian controversy, which took place in the third century. 1. The Trinitarian Questions. — These bore on the relation between the Divine /novapx^a, (the unity of God) and the oixovoula, (the nature and the relations of the Trinity). Peculiar emphusis was laid on the relation subsisting between the Son (or ?Loyoj) and the Father. The Church firmly maintained the independent personal subsistence of the Son (Hypostasianism) ; but various errors and difficulties arose when it was attempted to bring this view into harmony with the monotheism of Christianity. Adopting the distinction made by Philo between the Tioyoj si'Skx^s-t-os and the %. rtpo^opixo; (? 11, 1), it was at first thought that the hypostasation was somehow connected with or depended on the creation of the world, and had taken place for that purpose, — in short, that it was not necessary and eternal, but a free act in time on the part of God. The real essence of the Deity was rather ascribed to the Father, and all the attributes of divinity were not assigned to the Son in the same manner as to the Father. The statement of Christ (John xiv. 28) : " The Father is greater than I," was also applied to Christ's state of existence before His incarnation. The views enter- tained about the Holy Ghost were even more vague. His personality and independent existence were not subjects of settled or deep convic- tion ; it was more common to subordinate Him, and also to ascribe to Christ Himself the functions peculiar to the third person of the Trinity (inspiration and sanctification). But this process of subordination ap- peared to some of the Fathers to endanger not only the fundamental doctrine of the unity of God, but also that of the divinity of Christ. Hence they preferred passing over the personal distinction between the Logos, the Spirit, and the Father. One of two ways might here be chosen. Following the example of the Ebionites, Christ might be regarded as a mere man, who, like the prophets, had been furnished with Divine wisdom and power, only in infinitely higher measure [dynamisiic Monarchianism). Or else, yielding more fully to the felt want of Christians, it might be conceived that the whole fulness of the DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE, ETC. 143 Deity dwelt in Christ; thus identifying the Logos with the Father, I. e., regarding the former as only a peculiar mode in which the latter operated {niodalistic Monarchianism). Either of these forms of Monarch- ianism was regarded as heretical, and the hypostasian view as alone orthodox. Still the latter also contained an element of error (that of subordination), while the former (at least in its more elevated, niodal- istic form) embodied a truth which as yet was left out of the orthodox view (the acknowledgment of the equality of being, or of the o/xooutji-'o of the Son with the Father), These two opposing views were recon- ciled and united by the doctrine of homonsian Hijpostasianism pro- pounded in the third century, but which found general acknowledg- ment only in the fourth contui-y. 2. The Dynamistic Moaarchians. — Among them we reckon, 1. The Alogians in Asia Minor (about 170). They violently opposed the mil- lenarianism and prophetism of the Montanists, and rejected not only the Book of Revelation, but also the Gospel of John. Epiphaidus gave them their peculiar name, in which he alluded both to their rejection of the Gospel and of the doctrine of the Logos, and also to the ground- lessness of their views {axoyoi = unreasonable). 2. The same writer speaks of the TheodotiaN sect as an drtoartaa^a trii a'Koyov cupsfffcos. Their founder, Theodofus o axvrsiii, from Byzance, taught ^tjiov ai-^p- iOTtov sli'M tbv Xptoroi/. — Spiritu quidem sancto natum ex virgine, sed hominem nudum nulla alia prse cseteris nisi sola justitige autoritate. Towards the close of the second century he arrived at Rome, where he gained some adherents, but was excommunicated by Bishop Victor. Another Theodotus (o tpartf^uti^i) conceived that the power of God in Christ Avas le5S than that in Melchisedec, since Christ was only media- tor between God and men. On this ground his adherents were called Melchiaedecliites. 3. Of greater influence than either of these heretics, was Artejion, who busied himself with Aristotle rather than with the Bible, and maintained that his doctrine had been regarded at Rome as orthodox up to the time of Bishop Zephyrinus (the successor of Victor), who excommunicated him and his adherents. 3. Praxeas and Tertidlian. — Patripassianism, which represents the Father as Himself becoming incarnate and suffering in Christ, may be regarded as the preparation for, and the first rough form of Modalism. These views were first prominently brought forward by Praxeas, a confessor from Asia Minor (g 37, 2). He propounded thom without let ir Rome, about the year 190 ; but was even then vigoi-ously opposed by Tertullian. On his return to Africa that Father wrote, in defence of Montanism and Hypostasianism, a treatise against him, in which he showed the weak parts, the contradictions, and the dangerous tendency of the theory of Praxeas. Although Tertullian himself is not quite free from the errors of Subordinatianism, his views are more satisfac- tcry, since he speaks of a threefold progress in the hypostasatic n of the 12 * 144 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (lOO -323 A. D.). Son (filiatio). The first stage consisted of the eternal indwelling (im- manence, immanent subsistence) of the Son in the Father ; the second stage took place when the Son came forth bi/ the side of the Father, for the purpose of creating the world ; and the third when, by His incar- nation, the Son manifested Himself in the world. 4. Noelus, Callistns, and Hippolytus. — The views oi Noetus of Smyrna were not quite free from Patripassian error. He taught that the Son was the son of himself, and not of another. This doctrine was brought to Rome about 215 by Epigonus, his disciple, where it met with con- siderable support, being chiefly advocated by Cleomenes. In opposition to these views, Hippolytus (| 39, 3) maintained the doctrine of subor- dinatian Hypostasianism, which up to that time was regarded as orthodox (from all eternity Christ was perfect Logos, but only as the yoyoi ivSid^ifoi, being undistinguished from the Father ; by His incar- nation He had become perfectly the Son). Callistns, Bishop of Rome, conceived that both views contained some elements of truth and others of error. Although by no means clear in his statements, or wholly free from error, he Avas the first to propound what, in its fuller develop- ment, is known as homousian Hypostasianism. Hippolytus reproached the bishoji with being a Noetian, and he retorted by charging the presbyter with Ditheism. Sabellins, who at the time lived in Rome, was at first undecided, but ultimately pronounced in favour of Modalism, and was excommunicated by Callistvs. Hippoli/ttis and his adherents renounced the authority of Callistus, and formed a community of their own (^ 38, 1). 5. Berylhis and Origen. — Berylhis of Bostra, in Arabia, was also a Patripassian. His system formed a link of connection between Patri- passianism and Sabellian Modalism. He denied the Ibia^totrii of the divinity of Christ, and designated it as nwtpixri ^for?;?, but at the same time regarded it as a new form of manifestation [Tipoit^tov] on the part of God. In the year 244 an Arabian synod, to which Origen also was invited, was convened to discuss his views. Berj/llus, convinced of his error, made full recantation. All former teachers had held that the hypostasation of the Logos had taken place in time, for the purposes of creating the world and of the Incarnation. Origen was the first to propound the truth that the Son is begotten by the Father from all eternity, and hence from all eternity a hypostasis. Again, the Son is not begotten because this is necessary in order that the Son might become the Creator, but because it is necessary in and by itself, as light cannot be without radiance. He also propounded the dogma that the generation of the Son was going on for ever. He held that, as the life of God is not bound to time, the becoming idijective of this life in the Son must likewise lie bej'ond the limitations of time ; it is not an act of God once done, but a continuous manifestation of His life [ad yfvvq. o riarifp thv tlov). True, even Origen is not quite free from the DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE, ETC. 145 errors of Subordinatianism, but in his case they are confined within the narrowest limits. He rejects indeed the expression, that the Son was ex trji owri-'oj -tov rta^pdj, but only in opposition to the Gnostic theories of emanation. Similarly, he speaks of a t-fspof*;^ rrji ovoJaj, but only in opposition to the u/xoovaioi, taken in the sense of the Patri- passians. He held that the Son was begotten ix tov ^(Xr^ixait'oi ^loi, but only because he regarded Him as the Divine will become objective ; he calls Him a xTtajxa, but only in so far as He is ^soTtoiovftivoi, and not avro^Eoj ; but the Son is avtoaofia, avroaXt/^fia, Sevtspo^ ^foj. He held a subordination, not of essence, but of being or of origin. 6. SabeUms and the two Dionysii. — SabeUins, from Ptolemais, in Egypt, had during his stay at Rome devised a peculiar, speculative, and monarchian system, Avhich met with considerable support from the bishops of his country. It was favourably distinguished from other systems of the kind, in that it assigned a distinct and necessary place to the Hobj Ghont. According to him, God is a simple unity duovaj), who, as ^foj otcortwi/, rested in Himself, and when about to create the world came forth out of Himself as ^aoj Xa7^.MV or Xoyoj. During the course of the development of the world, the Monas (or the Logos) pre- sented Himself, for the purpose of salvation, successively under three different forms of existence (ovd^ara, rtpdjorta), of which each contained the entire Monas. They are not iinoatarjsL^, but rtpdjurfa (masks), as it were parts which God, when manifesting Himself in the world, suc- cessively undertook. Having finished His peculiar part by the giving of the law, the "Prosopon" of the Father returned again into His absolute state. Next He appears in the incarnation as the Son, when, at His ascension, He again returns into the Monas ; and lastly mani- fests Himself as the Hohj Gho^^t, that when the Church shall have been wholly sanctified. He may again, and for all eternity, become a monad, without distinction in itself. Sabellius designated this process as an expansion (ex-rafftj) and contraction (avaroT^yj, Ttxatva/ioi). To make his ideas more intelligible, he illustrated the above process by a simile of the sun, wroj fiev iv uCa vrtoatdaev, fpfij Sk sxovfo; raj f'vspyft'aj, viz., to T^i Ttepi^fpsiai ax^,l^o^r "^o fuitia-tixbi' xai to ^dxTtov. — At the Synod of Alexandria, in 2(>1, Dionysius the Great (^ 86, 4) contended against the Sabellianism of the Egyptian bishops, but in his zeal made use of terms Avhich imjilied subordinatian errors of the grossest kind {^svov xat ovrnav avrov fivai, tov flarpoj w5rtfp fmiv o yfcopyoj rtpof trjv d/ii7tsyi,oi' xai o vavTCrjyoi rtpdj to axa^o^, — ujj noD^fxa wr ovx ^v Ttpiv yevi'i^tat,). When Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, obtained tidings of this, he rejected, in a St/nod at Rome in 202, the expressions used by his colleague at Alex- andria, and published a tractate ('AvatpoTtrj), in which, with equal acuteness, clearness, and depth, he defended against Sabellius the doctrine of the hypostastic existence, and against the Alexandrians the suoovaia an.)ji'aj, is doubtful. Tatian, a pupil of Justin (| 28, 8), wrote a xoyo^ rtpoj '"ExkYiva^ ; Athenagoras handed to Marcus Aurelius his Tipia^sCa Ttspi ;tptartaj/wi' ; Tlieophilus of Antioch wrote rtpo? \vto%vxov rtcpi tr^ rwv Xptartafwv Ttlatiu^i ; Hermias, a satire, fitacrup^o; tiiv flu ^ixoao^uv. — From the pen of Clemens Alex, we possess an apology consisting of three portions : The ^dyoj rtpo-tpeTtrixoi rtpoj "Exx^jia? shows the falsehood of heathenism, the rtai6ayu>y6j shows the way to Christ, and the atpJi^ata introduce the reader to the deeper truths of Christianity. Oric/en wrote an excellent apology "contra Celsum" (§ 24, 2). From the able pen of Tertullian we have the " Apologeticus adv. gentes," — the "ad nationes," — "ad Scapulam" (the Proconsul of Africa), — " de testimonio animas " : — from Minucius Felix, an advocate at Rome, an excellent Dialogue enti- tled "Octavius"; — from Cijprian the " de idolorum vanitate" and " testimonia adv. Judjeos." Connnodian wrote, in barbarous Latin and in bad hexameters, his " instructiones adv. gentium Deos," — Arnobiiis, even before his baptism, the " disputationes adv. gentes," containing traces of Gnostic leanings, — ■Lactantius, in elegant Latin, his " institu- tiones divinae' — " de mortibus persecutorum," " de opificio Dei," " de ira Dei." — Among the pseudo epigraphic and apocryphal works, written for apologetic purposes, we reckon the " Testamenta XII. patriarch- arum," being the instructions and prophecies addressed by Jacob to his twelve sons, — and the Christian Sibylline books, being oracles (in 148 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.) . hexameters) by the daughters-in-Law of Noah, referring to the history of the various empires, the life of Jesus, the fate of Rome, Antichrist, etc. The Christians, who frequently appealed to them as very ancient testimonies in favour of the truth, were, by way of derision, designated by the heathen as Sibi/Uisis. — {Cf. | 48, 3.) 2. Polemics. — No polemical works of very ancient date (against the *Ebionites, the Gnostics, the Montanists, etc.) have been preserved. This species of literature seems to have been assiduously cultivated by the theologians of Asia Minor. HippolyUis wrote his ^CKoao^ovixivo. ^ xata rtatjun/ atpsatuj; exiyxo^ against every kind of heresy. The following authors wrote against the Gnostics: Irenceiis, the £yfy;to5 xai aiutportri trji ■^ivScivvfiov yvJiosuii (adv. hsereses), — Terkdlian, " de praescriptione hgereticorum," "adv. Herraogenem," "adv. Valentinianos," "adv. Marcionem," " de anima," " de carne Christi," " de resurrectione carnis," "Scorpiace" (antidote); — against the Monarchians: Uippoly- tus, "contra Noetum," "contra Artemouem," — Tertidlian, "adv. Praxeam,'' — Novatian, " de trinitate," — Dionysius of Alex, and Dio- nysius of Rome; — against the Allegorists (the disciples of Origen): Nepos of Arsinoe (§ 40, 8) and Methodius of Olympus, rtspi dvaardotcoj and rtspi fuiv yiwYi-tiliv, — while, on the other hand, Dionysius of Alex. (? 44, 8), Greyorius Thaumaturgus [di 'ilptyti/j^c rtafj^yuptxoj ^oyoj), and Famphilus of Csesarea ('ArtoXoyttt) defended Origen and his tendencies. — (Cf. I 48, 3.) 3. Dogmatics. — In the tractate rtspt ap;^uii' (de principiis), which has only been handed down in the Latin revision of Rufinus, Origen gave a systematic exposition of Christian doctrines generally. The work is full of ingenious speculations ; it also contains many traces of Platonic, Gnostic, and spiritualizing views, and a good many heterodox state- ments (such as: the eternity of creation, the fall of human souls before the creation of the world, their incarceration in the body, a denial of the doctrine of the resurrection, Apocatastasis, etc.). Occasionally, dogmatical statements on special points occur in some of the apologetic and polemic writings of that period. On the doctrine concerning the Chui-ch, the work of Cyprian, " de unitate ecclesije," may be said to form an era.— (Cf. §48, 5.) 4. Criticism and Exegesis. —To correct the text of the LXX., Origen undertook his gigantic M'ork entitled the Hexapla, which consists of collation of the different texts in six columns. Similar labours engaged Jjiician of Antioch (§ 39, 6). — The exegesis commonly in use was that knoAvn as allegorical, the Fathers following in this respect the Rabbins and the Hellenists. The Kxtt? of Melito (g 39, 3), in which the mystical Bense of Biblical names and words is indicated, furnishes directions for THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 149 the allegoi'ical interpretation of Scripture. It is preserved in a latei Latin elaboration (Clavis Melitonis in Pitra Spicil. Solesmense T. II. III.). Origen reduced tlie prevailing mode of interpretation to definite canons. He distinguished in every passage of Scripture a threefold sense — first the literal, then the higher or mystical, /. e., the tropical or moral, and lastly, the pneumatic sense, — as it were the (jwfta, ^X'h^ ^^^ Ttvsi'ixa. Without undervaluing the literal meaning of a passage, he deemed it of much greater importance to ascertain its mystical sense. Every history in the Bible was a representation of what had occurred in the higher world. Most events had occurred just as they were re- lated ; but some, which, if literally taken, appeared to him unworthy or unreasonable, were merely typical, and had not really taken place. The founders of the school of Antioch (| 39, 6), and probably also Nepos the Millenarian (| 40, 8), opposed this allegorical treatment of the Bible, and advocated an exclusively historical and grammatical interpretation. The exegetical writings of the time of Origen have not been preserved. Of his own works, the arnxsivjosH or brief scholia, the -foixoi or detailed commentaries on entire Biblical books, and the ofiXiai,, being explanatory lectures on the Scriptures, have been pre- served, partly in the original, and partly in the Latin translations of Hieronymus and of Rufinus. Hippolytus was, next to Origen, proba- bly the ablest exegetical writer ; but only small fragments from his exegetical works have been handed down, — (Cf. § 48, 1.) 5. In Historical Theology we possess Acts of Martyrs, Apocryphal Gospels, and Acts of Apostles (Ev. Jacobi Minoris, Ev. de nativitate Marise, Hist, de Joachim et Anna, Hist. Josephi fabri lignarii, Ev. infantise Salvat., Ev. Nicodemi, Acta Pilati, etc.). Eusebius has pre- served some fragments of the VTio^vr^ixata. tCjv ixx'Ki^aia.arixCjv rtpu^siov of Hegesippus, a Jewish Christian from Asia Minor. Of greater import- ance than this work was the Chronography ['Kpovoypa^ia) of Julius Africanus, which showed the connection between Biblical and profane history. But this tractate has also been lost. Among writings of the same class we may also reckoa the work of Lactantius, de morte perse- cutt.— (Cf. I 48, 1.) 6. Practical Theology. — In Homiletics, the first rank must be assigned to Origen. The most interesting writings of an ascetic character are those of Clement of Alexandria, TJj o tw^OjU.ei'oj Tt'Kovaioi ; of Origen, Ilfpi tiixr^i, and Eij fiaptvpiov rtporpfrtrtxoj Xoyoj ; of Methodius of Olym- pus, '^v\i.Tto6iov -tZiV htxa. Ttap^f nov rtf pi r^j ayy£Xo^t|U>jrou rtap^f I'taj. Among the Latins, we have by Tertullian (before he became a Montanist), "de oratioue," "ad martyres," "de spectaculis," "de idolatria," " de cultu feminarum," " de patientia," " ad uxorem ;" (after he became a Mon- tanist:) "de virginibus velandis," " de corona militis," " de fuga iu 13* 150 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.), persecutione," " de exhortatione castitatis," " de monogamia," " de pudicitia," "de jejuniis," "de pallio ;" — by Cyprian, " de gratia Dei," " de lapsis," " de opere et eleemosynis," " de bono patientiae," " de zelo et livore," etc. — On the subject of Ecclesiastical Law (constitu- tion, worship, discipline), the pseudo-Clementine Atarayai ta,v a.Ttoato'Kuiv (constitutiones apostolorum) are of very great importance. These originated in the Syrian Church, partly at the close of the third and partly at the commencement of the fourth century. The first six books also bear the name of bibaaxaxla xa^oxixr]. At the end of Book VIII, eighty-five pseudo-epigraphic " Canones apostolorum" are appended. — (Cf. g 48, 7.) SECOND PEEIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL FORK OF CULTURE. FKOM THE YKAR 323-692. I. STATE AND CHURCH. COMP. A. Bengnof, hist, de la destruction du Paganisme en Occident. Par. 1835. 2 Voll. — E. Chastel, hist, de hi destr. du Pag. dans Tempire de rOrient. Par. 1850. — E. von Lasaulx, der Untergang des Hellenis- mus (The Fall of Helleu.). Muu. 1854.— i^. Luhker, d. Fall. d. Heidenth. Schwerin 185G. H2. FALL OF HEATHENISM IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. After the defeat of Licinius (323), Constantine openly pro- fessed himself a Christian, although he still remained Pontifex Maximus, and was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia but shortly before his death (33T '. He showed himself tolerant towards lieathenisra, whilst he eucourag:ed conversion to Christianity by bestowing special favours upon those profes-ing it. His sons, however, used violence in suppressing heathenism. Jidian^in reign was merely a historical anomaly, which proved that hea- thenism perished because its effete powers were exhausted, rather than by violence. Its labours all perished with its death. Ju- lian's successors resumed the work of restricting, persecuting, and exterminating it. But Judinian inflicted tlie most fatal blow. — In spite of Julian's imperial protection, and the splendid renown of learned advocates (Jamblicus, ob. 333; Lil)anius, ob. 305; Himerius, ob. 390 ; Themistius, ob. 390 ; Proclus, ob. 485) Neo-Plaloniam (§ 24, 2) was wholly unable to accomplish its purpose. Still more signal was the failure of \\\ti Hi/psiata/'iaiis, 13 ~ (151) 152 SECTION 1. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). Euphemites, and Coelicoli, in their attempts to rejuvenate hea- thenism by means of a rigid Jewish monotheism, or an anti- quated Sabaeism. In the literary controversy between (!hris- tianity and heathenism, the character of the contest had been reversed. 1. Constantine M. and his Sons (Cf. /. C. F. Manso, Leb. Fonst. Bresl. 1817. — /. Burckhardt, Konst. u. s. zeit. Bas. 1853.) — Constan- tine's conversion cannot be set down to the account of mere political calculation. However, outbursts of passionate violence (among thorn the execution of Crispus, his son), and not a few actions which cannot be justified, occurred after his profession of Chi'istianity. He died in 337, soon after having received baptism, without having ever taken part in all the rites of public worship. His dislike of heathenism, which, through the influence of some powerful families, was still preva- lent at Rome, formed one of the elements in his resolution to transfer his residence to Byzantium (Constantinople). His three sons com- menced their reign by assassinating all the relatives of the Emperor (only two nephews, Gallus and Julianus, escaped), and by dividing among themselves the empire. Coiistantius (337-361) ruled first over the East. After the death of Constantine II. [ah. 340), and of Cou- stans {oh. 350), he became sole lord of the empire. All the sons of Constantine endeavoured to suppress heathenism by force. Constan- tius caused all heathen temples to be shut, and interdicted sacrifices on pain of death. Great numbers of pagans made profession of Chris- tianity, few of them from real conviction. These measures only deep- ened the dislike of the more noble-minded heathen against Christianity. In their opinion, patriotism and intellectual culture were identical with attachment to the old faith. 2. Julian the Apostate (361-3G3). — (Comp. A. Neander, Kaiser Julian und sein Zeitalter (The Emp. Jul. and his Age). Leipz. 1812. — V. S. Teuffel, de Jul. Christianismi contemi,. et osore. Tub. -1844. — D. Strauss, d. Komantiker auf d. Thron d. Caesarcn. Mannh. 1847. — J. E. Aver, Julian d. Abtr. im Kampfe mit den Kirchenviitern s. Zeit. (Cont. betw. Jul. the Apost. and the Fathers of his Age). Vienna 1855.) — Julian, the heir to the throne, who was at any rate incensed at the murder of his relatives, long chafed under the monkish and ascetic training to which he was subjected. But he knew to conceal under the garb pf feigned bigotry his heart-hatred of Christianity. When at last ho obtained permission to study at Nicomedia and Athens, the represent- atives of heathenism in these places filled him with the conviction that he was called by the gods to restore the ancient faith. Lulled into security by his hypocrisy, Coastantiiis intrusted Julian with the com- mand of an army against the Germans. His courage and talents o-ained him the heart of the soldiers. He now threw off the mask, and FALL OF HEATHENISM 153 openly raised the standard of rebellion. Constantii b died on his expe- dition ajjainst him, and Jtilian became Emperor (36L-363). He imme- diately addressed himself with zeal and energy to the execution of his long-cherished plans, and sought to renew and restore the glories of ancient Paganism. To weaken and oppress Christianity, he employed ingenious rather than violent measures, although he deprived the clergy of their possessions, reminding them in derision of the duty of evan- gelical property. lie encouraged, so far as he could, schisms in the Church, favoured all heretics and sects, sought by artifices to induce the soldiers to take part in sacrifices, interdicted Christians from having literary schools, removed them from the higher offices of state, and heaped on them all manner of indignity, etc. In order to defeat the prediction of Christ (Matt, xxiii. 38; xxiv. 2), he attempted to restore the temple at Jerusalem. But earthquakes and flames bursting from the ground, scattered the workmen. By all means in his power, and in ever\' manner, he sought to restore and to elevate Paganism. From Christianity he borrowed certain charitable institutions, its ecclesiasti- cal discipline, preaching, singing at public worship, -etc. He also bestowed a number of distinctions on the heathen priesthood ; but, on the other hand, insisted on strict discipline among them. In his capa- city of Pontifex Maximus, he himself sacrificed and preached, and led a .strictly ascetic and almost cynically simple life. But the want of success attending his endeavours increasinglj' exasperated him. Al ready fears were entertained of new persecutions, when, after a reign of only twenty months, he died in an expedition against the Persians, — as Christians related it, with the words, "Tandem vicisti, Galilsee!" on his lips. — On the throne of the Caesars, Julian had displayed talents and virtues such as had not adorned it since the time of Marcus Aurelius. 3. Filial Destruction of Heathenism. — With Julian perished also his futile attempts. His succe.ssors, Jovian {ob. 364), and then in the West, Valentinian I. (o6. 375), Gratian {o6. 383), and Valentinian II. {o5. 392), — in the East, Valeas (ob. 378) and Theodosius I. [ob. 395), tolerated heathenism for some time, but only to prepare for its more certain destruction. Scarcely had Theodosius in some measure allayed political troubles, when, in 382, he made conversion to heathenism a criminal offence. The populace and the monks destroyed the temples. On this account Libaiiius addressed to the Emperor his celebrated oration, rttpi rcic ifpuif ; still, the latter caused the remaining temples to be shut, and interdicted all attendance on them. Bloody contests raged in the streets of Alexandria during the episcopate of Theophilus, in conse- quence of which the Christians de.stroyed the splendid Serapeion (391). In vain the heathen expected that this sin would cause the heavens to fall or the earth to perish ; there was not even a scarcity in consequence of the failure of Nile water. — Gratian followed in the West the exam- ple which Theodosius had set in the East. He was the first to decline 154 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.), the dignity of Pontifex Maximus ; he deprived the heathen priestd of their immunities, confiscated the landed property belonging to the temples, and ordered the altar of victory, which stood in the Curia of the Senate at Rome, to be removed. It was in vain that Symmachus, the prajfectus urbi, endeavoured to get it restored. By the advice of Ambrosiiis, Valeniiniaii (I., on four different occasions, refused to see deputations which had come to him on this subject. As soon as Thee dosius became sole ruler (392), edicts even more stringent appeared. On his entrance into Rome (394), he addressed the Roman Senate in language of reproof, and admonished them to adopt Christianity. Hia sons Honorius [oh. 423) in the West, and Arcadius in the East [oh. 408), continued the policy of Theodosivs. Under Theodosius II. [oh. 450), monks armed with imperial power travelled through the provinces for the purpose of suppressing heathenism. This was not accomplished without violence or bloodshed. Among the misdeeds of that period, the best known is the assassination of the noble heathen philosopher Hypatia (415) at Alexandria. In official language, heathenism was regarded as defunct. For a long time it had been branded as the religion of rustics [Paganismus), and could only be practised secretly and in distant localities. Its last, and indeed its only prop, was the Academy at Athens, which attained its highest celeljrity when Proclns [oh. 485) taught in its halls. Justinian I. (527-565) closed this insti- tution. Its teachers fled into Persia. With their departure heathen- ism in the Roman and Grecian empire may be said to have deceased. Still, in the mountains of the Peloponnesus, the Mainots maintained their political independence and ancestral religion so late as the ninth century ; while in Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, indiviv (on measures and weights), may be re- garded as contributions towards the study of Biblical Antiquities. — The most celebrated and fertile among the allegorical Commentators of the East was Cyril of Alexandria. The school of Antioch, on tho other hand, furnished a succession of able interpreters of the historical meaning of the Scriptures. Among them we mention Eustatliivs of Antioch, oh. 3G0 (whose writings have been lost), Eusebuis of Emisa, vb. 3G0 (writ, lost), Diudorun (writ, lost), ?%eoc?or?/s of Mops, (consider- able fragm. preserved), Chrysoxtom (Homilies and Comment.), and Theodoret. Theodorua referred most of the Messianic predictions to cotemporaries of the prophets — to Hezekiah, Zerubabel, etc. — and pro- nounced the Song of Songs " libidinose pro sua mente et lingua mere- tricia." The exegesis of Theodoret was inuch more trustworthy ; the Song of Songs he regarded as an allegory. Chrysostoin combined with grammatical commentation a deep practical tendency. The same remark applies to the commentaries of Ephrtem, written in Syriac. All the Western divines — Hilary, Ainbro.^e, the Ambrosiaater (a com- mentary on the Epistles of Paul by Hilarius, an unknown writer, which is found among the works of Ambrose), Jero??(e, And Aiignstiiie — more or less adopted the allegorical mode of interpretation ; although Jerome, on principle, applied himself also to grammatical commentation. Fela- yiun was the only writer who busied himself exclusively with the literal meaning (of the Epistles of Paul). After the sixth century, independent exegetical investigations were almost entirely given up, and theologians contented themselves with making compilations from the commentaries and homilies of the Fathers {Catena'). This species of composition originated in the East with Frocopius of Gaza (in the sixth cent.), and with ^l;/as/ai-n(s Sinaita (in the seventh cent.) ; in the West, with Fniuusiioi of Adrumetum, about 5G0. Only Gregory the Great possessed sufficient originality and confidence in himself to write an original commentary (Expositio in 1. Jobum s. Moralium libri 24). 2. Historical Theology. — The study of General Church IIist<;ry was especially cultivated during the fourth and fifth centuries (comji. §4, 1). The history of the rise and of the various forms of heresy was traced by Epiphanins [Ua.vdpi.ov or K^f3tirtoI' — i.e., medicine-chest — xara. uipe- OEcov 80), by Theodoret {Alpsrtxrji xaxoftv^ia^ iTCi.to/j.rj, s. haeretic. fabute), by Leontins of Byzance (about the year 600: L. de sectis) ; — among Latin writers, by Augustine (de hjeresibus), by Fhilastrius, ob. 397 (de hseresibus), andby the author of the "Prasdestinatus" (comp. § 53, 5). — Many biographies of eminent Fathers, dating from that period, have also been preserved. Jerome was the first to compose something like a theological literary history in the form of biographies (Catalogus, s. de viris illustr.). This work was continued by Gennadius of Massilia, Palladivs (Hist. Lausiaca, i.e., dedicated to Lausus), Theodoret (fixo- THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 183 >f05 laropttt, s. hist, religiosa), and Rufinus (Hist, eremitica s. Vitse Pp.), collected the accounts circulating about the great monastic saints. But even the writings of Gregory the Great (Dialogorum Libri IV. de \ita et miraculia Pp. Italicorum), and of Gregory of Tours (Libri VII. de miraculis), are couched in the tone of later legends, and exhibit immense credulity and love of the miraculous. The correspondence of the Fathers, which in many instances has been preserved and handed down, is of great importance as an authority on all subjects connected with the history of their times. The Cydtis paschalis of Dionysius Exiguus (comp. I 43, 3), which gave rise to the xEra Dionysiaca, still in use, forms an important contribution to the science of Ecclesiastical ChroiKilogy. In Ecclesiastical Statistics the Tortoypaipta ;^pi(iriaitx>j of Cosmns IndicopJeiistes, a Nestorian, who as a merchant had travelled a good deal in the East (about the year 550), deserves attention. — The 7ta.vtoba.Tiri iaropt'a s. Chronicon, by Eusebius, in two books — of which the second was recast in Latin by Jerome — was designed to illustrate the connection between Biblical and profane history. The original of this tractate has been lost, but a complete Armenian translation of it has lately been discovered. At the suggestion of Augustine, Orosius, a Spaniard, wrote a secular history for the purpose of proving that the decline of the Roman Empire was not attributable to Christianity (Hist. adv. Paganos, Libri \'II.). 3. Apologetics. — The controversial tractate of Julian (comp. § 42, 4) was answered by Cyril of Alexandria (rtpoj fa ■fov iv d^totj 'lovXidvov), by Gregory of Nazianzus (xdyor otrfKitivtvxoL s. InvectivJB in Jul.), and by Chrysofom (in his oration on S. Babylas). Ambrose and Prndentius the poet (see below. Note 8) wrote against the design of Symmachus (comp. ? 42, 3). The insinuations of Zosimus, Eunapius, and others were met by the history of Orosius, and by Augustine in his dogmatical and apologetical work, " de civitate Dei," — by far the ablest apology put forth by the ancient Church. For the same purpose, Salvianus, a Gaul, composed eight books, " de gubernatione Dei." John Philoponus replied to the objections of Proclus against the Christian doctrine of creation. The controversy with the Jews was carried on by Chrysotom, Augustine, and Gregentius, Bishop of Taphar in Arabia, who, in pre- sence of a vast concourse, for four daj's carried on a discussion with Herban, a Jew. Apologetic works of a more general character were composed by Eusebius of C.nesarea (the " Praeparatio evangelica," in fifteen books, and the " DenKjnstratio evangelica," in twenty books), by Athauasius (two books, xotra 'Exxr;vuv — Book II. bearing also the title, Tifpi rr,i f'l'av^pwrtjjfffw^ tov @iov Aoyw), by Gregory of Nyssa (rtpoj "^r.%rivai ix tC^v xoovCjv ivvoicjv), by Theodoret (de curandis Graecor. affec- tionibus), and Ijy Firinicus Maternvs (de errore profanarum religg. ad Constantium et Constantinum. Comp. | 42, 4). 4. But by far the greatest imergy, talent, acuteness, and research 184 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A. D.). was displayed in the Polemical writings of that period, which wa? directed partly agains.t old and partly against recent heresies. — (Comp. below, the history of Theol. Controv.) 5. Dogmatics. — The precedent of Origen in constructing a general theological system was not followed. But theologians addressed them- selves to the elucidation of Christian doctrines for practical purposes, especially for the instruction of catechumens. Among such works we reckon those of Cyril of Jerusalem, oh. 386 (twenty-three addresses to catechumens, of which the last five treat of the Christian mysteries) ; of Gregory of Nyssa (Oratio catech. magna) ; of Epiphaniiis (to defend Catholic truth against Arianism) ; of Aitgxistine (in the last books of the "civitas Dei," in Books I. de doctrina Christ., and in the " enchi- ridium ad Laurentium ") ; of Fulgentius of Riispe (de regula vcraa fidei) ; and of two semi-Pelagian writers, Gennadius (de fide sua), and Vincentius Lirinensis, ob. 450 (Conimonitorium pro cath. fidei antiqui- tate et universitate, comp. § 53, 5). The tractates written on special topics, more particularly for controversial purposes, greatly contributed to the elucidation of certain dogmatical questions. The works of the Psciido-Dionysius (^ 47, 6), in which the main elements of Christianity were represented as a theosophic and gnostic mysticism, understood only by the initiated, acquired a place of very great importance. Their author distinguished between a ^ioxoyia xaroi^arixrp in which truth was presented under the garb of a symbol, of history, or of the tra- ditionary teaching of the Church, and a ^soTioyta ajiofatixrj, which dispensed with such media, and in which the initiated rises by con- templation or the ecstatic state to an immediate view of things divine. The writer also discussed at considerable length the different grades among heavenlj'^ beings, of which he supposed the earthly hierarchy was a type. His system was based on Neo-Platonism, and derived only its terminology and forms from the theology of the Church. This mj'sticism assumed a higher and decidedly Christian cast in the hands oi Maximvs Confessor, who in numerous writings a;ttempted to combine these speculations with orthodox views.. 6. Ethics and Asceticism. — The tractate of Ambrose, " de officiis ministrorum," was specially designed for the clergy, while that of Gregory the Great (expositiones in 1. Jobum s. Moralium LI. 24) dis- cussed moral questions generally. Special tractates were frequently devoted to particular topics, especially to those connected with asceti- cism. Among them we instance Chrysofom's four books, "de Sacer- dotio," and .John Cassian's tractate, "de institutis coenobiorum, LI. 12," and the " Collationes Patrum, 25" (comp. § 53, 5). 7. Pructtcal Theology. — The most distinguished preachers of that age were Macarins the Great, an hermit, ob. 390 (distinguished for fervour and a profound mysticism, in which he approximated the views THEO LOGIC VL LITERATURE. 185 of Auo'ustine), Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Eplircem (the Ohrysostom of the Syrians), above all, John Chrysostom (the twenty- one orations, "de statuis," delivered when the Antiochians had thrown iown the statue of Theodosius I., are specially noteworthy), — Ambrose, Augustine, Leo the Great, Ca'sarins of Aries, and Gregory the Great. The fourth book of Augustine's " doctr. christ." may be considered as a kind of liomilelics. On the catechetical writings, comp. § 59, 4; on eccles. law, | 43, 3. 8. Christian Poetry. — When first Christianity made its appearance, the poetic inspiration of antiquity had already vanished from among the people. But the Gospel possessed energy sufficient to revive the ancient spirit. Despite the decay of taste and language at the time, it evoked a new school of poetry, which will bear comparison with classical poetry in point of depth and ardour, if not in purity and elegance of form. The Latins, to whom Christianity was chiefly matter of experience, of the heart and inner life, Avere more distinguished in this branch than the Grecians, who regarded the Gospel rather as an object of knowledge .and of speculation. For further information about Hymns comp. | 59, 2; about the controversial poetry of Arius, § 50, 1, 6. The most celebrated among Greek Christian poets were Gregory of Nazianzus (especially the satirical "Carmen de vita sua"), Nonnus of Panopolis, Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II. (author of a canto on the History of Jesus, consisting of Homeric verses, and of poetic paraphrases of portions of Scripture), and Paidus Silentiarius (author of a poetical description of the Church of Sophia, built by Justinian I., and of the Ambon of that church — chiefly of archaeological interest). Among Latin Christian poets we mention Juvencits, a Spaniard, who flourished about 330 ("Hist, evangelica," in four books, the first Chris- tian epos, which is distinguished for elevation of sentiment, simplicity, and the absence of oratorical turgiditj^); Prndentius, likewise a Spa- niard {ob. 413), perhaps the ablest among ancient Christian poets (L. peristephanon, or fourteen hymns in honour of the martyrs ; Apotheosis, a poem in honour of Christ's Divine nature; Ilamartigenia; Psycho- machia, contra Symmachum, comp. § 47); Panliniis, Bishop of Nola in Campania, nb. 431 (thirty poems, of which fifteen are in honour of Felix the Martyr) ; Sedidius (Mirabilia divina, being a poetical version of Old and New Testament history, a "hymnus acrostichus" on the Life of Jesus) ; Prosper Aquitanicvs (de libero arbitrio c. ingratos, an indignant expostulation addressed to those who despised grace, comp. § 53, 5); Avitvs, Bishop of Vienne, ob. 523 (de mundi principio) ; and Venantius Fortiinatvs, Bishop of Poitiers, who flourished "n the sixth century (LI. IV. de vita Martini, a description of a jou'.tiey on the Moselle, etc.). IG* 186 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD ("323— 692 A. D.) IV. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES. §49. GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINES. During the preceding period, Christian truth had chiefly developed subjectivel}% and hence assumed various directions. But now the altered state of outward affairs pointed out the necessity, increasingly felt, of arranging the doctrines which had already been formulated, of combining and giving them solemn ecclesiastical sanction. The tendency to scientific development also, which was inherent in Christianity, increasingly asserted its power and influence. Accordingly the different types of doctrine were no longer confined to particular countries ; through the Intercourse between the various branches of the Church, opposing views were mai'shalled in hostile array ; the court, the people, and the monks took part in these controversies, and the Church became the scene of violent contests which endangered its unity and i)urity. These dangers called for a combined defence of the truth, by which all error should be eliminated as heresy — a result which, through the presence of the Spirit with the Church, was ultimately always accomplished, though not without con- siderable struggles. L The Docpuatic Controversies of that period had their bright and their dark side. Occasionally, indeed, truth was made subservient to personal ambition and to self-seeking; instead of contending only with spiritual weapons, state interference, court intrigues, and popular pas- sions were not unfreouently called into requisition ; in the ardour for pure doctrine, holiness of life was sometimes lost sight of; differences, which might have been adjusted if the passions of controversialists had not been at play, became grounds of separation ; subordinate points acquired an undue importance, etc. But, on the other hand, it must be admitted that the destiny of Christianity, to become the religion of the whole world, rendered it necessary that its dogmas should receive the most close, scientific, and consistent examination ; that, accordingly, the Church had to engage in certain contests in order to put aside all errors ; that Christianity would not have been able so firmly to meet the shock of barbarism, which it had soon to encounter in its contact with those nations which subverted the Roman Empire, if the unity of the Catholic Church had not been so well guarded by strict defini- tions of doctrine ; and, lastly, that if Christian truth had not been so full^ 'ind strictly formulated, the admission of heathen nations into the THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 187 I'hurch, and the partial importation of their pagan modes of thinking, would have become the source of much greater dangers than those wrhich were actually encountered. 2. The Heresies of the preceding period were, in great measure, si/ncretisiic (§ 26) ; those of the period under review, revolutionary, — ?'. e., in the development of Christian doctrine, they sprung from an exclusive advocacy and from exaggerated views of one particular aspect of the truth, which, by this process, became changed into error; while, on the other hand, orthodoxy sought to view truth under all its aspects, and to harmonize its different bearings. Only echoes of the syncretistic heresies of a former period were still heai'd (| 54). But another form of heresy, which as yet appeared only in isolated instances (§ 62), was possible. Catholic doctrine might be represented as an unhealthy excrescence — either unjustly, in which case the Church would be interrupted or disturbed in the exercise of its proper and necessary life-functions ; or justhj, but in such a manner that, in the general charge, truth was not properly distinguished from error, and that, in reality, the attempt was made to remove the one along with the other. ^50. THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY (318—381). CoMP. J. A. Siark-, Versuch e. Gesch. d. Arianism. (Hist, of Arian.). Berl. 1783. — Ad. Mohler, Athanas. d. Gr. u. seine Zeit. 2d edition. Mayence 1844. 2 vols. — F. Chr. Baur, d. chr. Lehre von d. Dreieinigk. (The Chr. Doctr. of the Trinity). 3 vols. Tlibg. 1844. — /. A. Dorner, d. Lehre von d. Person Christi (The Dogma about the Person of Christ). 2 vols. 2d ed. Stuttg. 1845, etc.— H. Rider, Gesch. d. chr. Philos. Vol. II. The doctrine of the Trinity formed the subject of the first — or Arian — controversy. In it the discussion chiefly turned upon the nature and essence of the Logos, who in Christ had becorae incar- nate, and about his relation to the P'ather. Since the contro- versy between Dionysius of Alexandria and his namesake of Rome (§ 40, G). the view that the Son was of the same essence and equal with the Father, had gained adherents in Alexandria also, and sriven rise to a new school (§ 47, 4). But an appre- liension — excited by the teaching of Sabellius and Paul of Samo- sata (§ 40, 7) — lest this doctrine should lead to Monarchianism, influenced many to retain the views known as Subordinatianisra. The School of Lucian, the Antiochian (§ 39, 6 ; 47, 1), especi- ally furnished able opponents to homoousian principles. Origen had held these iwo apparently antagonistic views (subordination 16 188 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) and eternal generation from the substance of the Father), comp. § 40, 5. But now they were no longer combined. One party rejected subordination, maintained the doctrine of eternal gene- ration, and completed their system by admitting the homoousia of Christ ; another held subordinatian views, and carried them as far as heteroousianism. A thirty party — chiefly followers of Origen — attempted to reconcile these antagonisms, by a sort of intermediate view, known under the term of o,uoiot)(n'a. During the course of these controversies, which for almost a whole cen- tury agitated the Christian world, the Divine Personality of the Holy Ghost was established as a logical and theological deduction from orthodox principles. After many contests, the homoousia of the Son and that of the Holy Ghost were ultimately acknow- ledged as the orthodox view of the Church. 1. First Victory of HomoQ^isian Principles (318 — 325). — Arius, a pupil of Lucian, and from 313 a presbyter at Alexandria, an acute but not a profound thinker, was, in 318, charged by two presbyters — adherents of Western views — with having promulgated opinions incom- patible with the Divinity of the Saviour. Arius had publicly taught that the Son had, before the commencement of time, but not from all eternity (^i/ 6te ovx ^), been created out of nothing [xttafia il ovx ovtiov) by the Will of the Father (^e-Kr.fiaTi ^sov), in order that the world might be called into existence through Him. lie also maintained that, as Christ Avas the most perfect created image of the Father, and had car- ried into execution the Divine purpose of creation, He might be called ^joj and ?u)yoj, though not in the proper sense of these terms. Alex- ander, who at that time filled the see of Alexandria, was devotedly attached to the doctrines of the eternal generation of the Son, and of His equality with the Father. He convoked a synod (312), which con- demned the views of Arius, and deposed him from his office. But the populace, which looked upon him as an ascetic, and many of the bishops, who shared his opinions, took his part. He also implored the protec- tion of foreign prelates, — among them, that of Eusebiiis of Nicomedia, a former fellow'pupil, and of the influential Evsehius of Coesarea. The former of these prelates pronounced in his favour, while the latter declared his views at least harmless. Arius spread his opinions among the people by means of hymns adapted to various conditions of life (tc millers, sailors, travellers, etc.). The controversy led to a schism which extended wellnigli over the whole East. In Alexandria passions rar so high, that the heathens made it the subject of ridicule on the stago^ Constantine ilte Great received, Avith much displeasure, tidings of these disputes. He issued an order — of course without success — that such " useless discussions" should be discontinued. But Rosins, Bishop ol THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 189 Cordova, Tvho came to Alexandria, as bearei- of this imperial ordinance, learned, during his stay in that city, the real state of matters, and the importance of the controversy. On his return, he convinced the Em- peror that this was not a trivial dispute. Constantine now summoned a General Council at Nice (325), which was attended by himself and by 318 bishops. The majority of members, headed hy Eusehins of Ccesarea, were followers of Origen, and occupied a kind of intermediate position ; nor was the party of Arius, which was led by Eusehius of Nicomedia, inconsiderable. The Homoousians were in a decided mino- rity ; but the enthusiastic eloquence of the youthful Deacon Athanasius, whom Alexander had brought with him, and the influence of the Em- peror, procured them the victory. The Ilomoousian formulas [ix ■fy^i ovotaj toi> rtarpoj, yiviTj^eii ov 7tot»j^ftf, ofioovoia^ t'9 rtarpt) were inserted into the Creed, Arius was excommunicated, and his writings con- demned. Fear of being deposed, and a desire for peace, induced many to subscribe who were not convinced. Only Arius himself, and two Egyptian bishops, Tlieonan and Secitndus, refused to submit, and w^ere exiled into Illyria. Eusehius (f Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice, who subscribed the creed, but not the formula of condemnation, were also banished (to Gaul). 2. Victory of Evsehianism (328-35G). — The concord brought about by subscription to the Nicene Creed was neither real nor lasting. The remonstrances of Consfuntia, the sister of the Emperor, when on her death-bed, and the advice of some of the leading prelates, induced Constantine to revert to his first opinions regarding this controversy. Arius made a confession of his faith, couched in general terms, and was (Recalled from exile along with his fellow-sufferers (328). Soon afterwards the Emperor ordered him to be restored to his office (330). But Atltanasius, who in the meantime had succeeded to the see of Alexandria (328), declared himself unable to comply with this demand. The Emperor threatened to depose the bishop ; till, in a personal inter- view, the latter made so deep an impression, that Constantine yielded. But the enemies of Athanasius, especially those Meletians, (§ 38, 4) in- stigated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, were continually representing him to the Emperor as one that fomented discord and rebellion. Ultimately, a synod convoked at Tyre (335), and consisting entirely of Arians, was charged with a new investigation of these questions. Athanasius appealed against the sentence of deposition pronounced against him, which, however, was confirmed by another synod, that met at Con- stantinople; and the Emperor banished him to Treves (336). Despite the protest of the Bishop of Constantinople, Arius was now to have been solemnly restored to church-communion in the capital of the empire, when he suddenly died the evening before the day of his restoration (at an age of upwards of 80 years). Soon afterwards Con- stantine also died ; and Constantine II., immediately on his accession, restored Athanasius, who was enthusiastically received by his flock. 191) SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (3:i3— 692 A. D.). But Constantius favoured the Arians, and his sentiments were shared by the court and capital. In every street and market, in every shop and house, these questions were now discussed. The majority of bishops in tlie East, headed by Eusebius of' Ccesarea, in their desire to find an intermediate position, adopted the expression o/toiovatoj ; the Arian party was led by Eusebius of Nicom., who since 338 was Bishop of Constantinople [ob. 341). Common opposition to the adherents of the Nicene Creed formed a bond of union between these two parties (the Eusehians). The AVest Avas entirely in favour of the Nicene Creed. In 340 the Eusebians held a council at Antiocli, which sat for several days. It once more deposed Atlianasius, and in his room elected Gre- (jorius, a rude Cappadocian. Athanasius fled to Rome, where his orthodoxy and innocence were solemnly acknowledged by a council vindcr Bishop Julius (341). A new council in Antioch (341), summoned to consecrate a Church, prepared successively four symbols, each ap- proximating as closely as possible to that of Nice, (to conciliate the West), but carefully evading the ofioovaioi. To restore harmony, Con- stantius, at the suggestion of Constans, his brother, convoked a general Council at Sardica in lllyria (343). But as the Latins admitted Atha- nasius to a seat and vote, without paying any regard to his deposition by the Council of Antioch, the Eastern bishops immediately withdrew, and held a separate council at Philippopolis in Thracia. In Sardica, where important privileges were assigned to Julius, Bishop of Rome (comp. § 46, 2), the Nicene Creed was confirmed, and Athanasius restored to his see. Even before that, Gregorius, who, by his violence and acts of oppression, had incurred additional unpopulai'ity, was murdered by the populace of Alexandria. Athanasius was again welcomed with enthusiasm by his flock. But after the death of Con- stans (350), Consiantius once more favoured the Arian party. The latter assembled in council at Sirmium in Pannonia (351) ; but forbear- ing directly to attack Athanasius himself, they confined their opposi- tion, in the -first place, to a friend and adherent of the Bishop of Alexandria. In his zeal for Nicene views, Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, had fallen into Sabellianism. Already, in 336, the Synod of Constantinople had deposed him, and deputed Eusebius of Caesarea to refute his tenets. But he continued to enjoy the protection of the West, and of the Council of Sardica, till Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium, a pupil of Marcellus, promulgated what undoubtedly were ]\Ionarchian views (I 40). These opinions had been declared heretical, not only by the Council of Antioch, but by that of Milan also (346), the memljera of which adhered to the Nicene Creed. Photinus was deposed by the Council of Sirmium, and, along with his, the tenets of Marcellus were also condemned. But even this did not satisfy the Eusebians. As soon as Constantius had vanquished Magnentius, the usurper, and was thus unembarrassed in his actions, he called two synods at their request, one at Arelate in Gaul (353), another at Milan (355), by which THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 19 1 Atlianasius was anew condemned. They prevailed on Constaniius to issne an ordinance, enjoining all AVestern bishops to subscribe the condemnation of Athanasius. Those who resisted were deposed and banished — among them, Liberius, Bishop of Rome, Hosins of Cordova, Hilarius of Poitiers, Eiisebius of Vercelli, and Lucifer of Calaris. Another Cappadocian, of the name of Georgius — not less violent than his countryman and predecessor — was to be installed by force as Bishop of Alexandria. Having calmly, and with dignity, finished the celebra*ion of the worship in which he was engaged, Athanasius managed to escape to the monks in the Egyptian desert (356). Thus victory seemed throughout the Roman Empire to have decided in favour of Homoiou.sianism. 3. Homoiism (357-361). — But soon the Eusebians began to dispute among themselves. The extreme party, headed by Aeiins, a deacon at Antioch, and Eiinomius, Bishop of Cyzicus, went so far as to main- tain that the Son was unlike the Father [avo^oioi], from which the party received the name of Anomoites or Exuconiians, (f| ovx ovrcov). The Homoiousians, who were now designated as Scrni-Arians, prepared to contest this point. They were led by Basilius, Bishop of Ancyra, and countenanced by the Emperor Constantius. Ultimately, however, the intrigues of Ursacius and Yalens, the two court bishops, who at heart were Arians, proved successful. AVith consent of the Emperor, they held a second council at Sirniium (357), where it was resolved wholly to discard the unbiblical term oiiaia, which had been the cause of all these dissensions, not to enter upon an}' definitions about the nature of God, which was incomprehensible, and to unite in simply asserting that the Son was similar to the Father (o^oioj — hence their name Homoiites). Two of the ex'led bishops — Hositcs of Cordova and Liberius of Rome — purchased permission to return to their sees by subscription to this formula. But the other Latin bishops, in a synod at Agennvm, again declared their adherence to the Nicene Creed ; while the Semi-Arians met at Ancyra under the presidency of Basilius, and reaffirmed the Confession of Antioch. The latter, also, found access to the Emperor, who had their confession ratified by a third synod at Sirniium (358), and compelled the bishops of the court to subscribe it. Even Liberius of Rome, softened by an exile of two years' duration, gave his signature, and was allowed to return to Rome. Thereupon, the bishop of the court compromised with the Semi-Arians upon the following formula: — tov Tlov Ojxoiov t^> Hatpi tlvai. xata rtavta wj at ttyi'tti yptt^ai Xfyovaiv . The Emperor was so much pleased with this formula, that he resolved to have it sanctioned by a general council. To prevent a combination between the Homoiousians and the Homoousians of the West,. Ursacius and Valens persuaded the Emperor to summon two councils instead of one, of which that of Seleucia was destined for the East, and that of Rimini (359) for the West. Both councils rejected the rew formula;' the one in favour of 16* 192 BECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). the creed of Antioch, the other in favour of that of Nice. But Ursacius managed by intrigues to bring the bishops to submission. For two years the prelates were detained at Seleucia and at Rimini, as it were in exile; while their delegates, after travelling about for half a year, were unable to obtain an audience of the Emperor. Thus coerced, they at last subscribed the new formula. Those who refused to submit (Aetius and Eunomius) were persecuted as disturbing the peace of tho Church. Homoiism now became the acknowledged creed of the empire. But the death of Constantius (361) speedily j^ut an end to this temporary prevalence of error. 4. Final Ascendency of the Nicene Creed (361-381). — Julian gave equal rights to all parties, and recalled the exiled bishops, so that in some churches there were two or even three bishops at one and the same time. Athanasins also returned to his see. He convoked a synod at Alexandria (362) for the purpose of restoring ecclesiastical order, and, despite the protest of the narrow-minded Lucifer of Calaris, with equal moderation and prudence, received into church-fellowship those bishops who had been misled into Arian views, but repented of their error. The success which attended the endeavours of Athanasius, determined the Emperor once more to send him into exile, on pretence that he was the occasion of disturbances. Jovian, the successor of Julian, favoured the Nicene party, and allowed Athanasius to return to his see (364) ; while, at the same time, he also extended toleration to the Arians. But Valens, to whom Valentinian I., his brother, com- mitted the government of the East, was a zealous Arian (364—378). He persecuted with equal cruelty both Athanasians and Semi-Arians, a pi'oceeding which led to an approximation between these two parties. Athanasius was obliged to flee ; but after the lapse of four months was allowed to return, and to spend the remainder of his life without fur- ther molestation. He filled the episcopal see for forty-five years, of which twenty were spent in exile [ob. 373). The persecutions of Valens were, however, kept in check by the urgent representations of Valen- tinian, his brother, and by the dignified and energetic resistance of eminent prelates, especially of the three great Cappadocians. The intrigues of the Empress Jnstina in the AVest, during the minority of her son, Valentinian II., were frustrated through the watchfulness of Ambrose of Milan. The soldiers who were to take possession of his church, and to hand it over to the Arians, met Avith passive but success- ful resistance, in finding the edifice occupied by a congregation engaged in prayer and the singing of psalms. — Theodosivs I. the Great, a Spa- niard (379-395), who for a short period ruled over the East and West, banished Arianism from the empire. He appointed Gregory of Nazi- unziis. Patriarch of Constantinople. It was intended that this prelate should preside over the Second General Council of Constantinople (381). But as his authority was impugned on the ground that he had changed his see (comp. | 45), he laid down his office, and Gn^gory of THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 198 Nyssa presided in his stead. The Nicene Creed was enlarged by the addition of a formula affirming the equality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son. From that time the Arians were only allowed to hold their worship outside the city. Somewhat later all their churches In the empire were taken from them. .5. T/te Pneiimatoinachoi (3G2-381). — According to Arius and hia adherents, the Holy Ghost was the first being created by the Son. But even zealous advocates of the homoousia of the Son were undecided on this doctrine. In the Nicene Creed nothing beyond a xal di Hvtvfia, kyLQv was inserted ; and Hilurij of Poitiers hesitated to enter upon fuller particulars, from fear of going beyond the teaching of Scripture. But Aihanasins (at the Synod of Alex, in 362), Didynuis the Blind, and the three Cappadocians, consistently carried out their theological princi- ples, and by their authority succeeded in bringing their party to admit also the homoousia of the Holy Spirit. The Semi-Arians who had adopted the Nicene Creed — and among them especially Macedonius, formerly Bishop of Constantinople, whom the Homoiists had deposed — felt extremely reluctant to adopt this view [Macedonians, Pneinnatoma- choi). The second cecum. Council (381) sanctioned the homoousia of the Holy Spirit by adding to the expression ttj Uv. o^mv, the words to xvpiov. To ^iooTioiov, to ix tov Ilarpos ixTto^ivonipov, ro aiiv Ilarpi xai, TCui eviiftpoixvvovixii'ov xai awbo^a^oixivov . 6. LUeraiure of Ihe Confroversy. — Arins himself explained his views in a semi-poetical tractate QaXtCa (of which Athanasius has preserved fragments). His principles were zealously defended by Asferius, a sophist (whose writings have been lost). Philustoryuis, the historian, attempted to show from history that they were conformable to the views of the apostles and of the early Church. Ensehivs of Cces. wrote two tractates in defence of Semi-Arianism, against Marcellus [xa.ta MapxE^.7.01) and rtfpi r»;j ixx%rini.a<5ttxr^i ^joXoytaj). The drtoXoyj^rtzoj by Eiinoniius has been lost. Foremost among the opponents of Arianism stands Afhan'tsiu.s — Oratt. IV. c. Arianos ; hist. Arianorum ad mona- chos ; Epist. de decretis Nicaenis ; Epist. de Synodis Arimini et SeleucifB habitis ; 'Arto'Koyrjtt.xoi rtpo; tovi 'Apftctrouj, etc. Basil the Great wrote four books against Eunomius ; the Ufpi tov ayiov Ylvsvfuatoi ; and the Ad Amphilochium (against the Pneumatomachoi) ; — Gregory of Naz., five Xoyot ^ioxoyLxoi (^ 47, 4) ; Gregory of Nyssq, twelve T^yoi avtipfjtjtvxoi xa.ra ^vvofxiov ; — Didynnis the Blind, three books de Trinitate; — Epi^ phanins the 'Ayxrpcordj (| 78, 5) ; — Cyril of Alex., a ^raaupoj rtfpi trji aytaj xaZ ofz-oovoua^ TpiaSoj ; — Chrysostom delivered twelve orations against the Anomoites ; Theodoret wrote Dialnyi VII. de s. Trinit. Ep/ircem Synis, also, frequently controverted in his sermons the views of the Arians. Among Latin writers the most distinguished contro- versialists were: Lucifer of Calaris ("Ad Constantium Imp. LI. II. pro A.than.," in which he denounces the Emperor an an apostate, aa 17 N 194 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). Antichrist and Satan; the " nioriendum pro filio Dei;" the " De non conveniendis cum hiXireticis) ; Hilary of Picf avium ("De Trinitate, LI. XII. ;" " de Synodis s. de fide Orientalium ;" " Contra Constantium Aug. ;" " Contra Auxentium," | 76, 4) ; Phrebndins, Bishop of Agen- nuni about 359 (" c. Arianos") ; Ainhroae (" de fide ad Gratianum Aug. LI. v.") ; Aiigii.'iiine ("c. sermonera Arianorum ;" " CoUatio cum Max- imino Arianorum Episc.;" " c. Maximinum") ; Fvh/eufius of Ru^pt ("c. Arianos," and three books addressed to Trasimund, the Arian King of the Vandals). 7. Later Development of Nicene Vieivs. — Even the formula adopted by the second Council of Constantinople was not entirely free from all traces of Sul)ordinatianism. At least the expression, eli ^soj, as applied to the Father excbisivehj, might give rise to misunderstanding. Angus- tine completely removed any uncertainty still hanging over this doctrine ("de trinitate LI. XV."). But as yet the personality of the Holy Ghost, and His relation to the Son, had not been defined with sufficient accuracy. This afterwards gave rise to the schism between the Eastern and the Western Church. In this respect also Augustine correctly taught that the Holy Spirit proceeded both from the Father and the Son. Among those who advocated these truths, Fulgenfins of Riispe ("de s. trinit.") deserves special mention. The so-called (pseudo-) At/iana-sian Creed, or Si/mbolnm Qniciniqnc (from the word with which it commences), dates probably from the beginning of the sixth cen- tury. It originated in Spain, and simply inserted the words, " qui procedit a Patre Filioque." I 51. ORIGENISTIC CONTROVERSIES (394-438). The controversies about the Trinity were, in due course, fol- lowed by discussions about the person of Christ (§ 52). Before these took place, another question, however, engaged the atten- tion of the Church. Although the Origenistic controversy was a personal dispute rather than a discussion of importance to the Church generally, it served to confirm the impression that Origen had really been a heresiarch. 1. The Monks of the Scetian and of the Nitrian Desert. — The most strenuous advocates of Nicene views {Athanasius, the three great Cap- padocians, Didymus, Hilary, etc.) had held Origen in great re^iute. But as the Arians continually appealed to his authority, the more narrow-minded opponents of Arianism, especially those in the West, and the monks of the Scetian Desert in Egypt, headed by Pachomius, gradually began to suspect the orthodoxy of Origen. By and by they denounced the speculations of that Father as the source of every heresy, and came to entertain grossly anthropomorph"c views of God URIGENISTIC CONTROVERSIES. 195 and of Diviue things. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis (^ 47, 4), was trained in their school. In direct opposition to these monks, others, who inhabited the mountains of Niiria, were enthusiastic admirers of Origen, and adopted a lofty spiritualism, coupled with a devout and contemplative mysticism. 2. Controversy iu Palesdne and Italy (394-399). — In Palestine, John, Bishop of Jerusalem, and the two Latins, Jerome and Rufinus, were ardent admirers of Origen [I 47, 5). But when, in the year 394, two strangers from the West expressed their astonishment about this, Je- rome, anxious to retain his reputation for orthodoxy, immediately pre- pared to denounce the errors of Origen. Meantime, the Scetian monks had also called the attention of the aged and over-zealous Epiphanius to the existence of a nursery of heresy in Palestine. He immediately took ship, and employed the pulpit which John had kindly opened to him for delivering a vehement denunciation of Origenistic views. Upon this, John preached against anthropomorphism. Epiphanius anathe- matized these views, but insisted that John should pronounce similar sentence against Origenistic principles. On the refusal of the latter, Epiphanius indignantly left Jerusalem, renounced, with Jerome and the monks at Bethlehem, church-communion with John and Rufinus, and even interfered with the episcopal functions of John, by ordaining a presbyter for the monks at Bethlehem. All this gave rise to an angry controversy, which was with difficulty settled through the inter- ference of Theophihis of Alexandria, who for that purpose deputed Isidore, one of his presbyters. Jerome and Rufinus became reconciled at the steps of the altar (396). The latter soon afterwards returned to the West. He translated the work of Origen Ttspl apz^^^ leaving out a few of the most objectionable passages; but 'was so indiscreet as to hint in the preface that even the orthodox Jerome was an admirer of Origen. AVhen informed of this by friends at Rome, Jerome wrote in unmeasured terms against Origenistic views and against the friend of his youth. — At the same time he made a literal translation of the Ttspi apx^^- Rufinus rejoined, and the dispute became the more bitter the longer it continued. Sirichis, Bishop of Rome, extended his pro- tection to Rufinus ; but his successor, Anastasius, summoned him to answer for his errors. Instead of appearing in person, Rufinus sent a written defence ; but was formally condemned for Origenistic heresy (399). He retired to Aquileja, where he continued to translate the writings of Origen and of other Greek Fathers. 3. Controversy in Alexandria and Constantinople (899-438). — Theo- phihis, Patriarch of Alexandria, a luxurious, imperious, and violent prelate, had till the year 399 favoured the cause of the Nitrian monks, and even, during the Easter of that year, spoken in a harsh and con- temptuous manner of the heresy of the Anthropomorphists. Indignant at this, a number of monks armed themselves with rods, attacked the 196 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A. D.). Bishop, aud obliged him to pronounce an anathema against Origen. Soon afterwards he lost the support of others, formerly his friends. Isidore, an aged and venerable presbyter, and the so-called "four tall brethren," of whom two acted as treasurers to his church, refused to entrust him with the moneys of orphans and other trust funds, and escaped from his vengeance to their colleagues in the mountains of Nitria. Accordingly, so early as the year 399, Theophilus anathema- tized Origen at an endemic synod held in Alexandria ; and in 401 published a furious manifesto against Origenistic views. The honest but narrow-minded Epiphanhts hastened to express his approbation, and Jerome translated the document into Latin. Military force was employed to break up the establishments in Nitria, and to expel the monks. Followed by the accusing letters of their bishop, the latter sought protection with John Chrysostoni at Constantinople ; but Theo- philus rejected with disdain the intercession of that prelate. For the sake of peace, Chrysostoni was now anxious to withdraw from the contest. But the monks had meantime found access to the Empress Eudnxia, at whoso intercession Arcadius, the Emperor, summoned Theophilus to appear before a synod to be held at Constantinople, over which Chrysostoni was to preside. Theophilus was almost beside him- self with rage. By a misrepresentation of the facts of the case, he succeeded in enlisting the aid of Epiphanhts. Filled with zeal and prejudices, the honest old man hastened to Constantinople, when, on learning the real state of matters, he immediately withdrew with the remark: "1 leave to you the court, and dissimulation." But Theo- philus knew how to get on with the court and with dissimulation. During the interval Chrysostoni had, by his faithfulness, incurred the displeasure of the Empress. Calculating upon this, Theophilus arrived at Constantinople, accompanied by a large suite ; and at the imperial country-seat of Brys (Oak), near Chalcedon, organized a council ( Si/nodus ad Quereuni ) — in 403 — which declared Chrysostom guilty of immorality, of heterodox views, and of treason. The Emperor banished the obnoxious preacher, who, after appeasing the popular fury excited by this measure, quietly allowed himself to be carried away. But an earthquake, which took place the following night, and the increasing popular excitement, induced the Empress to send messengers and recall the exile. After an absence of only three days, he was brought back to the capital in triumph, Theophilus fled to Alexandria. Soon afterwards, however, when Chrysostoni had again incurred the anger of the Empress for denouncing in a sermon the noisy inauguration of her statue, he expressed himself, on the anni- versary of St. .John, in the following unguarded language : Ilduv Hpco6i-'a? /xaivctat, TtdT-w ■tapdaaftao, TidXiv tTii 7ti.va.xt 'trjr xf^aXrjy tov 'Icjavvov ^rjtil 7.aSfti'. Theophilus was now certain of success; his party knew how to fan the flame at court. During Easter 404, armed men burst into the i hur^h of Chrysostom, and dragged him to Cucusua THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 197 ja Armenia, into exile. He bore undauntedly the fatigues of the journey, the rigour of the climate, and the vicinity of robbers. lie kept up continuous pastoral intercourse with his flock, and addressed to them a consolatory tractate: 'Ort •top savtw jxtj abixovvta ovhel^ rtapa- p?ta4.at bvvatoi. Nor did his zeal for the mission among the Goths flag. In vain Innocent I., Bishop of Rome, and Honorius, the Emperor of the West, interceded for him. In 407 he was sent to a still more dreary place of exile — at Pityus, on the shores of the Black Sea. But he succumbed to the fatigues of that journey, and died by the way, utter- ing his favourite motto: Ao|o fw ^rw rtavti^v 'ivtxiv. A large portion of his flock at Constantinople refused to acknowledge the authority of Arsacius, his successor ; and, despite persecutions, continued as a separate body (by the name of Johnites) until Theodosius II., in 438, caused the bones of their loved pastor to be brought to the capital, and solemnly deposited in the imperial burying vaults. Among these per- sonal disputes, the Origenistic controversy had for a time been lost sight of, but was soon afterwards renewed (| 52, 6). I 52. DISCUSSIONS ABOUT THE PERSON OF CHRIST. CoMP. Walcli, Ketzerhist. (Hist, of Heres.). Vols. V.-IX. — Dorner, Person Christi. Vol. I. — Ranr, Dreieinigk. (on the Trinity). I. II. If, in the discussions about the Trinity, the question of the eternal existence and of the Divine nature of Christ had been agitated, His historical manifestation as the incarnate Son of God, the connection between tlie Divine nature of the Logos and tlie human nature of the Son of Mary, and the mutual relation of these two became now the leading subjects of inquiry. These questions liad in part been raised during the Arian con- troversy. For while the Church had, against Arius, defended the absolute Divinity of Christ, it also maintained, in oppositim) to ApoUinaris, His perfect humanity. The discussion now assumed three new phases. In the Nestorian controversy, the Church defended the unity of the person of Christ against the views of the Antiocliians, whose distinction between the two natures of tlie Saviour almost amounted to separation into two persons. In the Monophysite controversy, the opposite or neo- Alexandrian error, which, in view of the unity of Christ's person, lost siglit of the distinctness of His natures, was set aside. Lastly, in the Monothelele controversy, an erroneous mode of viewing the union of the two natures — when their distinctness was admitted in words, but denied in fact, by assuming the 17 * 198 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) . existence of only one will — was disavowed. Thus the contro- versies about the Trinity and the person of Christ — both of which sprung up in the East — were closely connected. 1. The Apollinaristic Controversy (362-381). — Older Modalists, as Beryllus and Sabellius, had already taught that, at the incarnation, the Logos had assumed only a human soul. Marcelhis held the same tenet (^ 50, 2) ; Ariiis also, though opposed to him in other respects, had maintained this view, in order to avoid the inference, that in Christ two creatures were combined. Alhanaskis, on the other hand, held, Avith Origen, that the human soul of Christ had been the neces- sary bond of connection between the Logos and the body, and tho medium through which the Logos acted upon the body. Hence, at the Synod of Alexandria, in 362, the perfect humanity of the Lord was declared the orthodox dogma on the subject. ApoUinaris, Bishop of Laodicaia, a very talented and highly educated man, who had sent a deputy to this Council, although disapproving of the idea of a cro^a oi'^vxov, denied the perfect humanity of Christ. Starting from the view that man was composed of three parts, he maintained that Christ had only assumed a (Jw^a and a ^vxr; a>.oyo;, and that the Divine Logos Himself occupied the place of the -^vxr; Xoyixri (o vovi). He imagined that a contrary opinion would render it necessary to assume two per- sonalities in Christ, and that Christ would thus be represented as merelj- an ar^pcoTtoj a'^joj ; he also believed that only on his principles would it be possible to maintain the perfect sinlessness of Jesus. But Athanasius and the two Gregories regarded these views as incom- patible with the full idea of the incarnation and of the atonement. The second CEcum. Conncil (381) rejected the views of ApoUinaris, who some time before had, along with some adherents, left the communion of the Church. 2. Antagonism between the different Theological Schools (381-428). — The Arlan controversy had Issued in the general recognition of the perfect Divinity, the Apollinaristic in that of the perfect humanity, of the Saviour. But the relation between these two natures. Implied in their union, had not yet been accurately defined. According to ApoUi- naris, the Divinity was so closely united with the (partial) humanity of the Saviour, that in reality there ceased to be two natures. By a " conmiunlcatio Idiomatum," what was predicated of one nature was transferred to the other, so that the body of Christ was deified, and hence adored ; but the predicates of being born, suffering, and dying, were also applied to His Divinity. Although the Alexandrian School rejected the peculiar tenets of ApoUinaris about the imperfect humanity of Christ, predilection for what was mystical, inconceivable, and trans- cendental, led It Into kindred views. In opposition to Arianism, these divines laid special emphasis on the Divinity of Christ, and maintained -Ml ji'toni? fj.ivr^v xai rtpoixvfov/xevrjv fiira tr^i (jttpxoj avroj ftta npoixwr,(Jii.. The Cappadocians spoke indeed of two natures (ax^o xai ttXXo), but held that they were mixed up (dvyzpafftj, xardut^ii), that there was a " oiirSpa^fti' " of the two natures into one, a /xitartucr^^r^faL of the (japl rtpo? tyjv ^i6tr;ta. — In opposition to Apollinaris, the School OF Antiocu insisted on the perfect, immutable, and continuous humanity of Christ, both during and after its conjunction with His Divinity, These divines only admitted a cswa^iia or jvutsij axenxri (in virtue of which the two natures had entered into that particular relationship — oxfoii — by which they co-existed and co-operated). Such expressions as ^fOToxoj, ^s6j iyfvvri^iv, ^foj irtcL^ev, they regarded as absurd, if not blasphemous. They acknowledged, indeed, that the adp^ of Christ should be adored, but only in respect of its being the organ through which the Logos had accomplished the work of redemption, not as if itself had become endowed with the properties of Divinity. These vieM's were most fully and consistently propounded by Theodorus of Mops. He regartled tlie history of the God-man as typical of the history of redemption. Christ had taken upon Himself our humanity, with its sinful affe'ctions and propensities. But He had overcome the latter; and, by continuous contests and victory, elevated His human nature to that alisolute perfection which, by the working of His Spirit, we also shall reach, and that in exactly the same manner. He expressly guarded himself against the objection that his system implied a two- fold personality in Christ. The Saviour was not aXXoj xaC aX>.oj, but aXXo xai, aXXo. since, at the incarnation. His human nature had lost its personality and independence. Each of these schools presented one aspect of the truth ; satisfactorily to exhibit the truth in its entireness, it was necessary to combine them. But instead of uniting them, these views wei-e carried out in the most one-sided manner, till they issued in positive error. Thus two heresies sprung up, against which the Church had first to protest, in ord(!r afterwards to combine the truths which they had embodied, though in a distorted form. This office was performed by the Theology of the West. In opposition to Antioohian views, it ranged itself on the side of the Alexandrians, at one time oven to the full extent of its one-sided repres.entations. Thus Julius of Home expressly maintained ^tav ^vmv rov Adyov grfaapxwiUfVoi;. But gradually this error was removed. Aitgnstine, for example, still uses the expression mixtnra : but, in point of fact, he correctly indicated the relation between the two natures, quite in accordance with what the Church at a later period declared the orthodox view. Again, when the errors of the Alexandrians were under discussion, Westei-n divines 17 200 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). took the opposite side, and combined what was true in the two antagonistic schools [Leo the Great). — It is remarkable that this dis- cussion originated in the West. But it was so speedily suppressed as to leave no trace behind. Leporius, a monk in the south of Gaul, had expressed himself about the union of the two natures in the same manner as the theologians of Antioch. In 426 he went to Africa, was opposed by Augustine, and at once recanted. 3. The Nesiurian Controversy (428-444). — In 428 Nestorius, a monk of Antioch, and a most eloquent man, was appointed Patriarch of Con- stantinople. He Avas honest and pious, but rash, destitute of experi- ence, and harsh towards heretics. The position of the inexperienced monk was sufficiently difficult. He had to contend against the hatred of an unsuccessful rival for his see, with the jealousy of the Patriarch of Alexandria, who besides regarded him as a representative of the School of Antioch, and with the suspicions of Coelestine, Bishop of Rome, whom he had provoked by extending protection to fugitive Pela- gians [I 53, 4). Anastasius, a presbyter whom Nestorius had brought with him, objected to the frequent use of the term ^fordacof, and preached against it. Nestorius took his part both against the people and the monks ; and when some of the latter offered the Patriarch personal insults, he caused bodily chastisement to be administered to them, and at a Diocesan Synod condemned the views of his opponents (429). Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, now entered the lists in defence of the teaching of his school. He gained for his views Coelentine, Bishop of Rome, Memnon, Bishop of Ephesus, and Jiivenalis, Bishop of Jerusa- lem, and at court Pulcheria, sister of the Emperor (Theodosius II., 408-450) ; Avhile the Empress Eiidocia and the Syrian bishops took the part of Nestorius. All attempts at reconciliation were frusti'ated by the unyielding disposition of the two patriarchs. Coelestine of Rome called upon Nestorius to recant within ten days (430) ; and at a synod held in Alexandria (430), Cyril issued tvrelve Anathematisinoi, to which Nestorius replied by a similar edict. These measures served to em- bitter both parties. To settle the question, the Emperor convoked a THiRn (ECUMENICAL CouNCiL AT EpHESUS IN 431. The Empcror himself was decidedly in favour of Nestorius ; the imperial representative at tlie Council was a personal friend of the Patriarch, and part of the Imperial Guard attended Nestorius to Ephesus. But Cyril appeared with a large suite of bishops, and a strong body-guard of servants and sailors, prepared, if necessary, to demonstrate with their fists the soundness of his arguments. At the same time, Memnon of Ephe.ms had excited the clergy, the monks, and the people of Asia Minor on the subject. As the deputies from Rome and the Syrian bishops (the former probably of set purpose) did not appear at the proper time, Cyril, without waiting for their arrival, opened the Council, which ~ consisted of 200 bishops. Nestorianism was condemned, Nestorius excommunicated and deposed, and the Anatheraatismoi of Cyril recog- THE P E B S O N OF CHRIST. 201 nized as a test of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. The deputies from Rome acknowledged the authority of the Council ; not so the imperial repre- sentative and the Syrians, who immediately, on their arrival, held a counter-council, over which Jolm of Antioch presided, and which ex- communicated Cyril and Memnon. Nestorius voluntarily retired into a monastery. • Meantime, the populace of Constantinople, instigated by Pulcheria, rose in favour of Cyril. The Emperor deposed the three leaders in the dispute — Nestorius, Cyril, and Memnon, — and gave his authority to a sort of intermediate formula, drawn up by Theodoret, whicli admitted the correctness of the term ^totozoj, but also main- tained an aavyxv-roi iVcootj. But Cyril and Memnon continued in their sees. While they signed the formula of Theodoret, John subscribed the condemnation of Nestorius (433). The latter remained deposed and a prey to his enemies. Torn from his asylum and maltreated, he died (440) in misery. But the compromise of the two leaders was rejected by their followei'S. The Syrian Church was indignant about the manner in which their patriarch had betrayed the cause in the person of Nestorius. John proceeded to depose all his opponents — a fate Avhich had almost befallen even the noble-minded Theodoret. But in his case the Patriarch agreed to dispense with a formal condemna- tion of the perscm of Nestorius in consideration of an ample rejection of his teaching. — The Egyptians also accused their patriarch of having surrendered orthodox views. But this prelate endeavoured, by in- creased zeal, to make up for his former compliance. He laboured — not without success — to bring the anathema of the Church upon the leaders of the School of Antioch. Rahulas, Bishop of Edessa, one of his adhe- rents, dispersed the theological school at Edessa, which at the time was presided over by the cele1)rated presbyter Ihas. After the death of Rabulas (43(J) this school again attained its former celebrity. Mean- time, Tlieodoret and Cyril hurled violent tractates against each other, till, in 444, th" tieath of the Patriarch of Alexandria put an end to the controveia}'. Ibas translated the writings of Theodoret into Syriac, and addressed — in favour of these vieAvs — a tractate to Maris, Bishop of Hardashir in Syria, which the Nestorians afterwards regarded as a kind of confession of faith. Thomas Barsvmas, Bishop of Nisibis, spread Nestorianism in the Persian Church. In 489, the School of Edessa was again broken up, by command of the Emperor Zeno. Teachers and students migrated into Persia, where they founded a school in Nisibis, which for a long time enjoyed considerable celebrity. At last, at a synod held in S'deucia. in 498, the Persian Church wholly separated from the orthodox Church in the Roman Empire, and adopted the name of Chaldean Christians. Their Patriarch bore the title of Yazelich {xa^t ixoi) . From Persia the Nestorian Church spread to India, where i"s adherents were called Thomas-Christians. 4. The Monophysite Controversy. A. Evtychiani^m (444-451). — Cyril was succeeded by DioscuRUs. a man of much inferior talent, but 202 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). of much greater violence and tyranny than even the opponent of Nes- torius. In Constantinople, an aged Archimandrite, called Eutyches, openly taught that, after His incarnation, Christ had only had one nature, and that, since the body of Christ was that of the Deity, it could not have been of the same substance with ours. Theodoret wrote against him a tractate, entitled 'Epanarjjj ^Vot. noXv^op$oj,.in which he characterized the teaching of Eutyches as a combination of various heresies. Dioscnriis now interfered, and prevailed on the Emperor Theodosius II., whose Minister of State and Avife [Eudocia) he had gained, to adopt strict measures against the Syrians, and especially against Theodoret, who was forbidden to travel beyond the bounds of his diocese. The Antiochians, on the other hand, laid an accusation against Eutj'ches before the Patriarch Flavian, at a synod held in Con- stantinople (448). Eutyches appeared, attended by an imperial guard; but, on his refusal to recant, was excommunicated and deposed. Eu- tyches appealed to an oecumenical council, and at the same time to Leo THE Great of Rome. Flavian also appealed to Rome. Leo took the same view as Flavian ; and in a letter to that prelate, with equal acute- ness and precision, defined the doctrine about the two natures in Christ. But the Emperor summoned an oecumenical council to Ephesus (449), over which Diosairus was to preside, at whicli Flavian and his party, however, were not to vote, and from which Theodoret was wholly ex- cluded. The Council proceeded in the most arbitrary and violent manner. The deputies from Rome Avere not allowed to speak ; the doctrine of two natures was condemned ; Flavian and Theodoret were deposed. The former met even with bodily violence, and died after the lapse of only three days. Leo the Great energetically protested against the decrees of this " Robber-Synod" [latrocinium Ephesimim). But meantime Theodosius had quarrelled with Eiidocia, dismissed his ministers, and made his peace with Pidcheria. Accordingly, the body of Flavian was carried in state to Constantinople, and buried with all honours. Further measures were arrested by the death of Theodosius in 450. He was succeeded by Pidcheria, and her husband Marxian. Another o-icitmenical council (the fourth) was now convened at Chal- CEDON in 451, which deposed JJioscnriis and Eutyches, and condemned both Nestorianism and Eutychianism. The Synodical Epistle of Cyril and the Letter of Leo were made the basis of the decrees enacted at Chalcedon, Avhich affirmed, " that Christ was true God and true man ; that, according to His divinity. He was begotten from all eternity, and equal to the Father ; that, according to His humanit}-. He was born of Mary the Virgin, and mother of God ; and was like us in all things, yet without sin ; and that, after His incarnation, the unity of His person consisted of two natures, which were unmixed {aavyx^'^^i) ^"^ vnchanr/ed faTpfrtrtoj), but also undivided (dSiaipf'rwj) and not separated (rt3rui..-rcoj)." 5. B. Lnperial Attempts to bring about a Union (451-519). — The THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 2C8 Alexamlnan theologians left the Council full pf indignation about the defeat Tvmch they had sustained. They were now called Monophysites. Indeed, the whole Church was violently agitated by these questions. In Falestuie, Fheodosms, a monk, secretly aided by Eudocla, the widow of the Emperor, incited the populace to rebellion. In E vote a "consfiiufum ad Imp.," XHE PERSON OF CHRIST. 205 in which he rejected the teaching of the three capitula, but refused to condemn their writers. A period of imprisonment, however, induced him to yieUl in 554. He died on his return to his see in 555. Pelagius, his successor, formally acknowledged the decrees of Constantinople ; and North Africa, North Italy, and lUyria separated from the see of Peter, which had so basely succumbed. Only Gregory the Great suc- ceeded— not without much trouble — in gradually healing this schism. 7. D. The Monophysite Churches. — Justinian had not attained his object. The Monophyaites refused to return to the Church so long as the decrees of Chak-edon remained in force. But they sufiered even more from endless internal divisions than from the persecutions of the orthodox State Church. First of all, Jidianun and Severus, the two leaders of the party in Alexandria, disputed. The Severians (4)^pro- xdrpai) held that the body of Christ had been subject to decay (^^pa), while the Julianists {a^^pboxr^rat.) denied it. This discussion was followed by many others. — The Monophysites numbered most adherents in Egypt. From dislike to the Greek Catholics, they excluded the Greek language from their ecclesiastical forms, and chose a Cop)tic patriarch of their own. They even favoured the conquest of Egypt by the Saracens (640), who, in gratitude for such services, expelled the Catholic patriarch. From Egypt their views spread into Aby-ssiaia. Armenia had in 536 surrendered to the Persians, when the Monophj^- sites in that country, hitherto oppressed under Byzantine domination, obtained full liberty. In Syria and Mesopotamia the indefatigable activity of Jacobus Zanzabis, a monk (commonlj- termed el Baradai, from the circumstance of his going about in the disguise of a beggar) preserved the existence of the Monophysite Church during the perse- cutions of Justinian. From this their leader the Syrian Monophysites were called Jacobites; while they designated the Catholics as Melchites (Royalists). The patriarch of the party resided at Guba in Mesopo- tamia; his suffragan at Tagrit had the title of Maphrian — i. e., fruit- bearing. The Armenian Monophysites were ruled by the Patriarch of Ashtarag, who took the title of CathoUcos. The Abyssinian Church was under the direction of a metropolitan, designated as Ahbuna. 8. Tlie Monothelete Coiitrover.') were made the basis of the decrees. Nay, the Sjnod went so lav as to transmit to the Pope an account of its trans- actions, and to request him to ratify its decrees. Still the Greeks managed to put some wormwood into the Pope's cup, by prevailing upon the Council to anathematize Pope Honorius along with the other representatives of the Monothelete heresy. — After that, Dj'otheletisni was universally received as orthodox doctrine. Monotheletism continued only in that portion of Asia which the arm of the State Church was unable to reach. The scattered adherents of these views gathered around the monastery of S. Maro on Mount Lebanon, and made its abbot their ecclesiastical chief. They took the name of MaronUes, and preserved their ecclesiastical and political independence both against the Byzantines and against the Saracens. §53. CONTROVERSIES CONNECTED WITH THE DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION (412—529). CoMP. Walch, Ilist. d. Ketz. IV. V. — Fr. Wiggers, prag. Darstell. des Augustinism. u. Pelagianism. (Pragm. Sketch of Aug. and Pelag.). Berlin 1821, 1833. 2 Volls. Although the controversies about the Trinity and the Person of Christ had originated and were most zealously carried on iu the East, they also exercised considerable influence in tlie West ; and when, ultimately, they issued in favour of orthodoxy, this result was mainly due to the influential advocacy of the see of Rome. But even befoi'e the coraraencemeut of the controversy about the Person of Christ, a discussion had sprung up iu the West, which continued for upwards of a century, but failed to enlist more than a merely passing and indirect interest in the East. This discussion concerned the fundamental doctrines of Sin and of Grace. AVhile Pelagians maintained the efficacy of unaided human liberty, and i^emi-Pelagians the co-operation of Divine grace with human freedom, Augudine and his party insisted on the ojoeration of Divine grace as a'one efficacious in the work of salvation. Yictory ultimately remained with the party of Augustine. 1. Pieltiin'nari/ lilntory. — The entire corruption of human nature, and the need of Divine grace in Christ in order to redemption, had from the first been generally admitted in the Church. But a considerable period elapsed before it was authoritatiA^ely and finally settled whether, and in how far, the moral freedom of man had been weakened or lost through sin. and what was the relation between human activity and Divine grace. In their controversies with the Gnostics and Manicha?aus the Fathers were led to lay the greatest possible emphasis on the doc- 208 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (;i23— 692 A. D.) , trine of human freedom. Some of them went so far even as to deny innate sinfuhiess — an error which was not a little encouraged by the views concerning " Creatianism " then prevailing. This tendency ap- peared most prominently among the older Alexandrian Avriters. — The Neo-Alexandrian School, on the other hand, sought to trace the universal prevalence of sin to the fall of Adam, but failed to carry out this view so far as the principle of hereditary or innate sinfulness. Accordingly, this school afterwards kept by the statements formerly made by Alex- andrian writers, who traced salvation to a Synergism, or the co-opera tion of human freedom Avith Divine grace. The theologians of Antioch, in their anxiety to assign a place to the operation of the human Avill, while admitting the necessity of Divine grace, reduced the doctrine of original sin to that of hereditary misery. Thus Chry.sostom allowed that the children which Adam begat after he had become mortal must also have been subject to death; but he failed to perceive that after his sin his descendants must also have been sinful. The first man, he held, had brought into the world sin and misery, which we confirmed and continued by our sins. If, in the exercise of his free Avill, man only did his part, grace would certainly not be withheld. In short, the East was unanimous in decidedly rejecting anything like Predestina- rianism. — It was otherwise in the West, where the " Tradvcianism" or " Generatianism" of Terttdlian (tradux animge tradux peccati) prepared the Avay for the doctrine of original sin, and for the views of Augustine concerning grace. Even Tertidlian, proceeding on the fact that from his birth a man had an unconquerable inclination towards sin, spoke very distinctly about a " vitium orlginis." Cyprian, Ambrose, and Hi- lary, held the same views. Still, even these Fathers vs'ere not quite free from Synergistic views. By the side of passages which savour of extreme Predestinarianism, we find others in which great stress is laid on the co-operation of man in conversion. Angiistine was the first to carry these principles to their fullest consequences, and taught that the operation of God was alone efficacious in salvation (Divine Moner- gism); while Pelagius perverted the Synergism propounded by former authorities into a Monergism on the part of man, which had not been mooted V)efore him. 2. Doctrinal Views of Augustine. — During the first period of his Christian experience, and while antagonism to the Manichgean system occupied so prominent a place in his thinking, Augustine also regarded faith as a free act of the human will. He deemed it requisite that, to a certain extent, the human will should co-operate in conversion, and hence denied that man was entirely helpless and undeserving of any good. But a deeper experience (| 47, 5) obliged him to acknowledge the natural inability of man to contribute in anj^ Avay towards the acquisition of salvation, and to trace both faith and conversion entirely to the grace of Gc^d. These views became thoroughly formed, and were completely developed, during the controversy with the Pelagians. The THE DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION. 209 following are the leading outlines of the doctrinal system of Augustine. Originally man had been a free agent, created in the image of God, capable of, and destined for, immortality, holiness, and blessedness ; but also free to sin and to die. In the exercise of his freedom, he had to make a choice. If he had chosen to obey the Lord, the possibility that he might not sin, and hence not die, would have become an impos- sibility to sin or to die (the " posse non peccare et mori" a " non posse peccare et mori"). But by the wiles of the enemy he fell, and it became impossible for him not to sin and not to die ("non posse non peccare" and "non mori"). All the distinguishing features of the Divjne image were now lost, and man was only capable of an external, civil righteousness (justitia civilis) and of bein/j redeemed. But in Adam all mankind have sinned, since he constituted all mankind. By generation the nature of Adam, as it was after the fall, with its sin and guilt, with its death and condemnation — but also with its capability of redemption — has passed upon all his posterity. Divine grace avails itself of what remains of the image of God in man, which appears in his need and capability of redemption. But grace alone can save man, or give him eternal blessedness. Hence grace is absolutely necessary — it constitutes the commencement, the middle, and the close of the Christian life. It is imparted to man not because he believes, but iu order that he may believe ; for faith also is the work of God's grace Grace, having first aicakened a man through the law to a sense of his sin and desire after salvation, next leads him by the Gospel to believe in the Saviour ("gratia pra3veniens"). Grace then procures pardon of sin by the appropriation of the merits of Christ through faith, and imparts to man the powers of a divine life by bringing him into living communion with Christ (in baptism). Our free-will towards that which is good being thus restored ("gratia operans"), henceforth manifests itself in a devoted life of holy love. But the old man with his inclina- tion towards sin, is not wholly destroyed even in those who are regene- rated. In the contest between the new and the old man, believers are continuously aided by Divine grace ("gratia cooperans"). The last act of grace, which, however, is not accomplished in this life, consists in the entire removal of all sinful inclinaticms (" concupiscentia"), and in transformation into perfect likeness to Christ by the resurrection and eternal life ("non posse peccare" and "mori"). — But this thoroughly evangelical view of nature and of grace Augustine developed into the unevangelical doctrine of an absolute predestinatioji. Expe- rience, he argued, showed that all men were 7iot converted and saved. But as man could not in any way contribute to his conversion, this must ultimately be traced back, not to the conduct of man, but to an eternal and unconditional decree of God (decretum absolutum), accord- ing to which He had resolved, to the praise of His grace, to deliver some of the human family, which lay entirely under sentence of con- demnation (the " massa perditionis"), and, to the oraise of His justice 18* o 210 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). to leave the rest to the condemnation which thej^ had deserved. This choice depended alone on the all-wise but secret good pleasure of the Divine will, and not upon our faith, which indeed was also a gift of God. It is indeed written : " God wills that all men should he saved," but this only means — " all who are predestinated." As the reprobate (" reprobati ") are unable in any way to obtain grace, so the elect can- not resist it (" gratia irresistibilis"). Hence continuous perseverance in grace ("donum perseverantite") was the only sure evidence of elec- tion. Augustine held that even the best among the heathen could not be saved (although he thought that there were various degrees in their punishment), and that children who died iaibaptized could not go to heaven. The apparent contradiction between this statement and his other assertion, •' contentus, non defectus sacramenti damnat," was removed b}' an appeal to the eternal decree of God, who sufifered not the elect to die without having received this sacrament. 3. Pelagius and hia System. — Far different from the Inner history of Augustine was that of Moj-gan or Pelagius, a British monk of respectable acquirements and of moral earnestness, but without depth of mind or capacity for speculation. At a distance from the struggles and trials of life, having no experience of inward temptations, nor strong tendency to outward and manifest sins, destitute, moreover, of deeper Christian experience, his ideal of religion consisted in a kind of monastic asceticism. His dislike to the views of Augustine about the total corruption of human nature, and its entire inability to con- tribute in any way towards conversion or sanctitication, was increased by the knowledge that some careless persons had made them an excuse for carnal security and moral indolence. This circumstance confirmed him in the idea that it was much better to preach a moral law, the demands of which, as he thought, men were able to fulfil, provided they were in earnest about it. During his stay at Rome, about the year 410, he commenced to diffuse these views. The following are the leading (nitlines of his system. Man had originally been created liable to physical death ; eternal, not physical death, was the consequence and the punishment of sin. The fall of Adam had not caused any change in the moral nature of man, nor did its influence extend to the posterity of Adam. Every man came into the world exactly as God had created our first father, /. e., without either sin or virtue. In the exercise of his yet undiminished freedom, he was left to choose the one or the other. The universal prevalence of sin depended on the power of seduction, of evil example, and of custom ; but perfectly sinless per- sons may, and indeed actually have existed. The grace of God made it 7nore easy for man to attain his destiny. Hence grace was not abso- lutely but relatively necessary, on account of the general prevalence of sin. Grace consisted in spiritual enlightenment through revelation, in the forgiveness of sins as the manifestation of Divine indulgence, and iu the strengthening of our moral powers ])y bringing the incentives THE DOCTEINE OF REDE.vIPTION. 211 of the law and the promise of eternal life to bear upon them. The grace of God was designed for all men ; but man must deserve it by making sincere endeavours after virtue. Christ had become incarnate in order, by His perfect doctrine and example, to give us the most powerful incentive to amend our ways, and thus to redeem us. As by sin we iiniiate Adam, so ought we by virtue to imitate Christ. Baptism he held to be necessary (the baptism of infants " in remissionem fatiironim peccatorum "). Infants who had died without this sacra- ment enjoyed an inferior degree of-blessedness. The same inconsistent adherence to Church views appears in hio admission of the received doctrines concerning revelation, miracles, prophecy, the Trinity, and the divinity of Christ. If Pelagius had carried his principles to all their legitimate consequences, he would no doubt have discarded from his system all that is supernatural. 4. The Pelagian Controversy (412-431). — From the year 409 Pelagius resided at Rome, where he made a convert of Coelestius, a man of much greater talent and learning than himself. By their zeal for morality and asceticism the two gained high repute at Rome ; and continued to diffuse their principles without let or hindrance. In 411 they went to (Jarthage, whence Pelagius passed into Palestine. Coelestius remained at Carthage, and became a candidate for the ofSce of presbyter. His errors were now for the first time discussed. Paidinus, a deacon from Milan, who happened to be at Carthage, laid a formal accusation against him ; and when he refused to recant, a provincial synod, held at Carthage in 412, excommunicated him. In the same year Augustine published his first controversial tractate: " De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum. LI. III. ad Marceliinum." — In Palestine, Pelagius joined the followers of Origen. Jerome, whom ho had at any rate offended by a dispara.ging opinion of his literary labours, opposed his views, and declared them a logical sequence of the Origenistic heresy (Ep. ad Ctesiphontem — Dialog, c. Pelag. LI. III.) ; and Pauhts Orosius, a young presbyter from Spain, denounced him at a synod held at Jerusalem (415), under the presidency of John, the bishop of that see. But the Eastern divines could not be con- vinced of the dangerous character of these views, which, besides, were somewhat disguised by their author. Another accusation laid by two Galilean bishops before the Synod of Diospolis (415), held under the presidency of Eulogius, Bishop of Cajsarea, ended in the same manner. Upon this, Augustine ("de gestis Pelagii") showed to the divines of Palestine that they had been deceived by Pelagius. Orosius also published a controversial tractate ("Apologeticus c. Pel.") ; while, on the other side, Theodoras of Mops, wrote five (now lost) letters (probably directed against Jerome). The Africans now took part in the contro- versy. Two synods — held at Mileve and at Curtilage (416) — renewed the former condemnation of these doctrines, and laid their charges before Innocent I. of Rome, who approved of the conduct of the African 18 212 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). Church. Pelaghis now transmitted a confession, in which his views were carefully disguised, while Coelestius appeared personally at Rome. But Innocent had died before his arrival (416). Zosirnvs, his successor — perhaps a Greek divine, at any rate an indifferent theologian — having been gained by Coelestius, addressed bitter reproaches to the African Church, against which the latter energetically protested. Soon afterwards, however, the Emperor Honoriits issued (in 418) a "sacrum scriptnm" against the Pelagians, while a General Synod, held at Car- thage in 418, condemned their views in even stronger terms than before. These circumstances induced Zosimns also to condemn them {"episiola tractoria"). Eighteen Italian bishops — among them Jvliamis of Eclanum, the ablest defender of Pelagianism — refused to sign this document, and were banished. They requested and obtained an asylum from Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople. But this connection was fatal both to the bishop and his proteges. Coelesiine, Bishop of Rome, took the part of the opponents of Nestorius in the controversy about the person of Christ (^ 52, 3) ; while the Eastern Church, at the Oecu- menical Council of Ephesus in 431, condemned, along with Nestorius, also Pelagius and Coelestius, without, however, entering upon a defini- tion of the doctrine in question. To this result the efforts of 3farius Mercator, a learned layman from the West, who resided at Constanti- nople, had greatly contributed. He had composed two " Commoni- toria" against Pelagius and Coelestius, and a controversial tractate against Julianus of Eclanum. Nor had Augustine been idle during the interval. In 413 he wrote " De spiritu et litera ad Marcellinum ;" in 415, " De natura et gratia" against Pelagius, and " De perfectione justitise hominis " against Coelestius ; in 416, " De gestis Pelagii ;" in 418, " De gratia Dei et de peccato originali LI. II. c. Pelag. et Ccel. ;" in 410, " De nuptiis et concupiscentia LI. II." (in answer to the objection that his system cast contempt upon the Divine institution of marriage) ; in 420, " C. duas epistolas Pelagianorum ad Bonifacium I." (composed by Julianus and his friends in defence of their views) ; in 421, " LI. VI. c. Julianum ;" and somewhat later an "Opus imper- fectum c. secundam Juliani responsionem." 5. 27ie Semi-l^elagian Controversy (427-529). — Gross Pelagianism had been refuted, but extreme inferences from the principles of Augus- tine in reference to the doctrine of Predestination excited fresh discus- sions. The monks at Hadntmetinn, in North Africa, had gone on evolving sequences from this doctrine, until some had fallen into per- plexity and despair, some into security and unconcern, while others deemed it i-equisite to avoid these and other consequences by ascribing to human activity a certain amount of merit in the acquisition of sal- vation. Under these difficulties, the abbot of that monastery addressed himself to Augustine, who endeavoured to remove the scruples and mistakes of the monks in two tractates (a. 427) : " De gratia et libero arbitrio" and "De correptione et gratia." But about the same time THE DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION. 213 an entire school of divines in Southern Gaul protested against the doc- trine of Predestination, and maintained the necessity of asserting that human freedom to a certain degree co-operated with Divine gra°e, so that sometimes the one, sometimes the other, initiated conversion. This school was headed by Johannes Cassiamis [ob. 432), a pupil and friend of Chrysostom, and the founder and president of the monastery at Massilia. His adherents were called Massiliaus or Semi- Pelagians. Cassianus himself had, in the 13th of his " Collationes Patrum"'(^ 48, 6), controverted the views of Augustine, without, however, naming that Father. The ablest of his pupils was Vmcentius Lirinensis (from the monastery of Lirinium), who, in his " Commonitorium pro catho- lics; fide antiquitate et universitate," laid down the principle, that Catholic doctrine consisted of all " quod semper, ubique et ab omnibus creditum sit." Tried by this test, of course the teaching of Augustine was not Catholic. The second book of his tractate — which has been lost— controverted Augustinianism, and was, probably on that account, suppressed. Hilary and Prosper Aquifanicus — two laymen in Gaul (I 48, 8) — devoted adherents of Augustine, wrote to inform him of these proceedings. The Bishop of Hippo now composed two tractates against the Massilians ("De prsedestinatione Sanctorum" and " De dono perseverantiae"). Death put an end to further controversy on his part (430). But Hilari/ and Prosper took up the cause. When Ca;les- tine, Bishop of Rome, to whom they applied for redress (in 431). gave a reply in terms which might mean anything or nothing. Prosper him- self entered the lists by an able tractate, " De gratia dei et libero arbi- tno contra Collatorem," in which, however, he involuntarily smoothed off the extreme points in the system of Augustine. This remark ap- plies even in higher degree to the able work " De vocatione gentium," which perhaps was composed by Leo the Great, afterwards a pope, but at that time only a deacon. The other party [Arnobius the younger?) published a remarkable tractate, entitled " Prjedestinatus," in which a supposed follower of Augustine expresses his views about predesti- nation, carrying them to a most absurd length, of course in a manner never intended by the Bishop of Hippo. (Book I. gives a description of ninety heresies, of which Predestinarianism is the last ; Book II. furnishes, by way of proof, this pretended tractate by a Predestinarian ; and Book III. contains a refutation of it.) A Semi-Pelag. synod, which met at Aries in 475, obliged Lncidiis, a presbyter and a zealous advo- cate of the doctrine of Predestination, to recant ; and Faustns, Bishop of Rhegium, transmitted to him, in name of that Council, a contro- versial tractate, " De gratia Dei et humana; mentis libero arbitrio." In the same year a synod held at Lvgdnnvm (in 475) sanctioned Semi- Pelagianism. Although the tractate of Faustus was moderate, and, BO to speak, intermediate between extreme views on both sides, it (paused very great commotion among a communitv of Scythian monks It Constantinople (520). Through Possessor, Bishop of Carthage, they 214 SECTION I. — SECOND P E .1 1 O D (323— 692 A. D.). complained to Hormisdas, who, however, replied in general and indefi« nite terms. The African divines in Sardinia, whom the Vandals had banished from their sees, now took up the cause. They held a council in 523 ; and, in their name, Fulfjentius of Rvspe composed a very able defence of Augustinian views (" De veritate prcedestinationis et gratiae Dei LI. III."), which made an impression even in Gaul. At the same time, Aviius of Vieiine and Ccesarius of Aries, two excellent Gallican bishops, undertook the advocacy of moderate Augustinianism. At the Synod of Armisio (Oranges), in 529, these views were generally .ac- knowledged as orthodox truth. Augustine's principles about original sin, the entire Avorthlessness of all human works, and the absolute necessity of grace, were admitted to the fullest extent ; faith was de- clared to be the effect of grace alone, while the predestination of the " reprobate" was defined as merely foreknowledge, and predestination to sin entirely rejected as blasphemous. A synod held at Valencia (529) in the same year confirmed the decrees of Oranges, which also received the approbation of Boniface 11. of Rome in 530. ? 54. OLD AND NEW SECTS. The Monlanists (Tertullianists) and Novatians continued to exist till the fifth or sixth century. During the fifth century Manichceiiim still counted numerous adherents both in Italy and in North Africa. Gnostic and Manichiean tendencies reappeared in Spain under the name of Priacillianisni, and (towards the close of this period) in Armenia under that of Paulicianism (§n, 1). 1. Manichivism. — The most prominent representative of this heresy in the West was Fansius of Mileve, an African, who composed a num- ber of controversial tractates against Catholic doctrine. Augustine, who had at first been misled by him, wrote against him the thirty-three books " c. Faustum," the most comprehensive of his numerous works against the Manicha^ans. — Since the reign of Valentian I., the emperors frequently issued strict edicts, decreeing punishment upon the members of that sect. In Africa also they were persecuted by the Vandals. Huneric (since 477) transported whole shiploads of them to the conti- nent of Europe. At the time of Leo the Great [oh. 461) the party numbered many adherents in Rome. On inquiry, it turned out that they held antimmiian principles, and secretly indulged their lusts. But, notwithstanding the rigour employed against them, the sect had many fjecret adherents even during the middle ages. 2. PriscilUanism (380-563). — (Comp. Sal. van Fries, diss. crit. dePris- cillianistis eorumque fatis doctr. moribus. Ultraj. 1745. — /. TT B. Lilb' OLD AND NEW SECTS. 215 kert, de liajresi Priscill. Ilan. 1840. — J. M. Mandernach, Oesch. des Priscillianism. Trier 1851.) — Marctis, an Egyptian, is said, in the fourth century, to have brought the germs of Gnostico-Manichsean views to Spain. Priscillian, a wealthy and educated layman, adopted these principles, and elaborated them into a dualistic system, in which the " emanation theory" occupied a prominent place. Marriage and the use of flesh were interdicted ; but it is said that, under the guise of a strict asceticism, the sect secretly cherished antinomian views, and indulged in licentious orgies. At any rate, it sanctioned both lying and perjury, hypocrisy and dissimulation, for the purpose of spreading and protecting its principles. — Gradually Priscillianism extended over the whole of Spain, where even some of the bishops became converts to it. The glowing embers Avere fanned into a flame by the intemperate zeal of Idacius, Bishop of Emerida. A synod held at Saragassa in 380 excommunicated the sect, and commissioned Ithacivs, Bishop of Sos- suba, a very violent and also an immoral man, to carry its decrees into execution. The latter gained over Maxinuis, the usurper (the murderer of Gratian), who, to obtain their possessions, applied the torture to some of the sect, and caused Priscillian and some of his adherents tc be beheaded at Treves (385). This was the first instance in which heretics were punished with death. Martin, the noble-minded Bishop of Tours, to whom the Emperor had promised to employ mild measures, hastened to Treves, and renounced communion with Ithacius and all those bishops who had consented to the sentence of death. Ambrose also, and other bishops, expressed their disapprobation. Under these circumstances Maximus adopted more moderate measures. But the glory of martyrdom heightened the enthusiasm of the sect, and their principles rapidly spread among the barbarians M'ho, since 409, invaded Spain. In a "Commonitorium de errore Priscillianist." addressed to AuyuHine (in 415), Paulus Orosius (§ 53, 4) earnestly implored the • assistance of that Father ; but other cares and controversies prevented him from energetically taking part in this discussion. Greater success attended the endeavours of Leo the Great, whose aid was invoked thirty years later by Turribius, Bishop of Astorga. In accordance with the instructions of that Pontifl", a "Concilium Hispanicum" in 447, and at a subsequent period, the Council of Braga in 5G3, adopted cfficieut measures for the suppression of this heresy. After that pro- fessed Priscillianism seems to have disappeared, but the printiples of the sect continued in secret tradition for many centuries. 18* 216 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A, D.). V, WORSHIP, LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. g 55. WORSHIP IN GENERAL. When Christian worship was secured by Constantiiie against persecution, it developed extraordinary wealth of forms and material, an indescribable fulness of ceremonial beauty and glory. But as yet doctrinal controversies absorbed public attention too much, to leave time or space for submitting ritual questions to the ordeal of discussion and examination. Hence the special manner of conducting public worship was in each case very much left to be regulated by the spirit of the times, and by national peculiarities. Still, the common spirit of the Church gave to this ecclesiastical development a great uniform direction, and the differences which at first obtained gradually disappeai'ed. Only, such were the national differences between the East and the West, 'hat even the continual efforts made after catholic unity could not efface these cliaracteristies from public worship. The right relation between doctrine and woRsnip doubtless is, that the hitter should be regulated and determined by the former. Such was the case at the commencement of this period. But afterwards the relationsliip was reversed ; and the unevangelical views so generally entertained may, in no small measure, be traced to this aberration. The change took place principally during the time of Cyril of Alex. It is quite natural that, when the principles of that school about the close interconnection between the Divine and the human prevailed, they should also have been embodied in public worship. But as yet these views were one-sided, and liable to be perverted into error. The labours of Leo and Thcodoret were indeed so far successful as to exclude from Church doctrines the moiiopJii/.site element. But already it had struck its roots so deeply in pubUc icorship, that its presence was not even recognized, far less removed. During the following periods it gradually increased (in the worship of saints, of images, of relics — in pilgrimages, the sacrifice of the mass, etc.), and exercised the most pernicious influence on the development of the doctrines which, as yet, had not been accurately defined (for example, those about the Church, the priesthood, the sacraments, especially that of the Lord's Supper, etc.) TIMES OF WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. 217 §56. TIMES OF PUBLIC WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. Gdmp. G. B. Elsenschmidt, Gesch. d. Sonn- and Festtage (Hist, of the Li>rd's Day and of Feast Days). Leipz. 1793. — /. G. Miiller, Gesch. d. christ. Feste. Berl. 1843. — Fr. Strauss, d. evang. Kirchonjahr (The Eccles. Year of Evang. Ch.). Bcrl. 1850. — E. Ranke, d. kirchl. Peri- kopcnsystcm. Bcrl. 1847. — M. A. Nickel (Rom. Cath.), d. heil. Zeiten u. Feste in d. kath. K. (Sacred Seasons and Fest. in the Cath. Church). Mayence 1836. 6 vols. — H. AU, d. chr. Cultus. Abth. II., Das Kir- cheujahr niit s. Festeii. Berl. 1858. I The idea of a iveekly and an annual cycle in commemoration of the great facts of salvation, had been entertained even during the previous period (§ 57). l>ut gradually the idea of this xoeekly cycle gave way before a richer and fuller development of that of the Ghriatian year. From the first essential differences prevailed in this respect between the East and the West ; the farmer embodied rather the Jewish-Christian, the latter the Gen- tile-Christian tendency. But during the fourth century many of these di.vergeuces were removed, and the three great cycles of Christian festivals were celebrated in the same manner by both Churches. During the fifth and sixth centuries, however, the former differences again reappeared. The Eastern Church in- creasingly yielded to its early inclination for Jewish-Christian forms of worship ; while the Western Church, in conformity with its Gentile-Christian tendency, adopted the natural year as a basis for the ecclesiastical. Hence the ecclesiastical year of the West obtained fuller organization, and became more closely entertwined with popular life. But even in the West, the in- creasing tendency towards the worship of saints prevented the full carrying out of the idea of the Christian ecclesiastical year. 1 . T/ie Weekly Cycle. — So early as the year 321 Constantine the Great enacted a law, that neither public business nor work of any kind should be done on the Lord's Day. Somewhat later he interdicted military exercises on that day. His successors extended this inhibition to public spectacles. Besides Sunday, the .Jewish Sabbath also was, for a long time, observed in the East by meeting foi- worship, by the intermission of fasts, and by prayer in the standing posture ; fasting was only allowed on the Sabbath of the Great Week. AVednesday and Friday, the "diesstationum," were kept in the East as fast days. In the West, the fast on AVednesdays was abrogated, and in its room that on the Jewish Sal)bath introduced. 19 218 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (^323— 692 A. D.) . 2. Hovoi and Ember-Days.- — During the fifth century the number of fixed hou7-s J'or prayer (the 3d, 6th, and 9th during the day, comp. Dan. vi. 1], 4; Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9) increased to eight [lioroi canonicce: Matutina at 3 o'clock in the morning. Prima at 6, Tertia at 9, Sexta at 12, Nona at 3, Vespers at 6, Completoria at 9, and Mesonyction or Vigils at 12). But in order to obtain the sacred number 7 (after Ps. cxix. 164), the two horge of the night were generallj'^ combined into one. The horae were, in all their strictness, observed only by monks and the clergy. — In accordance with this arrangement of prayer, once every three hours, the year was divided in the West into terms of three months [quaiunr tempora, quarterly), each marked by a fast. These periods were (according to Joel ii.) to be signalized by repentance, fasting, and almsgiving. The arrangement in question was completed by Leo the Great [ob. 461). The Ember-days fell at the commencement of Quadragesima, during the week after Pentecost, and in the middle of the seventh and of the tenth month (September and December). They were observed by a strict fast on the Wednesday, the Friday, and the Saturday, and by a Sabbath vigil. 3. The Calculation of Easter. — The Covnril of Nice (325) decided in favour of the Roman mode of Easter observance, as opposed to that of Asia Minor (?31, 1). The adherents of the latter formed a separate sect [Qitartodecimani). The Council decided that the first day of full moon after the vernal equinox should be regarded as the 14th of Nisan, and that the Feast of the Resurrection should be celeljrated on the Sunday following, yet so as to avoid its coincidence with the Jewish Passover. The annual astronomical calculation of the feast was en- trusted to the Bishop of Alexandria, in which city astronomical study was extensively cultivated. This prelate issued an annual circular [liber pasc.halis) — commonly at Epiphany — in which he intimated to the other churches the result of his calculations, and generally also took occasion to discuss some question that was mooted at the time. The Roman mode of calculation diifcred in some respects from that common in Alexandria. At Rome they calculated according to a cycle of 84, and not of 19 years ; the 18th, and not the 21st of March, was regarded as the day of the spring equinox ; and if the full moon hap- pened on a Saturday, Easter was celebrated, not the day afterwards, but eight days after it. At last, in 525, Dionysius Exiguus brought about a permanent agreement betAveen Rome and Alexandria in the celebra- tion of Easter. 4. The Easter Cycle of Festivals. — With the commencement of Qua- dragesima the whole appearance of public life underwent a change. Public amusements were prohibited, criminal investigations arrested, and the noise of traflBc in streets and markets ceased as far as possible. In the East, fasting was intermitted on Sundays and Saturdays ; in the West, only on Sundays. On this account, Gregory the Great fixed thp TIMES OF WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. 219 ^V^!dncsday of the seventh week before Easter as the commencement of Quadragesima. This day was called •' Caput jejunii," and "Dies cinerum" — Ash Wednesday — from the practice of sprinkling ashes on the heads of the faithful, in remembrance of Gen. iii. 19. On the Tuesday before that fast, the people were wont, by extravagant festivi- ties [Carnival, Caro vale), to make up for the coming fasts. About the same time the Easter cycle was enlarged in the West, so as to embrace two additional weeks, and commenced on the ninth Sunday before Easter (Scptuagesima). The Hallelujah of the mass then ceased, marriages were no more consecrated [iempiis dausrim), and monks and priests already commenced to fast. Quadragesima attained, as it were, its climax during the last or the so-called Greni Week, which commenced on Palm Sunday (foprj; rwv (Satuv), and closed with the Great Sabbath, the favourite time for administering baptism. The Thursday -when the Lord's Supper had been instituted, and the Friday on which the Sa- viour had been, crucified, were more particularly observed. Public worship celebrated during the night [Easter vigil) formed a transition from these fasts to the rejoicings at Easter. This solemnity was deep- ened by the prevalence of an old tradition, that Christ would again return during that night. The morning of Easter was ushered in with the joyful salutation, "The Lord is risen;" to which response was made, " Yea, truly lie is risen." The festivities of Easter closed only on the following Sunday (pascha clausum, avtirtaoxa.). On that day those who had been baptized on the Great Sabbath wore for the last time their white garments. Hence this Sunday was called " Dominica in albis," also " Quasimodogeniti," from the first words in IPet. ii.2 — among the Greeks, xatu; xvpLaxr^. The rejoicings of Easter extended over the whole term of Qninqnaf/esima, or the period between Easter and Pentecost. A solemn vigil preceded both Ascension-day and Pen- tecost, and the latter. closed with a Pentecosi-nctava (celebrated by the Greeks as the xvpiaxri twv aytcov fxaptvptjtjdvtOiiv, and by the Latins — at a much later period — as the Feast of the Holy Trinity). — These festive "Octavce" were kept in imitation of the "solemn assembly" at the Feast of Tabernacles, Lev. xxii. 36. 5. The Christmas Cycle of Festivals. — The first mention of Christmas observance (natalis Christi, yivt^Xia,) occurs in the Western Church about 300. Twenty or thirty years afterwards, it was also introduced in the East. We account for the late introduction of this festival by the circumstance that the ancient Church failed to set value on the day of Christ's birth, and placed it rather in the background as compared with the day of His death (^31). But Chrysostom already designates it as the ixrjtpoTto'Xii rtaaHv rwr ioptCJv. From the first, the 25th Decem- ber was commonly regarded as the day on which Christ was born. The Christmas festival was fixed for that day, not on account of, but iespite, the heathen Saturnalia (in remembrance of the Golden Age, fro'M the 17th-24th December), the Siyilluria (on the 24th December, 220 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). when children received presents of dolls and figures made of earthen- ware or Avax — sigilla), and the Brumalia (on the 25th December, dies natalis invicti solis, the Feast of the Winter Solstice). At the same time it was regarded as far from an accidental occurrence that Christ, the Eternal Sun, had appeared on that day. Christmas commenced also with a Vigil, and terminated with an Octava, which during the sixth century became the " festum circumcisionis." In contrast Avith the excesses of the heathen at the New Tear, the ancient Church set this day apart for humiliation and fasting. The Feast of Epijyhani/ •was introduced in the West in the fourth century, when it obtained its peculiar Gentile-Christian import as a commemoration of the admis- sion of Gentiles into the Church (Luke ii. 21). (Referring to Ps. Ixxii. 10, TertuUian had represented the Magi as kings ; the numher tJij-ee indicated threefold gifts. In 600 a.d. Bede gave their names : Casper, Melchior, and Balthasar.) In other places this feast was also supposed to commemorate the first miracle of Christ at the marriage in Cana. — Since the sixth century, the period preceding Christmas was observed as " (he Advent." In the Latin Church this season commenced on the fourth Sunday before Christmas ; in the Greek, on the 14th November, and comprehended six Sundays and a fast of forty days — a practice ■which -was also introduced in some of the Western churches. 6. The last festival of our Lord — introduced at a late period — was that of the Transfigtiration, which the Latin Church only adopted in the fifteenth century. — For Saints' daijs, and feasts in honour of the Virgin, comp. § 57. 7. The Ecclesiastical Year. — In the East, the symbolical relation between the natural and the ecclesiastical year was ignored, except so far as implied in the attempt to give to the Jewish feasts a Christian adaptation. To some extent, indeed. Western ideas had been imported in reference to the great festivals, such as Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, but not in connection with the ordinary Sun and feast-days. At first the ecclesiastical year in the East commenced with Easter, afterwards with Quadragesima or with Epiphany, and ultimately in September, as under the Old Dispensation. The year was divided into four parts, according to the "lectio continua" of the Gospels, and the Sundays obtained corresponding names. The xv^iaxri Ttpi^tr; rov Mat- ^ai'ou took place immediatelj'^ after Pentecost. — The Latin Ecclesias- tical Year commenced in Advent, and was divided into a " Semestre Domini" and a "Semestre ecclesiae." But the idea underlying this arrangement was only carried out in reference to the " Semestre Domini" (Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, with the Sundays which thev included, indicating the commencement, the development, and the completion of the history of rerlemption). In reference to the " Semestre ecclesife," only the'^commencement of a symbolical arrangement was made. Thus the " Feast of Peter and Paul," on the 29th Juno, repre- WORSHIP OF SAINTS, RELICS, AND IMAGES. 221 sented the /oundation of the Church by the apostles : the feast of Lanreiithis (g 23, 5) the martyr, on the 10th Auo;ust, the contest await- ing the " Church militant ;" and the Feast of Michael the archangel, on the 29th September, the complete success of the " Church triumph- ant." That these feasts were intended to form the basis of three cycles of festivals, we gather from the circumstance that the Sundays after Pentecost had been arranged as Dominicae post Apostolos, post Lau- rentii, post Angelos. But the idea was not developed ; the frequency of saints' days not only made this arrangement impossible, but rendered it even necessary to encroach on the " Semestre Domini." The prin- ciple of attempting to Christianize the worship of the heathen was authoritatively sanctioned by Gregory the Great, who in 601 instructed the Anglo-Saxon missionaries to transform the heathen tempes into churches, and the pagan into saints' festivals or martyr-days, "utdurae mentes gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus eleventur." Saints now took the places of the old gods, and the ecclesiastical was made in every respect to correspond with the natural year, only in a Chris- tianized form. §57. THE WORSHIP OF SAINTS, OF RELICS, AND OF IMAGES. Since persecutions, and with them martyrdom, had ceased, an extraordinary asceticism could alone entitle to the honours of canonization. In awarding this distinction, popular opinion carried the day. Thus the number of saints increased every year ; saints who had long- been forgotten were discovered by means of visions, wliile, in the absence of historical reminiscences, tradition supplied names and facts in rich abundance. The more men felt the Inkewarmness and worldliness of their own religious experience, as compared with the strength of faith displayed by the first witnesses for the ti'uth, tlie higher did the martyrs rise in popular veneration. Altars and churches were erected over their graves (riiemorire fiaprvptat), or else their bones deposited in the churches {travslationes). Newly erected churches were consecrated by their names, and persons called after them in baptism. The days of their martyrdom were observed as festi- vals, introduced by vigils, and celebrated by agapes and obla- tions at tlieir graves. Ecclesiastical orators extolled them in enthusiastic language, and poets sung of them in their hymns. Nothing could equal the zeal with which their bones were searched out, or the enthusiasm with which men gazed on them, or pressed forward to touch them. Every province, nay, every 19* 222 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) town, had its tutelary saint (Patronus). In the East, the Invo cation of Saints, originated with the three great Goppadocians ; in the West, with Ambrose. These Fatliers maintained that the saints participated in the omnipotence and omniscience of the Deity. Augudine alone held that the angels were the medium through which the saints learned the invocations of the devout. Tn the various liturgies, the former practice of praying for the saints was now converted into entreaty for their intercession. The common people regarded this worship as taking the place of that of heroes and of the 3Ianes. But theological writers earnestly insisted on the distinction between " adoratio " and "invocatio," xarptJa and ?)ov%('ia, of which the former was due to God alone. The worship) of Mary arose at a period subsequent to that of the martyrs, and chiefly in connection with the Nestorian controversy. Soon, however, it acquired much greater importance than that of the saints. Faint-traces of a worship of angels occur even in Justin and Origen ; but this species of service was neglected for that of the saints. The zeal for p)il- grimages was greatly quickened after the visit of tlie Empress- mother Helena (in 326) to the holy places in Palestine, where she erected splendid churches. Some of the most eminent Fathers, however, disapproved of these tendencies. The ivorship of images commenced during the time of Cyril of Alexandria. It was specially cultivated in the East. Western divines — and even Gregory the Great — admitted pictures only for decoration, f(n- ]")opular instruction, and for quickening the devotional feel- ings. The worship of relics, on the other hand, spread more extensively in the West than in tlie East. 1. Sitinfs^ jL)a;/s. — So early as the fourth century, the octave of Pentecost was celebrated in the East as " the Festival of all the Martyrs'' (I 50, 4). In the West, Pupe Boniface IV. instituted, in GIO, a "festiim omnium Sanctorum" for the Pantheon, which the Emperor Phocas had presented to the Holy See, and which was transformed into a church of the most blessed Virgin and of all the mai-tyrs. But this festival (on November 1st), was not generally observed till the ninth century. The large number of canonized saints rendered it possible to dedicate every day in the calendar to one or more saints. Generally, the anniversary of their death was selected for that purpose ; in the case o^ John the Baptist alone an exception was made in favour of his birth- day (natalis S. Joannis). From its relation to Christmas (Luke i. 26), this festival was fixed for the 24th June ; and the contrast of the season in wliieh these two feasts occurred, reminded the Church even in this WORSHIP OF SAINTS, RELICS, AND IMAGES. 223 respect of John iii. 30. So early as the fifth century, the 29th August was also observed as ajestitni decollationis S. Joannis. The second day of Christmas was the Feast of St. Stephen, the proto-martyr (the first- gathered fruit of the Incarnation) ; the third day was devoted to the memory of the disciple whom Jesus loved; ihQ fovrth, to that of the infants at Bethlehem [festuni iniioceiiiiini), as the " flores" or " primitive martyrum." The Feast of the Maccabees — in commemoration of the woman and her seven sons who suffered under Autiochus Epiphanes — was already celebrated in the fourth, and only discontinued in the thirteenth century. Among the festivals in honour of the apostles, that " of Peter and Paul" — in memory of their martyrdom at Rome (29th June) — was generally observed. Besides this, two other "Je.fita cathedrce Petri" were observed at Rome — one on the 18th January, in commemoration of Peter's accession to the " Cathedra Romana," the other on the 22d February, in remembrance of his occupation of the " Cathedra Antiochena." For some time the saints' days were so arranged that those devoted to the patriarchs were fixed before Christmas, those of later saints of the Old Testament dispensation during Quadragesima, those of the apostles and first preachers after Pentecost ; then followed the martyrs, after them the later confessors, and, lastly, the " Yirgines," as the type of the Church in a state of perfection. 2. The Worship of Mary. — The Virgin, "blessed among women," and who by the Holy Spirit had predicted: "From henceforth all generations shall call me blessed," was from the first regarded as the highest ideal of maidenhood. Hence the veneration which the eayly Church paid to virginity, centred in that of her person. Side by side with the contrast between Adam and Christ, Tertullian placed that between Eve and Mary. In the fourth century, the " perpetua virginitas b. Marise" was already an article of faith. Ambrose applied Ezek. xliv. 2 to her, and spoke of her having given birth " utero clause;" while the second TruUan Council (692) declared axoxevtov tov ix rr^i rtap^svov ^iiov roxov ilvai. If IrenjBus, Tertullian, Origen, Basil, and Chrysostoni had still acknowledged her sinful, Augustine no longer numbered her among sinners: " Unde enim scimus, quid ei plus gratife coUatura fuerit ad viucendum omni ex parte peccatum?" But for a considerable period no further progress was made towards actual worship of the Virgin. This was partly due to the circumstance, that she had not shared the glory of martyrdom, and partly to the idolatrous and heathenish worship paid her by the Collyridians — a female sect in Arabia dating from the fourth century — who offered to her bread- cakes (in imitation of the heathen worship of Ceres). Epiphanius, who opposed that sect, maintained : tjJi' hi Map^a^' oiiBn^ Ttpo^xwds^, ovTf ayyfXoi ;^topoDCTt. So^oiyyCav 'foiavttjv. On the Antidicomarianites, comp. I 02. But through the victory of the doctrine that Mary was the mother of God, in the Nestorian controversy, Mariolatry became 19 224 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (.323— 692 A. D.). again more general in the Church. In the fifth centurj, the 25th March was celebrated as the Feast of the Aniivnciation, (incarnat onis, loptYi tov ivayyiXiap-ov, tov aarta^ixov). In the West, the Feast of Purifica- tion (according to Luke ii. 22) was observed on the 2d February. It was also called Feast of Candlemas, from the solemn offering of candles then made. When, in 542, the empire was visited with earth- quakes and pestilence, Justinian instituted the " festum occursus," (loprjj trji vjiaTiuvfTii) , with special reference to the meeting with Simeon and Anna (Luke ii, 25). Both these might still be regarded as festivals of our Lord. From a desire to have a series of feasts in honour of the Virgin corresponding to those in commemoration of Christ, the Feast "of the Ascension of Mary" (rtoi»^y»iptj xo^^»;crfcoJ, f. assumptionis, dormitionis M.) was introduced at the close of the sixth, and during the seventh century that of the Birth of Mary. These festivals were celebrated on the 15th August and the 8th September. The former was founded on a legend — first broached by Gregory of Tours, [ob. 595) — -to the effect that, immediately on her decease, angels had raised the " Mother of God," and carried her to heaven. — (Cf. gl05, 2; 113, 1). 3. The Worship of Angels. — So early as the second century, the idea of tutelary angels for nations, towns, and individuals occui's, based on Deut. xxxii. 8 (according to the version of the LXX.) ; Dan. x. 13, 20, 21, xii. 1 ; Matt, xviii. 10 ; Acts xii. 15. Ambrose already insisted on the invocation of angels. But when the Phrygian sect of " Angelici" carried this practice to idolatrous adoration of angels, the Council of Laodicea (in the fourth century) condemned their views, and Epipha- iiius numbered the sect among heretics. Pretended apparitions of Michael the archangel led, in the fifth century, to the institution of the " Feast of St. Michael" — on the 29th September — which was celebrated in honour of all the angels, and designed to express the idea of the Church triumphant. 4. The Worship of Images (comp. ? 35). — The dislike and the jealousy of art which characterized the early Church had not wholly disappeared even in the fourth century. Eusebius of Coisarea speaks of a statue at Paneas (| 14, 2), and other representations of Christ and of the apos- tles, as an t^vixri awrj^iM. He seriously reproved Constantia, the Em- peror's sister, for expressing a desire to possess a likeness of Christ, and called her attention to the second commandment, ^s^ecw.f, Bishop of Amasa in Pontus [ob. 410), censured the custom of rich persons wearing on their dresses sewed pictures representing events in Gospel history, and recommended such persons rather to bear Christ in their hearts. Epiphanins, in his zeal, tore in pieces a painted curtain that hung in a village church in Palestine, and suggested that the body of a poor person should be wrapped in it. But gradually the Grecian love 0 art and the popular feeling carried the victory over legal rigor- WORSHIP OF SAINTS RELICS, AND IMAGES. 225 isni and abstract spintualisni. In this respect also the age of Cyril became the period of transition. Already in the fifth century, miracles were said to be performed by certain pictures of Christ, of the apos- tles, and of "the Mother of God." This gave rise to a real worship of images, by lighting before them tapers, kissing them, bowing, pros- tration, burning incense before them, etc. Soon every church and church-book, every palace and cottage, was filled with pictures of Christ and of saints, commonly drawn by monks. Countless miracles occurred in connection with them. This delusion, however, spread not so rapidly in the West as in the East. Thus Augustine complained of the worship of images, and insisted that Christ should be sought in the Bible, and not in images ; and although Gregory the Great reproved the iconoclastic zeal of Sereiius, Bishop of Massilia, himself would tolerate pictures iu churches "ad instruendas solnmmodo meutes nesci- entium." The Nestorians, who were entirely opposed to the use of pictures, denounced Cyril as the originator of this new idolatry. — (Cf. \ 60, 3; m.) 5. Tlie Worship of Relics (Cf. ^ 36, 4). — The worship of relics (^£14"*'^) originated partly in a pious impulse common to mankind, partly in the honours which the early Church was wont to pay the martyrs. The religious services celebrated on the graves of martyrs, the erection of memorials to them, and the depositing of their bones in churches, may be regarded as the commencement of this practice. By and by no altar or church was reared that possessed not its own relic. Gradually, as the small number of known martyrs no longer sufficed to supply the increasing number of churches with relics, their bones were distributed. Places where relics hitherto unknown lay, Avere miraculously pointed out in dreams and visions. The catacombs now became mines of relics, of which the genuineness was proved by signs and wonders. So early as 386, Theodosius I. was obliged to interdict the traffic in relics. Among them were reckoned not only bones, but garments, utensils, and especially the instruments with which the martyrs had been tor- tured. Their application restored the sick, exorcised devils, raised the dead, averted the plague, detected crimes, etc. The persons thus bene- fited were in the habit of expressing their gratitude by setting up commemorative tablets, or ofiTering silver and gold casts of the diseased member which had been miraculously healed. In defence of this species of veneration, some appealed to 2 Kings xiii. 21 ; Sir. xlvi. 14; Acts xix. 12. — According to a legend — which was generally credited in the -fifth century — Helena had, in 326, discovered the true cross of Christ, as well as those of the two malefactors. This story was first attested by Ambrose, Rufinus, and Chrysostom ; Eusebius and the Bordeaux pilgrim of the year 333 know nothing of it. The true cross was recognized from the others through a miraculous cure (raising of the dead) performed by means of it. The devout Empress presented one half jf the cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and sent P 226 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (.323— 692 A. D.). the other half along with the nails to her son, who inserted the wood in a statue of his own, and set the nails in his diadem and in the reins of his horse. Pious pilgrims were allowed to carry with them splinters of that portion of the wood which was left at Jerusalem, and thus j?ar- licles of the true cross were carried into and worshipped in all lands. At a comparatively late period, it was said that, in honour of the dis- covery of the cross, a a-tavpuxsifioi ^^aepa had been celebrated (on the 14th September) in the East so early as the fourth century. From the time of Gregory the Great, a festum inventionis S. Crucis was kept throughout the West on the 3d May. The Feast of the Elevation of the Cross was instituted by the Emperor Heracliiis (14th Sept.) to com- memorate the defeat of the Persians, who were obliged to restore the holy cross (G29), which they had taken away. This festival was also introduced in the West. 6. Pilgrimages (Cf. /. 3/ara, d. Wallf. in d. kath. K. Trier 1842).— Pilgrimages to sacred places likewise spring from a prevalent human want. Many were eager to follow the example set them by Helena in 326. Even the conquest of Palestine by the Saracens in the seventh century could not arrest the zeal of pilgrims. Not only the sacred localities in Palestine, but Mount Sinai, the tombs of Peter and Paul at Rome {limina Apostolorxim), the grave of St. Martin of Tours {oh. 397), and even the place where Job, the type of Christ, had suffered (in Arabia), were favourite places of pilgrimage. — This zeal for pil- grimages, especially on the part of monks and of women, was most strenuously opposed by Gregory of Nyssa, who, in a letter on the sub- ject, in the strongest language indicated the danger accruing both to genuine religion and to morality from this practice. Even Jerome moralized : " Et de Hierosolymis et de Britannia aequaliter patet aula coelestis." Chrysostom and Augustine also objected to the excessive merit attached to such acts of devotion. — (Cf. | 89, 4; 105, 3.) 2 58. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS. The Church had not at this period definitely settled either the number or the import of the Sacraments (fivanpCa). The term was indiscriminately applied both to the doctrines of salvation in so far as they transcended the intellect of man, and to those rites of worship through which, in a manner incomprehensible, be- lievers received and appropriated redemption. From the first, it was admitted that Baptism and the Lord's Supper were the principal sacramental means of grace. But so early as the third century, anointing and laying on of hands was disliuguislied fron: baptism, regarded as a special sacrament — that of Con- A D iVI I N J S T R A T I O N OF THE SACRAMENTS. 227 Jirmation {x9-<^h^o.) — and in the West administered separately from tlie initiatory Christian rite (§ 32). The idea of a special order of Christian priesthood as of Divine institution (§ 30), led theologians to regard Ordination as a sacrament (§ 45, 3). AVhen tiie Pelagians charged Augustine that his views of origi- nal sin and of concupiscence implied that the Divine ordinance of marriage was in itself sinful, he rejoined by characterizing the ecclct-ia.stical solemnization of marriage (§ 61, 2j as a sacra- ment, npi)ealing in proof to Eph. v. 32. Thus marriage was represented as nature sanctified by grace. The Pseudo-Diony- siiis enumerated (in the sixth cent.) six sacraments, viz. : Bap- tism, Confirmation, the Lord's Supper, the Anointing of priests, that of monks, and that of the dead {tCjv xixoifx-/iy.ivu>v). As to e.itreme unction, comp. § 61, 3. 1. T/ii' Adminisimfioji of Baptism (Cf. ^ 32). — During this period it was still common to delay baptism, either from indifference, from superstition, or from doctrinal prejudices. These motives also operated against the practice of iiifaut-haptism, which had long been recognized, not only as lawful, but as necessary. Gregory of Nyssa wrote: "npo^ •foi); |3pa6v>'oi"ra$ fi; to SuTtttaixa ;" — the other Fathers equally opposed this al)use. In accordance with the view of Terhdlian, baptized lay- men, but not women, were allowed to administer baptism in case of extreme, necessity (in periculo mol'tis). The practice of having God- parents became general ; and the Code of Justinian treated this rela- tionship as a spiritual affinity, and an impediment to marriage. The following were the ceremonies common at baptism. The catechumens, who had kept their heads veUed, unveUed them on the day of baptism — the former to shut out any object that might distract, and also to sym- bolize spiritual self-retirement. Exorcism was pronounced over the candidates for baptism ; next, the officiating priest breathed on them (John XX. 22), touched their ears, saying: Ephjdiata! (Mark vii. 34), and made the sign of the cross on their forehead and breast. In Africa salt (Mark ix. 50) was given them ; in Italy a piece of money, as sym- bol of the talent of baptismal grace (Luke xix. 12, etc.). The assump- tion in baptism of a new name indicated entrance into a new life. The person baptized renounced the devil, turning at the same time toward the west, and saying : ' AHordaao/xat, aoo Xarava xai rcaofj tr}, Xatps^a aov, and again to the east, with the words: XwtuaaoixaC oot. Xpicrrt. The practice of sprinkling was confined to the " baptismus Clinicorum." The person baptized was three times immersed; in the Spanish Church only once, to mark even in this their antagonism to Ariau views. 2. Hitherto the Doctrine of the Lord's Supper (comp. ? 33) had not been discussed in Synods, and the views of individual Fathers on tho 19* 228 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A. D.). subject were exceedingly vague and undetermined. All of them spok« of it as of a very sacred and awful mystery, and felt convinced that the elements of bread and wine became, in a supernatural manner, connected with the body and blood of Christ. Some regarded this con- nection as .spiritual, and in the light of a dynamic influence ; others viewed it in a realistic manner, and as an actual communication of these substances to the elements ; but most theologians had not fully decided either for one or other of these views. Almost all described the miracle which took place in this sacrament as a fittalioXrj, trans- tiguratio — an expression, however, which they also employed in con- nection with the baptismal water and the anointing oil. The school of Origen — especially Etisebius of Cassarea and the rsendo-Dionysivs, also Afhanasiiis and Gregory Nuziunzen, though in a less decided manner — adopted the spiritualistic view. In the West, it was advo- cated by Aiigxistine and his school, and even by Leo the Great. The principles of Augustine on Predestination led almost of necessity to this, since only believers, i. e., the elect, could partake of this heavenly food. Not unfrequently, however, that Father also made use of language vs^hich savours of the opposite view. Among the advocates of the realistic interpretation, some took the dyophysite (consubstantia- tioii), others the monophysite (transubstantiation) view of the sacra- ment. A decided tendency to consubstantiation is exhibited in the writings of Cyril of Jerus., of Chrysostom, of Hilary of Pict., and of Ambrose. The view of Gregory of Nyssa was somewhat peculiar. He held, that as during the terrestrial life of Christ food and drink, by assimilation, became the substance of Ilis body, so the bread and wine were, by an act of Divine Omnipotence, in the consecration, changed into the glorified corporeity of Christ, which became assimilated with our body when we partook of the Lord's Supper. The divergences on this question appeared more distinctly after the Nestorian Controversy, although Theodoret and Pope Gelasins [ob. 496) were the only theolo- gians who fully applied their general dyophysite views in reference to this sacrament. The former saj's : ixtvn yap (7tl r^i rtpoftpaj oOcrtas, and the latter: Esse non desinit substantia vel natura panis et vini Hoc nobis in ipso Christo Domino sentiendum (in regard to the Person of Christ), quod in ejus imagine (as to the Lord's Supper) profitemur. But, in all probability, the mass of the people had long before learned to regard tliis i.icra,fioXr- as a genuine change of substance. The popular view next passed into the prayer-books. We find it in the Gallican and Syrian liturgies of the fifth century, in language which cannot be mis- understood. Even after the Council of Chalcedon had sanctioned dyophysite views as orthodox, the tendency to resolve the human in Christ into the Divine still continued ; and towards the close of this period the doctrine of transubstantiation was generally entertained. 3. The Sacrifice of the Massi. (Comp. §33,4). — Even during the fourth century the body of Christ presented by consecration in the ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRA- ME NTS. 229 Lord's Supper, had been designated a sacrifice, though only in the sense of being a representation of the one sacrifice of Christ. But gradually this view of a sacramental feast in remembrance of the sacrifice of Christ gave place to that which made the Eucharist an un- bloody, but real repetition of this sacrifice. The change in question Avas much promoted by the ancient custom of connecting with this sacrament intercession for the living and the dead, and more especially ])\ that of celebrating the memory of the latter by oblations and par- taking of the Lord's Supper, in order thus to express that communion in the Lord lasted beyond death and the grave (|35). Such interces- sions would naturally appear much more powerful, if the sacrifice of Christ, which alone could give them efficacy, was on every such occa- sion really repeated and re-enacted. Other causes also contributed to this result. Among them we reckon the rhetorical figures and the language of preachers, who applied to the representation terms which really characterized the one sacrifice of Christ alone ; the notion about a regular priesthood, which soon led to that of sacrifices ; the spread of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the tendency to regard the sacrament as of magical efficacy. The idea that the Lord's Supper was a sacrifice became completely established after the introduction of the doctrine of Purgatory as a place of punishment — before the resurrec- tion— where venial sins, which had not been atoned for during life, might be expiated. This doctrine, which was not received in the East, was first propounded by Augustine, although not without some mis- givings, and Avithout any reference to the sacrifice of the Eucharist. But Ccesarius of Aries and Gregory the Great carried it to all its con- sequences. The " oblationes pro defunctis," which had long been in use, now assumed the character of " masses Jbr their souls ;" the object being no longer that the living should partake of the body and blood of Christ, and thereby indicate their communion with the departed, but that the atoning sacrifice should be repeated for the spiritual benefit of the deceased — i. e., in order that the sufferings of purgatory might thereby be alleviated and abridged. Similarly, men had also recourse to the atoning efficacy of the eucharistic sacrifice for the removal of earthly ills, sufferings, and accidents, in so far as these were regarded as punishments of sin. For these purposes, it was deemed sufficient if the sacrificing priest alone partook of the Eucharist (missm solitaries, priratc masses). At last the flock ceased to partake of the commu- nion at ordinary seasons of worship, and only joined in it at certain festivals. 4. The Dispensation of the Supper. — After the general introduction of infant-baptism, the strict distinction between the " missa catechu- menorum " and the 'missa fidelium" (| 33, 1) ceased. In the Eastern and North African branches of the Church, Infant- Communion remained in use ; in the West it was interdicted, in accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 2-^, 29. The " lo'nmunio snb una" (scil. specie) was regarded a? 20 230 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) . Manichaean heresy. In Northern Africa it was in exceptional cases allowed in the case of children, because a little girl had, from dislike to wine, on one occasion spit it out. So early as the sixth century, the communion was taken only once a year in the East ; but in the West the Councils insisted, even in the fifth century, that it should be taken every Lord's day, and that those who failed to partake of it at least on the three great festivals should be excommunicated. The elements were still furnished by the members of the Church, — the bread being that in common use, hence generally leavened. This practice continued in the East; it was otherwise in the West, where unleavened bread was used in the Eucharist. The colour of the toine was regarded as matter of indifference; at a later period white wine was preferred, because the red left some colouring matter in the cup. It was, how- ever, deemed necessary to mix the wine with water, either in allusion to John xix. 34, or to the two natures in Christ. Only the Armenian Monophysites used undiluted wine. The bread was broken. It was a common practice in the East to carry to the sick bread dipped in wine, instead of bringing the elements separately. At a later period, in churches also both elements were given together in a spoon. The con- secrated elements Avere called Enlogia, in allusion to 1 Cor. x. 16. What of the elements remained unused {Tifpiaasvovhai) was distributed among the clergy. At a later period, only so much as was requisite for the communion was consecrated, and what of the oblations had been left, without being consecrated, was blessed and divided among the communicants (dv -ft 6 cop a). The old practice of sending consecrated elements to distant churches or bishops, in token of church communion, was in the fourth, century intei-dicted by the Council of Laodicea. I 59. ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. In public worship it was proliibited to read from any non- canonical book (§ .34). Until the fifth century, the coraraon practice was to read continuously throug-h the Bible {lectio con- timta). In the Latin Church it was customary always to read two poi'tioiis of Scripture — one from the Gospels, the other from the Apostles or Prophets. The Apostolical Constit. prescribed three portions (Proph. Apost., Evans".); similarly the Gallican and the S]»anish Church; the Syrian four (Praxapostolus, etc.). As the idea of an ecclesiastical year was developed, the lectio continua jrave place to a lectio propria — i. e., to a selection of Lessons adapted to each festival. These selections were in the West called Lectionaria. Among them, that termed ''Gomes" or " Liber comilis^^ (of which tradition assigned the arrange- ment to Jerome), was, after some modification and enlargement, ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 231 prenerally ado]ited throughout the Yv'est. In the East, where the lectio coutimia remained much lonj^er in use, the lectionaria were only introduced during; the eighth century. Commonly the Lector read from the desk ; but the Gospel was, by way of distinction, frequently read by the deacon. From similar motives, candles were often lit at that part of the service. — The text of the SERMON was generally taken from the section of the Bible that had been read. Preaching was considered the special work of tlie bishop, who might, however, devolve it upon a presbyter or a deacon. Monks were only allowed to preach in the streets, in market-places, or from the tops of roofs, columns, or trees. The bishop delivered the sermon from his episcopal '^povo^- frequently, however, he stood at the end of the chancel, in order to make himticlf better heard. Augustine and Chrysostom, for this purpose, generally preached from the reading-desk. In the East, wliere tlie sermon often lasted for hours, and the preacher strained after theatrical effect, great prominence was given to the homiletic part of worship. • The practice of expressing approbation — especially in Greece — by waving of handkerchiefs and clapping of hands (xporoj, acclamatio) must have proved very disturbing. In the West, the sermon consisted commonly of a brief and unadorned address. Extempore sermons were more acceptable than memorized ones. The practice of reading sermons was of very rare occurrence ; even the reciting of a discourse committed to memory was not popular. After the example of Constantine, his successors in the emj)ire not unfre- quently delivered sermons, although not in the churches. — In sinking they mainly used psalms, hymns, and doxologies. The Gnostics (§ 28, 9), Arians (§ 50, 1), Apollinarians, and Donatists, often succeeded in spreading their opinions by means of hymns. To meet these insidious attacks, the Church felt it desirable to introduce ortliodox instead of tliese heretical productions. The Council of Laodicea (360) indeed interdicted the use of 4a7.>iot i6twTtxoi in churches, probably to prevent the spread of heterodox compositions. But this prohibition was not obeyed in the West; rf,nd when the r-ivalry of the Arians at Constantinople obliged Chrysostom to allow processions at night, he introduced hymns in these services. The practice of going in processions com- menced at an earlier period than that of Chrysostom, and was first introduced at funerals and marriages. Since the fourth eentury })rocessions were also held at the installation of bishops 232 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (.323— 602 A. D.). or of relics, at feasts of thanksgivinp:, and especially daring seasons of public danger or calamity (rogationes, siipplicationes, litanioe). Through the influence of Ilamertus, Bishop of Vienne (450), and Gregory the Great, processions became a regular ceremony which recurred at stated times, when the Gospels, costly crucifixes and banners, torches and burning candles, relics, pictures of tlie Virgin and of saints, were carried about, and psalms or hymns sung. The religious services on these occasions were called Litanies. They consisted of prayers, and of the invocation of saints and angels, to which the people made response, " Ora pro nobis 1" 1. Use of the Scriptures. — -The doubts previously entertaiued about the authenticity of certain portions of the New Testament (| 34, 2) gradually ceased. The Council of Laodicca omitted from the canon only the Book of Revelation, manifestly from its dislike to and dread of Millenarianism (g 40, 8). The Conncil of Hippo (393) settled the canon, which has since been received, including the Old Testament Apocrypha in it. — The inconvenient practice of " Scriptio continua," hitherto common in the copies of the Bible, was abolished by Euthalius, a deacon of Alexandria, who introduced a new plan, according to which every line [ntix'^i) contained only so much as could — without, of course, interfering with the sense — be read without a pause. An attempt, previously made, to arrange the various books into chapters had, however, failed to produce uniformity. — At the request of Dama- siis, Bishop of Rome, Jerome emendated the corrupted text of the '' Itala" (^ 34, 3), and then prepared a Latin translation from the Hebrew of the Old Testament, which, along with the emendated version of the New Testament, was generally adopted by the Western Church, and bears the name of the Vulgata. Philoxeans, a monoj^hysite bishop, translated (in 508) the New Testament for the use of the Syrian churches ; but his version followed in too slavish a manner the letter of the original. The Fathers, more especially Chrysostom, insisted that the laity should diligently peruse the Scriptures. Still the belief spread, that study of the Bible was mainly the business of the clergy and of monks. The second Tridl. Council (692) denounced severe pun- ishments against all who presumed to interpret the Scriptures other- wise than the Fathers had done. 2. Hijninotogjj. — To supplant the hymns of Harmonius and Barde- sanes, the Syrian Gnostics, which had in so many cases served to pro- mote error, Ephraem Syrus [olj. 378) composed a number of orthodox hymns, which soon became very popular. He, Isaac the Great (in the fifth cent.), and Jacob of Sariig (in the sixth cent.), were the three most celebrated ecclesiastical poets of the Syrian Church. Their com- ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP 233 positions Avere allowed to be used in public worship. Gregory of Nazi- iiitzita, and Si/nenius of Ptolemais, Avrote orthodox hj-mns in the Greek language ; but the interdict of the Council of Laodicea prevented their introduction into public worship. But the most eifective hymns were those composed by members of the Latin Church. With Hilary of Pictavium [ob. 3G8) commenced a series of religious poets (embracing Amhrofie, Avgustine Coelius Sedulius from Ireland, Ennodius, Bishop of Pavia, Prudentius, a Spaniard, Furtvnahis of Pictavium, Gregory the Great), Avho have left a number of hymns; remarkable alike for their beauty, their depth anddevoutness, their power and simplicity. — (Comp. H. A. Daniel thes. hymnolog. 4 vols. Ilalle 1841, etc. — F.J. Mane, lat. Hymnen. Freib. 1853.) 3. Psalmody and Hyninody. — The foi-mer practice of congi-egational psalm-singing (in synijjfiony) gradually ceased, when regular clerical "Cantores" (g 30, 1) began to be employed. Indeed, the Council of Laodicea prohibited it entirely, although their ordinance failed to secure general obedience. The practice of antiphouoiis or alternate singing was much in vogue. Notwithstanding the increasing attempts of the clergy to exclude the people from participating in the services of the Church, the laity continued for a long time the practice of hypophonous chants, which consisted of responses to the intonation, the reading, and the prayers of the clergy, and of the so-calied Acroteleutia, or responses to the psalms sung by the clergy. The practice of chanting the prayers, lessons, and consecrations, dates from the sixth century. The earliest church-music was simple and inartificial. But the rivalry of heretics obliged the Church to pay greater attention to the require- ments of art. Chrysosfom already inveighed against the secular and theatrical melodies introduced in churches. The practice of instrv- menial accompaniment was longer and more tenaciously resisted, and even singing in parts was not allowed at that period. The Western Church l)estowed great attention on the cultivation of psalmody. Syl- vester, Bishop of Rome, instituted in 330 a school for the training of professional church-musicians. Ambrose of Milan introduced a new kind of psalmody [Cantus Ambrosianus), which, for melody, modula- tion, aptness, and simplicity, far surpassed any that had formerly been known. Augustine speaks in enthusiastic terms of the impression which it had made up(m him, but at the same time expresses a fear lest the sweetness of the music should captivate the senses, and weaken the influence of the word on the mind. His apprehension proved well- grounded ; and in the sixth century the " Cantus Ambrosianus" had almost entirely lost its ecclesiastical character. Under these circum- stances, Gregory the Great introduced a new style of church music (the Cantus Jiomanns, firmus, choralis), for which, in order to have it in- serted in a hymn-book (antiphonarium), he devised a special kind of notation called nenma; (either from ftvsv/^a to indicate the tone, or from 20* 234 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). vfiifia to designate the notation of tones), — a curious compound of points, strokes, and little hooks. The Gregorian music was syniphonious, slow, and measured, without rhythm or time. While in this respect it re- sembled the church music anciently in use, the greater art which it displayed, and the richer modulations it contained, indicate also consi- derable progress. Although destitute of the liveliness and freshness characteristic of the Ambrosian, it introduced in its place a style more solemn and dignified, and better adapted for worship. It was a more serious objection that the Grregorian music could only be performed by a well-trained clerical choir (hence cantus choralis), for whose instruc- tion Gregory accordingly founded a great Singiny School at Rome. Thus the people were deprived of the part they had formerly taken in the public services of the Church. — (Comp. /. N. Forkel, allg. Gesch. d. Musik. 2 vols. Leipz. 1790. — R. G. Kieseivetter, Gesch. d. abendl. Musik. Leipz. 1834. — Fr. Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik in Ital., Deutschl. und Frankr. Leipz. 1855. 2 vols. — J. E. Hditser, Gesch. d. chr. Kirchen gesangs (Hist, of Chr. Ch. Mus.). Quedl. 1834.— i>r. Burney, Hist, of Music.—/). Antony, Arch. Lehrb. d. Greg. K. Ges. Mllnster 1829.) 4. Tlie Liturgy. — All the numerous liturgies which appeared since the fourth century were framed after the common type of the liturgy in the Apostolical Constitutions (| 33, 1). The following are the prin- cipal orthodox liturgies of that period : — 1. That oi Jerusalem, ascribed to the Apostle James ; 2. That of Alexandria, assigned to the Apostle Mark (§ 17) ; 3. That of Byzantium, framed by S. Basil, and condensed and recast by Chrysostom, which by and by was generally adopted in the orthodox churches of the East. The following are the oldest and principal liturgies used in the West: — 1. The GaUican Mat^ses, dating from the fifth cent. (edit, by Mone, Frkf. 1850) ; 2. The Milan Liturgy, ascribed to Barnabas, but probably introduced by Ambrose ; 3. That of Rome, or of S. Peter, elaborated successively by Popes Leo the Great {oh. 4G1), Gclasins I. [oh. 496), and Gregory the Gr. {oh. 604), which was gradually introduced throughout the West. It consisted of the Sacramentariitm (or mass-prayers), the Antiphonariinn (or hymn-book), the Lectionarium, and the "Ordo Romanus" (or Directions for the Celebration of the Mass). These were, at a later period, combined together in the Missale Romamim. — In the Greek IJturgy, vespers, matins, and the principal worship of the day, were intended to form three parts of a great religious drama, representing the entire course of the history of redemption, from the creation to the ascension of the Lord. The principal events of this history were also symbolized by the lighting and extinguishing of tapers, by locking and opening the doors of the sanctuary, by burning incense and by other oblations, by the successive putting on of the various priestly robes, by processions and gestures of the clergy, by certain rites in connection with the sacramental elements, etc. The text of the liturgy (the intonations, ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 235 responses, prayers, reading, singing), which accompanied these cere- monies, was considered of secondary importance, and only formed a running commentary to the great drama enacted. — The liturgy of the Latin Church, on the other hand, was more dogmatic than dramatic in its character. It was intended rather to exhibit how the sinner shared in the benefits of salvation, than objectively to present the story of grace. Conscious of his guilt and need, the sinner approached the altar of the Lord, where he sought and found consolation arid instruc- tion, pardon and grace. Hence, in the Latin Liturgy, the text consti- tuted the main part of the service ; the symbolical part being entirely subordinate, and only designed to afiford an outward representation of the truths conveyed. The liturgy consisted of certain fixed portions which recun-ed whenever mass was celebi-ated, and of others which were adapted to the calendar and to the peculiar character of each fes- tival. The most important, indeed the central part in the liturgy, was the Canon of the Mass, which consisted of the formulas employed in the consecration of the Eucharist, and of the sacrificial prayers con- nected with it. — Among liturgical works, considerable interest attaches to the so-called Diptycha (from 615 and Ttrvcrcrw, bis plicare), or writing tablets covered with wax. They were a kind of official registers con- taining the names of those persons who were to be objects of special liturgical intercession. They were divided into hinrvxa- frtKJxortwV, which contained the names of the foreign bishops with whom church- fellowship was maintained ; hirnvxo' ^wi/rov, or registers of the mem- bers of a particular church, and of those who made offerings ; and lastly, hiTCtvxa. vixpuiv. 5. Si/inbolical Rites. — During the whole of this period it was still the custom to give the hrotherhj kiss. AYhen entering the church, it was the practice to kiss the door or the threshold ; before reading the liturgy^ the priest kissed the altar, similarly the lector the gospel. Relics and images were also kissed. When making confession of sin, it was customary to strike one's breast. Every ecclesiastical rite was accompanied by the sic/n of the cross, which was also frequently made at home on any solemn occasion. The practice o{ washincf one's hands, when entering church, dates from a very early period ; but sprinkling with hohj water was not introduced till the ninth century. The custom of lighting candles in churches is of very ancient date; that of burning ingense originated late in the fourth century. Before that period, it was supposed to attract evil spirits who fed upon the incense, although afterwards it was represented as the most potent means of exorcising them. The practice of consecrating churches, and of holding an annual festival in commemoration of it, is mentioned in the writings of Euse- Inis (iyxoii'twi/ J sprat). At the time of Ambrose, the possession of lome relic was a necessaiy condition for this ceremony. 20 236 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). § 60. PLACES OF WORSHIP AND WORKS OF ART. CoMP. C. Schnaase, Gesch. d. bildenden Kiinste (Hist, of Art). Dlis- seld 1844. 3 \o\s.—Fr. Kugler, Handb. d. Kunst-Gesch. 3d ed. Stuttg. 1855. — BeUennann, Miinter, and Kinkel (^ 35). — L. Stieglitz, Gesch. d. Baukunst (Hist, of Archit.). 2d ed. NUrnb. 1837.— i^r. Kugler, Gesch. d. Baukunst. Stuttg. 1855. — /. Kreuser, d. chr. Kirchenbau, Bonn 1851. 2 vols. — A. H. Springer, die Baukunst d. chr. M. A. (Arch, of the Mid- dle Ages). Bonn 1854. — C.Schiller, Ueberblickd.Entwickelungsgangea d. Kirchenarchit. (Survey of the Progress of Develop, in Eccl. Arch.). Braunsch. 1856. — Fr. Kugler, Handb. d. Gesch. d. Malerei (Mem. of the Hist, of Paint.). 2d ed. Berl. 1847.— A^. Sorg, Gesch. d. chr. Malerei, Regensb. 1853. — F. Laib u. /. Schwarz, Studien li. d. Gesch. d. christl. Altars. Stuttg. 1858. 4to. The form in which heathen temples — destined only to hold the statues of the gods — were constructed, was in every respect unsuited to the purposes of Christian churches. But \.\\q forensic basilica, or public market, and judgment hall of the Romans afforded an excellent model for church architecture. Not only might their form (with some modifications) be adopted, but even their name, provided it were understood as applying to Christ, the eternal King. In later church edifices the Byzantine cupola was often substituted for the flat roofs of basilicas. 1. The basilica presented the general appearance of an elongated quadrangle, running from east to west longitudinally divided by colon- nades into three spaces or naves, but so that the middle nave was at least twice as broad as either of the side naves. The central nave ter- minated in a semicircular niche [xoyxri, a.\Ci, concha, absida), which bulged out from the eastern or narrow back wall. This niche was separated from the central nave by a kind of railing [xir^x^Chii, can- celli) and a curtain (xarartiracr^a, velum), and was also called i3>j^o (from jSatVo), because it Avas a few steps elevated above the central nave. Since the fifth century the pillars of the nave were not continued to the eastern wall. Thus a vertical nave was formed, which was also raised and connected with the Pr^fia. This vertical nave, the central nave, and the niche at the eastern end, gave to the ground-plan of the church the significant appearance of a cross. At the entrance, to the east, there was a vestibule which ran along the entire breadth of the naves. The church consisted, therefore, of three divisions. The Bema was allotted to the clergy. Close by the wall, and in the deepest recess of the niche, stood the elevated seat of the bishop (^povoj, cathedra). On either side of it were the lower seats [avv^povoi) of the presbyters, while the altar itself occupied the centre of the niche or stood immediately C 11 U R C H E vS AND WORKS OF ART. 237 ill front of it. The bema was also called aytoi', udvrov, ifpatnoi, sacra- rium, sanctuarium, from its being occupied by the clergy and by the altar ; — the name of Choir appears only in the middle ages. The bones of martyrs were commonly kept in a sul>tcrranean crypt underneath the apsis or bema (the so-called memoria, confessio). — The baptized laity assembled in the threefold — in rare cases, fivefold — nave, of which the name was partly derived from its oblong shape, but chiefly from the symbolical connection between a ship and the church. The worshrppcrs were arranged according to sex, age, and rank. In the East a separate and elevated space along the naves [vTtspiLa.) was allo- cated to females. In the central nave and near the chancel stood the reading-desk or Ambon. — The Vestibule (rtporaoj, vestibulum) — called also the vcip^jj? or ferula, from its elongated form — was allotted to cate- chumens or penitents. In the space before the vestibule [cd^piov, av\r-, atrium, area, which was not roofed till a later period of history) a ba.sin Avas placed for washing the hands. The vestibule and side-naves rose only to the height of the columns; they were. shut in by ceiled woodwork, and covered with a simple, sloping roof. But the central and the cross naves were carried up by walls which rested upon the columns, and rose far above the side-roofs. They were covered with a bilateral obtuse-angled roof, sloping down towards the side-naves. The columns were joined together by arches, to render them sufficiently strong to support the wall resting on them. The walls of the central and of the vertical nave, which rose above the side-roofs, were pierced by windows. — The ground-plan of the basilica still remained the same as before ; but above the central nave of the church, upon immense pillars connected together by arches, the principal cupola rose like a firmament, often to a stupendous height, — a number of smaller or semi- cupolas being generally connected with it. The great Church of St. Snphia at Constantinople presented the most magnificent specimen of this style of architecture. It was so magnificent that, when it was completed (537), Jvstiiiian I. exclaimed: Nsi't^cj^xa as 'EaXofiuv. 2. Several Side-Buildinys [t^thpai) stood within the wall that enclosed the principal ecclesiastical edifice, and were connected with it. Of these the baptistries {^a-Titiarrfiiv, ({jcortar^pta, xoXvju3-^^pa, piscina, John V. 2; ix. 7) were the most important. After the model of the Roman baths, they were built in the shape of a rotunda ; the baptismal basin stood in the middle, and was surrounded by a colonnade. Frequently a large antechamber was provided, in which the catechumens were wont to receive religious instruction. When infant-baptism became general, separate baptistries were no longer necessary, and instead of them stone fonts were placed in the cl urches (towards the north, at the principal entrance). In large chui'ches, the treasures, vessels, robes, books, archives, etc., were kept in separate buildings. The ;trw;torpo^fitt, op^avor po^da., yrjpoxofxiia, |3pfij)orpo^fta (foundling hospitals), voaoxoixfia, |sro6o;^fta, Avcre buildings used for charitable purposes. The 238 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). buryiiKj-phice (xot|U»jrijptoi', cimeterium, dormitorium, area) was also commonly within the wall enclosing the church. When bells came into use, towers were reared beside [not on) the churches, frequently even apart from them. 3. Ecclesiastical Furniture. — The principal object in the church was the altar, which, since the fifth century, was generally constructed of stone, plated with silver or gold. Behind the altar, which was open on all sides,, stood the officiating priest facing the congregation. In the "West, the introduction of "niissa? solitarife" rendered it necessary to have more than one altar in a church ; in the Greek Church this was prohibited. Portable altars (for missionaries, during war, etc.) came in use, when it began to be deemed necessary to have the altar consecrated. For this purpose the Latins used a consecrated stone slab, the Greeks a consecrated altar-cloth [avtifir^vaiov). This altar-cloth (palla) was regarded as essential, and the " denudatio altaris" as a sinful desecration. On liturgical grounds the "palla" was removed on the Frida}' and Saturday of the High Week. Different from this cloth was the corporate used for covering the oblations. Upon the altar stood the ciborivm, a canopy resting on four pillars, to which, by golden chainlets, a dove-shaped vessel was attached, which contained the con- secrated elements used in administering the communion to the sick. At a later period the " ciborium " was replaced by the tower-shaped tabernacnhnn. The thtiribulvni was used for burning incense, the cru- ci-fixes (cruces, stationarii) and banners (vexilla) in processions. Seats for the people were ranged in the nave, but not in the narthex or vesti- bule. The reading-desk (pulpitum, afx^^cv from aiajSaiVto) stood in the central nave near the chancel. Tradition designates Paidinns, Bishop of Nola in Campania [ob. 431), or else Pope Subiniamis [ob. 605), as the inventor of bells (Nolas, campanse, campanuljB — so called because made of Campanian brass, which was considered the best). Bells were introduced in the West in the seventh, and in the East in the ninth century. Before that the hours of worship were announced first by cnrsores ( dmSpo^uor ), then by the sound of trumpets, or by loud knocking on boards, etc. 4. The Fine Arts. — According to the rules of the Greek Church, only the face, the hands, and the feet Avere allowed to be represented naked ; but this restriction applied not to the West. An attempt was made to compensate by bright colouring, precious materials, and gor- geous costumes for the manifest want of artistic taste. From the tlxovfi axfiponoirjtoi artists copied the stereotyped features in their repre- sentations of Christ, of the Virgin, and of the Saints. The nimbus or halo (in the form of rays, of a diadem, or of a circle) was first intro- duced in the pictures of the Saviour. Fresco painting was principally used for adorning the catacombs (fourth to sixth cent.). Mosaic painting (Musivum, Xi^atpatia.) for decorating the level walls of the basilicae, LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. 239 the cupolas and niches. Liturgical books were illustrated hy miniature paintings. These different styles of painting were stiff and unnatural, although elevated, majestic, and unimpassioned in their character. — The ancient Church regarded statuary as too heathenish and sensuous for religious purposes ; and the Greek Church ultimately prohibited its use in churches, excluding even crucifixes. But in the West this oVycction was not entertained, although even there Christian statues were of rare occurrence. Less scruple seems to have been felt in regard to bas-reliefs and haut-relie/s {avayXv^aC) , especially in sarcophagi and in ecclesiastical vessels. § Gl. LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. CoMi'. a Schmidt (?3G). When Christianity became the relifrion of the State, a large number of unconverted and worldly persons made a profession of Christianity for the sake of the temporal advantages which it entailed. This influx of the world into the Church necessarily exercised a most detrimental influence ; and the earnestness, power, devotedness, and purity, by which the ancient heathen world had been conquered, greatly declined in consequence. The world and the Church became more assimilated and conformed to one another ; discipline became lax and powerless ; and the general decline of public morals made rapid progress. The hot discussions, the dissensions, and divisions among the bishops and the clergy, led to corresponding effects among the people. Party spirit and bitterness characterized the adherents of different views ; the demoralization of the court exercised its pernicious influence on the capital and the provinces ; while the inroads of the barbarians increased the general decay. Even in the case of those who sought other than merely earthly things, work- righteousness and bigotry too often took the place of genuine l)iety ; while the great mass consoled themselves with the idea that everybody could not be a monk. But, despite all this, the Gospel still acted as a leaven on the community. Already had its spirit penetrated not only public life, the administration of justice and legislation, but also family life and popular customs. The claims of humanity and the rights of men were acknowledged ; slavery became more and more restricted ; gladiatorial games or immoral spectacles ceased ; the contracting influences of national selfishness gave way to higher motives and views. Polygamy was interdicted : the sanctity of marriage was preserved ; woman 20* 240 SECTION 1. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). came to occupy her proper place ; and the vices of ancient hea- thenism were at least no longer regarded as the healthy and natural conditions of public life. Even those who, with the out- ward profession of Christianity, remained heathen in mind and heart, were obliged to conform to the practices and demands of the Church, and to submit to its discipline and customs. If the more gloomy aspects of this age are sufficiently appalling, brighter sides were not wanting, nor elevated souls, who with genuine piety combined deep moral earnestness and self-denial. 1. Eccleaianiical Discipline. — (Comp. J. Morinvs (Rom. Cath.), Comni. hist, de disc, in Admin. Sacr. Poonit. Paris 1651. — H. Klee (Rom, Cath.), d. Beichte. Hist. krit. Unters. (Confession, a Hist, and Crit. Inq.). Frkf. 1828.— J. StdndUn, Beleucht. d. Buches von Klee (Crit. of the Works of Klee). Leipz. 1830. — 0. E. Steitz, d. rbm. Busssacram. (The Rom. Sacr. of Pen.). Frkf. 1854.) — Ecclesiastical discipline, or excommunication with its four stages through which penitents had to pass (§ 36, 2), was only exercised towards those who were guilty of open sins which had occasioned general scandal. To remedy this defect, it was, even in the third century, the custom to appoint a "iT^QCvaX priest for penance (rtp£0j3vT'fpo5 ini tTJ^ ustavova^, presb. poeniten- tiarius), whose duty it Avas to direct the exercises of penitents guilty of secret sins, which they voluntarily confessed to him under the seal of secrecy. But when (391) a female penitent of this class was seduced by a deacon of the Church of Constanthiople, the Patriarch Necfarius abolished the office. The practice continued, however, in the West, till Leo the Great introduced such changes in the mode of dealing with penitents, that in the Western Church also the office of penance-priest ceased to be of importance. He prohibited bishops from demanding public confession for secret sins, and, in place of it, introduced private confession, which every priest was entitled to hear. Even Jerome still denounced as a jiiece of pharisaical arrogance the assumption, that the poicer of the keys (Matt. xvi. 19) implied any judicial authority; and although Leo the Great already regarded it as of Divine arrange- ment, " ut indulgentia Dei nisi svppUcafionibiis sacerdotum nequeat obtineri," and guaranteed their efficacy, he does not venture to claim any judicial power for the Church. Besides, the private confession Avhich he introduced was merely designed for those mortal sins which, having been publicly committed, would, according to former canons, have required puldic penance. — But the practice of private confession, as a regular and necessary preparation for the communion, was wholly unknown at tiiat period. — The so-called " libelli prenitentiales " indi- .!ated the manner of dealing with penitents, and the taxes payable in each case". The oldest of these compositions, so far as the Greek Church is concerned, was compiled by Johannes Jejunator, Patriarch of 1.1FE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. Z4l Constautinople {ob. 595), and bore the title, 'AxoXov^Ca xal ra'ttj irtl i-wt i^OfioJioyovfMe i/wv . 2. Christiaii Marriage. — The excessive value attached to virginity led to low views of marriage. These Avere in some measure counter- balanced by the notion that, by priestly consecration, marriage became a sacrament (? 58) —an idea which was fully developed and obtained ecclesiastical sanction during the middle ages. The State regarded marriage between a free person and a slave as merely concubinage ; but the Church acknowledged the validity of such unions. Not only consanguinity and affinity (through marriage), but adoption into a family, and even the spiritual relationship with god-parents through baptism or confirmation (? 58, 1), were considered valid impediments to marriage. Auijit.stine sanctioned the marriage of cousins; Gregory the Great interdicted it on physiological grounds, and only allowed marriage in the third or fourth degree of consanguinity. Gradually this prohibition was extended even to the seventh degree, till, in 1216, Innocent III. again limited it to relationship in the fourth degree! Mixed marriages (Avith heathens, -Jews, heretics) were held sufficient ground for penance; the second Trullan Council (692) entirely pro- hibited them. Second marriages were not prohibited, though they were visited with penance for one or two years ; but many canonists regarded a third or a fourth marriage as entirely invalid. Adultery was universally admitted as forming a sufficient' ground for divorce; many divines ranked unnatural lusts, murder, and apostasy in the •same category. In 416 the Council of Mileve (in Africa) interdicted persons who had been divorced— even the innocent party— from again marrying; and Pope Innocent I. crave to this prohibition the character of a general law. Former scruples about heathenish customs at mar- riages (I 36, 1)— such as the use of a marriage-ring, the veiling of brides, the wearing of garlands, carrying of torches, having bridesmen or rtapdvvfi^oi, — were no longer entertained. 3. Sickness, Death, and Burial. — The practice of anointing the sick (Mark vi. 13 ; James v. 14), as a means of miraculous bodil?f care prevailed so late as the fifth century. In a decretal djiting from the year 416, Innocent L first represented this custom as a sacrament intended f..r the spiritual benefit of the sick. But centuries intervened before it was generally introduced as the sacrament of extreme unction (unctio infirmorum, unctio extrema, .v;i;/xatov). We meet with the first evidence in favour of it in the eighth century. But, on the other hand, it must be admitted that the Areopagite numbers the anointinq of the dead among the sacraments (§58). The practice of closincj the eyes of the dead, was intended to convey the idea of sleep in the hope of a blessed awakening. The fraternal kiss betokened that Christian communion lasted beyond the grave; but the practice of dc-oratin- the licad with n garland, in token of victory, was not in g^-nrral use" 21 Q 242 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). Synods had repeatedly to prohibit the custom of pouring the const^- crated elements into the mouth of dead persons, or of laying them in the coffin ; violent outbursts of grief, the rending of garments, putting on of sackcloth and ashes, the employment of mourning women, the carrying of cypress branches, etc., Avere considered as heathen customs, implying tliat those left behind had not learned to cherish the hope of immortality. Similarly, burial feasts celebrated at night were dis- approved, although it was customary, by clai/Jight, to carry torches, lamps, and palm or olive branches in the funeral procession. Julian and the Vandals interdicted this practice. During the fourth and fifth centuries the calacomhs were the favourite place of burial; where these were wanting, special cemeteries were set apart, generally in the vicinity of churches (? 60, 2). Emperors and bishops alone enjoyed the privilege of being buried in churches. In the fourth century agapes and the Eucharist were still celebrated at the grave. After- wards III oil vnin (I feasts were substituted for these solemnities, which were gradually discontinued on account of the abuses to which they led. The rite? of burial closed with the Lord's Prayer and the priestly benediction. I 62. HERETICAL REFORMERS. CoMP. Walch, Ketzerhist. Vol. III. ; Dr. Gilhj, Vigilantius and his Times. London 1844. In ilie fourth century a spirit of opposition to prevailing ecclesiastical views and tendencies sprung up. At first it was neither general, sustained, lasting in its consequences, nor even liealthy. While contending against the worldly spirit that had intruded into the Church, some fell into the opposite extreme of fanatical severity ; while others, in their protest against real or supposed superstition and work-righteousness, occasionally ended in cold rationalism. The former remark applies more especially to the Donalid (§ 63), and to the sei^t of the Audians, founded in .340 l\y U(Jo or Audiu.s, a layman from Syria, who, on the ground that the Church and its ministers should return to apos- tolic poverty and humility, abstained from all fellowship with the members of the degenerate Church. Audius entertained also grossly anthro])oninrphistic views, and shared the opinions of the Quartodecimani. Another sect of the same class, the Apos- TOLici, in Asia Minor, declared marriage and property to be sinful. In the opposite class of more rationalistic opponents to ecclesiastical notions, we reckon the Antidicomarianites in Arabia, Helvidius of Rome (380), and BoNOSUS, Bishop of Siirdica (390), who all opposed the "per)>etna virginitas" o* SCHISMS. 243 Mary '§57, 2). Aerius, a presbyter of Sebaste in Armenia, was the first, in 360, to protest against the false estimate placed on g-ood works. He disapproved of prayers and oblations for the dead, controverted the obligation and the meritoriousness of fasts, and denied that bishops were of superior rank to j^resbyters. For these opinions he incurred the displeasure of Eu.stathius, his bishop (§ 44. 5). Persecuted from place to place, his adherents sought refuge in caves and woods. Substantially similar were the views of Jovinian, a monk of Rome, who in 389 opposed, in a systematic manner and on dogmatic grounds, the eccle- siastical system of his time, especially monasticism, asceticism, celibacy, and fasts. Sarmaiio and Barhatianus, two monks of Milan (about 396) — perhaps pupils of Jovinian — shared his views. The opposition of Vigilantius (400) to the worship of relics, the invocation of saints, miracle-raongering, vigils, the celibacy of priests, and the prevailing externalism in religion generally, was so violent as to pass all bounds of prudence and moderation. The Cliurch resisted with equal violence and passion. Epiplianius wrote against the Audians, the Apos- tolici, the Antidicomarianites, and the Aerians ; Ambrose vQ^niaA Bonosus and the followers of Jovinian ; Jerome poured a torrent of the bitterest invective upon Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilantius ; Augustine alone showed a more becoming spirit in opposing the tendencies of Jovinian, which in their ultimate conclusions pointed in the same direction as his own views about the doctrine of grace P3. SCHISMS. The Norafi'in and the Meletian (Egyptian) schisms (§ 38, 3, 4) continued even at this period. In connection with the Arian controversy three other schisms occurred in the orthodox Church, among wliich the Meletian schism in Antioch was the most im- portant. But by far the most extensive and dangerous was the Donatid schism in Northern Africa. On ttie Johnite schism in Constantinople, comp. § 51, 3. During this period the frequent divergences in doctrine (§50, 7), government (§46), worship (§55). and discipline between the Eastern and the Western Church, proved fuel for the subsequent conflagration (§ 67). Thus the imperial device for bringing about a union between those who took different sides in the Monophysite controversy h'd to a .schism between the East and the West, which lasted for 244 SECTIDN I. — SECOND PERIOD (:!23— 692 A. D.) . thirty-five years (§ 52, 5) ; while want of firmness on the part ol Pope Vigiliut; divided the West for fifty years into two parties (§52, 6). The schism between the East and the West, occa- sioned by the Monothelete union (§ 52, 8), was not of long con- tinuance. Jiiit soon afterwards the great schism between the Eastern and Western Churches commenced. The fifth and the sixth (Ecumenical Councils had not entered on questions con- nected with church government, worship, or discipline. This omission was supplied by the Second Trullan Council, held at Constantinople in 692, which on that account was called the Gon- cilluni quinisexlum. Some of the canons of this Synod laid the foundation of the later incurable and pernicious disruption in the Catholic Church. 1. Schism.^ in Coiiseqvence of ilie Arian Controversy. I. The Meletian Srhism at Antinch (361^13). — In 360 the Arians of Antioch chose Melefiiis of Sebaste, formerly an Eusebian, but afterwards an adherent of the Nicene Confession, their bishop. But his inaugural discourse convinced them of their mistake about his views, and they deposed him after the lapse of only a few days. Meletius was next chosen bishop of the homoousian congregation at Antioch. The appointment of one who had bee;i an Arian was, however, resisted by a part of the people, headed by Paulina.'}, a presbyter. Athanasius and the Synod of Alexandria, a. d. 302 (^ 50, 4), used every influence to heal this schism. But Lvcifcr of Calaris, whom the Synod for this purpose deputed to Antioch, took the part of the opposition, and ordained Paulinus counter- bishop. The schism was only healed when, in 413, Alexander, the Meletian bishop, an excellent man, resigned of his own accord, in order to restore harmony. — II. On his return to Alexandria, iwc^yej' pro- tested against any recognition of those Arians and semi-Arians who had renounced their errors. He founded a sect called the Luciferites, which entertained the views about ecclesiastical purity formerly ad- vocated by Novatian. The part}^ continued till the fifth century. (Comp. Hieronym. dial. adv. Luciferit. — III.). The schism of Dama- sus AND Ursinus at Rome was occasioned by the unfaithfulness of LIbcriu.s, Bishop of Rome (| 50, 2, 3), in consequence of Avhose conduct a small numljer of steady adherents of the Nicene Creed at Rome separated from the Church. At the death of Liberius (366), they chose Ui'sinns as his successor; while the other party elected Damasus. The latter laid siege to the church of Ursinus, and 137 dead bodies covered its precincts before it could be taken. Valentinian T. banished Ursinus ; and Gratiaii even published an edict which constituted Damasus both 1 party and a judge, in adjudicating upon all the bishops implicated in this scliism. SCHISMS. 245 2. The Dnnaiist Schism (311— 115).— (Comp. F. Ribheck, Donatus u. Alio-. Elberf. 1858). — Montanist views were still widely entertained in North Africa. Accordingly, when the Diocletian persecution broke out, many came forward, needlessly and of their own accord, to seek the honour of martyrdom. Mensurins, Bishop of Carthage, and Ccecili- atiu.s, his archdeacon, were opposed to this species of fanaticism. When asked to deliver up the sacred writings, they had in their stead handed to the magistrates some heretical tractates. This sufficed for their opponents to dencjunce them as traditores. When Measurius died in 311, his party chose Cfecilian his successor, and, to foil the intrigues of their opponents, had him hurriedly consecrated by Felix, Bishop of Aptanya. Nothing daunted, the other party, which was headed by LuciUa, a wealthy and bigoted widow, denounced Felix as a traditor, and on that ground declared the consecration invalid, and elected Majoriaus, a lector, counter-bishop. Soon afterwards (in 313) this office devolved on Donatvs, whom his adherents have called the Great, — a man of undoubted energy. From Carthage the schism gradually spread over North Africa. The peasants, who were bui-dened with excessive taxation and heavy socage, took the part of the Donatists From the first, Constantine the Great declared against the Donatists To their complaints the Emperor replied by committing the investiga- tion of this controversy both to a clerical commission at Rome (313), under the presidency of Melcliiades, Bishop of that see, and to the S^-nod of Aries (314). The decision of these two bodies was equally unfavourable to the Donatists, who appealed from them to the Emperor personally. The case was heard at Milan, after which Constantine confirmed the finding of the Synod (316). These decisions were followed by severe measures (such as depriving them of churches), which, however, only served to increase their fanaticism. Milder means proved equally ineffectual. Under the reign of Coiistans affairs took a more serious turn. Fanatical ascetics, belonging to the dregs of the population, took the name of " milites Christi," "Agonistici," and went begging about the country [circinncelliones), exciting the peasants to revolt, preaching liberty and fraternity, and committing pillage, murder, and incendiarism. The religious movement had now assumed the appearance of a political rising. AVhile an imperial army sup- pressed this rebellion, pecuniary relief from the imperial treasury Avas offered to those Donatists who were suffering from extreme want. But Donatus rejected the money with scorn, and the rebellion broke out anew. A'^ery severe measures were then adopted against the rebels, and every Donatist church was closed or taken aAvay. Under the reign of Julian, these churches were restored to their former owners, and the bishops who had been banished were recalled. The Donatists were now allowed to retaliate, as opportunity offered, upon the Catholics. But the successors of Julian again enacted severe laws against the sectaries, who had meantime split into several parties. Optatus 21* 246 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (.323— 692 A. D.J. Bishop o{ Mileve, wrote against them, towards the close of the fourth century, a tractate : De schismate Donatistarum. After a. 400, Augus- tine was indefatigable in his endeavours to heal this schism, and the Donatists were invited to return into the Church on very gentle terms. The circumstance that many of the more moderate closed with these overtures, only increased the fanaticism of the others. They refused the repeated offer of Augustine to meet them in public discussion. At tirst Augiisthie had maintained that any constraint in matters of belief was improper. But their unyielding stubbornness, and the dangerous tendency of their fanaticism, at last induced him so far to modify his opinion about the unlawfulness of constraint in matters of belief, as to declare that even force might be employed to restore these Avanderers to the Church and to salvation ("cogite intrare." Luke xiv. 23). A .synod, held at Carthar/e in 405, applied to the Emperor Honorius to take measures against those who continued their obstinate resistance. Accordingly, fines Avere imposed, churches taken away, and clergymen exiled. As Augustine still insisted on a public discussion, the Donatists were obliged by the Emperor to accede. The Collaiio aun Donatistis, held at Carthage in 411, lasted for three days, and was attended by 279 Donatist and 286 Catholic bishops. It was chiefly conducted by Petilian and Primian, who were opposed by Augustine and by Aurelian of Carthage. The imperial commissioners assigned the palm to the Catholic party. The Donatists appealed in vain. In 414 the Emperor deprived them of their civil rights, and in 415 forbade their religious meetings under pain of death. The Vandals, who conquered Africa in 429, equally persecuted Catholics and Donatists. Their common sufferings tended to bring the two parties again together, — The Dona- tints laid it down as a fundamental principle, that a sacramental action (such as baptism or ordination) was invalid if performed by a person who either was, or deserved to be, excommunicated. Like the Nova- tians, they insisted on absolute purity in the Church, although they allowed that penitents might be readmitted to the communion of the Church. Their own churches they regarded as pure, while they de- nounced the Catholics as schismatics, who had no fellowship with Christ, and Avhose sacraments were therefore invalid and null. On this ground, they rebaptized their proselytes. The part which the State took against them, and the prevailing confusion between the visible and the invisible Church, led them to broach the view that State and Church — the kingdom of God and that of the world — had nothing in common, and that the State should not in any way take notice of religious questions. 3. As the Concilium Qninisextum in 092 was intended to be oecu- menical, the Pope sent legates to it, who signed its decrees. But the Greeks had not forgotten the success achieved at the last oecumenical council by the see of Rome (| 52, 8). On this ground six decrees, -iiametrically opposed to the practice of Rome, Avere introduced, along CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN THE EAST. 247 with a number of others against which no objection could be raised. Thus, 1) In enumerating the authentic sources of church law, almost all the Latin councils and the decretals of the popes were omitted. The validity of all the eighty-five canones apost. was also acknow- ledged, while the see of Rome only admitted that of the first fifty ; — • 2) The Romish practice of insisting on the celibacy of presbyters and deacons was denounced as unwarrantable and inhuman. Comp. | 45, 4; — 3) Fasting on Saturdays during Quadragesima was prohibited. Comp. I 56, 5. — 4) The 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon, which settled that the Patriarch of Constantinople held the same rank with his colleague of Rome, was re-enacted (| 4G) ; — 5) The Levitical pro- hibition of eating blood and things strangled was declared to apply to Christians also (contrary to the views of the Church of Rome) ; — 6) All representations of Christ under the figure of a lamb (which were quite common in the West) Avere .strictly prohibited. — When Pope Sergius forbade the promulgation of these decrees in the churches of the West, the Emperor Justinian II. commanded to seize this prelate, and send him prisoner to Constantinople. But the army rebelled in favour of the Pope, and soon afterwards Justinian himself was dethroned (695). VI. THE CHURCH BEYOND THE BOUNDARIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. I 64. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN THE EAST. During this period missionary work was almost exclusively carried on by the Western Church. Its practical spirit and aims specially fitted it for such labours, while the contiguity of the barbarous nations which invaded the empire (§ 76 etc.) afforded anijile scope and opportunity for them. On the other hand, instances of regular and organized missionary activity were of rare occurrence in the East. But other and indirect means also offered of spreading the Gospel beyond the limits of the Roman Empire, especially by means o^ fugitive Christians, of prisoners of war, of political embassies, and particularly of commercial intercourse with the far East and South. The anchorites, monks, and Stylites who had settled on the borders of the empire, or in the deserts beyond them, frequently produced a deep impression on the barbarians around, who flocked to see them, and listened to the sermons or witnessed the deeds of these fantastic saints. 21 248 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 1. The Ethiopia Abyssinian Church. — In 316 one Meropiiis of Tyre, and all his ship''s crew, were murdered while engaged in exploring the countries south of Egypt. His two nephews, Friimeniius and Aedesius, alone escaped the slaughter. Having gained the favour of the Abys- sinian king, they were entrusted with the education of Aizanas, the heir to the crown. Frnmentius was afterwards consecrated by Atha- nasius, Bishop of those countries. Aizanas was baptized, and the church rapidly extended from Abyssinia to Ethiopia and Nubia. The Bible was translated (it is said by Frumentius) into the vernacular (the Geez). This community, like its mother-church in Egypt, adopted Monophysite views (§ 52, 7). Many Jewish and former customs of the country were retained, such as the observance of the Sabbath along with that of the Lord's day, the prohibition of certain kinds of meat, and circumcision — even in the case of females. 2. The Persian Church. — In Persia the Gospel had struck root in the third century. During the fourth century and after it, the Church was exposed to protracted and terrible persecutions, which continued partly through the intrigues of the fanatical Magi, and partly in con- sequence of the wars between Persia and the Roman Empire, which, as being waged against a Christian power, entailed on the native Christians suspicions of secret sympathy with the enemy. The first great persecution took place under the reign of Shapur [Sapores] II. in 343. It lasted for thirty-five years, during which it is said no less than 10,000 priests, monks, and nuns were executed, Avhile the number of martyrs among the laity exceeded all computation. This persecu- tion ceased only a short time before the death of Shapur, when that monarch proclaimed general toleration. During a period of forty years rest, the Persian Church began to flourish anew, when the fanatical zeal of Abdas, Bishop of Susa, who ordered a heathen temple to be pulled down (in 418) occasioned a fresh persecution, which attained its highest pitch under the reign of Behram V. (Varanes), (since 420). For thirty years the most cruel modes of death were devised against Christians. At last the generous conduct of Acacius, Bishop of Amida in Mesopotamia, who disposed of the property of his church, and with the monej' redeemed a number of Persian prisoners of war, whom he sent back to their own country, induced the king to put a stop to this persecution. When the Nestorians were expelled from the Roman Empire they found protection and toleration in Persia ; but in 405, under the reign of King Firm (Pherozes), they instigated another persecution against the Catholics. In 498 the whole Persian Church declared in favour of Nestorianism (| 52, 3). From that period it enjoyed rest, and for centuries flourished, giving proof of its vigour both by learned labours (the School of Nisibis) and by successful missionary exertions among the tribes of Asia. Meantime the wars with the Byzantines continued; and in 616 Cosi'ii II. [Chosroes] penetrated as far as Chalcedon, committing fresh cruelties against the CHRISTIAN >IISSIONS IN THE EAST. 24J) (Cath.) Christians who inhabited the conquered provinces. At last the Emperor HeracUus took eourajre and met his foe. In 628 the Persians were totally routed (| 57, 5), and in 651 the Khalifs took possession of Persia. 3. Tks Aruietiian Church. — As early as the time of TertuUian, flourishing eommunitics of Christians existed in Armenia. But Tiri- date.s III. (since 286) violent^ persecuted these Christians. Under hia reign the Apostle of Armenia, Gregorius lUinninator, the son of a Parthian prince, carried on his labours with much success. When only two years of age, his nurse had rescued him from the destruction inflicted upon all his kindi-ed. Subsequently he had been carried to Cappadocia, where he was educated a Christian. Gregory even gained the king himself, and made the whole country professedly Christian. At his death, the Church which he had founded enjoyed a state of great prosperity. He was successively followed in the patriarchal office by his grandson Hu.^ig, his great-grandson Nerses, and by Isaac the Great, a still later descendant, whose administration fell in troublous times, when the Byzantine, the Persian, and other princes contended for the possession of the country. St. Mesrop, the colleague and (from 440) the successor of Isaac, constructed an Armenian alphabet, av ranslated the Bible into the vernacular. Under the patriarchate of his successor Joseph, the famous religious war with Persia broke out, for the purpose of obliging the Armenians to return to the religion of Zoroaster. The bloody battle fought by the river Dechmud, in 451, terminated in favour of the Persians. The Armenians, how- ever, maintained their profession of Christianity, despite the persecu- tions to which they were exposed. In 651 this country also became subject to the rule of the Khalifs. — The Armenian Church remained free from Nestorian errors ; but it adopted Monophysite tenets, which were imported from that portion of Armenia which was under Byzan- tine swa}'. At a synod held at Feyiii in 527, the Confession of Chalcedon was rejected. — Gregory had awakened in Armenia a desire for literary and scientific pursuits, and when Mesrop furnished an alphabet, the golden age of Armenian literature commenced (in the fifth century). Almost all the classics and the Greek and Syriian Fathers were translated into Armenian, and numerous original authors inaugurated a native literature. Thus Agathangelos wrote the history of the conversion of Armenia ; Moses of Chorene, a history of his country; Esuig, an able controversial tractate ("the Destruction of the Heretics") directed against the heathen, the Persians, the Mar- cionites, the Manicheans, etc. 4. The Iberians (who inhabited wliat is now called Georgia and Grusia) received the Gospel through the instrumentality of Niinia, an Armenian female slave, by whose prayers some miraculous cures had been performed. From Iberia the truth spread among the Lazians (a 250 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). tribe inhabiting the modern Colchis), and to their neighbours the Abas- GiANS. Even in the East Indies, Theopliihis of Viv (an island at the entrance of the Arabian Gulf) found isolated Christian churches so early as the middle of the fourth century. Sent by his fellow-citizens as a hostage to Constantinople, he was there educated an Arian priest. When afterwards he returned to his own country, he successfully la- boured as a missionary in the East Indies. From Persia, Nestorianism spread in the Indian Church (| 52, 3). In the sixth century, Cosmas Indicopleustes still found three Christian congregations in the East Indies. The labours of Theophilus extended also to Arabia, where, through his preaching, the King of the Homerites, in Yemen, became a convert. But when, in the sixth century, Dhu-Noioas (Dunaan), a Jew, mounted the throne of Yemen, a fearful persecution of Christians immediately commenced. At last Elecsban, King of Abyssinia, inter- posed to put a stop to these cruelties ; the Jewish ruler was killed, and Christians reigned over Yemen, until in 616 Cnsru II. made it a pro- vince of Persia. Anchorites, monks, and Stylites laboured successfully among the nomadic tribes of Arabia. ? 65. THE MOHAMMEDAN COUNTER-MISSIONS. CoMP. G. Weil, Mohammed d. Prophet, Leben u. Lehre (Life and Teach, of Moh. the Proph.). Stuttg. 1843.—/. Dollinger, Moham. Reli- gion nach ihr. innern Entw. u. ihr. Einfl. auf d. Leben d. Volker (The Relig. of Moh. in its Intern. Develop, and External Infl. on the Na- tions). Regensb. 1838. — A. Mbhler, d. Verb. d. Islam zum Christth. (Rel. between Isl. and Christ.) Regensb. 1839. — W. Irving, Mahomed. — Prideaux, Life of Mahomet. — Sale, Koran. — Forster, Mahometanism Unveiled. — /. v. Hanuner-Piirgsiall, Mah. d. Prophet. In 611, Abid Kasem Mohammed of Mecca laid claim to the office of a prophet, and instituted a new religion, composed of Jewish, of Christian, and of Arab heathen elements, in which sensual happiness and strict 3Ionotheism were sought to be com- bined. His labours, however, only acquired importance after he had been obliged to flee from Mecca to Yatjreb (Medina) — the Hejrah, 15th July 622. In 630 he took Mecca, consecrated the old heathen Caaba as the great temple for the new religion ( hlam, hence Mosb'm), and composed the Koran, consisting of 114 Suras, wliich Abu-Bekr, his father-in-law, collected. Before he died, all Arabia had adopted his creed, and was subject to his sway. As he persuaded his adherents that the spread of their new religion by force of arms was the most sacred duty, and inspired them with wild enthusiasm, his successors were able MOHAMMEDAN COUNTER- MISSIONS. 251 to take one province after another from the empire, and at the same time to introduce Moliammedanism in place of Christianity. Within a short period (633-651) Syria, Palestine, Ejjypt, and Persia were conquered ; North Africa in YOT ; and, lastly, Spain in 711. But the farther progress of the Infidel? was in the mean time arrested. Twice tliey laid siege to Constantinople (669- 676 and 717-718) without success; while the victory which Charles Martell gained over them at Tours (in 732) effectually arrested their march westwards. Their influence had, however, operated most detrimentally upon the Church in Asia, and the three patriarchal sees of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were completely subject to their will. Although Christians were allowed to reside in the conquered provinces on payment of a capitation-tax, fear and the desire after the worldly advantages held out by a change of faith, gained for Islaraism a large num- ber of proselytes. 1. Rigid Monotheism constitutes the fundaihental idea of IsJamimn. Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were considered divinely-commissioned prophets ; Mohammed, the last and greatest of prophets, whom both Moses and Christ had predicted, was commissioned to restore to pristine purity their doctrine, which both the Jews and the Christians had cor- rupted. At the end of time, Christ would return, destroy Antichrist, and establish Islamism as the universal religion. The doctrines of the Trinity and of the Incarnation were included among the alleged per- versions of the teaching of Jesus. Special stress was laid on the doc- trine of Divine providence, which was prominently brought forward, and distorted into the most extreme fatalism. The Moslem required not an atonement ; belief in one God, and in Mohammed as His pro- phet, was sufficient to insure the Divine favour, while good works would procure an inexhaustible fulness of everlasting happiness, consisting in the highest sensual enjoyments. In its constitution Mohammedanism contemplated a kind of theocracy, in which the Prophet, and the Kha- lifs, his successors, were to act as the vicegerents of the Deity upon earth. Hence State and Church were regarded as absolutely identical. The rites of religion consisted of jirayers, fasting, and ablutions. Along with the Koran, the Sunna, or traditionary sayings of the Prophet, are regarded as of Divine authority. The sect of the Shii/es- differs from that of the Snnniies, in that the former recognize not the authority of the first three Khalifs and of the traditional sayings of the Prophet handed down by them. The Ssiiji's are a mystical sect which origin- ated at a later period. The Wechabites (a sect dating from the twelfth century) form, so to speak, the Puritans of Islamism. 21 * 252 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 2. Service performed by Mohammedanism i)i the Providence of God. — ■ Obviously Islamism was the instrument of judgment upon the degene- rate polity and Church of the East. But it also served some positive purpose, which appears from its relation to heathenism. It was the special mission of Mohammedanism to put an end to idolatry (Polythe- ism). Neither the Prophet nor his successors tolerated heathenism. Accordingly, a great number of wild tribes in Asia and Africa were converted from the most degrading and demoralizing idolatry to the worship of one God, and raised to a certain stage of civilization and morality, which they would have been unable to attain if left to them- selves. As they were thereby brought nearer to Christianity, Moham- medanism proved, in its own way, " a schoolmaster to Christ." Per- haps its rigid Monotheism may also have been intended to form a kind of breakwater against both African Fetish-worship and Asiatic Pan- theism. But Islamism contains the germs of its OAvn destruction. Its confusion of religion and politics, of State and Church, tends to fetter both, and thus to render them incapable of development, renovation, or transformation. Herein lay the strength, herein lies also the weak- aess of Islamism. THIRD PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM. FROM TIIK YKAR 692-1453. I. MOVEMENTS IN THE EASTERN CHURCH IN CONJUNCTION WITH SIMILAR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WESTERN CHURCH. § 66. ICONOCLASTIC CONTEOVERSY IN THE EAST (726-842). CoMP. /. Mabnbourg (a Jesuit), histoire de I'heresie des Iconoclastes. Par. 1679. 2 Voll. 12. — Ft-. Schlosser, Gesch. der bilderstlirmenden Kaiser (Hist, of the Iconocl. Emper.). Frkf. 1812. — J. Marx (Rom Caih.), der Bilderstreit der byzant. Kaiser (The Iconocl. Contr. of the Byz. Emp.). Trier 1839. At the commencement of the eighth century, image-worship (§ 57, 4) had attained its acme in the East. But even its most zealous advocates were obliged to admit that certain abuses were connected with it. Thus, for example, images were selected to be god-parents; part of the colouring with which they had been painted was scratched off and mixed with the sacramental wine ; the consecrated bread was first laid upon images, that so the faithful might receive from the hands of these saints the body of the Lord, etc. Under these circumstances, a vigorous empe- ror, whom both personal feelings and political considerations disposed against this kind of worship, resolved to employ all the resources which a strong will placed at his disposal to put a stop to this widely-spread idolatry. The contest between the two opposing parties (the uxovox'Kufito.v and the *txoioxdrpai) lasted for more than a century, and was chiefly carried on by the emperors and the army on the one side, and l)y the monks and the people 22 ' * (2.'i3) J54 SECTION I. THIRD PERIOD (692 — 1453 A. D.). on the othei'. Oii two occasions the worship of images was almost entirely and forever abolished ; but bt>th times was it restored by an empress. — The Church of Rome had in this re- spect not gone so far as that of the East, at least in practice ; but in theory it entertained the same opinions, and in the contest between the two parties Rome lent the whole weight of its authority to tiiose who upheld image-worship. On the views of the Frankish Church on this question, comp. § 92. 1. Leo III., the Isatirian (717-741), one of the must vigorous of Byzan- tine emperors, having in 718 repelled the attack of tlie Saracens upon Constantinople, deemed it necessary to adopt further measures to arrest the spread of Moliamracdanisni. The worship of images, which Jews and Moslems equally abhorred, and to which himself was opposed, ap- peared to him one of the principal obstacles to the conversion of the infidels. Accordingly he issued in 726 an edict, which, in the first place, only ordained that the images should be placed higher up on the walls of churches, in order to prevent the people from kissing them. But all peaceable measures against this favourite mode of worship were frustrated by the determined resistance which the aged Germanus, Pa- triarch of Constantinople, the populace and the monks offered. In Palestine, where, under the protection of the Saracens, he could defy the vengeance of the Emperor, Johannes Datna.<:ceinis, the ablest theolo- gian of that age, published three tractates, in which he defended in enthusiastic terms the worship of images. Amidst the popular excite- ment caused by this controversy, one Cosmas got himself proclaimed Emperor, and advanced with a fleet against Constantinople. But Leo defeated and executed his rival; and in a second edict (of date 730) ordered the entire removal of images from every church. The military who were charged with the execution of this ordinance were guilty of many fanatical excesses, and the popular tumults excited by these measures were not quelled without much bloodshed. At Rome, how' ever, the Emperor was poAverless. In his letters, Fope Gretjory II. spoke of him as if he had been a silly, naughty boy; while, in a, synod hela at Rome in 732, Gregory III. pronounced an anathema against all oppo- nents of image-worship. The fleet which the Emperor had collected, with a view of chastising the bold prelate, was destroj^ed by a storm. Leo avenged himself by depriving the Pope of the revenues which he derived from Lower Italy, and by taking Illyria from the see of Rome and assigning it to that of Constantinople. 2. Constantinus V. (741-775), the son and successor of Leo, whom the monks in their hatred nicknamed Copronymus and Caballinvs, a ruler and general as distinguished as his father, was, if possible, even more firmly resolved to put down the worship of images. He defeated Artahasdtis, his brother-in-law, who, with the assistance of the party ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY 255 of iniao-e-AYorshippers, had raised the standard of revolt, severely chas- tised and deprived him of his eyes. As the popular tumults still con- tinued, an (ecumenical Sijnod was summoned to give ecclesiastical sanc- tion to the principles of the Emperor. Accordingly, about 350 bishops assembled at Con.sianfinople (754). But this Synod was not attended by a single patriarch, since the see of Constantinople happened to be vacant at the time, and Kome, which had anathematized all opponents of images, refused to send legates ; while Alexandria, Antioch, and Je- rusalem were under the domination of the Saracens. The Council excommunicated those who made any image of Christ, declaring that the Eucharist Avas the only true image of Christ, and pronounced the most SAveeping condemnation against every kind of reverence paid to images. These decrees were mercilessly enforced, and deeds of the most cruel violence enacted. Thousands of monks were scourged, incarce- rated, transported, driven round the circus for the amusement of the populace with nuns in their arms, or obliged to marry ; many had their eyes put out, their ears or noses cut off, and monasteries were converted into barracks or stables. Images of saints were not even tolerated in private houses. Stephen II. of Rome protested against the decrees of the Council, and Stephen III. issued a dreadful anathema against all opponents of images (in a Lateran synod, a.d. 769). But in the Byzantine Empire both monasticism and image-worship were almost extirpated. 3. Leo IV. Chazarus (775-780), the son of Constantine, shared the views of his father, but wanted his energy. His consort Irene was, however, a zealous image-worshipper. When Leo discovered this, he would have taken energetic measures, but a sudden death arrested his interference. Irene now made full use of the opportunity afforded by the minority of Constantine VI., her son, to restore image-worship. She convoked another Council at Constantinople (78G), which was attended by deputies from Pope Hadrian I. (the other patriarchs, who were under Saracen dominion, ventured not to take part in its delibera- tions). But the Imperial Guard broke into their place of meeting, and dispersed the Council. The following year (787), Irene convoked at Nice another, the Seventh (EctrMENiCAL Council. Its eighth and last meeting was held in the Imperial Palace at Constantinople, — the Im- perial Guard having, in the meantime, been removed from the capital. The Council annulled the decrees of 754, sanctioned homage to images, and approved of prostration or inclination before pictures as a token of love and respect paid to the subject represented, which must not be counfouuded with that adoration {%arpna) which was due to God alone. 4 Tht emperors who now succeeded shared these views. But as victory attended not their arms, the army, which still held opposite sentiments, proclaimed their general Leo V., the Armenian (813-820), Emperor. This ruler, though a decided enemy of image-worship, would 25(3 SECTION 1. — THIRD P E III O D (692— 1453 A. D.). still have adopted moderate and cautious measures, but was baffled )j_y the soldiers, who gave full reins to their fanaticism. The party which advocated image-worship was led by T/teodorus Sludita, Abbot of the Monastery of Studion, a man of unfeigned piety and invincible firmness, the ablest and most ingenious defender of these sentiments, who even in exile was indefatigable in promoting the cause he had at heart [ob. 826). Leo was killed by conspirators. Michael II. Balbiis (820-829), his successor, at least allowed the worship of images in private. But T/ieophihis, his son (829-842), made it the aim of his life wholly te extirpate all such practices. Once more a woman, Theodora, the Dowager Empress, who, after the death of Theophilus, and during the minority of his son, administered the government, convoked a synod at Con.sfaidinople (842), which again introduced the worship of images into churches. Since that period, opposition to this practice gradually ceased in the Eastern Church, and the day on which the Synod of 842 had enacted the decree in its favour (the 19th Feb.) has since been celebrated as the "Feast of Orthodoxy." I 67. SCHISM BETWEEN THE GREEK AND THE ROMAN CHURCH, AND ATTEMPTS AT UNION (857-1435). CoMP. Leo AUatius, de eccl. occid. et orient, perpetua consensione. Colon. 1699. 4to. (The author, who was a Greek convert to the Romish Church, died 1669.) — L. Maimbourg (a Jesuit), Hist, du schisme des Grecs. Par. 1670. 4to. — /. G. Pitzipios, I'egl. Orientale, expose hist, de sa separation et de sa reunion aveccelle deRome. 4 Voll. Par. 1855 At the second Trullan Council in 692 the first steps had been taken towards the Great Schism, which divided the Christian world into two parlies (§ 63, 3) ; in 867 Photius gave it a dog- matic basis by coudemiiing certain doctrines promulgated at Rome, while in 1053 Mich ael G eruJariua com\)\(i{Q([i\\Q. separation betweei the two churches. The dlHiculties and dangers which increas- ingly beset the Byzantine rulers induced them to make frequent attempts to bring about a union. But the negotiations which ensued either were unsuccessful, or the proposed union, though agreed upon in words, was not carried into execution. These fruitless endeavours only ceased when the Byzantine Empire fell not to rise again (a.d. 1453). The obstacles in the way of heal- ing this schism consisted not in any importance attaching to diversity of ceremonial observances, which might, as at previous periods, have continued without interrupting ecclesiastical fellow- ship, nor even in differences of doctrine (with regard to the expression "filioque," §50, 6), which might easily have been SCHISM OF GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES. 257 removed. Tlie real difficulty lay in the claim to primacy in the Church, set up by the see of Rome, and which the Greeks could only resist by separating from all fellowship with the Papacy. 1. Commencement of the Schism (867.) — {H. Ldnimer, P. Nikol. I. u. d. byzant. Staatskirche sr. Zeit. Berl. 1857.) — During the minority of Michael III., surnamed the Drunkard, the son of Theodora (| 90, 4), the government was administered by Bardas, the uncle of that prince (and brother of the Empress). Ignatius, who at the time was Patriarch of Constantinople, and himself a descendant of the imperial family, had sharply censured the dissoluteness of the court, and in 857 even refused to admit to the communion the all-powerful Bardas, who lived in inces- tuous union with his daughtei"-in-law. For this offence the prelate was deposed and exiled. Photivs, the most learned man of his age, and hitherto Prefect of the Imperial Guard, was named his successor, to the intense disgust of the friends of Ignatius, who rejected with scorn all advances and proposals of peace. Photius now convened (in 859) a synod, which confirmed the deposition of Ignatius, and even excommu- nicated him. But no consideration could induce this prelate to forego his claims. Anxious to procure in his own favour the influential ver- dict, Photius gave to Pope Nicholas I. a false representation of the cir- cumstances of the case, at the same time intimating his accession, and requesting fraternal acknowledgment and intercession. The pontiff replied that he must first investigate the case ; and for this purpose deputed two legates, Ilhodoald of Porto, and Zacharias of Anagni. Gained by bribes, the representatives of Rome gave, at a council at Con- stantinople (861), their consent to the deposition of Ignatius. But when more impartial witnesses informed Nicholas of the real state of matters, he excommunicated his own legates, and declared Ignatius rightful Patriarch of Constantinople. The opposition thus excited against Rome in Constantinople became intense, when shortly after- wards Bulgaria renounced allegiance to the Byzantine Church, and owned that of the Pope (| 72, 3). Photius sent an encyclical letter (in 867) inviting the patriarchs of the East to a council, and accusing the Church of Rome of various heresies: such as its ordinance of fasting on Saturdays ; its permission of the use of milk, of butter, and of cheese during the week of Quadragesima ; its injunction of clerical celibacy; its refusal to acknowledge the validity of the chrisma if administered bypresbyters ; and its introduction of the expression "filioque" (| 50, 6), which implied the existence of two supreme principles, and hence a dualism. These heresies, it was asserted, the Pope now intended to introduce into Bulgaria. The Council convened in 867. Three monks, Avho were prompted by Photius, figured as the representatives of the patriarchs whose sees were in Saracen countries. The Pope was exc(!m- municated and deposed, and this sentence intimated to the Western 22* R 258 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.). churches. Such measures were far from indifl'erent to the Pope, who vindicated himself before the Prankish clergy, and called upon them to rebut the charges of the Greeks. They readily complied. Among the tractates written on that side of the question, that of Itatramnits, a monk at Corbey, was by far the ablest. But the aspect of aifaira soon changed. The same year in which the synod had met (867) the Emperor Michael was assassinated, and Basil the Macedonian, his mur- derer and successor, joined the party of Ignatius, and requested Pope Hadrian II. to institute a new inquiry. A sTjnod held at Constantinople in 869 (called by the Latins the eiglith (Ecumenical Council) condemned Photius and restored Ignatius. The council itself pronounced no deci- sion about Bulgaria, but submitted the claims of the rival sees to the pretended representatives of the Saracen Patriarchs as impartial arbiters. They of course decided in favour of the Byzantine Patriarch, and all remonstrances on the part of the Popes proved fruitless. In his adver- sity Photius comported himself in a manner which commanded general respect. For several years he was imprisoned in a monastery, deprived of all intercourse with others, and even of his books. Still he made his peace with Ignatius. Basil entrusted him with the education of his children, and after the death of Ignatius in 877 again elevated him to the see of Constantinople. But the anathema of an oecumenical council, which still rested upon him, could only be removed by another oecumenical council, to which Pope JoIlii VIII. acceded on obtaining promise of having Bulgaria restored to his see. But at the Council of Constantinople in 879 (called by the Greeks tha eighth (Ecumeniccd) the legates of the Pope were completely deceived. The question about Bulgaria was not even mooted, the council of 869 was anathematized, and a ban pronounced against those who should venture to make any addition to the creed. The Pope revenged himself by anathematizing the Patriarch, his council, and all his adherents. Although Leo the Philosopher, the successor of Basil, in 886 deposed Photius, it was only in order to give the see to an imperial prince. Photius was confined to a monastery, where died in 891. 2. The Emperor, Leo the Philosopher, had been thrice married, with- out having any issue. His fourth wife he only wedded after he had convinced himself that the same objection attached not to her. The Patriarch, Nicholas Mysticus, Avho refused to consecrate this marriage (§ 61, 2), was deposed. A synod held at Constantinople in 906, con- ducted under the direction of the legates of Pope Sergins III., approved both of the Emperor's marriage and of the deposition of the Patriarch. But, on his death-bed, Leo repented this arbitrary measure ; Alexander, his brother and successor, restored the Patriarch Nicholas ; and Pope John X. consented to be represented at a synod held in ConstantinopU in 920, when the resolutions of the Council of 90G were condemned, and a fourth marriage declared to be unlawful. But, in return for thib compliance, the synod did not make ciny concessions to the Pope. SCHISM OF GREEK AND ROiMAN CHURCHES. 259 Emperor Basil II. entered upon fresh negotiations. For n immense Bum of money, Pope John XIX. agreed, in 1024, to acknowledge tlie Bishop of Constantinople as oecumenical Patriarch of the East, and to ■vield ever^- claim of the Cathedra Petri upon supremacy over the East- ern Church. But the transaction became known before it was cons- pleted ; the West resounded with denunciations of this second Judas of Rome, and the Pope was obliged to break off the treaty. 3. Completion of the Schi.im in 1054. — However frequent the anathe- mas which Rome and Byzantium had fulminated against each other, they had only been directed against patriarchs, popes, bishops, or their adherents as individuals, not against the churches which they repre- sented. But matters now assumed a different appearance. At that time, the Emperor Consta ntine Manomachtis, bent on certain warlike undertakings, anxiously sought the friendship of the Pope. His en- deavours were frustrated by the interference of Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Leo of Achrida, the metropolitan of Bulgaria, who, in 1053, addressed a letter to John, Bishop of Trani in Apulia, in which they charged the Latins with the most grievous here- sies, and conjured the Western l)i8hops to renounce their errors. To the accusations formerly brought by Photius, others were now added, such as that the AVestern Church allowed the use of blood, and of things strangled; that it prohibited singing the Hallelujah in Lent: above all, that it used unleavened bread in the Eucharist (g 58, 4) — a heresy to which the name of Azymite was given. This letter fell into the hands of Cardinal Humbert, who translated and laid it before Pope Leo IX. A bitter epistolary altercation ensued. The Emperor made every effoi't to restore peace. At his request, the Pope sent three legates (among them the disputatious Humbert) to Constantinople). These envoys only fanned instead of extinguishing the flame. The Emperor obliged, indeed, the Abbot of Studium, Nicholas Pedoratus, to burn, in presence of the legates, a controversial tractate which he had written ; but neither threats nor force could induce the patriarch to yield, supported as he was both by the people and the clergy. At last, the legates placed on the altar of the Church of Sophia a formal writ of excommunication, to which Michael and the other Eastern Patriarchs in 1054 replied in a similar strain. 4. Attempts at Reunion. — The Crusades, instead of removing, only increased the esti-angement between the two churches. Repeated negotiations proved unavailing. At a synod held at Bari (in the Nea- politan territory) in 1098, Anselm of Canterbury, who at the time lived an exile in Italy, convinced the Greeks w-ho were present, that the Latin view about the procession of the Holy Ghost was correct. For the same purpose, Peter Chrysolanus, Archbishop of Milan, delivered, in 1113, a long oration before the Emperor at Constantinople; while, in 1135, Anselm of Havelberg held a disputation on this subject with 22 jO section I. — THIRD PERIOD (692—1463 A. D.). Nicetas of Nicomedia. The aversion and dislike of the Greeks was greatly deepened by the founding of a Latin Empire at Constanti. ,ople (1024-lOGl). Michael Pal.«oi.ogus, -who drove the Latins from Con- stantinople, sought, from political motives, to put an end to the schism. But in these efforts he was opposed by Joseph, the Patriarch of Con- stantinople, and by his librarian, the learned John Beccus. While languishing in prison, Beccus became, however, convinced that the differences between the two churches were unimportant, and that a reconciliation would be possible. This change of views procured his elevation to the patriarchate. Meantime, the negotiations had so far advanced, that a General Council (called by the Latins the fourteenth) was summoned to meet at Lyons in 1274. The imperial legates ac- knowledged the primacy of the Pope, and subscribed the Romish Con- fession of Faith. In return, the Eastern Church was allowed to con- tinue its use of the Nicene Creed without any addition thereto, and the peculiar ecclesiastical forms which it had hitherto observed. Beccus wrote several tractates in defence of this union. But the accession of another Emperor led to his removal; Joseph was restored, and the union of Lyons entirely forgotten. 5. The continual advances of the Turks naturally impressed the Eastern Emperors with the necessity of securing the sympathy and assistance of the West, through reconciliation and union with the papacy. But these efforts were frustrated by the powerful opposition of the monks, supported as it was by the popular clamour. The Patri- archs of Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch, were also hostile to such measures, not only from ancient jealousy of the pretensions of the see of Rome, but because the political schemes of their Saracen masters obliged them to oppose the wishes of the Greek Emperors. At last the Emperor Andronicus III. Pal^ologus gained over the Abbot Bar- LAAM, who had hitherto been the leader of the Anti-Romish party. At the head of an Imperial Embassy, Barlaam went to Avignon, where at that time Pope Benedict XII. resided (1339). But the negotiations led to no result, as the Pope insisted on absolute submission, both in respect of doctrine and government, and would not even consent to order a new inquiry, though it were only for the sake of appearances. Barlaam joined the Latin Church (comp. | G9, 1), and died as Bishop of Gierajce in 1348. — But as the difficulties of the Byzantine Emperors continually increased, John V. PaltEologus made fresh advances. He joined the Latin Church in 1369, but neither did he prevail on his subjects to follow his example, nor the Pope on the Western rulers t*^ send assist- ance against the Turks. 6. Apparently greater success attended the attempt to bring abcut a union made by the Emperor John YII. Pal^ologus. He had gained for his views Melrophanes, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Bessarion, Archishop nf Nice, a man of great adroitness and learning, but a tbo- THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 261 rough infidel. Accompanied by this prelate and by mfviiy other bishops, the Emperor appeared in person at the papal Council of Ferrara in 1438. Pope Eiigeii IV., afraid lest the Greeks might join the reform- atory Council at Basle, seemed willing to make concessions. When the pestilence broke out at Ferrara, the Council was transferred to Flo- rence, where in 1439 the union of the two churches was really accom- plished. The supremacy of the Pope was acknowledged ; existing diiferences in the rites of the two churches were to be mutually tole- rated ; dogmatic divergences were accounted for on the ground of mis- understanding ; and both churches solemnly declared to be orthodox. But another doctrinal difficulty, besides that about the procession of the Holy Ghost, had meantime sprung up. While the Greeks admitted that there was a purr/aior;/ in which venial sins were expiated, and from which souls might be delivered by masses, intercessions, alms, and good works (§ 58, 3), they objected to the idea of material flames in purgatory. Besides, while the Latins held that those who died unbaptized, or under mortal sin, were immediately consigned to eternal perdition, and that the pious (after the expiation of venial sins) imme- diately entered paradise, the Greeks maintained that both eternal pun- ishment and eternal bliss only commenced after the final judgment. On this point the Greeks now yielded, and the reunion was concluded amid embraces and hymns of joy. In reality, matters, however, con- tinued as they had been. A powerful party, headed by Evgenicus, Archbishop of Ephesiis, had been merely outvoted at Florence ; it now commenced an agitation throughout the East against a union which existed only on paper. Mefrophanes was nicknamed Mj^rpoifwoj ; and in 1443 the other three patriarchs of the East held a Si/nod at Jeritsa- leni, in which they anathematized all who adhered to this union. Bes- sarion joined the Church of Rome, became Cardinal and Bishop of Tuscoli, and was twice on the point of being made Pope. He died iu 1472. — But the period had arrived when the Christian Empire of the East should fall. On the 29th May 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks. The last Emperor, Constantine XL, fell while vainly de- fendino; his throne against-tremendous odds. II. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE EASTERN CHURCH. g 08. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND ITS REPRESENTATIVES. Com p. Hcereu, Gesch. d. class. Liter, im M. A. 2 vols. Giitt. 1822.— W. Gass, Boitrage zur kirchl. Literatur u. Dogmengesch. d. griech. M. A. (Contrib. to the Eccles. Liter, and to the Hist, of Dogm. in the Gr. Ch. during the Middle Ages). 2 vols. Bresl. 1844, 1849. Comp. also 262 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— U53 A. D.) . History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, by G. Finlay, LL /)., Edinb. and London. — Smith's Biographical Diet., and Wharton's Ap- pend, to Cave. Iconoclasm (126-842) was combined with hostility to science and art generally. Hence, during that part of the middle ages, the Greek Church numbered fewer learned men and writers than at any other period. But, about the middle of the ninth century, the Byzantine Church seemed suddenly to rouse itself to new activity, and attained a stage which at one time it had appeared incapable of again reaching. It is even more remarka- ble that it not only maintained this high position uninterruptedly during six centuries, but that the ardour for theological study seemed to increase in proportion as political prospects became moie dark and threatening. A special characteristic of the literary activity of that period is the revival of classical studies, which had been wellnigh wholly neglected since the fifth century. All at once those Greeks, who were at the eve of intellectual as well as of political decay, seem to have remembered the rich heirloom which their heathen ancestors had left them. These treasures were now brought forth from musty libraries where they had lain concealed, and studied with a diligence, enthu- siasm, and consciousness of their value, which commands admira- tion. The Greeks had, however, long before, lost the capacity of producing original works ; their energy was therefore expended on reproducing, annotating, or explaining. But even thus the revival of classical lore exercised comparatively little influence on a theology, which had become ossified amid traditionalism and Aristotelian formulas. Where these bonds were broken, classical studies only reintroduced the ancient heathen views of men and matters. 1. It appears that the patronage which the Khalifs, since the close of the eighth century, bestowed on the study of the ancient literature of Greece, fired the zeal of the Eastern literati, and led to the revival OF CLASSICAL STUDIES. Of coursc. If a trace of national feeling were left in the Byzantine rulers, they could not lag behind their Moslem rivals. This circumstance, however, does not entirely account for the altered state of matters. No doubt Providence itself designed it, that these, the noblest fruits of ancient heathenism, which had already served such good purpose in training and preparing the Christian Fathers for their task, should now become the basis of modern literature and science. — To Bardas, the guardian and colleague of Michael III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 26Ji (^07, 1), however infamous his conduct had been in othej respects, l)elongs the merit of founding schools, and employing teachers for the prosecution of classical studies. Basil the Macedonian, although him- self destitute of learning, respected and promoted scientific culture. J'/iotius was chosen tutor to the children of that Emperor, and imbued them with a zeal for study, which in turn was transmitted to their de- scendants. Leo the Philosopher, the son, and Constaiitimis Porphy- roijenncta, the grandson of Basil, were both distinguished for their attainments. When the dynasty of the Macedonians was succeeded by that of the Comnenes (since 1057), scientific pursuits were prosecuted with even greater ardour. Some of the princesses of that race (such as Eudocia and Anna Comnena) distinguished themselves in literature. Pselhis proved to this family what Photius had been to that of the Macedonians. Thessaloiiica became a second Athens, and rivalled Constantinople in the pursuit of classical study. During the sixty years when Byzantium was the seat of a Latin Empire, the barbarism and ignorance of the Crusaders threatened to destroy the civilization fostered by the Comnenes ; but when, in 12G1, the Palceologi again as- cended the throne of the East, the former pursuits were resumed with renewed ardour. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks, when a large number of Greek literati sought refuge in Italy, trans- ferring to the West the treasures they had guarded with such care. 2. Aristotle and Plato. — With the revival of classical studies, the treatises of Plato, which were regarded as more classical, or at least aa more purely Grecian than those of Aristotle, came again into high repute. But as Aristotle was still considered the great authority in the church (| 47, 6) — a position assigned to him chiefly through the efforts of John Damascenus — Platonism continued an object of some distrust to theologians, a feeling increased by the circumstance that so many admirers of classical literature had lapsed into practical heathen- ism. The controversy which now ensued attained its highest pitch during the fifteenth century, when Gemistus Pletlio used every effort to dethrone Aristotle from the place which till then he had occupied in the esteem of the learned. He insisted that all should acknowledge the supremacy of "the divine Plato," and confidently predicted that speedily the time would come when both Christianity and Mahom- medanism would give place to the universal sway of a " religion of pure humanity." These views were shared by his numerous pupils, among whom Bessarion (f 67, 6) was the most distinguished. On the other hand, George of Trehizond and his pupils were equally enthu- siastic in their admiration of Aristotle. Numerous representatives of these two schools settled in Italy, where they continued their con- troversies with inci'eased bitterness (§ 120, 1). 3. Scholasticism and Mysticism. — The application of the Aristotelian method to the study of dogmatics, which John Philoponus first in- troduced, and John Damascenus brought into general vogue, gave rise 2-? * 26-1 SECTION I. THIRD PERIOD (692— 1 45?. A. D._) . to a peculiar mode of treating this science, which, though wanting in the depth, variety, and acuteness that characterized the scholasticism of the middle ages, resembled it in many respects. But at the same time another and very diiferent tendency made its appearance. Mysti- cism, of which the traces are already found in the writings of the pseudo-Areopagite (§48, 5), was peculiarly adapted to the discipline and retirement of the monasteries.. Among its numerous representa- tives, Nicholas Cabasilas was the most distinguished. Those mystics opposed neither the teaching nor the rites of the Church. On the con- trary, they delighted in dwelling on all that had a symbolical bearing, and connecting it with the idea of a sacrament. No ground, therefore, existed for collision between the Dialecticians and the Mystics. 4. Theological Sciences. — John Dainasceims had, at the commence- ment of this period, grouped into a system according to the dialectic forms of Aristotle, the conclusions of former doctrinaj. disquisitions. His " Ecdosis " is the first and only complete work on Dogmatics that emanated from the ancient Greek Church. Despite the failure of attempts at union with the Latin Church, which indeed only issued in wider estrangement on controverted points, the frequent contact with the Latin was not without its beneficial influence on the Greek Church. The Eastern divines profited by the scholasticism of their brethren in the West so far as to apply this more f\ill and scientific method to the treatment of doctrines on which the two churches were agreed. Con- froveisi/ was still kept up with the Nestorians, the Mcmophysites, and the Monothelites, while the pen of polemics found fresh employment against the Gnostic and Manichean sects, which at this period again made their appearance, as also against the schismatics of the West. and those who advocated a reunion with them. The altered circum- stances of the times also led to a revival of the study of Apologetics Not only was Islamism making rapid strides, but the protection accorded by the Saracens to the sxjnagocjiie rendered it necessary to defend Christianity against the attacks of the Jews. But the prevailing scholastic and traditional theology proved incapable of coping with tbe storms which the judicial providence of God had allowed to rise. Lastly, the revival of classical study, and the reappearance in its train of heathen ideas, obliged theologians to be again on their guard against ancient superstitions [Nicholas of 3IetIio»e). Independent exe- GETiCAL researches were now no longer prosecuted ; but the "Catena;" of (Ecumenivs, of Theophylacf, and Etitliyniitis Zygadenns, are valuable. The study of Ecclesiastical History was entirely neglected. Nire- phoriis Callisti was the only writer who devoted his attention to this study (in the fourteenth century). But his Eccl. Hist., written without taste or ability, adds nothing to our knowledge of the subject Of much greater value, even in regard of Eccl. Hist., are the numerous •' Scriptores historise Byzantinaj." To this list we add the name of Simeon Metraphrastes, celebrated in his day as a writer of legends. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 265 5. John Damascenus was by far the ablest theologian of the eighth century. For a considerable time he was employed in the service of the Saracens, and died in 760 as Abbot of the Monastery of S. Sabaa at .Jerusalem. His admirers gave him the title of Chrysorrhoas ; the Iconoclasts, who at the Council of Constantinople in 754 pronounced a threefold anathema upon him, the Saracen by-name of Mansur. His principal work, the n?;yr; y^ioffttoj, procured him an imperishable fame, and has been regarded as an authority in the Greek Church. Section I. [xffpdXia, ffKoao^ixd) forms a dialectic, and Section TI. [rtipC aipsacuv) a historical introduction to Part III. ("ExSoaij dxpt|3>;5 tiji 6p^o6o|ov rti-Wfuj), in which the various dogmas as propounded by the Councils and the Fathers — especially the three great Cappadocians — are systematically arranged and presented. The Ispa ftapd'K'Kfi'Ka, by the same author, consist of a collection of " loci classici," taken from the writings of the Fathers on docti'inal and ethical subjects, and arranged in alphabetical order. He also Avrote controversial tractates against various heretics, and composed a number of hymns (best ed. by le Qiden. Par. 1712. 2 vols. fol.). — Among the numerous works of Puotius (| 67, 1), the " Bibliotheca " (Mvpto)3Jf3ji.t<»') is the most valuable. It contains notices of, and extracts from, 279 Christian and heathen works, of which the greater part have not otherwise been preserved (best ed. by Im. Becker. Berol. 1824. 2 vols. 4). Besides his controversial tractates against the Latins and the Pauliciant, the Amphilochia (or replies to above 300 'heological questions submitted to him by Bishop Amphilochius) also deserve notice, and his Nomocanon (§ 43, 3), which has ever since formed the basis of the canon law of the Greek Church. The series of distinguished writers who flourished under the Comnene dynasty commenced with Michael Constantinus Psellus, teacher of philoso phy at Constantinople [ob. 1106), a man whose acquirements were equally varied and deep. Some of his numerous tractates were devoted to tlieological subjects, though he acquired not fame in that depart- ment. His cotemporary, Theophylud, Archbishop of Achrida, in Bul- garia, has left us very able commentaries, or rather " Catenae." EuTHYMius Zygadenus, a monk of Constantinople, at the commence ment of the twelfth century, composed, by request of the Emperor Alexins Comnenus, a work intended to refute all heresies ("Dogmatic Panoply of the Orthodox Faith," in twenty-four books). Although highly praised at the time, it is a mere compilation, whose sole merit lies in its refutation of the heretics of that particular period. The exegetical compilations by the same author are more valuable. Eust.^- THius, Archbishop of Thessalonica {oh. 1194), was the most prominent divine of the twelfth century. He has long been famed as the com- mentator of Homer and Pindar ; but the recent edition of his theological Opuscula (ed. Tafel. Fref. 1839, 4), proves that he deserves even higher acknowledgment as a Christian, a divine, a prelate, and a reformer of the ecclesiastical and monkish abuses of his time (^ 70. 4). At the same 23 266 SECTION I. — THIRD P £ R I O I) (692- .-lo.S A. D. j. period flourished Nicuoi.as, Bishop of Metuone in Messenia, who replied to the attacks of Proclus the Neo-Platonist, in a tractate which forms one of the ablest theological works of that age. His views on the doctrine of redemption deserve special mention as resembling those of Anselm of Canter bur3^ Nicetas Acominatus or Choniaies, a states- man {ob. 1204), was another distinguished writer of that period. His *' Treasury of Orthodoxy," in twenty-seven books, contains a vindica- tion of orthodox doctrine, and a refutation of heretics, much more able and original than the Avork of Euthymius on the same subject. (Comp. (Jlhnanti, " Nic. of Methone, Euthjan. Zygabenus and Nicetas Cho- niates," in the " Studien u. Krit." for 1833, P. III.) — During the reign of the Palceologi (1250-1450). theologians were chiefly engaged in advocating or opposing the attempts made at reunion with the Latin Church. Nicholas Cabasilas, Archbishop of Thessalonica, in the fourteenth centviry, one of the most eminent mystics in the Church, deserves special mention. His principal work, Xlfpi r^s iv Xpto-fijj ^w^j, has only lately been rescued from oblivion by W. Gass ut supra, vol. II. His mysticism, which is remarkable for its depth and fervour, breathes a spirit of antagonism to the prevailing tendency towards work- righteousness. Still, his "Expositio Miss£e" proves that he shared the predilection of Greek Mystics for the Liturgy. At a somewhat later period (about 1400) flourished Simeon, Archbishop of Thessalomca, a prelate equally famed for classical and patristic lore, and for the manner in which he administered the affairs of the Church. His great work, " De fide, ritibus et mysteriis ecclesiasticis," is of great import- ance for the study of Greek Medigevalism. Lastly, we may mention Gregorina Scholarii/s, who as monk bore the name of Gennadius, the first Patriarch of Constantinople after the capture of that city by the Turks. At the Council of Florence he objected to the proposed union ; in the philosophical controversy then raging, he advocated the tradi- tional claims of Aristotle against Plato. At the request of Sultan Mohammed II., he composed and handed to that monarch a " Professio Fidei.'' (Comp. Gass ut supra, vol. I.) ? 60. DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES DURING THE TWELFTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES. With the taste for intellectual pursuits, that for tlieological speculations and discussions also revived. Durino; the rei,Q:n of Manuel ComnenuH, 1143-1180, the question was raised, whether anst had offered Himself a sacrifice for the sins of the world ■\> the Fatlier and to the Holy Gliost only, or also to the Lojected to an examination by the Patriarch, he succeeded in obtain- ing from him a certificate of orthodoxy, and was also furnished by the Emperor (who sympathized in his hostility to images) with a letter of protection. The sect, however, liecame divided. Raanes, one of their loaders, was, on account of his Antinomian practices, styled "the filthy" (o (jDrfapd?). But about 801 a new reformer itrose in the person of Ser- qivs Tychictis, who late in life Avas converted by the instrumentality of a pious Paulician female, who directed his attention to the Bible. Leo the Armenian (813-820) organized an expedition for their so-called con- version. Those who recanted, were again received into the Church, those who resisted were executed. A number of Paulicians now com- bined against their persecutors, killed them, and sought refuge in Sa- racen territory, where they founded a military colony at Argavn (Co- losse). Thence they made continual incursions into the Byzantine territory, for the double purpose of pillage and of aveno;inf];; their wrongs. The sect was most numerous in Asia Mincn-. Under the reign of the Empress Theodora (? 66, 4), another fearful persecution broke out. Thousands of Paulicians were executed ; amono; others, an officer high in command. His son Carbeas, who had also been an officer, now col- lected about 5000 Paulicians, by whose aid he hoped to avenge the death of his parent, retired with them to Argaun, and acted as the military chief of the party. Their number daily increased by the accession of other funjitives, and the Khalifs assif;;ncd to them some for- tified towns on the frontier. At the head of a wcll-orj>;anized army, Carbeas carried fire and sword into the Byzantine territory, and GNOSTIC AND MANIC HiEAN HERETICS. 273 repeatedly put imperial armies to flight. At last, after two campaigns, Basil the Macedonian annihilated the Paulician army in a narrow defile (871). The political power of the sect was indeed broken, but it continued to spread both in Syria and Asia Minor. A century later (in 970), the Emperor John Tzimisces transported a large number of them to Thracia to guard its boundaries, where Pliilippopolis became their Zion. Their tenets rapidly spread through that country. Alexius Comnemis again addressed himself t) the task of converting them to Catholic views. He went in person to Philippopolis, disputed for days with their leaders, and by promises, threats, rewards, or punishments, as each case required, carried his purpose (1115). After that, the sect seems to have become extinct. Those who continued to entertain their views probably joined the Euchites or the Bogomiles. — The principal authority for the history of the Paulicians is the "Hist. Manicha^oi-um" of Petnts Cicidns, who, as imperial ambassador, had lived for some time among the Paulicians of Armenia. 2. The so-called ''Children of the Sun," or Areviirdi's, an Armenian sect, originated in the ninth cent, with Sembat, a Paulician. They also bore the name of Thontrakians, from the village of Thontrake, where their church Avas formed. In 1002 no less a personage than the Metro- politan, Jacob of Harkh, joined them. lie gave a more distinctively Christian cast to their tenets, journeyed through the country preaching repentance and inveighing against work-righteousness, and made nu- merous converts both among the clergy and laity. The Catholics of the Armenian Cliurch had him branded and imprisoned. He escaped, but was ultimately killed by his opponents. 3. At the commencement of the eleventh cent, the Euchites {Messa- lians, Enihiisiasts) attracted the attention of the Government, their opinions having widely spread in Thracia. Their tenets about two Sons of God, Satanael and Christ, are in some respects akin to that form of Parsee Dualism which represents the two antagonistic princi- ples, Ormuzd and Ahriman, as proceeding from Zeruane Akerene, the one Supreme and Eternal Source. The seeds of this heresy may have been brought to Thracia when the Emperor Tzimisces transported the Paulicians to that province. The Byzantine Government sent a deputy to arrest the progress of this heresy (perhaps Michael Fsellus (^ 68, 5), whose 6taxoyo5 Hipi iufpystaj 6at,woi'Cdi' — Ed. N''.remberg 1838 — is our only authority about this sect). But a century afterwards, the same tenets were again broached in Bulgaria by the Bogomiles {^toffKoi) , only more fully developed, and assuming the form of more direct oppo- sition to the Catholic Church. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus had Basil, the chief of the party, brought to Constantinople, and, under pretext of intending to join the sect, induced him to communicate its tenets. But while Basil unreservedly opened his mind to the monarch, tts he thought in strict confidence, a conclave of inquisitors sat con- s 274 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.). cealed behind a curtain, and noted down his every statement. This first scene of the comedy was followed by another. All the adherents of Basil, on whom the Government could lay hands, were condemned to death. Two stakes were lighted, to one of which a cross was aflnxed. The Emperor now entreated them at least to die as Christians, and in sign of it to choose the stake at which the cross had been erected. Those who complied were pardoned, the others condemned to imprison- ment for life. Basil alone was burnt (1119). Still the sect was not annihilated. Many of the Bogomiles sought refuge in monasteries, where they projjagated their views in secret. — Indeed, long after that, adherents of Manichajan views were found in Bulgaria, whence they spread their views in the West. Our principal source of information about the Bogomiles is the Panoplia of Euthymius (| 68, 5). § 72. THE ORTHODOX SCLAVONIC-GREEK CHURCHES. CoMP. J. Ph. FaUmerayer, Gesch. d. Halbinsel Morea im M. A. (Hist, of the Penins. of Morea during the M. A.). Stuttg. 1830. Vol. I.— P.J. Scliafarik, slav. Alterthiimer (Slav. Antiq.). Vol. II. Leipz. 1844; that author's kurze Uebers. d. altest. kirchenslav. Liter. (Brief Survey of the Old Slav. Eccl. Liter.). Leipz. 1848. — Nestor's Annalen, transl. by Schlozer. Gott. 1802. 5 vols. — Karamsin's russ. Gesch., transl. by JIavenschild. Riga 1820. 11 vols. — Ph. Sfrahl, Gesch. d. russ. K. Halle 1830. Vol. I. (incompl.). — S: /. Schmitt (Rom. Cath.), krit. Gesch. d. neugriech. u. russ. K. Mayence 1840. — Hefele, d. russ. K., in the Tu- bing. Quarterly, 1853. P. III. — Mouraviev, Hist, of the Ch. of Russia, transl. by 7?Zoc/i:mo)e. Oxford 1842. — J. Dobroivsky, Cyrill u. Methodius. Prague 1S2Z. —Philaret, Cyrill u. Methodius. Mitau 1847.—/.^. Ginzel, Gesch. d. Slavenap. Cyrill u. Method, u. d. slav. Liturgie. Leitm. 1857. Among the various races set in motion when the Western Empire was broken up, the Germans and Slavonians were des- tined to become the principal actors in the history of the world. The Germanic tribes joined the Roman Catholic Church ; and at first it seemed as if the Slavonic race generally would equally connect itself with the orthodox Byzantine Church. Ultimately, however, only the Eastern Slavonic countries continued in their adherence to this communion. Most of them were, about the same period as the Byzantine Cluirch, brought under the yoke of Turkish dominion. This remark applies especially to the Church of Bulgaria, which at one time enjoyed so bright pros- pects. In proportion to these losses, was the accession made to the Greek Church by the conversion of the Bussian nation. The political importance attaching to that empire, which, after having for two centuries (1223-1481) groaned under the yoke of the ORTHODOX SLAVONIC-GREEK CHURCHES. Z / O Mongols, rapidly grew both in extent and power, proved of great advantage to the Greek Church. It is due to the Russians that at this moment the orthodox Greek almost equals in numbers and influence the Romish Church. 1. Not long after the time of Justinian, Slavonic tribes made irrup- tions into Macedonia, Thessalia, Hellas, and the Pelojjonnesns. The ancient Hellenic population of those countries was almost entirely exterminated; and Greek nationality and the profession of Christianity continued to exist only in the fortified towns, especially in those along the sea-coast and on the islands. The Empress Irene was the first suc- cessfully to attempt making those new inhabitants of Greece subject both to Christianity and to the Byzantine Empire. Basil the Mace- donian (867-886) completed this effort, and that so effectually, that even the ancient heathen Mainois (| 42. 3) in the Peloponnesus sub- mitted. Mount Athos, with its hermits and monasteries (§ 70, 3), became the Zion of the new Church. 2. About 850 the Chazars in the Crimea sent to Constantinople for Christian missionaries. The Court readily complied : and dispatched on this errand Consiantinus, surnamed the philosopher, but better known by the name of Cyrillus, which he bore as a monk. He was a native of Thessalonica, and perhaps himself of Slavonic descent : at any rate, he knew the Slavonic language. In the course of a few j-ears he succeeded in converting the great majority of the people. In 1016 the empire of the Chazars was swept away by the Russians. 3. The Bulgarians of Thracia and Moesia had obtained their first knowledge of Christianity through some Greek captives ; but the first germs of a Christian Church were suppressed in a bloody persecution. Xot long afterwards, however, a sister of Bogoris, King of Bulgaria, was baptized at Constantinople during her captivity in that city. After her liberation, she sought, with the assistance of the Byzantine monk Methodius, a brother of Cyrill, to convert her brother to the Christian faith. The providential occurrence of a famine, and a representation of the Last Judgment painted by Methodius, made a deep impression on the mind of Bogoris. He was baptized, and obliged his subjects to follow his example (861). Soon after this, both Methodius and Cyrill were called to another field of labour (to Moravia, | 79), and in 866 the Czar of Bulgaria joined from political motiA'es the Western Church. At his request, Pope Nicholas I. sent bishops and priests to Bulgaria, to organize the Church of that country in conformity vith Romish usages. However, Byzantine diplomacy recalled the Bulgarians to their first allegiance ; and at the Council of Constantinople (869) their representatives were readily convinced that, both according to the law of God and of man, the Church ff Bulgaria was subject to the ecclesi 23* 2 re SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.) . af?tical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople (^ 67, 1). Since that time the Bulgarians remained attached to the Greek Church. Meantime Cyrill and Methodius, the two apostles of the Slavonians, had invented a Slavonian alphabet, and translated both the Bible and the Litui'gy into the vernacular; thus laying the foundation for an ecclesiastical literatui-e in that tongue, which rapidly sprung up, espe- cially in Bulgaria, under the fostering care of the noble Czar Symeon (888-927). The tenth century formed the golden age of the Bulgarian Church ; though at that period the Bogomile heresy (g 71, 3) made sad havoc. In 1018 Basil II. conquered Bulgaria. 4. The conversion of the Russians to Christianity is mentioned even by Photius. Under the reign of the Grand Duke Igor, Kiev seems to have had a cathedral. Olga, the widow of Igor, undertook a journey to Constantinople, where she was baptized in 955, and took the name of Helena. But Svoifoslav, her son, refused to follow her example. According to the statement of German chroniclers, the aged princess ultimately requested the Emperor Otto I. to send German missionaries to Russia. Adalbert of Treves, afterwards Archl)ishop of Magdeburg, followed this call ; but returned without having achieved any result, his companions having been murdered by the way. It was reserved for Vladimir the Apostolic, the grandson of Olga, to eradicate the hea- thenism still rampant among his people. According to a somewhat romantic legend, that monarch had dispatched ten Bojars in order to examine the rites of the various churches. The envoys seem to have been captivated Avith the splendid rites which they witnessed in the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. In 988 Vladimir was baptized in the ancient Christian commercial city of Clierson, which the Russians had lately taken. He took in baptism the name of Basil, and was at the same time married to the imperial Princess Anna. In every place the idols were now broken in pieces and burnt ; the great image of Peroon was tied to the tail of a horse, dragged through the streets, broken with clubs, and thrown into the Dnieper. Soon afterwards the inhabitants of Kiev were ordered to assemble on the bank of the Dnieper in order to be baptized. Vladimir was on his knees by the river-side praying and thanking God, while the clergy, standing on floats, administered the sacred rite to the people. Anna proved very useful in encouraging and directing the organization of the Russian Church. Vladimir died in 1015. His son Jaroslav proved in Russia another Justinian. He erected many churches, monasteries, and schools throughout the country; introduced improvements in the mode of cele- brating public worship, especially in church music ; awakened a taste for art, and zealously promoted scientific pursuits. Russian national literature was first cultivated in the monastery of Kiev, where a native clergy was also trained. There, at the close of the eleventh century, Nestor composed his "Annals" in the Russian language. The spiritual THE HERETICAL CHURCHES OF THE EAST. 2/7 superintendence of the Church was committed to the Metropolitan of Kiev, wlio in turn was under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Con- stantinople. In 1328 both the metropolitan see and the seat of govern- ment were transferred to Moscow. But when Kiev became subject to Lithuanian princes, and the latter joined the Latin Church (Jagello 1380), Kiev was elevated to the rank of a metropolitan see for the pro- vinces of Southern Russia, independent of the See of Moscow (1415). By dint of Polish and Jesuit intrigues, a union was brought about between that Church and the Papal See at the Si/nod of Jirzesc in 1594. — laidore, the Metropolitan of Moscow, also attended the Synod held at Florence in 1439, where a union with Rome was agreed upon (comp. § 67, 6), and acceded to the resolutions of that assembly. He returned as Cardinal and Papal Legate. But at a council held in Mos- cow the union was disavowed ; Isidore was imprisoned, but escaped and died at Rome in 14G3. After that, the Metropolitan of Moscow continued subject to the jurisdiction of the See of Constantinople till 1589, when, during a visit to Moscow, the Patriarch Jeremiah II. was induced to declare the Russian Church independent, and to set apart Job, at that time Metropolitan of Moscow, to be its first Patriarch. ^ 73. THE HERETICAL CHURCHES OF THE EAST. The Nestorian and Monophysite churclies of the East main- tained their independence chiefly thronjjh the protection and favour accorded thein by the Moslem rnlers. At the period of which we write, the Persian and Syrian Nestoriaiis, but especially the Armenian Monophysites, displayed considerable literary acti- vity and zeal in tlie prosecution of theolofjical and other studies. They initiated the Saracens in classical, philosophical, and medi- cal lore, and made many contributions to theological literature. For a long time the Nestorians continued also their missionary efforts. The decay of these churches, however, commenced when the rule of the Khalifs, who had encouraged intellectual pursuits, gave place to Mongol and Turkish barbarism. The period of learning and brilliancy was followed by that dulness and deadness which has ever since prevailed. To complete the reunion with the East, inaugurated at the Synod of Florence, Rome soon afterwards proclaimed that all the heterodox churches of the East had likewise returned to their allegiance to the Chair of St. Peter. But this union proved in the end either a delusion or a deceptioru Pretended delegates from these churches so- lemnly applied for readmission into the bosom of the Church — a request which was accorded with due pomp and formality. 24 278 SECTION I. THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A.D.). 1. The Persian Nestorians (^ 64, 2) always continued on excellent terms with their Khalif rulers — a circumstance chiefly due to their opposition to the notion of a " mother of God," and to their rejection of the worship of saints, images and relics, and of priestly celibacy. Accordingly, the Khalifs regarded theirs as a kind of rational Chris- tianity which approximated the Moslem ideal. The Nestorian schools of Edessa, Nisibis, Seleucia, etc., were in a very flourishing state. But the extensive literature which issued from these seats of learning has not been handed down, and only fragments of it have been preserved in the work of Assemanus (Bibl. Orientalis). Of later Nestorian authors the best known is Ebed-Jesu, the Metropolitan of Nisibis [ob. 1318). His writings treat of every department in theology. The missionary labours of the Nestorians continued unabated till the thir- teenth century. China and India were the fields to which their ener- gies were principally directed. In the eleventh century they induced the Chief of the Kerait, a Tartar tribe, and most of his subjects to embrace Christianity. As vassal of the great Chinese Empire, that prince bore the title of Ovang-Khaa. Tidings of this conversion, adorned with the most romantic details, reached the West, where won- derful stories about the power and glory of the supposed '' Priest-Kinci John" were circulated. The mistake may have arisen from confound- ing the title Khan with the Chaldce Kahanah (a priest), and the name Ovang with Johannes. — When Chinghis-Khan, the Mongol, put an end to the rule of the Khalifs (1220), the Nestorian Church also declined. For a time, indeed, the Nestorians were allowed to carry on missionary labours among the Mongols, and not without success. But Tamerlane, that scourge of Asia (1369-1405), confined them within the inaccessi- ble mountains and glens of the province of Kurdistan. 2. The most influential and important among the Monophysite churches was that of Armenia (| 64, 3). This country enjoyed, at least for a period, political independence, under the rule of native monarchs. Since the twelfth century, the Armenian Patriarch resided in the monastery of Edgeiniadzin, at the foot of Mount Ararat. That church attained its highest stage of literary eminence — both in the way of furnishing translations of the classics and the Fathers, and of producing original works — during the eighth, and again during the twelfth centuries. The former of these periods was adorned by writers such as the Patriarch /o/i)t Ozniensis and the Metropolitan Stephen of Sunic In the twelfth century flourished men of even greater distinction, such as the Patriarch Nerses Clajensis (whose epos, " Jesus the Son," waa celel)rated as the finest specimen of Armenian poetry), and his nephew the Metropolitan Nerses of Lampron. The two latter would have readily acceded to a union with the Byzantine Church; but the pro posal could not be carried out on account of the political troubles of the time. Advances towards a union with the Latin Church were frequently made since 'he thirteenth century, but failed, from tho THE HERETICAL CHURCHES OF THE EAST. 279 aversion towards the Romish ritual entertained by the Armenians. — At one time the Jacobite-Syrian Church (§ 52, 7) also was zealously engaged in prosecuting theological studies. The most distinguished ornament of that Church was Gregonj AbnJfamdsch, the son of a Jewish convert — hence commonly called Barhehrctius — who first occu- pied the See of Guba, and afterwards became Maphrian of Mosul {oh. 1286). His generous philanthropy, his high mental endowments, his extraordinary learning, and his medical skill, made him equally respected by Christians, Mohammedans, and Jews. The most im- portant and the best known of his writings is the "Chrojucon Si/ria- cum." — The Jacobite Church of Egypt stood probably lowest among Christian communities. The treason of the Copts, by which the Saracens were put in possession of that flourishing country, met with a terrible retribution. Even the Fatimide Khalifs (since 1254) oppressed them, and their position was considerably aggravated under Mameluke domination. The Copts wholly disappeared from the towns, and even in villages the sect dragged on a miserable existence. Ecclesiastically, they sunk into a state of entire deadness. — Though Abyssinia Proper continued to be ruled by native princes, the Church in that country gradually declined to a very low level (^ 64, 1). 3. During the Crusades, the Maronites (§ 52, 8) joined, in 1182, the Church of Rome. They abjured their monothelete errors, acknowledged the supremacy of the Pope, but were allowed to retain their ancient rites. This union was confirmed in 1445 (in consequence of the move- ment in connection with the Council of Florence). At a later period, they also adopted the decrees of the Council of Trent. SECOND SECTION. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 24* . (281) SOURCES. Sources (comp. § 4) : Maxima Biblioth. Patrum. Lugd. 1677. 27 Voll. fol. — J. P. Miyne, Patrologia) cursus completus. Par. 1844. Series II. Eccl. Lat. 220 YolL— TF. J-Fa^toiic/c-A, deutsche Geschichtsclireibor in M. A. Berl. 1858. Lahh6. Nova Biblioth. nianuscr. Par. 1657. 2 Voll. fol. — H. Canisii Lectiones ant., ed. J. Basnage. Ant. 1725. 5 Voll. fol. — L.d'Achery Spicilegium. Par. 1655. 13 Voll. fol. — St. Buluzii Miscellanea. Par. 1678. 7 Voll. fol. — E. Martene et Diuandi, Vett. Scriptt. ampliss. col- lectio. Frcf. 1720. 12 Voll. J. Pistorii Scr. rer. German., ed. B. G. Struve. Katisb. 1726. 3 Voll. fol. — j)f. Frelieri, Scr. rer. German., ed. B. G. Stnive. Argent. 1717. 3 Voll. f. — Melch. Goldaai, Rer. Alemann. scriptt. ed. H. C. Senckenherg. Frcf. 1730. 3 Voll. f. — H. J. G. Eccard, Corpus Historic, medii sevi. Lps. 1723. 2 Voll. f. — /. B. Mencken, Scr. rer. German. Lips. 1728. 3 Voll. fol. — G. H. Pcrfz, Monumenta Germanise hist. Hann. 1826 sq. 13 Voll. fol. — J. Fr. Bolnner, Regesta chronol. Diplom. Frcf. 1831 sq. — M. G. Haiiningsfeld, Coll. Const. Imperialium. Frcf. 1713 f. — A. du Cheme, Hist." Franc. Scr. Par. 1633. 5 Voll. M. — M. Bouquet, ^ev. Gallic. Script. Par. 1736. 17 Voll. M. — L. A. Muratori, Rer. Italic. Script. Mediol. 1723. 28 Voll. fol. — i^?o?-e2, Espagna sagrada. Madr 1743. 46 Voll. 4. — M. Parker, Rer. Brit. Scr. vetust. Lugd. 1587 fol.— Th. Gale, Hist. Brit. Saxon. Anglodan. Scr. Oxon. 1691. 2 Voll. fob — H. Wharton, Anglia sacra. Lond. 1691. 2 Voll. f. J. Hartzheim, Concilia Germanise. Colon. 1759. 11 Voll. f. — A.J. Binterim, pragm. Gesch. d. deutsch. National-, Prov.- u. Dioc- Con- cilien. May. 1835. 6 Vols.—/. SIrmond, Concilia ant. Gallia?. Par. 1629. 5 Voll. f. — D.Wilkins, cone. Britanise et Hibernias. Lond. 1737. 4 Voll. — /. Saenz de Augirre, Coll. max. Concill. Hisp. Rom. 1693. 4 Voll. fol. Auxiliaries: Fr. ReTim, Gesch. d. M. A. (Hist, of the Middle Ag.). Marb. 1821. 3 Vols, in 7 Parts. — H. Leo, Gesch. d. M. A. Halle 1830. — Heeren v. Ukert, europ. Staatengesch. Hamb. 1828. — H.Luden, Gesch, d. deutsch. Volkes (Hist, of the Germ. Nat.). Gotha 1825. 12 Vols.— J.Chr.v.Pfider, Gesch. d. Deutsch. Hamb. 1829. 5 Vols.— ^F. Giese- hrecht, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kaiserzeit. Vols. I. and II. Braunschw. 1855. etc. — Hallam, Middle Ages. 11 ed. London 1855. F. C. V. Savigny, Gesch. d. rom. Rechts im M. A. (Hist, of Rom. Law in the M. A.). 2d ed. Heidelb. 1834. 6 Vols. — iT. F. Eichhorn, 24 (283) 284 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THIS PHASE deutsche Staats- u. Rechtsgesch. 5th ed. Gottg. 1844. 4 Vols. — F. Walter, deutsche Rechtsgesch. Bonn 1853. — J. Grimm, deutsche Rechtsalter- thiimer (Jurid. Antiq. of Germ.). 3d ed. Gott. 1854. 2 Vols. — A'. Sim- rock, Handb. d. deutsch. Mythol. mit Einschluss d. nord. (Ilandb. of Germ. Mythol., including that of the North). Bonn 1855. — J. Grimm, deutsche Mythol. 3. A. Gottg. 1854. 2 Bde. ^ 74. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THIS PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT. A new stage in the development both of the Church and the world coniraenced with the appearance of the Germanic nations on the scene of history. In its influence on the character and direction of general history, and on the agencies brought to bear upon its course, the migration of nations is a unique event. Without ignoring the special influence exerted by the various Slavonic races, which made their appearance at a somewhat later period, it cannot be denied that they were soon drawn in the same or in an analogous direction with that of the Germanic tribes. This event must therefore be regarded as forming the boundary line between the ancient and the modern world. But the separation between the past and the coming development was not at once complete ; tendencies at work in the old world continued for centuries to make themselves felt along with, and by the side of, those which characterized the commencement of a new era. Hence, though properly beyond the sphere of the history which now commenced, they cannot be left unnoticed, since — for good or for evil — they exercised an important influence. As the general history of the Church and world, so that of the Germanic nations, may be divided into ancient and modern, bounded and separated by the great Reformation of the six- teenth century. The former of these periods may not inaptly be likened to the figure of Janus — one face being directed towards the ancient, the other towards the modern world. We account for this from the circumstance, that the mental develop- ment of Germanic and Slavonic nations was not the slow and painful result of personal and unaided labour. They inherited what had been acquired by the ancient world, and were thus enabled more rapidly and surely to attain their own peculiar and independent position and culture. As the ancient Roman Chun h (and, so far as one important branch of the Slavonic CHARACTER, ETC., OF THIS PHASE. 285 tribes was concerned, the ancient Byzantine also) was the medium through which this inheritance was conveyed, it became the teacher and schoohnaster of the world. But this tutelage could not be permanent. Having attained and being conscious of his maturity, the pupil broke these leading-strings. At the Reforma- tion the Germanic spirit attained its majority and became eman- cipated.— Thus, taking a general and broad view of it, this first stage in German ecclesiastical and secular history occupies a sort of intermediate position, and is therefore rightly designated as that of the Middle Ages. 1. The ecclesiastical history of the Middle Ages forms, as even its name indicates, a period of transition from the old to the new. Chris- tianity had fully passed through the stages of culture peculiar to the ancient Greek and Roman world, and made them its own. It was now destined to pervade the forms of life and culture characteristic of those modern nations whom the migration of nations had brought to the foreground of history. But in order to attain the stage of culture for which they were fitted and designed, these peoples had first to be brought under the influence of the ancient culture. Thus a period intervened which, while forming a link of connection between the ancient and modern world, brought the stages of culture characteristic of each into conflict. Throughout the Middle Ages this conflict led to continual action and reaction, or rather to incessant yb?-?rt«^to?j, deforma- tion, and reformation, which, however, in every instance appeared not separately and distinctly, but mixed together and confused. Some of the most important events and movements (such as the Papacy, Monasticism, Scholasticism, Mysticism, etc.) took their rise in the Middle Ages. But as in each and all these movements the three phases to which w^e have alluded continued to struggle for the mastery, neither of them attained full maturity, and each in turn degenerated. It was only in the sixteenth century that the reformatory element attained sufficient maturity and force to appear pure and unmixed with other tendencies. Its victory marks the close of the Middle Ages and the commencement of modern history. 2. The ecclesiastical history of Germany previous to the Reforma- tion embraces twelve centuries, and details very varied movements. The first period closes with the extinction of the German Carlovingian .lynasty (911). Up to that time the general movement in ecclesiastical matters progressed uninterruptedly, rising before the time of Charle- magne, attaining its climax during his reign, and then declining. This may be designated the distinctively Germanic period of history. All the princes of the Carlovingian dynasty, even to its weakest repre- sentatives, were inspired by the great idea of uniting the various Germanic and k-ndrcd (Romanic or Slavonic) tribes into one Germanic 286 CHARACTER ETC., OF THIS PHASE. Empire. This idea only died -with the last of the Carlovingians. Af ael that the tendency towards separation into independent and distinct German, Romanic, and Slavonic States, which had already appeared in the ninth century, gradually gained ground. The Carlovingian period, to which we have referred, had a civilization of its own, which decayed with it. Even the Papacy, to whose intrigues that dynasty succumbed, felt the consequences of its treachery, and sank into impo- tence and ruin. To whatever point we direct our attention, we descry at the commencement of the tenth century a fearful decay, both in Church and State, in science, in culture, and in art. The glorious achievements of Ciiarlemagne gave place to a seadmii obsairum. Still, even in the confusion and the troubles of that century we can disceru the conditions and the germs of a new and better age. — The time of Pope Boniface VJIL, or the commencement of the fourteenth century, marks another and not less important period. Before that time Germany led and gave the tone both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. But the unsuccessful contest between Boniface and Philip the Fair of France gave an immense preponderance to France, which henceforth led the way in all ecclesiastical movements. During this period the internal development of the Church progressed very rapidly. The Papacy, Monasticism, and Scholasticism — the most important elements in the history of the mediaeval Church — attained their highest point before, and declined after, the time of Boniface. Again, the desire for reforms, wliich manifested itself throughout the Middle Ages, was quite different in these two periods. Before the time of Boniface, the representatives of the Church (Popes, Monastic Orders, and Schoolmen) seemed gene- rally desirous for a certain measure of reform, though perhaps not of a comprehensive or entirely spiritual character. On the other hand, the instances in which a genuine and evangelical desire after reform was associated with opposition to the prevailing ecclesiasticism, were few and isolated, while frequently it appeared in combination with errors and heresies almost unparalleled in history. Towards the close of this period, however, this state of matters was completely reversed. Not only had the Papacy, the Monastic Orders, and the Schoolmen degene- rated themselves — they had become the main abettors of ecclesiastical degeneracy. Opposition to the Church, as then constituted, no longer appeared in the wake of heretical tendencies. The reformatory move- ment, though not entirely free from admixture of errors, became evangelical in its spirit, and rapidly grew in strength and influence. This phase of development, then, embraces three periods: that between the fourth and the ninth centuries, that between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries, and that which compiised the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. FIRST PERIOD OP ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY LN ITS MEDIAEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. FROM THE FOURTH TO THE NINTH CENT. CoMP. F. W. Retiherg, K.-G. Deutschlands (bis zum Tode Karls d. Gr.). Leipz. 1853. 2 Vols.— W. Kraft, die K.-G. der german. Volker, Berlin 1854. Vol. I. — H. liuckert, Culturgesch. d. deutsch. Volkes in d. Zeit d. Ueberganges aus d. Heidenth. in das Christenth. (Hist of Germ. Civiliz.. during the time of Trans, from Heathen, to Christian.). Leipz. 1853. 2 Vols.— Jf. C. Perry, The Franks. London 1857. — Also generally : Hardioick, Hist, of the Chr. Ch., Middle Age. Caml)ridge l^'iZ. — Robertson, Hist, of the Chr. Ch. (590-1122). London 1856. I. ESTABLISHMENT, SPREAD, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE GERMAN CHURCH. ? 75. CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMANS. Before the Germans appeared on the stage of liistor}', Europe was chiefly peopled by Celtic races. In Britain, Spain, and Gaul, these tribes were conquered by the Romans, and became amalgamated with them ; while in the north, the east, and the centre of Europe they were expelled, exterminated, or absorbed by the Germans. When Christianity extended over the face of Europe, the Celtic race existed as a distinct nationality only in Ireland and Scotland, as even among the neighbouring Britons 't had already become mixed with Romanic elements. Hence but a very narrow territory was left on which Christianity n.ight assume the peculiar Celtic form of development. Our knowledge 24 * (287) 288 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.}. of this phase of ecclesiastical life is derived from the few notices left us of Irish monasteries, and of the resistance offered to the introduction of the Romish Confession (§77). But even before the time of Christ, the Gervianic races had followed the Celts, and migrated from the East into Europe. They were in turn succeeded l)y the Huns, by the Slavonic and Magyar, and other tribes. So early as the commencement of the fourth century, the Germans were brought into contact with Christianity. Only one century elapsed when a number of l)owerful peoples of Germanic descent professed the Gospel, Since that period each century, till late in the Middle Ages, witnessed fresh national additions to the Church from among that race. These great results have sometimes, though erro- neously, been traced to a peculiar natural and national predis- position for Christianity. But while we gladly admit its exist- ence— at least in some measure, we deny that the Germans were in consec^uence of it attracted to Christianity, as at that time it was preached. In our opinion, it manifested itself chiefly after Christianity had by other instrumentality gained an entrance, and only ap])eared fully at the time of the Eeformation. For this predisposition had reference to the profoundest bearings of Christianity, which were neglected and ignored in the ecclesiasti- cal externalism of earlier days. It was the task of the Germanic Church to develop and to bring prominently forward these aspects of the Gospel. 1. Much of what has been vaunted about the siieciai pi-edi spas if ion of the Germans towards Christianity, is either exaggeration or mis- apprehension. Admitting that in German Mytholoi/y many deep thoughts, concealed under the garb of poetic legends, bear evidence of the high religious aspirations, the intellectual endowments, and the remarkable spiritual anticipations of the Germanic race, and as such may have formed a preparation for Christian truth, it will scarcely be maintained that these characteristics apply to it in greater measure than to the myths, speculations, or mysteries of ancient Greece. To our mind, the predisposition should rather be traced to the peculiar character of German national life. There we notice the devoiedness and attachment of vassals towards their lord, which formed so marked a peculiarity of the German mind, and which, when applied to Christ as the Heavenly King, constitutes the very essence of Christianity — even personal surrender to the Saviour, a close and affectionate relation- ship towards Ilim, and dependence on Him for justification by faith alone, which even in Augustine, that Paul among the Fathers, was CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERiMANS. 289 unable to comprehend in all its breadth and fulness. In connection with this sentiment, we also note the native readiness to combat and to persevere in their struggles for their rightful lord, which, when directed towards the Gospel, constitutes the main characteristic of practical Christianity — the pressing forward through contests to victory. Again, the German love of freedom offered, when sanctified by Christianity, a fitting form and expression for the glorious liberty of the children of God ; while even Tacitus speaks of the spirituality of those religious rites which predisposed them to the worship of God " in spirit and in truth (nee cohibere parietibus Deos, neque in ullam humani oris speciem adsimulare, ex magnitudine coelestium arbi- trantur)." 2. The circumstance, that so many Germanic tribes adopted Chris- tianitr/ without ofi'eriug almost any resistance, is most readily explained by the untenable character of the Pagan superstitions prevailing at the time. In general, heathenism can only thrive on its own native soil. Transplanted to Europe, the superstitions of those tribes did not strike root during the turmoil and the movements of the period which followed their importation. But if centuries were allowed to elapse before the Gospel was introduced — as in the case of the Frisians, the Saxons, the Danes, etc. — the opposition to its doctrines was much stronger. An- other element which either materially aided or else impeded the spread of Christianity, was the presence or the want of Christian institutions dating from the times of Roman domination. In districts where hea- thenism had reigned wholly undisturljed, the superstitions imported by the Germans soon found a firm lodgment. But where Christianity had once gained admittance, the elevated culture, and superior intellectual power associated with it, rendered the full and free development of heathenism impossible, even though the Gospel was for a time sup- pressed in the district. Besides, in many instances the alliances of heathen rulers with Christian princesses led to the conversion of the former, and with them of all their subjects. No doubt the same causes must also frequently have operated in the more narrow circle of the family or the clan. Such influences were peculiarly characteristic of the Saxon tribes, who alone assigned so high a place to woman: Inesse quin etiam (says Tacitus) sanctum aliquid et providum putant, nee aut consilia earum adspernantur, aut responsa negligunt. 3. Judging from the ordinary 2)ractice of the Church (and not tc speak of the Avholesale conversions accomplished by Christian princes through fire and sword), both baptism and conversion must have been generally regarded as an opus operattim ; and whole heathen tribes were baptized without having previously obtained a proper knowledge of salvation, or undergone a change of heart or mind. This can, of course, be neither approved nor comnionded. At the same time, it must be admitted that only in this manner considerable and rapid 25 X 290 SECTION II. FIRRT PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. 1).). results could have been obtained ; nay, that in the infant state of the German races, something may be said in favour of this practice. A survey of the past would direct the Church, in its contest -with German Paganism, to use other weapons than those which had been employed in the conflict with the heathenism of Greece and of Eome. In the latter case, Christianity was brought to bear on society in its highest state of cultivation, — on a world which, so to speak, had grown old, and come to despair of its powers and capabilities, and where the expe- rience and history of the preceding ten centuries served as a " school- master to Christ." It was far otherwise with the Germanic races. If, therefore, Roman society might be compared to a proselyte who in riper years, and after having passed through many experiences, is ad- mitted into the Church, the conversion of the Germans may be likenef^ to a baptism administered during infancy. § 76. VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. CoMP. W. Kraft, K. G. d. germ. Volke. Vol. l. — Ch. Waitz, u. d. Lel>en u. d. Lehre d. Ulfila (The Life and Teaching of Ulf.). Hann. 1840. 4to. — /. Aschbach, Gesch. d. Westgothen. Frcf. 1827.— i^. W. Lcmbke, Gesch. v. Spanien (Hist, of Spain). Vol. I. Hamb. 1831. — F. Papencordt, Gesch. d. vand. Herrsch. in Afr. (Hist, of Vandal Domin. in Afr.). Berl. 1837. — J. C. F. Manso, Gesch. d. ostgoth. Reiches in Ital. Bresl. 1824. — /. F. v. Koch- Stern f eld, d. Reich d. Langob. in Ital. Mun. 1830.— /T. Leo, Gesch. d. italien". Staaten. Vol. I. Hamb. 1829.— J. W. Loehell, Gregor v. Tours u. seine Zeit. Leipz. 1830. — A. Thierry, Recit des temps Merovingiens. Par. 1842. 2 Vols. When Christianity made its first great conquests in Germany, Avianisin was the dominant creed in the Roman Empire. In- ternal dissensions and external dangers obliged a ))ortion of the Gothn, during the latter half of the fourth century, to seek alli- ances with the Eastern Empire, and to purchase its protection by making a profession of Arianism. Within a short time, the missionary labours of a number of native priests, directed by Bishop Ulfila, led to the spread of Arianism among numerous other Germanic races, though we are unable to trace its exact pro- gress. About the end of tlie fifth century, more than half the German race — the Ostrogoths and Yisigoths, the Yandals, Suevi, Burgundians, Lombards, Herulians, Rugians, Gepidse, and otliers . — professed that creed. But as the friendly relations subsisting between these tribes and the Roman Empire had prepared the way for the spread of Arianism, so tlie hostilities which ensued after Rome had again adopted the Catholic faith, were part]« VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 291 the cause of their tenacious and even fanatical adherence to that heresy. Arianisni had, indeed, become wellnigh the national creed of Germany ; and it nlmost seemed destined to obtain pos- session of all Germany, and with it of future history. But these prospects were speeilily anniiiilated by tlie conversion of one of the most powerful Gemanic tribes to Catholicism. From the first the policy of the Franks had been directed against their strong kindred around them, rather tiian against the Roman domination, which was rapidly nearing its end. Tlie same policy also dictated their adoi)tiou of Catholicism. Relying on the protection of Him whom Catholic Christendom worshipped, and on the sympathies of tiie Western Catholics, the Frankish rulers undertook the double mission of suppressing heresy and of con- quering heretical countries. It was, therefore, their policy to renounce the former, in order to find occasion for the attainment of the latter object. 1. The Goths in the Countries along the Danube. — Christianity had been introduced among the Goths about the middle of the third century by Roman captives. Theophilus, a Gothic bishop, is mentioned as one of the members of the Council of Nice in 325. The zeal and success of Bishop Ulfilas, a descendant of a captive Christian family from Cappadocia, who since 348 preached to the Visigoths (or Thervingians), among whom Arianism had struck root even at that period, excited the enmity of tlie heathen, which broke out in a bloody persecution (355). Accompanied by a large number of his Gothic converts, Ulfilas fled across the Danube, where the Emperor Condantius, who regarded the Bishop as a second Moses, assigned to his flock a district of country. Ulfilas continued his successful labours for thirty-three years. To give his people access to the sacred oracles, he translated the Bible into the Gothic language, for which he had constructed an alphabet [ob. 388). Full details of his life and teaching are given by Auxentius, Bishop of Dorostorus (Silistria), a pupil of Ulfilas, in a^hort biography of the Apostle of the Goths, which Waitz has lately discovered (see above), — But all the Gothic converts had not left their country with Ulfilas. Those who remained behind proved a leaven to the heathen around. Accordingly, about 370, Aihanarich, King of the Thervingians, raised another persecution. Soon afterwards, a rebellion broke out among the Thervingians. Frithif/eni, the leader of the discontented, was indeed worsted, but obtained assistance from the Emperor Valens, and, in gratitude for this aid, along with his adherents, adopted Arianism. This was the first instance in whieh the Goths embraced Christianity in considerable numbers. Soon after\vards (in 375), the victorie,'; of \ho Huns swept away the empire of the Ostrogoths. A portion of that 292 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). people was obliged to join their conquerors, while another part on their flight invaded the country of the Thervingians (or Visi- goths). The latter retreated; and, under the leadership of i^ri7/n'(7en» and Alaviv, crossed the Danube, where Valens assigned them a terri- tory on condition of their conversion to Arianism (in 376). But this good understanding was of short duration, and in 378 Valens fell in a war against them. Theodosius, who restored the Catholic faith in the Empire, concluded peace with them. The Thervingians continued in their adherence to the Ai'ian creed, which — by means not yet ascer- tained— spread to the Ostrogoths, and to other cognate tribes. St. Chry- sostorn despatched Catholic evangelists among them ; but the mission was discontinued after his death. 2. The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain. — The death of Theodosius (in 395), and the partition of his empire, was the signal for the Visigoths to enlarge their borders. Alaiic laid waste Greece, penetrated into Italy in quest of booty, and plundered Rome. Atanlf, his successor, settled in Southern Gaul ; and Wallia founded the empire of which Toulouse was the capital, and which attained its highest prosperity under the reign of Euric {oh. 483). Euric enlarged his territory in Gaul, and in 475 conquered the greater part of Spain. It was his desire to strengthen his government by introducing political and religious uniformity in his dominions. But his zeal for the spread of Arianism met with unex- pected and stubborn resistance, which violent persecutions failed to remove. The Romanic part of the population and the Catholic bishops longed for a Catholic ruler. Nor were their hopes to be disappointed. Clovis, King of the Franks, who had recently been converted (496), became the avenger and deliverer of the Catholics in Southern Gaul. The battle of Vougl6, near Poictiei-s (in 507), put an end to the rule of the Visigoths on this side of the Pyrenees. But they maintained themselves in Spain, where their hostility to the Catholics led to fresh troubles. A fearful persecution raged, in 585, under the reign of Leo- vi(jiJd. Becared, his son and successor, at last perceived the folly and danger of this policy. At the third Synod of Toledo in 589, he adopted the Catholic faith ; and, aided by Leander, the excellent metropolitan of Seville, he speedily rendered it the dominant creed all over Spain, But under the succeeding monarchs the power of the Visigoths gradu- ally declined, through treason, murders, and the rebellions excited by hostile factions. In 711, Roderic, their last king, succumbed in the battle of Xeres de la Frontera to the Saracens, who from Africa invaded Spain. — [Principal Sources : Procopivs (about 540) de bello Goth. : Jor- nandes (about 550) de rebus Geticis ; Idatii Chronicon ; Isidori Hispal hist. Goth.) 3. The Vandals in Spain and Africa. — At the commencement of the fifth century the Vandals, who at that period already professed Arian- ism, passed, in company with the Alani and Suevi, from Pannonia into VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER A R I A N I S M . 293 Gaul (in 40G), and thence into Spain (in 409), laying waste that Hourisiiing country. In 428 Boniface, the Roman Governor of Africa, unjustly outlawed as a traitor, in self-defence called in the aid of the Vandals. Genseric, their king, marched to his succour at 'the head of 50,000 men (in 429). In vain Boniface, who in the interval had made liis peace with the Court, now used every effort to induce the barbarians to withdraw. Genseric conquered Northern Africa, where he founded a strong empire ; in 455 he appeared in Rome, when, for fourteen days, the city was plundered by his wild liordes. To put an end to all intercourse between Africa and the Roman Empire, he resolved on forcing the Arian creed upon his subjects, — a plan which, during fifty years of his reign, he prosecuted with most consistent and unparalleled cruelty [ob. 477). But the Catholics of Africa endured these persecu- tions with a stedfastness worthy of the martyrs of the second and third cent. Huneric, his son and successor, gave the Catholics only a short period of reprieve. In 483 the persecution recommenced [ob. 484). Under the reign of Gunthamuiid [ob. 496) the Catholics enjoyed peace ; but Thrasamit ad [ob. 523) again resorted to the former bloody measures. Hilderic. [ob. 530), a mild ruler, and the son of a Catholic mother, openly favoured the persecuted. This excited the dissatisfaction of the Arians, who rose in rebellion under the leadership of Gelimer, a great-grandson of Genseric. Hilderic was taken prisoner and executed. But before the new ruler had time to carry into execution his bloody purposes, Belisarivs, the general of Justinian, appeared in Africa, and in the battle of Tricameron (533) destroyed both the Vandal army and em- pire.— [Sovrces: Victoris, Ep. Vitensis (about 487) hist, persecut. Van- dal. — Procopinti de hello Vandal. — Isidori Hispal. hist. Vandal, et Suevorum.) 4. The Sxievi were still Pagans when in 409 they entered Spain in company with the Vandals. Under the reign of Rechiar they now adopted the Catholic faith. But in 465 Remismund and his whole people adopted Arianism to please the Visigoths. Charraric, whose son was miraculously healed by the relics of St. Martin of Tours, again returned to the Catholic Church (in 550). With the aid of St. Martin, Biahop of Duma, he succeeded in inducing his people to follow his example — a work which was completed at a national Si/nod held at Braga (in 503), under the reign of Theodemir I. In 585 the Visigoths under Leovigild put an end to the rule of the Suevi. 5. The Burgundians, whom in 406 the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani had in their march drawn away from their former settlements on the banks of the Maine and the Neckar (where they had professed the Catholic faith), foiinded an independent state in the district of the Jura. Brought into contact with the Visigoths, most of them adopted the Arian creed. Of the four princes who parted among them the kingdom of Gundric, their father, only one, Chilperic II., the father 294 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). of Clotilda, continued a Catholic. Giindohald, his brother, having murdered his kindred, possessed himself of their dominions. But the zeal and labours of Avihis, Bishop of Vienne, prevented the spread of Arianism, and both Sigismoiid, the sou of Gundobald, and his subjects returned into the Catholic Church at the Diet of Epaon in 517. But in the eyes of Clotilda, the wife of Clovis, King of the Franks, even this conversion could not atone for the guilt of Sigismond's father. Her sons avenged their maternal grandfather, and put an end to the Burgundian monarchy in 534. — [Principal Source: Gregorii Turon. hist. Francorum.) 6. In conjunction with the Heruli, the Schyri, and the Turcelingi, the Rvgians had founded an independent state (in what now consti- tutes Lower Austria), and called it Eiigiland. Their religion consisted of a mixture of heathen practices with Arianism, which had spread among them from their Gothic neighbours. The Catholic Romans whom they, found in the country were much oppressed by them. But since 454 Si. Severinus [ob. 482) laboured in that district, a messenger truly sent fi-om on high to cheer and uphold these persecuted people. Even the barbarians were constrained to pay him reverence ; and his influence over both heathen and Arians was almost unlimited. He is said to have announced the future greatness of Odoacer. That prince put an end to the Western Empire, and for seventeen years ruled over Italy with equal firmness and wisdom. Odoacer abolished (in 487) Rugian rule, and with it Arian persecution, in Rugiland. But soon afterwards Theoderic, the Ostrogoth, invaded Italy, took Ravenna after a siege of three years, made Odoacer prisoner, and treacherously killed him at a banquet (493). 7. The Ostrogoths had become converts to Arianism long before they conquered Italy, but they were free from the fanaticism which charac- terized that religious party in almost every part of Germany. Theo- deric afforded protection to the Catholic Church; he valued and fostered Roman culture — acts of which the credit is certainly due in part to Cassiodorus, the excellent counsellor of the Ostrogoth monarch (| 47, 6). This large-spirited toleration was the more readily accorded, since, from the protracted schism (lasting for 35 years, ^ 52, 5), no dangerous political combination between the Catholics of the East and the West was to be apprehended. Accordingly, when this schism ceased in 519, Theoderic began to take a more lively interest in the progress of the Arian Church, and to view the Catholics with some measure of suspicion. He died in 526. The Emperor Jiistinian availed himself of the confusion consequent on the death of Theodoric to regain Italy. At the close of a war which lasted for twenty years, Narses, the Byzantine general, had swept away the last traces of Ostrogoth domi- nation. On its ruins the Byzantine rule was again raised, under the name of an Exarchate, and with Ravenna as its capital. During that VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 295 perioa the rule of Arianism in Italy was of course at an end. — [Priii' cipal Sources: Procopius, de bello Goth. — Jornandes, de reb. Geticis. — Cassiodori Varia et Chronic.) 8. The Lonihards in Itah/. — In 5(58 the Lomliards left their lionies by the banks of the Danube, under the leadership of Alboin invaded Italy, and conquered that portion called, after them, Lombardy, with Ticimim (Pavia) its capital. The successors of Alboin extended their conquests till 07ily the southern extremity of Italy, the districts alon;;' the sea-shore, and a number of fortified towns in the interior, remaineil under Byzantine rule. Incited l)y love of plunder and suspiciousness, the Lombards, who professed Arianism, for twenty years waged equal warfare against Roman civilization and Roman Catholicism. But after the first storm of persecution had passed, religious indiiferentism again prevailed, and the spiritual impotence of the Arian clergy proved unequal in the contest with Catholicism. Pope Gregory the Great (590-G04) — a px-elate equally Avise and energetic — gave himself with untiring zeal to missionary labours. He found a powerful auxiliary in Queen TJieodelinda, a Bavarian princess, and a devoted Catholic. So enthusiastic were the Lomliards in their admiration of their lieau- tiful and amiable queen, that when Aidliari, her husband, was killed the first year after her marriage, they allowed her to select among the Lombard dukes one to whom she would give her hand, and wliom they would acknowledge their king. Her choice fell on AgiliiJf, who indeed continued an Arian, but did not oppose the spread of Catho- licism among the people. Under the reign of Grimoald [oh. 671) the work of converting the Lombards to the Catholic Church was com- pleted, and soon afterwards they adopted the language and manners of Rome. (Comp. ^ 82, 1.) — [Principal Source: Pauli Diac, de gestis Langb. Lb. YI.) 9. The Franks in Gaul. — Roman domination continued for a time in Gaul, even after Odoacer had in 476 put an end to the Western Empire. But the victory of Soissons, which in 486 Childeric, the Merovingian, gained over Syagrius, the Roman Governor, terminated that rule. In 493 Clovis (481 511) espoused Clotilda, a Burgundian princess (see above, note 5). The young queen, who was devotedly attached to the Catholic faith, used every effort to convert her heathen liusband. For a long time the national pride of the Prankish ruler lesistcd her endeavours, though he ccmsented to have their first-born son baptized. The death of this infant appeared to Clovis an indication of the displeasure of his gods. Still he could not resist the entreaties of his wife, and their second son was likewise admitted into the Church. This infant also was taken dangerously ill ; but the earnest prayers of his mother were followed by his unexpected recovery, and Clovis learned that the God of the Christians was able to disarm the vengeance of Wuotau. The circumstance recurred to the mind of the king when, 25 296 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). in the battle of Tolhiac (in 49G) against tlie Alemanni, he was threatened with defeat, with the loss of his empire and of his life. The prayers offered to his gods had remained unanswered: he now addressed him- self to the God of the Christians, vowing to adopt that faith if he were delivered from his imminent danger. Immediately the aspect of the battle changed. The army and the empire of the Alemanni were de^ stroyed. True to his promise, Clovis was baptized in Rheims, at Christmas 496, by Remigius, the Archbishop, who addressed him in the words : " Bend thy neck, proud Sicamber ; adore what thou didst burn ; burn what thou didst adore." (Legend afterwards adorned the event with miraculous details. It seems, that when tlie attendant who carried the phial with the oil destined for anointing Clovis was unalde to make his way through the crowd, in answer to the prayer of Remi- gius a Avhite dove brought from heaven another phial, ever since used in the coronation of the French kings). According to the measure of his knowledge, Clovis was sincere and earnest in his profession of Christianity. Most of the nobles and of the people soon folloAved his example. Not that he had undergone any change of heart : he had made a compact with the God of the Christians, and he was prepared faithfully to observe its terms. It affords sad proof of the low state of religion at the time, that the grossest faithlessness, treason, and assassination stained the life of Clovis after his baptism. And yet the Catholic clergy of the AVest extolled him as another Constantine, and as divinely appointed to root up heathenism and Arianism. Regarding this as the mission entrusted to him, they neither asked nor expected more at his hands. However, the conversion of Clovis proved an event of the greatest importance, since it sealed the do(mi of the barbarous and fanatical Arianism of the German tribes. Along with its creed, the Catholic Church introduced the civilization and literature of the ancient world. Thus trained, the Germans founded an empire destined for many centuries to continue the centre around which the history of the world was to revolve. — [Principal Source: Gi-cf/orii Turon. hist. Francorum eccles. (Conip. also for the hist, of the Franks, Br. Ferry, The Franks. London, Longman, 1857). ^7. VICTORY OF THE ROMISH OVER THE BRITISH CONFESSION. CoMP. Jac. Usserii, Britann. ecclesiae antiquitt. Lond. 1687 fol. — Fr. Milliter, die altbrit. Kirche (in the theol. Stud. u. Krit. for 1833). — C. Fr. Standlin, K. G. v. Grossbrit. Gottg. 1819. 2 Vols.— 7%. Moore, History of Ireland. — /. Lanigan, Eccl. Hist, of Ireland. 2d ed. 4 Vols. — /. M. Lappenlmrg, Gesch. von England. Vol. I. Hamb 1834. — /. Lingard (R. Cath.), Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Ch. — K. Schrodt (R. Cuth.), d. 1 Jahrh. d. engl. Kirche (the First Cent, of the Engl Ch.). — C. G. SchocU, de Ecc. Britt. Scotirumque hist, fontibus. Ber VICTORY OF THE ROMISH CONFESSION. 207 1851. — WIlL-iiis, Concnlia Brit, et Ilihcrnica. London 1737. 4 Vols fol, — Spclmainii Cone. Deer. Const, in re Eccl. orbis Brit, (to the year 15.31— more complcto than Wilkins). 2 Vols. fol. 1G39-C4. — /ier/te Voneraljilis Hist. Ecel. gentis Anglor. — Wharton's Anglia Sacra; and the authorities quoted in Rubertsoii, Hist, of the M. Ages, pp. 15 et seq. An old leg-end has it, that a British king, Lucius bj' name, had so early as the middle of the second century requested Ele.u- lh(!)-us, Bishop of Rome, to send him Christian missionaries, and tliat l)oth he and his people had been converted by their preacliing. Without attaching importance to this tradition, it is certain that since the close of the second century Christianity had struck root in that part of Britain which was under Roman domination. Up to the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion (in 449) the Britisli Church entertained close and continual commu- nication with the sister-churches on the Continent, especially with those of Gaul and Rome. But after that, Christianity ceased to be professed except along the west coast, and the rela- tions between the Britisli and foreign churches were interrupted. When, after an interval of 150 years, a Romish mission arrived (in 597) to renew the former iiitercourse, it appeared that the British ecclesiastical system differed from that of Rome (which during that period had developed) on many points connected with worsliip, government, and discipline. Rome insisted on conformity — a demand wliich tlie Britons strenuously resisted. Tiio chief objection of the British Church lay against the claims of the Romish hierarchy. These divergences have sometimes been traced to the supposed circumstance that the British Church had originally been founded by missionaries from Asia Minor — a statement which rests on no historical grounds. Nor is it neces- sary to refute the assertions of some, who vaunt that apostolica. Christianity had been preserved in its purity among the ancient Britons, and speak of their evangelical opposition to the erro- neous teaching and ordinances of the Church of Rome. In point of fact, the religion of Jiritain and of Rome was essen- tially tlie same : in both, the same tendency to superstition ap- pears ; in both churches we have the worship of saints and of relics, the sacrifice of the mass, asceticism, and work-righteous- ness. Only, that the chsrgy of Britain liad not tlie same hie- rarclnVal ))retensions as that of Rome ; and that, in consequence of the struggle which now ensued, more broad and liberal views were broached than had at first been entertained. At first, in- 298 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). deed, victory seemed to incline towards the National Church • but ultimately the contest ended in the complete suppression of the British Confession. In Germany, where the conflict was renewed, it terminated in the same manner, notwithstanding the exertions made by the British missionaries (§ 78\ A very deep interest attaches to this contest. If the British Confession had prevailed, as at one time seemed probable, not England only, but also Grermany, would from the first have stood in direct antago- nism to the Papacy, — a circumstance which would have given an entirely different turn both to the Ecclesiastical and the Political History of the Middle Ages. 1. Chief Peculiarities of the British Confession. — The Easter cycle of nineteen years, which Dionysius Exiguus had introduced (§ 56, 3), was nut adopted in Britain. Further, instead of the Romish "tonsura Petri" (^ 45, 3), the native clergy had a peculiar form of tonsure, the whole forepart of the head being shaved. They also refused to submit to the injunction of clerical celibacy, and to acknowledge the primacy of Rome; they rejected auricular confession, the doctrine of purgatory, the tenet which made marriage a sacrament, the stringent ordinances of Rome in regard to degrees of fictitious affinity, etc. But all these differences arose not from any doctrinal divergence ; at least, if such existed, it was never mentioned. Indications, however, are not want- ing that Pelagianism found more favour among the Britons (perhaps from the nationality of its author, § 53, 3) than in the Western Church generally. The ancient British clergy bore the name of Culdees (Kele- De, colidei = servi Dei).— (Comp. Smith, Life of S. Col. Edinb. 1798. — J. Jamieson, Hist. Account of the Ancient Culdees of lona. Edinb. 1811.— J. G.J. Braun, de Culdeis. Bonn. 1840, 4.—Eussell, Hist, of the Ch. in Scotland.) 2. So early as the commencement of the fifth century, Christianity had been introduced among the Celtic inhabitants of Ireland (Erin, Hibernia). The missionary labours of Falladius, a deacon from Rome (in 431), were indeed unsuccessful ; but in 432 St. Patrick, the Apos- tle of Ireland, accompanied by twenty-four fellow-labourers, arrived on its shores. Tradition fixes on Kilpatrick, Scotland, as his native place; he mentions Bonave (in Gaul) as the residence of his father. His proper name is said to have been Snccat. In his sixteenth year, pirates had carried him to Ireland, and sold him to an Irish chief, whose flocks he tended for six years. After his liberation, the constraining power of the love of Christ made him choose active Christian service ; his thoughts and feelings took the form of night-visions ; and he resolved to proclaim the glorious libei-ty of the children of God to thuse who had so long held him in abject slavery. Well acquainted with the lan- guage aud customs of the country, h« assembled the people by beat of VICTORY OF TUE ROMISH CONFESSION. 299 drum ill the open air, and related to them the sufferings of Christ foi the salvation of men. Although the Druids opposed all their influence to his efforts, his amiable and commanding character disarmed hos- tility. Not one martyr fell ; and after a few years, all Ireland was converted to Christ, and the country covered with churches and monas- teries. Patrick himself resided in the district of Maclia. Around his dwelling the town of Arinaijh (afterwards the metropolitan see of Ire- land) sprung up. He died in 465, leaving the Church of Ireland in the most flourishing state. The numerous monasteries, whose inmates combined deep piety with ardent study of the Scriptures, and of whom so numy went forth to teach and to preach in all countries, gained for Ireland the title of Insula Sanctorum. The Irish monasteries only declined after the incursions of the Danes in the ninth century. Under the title of " Confessiones," St. Patrick himself has left us an autobio- graj)hy, which is still extant. 3. Ninian or Nynias. a Briton, who had been educated at Rome, commenced, about the year 430, his labours among the Celtic Picts and Scots of Caledonia. But after his death, those whom he had converted again relapsed into heathenism. The work thus begun was more effectualh' resumed by Crimihan, an Irishman, whose name was changed by his friends to Columba, to designate his dove-like character. Accompanied by twelve of his pupils, he embarked in 563 for the island of JTy, the present lona {i.e.. Insula Sanctorum) or Icohimbkill, where he founded a monastery and a church, and whence he converted all Caledonia. Although to his death he continued a simple presbyter, and abbot of the monastery of lona, he exercised, in virtue of his apostolic authority, superintendence over the whole Caledonian Church, and ordained its bishops — a privilege which his successors in the abbacy of lona retained. lie died in 597. The numerous monasteries which he founded, emulated those of Ireland in the learning, piety, and missionary zeal of their inmates. This remark applies especially to the monastery of lona. 4. Romish Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. — Yortigern, King of Britain, called in the aid of the Germans who inhabited the opposite coast, for the purpose of warding off the predatory invasions of the Picts and Scots. Hengist and Horsa, two exile chiefs from Jutland, obeyed the summons, at the head of a large number of Angles and Saxons (in 449). These arrivals were followed by others, till, at the end of a century, only the west coast of their country was left to the Britons. The Angles and Saxons formed seven monarchies, over whose rulers the Bretwalda — or leader of their armies — exercised supreme sway. The Anglo-Saxons were heathens ; and the hostility between them and the ancient Britons rendered missionary activity on the part of the latter impossible. But Rome supplied what they had omitted to do. The sight of some Anglo-Saxon youths, exposed for sale in the 300 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.). slave-market at Rome, inspired a pious monk — afterwards Pope Gre gory I. — with the desire of seeing a people of such commanding ap- pearance adorned with the beauty of the Gospel. His elevation to the Papal See prevented his commencing the work himself, as at first he had purposed. But he purchased some of these Anglo-Saxon youths, and had them educated for missionary work among their countrymen. Soon afterwards, when the Bretwalda, Efhelbert of Kent, espoused Bertha, a Frankish princess, Gregorrj sent Augustine, a Roman abbot, to England, accompanied by forty monks (596). Ethelbert provided them with a residence and support at Dorovernum (Canterbury), his own capital. At Pentecost of the year succeeding that of their arrival, the king was baptized, and 10,000 of his subjects followed his example. Augustine wrote to Gregory for further instructions, for relics, books, etc. The Pope complied with his request, and at the same time sent him the Pallmm, assigning to him the dignity of Archbishop of the Saxon and British Church. Augustine now called upon the Britons to submit to his authority, and to join him in labouring for the conversion ,f the Saxons. But the Britons rejected these overtures. A personal interview with their leaders, held under the oak of Augustine, led to no better result. A second conference terminated in the same manner, chiefly owing to the prelatical arrogance of Augustine, who would not rise when the Britons made their appearance. The latter were at that time disposed to yield ; but, at the suggestion of a hermit, they had fixed on this mark of respect as an omen. Its absence now decided them. On the death of Augustine, in 605, the Pope appointed Lauren- tins, the assistant of the British prelate, his successor. But Eadbald. the heathen son and successor of Ethelbert, persecuted the missionaries so much, that they even resolved to (juit the field (616). Laurentius iilone delayed his departure, to make a last attempt to convert Eadbald himself. He was successful : the king was baptized, and the fugitive priests returned to their former duties. — Augustine had introduced Christianity in Essex; but a change of government was followed by a restoration of heathenism. Soon afterwards, Christianity was esta- blished in Northnmhria, the most powerful state in the Heptarchy. King Edivin (or Eadwine), the founder of Edinburgh, espoused Ethel- berga, the daughter of Bertha, Queen of Kent. According to agree- ment, the young princess was accompanied to her new residence by Pauliniis, a monk (625). By their combined influence the king, and through him the nobility and priesthood, were induced to adopt Chris- tianity. At a popular assembly, Paulinus demonstrated the truth of Christianity ; Avhile Coifi, their high-priest, defied the national gods by hurling a spear into the nearest temple. The people regarded his daring as madness, and momentarily expected to see a manifestation of Wodan's vengeance. But when the heavens remained mute, the people, in obedience to the order of Coifi, set fire to their principal temple (627) Piiulinus became Bishop of Eboraceum (York), and the VICTORY OF THE ROMISH CONFESSION. 30 1 i^ope sent him tlic Pallium. But in 033 Edwin fell in battle against Penda, the Inathon King of Mercia ; Paulinus had to flee, and the Church of Northumbria was almost annihilated. 5. British Mi.tsi'nn among ihe Anr/lo- Saxons. — Osicalcl, the son of a former king of Northumbria whom Edwin had expelled, restored to that countrj its independence. This youth had, when a fugitive, found an asylum in lona, where he was educated a Christian. In order again to raise the Church of his country, the monks of lona sent one of their own number, the excellent and amiable Aidan, to the court of North- umbria. Oswald himself acted as his interpreter, till he had acquired the Saxon tongue. The success of his labours was truly unparalleled. Oswald founded an episcopal see in the island of Lindisfarno ; and, aided by other missionaries from lona. Bishop Aidan converted, in a fcAv years, the whole north of England to Christianity. Osrcald fell in battle against Penda (642). He was succeeded in his OAvn government, and as Bretwalda, by Oswij, his brother. Irish missionaries now joined the labourers from lona, emulating their services ; and in 6G0 all parts of the Heptarchy had adopted Christianity, and — with the exception of Kent, which remained faithful to Rome — adhered to the ancient British Confession. 6. Victory of t fie Romish over ihe British Confession. — Osv^ij per- ceived the danger accruing to the State from religious division and ecclesiastical estrangements among the people. He succeeded in con- vincing the other kings of the necessity of an ecclesiastical union. The only question now was, which of the confessions should give way. At last the decision fell in favour of Romish supremacy — a result to which, no doubt, Oswn himself mainly contributed. Eanfleda, his wife, a daughter of Edwin, was a zealous partisan of Rome. She was seconded in her efforts by Wilfrid, a man of great energy, prudence, and perseverence. By birth a Northumbrian, and educated in the monastery of Lindisfarne, he had visited Rome; on his return he em- ployed the whole force of hif eloquence, and every artifice which intrigue could suggest, to subject all England to the Papacy. These two influenced the Bretwalda, and the latter again the other kings. Added to this were other and more general reasons for the decision of the monarch — such as a preference for what was foreign, the splendour and the power of the Romish Church, and, above all, the old national dislike of the Saxons towards everything British. When the secret negotiations had issued in the result desired, Ostoi/ convened a General Synod in the nunnery of Streaneshalch or Whitby (Synodus Pharensis) in 664. There all the civil and ecclesiastical leaders of the Heptarchy assembled. The Romish party was represented by Wilfrid; the British, by Oilman, Bishop of Lindisfarne. The paschal question was the first topic )f discussion. Wilfrid appealed to the authority of Peter, 28 iO'i SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CE N T . 4— 9 A. D.). to whom the Lord had said : " Thou art Peter," etc. Upon this, Oswy turned to Colman with the inquiry, whether the Lord had really addressed these words to Peter. Colman, of course, admitted it ; when Oswy declared that he would own the authority of him who had the power of opening and shutting the gates of heaven. This finished the discussion. In his capacity of Bretwalda, OsM^y carried out the decrees of the Synod with energy and resolution. Within a few weeks the razor completed the conversion of the whole Heptarchy to the Romish Confession. — Matters having proceeded thus far, the British Confes- sion had soon to be abandoned, even in the districts whence it had originally spread. Political reasons obliged the Irish and Scotch kings to adopt.the confession of their dangerous neighbours, in order both to deprive them of a specious pretext for making invasions, and to procure the assistance of the Pope and the sjnnpathies of continental Christen- dom. Ireland submitted in 701, and Scotland followed nine years afterwards. The monks of lona alone held out till 716, when this their last stronghold also fell. — (The Principal Sources for the British and Anglo-Saxon Ecclcs. Hist, of that period are: Gildas, liber querulus de excidio Brittannise. Neniiiiis, hist. Britonuni, and especially Beda venerab. hist, eccles. Angl.) ?78. CONVERSION OF GERMANY. CoMP. F. W. Rettberg, K.-G. Deutschland's. Vols. I. and II.— C. J. HefeU, Gesch. d. Einfiihr. d. Christ, im sudwestl. Deutschl. (Hist, of the Introd. of Christian, in South-West. Germ.). Tiib. 1837. — K. Hiemer, d. Einfiihr. d. Christenth. in d. Deutsch. Landen. .Schaft'h. 1858. — Ph. Heher, die vorkaroling. Glaubenshelden. an Rheinu. dcren. Zeit. Frkf. 1858. — G. T. Rndhari, iiltest. Gesch. Baierns (Old Hist, of Bavar.). Hamb. 1841. — A. F. Ozanam, Begrlind. d. Christ, in Deutsch. (Introd. of Christ, into Germ.). From the French, Manic. 1845. — A. Seiters, Bonifacius, d. Ap. der Deutschen. Mayence 1845. — E. F. Gclpke, K.-G. d. Schweiz. Bd. I. Born. 1856. — i^oH/Z'rtc/i Epistolge (op. 3d. J. A. Giles, Oxford 1846), Vita in Pertz (T. II.) and in the Acta SS. — Serrariiis, Moguntiac. rerum 1. v. — Sa>/itiarius, Antiq. Gentil. et Christ. Thuriug. During the domination of the Romans, the countries along the Rhine and Danube had been fully evangelized ; but of this .scarcely a trace was left in the succeeding period. The bar- barians who invaded these districts, destroyed the monasteries and churches, and instead of Christian rites, introduced tlieir own forms of heatlienism. By the end of the sixth century the greater part of Germany was subject to the rnle of the Franks, and bore We name of Western Francoiiia (Neustria), in contra- CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 303 distinction to Austrasia or Eastern Franconia. South-Western and South-Easteni Germany (Alemannia, Bavaria, Thurinji^ia) were jroverned l)y native princes under Fraukish souzerainty ; while North-Western Germany (the Frisians and Saxons) still maintained its national independence. The first successful endeavours to restore Christianity in Austrasia were made about the middle of the sixth century. The missionaries engaged in this work were partly of Frankish, partly of Scotch (either Irish or British), and partly of Anglo-Saxon descent. At that time the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland were crowded with men whose natural love of travel was sanctified by an ardent desire to preach the Gospel, and to extend the kingdom of Christ. These feelings derived an additional stimulus from the circumstance, that the distinctive confession to which they clung with so deep attachment had just been suppressed (§ 7T, 6). Their own country seemed now dreary, while on the Continent they saw a prospect iif regaining what had been lost at home. Under such impulses, a large number of the inmates of the Irish and Scotch monasteries went forth as missionaries to pagan Germany. But thither also the Anglo-Saxons, who had the same love for travel, the same missionary zeal, and the same attachment to their own distinctive confession fthe Romish), followed them. Thus the former contest was renewed on German soil : there also to end in the suppression of the British Confession. Almost everywhere do we discover traces of these Scotch missionaries ; but, unfortunately, the piirticalars left us, as to the mode in which they carried on their labours, as to their contests with the representatives of the Romish Church, are exceedingly scanty. The practical turn, so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race, and the connection of these missionaries with the imposing spiritual ]}ower wielded by the See of Rome, no doubt con- tribnt'-'d not a little towards securing them the victory over their Scotch l^rethren. For the Frankish m'ssionaries also laboured quite independently of Rome, so that the connection between Germany and the Church of Rome was mainly due to the exer- tions of the Anglo-Saxon preachers. — These missions succeeded most rapidly in the districts where the Gospel had been preached at a former jiei-ioii, chiefly along the bunks of the Rhine and of the Danube. Much more formidable were the difficulties en- countered in districts where heathenism resembled an unexplored |>rimitive forest — as in Frisia, Saxony, Hesse, and Thuringia. 304 SKOTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). The protection which the Fraiikish raonarchs extended to missionary labours in Germany, sprung chiefly from interested motives — an interference which operated rather against than in favour of the work. It appeared as if, on the one hand, lieathen- ism and national independence, and on the other, Christianity and Frankish domination, were inseparably connected. If the sword of the Franks opened the way for the Gospel, the labours of the missionaries were, in return, to be made subservient for the political subjugation of tliese countries. However unwilling the missionaries were to become parties to this mixing up of religious and political objects, it was frequently beyond their power to resist it. 1. The Alemanni ^xere a powerful race, inhabiting the south-westerx PART OF Germany. Only scanty traces of former Christian institutions remained in those districts. The victory of Tolpiac (496), which decided Clovis in favour of Christianity, at the same time opened the country of the vanquished Alemanni to the Gospel. But as the Franks adopted no violent measures for its propagation, its progress was very slow. The civil code of the Alemanni, us settled by Dagohert I. in 680, proceeds, indeed, on the supposition that the country had become entirely christianized ; but at the time this must have only been by way of anticipation. St. Fridolin, who founded the monastery of Seckingeii upon an island on the Rhine above Basle, is commonly represented as the Apostle of Alemannia (about 510). He was a native of Ireland ; but the accounts of his activity are quite legendary and unreliable. More accurate and satisfactory are the details given about St. Columban, who arrived in the year 589, accompanied by tAvelve zealous missionaries, from the celebrated monastery of Bangor in Ireland. He founded the well-known Luxovium (Luxeuil). The missionaries reclaimed the wastes all around, and endeavoured to restore Christian discipline and order among a population which had been fearfully neglected. But their rigid adherence to the British practice of calculating Easter (^ 77, 1) raised prejudices against them; the clergy of Burgundy felt their strict discipline a most unpleasant innovation ; while Briinehilda, incensed that their influence over the youthful Theodoric II., her grandchild, endangered her ambitions schemes, vowed their destruction. All these causes led to their expul- sion, after they had laboured for twenty years in the country. The exiles betook themselves to Switzerland, and settled at Tvgge.n, on the Lake of Zurich. But the fanatical zeal with which they attacked heathenism excited the hostility of the natives, who ill-used and drovu them away. Their next field was Bregenz. Here they laboured for three years very successfully — a result principally achieved through Ui preaching of St. Gallus, who had acquired the language of the CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 305 jountry. But fresh persecutions induced Columban to pass iLCo Italy, where, under the protection of Agilulf (^ 76, 8), he founded the cele- brated monastery of liobbio, and took an active part in the Arian con- troversy. Galliis, who at the time his colleagues left was ill, remained in Switzerland, resolved to continue the work despite the unfavoui-ablo circumstances which had arisen. In a sequestered and wild valley, and on a spot where a bush had caught hold of his garment while engaged in prayer, he built a cell which afterwards became the abbacy of *SV. Gall. His labours were richly blessed. lie died in 046, at the advanced ago of 95. Gallus does not appear to have been so tenacious as Columban in contending for the British Confession. Magnoald, the pupil of St. Gallus, carried on his work, and founded the monastery of F'ussen in Suabia. About the same time Trudpert, an hermite (said to have been of Irish descent), laboured in the Bi-eisgau. lie laid the foundation of what afterwards became the abbacy of St. Trudpert, at the foot of the Black Forest, but was ultimately murdered by a servant of his own (^943). Half a century later, Pirminius, a Frankish ecclesiastic, carried the Gospel along the shores of the Lake of Constance. Protected in his labours by Charles Martel, he founded the monastery of Reichenau ; but only three years after-ftrirds he was expelled in consequence of a national rising of the Alemanni against the Frankish rule. He now descended the Rhine, and founded a number of monasteries, — among them Hornbach, in the diocese of Metz, where he died in 753. When about that time St. Boniface visited Alemannia, he found the whole country nominally Christian and the Cliurch regularly organized. 2. South- Eastern Gennany. — No notices have been left of the religious history of the countries along the Danube during the period succeeding the labours of St. Severimis (| 76, 6). A century later these districts were peopled by the Bavarians (the Boji), whose native rulers were subject to the souverainty of the Frankish monarchs. At that time only scanty traces of the former profession of Christianity remained in the country. In 615 the Frankish abbot, Eustasius of Luxeuil, the successor of Columban, Avent as missionary among the Bavarians. He had to contend with Bonosian and Photinian errors — pro1)al)ly in con- sequence of the Arianism which the Goths had spread in that neigli- bourhood. St. Emmerav, Bishop of Poitiers, laboured about the middle of the seventh century in Regensburg, at the court of TJteodo I., Puke of Bavaria. He continued only three years, when he suddenly left for Italy. By the way he was killed (652) by the brother of the Princess Ola, on a charge of having seduced her ; that princess having, at his own suggestion, named him as her seducer, in order to shield the guilty person from vengeance. After that the Church declined, owing to the weakness of the Merovingian monarchs. But when, in conse- quftiice of the victory of Testry in 687, Pepin of fferistal bicame th? 26* U 306 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.), hereditary administrator of the realm, both the Frankish power and the Church were restored. For the Latter purpose, Duke Theodo II. invited in G96 Bishop Ruodpert (Rupert), who proved indeed the Apostle of Bavaria. He baptized the duke and his court, founded numerous churches and monasteries, and made Christianity the religion of almost the whole country. The see of Salzhvrg, which he had founded, served as a centre for his operations. In 716 he returned to his former see of AVorms, where he died. He was succeeded by CoRBiNiAN, a Frankish bishop (without a fixed see — or " regionary bishop"), Avho in 717 founded the episcopal see of Freisingeii. ThicS prelate is described as proud, unyielding, and severe in the exercise of discipline. He swept away every remaining trace of heathen super- .stition, founded churches and monasteries, and, according to legend, per- formed many miracles. [Ob. 7S0.) — Among the Thuringians, heathen- ism continued unopposed till the middle of the seventh century, Avhen Kyllena or Kilian, an Irish missionary, commenced his evangelistic labours in the neighbourhood of Wlirzburg. His zeal was rewarded with the martyr's crown, and his Avork brought to a successful issue under the ministry of St. Boniface. 3. North-Westeni Gerinany. — In the country around the Middlf Rhine the ancient Christian sees had survived, although, from th( prevalence of heathenism in their immediate vicinity, the character and influence of the clergy had greatly declined. Despite their oppo- sition, the labours of Goar, a hermit, about the middle of the sixth century, proved to a large extent successful. The pretty little town of St. Goar rose where his cell had stood. About the same time a Langiibard Stylite, Wulflaich, braved the severity of the climate, and preached to the heathen from the top of his column ; but the neigh- bouring bishops disapproved of his mad asceticism, and had the column demolished. — Frankish missionaries — especially St. Amandus (the Apostle of Belgium) — laboured among the Frisians, south of the Scheld, since the commencement of the seventh century. In 047 Amandus became Bishop of Malines, and died in 679 in the monastery of Elnon near Tournay (afterwards called St. Arnand). Simultaneously, St. Eligius, formerly a goldsmith, and from 641 Bishop of Noyon, engaged in the same work. — An Anglo-Saxon, Wilfrid (^ 77, 6), was the first to carry the Gospel to the Frisians north of the Scheld. He had been elected Archbishop of York, but was expelled from his see (§ 83, 1), and started for Rome to seek protection. Happily a storm drove him to the coast of Frisia, instead of allowing him to land in France, where hired assassins lay in wait for him. He spent the winter in Frisia (077-678), preached daily, and baptized Aldgild, the reigning duke, and thousands of his subjects. But liadbcd [ob. 719), the successor of Aldgild, who was continually engaged in contests with Pepin and Charles Martel, hated and persecuted Christianity, as being the religion of the Franks. The seed sown by Wilfrid J ;emed in CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 307 danger of being destroyed, -when the victory of Pepin at Doistedt (in 689) obliged the persecutor to relent, at least for a time. Wulfram of Sens immediately recommenced missionary operations among the people. Legend has it, that Radbod himself had expressed his readi- ness to be baptized : but that when entering the water he drew back, declaring that he preferred being consigned to hell in company with his glorious ancestors, than going to heaven along with a crowd of M-retched people. The story, however, does not bear the test of historical criticism. — But the evangelization of all Frisia was to be accomplished by another Anglo-Saxon. Willibrord, assisted Vjy twelve other missionaries, devoted himself in 690 to this enterprise. Twice he journeyed to Rome to submit his work to the direction of the Pope, who changed his name to that of Clement, and ordained him Bishop of the Frisians. Pepin assigned to him the castle of Utrecht as his episcopal see. Thence his labours extended not only over the domains of Radbod, but even beyond the Danish frontier. When on a visit on the island of Heligoland, he ventured to baptize three persons in a well which was regarded as sacred. Radbod was about to immolate the bishop and his converts to the gods. Thrice he consulted the sacred lot, but each time the decision was in favour of the Christians. Willibrord continued his labours among the Frisians Avith varying success for fifty years, and died in 739, in the 81st year of his life. lie was succeeded in the administration of the See of Utrecht by Gregory, a noble Frank of Merovingian descent, who was the favourite pupil of St. Boniface. But Gregory was not consecrated a bishop, as the See of Cologne laid claim to jurisdiction over the Frisian Church. AVhen in 734 Charles Martel completely subjugated the Frisians, the work of evangelization proceeded more rapidly. Among the mission- aries who laboured in Frisia, WlUehad, an Anglo-Saxon, whom Charle- magne afterwards invested with the bishopric of Bremen, seen^ to have been the most successful. St. Liuchjer, a native of Frisia, and afterwards Bishop of Munster, completed what his predecessors had so worthily begun. 4. Labours of St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany. — Winfrid, a native of Kirton in Wessex (about 680), had, by piety, devo*edness, and ability, risen to distinction in his own church and counti-y. But his sympathies were wider than his sphere. Impelled by a sense of the love of Christ, he resolved to devote himself to missionary work among the heathen of Germany. He arrived in Frisia (in 716) at a moment most unfavourable for his enterprise, liadhod was just en- gaged in war with Charles Martel, and had wreaked his enmity on Christian churches and monasteries. Winfrid was obliged to return without having accomplished anything. But such discouragements could not cool his missionary ardour. In the spring of 718 he again crossed the Channel. He went first to Rome, where Gregory If. form- ally set him apart for missionary work in Germany. In Thuringia and 26 .508 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4— 9 A. U.), Franconia, the field for which he had been designated, he found littla encouragement. Accordingly, on hearing of the death of Radbod, he returned to Frisia, where for three years he shared the labours of Willibrord. This prelate, anxious to secure so efficient a missionary, offered him the succession to the See of Utrecht. But such prospects only served to remind Winfrid of the work for which he had been set apart. Accordingly, in 722 he went to Upper Hesse, where he founded the monastery of Antonaberg, and Avithin a short period baptized thou- sands of heathens. Summoned by the Pope to Rome (in 723), he was consecrated "Regionary" Bishop of Germany by the name of Boni- fucius (episcopus regionarius, i.e., without a definite diocese), and, after having taken an oath of allegiance to the See of Rome, returned to his post armed with a letter of recommendation to Charles Martel. Thus furnished with spiritual armoury from Rome, and enjoying the more doubtful advai.cage of Frankish protection, he resumed his labours in Hesse. The fall of the ancient sacred oak at Geismar, near Fritzlar, also marked that of heathenism in Central Germany. Surrounded by a vast concourse of heathens, who gazed in breathless expectation, Boniface himself had laid the axe to that sacred tree ; its wood now furnished material for a Christian chapel. After that event his preach- ing was attended with unparalleled success ; and within the space of a year, Christianity had become the religion of almost all Hesse. In 725 he went to Thuringia, where British missionaries, who were unwil- ling to submit to Papal supremacy, greatly perplexed him. He then sent for additional labourers to England, and founded the monastery of Ordorp, near Arnstadt, on the Ohra, for the education of a native min- istry. Gregory II. died in 731 ; but Greijorij III., whom Boniface kept informed of the progress of the work, sent him the Pallium, and en- trusted him with the task of founding episcopal sees in Germany and ordaining bishops. Having erected the abbacy of Fritzlar, he pro- ceeded to Bavaria, where he was engaged in hot controversy with some representatives of the ancient British Confession. Boniface returned to Ilesse, accompanied by Sturm, a zealous Bavarian youth, whom he educated at Fritzlar for the clerical profession. In 738 he went a third time to Rome, probably to consult the Pope about the final organization of the German Church. There he met with the most respectful recep- tion, and remained a whole year. On his return, he again visited Bavaria, expelled his former British opponents, deposed some refractory Frankish bishops, and divided the Church of Bavaria into four dioceses. He next returned to Thitriwna, whence also he drove the British mis- sionaries, and where he instituted four dioceses. During the lifetime of Charles Murtel, Boniface had been prevented from exercising any authority over the churches on the other side of the Rhine. But after the death of that monarch (in 741), his sons, Carloman in Austrasia, and Pepin the Short in Neustria, requested his aid in reorganizing the Church in their dominions, which had sadly d( slined. The work of CONVERSION OF OK 11 M ANY. 809 reform commenced in Austrasia. In 742 Boniface presided over the first Austrasian Synod (Concilium Geiunanicum) which passed strin- gent measures for the restoration of discipline, and the removal of the heretical, the married and the foreign (British) clergy. At another synod held at Liptince {Le.siines, near Canibray) in 743, the bishops present promised unconditional obedience to the See of Rome. Carlo man, who was present at both these synods, gave legal sanction to their decrees. In 742 Bonifoce founded the celebrated monastery of Fiilda, of which Sturm was the first abljot — an institution destined to become the watch-tower and training-school of German monasticism. About the same period he engaged in keen controversy with two noted here- tics— Adalbert, a Frank, and Clement, a Scot; as also with Virgilius, an Irishman. In 744, in his capacity of Papal Vicar, he entered into negotiations for reorganizing the Church of Neustria. The authority of the metropolitans, and the exercise of discipline, were restored at the Synod of Soissons (in 744). At another synod, held the following year (at Mayence?), Geivilib, the unworthy occupant of the See of Mayence, who was convicted of having hired assassins, was deposed, and his see assigned to Boniface as Metropolitan of Germany (though he would rather have chosen that of Cologne). Carloman, tormented by a guilty conscience, retired in 747 into a monastery, leaving his brother Fepui sole ruler. Only a few years later, Pepin, with the ex- press sanction of the Pope (| 82, 1), put an end to the figment of Merovingian rule (in 751). The supposition that Boniface acted as negotiator between the Pontiff and the Major-Domus in this transac- tion, is entirely unfounded. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that the prelate had to the utmost of his power opposed the scheme, under the influence of certain notions about the Divine right of the Merovingians. Amidst many cares and troubles, the Apostle of Ger- many untiringly prosecuted the great mission of his life. But as he grew in years, he longed to devolve some of his onerous duties on younger shoulders. Gregory III. had, indeed, promised to allow him to name his own successor ; but Pope Zacharias contemplated Avith apprehension the appointment of a German primate who might prove less submissive than Boniface. At last, however, he yielded to the u:gent entreaties of the aged Apostle. In the spring of 754 Boniface conferred the archiepiscopal office on Lullus, his favourite pupil, and then sailed down the Rhine to spend his last days in evangelizing those heathen Frisians to whom his youthful energies had been devoted. In anticipation of his approaching end, he took along his shi'oud (755). His tent was pitched in the neighbourhood of the modern Docciim, wiience he itinerated through Frisia, baptizing thousands of heaihens. On the 5th June 755, he had appointed a number of his converts to meet him in order to receive confirmation. But early on the morning of that day he was attacked by a band of heathen. Holding over his head a copy of the Gospels, Boniface received the mortal blow. His 310 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.). fifty-two co-labourers shared the same fiite. The bones of the martyr bishop were deposited in Fulda. 5. Conversion of the Saxons. — Two Anglo-Saxon monks, both of the name of Ewald (Black and White Ewald), were the first missionaries among the Saxons, who, from the north-western coasts of Germany, had migrated to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. These preachers were hospitably received by a Saxon peasant ; but no sooner had he learned their object, than he and his servants fell upon them and cru- elly murdered them (about 691). Boniface had never lost sight of the Saxons ; and the choice of Fiilda, close by the Saxon boundary, as the site of a monastery, was no doubt determined partly with the view of making it the basis of spiritual operations among the neighbouring heathen. Still, for thirty years this mission remained only an object of hope, till the work was done by the sword of the greatest of Frank- ish monarchs. Charlemagne considered the subjugation of the hostile and powerful Saxon nation as a political necessity. But their perma- nent political subjection could not be secured without their conversion to Christianity, nor the latter be accomplished Avithout the former, as the Saxons hated the religion of the Franks not less than the Franks themselves. Alciiin, indeed, plead nobly and boldly with his royal friend against recourse to violent measures for the purpose of securing the conversion of the Saxons ; but political considerations proved more powerful than the arguments of one whose counsels otherwise fre- quently prevailed. The wars against the Saxons lasted for thirty-three years (772-804). Even in the first campaign Ereshvrg, the great strong- hold of the Saxons, was taken, and their most sacred idol, the Irmin- cohimn (on which the universe was supposed to rest), destroyed. Frankish priests followed in the train of the Frankish army, and im- mediately Christianized the conquered districts. But scarcely had the armies of Charles withdrawn, when the Saxons again swept away every trace of the hated religion. At last, however, they were obliged, at the Diet of Paderhom in 777, to take an oath of fealty to the Frank- ish monarch, on pain of losing life and property. But Widiikind (Wit- tekind), the most powerful of their leaders, had not attended this diet, and again raised the standard of revolt. The Frankish army was completely defeated, every Christian minister killed, and every church destroyed. Charles took fearful vengeance. At Verden he ordered 4500 Saxons to be beheaded in one day. Still, another rebellion broke out; and at a second diet, held at Paderhom in 785, most stringent laws were enacted, which punished with death the slightest opposition to the ordinances of the Church. Widukind and Albion, the two prin- cipal Saxon chiefs, saw the uselessness of further resistance. They were baptized in 785, after which they continued faithful both to tlip king and to the Church. But the people in general were far from quiet. In 804 Charles expelled 10,000 Saxon families from their homes, and gave their lauds to his allies, the Obotrites. Thii measure at last THE SLAVONIANS !N GERMANY. 311 Bticured peaje. Charles had founded eij^ht sees in Saxony. Under their fostering care, Christianity now spread among the Saxons, who by and by learned to hold its truths Avith the same warmth and devout- ness as the other German races. Of this the popular Epos, entitled "The Saviour" (^ 88, 2), affords sufficient evidence. g 79. THE SLAVONIANS WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF GERMANY. CoMP. Schafarik, Dobrorosky, Philarct and Ginzel (| 72). — J. Palacky, Gesch. V. Bohmen. Vol. I. Prague 1836. In their progress, the Huns had driven the Slavonians south- wards as far as the banks of the Danube, and westwards to those of the Vistula. When, in the sixth century, the Avai-i, a Mon- gol race, took possession of Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalraatia, the Slavonians were obliged to retreat still further westwards. Dur- ing this period no attempts seem to have been made to carry the Gospel to the Slavonians in the north-eastern parts of Germany, although the See of Salzburg made great efforts to convert both the Slavonians in the south and the Avari. But these labours were not attended with great success till the middle of the eighth century. In 748 Boruth, the prince of the Carantani (in our modern Carinthia), invoked the assistance of Tiiassilo II., Duke of Bavaria, against the oppression of the Avari. His nephew Ceitumai' was educated in Bavaria in the Christian religion. When in 753 he assumed the reins of government, he introduced Christianity into his dominions. After the fall of Thassilo, Carinthia became also subject to Prankish rule (in 788"), and Charlemagne extended his conquests likewise to the countries of the Avari and the Moravians. Commissioned l)y that mon- arch, A?vio was zealously engaged in Christianizing tliese tribes; and with this object in view, his diocese of Salzburg was ele- vated to the rank of a metropolitan see. In 796 Tudim, prince of the Avari, was baptized at Aix-la-chapelle amid a large con- course of people; and in 797 the whole nation pledged itself to become Christianized, and desired Christian teachers. In the ninth century the name Avari disappears from history. In 855 the Grand Duke Baislav freed 3Ioravia from Prankish domina- tion, when the jurisdiction of the German bishops entirely ceased. Tiie new ruler of Moravia applied to the Byzantine Emperor for Slavonic missionaries. The brothers Cyrill and. Methodius, 26* 312 SECTION II FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.). who had already distinguished themselves in a kindred depart- ment of missionary labour (§ '12, 2, 3), were dispatched on this errand (863). They immediately introduced Slavonian worship and liturgy ; and by preaching in the vernacular, readily gained access to the hearts of the people. But jjolitieal considerations obliged the missionaries to join the Romish Church. The only remnant of former independence left, was the permission to continue the use of the Slavonic liturgy. Through the friendly intercourse subsisting between the Moravians and the Czechs in Bohemia, the way was also opened for the evangelization of that country. 1. The Moravian Church. — Although great success attended the preaching of Cyrill and Methodius in Moravia, the political compli- cations of that period rendered their position one of great difficulty. Indeed, only under the protection of the Papacy could they hope to maintain their ground. Accordingl}', they gladly accepted an invita- tion from Pope Nicholas I. (8G7) to visit Rome. On their arrival, they found the Chair of Peter occupied by Hadrian II. Cijrilliis remained at Rome, where he soon afterwards died. Methodius made formal sub- mission to the Papacy, and was consecrated Archbishop of Moravia. But the German Bishops, in their envy of the honmirs liestowed on a hated rival, impugned the fealty of Methodius, c' • 'd him with heresy, and inveighed against the Slavonic liturgy which he had in- troduced. It w^as not difficult to arouse the suspicion of Pope John ^'Hf., and Methodius was summoned to Rome in no gentle terma (879). The evangelist obeyed ; he completely refuted these calumnies, and returned to his diocese not only with his former title, but also with the express permission to continue the Slavonic liturgy — only that, by way of special distinction, the Gospel was to be read first in Latin and then in Slavonic. Nothing daunted, the German bishops continued bj' their intrigues to embitter the last days of the devoted missionary (ob. 885.) After his death the Moravian priests were the objects of a ^■oi\eral persecution, and the archiepiscopal See of jMoravia remained vacant for fourteen years, till John IX. restored it in 899. But in 908 tiie independence of Moravia ceased, and the country Avas divided be- tween the Bohemians and the Magj'ars. 2. Tntroduciion of Chrisfianif.i/ into Bohemia. — On New Year's day 845 fourteen Czech nobles appeared at the court of Louis the Ger- manic in Regensburg, and along Avith their suite requested baptism. The motives and consequences of this step have not been recorded. When Ratislav elevated Moravia to the rank and power of an inde- pendent realm, the Bohemians entered into close alliance with the ISbiravians. Srafnphik, the successor of Ratislav, married a daii,2;htei ')f liorzivoi. the ruler of Bohemia (871). After that, the labours of THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS. 313 Methodius were extended to Bohemia also, and their success was marked. Borzivoi himself, and his wife St.LudmiUa, were baptized by him so early as in 871. The sons of Borzivoi, Tpitihnev [oh. 912) and Vratlslav [oh. 920), equally promoted the spread and establishment of the Church in Bohemia, a work in which they were zealously aided by their pious mother. (Comp. | 93, 2.) I 80 THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS. Comp. F. E. DaJdmann, Gescli, v. Danem. Vol. I. Hamb. 1840.— E. G. Geijer, Gesch. v. Schweden. Vol. I. Hamb. 183.3.— Fr. Mdnter, K.-G. V. Diinem. u. Norw. (Ch. Hist, of Denm. and Norway). Vol. I. Leipz. 1823. — K. Maiirer, d. Bekehr. d. norw. Stammes zum Christth. (Conv. of the Norw. Race to Christian.) Vol. II. Munich 1856. — The l)io^raphies of St. Ansgar by Kru.-ie (Altona 1813), by F. A. Krummn- c/ier (Brem. 1828), by Ueuterdahl (Berlin 1837), by Kraffl (in Latin, Hamb. 1840), by Daiiiel (Ilalle 1842), and by Klippel (Bremen 1845). At an early period the attention of the missionaries who laboured among the Frisians and Saxons was directed to the neighbouring provinces of Jvitlnnd and Denmark. Already in 696 Willibrord (§ 78, 3 ) carried the Gospel beyond the Eider ; and Charlemagne perceived the necessity of extending his own and the Church's conquests over the peninsula of Jutland, and to the sea-shore, in order firmly to secure his rule over the Saxons and Frisians. But circumstances prevented this monarch from carrying tliis plan into e.xecution. ]\rore favoural)le pros- pects opened under the reign of Louia Hie Pious. King Harold, who had been expelled from Denmark, repaired for protection to the Frankish court. By the aid of Louis, he again obtained a footing in Jutland. Ebbo, Archbishop of 3Iayevce, followed in his train as missionary to Denmark (823). Under the protec- tion of Harold, Ebbo baptized many Danes ; but he was obliged to retire after a stay of only one year. Harold himself was also hardly beset. Accordingly, lie resolved to throw off the heathen- ism of his country, and to ally himself completely with Germany. For this purpose he embarked in 826, accompanied by his wife and children, and a large suite, and was baptized with great pomp in the Church at Mayence, where Louis at the time held his court. On his return he was accompanied by Ansgar, a young monk from the convent of Corvey on the Weser, to whom Louis entrusted the difficult and dangerous task of gaining Scandinavia for the Church. Ansgar may be styled Uw Apodle ■11 ol4 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.). of the North. He devoted his whole life to the great work, and succeeded, — at least so far as indomitable perseverence, de- votedness, and self-denial among innumerable difficulties and trials could secure such an object. 1. Aiisgar, the son of Frankish parents, was educated in the monastery of Corvey in Picardy, whence he was removed to the con vent of New Corvey, when the latter was founded. Even while a child he had visions and dreams, in which missionary activity and the martyr's crown were held out to him. His first missionary journey (82G) promised little success. Harold settled on the borders of Jutland, without venturing to adA'ance into the mterior. This circumstance necessarily restrained the zeal of Ansgar. Still he founded a school, and bought a numl)er of young Danish serfs in order to educate them for the ministry among their countrymen. But in the following year Harold Avas again expelled, and Ansgar also had to retire (827). Two years afterwards Louis obtained tidings that in Sweden there were a number of Christians, and that the king himself and all his people were desirous of obtaining Christian instruction. In company with several other priests, Ansgar now undertook a mission to that country in 830. On their journey the missionaries were plundered by pirates ; his associates advised to return home, but the courage of Ansgar was not shaken. After untold difficulties they at last landed at Birka, and were well received by Bjorn, king of Sweden. A small number of Christian captives received them with joy, and gathered around them for worship: young serfs were bought, a school was erected, and the Gospel preached to the people. Several S^vedes were baptized, — among them Uerigar, the Governor of Birka, on Avhose property the first Christian church was built. After the lapse of a year and a half Ansgar returned to the Frankish court, in order to have the mission placed in a position which would promise greater stability. Louis the Pious yielded to his representations, and founded at Hmnhurg, on the borders of Denmark, an archiepiscopal see for Scandinavia. He de- signated Ansgar as its first occupant, and assigned the revenues of the rich abbey of Turholt for his support and for that of the mission (833). Ansgar repaired to Rome, and obtained from Gregory IV. a bull con- firming his appointment, and nominating him Vicar Apostolic for the North. He next built a cathedral and a convent at Hamburg, pur- chased additional Danish youths to educate them for the ministry, and sent fresh labourers to Sweden. But adversities of every kind now overtook the Archbishop. In 840 the Normans invaded Hamburg, and destroyed both the town, the church, the monastery, and the lil)rary. With difficulty Ansgar and his monks escaped Avith their lives. Soon afterwards the Swedish missionaries were expelled by the p.agans of that country, and for fifteen years evangelistic labours had in great measure to be ."uspeuded. But tven this was not the limit of his trial? THE S C A N D I N A V I A N N A T T O \ S o 1 3 When Cli(irle!i the Bald obtained Flanders (in 843) ir virtue of tho treaty of Verdun, that callous monarch immediately claimed the abljey of Turholt — to bestow it on one of his worthless favovirites. Ansgar was now entirely destitute of all means of subsistence; his clergy, whom he could no longer support, left him, and his educational establishment was closed. Ilis neighbour Leuferic, Bishop of Bremen, with whom he sought a refuge, and who had long envied his position, turned him from his door. At last he found an asylum with a noble widow, who assigned a farmhouse on her property at Ramslo, near Hamburg, for his residence. In 847 Leuteric of Bremen died ; and Louis the Germa)n'c resolved to conjoin the See of Bremen with that of Hamljurg, in order again to secure the means of subsistence to the tried Apostle of the North. Against this arrangement the Bishops of Yerden and Cologne, from interested motives, raised objections ; but their opposition was stopped by Pope Nicholas I. (858). Meantime Ansgar had laboured indefatigably in connection with the Scandinavian mission, notwithstanding the straits to which himself was reduced. Denmark Avas at that time under the rule of Eric (Horic), to whose court Ansgar frequently repaired as ambassador of the German king. He succeeded in gaining his favour, and was allowed to build a church at Schleswig. and to organize a mission which extended over the wiiole of the country. Although Eric himself ventured not openly to profess Christianity, the fanaticism of the pagans broke out in open revolt. Eric was dethroned, and fell in battle (854). The victorious rebels appointed a boy, Ei-ic II., his successor; but the government was in reality administered by a chief named Jovi, a furious enemy of the Gospel, who expelled the Christian priests, and declared the profession of Christianity a capital offence. In 855 Eric shook off the tutelage of Jovi, and extended toleration to Christians. Missionary labours were now resumed with fresh ardour and great success. — All attempts to re-establish the mission in Sweden had failed, when Ansgar in 852 resolved himself to undertake this work. By rich presents and a splendid entertainment he secured the favour of Olaf, king of Sweden. The question of tolerating Christianity was submitted in popular assembly to the decision of the heathen lots, which fell in favour of the Gospel. After that, the labours of the missionaries continued un- disturbed in Sweden till the death of Ansgar in 865. The most ardent hope of his life — to obtain the martyr's crown — was indeed disap- pointed ; but a life so full of labours, sufferings, trials, devotednes.=J, perseverance, and self-denial, is surely greater than even a martyr's crown. — Tie was succeeded in the See of Hamburg-Bremen by Rimherl, his favourite pupil, the companion of almost all his missionary journeys, and his biographer. It was Rimbert's amljition to follow in the wake of his great predecessor, and the Scandinavian mission formed the object of his deep solicitude. But the irruptions of the Danish and N^vrman pirates sadly interfered with the peaceful work of the Gospel S16 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4--9 A. D.) . These troubles increase<:l after the death of Rimhert to such an extent, that the Archbishop of Cohigne could again bring forward his claims on the See of Bremen, — this time with the plea, that the purpose for which the see of Hamburg had been founded was Avholly frustrated. — [Principal Source : Adam Bremensis, Gesta Hamburgensis eccl. Epi»- coporum (to the year 107G). ? 81. CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAMISM. CoMP. J. Aschbach, Gesch. d. Ommaijaden in Sp. (Hist, of the Om- miades in Spain). Frkf. 1829. 2 Vols. — i^. W. Lemke, Gesch. v. Sp., continued by H. Tchdfer. Vols. I. II. Hamb. 1831 — 44. — Cowr/e'.? History of the Arabs in Spain, transl. by Mrs Foster. .3 Vols London 1854 (Bohn's Libr.). — M. Amari, Storia dei Musulmanni di Sicilia. Firenze. 1854. Since the year 665 the Saracens, and their allies the Mcors (or inliabitants of Barbary), who had become converts to Mohammedanism, gradually extended their conquests in Nohth- ERN Africa, till the rule of Byzantium (§ T6, 3) had finally to give way befoi-e theirs. From Africa they passed, at the sug- gestion of a traitor, in til to Spain, where they swept away the Gothic domination. In less than five years the entire peninsula, witJi the exception of the mountainous districts in the north, was in their possession. The fruitful plains north of the Pyrenees next excited their cupidity ; but the bloody defeat which Charles Martel inflicted on the invaders at Poitiers in 132, effectually checked such attempts. In this Ijattle the Franks at the same time saved Europe and preserved its Christianity. In 752 the dynasty of the Omraiades at Damascus, whose sway extended also over Moorish Spain, was supplanted by that of the Abassi- des. But Ahderrharaan I., a scion of the dethroned family, escaped to Spain, where he founded the independent caliphate of Cordova, which soon became distinguished for the brilliant cul ■ ture which it encouraged. The dominion of the Arabs in Spain was, however, threatened from two sides. When Roderic suc- cumbed before the Saracens (721,), Pelai/o, a relative of the Gothic monarch, retired with a small but heroic band to the inaccessible mountain fastnesses of Ashiria. There, and in the mountains by the Bay of Biscay, where Alfonso, his son-in-law, held command, national independence and Christianity were still prese.-ved. At a later period Alfonso reigned over these two districts, conquered Galicia and Castile, and restored in his do CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAMISM 317 minions the supremacy of Christianity. The people lionoured his memory by giving him the title of Catholic. By continued expeditions against the infidels, his successors enlarged their possessions as far as the banks of the Dnero. Anu)ng theni Alfonso II., the Chaste (ob. 850), who fixed his residence at Oviedo, was specially distinguished both for his bravery and his love of literature. — In the eastern part of Spain also the arms of the Christians drove the Moslems from their strong places. In 178 Charlemagne conquered the country to the banks of the Ebro. The revolt of the Saxons prevented him from penetra- ting farther, and his most distinguished warriors were murdered iu the Pyrenees by the lawless Basques. But in two otlier cam- paigns (in 800 and 801) he again subjected the country, as far as the El)ro, to the Frankish sceptre. — In Sicily also the Moslems gained a footing. In 827 a Byzantine colonel fled to Africa, from the punishment he had incurred, wlience he re- turned at the head of 10,000 Saracens, who ravaged Sicily. Other succours followed, and in a few years all Sicily was sub- ject to the Arabs, who every year made predatory incursions on the coast of Italy, and on one occasion penetrated even to the gates of Rome. In 880 they formed a settlement at the mouth of the river Garigliano, levying heavy contributions on the whole of Central Italy, until finally in 916 John X. succeeded in expelling tiiem. In 889 Spanish-Moorish pirates landed on the coast of Provence, occupied the castle Fraxinetura, and pillaged the regions of the Alps and northern Italy for a whole century. The effects of their rapacity, however, were most severely felt in Southern Italy. This state of matters continued for three and a half centuries, till in 1091 the Normans finally expelled the Saracens from Sicily. (Comp. § 95, 1.) 1. The Spanish Christion.s, who were subject to the rule of the Ommiades, were called Mozarab.<} (Arabi Mustaraba, i. e., arabized Arabs, in contradistinction to the Arabi Araba, or Arabs properly so called). In some respects, they enjoyed greater liberty than the Eastern Christians under Saracen rule. Many Christian youths of the best families attended the flourishing schools planted by the Moors, were enthusiastic in their admiration of the Arab language and litera- ture, and anxious to be employed at court, or as public servants. In opposition to this anti-christian and anti-national movement, others, iu an excess of fanatical bigotry, rushed forward to martyrdom, and indulged in gratuitous and unprovoked insults on the Mohammedan 27* 318 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD ^^C E N T. 4— 'J A. D.). rule an 3 religion. This species of Christian fanaticism awakened kindred feelings in the Moslems, and led to bloody persecutions (850- 59). Perfechis, a monk, was the first of these martyrs. When asked wliat he thought of Mohammed, he denounced him as a false prophet, for which he was executed. Ahderrhaman II., who at the time was Caliph, was not a fanatic. In his anxiety to put an end to such scenes, he prevailed on lieeafrid, the Metropolitan of Seville, to issue an ordi- nance, which interdicted all insults against the Moslem Prophet. But this measure only served to increase the fanaticism of the extreme party, which was headed by Evlogius (a presbyter, afterwards Arch- bishop) of Cordova, and by Pmilus Alvarns. Eidogins himself kept concealed a converted Moorish girl, and on that account was executed along with her (in 859). He was the last victim of this persecution. 11. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMANIC CHURCH. ^ 82. THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. CoMP. the works cited at ? 42. — J. Ell en dor f, d. Karolinger u. d. Hierarchie ihrer Zeit. Essen 1838. 2 Vols. — S. Sngenheim, Gesch. d. Entsteh. u. Ausb. d. Kirchenstaates (Hist, of the Rise and GroAvth of the States of the Church). Leipz. 1851. — C. Hqffler, d. deutschen Papste. Regensb. 1839. — Scuddamore, Rome and England. London 1855. The conversion of the Germanic races had been in great measure accoraplislied without direct aid from Rome. Hence even the Catholic Germanic churches paid at first little homage to the See of Peter. This remark applies especially to the Gothic Church in Spain. Estranged from Rome even in peace- ful times, the Saracen invasion of 711 necessarily cut it off from all intercourse with the Papacy. But the independent Christian provinces of Spain also remained, up to the eleventh century, unconnected with Rome. The growth or decay of the Frankinh churches, both in Gaul and in Austrasia, under the reign of the Merovingians, depended likewise solely on internal causes. It was otherwise in Britain, where the intercourse with the mother- cliurch in Rome was close and continuous. From the first, the principle of papal supremacy had been admitted, nor was it contravened except in rare instances. Innumerable pilgrimages of Anglo-Saxons, of all ranks, to the graves of the Princes of THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 319 the Apostles, both indicated and fostered the national attach- ment to the See of Peter. In the eighth century, tlie concourse of so many Ensrlish pilgrims in the Eternal City led to the establishment of a great home or inn for them at Rome, called the Schola Saronica. The "Fete7-'i< pence," •wh'n-M afterwards became a regular tribute paid by the English nation to the Papal See, was first levied for the maintenance of this institu- tion. The Anglo-Saxons — f specially St. Bonifacius — not only handed to Rome the fruits of their m'ssionary labours gathered in heatlieu lands, but reorganized after the Romish fashion the national churches already existing in the various Prankish pro- vinces, and reduced them to submission to the Papal See. At a somewhat later period the intercourse between the popes and tlie Caroliugian rulers l^ecame so close, as to constitute almost the entire diplomatic corres))ondence of the Curia. 1. Origin of tlie Sfafes of the Church. — By legacies and donations the Roman Sec had gradually acquired very extensive landed property (Patrimonium S. Petri), which supplied the means of relieving the inhabitants of Italy during the troubles connected with the irruption of the barbarians. This, however, did not imply any exercise of sovereign rights, which, indeed, were never claimed. After the restora- tion of Bj'Zantine rule, which was represented in Italy by an exarch (? 70, 7), the political power of the popes rapidly increased. Indeed, the continuance of the Exarchate often depended on the good-will of the pontiffs, to whom the prospect of becoming the court-patriarchs of a new Longobard-Roman dynasty would, of course, appear far from attractive. Still, they were not able to prevent the Longolxirds from conquering district after district, belonging to the Exarchate. At last Gregory III. applied to Charles Martel for help against Lvitprand (in 738). The Prankish ruler despatched two clerics to Italy for the purpose of negotiating a peace. Pope Zacharia.i, in virtue of his apostolic authority, sanctioned the removal of Childeric III. (the Mero- vingian puppet-king), when Pepin the Short added the royal title to the royal power, which he had long possessed (752). Meantime, the Lombards, under Aistvlf had taken Ravenna, and demanded the sub- mission of Rome. Pope Stephen II. now earnestly appealed to the Franks for help. At the invitation of Pepin he even went to France, and anointed that monarch and his sons ; in return for which Pepin made formal promise of taking the Exarchate from the Lombards, and handing it to the Pope (754). The Prankish ruler redeemed his pledge ; and in two campaigns cleared the Exarchate from its occu- pants, and formally gave it to St. Peter. The grateful P(m tiff bestowed upon Pepin, as patron of the Romish Church, the insignia of Patrician 27 320 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). of Rome. When ambassadors from Byzantium claimed for their Emperor these provinces, Pepin only replied that the Franks had shed their blood for St. Peter, and not for the Greeks (755). But, the Lombards continued to molest the Papal See, till, at the request of Pope Hadrian I., Cliarlemagne again interfered (768-814), took Pavia, put King Desiderivs into the convent of Corvey, and annexed Lom- bardy to the Frankish Empire. On this occasion Charles confirmed and increased what his father had given to the Papal See, and depo- sited a formal document to that effect at the grave of the Prince of the Apostles (774). Unfortunately, this and the other documents in this ti'ansaction have gone amissing — probably intentionally ; Ijut there is sufficient evidence that the donation of Charlemagne did not by any means imply that the popes were to exercise absolute and independent sway. The Prankish monarch himself retained the rights of supreme lordship, and the Pope with all the citizens had to take an oath of fealty to him. In fact, the Pope was a Prankish vassal, and the States of the Church only formed the largest "immunity" of that period The Pope had all inferior jurisdiction, and nominated the Government officials ; but the latter were superintended and controlled by Frankish Deputies (missi dominici), who were charged to hear appeals, to receive complaints, and to adjudicate on them. These rights of souzerainty visere claimed even by the successors of Charlemagne, however well the popes knew to avail themselves of the weakness of these sovereigns. The popes, indeed, resisted as opportunity offered ; and the fable ^bout a Donatio Constantini, according to which the Franks had only restored to St. Peter what he had possessed since the reign of Constantlne, dates even from the time of Charlemagne. (The story bore that Con- stantino had removed his residence to Byzantium for the express purpose of securing to the Pope the undisturbed sovereignty over Italy.) In the forged Decretals of Isidore (| 87, 2), a copy of the pretended authentic document, in which the donation had been con- veyed, was inserted. Lain-. Valla (de falso credita et ementita Con- stantini donatione, — edited by Ub'ic von Hntten in 1518, after the author's forced retractation) was the first, on critical grounds, to prove the spuriousness of this document, although it had previously been questioned by individuals. — (Comp. E. Munch, lib. d. Schenk. Konst. (on the Donation of Const.), in his " Miscell. Works," Ludw. 1828. Vol. 11.— /. A. Tkeiner, de P. Isid. cann. Col. Yrat. 1827.— i^. A. Kvnsi, da font, et cons, pseudois. Col. Goelt. 1832. For the genuineness : Mar chetti, Saggio crit. sopra la storia di Fleuri. Rom. 1781 ; comp. also Waaserschleben, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. fal. Deer. (Contrib. to the Hist, of the False Deer.). Breslau 1844.) 2. The Carolingian Dynasty. — Pope Hadrian I. was succeeded by 1^0 III. (794-816), whose election gave great offence to a powerful party. A tumult was raised (799), but the Pope escaped to the court of Charlemagne, whom he assured that his enemies had deprived hiir THE PAPACY AND TUE CAROLINGIANS. 321 ftf his eyes and tongue, which, however, St. Peter had restored the following night. His opponents, on the other hand, charged him before the king with perjury and adultery.^ The inquiry instituted must have brought ugly matters to light ; at any rate, Alcuin immediately burned the report which had been handed to him. The Pope was sent back with all honours to Rome, and supported by a Prankish guard. The following 3'ear Charles himself crossed the Alps with his army. He Convoked a synod at Rome ; but the assembled bishops declined to act as judges, on the plea that the successor of St. Peter, who was the head of all, could not be tried by his inferiors. The Pope proved his inno- cence by an oath, and afterwards interceded for his accusers. At Christmas Charles attended service in the church of St. Peter. Mass being ended, the Pope unexpectedly placed, amidst the shouts of the people, a splendid gold crown upon his head (800). The coronation was represented as the result of a sudden Divine inspiration ; in reality it had been the subject of protracted negotiations, and the price at which the Pope purchased the protection of the king. The empire which Charlemagne founded was meant to be a vast theocratic mon- archy, whose SAvay should extend over all the globe. The Greek mon- archs had proved unworthy of this distinction, and God had now trans- ferred it to the Prankish ruler. In his capacity as Emperor, Charles was placed over all Christendom, and subject only to God and to His law. He was indeed the most obedient son, the most devoted servant of the Church, in so far as it was the medium and the channel of salva- tion ; but its supreme lord and ruler, in so far as its organization was earthly and it required earthly direction. The provinces of State and Church, though distinct and separate, were closely connected, and, so to speak, combined in the person of the Emperor as their highest repre- sentative. Hence many of the legislative ordinances of Charles bore directly upon ecclesiastical affairs. When making statutes about the government, worship, and teaching of the Church, the Emperor was indeed wont to consult bishops and synods ; but he ratified, supple- mented, or modified their decrees according to his own views of duty, as he thought that the responsibility ultimately devolved upon himself. The Pope he regarded as the successor of St. Peter and the visible head of the Church, but as subject to the Emperor, who was placed above both State and Church. In setting him apart to this exalted station, the Pope had acted by immediate Divine direction and commission, ind not in the exercise of his own power or of that inherent in the Papacy. Hence coronation by the Pope Avas a ceremony only once enacted, and not to be repeated; the office was hereditary in the family of Charles, and the Emperor alone could beget or nominate another emperor. Contrary to the Prankish law of succession, the empire was to continue unbroken and undivided, and younger sons were only to occupy the subordinate posts of viceroys. Charles died in 814. His ' Dean Mihnan tbink.s the latter charge refers tu vpSrituitl adultery or Simony. V 322 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4 — 9 A. D.). son, Louis the Pious (814-840), was far too weak to complete what his father had begun. Foolish aifection for Charles the Bald, his son by a second marriage, induced him to revoke the order of succession which himself had formerly proclaimed (829). With the approval and aid of some of the most influential Frankish bishops, and of Pope Gregory IV., the other sons of the Emperor now rose in rebellion. Louis was obliged to do public penance at Compihgne in 833, and kept in humiliating captivity bj"^ Lothair, his eldest son. But this circumstance aroused public sympathy, and Louis (the Germanic), the Emperor's younger son, restored his parent to liberty. Against the prelates who had taken part in the conspiracy, severe sentences were now pronounced at the Synod of TMonville in 835. Still the sons of Louis were continually in arms against each other. Louis lived not to see the end of these hostilities [oh. 848). The treaty of Verdun in 843 partitioned the West- ern Empire into three separate and independent realms. Lothair, who with the imperial title obtained Italy and a narrow territory between Neustria and Austrasia, died in 855. Of his three sons, Louis II. in- herited Italy and the imperial title ; Lothair, the district called after him, Lotharingia ; and Charles Burgundy and the Provence. When soon afterwards the two latter died Avithout leaving issue (8G9), their uncles seized their possessions before Louis II. had time to interpose. By the treaty of Mersen in 870 Charles the Bald obtained the Romanic, and Louis the Germanic the German portions of their father's empire. Thus Avas the great Carolingian monarchy divided into three states, each of distinct language and nationality, viz., German}-, France, and Italy. 3. The Papacy till the Time of Nicholas I. — However weak and de- vout, Louis the Pious was not prepared, any more than his immediate successors, to surrender the supremacy which as Emperor he claimed over the See and city of St. Peter. What the popes felt most galling was, that before being consecrated their appointment required to be ratified by the Emperor. As this had been eluded on more than one occasion, Louis sent Lothair, his son, to Italy, in order to arrange the matter once for all with Pope Eugen IL The so-called Constitutio Ro- maiia now agreed upon enacted that in future the Romans should have no voice in the election of the Pope, and that before the Pcmtiff was consecrated his appointment should be ratified b}' the Emperor, to whom the successor of St. Peter was to take an oath of fealty (824). But although the emperors jealously watched over the rights thus accorded them, pretexts were never awanting to evade the terms of this agreement. — Between the pontificate of Leo IV. (f>6. 855) and that of Benedict III., the predecessor of Nicholas I., the Papal See was, according to an old legend, occupied b}' a female called Joan. The story runs, that a girl from May en ce had in male disguise accompanied her paramour to Athens, where she acquired great learning ; that she THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 323 l.iiil next iippeared under the name of Johannes Angelicus at Rome, and been elected Pope. During a solemn procession she had given birth to a child, and soon afterwards died, having officiated for two years, five months, and four days, under the name of John VIII. The oldest testimony in favour of this legend is that of Anastasius, the Roman librarian, whose "liber pontificalis" dates almost from that period ; but according to the statements of Roman Catholic editors, what passes as his biography of Joan is awanting in most MSS. of this work, and must therefore be regarded as a spurious interpolation. Marianus Scotus, ob. 1086), is the next witness in favour of the story. It is furher related, with all its details, in the Chronicles of Martinus Polonus (Grand Penitentiary of Rome, and afterwards Archbishop of Gnesen, ob. 1278), and after him unhesitatingly reiterated by all sub- Bequeut chroniclers of the Middle Ages. Pope John XX. {ob. 1277) acknowledged Joan as one of his predecessors, and accordingly styled himself John XXI. In popular opinion, the seat of the marble chair used in the Lateran Church at the consecration of the popes (the so- called SELLA stercoraria), was supposed to be arranged with a view to render in future the mistake of electing a female pontiff impossible ; and a statue which, in the sixteenth century, was destroyed by order of the Pope, was regarded as having been a monument of Joan. But the silence of Photins, who would undoubtedly have made his own use of such a piece of scandal, and contemporary evidence (such as the Annals of Prudentius of Troyes, a letter by Hincmas of Rheims, a diploma of Benedict, and a coin of Lothair), which proves that Bene- dict III. immediately succeeded Leo lY., render it impossible to regard this story as other than a legend. No clue, however, has yet been found to its origin, unless, indeed, it was meant as a satire on the dis- soluteness of such infamous pontiffs as John X., XI., and XII. — only that in that case we should have expected a female Pope to have been introduced in the tenth and not in the ninth century. — A Calvinistic divine, David BlondeJ, was the first to show that the story could not stand the test of sound criticism, and was utterly unworthy of credence (Amst. 1049). Since then, however, its authenticity has again been defended bv Spauheim (0pp. II. 577), and latterly by A^. Ch?-. Kid ("Hist.theol.Zeitschr." for 1844. II.). Hasc (Ch. Hist., 8th ed.,p.204) regards it as at least conceivable that a church which has represented as matter of history what has never taken place, may similarly have blotted out what really took place, at least so long as the knowledge of it seemed dangerous to the interests of the Papacy. 4. NicJiolas I. and Hadrian IT. (858-67-72). — Of the pontiffs who occupied the papal chair between the time of Gregory I. and that of Gregory YII., Nicholas I. was by far the ablest. A man of unbend- ing will, of keen penetration, and of a bold spirit, he knew how to avail himself of the political troubles of his time, of public opinion, which proclaimed him another Elijah, and ultimately also of the pseudo- 27* 324 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). Isidurian Decretals, which emerged at that very time (see ^ 87, 2), tc. invest his claims for absolute papal supremacy with the appearance of a contest on behalf of truth, right, and purity. Among the various disputes in which he was involved (^ 67, 1 ; ^ 83, 1), that with Lothair ][. of Lotharingia proved the most important. That prince, desirous of marrying Waldrada, with whom he had formed an improper connec- tion, accused Tliieiberga, his spouse, of incest with her brother. Two of hig prelates, Gunther of Cologne and Thictgunt of Treves, proved sufficiently venal to gratify the adulterous monarch by dissolving his legitimate marriage at a synod held in Aix (859). Lothair now form- ally espoused Waldrada ; but Thietberga escaped fi'om the nunnery to which she had been confined, to do penance for the crime with which she was charged, and appealed to the Pope. The two uncles of Lothair, Louis the Germanic and Charles the Bald, desirous of possessing them- selves of their nephew's country, took her part. By appointment of Charles, Hincmar of Rheims undertook the public defence of the queen. Nicholas sent Rodoald of Porto (? comp. § 67, 1) and another Italian bishop to Lotharingia to investigate the matter. These legates, how- ever, were bribed, and a sj/nod held at Mefz (863) decided in favour of the king. But the Pontiff excommunicated his own legates, and de- posed the two metropolitans who had travelled to Rome in order there to try what Lotharingian gold could effect for their master. To avenge their wrongs, these prelates now incited the Emperor Louis IL, the l)rother of Lothair, against the Pope. Imperial troops occupied Rome; but Louis soon came to an understanding with the Pontiff. Deserted by his own subjects, and threatened in his possessions by his uncles, Lothair was glad to make submission, and humbly implored the pro- tection of the Pope against the covetousness of his relatives. Arseniris, the legate whom Nicholas sent across the Alps to arrange matters, acted as if he had been absolute lord of the three Frankish empires. Lothair was obliged to take back Thietberga ; her rival was to have accompanied the legate to Rome, but escaped by the Avay. In the arms of Waldrada, Lothair soon forgot his former promises and oaths. At the same time he succeeded in making his peace with his relatives, whom the overbearing conduct of the legate had offended. Thietberga herself now applied to the Pope for a divorce — a request which the Pontiff absolutely refused. Nicholas I. died in 867. His successor, Hadrian II., a man seventy-five years of age, was elected through the influence of the imperial party. Accordingly, he proved at first more tractable. He accepted the submission of the two metropolitans, al- though without restoring them to their offices, and absolved Waldrada from church censure, but refused the petition which Thietberga again addressed for a divorce. Lothair himself now went to see the Pope , he took a solemn oath that he had not cohabited with Waldrada since the return of his wife, and received the sacrament from the hands of the Pontiff. In the full hope of at last attaining his object, he returned THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 325 homewards, but on his journey was cut off at Piacenza by a fever (869). After his deatli the uncles of Lothair seized his dominions. Hadrian in vain interposed his authority on behalf of the Emperor as the right- ful heir, and even threatened to excommunicate those who refused to obey. In the name of Charles the Bald, Hiacmar of Rheims addressed a remarkable epistle to Hadrian, in which he expressed it as the con viction of the Frankish nobility, that the Pope had no right to interfere with political questions. Hadrian was obliged to allow this act of defi ance to pass unpunished. In another affair also (§ 83, 1) Hincmar had the better of the Pope. 5. John VIII. and his Successors. — The measures adopted by Jon x VIII. (872-882) for subjecting the Carolingian princes to papal supre- macy were more successful than those of his predecessor. But then he was also a greater adept in the art of intriguing, a more accomplished hypocrite, and less troubled with conscientious scruples. By his efforts the Papacy was made entirely independent of the Emperor, although, on the other hand, it became an object of furious contention to rival parties in Rome. Hence the almost incredible debasement of the Papal See during the tenth century must be mainly imputed to this Pontiff. On the decease of the Emperor Louis II., in the year 875, this dignity should have devolved on Louis the Germanic, as being both the elder and the full brother of Louis's father. But John was anxious to show the world that the imperial crown was in the gift of the successor of the apostles. Accordingly, he invited Charles the Bald to Rome, and crowned him at Christmas 875. In return for this act of grace, the Emperor formally renounced his claims as superior of the States of the Church, all control in future elections to the Papacy, and consented to receive a papal vicar and primate for all Germany. But even this was not all. At Pavia, Charles had to submit to become the elective mon- arch of Lombardy, and then to concede to his own nobles the same right of election, as also that of hereditary succession to their fiefs, in order to obtain their consent to these transactions. But Hincmar and the clergy of Neustria offered strenuous resistance, and stormy discus- sions ensued at the Synod of Poiition in 876. — From this shameful compromise neitlier the Pope nor the Emperor derived advantage. The reign of faction increased at Rome beyond the control of John, and the Saracens ravaged Italy. The Emperor, unable to keep his own against the Northmen, could afford no help. At last, having purchased a dis- graceful peace, he crossed the Alps. But fresh domestic troubles speedily obliged him to retrace his steps. Charles died in a miserable hut at the foot of Mount Cenis, in consequence of poison administered to him by his physician (877). Meantime the troubles of the Pope increased, and his intrigues only served to make his situation more dangerous. John VIII. died by the hand of an assassin in 882. The year before his death he had been obliged to crown Charles the Fat, the youngest son of Louis the Germanic. This prince was 'also elected 28 326 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). monarch of Ncustria by the nobles of that reahn ; so that the weakest of Charlemagne's successors once more combined all the dominions of his great ancestor under his s\Yay. But in 887 the Estates of Germany deposed him, and elected in his stead Arnnlph of CarinfJiia, a natural son of his brother Carloman. Pope Formosus (894) called in the aid of that monarch, and crowned him Emperor. But Arnulph was not able to maintain himself in Italy against his Langobard rival Lambert. Formoans died soon after the departure of Arnulph (896). His suc- cessor, Stephen VI., in the true spirit of Italian revenge, ordered the body of Formosus to be exhumed, maltreated, and thrown into the Tiber, because he had favoured the Germans. The three following popes reigned only a few weeks or months, and were either killed or expelled. In order to appease the German party, John IX. (898-900) rescinded the sentence passed by Stephen against Formosus. Although the reign of Arnulph in Germany had fallen in troubled times, it proved vigorous and honourable. He died in 899, M^hen the German Estates chose his infant son, Louis the Child, his successor, — Arch- bishop Hatto of Mayence acting as regent during the minority. But Louis died in 911. With him the German branch of the Carolingians became extinct ; in France the dynasty continued to exist till the death of Jjviis the Lidoleni in 987. ? 83. THE PAPACY AND THE METROPOLITAN OFFICE. CoMP. Gass, Merkwurdigkk. aus dem Leben u. d. Schriften Hink- mar's {Memorabilia in the Life and from the Writ, of Hincm.). Gottin- gen 1806. The office of IMetropolitan was one of srreat importance and influence in Grermany. Among the many various races and tribes which inhabited the Frankish Empire, the metropolitans repre- sented the unity of the National, JList as the Pope that of the Universal Church ; while, as influential members of the Estates, they took an important pan both in the internal administration of the country, and in the direction of its foreign policy. Tlie concentration of spiritual power in one individual afforded to the secular rulers a fresh guarantee for the political integrity of their country. On that account they were opposed to the muUi- plication of metropolitan sets; and where the extent of tlie country rendered it necessary to have more than one archiepis- copal see, they were anxious to see the most influential of these prelates invested with the authority and jurisdiction of Pi'imate. On the other hand, it was the policy of the popes to appoint in every country at least two or three metropolitans, and to resist the appoiatment of primates, since it was quite possible, that if rAl'.\CY AND THK METROPOLITAN OFFICE. 327 the supreme direi-tion of a national church were confided to one person, that prehite might, some tin)e or otlier, conceive the wish of emancipating his see from the nuthorit}' of Rome, and con- stitiitinf;- liimself nn indei>pndent patriarch. — Since the time of 0/wrh'mar/ne, the P'rankish monarclis were also wont to esta- blish episco})al and arch-episcopal sees alonp: the borders of their dominions, for the twofold purpose of sendino: the Gospel into the neitrhbouring- heathen countries, and of preparing for theii conquest, or, where this had already been accomplished, strength- ening their government. The former of these objects could only command the apjirobation of the pontiffs ; the latter tliey re- sisted to the utmost of their power. It is but justice to say, that the occupants of the See of St. Peter, remembering that they represenied the Church universal, always recognized, respected, and watched over the rights of nationality. It was intended that every country in which Christianity was established, should preserve its nationality and political independence, and thus be- come a member of that great family of which the Pontiff was the spiritual father. In this grand organism, every people was to stand in the same relation, since all were equally to be subject to the Apostolic See. V»'hile this policy was in accordance with the rules of humanity and of the Gospel, it promoted at the same time the selfish objects of the Papacy. Hence, whenever a national church had been founded, it was tlie aim of Rome to set it free from the superintendence of the German clergy, and to render it independent, by giving it a hierarchy of its own. — Lastly, the interests of the metropolitan, as the representative and supreme ruler of a national chnrch, were in great measure identical with those of the sovereign country. Hence these pre- lates were the strongest supporters of the throne ; while, on the other hand, their authority also was most carefully guarded by the secular ])rinces. But this coalition between the metropoli- tans and secuhir princes was fraught with manifest danger to the liberties of the inferior clergy, who accordingly sought the pro- tection of the See of Rome, by espousing its separate interests. Towards the close of the reign of Louis the Pious, under the pressure of circumstances, a wide-spread conspiracy of bishops and abl)Ots was formed for the twofold purpose of emancipating tlifc clergy, especially the bishops, from the control of the State and of their metropolitans, and of placing them under the im- mediate jurisdiction of the Papacy. The forged Decretals 328 SECTION II. riRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.), which bear tlie name of Isidore (§ 87, 2) represent these prin- ciples as in force and acted upon since oldest times. Althoufch these tendencies met with the most strenuous opposition, the principles of the forged Decretals ultimately became the esta- blished law of the Church. 1. For a long time the EiKjllsli monarchs resisted the papal attempts to establish another metropolitan see besides that of Canterbury, as such a measure endangered the political unity of the Heptarchy. The contest raged most fiercely at the time of Wilfrid (| 77, 6; 78, 3), whom the Romish party had appointed Archbishop of York. Wilfrid was obliged to retire ; and, after a troubled career, died without having ob- tained actual possession of the see to which he had been nominated (709). But the Pope ultimately succeeded in his object. In 73-3 a Northumbrian prince received the pall, and the archbishopric of York had continued ever since. — In the north of Italy there were three metropolitan sees — those of Ravenna, Milan, and Aquileja — each claiming to be independent of Rome (?4G). Indeed, Serc/iv.s, Arch- bishop of Ravenna (about 760), would fain have followed the example of the See of Rome, and transformed the Exarchate of Ravenna into an independent state in connection with his own see. Of course, in- stances of opposition to papal supremacy were of frequent occurrence. But Pope Nicholas I. succeeded in finally checking these pretensions (in 861), at a time when the See of Ravenna was occupied by John, a prelate guilty of sacrilege and violence of every kind. The force of public opinion obliged the Emperor to withdraw his protection from a bishop justly excommunicated for his crimes. But during the ponti- ficate of John VIIL, Ansbert, Archbishop of Milan and a partisan of Germany, was strong enough to set both papal bans and sentences of deposition at defiance [ob. 882). His successor, however, again acknow- ledged the primacy of Rome. — The Metropolitan of Rheims occupied the first place in the hierarchy of France. From 845 to 882 that see was occupied by Hincmar, the most eminent, vigorous, and influential prelate whom France has ever had. His life presents a series of different contests. The first controversy in which he engaged was on the subject of Predestination (? 91, 4). But ecclesiastical law and politics, not dogmatic intricacies, were his chosen field. In opposition to the claims of the Papacy, and the attempts of the bishops to emanci- pate themselves, he firmly and successfully contended for the inde- pendence of secular princes from papal control, for the liberties of his national Church, and for the rights of metropolitans. His controversy with Rothad, Bishop of Soissoii.s, deserves special notice. This prelate had been deposed by Hincmar on account of insubordination (861), from which sentence he appealed to Pope Nicholas I., on the ground of the Sardican Canon (^ 46, 2), which hitherto had not been acknow- ledged in the Frankish Empire ; while at the same time he supplied STATE OF THE CLERGY. 329 t!io Pope with the pretended Decretals of Isidore. On this forged collection Nicholas took his stand, and, after considerable resistance, carried the restoration of Rothad (865). Another collision arose out of the contumacious conduct of his own nephew, Hincinar, Bishop of Laon. In this instance also, Ijoth parties appealed to the forged Decretals. Although Hadrian II. took the part of young Hincmar (8G9), the Metropolitan carried the day ; and the Bishop of Laon, who, besides defying his king and his ecclesiastical superior, had entered into treacherous communications with the German Court, was punished with the loss of his eyes. Till the year 875, Hincmar stood by his monarch, and formed the strongest prop both of his policy and of his throne. But when Charles the Bald, in exchange for the imperial dignity, bartered away the supremacy of the crown, the liberties of the French Church, and the rights of its hierarchy, the prelate firmly op- posed his monarch. Hincmar died during his flight frcmi the North- men (882). With him the glory of the French hierarchy departed. The authors of the forged Decretals prevailed. But if bishops were emancipated from the rule of their own metropolitans, they were, on the other hand, left unprotected, and hence frequently exposed to the lawless violence of secular grandees. — In Germany, metropolitan sees had been founded at Salzburg, Cologne, Passau, Treves, and Hamburg. Over these, and all other sees ii\ the country, the Archbishop of May- ence continued to exercise supremacy. Strange to say, in Germany the pretended Decretals of Isidore, although originating in that country under peculiar circumstances, gave not rise to an organized opposition against the metropolitan office, as was the case in France. Indeed, they recognized the primacy of the See of Mayence. Happily for the Empire, the power of the Metropolitan of Germany continued un- diminished for several centuries. § 84. STATE OF THE CLERGY. CoMP. rate creation, and what is known by the name of MuspUli; and a poem in high German, treating of the end of the world and the last judgment, of which, unfortunately, only a fragment, unrivalled in depth and pathos, has been preserved. 3. Social State. — The high position which woman had always occu- pied among the ancient Germans (§ 75, 2) prevented the spread of those degrading views, both of her sex and of the married relationship, which in great measure were the necessary consequence of the spurious asceticism of churchmen. The Church attached special merit to com- plete abstinence from conjugal intercourse, which, indeed, was entirely prohiJiited during the three seasons of Quadragesima, on feast-days, and on the " dies stationis" (Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, and Sun- day). Second marriages were stigmatized as incontinence, and had to be expiated by temporary penance. The laws regulating divorce were, however, still somewhat lax, and only in exceptional cases were persons divorced prevented from again marrying. Intermarriage with Heathen, Jews, and Arians was strictly prohibited. But the stringent regula- tions about impediments to marriage arising from affinity (§ 61) were more distasteful to the Germans than probably any other ordinance of the Church. Such unions, especially that w^ith a brother's Avidow, had formerly been regarded in popular estimation as a kind of duty. — The national customs and laws connected with property rendered it impossible for the Church to interfere with the institution of serfdom; indeed, monasteries and churches, in virtue of their large territorial possessions, owned a considerable number of serfs. But the Church always insisted on the fact, that masters and servants occupied exactly the same place in a moral and religious point of view ; it extolled the manumission of slaves as occupying the first rank in the scale of good works, and ever threw the shield of its protection around those who were oppressed by harsh masters. — The care of tlie poor was considered one of the great concerns of the Church, from which even avaricious and unfeeling bishops could notAvithdraw themselves. If circumstances at all allowed it, every church had its own special buildings, in which the poor, the sick, widows and orphans, were supported or entertained. 4. Administration of Justice. — The practice of taking /)ri'ya/e vengeance w 'S ( ommon among the German races. Some bounds, however, were set to this abuse, by fixing by law the cotnjwsition or atonement to be paid for every injury (the Weregild). From aversion to inflicting capital punishment, the Church readily fell in with this custom. A Bolemn oath, and the so-called judgment of God, were the means adopted for leading judicial proof. Only a freeman who had not 346 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). previously been convicted of ci ime was allowed to take the oath of pur- gation ; a husband might take it for his wife, a father for his children, or a master for his slave. Along with the person accused, his relatives, friends, and neighbours appeared as compurgaiors (conjuratores) to take the oath. Although they repeated the same formula as the party impeached, their oath was onlj' intended as a personal guaraxitee foi the truthfulness and honour i->f the accused. If, from any circum- stance, this oath of purgation could not be taken, if there were no compurgators, or if other means of probation were awanting, resort was had to ihQ judgment of God (Ordale). This was .ascertained — 1. By judicial combat, which owed its origin to the old popular belief: " Deum adesse bellantibus." Only a freeman could demand this mode jf trial. Old persons, women, children, and clerks might be repre- sented by a proper substitute. 2. By various experiments with Jive, such as holding the hand for some time in the fire, walking over a burning pile with no other dress on than a shirt, carrying a red-hot ii"on with the naked hand for nine paces, or walking barefoot over nine or twelve burning ploughshares. 3. By one of two experiments tvith water. The accused person had to fetch, Avith his naked arm, a ring or a stone out of a cauldron filled with boiling water ; or he was thrown into the water Avith a rope round his body. If he sank, he wa,s de- clared to have proved his innocence. 4. By the exjieritnent of the cross. Each party stood before the cross with arms expanded ; and the person who first became weary, and allowed his hands to droop, lost, the cause. 5. By the experiment tvith the Evcharist, specially in disputes among ecclesiastics. It was thought that the guilty party would soon after- wards be struck by some manifestation of the Divine displeasure. The laity underwent the experiment with the consecrated morsel (judicium offas), which the party impeached had to swallow at mass. 6. By the 80-called "judicium feretri." The accused touched the wounds of the person murdered ; if blood flowed from them, or foam from his mouth, it was held to establish guilt. — The implicit credence which the Church attached to so many legendary miracles, sprung from the same tendency which gave rise to these ordeals. It was, therefore, mani- festly impossible for churchmen to combat such superstitions ; at most, they could object to the pagan rites so frequently connected with them. But by sanctioning and regulating these trials, the Church no doubt contributed not a little to diminish the evils attendant upon them. Agohard of Lyons (oh. 840) was the first to denounce these practices as damnable superstitions. After that, the See of Rome also (since the pontificate of Nicholas I.) uniformly condemned every kind of appeal to the "judgment of God." — Among the different kinds oi peace (i. e., immunity of person, property, office, and duty), next to the ])e ace of the King, that ff the Church was most respected. For injuries to ecclesiastical personages and property, or offences committed in conse- crated places, a threefold compensation was exacted. A bishop was STATE OF INTELLIGENCE, ETC. 847 regarded as equal to a duke, and a common priest to a count. — (Comp. also Robertson, Charles Y ., First Section, and Notes 21, 22.) 5. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Penances. — In Germany, the State fully recognized the jurisdiction of the Church and its right to inflict punishment, so that an offence was considered expiated only when, besides the requirements of the secular, those of the ecclesiastical tri- bunal also had been satisfied. This gave rise to a system of regular episcopal visitations, called Sends (Synodus, from send?), which came into use during the reign of Charlemagne. The bishop was every year to visit the whole of his diocese, accompanied by a royal Missus, and, with the aid of bailiffs specially selected (from every congregation) and sworn, to institute a searching inquiry into the moral and religious state of every parish, and to punish the sins or misdemeanors brought to light. Both Eegino of P^Hm and Hincmar of Rheims composed instructions for conducting these visitations. — The State also lent its sanction and force to the sentences of ecclesiastical excomimini cation , Pepin enjoined that those who had been excommunicated should not enter a church, and prohibited Christians from eating and drinking with, or even saluting such persons. The public exercise of discipline was repugnant to German notions of propriety, and the Church generally yielded in this matter to popular feeling. The numerous Penitential books which date from this period, gave ample direction about the administration of discipline, and adopting the custom of judicial compensations, prescribed certain fines for every conceivable kind of offence. Wassersclilehen has collected and edited all the docu- ments of this character still extant ("The Penitential Books of the Westr^rn Church, with Hist. Introd." Halle 1851). They appear to have been generally constructed after the penitential order of Theodore, Archbishop of Canterburij. Manifestly, the fundamental idea of these arrangements implied an entire misunderstanding of Christian disci- pline ; and their frequent contradictions, their confusedness and ar])i- trary regulations, led to very sad consequences. Even the rendering of the term pre nitentia by "penance," i.e., compensation, shows hoAV superficial were the views entertained by the Church on this important subject. Thus in the Penitential books, "poenitere" is represented as entirely identical with "jejunare." But if the idea of poenitentia. once resolved itself into merely external acts, the penance of fasting nlight readily give place to other spiritual exercises. Again, if it was only requisite by some penance to make compensation for sins committed, the services of another might fairly be employed as a substitute for those of the guilty person. Accordingly, a system of redemption was gradually introduced, which involved utter disregard of all moral earnestness on the part of pienitents. Thus, for example, the peniten- tial books indicate how a rich man might, by hiring a sufficient number of persons to fast in his stead, in three days go through a course of seven years' penance, without incurring anv personal trouble. This moral 29* 348 SECTION II. FIRST TERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A. D.). decay led in the eighth and ninth centuries to determined opposition against penitential books, and the dangerous principles involved in their arrangement. The reaction commenced in Britain at the Council of Cloveshove in 747, and soon spread to the Continent, where it found vent at the Synods of Chalons in 813, of Paris in 829, and of Mayence in 847. The council of Paris ordered all penitential books to be de- livered up and burnt. But their use was still retained. — At this period, 'jonjession was not yet regarded as incumbent on the faithful generally. In theory at least, it was still held that it sufficed to confess to God alone. But already the custom of confessing once a year — during Easter Quadragesima — seems to have been so general, that its omis- sison was severely reprimanded at episcopal visitations. The formula of absolution adopted was only of a deprecatory, not of a judicial character. ? 80. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. So long as Arianisra remained the creed of Germany, the services of the Church were no doubt conducted in the vernacu- lar. But when these races joined the Catholic Chuich, Latin became the eccles'astical language. Among tlie tribes which were converted to Cliristianity by Catholic missionaries, tlie use of Latin in the public services had from the first l)een intro- duced. The Slavonians alone were allowed to worship in their own language (§ 79, 1). — As the language, so also the liturgt/ of Rome was everywhere enforced, except within the diocese of Milan and in the Spanish Church. When Pepin entered into negotiations with the Papacy, lie consented to have the forms of worship common among the Franks altered to suit the Romish model (745). For the same purpose Hadrian I. furnished Charlemar/ne with a Romish Sacramentarium, and that monarch insisted on having the desired uniformity carried out. At first sight, it may ajipear strange that the jieculiar cliaracteristics of the German mmd should not have expressed themselves in corre- spcjn-fling modifications in the services of the Church. But it must be remembered that tlie Romish ritual, when imported into Germany, was not only in itself complete, but so constituted as scarcely to admit improvements of a fundamental character; and that, besides, the vernacular was excluded from the Liturgy, and the people really took no active part in the services. Where, as in this case, so mucli dei)ends on the choice of expressions, the national mind could not find full or free utterance so long aa the use of a foreign idiom was enforced. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 349 1. Lihirgij and Preaching. — Besides the Roman or Ch-egcyrian, other liturgies were in use ; differing from it in some respects. Such was the attachment both of the 'people and clergy of Milan to their old Ambrosian Liturgy, that even Charlemagne was not strong enough to displace it ; and to this day has Milan preserved its possession of this relic. Not less tenacious were the Spaniards in their adherence to their national or so-called Mozarabic Liturgy (?81, 1). In several points it resembled the Eastern liturgies ; after having been recast and enlarged by Leander and Isidore of Seville, it was adopted throughout the Spanish Church by the national Synod of Toledo in 633. This similarity to Eastern liturgies is also noticeable in some of the older GaUican liturgies, before the time of the Carolingians. — Throughout the AVest, the Sermon always occupied a comparatively subordinate place in jjublic worship. The intellectual decay subsequent on the migration of nations, almost banished it entirely from the services of the Church. But when, in the seventh century, the Latin Church addressed itself to missionary work, the great importance of this means of diffusing the truth was deeply felt. Few, however, of the clergy ■were capable of composing sermons. Charlemagne therefore com- missioned Paubts Diaronus (^ 90, 3), in 782, to collect from the writings of the Fathers a (Latin) Homiliarium for Sundays and feast- days, to serve as a model for similar compositions, or, where this could not be expected, to be read to the people either in the original or in translation. Of course the missionaries preached in the vernacular ; in established congregations the sermon was mostly delivered in Latin. But (■harlemagne and the synods of his time enjoined preaching, either in German or in the Romanic. (Comp. also Johnson, English Canons; Maskell, Ancient Liturgy.) 2. (Cf. Hoffmcmin v. Fallerschl. Gesch. d. deutsch. Kirchenlieds bis auf Luther. 2 Aufl. Hann. 1854. — A. Schvhiger, d. Sangerschule St. Galleus. Einfied. LS59.) — According to the rule laid down by Gregory, the chanting in churches was performed by the clergy. The ordinance of Charlemagne, that the people should at least take part in singing the "Gloria" and the Sanctus," was not obeyed. Between the seventh and the ninth centuries flourished a number of Latin hymn- writers, among whom we specially mention Beda Venercdnlis, Panl Wanvfried, Th cod vlf of Orleans, Alcnin, and Pahanvs Manrus. The beautiful hymn for Pentecost, " Veni creator Spiritus," is commonly ascribed to Charlemagne himself. Instead of following, as formerly, the tone and style of the classics, the religious compositions of that age became gradually more German and Christian in their spirit, being characterized by deep simplicity and genuine feeling. Towards the close of this period a consideral)lc impulse was given to this species of compositions by the adoption of what were called sequences (seriuontife) into the service of the Mass. Instead of the long series (;f notes without words — intended to indicate that the feelings were 30 350 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). too strong for expression (hence the term Jiihili) — which formerly had followed upon the Hallelujah of the Mass, suitable rhythmical language in Latin prose was adopted, which by and by was cast into metre, rhyme, and stanzas. Notkcr Balhvlvs, a monk of St. Gall [oh. 912), was the first distinguished writer of sequences. — The only part which the people were allowed to take in the services of the Church was to sing, or rather to shout, the " Kyrie Eleison " in the Litany, and that only at extraordinary seasons, such as processions, pilgrimages, the transportation of relics, funerals, the consecration of churches, and other similar occasions. In Germany, during the second half of the ninth century, short verses in the vernacular were introduced at such times — the Kyrie Eleison forming the refrain of every stanza. This was the humble commencement of German hymnology. The only monument of this kind of poetry still extant from that period is a hymn in honour of St. Peter, composed in the old high German dialect. — The Ambrosian chant (| 59, 3) had entirely given place to the Gregorian (the so-called Cantus firmus or choralis). When Stephen IL visited France in 754, Pejyin ordered that the Romish chant should be universally adopted. To this injunction Charlemagne gave genei-al etfect throughout the West, by entirely abolishing the Gregorian chant, ))y instituting excellent singing-schools at Metz, Soissons, Orleans, Paris, Lyons, and in other places, over which he placed musicians sent from Rome for the special purpose, and by introducing music as a branch of education in all the higher schools throughout the Empire. The first organ brought to France was that which the Byzantine Emperor Copronymus presented to Pepin in 757. A second organ was given to Charlemagne by the Emperor Michael L and placed in the church at Aix-la-Chapelle. After that it was gradually introduced throughout the Church. But these instruments were still very imper- fect ; they had only from nine to twelve notes, and the keys were so ill constructed that they required to be struck with the fist. 3. The Sacrifice of the Mass. — The idea of a sacrifice attaching to the Eucharist, which led to the celebration of masses for the benefit of the dead (| 58, 3), i. e., for alleviating and shortening the torments of purgatory, was gradually developed and applied to other purposes. Thus private masses were celebrated for the success of any under- taking, as f(n- the restoration of a sick person, for favourable weather, etc. . Tliis increase of masses was somewhat limited hy the enactment, that only one mass might be celebrated at the same altar and by the same priest in one day. The desire to secure as many masses as possible after death, gave rise to associations of churches and monas- teries on the principle that a certain number of masses should be said in all these chur(;hes and monasteries for every member of the asso- ciation that died. The idea of such fraternities — into which, by special favour, kings, princes, and lords were sometimes received — seems to have originated with St. Boniface. p ij B r. I c WORSHIP and the f i iN e a r t ^ . 351 4. Ainoni;- the Germans the worship of saints -was in j»;rcat repute, espociallv as they served as su))stitutes for the displaced deities of former dfiys. Far above the other saints towered in popuhir esteem the Mother of God, the fair and gracious Queen of Heaven — the full ideal of woman, that object of ancient veneration among the Germans. Partly from the want of artistic accomplishments, and partly from national dislike, the worship paid to images was little in A'ogue in the German Church. Indeed, during the time of the Carolingians, the Frankish Church formally protested against such services (§ 92, 1). But all the greater was the zeal displayed in the worship of relics,! in which the saint reap])eared, as it were, in concrete and bodily form. | Innumerable relics existed in the West, supplied partly from the inex- haustible treasury at Rome, and partly from the band of zealous mis- sionary martyrs, from the solitudes of hermits, or even from monasteries and episcopal sees. The bones of these saints were the objects of en- thusiastic veneration. When a church or a monastery acquired a new relic, the whole country rejoiced iu the accession ; the concourse of multitudes, and an abundant harvest in the shape of donations by the pious, attended the deposition of the prized memorial in the crypt of the sanctuary. In the ninth century the Frankish monastei'y of Cen- tula boasted of a large quantity of such relics; among them, memorials from the grave of the Innocents at Bethlehem, part of the milk of the Virgin, of the beard of St. Peter, of his casula, of the Orarium of St. Paul, nay, even of the wood with which Peter was about to construct the three tabernacles on Mount Tabor. — Among the Germans, and especially the Anglo-vSaxons, who were so fond of travelling, the prac- tice OF AiAKixG PILGRIMAGES was very general. The favourite places for such devotions were the tombs of the princes of the apostles at Rome, the grave of St. Martin at Tours, and, towards the close of this period, that of St. Jago de Compostella (Jacobus Apostolus the Elder, the supposed founder of the Spanish Church, whose bones Avere disco- vered by Alphonse the Chaste). But the demoralizing influences attendant on these pilgrimages, which formed subject of complaint even in older times, Avere painfully felt. Accordingly, St. Boniface insisted that his covintrywomen should be prohibited joining them, since they only served to provide loose women for the towns of Gaul and Italy. — The idea of patron angels proved specially attractive to the Germans. More particularly did they accord their sympathies to Michael, the warrior Archangel, who had defeated the great dragon. ' 5. Ecclesiastical Seasons and Places. — Besides the Easter Quadra- gesima, another was introduced after Pentecost, and a third before Christmas. The ecclesiastical year now commenced at Christmas, instead of Easter. In the ninth centui-y, the Feast of All-Saints (| 57, 1), which at first had been onl}"^ celebrated at Rome, was observed throughout the Church. — In consequence of the num])er of reiics and the increase of masses, additional altars wore erected in the churches. 352 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.) Charlemagne enjoined them to be limited to the number actually re" quired. The men altar stood unsupported in the centre of the niche in the choir. The other altars were either placed in juxtaposition or supported by pillars. Pulpits and confessionals had not yet been in- troduced into churches. Special baptistries adjoined those churches in which the sacred rite was administered (| 84, 2). But when this privi- lege was extended to all churches, a baptismal font was placed at the left side of the principal entrance, or at the point where the nave was crossed by the transept. This change contributed to the general intro- duction of the practice of sprinkling instead of immersion in baptism. Bdls and towers were common ; the latter stood at first by themselves, but since the time of Charlemagne they were connected with the main building Charlemagne prohibited the christening of bells, but the practice still continued. 6. During the domination of the Ostrogoths, the Fine Arts were chiefly cultivated on the other side, during that of the Carolingians oa this side, the Alps. On the British Isle also, considerable attention Avas paid to their cultivation. The German monasteries of St. Gall and Fulda bore, in the ninth century, the palm in artistic taste. Thus Tvtilo, a monk of St. Gall [ob. 912), was greatly distinguished as an architect, painter, sculptor, poet, and general savant. The old Roman Basilica still formed the model for ecclesiastical architecture. At Ra- venna— the Byzantium of Italy — some splendid churches Avere built in the Byzantine style during the domination of the Goths. Einhard was the favourite architect of Charlemagne. Among the various churches built by that monarch, the Munster of Aix-la-Chapelle, constructed after the model of these Ravenna churches, is the most beautiful. Being intended to serve as royal chapel, it was connected with the palace by a colonnade. For the same reason, it was originally of mode- rate size ; but being also used for coronations, it was enlarged in 1355 by the addition of the grand principal choir, in the Gothic style. The ceremonies of the Church tended to the promotion of the lAastic arts. as costly shrines were required for relics ; and the crucifixes, candle- sticks, ciboria, censers, and other vessels, called forth the skill of artists. The liturgical books were covered with boards elaborately carved, and the doors of churches, the stalls of bishops, reading-desks, and bap- tismal fonts adorned with decorations in relief. Among the various kinds of pictorial repi-esentations, miniature painting was employed in a'lorning copies of ecclesiastical books. — (Comp. G. Kinkel, Gesch. d. bildenden Klinste. I. Bonn 1845. — E. Forster, Gesch. d, deutsch. Kiinst Leips. 1851-55. 3 Vols.) SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 353 § 90. STATE OF SCIENCE AND OF THEOLOGICAL LITE- RATURE. CoMP. /. C. F. Bdhr, Gesch. d. rom. Liter, im karoling. Zeitalter. Karlsr. 1840. So lonp: as Arianisra continued the creed of the German races, independent scientific pursuits seem not to have been followed, with the exception of those of Ulfilas. But Theodoric, the generous monarch of the Ostrogoths, patronized and distin- guished the representatives of ancient Roman literature. Among them BoetJiius and Cas.Hiodo7-us have the merit of presei'ving tiie remnants of classical and patristic learning in Italy. A similar service Isidore of Seville [ob. 636) performed for Spain, and his works were for centuries used also on the other side of the Pyrenees as text-books and guides for students. The numerous monasteries of Scotland and Ireland were, till late in the ninth century, equally famed for the extensive learning and the deep piety of their inmates. The learned Greek monk, Theodore of Tarsus, whom the Pope elevated to the archiepiscopal See of Canterbury {oh. 690), and his companion Hadrian, awakened among the Anglo-Saxons an ardent zeal for the prosecution of learned investigations, while Beda Venerahilis, though he never left his monastery, was regarded, throughout the Western Church, as a leading authority. For a time the Northmen pirates swept away the traces of this high civilization, till Alfred the Great (871 to 901) again restored it. This monarch, equally great in peace and in war, distinguished as a general, a statesman, and a legislator, and renowned both as a poet and prose writer, raised the literatn-re of his country to a height never before attained — ■ though, unfortunately, only for a time. In Gaul, Gregorij of Tours (ob. 595) was the last representative of Roman ecclesi- astical lore. After him came that chaos which only under the reign of Charlemagne (768 to 814) gave place to a new day, of which the light shone throughout the West. The encourage- ment which that monarch gave to literature dates from the period of his first visit to Italy, in 714. There he made the acquaint- ance of such men as Petrus of Pisa, Paul Warnefried, Paulinus of Aquileja, and Theodulf of Orleans, whom he attached to his court. From the year 782, Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon "Levite," was the leading spirit at the Prankish court. Charlemagne had 30* X '^0i SECTION II. FIRST PKRIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.;. made his acquaintance the year before in Italy. Study now became one of the main pursuits, which even the royal family, the court, and all connected with it, encouracred or followed ; bul among these noble scholars, Charlemag-ne himself was the most zealous and docile pupil of Alcuin. At the court school (schola palatina), which, like the court itself, was migratory, the sons and daughters of the king received, along with the children of the noblest families in the empire, a liberal education. From England, Ireland, and Italy, continual additions were made to the staff of teachers employed in it. At last Charlemagne issued, in 787, a circular letter addressed to all the bishops and abbots of his empire, in which, under pain of his royal displea- sure, he commanded that schools should be attached to all mon- asteries and cathedral churches. And, in truth, the result of these measures was most encouraging, although as yet the course of study was limited to the acquisition of classical or patristic lore, to the neglect of anything like national literature. The great, the liberal, and patriotic mind of Charlemagne perceived, indeed, the importance of encouraging the growth of a national literature ; but, with the exception of Paul Warnefried, his other learned advisers had lost every sympathy with the spirit, the language, and the nationality of Germany. They even regarded such studies as endangering Christianity and encouraging the spread of former heathen notions ; hence their influence was rather in the way of discouraging these views of their monarch. — The weak administration of Louis the Pious (814 to 840), disturbed as it was by party figiits and civil wars, was far from favourable to the promotion of science ; but as yet the fruits of his father's labours had not disappeared. Lothair, his son, issued an edict by which the scholastic arrangements of Italy were entirely reorganized, and indeed conipletely remodelled. But that country, with its factions and tumults, was not the place where such institutions could for any length of time prosper. It was otherwise in France, where, under tlie reign of Charles the Bald (840-877), a new period was inaugurated. At his court, as at that of his grandfather, the choice spirits of the West gathered ; under the guidance of Johannes Erigena, a Scotch- man, the high-school rose rapidly; the cathedral and monastic schools of France emulated the most celebrated institutions of Germany (such as St. Gall, Fulda, Reichenau, etc.); and the French sees were occupied by men of the most extensive learn- SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 355 ing. But after the death of Charles this high state of cultiva- tion rapidly disappeared, and, amidst the troubles of that period, gave place to deep ignorance, confusion, and barbarism. 1. It was the primary object of these monastic and cathedral schools, to train persons for the Churcli. The writings of Cassiodorus, of Isi- dore, Beda, and Alcuin, wore the manuals and text-books chiefly in use. The inmates of monasteries were in the habit of making careful copies of books, for the purpose of founding liVjraries and of multiply- ing celebrated works. Alcuin arranged all knowledge under three branches, viz., Ethics, Physics, and Theology. His Ethics included what was afterwards designated as Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectics) ; Physics corresponded to the later Quadrivium (Arithmetic, (jieometry, Music, and Astronomy); both together constituting what were called tlie Liberal Arts. Conversation and instruction were to be carried on in Latin. In the higher schools Greek, of which Theo- dore (jf Tarsus and his pupils had promoted the study, was also taught. Acquaintance Avith Hebrew was a more rare accomplishment; some scholars obtained a knowledge of it by intercourse with learned Jews. The writings of Boethius were the principal source for the study of philosoph}-; Plato and Aristotle were known, however, to some extent, and in the ninth century the Byzantine Emperor Michael presented Louis the Pious (§ 92, 1) with a copy of the so-called writings of Dio- nysius the Areopagite. He was regarded as the same Dionysius who had founded the Church of Paris, and on this ground his writings, even when not understood, were vaunted. Hilduiji, Abbot of St. Denis, and afterwards Johannes Erigena, translated them into Latin. — Isidore of Seville and Eabanus Maurus composed encyclopaedias which embo- died a summary of the lore of their times. The work of Isidore, which bears the title of Originum s. Etymologiarum LI. XX., is a remarkable monument of industry and comprehensive learning. Almost the same meed of praise is due to the LI. XXII. de Universo, by Rabanus. Both writers group theology along Avith the other sciences. 2. The following were the most celebrated Theologians before the time of the Carol ingians : (1.) Gregory of Tours, the scion of a noble Roman family. AVhile on a pilgrimage to the grave of St. Martin, to implore the removal of a disease (in 573), he was elevated to the See of Toui-s, which he occu- pied to his death [oh. 595). His family connections, his office, his character, learning, and piety, contributed to make him one of the most celebrated men of his time. Posterity is indebted to his writings for its knowledge of public and private affairs at the time of the Merovin- gians. (Best edition by Th. Ruinart. Par. 1699 f. Comp. also/. W. Loebell, Gresjor von Tours u. s. Zeit. Loipz. 1839.) (2.) Isidore of Seville (Hispalensis), the scion of a distinguished Gothic familv, who succeeded Lcander, his brother, in the archiepisco- ?>0 356 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CEKT. 4—9 A. D.). pal See of Ilispalis [oI>. 03G). He composed excellent and careful com pilations, in which information and fragments not otherwise known are preserved. For his cotemporaries he did a more important service, by making the German Church acquainted with classical and patristic lore. (Best ed. by F. Arevalo. Rom. 1797. 7 Voll. 4.) (3.) Beda Venerabilis, an Anglo-Saxon, educated in the monastery of Wearmouth, which he afterwards left for that of Jarrow, where he died in 735. His fame for learning, in all branches of science known at the time, was very great. These acquirements were combined with great modesty, piety, and amiability. While his numerous disciples attained the highest posts in the Church, Beda himself continued in quiet retirement, a simple monk, satisfied with this his chosen lot. Even on his death-bed he was engaged in teaching and writing ; and immediately before he expired, he dictated the last chapter of an Anglo- Saxon version of the Gospel according to John. (Best ed. of his wri- tings by J. A. Giles. London 1843.) 3. The most eminent theologian during the reign of Charlemagne (768-814) was an anglo-Saxon, Alcuin (Albinus), surnamed Flaccus. He was trained in the celebrated academy of York, under Egbert and Elbert. When the latter was elevated to the archiepiscopal see, Alcuin became president of this academy. On a journey to Rome (781), he was introduced to the notice of Charlemagne, who invited him to his court, where he became the teacher, friend, and most intimate adviser of the monarch. To the period of his death (in 804), he continued the great authority on all religious, ecclesiastical, and scholastic questions. In 790 he went as ambassador to his own country, whence he returned in 792, no more to leave France. In 796 Charlemagne bestowed on him the Abbacy of Tours ; and the school connected with it became henceforth the most celebrated in the empire. — (Best ed. of his writings by Frobenius. 2 Voll. f. 1777. — Comp. Fr. Lorentz, Life of Alcuin, transl. by /. M. Slee, London 1839. — F. Mounier, Alcuin. Par. 1853.) — After Alcuin, the most learned man of that age was Paulus Diaco- Nus (son of) Warnefrid, a Langobard of noble family, and chancellor of Kino- Desiderius. From grief over the decay of his own country, he retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino, whence Charlemagne drew him to his court in 774. His attainments were vaunted as those of a Homer in Greek, of a Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus in Latin, and of a Philo in Hebrew. But love to his country induced him to return to his monastery (in 787), where he died at a very advanced age. The story of his having conspired against Charlemagne, and being sent into exile, is devoid of historical foundation. It deserves special notice that this learned and amiable man was also distinguished for qualities rare in his time, such as openness, enthusiastic admiration of the language, the national legends, the poetry, and the ancient laws and customs of his own people. Besides these two divines, the names of Paulinus,. Patriarch of Aquileja, a native of Friaul {ob. 804), of Luidrad of SCIENCE AND T H E <) t. n 0 I C A L LITERATURE. 357 Li/on.s {oh. 813), anu ofTiiEonrLF of Orleans, deserve particular notice. Tlie latter acquired fame, nf)t only as a poet and a man of learning, but (mm his zeal in establishing elementary schools. Under the reign of Louis the Pious, he was accused of traitorous communications with Bernard of Italy, deposed and exiled (in 817), but afterwards pardoned. He died before again reaching his own diocese (in 821). 4. The following were the most celebrated theologians under the reign of Louis the Pious (814-840). (1.) Agobard of Lyons, by birth a Spaniard, oh. as Bishop of Lyons in 840. His anxiety for preserving the integrity of the empire, and his . position as chief of the national party among the Frankish clergy, implicated him in the conspiracy against Louis the Pious, in con- sequence of which he was deposed and exiled (835). Two years after- wards he obtained the royal pardon. Agobard was a man of rare mental endoAvments and learning ; withal a keen opponent of eccle- siastical and other superstitions (^ 92. 2). (2.) Claudius. Bishop of Turin [oh. 840), also a Spaniard, and a pupil of Felix of Urgellis [I 91, 1) ; whose heretical views, however, he did not share ; well knoAvn as a bold reformer. — (Comp. | 92, 2). (3.) Jonas of Orleans, the successor of Theodulf [pb. 844), one of the most renowned prelates of his age, who completely succeeded in restoring discipline and order in his own diocese. (4.) Ajialarius, a priest of Metz (comp. g 84, 4). (5.) Christian Druthmar, a monk of Corbey, and celebrated as at the time the only advocate of a grammatical and historical exegesis. (G.) Walafrid Strabo, teacher and Abbot of Ileichenau [oh. 849). (7.) Fredegis, an Anglo-Saxon, who came with Alcuin from England, and succeeded him both in the school and Abbacy of Tours, — a man whose philosophical investigations constitute him in a certain sense the precursor of mediaeval scholasticism. 5. The following were the most celebrated theologians during the reign of Charles the Bald (840-877). (1.) PiABANUs Magxentius Maurus, the descendant of an ancient Roman family which had early settled in German}', and a pupil of Alcuin, who designated him St. Maurus (^ 85). He was first a teacher, then became Abbot of Fulda, and finally Archbishop of Mayence [oh. 856). Maurus was the most learned man of his age, and under his tuition the academy of Fulda rose to highest distinction. — (Comp. N. Bach, Arab. Maur., der Schopfer d. deutsch. Schulwesens (Rab. Maur., the Originator of the Schol. System in Germ.). Fulda 1835. — jPr. Knnsfmann, Arab. Magn. Maur. Mayence 1841). (2.) IIiNCMAR OF RiiEiMs, (comp. | 83, 1). (Best ed. of his writings by J. Sinnond. Par. 1645. 2 Voll. f.). (3.) Pasciiasius Radbertus, from 844 Abbot of Corbey, an office which he resigned in 851, when he dedicated himself exclusively to 358 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). studies and writing {ob. 865). Despite occasional ultraisms, he was deservedly celebrated (g 91, 3). (4.) Ratramnus, a monk of Coi-bey, the opponent of Radbertus ; a clear and acute thinker, but somewhat rationalistic in his A'iews. (5.) Florus Magister, a clerk at Lyons, celebrated both for his learning and for the share he took along with Agobard in certain con- troversies. (6.) IIaymo. Bishop of Halberstadt, a friend and class-mate of Rabanus. (7.) Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Ferriferes, a deep and independent thinker, distinguished alike for his interest in science and in public instruction. (8.) Prudentius of Troyes. (9.) Anastasius, papal librarian at Rome. (10.) Regino, Abbot of Priim {ob. 915) ; and lastly, that enigma and wonder of his time, Johannes Scotus Erigena. By birth a Scotchman (more probably an Irishman), he unexpectedly appears at the Court of Charles the Bald, and as suddenly disappears ; and we are left iu ignorance whence he came and whither he went. He was un- doubtedly the most learned man, and the deepest, boldest, and most independent thinker of his time. His speculations have not been sur- passed for centuries before or after him. Had he lived three centuries later, he might have occasioned a complete revolution in the learned world ; but in his own time he was neither understood nor appreciated, and scarcely deemed even worthy of being declared a heretic. The latter omission, however, was rectified by the Church after the lapse of three and a half centuries (| 108, 2). For further details see below, Note 7. — (CoMP. F. A. Staudenmaier, J. Sc. Erig. u. d. Wiss. sr. Zeit. Frankf. 1834. — M. Taillandier, Sc. Erigene et la philos. scholast. Strassb. 1843.— iV. Moller, J. Sc. Erig. u. d. Wissensch. s. Z. Frankft. 1834. — A. Torstrick, Phil. Erigenae. Gott. 1844; and Ritter, Gesch. d. chr. Phil. Voll. III. ~N. Moller, J. Sc. Erig. u. s. Irrthumer. May- ence 1844). 6. The theological investigations of the German Church at that time were specially directed to the immediate wants of the Church, and hence chiefly of a practical character. Withal, such was the reverence paid to the Fathers, that, whenever practicable, their words and thoughts were employed in teaching, writing, preaching, demonstrating, and refuting. But the reformatory movement initiated under Charlemagne led. in the domain of theological science, also to greater freedom ; while the controversies of the ninth century necessitated independent thinking, and gradually inspired theological writers with greater con- fidence.— Among the various branches of theology, most attention was paid to bxegesis, although commentators still confined themselves to making notes on the Vulgate. Charlemagne commissioned Alcuin to make a CJ t'cal revision of its text, which had been greatly corrupted. SCIENCE AND T 11 E U L () G I C A L LITERATURE 359 The tirst to oppose the theory of a mechanical inspiration was Agohard of Lyoiiii. He started from the principle, that the prophets had not been merely passive instruments like Balaam's ass, and that only the serisus jjrcedicatkmis and modi vel aryumerda dictionum, but not the corporalia verba, had been inspired by the Holy Ghost. One only among the numerous exegetical writers of that age, Christian Druth- mar, perceived that it was the first and most important work of an interpreter to ascertain the grammatical and historical meaning of the text. All other interpreters set lightly by the literal meaning of the text, while they sought to discover the treasures of Divine wisdom by an allegorical, tropical, and anagogic interpretation. After Druthmar, it was pr(jbal)ly Pasclianins Badhcrius who devoted greatest attention to a calm investigation of the literal meaning of Scripture. Besides these, the most celebrated exegetical authors at that time were Beda Venerabilis, Alcuin, Rahamis Maurus, and Walafrid Sfrabo, whose "Glossas ordinariaj" foi-med, on account of their convenient size (next to the more full commentaries of Rabanus), the exegetical manual in c immcm use during the Middle Ages. The work, however, contains little that is original, by far the greater part being derived from the Latin Fathers. 7. In the study of Systematic Theology, proportionally least attention was bestowed upon ajwlogetics. Though the illiterate character of the heathen around called not for any elaborate refutation of their super- stitions, this remark applies not either to Mohammedanism, or to Juda- ism. In Spain, a large number of Jews were obliged to submit to baptism, or else expelled ; but in the Frankish Empire, especially under the reign of Louis the Pious, wealth and briberies ensured them ample protection. Thus encouraged, they not only prohibited their Jewish and heathen slaves from being baptized, but obliged their Christian servants to observe the Sabbath, to work on the Lord's day, and to eat meat during Lent. Occasionally they even openly blasphemed the name of Christ, derided the Church, and sold Christian slaves to the Saracens. AgoJiard of Lyons was very active in opposing them, by his preaching, Avritings, and measures ; but they enjoyed the protection of the court. Isidore of Seville and Rahamis Maurus also refuted their distinctive tenets. — The department of polemical theology was more fully cultivated than that of apologetics, especially since the time of Charlemagne (comp. |? 91, 92). — In his LI. III. Sententiaruni, Isidore of Seville collected from the writings of the Fathers a system of dog- matics and ethics, which for several centuries continued the te.xt-book in use. Another manual of dogmatics, chiefly derived from the writr ings of Augustine, was Alcuin's LI. III. de fide sanctfe et individuaa trinitatis — Philosophical mysticism, which was first introduced by the writings of the so-called Areopagite, was represented by Johannes Scotus Erigena, a mind far in advance of his age. Following up the gnosticism of t) e school of Origen, the theosophic mysticism of the 30 * 8(j0 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CE N T. 4— 9 A. D.). Arjopaglte, and the dialectics of Maximus Confessor, liis Avork " De Divisione Natura;" embodied a system of speculative theology of ^ast dimensions. Though Erigena felt anxiously desirous to retain the fundamental doctrines of the Church, his system, from first to last, was one great heterodoxy. He started from the principle, that true theology and true philosophy were essentially the same, and differed only in point of form. Faith had to do with the truth as " theologia affirmativa" {xata^atixrj), revealed in the Bible, and handed down by the Church in a metaphorical and figurative garb, and in a manner adapted to the limited capacity of the multitude. It was the task of reason to strip off this envelope (theologia negativa, aro^attxrj), and, by means of speculation, to convert faith into knowledge. The peculiar title of the work was intended to express its fundamental idea, viz., that nature — i. e., the sum of everything existent and non-existent (as the necessary opposite of what existed) — manifested itself in a fourfold manner, as natura creatrix non creata (/. e., God as the potential sum of all existence and non-existence), natura creata et creatrix [i. e., the eternal thoughts of God as the grand eternal types of everything created, the source and medium of which is the Logos), natura creata non creans (the eternal, invisible, and ideal world), and natura nee creata nee creans {.ie., God as the final end of everything created, to which, after all antagonisms have been overcome, everything created returns in the anoxatdatasii -t^v ftavt^v). It is evident that this system must speedily have merged into Pantheism ; but in the case of Erigena himself genuine Christian feeling seems to have prevented these con- sequences, and he was anxiously desirous of preserving at least the fundamental truths of Christian Theism. 8. The Homiletic literature of that period was comparatively very scanty. Besides the Horailiarius of Paul Warnefrid (| 89, 1), only Bedc, WalaJ'rid, Eabanus, and Haymo appear to have been known as writers of original sermons. But the Theory of Worsliip (its descrip- tion and mystical interpretation) attracted considerable attention. The first work of this kind was that of Isidore, " de officiis ecclesiasticis." Charlemagne invited his theologians to discuss the import of the rites connected with baptism. During the reign of Louis the Pious, Agohard of Lyons proposed to reform the Liturgy, and defended himself with considerable vehemence in several tractates against the attacks of Amalariits of Metz, whose liturgical work (de officiis ecclesiasticis) he sharply criticised. Florus Magisier (de actione Missarum) also entered the lists against Amalarius. Of other important works on this subject, we mention those of Babmuis (de institutione Clericorum), of Walafrid (de exordiis et incrementis rerum ecclesiasticarum), nnd of Bemiguis uf Anxerre (expositio Misste). The great authority on questions con- nected with e(!clesiastical law and church-politics was Hincmar of Rheims, and next to him Agohard and Regino of Priin [I 88, 5). DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CONTROVRES.ES. 361 9. The scanty knowledge of ancient Church History which thcolo gians possessed, was solely derived from the works of llufinus and Cas- siodorus. The ecclesiastical history of Hajpno consists only of a com- pilation from Rufinus. All the more dilif:!;ent were writers throughout the Middle Ages in chronicling the current political and ecclesiastical events, and in recording those which had taken place within the memory of man. To these labours we owe a threefold kind of litera- ture:— 1. That of NATIONAL Mstoriaiis. Thus the Visigoths had an Liidore (Hist. Gothorum, Hist. Vandal, et Suevorum) ; the Ostrogoths a Caxsiodorus (LI. XII. de reb. gestis Gothorum — a work which unfor- tunately has been lost ; or at least only preserved in extracts, in the tractate o^ Jornandes, in 550, deGetarum orig. et reb. gestis) ; the Lan- gobards a Paul Warnefrid (LI. VI. de gestis Langobardorum) ; the Franks a Gregory of Tours (Hist, eccles. Francorum) ; the Britons a Gildas (about 5G0) : Liber querulus de excidio Britannias) and a Ncn- nius (Eulogium Brittannia3 s. hist. Britonum, about 850) ; and the Anglo-Saxons a Bede (Hist, eccles. gentis Anglorum). 2. Annals or Chronicles, chiefly composed in monasteries, and continued from year to ycai". 3. Biographies of prominent political or ecclesiastical per- sonages. Among the former, the most important are the Vita Caroli M., by Einhard, and the Vitae Ludovici Pii, by Theganus, hy Nithard, and by an anonymous writer commonly designated as J.sntrover,si/, the principal Frankish divines op))osed the views of Radbertus about transnbstantiation. Connected with this was another discussion about the parturition of the Virfjin. On neither of these questions did the Church give any formal or synodical deliverance. It was otherwise in reference to the controfersy about predestination, which soon afterwards broke out. Although discussed in councils, the question was not finally settled. Of less importance was the controversy about the appro])riateness of the expression " trina Deitas.'' 1. The Adoptioniat Controversy (785-818). — Of all the doctrines of Christianity, none was so repugnant to Moslem feelings, or excited their ridicule more than that of the Divine Sonship of Christ. It was probably with the view of meeting these Moslem objections that a num- ber of Spanish bishops, headed by Eli})aiuhts, Archbishop of Toledo. and Felix, Bishop of Urgellis, addressed themselves anew to the eluci- dation of the doctrine concerning the person of Christ. These divines held that Christ was properly the Son of God [flivb- Dei natitrd or genei-e) only in reference to His divinity ; in reference to Ilis humanity He was properly a servant of God, as all of us, and only adopted as Son (flius Dei adoptivus) by the determination of God, just as all of us are by Him, and after His similitude to be transformed from servants to children of God. Hence, according to His Divine nature. He was the ONLY-bef/otten, according to Ilis human nature the FiHST-hef/otten Son of God. This adoption of His human nature into Sonship had commenced at His conception by the Holy Ghost, appeared more fully at His bap- tism, and had been completed at the resurrection. The controversy occasioned by these views first broke out in Spain. Two representatives of the Esturian clergy (? 81), Beatus, a presbyter of Libana, and Ethe.- DOCTRINE AND D () G ."SI A T I C CO N T R O V E R S I E S . 363 ••iufi, Bishop of Osnia, altacked the views of Ellpandus both by word and writing (785). The doctrinal divergence between these divines probably received a keener edge by the desire of emancipating the Esturian Church from the See of Toledo, which was still subject to Saracen rule. The Esturians appealed to Pope Hadrian I., who, in an encyclical addre-sed to the bishops of Spain, condemned Adoptionism as essentially akin to the Nestorian heresy (786). Another stage of this conti-Qversy commenced with the interference of Charlemagne, occasioned by the circumstance that Adoptionism was rapidly spread- ing in the portion of Spain subject to his sceptre. Most probably he gladly seized this opportunity of coming before the West in the char- acter of Protector of Orthodoxy, and hence as Emperor in spe. At the Synod of Ratisbon in 792, Felix was obliged to abjure his herosj', and was sent to Pope Hadrian I. In Rome he was made to repeat his recantation ; but escaped from captivity and gained Saracen territory. Meantime Alciiin had returned from his journey to England, and im- mediately took part in the controversy by addressing to Felix a kind, monitory letter. To this the Spaniards replied in strong language, when Charlemagne convoked the celebrated Synod of Frankfort (794), at which Adoptionism was again fully discussed and condemned. The judgment of the Sj'nod was accompanied by four detailed memorials (to represent the diiferent national churches and authorities — in order to give it an oecumenical character). Although dispatched with such formalities to Spain, it produced little impression. No greater was the success of a learned controversial work by Alcuin, to which Felix replied in a clever tractate. Meantime Charlemagne had sent a com- mission, with Leidrad of Lyons and Benedict of Aniane at its head, into Spain, in order to put an end to the spread of this heresy. The commissioners persuaded Felix to submit to a second investigation. At the great council lield at Aix-la-Chapelle in 799 he disputed for six days with Alcuin, and at the close declared himself perfectly convinced. Alcuin and Paulinus of Aquileja now published controversial tractates on the subject; and Leidrad went a second time into Spain, where he succeeded in almost extirpating the heresy from the Frankish provinces. But the bishops who were subject to Saracen rule continued to defend these opinions ; and when Alcuin addressed a flattering and conciliatory letter to Elipandus, the latter replied in the most violent and coarse language. Felix was, till his death in 818, committed to the charge of the Bishop of Lyons. Ayobard, the successor of Leidrad, found among his papers clear evidence that Felix had to the end continued in heart an ailoptionist. Agobard now published another controversial tractate, which happily proved the last written on the subject. In Spain Pi'o- per, also, Adoptionism became extinct, with the death of its leading repicsentatives. 2. Controrern]/ ahout the Procefssion of the Holy Ghost. — At the Synod tf Gentilly in 767, held for the purpose of meeting a Byzantine em- 364 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). bassy in connection with the iconochxstic controversy, the question ©1 the enlargement of the Creed by the addition of the expression "J?Zi- oque" (§ 50, 6; 67, 1) was also discussed. The result of this conference is not known. At the time of Charlemagne, Alcuin and Theodulf wrote special tractates in defence of the Latin view. At the Synod held in Friaul in 791, Paulinus of Aquileja vindicated the insertion of the expression in the Creed — a view also defended by the Caroline books (I 92). The question was discussed anew, when the Latin monks on Mount Olivet appealed to the practice of the Frankish Church in reply to the attacks of the Greeks. Pope Leo III. communicated on the subject with Charlemagne, and a Council held at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 809, gave its solemn sanction to the addition. But although the Pope did not question the correctness of this tenet, he disapproved of the alteration of the Creed. Accordingly, he erected in the Church of St, Peter two silver tablets, on which the Creed was engraved without the addition — manifestly as a kind of protest against the ecclesiastical interferences of the Emperor. 3. Controversies of Pascliasius Badberlus. — I. Eucharistic Contro- versy (844). — (Cf. Ubrard ?«. Kahnis, | 33. — A. W. Dicckhoff die Abendniahlsl. im Reformationszeit. GiJttg. 1854. Bd. I. — L. J. RUckert, d. Abendmahlstreit im M. A., in Hilgenfeld's Ztschr. fiir wschl. Theol. 1858, I., II.) — So late as the ninth century the views of theologians concerning the Eucharist Avere expressed in ambiguous terms (§58, 2). But in 831, Paschasius Eadberttis, a monk of Corbey, wrote a treatise, " De sanguine et corpore Domini," for the purpose of proving that the cloments were completely changed — an opinion which, even before his t , had been current in ecclesiastical practice and in popular belief. The work of Radbertus breathes a spirit of genuine piety ; manifestly, it was his chief aim to present the deep import of this sacrament in all its fulness, power, and depth. Withal, the treatise was popularly written. Already the author could, in the course of his argumentation, appeal to a number of supposed facts in the "Vitis Sanctorum," in which this internal Veritas had also become outwardly manifest. For the circumstance that such was not always the case, he accounted on the ground that the Eucharist was intended to be ami/sterimn for faith, and not a viiracrdum for unbelief; as also, on that of the Divine con- descension, which had regard to the infirmity of man and his shrinking from flesh and l^lood, and which, besides, would cut off all occasion for the heathen to blaspheme. The treatise at first remained unnoticed. But when Radbertus became Abbot of Corboy, he recast and handed it to Charles the Bald in 844. This monarch commissioned Ratramnus, a learned monk of Corbey, to express his opinion on the question ; and the latter gladly seized the opportunity of controverting the statements of his abbot. In his tractate "De corp. et sang. Domini ad Carolum Calvum," Ratramnus submitted the vicAvs of his abbot (without naming him) to a searching criticism, and then explained his own opinions. DOCTRINE AND D 0 (1 M A T I C C O N T R O V E R S 1 K S. 365 ai;cordiiig to which the body an(i ))loo(l of Christ was present in the Eucharist only " spiritualiter et secundum potentiam." In the same sense, Rabanus Maiirus, Scotun Erigena, and Floriin of Lyons wrote against Radhertus' view of a magic transformation. Hlncmar and Hai/mo took the side of Radbertus ; while Wulafrid Strabo, and that able interpreter of Scripture C/iristiaii Druihinar, sought to avoid either extreme, and propounded the doctrine of impanation or consubstantia- tion, as adequately expressing the import of this mystery. But Ead- bertus had onh^ given publicity to Avhat "rally were the tendencies of the Church generally ; and the opposition of so many great divines could only retard, but not prevent, the spread and prevalence of these views. — II. Controversy about the Parturition of the Virgin (845). In entire accordance with his fundamental views about the marvellous influences of the Divine power and presence, Radhertus soon afterwards composed a tractate, "De ])artu virginali," for the purpose of defending the view that the Virgin had given birth " utero clauso," and without pain — an opinion which Ambrose and Jerome had already broached. Ratrainnus opposed this tenet as savouring of Docetism (De eo, quod Christus ex Virgine natus est). — In the controversy about predestina- tion, Ratramuus took the side of Gottschalk, and Radbertus that of his opponents. 4. Controversy about Predestination (847-868). — (Cf. G. Mauguia (Jansenist), Vett. auctorum, qui in seculo IX. de praedest. scripsernnt opera et fragmenta. Par. 1650, 2 volls. with a hist. diss. Against him: L. Cellot (Jesuit), hist. Gottschalkii. Par. 1655. — Jac. TJsserii Gottes- chalkii et controv. ab eo motae hist. Dubl. 1631, 4to.) — The former dis- cussions on this subject (| 53, 5) had not issued in the final settlement of the question. Indeed, the views of theologians varied from the extreme of semi-Pelagianism to that of a predestination to condemna- tion, which went even beyond the statements of Augustine. In the ninth century the controversy broke out afresh. Gottschalk, the son of Berno, a Saxon count, had as a child been devoted by his parents to the monastic profession, and trained at Fulda. At a synod Jield in Mayence (829), he obtained permission to leave that monastery; but Rabanus Matirus, at the time Abbot of Fulda, prevailed on Louis the Pious to annul this dispensation. Translated to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons, Gottschalk sought consolation in ardent study of the writings of Augustine, from which he rose an en- thusiastic advocate of the doctrine of absolute predestination. In one point he went even beyond his great teacher, since he held a twofold predestination (gemina pra^destinatio) — one to salvation, and the other to condemnation.; whilst Augustine generally spoke of the latter only as God leaving sinners to deserved condemnation. While travelling in Italy in 847, he sought to gain adherents to his views. Among others, he addressed himself to Noting, Bishop of Verona. This prelate gave information to Rabanus, who in the meantime had been elevated to the 31 * 366 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). See of Mayence. Rabanus immediately issued two thundering epistles^ in which the views of Gottschalk were in some particulars misrepre- sented, and certain unjust inferences drawn from them, more especially in the way of transforming the " prasdestinatio ad damnationem" into a " prsedestinatio ad pcccatum." Rabanus himself distinguished be- tween foreknowledge and predestination, ranging under the former head the condemnation of the reprobate. But other weapons than those of discussion were employed. A synod teas convoked at Mayence (848), before which Gottschalk appeared, strong in the conviction of the orthodoxy of his statements. But the council took a different view Gottschalk was excommunicated, and handed over to his metropolitan, Hincmar of Bheiins, for punishment. This prelate, not content with the spiritual sentence which the Synod of Chiersy pronounced against him (849), condemned him to the most severe bodily chastisement, since he refused to recant, and consigned him to a prison in the mon- astery of Haut Villiers. In vain Gottschalk proposed to submit the justice of his cause to a solemn ordeal. Ilincmar, though otherwise favourable to these trials, retorted by characterizing this offer as the boast of a Simon Magus. — The inhuman treatment of which the poor monk had been the victim, and the rejection of the doctrine of Augus- tine by two influential prelates, excited an angry controversy in the Frankish Church, of which the weight was chiefly directed against Hincmar. Prudcntius, Bisliop of Troyes, was the first to publish a tractate in favour of Gottschalk. Upon this Charles the Bald requested liatrammis of Corbey, and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Ferriferes, to express their judgment on the question, Avhich in both cases was in favour of Gottschalk. The position of Hincmar was becoming very difficult, when at last he succeeded in enlisting the advocacy of Florus, a deacon of Lyons, of Amalarius, a priest of Metz, and oi John Scotus Erigena. But the aid of Erigena was fraught with almost, greater danger to Hincmar than the attacks of his opponents. The Scotch metaphysician founded his opposition to the doctrine of predestination on the principle, hitherto unheard of in the West, that evil was only a (xri w. Accordingly, he argued that condemnation was not a positive punishment on the part of God, and only consisted in the tormenting consciousness of having missed one's destiny. The cause of Hincmar was fast getting into disrepute, as his opponents made him responsible for the heresies of his Scottish friend. Not Prudentius of Troyes only, who had long been his literary antagonist, but even Wenilo, Archbishop of Sens, and Florns of Lyons, who hitherto had espoused his cause, now turned their weapons against him. But Charles the Bald came to the aid of his metropolitan. A national synod was convoked at Chiersy in 853, when four articles [Capitula Carisiaca), embodying a moderate form of Augustinianism, were adopted, and the doctrine of a twofold predestination formally rejected. Thus the opponents of Hincmar in Neustria were silenced. But Eemigiiis, Archbishop of Lyons, convoked REFORMATORY M O v' E M E N T S. 367 a Lotharingian Synod at Valence in 855, in which both the decrees of Chiersy and the "Scottish mess" (pultes Scotorum) were stigmatized, and six articles of a very different tone adopted, as the test of ortho- doxy. At last the secular rulers interposed, and conA'oked a general synod at Savonnieres, a suburb of Toul, in 859, But here also the dis- putants could not arrive at an agreement. Already the members were about to separate in mutual estrangement, when liemigius proposed to leave the settlement of the controversy to a future council in less trou- bled times, and till then to continue in harmony. The Synod unani- mously adopted this suggestion ; and as the proposed council never took place, the controversj' completely terminated. Abandoned by his former friends, Gottschalk now appealed to Pope Nicholas I., who ordered Ilincmar to defend himself for his conduct towards the monk before Papal legates at the Synod of Metz in 863 (| 82, 4). Hincmar deemed it prudent not to obey the citation. Happily for him, the Pope himself afterwards annulled the decrees of this synod on account of the venality of his legates, and the metropolitan soon afterwards suc- ceeded in appeasing the Pojje by intercessions and letters. Thus Gottschalk Avas deprived of his last hope. Twenty years had he lin- gered in prison, but to his latest breath he rejected with indignation every proposal of recantation. He died in 868, and by order of Hinc- mar was interred in unconsecrated earth. — From his prison he had charged his metropolitan with another heresy. In the hymn. " Te Trina Deltas Unaque," Hincmar had substituted the expression " Sanctu Deltas" for "Trina Deitas." On this ground his opponents accused him of Sabellianism, a charge which Ratramnus embodied in a contro- versial tractate. But the reply of Hincmar put an end to this agita- tion (857). I 92. REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. The independence which Charlemagne restored to the German Church seeins to have awakened in the divines of Germany a feeling that they were destined to become the reformers of pre- vailing- abuses. This tendency, though limited, one-sided, and frequently liable to aberrations, manifested itself more or less throughout tlie Middle Ages, until it reached its maturity and perfeciion in tlie sixteenth century. The series of reformers commenced with Charlemagne himself, who vigorously opposed the image-worship of that time. Louia the Pious continued in the path of his father, and allowed Agohard of Lyons and Clau- dius of Turin to combat kindred forms of ecclesiastical super- stition — in the case of the latter divine, perhaps, even beyond the bounds of evangelical prudence. 81 368 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 1. Opposition oj the Carlovingians to Image- War sJiip (790-825). — On occasion of an embassy from the Emperor Constantinus Copronymus (§66, 2), Pepi?i the Short had convoked in 767 a synod at Gentilty (§ 91, 2), where the question of image-worship Avas also discussed. But we are left in ignorance of all beyond this fact, as the acts of the synod have been lost. Twenty years later Pope Hadrian I. sent to Charlemagne the acts of the Seventh Ecumenical Council of Nice (§ 66, 3). In his character of emperor-expectant, Charlemagne felt deeply aggrieved at the presumption of the Greeks, who, Avithout consulting the German Church, had ventured to enact laws which Avere in direct opposition to the practice of the Frankish Church. He replied by issuing in his own name the so-called Lihri Carolini (best ed. by Hevviann, Han. 1731). In this work the attempts of the Eastern prelates are sharply met, and the acts of the Synod refuted seriatim. Although Charlemagne dis- avowed the views of the iconoclasts, and admitted the utility of religious images for exciting devotional feelings, for instructing the people, or as suitable decorations in churches — with special reference to the views of Gregory the Great (? 59, 3) — he reprobated every species of image- worship as a kind of idolatry. On the other hand, the Libri Carolini expressed approbation of the reverence paid to saints, to relics, and to the crucifix. Charlemagne sent this significant treatise, which in all probability Avas composed \>j Alcnin, to the Pope, Avho rejoined, although in the most guarded language. But this reply made no impression on the Frankish monarch. Nay, the authority of a great general council of all the Germanic churches was to be opposed to that of the Council of the Byzantine Court. During his sojourn in England (790-792), Alcuin secured for this purpose the co-operation of the Anglo-Saxon Church. The Synod met at Franlcfort in 794, and solemnly confirmed the principles of the " Libri Carolini." The Pope deemed it prudent to leave this controversy to the operation of time and popular feeling. — Under the reign of Louis the Piovs the question was again discussed, on occasion of an embassy from the iconoclastic emperor, Michael Bal- bus. At a national synod held at Paris (825), the conduct of Hadrian I. was reprehendcil, the practice of image-Avorship reprobated, and the principles of tlic "Libri Carolini" once more confirmed. Pope Eu- gene II. made nn reply. This rejection of the Second Nicene Council and opposition to image-worship continued in the Frankish Empire till the tenth century. 2. Soon after the Council of Paris, Agohard of Lyons (§ 90, 4) pub- lished a tractate : Contra superstitioncm eorum, qui picturis et imagi- nibus Sanctorum adorationis obsequium deferendum putant. But the prelate went much further than the Libri Carolini. He proposed entirely to remove all images from churches, as the practice would inevitably lead to abuses. Besides, he also rejected the idea of paying homage to saints, relics, or angels. Our confidence was to be placed only in Almighty God, whom alone we Avere to worship through Jesus REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. 369 Christ, the sole Mediator. At the same time, he wished to int:oduco certain reforms in the Liturgy (g 90. 8). He also opposed those por- tions of the public services which were merely designed to affect the senses, and would Have banished the use of all non-inspired hymns. On the other hand, he insisted on the necessity of diligent study of the Bible, and condemned all appeals to ordeals (§ 88, 4), and all the popu- lar superstitions about witchcraft, and supernatural means for securing favourable weather (Contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de grandine et tonitruis) ; as also the belief, that diseases and other plagues might be averted by donations to churches. On the subject of inspiration his views were somewhat loose (| 90, 6). Still nobody thought of charging him with heresy. — Claudius, Bisliop of Turin (| 90, 4), went even beyond Agobard. From the writings of Augustine that prelate had derived views, more deep and full than any of his cotemporaries, of the blessed truth, that man is justified without any woi-ks of his own, only through the mercy of God in Christ. Louis the Pious had elevated him to the See of Turin for the express purpose of opposing image-worship in Italy, the great stronghold of this superstition. In his diocese the veneration paid to images, relics, and crucifixes had been carried to fearful excess. These abuses seemed to call for stringent measures. Accordingly, Claudius ordered all images and crucifixes to be flung out of the churches. Popular tumults ensued in consequence, and only fear of the Frankish arms could have preserved the life or protected the office of the bold prelate. When Pope Paschal expostulated with him on the subject, he replied, that he would only recognize his apos- tolic dignity so long as he did the works of an apostle ; if otherwise, Matt, xxiii. 2, 3, applied to him. Claudius expounded Ir iews in some exegetical tractates. In answer to T/ieodimir, Abbot of I'-almody, the Bishop of Turin wrote, in 825, a work entitled " Apologeticus," which is only known from the rejoinder of Theodimir. A Scotchman, Dnngal, teacher at Pavia, also wrote against him, and accused him before the Emperor. Upon this Jonas, Bishop of Orleans, was com- missioned to refute the Apologeticus. The work (de Cultu Imaginum LI. III.), which appeared only after the death of Claudius, emtodiea the principles of the Frankish Church on the subject of image-wo:ship. SECOND PERIOD ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. FROM THE TENTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENT. I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. I 93. MISSIONARY OPERATIONS DURING THAT PERIOD. The christianization of the continent of Europe was almost completed during this period, that of Lapland and Lithuania alone being reserved for the following. Both the mode and results of missionary operations continued as before. The labours of the heralds of the Cross were supported by armed force; monasteries and fortresses became the bases for the spread of Christianity ; political motives and marriages with Christian princesses generally effected the conversion of heathen rulers ; and the peoples were either obliged to follow the example of their sovereigns, or submitted in silent resignation ; while, under the cover of Christianity, many heathen superstitions continued to exist. It was the policy of the German emperors to place the newly-converted races under the spiritual supremacy of the Metropolitan of Germany. Thus Hamburg and Bremen was made the see for Scandinavia and the Baltic Provinces, Magde- burg that for Poland and the adjoining countries, Mayence for Bohemia, Pai/h 1160), maintained his authority for some time. His son, Pribislas, (the ancestor of the present princes of Mecklenburg), by a timely adoption of Christianity (1164), secured for himself a part of his paternal inheritance, as a Saxon feudal principality. The rest of the country Henry the Lion divided among his German warriors, settling the devastated possessions with German colonists. The power of the LuTiciANS was broken by Albert the Bear, the founder of Mark Bran- denburg, after long contests and numerous insurrections (1157). He, also, placed a great number of German colonists upon the desolated country. The work of Christianizing the Sorbi was much easier. After their first defeats by Henry I. (922-927), they never regained tn^.'r liberty. The mission of the sword more or less closely attended the mission of the cross among the Wends. Among the Sorbi, bishop Benno of Misnia [ob. 1106), laboured with special zeal ; among the Obotrites, St. Vicelin, under sore trials and sufferings. St. Vicelin died Avhilst bishop at Oldenburg (1154). His successor, Gerold, who trans ferred the see to Llibeck, followed in his footsteps. Other zealous Wend apostles deserving mention, are, bishop Everanocl of Ratzeburg (from 1154), bishop Berno of Schwerin (from 1158). (Chief sources: • — Widukinds. v. Corbei. (c. 970), Chronik. — Thietmar's Chronik. — Adam v. Brem. — Helmold's [ob. 1170), Chronicon. Slavorum). The Pomeranians were sulyugated (1121), by the Polish duke Boleslav III., Avho extorted from them an oath that they would embrace Christianity. But the work of their conversion proved so difficult, that he could find no one among his clergy willing to undertake it. Thereupon Bern- hard, a Spanish monk, offered his services (1122). But the Pomera- nians drove him off as a beggar, asserting that if the God of the Christians was really Lord of heaven and earth, he would send them a servant corresponding with his dignity. This convinced Boleslav that none but a man who combined Avith a true missionary spirit, the shoAV of worldly grandeur and wealth, could succeed on that field, and bishop Otho V. Bamberg seemed to suit the case. Otho consented, and in two missionary towns (1124, 1128), founded the Pomeranian Church. Following Boleslav's counsel, he both times travelled in princely style. The result was astonishing, though he several times came near losing his life. The entire Middle Ages furnish no example (unless St. Boni- face be excepted), of a like noble, pure, and successful missionary effort. No missionary of that period exhibited the same firmness, with- out egotism ; earnestness, without severity ; gentleness, and placability, without weakness ; glowing zeal, without fanaticism ; and, in no other instance did the German and Slavic nationalities merge so harmoniously. The last bulwark of Wend heathenism was the island RUgen; it yielded (1168), to a league between the Danish king Waldemar I., and princes of Christian Pomeranians and Obotrites. — (Main source: Vitae Ottoni). MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. 377 3. Missions among the Fins and Letonians. — (Cf. Fr. Eilhs, Finnl. u. s. Bewohner. Lpz. 1809. — F. K. Gadebusch, livl. Jahrb. 3 Bde. Riga. 1780. — Fr. Kruse, Urgesch. d. esthnisch. Volksstammes. Lpz. 1846 (unreliable). — Osk. Kienitz, 24 Bb. livl. Gesch. Bd. I. Dorp. 1847. — K. V. Schlozer. Livl. u. d. Aufange. d. deutsch. Lebons im bait, Norden. Berl. 1850. — A. v. Bidder, Gesch. d. russ. Kaiserth. einverl- eibten. deutscli. Ostseeprov. Bd. I., Abth. I. (1158-1347), Riga. 1857. — E. Papst, Meinhart, Livland's Apost. Reval. 1847-49. — /. Yoigt, Gesch. Preussens. bis z. Unterg. d. Ilerrsch. d. deutsch. Ordens. Bd. I-III., Konigsb. 1827.— A'. 0. TurnwaJdt, d. Leb. Adalb. v. Prag. &c., in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1853, II. — J. M. Watterich, d. Grlindung. d. deutsch. Ordenstaates Preussen. Lpz. 1857). — Christianity was in- troduced into FixLAND by St. Eric, by means of conquest and force (1157). Bishop Henry of Upsala, the apostle of the Fins, vrho accom- panied him, suffered martyrdom in 1158. The Fins hated Christianity as ardently as the Swedish rule which brought it to them. It was only after the third invasion, under the chief magistrate Tliorkel Canuteson (1293), that success was achieved. Lapland became subject to Sweden in 1279, and Christianity was gradually introduced. In 1335, bishop Hemming of Upsala consecrated the first church in Tornea. Modern EsTHOxiA, Livonia, and Curland, were settled by people of Finnish descent ; though Livonia and Curland were likewise settled by Leto- nians from the South and East, (Letonians and Letonian-Gauls in Livonia, and Semgauls and Wends in Curland). The first attempts to plant Christianity in those regions proceeded from Swedes and Danes, and, as early as 1048, under the Danish king Sven III., Estritson, a church was built in Curland by Christian merchants ; and the Danes, not long after, built the fortress Lindanisso, in Esthnia. The elevation of the bishopric of Lund to a metropolitan see (1098), occurred with reference to these countries. In 1171, Pope Alexander III. sent Fulco, a monk, as bishop of Finland and Esthnia, to convert the heathen there, but he seems not to have entered upon his duties. The first permanent results were secured by German preachers and swords. Merchants from Bremen and Liibcck had formed commercial leagues with the regions along the Diina. Meinhart, a pious priest from the monastery of Segeberg, in Ilolstein, undertook, in their companj% and under the auspices of the Bremen archbishop, Ilartwig II., a missionary journey thither (1186), established a church at Uerklill, on the Dlina, and became its bishop, but died 1196. His companion, Dietrich, laboured in the vicinity of Treiden, as far as into Esthnia. Meinhart's successor as bishop was the Cistercian abbot Berthold v. Loccum, in Hanover. Driven off soon after his arrival, he returned with a band of German crusaders, and fell in battle, 1198. His successor was the Bremen canon, Albert von Burhoicden, (v. Appeldern). He removed the see to Riga, which he built in 1201 ; and, for the protection of the mission, established, 1202, the Order of the Sword (§98,6), and 32* 378 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). fvMinded, amid constant conflicts with the Russians, Esthnians, Curs, and Letonians, new bishoprics in Esthnia, Dorpat, Oesel, and Sem- gaul, and Avellnigh Christianized all these countries. He died 1229. After 1219, the Danes co-operated with Albert in the conquest and conversion of Esthnia. Waldemar II. founded Reval (1219), elevated it to a bishopric, and used all means to expel the Germans; but he failed. Indeed the Danes were compelled (1227), to leave Esthnia. After Albert's death, the difficulties of the Germans so increased, that Voli/uin, the excellent master of the Order, had to invoke the aid of the new Prussian order of Teutonic Knights. The union of the two orders, hindered by Danish intrigues, was not effected until 1237, when a fearful defeat of the Germans by the Letonians not only threatened the existence of the Order of the Sword, but the Livonian Church itself. Then first was Curland (the see at Pilten), permanently subjugated and converted ; it had j^romised to embrace Christianity in 1230, but soon again relapsed into heathenism. Finally, in 1253, Riga was also made a metropolitan see ; Albert Suerbeer (previously archbishop of Armagh in Ireland), having been appointed by Innocent IV. arch- bishop of Prussia, Livonia, and Esthnia, removed his see to Riga. (Cf. F. V. Gotze, Albert Suerbeer, St. Petersb. 1854). — (Chief sources : Heunj the Lettonian, [ob. after 1227), Origines Livonicae. — Ditleb's v. Alepeke livl. Reimchronik.) — The old Prussians and Lithuanians also belonged to the Letonians. To the Prussians (between the Weichsel and Memel), St. Adalbert of Fragile first bore the tidings of salvation, but suffered martyrdom soon after he commenced labours in Samland (997). In 1009, the zealous monk Bruno, and eighteen companions, met with a similar fate on the borders of Letonia. Two centuries elapsed before another missionary showed himself in Prussia. The first was abbot Godfrey, of the Polish monastery of Lukina. At the outset he and his companion Philip were encouraged, but they soon suffered martyrdom (1207). The labours of the Cistercian Christian, of the Pomeranian monastery Oliva, three years later (1209), were more successful and permanent. He was the real apostle of the Prussians, became bishop in 1214, and died in 1244. Following the example of the Order of the Sword in Livonia, he founded, 1225, the order of the Milites Christi, ■which, however, was reduced to five men in the first year of its exist- ence.— In union with duke Conrad of Masovia, whose country had also suffered fearfully from the ini'oads of the heathen Prussians, Christian called in the aid of the Teutonic Knights (| 98, 6), then already in high repute in Germany, a branch of whom emigrated to Culmerland in 1228, and thus laid the foundation of the civil sway of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia. Then commenced a sanguinary con- flict of sixty years' duration, for the extermination of Prussian heathen- ism. This struggle may be said to have lasted until the greater part of the Prussians, after numerous insurrections, victories, and defeats, ivere slain (1283), by the swords of the Knights and of crusaders from MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. 8/ J Germany, Poland, Bohemia, &c. Among hosts of missionaries (chiefly Dominicans), Bishop C/irisfian, the papal legate William, bishop of Modena, and the Polish Dominican Hi/acinth, an ardent preacher of repentance and faith [ob. 1257), merit special mention. As early as 1243, William of Modena had drawn up an ecclesiastical constitution for the country, which divided Prussia into four bishoprics, which, after 1253, were under the metropolitan of Riga. — (Chief sources: the Chronicon Prussice of Peter of Duisburg, of the 14th cent., a Chron. van d. Duitscher Oirder of the 15th cent., and the Pruss. Chron. of Luk. David [ob. 1583), in which use was made of the, since then, lost work of bishop Christian, Liber filiorum Belial). — The establishment of Christianity in LiTnuANiA proved most enduring. After Biiigold had founded (1230), a grand duchy in Lithuania, his son Mindoive, (Mendog), resolved to extend it by conquest. The Prussian Livonian Knights, however, so reduced him that he sued for peace, and was compelled to be baptized (1252). But he bad scarcely recovered from his humiliation, when he threw aside the mask (1260), and assailed his Christian neighbours anew. His son, Wolstinik, who had adhered to the faith, reigned too short a time [ob. 1266), to secure recognition from his people. With him disappeared every trace of Christianity in Lithuania. The grand duke Gedimin (1315-40), was the first again to tolerate Christianity in his country. Under his suc- cessor, Olgerd, Romish Dominicans and Russian popes rivalled each other in their missionary zeal. Olgerd was baptized by the Greeks, but soon relapsed. His son, Jagello, whose mother was a Christian, and who had married the young Polish queen, Hedicig, whose hand and crown he obtained by being baptized, and obligating himself to introduce Christianity into his country (1386), put an end to heathen- ism in Lithutmia. His subjects, to each of whom a woollen garment was given by their sponsors, pressed in crowds to be baptized. An episcopal see was founded at Wilna. 4. Missions among the Mongols. — (Cf. Marco Polo, Travels, &c. — De G-uifines, hist, generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongols. Par. 1756. — D'Ai'czac, Relation des Mongoles ou Tartares. Par. 1838, in the R6cueil de voyages et m^moires publie par la soc. geogr. T. IV. — Abel-Renmsuf, Memoires sur les relations politiques des princes Chre- tiens avec les empereurs Mongols, in the Mem. des I'lnstit. royal de France.— T. VI., 396, &c., VII., 355, &c., Par. 1822, l^2A.—D' Ohsson, Hist, des Mimg. depuis Tschingis-Khan jusqu'i, Timur-lenk. Par. 1824, — L. MosJu'im, Hist. Tartarorum eccl. Ilelmst. 4to, 1741. — W. Heijd, Studien liber d. Kolonien d. rom. K. unter d. Tartaren, in the hist theol. Ztschr. II. 1858). — The most extravagant accounts of the power and glory of the Tartar priest-king John (| 73, 1), were current in the West, even after his kingdom was overthrown by Genghis Khan, in 1202. Pope Alexander III. sent an embassy to him (1177), of the result of which nothing is known. The Monqol prince? after the time 32 880 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 \.. D.). of Genghis Khan, in deistic indifference, showed themselves equally tolerant and inclined towards Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The Nestorians were very numerous, though greatly reduced in their empire. In 1240 and 41, the Mongol hosts, in their constant advances westward, threatened to overrun and lay waste all Europe. Russia, Poland, Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary, had been already fearfully devastated, when the wild plunderers suddenly and unexpectedly turned their course. Pope Innocent IV. sent (1245), a Dominican em- bassy, under Nich. Ascelinus, to the commander-in-chief Bafchu, then in Persia, and a Franciscan embassy under John of Piano- Carpini to the Great Khan, Oktai, (successor of Genghis Khan, from 1227), to his capital Caracorum, calling upon him to be converted, and commanding him to abstain from his repeated incursions. Both embassies were fruitless. Equally so were two embassies of Louis IX., of France, oc- casioned by a pretended Mongol embassy, which told the king some fabricated stories concerning the inclination of the Great Khan, Gajnk and his princes, to Christianity and of their purpose to conquer the Holy Land for the Christians. The first embassy (1241), proved an utter failure, for the Mongols regarded the presents brought to them as tribute and an acknowledgment of voluntary subjection. The second, also, to the Great Khan Mangu (1253), although conducted by that admirable tactician, the Franciscan, William Ruyshroek (de Rubru- quis), was fruitless, for, Mangu, instead of allowing them to remain and preach the gospel in the country, sent them back to Louis, after they had held a debate with the Mohammedans and Buddhists, with a menacing demand of subjection to him. After Mangu's death (1257), the Mongol empire was divided into an Eastern (China), and Western (Persia). The former was ruled by the Khan Kuhlai, the latter by the Khan Hulagu. Hulagu, whose mother and wife were Christians, put an end to the caliphate of Bagdad, but was thereupon so pressed by the Sultan of Egypt, that he opened a long series of embassies and negotiations in England with the popes, and kings of France, who were planning a common movement against the Saracens, and made splendid offers to the East. His successor continued these negotiations, which, however, were only empty promises and encouragements. The age of the crusades had passed, and even the most powerful popes could not revive them. The Persian khans, vaccilating between Islam and Christianity, sank into greater impotence, until, finally, Tamerlane, upon the ruins of their power undertook (1387), under the auspices of the Crescent, to found a universal Mongol empire. But with his death (1405), perished the rule of the Mongols in Persia, and that of the Turcomans began. Thenceforth Islam remained the predominant religion amidst all the changes of dynasties. Kublai-KIian, the ruler of China, a genuine type of the mixed religion of the Mongols, also seemed inclined to Christianity, but at the same time favouri-d the Mohammedans, and in 1260, gave to Buddhism a hierarchal form and m:ssionary operations 381 oonaolidatioii >>y the appointment of the first Grand Lama. The journey of two Veno*-ians, of the house of Poll, who returned from the country of the Mongols in 1209, led to the establishment of an Eastern Christian mission in China. In 1272, Pope Gregory X. sent two Dominieans thither, who were joined by the two Puli, and the son of one of tliem, Marco Polo, then seventeen years old. Marco won the implicit confidence of the Khan, who entrusted him with an important vicegerency. On his return he published a Pcn't/rinatio s. LI. ?> de Oriental. redk of Ncuilly, the great penitential preacher of his age, induced the nobility of France to fit out a considerable armament. Instead, how- ever, of marching against the Saracens, they were induced hy Dandolo, the Doge of Venice, to assist him in subduing Zara in Dalmatia, by way of payment for the transport of the troops, and then to advance against Constantinople, where Baldwin of Flanders founded a Latin Empire (1204-1261 ; Cf. | 67, 4). The Pope excommunicated the Doge and the crusaders for the conquest of Zara, and strongly censured the campaign against Constantinople. But he was appeased by the unex- pected result; he rejoiced that Israel, after casting down the golden calves in Dan and Bethel, was again united with Judah, and bestowed the pallium, in Rome, iipon the first Latin patriarch of Constantinople. — The Crusade of the Children. (1212), which robbed parents in France and Germany of 40,000 children (boys and girls), terminated most sadly. Many thousands perished in Europe already of hunger and fatigue, the rest fell into the hands of ruthless men who sold them into Egypt. At the urgent persuasion of Pope Honorius III., Andrew II. of Hungary led another army of crusaders to Palestine in 1217. He gained some advantages; but, being betrayed or forsaken by the barons 33 z 386 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). of Palestine, he returned the following!; year. The Germans, however, who went out with him under Leopold VII. of Austria, remained, and, having been strengthened by a fleet from Cologne and the Netherlands, undertook (1218), in connection with King John of Jerusalem, a cam- paign into Egypt. Damietta was taken ; but by the breaking of the dykes of the Nile, they were driven to such extremities, that they owed their escape to the generosity of Kamcl (1221). 5. Fifth Crusade (1228). — The Emperor Freberic II. had also pro- mised the Pope to undertake a crusade, but delayed on various pretexts, till Pope Gregory at length excommunicated him. Frederic now set out at the head of a comparatively small army (1228). Kamel, the Sultan of Egypt, was at the time engaged in war with a rival. Under the apprehension that Frederic might co-operate with him, he hastily concluded peace, ceding Jerusalem and several other towns. On the Holy Sepulchre the Emperor crowned himself with his own hands (Jerusalem being the hereditary portion of his spouse Jolanthe), and then returned to make his peace with the See of Rome (1229). — The crusaders whom King Theobald of Novarra (12.39) and Count Richard of Cormcallis (1240) led to Palestine, accomplished nothing, in conse- quence of factions among themselves, and the distractions prevailing among Syrian Christians. 6. Sixth (1248) and Seventh Crusades (1270). — The ardour iu this cause had for a considerable time been declining. Nevertheles.<* St. Louis (IX.) of France assumed the cross, during a dangerous illness (1244). At that time Jerusalem was taken by the Carizmians, whom the Sultan of Egypt had hired, amid the most fearful cruelties. Until 1247 the authority of the Christians in Palestine was confined to Acre and some seaports. Louis could be restrained no longer. In 1248 he once more set out at the head of a considerable army, and, having win- tered in Cyprus, passed in 1249 into Egypt. He defeated the Egyptian? both by sea and by land, and took Damiette. His army, however, was decimated by battles, pestilence, and famine, and himself made pri- soner )jy the Mamelukes, who had lately dethroned tlie dynasty of Saladin. After payment of a heavy ransom, he was allowed to return to his own country in 1250. The pious monarch still felt as if his vow had not been fulfilled. Accordingly, he embarked a second time in 1270 for Tunis, in the hope of making that city the basis of further operations. But half of his army, and the king himself, were swept away by a pestilence that same year. Ptolemais, the last stronghold of the Christians in the Holy Land, fell in 1291. § 95. ISLAMISM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. In tlie eleventh century the dominion of the Saracens in Sicily (§ 81) gave place to that of the Normans. In Spain (§ 81) I S L A iM ISM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. 387 also the swiiy of Moluiinmcdaiiisin was drawing to a close. Fre- quent clici Hires of rulers and dynasties, and the division of the country into small caliphates, had weakened the power of tlie Moors ; while increasing degeneracy of manners, in a rich and luxurious country, gradually diminished the military prowess and ardour of the people. Altliough the Cliristian forces of the country were also drawn from a number of small kingdoms, patriotism and religious entliusiasm, which grew as the contest continued, rendered them invincible. Bucb-igo Diaz, the Casti- lian hero (culled l)y the Moors the Cid, or Lord, by Christians the Gampeador or Commander) — oh. 1099 — appeared to these warriors tlie embodiment of Spanish and Christian chivalry, though it must be confessed that the conduct of these heroes towards vanquished infidels was at times neither Christian nor knightly. The Moors called in the aid of the Almoravides (1086); but neither could they nor the Almohades from Bar- bary, who afterwards (1146) took their place, restore the former glory of the Moorish arms. 1. LslaDtism in Sicih/. — The predatory incursions of the Sicilian Saracens into Italy, put an end (from 1017) to the Norman settlers there. Robert, Guiscard subverted the remnants of Greek rule in Lower Italy, subdued the small Lombard dukedoms there, and founded an independent Norman duchy of Apuleia and Calabria (1060), whilst his brother Roger, in a war of 30 years' duration, seized all Sicily from the Saracens, and governed it as a vassal of his brother, under the name of Count of Sicily [ob. 1101). His son Roger II. [oh. 1154) con- nected the government of Apuleia and Calabria with that of Sicily, had himself crowned king of Sicily in 1130, and in 1139 conquered Naples. By the marriage of his daughter Constancia with Henry IV., the Sicilian crown passed over to the Ilohenstanfen (1194). But as Robert Guiscard already had given an oath of fealty to Pope Nicholas II., the successors of Peter regarded Sicily as a papal fief. 2. Mamism in Spain. — The times of Ahderrahman III. (912-61) and Ilakem II. (961-76), Avere the most brilliant and happy of the Ommiyahen caliphate. After the death of the latter the Hadschib Almansur [ob. 1002) reigned in the name of the efi"eminate and volup- tuous Hcscham II. But endless civil wars were the consequence of this arrangement; and in 1031, durino; one of these insurrections, the last Ommiyah, Ahderrahman IV., voluntarily renounced the crown and fled. The caliphate Avas now divided into as many emirates as there had been emirs. Amid these distractions Christian princes could extend their power. Sancho the Great, King of N^avarre (970-1035), jnited under hip dominion, by marriage and conquest, wellnigh the 388 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT 11— 13 A. D.). whole of Christian Spain, but severed it again by division among hig sons, of whom Ferdinand I. {ob. 1065) inherited Castile and conquered Leon (1037). With him began the glory of Spanish knighthood. His son Alfonzo IV. {ob. 1109) wrested (1085) Toledo, and a great part of Andalusia from the Moors. These called the potent Almoravide lord, Yusvf Ben Taschjin, of Morocco, to their aid. The Christians were defeated on the plains of Salacca (108G). Soon the victor turned his arms against the confederates, and within six years all Moslem Spain fell under his dominion. His son Ali, in the fearfully bloody battle of Ucles (1107), annihilated the flower of the Castilian nobility. That was the zenith of the Almoravide rule; from that time their star grew pale. J(/b?izo /. of Aragon (1105-34) took Saragossa (1118), and other towns ; Alfonzo VII. of Castile (1126-57), whose power rose to such a height that most Christian princes acknowledged him as their feudal lord, and that he had himself solemnly crowned, 1135, as Emperor of Spain, made a splendid campaign into Andalusia, and pressed even to the S. coast of Granada (1144). AJjmizo I. of Portugal wrested Lisbon from the Moors. Count Raymund of Barcelona, took Tortosa, &c. Si- multaneously the power of the Almoravides was undermined in Africa. In 1146 Morocco, and the whole of N.AV. Africa, fell into the hands of J/iiwhaden Abdolmnmin, Avhose general Abu Amram at the same time took Andalusia (Moslem Spain). Abdolmumin's son ll(suf himself entered Spain, 1184, wdth an immense army, to exterminate Christian rule there, but fell in the battle of Santerem, against Alfonzo I. of Portugal. His son Yalcub avenged this defeat by the bloody battle of Alarcos, in which 30,000 Castilians perished (1195). But as, after a few years, the Christians made new attempts, Yakub's successor, Mo- hammed, entered Spain with a half million of fanatical Africans. It was the decisive hour for Spain. The Christians had gained time to unite their strength. On the plains of Tolosa, 1212, they fought, under Alfonzo VIII. of Castile, with unexampled heroism. More than 200,000 Africans were left dead on the field of battle. It was the death-blow of Almohaden rule in Spain. In spite of the feuds which broke out among the Christian princes, they conquered (especially St. Ferdinand III. of Castile, 1217-52, and James J., the Conqueror of Aragon, 1213-76), during twenty-five years, all Andalusia ; so that only in the extreme south of Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, there remained a remnant of INIoslem dominion, under the Emir Mohammed Aben Alamar, Avhere the splendour of Arabic culture once more again shone forth. — In 1469 the two most powerful Christian kingdoms of Spain were united by the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile. Then came Granada's last hour. On January 2d, 1492, Abu-Abdilahi [Boabdil)^ the last caliph, concluded a disgraceful treaty, in accordance Avith which he evacuated Granada, and a few moments afterwards the Castilian banner waved over the loftiest turrest of the proud Alhambra. The Pope bestowed upon the royal pair the title of Catholic kings. Those THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 389 Moors who refused baptism were expelled ; but even the Moris^^jes, or baptized Moors, proved so dangerous an element in the state, that Philip III., 1609, resolved upon their entire expulsion. Most of them sought refuge in Africa, where they again professed Islamism, which they had never cordially renounced. 3. By trade and usury the Jck-s had obtained almost exclusive posses- sion of the coined money. The influence thus acquired was more than counterbalanced by the cruelty and oppression to which, from their wealth, they were exposed on the part of needy princes and nobles. Every public calamity was popularly ascribed to them ; they poisoned the wells, and thus occasioned epidemics ; they stole consecrated wafers in order to pierce them through with needles ; they abducted Christian children to sacrifice them at their Passover. Popular superstition and enmity, thus excited, frequently found vent in tumults, in which thou- sands of innocent persons fell victims, and whole quarters, with their defenceless inhabitants, were consumed hj the flames. Occasionally the crusaders also commenced their heroic exploits at home with a massacre of Jews. In Spain the synagogue sufi'ered persecutions simi- lar to those of the Moors and Moriscoes. Several of the popes — espe- cially Gregory VII., Alexander III., and Innocent III. — published ordi- nances for the protection of the Jews, interdicted the practice of forced conversions, and called attention to the circumstance that they were destined by Providence to be living evidences to the truth of Chris- tianity.— The German Emperors, also, took the Jews under their special protection, regarding them as servi camera nostrce speciales (as Vespa- sian and Titus had done). In England and France also, they were considered as property of the crown. II. HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. §96. THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN GERMAN EMPIRE. Cf. W. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kaiserzeit. Braunschw. 1852, etc. (So far 2 vols.) The history of the Papacy during this period opens amid its deepest degradation. It was Germany which put an end to these infamous abuses ; the Papacy once more recovered from its low state, and remembering its high aims, rapidly rose to the highest pomt of its irfluence'and power. With the alternative before it 33* 390 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D.). of being subject to the secular power of the emperors or of ren pering them subject to its spiritual sway, it entered into mortaj conflict with that very monarchy to which it owed its recovery. In this contest, which raged most fiercely during the disputes with the Hohenstaufen dynasty, the Papacy carried indeed the victory, but only again to experience that it could neither co- exist nor dispense with a strong imperial government. As the overturn of the empire of Charlemagne had reduced the Papacy to utter degradation under the vile rule of Italian nobles, so its victory over the German monarchs issued in rendering it subject to French policy, to an extent scarcely less humiliating. — At the time when the Papacy rose from its decay, the orders of Clugny and Camaldoli (§ 98) proved its strongest supporters and best advisers ; afterwards, the begging friars formed a sort of Papal standing army ; while the Crusades, besides contributing a good deal of enthusiasm in favour of the Church, found employ- ment and a grave for troublesome princes and their armies. — When the Papacy reached its climax, the Holy Father was regarded as absolute head of the Church. Already theologians argued that the position of the Supreme Pontiff in the theocracy must insure the infallibility of his official decrees. Gregory VII claimed for the. chair of Peter the right of confirming all appoint ments to vacant sees. From the time of Innocent III., what formerly had been merely papal recommendations to vacant posts (preces, whence the parties recommended were called precistce) were issued as mandata ; while Glement IV. (ob. 1268) insisted that the Pontiff possessed the power of " plenaria dispositio " over all ecclesiastical benefices. According to these vicars of Christ, Universal Councih had only a deliberative voice. From every tribunal an appeal might be taken to the successors of the apostles ; they might grant dispensation from any law of the Church, and they alone possessed the right of canonizing. The practice of kissing the foot originated in an Italian custom ; and even emperors stooped to hold the stirrup to the Pope. In all countries, legates, with absolute power, acted as representatives of the Pope. Theirs it was to convoke and to preside over pro- vincial councils. From the time of Nicholas I. it was customary to crown the Sovereign Pontiff, although at first only a simple crown called tiara was used for the purpose. The College of Cardinals, which consisted of the clergy^ of the cathedral at Rome, and of the seven bishops in the metropolitan diocese. THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 391 formed the ecclesiastical and secular council of the Pope. The Romish curia discharged all the ordinary business ; the ministry of finance bore the name of Rota Romana. Besides the regular revenues derived from the States of the Church and the annual tril)ute from foreign countries, the bestowal of the pall upon newly-elected metropolitans brought considerable sums into the papal treasury. Under special circumstances, the popes also claimed the right of levying a contribution from all churches. 1. The Papacy to the Death of Sylvester II. (904-1003). — (Cf. F. E. Loscher, Gesch. d. rom. Ilurenregiments, 1707, 2. Aufl. unter d.Titel: Hist. d. mittlern Zeitcn als ein Licht aus d. Finsterniss. Lpz. 1725, 4to. — L. Ranke, Jahrb. d. deutsch. Keiches unter d. sjichs. Hause v. G. Waitz, R. A. Kopke, W. Donniyes, W. Giesehrecht, u. R. Wilmanns, 3 Bd. Berl. 1837, &c. — Vehse, Otto d. Gr. u. s. Zeit. Zittau, 1835.— C. Hotter, d. deutsch. Pap.ste. Bd. I. Regeusb. \%Z^.— Floss, d. Papst- -wahl unter d. Ottomen. Froib. 1858.) — In the contests of the Italian nobles Avhich ensued after the departure of the Emperor Arnulf (§ 82, 5), the party of Adalbert, Margrave of Tuscany, proved ultimately victori- ous. For half a century Theodora, the concubine of that prince — a beautiful and noble Roman, but steeped in lowest vice — and her equally infamous daughters, Marozia (Maria) and Theodora, filled the See of Peter with their paramours, their sons, and grandsons, who sur- passed each other in vileness and wickedness of every kind (the so-called Pornocracy). The first of these pontifi's was Sergius III. (904-911), the paramour of Marozia. He was succeeded by John X. (914-928), whom the elder Theodora summoned from his see at Ravenna, as the distance of that city from Rome put some restraint on her infamous connection with him. John successfully resisted the inroads of the Saracens in Italy (^ 81), and after the death of Theodora would have put an end to the infamous rule of these women ; but Marozia had him cast into prison and smothered. The next occupant of the papal chair was John XI. (931), the son of Pope Sergius and Marozia. 'Qui Atberic, his brother, deprived this pontift" and his successors of all secular power [ob. 954). Octavianus, the .son of Alberic, and the most dis.so- lute of that race, at the age of eighteen, once more combined the spirit- ual and secular power. He was the first pontiif who on his elevation to the Papal See changed his name, adopting that of John XII. (955- 963). — Meanwhile matters had progressed be3'ond measure inGermanj'. After the death of Louis III. (911), the last of the Carlovingians, the Frank duke, Conrad I. (911-18), was chosen German king. Although vigorously supported by the higher clergy (the Synod of Ilohenaltheim, 915, which invoked all the terrors of hell upon insurgents), his con- flicts with other dukes prevented his founding a united German empire. This point was first attained under his successor, Henry I. of Saxony (919-36), who, disclaiming the politics of the clergy, granted the dukes 892 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D.). independence in the government of their respective district- . His great son, Otho I. (936-73), after long civil wars, reducing the power of the dukes, conquering and converting the heathen Danes, Wends, Bohe- mians, and Hungarians, decided on interference in the French dissen- sions ; and, gathering around him energetic German clergy, secured such influence as no Western ruler since Charlemagne had enjoyed. — Pope John XII. and the princes of Lombardy invoked the aid of Otho I., against Berengar II. Otho conquered the kingdom of Italy, and at Candlemas, 692, in St. Peter's, was convoked by the pope as Roman Em- peror— a dignity which had been extinct for thirty-eight years (962). Thus was the lioly Roman German Empire established — a power which for centuries continued the central point of the history of the world and the Church. But Otho had hardly left Rome until the Pope changed sides, and entered into alliance with Berengar for the purpose ?<;lf Boul and body to St. Peter, but only on condition that you likewisft restore to him what belongs to him." The emperor consented to a THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 397 supplementary election in Rome, and pledged himself to restore in full the patrimony of St. Peter. Gebhard took the title of Victor II. (1055-57). Ileury kept his word ; he restored the papal territories in the -widest sense, and, besides, transferred to the pope the governor- ship of all Italy. Henry died in 1056, having first conveyed the regency to his wife Agnes, and earnestly recommended her to the counsel and support of the pope, then present. But Victor, likewise, died in 1057. Hildebrand could not boast of having ruled over him, influential as his position was under Victor's reign. After Victor's death, the cardinals, regardless of the imperial pre- rogative, forthwith elected Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, then abbot of Monte-Cassino, and Hildebrand went to Germany to obtain the approbation of the empress. Stephen X. (1057-58) as Frederick called himself, died before Hildebrand's return. During his absence the Tusculan party elevated a pope after their own mind, Benedict X. (1058-59.) But an embassy" of Hildebrand to the empress procured the selection of Bishop Gerliard of Florence as the successor of Peter. Benedict had to flee, and Gerhard, under the name of Nicholas II. (1059-61) ascended the papal chair. Then Hildebrand's greatness began to shine forth in its full brightness ; he became, until his own elevation, the ruling spirit of the Roman court. In spite of obstacles, he raised the papacy and Church to unprecedented power and glory. He advanced systematically, ever more boldly and irresistibly', toward a total reformation of the Church. The freedom of the Church from the arbitrariness and power of the State; independence, in the election of popes, of all temporal influences ; the extermination of simony ; fearless severity against the immorality of the clergy ; the enforcement of celibacy as the most efficient means of emancipating the clergy from the poAver of the world and the State; and the appointment of the best men to the respective offices, were the lever of this reformation. The indis- pensable temporal support in these measures Hildebrand sought among the Normans. Hence Nicholas II. early applied to them ; released them of the ban under which they had rested since Stephen's time; on the ground of Constantino's grant, invested their leader, Robert Guiscard (§ 95, 1) with the dominion over Apuleia. Calabria, and Sicily (not yet wrested from the Saracens) ; took from him an oath of vassalage, by which he bound himself to pay an annual tribute, to protect the papal chair against every invasion of its rights, and above all to maintain the papal elections of the "meliores cardinales." After Nicholas, aided by the Normans, had overthrown the last citadels of the Tusculan counts, he issued a decree, at a Lateran Council in Rome (1059), according to which the election of popes was thenceforth to be made by the cardinals alone, to the exclusion of the nobility and people, j'Ct salvo dehito honore et reverentia dilecti Jilii nostri Hcinrici, qui impro'.sentiartim rex hahetnr, et fitturns imperator Deo concedente spcratw, siciitjcni sibi concessimus et successoribtts illius, qui ab apon- 34 S98 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 1.3 A. D.}. tolica sede personaliter hoc Jus imjjetravn'int. — This decree, and no less the league with the Normans, Avas a public coupling of the imperial rights in Italy with the papal chair. The empress, thereibre, sum- moned a council of German bishops, about Easter, 1061, at which a sentence of condemnation was passed upon Nicholas, and all his regu- lations were annulled. "The pope soon after died.' The Tusculan pai'ty now united with the Germans, under the Lombard Chancellor Wibert, requested the empress to furnish a new pope. At the Council of Basel (1061), Bishop Cadalvs of Farma was appointed. He assumed the title of Honorius II. (1061-72). But Hildebrand had, four weeks before, by agreement with Beatrix of Canossa, caused Bishop Anselm of Lucca to be elected by the cardinals, and consecrated as Alex- ander II. (1061-73) Honorius, led by Wibert, went to Rome and repeatedly vanquished the party of his opponent in bloody conflicts. Duke Godfrey the Bearded, of Lorraine, the husband of Beatrix, now interfered as mediator. He induced both popes to return to their Sees, and submit their controversy to the decision of the empress. Mean- while, matters in Germany Avere tending toward a most pernicious catastrophe. Archbishop Amio of Cologne, at the head of a conspiracy of princes, allured the young king, then twelve years old, at Kaisers- werth, on a Rhine vessel, and carried him off to Cologne (1062). He now secured the guardianship of the royal youth, and with it the government of the empire. A Council at Augsburg (1062) deposed Honorius, and acknoAvledged Alexander as the legitimate pope. But Honorius by no means yielded his claims. With a small ai'my he marched upon Rome (1064), seized the Leonine city, fortified himself in St. Angelo castle, and repeatedly routed the troops of his opponent. But Hildebrand reminded the Normans of their oath. They therefore came, and for two years besieged the anti-pope in St. Angelo, when he escaped by flight. At the Council of Mantua (1067), Alexander was again acknowledged, and Honorius, who tried in vain to split the council by martial force, once more deposed. After that be sank into obscurity, and died forsaken in 1072. Meanwhile the proud, ambitious priest of Cologne had to surrender the training of the young king, Henry IV. (1056-1106), to his Northern colleague. Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen ; and if the former, by his excessive severit\% had exerted an unhappy influence upon the royal youth, the latter spoiled him by excessive leniency. In order to put a check upon his debaucheries, Anno persuaded him to marry the Marchioness Bertha. Ere long he endeavoured to obtain a divorce, but his attempt was frustrated by the opposition of the papal legate Damiani, at the Diet of Worms (1069). This was Henry's first conflict with the papacy. Soon afterwards the Saxons complained to the pope of his extreme oppression of his sub- jects, and making merchandise of all the ofiices of the Church. Alex- ander II. had the unprecedented boldness to cite him to Rome. The pope died soon after, and escaped Heni-y's wrath, and the matter ended THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 399 4. Grefjorii VII. (1073-85). — (For sources see the preceding section.) — Hildchrand had now sufficiently strengthened the papacy, and no longer he.'^itated to complete, in his own name, the work which he had so auspiciously begun. He ascended the chair of Peter by the name of Gregory VII., and intimated his appointment to Henry IV. in a letter so humble and conciliatory as to procure the emperor's con- firmation. At a si/nod held in Borne in 1074, he re-enacted the old stringent laws of celibacii ; declared all priests who lived in wedlock, or had obtained their offices by simony, to be deposed, and their priestly functions invalid. The lower clergy, who were generally married, violently opposed this measure ; but Gregory carried the point (comp. ^ 97, 2). Papal legates visited every country, and, sup ported by the popular voice, carried the order of the Pope into exe (iution. At another sjmod held in Rome (1075), the real contest against simony and the practice of receiving investiture from secular lords was commenced. Any ecclesiastic who in future should accept office from the hands of a layman was to be deposed, and the secular lord who bestowed investiture to be excommunicated. This threat was first put in execution in the case of Henry's personal advisers, who had been guilty of the most shameless simony. The emperor, at the time fully engaged Avith suppressing a revolt of the Saxons, concealed his anger, and dismissed his advisers. They were, however, restored at the close of the war, and the former simony, spoliation of churches, and oppi'ession recommenced. Meantime Gregory himself met with opposition in Italy. Ccncius, the leader of that party among the nobles which Avas opposed to reform, attacked the pope in church during the celebration of the Christmas festivities (1075) ; but the Romans set him free, and Cencius had to fly. A papal embassy was now (1070) despatched to the court at Goslar, to cite the emperor to appear personally at Rome under pain of excommunication. Henry no longer restrained his indignation ; he insulted the legates, and at a si/nod held at irorms in 107G had the pope deposed, on the charges of tyranny, magic, and adultery. Gregory replied by excommunicating all the bishops who had taken part in the synod, and by solemnly deposing and excommunicating the emperor, at the same time freeing his subjects from their oath of allegiance. The papal ban made a deep impression on the people and princes of Germany, and the prelates submitted one after the other. At a diet held at Trihur the election of a new emperor was even discussed, when the Aveak monarch, as much dismaj^ed as formerly he had been obstinate and imperious, resolved upon humbling himself to the utmost. Indeed, such a step had now become necessary, and took not the pope by surprise, although it disconcerted his plans. — In the cold Avinter of 1077, from the 25th to the 27th January, the emi)eror stood barefoot in the garb of a penitent, and fasting the Avhole day, in the court of the castle of Canossa. belonging to the Countess Matilda, whom Gregory was at the 400 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT, 10— 13 A. D.) time visiting. At length the pope consented to give him absolution, but only on condition of his not assuming the royal dignity till hia cause had been investigated and decided. But Henry immediately broke his promise, and accepted the proffered aid of the Lombards. Gregory again hurled his anathema, pope and emperor deposed each other, and both parties set up antagonists. The armies of Henry were successful. ■ Rudolf of Sumbia, his opponent in the empire, died soon after the battle of Mei'seburg (1080), and Henry escorted the anti- pope, Clement III., to Italy. Rome was taken ; but still Gregory refused all overtures of peace, and shut himself up in the castle of St. Angelo, till the Norman duke, Robert Guiscard, restored him tn liberty in 1084. Gregory died the following year at Salerno (1085). Gregory YII. also came in conflict Avith King Philij) I. of France, and threatened him with an interdict and with deposition for his simony. But the result of this attempt was compa.'atively trifling. Philip apparently obeyed the command of the Pope, but did not change his course, and Gregory thought it prudent not to press the matter. Still more cautiously did he act tOAvards William the Conqueror, of England, although William tyrannized with an iron grasp over the Church of his realm, and was scarcely less guilty of simony than the Kings of Germany and France. But the Pope, who hoped to engage William in a war against Henry IV., and who even excited expectations of obtain- ing the imperial crown, closed his eyes against William's faults, and overloaded him with favours. The primate of England, also, Lanfranc of Canterhury, who was displeased with the Pope for protecting the heretic Berengar (^ 102, 2), showed no special zeal on behalf of the reforms desired by the Pope. Indeed at a Synod at Winchester (1076), the law of celibacy was defeated, though with the restriction that the secular clergy should no longer be allowed to marry, but priests then married were not required to dismiss their wives. It was the great object of Hildebrand's life to form a universal theocracy, of which the Pope, as vicar of Christ upon earth, and hence as possessing supreme power, should be the visible head. Not that the royal power was to be abrogated, or its independence limited ; it was an institution of God, but its province extended only to secular matters, and any invasion of spiritual rights was to be corrected and punished by the Pope. In this grand papal theocracy, which itself was subject only to God and His law, all Christian states were to be joined together as members of one body. It was the spiritual power which consecrated and bestowed divine sanction upon secular rulers ; they reigned by the grace of God, but mediately, not immediately — the Church being the medium between them and God. The Pope was supreme arbiter and lord over them, to whose decisions they were im- plicitly to submit. The relation between royalty and the Papacy was similar to that between the sun and the moon, which imparted to the latter its lustre. As the Church gave its divine authoritv to seculai THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 401 rule, it might again withdraw it where power was abused, and in such cases subjects were absolved from their allegiance. — Admitting that this sj'stem was not consonant with the Gospel, it cannot be denied that during this period of transition it formed a necessary counterpoise to the arbitrary and despotic interferences on the part of the secular p(jwer. Gregory, and with him the ablest men of his age, considered that in this system alone lay the salvation of society, the sole and true preservation both of Church and State, of princes and peoples. And in a certain sense they were right. If the Church was to accomplish its great mission in the training of those nations on whom the future devolved, if it was not to perish amidst the barbarism of that period, it must have been concentrated and secured in a power such as, ac- cording to Gregory, the Papacy was intended to establish. — It was not to place his own individuality on the summit of human authority, but to preserve the Cliurch from imminent destruction, that Gregory undertook his gigantic work. Not vulgar love of power nor vain ambition animated him, but the idea of the high destiny of the Church, to which he devoted his life with enthusiastic ardour. In such a service onlv would he have spent his high intellectual and moral powers. True, a strong individuality' supported him in his struggles, but at the same time he always preserved the consciousness of being a poor sinner, who could find mercy only through the merits of the Saviour. Occasionally, indeed, his energy degenerated into passionate obstinacy, and his enthusiastic devotedness to the interests of the Church led him to forget what by Divine appointment was the pro- vince and authority of the Slate ; but these exaggerations were pro- voked by the deterniined perversity with Avhich he was met. Even his bitterest enemies could not impugn the strict morality of his conduct. However strict and unbending in matters which he deemed true or necessary, he displayed at the same time, not unfrequently, a kindli- ness and liberality far in advance of his age, as, for example, in the dispute of Berengar (§102, 2), and in his decided opposition to the belief in witchcraft and magic, common at that period. 5. To the Settlement of the Dispute about Investiture (1085-1123) — (cf. E. Garvais, polit. Gesch. Deutchl. unter. Heinr. V n. Lothar III. 2 Bde. Lpz. 1841, 2.) — The immediate successors of Hildebrand had been trained in his views, and adopted his policy. The contest between the imperial and papal parties still continued. Urban II. (1088-1099), the second in the See of Peter after Gregoi-y, Avas indeed obliged to vacate Rome in favour of Clement III., the impei-ial anti-Pope ; but tlie enthusiasm for the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre excited by Peter of Amiens, and with which at the Council of Claremont (1095) the Pope inspired Western Christendom, gave him the greatest influence among his cotemporaries. An army of crusaders chased the anti-Pope from Rome ; and Urban was able to resist successfully the opposition of Philip I. of France, whom he had excommunicated at Clermont or. account of 34* 3 a 402 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D.). nis adulterous connection with Bertrada. Tidings of the conquest of Je- rusalem (1099) reached the Pope on his death-bed. He was succeeded by Paschal II. (1099-1118), who also had been trained at Clugny. This pontiff completely humbled Henry IV. by supporting the cause of his rebellious son. But no sooner had Henri/ ^- (llOG-1125) attained the object of his ambition, than the dispute about investiture commenced anew. The Pope, choosing to see the Church poor rather tlian in Ijondage, was obliged to conclude a treaty by which the right of investiture was conceded to the Church, on condition that all ecclesi- astical fiefs obtained since the time of Charlemagne should be restored to the State (1110). The bishops and abbots, however, resisted this agreement, and rendered its fulfilment impossible. Henry took the Pope prisoner, and obliged him to make a new treaty, by which the investiture of bishops with ring and staff (the symbols of priestly authority) before consecration was formally acknowledged as a right belonging to the Emperor. But at a syriod held at Rome (1112) the party of Ilildebrand called the Pope to account. His concessions were declared invalid, and the Emperor excommunicated. The dispute now broke out afresh. Henry took Rome, and the Pope died in exile. At last the controversy terminated, so far as Germany was concerned, by mutual concessions under the pontificate of Calixtus II. (1119- 1124). The Concordat of Worms (1122) settled that all elections of bishops were to be freely conducted according to the laws of the Church, but under the supervision of the Emperor ; and that the right of spiritual investiture by ring and staff belonged to the Pope, while that of secular infiefment with the sceptre was conceded to the Empe- ror. This agreement was confirmed by the First General Lateran Council in 1123 (called in the West the Ninth Q?]cumenical Council). — In England the same controversy had been earlier brought to a close. Even William the Conqueror (1066-1087) had been guilty of gross simony. The abuse reached its highest point under the reign of his son William Rufus. Ralph Flambard, Archbishop of Canterbury, acted as the trusty adviser of the king in this nefarious traffic. During a severe illness William promised amendment, deposed Ralph (1093), and in^his place appointed a well-known ecclesiastic, Anselm, Abbot of Bee (§ 132, 1, 3). But the good resolutions of the king vanished Avith his illness ; he even ventured to insist upon payment of a large sum from Anselm in consideration of his promotion. As this was resisted by the ncAv archbishop, the king confiscated the estates of the archiepiscopal see, and continued to oppress Anselm till he fled to Rome (1097). Henri/ Beauclerc, the son of William, who usurped the throne in violation of the claims of Robert, his elder brother, required the support of the clergy to maintain his position, and hence recalled the primate (1099), promising to abstain from every form of simony. During his stay in Rome, Anselm had attended and voted at a synod against lay investiture. Accordingly, he now refused to take even the THE PAPACY AND THE G E R >I A x\ EMPIRE. 403 oath of fealty ; and as the king insisted upon this, left England a second time (1103), and lived for several years in exile at Lyons. Pope Paschal II. took up his cause, and threatened to launch an interdict. Ultimately, however, the king and archbishop, with con- sent of the Pope, agreed, at a meeting held in the monastery of Bee, wholly to dispense with the ceremony of investiture by ring and staff, and to go through the formality of taking the oath of fealty (1106). 6. To the time of Innocent III. ( 1123-1198.) — (Cf. Fr.v. Raumer, Geseh. d. Hohenstaufen, 2. A. G Bde. Lpz. 1857 etc. — W. Zimmerman, die Hoheust. oder d. Kampf d. ftlonarchie gegen d. Papst u. d. republ. Freiheit. 2 Bde. Stuttg. 1838. — Zf. Reuter, Alex. Ill u. d. K. sr. Zeit. Berl. 1845, I. — Ring, Friedr. I im Kampf gegen Alex. III. Stuttg. 1838. — H. Franke, Arn. v. Brescia u. sr. Zeit. Zurich 1825. — F.J. Buss, d. h. Thomas v. Cantb. Mainz 1856). — A division among the cardinals led to a double election to the Papacy in 1130. Innocent II. (1130-1143) was for eight years kept out of Rome by his antagonist Anaclete II. ; but the two oracles of that period, Peter of Cluyny and Bernard of Claircuux, declared in his favour, nor did they rest satisfied till the authority of Innocent had been recognized in the Eternal City. Meantime a dangerous opponent to the system of Hildebraud had un- expectedly arisen in the person of Arnold of Brescia, a young and enthusiastic priest. To him a complete surrender of all worldly pos- sessions and authority appeared necessary for the regeneration of the Church ; at the same time the ancient republic of Rome was to be re- stored, and to take the place of the Papal Government. Ai-nold was formally condemned by the Second General Lateran Council (1139). But his appeals to the people had found an echo in many breasts. In 1143 the Romans renounced the secular rule of the Pope. This feeling continued till the time of Eugene III. (1145-1153), the third Pope after Innocent, who again entered Rome, supported both by the influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, his teacher and friend, and by the newly awakened zeal for a Second Cnisade (§ 124, 2). With H.\dri.\n W. (1154-1159) commenced the contest between the Papacy and the Hohenstaifen family, which lasted during a whole century, and ended in the extermination of that dynasty, when the Papacy reached the summit of its power and authority. Frederic I. Barbarossa (1152- 1190) ascended the throne with the full determination of carrying into execution the ecclesiastical scheme of Charlemagne (whom he after- wards had canonized by his Pope, Paschal III.). In 1154 Arnold of Brescia fell into his hands. Frederic surrendered him to the Pope ; the reformer was hanged, his body burned, and his ashes cast into the Tiber (1155). Still the Pope sought an occasion of dispute. At last Frederic consented even to hold the stirrup to the Pontiff, while he rejected with merited scorn the offer of the Romans, to receive from their hand the crown, and with it the government of the world. He was crowned bv the Pope in 1155. Fresh dissensions with the Pope 34 404 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T . 10— 13 A. D.). and the ho!?tile attitude of the Lombards obliged the Emperor to pass a second time into Italy. There he held in 1158 a diet, at which the rights of the Emperor were expounded for the benefit of the Lombards and of the Pope. The indignation of the Pontiff Avas about to find vent in an anathema, when death overtook him. He was succeeded by Alexander III. (1159-1181). Three imperial anti-popes died within a short period ; and when the Emperor himself was defeated by the Lombard confederates at Legnano (117G), he was obliged to recog- nize Alexander as poiitiff. — Shortly before, the Papacy had achieved in England a victory even more complete than this. Henry II. (1154- 1189) was bent on recovering the former supremacy over the clergy, who now refused to acknowledge any other authority than that of the Curia. Among his councillors none seemed better fitted to aid him in carrying out this plan than Thomas a Becket, his chancellor, who accordingly was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. The king con- voked an assembly of the estates of the realm at Clarendon (1164) ; and Becket was prevailed upon to take an oath to the anti-papal statutes there promulgated. But the Primate of the English Church soon altered his conduct ; he did public penance for his thoughtless oath, from which Alexander III. solemnly absolved him. Becket had to flee, and in his exile in France continued to oppose his monarch. In 1170 a reconciliation took place. Thomas a Becket returned, to pronounce the ban upon all bishops who should submit to the statutes of Clarendon. Four knights took up an unguarded expression of the king, extorted from him in a moment of anger, and murdered the archbishop at the altar of his chapel. The Pope canonized the martyr of the Romish system, and the king was compelled to expiate his offence by submitting on the grave of his sainted enemy to a humilia- ting penance (1174). At the Third Lateran Council (the Eleventh Oecumenical) in 1179, it was decreed that in future a majority of two- thirds of the votes of cardinals should be required to render a papal election valid. — Frederic I. died far from his country (§ 194, 3). His son, Henry VI. (1190-1197), obtained the crown of Sicily by marrying Constance, the heiress to that country. He continued the measures which his father had taken to secure the supremacy of the Emperor. His opponent, Pope Coelcstine III. (1191-1198), a man ninety years of age, was too weak to resist the monarch. Soon afterwards Henry died, leaving an infant son, Frederic, only three years of age (1197). 7. Innocent III (1198-1216). — (Cf. Fr. Hurler, P. Innoc. III. u. s. Zeitgen. 3. A. 4 Bde. Hamb. 1845. — 0. Abel, Konig Philipp d. Hohenst. Berl. 1852.— C. Hojier (Catholic), Kaiser Friedr. II. Ein Beitr. z. Berichtig. u. d. Sturz d. Hohenst. Munch. 1844.) — For a time, during the pontificate of Coelestine, it seemed doubtful whether the results achieved by the policy of Hildebrand would prove lasting. But in 1198 Innocent III., the greatest Pope whom Rome has ever seen, ascended the chair of Peter. With him the Papacy rose to the THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 405 highest conceivable stage of influence and authority. In strength of mind and purpose Innocent was nowise inferior to Gregory ; in learn- ing, acuteness, and general ability, he was his superior; while his piety, moral purity, enthusiasm, and dewtedness to the interests of the ChuVch, were at least as great, and perhaps more deep and ardent than in the case of his great predecessor. He came furward as the avenger of every species of wrong; towards widows and orphans he acted like a father; he proved a peacemaker both to peoples and princes ; and although himself living in poverty and simplicity, he succeeded in accumulating such immense treasures as enabled him to adopt measures for protecting the interests of the Papacy. Indeed his history was that of the period, inasmuch as his influence extended to all countries and courts, not excepting that of Constantinople. Even where his theocratic authority as vicar of Christ was not at first recog- nized, he succeeded by his power and energy, by his prudence and wisdom, in extorting the homage claimed. It was the great aim of his life to achieve the 2Jolitical independence of the Papal See by strengthen- ing the States of the Church, ridding Italy from foreign domination, and emancipating Sicily and Naples from the rule of Germany. But even this was only means to the higher end of securing the power of exercising unlimited spiritual supremacy over all Christian states, princes, and peoples. — The most important of his conflicts were those with Germany and England. On her death-bed, Constance, the widow of Henry VI., had committed to him the tutelage of her son Frederic, who had been recognized as Emperor even before his baptism. The Pope justified her confidence by giving his pupil the most ample and liberal education. But the circumstances of Germany required with- out delay a strong ruler. The choice of the German nobles was divided ; the Guelph party elected Otlio IV., the Ghibellines Philip of Swabia. In virtue of his theocratic authority, Innocent gave his sanc- tion to the choice of the Guelphs. Scarcely, however, had Otho, after the murder of his rival, obtained the imperial crown, than he renewed the old claims upon Italy. The Pope anathamatized him (1210), and elevated Frederic II. (1215-1250) to the imperial throne, after that prince had ceded Sicil}^ in favour of Henry, his son. — In England, Innocent displayed his authority in a manner even more decisive. In consequence of a divided election there were tAvo claimants to the See of Canterbury (1207). Innocent rejected both, and appointed Stephen Lan;jton to the ofiBce. The resistance of King John was punished with excommunication and an interdict (1209). John, equally tyrannical and weak, hated by the nobles, despised by the people, and deposed by the Pope (1212), did penance, and received back his kingdom as a papal fief (1213). But soon afterwards the estates obliged the king to grant tht> Magna Charta (1215) ; the protest of the Pope, his threats of excommunication, and promise that their grievances should be other- wise redressed, were equally vain. — In France, Innocent obliged Philip 406 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D.). Augustus to take back Ingeburgis, his wife, whom he had repudiated (1201). Arragon and Portugal submitted to a yearly tribute. He frequently interposed in the aiFairs of Poland, Hungary, Dalmatia, and Koncag. Lastly, he gave a king to Bulgaria and Wallacliia. At the close of bis life, and looking back upon the work he had achieved, he assembled, in 1215, the representatives of the Church at the Fourth Lateran Synod (the Twelfth (Ecumenical), where the Eastern patri- archs were also represented. The chief topics discussed in that assem- bly were, a new crusade, the condemnation of the Albigenses, the doc- trine of transubstantiation (which was formally approved), and the coronation of Frederic II. 8. To Boniface VIII. (1216-1294). — (Cf. Th. Lau, d. Unterg. d. Hohenst. Hamb. 1856.) — After the death of Innocent, Frederic IT. entirely changed his conduct. Pope Honorius III. (1216-1227) ab- solved him from the obligation of separating Sicily from Germany. In return, the Emperor guaranteed to the Church the property left to it by the Countess Matilda, and promised to undertake a new crusade. The latter he delayed under various pretexts, till Gregory IX. (1227- 1241) carried into execution the threat of anathematizing him. Upon this Frederic commenced the Fifth Crusade (1228), without, however, even requesting the removal of the papal ban. On his return, an ap- parent reconciliation took place (1230). But the energetic measures which the Emperor took to establish his supreme rule in Italy, soon brought upon him another anathema (1239) — this time on the charge of infidelity and blasphemy. It was said the Emperor had declared the miraculous birth of the Saviour a fable, and pronounced Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed the three greatest impostors, etc. These charges do not seem to have been wholly ungrounded, although the tractate " De tribus impostoribus" was certainly not written by the Emperor, being a later jaroduction, erroneously imputed to Frederic on the ground of those very charges made by the Pope. Frederic conquered the States of the Church, penetrated to the gates of Rome, and prevented the Meeting of the General Council Avhich had been summoned against him. Gregory died in. 1241, and his successor, Coclestine V., after a pontificate of only seventeen days. Two years the Papal See remained vacant. At length, Innocent IV. (1243-1254), formerly the friend of Frederic, but as pope his mortal enemy, was elected. Innocent fled to Lyons ; and at the First Council of Lyons in 1245 (the Thirteenth O^^cn- menical) excommunicated and deposed the Emperor, as guilty of blas- phemy and sacrilege. Neitlier Emperor nor Pope would yield. Each insisted on absolute submission, and the contest with pen and sword continued. Frederic died in 1250 ; Innocent four years later. Urban I\^ (1261-64) called in the aid of Charles of Anjou, the brother ot Louia IX. of France, for the purpose of conquering Sicily. Treason had pre- pared the way. Manfred, the son of Frederic, fell in the battle of Beneven'-o (1266), and Conradin, the grandson of Frederic, and the THE CLERGY. 407 last of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, died on the scaffold, after the battle of Tagliacozzo (1208). — The Papacy had, indeed, obtained the vic- tory ; but its triumph was only apparent. The divisions in Germany and the partition of Italy only increased the power of France, and enabled that country effectually to subjugate the Papacy. The former enthusiasm for crusades was extinct, and with it a powerful bulwark of the Papacy had fallen. By a, pragmatic sanction (1269) Louis secured, indeed, the French Church against simony, but at the same time, also, against the interferences and extortions of the popes, — thereby laying the foundation of the liberties afterwards claimed by the Galilean Church. — Some ultramontane writers have unsuccessfully attempted to prove that this document is a forgery, dating from the fifteenth century. Compare, for example, Rosen, die pragm. Sanct., Mlinst. 1855 ; and against this ultramontane production, Soldan in his "hist, theol. Zeit- schr." for 1856, III. — The successors of Innocent IV. could no longer control the supremacy of the French in Sicily; they hated their arro- gant liberators, and countenanced the conspiracy which issued in the bloody Sicilian Ves2)ers (1282). French influence was even exerted in elections to the Papacy. After the Papal See had remained vacant for three years, Gregory X. (1271-1276) decreed in 1274, at the Second Synod of Lyons (the Fourteenth Oecumenical), that in future the elec- tion of cardinals should be conducted in conclave ; and that, in order to accelerate a harmonious vote, their allowance of food should be daily decreased. Still the evil continued. After another vacancy of the Papal See Avhich lasted two years, the antagonistic parties agreed in the choice of a pious but simple-minded hermit — Ccelestine Y. (1294), who the same year consented to abdicate at the suggestion of the cun- ning and ambitious Cardinal Cajetan [l 112, 6). Cajetan himself now ascended the papal throne, by the name of Boniface VIII, ?97. THE CLERGY. After the tenth century, canonical life (§ 84, 4) gradually de- generated and decayed. The attempts made to reform these abuses, led to a distinction between "Canonical seculares" and "regulares." The latter contended for the ancient discipline and order ; but in course of time also shared in the general cor- ruption. The most distinguished among the advocates of a stricter discipline were, Geroch, Provost of Reichersberg in Ba- varia (ob. 1169), and Norhert, a canon, the founder of the Order of Prasraonstrants (§ 98, 3). The cathedral chapters were in the habit of themselves filling up vacancies in their number ; since the restoration of the old canonical mode of election, they also chose their bishops generally from among themselves, and with- 34* 408 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E NT. 10— 13 A. D.). out consulting the people. From the lavf^e incomes attaching to cathedral stalls, these posts were commonly filled by members of the aristocracy — an abuse against which the popes in vain pro- tested. In the course of time the canons became more and more independent of episcopal control ; they generally lived outside their chapters, and employed vicars to discharge their duties. The bishops exercised jurisdiction over all the clergy in their dioceses, and punished offenders by deposition or by imprison- ment in a monastei'y. All causes connected with marriage, tes- tamentary dispositions, oaths, etc., were also pleaded before their tribunals. The peculiarly German institution of Sends gave place to the Roman form of judicial administration. The arch- deacons threw off the authority of their bishops, and used their power in so arbitrary a manner that, in the twelfth century, the office had to be abrogated. Their duties were henceforth dis- 'jharged by episcopal officials and vicars. The office of chorepis- copi had ceased in the tenth century. During the Crusades a number of Catholic sees had, however, been founded in the East, the occupants of which retained their titles even after their expul- sion, and found employment as assistants of Western prelates (suffragan bishops). This gave rise to the institution of Ejnscopi in partibus (sc. infidelium), which has continued ever since, in testimony of the inalienable rights of the Church. — The wealth of churches was greatly augmented, partly by tithes, legacies, donations (especially during the Crusades), and royal fiefs, partly from the increasing value of landed property. Of course the poor shared in the benefits of this growing prosperity. Ecclesi- astical property was subjected to taxation only in time of public calamity. The celibacy of the clergy preserved the Church from inevitable impoverishment, if its jiroperty had been allowed to descend to the children of the clergy, as at one time seemed likely to be the case. — Strict moralists, such asRalherii(s (Bishop of Verona, ob. 974), and especially Petrus Damiani, Bishop of Ostia {oh. 107- ) — the friend and admirer of Gregory VII., whose "liber gomorrhianus" contains a fearful picture of the dissolute- ness of the clergy — and such monitors as St. Hildegard and the Abbot Jo- chiw (§ 108, 4\ made fruitless attempts to arrest the moral degeneracy of the clergy. Gregory had, indeed, succeeded by his decrees in enforcing clerical celibacy, but not in putting an end to concubinage, and even to worse offences. The labours of Sf Dunsfan, Archbishop of Canterbury (ob. 988), were greatly THE CLERGY. 409 blessed to the moral elevation of the English clergy. — It must not, however, be forgotten, that, despite this corruption, a large number of the clergy were excellent and conscientious men ; and that, even with a degenerate clergv, the clerical offi,ce., which the people knew to distinguish from its occupants, proved the salt of the age. Like other professions, the ecclesiastical reflected the features of a period, big not only with gross abuses, but with exalted virtues, deep thoughts, and great forces. The ignorance of the clergy, especially in respect to religious knowledge, proved even a greater hindrance than their immorality to the progress and prosperity of the Church. The Word of God was locked np from the people in a dead language, and only a very small proportion of the clergy were sufficiently educated or fitted to declare and expound its blessed truths. 1. The Political Inftuence acquired by the higher Clergy daring this period Avas very great, especially in Germany. On more than one occasion did the sagacious, firm, and consistent measures advocated by the German clergy — forming as they did. under the leadership of the primates of Mayence, a united and compact body — preserve the empire f^m imminent ruin, or from division, through the folly of ambitious princes and lords. The influence of these prelates was not only derived from their sway over the consciences, but also from their having standing in the Diet, and from the circumstance that they were terri- torial lords. The possibility of a war frequently depended on the con- sent or refusal of the spiritual princes to furnish contingents to the imperial army. The clergy desired to see Germany united and strong ; the neighbouring countries were to be connected with the German Church, and to form part of the empire, but not, as the emperors wished, in the shape of personal domains, but as incorporated with the State. The German clergy always opposed those expeditions of the emperors to Rome, which alienated the rulers from the distinctive interests of Germany, and ruined the country. They desired to see the chair of Peter free and independent — a European, not a German institution — and the Emperor its protector, not its oppressor ; but they also resisted every assumption and interference on the part of the popes. Such a type of the good old German prelates was WiUigis of Mayence, to whom Germany owed one of its wisest and happiest admi- nistrations under the sway of Henry II., whose elevation to the throne he had procured. Under Henry IV. the German clergy were divided into three parties. The Papalists were headed by Gebhard of Salzburg, and num- bered almost all the Saxon bishops ; the Imperialists were led by Adal- bert of Bremen, who intended founding a northern Patriarchate inde- pendent of the Pope ; while tlie purely German party was guided by Anno of Cologne, the last genuine representative of the ancient episco 35 410 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). pal policy of the country. (Conip. C. GrunhagcH, Adalb. v. Hamb. u. d. Idee eines nord. Patriarchates. Leips. 1854.) Henry V. and the first Hohenstaufens were vigorously supported by the German clergy. But want of proper respect on the part of Frederic IL, and his opprea sion of the bishops, entirely alienated the clergy from the crown.— During the time of Otho I. those high imperial offices originated, tc Avhom, under the reign of Otho IV., the exclusive right of nominating successors to the empire was entrusted. Thus the Archbishops of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne were elevated to the rank of Sjnrihial Princes, Electors, as holding the office of arch-chaplains or arch-chan- cellors. These privileges and offices were confirmed and settled by the Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356). 2. The Pataria of Milan. — Among the Lombard clergy, more than any other, simony, concubinage, and the marriage of priests, were com- mon. Accordingly, the changes introduced by Hildebrand met with most strenuous resistance in that country. The oppostion was headed by Wido (Guido), Archbishop of Milan, whom Henry III. had in 1046 appointed to that diocese. Indeed, this prelate renewed the former claims of his see to spiritual independence, and even renounced his allegiance to Rome (| 83, 1). Wido was supported by the nobility and clergy. But two deacons, Ariald and LandnlJ' Cotta, organized a con- spiracy among the common people, which their opponents, by way of derision, designated Pataria, Patcrini [i.e., blackguards). The papal party adopted this name, and began a wai'fare against married priests, which for thirty years led to continual scenes of violence and bloodshed. ^, 98. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. CoMP. ?2, 2. c. and Fr. Hmier, Innoc. III. u. s. Zeitgen. Bd. Ill, IV. Despite growing corruptions, Monasticism reached at this period its highest stage, and more than ever, before or after it, earned the title of "Knighthood of Asceticism." A number of new monastic orders were founded as an offset to the degeneracy of older orders, partly in the form of branches (or so-called conqregafion,^) of the Benedictines, partly as independent insti- tutions under a separate and distinct rule. Almost every day new monasteries rose — frequently also in cities. The reformed Benedictine monasteries organized themselves into a general society, under the management of the parent monastery, and styled themselves congregations. The oldest of these congrega- tions, and for two centuries the most influential, was that of Glugny. Its glowing zeal for high-church reforms, made it one of the main instruments in elevatflng the Church and the Papacy THK RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 411 from their decay during the tenth century. A smaller order, that of tlie Camaldoliles, was also helpful in that direction. The monastery of Glairraux disputed with that of Ulugny the vene- ration of Christendom. 'J'he ??on-reformed monasteries of the Benedictines, on the contrary, persisted in their self sufficient isolation and their luxurious life. To distinguish them from the Cistercians, who wore a white dress, they, and those of Clugny, were called Black 3Ionka. To prevent too great a subdivision of the monastic orders. Innocent III., at the Fourth Lateran^ Council in 1215, proiiibited the formation of any new society. But the Pope himself assisted in founding two new orders, which,* in importance and influence, soon surpassed all others — we mean the two celebrated mendicant fraternities. The monks acted as the standing army of the Papacy, and to them Gregory was chiefly indebted for the success of his policy. The popes readily exempted monasteries from the supervision of their diocesans ; princes conferred dignities and offices on abbots ; while the peo- ple, v/ho looked upon monasteries as representing the popular element in the Church, regarded these institutions with the great- est veneration. Legacies, donations, fiefs, and purchases swelled, the wealth and increased the landed property attaching to mon- asteries. — From the tenth century monks were regarded as constituting a special ecclcsiadical order (ordo religiosorura) ; the secular business of monasteries was entrusted to lay brethren (conversi). These were addressed as fratrei^, whilst the others, who had received clerical orders, were called patres. The mo- nastic orders were distinguished from each other by different garbs. Frequently disputes arose between these ecclesiastics and the secular clergy, as the monks too often and improperly interfered with the duties and emoluments of the regular priests. — Besides these monastic orders, who were bound by a perpetual vow and a fixed rule, voluntary associations of men and women — the Berjhards and Beguins — were formed. The members of these communities were not under any monastic constraint, but voluntarily agreed to retire from the world, and to devote them- selves to their own spiritual advancement and to labours of Christian love. — In consequence of the enthusiasm evoked by the Crusades, tlie profession of monasticism was combined with knighthood. Thus the knightly orders originated, of which the members, under their grand-masters and commanders, were arranged into knights, priests, a:^d serving brothers. — (Cf. § 112.) 412 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 1. Soon after the reformation introduced by Benedict of Anians (^ 85, 2), the Benedictine monasteries again degenerated in discipline and morality. Accordingly, William, Duke of Aquitaine, entrusted to Demo, a Burgundian count [ob. 927), who had already restored order in two Burgundian cloisters of which he was the abbot, the duty of founding a new monastery. Thus arose the celebrated Abbacy of Chigny (Cluniacum) in Burgundy, which its founder placed under the immediate supervision of the Pope (910). Under Odo, the successor of Berno [oh. 942), a courtier, who had renounced the world during a dan- gerous illness, this monastery became the centre of a separate "con- gregation"— that of Clugny — which formed an offshoot from the Benedictine Order. The strict asceticism of these monks, the great - splendour displayed in the celebration of all the rites of religion, their zeal for science and literature, their efforts for the education of youth, and lastly a succession of distinguished abbots — among them, especially Odilo [oh. 1048), the friend of Hildebrand, and Peter the Vetierable [oh. 1156). — (Cf. C. A. Wilkens, Petrus d. Ehrw., &c., Lpz. 1857) —pro- cured for the "congregation" an influence almost unexampled upon their cotemporaries. In the twelfth century it numbered no fewer, than 2000 monasteries in France. At the head of this powei-ful order was the Abbot of Clugny; he appointed the priors of the subordinate, monasteries. Under the rule of Pontius, a dissolute man, who was de- posed in 1122, the order decayed, but again rose when Peter the Ven- erable became its head. — [C. Pelcui-ffus, Gesch. d. Abtei Clugny. Tllb. 1858.) — In Italy, the Camaldolite Order occupied a position analogous to that of Clugny in France. It was founded in 1018 by Eomnald, a scion of the ducal family of Ravenna, who built a monastery in Camal- doli (campus Maldoli), a desolate part in the Apennines. Nunneries were also erected in connection with these monasteries. Like the Order of Clugny, that of Camaldoli espoused the High Church cause, and acquired considerable influence upon their cotemporaries, although not to the same extent as their French brethren. — Twenty years later, Johannes Gualbertus, a Florentine, founded the Vallamhrosian Order, after the model of that of Camaldoli, in a shady vale (Vallis Umbrosa) of the Apennines. It Avas the first to receive lay hrefhrcn for the pur- {)ose of attending to temporal matters, that so the monks might observe their vows of silence and of strict confinement to the wallsof their cloister. — The Congregation of the Scotch Benedictine Monastery, in Germany, owed its origin to the unabated love of travel which animated Irish and Scotch monks, and which was excited anew, in the tenth century, by the invasions of the Danes and Normans (| 93, 1). The first convent in Germany, designed exclusively for the reception of Irish monks, was St. Martin's at Cologne (tenth century). But the Benedictine monas- tery of St. James at Regensburg was more important. It was founded by the Scot, Mariamis, and two companions, in 1067. From it sprang eleven others in southern Germany, which Innocent III., at theLateran THE REIiiaiOUS ORDERS. 413 Council of 1215, confirmed as separate congregations. At first they distinguished themselves by their zealous asceticism, strict discipline, and literary labours ; but later they became notorious for immorality and gluttony (^ 112). — (Cf. Wattenbach, d. Congreg. d. Schottenkl. in Deutschl. In Quast' u. Otte's Ztschr. f. christl. Archgeol. Bd. I. Lpz. 1856.) 2. From the year 1098, the Congregation of Cistercians, founded at Citeaux (Cistercium), near Dijon, by Robert, proved a rival to the popularity of the Order of Clugny, from which it difi"ered by voluntarily submitting to episcopal supervision, and by avoiding all splendour in their churches and monasteries. Instead of the black garb of the Benedictines, the Cistercians wore a white habit; otherwise, their con-, stitution was similar to the rule of the Order of Clugny. The order enjoyed comparatively small influence, till the fame of Bernard, Abbot OF Clairvaux — a monastery dependent on the institution at Citeaux — elevated it to the highest place in public esteem. In honour of him, the order assumed the name of Bernardines. (On St. Bernard, comp. below, I 103, 1.) In the thirteenth century the order numbered no fewer than 2009 monasteries and GOOO nunneries. The jealousy sub- sisting at one time between the monks of Clugny and those of Citeaux gave place to more proper feelings, chiefly through the intimacy of St. Bernard with Peter the Venerable. 3. The following were the most important among the numerous other monastic orders at the time of Innocent III.: — 1. The Order of Grammont, in France, founded by Stephen of Tigerno (1073). It pro- fessed no other rule than the Gospel. Its members led a quiet, unpre- tending life. But the arrogance of their lay brethren led to its decay in the twelfth century. 2. The Order of Fontevranx,iowo.A.e^ in lOOG by Robert of Arbrissel, at Fontevraux (Fons Ebraldi), in Poitou. The founder travelled through the country, summoning all to repentance, and reared nunneries for maidens, widows, and fallen females. The lady-abbess, who was regarded as the representative of the Blessed Virgin, the patroness of the order, had the supervision even of the priests employed by the nuns. 3. The Order of Guilbertines, a parallel with the last-named, founded by Guilbert, an English priest, of noble descent. In it, also, women constituted the chief element, holding all the property of the order ; the men merely managed it. Its monaste- ries were mostly double (for men and women). It was confined to England, where the Order had twenty-one large convents, provided with houses for paupers, invalids, and orphans. 4. The Carthusians, founded by Bruno of Cologne, Principal of the Cathedral School at Bheims (1084). From disgust at the dissolute life of Manasse, his archbishop, he retired witli some like-minded friends into a solitary valley, near Grenoble, called Chartreuse. He imposed on his monks the obligations of the most rigid asceticism, of strict silence, study, 35* 414 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10 — 1:5 A. D.) prayer, and contemplation. 5. The Order of Prtemonsf rants. It; founder, Norhert (1121), had been a rich and worldly canon atXanthen, in the diocese of Cologne. His conversion was completed during a furious tempest, when the lightning struck close by him. He now changed not only his own conduct, but attempted to introduce a refor- mation among his colleagues. Baffled in this, he retired with a few friends into the desolate valley of Premontre (Proemonstratum), near Laon. His rule imposed on his followers the ordinary duties of the cure of souls, while at the same time it bound them to a life of rigid monasticism. When on a visit to Spires, where, at the time, the Em- peror, papal legates, and deputies from the clergy of Magdeljurg, were met, he was chosen Archbishop of Magdeburg, and was received with great pomp in his diocese, still wearing the habit of his community. The order numbered many monasteries and nunneries. 6. The Order of the Carmelites was founded (1156) by Bertliold of Calabria, a cru- sader, who, along with some companions, settled in the cave of Elijah, on Mount Carmel. The Patriarch of Jerusalem drew up a very rigid rule for them. When expelled by the Saracens, the order settled in Europe (1238), and became a mendicant fraternity. The Carmelites traced their origin to no less a personage than Elijah himself, and stoutly denied that their order had been founded by Berthold. They also maintained that the Blessed Virgin in person had handed to Simon Stock, the general of the order, the holy Scapulary, as its dis- tinctive badge, with the promise, that whoever died wearing it, was sure of eternal bliss. Every Saturday the Virgin descended into pur- gatory to fetch thence the souls of those who had worn the Scapulary. 7. The Order of Trinitarians (called also " ordo sanctfB Trinitatis de redemptione captivorum") was founded by Innocent III., for the re- demption of Christian captives. 8. The HiimiJiati, in the eleventh century, — an association of pious trades-people at Milan, of which the members wrought at their crafts — had their possessions in common, and engaged in spiritual exercises. The fraternity declined in the sixteenth century. 4. The Mendicant Orders. — (Cf. E. Vogt, d. h. Franz, v. Assisi. TUbg. 1840. — K. Hase, Franc, v. Assisi, &c. Lpz. 1850. — Demore, Leben d. h. Clara v. Assisi ; transl. from the French by Lochuer. Regensb. 1857. — Lacordaire, \ie de St. Dominique. Par. 1841. — E. Caro, d. h. Dominicus u. d. Dominicaner, libers, v. E. W. Regensburg. Ig54_) — These Orders originated in the desire of literally carrying out ■ the vow of poverty. The idea was first conceived by St. Francis, the son of a rich merchant at Assisi (born 1182). He seems to have been greatly struck by the injunction of the Saviour (Matt. x. 8-10) to His disciples, to go forth carrying neither gold nor silver, staff nor scrip. Accordingly, he gave away all his property, and henceforth depended on charity for the necessaries of life. Cursed by his father, sometimes derided by the populace as mad, at others worshipned as a saint, ho THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 415 travelled through the East and West, evffi-ywhere calling o repentance . (from 1208). His complete renunciation of the world and of self, the simplicity of his faith, the ardour of his love towards God and man, and the deep treasures of liis poverty, made St. Francis appear like a heavenly stranger in the midst of a selfish world. His sympathy with nature was truly marvellous. In childlike simplicity, he would hold converse with the birds of the air and the beasts of the field as with brothers and sisters, calling upon them to praise their Maker ; in fact, the saint seemed again to restore the original position of man towards the lower creation. When attempting to address the Pope and his cardinals in a set oration, he utterly broke down ; but when he ad- dressed them in language unprepared, and coming directly from the fulness of his heart, his speeeh was like a mighty stream sweeping away all resistance. Innocent III., " overcome by his simplicity and humility, allowed the strange saint to go on." (According to an old legend, he had first ordered him to take up his abode with swine, — an injunction which the saint literally obeyed.) Honorius III., the sue- , cesser of Innocent, gave in 1223 his formal sanction to the association which had gathered around Francis, and bestowed on the order of the Fratres minores (Minors or Franciscans) the right of preaching and exercising the cure of souls in any district or country. But according to the idea of the founder, the order was to preach by deeds of complete self-abnegation rather than by words. Its peculiar garb consisted of a. brown habit with a hood ; a rope round the waist served as girdle. This contempt of the world, combined with unfeigned humility, and ardent, self-denying love, made a deep impression on their cotempo- raries, and procured for the order the designation of seraphic. A female* branch of the order (the Sisterhood of St. Clare) was founded in 1212 by Clara, a noble virgin of Assisi. St. Francis drew up a rule for this sisterhood. The fraternity of Tertiaries [Teriivs ordo de poenitentia) consisted of persons who were allowed to continue in the world, but were bound by a semi-monastic rule, drawn up by St. Francis. The church of Portiuncula, at Assisi, became the great' centre of the Franciscan Order, and successive popes enriched this sanctuary with the most plenary indulgences. St. Francis died in • 1226, stretched on the pavement of this church, and literally naked as he had entered the world. A legend declares that during the last two years of his life the saint had borne the marks of the crucifixion of the Saviour (stigmata), which, during a trance, a seraph had impressed on his body. The story, though strenuously attested by many witnesses, does not bear the test of impartial criticism (couip. Ease, u. s.). Gre- gory IX. canonized him in 1228. In the fourteenth century the General Chapter of the Franciscans at Assisi gave its sanction to a book, enti- tled " Liber Conformitatum," by one Bartholomew of Pisa, which enu- merated forty points of similarity between Christ and St. Francis. At the time of the Reformation a new edition of it appeared, with a pre- 35 416 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE N T . 10— 13 A. D.). face by Luther, bearing the title, " Der Barfiissermonche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran." Even while St. Francis was alive, Elijah of Cortona, who during the absence of the saint in the East had been intrusted with the superin- tendence of the order, had attempted to soften its rigid discipline, St. Francis resisted the innovation ; but when, after his death, Elijah was nominated general of the order, he carried out his pi"OJect. The more rigid party joined St. Antliony of Padua, who lived and acted in the spirit of St. Francis, and even preached to fishes when men refused to give audience. Violent discussions arose within the order, and Elijah was twice deposed. He afterwards supported the cause of Fre- deric II., and was excommunicated along with him, but again recon- ciled to the Church before his death (1253). The fanaticism of the rigid party increased in proportion as their more lax opponents grew in number. The popes supported the majority. At length the dispu- tants separated. The milder party (fratres de communitate) strove to reconcile the principles of their founder respecting poverty with their actual tenure of property by distinguishing between absolute posses- sion and usufruct, and by the formality of making over their posses- sions to the Romish Church. The stricter party (spirituales, zelatores, Fratricelli) gradually became avowed opponents of the Church and of its rulers, who had disowned them, and even denounced the Pope as Antichrist (comp. | 108, 4). — The Franciscans were, also, the fii-st harefoot monks. Their example in this respect was followed, subse- quently, by many other orders (as by the Augustines), but not by the Dominicans. Beyond Italy, in colder climates, hoAvever, even the Franciscans Avere exempted from this peculiarity ; at least they might wear sandals. The Order of Dominicans was founded by Dominicus Guzman (born in 1170), the scion of a noble Castilian family. Dominic was a priest at Osma, and a man of considerable prudence and learning. From zeal for the salvation of souls, he, along with some associates, went to the south of France (1208), there to labour for the conversion of the Albigenses. In 1215, he made a pilgrimage to Rome. Innocent III. gave to this order a rule, which was afterwards enlarged by Honorius ■ III. The Dominicans, or Order of Preachers (ordo fratrum prasdica- torum), were empowered everywhere to preach and to hear confession, for the special object of restoring heretics to the bosom of the Churcli by their sermons and teaching. At a later period (1220), Dominic and. his order adopted the rule of St. Francis, and 1)ecame a mendicant fra- ternity. He died in 1221, pronouncing an anathema on any one who should contaminate his order by bestowing upon it worldly possessions Dominic Avas canonized by Gregory IX. A female branch of the order was formed by some of the Albigensian converts. Like the Francis- cans, tlie Dominicans liad male and female Tertiaries (fratres et sorcres de militia Christi). THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 417 Various circumstances combined to give those two orders an extra- ordinary popularity. Not only did they specially meet the wants of the time, but the fact that they required no endowment, a-d obtained considerable privileges from the popes, enabled them to spread rapidly throughout Western Europe. Each of these orders was under the supreme rule of a general, who resided at Rome; -provincials super- intended the monasteries of particular countries ; while every monas- tery had its own guardian (among the Franciscans) or prior (among the Dominicans). From the first the Dominicans gave themselves to literary pursuits; their primary object — the conversion of heretics — rendering such studies necessary. Afterwards, they also displayed considerable zeal in missionary labours ; but their influence proved • greatest in the academic chair. Thus incited, the Franciscans also . began to cultivate these departments of labour, and sought to obtain a standing in the universities. The veneration shown them by the com- mon people, who preferred confessing their secrets to such migratory mendicants, excited the envy of the secular clergy, as their increasing influence in the universities, that of the learned. The opposition to- their growing interference was chiefly carried on by the University of Paris. William of St. Amour, a doctor of that college, in 1156, charac- terized them, in his controversial tractate, " De periculis novissorum temporum," as the forerunners of Antichrist. To this attack learned members of the order (such as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura) replied, and they were supported both by papal authority and royal power. But no sooner was this contest ended, than the former jealousy and rivalry subsisting between the two orders reappeared. The feeling of hostility increased as on scholastic questions they took opposite sides. — (Comp. I 104, 1, and | 112, 1.) Only two other mendicant orders of later origin attained great influ- ence, viz.: t\\e Augustines, whom Pope ^ZexancZer /F. drew from the members of monastic orders which had been scattered (1256) ; and the Servites (Servi b. Marias Virg.), instituted by seven pious Florentines for the service of the Virgin Mary, in 1233 — an order yevj popular, both in Italy and Germany. 5. The Begnins and Beghards. — (Comp. Mosheim, de Beghai'dis et Beguinabus. Lps. 1790. — E. Hallmann, Gesch. d. Ursp. d. belgischen Beghid^n (Hist, of the Orig. of the Beg. in Belg.). Berl. 1843.) — Female associations of Beguins existed undoubtedly prior to those of the Beghards. But the exact period when they arose, and even the origin of the name, are matter of controversy. Older historians were wont to trace the Beguins to St. Begga, a daughter of Pepin of Landen, in the seventh century ; but on no other ground than the similarity of name. Mosheim derived the name from the word heggen, to pray ; latterly, however, Hallmann has shown, on grounds which to us seem convincing, that both the name and the association were derived from Liimhert le Begke, a celebrated preacher at Liege, during :he twelfth 2 B 4l8 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 1>-13 A. D.;. century. The Beguins took the three monastic vows, but only for th< period during which they remained members of the society. Thej were free to leave the society at any time, to marry, or to undertake other duties. They placed themselves under the superintendence of a lady-superior and a priest, and lived in what was called a Beginagium, or curtis Beguinarum, which generally consisted of a number of small houses within a common enclosure. Each of the Beguins kept house for herself. On entering the society, they entrusted their property to the community, and received it back on leaving. The Beguins employed themselves in manual labour — such as sowing, washing, or taking charge of the sick. They were also engaged in teaching young females, or attending to the spiritual wants of their own sex. Any profit derived from these employments was applied in works of charity. Each asso- ciation wore a distinctive habit. They soon spread over Belgium, Germany, and France. By and by male associations of the same kind, and for the same purposes (the Beghards), were founded. Those sup- ported themselves also by manual labour, especially by weaving. But in the course of the thirteenth century such associations became greatly demoralized. Brothers and sisters of the Free Spirit (114, 3), Fratri- celli, and other heretics, sought refuge among them from the persecu- tions of the Chui-ch, and infected them with their errors. Accordingly, the Inquisition (§ 109) directed its inquiries to their doings, and many of their members were executed, especially in the south of France. At the Fifteenth General Council of Vienne, in 1311, eight heretical tenets, supposed to be held by them, were condemned. A number of their houses were closed ; others only alloAved to continue on condition of their inmates joining the Franciscan or Dominican Tertiaries. Pope John XXIII. (1410-1415) again extended protection to them, when the community of Beguins once more increased. But their growing disso- luteness, and concubinage with Beghards and secular priests, obliged the secular and spiritual authorities to interfere. At the time of the Reformation these houses were secularized ; in Belgium alone, some of their communities still exist. 6. Knightly Orders. — (Cf. Biedenfeld, Gesch. u. Verfass. aller geistl. u. weltl. Ritterorden. 2 Bde. Weim. 1841. — W. F. Wilde, Gesch. d. Tempelherrnord. 2 Bde. Lpz. 1826. — F. M'unter, Statutenbuch d. Ord. d. Temptl. Berl. 1794. — [Nicthammer) Gesch. d. Malteserord. nach Verst. Jena. 2 Bde. Dresd. 1833. — J. Voight, Gesch. Pressens bis zum Unterg. d. Ilerrsch. d.deutsch. Ord. 4 Bde. Kgsb. 1827, &c.— J. Voight, Gesch. d. deutsc. R.-Ord. in s. 12 Balleien. Berl. 1857, Bd. I. — J. M. Watierich, d. Griindung d. deutsch. Ordenstaates in Preussen. Lpz. 1827.— C Hennig, Statutt. d. deutsch. Ord. Kgsb. 180G. — ^. r. Win- \crj'eld, Gesch. d. ritterl. Ordens St. Johannis. Berl. 1859. — The Orders of Knights took, besides the three monastic vows (of poverty, chastity, and obedience), that of continual contest with the infidels. Among ^hese orders we reckon : — 1. The Order of the Templars, founded by ECCLESIASTICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 419 [lugh de Puyens (1118), for the protection of pilgrims in the Holy Land. They wore a white cloak, with a red cross on the breast. St. ' Bernard warmly interested himself in favour of this order, and accord- ingly, procured a large accession to its membership. When St. Jean. d'Acre fell (in 1291), the Templars retired to Cyprus; but soon after- wards returned to the West, when Paris became the head-quarters of the order. The name of the order was derived from the circumstance,^ that the palace which King Baldwin of Jerusalem assigned for their use, was built on the site of the temple of Solomon (cf. § 112, 2). 2. Originally the Knights of St. John, or Hosjjitallers, were ordinary, inmates of a monastery, whose special duty it was to take charge of- sick pilgrims, to relieve their wants, and to extend hospitality to them (founded in 1099). With these duties Baymond du Pity, the second general of the order, combined, in 1118, the obligation of fighting against the infidel. They wore a black dress, with a white cross on the breast, and had a red cross on their banners. When expelled by, the Saracens, they settled first in Rhodes (1310), and lastly in Malta,. in 1530. S. The Order of the Teutonic Knights consisted also, at first, • of the inmates of an hospital, or inn, founded during the siege of St. • Jean d'Acre, in 1190, by some citizens of Bremen and Lubeck. The knights wore a white cloak, with a black cross on the breast. At a later period the order settled in Prussia, where in 1237 it amalgamated with that of the Livonian Brethren of the Sword. — During the contest with the Moors several knightly orders were founded in Spain. The most important of these was the Order of Calatrara, founded by Velas- quez, a Cistercian monk, for the purpose of defending the town of Calatrava. In 1164 it obtained the formal sanction of Pope Alexander III. At present, like the Order of Malta, it is only an honorary distinction. I 99. ECCLESIASTICAL JURISPRUDENCE. The forged Decretals of Isidore (§ 8Y, 2) were not the only collection of ecclesiastical laws made. But with the increase of ^uch works, contradictions only multiplied, and no attempt was made to remove them. Among these compilations, that by Bur- chard* BUhop of Worma, about 1020, that by Anse.lm, Bishop of Lucca (ob. 1086), and that by Ivo, Bishop of Ghartres (oh. 1025), were the best known. In the twelfth centnry, Gratian, a Camaldolite monk, at Bologna, undertook the difficult task of making a complete collection of these laws, and of solving the contradictions with which they abounded, by means of certain scholastic deductions. The work, which appeared about the year 1150, under the title " Concordantia discordantium cano- num," commoiilv bears the name of Decretum Gratiani. This 420 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A. D.). work gave a fresh impulse to the study of ecclesiastical law, especially in the universities of Paris and Bologna. While the so-called Legists lectured on Roman law, the Decrelists taught canonical law, wrote commentaries on the work of Gratian, and made compilations similar to his. To put a stop to the confu- sion which threatened to ensue, Gregory IX. commissioned, in 1234, Baymundiis de Pennaforti, a Dominican, to make a new compilation (Decretum Gregorii, consisting of five books), which, besides the older decretals, contained his own and those of his immediate predecessors. This work served as text-book for the lectures delivered at Paris and Bologna. To this collection Boniface YIII. added a sixth book, containing his own docretals; and lastly, Clement V., those issued under his pontificate, with the special title of Clementina. To this compilation the most important decretals of later popes were added, in the year 1500, under the title of Extravagantes, which completed the Corpus juris canonici. III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND CONTROVERSIES. CoMP. H. Bitter, Gesch. d. christl. Philos. Vols. III. IV. By the pame author, Uebersicht liber d. Gesch. d. scholast. Philos., in Bau- mer's hist. Taschenb. Ill, 7, p. 269 etc. Lpz. 1856. — B. Haureau, la philos. scolast. 2 Voll. Par. 1850. — H. Schmid, d. Mystic, d. M. A. in R. Entstehungsper. (Mystic, of the M. A. diir. the Per. of its Orig.). Jena 1824. — A Helfferich, d. christl. Mystik in ihrer Entw. u. ihr. Denkm. (Chr. Myst., its Develop, and Monum.). Gotha 1842. 2 Vols. — J Gd7'res, d. chr. Myst. Regensb. 1836. 3 Vols. — Vmighan, Hours with the Mystics. § 100. GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOLASTICISM. Notwithstanding the intellectual decay of the Middle Ages, that period witnessed the growth of one of the most remarkable productions of the human mind, which can only be likened to those cathedrals reared in the Gothic style. Scholasticism, - which derived its name from the cathedral and monastic scJwols. where it originated, has aptly been designated as "the knight-, hood of theology." In liberality and enthusiasm, loyalty and GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOLASTICISM. 421 perseverance, courage and ardour, the schoolmen emulated the . knights properly so called ; only that their weapons were not the sword and lance, but speculation and dialectics; and their- ideal not knightly honour, but ecclesiastical orthodoxy. It was - the great object of scholasticism to analyze Christian dogmas by means of dialectics, to develop them by speculation, and to show- tlieir inherent truth and necessity. Generally speaking, scholas-, tit'ism adopted, expounded, and defended the ecclesiastical views already in vogue (dogmatism) ; sometimes, however, a sceptical tendency also appeared — at least for a time. In the latter case, certain philosophical principles were laid down, and it was attempted by means of these to harmonize reason with ecclesias- tical dogmas. Along with scholasticism, sometimes in combina-, tion, at others in antagonism with it, another tendency appeared. If scholasticism sought rationally to elucidate and develop- theology, it was the object of mysticism to apprehend the^ salvation offered by the Church not by means of the intellect, but by the feelings, and to develop it not by dialects, but by in- ward contemplation. These intellectual strivings, which con- tinued throughout the Middle Ages, may historically be arranged* into four periods, each of which almost comprised a century. 1. The first traces of the new science occur during the tenth century. — a period in other respects intellectually barren, and aptly called the " Seculum obscurura." The distinctive features of scholasticism, however, did not yet appear. 2. These tendencies ■ became more manifest during the eleventh century, at first in the form of dialectics, which again took either a sceptical or dog- matical turn, and led to a contest betwixt these two directions. 3. During the twelfth century, mysticism appeared as a distinct' tendency by the side of the dialectics of the schoolmen. The- conflict which now ensued between mysticism and sceptical dialects ultimately ended in an alliance with dogmatic dialectics,- which proved mutually useful. 4. During the thirteenth century, dialectic scholasticism, or dogmatism, attained its highest stage. Generally speaking, the former alliance with mysticism was con- tinued, although some of the schoolmen again tended towards scepticism. 1. Nurseries of ScJiolasticism. — At the close of the eleventh century,. Universities were planted for the same purposes as the cathedral and monastic schools, only with a wider range of subjects in view. These seminaries originated independently both of State and Church. A 36 422 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). Emperor and Pope. Celebrated teachers appeared in the larger cities, - pupils from all countries gathered around them ; by and by othei - lecturers joined those who had first taught in these cities ; and then . teachers and scholars constituted themselves by mutual agreement into . an independent corporation, and thus the University was founded. But this designation did not imply anything like a "universitas . literarum," in which all the sciences should be cultivated. — Separate faculties for different sciences did not as yet exist ; and where the number of teachers and students rendered some division necessary, it was made according to nations, not sciences. The name University was only intended to designate the "universitas magistrorum et scholarium" as an organised society. The studies carried on in these seminaries were called " studium generale " or "universale," because evei'Y person had free access to the lectures. At first one special science was particulai'ly — sometimes even exclvisively — cultivated in different universities. Thus theology was studied at Paris, at Oxford, and at a later period at Cologne; jurisprudence at Bologna; and medicine at Salerno. The first university expressly founded for the cultivation of all sciences was that which Frederic II. instituted at Naples in 1224.' Our present arrangement into faculties originated from the circum-- stance, that the mendicant orders in Paris, being proscribed by the other teachers in the University (^ 198, 4), constituted themselves into a separate theological faculty (1259). The number of students in the- universities — among them many persons advanced in life — was .very, large, amounting in the most celebrated seats of learning occasionally to from 10,000 to 20,000. All the members of the congregation of • Clugny had to pass through a curriculum of ten years (two years being devoted to Logicalia, three years to Liter£e Naturales et Philosophicae, and five years to Theology). The Council of Tours enjoined, in 1236, that every priest should go through a preparatory course of five years' study. (Comp. C. E. Bulceus, Hist. univ. Paris, et aliarum univers. Par. 1665. 6 Voll. f. — A. Wood, Hist, et ant. univ. Oxon. Oxon. 1674. 2 Voll. {.—Dubarle, H. de I'Univ. Par. IS29.— Or evier, Hist, de I'Univ. de Paris. Par. 1761. 7 Tom. 12. — Chr. Meiners, Gesch. d. hohen Schu- len. [Hist, of Univ.]. Gottg. 1802.— V. A. Hnher, d. engl. Univ. Cassel 1839. Vol. I. — F. C. V. Savigny, Gesch. d. rom. Rechtes in M. A. Bd. Ill, 2. A. Heidelb. 1834.). 2. The writings of Aristotle were introduced among the learned of the West by the Moors of Spain, who since the eleventh century had successfully prosecuted those studies. The Philosophy of Scholas- ticism was derived from the dialectics of Aristotle, whose works were translated into Latin, either from the Arabic (with the Commentaries ;)i Avicenna, oh. 1036, of Ghazali, oh. 1111, and oi Averrhoes, oh. 1217), or else directly from the Greek. Hitherto the philosophy of Aristotle had only been known at second hand, chiefly from the writings of Boethius. But now, when scholars had the opportunity of perusing GENERAL VIEW OP SCHOLASTICISM. 423 tho works of the " master" himself, their study was prosecuted with great enthusiasm. At the commencement of the thirteenth century . this philosophy was for a short time in disrepute, and the study of Aristotle prohibited by ecclesiastical ordinance — the origin of the pan-, theistic sect of the Holy Spirit {| 108, 2) being traced to the teaching, of the Stagyrite. But when by the extinction of the sect this danger was at an end, Greyonj IX. again authorized the favourite study (1231) ; ■ and such was the esteem in which Aristotle was held, that he was . ranked with John the Baptist as the jirecursor of Christ, and that on , all scientific questions his writings enjoyed the same authority in the Church as that of the Bible and tradition in matters of faith. At the , same time, there was also in the Middle Ages a school attached to the philosophy of Plato. The study of the writings of Augustine and of the Areopagite pointed towards Platonism, while the school of specu- lative mj'stics was always opposed to the exclusive claims set up on behalf of Aristotle. — Scholasticism started with a speculative inquiry about the relation subsisting bettceen thinking and being, or between the idea of a thing and its essence. In answer to this question, the Nomi- nalists, following up the views of the Stoics, maintained that those general conceptions or generic ideas (universalia) which constitute the common essence of a genus, were merely intellectual abstractions (nomina) derived from the common properties of individual objects, and possessing no real existence beyond the human intellect (univer- salia POST res). The Realists, on the other hand, insisted on the- reality of these general conceptions, and believed in their objective existence prior to and beyond the mere thinking of man. The Realists were divided into two sections : the one, adopting the Platonic view of • ideas, held that these general conceptions existed prior to the actual origin of individual objects, being their archetypes in the Divine reason ; and that hence they also existed in the intellect of man, even before he came to the contemplation of things as outwardly presented to him (universalia ante res). The other school of Realists, following in the wake of Aristotle, held that these general conceptions were inherent in the objects themselves, and thence passed by experience into the intel- lect of man (universalia ix rebus). Hence the former school of Real- ists expected to reach the essence of things (or truth) by pure think- ing, through the ideas innate in the intellect of man, while the second school expected to attain that result by a contemplation of things through -exper/c/ice and thinking. 3. Object and Method of Scholastic Theology. — The theological studies carried on during the rule of the Carolingians had been directed exclu- sively to practical objects, and fostered or prosecuted by practical iiion (such as princes, bishops, and abbots) with the view of meeting present ecclcsia'itical wants. But from the eleventh century this was no longer the case. (Iradually practical objects, and the immediate requirements of the Church, gave place to purely scientific pursuits. Theological 424 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A. D.). studies and writings now breathe a spirit of speculation ; tlie ancient , dogmas of the Church are explained and defended in a philosophical . manner ; and the great aim is to convert what had been object of faith - into logical truths, and to arrange Christian doctrines into a compact system. For this purpose the schoolmen employed dialectics, in order by means of it to resolve and analyze the dogmas of the Church into their constituent ideas, to explain and to demonstrate them, to marshal and to combat all possible objections raised by scepticism, with the view of thus establishing and proving the rationality of the dogmas of the Church. Withal, no attempt was, however, made to place these doctrines on an exegetical basis, or to prove their truth from Scripture; philosophic proof was the only object sought, and dogmatics and ethics the only departments of scholastic theology. If exegesis was at all cultivated, writers either adopted the old allegorical method or com- posed caicnce, while historical theology was entirely neglected. The mystics among the schoolmen, on the other hand, sought more than merely to understand, to vindicate, and to compose a system of dog- matics. They recommended the practice of contemplation, by which thinking and feeling would descend directly into the depths of Divine truth, there to behold, to experience, and to enjoy what was Divine. The necessary condition for this was purity of heart, deep love to God, and complete abnegation of self. What had thus been perceived in contemplation, discovered by means of speculation, or experienced in immediate contact with the Divine, was afterwards to be presented in a scientific and svstematic form. ? 101. THE SECULUM OBSCURUM (TENTH CENTURY). CoMP. A. Vogel, Rathorius von Verona u. d. 10 Jahrh. Jen. 1854. 2 Vols. — M. Budingcr, ulier Gerbert's wissenschaftl. u. pol. Stellung. (On the Scientif. and Pol. Place of Gerbert). 1 Sect. Kass. 1851. — i^r. Hock, Gerbert u. s. Jahrh. Vienna 1837. — Gu. Giesehrecht, de littera- rum studiis opud Italos primis medii asvi sasculis. Berol. 1845. The darkness and ignorance of tlie tenth century, which also witnessed the deepest decay of the Papacy, contrasts most un- favourably not only with the culture and the science which at the time flourished in the portion of Spain subject to the Moors, more especially at the celebrated school of Cordova, but with the learning- and activity of the Church during the preceding (ninth) century. And yet, during this very period of the Churcli's deepest decay, and of the complete secularization of the clergy, old classical heathenism and its literature were enthusiastically cultivated in Italy. But all this stood in avowed opposition to Christian theology and the Church, and proclaimed THE SECULUM OBSCURUM. 425 tl,e praises of the most ungodly frivolity and the most unblushing sensuality. A grammarian, Wilgard, taught publicly in Ravenna, that Yirgil, Horace, and Juvenal, were incomparably better and nobler than Paul, Peter, or John. True, the Church still had sufficient power to condemn him to death, as a heretic ; but men of his spirit abounded in the cities of Italy, including clergymen no less than others. This spirit was not wholly banished, until the influence of the monks of Clugny, the efforts of Romuald, and St. Nilus, combined with the elevation of the Church through the Saxon Emperors, for its suppression. —The efforts of Alfred the Great, and their results, ceased with the life of that monarch {ob. 901). But in 959 the reformatory labours of Dunslan (§ 97) were crowned with success, and with them both the interest and the zeal for theological and national culture again revived ; while the connection between the family of the Emperor Otho and Byzance proved the means of awakening, to some extent at least, a desire for the revival of classical lore. The imperial chapel, founded by Bruno (Archb. of Cologne) the brother of Otho I, became the nursery of the higher German clergy, who were there trained, as thoroughly as the age allowed, in politics, classics and theology. — Towards the close of the century, the literary activity of the Moors attracted the attention of Western Christendom, and incited to imitation. Thus the seeds of learning were once more scattered over Europe. 1. The wi-itings of Rosavitha, a learned nun in the convent of Granderslieim (Helen of Rossow, oh. 984), who made religious subjects the text of comedies composed after the model of Terence, may serve as index of the classical learning of that period. She also ^i-ote a " Car- men de gesti Ottonis I," and a " Carmen deprimordiis coenobii Gander- sheim"Cf. Fr. Loher, Hrotswitha u. ihre Zelt. In d. Mliuch. wissench. Vortr. Braunschu. 1858; p. 4G5 etc. — Dunstan was ably supported iu his labours by Ethelwoi.d, Bishop of AVinchester, a prelate who with his followers zealously prosecuted the study of the Anglo-Saxon tongue. The most celebrated of his pupils Avas Aelfric of Malmesbury, a monk, who preached in the Anglo-Saxon, and commenced a translation of the Bible into that language. — Notker Labeo, Abbot of St Gall, ob. 1022, translated the Book of Psalms, the Organon of Aristotle, the Moralia of Gregory the Great, and a number of the tractates of Boethius into the old German. Ratherius, Bishop of Verona, and afterwards of Lieges (from both which seats he Avas repeatedly expelled, oh, 974), a rigid reformer and reprover of clerical dissoluteness, equally insisted 36* 126 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10—13 A. D.). on the duty of studying the Bible, and remonstrated against all mera externalism in religion, against superstition and ecclesiastical abuses of every kind. On this account, and from his attachment to the interests of Germany, he frequently suffered persecution. Ratherius was certainly the ablest divine of the tenth century. Along with him we mention Atto, Bishop of Vercelli, distinguished as an exegetieal writer, a preacher, and a strenuous advocate of the Church against the oppression of the secular power (de pressuris ecclesi«i) ; oh. 960. Odd of Clugny composed hymns and homilies ; — his Collationum LI. III. contains a philippic against the corrupt morals of his time. Lastly, at the close of the century, we have Gerbert — oh. 1003 — a man versed in classical and Arabic lore, highly celebrated as a theologian, mathe- matician, astronomer, and natural philosopher, but regarded by the people as a magician. His presence shed for the last time a passing lustre on the school of Rheims. — Among historians of the tenth century, Luitprand, secretary to Otho I., and afterwards Bishop of Cremona, oh. 972 (Antapodosis, Hist, of Otho I.) ; Flodoard of Rheims, oh. 966 (Hist. eccl. Rhemensis) ; Richer, a monk and pupil of Gerbert (author of a history of his own time, 883-896) ; and Widukind, from 940, a monk at New Corbey (author of a Saxon hist, in 3 vols.) — deserve special notice. ? 102. DIVISION AMONG THE DIALECTICIANS (ELEVENTH CENT.). When in the eleventh century the Church rose from its late decay, the ardoiu* for scientific literary pursuits also revived. The anxiety so oronerally felt to put an end to former abuses and stairnatioii manifested itself also in every department of theologi- cal study. At first this new zeal appeared chiefly among the Cistercian monks and their brethren of Clugny ; but towards the close of tlie century it extended to the various universities. The dialectic method was now almost exclusively employed in the discussion of tlieological questions ; and dogmatism gained iti first triumplis over scepticism in the Eucharistic controversy be- tween Lanfranc and Bereiigar,\n that concerning the existence of God between Anselm of Canterbury and Gaunilo, and in the discussion between that prelate and Roscellinus about the Trinity. 1. The series of schoolmen opens with Fulbert, a pupil of Gerbert, and from 1007 Bishop of Chartres. Even before his elevation to the episcopate he founded at Chartres a theological school. His fame Bpread throughout Western Christendom, and students from all DIVISION AMONG THE DIALfcOTICIANS. 427 jountries attended his seminary. — One of his pupils was Berengar oj Tours, a canon and teacher in the cathedral school of his own city, and afterwards Archdeacon of Angers. Ilis fame shed great lustre upon the school of Angers. For further pi-rticulars see below. — Lan- FRANC, the antagonist of Berengar, was first a monk, then Abbot of Bee in Normandy. In 1070 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal See of Canterbury. Under his superintendence the school of Bee attained its highest eminence. — Petrus Damiaxi, oh. 1072, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, a friend of lllldebrand, and a zealous supporter of his views on the subject of simony, of clerical purity, monastic austerity, and priestly celibacy. His tractrate, "Liber Gomorrhianus," contains an unsparing exposure of the vices of the clergy. His own indulgences consisted in retiring into his cell, there to scourge himself till the blood flowed from his shoulders. {A.Vogel, Petr. Damiani, Ein Vortrag. Jena 1856.) — Anjelm of CANTERnuRV, born at Aosta in Italy, educated in the monastery of Bee, of which he Avas afterwards abbot, and finally Archbishop of Canterbury, oh. 1109, comp. | 96, 3. It will be re- membered that his courageous defence of the independence of the Church, at least in the sense of Hildebrand, cost that prelate three years of exile. Anselm has been compared to St. Augustine, whose theology he adopted and developed. By a rare combination, he united acuteness with philosophic depth and ardent Christian feeling — the practical tendency with dialecticism, and even mysticism. Like his great model, he regarded faith as the necessary condition of all true knowledge, while, on the other hand, he aimed at elevating belief into knowledge ("credo ut intelligam"). His most celebrated tractate was that on the Incarnation of God ("Cur Deus homo?"), in which he defended, on philosophical grounds, and developed the doctrine of the vicarious atonement. Best ed. of his writings by G. Gcrheron, Par. 1675 f. Comp. G. F. Frank, Anselm von Canterb. Tlibg. 1842.— i^. R. Ha.sse, Ans. v. C. Leips. 1843, 1852. 2 Vols. C. cle. Bemusat, Ans. de Cant, transl. into German by Wlirzbach. — Anselmus of Laon (Laudu- nensis). surnamed Scholasticus, a pupil of his namesake of Canterbury. From 1076 he lectured with great success at Paris, where indeed he may be said to have originated the University. Afterwards he returned to Laon, became archdeacon and scholasticus, and founded a theologi- cal school ; oh. 1117. His theological views were the same as those of his teacher. His " Glossa interlinearis" (being the Vulgate with brief interlineal exposition) and Walafrid's Gl. ordinaria (§ 90, 6) were favourite exegetical manuals of the Middle Ages. — William of Champeaux (De Campellis), the real founder of the University of Paris. He had for some time lectured with great success in that city on rhetoric and dialectics, when the fame of Anselm brought him to Laon. He returned to Paris in 1108, delivered theological lectures, and became archdeacon. Every year the number of his students increased. Amono them was Abelard, whose arrogance and continual disputationn. 36 4*^8 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). in which the celebrated teacher ultimately had to own himself worstedj 80 embittered his existence, that he retired from the chair. lie died in 1113 as Bishop of Chalons. — Amonj^ the chroniclers of this century we mention the names of Ditmar, Bishop of Mersebnrg, ob. 1018 ; Hermann the Lame (Contractus), a monk at Reichenau, oh. 1054; Marianus Scotus, a monk at Mayence, ob. 1080 ; Lambert, a monk at Hersfeld, ob. 1100 (Chronicon historicum apud Germanos) ; — as Church historians Adam of Bremen (GcstaHammen-burgens. eccles. Pontificum, from 788-1072) ; as Danish historians Saxo Gramm., ob. 1204 (Hist. Danica to 1186). Amatus of Salerno wrote a history of the Normana in Italy. 2. Eucharistic Controversy of Berengar (1050-1079). — Berengar of Tours had adopted views concerning the Eucharist in direct opposition to the prevailing theory of Radbertus on the subject. He taught that the elements were indeed clianged, and that the body of Christ M'as really ^wese/!^ in the Eucharist; but he denied that this change was one of substance, or the presence one of essence (essentialiter). The presence of the body of Christ consisted in that of His j^oiver in these elements, and the change of the bread in the real manifestation of this power under the form of the bread. But in order to secure the presence of this power, consecration alone was not sufficient ; it also needed faith on the part of him tvho j^artook of it, without which the bread remained an empty and powerless sign. These views he dis- seminated among his numerous pupils at Tours and Angers, without for some time meeting with opposition. But Avhen he expressed them in an epistle addressed to Lanfranc, that divine entered the lists against him. At a synod held in Rome (1050), he was condemned unheard ; at another synod held the same year at VercelU, before which Berengar would have appeared, if in the meantime he liad not been imprisoned in France, the tractate of Ratramnus on the Eucharist (which was erroneously ascribed to Erigena) was, in an excess of zeal, torn to pieces and consigned to the flames, and the views of Berengar were again condemned. Meantime Berengar had, by the intercession of influential friends, been restored to liberty, and made the acquaint- ance of Ilildebrand, at that period legate, of the Pope. While Ililde- brand believed the simple doctrine of the scriptures, that the bread and wine in the sacrament were really the body and blood of Christ, he probably took a middle viev,'', equally avoiding the gross literalism of Radbertus and the opinions of Berengar. The legate disapproved of the fanaticism displayed by the opponents of Berengar, and at a synod held in Tours (1054) declared himself satisfied with a statement upon oath, that so far from denying the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, he regarded the consecrated elements as the body and blood of Christ. But even this formal acquittal did not satisfy the opponents of Beren- gar, who accordingly in 1059 undertook a journey to Rome, in the hope \)f securing, through the influence of Ilildebrand, the protection of the DIVISION AMONG THE DIALECTICIANS. 429 Papal See. IIi.s expectations were doomed to disappointment, and he found himself confronted by a powerful party, under the leadership of Cardinal Humbert. At a synod held in Rome (1059) the unprinci- pled man -was ohligcd to consign his writings to the flames, and to 8ul)scribe a formula which in its gross literalism went far Ijeyond even the expressions used by Radbertus. On his return to France he re- tracted his subscription, and once more defended, against Lanfranc and others, his former views. This step excited a fresh storm. ]Iilde- brand, who in the meantime had been elevated to the Papacy (in 1073), vainly endeavoured to allay the dispute by getting Berengar to sulj- scribe a formula which, in temperate language, asserted the real presence in the Eucharist. The opposite party even ventured to attaint the orthodoxy of the Pope himself; and Hildebrand was obliged, at a second synod held in Rome (1079), to insist upon a full and un- ambiguous declaration of belief in the conversion of the substance of the elements. Berengar was bold enough to appeal to his private interviews with the Pope, — when Hildebrand ordered him immediately to fall down and abjure his errors. Berengar treml>lingly obeyed, and was dismissed with testimonials of orthodoxy, and the injunction to abstain from further discussions. Bent under the weight of years and sorrows, he retired to the island of St. Come, near Tours, where he lived in solitude and penitence, a rigid ascetic, and died, in 1088, at a very advanced age, reconciled to the Church. — The principal treatise of Berengar, " de Coena s. adv. Lafranc," was discovered by Lessing in the library of Wolfenbiittel, and has been edited by Vischer, Berol, 1834. — (Comp. Lessing, Ber. Turon. od. Ankund. e. wicht. Werkes dess. (or Notice of an import. Tract, of his). Bruns. 1770. 4; H. Su- dztvlorf, Ber. Tur. od. e. Saiamlung ihn betr. Br. (or a Collect, of Letters concern, him). Hamb. 1850.) 3. Controversies of Anselm. — I. Following up his philosophical views as a Realist, Anselm of Canterbury deduced an ontological and a, j)riori argument for the being of a God, and maintained that the idea of an entirely perfect Being was inherent in reason, real existence forming one of the necessary attributes of this Being. This argumentation he embodied in two treatises, the Monologium and the Proslogium. The unsatisftxctory character of this ratiocination, however, was ably ex- posed by Gaunilo of Marmontiers, an Aristotelian Realist, Avho, in answer to Anselm, wrote the "Liber pro insipiente" (as Anselm had asserted that onlj' an " insipiens" would deny that the existence of God could be demonstrated). Anselm replied in a tractate entitled "Apo- logeticus c. Gaunilonem," and the discussion terminated without load- ing to any definite result. — II. Of greater importance was the contro- versy between Anselm and Rosceli.ixus, a canon of Compiegne. The latter, a Nominalist, asserted that our generic conception of the Deity was only an intellectual alistraction, and that the three Persons of the Godhead could not be spoken of as Una Res [ovaia.], as otherwise they 430 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D. j. must all have become incarnate in Christ. In a tractate, entitled "Da fide trinitatis et de incarnatione verbi contra blasphemias Kucelini," Anselni showed the fallacy of this argumentation. A synod held at Soissons in 1092 condemned Roscellinus as a Tritheist. 1 103. SEPARATION AND REUNION OF DIALECTICS AND MYSTICISM. In the writings of Anselm dialectics and mysticism had still been united; soon afterwards, however, their champions were marshalled in opposite camps. The great representative of dia- . lectic scepticism was Abelard, a man of singular boldness and aeuteness, who had already come victorious out of many a con- test. But he was obliged to succumb before his great opponent, •> St. Bernard. Of less importance was the discussion between Bernard and Gilbertus Porretanus. — After the defeat of Abe- lard, the tendency which he represented was for a considerable time in the minority, nor indeed did it ever again assert itself in the same daring and reckless manner. In fact, dialectics was now chiefly employed in the support and explanation of the dogmas of the Church. Thus mysticism and dialectics were once more reconciled and combined for a common purpose. This . union was accomplished by Petrus Lombardus, so far as dialec- tics, and by Hugo of St. Yictor, so far as mysticism was con- cerned. The combination proved mutually helpful ; dialectics gained in depth and ardour, mysticism acquired scientific dis- tinctness and precision. — But even at that time men were not awanting who perceived and exposed the defects and dangers of scholasticism, however much it was in repute at the period. Such divines chiefly inveighed against tlie neglect of Scripture in the study of theology, against the barrenness of scholastic speculations so far as the Christian life was concerned, and the vain wrangling and pedantry of the schoolmen. 1. The Conflict. — Petrus Abelard was born in 1079 at Palais in • Brittany. In acuteness, learning, dialectic readiness, and boldness of speculation, as well as in arrogance and disputatiousness, he far sur- passed all his contemporaries. In Paris he attended the lectures of William of Champcaux, the most celebrated dialectician of his age. . But soon the pupil silenced his teacher in public discussion. Abelard settled in Metini near Paris, where thousands of students attended his prelections. Soon afterwards he transported his school to Corbeil in order to be nearer Paris, and thence to the walls of that capital. Nor DIALECTICS AND MYSTICISM. 431 did he cease to provoke and to humble William, till the latter had to give place to him. In the hope of attaining yet greater distinction, , Abelard now commenced the study of theology, under the tuition of Anselm of' Laon. Very soon, however, the arrogant student deemed , himself superior to this teacher also. He returned to Paris, where once more a crowd of enthusiastic students gathered around him. A . canon, Fulhert, engaged him to instruct his niece Heloise — a woman, equally distinguished for beauty, talent, and learning. Abelard gained her affections ; but disdaining to bear the name of his wife, in order to enable her lover to attain the highest dignities in the Church, she was clandestinely married to him. As Heloise persisted in denying thia marriage, and on that account was hai-shly used by her relatives, Abe- lard carried her off to the nunnery of Argenteuil. The revenge of Fulbert was fearful ; Abelard was surprised during the night, and mutilated. In shame and despair he fled to the monastery of St. Denis ; Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. But his former pupils followed him to St. Denis ; and, yielding to their entreaties, he resumed his lec- tures. The supercilious and sarcastic manner in which he discussed the doctrines of the Church, excited powerful opposition ; and at the Si/iwd of Soissons, in 1121, Abelard was obliged to consign his text- book on theology (Introductio in theologiani) to the flames, and was condemned to imprisonment in a monastery. By the intercession of friends, he was again restored to liberty, and allowed to return to St. Denis. But when he published the discovery that Dionysius of Paris had been a different person fi'om the Areopagite, he was exposed to such violent persecution on the part of the monks, as to render it neces- sary for him to flee into a wood near Troyes. Thither also his pupils followed, and prevailed upon him again to resume his lectures. His hermitage became transformed into the large Abbacy of " the Para- clete." Renewed persecutions induced him to transfer this cloister to . Heloise, who in the meantime had become Aljbess of Argenteuil, in Avhich capacity she had met with opposition from her nuns. Abelard himself became abbot of a monastery in Brittany. After having for eight years vainly endeavoured to restore its monastic discipline, he once more appeared as teacher at St. Genevieve, near Paris. He Avrote a work on ethics, entitled " Scito te ipsum ;" re-edited his former manual, under the title " Theologize Christiange LI. V. ;" and, by way of exposing the follies of traditionalism, composed a tractate, " Sic et ■ non," which presented in juxtaposition a number of contradictory pas- sages from the Fathers. His prelections excited great sensations. St. , Bernard was now induced to oppose views which were deemed so dan- gerous. At a synod held in Sens (1140), Abelard was declared a heretic. Pope Innocent II. condemned the writings impeached to the flames, and their author to imprisonment in a monastery. His last years were spent in retirement at Clugny, where, by intercourse with Peter the Venerable, his spirit mellowed. Ultimately a reconciliation 36* 432 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A D.). was also effected between him and St. Bernard. He died in 1142.— Reversing the statements of Augustine and of Anselm, that faith must , precede knowledge, Abelard maintained that only what was known , could be believed. Though professedly aiming to employ dialectics in defence of the teaching of the Church, yet, as he commenced by calling everything in question, he transformed each dogma into a problem which required to be proved before it could be received. Thus faith became merely an intellectual act, while at the same time the objects of faith Avere frequently narrowed to bring them in accordance with the requirements of supposed rationality. This remark applies espe- cially to the views of Abelard about the Trinity, which little differed * from the ancient heresy of Sabellian Modalism.— (Comp. F. C. Schlos- ser, Abalard u. Dulcin, Leben e. Schwarmers u. e. Philosophen. Goth. 1807. — ^. wakens. Pet. Abiil. Brem. 1855. — ilf. Carriere, Ab. u. Heloise. Giessen. 1844.—/. L. Jacohi, Ab. u. Hel. Berl. 1850. Gilbert de la Porree (Porretanus) — teacher of theology at Paris, and from 1142 Bishop of Poictiers, oh. 1154 — soon afterwards excited a fresh controversy. A rigid Realist, he was led to ascribe such real existence to the universale God, that in his hands the doctrine of the Trinity became almost transformed into one of Quaternity. His views were opposed hy St. Bernard, and condemned by the Synod of Rheims in 1148 ; but Gilbert himself was not further molested. History has recorded the names of few personages who exercised a greater influence on their cotemporaries, than Bernard of Clairvaux (§ 198, 2) ; oh. 1153. Regarded in popular esteem as able to work miracles, and endowed with a gift of rare eloquence, he was both the support and the reprover of the vicars of Christ, and, Avhile restoring peace among princes, ever stood forward an avenger of wrongs. Hia deep humility induced him to refuse ecclesiastical promotion ; his en- thusiastic attachment to the hierarchy prevented his exposing its many abuses and scandals ; the power of his eloquence kindled throughout Europe the enthusiasm requisite for a second crusade, and restored many heretics and fanatics to the bosom of the Church. While him- self seeking heavenly things, and leading a life of contemplation, prayer, and study, he seemed almost to rule upon earth, and, by his advice, admonition, and reproof, influenced all departments and rela- tionships. In him sincere attachment to the doctrines of the Church was combined with ardent mysticism of a practical and contemplative character. Like Abelard, he controverted the great theological axiom of Anselm — only from a different point of view. The theology which he loved was not one whose great object it was to elevate faith into knowledge by means of speculation, but rather to make the light of faith more clear and bright by sanctification of the heart and life. Not that Bernard was opposed to scientific researches ; but the dialectic wrangling of an Abelard, which recklessly undermined the eternal foundations of saving truth, in order to rear them again in a manner DIALECTICS AND MYSTICISM. 433 oonfoi-mable to his ideas and for purposes of self-exaltation, appeared to him equally destructive of all true theology artd of the sanctifying influences of faith. In his view only a theology of the heart, based • on inward piety, and fostered by prayer, contemplation, inward en- lightenment, and sanctifieation, constituted true divinity. (Tantuie Dous cdgnoscitur, quantum diligitur. — Orando facilius quam disputando et dignius Deus quajritur et invenitur.) During his discussion with Abelard he wrote the " Tractatus de Erroribus Petri Abajlardi." Among his other works the most important is that "de Cousideratione LI. V.," in which, with the affection of a friend, the earnestness of a teacher, and the boldness of a prophet, he set before Pope Eugene III. both the duties and the dangers of his position. All the depth and ardour of his devout mysticism found utterance in his commentary on the Book of Canticles. Bernard was canonized by Alexander III. in 1173, and ' in 1830 Pope Pius YIII. solemnly received him into the number of the great Latin Fathers (Doctores ecclesia3: Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great). — (Comp. Neandcr, The Life and Times of St. Ber- nard; transl. by Matilda Wrench. Lond. 1843.— C. Ellendorf, Bernh. V. Clairvaux u. s. -i^eitalt. Essen 1837. — Th. Eailshoinie, Hist, de S. Bernardo. 2 Vols. Par.) 2. EecoacUiation. — Among the seats of learning in which it was attempted to combine scholasticism with mysticism, the most distin- guished was that "a Sancto Victore," a monastery at Paris, which William oJ'Ckampeanx founded after he had given way before Abelard. But this new school may be said to have originated with Hugo a St. Victore, the scion of a noble German family, a friend of St. Bernard, and the real successor of Ansclni. His cotemporaries were wont to designate him as " alter Augustinus," or " lingua Augustini." Tantum Beus coguoscitur, quantum diligitur. Tantum de veritate quisque potest videre, quantum ipse est.) Hugo was one of the profoundest thinkers of the Middle Ages, a man of great learning, enthusiastically devoted to study, and at the same time of warm and deep affections. Though cari-ied off in the prime of life, he exercised a beneficial influ- ence upon his age, on which he left the impress of his mind [oh. 1141), His principal work is entitled : De sacramentis fidei Christianas LI. II. (Comp. A. Liehner, Hugo v. St. Victor u. d. theol. Rlchtungen sr. Zeit. Leips. 1832.) — The exposure of Abelard's errors and his condemnation, mad the widow's mite cast into the treasury of the Church ; but . it became the great standard of orthodoxy during the Middle Ages, _ was fi-equently edited with commentaries, and finally obtained the solemn sanction of the Church at the Lateran Council in 1215. Besides • Lombardus, Alanus ab Insulis deserves special mention. He was born at Lille or Ryssel (Lat. Insulaa), educated under Bernard of Clair- vaux, aud afterwards became Rector of the University of Paris and Bishop of Auxerre. Alanus died in 1203 at Clairvaux, whither he had retired in 11G7. A peculiarity in that writer was his strictly mathe- matical method of demonstration (almost like that of the school of \Yolf in the eighteenth century). Among other tractates, he wrote " de fide catholica contra Waldenses, Albigenses, Judseos et Paganos s. Mohametanos." 3. Renewed Controversies. — After the death of Hugo the school of St. Victor gradually gave up its former interest in dialectics. Even the successor of Hugo, Richard a St. Victore {ob. 1173), characterized the method of Lombardus as too dry and barren (comp. Engelliardt, Rich, of St. Vict, and John Ruysbrock. Erl. 1838). — The following abbot, Walter of St. Victor, published, in 1180, a virulent tractate, " Contra quatuor labyrinthos Francire s. contra manifestas haereses, quas Abajlardus, Lombardus, Petrus Pictaviensis et Gilbertus Porre- tanus libris sententiarum suarum acuunt, limant, roborant LI. IV." He accused Lomliardus of Nihilism, l)ecause he had maintained that since tlie human nature of Christ was impersonal, He was in that respect not an aliquid, i. e., an individual. — More moderate in the tone of his opposition was John of Salisbury, the faithful friend of St. Becket. and afterwards Bishop of Chartres [oh. 1182). In his " Poly- craticus s. de nugis curialium et vestigiis philosophorum LI. VIII." he predicted that, in its anxiety for scientific form, scholasticism would by and by lose all divine substance. (Comp. H. Renter, John of Sal. Berl. 1843.) — Petrus Cantor, teacher of theology at Paris, and after- wards Bishop of Tournay {oh. 1197), showed, in his " Sumnia Theolo- gijB," that all the doctrines necessary for salvation might and should be deduced directly from the Scriptures. The Commentaries on Isaiah and on the Epistles of Paul, which Herveus of Bourgdieu, a Benedictine, published about 1130, contained a most accurate and clear exposition of the doctrine of justification by faith. — More earnestly than any uthor divine in the Middle Ages, Rupert, Abbot of Deutz, at the beginning of this century, insisted on the necessity of studying the Word of God. To him the Bible appeared the great text-book for all ages and peoples, and the field where the precious pearl of salvation lay concealed, which every person, whose vision faith had enlightened, mioLt there discover. But with all his veneration for tbe Scriptures. HUJHEST STAGE OF SCHOLASTICISM. 435 ^e saw not the absolute necessity of eliciting, in the first place, the literal meaning of the text, and rather endeavoured by means of alle- gorical interpretaions to bring out the dogmatic and mystic import of the Word, although he seems to have consulted the Hebrew and Greek text. Kupert -wrote commentaries on most of the Biblical books, aa explanation of the Liturgy (de Divinis officiis), a " Dialogus intei Christianum et Judaeum," etc. On the subject of the Eucharist, he adopted the view known as that of consubstantiation (since it was not the way of the Holy S])irit, "destruere vol corrumpere substantiam, quam in usus suos assumit, sed substantia, permanenti quod erat, invisibiliter adjiccre, quod non erat"). Rupert died in 1135. . 4. The most celebrated among the Historians of this century were : Sif/berius Gemhiacensis, monk at Gemblours, oh. 1113; Otlio, BisJiop of Freisingen, oh. 1158, the author of a Chronicon in eight books ; Martinus Gallus, e. 1113, (Chron. Polonorum) ; Cosmas Pragensis, ob. 1125, (Chron. Bremor.) ; Hehnnld, c. 1170, (Chron. Slavorum) ; an English Benedictine, Odericvs Vikdis, of Normandy, who wrote a hist, ecclest. in thirteen books, and Hist. Normannorum LI. 13; William of Malmeshury, oh. 1143, (de reb. gest. Anglorum ; de reb. gest. Pontiif. Anglor., etc.). ^ 104. HIGHEST STAGE OF SCHOLASTICISM (13TH CENT.). Mediasval Theologry attained its hierhest stage in the thirteenth century. After the defeat of William of St. Amour (§ 198, 4), the direction of theological studies was almost wholly left to the Dominican and Franciscan monks. Scholasticism, which had now got rid of all sceptical tendencies, was chiefly cultivated in the University of Paris. The introduction of the writings of Aristotle, which had lately been imported from the seats of Moorish literature in Spain (§ 100, 2), gave a considerable im- pulse to the labours of the schoolmen. The variety and ricliness of form characteristic of that philosophy became now for the first time fully known. These logical forms were adopted and em- ployed in the construction of systems of dogmatics, and afforded opportunity for all the acuteness and ingenuity of the schoolmen. Scholasticism addressed itself exclusively to the elucidation of ecclesiasMcal dogmas by means of the philosophy of Aristotle. To Scripture these divines ajipealed not; yet, withal, it was not wholly forgotten that the Bible alone was the source and ultimate ground of all belief; and even in the thirteenth century, those were not awanting who insisted on bringing back theology to this its great standard of authority. — fCf. § 116, &c.). 4o6 SECTION II . — S ECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D ). 1. The most celebrated scliolastics of this century were: — (1.) Alexander Halesius, educated at Hales in England, surnamed "Doctor irrefragabilis," the first Fi-anciscan professor at Paris; oh. 1245. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and on the sentences of Lombardus (Summa theologias universae, in four books). He was the first to assign to the philosophy of Aristotle its peculiar authority, so far as form was concerned ; on which ground he has been called the first scholastic (in the narrower sense). This method of discussing theoh)gical subjects became now prevailing ; and his successors were called Summists, as those of Lombardus had been called Senteiitiaries. (2.) Albertus Magnus, born Count of BoUstadt in Swabia, a Domini- can, and teacher of theology at Paris and Cologne, afterwards Bishop of llegensburg ; oh. 1280, at a very advanced age. He surpassed all other scholastics in learning, being equally conversant with philosophy, theology, natural sciences, and even cabalistic lore. This mass of knowledge he had acquired with much labour ; but as he had never repaired to the great fountains of Scripture and nature, his learning was of little real value. The people, however, regarded him as a magician. So far as individuality and native talent are concerned, he was much below the average of the great men of his age. The edition of his works published at Leyden, in 1(351, consists of twenty-one folio vols. ; among them, five volumes of commentaries on Aristotle, three vols, on Lombardus, a Summa Theol. in 2 vols., and a number of works on natural science. — (Cf. /. Sighart, Alb. M., s. Leben u. s. Wsch. Pvegensb. 1857). {{'). ) The great ornament of the Franciscans, Johannes Fidanza, better known by the name of Bonaventura, commenced his lectures on theology in Paris the same day on which Thomas Aquinas occupied for the first time the chair among the Dominicans (1253). These two divines successfully resisted the opposition of William of St. Amour. In gratitude for the service, Bonaventura was chosen general of his order (1256), and in 1273 Gregory X. appointed him Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia. By desire of the Pope, he attended the Council of Lyons in 1274 (^ 67, 4). and took an active part in its deliberations, but died before its close (1274). A f^w years later he was canonized, and in 1587 Sixtus V. added his name to those of the Church-teachers. When still a youth, his instructor designated him a " verus Israelita, in quo Adam non peccasse videtur;" while his cotemporaries, in their admira- tion of Ills " angelic purity," styled him " Doctor seraphicus." His writings have chiefly a practical bearing, and in his case dialectics were always combined with a deep mystic tendency. His works (Rom. 1588) are comprised in eight folio vols. (4.) By far the ablest of the schoolmen was Thomas Aquinas (Doctor angelicus). He was the son of a Count of Aquino in Calabria ; lipcame Dominican and a pupil of Albertus Magnus, and afterwards teacher in Cologne, Paris, and Rome, whence he retired into a Dimini HIGHEST STAGE OF SCHOLASTICISM. 437 ean monastery at Naples. Gregorjr X. requested him to attend the Council of Lyons ; but he died suddenly soon after leaving Naples, perhaps fi'om the effects of poison administered to him by order of his sovereign, Charles of Sicily (1274). He was canonized, and ranked among the Fathers. Aquinas was undoubtedly the most profound and^. acute thinker of his age, exceedingly popular as a preacher, and • equally enthusiastic in his attachment to the doctrines of the Church • and in the prosecution of philosophical investigations. An admirer . and disciple of Augustine, he inclined towards mysticism, and was dis- tinguished for genuine and deep piety. His principal work, the • " Summa Theologiae," is in many respects a model for this class of compositions. He also wrote a commentary on Lombardus, a valuable * <;ontroversial tractate directed against the Jews and Mohammedans • (Summa fidei catholicae contra Gentiles), commentaries on Aristotle, and a " Catena aurea" on the Gospels. (Comp. Hocrtel, Thomas Aqu. u. s. Z. Augsb. 184G. — D. Mettenlelter, Gesch. d. h. Th. v. Aq. Regensb. 1856. — K. Werner, d. h. Thom. v. Aq. Regensb. 1859. — /. N. P. Oischinger, d. specul. Theol. d. h. Th. v. Aq. Landsh. 1859). (5.) The fame of St. Thomas, which shed fresh lustre upon the Order ' of the Dominicans, excited the jealousy of the Franciscans. At length . one of their own number appeared to rival the honours of Aquinas. • John Duns Scotus, called "Doctor subtilis," was inferior to Aquinas > in acuteness and moral depth, though not in dialectic talent. His sub- . tilty in analyzing and developing ideas was specially vaunted ; but his. ecclesiastical orthodoxy was not free from suspicion, while occasionally, he laid himself open to the charge of propounding rationalistic views. He was teacher at Oxford, Paris, and Cologne, where he died in 1308. » The views held by these two teachers were afterwards adopted by » their respective orders, and~ rigidly adhered to and defended. Accord- • ingly the Dominicans were called Thomists, and the Franciscans Scot-. ISTS. In philosophy both orders were Realists — only that the Domini- cans were Aristotelians, the Franciscans Platonists. More important were their differences in theology. The Thomists adhered strictly to the tenets of the Church, while the Scotists were rationalistic in some of their views. On the doctrines of human depravity and of grace, the Thomists held moderate Angustinian, the Scotists semi-Pelagian opinions. The Dominicans adopted the views of Anselm on the atone- ment — the merits of Christ as the God-man were of infinite value (satisfactio superalmndans), and hence in themselves a sufficient equiva- lent for our redemption. The Scotists, on the other hand, maintained that the merits of Christ were an equivalent for our redemption, not in themselves, but only in consequence of the declaration of God that He accepted them as such (acceptatio gratuita). Lastly, the Franciscans were strenuous advocates of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary (| 105, 2) — a view easily accounted for from their leaning towards Pelagianism, while thf Dominicans rejected this dogma. 37* 438 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D.). 2. Raimundus Lnlliis may be designated "the reformer of the scho- lastic method." His zeal for missionary work (g 93, 5) made hira anxious to devise some method more suitable for demonstrating the truths of the Gospel. After considerable labour, he succeeded in in- venting a process by which — at least in his opinion — the highest truths might be made yiatent to the weakest capacity, by using certain letters and figures to represent ideas and their connections. This method he called " ars magna" or " generalis," and largely employed it in his discussions with the Saracens. He also translated into Arabic the work in which he explained his new method. 3. Among the divines who were opposed to scholasticism, and in its stead insisted on the necessity of studying the Bible, we mention : (1.) Robert Grosshead, teacher at Oxford, and afterwards Bishop of Lincoln [ob. 1253), — a prelate equally eminent for personal worth, and for his reform of many abuses in his diocese. (2.) Roger Bacon (Doctor mirabilis), a pupil of Grosshead and a teacher at Oxford [ob. 1294). He was undoubtedly the most learned man in the Middle Ages ; thoroughly versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, and conversant Avith mathematics, the natural sciences, >, astronomj', and even medicine. With eqtial clearness and openness, he pointed out the defects and dangers of scholasticism, and at the same time insisted on the necessity of studying the Scriptures in the original. In return for these bold assertions he was charged with heresy and magic, and had to spend great part of his life within pri- son-walls. The only one of his cotemporapies who seems to have un- derstood and admired the genius of Bacon, was Pojye Clement IV., who as legate had made his acquaintance in England, and afterwards re- stored him to liberty. (3.) Robert of Sorbonne in Champagne, a teacher and canon at Paris, and the founder of the Sorbonne (originally a seminary for poor young secular priests, but which soon acquired such fame that it be- came the theological faculty of the University). Robert earnestly recommended his hearers to prosecute zealously the study of the Bible. (4.) Hugo a St. Caro (de St. Chers, a suburli of Vienne), a Domini- can and cardinal {ob. 1200). This divine likewise insisted on the necessity of having continual recourse to the Scriptures, and endea- voured to promote their study by publishing a " Postilla (Commentary) in universa Biblia," and a " Concordantia Bibliorum." To his labours we also owe our present division of the Bible into chapters. (5.) Raymund Martini, a Dominican of Barcelona [ob. after 1286), was untiring in his labours for the conversion of Jews and Mohamme- dans, spoke Hebrew and Arabic as fluently as Latin, and wrote: Pugio fidei contra Mauros et Judceos. 4. As a precursor of German Mysticism, which was in its full bloom in the fourteenth century (| 117), we must name David of Augsburg, teacher of theology, and master of novitiates, in the Franciscan men PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 439 astery at Augsburg {ob. 1271). His -writings, pai-tly in Latin, partly in German, are introductions and treatises upon contemplative, mystic asceticism, equally distinguished by depth and fervour, as by pious earnestness and meek humility. The German portions especially (in Pfeiffer's deutsch. Mystikcrn d. 14. Jahrh. Bd. I. Lpz. 1845) combine, with excellence of matter, the attractions of beautiful and flowing lan- guage, and belong to the choicest productions of any age. 5. Among the distinguished Historians of that century are: Arnold of Liibek, ob. 1212 (Chron. Slavorum), Alberich, a monk of Drubek or Tres-fonts, at Liege (Chron. to 1241), Mattheto Paris, a monk of St. Alban's, England, ob. 1259 (Hist. Major), and Martin Polonus, who died as designated Bishop of Gnesen, 1278 (Chron.) ; William de Naw (/i.s-, a monk of St. Denis, ob. 1302 (Cliron.). IV. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. I 105. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. In the services of the Church, preaching occupied a subordi- nate place, chiefly owing to the ignorance of the priesthood. On the other hand, the externaiism in religion prevalent among the people rendered this want comparatively less felt. Popes and synods, liowever, insisted on the necessity of employing priests capalde of teaching ; and the sermons of the Franciscans and Don)iiiicans were eagerly listened to by multitudes. Except in Sjiain, the BomiffJi Liturgy was now everywhere introdnced. At a synod held in Toledo (1088), an attempt was made to set aside the old Mozarabic Ritual (§ 89, 1). But the people were violently opposed to sncli a change ; and the decisions of a trial by single combat and of the ordeal by fire were equally in favour of the establi.shed order. After that, both liturgies were used. The old Slavonic Ritual had been abolished in Moravia and Bohemia so early as the tenth century. The Latin was and continued the ecclesiastical language of all countries. — The worship of saints, of relics and of images, came more and more into vogue, and at last formed the principal part of the devotions. 1. New zeal for preaching kindled with the revival of monasticism from the tenth century, especially among the Cluniacensians and Cis- tercians: but these Orders, from the thirteenth centuiy allowed their reputation, in this respect also, to pass over to the Franciscans and 37 440 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 1«'-13 A. D.). Dominicans. Nearly all the heroes of monasticism and scholasticism acquired renown, likewise, as preachers. In ordinary public worship the sermon, when one was delivered, was preached in Latin. But where the design was to work upon the people (sermons calling to re- pentance, advocating crusades), the vernacular was, of course, em- ployed. Then such crowds pressed to hear, that few churches could hold them. St. Bernard is expressly said to have preached in French. But of all mediaeval preachers, none equalled in depth, fervour, sim- plicity, power, impressiveness, and popular style, Berthold of Regens- BURG, the pupil and friend of David of Augsburg (§ 104, 4) ; he used the German, went from town to town, and often had 100,000 hearers. Ilis themes were: the grace of God in Christ, the abuse of indulgences, false confidence in saints, the madness of trusting in pilgrimages, etc. {ob. 1272). An incomplete ed. of his sermons has been prepared by KUng. Berl. 1824. In regard to their language, also, they are an in- valuable treasure, and a glorious evidence of the power, depth, plea- santness, and euphony of the German of that age. — As yet, the views* of divines on the subject of the Sacraments were far from settled. Petrus Damiani computed their number at twelve ; Lombardus reduced them to seven, and his influence prevailed in this respect also (the seven Sacraments : Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Marriage, and Ordination). At the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the doctrine of' transubstantiation was formally sanc- tioned. Apprehension lest some of the blood of the Lord might be spilt, led in the twelfth century to the withdrawal of the cup from the laity, which henceforth was given only to priests. This alteration was vindicated on the ground of what was called " concomitantia," or the doctrine that communicants necessarily received with the body the blood also. The practice of using loafers (the host), instead of break- ing bread, arose from a similar anxiety for precaution. At the Fourth Lateran Council it was enjoined, on pain of excommunication, that ever}^ one of the faithful should go to confession and to the communion at least once a year, at Easter ; and auricular confession was declared to be necessary before receiving absolution. As marriage was regarded a sacrament in the proper sense of the term, divorce was of course absolutely prohibited, even in case of adultery. Innocent III., whc enacted this law, diminished, however (1215), the former excessive restrictions, by limiting the prohibition of marriage to the fourth, instead of the seventh, degree of consanguinity. 2. New Festivals'. — In honour of the Virgin [l 57, 2) a new feast was instituted, under the name of the Festival of the Nafiviti/ of Mary, which was celebrated on the 8th September. Another ceremonial in connection with the growing reverence paid to the Virgin, was the feast of the Immactdate Conception, on the 8th December, which was introduced in the twelfth century. It will be remembered that Bad- bertus Pascha.fius taught that both the parturition of the Virgin and PUBLIC AV O R S II I P AND THE FIN? ARTS. 441 her own conception had been exempted from the taint and consequences of original sin (^ 91, 3). In the twelfth century the canons of Lyons followed up this idea, and in honour of it instituted a festival. But St. Bernard protested equally against this doctrine and festival, and Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas were also opposed to it. From the time of Duns Scotus, the Franciscans, however, again contended for this docti-ine, which only induced the Dominicans to oppose it all the more energetically. Still the festival, at least, was pretty generally observed during the thirteenth century ; and in 1389 Clement VII. sanctioned it as one of the regular feasts of the Church. In 998 the congregation of Clugny introduced the Feast of All Souls (on 2d No- vember), which immediately followed upon the Feast of All Saints (on 1st November). Its object was to procure, by the prayers of the faith- ful, the deliverance of souls from purgatory. During the twelfth cen- tury. Trinity Day, being the Sunday after Pentecost, was observed. The doctrine of transubstantiation gave rise to the institution of Corpus Christi Day, on the Thursday following Trinity Sunday. It originated in a vision vouchsafed during prayer to Juliana, a pious nun of Liege. According to her statement, she discerned the full moon with a small speck in it, which, as was revealed, implied that among the festivals of the Church one was awanting in honour of the ever-recurring mira- cle of the Eucharist (1261). Urban lA''. gave his sanction to its ob- servance ; but it was not generally celebrated till 1311, when Clement V. enjoined it as a regular ecclesiastical festival. From that time the Church displayed all its pomp and splendour in the celebration of this feast. 3. Pilyrimages to Rome and Palestine continued in the tenth century,/ in spite of Roman misrule (| 96, 1) and the tyranny of the Seljiks. On the contrary, the expectation that the end of the world was at hand (§ 100, 1), served to increase the fanaticism of the people in this re- spect; the crusades even assumed the form of conquering armies. — The/ ancient opposition of the Frankish clergy to the xoorship of images seems to have entirely ceased in the eleventh century (| 92, 1). The veneration now paid to images, so far from conflicting with the service OF RELICS, rather increased the former ardour for this species of devo- tion. On their return to Europe, the Crusaders brought with them a large quantity of new relics, some of them sufficiently strange in char- acter. Despite their almost endless number, these articles continually increased in value. Castles and domains were occasionally not consi- dered an exorbitant price to give fur the relics of some celebrated saint, which not unfrequentK were stolen by devotees at the risk of their lives. No story, related by traffickers in relics, was too extrava- gant to be believed. Frequent canonizatiims — Avhich, since the twelfth century, were considered the exclusive right of the popes — furnished ever new objects for the worship of saints. Jacobus a Voragine, a Dominican [ob. 1298), may be considered the last writer of legends of 442 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT 10— 13 A. D.). the saints. His " Legenda aurea" consists of a colleivtion of the most extraordinary stories. Yet a French theologian, who had ventured to style the work " Legenda ferrea," was obliged publicly to retract frona the pulpit this insult. In the homage paid to the Virgin, the angelic salutation (Luke i. 28) formed a principal part of the devotions. To assist the memory in the frequent repetition of this formula during the prayers, the Dominicans devised the rosary (the fundamental idea being that a garland of spiritual roses was to be formed from the dif- ferent prayers). The idea must, however, ultimately be traced to Macarivs, a monk in the fourth century, who took three hundred little stones into his lap, throwing away one of them after each prayer — a practice which afterwards was frequently imitated. In the monasteries Saturday was generally set apart in honour of the blessed Virgin, and a special "Officium s. Marias" celebrated. 4. Hymnology. — About the time when scholasticism attained its highest stage, great progress was also made in the hymnology of the Church. The most celebrated among the many religious poets of that age were, Odo of Clugny, Robert, King of France ("Veni sancte Spiritus et emitte"), Petrus Damiani, Ahelard, St. Bernard, Adam of St. Victor, Bonaventura, Thomas Aquinas, and the two Franciscans, Tkomas of Celano, ob. 1260 ("Dies iras"), unA Jacobus de Benedictus or Jacoponus, Giacojwtie da Todi, ob. 1306 ("Stabat mater"). The last-mentioned author was an eccentric enthusiast, and frequently in- veighed against the clergy and Papacy, especially against the ambition of Boniface VIII. When imprisoned by order of that pope, he replied to his taunt, "When will you get out?" by, "When you will get in" — a prediction which soon afterwards was accomplished. — A number of hymns were also composed in the vernacular, altliough they were not employed in the public services of the Church (| 89, 2). Th*^ oldest German Easter hymn dates from the twelfth century ; " Christus ist erstanden Von den Marter Banden." Some of the poems of the " Minne-singers" in the thirteenth century had also a religious bear- ing, being specially devoted to the celebration of the Virgin, and form- ing a kind of spiritual " Minne-Songs." Occasionally religious poetry was composed for the use of diiferent classes — such as pilgrims, boat- men, etc. — or to be sung in battle. The best of the relics of German popular hymns, of the thirteenth century, is that for Pentecost: " Nu liitten wir. den heil'gen Geist." But the twofold merit of introducing into the public service the German religious poetry already existing, and of greatly adding to this kind of literature and pr;)moting its spread among the people, belongs to the heretical sects of that period rather than to the Church. — St. Francis wrote a number of hymns in Italian. One of these compositions, written in honour of " brother Sun" (de lo frate Sole), with characteristic boldness of figure introduces brother Sun, sister Moon, brother Wind, sister AVater, mother Earth, H,nd lastly brother Death, as praising the Creator. The religioua PUBLIC vV OR SHI I' AND THE FINE ARTS. 443 pootry of Slime of the disciples of St. Francis, however, was greatly superior to that of the founder of their order. Among them we mention the names of Fra Pacifico (formerly a troubadour, whom Frederic II. had crowned poet laureate), Bonaventura,' Giacomo da Verona, Thomas da Cclano, and Giacopone da Todi. The latter (and not St. Francis) indited that hymn " In foco amor mi mise," which breathes such ardent love to the crucified Saviour. (Comp. Hoffmann r. FnUi'rtilchen, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kircheuliedes bis auf Luther (Hist. of Germ. Ch. Poetry to the Time of Luther). Ilan. 1854. — A. F. Ozanam, les Poetes Franciscans en Italic ; transl. into Germ., with add., by Julius}. 5. Ecclesiastical Music. — The Gregorian, or cantus firmus, soon fell into decay. This result was chiefly owing to the scarcity and ex- pensiveness of the Antiphonaria, as also to the frequent mistakes occurring in them, to the difficulty of their S3'stem of notation, and to the paucity of regularly trained singers. Errors committed in copying, and even alterations or embellishments introduced to suit the taste of some of the professional singers, multiplied. Thus the cantus firmus became by and by a discantus, or cantus Jiguratus (figurae = embellish- ments), and, instead of singing in unison, duets Avere introduced. Gradually, definite rules of harmony, of chords and intervals, werei framed. The merit of these improvements belongs chiefly to Hucbald, \ a monk of Rheims (about the year 900) ; to Rciiinus, a German monk (about the year 920) ; and to Odo, Abbot of Clugny. Guido of Arezzo (1000-1050) invented, in room of the curious Gregorian mode of nota- tion, our present notes, which rendered it possible, along with the cantus, to mark also the discantus (hence the term counterpoint, i. e., punctum contra punctum). The measurement of the tones was in- vented by Franco of Cologne, about 1200. The organ was almost universally in use ; and Germany was celebrated as possessing the best builders of, and the ablest performers upon, this instrument. 6. Ecclesiastical ArcJiitecture. — (Comp. II. O^^e, Handb. d. kirchl. Kunstarchaul. d. deutsch. M. A. Leips. 1854. — /. Kreuser, d. chr. Kirchenbau (chr. Eccl. Archit.). 2 Vols. Bonn 1851.-^1. H. Springer, d. Bauk. d. chr. M. A. Bonn 1854. — Quatremh-e de Quincy, Hist, de la Vie et des Ouvrages dea Architectes du XI. S. jusqu'a la fin du XVIII. 2 T. Par. 18.32). — The general decay prevailing during the tenth century, and the common expectation of the approaching end of the world at the close of the first 1000 years, operated unfavourably on the progress of the fine arts, especially so far as architecture was con- cerned. But these hindrances were only of a temporary character. The Romanesque style of architecture, which prevailed chiefly in the twelfth century, originated in the desire to give a distinctively German mould to the older forms of ecclesiastical structures. But during the entire period of its prevalence we mark a continual progress ; hence, 87* 144 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C £ N T. 10—13 (V. D.). while retaining its fundamental character as a transition style, it appeared in forms more varied than any other. In Komancsquo architecture the ancient Christian basilica still continued the type; the chief innovation consisted in introducing the vaulted roof (especially in the shape of a cross) instead of the flat wooden roof, whereby the in- terior became more lofty, and gained in perspective effect. In other respects also, marked progress was made. To this period belong the general introduction of the rounded arch, and that increase of architec- tural ornaments, which afforded scope for various symbolical devices and for the vagaries of fancy. Its materials were derived from the peculiar German view of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, from legend or from local tradition. Finally, ecclesiastical structures were completed by the addition of towers (as it were finger-posts pointing upwards), which it was now attempted to connect with the body of the uliurch (sometimes by rearing them above the entrance to the central nave, at others over one of the aisles, or where the central and the cross nave intersected, or on opposite sides of the choir). Frequently, however, only a cupola ro.se over the central nave. The finest speci- mens of this style are the cathedrals of Spires, of Mayence, and of AVorms. — But already the Gothic (or, more correctly, the Germanic) STYLE of architecture was introduced, which attained highest perfec- tion during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This claims to be an independent branch of the Romanesque style, in which the native genius of Germany cast off its traditional adherence to ancient forms, and displayed all its richness and boldness of imagination, and all its depth and fulness of conception. So far as the vault was concerned, the Romanesque style may be regarded as prejiaratory to the Gothic — the ancient Christian basilica still continuing the fundamental type. But while the Romanesque cross vault and the rounded arch rendered it impossible to rear a very lofty building, and required heavy walls to support the superincumbent weight, the pointed arch, by which any l)rea(lth could be spanned and any height reached, removed the ap- pearance of heaviness even from the most massive structures. Admit- ting that the first knowledge of the pointed arch was derived from the Saracens in Spain, in Sicily, or in the East, its application in Gothic structures was distinctively German ; for whilst among the Saracens it was used merely for decoration, it was in Germany mainly applied for construction, especially for the support of the vault. The stiff wall was transformed into supporting pillars, and formed a grand architec- tural skeleton, admitting of tasteful and varied designs fc windows. On the fundamental type of a cross, the Gothic cathedral rosf like a primeval architectural forest, exhibiting rich variety, and far surpass- ing in beauty every structure for secular purposes. Light and grace- ful the most massive buildings rose ; the tall supporting pillars symbol- ized the spirit tending heavenwards. Long rows of such columns fprunj , as ii were from the earth, up towards the lofty vault. Every- POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERAT'uRE. 445 thing seemed to live, to bud, and to bear. The pillars and the walls were covered with leaves and blossoms, exhibited fantastic emblems, or set forth holy persons. An immense rose (or round window) above the entrance — the symbol of silence — proclaimed the fact that every- thing worldly Avas excluded from these walls. Those large arched windows, with their gorgeous paintings, threw a strange mellow light into the sanctuary. Everything about the structure seemed to tend upward, even to the towers in which the stone, dug out of the dark depths below, appeared to become light and almost transparent. High upwards they reached, till they were almost lost to view in the blue sky. The victory also over the kingdom of darkness was represented in that brood of dragons and demoniac forms which lay crushed beneath pillars and door-posts, or were otherwise made subservient to the convenience of the building. Nay, occasionally, by a bold stroke, bishops and popes even were represented in such situations, just as Dante placed some of the popes in hell. The most splendid specimens of this style are the cathedral of Cologne and the Munster of Strasburg. 'J'he former was founded in 1248 by Archbishop Conrad of Hochsteden, the plan having been designed by Henry Sunere, an architect of Cologne ; but the choir alone was finished and consecrated in 1322. The building of the Strasburg Munster was commenced by Erioin of Steinback in 1275. 7. The Plastic Art, which had been neglected by the ancient Church, was much cultivated during the reign of the Hohenstaufen. Its first great master in Italy was Nicholas of Pisa (Nicolo Pisano, oh. 1274). Even before that period a school of sculptors had sprung up in Germany, whose works (in the churches of Hildesheim, Hallterstadt, Freiberg, etc.) have descended to posterity, though their names are lost to fame. Similarly, the art of the goldsmith and the coppersmith was largely employed in the service of the Church. — Byzantine artists became the teachers of the Italians in paixting, from whom, in turn, the Germans learned the art. A school of painters was formed at Pisa at the com- mencement of the thirteenth century, which, in honour of its patron saint, was called the School of St. Luke. It was the aim of these ])ainters to impart life and warmth to the stiff pictures of the Greeks. Guido of Sienna, Giunta of Pisa, and Cimahue, a Florentine, ob. 1300, were the great masters of this school. Mosaic painting, principally on a ground of gold, was much in vogue in Italy. The art of glass jmint- ing originated in Germany, early in the eleventh century, and was first employed in the monastery of Tegernsee, Bavaria, whence it spread through the West. — (Cf. IF. Wackernagel, d. deutsche Glasmalerei. Lpz. 1855). I 106. POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. This was a period full of strangest contradictions, and pre- senting most remarkable traiisilioiis in popular life. Everything, 38 446 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T . 10— 13 A. D.). however, gave indication of unabated vigour, and still on each unhewn block did the Church lay the fashioning chisel. If, on the one hand, rude violence prevailed throughout Europe, on the other, men, willingly or unwillingly, owned the higher and invisible power of thought. The grossest sensuality was found alongside tlie most entire renunciation of tlie world ; the most unmitigated selfishness side by side with the rarest self-denial and the deepest love ; keen and frivolous sarcasm, which made parody even of wliat was most holy, occurred along with the most thorough earnestness and tender anxiety for the salvation of souls. If boundless superstition prevailed, so did the boldest liberalism, and in the midst of general ignorance and barbarism, lofty ideas, broad views, and singular individuality of mind, were found to exist. Above all, there was one characteristic distinguishing this from every other age — we mean the capacity and susceptibility for enthusiasm of every kind. 1. Poinilar LiJ'e. — The consciousness of deep religious and mora] decline, during the tenth and eleventh centuries, manifested itself in the confident expectation of the approaching end oy the world, which in turn led to fresli acts of devotion in the shape of pilgrimages, pious donations, and foundations. If the secular power was too Aveak to check the practice oj' private revenge, the Church exercised a beneficial influence by enjoining the so-called truce of God (trenga Dei), which ordained that during Advent and till eight days after Epiphany, during Lent and till eight days after Pentecost, and during every week from Wednesday evening till Monday morning, all such quarrels should be suspended. This ordinance, which originated in 1032 in France, after several years of famine, gradually spread into all other countries. (Cf. A. Kluckhohn, Gesch. d. Gottesfr. Lpz. 1857 ; E. Semiclwn, la paix et la treve de Dieu. Par. 1857) — Despite its barbarism, there was a reli- gious cast about KNiGnxHOOD, which was greatly fostered in Spain by the contest with the Saracens, and throughout all Europe in connec- tion with the Crusades. All the tendencies and mental peculiarities of the people found their appropriate expression in the various orders of ■mouastici.sm. Nor must we forget the important effects achieved by the Crusades. Not only was the religious sense of the people roused, but their narrow horizon was enlarged, and the ardent longing of the age became deepened. But, on the other hand, superstition and moral laxity also increased ; and along with expanding commerce, the wants or demands of tlie people also grew. In the fervent homage paid to saints, the people forgot the worship due to Christ and to the Father. Every business and calling, every age and station, had its patron saint; and under every mischance or disease, there was some special taint to whom to apply for relief. The religion of the people was little I'OPULAR l:fe and national literature. 447 other than a kind of magic ; salvation was obtained by indulgences and good works. A large amount of superstition had been imported from heathenism. Belief in witchcraft, amulets, dreams, good and bad omens, fairies, brownies, etc., merged with the dogmas of the Church about saints, angels, and demons, and gave rise to a kind of Christian mythology. The poetic spirit of the people found utterance in legends, traditions, and fables, mostly rich in meaning, and having some religious bearing. Almost in them all the decil plays the chief part; but he is ever represented as a poor stupid being, who at last ia only cheated for his pains. Nay, the light-mindedness of the people turned even holy subjects into extravagant follies. At the Feast of Fools, which was celebrated in France aliout New Year's time, popes, bishops, and abbots arrayed as fools mimicked in the church, with grotesque jokes, the sacred functions of these ecclesiastics. A similar comedy was enacted at Christmas by boys (the so-called festum inno- centum). At the Feast of the Ass, which was also celebrated at Christmas, in honour of the animal on which Christ had made His entry into Jerusalem, an ass, adorned with a surplice, was brought into the church, and his praises sounded in a comic liturgy composed for the purpose. Bishops and popes inveighed against these substitutes fot the ancient heathen festivities of December. But the lower clergy and the people enjoyed the sport. At Easter, instead of preaching of Him who had burst the bonds of death, the priests — to make some amends for the previous long fast — amused their audiences with stories and jokes, to which the people, as in duty bound, responded by the so-called Easter-laughter (Risus paschalis). When councils and bishops at last succeeded in banishing these follies from the churches, the people took compensation in the amusements of the Carnival, which preceded Easter quadragesima. — In imitation of the trade guilds Avhich originated in the twelfth century, a kind of spiritnal guilds were instituted, which enjoyed the countenance and fostering care of the secular clergy, in the hope of their pi'oving a counterpoise to the influ- ence which the mendicant orders had acquired among the people through their Tertiaries. In many parts of Germany and France associations of priests and laymen were formed, which undertook to say a certain number of prayers and masses for the members and for their relatives, Avhether living or dead. Such unions were called Calends, fi-om the circumstance that their meetings took place on the calends (or first) of every month. By voluntary contributions and legacies, these unions obtained ample means for founding special " calend-houses." But their original pious object was soon forgotten, and these meetings became by and by only occasions for feasting and revelry. At the time of the Reformation the calends were abolished, and their possessions applied tc useful purposes. 2. Popidar Cidture. — The learning of the schoolmen was entirely -°.yond the range of the popuiar mind. But some of the earnest 448 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T . 10— 13 A. DJ. preachers of repentance addressed themselves to those who were other- wise neglected, generally with remarkable success, especially in the case of notorious or obstinate sinners. Unfortunately, those who were thus converted retired into monasteries, instead of proving the salt of the earth. No attempt was made to instruct the people ; and although the Ilohcnstaufen endeavoured to establish elementary schools in Italy — making attendance on them even obligatory — these institutions did not succeed. From the eleventh century, associations were formed in the south of France for the study of the Bible ; but their members by and by generally took up a position hostile to the Church. The spread of the Cathari and Waldenses (| 108) was mainly due to the fact that, by preaching, reading the Bible, singing and prayer in the vernacular, they met the felt religious wants of the people. St. Domi- nic proposed to counteract their influence by emploj'ing a similar agency. In 1229, the Council of Toulouse prohibited laymen from possessing the Old or the New Testament, and even from reading the Psalter or the Breviary, in the vernacular. In lieu of the Bible thus withheld, and of the martyrologies, Avhich, being written in Latin, were inaccessible to the masses, the Church introduced, in the thirteenth century, legends in rhyme, composed in the vernacular. The oldest work of this kind in German, by an unknown author, consists of three books comprising about 100,000 lines. Book I. treats of Christ and of Mary ; Book II. of the Apostles and the other personages mentioned in the Gospels ; while Book III. gives a sketch of the lives of the saints, according to their order in the Calendar. The first two books (edited by K. A. Hahn, d. alte Passional. Frkf. 1845) contain a number of apocryphal stories, couched in the genuine mediaeval style. As few of the people were able to read, wandering minstrels were wont to re- late these stories to the people. Another and more effectual mode of conveying religious instruction was by means of religious theatricals, which were introduced in the eleventh century, probably in France. F. J. Mone has lately edited a number of these dramas in German (Schauspiele d. M. A. 2 Vols. Karlsr. 184G). They originated in those antiphonal chants in which it was the custom to celebrate the hero of a festival during the worship in his honour. By and by these poems were enlarged into dramas ; and in course of time a cycle of such pieces existed for all the saints' feasts, which were acted by the clergy in the churches, at first with Latin words, but afterwards in the ver- nacular (of course with the- exception of the prayers introduced in them). Besides these historical dramas, which were called mysteries, and the material of which was derived from the Bible, or the legends of saints, allegorical moral plays were prepared; these were called jnoralities. They represented general moral truths, or personified Biblical parables. Such dramatic representations flourished most during the succeeding period (? 114, 4). Cf. H. Alt, Theater u. Kirche. IJorl. 1846; K. Hase, d. geistl. Schauspicl. Lpz. 1858).— The images, POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL L TERATURE. 449 ntosaics, and reliefs, Tvhioli covered the doors and walls of the churches, were also a means of recalling to mind Biblical events and legends 'jf saints. 3. National Literature. — (Cf. K. Barthel, d. class. Periode d. deutsch. Nat.-Literat. im M. A. Braunschu, 1857). — The tenth and eleventh centuries produced scarcely any works either in science or poetry. But during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the Church rose from its former decay, German national literature developed rapidly, and in a manner most surprising. The writings of that period occasionally breathe a spirit hostile to the clerical rule — a remark which specially applies to the compositions of Wolfram of Esehenbach, Even the legend of Reinecke and Isegrimm are really, though »Jot intentionally, a cutting satire on the rapacity of the monks, the hypocrisy of the clergy, the avarice of the popes, and the abuse of in- dulgences. In the mind of the German troubadours, "those nightin- gales of the Middle Ages, the whole fair sex appeared as the Holy Virgin." Thus, while Walter von der Vogelioeide sang in happiest strain of earthly love, he at the same time sounded the praises of the Lord, of the Holy Virgin, and of the Church. The Lay of the Nibo- lungen was essentially heathen in its conception, and its last editoi', in the twelfth century, imparted to it onlj^ a slight Christian gloss. But Wolfram of Esclienhach, a Christian poet in the highest sense of the term, completely recast in his Parcival the ancient heathen legend of St. Gral, and the Knights of the Round Table. The Parcival con- tains continuous reference to the Christian life, as a contest for salva- tion through the blood of the Son of God. A strain vastly different was that from the lyre of Gottfried of Strassbiirg, -whose " Tristan and Isolt" celebrates the pleasures of earthly love in language of the most fervent and sensuous character, while he completely ignores both the Church and its sacrament of marriage. But Tristan remained incom- plete, the poet having died, not a corporeal death, but that spiritual death, by which he died to the lust of the world and the flesh, that he might live in Christ. For Tristan he now substituted a poem which glowed with the tenderest piety, the holiest inspiration, and the most ardent longing after heaven, and another upon voluntary poverty, which is pervaded by the Spirit of St. Frauciscus, with his fanatical fervor for poverty. The most recent investigations appear (J. M. Wattericli, Gottfr. v. Str., ein Sanger d. Gottesmiune. Lpz. 1858) to have clearly shown that Master Gottfried and St. Franciscus must have personally met each other, and that St. F. conferred upon Gottfried both the garb and spirit of his order. In the south .of France, the merry strains of the Troubadours were interspersed with poems in honour of the Church and of its saints ; while occasionally their com- positions became the vehicle for heretics, giving expression to their indignation against the Romish Babylon. Gonzalo of Beret: the first 38 * 2 T> 450 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (c E NT. /O— 13 A. D.). celebrated Spanish poet (in the thirteenth century), sung of th« Virgin, of St. Dominic, and the Last Judgment. On the poets of Italy comp. § 105, 4. § 107. ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE AND INDULGENCES. Those terrible engines, excommunication , which was directed against individuals guilty of open sin, and the interdict, which rested on a whole district, rarely missed their aim. Till the interdict was removed, the church-bells were silent, worship was celebrated with closed doors, and only priests, beggars, and children under two years of age, received at burial the rites of the Church. Thus a whole district was made responsible for the sin committed or tolerated in it, and seldom did the people long brook this painful state of matters. Yet all this while ecclesiastical discipline, which Petrus Lombardus had described as "contritio cordis, confessio oris, and satisfactio operis," con- tinually declined in moral earnestness. The expiation demanded by the Church consisted of outward works (alms, fasts, pilgrim- ages, etc.) ; and even these might be compensated for by fines, in the shape of contributions for ecclesiastical purposes. This moral aberration increased during the Crusades, when all who took the cross received plenary indulgence for ecclesiastical punishments incurred from any cause ; and even those who gave of their means to the promotion of these undertakings, thereby purchased a similar dispensation. The popes bestowed also on individual churches the right of granting more or less extensive indulgences to those who visited them. Sincere repentance and amendment was indeed expressly mentioned, or tacitly understood to be the condition of such indulgences; but this important point was too frequently lost to view in mere external observances. — In opposition to this lax mode of discipline, many priests — especially the members of monastic orders — earnestly contended for more serious measures. Some, indeed, fell into opposite extravagance, and seemed to take a pride in excelling each other in their flagellations (administered while reciting the Psalter). A formal account was kept of the number of stripes thus inflicted. Three thousand lashes were the number requisite for one year of penance, etc. Self-inflicted scourging was regarded as a voluntary and meritorious imitation of Christ and of the martyrs. This species of superstition was carried to frightful excess amid the calamities of the thirteenth and fourteenth OPPOSITION TO ECCLESI ASTICl S M. 451 centuries (the wars, pestilence, famine, and earthquakes of that period). Compare § 114, 1. 1. The ingenuity of the schoohnon supplied tiicological arguments and a dogmatic vindication in favour of InduUjenccs. Lovibardus applied for this purpose the doctrine of purgatory (which had received ecclesiastical sanction at the time of Gregory the Great), or of the inter- mediate state in which the souls of believers underwent punishment for those venial sins which they had committ(;d after baptism. But according to Lombardus, the Church, in virtue of the merits of Christ, possessed the power of changing these purifying torments of purgatory into earthly punishments, from which, in turn, it might grant dispen- sation in consideration of certain advantages accruing to the Church as a whole. Albertas Magnus and Tlionias Aquinas went even farther than this, and propounded the view that the Church was the depositary and al)solute dispenser of an in(!xliaustiblo treasure, consisting of the superfluous merits of Christ and of the saints (thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum), since the latter also had, although in the strength of Christ, done more good tlian was requisite for the discharge of their own transgressions. — Still these divines continued to lay great stress on the fact, that such indulgences were not in themselves equivalent to the forgiveness of sins, but that they merely implied the remission of ecclesiastical ptmishnents and exemption from the torments of pur- gatory, and even these only in the case of such who combined with them genuine repentance. But the generality of preachers of indul- gences intentionally concealed or avoided these explanations. V. OPPOSITION TO THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF ECCLESIASTICISM. ? 108. ACTIVE OPPOSITION TO PREVAILING ECCLE- SIASTICISM. JoMP. .7. C. F'dsslin, unparth. K. u. Ketzerhist. d. mittle. Zeit. (Im- part. Hist, of the Ch. and of Ileret. Part, during the M. A.). Leips. 1770. 3 Vols. — i. Flathe, Gesch. d. Vorl. d. Reform. (Hist, of the Precursors of the Ref.). Leips. 1835. 2 Vols. — JJlr. Hahn, Gesch. d. Ketzer im M. A. Stuttg. 1845. 3 Vols. With the varied and catholic doctrines of Christianity which had been established during the course of the ancient history of tlie Church, a number of spurious elements concerning govern- ment, doctrine, discipline, and worship, had been introduced 8» 452 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). Thus, along with the truth, abuses had been imported into the German Chui'ch. These seeds of error sprung up and spread during tlie Middle Ages, fostered by the barbarism of that period, the sensuous disposition of the people, the ignorance of the clergy, and the selQshness of the hierarchy. They manifested themselves chiefly as boundless superstition of every kind, lax and demoralizing discipline, spurious asceticism, work-righteous- ness, secularism in the Church, ignorance and looseness among the clergy, and the abuse of hierarchical power. These evils, however, were not only felt during the Middle Ages, but frequent attempts were made to remove them. Throughout that period we can discern a reformatory tendency, which by various agencies — properly or improperly — sought to make way for itself. Some- times it manifested itself in combination with attachment to the Church, when the attempt was made to introduce an internal reformation, and thereby to bring back the Church to apostolic purity, in other cases, a sense of the hopelessness of such a task led to separation from the Church, and to determined opposition to prevailing ecclesiasticism. Such movements, however, rarely continued within the bounds of evangelical moderation ; more commonly, along with error, part of the truth was also rejected, fanaticism and heresy ensued, all social relationships were under- mined, and the existence of the State as well as of the Church endangered. Among the numberless sects of that period, the most influential and revolutionary w^ere those who held Mani- chean views, and to whom the general name of Catliari has been given. But in other directions also, parties hostile to the Church sprung up. Thus the enthusiasm of the Montanists reappeared in different prophetic and apocalyptical communities ; while the Sect of the Holy Spirit awteriiLmQ^. pjantheistic rieivs, and even the errors of the Ebionites were again mooted by the Pat^sagiere. Another kind of sects owed their origin to the efforts of indi- viduals, whose eyes had, by a perusal of the Scriptures, been opened to the defects in the Church, but who, failing to perceive at the same time the blessed truths of the Gospel, only aimed at a complete si(bfe7^sion of the Church, and, along with error, rejected also the truth. Among all these different parties, the community of the Waldenses alone continued within the bounds of evangelical moderation. OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 453 1. The Cathari. — (Comp. Dr. Maitland, Facts and Documents illustr. of the Hist., etc., of the Albig. and Waldcns., Lond. 1832 ; and that writer's Eight Essays, Lond. 1852. — C. Schmidt, Hist, et doctrinea des Cathares on Albigeois. Par. 1849. 2 Voll. — E.Kunitz, ein katha- risches Rituale. Jen. 1852.) — From the eleventh century a disposition unfavourable to the hierarchy and the prevailing ecclesiastical system began to manifest itself in many places, chiefly in Italy and in France. This led to the formation of sects, which rapidly spread. It is not difficult to account for the existence of this estrangement ; it originated in felt religious wants, which the Church failed to satisfy. Such aspi- rations became deeper and stronger in proportion as spiritual and intel- lectual life, in all its departments, was quickened during the period succeeding the lethargy of the tenth century. Accordingly, a strong desire sprung up to procure for oneself what the Church could not or would not give. But this desire must, to some extent at least, have been quickened and fostered from without. As in the East (^ 71), so in the West, Gnostic speculations had in all probability continued to exist, though by secret tradition. In point of fact, we know that the Vandals had transported shiploads of Manicheans to the shores of Italy, while the Priscilianists openly avowed their tenets in Spain, so late as the seventh century. Probably, however, the movement issued again from the East, in all likelihood from Bulgaria, where, since the time the Paulicians had settled in that district. Gnostic and Manichean views were widely entertained and zealously propagated. Even the names of these sects prove the correctness of this assertion. The most general designation was that of Cathari (xa^poi) ; but they were also called Bidgari (whence, in popular parlance, the opprobrious name Bougre) or Gazari, perhaps after the inhabitants of the Crimea (the Chazars), or else a different mode of pronouncing the word xa^apoi,', and Puhlicani, probably a transposition by which the foreign term of Pauli- cians was converted into a well-known term of reproach. They were also designated Patareni or Paterini ; either in the original sense of that term (| 97, 2), or because, since the contest between the Pataria at Milan and the clergy, the term implied in general a spirit of hostility to the priesthood. The name of Tisserands originated from the circum- stance that many of their adherents were weavers by trade. The com- mon characteristic of all these sects was opposition to the clergy and the hierarchy. They differed in the extent to which, and the grounds on which, they opposed the prevailing ecclesiasticism, or attempted to set up a church of their own. Several of the charges preferred against them may probably have arisen from misunderstanding or calumny. The Paulician or Bogomile opinions which they had embraced — while of a practical rather than of a speculative character, and variously modified or kept in check — affected all their tenets and practices Thus they held Dualistic views, though, in many cases, only in the way of carrying the scriptural doctrine of the devil and of original sin 454 SECTION II. SECOND P K R I O D (c E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). to an extreme (in opposition to the Pelasgianism of the Church) ; they rejected the Old Testament ; marriage they regarded as a hindrance to Christian perfection ; they contemned baptism, the eucharist, and clerical ordination ; prohibited the worship of saints and relics ; objected to the use of images and crucifixes ; insisted on a literal observance of all the injunctions of the Sermon on the Mount; and, despite their spiritualism, laid great stress on fasting, genuflexions, and the frequent repetition of certain prayers, especially the Lord's Prayer. Along with prayer, preaching occupied the most prominent place in their public services. Their adherents were divided into Crezantz (credentes = catechumeni) and hos homes or bos Crestias (boni homines, boni Chris- tian! = porfecti, electi). The so-called "auditores" formed a lower class of catechumens, who were received among the credentes after a term of instruction and probation (astenenzia = abstinentia). The admission of credentes was marked by a formal delivery of the holy prayer (or Lord's Prayer) and of the New Testament to the catechu- mens, by exhortations and other ceremonies, such as washing of hands, etc. The credentes were received into the number of perfeeti by the baptism of the Spij'it (or the Conso! amentum), without which it was impossible to have a part in eternal life. The ordinance was adminis- tered by the elder [Ancia) laying a copy of the Gospels, and the other bos Crestias their hands, on the head of the candidate. Those who were thus set apart Avere required to abstain from marriage, from the use of animal food, and from all polluting intercourse with those who were not members of the sect, on which account they commonly delayed till death receiving the Consolamentum. Generally they took, on their admission among the credentes, a vow (Convenensa) of joining the bos Crestias (or Ordo) at a future period ; while some, after having received the Consolamentum, underwent the Endura, i. e., henceforth abstained from all food and drink. At the time of their greatest prosperity they had a regular hierarchy, with a pope, who resided in Bulgaria, twelve magistri. and twenty-two bishops, each of whom had a Alius major and minor as their assistants. — Even their opponents admitted their deep and moral earnestness; but the doctrine of justifi- sation by faith had no place in their system. Prayer, abstinence, and the so-called baptism of the Spirit, were regarded as the sole means of obtaining salvation. It may be true that occasionally some Avent to the opposite extreme of antinomian excesses ; but more frequently such charges originated in calumny. Generally they went to the stake with the heroism and joyfulness of martyrs. — Sects of this kind were, since the eleventh century, discovered in several places ; first in Aquitaine in 1010 ; then in 1022 at Orleans, Avhere thirteen of them were bound to the stake : in 1025 at Cambrai and Arras ; in 1030 in the diocese of Turin ; in 1052 at Goslar, where their adherents were executed by order of the Emperor ; and in other places. During the twelfth cen- tury ^hey rapidly increased in membership, and spread into different OPPOSITION TO ECOLESIASTICISM. 455 countries. Kindness and rigorous measures were equally unavailing to reclaim them. His deep love to erring sinners made St. Bernard more successful than any other among them. At a later period learned Dominicans tried the efficacy of preaching and discussions. The prin- cipal centres of the Cathari Avere in Lombardy and in the south of France ; but numerous communities also existed in Germany, Belgium, and Spain. Indeed, such was their influence in France, that they ventured to summon a general Council at Toulouse in 1167, which was numerously attended. The contest between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs afforded them an opportunity of manifesting their enmity to the papal hierarchy, and Frederic II. openly protected them. They continued so late as the fourteenth century, despite the fearful persecution raised against them [I 109). Beinerius Sachoni [oh. 1259), a Dominican from Lombardy, who at one time had himself been a '' heresiarch" (Surama de Catharis et Leonistis et Pauperibus de Luyd.), was the most distinguished con- troversialist against the sect. The liturgy lately discovered by Kimitz dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and gives a more favour- able view of them than had formerly been entertained. The small sect of the Passagieri in Lombardy (during the twelfth century) went to an opposite extreme from the Manicha;an rejection of the Old Testament by the Cathari. With the exception of sacrifices, they insisted on the obligation of the whole Mosaic law, including cir- cumcision (along with baptism) ; they also entertained Arian views al)out the person of Christ. Their name (from pasagium =; passage) seems to point to the practice of pilgrimages or crusades to the Holy Land. Indeed, they may have originated in this manner. 2. Towards the close of the twelfth century ?i, pantheistic movement commenced in France, and found expression in the so-called Sect of TUE Holy Spirit. The party originated with Amalric of Bena, a teacher at Paris. The first germs of this pantheistic mysticism were probaldy derived from the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius and of Erigcna. The University of Paris and Innocent III. obliged Amalric to recant his apparently Christian, but according to his OAvn interpreta- tion of it, really pantheistic statement, that none could be saved who believed not that he was a member of the body of Christ. Chagrin at this humiliation may have hastened his death, which took place soon afterwards' (1201). In the hands of his pupil, David of Dinanto, the pantheism of Amalric received a more Aristotelian and dialectic cast. Besides these two, Simon of Tour nay, a celebrated dialectician at Paris, entertained similar views. While professing to teach the doc- trines of the Church, he took care to indicate sufficiently that it was much easier to refute than to demonstrate them. The opinions of these men found way among the laity. Soon afterwards a goldsmith pro- claimed the advent of the age of the Holy Spirit, when all positive religion and ev^ry form of oQtward worship should cease, and God be 456 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D. J. all in all. As formerly in Christ, so now in every believer, did God become incarnate ; and on this ground the Christian was God in the same sense in which Christ had been. The Pope was Antichrist. These views were condemned at a Synod held at Paris in 1209, the writings of Erigena were reprobated, and several members of the sect consigned to the stake. The bones of Amalric shared the same fate. — (Comp. Engelhardt, Am. v. Bena, in his " kirchengesch. Abh. ;" and /. H. Kronldn in the " theol. Studien u. Kritt." for 1847. II.) 3. Revolutionary Beformers. — (Comp. H. Francke, Arn-. v. Bresc. u seine Zeit. Zur. 1825. — Mosheim, Gesch. d. Apostolord., in his "Vers, e. unparth. u. grlindl. Ketzergesch." Helmst. 1748. — J. Krone, Fril Dolcino u. die Patarcner. Leips. 1844. — Sdilosaer, 1. c, I 103, 1. — Mariotti, Vrk Dolcino and his Times. Lund. 1853.) — Among them we reckon : (1.) The Petrobrusians, founded by Peter of Bruys, a priest in the south of France, about 1104. He rejected the outward or visible Church, and only acknowledged the true (invisible) Church in the hearts of believers. In his opinion all churches and sanctuaries should be destroyed, since God might be worshipped in a stable or tavern. He used crucifixes for cooking purposes ; inveighed against celibacy, the mass, and infant baptism ; and after twenty years of continual dis- turbances, ended his days at the stake by the hands of an infuriated mob (1124). He was succeeded by one of his associates, Henry of Lausanne, formerly a monk of the order of Clugny. Under him the ^ect of the Petrobrusians greatly increased in numbers. St. Bernard succeeded in converting many of them from their errors. Henry was seized and condemned to imprisonment for life. He died in 1149. (2.) Among these revolutionaries we must also include Arnold of Brescia [oh. 1155, comp. f 96, 4), a pupil of Abelard. Ilis fervent oratory was chiefly directed against the secular power of the Church, and its possession of property, — views which probably were based on a more spiritual conception of what the Church really was. Other- wise his doctrinal opinions seem to have been in accordance with those commonly entertained. Long after his death, a party of so-called Arnoldists cherished the political and ecclesiastical dreams of their founder. (3.) During the thirteenth century the "Apostolic Brethren," or " Apostolicals," caused considerable excitement, especially in Italy. In opposition to the luxuriousness of a wealthy clergy, they formed religious societies which were to be entirely destitute of earthly pos- sessions. As the popes prohibited their associations, they took up an attitude of hostility to the clergy and the Church, and retired from persecution to caves and woods. Gerhard Scgarelli, their leader, was seized, and died at the stake in Parma in 1300. His successor, Dolcino, excited these sectaries to utmost fanaticism liy his denunciations of die new Babylon, and by his apocalyptic pred'itions. With 2000 fob OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 457 lowers he retired to a niountiiin, where he entrenched himself, and for two years defied the army of crusaders summoned for the suppression of the sect. Ultimately he had to succumb to superior forces and to famine, and died at the stake in 1307. 4 Prophetic and Apocalyptic Opposition. — (Comp. Engelliardt, d. Abt Joachim u. d. ewige Evangel., in his " kirchenhist. Abhandl." Erlg. 1832. — Ulrich Halin, d. apokal. Lehren d. Joach. v. Floris, in the " theol. Studien u. Kritt." fur 1849. H. 2.) — The opposition to pre- vailing abuses which appeared in all directions, found also vent \n pro- phet ir denunriations. (1.) St. Hildegardis, the founder and abbess of a nunnery near Bingen, Avhere she died in 11U7 at the advanced age of ninety-nine years, had visions and revelations, and was considered an oracle by persons of all ranks. Even St. Bernard and Pope Eugenius III. re- garded her as divinely commissioned. Iler prophetic denunciations were specially directed against the looseness of the clergy and the assumptions of the hierarchy, to both of which she traced the decay of the Church. She announced impending terrible judgments for the purification of the Church. (2.) St. Elizabeth, Abbess- of the nunnery of Schonait [ob. 11G5), an elder cotemporary of Ilildegard, also claimed to be a prophetess, and in that capacity inveighed against the luxuriousness of the clergy. Her predictions were translated and puljlishod by Ecbert, her brother. The well-known legend about St. Uvsida, a British princess, who, along Avith her 11,000 virgins, had been martyred in the neighbourhood of Cologne Avhile on a pilgrimage, rests on the authority of her visions. (3.) The prophetic visions of Joachim of Floris, an abbot in Cala- bria [ob. 1202), deserve fuller notice. These apocalyptic predictions breathe a spirit of deep sorrow on account of the corruptions in the Church, and of ardent longing for better times. According to Joachim, scholasticism had paralyzed the energies of theology, while the deifi- cation of man in the Papacy, the avarice and abuses of the clergy, and the practices of indulgences, had converted the Church into a harlot. Hence fearful judgments were impending. These were to be executed by the German Empire, in which Antichrist should become manifest. The only source of spiritual restoration still extant was to be found in the monastic orders. Work-righteousness and pilgrimages were devices of the enemy, but asceticism and contemplation delivered from destruc- tion. The history of revelation was comprised within three periods — that of the Father in the Old Covenant, that of the Son in the New Testament, and the approaching period of the Holy Spirit. Peter was the representative of the first, Paul of the second, and John of the third of these periods. During the third era, which was to commence about 1200. but to last only a short time, the glory of Christianity i.'ould be fully manifested. — -Joachim was held in high esteem bv all 3'J 458 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— lo A. 1).). ranks, and their protection proved his safeguard against the enmity of the hierarchy. (4.) The views broached by Joachim were eagerly adopted, espe- ciallj- by the Franciscan sectaries or Fratricelli (§ 98, 4), and the Beghards who had joined them (§ 98, 5). In their hands the tenets of Joachim became what was called the doctrine of the "Everlasting Gospel," or the message concerning the age of the Holy Spirit. These views were expressed in the "Introductorius in Evangelium feternum," — a treatise composed either by John of Parma (formerly General of the Franciscans, but deposed and succeeded by Bonaventura), or by Gerhard, a monk whose tenets were impeached about the same time. At the request of the University of Paris, the book was condemned by Alexander IV. in 1254. At length Nicholas III. decided in 1279 the controversy so long raging among the Franciscans as to the lawfulness of holding property. The Pontiff ruled that the disciples of St. Francis were only prohibited the possession, but not the usufruct of property. This decision gave great offence to the extreme party, and their leader, Johanne.s Petrns Oliva {ob. 1297), fulminated apocalyptic visions and prophetic denunciations against the Romish Antichrist. Such visions and outlnirsts of fanaticism rose almost to the pitch of madness in the case of Tanchelm, a Dutchman, who designated himself God in virtue of his having received the Holy Ghost, celebrated his affiancing to the Virgin Mary, and was killed by a priest in 1124. A similar remai-k applies to another fanatic, a native of Gascoigne, Eon, or Eudo de Stella, who, applying to his own name the ecclesiastical formula " Per EUM, qui venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos," claimed to be the judge of the quick and the dead, and died in prison in 1148. 5. The Waldenses. — (Comp. Jea/i Leger, hist, g^n^rale des 6glisea, evang. de Piemont ou Vaudoises. Leyde 16GG. Transl. into German by dc Srhwrinltz. Bresl. 1750. 2 Vols. — A. Monastier, Hist, des egl. Vaud. Gen. 1847. 2 T. — ^. Muston, I'lsrael des Alpes. Par. 1851. 4 T. (re- peatedly transl. into Engl.). — F. Bender, Gesch. d. Wald. Ulm. 1850. — A. W. Dieclchof, d. Wald. im M. A. Gcitt. 1851.—/. /. Herzog, d. roman. Wald. Halle l%bZ.—MaUland, u. s. Note l.)—Waldus (Valdez, ■ or, as later authorities also call him, Petrus Waldus) was originally a rich citizen of Lyons. For his personal instruction he got the New Testament and a selection of pregnant passages from the Fathers translated into the Romaunt by some clerical friends. By such studies his mind became imbued with Gospel truth, when the sudden death of a friend aroused and decided him to change his former mode of life (about 1170). In pursuance of this resolution, he distributed all his goods among the poor, and founded "an apostolic association" for preaching the Gospel to the country people. In literal obedience to the directions of Scripture, these missionaries were to go forth by two and two, without staff or scrip, their feet shod with wooden sandals (."^abates, sabots), they were to devote themselves to preaching ami O P P f) S I T I 0 N T f) E C C L E S I A S T I CI S M . 459 teaching, and in every respect to imitate apostolic poverty and sim- plicity. They were called Panperes de Litgduiio, Leoiiistce, or Sahatati. It certainly formed not part of the original plan of "Waldus that his . idherents should take up a position of hostility to the Church ; but when the Archbishop of Lyons prohibited their preaching, when Pope Alexander HI. sullenly refused his sanction to their associations, and when, soon afterwards, a papal Council at Verona, under Z/iicius HI. (1183), excommunicated them, the Catholic Church, by driving them from its bosom, swept away those barriers which had hitherto restrained them in their soai-cb after truth. Waldus himself was obliged to flee from France. He laboured for some time in Italy and in other coun- tries ; lastly in Bohemia, where he died in 1197. Even at that early period his adherents had already spread throughout the West. They were most numerous in the south of France, in the east of Spain, and in the north of Italy ; but many of their converts were also found in Germany, in Switzerland, and in Bohemia. The so-called " Winkeler" (or conventiclers), who were discovered and persecuted in the districts along the Rhine in 1212, were probably also Waldenses. — Innocent III.^ with his wonted sagacity, perceived the injustice and impolicy of his predecessors, whose blind zeal had deprived the Catholic Church of what might have proved valuable auxiliaries. Accordingly, he at- tempted (1210) to transform the community of Pauperes de Lugduno into a monkish association of Pauperes Catholici, to whom, under the" superintendence of the bishops, he granted permission to preach, to expound the Scriptures, and to hold meetings for religious purposes. But the concession came too late ; already the Waldenses had suffi- ciently advanced to know the unscriptural character of the papal • Church, and they now refused to purchase immunity by a sinful com- promise. The cruel persecutions to which they were exposed, and in which thousands were brought to the stake, proved even less efficacious than the advances of the Pope in restoring them to the bosom of the Church. They gradually retired from France, Spain, and Italy into " the remote valleys of Piedmont and Savoy. According to modern Waldensian tradition, which a number of Pro- testant writers (most zealously U. Hahn, tit sttpra) have followed, the name and origin of the Waldenses should be traced much beyond Waldus of Lyons. By their account, Waldensian or Vallensian con- gregations existed in the valleys of Piedmont from the time of Claudius of Turin (| 92, 2), if not from apostolic times, and among them the doctrines of the Gospel had thronghf)ut been preserved in their purity. From them Petrus of Lyons had derived his religious knowledge and the surname of Waldus, i. e., the AValdensian. In suppoi-t of this tradition the)' refer to the ancient Waldensian literature. But the impartial and full investigations of Dieckhoff and Hcrzog have un- fortunjitely shown that these statements are wholly ungrounded. The iincient Waldensian literature may be divided into two very different 400 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A. D.). classes. The writings of the first period, dating from the close of the twelfth and the commencement of the thirteenth century, bear evidence that at that time the eommunity had not completely separated from the Church. Accordingly, while the corruptions of the Church are- indeed deplored, the Catholic Church itself is not denounced ; fasting' and almsgiving are urgently recommended as meritorious works, auricular confession is approved, the service of the Virgin and of saints • is still acknowledged, the priesthood of the Catholic Church recognized, nionasticism extolled as the highest stage of evangelical perfection, and lastly the seven sacraments and the mass are owned. On all essential • points these Avritings tally with the statements of the Catholic con- troversialists [Reinerius, 1. c, Note 1; Alarms ad Insulis, §134, 2; StephamLs cle Borbone, and others). Above all, they make no allusion to the existence of Waldenses in Piedmont before the appearance of Waldus. It is otherwise with the writings which belong to the second period of their history. In them Rome is denounced as Babylon, the- Pope as Antichrist, the Avorship of saints as idolatry, monasticism is . reprobated, while the doctrine of indulgences and of purgatory, the • mass and auricular confession, are rejected. If the writings of the former period shoAv what the Waldenses were, and what they sought, - before their separation from the Church, those of the second disclose . what they became after their expulsion, and in consequence of the fearful persecutions to which they had been subjected. But from the very first there was this fundamental difi"erence between them and the Romish Church, that they were deeply impressed with the right and duty of every Christian to study the Scriptures for himself; that they ardently desired to restore the pristine purity and simplicity of Christian life — an object they sought to accomplish by a literal ob- servance of the injunctions of the Sermon on the Mount; and lastly, that, like some of the later reformers, they believed that reverence and obedience were due only to pious priests. In imitation of monastic arrangements, their adherents were divided into the "perfecti" and the "credentes," the former alone being bound to celibacy and absolute poverty. After their expulsion from the Church, they were of course obliged to make ecclesiastical provision for themselves. The apostolic succession in their ordination was preserved by means of some bishops who had joined them. The presidents of particular con- gregations Avere called Barbes (uncles). Even their opponents were obliged to admit the purity of their morals and their separation from the Avorkl ; they were struck chiefly, however, with the knoAvledge which they possessed of the Scriptures. A third era in their history, when their dogmatic views underAvent a complete change, and they , received the doctrine of justification by faith alone, commenced about the time of IIuss, and Avas completed under the influence of the Re- formers, specially of Zwingle and Calvin. REACTION IN THE CHURCH. 461 I 109. REACTION IN THE CHURCH. It will readily be understood that the rapid spread of heretics and sectaries during the eleventh and twelfth centuries excited considerable alarm in the Church. Indeed, its very existence seemed now endangered. So early as the eleventh century, lead- ing ecclesiastics saw no other remedy than the stake (a kind of ]irelnde to those torments which hereafter awaited heretics). Only one voice, that of Bishop Wazo of Liege {oh. 1048), was lifted against this iniquitous mode of conversion. Happily the opponents of this favourite and easy method of terminating con- troversy were more numerous in the twelfth century. Pelrus Venerabilis (§ 98, 1), St. HikJegard, and St. Bernard, pro- tested against attempts at conviction by fire and sword ; while the latter, by his own example and success, proved that affec- tionate admonition and kindly teaching were likely to produce more satisfactory results than measures which only converted simple-minded men into enthusiastic martyrs. But executioners and stakes were more readily procured than men like St. Bernard, of whom even in the twelfth century there was not a super- abundance. At a later period, St. Dominic despatched his dis- ciples to teach and cfonvert heretics by preaching and discussions. So long as they confined themselves to these means, their labours were not unsuccessful. But by and by they also found it more easy and efficacious to employ the thumb-screw than syllogisms. The crusade against the All)igenses and the tribunals of the In- quisition finally arrested the spread of heresy. The scattered members of these sects sought safety in concealment. Through- out, the Church made no distinction between diiferent sectaries, and one and the same sentence was pronounced on Cathari and Waldenses, on Petrobrusians, Arnoldists, and Fratricelli (species quidem habentes diversas, wrote Innocent III., sed caudas ad Invicem colligatas) ; and indeed, so far as their opposition to the Papacy and hierarchy was concerned, they were all at one. 1. Crusade against the Athigenses (1209-1229). — (Comp. Sismonde di Sismoiidi, les croisad. contre les Albig. Par. 1828. — J. S. Barrau et A.B. Darragon, Hist, des crois. c. les Alb. Par. 1843). — The great stronghitld of the numberless sects which were designated as Cathari, Bulgarians, Mamcheans, etc., was in the south of France, where they had secured the protection of Eatjmond VI., Count of Toulouse, and of other powerful vassals. Innocent III, who stigmatized them as worse than the Saracens, commissioned the order of Cistercians to effect their 39* 1G2 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10—13 A. D.). conversion, but their labours were unsuccessful. Upon this the Pope despatched, in 1203, Peter of Castelnau as his legate, with ample powers for their suppression. Peter was murdered in 1208, and sus- picion fell on Raymund. By order of the Pontiff, Ai-nold, Abbot of Citeaux, now proclaimed a crusade against the sectaries. The army thus raised was commanded by Simon, Count of Montfort. The little town of Albi, in the district of Albigeois, was regarded as the great centre of the party ; whence the name of Albigenses, by which all these sects were designated, though in many respects they greatly differed. The murderous war which now ensued, and which in fanaticism and cruelty (on both sides) was unparalleled, lasted for no less than twenty years. Alike the guilty and the innocent, men and women, children and aged persons, fell its victims ; the covintry was changed into a desert, and the Albigenses were almost exterminated. 2. The Inquisition. — So early as at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), measures had been concerted against a revival of the Albigen- sian heresy. No sooner was the crusade finished than a synod met at Toulouse (1229) to carry out these precautious. Bishops were enjoined to employ persons, whose sole duty it should be to hunt out heretics, and to hand them over to the proper tribunals. Any secular or clerical official who spared a heretic was to lose his property and office, every house in which a heretic was sheltered should be levelled with the ground; the people were to take the sacrament three times a year ; every two years they were again to make declarittion of their adherence to the Romish Cliurch ; those suspected of heresy were to be refused every assistance, medical or otherwise, even in case of mortal illness, etc. But the bishops were slow in enforcing these iniquitous ordinan- ces. On this account Gregory IX. instituted special Tribunals of In- quisition (Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis), which were confided to the Dominicans (1232). Let loose against the heretics .as "Domini canes" (a designation which they coveted as an honour), the in- quisitors possessed unlimited power. Any party suspected or de- nounced could be imprisoned and tried without being confronted either with accuser or witnesses, and torture was freely employed to extract confession. Those who recanted were generally condemned to im- prisonment for life ; those who proved obstinate were (in accordance with the principle, ecclesia non sitit sanguinem) handed to the secular tribunal to be consumed at the stake. The first Grand Inquisitor of Germany was a Dominican, Conrad of Marburg, known also for his unyielding harshness as confessor to St. Elizabeth, princess of Thuringia and Hesse. After having for two years carried on his dreadful occupation with implacable severity and cruelty, he was killed by some nobleman (1233). It was also due to Conrad that Gregory IX. ordered a crusade to be preached (1234) against the " Stedingers," a tribe inhabiting Oldenburg, who, in their indigna- tion at the oppression of the nobility and clergy, refused socage and tithes, and on that ground were declared Albigensian heretics. THIRD PEHIOD OP ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIAEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES. I. THE HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. f 110. THE PAPACY. At the accession 'of Boniface YIII. the see of St. Peter still possessed that power and influence with which Gregory and Innocent had invested it. The first breach was now to be made in the proud fortress. During the seventy years of (so-called) Babylonish exile at Avignon the Papacy became the tool of French intrigue, and fell into fearful decay. Nor was this all. When at length the Curia was again transported to Rome, a pajjal schism ensued. For forty years Europe had the spectacle of two, or even three, pretended representatives of God on earth, hurling against each other the most awful anathemas. At the Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle, an attempt was made to put an end to these abuses, and to introduce a thorough reformation in head and members. Yet so deep was the con- viction still entertained of the necessity for some central govern- ment of the Church generally, such as the Papacy had hitherto represented, that even the most determined reformers, the Fathers of Constance and Bede, were the most strenuous advocates for its continuance. But the abuses and the degeneracy of the Papacy, the vilenoss and dissoluteness of most of its occupants at the time, and of those by whom they were surrounded, the continual demands for money made by the Curia under every kind of pre- 39 " ( 4G3 ) 'IGI SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. U & 15 A. D.) text, which led to almost incredible simony, oblijred tlie divines of that age to fall back upon the old principle, that the infalli- bility of the Church re.sted not in any one individual, but in the representation of the Church universal in General Councils, and that these assemblies were superior to the popes. The general acknowledgment and establishment of this principle depended, however, on the union and combination of individual or national churches — which now more than ever felt that they were inde- pendent members of the great hierarchical body — in their oppo- sition to the corrupt Papacy. Unfortunately the different churches were not prepared for such measures. Content to make separate treaties with the Papacy, in which even the most selfish demands of a particular church were scarcely met, they neglected the general good. Most successful, but also the most selfish, were ■the policy and measures of the Gallican Church. Thus papal eunning ultimately succeeded in disappointing and frustrating the hopes and hibours of these councils. From this its severest conflict the Papacy issued once more triumphant ; but only, as in the tenth, so now in the fifteenth century, again to descend to tlie lowest depth of moral degeneracy and vileness. — Luxurious- ness and dissoluteness, pomp and worldliness, nepotism, and, since the return to Rome, incessant wars, had helplessly dis- ordered the papal finances. The felt necessity of opening fresh sources of income led to the adoption of new devices. Among them we rickon the An.natce, a full year's income being claimed at every vacancy by the pontiffs, as those who conferred bene- fices ; the Eei mitted to this state of matters, — not, however, without strenuous pro- testation against the scandal, especially on the part of the University of Paris (the chancellor Pierre cVAilh/, and the rector Nicholas de Cle- manc/is). After much fruitless negotiation even the cardinals on both' sides became tired of this state of matters, and summoned a General Council at Pisa (1409) to pronounce on the claims of the two popes [Grer/ori/ XII. in Rome, and Benedict XIII. in Avignon). This seasonable measure was chiefly due to the exertions of John Charlier de Gerson (| 198), at the time Chancellor of the University of Paris. That divine, while admitting the necessity of a visible chief of the Church at Rome, insisted on the necessity of a reformation in head and members, and laid down the princijile that a general council was superior to the Pope. The assembly at Pisa numljered among its members the most influential churchmen of the time. The two popes were summoned to its bar ; they failed to appear, and were deposed. But instead of now addressing itself to the work of reformation, the Council hastened to elect another pontiff. Alexander V., the new Pope, immediately adjourned the Council for three years, on pretext that the necessary preparations for the proposed reformation had not j'Ct been made. Accordingly, the only result achieved was — that there were three instead of two popes anathematizing each other. Alexander V. died in 1410 at Bologna, j^robably in consequence of ' poison administered to him h\ Cossa, the cardinal legate, a most de- praved person, who in youth had been a pirate, and now exercised at Bologna the most despotic sway. Cossa ascended the papal throne as ' ■John XXIII. The new Pontiff was bold enough, in 1412, to summon the long-promised General Council to Rome. At the same time, he took care that all the passes leading into Italy should be occupied by 30* 468 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 A 15 A.D.). his friends the banditti. Hence only a few Italian bishops appeared, and the Council came to nothing. But D'Ailly and Gerson continued their exertions. They were supported by the Emperor Sigismund ' (1410-1437), who insisted on a free and general council to initiate a thorough reformation. As John required the aid of the Emperor against Naples, he had reluctantly to yield, and accordingly the Council of Constance (1414—1418) was summoned. This assembly was more numerously and influentially attended than any previous or subsequent council (by 18,000 clerics, and innumerable princes, counts, and knights). It attracted, moreover, about 50,000 strangers to the city, and among them many of the most disreputable character. From the first, the calculations and intrigues of John proved futile. D'Ailly. and Gerson carried it, and the Council immediately declared itself supreme in every respect, and competent to depose all the three popes if it saw cause ; also, that the reformation in head and members was taken in hand as the main business before them ; and that the vote was taken, not according to persons, but according to nations, which preA'iously met and deliberated in separate assemblies. When an accusation was now laid before the Council, charging the Pope with . murder, immorality, and simony, John hastily fled in the disguise of a groom. It was with some difliculty that Gerson managed to keep the Council together. The PontiiF was deposed, and soon afterwards made prisoner. Of the other two popes, one abdicated, the other was deposed (1417) The Emperor and the Germans now insisted that the proposed reformation should precede a new election to the Papacy ; but they were unsuccessful. Cardinal Colonna was chosen as Martin V., and all hopes of a reformation were again at an end. The intrigues of the new Pontiff proved only too efficacious ; separate agreements were made with individual nations ; and the Council, which had at any rate groAvn tired of its protracted labours, was dissolved after the fortv-fifth general session. The Pope granted to all the members plenary indulgence to the hour of their death, and left the town in triumph. It had been resolved at Constance that the next General Council should meet at Pavia in 1428. But before its members assembled, the Pope transferred the assembly to Sienna, and then dissolved it after a^ few sessions, on pretext that it did not command sufficient sympathy. The next council was to have been convened seven years later at Basle. Pope Martin V. died shortly after that term. His successor, Eugenius IV., sent Cardinal Jnllanns Cesariiii as legate to the Council of Basle (1-131-1443). The Council from the first took an independent position, and re-asserted the principle of the absolute authority of general synods. The Pope now proposed to transfer the Council to Bologna — a measure against which even Cesarini protested. After some fruit- less negotiations, the Pontiff formally dissolved the Council (1433). But the assembled fathers continued their deliberations, and the Popo THE PAPACY. 469 was obliged from political reasons, again to recognize their Aalidity (1434). But as measures were now introduced for a reformation in . head and members, Eugenius once more transferred the Council, after its twenty-fifth session, to Ferrara (1438), and thence to Florence. . The solemn reconciliation of the Greeks to the Romish Church which there took place (| 67, 6), gave it the appearance of work and success.' Meantime the Council of Basle continued its sittings, although Cesarini had left it. Its new president, Cardinal d' Allemand, filled . the places of the bishops who absented themselves with the relics of the churches at Basle. The Pope excommunicated the Council, which in turn deposed him (1439), and chose another Pontiff [Felix V.). Europe, however, was tired of these disputes. The authority of Felix' was scarcely acknowledged by any, and the Council itself daily lost in numbers and influence. One by one the alilest members left its ranks ;• many even joined the party of Eugenius, among them, the astute ^neas Si/lvius Ficcolomini, a native of Sienna, and the learned and worthy Nicholas of Ciisa (^ 118, 2, 3). After its 45th session in 1443, the Council continued merely in name ; its last representatives ulti- mately recognized, in 1449, the authority of Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius. 4. The Last Poj^es before the Reformation (1443-1517). — From its contest with the reforming councils the Papacy had issued triumphant. It almost seemed, like a phoenix, to have sprung from its ashes. But the abuses prevalent in the Church— most notably those caused by the Papacy itself — -were as deeply and generally felt .as ever. The desire among all the more noble-minded, both princes and subjects, for a re- formation in head and members, was not abated ; and so long as it con- tinued, the Papacy, as then constituted, was imperilled. The man who was now at the helm of the Church was nowise fitted for the emergency. Even under the successors of Eugenius, JEneas Sylvius, who had left the ranks of the Basle reformers to make his peace with the Holy See, really wielded the authority of the Papacy. Shortly afterwards he was elevated to the Chair of Peter as Pius II. (1458- 1464). ^neas would fain have been a second Hildebrand, but times had changed ; besides, the Pontifi" was in every respect inferior to his great model. Hildebrand's accession took place after a period during which the Papacy had reached its lowest depth. In the case of ^neas it was exactly the reverse ; a similar degradation followed his pontifi- cate. In point of learning, astuteness, and energy, he was however equal to any of his predecessors, while in diplomatic skill he surpassed them. The French Church alone succeeded in concluding a second pragmatic sanction (1438), by which the principles asserted at Basle were secured, and maintained even against Pius II. The attempts of the German Church to obtain similar privileges proved fruitless. All the effcrts of ^be Germans and their princes were frustrated V>y the 40 470 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 A 15 A. D ). callousness of the Emperor Frederic III. (1439-1493), and by th« manoeuvres of ^5Cneas. At a General Council held in Mantua in 1459, the principles laid down at the Council of Constance were condemned as heretical ; and shortly before his death the Pope himself expressly retracted, in a bull addressed to the University of Cologne, his own former liberal principles and writings. — The conquest of Constanti- nople by the Turks (1453) seemed a loud call to take measures of pre- caution against the great enemy of Christianity. Like his two prede- cessors, Pious II. entered with spirit into this question. Even before this time Calixtus III. had despatched a fleet of his own against the Turks, after having in vain appealed to the secular princes on the subject. But the victories it achieved led to no lasting result. Calix- tus had next demanded tithes from all churches for the purpose of carrying on the holy war ; but the call was treated as merely a pre- text for raising mone3^ Pius II. again reverted to this plan ; but his enthusiastic appeal at the Council of Mantua failed to evoke the spirit which fired the Council of Claremont. Like Hildebrand of old, he would fain have headed a crusade in person ; but the most important element — an army — was awanting. lie also addressed a letter to Mohammed II., the conqueror of Constantinople, in which he earnestly urged the claims of Christianitj^ on his reception — it need scarcely be added, without efiFect. (Comp. G. Voit/t. Enea Silvio Pice, als P Pius II. Bd. I. Berl. 1856). Almost all the successors of Pius II, till the Reformation, were dis languished for their dissoluteness, vileness, or at least for want of piety Probably the best among them was Paul II. [ob. 1471), though he also was fond of pomp and extravagance. Sixltis IV. [oh. 1484) increased che revenues of his see by instituting brothels in Rome. Under his pontificate the nepotism of his predecessors reached the highest stage ; nor did the Pope scruple to take part in the frightful conspiracy against the Medici at Florence. Innocent VIII. [ob. 1492), while summoning Christendom to a war against the Turks, was at the same time in receipt of regular pay from the Sultan for keeping his brother a captive. To his zeal it was due that criminal procedure against witches was introduced into Germany. His paternal care for his six- teen illegitimate children procured for him, in common parlance, the title of " father of his country" (Octo Nocens genult pueros, totidem- que puellas, — Ilunc merito potuit dicere Roma patrem). Alexander VI. [ob. 1503) Avas not without political al)ilities, and proved an ener gotic although despotic ruler. He never scrupled at any measure to attain his own objects, and even entered into a league with the liereditary enemy of Christendom against the most Christian King (of France). In short, nepotism and immorality were at no time carried to a higher pitch than in the person and under the reign of Alexander. Among other enormities, he was greatly suspected of incest with his 'laughter Lucrezia. Under his pontificate, Savonarola, the Florentine THE Oj^ERGV 471 preacher, had to expiate his zeal and ilevotiun at the stake (| 119, 2) The Pontiff died in consequence of poison, which his son Ccesar Bonjia, a monster of everj^ vice, had destined for a wealthy cardinal. Julius II. [oh. 1513) was a great warrior. His main object was to liberate Italy from foreign domination, in order to aggrandize the States of the Church. lie expelled the French from the Peninsula, on account of which a French Naiional Council assembled at Tours, in 1510, re- nounced his allegiance. Germany also showed signs of rebellion ; and the Emperor Maximilian (1493-1519) commissioned the learned and liberal Wiinplieling to draw up a list of many and serious griev- ances against the Papacy, and to make a draft of a pragmatic sanction for Germany. At last the French and German monarchs summoned a general Council at Pisa in 1511, when the resolutions of Basle were re-enacted, and the Pope was. deposed. As Julius was at the time dangerously ill, Maximilian, who had just lost his wife, conceived the idea of assuming the Papacy himself. But Julius recovered, and with his Swiss mercenaries dispersed the Council of Pisa, which fled to Lyons. At the Fifth General Lateraa Council in 1512, Louis XII. of France was excommunicated, and a concordat concluded with Maxi- milian, by Avhich the most crying grievances of the Germans were re- moved. Upon this Louis had a medal struck, bearing the inscription, "Perdam Babylonis nomen," and marched against the Pope. But his army was beaten by the papal troops in the Milanese territory, and obliged to retire from Italy. Julius was succeeded by Leo X. [ob. 1521), one of the Medici — a man of the highest culture and the finest taste, but luxurious and lavish, light-minded and careless, and destitute of all genuine interest either in religion or in the Church. In 1517 the Pontiff celebrated, at a splendid Lateran Council, the triumph of the Papacy, when Francis I. of France, in return for other concessions, surrendered the pragmatic sanction. The Councils of Constance and Basle were also again condemned. In the same year, and only a few months later, the word of a poor German monk effected what the com- bined power of all the nations of the West had failed to achieve in these councils. I 111. THE CLERGY. During this period .Provincial Synods lost almost all their former importance. They v/ere rarely lield, and only under the presidency of a papal legate. At Constance and Basle the bishops attempted to break the yoke of papal despotism and pecuniary exactions ; but the selfishness wliich marked the policy of the nations represented at these councils, prevented the suc- cess of such beneficial measures. Despite the proposals made at Hasle. tlie calhedral chapters continued to furnisli a provision for the younger and unportioned sons of the nobility, who iu i72 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. U 4 15 A. D.). worldliness and excesses yielded nothing to their brothers. Th(j clergy no longer gave itself tc the pursuit of study. In France the political influence of the hierarchy was small ; and the liberties of the Galilean Church were protected, not by the pre- lates, but by the University and the Parliament. In England the bishops formed an important part of the estates with strictly defined rights. In Germany also they occupied an influential position, as holding temporal sovereignty, while the spiritual princes electors frequently swayed the destinies of the empire. The moral condition of the clergy was sufficiently sad. The bishops commonly lived in open concubinage. The lower secular clergy followed their example, and in many cases paid for this indulgence a yearly tax to the bishop. To this arrangement the people — who distinguished between the office and its holder — made no objection ; in fact, it secured their wives and daughters from the temptations of the confessional. Thousands of lo«se women from all countries had assembled at Constance and Basle during the sittings of the councils. Unnatural vices also were too common among the clergy, at least in Italy. Any move- ment at Constance and Basle towards putting an end to these vices of the clergy, by giving them leave to mnrry, was checked by the fear that benefices might become hereditary, and that the clergy would be made still more dependent on the State. Ac- cordingly the advice of Gerson was taken in the matter, who held, that as the vow of celibacy only referred to the marriage of priests, concubinage was not a breach of that obligation, but merely of the general commandment of chastity. ^ 112. THE MONASTIC ORDERS. The Monastic Orders shared the general corruption of the dergy. Too frecpiently the cloisters became the seats of dis- soluteness, debauchery, idleness, crimes, and unnatural vices. Monks and nuns of adjoining cloisters lived in open immorality, on which account Nicholas of Clemangis was wont to say that " virgiiiem velare " was in reality little else than " virginem ad 8Cortandura exponere." The Councils of Constance and Basle had their attention directed to these dreadful abuses, which bishops and secular princes also endeavoured to remedy. But all such attempts proved unavailing. The papal Curia, so far from seconding any measures of reform, rather interposed to THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 47o arres'. them. Among the various orders, the Benedictines, with their different branches, were probably most deeply tainted, while the mendicant orders stood highest in the moral scale. Following the example of the cathedral chapters, the rich monasteries distributed their revenues among their inmates (Proprietarii). The gratification of the palate, and not the pursuit of science, was the object of study in these cloisters. The celebrated Dominican monastery of St. James, at Regens- burg (§ 98, 1 ', had a regular tavern within its walls, and a pro- verb said : Uxor amissa in monasterio Scotorum quseri debet. The Franciscans and Dominicans were still the great representa- tives of monasticism ; tliey proved the pillars of the Papacy, and in some measure contributed, at least in the fourteenth century, to theological science. In the fifteenth century, however, they became involved in the general corruption. The Carthusians alone continued their ancient practice of asceticism. 1. The Benedictine monasteries having become socially and moi-ally corrupt, Ctement V., at the Council of Vienne (1311), issued a series of decrees, aiming at the revival of monastic discipline and literature. They were, however, scarcely regarded. Hence Benedict XII. was constrained, with the co-operation of Influential Franciscan abbots, to prepare a new constituticm for the Benedictines (1336), called after him, Benedictina. According to this, all the monasteries of black monks were to be divided into thirty-six provinces, each of which was to hold a triennial chapter for mutual consultation and decisions. Moreover, in every abbey daily penitential chapters should be held, for the maintenance of discipline, and an annual chapter for the rendering of accounts. For the resuscitation of literary tastes and efforts, it was enjoined upon each monastery to keep a number of its members at a university for the study of theology and canon law. But the disci]ilinary rules of the Benedictina proved futile against habits of good living, and those contemplating reorganization were impotsnt before the insuperable feelings of independence, which the monks and abbots cherished. The measures proposed for the revival of learning were more effectual ; they did not, necessarily, militate against deeply- rooted luxurious habits. — A general chapter of Benedictines, accord- ingly, met under the supervision of the Council of Constance, in order to effect a reformation of the order. But this too proved unavailing. At the instance of the Council of Basle, congregations of reformed monasteries were organized, which for a time preserved stricter dis- cipline, but soon again relapsed into their old ways. — The Olivetans, founded Ijy Bernard Ptolemais, formed a new and independent branch of the Benedictines. Bernard taught philosophy in Siena, his native 40* 474 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 14 & 15 A. D.). town, but was compelled by blindness to desist. Healed by the inter- cession of the Virgin Mary, he renounced the world, and retired, with several companions, into an almost inaccessible, rocky wild, ten miles from Siena (1313). As disciples gathered to him from all sides, he built a monastery on a hill, called it Mt. Olivet, and founded, upon the rule of the Benedictines, the conr/regation of the Blessed Virgin, which John XXII. confirmed. Not until the fourth election for a general, which was at first held annually, then triennially, did he consent to assume this dignity for himself (1332) ; he then filled the office until his death, caused by his attentions to those prostrated by the plague' (1348). The Abbots were also chosen triennially. The Olivetans were long distinguished by their zealous worship of the Virgin and by strict abstinence. They also prosecuted diligently theological and philosophical studies in some of their monasteries, which exceeded a hundred in number. An order of nuns, founded by Francisca Romana (1433), also joined the Olivetans. 2. The Dominicans, who were entrusted with the conduct of the In- • quisition, and were largely employed as confessors among the higher classes, gradually ceasedto be a mendicant order. Accordingly, they now explained their vow of poverty as applying only to personal, not to common possessions, and maintained that the latter had been held • even by Christ and His apostles. This proposition was controverted . by the Franciscans, who, in virtue of the nominal surrender of all their property to the Church of Rome, professed still to adhere to their . original vow. When in 1321 the Inquisition at Narbonne condemned a Beghard to the stake for asserttng that Christ and the apostles had . held neither personal nor common property, the Franciscans main- tained the orthodoxy of this statement, and accused the Dominicans before Pope John XVII. The Pontifi" to(;k the part of the Dominicans, . and declared that the nominal donation of Franciscan property was. merely an illusion. This decision occasioned a rupture among the Franciscans. The more rigorous members, with the general, Michael, of Cesena, and the celebrated William Occam, joined the party of the. " spiritualists," and took the side of Louis of Bavaria against the Pope. Forcible measures against them proved unavailing. Accordingly, they, were appeased at Constance by their formal recognition as brethren of the stricter observance [ohservantes). The more lax party among the. Franciscans took the name of Conventuales, and continued to regard their properties as really belonging to the donors, and themselves as only enjoying their usufruct. The controversy ahoid the Immaculate Conception still continued to rage. St. Catharine had visions which confirmed the dogma of the Dominicans, while St. Bridget gave the same kind of sanction to the opinions of the Franciscans. The latter, however, gained influence and authority. It was sanctioned by the University of Paris in 1387 ; while the Council of Basle (in 1439) and Pope Sixtus IV. anathematized any one who should declare the doctrine THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 475 of the Immaculate Conception to be heretical, or the fpsti\ il in its honour sinful. For the same purpose a comedy was enacted at Berne in 1509, which, however, had a tragical termination. The Dominicans of that city imposed on the simplicity of a poor tailor called Jetzer. The tailor had visions and revelations of the Virgin. Even the print:* of the nails which pierced tlie Saviour were reproduced in him by u red-hot iron, and a picture of the Virgin shed in his sight bloody tears over the godless opinions of the Franciscans. The clumsy imposture was at last discovered, and the prior, with three of his monks, were condemned to the stake. — In 14G2 another controversy broke out betweeu the two orders. In Brescia, a Franciscan, Jacob of Marchia, had on Easter day -maintained in the pulpit that the blood which Christ shed on the cross had, till His resurrection and consequent re- assumption of it into His nature, continued beyond the hypostatic union with the Logos, and hence had not, during that time, been an object of adoration. The Grand Inquisitor, Jacob of Brescia, declared this sentiment heretical. A controversy arose ; and during Christmas 14G3 three Dominicans and as many Minors discussed the question for three days before the Pope and cardinals, but without leading to any result. The Pope at the time reserved his decision, which, indeed, was never pronounced. St. Catharine of Siena, the daughter of a dyer, was one of the chief ornaments of the Dominicans {ob. 1308). Even when a child she had visions and ecstacies, during which Christ was said to have formally betrothed Himself to her, and to have given her His heart instead of her own. She also bore the prints of the nails, but only in- wardly. Notwithstanding her deep humility, the influence and authority which she enjoyed were unparalleled. She became the oracle of the Dominicans, and all Italy almost worshipped at her feet. Contrary to her inclination, she was made the arbiter of the religious and political controversies of the time. To her admonitions, and to those of St. Bridget, it was mainly due that the Babylonish captivity at Avignon came to a close. The Order of St. Augustine had also its congregations for the re- storation of pristine discipline. But these branches continued in con- nection with the order itself, though they were subject to a vicar- general of their own. Such a congregation existed in Saxony from 1493, and to it both Staupitz and J^utlier belonged. 3. Abolition of the Order of Templars, 1312. — (Comp. Michelet, procfes des Templiers. Par. 1841-51. 2 T. — Maillard de Chambure, Regie et statuts secrets des Temp. Par. 1841. — W. Havemann, Gesch. d. Ausgangs d. Templerord. — Hist, of the cess, of the Order of T. — Stuttg. 1846. — J. V. Hammer- Pur(istaU, d. Schuld d. Tcmpler — the Guilt of the T. — Vienna 1855. — /. Choicanetz, d. gewaltthat. Aufheb u. Ausrott. d. Ordens d. Tempelherren. Miinster. 1856). — Among all the knightly orders, tlie Templars, who since their return to Europe 40 476 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 A 15 A. D.) chiefly resided at Paris, had attained greatest power and wealth, but . were also charged with most pride, rapacity, and dissoluteness. T leir independence of the State was as galling to Philip the Fair of France, as their untold riches were attractive to his cupidity. Among the common people rumours circulated that the members of the order were secretly Mohammedans, that they practised the black art, and indulged in unnatural vices. It was whispered that they even worshipped an idol called Bafjomet (Mohammed) ; that a black cat appeared in their meetings; that at their reception into the order the knights blasphemed the Saviour, and spat and trampled upon the crucifix. On these grounds, or at least on such pretences, Philip ordered all the Templars in his dominions to be imprisoned, and forthwith commenced a process against them (1307). Pope Clement V. was obliged, at the Council of Vienne (1312), formally to dissolve the order. Jacob of Molay, the last grand master, with many of the knights, suiFered at the stake. It is difficult, at this period of time, to pronounce with certainty as to their guilt or innocence. Thus much at least is true, that they had deserted the Christian cause in the East. Besides, it is also supposed by many that they entertained Gnostic and Antinomian views akin to those formerly held by the Ophites. 4. The principal New Orders founded at this time were: — (1.) The Order of the Ccelestines, founded by Peter of Murrone (afterwards Pope Coelestine V., comp. § 96, 6), who lived in a cave on Mount Murrone, in Apulia, in the practice of strictest asceticism. The fame of his sanctity soon attracted companions of his solitude, who built a monastery on Mount Majella. Urban IV. imposed on them the rule of the Benedictines. When Peter was elevated to the papal see (1294), his companions adopted in his honour the name of Cceles- tines. The new congregation rapidly extended throughout the West. (2.) The Jeromites. This order arose from associations of hermits, to whom Gregory XI. in 1374 gave a rule similar to that of the Augus- tines. They chose St. Jerome as their patron saint. From Spain, where the order originated, it spread into Italy. (3.) The Jesuates, founded hy Johannes Columbini of Sienna. With an imagination inflamed by poring over the legends of saints, Colombini, with some like-minded companions, resolved to found an association for the twofold object of self-chastisement and attendance on the sick. Urban V., after his return to Rome, imposed on them the rule of the Augr.stines (1367). Their name was derived from the circumstance that they hailed every one whom they met with the name of Jesus. (4.) The Minimi, a kind of Minors, founded by Francisctis de Paula, in Calabria (1435). Their rule was exceedingly strict; the members were prohibited the use of animal food, of milk, butter, eggs, etc., on which account their mode of life was also designated as "vita quadra- 2;esimalis." (5.) The Nuns of St. Elizabeth, an order founded by St. Elisabeth THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 477 of Thuringia [oh. 1231). After having in the most exemplary manner discharged the various duties of a vrife, a mother, and a princess, Eli- zabeth took the grey habit, confined at the waist with the Franciscan cord, as also the three vows, and retired to a wretched cot near Mar- burg, where she devoted herself to prayer, self-chastisement, and deeds of beneficence. Her example was followed by a number of pious women and maidens. These were in the fourteenth century regularly organized into an order, which devoted itself exclusively to the care of the poor and the sick. (G.) The Nuxs of St. Bridget. St. Bridget was a Swedish princess, who early in life had visions, in which the Saviour appeared to her, smitten and wounded. But her father obliged her to marry, and she became the mother of eight children. On the death of her husband, she subjected herself to the most rigid ascetic exercises, and in conse- quence of some visions, founded at Wadstena near Linkoping a nun- nery for sixty inmates, who devoted themselves to the service of the Virgin. Connected with this institution was a separate dwelling for thirteen priests (in imitation of the apostles), for four deacons (after the four great fathers), and for eight lay brethren who had charge of all secular affairs. All these persons were subject to the rule of the lady abbess. The order spread, especially in the north of Europe. 5. The most famed among the Hermits of this period, was Nicholas von der Flue, in the Alps, a worthy and pious man, who, after an active life in the world, spent his last twenty years in solitude and communion with God {ob. 1487). Like St. Anthony of old, he acted as peacemaker and adviser, not merely to the shepherds around him, but amid the political troubles of his own country. 6. The Brethren of the Common Life were an association of pious clergymen, founded by Gerhard Groot, at Deventer, in the Netherlands (1384). Gerhard died that same year of pestilence ; but the work was continued by Florentius Radeioin, his likeminded pupil. The house of the brethren at Deventer became the centre and nucleus of similar institutions throughout the north of Europe. The members of this association consisted of clergy and laity, who, without submitting to any formal vow or rule, devoted themselves to the concerns of their own souls. Their earnest and evangelical sermons, their attention to the spiritual interests of those with Avhom they were brought into con- tact, and their schwls, gave them a wide and very beneficial influence among the poople. The most frequented of their seminaries were those of Deventer and the Hogue, which at times numbered more than 1200 scholars. Similar institutions for Sisters of the Common Life were also founded. Florentius somewhat enlai-ged the original plan by building at Windesheim, near Zwoll, a monastery for regular canons (1386), (also called, Kugelherren, Kappelherren, from cuculla, from the peculiar covering they used for the head). More celebrated even than this uloif'er was that on Mount St. Agnes, at Zwoll, of which The mas a 478 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A. D.). Kempis was an inmate. The labours of Florentius were seconded by Gerhard of Ziitphen, who was wont to insist on the necessity of reading the Bible in the vernacular, and on its importance both in preaching and praying. Of course, the mendicant orders were violent enemieii of this pious association. At last a Dominican, Matthew Grahow, ac- cused them before the Bishop of Utrecht, and also wrote a large volume against them. The Bishop refused his suit ; and when Grabow appealed to the Pope, the prelate carried the matter to the Council of Constance. Gerson and d'AUly took the part of the brethren ; and Martin V. not only gave his sanction to their associations, but accorded their mem- bers the privilege of claiming ordination at any time. The brethren in many respects prepared the way for the Reformation ; indeed, most of them afterwards became its cordial adherents. After that period they gradually declined, and ceased to exist in the seventeenth century, (CoMP. Gerardi Magni Epp. XIV., ed. J. G. Acquoy. Amst. 1857. — G. H. M. Delprat, over d. Broederschap van G. Groote (2d ed. Arnh. 1856), 1st ed. transl. into German with MlA.hy Mohnike. Leips. 1846. — K. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation (transl. by Menzies, in Clark's For. Theol. Libr.). Edinb. 2 Vols. — ^. Bdhring, Gerh. Groot u. Florentius. Hamb. 1849.) II. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. I 113. PUBLIC WORSHIP ANL> THE FINE ARTS. The Brethren of the Common Life, the Mystics, and a number of sectaries, especially the Waldenses, Wickliffites, and Hussites, had insisted on, and by their example promoted, the practice of PREACHING in the vernacular. Great activity was also displayed, especially during the fifteenth century, in the catechetical instruc- tion of the people, both by means of books and pictures. The ante-reformatory spirit of that period also exerted itself in pre- paring hymns in the vernacular for general use ; church music, likewise, was turned to similar account. And whilst the glory of architecture is evidently waning, the j^^ccstic art and painting reach their full bloom. The Feast of the Immaculate Concep- tion was generally introduced in France, Germany, and England, during the fourteenth century. Other festivals were also insti- tuted in bono ir of Mary. The Council of Constance had given its sanction and authority to the practice of " communio sub 1' U B L I C W O R S H ] I' AND THE FINE ARTS. 479 una." In consequence, tlie aiiracle of a bleeding host now fre- quentl}' occurred, althougli .he fraud was exposed in a number of instances. The excessive anxiety for and veneration of relics still continued and increased. In the fifteenth century originated the legend, tliat angels had carried tiirough the air the house of Mary from Nazareth to the coast of Dalmatia (1291); thence, on the 10th December, 1294, to Recanati, and lastly, after the lapse of eight months, to LoreMo. 1. Tlic following were the New Festivah in honour of the Vin/in (I 105, 2 ; 57, 2) : the Feast of the Presentation of Mary, on the 21st November (according to Leviticus xii. 5-8), a solemnity introduced in the East at a much earlier period ; and the Festival of the Visitation of Mary, on the 2d July, in allusion to Luke i. 39-56. During the fif- teenth century, the Feast of the Seven Dolors of Mary, on the Friday or Saturday before Palm-Sunday, was instituted. The worship of the Virgin was chiefly promoted by the Dominicans, who had special Fra- ternities of the Rosary. Dominic himself is said to have observed the Festival of the Rosary on the 1st of October (for the protection and intercession of the Virgin). It was, hcwever, only observed by the Dominicans, till after the victory of Lepanto (1571), which was re- garded as due to this species of devotion, when Gregory XIII. made it a general festival. 2. Preaching, in the vernacular, noAV became much more common. But it is a peculiar characteristic of this period, that even those who thus preached, th(mght in Latin, or at least first wrote their sermons in Latin before preaching them. Vocabularii jyredicantium were prepared for the use of less practised preachers. A Ilomiletics and Catechetics, valuable for that age, was prepared by J. Ulr. Surgant, a preacher in Basel [Manuale Curatorum), about the close of the fifteenth centuy. Among other points, he treated de reg^dis vulgarizandi, i.e., of render- ing sermons written in Latin into the vernacular. Great stress was also laid upon hearing sermons, by those wdio had the cure of souls : the neglect thereof was reproved as a sin. In opposition to the scho- lastic style of preaching, which used the pulpit only for the display of learned ostentation and theological subtleties (as by Gabriel Biel, Sec), popular preachers arose, who laid practical hold of actual life, and denounced social vices, of high and low life, in plain, and sometimes in ludicrous terms. Among these was Gabriel Barletta (ob. 1480), whose spicy sermons so pleased the taste of his age, that it was usual to say: Qui nescit barlettare, ncscit prcedicare. He was imitated by Oliver Maillard, a Franciscan and royal court-preacher, ob. 1502, and Michael Menot, also a Franciscan, ob. 1518. The German minister, at Strass- burg, Geiler of Kaisersberg {ob. 1510), equalled the preachers just named in quaint plainness and cutting wit, but surpassed them all in moral earnestness and spii-itual depth (^ 114, 4). 40* 480 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15 A. D.). 3. CatechizaUon. — (Cf. /. Gcffken, d. Bilderkatechisnius d. 15. Jahrh., u. d. katech. Ilauptstiicke in dieser Zeit bis auf Luther. I. Die 10 Gebote. Lpz. 1855.) — Next to preaching, the confessional afforded opportunities for the instruction of the people. The subsequent division of the catechism sprang rather from the mode of baptism and of making confession, than from the actual instruction of the people and youth; and among these, it is remarkable that the decalogue first found a place since the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Previously the enumeration of the seven cardinal sins and seven cardinal virtues was substituted for the ten commandments. The more deeply to impress the doctrines of the catechism, pictorial illustrations were employed. The wealth of the catechetical literature of that period, both in books of instruc- tion for the clergy, and in doctrinal books in the vernacular for the people, may be learned from Geffken's work above named. 4. Hymnology. — A very marked contrast is noticeable between the number and value of the Latin uymns dating from the foui-teenth and fifteenth centuries and those of the preceding period. Only the Mys- tics (as, for example, Thomas a Kerapis) still produced such composi- tions. On the other hand, it may be said that German hymnology originated during this period. Strange though it may appear, the processions of Flagellants in the fourteenth century contributed not a little to the spread of religious poetry in the vernacular. The hymns or chants of the Flagellants were in the vernacular, and thus found ready access to the hearts of the people. But it was in the fifteenth century, and during the Hussite movement, that really useful popular hymns were composed, and for the first time introduced into the ser- vices of the Church. Huss himself insisted on the necessity of the people taking part in the service of song, and composed a number of excellent hymns in the Bohemian. The various hymns used by the "Bohemian Brethren" (400 in number) were collected and published in 1504 by Lucas, a senior or Bishop of the " Brethren." The intro- duction of German hymns was mainly due to Pdrus Dresden sis, for- merly assistant to IIuss at Prague, and since 1420 rector at Zwickau. His efforts were not unsuccessful. In some churches German hymns were now sung at the great festivals, and at special ecclesiastical solemnities, while in isolated cases they were even used at the principal service and at mass. The religious poetry of that age was of a four- fold character : — 1. Mixed liynins, half German and half Latin (such as '• Puer natus in Bethlehem, Rejoice in it, Jerusalem," etc.). — 2. Tra7is- lations and adaptations of Latin Jtymns. So early as the close of the fourteenth century an attempt at such translations was made hy Johan- nes, " the monk of Salzburg," and at a somewhat later period by Brother Dietric. A collection of these versions appeared in 1494 ; but the majority of the hymns were so badly rendered, that the force and point of the original was completely lost. — 3. Original German hymns, com- monly by monks or se'^ular poets. These, however, were too frequently PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE PINE ARTS. 481 destitute of all religious fervour or poetic value. — 4. Adaptations of secular o of Minne-songs. Thus the popular ditty, originally intended for wandering apprentices, which commenced : " Inspruck, I must leave thee, and go my lonely way, Far hence to foreign lands," etc., was transformed into : " O world, I must leave thee, and go my lonely Avay, Unto my Father's home," etc. Henry of Lavfenberg, a priest at Frei- burg, about 1450, seems to have been the first to attempt this kind of poetry. In all cases the melody of the original was retained. Although many of these adaptations were little better than a burlesque, they be- came the means of associating popular ideas and melodies with the hymns of the Church, thus preparing the way for the following period. 5. Church Music. — Great improvements were made at this period in the building of organs ; the keys were made smaller, the pedal was added, etc. Henri/ Cranz, who fiourished about 1500, was reputed the most successful builder of organs at that period. Equally distinguished as an organist was Antonio dagV Organi at Rome, who gathered around him pupils from all countries [ob. 1498). A great deal was also done for the improvement of chcrch music ; the rules of counter- point, and other musical rules, were enlarged or applied, and singing in parts came into vogue. At this time the Dutch bore the palm in music. William Dnfay, the founder of the first Dutch School (ob. 1432), introduced his improvements even into the chapel at Rome, although a century had not elapsed since John XXII. pronounced an anathema against the practice of "discantare." John Ocl^enheim, the founder of the second Dutch school at the close of the fifteenth century, invented the canon and the fvgne ; but his system of counterpoint v/as very artificial, and he may be regarded as the first who corrupted the musical taste of the time. The greatest composer of this school was Josquin de Pr^z (Jodocus Pratensis), about 1500. His only rival in the art was Adam of Fnlda, a German. 6. Architecture and the Plastic Art. — The Gothic sti/le was universally adopted in Germany, France, and England. Into Italy it penetrated no farther than Milan. The new Church of St. Peter at Rome, the foundation of which was laid in 1506 by Pope -Julius II., presents the most splendid specimen of the antique Ro«,ianesque style. Theplastic art was carried to its highest perfection by such masters as Lorenzo Ghiberti [ob. 1455) and Michael Angelo [ob. 1564). The Art of Paint- ing alsD reached its highest stage in the fifteenth century. There were at this time four difi"erent schools of painters. The Florentine School, which chiefly devoted itself to the representation of Scriptural events, was founded by Giotto [ob. 1336), and numbered among its members such masters as Angelico of Fiesole, who always joined prayei with piinting, Leonardo da Vinci (the Last Supper), Fra Bartolomeo and Mi"hael Angelo. The Lombard School, of which Bellini {ob. 1516) was th ? most distinguished representative, also gave itself at first tc 41 2f 482 SECTION JI. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A. D.). the study of sacred subjects, but soon afterwards abandoned this for the secular department. It reached the pinnacle of its renown through the works of Corregio [oh. 1534, Night, The penitent Magdalen), and Titian [oh. 1576. Venus, Ecce homo, the ascension of Mary). The Umbrian School seemed almost to breathe the spirit of St. Francis. Its most celebrated master was Baphael of TJrhino (the Sixtine Madonna paintings on the walls of the Vatican, the Madonna della Sedia, etc.) The German ScJwol was represented by such men as the brothers Huheit and John ran Eylc, Albrecht Durer, and Hans Holbein. § 114. POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. The fearful decay of the Papacy, as well as the deep degeneracy of the clergy and of the monastic orders, were not without their effects upon the people. At no previous period had the Church less influence on the moral and religious condition of the com- munity. In truth, the ancient reverence for the Church and its rites had been rudely shaken, though not entirely destroyed. But the religious enthusiasm and the deep poetry of popular life gradually disappeared. Such personages as a Catharine of Sienna, a maid of Orleans, or a Nicholas von der Fliie were only isolated plienomena in the history of that period. As the prac- tice of indulgences increased, all moral earnestnes.^ ceased, and all religious /fir I'owr gave way. Yet, happily, not entirely; the existence of the Beghards and LoUardn, nay, even the excesses of the Flagellants, proved that men still thought seriously on the most serious of subjects. The religious fervour still existing among the people was nourished and cherished by the faithful teachings of the Mystics, and found vent in the wide-spread association known as the Friends of God. In an opjiosito direction, though, perhaps, ultimately traceable to the same source, we have the Brothers and Sisters of the Free Sj^irit. But along with such piety, superstition also greatly increased, al! the more dangerous now that it was no longer associated vvitli the poetry and naive irony of a former age. The men of this period, on the contrary, firmly believed in the black art, in witch- craft, in compacts with the devil, and similar absurdities. To- wards the close of our period, however, a new era dawned. The former mode of conducting warfare ceased, on the invention of powder; while the municipal institutions of the various and flourishing towns of Germany called forth and afforded scope for civic virtues for love of freedom, energy, and industry. Lastly, POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL L I T E R A T U R E . 483 the invention of the art of printing initiated the great changes of which modern society is the result. 1. lielii/ions Associations among the People. — Besides the Begharda and Benguins, (| 98, 5) another association was formed at Antwerp in 1300, on occasion of a pestilence. The Lollards (from lull == sing) devoted themselves chiefly to attendance on the sick and the interment of the dead. They also were exposed to the persecutions of the Inquisition, till John XXII. in 1318 granted them toleration on certain conditions. — But the strangest sight presented at that period were those long trains of Flagellants, who, with faces covered, wandered from country to country, amidst weeping, lamentation, and the chant of penitential hymns, continually applying, as they marched, the scourge to their naked backs. These revolting processions had suddenly appeared in Italy (in 1260, at Perrugia) even at a former period, during the horrors of the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellincs. They again paraded the cities of Europe on different occasions during the fourteenth century, especially in 1348-50, during the ravages of the " black death." The Flagellants made their appear- ance along the banks of the Rhine, whence, growing like an avalanche, they passed through Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, and England. On the advice of Pope Clement VI., whom they had summoned to join, them, they were refused admittance into France. The paroxysm lasted for three years. It was raised anew in 1399, when famine, pestilence, war with the Turks, and expectation of the approaching end of the world, excited the minds of men, and Flagel- lants again passed through Lombardy. This time they were arrayed in white garments, on which account they were called Bianchi or Al- hati. In 1417, St. Vincent Ferreri, a celebrated Spanish preacher, led a long train of Flagellants through Italy, France, and Spain. Princes, popes, universities, and councils expostulated against this mad fanati- cism, without, however, being able to suppress it. But after the Council of Constance had denounced this species of penance, St. Vincent himself ceased to take part in it. Some of the Flagellants fell into sectarianism and heresy ; they denounced the hierarchy as Antichrist, rejected the rites of Christianity, and declared that the baptism of blood, obtained by means of the scourge, was the only efficacious sacrament. Many of these fanatics were condemned to the stake bv the Inquisition. (Comp. E. G. Fo r.-itemann, d. chr. Geisslerges. — the Chr. Flag. — Halle 1828; G. Mohnike, d. Geisslerges., in " Illgen's Journal," III. 2 ; L. Schnecyans, le grand pilgrimage des Flag., transl. into Germ, by TischendorJ', Leips. 1840; — L. Heller, Vine. Ferreri Lel)en u. Wirken. Berl. 1830; Comes de Hohcnthal-Stcedteln, de Vine. Ferr. Lips. 1839.) .Anothpi- and kindred form cf madness was that of the Jumpers or Vanren (Chorisantos), who, by way of penance, commenced frantic •1»4 SECTlUiN ^ I.— THIRD PERIOD (C £ N T. 14 |e time he endeavoured to give a biblical basis to his favourite science. (2.) John Charlier of Gerson (a little village near Rheims), Doctor Christianissimus, the pupil and successor of d'Ailly at Paris [oh. 1429). He strenuously insisted that a General Council was superior to the Pope, — a principle which, in his opinion, was abso- lutely necessary for any genuine reformation. Nor was he merely alive to outward defects in the Church ; on the contrary, he was wont to appeal to the Bible as the only source and rule of Christian know- ledge, and contended against the abuse of the doctrine of indulgences, and the multiplication of saints and festivals. Still he would have withheld the Scriptures in the vernacular from the laity, and branded every one as an heretic who did not implicitly receive the interpreta- tion which the Church gave of a passage. Gerson was deeply impressed with the desirableness of combining mysticism with scholasticism. Ilis own mysticism, however, was rather practical than speculative. — (Comp. C. Schmidt, Essai sur J. Gerson. Par. 1839. — D. MeUenleiter, J. Ger- son u. s. Zeit. Augsb. 1857 ; and the Essays on G.'s Mystic, by Lichner in the " Stud. n. Kritt, for 1835. II., by Hundeshageii in Ilhjen's Journal IV., and by Engelhardt ; Thomassy, Jean Gerson. Par. 1843; Dr. J. H. Schioah (Rom. Cath.), Joh. Gerson, e. Monogr. AViirzb. 1859). (3.) Nicholas op Clemangis, Rector of the University of Paris, from which he retired into solitude [oh. about 1440). Of all divines in the Church he perceived most clearly existing abuses, and most fully re- cognized the authority of the Scriptures as the rule of belief and of judgment. — Comp. A, M'dntz, Nic. de Cl^manges, sa vie et ses ecrits. "Strasb. 1846. (4.) Louis d'Allemand, Cardinal and Archbishop of Aries, the ablest and most eloquent member of the anti-papal party at Basle. He was excommunicated and deposed by Eugenius IV. But when the Council of Basle made subjection, Pope Nicholas V. restored him, and in 1527 Clement VII. oven allowed the faithful to venerate him as a saint. 2. The Friends of Be form in Germany. — A considerable time before the appearance of the French reformers, a German, Henry (f Lanr/cn- ttein, near Marburg {IJenricns de Hassia), had insisted that princee 43* 2 a 498 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 14 & 15 A. D.). and prelates should summon a General Council in order to put an end to the papal schism, and to initiate a reformation in the Church. Hip work, " Consilium pacis de unione ac reformatione ecclesise in concilio universali," appeared in 1381. It contained a humbling, but unfor- tunately too correct account of the desolate state of the Church. The monasteries he designated " prostibula meretricum," and the cathe- dral churches " speluncae raptorum et latronum." He taught iirst at Paris, and from 1381 in Vienna, where he died (1397), as rector of the University. (Cf. 0. Ilartwig, Henr. de Langenst. dictus de Hassia Zwei Unterss. Marb. 1858.) — 2. Theodore of Niem (Neheim) was secre- tary to Gregory IX., with Mdiom he went from France to Rome. After- wards he became Bishop of Verdun, and died in 1417, as Bishop of Cambray, during the sittings of the Council of Constance, of which he Avas a member. His writings, which have not yet received sufficient attention, are of the greatest importance for the history of the schism and of the Council. Throughout, his language is bold and unsparing. — 3. Gregory of Hcimhurg. He attended the Council of Basle, as secre- tary to^neas Sylvius, who at the time was still attached to the reform- ing party. But his violent opposition to papal assumptions caused such excitement, that ^neas deemed it prudent to dismiss his secre- tary. He afterwards became Syndic of Nurnberg, and in 1459 attended the Council of Mantua, as ambassador of the Emperor Sigismund. Pope Pius II. (iEneas Sylvius) excommunicated him, from wliich time he wandered about from place to place, the victim of papal persecu- tions. He died at Dresden, in 1472. His writings were collected and published at Frankfort, in 1G08, under the title, " Soripta nervosa justi- tia-que plena." On the relation between iEneas and Gregory compare also G. Pfizer, d. Deutsche u. d. Welsche (the German and the Ital.). Stuttg. 1844. — 4. Nicholas of Cusa, near Treves (his real name Avas Chryfftz ^= crab). He attended the Council of Basle, as Archdeacon of Lieges, spoke and Avrote in defence of the principles of that Council (de concordantia catholica LI. III.); but afterwards joined the papal party, was rewarded with the episcopal see of Brixen, where he died a cardinal in 1464. Against the abuses of the scholastic method he wrote three books, " de docta ignorantia." (Comp. F. A. Scharpff, d. kirchl. u. lit. Wirken d. Nic. v. Cusa (the Eccl. and Lit. Labours of N. of C). A^ol. I. May. 1843.—/. 3L Dux, d. deutsche Card. Nic. v. Cusa u. d. Kirche s. Zeit. Regensb. 1847. 2 Vols.) 3. Italy also contributed to the Council of Basle one who at least for a time appeared to be a reformer, ^ncas Sj/lvius Piccolomini Avas among the most determined opponents of Eugenius IV. He wrote a history of the Council of Basle, couched in a violent, anti-papal spirit, and became secretary of Felix, the Pontiff Avhom that Council elected. But in 1442 he entered the service of the Emperor Frederic III., became poet laureate and imperial counsellor. In this capacity he displayed considerable diplomatic skill in bringing about the CoHcordat EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 499 of Frankfort in 1446, by which a reconciliation was effected between Pope Eugenius and the German princes. Ten years afterwards Calix- tus IV. nominated him cardinal, and in 1458 he was elevated to the papal see, as Pius II. His poetic effusions are full of most indecent passages, and his former lasciviousness continued even after his acces- sion to the see of Peter. (Cf. K. R. Hagenhach, Erinner. an iEn. Sylv. Pice. Bas. 1840.) I 119. ATTEMPTS AT EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. While the divines of Paris attacked the glarinf? abuses of the Papacy, a more hopeful movement had commenced in England (especially by Wycliffe) and Bohemia (especially by Hus). Not merely the outward corruptions of the Church, but their hidden causes, were to be exposed and removed. Another dis- tinctive feature of this Reformation was, that it addressed itself to the people rather than to the learned, and aimed at enlisting their sympathies and convictions. For the first time also was it understood and proclaimed, more or less distinctly, that a genuijie reformation must be based on that great doctrine of justification by faith, wliich had at first been the corner stone of the Church. It is on this ground that Wycliffe and Hus have frequently been represented as the precursors of'tlie Reformation of the sixteenth century. However correct in some respects the statement, there was a vast diS'erence between these men and the reformers of the sixteenth century. Not to speak of the comparatively small suc- cess of their labours, which in part may have been due to tlie circumstance that the fulness of time for such comprehensive reforms had not yet come, they failed by adopting some heretica) (spiritualistic) elements, which conflicted with the idea and tvui character of the Church, whilst the German Reformation either shunned such errors, or gradually excluded them. Virtually acknowledging no other than tlie invisible Church, they failed in establishing a visible community ; while in their aims after exces- sive purity and simplicity, they disconnected themselves not only from the past, but even from the present. Of the two reformers whom we liave mentioned, Hus was more a man of the people than Wyclide. If his views were less philosophical, and his system less developed, his aims were more practical and popular (by preaching justification by faith \ and more fully directed towards inward and spiritual renovation than those of his great English teacher. — These tendencies were not confined to England 42 500 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOU (c E N T. 1-t .t 16 A D.). 'iT Bohemia. A similar movement sprung up in other lands, especially in the Low Countries. In this case also submission to the Scriptures, and faith in the crucified Saviour, as the ground of salvation, were regarded as the only principles capable of achieving a genuine reformation. Like i/us and Wyclife, those divines adopted the theological system of St. Augustine, but their activity was more quiet, confined to narrower circles, and rather theological than popular. Even in Italy a reformer appeared. Thoroughly imbued with evangelical sentiments, Savonarola ex- ercised during his brief public career a most precious influence upon his countrymen. 1. Wi/cliffe and the Wyclifpies. — (Comp. J. Lewis, Hist, of the Life and Sufferings of J. Wycliffe. Oxf. \d<20. — R.Vauglmn, J. de Wycliffe, a Monograph. Lond. 1853. — O.Jdyer, J. Wye. u. s. Bedentung fiir d. Reform. Halle 1854. — G. Weber, Gcsch. d. akathol. Kirchen u. Seeten V. Grossbrit. Leips. 1845. Vol. I. — F. A. L^wald, d. theol. Doctrin. J. Wye. in the "Zeitsch. fiir hist. Thool." for 1846. II.-IV. ; and in the same Journal for 1853. III. 1854. II. — G.V. Leclder, Wye. u. d. Lol- larden, and " Hist, of Engl, and France under the House of Lancaster." Lond 1852. — (A number of W.'s treatises have of late been reprinted.) — The kings and parliament of England had been long resisting the oppressive yoke of the papal hierarchy ; and such men as John of Sails- hnry, Robert Greaihead, Roger Bacon, and Thomas of Bradwardine. had lifted their voices against the inner corruptions of the Church, John Wycliffe, a pupil of Bradwardine, was born 1324. As a fellow of the university of Oxford, Avhich was then involved in a controversy with the mendicant monks, Wycliffe appeared in 1300 against these monks, and in 1366 in defence of the English crown against the de- mands of the papal court (then at Avignon), for feudal imposts. This secured for him the favour of the English court, which conferred the doctorate upon him, appointed him professor of theology in Oxford, and, ■ 1374, placed him on an embassy to the pope to effect an adjustment of existing diiliculties. Then he learned, by immediate observation, how- corrupt the papacy was. After his return, he spoke and wrote openly against the papal 'Antichrist" and its system. Gregory XL con-- demned (1377), nineteen points in his writings, but the English court protected him against punishment. Wycliffe became more bold, • formed societies of pious men to preach the Gospel among the people, (their enemies called them Lollards), and translated the Bible (from, the Vulgate), into English, By this time the anger of his enemies had reached its height. He now assailed transubstantiation, and revived . Berengar's view of the Lord's Supper; the university expelled him, and a synod at London condemned his works and doctrines as heretical (1382). The court and Parliament could only protect his person. He EVANGELICAL REFORIMATION. 501 retired to the parish of Lutterworth, and there died (1384). His ad-* herents, includiiij^ many eminent and educated persons (among the masses he found hut little sympathy), were violently persecuted. The. Council of Constance condemned anew forty-five points in his writings, and commanded his corpse to be disinterred, burnt, and scattered.- But much of the seed he sowed was preserved until, in the Reformation, . it sprang up and bloomed with greater purity and power. — In the last • years of his compulsory leisure, Wycliffe wrote his chief work, the IVialogus, in which he fully sets forth his theological views. As the - fundamental principle of all theology and of a reformation, he main- tained that the Holy Scriptures are the only source and rule of all ' religious knowledge. But in rejecting all ecclesiastical tradition as a . mere human invention, he went beyond the limits of evangelical con- sideration, and failed to distinguish between normal and abnormal . developments. Agreeably to his principle he renounced the worship of relics and images, the use of the Latin language, the chanting of the priests, the numerous festivals, private masses, extreme unction, and in general all ceremonies. He pronounced the Catholic doctrine of in- • dulgences, as well as bans and interdicts, blasphemous ; auricular con- fession, violence done to the conscience ; and the power of the keys con- • ditional, and its application impotent unless in harmony with the law of Christ. He denied the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Supper, and affirmed, with Berengar, a communication . of his power, which was not only independent of the faith of the recipient, but also of the worthiness of the administering priest. The doctrine of purgatory he wholly rejected. He held predestination in . the rigid form of his teacher, Bradwardine. He maintained that the papacy was Antichrist, and that the pope obtained his power only, from the emperor, not from God. For the hierarchical organization should be substituted the presbyterial form of government. Ordination imparts no ineradicable character; a priest guilty of a mortal sin can- not validly administer a sacrament. Every believer possesses a priestly character. To the state belongs the prerogative of represent- ing Christ as the theanthropic ruler of the world ; the clergy are merely to represent the poor suffering life of his humanity. Monasti- cisni is a monster, &c. 2. The Bohemian Reformers before Hus. — (Comp. /. P. Jordan, d. Vorlaufer d. Hussitenth. in Bohmen (the Precursors of H. in Bohemia. Leips. 184G. — A.ZItte, Lebensbeschr. d. drei Vorl. d. Job. Hus. Prague 1786. — F. Palacky, Gesch. v. Bohmen. Vol. IIL, pp. 157, etc.) — It will be remembered that the Bohemian Church had been founded })y missionaries from the East, and not from the West. The peculiar direction which it got at first was never wholly lost; and though, at a later period, the Romish order and liturgy had been introduced, they were not received without opposition or grudg.\ In Bohemia the founder of the Waldenses had spent the last y -ars of his life; and 502 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. It - 15 A. D."), there, at a later period, a numlier of his adherents had found an asylum when driven from the valleys of Piedmont. The great stronghold of * the Papacy in Bohemia was the University of Prague (founded in 1348). - Most of its chairs were occupied by the mendicants, Avho were of course , zealous defenders of hierarchical principles ; while the arrangement of the members of the University into four nations, of whom each had one vote (Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Poland), prevented anything like a national and independent movement on the part of the Bohe- mians. Nor Avas it unimportant, in reference to the religious history of the country, that the controversy between Realism and Nominalism raged more violently at Prague than elsewhere, and that there also Realism was regarded as suspicious, while Nominalism was considered the great bulwark of ecclesiastical orthodoxy (Wyclifi'e also was a Realist, but the Paris Reformers were zealo'as Nominalists.) Even before the time of Hus, three earnest preachers had prepared the way by their evangelical sermons and by their pastoral labours among the people. These were Conrad of Waldhausen [oh. 13G9), John Milicz ob. 1734), and Matthias of Janoii [oh. 1394). Milicz seems to have had the clearest insight into evangelical truth, while Janov was loudest in his denunciations of ecclesiastical abuses. All three gathered vast audi- ences around them. In 13G7 Milicz went to Rome to bear testimony against ecclesiastical corruptions in the capital of Christendom. He was soon silenced in a prison ; but either Pope Urhan V., who had just returned from Avignon, or the good offices of some other friends, pro- cured his liberation. Fresh persecutions awaited him on his return to Bohemia. His opponents accused him of heresy before Pope Grcgonj XI. Milicz successfully defended his orthodoxy at Avignon, whither he had gone to plead his cause in j^erson. Janov has left two tractates, " De sacerdotum et monachorum abhorrenda abominatioue desolationis in ecclesia Christi," and " De Antichristo," which contain a withering exposure of the degenerate hierarchy, clergy, and monks of his time. His hearers he warned against trusting in their own works, or attach- ing value to mere ceremonies. Janov cherished the conviction that, according to Christ's appointment, the laity should receive the cup as well as the bread in the Eucharist, but that, in obedience to his eccle- siastical superiors, he had yieded the point. The statement, however, wants historical confirmation. 3. Hus and Jerome. — (Comp. A. Zitte, Lebensbeschr. d. Joh. Hus. Prague, 1799. 2 Vols. — A. Zilrn, J. llus auf d. Concil zu Kotnitz. Leips. 1836. — L. Kbhler, J. Hus u. seine Zeit. Leips. 1846. 3 Vols. — /. A. HeJfert, Hus u. Hieron. Prague, 1853. — L. Heller, Ilieron. v. Prag. Tub. 1835. — F. PaJachj, Gesch. v. Biihmen. Vol. III. — John Hus, of Ilusinecz, was born in 13G9. From 1398 he occupied the • chair of Phih)Sophy in the University of Prague. Even before his • public' appearance, he had passed through deep personal experiences, - realizing his own sinfulness, and ultimately finding peace and comfort • EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 603 in the Word of God and in a cordial reception of the crucified S.aviour, ■ These truths became a source of new life to him, and them he pro- ' claimed when called in 1402 to officiate as preacher in the Bethlehem ■ Chapel at Prague, which ATas founded for the special purpose of giving . the people an opportunity of hearing the Gospel in the vernacular. . Hitherto IIus had only been superficially acquainted with the writings of Wycliffe, whose views on the Eucharist he rejected. But when. Jerome of Pm/iie, a Bohemian knight, returned from Oxford an enthu-, siastic adherent of AVycliff"e, he persuaded his friend to examine more • fully the writings and opinions of the British Reformer. Jerome was a man of brilliant talents, ardently attached to what he believed the truth, and burning with a zeal which bordered on enthusiasm, but deficient in that moderation and prudence for which Hus was so dis- < tinguished. The charge of sharing Wyclifie's views was first brought against Hus in 1404, when two young English divines, pupils of Wye-- liffe, being persecuted in Prague for their advocacy of their teacher's tenets, exhibited a number of pictures, by way of showing the striking contrast between the poverty of Christ and His apostles, and the pomp and luxury of the Pope and his cardinals. Hus disapproved of the conduct of the young men, although he admitted the truth of the con- trast presented. The Boliemian memliers of the University took the same view of the question ; the Germans and Poles the opposite. As the foreigners commanded three votes in the University against the one of the Bohemians, a resolution was published in 1408, by which forty-five propositions of Wycliffe Avere formally condemned. But this state of matters Avas not to continue. In 1409 the national party pre- vailed on Wenceslaus, the King, to issue an order to the eflfect that in future the Bohemian nation should have three votes, and the other • nations, combined, only one. The foreigners (teachers and students numbering, according to the lowest estimate, 5000) immediately left Prague, and founded the University of Leipsig. The party of Hus became dominant in Bohemia, but all the more unpopular in foreign countries, and the charge of AVycliflism was generally preferred against its leader. About the same time Hus became also more earnest and energetic in his denunciations of ecclesiastical and clerical abuses. Shi/nko, Archbishop of Prague, now laid an accusation against him in* Rome, and prohibited his preaching in the Bethlehem Chapel. But the populace openly insulted the Archbishop in the streets, Avhile Hus appealed from the Pope ill-infi)rnied to the Pope better-informed. The Bohemian Reformer w.as wont to declare that he received not implicitly all the statements of ^/V^yclifi'e, but distinguished in them between truth and error, and that he was prepared to retract the moment he should be convinced from Scripture of his error. The Pope cited him to Rome ; , but, on the intei'cession of the King and the Uni^-ersity, a temporary truce was concluded between Hus and the Archbishop of Prague Other occasions of dissension soon arose. Iif 1412 John XXIII. pro-, 42 * ii04 SKCTION II. THIRD PERIOD (C K N T. 14 & 15 A. D.;. claimed a crusade against Naples, Avhich was also preached in Bohemia v Against this daring presumption Hus protested by pen and voice , while Jerome, in his indignation, even ventured to burn the Pope's bull, at the public pillory. The Pope now excommunicated Hus, and laid Prague under the interdict, so long as it sheltered the Reformer (1413). _ Hus appealed to the tribunal of Jesus Christ, and retired from Prague, to his birthplace. Meantime the Council of Constance had been sum- moned. There the cause of Hus was to be finally settled. At the- request of the Emperor Sigisvivnd, and furnished hy him with a safe- conduct, the Reformer went (1414) to Constance, fully persuaded of the justice of his cause, and prepared, if necessary, to suffer martyrdom. On his first examination Hus was immediately committed to prison. ■ The Bohemian nobles who had accompanied liim to Constance appealed to the Emperor, who was on his way to that city. The Emperor sent an order to restore Hus to liberty, which was not obeyed ; and a depu- tation from tlie Council persuaded tiie weak monarch, that since Hua • was at the bar of the Council on the charge of heresy, he was beyond imperial protection. For seven months the Reformer was tortured by . private examinations. At length a public audience was granted him (in June, 1415). But he was not alloAved to proceed to the discussion of controverted points: the Council insisted on simple and unqualified • retractation. The humility, meekness, and gentleness of the Reformer, bis enthusiasm and confidence, gained him friends even in the Council. From all sides, and by every kind of motive, he was pressed to yield. These well-meant persuasions proved as ineffectual as the threats of hia » enemies. On the 6ss negotiation, succeeded in 14.33 in inducing the Hussites to send 300 deputies to Basle. The discussion on the four Calixtine articles lasted for fifty days, after which the Council conceded them, although with restriction-. On the ground of these Basle Compactafes, as they were called, the Calixtines returned, at least nominally, to the allegi- ance of the Church. The Taborites regarded this as a betrayal of the truth. Part of them once more tried the fate of arms, but were de- feated and scattered at Bdliimschhrod, near Prague, in 1434. The Emperor Sigismund confirmed the Compactates, and was acknowledged kini;;. As might have been expected, small as were these concessions, Aiey were continually ignored, and violated both by Church and State, jjit'ismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his infant grandson Ladislaus, the government being administered Ijy George Podiebrad, a zealous and able Calixtine. After the death of Ladislaus in 1457, George Podiebrad became king. He adhered closely to the compac- tates. He was acknoAvledged by Pius II., in the hope of his joining E V A N G E L 1 C; A L REFORMATION. 507 the prujeoteJ wai- against the Turks. AVhen this hope failed, the Pon- tiliiu 14G2 went so far as even to disown the Compactates. Paul II. excommunicated the king, and had a crusade preached against him. But the (irusade did not succeed, and George maintained himself till his death in 1471. His successor, Uladi.slaus, a Polisli prince, though a Koman Catholic, favoured the Calixtines. But their day was past. A wretched remnant of them furtively obtained at times the use of the cup, but, in the sixteenth century they wholly disappeared. 5. The Bohemian and Moravian Bi-ethren. — (Comp. Jaoch. Came' rarii, hist, narratio de fratr. orthod. ecclesiis in Bohem., Moravia et Polonia. Heidelb. 1605. — J. Amos Comenius, hist, fratrum Bohemorum, c. pr«3f. Fr. Buddei. Hall. 1702. 4.— G. C. Rieger, d. alt. u. neuen bohm. Briider. 24. St. Ziillich. 1734. etc. — (?. W. K. Lochner, Entsteh. u. erste Schicks. d. Brlidergem. in Bohm. u. Mahr. — Orig. and Early Hist, of the "Brethren." — Nurnb. 1832. — A. Kopijen, Kirchenordn. u. Disciplin. d. hussit. Briiderk. in Bohm. u. Mahr. Leips. 1845. — A. GiedeJy, Biihrnen u. Mahren im Zeitalter d. Reformation. 2 Vols. Prague 1857-58. — A. Edersheim, Behemian Reformei's and German Puliticians, in the "Free Ch. Essays." Edinb. 1858). — In 1453, George Podiebrad took Tabor, and scattered the last remnants of the Taborites. Purified by their misfortunes, they gradually returned to evangelical views. Peter of Chelcic, (Cheltschiz), a Taborite friend of God, was the central point of- their communion, and George Podiebrad, at lloky- cana's recommendation, directed them to accupy the village of Kun- wald, tm his hereditary estates. There, under the guidance of Michael V. Bradacz, the minister of Senfltenberg, they organized themselves (14.j7), as the Unitas fratrum, and assumed the name of Bohemian or Moravian Brethren. But in 14G1 Podiebrad withdrew his favour, and drove them from his estates. They fled to the forests, and held their worship in caves, (hence called Picards). In 1407, the most influential of them in Bohemia and Moravia met at the Bohemian village, Lhota, and in order to provide for the want of pastors, chose, by lot, three brethren as priests. Michael Bradacz then went to the Bohemian bishop .of the Waldenses, and was ordained by him; on his return, he ordained the three brethren- chosen at Lhota, Mathias of Kunioald as bishop, the other two as priests. Thus the apostolic succession of the episcopate was secured. Rokycana, embittered by this act, excited more violent persecutions against them. Still the communion Avas so much increased l)y the accession of AValdenses in Bohemia and others, that at the commencement of the sixteenth century it embraced nearly 200 churches and houses for prayer in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland. Under TJtadi.daiis, to whom they submitted an apology in 1508, per- semitions against them abated. They sent the same apology to Eras itnis, in 1511, with the request that he would furnish them with his opinion upon it. Erasmus declined doing this. They hailed Lidher's movement with hearty rejoicing. Repeated messengers were sent by 508 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 A 15 A. D.)- them to Luther, but were offended that he did not give as much pro minence as they desired to apostolic discipline. 6. Reformers in the Low Countries. — (Comp. C. Ulhnann, Re- formers before the Reform. Edinb. Clarks' For. Theol. Libr.). — Mosi of these reformers had learned in the school of the "Brethren of the Common Life." The following were the most celebrated among them : (1.) John Pupper of Goch, prior of a cloister of canoncsses at Ma- linos which himself had founded [oh. 1475). From his writings (de libertate Christiana, de quatuor erroribus circa legem) we gather that he was a man of deep piety. His theology is entirely that of Augus- tine ; he insists at great length that love, which constitutes the liberty of the children of God, forms the great subject-matter of theology, while the exclusive authority of Scripture affords the sole testing point of Christian truth. Ho also inveighed against legalism, work-righteous- ness, and all externalism in religion. (2.) John Ruchrath of AYesel, professor at Erfurt, then preacher at Mayence and Worms [oh. 1481). His theology was also cast in the mould of St. Augustine. He denied the power of the Pope to issue anathemas or to grant indulgences, and preached the doctrine of salva- tion by faith alone. In opposition to transubstantiation he maintained the doctrine of impanation ; his views of the Church bordered on spiritualism. He wrote a tractate, "de jejunio," against ecclesiastical fasts; another, " de indulgentiis," against indulgences; and a third, " de potestate ecclesiastica," against the hierarchy. The Dominicans in Mayence accused and condemned him as a heretic. Bent by age and disease, he was prevailed upon to recant and to commit his writings to the flames, while he himself was condemned to imprison- ment for life. Ilis writings and those of Pupper are partially reprinted in Fr. Walcli's Monumenta medii {Bvi. Gottg. 1757. (3.) John Wessel, from Groningen, educated by the Brethren of the Common Life at Zwoll, where Thomas a Kempis exercised considerable influence upon him. After having taught at Heidelberg for some years, he retired to the monastery on Mount St. Agnes near Zwoll, where he died in 1489. His friends called him "Lux Mundi." In rare measure he combined accomplishments so diverse as scholastic dialectics, mystic speculation, and thorough classical training. Luther said of him : " If I had read Wessel before I began, my opponents would have imagined that Luther had derived everything from Wessel — so entirely do we two agree in spirit." In one point, however, the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, he lost himself in a volatilizing spiritual- ism. The patronage of influential friends proved his safeguard from the Inquisition. Unfortunately, some of his numerous writings have been entirely suppressed through the exertions of the mendicants. An edition of those still extant has been pul^lished by Petrus Pappus (Groning. 1014). The most important /)f them, which bears the titla " Farrago," consists of a collection of small but very interesting essays. EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 509 Along with these Netherhxnd Reformers, before the reformation, Nicholas Buss, a priest of Rostock, (near the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth century), merits honourable notice. From the catalogus testium veritatis of Flacius it was known that, in a work " De triplici funiculo," he zealously assailed the hierarchy, monasticism, indulgences, work-righteousness, the worship of relics and saints ; also, that he kept up intimate intercourse with the Waldenses in Bohemia, had to endure much defamation and persecution on account of his re- formatory efforts, and, finally, died as an exile in Livonia. His work above named, written in Low Dutch, of which many copies were printed, was also destroyed. But one of his friends rescued some copies by concealing them in a chest. Flacius intended to have it translated and printed in German, but did not accomplish it. From that time nothing was known of the book until, in 1850, Julius Wigyers discovered a copy in the library at Rostock, and published an abstract of it in the Hist. Theol. Ztschr. of Niedner 1850, II. It is entitled: " Von dem Strick, oder den drei Striingen ;" for in order to draw men from the pit of destruction a cord is necessary, and this, to be suffi- ciently strong, must be composed of three strands : faith, hope, and love. These are then minutely described. Thus the book furnishes a complete guide to the Christian's faith and life, with severe assaults upon the degenerate doctrines and moral» of the Church of his age. 7. All Italian Reformer. — (Comp. A. G. Rudelbach, Hier. Savonarola u. seine Zeit. Hamb. 1835. — F. C. Meier, Girolamo Savon. Berl. 183G. — K. Hase, neue Propheten. Leips. 1851. — F. T. Perrens, Jerome Sav. Par. — a book to which the French Acad, awarded the 1st prize — 2d Ed. 1857; transl. into Germ, by Dr. Schroder). — The reformation which Savonarola inaugurated in Italy towards the close of the fifteenth century, was directed not only against ecclesiastical, but also against political abuses. It was this combination of different objects which " proved fatal to himself and his work. Jerome Savonarola, a Domini- can, had learned the truths of the Gospel from Scripture and from the writings of St. Augustine. These truths he now proclaimed at Florence (since 1489). His brilliant oratory, his bold and almost fanatical de- nunciations of the corruptions prevalent among clergy and laity, princes and people, attracted crowds around him. With intimate knowledge of the way of salvation, he combined a strange apocalyptic and prophetic turn. Many an obstinate sinner was aroused by having- discovered his most secret sins, while some of his political predicti(ms were fulfilled in the most remarkable manner. Savonarola soon became the idol of the people ; and measures were taken to carry into practice not only the m(jral and religious, but also the political reforma- tion which he had proposed. Florence was to become the capital of a new democratic theocracy. What his enemies, especially Pope Alex- ander, could not effect by the offer of a cardinal's hat, was accomplished by the folly of a fickle populace. For a time political complications iv. 43'* 510 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. U erty, rather than in that of the Gospel, • that he fought all his life long against pedantry of every kind, against • THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 515 che monastic orders, and indeed against all constraint in matters of • conscience. In 1504 he escaped from the monastery of Fulda, where • he -was to be trained for the clerical profession. He next studied in ^ Erfurt, and fought in the army of Maximilian, as he afterwards con- . tended with his pen on behalf of Reuchlin. AVhen deprived of the aid of Sickingen, he wandered about homeless, and at last died in wretched- ness in 1523. His works were published by E. J. H. M'dncli, Berlin 1821, etc., 5 Bde.— (Comp. L. Schubart, Ulr. v. H. Lcips. 1791. — Herder's Denkmal (Memorial). — G. G.F. Mohnike, U. v. H.'s Jugendl. Greifsw. 1816. — G. J. W. Wagenseil, U. v. H. Nurnb. 1823. — G. W. Panzer, U. v. H. in lit. Bezieh. Niirnb. 1798. — E.v. Brunnoio, U. v. H. Leips. 1812. — D. Strauss, U. v. H. Leips. 1858. 2 Vols.). 3. Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. — (Comp. Burigny, Vie d'Er., translated into German by Reich, with add. by Henke. Halle 1782. 2 Vols. — &Z. Hess, Er. v. R. Zlir. 1790. 2 Vols. — ^d. Midler, Leben d. Er. V. R. Hamburg 1828.) — The most distinguished among all the Humanists, either before or at the time of the Reformation, was Erasmus (Gerhard Gerhardson). The child of conjvxgal affections which were shamefully defrauded of the happiness of valid marriage, , he was educated at Deventer and at the Hague by "the Brethren of ■ the Common Life." Forced by relatives to enter a monastery in 1486, • he was ultimately set free through the interposition of an ecclesiastical • dignitary from his conventual prison, and thus enabled wholly to devote . himself to the pursuit of science (1496). He next attended the Uni-. versity of Paris. Having finished his studies, he travelled through- Europe, when he made personal acquaintanceship with almost all the eminent men of his time. For several years he occupied the Chair of • Greek in Oxford, and ultimately settled in Basle with his learned pub-> WshQV Frohcnins (1521). In this retreat he refused every oflSce, and. even the dignity of cardinal, although not liberal pensions ; and amidst • learned labours of varied kinds, and a most extensive epistolary inter- course, lived as a kind of scientific monarch. His chief merit con- sisted in his promotion of classical learning, and in its application to theological purposes. In many other ways also he promoted the Refor-' mation. Thus he pointed out the defects in the theological study of the time, especially the absurdities of the prevailing scholastic method.' He also exposed the abuses in the Church, castigated the moral cor- ruption of all ranks, and unsparingly denounced the ignorance, idle-' ness, and dissoluteness of the monastic orders. On the other hand, he. also disapproved of the paganizing spirit of many of the Humanists, < and of the revolutionary ideas of such men as Ulric von Ilutten. Hia • own views were essentially Pelagian ; he was, accordingly, quite unable . to understand the peculiar doctrines of the Gospel. While anxious, for a reformation of the Church,' he neither was nor felt himself called, to be a Reformer. With him the whole was merely a question of rationality ; religious depth, strength of faith, self-denying love, con- 43* 516 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (C £ N T . 14 A 15 A. D.) viction, and courage, such as martyrs require, were utterly wanting in , him. He loved his quiet and comfortable life too well to jeopard it; and his knowledge of the real causes of prevailing abuses, and of th» kind of reformation requisite, was entirely insufficient. Erasmua. would have accomplished the work by human science, avid not by the*' agency of a pure Gospel. When, in 1529, the Reformation prevailed- at Basle, Erasmus left it, and settled at Freiburg in Breisgau, but^ died at Basle (whither he had gone to have a personal interview with Frobenius), "sine lux, sine crux, sine Deus" (153G). The best edition, of his Avi-itings is that by J. Clericus (Lugd. 1702. 10 YoU. fol.). Among his writings, the most important for theology, arc his critical » and exegetical notes on the N. T. (note 5). He also edited a number, of the Fathers (Jer., Hilar., Ambros., Iren., Athan., Chrys., etc.). His controversy with Luther belongs properly to a later period. The " Ecclesiastes s. concionator evangelicus" was intended as a kind of homiletics. The iyxJ^fiiov ^ucopios s. laus stultitiai, dedicated to his friend Thomas More, contains a most cutting satire on the monks and the • clergy generally. Even in his " CoUoquia," by which he hoped to make boys " latiniores et meliorcs," he allowed not an opp(n"tunity to pass of deriding the monks, the cle-gy, and those rites which he re-. garded as superstitions (such as monastic voavs, fasts, pilgrimages, indulgences, auricular confession, the worship of saints, etc.). 4. Humanism in England, France, and Spain. — In England, also, the new study excited considerable interest. Its chief friend and ad- vocate there was Thomas More, Lord High Chancellor of Henry VIII. More was on intimate terms with Erasmus, and shared his objections . to prevalent abuses in the Church. But it appears from his well-known treatise, " De optimo reipublicse statu deque nova insula Utopia," that he rather inclined towards Deism tlian desired an evangelical reforma- tion. In the treatise to which wc have referred, he expressed at some length the expectation, that a more rational and natural arrangement of social relations would lead to universal happiness. The contem- plated religion of Utopia is undisguised Deism : providence, virtue, im- mortality, and retribution ; everything distinetivel}'^ Christian is care- fully ignored. In his capacity of Chancellor, More suppressed the Ileformation in England, and took the side of the King in his contro- versy with Luther. But when Henry VIII. quarreled with the Pon- tiff, and laid claim to reform the Church in his own fashion. More resigned his offices, refused to acknowledge the King as head of the English Church, an.d was beheaded in 1535, after a long and close imprisonment. (Conip. G. Th. Rudhart, Leben d. Th. Mor. Nurnb. 1829.) In Spain Humanism found a patron in no less a personage than Francis Ximenes, Arclibishopof ToledcT, Grand Inquisitor, and Minister of Ferdinand and Isabella [ob. 1517). (Comp. C. J. HeJ'de, d. Card, Xini 2d Ed. Tlib. 1851. — W. Havemann, Darstellungen aus d. inneri^ THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 517 Gesch. Span, im 15., 10. u. 17. Jalirh. Gott. 1850.) Among those who prosecuted the new stud}- in Spain the ablest was Antuonv of Lerij.\, Professor at Salamanca. In 1508 Ximenes assigned him a chair in the newUniversity of JZca/a (Complutum). The Cardinal availed himself of his assistance in his edition of the Complutensian Polyglott, and protected him from the Inquisition, before which he was summoned tc answer for his criticisms on the Vulgate. He died in 1522. Humanism scarcely made any progress in France. For this we can only account by the great influence which the University of Paris brought to bear against it. However, one man at least presented the new learning, and was led to devote himself to the critical investigation of the Bible. John Faber Stapulensis, a doctor of Sorbonne [ob. 1537), who reached the patriarchal age of 100, gave himself to the study of the Scriptures in the original, and pointed out and corrected the cor- ruptions in the text of the Vulgate. He also insisted that the Bible should be read in the vernacular, and translated the Scriptures into the French. For these oifences he was expelled the Sorbonne, and de- prived of his doctorate. The French Parliament likewise took measures against his heresy; happily, he enjoyed the protection oi Francis L, who entrusted him with the education of the royal princesses. The Council of Trent placed his works in the " Index Prohibitorum," though with the remark, " donee corrigantur." (Comp. K. H. Graf, J. Fab. Stap. : Ein Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Reform, in Frankr., in the " hist, theol. Zeitschr." for 1852. I.) 5. The Study of the Scriptures. — The greatest advantage which the Church and theology derived from the so-called restoration of the sciences was this, that the Scriptures were taken from under the bushel which had concealed them, and again placed on the candlestick. The Vulgate (of which ninety-eight printed editions appeared before the year 1500) was now compared with the text of the original, and the allegorical mode of interpretation gave place to grammatical and his- torical exegesis. This was mainly accomplished by providing the necessary means for carrying on philological studies, while the print- ing-press spread the original text throughout Europe. Since the inven- tion of printing, the Jews diffused the Old Testament in the original. In 1502 Ximenes employed a number of learned men to edit that splen- did work known as the Complutensian Polyglott (the Old Testament was edited by learned Jewish proselytes) — the Avhole was completed in 1517. The work contained the Hebrew and Greek text of the Old and New Testaments, the Targumim, the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and a Latin translation of the Septuagint and of the Targumim, together with a somewhat meagre grammatical and philological apparatus — the whole in six volumes (four for the Old Testament). About the same time, Daniel Bomberg, a learned Iiookseller in Antwerp, was engaged at Venice in bringing out various editions of the Old Testament, partly with and partly without Kaldiinical commentaries. BomL<'rg hatt 44 518 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 & 15 A. D.). made himself thoroughly familiar with the Hebrew; he was also aided hj Felix Fratensis, a converted Jew, and hj Jacob Ben Chajim, a Rabbi from Tunis. The first two editions appeared in 1518, and were soon followed by other three. — But the great expense of the Completensian Polyglott placed it Avithin the reach of very few. To Erasmus belongs the great merit of publishing a pocket edition of the Greek New Testa- ment (with a Latin ti-anslation of his own). The first edition of this work appeared in 1516. The first who distinguished himself in this branch of study was Laureatius Valla, whose "Annotationes in N. T." were published by Erasmus. Erasmus himself composed paraphrases on the whole New Testament (excepting the Book of llevelatious) ; Faher Stapulensis wrote, commentaries on the Gospels and the Epistles of Paul, while Lerija published critical remarks on the Vulgate. The want of translations of the Bible into the eernacular was also increasingly felt. Fabcr composed an excellent translation of the Scriptures in French, which has formed the basis of all later versions (it was completed in 1530). Wyclifle had translated the Bible into English ; and before the time of Luther there were no fewer than four- teen translations of the Scriptures into German and six in Low Dutch. And yet they are essentially but one and the same version, translated of course from the Vulgate. The translator, or translators are wholly unknown. Throughout the language is wretched, and the sense is often unintelligible. Some portions, however, are better, and Luther seems to have consulted them. (Comp. /. Kehrein, zur Gesch. d. deut- Bchen Bibelubers. vor Luther (Contrib. to the History of the German Bible before L.). Stuttg. 1851.) INDEX. [The numerals refer to the Paragraphs and notes.) Abbacomites, 85 Abbots "in commen- dara," 115 Abbuna, 52, 7 Abdas of Sasa, 64, 2 Abderrhaman, 81 ; 95 Abelard. 105, 1 Abo^ar, 25 Uchomo, 14, 2 Abodrites, 63, 2 Abraxas, 28, 2 Abrenunciatio diab., 32 ; 58, 1 Absolution, Formula of, 88, 5 Acacius of Amida, 64, 2 of Constantinople, 52, 5 Academy, New, 8, 4 Achamoth, 28, 3 Acoimetes, 44, 4 ; 52, 6 Acolythi, 80, 1 Acroteleutia, 59, 3 Acta facientes, 23, 5 Adalbert of Bremen, 96, 3 ; 97, 1 of Prague, 93, 3 of Tuscany, 96, 1 the Heretic, 78, 4 Adam of Bremen, 4, 1 ; 102, 1 of Fulda, 113, 5 of St. Victor, 105, 4 Adamite?, 114, 3 Adesius, 64, 1 Adoptionists, 91, 1 Adrianiis, 48, 1 Advent, 56, 5 Advocati eccl., 86 .Edesius, 94, 1 iEaeas Sylv., 110, 3, 4: 118. 3 .'Eons, 26 Aerius, 62 Aetius, 50, 3 Africa, 25; 76, 3 Agapes, 18, 5; 33 Agapetae, 36, 3 Agapetus, 52, 6 Agatliangelos, 64, 3 Agatho, 52. 8 .Age, Canonical, 70, 1 Agilulf, 76. 8 Agnes, Empress, 96, 2 Agobard, 88, 4; 90, 4; 91, 1; 92, 2 Agricola, Rudolf, 120, 2 Aidan, 77, 5 d'Aillv. 110, 3; 118, 1 Aistiilf, 82, 1 Aix la Cliapelle, Council at, 91, 1, 2 Aizanas, 61, 1 'Axi'/iaAoi, 52, 5 iiKfioaaii, 36, 2 aKpOMncvoi, 32, 1 Alamanni, 78, 1 Alanus ab Insulis, 103, 2 Alaric, 76, 2 Alaviv, 70, 1 Albati, 114, 1 Alberic, 96, 1 Alberic v.Diubeck, 104,5 Albert of .\peldern, 93, 4 the Bear, 93, 3 of Buxhowden.93,3 of Suerbeer, 93, 3 Albertus Magnus, 104, 1 .\lbigenses, 109, 1 .•Vlboin, 76, 8 Alcuin, 90, 3; 91, 1, 2; 92, 1 Aldgild, 78, 3 Alexander II., Pope,96,2 III.. 96, 4 v., VI., 110, 3, 4 Alexanderof Alex , 50, 1 of Ant., 63, 1 Halesius, 104, 1 Severus, 23, 3 Alexandria, Council of, 50, 4 ; 52, 1 School of, 39, 4 ; 47, 4; 52, 2 Alexius Comuenus, 71, 1, 3 Alfonso the Chaste, 81 the Catholic, 81 the III. of Castile, 95, 2 Alfred the Great, 88,1; 90 Alfric, 101, 1 d'Allemand, 100, 3 ; 118, 1 Alogi, 40, 2 All-Saints, 57, 1 ; 89, 5 All-Souls, 105, 2 Altar, 35 ; 60, 2 ; 89, 5 Al varus 81, 1 Alzog. 4, 4 Amalarius, 84, 4 ; 90, 4 Amalric of Bena, 108, 2 Amandus, St., 78, 3 Amatus of Salerno, 102,1 Ambon, 60, 3 Ambrosiaster, 48, 1 Ambrosius, 47, 5 ; 50, 4 ; 57, 2, 3 ; 59, 3 .\mmonius, 44 Saccas, 24, 2 Ananus, 17 .•\nastasius Bibl., 4, 1 of Rome, 51, 2. Sinaita, 48, 1 Anathema, 52, 3 Anchorites, 36, 3 ; 44 Ancyra, Council of, 50 Andrew II. of Hungarj, 94, 4 (519) 520 INDEX. Andronicus P;iloool.,67,5 Angelico of Fiesole, 113, 6 Angelici, 57, 3 Angelo, Mich., 113, 3 Angels, Worship of, 87, 3 Angilram, 87, 1 Anglo-Sa.xons, 77, 4 Angst, Wolfg., 120, 2 Anicetus, 33, 1 Ann, St., 72, 4 AnnatjB, 110 Anno of Cologne, 96, 3 ; 97, 1 Anomoites, 50, 3 Ansbert of Maild., 83, 1 Ansegis, 87, 1 Anselm of Canterbury, 67, 4 ; 96, 5 of Havelb., 67, 4 of Laon, 102, 1 of Lucca, 96, 3 ; 99 Ansgar, 80, 1 Anthimus of Const, 52, 6 Antidicomarianites 57, 2 62 dvTiSuipa, 58, 4 Antilegomena, 34, 2 Antinomianism, 19 Antiocb, Council of, 50, 2 School of, 47, 1 ; 52, 2 Antiphones, 34, 4 Antiphonous Singing, 59, 3 Antiphonarium, 59, 3 Antitactes, 28, 6 Antony, St., 44, 1 of Padua, 98, 4 Antoninus Pius, 23, 2 Apiarius, 46, 2 Apinus, 64, 1 Apocrisarians, 46 Apocrypha, 39, 7; 41, 5 ApoUinaris. 52, 1 Claudius, 41, 1 Apolionius of Tyana, 32, 1 Apollos. 19 Apologetics, 24; 41, 1; 48, 3 Apostles, Meeting of, 19, 1 Apostolic Brethren, 108, 3 Constitutions and Canons, 41, 6 Apostolic Fathers, 39 Apostolici, 62 Apostolicity, 13 Apsis, GO, 1 Aquarii, 28, 8 Arausio, Council of, 53,5 Arcadius, Emperor, 42, 3; 51, 3 Arcesilaus, 8, 4 Archbishops, see Metro- politans. Archchaplain, 84, 1 Deacon, 45, 5 ; 84, 2; 87, 9 Presbyter, 45, 5 Architecture, Ecclesias- tical, 105, 6; 113, 6 Arevurdi's, 71, 2 Ariald, 97, 2 Ariaas 50 ; 76 Ariold, 97, 2 Aristides, 41, 1 Aristobulus, 11, 1 Ariston of Pella, 41, 1 Aristotle, 8, 4; 100, 2 Arius, 50, 1, 2 Armenia, 64, 3 ; 73, 2 Arno of Salzb., 79 Arnobius, 41, 1 the Younger, 83, 5 Arnold, Gottfr., 4, 3 of Brescia, 96, 6 ; 108, 3 of Citeaux, 109, 1 of Lubeck, 104, 5 Arnulf of C.irinthia, 82,5 of Rheims, 96, 1 Arsacius, 51 Arsenius, 70, 1 ; 82, 4 Artabasdus, 66, 2 Artemon, 32, 2 Ascension, 56, 4 Asceticism, 36, 3 Ash Wednesday, 56, 4 Associations for the Dead, 89, 3 Asterius, 50, 6 of Amasa, 57, 4 Astronomus, 90, 9 Asylum, Right of, 43 Athanaric, 76 Athanasian Creed, 50, 6 Athanasius, 44 ; 47, 4 ; 50; 52, 2 Athenagoras, 41, 1 Athenogeues, 41, 4 Athos, Monks of, 69, ■" ; 70, 3 Atrium, 60, 1 Atto of Vercelli, 101, 1 Audians, 62 Audientes, 32, 1 Augustine, 45, 1 ; 47, 5; 53, 2, 4, 5; 54, 1. 58, 3 ; 63, 2 the Missionary, 77, 4 Augustines, 98, 4; 112, 2 Aurelian, Emp., 23, 6; 40, 7 of Carth., 63, 2 Auto da U, 115, 1 Auxentius, 76, 1 Avari, 79 Averrhoes, 100, 2 Avicenna, 100, 2 Avitus, 48, 9; 53, 6; 76, 5 Azymites, 67, 3 Baanes, 71, 1 Bacon, Roger, 104, 3 Baffomet, 112, 2 Baldwin of Jerusalem, 94, 1 ; 98, 6 of Flanders, 94, 4 Bangor, 85, 4 Baptism, doctrine of, 32, 3 of Blood, 32, 3 of Heretics, 32, 2 of Infants, see In- fant Baptism. Godfathers, 32 ; 56, 4 Mode of, 32 ; 58, 1 Baptismal Font, 60, 1- 89, 5 Baptismus Clinic, 32 Baptisterium, 60, 2 Baradai. 52, 7 Bar-Cochba, 21 Bardesanes, 32, 9 Barhebrceus, 73, 2 Barlaam, 67, 5: 69, 1 Barletta, 113, 2 Barnabas, 15 ; 41, 1 Baronius, 4, 2 Barsumas, 52, 3 Bartholomen of Lucca, 4, 1 Bartholomew of Pisa, 98, 4 INDEX. 521 f^- Bartolomeo, Fra, 113, 4 Basilica, 60, 1 Basilides, the Gnost., 28. 2 the Martyr, 23, 4 Basiliscus, 52, 5 Basilius the Great, 44, 3; 47, 4 , Leader of the Bo- goniiles, 71, 3 of Aiieyra, 50, 3 the Macedonian, 57, 1 ; 68, 1 : 71, 1; 72, 1 Basle. Council of. 110, 3 Keforni. in, 120, 3, 8 Ba.s-relief. GO, 3 Banmjrarten, 76, 2 Bavaria, 78, 2 Beatus, Presb., 91, 2 Beccus, 67, 4 Bede, the Venerable, 90, 2 Beghards and Beguins, cm-, 5 Behram V., 64, 2 Bellini. 113, 4 Bells, 60, 3 Baptism of, 89, 5 'Jniia, 60, 1 Benibus, 120, 1 Benedict VIII., 96, 2 IX. 96, 2 X. 96, 3 XII. 67, 5; 110, 2; 112, 1 of Aniane, 85, 2 Levita, 87, 1 ■ of Nursia, 85, 1 Benedictina, 112, 1 Benedictines, 85 ; 98, 1 ; 112, 1 Benefices, 86, 1 Benno of Meissen, 93, 3 Bereni^ar. 102, 1, 2 II. 96. 1 Bernard of Clairv.. 94,2; 96, 6; 98, 2; 105, 2, 4; 108, 1, 3: 109 Bernardines, 98, 2 Berno, Abbot, 98, 1 Bertha, 77, 4 Berthold of Calabria, 98, 3 of Loccum, 93, 4 of Regensb., 105 Bertrada, 96, 3 44* Bertrand de Got, 110, 2 Beryllus, 40, 5 Bessarion, 67, 6 ; 68, 2 ; 120, 1 Bianchi, 114, 1 Bible, Transl. of, 32, 3 Biel, Gabr.. 116 Bishoi)s, 18, 2: 30, 1 , Transl. of, 45 Bjorn, 80, 1 Blandina, 23, 3 Boabdil. 95 Bobbio, 78, 1 ; 85, 4. Boccaccio, 114, 4 Boethius, 47. 6 Bogomiles, 71, 1 Boiroris, 72, 3 Bohemia, 79, 2 ; 93, 2. Bohemian Brethren, 119, 5 Boieslav. I., III., of Po- land, 93, 2 1, II. of Bohemia, 98, 2 Chrobry, 93, 2 ; 96, 1 Bomberg, 120, 5 Bonavetitura, 104, 1 : 105, 4 Boniface, St., 78, 4 VIII., 99: 110, 1 Boni homines, 108, 1 Bonosus, 62 Borgia, Cresar, 114, 4 Boruth, 79 Borzivoi, 79, 2 Bossuet, 7 Bradacz, Mich, v., 119, 5 Bradwardine, Th., of, 116, 2 Braga, Synod of, 76, 4 Brandt, Seb. 114, 4 Brest, Synod of, 72, 4 Brethren, " the four long," 51, 3 Bohemian, 119, 5 of the Common Life, 112, 6 of the Free Spirit, 114, 3 Bretwalda, 77, 4 Bridget, St., 112, 2, 4 Britons, 77 Brunialia. 56, 5 Brunehilda, 78, 1 Bruno the Missionary, 93, 3 Bruno of Cologne, 101 of Rheims, 98, 8 of Toul, 96, 2 Bulgaria, 67, 1 ; 72, 8 Bulgari, 108, 1 Bull, In Coena Domini, 115 Burchard of Worms, 99 Burgundians, 76, 5 Busch, Herm. of, 120, 2 Bythos, 28, 3 Cab.asil.\s, see Nicholas Cadalus of Parma, 96, 3 Ciecilianus, 63, 2 Cffidmon, 88, 2 Cresarius of Arel., 47, 4 ; 53, 5 Cainites, 28, 4 Cajus, 37, 2; 60, 8 Caland, 106, 1 Calatrava, Order of, 98, 6 Calixt, George, 4, 3 Calixtus L, 60, 1 ; 40, 4 II., 96, 5 III., 110, 4 Callinice, 71, 1 Camaldulensians, 98, 1 Canon of the Mass, 59, 4 in music, 113, 5 Canons of Synods, 43, 2 Canonesses, 85, 3 Canonical Life, 84. 4; 97 Canonici, 84, 4; 97 Cantores, 30, 1 Cantus Ambros., 59, 3 Firmus, 59, 3 Figuratus, 105, 5 Canute the Gr., 123, 1 Capitula Episcop., 87, 1 Capitula, three, contro- versy about, 52. 6 Capitularies, 87, 1 Carantani, 79 Carbeas, 71, 1 Cardianls, 96 Carmelites. 98. 3 Carnival, 56, 4; 106, 1 Carpocrates, 34, 5 Carthusians, 98, 3; 112 Casimir of Pol. 93, 2 Cassianus, 44 ; 53, 5 Cassiodorus, 4 ; 47, 6 Catacombs, 61, 3 Catechists, 30, 1 622 INDEX Catechetical Sch.cl, 39,4 Catechumens, 32, 1 Catenae, 48, 1 Cathari, 38, 2; 108, 1 Cathai-iue, St., 122, 2 Cathedral Chapters, 84, 4; 97; 111 Catholicity, 13 ; 30, 3 Catholicos, 52, 7 Ceitumar, 79 Celibacy, 36, 3 ; 45, 4 ; 84, 3; 96, 2; 111 Celsus, 24, 4 Cencius, 96, 2 Centuiia. Magdb., 4, 2 Cerdo, 28, 10 CeWnthus, 18; 28, 1 Cesarini, 110, 3 Chalcedon, CEc. Counc. of. 46 ; 52, 4 [2 Chaldean Christians, 52, Chapels, 84. 3 Chapter, Chapter-house, 84, 4 Charismata, 18, 1 Charlemagne, 81, 1; 92, 1; 97 Charles Mnrtel, 81 : 82, 1 of Anjou, 96, 8 the Bald, 82, 2, 4, 5; 90 Chazars, 72, 2 Chelbes, 28, 4 Chicrsy, Synod of, 91, 4 Children of the Sun, 71, 2 Ciiilperic II., 76, 5 China, 93. 5 Chinghis-"Khan, 73. 1 Chorepiscopoi, 30; 45 Chosroes II., 64, 2 Chrisnia, 32 Christians, persecutions of, 21 ; 23 :]hristianitates, 84, 2 Christmas, 53 ; 86, 5 Christ, controversies concerning the Per- son of, 52 Chrodegang, 84, 4 Chrysam, 45, 3 Chrysoloras, 120, 1 Chrysostom, 47, 1; 51, 3 ; 53, 1 Church. See also Eccle- siastical. [5 Consecration of, 59, Church, Nave of, 60, 1 Peace of, 88, 4 States of, 82, ] Churches, 35 Ciborium, 60, 3 Cid, 95 Cimabue, 105, 7 Circumcelliones, 63, 2 Cistercians, 98, 2 Clara, of Assissi, 98. 4 Order of, 128, 4 Clarendon, Assembly at, 96, 4 Claudius, Emp., 23, 1 of Turin, 92, 2 Clemanges, 110, 3;118,1 Clement II., 96, 2, 3 III., 96, 4 v., 99; 110, 2; 112, 2 VI.. 110, 2; 114, 1 ; 115 VII.. 110, 3 the Heretic, 78, 4 of Alexandria, 39, 4 of Rome, 39, 1 Clementines, 27, 4 (jus can.), 99 Clergy, 30 Choice of, 45 Clerical Dress, 45, 3 Clerici vagi, 84. 2 Clericis laicos, 110. 1 Clermont. Synod of, 94 Clinici, 30, 1 : 45, 2 Cloveshoo, Svnod of,88,5 Clugny, Monks of, 98, 1 Coemetoria, 35 Coelestine of Rome, 52, 3 ; 53, 4 III., 96. 6 IV., 96, 8 Coelestines, 112, 4 ('celestius, 53. 4 Ccelicolre, 37, 2 Coena Domini, bull, 115 Coifi, 77. 4 Cola di Rienzi. 110, 2 Colidei, 77, 1 Collatio cum Donat, 63, 2 Colleges of Canons, 84, 4 Collyridians, 57, 2 Colman, 77, 6 Colombino, 112, 4 Cnlonna, 110, 1, 3 Colet, 120, 4 Columba, 77, 3 Columbanus, 78, 1 Comes Hieron., 59 Commendse, 110 Commodian, 41, 1 Commodus, 23, 3 Communic. idiom., 87, 7 Communion of Children, 33 ; 58, 4 Competentes, 32, 1 Compiegne, Synod of 82, 2 Compurgators, 88, 4 Concha, 60 Conclave, 96, 6 Concubitus (Edipod., 23 Confession, 33 ; 61, 1 ; 88, 5 Confessors, 23, 5; 36,2,4 Confirmation, 32 Conrad of Hochsteden, 105, 6 of Marburs, 109, 2 I.. II., 96,^1, 2 III., 94, 2 Conradin, 96, 6 Consolamentum, 108, 1 Constance. 96, 5 Council of, 110, 3 Constantia, 50, 2 Constantino the Great, 23, 7; 42, 1; 50, 1; 63, 2 Constantinus Chrysoma- lus. 70, 4 Copronj'mus, 66, 2 of iSIananalis, 71, 2 Monomachus, 67, 3 Pogonatus, 52, 8 Porphyrogenneta, 68. 1 the Philosopher, 72. 2 Constantinople, Oicum. Council of, II., 40; 50, 4, 5 ; 52, 1 v., 52, 6 VI., 52, 8 VIL, 66, 2, 3 VIII., 67, 1 Constantius. 42. 1 ; 50, 2 Chlorus, 23, 6 Constitutio Romana,82,3 Continentes. 36, 3 Convenensa. 108. 1 Conventiclers, 108, 5 INDEX. 523 Conventuales, 112, 1 Conversi, 98 Copts, 52, 7 ; 73, 2 Corbinian, 78, 2 Cornelius of Home, 30, 2 Corporale, GO, 2 Corpus Christi ilay,105,2 Corpus jur. can., 99 Correggio, 113, 4 Cosmas Indicoplastes, 48, 2 Patriarch, 70, 4 the Usurper, GO, 1 Cossa, 110, 3 Councils, 30, 2 General, 43, 2 Courland, 93, 4 Court chapels, 84, 1 Cranz, II., 113, 3 Creatianism, 53, 1 Crescentius, 9G, 1 Crimthan, 77, 3 Cross, discoverj' of, 57, 5 elevation of, 57, 5 experiment of, 88, 4 particles of, 57, 5 sign of. 36, 1 Crotus llubianus, 120, 2 Crucifix, GO, 3 Crusades, 94 Crypts, 60, 1 Culdees, 77, 1 Cupola, 60, 1 Curates, 84, 2 Cursores, 60, 3 Cusa, Nich. of, 110, 3; 118, 2 Cyprian of Carthage, 23, 5: 30, 3; 32, 2; 36; 38, 2; 39, 5 Cyril «f Alexandi-ia, 45, 9 ; 52, 2, 3 of Jerusalem, 48, 5 and Methodius, 72, 2, 3 Cyrus of Alexandria, 52, 8 Dagobf.rt I., 78, 1 Damasus, 63, 1 Dambrovka, 93, 2 D.imiiini, see Petrus. Dandalo, 94, 4 Dante, 144, 4 David of Dinanto, 108, 2 Deacons, 18, 3; 30, 1 ■ Subdeacons, 51, 1 Decani, Deans, 84, 2 44 Decalogue, 113, 3 Decius, Emp., 23, 5 . Decretals, 43, 3 ; 4G, 2 Decretists, 99 Decretum Gratiani, 99 Gregorii, 99 Defensores, 45, 5 Definitiones, 43, 2 Demetrius of Alex- andria, 31, 4 Demiurgos, 26, 1 Dendrites, 70, 3 Denmark, 80 ; 93. 1 Desiderius, 82, 1 Desk, 35 ; GO, 2 Dhu-Nowas, 64, 4 Didenhofen, Synod of, 82, 2 Didymus of Alexandria, 45, 6 Dies stationum, 32 Dinanto, see David. Diodorus, monk, 34, 5 of Tarsus, 47, 1 ; 48, 1 Diognetus, 39, 1 Donysius of Alexandria, 39, 4 ; 40, 6, 8 the Areopag., 47, 6 ; 48. 5 ; 90, 1 Exiguus, 43, 3 ; 48, 2 ; 56. 3 of Paris, 25 of Rome, 40, 6 Dioscurus. 52, 4 Diptychs, 59, 4 Disciplina arcani, 33, 2 Discipline, Eccles., 36, 2; 61, 1 ; 88. 5 • stages of, 36, 2 Discussion at Aix la Chapelle, 91, 1 Docetism, 19; 26, 1 Doctor audientium, 30, 1 angelicus, 104, 1 ecstaticus, 117, 2 Doctor invincibilis, 116,1 irrefragabilis, 104,1 mirabilis, 104, 3 resolutissimus. 1 1 6,1 sernphicus. 104, 1 subtilis. 104, 1 Dolcino, 108, 3 Ddllinger, 4, 4 Dominicans, 98, 4; 109, 2; 112, 1 Domitian, the Abbot, 52, 6 Emp., 24 Donation of Constantine, 82, 1 Donatists, 63, 2 Dorotheus, 39, 6 Dositheus, 22, 1 Double Monasteries, 85,3 Drahomira, 93, 2 Druids, 77, 2 Druthmar, Christian, 90 4, 6; 91, 3 Drys, Synod of, 51, 3 Dualism, 26, 1 Dubrawka, 93, 2 Dufay, 113, 3 Dungal, 92, 2 Dunstan, 97 ; 101 Durandus, 116, 1 Diirer, A., 113, 4 Eadbald, 77, 4 Eanfle'l, 77, 6 Easter, Festival of, 32 calculation of, 56, 3 observance, dis- putes about, 3Q, 1 plays, 106,2; 114,4 risus paschali.s, 106. 1 East Indies, 64, 4 Ebbo of Mayence, 80 Ebed-Jesu, 73, 1 Ebionites, 33, 2 Ecbert of Shonau, 108, 4 Eccart, Master, 117, 1 Ecclesiastical architec ture, see Architec. Discipline, 36 : 91 - — Functionaries, 45,5 Law, 41,3; 43, 3 ; 99 Kevenues, 45 Year, 56, 7 Ecetes, 70. 3 Ecthesis, 52, 8 Edgemiadzin, 73, 2 Edwin, 77. 4 Einhard, 89, 6 Eip'?i"i, 36, 2 Electors, princes, 97, I Eleesban. 64, 4 Eligius, 78, 3 Elij.ih of Cortona, 98, 4 Elipnndus, 91, 1 524 INDEX, Elizabeth, St., 109, 2; 112, 3 Order of, 112, 3 of Shonau, 108, 4 Elkesaites, 33, 3 Elvira, Sjnod of, 60, 3 Elxai, 27, 3 Emanation, 26, 1 Emma, 93, 1 Emmelia, 47, 4 Empire, Prankish, 82, 2 Latin, 67, 4 ; 94, 4 Encratites, 28, 8 Encyclical Letter of Pho- tius, 67, 1 Encyclion, 52, 5 Endemic Synods, 43, 2 Endura, 108, 1 Enfans sans souci, 114, 2 Engelhardt, 4, 4 Ennodius, 46, 2 Enthusiasts, 71, 3 Eon, 108, 4 Epaon, Council of, 76, 5 Ephesus, Council of, 52, 3 ; 53, 4 Ephraem, 47, 2 ; 59, 2 Epicurus, 8, 4 Epiphanes, 28, 5 Epiphanias, 32 ; 56, 5 Epiphanius, 47, 4 ; 51, 2. 3 : 57, 4 Episcopi in partibus, 97 regionarii, 84 Epistola3 canonicos, 38, 3 decretals, 46, 2 formatce, 30 obscur. vir., 120, 2 Epulte Thyest., 23 Erasmus, 119, 5; 120, 3, 5 Eric IL, 80, 1 St., 93, 1, 3 the red, 93, 1 Erigena, J. Sc, 90, 5, 7; 91, 4; 108, 2 Erteuki Mani, 29, 1 [6 Erwin of Steinbach, 105, Esnig, 64, 3 Essenes, 9, 2 Estates of the Empire, 114, 1 Esthonia, 93, 4 Ethelberga. 77, 4 Ethelbert. 77, 4 Ethelwold, 101, 1 Etherius of Osma, 91, 1 Ethiopia, 64, 1 Eucharist. 18, 5; 33, 1 doctrine of, 33, 3 ; 58, 2; 91, 3 elements of, 33 ; 58, 4 Euchcrius, 48, 1 Euchetes, Christian, 44, 5; 71, 3 Heathen, 42, 2 Eudo da Stella, 108, 4 Eudocia, 48, 8 ; 52, 4, 5 Eudoxia, 51, 3 Eugenicus of Ephesus, 67, 6 Eugenius IL, 82, 3 IIL, 96, 4 IV., 67, 6; 110, 3 Eulogia, 58, 4 [4 Eulogius of Caesarsa, 53, of Cordova, 81, 1 Eunapius, 42, 4 Eunomius, 50, 3 Euphemite'5, 42, 5 Euphrates, 28, 4 Euric, 76, 2 EusebiaiiS, 50, 2 Eusebius of Coesarea, 6 : 47, 3 : 48, 2 of Emisa, 48, 1 of Nicomed., 50, 1 of Vercelli, 50, 2 Eustasius of Luxeuil, 78, 2 Eustathians, 44, 5 Eustathiusof Ant., 48, 1 of Sebaste, 44, 5 of Thessalonica, 68, 5 ; 70, 4 Eustochium, 44, 2 Euthalius, 59, 1 Euthymius Zigabenus, 68 Eutyches, 52, 4 Evagrius, 4, 1 Evangelists, 18, 3 Evangelium seteruum, 108, 4 Ewald, the AVhite and the Bla.ck, 78, 5 Exarchate, 76, 7 Exarchs, 41, 1 Excommunication 32, 2 'E^OfioXdyriatf, 36, " Exorcism, 32 Exorcists, 30, 1 Expectantiae, 110 Extraneae, 36, 3 Extravagantes, 99 Experiment, see Ordeal Exucontians, 50, 3 Eyck, 113, 4 Faber Stapulensis, 120, 4, 5 Facundus of Hermiane, 52, 6 Faustus of Mileve, 54, 1 of Rhegium, 53, 5 Feast of the Ass, 106, 1 of Fools, 106, 1 of Peter and Paul, 57, 1 Felicissimus, 38, 2 Felicitas, 20 Felix IL, 52, 5 v., 110, 3 of Aphthunga, 63, 2 Pratensis, 120, 5 of Urgellis, 91, 1 Ferdinand of Castile, I., III., 95, 2 Ferrara, Council of, 67, 6; 110, 3 Ferula, 60, 1 Festa Cathedrae Petri, 57, 1 Feudalism, 86, 1 Feyin, Synod of, 64, 3 Filioque, 50, 6; 67, 1; 91, 2 Finland, 93, 4 Fivmicus Maternus, 42 ; 48, 3 Firmilian, 32, 2 Flacius, 4, 2 Flagellants, 114, 1 Flavian, monk, 34, 4 Patr. of Const., 52,4 of Ant., 44, 5 Fleury, 4, 2 Flodoard of Rheims, 101 Florence, Council of, 67, 6; 72, 4; 110, 3 Florus Magister, 90, 5; 91, 4 Fontevraux, Order of, 98, 3 Formosus, 82, 5 Fortunatus, 42, 5 ; 48, 8 Franciscans, 98,4 ; 112,2 INDEX, 525 Francis, St., 93, 5; 98, 4; 105, 4 de Paula, 112, 3 Frankfort, Synod of, 91, 1 ; 92, 1 [5 Franco of Cologne, 105, Franks, 76, 9 [4 Fratres de Commun., 98, intelligentiiB, 114,3 mi II ores, 98, 4 ]n;eaicat., 98, 4 Fratricelli, 98,4; 108, 4 Fredegis, 90. 4 Frederic I. Barb., 94, 3: 96, 4 11., Emp., 94, 5; 96, 5, 6 ; 97, 1 ; 108, 1 Frisia, 78, 3 Fritliigern. 76, 1 Fritzlar, 78, 4 Frobenius, 120, 3 FrumentiuiJ, 64, 1 Fugue, 113. 3 [1 FulbertofChartres, 101, Fulco, 93, 3 Fulda, 78, 4 Fulgentius Ferr., 77, 3 of Ruspe, 47, 6 G.-viLER of Kaisersb., 113 Galerius, 23. 3 Gallienus, 23, 5 Gallus, St., 78, 1 Emp., 23, 5 Gangra Synod of, 44, 5 ; 45, 4 Gaunilo, 102, 3 Gazari, 108, 1 Gebhard of Eichstedt, 96, 2 of Salzburg, 97, 1 Gcgnesius, 71, 1 Geiler, 113, 2; 114, 4 Geismar, 78, 4 Gelasius I., 59, 4 Geliraer, 76, 3 re»cSi\ta, 36, 4 Generatianism, 53, 1 Geiinadins, 48, 2 Patr., 68, 5 Gentile Cliristians, 19 Geiitilly, Synod of, 91. 2 ; 92, 1 Geiiuflectentes, 32, 1 George Aeindynos, 69, 1 — of Trebizoud, 68, 2 Gerbert, 96, 1 ; 101, 1 Gerhard Segarelli, 108, of Zutphen, 112, 5 Gcrmanus, Patr., 66, 1 Gerocli of Reicliersb., 97 Gerson, 110, 3; 118, 1 Gewilib of Mayence,78, 4 Geysa, 93, 2 Gfrorer, 4. 4 Ghazali, 100, 2 Ghiberti, 113, 0 [4 Giacorao da Verona, 105, Giacoponi da Todi, 105, 4 Gieseler, 4, 4 Gilbert, Porret., 103, 1 Gildas, 90, 9 Giotto, 113, 4 Giunta of Pisa, 105, 7 Gaosticisni, 19; 26, 1; 28 Goar, 78, 3 Goch, 119, 1 God, truce of, 106, 1 Friends of, 114, 2 judgment of, 88, 4 Godfrey of Bouillon, 94,1 tlie Bearded, 96, 2 of Lucina, 93, 3 ofStrasburg, 106, 3 yovttK\ii>ovTei, 32, 1 Gonzalo of Berceo, 106, 3 Gordianus, 23, 4 Gorm, tlie Old, 93, 1 Goths, 76 Gottschalk, 91, 4, Prince of theWends, 93, 3 Grobow, 112, 5 YpAft/iaTa TtTViiWfitva, 30 Grammont,Order of,98,3 Gratian, canonist, 99 Emp., 42, 3 Greenland, 93, 1 Gregentius, 48, 3 Gregory I., 42, 1 ; 47, 1 ; 57, 4; 58, 3; 59, 3; 76, 8; 77, 4 II., 66, 1 III., 66, 1; 78, 4; 82. 1 IV., 82, 2 v., 86, 1 VII., 84; 86, 2 IX., 86, 6; 89 X., 67, 4 XL, 110, 2 G.egory XII., 110, 3 Abulfaragus, 73, 2 Illumin.'itor, 64, 3 Palamas, 69, 1 Scholaris, 68, 5 Thaumaturgus, 39, 4; 41, 2 of Nazianzus, 47, 4 of Nyssa, 47, 5 of Tours, 4, 1;90, 2 of Utrecht, 78, 3 Grimoald, 76, 8 Groot, Gerhard, 112, 5 Grossteste, 104, 3 Grundtvig, 75, 9 Gaulbertus, J., 98, 1 Guardian, 98, 4 Guericke, 4, 4 Guido of Arezzo, 105, 5 of Sienna, 105, 7 Gundioch, 76, 5 Gundobald, 76, 5 Guuthamund, 76, 8 Gunther of Cologne, 82,4 Gyrovagi, 44, 5 Haco the Good, 83, 1 Hadrian, Emp., 21; 23,2 L, 66, 3; 82, 1; 92, 1 II., 67, 1; 82, 4; 83, 1 IV., 90, 4 Hadrumetum, 53, 5 Hagenbach, 4, 4 Hakim, Caliph, 94 Hamburg, See of, 70, 1 Harmonius, 30, 9 Harold, 80 Blaatand, 93, 1 Plase, 4, 4 Haymo of Halberst, 90, 5. 9 Heathenism, 8 Heddo of Strasb., S4, 2 Hedwig. 93, 2 Hegesippus, 4, 1 Hegira, 65 Hegiu-s, Al., 120, 2 Heimburg, Gr., of, 118,2 Helena, the Tyrian, 22, 2 the Eninress, 57, 5,6 Heliand, 88. 2 Heliogabalus, 23, 4 Hellenists, 11 Heloise, 103. 1 526 INDEX. Helvidius, 62 Heraerobfiptists, 22 Hemming of Upsala,93,4 Henoticon, 52, 2 Henry II. , Emp., 97, 1 HI., 96, 1 IV., 96, 2 v., 96, 3 VI., 96, 4 II.,of England. 96,4 Beauclerc, 96, 3 de Hassi.a, 118. 2 of Laufenberg, 113,2 of Lausanne, 108, 3 Heraclion, 28, 3 Heraclius, 52, 8; 57, 5; 64, 2 Herigar, 80, 1 Hermann of Fritzlar, 117, 1 the Lame, 102, 1 Hernias, 39, 1 Hermeneutse, 30, 1 Hei-mias, 41, 1 Hermogenes, 37, 11 Herveus, 103. 3 Natalis, 116, 1 Hesychasts, 69, 1 Hettcrice, 28, 2 Hierocles, 24, 4 Hilarion, 44 Hilarius of Arelate, 46, 2 of Poictiers, 47, 5 Hildebrand,96, 2: 102,2 Hildcgard, 97; 108, 4; 109 Hilderic, 76, 3 Himerius, 42 Hincmar of Laon, 83, 1 of Rheims, 82, 4 ; 83, 1; 91, 4 Hippolytus, 38, 1 ; 39, 3 ; 40, 4 Hogstraten, 120, 2 Hohenstaufen, 96, 4, 5, 6 Holbein, 113, 4 Holland, see Nether- lands. Homilies, 34 Homoiites, 50, 3 Iloinologoumena. 34, 2 lIomoiiio.sians, 50, 2 Homoousians, 40,1 ; 50,1 Honoratus, 44 Honorius, Emp., 42, 3; 53, 4 Honorius of Rome, 52, 8 Horae, 56, 2 Horic, 80, 1 Hormisdas of Rome, 52,6 Hormuz, King, 29 Hornbach, 78, 1 "Opui, 43, 2 Hosius, 50, 1, 2, 3 Hospitallers, 98, 0 Hottinger, 4, 2 Ilucbald, 105, 5 Hugo Capet, 96, 1 a St. Caro, 104, 3 a St.Victore, 103,2 Hugo de Payens, 98, 6 Humanists, 120 Humbert, 67, 3; 102, 2 Humiliati, 98, 3 Huneric, 76, 3 Hung;iry, 93, 2 Hus, 113,2; 119: 3 Hnsig, 64, 3 Hutten, Ulric of, 120, 2 Hy, see lona. Hyle, Hylic, 26, I Hymnology, 18, 5; 34, 4;59, 2, 3;89,2; 105, 3; 113, 2, 3 Hypatia, 42, 3 Hypophonous singing, 59, 3 uiroirroJoif, 36, 2 Hypostasianism, 40, 1 Hypsistarians, 42, 5 IB.^s, 52, 3 Iberians, 64, 4 Id.icius, 54, 2 Ignatius of Ant., 2-3, 2; 30; 39, 1 Patr. of Const. ,67, 1 Images, worship of, 57, 4; 89, 4; 92 controversy about (iconoclastic), 66 ; 92, 1 Immacul.Conceptio, 105, 2; 112, 4 Immunity, 84, 1 Incense, burning of, 59.5 Indulgences, 92, 1 ; 107 ; 1 1 5 Infant Baptism, 18, 5; 32 ; 58, 1 Innocent L, 46, 2; 53, 4; 61, 2, 3 II., 96, 4 Innocent in., 96, 5; 108 5; 109, 1 IV., 96, 6 [2 VIII., 110, 4; 115, Innocentum festum, 57, 1 ; 106, 1 [1 Inquisition, 109,2; 115, Inspiration, 34, 1 Insula Sanctorum, 77, 2 Intercession, episc, 43 Interdict, 107 Investiture, 40, 3; 84; 96, 2, 3 lona, 77, 3 Ireland, 77, 2 Irenceus, 39, 3 Irene, 66, 3 Irmin-column, 78, 5 Isaac the Gr., 52, 2 (64, 3) Isidorus, Gnostic, 28, 2 Presbyter, 51, 2, 3 Metrop. of Russia. 72, 4 of Seville, 90, 2 Islam, 65 : 81 ; 95 Itala, 34, 3 Ithacius, 54, 2 Ittig, 78, 4 Jablonsky, 4, 3 .Jacobellus, 119, 4 Jacobites, 52, 7 Jacoponus, 105, 4 Jagello, 93, 2 Jacobus a Benedictis, 105, 4 a Voragine, 105, 3 el Baradai, 52, 7 of Brescia, 112, 1 of Harkh, 71. 2 of Marchia, 112, 1 of Misa, 119, 4 of Nisibis, 46, 2 of Sarug, 59, 2 Jaldabaoth, 28, 4 .Jamblichus, 24, 2 Janitores, 36, 1 .Jaroslav, 72, 4 Jazelic, 52, 3 Jeremias II,, 72, 4 Jerome, St., 48, 1 ; 51, 2: 53, 4; 62 of Prague, 119, 3 Jeromites, 112, 3 Jesuates, 110, 3 INDEX, 527 Jews, 90, 7 ; 9(5, 1 Jewish Christians, 19, 1 Jetzer, 112, 2 Joachim, Abbot, 97 ; 108, 4 Johanna, female pope, 82, 3 Johannes v., Palaeologus, 67, 5 VII., 67, 6 of Parma, 108, 4 Pliiloponus, 47 of Ravenna, 83, 1 of Salisbury, 102, 3 Scholasticus, 43, 3 Scotus Erigena, 90, 5, 7; 91, 4 of Tabija, 52, 5 of Trani, 67, 3 Tzimisces, 71, 1 John, Apostle, 17 disciples of, 22 festival of, 57, 1 St.,Kni2:htsof,98,G VIII., 67. 1 ; 82, 5 IX.. 82, 5 X., XL, XII., XV., 96, 1 XIX., 67, 2; 96, 2 XX., 82, 3 XXII., 110,2: 112, 1 ; 116. 1 [3 -XXIII..98, 5; 110, of Ant., 52, 3 Beccos, 67, 3 Cassianus, 44 ; 53,5 Damascenus, 66, 1 ; 68, 4, 5 Duns Scotus, 104, 1 Jejunator,, 46, 2; 61, 1 [4 of Jerus, 51,2; 53, of England, 96, 5 de Monte Corvino, 93, 5 Ozniensis, 73, 2 Johnites, 51, 3 Jolanthe, 94, 5 Jonas of Orleans, 90, 4 ; 92, 2 Jornandes, 90, 9 Joseph, Patr.,67, 4 ; 70,1 Josephus, 11; 14, 2 Josquin de Pr^z, 113, 3 Jovi, 80, 1 Jovinian, 62 44* Jubilee, 115 Jubili, 89, 2 Judicatum, 52, 6 Julia jNIammaja, 23, 4 Juliana, 105, 2 Julianists, 52, 7 Julianus, Emp , 42, 2, 4 63, 2 of Eclanum, 53, 4 Julius I., 46, 2; 50, 2 11., 110, 4 African us, 41,5 Junilius, 48, 1 Jus circa sacra, 43, 1 Justina, 50, 4 Justinian I., 42, 3 : 82, 6 II., 63, 3 Justinus I., Emp., 52, 5 Gnostic, 28. 4 Martyr, 39, 2; 41,1 Juvenal of Jcrus., 52, 3 Juvencus, 48, 8 Kelbes, 28, 4 Keldeer, 77, 1 Kenipis, Thomas a, 112,5 Kei-aits, 73, 1 Keys, power of, 61, 1 Kilian, 78, 2 Kiss, fraternal, 18, 5; 33, 1 ; 36, 1 Kissing the Pope's toe, 96 Knightly orders, 98, 6 Krtlmer, 115, 2 L.^BARUM, 23, 7 Lactantius, 39, 5 ; 41, 1 Lambert of Ascliaffeu- burg, 102, 1 le Begue, 98, 5 Landulf Cotta, 97, 2 LantVanc, 101, 1, 2 Lange, Rudolph, 120, 2 Langenstein, li. of, 118,2 Langobards, 76, 8 Laugthon, 96, 5 Laos, 30 Lapland, 93, 4 Lapsi, 23, 5 Lateran Synod I., 52 8; 96, 3 II., 96, 4 IV., 96, 5 Laurentius, Archb., 7 ,4 Martyr, 23, 5 Laarentius, Valla, 120, 1 Lay-Abbots, 75 Brethren, 98, 1 Lectio, 30 Lectionaria, 59 Lectores, 34 ; 59 Legates, 96 Legenda aurea, 105, 3 Legio fulmin., 23, 3 Legists, 99 Leidrad of Lyons, 90, 3 ; 91, 1 Lentulus, 14, 2 Leo I. the Gr., 45, 4; 46, 2; 47, 5; 52, 4; 54, 1, 2; 61, 1 IL, 82, 2: 91, 2 IX., 67, 3; 90, 2 X.,110, 4; 120,1,2 of Achrida, 67, 3 the Armenian, 66, 4; 71, 1 Chazarus, 66, 3 the Isaurian, 66, 1 ; 71, 1 the Philos., 67,1,2; 68, 1 [4 Leonardo da Vinci, 103, Leonistae, 108, 5 Leontius of Byz., 48, 2 Leovigild, 76, 2 Leporius, 52, 2 Lerija, A. of, 120, 4, 5 Lestines, Synod of, 78, 4 Libanins, 42, 4 Libellatici, 23, 5 Libelli pacis, 36, 2 Liber conforniit., 98, 4 Liber paschalis, 66, 3 Liberatus of Garth., 52,6 Liberius of Rome, 50, 2, 3 ; 63, 1 Libri Carolini, 92, 1 Liciuius, 23, 7 Limina apost., 57, 7 Lindner, Br., 4, 4 Liptinib, Synod of, 78,4 Litany, 59 Lithuania, 93, 2 Liturgy, 33, 1; 59, 4; 89, 1 ; 105 Liudger, 78, 3 Liutprand, 82, 1 Livonia, 93, 4 Lollards, 114, 1; 119, I Lombard us, P., 103, 2 528 INDEX Lord'sDay,18,.5;32;56,l Loretto, 113 Lothair, Emp., 82, 2 II., of Lothar., 82, 3, 4 [2 Louis, the Germanic, 82, the Child, 82, 5 the Indol., 82, 5 the Pious, 82, 2 II., 82, 2 VII., 94, 2 -IX., St., 93,5; 94, 6; 90, 6 — XII., no, 4 of Bavaria, 110, 2 Lucas, 13ohein, Sen. ,113,2 Lucian of Ant., 39, 6 of Samos., 24, 3 Lucidus. 53, 5 Lucifer of Calaris, 50, 2, 3 ; 63, 1 Luciferites, Schismatics, 63, 1 Heretics, 114, 3 Lucilla, ()3, 2 Lucius, Brit. King, 77 Lucrezia, 1 10, 4 Ludmilla, 79, 2 Lullas, Archb., 78, 4 Raim., 93,5; 104,2 Lund, 93, 4 Luxeuil, 78, 1 Lyons, Council of, 67, 4 ; 96, 6 Lyra, Nicholas of, 116, 2 Macarius the Gr., 48, 7 Maccabees, festival of, 57, 1 Madedouius, 50, 5 Miicrianus, 23, 5 Macrina, 47. 4 Magdeburg, 93, 3 Magister sent., 103, 2 iMagnoald, 78, 1 Maillots, 42, 3 ; 72, 1 Majorinus, 63, 2 Malta. Knights of, 98, 6 Mamertus, 59 Mandeans, 22 ; 27, 3 Mani and Manich., 28, 54, 1 Mansur, 08, 5 Mantua, Counc. of, 110,4 Manuel Conin., 69 Maphrian, 52, 7 Mara, 14, 2 MarcelUis of Anc, 50, 2 Marcia, 23, 3 Marcian, Emp., 52, 4 Marcion, Gnos., 30, 10 Marco I'nlo, 93, 5 Marcus AMielius, 23, 3 Ev:. j,-.>list, 17 Marianus .S.-otus, 102, 1 Marius Meicator, 53, 4 INIaris, 52, 3 Maronites, 52, 3 ; 73, 3 ; Marozia, 96, 1 Marriage, 36, 1 ; 61, 2; 88, 1 ; 105, 1 Mass, canon of, 59, 4 sacrifice of, 58, 3 ; 89, 3 Masses for the Dead, 58, 3 ; 89, 3 Martin I., 52, 8 v., 110, 3 of Duma, 76, 4 Tolonus, 104, 3 of Tours, 49; 54, 2 Martyrs, 33, 5; 30, 4; 57, 5 Massilians, 53, 5 Mastersingers, 114, 4 Matthew Paris, 104, 3 Matilda of Can., 90, 2 Maiirus, St., 85 Maxentius, 23, 7 Maximianus, 23, 6 Maximilian I.. 110, 4 Maximilla, 37, 1 Maximinus, Emp., 23, 6 the Thracian, 23, 4 Maximus, Emp., 54, 2 Confess., 47,0; 52,8 Mayence, Svnod of, 91, 4 Mayron, 116, 1 [4 Meinliard of Bremen, 93, Melchiades, 63, 2 Melchisedechites, 40, 2 Melchites, 52, 7 Melitus of Ant., 03, 1 of LycopOl., 38, 3 Melito, 39, 3; 41, 1, 4 Memnon of Eph., 52, 3 Memorise, 57 Mendicant orders, 98, 4 Mennas, 52, 6 Menot, 113 Mensnrius, 03, 2 Messalians, Chr. 44, 5 Messs.ians Heathen, 42, 3 Methc iius, 72, 3 ; 79 cf Olympus 32, 8; 33, 2 Metrophanes, 67, G Metropolitans, 30; 83 Michael Balbus, 06, 4 Bohem., senior, 119, 5 Coerularius, 07, 3 de Cesena, 112, 1 the Drunkard, 67, 1 Palaeologus, 07, 4 festival of, 57, 3 Angelo, 113, 3 Middle Ages, 74 Miecislav, 93, 2 Miesrob, 64, 3 Milicz, 119. 2 Militia ChrLsti, 36 Millennarianism, 40, 8 Miltiades, 41, 1 Minimi, 112, 3 Minnesingers, 106, 3 Minorites, 98, 4 Minucius, Felix, 41, 1 Fund., 23, 2 Missa catech.et fidelium, 33, 1 Missale Rom., 59, 4 Mistvoi, 93, 3 Medalists, 40 Mogtasilah, 27, 3 Mohamet, 65 ?»I6hler, 4, 4 Molay, J., 112, 2 Monarchians, 40 Monasterium Cler., 45, 1 Mongols, 93, 5 Monica, 47, 5 Monophysites, 52, 5, 7 ; 73, 2 Monothcletes, 52, 8 Montanists, 37 Monte-Cassino, 85 Montfort, S. of, 109, 1 Moors, 81 ; 95 Morality, higher and lower, 30 Moravia, 79, 1 More, Thomas, 110, t Moriscoes, 95 [4 Morsel, consecrated, 88, Mosaic, 60, 3 Mose,s of Chorene, 64, 0 Moslems, 65 INDEX. 529 Mozarabs, 81 Music, 59, 3; 105, 5: 113. 2 Muspili, 88, 2 Mysticism, Greek, 68, 3 Latin, 100, etc. German, 117 Naassenes, 28, N,'ip3ni. 60, 1 Natales episcop., 45, 3 Natalis, 4, 2 Natalitia mart., 86, 4 Nazarenes, 27. 1 Neander, 4, 4 Nectarius, Gl, 1 Nennius, 90, 9 Neoplij-tes, 30, 1 Neoi)hitonist'^. 24, 2 ; 42 Nepos of Arsinoe, 40, 8 Nero, 23. 1 Nerses. (-4, 3 Clajensis, 73, 2 of Lampron, 73, 2 Nerva, 23, 1 Nestorians, 52, 3 ; 64, 2 ; 73, 1 Nestorius, 52, 3 Neuniic, 59, 3 New-j'ear, 56, 5 Niebelungen, 106, 3 Nice, Council of, 46, 2 ; 50, 1 (66, 3). Nicepliorus Gregoras, 69, 1 Callisti, 68, 4 [5 Nicetas Acominatus, 68, of Nicomed., 67, 4 Pectoratus, 67, 3 Nicolaitanes, 19; 28, 6 Nicholas I., 67. 1; 72, 3; 82, 4; 83, 1 ; 91, 4 II., 96, 2 of Basle, 114, 2 Nicholas vou der Fliie, 112. 5 Cabasilas, 68, 5 ; 70, 4 of Methone, 68, 5 Mysticus, 67, 2 Nicola IMsano, 105, 7 Niediier, 4, 4 Nimbus, 60, 3 Ninian, 77, 3 Nipl)on, monk, 70, 4 I'atr., 70, 1 45 Nitrian Desert, 51, 1 Nithard, 90, 9 Noetus, 40, 4 Nogaret, W. of, 110, 1 Nomin.alists, 100, 2 Nomocanon, 43, 8 Nonse, 86. 1 Nonua, 47, 4 Nonnus of Tanop., 48, 8 Norbert, 98, 3 Norway, 91, 1 Noting of Verona, 91, 4 Notker Labeo, 101, 1 Novatians, 38, 3 Novatus, 38. 2 Noviciate, 44, 3 ; 86, 1 Nunia, 64, 4 Nuns, 44, 85, 3 Nynias, 77, 3 Obi.ati, 85, 1 Olilations, 33 Ohotrites, 93. 3 Observantes, 112, 1 [1 Occam, W., 112, 1 ; 116, Ockenheim, 113, 3 OctavLC. 56, 4 Odericus Vitalis, 103, 3 Odilo of Clugny, 98, 1 Odo of Clugny, 98, 1 ; 101, 1 Odoacer, 76, 6 (Ecumenius, 68, 4 Officials, 97 Officium Sauctte Manoe, 105, 3 OiKOvofiia, 40, 1 OiVoi'O/iOi. 45, 5 Oktai-Khan. 93, 5 Olaf, 80, 1 ; 93, 1 Olga, 72, 4 Oliva, J. P., 108, 4 Olivet.ans, 112, 1 Ommiades, 81, 1: 95, 2 Omphalopsychoi, 69, 1 Onochoetes Deus, 23 Ophites, 28. 4 Optatus of Mileve, 63, 2 Oranges, Synod of, 53, 5 Oratories, 84, 2 Ordeals. 88, 4 Ordination, 30, 1 ; 45, 3 Ordines majoi'es et mi- nores, 30. 1 Ordo Ilom.. .59, 4 Oidruff, 78, t 2 r Organ, 89, 2 Origen, 39, 4; 40, 6; 41, 3 Origenists, 51 Orosius, P., 53, 4; f4, 2 Orphans, 115, 4 Orthodoxy, festival of, 64, 4 Ortuinus Gratus, 120, 2 Osculum pacis, 32 Ostiarii, 30, 1 Ostrogoths, 76, 7 Oswald, 77, 5 Oswy, 77, 5, 6 Ota, 78, 2 Otgar of Mayence, 87, 2 Otiio I., 93. 2, 3: 96, 1 II., III., 96, 1 IV.. 96, 5 of Bamberg, 93, 3 of Freisingen, 103,4 Pabulatorks, 44, 5 Pachomius, 44 Pacitico, 10-5, 4 Pagani, 42, 3 Painting, 60, 3; 105, 7; 113, 4 Palladius, 48, 2 ; 77, 2 P.allium, 46 Palm Sunday. 56, 4 Pamphilus, 41, 2; 47, 3 Pantaenus, 39, 4 Paphnutius, 45, 4 Papias, 39. 1 Parabolani, 45, 5 Paris, Synod of, 92, 1 Parochia, 84, 2 Parochus, 30 ; 84, 2 Pasagii, 108, 1 Paschal II., 96, 3 Paschasius Radb., 91, 3 Passover, 32 Tliiaxa, &c., 31 Patareni, 108, 1 Pataria, 97, 2 Pater ortbod., 47, 4 Patriarchs, 46 Patricius, 77, 2 Patripassiaus, 40, 3 Patronage, 84 Patronus, 57 Paul II., 110, 4; 119, 4 Diaconus, 90, 3 of Samos., 36, 3 ; 40, 7 530 INDEX, Paul Silentiarius, 48, 4 of Thebe?, 30, 3 Warnefiid, 90, 3 Paula, St., 44, 2 Paulicians, 71, 1 Paulinus of Aut., Go, 1 of Aquileja, 90, 3 Nolanus, 48, 8 [4 the Missionary, 77, I'auperes de Lugduno, 108, 5 Pay ens, Hugh de, 98, 6 Pelagius, 48, 1 ; 53, 3 of Rome, 52, 6 Polayo, 81 Penance, priest of, 61, 1 redemption of, 98, 5 Peiida, 77, 4 Penitential books, 78, 5 Pentecost, 56, 4 Pepin. 82, 1 Pepuziani, 87, 1 Peratics, 28, 4 Percgrinus, 24, 3 Perfectus, 81 Perioileutes, 45, 5 Peri.steriutn, 60, 2 Perpetua, 23, 5 Person of Christ, con- troversies about, 52 Persia, 64, 2 Pesclnto, 36, 3 Peter's pence, 82 Petilian, 63, 2 Petrarch, 114, 4 Petrobrusians, 108, 8 Peter, Ap., 17 of Alex., 38, 4 of Amiens, 94 of Bruys, 108, 3 Cantor, 103, 8 of Castelnau, 109, 1 Chrysolanus, 67, 4 Damiani, 97 ; 102, 1 Uresdensis, 113, 2 Fullo, 52, 5 Lombardus, 108, 2; 105, 1 Mongus, 52, 5 of Murrone, 112, 3 of Pisa, 90 Siculus, 71,1 Venerabilis, 98, 1 ; 109 Waldus. 108, 5 Pfeli'erkorn, 120, 1 Pharensis Syn., 77, 6 Pharisees, 9, 2 Pherozas, 64, 2 Philip I. of France, 96, 8 III., of Spain, 95 Aug. of France, 94, 3 ; 96, 5 the Fair, 110, 1 Philipjiopolis, Synod of, 5U, 2 Philippus, the Evang., 15; 17 Arabs, 23, 4 Philo, 11, 1 Philopatris, 43 Philoponus, 47, 6 Philosophy, Greek, 8, 4 Philostorgius, 4, 1 Philoxenus, 59, 1 Phocas, 46, 2 Photinus, 50, 2 Photius, 67, 1 ; 68, 5 4>0o/;7-oX(irpat, 52, 7 'i>0JTtt,6liEl'0i, 32, 1 Piacenza, Council of, 94 Picts, 77, 3 Pictures, 37 Pilgrim of Passau, 93, 2 Pilgrimages, 57, 6 ; 89, 4 Pirkheimer, 120, 2 Pirminius, 78, 1 Pisa, Council of, 110,3,4 Pistis Sophia, 28, 4 Pius II., 110.4; 108, 3; 119, 4 Planck, 4, 3 Plastic Art, 6G, 3 ; 105, 7; 113, 4 Plato, 8, 4; 47, 5; 68,3; 100, 2 Plebani, 84, 2 Plebes, 84, 2 Plebs, 30 Pleroma, 26 Pletho, 68, 2; 120, 1 Pliny, 23, 2 Plotinus, 24, 2 Plutarch, 24, 2 Pneumatics, 26, 1 ; 37, 1 Pneumatomachoi, 50, 5 Podiebrad, 119, 4 Poets, Christian Latin, 48, 8 Polvcarp, 23, 3 ; 32, 1 ; 39, 1 Polycrates, 82, 1 Polyglotts, 120, 6 Pomerania, 93, 3 Pompa diab., 36 Pomponazzo, 120, Pontianus, 38, 1 Ponticus, 23, 3 Pontion, Svnod of, 82, 5 Pontius, 98, 1 Poor, case of, 88, 3 Popes, coronation of, 96; 115 election of, 96, 2, 4, 6 Porphyrius, 24, 2, 3 Portiuncula, 98, 4 Possessed, the, 30 Possessor of Carth., 58, 5 Potaniiasna, 28, 4 Pothinus, 23, 3 PrtEUioustrants, 98, 3 Praepositi, 84, 2 Pragmatic sanction, 97, 6 ; 1 1 0, 4 Praxeas, 37, 2 ; 47, 3 Prayer, 36 Prebends, 84, 4 Predestination, 53 ; 91, 4 Preaching, 34 ; 59 ; 105; 113 [4 Preachers, Order of, 98, Precariae, 86 Precists. 96 Presbyter, 18, 2; 30; 45 Primacy of the Pope, 30, 3: 46, 1, 2 Primasius, 48, 1 Primian, 63, 2 Priscilla, 37, 1 Priscillianists, 54, 2 Private Confession, 61, 1 Masses, 56, 8 Procession of the Holy Spirit, 50, 6; 67, 1; 91, 2 Processions, 59 Proclus, 42 ; 48, 3 ProcopiustheGr., 119,4 of Gaza, 48, 1 Proculus, 23, 4 the Montanist, 40, 8 Prodicians, 28, 6 Proselytes, Jewish, 11, 2 Up6iK>.uim(f, 36, 2 tlpos'/iopai, 33 Prosper Aquit 48, 3: 53, 6 INDEX. 531 Proteritis, 52, 2 Provosts, 84, 2 Prudeiitius, 48, 8 of Troyes, 91, 4 Prussia, 93, 4 Psalter, 30, 1 Psellus, G8, 5; 71, 3 Pseudepigraphs, 39, 7 ; 63, 1 Pseudo-Basilidians, 28,2 Dionysius, 47, 1 ; 48, 5 ; 90, 1 Isidore, 87, 2 Psycliicoi, 20, 1 ; 37, 1 Publicaiii, 108, 1 Pulcheria, 52, 4 Purgatoi-y, 58, 3 ; 67, 6 ; 101, 1 QUADRAOKSIMA, 32; 56,4 Quadratus, 43, 1 Quartodecimani, 30, 1 ; 56, 3 Quercuin, Syn. ad, 51, 3 Quicunque, symbol. ,50,7 Quinisextum. 63, 3 [4 Quinquagesima, 32 ; 56, Rabanus Maurus, 90, 5; 91, 3, 4 Rabulas of Edessa, 52, 3 Radbertus Pascb., 90, 5; 91, 3; 105, 2 Radbod, 78, 3 Radewin, 112, 5 Raiinundiis Lullus, 93, 5; 104, 2 de Pennaforti, 99 du Puv, 98, 6 of Sabunde, 116, 2 of Toulouse, 109, 1 Ralph Flambard, 96, 3 Raphael, 113, 4 Rastislav, 79 Ratherius, 97 ; 101, 1 Ratisboii, Synod of, 91. 1 Ratramnus, 67, 1 ; 90, 5; 91, 3. 4 Realists, 100, 2 Realm, estates of, 84, 1 Recafrid, 81, 1 lleccared, 76, 2 Rechiar, 76, 4 Reclusi, 85, 5 Recognit. Clem., 43, 4 Reconciliatio, 36, 2 Redemptions, 88 5 Reformation in Heal find ^leinbers, 118 Rcgino of Prlim, 88, 5 Reginus, 105, 5 Regionary Bishops, 84 Reichenau, 78, 1 Reinerius Sachoni, 108,1 Relics, worship of, 36, 4; 57,5; 89, 4; 105,3 Religiosi, 43, 3 Remigius of Lyons, 91, 4 of Rheims, 76, 9 Remismnnd, 76, 4 Remoboth, 44, 5 [6 Reparatus of Carth., 52, Reservationes, 110 Reuchlin, 120, 2 Revenues of the Church, 45 Rhense, meeting of Elect., 110, 2 Rhodoald of Porto, 67, 1 ; 82, 4 Richard Coeur de Lion, 95, 3 a St.Victore, 103, 3 Richer, 101, 1 Rienzi. Cola di, 110, 2 Rimbert, 80, 1 Rimini, Council of, 50, 3 Risus paschalis, 106, 1 Ritter, J., 4, 4 Robber Svnod, 52, 4 Robert of Arbrissel, 98,3 of Citeau.K, 98, 2 Grossteste, 104, 3 Guiscard, 96, 2 of Sorbonne. 104,8 King of France, 105, 4 Roger Bacon, 104, 3 Rokycana, 119, 4 Romanesque style, 105,6 Romanus, 96, 1 Romuiild, 98, 1 Rosary, 105, 3 Fraternity of, 113. 1 Roscellinus, 102, 3 RoseniilUt, Hans, 114, 4 Rota Rom , 96 Rodiad of Soissons, 83, 1 Rubianus, Crotus, 120, 2 Rudolph of Swabia, 96. 2 Rufinus, 4, 1 ; 47, 5 ; 48, 2; 51, 2 Riigen, 93, 3 Rugians, 76, 6 Rupert. 78, 2 of Deutz, 103, 3 Russia, 72, 4 [1 Ruysbroek, John of, 117. William, 93, 5 Sabatati, 108, 5 Sabbath, 56, 1 Sabellius, 40, 4, 6 Sabians, 22 Sabinianus, 60, 2 Sacraments, 105, 1 Sacramentarium, 59, 4 Sacrificati, 23, 5 Sacrificial Theory, 33, 2 Sacrum rescr., 53, 3 Sadducees, 9, 2 Saints, worship of, 57; 10-5, 3 Saladin, 94, 3 Salvianus, 48, 3 Salzburg. 78, 2 ; 79 Samaritans, 10; 22 Sampseans, 27, 3 Sanction, Pragm., 96, 6 Sapores IL, 64, 2 Sarabaites, 39, 5 Sardica, Synod of, 46, 2 ; 50, 5 Sarmatio, 62 Sarolta, 93, 2 Saturnalia, 56, 5 Saturninus, 28, 7 Savonarola, 119, 2 Savaiiieres, Synod of, 91, 4 Sbynko, 119, 3 Scepticism, 8, 4 Scetian Desert, 51, 1 Schism, Papal, 110, 3 Eastern, 67 Schisms, 38 Schmidt, Christ., 4, 4 Schola Palat., 90 Saxonica, 72 Scholastica, 85, 3 Scholasticism, Greek, 47, 6 ; 68, 3 Latin, 100, etc., 116 Schools, Monastic, 90, 1 Popular, 118, 1, 106, 2 bn'^ INDEX. Schools, Ancient Theo- logical, 39, 3, 4, 5; 47 ; 52, 2 Scotists, 104, 1 Scotus, Erig., 90, 5, 7; 91, 4 J. Duns, 104, 1 Seckingen, 78, 1 Secunilus, 50, 1 Sedes apostolicte, 30 Sedulius. 48, 8 Segarelli, 108, 3 Seinbat, 71, 2 Semiarians, 50, 3 Semipelagians, 53, 5 Semler, 4, 3 Sends, 88, 5 ; 97 Sens, Synod of, 103, 1 Septimius Sev., 23, 4 Septuagint, 9, 2 ; 34, 2 ; 56, 4 Sequences, 89, 2 Serapeion, 36 [2 Serenius Granianus, 23, Serenas of Massil., 57, 4 Sergius of Const., 52, 8 of Ravenna, 83, 1 of Rome, 63, 3 Tychicus, 71, 1 Servatus Lupus, 91, 4 Servites, 98, 4 Sethians, 34, 4 Severa, 23, 4 ; 26 Severians, 52, 7 Severinus, 76, 6 Shiites, 65, 1 Sibylline Books, 41, 1 Sicilian Vespers, 96, 6 Sickingen, 120, 2 yiiiripointfoi, 70, 3 Siena, Council of, 110,3 Sigillaria, 56, 5 Sigismond, of Burgundy, 76, 5 [3 Emp., 110, 3; 119, Sigurd, 93, 1 Simeon Metaphr., 68, 4 of Thessaloiiica,68,5 Simon Magus, 22, 2 of Tournay, 108, 2 Simony, 96, 2 Singing Schools, 89, 2 Sirmiuui, Council of, 50, 2, 3 Sixtus II., 23, 5 Sixtus IV., 112, 1; 115 Socrates, 8, 4 the Church Hist., 4,1 Soissons, Synod of, 78, 4; 103, 1 Sophronius, 52, 8 Sorbonne, 104, 3 Sorores, 36, 3 Sotties, 114, 4 Sozomenus, 4, 1 Spanheim, 4, 2 Spirit, Sect of the Holy, 108, 2 Spirituales, 98, 4 Spittler, 4, 3 Spolia, 140 Sponsors, 32 Sprenger, 115, 2 Ssufis, 65, 1 Staupitz, 117, 1 Stedingers, 109, 2 Stephen of Rome, 32. 2 II., 66, 2; 82, 1 III., 66, 2 VI., 82, 5 St., 93, 2 ; 96, 1 de Borbone, 108, 5 ~ Langthon, 96, 5 of Siinic, 73, 2 festival of, 57, 1 Stock, Simon, 98, 3 Stoicism, 8, 4 Stolberg, L. of, 4, 4 Streaneshalch, Synod of, 77, 6 Studites, 44, 4 Sturm of Fulda, 78, 4 Stylites, 39, 4; 85, 5 Subduacons, 30, 1 Subintroductffi, 36, 3 Succat, 77, 2 Suevi, 76, 4 Suffragans, 84 Sulpitius Sever., 4, 1 Sunnnis desiderantibus, 115, 2 Xiii'CtaTaKTOt, 36, 3 Si)CTru(5ij, 36, 2 Sunnites, 65, 1 Suso, H., 117, 1 Sutri, Synod of, 96, 1 Svatopluk, 79, 2 Svatoslav, 72, 4 Sven, 93, 1 Sweden, 80 ; 93, 1 Sword, Brethren of, 93, 4 ; 98, 6 Sylvanus, 71, 1 Sylvester I„ 59, 3 II., 94; 96, 1 Symbols, 35, 1 Symeon, 72, 3 called Titus, 71, 1 of Jerus., 23, 2 Symmachus, 42 Synagogues, 9, 2 ; 18, £ Syncelli, 46 Synergists, 53, 1 Synesius, 47, 4 Synods, see Councils. Synodus Palmaris, 46, 2 Syzygia, 27, 4 ; 28, 3 Tabernaculum, 60, 2 Taborites, 119, 4 Talmud, 22 Tamerlane, 73, 1 Tanchelm, 108, 4 Tartares, 73, 1 Tatian, 28, 8; 41, 1 Tauler, 117, 1 Templars, 98, 6; 112, 2 Tenipus clausum, 56, 4 Terebinth, 29, 1 Tertiaries, 98, 4 Tertullian, 37, 2 ; 39, 5 ; 40, 3 ; 53, 1 TertullianiGts, 37, 2 Theatricals, religious, 106, 2 Theganus, 90, 9 Themistius, 42, 4 Theodelinda, 76, 8 Theodemir, abbot, 98, 2 I., 76, 4 Theoderic, 76, 7 Theodo I., 78, 2 Theodora, 52, 6 (66, 4) ; 71, 1 (96, 1) Theodoret, 44, 5; 52, 3, 4 Theodorus Ascidas, 52, £ Balsamon, 48, 3 of Mops., 47, 1; 48, 1 ; 52, 3 ; 53, 4 of Niem, 118, 2 Studita, 66, 4 Theodulf of Orl, 88, 1 ; 90, 3 Theognis of NicEca, 50, 1 INDEX. 533 Theologia Germanica, 117 Theonas, 50, 1 Theopaschites, 52, G Theophano, 96, 6 Theophilus, Emp., 66, 4 of Alex., 42, 3; 51, —^ of Ant., 41. 1 of Diu, 64, 4 Theophylact, 68, 5 QeoTOKOi, 52, 2, 3 Therapeutse, 11 Thesaur. superog., 107 Thietberga, 82, 4 Thietg.aut of Treves. 82,4 Thomas Aquinae, 104, 1; 105, 1 a Becket, 96, 4 of Celana, 105, 4 a Kenipis, 112, 5 Thomas-Christians, 52, 3 Thomasius,Christ.,115,2 Thomists, 104, 1 Thontracians, 71, 2 Thrasamond, 76, 3 Thuribulum, 60, 3 Thurificati, 23, 5 Tiberius, 23, 1 Tillemont, 4, 2 Timotheus ^Elurus, 52, 5 Tiridates III., 64, 3 Tithes, 86 Titian, 113, 4 Tituli, 81, 2 Torquemada, 115, 1 Toulouse, Synods of, 106, 2; 108, 1; 109,2 Tours, Syn. of, 102, 2; 110, 4 Towers, 60, 1 Tradition, 80, 3 Traditores, 23, 6 Traducianism, 53, 1 Trajan, 23, 2 Transfiguration, festival of, 56, 6 Translations, 57 Transubstantiation, 58, 2 ; 10.5, 1 Treuga Dei, 106, 1 Tribur, diet at, 96, 2 Trinity, festival of, 105,2 Trinitarians, Order of, 98, 3 Trinitarian controversy, 40; 50 Troubadours, 106, 3 Trullanum I., 52, 8 II., 63, 3 Turlupines, 114, 3 Turribius, 54, 2 Tutilo, 89, 6 Tychonius, 48, 1 Typos, 52, 8 Tyre, Synod of, 50, 2 Uladislaits, 119, 5, 6 Ultilas, 76, 1 Ulric of Augsburg, 84,3 Unam sanctam, 110, 1 Unction, Extreme, 61, 2 ; 70, 2 Union of Greek with Rom. Ch., 72, 4 Unitas fratrum, 119, 6 United Gi-eeks, 72, 4 Universities, 100, 1 Unni of Hamb., 93, 1 Urban II., 96, 3 IV., 96, 6 v., 110, 2 VI., IJO, 3 Ursinus of Rome, 63, 1 Ursula, 108, 4 Usuardus, 90, 9 Utraquists, 119, 5 Valence, Synod of, 91, 4 Valens, Bishop, 50, 3 Emp., 50, 4; 6' Valentinian I., 42, 3 II., 42, 3 III., 46, 2 Valentinus, 28, 3 Valerianus, 23, 5 Valla, Laur., 120, 1 Vallambrosians, 98, 5 Vandals, 76, 3 Varanes, 29, 1 v., 64, 2 Velasquez, 98, 6 Vengeance, private, 88, 4 Vercelli, Synod of, 102, 2 Verdun, treaty of, 82, 2 Veronica, 14, 2 Vespers, Sicil., 96, 8 Vestibulum, 60 Vicelinus, 93, 2 Victor I. of Rome, 32, 1 II., 96, 2 Vienna, Council of, 110, 2; 112, 2, 3 Vigilantius, 62 Vigils, 32; 56, 4 Vigilius of Rome, 52, 6 Vincentius Ferreri, 114,1 of Lirinum, 48, 6; 53, 5 Virgilius of Salzb., 78, 4 Virgin, festivals in honour of, 57, 2 ; 105, 2; 113, 1 Visigoths, 76, Vladimir, 72. 4 Vulgate, 59, 1 Wadstena, 112, 3 Walafrid Strabo, 90, 4, 6; 91, 3 Waldenses, 108, 5 Waldhausen, conr. of 119, 3 Walter the Penniless, 94, 1 ofSt.Victore, 103,3 von derVogelweide^ 106, 3 Warnefrid, Paul, 90, 3 Wazo of Lieges, 109 Wearmouth, 85, 4 Wechabites, 65, 1 Week, the great, 32 Welsh, 4 AVenceslaus, 119, 4 Wenceslav, 93, 2 Wends, 93, 3 Wesel, J. of, 119, 1 Wessel, J., 119, 1 Wido of Milan, 97, 2 Widukind, 101, 1 Wilfrid, 77, 6 ; 78, 3 Willibrord, 78, 3 Willehad, 78, 3 William of St. Amour, 98, 4 of Aquitaine, 98, 1 of Champeaux, 102, 1 the Conqueror, 96,3 534 INDEX. William of Nogaret, 11 0,1 Rufus, 9B, 3 Ruysbroek, 93, 5 of Tyre, 94, 3 Willigis of Mayence, 97, 1 VVilzen, 93, 3 Winfrid, 78, 4 Witches, malleus male- ficarum, 115, 2 procedure against, 115, 2 Wittekind, 78, 5 Wolfram of Eschenb., 106, 3 Worms, Syn. of, 96, 2 concordat of, 96. 3 Wulflaich, 78, 3 Wulfrara, 78, 3 WyclifFe, 119 theology of, 119, 1 successors of, 119,2 XEROPHAaiAI, 37, 3 Ximeues, 120, i, 6 Zacharias, 82, 1 of Anagni, 67, 1 Zanzalus, J., 52, 7 Zelatores, 98, 4 Zeno, 8 Emp., 52, 5 Zenobia, 40, 7 Ziska, 119, 4 Zosimus, 42, 4; 53, 3, 4 Ziitphen, Gerh. of, 112, 5 [♦ SF.P Z 1922 * CHURCH HISTORY BT V^ Dr. JOHN HENRY KURTZ, P«»«ES80E OF THEOLOGY IX THE UNIVERSITY OF DORPAT ; AUTHOR OF "A MAKViX or SACRED HISTORY," " THE BIBLE AND ASTRONOUT," ETC. ETC. VOL. II. FliOM THE REFORMATION, PHILADELPHIA: SMITH, ENGLISH «& CO., 710 Aech Street. 1874. Entered, according '<> Act ot Oon,^r ws, in the year 1860, by LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. STEREOTTFED BT 3. FAOAN PKIHTD IT Sherman & Co., Pnulrrs, Pliila. TRANSLATORS' PREFACE, The present volume completes "Kurtz's Text-book of Church History." In preparing the translation, I was largely aided by the Rev. John Beck, A.M., of Easton, who consented to carry on the work during my protracted summer's illness, and to wnom the last twenty paragraphs must be accredited. This volume differs from the first in being a direct American translation from the original, instead of a republication of a foreign work. Its preparation, consequently, demanded a greater amount of labor than that expended on the first volume, but it was labor of a vastly more pleasant kind. And I cannot but hope, that the course thus adopted will receive general approval. As the prosecution of the undertaking has necessarily brought me into closer intimacy with this Text-book, my earlier convic- tions of its great excellence have been fully confirmed. It would be hard to find a text-hook in any department of literature, to equal it in lucid conciseness, and its admirable arrangement of the material on hand. In this respect it is a book which cannot fail to be welcomed by teachers and students, in all our institu- tions of learning, in which due attention is given to this im- portant branch of knowledge. The book possesses, however, another virtue, worthy of com- mendation. I refer to the courageous distinctness with which it assumes and maintains its theological and ecclesiastical character. Dr. Kurtz, of Dorpat, is a true Lutheran, and is not ashamed tc let his book bear testimony to the fact. To many moving in (iii) iv translators' preface. a different Church sphere this may seem an objection, and they may especially complain of occasional partialities of statement into which his denominational preferences may have betrayed him. But such faults are fully atoned for by excellencies springing from the same root with themselves, and should be the less offensive because they may be so easily corrected by every intelligent student. With but three exceptions, the author has been allowed tc pursue his course uninterruptedly, and even then the brief cor rections of what are thought misstatements have been thrown into brackets, easily distinguished from the author's text, or into a foot-note. Those parts of Dr. Kurtz's history referring to the British and American Ciiurches will be found somewhat meagre and defective. But its wants, in this res])ect, may be readily sup- plied by those into whose hands tlie book may fall. It has been the single aim of the translators to furnish the English student and reader with a true and faithful rendering of the original, holding themselves responsible, not for the senti- ments of the author, but only for the style and fidelity of the translation. J. H. A. BOMBERGER. Puii.ADEi.i'HiA, December 13, 1861, TABLE OF CONTENTS. THIRD SECTION. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. g 1. Its Character and Limitations Page 27-29 FIRST PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Sixteenth Contury.) I. THE REFORMATION. a. Establishment of the Reformation. I 2. Commencement of the Wittenberg Reformation (1517-1519) 32 1. Luther's Early Years. 2. The Theses. 3. Cajetan and Miltiz. 4. The Leipsic Disputation. 5. Melanchthon. I 8. The Period of Luther's Conflicts and Trials 36 1. The Bull of Excommunication. 2. Erasmus. 3. Charles V. 4. Luther at Worms. 5. The Wartburg Exile. § 4. Degeneracy and Purification of the Reformation in Wittenberg.... 42 1. The Wittenberg Fanaticism. 2. Francis of Sickingen. 3. Carlstadt. 4. Tliomas Miinzer. 5. The Peasants' War. g 5. Luther's Feuds with Henry VIII. and Erasmus 46 1. Luther and Erasmus. 2. Thomas Murner. 3. Berthold of Chiem-see. g 6. Development of the Reformation in the Empire 48 1. The Diet of Nuremberg. 2. Spread of Evangelical Doc- trines. 3. The Diet of Nuremberg, in 1524. 4. Conven- tion of Regensburg. 5. The Evangelical States. 6. The Torgau Alliance. 7. The Diet of Spires (1526). 1* (V) Vi CONTENTS. ^ 7. Establisliment of the National Evangelical Churches 54 1. Electoral Saxony. 2. Hesse. 3. Other German States 4. Lower Germany. § 8. Martyrs of the Evangelical Faith (1521-9) 57 § 9. Luther's Private and Public Life 58 § 10, The Reformation in German Switzerland (1519-21) 60 1. Uh'ic Zwingli. 2. The Reformation in Zurich. 3. In Basel. 4. In other Countries. 5. Anabaptists. 6. Dis- putation in Baden. 7. Disputation in Berne. 8. Triumph of the Reformation in Basel, St. Gall, and Schatt'hausen. 9. First Peace of Cappel. 10. Second Peace of Cappel. g 11. The Sacramentarian Controversy (1525-1529) 68 g 12. The Protest and Confession of the Evangelical States 70 ]. The Pack AtFair. 2. The Emperor's Position. 3. The Diet of Spires (1529). 4. The Marburg Colloquy. 5. ■ The Schwabach Convention. 6. The Diet of Augsburg. 7. The Augsburg Confession. 8. Recess of the Augs- burg Diet (1530). g 13. Events and Negotiations during 1531-36 76 1. The Smalcaldic League. 2. The Religions Peace of Nu- remberg. 3. The Evangelization of Wiirtemberg. 4. The Reformation in Anhalt and Ponierania. 5. In West- phalia. 6. The Miiiister Faction. 7. E.xtension of the Smalcaldic League. 8. The Wittenberg Concord. g 14. Events and Negotiations during 1537-39 83 1. The Smalcald Articles. 2. The Nuremberg League. 3. The Frankfort Suspension. 4. The Reformation in Al- bertinian Saxony. 5. In Mark Brandenburg. § 15. The Period of Union Efforts (1540-46) 87 1. The Landgrave's Bigamy. 2. Religious Colloquy at Worms. 8. At Regensburg. 4. Rcgensburg Declaration. 5. The See of Naumbui'g and the Wiirzen Quarrel. 6. The Re- formation in Brunswick and tlie Palatinate. 7. In the Principality of Cologne. 8. The Emperor's Embarrass- ments. 9. Diet of Spires. 10. Quarrels of the Emperor with the Evangelical States. 11. Luther's Last Days. § 16. The Smalcald War and the Interim (1546-51) 96 1. Preparations for the War. 2. The Campaign along the Danube. 3 On the Elbe. 4. The Council of Trent. 5, The Augsburg Interim. 6, Its Introduction. 7. The Leipsic Interim. 8. Resumption of the Council of Trent. g 17. The Elector Maurice and the Peace of Augsburg (1550-55) 104 1. The State of Affairs. 2. The Elector Maurice. 3. The Treaty of Passau. 4. The Death of Maurice. 5. The Religious Peace of Augsburg. 6. The Second Attempt to reform Cologne. CONTENTS. Vli 5 18. The Refurmalion ill French Switzerland 109 1. Calvin's Forerunners. '1. Calvin prior to his Labors in Geneva. 3. Calvin's First Period in Geneva. 4. His Second Residence there. 5. Calvin's Writings. 6. Doc- trinal System. 7. The Triumph of Calvinism over Zwin- glianism. § 19. The Reformation in other Countries 114 1. Sweden. 2. Denmark. 3. Courland, Livonia, and Es- thonia. 4. England. 5. Scotland. 6. The Netherlands. 7. France. 8. Poland. 9. Bohemia and Moravia. 10. Hungary. II. Transylvania. 12. Spain. 13. Italy. 14. Turkey. b. Inner History of llie Churches of the Reformation. 2 20. The Distinctive Character (if the Lutheran Church 129 §21. Doctrinal Controversies in the Lutheran Church - ... A?^ 1. The Philippists. 2. The Antinominn Controversy. 3. T)»b Osiandrian. 4. The Adiaphoristic. 5. The Majoristic. 6. The Synergistic. 7. 'I'he ('rypto-Calviiiistic. 8. The Karg and jEpine. 9. Tlie Form of Concord. 10. Elec- toral Saxony Articles of Visitation. 11. The Huber Con- troversy. § 22. Constitution, Cultus, Life and Literature of the Lutheran Church.. 14t^ 1. Constitution. 2. Public Worship and Art. 3. Hymnology. 4. Psalmody. 5. Theology. 6. National Literature. 7. Missions. § 23. Internal Character of the Reformed Church 148 1. Psalmody. 2. Theology. 3. Missions. § 24. Ciilvinizing of German Lutheran National Churches 150 IT. THK DEFORMATION. ^,25. Character of the Deformation 153 I 26. Mysticism 154 1. Schwenkfeld. 2. Agrippa. Paracelsus, Weigel. 3. Seb. Franck, Giord. Bruno. 4. The Familists. I 27. Anabaptism 157 1. David Joris. 2. Menno Simons. g 28. Antitrinitarians and Unitarians 158 1. German Antitrinitarians. 2. Servetus. 3. Italian Anti- trinitarians before Socinus. 4. Socinus and the Soci- n\:\n<. CONTENTS. III. THE COUNTER-REFORM.\TION. § 29. Efforts to Strengthen and Renovate the Catholic Church 161 1. The Council and the Popes. 2. The Society of Jesus. J). New Orders for Inner Missions. 4. Reformation of the old Orders. 5. Augustinianism. 6. Theology. 7. Music, Art, Poetry. 8. Piety. 30. Transmarine Missions 169 1. East India and Japan. 2. China. 3. America. 4. Abys- sinia and Egypt. g 31. Catholic Restoration Efforts 171 1. Views of the German Emperors. 2. Attempts at Resto- ration in Germany. 3. In other European Countries. 4. Russia and the United Greeks. SECOND PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GER- MANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. .Seventeenth Century.) I. RECIPROCAL RELATION'S OF THE CHURCHES. §32. The Oriental Churches and the West 175 1. Expectations of the Catholics. 2. Of the Calvinists. 3. Orthodoxy Confirmed. g 33. Catholicism and Protestantism 176 1. The Restoration in Germany and adjacent Territories. 2. Protestants in France, and Waldenses in Piedmont. 3. The Catholics in England. 4. Converted Princes. 6. Union Efforts. g 34. Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism 181 1. Calvinising of Hesse-Cassel. 2. Of the Earldom of Lippe. 3. Transition of the House of Brandenburg. 4. Union Efforts. 5. English Non-conformists. II. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. §3-5. The Papacy, Monasticism, and Missions 184 1. The Papacy. 2. New Orders. 3. Missions. § 3G. Mysticism, Quietism, Jansenism 188 1. Mysticism and Quietism. 2. Jansenism in its First Stages. §37. Science and Art 192 1. Theology. 2. Church Music. 3. Poetry. III. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. ^38. Lutheran Orthodoxy and its Struggles 196 1. Orthodoxy in Conflict with itself. 2. The Syncrctistic Con- troversy. 3. First Stages of the Pietistic Controversy. 4. Theology. C O N TENTS. IX g 39. Religious Life in the Lutheran Church 202 1. Mysticism and Asceticism. 2. Mysticism and Theosophy. 8. Church Hymns. 4. Psalmody. 5. Christian Life. 6. Missions. IV. THE REFORMKD CHURCH. § 40. Reformed Theology and its Conflicts 207 1. The Arminian Controversy. 2. Its Effects. 3. The Carte- sian and Cocceian Controversies. 4. Theology. §41. Piety in the Reformed Church : 216 1. Music and .^Esthetics. 2. Missions. V. ANTI AND EXTRA-KCCLESIASTICAL MATTERS. §42. Sects and Fanatics 218 1. The Netherland Anabaptists. 2. The English Baptists. 3. The Quakers. 4. Schismatics and Sects. 5. Russian Sects. §43. Philosophers and Free-thinkers 222 1. Philosophers. 2. Free-thinkers. THIRD PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Eighteenth Qpntury.) I. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. § 44. The Roman Catholic Church 22G 1. The Popes of the first half of this Century. 2. New Orders. 3. Missions. 4. The Counter-reformation. 5. Conver- sions. 6. Jansenism in its second stage. 7. The Order of Jesuits abolished. 8. Anti-hierarchical movements in Germany. 9. The French Revolution. 10. Illumination. 11. Theology. §45. Oriental Orthodox Church 238 II. THE PROTESTANT CHURCH. ^ 46. The Lutheran Church before the Illumination 240 1. Second stage of the Pietistic Controversies. 2. Theology-. 3. Theories of Canon-law. 4. Hymnology. T). Psal- mody. 6. Piety and Devotional Literature. 7. Mis- sions. §47. The Moravians (Unitas Fratrum) 252 1. Zinzendorf. 2. Establishrnent of the Church. 3. Progress of the Church. 4. Zinzendorf's Plans and Labors. 5. Spangenberg. 0. Missions. § 48. The Reformed Church and Methodism 2C6 1. Methodism. 2. Union Efforts. 3. Theology. X CONTENTS. §49. New Sects and Fanatics 269 1. Fanatics and Schismatics in Germany. 2. The Inspiration Congregations in Wetterau. 3. Dippel. 4. Hypocriti- cal and Immoral Sects. 5. Swedenborgianisra. 6. New Baptist Sects. 7. New Quaker Sects. 8. The Hebrews and Hattemists. § 50. The Theology and Literature of the period of Illumination 276 1. English Deists. 2. The Forerunners ef German Illumina- tion. 3. Illumination in Germany from 1750. 4. Tran- sition Theology. 5. Rationalistic Theology. 6. Supra- naturalistic Theology. 7. German Philosophy. 8. Na- tional Literature. § 51. Ecclesiastical Life during the period of Illumination 288 1. Dilution of Hymn-books, and Sacred Poetry. 2. Psalmody. 3. Church parties. 4. Christian Societies and Missions. FOURTH PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN QER- MANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. (Nineteenth Century.) I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. I 52. Review of Religious Movements during the Nineteenth Century... 293 § 53. General basis of culture in the nineteenth century, in its relations to Theology and the Church 295 1. German Philosophy. 2. The Sciences. 3. National Lite- rature 4. National Culture. 5. Art. II. PROTESTANTISM. 3 54. The Protestant Church in general, especially in Germany 306 1. Rationalism. 2. Pietism. 3. The Union. 4. Lutheran oppositioi\ to the Union. 5. The Confederation. 6. Lu- theranism. 7. Melanchthonianism and Calvinism. 8. Complications regarding Worship. 9. Home ; and, 10. Foreign ISlissions. g 55. Protestant Established Church 327 1. Prussia. 2. Saxony. 3. Hanover, Oldetihurg, Mecklen- burg, Hessen, Lippe. 4. AViirtemberg and Baden. 5. Switzerland. G. Austria. 7. Bavaria. 8. England, Scotland. Ireland. 9. Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Nor- way. 10. France and Belgium. 11. Italy, Spain, Rus- sia, Turkey. 12. North Amei-ica. I 56. Protest.ant Tlieology in Germany 351 1. The Founders of the Theology of the Nineteenth Century. 2. Rationalistic Theology. 3. The Supranaturalistic Schools. 4. Speculative Theology and the School of B.aur. 5. The Modern or German School. (5. Lutheran Confessional Theology. CONTENTS. an III. ROMAN CAXnOLlCISM. g 67. Eoman Catholicism in general 376 1. The Papacy. 2. The Jesuits, Trappists, School-sisters. 3. Proselytism. 4. Ultramontism. 5. National Reli- gious Liberalism. 6. The Unions. 7. Theology. I 58. Roman Catholic National Churches 392 1. Italy. 2. Spain, Portugal, South America. 3. France, Belgium. Holland. 4. England, Ireland, N. America. 5. Austria, Bavaria, and Hanover. 6. The Church Pro- vince of the Upper Rhine. 7. Prussia and Mecklen- burg. 8. Switzerland, g 59. The Orthodox Greek Church 403 IV. ANTI-CIIRISTIANITY. g 60. Sects and Fanatics 405 1. The Propagation of the older Sects. 2. Fanatical Pheno- mena. 3. The Harmonites. 4. The New Templars. 5. The Hypocrites of Konig.sberg. 6. The Irwingians. 7. The Darbyites. 8. The Amen Society. 9. The Mor- mons. g (;i. Practical Anti-Christianity 414 1. The St. Sirnonites. 2. Socialists and Communista. Chronological Tables. Index. THIRD SKCTION. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT [I.— 3 (26) I 1. CHARACTER AND LIMITATIONS OF CHURCH HISTORl IN THE MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. In the Reformation of the sixteenth century, the Germanic spirit, which, until then, had been under the tutelage and disci- pline of the Romish Church, attained to maturity and inde- pendence. It fully emancipated itself from the bondage of its master, who had become an ambitious oppressor, and had made every effort to suppress all independent attempts to secure eccle- siastical, theological, and scientific freedom — all movements in favor of evangelical reforms. In the primitive history of the Church, the person of Christ was made the centre of salvation, and the Holy Scriptures were set forth as the source of all an- nouncements and knowledge of salvation. The development of Christianity was impelled in tlie ancient Church by tradition, in the medireval by the hierarchy, in the modern by science. Tradition represents the continued agency of the Holy Ghost in the Church — the hierarchy represents Christ's supremacy over the Churcli. By the former the catholicity of the Church was developed ; the latter protected the Church against the storms which arose amid the conflicts of the ancient and modern world, and secured its perpetuation. But both tradition and the hier- archy transcended their proper limits ; hence upon modern science devolved the duty of leading men back to the fountain of salvation in Christ, and of the knowledge of that salvation in the Scriptures, that thus the truth might be sifted of false- hood, and that which was normal be separated from abnormal developments in the history of the Church. Tliis hajipened in the Reformation. Not that science produced the Reformation, for it was rather called forth by deep an.tieties for the salvation of the soul, against which Romish tradition had sealed tlie Sacred Scriptures, and Romish indulgences and justification by works (27) 28 CHARACTER OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. had barred faith in Christ. But the Reformation became the most zealous patron of science, because science furnished the means of discovering, establishing, and perfecting the principles of true reform. These principles were : the sole normal authority of the Holy Scriptures, and justification by faith alone, without any merit of works. 1. As the Romish Church, in opposition to the Reformation, clung to its peculi.arities, both in form and substance, and even reaffirmed them, the occidental Church was sundered into an Evangelical Pro- testant and a Roman Catholic Church. And, as the principles of the Reformation were differently apprehended, Pi'otestantism divided into two branches, the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches. In addition to these three western Churches, and the ancient oriental Church, all which were based upon the common foundation of primitive Catholi- cism, various sects arose which repudiated that Catholicism, and set up for themselves. In consequence of these divisions and schisms, modern Church History exhibits varieties, activities, and rivalries, with good and bad fruits, such as no previous period presents. Another still more distinctive peculiarity of this age of the Church is found in the fact that infidelity, fanaticism, worldliness, and anti-Christianity have developed tnemselves in its course more vigorously, widely, and con- sistently, than ever before, so that an anti-Christian secular Church is seen in violent antagonism to the true Church of Christ. This progress of anti-Christianity has its ground in this : that, according to prophecy and historical necessity, the kingdom of darkness will develop itself parallel with the kingdom of God more decidedly and vigorously as it approaches its end, and thus become ripe for judgment. In regard to the duty of the Church to extend its limits, we find that, Avhilst the early Church prosecuted the work of missions among the Greeks and Romans, and the medigeval Church spread Christianity among the Germanic-Slavonian nations, the modern Church has engaged in the work of bearing the Gospel to countries beyond the ocean, so that, be- fore the end of all things, Christianity may make the circuit of the earth . 2. Modern Church History clearly and distinctly presents four sepa- rate forms of development, by which its division into as many periods is justified. The main characteristic points of their distinction consists partly in the opposition between particular Churches, partly in the antagonism between faith and infidelity. The transitions from one period to another nearly correspond with those of the several centuries. The Jirst period is the age of the lieformation (the sixteenth century), in which the reformatory German church-life was separated from the Romano-German, and their reciprocal relation became fixed. The second period, extending beyond the seventeenth century, was that !>f the general conflict between the leading particular Churches, and CHARACTER OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. 29 exhibits their free, independent development. It is characterized as the age of ortliodoxy , and of the supremacy of confessions of faith. In the third period, reaching to the commencement of the nineteenth century, infidelity, in the form of deism, rationalism, and naturalism, began to assert its authority. The fourth period, beginning with the present century, includes our own times. Revived faith, invigorated by ita triumphant conflict with rationalism, branches out on the side of Pro- testantism, into latitudinarian unionism, and strict cnnfessionalism, whilst the Romish Church mounts to the pinnacle of the most zealous xdtra-montanism. Infidelity, also, assumes new and decidedly anti- Christian forms, in the shape of pantheism, materialism, and commu- nism, and seems to wage a war of extermination against everything Christian in Church and State, in science and faith, in social and poli- tical life. FIRST PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT SIXTEENTH CENTURY. I. THE REFORMATION. Sources : 1. Luther's Works, published by J. G. Walch, Ilalle, 1740- 52, 24 vols. 4to. Erlangen ed. 1826-55, 65 vols. 8vo. Melanchthon' s Works in the Corpus Reformatorum, ed. C. G. Bretsclmeider. Hal., 1834, sqq. (thus far 25 vols. 4to.) — G. Spalatini Annales reform, to 1543, puiol. by Ciiprian, Leips. 1718 ; ib. hist. Nachl. u. Briefe, publ. by Neudeclcer n. Preller, Jen. 1851. — Fr. Myconii Ref. Hisi., publ. by Cyprian, Gotha, 1715. — Ratzeberger (kursachs. Leibarzt) handschr. Gesch. iiber Luther u. s. Zelt, publ. by Neudccker, Jena, 1850. — /. Cocldaei (Catholic) Commentt. de actis et scriptis Lutheri, Mog. 1549. In opposition to it, /. Sleidani commentt. de statu relig. et reipubl. Carolo V. Cassare. Arg. 1555. — Ahr. Scidteti Annales evang. Sec. XVI. (to 1536) ed. H. van der Ilardt. Frcf. 1717. 2. V. E. Loscher, vollst. Ref. Acta (to 1519). Lpz. 1720, etc. 3 Bde, 4to. — C. G. Neudccker, Urkd. aus d. Ref. Zeit. Cass. 1836; id., Acten- stUcke, Nlirnb. 1838; id., Neue Beitr. Lpz. 1841. — C. G. Forsiemann, Archiv fiir die Gesch. d. Ref. Ilalle, 1831, etc. ; id. Neues Urkunden- buch, Ilamb. 1842, 4to. 3. L. Maimbonrg (a Jesuit) Hist, du Lutheranisme, Par. 1680. In opposition to this : L. de Seckendorf, Coramentarius Hist, et Apol. de Lutheranismo, Frcf 1688, 4to. — W. C. Tentzel, hist. Bericht von d. Anf. u. Fortg. d. Ref. Lutheri, publ. by Cyprian, Lpz. 1718, 3 Bde. — C. A. Salig, Gesch. d. augsb. Conf. (to 1555). Halle, 1730, etc. 3 Bde. 4to. — Dan. Gerdesii introd. in hist. ref. Groning. 1744, 4 vols. 4to. 4. G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. Entst. Verilndr. u. Bild. d. prot. Lehrbegr. bis znr Concordienf. 2. A. Lpz. 1791, etc., 7 Bde. — Ph. Marheineke, Gesch. .1 deulsch. Ref. (to 1555). 2. A. Berl. 1831, etc. — C. G. Neif (30) THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. 31 decker, Gesch. d. deutsch. Ref. (to 1532). Lpz. 184.3. — C. H. Bressler, Gesch. d. deutsch. Ref. Danz. 1846, 2 Bde. — A'. N. Hagenhach, Vorless. Ub. Wes. u. Gesch. d. Ref. Bd. 1. 2. Gesch. d. Ref. in Deutschl. u. d. Schweiz. 2. A. Lpz. 1851. — J. H. Merle-d' Aubigne, Hist, of the Ref. of the Sixteenth Cent. (5 vols, publ.) — B. ter Haar\ d. Ref. Gesch. in Schilderungcn, from the Dutch by C. Gross. Hamb. 1856. 2 Bde. 5. /. G. Midler, Denkwlirdigkk. aus d. Gesch. d. Ref. Lpz. 1806.— K. Hageu, Deutschl. literat. u. rel. Zustande im Zeitalt. d. Ref. Erlg. 1841, etc. 3 Bde. — F. A. Holzhausen, d. Protest, nach sr. gesch. Entst., Begrund. u. Fortbild. Lpz. 1844-49. 2 Bde. — D. Schenkel das Wesen d. Protest. Schaffh. 1845, etc., 3 Bde. — H. Heppe, Gesch. d. deutsch. Protest. Marb. 1852. Bd. L (the Melauchth. tendency in Ch. hist.) 6. K. Riffel, K. G. d. neust. Zeit. 2. A. Mainz, 1847, etc. 3 Bde. — Ign. Dollinger, de Ref. im Umfange d. Luth. Bekenntn. 2. A. Regensb. 1852, etc. 3 Bde. (both odiously ultra-montane). 7. Luther's Leben, by Mclanchthon, Wittb. 1546 ; by /. Mathesiiis (in sermons), publ. by Bust. Berl. 1841, and often: by Nic. Selnecker, ed. Mayer. Wittb. 1687, 4to. ; by D. HerrnschmicU. Halle, 1742 ; by /. G. Walcli, in the 24th vol. of Luther's works ; by F. S. Keil, Lpz. 1764 ; by G. E. A. Ukert, Goth. 1817. 2 Bde ; by G. Pfizer, Stuttg. 1836 ; by C. F. G. Stang, Stuttg. 1838 ; by M. Meurer, 2. A. Dresd. 1852; by K. Jurgens (to 1517), Lpz. 1846. 3 Bde; by L. Weydmann, Hamb. 1850 ; by H. Gelzer, mit bildl. Darstell. v. G. Konig, Hamb. 1851. 8. C. A. Menzel, Neuere Gesch. d. Deutsch. Berl. 1826, etc. Bd. 1.-8. — Leop. Ranke, deutsch. Gersch. in Zeitalter d. Ref. 3. A. Bei-l. 1852. 6 Bde. — C. de Villers, Essai sur I'esprit et I'influence de la r6f. du XVI sifecle. 5 ed. Par. 1851. [Transl. by Sam. Miller, Princeton. 1833.] 9. H. Bulllnger, Ref. Gesch. (to 1532), publ. by Hoiiinger u. Vogeli. Frauenf. 1838." 3 Bde.—/. C. Filsslhi, Beitr. zur Erliiutr. d. K. Ref. Hist. d. Schweizerlande. Zurich, 1751, etc., 5 Bde. — /. J. Simler, Samml. alt. u. neuer Urkd. Zilrich. 1757. 5 Bde. — L. Maimbourg, Hist. du Calvanisme. Par. 1682. Li opposition : P. TJa^yZe, Critique generale, etc. Rottd. 1684. 2 voll. — /. Busnage, Hist, de la relig. des ^glises ref. 2 ed. Haye, 1725. 2 voll. 4to. — /. /. Hottinger, helvet. K. G. Zurich, 1805, etc. 5 Bde. — A. Ruchat, Hist, de la ref. de la Suisse. Gen. 1727, etc. 6 voll. — /. D. Beaiisobre, Hist, de la r6f. (to 1530) Berl. 1785. 3 voll. — X. Wirz u. M. Kirclihofer, neuere helv. K. G Zurich. 1813. 2 Bde. 32 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). J. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REFORMATION. ^2. COMMENCEMENT OF THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. (1517-19.) No historical event so clearly and plainly displays a ruling divine Providence as the German Reformation. In its case, place, time, persons, circumstances, and relations, religious and political, all combined most wonderfully to secure, for the great work, a firm basis, a safe position, a healthy tendency, strict purity, powerful protection, general recognition, successful pro- gress, and permanent results. There was a lively sense of the errors of the Church, and a deep and general longing after a reformation ; and science offered it ample means to effect a reformation. The papal chair was occupied by a man as indif- ferent and indolent as Leo X. ; and another, as foolhardy and shameless as Tetzel, vended indulgences For the tender plant, there was provided a protector as pious, faithful, and consci- entious, as honored and esteemed, as Frederick llie Wise. On the imperial throne sat Charles V., sufficiently powerful and inimical to kindle the purifying fires of affliction, but too much involved in political troubles to render a reckless and violent suppression of the movement either prudent or possible. Be- sides these, there were a great many other persons, circumstances, and complications, all which seemed to conspire, as by design, to strengthen and advance the cause. Then, finally, at the pro- per time, at the most desirable place, and amid the most favor- able circumstances, arose a genius like Luther, in whom was found the rarest combination of all the gifts and qualities of spirit, mind, character, and will, requisite to the great work. He was, moreover, providentially trained for his high mission by the events of his life, and by being made to experience in his own soul the essential principles of the Reformation, and to make such proof of its divine power, that he felt irresistibly impelled to communicate to the world this most sacred and pre- cious experience of his life. The great work began with the nailing of ninety-five simple theses to the door of the Witten- berg Cathedral, and the Leipsic disputation constituted the first prominent point in his history. r U K W 1 T T K N 15 E 11 O R E T O R M A T I 0 N . 33 1. Luther's Early Years. — Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, No • veniber 10, 1483. After growing:; up under strict parental discipline, ' and amidst the wants and privations of poverty, he went, in 1501, to . study law at the University of Erfurt. Deeply aifected by the sudden ■ death of his friend Alexius, he entered the Augustine monastery at Erfurt in 1505. In great distress for the salvation of his soul, he sought to quiet his conscience by fastings, prayers, and penances. But ■ his temptations ever returned with new power. An old brother in the ' monastery, one day, repeated to the distressed and almost exhausted ■ penitent the article of the creed: " I believe in the forgiveness of sins." It was a word of comfort to his soul. He was still more cheered by the counsel of his noble superior, John Staupitz, the provincial of the Augustines for Germany. He pointed out to him the way of true • repentance and faith in the Saviour, who was crucified not for imaginary , sins. Following his advice, Luther zealously studied the Bible, along ■ with the writings of Augustine, and of the mystics of the middle ages. In 1508, Staupitz aided him in obtaining an appointment to the chair of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg, founded in 1502. This compelled him thoroughly to study scholastic authors. A journey to- Rome, undertaken in 1510, at the request of his order, had a mighty influence upon his future course. Indignant at the blasphemous levity and immorality exhibited there by the clergy, and unappeased by the outward penances to which he submitted, he returned home. All the way back, these words resounded in his ears: "The just shall live by faith." It was a voice from God to his soul, and filled his troubled spirit with divine peace. After his return, Staupitz gave him no rest until he was promoted to the theological doctorate (1512), when he commenced lecturing upon theology, and also preaching in Wittenberg. Guided by the study of Augustine, he penetrated ever more deeply, into the knowledge of the Scriptures, and of their fundamental doc- , trine of justification by faith; he attained daily to greater freedom, from the trammels of scholastic formalism, and from those of mediajval ■ pantheistic mysticism, by which he had, at first, allowed himself to . be unduly influenced. 2. Luther's Theses. (Of. F. G. Hoffman?}, LebensbSschr. Tetzel's. Lpz. 1844. — Val. Grone (C&ih.) Tetzel u. Luther. Soest. 1853. In reply: H. 0. Kohler, rom. Gesohichtsverdrehung, etc., in the Luth. Ztschr., 1855, III.—/. H. Hennes, Albr. v. Brandb. Mainz, 1858).— Pope Leo X. had authorized a general indulgence, avowedly to com- plete St. Peter's, but really to relieve his pecuniary embarrassments, and gratify his love of splendor. Germany was divided among three commissioners. The Elector Alhrecht of Mayence, who was also Aroh- bi.shop of Magdeburg (a brother of the Elector of Brandenburg), him- Belf assumed the chief management of the commission for his pro- vinces, reserving the half of the receipts for the liquidation of his owi\ iebts. Among the vendors of indulgences whom he appointed, John C 34 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). Teizel, the Dominican prior, was the most scandalous. Attended by a • numerous retinue, he travelled from place to place, and offered his , wares with the most unexampled impudence and obtrusive publicity. * Thus he set up in Jilierhock, near Wittenberg, and attracted crowds ' of purchasers from all directions. Luther discovered, in the confes- . sional, the pernicious consequences of this disorder, and on the eve of • All Saints' Day,, Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed ninety-five theses (in Latin), " in explanation of the power of indulgences," on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg. Although these theses did not assail the doc- trine of indulgence itself, but merely its abuse, their decided reference * to faith in Christ as tlie only ground of salvation, involved the life- principle of the Reformation, With incredible rapidity the theses were spread over Germany, and indeed over all Europe. Luther con- • nected with them a sermon for the people upon " indulgences and ■ grace." The movement met with so much favour, that the friends of the old order of things were compelled to resist it. Tetzel publicly , burned the theses at Jliterbock, and, with the aid of Conrad Wimpina, . of Frankfort, prepared counter-theses, which he wished to discuss with , Luther. A number of copies of these were bought by the Wittenberg » students, and, in retaliation, burned by them ; an act of which Luther ^ highly disapproved. John Eck, pro-chancellor in Ingolstadt, one of « the most learned theologians of his day, and a professed friend of , Luther, wrote Obeliscos, in which, without naming Luther, he severely . denounced the Bohemian poison. Luther rejoined in his Aste-riscos. , At first Leo X., in his self-security, regarded the matter as nothing > more than an unimportant quarrel among the monks, and even praised Brother Martin as a remarkable genius. Hogstratcn's cry of heresy he did not heed, but had no objections that the Dominican, Sylvester Frl- , erias, master sacri palatii, should controvert Luther. His book was a , miserable affair. Luther briefly and effectually refuted it. Prierias wrote a second more wretched reply. Luther's only answer to which was its republication. Leo then enjoined silence upon his unskilful advocate. — In May, 1518, Luther addressed a humble letter to the • pope, and, in self-justification, added detailed Resolutiones upon his theses. Botbwere to be sent to Leo by Staupitz. 3, Cajetan and Miltiz (1518). — At length it Avas resolved, at Rome, to , lay vigorous hold of the Wittenberg movement. The papal fiscal entered complaints against Luther, Avho was thereupon summoned to answer to the charge, in Rome, within sixty days. But, at the solicitation of • the University of Wittenberg, and especially of Frederick the Wise, the pope committed the settlement of the matter to his legate, CardinaU Cajetan, at the Diet of Augsburg. Luther appeared and appealed to , the Bible. But the legate wished to refute him by the testimony of » the scholastics, and, after vainly demanding an unqualified retraction,, arrogantly turned away. Luther made a formal appeal to the pope, , and happily escaped from Augsburg. Cajetan now sought to incite « THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. 35 Frederick the Wise (148G-1 5 25.) against the refractory monk; but Luther's meek and cheerful confidence won the heart of the noble elector. — No good was to be looked for from Rome ; hence Luther pre-* pared, in advance, an appeal to a general council, which, however, the covetousness of the printer prematurely circulated, against the will of Luther. — In Rome, the unhappy issue of the diet was charged to Cajetan's unwise obstinacy. By a papal bull, the doctrine of indul- gences was carefully defined, their abuse disapproved, and the papal chamberlain, Charles of Miliiz, a Saxon, a man of worldly adroitness, was sent, in 1519, as papal nuncio to Saxony, to confer upon the elector the sacred golden rose, and adjust the controversy. He began his work ■ by severely condemning Tetzel, and approached Luther with the most flattering kindness. Luther apologized for his violence, wrote a humble, submissive letter to the pope, and, in order to do all in his power, publicly issued an explanation of the views ascribed to him by his opponent. But, notwithstanding these concessions, he firmly ad- hered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone, without any merit . of good works. He promised the nuncio to abstain from further con- troversy, provided his opponents also remained silent ; these, however, did not compl}'. 4. 17ie Leipsic Disputation (1519). (Cf. /. K. Seidcmann, d. Lpz. Disp. Dresd. 1843.-- C. G. Heriiuj, de disp. Lps. hab. Lpz. 1839).— John Eck, of Ingolstadt, who had previously exchanged controversial ■ treatises with Luther, had engaged in a dispute with Andrew Boden- • stein, of Carlstadt, a zealous adherent and colleague of Luther, a pro-- fessor and preacher in Wittenberg, and Luther nimself had proposed . a disputation between them. This was to take place in Leipsic, in - 1519. But the vain Eck not only sought to attract as much attention as possible to the proposed disputation, but to involve Luther in the . controversy. For eight days Eck debated with Carlstadt upon grace . and free will, and with overpowering skill, boldness, and learning, defended Romish semi-pelagianism. Then for fourteen days he dis- cussed, with Luther, the pope's primacy, repentance, indulgences, and ' purgatory, and sorely pressed him with accusations of the Hussite heresy. . But Luther vigorously defended himself with Bible proofs, and became convinced that even general councils (like that of Constance) might err, and that not all Hussite doctrines are heretical. Both parties ohiimed the victory. Luther followed up the debate with several con- , troversial tracts ; neither did Eck keep silent. Other combatants also entered the field. The party of Liberal German Humanists had, at first, taken but little notice of Luther's movements. But the Leipsic disputation changed their views of the case. Luther seemed to them a second Reuchlin, Eck as another Ortuinus Gr alius. A pungent anonymous satire, " Der abgehobelte Eck," which surpassed the Aris- tophanian wit of the epistolae obscurorum virorum, was published early in 1520. It was succeeded by several satires by Ulric von 36 SECTION III. — FIRST PKRIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). Hutten ("Die Anschauenden," " Vadiscus, oder die romisclie Dreifal , ligkeit," etc.), whom Luther's appearance at Lcipsic had anew elec- trified. Hutten and Slckingen ofi'ered themselves and their entire * party, soul and body, pen and sword, to the service of Luther. Though . this league Avith the Humanists was temporarily needful to the Re- formation, it would have given a wholly false direction to the cause, ' had it not been, in due time, providentially dissolved. — The Leipsic , disputation likewise led to amicable relations between the Bohemian Hussites and the German reformer ; letters, gifts, and messages, were exchanged between them. But, on the other hand, Duke George of Saxony, in whose castle and presence the disputation was held, became from that time an irreconcilable foe of Luther and his Reformation. (Cf. A. M. Schuhe, Herz. Georg. u. M. Luther. Lpz. 1834.) 5. Philip Melanchtlion. (Cf. Melanchthon's Leben by Jf*"". Galle, Halle, 1840, and by K. F. Matth.es, Altenb. 1841.) — There was a man present at the Leipsic disputation who occupied a prominent place in the pro- ' gress of the Reformation. Born at Bretten, in the Palatinate, in ,, 1497, Philip Melanchthon [Schioartzerd) entered the university at , Heidelberg in liis thirteenth year. Three years later he published a . Greek grammar ; in his seventeenth year he obtained the master's • degree, and in his twenty-first (1518), at the recommendation of ♦ Eeuchlin, a relative, was appointed professor of Greek at Wittenberg., His fame soon spread over all Europe, and attracted to him thousands . of hearers from all countries. Luther and Erasmus both lauded his talents, his fine culture, and his learning, and his age pronounced him the Prceceptor Germanice. lie was an Erasmus of loftier power and nobler mien, a complementary counterpart of Luther. His entire ■ nature breathed forth modesty, mildness, and goodness. With child- • like simplicity he yielded to the power of evangelical truth, and humbly bowed to the more forcible practical spirit of Luther, who, on his part, , however, gratefully acknowledged the goodness of God in raising up , such a coadjutor for him and his cause. — Melanchthon wrote a report - of the Leipsic disputation to his friend Q^colampadius, which incident- . ally fell into Eck's hands. This occasioned a controversy between them, in which Eck's vain self-exaltation, and Melanchthon's noble modesty, were equally manifest. His first participation in the new , movement was in the form of an apology for Luther, issued under an . assumed name. 12,. THE PERIOD OF LUTHER'S EARLIEST CONFLICTS AND STRAITS. (1520, 1521.) The Leipsic disputation led Luther to assume an essentially more free stand-point. He was made to see that he could not stop half-way ; that his great principle of justification by faith was wholly incompatible with the hierarchical system of the LUTHER'S CONFLICTS AND STRUTS. 37 papacy and its fundamental doctrines. But along with his violence and subjective one-sidedness, which he displayed in this period of his earliest conflicts and straits (1520, 1521), he still possessed sufficient considerateness to hold fast to the spiritual character of his reformatory labors, and to reject tlie carnal aid oflered by Ulric von Hutten and his warlike associates, how- ever thankfully he acknowledged their ardent sympathy. The position he then occupied, as well as the full height of his sub- jectivism at that time, are set forth in two papers written during the first half of the year 1520 : "A71 kaiserliche Majestdt unci den ehrisll. Adel deidsdvi- Nation von des christlichen Standes Besserung," in which he razed the three breastworks behind which the papacy had intrenched itself, the supremacy of the pope over all temporal powers (its exclusive authority to inter- pret the Bible, and its sole right to convoke councils), and pro- posed measures for the radical improvement and reconstruction of the German Church, — and " Z>e captivAtate bahylonica eccle- sice," the raaiii subject of which was the doctrine of the sacra- ments. He admits only three (baptism, repentance, and the Supper), and rejects the communio sub una, transubstantiation, and the idea of a sacrifice in ihe Mass. Some of his works of a more edifying character, also belong to this period, as the exposition of Galatians, the manual on confession, the sermon on good works, etc. The papal bull of excommunication incited him to more violent words and acts, and with heroic boldness he hastened to Worms, to render an account of his doings before the emperor and diet. The papal ban was followed by the imperial proscription. But as an exile in Wartburg he escaped from tlie liands of his foes and — his friends. 1. T/ie Eomish bidl of excommnnication (1520). — To reap the fruits of his imaginary victury, Eck had gone back to Rome, and returned ■ triumphantly as a papal nuncio with a bull dated June 15, 1520, in which Luther was pronounced a heretic, his Avritings ordered to be burned, and he threatened with the ban, unless he appeared in Rome , within sixty days. MiUiz made new attempts to compromise matters, which, of course, were unsuccessful, although Luther, to show his good intentions, gave them consideration, and proposed a basis of com- , promise in his tract — "Von der Freiheit einos Christenmenschen," in which he shunned controversy as much as possible. He accompanied this paper with a letter to the pope, in which, with all its sincere expressions of humility, and reverence for the person of the pope, whom he represented as dwelling in the midst of a most abominable IT. —4 84 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A. D.). Romish Sodom and Gomorrah, like a sheep among w Ives, or like , Daniel in the lions' den, there was no trace of repentance or retraction. / It was easy to foresee, however, that neither papers would suit the taste - of the Romish court. Meanwhile, Eck came with the bull itself. After • its publication, Luther opened his assault upon it with three writings ■ (" A^on den neuen Eckischen Bullen und LUgen," "Contra exseera- bilem Antichrist! bullam," "Assertio omnium articulorum per bullam Leonis X. novissimam damnatorum "), and renewed his appeal to a • general council, which he had carefully prepared two years before. — • In Saxony, Eck's bull only excited derision, but in Lyons, Mayence, - Cologne, etc., Luther's writings were really burned. Then Luther - took the boldest step of his life. Attended by a large concoVirse of • doctors and students, invited by a placard posted on the black board, ' he burned the bull with the papal decretals on Dec. 10, 1520, at 9 a. m. This was an absolute divorce from the pope and Romish Church. He had thus rendered all retreat impossible. Ilutten shouted approbation, and proclaimed in German rhymes a full catalogue of the sins of rtie Romish curia. 2. Erasmus (1520). (Cf. W. Clilebus, Erasm. u. Luth., in the hist, theol. Ztschr, 1845, II.— IF. E. Eberliardi, Warum blief Erasm. Kath., ibid. 1839, III.) — Thus far Erasmus kept on good terms with Luther; . they cherished mutual respect and esteem. However diverse their , positive tendencies, they agreed in opposing scholasticism and monas- - ticism. Erasmus rejoiced in the defeat of an obnoxious monasticism, and persistently rejected all solicitations to write against Luther; neither did he care, as he confessed, to feel the rasp of Luther's wrath.- When the papal bull appeared, he decidedly disapproved of it, and. even expressed doubts as to its genuineness. As the oracle of his daj% . his opinion of the whole matter was often asked. lie said, the papal - decision itself was not to be condemned, but its manner and form. • He desired an arbitration of learned and pious men, with three princes . (the German emperor, and the kings of England and Hungary), to . whose decision Luther should submit. Frederick the Wise also (before - Luther had taken his boldest step) had consulted Erasmus, who then • said, that Luther had made two mistakes, he had touched the pontiff's- crown and the monks' bellies; he also regretted Luther's want of- moderation and considerateness. The elector heard these declarations , of Erasmus, not without approbation. The proposal to submit the • case to an arbitration, also had its influence upon "■ubsequent public ■ measures against Luther. 3. The Emperor Charles V. (1519-20). — The Emperor I>Iaximilian died Jan. 12, 1519. The Elector of Saxony, the regent of the empire, declined his election in favour of Charles I., the young King of Spain, Maximilian's grandson, who was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, o.'^ Oct. 23 AU hopes centered in the young emperor. It was expected ' Luther's conpltcts and straits. 39 that he would place himself at the head of the religious and national movement in German}-. But Charles, who was a stranger to the impulses of the German spirit, and did not even understand the language, had interests which he was not disposed to subordinate to German politics. The German crown was but an integral part of his power ; its interests had to subserve the general interests of the empire, on whose domain the sun never set. He considered the religious agitation in Germany important, but not so much in its religious as in its political aspect. It furnished him with the desired means of keep- ing the pope in check, and of compelling him to favour his interests. Charles demanded two things of the pope for the suppression of tlie • religious movement in Germany: first, that he should renounce French ■ alliances, and league with the emperor against France ; secondly, the • cassation of the previously issued papal breve, which ordered a recon- ' struction of the Spanish Inquisition — a main prop of absolute monarchy ■ in Spain. Leo X. yielded to both demands, and thus the hopes of the Germans, that Charles would at length rid the nation of the igno- minious lloman yoke, were frustrated. The compact between the • empei'or and pope was concluded on May 8, 1521. — Charles opened his • first diet at Worms on Jan. 28, 1521. In February a papal brief - arrived, urgently admonishing the emperor legally to enforce the bull • against Luther. During a tournament Charles sCimmoned the princes to his quarters, communicated the brief to them, and submitted an edict couched in strong terms, enjoining the execution of the bull. He desired them at once to give their assent. But he met with unex- pected opposition. The States demanded that Luther should be sum- moned to Worms, under an imperial safe-conduct, to answer the charges made against him. They could not consider his assaults upon Romish abuses a crime, since they themselves had drawn up an indictment of 101 gravaminum against Rome, which they intended laying before the diet. Still they declared themselves ready to subscribe the edict, if Luther would not retract in regard to points of doctrinal dispute. Earnestly as the papal legate Alexander protested against a temporal diet affording a heretic the opportunity of a trial, the opinion of the \ Estates prevailed. An imperial herald was dispatched to Wittenberg • to summon Luther to Worms under an imperial safe-conduct. Before his arrival, the confessor of the emperor, Glapio, a Franciscan, wiio • was by no means a blind devotee of the Romish chair, sought to effect • an amicable settlement of the affair. He thought if Luther would but retract the most offensive of his books, as that of the Babylonian captivity of the Church, and acknoAvledge the decrees of Constance, the whole case might be dismissed. He first laid this proposition l)ef(iro the Elector of vSaxony, and after failing with him, sought Francis of Sirl'in early as August, 1524, an insurrection of peasants broke out in the • Black Forest; but it was speedily put down. But, in the beginning of 1525, fresh disturbances arose, and assumed a much more dangerous character. The peasants reduced their demands to twelve articles, and compelled princes, nobles, and prelates, to concede them. All Fran- ■ conia and S^vabia soon joined the movement, and even many cities made common cause with the insurgents. Still M'dnzer was not satis- ' fied with the result. The twelve articles were too temperate for him, - and the compacts concluded with the nobility and clergy were not at all to his mind. Ileturniug to Thuringia, he took up his abode in Muhlhaiiaen, endeavored to stir up fanaticism in the entire country, and organized a general insurrection. Thousands were murdered with - unmerciful cruelty ; all the monasteries, castles, and courts, were attacked and destroyed. — Boldly as Luther had assailed the existing ecclesiastical powers, he just as firmly maintained civil authority, and preached that tlte Gospel secured spiritual liberty, hut did not subvert • civil government and social institutions. He did indeed sympathize with the peasants in their extreme oppressions, and, whilst their de- mands were limited to the twelve articles, he hoped the movement might be controlled by the power of the Gospel. The insurgents had declared that, if any of their twelve articles could be proved incon- sistent with the A¥ord of God, they Avould yield. When Munzer began > his disturbances in Thuringia, Luther himself visited the towns most » in danger, and admonished them to quietness and subordination. He • was recalled to AVittenberg by the death of the Elector Frederick (who .). Wlirtemberg reformer, was a Benedictine ; TJrhanus Rhegius, once a pupil of Eck, was a Carmelite ; Buyenhagen, in Pomerania, was a Praamonstrant ; Otto Brunsfcls, a Carthusian, etc. The secular clergy also, in many instances, took part. At least one of the German bishops, Polenz of Samland, at once openly joined the movement, preached the Gospel even from the pulpits of Konigsberg, and ap- pointed men of like views to the parishes of his diocese. Other bishops, as those of Augsburg, Basel, Bamberg, and Merseburg, participated in the movement, or at least laid no hindrances in its way. The inferior secular clergy, however, furnished multitudes of advocates. In the pulpits of all the larger, and even in many of the smaller towns of Germany, Luther's sentiments were preached with the approbation of the magistrates ; and where this -was prohibited, the doctrines were proclaimed in the market-place and in the field. When clergymen were wanting to do this, mechanics and knights, even women and vir- gins, became missionaries. A distinguished lady, Agnes (Argula) of Staiifen, married to Gntmbach, having been urged to recant by a young magister, challenged the whole University of Ingolstadt to discuss the doctrines with her, upon the basis of the Scriptures. — Wittenberg was, and remained, the heart and centre of the entire movement — the gathering-place of all who were persecuted and banished for con- science' sake — the nursery and fountain of new advocates of the cause. 3. The Diet of Nuremberg (1524). — On Jan. 14, 1524, a new diet was opened at Nuremberg. Its first business was the continuance of the regency of the empire. As that had become decidedly favorable to ■ the Reformation, the question of its existence seemed to involve that' of the continued existence of the Reformation. Among its chief sup- porters were the arch-Catholic Ferdinand, who hoped, through it, to obtain the Roman crown ; the Elector of Mayence, the author of the trafiic in indulgences (who favored the regency because he hated its foes) ; the Elector of Saxony, who was really its originator, and the house of the Brandenburg princes. But the opposite party was stronger. It included the Swabian league, the princes of Treves, the Palatinate, and Hessen, who had triumphed over Sickingen, and the states of the empire, who, though agreeing with the reformatory views of the regency, were inimical to it on account of its fiscal measures and projects. The opposition acquired a new confederate in the papal legate Campeggio. Hadrian VI. died in 1523, and was succeeded by Clement VII. (1523-34), an illegitimate son of Julian de Medici. Clement was, in all respects, the reverse of his predecessor. A skilful politician, yet regardless of religious interests, he was exceedingly zealous to raise to its highest pitch the temporal power of his chair. Campeggio Avas the man for his purpose. — The opposition triumphed, the regency fell, and even Ferdinand, after long resistance, consented to its dissolution. A new regency was organized, which was but a shadow of the old one, for it had neither jiower, influence, nor inde- THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE. 51 pendence. Thus the lleformatiou lost a second important prop, and the legate, confident of success, insisted upon the execution of the edict of Worms. Then the evangelical party coml>incd all their powers, especially the cities, and once more secured a majority. The states had, indeed, to acknowledge the legal authority of the edict; they also promised to maintain it, with the clause " as far as possible." But, at the same time, they insisted upon the calling of a council, in the sense of the diet of the preceding year, and resolved to hold a 7iational assembly at Spires, in November of the current year, which should be exclusively devoted to the careful consideration and disposal of religious and ecclesiastical affairs. Meanwhile, as the preceding diet had enjoined, the Gospel and the Word of God should be preached in all simplicity. 4. The Convention of Regenshnrc/ (1524). — Whilst the theologians and diplomatists of the evangelically-inclined states of the empire were zealously engaged in preparing for the diet of Spires, a meeting of the adherents of the old order of things was held at Eegenshnrg (June and July, 1524). In direct violation of the unity of the empire, partizan resolutions, with reference to religious and ecclesiastical ques- tions, were there adopted, which, according to the decision of the Nu- remberg diet, were to be discussed and acted upon by all the states at Spires. This was the work of the legate Campeggio. In the main- tenance of the edict of Worms, he was joined, in Kegensburg, by the Archduke Ferdinand , the Bavarian dukes, the Archbishop oi Salzburg, and most of the bishops of Southern Germany. Luther's books were once more prohibited, and all subjects were strictly forbidden to visit the University of Wittenberg. Some external abuses were corrected, ecclesiastical imposts weie alleviated, the number of festivals -dimin- ished ; the four Latin Church fathers, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory, were declared standard authorities in matters of faith and doctrine, and public worship was to be conducted in the ancient form. The unity of the empire, thus rent asunder, could never again be restored. — Simultaneously, the emperor was wrought upon by appeals from Rome. The imperial and papal policy were still identical in interest ; both the diets of Nuremberg, with their national tendencies, were offensive to the emperor; so that, as early as the end of July, an imperial proclamation was issued, calling the states to an account for their course, and prohibiting the contemplated national assembly, as a crimen lajssB majestatis, on pain of the ban and double ban. The states obeyed, the assembly was abandoned, and with it all hopes of a peaceable and organic development of Germany, as a united political power, vanished. 5. The Ecangelical States (1524). — The evangelical states still persisted in maintaining their position as constituents of unity of the empire. Several princes, also, who had hitherto been indifferent or 52 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . neutral, now became more decided in favor of the evangelical cause. This was the case, first of all, with the young landgrave Philip of Hessen, who was led, by a conversation with Melanchthon, to devote the whole strength of his youthful energy to the service of the Refor- mation. The Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg, Duke Ernest of Jjunehtirri, the Elector of the Palatinate, and Frederick I. of Denmark (as Duke of Schleswig and Holstein), in their several countries, also promoted the cause with more or less energy and decision. The ejected Duke TJlric of Wurtemberg was also gained over, and his subjects, groaning under the Austrian oppressions, were already desiring his return. Albert of Pi'ussia, the grand-master of the Teutonic Order, returned from the diet of Nuremberg, Avhere he had frequented Osian- der's preaching, with doubts as to the consistency of his office with the Word of God ; and, during a visit to AVittenberg, did not take it amiss when Lnthcr advised him to dissolve the Order, to marry, and to raise Prussia to a hereditary duchy. — pjut the cities took the most de- cided measures. At two large municipal diets, in Spires and Ulm (1524), it was resolved that the clergy should be sustained in preach- ing the pure Gospel, and that they should mutually aid each other in self-defence against any attempt to execute the edict of Worms. 6. The Torgau Alliance (1524). — The friends and foes of the Refor- mation had unitedly opposed the insurrection of the peasants, and with equal zeal (§4,5). Their religious diversities had, thereupon,, displayed themselves all the more decidedly. In July, 1525, Duke George had a conference at Dessau with several Catholic jjrinces, and, sioon afterwards, he ordered two citizens of Leipsic, with whom Lu- theran books had been found, to be executed. The Elector of Saxony, also, made Casimir of Brandenberg promise, at Saalfeld, that he would adhere to the Word of God under all circumstances, and in the castle jf Griinmenstein (subsequently called Friedensfein), Hessen and the electorate of Saxony pledged themselves to stand by each other as one man, in matters affecting the Gospel. A diet convened at Augsburg in Dec. 1525 could conclude nothing definitely for want of a quorum. A new, diet Avas called at Spires, and all the princes required to be personally present. It seemed that it would bring matters to a point. Both parties zealously prepared for it. Duke George and several Ca- tholic princes met at Leipsic. They agreed to send one of their number [Henry of Brunswick) to the emperor in Spain. He arrived most op- portunely. Not long before, the emperor had concluded the peace of Madrid (Jan. 152fi) with the King of France, whom he had captured in the battle of Pavia (1525). Francis I. had agreed to everything, Viecause he did not intend to fulfil any of the conditions proposed ; iiraong the rest, also, promised to make common cause against the 'leretics. Charles believed that his hands were now free, and Avas re- solved, before doing anything else, to exterminate the German heresy, 'ienry of Brunswick brought back a document from Charles in which THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE. 53 he strenuously avowed his purpose. But before its arrival the land- grave and elector had met at Torgau (Feb. 1526) and entered into an alliance to sustain each other in defence of the Gospel in Saxony. Philip undertook to induce the estates of Upper Germany to join the league ; but he effected little, most of them having feared the emperor. The elector succeeded better in his mission to the states of Lower Germany. On the 9th of June the princes of electoral Saxony, Lune- burg, Grubenhagen, Anhalt, and Mansfeld, met in Mngdehurr/, and all signed the Torgau league. The city of Magdeburg, also, which had in 1524 cast off the jurisdiction of its archbishop, Albert of Mayence, and made the Lutheran Confession predominant, was admitted into the alliance. 7. The Diet of Spires (1526).— The diet convened on June 26, 1526. The evangelical princes were of good cheer. On their escutcheons was inscribed: Yerlium Dei nianet in ajternum. In spite of the opposition of tlie prelates, three committees (one of the electors, one of the princes, and one of the states) Avere appointed to deliberate upon the best means of correcting abuses. Of their three reports, that of the princes insisted upon a rule which should be equally binding on both parties, and thus, with all the existing diversity of evangelical views (Scriptura scripturae interpres) possessed a conciliatory character (the Communio sub una, ex. gr. was left free, and the seven sacraments were retained). This report was received for further consideration. But just as the debates, the issue of which could be foreseen, were about to begin, the imperial commissaries submitted an imperial order, commanding that no resolution should by any means be passed, which proposed a change of any of the old customs in doctrine or worship, and that provision should be made for ultimate execution of the edict of Worms. At first this produced general consternation among the evangelical members of the diet, and many wished at once to leave, as nothing could be effected. On calmer reflection, however, it was noted how far back the order dated, for it was known at Spires that since its date the poli- tical circumstances of the emperor had greatly changed. For some time there had been serious misunderstandings between Charles and the pope. Francis I. had been released of his oath by the pope, and informed the emperor that he would observe none of the conditions of the peace of Madrid. Francis I., the pope, and all the Italian princes, had formed a league at Cognac, to which Henry VIII. of England also gave his assent. All Western Europe was leagued together to break the preponderance of power which the Spanish-Burgundy house had gained at Pavia, and the duped emperor found himself in a most diffi- cult position. Could he still hold the views expressed in his instruc- tions? It was probable that at Ferdinand's request the commissaries had kept back the paper, until the cause of Catholicism seemed lost in the diet, and the prelates urged them to present it. Thus at least their strange conduct was interpreted by the evangelical party. Their first 5* 64 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). panic over, the states resolved to send an embassy to the emperor. But before they had started Charles anticipated their desires. In a letter to his brother he communicated a plan prepared by his privy- council, for the abrogation of the penalties of the edict of Worms and the adjustment of religious differences by a council. (But he advised his brother to delay the formal abrogation of the edict, lest the Catholic princes should be too much provoked). At the same time he asked for aid against his foes in Italy. — But as neither the repeal nor execution ' f the edict seemed advisable, nothing remained but to allovr each ctate to do as seemed best in the respective territories. The diet therefore decreed that " each state should act, in matters relating to the edict of Worms, so as to be able to render a good account to God and the emperor." This was the birthday and legitimization of the territorial constitutions. §7. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL EVANGELICAL CHURCHES. (1526-29.) It was now not only the privilege, but the duty, of the states to arrange ecclesiastical affairs, within their territories, according to their best judgment. The next succeeding three years, there- fore, form the period of the founding and organization of the evangelical state churches. Electoral Saxony set a good ex- ample. In imitation of her ecclesiastical constitution, the churches of Hessen, Franconia, Luneburg, East Friesland, Schleswig and Holstein, Silesia, Prussia, and a number of cities of lower Germany, were organized. 1. Organization of the Church in the Electorate of Saxony (1528-29). (Cf. JEm. L. Bidder, Die ev. Kirchenordungen d. 16. Jahrh. AYeim, 1846. Bd. I.) — Luther advised the elector to order a thorough Church- visitation of his entire country, in order thus to gain accurate informa- tion of its ecclesiastical condition. To this end, Melanchthon drafted a paper of " Instructions of the Visitors to the Clergy in the Electorate of Saxony," which Luther published early in 1528. In these the min- isters were directed what and how to preach and teach. The instruc- tions were moderate, but positive in tone. Controversy with the papacy was not encouraged. Reforms in worship were to be made with ex- treme forbearance. To guard against an abuse of the doctrine of justi- fication by faith alone, the necessity of preaching the law, and the freedom of the human will, in matters of worldly righteousness (justitia civilis), Avas recognized. This modification of strict Lutheran doctrines exposed Melanchthon to the assault of some zealous adhe, rents of Luther (especially Amsdorf ?ini\ John Agricola). But Luther reconciled these difficulties. — Thereupon instructions for the visitors themselves were prepared, in accordance with which they performed THE NATIONAl, EVANGELICAL CHURCHES. 55 their circuit in 1528-29. The entire territory was divided among four commissions, consisting of secular and clerical membei's. To Luther the electorate was assigned ; to Melanchthon, another district. Igno- rant or otherwise unfit clergymen were removed, but provided for. A large number of abuses were corrected ; preachers and teachers of schools were carefully instructed how to discharge their duties most efficiently, and their future supervision was entrusted to superintend- ents, to whom, also, matrimonial questions were referred. Those who adhered to the old order, and would not accept of improvements, were "commended to God," but not disturbed; vacated benefices were pro- tected against avarice, and applied to the improvement of churches and schools ; those not yet vacated, were obliged to contribute their portion to the same objects. Various measures were also adopted for the erec- tion of hospitals, the relief of the poor, and the founding of schools. The Constitution of the Church of Saxony, which resulted from this visitation, became the model for the organization of the other evan- gelical State Churches. The gloomy experience which Luther thus acquired of the incredible ignorance of the people and their teachers, led him to prepare his two catechisms (1529). 2. Organization of the Church in Hessen (1526-28). (Cf. B. Den- hard, Gesch. d. Entw. d. Christenth. in d. hess. Landern bis zur Thei- lung. Frkf. 1847. — Martin, Nachr. v. d. Syn. zu Romberg. Cass. 1804. — W. Bach, Gesch. d. kurhess. Kirchenverf. Marb. 1832. — K. A. Credner, Philipp's hess. K. 0. Giess. 1852. — /. W. Ban in, Franz Lambert v. Avignon. Strassb. 1840.) — As early as Oct. 1526, the Landgrave Philip, of Hessen, had convened the temporal and spiritual states of his ter- ritory at Honiberg, for consultation in regard to ecclesiastical reforms. A reactionary attempt of the Catholic party quailed before the fiery eloquence of the Fi'anciscan, Francis Lambert, of Avignon. He was a most remarkable man, and had been awakened by reading Luther's works, in his convent at Avignon. Not fully convinced, he started for Wittenberg, stopped on the way at Zurich, and engaged in a public disputation (1522) against Zwingli's reforms. Converted bv his oppo- nent, he left Zurich, passed through Luther's school at Wittenberir, and then, at Melanchthcm's recommendation, went to Hessen. Lam- bert's spirit ruled the Synod. An organization of the Church was drafted, according to Lambert's ideal of a communion of saints, on a democratic basis, and with a strict church discipline, to be adminis- tered by the congregations themselves. But the inadequacy of this Homberg scheme was soon demonstrated, and, in 1528, the Hessian Church adopted the principles of the Saxon Church visitation. The confiscated benefices were appropriated to the foundation of the Uni- versity oi Marburg (1527), as the second nursery of reformed theology. Lambert became one of its first professors. 3. Organization of other German State Churches (1828-29). (Cf. Ehesa, de primis sacrorum reformataribus in Prussia. Regiom. 1825-27. 56 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 1 6 A. D.) . — W. LoJie, Erinner. aus d. Refgesch. v. Franken. Niirnb. 1847. — L. Wallis, Abr. d. Refgesch. Ltiueb. Liineb. 1832). — Margrave George, of Franconian-Brandenburg, after the death of his brother Casimir, organ- ized the Church of his territory, at the diet of Anspach (1528), upon the model of that in Saxony. Under the direction of its excellent recorder, Lazarus Spengler, Nuremberg united with George in intro- ducing the organization adopted. The same was done in Lilneburg, at the diet of Scharnebeck (1527). Vlric of Dornum took the matter into hie own hands in East Friesland, the ruler of the country not venturing to introduce a reformation of the Church there. In Schles- wig and Holsteiii, the prelates made no opposition, and the civil go- vernment favored the change. In Silesia, both the princes of Liegnitz, Podiebrad's grandsons, and Margrave George of Brandenburg, who had estates there, cheerfully granted the request of the people for an evangelical constitution. In Breslau, the Reformation had long been predominant ; and even the archduke, who, as King of Bohemia, pos- sessed feudal supremacy over Silesia, found himself obliged to allow his states there the same rights which the diet of Spires had granted to the imperial states. In Prussia, the grand-master Albert of Bran- denhvrg (the brother of the Margraves Casimir and George) had, with the approval of the Polish crown, become hereditary duke (1525), and gave to his duchy, with the cordial cooperation of both his bishops, a thoroughly evangelical constitution. 4. Tlie Reformation in the Cities of Loicer Germany (1524-31). — In the cities of Lower Germany there prevailed, even before the rise of the Reformation, a powerful efiFort to effect emancipation of epis- copal and aristocratic rule. Hence their inhabitants, for the most part, embraced the Reformation Avith open arms. A characteristic feature of the work, there, is the surprisingly potent influence of Lu- theran psalms and hymns. The Refin-mation was introduced into Magdeburg as early as 1524, and the Church there was organized by Nich. of Amsdorf whom Luther sent thither. From 1525, Martin Scultetus prea'ched and labored there Avith great success. In 1526, the city joined the Torgau alliance. In Brunswick, at the close of a Ca- tholic controversial sermon (1526), the congregation began to sing: •'Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein." In 1528, Bugcnhagen went over from Wittenberg and organized the Church. In Gosslar, Eim- beck, Gottingen, Rostock, Hamburg, etc., the enthusiasm of the people for Lutheran hymns a.nd doctrineii carried the council with them, whether they would or no. In Bremen, as early as 1525, all the churches but the cathedral were in the hands of Lutheran preachers ; in 1527, the monasteries were converted into schools and hospitals, and the cathedral, with its grounds, taken from the Catholics. Still more violent excitement attended the introduction of the Reformation into Lilberk (1529-31). Until then, the nobility, council, and clergy, had suppressed all reformatory movements, and expelled the evangelical MARTYRS OF THE EVANGELICAL FAITH. 57 preachers. But financial embarrassments compelled the council (1529) to ask the citizens for extraordinary levies. They appointed a com- mittee of sixty-four citizens, who constrained the council to yield one condition after another. The expelled preachers were to be recalled, the Catholic priests to be removed, the monasteries to be converted into hospitals and schools, and, finally, Bugenhagen was called in to frame a Lutheran constitution for the Church. « §8. MARTYRS OF THE EVANGELICAL FAITH. (1521-29). Cf. L. Volkert u. G. W. H. Brock, d. h. Martyrer d. evang. K. Erlg 1845. — M. Guhcl, Gesch. d. chr. Lebens in d. rhein. westph. K. Oobl. 1849. Bd. l.—Eiidelhach, chr. Biogr. Bd. I. H. 4. The lands of the Reformation were early enriched by the blood of raartyrs. Persecutions were begun, soon after the issue of the edict of Worms, by some Catholic princes, Duke George of Saxony taking the lead. He imprisoned, scourg-c d, an.d banished Luther's adherents; and, in 1521, had a bookseller, who sold Luther's works, beheaded (cf. § 6, 6\ Persecution raged most, however, in the low countries, the hereditary territories of the emperor, not connected with the German Empire (where, really, the first martyr's blood was shed, 1523), but also in the Austrian domains, in Bavaria, and in the territory of the Swabian league, especially after the conclusion of the Regensburg confederacy (1524). The peasants' war (1525), added fuel to the persecu- tions. Under pretence of punishing the insurgents, the execu- tioners of the Regensburg confederates went through the land, and, along with the guilty, put to death many who were innocent of every crime but adherence to the Gospel. The decision of the diet of Spires fanned tlie flames (152(3). The more cheerfully the evangelical states, on tlie strengtli of that decision, pro- ceeded to organize evangelical Churches in their territories, so much the more zealously did the foes of the innovations inflict upon their evangelical subjects the most cruel persecutions. The forgeries o^ Pack, consequently, revived, and increased the spirit of persecution. In 1527-28, a church-visitation was insti- tuted in Austria, similar to that in Saxony, but for the purpose of detecting and punishing heretics. In Bavaria, the public roads were guarded, to prevent preachers from going abroad into other countries ; those caught were first fined, then drowned or burned in large numbers. 58 SECTION III. FIRST P E III 0 D (CENT. 16 A. D.). 1. The first martyrs were two young Augustine monks, at Antwerp, Henry Voes and John Each, whose heroic sufferings (1.523) Luther cele- brated in a beautiful hymn (" Ein neues Lied wir heben an"). Theii example was followed by Lampert Thorn, the prior of the monastery, who was suifocated in prison. 'I'he same year, George Buchfukrer was burnt in Hungary, and, during the next year, a large number of scaf- folds and stakes were erected, for Protestants, in Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia. The most notable of these was Caspar Tauber, who was beheaded and burnt in Vienna. Instead of the recantation he was expected to announce, he bore powerful testimony, from the pulpit, in favor of evangelical truth. Among later martyrs, Leonard Kdser (Kaiser) holds a distinguished place. Lnpelled by filial love to visit his dying father in Passau, he perished there at the stake, with joyful courage, Aug. 16, 1527. A few months previously, George Carpenta- rius, an eccHesi.astic, had obtained the honor in Munich. — The Swabian League, after the recess of Spires, revived its cruel executions against all who held evangelical views, under an order for the extermination of Anabaptists. In 1527, the Bishop of Constance had John Hliglin (Heuglin) burnt alive, as an opposer of the Holy Mother Church. The Elector of Mayence summoned the cathedral preacher of Halle, George Winkler, to Anschaffenburg, for having administered the Com- munion under both forms. Winkler vindicated himself, and was acquitted, but was murdered on his way home. This led Luther to write his " Trtistungen an die Christen zu Halle uber den Tod ihres Predigers." — In Cologne, on Sept. 28, 1529, Adolf Clar'enbach and Peter Flysteden, were honored with martyrdom, and the joy and steadfastness of their faith shone forth amid the fiames. — In Northern Germany no blood was shed, but Duke George drove those who confessed the evangelical faith out of the land with scourges. The Elector Joachim of Brandenburg and his states resolved, 1527, zealously to maintain old doctrines and customs. Nevertheless, the Gospel took continually deeper root in his territory ; and his own wife, Elizabeth, secretly read and admired Luther's writings, and, in her private chamber, even received the Lord's Supper according to the Lutheran mode. But she was betrayed, and the elector raged and threatened to imprison the offender. Disguised as a peasant, she fled to her relative, the Elector of Saxony. ^9. LUTHER'S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIFE. (1523-29.) Cf. W. F. Walch, warh. Gesch. d. Frau Kath. v. Bora. Halle, 1751. — W. Beste, Kath. v. B. Halle, 1843.— -J'. G. Hoffmann, Luther als Gatte u. Vater. Lpz. 1845. — Apologetisches liber Luther's Tischreden in d. Ztschr. flir Protestantism ii. K. Bd. II. II. 4. 5. Luther and the prior, the last of its inhabitants, did not leave the monastery until December, 1524. In July, 1525, he married LUTHER'S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIFE. 59 Catharine v. Bora, of the monastery of Nimptsch. Although Luther was often prostrated by sickness, almost overwhehned with business, and kept constantly sensible of the uncertainty of his life by the threats of enemies against it, he still preserved a cheerful disposition, and spent many happy hours in the circle of his friends, joining them in simple repasts, in singing, music, religious conversation, and harmless, though often pungent and lively jokes (cf. his Table-Talk, subsequently collected by Auri- faber). At the same time he cheered and aided, by his counsel and efforts, all who were in straits. By his unremitted literary labors, by personal intercourse with students and strangers who flocked to Wittenberg, and by extensive correspondence, he ac- quired and retained an extraordinary influence upon the spread and firmer establishment of the Reformation. By his transla- tions and expositions of the Scriptures, by his sermons and didactic writings, his evangelical views spread among all classes of people. German hymns proved a mighty lever of the Re- formation ; by them a pure knowledge and cheerful confession of the truth were planted deeply in the heart of the nation. By translating or reconstructing older hymns, and by composing new ones of unsurpassed excellence, which he furnished at the same time with remarkably vigorous and beautiful tunes, Luther laid the basis of the incomparably rich and glorious hyranological treasury of the German evangelical Church. He labored, also, with special diligence for the improvement of instruction in the churches and schools ; urged the establishment of new schools, both for the higher and ordinary branches of education, and insisted upon the importance of philological studies fof the Church of pure Gospel. 1. The first cotleciion of spiritual hymns and j^satms appeared in 1524, with a preface by Luilier. In the reformation of the ndius, Luther proceeded cautiously and with forbearance. In 1523, he issued hia '■^ Deutsches Taiifhachlein," and his " Weise, chi-istliclie Messe zu halten und zum Tische Gottes zu gehen," in which all allusions to a sacrifice were avoided, and the communio sub utraquo was maintained. In 1524, he sent forth his tract: " Vom Greuel der Stillmesse," in which he directly assailed the canon of the mass, the central point of the Romish system. Finally, in 1526, he published his "Deutsche Messe und Ordnung des Gottesdienstes," which was introduced into most of the churches of electoral Saxony. The system of education was especially improved by his impressive tract : "An die Burgermeister und Rathsherren aller Stadte Deutschlands, dass sie christliohe Schulen 60 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.), aufrichten und halten sollen." Besides his controversy with Erasmus and Carlstadt, against Mlinzer and the insurgent peasants, as well as against the sacramentarians of the upper countries (cf. ^ 131), he had, during this period, his dispute with CocJiIceus, whose abusive assault Luther parried with his tract: "Wider den gewappneten Mann Cochlaus, ein Bescheid vom Glauben und Werken" (1523). A papal bull, canonizing Bishop Benno of Meissen (died, 1106), called forth Luther's tract: "Wider den neuen Abgott und alten Teufel, so zu Meissen soil erhoben werden" (1524). In reply to a soldier who had doubts concerning the lawfulness of his profession, he wrote the small volume: "Ob Kriegsleute audi in seligem Stande sein kcinnen" (1526) ; and, for sport, had some copies struck oif, without the author's name, or that of the place of publication, and sent to Duke George. At the persistent request of Christian II., of Denmark, he wrote a very humble letter to Henry VIII., which called forth, from England, an extremely malignant and opprobrious answer. He quieted the tri- umphant outcry of his foes, that he had recanted, by his tract : "Wider des Konig's von England Lasterschrift" (1527), in which he again displayed the confident tone and fearlessness of his polemics. He fared no better in an equally humble attempt to reconcile Duke George, to which he was persuaded (1526). He continued to work, untiringly, at the translation of the Scriptta-es. The first edition of the entire Bible was published in 1534, by Hans Luftt, Wittenberg. I 10. THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND. (1519-31). Whilst Luther's Reformation in Germany spread more widely every day, and became purer, stronger, and more fully organized, a similar movement was started in the adjacent country of (Ger- manj Switzerland. Indeed, its first symptoms were of earlier date (1516) ; but it did not make decided or comprehensive pro- gress until two years after Luther came forward. The differ- ently constituted peculiarities of its first and cliief leader, and the politico-democratic current in which it moved, imparted to it a tendency differing from the Ijutheran reform, in various respects. Most strongly did the opposition between them ap- pear in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper (§ 11). As the Swiss view of this doctrine found favor in the cities of Upper Ger- many, the division spread into the Reformed Church of Germany, and, in spite of common interests and perils, hindered their com- mon progress and co-operation (§ 13, 14). 1. TJlric Zioingli. (Cf. Zwingli's Leben von Osw. Mi/conius. Bas. 1536; J. J. Hess, Ziirich, 1818; Eotermund, Bremen, 1818; Schuler, REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND. 6] Zurich, 1818 ; /. /. Hottinger, Zurich, 1843 [transl. by T. C. Porter, Harrisburg, 1857] ; W. Roder, St. Gall, 1854. [Especially : R Chris- toffel, Elberfeld, 1857.]— Zwingli's Works: Gualter, Tig. 1581, 4 voll.; Schiller u. Schidthess, Zurich, 1829, etc., 8 vols., royal 8vo. ; U.steri u. Vogelin, Zurich, 1819, 2 Bde.). — Zwingli, born in Wildhaus. in the Toggenburg, on Jan. 1, 1484, a pupil of the learned humanist, Thomas Wyttenbach, in Basel, arose as a reformer, in German Switzerland, almost simultaneously with Luther. Unlike Luther, he tras not led to greater purity and freedom of religious knowledge by any inward experience, but by classical culture, and a scientific study of the Sacred Scriptures. After serving the parish of Glarus as pastor for ten years, he received charge of that at Einsiedeln, in 1516. The miraculous virtues attributed to an image of Mary, there, attracted crowds of pilgrims. This led Zwingli to preach against superstitious reliance on good works. But he took a much more decided stand after Jan. 1, 1519, . as a public preacher in Zurich, where he first learned of Luther's move- ments, and defended his course against Rome. But, from the begin- ning, Zwingli's reformatory measures diverged from those of Luther. He aimed at being not only a religious but political reformer. For several years he had strenuously endeavored to abolish the practice of hiring SavIss youth as mercenary soldiers to foreign powers. He main- tained the struggle with this evil during his whole life. His political opponents, the oligarchy, who were anxious to retain this source of ' revenue, were consequently also his religious enemies, as, reversely, ' the democracy supported him. A still more fundamental difference was, that Zwingli had been trained for his reformatory work, not by convictions of sin, or spiritual struggles, but by classical studies. Justification by faith, therefore, was by no means so central and vital a matter, in his life and labors, as in Luther's case. He began his work, as a reformer, not so much with the purification of doctrine as the life-blood of all churchliness, but with external improvements in . ■worship, order, and manners. Of the two anti-Romish reform'atorv principles (maferial, in opposition to Romish work-righteousness: justification by faith: — formal, in opposition to an unqualified adhe- rence to all the traditions of the Romish Church: the sole authority of the Holy Scriptures), the WHienherg Reformation gave most promi- nence to the material, the Zurich Reformation to the formal, principle. The former rejected only such things as were irreconcilable with the Scriptures, the latter every thing not expressly taught by them. The former pi-oceeded cautiously and forbearingly in changing forms of worship and external customs: the latter was destructive, impetuous, and violent. Luther retained images, altars, the ornaments of churches, and the sacerdotal character of public worship, simply pruning off its unevangelical excrescenses and deformities ; Zwingli rejected all, un- conditionally, as id(datry, and even abolished organs and bells. Despite the one-sided prominence given by Zwingli to his forniAl principle, he II —6 62 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). often did violence to the Scriptures ; for he approached them externally, and explained them according to his subjective judgment, and called Luther's real submission to them servitude to their letter ! Luther acknowledged no operation of the Spirit, excepting through the Word and the Sacraments ; Zwingli severed the influence of the Spirit from . thjse instruments, and held that he could operate immediately upon the heart. He regarded the sacraments as only commemorative signs ; in the doctrine of the person of Christ, he verged towards Nestorian- ism, by denying that the human nature of Christ participated in the divine predicates. For him, justification by the merits of Christ alone was less of positive than of negative (in oiiposition to Romish work- righteousness) importance, for, in original sin, he saAV only a moral disease, which, of itself, did not constitute sin ; and his views of the essence of virtue were so superficial, that he ranked even heathen, like Socrates and Cato, without further qualifications, in the .com- munion of saints. Along with this, his speculations led him to adopt 9, fatalistic predestination, -wHiich deprives the will of moral freedom, as over against divine providence. — Luther was right in subsequently saying to Zwingli: " Ihr habt einen andern Geist, denn wir." — (Cf. U. Zeller, das theol. System Zwingli's. Tlibg. 1853. — Chr. Sigwart, Ulr. Zw. Der Char. sr. Theol. mit bos. Rucks, auf Pic. v. Mirandola. Stuttg. 1855. [See, also, Ehrard's Lehre v. heil. Abendm., for a com- plete refutation of the above, and Zivingli no Radical, in the Mercers- burg Review, 1849, p. 263, etc. — TV.] 2. The ReformaUon in Zurich (1519-25). (Cf. Sal. Hess, Urspr. Gang, etc., der durch Zw. in Z. bewirkt. Ref. Zurich, 1820.) — Li Sv."it- , zerland, also, a seller of indulgences, Bernard Samjjson, prosecuted . his scandalous business. At Zwingli's instigation, the gates of Zurich , were closed against him. Soon afterwards (1520) the council granted^ the priests and preachers of the city and territory the privilege of, preaching according to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, alone. All this took place under the eyes of two papal nuncios, then, in Zurich — and yet it went unpunished, for the R,oman court was then too intent upon procuring troops for a papal army, designed for the conquest of Milan. Nevertheless, a large annuity was offered to, Zwingli, if he would cease to preach against the Pope. He rejected- the offer, and went forward on his reformatory course. Under the con-^ tinued foi-bearance of Rome, the new views took deeper root. During, Lent, 1522, the people of Zurich unscrupulously ate meat and eggs.. Then first did the bishop (of Constance) adopt corrective measures ; the opponents of reform In the city and council also roused themselves. . At this time, Francis Lambert, of Avignon (| 7, 2), came to Zurich. He preached against the innovations, had a public debate Avith Zwingli in July, and declared himself vanquished and convinced. Zwingli's - opponents had reckoned confidently upon Lambert's eloquence and ' dialectic skill. The unexpected result of the disputation produced ' R E F 0 R M A T I O N IN GERMAN S W I T Z E R ^ .L N D . 63 the greater eflFect. The council cliangcd the permission to preach the pure Gospel into a command to do so. Against this the adlierents of • Home protested. A public disjntfation Avas therefore appointed in Feb., 1523. John Faber, a former friend of Zwingli, but who had totally changed his views, ifter a visit to Rome, and had been made vicar-general of the Bishwp of Constance, undertook the defence of old doctrines and customs against Zwingli. Having let himself be drawn into the Scriptural argument, he was defeated. The clergy now began to marrj', and the monasteries were forsaken. Violent assaults were uuide upon the mass, and the Avorship of images and saints. The ccmncil resolved to have the question concerning images decided by another disputation, in Oct., 152,^. Leo Juda, pastor of St. Peter's, in Zurich, discussed the worship of images : Zioingli, the mass ; and they met with scarcely any opposition. At Whitsuntide, 1524, the council ordered all images to be removed from the churches, the frescoes to be cut out, and the walls to be painted white. The playing of organs and ringing of bells were likewise to be abolished, because they were con- nected with superstitions. A new, purely Scriptural formula of bap- tism was introduced, and, finally, the mass abolished (1525). At Easter, 1525, Zwingli administered a love-feast, at which the bread was carried about in wooden trays, and the wine was drunk from wooden cups. Thus he thought he had restored the Lord's Supper to its apos- •■jolic Christian simplicity ! 3. The licformution in Basel (1520-25). (Cf (Ecolampad's Leben, by Grt/naeiis, Bas. 153G. — Sal. Ilesa, Zurich, 1793. — /. J. Herzog, Bas. 1843, 2 Bde — [A'. 7?. Har/enbach, Ell)erfeld, lS5d. ] — Bnrckhanl die Ref. in Basel. Bas. 1818.) — Wolfgang Fabricws Capito (Kupflin) ana Caspar Iledio early began to preach the Gospel in Basel. But, before they could lay a firm foundation, they obeyed a call to Mayenoe (1520), and soon afterwards went to Strassburg. Their work was carried on with zeal and success by William Ktiublin. He preached against the Tiass, purgatory, and the Avorship of images, often to four thousand hearers. At Corpus Christi, instead of relics, which he ridiculed as dead men's bones, lie carried a Bible before him. He was banished, and subsequently joined the Anabaptists. A new epoch for Basel- opened with 1523. John Ilansschein or CEcolampadms, of Weinsberg, in Franconia (Zwingli's Melanchthon), preached in Basel, as early as, 151(3. Then he accepted a call to the cathedral in Augsliurg, but, in. the course of a year, withdrew to a monastery of St. Bridget, in Augs- , burg. There he studied Luther's writings, and, being persecuted for. this, he took refuge in the castle of Sickingen, Avhere he officiated for, a season as chaplain. After Sickingen's overthroAV, he fled to Basel. (1523), became preacher at St. Martin's, and professor in the univer-. sity. A circle of young men, awakened by him, socm gathered around , him. and energetice.lly sustained him in his reformatc ry lal ors. They baptized in German, administered the eucharist in both forms, and 64 SECTION III. —FIRST TERICD (CENl 16 A. D.). were untiring in their preaching. In 1524, the council gave all monkc and nuns liberty to quit the monastery. William Farel, of Dauphin^, . a refugee from France, whom G^colanipadius kindly received, remained . several months in Basel (1524), and rendered important service in* furthering the Reformation. In February, he had a public disputation • vs^ith the opponents of the cause. The university and bishop had for- ■ bidden it, but the council Avas only the more intent upon it. Its resuh gave a mighty impulse to the Reformation. 4. Tlie Reformation in other Cantons (1520-25). (Cf. Stierlein, die Ref. in Bern. Bern. 1827.— 5. Fischer, d. Ref. in Bern. 1827.—/. Kuhn, die Reformatoren Berns. Bern. 1828. — M. KirchhoJ'er, B. Haller's Le- ben. Zurich. 1828. — C. Grilneisen, Nicl. Manuel, Leb. u. Wirk. einea Malers, Dichters, Kriegers, Staatsm. u. Ref. Stuttg. 1837.) — From 1518, Berchtold Ualler, of Rothweil, in Swabia, with Francis Kolb and Sebast. Meyer, labored in Bern as political and religious reformers, in harmony with Zwingli. As an auxiliary to their preaching, Nicholas Manuel, poet and painter, wrote and issued satirical plays for the car- nival ("Der Todtenfresser," 1522; "Die Krankheit der Messe," 1526, etc.). In 1523, the council authorized the monks and nuns to leave the monastery ; some left and married. The opposite party called upon John Heim, a Dominican, to defend their cause in the city (1524). A violent controversy arose between him and the Franciscan, Sebastian Meyer, and the council expelled both from the city. 'J'hus Haller alone remained. But he was vigilant, and the cause pro- gressed.— In Milhlhansen, where Ulric v. Ilutten had found refuge in his last days, the council issued an ordinance (1524) which gave free course to the Reformation ; in Biel, also, it Avas admitted without restriction. In Eastern Switzerland, St. Gall distinguished itself for zeal in the cause, under the load of its burgomaster, Vadinn. John Kessler (^4, 1) preached the Gospel in the corporation hall of Sattler- schurz, and Balth. Huhmeier from the pulpit. Ilubmeier afterwards fell over to the Anabaptists. In Schaffhausen, the Catholics put for- ward Erasmus Ritter in a disputation with the Reformed preacher, Sebast. Hofmeister. Ritter acknowledged his defeat, and thenceforth cooperated Avith Hofmeister. In Valais, Thomas Plater, the original and learned rope-maker (afterwards rector of the high-school of Burg), was active in preparing the way for the Reformation. In Appenzel and Glarus also, as well as in the confederate cantons, the cause every- where progressed. — In the interior, on the contrary, the nobilitv, clinging to their pensions, resisted ; the mountain people also, whose idea of religion consisted of pilgrimages, images, and saints, persist- ently opposed all innovations. T^vzerne, at the head of the original cantons, and Freiburg in the West, were the chief bulwarks of popery in Switzerland. 5. Anabaptist Disorders. — Although the Reformers in Switzerlan'' REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND 65 carried their operations to greater extremes, a multitude of fan ,tical ultraists sprang up, who thought that far too little was done. Among them, also, Anahaptism was t'»e symbol of those fanatical, spiritual- istic, communistic movements which first overran Zwickau. Their chief leaders in Switzerland were Lewis Hetzer, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Balth. Iluhmeier, and Stephen Siohr. They began. their dis- orders in Zoltikon, near Zurich. Ilubmeier, on Easter-eve (1525), held a council of Anabaptists at Waldshut. The district of Basel, where Thomas Miinzcr had been uprooting the soil, now arose in open clamors against the city. In St. Gall, alone, there were 800 Anabap- tists. At Zwingli's urgent advice, Zui-ich adopted thorough measures against them. Many were banished, some were drowned without mercy. Bern, Basel, at St. Gall, followed this example. G. Tlie Dispuiation at Baden (1526). — At the public assemblies, the anti-reform party of the oligarchs, whose spirit of opposition was sus- tained by their fear of losing their annuitieSj was still predominant. John Faber, of Constance, was the soul of the party. Zurich was repeatedly required to abstain from the innovations. At the assembly of 1525, it declared itself ready to comply, as soon as they were refuted by the Scriptures. The oligarchs could not evade the demands for a disputation ; but, in spite of all protests, they appointed it in the strictly Catholic Baden. The contestants and representatives of the cantons, and bishops, met there in May, 1526. Faber again stood at the head of the papists, but wisely committed the defence to Eck of Ingolstadt, who had offered his services. Opposed to him were Holler, of Berne, and (Ecolampadius, of Basel. The Reformed party was treated most shamefully, whilst every honor and advantage was shown the Catholics. Eck, it was said, bathed in Baden, but in wine. Zwingli was not there ; the council of Zurich had forbid his going ; but Thomas Plater sent him a daily account of the proceedings. Eck's theses were discussed one by one ; this took eight days. Eck's bois- terousness drowned QEcolampadius' weak voice ; but the calm self- possession of the latter had an imposing effect. At the close, Thomas Murner (| 5, 2), the monk of Luzerne, arose and read forty abusive articles against Zwingli. OEcolampadius, and ten of his friends, per- severed to the end in rejecting Eck's theses; all the rest subscribed them. The assembly pronounced the Reformers heretics, and called upon the respective cantons to banish them. 7. The Disputation at Berne (1528). (Cf. S. Fischer, Gesch. d. Disp. zu Berne. Berne, 1828.) — Berne and Basel were highly offended at the indignity done to their deputies at Baden. The democratic ele- ment, which was on the side of the Reformers, was increasing in strength. Berne grew weary of the distraction. A solemn disputation was therefore instituted, to which deputies were invited from ail parts, who should decide the matter. It took place on January 7-27, 1528. 6 * E 66 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.I. Zwingli was present. On the Catholic side there were o competent debaters, and they were completely defeated. Every trace of Ca- tholicism, in worship and discipline, was then exterminated. The various institutions and monasteries Avere secularized ; preachers made their oath of office to the civil rulers. Some violent measures attended the abolition of images. The valuable organ, in the church of St. Vincent, was stamped to pieces under the rough heels of the iconoclasts. The political reformation progressed simultaneously with that of religion, and all annual stipends were recalled. 8. Complete Triumph of the Reformation in Basel, St. Gall, and Scfiaffhausen (1529). — The burgomaster, Vadian, brought back tidings of the triumphant issue of the Berne disputation to St. Gall. This was the death-blow to the Catholic party. As early as 1528, though not without some iconoclastic excesses, the Reformation gained sole sway. — In Basel the council was divided, hence its measures were par- tial and wavering. On Good Friday, some citizens (without the know- ledge of Q^colampadius) destroyed the images in St. Martin's Church. They were imprisoned for it. But an insurrection of the citizens com- pelled the council to release them, and to grant the Reformed the un- conditional use of several churches, from which, of course, all images were removed. In December, 1528, the guilds presented a petition, couched in the most moderate terms, for the entire abolition of "idol- atry." The Catholic party look up arms ; the Reformed followed their examyjle ; a civil war threatened. The council succeeded in quelling the disturbance by appointing another public disputation, after which the whole matter was to be decided by a vote of the citizens. But the Catholic minority protested so energetically against this, that the council again had recourse to half-way measures. The dissatisfaction of the Reformed exploded in a fearful destruction of images, on Shrove Tuesday, 1529. Great piles of broken images and altars were burnt. The strictly Catholic members of the council fled, and the rest had to yield to the will of the burghers. Erasmus, also (Vol. I., ^ 120, 3), escaped. — In Schaffhausen, likewise, dissensions prevailed until 1529. But the course of things in Berne and Basel hastened the victory of the new measures. Here the drama ended very cheerily with a double marriage. The Abbot of All-Saints married a nun, and Erasmus Ritter married a sister of the abbot. The images were removed with- out a tumult, and the mass abolished. 9. The First Peace of Cappel (1529). — The Catholic party had re- tained the ascendency in the five primitive cantons. They were as unwilling to lose the annuities, and the right of engaging in foreign military service, as to give up the mass and saints, and sanguinarily punished every attempt to smuggle the new doctrine into their terri- tories. But they wished to have their measures carried out in all the allied bailiwicks. Zurich and Berne resolved no longer to endure this. REFORMATION IN GERMAN S W I T I E R L A N D . 67 As, moreover, UnterAvalden had, under these circumstances, Teen guilty of publicly violating the peace of the confederacy, and was sustained by the other four cantons, the burgher cities threatened serious vengeance against this infraction. The forest cities turned to Austria, the old hereditary foe of Swiss liberty, and, in the beginning of 1529, concluded a formal treaty with King Ferdinand, at'Insbriick, pledging reciprocal aid in matters of faith. Emboldened by this treaty, they increased their persecutions of the Reformed, nailed the escutcheons of the burgher cities to the gallows, and burnt alive a Zurich preacher, Jacob Keyser, whom they took on the highway, in neutral territory. Then the Zurichers broke out. With their decided preponderance, they might easily have put down the five cantons, and ihus have opened all Switzerland to the Reformation ; and Zwingli urged this course. But Berne was jealous of Zurich's growing power, and even many Zurichers, fearing war, were inclined to negotiate for peace with their confederated brethren. This led to the First Peace of Cappel, Nov. 16, 1529. The five cantons gave up the deed of con- federation with Austria, which the mediators immediately tore in pieces : they agreed to pay the costs of the war, and conceded that, in the bailiwicks, each congregation should decide by vote upon matters of faith. In regard to preaching the Gospel, it AA'as agreed that neither party would disturb the faith of the other. The matter of foreign pen- sions was adroitly evaded. Thus, much was gained, but less than Zwingli desired. On the basis of this peace, Thurgovia, Baden, Schaff- hausen, Solothurn, Neuenburg, Toggenburg, etc., did away with the mass, images, and altars. 10. The Seco7icl Peace of Cappel (1531). — Even after the peace, the five cantons continued stubborn in excluding and persecuting the Re- formed, and formed a new alliance with Austria. At the diet, by the old laws of confederacy, they still had the preponderance ; a fact which stood in glaring contrast Avith the actually much greater preponderance of the burgher cities. Zurich, therefore, insisted upon a reorganization of the confederacy. On the other hand, the forest cantons treated the Reformed with greater cruelty. Then Zurich decided, forthwith, to seize arms; but Berne carried a decree to punish the forest cantons by cutting off all intercourse Avith them. This measure, however, totally failed. It excited, in those cantons, the greatest indignation and anger, not against their stubborn rulers, as the Bernese hoped, but against their unmerciful oppressors, so that the people only clung the more closely to their goA'ernments. At the diet of Luzerne, the five cantons resoh-ed (Sept., 1531) to save themselves from perishing with hunger, by immediately renewing the war. By carefully guarding the borders, they kept their resolution and preparations so secret, that no tidings thereof reached the burgher cities. These, conscious of their greater strength, were therefore wholly unprepared, when suddenly, Oct. 9, an army of 8000 men, breathing vengeance, inA^aded the territory^ of 68 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. I6A. D.). Zurich. Zurich hastily collected a force of 2000 men, which met the foe at Cappel, Oct. 11, and was wellnigh annihilated. Zwiiigli ivas among the slain. His body was quartered, burned, and his ashes scat tered to the winds. Zurich and Berne soon brought to the field an army of 20,000 men ; but the courage and audacity of the enemy had increased, whilst the defeat of Cappel had robbed the Reformed of con- fidence and hope. They attacked the enemy, intrenched at Baar, near the Zug mountain, but were repulsed with great loss. The season was against them, and, what was worse, they were disheartened. Hence, when the forest cantons reassumed the offensive, the other party sub- mitted to the scandalous Second Peace of Cappel (1531), which, whilst it guaranteed them libei-ty to maintain the Reformation in their own territories, gave to the five cantons the right of restoring Catholicism in the bailiwicks. The Reformed had to defray the costs of the war, and to surrender their deed of confederacy with Strassburg, Con- stance, and Ilessen. A restoration of Catholicism was noAV begun. The Catholic minority, till then kept down, was active on all sides, and carried its measures more or less triumphantly through in many places. Thus in Aargau, Thurgovia, llheinthal, Sollure, Glarus, Rap- perschwyl, St. Gall, etc. I 11. THE SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY. (1525-29). Cf. [Selnecker u. Chemintez), Hist. d. Sacramentstreites. Lpz. 1591. — V. E. Ldscher, ausf. hist, motuum Zw. Luth. u. Ref. 2. A. Frkf. u, Lpz. 1722, etc. — M. Gobel, Luther's Abendmahlslehre vor u. in der Streite mit Karlstadt ; in d. Studd. u. Kritt. 1843, III. — lb., Karl- stadt's Abendmahlslehre, id. 1842, II. — /. H. A. Ehrard, d. Dogma, v. h. Abdm. u. s. Gesch. Frkf. 1846. Bd. II.; adv.: E. F. A. Kahnis, d. Lehre v. Abdm. Lpz. 1851. — A. W. Dieckkojf, d. evang. Abendmahlsl. im Reform. Zeitalter. Gijttg. 1854, Bd. I.— C. F. Jager (g 4, 3). Luther, in his work on the Babylonian captivity of the Church ('1520), had given rather undue prominence to the subjective aspect of the sacraments, in opposition to the prevailing view, which attributed their efficacy to the mere objective reception of them, independently of subjective faith (opus operatum). Thus, in the first period of his reformatory labors, he was in danger, as he subsequently admitted in his message to the Strass- burgers, of erring by a depreciation or denial of the divinely- objective contents of the sacraments. But, whilst he decidedly opposed transubstantiation as a scholastic invention, and was naturally inclined to regard the bread and wine as mere symbols the words of Holy Writ impressed him so powerfully, that lie could not deny the real presence of the body and blood of Christ. THE SACRA MENTARIAN CONTROVERSY. 69 The vagaries of fanatics and sncramcntarians soon led him to that unconditional submission to the letter of the Scriptures, to that firm and joyful confidence in its import, which thenceforth became tiie support and guide of his life. Teaching that the true body and blood of Christ were received in, with, and UNDER, the bread and wine — to the benefit of believers, and the judgment of unbelievers — he maintained the true Biblical medium between tlie unbiblical extremes of papists and sacra- raentarians. 1. Carlstddt had ah-eady, in Orlamund (§ 4, 3), advanced his doc- trine of the Supper, totally denying the presence of the liody and ' blood of Christ in the sacrament. lie explained away the force of the ■ words of instituticni by an absurd explanation of xovto. He argued that Christ thereby pointed to his body then present, and designed to • say: " This is my body, which I will offer in death for you, and, in remembrance of the fact, eat this bread." When Carlstadt, driven from Saxony, went to Strassburg, he interested the ministers of that city, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito, in favor of his views. Their efforts to effect a reconciliation were, of course, unavailing Avith Luther. Zivingli, also, sympathized with Carlstadt. Agreeing with him, essen- ■ tially, though on different grounds, Zwingli explained the words of institution, " This is" by " this signifies," and reduced the entire sig-- nificance of the sacrament to a symbolical commemoration of the suf- • ferings and death of Christ. In a letter to Matthew Alber, in Reut- lingen (1524), who held Luther's view, he expressed this opinion, and defended Carlstadt against Luther. He developed the same opinion more fully in his " Commentarius de vera et falsa religione," 1525, in which he designates Luther's view as an opinio non solum rustica sed etiam impia et frivola. (Ecolnmpadins also took part in the contro- versy, and vindicated his friend Zwingli against Biigenhagen's attack, in his " De genuina verborum Domini: Hoc est corpus meum, expo- tione," 1525. In this work, (Ecolampadius attempts to show that cTiL/ta, in the words of institution, signify as much as "sign of the body." He submitted the work to the Swabian reformers, John Brenz and Erhard Schnepf, who, in conjunction with twelve other Swal)ian preachers, replied to it in accordance with Luther's view. The con- troversy spread, disputants multiplied, each eagerly replying to his opponent. Luther issued two more powerful works upon the subject: one in 1527, "Das die Worte: das ist mein Leib, noch fest stehen;" the other in 1526, " Bekenntniss vom Abendmahle." The struggle progressed, in spite of the conciliatory efforts of the Strassburg divines. Zwingli's view became the shibboleth of the Swiss Reformation, and was approved in many cities of Upper Germany. Strassburg, Lindau, Memmiiii^eii, and Ccmstance adopted it; it even found favor in I'lm, Augsburg, Reutlingen, etc. 70 SECTION III. FIRST rERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). g 12. THE PROTEST AND CONFESSION OF THE EVANGEL ICAL STATES. (1529-30.) After the diet of Spires, public actiun upon relifjious raattera was suspended for three years. But, incited by the growing strength and the progress of the Reformation during this time, embittered by intervening mistakes, and encouraged by the im- provement of the emperor's politiqal position, the Catholic party obtained the preponderance again at the next diet of Spires (1529), and secured the passage of a decision designed to put a full end to the evangelical cause. Tiie evangelical party entered a formal ])rotest (thenceforth they were called Protest- ants), and made every effort to give it effect. The attempted union with the Swiss and cities of Upper Germany failed ; but, in the Augsburg Confession, they raised, at Augsburg (1530\ a banner in the presence of the emperor and empire, around which they thenceforth confidently rallied. 1. The Affair of Pack (1527-28). — In 1527, gloomy reports were spread of some imminent peril to the evangelical cause. The land- grave suspected a conspiracy of the Catholic princes in Germany. He, therefore, pressed Oito v. Pack, the chancellor of Duke George, to reveal what he knew of the matter. Pack, at length, confessed that a league was already formed against the Lutherans. The landgrave offered him 10,000 guilders for the original document. Pack brought a copy Avitli the ducal seal affixed. According to this paper, the Ca- tholic princes of Germany had bound themselves to fall upon electoral Saxony and Ilessen with their united forces, to exterminate the Reform- ation, and divide the country among them, etc. The landgrave was fired with indignation, and even Elector John allowed himself to be drawn into a league, by virtue of which both were to make energetic demonstrations against the impending assault. But Luther and Me- laitchthoa reminded the elector of the words of the Lord: "lie that taketh the sword shall perish by the sword ;" and persuaded him to await the attack, and confine himself to a simple vindication of his views. The landgrave, greatly provoked by the loss of his ally, sent a copy of Pack's document to Duke George, who pronounced it a shameful falsehood and forgerj'. Meanwhile, Philip had entered the territory of his ecclesiastical neighbor. At Wittenberg, bitter tears were shed at this violent infraction of the peace of the country. The landgrave, also, on calmer reflection after his return, was ashamed of his course. Pack was examined; he contradicted himself, and was soon found to be a bad character, who had been guilty of other frauds. The landgrave banished him. For a long time he wandered about, EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND CONFESSION. 71 and, finally at the instigation of Duke George, was beheaded in the Netherlands. This affair greatly damaged the evangelical cause. Mutual confidence was irretrievably lost ; the Catholic princes now seemed to be the injured party, and they were highly exasperated. 2. The Emperor's Position (1527-29). — The treachery of the King of France, and the consummation of the league of Cognac, had placed the emperor in a most trying position. Old Freundsherg gathered an army in Germany; and the German soldiery, burning with a de.sire to vex the pope, marched over the Alps without hire or pay. On May 6, 1527, they stormed Kome ; the pope yielded himself a captive. But once more Germany's hope in her emperor failed. Regard for the sentiments prevailing in his Spanish hereditary domains, and his own antipathy against the Saxon heresy, together with other political com- binations, did not suffer him to forget that he had been rescued by Lutherans. In June, 1528, he concluded a peace with the pope at Barcelona, and pledged his entire strength for the extermination of the heresy. The Peace of Cambray (July, 1529) finally terminated the war with France. In the articles of peace, both sovereigns promised to support the dignity of the papal chair, and Francis I. renewed the pledge to furnish aid against heretics and the Turks. Charles then hastened to Italy, to be crowned by the pope, intending, after that, to go to Germany in person, and adjust existing difficulties there. 3. The Did of Spires (1529). (Cf. /. /. MiUler, Hist. v. d. ev. Stande Protestation. Jena, 1705, 4to. — J. A. H. Titfmann, d. Protest, d. ev. Stande, Lpz. 1829.) — In the latter part of 1528, an imperial message was sent from Spain, appointing a diet at Spires, on Feb. 21, 1529, for the purpose of devising measures in regard to the war with the Turks, and to religious innovations. The existing state of affairs differed , widely from that in 1526 (| G, 7). The Catholic princes were irritated by the frauds of Pack ; the wavering states were controlled by fear of the emperor; the prelates were present in full numbers; and the- Catholic party had, for the first time since the diet of Worms, a de-' cided majority. The proposition of the imperial commissaries, to ■ annul the decision of the diet of 1526, was approved by a committee, ■ adopted by a majority, and engrossed, by Ferdinand's orders, as a decision of the diet. Thus all who had hitherto observed the edict of Worms were still to maintain it, and others were forbidden to intro- duce further innovations, at least until a council should be held ; the • mass was to be tolerated, and the jurisdiction and revenues of the bishops were to be every where restored. It was the death-sentence ' of the Reformation ; for the last point, especially, gave bishops full power arbitrarily to punish or depose offensive ministers. As no remonstrances availed with the stubborn Ferdinand, the evangelical party entered a solemn j^^otest against the decision, and demanded its incorporation with the decision. But Ferdinand declined accepting it 72 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . The Pi-otestants at once prepared and published a docunaent legally drawn up, and containing all the acts, in which they stated theii grievances, and appealed to the emperor, a free council, and a German national convention. The document was signed by the Landgrave of Hcssen, Margrave George of Brandenbiirg, the two Dukes of Luneberg, and Prince Wolfgang of Aiihalt. Fourteen cities of Upper Germany subscribed it. 4. The Marburg Colloquy (1529). (Cf. Rudelbacli, Ref. Lutherth. u. Union, p. 345, etc. — H. Hejype, d. 15 Marb. Artikel. With a fac-simile of the autographs. 2 Aufl. Kass. 1854.) — Before leaving Spires, elec- toral Saxony and Hessen united with Strassburg, Ulm, and Nuremberg, in a defensive alliance. The theologians present strongly opposed the admission of Strassburg to this league, on account of its Zwinglian views. At the same time the landgrave formed a compact with Zurich, and Zurich applied to Francis I. of France. Thus a coalition was forming which might have become more dangerous to the house of Austria than any preceding one. But one point was ignored which soon frustrated all these plans, the diversity between the Lutheran and Zwinglian confessions. Melanchthon returned to Wittenberg with severe chidings of conscience. Luther was opposed to any confederacy — most of all, to fraternization with sacramentarians — and the elector half agreed with him. The Nuremberg theologians had the same scruples. The league was to be ratified at Rotach, in June. The parties met, but effected nothing. The landgrave was distracted, but the elector remained firm. Philip then invited the leading theologians of both sides to hold a colloquy at his castle in Marburg. It lasted from Oct. 1-3, 1529. On the one side were Luther, Melanchthon, Jitstus Jonas, from AVittenberg, Joh7i Brenz, from Swabian Hall, and Andrew Osiander, from Nuremberg ; on the other side were Zwingli, from Zurich, (Ecolampadius, from Basel, and Bucer and Hedio, from Strass- burg. After private interviews between Zwingli and Melanchthon, and Luther and Qicolampadius, according to the well-considered arrangement of the landgrave, the public colloquy commenced on the second da}-. In the first place, several points were discussed touching the divinity of Christ, original sin, baptism, the Word of God, etc., regarding which the Wittenbergers suspected the orthodoxy of Zwingli. These were all secondary matters Avith Zwingli, in reference to which he dropped his unchurchly views, and declared his agreement with the views of the oecumenical councils. But, in regard to the article of the Lord's Supper, he was the more persistent. Appealing to John, 6 : 33, " The flesh prof fefh nothing," he showed the supposed absurdity of Luther's view. Luther had written, with chalk, on the table: " This is my body," and insisted that these were words of God, which Bhould not be perverted. Agreement was out of the question. Zwingli, nevertheless, declared himself ready to maintain fraternal fellowship, but Luther and his party rejected the oflfer. Luther said: " Ihr habt EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND CONFESSION. 73 einen andern Geist denn wir." Still Luthor found that his opponents did not hold as offensive views as he supposed ; and the Swiss, also, that Luther's doctrine was not so gross and Capernaitic as they thought. They united, therefore, in a mutual promise to drop disputes, and to earnestly pray God to lead them all to a right understanding of the truth. They adopted and subscribed fifteen articles. In the first four- ' teen they declared unanimous consent to the oecumenical faith of the Church against the errors of Papists and Anabaptists. In the fifteenth, the Swiss conceded that the body and blood of Christ were present in the sacrament, but they could not agree to his corporeal presence in the bread and wine. 5. The Convention of Schivahach (1529). — Whilst the theologians were conferring at Marburg, the Elector .John and Margrave George were in consultation at Schleiz. They agreed that unanimity in faith was the indispensable condition of fraternity. In October following, a convention was held at Schwahach, in accordance with the agreement at Rotach. On the basis of the Marburg articles, Luther had drawn up a confession {the seventeen articles oj" Schwahach), which the dele- gates from Upper Germany were required to subscribe before pro- ceeding further. They declined doing this, and the convention was adjourned. Meanwhile, the imperial orders with regard to the recess of the diet, which arrived from Spain, contained very ungraciovis ex- pressions against the Protestants. The evangelical States .sent an embassy to the emperor, then in Italy : but he, also, refused to receive their protest, and wellnigh treated the commissioners as prisoners. But they escaped, and brought back bad news. Hitherto the only question had been about a defensive and offensive league against the apprehended assaults of the Swabian league, or other Catholic princes. Luther's hope that the emperor would still examine the matter wap now destroyed. The question could not be .shunned, what to do if the assault upon their faith came from the emperor himself. The jurists, indeed, thought that the German princes were not in a relation of un- conditional subjection to the emperor, but that they themselves were rulers by the grace of God, and, as such, bound to protect their sub- jects. But Luther did not hesitate, for a moment, to compare the relation of his elector to the emperor with that of the burgomaster of Targau to the elector, for he clung to the idea of the empire as firmly as to that of the Church. lie entreated the princes not to resist the emperor, and for God's sake to suffer every thing for themselves and their countries. Only, if the emperor should require them to perse- cute, banish, or put to death their own subjects for conscience' sake, they were not bound to obey. Under such circumstances, the Conven- tion of Smalcald, agreed upon at ScliAvabach, took place. 6. The Diet of Augshurg (1530). (Cf. die Jul.elschr. v. Pfnf, Nu- remb. 1830 ; Veesenmet/er, Nuremb. 1830 ; Facias, Lpz. 1830, and II. — 7 74 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). Forstemann, Urkundenb. z. Gesch. d. Reichst. zu Augsb. Lpz. 1830-35, 2 Bde.) — From Bologna, ■where the Pope crowned him, the emperoi issued a call for a diet at Augsburg, which, after being absent from Germany nine years, he promised to attend in person. The removal of religious errors was to be the chief business. He wished, first of all, to try, by peaceable means, to win back the Protestants to the old faith. Hence his proclamation was conciliatory in its tone. But be- fore his arrival in Augsburg, new disorders arose. The Elector John had brought Melanchthon, Jonas, and Spalatin, with him to Augsburg, and had them to preach there. The emperor heard of this with great displeasure, and dispatched a message requiring him to have this stopped. The admonition was not heeded. On June 15, he, accom- panied by the papal legate, Campegius, entered the city in great pomp ; the Protestants (according to 2 K. 5 : 18, 19) participated, without opposition, in all the religious and civil ceremonies of recep- tion. The emperor then the more confidently demanded the preaching to be stopped. But the Protestants were firm. Mai-grave George broke the fury of the emperor's rage by his equally decided and humble declaration : before he would renounce the Word of God, he would kneel down on the spot, and let his head be cut ofi". With like firmness did they refuse to participate in the procession of Corpus Christi, because it was announced to be " in honor of Almighty God." In regard to preaching, they finally consented to impose silence on their clergy during the emperor's stay, since the opposite party was also required to abstain from controversial discourses. The diet was opened on June 20. The matter of the Turkish war, which the em- peror first introduced, was postponed until the religious questions should be settled. 7. The Augsburg Confession [June 2^, 1530). (Cf. D. C/tgtrdns, Wist. d. Augsb. Conf. Rost. 1576, 4to.— ^. Sal. Cyprian, Hist. d. A. C. Gotba, 1730.— C/i>-. A. Salig, vollst. Hist. d. A. C. Halle, 1730, 4to. — G. G. Weber, krit. Gesch. d. A. C. Frkf. 1784, 2 Bde. — ^. G. BudeJbach, hist.-krit. Einl. in d. A, C. Lpz. 1841. [G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. prot. Lehrbegr. III.] — When the imperial proclamation announced the pur- pose of settling religious dissensions amicably, the elector requested his theologians to prepare a brief and lucid statement of the evangel- ical faith. They presented him, accordingly, a revised copy of the seventeen Articles of Schwabach (the Torgau Articles). As the em- peror's arrival was delayed, Melanchthon improved the interval in preparing the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) cm the basis of the Torgau Articles. This compact, lucid document, as decided as it was mild, received the full approval of Luther, whom the elector had left in Coburg, because he was still under sentence of excommuni- cation and proscription. It contained twenty-one articuli fidei prag- cipui, and seven articuli in quibus recensentur abusus mutati. On June 24, the Protpstants desired to read their confession ; but it was EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND C O N F E S b I 0 N .' 75 only with great difficulty that the emperor consented to its being read on June 25 — and then not in the great hall of the public sessions, but in the much smaller chamber of the episcopal chapter, to which only the members of the diet were admitted. The chancellors of electoral Saxony, Doctors Baicr and Brilck, each came forward with a copy of the Confession, the former in German, the latter in Latin. Charles wished the latter to be read, but the elector carried the point of having the German copy read on German soil. This done, Briick handed both copies to Charles, who kept the Latin copy and gave the other to the Elector of Mayence. Tlie former was subsequently placed in the archives of Brussels, but was taken thence by the Duke of Alba, and lost ; the other was deposited in tlie archives of Mayence, but only a copy of it was afterwards found there. Both were signed bj' the Elector John, the Margrave George, Duke Ernest of Luneburg, the Landgrave Philip, Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, and the cities of Nu- I'emberg and Reutlingen. The Confession made a favorable impression upon many of the assembled princes, and scattered many prejudices against the faith of the Protestants, whilst the evangelical confessors felt themselves greatly strengthened by the unanimous confession of their faith before the emperor and nation. Charles now directed the Catholic theologians, John Faher, Eck, and Cochlceus, to refute the Confession. They prepared a so-called Confutation, which was read Aug. 3. Charles declared that their document contained the views by which he would abide; that he -sAOuld expect the princes to do the same; otherwise, he was the protector of the Church, and was not dis- posed to tolerate a schism in Germany. The Protestants requested a copy of the Confutation, that thej- might examine it more closely ; this was denied them. Then the landgrave left the diet. He told the elector that he placed person and property, country and people, at hia disposal ; and to the delegates of the cities he wrote : " Tell the cities not to be women, but men. You need not fear; God is on our side." The Zwinglian cities of Strassburg, Memmingen, Constance, and Lin- dau, handed in their own confession [Confessio tetrapolitana) , the 18th article of which declares: Christ, in the sacrament, gives his true body and true blood, to be eaten and drunk for the nourishment of the soul. Charles directed a Catholic refutation of this also to be read, as a set- tlement of the matter. — Meanwhile Luther, at Coburg, had, bv his earnest prayers, counsel, and encouragement (Exod. 7 : 11), sustained his friends in their conflicts at Augsburg. He preached often, wrote numerous letters, negotiated with Bucer (| 13, 7), labored at the trans- lation of the Prophets, and wrote several works for edification. Pro- l)ably the powerful hymn : " Eine veste Burg," etc., and its tune, were composed at this time. 8. Recess of the Aitgshnrg Diet (1530.) — The hopeful firmness with which the Protestant minority maintained their position, caused the Catholic majorit}' to hesitate about a public rupture. They therefore 76 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). resolved to attempt a mediation once more. For this purpose the em- peror appointed a commission of two princes, two doctors of canon law, and three theolof!;ians, from each party. The 21 doctrinal articles of the Confession were assented to, without altering a single fundamenta? point ; on the other hand the Protestants were to give up everything relating to constitution and customs. So the measure failed. Five imperial cities took sides with the emperor, the others attached them- selves to the protesting princes. At the close the Protestants desired to read and present an Apology of the Atigshurg Confession, drawn up by Melanchthon, as an offset to the Catholic confutation, but the Em- peror inflexibly refused permission. (After the adjournment of the diet, Melanchthon obtained a full copy of the confutation, and revised his admirable apology ; — it is among the most decided productions of his pen, and was translated into German by Justus Jonas.) On Sept. 22, the Protestant states were notified by the recess of tlie diet, that time would be given them until April 15 following, to consider the matter ; but meanwhile no new work should be publislied, and confes- sion and the mass should be tolerated in their dominions. A promise was also given that a general council should be called within six mouths. The spiritual princes were confirmed anew in all their pre- rogatives. The emperor declared that it was his fixed purpose strictly to maintain the edict of Worms, and enjoined his fiscal to prosecute all violations, even to passing sentence of proscription. The supreme court of judicature itself was formally and expressly bound to maintain the recess of the diet. Finally, Charles expressed the desire that, in view of his frequent absence, his brother Ferdinand might be chosen King of the Romans. This was soon afterwards done at Frankfurt; but electoral Saxony entered a protest against it. I 18. EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS DURING 1531-36. The Protestants had not yet been able to effect a permanent alliance. Now, however, it became necessary to set themselves earnestly about it. Thus arose the Smalcaldic league, 1531, for six years. To tliis energetic measure, and the simultaneous political exigency of the emperor, the Prcitestants owed the concession of the first or Nuremberg Jieligiou.^ Peace. The l)old profrress of the landgrave released WUrtemherg from the Austrian yoke, and ])opish coercion. At the same time the Reformation tri- umphed in AnhaU, Pnmerania, and several cities of Westpha- lia.' But for the Anahaptid dUorders of MUuHter, all Westphalia would have become Protestant. The untirino: assiduity of Bucer. also, secured the northern countries for tlie Smalcaldic league, by means cf the Wittenberg concord. The league now presented an imposing and powerful front. EVENTS AND N E G O T I A T I 0 N S (] 5 3 1-3 6). 77 1. The Formation of the Smalcaldic Leagtie (1530-31). — The obliga- tion of the imperial chamber to carry out the Augsburg recess, threat- ened most danger to the Protestants. To ward off this danger the evangelical states unanimously resolved, at a convention in Smalcald (Dec. 1530), to sustain each other against every attack of the chamber. But when the question arose whether, in any extremity, thej' would be justified in taking arms against the emperor himself, their views were divided. The legal opinions of the jurists finally prevailed over all religious scruples, and the Elector of Saxony demanded the forma- tion of a league against everi/ assailant, even should it be the emperor himself. At a second convention in Smalcald, March, 1531, such a league was formally concluded, for six years. The parties to it were : Electoral Saxony, Hessen, LUneburg, Anhalt, Mansfeld, and eleven cities. 2. The Religions Peace of Nuremberg (1532). — The energetic combi- nation of the Protestants made an impression ; its effect was also in- creased by a threatened attack of the Sultan Soliman, who seemed determined to enforce his pretensions to imperial power and universal dominion. In order to subdue the Protestants, it would be necessary to make terms with the Turks : before these could be humbled, a peace- able union among the Protestants was indispensable. Ferdinand de- cided upon the latter policy, and by his advice the emperor ordered a diet at Regenshurg, and directed his fiscal of the chamber to stay all proceedings, instituted by virtue of the Augsburg recess, until the diet should convene. But the catastrophe in Switzerland, soon after, (§ 10, 10,) changed Ferdinand's policy. This seemed to him the best time for inflicting the same fate upon the evangelical party in Germany which befell the Swiss. He therefore sent an embassy to the Sultan, which was authorized to propose the most ignominious terms of peace. But Soliman spurned every offer, and, in April, 1532, marched for- ward with an arm}^ of 300,000 men. In the meantime the diet waa opened at Augsburg, April 17, 1532. Here the Protestants were not, as two years j^reviously, the suppliants, but the entreated party. They ' would no longer listen to a compromise, but demanded peace in reli- gious matters, the annulling of all religious processes in the chamber, and a free general council, where matters at issue should be decided alone according to the Word of God. As long as Ferdinand could hope that his ambassadors to the Turks would obtain a favorable answer, he did not seriously entertain negotiations for peace. But when this hope was destroyed, and he saw the terrible army of Soliman rolling on- ward, there was no time to be lost. To be nearer the emperor, (in Brussels,) the diet's further proceedings were transferred to Nuremberg, where the first, or Nuremberg Religious Peace, was concluded (June 23, 1532). On account of the Catholic majority, and the papal legate, the demand regarding the imperial chamber could not be engrossed in the public records ; hence the ci peror granted it in a separate pledge, but 7* 78 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A. D.). only in fevor of the then existing states. It was permitted the Elector John, as a reward for his fidelity, to see this peace concluded. He died soon after (1532) of apoplexy, and was succeeded by his son, John Fre- deride the Magnanimous. — A considerable army was soon gathered. Soliman was defeated by land and sea, and returned home discom- fited. The emperor then went to Italy, and urged the pope to call a general council. The pope, however, thought the measure premature. The other condition of the peace, the staying of processes before the chamber, was also disregarded for a time. Charles had indeed at Mantua directed his fiscal to delay all religious suits until further orders. But the chamber declared that the pending processes (mostly relating to the restitution of ecclesiastical property and immunities) were not of a religious nature, but involved violations of public peace and con- fiscations. Then the Protestants entered (Jan., 1534) a formal recusa- tion of the chamber, which, nevertheless, did not stay its proceedings, and was about to pass sentence of ban upon some states, when occur- rences in Wurtemberg changed the asjject of things. 3. The Evanyelization of Wuytemherg (1534-35).— (Cf. J. C. Schmidt u. F. E. rfisier, Deukw. d. wurttb. Ref. Gesch. Tiibg. 1817.— J. Hart- mann, Gesch. d. Ref. in W. Stuttg. 1835. — K. Mann, Jubelbiichl. d. ev. Ref. in W. Stuttg. 1836.— C. Bonier, K. G. Ws. Stuttg. 1848; K. Th. Kcim, schwiib. Ref. Gesch. Tlibg. 1855. — L. F. Ueyd, llerz. Ulr. v. W. Tlibg. 1841, etc., u. 3 Bde. — J. Hartmann u. K. Jdger, Leb. u. Wirk. d. Joh. Brenz. Hamb. 1840, 2 Bde. — J. G. Vaihinger, Leb. u. Wirk. d. Joh. Brentz. Stuttg. 1841.) — After the expulsion of Duke Ulrich, by virtue of the Swabian league (1528) Wurtemberg was under Austrian rule. The fanaticism with which every reformatory movement was put down, had long awakened in the breast of the people a desire for the return of their hereditary prince, and this desire was increased by his adoption of the evangelical faith in his Swiss exile. But the vigilance of the Swabian league had thus far frustrated all the attempts of Ulrich to regain the inheritance of his fathers. Ilis son Christopher was edu- cated at the court of Ferdinand, and was to accompany (1532) the emperor to Spain, ^^'hilst crossing the Alps he fled, and openly re- claimed his inheritance in Germany. The Landgrave Philip, Ulrich's personal friend, had long resolved to seize the first opportunity of re- covering Wurtemberg for him. At length, in the spring of 1534, he carried out his plan, with the aid of French gold. At Lanfen, Ferdi- nand's army was well-nigh destroyed, and he was compelled, at the Peace of Kadan (1534) to cede Wlirtemberg to Ulrich as a mesne fief, gi;anting him, however, a seat and vote at the diet, and allowing him full liberty to introduce the Reformation into his territory. The Elector of Saxony, also, participated in this Peace, by acknowledging Ferdi- nand as King of the Romans, and for this receiving the assurance that the chamber should definitively ari'est all proceedings against existing members of the SmalcaM leaiL'ue. From the besrinning, Luther' s view? K VENTS AND N E G 0 T I A T I O N S (l 53 1- 36). 79 had met aa-UIi a Avarni response in WUrtemberg ; but all expressiona of sympathy therewith had been suppressed by Ferdinand's bloody rule. Now the Reformation spread all the more rapidly over the land. Ulrich committed the reformation of the district above the Staig to Ambrose Blcnirer, a respectable theologian of that section, a pupil of Zwingli, and a friend of Bucer, approving of Bucer's conciliatory mea- sures (n. 7). The reformation of the countries below the Staig was undertaken by Erliard SchncpJ] a professor at Marburg, and a decided adherent of Luther. Both agreed upon a doctrinal formula (" Corpus et sanr/uinem Ckristi vere, i. e. substantialitcr et essentialiter, non autem quantitative vcL localiter prcesentia esse et exliiberi in ccena.") Ulrich merits special praise for the establishment of the university at Tubin- gen, modelled after that at Marburg, and which became one of the most important nurseries of Protestant learning. The example of AVurtem- berg encouraged many of the neighboring courts of the empire and imperial cities to follow its course, and among them the powerful city of AiKjsburg. 4. The Reformation in Anhalt and Pomcrania (1532-34). — (Of. F. L. B. V. Medem, Gesch. d. Einf. d. ev. Lehre in Pommer. Greifsw. 1837.) — Prince Wolfgang oi Anhalt, one of the evangelical confessors at .Spires and Augsburg, had previously introduced the Reformation into the district along the Saale and into Zerbst. In 1532, another Anhalt prince, George, cathedral provost of Magdeburg and Merseburg, at first an opponent of Luther, but afterwards won over by his writings, began the work in the district east of the Elbe, not so much by his authority as a temporal prince as by virtue of his ecclesiastical juris- diction, ill exercising which he did not allow the opposition of the archbishop cardinal Albrecht to hinder him. At his right hand stood Nicholas Hausmann, a friend of Luther ; and when the Bishop of Bran- denburg refused to consecrate his married priests, he had them ordained by Luther in Wittenberg. In Pomcrania, however, the cause was in-troduced amid more violent agitations. The nobility and clergy en- deavored to restrain by force the inclinations of the people. Prince Barnim. had been an admirer of Luther ever since the Leipsic disputa- tion, whilst his brother George united with the clergy in their (opposi- tion. But George died, and his son Philip cooperated with Barnim in introducing the Reformation into the entire territory. At the diet of Tri'ptow (Dec, 1534) they submitted a plan for carrying on the work, which the cities hailed with joy, and which Bugenhageyi executed by a visitation of tiie churches like that pursued in Saxony. 5. The Pfformation in Westphalia (1532-34).— (Cf. C. A. Cornelius, Gesch. d. Minister. Aufruhrs. Bd. I. Die Reformation. Lpz. 1855. — H. Jochmus, Gesch. d. Kirchenref. zu MUn.ster. Miinst. 1825. — Max. Gobel, Gesch. d. Chr. Lebens in d. rhein. Westplial. K. Cobl. 1840. Bd. I.) — In the cities o*" Westphalia, the Reformation assumed the 80 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . same character as in those of Lower Germany, Lutheran hymns doing the chief work. Plderitz, a pastor in Lemgo, was an adherent of Eck. In order to see the nature of Lutheranism with his own eyes, he visited Brunswick, and returned with wholly altered views. He then reformed the city without opposition. — Li *S'te.v;!, the Catholic council resolved to inspire terror by condemning to death Schladitorp, a tanner, who had severely denounced the council. The Lutheran citizens, following Luther's example, endured the violence of the authorities without re- sistance. But the executioner, missing the neck of his victim, dealt him a terrible wound in the back. Another executioner came forward to finish the work, when Schlachtorp, reviving, wrested the sword from his hand, and was borne home in triumph by the crowd. S. died the next day. The council left the city, and thus Catholicism lost its last footing there (July, 1533). — In Faderborn, the people had defiantly claimed the freedom of the pulpit ; and when the Elector Hermann of Cologne visited the place to receive allegiance (| 15, 7), the refractori- ness of the Lutherans was reported to him in so glaring a light, that he ordered some of the leaders to be seized. By means of the torture he wrung from them a confession of a treasonable combination with the Landgrave of Ilesse, of which they had been falsely accused, and for this he condemned them to death. But when they reached the scaffold, the request of an old man to be beheaded with them, and the entreaties of the women and maidens, so wrought upon Hermann, tha^^ he spared their lives. The nobility and clergy, however, managed to maintain Catholicism. — In M'dnster, the doctrine of Luther was early preached by Bcrnh. Rottmann. The council had to open St. Lambert church to him, and the friends of the new cause soon became ascendant. The council and priests left the city. The new bishop, Francis of Waldeck, cut off all communication with the city, but during Christmas, 1532, 900 armed citizens of Miinster fell upon Telgt, by night, where the diet was then convened, to take the oath of allegiance. The bishop, who had just departed, escaped the assailants, but the most noted leaders among the nobility and priests were captured and taken to Miinster. The bishop was then compelled to grant the city uncondi- tional religious liberty. Neighboring cities had already begun to follow this example, when a catastrophe occurred, which resulted in the full restoration of Catholicism. 6. The Miinster Faction.— {Cf. Jochmus, I.e. J. C. WaUmann, John v. Leyden. Quedlb. 1844.— Z. Hase, neue Propheten. Lpz. 1851.— C. A. Cornelius, Berichte d. Augenzeugen lib. d. Miinster. Wiedcrtauferreich. Mllnst. 1853). — Rottmann had for scmie time embraced the Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord's Supper ; his next step Avas to reject infant bap- tism. In a disputation with some theologians of Hessen, he was defeated. Nevertheless, he managed to remain in the city, and to strengthen his party by gathering in Anabaptist elements from other places. On the festival of the Three Kings, 1534, the prophet John Malhjs, a baker KVKNTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (15 31-3 6). 81 of Ilarl^ni, and his ardent apostle, John Borl-rJson, a tailor of Leyden, came to Munster. The populace, especially women, crowded to their . preaching. Fottmann, and a few other preachers, at once joined them Their adherents soon multiplied to such an extent, that thoy thought they might bid defiance to the council. During an insurrection, the council was so weak and forbearing, that it made a treaty which secured to them legal recognition. Anabaptist fanatics then poured into Mlin- ster from all directions. After a few weeks they had the preponderance in the council. JNIathys, the prophet, announced it as the will of God, that all unbelievers sliould be driven from the city. This was done, Feb. 27, 153-1. Seven deacons divided the effects they left behind, among the believers. In May, the bishop laid siege to the city. By this means the disorder was at least confined to Mlinster. After having destroyed all the images, organs, and books, (only saving the Bible,) the fanatics introduced a community of goods. Mathys, who imagined himself called to slaj' the besieging foe, fell during a sally by their sword. Bockelson took the prophet's place. In accordance with his revelations the council was deposed, and a theocratic government of twelve elders, who let themselves be inspired by the propihet, was established. That he might marry the beautiful widow f)f Mathys, Bockelson introduced polygamy. The still surviving moral sense of the citizens in vain resisted this enormity. Those who were dissatisfied rallied around MoUenhoJc, a blacksmith, were defeated, and all con- demned to death. Bockelson, proclaimed king of the whole earth by one of his co-prophets, set up a splendid court, and introduced the most heinous abominations. He claimed authority to inaugurate the Millen- nium, sent out twenty-eight apostles to spread his kingdom, and ap- pointed twelve dukes, to govern the earth as his vicegerents. Mean- while the besieging army failed in an attempt to storm the city (Aug., 1584) ; had not help arrived from Hessen, Treves, Cleve, Mayence, and Cologne, they would have been compelled to raise the siege. All they could do was to starve out the city, and this plan was succeeding well. But on St. John's eve, 1535, a deserter led the soldiers to scale the walls. After a stubborn struggle, the Anabaptists were overpowered, llott- mann plunged into the thickest part of the fight, and perished. King John, with his governor, KnipprrdoJUng, and chancellor, Krechtin;/ were captured, pinched to death Avith red-hot tongs, and then hung up at the tower of St. Lambert's church in iron cages. Catholicism, in an absolutely exclusive form, was restored. 7. Extension of the Smalcaldic League (1536). — In the summer of 1534, the emperor determined to chastise those German princes who had surrendered Wlirtemberg, from the possessions of his house. But he was hindered from executing this purpose by fear of the bold pirate Chaireddin (Barbarossa), who had established himself in Tunis, and constantly threatened the coasts of his Italian and Spanish States. In the 'summer of 1535, the corsair was defeated, but a war which then P 82 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.) . broke out with France (1536) engaged all the emperor's powers. The danger Avas increased by a formal league which Francis I. concluded with Soliman for a united attack upon the emperor. Instead, therefore, of chastising the Protestant princes, Charles had to use all means to secure their friendship, and especially as Francis offered them great induce ments to engage them on his side. Accordingly, from the summer of 1535, Ferdinand made advances towards the Protestants. In No- vember, the elector visited him in Vienna, conferred upon him the electoral dignity, and guaranteed the extension of the Nuremberg Peace to all the States that had since then gone over to Protestantism. From Vienna the elector went to a convention at Smalcald, where the Smal- caldic League was extended to ten years, whilst the overtures of the French ambassadors were declined, and the hostile position towards Austria was abandoned. On the basis of the Vienna compact, Wlirt- emberg, Pomerania, Anhalt, and several cities, were admitted to the League ; but subscription to the Augsburg Confession was the indis- pensable condition. Bucer has the credit of having induced the cities to do this. 8. The Wittenberg Concord (1536). (Cf. Rudelhach, Ref. Lutherth. u. Union, p. 363, etc.) — The study of Luther's works upon the Lord's Supper, and the colloquy at Marburg, had led Bucer to a deeper appre- ciation of the views of Luther upon that subject. This fact exerted an important influence upon the Confessio tetrapolitana (^ 12, 7), in preparing which he took a prominent part. But Bucer desired to effect a union, and conferred with Luther on the subject (1530) at Coburg. As he confessed in his own name, and that of his colleagues, that Christ was present in the bread and to the mouth in the sacrament, and admitted, at least on his own part, that the ungodly also really par- took of the body of Christ, Luther declared himself satisfied, and will- ing to concede the nice distinctions by which Bucer sought to reconcile a spiritual participation with the real presence, and a symbolical with a sacramental significance of the elements. The cities actuallj^ assented to this accommodation, and even CEcolampadius was not wholly averse to it. But Zwiiigli utterly rejected it. Bticer, therefore, exerted him- self the more to persuade the Churches of Upper Germany to adhere to it. In December, 1535, he and Melanchthon had a colloquy at Cassel. They there agreed upon a fuller conference at Eisenach, which, however, was held at Wittenberg, on account of Luther's bad health. Bucer and Capito, with eight of the most distinguished theo- logians of Upper Germany, were present. And as they assented, in aiivance, to the real presence of the body of Christ in the bread, and its oral reception, as well as to the formula in, vu'th, and under, the only question discussed related to the participation of unbelievers. The theologians from Upper Germany at length conceded this in regard to inworthy communicants, but not to ungodly persons, and Luther de- clared himself satisfied. Accordingly, on May 25, the so-called Wii' EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (1537-39). 88 tenberg Concord was signed by all, and further confirmed by their com- mon celebration of the Lord's Supper. — In consequence of this union, the most influential theologians of Switzerland met in Basel, and ap- pointed three of their number {Henry Bvllinger of Zurich, Oawald Myconius and Simon Gryndeus of Basel) to prepare a confession of faith distinctly setting forth Zwingli's doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper. This originated the Confessio Helvetica prior, which Leo Juda translated into German. § 14. EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS DURING 1537-39. Pope Clement VII. endeavored, by various excuses, to evade the emperor's increasingly urgent demand for a council. At length, in 1533, he promised to convoke a council at Mantua, within a year, but insisted, in advance, that the Protestants should pledge unconditional submission to its decrees ; a pledge which, of course, they would not make. His successor, Paul III. (L^34-49), actually summoned a council at 3Ian!u(i, in 1537. Luther prepared the Smalcald Articles for presentation, but the Protestants finally forbade the transmission of them, as they re- solved to renew their demand for ^ free council in a Germa.n city. Hence the summoned council never convened. On the contrary, the Catholic States concluded, at Nuremberg, the so-called Holy League (1533), for the strict maintenance of the recess of Augs- burg ; but political e.xigencies compelled the emperor to make new concessions to the Protestants in the Frankfort Sus^pension (1539). During the same year, the Duchy of Saxony and thd Electorate of Brandenburg embraced the Reformation. At the cornjnencement of 1540, almost the whole of Northern Germany was Protestant. Duke Henry of Brunswick, alone, remained in the tottering citadel of the old faith. 1. T/ie Smalcald Articles (1537). (Cf. M. Meurer, d. Tay zu Schmalk. u. d. schm. Artt. Lpz. 1837. — Chr. Ziemssen, d. welthist. Bedeut. d. Schmalk. Ccmvents im J. 1537; in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1840, HI.— Chr. H. Sixt, Petr. Paul. Yergerius, papstl. Nuntius, kath. Bischof u. YorkUmpfer d. Evang. Braunschw. 1855). — Patil III. sent (1535) his legate. Veryerins (cf. | 19, 13), mainly to secure definite agre(^ment as to the place for holding the council. He visited AVittenberg, where Luther, in company with Bugenhagen, called upon him. Luther did not expect much from a council, and therefore was indifferent as to the place of holding it ; the elector was of the same mind. Hence, in the fall of 1536, a general council was, in due form, convoked to meet in Mantua, May 23, 1537. Thi- rail was written with care and modera- 84 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). tion, but exprrssions made by the Pope, in other places, showed clearlj what Protestants had to expect. The matter was discussed at a diet in Smalcald, Feb. 1537. At the request of the elector, Luther had previously drawn up articles, which would be immovaljly adhered to at the council. These articles, written in German, and known as the Smalcald Articles, Luther brought with him to Smalcald. In accord- ance with the circumstances, their character is predominantly polemic. They boldly break through the limits of cautious forbearance towards the papal hierarchy, within which all the official declarations of the evangelical party had thus far been kept. The first part, concerning the Majesty of God, briefly set forth four undisputed articles concern- ing the Trinity and the person of Christ ; — the second part treats of the office and work of Christ, or our redemption, and definitely lays down points of difference between the two parties, from which there would be no retraction ; — the third part states those points which. were open for discussion by the Council. — In the second part, Luther uncon- ditionally rejected the primacy of the pope, as unsupported by the "Word of God, and incompatible with the character of a truly evan- gelical Church. When the theologians subscribed the paper, Me lanchthon added to his name this statement: "Concerning the pope I hold that, if he would grant a free Gospel, he might be allowed, for the sake of peace and unity among Christians now, or who may here- after be, subject to him, to exercise a jure humano superiority over the bishops." At the request of the meeting, Melanchthon further prepared a historical paper: "Concerning the Power and Authority of the Pope," and "Concerning the Power and Jurisdiction of Bishops," which was likewise subscribed by the theologians, and added to the Articles of Smalcald. — They then debated the question of attending the council, and on what conditions to do so. They finally agreed to . decline attending it, but once more to ask the emperor to convene a truly free Christian council, in a German city. The elector boldly proposed that Dr. M. Luther and his co-bishops should call a council (at Augsburg, if they pleased) in opposition to that of the pope; but, as this measure was directly at variance with the entire policy of the Protestants thus far, it was rejected. 2. The Nnrcmherg League (1538). — Near the close of the Con- vention of Smalcald (1537), the imperial orator (vice-chancellor). Dr. Held, appeared. The Protestant princes had good reason to suppose that they stood on the best of terms with the emperor. They were, therefore, no little astonished Avhen the orator declared to them, avow- edly in the emperor's name, that the court was fully justified in pro- secuting the pending suits, nay, even bound to do so; but he seemed to know nothing of the Peace of Kadan and the Treaty of Vienna. They immediately reassumed their posture of opposition. But Held visited all the Catholic courts, and sought — avowedly by the emperor's authority — to effect a confederation of Catholics, for the complete sup- EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (l5or-3 9). 85 pression of the Protestants, on the basis of ban edicts of the imperial chamber. Ferdinand, who -well knew that Held had gone beyond his instructions, or even against them, was very indignant, for the emperor was placed in a very critical position. But matters had been carried so far that it was impossible to recede without greatly offending the Catholic princes. Hence a confederacy, called the Holy League, was formed at Nuremberg, July 10, 1538, by George of Saxony, Albert of Brandenburg, Henry and Erich of Brunswick, King Ferdinand, and the Archljishop of Salzburg; its object was to sustain the imperial chamber in its official acts, and in the immediate execution of the ban edicts. On the other side, the Smalcald States prepared to meet vio- lence with violence. A general sanguinary' war seemed inevitable. 3. The Frankfort Svspension (1539). — At this juncture, however, the emperor needed the vigorous support of the empire against the threatening advances of Soliinan. It was highly important for him, therefore, to assuage the anger of the Protestants. Held was recalled, and Jo/ni i\ Veeze, former Archbishop of Leyden, took his place. The Electors of Brandenburg and the Palatinate offered to act as mediators. They went, with the new orator, to Frankfort on the M., and opened negotiations with the Protestants then there. These demanded an un- conditional, permanent, indisputable peace, which should, under no circumstances, be disturbed, and that the chamber should be constituted of an equal number of Protestants and Catholics. Though the orator was disposed to concession, he could not yield this point. But the danger from the Turks daily increased, and compelled him to renew the negotiations, which had been suspended. He adopted another course, proposing that, at the diet to be held during the following sum- mer, a committee of learned theologians, and discerning, peaceable laymen, should meet, and endeavor to effect a final arrangement in regard to doctrines and usages. He also agreed to a suspension of all proceedings against Protestant States for eighteen months. Thus the Protestants gained a prospect of securing, finally, what they had in vain sought after since the diets of Nuremberg (1523, 1524). They consented, therefore, to this compromise (the Franlfort Suspension). It was a triumph of the Smalcald League over that of Nuremberg (which was really not represented at Frankfurt). Confidence in Pro- testantism grew mightily, and an important extension of its territory was the consequence. 4. The Reformation in Albertinian Saxony (1539). (Cf. H. G. Hasse, Abr. d. meissnisch-albertinisch-sachs. K. G. Bd. II. Lpz. 1847.) — Duke George of Saxony (1500-39) had endeavored, with extreme severity, to suppress the Reformation, for which no country, probably, showed stronger sympathy than his own. Only one of his four sons was still living, and he was imbecile. Nevertheless he had him married, but he died a few months after hia wedding. The old duke was in great II. — 8 86 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N /. 16 A D,). perplexity, his only heii* being his brother Henry, whose small ter« ritory (with its capital, Freiburg) had lono; befure embraced the Re- formation, and become a refuge for all Avhom George persecuted and banished for conscience' sake. lie could not endure the thought that all the painful toils of his life should be frustrated in a single night. On the day of his last son's death, therefore, he submitted a plan of succession to his States, by which his brother Henry should not be allowed to succeed him, unless he would bind himself to stand by and immovably maintain the League of Nuremberg. If he refused to do this, the duchy should pass over to the emperor or the king. Henry, of course, rejected this proposal, and George died before other measures could be devised. The country received its new prince with great rejoicings ; and, whilst he was receiving homage in Leipsic, Luther once more visited the city (the first time for twenty years), and preached with the greatest acceptance. The reformation of the entire duchy was now rapidly carried forward. Ferdinand desired, indeed, to carry George's will into effect, but the Smalcald League declared that they would defend the new duke against all opposition, and Fer- dinand prudently abstained from further measures. 5. The Reformation in Mark Brandenhurg, and some adjacent Dis- iricts (1539). (Cf. A. Mllller, Gesch. d. Ref. in d. M. Br. Berl. 18,39.— C. W. Spieker, K. u. Ref. Gesch. d. M. Br. Berl. 1839. Bd. I. — H. v. Muller, Gesch. d. ev. K. Verf. in d. M. Br. Weim. 1846. — Jul. Wiggers, K. G. Mecklenb. Parch. 1840.) — The Elector Joachim I. [oh. 1535), on his death-bed, bound both his sons to maintain the old faith. Henry, the younger, who inherited the new Mark, had for some time embraced evangelical views. He joined the Smalcald League, and reformed his territory. But the older, Elector /oac7it??i II. (1535-71), adhered for several years to the old faith and usages, but nowhere prevented the preaching of the pure Gospel, which was quietly gaining influence over his own mind. Finally, at the beginning of 1539, his mind was fully convinced, probably under the influence of the negotiations at Frank- fort. At the same time his States became desirous to introduce evan- gelical doctrines. Berlin requested permission to have the comnmnio sub utraqiie, and a large number of the nobility earnestly begged Mat- thias of Janow, the Bishop of Brandenburg, " to embrace and stead- fastly confess the pure doctrines of God." On Nov. 1, 1539, Joachim assembled all the preachers of his country in the church of St. Nicholas in Spandau ; the Bishop of Brandenburg celebrated the first evangelical mass, and the entire court, together with many knights, received the communion in both kinds. The country followed the example of the princes. Joachim prepared a liturgy which retained more of the old ceremonies than those of other countries, but set forth justification by faith as a central doctrine, and adopted the comm.unio sub viraqne as the basis of Christian worship. Ferdinand was displeased at the elector's sourse, but seemed contented with the assurance that he had not joined THE PERIOD OF UNION Ei'FORTJ. 87 the Smalcald League. The Duchess Elizabeth of Calenberg-Brunswick (sister of the Elector of Braudenburg) follo^A•ed the example of her brother. After the death of her husband, Erich, who held other views, she used her authority as regent to reform the duchy. On the other hand, Albert of Brandenbury, cardinal-archbishop, endeavored in every way to prevent the defection of his territory, but in order to secure compliance with his constant demands for mone}^ he had to grant the cities the free preaching of the Gospel. lie opposed the innovations more earnestly in Halle, but the citizens only insisted more deter- minedly upon being allowed the same privileges with other cities. Justus Jonas, of Wittenberg, introduced the reformation into the city under his very e3'es ; the only vengeance he could take was to leave Halle, and remove his court to Maj^ence. About the same time the Mecklenburg countries obtained an evangelical constitution, in estab- lishing which, Mac/nus, one of the princes, and also Bishop of Schwerin, was particularly active. Aiina of Stolberg, abbess of Quedlinburg, did not venture publicly to avow her evangelical views during the lifetime of George of Saxony ; but now she introduced the reform into her con- vent and the city without opposition. § 15. THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. (1540-46). The Frankfort Suspension revived tlie idea of a free union on the basis of a common faith and worship, which had been dropped since the Nuremberg diet of 1524, and awakened hopes of its speedy realization. And as the embarrassment of the emperor continued, a series of religious conferences with refer- ence to this object was really held. But although the desired result seemed, several times, to be almost achieved, the negotia- tions as often failed in the end, because the emperor would not recognize them nnless a papal legate had taken part in them. And just at the time vvlien the imposing power of the Protestant States justified the most brilliant hopes, the Protestant princes themselves laid the root of their extreme subsequent humiliation — the Landgrave Philip, by his higamy, and the elector by his quarrel with the court of ducal Saxony. 1. The Jjandyrave's Biyamy (1540). (Cf H. Heppe, urkundl. Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Doppelehe, etc. ; in d. Hist. Theol. Ztschr. 185.3. III.) — Lond;»rave Fhllip of Hessen had married Christina, a daughter of the dece:ised Duke George of Saxony. Bodily disorders and oifensive habits had alienated him from her; and gross sensuality, Avhich had gained a masterv over him, had led him to frequent acts of infidelity. For this his conscience so troubled him, that he thought himself unworthy to commune, ardently as he desired to do so, and he was harassed with 88 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (^C E N T. 16 A. D.). doubts of his salvation. Regard for his wife, however, deterred hii». from seeking a divorce. Assuming, therefore, the toleration of poly- gamy in the Old Testament, as nowhere abolished in the New Testa- ment, it occurred to him that, with Ms wife's consent, he might formally contract a second marriage with Margaret v. d. Saale, a court lady of his sister. In Nov., 1539, he sent Buccr, one of his spiritual advisers, to Wittenberg, to obtain the advice of Luther and Melanchthon. Ac- cording to Bucer's account, the only question discussed was the alter- native of Philip's continuance in adultery, and so incurring temporal and eternal ruin, or his being allowed, with his wife's consent, to have another wife, and thus live within the due restraints of lawful marriage. Luther and Melanchthon both strove, in their reply, to dissuade Philip from his proposed course, as well for his own, as for the Gospel's sake, on which his conduct would bring great scandal ; but, in conclusion, half conceded that bigamy would be more advisable, as doing less vio- lence to the conscience, than to live in adultery. But, to avoid causing public offence, they required that he should be secretly married, and that their answer should not be taken as a theological opinion, but only as private counsel. Thereupon, Philip took a second wife in May, 1540. But the matter was soon rumored abroad. The Albertine Saxon court became greatly enraged, the elector furious, the theologians fearfully perplexed. About this time Melanchthon started for the religious conference at Hagenau, but anxiety about the case, and the conviction that he had done wrong with the rest, prostrated him with disease when he reached Weimar. He was on the brink of death when Luther hastened to him, and rescued him by the omnipotence of Christian prayer. At Eisenach the Hessian and Saxon theologians discussed the propriety of publicly justifying the step taken by Philip. Luther opposed it with all his might. But Bucer went so far as to publish an apology under the as- sumed name of Ulrich Neolmlus, for doing Avhich Luther called him a villain and a nebnlo. Even the landgrave endeavored to suppress Bucer's tract. This affair, besides bringing reproach upon the Gospel, proved sorely detrimental to the Reformation, as it resulted in a temporary alienation of Pliilip from his confederates, and led him, as a security against the capital penalty to which his bigamy exposed him, to attach himself more closely to the emperor's interests. This did the cause of Protestantism more harm, probably, than if he had wholly aban- doned it. 2. TJie Religions Conference at Worms (1540). The Pope did all in his power to frustrate the union measures of the Frankfort Suspen- sion. To remove all obstacles out of the emperor's way, he endea- vored to restore peace with France, and secured an armistice with the Turks. But his negotiations with France proved .ibortive, so that Charles could not risk an open rupture with the Protestants. The emperor, therefore, summoned the States to meet at Spires for consul- tation with reference to the prospective compact at Frankfort (June, THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 89 1540). A contagious disease, however, led him to transfer the meeting to Hu(jenau. There, in spite of the stubborn opposition of the Catholic majority, it was resolved that a religious conference should be convoked at Worms, in ten weeks from that date, for the purpose of eflecting a Christian settlement of their differences, on the basis of the Holy Scrip- tures. Ferdinand himself designated to the Catholic States what theo- logians to select, and showed by his choice how anxious he was that the measure should succeed. In Nov., 1540, the delegates met at Worms, the imperial orator Granvella presiding. On the Protestant side were: Melanchtkon, Buccr, Capito, Brenz, and Calvin (from Strass- burg) ; on the other side: Eck, the Spaniard Malvenda, etc. But Charles insisted upon having the papal nuncio Morrone allowed to take part, and thus, contrary to his intention, frustrated the entire measure. For Morrone first placed a number of obstacles in the way, and when at length the conference fairly began, Jan., 1541, and aroused threat- ening fears for the papacy, he did not rest until Granvella dissolved the conference, in the emperor's name, before they had finished dis- cussing the first article, concerning original sin. But the emperor did not relinquish the scheme ; he convoked a diet at Regensburg, where the interrupted negotiations should be resumed. 3. The Conference at Regenshurg (1541). (Cf. A. Jansen, de Julio Pflugio ejusque sociis. Berl. 1858.) — The diet of Regenshurg was opened April 5, 1541. The imperial address insisted earnestly upon the adop- tion of a common Christian platform, and, in spite of the resistance of the Catholic States, he would not relinquish the right of appointing ciillocutors. He appointed Eclc, John Cropper, canon of Cologne, and Jidivs V. Pfliigk, cathedral dean of Meissen, on the Catholic side (ex- cepting Eck, the most conciliatory to be found) ; and on the Protestant side, Melanchthon, Bucer, and John Pistorius, a pastor from Nidda in Hessen. Granvella and Count Palatine Frederick were to preside ; the nuncio Contarini was to represent the court of Rome. From pai*- ties so well chosen there was reason to hope for the desired issue. A party of men versed in the Scriptures had sprung up in Italy, who, starting from the principle of justification by faith, hoped, on this basis, to regenerate the Church, without disturbing the papal primacy, or the hierarchical system. Contarini was one of the leaders of this party. He agreed with the emperor, that the doctrine of justification by faith, the cup for the laity, and the marriage of priests, should be yielded to Germany, and that the Protestants, on their part, should acknowledge the primacy of the Pope. Bucer had already drawn up a plan of agreement, which, after being circulated among those inte- rested, was adopted as a basis of negotiations. The doctrine of man's original state, and of original sin, passed without diflSculty, in an essentially' Protestant form. In regard to justification, a justitia im- putativa, in the evangelical sense, was admitted ; but Contarini insisted upon affirming, also, a justitia inha3rens (i. e. a^ virtue wrought in man 8* iiO SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). by his acceptance of Christ's merits, so that he was thus not only pro nounced righteous, but was really made righteous). But as he so- lemnly acknowledged the former to be the marrow of the entire system of faith, and the latter only a consequence of the former, and based wholly upon the grace of God, to the exclusion of all personal merit, the Protestants yielded. Upon the article concerning the Church, however, such diversities of opinion were expressed, that it was post- poned for subsequent consideration. Then the sacrament of the altar w^as taken up. The Communio sub utraque was readily conceded. But on the margin of Bucer's concord, the word transubstantio was written by some unknown hand. On this rock the whole measure was dashed into pieces. Contarini, who had received admonitions from Rome, would yield nothing more, and the Protestants were equally firm. The colloquy closed. Nevertheless, the emperor desired that the articles, so fVir agreed upon, should be made a common basis for both parties, and that, in reference to other points, they should exer- cise mutual toleration ; but he could not prevail upon the Catholic majority to assent to this. Wherefore the recees of the diet confirmed the Peace of Nuremberg, extended it to all then connected with the Smalcald League, and bound the Protestants alone by the articles agreed upon [Regensburg Intcrirn). 4. The Begensburg Declaration (1541). — The Protestants, naturally enough, were not pleased with the recess. To pacify them, the em- peror granted them a special declaration, which, whilst not obligatory upon the imperial States, still bound him their supreme head. The declaration conceded that th& assessors of the imperial chamber should no longer be sworn to execute the Augsburg Recess, and that the ad- herents of the Augsburg Confession should be allowed a representation in the chamber, and not be excluded. It was further granted that religious institutions and monasteries should adhere to the Reforma- tion, and should teach, in addition to the articles agreed upon, the additions of the Protestant members of the Conference. The decision of the recess, that no one should deprive the clergy of their rents, was likewise extended to Protestant clergy. — But on the very day when the emperor signed this declaratio'i, he had a separate meeting with the Catholic majority, at which the Nuremberg League was renewed, and the pope admitted as a member of it. In this way he hoped to secure aid from both parties, and to delay a warlike conflict between them, until a more favorable season for resuming his scheme of recon- ciliation. Moreover, he concluded separate treaties with the Landgrave Philip, and the Elector Joachim II. Both obligated themselves to ad- here firmly to the emperor in all political divisions. The elector also promised not to join the Smalcald League, and in return the constitu- tion of his Church was confirmed. The landgrave obligated himself to oppose, not only every alliance of the Smalcald League with foreign powers (England and France), but also with the Duke of Cleves, with THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 91 whom the emperor was then in dispute about a hereditary claim to Guelderhmd. The landgrave on his part obtained an amnesty for all he had done, and a promise that he should be left undisturbed in reli- gious matters. The emperor had, also, special negotiations with the Elector of Saxonj', but they failed on account of the claims of Charles to Guelderland, for Cleves was the elector's brother-in-law. 5. The See of Naumhurg and the Wurzen Quarrel (1541-42). (Cf. Lepsius, Bericht iib. d. Wahl u. Einfiihr. Nik. v. Amsd. Norah. 1835.) — Lutheran doctrines had gained the ascendancy in the See of Kaum- hurg-Zeitz, from 1520, notwithstanding the constant opposition of the papal chapter. On the death of the bishop (1541), the chapter hastened to elect the learned and gentle provost, Julius v. Pjlugk, to the vacancy. But the elector thought it his duty to furnish a Lutheran country with a Lutheran bishop ; and having been displeased by the deceitful conduct of the chapter, which first concealed the death of the bishop for a long time, then secretly held an election, without regard to the rights of the prince, and finally paid no attention to his protest, he persistently re- fused to confirm their choice. lie still hoped that Pflugk, who asked six months' time for considering the matter, would decline the election. But this expectation was disappointed. Indeed Pllugk, supported by the emperor, maintained his claims. Then the elector, not without some violent means, placed Nich. v. Amsdorf, superintendent of Mag- deburg, in the See. Luther ordained him on Jan. 20, 1542, " without chrism, and also without butter, lard, fat, grease, incense, or coals." The temporal jurisdiction of the See devolved upon an electoral officer. Amsdorf -WHS satisfied with the scanty salary of 600 guilders; the re- maining revenues were applied to pious uses. After the battle of Muhlberg, 1547, Amsdorf was driven off, and Pflugk restored. Pflugk died in 1564. The chapter then became Lutheran, but Amsdorf was not restored; the administration was transferred to a Saxon prince. — The violent course of the elector in this case, caused great displeasure at the Albertine court. But a much more threatening difficulty occurred in the same year. On the occasion of collecting the Turkish tax (1542), the elector sought to exercise his supremacy over the district of Wur- zen, in the See of Meissen. But when the bishop refused to submit to his demands, he ordered his soldiers forthwith to occupy the district. The Albertine court, however, also claimed sovereignty over Wurzen. Duke Henry died in 1541. Maurice, his son and successor, at once placed an army in the field ; the elector, also, prepared for Avar. It was Avith difficulty that Luther and the landgrave succeeded in amica- bly adjusting the quarrel. But the mutual estrangement and rivalry of the two courts from that time burned like a hidden fire, and after a few years broke out in a devastating conflagration. 6. The Reformation in Brunswick and the Pcdatinate (1542-43). (Cf. G. H. Lenz, braunschw. K. Ref. Wolfb. 1828.— (? TT''. H. Brock, Gesch d. ev. luth. K. d. Pfalsgrafsch . Neu>-.urg. Nordl. 1847.— /'. 92 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). Blaul, d. Reformationsw. in d. Pfalz. Speier. 1846.) — Duke Henry oj Brunswick- Wolf'enbuttel entered complaint against the city of Goslar, before the imperial chamber, because it had torn down two monaste- ries, from which the duke might easily have assailed the city. In spite of all the concessions of the emperor and king to the Protestants, the court proscribed the city (at the end of 1540), and Henri/ resolved to execute the ban. But the Smalcald League espoused the cause of the city, and substituting oifensive for defensive measures, the landgrave and the Elector of Saxony invaded Henry's territory and subdued it (1542). Brunswick now obtained the long-desired preaching of the Gospel, and Bvgcnhagen introduced into it an evangelical organization and agenda. Thus the whole of northern Germany became a trophy of the Gospel, whilst in the south and west of Germany it also spread. In Oct., 1542, Regenshurg adopted the Reformation. Bavaria forbade its subjects having any intercourse with the heretical city, but did not venture an open assault upon it ; King Ferdinand would not have toler- ated in a rival such an attempt to extend its power. In the upper Palatinate, evangelical preachers had long been tolerated by the terri- torial diet. Next in turn came the Nerdmrg- Palatinate. Its young prince, Otiheinrich, called Osiander from Nuremberg, Avho introduced the Reformation. The prince joined the Smalcald League (1543). In 1543, the Elector Lewis, of the Palatinate, died. His brother, Frederic II., though not averse to the Reformation, did not formally introduce it into the Electoral Palatinate until 1546. In Austria, also, consider- ing the circumstances of the times, the new religious movement made daily progress. Ferdinand was neither able nor disposed to hinder its pi'ogress with the determined and bloody measures with which he had previously opposed it. 7. The Eeformation in the Electoral Principality of Cologne (1542- 44). (Cf. L. Ennen (Catholic), Gesch. d. Ref. in d. Erzdiiic, Koln. Koln 1849.— TIf. Decker's (Cath.), Herm. v. Wied. Koln, 1840.) — Her- manni\ Weid. (| 13, 5), Archbishop and Elector of Cologne, had studied Luther's version of the Bible, and become fully convinced that the Augsburg Confession harmonized with its doctrines. After much hesitation he resolved to introduce the Reformation into his territory, supposing that the recess of the Regensburg diet, which recommended a Christian reformation of their several institutions to the prelates, obligated him to such a course. At the next diet, held in Bonn, March, 1542, he reported what he had done, and received the most cordial ap- proval of his States. The elector hoped to realize in his domain the plan of union, wliich it was expected the Regensburg diet would secure for the whole country, but which was there frustrated. To accomplish this he summoned Bucer to his aid ; Gropper was to cooperate, but his contracted popish vicAvs soon led him to withdraw. Melanchthon took his place. Already in July, 1543, the elector was enabled to lay before his States a Reformed constitution, to which they fully assented. But THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 93 meantime an opposition part_y was formed. The cathedral chapter and university resisted from regard for the papacy ; the Council of Cologne objected because it feared lest by the change its authority would be curtailed. The movement, however, steadily progressed, and it was hoped that the opposition would be gradually weakened, or at least prove harmless. In other respects the Cologne Reformation took a peculiar course ; the chapter Avas not secularized, but continued an ecclesiastical principality, only in an evangelical form. The Bishop of Munster at once prepared to follow this example ; and had the work in Cologne pi-oved permanent, a number of other chapters would doubt- less have adopted the same measures. (Cf. ^ 16, 2). 8. Embarrassrnents of the Emperor (1543-44). — Soon after the Re- gensburg diet (1541), which had granted but inconsiderable aid against the Turks, Soliman had taken Hungary without opposition. He con- verted the principal church at Ofen into a mosque, and appointed a pasha with three tails over the whole country, which he proclaimed a Turkish province. Early in 1852, a diet met in Spires. Though there was much wrangling about religious matters, large aids were voted against the Turks, for which the Protestants obtained an armistice of five years after the termination of the war. The campaign against the Turks, however, commanded by Joachim II., accomplished nothing. Meanwhile new disputes arose with France, and Solimaii prepared for another campaign. In this strait Charles summoned a diet at Nurem- berg (Jan., 1543). The Protestants demanded that the Regcnsburg declaration should be included in the recess of the diet, and the disso- lution of the existing imperial chamber. Ferdinand consented, but William of Bavaria declared that he would rather see the world perish, or the crescent rule over all Germany. Tiie recess postponed the Bruns- wick affair until the emperor should be present, and guaranteed anew to the Protestants a five years' armistice ; but these demanded an in- disputable, permanent peace, and rejected the recess. A grant of aid against the Turks was out of the question. With the summer of 1543, apprehended dangers broke in upon the emperor from all sides ; France seized upon the Netherlands, Soliman conquered Gran, the Danes barred the Sund against the emperor's subjects, a Turkish-French fleet held mastery over the Mediterranean, and had already taken Nizza, and the Protestants also assumed a threatening posture. Christian III. of Denmark, and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sought admission to the Smalcald League (which, of course, could not be allowed, unless the landgrave, by his separate compact with Charles, would withdraw from it). The Duke of Cleves, also, broke the stipulated armistice. This provoked the emperor most of all. He hastened forth, and subdued Cleve and Geldern ; the Smalcald League had to allow it, on the land- grave's account (1543). Both countries were restored to Catholicism. The position of the emperor then somewhat improved. Cleve was dis- posed of; England and Denmark made peace with him. But his most 94 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D). dangerous foes, Soliinan and Francis I., were still in arms. lie still needed the most vigorous support of the empire, i. e. of the Protestants. 9. The Diet of Spires (1544). — The diet of Spires was opened by the emperor in Feb., 1544. He knew well that he could obtain help against the French or Turks only by making important religious concessions. And he yielded to this necessity. The recess allowed the Protestants to use the ecclesiastical property for the improvement of their churches and schools ; earlier unfavorable recesses were annulled ; Lutheraua likewise were admitted as advisory members of the imperial chamber. The territory of Brunswick was ceded to the emperor for temporary sequestration, only its religion was to remain in statu quo. The adjust- ment of religious dissensions was referred to a " general, free, Chris- tian" council ; and if it could not succeed, matters should be fully and finally settled by a national convention, to be held the following fall, independently of the pope or a council. The emperor promised to bring a plan of reformation with him then, and allowed the other States to do the same. After such concessions the Protestants entered Avith spirit upon the consideration of the emperor's political propositions. First of all, he desired aid against the French. It was granted, and the same year yet he marched, with an army composed chiefly of Pro- testants, into France, and forced upon the king the Peace of Crespy (Sept., 1544). This would have been the time to prepare for the war against the Turks, according to the agreement at Spires. The Pro- testants burned with a desire to give the empei'or proof of their zeal and devotion. Having confidence in the success of the national con- vention promised at Spires, the Elector of Saxony directed his theolo- gians to draw up a plan of reformation, to be laid before the conven- tion. This document, known as the Wittenberg Reformation, is re- markable for having proposed a new measure ; it guaranteed the prelates their spiritual and temporal prerogatives, their dignities, do- mains, and jurisdictions, as well as the right of ordination, visitation, and excommunication ; though, of course, on the condition that all this should be understood in an evangelical sense. 10. Quarrels of the Emperor with the Evangelical States (1545-46). The recess of Spires, with its promise of a national convention, finally induced the pope to order the long-called-for Council at Trent. He trusted that its decisions would sever the emperor from the Protestants — but the very appointment of it, already, produced this result. After the Protestants had conquered the Peace of Crespg for the 3mperor, and thus cleared the way for his general policy, he desired to carry out his earlier scheme of a complete reformation of the whole Church, the execution of which had been checked by the premature death of Hadrian VI. But, to effect this, he could not exempt the Protestants from subjection to the council. At the diet of Worms (IMay, 1545), however, they decidedly refused consent. Charles assured them that THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 95 he had no thought of using violence against them in matters of reli- gion, but insisted on his demand, and began to make secret prepara- tions. The Cologne affair (n. 7) also estranged him fi'om them. The agitations which the reformation of the archbishopric excited in the Netherlands, were of the most threatening character for the system of government which obtained there. Hence the emperor took part with the opposition, and admitted a complaint of the chapter against the elector. An energetic intercession of the Smalcald League aggravated his antipathies. The growing power of the league filled him with ap' prehensions. Henry of Brunswick had just made an attempt to recover his domain, but was defeated by the united forces of Hessen and the two Saxonies, and taken prisoner. Simultaneously Frederick II. com- menced the reformation of the Palatinate, and negotiated for admission to the Smalcald League. Thus four of the six electors had already defected, and the fifth, Sebastian of Heusenstamm, who, after the death of Cardinal Albert (1545), had been made Elector of Mayence, through the influence of Hessen and the Palatinate, had promised to do the same. Charles became alarmed. He concluded an armistice with the Turks (Oct., 1545), and negotiated with the pope, who pledged all his possessions and his triple crown for the overthrow of the heretics. On Dec. 13, 1545, he opened the Council of Trent, and did not conceal that its purpose Avas to suppress the Protestants. Charles once more endea- vored to induce the Protestants to take part, and once more he insti- tuted a colloqnij at Begenshiiry (Jan., 1546). The zealous papists, Malvenda, Cochlceus, and Billik, and a little later, Jul. v. Pflugk, were opposed by Bucer, Brenz, and Major. The former would not y'leXA a hair-breadth, and demanded a promise that no one should be told what transpired. Hence the colloquy failed. The horrible fratricide perpe- trated during that time upon a young Spaniard, John Diaz, in Neu- burg (whose brother Alphonso preferred his death to his joining the heretics), went unpunished, and furnished Protestants an instance of the way in which good Catholics thought heretics should be treated. 11. Lvther'a Jast Bays (1546). (Cf. K. E. Forsfemann, Denkm. d. Dr. M. L. errichtet. Nordh. 1846, and the Jubelschrr. v. Pasiy, Lpz. 1846; Kothe, Jen. 1846; John, Magd. 1846). — Whilst the storm was gathering whicii should soon burst upon the heads of the evangelical party, the mercy of God hastened the man, who had laid the immova- ble basis of a renovation of the Church, away from the struggles and trials of his completed labors. Luther died at Eislehen, Feb. 18, 1546, at the age of 63 years. His last years were burdened with manifold tribulations. The thoroughly political character forced upon the Re- formation after the diet of Augsburg, was repugnant to him, but he could not alter it. Many things occurred in Wittenberg, also, of which he disapproved, and which caused him much anxiety and sorrow. Weary of his arduous labors, suffering violent bodily pains, and witli increasing debility, he often longed to die in peace, and his prayer was 96 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A. D.) . answered. Early in 1546, the counts of Mansfeld called him to Ei.sle ben, to settle the disputes then existing between them. Thus engaged, he spent the last three weeks of his life in the place of his birth, and without any particular previous illness, fell peacefully and happily asleep in the Lord, during the night of Feb. 18. His corpse was taken to Wittenberg, and there deposited in the chapel of the castle. I IG. THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. (1546-51.) All attempts at reconciliation in religious matters had failed. The pope, on the contrary, had ultimately consented to order a general council in some German city. The emperor turned to- wards it with his conciliatory schemes, and lioped that, as his hands were again free, since tlie conclusion of peace with France, he might carry out his idea of a reformation, i. e., tliorouglily correct all hierarclucal abuses, allow priests to marry, grant the cup to the laity, and yield the doctrine of justification by faith. But on this subject he quarrelled with the Protestants, and war broke out before the Smalcald confederates were aware of it. Still their strength far exceeded the emperor's ; but, through useless scruples, delays, and indecision, they allowed victory to escape them, when they had several certain opportunities of securing it. Tlie power of the league was completely annihilated ; that of the emperor reached its highest point. The whole of southern Germany was compelled to submit to the odious Augs- burg Interim ; and even in northern Germany, despised Magde- burg alone maintained pure Protestantism, in spite of the em- peror and empire. 1. Pteparations for the Smalcald War (1546). (Cf. Hortleder, Handl. u. Auschr. v. d. Ursachen d. deutsch. Krieg. Frkf. 1617. 2 Bde. f. /. G. Jahn, Gesch. d. schm. Kr. Lpz. 1837. — F. A. v. Langenn, Moritz, Herz. u. Kurf. v. Sachsen. Lpz. 1841. 2 Bde.) — After the emperor had con- cluded a league with the pope against the Protestants, he tried to find confederates in Germany also. To the Duke of Bavaria he held out the prospect of the electoral dignity, to which he had long aspired. This succeeded, but to guard against unfortunate issues, the duke pro- mised only secret pecuniary aid. Charles next attempted to gain allies from among the Protestants themselves, whose mutual discords gave him hope of success. Margrave Hans of Kudria and Duke Eric of Brunswick- Calenberg, the former a son-in-law, the latter an uncle of the expelled and captured Prince of Wolfenblittel, offered their services in the contest against the robbers of that invaded country But Charles was more concerned to gain the young Duke Maurice of Saxony. The THE S M A L C A L D WAR AND T H j: INTERIM. 97 continued rivalry aud variance between him and his uncle, the elector, gave ground to hope that he also might be won over. The attempt succeeded. For the electoral dignity of Sasonj', and the greater part of the lauds belonging to electoral Saxony, Maurice turned traitor. The emperor could, indeed, no more exempt him than the other two princes from a formal subjection to the council, but he promised thorn forbearance in the application of the decree of the council, and that in any case, the doctrine of justification, the cups for the laity, and the marriage of priests, should be guaranteed to their countries. Having thus secured Maurice, the emperor prosecuted his preparations quite openly, aud made no secret of his intention to chastise some princes ■who had shown contempt for his imperial dignity, and violently seized possessions not belonging to them, under the cloak of religion. The Smalcald confederates could no longer deceive themselves. They also made preparations for war. With this open rupture ended the diet of liegenshitrg (June, 1546). 2. The Cawpaicpi alone/ the Danube (1546). — The northern cities were most zealous in their preparations. Uniting with Wlirtemberg, they sent a respecta})le army into the field, under the command of the vigi- lant Schdrilin, before the emperor had matured his preparations. Had the Protestant council of war in Ulm permitted, Schartlin would have marched forthwith to Regensburg, where the emperor was surrounded by an excited Protestant population, and without protection. But the council thought nothing should be done to irritate WiUiani of Bavaria, who was playing a neutral part. Then Schartlin wished to take Tyrol, and pay a visit to the Council of Trent. He had already started, when the council comnmnded him to return, in the foolish hope that King Ferdinand would remain neutral. Thus Charles gained time to collect his forces. Under date of June 20, 1546, he issued from Regensburg a ban edict against the Landgrave P/iilip and the Elector John Frede- rick, as vassals who had violated their duty and oath. Both published proclamations in defence of their course, entered the field with consi- derable forces, and joined Schdrilin at Donawert. There papal des- patches to the Catholic cantons of Switzerland fell into their hands, in which the pope informed them that he had made a league with the emperor for the extermination of heretics, and promised plenary in- dulgence to all who would aid the crusade against them with prayers or money. Even after all the delays, the issue of the war would hardly have been doul)tful, had the Protestants carried out their plans with iinity, decision, and vigor. But in this they failed. The winter was aj)]iroaching without their coining to a battle. Meanwhile, however, Maurice, (to whom the emperor had transferred the Saxon electorate, by a formal decree of Oct. 27, 1546), on pretence of friendly concern, took possession of the domain of the dishonored elector, and received the oath of allegiance. Tidings of these events constrained the land- grave and ex-elector to return to their countries, and Schdrilin, in want II.— 9 . G 98 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 1 6 A. D.) , of money and munitions, was unable even to establish permanent wiu- ter quarters in Franconia, for the protection of northern Germany. The whole country, therefore, was exposed to the emperor. One city after another capitulated, on more or less severe terms. Wlirtemberg and the Palatinate had also to yield. In regard to religious matters, the emperor wisely granted to all the same privileges he had promised before the campaign to his allied princes. At the beginning of 1547 he was master of the whole of southern Germany. He then disposed, also, of the Cologne affair (? 15, 7). In April, 1546, the pope had pro- nounced the ban against its archbishop, and authorized Charles to exe- cute it. But the emperor prudently delayed, lest the elector should attach himself to the enemy. Now, however, Charles published the ban. His commissaries called a meeting of the States at Cologne, and made the coadjutor archbishop and elector, in spite of the opposition of the States. Hermann was ready to purchase the religious freedom of the country by a voluntary resignation ; but this was rejected, and having no power to resist, he resigned unconditionally. Thus the Rhine country Avas hopelessly lost to Protestantism. 3. The Campair/n of the Elbe (1547). — John Frederick entered Thu- ringia about the middle of Dec, 154G. He was received warmly and with rejoicings, and in a short time conquered not only his own do? main, but the greater part of the Albertine district. The cities of lower Germany formed a league with him. The Bohemians, also, refused Ferdinand's demand that they should fight against their brethren in the faith, and on their own responsibility confederated with the ex- elector. Joltn Frederick once more assumed a highly important posi- tion, the danger of wliich the emperor fully appreciated. Hastily gathering a considerable army, Charles joined Ferdinand and Maurice in Eger, and by rapid marches moved towards the Elbe. At Mahlherg, he overtook his enemy. There was hardly a battle. John Frederick's troops were overpowered by the imperial army, of whose approach he had no knowledge, and he was taken prisoner (April 24, 1547). Sen- tence of death was pronounced upon liim, as a rebel and heretic. But the council of war thought it more prudent to force from him by treaty the surrender of his fortress, than to waste time in uncertain attempts at conquest. In matters of religion the pious prince would not yield, but he resigned his electoral dignity, and consented to the surrender of his tv)rtress, the transfer of the greater portion of his domain to Maurice, and imprisonment for life. The Landgrave Philip, meanwhile, had been able to do nothing, for want of munitions, money, and troops. The tidings of John Frederick's misfortune filled him with dismay. Unable to offer any resistance, he surrendered unconditionally to the emperor. His son-in-law Maurice, and +he Elector Joachim II., offered to act as mediators. In a document, which was immediately accepted in the case, the emperor vowed that " solclie Ergebung weder zu Lei- besstrafe noch zu cwiyem (al. einigem) GefUngniss gereichen solle," for THE S M A L C A L D WAR AND THE INTERIM. 99 the landgrave. Ranke's careful investigations liave shown that the first version is undoubtedly the correct one. But in the further trans- actions in the matter, this compact, vrith its document, was so far lost sight of, that both the mediators must have considered it set aside, and even feared they would offend the emperor by asking for its formal annulment. An imprisonment was not named in any of the subsequent transactions, nor in the final capitulation ; indeed the latter, in most of its conditions, assumed the personal freedom of the landgrave. In conformity with it, the landgrave, of course, surrendered himself at discretion, but the emperor promised an amnesty in advance. The landgrave was required to prostrate himself before him, to demolish ill his fortresses but one, to give up all his arms, never to tolerate an enemy of the emperor in his territory, to enter into no leagues, to liberate Duke Henry of Brunswick, and restore him to his domain. The ceremony of prostration took place on July 19, at the residence in Ilalle. Both the electors, with the landgrave, then went unsuspiciously to sup, by invitation, with the Duke of Alba. After supper, the duke declared that the landgrave was his prisoner. The electors remon- strated in vain with the duke, and the next day with the imperial councillors, Avho coolly produced the earlier document. The emperor was also entreated without avail. 4. The Council of Trent (1545-47). — The Council of Trent was opened in Dec, 1545. At the very beginning, the pope, against the express will of the emperor, introduced resolutions which precluded the parti- cipation of the Protestants. The Scriptures and tradition were first discussed. The same authority was ascribed to the Apocrypha as to the other books of the Bible, and the Vvlgate was acknowledged as the authentic version and only basis of all theological transactions, discus- sions, and sermons. Tradition was declared fully coordinate witli the sacred Scriptures, only care was taken for once to settle and fix the limits of its contents. The total extermination o^ original sin by bap- tism was affirmed, the remaining concupiscence being pronounced no sin ; after baptism there were none but actual sins. The scholastic view of justification was, substantially, reasserted, although it was purged of its worst excrescences, and conformed as much as possible to scriptural modes of expression. Justification was made to consist in the actual conversion of a sinner into a righteous person — not only in the forgiveness of sin, but the sanctification and renewal of the inner man. It is effected not by an imputation of Christ's merits, but by an infusion of habitual righteousness, Avhich enables man to secure eternal life l)y his own good works. It is not an actus Deiforensis, but an actus jdij/sints, is effected not at once, and through faith alone, but gradually, under the training of the Church, through those means which it offers, and by man's free cooperation. The emperor, who saw his own conciliator^^ schemes set aside liy these decisions, Avas greatly displeased, and peremptorily demanded that their promulgation shouJn .100 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). be postponed. The pope listened for a time, but as the interference of the victorious emperor in the affairs of the council assumed a mora threatening chai-acter, he directed his legates forthwith to publish the suspended decisions (Jan., 1547), and a few Aveeks later, on pretence of a dangerous pestilence, transferred the council to Bologna (March, 1547), where, however, it did no additional business. 5. The Auyshurg Interim (1548). (Cf. /. E. Biek, das drcifache Int. Lpz. 1721. J. A. Schmid, hist, interimistica. Ilelmst. 1750.)— Early in Sept., 1547, the emperor opened a diet at Augsburg. The huml)led Protestants promised, almost unresistingly, to submit to the council, if it were restored to Trent, and its proceedings begun afresh. Charles energetically urged the pope to concede these unavoidable demands. The refusal of the pope compelled him once more to attempt effecting a religious union without the pope or council, and to institute an in- terim which should be the law for both parties until the actif)n of a proper council could be obtained. King Ferdinand proposed Bishop Julius V. Fflugk, the suffragan Bishop Michael Helding of Mayence, the Elector Joachim II., and his court-preacher John Agricola of Eisleben, as a committee to prepare the interim. Charles consented. Agricola's boasts of his influence in the committee were as vain as his magnilo- quent promises that large concessions would be granted were proven to be falsehoods. Joachim had enjoined it upon him to adliere to four points (justification, the cup for the laity, the marriage of the clergy, and the setting aside of the opus operatum), but Agricola could not even, unqualifiedly, secure them. The second and third were granted, but in regard to the doctrine of justification, the Bishop of Naumburg could not go directly in the face of the decrees of Trent, whilst the Protestants on their part could make no concessions on this point. They agi'eed therefore, to reject the inanis fiducia of faith without work?, as Avell as the false confidence of resting in works without true faith, and to acknowledge both an inherent and imputed righteous- ness; — and if, on the one hand, they declared that God justifies men not on account of works, but of his mercy, and without any merit of man, they affirmed on the other that there might be works which transcended the divine commands, and that such were meritorious. Upon the mass they agreed more readily. Pflugk, indeed, clung to the idea of a sacrifice, but not in the sense of an atonement, but of a me- morial or thank-offering ; not as a repetition of the death of Christ, but as an appropriation of its fruits. In the doctrine of the Church, the power of the pope was essentially limited ; he was acknowledged only as the supreme bishop, in the sense of a primus inter pares, in whom the unity of the Church was visibly represented. On the other hand, the right of interpreting the Scriptures, and to ordain doctrines and usages according to it, Avas claimed exclusively for the Church. The seve7i sacraments were confirmed, including chrism and extreme unction, and special stress was laid upon transubstantiation. The duty of fast- THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. 101 lag and of praj-ing to the Virgin and saints for their intercessions, all the ceremonies of Catholic worship, the pomp of processions, the festi- vals of saints, of Mary, and especially Corpus Christi, remained in full force. — This compi'omise received the emperor's entire approval, and even several Protestant princes believed that any vrrong thus done to pure doctrine was richly compensated by the prospect of having some of theii* views legally introduced into Catholic countries. The Electors of Brandenburg and the Palatinate at once assented to the measure. Maurice found it more difficult to do so; he could not shut his eyes to the impossibility of getting the consent of his States. Finally he half consented, and the emperor took it as a full approval. Hans, of Klis- trin, and Wolfgang, of Zweibrlicken, decidedly opposed the plan, but Charles took no further notice of them than to say to them that in a short time a few thousand Spaniards would be sent into their districts. Then it came to the turn of the Catholic princes. William of Bavaria called up, apart from this, on account of supposed neglect on the part of the emperor, had consulted the pope, and decidedly rejected the Interim. The other Catholic States followed his example. The em- peror did not think himself powerful enough to compel their approval, and the recess of the diet made the Interim binding only on the Pro- testant States. The Landgrave Fliilip, whose power was completely broken, assented, but nothing could induce the brave-hearted John Frederick to do it. Even the pope persistently declined acknowledging the Interim, until in Aug., 1549, he authorized his bishops to tolerate the concessions it made for the Protestants. 6. The Introduction of the Interim (1548). — Everywhere the Interim had to be introduced by violence. This was first done in the cities of northern Germany. People and preachers steadfastly resisted it, but the magistrates let themselves be overawed by the threats and demon- strations of the emperor, and thus it was admitted by one city after another — by Kuremherg, Augsburg, and Ulm. Constance made a show of resistance, but it was outlawed, lost all its privileges, and instead of the Interim, popery was restored, and evangelical preaching pro- hibited on pain of death. Intimidated by this example, the other cities sul)mitted to what was unavoidable. The Palatinate yielded at once. Wiirtemberg soon followed its example. All the ministers who refused to accept the Interim were banished and persecuted. About 400 faith- ful preachers of the Gospel, with their wives and children, wandered without food or shelter through southern Germany. Frecht, of Ulm, was loaded with chains, and dragged after the imperial camp. John Brenz, of Swabian-IIall, one of the most decided opponents of the Interim, more than once, in his wanderings, miraculously escaped being captured. In northern Germany, the opposition Avas more persistent. The example of John Frederick encouraged otliers to imitate him. The :ipposition was concentrated in the cities of lower German}^ especially in Magdeburg, which had been under the imperial ban since the Sma' 9* 102 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). cald war. The fugitive opponents of the Interim gathered there froir. all parts; there alone, (in "God's chancery,") the press was still free to combat the Interim. A flood of tracts, satires, and caricatures issued thence, spread over all Germany, and fanned the inextinguishable hatred. The Landgrave Philip advised his son to accept the Intei-im, but his people vrould not consent. Even the Elector of Brandenburg jould not carry it out in his domain, still less the Elector MauriHsliod in July, 1549. Julius v. Pflvgk was very well satisfied with this Leipsic Interim, and offered to recommend it to the emperor ; Agricola triumphed, the preachers of the INIargravite naively wrote to the Wittenbergers, asking whether the incredible news was true, the letters of Calvin and Brenz lacerated Melanchtbon'H THE SMALCALD AVAR ANL THE INTERIM. 103 heart, zealous Lutherans everywhere were enraged, and denounced tho measure, and the Protestants generally hated the Leipsic more than the Augsburg Interim. Its introduction was aided by imprisonment and exile, but hostility to it daily increased. The Leipsic Interim restored Catholic customs and ceremonies, almost without exception, as adiaphora, took no notice of less essential doctrinal differences, and set forth fundamental articles in such terms, that they might accord either with pure evangelical tenets or with the interemistic Augsburg Interim. The evangelical doctrine of justification was, indeed, not essentially altered, but it was not expressed in decided and unequivocal terms, and still less were Catholic errors distinctly and unambiguously rejected. Good works were declared to be useful and necessary, though not as meritorious of salvation. It was not said whether good works could be done bei/oud the requirements of the divine law. Concerning the Church and the hierarchy, tlie definitions of the Augsburg Interim were retained ; all the clergy should be subject and obedient to the pope, as the supreme bishop, and to other bishops who discharged their office according to the will of God, to edification and not injuriously. The seven sacraments Avere recognized, but not in the Romish sense of them. In the mass, the Latin language was restored. Saints' images were allowed, but not to be worshipped, and also the festivals of Mary and Corpus Christi, but without processions, etc. 8. Resumption of the Council of Trent (1551). — In Sept., 1549, Paul III. dissolved the council at Bologna, the nullity of which had long been apparent. His successor, Julius III. (1550-55), who had been elevated by the imperial party, resolved at once to reopen the council at Trent, in accordance with the emperor's desire. The Protestant States declared themselves ready to take part in it, but demanded the reconsideration of its previous proceedings, as well as a seat and vote for their delegates. These demands the emperor was willing to grant, but the pope and prelates demurred. The council was opened on May 1, 1551, with the discussion of the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Meanwhile, the Protestants equipped themselves for it by drawing up new confessions of faith Avhich should be made the basis of their trans- actions with the Council. Melaneldhon, whose courage began to revive, prepared the Confessio Saxonica (or, as he could properly call it, the Repetitio Conf. Augustana?), in which we discover no further trace of the vacillation and duplicity of the Leipsic Interim. On the contrary, the true doctrine is set forth positively and polemically, Avith firmness and confidence, though in moderate and conciliatory terms. Brenz, also, who had still to remain in concealment, drew up the Wnrtemhcrg Confession, by direction of his ruler, Duke Christopher. Both con- fessions were subscribed, likewise, by other States. The first Protest- ants arrived in Trent in Nov., 1551. The}^ were the temporal delegates -jf Wurtemberg and Strasslnirg. In Jan.. 1552, the delegates of elec- toral Saxony. On Jan. 24, they presented their demands to the Council 104 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. U.), but despite the support of the imperial commissary, they were unable to carry them through. In March, the theologians of WiArtemberg and Strassburg arrived, with Brcnz at their head. Melanchthon, and two Leipsic preachers, were on the way. Suddenly, Maurice put an end to the inextricable perplexities of the council. § 17. THE ELECTOR xMAURICE AND THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG. (1550-55). In 1550, the affairs of the Reformation were in a worse con dition than at any previous time. Bound by the fetters of the Interim, it seemed like a culprit on whom sentence of death was about to be passed. But in this extremity there arose a man who burst the fetters, and restored strength and honor to the cause. He was the Elector Maurice. By betraying the Pro- testant cause, he liad brought it to the verge of ruin ; by trea- chery towards the emperor, he rescued it. The treaty of Paasau guaranteed full religious liberty to the Protestant States, and equal rights with the Catholics, until a new council could be convened. The Eeligious Peace of Augsburg finally removed this restriction also, and terminated the history of the German Reformation. 1. The State of Affairs in 1550. — It was a dark and perilous period fur Germany. The emperor had reached the summit of his power, the end of all his desires -iaci, a Wittenberg pupil, lal*orcd in Ilungarv 11 * 126 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). for the spread of pure doctrine. King Lewis II. threatened its adherents with the severest penalties. But he fell in the battle of Mohacz, (1526), The neAv election produced two kings : Ferdinand of Austria, and the Vaivode John Zapoyla. Both immediately persecuted the Reformation, in order to gain the support of the clergy ; the cause nevertheles? ac- quired a powerful ascendancy. Mathias Devay, also a disciple of Lu- ther, translated the Bible, and the synod of Erdod (1545) adopted the Augsburg Confession. But the Swiss doctrines had also found their way into the country, and daily gained new adherents. The Reformed held a council at Czenger (1557), at which the Confessio Hnngarica, embracing the Calvinistic view of the Lord's Supper and of predesti- nation, was adopted. Under Maximilian II. the Reformation made unobstructed progress. But when Rudolph II. revived forcible mea- sures, the Protestants arose under Stephen Botskai, and compelled him to conclude the Peace of Vienna (1600), which guaranteed then"* full religious liberty. Among the native Hungarians, the Reformed Con- fession prevailed, but the German settlers remained true to Luther- anism. 11. The Reformation in Transylvania. — Merchants from Herman- stadt brought Luther's writings to Transylvania as early as 1521. But there, also, Leivis II. of Hungary persecuted the Evangelicals ; and, after his death, Jolin Zapoyla did the same. Nevertheless, in 1529, Ilermanstadt ventured to drive all the adherents of the pope from the city. In Cronsiadt, the reform Avas introduced (1534) hy Jacob Honfer, who had studied in Basel. After Zapoyla had secured the permanent possession of Transylvania by a treaty with Ferdinand (1538), he showed more moderation towards the Protestants. After his death, the monk Mariinnzzi, then made Bishop of GrosAvardein, exercised the regency during the minority of Zapoyla's son. He threatened the Protestants with bloody persecutions, Avhilst Isabella, Zap03'la's widow, favored them. On this account, jMartinuzzi transferred the country to Ferdinand, but he Avas murdered in 1551. After some years, Isabella returned Avith her son, and a diet at Clausenbnrg (1557) constituted the country an independent principality, and proclaimed universal reli- gious liberty. The Saxons adhered to Lutheranism, AAdiilst the Szecler and Magyars preferred the Reformed Confession. 12. The Beformation in Spain. (Cf. Th. 31'Crie, Hist, of the Ref. in Spain. E. Bohmcr, Inquisit. u. Evang. in Sp., in Schneider's deutsch. Ztschr. 1852, No. 13, etc.) — The connection Avith Germany, brought about by the empire of Charles V., led to the early trans- plantation of Luther's doctrine to Spain. Very many theologians and statesmen Avho accompanied Charles to Germany, returned nome Avith evangelical convictions — among these Avere Alfonso de Virves, court chaplain to the emperor, and his private secretary, Alfonso Valdez, also a statesman. Rodrigo de Valero, a layman, attained to evangeli cal knoAvledge, by diligently studying the Scriptures, and led many REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 127 others into the way of salvation. The Inquisition seized his property, and condemned him to wear the sanbenito. Juan Eijidius (Gil), Va- lero's friend, Bishop of Tortosa, formed societies for the study of the Bible. The Inquisition deposed him, and but for the protection of Charles, he would have perished at the stake. After his death, his remains were exhumed and burnt. The first martyr in Spain was Francisco San Romano, a merchant, who had become acquainted with Luther's doctrines in Antwerp. He was burnt at the stake in Valla- dolid, in 1544. Franc. Enzina translated the New Testament. He was imprisoned, and the book prohibited. About 1550, the reforma- tory movement acquired so general and comprehensive a character, that a Spanish historian of that period expresses the belief that all Spain would have fallen a prey to the heresy, if the Inquisition had delayed the application of the remedy but three months. But it now began vigorously to apply the remedy, especially after Philip II. (1555-98) assumed the government. Scarcely a year passed in which each of the twelve inquisitorial tribunals did not celeljrate one or more ■great auto-da-fes, at which multitudes of heretics were burned. The remedy proved eifectual. In twenty or thirty years the evangelical cause was suppressed. 13. The Reformation in Italy. (Cf. Th. M'Crie, Hist, of the Ref. in Italy. — F. F. Leopold, d. Ref. u. deren Verfall in Ital. ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1843, II.) — Reformatory measures in Italy took a different cour.se. A large part of the Humanists had given up all interest in Christianity for a self-sufficient sort of heathenism, and maintained the same position towards the Reformation as to the old Church : another portion desired a reformation in an Erasmian sense. Both remained in their old ecclesiastical relations. At the same time many learned men hmk a more decided stand, some of whom took matters into their own hands, and as.sailed the fundamental truths of Christianity. (Italy was, especially, the rendezvous of many Anti-Trinitarians, | 28), whilst others attached themselves to the German, but most to the Helvetic Reformation. Each party endeavored to reach the people by preaching and writings, and they often succeeded in founding separate congrega- tions in Italian cities. But to save their lives the reformers had to flee from the country ; and in 1542, a special Inquisition was instituted to suppress Protestantism in Italy, which, with reckless, fanatical fury, punished every appearance of Protestanti.«im with imprisonment, the galleys, the scaffold, and the stake ; nevertheless it did not accomplish its purpose until towards the close of the century. Almo.st all the writings of the German and iSwiss Reformers were translated into Italian soon after their publication, anil l)cing anonymous, were widely circulated lieforc tlie Inquisition seized upon them. Antonio Rrucioli translated the Biljle (1530, etc.) It was placed in the Index prohibi- torum, although the translator remained in the Catholic Church. The Duchess Renata de Ferrara, a sister of Francis I. of France, distin- 128 SECTION III. —FIRST PERIOD (CENT. ISA. D.) guishcd herself as a promoter of the Reformation. Her court became the refuge and resort of French fugitives. Previously (| 15, 3), it had been proposed to establish in Italy a propaganda of noble Catholic Christians, whose personal experience had convinced them that justifi- cation by faith was the central doctrine of all true faith and practice, and who hoped to reanimate the Catholic Church, without fighting against it. To this society such men as Cardinal lier/inald Poliis be- longed ; Bishop Morone of Modena ; tlie Spaniard Juan Valdez (secre- tary of the Viceroy of Naples) ; James Sadoletus (author of a Commen- tary on the Romans) ; the legate Contarini, and others. The principles of this movement are most clearly and perfectly set forth in the small work del benejicio di Giesii Christo, whose author, Aonius Palearius, was prof, of class, liter, at Siena. In six years, 60,000 copies were printed at Venice alone. A large number of editions appeared else- where, partly in the original, partly in translations. But thirty years afterwards, no copy in the original could be found, and after one hun- dred years no translation ; so thoroughly and consistently had the In- quisition done its work of extermination. In Rome, piles of it as high as houses were burnt. But in 1843, a copy of the original of 1543, was discovered and republished in London in 1853. Among the most dis- tinguished reformers who wholly renounced popery were : (1.) Bernar- dino Ochino, from 1538 General of the Capuchins, and long renowned as a controversialist against the Lutheran and Zwinglian heresy ; but in that very way led to a closer acquaintance with reformed writings. He united with the Reformed Church in 1542, fled to Geneva, and after that labored in Basel, Augsburg, Strassburg, and London. After the death of Edward VI. he had to flee from England, became preacher in Zurich, inclined to Socinianism, and even vindicated polygamy. On this account he was deposed, fled to Poland, and died (1564) in Mora- via. (2.) Peter Martyr Vermilio, an Augustine monk and esteemed preacher. He was induced to leave the Catholic Church by studying the writings of Erasmus, Zwingli, and Bucer. He fled to Zurich, be- came Professor in Strassburg, and Avas also called to England by Cranmer, where he accepted a Professorship in Oxford. When Mary became queen, he returned to Strassburg, and died whilst professor in Zurich (15G2). [Cf. C. Schmidt, P.M. Vermigli, etc. Elberfeld, 1857. — Tr.] (3.) Peter Paul Vergerins, Bishop of Capo d'Istria, and papal legate in Germany (| 14, 1), when he personally conferred with Luther. After that, his enemies accused him with being a secret adherent of Luther. To clear himself of this charge, he studied Luther's writings with the purpose of assailing them, and thus attained to the knowledgo of evangelical truth, and had to flee. The awful end of Francis Speira in Padua (who denied his faith in the Gospel, and thereafter fell a prey ro tormenting doubts, and fears that he had committed the sin against the Holy Ghost), made a tremendous impression on him. He then upoidy j'^ined the evangelical Church, labored for some time in the CHARACTER OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 129 district of Graubundcn (but as a Lutheran, not as a Reformed), and died -wliilst professor in Tubingen (1505). (Cf. C. H. Six/., P. P. Verg. Eine reformationsgeschiohtlichc Monogr. Braunschw. 1855.) 14. Common opposition to the Roman papacy awakened a desire to form a connection with the Eastern Church. Demetrius Mi/sos, a deacon of Constantinople, spent some months with Melanchthon in 1559, and on his return took a Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession with him ; but no notice was taken of the matter. Twenty years later, the other theologians opened new negotiations with the patriarch Jeremiah II., through the Lutheran clergyman Stephen Gerlach, who visited Constantinople on an embassy of 3Iaximilian II. Thereupon, the ministers of Tubingen sent the patriarch a Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession, prepared by Martin Crusius, and requested his opinion upon it. The patriarch candidly pointed out, in his reply, the errors of the book. The Tubingen clergy vindicated their creed, and in a second reply the patriarch reiterated his objections. A third letter Mas WTitten, but the patriarch refused to give further explanations; and to a fourth he made no reply. (Cf. | 32, 2.) B. INNER HISTORY OF THE CHURCHES OP THE REFORMATION. §20. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. Cf. Max Gobel, d. rel. Eigenthumlichk. d. luth. u. ref. K. 1837.— i??<- delhach, Ref., Luthersh., u. Union. Lpz., 1839. — Wiggers, kirchl. Statistik. I. 92, etc.— Z. Strobel, d. Unterschied d. luth u. ref. K. ; in the luth. Ztschr. 1842, lll. — [D'Auhigne, Lutheranism and the Re- form. ; in the Bibl. Repository for Jan. 1845. — Tr.] Western Christianity has reached its purest, richest, and most vigorous form in the Lutheran Church. In it the Germanic Christian spirit, which had striven after independence from the time of Boniface and Charlemagne, attained to Christian matu- rity, and emancipated itself from its Roman tutor, wlio had l)c- come a selfish tyrant. It appropriates without solicitude the rich treasures of true catholicity which the ancient Church had developed in the form of Graico-Romanic culture, enriched by the experiences and events of mediaeval toils. It is the Church occupying the true medium between all sensualizing and spi- ritualizing forms of Religion, between a slavish objective and an I 130 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). arbitrary subjective ecclesiasticism, as the former ha."- more of less predominated in the Roman Catholic, and the other in th? Helvetic Reformed Church. This, its proper mission, to repre- sent and develop the true harmonizino^ medium between the eccle- siastical extremes of the West, the Lutheran Church has accom- plished primarily, most vigorously, purely, and completely, with reference to doctrine And it was right to do so. For the doctrine of the Gospel is the life-blood of the Church, the pulsa- tions of which throb through her entire organism. But the Lutheran Church had a similar vocation in regard to all the other forms of ecclesiasticism. And this calling it endeavored from the start to fulfil. It must indeed be admitted that in its process of reformation and resuscitation, it may not have at- tained to that complete firmness and certainty, clearness and truth, of which it can boast in regard to doctrine. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied, that even its otherwise still imperfect or defective forms are animated by a powerful impulse to harmonize extremes. But this much is undeniable, and has been its most distinctive characteristic ever since its establishment at the Augsburg diet, in opposition to the Catholic and Reformed Churches : it is the Church of the ]}ure doctrine, a doctrine which truly reconciles and unites extremes, equally guarded against heresy, and open to scientific developments. [Cf. § 21]. L The Lutheran Church maintains a genuine conciliatory character between the Catholic and Reformed Ciiurches, even in its fundamental view of Christianity. The es.sence of Christianity consists in the union of the divine and human (in the person of Christ as the prototype, also in the Bible, in the Church, in the sacrament, in the Christian life, etc.) The ultimate and inmost ground of diversity between the three Western Churches, lies in their different manner and method of con- templating and apprehending this union. The Catholic Church wishes to see it, the Lutheran to believe it, the Reformed to understand it. The tendency of the Catholic Church is to confound the divine with tho human, and in such a way that the human loses its character as human, and the union with the divine is regarded as an identif cation. The Reformed Church, on the other hand, is disposed to separate the two, contemplating each by itself, and regarding the union as a juxtaposi- tion, not objectively but subjectively, not really but ideally. The Lu' iheran Church, equally avoiding the idea of a confusion and a separa- tion of the two elements, regards the union as a most vital, intimate, and efficient communion, penetration, and reciprocity, thus completely harmonizing the fundamental principles of the 3d and 4th General CHARACTER OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 131 Councils, most clearly developing them, and giving them their most comprehensive application. In the view of the Catholic Church, the human and earthly, which is often the imperfect bearer of the divine, in which the divine is too often manifested under narrowing limitations, are often taken in themselves for the divine. Thus in its conception of the Church, which leads to the doctrine of a merely external Church, which alone can give salvation ; its idea of the human historical deve- lopment of the Church, leading to the absolute authority of tradition, and the perversion of the true relation between the Scriptures and tradition; its view of the sacraments, hence its contemplation of them as opus operatum, and its doctrine of transubstantiation ; its theory of the priesthood, leading to the hierarchy ; its doctrine of sanctifica- tion, favoring semipelagianism, and righteousness by works, etc. The Reformed Church contemplated truth in a diametrically opposite way. It isolated the divine in Christianity from its earthly, visiV)le bearer, sublimating and spiritualizing the former, despising the other, and re- garding the operation of the divine upon the human as purely spiritual, and conditioned by personal faith. In the Scriptures it largely denies the human historical element, so that even the vowel points and punc- tuations were thought to be inspired. The divinely historical in the Church, on the other hand, was not recognized by it, but all tradition was rejected, and with it all historical development, normal or abnor- mal, was cut off. In its apprehension of Scriptures, the literal sense was disregarded in favor of the spiritual import, and in its conception of the Church, the significance of the visil)le was disparaged in favor of the invisible Church. In reference to the person of Christ, it allowed itself, in Nestorian style, to exclude the human nature of the exalted Redeemer from a full personal participation in all the attributes of his Godhead. In the sacraments, it separated the supersensuous grace from the material elements ; and in the doctrine of predestination, it isolated the divine predetermination from human self-determination, etc. The Lutheran Church, on the contrary, shunned both these ex- tremes, and combined the truths which underlay each, into a living, connected unity. In regard to the Bible, it neither holds to the letter without the spirit, nor to the spirit without the letter ; in history, it recognizes the presence and operation of the Spirit of God within the sphere of the human development of the Church, and only rejects a false tradition, which does not proceed organically from the Scriptures, but is rather contradictory to it. In regard to the Church, it maintains the significance of the invisible as much as that of the visible Church. Touching the doctrine of the person of Christ, it affirms the complete humanity and complete divinity of both natures, in their living union, and most intimate reciprocal relation. In regard to the sacraments, it concedes the reality of the objective act of God, which offers licavenly grace through earthly elements, and that of man's su1)jective position, by which, according to his faith or unbelief, the sacrament ministerH 132 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . to his salvation or condemnation. And in regard to the divine decrees it solves the seeming contradiction between God's predestination and man's self-determination, by making the former conditional upon God's prescience (not reversely, as Calvin declares). § 21. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. Cf. G. Walch, Einleit. in d. Religionstreitigk. d. luth. K. Jena, 1733, 5 Bde. — Tliomasius, d. Bekenntn. d. ev.-luth. K. in d. Consequ. s. Princips. Niiremb. 1848. — Planck, Gesch. d. protest. Theol. bis z. Concordienformel. Lpz., 1796, 3 Bde. — H. Heppe, Gesch. d. deutsch. Protestant, v. J. 1551-81. 4 Bde. 1852, etc. Even during Luther's life, and still more after his death (1546), various, and, in part, very violent doctrinal controversies, broke out in the newly establislied Lutheran Church. The same ne- cessity which impelled the ancient Church, in the 4th and 5th centuries, accurately to define and fix Catholic views of doctrine, prevailed in this case also ; and what was said, in the history of that period, of the importance of ecclesiastical controversies in general, and the violence which often attended them, applies in part to the present instance. The Lutheran Church, moreover, was driven into these struggles by its peculiar character. As the Church which occupied the true middle ground, it had to define the limits wliich separated it from the frontiers of the two ecclesiastical extremes, strictly and sharply, distinctly and truly ; and as the Church of pure doctrine, it was necessary for it to clear up, perfect, and definitely settle its own doctrinal system. But these struggles, notwithstanding their violence, did not lead to a schism in the congregations, because the Lutheran Church was so firmly and securely rooted, from the start, in ancient, genuine Catholicity. 1. Tlie Philippists. — Soon after the adoption of the common confes- sion at Augsburg, two tendencies, which gradually separated more widely, began to develop themselves in the Lutheran Church. The one party, headed by Melanchtlion (Philippists), endeavored to widen the platform, on M'hich Catholics on the one hand, and Reformed on the other, might stand, and thus effect an approximation to union and harmony. The other party, led by Amsdorf, Flacius, and Wigaiid, Btrove rather to define the pure Lutheran system with all possible strictness, so as to guard it against any admixture with Catholicising or Calvinistic elements. Luther attached himself to neither party, but CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 133 endeavored to keep both from plunjiiing into their respective extremes, and, as far as possible, to maintain peace between both. In a new edition of the Augsburg Confession, of 1540, Melanchthon modified the statement concerning faith and works, to conciliate Catholics, and that touching the Lord's Supper to accommodate Calvinists. The unaltered confession declared : Docent, quod corpus et sanguis Domini vere adsint ei distribuaniur vescentibus in cocna Domini, et improbant secua do- centes. For this he substituted: Qaod cum pane et vino vere exhibeantur corpus et sanguis Christi vescentibus in coena Domini. This statement was, indeed, not directly and exclusively Calvinistic, for then it should have used credentibus for vescentibus. Nevertheless, this arbitrary and Calvinising change embittered the stringent Lutherans, and even Luther admonished the author that the bocjk was not his, but was the confession of the entire Church. When the Philippists, therefore, after Luther's death, made many other concessions to the Catholics, in the Leipsic Interim (1518), the Lutherans pronounced it open treachery to the Church. .^af/Jeii?,-^' persistently rejected the Interim, and became the refuge of all zealous Lutherans ; and in opposition to Philippist Wittcnhenj, the sons of the ex-elector, John Frederick, founded, by his direction, the university of Je«a, as the stronghold of rigid Lutheranism. From the antagonisms of these two parties sprang, chiefly, the doctrinal controversies of the Reformation period. 2. The Antinomian Controversy (1537-40) was about the avthoritij of the law in C/iri.itianiii/. John Agricola of Eisleben (from 153G Prof, in Wittenberg, and from 1540 court-preacher in Berlin, aided in preparing the Augsburg Interim, 1548, ob. 15G0), took offence, as early as 1527, at Melanchthon's urging the preacher, in the visitation circulars, to in- struct the people diligently in the law. From 1537, he disputed with Luther himself about it. lie did not contend against tiie use of the law outside of the Church for educational and civil purposes ; but upon the correct principle that an authoritative system of morality could not help man, he erroneously maintained that the law no longer concerned Christians, and that only the Gospel should be preached, which would lead men to repentance through the power of divine love. Melanch- thon and Luther, on the contrary, regarded conviction and repentance as the fruits of the law, but the saving purpose of amendment as the effect of the Gospel ; and they required the law to be continuously preached, because, in the imperfection of man's present holiness, daily sorrow for sin M'as necessary. The deeper ground of difference in these views lay in Agricola's over-estimate of human nature, which he did not think so depraved but that, without being smitten by the terrors of the law and condemnati(m, it might be induced to hate sin and follow righteousness. In opposition to the Catholic •• Pelagianism of the law," which concedes to man a natural a1)ility to do good works, and coopera- tion in his justification, he set up a "Pelagianism of the Gospel," which ascribes to man a natural ability to accept proffcjred riirhteous- IT. — 12 134 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (tENT. 16 A, D.). ness for its own sake. After carrying on the contro-versy, orally and ■with the pen, for several years, Agricola discovered the error of hia theory, and formally renounced it. (Berlin, 1540.) 3. The subject of the Osiandrian Controversy (1549-67) was the na- ture of justification and its relation to sanctification. In opposition to the Catholic doctrine of justification by works also, Luther regarded redemption as a twofold act of God, bestowed upon man only through faith. He distinguished between justification as a divine act wrought for man, and sanctification as a divine operation in man. The former consists in this, that Ciirist made atonement on the cross, once for all, for the sins of the whole Avorld, and that God now imputes the merits of Christ's atoning death to every single believer, as his own (as it were forensically), and thus declares him righteous, but does not maixe him so. The believer becomes actually righteous, rather on the ground and as a consequence of his being declared so, through a growing sanctification, extending over his entii-e earthly life, but never attaining absolute perfection here, by virtue of the communication of the new life, provided and brought to light by Christ. Andrew Osiander (from 1522 preacher in Nuremberg, and in 1549 made professor at the newly founded university of Kiinigsberg, by Duke Albert of Prussia, who had been converted to the evangelical faith by his preaching. He died in 1552), advocated, in Konigsberg, a view varying from this, and ap- proximating the Catholic doctrine. He confounded sanctification with justification, and regarded the latter not as a declaring righteous, but as a making righteous, not as a judicial but a sanitary act, effected by an infusion, i. e., a constant inflowing of the righteousness of Christ. He considered the atoning death of Christ only as the nega- tive condition of justification, the positive condition being Christ's in- carnation, and justification the formation of Christ in the believer. Osiander objected to Luther's forensic view, because it seemed to him to exclude the subjective element in justification (which, however, is present in faith as tJie subjective condition of man's being declared righteous). The controversy was carried on by the Osiandrists and their Konigsberg opponents [Morlin, Staplujlas, Stancanis, etc.) with equal vagueness and vehemence, and several theologians from a dis- tance failed, by written opinions sent in (among them one from Me- lanchthon, and another from Brenz), to settle the dispute. After Osian- der's death, his son-in-law, the court-preacher John Funk, also in ftxvor with the duke, was at the head of the party, and filled all the offices with his adherents. He likewise rashly mixed in with political in- trigues, and, in execution of a sentence of the supreme Polish commis- 'sion, was beheaded for high treason in 1556. The other Osiandrists were deposed and banished. Morlin, previously exiled, returned, and as Bishop of Samland, reorganized the Prussian Church, and Martin Chemnitz (previously rector in Konigsberg, then superintendent in Brunswick), was called to prepare a standard ef doctrine (Corpus doc- CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 135 trinse Pruthenicum). — The preference given by Osiander to the divine nature in the work of redemption, led to another controversy about the declaration of Stancar (a man notorious for his petty disputes — hence the expression : Stiinkereien), that man's redemption rests wholly upon the human nature of Christ. (Cf. H. Wilkeu, Osiander's Leben, etc. I. Strals., 1844. — Hdherle, Osiander's Lehre ; in the Studd. u. Kritt., 1844. — Ritschl, d. Rechtfertigungsl. d. A. Os. in the Jahrbb. fur dcutsche Theol. von Dorner u. Liebner. II. H. 4.) 4. The Adiaphoristic Controversy (1548-55), concerning the admissi- bility of Catholic forms in the constitution and worship of the Church, sprang from the introduction of the Catholicising ie«^s!c/?iferi7?i. This regarded most Catholic forms as adiapliora, or neutral matters, which might be admitted as non-essential. On the other hand the Lutherans maintained that matters in themselves indiiferent, ceased to be so under circumstances like the present. Of course the cause of this controversy was removed by the Augsburg Peace. 5. The Majoristic Controversy (1551-62) turned upon the necessity of good works. The Interim led strict Lutherans to regard the Philip- pists with boundless mistrust. When, therefore, in 1551, George Major of Wittenberg affirmed, in essential accordance with the Interim and INIelanchthon's theology, that good works icere necessary to salvation, and refused to retract, Amsdor/ took the equally objectionable position that good works were detrimental to salvation. Notwithstanding the violence of this controversy, also, more reflecting persons saw that Ixith parties erred by using vague and extreme expressions, and acknow- ledged, on the one hand, that not good works in themselves, but only J'ailh, was necessary to salvation, whilst at the same time, good works were the indispensable fruit of genuine saving faith, and necessary to its maintenance ; and, on the other hand, that good works were not in themselves j^ernicious, but only reliance upon them, instead of upon the merits of Christ alone. For the sake of peace. Major recalled his assertion. But the controversy was kept up for years. 6. The Synergistic Controversy (1555-67) was about the cofiperation of the human will in conversion. Luther, in his controversy with Erasmus, in accordance with the first edition of Melanchthon's Loci, had totally denied the ability of human nature to embrace salvation by its own power, and taught the absolute and exclusive agency of divine grace in conversion. In later editions of the Loci and of the Augsburg Confession, however, Melanchthon taught a certain coopera- tion (synergism) of the remains of free-will in man, in conversion ; and in the edition of 1548, he defined this as the ability of man to em- brace proffered salvation of his own accord (facultas se applicandi ad gratiam). In the Leipsic Interim, also, he avoided the Lutheran shibboleth sold (by faith "alon( "), though he most decidedly denied nil merit to man in conversion Luther bore 3Ielanchthon's change 136 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). of opinion with noble toleration, with a charity that hopeth all things and endureth all things, only he reproached him for smuggling his views into the confession of the Church. After the enactment of the Leipsic Interim, the suspicion and dissatisfaction of the rigid Lutherans daily increased, and it burst forth in a most violent controversy, when John Pfeffinyer, supei'intendent in Leipsic, who had participated in the odious Interim, issued a book on free-will in vindication of Melanch- thon's synergism (1555). The leaders of rigid Lutheranism, Nicholas V. Amsdorf, Matthias Flacius of Illi/ria, and John Wigand, colleagues at the university of Jena, felt that they dare no longer keep silence. At the request of the Duke of Weimar, they prepared a confutation, designed to be the standard of restored Lutheranism ; and Victorin Strigel, a professor in Jena, who was appointed to assist them, had to atone for his sympathy with synergistic views, by a severe imprison- ment. But the duke soon became more favorably disposed towards Strigel ; and the rigid Lutherans, who persistently opposed the duke's injunctions, were expelled, and the university chairs were filled with Melanchthonians. A change in the government, however, restored the Lutheran party to power in the duchy of Saxony (1567), and in electoral Saxony, also, synergism gradually lost its supports (Melanch- thon died in 1560). — In a colloquy with Strigel at Weimar (15G0), Flacius allowed himself to assert, in the heat of controversy, that original sin was not something accidental, in man, but something sub- stantial. His friends, even, urged him to retract this manifestly Manicha3an statement, which sounded worse than he meant. But a man of Flacius' character could not easily be induced to do this. In 1562 he was banished, with the other Lutherans, and in 1567 he was not recalled with them. He noAV roamed restlessly about, driven from every place, and only a short time before his death (1575), recalled his hasty expression. — Thus, a man of strong character and astonishing erudition, was destroyed by unpropitious circumstances, for which he was partly innocent and partly to blame. (Cf. E. Schmidt, d. Flacius Erbslindenstreit ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1849, I. II. — A. Twesten, Matth. Fl. Illyr., Berl., 1844.— TF. Freger, M. Fl. 111. u. s. Zeit. Lpz. 1859. Bd. I.) 7. In the Cnjpto-Calvinistic Controversy (1552-74), the doctrine of ihe Lord's Sapper was the subject of dispute. The union effected with the Zwinglian cities of southern Germany, by the Wittenberg Concord (1536), had since then been shaken in many ways, and the attacks of the Zurichers compelled Luther (1544) to draw up a final "Confession of the Holy Sacrament, against the fimatics." If this demonstrated an incurable rupture with the Zwinglians, it also showed tliat a union with the incomparably more profound doctrines of Calvin was possible. It was Melai*chthon' s most ardent desire to effect such a union. He be- came convinced, not indeed that the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence of the body and blood in the bread and wine was erroneous, "ONTRfVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH- 137 but that Calvin's doctrine of a spiritual participation of the body and blood of Christ (through faith) in the Supper, did violence to no essen- tial religious point ; therefore he sought to avoid what seemed to him an unessential diiference in confession and doctrine. But the rigid Lutherans were by no means agreed to this ; and tedious, violent con- troversies sprang up in various Lutheran countries (especially in lower Saxony, in the Palatinate, and in electoral Saxony), concerning it. The dispute was not confined, however, to the doctrine of the Lord's Supper- but was extended to its deepest basis. Luther, carrying out the |.>til it pies of the third and fourth General Councils, had taught that the and sonal union of both natures in Christ rested upon a communicaiion et- the atfribntes of the one to the other (communicatio idiomatum), so tha^ Christ, having resumed, since his ascension to heaven, the full exercise^ of his divine attributes, as God-man, is also corporeally omnipresent (ubiquitas corporis Christi), and he could not be shaken in his opinion by the assertion that a corporeal omnipresence was incomprehensible by the natural understanding. In this way he answered the main objection of Zwingli and Calvin to Luther's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, that the body of Christ could not be simultaneously in heaven at the right hand of God, and in the bread and wine on earth. But the entire spirit, both of Calvin and Zwingli, led them to regard the doc- trine of the ubiquity of the glorified body of Christ as wholly absurd, and, by an openly Nestorian rejection of the communicatio idiomatum, to teach that the glorification of the body of Christ was confined to its transfiguration, and that in heaven, as formerly upon earth, it could be only in one place. A necessary consequence of this view was the rejec- tion of the corporeal presence in the Lord's Supper, and, even when high ground was taken, the admission that a communication of power from the exalted body of Christ was granted to believers through the sacrament. The struggle Avas begun by Joachim Westphal, a preacher in Hainhury, who openly assailed Calvin's doctrine, and was secretly abetted by many Lutheran theologians (1522). The controversy became most violent in Bremen, where the cathedral preacher Hardenberg pub- licly assailed the article in the Augsburg Confession concerning the Lord's Supper, and in HeideWerg, where Deacon Klehitz maintained Calvinistic theses concerning the Lord's Supper. In both cities the struggle ended with the expulsion of Lutheranism (^ 23, 1, 2). In Wittenberg, also, the Philippists G. Major, Paul Eber, Paul Crell, etc., .•iidcd by Caspar Fencer, the elector's physician, and Melanchthon's son-in-law, who had great influence, labored from 1559 to introduce Calvinism. Melanchthon himself did not live to see the distractions resulting from this movement, the Ln-d having mercifully released the deeply humbled, desponding man, who had long prayed to be delivered a rabie theologorvm. He died April 19, ISfiO . — Whilst the Elector Augustus (1553-8G) still considered his Wittenberg the chief 1 nlwark of genuine Lutheranism, the Philippists carried foi'ward their plana 12 * 188 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). with increasing ^ oldness, and endoavored to have every post filled by persons of their own views, and to secure the field by anonymous Cal- vinistic books. At length, however, the elector was convinced of the dangers which threatened Lutheranism. The Philippists were all ex- pelled, and their leaders imprisoned (Peucer for twelve years). The final complete victory of Lutheranism was celebrated by thanksgivings in all the churches, and by having a commemorative medal struck (x5J4]- (Cf. the literature under | 11.) 8. Of far less importance were: (1.) The Kary Cuntrov<;rsy (1563) about the imputation of the active obedience of Christ, which George Kaiy (Parsimonius) a minister of Anspach, controverted for a season ; afterwards he retracted, having been convinced of his error by the AVittenberg theologians. (2.) The controversy with John ^pinus, minister in Hamburg, who, in a commentary on the IGth Psalm, adopted the Reformed view of Christ's descent into hell, that it belonged to his state of humiliation, and completed the passive obedience of Christ by his endurance of hell-punishment, whilst the current Lutheran regarded it as a triumphant proof of his victory over hell and death, and as belonging to his state of exaltation. A Wittenberg opinion (1550) on the subject left the point undecided, and the Form of Con- cord, also, rested with the assertion that Christ, in his entire person; descended into hell, to deliver man from death and from the power of the devil. 9. The Form of Concord (1577). (Cf. J. N. Anton, Gesch. d. Concor- dienf. Lpz., 1779, 2 Bde. — J. C. G. Johannsen, Jac. Andrea's concor- dist. Thatigk. ; in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1853, III. — H. Heppe, 1. c. Bd. III. IV. Gesch. d. luth. Concordienf. u. Concordie. Marb. 1857-58. — K. F. Goschel, d. C. F. nach ihrer Gesch. Lehre, u. Bdtg. Lpz., 1858. —F. H. R. Frank, d. Theol. d. C. F. Erlg. 1858.)— /aco6 Andrea, the learned chancellor of Tiibingcn, had been laboring indefiitigably for some time, to' restore peace among the theologians of the Lutheran Church. In connection with Martin Chemnitz, a prudent and moderate admirer of Melanchthon, and after consultation with many other theo- logians, Andrea prepared n.form of union (1574), which was thoroughly revised at a theological convention in the AViirtemlierg monastery of Manlbronn. This Maidbronn Form was submitted to the judgment of a number of theologians, after which a second convention of theologians was held at Torgmi (1576), Avhich took into consideration the opinions received, and prepared the Torgaii Book. Upon this production, also, the evangelical princes solicited numerous opinions; and then, by their direction, Jacob Andreci, Chemnitz, Selnccker, Clnjtra'us, And. Muftculns, etc., met in the monastery of Bergen, near Magdeburg, to prepare a final plan. Thus the Bergic Rook, or Form of Concord, originated. Besides setting forth views upon |m viously controverted doctrines '^especially that concerning the person ^f Christ, as the basis of tho CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 139 doctrine of the Lord's Supper), the decision regarding the synergistic question, rendered it necessary to refer to the subject of i'redestina- TiON, in the Form of Concord, although there had not been any actual dispute about it in the Lutheran Church. i?le. The other parts were added as simple chords to the tune, and the organ (which had under- gone the most important mechanical improvements), with its pure, rich, copious harmony, was more generally used to supywrt and accompany the congregational singing. The distinction between singers and com- posers, also, gradually disappeared, the more artistic parts of the sing- ing were more intimately conformed to that of the congi-egation, and the inventive talent, which produced an abundance of original tunes, with suitable chords, increased from year to year. Next to JEccart, the most noted masters of this new school are : Joachim v. Biirgk, the teacher and friend of Eccart, cantor in Muhlhausen (06. 1596) ; Martin Zeuner ; Melch. Vidpins, cantor in Weimar [oh. 1616) ; Michael Prdtorius, con- ductor of the elector's band [oh. 1621) ; John Stohdus, a pupil of Eccart, leader of a band in Konigsberg, who chiefly sang tunes to the hymns of the Konigsberg poets Thilo, Weissel, and Dach ; and, finally, those who led in the tunes of their own hymns, Nich. Selnecker and Philip Nicolai. (Cf. | 39, 4.) 5. Theology. (Cf. G. W. Meyer, Gesch. d. Schrifterkl. Bd. II. Gijttg. 1803, and Fr. StdudUn, Gesch. d. theol. Wisch. Gottg. 1810, 2 Bde.— W. Gass, Gesch. d. prot. Dogm. Bd. I. Berl. 1854.) — As the Reforma- tion proceeded from the Word of God, and was based on it alone, that Word claimed the chief and diligent study of its theology. John Forster [oh. 1556) and John Avenarius [oh. 1576), both of Wittenberg, published Hebrew lexicons, the result of original investigations (not borrowed from the Rabbins), and Matthew Flacius, in his Clavis Scripturae sacrte, furnished a most valuable aid, for that period, in the study of the Bible. The first part contains an explanation of Scripture terms and phrases in alphaVjetical order; the second an excellent outline of hermeneutics. There were numerous exegetical works ; among these Lidher^s are un- surpassed, and, in their kind, unsurpassable. Next to him the most prominent Lutheran exegotes of that period are, for the New Testament, Melanchthon, Victor Strigel (Ilypomn. in omnes LI. N. T.), Flacius (Glossa compendiaria in N. T.), Joachim Camerarius (Notationes in N. T.), Martin Chemnitz (Ilarmonia IV. Evangg., subsequently con- tinued by Polyc. Jjegser, and completed by John Gerhard) ; for the Old Testament, John Brenz, whose excellent commentai-y still possesses great merit. Of less value are the numerous and comprehensive com- mentaries on the 0. and N. T., by David Chytrdus in Rostock. At the head of the list of Lutheran theologians stands Melanchthon (Loci com- munes, 1521). (Cf. Schwarz, Mel.'s loci nach ihrer weitern Eutw., in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1857, II.) Martin Chemnitz, in his Locis theol., furnished an excellent commentary upon it, which is still regarded as one of the principal works on theology in the Lutheran Church ; and his Examen Concilii Tridentini (1562) is not only a learned, profound, and thorough refutation of Catholic doctrines, but ia equally discreet, CONSTITUTION, ETC. OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 147 kind, and moderate. Vict. Strigel and Nidi. Selnecker, also, wrote valuable text-books of theology. Controversy was actively maintained, and was often conducted with great violence. In Church historij, the Magdeburg centuries were produced by the colossal spirit of Mnith. Flacius. He had previously demonstrated, by his Catalogus testium Veritas, that the Church of Christ never lacked intelligent, pious, and heroic defenders of the faith, to preserve unbroken the chain of histo- rical connection between the primitive Apostolic Church, and the evan- gelical Church of the 16th century. (Cf. | 38, 4.) 6. National Literature of Germany. — The Reformation occurred in a period of the deepest decline of poetry and general literature in Ger- many. But it aAvakened new creative energies in the secular and reli- gious life of the nation. Luther's pioneer example opened the way for the introduction of " a new all-conquering prose, as a form of utterance for a new world-consciousness," which impelled Germans to think and teach in German. Especially did the contact of spirits caused by re- formatory movements call satire into being, in a blooming, vigorous, and popular form and degree unknown to German literature before, and not equalled since. Countless fugitive productions, of the most diversified imagery and style, in verse and prose, in Latin and German, written by Catholics and Pi-otestants (those of the latter being vastly more rich, vigorous, and witty), assailed or vindicated the Reformation, with satire, ridicule, and contempt. (Cf. 0. Schade, Satyren u. Pasquille aus d. Reformationszeit. Bd. I. II. Hannover, 1856, etc.) Most promi- nent among these well-nigh countless, and for the most part anonymous satirical writers of the 16th century, are the Catholic Thos. Mtirner (§ 5, 2), the Reformed Nich. Manuel (| 10, 4), and the Lutheran John FiscHART, who far excels the other two, and is unquestionably the greatest satirist Germany ever produced. Like Seb. Brant and Murner, he was a native of Strassburg, for some time was advocate at the im- perial chamber, and died in 1589. His satiric vein first opened with Church matters: " Der Nachtrabe und die Nebelkrahe" (against one J. Rabe, who turned Catholic); "Der Barfiisser Secten-und Kutten- streit," and "Von St. Dominici und St. Francisci artlichem Leben" (a satire upon the Franciscans and Dominicans) ; " Bienenkorb des h. rbmischen Immenschwarms" (the best known of his productions); "Das vierhornige Jesuitenhlitlein" (inverse, the most biting, witty, and striking satire, ever written against the Jesuits). He next took hold of secular subjects: "Aller Praktik Grossmutter ;" " Gargantua oder affentheuerliche, naupengeheuerliche Geschichsklitterung ; " " Flcih- hatz, Weibertratz," etc. His Bee-hive may be regarded as an offset to Murner's Lutheran fcjols, in spirit, wit, and cheerful, merry ridicule, with a consciousness of triumph, but fiir surpasses that rough produc- tion, dealing such passionate blows as to endanger itself. (Cf. Volmar, in Ersch and Gruljer's Encycl. I. Bd. 51.) — Among the secular poets of this century, Hans Sachs {ob. 1576), a Nuremberg cobbler, holds the 148 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . first place. He was a genuine type of a Lutheran citizen, and although as a minstrel scarcely of more repute than his associates in poetic jovial tales, legends, and stories, he excelled by waggish simplicity, honest cordiality, freshness, vivacity, and rapid delineation. He produced 208 comedies and tragedies, 1700 humorous pieces, and 4200 songs. As early as 1523, he gave the Reformation a joyful greeting in his poem: "Die Wittenbergisch Nachtigall;" and did much to secure a welcome for it among his fellow-citizens. For Missions among the Heathen little was done during this period, and for obvious reasons. First of all, the Lutheran Church was too much occupied with internal matters. It had neither the same call to engage in the work, by which the Catholic Church was led to lay hold of it through the political and commercial relations of its countries with distant pagan lands, nor those means of doing so, which the monastic orders afforded, etc. And yet we meet with beginnings of a Lutheran mission even in this period ; for Gustaviis Vasa of Sweden established one (1559) among the neglected Laplanders. (Cf. | 39, 6.) §23. INTERNAL CHARACTER OF THE REFORMED CHURCH. Cf. M. Gohel u. Jul. Wiggers 11. cc. | 20.—/. P. Lange, die Eigenthlk, d. ref. K. Zurich. 1841. — K. E. Hagenbach, d. ref. K. in Bezieh. auf Verf. u. Cult. Schaf h. 1842. — K. Utlmann, zur Charaktrst. d. ref. K., in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1843. III. As the birth-place of the Reformed Church was free Switzerland, its constitution bears, to some extent, the impress of a democratic character; and as it strove to imitate the theocratic constitution of the Old Testament, it felt justified in claiming for the Church a decided voice in purely political matters. Instead of the Lu- theran episcopacy under the chief civil magistrate (as suramus episcopus), it adojited a presbyterial constitution, with its eman- cipation of individual congregations from the idea of a united Cimrch. The firm consolidation of all tlie Lutheran State Churches under one confession, is lacking in the Reformed Church ; for the Church of each country adopted its own confession. The ministers of the Church are only preachers, even the name pastor was avoided. Presbyteries exercised a more rigid external dis- cipline. Civil and domestic life assumed a strictly legal, often a gloomy rigorous character (especially in the Scotch Church and among the English Puritans) ; but, aking with this, developed a wonderful degree of moral energy, which, however, too often ran into extremes, and an unjustifiable application of Old Tes- INTERNAL CHARACTER OF REFORMED CHURCH. 149 taraent principles and examples. In regard to its cuUus, the Reformed Church exhibits the extreme reverse of that of the Catholic Church, with its abundant sensuous ceremonies. Zwingli wished to abolish the ringing of bells [daring thuyider-storms, etc., for Hiiperstilious purposes — Tr.]; organ-playing, and sing- ing in Churches [by priests, as was then the exclusive custom, in the Romisli Church — Tr.], and he approved of the removal of altars [as used for crucifixes, etc., and for the sacrifice of the mass — Tr.], and the destruction of images. The more prudent Calvinists, even, would not tolerate altars [as used by Romanists — Tr.]; crucifixes, images, candles, etc., in the Churches, because they were thought absolutely incompatible with the prohibitions of the decalogue. The Churches were converted into naked prayer-halls and auditories, altars into simple communion-tables ; kneeling was discarded as an outward ceremony, in tlie Lord's Supper (at which the symbolical element predominated, if it was not the only one) ; the breaking of bread was introduced as essential, private confession was rejected, the baptism of dying persons prohibited, and the liturgy changed into simple spoken (not sung) prayers. In France, however, the singing of Psalms was introduced, and their use spread from France to other countries ; there were no proper hymns. The number of festivals was reduced as much as possible, and only the principal Christian festivals were tolerated. On the other hand, Sunday was observed with well-nigh Old Testament strict- ness. In regard to the exceptions to all this, in the theory and practice of the Anglican Church, cf. § 29, 4. 1. The adoption of psalmody into the worship of the Reformed Church was effected especially by the efforts of John Zwick (a clergyman in Constance, oh. 1542). In 1536, he published a small hymn-book, with versions of some Psalms, adapted to Lutheran tunes. At Calvin's re- quest, Clement Marot prepared versions of most of the Psalms, in the measure of popular French songs and tunes. Th. Beza completed them, and Calvin introduced this French Psalter into the Genevan Churches (1555). In 1562, C'lmide Goudimel published 16 of these Psalms, with music for four parts. (He was murdered in Lyons (1572), in connection with the St. Bartholomew's massacre.) Ambrose Lob- wasser, Prof, of -Jurisprudence in Konigsberg. in imitation of Marot, prepared the Psalter in (}erman (1573). Notwithstanding its total lack of poetic merit, this Psalter was, for a long time, exclusively used in the German churches. The few. and for tlie most part, unimportant authors of hymns (the chief of whom were Zwick and Ambr. Blan-er — V6* 150 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A. D.) . who subsequently embraced Zwinglianism), failed to have them adopted in the churches. The Reformed Church continued to denounce the use of organs. (Of. § 41, 1.) 2. Theological Studies flourished in the Reformed Church, also, espe- cially in Basel and Geneva, in the French Church .at the theol. semina- ries in Monf.atiban, Sedan, and Montpellier. Biblical studies Avere pro- secuted with special interest. Sebastian Munster, then at Heidelberg, afterwards at Basel, published a Hebrew lexicon as early as 1523. Zurich theologians {Leo Jnda, etc.), published Luther's translation of the Bible, in the Swiss dialect, revised, however, according to the original text. Th. Beza published an improved recension of the New Testament text, with a new Latin version. Seb. Munster edited the Old Testament text, with an independent Latin version. Leo Jnda, in Zurich, an able linguist, also undertook one. Seb. Castellio, in Geneva, devoted himself to a translation of the Prophets and Apostles' writings in elegant Ciceronian Latin. The ablest was the Latin version of the Old Testament, made by Imannel Tremellius of Heidelberg, and his son-in-law Francis Junius. The number of commentators, also, was large. Besides Calvin, who excelled all the rest (§ 18, 5), distinguished exegetical contributions were furnished by Ztvinf/li [Annot. in Gen., Exod., Isaiam, Jcrem., Evangg. In hist. Dom. pass., Rom., Corinth., Philip., Colos., Thessal., Jac, Hebr., 1 Joann. — Tr.], (Ecolampadius [Conciones XXI. in Ep. Joh. I., 1524; Comment, in Proph. Es., 11. V., Annot. in Ep. ad Rom., 1525. — Tr.], Conr. Pellicanus [of Zurich, Comm. on the O. T., in which special use was made of the Rabbins, on Paul's Epp., and the Cath. Epp.— Tr.] Th. Beza [Annot. on the N. T., 1527. — Tr.], Francis Junius [prof, of theol. in Leyden. Praslect. in tria prima cap. Gen.; Exposit. Dan.; Analys. Apocal. — Tr.], John Mercerus, and the Frenchman Marlaratus. — As a theologian, also, Calvin indisputably occupied the first place in the Reformed Church. In speculative power, and a masierly use of his material, he excelled all his cotemporaries. Andrew Hyperius, of Mar])urg, held an honor- able position as a theologian, in the Reformed Church (f Germany. But little was done, during this period, in ecclesiastical history, by Reformed theologians. TJt. Beza, however, wrote an excellent history of the French Church. [Among the theological productions of the Reformed Church of this period, Zwingli's Comm. de vera et falsa rel., Ausle"-ung, etc., d. Schlussreden, etc., Von gottl. u. menschl. Genecht- igkeit, Elenchus contra Catabaptistos, Brevis in evang. doctr. Izagoge, etc., and the able doctrinal treatises of CEc.olampadius, Bucer, Capito, Bidlinger, and Peter Marigr, are entitled to notice.— Tr.] (Cf. | 40. 4.) 3. The Genevan Church engaged in a Missionari/ enterprise as early as 1557. A French adventurer, ViUegagnon, submitted a plan to Ad- miral Coligny f )r the colonization of persecuted Huguenots in Brazil, who should found a mission among the native heathen. Sustained by CALVINISING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN CHURCHES. 151 CoHgny, he sailed in 1555 with a number of Huguenot mechanics, and established Fort Coligny on the Rio de Janeiro. At his request Calvin sent out two Genevan clergymen (1557). The intolerable tyranny exer- cised by Villegagnon over the defenceless colonists, their failure to effect anything amongst the natives, together with their destitution and va- rious sufferings, compelled them to return in 1558, on a very frail vessel. It could not hold all, and many of those admitted perished of hunger on the voyage. (Cf. § 41, 2.) ^ 24. CALVINISING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN NATIONAL CHURCHES. The crypto-Calvinislic controversies were condnoted with so much violence, that they frustrated the scheme of tlie P.liili]ipists to effect an imperceptible transition of the entire Lutheran Cliurch to Calvinism (§ 21, 1); bnt they could not prevent several na- tional Lutheran Churches in Germany from adopting, or being compelled to adopt, the Reformed Confession. The Palalinate was the first to pass over ; its example was soon followed by Bremen, Anhalt, and, at the commencement of the following century, Hessen-Cassel, Lippe, and Electoral Brandenburg. — (Cf. §^34, 1-3.) 1. The Palatinate (1560). (Cf. D. Seisen, Gesch. d. Ref in Heidelb. Heidelb. 184G.— F. Blaul, d. Ref. Werk in d. Pfalz, Speier, 1846.)— TUemann Hesshvs, a violent advocate of pure Lutheranism, had been driven from Goslar and from Rostock, as a distur])er of the peace. At Melanchthon's recommendation, the Elector Otho He nr;/ of the Palatinate appointed liim professor and general superintendent at Heidelberg (1558). There he soon disputed with his deacon, William Klebitz, During a brief al)sence of Ilesshus, Klebitz, by vindicating Calvinistic views of the Lord's Supper, secured his own promotion as baccalaureus. Ilesshus disciplined and suspended him. But Klebitz would not leave. The violence of both exceeded all bounds; they even seized each other by the liair at the altar. The new elector, Frederick III., drove off both (1559), obtained Melanchthon's opinion on the subject, and joined the Reformed Church (15G0). He then appointed Calvinistic teachers throughout his country, and directed two Heidelberg professors, Za- cJiarias Ursinns and Caspar Oleiianus to prepare the Heidethery Cate- chism, for the use of the schools of the Palatinate. (In popular simpli- city, power, and depth, it is fixr inferior to Luther's smaller catechism ; but in other respects it is distinguished by its method of instruction, theological skill. Christian fervor, and conciliatory mildness, and richly merits the favor with which it has ever been received, not only by the Reformed of Germany, but of other countries. It avoids Calvin's doc- 152 SECTION III. FIRST PEIIIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). trinp of predestination, and makes the nearest possible approach to the Lutheran dogma concerning the Lord's Supper. The Catholic mass it denounces as an accursed idolatry.) [Cf. Siidhojf, Olevianus u. Ursinus. Elberf. 18'i7. — Van Alpen, Geseh. etc., d. Heid. Cat. The highest com- mendation of the Heidelberg Catechism, as a systematic exhibition of evangelical doctrines, is found in the fact that it was at once cordially welcomed by all but Romanists and extreme Lutherans ; that it was speedily translated into many different languages ; and that it is, vir- tually, the doctrinal platform occupied at the present day, by the largest portion of the Protestant Church, especially in regai'd to its moderate Calvinistic and sacramental doctrines. — Tr.] The government of Lewis VL (1576-83), a zealous friend of the Form. Concord., was of too short duration fully to check the transition of the Palatinate to Calvinism. The Elector JoJui Casimir, whilst exercising the regency, banished all the Lutheran preachers, and had his ward, Frederick IV., educated in the strictest Calvinism. 2. Bremen (15G2). (Cf. H. W. Rotcrmvnd, Gesch. d. Domkirche zu Bremen. Brem., 1829.) — In Bremen, Albert Rizdus v. Hardenherg, cathedral preacher, publicly assailed the 10th art. of the Augsb. Conf., and became involved in a controversy respecting it with his colleague, John Timann. All the clergy sustained Timann, but Hardenberg was powerfully supported by the burgomaster Bllren, and he was favored by an opinion of Melanchthon (1557), counselling them to hush up the matter. As he also refused to take oath in support of the Augsb. Conf., the disturbance daily increased. Timann died in 1559. ffesshiis, who had been driven from Heidelberg, was called to take his place. He at once put Hardenberg under the ban, and accused him before the League of the cities of lower Saxony. It held a martial diet at Brunswick (1561) which deposed Hardenberg, yet without depriving him of his office. He went to Oldenberg, and became preacher at Emden, where he died in 1574. Hesshus, also, soon left Bremen ; and after having been expelled from eight other posts, as an agitator, became prof, in Ilelmstadt, where he died in 1588. His successor at Bremen, Simon Mnxdeii s , no less violent than himself, insisted upon the banishment of all Ilardenberg's adherents, and the council had actually consented to this, when affairs took a sudden change. In spite of all opposition, BUren was chosen chief burgomaster in 1562. Musaeus and 13 other preachers were driven off, and even the Lutheran members of the council had to leave the city. Foreign mediation effected a compromise, however, in 1568, by which those who had been expelled were allowed to return to the city, but not to resume their offices. All the churches of Bremen, the cathedral excepted, remained Reformed. 3. Anhalt{\^Ti). (Cf. G. Schubring, Gesch. d. Einfilhr. d. ref. Conf. in Anh. Lpz. 1848.) — After the death of Prince Joachim Ernest, his sons founded four Anhalt lines (Dessau. Bernlnirg, Kothen, Zerbst). John George founder of the house of Anhalt-Dcssau, reigned for hia CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. 1 53 minor brothers from 1587-100.3. Suhscription to the Form of Concord had been previijusly declined, .and in 1589 Calvinism betjan to be in- troduced into the country, by the abrogation of exorcism. This was followed by substituting a Reformed for the old Lutheran directory. Not long afterwards, Luther's catechism was also laid aside, and in 1597 a copy of 28 Calvinistic articles was laid before the clergy, which they were required to subscribe on pain of banishment. The prime movers in this were Caspar Pevcer (| 21, 7), who had licen expelled from Wit- tenberg, and ^Vo/J'i/. Amiincj, the superintendent at Zerbst. In 1G44, Anhalt-Dessau was restored to the old confession by Prince John, who had been reared by his mother in the Lutheran faith. II. THE DEFORMATION. I 25. CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. Cf. H. W. Erhl-am, Gesch. d. protestant, Secten in Zeitalt. d. Ref. Hamb., 1848. That fanatics and ultraists of various grades would endeavor to produce a sensation during a period of such agitation as cha- racterized the Reformation, will be readily conceived ; but that the Reformation itself is not chargeable with such excrescences, is proven by the exclusive opposition in which it ever stood to those deformities. Both have, indeed, the same starting-point, opposition to the degenerate churchisra of that period. But the Reformation at once wholly renounced the Deformation, and often even joined Catholicism in efforts to suppress it; whereas the Deformation vented its bitterest hatred upon the former. The origin of tlie Deformation may be traced, on the one hand, to the tendency of human nature, when once aroused to opposi- tion, to run into radicalism, partly in the form of rationalism, partly that of mysticism. If the Reformation recognizes the Bible as the sole norm and rule of religious faith and practice, and as the judge of tradition, deforraatory rationalismi subjects the Bible to the authority of the reason, and regulates revealed truth by the demands of logical thinking. If the former opposes the deification of the Church, the latter even disputes the divinity of Christ. On the other hand, deformatory My^ficifun carried the evangelical demand for inward religious experience to the extreme opposite of the externalizing formalism of the Romish 154 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A. D.). Church, and by the side of the inspiration of the Word of God set up an assumed illumination by the Holy Spirit, as a higher revelation, desi)ised the sacraments, and aimed at forming a visi- ble communion of saints. The denial of the doctrine of the Trinity became the shibboleth of the former {Anti-Ti-inH avians, Unitarians), the rejection of infant baptism, that of the latter (Anabaptists). It cannot seem surprising, however, that both tendencies often commingled, since the so-called inner light is, after all, nothing else than a fanatical excited reason. As a third deforraatory tendency, the liberalist, revolutionary, and antinomian movements of this period might be named, the com- mon character of which consists in the transfer of the Reforma- tory demand for the freedom of the Christian from the spiritual thraldom of the hierarchy, to political, civil, social, and moral spheres. But these movements partly lacked independency, be- ing merely offshoots of some other tendency, and partly were so speedily suppressed, that they were but of temporary import- ance, and have already been noticed. (Cf. § 4, 2, 5 ; § 18, 3.) 1. As to the way in which Protestantism should dispose of heretics, raedlEEval principles still so far prevailed, that a Calvin could urge the burning of a man who denied the Trinity, and even the mild Melanch- thon approve of his execution (| 28, 2). \^Servetus perished at the stake, not for denying the Trinity, but for the scandalous blasphemies he uttered against the Godhead in this form, and for political machina- tions. See Henry's Life of Calvin, and Calvin and Servetus, mainly from the French of M. A. Rilliet, by W. K. Tweedie, Edinb. 1848.— Tr.] But in both theory and practice the view prevailed that heretics should not be forced, or punished with death, though they might be impri- soned to bring them to reflection, or prevent their doing harm, or be banished. I 26. MYSTICISM. Cf. M. Carriere, d. philosoph. Weltanschauung d. Reformationszeit. Stuttg. 1847. - Beside the trnly evangelical and churchly mysticism, which, as a sincere apprehension of the Christian life, Lnther ever highly esteemed, and which the Lutheran Church never wholly excluded, an unevangelical and unchurchly mysticism early manifested itself in various forms. To the intoxicated fanaticism, and tumultuous revolutionary agitations of the Anabaptists (§ 27), Schwenkfeld^s mysticism presents a favorable contrast, distin- MYSTICISM. 155 guished by its theological moderation, and quiet efforts to extend its influence. Agrippa and Paracelsus advocated a mysticism constructed upon a basis of natural philosophy, and their phan- tasies were adopted by Val. Weigel in his theosophy. Seb. Frank derived nourishment for his pantheistic mysticism from the writ- ings of Eccart and Tanler. Jordanus Bruno was rewarded with the stake for his fanatical bacchanalian mysticism, supported by the boldest pantheism ; whilsf the Familists were united toge- ther as members of a family, in the service of a deified love. — (Cf. § 36, 1 ; 39, 2.) 1. Among the mystics of the age of the Reformation who were hos- tile to the Church, Caspar Schwenkfeld of Ossigk, in Silesia, was distinguished for his sincere piety. At first he ardently embraced the Wittenberg Reforniation ; in its progress, however, it wholly fiiiled to satisfy his spirit, which was exclusively bent upon an inward mystical Christianity. In 1525 he personally met Luther in Wittenberg. The friendly relation there maintained between them, notwithstanding fundamental differences in the tendency of their views, soon yielded to open opposition on Schwenkfeld's part. In his dissatisfaction with the Wittenberg Reformers, he even declared that he would rather join the Papists than the Lutherans. As early as 1528, he was banished from his native country, and commenced laboring in Swabia and along the Rhine, in the face of constant opposition, against both the German and Swiss Reformation, seekino; quietly to carry on a reformation ac- cording to his own views. He died in 15G1, leaving behind a small company of adherents. The party has perpetuated itself to the present day. [A colony settled in Pennsylvania, N. A., in 1734. They have 5 churches and about 800 members. — Tr.] SchicenkfekV s main dislike of the Lutheran Reformation was its scriptural churchly objectiveness. He called Luther's insistinji upon the unconditional authority of the Word of God a bondao;e to the letter, and exalted the inner word of the Spirit above the written Word of the Scriptures. He was wholly op- posed to all outward church forms. He confounded justification with sanctification, similarly with Osiander, and declared it to be an incar- nation of Christ in the believer. Besides, he taught (Eutichianistically) that Christ was horn of God even according to the flesh, and that his human nature was absorbed by the divine. He disapproved of infant baptism, and affirmed that a regenerated person might live without sin. In the Lord's Supper he made everything rest upon the inner operation of the spirit; the bread was merely a symbol of Christ as the food of the soul (he considered tovto the predicate: My body is this, BC. the bread of life). His "Christlich orthndoxischen Biicher u. Schriften," were published in 4 vols. (1564), by Hans Ossigk. 2. Agrippa of KettesJieim [ob. 1535), a man of extensive learning, 156 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). and an ostentatious dealer in mysteries, led a most unsettled, adven turous life, was a politician and a soldier, taught medicine, theology. and law, with cutting satires flagellated the monks, who persecuted him as a heretic, and developed his magniloquent wisdom in his de occulta philosoplda. Of the same cast was the learned Swiss physician Tkeophrastus Boinhastiis Paracelsus ab Hohenheim [oh. 1541), a man as genial and profound as he was fantastic and conceited, a man who solved all the mysteries of the Godhead, as well as of things natural and supernatural, and who affirmed that he had found the philosopher's stone. (Cf. H. A. Freu, d. Theol. des Th. Parac. Berl. 1839.) They both remained in the Catholic Church. Valentine Weigel was a Lutheran preacher in Saxony, universally esteemed for his piety and edifying labors [ob. 1588). His mystic theosophy, which led him to reject all external Church forms, and to regard the doctrines of the Church as merely an allegorical veil of deeper knowledge, first became fully known by the publication of his works after his death. He had many admirers among "the quiet in the land" until the present century. 3. Sebastian Frank at first devoted himself zealously to the cause of the Reformation, but afterwards opposed it, denounced and ridiculed all the theological views of his times, took refuge in a pantheistic, dualistic mysticism, demanded unlimited religious libei'ty, defended the Anabaptists against the intolerance of theologians, and died in Ulm (1543), at enmity with all the world. He deserves great praise, however, as the author of the first history of the world in the German language. (Cf. H. Biscliof, Seb. Fr. u. d. deutsche Geschiehtschreibung. Tlibg. 1857.) — Giordano Bruno, a Dominican of Nola near Naples, was a man of much more vigorous mind. His ridicule of the monks and of ecclesiastical doctrines compelled him to flee to Geneva. Sub- sequently he lived and taught in London, Paris, Wittenberg, and Helmstadt, then returned to Italy, and was burned at Rome in 1600. He never left the Catholic Church. 4. The Familists (familia charitatis) were a mystic sect founded in England under Elizabeth, by Henry Nicolai of Munster, who was previously associated with David Joris (^ 27, 1) ; the queen instituted an investigation against them (1580). They differed from the Anabap- tists by indifferently allowing infant baptism. Nicolai professed to be an apostle of love, by and through which the mystical deification of man was to be effected. Altliough an illiterate man, he wrote several works, and in one of them claimed to be " deified with God in the spirit of his love." His adherents were accused of mystical licentiousness, and he was said to teach that Christ was only a divine " condition," Avhich was communicated to all the pious. In a confession of faith and an apology (1575), however, they acknowledge the three oecumenical symbols, and sought to prove their affinity to the evangelical Church. James I. still speaks of the infamis Anabaptistarum secta, quae familia amoris vocatur. After that they disappear. ANABAPTISM. 157 I 27. ANABAPTISM. Cf. /. A. Stark, Gesch. d. Taufe u. d. Taufgesinnten. Lpz. 1789.— /. Hast, 1. c. (§ 24, 1) ; Erhkam, 1. c. (§ 25). The Anabaptist movement, the operations of which, so far as they immediately entered into the history of the Reformation, were mentioned in § 4, 1, 3, 4, 5 ; § 10, 5 ; § 13, 16, everywhere followed upon its heels, in Germany, Switzerland, the Nether- lands, England, Sweden, Denmark, Livonia, etc. In spite of numerous defeats, it pushed itself most audaciously forward, when John of Leyden established his splendid kingdom in Miinster, and sent out his apostles into all the world, to gather the people of God into the new Zion. But the unhappy issue of this transient glory spoiled all its high hopes. Its scattered remnants were everywhere imprisoned, banished, or executed. Moreover, it was rent with internal factions. Two men, of a wholly different character, labored indefatigably, from 1536, to gather and reorganize these fragments ; they were David Joris and Me.nno Simons. The latter, by adopting prudent measures of reform, managed to perpetuate his party. 1. David Joris, a glass-painter of Delft, was a fanatic of the worst stamp. AVith Anabaptist revelations, by which he claimed to be the true Christ according to the Spirit, he combined sabellian, anti-trini- tarian, and antinouiian doctrines. He travelled over Germany, disse- minating his views by his writings, and orally. At last a reward was offered for his apprehension. Assuming another name, he went to Basel, and remained there undisturbed until his death (1556). When, subsequently, his true name was discovered, the city authorities had bis body dug up and burned. 2. Menno Simons, a Catholic priest in Wittmarsum, Holstein, gave himself to the diligent study of the Scriptures, and soon was troubled with many doubts concerning Catholic doctrines. The martyr-like courage of an Anabaptist directed his attention to that subject, and he soon was induced to believe in the correctness of the views of the Anabaptists. In 1536 he resigned his priesthood, and was baptized. With indescribable toils and untiring patience, he labored to reorganize the sect. He drew up a distinct form of doctrine, related to that of the Reformed Church, differing from it only in rejecting infant baptism, and in an unqualified spiritualization of the idea of the Church as a communion of such only as were true saints. He also forbade military and civil service, and the oath, and in addition to baptism and the Lord's Supper, introduced feet-washing (John 13). By means of a II. — 14 158 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. Dj rigid ecclesiastical discipline, he maintained a simple mode of living and strict morality. The quiet, pious disposition of the Mennoniies, soon secured religious toleration for them in Holland ; afterwards, also, in Germany and England. Menno died in 1561. During his life, yet, his sect in Holland divided into two parties, the Jine and the coarse, the latter disregarding Menno's severe discipline. (Cf. ^ 42, 1.) ^28. ANTI-TRINITARIANS AND UNITARIANS. Cf. P. Trecksel, d. prot. Antitrin. vor Faust. Socin. Heidelb. 1839, 44. 2 Bde.— 0. Fock, d. Socinianism. Kiel, 1847. 2 Bde. The first opponents of the doctrine of the Trinity were German Anabaptists {John Gamj'ianus, Lewia Helzer, and John Bench). The Spaniard, Michael Servetus, reduced his Unitarianisra to organic connection with a complete pantheistic, philosophical system. But Italy was the proper home of the rationalistic de- nial of the doctrine ; it was the fruit of the half pagan humanism which flourished there. Its advocates, compelled to flee, took refuge in Switzerland, but being persecuted there, and banished, they went to Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania, where princes or nobles protected them. The several scattered Unitarians were furnished with a complete doctrinal system by the two Sozimii (uncle and nephew), and thus, also, secured an eccle- siastical organization. 1. Fanatical Anabaptist Anti- Trinitarians. — The most notable of these are: (1.) Jahn Denck, of the Upper Palatinate. In 1524, he be- came rector in Nuremberg ; after that he wandered about until Q3co- lampadius gave him shelter in Basel, where he died of the plague in 1528. He rejected the written Word and infant bastism, resolved the doctrine of the Trinity into a pantheistic speculijtion, and taught an apocatastasis, but recanted shortly before his death. (2.) Lewis Hetzer, of Switzerland, was a priest in Zurich, and at first a zealous adherent and fellow-laborer of Zwingli. Subsequently he was converted by Denck, joined the Anabaptists, published (even before Luther) a Ger- man translation of the Prophets, and by means of hymns spread his monarchianistic views, until he was beheaded for polygamy at Con- stance in 1529. (Cf. Kaim, L. Hetzer. In the Jahrbb. fur deutsche TheoL, by Dorner u. Liebner, I. 2.) (3.) John Campamis of .Jiilich. Driven from Cologne, where he studied, he went to Wittenberg (1528), accompanied the Reformers to Marburg, where be endeavored to har- monize the disputants by interpreting : This is my body, to mean : This is a body made by me. Returning to Wittenberg, he began to circulate Anabaptist and Arian views, and to vilify the Reformers in his preaching and writings (" Wider die ganze Welt nach den Apos- ANTI-TUINITARIANS AND LNITARIANS. 159 ties," " Gitttlicher u. heiligev Sclirift Restitution u. Besserung"), he was expelled from Saxony (1532). Imprisoned for preaching Chiliastic sermons, he died, after twenty years' confinement, in Cleve, (1574). 2. Michael Servetus, of Spain, was a man endowed with speculative talents, but of restive mind. Driven from Spain, he wandered about through France and Switzerland. Luckily escaping the stake in Vienna (though burnt in effigy), he was imprisoned in Geneva (1553), at Calvin's iustigation, and having refused to recant, was burnt there as a disturber of the peace and a blasphemer. [Cf. § 25, 1. — Tr.] His pantheistic monarchianism was fully developed in his works: de trini- tatls erroribus LI. VII., and Dialogorum de trinitate LI. II. He taught that the Logos was an emanation of the divine light, which became personal at the incarnation. The grosser materials of his body he received from his mother, the substance of the divine light taking the place of the male seed. By both he is God o^uoovutoj, for even the earthly matter of his body is only a grosser form of the primal light. The Holy Spirit, from which the Logos differed in being a more corpo- real manifestation of God, was the soul of Christ. Servetus also denied original sin, controverted justification by faith, disapproved of infant baptism, advocated a spiritualistic view of the Lord's Supper, and cherished Chiliastic expectations. (Cf. L. Mosheim, Unparth. Ketzer- gesch. Bd. II. Helmst. 1750. Trechsel, 1. c. Bd. I. Eeberle, Servet's Triuitatsl. u. Christol., in the Tlibg. Ztschr. 1840. II.) 3. Italian Unitarians before Socinus. — The most noted are: (1.) Claudius of Savoy. In 1534, in Berne, he contended that Christ should be called God only because the fulness of the divine Spirit was com- municated to him. Driven thence, and soon afterwards from Basel also, he went to Wittenberg, where he was likewise badly received. In 1537 he recanted at a synod in Lausanne. Then he went to Augs- burg, and operated as a popular agitator. In 1550 he still appeared as a prophet in Memmingen. After that, we lose sight of him. (2.) Valentine Genfilis, of Calabria, driven from Berne, went to Poland (1552). In 1556, having ventured back to Berne, he was beheaded. (3.) George Blandrata, a physician of Saluzzo, in Piedmont, fled from his native country to Switzerland, and thence to Poland. In 1553 he was appointed private physician to the prince, in Transylvania. There he spread anti-trinitarian doctrines, and was murdered (1590) by his nephew, whose avarice could not wait for his death. To the Italian infidelity of this period probably belongs, also, the authorship of the book de tribus impostoribiis (Moses, Jesus, Moham- med), even though the conception is mediaeval (Vol. I., § 96, 8). The work is first mentioned in the 16th cent. (Editions by Gentlie, Lpz., 1833 ; Weller, Lpz. 1846 ; Rosenkranz, d. Zweifel am Glauben, Kritik d. Schrift de trib. impost. Halle, 1830). Of similar tendency is the work of the French jurist Jean Bodin [ob. 1597): Heptaplomeres, a dialogue upon Religion between seven learned free-thinkers of Venice, 160 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.j. in which all positive religions are set forth as possessing the same merits and defects. Ideal deism is commended, however, as the true religion. Edidit L. Noack. SchAverin. 1857. (Cf. G. E. Gukrauer, d. Heptapl. v. J. Bodin. Berl. 1844.) 4. Lcelius Socinus, sprung from a celebrated family of jurists in Siena, himself a jurist, was early led to the conviction that Romish theology did not accord with the Bible. To acquire more certain know- ledge of the matter, he learned the original languages of the Scriptures; on a journey he became acquainted with the most prominent theologians of Switzerland, Germany, and Poland ; and constructed a complete, consistent system of Unitarianism. He died in Zurich (1562), and hi? nephew Faiistus Socinus, whom he had indoctrinated into his own views, set himself about forming a Unitarian society from the anti- Trinitarians of Transylvania, who were in a very distracted state. His untiring efforts were successful. Rakov became the chief seat of Socinians, and the liakovian Catechism (1602) their confession of faith. Faustus died (1604), and soon after his death the Socinian congrega- tions in Poland and Transylvania flourished beyond all expectation. Learned men, like John Crell, Schlichting, Wolzogen, Wissoivatius, etc., advocated and defended Socinianism in numerous works. This pros- perity lasted a half century. But in consequence of a premeditated insult offered to the crucifix by some Rakov students, their church in that place was closed (1638), and their flourishing school broken up; and in 1658 they were excluded, in Poland, from the Religious Peace, and ordered to leave the country. In Transylvania, however, some Socinian congregations are still found at the present day. The Socinian System is, substantially, the following: The Bible is the sole source of our knowledge of the plan of salvation, but it con- tains nothing contrary to reason. The doctrine of the Trinity conflicts with the Bible and with reason ; God is only one person. Jesus was a mere man, who, however, was endowed with divine power to accom- plish man's salvation, and was rewarded for his perfect obedience by being exalted to divine majesty, and invested with authority to judge the quick and the dead ; hence divine honors are due him. The Holy Spirit is only a power of God. Man's original likeness to God con- sisted in his dominion over all creatures. Man was mortal by nature, though if he had not sinned, God might, by a supernatural operation, have caused him to pass into eternal life without first dying. There is no original sin, but original evil, and a hereditary inclination to sin, which, however, involves no personal culpability. God's foreknowledge of human actions must be disclaimed, because it would lead to the doc- trine of absolute predestination. Redemption consists in Christ's having, by his doctrine and life, pointed out the way of moral improve- ment. God bestows upon all who choose this way the pardon of sin and eternal life. The death of Christ was not an atonement, but simply sealed his doctrine, and opened to him the way to divine nonors. Con RENOVATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 161 version must be begun by personal effort, but it cannot be completed without the aid of the Holy Spirit. The sacraments are mere ceremo- nies, which might be dispensed with, though it is better to retain them as ancient and pleasant customs, etc. III. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. ? 29. EFFORTS TO STRENGTHEN AND RENOVATE THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. The exertions of the Catholic Church to confine the triumphs of the Reformation to the narrowest possible limits, and to con- quer as much as possible of their lost territory, are so promi- nent, so absorbing, and predominant, that we may exhibit its whole history during this period under the aspect of a counter- reformation. These efforts aimed partly at strengthening and reviving the Church inwardh/, partly at securing its outward extension and increase — and this b()th by missions among the he.ithen, and by a violent suppression of Protestantism. The Council of Trent was designed to inclose mediagval, scholastic Catliolicism with a brazen wall, which should forever secure it against reformatory measures, whilst, at the same time, many abuses were either corrected or curtailed. The old degenerate monastic orders, once so mighty a support of the papacy, were unable to resist the violence of the Reformation. A new order took their place, the Jesuits, which propped up the tottering hierarchy for some centuries, and sought in every way to hinder the spread of the Reformation. There also arose a number of other orders, partly nexv, partly reformed, mostly having a prac- tical Christian tendency, none of which acquired the importance of the Jesuits, or even of many earlier orders, but which labored all the more beneficially in narrower spheres. Conflicts and rivalry with Protestantism likewise excited theological science to fresh and more profitable activity. 1. T/ic Conncil and the Popes. — (Cf. /. /. Fambach, Gesch. d. rom. Pp. seit d. Ref. Magd. 1779, 2 Bde. 4to.— i. Fanke, d. rom. P., ihre K. u. ihr Staat, 3 A. Berl. lS-14. — Paolo Sarpi (Petro Soave Solano). Istoria del cone. Trident., ed. M. A. de Dominis. Lond. 1619. Fol. In French, by P. Fr. le Conraijer, with valuable notes. Lond. 1736. 2 vols. fol. German, by F. E. Rambach, Halle, 1761, 6 vols. Contra: 14* I, 162 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 1 6 A. D.). Sforza Pallavioino, Ist. del cone, di Trento. Rom. 1656. -C. A. Salig, vollst. Hist. d. trid. Cone. Halle, 1741, 3 Bd. 4to.— J. H. jj. Wessenberg, d. gr. K.-verftiss d. 15. u. 16. Jahrh. Konst. 1844. Bd. III. lY. — E. Kollner, Symbolik. Ilamb. 1844. Bd. II.) — Pope Paul III., at the earnest and repeated solicitations of princes and people, opened the general Council of Trent in 1545. Its continuance, however, in a Ger- man city, seemed to him unadvisable, in view of the emperor's power and influence. On pretence of avoiding the plague, therefore, he re- moved it to Bologne in 1547, and in 1549 wholly dissolved it. Julius III. was constrained to reopen it (1551) in Trent, but the terror which preceded the army of Maurice scattered it, already, in 1552. (Cf. § 14, 1 ; 15, 10; 16. 4, 8; 17, 2.) It was not reopened again until Pius IV. (1559-65) convoked it in January, 1562, at Trent, where it adjourned after the 25th solemn plenary session in December, 1563. Some French and Spanish bishops plead for a thorough reformation, but they were voted down. Of 255 persons who participated in its busi- ness, more than two-thirds were Italians. The papal legates had un- limited sway, and it was a public mystery that the Holy Spirit had been brought from Rome to Trent in a locked up sack. In the doctrinal decrees, mediaeval dogmas were confirmed (only shunning points of diversity between the Franciscans and Dominicans), all Protestant departures therefrom condemned. The decrees touching a reformation ordered various improvements, so far as they could be introduced with- out infraction upon hierarchical interests. Pius IV. confirmed all the decrees, but strictly forbade, on pain of the ban, all explanations and expositions of them, as all such belonged solely to the apostolic chair. Gregorii XIII. (1572-85) completed the Reformed Calendar {15S2) or- dered by the Council of Trent. The Gregorian Calendar, which obvi- ated the diversity between the civil and solar year by suppressing ten days in the civil calendar, was received with opposition even by the Catholic States. The Evangelical States of Germany did not accept it until 1700, and it was not introduced into England until 1752. Russia, and the entire Greek Church, still retains the old Julian Calendar Among the succeeding popes, Sixtus V. (1585-90), who rose, from be- ing a shepherd's boy (Felix Peretti), through all the grades of the hierarachy (Cardinal Montalto) to the papacy, distinguished himself by his vigorous reign and far-reaching plans. Addend. About the close of this century arose the celebrated pro- phecy, ascribed to St. Malachi, archb. of Armagh [oh. 1148), which describes the popes, 111 in all, from Coelestin II. (1143) to Sixtus V. (1590), in brief sketches, which, though spiritless, are very accurate, and mainly derived from the papal coats of arms. The succeeding popes, to the last (who is represented as guarding the Church amid great tri- bulations, and as surviving the downfall of the city of seven hills, and the coming of the day of judgment), are characteri/^ed by similar deli- neations, for the most part, however, indefinite and inapposite, though RENOVATION OF THE CA.THOLIC CHURCH. 163 in a few cases remarkably striking (ex. gr. Pius VI. : peregrinus apos- tolicus, § 44, 8, 9 ; Pius IX. : crux do cruce, g 57, 1). There are to be still eleven popes. — The real author of this prophecy is most probably the Benedictine Wion, in whose Lignum vitse (1595), it was first made known. He probably ascribed it to St. Malachi, because St. Barnard, Malachi's friend and biographer, praises his gift of prophecy, or be- cause he bears the name of the last prophet of the Old Testament. The aim of the prophecy was apologetic, by showing, in opposition to Pro- testantism, that the Papacy would maintain the Church to the coming of Christ. The author may possibly, also, have desired to influence the choice of the conclave of 1590, by directing special attention to that cardinal, as divinely indicated, whom he wished to see elected. (Cf. H. Weingarten, in the theol. Studd. u. Kritt. 1857. III.) 2. The Society of Jesus {loiO). — (Cf. Eihadaneira, Vita Ign. Loy. Neap. 1572. — /. G. v. Gumpach, Ign. Loy. u. s. Gefjihrten. Darmst. 1845. — Hospiniani hist. Jesuitar. Zurich, 1619, fol. — /. C. Harenberg, pragm. Gesch. d. Ord. d. Jes. Halle, 1760, 2 Bde., 4to. {Adehau/] Verf. e. neuen Gesch. d. Jesuitenord. Berl. 1769, 2 Bde. — P. P. Wolf, allg. Gesch. d. Jes. 2. A. Lpz. 1803, 4 Bde.— J^^. Korfum, d. Entsth.-Gesch. d. Jes. Ord. Mannheim, 1843. — S. Sugenheim, Gesch. d. Jes. in Deutschl. Frkf. 1842, 2 Bde.— (?. Minis, d. Jes. Gesch. d. Griind., Ausbr. u. Entw. Lpz. 1845. — Catholic authors: J. B. Leu, Beitr. zur Wurdigung d. Jesuitenord. nebst. e. Gesch. d. Ord. v. /. A. Mohler, Luzern, 1840. — /. Cretinemix-Jolj/, Gesch. d. Gesellsch. Jesu. From the French. Wien, 1845, etc., 5 Bde. — J'. J. Buss, d. Gesellsch. Jesu. Mainz (185.3.) — Ignatius of Loyola, descended from a notable family of Spanish knights, was severely wounded at the siege of Pampelona by the French. During his long and painful confinement he amused himself by reading romances of kniglit-errantry, and, after completing those, saints' legends. The latter made a deep impression upon him, and kindled in his breast a burning desire to imitate the saints in their renunciation of and victory over the world. Religious ecstacies and apparitions of the queen of heaven, invested this tendency with a celes- tial sanction. After his convalescence he gaA^e all his possessions to the poor, and assuming the garb of a mendicant, practised the severest asceticism. At the age of 33 years he joined a class of boys, and studied the elements of Latin (1524), then philosophy at Complu- tum. and theology at Paris. With an iron will he surmounted all hindrances. In Paris, six men of like mind associated themselves with him: Peter Faher (Le F^vre) of Savoy, (then already a priest), Francis Xavier, of a family of Spanish grandees, James Lainez, a Castilian, Simon Rodriguez, a Portuguese, Alfonso Salmeron, and Alfonso Boba- dilla, both Spaniards. With glowing zeal they prepared a plan for a new order, bound themselves by a solemn oath to entire poverty and chastity, and to serve the Catholic faith in accordance with tlie pleasure of the pope (1534). They completed their studies under the most rigid 164 SECTION III. FIKST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A. D.). asceticism, anu were consecrated priests. Then they went to Rome, and after some hesitation Paul III. confirmed their association as the Order of the Society of Jesus (1540). Ignatius was chosen their first general. In this capacity, also, he continued, with energetic power of will, to devote himself to religious discipline, the service of the sick, and the care of souls. It was not until after his death (1556) that the Order acquired great historical importance, under his successors, the skillful Lainez and vigorous Francis Borgia (a Spanish grandee), who far surpassed him in intellect, sagacity, and their far-reaching mea- sures. The popes, also, bestowed a number of privileges upon the Order, and it rapidly grew in power and energy. Subject and responsible only to the pope, exempted from all other jurisdiction, the Order constituted a close organization, with the most perfect unity of membership ever possessed by any of the large societies of any age. The circle nearest the general, who resided in Rome, con- sisted of the Professi, the choicest members of the Order. The chief officers of the Order (procurators, superiors, and rectors), Avere selected from their number. In addition to the three usual monastic vows, they took a fourth, by which they bound themselves to unconditional obe- dience to the pope. They were supported in their houses by charity. The coadjutors formed the second grade, who were either ecclesiastics, having charge of the course of studies, of instruction, and of spiritual matters, or seculars, who attended to all other interests. That these might follow their vocation without hindrance, they were excused from the fourth vow, and also from that of living by alms. The scholastics formed the third class, and the novices the fourth, who became scholas- tics, as soon as they had passed through their studies and ascetic exer- cises. Only such as enjoyed good bodily health, and were talented, were admitted to the novitiate. The general had monarchial authority, but, as a restraint upon violations of the rules of the Order, he was under the supervision of five assistants. Everything otherwise dear and sacred to man was sacrificed to the interests of the Order, and un- conditional submission to its superiors. Country, friends, personal in- clinations and aversions, even private opinions and the conscience, were to be as nothing, the Order everything. No government ever better understood each member's talents, or where to place him, and how to use him for its own ends ; and none ever devised and employed so thorough and universal a system of mutual espionage. The Order made all conceivable means, science, learning, art, cultivation, politics, even commerce and trade, subservient to its purposes. It seized the management of the education of youth of the higher classes of society, and thus trained devoted and powerful friends ; by preaching and pri- vate counsel, it operated upon the people, and in the confessional secured control over princes, and penetrated into all the relationships of life, and obtained possession of all secrets. And all these thousands of means, these eminent powers ard talents, were united under one will. RKN OVATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHU.ICH. 165 served one purpose : positively, the furtherance of Catholicism, nega- tively, the suppression of Protestantism. Assuredly, the fact that Protestantism was not wholly vanquished by this stupendous agency, proves incontrovertihly, that it was animated by a higher than human spirit. A system of casnisiri/ threatening all morality was involved in the fundamental principle of all the efforts of the Order, and was not merely suggested by the private opinion of some inconsiderate moralists ; and this does not require us to denj^ that the Order had, at all times, many members eminent for piety and strict morality. Primarily, and in a general way, the ethics of the Order showed a most decided ten- dency to Pclagianism, and the most distinctly avowed opposition to Augustinianism. But Jesuit ethics became especially notorious for the following principles : (1.) The end sanctifies the means. (2.) An action is justifiable, or at least excusable, when there is a probability of its goodness, or when approved by some respectable theologian (pro- babilismus). (3.) Mental reservations are allowable in making oaths or promises, the person so obligating himself being bound only by his intenticm. (4.) Philosophically, every violation of a divine command- ment is a sin ; theologically, only such violations as are perpetrated with full consciousness of the wrong, and a set purpose to break God's law. The most celebrated Jesuit moralists who contended for these principles were: Francis Toleius (o6. 159G), Gabriel Vasquez [ob. 1604), Thomas Sanchez {ob. 1610), Francis Squarez {ob. 1617), Herm. Busen- baum {ob. 1669). In politics, the Order for the benefit of the papacy maintained the principle of the sovereignty of the people. Only the pope derives his authority from God (Matth. 16 : 18, etc.), that of princes is derived from the people. Hence, if a king becomes a tyrant or a heretic, the people may depose him ; or, if he refuses to submit to this, kill him. Thus BeUarmine (de potestate pontificis in temporali- bus), and still more openly and decidedly, Mariana, in the work ascribed to him, de rcge et regis institutione LI. III. (Tolet. 1-598, 4to.) — In the nature of the case, the operations of the Order in their heathen mis- sions, were of a less exceptionable character (| 30). (Cf. § 44, 7.) 3. iVejo Orders for Inner Missions. — To these belong: (1.) The Theatines. They originated in an association of pious clergymen of Thiene or Theate, formed by Gcetano da Thiene, with the advice of Bishop John Peter Caraffa of Theate (afterwards Pope Paul IV.) In 1524 they were confirmed as Clerici regulares. They desired to depend for support, not upon begging, but upon divine providence furnishing them with means not solicited from any person, and acquired import- ance as a nursery for the higher clergy. Their regulations required them, moreover, to operate upon the people by frequent preaching, to give temporal and spiritual aid to the sick, to labor for the salvation of criminals, and oppose the rise of heresies. (2.) The Barnahifes, likewise an association of regular clergy, founded by Antonio Maria 166 SECTION III. — FIRST TERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). Zacca-ia, in Milan, confirmed by Clement VII. (1532). They obligated themselves to devote their whole life to works of mercy, the care of souls, the instruction of youth, preaching, confession, and missions. Their great patron was St. Bor^omeo, Archb. of Milan. They derived their name from the Church of St. Barnabas, which was assigned to their use. The Society of Angelicas, founded by Louisa Turelli, Coun- tess Guastalla (a wealthy lady, who had been twice widowed in the 25th year of her age), was attached to the Barnabites, and confirmed by Paul III. (1534). At first they accompanied the Barnabites on their missions, and labored for the conversion of women. But subsequently they were required to remain in a convent. Each member adds the name of the Order, Angelica, to her own, to be admonished thereby to be pure as the angels. (3.) Brothers of Mercy (1550), a society for the care of the sick, irrespective of their religion, founded by the friends of a poor, but excellent Portuguese, whom his bishop honored with the name John de Dio. (4.) The Vrsulines, founded by a pious young wo- man, Angela of Brescia, for the succor of all classes of sufferers, but especially for the education of young women (1537). (5.) Priests of the Oratory, or Order of the Holy Trinity, founded by St. Philip de Neri of Florence (1548). They united works of mercy with devotional exer- cises and biblical studies, attended to in the Oratory of a hospital erected by them. A branch, or rather imitation of this society, arose in France (1611), under the name of Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus. (Cf. I 35, 2.) 4. Reformation of the Old Orders. — (1.) The revival of the strict rule of the Franciscans was effected by the CapucJiins, whose founder, Mattheio de Bassi, was a monk in the monastery of the Observantes at Montcfalco, in the duchy of Urbiuo. Having incidentally discovered that St. Francis wore a cloak with a long pointed cowl, and, soon after, having had a vision of the saint in such a garb, he fled from his monastery, went to Rome, and besought the pope to allow him to restore the cowl (1525). His request was granted, and thus he formed a new congrega- tion of the Hermits of the Minorite Brethren. The unusual dress at- tracted universal attention. Whenever one of the brethren appeared on the street, boys ran after him crying : Capucino. They adopted the name as that of their Order. Their self-denying philanthropy during a plague in Italy won general esteem for the Order, so that in a short time it spread over all Italy. The conversion of its third vicar-general. Bernhard Ochino, to the Reformed faith, brought it, however, into bad repute for a time. The members were characterized by a total want of scientific training, which often sank into low rudeness. (2.) Theresa, the daughter of a Spanish grandee, effected a reformation of the Car- melites (1562). The revived Order (monks and nuns) assumed the name of Barefooted Carmelites, and was devoted to the instruction of youth, and to works of mercy. In the reorganization of the male Carmelites she was assisted by the acute and pious mystic John of the Cross. {?>.) A reformation of the Cistercians was finally effected by Jean de la RENOVATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 167 Barrih-e, abbot of the monastery of Feuillans, whence the congregation acquired the name of Fcuillantes (Fuliensians). The manner of life he introduced was so rigid, that fourteen members died under it in the course of a few years; tliis led to a moderation of their rule (1595). Henry III. called its founder to Paris to establish a monastery there. He remained true to the king, even after he had renounced the league, and thus incurred the hatred of the fanatically Catholic brethren of his Order, so that, in 1592, they deposed and banished him. A subse- quent committee of investigation under Cardinal Baronius, however, pronounced him innocent. 5. The Struggle against Augiistinianism. — The Council of Trent had prudently guarded against giving a decision in the old dispute between the Thomists and Scotists, concerning grace. The Jesuits now joined the Scotists. Michael Baiiis, the learned and pious professor at Lou- vain, and his colleague John Hessels, defended the Augustinian doc- trine ; but the Franciscans gathered 76 propositions from the writings of Baius, which, through the aid of the Jesuits, they induced Pius V. to condemn (1507). Baius had to abjure them. The controversy was renewed in 1588, when the Jesuit Louis Molina, in Portugal, published some semi-pelagian views upon the doctrine in question (Liberi arbitrii cum gi"atia3 donis concordia). The Dominicans, M'ith the learned Do- minicus Banez at their head, made a violent attack upon him, but the entire Order of the Jesuits, to a man, defended Molina. Such was the violence of the controversy, that it had to be settled by a papal deci- sion. Clement VIII. appointed a special congregation (congregatio de auxiliis) to examine the subject of dispute (1597), which labored in vain for ten years to frame a formula which would satisfy both the powerful parties. At length Paul V. dismissed them (1607), promised to give a decision at a convenient time, and forbid all controversy upon the su1)ject. The prohibition availed but little. Soon the controversy broke out afresh, in a very threatening form. (Cf. | 44, 6.) 6. Tlieology. — Various measures were adopted to establish the doc- trines of Trent. Even at Trent already. Indices librorum prohibitoriim and expurgandorum were instituted, which were afterwards con- tinued. The Professio fidei tridentinas (1564) and the catechisnuis romanus (1500) were prepared as authentic exhibitions of tlie doctrinal system of Trent; and in 1588 a permanent congregation, even, was ap- pointed to interpret its meaning upon any point Avhich might come up. The Breviarium romanum (1508), Missale romanum (1570), and Cle- mentine edition of the Vulgate (1592) served the same purposes. Mean- while Catholic scholars, in spite of the decree of Trent, began to examine into the authenticity of the Vulgate, and earnestly to study the original text of the Scriptures. The Dominican Sanies Pagninus of Lucca {oJi. 1541), a pupil of Savonarola, published a Hebrew lexicon (1529), (closely following raljbinical helps), a Hebrew grammar (1528), a literal faithful translation of the Old and New Testament from the original, at which he labored thirty years, an isagogic (with extended 168 SECTION I.I. — FIRST PERIOD (CBNT. 16 A. D.). explanations of Biblical tropes), and wrote commentaries upon the Pentateuch and the Psalms. lie regarded the literal sense as palea, folium, cortex ; the mystical as triticum, fructus, nucleus suavissimus The Dominican Sixtus of Siena {ob. 1569), laid more stress upon the historical sense. His Bibliotheca sancta, in 8 vols., was for that period an important introduction to the Bible. The Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine {ob. 1621), in his LI. IV. de verbo Dei, controverted the Protestant rule : Scriptura scripturoe interpres. Jerome Emser violently abused Luther's version of the Bible, and in opposition to it issued a translation of the New Testament (1527) claimed as his own, but which is no more than a copy of Luther's, with some unimportant verbal alterations. John Dcitenbcrijer, of Mayence, perpetrated the same bare- faced decej)tion in regard to the Old Testament. Luther and Leo Juda are literally copied (1534). John Eek, also, of Ingolstadt, published a translation of the Bible from the Vulgate, into the most wretched Ger- man, without any reference to the original text (1537). The learned Spaniard Arias Moniamis, aided by King Philip II., furnished the Antwerp Folijglott, in 8 vols., with a large number of learned additions (15G9, etc.) Towards the close of the century, the number of exegetes who began to give decided prominence to the literal sense, greatly in- creased. The most notable are : Arias Montanus [ob. 1598, upon nearly the whole Bible) ; the Jesuit John Maldonatiis [ob. 1583, upon the four Gospels) ; John Mariana [ob. 1624, Scholia in V. et N. T.) ; Nich. Serra- rius [ob. 1609, on the 0. and N. T.) ; and William Estins of Douay [ob. 1613, on the Epistles). In the sphere of dogmatics, the old method of commenting upon the Lombards was continued. But as early as 1528, lierthold Pirstinger, Bishop of Chiemsee, published a complete text-book of dogmatics, in the upper German dialect, entitled " Tewtsche Theologey," which was wholly emancipated from the scholastic form (cf. I 5, 3), and John Eck puljlished a counterpart to Melanchthon's locis (Enchiridion locorum communium), which passed through 30 editions. Of far greater importance were the Loci theologici of the Spanish Dominican Melchior Canvs [ob. 1560), which appeared in Salamanca (1563). The work is not so much a system of dogmatics as a thorough and learned introductory investigation of the sources, principles, me- thod, and fundamental idem of dogmatics. lie controverts the absurdi- ties of the scholastic method, but instead of wholly discarding it, de- sires that it should be pruned, and rescued from its errors. The .Jesuit Peter Canisiiis ac(iuired a high reputation in the Church for his two Catechisms (Cat. major 1554, and Cat. minor 1566), which for two cen- turies were used in all the Catholic schools of Germany, and .are still considered unsurpassed. Among Catholic controversialists, Cardinal Bellarmine holds indisputably the first place. His Disputationes de controversiis chr. fidei adv. hujus temp. ha3reticos (1581-93) have, in many respects, not been surpassed even to this day. Prrviously, Wil- liam Lindanns, Bishop of Ghent (Panoplia evangelica. Colon. 1563), and the Jesuit Francis Coster, of Mechelu (Enchiridion controversia- TRANSMARINE MISSIONS. 169 rum.. Col. 1585), had acquiroJ great celebrity among Catholics, as assailants of Protestantism. The merits of Cardinal liaronius, as an eccl. historian, have already been acknowledged (Vol. I., § 4, 2). 7. Music, Art, and Poetry. — Musical taste had been completely spoiled in the second Netherland school (Vol. I., ^ 113, 3), and Church music, especially, had become so artificial, fanciful, and secular, that some fathers at the Council of Trent earnestly proposed that music should be wholly excluded from Church service (at the mass). Then Falcs- trina [ob. 1594) saved and improved it. lie was a pupil of Goudimel (^ 23, 1), and by direction of the Council composed three masses, of which the Missa Marcelli is the most celebrated, in a grand, churchly style ; artistic and yet not artificial, lofty and fervent, but not secular or sentimental, they mark a new epoch in the llomish Church music. In pociri/, Torquato Tasso {ob. 1595) celebrated the Christian heroism of media3val Catholicism in his Gerusalemme liberata. — Painting still made important contributions to the service of the Catholic Church. Besides, and after, Corrcggio and Titian, the noble masters Caracci, Donienichino, and Guido lieni, Avere distinguished. Michael Angela {ob. 1564, in his 90th year), developed the most profound Christian ideas in the most lofty productions of painting and sculpture, was like- wise distinguished as an architect, and ranks among the greatest poets of Italy. Not only as painter and sculptor, but also as poet, he was far from doing slavish homage to the worship of Mary and the saints ; he rather gave utterance, in glowing sonnets, to his poignant sense of sin, and his strong faith in the crucified destroyer of sin. (Cf. § 37, 2, 3.) 8. The new efforts which Catholicism was driven to make for its self- preservation, by the progress of the Reformation, produced some happy results in the practical life of the Church. The awakened zeal for inner missions furnishes a bright proof of this, and the Catholic Church could once more produce saints worthy of being placed beside those of the middle ages. In addition to those already named, we meet with one especially distinguished by his elevated and noble character, Charles Borromeo {ob. 1587), who, as a nephew of the pope, and a high dignitary of the Church (Archb. of Milan), exerted considerable influ- ence upon the Council of Trent and the Curia, and succeeded in having many abuses corrected. Ilis life furnishes a perfect ideal of a Catholic pastor; and to this day his lofty form looks down from a colossal statue upon tJie streets of Milan, as the revered patron of the land. §30. TRANSMARINE MISSIONS. Cf //. Brown, Hist, of the propag. of Christianity among the heathen since the Ref. Lond. 1814, 2 vols. — P. Wittmann, d. Ilerrlichk. d. K. in ihr. Miss, seit d. Glaubensspalt. Augsb. 1841, 2 Bde. — Baron Jlen- rion, allg. Gesch. d. kath. Miss, seit d. 13. Jahrh. From the French. Schaffh. 1845, etc, 3Bde. — if. Milllbauer, Gescb. d. kath. Miss, in II. — 15 170 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). Ostind. Freib. 1852. — W. Hoffmann, d. Epochen d. K. G. Indiena. Berl. 1855. Gesch. d. kath. Miss, in Cliina. Wien, 1845, 2 Bde. The extensive geographical discoveries which immediately preceded the Reformation period, and the serious losses of eccle- siastical territory in Europe, resuscitated the missionary zeal of the Catholic Church. Opportunity and incitement to transma- rine missions were afforded by the commerce and conquests which were still almost exclusively carried forward by the Catholic na- tions; and abundant means were furnished, to sustain them by the numerous old and new monastic Orders. The missionary efforts of the Jesuits were especially brilliant. But the mutual jealousies and animosities of some of the Orders soon caused many interruptions. (Cf, § 35, 3.) 1. East India and Japan. — The Portuguese had established bishop- rics in their possessions in East India as early as 1510, though there were no churches there. Then Francis Xaoier, Loyola's companion, the Apostle of India, fired with glowing zeal for the salvation of men, im- bued with apostolic simplicity, and filled with love and a spirit of self- denial, entered that field in 1542, and baptized many thousands, mostly belonging to the despised caste of Pariahs ; but he progressed so rapidly that he nowhere took time to secure an inward basis for this external success. His unrestrained missionary zeal impelled him still onward. From East India he went to Japan, and only his death prevented his entering China {oh. 1552). — An inquisition for the maintenance of the Catholic faith was instituted in East India in 1560, which destroyed the remnants of the ancient Thomas Christians. Among the Brahmins the .Jesuit NohiJi labored with some success, by accommodating him- self to their prejudices, and avoiding all intercourse with the Pariahs. In Japan the Jesuits carried forward Xavler's work with brilliant suc- cess ; even some princes embraced Christianity. But in 1587 a violent persecution broke out, and the -Jesuits held their position in the country with great diflUculty. The envious devices of the Franciscans against the Jesuits, and the political rivalries which arose between the Hol- landers and Portuguese, increased the trouble ; persecutions were re- newed, and resulted In the utter extermination of the Church (1637). 2. Cliina. — Commerce also opened the way for missions to China, where a proud contempt of all foreigners was the chief obstacle. But the Jesuits, with Matthew Ricci at their head, contrived (1582) to gain entrance to the Imperial court, by their mathematical, mechanical, and architectural knowledge. Ricci first nationalized himself, and then b(!gan to preach Christianity. He died in 1610, but his work was car- ried on by his Order, and hundreds of churches had spread like a net- work over a large portion of the country. 3. America. — Zeal for the spread of the kingdom of Christ was not Due of the least impulses which influenced Christopher Columbus in hia CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. 171 seal for geographical discoveries. But the avarice, cruelty, and immo- rality of the Spanish invaders, who were less concerned to make tho natives Christians than slaves, proved a mighty hindrance to the suc- cessful Christianization of the country. The missionaries, especially the Dominicans and Franciscans, earnestly, but unavailingly, vindi- cated the human rights of the abused Indians. The noble Spanish Bishop Bartholomew de las Casas, devoting his whole life (1474—1566) to the sacred work, labored untiringly not only for the conversion of the Indians, but also for their deliverance from the hands of his avari- cious and blood-thirsty countrymen. He visited Spain six times, to intercede personally with the highest authorities for the amelioration of the lot of the poor natives, and he had to go the seventh time to defend himself against the complaints of his bitter foes. As early as 1517, Charles Y., at his entreaty, had granted the Indians personal liberty, but simultaneously allowed the colonists to introduce Negro slavery for the severe labors of the mines and plantations, and Las Casas was compelled to assent. But Indian slavery was still continued, and not until 1547 were earnest measures adopted for its abolition, after many millions of Indians had been sacrificed. Christianity had then already spread as far as Spanish rule reached, and was placed under the care of the Inquisition. In South America the Portuguese held dominion over Brazil, a rich but little known country. In 1549 King John III. sent a .Jesuit mission thither, with Emanuel Nohreya at its head. Amid indescribable toils they prevailed upon the native cannibals to embrace Christianity and civilization. 4. Abyssinia and Egypt. — The revived missionary zeal also directed its efforts towards the schismatic Churches of the East. Early in the 16th century it was ascertained through Portuguese merchants that an independent Jacobite Christian empire still existed in Abyssinia. The Abyssinian sultan, David, willingly received a Catholic patriarch [Bei'- inudez), upon assurances of Portuguese aid against the encroachments of neighboring Mahommedan States. But his successor Claudius drove the patriarch off. From 1546 Jesuit missionaries went thither, but Claudius denounced them as Arians, and the people refused to listen to them. Paul V., at the commencement of the 17th century, encouraged by a friendly letter of the Coptic patriarch, sent the Jesuit Christopher Rodriguez to Egypt. The patriarch took the rich presents he brought along, and then let him return home without having effected anything. § 31. CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. Cf. L. Iianh\ d. riim. Piipste. Bd. 11.—//. Heppe, d. Restaur, d. Katholicism. in Fulda, auf d. Eichsfelde u. in Wlirzb. Marb. 1850. — Ch. A. Fescheck, Gesch. d. Gegenref. in BLihmen. Lpz. 1844. 2 Bde. No sooner had the Catholic Church settled and secured matters at home, by the happy termination of the Council of Trent, than 172 Sf:CTION II I. F IRST PERID (CENT. 16 A. D.). It put forth all its strength to recover as much as possible of the territory it had lost. It can, at least, not be denied, that the efforts made for this purpose were extensive, persevering, bold, and successful. Two things favored the scheme, one was the territorial system (§ 17, 5), legalized by the enactments of the empire, which was originally devised for the rescue of Protest- antism (§ 6, 7), but now operated to its destruction; the other was the policy of the Jesuits, who spread over Europe, and, ac- cording to circumstances, openly or under close concealment, combined with, or intrigued against State authorities, for the overthrow of Protestantism, wherever it had taken root. Their craftiness, boldness, skill, their diplomatic arts, machinations, and practice in controversy, succeeded in one place in fanning the scarcely glimmering spark of Catholicism into a bright flame; in another, either in exterminating Protestantism root and branch, or i-educing it to the limits of a scarcely tolerated sect. Above all, they aimed to secure the management of the seminaries and schools, in order to plant hatred of Protestantism in the breasts of the rising generation. The other monastic Orders, also, were not idle ; but in extensive plans, thorough system, and strict unity, they fell far short of the vast and comprehensive energy of the Jesuits. The efforts at restoration, however, were most stupendous, comprehensive, and general, during their first epoch, which were begun, reached their climax, and achieved their last renowned feat, for the time, in the sixty years intervening be- tween the death of Maximilian II. (1576), and the restoration edict (1629) of Ferdinand II. (Cf. § 33, 1.) 1. Tlie Views of the German Emperors. — Ferdinand 1. (1556-64), more patient than his brother even as archduke and Roman king, and often the mediator between Charles and the Evangelicals, displayed a still more conciliatory and gentle disposition towards Protestantism during the last years of his own government. He was greatly dissatis- fied with the Council of Trent. Indeed, he tried anew the old ineffectual plan of a union by mutual concessions, and had union schemes pre- pared (1564) by the theologians near him, George Cassander, Fred. Staphj/his, and Geo. Wizel (the last two had been Protestants). Cas- sander's opinion, the only one entertained, proposed the abandonment, fur the sake of peace, of all doctrines ar 1 customs not founded upon the Scriptures. But he supposed many things supported by the Scrip- tures which Protestants could not find there, and the Catholics would not admit the principle. Hence the negotiations failed (cf. § 33, 5), Ferdinand's son Maximilian II. (1564-76) had been educated well-nigh CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. 178 in an evangelical spirit by his instructor Wolf;/. Severius. lie gave full liberty to the Protestants in his country, conferred many high and in- ferior State offices upon them, had little to do with the Jesuits, and was kept from embracing Protestantism only by political considerations regarding Spain and his Catholic princes. But these considerations crippled his good intentions, and his half-way measures caused compli- cations which subsequently led to the 30 years' war. His son, Rudolf II., educated by Jesuits at the Spanish court, gave them free scope for their operations everywhere, inflicted injuries on Protestantism, and ^as restrained from attempting totally to suppress it, only by his inde- nsion and timidity. 2. Restoration Atlemj^ts in Germany. — After the treaty of Passau, political disorders and the exhaustion of the princes operated very favorably for Protestantism. It had spread mightily in the Catholic States ; the States, and especially the nobility, did not conceal their sympathy for it, and demanded a religious concession of the prince for every grant made. Many spiritual princes had almost more Protestant than Catholic councillors; at their courts the Protestant nobility had unrestrained intercourse ; Protestant cities were partly their residences, and the benefices were often held by evangelical canons. But for the Jesuits all Germany would, in a few years, have come under the Evan- gelical Church, in spite of territorial authority and ecclesiastical reser- vations. The first Jesuits, thirteen in number, came as Spanish priests to Vienna in 1551, at the call of Ferdinand. Several years later they nestled themselves in Cologne and Lir/olstadt (1566). From these cities they spread in a few years over the whole of Catholic Germany, and the hereditary States of Austria. Then the work of restoration began. First in Bavaria (1564), Duke Albert V., converted into a zealous Ca- tholic by the opposition of his Protestant States, excluded Protestant nobles from the Bavarian diet; banished all the evangelical preachers; compelled all his evangelical subjects, who refused to embrace Catho- licism, to leave the country ; and required all professors and persons holding office, to subscribe under oath the Trent Confession of Faith. For this the Jesuits commended him as a second Josiah and Theodo- sius, called Munich a second Rome, and the pope conferred on him the prerogatives of a summus Episcopus in his domain. When he obtained Haag as a hereditary earldom, and when Baden-Baden came under his rule as guardian, he extirpated Protestantism from those countries also. The Electors of Treves and Mai/ence followed the example of Bavaria, "jhough with a measure of moderation. The latter [Daniel Brendel) restored Catholicism (1574) in Eichsfelde, which had become wholly evangelical. Balihasar von Dernhach, Abbot of Fulda, who was almost the only Catholic in his district, pursued the same course (1575). But he fell out Avith the chapter, which, with the knights, drove him off. The Bishop of WUrzl)urg, Julius Ec/itcr, who had aideerg, and commanded that the Form of Concord, which he and the whole country had previously subscribed, should be stricken from the collection of the symbolical books of the Lutheran Church of his land. 4. Union Efforts. (Cf. Rudelhach, 1. c. § 13, 8.) — Amidst the trou- bles of the Thirty Years' war, the princes of the electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg, and of Hessen-Cassel, appointed a Religious Colloquy at Leipsic (1631), to heal, if possible, the old schisms. The Reformed were much inclined to yield ; they were even willing to acknowledge the invariata. The Lutherans (the Dresden court-preacher Hoe of Hol'negg, and the Leipsic professors, Pohjc. Leyser and Henry Hopfner), accepted this, but remonstrated against explaining the 10th art. in the sense of a spiritual participation. They parted amicably, but the matter ended with that. On the contrary, the Religions Colloquy of Thorn (1645) only aggravated the schism (? 33, 5). That of Cassel (1661), between some Marburg and Helmstadt theologians, was well meant ; but at a time when the synocretistic controversy was raging, reciprocal concessions could only make the parties more bitter. The great elector Frederick William of Brandenburg (1640-88) labored zealously to restore religious unity among his Lutheran and Reformed subjects, though, indeed, in a spirit of indifference to the points of diversity between them. The Lutherans could not be content with this. Confessors, also, were not wanting among them. The noblest of these was the admirable composer of hymns, Paid Gerhardt. (Cf. G. Langbecker, Leben. u. Leid. v. P. G. Berl. 1841. — C. A. Wildenliahn, P. G., ein kirchengesch. Lebensbild, Lpz. 1845, 2 Bde.) As preacher at the church of St. Nicolai he was the life of the Lutheran opposition. 184 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). As he steadfastly refused to sign a pledge wholly to abstain from at- tacking the Reformed doctrines, he was deposed in 1666, but restored again in 1667 (mainly at the earnest request of the noble consort of the elector, Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, and therefore Re- formed, cf. I 41, 1), in the expectation that he would conform to the wish of the elector, even without giving a written pledge. But his conscience troubled him, and he made a public declaration which led to his being again deposed. Soon afterwards he was called as preacher to Lubben,^ in Lausatia. ( Ob. 1676.) (Cf. ^ 48, 2.) 5. The English Non- Conformists. (Cf. /. H. Merle d'Aubigne, the Protector, or the Engl. Republic under Cromwell.) — James I. (1603-25), the son of Mary Stuart, was hated by the Papists, whose expectations of him were disappointed, no less than by the Calvinistic Dissenters, who accused him of being openly inclined to popery, on account of his hierarchical views. His son Charles I. inherited this animosity (1625- 49). The Scotch made a cowe/iaji^ for the maintenance of Calvinism ; the English were afraid that Catholicism would be again introduced ; the Irish massacre (1641, cf. | 33, 3) was charged upon the king; and the political religious fanaticism of the Independents under Oliver Cromwell, brought Charles to the scaffold (1649). Under Cromwell's government the adherents of the Episcopal Church were oppressed, whilst Dissenters were greatly favored. When Charles II. ascended the throne (1660), this was reversed. The Test Act (1673, cf. | 33, 3), though primarily aimed against the Catholics, also struck Dissenters, and excluded them from all civil and military offices. But William of Oranqe (from 1689), by the Act of 1689, secured toleration to Dis- senters also ; only Socinians and Catholics were excluded from its P rivileses. II. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. I 35. THE PAPACY, MONASTICISM, AND HEATHEN MISSIONS. The theocratic system of Hildebrand had perished beyond re- demption. Even Catholic princes refused to be any longer ruled in political affairs by the vicegerent of Christ. The ban had lost its power, but the popes still strove to rescue the idea, even where they had to yield the fact, and never ceased to enter im- ])Otent protests against measures of which they disapproved. Politically the pope was only a prince among princes. Among existing monastic orders, the Jesuits enjoyed by far the most power and influence. They extended the pope's infallibility PAl'ACY, MONASTICISM, HEATHEJ MISSIONS. 185 even to matters of fact. The other Orders were envious and jeulons, and vigilantly seized every opportunity of assailing the Jesuits, especially the Disciples of St. Thomas, who were also their doctrinal antipodes. During this period also, Catholic misiiio7is among the heathen were prosecuted with vigorous acti- vity. The Jesuits were still most energetic ; next to them the Dominicans and Franciscans. 1. T/ie Fapaci/. — Paul V. (1605-21), equally energetic in politics and Ihe interests uf the hierarchy, had nevertheless to experience the impo- tence of the papal ban and interdict, in a controversy with the Republic of Venice. The pious and learned Servite, Paul Sarpi (historian of the Council of Trent), a man who deeply deplored the errors of his (•liurch, and Avho was familiar with the " Stylum Curke," but did fear it, buldly defended the liberty of the Church and the State, and the p.ipc had to yield. His successor Gregory XV. (1621-23) wrote a secret scrutiny for the election of a pope, canonized Loyola, and enriched the A'^atican librarj- with the valuable treasui'es of the Heidelberg library, given him by Maximilian I. after the conquest of the Palatinate. Urban VIII. (Card. Barberini, 1G23-24) gave the bull Coena Domini its present form, but in other respects did more for the martial than religious prosperity of the Church State. Innocent X. (1644-55) was derided as another Johanna Papissa, on account of his shameful subjec- tion to a woman (Donna Olympia). His fourth successor Innocent XI. (1676-89), an energetic pope, and one who sincerely labored for the good of the Church, became involved in a dangerous controversy with France. Louis XIV. (1643-1715) exercised the established right of appropriating the revenues of vacant benefices, in the widest sense, and had the celebrated principles of the Gallican Church (propositiones cleri Gallicani) adopted by an assembly of the Paris clergy. (1.) The power of the pope extends only to spiritual, not to temporal matters. (2.) The spiritual power of the pope, according to the decision of the Council of Constance, is subject to the supreme authority of general councils. (3.) In France his power is further limited by the old eccle- siastical laws of France. (4.) The decisions of the pope in matters of faith are only infallible by their agreement with the entire Church, The pope energetically opposed these claims, refused to confirm French bishops; and his successor Innocent XII. had the satisfaction of seeing the king and clergy humbly yicldinjj; their demands (1691). Never- theless, the idea of the liberty of the Gallican Church, once awakened, was not al)andoned ; and the celebrated Bishop Bosseut of Meaux wrote a learned and extended vindication of it (Defensio declarationis cele- berrima;, quam de potestate ecclest. sanxit Clerus gallicanus, 2 vols. 4to.) (Cf. I 44, 1.) 2. New Congregations and Orders. — (1.) The Benedictine Congregor 16* " 186 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). Hon of St. Vanne, at Verdun, founded by Didier de la Cour, stands foremost among the creations of this century. Elected Abbot of St. Vanne, in 1596, Didier devoted all his energies to the reformation of that monastery, which had utterly degenerated. A papal bull of 1604 granted certain rich privileges to all monasteries which would unite in a congregation with St. Vanne. By degrees all the Benedictine monas- teries in Lorraine and the Elsace, joined that cimgregation. Didier's reform aimed mainly at morals and asceticism. But learning and education [Calmet, CeiUier, etc.) were also diligently promoted by the new congregation. (2.) The Fathers of the Orator;/ of Jesus, an imita- tion of Philip de Neri's priests of the oratory (^ 29, 3). It was founded by Peter of Berylle, son of a Parliamentary counsellor, by the establish- ment of an oratory in Paris. Peter was more given to mysticism than learning, but his Order took another course. It produced many stars of Catholic, and at the same time very liberal, erudition (Malebranche, Morinus, Thomassinus, Rich. Simon, Houbigant, etc.) (3.) The Maurines in France (1618). Taking their name from St. Maurus, the pupil of St. Benedict, they aimed at a revival of the fallen Order of Benedic- tines, and were distinguished for producing many really learned men. I'atristics and Church History owe much to their untiring diligence. To this Order belong such brilliant names as those of Mabillon, Mont- fauQon, Ruinart, Martfene, D'Achery, Le Nourry, etc. (Cf. J. G. Herlist, d. Verdienste d. Maur. um d. Wissch., in the tlibg. Quartalschr. 1833, I. II.) (4.) The Piarists, founded (1600) by the Spaniard Joseph Cala- sanze, in Rome, for the instruction of youth ; in this sphere they were the hated rivals of the Jesuits. (5.) The Order of the Visitation of our beloved Ladies, or Salesians. It owed its origin (1618) to that superior mystic Count Francis of Sales (§ 36, 1), a zealous proselyter of Pro- testants, and the Baroness Francisca of Chantal, w^ho stood in intimate spiritual fellowship with him. The care of the sick and training of children was its object (cf. B. Rensing, Leb. d. h. Fr. v. Sales. Paderb. 1848). (6.) The Priests of the Missions, and (7.) Sisters of Mercy, Avere both founded by Vincent of Paula. Born of poor parents, after com- pleting his studies, he Avas captured by pirates, and succeeded, as a slave, in converting his master, a renegade Christian. Afterwards he was settled at Chatillon, as priest, and with the aid of the family of Count Gondy, awakened, though with the most unassuming humility, a really wonderful and efficient measure of zeal for inner missions. In 1618 he established the Order of Sisters of Mercy, who devoted them- selves faithfully to the care of the sick, throughout France ; and in 1627 the Order of Priests of the Missions (also called Lazarists), who travelled over the country ministering to the souls and bodies of men. After the death of the Countess of Gondy, he appointed Jjouise le Gras, a widow distinguished alike for intelligence and piety, superior of the Order. Vincent died in 1660, and was subsequently canonized (cf. L. V. Stolberg, Leb. d. h. Vine. v. Paula. Wien, 1819, and H. E. Schm'''£der TAPACY, MONASTICISM, HEATHEN MISSIONS. 187 V. V. P., in d. evang. K. Z. 1832, Nr. 77, etc.) (8.) The Trappists, founded by Jean le Bouthillicr de Ranee [ob. 1700), a distinguished canon, who was led to renounce his worldly life by an alarming event, and ran into the opposite extreme of over-wrought asceticism (16G4). The Order took its name from the Cistercian Abbey la Trappe, in Nor- mandy, whose commendatory abbot was Ranee. After many difficulties he succeeded in persuading the worldly voluptuous monks to adopt a life of unexampled austerity. His rule imposed unbroken silence, excepting in prayer and singing, and the occasional admonition: incincnio mori, when they met each other. Their bed was a hard board, w'xih. a little straw, their only food bread and water, roots, herbs, some fruit and vegetables, but without Initter, fat, or oil. All literary pur- suits were forbidden ; farming their recreation. Their dress consisted of a dark-brown cowl, and wooden shoes. Such austerities kept most other monasteries from adopting the rule (cf. ^ 57, 2, and E. L. Eitsert, d. Ord. d. Trappisten. Darmst. 1833. — Chaieaubriand, Leb. d. Paters Bouth. de Ranee. In German, Ulm, 1844). (9.) The Christian Scliool Jirethren, founded in 1680, by the Rheims canon Jean Bapt. de la Salle, for the training and instruction of children of the laboring classes. The members assume the vow of poverty, chastity, obedience, and con- tinuance in the institution, but they dare not be priests, nor strive to become priests. In the course of time the institution spread mightily (over France, Belgium, and N. America), and was allowed to have a superior-general with eight assistants, at Paris. (10.) The English Ladies, founded by Marr/Ward, the daughter of an English nobleman who adhered to Catholicism. Fleeing with her family, she founded a society of English young ladies, fugitives like herself, at St. Omer in France, for the education of young girls. The institution was soon enlarged by admitting persons from other countries. Houses were also established in Germany (Cologne, Munich, A-'ienna, etc.), Italy, and the Netherlands. It never obtained papal confirmation ; indeed Urban VIII., listening to the complaints of their enemies, who charged them with heresy, formally abolished the society. All their houses and schools were closed (excepting that in Munich, at Maximilian's especial request). Mary herself was imprisoned and handed over to the Inqui- sition in Rome. But Urban was soon convinced of her innocence, and released her. The scattered young women soon assembled again, but the society was not formally confirmed until 1703, by Clement XI., 58 years after the death of the founder. Its object is the care of the sick and education of youth. The members are divided into three classes: ladies (nobles), young women (civilians), aiid waiting sisters. All assume the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, annually, or triennially renewed, and binding only for that period. They may, therefore, leave the society and marry. They still have many houses in Germany, France, Belgium, England, and Italy. 3. Heathen Missions. (Cf. I 30.)— From lfi22, the missionary opera- 188 SECTION III — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) tions of the Catholic Church acquired unity, strength, and permanence, through the grand institution of Gregory XV., the Congregatio de -pro- paganda Jide (cf. 0. Mejer, d. Propag., ihre Provinzen u. ihr Recht. 2 Bde. Gottg. 1852, etc.) With its seminary for the education of mis- sionaries it became the heart of Catholic missions, celebrating the Epiphany in Rome by having the praises of the Lord sung in all the languages of the world. The astonishing success of Catholic missions is owing partly, no doubt, to the zeal, perseverance, and self-denial of the missionaries, but, also, to the readiness with which they accommo- date themselves to the habits and views of different nations, if the people will only outAvardly embrace Christianity, without antecedent knowledge or conversion. Ricci's death in 1610 did not interrupt the labors of the Jesuits in the Chinese Mission. In 1628, Adam SchaR, a German Jesuit, arrived, and by his skill in mathematics won great respect at the Chinese court. Everything progressed admirably. The mission flourished gloriously in its way. But in 1631 the Dominicans also entered China. They found a half million nominal Christians, and innumerable Churches, but objected earnestly to the accommoda- tion measures of the Jesuits, and the mixture of heathen and Christian elements. Rome dismissed their complaints, and the Jesuits went boldly forward. Louis XIV. then founded a missionary college in Paris, designed mainly for China, which sent Jesuits, thoroughly edu- cated in mathematics, into the central empire. Soon, however, the old complaints of the Dominicans were revived, and with increased vigor. In 1701 the pope sent a legate, Thomas of Tournon, to Asia; but the Jesuits put him out of the way (he died (1710) in prison at Macao), and continued their operations, despite papal injunctions and their own fourth vow. Their doings in Paraguay, S. America (from 1608), were most renowned. There they converted the savages, taught them Euro- pean customs, trades, and arts, and organized a complete independent government, in which the natives, under the mild patriarchal rule of the Jesuits, whom they obeyed like children, long dwelt in pros- perity; the Order, meanwhile, grew very rich. (Cf. | 44, 3.) § 36. MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. The Reformation drove back the Romish Church, which had become wholly externalized in life and doctrine, to a revival of mediajval mysticism. The preceding period, already, exhibits evidences of this tendency (St. Theresa, John of the Cross, etc.), but in the present epoch it manifested itself more energetically. The powerful Jesuits, however, who, in the mechanical character of all their religious practices, hated, as mach as they did Au- gustitiisra, every species of mysticism which held outward religious Torms in little esteem, and was, indeed, not wholly free from fana- MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. 180 rical enlhusiasni. They I)raiided it with ine heretical name of Quietisvi ; nnd did all in their power, by violent persecutions, to luirass tliose who devoted tliemselves to quiet communion with God, and to prevent the successful propagation of their views. The reaction in favor of Augustinism, thus far confined to the Dominicans, and only a matter of theological parties, now found a citadel in French Jansenism. Combined with deep moral earnestness, it spread out, pervading and purifying Christian life as well as theological science. 1. Mi/.siicism and Quietism. — The noblest, tenderest, and most devout mystic of the Catholic Church, after the Reformation, was Francis of Sales (I 35, 2), B. of Geneva [i. e. in partibus, then at Annecy, ob. 1622). His QvertioAving love, and conciliatory manners, led crowds of Protestants back to the Romish Church. His " Philothea," giving directions to the people of the world, for maintaining a devout life, and enjoying a sense of the love of God, amidst all the distractions of their business. Next to the "Imitation of Christ," it is the most popular and common devotional book in the Catholic Church. In his " Theo- time" the reader is led further into the faintings and longings, the pains and pangs, the joy and felicity of a life hid in God. — John Seheffler ( Angelus Silesius) flourished in Germany ; he was a friend of Jacob Bohm, previously a Protestant, then a convert, physician to the em- peror. Catholic priest, and a zealous controversialist {ob. 1677). Whilst a Protestant he composed several very sweet, devout hymns. After- wards he produced " der cherubiuische Wandersman," a collection of poetical sayings, in which, with childlike simplicity and ardent love, he buries himself in the depths of the universal Godhead, and pro- pounds the boldest pantheistic theses. (Cf. C. F. Gaupp, d. rom. K. beleuchtet in einem ihrer Pi-oselyten. Dresd. 1840. — A. Kahlert, Aug. Sil. Bresl. 1853.— P. Witimann (Cath.), Aug. Sil. als Convert., Dichter u. Polem. Augsb. 1842. Adv. W. Schrader, Aug. Sil. u. s. Mystik. Halle, 1853, who endeavors to show that Aug. Sil. and Scheffler are two different persons ; cf. G. Schuster, Aug. Sil. in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1857, III.) — Similar causes produced a mystical tendency in Spain, the friends of which were called Alombrados (illuminati). Michael Molinos of Saragossa imparted to this movement a more sub- stantial character. From 1669, as priest in Rome, he became the spiritual guide of many earnest souls, and taught them how to find the highest enjoyment of piety, in sincere prayer, in pure love tr) God, and in a calm, peaceful, immediate contemplation of God. He was unmolested until the jealousy of the Jesuits, and especially the machi- nations' of the confessor of Louis XIV., La Chaise, incited the Inquisi- tion against him. He was put in confinement, compelled to abjure 68 statements selected from his books (the principal one was his Guida 190 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 17 A. D.) . spirituale, puljlished in Latin by A. IT. Francke; Manuductio spiritua- lis, Lpz. 1G87, in German by G. Arnold; Geistl. Wegw. Frkf. 1690) as heretical and blasphemous (1G87), and was then condemned to perpetua] confinement in a monastery, and rigid spiritual oversight [ob. 1696) His adherents were branded as Quietists (cf. C. E. Scharling, Mich, do Mol., in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1854, III. IV., 1855, I.) But the mys- tical tendency was not thus suppressed. In France, especially, it found many warm friends and supporters. Antoinette Bourignon [ob. 1680) spread her theosophic and fanatical mysticism in the Netherlands, and adjacent parts of Germany. Peter Foiret, court-preacher of the palatine Deux-Ponts (once a Cartesian philosopher, then an ardent admirer of Mad. Bourignon and Guyon) published her works in 25 vols. Amst etc. Concerning her doctrines, cf. JV. Klone in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1851, p. 497. — The mystical love of Johanna Maria de la Mothe Guyon {ob. 1717) was much richer and purer. Early left a widow, after a vain course of life, she devoted herself to a glowing love of God. That man should die to himself and to all self-will, so that Christ alone might live in him, and that man should love God without regard to reward or punishment, yea, even though it should please God to damn him for ever, were the thoughts which underlay her life and labors, and which she cherished with most ardent, sincere, and tender love. She travelled many years with her confessor. La Combe, who shared her views, through France and Switzerland ; and by means of numerous writings, and oral instruction, kindled a like burning love to God in the hearts of countless disciples, male and female. No tribulations, persecutions, imprisonments, could divert her from her purpose. She found powerful protectors at the court ; Mad. Maintenon secured her liberation from prison. Above all, one of the noblest men who ever lived, defended her against her enemies' accusations of heresy. This was Francis de Salignac de la Mothe Fdnelon, formerly tutor of the king's nephews, from 1695 Archbishop of Cambray {ob. 1715). By his advice she begged the king for an examination of her writings. A commission, headed by Bossiiet, objected to her amour desinteress6. Fendon then defended the doctrine, and Bossuet, incited by passion and jealousy, answered in several writings. Fendon sent his own writings to Rome. In the mean time he had lost the king's favor. It w^as the more easy, therefore, for his adversaries to induce the pope to condemn his views. Fen6lon (who adhered most cordially to the Ca- tholic Church, and had ever labored zealously for the conversion of Protestants), with admirable self-denial and humility, read the brief of his own condemnation from the pulpit, and, putting all the blame upon his own imperfect and erroneous productions, admonished his people to obedience (1699). Among the icorks of Mad. Guyon, the most important is : La Bible de Mad. Guyon avec des explications et reflexions, qui regardent la vie interieure, ed. by P. Polret. Col. 1715, etc, in 20 vols. ; a German transl., E-egensb., 1835, etc. (Cf. La vie de MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. 191 Mad. dc Giiyon eerite par idle-meme. Col. 17'21. — C. Hermes, Ziige aua d. Lcben d. Fr. v. Guyon. Magd. 1845. — Bamsai/, Hist, de la vie de F^nelun ; A la Haye, 1723. — L. v. Bausset, Lebensgesch. Fenel., from the French, 3 Bdc. Wlirzb. 1811; Fenelon's works, in German, by M. Claudius, 3 Bde. Hamb. 1823. — Ilerzog's Theol. and Eccl. EncycL, Philad. II., 1860. — Buckgaber, d. Quietism, in Frankr., in the tiibg. Quartschr. 1856. II.) 2. Jansenism in its First Stage. — (Cf. Melch. Ley decker, de hist. Jansen. LI. YI. Traj. ad Rh. 1695. (G. Gerberon) Hist, gener. du Jan- sen. Amst. 1711. 3 vols.— IT. Ecucldin, Gesch. v. Port-royal, 1839, 1844. 2 B/siemaiic theology, the old scholastic method still had full sway. Among controversialists, the Brabant Jesuit Martin Becanus [oh. 1624) was distinguished as author of the Manuale controversiarum, Bishop Bossitet (^ 33, 5), and the Jansenists Peter Nicole and Anthony Arnauld, who, to purge themselves from the charge of Calvinism, both endeavored to prove that the Catholic doctrine of the Lord's Supper was taught by the Apostles, and ever held by the Church. (La perpe- tuite de la foi cath. touchant I'eucharistie. Par. 1664), and exchanged a number of controversial papers upon this subject, with the Reformed Claude and Jurien. Here we must also mention the writings of the apostate Lutherans Casper Ulenherg (Causae graves et justse, in Ger- man, by Kerz, Mayence (1836), and Ulrich Hvnnius, son of the cele- brated ^gid. H. (Invicta prorsus et indissolubilia argumenta, etc.) in defence of their course. Apologetics received valuable contributions from Blaise Pascal (in his Pens6es, cf. I 36, 2), the Oratorians Le Vassor (De la veritaljle religion. Subsequently he entered the Anglican Church), Bernh. Lamy (Preuvesevidentes, etc.) and the French bishop, Peter Dan. Hvetius, the ed. of Origen [oh. 1721), who, in his principal work, De- mousf ratio evangelica, attempts to show that all the myths and fables of heathenism are distortions of Biblical histories ; he also defended the Pentateuch against Spinoza's attacks. In his Qncestiones Alnetance (written in the monastery of D'Annay), he controverts the Cartesian philosophy. The learned Jesuit Dionysius Petavius (Jesuitarum aquila, oh. 1652), in addition to his herculean chronological labors, wrote a profoundly learned history of doctrines, or rather a work exhibiting the doctrines of the fathers (Dogmata theologica), which, however, was not completed (it embraces, in 3 fol. vols., only the first five loci). The Oratorian Louis Thomassinvs followed his example (Dogm. theol. 3 vols. fol. Par. 1680). But his archaeological work is of more import- ance : Vetus et nova ecclesi* disciplina circa beneficia et beneficiarios, 3 vols. fol. In the department of Church History, Catholic theology, especially in France, acquired a superior reputation. It was incited to this by rivalry with Protestantism, and controversies with the learned Reformed theologians of France. This was allowed by the freedom of the Gallican Church (cf. | 35, 1). Besides excellent works on general Church History Ijy Godeau, Nat. Alexander, Fletiry, Bossuet, Tillemont, t") whom we must add Ant. Pagi (Critica hist.-chronol. etc.) the keen IT. —17 " N 194 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (^C £ N T. 1 7 A. D.). cd. of Baronius, the study of ecclesiastical sources was promoted by excellent editions of the Church fathers, with most learned critical and historical apparatus, by editions and collections of medireval works, archives, etc. (Sirmond, MahiUon, D' Achery, Mariene, Baluzius), the acts of Councils [Lahb6 and Cossart ; especially of the French, by /. Sirmond, of the Spanish hy Aguirre), of the acts of Martyrs [Ruinart), monastic rules [Luc, Holstenius), etc. Charles du Fresne du Cange, by his wonderful Glossarium mediae et infimoe latinitatis, and his Gloss med. et inf. grsecitatis, greatly advanced the full understanding of the sources in regard to language and contents. John Mabillon was doubt- less the brightest star in the constellaticm of learning [oh. 1707, author of: Acta Sanctorum Ordinis s. Benedicti ; Annales Ordinis s. Bened. ; Vetera Analecta ; de re diplomatica, etc.) Peter de Marca, finally Archb. of Paris [ob. 1662), wrote the celebrated work De concordia sacerdotii et imperii s. de libertatibus eccl. Gallicanae ; the Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, Elijah du Pin [ob. 1719), the Nouvelle biblio- theque des auteurs ecclest. in 47 vols. ; the Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, and Papebroch, began (1643) the herculean Acta Sanctorum, arranged according to the Roman calendar, and learned members of their Order [the Bollandists) in Belgium continued it, until the French invasion of 1794 interrupted the work, when it had reached the 53d fol. vol., ending with Oct. 15. Recently Belgic Jesuits have resumed the work, but not with the critical care or the liberality of their pre- decessors. In Venice, Paolo Sarpi [ob. 1623) wrote a history of the Council of Trent, which is one of the most brilliant historical contri- butions ever composed. Leo AUatius, a Greek convert in Rome [ob. 1669) wrote his celebrated work De eccl. Occidentalis et Orientalis perpetua consensioue. Cardinal Bona, Cistercian general, was a bril- liant liturgical author (De divina psalmodia ; Rerurn liturgicarum LI. II.) But distinguished names in the department of Church History are too numerous to allow us to name them all. Pulpit eloquence, also, flourished in France to a degree not since attained [Flechier, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Bridaine, Fen6lon, and Massillon). In Vienna, TJlrich Me(/erle (Abraham de St. Clara) zealously denounced the corruption of the times, in odd, witty, and yet thoughtful addresses. Though he assumed the manners of a clown, he often gave utterance to most solemn and pungent truths. (Of. ^ 44, 11.) 2. Church Music. — The Italian Greg. Allegri [ob. 1652) was the greatest master of the school founded by Palestrina. His Miserere waa annually performed on Wednesday afternoon of Holy Week in the Sixtine Chapel, Rome, with powerful effect. The application of the operatic style to the lofty music of this school gave rise to the oratories, or musical dramas, composed of Biblical material, designed to be pro- duced only with music, not theatrically. They were mainly practised in the school for music established by Philip de Neri, in his oratory; hence their name. This new style, which required that the music SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 195 Bhould be closely suited to the word and to musical declamation, soon excluded the Canto fermo with its counterpoint combination of voices, and for it substituted a religious concert. Thus solo and recitative sing- ing became very common, and attained great perfection. The chromatic scales was to furnish the means of producing feelings in the hearer cor- responding with the sentiments of the words sung ; the general bass, as the foundation of the piece, which, by the accompanying signatures, should indicate its entire harmony, was also to leave room for the freest action, and independent production of the several voices ; and finally, by combining instrumental music with the singing, it was intended to call forth the most lively variety and fulness. This new style of Church music, meanwhile, became more secular and effeminate, and gradually sank into an operatic performance, from which it has not thus far been raised up. 3. Christian Poetry. — The Spanish poet Calderon [oh. 1681) composed 128 dramas, 95 autos sacramentales, and 200 preludes. The focus of his mostl}'^ allegorical compositions was religion. In fertility, variety, as well as in poetical geniality and religious depth, Calderon was ex- celled by his countryman Lope de Vega [oh. 1G35, author of 1500 come- dies and 320 autos). The noble German Jesuit Fred. v. Spec [oh. 1635) merits special prominence. Ilis religious poems glow with sincere love to the Redeemer, combined with a child-like spirit, and a deep, thought- ful naturalness, and seem to be related both to the mediaeval minstrel songs, and the cotemporaneous evangelical hymns. They appeared after his death under the title of " Trutz-Nachtigall," but were unno- ticed even by the Romish Church, until the German novelists of the 19th century drew them forth again from the dust. Spee was one of the first but unavailing opponents of the insane process for detecting witches. Vexation in regard to it early turned his hair gray. The Jesuit Jacoh Balde of Munich [oh. 1688) was another eminent poetic genius of this period. His lyric compositions were the most brilliant. His few German poems are far inferior to those in Latin. A deep reli- gious longing, which turns with fervor and spirit to the Queen of heaven, as the only deliverer from earthly troubles, pervades all his poems. He too was long forgotten, until Herder rescued him from oblivion. Alh. Knapp gives an excellent description of the noble poet in his Chris'to- terpe 1848. 196 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D,). III. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. ? 38. LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. Of. J. G. Walch, die Religionsstreitigk, in d. luth. K. Jena, 1733, 5 Bde. — G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. prot. Theol. v. d. Concordienf. bis Mitte d. 18. Jahrh. Giittg. 1831.— IF. Gass, Gesch. d. prot. Dogmatik. Bd. L Berl. 1854. — ^. Tholiick, d. Geist. d. luth. Theol. Wittb. im Verlaufe d. 17. Jiihrh. Ilamb. 1852.— Die Theologie d. 17. Jahrh. In d. Zeitschr. fiir Protestantism, u. K. 1856, H. I., VII. The precision, clearness, and carefulness of the Form of Con- cord, gradually overcame all opposition to it. The result proved that, in spite of the ridicule of antagonists (cf. Hoapiniaii's Cow- cordia discors), it had really restored harmony. It now exercised authority not by means of the imperative power of princes, but through the free moral power of science, and introduced a flourish- ing period of Lutheran theology of more than a century, during which the teachers of the Church adhered as one man firmly and unitedly to its doctrine. Tlieology was most fully developed, and reared like a mighty Gothic dome with astonishing acuteness, harmonious in its minutest parts, and firmly knit together as a whole. But the tendency towards an extremely subtile develop- ment and precise definition of doctrines, which sprang from the controversies of the preceding century, became continually more one-sided. Hence it called into existence a dialectic scholasti- cism, which was in no way inferior to that of the most flourishing period of the middle ages, either in the greatness or paltriness of the careful and acute development of its scientific form, or in the full and accurate exhibition of its religious contents. But, like mediaeval scholasticism, in its concern for logic it almost lost vitality. Zeal for the truth degenerated into frigid orthodoxy externaUij, not only discerning essential diversities, but disre- garding the broad basis of a common faith, and running into odious and unrestrained controversy ; internally, holding to the form of pure doctrine, but neglecting cordially to embrace it, and to live consistently with it. Nevertheless, this scholastic orthodoxy, with all its one-sidedness, imparted to Lutheran theology a fulness and wealth, an acuteness and consistency of structure, the grandeur of which even a Lessing was compelled to acknowledge. And it cannot be denied that this period, so commoidy reviled as that of "dead orthodoxy," possessed more LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 197 true piety and spiritual life, than the period (18th century) which most decried it. At the same time the one-sidedness and dege- neracy of that orthodoxy is not to be denied, nor the propriety, necessity, and beneficial influence of the opposition to it which sprang from the bosom of the Ciiurcli ; though it cannot be dis- puted that this opposition was marked by a one-sidedness of another sort. The opposition was of a two-fold character : in the syncretistic controversy it was confined exclusively to the sphere of theology ; in the inetislic controversy, it more largely concerned matters of piety. 1. Orthodoxy in Conflict with itself. — This includes the controversy between the theologians of T'dbinfien and Giessen concerning the state of humiliation. The Giessen theologians, with Balth. Mentzer at their head, referred the humiliation of Christ solely to his human nature, and pronounced it an actual zEVwatj, that is, a complete, though free surrender of the omnipresence and omnipotence immanent in his divi- nity (xrjJcTK but without ;fpjj(nj), yet so that he might at any moment (as in working miracles) exercise them. The Tubingen theologians, on the contrary, with Luc. Osiander at their head, referred his humilia- tion to both natures, and taught that during it he was omnipresent even secundum carnem, and governed heaven and earth, though in a manner concealed from us. They said the xsvuai? was no humiliation, but only a xp^'^'^i- -^ commission from electoral Saxony (Hoe v. Iloe- negg, ^gid. Strauch, etc.) decided in favor of the Giessen party (1024). The matter was attended with no further results. 2. The Syncretistic Controversy. [E. Renke, Helmst. im. 16. Jahrh. Halle, 1833 ; id. G. Calixt's Briefwechsel, Halle, 1833 ; id. G. Calixt u., s. Zeit. Halle, 1853, 56. 2Bde.— ZT. Schmid, Gesch. d. synkr. Streitigkk. Erlg. 1846.— IF. Gass, G. Calixt u. d. Synkr. Brsl. 1847.)— The univer- sity of Helmstddt followed a prevailingly humanistic tendency, and allowed, even in theology, larger liberty of views than was ^ranted by the Form of Concord, which the city had not accepted. This school produced, and for 43 years (from 1613) employed, George Calixtus, a man of superior scientific and social accomplishments. A thorough study of Church History, and intercourse with distinguished theolo- gians of all Churches, enjoyed during his extensive travels in Europe, had begotten in him not only an irenical turn of mind, ])ut a more liberal judgment of foreign Churches, than was commonly indulged. He did, indeed, not desire a formal union of the various Churches, but that they should recognize, tolerate, and love each other. To this end he proposed, as a secondary principle of Christian theology (next to the Holy Scriptures as its primary principle), the concurrence of the first five centuries (Consensus quinquesecularis), as a common basis for all the Churches, and sought to show that subsequent diversitiea 17* 198 SfiCTION III. SECOND TERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) . were either non-es.sential, or less essential. But rigid Lutheran theolo- gian!-, who were mistrustful of all irenical measures, ever since tho trouble with crypto-Calvinism, pronounced this a religious medley {syncretism), and crypto-Catholicism. As early as 1639, Statius Buscher, a Hanoverian clergyman, denounced him, on this account, as a secret papist. Ilis efforts were more generally assailed, after he attended tho Colloquy of Thorn [l 33, 5), as the assistant of the Reformed theolo- gians of Brandenburg (1645). A most furious controversy arose, Avhich divided the entire Lutheran Church into two parties. On the one side were the universities of Hdmstddt and Konigsbery, on the other espe- cially the theologians of electoral Saxony, with John Hillsemann, in Leipsic, Jacob fVeller, in Dresden, and above all, Abr. Calov, in Wit- tenberg, at their head ; Calov alone wrote 28 controversial tracts. Jena sought in vain to mediate between the parties. The Wittenbergei's hoped to fortify the Lutheran Church by a new symbol (which, how- ever, was never legally ratified) : Theologorum Saxonicorum Consensus repetitus fidei vere Lutheranae (1655), in which, among other things, they rejected, as sycretistic errors, the assertions, that the Apostles' creed taught everything necessary to salvation ; that the Catholic and Reformed Churches had not disturbed the real basis of the doctrines of grace ; that original sin is only of a privative nature, that God is in- directe, improprie et par accidens the cause of sin ; that the doctrine of the Trinity was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixtus died in the midst of the passionate contentions. But his son Ulrich, who possessed neither his father's spirit nor moderation, took his place. The strife Avas finally swaUowed up by a suit for damages (between Ulr. Calixtus and his violent antagonist St ranch in Witten- berg), without anything important having been gained for the theology or science of that period. Weary of this barren controversy, the atten- tion of theologians was turned to the pietistic movement which now commenced its career. 3. Tlie Pietistic Controversy in its First Stage. (Cf. C. H. v. Canstein, Muster e. rechtsch. Lehrers in d. Leb. Spener's. Ilalle, 1740. — W. Hossbach, Ph. J. Spener u. s. Zeit. 2 A. v. Ch. Schweder. Berl. 1853. — C. A. Wildcnhahn., Leb. Spener's; in d. Sonntagsbibl. 4, 5. Bielef 1845.—^. E. F. Guericke, A. H. Francke. Halle,' 1827.— C. F. lllgen. Hist, collegii philobiblici Lipsiensis. 4 Pp. Lps. 1836-41. — Fh. Spener, wahrhaft. Erzahl. dess., was wegen d. s. g. Pietismi in. Deutsch. vorgeg. Frkf. 1697. — Fr. Biiddeiis, wahrh. u. grlindl. Erzilhl. alles dess. was zwischen d. s. g. Piotisten gesch. Jena, 1719.) — Philip Jacob Spener, of Rappoltsweiler, Elsace, on account of his distinguished talents and rare learning (which was profound, thorough, and comprehensive, ex- tending even beyond the sphere of theology to that of heraldrj% his- tory, geography, and philosophy), and his religious zeal, was chosen senior of the eccles. ministerium of Frankfort-on-the-Main, in his 31st year (1666), then chief court-preacher at Dresden (1686), and, havinj^ LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 199 \)i!en forced to leave Dresden, on account of his great zeal for vital piety, finally provost in Berlim (1G91), where he died in 1705. He was most heartily attached to the Lutheran Church, but believed that in adhering to its then prevalent orthodoxy, it had departed from the earnest lively gospel of the Reformers, and was in danger of burying its talent in a sterile theology of words, and dead orthodoxy ; and that it therefore greatly needed to be reformed again. As he discovered in it an exuberance of pure doctrine and the most vigorous susceptibility to exhil)it genuine Claristian piety above all other Churches, it was far from his thought to seek the powers of the necessary resuscitation any- where else than in that Church itself, [i.e., in unionistic or syncretistic schemes). A return from scholastic theology to the Holy Scriptures as the living source of all saving knowledge, a conversion of the out- ward orthodox confession into an inner living theology of the heart, and a demonstration thereof in true piety of life — these were the ways and means by which he proposed to effect the desired reform. In his child-like, pious humility, he did not deem himself called to commence this reform, but simply regarded it as his duty to point out the need of it, and some means of effecting it. This was done, especially, in his (1G78) " Pia desideria oder herzliches Yerlangen nach gottgefalli- ger Besserung d. wahren evangelischen Kirche;" and as his chief concern was to have every Christian become experimentally acquainted with practical Christianity, as taught in the Bible, he revived the well- nigh forgotten doctrine of "the spiritual priesthood" of all Christians, in a special work, and in 1680 published his "Allgemeine Gottesge- lahrtheit aller glaubigen Christen und rechtschaffenen Theologen." At the same time he himself engaged in the work by holding religious meetings in his house [Collegia pietatis) for the revival of genuine piety in the congregati(m ; similar meetings were soon started in other places. Spener's position in Dresden gave him more decided and extensive influence over the Lutheran Church. Animated by his spirit, Aiig. Herm. Franckc, Pmd Anton, and John Casp. Schade, three young ma- gisters in Leipsic, began in 1686 to hold Collegia philohihlica, exclu- sively for mutual edification by a practical exposition of the Scriptures, in German (a thing unheard of at the universities). But the theologi- cal fixculty of Leipsic, with John Bened. Carpzov at their head, accused them of contempt of regular public worship and theological science, and of promoting separatism. The Collegia philobiblica were prohibited, and the three friends, whose movement was designated Pietism (an effort to display extreme piety), had to leave Leipsic (1690) ; thus the tedious pictistic controversies began. Soon after this, Spcner was com- pelled to leave Dresden (1691), but in his new position in Berlin he acquired decided influence in the appointment of professors of theology in the new university, which the pacific Elector Frederick III. of Bran- denburg founded i\ Halle, in opposition to the contentious institutions 200 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and the organization of which he entrusted (lG9-t) to the jurist Christian Thomanivs, who also had been driven from Leipsic (on account of his indifferentism), and who had in Leipsic, already, been the advocate of the pietists. In connection with othera of like sentiments (Anton, Breithaupt) Franckcvrns appointed a mem- ber of the theol. faculty. Halle now, for a time, acquired almost the importance which Witienberg and Geneva possessed in the period of the Reformation, and the pietistic controversy entered upon its second more general and violent stage (cf. ^ 46, 1). 4. Theological Literature. — Solomon Glassins (prof, in Jena, general- sup, in Gotha, ob. 1656) conti-ibuted to Biblical philology, his Philolo- gia sacra (1623), which had, for nearly two centuries, almost classic authority. Planned upon a large scale, the German, Hebrew, and Greek concordance of the Bible, by /. Lankish (of which only the first, German, part was publ. 1677, and often) was an invaluable aid in the study of the Biljle. From about 1675-1700 a lively controversy con- cerning the Greek of the New Testament was kept up, in which the Lutherans and (chiefly) the Reformed participated. The Purists vio- lently contended for the classical purity of the N. T. idiom, because they thought the inspiration of the Scriptures was imperilled by the opposite view. Michael Walther, general-sup. in Celle, issued the first hist, critical introduction to the Bible (ofiicina biblica, Lps. 1636). Aug. Ffeiffer, of Leipsic {ob. 1698), rendered good service to Bibl. crit. and Ilermeneut. by his critica sacra (16cS0), and his Hermeneut. s. (1684). In spite of its servile adherence to the interpretation of dog- matic proof-texts, traditionally fixed, and its mechanical thejry of in- spiration, the exegesis was v.aluable. The most distinguished exegetes were: Erasmus Schmidt of Wittenberg {ob. 1637, Opus posthumum, a Lat. trans, of the N. T. with excellent notes). He also contributed a very useful concordance of the Greek N. T., entitled Ta/xidov (revised by a; //. Bruder, Lpz. 1841); Theod. Hakspaa of Altdorf {ob. 1659. Notae philol. theol. in difficiliora Scr. s. loca. 3 Pp. 1664) ; Martin Geier, of Leipsic {ob. 1680, an excellent comm. on Daniel and the poet, books of the 0. T., even still worthy of notice) ; Seb. Schmidt, of Strassburg {ob. 1696, comm. on Joshua, the Judges, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and several of Paul's epp.) ; Aug. Pfeiffer (Dubia vexata), and Abraham Calov, of Wittenberg {ob. 1686, Biblia illustrata, in 4 vols, fob, which took up and improved the comm. of Grotius, a work of stupendous labor, bril- liant Biblical knowledge, and profound learning, but throughout too subservient to dogmatics). — The orthodox school gave still greater dili- gence to the study of dogmatics, the Lutheran fulness and depth of which was developed with amazing acuteness and brilliant learning, in a strictly scholastic form. Its greatest masters are: Leonard Hutter of Wittenberg {ob. 1616, Loci communes theologici, and for the use of schools. Compendium loc. theol.) ; John Gerhard, prof, at Jena {ob. 1637, Loci theol. in 9 vols. fol. 1600, etc. The best ed. with notes by LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 2Uj t . F. Cotta, Tlibg. 1762, etc., 22 vols. 4to. It is the opus palmare of Luth. theology) ; and J. Aiidr. Quenstedi of Wittenberg [ob. 1688, Theol. didactico-polemica, the completion of Lutheran scholastici-sm, in its lights and shadows). Next to these were: Brochmand, prof, in Copenhagen [oh. 1652, Universre theol. systema) ; Conrad Bannhauer, in Strassburg (oh. 1GG6, Ilodosophia Christiana) ; Ahr. Calov (Systema loc. theol.) ; Koiti;/ in Rostock [oh. 1664, Theol. positiva acroamatica) ; Scherzer in Leipsic [oh. 1683, Systema theol.) ; John Miisau.s- in Jena [ob. 1681) ; and Baier in Ilalle [ob. 1695). The most prominent theo- logian of (he Calixtine school is Coar. Horneuis (Comp. theol.) Calix- his liimself did not publish a theol. work, but his lectures were printed. He, also, originated the division subsequently made between morala and theology (Epitome th. moralis). John Gerhard's Confessio Catho- lica was a complete refutation of Catholicism. But the most untiring controversialist was Abr. Caloc (Hist, syncretistica ; Mataelogia papis- tica ; Socinianismus protiigatus ; Consideratt. Arminianismi ; Theses de Labadismo ; Anti-Boehmius ; Discussio controversiarum inter eccle- sias orthod. et reformatas, etc.) Nicholas Hnnnius, son of ^Egid. H. (^ 21, 10), prof, in AVittenberg, and from 1623 superintdt. in Llibeck [ob. 1643), was also distinguished as an able opponent of papism (Demon- stratio rainisterii Lutherani ; and when Lancelot, an Augustinian of Mechlen, fulminated a Capistrum Hunni against him, he retorted in his Capistrum llunnio paratum, Lanceloto injectum), of Socinianism (Examen errorum Photinianorum), and of the enthusiasts (Christl. Betracht. d. neuen Paracelsischen u. Weigilianischen Theol.) Of chief importance is his AtaoxE^-ts de fundamentali dissensu doctriuEe Luth. et Calvin, s. Reform. His Epitome credendarum or Inhalt d. Christl, Lehre reached 19 editions. The syncretistic controversies led him, in his " Consultatio, oder wohlmeinendes Bedenken," to devise the plan of a Collegium irenicum s. pacificatorium (Collegium Hunnianum), as a permanent theol. senate for the adjustment of all theological dis- putes. (Cf. L. Heller, Nik. Hunnius, s. Leben u. Wirken. Llibeck, 1843.) Little was done, in the nature of the circumstances, in the de- partment of Church History. Nevertheless, liechenherg, Korfholt, Ittig, Sagittarius, Veil Ludiv. v. Seckendorf, deserve to be named for theii contributions to the history of the Reformation. Calixtns, however awakened new zeal and spirit for the study of Church History, ana Gottfried Arnold of Giessen [oh. 1714), a thoroughly learned investi- gator, but so violently opposed to every form of orthodoxy, that he could not find true Christianity, since the 4th century, anywhere but among sects, sepAratists, and heretics, threw the entire theol. world into an uproar, br his Impartial History of Churches and Heretics. (I, §4,2.) (Cf. H6, 2.) 202 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) ? 39. RELIGIOUS LIFE IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. The great importance which the Lutheran Church of tl:i9 period attached to pure doctrine and a genuine faith, exposed it to the danger of a one-sided over-estimation and externalization of the same to a mere dead orthodoxy, an evil, indeed, which showed itself in various ways. But a great number of the most excellent and learned theologians, who recognized the influence of pure doctrine upon personal piety, as well as the necessity of possessing a theology of the heart, and of maintaining practical Christianity, opposed this evil tendency in a conciliatory but decided manner by their writings, preaching, and pastoral labors. During this whole century, but especially during its first half, there were many influential advocates of a nobly Lutheran mys- ticism, which harmonized witli orthodoxy both in faith and knowledge, and only opposed its threatening or actually existing externalization of Christianity. But by the side of this mysti- cism, we find that separatism, an unchurchly mysticism,, and theo- sophy, broke forth as excrescences, or caricatures of the truth. Church hymnology acquired a new life, during the tribulations of the Thirty Years' war, but after that gradually lost its sublime objective cliurchly character, for which the fluent rhyme, the easy style, and more elegant form, were only a feeble, and in part questionable substitute. Church music was correspondingly advanced. 1. Mijsticism and Asceticism. — John Arndt, " the F^n^lon of Luther- anisni," stands at the head of those vigilant and faithful servants of the Church, who strove to vindicate the inalienable right, and urgent duty of the Lutheran Church to maintain a hearty sincere mysticism over against formal orthodoxy, which had allowed justifying faith and a correct belief to degenerate into a new opus operatum. His " Sechs BUcher vom wahren Christeuthum," and his " Paradiesgiirtloin," which have been translated into almost every living tongue, conferred incal- cuhible blessings both upon his own and subsequent generations ; upon himself, however, they brought great reproach and hostility, from the advocates of a malevolent or dead orthodoxy. He died in 1G21, whilst General-superintendent in Ceile, after he had been driven from Anhalt, as a confessor of Lutheran orthodoxy, for refusing to denounce exor- cism as an ungodly superstition, and then openly accused by his col- league Denecke and other Lutheran zealots of papism, Calvinism, Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenkfellianism, Paracelscism, Alchymy, etc. (Cf. F. Arndt, J. Arndt. Berl. 1838.— J?. L. Pertz, de Joh. Arndtio RELIGIOUS LIFE IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 202 sjusque libris de vero Christ. Hann. 1852, 4to. Also, the lively descrip kions of the historically faithful romance of A. Wildenhahn, J. A. ein Zeitbild aus Braunschweigs K. u. Stadtgesch. Lpz. 1847, 2 Bde.) Other successful advocates of a living Christianity are met with in the great theologian John Gerhard, of Jena {ob. 1637, Meditationes sacrge, and Schola pietatis d. i. Christl. u. heils. Untericht v. d. Uebung d. wahren Gottseligk.) ; Stephen Pratoriiis of Salzwedel [oh. 1610, Geistl. Schatz- kammer) ; Hcrm. Rathmann of Dantzig [oh. 1628, Jesu Christi Gnaden- reich, cf. J. G. V. Engelhardt, iib. d. Rahtmannschen Streit, in the hist. theol. Ztschr. 1854, 1) ; Valerius Herherger of Fraustadt [ob. 1627, Ev. Herzpostille ; Geistlich. Trauerbinden ; Magnalia Dei, etc.) ; Heinrich Miiller of Rostock [ob. 1675, Ilimmliseher Liebeskuss ; Geistl. Er- quickstunden, etc.) ; Christian Scriver (Geistl. Seenlenschatz ; Siech und Siegesbette ; Gottholds zufallige Andachten), Ahasverus Fritsch, privy councillor and chancellor in Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt [ob. 1701, Christenthums fragen), Ph. Jak. Spener and others. .Johann Valentin Andrea of AVurtemberg [ob. 1654), grandson of one of the authors of the Form of Concord, opposed the corruption of his time, by writings mostly satirical and allegorical, in an entirely original and genial manner, which, however, on account of its originality, was often mis- understood. Especially was his allegory of the union of the cross and the rose (as symbols of Christianity and science) in the society of the Mosicrucians, grossly misunderstood, as though such a society compre- hended the science of magical arts, — an assumption of which fanatics and impostors took great advantage (Fama fraternitas Rosaceae Crucis or Brliderschaft d. hochlobl. Ordens d. Rosenkr. an die Hiiupter, Stande u. Gelehrten Europas, 1614; Confess, u. Bekenntniss d. BriUlersch. d. R. Cr. ; Meuippus, s. dialogorum satyric. Centuria ; Mj-thologia christ. s. de virtut. et vitiis hum. vitas ; Turris Babel, s. Ros. Crucis chaos ; ReipublictB Christiana politantB descriptio ; Verae nnionis in Chr. J. specimen, etc. ; cf. W. Hossbach, Val. Andr. u. s. Zeitalt. Berl. 1819.) (Cf. I 166, 6.) 2. Mi/sticism and Thcosophy. (Cf. Fr. Delitsch, d. Naturphilos. Mysticism, innerh. d. luth. K. ; in the Ztschr. f. Luth. Theol. 1841. III. — Fr.v. Fuqne, Jac.Bohme. Greiz, 1821.— IF. L. Wullen, J. B.'s Leben. u. Lehre. Stuttg. 1836.—^. F. Umbreit, J. B. Heidelb. 1835.— J?^/. Hamberger, d. Lehre d. deutsch. Philos. J. B. Munich, 1844. — H. A. Fechner, Jae. B. s. Leben u. s. Schriften. Gorlitz, 1857.) — A mvstical theosophy, though much despised, partly remained within the limit*} of outward Church union, and was preserved by ecclesiastical restraints from grosser theoretical and practical errors, and partly also tore loose from the Church as a degenerate Babel (| 42, 1). This movement re- ceived impetus and strength from the works of Agrippa and Paracelsus apon natural philosophy and alchemy, from the devotional, mystical, and theosophic posthumous works of Val. Weigel, and above all from the profornd revelations of the mighty cobbler of Gorlitz, Jacob Bohme 204 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). ' (philosophus teutonicus), the greatest, most profound, and most inge- nious of all theosophists who ever lived — a man vs'ho, with all his un- churohly speculations, nevertheless in his life sincerely maintained true piety, and faithfully adhered to the Lutheran Church. As a tra- velling journeyman, already, he experienced blessed peace for seven days, from being encompassed by a divine light. But he dates hi** fuller theosophic illumination from a certain moment when, as a young master, just married, he was thrown into an ecstacy by the reflection of the sun from a brightly polished pewter plate, and beheld the mys- teries of Deity, even to the last principles of all things, so as to discern their inmost quality. His theosophy, like ancient Gnosticism, starts with the question concei-ning the origin of evil. He solves it by as- suming an emanation of all things from God, who completely attempers and harmonizes in himself fire and light, the quality of bitterness and sweetness, which become separated in the creatures emanating from him, but are reconciled and united again, to godlike harmony, by re- generation in Christ. In speculative power, and poetic wealth, exhi- bited with epic and dramatic eifect, his system surpasses everything of the kind ever written. His works (Aurora, oder die Morgenrothe im Aufgang ; Mysterium maguum, a sort of comm. on Genesis ; Psy- chologia vera ; Der Weg zu Christo ; Von der Gnadenwahl ; Von d. heil. Taufe u. d. Abendmahl, etc.) were published by Gicldel, Amst. 1682, 2 Bde. 4to. ; and recently by K. W. Schiebler, Lpz. 1831, etc., 6 Bde. The blustering fanaticism of Gregorius Richie?; preacher in Gorlitz, caused Bcihme much trouble, for at his instigation B. was banished from the city, after the publication of the Aurora. Subse- quently he was allowed to return, on giving a pledge not to write any more books. But as he could not keep this promise, the angry zeal of his ecclesiastical superior vented itself in increased severity. Al»\ Calov, also, entered the lists as a watchman of Zion, against the fana- ticism of the Gijrlitz cobbler ( Anti-Boehmius, etc.), whilst in the Dres- den consistoriuai he found a favorable judgment and forbearing tolera- tion. Biihme died in the arms of his family in Gorlitz, after having long banished himself from his native place (1G24). Gottfr. Arnold {ob. 1714), for a time prof, at Giessen, sustained an intimate relation to the Bohmists, separatists, and pietists, and yet fell out with all of them. In several writings he described in a fanciful way, martyrdom, marriage, and the entire life of the first Christians, wrote and sung about the mysteries of the divine Sophia (when Adam, originally a man-woman, ^ell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, was taken from him, and instead of it a carnal woman was formed out of his rib), reviled the orthodoxy of all ages and churches, and canonized all heretics. But notwithstanding all this, he remained externally in the Lutheran communion, and even entered the ministry in that Church. (Cf. I 42, 4.) 3. Church Hymns. — The first period of its development in this cen- RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 205 tury, embraces that of the Thirty Years' war (1618-48). David's Psahns become the model and type of the poets, and the most earnest hymns of comfort in trouble, of imperishable value, spring from the trials of the times. This, of course, caused prominence to be given to personal matters. The influence of Opitz is also seen in Church hymns, inasmuch as more care is given to precision and purity of language, as well as to a fluent and pleasing measure. Instead of the expressive brevity, and vigorous terseness of earlier times, we meet with a certain cordial expansion and enlargement of the thought. As deserving spe- cial prominence, we name : the pious suiferer John Heerman, pastor in the principality of Glogan [ob. 1649), who composed 400 hymns, in- cluding: " Herzliebster Jesu, was hast du verbrochen;" " Frlih Mor- gens, da die Sonn aufsteht;" " So wahr ich lebe, spricht dein Gott; " " Wo soil ich fliehen bin ; " ''0 Gott, du frommer Gott ; " " Zion klagt mit Angst, u. Schmerzen ;" " Gottlob, die Stuud ist kommen ;" etc. — Ueinr. Held, a Silesian lawyer [ob. 1643), "Gott sey dank durch alle Welt;" — Paul F lemming, \n\o\^\\iiud, a physician (o6. 1640), "In alien meinen Thaten," written on a journey to Persia ; — Mattli. Meijjfarl, prof, and pastor in Erfurt [ob. 1642), "Jerusalem, du hochgelobte Stadt;" — Martin Rinlxart, pastor at Eilenberg in Saxony [ob. 1648), "Nun danket alle Gott;" — Apelles v. Lowensiern [ob. 1648), " Christe, du Beistand deiner Kreuzgemeine ; " — Joshua Stajmann, superintende»t in Rinteln [ob. 1632), "Ach bleib mit deiner Gnade;" — Joshua Wege- tin, minister in Augsburg and Presburg, "Auf Christi Ilimmelfahrt ;" — David Denicke, consistorial councillor in Hanover [ob. 1680), " Wir Menschen sind zu dena, 0 Gott ; " — Just. Gesenius, superint. in Hanover [ob. 1763), " Wenn meine Slind mich kranken;" — Tob. Clausnitzer, pastm- in the Palatinate [ob. 1648), " Liebster Jesu wir sind hier, dich und dein." — The poets just named belong mostly to i\\Q Jirst Silesian school, which gathered around Opitz. John Rist (preacher in Holstein ob. 1667) occupies an independent position, though he too was some- what influenced by Opitz. He wrote 658 spiritual songs, many of which are remarkable for vivacity, solemnity, and elevated thought ; "Auf, auf, ihr Reichsgenossen," " Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist," "Jesu, der du meine Seele," " Du Lebensfiirst, Ilerr Jesu Christ," "0 Trauerigkeit, 0 Herzeleid," " Werde munter, mein Gemuthe." "0 Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort," etc. — At the head of the cotempora- neous Konigsburg school stood : Simon Dach, prof, of poetry in Konigsb. [ob. 1658), who composed 150 religious poems, including: "0 wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen," etc. Distinguished among his co- temporaries were : Uennj Alberti, organist in Konigsburg [ob. 1668), " Gott des Ilimmels und der Erde," etc. — Val. Thilo, prof, of elocution in Konigsb. [ob. 1662), " Mit Ernst, ihr Menschenkinder ;" — George Weissel, minister in Konigsb. [ob. 1655), " Macht hoch die Thlir," " Such wej da will." From the middle of the 17th century, hymns assumed more and II. — 18 20(5 SECTION 111 — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). more of a subjective character, -wl.ich gave rise to a great diversity of style and classes. The Church no longer sings in the words of the poet, but the poet makes his own feelings and state of mind predomi- nate. Confessional hymns became more rare, and those of a purely edifying character, having reference to various events in life, death, suffering, consolation, the family, became more numerous. Thus, as the objective feature is given uj. one characteristic of true Church hymns disappears from the religious poetry of this period. And yet some essential marks still remain, such as a popular form and matter, freshness, vivacity, and a naive style, the reality of personal experience, and full assurance of faith, etc. Even subjective individual feelings and frames still spring from the soil of a churchly faith, and are firmly and immovably rooted therein. Thus then the best hymns of this period are still Church-hymns, and bear upon their brow the impress of immortality. The poets of this period form three classes: (1.) The transition group from objectivity to subjectivity. The great master of this class, and next to Luther the greatest religious poet of the evange- lical Church in general, is Paul Gerhardt, the faithful confessor of Lutheranism in suffering and persecution (| 34, 4) In him the new subjective tendency exhibits itself in its noblest, purest, and most vigorous form. And by its side we also discover the old objective ten- dency, with its direct Church-consciousness and immovable faith, with its noble, vigorous popular character, in all the fullness and vigor of Lutheranism, and, as to form, even more perfect. His 120 hymns, if not all Church-hymns in the narrower sense, are nevertheless choice hymns of the finest gold (ex gr. " Wie soil 4ch dich empfangen," " Frlihlich soil mein Herze springen," " Wir singen dir Immanuel," " Nun lasst uns gehen und treten," " Ein Lammlein geht und tragt," " 0 Ilaupt voll Blut und Wunden," " 0 Welt, sieh hier dein Leben," " Sei frlihlich alles weit und breit," " Ich singe dir mit Hei-z und Mund," " Befiehl du deine Wege," " Gieb dich zufrieden," " Nun ruhen alle Walder," " Geh aus, inein Herz, und suche Freud," etc.) To this class belong, furthermore, William II., Duke of Saxe-Weimar [oh. 1G62, " Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend") ; — Geo. Nenmark, Librarian in Weimar (oh. 1681, " AVer nur den lieben Gott liisst walten") ; — Christian Keymann, rector in Zittau [oh. 1663, " Meinen Jesuni lass ich nicht") ; — John Franck, burgomaster of Guben, Lausa- tia [oh. 1677), next to Paul Gerhardt the greatest poet of this period, composer of 110 hymns, less popular and cordial, but more soaring than Gerhardt. ("Heut ist uns der Tag orschienen," "Jesu meine Freude," " Schmiicke dich, O liebe Seele," " Unsre mliden Augenli- der,"etc.); — Christopher Homhurg, actuary in Naumburg [oh. 1681, "Jesu, meines Lebens Leben") ; — Geo. Alhinus, pastor in Naumburg {oh. 1670. " Straff mich nicht in deinem Zorn," "Alle Menschen niUssen sterben") ;• -Mich. Schirmer, conrector in Berlin [oh. 1673, "O heilger Geist, kehi bei uns ein"). — (2.) The next class of hymns is rather RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 207 moulded after the Canticles than the Psalms. The chief theme is the spousal relation of the soul to Christ. Feeling and fancy become pre- dominant, and sometimes degenerate into seutimentalism and puerility. This tendency received a new impulse by a conjunction of the mystical contemplative element with it. To it belong : Sigm. v. Bircken (Betu- lius, nl). 1GG8, " Lasset uns mit Jesu Ziehen") ; — Christopher Weglei- ^cr, prof, and preacher in Altdorf {ob. 170G, " Beschwertes Herz, leg ab die Sorgcn") ; — Mich. Franck, chief baker, then preceptor in Coburg (oh. 1607, " Gen Ilininicl aufgefahren ist") ; — Angelus Silesins (^ 36, 1), the chief poet of this class, who wrote, as Protestant, many admirably sweet hymns ("Mir nach spricht Christus, unser Held," " Der am Kreuz ist meine Liebe," " Ich will dich lieben, meine Starke," "Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde," etc.) ; — next to these. Christian Knorrv. Rosen- roth, died in Sulzbach (1689) (" Morgenglanz der Ewigkeit") ; — lAiddmilic Elizabeth, Countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt [ob. 1672, composer of 215 precious hymns to Jesus : " Zeucli uns nach dir ") etc. ; — Caspar Beumann, prof, and pastor at Breslau [ob. 1715, " Gottes uud Mariens Sohu"). — (3.) The cotemjwraries and congenial friends of Spener, men who longed for a resuscitation of practical piety in the Church. Their hymns are pervaded by a healthy and sincere piety. Spcner's effusions are of small importance. /. Jac. Schiltz, Spener's friend, a counsellor-at-law in Frankfurt [ob. 1690), composed only one, but an important hymn (" Sei Lob und Ehr") ; — Ad. Drese, leader of a band in AVeimar [ob. 1718, three hj'mns, " Seelenbrautigam," etc.) ; — Sam. Rodigast, rector in Berlin [ob. 1708, " AVas Gott thut, das ist wohlgethan") ; — Lanroitius Laurentii, director of music in Bremen [ob. 1722, "Wach auf mein Herz, die Nacht ist hin"); — Cyriacus G'dnther, gj'mnasial teacher in Gotha [ob. 1704, " Halt im Gedachtuiss Jesum Christ"); — Gottfr. Arnold [ob. 1714, " 0 Durchbrecher aller Bande"). (Cf. §46, 4.) 4. Psalmody. — Simultaneously with the change effected, through the influence of Opitz, in the style and character of Church hymns, a cor- responding change took place in Church music, through the influence of the new Italian school. Here also, as in the case of hymnology, we may discover a transition period, which retained the essential ex- cellencies of the old style, but was ready, also, to adopt the more elegant and polished form, as well as the subjective sensitiveness of the new style, impressing it with the fervor and energy of the German evangelical spirit. The first prominent master of this transition-stage is John Herm. Schein, cantor at the St. Thomas school in Leipsic [ob. 1630). Still more prominent than ho was John Cr'dger, cantor at the Church of St. Nicolai, Berlin [ob. 1662). He did for music what Paul Gerhardt did for hymnology. He composed 71 new tunes, full of the energy of faith, and tender fervor, adapted to Gerhardt's, Hccrman's, J. Frxnck's, Dach's, Rinkart's, etc., hymns, and his tunes held their place in the Church until the period of illumination. Next to him we 208 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). must name: Ja^oh Rintze in Berlin [ob. 1G95) ; John Ebdinj, Crliger's successor as cantor, who composed tunes for Gerhardt's 120 hymns , John Schop, leader of a band in Hamburg [ob. 1660), who composed lively popular tunes to the best of Rist's hymns ; and Thorn. Selle, town cantor in Hamburg {ob. 1663), also an excellent singer of Rist's hymns. In the second half of the 17th century, the modern style gained a decided preponderance over the antique method. Musical declamation, and expression suited to the words, prevail ; rythmical irregularities and the old churchly tunes disappear before a regular measure, and modern softer tunes ; so that psalmody becomes wholly alienated from its original vital element, as popular singing. Religious concert music, which contained no reminiscent traces even of the old Church melodies, and despised the form of hymns and strophes, was more constantly cultivated. Thus the congregation wholly ceased taking part in the singing. Among the masters of this concert style, in Italian fashion, Heiarich Sch'dtz, master of the band of electoral Saxony [ob. 1672) was distinguished. lie was the first to transplant to Germany the new artificial form, by elaborating single passages from the Psalms, Canti- cles, and the Prophets, into religious concerts (" Symphomite sacrae," 1629) ; and in these he entirely set aside the old popular Church tunes. But some time elapsed (forming the transition stage already spoken of), before so radical a reform could naturalize itself. This was effected by Jo/ni Eosenm'dlhr, leader ,of a band in Wolfenbuttel [ob. 1686), who published " Kernsprliche aus heiliger Schrift Alten u. Neuen Testa- ments," in concert style. A reaction against the exclusive predominance of the Italian fashion, and the unchurching influence of artificial reli- gious music, was introduced by Andr. Hammerschmidt, organist in Zittau (1675), one of the noblest and most pious composers of the German nation. By interweaving old Church melodies with religious concerts, the old style of psalmody was combined with the new artifi- cial style, somewhat in the form of a dialogue. The origin of arias is closely connected with this last movement, since, instead of the inter- woven old Church melodies, suitable and stirring artificial tunes, ac- cording to the new taste, Avere Invented for the hymns of cotemporaneous poets. The excellent composer Rud. Ahle, organist and burgomaster in Muhlhausen (ob. 1673), must be regarded as the proper author of the aria style. He introduced his own agreeable arias into the regular Lord's days' and festivals' services. By being frequently repeated, the pleasant ornate sounds impressed themselves upon the memory of all that heard them, so that they were soon adopted in the congregational singing. His religious arias, besides appropriating all the ornaments of the modern style, are distinguished by their youthful freshness and vigor, breathe i holy earnestness, and are still free of the secularization and playful tr ^'ialities into which the aria style soon fel . Next to Ahle, mention must be made of Peter SoJir, schoolmaster in Elbing. UEFOKMED THEOLOGY AND I IS CONFLICTS. 209 many o^" whos arial tunes passed into Church use. As the massive, grand f.>rms o.' the old melodies by this time already appeared too hard and irrt^oular, Wolfg. diaries Brieyel, cantor at Gotha, undertook to modify them (1687), so as to suit the altered taste of the times. John Pachdbcl, organist in Nuremberg [oh. 1706), the greatest performer o^ his day, l)eh)ngs to this tendency as a composer. (Cf. § 46, 5.) 5. Chriatlan Life. — Notwithstanding numerous orthodoxistic and separatistic excrescences, the religious poetry of this period furnishes brilliant testimony concerning the fulness, depth, and fervor of the religious life of the period. And an abundance of excellent devotional books, of imperishable value, as well as popular expositions (especially that of Ernesti, Nuremb. 1641) of the Bible, afford proof of pastoral fidelity and zeal, as well as of the favor with which these attentions were received by the Lutheran people. Ernest the Pious, of Saxe-Gotha, appears almost an ideal of a Christian prince [oh. 1674, cf. /. Gelbke, Ilerzog E. d. Fr. 1810, 3 Bde.) (Cf § 46, 6.) 6. Missions. — The missionary efforts of the Lutheran Church are still limited, in the nature of the circumstances, to their previous low level. Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, however, prosecuted the Lap- land mission with increased zeal, and Denmark, also, cheerfully aided in the work. A Norwegian clergyman, Thomas von Westen [oh. 1727), may, on account of his efficient zeal, be called the apostle of this mis- sion (completed more recently by Stockfleth. — Cf. A. G. Rudelhach, d. finnisch-lappische Mission u. Thom. v. AVesfen, in A. Knapp's Christo- terpe, 18o.")). Peter Heijling, a German of LUbeck, went as a missionary to Abyssinia (1635), and several of his friends went to other countries of the East, at the same time, and for a similar purpose. Of the latter nothing was ever heard. But an Abyssinian abbot who visited Europe, brought tidings of Heyling. At first he was opposed by the machina- tions of the Jesuits. As soon, however, as they were driven off, he gained access to the court, became minister to the king, one of whose relatives ho married. The ultimate fate of him and his mission is un- known (cf. /. H. Michcelis, Sonderb. Lebensl. P. Ileyling's. Halle, 1724). (Cf. § 46, 7.) g 40. REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. Cf. /. G. Watch, Einl. in d. Religionsstreitigk. ausser d. luth. K. Jena, 1733. 3 Bde. Theological science flourished in the Reformed Church during the 17th century, to an unexampled degree. The contriI)utions to Biblical philology, to antiquarian and historical researches, were especially remarkable. The Reformed theologians of France sought to out-rival the Maurines and Oratorians of that country, and those of the Netherlands, England, and Switzerland, sought 18* o 210 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) . to keep up with the reputation for learning acquired by theij French brethren. But a union of the Reformed Churches of different countries, in faith and confession, and in the way of holding general synods, failed at the first attempt to effect it, in Dort. Opposition to Calvin's rugged doctrine of predestination started a Pelagianizing current in the Reformed Chuich, which carried with it others besides ex professo Arminians. In Eng- land tills opposition found its expression in latitudinarianiam, and, still worse, in deism (§ 43, 2). In France it took a more considerate course, and led, in several respects, to an approxima- tion to the Lidlieran doctrine. In general, however, all these movements are to be regarded as a reaction of Zwinglianisin, which, though repelled, had not been overcome by Calvinism. The intrusion of the Cartesian philosophy into the Reformed Church, was successfully resisted by Voetius; but then a scholas- ticism obtained the ascendancy, in comparison with which that of Quenstedt is only child's play. In opposition to \X,t\\Q federal theology of Cocceius forced its way back to the Scriptural life- source, and to a certain extent corresponds with the pietistic movement. 1. The Arminiaa Controversy. (Cf. J. Kegenboog, Hist. d. Remon- stranten. From the Dutch, Lemgo, 1781, 2 Bde. — M. Graf, Betr. zur Gesch. d. Syn. v. Dordr. Bas. 1825. [Herz.og's Encycl. Philad. 1860, articles Arminms, Dort]). — Calvin's dogma of absolute predestination (which even the German Reformed Church evaded, or softened down), produced in the Netherlands a passionate controversy, which ended in the split of the Netherland Reformed Church. In the IGth century, already, the milder view of the ivfralapsarian.^, who held that the act of predestination followed the fall, was set up in opposition to that of the stricter Calvinists, who maintained that God had passed that act, before the fall, and who were therefore called suprht ajisarians . Drawn into this controversy, James Arminius, prof, in Leyden since 1603, be- came more and more convinced, that the dogma of an absolute predes- tination was anti-scriptural, but then wandered into Pelajiian paths. Ilis colleague, Francis Gomarus, violently opposed him. The conflict soon became so bitter and general, that the Holland States supposed they would have to interfere. A religious colloquy proved the more fruitless, as Arminius died during its progress (1609). The States, favoring the Arminians, declared the differences non-essential, and enjoined peace. Simon Episcopius, from 1611 prof, in Leyden, placed himself at the head of the Arminian party. But as the Arminians were continually reproached and assailed by the Gomarists as Pela- gians, they laid a Remonstrance before the States (1610), which, in live REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. 211 articles, set forth a carefully restricted semipelagianism. Thenceforth they -were called Remonstrants, their opponents Contra- Remonstrants. There were influential men on the side Of the Armiuians, including the syndic Oldenbarnvcld, and Hiir/o Grotins, distinguished as a jurist, humanist, and theologian, — heads of the liberal, republican party. The Stadtholter Maurice of Orange, on the other hand, took part with the Gomarists, in order by their influence to pave his way to the throne. B}' a master-stroke he succeeded in overpowering the leaders of the opposing party. It was ordered that the religious controversy should be decided by a general Synod at Dort (1618-19). An invitation to attend was extended to theologians of all Reformed countries, and 28 foreigners were present. The synod held 154 sessions. The result could be foreseen. The doctrine of the Remonstrants was rejected, absolute predestination was established anew as a doctrine of the Church, but the infralapsarian view Avas allowed. Remonstrant con- gregations were not tolerated in Holland until 1630 (after the death of Maurice). Their original semipelagianism, however, gradually dege- nerated into decided Pelagianism. Concerning the Collegiants, see § 42, 1. 2. Effects of the Arminian Controversy. — The canons of Dort were by no means received by all the Reformed Churches. In Germany, Brandenburg, Hessen, and Bremen, expressly and decidedly refused assent to them. The temperate Calvinism of the Heidelberg Catechism, and the Confcssio Marchica, continued to prevail there, with more or less sympathy for Arminianism. In England, and Scotland spirited eftbrts were made by the Presbyterians to secure the ascendancy of Port, Avhilst the Episcojml ClivrcJi would have nothing to do with it, and, from its aversion to exclusive Calvinism, gave place to latitndina- rian tendencies, which allowed the distinction of essential and non- essential doctrines, and thus largely fell into a state of lukewarmnesa and indifferentism. The most distinguished latitudinarians of this period are: William Chilli ngicorth [oh. 1644), who became disgusted with the theological collisions of his Church, and took refuge in Catho- licism, but soon discovered his mistake, retraced his steps, and sought and found true peace in the Word of God ah)ne. (Cf. A. Neander, Eriun. an Win. Ch. Berlin, 1832.— [The works of Ch., etc., Philad., 1841]); the renowned pulpit orator, JoJni Tillofson, Archb. of Cant. {ob. 1694) ; Gilb. Bvrnet (ob. 1715), author of a Hist, of the Ref. etc., and others. — The French Reformed Church remained, in general, true to strict Calvinistic orthodoxy, although several of its esteemed theolo- gians strove to soften down the sharp points of the predestinarian system. Thus Moses Amyranlt, prof, at the Ref. acad. of Saumur [ob. 1664), who ])roposed the doctrine of a universalisnius hypotlieticus, which taught that God had determined by a Decretum universale et hypotheticum to save all men (even tlie heathen on the ground of a fides iniplicita) through Jesu- Christ, on condition of faitii, to effect 212 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 17 A. D.) . which gratia resistabilis is given to all, whilst, in consequence of a decretum absolutum et speciale, only the elect receive gratia irresista- bilis. (Traite de la predestination, 1634). Two French synods, at Alen^on (1637) and Charenton (1644), pronounced this doctrine to be admissible, and many highly respected theologians {Dav. Bloiidel, Jean DailU, and J. Claude) defended it. Others, however, [Pet. du Moulin in Sedan, Andr. Rivet, and Fr. Spanheim in Leyden, Sam. Maresius in Groningen), assailed it most violently (cf. A. Sclnoeizer, Mos. Amj'- raldus, in the Tlib. Jahrbb. 1852, I.) Amyrald's colleague, Joshua de la Place (Placajus, oh. 1655) went still further, and denied the un- conditional imputation of Adam's sin, and regarded original sin only as an evil which does not involve guilt until actual sin has been com- mitted. The synods above named condemned this doctrine. Some time afterwards, Claude Pagon, at Sauniur [oh. 1685), excited a lively controversy by a declaration which pointed to universal grace, affirm- ing that all the operations of Divine providence and of the Holy Spirit were designed to effect man's conversion, the former by the events of life, the latter by means of the Word of God. A number of French synods condemned this doctrine, and affirmed an immediate, as well as a mediate operation of the Holy Spirit and of providence (cf. Al. Sclupeizer, d. Pajonismus, in the tlibg. Jahrbb. 1853, I.) — In Switzer- land, genuine Calvinism was most rigidly adhered to. In its defence, the Zurich theologian /. H. Heidegger, aided by Prof. Fr. Turretin of Geneva, drew up a new symbol, the Formida consensus helvetici, which was recognized by most of the cantons in 1675. Besides setting forth a rigid predestinarian doctrine, this consensus also laid it down as a doctrine of the Church, that the IIe])rew vowel points of the Old Testa- ment were inspired, a view for which the two Basel professors, John Buxtorf, father [ob. 1629) and son [ob. 1664), together with Louis Ca- pellus of Saumur [ob. 1658), so earnestly contended. 3. The Cartesian and Cocceian Co7itroversies. — Even after the subsi- dence of the Arminian controversy, the Netherlands were the scene of violent theological disputes. The philosophy of the French Catholic Pen6 Descartes (| 43, 1) found great favor among the Reformed of Holland. It sustained, indeed, in itself, no immediate relation to Christianity, or the Church, and its theological adherents desired to have it used only as a means of formal cultivation. But its funda- mental principle, that all real knowledge proceeds from doubt, was regarded by the leading representatives of a strict orthodoxy as- most perilous to the Church. The most respected, talented, and violent of these opponents, was Gilbert Voe'tius. prof, of theol. at Utrecht (1634- 76). He succeeded in obtaining from the States' General a prohibition (1656) of the Cartesian philosophy. The system did, indeed, produce very suspicious 1 ruits. One of its chief advocates, Alex. Poll, a Ger- man, and prof, at Utrecht [ob. 1718), not only taught that the divinity of the Holy Scriptures must be demonstrated by reason, inasmuch as REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. 213 the testimonium Spir. s. internum was limited to believers, but h(5 also disputed the imputation of original sin, the doctrine that the death of saints is a penalty of sin, and the eternal cjoneration of the Son. An- other zealous Cartesian, Balth. Behker (preacher at Amsterdam, de- posed 1692, ob. 1698), in his " De betooverde Weereld," denied the agency of the devil and of demons in general. Such evil fruits justified the cry of heresy raised by the orthodox party, and brought Carte- sianism into very bad credit. But the theological scholasticism which Voetius and his school so fully elaborated, called forth a more powerful reaction from another side, which successfully contended against it, aa barren, and producing an ossification both of science and religious life. John Cocceiiis (Koch), prof, of theol. at Franeker and Leyden {ob. 1669), stood at the head of this reaction. The great aim of his life was to lead theology back to the Bible, as its only living source, and to supply it with a vital foundation, gathered from the Bible itself. He believed that he had found such a basis in the idea of a two-fold cove- nant of God with man (the foedus naturjie before, and the foedus gratia^ after the fall). Thus he became the author of the federal theology, which made the historical development of Revelation the ruling principle of theological inquiry, and of theology as a system, and thus became the founder of a purely biblical theology (as a history of Redemption). lie adhered as closely as possible to predestinarian orthodoxy, but it was only a mechanical adhesion. It is not the idea of an election of grace, but of a guidance of grace, which predominates in his whole system. In exegesis he set up the rule: Id significant verba, quod significare possunt in Integra oratione sic ut omnino inter se conveniant. But Christ is the centre of the history of Redemption, the Church, and the world ; hence everything found in the Bible, history, doctrine, pro- phecy, stands in immediate and necessary relation to Christ. The Old Testament furnishes, everywhere, prophecies and types pointing to the coming of Christ in the flesh, and as all histories written after his coming, point to his second advent, both the Old and New Testaments foretell and foreshadow the history of the Church and the world to the end of time. Thus Typology becomes the essence and guide of Coc- ceian theology ; but it also often wanders into innumerable arbitrary allegories, and an almost puerile trifling with external, incidental, and forced resemblances. Common opposition to scholasticism brought the Cartesians and Cocceians into a somewhat close relationship. The former took up with the favorite ideas of the Cocceians, and these prized the Cartesian philosophy as a formal means of culture. This, liowever, excited the scholastics to a violent assault upon both. They especially charged Cocceian theology with Judaism, Pelagianism, Chiliasm, and all conceivable heresies, whilst Cocceius and his adhe- rents blamed orthodoxy li, la mode with the radical ruin of the Reformed Church. Politics was mixed up with this controversy, also, as with the Arminian. The Orange party sought support among the Voetians ; 'J14 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) . the Inderal republicaa party looked to the Cocceians. A formal schism, as in the former case, was prevented only by the urgent entreaties and admonitions of foreign (German Reformed) synods. Cocceian theology secured toleration and even admission to theological chairs, and soon acquired a decided preponderance over scholastic theology. (Cf. Melch. Leydecker, Synopsis coutroversiarum de feed, et testamentis Dei. quae hodie in Belgio moventur, Traj. 1690.) 4. Theological Literature. — Biblical oriental pliilology flourished mightily in the Reformed Church of this period, especially through the labors of Jolin Brusius of Franeker [ob. 1610), the greatest Old Testa- ment exegete of his day ; then through the two Buxtorfs in Basel (father, oh. 1629 ; and son, ob. 1664), who were the greatest rabbinical scholars in the Christian Church. The former wrote Chaldaic and Syriac grammai's, and a Hebrew-Chaldee lexicon, Tiberias s. Commen- tarius Masorethicus (inspiration of the vowel points), etc. His two greatest works : Concordantise Bibl. hebr. and Lexicon Chald. Talmud, et Rabinicum, proofs of his gigantic industry, were first completed by his no less laborious son, who also contributed a number of his own works to this department of learning. Both were rivalled by J. Henry Hottinger of Zurich [ob. 16G7), who made himself master of oriental literature and languages, so far as they were then accessible, and made them subservient to Biblical philology in a great number of learned works, and found time, besides, to write a comprehensive and learned Church history. Cocceins, also, holds an important place among He- brew lexicographers. In England, Brian Walton {ob. 1661), in con- nection with a number of English scholars, undertook to issue the London Foh/glott, which far surpassed all previous similar publications in the completeness of its material and apparatus. Edm. Castellus, prof, at Cambridge, contributed his renowned Lexicon heptaglotton, as the 7th volume of this great work. The Elzevir printing-offices in Am- sterdam and Lejrden effected the issue of a textus receptus of the New Testament (1624). J. Pearson collected the most valuable exegetical contributions of earlier times, and published them in his great work: Critici Sacri, Lond. 1660, 9 vols. fol. ; and Matthew Pole did the same in his Synopsis criticorum. Loud. 1669, 5 vols. fol. The most distin- guished exegetcs of this period were : in France, the brothers Jacob Capellns, in Sedan [ob. 1624), and Louis Cajyelhis in Saumur [ob. 1658), for their thorough knowledge of languages, and liberal criticisms ; in England, Edw. Pococke in Oxford [ob. 1691, Ilosea, Joel, Micah, Mala- fthi), and John Lightfoot in Cambridge [ob. 1695, Horaj hebraica3 et talmudi'^os, in elucidation of the New Testament) ; in the Netherlands, John Co 'ceius, who wrote comm. on almost the whole Bible, giving, beside the typological significations, a thorough grammatical historical interpretation, — and his pupil Campegius Vitringa in Franeker (o?>. 1716), the distinguished expositor of Isaiah and the Apocalypse. Am)ng the Arminian exegetes we name the learned statesman and REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS, 215 jurist Hugo Grotiiis {ob. 1G45), and John Clericus in Amsterdam (born 1057, ob. 1736), the two greatest masters of historico-grammatical expo- sition, of tliis and the succeeding century, and who also levied upon classical literature and philology for illustrations of the Scriptures. Specially deserving of notice is John Andr. EiHenmenger, prof, of the oriental languages in Heidelberg [ob. 1704), author of the renowned work: " Entdecktes Judenthum," 2 Bde. 4to., in which he collected from countless Jewish works, with stupendous industry, enormous learning, and fanatical partiality, the absurdities and blasphemies of the Rabbinical theology, having been prompted to the undertaking by the assumptions and arrogance of the Jews of that day. The book was published in Frankfurt (2000 copies), and Eisennienger devoted his entire property to it. The Jews offered him 12,000 guilders to suppress it, but he demanded 30,000. They then procured an order from the court of Vienna, for the distraining of the entire edition, be- fore a single copy could be sold. Eisennienger died soon after this (1704), and his heirs endeavored in vain to secure the release of the book. Even the urgent intervention of King Frederick of Prussia Avas unavailing. The king finally (1711) resolved to have another edition printed at his own cost, in Konigsberg, from a copy which had been presented before the book was distrained. After this was done the Frankfurt edition was likewise released. The Reformed Church of this period made truly brilliant contributions to the departments of Biblical Archceolor/y and History, including those of the Englishmen /. Selden (de synedriis vett. Hebr. ; De Diis Syris. ; Uxor hebr. ; De jure naturali et gentium juxta discipl. Hebr.), Thomas Goodioin (Moses and Aaron), James Usher (Usserius, Annales V. et N. T.), /. Marsham (Canon chronicus), John Spencer [ob. 1693, de legibus Hebr. ritual., with an arbitrary reference of them to Egyptian customs, on the ground of a divine accommodation) ; of the Frenchman Sam. Bochart (Hiei-ozoicon, a nat. hist, of the Bible; Phaleg, or bibl. geography as a comm. on Genesis, c. 10 ; both works almost inexhaustible treasures of the most exquisite learning) ; in the Netherlands, Pet. Cinueus (de republ. Hebr.) J. Brann (de vestitu pontif. hebr.), C. Vitringa (de Synagoga vett.), etc. Dogmatic theology throve most on Netherland soil. A Pole, John Makowsky (Maccopius, ob. 1644), as teacher of theol. at Franeker, in- troduced the scholastic method into Reformed dogmatics (Loci com- munes theol.) The synod of Dort acquitted him, indeed, of the charge of heresy, but disapproved of his scholastic method. Nevertheless it soon became predominant. Its most distinguished advocates are Samuel Maresius of Groningen [ob. 1673), Gisbert Voi/tins of Utrecht [ob. 1676, Selectae disputt. theol.), John Hoornbcck of Leyden [oh. 1666) ; and among the Germans, Fred. Wendelin, Rector in Zerbst [oh. 1652). The most distinguished y^fZeraZ theologians, next to Cocceitis (Summa doc- trinae de fcedere et testamentis Die 1648), are: Francis Momma, Abr. 216 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). Ueidanus, Casp. Wittig, Sol. v. Till, and Henry Hulsius, of Leyden ; John Braun of Groningen ; Herman Witsius of Franeker; Francis Burmann and Melch. Leydecker of Utrecht. — The Frenchman, Is. PeyrC' rius, attracted great attention by his declaration, based on Rom. 5 : 12, etc., that Adam was primogenitor of the Jews only, and that the Gen- tiles were of pre-Adamite origin, and that the flood was not universal (Syst. theol. ex Prceadamitarum hypothesi, 1655). He escaped impri- sonment by entering the Catholic Church ; he recanted, but still adhered to his views [oh. 1G7G). — Morality, which till then had been limited to an exposition of the decalogue, was raised by Moses Amyrauli to an independent science (La morale chretienne, 6 vols.) Casuistry was treated of by M. Perkins of Cambridge, and W. Amesius of Rotterdam. General polemics were prosecuted by Hoornbeck, Francis Turretin, of Geneva, Fred. Spanheim of Leyden, etc. The most extensive contro- versial work was produced by Dan. Chamier of Montauban [oh. 1621) against the Catholics (Panstratia catholica, 4 vols, fol.) The historical studies of the Reformed Church were, likewise, almost exclusively pur- sued for the purposes of controversy against the Catholics, and were prosecuted with a thoroughness and zeal which contributed largely to the elucidation of the science. General Church history was cultivated by/. H. Hottinger of Zurich, Fred. Spanheim of Leyden, Jacob Basnage of Zlitphen, ob. 1691 (adv. Baronius). Among the numerous historical monographs, we must specially name the works of Dav. Blondel, James Daille (Dallfeus), Claude Salmasius, J. Usher, Dodwcll, Spanheim, Heidegger, etc. (Cf. | 48, 3.) ? 41. PIETY IN THE REFORMED CHURCH. The piety of the Reformed Church is characterized by an austere legality, a rigorous renunciation of the world, and a resolute earnestness which disregarded consequences, coupled with a decision and energy of will, which nothing in the world could break or bend. It was the spirit of Calvin which impressed this character upon it, and his doctrine which supported it. Only by countries where Calvin's spirit was enervated or re- pressed, as in the Lutheranized German Reformed, or Catholi- cising Anglican Churches, was this tendency resisted. But it ui'xuifests itself in an enhanced degree, often to extreme harsh- ne s, among the P^nglish and Scotch Puritans, as well as among the French Huguenots, nourished, as it was, by persecution and oppression. Hemmed in by the narrowest legal limits, the reli- gious life of the Reformed could not move so freely, and could not exhibit itself in such rich and various forms, as are expressed ju the hymns and singing of the German Lutheran Church. PIETY IN THE REFORMED CKURCH. 217 Nevertheless the Reformed Church furnished the pattern of a princely saint, in the person of tlie noble Electress Louisa Hen- rietta, who may be favorably compared with the pious Duke Ernest (§ 39, 5). She, likewise, composed several hymns of great merit, but they, and similar productions, breathe not a Romanic Calvinistic, but rather a German spirit, formed partly by Lutheran influences. — But the highest glory of the Romanic Reformed Church of this period, a glory which renders it honor- able in all ages, is its incomparable martyr-spirit, which it dis- played most brilliantly in France. 1. In its public singing, the Refornioa Church still continued to use, mainly, Marot's and Lobwasser's metrical versions of the Psalms (§ 23, 1). Maurice of Hessen issued a new edition (1612) of the latter, with some new austere melodies, for the use of the Church in his coun- try. But Lutheran psalmody graduallj^ passed over into the Reformed Church, whilst the latter furnished a couple of religious poets during this pei'iod, whose hymns, as true Church hymns, were adopted by Lutheran hymn-books. They are: Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, wife of the great Elector {ob. 1667). She furnished four hymns for a hymn-book provided by her for Reformed congregations (including "Jesus meine Zuversicht," and " Ich will von meiner Missethat"), and Joachim Keunder, preacher in Bremen [ob. 1680. " Lobe den Ilerrn, den machtigen Kiinig"). Among ascetic writers, Richard Baxter occu- pies the first rank. He was a moderate Puritan, and a chaplain in Cromwell's army [ob. 1691. " Saints' Rest," " Call to the Uncon- verted," "The Reformed Pastor," etc.) The Puritans can also boast of a most distinguished poet in John Milton (Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained), who, however, also handled a severe controversial pen, and vindicated the execution of Charles L 2. The Reformed Church had two opportunities of proving the ardor of its Christian love in the work of missions among the heathen, one by the cession of the Portuguese East India colonies to the Netherlands, at the beginning of the 17th century, another by the colonies which went from England to North America, during that entire century. The Netherland government, in its missionary operations, followed in the footsteps of its Portuguese predecessor. It demanded of all the natives who sought any official position, that they should be baptized and subscribe the Belgic confession. Many thousands outwardly com- plied Avith these terms, who, morally, remained what they were before. On the other hand the English Puritans, who had emigrated to Ame- rica on account of their faith, displayed a zeal in their efforts to con- vert the Indians, which was worthy of the Protestant name. One of their number, John Eliot, was called the apostle of the Indians. For tifty years he labored among them with untiring and self-denying zeal, II.. -19 218 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.} translated the Bible into their own language, and established 17 mis sion stations among them, 10 of Avhich, however, were broken up during his lifetime by a bloody war. He died in 1G90. English Puritans in London established a society for the propagation of the Gospel in 1647. (Cf. J. H. Braiier, Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Heidenbek. Bd. I. John Eliot. Altona, 1835.) (Cf. | 46, 7.) IV. ANTI- AND EXTRA-ECCLESIASJICAL MATTERS. § 42. SECTS AND FANATICS. All the four principal Churches contribute a share to the history of sectarianism and fanaticism, not excluding the Catho- lic (§ 36, 1) or even the Greek. The Bajjfists in England, like the Anabaptists of the continent, rejected infant baptism ; whilst the Quakers, carrying this tendency to its furthest extreme, wholly rejected baptism and the Lord's Supper, adopted the old 'theory of an inner light, and made it the basis of their organi- zation. A number of other fanatics and separatists did not get so far as to form a permanent organization. The chief rendezvous of these was in the Netherlands, where a free government afiorded a refuge for all who were banished on account of their faith. There alone, also, did the press enjoy sufficient liberty to aid in the propagation of mystical and theosophic works, without hin- drance. The sects of Russia, finally, which have been but little inquired after, possess very special interest, and claim our notice. (Cf. § 49.) 1. Netherland Anabaptists. (Cf. | 27, 2). — Even during Menno's life, the Mennonites had divided into the moderate or Watcrlandians, and rigid or Flemingians. The former, who departed in many respects from the original strictness of the sect, in regard to morals and disci- pline, and constituted a preponderant majority, soon separated, in con- sequence of the Arminian controversy, into a remonstrant and a pre- lestlnarian party. The former were designated Galenists, after their leader Galenus de Ilaen, and Lammists, because their church adopted the symbol of the Lamb. The others were called Apostooliaiis, from their leader Samuel Apostool, or Sunnists, because the sign of the sun was placed on the front of their churches. The Lammists, who rejected all confessions of faith, gradually gained a decided ascendency ; but in 1800 the two parties united, and the Sunnists adopted the principles and doctrines of the Lammists. The Remonstrant Anabaptists received SECTS AND FANATICS. 219 a large accession from the Armiuian Collcgiaats. During the time that the Arminians were noi tolerated by the State, and when their teachers were banished, the lack of clergymen among them induced the three brothers Van der Codde to found another sect, called CoUcgiants, who abolished the office of the ministry, allowed laymen to preach and administer the sacraments, and admitted only adults to baptism, by immersion. Their place of immersion was the village of Rhyasburg on the Rhine ; hence they were also called Rhyiishurgers. They were called CoUegiants from their assemblies, which were designated Col- legia. (2. The English Baidists. — About the middle of the 17th century, the Bapiist party sprang from the English Independents. They differed from the latter in the rejection of infont baptism, from the Anabaptists of the Continent, by retaining the independent or congregationalist constitution. They baptized by immersion. )They also rejected ordi- nation. Through the influence of ArmfnlTnii'sm, they split (1791) into Particular Baptists, who hold to Calvinistic predestination (gratia particularis) and General Baptists, who reject that doctrine. The former were by far the more numerous. Another sect, the Seventh-day Baptists, was started toward the close of the 17th century by Francis Bampjield. They derive their name from their observance of the seventh instead of the first day of the week, as their Sabbath. From England the Baptists soon went to North America, which thenceforth became their chief scat. There the original English form of the sect was diver- sified with a great variety of shades. All the American Baptists re- tained the Congregational constitution. (Cf. § 49, 6.) 3. The Quakers. (Cf. William Penn, a summary of the hist, discipl. and doctrine of Friends. Lond. 1692. — G. W. Alberti, aufr. Nachricht von d. Rel., Gottesdienst Sitt. u. Gebr. d. Qu. Hann. 1750. — H. Tuke, Principles of Rel. as professed by the Quakers. [Neal's Hist, of the Puritans. — Sewell's and Ruttj/'s Ilist. of the Quakers]). — Geoige Fox [oh. 1691), a shoemaker in the county of Leicester, arose (1647) as a preacher of repentance and a reformer, during the disturbances which then distracted Church and State in England. Rejecting all external Churchism, he desired to base Christianity wholly upon the inner light of the Spirit in man, as a continuous divine revelation. He gained many adherents, and in 1649 founded a distinct religious communion, which assumed the name of the Society of Friends, but their opponents, in ridicule, called them Quakers (tremblers, probably, from Philip. 2 : 12.) The doctrinal views of the Friends were reduced to a system, during Fox's life, by George Keith (who, however, subsequently re- turned to the Anglican Church, and assailed Quakerism), and especially by Robert Barclay [ob. 1690. Theologioe vere Christ, apologia, and a Catechism or Confession of Faith, pronounced good by the general assembly of the patriarchs, prophets, and apostles). Their refusal to serve in war, to take the oath, or to pay tithes, subjected them to severe 220 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). persecutions, imprisonment, etc. William Penn [oh. 171S), son of the English admiral, then appeared as their deliverer and second fcunder. In payment of a debt due his father, the Government conveyed to him a large tract of land along the Delavrare, in North America, vrhich he converted into an asylum for all the persecuted and oppressed, and not only from among Quakers. He founded, there, the colony of Pennsyl- vania (1682), under the English Government. Its chief city was Phi- ladelphia, and the fundamental principle of its charter complete liberty of religion and conscience. In England, also, the Quakers soon ob- tained toleration, and were granted the same rights with other dissent- ers, all possible forbearance being exercised towards their views con- cerning the oath, war, etc. The Quakers acknowledge the Bible as the word of God, but regard the inner word of God in men as of supe- rior force, the former being considered merely as the starting-point of the latter, and a means of exciting it. They wholly reject the ministry and theological learning. Their communion consists only of such as are enlightened. In their meetings, whoever is moved by the Spirit, man or woman, may speak, pray, or exhort. If none is thus moved, they continue sitting for a while in silent contemplation, and then as quietly separate. They have no singing or music. Baptism and the Lord's Supper are not observed by them. In social life, the Quakers are distinguished by strict honesty, earnestness, an extremely simple mode of living, a contempt of all luxury, change of fashion, or conven- tional rules of society, etc. They conscientiously forbade taking the oath, and all military and civil service. Subsequently, however, many of them abated their rigorous severity in life and manners ; such were called the wet, whilst those who adhered to their original rigor were called the dry, Quakers. During the present century a new party arose among the American Quakers, under Elias Hicks, who wholly tore loose from historical Christianity, by denying the divinity of Christ, and the inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. This movement compelled the opposing party, called Evangelical Friends, to attach themselves more closely to the authority of the Holy Scriptures. (Cf. | 49, 7. [Also, Gurncy, on the peculiarities of Friends, and Is. Crewdson, Bea- con to the Friends, 1835]). 4. Many other fanatics arose during this period, who failed, however, to found permanent sects. Jean de Labadie, of France, whom the Je- mits educated, joined the Reformed Church, and by the aid of his talented and learned adherent, Anna Maria von Schurmann, founded the sect of Labadists in the Netherlands, who insisted upon an inner Christianity, in true mystic sectarian style. — Peter Poiret, court- preacher at Deux-Ponts in tue Palatinate, previously a Cartesian phi- losopher, was a warm admirer of Bourignon and Guyon, whose writings he published, and whose genuine Catholic mysticism he caricatured by protestanizing it (L'economie divine. Amsterd. 1G87, 7 Bde.). — Jane Lcacle, of the county of Norfolk, a great admirer of Bohme's writings, SECTS AND FANATICS. 221 had spasms and visions, in which divine vrisdom appeared to her in the form of a virgin. She spread her Gnostic revelations by means of numerous tracts, founded the Philadelphia Society, and died in 1704, aged 84 j^ears. The chief of her adherents was John Porduge, a phy- sician, whose writings furnish the most insane specimen of the mystical gibberish. — From the Lutheran Church sprang Fred. Breckling, a Hol- gtein preacher, who was called to account for his slanders against the Lutheran Church and its ministers, and fled to Holland. There he preached for some time at Zwoll, but was then deposed for his Chiliasni. After that he lived privately, and wrote a number of unimportant mystical works [oh. 1711). — Qiiiritins Kuhlmann of Breslau, who tra- velled through all Europe and part of Asia, advocating insane schemes )f a reformation and union of all religions and sciences, and finally perished at the stake in Moscow (1689). — Of greater importance was John Gichtel [ob. 1710), previously procurator of the imperial chamber at Spires, an eccentric admirer of Bohme. He desired to tear himself loose from all natural bonds, and descend into the depths of the God- head. He had revelations and visions, and zealously opposed the doc- trine of justification. His adherents, Gichtelians, called themselves Angelic Brethren (Matt. 22 : 30), and strove, in the spirit of their master, to attain to an angelic sinlcssness, by tearing loose from all carnal desires, care.s, and toils, and to a priesthood after the order of Melchisedec, to appease the wrath of God. (Cf. ^ 49.) 5. Eussian Sects. (Cf. A. v. Harthausen, Studien liber d. innern Zustand Russlands. Hann. 1847, I. 337, etc.) — A great number of sects arose in the Russian empire, designated by the general name of liaskolniki (apostates). Their origin and history is involved in much obscurity. According to their fundamental character, they form two diametrically opposite leading classes: I. The Starotverzi, or those holding the ancient faith. Their origin was occasioned by the litur- gical reformation of the learned and powerful patriarch Nikon, who (1G52) attempted to effect a thorough improvement of the liturgical books, which had been greatly perverted by previous ignorance. But his movement was strongly opposed by the people, who adhered to their old forms. This opposition was by no means overcome, but led to a separation of many (farmers) from the parent Church. They combine with their stiff adherence to the old liturgical forms, a con- tracted aversion to all new customs, and articles of luxury, introduced into society (ex. gr. think it a sin to shave the beard, to smoke tobacco, to drink tea or coflfee, etc.) This sect, which is still very numerous, is in general distinguished by a simple, moral, and temperate manner of life. There are three kinds of Starowerzi : (1.) The Jedinowcrzi (holding the same faith), who approach nearest to the orthodox Church, recognize its priesthood, and differ from it only in their religious cere- monies and social manners. (2.) Tlio Starovhradzi (adherents to the ■>ld customs), who differ from the last named only by their refusal to 19 * 222 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). recognize the priests of the orthodox Church. (3.) The Bespojjoivtschint (the priestless), who have no priests, but only elders. They are split up into numerous smaller seots, some of which have adopted decidedly Gnostic elements. — 11. Extremely opposite to the Starowerzi we find a number of sects of a JiuidamentaU)/ Gnostic, mystic, and fanatical ten- dency, rejecting all external churchism, with its ceremonies and sacra- ments, or utterly diluting them. Many of these sects, whose Gnosticism is embraced in fanatical forms, probably perpetuated themselves from the Middle Ages, by means of secret traditions, that period having been ex- ceedingly fertile in Gnostic and Manichrean productions. To this sect belong the Morelschiki (the self-sacrificing), who submit from time to time to a " baptism by fire," by burning themselves ; the Skopsi (eunuchs) who mutilate themselves ; the Chlistoivtschini (flagellants), who are also accused of practising immoral orgies ; the Dumb, whom no torture can constrain to utter an audible sound, etc. Other sorts of spiritualistic Gnostic fanatics arose in the 18th century, through occi- dental influences. (Cf | 45, 1.) I 43. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREE-THINKERS. The scholastic philosophy of the middle ages had outlived itself even during the pre-Reformation period. But a long time elapsed before the philosophical impulse of the new era created for itself independent and appropriate forms and methods. The Italian Dominican, Thomas GampancUa, may be regarded as an echo of the philosopliical movement of the 16th century, and Bacon of Verulam, England, as the forerunner of modern philo- sophy, whilst Descartes of France must be acknowledged as its in'oper founder. After liim we find the pinnacles of philosophi- cal development occupied by Spinoza, Locke, and Leibnitz. By the side of philosophy, we see a number o^ free-thinkers starting up, and borrowing from its armory weapons of attack upon theology and the Church. They were the heralds of the univer- sal predominance, in tlie following century, of that inlidelity which declared the Bible and Revelation as only imaginary and deceptive sources of religious knowledge, and nature and reason to be alone reliable. 1. Philosophy. (Cf. H. Rilter, Gcsch. d. chr. Philos. Bd. G, l.—J. E. Erdmann, Vers. e. Wsch. Darstell. d. Gesch. neueren Philos., Lpz., 1836, etc.) — Thomas Campanella, of Stilo in Calabria, entered the Dominican Order, but soon lost all taste for Aristotelian philosophy and scholastic theology, and turned to Plato, the Cabala, Astrology, magic, etc Suspected of holding republican sentiments, he was placed PHILOSOPHERS AND FREE-THINKERS. 223 in custody by the Spanish government (1599). Seven times he endured the rack for 24 hours without confessing, and then pined for 27 years in a hard imprisonment. Pope Urban A'^III. at length (1520) effected his transfer to the prison of the papal Inquisition In 1629 the Inqui- sition acquitted him, and a pension Avas bestowed on him. But the Spaniards laid new snares for him, and he was compelled to flee to France, to his patron Richelieu. He died in 1639. His most complete philosophical work is the Philosophia rationalis. In his Atheismus triumphatus he defended the Christian Religion, in the Romish form, but so unsatisfactorily that many thought Atheismus triumphanus would have been a more appropriate title. His Monarchia Messiae, also, seemed even to Catholics, an unfortunate apology for popery. In his Civitas solis, an imitation of Plato's Republic, he advanced com- munistic views. Herder, in his Andrastea, i*evived his memory as a poet. — Francis Bacon of Vend am (for a time Lord High-Chancellor of England), the great successor of Roger Bacon (I. § li)4, 3), was the first prominent and successful reformer of the scholastic mode. AVith a most comprehensive mind, and as a prophet of science, he organized its entire sphere, and prognosticated its future development. ("De augmentis scientiarum," and "Novum organum scientiarum.") He strictly distinguished between sphere of knowledge (philosophy and nature), which can only be acquired by experience, and that oi J'adh (theology and the Church), of which revelation is the only source of knowledge. But iu spite of this distinction he uttered the sentiment: Philosophia obiter libata a Deo abducit, pleniter hausta ad Deum reducit. He earnestly insisted upon the close observance of nature, as the only way of perfecting knowledge, and rendering it available ; thus he became the author of empiricism in philosophy, and the patri- arch of the utilitarianism of modern times. — The honor of being the founder of modern philosophy (in the proper sense), really belongs to Jiene Descartes of France (Rcnatus Cartesius, ob. 1650). The corner- stone of his system is the proposition : Cogito, ergo sum. The think- ing being, in man, is the soul. Philosophy starts with doubting, and by means of definite cogitation arrives at a knowledge of what is true and certain in surrounding objects. The consciousness of imperfection to which the soul thus attains, leads to the idea of a most perfect being, to whose perfection existence is also necessary (the ontological proof). His philosophy, Avhich, however, did not pretend to sustain any rela- tion to Christianity or the Church, gained many adherents among the French Jansenists and Oratorians, and even penetrated into the Re- formed theology of Holland, where it provoked a passionate contro- versy, in which Catholic [Huetius, etc.) as well as Reformed (Voetius, etc.) theologians participated. — Benedict Spinoza, a Jewish convert in Holland [ob. 1677), acquired but little influence over the philosophical studies of his day, by the profound but obviously pantheistic philoso- phy exhibited in his "Ethica." Tt was reserved for modern times to 224 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (^C E N T. 17 A. D.). be carried away by it. But his " Tractatus theologico-politicus," in wliicli he critically assailed the Christian idea of Revelation, and the authenticity of the Old Testament books, especially the Pentateuch, and vindicated absolute free-thinking, called forth the theologians of his day in opposition to his views, and in dofence of Christianity. (Cf. Sc/dliter, die Lehre d. Sp. Mlinst. 1836. — Si^wart, d. Spinozismus hist. u. philos. erliiutert, Tlib. 1839. — C.v. OreUi, Spinoza's Leben u. Lehre. Aarau, 1843 ; Spinoza's Works, in German, by Aiierback, Stuttg. 1841.) — In the sensualism of John Locke [ob. 1704) we have a middle term between Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalism on the one hand, and English deism and French materialism on the other. His " Essay on the Ilumaa Understanding" denies all innate ideas, and strives to prove that all our ideas are the products of outward or inward ex- perience (sensation or reflection). In this work, already, and still more in his " Reasonableness of Christianity," which professes to be an apology for Christianity, and, indeed, admits the truth of the bibli- cal history, of miracles, and of the Messiaship of Christ, we find con- cealed a lurking pelagianism, as the basis of his religious contemplation, which discards the ideas of sin and an atonement, and openly reduces Christianity to the low level of a sound human understanding. — Gott- fried Willi. Leibnitz (a Hanoverian statesman, ob. 1716), opened the first period of German philosophy. The philosophy of Leibnitz is equally opposed to the Paracelsian theosophy of Bohnie, the empiricism of Bacon and Locke, the pantheism of Spinoza, and the skepticism and manichaeism of Bayle, and is, indeed, a Christian philosophy, though, alas! it did not attain to its full, legitimate development. But as it took up, improved, and carried out the philosophical rationalism of Descartes, it furnished a starting-point for subsequent theological ra- tionalism. The foundation of his system (which is most fully exhibited in his works: " Essai de Theodicee" against Bayle, " Nouveau essai sur I'entendement humain" against Locke, and " Principia philosophiae ad principem Eugenium") is the doctrine of monads. In opposition to the atom theory of materialism, he regarded all terrestrial phenomena as concentrations of the so-called monads [i. e. most simple, indivisible substances), each one of which, according to its particular place and desio"n, was an image or reflection of the entire universe. Of these monads, emanating from God as the Monas monadum, the world was made a harmony, permanently arranged by God (harmonia prosstabi- lita). This world must be the best that could be made, or it would not exist at all (optimism). In opposition to Bayle, who had argued against the wisdom, goodness, and justice of God, in Manichajan style, because of the existence of evil and sin, Leibnitz endeavored to show that the presence of evil in the world did not conflict with the idea of a best possible world, nor with the goodness, wisdom, etc. of God, since the very idea of a creature necessarily involved tiniteness and imperfection, or, in other words, metaphysical evil, and that this rendered mcjral and PHILOSOPHERS ANB FREE-THINKERS. 225 physical evil an unavoidable consequence, but not a consequence whicb disturbed the haruionia priBsta))ilita. Against Locke he vindicated the existence of innate ideas as eternal truths ; he assailed indeterminism against Clarke ; affirmed the agreement of philosophy Avith Revelation, Avhich might Vje above reason, but not against it ; and he hoped that he could demonstrate the truth of his system with the same measure of evidence employed in mathematics. (Cf. Litdovici, Entw. e. hist. d. Leibnitzischen Phil. Lpz. 1737, 2 Bde.— C. E. Gnhraner, G. W.v. Leib- nitz, e. Biogr. Bresl. 1842, 2 Thle.) (Cf. | 50, 7.) 2. Free-thinkers. (Cf. /. A. Trinivs, Frcidenkerlexic. Lpz. 1759.— U. G. Thorsclimidt, author of a complete English Free-thinker library. Halle, 1765, fol., 4 vols. — Leiand, Abr. d. vornchmst. deist. Schr. aus d. Engl. V. //. G. Schmidt. Ilann. 1755. .3 Bde.— (?. V. Lechler, Gesch. d. engl. Deism. Stuttg. 1841. — L. Noack, die Freidenker in d. Rel. Bd. 1. Die englischen Deisten. Bern, 1853.) — The pressure of the spirit of the times and of the age, towards emancipation from all posi- tive Christianity, manifested itself openly and boldly first in politically free and ecclesiastically rent England. The tendency was called Na- turalism, because it would acknowledge only a natural instead of re- vealed religion — and Deism, because it acknowledged only a general providence of the one God, instead of the triune God of redemption. The impossibility of revelation, inspiration, prophecies and miracles, was affirmed on philosophical grounds ; their actual existence in the Bible and history Avas denied on critical grounds. The simple system of deism was: God, providence, freedom of the will, virtue and con- tinuation of the soul after death. The Christian doctrines of the Trinity, original sin, satisfaction, justification, resurrection, etc., ap- peared absurd and irrational. Deism in England, however, only met with sympathy among educated and prominent worldlings; the people and the entire clergy adhered to positive religion. The theological re- futations of the system were numerous, but their polemical power was broken by a latitudinarian spirit. The most important English Deists of this country were: (1.) Edward Herbert of Cherhnry, knight and honorable statesman [oh. 1648). He reduced religion to five points: belief in God ; obligation to honor him by an upright life ; expiation of sin by sincere repentance; retribution in eternal life. (Writings: De veritate, Dereligionegentilium). (2.) Thomas Ilobbes {ob. 1679), an acute and productive philosophico-political author, who regarded Christianity as an oriental phantom, only of importance as a support of absolute royalty and as an antidote against the revolution. The state of nature is a bellum omnium contra omnes ; religion is the means by which civilization and order is restored. It belongs to the State to determine the religion which shall be established. Every one, indeed, may be- lieve what he chooses, but, in reference to worship and churchdom, he must submit entirely to the regulations of the State, whose representa- (,ivo is the king. (Chief work: Leviathan, or the matter, form, and P 226 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). power of a commonwealth, ecclesiastical and civil, 1651). (3.) Charlei Blount [oh. 1093, by suicide), a rabid opponent of all miracles as pure priestly frauds. (Oracles of Reason, Religio Laici, Great is the Diana of the Ephesians, Translation of the life of ApoUonius of Zyana, by Philostratus). (4.) Thomas Broivn, a physician {ob. 1682, Religio Medici). — The most celebrated of the opponents of deism of this period are: Richard Baxter [I 71, 1), Ralph Cudivorth {ob. 1688), a latitudi- narian theologian and platonizing philosopher, who attempted to prove the chief doctrines of Christianity by means of the theory of innate ideas (his principal treatise, Systema intellectuale, was published by Lor V. Mosheim, in a Lat. translation, with remarks), and Samuel Clarke [ob. 1729), who himself was charged with holding Arian views of the Trinity). The pious Irishman, Robert Boyle, in London founded (1691) an annual stipend of £40 sterling for combating deistic and atheistic unbelief, in eight annual sermons. (Cf. |. 50, 1.) The same hostility to positive religion which inspired the English deists, manifested itself also at the same time in other countries, al- though in more separate and transient forms. In Germany, since 1672, Mathias Knutzcn (" Hans Friederich von der vernunft"), a travelling candidate of Holstein, endeavored, by scattering numberless tracts, to establish a sect of free-thinkers, under the name of the " conscientious" (conscientiarii). The Christian "Koi-an" was said to contain only lies and frauds; reason and conscience were the true Bible ; neither a God, nor a hell, nor a heaven existed ; priests and magistrates ought to bo driven out of the world, etc. As he asserted that in Jena and the neighborhood there existed already more than 700 believers in his doc- trines, the academic senate authorized the most careful and anxious investigation ; the result proved his statement to be empty bragging. (Cf. H. Rossel, in the th. studd. u. Kritt. 1844. IV.) — In France, the path of a frivolous unbelief was broken by the talented but flippant sceptic Peter Bayle [ob. 1706). The Jesuits gained him, the son of a Reformed preacher, for their church ; but within a year and a half afterwards he apostatized. He applied himself now to the study of Cartesian philosophy, defended Protestantism in several polemic trea- tises, and wrote his celebrated Dictionnaire historique et critique, in which, it is true, he avoids any open hostility to, or ridicule of, the facts of revelation, but nevertheless invites thereto by his frivolous treatment of them. (Cf |. 44, 10.) THIRD PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Cf. J. A. C. Einem, vers. e. vollet. K. G. 18. Jahrb. Lpz. 1782. 3 Bde. — /. K. Schlegel, K. G. d. 18. Jahrb. Heilbr. 1784. 2 Bde.—/. v. Huth, vers. e. K. G. d. 18. Jahrb. Augsb. 1807. 2Bde.— i^. C. Schlosser, Gesch. d. 18. Jahrb. 4. A. lleidelb. 1853. ff. 4 Bde.— Z. E. Hagenhach, K. G. d. 18. 19. Jahrb. 2 A. Lpz. 1856. 2 Bde.—/. C. L. Gieseler, K. G. d. 18. Jahrb. Ilerausg. v. C. R. Redepenning. Bonn, 1857. — The Weimar Acta hist, ecclest. or gesamm. Nachr. v. d. neuest. K. G. Weim. 1734- 68. 20 Bde. ; Nova acta, 1758-74. 12 Bde. ; acta nostri temp. 1774-90. 13 Bde.— Z'/-. Walch, Neueste Rel. Gesch. Lemgo, 1771, ff. 9 Bde.— G^. /. Planck, Neueste Rel. Gesch. Lemgo, 1787, ff. 3 Bde. — M. Grigoire, Hist, des sectes religieuses depuis le commenc. du siecle dernier. Par. 1828. 5 vols. I. THE PROVINCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. I 44. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. During the first half of this century already, many slio;hts and defeats, that were hard to bear, were inflicted upon the papal hierarchy by the Roman Catholic courts. In the second half, however, dangers, which threatened even its existence, encom- passed it on every side. Portugal and the Bourbon court in France, Spain, and Italy, did not rest until the papacy pro- nounced the sentence of death upon the Jesuits, who had become its strong support, but also its master. Soon thereupon the Ger- man archbishops threatened to emancipate themselves and the German Church from Rome, and what they were not able to achieve in the way of ecclesiastical progress, that a German (227) 228 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 18 A.D.). emperor undertook in the way of civil reforms. This clanger was scarcely avoided, before the horrors of the French Revolution began, which attempted to exterminate Christianity as well as the papacy. Nevertheless, Catholicism celebrated, especially during the first decennia of this century, many victories after its fashion, through contra-reformation and conversion. Its heathen missions, however, which had been so gloriously begun, came to a sad end, and inner missions were also crippled everywhere. The Jansenist controversy entered upon a new stage at the be- ginning of this century, which drove the Roman Catholic Church into open semipelagianism, and tlie Jansenists into extreme fanaticism. Ecclesiastical theology sank gradually into complete impotency, and the Roman Catholic world contributed a quota towards unbelief, in comparison with which that of the Protestant world was only a dim twilight. 1. The Popes of the first half of the Century. — Clement XL (1700- 21) protested in vain against the Elector of Brandenburg placing a royal crown upon his head. He fell into a controversy with the Em- peror Joseph I. about the Jus primarum precum (the right of proposal to vacant benefices, which Joseph treated as the right of nomination), and about Parma, which the pope declared to be a papal, the emperor an imperial fief. Clement even took up arms, but came off the loser. The sovereign power of the Sicilian crown in ecclesiastical matters he attempted to break by ban and interdict, but was compelled instead to support 3000 exiled priests. Benedict XIII. (1721-30) lived to see John V. of Portugal, who already under Clement XL obtained by defi- ance a patriarch of Lisbon, suspend all intercourse with Kome, because the pope would not appoint the nuncio, recalled from Portugal, cardinal. He canonized Gregory VIII. in the vain hope thereby also to canonize his system, but almost all courts forbade the new saint to be acknow- ledged. His second successor, Benedict XIV. (1740-58), on the other hand, desired, from free conviction, to liberate the papistic theocratic principles from their mediteval character, and give them a proportion more adapted to the present circumstances ; he also insisted upon the scientific culture of the clergy, and undertook to lessen the number of festival days, but abandoned the latter on account of violent opposition. 2. Old and New Orders. — The Mechitarisf-Conr/rer/afion traces its origin to the Armenian Mekhitar, who (1701) organized at Constantino- ple an association for the promotion of religious and scientific culture among his countrymen ; but, being opposed by the Armenian bishop, he fled to Morea (then under Venetian rule) and connected himself with the united Armenians. The pope confirmed the congregation (1712), which, during the war with the Turks, emigrated to Venice, THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHU.ICH. 229 and settled upon the island of Sf. Lazaro. Its members, mostly Arme- nians by birth, united in themselves, since then, Armenian and Euro- pean learning, transplanted Koman Catholic literature to Armenia, and mediated the knowledge of Armenian literature to the Occident. In modern times a celebrated Mechitarist college has been founded at Vienna, which has done great service in educating the youth and people by publishing and selling books. The order of Liguorians or Reuemp- TioxiSTS was founded (1732) hj Alphonsus Maria de Lignoi-i (formerly attorney at Naples), to aid the poorest and most abandoned among the people by pastoral care and instructing the young. The chief vehicles of its efficiency were the adoration of the most holy sacrament of the altar and the worship of the most blessed virgin. The founder died in 1782, and was canonized in 1839. Ilis numerous devotional writings found great favor in the Roman Catholic Church, and have been trans- lated into all the languages of Europe His Order, meanwhile, only attained to great importance after receiving into its bosom crowds of Jesuits, who had been scattered by the abolition of their Order (1773). The Jesuits especially were active in promoting the silly worship of the heart of Jesns by establishing brotherhoods and r.isterhoods among the people ; but they met with much opposition, especially from the Domi- nicans, who dragged the anatomy of the heart into their mocking polemics. Rome also hesitated long in acknowledging it, until finally the friend of the Jesuits, Clement XIII., to please his proteges, intro- duced (17G5) the Festival of the Heart of Jesus (Feb. 6). With regard to the old Orders, the fate of Clugny is worthy of special mention. After the 13th century, luxuriancy and worldliness spread without re- sistance, on account of the prevailing love of pomp and enormous wealth of this congregation. All attempts at reformation were fruit- less. In order to escape the rapacity of the neighboring lords, Clugny placed itself under royal protection, and became now a royal com- mandry. At the time of the Reformation, its abbots were, for the most part, from the house of the Guises. But their attempts at reform were also without permanent results ; they rather caused endless divi- sions and collisions. The ydan to unite the party of the Reformers V!\th. the Maurinians, which Cardinal Richelieu carried out (1627), as also the later attempts of Cardinal Mazarin, to support them by a union with the congregation of St. Vanne, failed on account of the opposition of the Cluniacensians. The abbots squandered the revenues at the court, and allowed evei*ything to go topsy-turvy in the monasteries. When (1790) all the monasteries in France were closed, the town of Clugny purchased the monastery and its church for 100,000 fr., and reduced the size of both. 3. Heathen Missions. (Cf. | 35, 3). — The accommodation contro- versy extended from the previous century also into the present. Finally the Dominicans were victorious. In 1742, all the Jesuit missionaries in China were compelled to swear that they would more strictly reject ir —20 230 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.J. all heathen customs and usages. But the rejection of native customs provoked, instead of the toleration hitherto existing, a long persecu- tion, from wiiich only some ruins of the church were saved. In East India labored at the beginning of this century the Italian JesmtBeschi, a great linguist, who toiled zealously, and Avith incrediVjle success, to secure the native literature for missionary purposes, and to place by its side a Christian one. Besides, the Capuchins opposed the Jesuits also here with the same arguments, with the same result as in China. Violent persecutions were provoked by the enjoined renunciation of the accommodation system, and ruined the mission. The idyllic Jesuit state in Paraguay was also finally (1750) destroyed by a treaty between Portugal and Spain. 4. Contya-Reformation. — In Poland, the Protestants lost (1717) the right to build new churches, and were even declared (1733) incapable of holding civil offices, and of participating in the diets. In the Pro- testant city of Thorn, the Jesuits avenged a popular riot directed against their college there, by a fearful official massacre (1724). In Salzburg the Archbishop Count Firmian attempted forcibly to convert the evan- gelicals, who had been tolerated up to this time as quiet and industrious subjects (1729). But their elders swore upon the host and consecrated salt (2 Chron. 13 : 5) to remain true to their faith. This " salt cove- nant" was interpreted as rebellion, and in spite of the intervention of Protestant princes, all the evangelicals were banished from house and home in the bitter winter of 1731. About 20,000 were gladly welcomed in Prussian Litthauen, others emigrated to America. The pope highly praised the "glorious" Archbishop (cf. /. /. Moser, Actenmasziger Bericht, etc., Erl. 1732. 2 Bde. — K. Panse, Gesch. d. ausw. d. ev. Salzb. Lpz. 1827). — Charles XIl. of Sweden, who, being at war with August. II. of Poland, had taken military possession of Silesia and Saxony, compelled the Emperor Joseph I. in the Old-Ranstadt treaty (1707) again solemnly to confirm to the Protestants in Silesia the concessions of the Westphalian peace, and to restore to them a part of the churches taken from them by force. In France, the persecutions continued against the Huguenots. Their pastors (the pasteurs du desert) could perform spiritual offices only in constant danger of death ; and though many of them received the martyr's crown at the hands of the hangman, there were not wanting heroic men, who filled the gaps, and those committed to their care re- warded them by faithfulness and steadfastness in faith (cf. C. H. Co- querel, Hist, des eglises du desert. Par. 1841, 2 vols. — Peijrat, Hist, des pasteurs du desert. Par. 1842, 2 vols. — G. Schilling, die verfolg. d. prot. K. in Frkr. nach Coquerel. Stuttg. 1846). — A terrible exam- ple of the fanaticism of Rom. Cath. France is presented in the judicial murder of Jean Calas at Toulouse (1762). One af his sons hung him- self in an attack of melanchol}\ The report spread that it was done by his father, to anticipate the contemplated conversion of the son. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUXCH. 231 The Dominicans canonized the suicide as a martyr of the Roman Ca- tholic faith ; the excited mob cried for vengeance, and the parliament permitted the unfortunate father to be broken upon the wheel. The remaining sons were compelled to renounce their faith, and the daugh- ters were placed in a nunnery. Two years later Voltaire brought this dreadful crime again to notice in his Treatise sur la tolerance, and, by agitating public opinion, he brought to pass a revision of the trial, which placed the entire innocence of the abused family in the clearest light. Louis XV. granted it a sum of 30,000 livres. The fanatical accusers, the false Avitnesses, and the judicial murderers, were not punished. Still this event contributed towards improving in a measure the condition of the Protestants, and in 1787 Louis XVI. issued the edict of Versailles, by which a legal civil existence was guaranteed to them. Only the French Revolution brought them (already 1789, by a decree of the National Convention) religious freedom, and Napoleon's organic law (1802) also renewed and confirmed to them this con- cession. 5. Conversions. — Pecuniary embarrassment and the prospect of marrying a rich heiress, influenced Duke Charles Alexander von WUr- temberg, who was then in the military service of Austria, to permit himself to be converted by the Jesuits in 1712. But when he ascended the throne, he was bound in the most solemn manner to permit the old state of things to exist, and to allow no Roman Catholic worship in the land, outside of his court-chapel. The most important of the other converts of this country are Winckelmann and Stolberg. In the case of both, although in directly opposite ways, Protestant enlightenment was blamed with their apostacy from Protestantism. Whilst Winckel- mann, the greatest connoisseur of all times, was not led by religious, but by artistic ultra-montanism, into the bosom of the only saving church (1754), the warm heart of a Leop. v. Stolberg was not able longer to hold out beneath the air-pump of Protestant rationalism, and escaped to the perfumed atmosphere of the Roman Catholic Church (1800). 6. Jansenism in its Second Stage. (Cf. ^ 36, 2.) — A new measure of violence, proceeding from the papal court, which was controlled by French influence, renewed the Jansenist controversy in a much more threatening form. A priest of the Oratorium, who had been driven from Paris, Paschasius Quesnel [ob. 1740), published in 1693 an edition of the New Testament, with excellent edifying remarks of an evange- lical character. Many bishops used and recommended this book, among them also the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Noailles, who had it previously examined l>y Bossnet. The Jesuits, who hated the ener- getic and lionest archbishop as greatly as the "Jansenist" book, re- commended by him, obtained, through the artful confessor of the king, the Jesuit Le Zellier, a papal bull (1713) from Clement XL, the so- ■jalled Constitution " Unigenitus," in which 101 sentences, taken from 232 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 18 A. D.) . Quesnel's New Testament, were condemned as heretical. This act oi papal indiscretion, by wliich the most palpable semipelagianism was stamped as Roman Catholic doctrine, and xlugustine practically made a heretic, divided the French Church into the two parties, viz., the Constitutionalists or Acceptants, who accepted the constitution, and the Appellant^-, at the head of whom was NoaiUes, Avho formally and Boleninly protested against it. The death of Louis XIV. (1715), and the regency of the Duke of Orleans, aiforded the appellants free scope for a time ; even the thunderbolt of excommunication hurled at them in 1718, had no eifect. But Dubois, the favorite of the duke, strove after the cardinal's hat, and took sides against the appellants ; and Louis XV., led by his former teacher. Cardinal Fleury, oppressed them in every way. NoaiUes was compelled (1728) to submit, and (1730) the constitution was formally registered as the law of the empire. A fanatical ascetic spirit now took possession of the extremely oppressed Jansenists. A young Jansenist clergyman, Francis v. Paris, died Avith an appellation document in his hand (1727). His followers honored him as a saint, and numerous reports of miracles, that occurred at his grave in the grave-yard of Medardus in Paris, made the same a daily place of pilgrimage for thousands of fanatics. Tlie wild fanaticism, which manifested itself in convulsions and prophecies concerning the destruction of the State and Church, spread wider and wider, and seized also, Avith contagious power, many who were altogether frivolous and hitherto unbelieving men. The government had the church-yard walled up (1732), but poi-tions of the earth from the grave of the saint also produced convulsions and worked miracles. Thousands of con- vulsionaires were now cast into prison, and the Archbishop B^ovidence, occasioned by the founding of the orphans' house at Halle, by A. H. Francke. The Pietists spoke of the origin and prosperity of this institution as a fact of direct (wonderful) divine providence ; whilst Loscher, by proving the use of the ordinary means, which were contributed towards it, exhibited the entire matter as lying within the sphere of general and daily providence, without therebj^ meanwhile, denying the value of the strong faith in God, and of the active love possessed by its founder, as also the significance of the divine blessing, which rested upon the undertaking. 2. Lutheran Theology. — The last important representative of the Old Orthodox School was Val. Ernst Loscher, who, Avith his rich scholar- ship, contributed, besides his polemics against pietism, much that was valuable to biblical philosophy and Church history (De causis linguae hebr. ; Ausfuhrl. Hist, motuum zw. d. Luth. u. Reform. ; VoUstand. Ref. Acta; Histoire d. mittl. zeiten, etc.). The Pietistic School, which, from principle, was more concerned about making theology fruitful for practical Christianity than about its scientific advancement, only contributed works of permanent value to devotional literature (f 6). The learned, copious author, Joachim Lange, published, in 7 fol. vols., a prolix commentary on the whole Bible (Mosaisches, Biblisch-hist., Davidisch-salomonisches, Prophetisches, Evanglisches, Apostolisches, Apokalyptisches Licht und Recht). The jurist. Christian Thomasius, at first connected himself with the pietists, only, however, in mutual external contest against the enslavement of conscience by the orthodox; but he was soon disavowed by them as an indifierentist. To him be- longs the honor of turning public opinion against prosecution for witchcraft. (Vernlinftige u. christl. aber niclit scheinheil. Gedanken liber alleahand Handel ; — Kurze Lehrsatze vom Laster d. Zauberei mit d. Hexenprocess.) But there came forth, out of the conflicts between the orthodox and Dietistic schools, a third school, which cast off the errors and partiali- LCTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 245 ties of both, and united in itself their excellencies, in which Lutheran theology, uniting orthodoxy with free investigation, scholarship with religious fervor, penetration with depth, decided adhesion to confes- sions with mildness and justice, produced yet much splendid fruit. The most important theologians of this school are: David Hollaz in Pomerania [ob. 1713), (Examen theologicum acroamaticum), Bened. Starck of Leipsic {ob. 1727), (Notoe selectae in loca dub. et diffic. V. T. et in N. T.), Francis Suddens of Jena [ob. 1729), (Hist, ecclst. Vet. Test. ; Institutiones theol. dogm. et theol. moralis, Isagoge hist, theol. ad theol. univ.), Ernst. Sal. Ci/prian of Gotha {ob. 1745), Gesch. d. Pupstth. ; Hist. d. Augsb. Conf ) ; JoJm Christia?t Wolf of Kumhnvg {ob. 1739), (Bibliotheca Hebraica ; Curse philol. et crit. in N. T.) ; Eberh. Wewmajiw of Tubingen (o6. 1747), (Hist, ecclest.) ; Sal. Dei/ling of Leipsic {ob. 1755), (Observatt. ss.) ; John Gottl. Carpzov of Leipsic {ob. 1767), (Critica s. V. T. ; Introductio ad libras can. V. T. ; Apparatus antiquitt. s. Codicis) ; /. Heinr. Michaelis of Halle {ob. 1731), (Biblia hebr. s. variis lectionibus et brev. annott. ; uberiores annott. in Hagio- graphos., 3 Bde. 4 vols. ; his nephew. Christian Bened. Michaelis of Halle {ob. 1704), assisted him in both these works) ; John George Walch of Jena {ob. 1775), Einl. in d. Religionsstreitigkk. ausser d. luth. K., 5 Bde., in d. luth. K., 5 Bde., Biblioth. theol. selecta, Biblioth. patris- tica, Luther's Werke) ; Christoph. Maitheio Pfaffoi Tubingen {ob. 1760), (K-G., K-Recht, Dogmatik, Moral) ; Lorenz vo7i Mosheim of HelmstUdt and Gijttingen {ob. 1755), the father of modern Church history (Institutt. hist. eccL, Comnientarii de rebus Christianorum ante Constant. M. ; Dissertationes, Littenlehre, etc.) ; .John Alb. Bengel, prelate at Stutt- gard {ob. 1752), (eine Krit. Ausg. d. N. T. ; Gnomon N. T., a commen- tary on the N. T., distinguished by pregnancy of expression and depth of comprehension ; Erklarte Ofl"b. Joh., which intimated that the dawning of the millennium could be looked for in the year 1836 ; Ordo temporum, etc. Cf. J. C. Burk, Bengel's Leben u. Wirken. Stuttg., 1831) ; and Christian Aug. Crusius of Leipsic {ob. 1775), (Hypomnemata ad theol. propheticum. Cf. Fr. Delitzch, d. bibl. proph. Theol., ihre Fortbild. durch Chr. A. Cr., etc. Lpz. 1845). — A fourth school of theologians was created by the application of the mathematical de- monstration method of the philosopher Christian von Wolf of Halle {ob. 1754). Wolf connected his philosophy with Leibnitz, and also endeavored to reconcile philosophy and Christianity; but under the manipulations of his dry, logical, mathematical method, the living breath of the Leibnitzian system departed; the harmonia proestabilita of the world became a machine, etc. The great evil done by his system of philosophising consisted in this, that, applied to the demonstration of Christian truth, it only proved its logical correctness without giving any insight into its nature and significance, that it only formally called the understanding into exercise, and left the soul enr pty and tlic heart cold, whereby a degeneration into natural theology, which rejected re- 21 * 246 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.) . vclation and mysteries, was unavoidable. Consequently the polemics of the theologians, among which were not only narrow-minded pietists, like Joach. Lange, but also such able, calm, and enlightened men, like Chr. A. Crusius and Fr. Buddeus, were not without foundation, when they included them also in part in their accusations (which ex. gr. run into fatalism and atheism with Lange). Wolf was deposed (1723) by a government-order of Frederick William I., and was compelled to leave the Prussian States within two days, under penalty of the halter. But Frederick II. had scarcely ascended the throne before he recalled (1740) the philosopher to Halle, and heaped honors upon him. (Cf. Tholuck, A^erm. Schr. II., p. 10, sq.) — Wolf's philosophical method in- troduced into theology, was first accepted by the pious and learned Prof. Sigmund Jacob Baumgarten in Halle [oh. 1757). His theology as to its contents was still based on orthodox ground (Ev. Glaubenslehre ; Gesch. d. Religionsparteien ; Theol. Bedenken). /. Gust. Reinhcck, provost in Berlin [ob. 1741), also belongs to the more moderate repre- sentatives of this tendency (Betrachtungen u. d. in d. Augsb. Conf. enth. gottl. AVahrhh. 4 Bde. 4to., fortges. v. /. G. Cam, Bd. 5-9). The application of the mathematical method of demonstration was carried farthest by Jak. Carpzov of Weimar [ob. 17G8), (Theol. revalata me- thodo scientifica adornata, 4 vols. 4to.). As applied to the sermon, the method degenerated into the most offensive insipidity. (Cf. § 50.) W. Theories of Canon Law. — Church government passed, on account of the exigencies of the first century of the Protestant Church, into the hands of the princes, who, just because no one else existed for this purpose, exercised as prtecipua membra ecclesiai the jura episcopalia (I 22, 1). This matter of exigency became in years by degrees a matter of right. Orthodox theology and the jurisprudence connected with it (especially Benedict Carpzov of Leipsic, ob. 1666) justified the change by the Episcopal Si/steni. This retained the mediasval distinc- tion between spiritual and temporal authority, as two independent spheres appointed by God ; but it at the same time made the prince to be the summus episcopus, in whose person, consequently, the highest spiritual authority was joined with the highest temporal authority. The deep contradictions of this system, however, appeared so glaringly in countries having mixed confessions (inasmuch as often a Reformed or even a Papist prince was the summus episcopus of the Lutheran Church of his country), that one was compelled to establish the exist- ing right of princes on other grounds. These were found first in the Territorial Si/ston, according to which the prince possessed the highest spiritual authority, not as priBcipuum membrum eeclesia;, but as head of the State, which spiritual authority, therefore, was regarded not as independent by the side of civil authority, but only as one side of the same (Cujus regio, illius et religio). This system was already prac- tically prepared for by the historical development of the German Re- Ijrmation (Diet of Speiers a. 1526), and received a legal basis through LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION, 247 the Augsburg as well as the Westphalian peace. It lacked m\j a ecientific foundation. This was given first by Samuel Pufeiidorf of Heidelberg {ob. 1694), in an appendix to Hobbes (^ 43, 2). It was more perfectly developed and more generally commended by Christian Thomasius of Halle [ob. 1728), and the celebrated Justus Henning Bohmer made it the foundation of his Jus ecclesiasticum protestantium. Thomasius' connection with the Pietists, and their indifference to creeds, obtained for it admission and favor among them. Speuer him- self preferred the Calvinistic Presbyterian form of government, be- cause by it the equally authorized cooperation of the three Orders (Ministerium ecclesiasticum, Magistratus politicus, Status oeconomicus) could most easily be realized. This protest by Spener against both systems was certainly not without influence in the construction of a third system, the Collegiate System, whose originator was the Chancellor if/a^ of Tubingen [ob. 1760). According to it, only the right of eccle- siastical sovereignty (jus circa supra) is incumbent on the ruler of the counti'y as such; whilst the jura in sacra (doctrines, worship, ecclesias- tical legislation and its execution, appointment to the ministry and excommunication) are incumbent as jura coUegialia on the totality of all church-members. The normal constitution would therefore be this, when all together carried it into execution in a collegiate way (through synods and elections in the congregation). External circumstances, however, at the period of the Reformation, made it also necessary to transfer the collegiate rights to the princes, which is also not in itself inadmissible, provided only that the principle is held fast, that the prince administers them ex commisso, and is always accountable and responsible to those who have committed them to him. This system, which, because it in fact left everything in the old way, could only claim the honor of an old theory, and if it was to be seriously carried out, would entirely destroy the ecclesiastical organism by its under- valuing the ministerii ecclesiastici (the ministry), found its most zeal- ous defenders among the later rationalists, on account of its democratic tendency. Practically, however, neither of the three systems were purely and consistently introduced and carried through. In most of the churches the form of government vacillated between all three. 4. Hymnology also bore many precious fruits during the first half of this centurJ^ We distinguish the following groups of composers of hymns: (A.) The Pietistic School, with a scriptural-practical and devotional tendency. The spiritual life of believers, the breaking through of grace in conversion, growth in holiness, the changing con- ditions, experiences, and feelings in the life of the soul, were made the o]>iects of contemplation and description. They are for the most part no longer hymns for tiie congregation, for the people, for common wor- ship, but more for individual edification, and for the closet. There are only, relatively speaking, a few hymns of this school that make an exception, and still deserve the name of church-hymns. Wlii;n piol/sir 248 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). declined, the spiritual poetical inspiration awakened by it declined also gradually ; it lost its original truth, power, and depth, and dege- nerated into sentimentality and spiritless trifling with figures, allego- ries, and phrases. Moreover, among the Hallean pietists, we must distinguish between an older (1690-1720) and a younger poetical school (1720-52), the former characterized by a sound piety in the spirit of A. H. Francke, with hymns in a simple, tender, and profound tone. I. The most distinguished of the very numerous poets of this older school are : Anastasius Freylinghauseii, Francke's son-in-law and director of the orphan's house at Ilalle [ob. 1739), (" Wer ist wohl wie du"); — Breithaupt, Joacli. Lange, theological Professors at Ilalle; • — Dan.Herrnscliviidt, Prof, at Ilalle [oh. 1723), ("Lobe den Ilerrn, 0 meine Seele") ; — Christian Friedr. Richter, physician to the orphan's house [ob. 1711), author of 33 excellent hymns ("Gott, den ich als die Liebe kenne," " Es glauzet der Christen invendiges Leben") ; — Emily JuUaniia, Countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt [oh. 1706), composed 587 hymns, among which also : " Wer Aveisz, wie nahe mir mein Ende," the authorship of which was also claimed by a cStemporary preacher, named Pf'eff'erkorn ; — /. Ueiiiricli Schroder, pastor in Magdeburg [ob. 1728), (" Eins ist Noth") ; — /. Jos. Winckler, pastor of the Cathedral of Magdeburg [ob. 1722), ("Ringe recht") ; — Ckristoph Dessler, con- rector in Nuremberg [ob. 1722), ("Wie wohl ist mir, s. Freund der Seelen") ; — Andr. Goiter, aulic counsellor in Wernigerode [ob. 1735), ("Schaffet, schaffet, Menschenkinder") ; — Earth Crasselius, preacher at Dusseldorf ("Dir, dir, Jehova, will ich singen"). — II. l^hQ younger Hallean school embraces the period of declining pietism. The superior poets of this school are: E. H. v. Bogatzky [ob. 1774), also an esteemed ascetic author; — John Juk. Bamhach, Prof, in Giessen [ob. 1735), the most churchly of the poets of this school ("Groszer Mittler," etc. ); — • Conrad Allendorf, court-preacher at J^Cothen [oh. 1773), publisher of the so-called Kothnisen Lieder — a collection of spiritual love-hymns in the spirit of Solomon's Song — (" Unter Lilien jener Freudcn"); — Fried. Lehr, deacon in Ktithen (o6.1744), (" Mein Jesusnimmtdie Sunder au"); — E. Gotti. Wolfersdorf, pastor in Bunzlau, founder of the or- phan's house there [ob. 1761). (B.) The poets of the Orthodox Tendency. Although the poets of this school were in part opponents of the pietists, they yet were all moi-o or less incited to a more living apprehension of piety by the spirit which proceeded from Spener. Orthodox poets of the strictest observance w^ere, Val. E. iM-fcher and Erdmann Neumeister (pastor and inspector of schools at Hamburg, ob. 1756), both being as zealous, and even violent in their opposition to the one-sidedness of pietism, as they were fresh and strong in their orthodoxy, as spiritual poets also not insigni- ficant, without, however, being able to soar to the region of the genuine church-hymn, from which they were hindered especially by their apt- ness iu teac.iing. Ad. Lehmus, otherwise a pious and spirited man. liCTIIERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 249 reduced the entire doctrinal system and all the pericopes to verse. Benj. Schmolck's (pastor at Schweidnitz, oh. 1737), and Sal. Franck'a (secretary of the consistory at Weimar, oh. 1725) hymns have the same devout and tender expression, that we find among the better pietists. Franck composed about 300 hymns (" So ruhest du, 0 meine Ruh") ; Schmolck even more than 1000 (among which the baptismal hymn: " Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier"). — To the tendency, mediating between pietism and orthodoxy, which was represented in theology by Bengel and Crucius, belong yet several very important poets : John Andr. Rotlie, Zinzendorf's colleague at Berthelsdorf {oh. 1758), author of the beau- tiful liymn : " leh hahe nun den Grund gefunden;" John Mentzer, preacher in Oberlausitz, [oh. 1734), ("0 dasz ich tausend Zungen hiltte"); and Phil. Friedr. HiUer of WUrtemberg [ob. 17G9), who cimiposed more than 1000 hymns ; and Lvdio. v. Pfeil, statesman [ob. 1784). — In 1751, J. Jacob v. Moser collected a register of 50,000 printed hymns in the German language. (Cf. | 54, 1.) 5. Church Music. — The original inventive fullness of the nationtti song (from which proceeded the old church hymn) was already ex- hausted in the 17th century, and finally even the taste for and pleasure in it gradually disappeared through the influence of the opera. The then existing secular national song borrowed its melodies from the opera, and in a short time mediated the same also for the spiritual song. When usually the composers of hymns, towards the end of the 17th century, following the pattern of Solomon's Song, struck the key- notes of spiritual nuptial love for the bridegroom of souls, they sought after corresponding musical sounds, and found them in the flatteringly sweet and languishing melodies of the operatic national song of that period. Pietism, otherwise so exclusive of everything worldly, followed this example in a still more unlimited degree ; and, in fact, the sweet, tender, and languishing tones of the secular national song must have appeared to it to be better adapted to the peculiarity of its hymns, than the old churchly tones, and the joyful, fresh, and powerful jubilee of the rythm of the old church music. Thus, through the mighty influ- ence of pietism, a large number of this kind of melodies (the so-called Hallischen melodies) Avere introduced to churchly use. Anast. Frey- liuf/hausen is to be regarded as its proper father. He not only himself composed many of the so-called Hallischen melodies, but he also col- lected the best composed by other musicians, and combined them in his book of psalms, which appeared (1704) with the most mournful of the older melodies. The ablest musicians of this tendency, in addition to him, are: Knorr v. Kosenroth, Adam Drese, Ohr. Fr. Richter, fur- ther, H. George lioiss, rector in Blankenburg [oh. 1716), and /. G, mile, cantor in Glancha about the year 1739. The musicians of this period had already entirely lost all taste for the old choral, and the aria-style had degenerated greatly under the influence of pietism, when a master appeared, in whom was gathered 250 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 1 8 A. D ) . and coricentrated everything; grand and glorious that had been contri buted by evangelical, churchly, congregational, and artistic music, a musician educated for the kingdom of heaven, like unto a householder, who bringeth forth out of his treasury things new and old ; — in whom also the development of church music was concluded for a whole cen- tury. This was John Sebast. Bach, since 1723 musical director in the Thomas-school in Leipsic {oh. 1750), the most perfect organist that ever lived. He returned, with unqualified predilection, to the old choral, which no one appreciated and understood more thoroughly than he. He harmonized it for the organ, unfolded his inmost being and his deepest thoughts in the richest fullness of harmony through four- voiced melodies ; and made, after Hammerschmidt's manner, many old splendid chorals in the form of a dialogue in the language of Scripture, together with recitatives, duetts, and arias, echo with wonderful power in his sacred concerts. In the art of fugue, in knowledge of the mysteries of harmony, in richness of modulation, etc., he was the greatest master of all times. He advanced the aria-style to its most glorious and exalted development, and the greatest and most sublime thoughts of German Protestantism are clothed in heavenly music in his passion-oratorios. We have from him, besides, five annual church- aompositions for every Sunday and festival. (Of. C. L. Hilgenfeldi, J. Seb. Bach's Leben, Wirk. u. AVerke. Lpz. 1850.)— Besides Bach, there was also another master of unapproachalile greatness in the oratorio, George Friedr. Handel of Halle, who, however, lived from 1710 to his death (1759) mostly in England. He labored for the opera for more than 25 years, and only turned to the oratorio in his later years. Whilst his operas have long since been forgotten, he will be distinguished in this department for all time. His most perfect oratorio is the " Mes- siah;" Herder called it a Christian epopee in sounds. Of his other great oratorios are to be mentioned: "Samson," " Judas Maccabee," " Joshua," and " Jephtha." (Cf. § 81, 2.) 6. Christian Life and Devotional Literature. — Pietism poured a mighty religious stream into the national life, and sustained it by zeaious preaching, pastoral care, devotional meetings, and an almost exuberant devotional literature. Orthodoxy, also, which had been en- riched by pietism, manifested a not less efficient and still more sterling activity through the ministry, word, and pen. August. Hermann Francke {oh. 1727) founded, with seven florins in his hand, but with strong faith in his heart, the orphan's house at Halle ; Woltersdorf proved himself to be Francke's successor in faith and love, by founding the orphan's house at Bunzlau ; the Baron von Canstein (oh. 1719) devoted his Avealth to founding the Bi])le institution at Halle, from which millions of Bibles have been already sent forth, etc. The newly i awakened zeal for missions gives evidence of the stirring religious life and interest in the Lutheran church. The most important of the many ascetic authors are : /. Anast. Freylinghausen (Grundlegung der Theo LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 251 logie), John Porst, provost at Berlin {oh. 1728;, (Gottl. Flihrung d. Seelen ; Wachsthum d. Wiodergebornen ; an excellent hymn-book); George A^itsch of Gotha [oh. 1729), (Theol. Sendschreiben) ; John Jacoh Ramhach of Giessen [oh. 1735), distinguished both as a learned theolo- gian and as a spiritual poet and pulpit orator (Passionsbetrachtungen, etc.); Benj. Schmoick of Schweidnitz [oh. 1737), (Communionbuch ; Morgen-und Abendsegen, etc.) ; Dav. Hollaz, son of the dogmatist (Evang. Guadenordnung) ; Geonje Conrad Bieger of Stutgard [oh. 1743), (Ilerzenspostille, etc.); Phil. Steinmeiz, Abbot of Klosterbergen [oh. 1763), (Sendschreiben; Sammlung auserlesener materien zum Bau des Reiches Gottes, etc.). Among those who were not theologians, the following are especially distinguished as ascetic authors : the Sile sian nobleman Charles Henri/ von Bogatzky of Halle [oh. 1774), a man who was unweariedly laborious in promoting the kingdom of God in every way (Glildenes Schatzkastlein, Tagliches Ilausbuch der Kinder Gottes, Communionbuch, etc.), and John Jacob von Moser, a celebrated statesman and publicist, a man of the most solid and approved piety (although the Moravian congregation at Ebersdorf excluded him from the Lord's Supper), died in 1785, at Stutgard, after a life filled with persecutions and troubles (having been imprisoned for six years in the fortress of Hohentwiel). — How great also the need for solid and in- structive edification was, is shown by the many popular expositions of the Bible, the best of which are the Pfaffische Bibelwerk (Tlibg. 1730), the Hirschherger Bihel (1756), by Liebich und Burg, the Synopsis biblioth. exeg. or kurzgef. Auszug d. Auslegung, etc. (Lpz. 1741, 6 Bde. 4to.), by Christoph Starke, and the comprehensive Hallesche Bihel hy S. J. Baumgarten, Jacoh Brucker, Romanus Teller, etc. (Lpz. 1748, sq. 19 Bde. 4to.) 7. Heathen Missions. (Cf. A. II. and C. A. Francke, Berichte d. Dun. miss, in Ostind. Halle, 1708-72. — St. Schulz, Leitungen des Hochsten, etc. Halle, 1771, sq. 5 Bde. — /. F. Fenger, Gesch. d. tranquebar'schen mission, aus d. Dan. v. C. Francke. Grimma, 1845. — K. Graul, Ausbr. u. Entwickl. d. chr. K. unter d. Tamulen ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr., 1850, lU. — J.H.Brauer, Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Heidenbek. H. II.: Zeigenbalg. Alt. 1837. — /. C. G. Schmidt, kurzgef. Lebensbeschr. ev. miss. Bd. I. and III. Lpz. 1839. — R. Vormhauui, ev. missionsgesch. in Biographicn, Bd. II. DUsseld. 1852. — H. Egede, Ausf. nachr. v. d. gronland. miss. Hamb., 1740. — A. G. Rudelhach, H. Egede; in s. christl. Biogr. Bd. I. Lpz. 1850.) — The revival of practical Chris- tianity, which proceeded from pietism, contributed greatly also to the extension of Heathen missions. Frederick IV. of Denmark founded the mission at Tranquebar for his East India possessions, for which Francke sent to him two very excellent and zealous laborers, Henry Plutzschau and Barth. Zicgenhalg. The latter translated the New Testament into the Tamul language [oh 1719). This Danish East Indian mission extended its labors also into the English possessions 252 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 18 A.D.). The orphan's house at Halle contributed to it quite a number of ex- cellent missionaries, the most prominent of whom was Christian Fric- derich Schwarz [oh. 1798), the patriarch of Lutheran missions, who labored almost 50 years as a faithful missionary. In the last quarter of this century, however, the zeal for this mission expired under the influence of rationalism ; the connection with the orphan's house was dissolved, and the rich Lutheran harvest was gathered almost entirely into the garners of the Anglican church. The Ilalloan Prof. Callen- herg founded (1728) a special institute at Halle for the conversion of the Jews, under whose auspices Stephen Schulz travelled over Europe, Asia, and Africa, to preach the Gospel to the Jews. Already in the 11th century the Gospel had been carried to Greenland, since which time, however, the church there had fallen into forgetfulness, and, as it now appears, had disappeared without any trace. This negligence of Christendom pressed heavily upon the heart of the preacher Hans Egede, in Norway ; he did not rest until he, supported by a Danish- Norwegian commercial enterprise, could ti-ead upon the icy land with his family in 1721. He labored unweariedly amid incredible hardships and privations, and at the beginning with but little success ; and he also remained alone behind when the commercial enterprise was aban- doned. In 1733 he had the unexpected joy of being joined by three Moravian missionaries, Christian David, and the brothers Stach. But, alas ! this joy was only too soon embittered by the pride of the new- >',omers, who wished to model everj^thing after their peculiar Moravian principles, and slandered and avoided the brave Egede, who could not submit to their demands, as an unholy and unconverted man ; whilst he was justly offended at their confusion of justification and sanctifica- fcion, at their contempt for pure doctrines, and their special, unscrip- tural notions and phrases, disposed as he also was, to overlook their want of theological education. He repaid their hostility with the most self-denying care when they were attacked by a contagious disease. In 1736, having transferred the prosecution of his work to his son Fatd, he returned to Denmark, and labored since then in Copenhagen as superlntendant of a Greenlandish missionary seminary {ob. 1758). (Cf. ^ 51, 5.) g 47. THE MORAVIANS. Cf. N. L. V. Zinzendorf, Hihi iavtov od. naturelle Reflexiones uber sich selbst. 1749. — A. G. Spangenberg, Leben d. Grafen v. Z. Barby, 1772, 8 Bde. — /. W. Verbeek, des Grafen v. Z. Leb. u. Char. Gnadau, 1845. — L. C. V. Schrautenbach (a younger contemporary of Z., not be- longing to the denomination, but closely related to it), Erinner. an. d. Gr. Z. (1781). Berlin, 1828, and more thorough; Der G. v. Z. u. d. Brlidergem. sr. zeit ; herausg. v. F. W. Kolbing. Gnadau, 1851. — • Barnhagen von Ense, Leb. d. Gr. v. z. in d. Biogr. Denkmalen, Bd. V., Berlin, 1^30.— JV. Pilgram, Leb. u. Wirk. d. Gr. N. L. v. Z.. aus (rom.) THE MORAVIANS. 253 Kath.-GIaubensprincipien betrachtet. Lpz., 1857. — Jet. Risler, Leb. Spangenberg's, Barby, 1794. — K. F. Ledderhose, Leb. Sp's. Hcidlb., 184G. — {Zinzendorf), BUdingische Samml. einiger in d. K. G. einsch- lagender Schriften. Blid. 1742, ff. 3 Bde. — A. G. Spangenherg, kurzgcf. hist. Nachr. v. d. gegenw. Verf. d. ev. Brliderunit. 5. A. Gnadau, 1833. Dav. Cranz, alte u. neue Brliderhist. Barby, 1774, continued (Bd. 2-4) by /. K. Hegner, 1791, fl\ [Kolbing), Die Gedenktage der erneuerten Briidergem. Gnadau, 1821. — C. V. Lynar, Nachr. v. d. Urspr. u. Fortg. d. BrUdernuit. Halle, 1781. — F. Litiz, Biicke in d. Gegenw. u. Yer- gangeuh. d. ev. Briidergem. Lpz., 184G. — E. W. Croger, Gesch. d. erneuerten Brliderkirche. Gnadau, 1852, if. 3 Bde. — J. F. Schroder, d. Gr. V. Z. u. Herrnh. od. Gesch. d. Brliderunitat. Nordh. 1857. — A. Ben- gel, Abriss d. s. g. Briidergem. Stuttg. 1751, 2 Thle. — J. G. Walch, theol. Bedeuk. v. d. BeschaS'enh. d. herrnhlitischen Secti. Frkf. 1747. — /. Ph. Freseiiius, bewarht Nachr. v. herrnhiitischen Sachen. 2. A. Lpz. 1746, ff. 4 Bde. — S. J. Bmungarlen, theol. Bedenk. 1741, ff. — N. L. v Zinzendorf, die gegenw. Gestalt. d. Kreuzreiches Christi. Lpz. 1745, 4to. — A. G. Spa ngenberg, a\)o\. Schlussschrift, worinnen iiber tausend Beschuldigg. nach d. Wahrh. beantw. werden. Lpz. 1752, 2 Bde. 4 Dess., Declaration ii. d. Beschuldigg., etc. Lpz. 1751, 4to. — Max. Gobel, Gesch. d. Inspirationsgemeinden, IV. Der herrnhiitische Periodus 1730-43; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1855, I. — A. Christiani, d. Gr. Zinzend. u. d. Sattler Rock ; in d. Mittheill. fur. d. ev. K. RussL, 1855, V. [The Moravian Manual. E. De Schweinitz. Philada. 1859]. The tiileuted Count Zinzendorf, captivated already as a boy, glowiiitr with buniing' love towards the Saviour, by the idea of a spiritual fraternity of the friends of Jesus, obtained an opportu- nity to realize this idea in a way peculiar to himself, by the arri- val of several Moravian exiles upon his estates. Upon Hutberg he cast the muatard-need of his youthful dreams into fruitful ground, and it soon grew up to a stately tree under the unweary- ing culture of the noble gardener, and its vigorous sprouts were not only transplanted to all the Protestant countries of Europe, but also to all other parts of the world. The communion which he founded was called the " renewed fraternity, ^^ but in fact it was not a reneived, but a 7iew fraternity, the most faithful copy )f his altogether original peculiarity, which for a time ran into nnheard-of extravagances. That the communion did not perish by these extravagances, that its fraternization with fanatics and persons professing to be inspired, its sectarian establishment of a special covenant with the Saviour, and the not too humble ima- gination of their Philadelphian position in the kingdom of God, did not plunge it into bottomless fanaticism, and that it was able TI. — 22 254 SECTION 111. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.) . to preserve itself upright upon the slippery and dangerous ground of its marriage-mystery, is a phenomenon that stands alone in Church History, and testifies stronger than everything else, how deeply and firmly the originator and the communion were rooted in the Gospel. The count himself laid aside many of his extra- vagances, and what remained were eradicated so far as they were not connected with the fundamental idea of the special covenant by his successor, the prudent and circumspect Spange7iberg. He succeeded, not indeed in abolishing the sectarian character of the fraternity, but in modifying and concealing it. A great advan- tage to the fraternity in this view, was the contrast of its faith- ful adhesion to the foundation of salvation, with the general apostacy from faith which prevailed everywhere in the Church. In this period of general apostacy it preserved the faith of many pious souls, and afforded them a welcome refuge, with rich spiritual nourishment and care. But with the resuscitation of religious life in the 19th century, it lost more and more its significance for Europe, on account of its adhesion to its old one-sidedness, its continuing indifference to science, and aversion to conflict. In one respect, however, its efficiency is greatly felt, even to the present day, — that is, its heathen missions, and its widely ramified system of education also deserves special acknowledgment. 1. The Founder of the Moravians, Nicholas Louis Count von Zin' zendorf and Pottendorf, was born in the year 1700, at Dresden. Spener was among his sponsors. As his father died early, and his mother fharried a second time, his pious, pietistically-inclined grandmother, a woman of Gersdorf, undertook the training of the boy, who was en- dowed with rich gifts of the head and heart. With her he learned, already in his tenderest youth, to seek his happiness in the most inti- mate personal communion with the Lord. But her training was directed onlv towards nourishing his religious feelings, and neglected to confine them within the limits of wholesome discipline, which was doubly ne- cessary for his bold, rich, and aspiring spirit. At this time already the tendency of his whole life iixed itself. When 10 years old he entered the grammar-school at Halle under the direction of A. H. Francke, where the pietistic fundamental idea of the necessity of an ecclesiola in ecclesia, took root in his soul. Already in his 15th year he sought to realize it by founding a mustard-seed order (Matt. 13 : 13) among his fellow-pupils. Having completed his preparatory studies, his uncle and guardian, who began to have scruples about his pietistic extravagances, sent him to orthodox Wittenberg to study law. Here he at first found a kind of satisfaction, a morsel of martyr-happiness, THE MORAVIANS. 255 '.a swimming, as a rigid pietist, against the orthod x stream. Never- theless, his residence at Wittenberg exerted a wholesome influence on him, for it liberated him insensibly from the narrow-mindedness of Halloan pietism, which, at all events, did not accord with the catholic tendency of his spirit. The fundamental idea of pietism (ecclesiola in ecclesia) he, meanwhile, held fast; but it assumed in his spirit a form 80 grand and comprehensive, such as pietism was not able to produce. His efi'orts to bring to pass a personal conference, and if possible a union between the Hallean and Wittenberg leaders, were fruitless. In 1713 he left Wittenberg, and during a two years' tour came into personal contact with the most distinguished Christian men of all con- fessions and sects (in Paris Avith Noailles and the Jansenists). After his return home (1721), he entered the civil service of Saxony, in obedience to the desire of his relatives. But a religious genius such asZinzendorf could find no satisfaction in such service, and soon an opportunity was afforded him to realize the plan which ruled all his thoughts and feelings. 2. The Founding :f the Moravians (1722-27). — Already the Smal- caldian, and much more the Thirty-years' war, inflicted unspeakable calamities and persecution upon the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. Many of them sought a refuge for their faith and life in emigration to Poland and Prussia (among them also Bishop John Amos Comenius, oh. 1071). Those that remained were exposed to the most wicked oppression, even after the Westphalian peace. They could only serve God after the faith of their fathers in their houses secretly and in con- stant danger of death ; externally and publicly they must belono- to the Romish Church. Thus gradually the light of the Gospel went out in the dwellings of their descendants, and the remembrance of the f\iith and the Church of their fathers was preserved only in a tradition which continually faded more and more. A Moravian carpenter, Chris- tian David, l>orn and educated in the Roman Catholic Church, but awakened on his travels through evangelical preaching, rekindled, at the beginning of the 18th century, the dying flame in several families. They emigrated under David's guidance, and sought a refuge upon the estates of Count Zinzendorf in Lausatia (1722), The count was absent at the time, but his steward, with the approbation of the count's grand- mother, allowed them to settle on Ilutberg near Berthelsdorf. Uttering the Avords of Ps. 84 : 4, Christian David struck the axe into the tree, which was cut down to build the first house. Soon the village of Ilerrn/nif sprung up, and became the centre of the society, which Zin- zendorf now made every eS"ort to establish. Gradually other Moravian exiles gathered in ; but a much greater number of religiously awakened people of all nations flocked thither. Pietists, Separatists, Calvinists, Schwenkfeldians, etc. Zinzendorf did not contemplate a separation from the Lutheran Church. The colonists were placed in the parish (if the excellent preacher Fothe of Berthelsdorf (g 46, 4). It was no 256 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). easy matter to organize such a mixed crowd ; and only the glowing enthusiasm of Zinzendorf for the idea of a collection of souls, his eminent talent for organization, the wonderful elasticity and tenacity of his will, the extraordinary prudence, circumspection, and wisdom of his understanding, were able to hold the diverse elements together, and to avoid an open rupture amid the constantly occurring dissensions. The Moravians demanded the re-establishment of the old Moravian constitution and discipline ; and of the other elements, each one desired that to be placed in the foreground, which was the most important to it. All only sympathized with e.ach other in the aversion to holding fast simply to the Lutheran Church and its preacher Rothe. Thus the count saw himself compelled to create a new and separate society of unity. The old Moravian constitution did not specially commend itself to him, but the lot decided in favor of it, and the consideration of be- ing able to appear as the continuation of an ante-reformatory martyr- church, had also its weight. Thus then Zinzendorf formed a constitu- tion with old Moravian forms and names, but pervaded throughout with a new spirit, and ruled by quite other tendencies. The Moravians did not venture to condemn the difference ; the most able among them, who perhaps discovered it, were silenced by prominent positions ; in- dividual discontents left Herrnhut. On the basis of this constitution, chartered by Zinzendorf, the colony now constituted itself, Aug. 13, 1727, under the name of Renewed Moravian Church. .3. The Progress of the Church to Zinzendorf ' s Death (1727-60). — Immediately after the organization of the Church or Society, it began to manifest an astonishing activity in propagating itself, the life and soul of which Zinzendorf was, and remained until his death. New congregations were organized in Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and North America ; members of the society were sent to Protestant countries to form smaller societies among the disas- pora within the established churches, but wdth Moravian spirit and forms, thus for instance with special success in Livonia and Esthonia since 1729. Zinzendorf was examined (1734) at Tubingen as a candi- date for the ministry, and received (1737) from the hand of Jablonski/, court-preacher at Berlin, who was at the same time Bishop of the Mo- ravians, episcopal ordination, which the same had given already two years bef n-e to another member of the fraternity, David Nitschmanyi (a wheelwright by trade) ; as also generally increasing importance was attached to episcopal succession in proportion as the connection with England became more intimate. Meanwhile, the movements of the ■ society attracted the greatest attention. The government of Saxony sent (1736) a commission to Herrnhut, of which Val. E. Lbscher was a member. Although this commission made, upon the whole, a favorable report, nevertheless the originator of the society Avas banished from the country. This exile continued for ten years. Zinzendorf, like all religious fugitives then, fled to Wetteraw. He settled with his little THE MORAVIANS. 257 congregation at Ronneburg near Biidingen, established flourishing congregations at Marienborn and Herrnhaag, and made extensive journeys in Europe and America. This period of exile is the period of the greatest outward extension, but also (especially the years 1742- 50) the period of the greatest internal dangers. The historians of the society designate these years as the sifiiwi-period. At the same time a real flood of conti-oversial treatises and lampoons began to break upon the society and its founders, partly in an earnest and dignified tone, with a sharply penetrating criticism from the side of most honorable, worthy, and learned representatives of Lutheran theology [John Phil. Fresenius, S. J. Baumgarten, J. G. Walch, Abbot Steinmetz, Alb. Bengel, et al.), partly in a coarse, offensive, and scandalous manner, ex. qr. by /. Leonh. Froreisen ( Abschilderung des Mahomet's und des Zinzendorf's als zeines heutigen Affen. Strasb. 1747, etc.), the latter being done especially also by members who had withdrawn from the society, concerning whom we may presuppose the most exact know- ledge of the internal condition of the society, but also the strongest disposition to misrepresent and ridicule it. (Of. ex. gr. B. Alex. Volck, town-clerk of Biidingen, das entdeckte Geheimnisz d. Bosh. d. herrnh. Secte. Frkf. 1749, ff., and H. Joach. Bothe, tailor in Berlin, Zuverl. Nachr. des entd. herrnh. Ehegeheimnisses. Berl. 1751, 2 Bde.) It is, however, nevertheless true, that the count and his society at this time gave only too much matter and occasion for misrepresentation, perver- sion, and slander, by extravagances and peculiarities of the most obnoxious and dangerous kind. To this period belongs, first of all, the celebrated fiction of the special covenant — the Pandora-box of all other errors — and the bold political stratagem (1741) by which Zinzendorf made Leonhard Doher to "succeed" the Lord Jesus in the office of chief-elder. To this period belong also the greatest literary fruitfulness of the count, together with the development of his peculiar theological views, modes of speech, and doctrines ; the composition and public use in Avorship of the notorious, later expelled, spiritual hymns, with their indescribably foolish trifling, and their partly blasphemous, partly obscene images and analogies ; further, the mountebank laudation of his society, the not always honest proselytism, the introduction and practice of a very questionable and shameless matrimonial discipline ; finally, the so-called elegancies [i. e. excepting joyful festivities, whose centre was the cultus of the " Seitenhohlchens," with illuminated or transparent representations and tasteless emblems or decorations of the same, etc.), such as the '^^ mite-societies" for preparing these ele- gancies, towards Avhich especially the congregation at Herrnhaag, the model for all the others, contributed the non-plus-ultra of silly insi- pidity. Even the pietistic party, whose theory of repentance and con- version was certainly and justly offensive to the society, oppcsed it on account of its blessed resting in the favor of its Saviour, which inclined 10 Antinomism. (Cf. K: H. v. Bogatzhj, Aufr. Declaration ii, e. gegen 22* R 258 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). ihn hcrausgek. herrnhutische Schrift. mit e. Vorr. v. Abt Steinmetz, Halle, 1751. — G. Terstegen, Waruungsschreiben wider die Leichtsin« aigk. sc. der Herrnhuter, im weg d. Wahrh. St. V.). The controversial treatises of inspired fanatics in AYetteraw, with whom Zinzendorf for- merly fraternized, but had now completely broken, brought things to light, of which those without had no idea, and which greatly compro- mised Zinzendorf 's sincerity and integrity (^ 49, 2). — All this opposi- tion, odious as it for the most part was, produced meanwhile a salutary effect. The count became gradually more careful as to himself, more cautious in his addresses, more discreet in his conduct, removed several of the worst excrescences in doctrine and practice, and exterminated also in great part the fanatical element. In 1747, finally, the go- vernment of Saxony revoked the edict of exile against the founder of the society ; and as it two years later explicitly accepted the Augsburg Confession, it attained formal recognition in Saxony. At the same time it was recognized in England by an act of parliament (1749) as a church entitled to equal privileges with that of the Anglican Episcopal, with pure episcopal succession. Zinzendorf managed all the important matters of the society until his death, and it adhered to him with child- like confidence, and was a faithful copy of his character, inheriting not only his fervor, but also his extravagances in forms of expression, of doctrine, and of life. He died (176U) in the perfect enjoyment of that happiness which his glowing love to the Saviour had prepared for him. 4. Zinzendorf s Plan and Labors. — The pietistic idea of the neces- sity of an ecclesiola in ecclesia gave him the first impulse to the work of his life. But the weakness of this tendency could not remain con- cealed to his sharp and penetrating spirit. With clear vision he looked through the little, narrow-minded doings of Pietism, which never could accomplish anything rightly with its establishment of institutions, its unscriptural methods of i:)iety, and theories of conversion and sealing. Zinzendorf, therefore, desired not a conventicle, but a society ; not an ideal, invisible, but a real, visible Church ; not a narroAv-minded me- thudism, but a free, rich dominion of the Christian spirit. He did not aim at first at the conversion of the world, nor at the reformation of the Church, but at the collection and conservation of souls belonging to the Saviour. But he hoped to build a reservoir, into which all the rivulets of the water of life would flow together, and from which he would be able to water the whole world. And as he succeeded so well in forming a society, and it had progressed so rapidly, he was perfectly convinced that it was the Philadelphia of Revelations (3 : 7 ff.), that with it had begun the Philadelphian period o^ Church History, concern- ing which all the prophets and apostles had prophesied. His plan was designed originally for all Christendom, and he took steps to realize it in this form. To build a bridge between the Roman Catholic Chur<^h and his society, he published (1727) a small Christian-Catholic hymn and prayer-book, mostly taken from Angelus Silesius' " Hcly Delight THE MORAVIANS. 259 of the Soul " and sketched a letter to the pope (publiAed later hy Walcl.), with which he intended to send this book to him. Zinzen- dorf did not positively deny the whole matter, and pronounced the letter to be a pasquil ; but Spangenberg admitted that the count had sketched it, but never sent it ofiF. He also endeavored to interest the Greek Church in his society by writing to the patriarch and to the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, whereby he brought the Greek descent of the Moravian brethren to bear. Practically, however, his collection of souls was confined within the limits of the Protestant Church, and within these limits contributions were made to it from all confessions, sects, and communions. He was personally attached sincerely to the Lutheran Church and its characteristic doctrines. But in a society which was in principle designed to be the rendezvous of the pious out of all nations, doctrine and creed could not be the uniting and cement- ing bond. It could onlj' form a communion of love, not of faith. The inmost kernel of Lutheranism, reconciliation by the blood of Christ, was presei'ved, and even made to be the proper living element of the society^ though only as the blessed feelin(/ of his blood. But this con- tinued to be the properly Lutheran fund in the society, which also, when it was divided into confessional tropes (into the Moravian, Lu- theran, and Reformed trope), remained in all the common basis. This division first took place in 1744, and was occasioned by the founding of the new congregations at Marienborn and Herrnhaag in Wetteraw, in which the Reformed element was predominant. The uniting head of the three divisions was the count himself, who, in this capacity, bore the title Ordinarins. But this matter of division was also only some- thing external, and introduced no confessional precision into the so- ciety ; it was consequently also of no duration. The later adhesion to the AxKjsburg Confession (1749) was only an act of policy, which ob- tained civil I'ecngnition, otherwise it was without any efi'ect. The society remained, as it had been before, without and indifferent to any confession. As now Zinzendorf's society rejected the unity of confession as a principle of communion, and as no permanent communion can be based on a mere feeling of love, consequently nothing remained to the founder but to make the Constitution the bond of unity instead of the confession. The forms of this constitution were borrowed, from exter- nal considerations, from the Old Moravian Church-discipline, but not Bradacz's, but Zinzendorf's spirit filled and ruled them. The old Moravian constitution was an episcopal-clerical one, and started from the idea of the Church ; the new one was essentially* Presbyterian, and started from the idea of the congregation, and that a congregation of saints. Moravian bishops are only titular ones ; they have no dioceses, no church government, nor ban. All this resides in the power of the Unity-elders, among whom the lay-element is decidedly predominant. Further, Moravians have no pastors, but only preaching brethren : the care of souls is assigned to the elders and their assistants. In additior 260 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). to that half-Lutheran and this pseudo-Moravian element, the society had also as basis a Donatist element. This consisted already in the fundamental idea of a collection and communion of only true children of God, and found its completion as well as its dogmatic establishment in the conclusion of a Special covenant with the Saviour on Sept. 16, 1741, in London. The "Gedenktage" (p. 241, ff.) report the following concerning it : Leonharcl Dober had filled the office of a General-elder for several years. But it was observed at a synod held in London that he had not the proper talents for this office. He now asked to be dis- missed. In the anxiety to refill the office, " it occurred to all at the same time, to accept the Saviour for it." They looked after the watch- word of the day, and found Isaiah 45 : 11 (a passage not correctly translated by Luther). " Instantly we all resolved to accept no other than him as General-elder, and he gave us to understand that He ap- proved (How?). We asked for permission ; we obtained it. (How?). The question was not, whether the Saviour was generally the shepherd and bishop of our souls; but our purpose and concern was: that he should make a special covenant with his insignificant people, and re- ceive us as his sp>ecial jjossession, take care of all our concerns, specially watch over us, personally unite himself with each member of the society, and do everything in perfection that our hitherto elder had done among us in weakness." In a circular addressed to " the Church of the Lamb," Zinzendorf announced the unheard-of favor which had been bestowed upon them ; — and, as is customary on the accession of a new king to the throne, a letter of grace proclaimed " a universal forgiveness of sins, committed either against the society or its members," and offered " all apostates, except one, whom the Lord according to his Avonderful and inscrutable counsel had excluded," restoration to the society. In America, the congregation at Philadelphia issued a proclamation to all Christians, which begins with the words : To-day a visible Church of the Lord is finally seen and recognized here ; we constitute the body of the Lord ; hither to us, all ye who belong to tlie Lord ! Among the numberless extravagances perpetrated b}' Zinzendorf and the society, during the so-called sifting-periocl, which, however, Zin- zendorf himself partly abandoned later, the following are the most remarkable and obnoxious : (1.) The doctrine of the maternal office of the Hohj Ghost. Zinzendorf viewed the Holy Trinity as " man, wife, and child" (" papa, mamma, and their little flame, brother lambkin"). The Holy Ghost tills the position of mother (God the Father's eternal wife, heart-mamma) ; his maternal office is exercised in a three-fold way : at the eternal generation of the Son of God, at the conception uf the man Jesus, at the regeneration of believers. (2.) The dociri7ie of the paternal office of Jesus Christ (according to Isaiah 9 : 6.) The creation of the world was accomplished alone and exclusively by the Son (the "blessed potter" according to Gen. 2 : 7), therefore Christ is mr special father, our direct father. The father of our Lord Jesu? THE MORAVIANS. 261 Christ is only ' what the -world calls a father-in-law, a grandfather." (3.) Concerning the earthly life of our Saviour, Zinzendorf, in order to make prominent and clear the depth of his humiliation, loved to use the most disrespectful expressions (journeyman-carpenter, journey- man, he hung upon the cross as a gallows-bird, etc.). (4.) He spoke equally disrespectfully also of the "miserable fisherman's, shepherd's, and visitator stylo, of the classical obscurity and rabbinical shoulder- minology of the Holy Scriptures. On the other hand, he pronounced his society to be a living Bible. (5.) The theory and practice of the mar ri age-mystery, according to Eph. 5 : 32. The society and every single soul in it is the spiritual bride of Christ, and to make the inti- mate character of this relation clear, marriage-life is depicted even to obscenitj", and applied to the spiritual marriage with Christ, especially in the hymns. But Christ is also the proper husband in corporeal matrimony. The begetting of children is a work of Christ (belongs to his paternal oiSce) ; earthly husbands are only " his procurators, in whose favor he has resigned it;" they are the vice-christs, vice-men of the wives. Marriage is a real sacrament, sanctified thereto by the circumcision of Christ and the opening of his side with the spear. The blood of Christ shed thereby is the oil of matrimony, and the begetting of children is a holy, divine work, that should be performed by true Christians without any sensation of fleshly lust, and consequently also without shame. The " dog-principiis tolerated" by the apostle (1 Cor. 7 : 9), which are now only practised by negroes and islanders, must be denied admission into the society. To this end the contraction of mar- riage and the copula carnalis were placed under the special supervision of the stewards of the society ; and the latter was done for a time by the newly married amidst the singing and praj^er of the society assem- bled in an adjoining room. Zinzendorf, almost apotheosized by his adherents, has not met with a proper judgment, either as to his greatness or his weakness, from his opponents. His greatness lay in his heart glowing with love to the Saviour ("I have imly one passion, that is He, only He"), in the universal love, with which he gladly embraced all believers, in order to gather them beneath the cross. This greatness, which he possessed, is not even acknowledged by his most estimable opponents, anion a- whom Bengel is V)y far the most important. His tceakness consisted almost less in the various extravagances of which he was guilty, than in the fact that he regarded himself as being called to establish a society. But apart from this, his labors bear the stamp of grandeur, on account of the great self-sacrifice, unwearied energy, and self-deny- ing faithfulness with which he performed them. He devoted his whole life, soul, heart, and wealth, to his self-chosen calling. The advan- tages, also, which birth, position, and high secular culture offered him, he knew how to make subservient to his mission. Ho was personally perouaded of his divnie calling, and as he was not accustomed to how 262 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.) . to the written Word of God, but interpreted it according to his subjeo tive canon : "It appears so to me," and made only this (together with the lot) the rule of his life and labors, it is easily explicable how he, in spite of great spiritual illumination and a rich fund of Christian sense, could fall into fanatical errors. And from this relation to his calling, the advancement of which by all imaginable means he had always and only in view, is explained also single impurities in his life (especially want of strict truthfulness, where it might appear to be injurious to his cause). Very much of what was crooked and perverse in his character must also be attributed to the distracted age in which he lived. Zinzendorf's writings, of which there are more than 100, are marked by originality, genial thoughts, and peculiar phrases. Among his more than 2000 hymns, many of them improvised in the act of worship, of which Alb. Knapji published (Stuttg. 1845) 700 of the best, there are many possessing great fervor and sweetness, gome of really poetic merit, a few also ('' Jesu, geh voran," " Du uuser auserwahltes Haupt"), which have found their way into the hymn- books of the evangelical Church. The largest portion of them are mere rhymes, a repertorium of theological and spiritual extravagances. 5. The Moravians since Spangenberg's Labors. — The society owes its present form to the prudent, wise, and temperate bishop, Aug. Gottlieb Spangenberg [ob. 1792), who, after Zinzendorf's death, obtained a superior influence, and is justly regarded as its second founder. It received from him the measured forms which j'et characterise it. The constitution was revised and perfected at the synod of Marienborn (1764). Zinzendorf's monarchical position was changed into the con- ference of unity-elders, and Spangenberg removed the yet remaining excrescences of fanaticism. But the fundamental error of a special covenant remained untouched, and still constituted the fundamental presupposition of everything that the society as such thought, taught, wrote, did, and accomplished, — and it continues to celebrate on the IGth Sept., " the blessed experience of the elder's office of Jesus," as its proper birth-day and special Whitsuntide. In the statutes of the cvang. Brlidr.-Unit. Gnadau (1819, | 5), it defines itself in distinction from the existing churches as a " society of true children of God, as a family of God, which has Jesus for its head," — in the Hist. Nachricht. v. d. Verfass. d. Brdr.-Unit. Gnadau, 1823, | 4, as "a collection of living members of the invisible body of Jesus Christ," and in its " Litanei am Ostermorgen" (Gesangb. Nr. 210), in immediate connec- tion wnth the creed of universal Christendom is placed as fourth, spe- cially Moravian credo: " I believe, that our brethren N. N. and our sisters N. N. (N. B. Hei-e persons Avho have died at the place since the previous Easter are thought of bi/ name] have gone to the upper con- gregation, and have entered into the joy of their Lord." However, the synt>d of 1848 made a change in this article of faith, but not so great as to abandon the principle. But it is certain ♦.hat the society THE MORAVIANS. 263 did not, ir. a public way, cause the consciousness of its special election to appear so prominently in the fureground. This considerate and purified Moravianism received, in Spangenberg's Idea Fidei fratruui, a dogmatic expression, which was connected with the Lutheran doc- trine, but not the less thoroughly penetrated by the above-mentioned fundamental presuppositicm. Only a few new societies were established after Zinzendorf 's death, and none of these were of much importance. Rather before this event, the flourishing congregations in Wetteraw were destroyed and scattered (1750) by the ruler of the country. Count von Isenburg-Budingen (because they refused to take the oath of alle- giance). The labors amony the Diaspora in Livonia and Estlionia, after the first attempt to establish the society there (1729-43), had ended in the banishment of the Moravians, were more successful in the second half of this century, and assumed a form here as nowhere else in a national church. They organized here foi-mally a church within the church, whose members, sustained by the conviction that they had been added to " the little band" of the elect by the infallible voice of the Lord in the lot, gave infinite trouble to the orthodox cler- gymen of the country, especially of Livonia who saw the destructive character of this nuisance, and testified against it from the Word of God. This testimony manifested its conquering power here also, and Moravianism began to reform (1857) not only too late, but also in too lukewarm a manner, to save its institutions in Livonia from the certain destruction which impended over them. (Cf. Th. Haraack, d. luth. K. Livland's u. d. herrnhut. Brlidergemeine, in der kirchl. Zeitschr. v. Kleifoth u. Mejer 1855, V. VI. 1857, IX. X.) With regard to the doctrinal p)6cuUarity of the Moravians, the first thing to be made prominent is, that freedom from all creeds is a prin- ciple. The acceptance of the Augustaua, in 1749, was not a real appropriation of them ; and how merel}' external the relation of the society to them still is, is shown by the synodic indulgence of 1848. Consequently, it is difficult to say what the doctrines of the Moravians are. If we confine ourselves to Spangenberg's Idea Fidei, and to the sermons and devotional works, then their doctrinal views do not by any means appear to be either un-Lutheran or anti-Lutheran, but rather such as contain neither the extensive fulness nor the intensive wealth of the Lutheran doctrines, — and Bengel's sharp criticism : that the Moravians pluck off the leaves from the entire tree of wholesome doctrines, expose that which is most hidden, and even divide this in half, is even yet perfectly true. First of all they repudiate science (according to a wrong interpretation and application of Eph. 3 : 19) as unnecessary to the appropriation of redemption, and seek to appre- hend and preserve salvation by direct faith and love. As regards the objects of faith, the Son (the God-man) is regarded as the exclusivi* ao-cnt by whom salvation is applied and accomplished, so that the re- lations of the Father and the Holy Ghost to redemption are entirelv 264 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 1 8 A.D.). ignored. Further, entire redemption is again attributed, in a one-sided way, to the sufferings and death of the Son ; and the other not less essential side of the same, which is grounded in his life and resurrec- tion, is left out of view, or rather its fruits are likewise traced to his atoning death. Consequently not only justification, but also sanctifi- cation, are attributed exclusively to the death of Christ, and this is apprehended not so much as a legal satisfaction (without, however, expressly denying this directly), as a divine manifestation of love, which awakens reciprocal love. Redemption is viewed as emanating solely from the sufferings and death of Christ, and as in this aspect the justice of God comes less into view than His grace and love, so also the Gospel is made prominent to the almost entire exclusion of the law (almost to Antinomianism). Sermon and doctrine should be directed towards exciting pious feelings of love, and thus promote a certain religious sentimentality. The weak side of the society is, accordingly, its inability to religiously develop the ivhole man with all his capacities and powers, and to make the entire fulness of the gospel contribute to this end; — its strong side, on the other hand, is its inicardness, and even this is unsound, because it is penetrated with the idea of a special covenant with the Lord. The peculiarity of their loorsliip also contributed towards exciting pious feeling, including pleasant sacred music, affecting melodies, rich liturgical service, love-feasts (agapge, with tea, rusk, and the singing of chorals), yee^M>as/it/i//, and th.Q fraternal kiss at the communion, etc. The daily watch-words (from the 0. T.) and doctrinal texts (from the N. T.) are designed to control and direct the feelings and meditations of each day, and are regarded as being a kind of oracle both for the congregation and for private life. Already in 1734 the society pos- sessed a hymn-book of its own, with 972 hymns. The most of these hymns proceeded from the society itself, and are a faithful copy of its condition at that time. It contained, besides, the Bohemian and Mo- ravian hymns translated by M. Weiss, and also many old choice hymns of the evangelical church ; the latter, however, were most miserably mutilated and abbreviated. By degrees (to 1749) twelve appendices and four additions were made to it, so that the number of hymns in- creased to 2357. The one-sidedness of the emotional tendency dege- nerated, especially in these additions, and most of all in the twelfth, to the most offensive caricature, in the insipid, and more than childish trifling with the blood and wounds of Christ, etc. Zinzendorf himself discovered this degeneracy in time, struck off the twelve appendices in 1751, and prepared in London a new revised hymn-book (the so-called London hymn-book). Under Spangenberg's superintendence of the society. Christian Gregor (at that time music-director, later Bishop, oh. 1801) undertook the publication of the hymn-book yet in use. With- out possessing poetical talent, he yet did good service by retouching and abbreviating the hymns then in use. He retained 542 of Zinzen- THE ]M0RAVIANS. 26* dorf s hymns, and added not less than 308 of his own pious rhymes This " Neue Gesangbuch der Bi'udergemeinen" appeared in 1778 ; in 1784, a book of chorals, likewise prepared by Gregor, was added to it. Zinzendorf is the chief religious poet of the society. The count's only, early deceased (1752) son. Christian Rcnatus (commonly called Chris tel) bequeathed to the society a number of hymns (among which is " Die wir uns allhier beisamen finden"). The other numerous reli- gious poets are of no importance. Worthy of special mention is Span- genberg's hymn : " Heil'ge Einfalt ! Gnadenwunder ! "• -The Melodies were of the Hallean type, but strayed even more than these into the sentimental, emotional, and unchurchly, until in 1784 Gregor, by his new choral-book, brought this tendency within the limits of the renewed spirit of the society. The Chriatian Practical Life of the society, after it had come out of its sifting period, purified through Spangenberg's efforts, manifested itself in " an almost monkish contraction of civil and social life," with stereotyped phrases and peculiar usages, even as to clothing (the caps of the wives, widows, and maidens). Characteristic of the society is further the blessed, quietistic feeling of favor in personal communion with the Saviour, the peace, which avoided all conflict and controversy, the prudent, measured cutting-out of the whole life, etc. The separa- tism, conditioned by the special covenant, gave for a time an apparent justification to the unbelief that reigned in the Protestant Church. Since the revival of Christian life in the Church, this separatism has also, at least in its external relations, receded into the background, but has not by any means entirely disappeared. The society still re- gards itself as being the preferred and favored people of the Lord. FinaHy, with regard to the Form of Church Government, Christ him- self is the chief elder of the Church, who governs it by means of the lot. The leaders of the society at least hold fast to the use of the lot, in spite of the opposition which has arisen in the society within several decades. With it the special covenant would lose all significance, and the existence of the society outside of the Church all justification. The lot is used in marriages, in filling ecclesiastical offices, in sending forth missionaries, in receiving into the society, etc. Nevertheless, the so- ciety has permitted a relaxation of the practice in marriages, inasmuch as it is only used with consent of the candidates of matrimony, and the result is not regarded as binding, which, in fact, involves a contradic- tion and an abandonment of the principle. The administration of the affairs of the society resides in the Unity-elders' conference (with three departments, one for ecclesiastical and educational affairs, another for economical affairs, and a third for missions). From time to time Gene- ral Synods are also convoked, possessing legislative authority. The society is divided into separate bands, the married, the widowed, the unmarried brethren, the maidens and children, with special stewards, living for the most part also in separate houses, and holding special IT. —23 266 SECTION I]T. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). religious services in addition to those that are general. The ecclesias- tical officers are divided into bishops, prp^bytei's, deacons, deaconesses, and acolytes. 6. Heathen Missions. (Cf. D. Cranz, Hist. v. Gronl. Barby, 1762, 2 Thle. — G. A. Oldendorp, Gesch. d. Miss. d. ev. Br. auf den Caraib, Inseln. Barby, 1777, 2 Bde.— G. H. Loskiel, Gesch. d. Miss. d. ev. Br. unter d. Indianern in Nordamerika, Barby, 1789. — F. L. Kolbing, Gesch. d. Miss, in Gronl. u. Labrador. Gnadau, 1831, 2 Bde.) — ZeaJ for missions vras early kindled in Zinzendorf 's heart by meeting with a West Indian negro at Copenhagen. lie laid the subject before his young society, and already in 1732 the first Moravian missionaries, Leonk. Dober and Dav. Nitschmann, were sent to St. Thomas ; and in the next following years the missions of the society were extended in every direction over Greenland (g 46, 7), North America, almost all the AVest India islands, South America, Kapland (among the Hotten- tots), East India, Labrador (among the Esquimaux), etc. The mis- sionary labors of the Moravians constitute the most beneficent and honorable portion of their history. Their mode of missionary opera- tions was chiefly adapted to uncivilized nations, and onli/ to such. In East India ex. gr. they were not able to accomplish anything. The society did not lack self-sacrificing missionaries, of whom nothing was demanded Itut love to the Saviour and devotion to their calling. They were for the most part pious, enlightened mechanics, who brought practical adaptedness to their new calling, which was of great im- portance, simply preached the cross, 'and cared for the bodily and spiritual welfare of those committed to them, with maternal solicitude. The Moravian guardianship of souls is here transfigured into a real patriarchal relationship. The brightest example of such a missionary patriarch was Dav. Zeisberger, who labored for 63 years {ob. 1808) among the North American Indians. In contrast with the enormous expenditure of money by Protestant missions, it is to be remarked with honor, that the Moravian missions were able to accomplish the greatest results with the least pecuniary means. g 48. THE REFORMED CHURCH AND METHODISM. What Pietism and Moravianism was to the Lutheran Church, that Metholism was to the Reformed Church of England, from which it proceeded almost at the same time. In the Dutch and German Reformed Churches, Goccejanism (§ 40, 3), which was still in favor in the first decades of the 18th century, made its influence felt. After that the rigidly Calvinistic system had been coftened by it, the antithesis between Calvinistic orthodoxy and Arminian heterodoxy lost its sharpness, and Arminian tenden- cies were felt more and more in Reformed theology. The sharp- REFORMED CHURCH AND METHODISM. 267 ness of the antithesis between Calvinism and Lutheranism was also moderated on both sides, although the Uyiion movements, made from time to time, failed on account of Lutheran oppo- sition. 1. MeOiodism. (Cf. /. Hampson, Life of J Wesley, 2 vols. — /. Rob. Southey, Life of J. Wesley, 2 vols. — H. Moore, the Life of the Rev. J. AVesley. Lond. 1824, 2 vols.— /i*. Watson, Life of J. Wesley.— (?. Whit- field's Leben, nach. d. Engl, herausg. v. A. Tholvck. L\)7.. 183-4. Lebea J. Fletcher's mit vorw. v. A. Tholuck. Lpz. 1838. — /. H. Burk- hard, Vollst. Gesch. d. Methodisten. Nlirub. 1795, 2 Bde.— T/t. Jack- son, Hist, of the Rise and Progress of Methodism. — J. Taylor, Wesley and Methodism. Lond. 1851. — S. L. Jacoby, Handb. d. Methodism, 2 A. Brem. 1855.—/. W. Batim, d. Methodismus. Zurich, 1838.)— The living power of the gospel was paralyzed in the English episcopal Church by the formalism of scholastic learning, and by the mechanism of a style of worship rich in forms. A reaction was produced by John Wesley, a young man of deep religious earnestness and glowing zeal to save souls. AVhile pursuing his studies at Oxford, he fomied a society with several friends, the object of which was to promote pious living and labors (1729). These united friends were now already called, in ridicule, Methodists, because they were charged, not unjustly, with practising piety in a methodical way. AVesley, by friendly intercourse with several Moravians, grew in Christian experience and in living faith. In 1732, he found a worthy co-laborer in George Whitfield, a young man, possessing like zeal with Wesley for his own salvation as well as f(jr that of his fellow-men, and still greater talents. Both now labored with ceaseless activity to awaken and quicken the religious life of the people, not only in England, but ako in America. After his return from America (1738), Wesley organized a comprehensive religious union, which, under the direction of a conference, sent local and travelling preachers into all the world. The Methodists did not desire to separate from the Episcopal Church ; they rather wished to work in it as a spiritual leaven. Whitfield also returned to England in 1739. Both preached now powerfully and unceasingly, for the most part in the open air, often in the presence of 20,000 to 30,000 hearers, and were subjected to much insult and ridicule; but also called many hardened sinners, mostly from the lower classes, to repentance and faith. (Whitfield alone preached about 18,000 sermons in 34 years). The most distinguished of their co-laborers is John Fletcher {ob. 1785). Wesley founded a seminary at Kingswood to educate IMethodist preachers. The connection with the Moravians was soon broken up, because the Methodist mode of salvation was directed (in glaring con- trast with the quiet and emotional mode of the Moravians) towards an arousing of the secure sinner by all the terrors of the law and all the horrors of hell, as also towards producing a conflict of repentance w'th 268 SECTION III.— THIRD PERIOD (CENT. ISA. D.). a final violent conversion. But an irreconcilable rupture took place already (1741) among the leaders, concerning the Calvinistic doctrines of predestination, which caused a separation of the Methodists into Arminian Wesleyans and Calvinistic Whiffieldians, the former being the most numerous. Whitfield died in 1770, Wesley in 1791. The Methodists were, in various ways, in spite of all their extravagances, a wholesome salt for the Protestant Church of England and America, and remained such during the entire period of reigning unbelief down to the present time; when, however, their one-sidedness, over against the newly awakened life of the Church, ran frequently into the most extreme and glaring perversity. (Cf. I 55, 12.) Methodism also in- herited from its founder a zeal for missions as a Christian duty, and has labored to promote them with wonderful energy, perseverance, and self-sacrifice. 2. The Endeavors after Union. — The Brandenburg dynasty made constant eSbrt (| 34, 2) to prepare the way for a union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches of the country. Frederick I. (III.) established in 1703 a Collegium caritativum to this end under the presidency of , the Reformed court-preacher Ursinus, in which the Reformed Church was also represented by Jablonsky, formerly Moravian bishop, and the Lutheran by cathedral-preacher Winkler of Magdeburg and the provost LUtkens of Cologne on the Spree. Spener, who did not wish a forced, but a spontaneous union, i-efused to participate in the movement; Lut- kens withdrew displeased after a few sessions ; and when Winkler pub- lished a plan of union (Arcanum regium), which surrendered the Lutheran Church into the hands of the Reformed king, there arose so great a storm against the project ( Val. E. Loscher of Dresden also op- posed it), that it had to be abandoned. But already in the following year the king took the plan up again, but in another form, namely: Jablonsky, with a commission from the king, entered upon negotiations with England concerning the introduction of the Anglican form of Church government into Prussia, in order to build a bridge by it for the union with the Lutheran Church. But this plan failed also (cf. Darleg. der im vor. Jahrh. wegen Einf. d. engl. K. Verf. in Pr. gepflog. unterhh. Lpz. 1842). — Equally fruitless were the union efibrts which were made by the Chancellor Chr. Matth. Ffuff of Tubingen (Nubes testium pro moderato et pacifico de reb. theol. judicio, etc. Genev., 1719, 4to.), and by Prof. /. Alf. Turretin of Geneva, Cyprian of Gotha (Abgedrung. Unterr. von kirchl. Verein d. Prot. Frkf. 1722), and even Weissmann of Tubingen and Mosheim of Helmstedt opposed them. But several decades later even a Lutheran theologian, Christopher Aug Heumann of Gcittingen, undertook to prove "that the doctrine of the Reformed Church on the Lord's Supper was the correct one." The treatise was published after his death (Gottg. 1764), and there was na Loscher or Cyprian living to refute it. 3. Theological Literature. — Arminian theology can point to the bril- NEW SECTS AND FANATIv^S. 269 liaat names (f John Chriais [ob. 1736), (biblical criticism, hermeneu- tics, exegesis, Church History) and John Jacob Wetstein. The latter was deacon at Basle, but was deposed (1730) on account of heterodox views, and {ob. 1754) as Prof, of the Remonstrant gymnasium at Am- sterdam. His critical edition of the N. T. (Amsterdam, 1751, 2 Bde., fol.) gained for him imperishable renown. Alb. Schultens of Leyden [ob. 1750) extended the science of philologj'^ by the comparison of kindred dialects, especially of the Arabic. He also wrote commentaries on Job and the Proverbs. Of the Coccejanian interpreters of the Scrip- tures are to be named Fr. Ad. Lampe of Bremen [ob. 1729), (Ev. Joh. 3 Bde., 4to. ; Geheimnisz d. Gnadenbundes, 6 Bde., etc.) and /. Mark of Leyden [ob. 1731), (kl. Proph.) Hadr. Rcland of Utrecht [ob. 1718) contributed much of importance to biblical antiquity (Palestina ex vett. monum. illustr., Antiquitt. ss.) Prominent among the anti-deistic apologists are the Englishmen J. Iceland (ob. 1766) and Th. Stackhouse (o6.1752), (Biblical History), and the Frenchman Jak. Saurin (o6.1720), (Biblical History) ; — among the systematic theologians, /. F. Stapper of Berne {ob. 1775) (Institutt. theol. polem., 5 vols.; Grundlegung d. wahr. Rel., 12 vols. ; Sittenlehre, 6 vols.) ; and Dan. Wittenbach of Marburg {ob. 1779) (Theol. elenchthicge initia ; Tentamen theolog. dogm., with the application of the Wolfian method) ; among the Church historians, J. Alf. Turretin of Geneva {ob. 1737) and Hcrm. Venema of Franeker {ob. 1787.) — Finally, mention is yet to be made of an un- paralleled phenomenon in the Reformed Church, namely, a mystic, and that one of the noblest and most pious that ever lived : GerJi. Ter- steegen, ribbon-weaver at Miihlheiui on the Ruhr {ob. 1769), (he was not able to complete his preparation for a learned calling). He is also distinguished as a sacred poet (" Gott ist gegenwartig"). He was a patriarchal hermit, to whom anxious souls came from far and near to receive spiritual counsel, comfort, and refreshment ; and he was withal a child in humility and simplicity. Without being a separatist, he regarded the Church with indifference and neglect. The most popular of his numerous writings are : Geistl. BlumengUrtlein, Geistl. Brosa- men, Harfenspiel d. Kinder Zions, Der Frommen Lotterie. Geistl. Briefe, Weg d. Wahsh., Lebensbeschr. heiliger Seelen (R. Csth. mys- tics), 3 Bde., 4to. (Cf. K. Barthel, G. Terst's Leben, in the Bielefel- der Sonntagsbibl. V. 6.) (Cf. § 50.) § 49. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. The same phenomenon, which appeared everywhere in the 16th century, viz., the Reformation having attached to it, as a carica- ture, fanatics and ultraists of all kinds, — repeated itself in the religious agitations which Pietism caused in the beginning of the 18th century. Even as Pietism gathered believers and tho 23 ♦ 270 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). awakened into small bands, which as ecclesiolae in ecclesia were to be centres of life in the dead mass and alarm-voices for the sleeping ; so also through the same excitant, a host of Sepa- ratists were produced,^ who denounced the Church as Babel, her means of grace as impure, and her preaching empty and hypo- critical babbling. They derived their spiritual nourishment from the writings of Bohme, Gichtel, Guyon, Poiret, and other theo- sophists. Their most important rendezvous was Wetteraw, where the princely house of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg afforded a refuge for all exiled Pietists. Count Casimir formed liis court and civil officers out of these, although he belonged to the Na- tional Reformed Church. Nevertheless, there was scarcely a section in Protestant Germany, in Switzerland, and in the Ne- therlands, where kindred phenomena did not appear. In Swe- denborgiams7n, a new phenomenon appeared, independently of the pietistic movement. The Baptista and Quakers, among the older fanatical sects, furnished new off-shoots ; while on the other side Dort orthodoxy also ran, in some of its forms, into secta- rianism. 1. Fanatics and Separatists in Germany. (Cf. Max. Gobel, Gesch. d. chr. Lebens in d. rhein. westph. K. Bd. II. Kobl. 1852.— i^. W. Bar- thold, d. Erweckten ira prot. Deutschl., bes. d. frommen Grafenhbfe ; in Raumer's hist. Taschenb. 1852-53. — F. W. Winkel, Aus. d. Leb. Casimir's, Gr. v. Sayn Wittgenst. Frkf. 1842. — The same, Casimir u. d. rel. Leb. sr. Zeit. In the Sonntagsbibl. IV. 1. Bielef. 1851). — Rosa- mond Juliana von Assehnrg, a young lady generally esteemed on ac- count of her piety, in the neighborhood of Magdeburg, declared that from her seventh year she had received visions and revehxtions, chiefly concerning the millennium. She found in Dr. John Wilh. Petersen, superintendent at Luneburg, a zealous adherent, who, especially after his marriage with Joh. Elenore v. Merlau, also pretended to have re- ceived divine revehitions, promulgated by speaking and writing the most fantastic Chiliasm in connection with the heresy of the restora- tion of all things. He was deposed from his office in 1692, and died in 1727. Henry Horch, Prof, of theology at Herborn, and author of the mystic and prophetic Bible (Marb. 1712, 4to.), was a similar pheno- menon in the Pieformed Church. The most prominent among the itinerant apostles of a fanatical separatism are, the preacher Tuchfeldt of Magdeburg, the wig-maker John Tennhardt (as chancery-clerk of the heavenly majesty), the spur-maker Eosenbach, and the journeyman Ernst Christoph. Hochmann. The latter, a man of imposing appear- ance and captivating eloquence, labored for a long time at Miihlheim on the Ruhr, and was also highly esteemed by Tersteegen. Having NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 271 been expelled from here, he found a last refuge at Schwarzenau in Berleburg. In WUrtemberg the pious court-preacher Hedinyer of Stutgard [ob. 1703) Avas the father of Pietism and Separatism (cf. his life by A. Knapp, in the Christoterpe). The most important of his adherents were the learned preacher Eherh. Ludio. Gruber and the saddler John Frederick Rock. Being banished from WUrtemberg, they emigrated to Wetteraw, the former following the occupation of a farmer, the latter that of court-saddler (1706). Here they and a multitude of other separatists, for whom the Wittgenstein count had provided a re- fuge, lived several years as anchorites, restricted to self-communion and to communion Avith this or that brother in prayer, without bap- tism, the Lord's Supper, and public worship. Count Casimir's court in particular was the rendezvous of saints from all nations. The most important of these were the count's physician in ordinary, Dr. Carl, the French mystic Marsay, the exile from Strasburg John Frederick Uauy, learned in oriental languages, and later Dippel. Out of this circle proceeded a multitude of mystic, separatistic writings, especially the Berleburg Bible (7 vols. fol. 1720-42), of which Bang was the chief author. It renews interpretation according to the threefold sense, violently combats the orthodox doctrine of justification, confes- sional books, the clergy, the dead church, and contains many deep glimpses and profound observations, but also many trivialities and monstrosities. Its mysticism lacks originality, and is compiled from the theosophic writings of all centuries, from Origen to modern times. (Cf. F. W. Winkel, in d. bonner Monatsschr. 1851, I.) 2. The Inspiration- Cony regations in Wetteraio. (Cf. M. Gobel, Gesch. d. wahr. Insp. Gemd. ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1854, II. III., 1855, I. III.) — Several of the chief Sevenna-prophets fled to England (1705) after the unfortunate issue of the Camisardian war. At first they met with much sympathy, but were afterwards excommunicated and placed in the pillory. They now went to the Netherlands, and wandered thence through Germany. They awakened at Ilalle the gift of inspi- ration, among others in three students, the brothers Pott, and these were the persons who transferred it to AVetteraw (1714). The chiefs of the Separatists there, Gruber and Rock, at first stoutly opposed the Inspiration-phenomenon, but they also were overpowered, and soon became the most powerful of the " instruments". Prayer associations were now formed, grand love-feasts were held, and an ecclesia ambu- latoria was established by itinerant brethren, who carried spiritual nourishment to the scattered quiet ones in the country, and the children of the prophets were gathered from all lands. The utterances, which took place in an ecstatic state, were exhortations tc repentance, to prayer, to imitation of Christ, revelations of the divine will in regard to the affairs of the society, and announcement of the approaching judgment of God over the degenerate world and church, although without fanatical, sensual Chiliasm. Apart from contempt for the 272 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (c £ N T. 18 A. D.) . sacraments, the doctrines of the church were not essentially perverted. Nevertlieless, already in 1715 a division toolc place between those whc were tndij, and those who, by their unbridled and impure utterances, were regarded as falsely inspired. Those who were truly inspired formed a church organization, and excluded from it all who would not submit to its discipline (1716). Hereby they lost many " instruments", and those who proved themselves to be genuine also gradually grew dumb. Only Rock possessed the gift of inspiration after 1719, and he continued to claim it to his death (1749). Gruber died in 1728, and with him a pillar of the societies fell. Rock was now the only support. A new epoch of their history begins with their contact with Mora- vianism. Zinzendorf formed a connection with them in 1730 through a deputation, and then he personally visited them in Berleburg. Rock's deep Christian character made a powerful impression on him. It is true, he was oifended at his contempt for baptism and the Lord's Supper, and at the convulsive form of his utterances ; but this did not withhold him from yielding to the high spirit of this powerful man, from pressing his companionship upon him, and from inviting him, the notorious blasphemer of baptism, to the sponsorship of his new- born daughter. In 1732 Rock visited Herrnhut. He took sides, in an utterance, with the fraternity against the Lutheran clergyman Rofhe of Berthelsdorf, and departed after a love-feast, at which their souls flowed together in a renewed eternal brotherhood. But Zinzendorf had only the interests of his society in view ; his crooked and ambi- guous relation to those professing to be inspired drove him to many inconsistencies, which offended Rock's straightforward and open dis- position, and estranged him. The establishment of a flourishing Mo- ravian congregation in Wetteraw, which was chiefly composed of pro- selytes, completed the rupture. Rock denounced the " Hutberger" aa Babel-cobblers. Zinzendorf, on the other hand, condemned him as a false prophet. When the Moravians were driven from Wetteraw in 1750 (I 47, 5), the inspired ones took possession of their property and splendid buildings. With Rock's death, however, the spirit of pro- phecy ceased entirely. The societies declined more and more from that time, both internally and externally, until the revival of religious life in the I9th century, when they also were revived. "Instruments" ao-ain made their appearance, and those who were awakened by them were newly organized. The refusal of governments to tolerate them, however, compelled the greater part of them to emigrate to America. 3. John Conrad Dippel, theologian, physician, and alchymist, disco- verer of Prussian-blue and of the Oleum Dippelii, occupied a peculiar position among the Separatists of this period. He was at first an or- thodox opponent of Pietism, then aroused by Gottfr. Arnold he became a champion of Pietism, and advanced to Separatism. Since 1697 he appeared under the name Christlanus Democritus (orthodoxia ortho- doxorura, oder die verkehrte Wahrh. u. d. wahrh. Liigen d. s. g. Lu- NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 27S theraner; Papismus Protestantium vapulans od. d. gestaupte Papstth. an d. blinden Verfechtern blindcn Menschensatz. ; Fatum fatuum, i. e, foolish necessity, etc.) in a mocking spirit as the opponent of all ex- ternally orthodox Christianity, mixing mysticism and rationalism in a remarkable manner, and yet not without Christian depth and expe- rience. Persecuted, banished, and imprisoned everj-where, he roamed over Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden, and finally found a permanent refuge at the court of Casimir in Berleburg (1729- 34). Here he came into contact with the inspired ones, who oifered everj'thing to gain him ; but he declared that he would rather submit to the devil than to the Spirit of God. He was most intimately asso- ciated with Zinzendorf for a time, but later he also assailed him with the bitterest sarcasm. He died in 1734, at the castle of Wittgenstein. His writings are collected under the title : Erijffneter Weg zum Frieden mit Gott und aller Creaturen. Berleb. 1747, 3 Bde. 4to. (Cf. W. Klose in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1851, III. and K. Buchner in Kaumer's histor. Taschenbuch, 1857.) 4. Hypocritical and ^Criminal Separatistic Sects. — Whilst the Sepa- ratists and the inspii'ed ones of this period preserved their moral life pure in general, some of their societies degenerated into the most scan- dalous debauchery. The most shameless of all was the Buttlar Sect, founded by Eva von Buttlar, at AUendorf in Hessia, 1702. Having been expelled from here within 6 weeks, the sect carried on its criminal proceedings at many other places, whither it emigrated. JEva was honored as the door of Paradise, as the New Jerusalem, as the Mother of us all, as the Sophia come down from heaven, the new Eve and the incarnation of the Holy Spirit. God the Father was incarnate in the candidate Winter, and God the Son in her youthful paramour Appen- feller. Marriage was declared to be sinful ; sensual lust must be put to death in spiritual communion, then carnal communion is also holy. Eva lived in the most shameful harlotry with all the men of the sect ; likewise the other women belonging to it, in whom the ovary had been crushed in Satanic foresight. At Sasmannshausen in Wittgenstein, Avhere their secret worship had been watched, they were threatened with punishment, but escaped. In Cologne they connected themselves with the Roman Catholic Church. At Llide, near Pyrmont, their criminal madness reached its highest point. Winter was condemned to death, but had his punishment commuted to scourging (1706). Eva escaped the same punishment by flight, and carried on her scandalous conduct for some years longer, but with more prudence. (Cf. E. F. Keller, in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1845, IV. and M. Gubel, Gesch. d. chr. Lebens II. 778 ff.). — Of a similar character was the Bordelum Sect, founded by the licentiate David Bar, at Bordelum near Flensburg, about 1739, and the Br'dggeler Sect at Briiggelu, in the canton of Berne, where the two brothers Kohler announced themselves to be the two witnesses mentioned in Rev. ii. (1748). — The sect of the Zionites at Rons- S 274 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 1 8 A. D.). dorf in the duchy of Berg also belongs here. Elias Eller, overseer of a manufactory at Elberfield, being religiously excited by reading all kinds of myotic and theological writings, married in 1725 an elderly, rich widow ; but he soon found greater pleasure in a pretty young maiden, Anna von Buchel, whom he drove into prophetic ecstasy by fiinatical excitement. She prophesied the approaching dawn of the millennium. Eller appointed her the mother of Zion (Rev. 12 : 1 if.) and himself father of Zion, while he assigned his wife the part of the whore of Babylon. When the latter had been tormented to death by jealousy and confinement, he married Buchel, and founded, with his adherents, Ronsdorf (1737), as the new Zion. The colony obtained the privileges of a town, and Eller became burgomaster. When Anna died (1744), Eller gave to the faithful a new mother of Zion, and be- came more insane in his deception and tyranny. At length, after long infatuation, the eyes of the Reformed preacher Schleiermacher (the grandfather of the celebrated Frederick Daniel S.) were opened. He escaped, by flight to the Netherlands, the fate of another apostle, who, at Eller's instigation, had been condemned to lieath as a sorcerer at Dusseldorf. Eller was able to ward off every complaint against him- self by bribery at the court. The sect was led for a time after his death (1750) by his step-son. (Of. F. W. Krntj, krit. Gesch. d. Schwarmerei in Groszherzogth. Berg. Elbf. 1851, p. G4, ff.) 5. Swedenhorgianism. (Cf. /. A. Muhlei-, li. d. Lehre Sw.'s ; in the tubg. Quartalschr. 1830, IV. — /. G. Vaihinger, d. Swedenhorgianism, nebst d. Katech. d. neuen K. Tlibg. 1843.— C. F. Nanz, E. Sw. d. nord. Seher. Schw. Hall. 2. Q. 1850.— 7»m. Tafel, Samml. v. Urkunden et Tlibg. 1839, ff. 3 Abth. — The same, A''ergleich. Darstell. d. Lehrgegens. d. Kath. u. Prot., zugleich Darstell. d. Unterscheidungslehre Sw.'s. Tlibg. 1835.) — Immanuel von Swedenhorg, son of the Lutheran bishop of West Gothland, Jesper Sicedberg (cf. Rudelbach's chr. Biogr. I. 293, ff.), and councillor in the Bergwerks college at Stockholm, was a man of comprehensive learning in the natural sciences, and of specu- lative talents. After long investigation into the mysteries of nature, he fell into magnetic ecstatic states, in which, sometimes transported to heaven, sometimes to hell, he had intercourse with spirits. In 1743 he came to the conviction that he was called by such revelations to re- form degenerate Christianity to a Church of the New Jerusalem as the completion of all churchdom. The apocalyptic revelations, which he imagined he received, he designated as a new gospel. After his death (1772) his writings were collected and published by his disciples; and in 1788 they formed themselves into congregations in Sweden and England. The new church began in the 19th century to spread in a threatening manner. In addition to Sweden, England, and North America, it also has many warm and zealous adherents in Germany, chiefly in Wiirtemberg. Here already since 1765 the prelate Oetinger sailed attention to Swedenborg's revelations, and took up many of their NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 275 elements into his own profound theosophy. Lately the procurator Ludw. Hofacker, and especially the librarian Tafel, have been active in propagating the, new church, partly by their own writings, J,nd partly by publishing and translating Swedenborg's works. A general conference of the church in Great Britain and Ireland published a confession of faith and a cateohism in 1828. Swedenborg's religious system was a speculative mysticism with a physical foundation and rationalizing tendency. For him the object of religion is the opening of an intimate correspondence between the spirit and human world, and the penetrating into the mysteries of connection between both. The Bible (although with the exclusion of the Apostolic Epistles as mere explanatory treatises), above all the Apocalypse, was the word of God for him, although he despised the letter, and only acknowledged the validity of the spirit or inner sense. There is not one of the fun- damental orthodox doctrines which he either did not reject or ration- alize. He rejected the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity in the strongest terms. According to him, God is only one person, and this one God- head is Christ, who manifests himself in a three-fold form : the Father is the principle of the manifesting God, the Son the form, the Spirit the activity of the manifested God. The design of the manifestation of Christ is the union of the human and divine; redemption is nothing more than the fighting with and overcoming hellish spirits. Angels and devils are the spirits of departed men, either in a state of bliss or of despair. There is no resurrection of the dead, but the spiritual form of the body continues to exist after death. The second coming of Christ is not to be personal and visible, but spiritual by means of the revelatitm of the spiritual sense of the Scriptures, whereby the church of the New Jerusalem is founded. 0. New Baptistic Sects. — In 1708 there were also Anabaptists ( 7'un- kers) in Wetteraw, but, finding little sympathy and much difficulty in the way of their progress here, they for the most part emigrated in 1714 to North America, and founded several colonies here (German- town and Ephrata), wliich yet number about 40,000 souls. From the Baptists, who emigrated from England, proceeded the Christians (now about 300,000 souls), who, rejecting every Christian party-name (almost like 1 Cor. 1 : 12), also reduced the Christian faith to a minimum. The Baptists, since the middle of the 18th century, also emigrated to Scot- land, where the brothers Haldane founded the baptistic sect of the Haldanites ("Apostolic Church"), who likewise distinguished them- selves by great indifference towards doctrines and the ministry,' but also by great energy in practical life. 7. New Quaker Sects. — 'Yhe Jumpers, who appeared in Cornwallis about 1760, were in principle at least related to the Quakers. Appeal- ing to David's dancing before the ark of the covenant, they professed to give evidence of l>eing possessed by the Spirit by convulsive leaping and dancing, connected with a kind of barking (whence they are also 276 SECTION Til. — THIRD PERIOD (^C E N T. 18 A.D.^. called Barkers). The sect emigrated to North America, where there still are some adherents. A somewhat similar sect are the Shakers. Its founder Avas Anna Lee [oh. 1782). She professed to be the bride of the Lamb, but died without giving birth to the promised Messiah. Nevertheless, this sect exists to the present day in several villages on the Hudson river. Its adherents live in celibacy and community of goods. They derive their name from the manner in which they move their bodies at their meetings, which often extends to exhaustive dancing and jumping, which is regarded as a symbol partly of trem- bling at the anger of God, partly of joy on account of salvation through Christ. 8. In contrast with the general apostacy from the rigid orthodoxy of Dort in the Netherlands, was the increase of the sect of the Hebrews, which traced its origin (about 1730) to a certain Mirgam Vos and a licentiate Verschooren, and run the doctrine of predestination to the affirmation, that an elect person could not sin, but a non-elect one could only sin. They derived their name from the circumstance, that they declared it to be the indispensable duty of all true Christians to read the word of God in the original languages. Another sect, that of the Hattemists, adherents of the Dutch preacher Pontiaan van Hattem, who was deposed in 1740, are said to have drawn from the doctrine of predestination the conclusion, that sin, because it was predestined by God, was only sin in the imagination of men, and that Christ delivered men from this imagination (Acta ecclst. Weim. IV. 1060 ff.) §50. THE THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF ILLUMINATION. Cf. L. Noack, die Freidenker in d. Relig. Bd. III. Die Deutsche Auf klUning. Berne, 1855. — F. BiaUohlotzkij and F. Sander, das Auf kom- men u. Sinken d. Rationalism, in Deutschl. ; nach d. Engl. d. E. B. Pusey bearb. Elbf. 1829. — Chr. G. Ficker, krit. Gesch. d. Rationalism, in Deutschl. ; nach d. Franz, d. Amand Saintes bearb. Lpz. 1847. — K. F. A. Kahnis, d. innere Gang d. deutsch. Protestsm. seit der Mitte d. vor Jahrh. Lpz. 1854. — A. Tholuck, Abrisz e. Gesch. d. Umwtllz., die s. 1750, auf. d. Gebiete d. Theol. in Deutschl. stattgef. ; in his miscel- laneous works Bd. II. Ilamb. 1839. — /. A. H. Tittmann, pragm. Gesch. d. Theol. u. Rel. in d. prot. K. seit 1750. Lpz. 1824.— A'. F. Stdudlin, Gesch. d. Rationalism, u. Supranaturalism. Giittg. 1826. Since the middle of this century, English deistic unbelief having already outlived itself, illumination under the name of Rationalism crept into the Protestant theology of the continent, especially of German}/. There proceeded, it is true, out of the agitation of the pietistic controversies, a theology (§ 46) which, overcoming as well the rigid objectivism of orthodoxy as the THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 277 weak subjectivism of Pietism, saving;, however, from the former a firm basis and wholesome moderation, from the latter religious inwardness and freedom, was in itself able and worthy to inherit and control the future of the church. But this inheritance, to the possession of which it seemed to be called, was taken from it by the theology of illumination. It was yet too immature and unfinished, its representatives and champions were too few and scattered, to be able to resist successfully as a solid phalanx the storm of illumination. The storm came from abroad, but it was invested with the mighty power of the spirit of the age, and it found a dissolution and agitation going on within, which brought sympathies and allies to it from all sides, and promoted the transition of the one extreme into the other. Arminian Pela- gianism, possessing brilliant learning (Clericus, Wetstein), Eng- lish Deism, circulated by translations and refutations, and French Naturalism, introduced by a great and generally admired king, were the assailing powers from without. The Free-Mason Lodges also, which had been transplanted to Germany from England in 1733, mightily opposed illumination in their endeavor to realize a moral, practical, universal religion. Within it was especially the Wolfian philosophy, popular philosophy, and Pietism, with its step-brother Separatism, which directly made the ground productive for the growth of Rationalism. Ortho- doxisra, on account of the secondary effects, which survived it, can also be reckoned among the accessories. German Rational- ism, however, is essentially different from Deism and Naturalism in this, that it does not, like these, altogether reject the Bible and the Church, but, rather adhering to both, supposes that it has presented their unperishable substance in its rational religion, purified from accommodation and the ideas of the age ; and it has, therefore, retained the Bible as an indispensable record of religion, and the Church as a wholesome institution of religion. Nevertheless, Rationalism, during the whole period of its domi- nion, was opposed by a Supranaturalism, that held fast to re- vealed religion. It was a dilution of the old faith of the Church, effected by the water of illumination. The reaction which it caused was consequently from the beginning weak and feeble. The power of the vulgar Rationalism of that day, meanwhile, lay not in itself, but in the allies which it had in the hollowness and superficiality of the spirit of the age. Because now the philosophy and especially the national literature of the Germans II.— 24 2"? SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 1 S A. D.). began to wage a successful warfare against this superficiality, they in a certain degree obtained the significance of a school- master to Christ, although they were in themselves for the most part indifferent, even hostile to Christianity. 1. The English Deists. (Cf. § 43, 2.) — Deism entered upon a new- stage of its development with Lockers Philosophy [I 43, 1). It was henceforth the basis of its reasoning. The most important Deists of this period are : John Toland, an Irishman, first a Roman Catholic, then Arminian [oh. 1722), (Christianity not mysterious ; Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, etc.) ; the Earl of Shaftesbury [oh. 1713), (Characteristics of men, manners, opinions, times) ; Anlhony Collins, justice of the peace in the county of Essex, and as such highly esteemed [oh. 1729), (Priestcraft in perfection, or a detection of the fraud, etc., A discourse of free-thinking, et al.) ; Tho- mas Woolston, fellow of Cambridge [oh. 1733, in prison), (A discourse on the miracles of our Saviour) ; Bernh. v. Mandeville from Dort, phy- sician in London [oh. 1733), (Free thoughts on Religion) ; Matthew Tindal, professor of law at Oxford [oh. 1733), (Christianity as old as the Creation) ; Thomas Morgan, Nonconformist preacher, deposed as an Arian, then physician [oh. 1743), (The moral philosopher) ; Thomas Chuhh, glove-maker and tallow-chandler at Salisbury [oh. 1747), popu- larizing compiler, (The true gospel of Jesus Christ) ; Henry, Viscoimt Bolinyhroke, high civil officer, charged with high-treason and pardoned [oh. 1751), (Philosophical Avorks). — Deism never found favor among the people, and an attempt was not once made to organize a congrega- tion. The following of the numerous opponents of Deism are worthy of special mention: Thomas Sherlock, Bishop of London {oh. 1761); Edward Chandler, Bishop of Durham [oh. 1750) ; John Leland, Pres- byterian preacher in Dublin [oh. 1766) ; William Warhnrton, Bishop of Gloucester [oh. 1779) ; Nath. Lardner, Dissenter pi-eacher [oh. 1768). — The celebrated historian and skeptic, David Hume, librarian in Edin- burg (oh. 1776), may yet be added to the Deists as an opponent of posi- tive Christianity (Treatise upon human nature ; Essays, moral, political, and literary; Enquiry concerning the human understanding; Natural history of religion ; Dialogues concerning natural religion). 2. The Forerunners of German Illumination. — We have already learned to know Knutzen (| 43, 2) and Dippel [I 49, 3) as such. In their footsteps walked John Christian Edelmann, a vagabondizing licentiate of theology of Weissenfels [oh. 1767), who, since 1735, hawked about a multitude of fanatical works, written in rude and low, but powerful language, full of glowing wrath and scoffing wit against all positive Christianity. He passed from one Christian sect to another, but found in none what he sought. In 1741 he accepted an invitation from Zinzendorf who at the same time furnished him with travelling THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 279 money, and lived for a time in his family. Then he connected himself with the Berleburg Separatists ("because they recognized the abomi- nation of baptism and the Lord's Supper"), and assisted on the com- mentary, although HaiKj had to greatly change his elaborations, in order to use them. This, and his contempt for prayer, ruptured the bond of union. After that he wandered over the whole of Germany. He regarded himself as being a favorite of providence, at least as a second Luther. He pronounced Christianity to be the most irrational and absurd of all religions; Church history a conglomerate of immo- rality, lies, hypocrisy, and fanaticism ; the prophets and apostles bed- lamites ; and Christ was not even an example and teacher. The world needs only one salvation, \iz., salvation from Christianity. Providence, virtue, and immortality (the latter established by manifestation of spirits), are the only objects of religion. His writings made a great noise (Unschuldige Wahrheiten ; Bereitete Schlage auf der Narren Rucken ; Moses mit aufgedecktem Angesicht von zwei ungleichen Brlidern, Lichtlieb und Blindlieb, beschauet ; Christus and Belial, et al.), and called forth an incredible number of counter-treatises, of which Trinius mentions not less than 16G in the Freidenker lexicon. (Cf. /. H. Fraije, Hist. Nachr. v. J. Chr. Edelmann, 2. A. Hamb. 1755. Edelmann's Selbst-biographie, herausg. v. C. W. Klose. Berl. 1840, and also Ev. K. Z. 1851, No. 31, ff.) To the forerunners of illumina- tion belongs also the private tutor Lorenz Schmidt of Wertheim in Baden, a pupil of the philosopher WoJf (| 46, 2), {ob. 1749). He is the author of the notorious ''■Vertheim translatian of the Bible (First part, cimtaining the laws of the Israelites, Werth. 1735), which para- phrases the language of the Bible, and thereby eviscerates all positive Christianity. His book was confiscated by the supreme court of the empire, and he was punished with severe imprisonment. 3. llluinination in Germany since 1750. — Hostility to all positive Christianity spread from England and France also over Germany. The writings of the English Deists were translated and refuted, but mostly in so weak a manner, that the refutation accomplished the opposite of what it designed. Whilst English Deism with its apparent profound- ness found favor with the learned, the poison of frivolous French Na- turalism tainted the higher classes. Prussia's great king, Frederich II. (1740-86), who surrounded himself with French free-thinkers (Vol- taire, D'Argens. Le Mettrie, etc.), contributed largely to the spread of unbelief. He desired, that in his states every one should become happy according to his own fashion, in which desire he was also in earnest, although his personal aversion to churchly and pietistic piety often misled him to act unjustly and severely, as ex. gr. when he inflicted upon the "grumbler" Francke in Halle, who opposed the visiting of theatres by theological students, the punishment of himself visiting the theati-e, and of obtaining the attestation of the director of the tlieatrc that he had done so. Under the name of Gcrm^an 2)opular phi- 280 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). losophy [Mendelssclin, Garve, Eberhard, Plafne ; Stcinbart, etc.), which proceeded from the Wolfian philosophy emptied of its Christian con- tents, a bold, superficial, and self-sufficient reasonino; of the common human understanding gave itself airs. Basedow became the reformer of pedagogy in the sense of illumination (Philanthropia in Dessau, padagogisches Eiementarwerk), and created quite a furor for a time by the charlatan trumpeting of his contributions; although Herder declared, that he would not commit calves, to say nothing of human beings, to the training of the distinguished pedagogue. Basedow's most distinguished pupils and co-laborers were Salzmaim in Schnep- fenthal near Gothe, and Campe in Braunschweig. The '^AUgemeine deutsche Bihliofhek" (106 Bde. 1705-92), published )jy the bookseller Nicolai in Berlin, assumed the position of a literary inquisitorial tribunal against everything noble and profound, that the period was still able to produce, and branded it as superstition and Jesuitism. Illumination made itself felt in theology under the name of Rationalism. Pietistic Halle cast its skin, and in connection with Berlin stood at the head of the ilium in atory movement. Soon numerous heralds of the new light sprung up also in the other univei'sities, and rationalizing pastors arose in all sections of Germany, who only preached about a moral reformation of man ; also, it is true, on Christmas, about the advantage of feeding cattle in the stable, and on Easter about the tokens of apparent death, or about the advantages of early rising. The old liturgies \yere mutilated or supplanted, and all the superficiality and insipidity of the period were called into requisition to eliminate the old faith out of the churchly hymn-books, and to smuggle in, in the place of the old choice hymns, the weakest hymns of moral reforma- tion. Wilh. Abraham Teller, provost of Berlin, declared publicly, that he was willing to recognize the Jews as genuine Christians, on the basis of their faith in God, virtue, and immortality. K. Fri-edr. Bahrdt, after having been removed from various spiritual and academical offices on account of his immoral conduct, and proscribed by the theologians, gave the people as tavern-keeper in Ilalle the benefit of his wisdom, and died from a disgraceful disease (1792). The Prussian government, under Frederick William II., attempted in vain to secure to the church its old legal basis by the edict concerning religion of 1788, by which the severest punishment was threatened every departure in doctrine and preaching from the orthodox confessions : it accomplished nothing, with all its rigor, against the reigning spirit of the age (only owe depo- sition, that of the preacher Schulz at Gielsdorf near Berlin, an old insolent rationalist, could be carried into effect), and Frederick William III. (1797-1840) suspended the edict at his accession to the throne. 4. Transition Theology. — It was four men, especially, who, although still adhering to the faith in a divine revelation, nevertheless prepared the way for the admission of Rationalism into theology : viz., E)iiesti of Leipsi: in exegesis of tb ^ New Testament, Michaelis of Gottingen THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 281 in exegesis of the Old Testament, Semler of Ilalle in biblical and his- torical criticism, Tollner of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder in dogmatic theo- logy. John Aug. Ernesti [oh. 1781), since 1734 rector of the Thomas- school, since 1742 Prof, of the University of Leipsic, and there the rival and antipodc of his colleague Chr. Aug. Cnisms, was originally a classical philologist, and remained such also as professor of theology. His Institutio intcrpretes N. T. (1761) laid it down as a fundamental law of exegesis, that the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures was to be conducted entirely in the same manner as the interpretation of a profane author. But it holds good also with regard to classical litera- ture, that a full and complete understanding of an author can only be obtained in so far as the interpreter possesses, in addition to the neces- sary knowledge of the language, history, and age, also the same spirit in which the author thought and wrote. And because Ernesti lacked the conviction of this necessity, his biblical hermenoutics was ration- alistic, and he the father of rationalistic exegesis, strongly as he ad- hered still to the idea of inspiration as also to orthodox doctrines What Ernesti was in regard to the N. T., that John David Michaelis (son of the pious and orthodox Chr. Bened. M.), since 1750 Prof, at Gottingen [oh. 1791), became in regard to the 0. T. lie acknowledged openly, that he never perceived anything of the testimonium Sp. s. internum ; and he based his demonstration of the divinity of the Scrip- tures alone upon external evidences, such as the miracles, prophesies, authenticit}', etc., a web which unbelief tore to pieces with ease. No i)ne was a greater master than he in the art of substituting his own empty, superficial, and conceited spirit for that of the sacred authors, and then to explain it at great length. His " Mosaisches Ptecht," 6 Bde., is classic in this view. He left behind 82 works, some very volu- minous (among which are : Einl. ins N. T. ; Webers. des A. T. mifc Anm. fur Ungelehrte, 13 Bde. 4to. Orient, und exeg. Biblioth., 24 Bde. ; Einl. ins A. T., etc.) John Sal. Semler, a pupil of Baumgarten, and since 1751 Prof, at Halle {ob. 1791), was a forerunner of Ration- alism in a still greater and more comprehensive measure than Ernesti and Michaelis. Growing up under the influence of Hallean Pietism, and consequently possessing a kind of religion of habit, which he called his private religion, and of which he could never rid himself, endowed with uncommon understanding and acuteness, but without any depth of spirit, he acquired an immense mass of chaotic knowledge, and un- dermined, witliout wishing to touch Christianity, the pillars of orthodox theology, l)y arbitrarily disputing the genuineness of the biblical writ- ings ("Abhaiidlung von der freien Dnters. d. Kanons") ; by laying down a theory of inspiration and accommodation, which allowed error, mistake, and well-meant delusion In the Scriptures ; by an interpreta- tion which disposeil of everything disagreeable in the New Testament as "Jewish notions" (ex. gr. Do djemoniacis) ; by a critical treatment of church and dog'^atic history which permitted the doctrine of the 24* 2,S'2 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (^CENT. 18 A. D.). church to appear as a result of misconception, want of judgment, and violence, etc. The number of his writings amounts to 151. He sowed the wind and reaped a whirlwind, at which he himself trembled. Therefore he opposed perseveringly the appointment of Bahrdt to Halle, and earnestly combated the Wolfenbuttler Fragments, written by Reimarus, Prof, at Hamburg [ob. 1765), discovered and published (1774 and 1778) in the Wolfenbuttler library as manuscript by Lessing, which attributed the introduction of Christianity to bold deception But Semler could not resist the storm, and he died broken-hearted, just when it reached its height. (Cf. H. ScJiviid, die Theologie Seniler's. Erlg. 1858.) — Juhii Gotti. ToUner, since 1750 Prof, at FrankfUrt-on-the- Oder [ob. 1774), was by no means equal to the beforenamed in learn- ing, influence, and authority ; nevertheless, he is worthy of a place beside them, in so far as he first opened the way for the introduction of Rationalism into dogmatic theology. He also still adhered to the idea of revelation, miracle, and prophecy, but he also contributed the " proof, that God leads men to happiness already by the revelation of nature ; " the revelation of Scripture is only a more certain and perfect means thereto. He investigated further " the divine inspiration of the Scriptures," and found that the sacred authors thought and wrote without any special divine aid, and God was thereby active only '.n a way not to be more particularly defined. Finally, he investigated " the active obedience of Jesus Christ," and in doing so he gives an example of how orthodox dogmas are to be reconciled. 5. Ratinnalistic Theology. — From the schools formed by these men, especially from Semler's, went forth crowds of Rationalists, who within the last seventy yeai's occupied almost all the professors' chairs and pulpits in Protestant Germany. At their head stands Charles Fred. Bahrdt (since 1779 at Halle, ob. 1792), who, at first an author of or- thodox text-books, then sinking deeper and deeper through vanity, want of principle, and immorality, and walking in Edelmann's foot- steps, first struck the shamelessly bold key (Die neuesten Offenbarem- gen Gotts, 4 Bde. ; Briefe liber die Bebel im volkston, 5 Thle. ; Kir- chen-und Ketzeralmanach ; Selbstbragaophie, etc., altogether 102 works), which certainly the preacher Charles Venturini of Horridorf in Braunschweig [ob. 1807) was able to excel (Natlirl. Gesch. d. groszen Propli. von Nazareth, 3 Bde.) Similar to them was the orientalist /. Win. Fred. Ilezel, since 1802 Prof, at Dorpat, at the same also rum- (listilier, millwright, and inventor of building clay -walls by stamping the layers {ob. 1829), (54 works, among which : Die Bibel mit voUst. erkl. Anm., 12 Bde.) In contrast with these, however, the majority of the Rationalists endeavored to obtain a reputation for respectability in life, doctrines, and literary productions. Within the last ninety years the Kantian philosophy exerted an important and, relatively, also an ennobling influence on rationalistic theology. /. Jacob Griesbach (of Jena, 1812) contributed much of importance in the sphere of the THEOLOQV AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 283 criticism o^ the text of the New Testament. The introduction to the N. T. was prepared by Charles Alex. v. Hcinlein of Erhmgen [ob. 1829). Will. Abr. Teller of Berlin contributed a dictionary of the N. T. (5 A. 1792), which inaugurated the superficial mode of treating the ideas of the N. T. (ex. gr. sanctification, reformation, regeneration, resolution to lead a different life). Following his example, /. Benj. Koppe of Got- tinf^en [ob. 1701), (N. T. gr;x;ce e. perpet. illustr. continued by H. Heinrichs and Jul. Fott, 6 Bde.) and /. George Eosenmilller of Leipsic [ob. 1815), (Scholia in N. T., 6 Bde.), interpreted the N. T. with in- credible 8uperficiality. In the same spirit, /. Chr. Schluze of Giessen, [ob. 180(j), (Scholia in V. Y.), and Lorenz Bauer of Heidelberg [ob. 1806) (Forts, der Scholia v. Schalze, Einl. ins A. T., Theol. d. A. T., Mythol. d. A. u. N. T., Moral d. A. T., Hebr, Allerthlimer, etc.), labored in the sphere of the Old Testament. The contributions of /. Gottfr. Eichhorn of Gottingen [ob. 1827), Einl. ins A. T., 5 Bde. ; Re- pertorium fiir bibl. u. morgenl. Lit. ; Bibl. Urgesch. fortges. v. /. Ph. Gabler) and Leonh. Bertholdt of Erlangen [ob. 1822), (Einl. ins A. T., Comm. z. Daniel; Dogmengesch.), are more profound and respectable. The rationalistic stand-point was represented in Church History by H. Ph. Conrad Henke of Ilelmstedt [ob. 1807), and the Wurtemberg minis- ter of state, L. Tim. v. Spittler [ob. 1810). Rationalistic doctrines of faith and morals were spread less in learned and scientific, than in popular and practical works. Sam. Steinbart of Frankflirt-on-the-Oder [ob. 1809), wrote and defended his "System der reinen Philos. od. Gliickseligkeitslehre des Christenthums ;" and John Aug. Eberhard, Prof, of philosophy at Halle [ob. 1809), apotheosized Socrates and classic heathenism (" Neue Apologie des Socrates," 2 Bde.), in the spirit of the popular philosophy. The acute John Henry Tieflrunk, Prof, of philosophy at Halle [ob. 1837), on the other hand, introduced Kantian philosophy with its rigid categories into theology (Einzig moglicher Zweck Jesu ; Censur d. christl. prot. Lehrbegr., 3 Bde. ; Die Mlindigk in d. Rel., 2 Bde. ). Jerusalem of Wolfenbuttel [ob. 1789), Zollikoff'er, Ref. preacher in Leipsic [ob. 1784), Spalding, provost at Berlin [ob. 1804), (Werth der GefUhle im Christth. ; Nutzbarkeit d. Predigtamtes), Fr. Ad. Sack of Berlin [ob. 1817), Marezoll of Jena [ob. 1828), Loffler of Gotha [ob. 1816), /. G. Rosenmuller of Leipsic [ob. 1815), Tobler of Zurich [ob. 1808), Aug. Herm. Kiemei/er (A. II. Francke's great-grandson), Chancellor in Halle [ob. 1828), (Charak- teristik d. Bibel., 5 Bde. ; GumdsUtze d. Erzich., 3 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. Rel. fur gelehrte Sehnlen. 18 A. 1843), Hufnagel of Erlangen [ob. 1830), Jonath. Schudeioff of Ronneburg [ob. 1843), (kirchenreckl. Schriften, bes. zur. Vertheichgung des C(dlegialsystems), etc., contri- buted towards the spread of Rationalism by sermons and by popular doctrinal and devotional works. (Cf. § 56, 2.) 6. A theological tendency, abandoning the old orthodoxy, without, aowover, resigning it^df to Rationalism, maintained itself in the mosJ '284 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). various gradationH between both, under the name of Supranaturalism^ which desired still to preserve faith in a supernatural revelation. Thie faith was certainly of a very weak kind among many so-called supra- naturalists ; a revelation remained, which scarcely revealed anything that was not already known to reason. But in addition to these, a not insignificant number of worthy men also labored, who were really in earnest to save the essential truths of salvation ; l^ut it is characteristic of almost all of them, that, although belonging to the Lutheran church, they approximated in principle at least to the Reformed church in their views and apprehensions of Scripture and of the Church. The most influential and able fosterer of Supranaturalism during this period was the university of Tubingen. The series of spiritless supranatu- ralistic dogmatists is opened by Morns of Leipsic [oh. 1792), (Epitome theol. christ.) Less of Gijttingen [oh. 1797), Doderleiiiof Jena [ob. 1792-), Seller of Erlangen, and Nlisselt of Halle {ob. 1807), became less and less spirited ; the latter can even be numbered among the Rationalists. The ablest and most worthy representatives of Supranaturalism, who most powerfully and successfully resisted the current of the age, are Gottl. Christian Storr of Tubingen {ob. 1805), (Comm. z. Hebraerbr. ; Zweck d. evang. Gesch. ; Apologie d. Offb. Joh. ; Doctrinas chi'ist. pars theoretica, translated by C. G. Halt; Lehrb. d. chr. Dogmatik. 1813. He also had a controversy with the Konigsberg philosopher ; Annott. quasdam theol. ad philos. Cantii doctrinam 1793 — by which he gained his high esteem); G. Christian Knapp of Halle {ob. 1825), (Vorless. u. d. chr. Glaubensl., published by Thilo ; Scripta varii argument!, etc.), and Francis Volkmar Reinhard, Prof, at Wittenberg, chief court- preacher at Dresden {ob. 1812), the most eloquent preacher of this age (System d. chr. moral, 5 Bde. ; Versuch ii. d. Plan Jesu ; Predigten, 35 Bde. ; Gestandnisse ; Vorless. ii. d. Dogmatik). In a sermon on the anniversary of the Reformation in 1800, Reinhard professed his adhe- sion to the Lutheran doctrine of justification, with such decision, that all Germany was agitated by it, especially as a ministerial decree held this sermon up as a model for all the preachers of Saxony. Worthy of all honor as Apologists are the great mathematician Leonh. Euler of St. Petersburg {ob. 1783), (Rettung der Offenbarung gegen die Einwiirfe der Freigeister), the not less great physiologist Albr. Haller of Ziirich {ob. 1111), (Briefe ii. d. wicht. Wahrhh. d. Offenb., Briefe ii. einige Einwiirfe noch lehender Freigeister). Moi"e comprehensive and thorough were the contributions of the theologians Theod. Christopher Lilienihal of Konigsberg {ob. 1782), (Die gute Sache der gottl. OS'b., IG Bde., against the attacks of Deists) ; John Fred. Klenker of Kiel {ob. 1827), (Neue Priifung u. Erklilr. d. vorziigl. Beweire fiir d. Wahrh. d. Christth., 3 Bde. ; Ausf. Unters. d. firiinde fur die Echth. u. Glaub- vviirdigk. d. schriftl. Urk. d. Christth., 5 Bde. ; Bibl. Sympathien, od. Betrachtt. ii. d. Berichte d. Evangelisten, etc.), and Dan. Joach. Kopp''u, preacher in Mecklenburg (Die Bibel. e. Work d. gijttl. Welsh.) THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 285 The zealous preacher, who was abused beyond all measure, JoTi7i Melch, Gotze, chief pastor of Ilamburg [oh. 1786), a Loscher redivivus, con- tended for the palladium of Lutheran orthodoxy against his ration- alistic collea;^ues. against the theatre as a school for the German peo- ple, against Barth, Basedow, and consorts, against the Wolfenbuttler fragments, against Werther's Sorrows, etc. His polemics were not without passion and malice, and in spite of all his learning he was by no means a match for an opponent like Lessing. But he was not a blockhead, pettifogger, and fanatic; this is evident from the intimate friendship which existed between him and Lessing for many years, before the occurrence of the controversy. Worthy of special mention as authors in the sphere of Biblical Hisiori/ are: the excellent super- intendent John Jacob Hess of Zurich {ob. 1828), (Gesch. d. Israel, vor d. Zeiten Jesu, 12 Bde. ; Lebensgesch. Jesu, 3 Bde. ; Lehre Jesu, 2 Bde. ; Gesch. d. Apostel, 3 Bde. ; Vom Reiche Gottes, 2 Bde. ; Kern d. Lehre vom R. Gs. ; Briefe u. d. Offenb. Joh.) ; /. Conr. Pfenninger, deacon at Zurich [oh. 1702), (Jiidische Briefe, e. Messiade in Prosa, 12 Bde.) ; Magn. Fred. Boos, prelate of Wlirtemberg [ob. 1804), (Einl. in d. bibl. Gesch. bis auf Abraham ; Fuszstapfen d. Glaubens Abr. in d. Gesch. d. Patr. u. Proph.) Lavater and Herder also are to be named here. Supranaturalism was represented in the sphere of Church His- iforyby the industrious Joliii Matth. Schrdckh of Wittenberg [ob. 1808); the profound Chri.st. Will. Francis Walch of Gottingen [ob. 1784), (Vollst. Ilist. d. Papste ; Hist. d. K. Versammll. ; Hist. d. Ketzereien, 11 Bde. : Neueste Rel. Gesch. 9 Bde.) ; the Kantian Charles Fred. Stdudliii of Gottingen [ob. 182G), (Universalgesch. d. K. ; Gesch. d. Sittenlehre -Jesu, 4 Bde. ; Gesch. d. theol. Wissch. s. 1500 ; K. G. v. Groszbrit., 2 Bde. ; many historical monographs on the oath, prayer, conscience, marriage, friendship, the drama, etc.), and the "Reverend" Gottl. Jacob Planck of Gottingen, oh. 1833 (82 years old), a leading representative of "pragmatic" historiography (Gesch. d. Entsteh., d. Veranderungen u. d. Bildung unseres prot. Lehrbegr., 6 Bde. ; Gesch. d. Entst. u. Ausbild. d. chr. kirchl. Gesellschaftsverf., 5 Bde. ; Gesch. d. Christth. in d. Per. sr. Einfuhrung, 2 Bde., etc.) The Wlirtemberg prelate Fred. Christopher Oetinger [ob. 1782), the magus of the South, occupied a quite peculiar position (Theol. ex idea vitas deducta; Etwas Ganges vom Evangelio, on Isaiah 40 flf. ; Biblisch-emblemat. Worter- buch zum N. T., opposed to that by Zeller ; Selbstbiogr., published by Jiambcrger, Stuttg., 1845, etc.). He was a disciple of Bengel, deeply learned, like him, in the Scriptures, but also an admirer of Jacob Bohme, and even not opposed to Swedenborg's ghost-seeing revelations. But notwithstanding all this, he is still deeply rooted in Lutheran orthodoxy with his biblical realism and his theosophy, which acknow- ledges corporeity as the ind of the ways of God, and the first repre- sentative of a theology :f the future, which, it is true, in its develop- jiient might need thoro ;h purifying and close sifting, but yet might 286 SECTIONIII. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. ISA. D.). be adapted to represent, in its fundamental idea, the basis for the final true reconciliation of Idealism and Realism. (Cf. C. A. Auherlen, die Theosophie Oettinger's nach ihren Grundziigen. Tlibg. 1S48.) (Cf. I 56, 3.) 7. German Philosophy. (Cf. Erdmann, s. c. | 163, 1. — H. M. Chaly- bdus, hist. Entw. d. spec. Phil. v. Kant, bis Hegel. 3 A. Dresd. 1843. — K. Biedermann, d. deutsche Phil, von Kant bis auf unserc Zeit. Lpz. 1842, 2 Bde.— C. Fortlage, Genet. Gesch. d. Phil, seit Kant. Lpz. 1852.) — As Locke fills the interval between Bacon and Deism and Materialism, so does Cliristian v. Wolf [I 46, 2) constitute the centre and transition from Leibnitz to popular philosophy. Immanuel Kant of Konigsberg {ob. 1804), saved philosophy from the superficial self-sufficiency and quackery of the latter, and led it upon the arena of a mental conflict, which is unparalleled in power, energy, extent, and continuance. Kant's philosophy ("Kritik der reinen Vernunft," "Die Religion in- ncrhald der Grenzen der bloszen Vernunft"), stood altogether outside of Christianity, and upon the same ground Avith theological Ration- alism. Nevertheless, by digging deep into this ground, it brought out much superior ore, of whose existence vulgar Rationalism had no idea, and became, without wishing or knowing it, a schoolmaster to Christ in manifold ways. Kant demonstrated the impossibility of a know- ledge of supersensuous things by means of the pure reason, but ac- knowledged the iro clothed with poetic beauty into the hearts of the German people. His sorrow on account of the destruction of the mythology of old Hellas, was not only in glaring contrast with Christianity, but also and rather with the poverty of Deism, which had banished the living God of Christianity, and supplied his place with the dead laws of nature. And even if he was earnest in supposing that he was able from reli- gious feeling to profess no religion, still he unconsciously paid homage to Christianity in many Christian views. Jacohi's mental philosophy also had its poetical interpreters in Jean Paul [ob. 1825) and Hebel (ob. 1826), in whom the same disunion exists between the pious mind, which felt itself irresistibly drawn towards Christianity, and the cold understanding, which turned away from faith and towards the reign- ing unbelief. /. H. Voss, possessing a coarse Dutch rustic constitution, delineates in his Louisa the ideal of a rationalistic rural pastor, and persecuted with inquisitorial severity the blockheads and bondmen. — But by the side of these worldlings, and as much respected by them as they were insulted and slandered by the heroes of the " deutschen Bibliothek," stood two genuine sons of Luther, the Wandshecker Mes- senger [Matth. ClaiLdius, ob. 1815, cf. W. Herbst, M. CI. d. Wandsb. Bote. Gotha, 1857), and Hamann [ob. 1788), the Magnus of the North of whinn Jean Paul says, that his commas are planetary, his periods solar systems (cf. C. H. Gildemeister, J. G. Hani. d. Mag. d. Nord., Leb. u. Schriften, 3 Bde. Gotha, 1857), and two noble sons of the Re- formed Church, the laborious Lacater [ob. 1801), and the prayerful Junf/-Stillini/ [ob. 1817). Besides these, we must not forget the cele- brated historian Johii Von Mullcr [ob. 1809), who recognized Christ as the centre of all ages in a way more profound than any historian be- fore him. (Cf. I 53, 3.) ^ 51. ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING THE PERIOD OF ILLUMINATION. The old cliurch faith, meanwhile, had still during this period of reigning unbelief its ten thousand who had not bowed their knees before the Baal of the spirit of the age. A Lavate?- and Stilling, a Claudius and Hamann, are not by far the only, though the most brilliant and best known names of the faithful sous of the Church. A high place of honor among them is also occupied by the preacher John Fred. Oberlin of Waldbach (Ban de la Roche) (oh. 1826), who is scarcely sufficiently honored by being called a saint of the Protestant Church. "Father Oberlin," by official labors extending through 60 years, elevated his morally and spiritually depraved and temporally poor congregation to a condition of industrial prosperity, noble civilization, and pure ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING ILLUMINATION. 289 churclily piety, and transformed the barren, waste Steinthal into a patriarchal Paradise. Amono: the supranaturalistic theologians there were also many who adhered in their hearts to the old faith, even though they also in their science clothed it with garments of the new fashion. The flower of the German people was still rooted in biblical and chnrchly Christianity. Where the pulpit permitted it to die out, there they derived rich spiritual nourish- ment from the writings of the fathers, and where the modern vandalism of Illumination had mutilated and diluted the churchly hymn-books, there the old choice hymns still lived in the hearts of the mothirs and fathers, and resounded with power at family worship, and a Hippel exempWfied in his " Lebenslaiifen " their wonderful power in the life, loving, and suffering of a Christian. The Moravian Church became often a haven of safety for the educated, who were more exposed to danger. The common danger also united pious Roman Catholics and pious Protestants in the love of a common Saviour. Thus in Miinster a circle of the noblest souls of the Roman Catholic Church was formed around the noble princess Galizin and her able minister Fiirsten- berg, in wliich also ex. gr. a Hamann with his genuine Lutheran spirit found the most intimate communion and the warmest recep- tion. Pe.Htalozzi {oh. 1827) appeared already in 1775 in Swit- zerland to rescue the science of teaching from the superficiality of Basedow, reforming the national school in a spirit that was genuinely national, and at least not hostile to Christianity. 1. The Dilution of the Hymn-Books and Sacred Poetiij. — It was Klopstock who opened the way for the unparalleled hymn-book van- dalism of this period, by remodelling 29 old church hymns (1758). He, as also his immediate successors, Cramer and J. Ad. Schlegel, only wished to improve the form, i. e., modernize them, which, however, could not be done without diluting their contents. Their numberless successors among the champions of Illumination only made the more thor5ugh havoc both with contents and form. General superintendents, consistorial counsellors, and court-preachers, rivalled each other in pveparing and introducing new hymn-books, with diluted old and still more watery new hymns. Every town had its own and peculiarly amended hymn-book. Meanwhile, to the honor of the German people of this period, especially of Wurtemberg, it must be said, that they with reluctance permitted the old treasure of their hymn-books to be taken from them, and the new fabrications to be forced upon them, Onlv a few voices from the educated classes, as ex. gr. the poet Schu- bert, were raised against the nuisance, but they were unheard. — As II.— 25 T 290 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). poor as the spirit of Illumination was in faith and in poetry, so rich ■was it, nevertheless, in the production of so-called sacred hymns. These are almost entirely of a moral character, and where a well- meant hymn of faith appears, it bears not the least comparison with the hymns of the 16th and 17th centuries. Abstraction, dogmatic tone, and pathos, are the substitutes for the sublimity, inwardness, fresh- ness, and nationality of the old hymns. The hymns of the noble and pious GdleH are by far the best contributed by this period. Klopstock repudiated Gellert's doctrinal tone, and sought to awaken and stir up religious feeling. On the other hand, he lacked nationality, of which Gellert possessed at least a minimum. Among the sacred poets who inherited his spirit, Lavater is the most able and Christian. (Cf, § 54, 8.) 2. Sacred Music. — Sacred music sunk also with the hymns of this period to the lowest degree of its existence. The old chorals were recast into modern forms, by which they altogether lost their ancient power and beauty. A multitude of new, unnational, and difficult me- lodies, in a dry pedantic style, appeared ; the last trace of the old rhythm disappeared, and tedious, heavy monotony gained the ascend- ency, by which all sublimity and freshness was lost. Preludes and interludes of a secular character were introduced as substitutes. An operatic overture generally introduced the people into the church ; a march or a waltz dismissed them from it. The church ceased to foster and to produce music ; the theatre and concert-hall took its place. The operatic supplanted all taste for the oratorio style. Cantata of a tho- roughly secular and effeminate spirit were composed for festival occa- sions. A proper church style in music no longer existed, on which account also Winierfeld closes his history of evangelical sacred music with Seb. Bach. It was almost worse with the Roman Catholic mass- music. Palestrina's earnest and elevated school had almost entirely disappeared in the polite operatic style, and a greater nuisance was and is still made of the organ than in the Protestant churches. (Cf. § 54, 8.) 3. ReUgicnis Parties iinthia the Church. — From the secondary effocta of Spener's Pietism, enriched by Oetinger's theosophy, proceeded in Wurtemberg the party of the Michelians. Its founder was a layman, Michael Ilahn, a butcher [oh. 1819). His writings are full of deep views of the Divine economy of salvation (among which especially s. Briefe von d. ersten OfFenb. Gottes durch die ganze Schcipfung bis an das Ziel aller Dinge). The doctrine of a double fall (whence resulted a great disregard, but not rejection of marriage), of the restoration of all things; further and especially the disregarding of justification in favor of sanctification, of Christ for uri in favor of Christ in us, the urging of uninterrupted repentance, etc., was peculiar to him. The latter was enhanced by the extreme contrast of the Pregizerians (with preacher Pregizer of Haiterbach at their head), who, laying all stress ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING ILLUMINATION. 291 upon baptism and justification, certain in the faith of their happiness, and not needing self-tormenting repentance, impressed upon their life and worship the character of great cheerfulness and joyfulness. Both parties, having spread over the whole of Wiirtemberg, still exist, but have approached each other very nearly in common opposition to the destructive tendencies of modern times. They had besides a common ground in their Chiliasm and in the doctrine of ro«toration. (Cf. Hauy, i. Secte d. Michelianer ; in d. Studien d. ev. Geistlichk. Wlirtb. XI. I. — Gruneisen, Gesch. d. rel. Gemeinschaften in WUrtemb. ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1841, 1.) — The party of the Cullenbuschians in Berg stood also in a certain connection with Oetinger's theosophy and other Wiir- temberg elements. Sam. Collenhiisch, practising physician at Wich- linghausen {oh. 1803), who, being oftended by the orthodox doctrines of original sin as original guilt, of the wrath of God and of the repre- sentative satisfaction of Christ, formed a docti'inal system, in which Christ, laying aside his divine attributes, took upon himself with human flesh also the susceptibility of sinning, the sufferings of Christ were derived from the wrath of Satan, and have only the significance of the sufl'erings of trial and of steadfastness, and redemption consists in the fact, that Christ bore Satan's wrath for us and sends his Spirit into us to work sanctification. The most important of the theological adherents of the pious physician are both the Hasenkamps and the excellent Gottfr. Menken, Reformed preacher in Bremen [ob. 1831), (Homilien iiber die Gesch. d. Elias und zu Hebr. 11; Anleitung zun: eigenen Unterricht in d. Wahrhh. d. h. Schrift). (Cf. F. W. Krug Gesch. der Schwarmerei, etc., Elberf. 1851, p. 205, fi"., and M. Gobel Gesch. d. chr. Lebens, Bd. II.) 4. German Illumination found, outside of Germany, but little favor at first. It spread soonest and most in the Netherlands, then in Denmark and Norway, and but little in Sweden. In Amsterdam a part of the Lutheran congregation tore itself loose, when a neological preacher was forced upon it (1791), and organized itself independently as the " Restored Lutheran Church," or the " Old Light." It still numbers seven Dutch congregations, with 12,000 members. In 1797 several members of the Wallonian (French Reftymed) congregation at Delft in the Netherlands formed a religious society under the name Christo sacrum, which wished to adopt all the Christian confessions, and to unite all in a true Church of Christ upon the foundation of faith com- mon to all. The confessional doctrinal differences were to be regarded as unessential, and left to private conviction, on which account also a separation from the old churches was not regarded as necessary. But, although the new congregation at first made some progress, and the government fin-mally guaranteed it religious freedom in 1802, it soon declineil for want of internal strength and under the power of growing anbelief, and exists now only in several weak and needy remnants. — In Norway a powerful religious excitement was created l)y the peasant 292 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A U.). Nielsen Rauge, who, since 1795, preached the gospel there. In Eng- land the Dissenters, especially the Methodists, exerted a wholesome influence on the national church. Here in the person of W. Cowper (ob. 1800) we meet with a noble sacred poet of high lyrical endow- ments, whose life and poetry, however, are consumed by melancholy, caused by the bugbears of predestinarian despair and methodistic care of his soul. 5. Protestant Union and Missionary Labors. (Cf. Jul. Wiggers, Gesch. d. ev. Miss. Hamb. 1845, 2 Bde.) — In order to establish propa- ganda to realize the grand thought of union effort for Christian, prac- tical ends, the Augsburg senior John Vrlsperger travelled over Eng- land, Holland, and Germany. But his zeal was first crowned with permanent success in Basle by establishing the German Society of Christianity ("Deutsche Gesellsch. zur Befiirder. christl. Wahrh. u. Gottselijkeit") 1780. Soon a number of branch societies were formed in Switzerland and South Germany. A periodical: " Sammlungen fur Liebhaber christl. Wahrheit und Gottseligkeit" became the organ of the society (1784), which di-ew within the province of its labors all possible Christian objects (Bible and tract distribution, care of the poor and sick, itinerant preaching, circulating libraries, evangelization of Roman Catholics, missions among the Jews, Turks, and Heathen, etc.). Gradually some of the branches grew strong enough to be in- dependent, ox. gr. 1804, the Basle Bible Society, 1816, the Missionary Society, 1820, the Beuggen Institution for neglected children and the education of charity-school teachers ; further, a union for the friends of Israel, a tract-union, a deaf and dumb-asylum, etc., whereby a dis- solution of the society was prepared for in a way not to be regretted. — In the last decade of this century, a feeling for united labor for Chris- tian objects was also awakened in England, and first of all for Heathen Missions. This took place in the year 1795, when a large number of Christians of all parties, mostly Dissenters, united to found the general London Missionary Society, and already in the following year the first missionary ship sailed to the South Sea islands under Captain Wilso7i, with 18 missionaries on board. They labored, almost hopelessly, but perseveringly, for 16 years, until finally King Pomare II. of Tahiti be- came the first of the converts.* A victory over a heathen reaction-party (1815) secured full dominion for Christianity. The example of the London Missionary Society led to imitation in other quarters ; thus arose in 1796 two Scotch, and in 1797 a Netherland Missionary Society, and in 1800 in London the Episcopal Missionary Society for the Eng- .lish possessions in Africa, Asia, etc. In the same year Jdnicke of Berlin founded his mission institute. The Danish Lutheran (| 47, 7) and the Moravian missions (^ 47, 6) carried on, meanwhile, their mis" gionary operations vigorously, especially the latter. (Cf. ^ 54, 9, 10.) FOURTH PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT NINETEENTH CENTURY. Jf. K. R. Hagenhach, K. G. d. 18 u. 19 Jahrh. 2. A. Lpz. 1856. Bd II. — /. C. L. Gieselcr, K. G. d. neuesten Zeit. Herausg. v. C. R. Rede pennig, Bonn 1855. — F. A. Scharp ff" {kath.), Vorless. lib d. neueste K G. Freib. 1852. — ^. Gams (kath.), Gesch. d. K. Christi im 19. Jahrh. Innsbr. 1853, ff., 2 Bde.— Jul. Wiggers, kirchl. Statistic. Ilamb. 1842, f. 2 Bde. — Ders. d. kirchl. Bewegung in Deutschl. Rost. 1848. — K. Netz, die Kirchen d. europ. Abendl. Frkf. 1847, Bd. I. — D. ScJienkel, die rol. Zeitkampfe. Hamb. 1847. — G. Fr. Rhcinivald, Acta hist, ecclst. Seculi XIX. Hamb. 1836-38, 3 Bde.— A^ Matthes, allg. kirchl. Chronik. J -IV. Lpz. 1855-58. I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. I 52. REVIEW OF THE RELIGIOUS AGITATION DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The horrors of the French Revolution demonstrated what must become of the modern world without God and Christianity; the reign of the new divine scourge lifted the eyes and hearts of the people to Him, from whom alone help was yet to be hoped for ; the wars for liberty in tlieir enthusiasm (" with God for king and fatherland") did place their trust in this help, and the double victory (1813 and 1815) gloriously justified this trust. Princes and people were filled with thankfulness to God. Alex- ander I., Francis I., and Frederick William III. (being at the Banie time representatives of the three principal churches) formed 26* (-9^j 294 SECTION TU. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT, 19 A. D.) after the Congress of Vienna had established the political rela- tions, the Holy Alliance (1815), which had for its object the cultivation and preservation of Christian brotherly love among the nations as the branches of one family, and among the princes as the fathers of the same. " To make Christianity the highest law of national life, in spite of all confessional dissensions," was the declared object of the Holy Alliance, which was joined by all the princes of Europe, excepting the Pope, the Sultan, and the King of England, but which, nevertheless, soon became anti- quated as a political idyll. Alexander II., at his accession to the throne (1855), first again recognized in this idyll an eternally true ideal of Christian rulers. — A religious fermentation had also been produced among the people ; but what six decades had levelled to the ground could not rise again in a night. Old and new, and partly very heterogeneous elements, were commingling and fermenting in the national spiritual life, in poetry and philo- sophy, in theology and the church. Within thirty years a decided clarification has taken place, and the antitheses have manifested themselves purely and independently. The restitution of the papacy in 1814 already awakened a new enthusiasm for ultra- montane Roman Catholicism, as also the jubilee of the Refor- mation in 1817 for Protestantism ; whilst the theological and practical principles of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, which had been repressed, the former in Supraiiaturalism, the latter in Pietism, by a premature union, which regarded them as no longer existing, were likewise agitated anew. A powerful effort was also made by the old sects to obtain a wider influence, and new sects full of powerful errors appeared. Thus the eccle- siastical and religious principles were drawn out sharper and increased, and over against the church and Cliristianity a naked and bold anti-Christianity asserted itself in Socialism and Com- munism, in political, religious, and scientific Libertinism ; whilst pauperism and proletarianism, a fruit chiefly of the largely mul- tiplied manufactories, increased in a terrible way. In 1848 the igniting spark fell upon this accumulated mass of powder, and in a short time Western Europe was enveloped in the flames of "political revolution. The two years of reaction (1849-50) suc- ceeded in mastering this wild conflagration. But the fire still smouldered beneath the ashes. May God grant, that in a night, when the watchmen may sleep, another whirlwnnd may not kindle it anew I Within the sphere of religious life agitation existed GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 295 in every direction. Pantheism, Materialism, and Atheism de- vastated science and practical life, even to the lowest strata of the people. Old and new sects increased in a threatening man- ner. Ultramontanisra bent its bow more tightly. The Protestant Union became in every direction a concordia discors, and even Lutheranisra, which snndered itself from it, concealed a danger- ous dissension in its bosom. The prophecies of Scripture alone opened a view, through all confusions and anxieties, to the final issue of all history, for which, whether it be near or far off, even the complications of the present must prepare the way. g 5.3. THE GENERAL BASIS OF THE CULTURE OF THE NINE- TEENTH CENTURY IN ITS CONNECTIONS WITH THEO- LOGY AND THE CHURCH. Philosophy/ exerted an important influence upon the religious development of this period, both as regards science and practical life. Whilst Rationalism in its philosophical development was not able to go beyond Kant, the other theological tendencies were more or less directed by the philosophy of this period. In addition to pliilosophy, Belles Lettres, which was also in mani- fold ways affected by philosophy, exerted a powerful influence upon the religious views of the educated classes. The exact sciences also were brought into a closer relation to Christianity, partly friendly and partly hostile. But, generally, a Christian tendency made itself felt more decidedly than ever in the sciences; and it appears as characteristic that, whilst formerly the Chris- tian convictions of the learned had little or no influence in the formation of these sciences, now the endeavors of many educated Christian men were directed towards penetrating them with the Christian principle and permitting it to remodel them. 1. German Philosophy. (Cf. ^50, 7.) — Fries [ob. 1843) also acquired importance for the development of Protestant theology, by the influence which his philosophy exerted upon several distinguished theologians (De Wette, Hase). His philosophy started from Kantian Rationalism, which it regarded as standing in need of being made more profound and thorough, and which it sought to do in a method nearly similar to JacoV)i's. ScheUing's philosophy of identity, on the other hand, started from Fichto's idealism, and, in its progress, assumed the form of essen- tially pantheistic Natural Philnsoplnj. He learned from Fichte that the Avorld was null and void without the spirit, but he inverted the relation. Whilst Fichte allowed reality to the world (the Non-ego) 296 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) only in so fai* as man apprehended and penetrated it with his spirit, and this first gave it real existence, according to Schelling the spirit ia nothing else than the lii'e of nature itself, and consequently identical with it, or rather both are the opposite poles of the same phenomenon. The spirit still slumbers and dreams in the lower grades of natural life, but in man it has attained to self-consciousness. The total life of nature, or the soul of the world, is God. Man is a reflection uf God and a microcosm. God reaches objective reality and the unfolding of his self-consciousness in the development or history of the world ; Chris- tianity is a turning-point in the history of the world ; its fundamental doctrines of revelation, Trinity, incarnation, and reconciliation are regarded as prescient attempts to solve the enigma of the world. Schel- ling's living, poetic view of the world penetrated all the sciences and gave them a new and unprecedented inspiration. But it was an abo- mination to the reigning rationalistic theology. It returned its hatred with ridicule and contempt. It introduced a new and fresh element of life among the younger generation of theologians. As Schelling was connected with Fichte, so was Hegel with Schelling, whose pan- theistic Natural Philosophy he transformed into pantheistic Mental Philosophy. According to this philosophy, divine revelation as an unfolding of the divine self-consciousness from non-existence to exist- ence, i. e. from mere self-existence to real-existence, manifests itself not so much in the life of nature, as rather in the thinking and acting of the human spirit. Judaism, heathenism, and Christianity are the three progressive stages of the development of this process of revelation ; Ju- daism is far inferior to classic heathenism, but in Christianity we have the perfect religion, of course only in the lower form of conception, which it is the mission of philosopher to convert into knoivledge. It at least again brought Protestant orthodox doctrines into formal repute. When Marheineke again constructed Lutheran orthodoxy in its entire dialectic perfection into a speculative system of dogmatics, upon the basis of this philosophy ; when, further, the talented and profound jurist Goschel united it with a refreshing Pietism, then the illusion was entertained for a time that the long-sought-for reconciliation of philosophy and theology had been finally discovered in this philosophy. (The berliner Jahrblicher were for a long time its organ.) But the condition of things changed immediately after the Master's death (1831). Hegel's school was divided into an orthodox and a numerically larger (or "young Hegelian") one; the former advancing the churchly ten- dency of the Master; the latter despising Christianity as an antiquated form of conception, and running his philosophical views into the most open self-deification and self-worship of the human spirit (Anthropo- theism). David Sti'auss, Bruno Bauer, and Louis Feuerhach introduced this tendency into theology, whilst Arnold Huge endeavored to intro- duce and make it felt in the social, gesthetic, and political relations of life. The organ of this tendency Avas since 1837 the "'Halleschcn (later GENEBAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 297 German) Jahrbiicher." When these were suppressed in 1843 by the State, the Young-Hegelians , in order to obtain a strong support, con- nected themselves with the Kationalists (now friends of light), whom but a short time before they ridiculed as the " antediluvian theolo- gians". In the revolution of 1848, Ruge, with some of his companions, affiliated with the communistic Republicans. ScheUing, who had been silent for almost three decades, and had meanwhile transformed his former Pantheism into Christian Gnosticism, occupied (1841) IlegePa ciuiir in Berlin as his declared opponent, but was able to produce only a transient excitement among the younger generation of theologians with his dualistic doctrine of potencies, which was announced as the finally attained understanding of Christianity. He died upon a jour- ney to Switzerland (1854), after his brilliant career at Berlin had come and gone like a meteor. His son has commenced to erect to him a worthy monument by publishing his collected works. The hegemony of Hegelian philosophy was ruined by the division of the schools and by the radicalism of its adherents ; and Schelling, in the second stadium of his philosophical development, was not able to found a peculiar school. On the other hand, quite a series of younger philosophers appeared, who, starting from Hegelian dialectics, pur- posed to free philosophy from the ban of Pantheism, and instead of it to substitute a speculative Theism, which made itself felt as Christian philosophy, and came in fact into a closer relation to historical Chris- tianity, by acknowledging its positive contents. At the head of these most honorable men stood Fichie's son ; besides him, Weisse, Braniss, Chahjbdus, Fischer, Ulrici, Wirth, etc. Its organ is the " Zeitschrift fUr Philosophie und Philosophische Kritik," published by Fichte, Jr. But important as the philosophical power of these men is, they still have not been able to obtain the influence in German science which Schelling and Hegel possessed in so large a degree. — Herbart, Kant's successor at Kiinigsberg [oh. 1841 at Gcittingen), challenged the entire new philosophy from Fichte the father to Fichte the son, by declaring that the metaphysical God lay altogether beyond the horizon of philo- sophy, which he would confine to the limits of empiricism. His Realism was the sharpest antithesis of Hegelian Idealism. His philo- sophy, abstractedly considered, stands indifi'erent to Christianity, but is not incapable of being brought into a friendly relation to it, as Tautens philosophy of religion has demonstrated. Nevertheless, Her- bart's philosophy also was not able to exert a great influence on prac- tical life and science. The tendency of the present age, which is more decidedly in the direction of practical interests, is not more favorable t- berg ghost-seeing, the North American Spirit-rappings, and the uni- versal Table-moving and Table-ivriting, have, in spite of the wrath of many natural philosophers, who saw therein only refined fraud or ob- stinate self-deception, and of many earnest Christians, who warned against Satan's deception and arts, found crowds of believers, who gave ear to the new revelation with rapture. Of all the sciences, no one Avas so thoroughly pervaded by the Chris- tian spirit as Jurisprudence. A large number of excellent jurists, who are reckoned among the most distinguished notabilities of this science, and who were always ready to give evidence of their zeal for the Church and Christianity in practical life as well as in science, adorned many German professorships and tribunals, or filled high civil offices. As examples we need only mention the names of Fr. v. Meyer, Goschel, Stahl, Rethmann-Hollweg, Savigny, Puchta, Thibavt, Bickell, Jacobson, Richter, Mulder, Goscliea, Wasserschleben, Huschlce, Mejer, Scheuerl, etc., and the Roman Catholics Walter, Philipps, et. al. — Hitto/iography, 300 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) aftor it had sui-mounted the superficial pragmatism of the rationalistic period, and objectivity had again acquired its rights, also followed the Christian and churchly factors of history with love and recognition. Protestant historical inquiry especially manifested throughout an al- most boundless readiness to acknowledge and admire the grand pheno- mena of mediaeval Roman Catholicism, even with the denial of the Protestant consciousness ; and proceeded from the apotheosis of a Boni- face, Gregory VII., and Innocent III., to the defamation of the Refor- mation as a revolution (John Voigt, H. Leo, C. A. Menzel, Hurter, Gfrcirer, etc.) Ultramontane historiography accepted such admissions, but by no means thought of recompensing like with like, but only in- tensified its old method of wickedly and perfidiously slandering every- thing Protestant [Riffel, Dollinger, etc.), and of making history instead of impartially investigating. Geography, which was first raised to a science by Charles Eitter, paid to Christianity the tribute of its recog, nition, which it also deserved from this quarter. Finally, ancient classic Philology also, in several important representatives, illumined ancient classic heathenism and its religion with the Christian spirit, and endeavored to interpret it in the sense of the apostle (Acts 14 : 16 ; 17 : 27 ; Rom. 1 : 19, S.) Creuzer prepared the way thereto by a deeper apprehension of ancient heathen mythology. Gorrcs walked in his footsteps, whose pupil Lepp (das Heidenth. u. dessen Bedentung fiir d. Christth. 1853, 3 Bde.) exposes without reserve the deep internal connection of Roman Catholicism with heathenism by proving that ancient heathen mythology and mysteriosophy are only a latent Catho- licism. On the other hand, the Protestants Ndgelsbach (Homerische und nachhomerische Theologie) and L'ubker (Sophokleische Theologie) fathomed, with like depth and discretion, the religious life of the an- cient world in its relation to Christian truth. 3. National Literature. (Cf. /. V. Eichendorff (Roman Catholic), liber die ethische u. rel. Bedent. der neuern romant. P(jesie in Deutschl. Lpz. 1847. — A'. Barthel, d. deutsche Nationallit. d. Neuzeit. 4. A. Braunschw. 1855. — /. A. Mor. Br'dhl (Roman Catholic), Gesch. d. kath. Lit. Deutschl. vom 17. Jahrh. biz zur Gegenw. Lpz. 1854.) — As already Schiller's poetry introduced Kantian philosophy, clothed in ooetic o-arb, into the national life, so did also the other phases of phi- losophical development find their poetical representatives. It is true, Goethe was too rich and independent a genius to be led captive by a philosophical school ; nevertheless his views of life, and especially his views of nature, were related in many ways with Scheliing's jhiloso- phy. His religion was a Spinozian Pantheism. The Romantic School connected itself more decidedly and regardlessly with Schelling. His Natural Philosophy is the ground out of which it grew, and out of which it received as well its proclivity to Pantheism as to Roman Ca- tholicism (for the philosophy of identity is related, in principle, to Roman Catholicism, in so far as the latter also, only in a different GENERAL BASIS OF" CULTURE. 301 way [§ 20], likes to identify or confound the divine and the human). The antithesis between romaidlc sxnd classic -was in itself, considered not that between Christian and heathen, and referred generally less to the religious contents than to the poetic form. Romanticism desired to liberate art and poetry from the bondage of strict, antique classic form, and to lead it back to genuine German forms. It was thereby directed to the rich fulness of the middle ages, whose contents it then sought to naturalize icith the form in modern times. But since the medijBval view of the world was decidedly Christian, and the repre- sentatives of the classic school had in great part lapsed into the hea- thenism of illumination, the above-named antithesis had a certain justification. Romanticism, it is true, manifested a great religious inwardness (especially in Novalis and La Motte Fouqii6), and became the sworn enemy of rationalistic Illumination, which it pursued in all Its hiding-places, exposed and made ridiculous [Tieck's Zerbino) ; ne- vertheless, in its contest with the prudery of Rationalism, it ran intc frivolity [Fr. Schlegel's Lucinde), — and the direct repristination of the mediaeval forms and views, which had fallen behind the progress of the world, was ever an unnatural thing, which could not be atoned for by the superabundance of imagination, and which avenged itself on many, even the better and nobler ones (ex. gr. Fr. Schlegel, — to say nothing of the starved form of a Zach. Werner), by apostacy from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. The twilight of Romanticism was fundamen- tally opposed to Hegelian philosophy, and its disciples of the left wing almost succeeded in stamping even the expression "romantic" as a term of abuse for Jesuitism and obscurantism of all kinds. On the other hand, the dissolute and destructive tendency which, after Hegel's death, mastered his school, contributed its part towards creating a later anti-Christian and revolutionary poetry. Closely connected with the Romantic School, for which the way was broken in Schlegel's Lucinde, was the School of young Germany, with its gospel of the rehabilitation of the flesh. Its leader was the gifted poet H. Heine. The pantheistic deification of Schelling's and the self-deification of Hegel's school received their expression in Leop. Schefer's " Laienbre- vier" and AVeltpriester, as also in Sallet's "Laienevangelium ;" whilst the sympathies of the young Hegelians for the communistic spirit of the age were heralded by Herwegh's and later also by Freiligrath's poems. Purer and clearer than in the Romantic School was the Christian element in the noble national poets Mar. Arndt and Max. v. Schenken- dorf, who, being led to faith in the living God of the Bible by the dis- tressed state of the fatherland and the enthusiasm of the war for liberty, sought to sing this same faith with fresh and inspired notes into the hearts of the German people. Vhland's sweet lyric poetry connected itself, through the enthusiasm for national interests of the present with the patriotic poets, and through the longing with which he penetrated into the rich mine of the German past, with the Roman- II.— 26 302 SECTION III. — FOtTRTH PERIOD (cENT. 19 A. D.) tists, but excelled them far in clearness and sterling worth. Without being or wishing to be a specifically Christian poet, his rich and clear tenderness of heart, nevertheless, made the soil of German national life receptive for the Christian religion. The same is true also of Ruchert's poems, which transplanted the fragrant flowers of Oriental poesy into the German garden. The Christian consecration of poetic genius appears still more decidedly in the noble and lovely lyric poet Emanuel Geibel, the greatest and most Christian of the secular poets of the present age. — Connected with those named was a long series of specifically Christian poets. The most important of these are : Alb Knapp, C. A. Doring, Ph. Spitta, K. B. Garve, J. Friedr. v. Meyer, J. Pet. Lange, Henry Moives, Gust. Knack, Gust. Jahn, P. F. Engstfeld, Jul. Sturm, Vict. Strauss, H. A. Seidel, Louisa Hensel, and many others, who are worthily collected together in Knapp' s Christoterpe (1833-53). Those named belong to the Evangelical Church. With all the Chris- tian depth, inwardness, freshness, and enthusiasm which they revealed in their sacred poetry, still no one of them was able to elevate himself to the sublime simplicity, power, popularity, and churchly objectivity which characterized the old evangelical hymn ; they all, in this regard, bore too much the signature of this age, the subjective temper of its struggles, conflicts, and excitements. Only one poet of modern times, Fred. Eucl-ert, struck the key of the old hymns in one hymn (the advent hymn: " Dein Konig kommt in niedern Hiilleu"). Roman Catholic Germany has no yjoet of the first degree, but many of the second and third, possessing great religious depth and feeling, ex. gr. B. Clemens Brentano, Ed. v. Schenk, Guido Gorres, Melchoir v. Diepenbrock, Fred. Beck, Annette v. Droste-H'nlshof, the excellent juvenile and popular poets Franz v. Pocci, William Smets, etc. The highly praised poet, Oscar v. Redwitz, dug an early grave for his poetic fame by the " Siegelinde," when, by a shallow Roman Catholic drama, " Thomas Morns," he kin died new hope among his ultramontane friends, that they would be able at some time to honor in him a "Roman Catholic" poet of the first. Another son of the Roman Catholic Church, the talented Nicho- las V. Lenau (Niembsch v. Strehlenan), became insane [ob. 1850) through the distracted state of his inner life. He stood once, Avith his great master-work, " Savonarola," in the fore-court of the evangelical faith. In France, Lamartine, soon after the Restoration, manifested a ro- mantic. Christian tendency. The poetical sublimity and fanatical enthusiasm of his poems made a deep impression upon the excitable Trenchmen, but it was not lasting. His poetry gradually declined through his subsequent participation in the debates of the Chambers, and his Christian tendency degenerated into a vague cosmopolitanism. For the rest, the French romantic school since the Revolution of July [^Vict. Hugo, Balsac, George Sand, Eug. Sue, etc.) continued to assume a more anti-Chri'tian character, and ■oromoted the commimi«tic and GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 3|I3 libertine spirit of the age. — England had a highly gifted and Chris- tianly disposed poet in W. Wonhioorth [oh. 1850). In Lord Byron, on the other hand, appeared a poet of the first rank, who experienced in himself, more deeply than any other poet, the great chasm which runs through the consciousness of our age, and which he has delineated more faithfully in its awful greatness than any other. He permits the disharmony of nature and of human life to rush along in powerful and captivating notes. Incurable pain, despair, weariness of life, and misanthropy without hope, even without a desire for reconciliation, glowing enthusiasm for the glory of the past, burning passion for liberty and gigantic defiance of human power, surge through each other in scenes of woe. Whilst in England a ban still rests upon Byron's poems, which banishes them from social and family circles, their influence has only acquired the greater sway on the continent. His colossal spirit, however, also begat here a pigmy race of imitators, who strut so largely in continental literature. 4. National Culture. — Whilst the poetical national literature exerted an influence chiefly only on the higher and educated classes, an immense number of popular and juvenile works were published, which were de- signed for the lower classes and the youth. But only a few succeeded in striking the true popular and juvenile key, and still fewer is the number of those who offered the people and the youth that which was beneficial. Pcsfalozzi's " Lienhard and Gertrude," Hehel's " Sehatz- kiistlein," and Zsehokke' s "Goldmachendorf," spared at least the Chris- tian consciousness of the people, even though they were not designed to strengthen and nourish it. Berth. Auerhach, a Jew, also delineates the Christian life of the people with admirable abnegation of his Spi- nozian unbelief, in his masterly village histories ; although his subse- quent authorship was devoted to democratic revolutionary'^ movements and pantheistic propagandism. On the other hand, however, modern times have also produced a number of authors as genuinely national as Christian, who, writing and narrating out o/the spirit of the people, became true apostles of Christian views, manners, and discipline for the people. The most important among these are : Jeremiah Gotthelf, (Albert Bitzius, oh. 1854), W. 0. (Will. Oertel) Von Horn, Carl Stober, Otto Glauhrccht (Rud. Ludw. Oe.ser), Gust. Jahn, Aug. Wildenhahn, Marij Xathusius, Will. Rcdenshacher, Karl Wild, et al. In the Roman Catholic Church Albamis Sfolz displayed an admirable popular talent (Kalender fiir Zeit und Ewigkeit, since 1843). Comparatively few of the immense r\um])er of juvenile works correspond with their object and aim. The chief of the authors in this department of Christian narra- tion is G. H. V. Schubert. Next to him are Barth, the author of '• armen Heinrich," and Stober, as also the Roman Catholic Christo- pher Scfimidt, the author of " Ostereier." (Cf. K. Bernhardi, Weg- weiser durch die deutschen Volks- und Jugendschriften, Lpz. 1852, and H. Prdhle, Ilansblichlein fiir das Yolk u. s. Freunde. Lpz. 1852. Bd. 304 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) I. Einl.) The common schools became, especially through Dinier's {ob, 1831) successfu efforts, nurseries of the tame, shallow, and self-sufficient nationalism of the ancient regime, whilst they owe especially to Dies' terweg's labors during the last thirty years their transformation into propaganda of naturalistic democracy. Next to the army of literary Bohemians, the teachers of the common schools of this period labored most successfully in poisoning the German nation, and in the Roman Catholic Church not less than in the Protestant. Whilst the rational- istic pastors soon preached their churches empty, the common schools continually brought their crowds of new victims to the Moloch of Illu- mination. But both Church and State have labored with success, within several decades, to bring to pass a Christian reorganization of the com- mon schools, and Christian doctrines and views have already gained a decided ascendancy both in pedagogical journalism and literature. The three regulations of the Prussian minister Vo7i Eaumer (1854) contri- buted greatly towards a thorough Christian reorganization of the com- mon schools. In Roman Catholic France and Germany the bishops have succeeded in gaining absolute control of the schools and semina- ries. The Christian spirit has also begun to take a position by the side of reigning heathenism in the German gymnasia. At least, reli- gious instruction in many of the higher institutions of learning has again passed into the hands of Christian teachers ; and only a few have been able to maintain a height of Illumination such as is occupied by the Homburg academical gymnasium, Avhere Niemeyer's " Lehrbuch der Religion" is still the text-book. Nevertheless, but little is accom- plished by religious Christian instruction in these institutions, if the other instructions given do not correspond with it, which, alas ! is too much the case yet. From this want arose the Christian gymnasium at Otttersloh (since 1849), and lately (1855) a Lutheran gymnasium at Eogasen in Posen. In the Protestant Church Eyth (Classiker u. Bebel. 1838) took up arms against the heathen classics as the basis of culture, but the most influential voices defended them. This question was also largely discussed in the Roman Catholic Church. The Paris Univers (editor, Veuillot) desired, in order to cut off the nourishment of modern heathenism, to substitute the Church Fathers for the classics ; the Archbishop Sibour of Paris and several other bishops protested ener- getically against it. The Pope brought the passionate controversy to an end (1853) hy a compromising decree, which takes the side of the Univers, but with great forbearance towards the archbishops. 5. Art. — The general mental agitation which was called forth by the new century also introduced new spirit and life into art. Winckel- mann {ob. 1768) interpreted heathen classic art, and Romanticism awakened a sense and enthusiasm for mediajval Christian art. The greatest masters of Architecture were Schinkel [ob. 1841), Klenze, and Heideloff. A Protestant king (Fredei'ick William IV.) began the com- pletion of the cat jedral at Cologne (1842), and a Protestant, architect GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 305 {Erns( Zwirner) superintended it. — Scrdjyinre has three great masters to point to, who impressed profound Christian views upon brass and marble. The Italian Cavova {oh. 1822) was the renewer of this art. The German Dannecker (oh. 1841), inspired by him, excelled his mas- ter. His Christ repi-esents the Divine Mediator in a sublime marble statue, as he beheld him in vision ; his John embodies the image of the disciple meditating on the mystery of the holy Trinity. But greater than both of these is the Dane Tliortvaldsen [ob. 1844), who sculptured Christ and his apostles, together with other groups, for the Church of our Lady in Copenhagen. — A new epoch in Fainting also began. In 1810 a number of young German painters met together in Rome, who, enthusiastic for the mediaeval ideals of art, formed a Ger- man painter's league, from which proceeded the Romantic school. Overheck, the founder of the league, remained in Rome and went over to the Roman Catholic Church, because he could and would only paint that which he could also worship. The most profound inwardness and tenderness of religious feeling are revealed in all his works ; but his contempt for that which was classic avenged itself in striking defects of form. His friends gradually emancipated themselves from this one- sidedness. Cornelius, the most distinguished of them, left Rome, and in 1819 took the control of the academy at Dusseldorf ; in 1825 that of Munich ; and in 1841 went to Berlin. He is the founder of the Munich school {Schnorr, Veith, Katdhach, etc.), which combines reli- gious inwardness with beautiful and sublime forms, and strives to spiritualize nature to ideal beauty; whilst i\ie Dusseldorf school , under the control of Karl Frederick Lessing, restricted itself to a faithful copying of nature. Lessing's Protestant consciousness expressed itself, in contrast with the ultramontane zeal of his rigidly Roman Catholic art-companions, in his two great master-pieces, " Huss before the Council" and the "Imprisonment of Pope Paschalis by the Emperor Henry V.," and completed the long-prepared-for rupture of the schools (1842). Between these two German schools stood the Romantic French school, with H. Vernet at its head. — Music also made great progress, through the three great masters in Vienna. They devoted their best powers to secular music, but they also treated biblical and churchly subjects with imperishable success. Mozart {oh. 1791) wrote when dying his glorious requeim ; Haydn {oh. 1809) set to music the seven words of Christ on the cross, and produced in his "Creation" a grand work of art, which, however, is almost more an opera than an oratorio. Beethoven {ob. 1827), having lost his hearing, withdrew into the magic world of his imagination, from which pi'oceeded a Christ on the Mount of Olives and the second mass, "also a creation, which, however, did not reach the seventh day" (Hase), because the lofty spirit of the mas- ter was not the spirit of the church. The Berlin singing academy, under the control of Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (a nephew of the well known Jewish popular philosopher), has gained great credit in re 26* V 306 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) awakening the taste for the old churchly art music, by again perform ing the oratorios of Handel, Bach, etc. — an example which has been extensively imitated in other parts of Germany. Mendelssohn's own oratorios " Paulas" and " Elias," in which he permits the simple word of God to rule in its power and truth, as also his psalms, are the most glorious productions which have appeared in this department in modern times. He was removed by an early death (1847), before he was able to translate his ideal Christ into notes. II. PROTESTANTISM. Cf. J. G. Jorg, Gesch. d. Protestantism, in sr. neuesten Entwickel. 2 Bde. Regensb. 1858. I 54. THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL, ESPE- CIALLY IN GERMANY. The beginning of this century found Rationalism in its fullest bloom and dominion. But a new spirit began to stir already in philosophy and national literature, and the heart and mind of the noblest of the German nation became again receptive for the faith of the fathers, through the enthusiasm of the wars of liberty. A strong and energetic Pietism, which also was not deficient in martyr-joyfulness, entered the arena and fought Rationalism to the death, although appearing to yield in the single combats. The year 1830, with the Hallean controversy, constitutes a turn- ing-point. From this time Rationalism began to decline ; it was compelled to withdraw from the high places of science and cul- ture, and to try its chances in the agitation of the popular masses. Meanwhile a new factor of churchly development had appeared in the Union. A division in the camp of Pietism was produced amid the actions and reactions of the agitation occasioned by it. On the one side Pietism rose to Confessionalism, and contended as such as decidedly and as powerfully for the palladium of what was specifically churchly, as it had formerly for the treasure of the general Christian confession. On the other side, it entered most heartily into the Union, and glorified in it the most blessed acquisition of the century. All theological tendencies flowed together gradually into these two antitheses, and the present THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 307 finds itself in the midst of a yet undecided conflict of the one against the other, which is carried on both in the sphere of science and of practical life with spiritual and carnal weapons. 1. Protestant Rationalism preserved itself with its peculiar self- sufficiency and unimprovableness also through the religious elevation which the mental life of the nations reached since the wars for free- dom. Innumerable preachers and teachers in common and higher schools still adhered to it, and until within the last thirty years it was also still represented in many theological professor's chairs. In the Stunden der Andacht, by Zschokke, further in Tiedge's Urania, and entirely caricatured in AVitschel's Morgen und Abendopfern, etc., ap- peared a sentimental Rationalism, which, even though it became a bridge for many to true Christianity, nevertheless inflicted incalculable injury upon the religious development of the German nation, inasmuch as it drew the religious want, caused by the wars for freedom, away frona its true spiritual nourishment. — Nevertheless, Rationalism lost respect and influence more and more, especially among the higher educated classes. Schelling's natural philosophy and Hegel's philo- sophy of conception. Romanticism and cosmopolitan literature, in which the spirit of modern times continually advanced forward in the most heterogeneous way, were equally opposed to it. It had to draw in its sails before Schleiermacher's theological science, and the then generalissimo and grandfather of Rationalism, Rohr of Weimar, found in his own diocese in the person of Hase of Jena a not less pietistic than orthodox opponent, whose crushing polemics struck him (1834) as once Lessing's struck the chief pastor Gotze. Clans Harms {oh. 1855) on the part of the church, opened the contest against the apos- tacy from the faith of the fathers on the occasion of the Reformation- jubilee (1817), with 95 new theses, which contrast Luther's almost forgotten doctrine with the unchurchly spirit of the age ; and Aug. Halm (1827) defended in an academical disputation at Leipsic the position, that the Rationalists ought to be dismissed from the church. Since 1827 the " Evangelische Kirchenzeitung," by Hengstenberg of Berlin, began an opposition as fearless as energetic against Rationalism in all its forms. It created the greatest excitement by publishing an anony- mous article (by the jurist E. L. v. Gerlach), which openly charged the professors Geseuius and Wegschneider of Halle with infidelity, even with the scoffing of what was holy, and advocated the interposition of the civil poAver (1830). But although the ex-minister Stein (to Gagern) expressed the hope that the state would not hesitate to place a dozen Rationalists extra statum nocendi, still the government only was con- cerned about silencing the controversy that had arisen, without ex- amining the charges of the complainant. Pietism also vigorously opposed Rationalism in almost all the other German Protestant coun- tries, and provoked many lively controversies. The scientific theokh 308 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) gians disavowed it; the philosophers despised and ridiculed it; it even came so far, that men of seientilic culture regarded it as an insult to be reckoned among the nationalists. It vras already believed that the time had come to perform its obsequies, — but it was too soon. Its power at this time lay in the masses of the people, who had been trained in unbelief, and it offered this to them. When the preacher Sinienis of Magdeburg declared in a newspaper that the worship of Christ was blasphemous superstition (1840), and the consistory insti- tuted proceedings against him, the neighboring preachers Uhlicli and Kbiiig organized a union of so-called Friends uf Light, which soon called thousands of laymen and clergymen to a public meeting at Kothen. In such a meeting (1844), Wislicenus of Halle destroyed the self-deception of Rationalism, that it still occupied the ground of Scrip- tures and the Church, by the question whether the Scriptures or the Spirit was to be the form of faith. Guericke, who was present as " Church historian," made a note of it, and the evang. Kirchenzeitung contained numberless protests and excommunications. The left wing of Schleiermacher's school took offence at this, and issued, Aug. 15, 1846, from Berlin, a declaration with 88 signatures against the paper pope of the antiquated reformation confession and the inquisitorial conduct of the " Kirchenzeitung's" party, which disregarded aii free- dom of faith and of conscience, wishing to hold fast only to one thing — that Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, to-day and forever, was the only ground of our salvation. The popular wit of Berlin called them friends of hcilight or hats, because they neither wished to be friends of light nor blockheads; and the aged Ckms Harms, " Einer gegen Achtundachtzig," attacked them with the bold defiance of a youth, and with the self-consciousness of an aged confessor, who labored and suffered more than them all, in crushing philippics. The friends of light, however, fraternizing with the German Catholics and Young- Hegelians, founded free congregations at Halle ( Wislicenus), Konigs- burg [Rupp), Magdeburg ( UhlicJi) and at many other places. Saxony prohibited the assemblies already in 1845, as directed against churchly confession ; — Prussia at least forbade the participation of the laity in the same; but by an edict of toleration (1847) guaranteed tolerance and free exercise of religion to their congregations. The religious emptiness of their assemblies and sermons filled the revolutionary movement of 1848 with politico-democratic agitation. This furnished the State with the welcome occasion to place them under strict police control, and to dissolve them one after the other. 2. Pietism did also not entirely die out during the years of spiritual famine, but, being purged of many eccentricities, found a refuge and nourishment chiefly in connection with the Moravians. It also deve- loped itself in Wurtemberg in an independent and peculiarly theoso- phical, chiliastic way (to which was added later a species of ghost- seeing with all kinds of revelations from Hades, practised especially THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 309 by Justinns Kcrner). It was also strengthened to make a more decided impression by the religious agitations of the new century. In contrast with the clergy, who had almost entirely fallen under the banefal in- fluence of Kationalism, it laid hold of the religious kernel of the na- tional life, and as the weak rationalistic moral sermons could not satisfy its religious wants, it sought to do this by conventicles and meetings, which were led by gifted men, mostly mechanics, but well read in the Bible and ascetic works. As Pietism did not shun martyr- dom of any kind, neither the ridicule and abuse of the infidel masses, nor the hatred of rationalistic pastors, nor yet the interposition of the civil power, were able to retard its progress. It also gradually pene- trated the younger generation of the clergy, and even theologians at the universities. The energetic vigor of modern Pietism is manifested in its great labors for missions, foreign as well as inner, in which it accomplished the most extraordinary results with the fewest means. A fresh and hearty religious poetry was again produced by it ; the old choice hymns of the evangelical church were again used, and the ascetic treasures of the churchly past were again rescued from the dust. This modern Pietism was evangelical and Protestant from the beginning. As it did not, like the Pietism of the previous century, start from the antithesis against dead churchliness and orthodoxy, but rather from the antithesis against unchurchliness and Rationalism, it consequently was also distinguished from it advantageously by a more decided tendency towards what was generally churchly, — although the proper characteristics of Pietism, overrating the invisible above the visible church, sanctification above justification, the pain of repentance above the joy of faith, inclination towards Chiliasm, indiS'erence to- wards the churchly apprehension of doctrines, etc., belonged more or less to it. But as the Pietism of the previous century indicated in its degeneracy the transition to Rationalism, so did that of the present in its elevation form the transition to the revival of churchly conscious- ness and life. — Of some significance for the revival of religious life in several sections of Germany, but especially in Switzerland, were the missionary labors of Lady von Krudeaer (by birth Baroness Vieting- hoff of Riga, 1766). This lady, after "having been brought up in the dwellings of vanity," and wasting many years in a worldly life, but then "humbled by her sins and errors," was seized by a glowing, fanatical love for the Saviour. She now (since 1814) travelled through the greatest portion of Europe, preached repentance, proclaimed sal- vation and condemnation, carried the consolation of the Gospel to the criminals in the prisons, preached the foolishness of the cross to the wise of this world, to kings and princes the majesty of Christ as the King of kings. Wherever she went, she disturbed secure sinners, melted the stony hearts of the hardened to tears of repentance, at- tracted great crowds of spiritually miserable ones of all kinds and of all classes, etc. By some she was honored as an elect saint, as a pre 310 SKCTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.B.') phetess and a performer of miracles ; by others she was ridiculed as a fool, and persecuted as a dangerous fanatic or deceiver. Banished from country to country, she finally died (1824) in the Crimea. 3. The Protestant Union. (Cf. /. G. Scheibel, actenmiLsz. Gesch. d. neuest. Union. Lpz. 1834, 2 Bde. — A. G. Rudelbach, Ref., Lutherth. u. Union. Lpz. 1839. — 0. Krahhe, d. ev. Landeskirche Preuszens. Berl. 1849. — C. W. Hering, Gesch. d. kirchl. Unionsversuche. Lpz. 1836-38, 2 Bde.) — Since Prussia became one of the great powers of Europe, it became the centre of intelligence and the champion of Protestantism. This position, not less than the opposition to the Reformed confession among by far the greater portion of the popula- tion, made it highly desirable on the part of the Prussion government to bring to pass a union of both Protestant Churches. The circum- stances vrere very favorable to it ; the Lutheran separate consciousness had almost entirely vanished both in science and in practical life ; Lutheran Supranaturalism had formally passed over into Reformed apprehension of principles, and willingly abandoned Luther's doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper ; Calvinism had sunk into Zwinglianism, and rejoiced to see the doctrine of predestination obviated ; Rationalism hoped that the peculiar and characteristic doctrines of Christianity would fall with those of Lutheranism, and Pietism with its enthusiasm and its indifference towards the theology of the creeds willingly gave its consent. Thus Frederick William III.'s summons (at the jubilee of the Reformation, 1817) to a Lutheran-Calvinistic Union in behalf of a re- generation of the Protestant Church, met with much sympathy. The introduction of a new liturgy (1822), in the formation of which the pious king himself participated, awakened, it is true, manifold oppo- sition ; its forms were considered too churchly, even Romanizing. A second edition of it (1829) conciliated by a large selection of its formu- laries, and soon the liturgy had the authority of a law, and the Union was a fait accompli. Under a common church government and a com- mon liturgy there existed now in Prussia an evangelical national church with three sections, — a Lutheran and a Reformed, which held fast to their characteristic doctrines, but did not wish to regard them as separative, — and a real united section, which entirely abandoned the characteristic doctrines. But since these three sections did not remain separated, their commingling being rather designedly promoted, — since besides, Indifferentism, Rationalism, and infidelity, boasted of the Union as being a practical indiS'erentizing, even abolition of the con- fessions of faith, — since finally the continually increasing churchly consciousness opposed the Union more and more decidedly, the confu- sion in the Prussian united church became greater every year. The attempt to give it a firm basis in a confession of faith and in a consti- tution by a general synod, failed entirely, and only increased the difficulties (cf. § 55, 1). The largest ecclesiastical conferences, of which that of Gnadauer was the most important, also attempted iu THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 311 vain to overcome and to remove the evil from within. — Prussia's exam- ple in the union of both churches was at once followed in Baden, Nassau, Khenish Bavaria, Anhalt, Hessia, etc., and also provoked here similar evils and conflicts. (Cf. | 55.) 4. hutheran Opposition to the Union. — The Prussian union expressly declared that it did not wish a change from one church to the other, but only a union in brotherly love upon the basis of a common faith. But it declared practically that the characteristic doctrines were non- essential, and thereby placed itself upon the stand-point of the Re- formed Church, which at all times desired and strove after the union on this condition. Thus it was easily intelligible that, if it should meet with opposition from any particular church, it was not to be ex- pected fi'om the Reformed, but rather from the Lutheran. This was the case also. The contest for the continued existence of old Luther- anism proceeded from Breslau, where Br. Scheibel was dismissed from his offices as preacher and profes.sor (1832) for his opposition [ob. in exile, 1843). H. Stefens also, who again attained to the consciousness of his native northern Lutheranism through friendly and confidential intercourse with Scheibel, connected himself with the reaction ("Wie ich wieder Lutheraner wurde," 1831). Outside of Breslau also Schei- bel's example was imitated, especially in Silesia. The remonstrant clergy were punished with deposition, and, if they continued their opposition, with imprisonment, and the congregations were threatened with sharp police measures. In the village of Honigern, under the preacher Kellncr, the church was even opened for the use of the liturgy against the passive resistance of the congregation, by military force (1834). The suspended clergy held a synod at Breslau in 1835, and resolved to use every lawful means to save the Lutheran Church. The police measures were, on this account, made more severe against the resistants, and a large number of Lutherans emigrated to Australia and North America. Guericke of Halle, who, having been secretly ordained as a minister, served a small congregation of Lutherans in his house, was, after manifold police punishments, dismissed from his professorship (1835), and was only restored (1840) after making some concessions. Since 1838 the coercive measures have been generally modified. Frederick William TV. released the arrested clergy from prison (1840), and in 1841 a Lutheran Church entirely independent of the established church was formed at Breslau by a General Synod, which received a general concession in 1845 through royal favor. It was governed by a church college residing in Breslau, of which the excellent jurist Huschke was president. Meanwhile, the Lutheran consciousness was awakened also in many other congregations (espe- cially in Pomerania, etc.), which, however, were still kept in the esta- blished church by special concessions in regard to worship and the liturgy. Nevertheless, the Lutheran protestations and secessions of singh clergymen (often with a large portion of their congregations) 312 SKCTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 19 A. D.) multiplied, the latter connecting with the church college of Breslau. These were designated as "the churchly constituted Lutherans in Prussia,"' in distinction from those Lutherans who remained in the united established church. In the other German countries also, where the Union had been accomplished, especially in Baden, Nassau, Rhe- nish Bavaria, the Lutheran consciousness has been awakened here and there within the last few years, and is striving after emancipation from the embrace of the union police of the established churches. (Cf. 1 55.) 5. Protenfant Confederation. — The Union endeavored to unite, strengthen, and rejuvenate the Protestant Church by fusion. But almost the very opposite was the result. Another way to preserve the collective interests of Protestantism, was that of the Confederation, by which the peculiarity and independence of the confessions could be protected, and their common interests be represented with united strength. This way has been largely followed in modern times. The Gustave-Adolphus Union, occasioned by the bi-centennial anniversai-y of the Swedish saviour of the Protestant Church (1832), was formed Oct. 31, 18-11, to aid feeble Protestant churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries. All the German States, except Bavaria and Aus- tria, took part in it. The want of a positive creed on the part of the Union, which had a bond of union only in the negation of Roman Catholicism, aroused suspicion from the start in the minds of many churchly persons. But it was just this want of a positive creed which secured for it the sympathies of the masses. The infidel, demagogic element soon gained the ascendency. It is true, a general convention of the Union at Berlin (Sept., 1846) was yet able to exclude the Ko- nigsberg delegate Rupp, because he with his congregation had aposta- tized frtmi the Protestant principle ; but numberless protestations from branch unions opposed this act in the most decided terms. Those of a churchly spirit now went out of the Union, and in 1847 made the attempt to form a separate churchly one (Berlin, Konigsberg). The whole movement fell into stagnation amid the complications of the revolution of 1848 ; nevertheless in 1849 another general convention (the seventh) was held at Breslau, at which an important decrease of co-operation and of income, but also of unchurchly infidel agitation, was revealed. Since that time, however, the Union has again gi-eatly increased under the superintendence of the prelate K. Zimmermann of Darmstadt. Its income has increased from year to year. In 1853 it was $67,244 ; in the following year $77,218 ; and in 1858 it was $107,666. The Union, possessing such large means, under careful and well-considered management, has already accomplished great and praiseworthy results ; and it will accomplish still more in the future with increasing co-operation and support. Nevertheless, the rigid Lutherans still refuse to have anything to do with it, from confessional interests; and a specifically Lutheran miniature union has been formed at Lcipsic under the name of Gotteskasten, which seeks to supplement THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. ol3 the Gust. Ad. Union in so far as it proposes chiefly to aid where the latter cannot from fundamental antipathies (ex. gr. the independent Lutherans of Prussia). (Cf. K. Zimmermann, d. Gust.-Ad.-Ver. 4. A. Darnist. 1858.) An attempt to form a still grander and more comprehensive Confe- deration of all Protestant churches and sects of all countries, chiefly to oppose the progress of the Papacy and of Puseyism, and generally all high-church movements, was made by Dr. Chalmers (cf. |55, 8) in England. After several preliminary meetings, the first great one of the Evangelical Alliance, composed of delegates from all lands, was held in London in August, 1846. The object of the Alliance was to unite more closely all evangelical Christians on the basis of the great common doctrines of salvation ; to defend and extend this common basis of faith with united powers, especially as against the Papacy; and to contend for the freedom of conscience and the religious tolera- tion of all churches and sects, excepting the Papacy. Faith in the inspiration of the Scriptures, the Trinity, original sin, the divinity of Christ, justification by faith alone, the obligation of both the sacra- ments, the resurrection of the body, the final judgment, the eternal blessedness of the righteous and the eternal miser}' of the wicked, was made to be the condition of membership of the Alliance : accordingly, the Baptists were included but the Quakers excluded. In 1855 the Alliance combined its ninth annual meeting with the great industrial exhibition at Paris, and took the form of a church exhibition ; inas- much as the representatives of the single national churches endeavored to present to those present a view of the ecclesiastical conditi(m of the cliurches. The tenth meeting was held at Berlin in 1855. The com- mittee of the Alliance, with Sir Culling EardJey at its head, made every effort to make this meeting the largest and most brilliant. A deputation presented an address to the King of Prussia, in which it was openly declared that the Alliance not only waged war against the Sadducaism, but also against the Pharisaism of the German evangeli- cal church. The confessional Lutherans wno from the first opposed the principle and tendency of the Alliance, believed that the latter clause of this declaration was a declaration of war against them. The king, however, received the deputation most graciously; and soon expressed his displeasure concerning the suspicions about the Alliance in a decree, in which he at the same time declared that he connected the highest hopes for the future of the Church with its efforts, and beheld in it a sign of Christian fraternal feeling such as had never yet been realized. Although many distinguished representatives of confessional Lutheran- ism had also been specially and personally invited to take part in this meeting, not one of them was present. Likewise, the men of the Protest. Kirchenzeitung (cf. §56, 5) excluded themselves from partici- pating in it, because the nine articles were too orthodox for them. On the other hand, representatives of Pietism, Unionism, and Melanch II. —27 314 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) thonianism, as also of Methodism, Moravianism, and the Baptists, from all parts of the world, were present in large numbers, and constituted the heads of the ecclesiastical and political liberals. After a great deal had been said about the unity and diversity of the children of God ; about the universal priesthood ; about the superiority of the present meeting to the oecumenical councils of the early church ; about the want of spiritual life in the churches, in spite of the return of theology to the churchly confessions, etc., with laudation of the efforts of the Alliance and indirect thrusts at half Roman Catholic Lutheranism and its deification of the sacraments and the ministry, whereby the theo- logy of rhetoric was able to expatiate, — in additicm also to many excel- lent and appropriate words (ex. gr. by Nitsch, Merle d'Aubigne, et al.), the ominous kiss with which Merle d' Auhigni, although resisting, greeted Chevalier i?ifnse/i, or rather the excited feeling with which Lie. Krummacher made a report concerning it to the meeting, introduced a harsh discord into the concert. Court-preacher Beyschlag, besides, combated the churchly doctrine of inspiration, with the acknowledg- ment of which, however, the nine articles connected the privilege of membership ; and Prof. Schlottmann proposed rather to cast aside the whole of the nine articles, as to the present form of which, at all events, only the least number of those present were agreed. The gra- cious royal reception of the members of the Alliance, at which Lie. Krummacher gave expression to his overflowing feelings in the words : " Your majesty, we all ought not to fall at your feet, but upon your neck!" was glorified l^y his brother. Dr. F. W. Krummarher, as a sug- gestive prelude of the great scene of greeting at the day of judgment. Sir Cardley decreed : " There is no longer a German Ocean !" Lord Shafteshiiry announced in London that a new epoch in the world's history had begun with the meeting at Beidin ; and others returning home spoke of it as a second Whitsuntide. Dr. Krummacher, however, exclaimed prophetically, at the beginning of the meeting, in his address of welcome: "0 heart-stirring mirage!" Since then the German branch of the Alliance in Berlin has established in its service a "Neue evangelische Kirchengeitung" (1859), of which Hengstenberg has complained as an unAvarrantable theft of title. A kindred institution is the Evangelical Church Diet in Germany. When in 1848 the State was compelled to abandon its Christian charac- ter and the sovereign episcopacy of the Protestant princes was called into question by the revolution in Germany, a number of the most dis- tinguished churchly-minded theologians, clergymen, and laymen, met together in September, 1848, in the first church diet at Wittenberg, to form an Evangelical Church Alliance for Germany, which had for its object the support and independent organization of the evangelical churches in an orderly and legal way, not by means of a union which obliterated all confessional differences, but by means of a churchly confederation. The Lutheran, Reformed, United, and Moravian Churches THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 315 were first of all embraced within it. The second general church diet was again held at Wittenberg in September, 1849. The strict Lutherans for the most part had withdrawn; the churchly Lutherans of Silesia were not at all represented. The Lutheran conference, which had been held a short time before at Leipsic under the presidency of Heir- less, declared expressly that the Wittenberg confederation of churches of diiferent confessions was impracticable and irreconcilable with the principles of the Lutheran Church. The formation of a church alli- ance, such as was originally contemplated, has been entirely abandoned by the church diet, since the political reaction has also restored the ecclesiastical power of the princes. It has since then held its annual meetings in the chief German cities in turn, and has succeeded in pre- serving a tolerably active co-operation. The presidency has been re- gularly conferred on the jurist Bethmann-Hollweg. Vital church questions and the means by which to revive a churchly feeling and life have been thoi'oughly discussed by it. Such discussions have, doubt- less, exerted a wholesome influence on many who were present ; but the attempts to influence, by deputations and letters to evangelical and Roman Catholic princes, the principles of government in States having established churches, have been for the most part coolly or .ironi- cally frustrated. At the church diet at Berlin (1853) the proposition was made, openly to declare that the Augustana of 1530 was the oldest and simplest common record of publicly acknowledged evangelical doctrines in Germany, — without prejudice, however, to the Reformed interpretation of the tenth article, — and that it was still the common creed of all present. After some opposition and necessary protestation, even the Reformed present agreed ; but not only the Schleiermacherans of the left wing protested against this demonstration, which they re- garded as hostile to the Union, but also " some teachers of theology and canon law" of the universities of Erlangen, Leipsic, and Rostock, entered publicly a protest in the name of the Lutheran Church against this sham confession of the church diet as being an offence against the treasure of the evangelical chui'ch and an undermining of its legal status. At Stufr/drd (1857) there were violent debates concerning heathen missions and evangelical catholicity, between those represen- tatives of confessional Lutheranisra, who till now had remained faith- ful to the Diet, and the Unionist majority. Hamburg received the church diet of 1858 very unwillingly into its midst. Hamburg news- papers opposed it with such effect, that the police regarded it as ne cessary to adopt extraordinary measures to prevent street-scandals The transactions were of less importance than ever before. Stahl and Hengsienherg were brilliant for the first time by their absence. Beth- mann-IIollweg, then already designated for the ministry of Prussia, also presided probably for the last time over the church diet in Ham- burg. The Protestant governments of Germany, following the example of iilf> SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) Prussia and Wlirteniberg, also seized the idea of confederative unity. Already in 1846 a so-called Evangelical Conference met at Berlin, at which most of the governments were represented. It endeavored in vain to establish a common basis of doctrines, and was sunk into obli- vion by the events of following years. But in 1852 the project was again agitated and carried through with great perseverance. The Eisenach Conference met at first annually, then every two yeara (1852-53-55 ....), to confer officially concerning the manner in which the German Protestant governments acted with regard to questions of worship, government, and discipline. It established an official organ for publishing all German church-boards ("Allg. Kirchenblatt f. d. ev. Dtschl. herausg. v. C. G. Moser, Stuttg. 1852, ff.), and accomplished much important preparatory labor, but it has also had its difficulties to contend with. (Of. below, § 8.) 6. Lutheranism. — The organization of those Prussian Lutherans, who had separated from the established church into the church college in Breslau, was at first also disapproved of by otherwise rigidly churchly Lutherans in and beyond Prussia, in so far as by them (in opposition to the principle of the Lutheran Church) great importance seemed to be attached to the form of church government and to institutions such as could only belong to the confession. It is true, that during the first period of conflict and sifting, here and there phenomena may have appeared, which approached near to Donatism and Novatianism. These, however, were more and more overcome and removed in the course of progress, and with them the disinclination from that quarter was gradually removed. Since the persecutions and oppressions to which they Avere subjected have been brought to an end, their church affairs have assumed a more decided and prosperous form. And even though Guericke thought it necessary to separate from them on account of supposed violence done to his conscience to preserve his theological freedom, still foreign Lutherans (in Bavaria and Saxony, etc.) had no hesitation in maintaining fraternal fellowship with them. Their com- munion embraces about 40,000 to 50,000 souls, who are ministered to by 40 preachers under seven superintendents. As the revolution of 1848 undermined the form which the Prussian established church had hitherto assumed, and had made its continuance more than doubtful, the Lutherans who had remained within the established church also took fresh hope, that through the new organi- zation of church government they would also be able to again assert the rights of the Lutheran Church of their country. To accomplish this end, Lutheran jyroiniicial Unions were formed in Silesia, Posen, Pomerania, Saxony, etc. ; and on the evening preceding the second Wittenberg church diet, they, through their deputies, formed them- selves into a Collective Union, under the presidency of Goschel. In a public proclamation to the Lutheran congregations, t declared that it vlesired earnestly and zealously to agitate the restoi.ition of the Prua- THE PROTESTANT CHURtH IN GENERAL. 317 Bian Lutheran Church to all its well-earned and legally guaranteed rights, and to insist upon the preservation or renewal of Lutheran confession, worship, and church government, together with Lutheran congregational order, but to disapprove of secession from the esta- blished church, because it involved a voluntary and premature aban- donment of rights. With the full knowledge and the unconcealed statement of tliis .separatistic tendency the Union then became a mem- ber of the general church diet, from which, however, its adherents have since then gradually Avithdrawn. Among the Lutheran established churches, which would have no- thing to do with the Union, are especially those of Bavaria, Saxoruj, and Mecklenburg ; and Hanover also in part, where Lutheranism has most strongly developed itself. To them may be added yet the church of Livland, which, though externally isolated, is nevertheless rooted with all the fibres of its being in the Lutheran Church, in which also within a decade a synodal life has unfolded itself, which many a foreign established church on closer acquaintance with it might envy. — The Lutheran Conference at Leipsic, first brought about by Budelbach, was also of significance for the awakening and vivifying of Lutheran (■;hurchly consciousness. The thesis maintained by Liihe, Delitzsch, and Kahnis, that adhesion to the Lutheran symbols unconditionally excluded from partaking of the Lord's Supper with the Reformed as such, gave great offence to the Unionists and Reformed. Nevertheless, others, ex. gr. Hofling and Thomasius, have expressed more moderate views on this subject. A wide difference has arisen among German Lutherans about the spiritual office, which the one party [Lohe, Klie- foth, Krabbe, Petri, Miinchmeyer, Vilmar, etc.) regard as an institution of direct divine appointment, although without any Romanizing or Anglicanizing succession tendency; the other [Hofling, Philippi, Hof- mann, Harnack, Thomasius, Hiisclilxe, Harless, Kahnis, etc.) only as being conditioned by the word and sacraments, necessary to their pro- per administration, and rooted in the spiritual priesthood. The Con- ference of Reichenbach, to which the most important theologians of both theories assembled in order to come to an understanding about this difference (1856), was only perfectly unanimous in the negation of the Catholic doctrine and Romanizing one-sidedness. Great offence was occasioned by the meeting of Lutheran friends at Rothenmoor in Mecklenburg (1858), where, in discussing the passage: "A man that is a heretic, reject," remarks such as this were made, a true Lutheran could not pray with a Reformed ; but they were also deservedly repelled and repudiated (especially by Prof. Dieckhof of Gottingen). Still the responsibility of that remark is to be measured hereby, that the treat- ment of this subject was only incidental, and the remark itself was only applicaVjle to those cases where fellowship in prayer could be re- garded as being at the same time fellowship in faith ; and, uttered in 27* 318 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A. D.) . the private circle of friends, it had been made public through unfore seen abuse of confidence. 7. MelancMhonianism and Calvinism. — This intensification of the Lutheran consciousness within and without the Union also aroused here and there the Reformed consciousness, to strengthen which Ebrard established in 1851 the " Reformirte Kirchenzeitung." He conducted it for several years, when, having been placed at the head of a Union, established church (llhenish Bavaria) by changed official position, he transferred it to Charles Gobel of Erlangen. The Reformed Church of Germany occupied from the beginning a middle position between Lutheranism and Calvinism, which certainly -was closely related to later Melanchthonianism. Such a diluted Calvinism is also the banner of this Kirchenzeitung. Ebrard even undertakes to prove that the rigid doctrine of predestination is only a sporadic extreme of the Re- formed system of doctrines, against which Al. Schweizer, from purely scientific interest (" Reformiste Dogmatik ; " " Die protest. Centraldog- men in ihrer Entwickel. in d. ref. K."), has .shown, that the doctrine of predestination is rather the all-ruling, all-conditioning soul of the same, and that its admirable power, fulness, depth, and consistency, is directly grounded in it. But Hcpjje of Marburg has even contributed more than Ebrard by the invention of a Melanchthonian church (" Die confessionelle Entwickel. d. altprot. K. Deutschlands," 1854). Hero we learn that synergistic, and, on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, Calvinistio Melanchthonianism (which only appeared since 1540 !), con- stituted the original evangelical, Protestant church of Germany ; that only after Luther's death, fanatics, who would be more Lutheran than Luther himself, established the so-called Lutheran Church, and per- fected it by the formula of Concord ; that the Calvinizing of the Pala- tinate, Hessia, Brandenburg, and Anhalt, was only a reaction against hyper- and pseudo-Lutheranism, a restoration of the original Melanch thonian church, and the modern Consensus-Union was only the com pletion of this Union. (Cf. | 21, 1.) But genuine and rigid Calvinism had also, in this century, its zeal- ous adherents, not only in Scotland and the Netherlands (§ 55), but also in Germany, especially in Wupperthal. The excellent Gotf.fr. Dan. Krujnmacher, since 1816 preacher in Elberfeld {ob. 1837), and for a time his nephew Fred. W. Krummacher in Barmen (now Unionist court-pi-eacher at Potsdam), were here its enthusiastic apostles. When in 1835 the Prussian government made every preparation to force the introduction of the Union also in Wupperthal, and threatened the re- sistant Reformed preachers with deposition, there arose an excitement here among the Reformed scarcely less violent than that among the Lutherans in Silesia. The clergy, with the ma,jority of their church- members, finally accepted the liturgy of the Union, adding the clause, however, so far as it agreed with the nature of the Reformed ritual. But a portion of the congregations, and of them many of their moat THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 319 excellent members, separated, and persistently rejected all overtures . of reunion. The royal act of tolerance of 1847 (§ 55, 1) gave them finally the privilege of organizing an independent congregation at Elberfcld, which called Dr. KoMbru(jge to be their pastor (he was formally preacher of the re.>itored Lutheran church at Amsterdam [I 51, 4], then forced from this position through a contest with a rationalizing college, and since then became one of the most enthu- siastic adherents of the doctrines of the council of Dort, by the study of Calvin's writings), and represents, under the name of the Dutch Reformed Church, the only anti-unionistic, rigidly Reformed congre- gation in Germany. (Cf. F. W. Krug, krit. Geschichte d. S-jhwarmerei, etc. Elbf. p. 257', ff.) 8. Complications with regard to Worship. — The hymn-books of the established churches almost everywhere were brought into a condition which bordered on the miserable and insipid, both as regards their religious and asthetic character, by the vandalism of Illumination. Although there existed more than 80,000 sacred hymns, there never- theless existed a complete famine in regard to sacred music. Only among the old fathers and mothers of the people did there still live reminiscences and echoes of the richness and blessedness of the hymns of the evangelical church. These made themselves again felt through the revived religious life, and demanded the repossession of the stolen or squandered inheritance of the Withers. The noble poet Morifz Ariidt was the first who entered the lists in its behalf (\^om Wort u. v. Kirch- enlied. Bonn, 1819). The want, which became daily more felt, called forth at first a series of private attempts to reintroduce the old hymns (the Berlin Liederschatz by Eisner, the Collections by C. v. Ruumer, Bunsen, Stier, A. Knapp, Daniel, Layritz, Slip, etc.) These were only here and there introduced into use in public worship, but bestowed only the greater blessing upon family worship, and are also of import- ance as preliminary labors for churchly official reform. The Wiirtem- berg established church published already in 1842 a new hymn-book, which, being prepared according to Gr'dneisen's mediating principles, met the churchly demands, in spite of its defects, in a measure that could scarcely be hoped for amid the destructive tendencies of the times. In other Protestant countries, provinces, and cities, better hymn-books have already been introduced, or at least are being pre- pared. But in not a few countries and towns the despotism of ration- alistic church authorities adheres firmly to the hymnological acquisitions of Illumination even to the present day. The conference of Eisenach published (185.3) a collection of 150 classic hymns (accompanied with the old rhythmic melodies), designed to serve as an appendix to all existing and as a basis for all new hymn-books. It required great labor to establish the principle that the year 1750 should be the terminus ad quem of selection. W. Wackernagel desired the unchanged original text, and as he was not able to accomplish this, he withdrew from tha S20 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) oornmission ; Geffken of Hamburg did the same for the contrary reason, and produced a selection of his own, which, however, was laid to one side. Meanwhile, only a few established churches have to this time adopted the Eisenach collection, among which is the Bavarian, which has taken it up in its ne-w hymn-book, which is now indisputably the best of all used by the established churches. The want of a choral-book was not less than that of a hymn-book. The first occasion to a discussion on this subject w-as given in 1814 by a proclamation of the Prussian king, Frederick William III., concern- ing a preparatory reform of Protestant worship, by which the liturgy should again become prominent. Katorp of Miinster expressed him- self strongly in 1819 concerning the necessity of restoring the choral to its ancient honor and simplicity ; among his numerous successors the distinguished jurist Thiha.ut of Heidelberg ("Ueber Reiuheit der Tonkunst") still deserves special mention. The reform of the choral was carried on the most vigorously in Wlirtemberg. The attempt to revive church music through the introduction of quartette tunes alone (according to the choral-book by Kocher), without taking up again the old rhythm and the original form of the melodies, failed entirely (1828). A new choral-book, prepared under (?/'«/(e*5e?t's auspices (1843), admitted the unanimous singing of the congregation, with rich organ accomi:.ani- ments, introduced a much greater number of the older choice melodies, but had not the courage also to restore the original rhythm, urgently as Hauber contended for it (in d. deutsch Viertaljahrsschr. 1841, IV.) Able preliminary contributions towards a reform of church music were made by the excellent work by Winterfeld (der ev. Kirchenges. Lpz. 1843, 2 Bde.) and by the collections of G. v. Tucker (Schatz des ev. Kirchenges. Lpz. 1848, 2 Bde.) and oi Fr. Layritz, also the Glitersloher Hauschoralbuch, the eisenacher Kernlieder, etc. During the period of Illumination all love for the Liturgy in worship had been entirely lost, and the new liturgies were, if possible, for the most part more insipid than the new hymn-books. The Prussian Union liturgy, therefore, marks a decided progress towards something better, in spite of its defects. The representatives of the Lutheran Church returned to the old Lutheran liturgies, in their movements of reform. The Reformed overcame more and more their old antipathy for what was liturgical. Purely liturgical worship, accompanied, where it was possible, with artistic music, spread abroad from Berlin. The Eise- nach Conference declared itself to be unfit to undertake joint Lutheran preliminary labors ; and the representatives of purely Lutheran esta- blished churches held liturgical conferences at Dresden (1852, 1854, 1856), for which Kliefoth of Schwerin contributed the preliminaries. 9. Home Missions. (Cf. Wicliern, die innere Mission der deutsch ev. K. Eine Deukschr. etc. Hamb. 1840. — The same, Fliegende Blatter des rauhen Hauses. Hamb. 1849 ff.) — The Protestant Church was for a bug time behind the Roman Catholic Church in reerard to Home Mic- THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 321 sioiis, but since the beginning of this period it has begun to cancel this debt -with interest. England, with its stirring activity in promoting the kingdom of God, leads the Avay. Here it is the Dissenters especially who have distinguished themselves in this Avork. Germany has con- tributed something of importance, considering the humble means which Pietism and churchliness here have afforded. In the other countries of the continent, but especially in North America, much has been done for Home Missions. The result is, that to-day the entire Protestant world is embraced in anet of benevolent and philanthropic institutions, whicli have proceeded from specifically Christian motives, and which regard temporal aid and relief as being the basis of spiritual help. A quite special earnestness and zeal for Home Missions resulted from the revolutionary complications of modern times, which were well adapted to place in the clearest light the insufficiency of the efforts thus far made, and the crying necessity for increased activity. The restlessly active Wichern travelled through Protestant Germany in 1849, for the sole purpose of awakening an interest in this work ; and in the autumn of the same year a Congress for Home Missions, Avhich was to reas- semble annually, met in Wittenberg in connection with the second Church Diet. The object of this congress Avas to combine the indivi- dual efforts made for Home IMissioiis into one organization. Here also objections were made by the Lutherans, viz. that the organization of such unions under the direction of a central l)oard, connected with dis- regard of creeds and of congregational boundaries, was to be decidedly condemned, — and that from the point of view that then Home Missions would place themselves by the side of the church and undermine its foun- dation. Further, it was said that what Home Missions had in view was, it is true, a work of necessity, but that it should be done upon the basis of the churchly confession within each and every congrega- tion. To these were added many other objections, ex. gr. that Home Missions had become to many interested in them a matter of pious fashion, an opus operatum; that a methodistic spirit, a stiff mechanism, and a restless spirit of work, which were not born of the spirit of the gospel, had crept in ; that the ostentatious display of figures and num- bers was in bold contrast with Matt. G : 3 ; that working upon the masses accomplished nothing, but rather that each single erring sheep must be followed into the wilderness Avith unwearying faithfulness, etc. ; although, meanwhile, it Avas declared most emphatically that all these objections did not hold against the thing itself, but only against the form it had assumed. — A revicAv of only the most important institutions for the advancement of Home Missions would fill pages. We can here only mention a few of the most important, especially German institu- tions, which became at the same time mother and model institutions for numberless others of a like character. The oldest is the House of Refuge of Count Recke-Volmar stein at Diisselthal since 1816 ; next the Institution for Teachers of Charity- Schools and the Juvenile Asylum at V 322 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 19 A. D.) Beuggen (since 1820), conducted by the excellent Zeller. From it have gone forth hundreds of teachers for charity-schools and houses of refuge. Since 182G the Martin' s foundation ia Erfurt has existed under Rheiu' thaler's direction, which also has stimulated to the establishment of many similar institutions. The Rough House in Hamhtirg, under Wichern's direction (since 1833) has distinguished itself above all others by its compass and far-reaching labors. In 1836 pastor Flied- ner established the Institution of deaconesses at Kaiserswerth for the care of the sick. This institution was enlarged from year to year, and led to the establishment of many similar ones in Germany, England, and France. By the side of these unions there existed several societies for the care of released criminals, with numerous similar societies. There are asi/ 1 urns for infants and sunday-schools almost in every town and city. In France the Evangelical Society labored with great and beneficent success, and De Valcnti established the Evangelists' School near Berne. In manj' places pastoral aid societies were formed. The unemployed abilities of candidates were called into requisition, jortsore and itinerant preachers were appointed, and religious agencies were brought to bear upon the numerous emigrants, laborers in manufacto- ries, on railroads, etc. ; Magdalene asylums. Christian associations for journeymen and youths, Christian hotels, popular libraries, temperance societies, saving funds, numberless asylums for vagrant children, etc., were established. Tract Societies in London, Hamburg, Berlin, etc., sent forth millions of tracts of an awakening and instructive character. The Union for Northern Germany published larger works of the same character. The Calver Publication Union published Christian text and school-books with wood-cuts, at the lowest price. In Berlin an evan- gelical Book- Union was formed to spread the orthodox treasures of the older ascetic literature. Christian women and maidens, following the bright example of the English Quakeress, Elizabeth Fry, the nol)le Amelia Sieveking of Hamburg, etc., rendered invaluable services every- where, in behalf of Home Missions, among the needy and suffering of their race. A Society for Home Missions in the sense of the Lutheran Church was established by Lohe in Bavaria, in connection with an institution of deaconesses at Neudettalsau. The Bible Societies constituted an independent branch of Home Mis- sions. Modern Bible societies (cf. ^46, 6) originated in England. The great British and Foreign Bible Society, in which all Protestant deno- minations and sects participated, even the Quakers, was formed in London in 1804, as a necessary supplement of the missionary societies. It distributed, from principle, only Bibles without human addition, consequently without the Apocrypha, without remarks and explana- tions, mostly also without heads of chapters and parallel passages. In regard to the Apocrypha, concerning the non-admission of which the statutes say nothing expressly, there was a violent controversy (1825-27), which ended with the complete victory of the enemies of THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 323 the Apocrypha. It was decided that all pecuniary support should be refused to all societies and persons who circulated Bibles with the Apocrypha, the Bibles already bound be delivered up, and the proceeds from the same be handed over to the chief London society. More than fifty societies on the continent separated from the northern society in consequence of this action. The great North American society fully agrees with the principles of the London society. The Baden Mission- ary Union renewed the controversy in Germany, by making the com- bating of the Apocrypha the subject of a prize essay (1852). The learned essay by Ph. Fi\ Keerl received the fii-st prize; the popular one by E. Khir/e received the second. Decided Lutherans (Krausshold, Wild) also approved the condemnation. Siier and Hengstenberg, on the other hand, defended the introduction of it ; and most of the con- sistories advised to adhere to the old practice, because every abuse and misunderstHnding was prevented by the Lutheran title, as also by the prohibition to select texts for sermons from it. All the Protestant Bible societies have distributed, within the last fifty years, about 50,000,000 of Bibles and New Testaments, in almost 200 languages. The series o^ annotated Bibles of this century was opened hy Dinter's rationalistic " Schullehrerbibel" (1826 if.) In opposition to it is FhiL H.Brandt's evangelical "Schullehrerbibel" (only the N. T. 1829 fi".) Richter's " Erklarte Hausbibel" and Lisco's "Bibehverk" have been far excelled by Gerlach's work (continued by Sclimieder) ; all three, however, have been too highly estimated for the middle and lower classes. Besser's " Erklarungen N. Tl. Biicher" (" Bibelstunden") have furnished an unsurpassed model for the cliurclily 'prayer-meetings, which have been established everywhere within several decades. In regard to devotional literature, modern times have done the most and best by republishing the treasures of the 16th and 17th centuries. 10. Foreign Missions. (Cf. /. Wiggers, Gesch. d. ev. Mission. Ilamb. 1845. 2 Bde. — J. H. Bratter, d. Missionswes. d. ev. K. in. s. Bestande. Hamb. 1847-51. 2 Bde. — ^. Wild, Umschau auf. d. Arbeitsfelde d. ev. Mission. Nordl. 1854. — A. Ostertag, ubersichtl. Gesch. der protest. Missionen von d. Ref. bis zur Gegenw. Stuttg. 1858.) — The zeal of Protestant Christendom for missions among the heathen, which received such a mighty impulse towards the end of the previous century (cf. §51, 5), has continued to increase to the present day. The missionary societies (chief and branch) have increased from year to year. There exist now in the Protestant world thirty-four great chief societies with numberless branches, which yearly expend about $6,000,000 on mis- sions, and support at 1400 mission stations 3000 European and Ame- rican missionaries and an equal number of native helpers. England still holds the first place in this work ; next to it are North America and Germany. The Moravians also maintain their old reputation in this department of Christian labor. Distinguished among the modern chief societies (with more or less branches) within the Reformed Church 324 SECTION III. FOURTH P E T. ' 0 D (CENT. 1« A. D.) are the American Board of Foreign Missions (since 1810) and the Ame rican Baptist Board of Missions (since 1814). Besides these, North America has a Methodist and an Episcopal missionary society of im- portance. The most of the modern societies in Germany are connected, in principle, with the United church. The most important are the Basle (since 1816), the Berlin (since 1823), the Rhenish, with the missionary seminary at Barmen (since 1829), (which has more of a confederate character with predominant Lutheran elements) — and the North Ger- man Society (since 1836), binding its missionaries to the Augsburg Confession, with the exclusion, however, of the other Lutheran confes- sional works. The missionary school, established in 1800 by Janicke at Berlin, has a modified Lutheran character ; it has been followed in this respect by the Gosnerish Missionary Society. The Dresden Mis- sionary Society (since 1836) has assumed a decidedly Lutheran charac- ter. Its seminary was removed in 1848 to Leipsic, so that its pupils might derive advantage from the university. It has resumed the old Lutheran missionary work in East India (| 57, 7). The difFei'ence of opinion which has lately arisen about the treasury, threatens it with division. In Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Baltic provinces, in Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Hessia, and North America, exclu- sively Lutheran societies, partly independent, partly in connection with Dresden-Leipsic, have been formed ; Cassel directs its efforts especially to China. Worthy of special mention yet is the Hermanns- hurg institution under the direction of pastor C. Hai'tns, which sent out its own missionary-ship in 1853, to establish a mission among the Gallas in Africa. Altogether, 15 chief societies have now 1581 mis- sionaries, with 1311 native helpers, at 862 stations. The number of converts amounts to about 700,000. A distinguished service also ren- dered by evangelical missions is the abolition of the slave-trade by the great powers of Europe (1830), and the emancipation of all slaves in the English colonies (since 1834), for which the English nation sacri- ficed $120,000,000. The noble Wllherforce [oh. 1833) devoted his life to the accomplishment of this object. New societies were also formed in England, Germany, and France, to sustain missions among the Jews ; and though much labor has been performed, but little has resulted from them. If we begin a review of Protestant missions with Northern Europe, the Swedish mission in Lapland first comes into view, which, having been resumed by the excellent Stockfleth since 1825 (§ 39, 6), has greatly flourished. In North America we meet the highly favored mission of the Moravians in Greenland and Labrador. Moravian, Methodist, Baptist, and Protestant Episcopal missionaries, have labored with success among the aborigines and slaves of North America and the West Indies. The Moravians have also established missions on the Mosquito coasts and in Paramaribo in South America. On the 5ve8t coast of Africa, the Sierre-Leone colony was established by Eng- THE PROTESTANT.. CHURCH IN GENERAL,. 325 land to colonize and Christianize emancipated negro slaves. For the same purpose the colony of Liberia, further south, was established from the United States. Both are in a flourishing condition through the labors of Methodist, Baptist, and Protestant Episcopal missionaries. On the Gold Coast the Gospel has been introduced by the Basle, in old Calabar by the Baptist, on Gaboon river by the American and the North German Society. Cape-town is the point of departure of Chris- tian civilization for South Africa. The missionary labors of the Mora- vians were here specially successful among the Hottentots ; the Berlin missionaries labored among the Corannas, and the evangelical French society among the Betschuans. The pupils of the Barmen seminary penetrated deeper into the interior of the west coast than had ever been trod by a European, amid unspeakable hardships. They labored among the Hottentots, Namaquas, Damaras, and Hereros. The mis- sionary Hahn of Livland is worthy of special mention as the apostle of the Hereros. On the east coast the London society gained a wide field of labor among the Caffres. Further towards the north on the east coast the Anglicans labored, and the Hermannsburg society sought a field among the Gallas. On the island of Madagascar the London mission (since 1818) converted the King Radama to Christianity. His successor, the Queen Ranavalona, inaugurated in 1835 a bloody perse- cution against the Christians, by which also the apostle of the Mada- gascars, Dacid Jones, received the martyr's crown (1843). The perse- cution continues to the present day, and it has not yet been able en- tirely to exterminate Christianity. But since the successor to the throne is a Christian, better times are in prospect. An Anglican bishopric exists on the island of Manritijis, whither also many Chris- tians of Madagascar fled. In Abyssinia the missionaries Gobat, Isenburg, and Krapf, have labored (1835-43) to revive the dead national church, but they were compelled to withdraw on account of the enmity of the native priests and the machinations of papist missionaries. In Algi-'.rs the missionary Ewald labored among the Jews until 1842. If we go to Asia, we find American missionaries specially active in the Turkish provinces, striving to revive the old churches by the establishment of common schools. An evangelical bishopric, hovering between Union and Confederation, and uniting home with foreign missions, has been established at Jerusalem (1841) by the English and Prussian ci'owns, as the centre of ecclesiastical labors in behalf of the dispersed Prf> testants in the Orient, and of evangelical missions among the oriental Jews. The choice of bishops alternates between the two crowns, but ordination and rites have been yielded to the Anglican Church. The first bishop Alexander, a Jewish proselyte, died in 1845. His successor was the excellent missionary Gobat. A missionary field, which has again in the 19th century been diligently cultivated, is East India, where imte peculiar difficulties stand in the way of missionary labors : the strict castes, the proud self-sufficiency of the pantheistic Brahmins, II. — 28 326 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD ^CENT. 19 A. D.) even the politico-commercial interests of the East India company, etc. The old Lutheran missionary harvest (| 47, 7) was for the most part gathered by the Anglican Church. The Lord-bishop Heher [oh. 1826) gained great renown in connection with this mission. The missionary Rhenius of West Prussia also labored here in the service of the Angli- can Church with great success. But as he was not able to accept un- • conditionally the principles of the Anglican Church, a rupture occurred, and he labored from this time forward to his death (1838) on his own responsibility in the Lutheran spirit. His successor M'dlier again sub- mitted to the Anglican Church (1841). The missionaries of the Dres- den (Leipsic) society have again collected the remnants of the East Indian Lutheran Church, which has now six chief stations there with a wide field of labor. In addition to it, American, English, and Ger- man missionaries, of almost all creeds, labor in India and the Indian archipelago. The military insurrection in the northern pai't of East India (1857) suspended the mission there for almost two years. It is to be hoped that when it is suppressed, they will only flourish the more. In China, Giltzlvff of Pomerania, succeeding Morrison, labored with unparalleled boldness and unwearied patience on his own responsi- bility, in spite of all difficulties. Since China has been in a measure opened to Europeans by the English war (1842), the institutions of evangelical missions have assumed a more grand and systematic cha- racter under Gutzlafi''s direction, to conquer the heavenly kingdom by the Gospel. Since the rebellion of the new son of heaven ( Tien-ii) in 1852 (a descendant of the old king dynasty, which has been banished for 200 years, who received instructions from an evangelical missionary at Canton, and acknowledges the revelations of God made through Moses and Christ, but declares that he is the younger brother of Christ) fresh hopes for the success of missions were kindled, and missionaries from all countries were sent thither. But the rebellious son of heaven only manifested the disposition to become a second Mohammed. The conflict of the governor of Canton with the English, French, and Ame- ricans, and the punishment Avhich was therefor inflicted in part (1857), made the emperor finally (1858) willing to make a treaty with these three powers, as also with Russia, according to which the whole coun- try was to be thrown open to trade, and missions and the free exercise of religion was granted to Christians. About the same time also, after 300 years' seclusion, Japan was opened to European and American trade, and, it is to be hoped, also to Christian missions. The Protestant missions in Polynesia have been the most successful of all through the labors of English and American missionaries. The apostle of the South Sea Islands, John Williams, died a martyr (1839). The flourishing evangelical church at Tahiti was, however, severely afflicted by the unprecedented violence of French ships in 1837, the Queen Pomare was abused, the country was placed under French protectorate, and not only Roman Catholic missionaries, but also French dissoluteness, PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 327 were forced upon the country. In 1851, missionary labor on the Sand- wich Islands may be regarded as having been completed, and the church there as a Protestant established church. The results of mis- sions among the Cannibals of New Zealand (of whom Sain. Marsden was the apostle) were small, as also among the stupid aborigines of Australia, where even the labors of the Moravians have been almost fruitless. I 55. THE PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. The year 1814, with its new order of things, brought to pass by the Congress of Vienna (1811), with its movements towards union, which produced the large body of full-armored men, who are battling even to the present time, — and finally, the political revolutionary years 1830 and 1848, with their liberal conquest even in the sphere of the church, constituted epochs for the de- velopment of most of the Protestant established churches. In 1848 the idea of established churches seemed to have been rooted out almost everywhere and forever. But the democratic experi- ments of church government of this year demonstrated, that if the separation of the Church from the State was to be generally beneficial for Europe, it was not so yet at this time, and the restoration of the following years preserved the church from boundless confusion and unavoidable dissolution into numberless atoms. 1. Prussia. (Cf. O. Krabbe, d. ev. Landeskirche Preussens u. ihre oiFentl. Rechtsverhilltnisse. Berl. 1849.) — With reference to the eva7i- gelical established church of Prussia (cf. | 54), Frederick William IV. declared that he only desired to hold the superior direction of the church, in order that it might progress in an orderly and legal way to independence. The realization of this royal declaration and wish was inaugurated after an ecclesiastical conference at Berlin, composed of delegates from almost all German countries, accomplished nothing, by a Prussian General Synod, which was opened at Berlin on Whitsunday, 1846. The synod at its 18th session proceeded to the consideration of the difficult question of doctrine and confession. The result of the same was the adoption of a formula of ordination jjroposed by Dr. Nitzsch, whereby the ordinandus was required to believe in the prin- cipal fundamental truths of salvation instead of the hitherto ecclesias- tical confession. But as the doctrines of creation, original sin, the supernatural conception, the descent of Christ into hell, and Ilis ascension to heaven, the resurrection of the dead, the final judgment, eternal life and eternal destruction, were not expressly embraced in 328 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.). these fundamental truths, and consequently were not regarded as obli- gatory, and further, since the Lutheran and Reformed peculiar doc- trinal position was practically abolished by this formula of ordination, and with it the existence of a Lutheran as well as of a Reformed Church within the Union, a small minority of Lutherans already pro- tested against it at the synod ; numerous still more decided and power- ful protests were made outside of the synod, to which the columns of the evang. Kirchenzeitung were opened. The government gave no authority to the proceedings of the synod, and profane mockers dis- played their wit on the unfortunate Nicaenum of the 19th century. On the other hand, however, the king issued a jnitent of tolerance, March 1847, by which sovereign protection was anew guaranteed to the exist- ing churches ; but all who did not find in them the expression of their faith, were allowed to form npw religious societies. But when the storm of revolution broke in 1848, no State was more threatened with unchristianization than Prussia. The minister of worship, Count .Schwerin, was ready to grant a reorganization of the Church according to the wishes of the popular majority, expressed by a synod. But be- fore this synod could assemble the reaction had already commenced. The transition minister Ladenherg obtained the opinion of consistories and faculties, who collectively made prominent the danger of such a synod. Instead of the synod, therefore, a Hlgh-consistonj Avas formed in Berlin, which was independent of the ministry, and placed only under the king as prfecipuum membrum ecclesia3, and which was to represent the demanded freedom of the Church from the State as already realized in it. At the same time a Church-order Avas recom- mended and largely introduced, which constituted a consistory in every congregation, which was bound by the three oecumenical and the Reformed symbols agreeing with them. On the 6th of March, 1852, the king issued a government order, according to which the High-con- sistory should not only govern the evangelical established church in its collective character, but also guard the interests of the Lutheran and of the Reformed Church ; and to this end it was to be composed of members of both these churches, each of which were only to decide questions touching their own church. Dr. Nitzsch alone remained after the itio in partes occasioned in this board on this account, and declared that he was able to find the expression of his religious convictions in neither of the confessions, but only in the consensus of both. The difficulty was obviated by regarding him as the representative of con- gregations holding the same views. Encouraged to entertain bolder hopes by suth connivance in high places, the Lutheran Union pre- sented a petition to the king, subscribed by 161 clergymen, in which the restoration of Lutheran faculties and of Lutheran church property was demanded. This demand was answered by an unfavorable govern- ment order, July 12, 1853, in which the king expressed his just dis- pleasure at such misinterpretation of the order of the previous year. PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 329 and made the solemn declaratiun that it was never his intention to disturb, much less to destroy, the Union founded by his father, now resting in God; he only desired to secure for confession within the Union that protection to which it had unquestionable claim. Since then, the special interests of the Luthei-an Church, which for a time seemed to be favored, have been in visible and increasing disfavor. — The Iligh-consistory, meanwhile, continued to manifest great activity, and to adopt many wholesome regulations. To these belong the general church and school visitations of 1852, though carried out with too much noisy and theatrical display. The ostensible favor with which the king regarded the eflorts of the evangelical alliance (1857, I 54, 5), was the last evidence of decided aversion to confessional churchly eflorts which Frederick William IV. was able to manifest. A tedious and, as it appeared, hopeless disease compelled him to transfer the government into the hands of his royal brother. When the prince- regent (Oct. 1858) began to reign in his own name, he declared, in an address to his newly-chosen ministry, that it was his firm determina- tion to maintain and promote the evangelical Union, whose beneficent progress was impeded and almost destroyed by an orthodoxy which was incompatible with the very essence of the evangelical church. But in order to accomplish this task it was necessary that the organs used should be carefully chosen and partly changed. All hypocrisy and sham-piety, however, were to be unmasked wherever they appeared. Uengstenherg's and Erbkam's (in Konigsberg) withdrawal from the examining commission for situations in the higher schools, Stahl's formal, but long-sought-for, withdrawal from the High-consistory, and the relaxation of the strict pi-ocedure against the free congregation which hitherto prevailed, as also the greater connivance of the govern- ment at the demands of the liberals in regard to the question of divorce (by conceding a facultative civil marriage), are at present the only evidences of a changed policy in the government with regard to eccle- siastical aflairs. 2. The present Kingdom of Saxoyuj has had Roman Catholic princes since 1697, but the Roman Catholic Church has only been able to ac- quire territory in the immediate vicinity of the court. The govern- ment of the evangelical church resides, by a treaty, in the ministers commissioned in evangelicis, so long as the king is Roman Catholic. Although several of these have been special protectors of the orthodox church, nevertheless rationalistic illumination has not only taken deep root among the clergy, but also among the people. Meanwhile, a pietistic reaction has also gained a footing, especially powerful in Muldenthal, where Rudelbach' shlcssed labors have given it a decidedly churchly character. On the other hand, the religious movement, under the leadership of the pastor of the Bohemian congregation in Dresden, Mart. Stephan, came to a shameful end. As the representative and renovator of a strict Lutheranism, he labor d very successfully in 28* 3o0 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 19 A. D.) Dresden since 1810, but he lapsed deeper and deeper into hierarchical usurpation and neglect of watchfulness over himself, through the sub- missiveness of his adherents, which almost amounted to deification. When in 1837 the police interfered with his night meetings, without, however, having discovered anything immoral, and suspended him from his official labors, he called upon his adherents to emigrate to America. Many of them (clergymen and laymen) blindly obeyed him, and founded (1838) a Lutheran church in Missouri. Stephan's despotic and hierarchical usurpation reached its height here ; he also gave loose reins to his lusts. Women, who had been violated or abused by him, finally exposed his shame, and the congregation excommuni- cated him, whereupon he went over to the Roman Catholic Church (1846). Taught by such experiences, and entii-ely purified of the separatistic and Donatistic elements, the Lutheran reaction in Saxony is now in the most flourishing condition. Since 1850 Harlcss has stood at its head as chief court-preacher at Dresden, but in 1852 already he abandoned this position to become the head of the Lutheran Church of his native country, Bavaria. The emigration led by Stephan also took with it a number of the inhabitants of Saxony- Alienhur-g. The consistory, in a rescript to the council of Ronneburg (1838) traced this separation to the fact that the religious wants of the congregations were not satisfied by the rationalistic sermons, and admonished that the fundamental doctrines of evangelical Christianity should be more diligently preached. This rescript received the most hateful interpre- tations, and became the subject of the most passionate attacks from within and without the country. The government obtained the opinions of four theological faculties concerning the conduct of the consistory and its opponents, which it simply published with the praise and blame they expressed, and then discouraged all investigation. The revolu- tionary storm of 1848 also raged through the church of Altenburg. But since the storm has subsided, the government of the State and church has been directed with prudence and zeal towards promoting churchly feeling and life. It h'dk, however, not yet succeeded in placing a decidedly Lutheran teacher of theology in the common university of the Saxon dukcioms (Jena). In Weimar and Gotha also the Ration- alism of Bohr and Bretscniieider, which a few decades ago ruled almost all the pulpits, has begun to disappear. Nevertheless, the Duke of Gotha called in 1856 Dr. Charles Schivarz of Halle, who could only see hopes of a better time for the Protestant Church in the school of Baur and the Protestant " Kirchenzeitung" (§ 56, 4, 5), to Gotha as court-preacher and high consistorial councillor. Gotha has since then become the Gretna-Green for Prussian divorced persons, whom the native pastors supposed they were required to deny re-marriage. The civil marriage now legalized there will make a change in this matter. 3. In Hanover the Union met with no favor, although Union theology ruled in the national university after Rationalism hud disa] peareil. I'ROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 331 Nevertl eless, the moat of the clergy of the country have been tho- roughly penetrated by confessional Lutheranism. The preachers' con- ference at Stade (1854) called the attention of the government to the "crying incongruity" Avhich existed between the Union theology of the national university and the legal as well as actual Lutheran con- fession of the established church, and urged the appointment of Lu- theran teachers. The faculty, on the other hand, published a circular to preserve "liberty in teaching," and the curatorium again filled the vacancies which had occurred with Union theologians. Dr. Petri now declared the rupture to be complete. — Oldenburg, that in 1849 was really favored with a democratic church government separate from the State, permitted a new government to be chartered without any oppo- sition in 1853, which restored the chief episcopacy to the ruler of the country, and transferred the government of the church to a High- consistory and ecclesiastical legislation to a national synod (composed of 12 clerical and 17 temporal members who were elected by the dis- trict synods, and 5 members appointed by the grand-duke). — MecMen- hurg possesses a strict Lutheran church government under Kliefoth's direction, and its national university decidedly Lutheran professors. The withdrawal of Prof. M. Baiimgarten of Rostock from his professorship, in Jan. 1858, caused a great excitement. A trial theme written by him on 2 Kings 11, in which he "aimed at procuring a Scriptural doctrine to authorize violent revolution," gave the government an ojiportunity already in 1856 to remove him from the theological examination com- mission. At the same time his provoking polemics against the doc- trines of the Mecklenburg Catechism, especially with reference to the siiuctification of the Sabbath, at a pastoral conference at Parchim, in- 01 eased the distrust with which the Lutheran clergy of the country regarded his theological position. The government finally (Jan. 6, 1858) dismissed him from his theological professorship at the vuiiver- sity, though alloAving him his full salary, on the basis and through the publication of a consistorial decision, prepared by Krahhe and subscribed by Wiggers and Meyer, which charged him with heretical alteration of all the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith and of the Lutheran confession, and established this charge from his wri- tings. As was expected, this step was follqyed by a loud cry of pas- sion in all the newspapers, and even Lutherans (v. Hofmann, v. Scheurl, Luthardt) emphatically disapproved of the conduct of the government as departing from the way prescribed by the church-order, and the consistorial decision as being based on misinterpretation, arbitrary supposition and inference; whilst the apologists justified the conduct of the government as a mere administrative measure, and endeavored to prove that the argument of the decision was well grounded in the principal points. — In the Electorate of Hessia the high ecclesiastical authority reduced in 1838 the obligation of the clergy at ordination to conscientiously regarding the confessions of faith. The distinguished d32 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A. D.) professor of law, Bickell of Marbm-g, saw in this a violation of eccle« siasiical right, even an endangering of the evangelical church, against which the advocate Henkel in Cassel as popular agitator protested, and demanded from the government a national synod, which should for- mally a);olish all symbolical books. The government ignored both demands, and the violent controversy gradually subsided. Within several years the question of confessions entered upon a new stage. It was violently disputed as to which confession the country belonged. The Landgrave Moritz, it is true, forced a diluted Calvinism upon the province (| 34, i) ; but still a Lutheran basis, with Lutheran views, arrangements, and laws, remained, and the Lutheran reaction haa never been entirely subdued. Only the province Hanau accepted the Union (1818). Since then the government haa appointed preachers and professors without asking about their creed. The ministry of Has- senvlvg (since 1850) regarded the country as of right Lutheran, and organized ecclesiastical aifalrs in this sense. The consistoi-ial coun- cillor. Dr. Vilmar, was the right hand of the minister in this matter. The elector, hoM'ever, was not very friendly to this movement from the beginning. In 1855 the ministry Avas overthrown, and Vilmar was transferred to Marburg as professor of theology. — The Grand-ducliy of Hessia is the only country in Germany that yet possesses a rational- istic faculty of the purest water, for even Jena is evidently behind Giessen in this respect. But a decidedly Lutheran reaction has com- menced among the younger clergy, which is growing in strength and extent. The Iligh-consistory is active in promoting peace by media- tion. In Ileformed Lippe Deimold, as late as in 1844, five preachers, who, becoming tired of the Illumination Catechism of the established church, again used the Heidelberg Catechism, and protested against the abolition of swearing adhesion to the symbols, were punished as disturbers of the peace of the church. The democratic form of church government of 1851 was already abolished in 1854, and the old Re- formed church-order of 1G84 took its place. At the same time reli- gious freedom and equality were guaranteed to the Roman Catholics and Lutherans. 4. There existed in Protestant Wiirtemhevg an activity of the religious spirit in the national life, as nowhere else. Pietism, Chiliasm, Sepa- ratism, the conventicle system, etc., assumed powerful forms; solid scientific knowledge, philosophical culture, and lately also philosophical and critically destructive tendencies, forced themselves upon the clergy of the country from Tubingen. The dissatisfaction with many of the innovations in the liturgy, hymn-book, etc., drove many from the esta- blished church. After the adoption of forcible measures had proven fruitless, the government allowed those dissatisfied to establish the congregation at Kornfhal with a peculiar (ecclesiastical and civil) con- stitution after apostolic example (1818). Others emigrated to Southern Ru?sia or to North America (cf. § 60, comerning the Harmonites) I'ROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 333 Lately a society for the gathering nf the people of God in Palestine has been formed on the Sahm near Ludwigsburg. Its object is to gather an emigration of believers from all nations (about 10,000 families) for the Holy Land, to constitute there anew a people of God, which, upon the foundation of the prophets and apostles, of which Christ is the corner- stone, will bring into full authority the divine law of the old covenant in all the relations of life. A 'general meeting in 1854 in- order to realize this plan, appointed a committee, published a programme (in its organ : der suddeutschen Wartc), and requested the German diet to obtain for it, from the Sultan, permission to settle in the Holy Land with self-government and religious freedom. Christopher Hojfmann, brother of the Prussian general superintendent and inspector of the institution for Home Missions at St. Chrisona near Basle, was the head of this movement. (lie wrote: Gesch. d. Volkes Gottes als Antwort auf die sociale Frage. Stuttg. 1855). The educational institute upon the Salon was conducted by his brother-in-law Paulus, nephew of Paulus at Heidelberg. The committee, instructed to wait patiently, purchased in April 1856 the estate of i^^rsc7ie/i7mrcZ^7^o/ near Marbach, in order to found here on a small scale a preparatory social state in strict accordance with the Mosaic law. At the beginning of 1858 a commission with Chr. Hoffmann at its head, went to Jerusalem, to re- connoitre the country for the speedy colonization of the people of God. But the results were so unsatisfactory that they were compelled for the present to abandon the idea of emigrating to the Holy Land. — The gift of healing the sick by absolution and the laying on of hands in connection with believing prayer, was developed out of the pietistic and earnest pastoral care of preacher Blumhardt of Mottlino-en, in connection with the healing of a demoniac, which was followed by a great revival in the congregation. Blumhardt, in order to give free scope to this gift, lately purchased the bathing establishment at Boll near Goppingen, where he now ofBciates as pastor and miraculous phy- sician.— In the Grand-duchy of Baden the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Church was accomplished in 1821. It grants normative au- thority to the Augustana (as also to the Lutheran and Heidelberg Catechism), in so far as by it the free investigation of the Scriptures, as the only source of Christian faith, is openly demanded, affirmed, and applied. A synod of 1834 provided the established church with union rationalistic principles in the liturgy, hymn-book, and catechism. When at the beginning of 1850 a confessional Lutheranism began again tc manifest itself here also, the united church combated it with gens-d'armes, imprisonment, and fines. The preacher Eichhorn, and later also the preacher Ludvjig, seceded from the established church with a part of their congregations, and connected with the church college of Breslau, but were only able to spiritually serve their people amid unspeakable vexations on the part of the police. After repeated refusals the grand -duke finally in 1854 granted to the seceders the B3-t SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A. D.) permission to elect a Lutheran pastor, but he perseveringly refused to acknowledge Eichhorn as such. Preacher Haag, who would not aban- don the Lutheran formula of distribution at the Lord's Supper, was deposed (185.5) after earnest warning. On the other hand, the positive churchly movenien also grew stronger in the established church. In 1854 the old rationalistic members of the High-consistory were silenced, and Ulhnann, of Heidelberg became its head. Under his auspices a general synod (1855) adopted resolutions to introduce new church and school-books in the sense of the Consensus-Union, endeavoring, at the same time, to accommodate them in a measure to Lutheran views. The grand-duke confirmed the resolutions, and the country remained silent. But when in 1858 the High-consistory, on the basis of the synodal resolutions of 1855, promulgated a new " Kirchenbuch" for general introduction, the new liturgical innovations which it contained (enlargement of the liturgy by the confession of sin and of faith, col- lects, responses, lessons, kneeling at the Lord's Supper, assent to the confession of faith by sponsors), aroused a violent opposition in the country, at the head of which was the faculty of Heidelberg, with Dr. Schenkel as leader. The grand-duke decided that the new liturgy should not bo forced upon any congregation in the country ; on the other hand, the shorter and simpler form of the same was to be intro- duced when it could be done then or later without force, whilst the larger form Avas only to be used by congregations which expressly de- sired it. — In Nassau also, which also accepted the Union, a Lutheran movement of emancipation has manifested itself within the last few years, but it has been repressed by police measures. 5. In Protestant Switzerland there existed, in addition to the luxu- riant growth of rationalistic Illumination and radical Liberalism, a soil receptive for Separatism and religious fanaticism, Avhose first cultivation has been attributed, perhaps not unjustly, to Ladi/ von Kriidener. The French philosophy of the 18th century gave the Ee- Jurmed Church of Geneva a rationalistic tendency, and the venerable Compagnie of the Genevan clergy could venture in 1817 to impose upon candidates at ordination the obligation not to preach on the natures in Christ, original sin, predestination, etc. But this state of things was opposed by a Methodism (in Geneva, especially also in Lausanne) transported from England, whose adherents, nicknamed the Momiers, rebuked the apostacy from the church by word and deed. In Waadtland the Helvetic Confession w^as abolished in 1839 by a reso- lution of the chief council, and in 1845, when a radical revolutionary government got possession of the helm of State, the refusal of many clergymen to read a political proclamation of the government furnished occasion for a schism, inasmuch as all the offending clergymen were dismissed from the established church. Since then, in addition to the established church, a free Waadtland ish Church has existed under the oppression and persecution :)f the radical government. In the chief PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 335 council of Geneva the resolution was offered in 1855, to separate the church entirely from the State, for which Al. Vinet [oh. 1847 as pro- fessor at Geneva) contended with glowing eloquence during his whole life. The resolution is still favored by many earnest Christians, but it has finally been rejected by a majority. — Among the German Re- formed cantons only Basle has been able to resist the introduction of Rationalism ; but that the people also in other cantons are not willing to give up the faith of the fothers so easily, was shown in 1839, when the chief council of Zurich called Dr. David Strauss as professor of theology. The people rose as one man against this measure ; the ap- pointment failed ; the chief council was overthrown, and Zurich even yet pays a pension to Strauss. A similar occurrence took place in Berne, upon the calling of Dr. Zeller to the theological professorship there in 1847. The opponents of this movement only gained insult and persecution. But as Zeller even was not radical enough for the Radicals, he accepted in 1849 a professorship of philosophy at Mar- burg. In Basle the exclusion of the radically infidel candidate Rimipf from the list of the candidates for the ministry in 1858, caused a great noise. Ilis endeavor to be restored has, meanwhile, failed in the chief council. 6. Only the name of a protector of the papal chair and of the Roman Catholic Church remained to the Emperor of Austria from the Roman empire. The remnants of the church government of Josephine have since her time been gradually removed, and Rimian Catholicism has been retained as the State religion ; nevertheless, the government of the State preserves, in opposition to all hierarchical claims, its inde- pendence, and grants toleration, though of a very limited kind, to Protestantism. The storm of 1848 first removed the hated name of the non-Catholics, obtained permission to place bells and steeples upon Protestant houses of worship, and the compliant guarantee of many rights, the realization of which, meantime, has been greatly hindered by the opposition of Roman Catholic magistrates and priests. After that the government, by its concordat with the Pope (1855), granted to the Roman Catholic clergy almost unlimited power to protect and uphold the Roman Catholic established church, it appeared for a time as if it was honestly disposed to protect Protestantism in its rights of existence, and to promote its progress. In fact also much was done to promote and support evangelical churches and schools. Even the festival of the Reformation on Oct. 31 was allowed to be publicly celebrated in Vienna. But the repeated refusal to permit the forma- tion of branch unions of the Gustave-Adolphus Society (althodgh the acceptance of support from the same is now granted) — the mainte- nance of the law, that Roman Catholic priests, even after they have formally become Protestants, dare not marry, because the character indelebilis of consecration to the priesthood still adheres even to apos- tates— and many other things, show that the government is yet far from 336 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) placing Protestants on a legal equality with Roman Catholics. In the Tvrolese Zlllerthal evangelical truth has found its way into many families through Protestant books and Bibles. When the Roman Ca- tholics drew the reins tighter (1826), these, appealing to Josephine's edict of tolerance, petitioned for permission to join the evangelical church. The Emperor Francis I. promised them tolerance. But the Tyrolese deputies protested, and the official decree which finally fol- lowed (1834) commanded them to emigrate to Siebenblirgen or beyond the imperial States. The petitioners preferred the latter, and applied by a deputation to the King of Prussia, who directed them to colonize on his domain of Erdmannsdorf in Silesia. Thither 399 of the exiles emigrated in 1837 and founded a new Zillerthal, richly aided by royal munificence. In Bohemia there was awakened, with the enthusiasm for the national instituticms, also patriotic religious sympathies for the old Hussiteism, connected with many transitions to the Protestant Church. In Hungary the Diet had obtained since 1833 full equality for the Protestants with the Roman Catholics, when, in consequence of the military rule of the Protestant Haynau, all independent life and action of both Protestant churches was fettered again in 1850. Haynau's decree, it is true, was abolished in 1854, but still the com- plete return to the former autonomy of the churches has not been secured in spite of all petitions and deputations ; and the difficulty in the way has been increased by the Hungarians refusing in a rough way to accept the plan of a constitution proposed by the government in 1856. In Siebenbiirgen, on the other hand, at least the evangelicals of the Augsburg Confession rejoice in the possession of perfect eccle- siastical equality and independence — a favor which has not yet been conferred on the Reformed living there. 7. Bavaria under King Louis was the shield of Roman Catholicism in its extreme ultramontane form. The constitutionally guaranteed religious freedom of the Protestants was in many ways embarrassed and limited ; and great as were the necessities of the Protestants in Southern Bavaria, the government most strictly prohibited them from receiving any aid from the Gustave-Adolphus Society. King Louis Haw even in the name of this society a reproach of the German name, and, besides, he was offended at its vague, negative confessional posi- tion. Nevertheless, he did not hesitate to give a. peaceful asylum in Roman Catholic Bavaria to Scheibel, who was driven out of Lutheran Saxony by Prussian diplomacy, — and permitted the university of Erlangen (after its dead spiritual life had been reawakened by the excellent Reformed preacher Krajf't [ob. 1845] ) to become the centre of a strict Lutheranism both in practical life and in science for all Germany. The kneeling order of 1838, which also imposed kneeling before the sanctissimum upon the Protestant soldiery as a military salutation, caused great dissatisfaction among the Protestant popula- tion, and provoked many controversial treatises from both sides. When PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CIIURfllES. 337 finally the Diet made the grievance of the Protestant delegates its own (1845), a royal declaration was issued, by which the previously exist- ing purely military salutation was restored. After that the ultramon- tane party had fallen into disfavor by its hcmorable course in the Lola Mollies scandal of 1847, and the revolution of the following year com- pelled King Louis to abdicate, the Protestant Church of Bavaria, at the head of which Harless stands since 1852, attained to the full, un- limited, and undisturbed enjoyment of its rights, under the reign of the noble and just King Muximilian. The general synod of 1853 (at Baireitth) manifested, under Harless' presidency, a thorough earnest- ness in the work of reorganizing the established church. On the basis of its transactions the High-consistory ordered the introduction of a new and excellent hymn-book. This already caused great dissatisfac- tion among the unchurchly Liberals, but was at length carried out. But when in 185G the High-consistory published a series of ordinances: 1. An instruction concerning the order of worship with a provisional liturgy; 2. A direction concerning the restoration of church discipline; 3. A decree concerning the regulation of the confessional, with a view to the reintroduction of private confession ; 4, A decree to guarantee the spiritual office against improper imputations in reference to baptis- mal sponsors, marriages, funerals, etc; and, 5. finally a regulation, according to which the parties to be married were required to appear personally before the preacher for proclamation of the bans, — then a terrible storm, starting at Niirnberg, broke loose, which raged through the entire country. The king was overwhelmed with petitions, and the High-consistory went so far in almost timorous compliance as to make the acceptance or non-acceptance of its regulations optional to the congregations. Meanwhile the time for holding a new general synod approached (1857). A decree of the royal high-episcopate abo- lished the union of the tAvo national synods into one general synod, and prohibited all discussion concerning church discipline. Con.se- quently, instead of one synod two assembled, the one in October at Anspach, the other in November at Raireuth. Both, composed of an equal number of temporal and spiritual delegates, took a very honor- able and moderate course, by which they neither prejudiced the rights of the church nor the honor of the High-consistory. The storm has since then subsided very rapidly, and the hopes of a prosperous pro- gress in church aifairs have brightened. — An imminent division of the Lutheran established church by the hyper-Lutheran party of Lohe in Neudettelsau was fortunately averted by the action of the general synod of 1853. Lohe and his party, although somewhat sulky, yet hoping the best from a development begun so vigorously, retraced their steps, and the High-consistory continued its indulgence towards Lohe. Finally, however, in 1858 it quite unexpectedly set bounds to him by inflicting on him a sharp remand in a threefold form : first, that he administered the anointing with oil, although not as a sacra- II.— 29 w 338 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 a D.) ment. to a sick young lady staying with him, yielding to her appeaifl to James 5 and iNIark IG ; — secondly, on account of introducing auri' cular confeHsion and absolution among non-confirmed youth; — aud, finally, on account of an instruction concerning the exercise of church discipline, which he himself devised and carried out in his congrega- tion on his own authority. Whether the rupture which has long been impending will finally be consummated in consequence of this, is yet to be seen. The government has also acted justly towards the Reformed and united churches of the country by appointing a Reformed professor of theology in the Protestant national university. The Union was accomplished in 1818 in the Bavarian Palatinate of the Rhine, with the agreement to hold the symbolical books of both churches in proper esteem, but to acknowledge no other doctrinal rule than the Scriptures. Hereby, it is evident, the door was opened to the most boundless Ra- tionalism. The general synod of Anspach in 1849 favored the country with a new democratic church organization ; but a reaction took place here also. Since 1853, the consistory of Spire, under Ehrard's leader- ship, brought to pass the meeting of a general synod in the autumn of this year, which raised the Augustana Yariataof 1540, as embodying the consensus between the Augustana of 1530 and the Heidelberg, as also the Lutheran Catechism, as the banner of the Palatinate church. Since then the consistory has proceeded with police force against all those preachers who preach and teach the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper ; and when Dr. Hengstenberg of Berlin opened the columns of his K-Zeitung to the indignant assaults of the Lutherans on this despotic union, the court of assizes in Zweibrucken condemned him in contumaciam (1854) to an imprisonment of 3 months or a fine of 50 fl. ; — but even in Zweibrucken they do not hang a culprit until they catch him. AVhen the consistory, in pursuance of the action of the general synod of 1853, laid the plan of a new hymn-book before the diocesan synods (1856), the universal indignation of the liberal inhabitants of the Palatinate broke out in a terrible storm, on account of the doctrines imputed to them in it. The diocesan synods, however, acknowledged the necessity of a new hymn-book and the appositeness of the plan in general, but they recommended another revision of the same and the addition of 150 new hymns. The radical agitation con- tinues to the prosent time : the petition to the king to annul the syno- dal resolutions with regard to it has been denied (1858). 8. Great Britain and Ireland. (Cf. H. F. Uhden, d. Zustande d. angllk. K. Lpz. 1843. — M. Petri, Beitr. zur. AV^iii'dig. d. Puseyismus. Gottg. 1843. — H. R. Weaver, d. Puseyism, aus d. Engl. v. C. Anthor. Lpz. 1844. — A. F. Gemherg, die schott. Nationalk. Hamb. 1828. — K. H. Sack, d. K. v. Schottl. Heidlb. 1844-48, 2 Bde. — J. Kostlin, d. Bchott. K. Hamb. 1852. — PA. Schqf, Zustande u. Parteien d. engl. Staatskirche. In d. deutsch. Ztschr. fur chr. Wsch. u. chr. Leben, PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CIIUXCIIES. 33^» 1855-53.) — A Reformed Protestant and a Roman Catholic element have heen combined in the established Church of England. The former appears especially in the doctrines of the church, the latter in the doc- trine concerning the church, and from this also in the form of govern- ment (episcopal succession and hierarchical organization), as also in the worship (liturgy abundant in ceremonies). Where both elements have been really united and reconciled, i. c, where the one has pene- trated the other, an intimate relationship with the Lutheran Church has been manifested. But because this union has not been actualized fully and harmoniously in every part, the two elements having been rather kept asunder, an exclusive, extreme divergence on both sides was unavoidable, as was also the result very soon, on the one side re- presented in the Dissenters, on the other in the Romanizing tendency of the Stuarts. Since the political parties of the Tories and AVhigs have been formed, two corresponding parties have also appeared in the established church. The high-church party, which has its influen- tial representatives among the aristocracy, detests the tendency of the Dissenters, seeks to preserve the most intimate connection between State and Church, and carefully watches over the preservation of all churchly forms and institutions in government, worship, and doctrine. On the other hand, the evangelical (or low-church) party, which is more or less Methodistic, sustains the most active intercourse with the Dissenters (co-working in Home and Foreign Missions, etc.), and re- presents in various degrees (even to the extreme of Dissenters) the claims of progress against those of stability; the independence and self-dependence of the Church against identification with the State ; evangelical freedom, and the universal priesthood of Christians, against orthodoxy and hierarchy. The active life of the Dissenters and the increasingly close connection of the episcopal evangelical party with them, incited also in modern times the high-church party to a more powerful protection of its interests, and impelled it to a one-sided intensification of the Roman Catholic element. The centre of this Romanizing tendency since 18.33 is the university of Oxford. The heads of this movement were the Professors Pusey, Newman, etc. ; its literary organ were the Tracts for the Times (whence the party is also called Tractarians), a series of treatises in defence of Anglo-Catholi- cism, which, in adhesion to the 39 articles, as decidedly defends genuine Protestantism against the Roman papacy, as it defends" genuine Catho- licism against every kind of ultra Protestantism in the weight which it attaches to the apostolical succession of the bishopric and priesthood, and to apostolical tradition in behalf of exegesis. In this way also !very doctrine was approximated to those of the Roman Catholic sys- tem, so far as the 39 articles would possibly allow it. This tendency, called Puaeyism, met with much sympathy, especially among the higher clergy. But the "No popery" principle is too deeply rooted in the English nation, not t( meet Puseyism with great indignation and 340 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 • A. D.) . Strong opposition. The most of the English bishops opposed it in pastoral letters; Pusey and Newman were dismissed from their posi- tions, but the university still adheres to its tendency. In 1845 New- man went over to the Romish Church, and crowds of Puseyites, espe- cially from the higher aristocracy and clergy, have since then followed his example. But this apostacy only served to increase the aversion of the English people to Puseyism and Popei'y. When the Vicar Gor- ham was promoted in 1847 to a better position by the crown, the Puseyite Bishop of Exeter protested against it, because Gorham dis- puted the doctrine that regeneration takes place in baptism. The privy-council, however, as the highest ecclesiastical court, declared him to be orthodox, and appointed liim in spite of all opposition. This gave the episcopal clergy an opportunity to urge the restoration of the Convocation, a kind of spiritual parliament. This object was gainel in 1854 ; but the convocation has as yet been able to accomplish but little. In addition to the pressure to obtain the recognition of baptism as the vehicle of regeneration, the zeal of the high-church clergy for the introduction of private confession, or as its opponents say, of auricular confession, has also given occasion for offence and contro- versy. A London clergyman named Poo^e was deposed on this account in 1858 by his bishop ; a Vicar West, on the other hand, of the diocese of Oxford, was acquitted for the same offence. — Besides the high- and the low-church party, a third one, the so-called bi'oad-church pariy, has made itself felt within a few decades. It traces its origin to the celebrated philosopher and poet Coleridge [oh. 1834), and numbers in its ranks many of the most respectable and learned of the present clergy, who are also specially distinguished by their intimate acquaint- ance Avith German theology and philosophy. They do not form an organized church party, as the evangelicals and high-churchmen, and do not propose anything of the kind ; nevertheless, their tendency is directed towards removing the narrow-mindedness and exaggeration of the other parties, and furnishing a broader basis and clearer horizon both for theology and the church, without prejudicing in any way either the authority of the Scriptures or the doctrines of the Church. Lord Russell's university bill (1854) opened also the university of Ox- ford to Dissenters by restricting the obligation of the 39 articles to the students of theology. In 1857 the introduction of a new divorce bill, which established a new court for divorces, gi'anted the wife the right to apply for divorce in case of incestuous adultery, bigamy, and mali- cious abandonment, and unconditionally allowed the re-marriage of those divorced, created great excitement among, and called forth much opposition from the high-church party, but, nevertheless, passed both Houses without amendment. The admission of Jeics to parliament was also accomplished in 1858, after a contest extending through 12 years, by granting to both Houses the right to admit a member who took tho oath " on the true faith of a Christian." In opposition to high-church PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. oil Oxford Rationalism gained ascendency more and more in Cambridge, and even the labors of the Tubingen-Baur School (^ 5G, 4) find enthu- siastic eulogists in the Westminster Review. The Church oj' Scotland, from the beginning strictly Calvinistic in customs, government, and doctrines, has also preserved this character unimpaired to the present time. The difference between the moderates and the evangelical party does not refer to doctrine, but only to govern- ment. The latter are strict Presbyterians, and opponents of the right of patronage. Besides the Presbyterian form of government, there existed, namel}', of old a right of election by the land proprietor, which was often exercised to intrude obnoxious clergymen upon the congre- gations. The General Assembly of 1834 granted the veto-power to the congregations, but the civil courts protected the patrons in their here- ditary rights. At a meeting of the General Assembly in 1843 about 200 members withdrew on this account from the Established Church of^ Scotland as Non-intrusionists, and laid the foundations of the Free Church of Scotland, which, Avith Dr. Chalmers [oh. 1847) at its head, has exhibited great zeal and self-denial in establishing parishes, etc., and is now in a prosperous condition. The large mass of the people belong to it, whilst the established church is mainly composed of the rich landed proprietors. In addition to these two, there exists also a United Presbi/teriaa Church, which is supported by the wealthy middle class, and insists upon the separation of the Church from the State. A controversy concerning the introduction of organs into the churches has been carried on in this church since 1856. Three churches in Glasgow have received permission from the synod to introduce organs under certain limitations. More important is the controversy concern- ing the Lord's Supper, which broke out in the established church of Scotland in 1857. Bishop Forbes of Brechin, in an address to his clergy, which was published later, insisted upon the necessity not only of acknowledging the real presence of the true body and blood of Christ in the Holy Supper, but also of the participation of the same by the unljelieving. The other bishops, however, at a synod at Edin- burgh, pronounced this doctrine of their colleague to be anti-Scriptural and anti-Anglican, against which 55 presbyters protested. One of these, Patrick Chei/ne of Aberdeen, who was charged Avith holding the doctrine of transubstantiation, has been deposed by the episcopal General Synod, because he would not retract. — In Ireland, whose Ro- man Catholic population has been greatly decreased by constant emi- gration, the work of evangelization prospers without interruption. In England and Scotland not less than 16 societies exist, which labor in this work by missionaries, itinerant preachers, colporteurs, and school- teachers, and expend yearly $500,000 upon it. 9. In tiie Netherlands (cf. A. Kiihler, die niederlandisch-reform. K. Erlg. 1856), Rationalism and latitudinarian Supranaturalism have so far moderated the hostilities existing between Reformed, Remonstrants, 29* 342 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A. D.) Mennonitcs, and Lutherans, that the clergy of one party were allowed to preach in the churches of the other. There the poet William Bil' dercUjk, driven from political to religious patriotism, arose in glowing anger against the general apostacy from Dort orthodoxy. Two Jews converted by him. Is. da Costa and the physician Cappadose, power- fully supported him. A young, fiery clergyman, Henri/ de Cock, be- came the theological spokesman of the party. Because he violated ecclesiastical order by ministering in congregations belonging to other clergymen, he was suspended and finally deposed (1834). The largest portion of his congregation, and with him four other preachers, now solemnly declared, that their secession from the apostatized church was a return to the orthodox Reformed Church. They were punished by fines and imprisonment as Separatists and disturbers, and were finally satisfied with being regarded, by royal favor, as a separate Christian church (1839). It was composed at this time of 30 congregations. The established church, on the other hand, perseveres in its latitudinarian tendency. There exists since 1850 a free synodal system, by which the church is governed. The general synod is held yearly at Hague. The one of 1853 declared that the Netherland Reformed Church did not demand from its teachers agreement with all the doctrines of the symbolical books, but only with their spirit and essence. The so-called Grdninger (humanistic) school, with Schleiermacher's fundamental tendency, reigns at the universities. Its chief representative is Hof- stede de Groat. The largest portion of the clergy still belong to the old moderate rationalistic tendency. Theological learning, especially that of a philologico-historical character, still flourishes in Holland. During the last ninety years Rationalism has also prevailed in Den^ mark. In 1828 Professor Clausen, a moderate disciple of Neology, identified Rationalism and Protestantism, in a learned work ("Katho- licism u. Protestsm." Translated from the Danish by Fries. Latest edition 1828, 3 Bde.) On the other hand, Pastor Griindtviff, " a man of poetical talents, and learned in the ancient history of the country," entered the lists, equally enthusiastic for the Lutheranism of the fathers and for patriotic Daneism, with powerful eloquence and with the charge of apostacy from Christianity and the Church. He Avas condemned by the courts as an injurer, having resigned his pastoral office while the trial was in progress. The same fate befel the orientalist Lindberg, who charged Clausen with breaking the oath of his office. Grundtvig's adherents worshipped in conventicles until he obtained permission in 1832 again to hold public worship. The Dano-mania, which increased beyond measure in 1848 and 1849 (during the w.arlike conflicts with *Jermany), reconciled enemies and alienated friends. Grundtvig espe- cially raged senselessly against everything German, and of the two Actors, which he at one time regarded as the poles of the world's his- tory (" Weltchronik," transl. by Volkmar, NUrnb. 1837), namely Oaneism and Lutheranism, he lately abandoned the latter as being of PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 343 German origin, in that he desired to remove the German Lutheran special confession of faith, placed the Apostle's creed before and above the Scriptures, and wished to introduce Scandinavian mythology into the schools as Christian propoedeutics. The Schleswig-Holsiein rebel- lion of 1848 was followed by a boundless distraction and destruction of ecclesiastical affairs there. More than 100 German pastors were dismissed, and 40 Schleswig parishes were deprived of the use of the German language in church and school. Nevertheless, the great Scan- dinavian Diet of Copenhagen had the effrontery (1857) to reply to the intercession of the English section of the evangelical alliance, that it was not acquainted with a single in«tance of such action, and that it was not its business to prescribe the use of language in SchlesM'ig. The Rapfistic movement, which is continually gaining strength in Denmark, was greatly promoted (1857) by a law which abolished the compulsion to baptism in the established church, and only requires that all children be registered in the church register within a year. In Sweden since 1803 a quiet and useful religious communion has existed, in opposition to the stiff and dead orthodoxy of the established church, which, if characterized by pietistic one-sidedness, is not guilty of a heretical departure from orthodox doctrines. Because its mem- bers diligently read the Bible and the works of Luther, they have re- ceived the name Readers, and have been persecuted by the established church, by virtue of the old law against conventicles (1726), with im- prisonment and fines, and by the moli with insult and abuse. Although the constitution of 1809 guarantees freedom of Avorship, nevertheless the old rigid laws still exist in full authority and power, according to which the secession of subjects from the Lutheran established church is punished with imprisonment and exile, with the loss of civil reputa- tion and of the right of inheriting. Nevertheless, within several years the transitions to Roman Catholicism, to the Baptists, and even to Mormonism, have greatly increased. Even in 1858 six women, who were converted to Roman Catholicism, were mei'cilessly banished from the country. In 1857 the king laid a tolerance-act before the Diet, which, although intolerant enough (excluding all converts from all civil offices and reserving their children for the established church), was, nevertheless, rejected by the states. The unprotestant law must in time, without doubt, yield to the indignation which has been created by it abroad, especially in England, and to the unwearied agitations of the Reform party in the country. A beginning at reformation has already commenced, inasmuch as by a royal decree with the approba- tion of the states the law against conventicles was abrogated in Oct. 1858. — In Knrwaij, where the State is much less identified with Church than in Sweden, the movement among the people started liy the farmer Niels Haiige (§51, 4), has by no means died out. But Avith Scandina- vian hatred of everything German, Grnndtcig's bran-new theology has also been imported from Denmark, and has met with great favor. The 314 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) theological faculty at Christiana, however, which represents in science and practical life a rigid and living Lutheranism of the German stamp, is opposing it with energy and eifect. 10. France and Belgium. (Cf. H. Beuchlin, d. Christth. in Fr. Hamb. 1837. — A. Mader, d. prot. K. Frankreichs, pulilished by Gieseler. Lpz. 1848. 2 Bde. — Aginor de Gasparin, Les interets g^neraux du Protes- tantisme fran(j. Par. 1843. Transl. by Runkel, Essen, 1843. — A. Damman, d. prot. K. in Fr. ; in the Ztschr. fiir hist. Theol. 1850. I. E. S. die rel. Zustande in Fr. ; in Gelzer's Monatsblatt. 1853.) — The constitution of the Restoration in France (1814) guaranteed to Roman Catholicism the authority of the established religion, and to the other confessions the protection and toleration of the State. But Ultramon- tanism of the most violent kind began, with the favor of the govern- ment, to oppress Protestantism in every way. In South France the hatred of the Roman Catholic mob broke out against the Reformed already (1815) in bloody persecution. The government was silent about it until the indignation of all Europe compelled it to check the evil ; but the perpetrators of it were unpunished. By the revolution of July, 1830, the Roman Catholic Church again lost the privileges of the established church, and the Protestants obtained the same rights with the Roman Catholics. But also under the new constitutional government Ultramontanism again made itself felt with effect; the Protestants complained of many injuries and violations of rights by Roman Catholic prefects ; and under the Protestant minister Gtdzot France assumed the pi-otectorate of Roman Catholicism throughout the whole world. Meanwhile, the Reformed French Chnrch flourished, even though placed between methodistic one-sidedness and rationalis- tic superficiality, and the single Lutheran congregations (in Paris, etc.) outside of Alsace, also prospered. After the revolution of February, 1848, the Lutherans deliberated on. a new organization of church affairs at a general synod at Strasburg, and the Reformed also at a council at Paris. But when the latter, in order to preserve unity of government amid diversity of doctrine, resolved to disregard symbol and doctrine in the matter, Fr. Monod and Count Gasparin, the noble representative of French Protestantism, protested against such a course, and formed, with about 30 congregations of stricter views, at a new council in Paris (1849), a union of evangelical congregations with biennial synods. Louis Napoleon, by the decree of March 26, 1852, granted to the Reformed Church a central council at Paris, with con- sistories and presbyteries; and to the Lutheran a yearly High-consistory as legislative, and a standing directory as executive council. The Lu- theran theological faculty at Strasburg represents the western section of Schleiermacher's school. The academy at Montauban, with Adolf Monod at its head, represents Reformed orthodoxy — nevertheless, with- out strict confessionalism and with a piety of a methodistic type; and C'oquerel in Paris is the head of the rationalistic party in the Reformed PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CnURCIIES. 345 established church. The reaction against Rationalism was led since 1830 by the " Socicte Evangelique " in Paris, which in addition has assumed the work of protestantizino; France, and has labored quietly and very successfully in this direction by colportage, circulation of tracts, sending forth evangelists, school instruction, etc. It has been powerfully supported in this work by the evangelical society of Geneva. The number of Protestant clergymen in France has increased, within 50 years, from 200 to GOO ; and every year new evangelical congrega- tions are established, in spite of the endless difficulties which Koman Catholic authorities place in the way. Manifold violations of right and oppressions are still practised. In Strasburg (1854) the Jesuit? prevailed upon the lloman Catholic prefect to reclaim and take pos- session of the revenues of the former Thomas foundation, which had been appropriated since the Reformation to the support of the Protes- tant gymnasium. However, the prefect was directed from Paris to desist from his claims. In his address from the throne in 1858, the emperor declared that the government guaranteed full freedom of Avorship to the Protestants, without, however, forgetting that Roman Catholicism was the religion of the majority; and the Monileur ex- plained this declaration so plainly in the sense of the Univers, that the prefects could not be in doubt how to understand it. Through General Espinasse, — who, after the unsuccessful attempt on the life of the em- peror (Jan. 14, 1858), officiated for a time as Minister of the Interior, — the prefects were expressly directed to extend their watchfulness over the press also to the labors of the evangelical societies, and to prohibit the colportage of Protestant Bibles. However, the latter was recalled by a change of ministry, and permission was only denied to the agents of foreign Bible societies. — In Belgium the work of evan- gelization advanced rapidly, not only among the Walloons, but also among the Flemish population, so that from year to year new evange- lical congregations are established, in spite of all agitation and popular instigation on the part of the Ultramontane clergy. 11. In Kali/ immigrant Protestants have formed evangelical congre- gations at Milan and Florence, without restriction on the part of the government. From regard to diplomatic intercourse with Prussia, England, and North America, Rome and Naples have also permitted Protestant embassy chapels to be built. When in 1848 the hopes of young Italy, which were built on Pius IX. 's national sympathies, were dissipated, Protestant sympathies, nourished by English travellers, Bibles, and tracts, began to be manifested far and wide in Italy, M^hich, although repressed by penalties of imprisonment, are still in- creasing and sti-engthening. — In the valleys of Fiedmont lived the remnants of the Waldenses (§33, 2), about 20,000 souls, under con- stant oppressions and persecutions, which were only restrained by Prussian and English intervention. They regarded themselves as being a branch of the Reformed Church; and having been enriched dl6 SECTION III. — FOURTH r i: 1! 1 O D (c E N T. 1 9 A. D.) since the Reformatiou by the spirit of the Genevan Church, they de- signated themselves as eglise evangelique Vaudoise at a synod (1839). When in 1848 the crown of Sardinia placed itself at the head of Ita- lian Liberalism, religious freedom was also granted to them with all civil rights. Now a large Waldensian congregation was formed in the midst of the city of Turin, Avhich grew rapidly by the addition of numerous fugitives from the rest of Italy. But in 1854 already a division took place between the elements of M'hich it was compo.sed. Waldensian orthodoxy was too narrow-minded for the liberalistic Ita- lians. A former Romish priest. Dr. de Scmciis, took the lead of the discontents, was deposed from his office by the Waldenses, and formed an independent evangelical Italian congregation with a rationalizing confession of faith. But in spite of this division the evangelization of the country went forward, and now evangelical congregations exist in all the principal cities, from whence also a number of rural congre- gations have already been established.— In Tuscany, where in a liberal spirit the legislature even allowed transition to Protestantism, in 1852 Francesco and Rosa Madiai were compelled to atone for the crime of having read the Bible by severe punishment in a house of correction. The intervention of evangelical unions was in vain ; equally so even the intercession of the King of Prussia. Finally, the English premier, Lord Palmerston, stimulated by the public opinion of England, spoke an earnest word, which even promised in the worst case to place seve- ral ships-of-war at the disposal of the demands of Christian humanity. The grand-duke now rid himself of the two martyrs by banishing them from the country in 1853 ; and Lord Shaftesbury organized a society at Edinburgh, the object of which is to prevent the occurrence of similar cases by all means alloAved by the Gospel. — In Spain also, where a large number of Bibles, tracts, and a religious paper in the Spanish language ("El Alba"), have been distributed from Gibraltar, Protestant sympathies are not wanting. — The Lutheran Church of Russia, eml)racing about 2,000,000 souls, received a common church- order and liturgy : the latter on the basis of the old Swedish liturgy ; the former with the requisition that all teachers of religion in church and school adhere to the Formula of Concord. — In Poland the Re- formed and Lutheran Churches were united since 1828 under a com- bined consistory. The independent existence of both churches was restored by an imperial ukase of 1849. Protestants as well as Roman Catholics rejoice in the full enjoyment of all civil rights, and in the unlimited freedom of Avorship, although they deny themselves bells on their churches in inner Russia; and children of mixed marriages, in which one party belongs to the orthodox church, are adjudged to the latter by the law. The Lutheran Church in Livonia (with the island of Oesel) sustained an important and, according to the laws, irrevoca- ble loss in 1845 and 184G by the large transition (00,000 to 70,000 souls) of the Lettonian and Esthonian natives to the orthodov established PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 347 church. The movement did not extend to the neighhoring provinces of CouHand and Estlionia. In order to remove the pressing want of churches and schooLs, of preachers and teachers, existing in the evan- gelical Lutheran congregations in Russia, an Aid-society, modelled after the Gustave-Adolphus Society, has lately been formed (1858) with imperial approl)ation, under the direction of the general consis- torA^ at St. Petersburg; which, it is to be hoped, will not fail to receive the willing and hearty co-operation of congregations more favorably circumstanced. The theological faculty of Dorpat has been allowed (1858) to publish a journal for theology and the church, which i..) 1811 appeared the " Kui-ze Darstellung dcs theol. Studiums," in which he organizes theological science with a master's hand, according to his fundamental religious views. When in 1817 the King of Prussia raised the banner of the Union, Schleiermacher stood in the front rank of ita champions. In 1821 he published finally the chief treatise of his life: " Der chr. Glaube nach den Grundsiltzen der evang. K. im Zusammen- hange dargestellt. 3. A. 1835. 2 Bde." That feeling is the seat of all religion, is also the fundamental thought of this important treatise; but religious feeling is for him not merely sense and taste for the infi- nite, but the immediate consciousness of absolute dependence on God. Jesus Christ, the original, pattern man, in whom the consciousness of God resided in absolute power, redeemed the world by the life which proceeded from him, in that he liberates the God-consciousness of his believers, who are enslaved by the sensual consciousness and therefore stand in need of redemption. It is consequently the work of dogma- tics to explain scientifically the Christian consciousness as it exists as a fact in the life of the believer ; it is not its work to prove, to esta- blish, but only to unfold and to explain what exists as a fact in the soul in its connection with the entire spiritual life ; wherefore dogma- tics have nothing at all to do with philosophy. He demonstrated the evangelical Protestant character of the doctrines of faith thus deve- loped, by citations from the confessional works of both churches. But notwithstanding the assui-ance that his dogmatics were independent of every system of philosophy, his contemporaries thought they disco- vered therein a large portion of Spinozian pantheistic leaven ; and it can scarcely be denied that strong sympathies with the stand-point of his earlier years exist in them. But by the side of his profound theo- logy of feeling there resided in Schleiermacher also another mental tendency, namely, that of a sharp, analyzing intellectual criticism, to which he sulnected not only single dogmatic tenets of the Church (concerning the difference between the Sabellian and Athanasian view of the Trinity; concerning the doctrine of election, etc.), but also the canon of the Scriptures, as also the evangelical accounts of the begin- ning and end of Christ's life, birth, and ascension (Ueber d. s. g. ersten Brief des Paulus an d. Timoth.. 1807; Ueber die Schriften dea Lukas, ein krit. Versuch, 1817). His lectures, which embraced almost all branches of theology and philosophy (Dialectics, Ethics, Politics, Esthetics, Pedagogics, etc.), and his other posthumous writings, as also his sermons, haA'e been collected in his " Sammtlichen Werke, 1835 ff." By the side of Schleiermacher in Berlin, and in various ways incited and enriched by him, labored Aug. Neander since 1812 ; who exerted, it is true, a much less intensive, but a much greater extensive influence than he, for, since the times of Luther and Melanchthon, no theologi- cal teacher had more devoted and reverent pupils than Neander. He entered into Schleicrmacher's theology of feeling, and transformed it PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 355 into a theology of the heart (" Pectus est, quod theologum facit"). By his subjective pectoralistic theology he became the progenitor of modern scientific Pietism ; but it also incapacitated him from understanding the pressure of the age to regain an objective and firm basis. At the same time, also, the philosophy of conception, which spread so power- fully immediately around him, was not less odious to him, than the Confessionalism which in part proceeded from his own school; and the less he was able to retard its progress, the more his peculiar tendency of mind inclined to morbid irritation and austere exclusiveness, even to the "fanaticism of mildness and the intolerance of tolerance". Ho was so entirely a Pectoralist, that even his criticism was only a criti- cism of feeling ; and this was manifested nowhere more arbitrarily tlian with regard to the historical books of the New Testament, where he wavers continually between authenticity and non-authenticity, be- tween history and myth (Gesch. d. Pflanzung u. Seitung der K. durch die Apostel. 1832. -1. A. 1837. 2 Bde. ; most of all in the "Life of Christ." 1837. 4. A. 1845). Concerning the most important work of his life, the " History of the Church," cf ^4, 4. Vol. I. He has also acquired great reputation through monographic investigations in the sphere of church history (Kaiser Julian u. s. Zeitalter, 1812; der h. Bernhard u. s. Zeitalt. 1813. 2. A. 1848: Genetische Entwickl. d. vor- nemst. gnost. Systeme, 1818 ; Der h. Chrysostomus u. d. K. vsr. Zeit. 1821. 3. A. 1848. 2 Bde. ; Antignostikus od. Geist. des Tertullian. 1826. 2. A. 1849 ; Denkwurdigkk. aus. d. Gesch. d. Christth. u. d. chr. Lebens. 1822. 3 Bde. Kl. Gelegenheitsschriftcn. 3. A. 1825 ; Wissen- schaftl. Abhandl. 1851). Neandcr died in 1850, and F. W. Krumma- cher laments at his grave the " last church-father" ; whilst K. Schwarz characterized him as a Protestant monk, whose cloister was the world of the inner man. His lectures on the history of doctrines were pub- lished by J. L. Jacobi. 2 Bde. 1857 f. (Cf. 0. Krahbe, A. N. Hamb. 1852.) — The noble senator John Fred. v. Meyer is worthy of a place here as the originator of a theosophic current in pietistic and even cimfessional Lutheran theology. He repeatedly filled the office of a president of the civil court, as also that of the first burgomaster of Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, and Erlangen conferred upon him, in 1821, the honorary title of D. D. He died in 1849. He owes his theosophio tendency especially to the study of the Kabbala. He also published " The Book of Jezira, in Ileb. and Ger., 1830." His principal work is: "Die h. Sehrift in berichtiger Uebers. mit kurzen Anmerkk. 1819" (3d edition, 1855, edited )^y R. Steir). He is pretty reserved with his theosophic views in his " Inbegrifl' der chr. Glaubenslehre, 1832"; less so in his " Blattern fiir hijhere Wahrheit. 11 Bde. 1820-32". An important influence was exerted on the development of modern theology, especially critical theology, by William Mart. Lebr. de Wette. He was called (1810), at the same time with Sclileiermacher, to the newly founded university of Berlin ; but a letter of consolation to 356 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.). band's mother, which was regarded as an apology for assassination, oaused his removal from Berlin in 1819. Since 1822 he labored un- weariedly to his death, at Basle (1849). His theological views were rooted in tlie philosophy of his friend Fries, to which he adhered until his death. Still, Schleiermacher's friendship also exerted an important influence upon him He also placed the essence of religion in feeling, which he, moreover, connected mo'-e closely with knowledge and the will. He recognized in the doctrines of the Church an important sym- bolical investiture of religious truth, on which account he was decried for a long time by the Rationalists as a mystic. His great strength, however, consisted in the sharp, analyzing criticism with which he treated the biblical canon and the biblical history of the Old and New Testament; his commentaries on the whole of the New Testament, to which he devoted the latter 3-ears of his life, are of permanent worth (Exeget. Handbuch zum N. T. 3 Bde.) At this period also he approxi- mated nearer and nearer to positive Christianity, attaining even to greater prudence in the sphere of criticism. He was exceedingly fruit- ful as an author, and his works are upon various subjects. He began his career as an author with the " Krit. Versuche U. d. Glaubwurdigk. d. Bd. d. Chronik mit RUcksicht auf die mosaischen Bd. 1806." Then followed: " Die Kritik. d. Israel. Gesch. 1807; Der Comment, zu d, Psalmen. 1811, u. o; Die BibelUbersetzung (at first in connection with Augusti, the 2d edition by himself alone) ; De morte Christi expiatoria, 1813 ; Lehrb. d. chr. Dogmatik. 1813, 2 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. hebr. jlid. Archaologie, 3 A. 1842 ; Uebcr Religion und Theologie, 2 A. 1821: Christi. Sittenlehre, 1819 ff. 3 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. Einl. ins A. 3 A. 1845, and ins N. T. 4 A. 1848 ; Theodor, od. des Zweiflers Weihe, 2 A. 1828," and many others. — The mental tendency of Charles Hase is related with that of De Wette, although less critically analyzing, more esthe- ticall^y trained, and less one-sided as regards philosophy. His connec- tion with the Burschenschaft led to an imprisonment of five months in the castle of Ilohenasperg (1822). He labored since 1830 in Jena. He was also incited by Fries' philosophy, but Fichte, Schelling. and Schleierniacher, as well as Romantic national literature, exerted a strong influence upon his rich spirit. He regarded Christ as the ideal man, sinless, endowed with the fulness of all love and with the power of pure humanity, as having truly risen from the dead, and as the be- ginner of the new life in the kingdom of God, whose entire character is most pui-ely, profoundly, and truly represented in the gospel of John, who reclined on the Master's bosom. He unfolded his religious views in the treatise : " Des alten Pfarrers Testament," 1822 ; further, in his "Gnosis, 1826, 3 Bde.," calculated for the learned, in his "Lehrb. d. ev. Dogmatik, 1825. 4. A. 1850," and in his " Leben Jesu, 1829, 3. A. 1853." His " Hutterus redivlvus, 1828, 9. A. 1858," in which he en- deavors to exhibit old Protestant (Luth.) dogmatics, as Hutterus, if he now livf.d, would have done it, provoked the most violent attacks from PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 357 Ruhr and his clique, and led him to publish the " Thcologischeii Streitschriften, 3 Iloftc, 1834-37," by which vulgar Rationalism received its death-blow. (Concerning Ilasc's Church History, cf. ? 4, 4, Vol. I.) Equally fresh, spirited, and attractive, are his monographs from Church History (" Neue Propheten : die Jungfrau v. Orleans, Savonarola, die munsterschen Wiedcriaufcr, 1851 ; Franz von Assisi, ein Ileiligcnbild, 1855; Diebciden Erzbischiife, 1839; D. geistl. Scliauspicl, 1858," etc.) In his letter to Baitr concerning the Tubingen School (1855) he en- deavors to mediate, with a full a<:knowlcdgment of the efforts of Tiibin- gen, and labors to save at least the authenticity and credibility of the fourth Gospel. 2. liutionaUstic Theology. — Its principal organs were Bohr's Krit. Predigerbibliothek since 1820, and Ernst Zimmermann's Allgem. (Darmstadter) Kirchenzeitung since 1822. The former adhered to its end to the imperfectibility of the Rationalism of the ancien regime ; the latter became continually more orthodox within the last 40 years (since Charles Zimmermaiin alone edited it, the ambiguous vignette of the three clasped hands with the motto "We all believe in a God" also received a decidedly Christian definiteness by the addition of flo crucifix. It is at this time, under Schenkel's editorship, the organ of a Melanchthonianism zealous for the Union). The rationalistic theology of this period, however, divides into an old and a new school. The former, to which liheinwald gave the classic name of RationaUsmtis vulf/aris, is characterized, on the one hand, by the unimprovableness, with Avhich it permitted all the currents of the new spirit in philosophy and theology, in science and national literature to pass by without having its poverty enriched the least thereby or bei-ng in the least disturbed in its self-sufficiency, — and on the other hand, by the naive conviction that its water of illumination Avas identical with the genuine water of life of the holy Scriptures, on which account it continued with touching perseverance to distil the spirit out of it by exegctical arts, and to offer the remaining phlegma for sale as the tincture of life. Its contributions consequently have only worth at present for a cabinet of antiquities or of curiosities. The new school, on the contrary, which we may designate as historico-critical Rationalism, is characterized by a more objective investigation of the Bible and of history, and does not conceal from itself or from others the exclusive antithesis existing be- tween Biblical and its rational theology, and it even takes pleasure in making this antithesis appear as glaring and sharp as possible. As besides, its investigations are conducted in part at least with distin- guished knowledge of language and of history, with great penetration and thoroughness, many of its theological contributions have a perma- nent Avorth. The fiither of the Vulr/ar Raiionalism of this period was John Fred. Ruhr, general superintendent at Weimar [oh. 1848). His " Briefe liber Rationalismus (1813) " laid doAvn the famous doctrine, that " the Avealth 358 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. lii A. P.) of a farmer-general " was necessary, in order to resign an office incon- sistent with one's own conviction. In the " Grund-und Glaubens-satzeu der ev. prot. K." he sketched a new symbol, with the sweet hope of thereby supplanting the old ones, and he contended with great enthu- siasm for " The good cause of German Catholicism (1846)." Eberh. Goitl. Faulus [oh. 1851, aged 90 years) contended with him to his last breath for the sole supremacy of intellectual faith, wdiich Marheincke defined as a faith Avhieh believes that it thinks and thinks that it be- lieves, but is equally unable to do either. His " Philol. krit Commentar zum N. T." interpreted all the accounts of the miracles of the N. T. with incredible ingenuity, as being merely misunderstood narrations of per- fectly natural events. He also was enthusiastic for German Catholi- cism. Jul. Aug. Ludw. Wegscheider of Ilalle [oh. 1848) dedicated his "Institutionestheul.christ. dogmatica3 (1815, 8. A. 1844)," which treated the dogmatic proof-texts of the Bible as Dr. Paulus treated the mira- cles, to the piis Manibus Lutheri. Charles Gottl. Bretschneider, general superintendent of Gotha [oh. 1848) began as a moderate supranaturalist (Entwickl. aller in d. Dogm. vorkommenden Begrifl'e 1805), but ad- vanced in the various editions of his " Handb. d. Dogmatic (1814, 4. At 1838) nearer and nearer to Vulgar Rationalism, whose perfection ia already represented in his " Grundlage des ev. Pietismus, oder Lehre von Adam's Fall," etc. etc. (1833). He also wrote several poor ration alistic romances (Heinrich u. Antonio od. d. Proselyten ; der Freiherr v, Sandan od. d. gemischten Ehen ; Clementine oder die Frommen u, Altglaubigen unsrer Tage). He also rendered important service by his " Corpus Reftjrmatorum," which thus far (Bd. 26) only embraces Me- lanchthon's works. Christoph. Fred. v. Amnion, Reinhard's successor at Dresden [oh. 1850), also followed in the same Avay from rational Supranaturalism (Summa theologise ; Bibl. Theol. ; Handb. d. chr. Sittenlehre, etc. etc.) through all possible deviations to Vulgar Ration- alism (Fortbildung des Christenthums zur Weltreligion, 4 Bde.) In his " Leben Jesu," however, he has finally placed himself on D. Strauss' stand-point. But on the other hand also, when Harms published his theses (1817), he commended them "as a bitter medicine for thoso weak in faith of our time," for which he was compelled to hear hard words from Schleiermacher. Next to De Wette among the representatives of historico-criiical Ra- tionalism stands G. Beaed. Winer of Leipsic [oh. 1858), the founder of the " Grammatik des N. H. Sprachidioms" (6. A. 1856), by which phi lological thoroughness and acumen were first brought to the interpre- tation of the N. T. His " Handb. der theol. Literature," and especially his " Real-lexicon " (3. A. 1847 ) are master-pieces of true German indus- try combined with admirable acuteness. K. Fr. Aug. Fritzclie of Giessen pushed the philological acuteness of interpreting the N. T. to the most extreme one-sidedness (Commentare zum JNIatth., Mark, u. Romerbr.). K. A. Credner of Giessen [oh. 1857) contributed much that was excel- PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 359 lent to the isagogics of the N. T. David Schulz of Breslau {ob. 1854), a violent opponent of the evung. Kirchenzeitung and of the Silesiaa Lutherans, to whom their persecution is in great part cliargeable, de- fends his superficial Rationalism in the " Cliristl. Lehre vom heil. Abendm.," and in the " Cliristl. Lehre vom Glauben ; " his colleague, D. G. C. V. Colin [oh. 183."5) elaborated Munaclicr's " Dogmengeschichte," and left behind a " Bibl. Tlieologie" (edited by D. Schulz, 183G). William Cniaiiis of llalle [ob. LS42) acquired a high reputation in the depart- ment of the philological study of the 0. T. by his Hebrew grammars and lexicons. His commentary on Isaiah (.3 Bde. 1821) contains able historical studies. — From his school proceeded Fr. Tucli of Leipsic (Comment, zur Genesis) and Aug. Knohel of Giessen (der Prophetismus der Hebraer; Comm. zum B. Koheleth, zur Genesis, zum Exod. u. Leviticus ; die Volkertafel). Herm. Hupfeld of Marburg and Halle, although contending on Bickell's side in the controversy about symbols in the electorate of Ilessia (1838, of. | 55, 3), nevertheless, fell into the toils of Rationalisin through his science of the 0. T. (Kritik d. Genesis ; de festorum apud Hebr. ratione ; Comm. zu d. Psalmen, 2 Bde. etc.) Fred. Uilzig of Zurich excels them all in boldness of criticizing acute- ness and geniality of the rationalistic interpretation (Begriifder Kritik am A. T. errijtert. 1831; Urgesch. u. Mythologie der I'hilistaor, 1845; Commentare zum Isaiah, d. Psalmen, d. 12 kl. Proph., -Jer., Ezech., Daniel, Pred. Sal.; John, Marcus u. s. Schriften, 1843, etc.). — Henry Ewnld of Gottingen, whose hand is against every man, and every man's hand against him, is the acknowledged dictator in the sphere of Hebrew grammar, practises on the Biblical books a criticism arbitrary and subjective beyond description, but not on this account with thi' less presumption of being omniscient and infallible ; holds yearly in his " Jahrbiichern der bibl. Wissenschaft" an auto-da-fe over the collected theological and biblical literature of the departed year ; and issues — being a prophet as well as Isaiah and Jeremiah — in every preface a prophetical burden against the theological, ecclesiastical, or political mischief-makers of our times. lie has acquired a high reputation in the virtuososliip of low abuse and slander, and the old saying of the Caliph Omar " either — or " is actualized annually in his " Jahrhlicher". It is a pity that a moral earnestness so able has evaporated in the most boundless pride ; that a spirit so powerful, rich, and noble, has gone to ruin in the most groundless subjectivism. Ilis works (Composition d. Genesis, 1823 ; Hebr. Grammati'k, 1827, 6. A. 1856 ; Ilohelied, 1S2G ; Comm. in Apocalypsin, 1828 ; Die poetischen Bb. d. A. T. 4 Bde. 2. A. 1840 ; Die Propheten d. A. Bundes, 2 Bde. 1840 ; Gesch. d. Volkes Israel bis auf Christus, 4 Bde., 2. A. 1851 ff. ; Gesch. Christus u. sr. Zeit. 2. A. 1857 ; Gesch. des apost. Zeitalter, 1858 ; Die drei ersten Evangelien, 1850 ; Die Sendschreiben des Ap. Paulus, 1857 ; Das Buch Henoch, 1854; Die sibyllinischen Biicher, 1859) nevertheless, contain much that is worthy of notice, that is suggestive and full of spirit 0 '0 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) \ ore judicious are the contributions of his disciple Ernst Bertlicau of 3 ittingen (Zur Gesch. d. Israeliten, 1842; Comment, zu den Sprlichen S..1., zur Chronik. zu den Richtern, etc.) Ccesarv. Lengerhe of Kiinigs- borg also {oh. 1855), who experienced the pain of lieing compelled to ■withdraw from the professorship of the literature of the Old Testament in favor of his antipode Ilavernick, and of retiring into the philoso- phical faculty, connected himself in his later writings with Ewald, but also did not disdain in his compilatoi'y way to use with rare candor even Ilengstenberg's writings (Comment, zum Daniel, 1835 ; Kendan oder Gesch. Israels, Bd. I. 1843 ; Comment, zu d. Psalmen, 2 Bde. 1846). Otto Theniiis has also made himself known as an able inter- pieter of the Old Testament (Die Bb. Sam. u. d. Konige, 1842-49). OHo FridoUu Fritzsche of Zurich has, in connection vrith William Grimm of Jena, rendered important service in the interpretation of tl.e Apocrypha of the 0. Test. (Exeg. Handb. 1851 if.). Yet worthy o'' special mention as interpreters of the O. Test, are Gust. Baur of Giessen (Amos, 1847) and Any. Simso7i of Kijnigsberg (Hosea, 1851). To the Church historians in this rubric belong/. E. Chr. Sclwiidt oi (;*iessen [oh. 1831), Leher. Danz of Jena, and above all /. C. L. Gieseler M'Gcittingen [oh. 1855). (Cf. | 4, Vol. I.) 3. The Siipraaaturalistic Schools. — So-called Rational Supranatu- ralism is characterized by the acknowledgment of supernatural reve- lation in the Scriptures, but regards reason as being a source of reli- gious knowledge of equal authority with it, and consequently asserts the rationality of the contents of revelation. Its chief representatives are: IT. Gottl. Tzrhirner of Leipsic [oh. 1828), (Briefe liber Reinhard's Gestandnisse ; Katholicismus u. Protestantismus vom Standp. d. Poli- tik ; Forts, von Schrcickh's K. G. ; Gesch. d. chr. Apologetik, Bd. I. ; Der Fall des Ileidth, Bd. I., published by Niedner; Vorless liber d. Glaubensl., published by Ilase), J. Aug. Heinr. Titlmann of Leipsic [oh. 1831), (Pragmat. Gesch. d. Theol. u. Rel. since 1750; Ueber Su- pranaturalism.. Rationalism, u. Atheism.), E. Fred. Charles Rosen- miiller of Leipsic [oh. 1835), (Scholia in V. T. 23 Bde. ; altes u. neues Morgenland ; Ilandb. d. bibl. AUerthumsk., etc.), Chr. Fr. Illgen o{ Leipsic [oh. 1834), (Founder of the hist, theol. Ztschr.), L. Fr. Otto Baumgarten- Cms ills of Jena [oh. 1843), (GrundzUge d. bibl. Theol. ; Lehrbuch u. Compendium d. Dogmengesch. ; Ueber Gewissensfreiheit, Lehrfreih. u. u. d. Ilatlsm. u. s. Gegner ; Theol. Comment. Zum Ev. Joh., etc.) Amnion can also be classed with these. Supranaturalism proper (suprarational) was also represented by Storr, Reinhard, Planck, Sta'udlin [^ 50, 6). Storr's school prevailed in Wlirtemberg for 30 years. Its organs were : Bengel's Archiv. 1816- 26 ; Klaiher's Studien d. ev. Geistlk. Wlirtb. 1827-35, and Steudel's Tlibinger Ztschr. f. Theol. 1828-35 ; its most distinguished representa- tives were : /. Fr. v. Flatt [oh. 1821), (opponent of Kant's philosophy) ; E. Gottl. V. Bengel [oh. 1826) ; /. Christ. Fred. Steudel [oh. 1837), PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 361 (Glaubcnslohre; Bibl. Theol. d. A. T., etc.) The excellent H. Leonh. HeuJiner, director of the seminary at Wittenberg [oh. 1853), was Rein- hard's disciple, and he was also the most able and churchly of the older Supranaturalists. J. Chr. William Aiu/nsii of Bonn {oh. 1841), at tirst a Rationalist, also declared later in favor of the old-church system, and opposed, when occasion afforded, the Prussian Union in favor of unconditional territorial privilege (Kritik d. preuss. Kirchen- agende, 1824) ; he acquired the greatest reputation in the sphere of ecclesiastical archaeology (Denkwurdigkk., 12 Bde. 1817, Handbuch, 3 Bde. 183G) ; Aur/. Hahn, general superintendent of Breslau, made a great stir, when he was called to Leipsic, by defending his treatise De rationalisme vera indole, and by the "Offene Erklarung an die evang. K.," which followed it, by which he called upon the Rationalists to leave the Church (1827). His own system (Lehrb. d. Christl. Glaubens. 1828), however, not only lacks the firm and sure consistency of the old sj'stem, but also weakens it in not quite unessential points. The second edition (2 Bde. 1857 if.) has overcome these weak points and defects in great part. Georr/e Will. End. Bohmer of Breslau has written works in a difficult and diffuse style, on almost all theological subjects, with spirit and solid learning. His chief works are: Die Christlich-kirchl. Alter-thumswissensch., 2 Bde., 1836 ff. ; Die chr. Dogmatik u. Glau- benswissensch., 2 Bde. 1840 ff. ; Theolog. Ethik. 2 Bde. 1848 ff. ; Die Lehrunterschiede der katholl. u. evangell. Kk. Bd. I. 1857 ; Comment, zum Colosserbr. 1835, etc. The leaders of pietidic Supranaturalism, next to A. Neander, are before all others Tholuck and Hengstenberg ; the organ of the former was the " Literarischer Anzeiger" (1830-49), and that of the latter, the "Evang. Kirchenzeitung." Aug. Tholuck, since 182G Prof, at Halle, at first devoted himself to oriental studies, but, being scientifi- cally incited by Neander, and practically by Baron von Kottwitz of Berlin (the patriarch of his " Wahren Weihe des Zweiflers"), he ap- plied himself with glowing enthusiasm to theoh)gical studies. He possessed a versatile and highly gifted mind, which was highly culti- vated, and he led many thousands to Christ, or established them in Him by writings, lectures, sermons, and intercourse, — he also trained up many youths in the confessional Lutheran tendency, whilst he him- self, otherwise adhering to no Important tendency in science, art, and practical life, and receptive for all the currents of the age of whatever kind, entirely avoided this one current. His scientific theology became since then more and more latitudinarian, even almost to an entire rejection of the idea of miracles and of inspiration ; but he has never- theless preserved the pietistic characteristic of his inner life, and with it the entire warmth, depth, and freshness of a mind thoroughly pene- trated by Clirist. He is most important as an interpreter and apologist of the New Testament, especially since violent attacks drove him to greater philological acuteness. Here belong the Comment, zum Ro- ll.—31 362 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 1 9 A. D.) merbrief, 1824, 5 A. 1855 ; Ev. Johannis, 7 A. 1857 ; Hebrilerbrief, 5 A. 1850; Bergpredigt, 4 A. 1856; Psalmen, 1843 ;— Wahre Weihe des Zweiflers od. die Lehre von d. Sunde u. d. Versiihnev [the counterpart of De Wette's " Theodor, etc."] 1823, 7 A. 1851 ; Glaubwiirdigkeit d. evang. Gesch. [against D. Strauss] 2 A. 1838. Fruits of his oriental studies are: Ssufismus s. theosophia Persarum pantheist., 1821; Blii- thensamml. orient. Mystik, 1825 ; Speculative Trinitatslehre d. spat. Orients. 1826. Of a historical and apologetical character are : Ver- mischten Schriften, 2 Bde. 1839. In his " Vorstudien zu einer Gesch. des Rationalism" (Der Geist d. Luth. Theologen Wittenb. im 17 Jahrb. 1852 ; Das akad. Leben des 17 Jahrb. 1853) he almost loses out of view his real object through his thorough investigation of the curiosi- ties and scandals of private and student life. Of a practical character are his " Stunden der Andacht., 4 A. 1847," and his Sermons, 6 Bde. 1838 ff. Ernst William Hengstenberg, since 1826 Prof, at Berlin, passed through an entirely opposite process of development. Being hardened by numerous conflicts, in none of which he yielded a hair's breadth, he stood in science as also in practical life like a brazen wall and an iron pillar against the whole land, and against the kings of Judah, and against their priest, and against the people in the land, mistrustful of the gifts of science, but also adhering with almost unparalleled obsti- nacy to his views in spite of all counter-arguments, and tracing back all diverging views and theories, even those of decidedly churchly theologians, to Rationalism and Naturalism. Born in the Reformed Church, and even yet more attached to Calvinistic Spiritualism than to Lutheran Realism in his interpretation of the Scriptures, and often even rationalizing in the most striking way with the scriptural accounts of miracles, which do not correspond with his idea of what is worthy of God, he must nevertheless be reckoned among the confessional Lu- therans within the Union according to his then dogmatical conviction, and on account of his energetic opposition to the anti-Lutheran prac- tice of the Union. Moreover, to him belongs the honor of first re- awakening, reviving, and fostering the taste and zeal for the study of the Old Tes^ment, and also of having vindicated the genuineness of those books of the 0. T. which were most assailed: (Christologie des A. T. 3 Bde. 1829 fi"., 2 A. 1854 fiF. ; Beitrage zur Einl. ins A. T. 3 Bde. 1831 ff. ; Die Bb. Mose's u. ^gypten.' 1841 ; Gesch. Bileams u. s. Weissagungen. 1842 ; Comment, zu d. Psalmen, 2 A. 1849 ff. 4 Bde. ; Coram, u. d. Offenb. Joh. 2 Bde. 1850 ff. ; Die Opfer d. h. Schr. 1852 ; Der Tag des Herrn. 1852; Auslegung d. Kohenliedes. 1853 ; Commen- tar zum Prediger Sal. 1858). Herm. Olshausen of Konigsberg and Erlangen {ob. 1839) opposed the rationalistic superficializing of exegesis with " Einem Worte liber tieferen Schriftsinn, 1824," and greatly pro- moted the religious elevation of the last thirty years by his own spirited, fresh, and suggestive, but as regards philology unsatisfactory, com- mentary (Bibl. Commentar zum N. T. 1830 ff. 4 Bde. 3 A. 1837, con- PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 363 tinued by Wicsingcr and Ebrard). He also felt himself called (Ucber die neuesten kirchliclien Ereignisso in Schlesien, 1835) to bear testi- monj' against the persecuted Lutherans in Silesia. Rial. Stier, super- intendent at Schkeuditz, incited by Fr. v. Meyer, and receiving from him a theosophic clement, has acquired a high reputation for profound and thorough interpretation of the Scriptures, ■which was compelled to lay under the Ijan of undeserved neglect for a long time (Andeutungen fur glUubiges Schriftvcrstandniss, 4 Bde. 1824 if. ; Siebzig ausgewahlte Psalmen ; Jesaias, nicht Pseudsjesais ; Ilebriierbrief ; Br. Judil ; Ephe- scrbrief; Die Reden Jesu, etc.) In " Unlutherischen Thesen, deutlich fur Jedermann," 1854, he so powerfully opposed the actions of confes- sional Lutheranism, that the " beams cracked.'.' J. Andr. Casp. Hd- vcrnick of Konigsberg (ob. 1845), a disciple of Hengstenberg and of Tholuck, was torn away by death in the midst of his theological career (Einl. ins A. T. 3 Bde. 1830; Comm. zum Proph. Daniel. 1832, zum Proph. Ezechiel, 1843; Vorless. u. d. bibl. Theol. d. A. T. 1848). A brief period of life was also granted to his promising friend and former co-laborer at the newly established theological school at Geneva, Wil- liam Steiycr {ob. 1836) (Kritik des Rationalismus in Wegscheider's Dogmatik. 1830, Comment, zu I. Petri and Colosser). Bunsen (sec. 5) and Goschel (sec. 0) also belong here according to their first predomi- nant pietistic stadium of experience. — This school was shipwrecked on the question : either Union or Confession. The chiefs themselves, who survived the crisis of the forty years, advanced on the right and left beyond it ; they and their disciples connected themselves partly with modern "German theology," and partly crowded around the banner of Lutheran Confessionalism. Stier alone scorned to connect himself with either. 4. The fathei of modern speculative theology was Charles Daub, 'Prof, at Heidelberg (since 1794), where death surprised him in the professor's chair. He did not permit all the phases of philosophy to pass him by untouched, but both he and his theology were penetrated by them. He wrote, from Kant's stand-point, a work on Catechetics (1801) ; then he inclined to Fichtc and then to Schelling (Theologu- mena, 180G ; Einleitung in die Christl. Dogmatik, 1809, and Judas Ischarioth od. Betrachtungen li. d. Bose im Verb, zum Guten, 1816). In Judas, where he acknowledges Satan as his own creator, as the most wonderful monster of nature, whom God tolerates from love, and finds in him the original cause of evil, he reached the summit, but also the limits of his Schellingian process of thinking. In the " Dogmatischen Theologie jetziger Zeit, oder die Selbstsucht in d. Theol., 1833," he stands in the atmosphere of Hegelian philosophy. He powerfully atx- tracted and stimulated the youth who sat at his feet ; his works, written in " the language of the Olympians," were, however, too little understood, to enable the grand objectivity, the moral energy, the power of faith, the depth and richness of thought, which they con 364 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D ) Gained, to be felt far and wide. Ills lectures were published in 8 vols, by Marheineke. Nearest to him stands Phil. Marheineke of Berlin {ob. 1846). The first edition of his dogmatics (1819) is based on Schel- lingian principles ; in the second, Lutheran orthodoxy, in the form of the Hegelian idea, predominates. Of much greater significance, and truly breaking the way, is his Christl. Symbolik (1810 ff. 3 Bde). The most valuable of his works is the " Ileformationsgeschichte" (4 Bde. 1816 ff. 2 A. 1831 ft'.), a genuine popular work in the noblest sense of the word. — After Hegel's death (1831) the older of his disciples en- deavored to assert the orthodox tendency of his philosophy. Charles Eosenkranz organized according to it the " Encyklopadia der theol. Wissenschaften, 1831, i' and Goschel continued to theologize in his spirited way in Hegelian forms. The faith in the orthodoxy of the system received its first blow through Fr. Richter, who in his work "Die Lehre von den letzen Dingen, 1833," rejected the idea of immor- tality in the sense of the continuance of personal existence ; Goschel undertook its vindication with doubtful result. Billroth, himself still adhering to the orthodox current, made it the task of scientific exegesis to develop the ideas, which unconsciously constituted the basis of the Biblical representations, and exemplified this in the " Korintherbriefen" (1833). But this principle was soon seriously applied in quite a dif- ferent way. David Strauss, namely, applying it, represented the " Leben Jesu" (1835) as a product of purposeless poetical tradition, and then attempted to prove in his " Glaubenslehre" (1840), that all Christian doctrines were made null and void by modern science. But openly as he also taught that Pantheism was "that which was im- perishaljle in Christianity;" nevertheless, his successors went far beyond him. Bruno Bauer declared, after he had passed over from the right wing of the Hegelian school to the extreme left, that the gospels were the product of a deception as crude and spiritless as it was clearly designed ; and lAidwig Fcuerhach maintained, that the neAT gospel of self-worship was "the essence of Christianity." The rupture of the school was now complete. What Rosenkranz and Schaller contributed from the centre, what Goschel and G. Andr. Gahler (de verae philosophiae erga pietatera amore) contributed from the right wing to vindicate the system, was not able to restore the illusion, destroyed for ever, of its fundamentally Christian character. The right Aving of the Hegelian school Avas dissolved, its aTheolog. Encyklopadie," 5. A. 1858. Zealous Melanchthonians are: Daniel Schenkel of Heidelberg (Das Wesen des Protestantismus aus den Qucllen des Reformations-zeitalters, 3 Bde. 1845 if. ; Princip des Protestantism, 1851 ; Gesprache iiber Protestantism, u. Katholicism, 2 Bde. 1852 f. ; Der Unionsboruf des Protestantism, 1855 ; Die Christl. Dogmatik vom Standpunkt des Gewissens, Bd. I. 1858). — Henrg Heppe of Marburg, a diligent and careful, but one-sided investigator into the sources of the period of the Reformation (Gesch. des deutschen Pro- testantism, 4 Bde. 1852 ff. ; Die confessionelle Entwickl. der altprotest. K. Deutschl. 1854; Bekenntnissschriften der altprotest. K. Deutsch- lands, 1855 ; Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantism, im 16. Jahrh. 3 Bde. 1857 ; Gesch. des deutschen Volksschulwesen, 3 Bde. 1858) — and Joh7i Uenrg Aug. Ebrard, consistorial councillor at Spire, a spirited, devout, and versatile theologian (Wissensch. Kritik. der evang. Gesch. 2. A. 1850: Christl. Dogmatik, 2 Bde. 1851 f . ; Vorless. u. d. prakt. Theol. 1854; Commentare zur HcbrUerbr. u. zur Apok., etc.) Among the disciples of Schlciermacher from the TAitheran Church, Fred. Lucke of Giittingen [ob. 1855) is to be mentioned first. He was the first who. even before Tholuck, manifested a spirited, fresh, and 3G8 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A. D.;. devout exei^esis; but, like Tholuck, he became more and more free- thinking and hititudinarian in his rehition to the Scriptures and to the faith of the Church (Grundriss d. neutest. Ilermeneutik, 1822; Comm. U. d. Schriften d. Johannes, 1820 ff., 4 Bde. 3. A. 1843 ff.). CharUi Iiiim. Nitzsch of Bonn and Berlin, a profound thinker, is next to Jul. Mliller the most influential and respected of the Consensus theolo- gians (System d. chr. Lehre, 6. A. 1852 ; Protest. Beantw. d. Symbolik Mohler's, 1834; Prakt. Theol. 1847 ff., 3 Bde.; Urkundeubuch d. ev. Union, 1853, etc.) Jul. Milller of GiJttingen and Halle is, apart from the strange reception of an antemundane fall, and notwithstanding hi'i inflexibility in favor of an actual, not merely church governmental, but also confessional Union ("Die ev. Union, ihr Wesen u. ilire giittl. Reehtc, 1854"), the most deeply and firmly grounded of all the Con- sensus theologians in the Lutheran faith. His principal work (" Die Christl. Lehre von der Sunde." 4. A. 1858, 2 Bde.) is an unsurpassed model of careful, profound, and thorough investigation. Charles Vll- niaun, now prelate of Karlsruhe, a noble, lovely, irenical and mild person, laveers between all the rocks and sand-bars with his equili- brium-theology, and has .also distinguished himself by thorough histo- rical investigations (Gregor von Nazianz. 1825 ; Reformatoren vor der Reformation, 1841 if., 2 Bde. ; Ueber die Sundlosigkeit Jesu, 6. A. 1853 ; Wesen des Christl. 4. A. 1855 ; Ilistorisch odor mythisch? gegen D. Strauss, 1838 ; Ueber d. Cultus des Genius, 1840, etc.). Ang. Detlev Christ. Twesten, Schleiermacher's successor at Berlin, did not carry his lectures on the dogmatics of the evangelical Lutheran Church be- yond the doctrine of God (Bd. I. IL 1826, 4. A. 1838). He holds theo- logy and philosophy apart more decidedly than the other disciples of Schleiermacher, and has placed himself upon the extreme left wing of the school towards the Lutheran Church. So much the more deci- dedly, however, has /. A. Dorner of Gcittingen permitted philosophical speculation to influence his dogmatics. His investigations and specu- lations have been applied especially to the christological dogma, anr/'s present direction) stands an unsurpassed versatility sparkling with spirit, wit, and ridi- cule. The most celebrated organs of Ultramontauism next to it, are the Paris Univers by Veuillot, and the Civilta Cattolica, edited by the Jesuits at Naples, then at Rome. The talented Count Jos, de Maistre, Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg {ob.\%2\], recognized in the infallibility of the pope the life-principle of all history (Du Papa; De I'eglise Gallicane ; Soirees de St. Petersb.). The gigantic lie, that Protestantism is, in its inmost essence, not only ecclesiastically, but also p(ditically revolutionary, whilst, on the other hand, Roman Catho- licism is the only defence of States against revolution and democracy, is still dished up anew with unblushing audacity, in spite of th? thou- sand-fold testimony of history against it, and (so true is the old pro- verb: Calumniare audacter, etc.) it is also believed. 5. National Religious Liberalism. — Whilst in the Roman Catholic Church, on the one hand, Ultramontauism was continually intensified and spread, on the other, anti-hierarchical Liberalism mado itself felt more and more. Unions, of clergymen were formed in Silesia (since 1826) and in South Germany (1830), which agitated the abolition of ceyhacy without retult. The priest Lameanais in Paris, formerly a zealous adherent of the restoration and of absolutism, became in July 18;')0 the enthusiastic apostle of Liberalism. A pi-eacher of universal numan rights, he would have transplanted political radicalism into the heart of Christianity, and surrounded it with the halo of Roman Ca- ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 383 tholicism. The journal I'Avenir became the orgai !if a school formed around him, and his Paroles d'un croyant (1834), according to the judg- ment of the pope a book "small in compass, but enormous in wicked- ness," written in the most exalted prophetic style, created a great excitement. But the unnatural union of that which was absolutely irreconcilable, could not continue. His school gradually became ex- tinct, and Lameunais himself continually approached the principlca of modern Socialism [ob. 1854). Likewise as a result of the revolution of July (1830) the Abbe Chatel of Paris established a so-called French Catholic Chui-ch, whose rationalistic poverty only survived to 1842. Nobler and more earnest, but e(:}ually without result, was the anti- hierarchical eiforts of the Abbe Hclsea in Brussels. Ilis apostolic Catholic Church was dissolved (1837) ; its remnants embraced Pro- testantism. Of a more threatening character was the founding of a German Cafltolic Church in 1844. In August of this j'ear Bishop Ar- noldi of Treves exhibited the holy seamless coat of Christ pi-eserved there (cf. J. Gildemeisfer u. H. v. Sybel; Der h. Rock zu Trier und die 20 audern h. ungenahten Riicke. Diisseld. 2. A. 1844) for the adoration of the faithful, and thereb}- attracted hundreds of thousands of pilgrims to Treves. A suspended priest, John Ronge, at that time family tutor at Laurahlitte in Silesia, published in October a letter to Arnoldi in the Saxon journals, in which, under sparkling and empty phrases, he denounced the trade in relics like a Luther of the 19th century. Earlier already, preacher Jo/;u Czerski of Schneidemlihl in Poland had venouuced the Roman Catholic Church (1844), and now, still indepen- dent of the Rongean movement, he, with his congregation, published a '• Christian-apostolic-Catholic" confession of faith, which agrees in its negations with the principles of the evangelical Church, without, however, acknowledging its affirmation (the doctrine of justification), (jut, nevertheless, for the rest, wishing to hold fast to the fundamental truths of Christianity. Meanwhile, Ronge's letter was discussed in all the journals, and since the beginning of 1845 German Catholic congregations were formed throughout Germany (except in Bavaria and Austria), which became the rendezvous of all kinds of religious Liber- alism (in part also from the Protestant Church). A so-called general convocation at Leipsie in March 1845, which was to give a constitution and confession to the new church, brought to light its lamentable reli- gious Nihilism. Czerski, who at least would not reject the divinity of Christ, repudiated the Leipsie resolutions. Ronge, however, marched in triumph through Germany, whereby his holloAvness and communis- 'tic tendency was revealed more and more. The better portion of his adherents began to be ashamed of their enthusiasm for the new re- former. His congregations in great part divided among themselves, many were dissolved, many of its leaders cast off the religious mask, and endeavored to regain tlieir lost respect amid the revolutionary dis- orders of 1848 as communistic and republican reformers. Tie restore 384 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) tion which followed put an end to its needy remnants. (Cf. Edwin Bauer, G3sch. d. deutsch-kath. K. Meiss. 1845. — W. A. Lampadius, d. deutsch-kath. Bewegung. Lpz. 1846.) 6. The Unions. — The stormy years of 1848 and 1849 brought great hopes and great dangers to the Roman Catholic Church of Germany, especially the hope of entire emancipation from the State and the danger of enslavement to the despotism of a Liberalism hostile to the Church. But its representatives knew how to steer skilfully between Scylla and Charybdis. To secure the first, they negotiated with the democracy ; to avoid the last, with the reaction ; and they were sue cessful in gaining advantages from both. In Nov. 1848 the German bishops assembled at Wurzburg to consult together concerning the best way to proceed in this critical period. Unchangeable faithfulness to liome was the first point settled ; voluntary co-operation with the "political regeneration" of the fatherland, the second; thankful ac- ceptance of the promise of unconditional freedom of conscience (in the fundamental rights of the Frankfurt parliament) in order to ac- complish the most complete independence of the Church and absolute control of national education from the elementary to the high-schools, the third. They recognized the restoration of diocesan synods as an important means to elevate the clergy and to restore church discipline ; but the holy Father considered the means as at that time doubtful. Shortly before this, however, an institute of far-reaching significance had been founded, in which also, — and prominently, — the laity were to co-operate, viz. the Fius-uiiion, a Roman Catholic counterpart of the Protestant Church Diet. Soon after the days of March, unions were foi-med at several places in Germany, having for their object the pro- tection and advancement of Roman Catholic interests. At the next anniversary of the building of the Cathedral at Cologne (Aug. 1848), the members of several of these unions met together and resolved upon a general convocation in Oct. 1848 at Mayence, where the first union of this kind was formed under the name of Pius-union. Here all the single unions were formed into a great collective union under the name of " Catholic Union of Germany ;" although in practice the shorter name of Pius-union has been preferred. To direct the business of the collective union, one of the single unions was to be chosen every time from the annual general convocation, which was called " Vorart." The object of the union was: the obtaining and maintaining of the freedom of the Church and control of the same over the schools; na- tional culture in the Roman Catholic spirit and practice of Christian^ mercy ; as fundamental law obedience to the pope and to the episco- pate ; pacific posture towards the State and towards every existing form of government, so far as the rights of the Church wei-e not thereby prejudiced; and defensive, not aggressive posture towards the non- Catholic confessions. The mother of God was chosen to be the patroness of the unioc. Every m^-nber bound himself to repeat a daily Pater- ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 385 noster and Ave Maria to further the objects of the union. At the se- cond meeting at Breslau a letter was received from the pope, in which he gave his approbation and blessing. The meeting at Vienna (1853), however, liad to a:;knowledge, that it had not succeeded in attracting the masses, for only the same faces were present. The meeting at Coloijne (1854) became discordant, because the Comit6 refused to give the Prussian government a guarantee of abstinence from political ex- pectorations and confessional polemics. The ninth general meeting at Salzhitrg (1857) was a living testimonium paupertatis, which the Ro- man Catholic world exhibited to the union. Little was felt here of important men, deeds, and speeches. The cathedral capitular Hlmio- ben of Mayence, the " real miles gloriosus of the meeting," uttered hectoring fanfaronades about the glorious victories of Roman Catholi- cism in Germany, and expressed the confident hope, in regard to the 40 new Protestant churches built by the Gustave-Adolphus union, that these would shortly again be cast out into the garden of rejected stones. Harlequinades were also not Avanting: Prof. Kreu- zer of Cologne ex. gr. comforted those present, in regard to the charge of Ultramontanism, with the pi'overb: "There stands the ox at the mountain," from which it follows incontestably, that the oxen are the real Cismontanes, because they are not able to pass over the mountain; and as regards the papacy, it is evident, that Christ himself, who called upon his father on the cross, was a papist ; indeed, every man is a born papist, because the child lisps " Papa" ah-eady in the cradle, and other such comical things. As a change, it was also greatly lamented, that 207 large and 1234 small journals were in the service of the Protestants of Germany, whilst, on the other hand, the Roman Catholics had only 0 large and 81 small ones. The tenth meeting (1858) was held at Colo'jae. Its deportment was in. general more dignified, the contents of its speeches more important, than those of the previous year. Still the jester Himiohen was not wanting this time also. He exhorted the women to form Parament-unions, and infi^rmed them, that the first union of this kind was formed in the year 33 after Christ, in conse- quence of the first secularization, when the soldiers cast lots for the garment of the Saviour, which he had worn the evening previous as a cliasuble at the first celebration of the mass. Indeed, we can even go further back than this : Mary, who made diapers for the child Jesus, was the proper originator of the union. After being edified with such trifles, but also hearing many important truths, especially concerning the study of history and the musical culture of the young, the meeting was closeil by consecrating the pillar of Mary, built at Cologne in honor of the immaculate conception. — The individual unions pursued various objects. The Bonifaclns-Knlons ex. gr. supported needy Ro- man Catholic congregations in Protestant Germany (also an imuation of the Gustave-Adolphus union) ; the Charlea Boromeo-nnions spread good Roman Catholic writings ; the Vincentius and Elizabeth-uniotig 33 z 386 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) had for its object the visiting of the sick and the care of the poor; the Jouriicymen-'unions (already founded by A'oZ/^/jif/ of Elberfeld, 1846) the spiritual and temporal sustenance of journeymen ; the Unions of the holy childhood oj" Jesus is composed chiefly of children, who contribute monthly five pennies for the salvation of exposed heathen children (especially in China), and daily pray an Ave Maria for them. The Union has also got control of the political daily press, and established (1855) a " Katholische Literaturezeitung," edited by Dr. Brischar of Vienna. Besides, the founding of a Roman Catholic university in Germany (at Salzburg) by art-unions, etc., is discussed. To advance Roman Catholic Missions among heathens and unbe- lievers, there exist at Rome, in addition to the Propaganda, fourteen other educational institutions (the German-Hungarian, English, Scotch, Irish, Greek, etc. college); in Paris three; in the whole of Roman Catholic Christendom, thirty. The Picpus-association in Paris (so called after its central establishment in Picpus street in Paris), serving the same end, has acquired a wide reputation. The founder of this union was the deacon Peter Coudrin, a pupil of the priest's seminary at Poitiers. Amid the cruelties of the revolution against the church and the priests, he received in concealment, through divine inspiration, the call to found a society, having for its object " to atone for the ex- travagances, crimes, and desecrations of all kinds, by devoting one day and night to the adoration of the most holy sacrament of the altar," to instruct the youth in Roman Catholicism, to educate priests, and to carry the gospel to the heathen. lie actually founded such a union in 1805, and Pius VII. confirmed it in 1817. The founder died in 1837, after the association had already spread over all the five parts of the globe. Its chief object now is heathen missions. — Whilst the Picpus- union, as also the other seminaries and monastic orders, furnished an inexhaustible supply of missionaries, other unions were formed to pro- cure the necessary supplies of money and of prayer, among which the Lyons-nnion for the spread of the faith is by far the most important since 1822. The weeklv pecuniary contribution of each member is one sou, the daily contribution of prayer a Paternoster, and English salu- tation and a " Holy Francis Xavier, pray for us." Its fanatically ultramontane " Jahrblicher zur Verbreitung des Glaubens in beiden Welten" is spread yearly in almost 200,000 copies (in almost every European language) among the people. Its yearly income amounts to almost four million francs. The popes have overwhelmed the mem- bers of the union with rich indulgences. Roman Catholic missions are most active in China, Japan, North America, and the Levant. They have also acquired greater importance since 1837, through a measure of violence on the part of the French marine in the South Sea, and through French colonization in Algiers in North Africa. A bloody persecution raged against Roman Catholic Christians (1837-39) in Tonkin and Cochin China, by which many priests and Christians suf- fered martyrdom. ROMAN CATUOLICISM IN GENERAL. 387 7. Roman Catholic Theology. — A biblically orthodox, but churchly latitudiiiarian school, which had its chief representative iu Jahn, was transplanted from the former to this period. To it belongs also the excellent Lconh. Hug of Freiburg, ob. 184G, (Einl. in die Schriftcn d. N. T. 1808, 3. A. 182G, 2 Bde. : Gutachten ii. d. Leben Jesu v. Strauss). Sailer's mjstico-pietistic school (| 44, 11) gradually died out -without having contributed anything of importance to theology. The Arch- bishop Wessciibery, of importance also as a Christian poet and con- noisseur, represents practically and scientifically a liberal Roman Catholicism, certainly not without rationalizing elements (Die Christl. Bilder, 2 Bde. 182G ; Die gr. Kirchenversamll. d. 15. IG Jahrh. 1840, 4 Bde.) Bai-on Rcichlin-Meldcgg, the friend and biographer of Dr. Paulus of Heidelberg (K. Gr. I. 1830), taught a superficial Rationalism, and in 1832 he joined the Protestant chui'ch. The learned Movers of Breslau {ob. 1856), a Richard Simon of this age, practised a boldness of destructive criticism on the canon and history of the 0. T. that amazed even the father of Protestant hyper-criticism, De Wette (De utfiusque recensionis Vaticiniarum Jeremiae indole et origine, 1837 ; Die Phonizier, 1841 ff. 4 Bde.) — The noble John Bapt. von Hirscher of Freiburg, whom the Liberals too willingly reckoned among them- selves, and the ultramontane fanatics condemn as a heretic, contri- buted towards an irenical and genial Roman Catholicism, which was as free from ultramontane as from rationalistic tendencies, and preju- diced Roman Catholic doctrines in nothing that was essential (Christl. Moral. 5. A. 1850, 3 Bde. ; Katechetik. 4. A. 1845 ; Die kath. Lehre voni Ablass. 5. A. 1844; etc.) George Hermes, Prof, at Bonn, whose youth was not uninjured by critical philosophy, permitted the Roman Catholic dogmas of the Council of Trent to pass through the fire of doubt and rational investigation, with the confidence that they would endure the trial, because only what survived this trial was scientifically right and true. lie died (1831) and left behind a school named after him, which has established itself especially in Treves, Bonn [Rraun u. Achterfeld) and Breslau [Ehenich and Balzer), and has created a scientific organ in the " Bonner Zeitschrift fur Philosophic u. kath. Theologie, 1833." Gregory XVI. condemned his writings (1835) (Einl. in d. Christkath. Theol.)gie, 1819, 2. A. 1831 ; Christkath. Dogmatik, herausg. v. Achterfeld, 1824, 3 Bde.) ; and the new Archbishop of Cohjgne, Droste-Vischering, prohibited the students of Bonn from at- tending the lectures of the Hermesians. These made every effort to olttuin the recall of the papal censure. Rraiui and Elcenich went to Rome for this purpose ; but their assertion that Hermes did not believe tliat which the pope condemned was as little regarded as it had been previously in the case of the Jansenists. A controversy now arose, which was carried on by both sides with great passion, and which re- ceived new fuel through the Prussian-Cologne church controversy (^ 58, 7). Finally, in 1844, the professors Braun and Achterfeld of 388 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.; Bunn were deposed from their professorships by the Arch-episcopal coadjutor Geissel. The professors of the Treves seminary, as also Balzer of Breshiu (Beitr. zur Vermittelung eines richtigea Urtheils liber Katholicism, u. Protestsm. 1840) retracted. (Of. Elveiiich, Acta Ilermesiana, Gottg. 1836, and Acta Komana, Hann, 1838. /. Perrone (Jesuit at Komc), Gesch. d. Ilermesianismus. From the Italian, Re- gensb. 1839; ou the other side: Perronius, theologus Romanus vapu- laus. Col. 1840 ; Chi-. Chi. Niediier, phil()sophia3 llermesii explicatio et existimatio. Lpz. 1838 ; Elvenich, der Ilerniensianismus u. Perrone. Berl. 1844.) — A year before Hermes' condemnation, the same pope condemned the doctrine directly contrary to the Hermesian, taught by the Abbe Bautain of Strasburg, that the Christian dogmas cannot be proven, but must be believed, and therefore every application of the reasou in the appropriation of saving truth is entirely excluded. Bautain immediately recanted as iin obedient son of the Church. Roman Catholic theology disregarded the development of German philosophy for a long time. Only since Schelling, whose philosophy had more points of contact with Roman Catholic views than any pre- vious system, was a general and active interest awakened for philoso- phical studies and speculative confirmation and development of Roman Catholicism. Franz v. Baader, Prof, of speculative dogmatics in Mu- nich (although not a theologian by profession, but rather a physician and metallurgist, ob. 1841), embraced the theosophy of the shoemaker of Glirlitz. The most important among his numerous writings are: Vorlesungen liber die specul. Dogmatik, 1828 ff. 5 Hefte, and Fermenta Cngnitionis, 1822 S. 6 Hefte. In his last years he broke entirely with Ultramontanism ("Ueber die Thunlichkeit od. Unthunlichkeit einer Emancipation von der rom. Dictatur, 1839;" — "Dor morgenlandische und abendlandische Katholicismus, 1841.") A collective edition of his writings (1851 ff.) was published in connection with other friends by the late Franz Hoffmann of Wurtemburg, whose " Vorhalle zur specul. Lehre Fr. Baaber's, 183G," was declared by the latter to be the purest and clearest exhibition of his doctrines. His doctrines were accepted by the Roman Catholic theological faculty of Giessen, whose destruction was certainly thereljy hastened (| 58, 6), — espe- cially by Leop. Schmid (Geist des Katholicismus od. Grundlegung der chr. Irenik. 4 Bd. 1848 fi'.) and G. A. Lntfcrhec.k (die neutest. Lehrbegriffe, 2 Bde. 1853 S.) A tendency closely related to that of Baader, although more closely allied with the Kabbala, was pursued by the talented Molitor of Frankfurt (Pliilos. d. Gesch. od. ii. d. Tra- dition, 4 Bde. 1827 fl'.) — Reconcilableness towards Protestantism cha- racterizes all the Roman Catholic adherents of this tendency. A speculative theology of at least equally important speculative power, and in any case of purer Christian and more decided Roman Catholic contents, was developed by the world-priest J n/o?i Gunther of Vienna, in connection with his fricjid Henry Pahst and the beloved R O iM A N C A T H 0 L I C IS M IN GENERAL. 389 preacher Emmanuel Peitk of "Vienna. Glinthei-, a deep, original thinker, with combative humor, sparkling -wit, and withal a roughness of expression bordering on burlesque, recognized the necessity of going back again, with philosophical and theological speculation, to Carte- sius, wlio in his cogito ergo sum yet held fast to the dualism of God and creature, absolute and finite, spirit and nature, whilst all philoso- phy after him has fallen into pantheistic monism. Proceeding from self-consciousness, the human spirit, it is true, recognizes itself as free, but yet bound substance, which must, therefore, of necessity have an (ihnolute substance before and besides itself, whilst it at the same time knows itself as one Avith and yd dilFerent from nature. For in it the union of nature and fipirit is completed ; both principles are combined in it as in a Communicatio idiomatum. Accordingly man has two souls, one rational, the spirit, — and another sensuous, the psyche, which is one substance with the body, and has as the plastic principle of the body its own will and consciousness, but is connected with the spirit in a formal unity. From this fundamental vieAV he endeavored to solve the two problems of Clu'istian speculation : Creation and in- carnation, and undertook a war of annihilation against all monism and semimonism, idealistic and realistic Pantheism, humpbacked and uon-humpliacked Semipantheism among Protestants and Roman Ca- tholics. His first great work was the " Vorschule zu specul. Theol." (Bd. I.: Creationslehre, 1828, Bd. II. Incarnationstheorie, 1829, 2. A. ISlG). Then followed: Peregrin's Gastmahl. 1830; Slid-u. Nordlich- ter am llorizonte specul. Theologie, 1832; Januskopfe, 1832 (in con- nection with Pabst) ; Der letzte Symboliker, 1834 (participation in the controversy between Mohler and Baur) ; Thomas a Scrupulis, zur Transfiguration der Personlichkeits-Pantheismen neuester. Zeit, 1835 ; Die Juste-melieu's in d. deutsch. Philos. 1838; Eurystheus und Hera- kles, 1842; Lydia, ein philos. Taschenbuch zeit, 1849 (in connection with Veith). Although Glinther never ascended a rostrum, he never- theless soon gathered around him a great crowd of enthusiastic disci- ples ; /. H. Pabst, doctor of medicine in Vienna [ob. 1838), translated the master's dark, aphoristic, almost dithyrambic effusions of mind anil heart into luminous and spirited philosophical prose ("Der Mensch u. s. Geschichte, 1830 ; Giebt es eine Philos. des positiven Christenthums? 1832; Adam u. Christus, zur Theorie der Ehe, 1835,") and John Eman. Vcith popularized them in sermons and devotional works (Das Vaterunser, 1831 ; Der heil. Berge, 1833, etc., 2 Bde.) Many of the former adherents of the condemned Hermes also, among others also Baltzer, became his disciples. On the other hand, the "Hist, polit. Blatter" charged him with annihilating all mystery in Christianity, with contradicting traditional churchly theology, etc., and a private docent of Philosopiiy at Bonn, F.J. CIeme?is (Die specul. Theol. A. Glinthcr's u. die. kath. Kirchenlehre, 1853) became the spokesman of this party Thus a violent controversy arose, of which 33* ' 390 SECTION Til. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A. D.) . notice must also be taken at Rome. The disposition here •was from the beginning to doom Glinther to the same fate that befell Hermes 20 years before ; yet it was a matter of long deliberation, for intercession from those high in authority at Vienna was made in his behalf. Finally in 1857 the formal reprobation of Gunther's philosophy was announced, and all his works were placed in the Index prohibitarum. G'unther submitted most humbly as an obedient son of the Church ; likewise Baltzer, who had earlier experience in such matters. But the Roman Catholic Church of Germany also possessed specula- tive powers of great importance outside of these two schools, so that, when necessai-y, it was able boldly to measure its strength with Pro- testant theology. The most important of these is Francis Anthony Stmideruneier of Freiburg {ob. 1850), (Joh. Scot. Erigena u. die. Wsch. sr. Zeit, Bd. I. 1840 ; Encykl. d. theol. Wsch, 2. A. 1840, 2 Bde. : Der Geist d. gottl. Offenb. od. Wsch. d. Geschichts-principien d. Christth. 1837 ; Die Philosophie des Christth. od. Mctaphysik d. h. Schr. Bd. I. ; Geist d. Christth. 3. A. 1842, 2 Bde. ; Krit. d. Hegel'schen Systems vom Standp. d. chr. Philos. 1844; Die chr. Dogmatik, 1844 ff. 4 Bde. ; Der Protestsm. in s. Wesen u. sr. Entw. 1845 ff. 3 Bde. Bd. III. ; Die Grundfragen der Gegenwart, 1850). Next to him were distinguished: J. Knhn of Tubingen (Das Leben Jesu, Avissensch. bearb. 1838; Ueber Glauben u. Wissen, 1839 ; Ueber Princip u. Methode d. specul. Theol. 1841; Kathol. Dogmatik, Bd. I. II. 184G-57), Karl. Werner {SysAem d. chr. Ethik. 3 Bde. 1850 ; Grundlinien d. Phil. 1855 ; Der h. Thomas V. Aquin, 3 Bde. 1858), Mart. Devlinger (Princip d. Philos. u. chr. Wsch. 1857), H. Denzinger (4 Bb. v. d. rel. Erkenntn. 2 Bde. 1857), /. iV. Oi.schinr/er (Philos. u. Relig. 1849 ; System d. chr. Glaubenslehre, Bd. I. 1858, etc.) ; /. Seiir/ler (Ueber d. Wesen u. die Bedeutung d. specul. Philos. u. Theol. 1837; Die Idee Gottes. 1845 ff. 3 Bde.), Scb. t). Drey of Tubingen (Die Apologetik als Wsch. Nachweis y. d. Gott- liclik.'des Christth. 1838 ff. 3 Bde.), and others— ^ Klee of Munich (Die Beichte, 1827 ; Kath. Dogm. 3. A. 1839, 2 Bde. ; Dogmengesch, 1837, 2 Bde. ; Kath. Moral. 1843, etc.), and Xav. Dieringer of Bonn (Lehrb. d. kath. Dogmatik, 3. A. 1853 ; System d. gbttl. Thaten d. Christenthums, 2. A. 1857) belong more to the Positivists of the old, school. None of all the Roman Catholic theologians of modern times has reached the importance and influence which John Adam Mahler at- tained already in the 42d year of his age. Having been brought to a high scientific culture especially by the study of Schleiermacher's writings and of other Protestants, and devoting all the rich gifts of his heart and mind to the service of his Church, he won for it as great and even greater significance, than Schleiermacher before him did for the Protestant Church. His first treatise already : " Die Einheit der Kirche od. daa Princip dcs Katholicismus, \825," attested and guaranteed this. It was followed by his "Athanasius d. Gr. u. die K. sr. Zeit. ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 391 1827," and this by his principal work, " Symbolik, 1832, 5. A. 1838," which combats Protestant doctrines with the weapons of Protestant science, and silently ennobles and sublimates those of the Roman Ca- tholic Church. Did the Protestants up to this time generally despise or ignore the contributions of Roman Catholic theologians, here a scientific power of the highest significance approached them, to despise which would have been a sign of weakness. And in fact, long as was the opposition which existed between both churches, no work from the camp of the Roman Catholics produced as much agitation and excite- ment in the camp of the Protestants as this, at least none with more reason. Of the Protestant rejoinders, those by NUsch and Baiiei- were the most important. Mcihlcr replied to that of the latter, who labored with liim at the same university, in his " Neuen Unters. d. Lehrgegen- satze zw. d. Kath. u. Prot. 1834, 2. A. 1835." The lukcwarmness oc- casioned thereby rendered his residence at Tubingen unpleasant, and led him to accept a call to Munich. But increasing illness interfered with his scientific labors, and did not permit him to execute the great scientific works which he had made the task of his life. For already in 1838, in the vigor of his manhood, he was torn by death from his church and from science generally, which was justified in expecting from him still something great. But he sent rays of his spirit deep into the hearts and minds of hundreds of his enthusiastic pupils by his writings, addresses, and by his intercourse with them ; and what the Roman Catholic Church of the present possesses of living scientific Impulse and feeling was implanted, or at least revived and excited by him. His posthumous smaller Avorks were collected by DoUinger (1839 f. 2 Bde.), and RlieUmayr published from his papers the first volume of a Patrology in 1839. His lectures on Church History con- stitute the basis of Alzog's text-book. Sfavdenmaicr and Knlin are the most important of his disciples in the sphere of dogmatics, — Ign. IJdUinger of Munich (Die Reformation, ihre Entwickl. und Wirkung im Dmfange des luth. Bekenntnisses, 1846 fi". 3 Bde. ; Hippolyt. u. Kallistus od. d. rom K. im 3 Jahrh. 1853 ; Heidenth. u. Judenth., als. Vorhalle zur Gesch. d. Christenth. 1857), K. Jos. Hefele of Tubingen (EinfUhr. d. Christth. im siidwestl. Deutschl. 1837; Der Kardinal Ximenez u. d. kirchl. ZustUnde Spaniens, 2. A. 1851 ; Concilienges- chichte, Bd. I. III. 1855 ff.) in the sphere of Church History. Roman Catholic learning (so far as ultramontane hatefulness, or historical concealment and bungling did not exert a baneful influence) has con- tributed many important works in the sphere of Church-historical monographs. Relatively weak and unimportant, on the other hand, are its /j('6?fco-critical, -historical and -exogetical contributions, most of all in the sphere of the Old Testament. The contributions of Benj. Welfe of Tubingen (Nachmosaisclies im Pentat. 1841 ; Buch Job. 1849 ; Herausgabe u. Fortsetz. d. Einl. ins A. T. v. J. II. Herlist. 3 Bde. 1840 ff.) ; o{ Pet. Schegg (Die kl. Proph. 2 Bde 1854; Die Evangclien. 392 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) 2 Bde. 185C; Die Psalmen, 3 Bde. 1857) ; Aclalb. Maicr (Einl. ins N T. 1852; K(ii-inthci-br. 1857), are relatively of the most importance. A compilatory copious author is Lor. Rcinkc (Beitr. zur Erkl. des alt. Test. 4 Bde. 1851 fl'. ; Malachi, 1850 ; Messianische Psahnen, 1857, etc.) § 58. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. Tlie restoration of 1814 again introduced a rigid ultramon- tanism into most of the purely Roman Catholic States. But the overbent bow broke now here, now there. The Papacy expe- rienced the deepest humiliations and the greatest dangers just in the original Roman Catholic States of Romanic descent: in Spain, Portugal, France, and Sardinia. In consequence of the fir.st French revolution the imperial rights and privileges of the Gfnnan clergy were anniiiilated, its possessions were secularized, and the prelates were salaried as servants of the State, by the chief dec7-ee of the imperial deputation (1803). Only the prince- primas of the Rhine league and archbishop of Mayence, Baron von Dalberg, retained for a time his spiritual principality, whose seat was transferred to Regensburg, and received as indemnifica- tion the temporal principality of Frankfurt, which he resigned in 1813. A large number of Roman Catholic countries came under the rule of Protestant princes through the new division of territory made by the Congress of Vienna (1814). But as, besides, most of the bishoprics became vacant during the politi- cal complications of the previous decade, the governments now were active in bringing to pass an orderly state of ecclesiastical affairs through alliance with the papal chair, whereby many mis- takes were made, and many vital questions concerning the rela- tion of Church and State yet remain unsolved. 1. In Italy the old state of things returned after the restoration of 1814. But Liberalism with its strivings after the freedom and unity of Italy increased mightily, and, because mental bondage and Papism were identical, it worked to effect an uncatholization which was only too frequently also an unchristianization of the land. Where Liberalism was for a time victorious, there the Jesuits were driven out, and the power of the clergy restricted ; where it was defeated, there both re- turned in increased strength. The arms of Austria, and later also of France, suppressed the revolutionary movements everywhere. Pius IX., who at first was not averse to placing himself at the head of the national movement, opposed as it was to all the traditions of the papacy, was cuupellcd bitterly to atone for this connection with Libei-alism ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CIIURCHEB 393 (^ 57, 1). Sardinia, Modcna, and Parma, drew the bow of restoration most tightly, whilst Parma and Tuscany were distinguished for a rela- tive kind of liberality. But when in 1S48 Lonibardy, in consequence of the French revolution of Fel)ruary, rose against Austrian dominion, King Charles Albert of Sardinia placed himself as the sword of Italy at the head of the liberal national movement. He, however, was de- feated, and was compelled to abdicate (184'.)). Victor Emmanuel has> permitted the liberal constitution of his father to exist, and even first gave it its full validity. The minister of justice, Sicrardi, proposed a new act of legislation, according to which all spiritual jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, as well as the privilege of asylum and of tithes (the latter with partial indemnification), was to be abolished. The parliament approved, and the king signed it (1850). But the clergy, with the Archbishop Fransoni of Turin at their head, protested most vehemently against this sacrilegious attack on the rights of the church. Fransoni was compelled to atone therefor by one month's imprisonment, and, because he refused the last sacrament to a dyint' minister, he was condemned by a regular sentence to deposition and exile. The pope, Pius IX., declined every overture for a new concordat. The government, nevertheless, went forward only the more regardlessly. As Fransoni kept up a continual agitation from his exile in France, all the possessions of the archepiscopal foundation were sequestered in 1854, and a number of monasteries were confiscated. Soon there- upon all penalties in the statute-books concerning the spread of anti- Catholic doctrines were erased, and the non-Catholic military Avere exempted from compulsory presence at the mass on Sundays and holy- days. The heaviest blow followed, March 2, 1855, in the form of the monastery-laio, according to which all the orders and monasteries not devoted to preaching, to instruction, and to the care of the sick, were abolished (of 605 monasteries, 331 fell under this law). As this act of the chamber of deputies was in danger of failing in the Senate, the people rose in its favor in several cities. The pope did not omit to condemn all these sacrilegious measures, and, as his threats were dis- regard'^ 1. he pronounced in July, 1855, the great bann upon all origin- ators, favorers, and executors of the same. This, it is true, caused some agitation among the common people, which, however, exploded nowhere. The government has been victorious up to this time, and goes boldly forward in carrying out its measures. 2. Into Spain also the restoration of 1814 again introduced Ultra- montanism, but the triumph of the Liberals overthrew the hierarchical clergy after the death of Ferdinand VII. (1833). The revolution esta- blished its inquisition against monks and priests, and also celebrated its auto-da-f6's. All monastic orders were alolished, all monasteries were confiscated, the possessions of the Church were declared (1835-37) to be national property, and the papal nuncio was led across the bor- ders. Since the accession to the throne of the present Queen Isabella 394 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) (1844) a beginning has been made in re-establishing a Roman Catholic Church in Spain. After many negotiations and fluctuations, amidst constant change of ministers, a Concordat was finally agreed upon (1851), according to which the church and monastery property not yel sold was restored, an indemnification given for that already sold, the number of former bishoprics reduced about six, in.struction and censor- ship of books committed to the supervision of the bishops, and the Roman Catholic religion declared to be the only one to be tolerated. These terms were enlarged in the year following by an anti-Protestant alien-law. But although in March 2.3, 1854, the holy Virgin was chosen to be the generalissimo of the valiant army, and her image at Atocha decorated by the queen with a band of golden fleece, nevertheless, a revolution broke out soon after from the ranks of the army, which threatened to destroy ultramontane Roman Catholicism. Meanwhile, the republican party was not entirely successful. The motion in favor of the unconditional freedom of all religions failed by a small minority, and the new constitution of March 1, 1855, obligates the Spanish na- tion to preserve and to protect the Roman Catholic religion, to which the Spaniards belong ; nevertheless, no Spaniard was to be persecuted on account of his faith, so long as he abstained from acts contrary to religion. A new law of May 3, 1855, ordained the sale of all church and monastery property, and compensation for the same by yearly rents according to the measure of the existing concordat. Several bishops were banished for obstinate opposition ; the pope protested, and recalled his legates. Meanwhile, the clerical party soon' regained influence with the queen. The sale of church and monastery property was arrested, — that already sold was compensated for by the restora- tion of former possessions. The matter has not yet been brought to a definite conclusion, on account of the frequent change of ministers. The sale of church property already commenced was suspended, until the Cortes had determined upon a proper Indemnification. In Portugal the experience of the Roman Catholic Church was not better. After the overthrow of the Cathedral of Miguel by the liberal Cortes, all the monastic orders were abolished, the property of the monasteries was appropriated by the State, and the spiritual rights of patronage were assumed by the civil government. However, since 1841 a union with Rome has again been brought about under Donna Maria. The government negotiated with regard to a concordat, but it has not up to this time been obtained. All papal decrees need royal confirmation. But the Codigo penal of 1852 also menaced every sub- ject, who went over to one of the non-Catholic confessions, with the loss of civil rights. The liberal movements extended also to South and Central America, and also called forth there similar revolutionary attempts in the sphere of the church, but the popular faith was more closely attached to the cl air of Peter here than even in the mother-countries. ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. 395 3. The charte of restoration in France (1814) secured for Roman Catholicism the character of the established religion, for the other confessions only tolerance and protection. But Ultramontanism in its worst form soon prevailed among the clergy to such a degree, that every mention of Galilean church-froodom was regarded as heresy. The support of tliis tendency by the State led to its overthrow in the second French revolution of 1830. The Roman Catholic Church thereby again lost the privileges of an established or State religion, and the Protestants, who had been persecuted and oppressed up to this time, obtained equal i-ightswith the Roman Catholics. But Ultramontanism again 'became ascendant even under the new constitutional govern- ment, and France assumed the protectorate of Roman Catholicism throughout the world. In the revolution of February the Roman Ca- tholic clergy willingly permitted themselves to be absolved from obe- dience to the citizen-King Louis Philippe, and they did not hesitate, because the Roman Catholic Church is compatible with every form of civil government which only allows freedom of the Church, to bless the trees of liberty, together with the sovereign people on the barri- cades. Napoleon III. seemed at first disposed to regard the concordat of 1801 as existing by law, and jealously to guard the liberties of the Galilean Church. And although his bayonets made it possible for the pope to return to Rome and still uphold his temporal authority there, the latter has not yet fulfilled the chief desire of his heart, by placing the imperial crown upon his head. Still the Ultramontanes have grown in favor with him, at least in appearance. On a journey through Roman Catholic Bretagne (1858) he most emphatically declared the necessity of a strong, monarchical, and Roman Catholic government. And Veuillot, the editor of the Univers, had an audience, at which he laid before the emperor a memorial concerning strict measures that ought to be adopted against books hostile to religion, among which the minister. General Espinasse, reckoned in the sense of the Univers, especially Protestant bibles (§ 55, 10). But notwithstanding all the manifestations of favor, which the leaders of the Ultramontane party receive at the present time, it is evident that the advancement of their interest is not an object,, but only a means, which can be cast aside and supplied by its opposite at any moment, when it becomes useless or hindering. — The attempt (1858) to sequester the property of the hospitals and benevolent institutions, and to compensate for it by go- vernment rents, called forth so great an opposition through the whole country, that the plan had to be abandoned. — For the rest, there is no country in the whole Roman Catholic world that is at the present day so highly fiivored with visions and miracles, as Roman Catholic France. — In Belyium, Ultramontanism connected itself with political Liberalism against the Protestant government, but after the separa- tion from Holland became a fait accompli (1830), the two parties oeparated and opposed each other, and are represented es])ecially iq 396 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 19 A. D.) the Liberal university at Brussels, and the Ultramontane one at Lou- vain. The latter, for the prize of the complete and unconditional in- dependence of the Church of the State, submitted to the election of another Protestant king. — Li Holland, the organic law of 1848 guaran- teed complete freedom of religion. Taking advantage of this, the pope, in 1853, organized a Roman Catholic hierarchy in the country, with four bishops and an archbishop, at Utrecht. The Protestant population was greatly agitated by this action. The liberal ministry was compelled to resign, but the chambers nevertheless finally per- mitted the papal arrangement to continue, securing the Protestant established Church only against abuses and encroachments from it. The Holland Jansenists (| 44, 6) have been again excommunicated by the pope on account of their protestation against the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the virgin Mary. 4. The Roman Catholic population of Ireland, under Protestant land-proprietors, and with the obligation to pay tithes to the Protestant clergy, is still destitute of civil rights. Since 1809, O'Connell, an agitator of captivating eloquence, placed himself at the head of the oppressed people, in order to obtain for them religious and political equality in a legal way. Finally, in 1829, the Emancipation-bill, which granted to Roman Catholics admission to parliament and to all civil offices, was passed, being supported by Peel and Wellington. But the odious tithes remained, and were collected wherever resisted by military power. After many contests in both houses of parliament, the tithe-bill, which laid the tithes as ground-rent of the tenant on the land-proprietor, was passed (1838), whereby the question was only postponed. O'Connell so regarded it. He declared that justice and deliverance for Ireland was only to be obtained by abolishing the legislative union with Great Britain, which existed since 1800, and by re-establishing an independent parliament; and he organized the Repeal Association to this end. Since 1840 another not less powerful popular agitator, the Irish capuchin Matthew, the apostle of temper- ance, labored with unparalleled success, leading many thousands of drunkards to sign the pledge of total abstinence from all spirituous liquors (tee-totallers). lie abstained from all political agitation, but the fruits of his labors nevertheless contributed towards it. O ' Coniiell began his monster-meetings in 1843, to which hundreds of thousands crowded. The government impeached him, the jury pronounced him guilty, but the court of peers declared the proceedings null and void, and released him from prison (1844). Peel's ministry, to conciliate. carried the legacy-bill, which permitted the Roman Catholic Church to receive property in its own name, and the Maynooth-bill, by which the theological seminary at Mainooth was richly endowed by the State (1845). Long-continued famine, and, as a consequence, the emigra- tion of many hundred thousands to America and Australia, almost depopulated Ireland within the last few years, whilst Protestant mia- KOMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. 397 sions have labored successfully at the evangelization of the remainder tbrouu;h Bibles, tracts, and schools. On the other hand, on the 5th Nov. 1855, on the anniversary of the Gunpowder plot, the Redemp- tionists of Kingston near Dublin collected a large number of Bibles and burned them on the public street, and the archbishop-primas of Ireland referred, in a pastoral letter on the occasion, to the example of believers at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 19). Meetings for the founding of a Roman Catholic university in Ireland, independent of the State, are still held. — Encouraged to entertain the strongest hopes by the numer- ous transitions of Puseyites in England (§ 55, 8), tlie pope issued in September, 1850, a bull, by which the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England Avas re-established in twelve suffragan bishoprics under an arclibishop of Westminster (Cardinal Wiseman). The bull created the greatest excitement among the Protestant population (anti-papal aggres- sion), and the ecclesiastical title-hill forbade the use of ecclesiastical titles, not conferred by the laws of the land. But these measures by no means cut off the roots of the Rtimish aggression ; conversions espe- cially from the higher classes are still reported. The Roman Catholic prelates soon again used their repudiated titles without suffering punishment. AVithin six j'ears not less than 54 splendid Roman Ca- tJiolic churches in Gothic style have been erected. In JSfurth America the Roman Catholic Church has increased with like rapidity, although less by conversions than by the emigration of Irish and German Ro- man Catholics. Their number here is reckoned at present as being two millions souls. So much the greater is the violent excitement of the Natives, and especially of the Know-nothings (^ 55, 12). In any case, however, both in North America and in England, the accounts of the progress of the Roman Catholic Church are greatly exaggerated by both parties. 5. The Eu) peror of J.;<.v;'rm retained from the Roman empire only the name of an advowee of the papal chair and of the Roman Catholic Church. The remnants of the churcli-constitution of Josephine have been since then gradually destroyed, and Roman Catholicism has been retained as the established religion, althougli the government preserves its independence over against all hierarchical claims. The government, since the restoration from the revolutionary disorders of 1848, has been much more compliant to the demands of the hierarchy. Already in April, 1850, an imperial patent exempted the papal and episcopal de- crees from the necessity of imperial approbation, and on Aug. 18th, 1855, a concordat with the pope was signed, by which the hierarchy in Austi'ia ol>tained unprecedented power and independence. The first article guarantees to the Roman Catholic religion in the whole empire all the rights and privileges to which it had claim according to divine institution and canon law. In the other articles, the intercourse of the bishops with Rome is granted unconditionally ; no papal decree re- quired in future the placet of the emperor ; the prelates are uure- II. —34 398 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERICJ (c E N T. 1 9 A. D.) stricted in the exercise of their liierarchical duties ; the religious iustruction of all the schools is placed under their supervision ; no one is permitted to teach religion or theology without their approbation ; only Koman Catholic teachers dare be in Roman Catholic schools ; they have the right to prohibit all books that might be injurious to the faithful ; all ecclesiastical cases at law belong to their forum, although the apostolic chair gives its consent that the purely temporal legal afl'airs of the clergy be decided before the civil courts ; the right of nomination to vacant episcopal chairs is granted to the emperor, etc. The lower orders of the clergy, which are without any rights over against the prelates according to the concordat, have shown themselves to be not especially pleased with it, and the joy over it has also not been very great among the Roman Catholic laity. Even the govern- nient seems to entertain well-grounded apprehensions concerning its unlimited operation. — Bavaria was the first German State which, after the Congress of Vienna, concluded (1817) a concordat with Rome, by which all the prerogatives demanded ])y canonical law were guaranteed to the Roman Catholic Church ; besides, two archbishoprics with six bishoprics were organized, the re-establishment of several monasteries permitted, the right of prohibiting books granted to the bishops, the annates restored, the election of bishops transferred to the king, their confirmation to the pope, etc. The excitement of the Protestant popu- lation concerning this concordat was allayed by a new organic law (1818), by whicli perfect freedom of conscience to all subjects, and equal civil riglits to the three Christian confessions, was most solemnly guaranteed. The inconsistency of this laAv with the concordat was apparent, but the government permitted the forme" to prevail over the latter, even under the Ultramontane rule of King Lords (§ 55, 7). In 1850, it is true, the assembled bishops at Freising demanded the final and full realization of the existing concordat, but they obtained only email concessions tlirough a rescript of 1852, which Avere somewhat enlarged on renewed complaints in 1854. The Ultramontane party took special offence at the circumstance that King Maximilian called so many distinguished learned Pi-otestants to Munich. Dr. Ringseis gave public expression to this indignation in a univei'sity address, which represents Protestant science as a confused chaos (1855). — Hanover concluded a concordat with the papal chair in 1824, by which the bishoprics of Ilildesheim and Osnabrlick were re-established. 6. The Protestant governments of the South German States having Roman Catholic subjects assembled at Frankfurt in 1818, to form in common a concordat with Rome. But on account of the great contra- riety of claims, nothing other was attained than a new circumscription of the bishoprics in the so-called Upper Rhine Cliurch province (1821) (the archbishopric of Freiburg for Baden and the two Hohenzollern principalities, the bishopric of Magence for Hesse-Darmstadt, of Fulda for Hesse-Cassel, of Roitenberg for Wiirteraberg, of Limbnrg for Nassau Ri>MAi\ CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHUHCUES. 399 and Frankfurt) ; and this also was ouly realizi .1 in 1827 after many mistakes, with the understanding that the election of bishops was to proceed from the chapters, but that tlie sovereign could strike off the obnoxious names from the list of candidates which was to be submitted to him before the election. What the pope would not admit into the concordat was proclaimed in 1830 bj the princes, in Jjelialf of the real equalization of Protestants and Roman Catholics, to be the law of the land ; papal and episcopal decrees require approbation before their publication ; taxes dare not be levied by any ecclesiastical court ; ap- peal from the abuse of spiritual power to the civil courts ; the future priests to receive their scientific education at universities ; their prac- tical training at the theological seminaries, etc. The pope issued a breve, in which he designates these arrangements as a scandal of in- novations, and i-eminds the bishops of what is said (Acts 5 : 29.) But only the Bishop of Fulda heeded this admonition, and succeeded in abolishing the Roman Catholic theological faculty at Marburg after a brief existence, and in committing the education of priests alone to the seminary at Fulda. Hesse-Darmstadt founded a theological faculty at Giessen (1830) ; Baden had a Roman Catholic university already at Freiburg ; and Wurtemburg had also already in 1817 connected the faculty at EUwangen with the university of Tubingen, and richly en- dowed it with a refectory. There reigned in all these faculties, in addition to a scientific spirit, a noble liberality without perversion of the Roman Catholic basis of faith. Some priests, who refused in Wiirtemberg to perform mixed marriages, were punished by the State ; and when the aged Bishop Keller of Rottenburg, hitherto peaceable and submissive to the government, complained before the chambers about the violations of the rights of the Roman Catholic Church, and demanded the release of the same from the guardianship of the State, his motion failed in both chambers (1841). The revolutionary year of 1848 first gave the bishops prospect of the success of a contest for the unconditional freedom of the church. When in 1849 the bishopric of Mayence became vacant, Rome rejected Prof. Leopold Sclimid of Gies- sen (I 57, 7), who had been desired hj Darmstadt and regularly elected by the chapter. The government permitted itself to be satisfied with the induction of the Ultramontane Banm von Ketteler, who did not rest until he had entirely desolated the Roman Catholic faculty of Giessen, and until the last student had removed from here to the newly established seminary at Mayence (1851). At the same time the five bishops (Feb. 1851) published a joint memorial, in which they de- manded free intercourse with Rome, abolition of the sovereign placet, independent administration of church-property, abrogation of the exa- mination of young priests by the State, unhindered exercise of episco- pal power of punishment, abrogation of appeal to the State, change of academical studies, establishment of episcopal seminaries, aupervi- Hion of schools, investiture of all spiritual ofi&ces alo" e by the l)i8hop8, 400 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD ( t E N T. 19 A. D.) etc. As the government delayed its answer, they declared, in 1852, that they would from this time forward proceed as if everything had been conceded to them ; and when the answer finally came, refusing what they demanded in most things, that, obeying God rather than man, they would proceed quite according to canonical law (1853). Baden, where the revolution shook the foundations of the State most of all, and where besides a young regent just at this time took hold of the reins of government, seemed best adapted to a dictatorial at- tempt. The eighty years old Archbishop of Freiburg, Hermann von Vicari, began it by prohibiting the mourning for the deceased (hereti- cal) grand-duke, which had been appointed by the Roman Catholic high-consistory of Karlsruhe according to an old custom, and by con- demning more than a hundred priests, who nevertheless observed it, to penances (1852). In the following year he publicly declared that he would for the future proceed according to the demands of the epis- copal memorial, and he did it at once by appointing priests on his own authority, and by delaying the examination of seminaries without con- sulting the commissioner of the government. As a warning was dis- regarded, the government issued an order that all episcopal decrees until further notice must be subscribed by a grand-ducal special com- missioner thereto appointed before their publication. The archbishop at once pronounced the bann upon him, as Avell as upon the entire high-consistory, published a fulminating pastoral letter, which was to be read with excommunication in all the churches, and commanded that the priests should preach for four weeks to instruct the people concerning this matter. He at the same time solemnly protested against all rights of sovereignty on the part of tlie State. The government banished the -Jesuits, prohibited the reading of the pastoral letter, and punished the disobedient clergy with fines and imprisonment. Enthu- siastic letters from foreign bishops and large collections of money were received ; on the other hand, in 1854, both chambers gave the govern- ment a vote of confidence in regard to this matter. The archbishop, meanwhile, proceeded still more boldly and regardless of consequences. In May, 1854, the government began a criminal prosecution against him, during which he was guarded in his own house as a prisoner. The efforts of his party to excite the Roman Catholic population by demonstrations, were fruitless. After the close of the investigation, the archbishop was released from durance, and he proceeded again in his former way. But the government was also firm, and proceeded against all refractoriness with punishment and reprisals. In .June, 1855, finally, a provisional agreement was arrived at in Rome. It consists in this, that all prosecutions be abandoned, and thti arclibishop fill all vacant benefices provisionally with vicars, until a concoi-dat is obtained, — which has not yet happened. — On the other hand, Wiirtcm- herg concluded a concordat with the pope In 1857, by which the Roman Cath(dic Church has also become the established church of this country. ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. 401 The bishop alone disposes of all vacant benefices ; he has further the right to introduce religious orders and congregations without inter- ference. The government renounced the right of having a commis- sioner at the examination of seminaries, and the bishop can esth seminaries where he pleases, and as many as he pleases. The sove- reign placet is entirely given up. On the contrary, the pope permits, for a time, that the purel}' temporal legal matters of the clergy be transacted before the civil courts. 7. Prns-'^ia concluded a concordat with Rome already in 1821, ac- cording to which six bishoprics and two archbishoprics were established in the land. The free election of bishop was granted to the chapters, but in a secret appendix-article Rome promised, instructing the chap- ters, that only gratse personam were to be chosen. A rupture took place in spite of all the connivance of the government concerning the con- tradiction between canonical and civil law in regard to the mixed marriages existing between Protestants and Roman Catholics. The Council of Trent absolutely forbade such marriages. A subsequent jjapal bull of 1741, however, permitted them under the condition of a merely passive assistance of the Roman Catholic clergy at the marriage, and of an obligation on the part of those thus marrying to educate their children in a Roman Catholic way. The Prussian law of 1803 enacted, on the contrary, that in doubtful cases all the children should adopt the religion of the father. But as this law also became valid since 1825 for the Rhine provinces, and the bishops here on this ac- count made inquiry of the pope. Fins VIII. issued a breve (1830), which allowed the priest to solemnize marriages only in those cases where the instruction of the children in Roman Catholicism was guaranteed ; in all other cases only a passive assistance was declared permissible. The government, however, received from the priests con- cerned, at a secret private convention (1834), the promise that they would not refuse to officiate in other cases ; and the Archbishop of Cologne, Count Spiegel, who was both a friend and patron of Herme- sian theology, gave ecclesiastical legislative authority to this conven- tion. Spiegel's successor was Clemens Droste of Viscliering (1836), after that he had given his adhesion formally to the convention, be- cause he, as he later excused himself, had not called into question the agreement affirmed by the government Avith the breve. So soon, how- ever, as he obtained a clearer insight into their contradictory charac- ter, he strictly forbade his clergy to solemnize any marriage Avithout the guarantee required by the breve. At the same time he endeavored to give force to the papal condemnation of Ilermesian theology by for- bidding the students of Bonn in the confessional from attending the lectures of the Ilermesians. Ac the archbishop could not be influenced to yield his position, he was arrested in 1837 as faithless to his word and exciting rebellion, and was taken to the castle of Minden. Both of the powers interested justified their conduct in public memorials, 34* 2 a 402 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT- 19 A. D.) with which Avas connected an immense number of controversial trear tises from both parties. GcJrres called the archbishop the " Athanaslus" of the 19th century. The example of the Archbishop of Cologne also emboldened the Archbishop Duniii of Gnesen and Posen to issue a secret pastoral letter, in which every priest of his diocese was threat- ened with suspension who did not unconditionally obey the papal breve (1838). He was legally deposed therefor, and condemned to a half year's imprisonment, but the king prevented the execution of the penalty. Dunin, however, fled from Berlin to Posen, and was now taken to the castle of Colberg (1839). Amid such complications Frede- rick William IV. ascended the throne (1840). Dunin was restored to his office in magnanimous confidence. Droste also was released from his imprisonment with public apology, and received, with his approba- tion and that of the pope, a coadjutor in the hitherto Bishop of Spire, Geib-sel, who administered the archbishopric in his name and with the right of succession (1842). The government let the Hermesians fall ; the law in regard to mixed marriages remained in force, although so that the conscience of the Roman Catholic clergy was to be spared under all circumstances (cf. K. Uase, die beiden Erzsbischofe. Lpz. 1839). After the year of revolution the Prussian bishops also presented a memorial containing the well-known Ultramontane demands. The organic law of Jan. 31, 1850, guaranteed free intercourse with Rome, and a Roman Catholic faction was formed in the chambers which voted at one time with the right wing, then with the left, as Ultramontane interests demanded. The government granted many things, although it in a measure forbade the studying in foreign Jesuit institntions and limited Jesuit missions (1852). When in March, 1853, the Bishop Arnoldi of Treves commanded his clergy only then to allow mixed marriages, when by an oath the education of the children in the Ro- man Catholic faith was granted by both parties, ar>d even then also to refuse them ecclesiastical solemnization, the king declared that he would immediately dismiss any officer from his army who would sub- mit to so shameful a condition. The prince-regent, at his accession to the throne (1858) declared, that the utmost parity must exist between both confessions. For the rest, how just the complaints of the Ultra- montanes concerning slights are, appears from the fact that the State has only appropriated $400,000 annually to the ecclesiastical affairs of its ten millions of Protestants, whilst it permits the worship of six millions of Roman Catholics to cost it tJirce times as much. To this must be added yet for extraordinary objects $10,000 for the former, but $50,000 for the latter. — In Mecklenhnry-Schweyin the Chamberlain con Ketteahtirg went over to the Roman Catholic Church, and appointed a Roman Catholic priest on his estate. The government, however, banished this priest, because the laws of the countr}^ did not permit any Roman Catholic worship which went beyond simple family wor- ship. A compliant