LIBRARY L'lUKCEToy. y. ^ BX 5139 .A364 1865 Adolphus, 0. Compendium theologicum, or, Manual for students in Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/compendiumtheoloOOadol_0 4 COMPENDIUM THEOLOGICUM. Cnmprnlihtni Cjienfnginiin ; OR MANUAL FOR STUDENTS IN THEOLOGY: CONTAINING A CONCISE HISTOEY OF THE PRIMITINT; AND MEDLEVAL CHURCH, THE REFORMATION, THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, THE ENGLISH LITURGY, AND THE XXXIX ARTICLES, WITH SCRIPTURE PROOFS AND EXPLANATIONS. INTENDED FOR THOSE PREPARING FOR THEOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS, V.'ITH EXAMINATION PAPERS. / BY THE REV. O. ADOLPHUS, M.A., Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Assistant Master in King's College School, London, CAMBRIDGE:— J. HALL AND SON; LONDON :-\VHITTAKER AND CO. ; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL AND CO. ; AND BELL AND DALDY. OXFORD :-J. H. PARKER. 1865. ERRATA. Page Inline 1,/or Judea rea(^ Judsca. — 116, — 22, — Dean, — Deans. — 119, — 23, — as accession, read a succession. — 149, — 12, — chief tan, read chieftain. — 155, — 22, — eighth, — ninth. — 231, — 5, — Hert, — Henet. — 286, *Ceeed of Nic^a, refers to *page 287. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The favour with which the first Edition of this Compendium has been received, not only at the Universities and other Theological Colleges, but also by the public in general, notwithstanding the haste and the unfavourable circumstances attending its first publication, has induced the Author thoroughly to re\ise it, and to make large additions in various parts of the Work, especially in the Analysis of the Liturgy, which unavoidable hurry alone had prevented from being more complete. The chief object in issuing this little Work from the press has been, to place before the young Student, not as yet accustomed to the reading of larger Theological Works, a concise view of the chief points and the leading facts which form the staple of all Tlieological Examinations ; so that, instead of being discouraged at the outset by the necessity of wading through large volumes, upon the separate subjects, where nothing can guide him as to the special points it is necessary to store up in his memory for the purposes of such Examinations, he may here rather be en- couraged and spurred on to further research upon these subjects, and so be imperceptibly led to take an interest in that sacred knowledge, the study of which it is at present the great object of all our Bishops and University Authorities, to encourage, and which alone can enable the Candidate for Holy Orders to form a clear conception of God's dealings with his Church, and to appreciate the sacred importance of the work he is about to take upon himself. VI Preface, With an anxious prayer ' for the grace of God which is given ' us by Jesus Christ ' to all that enter upon the study of these pages, ' that they may be enriched by him in all utterance and in *all knowledge, so that they come behind in no gift,' we now commend these pages to the careful study of those who desire to ' purchase to themselves a good degree,' and to the kind forbearance of those, whose deep and extensive learning would lead them to think lightly of this humble effort towards ' the perfecting of the Saints for the work of the Ministry, for ' the edifying of the body of Christ.' INTRODUCTORY PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. In order to meet tlie requirements of the time, and to enable the theological student in some degree to estimate duly the questions which are now raised upon the subject of religion, it has been deemed necessary to expand, and partly rewrite this volume, especially the part treating of the early history of the Church, for this Edition. As History in general is the storehouse of experience, so it will be found to be here. Almost all the critical objections to the Bible and its contents which are now brought forward, and by many considered to be new and incontestible discoveries of modern science, and of an advanced and refined criticism, are found to have startled in succession several former generations, without in any way influencing the faith of Christendom; but after unsettling the minds of many in the respective ages in which they were successively broached, they were satisfactorily refuted at the time, or soon after, and were then for awhile forgotten, until disentombed again, and dressed up in a new garb. Thus we find the Author of the Clementines (see § 49.), already perhaps as early as the Second Century of our era, impugning the authenticity and genuineness of the Pentateuch, by suggesting that the Mosaic doctrines were originally only handed down by 07ml tradition, and then in later times committed to writing, and frequently rewritten to suit the views prevalent Vlll Preface. in successive ages, before the book attained its present form. Here we have the theory, so loudly proclaimed by certain prominent critics of our day, that the Pentateuch is a compilation from various ancient documents, not one of which has survived with it, or even been named by a single ancient writer as exist- ing in his time; and that compilation is referred to a period, subsequent by many ages to that in which Moses must have lived. This is evidently a most gratuitous assumption, which, once laid down, it has been since attempted to prove by the display of a profound knowledge of the Hebrew and other kindred languages, applied in the most subtle arguments about words and phrases, as well as variations of style ; as if the same process could not be applied equally to the ancient Greek, and Sanscrit, and even Norse literature, to the unsettlement of all ancient history, which would thus have to be reconstituted upon the merest conjectures of modern criticism ; — and as if the same man, who drew up the simple matter of fact narrative of Genesis, and the minutely precise legislative enactments of Leviticus, could not also, after the accomplishment of his mighty task, when beholding the grandeur and successful issue of the sustained efforts of his life, raise his mind to the sublime review of the past, and to the poetical inspiration with which he points onward to the future, as we read them in the glowing pages of Deuteronomy {See also § 379.). In the same manner the Mosaic Cosmogony^ or account of the Creation of the World, is called in question, as contradicting the deductions of modern science and research into the laws of nature; just as the Gnostics of old, according to what they deemed the fair and inevitable deductions of their vaunted science {yvuxris), rejected that same account, and devised another of their own, now regarded by the learned as well as unlearned of our day as the fantastic cobweb of a morbid imagination (^see § 72.). And how, we are tempted to ask, will the views of the origin of the world, prevalent now among the learned or Gnostics of our day, be regarded by those who shall be living upon this earth Preface. IX fifteen or twenty centuries hence ? In all probability the brief and simple account given in the Book of Genesis, — apparently intended only as a mere general intimation of the agency of the Great Author of all things in the construction of the visible world, the particular operations of which agency man in his present state of knowledge would perhaps be utterly incapable of understanding, — will then survive the confident conjectures of our modern Gnosticism, as it has survived those of the First and Second Centuries, and others since, and still may outlive other theories yet to be devised. The Antinomian disparagement of the whole Mosaic system, as inconsistent and incompatible with that of Christianity, is likewise only a revival of the Gnostic hostility to what was deemed the work of the hateful Demiurge ; although the Great Author of Christianity Himself always connected his own teach- ing, and his own mission, with those of Moses' and the Prophets, as all equally proceeding from God, and equally tending to the fulfilment of His high purposes in creating man upon the earth in preparation for his heavenly existence. How can we then, as Christians, disparage or reject any part of that plan, which our Great Master taught us to regard as one connected whole, to which He came to put the finishing stroke, that was to ensure its effectual working to the end of time ? We do not mean to disparage any of the discoveries of modern science, or the actual results of the patient and careful investigations of criticism, nor yet the most eager pursuit of all scientific and critical inquiries. On the contrary, we regard the developement of the marvellous powers of intellect with which man is endowed, — the earnest of a far higher intellectual stage to which he is yet to be raised — as an exalting and ennobling employment, and one of the most effective means of resisting the many evil influences at work within us and around us, calculated to draw the heart and mind away from the main objects of our existence. But with the historical fact before us, that so many equally proud positions of human learning in former ages, deemed X Preface. in their time equally sound and irrefutable, have nevertheless proved hollow and untenable, we feel bound to regard the mightiest evolutions of the human mind as but tentative, instead of being positive and absolute achievements ; as exercitative, not as actual realizations. Those who by their laborious researches attain to the much prized results, are naturally very confident of their value and importance, and consequently loud in their disparagement of all other established views and opinions, in their estimation incon- sistent with their own. But the rest of mankind, especially the young Student who has devoted himself to the religious instruction of his fellow men, must be on their guard against the cry, that all the intellect of the age has adopted the newly proclaimed views, because their votaries, though few in number, are loud and persistent in proclaiming them. The vast increase in our day of humble and faithful believers, as evidenced by the crowds of pious worshippers that throng all the now largely multiplied Churches and Chapels throughout the land, belies the assertion, 'that scepticism is prevalent among the population at large. And the deepened interest in the spread of religious influences at home and abroad, evinced by the wealthier classes of society in furnishing vast sums for the purpose, and in rendering zealous co-operation in all undertakings to that end, both among the most learned and enhghtened members of our universities, of both Houses of Parliament, of the legal, the medical, the naval and military professions, and all who join our great religious Societies, is ample proof, that the educated and enlightened classes of our countrymen are not disposed to discard the ancient doctrines of Christianity, which have withstood so many similar onslaughts in former ages, for the new theories of a cold ration- alism and an overweening criticism. Let not then the young and inexperienced, or those who have had no opportunities of gaining the necessary information which history affords, allow themselves to be led astray by the mere cry that is set up by those, who are perhaps deceived by the loudness Preface. XI of tlieir own voices. But let them make themselves acquainted with the whole history of Christianity and of the Christian Church, that they may know how successfully it has in all ages warded off the attacks of a proud and self-sufficient worldly philosophy. With a view to this end, we have introduced as full an account as our limits would allow, of the Christian writers of the earlier centuries and their works, that a course of reading may be entered upon according to each person's leisure and opportunities. For however erroneous and unsatisfactory some of the works of those writers may be, a better and truer view of the points at issue at the time will be gained from contem- porary writings, composed under the immediate influence of the spirit of the age, than from any accounts given by those who lived at a time remote from the age in which the discussions and contests actually took place. Finally we may observe, that, if religion referred merelv to man's condition here on earth, or to human society, and if all man's hopes and prospects were limited to this world, w^e might rest content with such knowledge as human science and research is capable of furnishing. But vast and wonderful as have been the results and the discoveries, to which the ever progressive developement of the human intellect has attained, this very progress must bring home to every reasonable mind the firm conviction, that the human race, in contradistinction from the inferior animals, whose instincts have invariably remained undeveloped and at a stand still from creation's earliest dawrw, is ever progressing onwards to some ultimate state of developement, itself the dawn of a new state of existence. To direct our view to this is the aim of religion ; and it cannot be possible that any actual knowledge placed within our reach can be antagonistic to it. It is needless here to apologize for the defects and short- comings of a little Manual like the present, intended only as a synopsis or summaiy of so many separate subjects ; or to name all the works that have been consulted in the course of its xii Preface compilation. It is enough to say, tliat very many standard works on theology, both of old and recent date, have been carefully followed. Several important theological subjects, not included here, we hope to treat separately in a second volume, to be published as soon as possible. The Author cannot conclude without acknowledging the very great kindness with which the Rev. Dr. Jelf, the Principal of King's College, has condescended to read over some few sheets of the latter part of the work, and to suggest some very useful alterations and corrections. Nevertheless the whole responsibility of the entire book must rest on the Author himself, who earnestly hopes that this new Edition may prove at least as useful, as many communications he has received from various quarters declared its predecessors to have been. King's College, London. July, 1865. INDEX. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. First Century ..... i Second . ...... 34 Third ...... 67 Fourth 94 Fifth ...... 137 Sixth . . . . . . .157 Seventh . . . . . . 169 Mediaeval Church . . . . . .174 The Reformation ..... 204 History of the Church of England . . .218 The Reformation in England .... 230 ENGLISH LITURGY. On Common Prayer, Introduction . . . .261 History of the English Liturgy . . . 263 Analysis of the Liturgy . . . . .273 The Psalter . . . . . . 279 The Lessons . . . . . . .281 The Canticles . . . . . . 283 The Creeds . . . . . . .284 The Litany ...... 287 Special and Occasional Prayers and Thanksgivings . 292 The Collects, Epistles and Gospels, and Church Festivals 296 The Lord's Supper ...... 305 Baptism . . . . . . . 319 XIV Index. PAGE The Catechism ...... 326 Confirmation . . . . . . 327 Matrimony ....... 328 Visitation of the Sick ..... 330 Burial of the Dead . . . . . .332 Churching of Women ..... 333 The Commination ...... 334 The National Forms of Prayer . . . . 335 The Ordinal . •. . . ; . -335 THE THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. Introduction . . . . . . 338 Article I. . . . , . . .346 Remarks on ditto ..... 347 Article II. . . . . . -352 Remarks on ditto . . . . . 353 Article III. ....... 356 Remarks on ditto ..... ih. Article IV. ....... 358 Remarks on ditto ..... ih. Article V. ...... . 360 Remarks on ditto ..... ih. Article VI. . . . . . . .362 Remarks on ditto . . . . . 364 Article VII. . . . . . . -370 Remarks on ditto . . . . . 371 Article VIII. . . . . . -373 Article IX. 375 Remarks on ditto . . . . • 37^ Article X. ...... 378 Remarks on ditto . . . . . . ih. Article XI. ...... 379 Remarks on ditto . . . . . .380 Article XII. 381 Remarks on ditto . . . . . .382 Article XIIT 383 Remarks v, Canon) of faith and practice. 47. In the beginning, a declaration, conceived in very general terms, professing a firm belief that Jesus was the only Redeemer of the world, and promising to live in a manner conformable to the purity of his holy religion, was considered Bufiicient for a man to be received as a Christian by baptism. CENT, l] Christian Worship. 31 This was early reduced to a settled formula in most Churches, and is what St. Paul calls 'the form of doctrine which was delivered' {Rom. vi. 17), 'the form of sound words' (2 Tim. i. 13). This was considered as a deposition or trust of a Church, chiefly committed to the keeping of the BishojDS (1 Tim. vi. 20. and 2 Tim. i. 12). Tlie early rise of heresies, however, soon made it necessary to instruct candidates for Baptism more care- fully in the doctrines, already laid down in the various^ books of the New Testament, during which course of instruction they were called Catechumens (KaTTj^ovfievoi, being instructed). 48. That the earliest Christians met together in some room, set apart for congregational worship, appears from the mention of the vTTep^ov {Acts i. 13), where the Apostles and disciples ' continued with one accord in prayer and supplication ; ' again, from the house of ]\L\ry, the mother of Johx !M\rk, 'where many were gathered together praying,' when Peter, on his deliverance from the prison by the Angel, came thither {Acts xii. 12) ; and from the salutation of St. Paul to ' the Church that is in their house' {JRom. xvi. 5, and 1 Co7\ xvi. 19). That they met so on the first day of the week, we learn from Acts XX. 7, where we are told that at Troas ' upon the first day of ^ the iveel; when the disciples came together to break bread, * Paul preached unto them.' The same day is also mentioned by St. Paul (1 Cor. xvi. 2) as most suitable for remembering the poor; and the ^Lord's Day'' {Rev. i. 10), when St. John saw his vision in the island of Patmos (§. 30,), was no doubt first day of the week, which is so called by Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, in his Epistle to the Magnesians (see § 53). See further John xx. 19. 26. Hence we learn also, that the cele- bration of the Lord's Supper and preaching, as well as prayer, formed parts of their common worship. Since among the Jews Moses and the Prophets were read (see § 262) in the synagogues every Sabbath-day {Acts xiii. 15. 27. and xv. 21), we may presume this salutary practice was retained by Cliristians ; and Justin Martyr (a. d. 140) informs us, that the writings of the 32 Apostolical Fathers, [cent. i. Prophets and Apostles were read in their assemblies. Further, the reproof of St. Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor. xiv. 26) shows clearly, that there was in every Church a set form of prayers, which it was considered improper to interrupt by other forms. Lastly, we find, that the custom prevailed of interspers- ing, or at least concluding their worship, with hymns, founded no doubt upon the fact related Matt, xxvi. 30, that after Christ's institution of the Eucharist, they sang a hymn. In process of time, however, as doctrines were amplified, rites and ceremonies also were multiplied, as will be seen hereafter. 49. The authors of the Ecclesiastical writings, that have come down to us as composed within about a centuiy after the foundation of the Church, are called Apostolical Fathers, as having been either the contemporaries or disciples of the Apostles. Their works, however, differ widely from the solemn, simple, clear, and intelligible language, and from the pure exalted doctrine, applicable alike to all countries and all ages, which, amidst an age of the gloomiest and most abstruse mysticism, shines forth so brightly in the sacred writers, thus marking out the latter as writing under the direct influence of the Divine Spirit. And they were still further corrupted in after times by interpolations, breathing the mystic Orientalism and spurious philosophy of the later Gnostics, or the still later impostures of the Papacy. — First in order among these productions stands the Catholic Epistle attributed to Barnabas, the associate of St. Paul, which was current in the Second Century in the Alexandrian Church. It betrays too plainly the allegorical mysticism, which prevailed there among the Jewish converts to Christianity, to be reconcilable with the tone and spirit of the man, who in the time of St. Paul and the other Apostles was described as the * Son of Consolation,^ or rather ' of Prophecy,^ and as * a good man, full of the Holy Ghost and of faith* (^Acts iv. 36. xi. 34.). Probably the real author was unknown at Alexandria when first we hear of it ; and to give it currency and authority, it was ascribed to a teacher of such great repute by CENT. I.] Apostolical Fathers. 33 those with whose views the Epistle coincided. It is now supposed to have been written early in the Second Century ; and it has come down to us with the first four and a half chapters in a bad Latin version only, the remainder in the original Greek. — Secondly we have to notice several Epistles attributed to Clemens Romanus (§ 18.), supposed the same that is mentioned by St. Paul in Phil. iv. 3. Of these the fii^st only, addressed to the Corinthian Church, is considered genuine, and was read during divine worship in some Churches in the early ages, to- gether with the books of the New Testament. It approaches more nearly than the other writings of that time to the pure and simple style of the Apostolical Epistles. After praising the Corinthian Church for its temporary peaceful holiness and zeal for the cause of Christ and his Church, as seemingly the result of St. Paul's exhortations and warnings in his two Epistles to them, he severely reproves the strife and division which had again broken out among them, and had led some of the Corin- thians to ask counsel of him, which had produced this Epistle. It appears that some aged and deserving Presbyters had been deprived of their office and ministry from party spirit in favour of others; and Clement exhorts them to restore the peace of their Church, incidentally setting forth and elucidating various Christian doctrines. The second Epistle, the authenticity of which is more doubtful, appears to be only the fragment of a Homily. Two other Epistles, found originally in Syriac Manu- scripts, and not quoted by any writers before the fourth century (by Epiphanius and Jerome), are considered as compositions of the third century, falsely attributed to Clement. The Clemen- tines, a collection of eighteen Homilies or Discourses, professing to give an account, written by himself, of Clement's conversion and his discussions with St. Peter, are forgeries of the second or third century, remarkable as the primary source of various sceptical doctrines, which have been brought forward as if they were original in our own day. — The Recognitions (dvayv(opL(rfioi)j another form of the same work, is known to us only in a Latin c 34 Trajan s Reign. [cent. II. version of Rufintjs, who lived in the fourth Century (§ 109). To the same author have been falsely ascribed the Apostolical Constitutions {biard^eis d7roaTo\iKai.)y and the Apostolical Canons (Kavoves dnoa-ToXLKol) which are compilations of rules and practices, established in various Churches at different times, down to the fourth century. — The Shepherd, attributed by several early writers to Hermas, who is named by St. Paul in Eom. xvi. 14, is another work referred to this time, and is supposed to have been written when Clement was Bishop of Rome, since his name occurs in it ; whilst others assign it to another Hermas, brother to Pius I, ninth Bishop of Rome (a. d. 153 — 162). Quotations from it occur in some of the Greek Fathers, but the whole work is now extant only in Latin. It was esteemed as highly in the early centuries, as Buxyan's Pilgrim's Progress, which it re- sembles in style and tone, has been among us. — Other Apostolical Fathers will be noticed under the next Century. SECOND CENTURY. 50. The reign of Trajan (a. d. 98 — 117) began, as we have seen, after two years' comparative peace enjoyed by the Christians (see § 31). And the celebrated Epistle of Pliny the Younger, addressed to that Emperor about twelve years after his accession, when the writer was governor of Pontus and Bithynia, plainly shows that there were then no penal laws in force against them ; else Pliny, who had been a distinguished advocate at Rome of more than twenty years' standing, needed not to have expressed his difficulty and doubt how to act, when they were brought before him upon charges preferred against them by their religious adversaries, nor to have asked the Emperor for special instruc- tions. The importance of this document in Ecclesiastical History warrants the insertion of it here, together with Trajan's Rescript. A. D. 110.] Flinys Letter to Trajan. 35 51. 'It is my practice, my Lord, to refer to you on all ' subjects on which I have any doubt. For who can better * direct me in my hesitation, or supply my want of information ' by instruction ? I have never been engaged in inquiries con- ' ceming Christians : consequently I do not know what punish- * ment it is usual to inflict, or what questions to put, and how far to ' carry the same. And I have had no little difficulty to determine, ' whether there should be any distinction as to ages, or whether * persons of an age however tender should be deemed to differ in * no respect from those of more advanced age ; whether pardon * should be extended on a declaration of penitence, or whether it ' should be of no avail to one, who certainly had been a Christian, 'to cease to be so; whether the very name was punishable, ' although exempt from crimes, or only such crimes as attached ' to the name. Meanwhile I have pin'sued the following course ' with those brought before me on the charge of being Christians. ' I asked them whether they were Christians : if confessing that ' they were, I asked them a second and a third time, threatening ' them with punishment ; if contumacious, I ordered them to be ' led away to death. For whatever it was they confessed, I did not ' doubt, that their contumacy and inflexible obstinacy ought certainly to be punished. There were some equally foohsh. * ' Solemne est mihi, Domine, omnia, de quibus dubito, ad te referre. ' Quis enim potest mehiis vel cunctationem meam regere, vel ignorantiam 'instmere? Cognitionibus de Christianis Lnterfui nunquam: ideo nescio, 'quid et quatenus aut puniri soleat, aut quferi. Nec mediocriter hiesitavi, * sitne ahquod discrimen £etatum, an quamhbet teneri nihfl a robustioribus 'differant; deturne poenitentije venia, an ei, qui omniuo Christianus fuit, 'desiisse non prosit; nomen ipsum, etiamsi flagitiis careat, an flagitia 'cohacrentia nomini puniantur. Interim in iis, qui ad me tanquam * Christiani deferebantur, hunc sum secutus modum : Interrogavi ipsos, an 'assent Christiani: confitentes iterum ac tertio interrogavi, supplicium *minatus; perseverantes duci jussi. Neciue enim dubitabam, qualecunque 'esset quod faterentur, pervicaciam certe et inflexibilem obstinationem 'debere puniri. Fuerunt alii similis dementia?, quos, quia cives Eomani *erant, annotavi in urbem remittendos. Mox ipso tractatu, ut fieri solet, c 2 36 Pliny s Letter to Trajan. [cent. ii. * whom I noted down to be sent to Rome, because they were * Romans. The offence soon spreading in consequence of the * very stir made about it, as usually happens, various forms of it * presented themselves. An anonymous indictment was preferred * containing the names of many persons, who denied that they * were Christians, or had been ; whilst they called upon the gods *■ after me, {i. e. in words first pronounced by me, prcemnte vie,) * offering supphcations, with incense and wine, to your statue, * which together with the statues of the gods I had ordered to be ' brought for that purpose, and moreover cursed Christ : none of ' which things, it is said, those who are really Christians can ' be forced to do. I thought therefore they ought be dismissed. ' Others, named by the informer, said that they were Christians, ' and afterwards said they were not ; that they had been so ' indeed, but had ceased to be so, some three years ago, some ' longer, and some even twenty years ago. All paid reverence to 'your statue too, and to the statues of the gods, and cursed ' Christ. They declared, however, that this had been the height ' of their guilt or error, that they had been accustomed on a ' stated day to meet before daylight, and to sing alternately ' among themselves a hymn to Christ, as to a God, and to bind * themselves by an oath (or by a sacrament, sacramento), not to ' the commission of any misdeed, but that they would not com- ' diffundente se crimine, plures species inciderunt. Propositus est libellus ' sine auctore multorum nomina continens, qui negarent se esse Christianos, 'aut fuisse, quum, prseeunte me, decs appellarent, et imagini tuse, quam 'propter hoc jusseram cum simulacris numinum aflferri, tbure ac vino ' supphcarent, prseterea maledicerent Christo; quorum nihil cogi posse * dicuntur, qui sunt revera Christiani. Ergo dimittendos putavi. Alii, ab * indice nominati, esse se Christianos dixerunt, et mox negaverunt ; fuisse * quidem, sed desiisse, quidam ante triennium, quidam ante plures annos, * non nemo etiam ante viginti quoque. Omnes et imaginem tuam deorumque ' simulacra venerati sunt ; ii et Christo maledixerunt. Affirmabant autem * banc fuisse summam vel culpse suse, vel erroris, quod a«sent soliti stato die 'ante lucem convenire, oarmenque Christo, quasi Deo, dicere secum ' invicem, seque sacramento non ad scelus aUquod obstringere, sed ne furta. A. D. 110.] Pliny s Letter to Trajan. 37 *mit thefts, robberies, or adulteries, nor break their word, nor * withhold a thing deposited with them when called upon for it. And when these things were over, they had been in the habit * of separating, and of meeting again to take food, but only * ordinary and harmless food ; and even this they had ceased to do after my edict, in which, in accordance with your orders, I * had forbidden the holding of clubs (or secret meetings, hetcerias). * Wherefore I thought it the more necessary, to question even by * torture two servant maids, who were called deaconesses^ as to what * was the truth of the matter. But I discovered nothing but a * wretched and extravagant superstition ; and therefore, putting * off the inquiry, I had recourse to you for advice. For the affair * seemed to me worth consulting you upon, especially on account * of the number of persons implicated. For many of every age, of every station, and of either sex, incur, and will incur danger. ' For the contagion of that superstition has not only invaded the * towns, but even villages, and the open country, whereas it seems * capable of being checked and cured. At least it is pretty certain * that the temples, which were abeady almost deserted, begin to *be fi-equented; the common sacrifices, long intermitted, begin * to be resumed, and victims to be sold everywhere, of which till * now but few purchasers were found.' ' ne ktrocinia, ne adulteria committerent, ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum 'appeUati abnegarent. Quibus peractis, morem sibi discedendi fuisse, * rursusque coeundi ad capiendum cibum, promiscuum tamen et innoxium ; * quod ipsum facere desiisse post edictum meum, quo secundum mandata * tua hetarias esse vetueram. Quo magis necessarium credidi, ex duabus * ancillis, quse ministrae dicebantur, quid esset veri et per tormeuta qucerere. * Sed nihil aUud inveni, quam superstitionem pravam et immodicam ; *ideoque, dilata cognitione, ad consulendum te decurri. Visa est enim *mihi res digna consultatione, maxime propter periclitantium numerum. ' Multi enim omnis jetatis, omnis ordinis, utriusque sexus etiam, vocantur 'in periculum, et vocabuntur. Neque enim civitates tantum, sed vicos * etiam atque agros superstitionis istius contagio pervagata est, qua) videtur *sisti et corrigi posse. Carte satis constat, prope jam desolata templa coepisse •celebrari. Et sacra solemnia diu intermissa repeti, passimque venire ' victiraas, quarum adhuc rarus emptor iuveniebatur. (Lib. x. Ep. 97.) 38 Trajans Rescript. [cent. ii. 52. ^ You have pursued the course you oyght, my Secundus, ' in deciding the cases of those who were brought before you as ' Christians. For no general rule could be established, which * could furnish an invariable fonn of proceeding. They must not 0 * be hunted up. If they are indicted and convicted, they must ' be punished ; so that he, however, who denies that he is a ' Christian, and proves this in very deed, that is, by praying to ' our gods, may obtain pardon upon a declaration of repentance, * however much he may have been suspected in the past. In- * dictments preferred without the name of the real author ought 'not to be admitted in any charge. For this is a very bad ' precedent, neither is it the practice of our age.' 53. In this Eescript of Trajan we see a legal course of pro- ceeding prescribed against Christians, which together with his previous law against secret societies and their meetings {hetcericB\ alluded to by PldsI', exposed Christians in all parts of the Empire to the malice of their enemies, notwithstanding the limitations and restrictions prescribed by the Emperor. At first Christianity had been confounded with the religion of the Jews ; but when it was found that it differed from the exclusiveness of the latter, in that it aimed at universal propagation, and that it was everywhere actually making numerous proselytes, it was considered to come under the head of neiv and foreign religions (religiones novce et peregrince), not sanctioned by law {illicitce\ though not as yet by name ranked among them. But now, in the Emperor's Eescript to Pliny, an express law was established ' Actum, quem debuisti, mi Secunde, in excutiendis causis eorum, qui 'Cliristiani ad te delati fuerant, secutus es. Neque enim in universum * aliquid, quod quasi certam formam habeat, constitui potest. Conquirendi ' nou sunt. Si deferantur et arguantur, puniendi sunt ; ita tamen, ut qui 'ne^averit se esse Christianum, idque re ipsa manifestum fecerit, id est, * supplicando diis nostris, quamvis suspectus in prscteritum f uerit, veniam ' ex poenitentia impetret. Sine auctore vero propositi libelli nullo crimine 'locum habere debent. Nam et pessimi exemph, nec nostri secuU est.' {Hid. 98.) A. D. 116.] Martyrdom & Epistles of Ignatius. 39 against its professors; and the priests and bigoted adherents of heathenism, especially those whose relatives and friends had become converts, openly vented their fanatical rage in seeking the destruction of all Christians. Thus, among many others, Simeon, the aged Bishop of Jerusalem (see § 25.), had been already put to death in the year 104 under the law against hetcd- rice. In 114 Trajan went to Asia, to carry on war against the Parthians and other nations, whom he conquered ; and the winter of 115 to 116 he spent at Antioch, where Ignatius, a disciple of St John, had a. d. 70. succeeded Euodius, the first Bishop of that city. The Emperor is said to have taken offence at the pious Bishop's open charge of impiety against the heathen religion, and at his steadfast adherence to Christianity, and to have ordered him to be taken to Rome, to be there exposed to wild beasts in the Amphitheatre, as was the practice with the worst criminals, a. d. 116. (according to others in 107.). This aged Apostolical Father is said to have written on his last journey seven Epistles, addressed to the Churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, and Rome, from Smyrna, where he had been allowed to spend a short time with Polycarp (see § 59.), the Bishop of that place, and like him a disciple of St. John ; and to the Churches of Philadelphia and Smyrna (see § 26.), and to Polycarp him- self, from Troas. The last named of these Epistles is generally considered as spurious, on account of its great difference in style from the rest. The other six were known from two ancient MS. editions, the one longer than the other, and both long considered to contain many interpolations of later date, as well as other entire Epistles, falsely ascribed to Ignatius. Lately three Ignatian Epistles have been discovered in Syrian MSS., found in a Monastery of Nitrian Monks, and containing all the parts common to the two copies named above, but not the parts in which they differ. Hence these three have been deemed the only genuine Epistles of Ignatius, that have come down to us. — In the same year also is said to have suffered martyrdom, Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, near Colossce in Asia Minor, likewise a friend of Polycarp, whose 40 The Emperor Adrian. Apologists, [cent. ii. writings were held in great estimation in early times, but only- extracts from them in the works of later writers are now extant. He is said to have held strong Millennarian views (see § 40). 54. If the strict legality insisted upon by Trajan, checked for a while the violent proceedings against Christians described by Pleny, the suppressed rage of their adversaries broke out with double fury on the accession of Adrian, who reigned till A. D. 138., and was known to be strongly attached to all the heathen rites and practices, and even had himself initiated in the Mysteries when in Greece. But again a Proconsul of Asia Minor, Granianus, complained to the Emperor of the tumultuous and disorderly attacks made upon Christians ; and his sincere love of justice and social order induced him at once to issue an Edict to MiNUCius Fundanus, the successor of Granianus, and to the Governors of other provinces, absolutely prohibiting the punishment of Christians, unless convicted in due form of acting in violation of existing laws, and also enjoining the severe pu- nishment of false accusers, without, however, repealing the Edict of Trajan (§ 52.). — In this reign also began the practice of addressing to the sovereign Apologies or Defences of Christianity, which received due consideration from so just a ruler as Adrian. The first Apologist was Quadratus, who addressed his Apology to this Emperor a. d. 126, being then Bishop of Athens^ where he had restored the Church to a flourishing state, after it had languished under his predecessor Publius, who had suffered martyrdom. Some writers, however, consider the Bishop and the Apologist of this name to have been different persons. — Aristides, an Athenian philosopher converted to Christianity, addressed another Apology to the same Emperor, which is now lost, as is also that of Quadratus, with the exception of a short extract cited from the latter by the Historian Eusebius (§ 109.). 55. The writers of these Apologies or Defences, the arguments of which are not always the most judicious, generally claim the right of acting upon their own convictions, both as regards the truth of their own tenets, and the falsehood of heathenism, and A. D. 131.] Rebellion of Barcliochehas. 41 court the fullest inquiry. The chief Apologists that followed the two above named, down to the beginning of the Jourth century, when the Eoman Emperors began themselves to be Christians, were Justd^ Martyr (see § 65.); Tatian, a Gnostic philosopher of Syria, converted by Justin ; Athenagoras, a distinguished teacher of the Christian School in Alexandria (§ 64.); Theo- PHiLUS (§ 351.), Melito, and Apollinaris, Bishops of Antiochj SardiSj and Hierapolis ; Miltiades, a Greek Rhetorician ; Ter-^ TULLiAN, a native Presbyter of the Church of Carthage, the first distinguished Latin writer on Theology in the North African Church ; Misrucius Felix, an advocate at Rome ; Arnobius, an African convert ; and Lanctantius, noted for his pure and elegant Latin style. 56. In the reigns of Trajan and Adrian, the Jews, goaded on by oppression, rose in rebellion against the Romans in various provinces : in Cyrene, a city and district on the northern coast of Africa, west of Egypt ; in Mesopotamia, the tract lying between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris ; in the island of Cyprus; and lastly in Palestine, under Coziba, a robber, who pretended to be the true Messiah, and assumed the name of Barchochebas, the Son of the Star, in allusion to Numb. xxiv. 17. This impostor slew many Christians, who refused to join him. In these insurrections large numbers of Jews were slain ; and in the last, which began in the year 131, 600,000 are said to have perished, whilst large numbers were sold into slavery, and all who remained were forbidden to come within a certain distance of Jerusalem. The city itself, which had been destroyed, was rebuilt by order of Adrian, and dedicated by him to Jupiter Capitolinus, under the name of Aelia CapitoUna, after his own original name Aelius. 57. The Church of Jerusalem, still settled at Pella (see § 29.), had been hitherto governed by a series of fifteen Bishops, all of Jewish birth, and had strictly observed the Mosaic Law together with the Christian Dispensation. Its members made frequent pilgrimages to Jerusalem, ^sow, however, the greater 42 Nazarencs. Ehionites. [cent. ii. number of these Nazarenes, as they were called, determined to follow the example of all other Christians, and abandon the Mosaic rites and obserrances, in order not to be confounded with the Jews, and so deprived of the privilege of visiting the Holy City. They therefore elected as their Bishop a Gentile convert, named Marcus, through whose influence they obtained from Adrl\n permission to return, and establish themselves again at Jerusalem. A few dissentients continued down to the fifth century at Pella^ under the exclusive name of Nazarenes ; and from them sprung soon after a new sect, called Ehionites^ from a Hebrew word signifying poor^ or, as some have supposed, from Ebion, one of their leading men. This sect had a Gospel of their own, founded upon a supposed Gospel in Hebrew by St. Matthew, the original of our first Greek Gospel, but corrupted by them so as to suit their peculiar tenets. They held that the Mosaic Law was necessary to the salvation of all Christians, and certain other heretical notions ; and they consequently disowned the Apostle Paul, and rejected his writings (see § 71.). Tliose still called Nazarenes did not consider the Law as binding on Gentile converts to Christianity. 58. The just and amiable Antoninus Pius, who reigned after Adrian till a. d. 161, was not likely to make the laws, enacted by his predecessors, less favourable to his Christian subjects. And when their adversaries brought against them the new charge of Atheism, grounded upon their scornful rejection of the heathen deities and every description of images, and proclaimed them as the cause of various public calamities that happened, such as inundations and earthquakes, as well as destructive fires at Rome and elsewhere, the Emperor was induced by the earnest, yet often weak and inaccurate First Apology of Justin MLvrtyr (see § 65.), which is still extant, to repress the popular fury against them by issuing various Edicts, especially one to the General Assembly of Asia (Trpos TO Koivbv rris 'Ao-ias-), forbidding the punishment of Chris- tians merely as such, and decreeing, on the other hand, the punish- ment of their accusers. The last named document, however, is by A. D. 180.] Antoninus. Marcus Aureliits. 43 many considered as spurious. But it is certain that the full pro- tection of the laws was extended to Christians during this reign. 59. Under the next Emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who died a. d. 180, the enemies of Christianity adopted a new charge against its adherents. The Emperor was a learned votary of the Stoic philosophy, the rigorous doctrines of which rejected all sensual pleasures and indulgences. To induce him therefore to persecute the Christians, they were falsely represented to him as practising in their assembhes, which the dangers that threat- ened them compelled them to hold in secret, the most revolting enormities. Though he did not repeal the just laws of his pre- decessors, he issued Edicts, which had the effect of raising the most fearful persecutions. Christians were now ordered to be searched out, and put to the most exquisite tortures to bring them to a renunciation of their faith ; and, on refusal, they were executed with the most barbarous cruelties, upon the accusations of slaves and men of the worst characters. Though the Em- peror thought it meritorious to look upon death with Stoical indifference and philosophical fii'mness, as an unavoidable event, yet he regarded the enthusiasm with which Christians met death, supported as they were by well grounded hope and faith, as the result of a stubborn and perverse ohstinaci/, which made them in his eyes a set of dangerous enthusiasts. The dangers to which they were exposed in tliis reign were further heightened by numerous pretenders to magical arts and soothsaying, who stirred up the populace against them as ' enemies of the gods,' who on their account were said to have sent a fatal pestilence which spread from Egypt over Asia and Europe. Among these im- postors the most notorious was Alexander of AbonoteicJws, in Fontus, who was eveiywhere reverenced as a propliet, and who, to excite the people's hatred against the Christians, used to call for the withdrawal of all ' Atheists, Christians, and Epicureans,'' before he would perform any of his arts. The numerous Apologies addressed to Aurelius, were wholly without effect. Such was that known as the Second Apology of Justin Martyr, placed 44 Persecutions at Smyrna & Lyons, [cent. ii. by some writers in the former reign ; and others by Tatian, Athenagoras, Melito, Apollinaris, and others (see § 55, 65.). Justin is reported to have been beheaded at Rome, a. d. 165, through the influence of Crescens, a Cynic philosopher, who had been exasperated against him by his exposure of the hypocrisy practised by that Cynic before the people. A persecution broke out in the year 167 at Smyrna (§ 26.), where the Proconsul yielded to the fury of the populace of both heathens and Jews, though not himself hostile to the Christians, and condemned all who refused to renounce their faith, to be cast to the wild beasts, or to be burnt alive. An account is given of these events in the celebrated Letter of the Church of Smyrna to other Churches, from which we learn that most Christians there firmly adhered to their faith, and many even voluntarily offered themselves for martyrdom. The venerable Bishop Polycarp (§ 53.), then 90 years of age, yielded for a time to the anxiety of his friends that he should conceal himself ; but when at last overtaken, and re- fusing to comply with the earnest entreaty of the officer who had charge of him and was' anxious to save him, simply to say " the Emperor, our Lord^'' and to assist at the sacrifices, he was burnt at the stake, amidst the furious shouts of the populace. — Ten years after, an equally furious persecution broke out in Southern Gaul, where the populous and flourishing Churches founded by emigrants from Asia Minor at Lyons, Vienne, and other towns, were in some places almost destroyed. The surviving believers sent an account of their sufferings in a Letter to the Churches of Asia, drawn up by Iren^us, and preserved with that of the Church of Smyrna by Eusebius. Pothinus, the Bishop of Lyons, who with Iren^us, his successor, had been sent thither from Asia by Polycarp, was then over 90 years old, and very weak and infirm ; yet he was dragged before the tribunal of the legate or governor, and after much ill treatment cast into prison, where he died two days after, a. d. 177. 60. The constancy and resignation with which the Christians suffered, and which by Aurelius were construed into hardened A. D. 202.] Persecution under' Severus. 45 obstinacy (§ 59.), had the effect of promoting the rapid spread of Christianity under his successors. Commodus, his son, contempt- ible for his vices and cruelty, was yet induced by his concubine, Marcia, to act leniently towards Christians ; but they were nevertheless still exposed to sudden outbreaks against them in the provinces, and many suffered martyrdom, though at Rome itself Christians appear to have held the highest offices. The anarchy which ensued upon the death of Commodus in 192, ex- posed the believers again to extreme suffering. When Septimius Seveeus, who reigned from 194 to 211, became Emperor, he at first protected them, knowing that even Senators and many other men of the highest rank were Christians. But the old laws against secret societies and religions not legalized (§ 53.) still enabled the governors and the populace in the provinces to expose Christians to extreme dangers ; and at length, in the year 202, the Emperor, urged on probably by the old heathen party, or by his own alarm at the constant increase of the number of con- verts, issued an Edict against all further change of religion among his subjects. A new persecution {the Sixth) immediately began in many parts, so violent that it was deemed a sign of the speedy coming of Antichrist. The practice of extorting money from Christians by threats of information against them, now also began to introduce the custom of purchasing exemption, which was condemned by many, and became later a fruitful source of divisions in the Church. These or even previous calamities pro- duced the Apology of Tertullian (§ 55.), addressed to the Proconsul of Africa. Iren^us (§ 59.) and Victor, thirteenth Bishop of Rome (§ 68.), are said to have been among the chief Martyrs. 61. The progress of Christianity during this century was very rapid and extensive, in spite of, or rather in consequence of, the severest persecutions. For the firm rehance on the pro- mise of future happiness, which animated the sufferers under the most cruel martyrdoms, did not fail to excite the reflexion of the thoughtful, and the admiration of the vulgar ; whilst sympathy 46 Early Versions of Neio Testament, [cent. ii. must have bent the minds of many, inaccessible to other feelings, to think more favourably of the creed of the martyrs. The Gospel was embraced by numbers of the Celts in Southern Gaul, converted by Pothinus, their first Bishop (see § 59.); it found numerous believers among the Spaniards, Britons, and Germans. In some of the Roman Provinces, as we learn from Pliny's letter (see § 51.), it had almost gained the whole population, or at least the great majority. It had been carried into central Asia by St. Peter (see § 25), into Arabia by St. Bartholomew, or by some Jews, who from him had received the Gospel of St. Matthew ; into India by St. Thosus, or later by Pant^nus, the Alexandrian philosopher (see § 64.). The Old Italic or Latin, and the Syriac Feshito versions of the New Testament, made in this century, and the Coptic or Egypt ian, early in the next, were both the means and the indications of its spread. It is difficult to decide, whether any, or what influence is to be ascribed to the miracles, said to have been wrought by many Christians of this time ; for few, if any, have even those physical and circumstantial proofs, that support those recorded in the Scriptures, and the accounts of all are destitute of that divine authority, which stamps the truth of the latter. 62. The most remarkable of such miracles in this century, is that of the legion of Christians, called the Thundering Legion (Legio Fulminea), because they are said, during the war which AuRELius carried on in 174 against the Marcomanni or Bohe- mians, to have obtained by their prayers a thunderstorm accom- panied by rain, which refreshed the Roman army, when suffering from want of water, and so enabled it to defeat the enemies. It has been objected to this account, that this twelfth Roman legion had borne that name from the time of Augustus, and con- tinued to do so, according to Roman writers, as late as the ffth century ; and that the Emperor and army attributed their victory and refreshment to their own prayers to Jupiter, as appears from a medal and from paintings known to have existed, as well as from an allusion to the incident by the Emperor in a book A. D. 174.] Synods. Patriarchs. ScJwols. 47 written by him. But if there were Christian soldiers in the legion, they would of course attribute their deliyerance to their own prayers to the Almighty; and this may have led to the form the story afterwards assumed. But there is no evidence that an edict in favour of the Christians was issued in con- sequence. 63. The promulgation of Christianity was greatly advanced in this century by the unity of action, that was gradually intro- duced, especially by the Greeks, among all Christian Churches, and which manifested itself in meetings of deputies from all quarters, called Si/nods or Councils, consulting upon the common interests of the Universal Church, and issuing their decisions under the names of Canons, or Rules. The necessity of having a President in these assemblies, who was generally the Bishop of some great city, led to the assumption by such of a rank above the other Bishops, with the introduction of the supreme title of Patriarch. Thus in course of time arose the Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Pome, Constantinople. 64. The teachers of Christianity were now no longer un- learned fishermen, qualified for their task by immediate inspira- tion from Heaven. But the injunction of St. Paul to Timothy (2 Tim. ii. 2) had been carried out most effectually. Schools had been established, to educate the young Christians in all the learning and philosophy of the age, at Ephesus by St. John, at Smyrna by Polycarp, at Alexandria by St. Mark. There were also similar schools, more or less celebrated, at RomCj Antioch, Ccesarea, Edessa, Nisihis, and Seleucia. That at Alexandria, known as the Catechetical School, having originally been established like the rest for the instruction and preparation of Catechumens for baptism, became the most celebrated from the series of illustrious teachers or Catechists who there succeeded one another. The first of these whose fame has been handed down to us, was Pant^nus, formerly a Gnostic philosopher (§ 61.), of whom we have no writings extant, though we are told that he wrote many Commentaries on the Scriptures. His dis- 48 Neo-Platonists [cent. ir. tinguished disciple and successor, Clemens Alexandrinus, repre- sents him as deeply imbued with the spirit of Scripture. Clement himself, said to have been an Athenian, became a Christian after having travelled over many countries in search of learning, and was the head of the Catechetical School from about 192; and after having withdrawn to Asia during the persecution under Severus (§ 60.), returned to his post, and died about 220. Origen, his disciple and successor, and others after him, made Alexandria the chief seat of Christian learning. The system of philosophy adopted by these was that of Plato, as coming nearest to the doctrines of the Gospel ; but some of these Platonists, as they called themselves, professed to adopt whatever was good and true in all other systems, and were hence styled Eclectics, or Neo-Platonists. To this school belonged Ammonius Saccas, whose desire of amalgamating the views of all sects led him to form a very abstruse system of doctrines, the adoption of which, to a greater or less extent, by Origen and others, was the source of all the bewildering tenets of innumerable heresies, which dis- turbed the Church for many centuries, and led to divisions and animosities, which ultimately delivered up the most flourishing Churches of Asia and Africa, as a prey to Mahometan barbarism, (see § 124.). 65. Among the distinguished Christian writers of the second Century we have to notice, in the first place, Justin Martyr (§ 58. 59.), who was born, according to some, a. d. 89, but more probably in 102 or 103, at Flavia NeapoliSy now Naplous, a city built up in later times near the ancient Samaritan city Sychar {John iv. 5.), or Sichem, or Shechem (1 Kings xii. 25.). After having in vain sought to satisfy his yearning after truth by the study of the various systems of philosophy prevalent in his day, he was led in his thirtieth year by the reading of the Holy Scriptures to embrace Christianity, which, he says, he found the * only true and adequate philosophy.' He does not appear to have entered the ministry, but to have continued in the position of a professed student or teacher of philosophy, and as such wearing CENT. II.] Justin Martyr. Pohjcarp. Papias. 49 the philosopher's cloak or pallium, cnstomary at the time. After visiting Egypt, and studying under various teachers at Alex- andria, he came to Rome early in the reign of Antoninus Pius, to whom he soon after addressed his First Apology (§58.). He soon after appears to have left Eome, and to hare gone to Asia Minor, where he fell in at Ephesus with a learned Jew, named Trypho, with whom he discussed the relative merits of Chris- tianity and Judaism. But his manifest ignorance of Hebrew leads him into various errors, which have suggested the idea that the Dialogue, in which he professes to give an account of that dis- cussion, is only an imaginary conversation, like the philosophical Dialogues of Plato and Cicero. It was written probably very soon after the First Apology, to which it alludes, the end of the year 140 being assigned to it. Justin afterwards returned again to Rome, where about the year 162 he presented his Second J.pology to AuRELius, in which he expresses his expectation, that the malice of his enemy, Crescens, would ere long be fatal to him (§ 59.).* Of PoLYCARP (§ 59.) we have an Epistle to the Philippians, which exists incomplete in the Greek text, but entire in a Latin Version, and is chiefly valuable for the testimony it bears to the New Testament Scriptures, to which it has nearly forty allusions. He was probably the Angel of the Church of Smyrna, addressed in Eev. ii. 8. (see § 43.). Papias (§ 53.) is said to have written Jive books on the Discourses of our Lord, of which only brief extracts exist, in which he bears testimony to the first two Gospels as having been * Justin's treatise against Marcion, and one against Heresies, are now lost. Other works, of which the following are the titles, have nearly all been ascribed to him without sufficient authority : an Address to the Gh-eeks or Gentiles; the Refutation (eXeyxos), probably the same as the former; a treatise on the Unity of God {irepl fiouapx'ia^) ; On the Trinii?/; On the Soul; On the Apocabjpse ; Epistles to Zenas, Serenus, and Diognetics ; a ■work On the Resurrection; Questions to the Greeks; to Christians; Ansioers to the Orthodox, and some others. D 50 Tatian. Athenagoras. Hegesippus. [cent. ii. written by St. Matthew and St. Mark, quotes the First Epistles both of St. Peter and St. John, and makes allusions to the Acta and the Apocalypse. He is said to have been one of the earliest Chiliasts (§ 40.), and Eusebius calls him weakminded. Tatlak, the disciple and convert of Justin (§ 59.), whom he met at Rome, was a native of Syria, and his Apology or Discourse to the Greeks (Xoyos irpos "iXk-qvas) is still extant. He also wrote a Diatesseron {pia Teo-o-dptov), or Harmony of the Four Gospels, as we have them, reconciling their statements, so as to shew the orderly connection of the whole Gospel history ; a kind of com- pilation which has often been repeated in different ways by many writers down to our own days. We know this work only from the extracts given by Clemens Alexandrinus (§ 64) and other later writers, who wrote against the erroneous views which Tatian adopted from the Gnostics after the death of Justin. He wa& always disposed to asceticism, and became the head of a sect called Encratites (from iyKpariiv), from their holding the doctrine of celibacy and general self-restraint, or Hydroparastatce, from using water only in the cup at the Communion. He died about the year 176. Of Athenagoras, an Athenian (§ 55.), we have his Apology {Trpea-^ela nepl xpi'^^^'-avcov), and a Defence of the Doctrine of a Resurrection. Little or nothing is known of him from early writers. Hegesippus, a Jewish convert holding Judaizing views of Christianity, and living from the beginning of the century to the reign of Commodus (§ CO.), travelled from Palestine to Rome in search of information on Church matters, and then about the year 175 he wrote a History in five Books, of which we have only extracts in other later writings. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, supposed to have been the Angel of that Church addressed in Rev. iii. 1., besides his Apology (§ 59.) given by Eusebius, has also furnished the earliest hst of the books of the Old Testament that is found among Christian writers, leading us to conclude from the name employed, that in his CENT. II.] Melito. Theophilm. Irenceus. 51 time the term New Testament was also already in use. He omits only the Book of Esther^ a treatise on which is ascribed to him.* Apollinaris, Bishop of Hierapolis, near CoIosscb^ besides his Apology^ already noticed (§ 59.), wrote a work against the Montanists (§ 74.), from which Eusebids gives an extract. He also appears to have written many treatises on the same and similar subjects as his contemporary Melito. THEorniLUs, the sixth Bishop of Antioch, from 168 to 181, — Hero, Cornelius, and Eros, having been his predecessors since the death of Ignatius (§ 53.), — was a convert from heathenism, of Mesopotamia, educated at Alexandria, and the author of an Apology of Christianity in three books, still extant, addi'essed to one AuTOLYCus, an unbeliever, and exhibiting great learning for the time and power of thought, though often mingled with quaint conceits. He also wrote treatises against Marcion (§ 73.), and against Hermogenes, a painter of some repute at Carthage, and an anti-gnostic rationalist ; besides a Harmony or Synopsis of the Four Gospels, and Commentaries on them, and on the Book of Proverbs. He also alludes in the Apology to a History he had written. Of Iren^us (§ 59. 60.) we have only remaining a work against the Heresies of his time, written between his 54th and 60th year (a. d. 182 — 188), or as some say, when he was up- wards of 70, and consisting of five books, only the first of which exists now in the original Greek, the rest being known to us only in a very ancient barbarous Latin translation. He displays in it an ardent zeal for peace and unity, whilst insisting on all the essentials of Christian doctrine, founded on the Scriptures alone, as he had received them from Polycarp and Papias ; and * Oiliers of his works are known to us only by their titles, and by frag- mentary quotations. They are: On a right Conversation; On Prophecy ; On the Prophets; On the Chtirch ; On the Apocalypse ; On the Birth of Christ ; nrepl hvawuarov BeoD (i.e. either, On the Incarnate God, or On the Personality of God) ; On Faster; On Truth; On Faith; On the Nature of Man ; On the Sold ; On the Creation ; VLud^ The Key {h xXei^). D 2 52 Clemens Alexandrinus. [cent. ii. he appeals to each and all of the books of the New Testament, as already then existing in their present state.* Clemens of Alexandria, already mentioned above as Head of the Catechetical School in that city, travelled, probably to avoid the persecution under Severus (§ 60.), both to Jerusalem, where he found the Bishop Alexander imprisoned ^ and thence to Antioch, where Asclepiades was then Bishop, everywhere anxiously gathering information and instruction in the Holy Scriptures. ' He was considered to have been a convert from paganism, born at Athens, and educated at Alexandria, and flourished between A. D. 192 and 217. Three of his works remain to us nearly entire : the first is an Exhortation to the Gentiles (npoTpenTiKos^ urging them to turn from their idolatry to the service of the true God and to His Word (Adyoj); the second is the Pcedagogue (llaidaywyos), instructing the new convert in the knowledge of the Gospel ; and the third, the Stromata (a-TpcofjiaTa.), or scattered Miscellanies in eight Books, consisting of mixed remarks, both on philosophical and Gospel truths, and on errors with their refuta- tions. The eighth book of this work is lost.f * We have also fragments and titles of works now lost ; as an Epistle to Florinus, a Eoman Presbyter, a friend of his youth and his fellow-disciple of PoLVCARP, who had embraced MonarcMan or Anti-Trinitarian views ; another to Blastus, also a Presbyter of Rome, who held opinions on the Paschal Controversy (§ 68.) opposed to those of Victor ; and to Victor himself rebuking him for his want of charity and his arrogance to the Churches of Asia. We also find mention of various Dissertations on por- tions of Scripture, probably collections of Sermons. There are likewise some fragments found only in Syriac or Armenian MSS. ; and the Letter of the Churches of Gaul to those of Asia (see § 59.) is also considered to have been drawn up by iRENiEUS. t We have also a treatise by him entitled ' Who is the rich man to he saved' {-rk 6 irXovaio? (Toolo/xevo's), in the style of a Homily; and fragments of works by him, On faster, On Fasting, On Slander, and On Ecclesias- tical Canons and Judaizing Errors. Among the works of Clement that are lost was one entitled Hypotyposeis (uTroTvirwaeL^) or Sketches, contain- ing, among other matter, summary accounts of the Books of Scripture, those of some of the Catholic Epistles only having come down to us in a Latin Version. CENT. II.] Tertullian. 53 Tertullian (§ 55.) tlie son of a centurion, and educated for the law, was born at Carthage after the middle of the century, about A. D. 160, embraced Christianity at'a mature age about 196, and after writing many Tracts in defence of Church doctrines, his wai-m an^ excitable temperament led him about a. d. 201. to embrace the views of Montanus (§ 74.), which he calls the New Prophecy, just about the close of the century, having already shewn a tendency to ascetic habits after the death of his wife. He lived till about a. d. 220. His writings, the first Christian compositions written in Latin, are generally ranged in two lists, as written before or after his secession from the Church, though the exact tendency of some is disputed. The following division is founded on the best authorities. Before his Secession. De Pcenitentia. De Oratione, De Baptismo Ad Uxorem. Ad Martyres. De Patientia. De Prsescriptione Hsereticorum. The Apology (see § 60.). Ad Nationes. De Testimonio Animse. De Cultu rceminarum. After his Secession. De Corona Militari. Adversus Marcionem, in five Books. De Anima, De Carne Christi. De Eesurrectione Carnis, Adversus Praxeam. Adversus Judseos. Scorpiace. De Yirginibus Yelandis. De Exhortatione Castitatis. De Monogamia. De Pudicitia. De Jejuniis. De Fuga in Persecutioue. De Spectaculis. De Idololatria. Ad Scapulam. De PalHo. Adversus Valentiniauos. Adversus Hermogenem.* * Besides the above he wrote also the following works, now lost : De Paradiso, De Spe FideUum, De Ecstasi, Adversus Apollonium, Adversus Apellem, De Censu Animsc, and perhaps some others mentioned must be ascribed to him. 54 Ceremonials. Festivals. [cent. ii. Finally we have to notice a Fragment written about the year 170, and discovered in the last century at Milan by the Italian antiquary Muratori, and known as the Muratorian Canon. The author's name is unknown, but the fragment is useful in establishing the Canon of the New Testament, nearly every Book of which is noticed in it. 66. To avert the charges of Atheism, brought against them by the Heathens for having no visible objects of devotion, nor priests, nor sacrifices, and to silence the calumnies of the Jews on account of the simplicity of their worship, the Christians in this century began to multiply their rites and ceremonies, and to use symbolical representations. . Thus in Baptism milk and honey were administered to the baptized, being then the customary food for infants, and intended to signify a new iirth to righteousness and innocence. Manumission also was used, as in the case of slaves presented with their liberty by their master, to signify that the baptized were freed from sin. The Sacraments also began to be called Mysteries, and Sacri- fices, and were performed with mystic solemnity. The appellations of Bishop, and Presbyter (whence the shortened Saxon forms Priester and Priest), were changed for the Sacerdotal titles of the Jews and Heathens; and this new priesthood imitated the gorgeous apparel of those, whose names as well as ceremonials they had adopted. 67. The Festivals of the Church were likewise multiplied. Instead of assembling the aggregate members of each Church only on the first day of the weelc (see §. 48.), assemblies began to be held also on the fourth day, on which Christ was betrayed ; and on the sixth day, on which he was crucified. The Anniver- saries also of the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ, and the effusion of the Holy Ghost on the Apostles at Pentecost, or Whitsunday, began to be celebrated (see § 285 — 288.). 68. Hence arose the first of those violent dissensions, which afterwards rent asunder the links of union and brotherhood, that had till now bound together all the members of the Christian CENT. II.] Paschal Controversy. 55 Church. The Christians of Asia Minor, alleging the authority of St. John, celebrated the anniversary of the Crucifixion of Christ on the first day of the Jewish feast of the Passover; that is, on the fourteenth day of their first month (Nisan), which began at the first new moon .succeeding the Vernal Equinox. This was called the Paschal daij, on which the Paschal Lamb w^s slain, and which in different years would often fall on different days, instead of, as in the year when our Lord was actually crucified, on Friday; and then the Feast of the jResiirrection or Faster would consequently not fall on Sunday^ as when He rose from the grave. And since the first day of the weeky or Sunday^ had from the earliest time been observed as the Lord's Day (see § 48.), in commemoration of Christ's Eesurrection, and Friday had lately come to be observed in each week as the day of His Passion^ it was in many Churches deemed wrong to alter those days in the case of the Great Festivals. Hence the Church of Eome, with those of Jeru- salem, Caesarea in Palestine, Tyre, and Alexandria, had adopted the custom of commemorating those great Christian events on the Friday and Sunday immediately following the fourteenth day of Nisan, tracing the origin of this practice to St. Peter and St. Paul. The Bishops of Eome, forgetful of the quarter where Christianity was first promulgated, already assumed to them- selves that pre-eminence, which the Imperial City took to itself in all things, and presumed to dictate to other Churches in this matter. At first, however, this difference of practice was not deemed a matter of sufficient importance to cause any dispute among the Churches. But as various other differences arose among professing Christians, in consequence of the peculiar doctrines set forth by many heretical teachers, it came to be considered as most essential, that the Churches which upheld the true Christian faith, should also agree in all their external customs and ceremonies. Hence the venerable Polycarp, who in the year 162 paid a visit to Eome, either for the very purpose or otherwise, sought to come to some arrangement with Anicbtus, 56 Victory Bishop of Rome. [cent. ii. the tenth Bishop of that city since the death of St. Peter and St. Paul ; but no conformity could be established, though they continued neyertheless to hve in the most perfect friendship and charity with one another. Towards the end of the century, however, about the year 190, Victor, who had succeeded Soter and Eleutherius as the thirteenth Bishop of that see, began to act with the arrogant assumption, that as successor of St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, he had a claim to be considered as the chief Bishop of the whole Christian Church ; and as such he called upon the Churches of Asia, to conform to the practice of Kome in the celebration of Easter. His imperious mandate was answered by Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, in the name of all the other Churches, in a Letter preserved by Eusebius, solemnly refusing to depart from the practice of their ancestors ; where- upon Victor hurled the sentence of Excommunication against all the Churches who refused to comply, as unworthy to be called brethren or to hold communion with him. This sentence had no influence upon other Churches in their intercourse with those of Asia; and Iren^us, Bishop of Lyons (§ 59, 60.), although agreeing with Victor in the point of dispute, addressed to him a letter, given by Eusebius, in which he sharply rebuked him for his unchristian arrogance, upholding the right of every Church to maintain its own traditional usages in external observances, provided only there be agreement with other Churches in faith and love. At Synods held about this time in Palestine, Pontus, Osrhoene, Greece, and Gaul, the rule of Victor was adopted.* 69. At this time Baptism was administered only at Easter, and at Pentecost or Whitsuntide, either by the Bishop, or by * At the Council of Nicsea, a. d. 325. (§ 95.) it was ordered, that there shall be uniformity in the observance of Easter ; that March 21st shall be deemed the day of the Vernal Equinox ; that the Full Moon, either on that day, or that happening next after it, shall be reckoned as fourteenth day of Nisan, or the Paschal Day ; and that the Lord's Day next following that Full Moon shall be observed as Ea.ster day. CENT. Il] Agapce. Ehionites. 57 Presbyters acting as his deputies. The candidates first repeated the Creed or Formula of doctrine, adopted by the Church they were about to enter (see § 47) ; confessed and renounced their sins, and the devil and his works ; and were then immersed^ in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. They were then signed with the cross, and anointed^ received the imposition of hands with prayer, and partook of milk and honey, as mentioned above (see § 6G). Sponsors were required both for adults and infants (see § 308.). 70. The Lord's Supper was administered every Sunday. The Bishop consecrated with prayer some bread and wine, furnished as oblations by his flock, mixing water with the wine ; and then distributed the same to the Communicants, and sent some to the absent and the sick (see § 291, 292.). The Lord's Supper was, from the earliest times, followed by Agapce or love- feasts yio which all brought what their means enabled them to procure, and all partook equally of what was thus collected (see § 305.). But the description of its celebration given by Justin ]\L^RTYR (see § 292.) seems to indicate, that these meals after the Lord's Supper had then already been discontinued, probably on account of the charge at that time brought against Christians, of engaging in secret orgies. Sects and Heresies. 71. The Nazarenes and Ehionites have been already mentioned (see § 57.). The latter persisted in the observance of the Mosaic Law, with all Jewish traditions and ceremonies, though they believed in Christ as the Messiah; but entirely after the Jewish idea, that He should come again speethly to restore their nation and city to its foi-mer power and distinction, — not as the Redeemer of all mankind. They considered Him to have been born in the ordinary course of nature, and that the divine power, which constituted Him the Messiah on account of His superior legal piety, was only disclosed and imparted to Himself by the visible descent of the Holy Spirit upon Him at 58 Gnostic Sects. [cent. II. His Baptism bj John; and to the latter they applied the Old Testament announcement concerning Elias {Malachi m. 1. iv. 5, 6.). Their exclusive appropriation of the Messianic pro- mises to the Jewish nation, led them to reject the writings of St. Paul, who extended the promise of salvation to the Gentiles, and dispensed with the whole ceremonial Law as the ' partition wall' thrown down, and abrogated by Christ's fulfilment of its types. 72. The Gnostic heresy in the Church (see § 41.) propa- gated itself in this century under a multiplicity of forms, each distinguished by a name indicating the leading framer of the peculiar system, and all carrying out with increased subtlety that method of Gnostic reasoning, revived again by modem Rational- ists^ by which it is sought to account for the nature and opera- tions of the Almighty Author of all things, to the perfect satisfaction and comprehension of the limited mental and moral perceptions of man. These subtleties have in all cases led to the universally condemned notions of fatalism, transmigration of souls, pantheism, materialism, atheism, all so utterly inconsistent with that higher, freer, and more enhghtened exercise of human reason, which acknowledges the limits of its own sphere, and which is possible only under the Christian system of philosophy, as developed in the theology of the Bible. Basilides, the founder of the Basilidian system, was probably of Syrian origin, but flourished during the former half of this centuiy at Alexandria, where he gave the tone to the Egyptian school of Gnosticism, and where his son Isidore was afterwards the leader of the sect. The essentially Gnostic notions of suc- cessive emanations from the primary essence of Deity, he com- bined, on the one hand, with the Dualistic system of a Good and an Evil Principle (Ormuzd and Ahriman), independent of, and contrary to, one another, as taught by Zoroaster ; and, on the other, with the rationalistic system of the Greek philosophers. With the latter he fell into fatalism, with the former into the transmigration of souls, by means of which he expected a gradual CENT. II.] Basilidians. 59 reformation and final redemption. The first Octave {oyhoai) of existences he made to consist of the seven emanations from the Deity, which he called by the Greek terms, Nous or the Mind, Logos or the Reason, Phronesis or Thought, Sophia or Wisdom, Dunamis or Might, Dilcaiosune or Moral Perfection, and Irene or Peace, together with the Primary Essence ; and from this Ogdoad he deemed all successive grades of existences to be again developed, 365 in number, in as many heavens, represented by the Greek letters in the word Abraxas^ engraved as sacred on amulets. He also considered darkness, and evil, and death, to attach themselves to the elements of light and life, as rust on steel, and that those impurities must be gradually purged away again. In combining these views with the Jewish and Christian Dispensations, he held that all earthly things were committed to a subordinate Angel, whom he called Archon or Ruler, and whom he thought the Jews regarded mistakenly as the Supreme God ; whilst only the truly spiritual among them looked forward to the actual manifestation of Himself by God, which was the object of the Christian Revelation. Of the Saviour Christ he held Ebionite views, considering him as the man Jesus, chosen by God the Redeemer as the instrument, specially prepared by the sudden entrance of the divine nature at his baptism, to reveal Himself to mankind, and to influence them for good. As he only looked for the progressive improvement of men towards ultimate moral perfection, he saw vestiges of a divine revelation in every aspiration after such perfection ; not only in the Greek philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and the schools sprung from them, but also in the teachings of Zoroaster and other Oriental sages, and even of a supposed prophet Pachor, and in revela- tions ascribed to Ham. Hence he refused to regard Jesus as the pre-eminently sinless Redeemer and Saviour of all mankind, as the God-Man, combining from his birth to his Ascension all that appertains to the divine and the human nature. He adopted and exalted the term faith, but only as an intuitive conviction of man's ultimate attainment to moral purity, and as such con- 60 Valentinians. [cent. II. sidered it as the highest principle in man ; l3ut he failed utterly to realize it in a firm belief in the ultimate exaltation of man to heavenly glory through reconcihation with God, as secured and sealed by the historical facts in the earthly life of Jesus Christ, recorded in the Gospel. Valentinus, the head of the Valentinian Gnostics, was either an Alexandrian Jew by birth, or born and brought up a Christian, and showed great familiarity with the Scriptures. He was a younger contemporary of Basilides, from whom he differs chiefly in applying figurative names to the different principles and ele- ments, by which the Gnostic system seeks to explain the economy of the universe, and in explaining them with more refined idealism. Thus the primal spiritual essence and infinite source of all existence he called Bytlios (j3v6os) ; and that self -limiting power by which that was enabled to give being to finite exist- ences (see § 41.), he called Horus (opos, limit). Bythos and Sige (o-iyf}) beget Nous and Aletlieia (vovs, aXTjdeiay Mind and Truth), and these again in successive generations beget Logos, Zoe, Anthropos, and Ecclesia (Xdyoy, ^007, avdptoTros, eK/cXT^o-ta), completing the first Ogdoad of existences. Logos and Zoe then beget five pairs, and Anthropos and Ecclesia six pairs more, making in all thirty Aeons or existences. Nous and Sophia, the last Aeon, produce Christ and the Holy Spirit; and all the Aeons, with the best property of each, produce Jesus, the Saviour. Sophia is a divine spark or mundane soul, which animates matter, and is called Achamoth, a Cabalistic term, meaning wisdom or understanding. The operations of these Aeons in the world are defined by arbitrary assumptions and abstruse explanations. Like the other Gnostics, he assigned to the Saviour only an ethereal shadowy existence, which had nothing in common with man but the form ; and the Redemption to be wrought by Him was only the restoration of the harmony of the universe, broken by the intermingling of the divine with the material. Hence, like all such systems, which set aside the great historical facts that form the foundation of Christianity, so that of Valentine proves to be CENT. II.] Ophites. Cainites. Gl only a flimsy web of the most visionary flights of the human imagination, which few minds can follow in their mazy windings, and so utterly incapable of teaching men their true relation to their Maker, the real scope and object of their existence upon earth, and their attainment to the high hopes and aspirations after which the soul of man is yearning ; all which points are so fully and so amply answered by the pure and unadulterated Gospel of Christ, given to satisfy and bring to the knowledge of salvation even the poorest and the humblest of mankind. — Valentine removed to Rome about the year 140, and having been excommunicated there, he died in the commencement of the pontificate of Anicetus (see § 68.). The chief seat of the Valentinian heresy after his death was Cyprus, whence it was spread over most of the adjacent countries by his leading followers, Heracleon, Marcus, Ptole- M.EUS, Bardesanes, and others, some of whom carried the fanciful conceits of their master still farther; whilst others sought to bring them back within more rational limits, thus splitting the sect into numerous branches, some of which continued till the Jifth century. Other Gnostic sects, carrying out their views of Christianity in accordance with the old pagan system, and in opposition to the Jewish doctrines of the Old Testament, in which they saw only the working of the selfish and exclusive Demiurge, the special God of the Jewish nation, exalted everything, which is there represented as opposed to Jehovah, and explained it as leading the way to Christianity. Thus the Ophites {ocf)is, a serpent) saw in the opposition of the serpent the agency of the Supreme Aeon, from whom the Messiah was to come forth to destroy the Jewish system. The Cainites set up Cain as the model man, followed by all the worst characters of the Old Testament, struggling by their constant rebellion against the Jewish Demiurge towards the realization of the Messianic kingdom. Another class, equally opposed to the Jewish element, saw in Christianity an independent system, aiming at the purification of man from all debasing influences; and thus, with a one-sided view of it, 62 Saturninus. Marcion. [cent. ii. deemed that it only sought moral purity, and so naturally fell into asceticism and celibacy. Of these the chief leader was Saturninus of Antioch, who flourished in the reign of Adrian (see § 56.), and was later followed by Tatian (see § 65.), and others. 73. In this last class we might also place Marcion, though he was wholly incapable of refined and imaginative speculation, exhibiting a mind wholly practical. He was born at Sinope, in Pontus, early in this century, being the son of the Bishop of that city, who, on account of the peculiar views of his son, was forced to excommunicate him. He then went to Rome in the time of the Bishop Anicetus (§ 68.) ; and there he met with Polycarp, with whom he had some previous acquaint- ance, but who now disowned him as a heretic. Being conse- quently repulsed by the Church of Rome also, he proceeded to found a Church upon his own principles. He had become acquainted at Rome with a Syrian Gnostic, named Cerdo, from whom he adopted such views of that sect as he could comprehend. To this source we must trace his distinction between the God of the Old Testament, or the Demiurge (§ 41.), the austere avenger of justice, — and the Supreme God of love and goodness, never revealed until the coming of Christ, who, as he declared, appeared suddenly at Capernaum in the fifteenth year of the Emperor Tiberius, and at once began His mission. Hence his rejection of the Old Testament, as the work of the Demiurge, and all Jewish traditions, as wholly incapable of bestowing sanctifica- tion by the victory over sin ; and likewise of all parts of the New Testament founded upon the Old. The only books he received were the Gospel of St. Luke, with the Genealogy and other parts" struck out ; and ten of the Epistles of St. Paul, whom he regarded as the only faithful Apostle. But he re- jected those to Titus, Timothy, and the Hebrews. He professed the highest reverence for the person and teaching of Christ, whom, with the Patripassians (§ 75.), he considered as the first self-manifestation of the Father. Yet he held that Christ, in CENT. II.] Marcion. G3 order to persuade the Jews, represented Himself as the Messiah promised by the Demiurge ; who therefore from jealousy stirred up the Jews to crucify Him. Christ descended into hell, and there preached to those consigned to punishment by the Demiurge, to Cain, to Esau, and the people of Sodom and Goraorrah, who believed and were saved; whilst the patriarchs, fearing some deception, held back, and were left there. He believed in the salvation of the soul only, but denied the resurrection of the body. At the coming of the Messiah promised by the Demiurge, the reassembled Jews shall for a time hold universal dominion, but the souls of the righteous only shall finally dwell with God, and all the rest will have to undergo eternal torments. He did not adopt the Gnostic theory of emanation (§ 41.), but held that of the eternity of matter, from which the Demiurge had formed all things; and that which resisted his formative power, through the inherent principle of evil, is under the sway of Satan, in whom all evil is concentrated. — It was his professed object to bring back the church to its primitive purity of doctrine, as it was left by St. Paul. To this end he prescribed the most rigid moral purity, and the practice of love and goodness towards all, considering all that believe as equal ; and therefore he condemned the exclusion of catechumens, and all unbaptized persons, at least from being present at the Lord's Supper, as a coiTupt following of the heathen practice of ex- cluding the uninitiated from the Mysteries. He administered the cup with water only (§ 65.). He baptized only in the name of the Son, excluding the Father and the Holy Ghost ; and had a baptism for the dead (1 Cor. xv. 29.), which allowed men to be baptized for friends who had died unbaptized. He dis- approved of attendance at heathen games and pastimes ; and he prohibited the use of wine and all animal food except fish, as also marriage, requiring a vow of cehbacy at Baptism. — All these inconsistent notions were so far from satisfying even himself, that at length he desired reunion with the Church, but died before it could be effected, at Eome, when Eleutherius was Bishop, not earher than the year 170, though according to some he was alive still in 194. 64 Montanus. Anti-Trinitarians, [cent. ii. Some professed followers of Marcion, as Marcus, Lucas, ApelleSj added various Gnostic notions to those of their master. 74. The extravagant presumptions of Gnostic learning, claiming the ability to unravel and define the existence, the nature, and operation both in the natural and spiritual world, of the Almighty Creator of all, brought about a reaction in the fanatic enthusiasm of Montanism. Montanus, an obscure and imlearned man of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, came forward about the middle of the century, pretending, according to some, that he was the Paraclete or Comforter, promised by Jesus Christ, or at least that he received immediate Revelations from the Para- clete, given to perfect the moral teachings of Christ and His Apostles, who, in compassion for our infirmities, had allowed many indulgences, which were now to cease. He therefore in- sisted on frequent fasting, prohibited absolution for heinous sins, proscribed all refinements both of mind and manners, and preached the necessity of courting martyrdom, and the sinfulness of avoiding it by any means whatever. Among the many able and holy men, who adopted these austere views of Christianity, is to be mentioned especially the celebrated Tertullian, who in his previous writings had so greatly promoted the cause of Gospel truth (see § 65. near the end, and § 378.). 75. A new controversy arose also in this Century, which in after time produced the fiercest animosities in the Church. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch (see § 55 and 65.), had introduced the word Trinity, to express the Three persons in the Godhead, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. This leading doctrine of Christianity is founded on many plain declarations by our Lord and His Apostles, as we have shown under the first five of our Church Articles at the end of this volume. But we have already seen that the Ebionite converts to Christianity (§ 57. and 71.), and probably many other Hebrew Christians, felt a difficulty in reconciling the merely humanitarian views of the Messiah and His kingdom, entertained by the Jewish nation in general, with the divinity and equality with the Father, ascribed to Jesus Christ in the New Testament. CENT. II.] Monarchians. Patripassians. 65 These therefore could not receive the essentially Christian doctrine of the Trinity, or regard the Godhead as embracing anything beyond the primal essence of the Father, though they regarded Jesus as peculiarly the Son of God, the Mediator between God and man, and the Saviour of mankind, but divine only in a limited sense. These were called Monarchians^ and their leader at Rome, a man named Theodotus, who had been a tanner, was excommunicated by Victor (§ 68.). The followers of Artemon, who appeared at Rome soon after, held a shght modification of the same view. On the other hand, converts from Polytheism, and others who feared to depart again from the strict unity of the Deity, saw in Christ the manifestation of the Father Himself, who must thus have suffered on the cross, and were therefore called Patripassians. The chief of these was Praxeas, who from the persecutions he had endured in Asia had acquired the character of a Confessor, and had been raised in the estimation of the Church by dissuading the Bishop of Rome (either Victor, or his predecessor, Eleutherius), from acknowledging the Montanist views as orthodox. He after- wards went to Carthage, where Tertullian says he renounced his views, though that writer afterwards wrote his treatise against him. This view was afterwards held by Noetus and Sabellius, who belong more properly to the next century. 76. In this century several writers of note attacked Christianity in their works, often charging it with all the faults of the ancient superstition. Thus Lucian, a native of Samosatay in Comagene, a province in northern Syria, who lived from about A. D. 120 till near the close of the century, wrote witty satires both upon the absurdities of paganism and the articles of the Christian faith, which are still extant in his numerous composi- tions. With some admiration for the character of Christ, whom he mentions as ' that great man who was crucified in Palestine,' he describes his followers as ' miserable creatures,' who thought * that they were all immortal, and would live for ever.' He represented them as ignorant and uneducated, and excessively • E 66 Lucian. Celsus. [cent. ir. credulous, easily imposed on by any impostor or pretender to magic ; and he classed the Apostles, when he learnt that they had cured demoniacs and others afEicted with various diseases, with the pretended exorcists and magicians of his time. His principal work against Christianity is his Life of Peregrinus Proteus, a Cynic philosopher, who burnt himself pubhcly, and whom he represents as having embraced Christianity, and as having afterwards been expelled from the Church for some slight offence; but no Christian writer or Church tradition mentions such a person. Another work against Christianity, written during the fierce persecution under Aurelius (§ 59.), was ' The True Doctrine ' {Aoyos aXrjdrjs) of Celsus, who from his views must be considered as a Neo-Platonist, (§ 64.). and not, as some have maintained, the same as Celsus the Epicurean^ the friend of Lucian. Like the latter, he puts the miracles of Christ and his Apostles on a level with the pretensions of ordinary magicians and jugglers. He attacks Christianity with the utmost bitterness ; and together with much loose, ignorant, and inconsistent assertion, he exhibits that superficial acuteness, unsupported by any deep research, or any high view of the origin, existence, and future destiny of man, which has always characterized all attacks upon the Christian system of religion and philosophy. According to the Refutation of this work of Celsus, written in the following century by the great Alexandrian Theologian, Origen(§ 89.*), he brings forward all the most extravagant notions of the Chiliasts (§ 40.) and the Gnostic Sects, as Christian doctrines ; he blames them for having neither temples, nor idols, nor altars, and for refusing to swear by the name of the Emperor, or to serve him as soldiers ; and objects to them as an extravagant pride and vanity, that they ascribed to man a high worth and dignity in the sight of God, arguing against a special Providence, the Fall, and the necessity of Redemption. A. D. 222.] Alexander Severus. Mammcea. 67 THIRD CENTURY. 77. We have already seen (§ 60.), how the opening of this century was marked by the persecution under Septimius Severus, which, though not general, caused great suffering, and nowhere so much as in northern Africa. Besides the instances already given, we read of a violent persecution at Carthage, chiefly remarkable for the heroic and holy constancy in the faith dis- played by the sufferers, among whom the most distinguished was a young mother of good family, with an infant at her breast, who resisted the most passionate entreaties of her father to save herself by recantation, and wrote herself an account of the events that befell her and her fellow martyrs, forming part of the Acta Perpetuoe et Felicitatis, the latter a young woman of humbler station. Christianity, however, soon began to make marked progress, owing to the leniency and even favour, with which several of the Roman Emperors regarded its doctrines and principal professors. Heliogabalus, who in 219 succeeded Caracalla, the son of Severus, was a monster of vice ; but being regardless of the Roman religion through his partiality to the long proscribed Egyptian and Syrian superstitions, he extended toleration to Christianity, as well as to the worship he favoured. He was succeeded in 222 by Alexander Severus, who was then only 16 years of age, but, through the influence of his mother Julia Mamm.ea, proved a prince of many good qualities. She was an able and politic princess, who acted during his minority as regent of the Roman empire, and secured not only peace, but also distinction and honour to the Christians, during the whole of this reign. She had as early as the year 217 been in communication with Origen, the distinguised Alex- andrian Father (see § 77, and 89.*) ; yet neither she, nor the Emperor, was really a convert to Christianity. Alexander had many Christians in his household ; he adopted the practice of the Church with regard to candidates for Ordination, and put up E 2 68 Maximin. Philip. Decius. [cent. iti. for public approval the names of those whom he intended to appoint to any office ; and he used as an inscription on the walls of his palace the injunction of our Lord, " Do to others as you would they should do to you." But he only honoured the image of the Saviour with a place among those of other distinguished characters in human history, and of the heathen gods; neither did he place Christianity in the position of a religio licita (§ 53 and 82.) by any express law. In this reign even, the decrees of former Emperors against Christians were collected and embodied by the celebrated jurist, Ulpian, a bitter enemy to Christianity. 78. Maximin, who in the year 235 caused Alexander Severus to be assassinated, turned his fury against those dis- tinguished Christians, especially the Bishops, who had more immediately surrounded that Emperor; and though he appears not to have ordered any general persecution, yet his countenance again stirred up the fanaticism of the priests and others attached to the Pagan superstition, to harass the Christians in various parts of the empire, where some earthquakes that happened were as usual laid to their charge. The Emperor Philip, an Arabian by birth, (a. d. 244 — 249) was even supposed to have secretly embraced the doctrines of the Gospel, though policy made him afraid openly to avow it. But the secular games, with which lie celebrated the thousandth year from the foundation of Rome, were marked by all the superstitious and idolatrous rites of the old religion ; and Origen, who now composed his work against Celsus (§ 76.), nowhere intimates that the Emperor was a Christian. 79. The reign of his successor, Decius, however, (a. d. 249 — 251) was signalized by cruel persecutions, as Origen had forewarned the Christians would be the case, when he saw that the long peace they had enjoyed had made them less steady in their faith, and less restrained in their lives; though the continued and rapid spread of Christianity among even the highest classes, led him for the first time to express an anticipation, that it would ultimately prevail over paganism in the Roman empire. The zeal of Deciits for the restoration of the ancient Roman manners A. D. 2 jL] Dcctan Fersecittion. 69 made him liostile to the iunovation in religion, which had been so extensively adopted in the empire. He issued edicts, command- ing the extirpation of Christianity from all the Roman provinces, either by death, or by exile, or by compulsory return to paganism. These sweeping measures so terrified the most pious Christians, and even many among the Clergy and their Bishops, that they preferred outward acts of confoinnity, so as to reserve themselves for more prosperous times, to the alternative of cruel tortures, or of seeing the Church utterly extinguished by the violent per- secution now raging; a course unwarranted by the issues of former persecutions, and which afterwards caused the most lamentable divisions and schisms in the Church, regarding the propriety of the readmission of the lapsed, as they were called, into the bosom of the Church. Those guilty of this outward apostasy, whatever might have been their secret convictions, were marked by the opprobrious epithets of Sacnjicati, or those who had assisted at heathen Sacrifices ; Thurificati, or those who had burnt incense on the altars of heathen deities; Lihellatici or holders of certificates {lihelli) of the Roman magistrates, declaring that they had made open profession of paganism, and sometimes obtained from the priests and magistrates for large sums of money, and granting immunity from such outward profession. The eagerness with which many Christians sought by these means to avoid martyrdom, evinced that worldly spirit which Origen had censured. The Bishops and Clergy were the principal objects of persecution, as being the chief authors of the spread of Christianity. Fabia>s, 19th Bishop of Rome, Babylas, 11th Bishop of x^tioch, Alexander, 33rd Bishop of Jerusalem, suffered martyrdom. Origen, Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, Theodore, better known as Gregory Thaumatuugus, Bishop of Xeo-Caisarea in Pontus, Dionysius, 13th Bishop of Alexandria, and others, underwent torture or exile. Many fled for refuge into the deserts ; and a young man of Alexandria, named Paul, thus became the first hermit in the desert of the Tliebaid, or Lpper Egypt, which in after-times became the resort of numerous ascetics. 70 Gallus. Valerian. Macrianiis. [cent. hi. 80. Decius fell in battle at Forum Terebronii, in Moesia (^Bulgaria), in his war against the Goths, who together with the Franks, Allemanni, and Persians, continued to harass the Roman Empire during the reigns of his successors Gallus and Valerian, who died respectively a. d. 253 and 260. These wars were rather favourable, than otherwise, to the cause of the Gospel, since they not only in some degree diverted the attention of the persecutors from the Christians, but also opened to the persecuted places of refuge among those nations, who thus gradually became acquainted with the Word of Truth. 81. In the reign of Gallus, a pestilence called forth an Edict, ordering all persons to sacrifice to the gods to avert the calamity, and the neglect to do so by the Christians provoked another persecution ; whilst the pagan priests were not slow to attribute the plague to the anger of the gods on account of the toleration extended to the Christian worship, and the general decline of their own. Cornelius, the 20th Bishop of Rome, and Lucius, his successor, who in these troubled times had not shrunk from being placed in the foremost post of danger, suffered martyr- dom after short tenures of that see. Gallus, having purchased peace by an annual tribute to the barbarians, and thereby excited general discontent, fell by the hand of one rebellious lieutenant, whilst another. Valerian, revenged the death of his master, and himself ascended his throne, at the age of sixty. His mild and upright character, as well as his prudence and experience throughout a long series of meritorious services, qualified him for a just and able sovereign. Hence the Christians found themselves undisturbed in the first years of his reign, and many of them held offices of state and in the household of the Emperor, who was described by Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, as more favourable to Christianity than those who had been reputed Christians (see § 77, 78.). But his chief minister, Macrianus, a staunch adherent to the old superstition, being anxious to check the spread of Christianity, obtained in the year 257 a decree, by which the Christians were deprived of the right of holding A. D. 270.] Christianity legalized. 71 assemblies for worship, and of visiting their cemeteries, and many- Bishops and other Clergy were banished. But when this measure, adopted in consequence of the Emperor's reluctance to shed the blood of his subjects, was found insufficient for its purpose, since the Bishops were followed in their exile by many members of their flocks, or soon formed new flocks of those who lived around them, a new and severer Edict appeared in the following year 258, ordering the death of all the Clergy ; confiscation, and, if steadfast in the faith, death, to all senators and knights ; banish- ment to all women of rank ; and the most laborious slavery in chains on the imperial estates and public works, to such as had been employed in the palace. In this persecution, Stephen, and SixTus or Xystus II, 22nd and 23rd Bishops of Rome, and Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, suffered martyrdom; but the great body of lay members of the Church seem to have been unmolested. 82. Valerian having been defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians, was, in 259, succeeded by his son Gallienus who at once by an edict granted religious liberty to the Christians, and ordered the Churches and adjacent lands or cemeteries to be restored to them, thus for the first time making Christianity a religio licita (§ 77.) by the enactment of an express law, the Emperor's will being the only source of legislation in the Roman Empire at this period. This change in the treatment of Chris- tians was owing no doubt to the wars carried on with the numerous barbarians, who now invaded the Empire on all sides, and required all the resources of the state, and the union of all classes to withstand them; and partly also to the continual increase of the number of the faithful among aU ranks and degrees of men. Macrianus, however, who for two years main- tained a usurped sway over the East and Egypt, still carried on the persecution in those parts, till he was overthrown in 261. But the remainder of this reign, which ended in 268, and that of Claudius II, who reigned till 270, were times of almost uninterrupted peace to the Church. Aurelian, the next Emperor, 72 Diocletian, Constantius Chlorus. [cent. hi. was a man of low extraction, whose mother had been a priestess of the Sun, so that he was brought np in the pagan superstition. He would, therefore, have proved a persecutor, had not the law of Gallienus restrained him, as well as reasons of policy. However, when success attended his arms against the barbarian invaders, liis gratitude to the gods at length induced him to break through all restraints of legality, and to attempt the dcstrnction of the enemies of his gods ; but death prevented his affixing his signa- ture to an edict against the Christians, as he was assassinated by some of his own attendants on his march to Persia, a. d. 275. The reigns of Tacitus, Probus, and Cahus, did not disturb the peace of the Church ; and in the earlier part of that of Diocletian (a. d. 284 — 305.), the religious liberty of Christians was equally respected. Maximian, whom Diocletian appointed two years after as his co-regent with the title of Augustus, was a rude, ill-educated soldier, and as such was totally incapable of enter- ing into subtle reflections of state policy and legality. He is said to have insisted that Christian soldiers should conform to the old worship ; and when the so called Thehan Legion unani- mously refused, it is said to have been surrounded and destroyed among the Alps near Gaul. The absence of contemporaneous records has caused this story to be doubted ; but it is a well established fact, that Christian soldiers were now exposed to the punishment of death for their religion, among whom was Albanus or St. Alban, the first Christian martyr of Britain (§ 168.). In 292 two more partners in the government were appointed with the inferior title of Casars, Galerius, Diocletian's son-in- law, and Constantius Chlorus, who had already long since obtained that Emperor's favour by his many virtues. The former of these Ccesars resembled Maximian in his character and in his principles ; whilst the latter, who was charged- with the defence of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, was a sincere patron of the Chris- tians, his wife, Helena, being a Christian herself. Diocletian himself seemed favourable to the Christians, though rather from motives of policy, than from religious conviction ; and he had A. D. 298.] CliarcJics built. 73 Christians about him in his palace as chamberlains and other functionaries, it may be from a due appreciation of their fidelity, as a principle of their religion. Yet in the year 296 he issued an Edict against the Manichceans (§ 89.), who were very numerous in northern Africa, and whom, on account of their origin, he considered as in league with his enemies, the Persians. In 298 all soldiers were ordered to sacrifice to the gods, which caused much annoyance and danger to those who were Christians. These instances showed that new counsels began to prevail, which soon after the beginning of the next century broke out in a general and violent persecution. 83. The increase of numbers had now made it necessaiy, and the protection of some of the Emperors in this century made it practicable, to build or set apart houses for the express purpose of holding the assemblies of Christians for public worship, instead of assembling, as heretofore, in rooms of houses belonging to private individuals. As early as the year 202, there was a Church at Edessa, a city situated to the east of the Euphrates, and to the north of Palmyra (Tadmor, 2 Chron. viii. 4.). This city was early made acquainted with the Gospel ; and in its archives -EusEBius found an account of a correspondence between one of its kings, who were called Abgari, and our Saviour, which, however, is considered wholly unworthy of credit. But already in the year 160., one of these princes was a Christian, upon whose coins appears the sign of the cross. The Church in question was built with three divisions, after the model of the temple at Jerusalem. Alexander Severus (§77) gave up a piece of land, which was claimed for building a tavern at Rome, as a site for a Christian Church ; and in the edict of Gallienus (§ 82.) places of worship {OprjCTKeva-ifxoi tottoi) are directed to be restored to Christians. Such a place of worship came to be called oIkos KvpiaKos or otVia KvpiuKT] {house of the Lord), and later only t6 KvpiaKov, whence the Scotch word Kirk, the German Kirche, and our Church (see 1 Cor. xi. 20. ; Rev. i. 10.). 84. It was but natural, that in these Churches public 74 Rites and Ceremonies. Images, [cent. hi. worship should be celebrated in a more formal and regular manner. Thus a raised seat, called suggestus or pulpitum, was erected, where the lessons from the Scriptures were read, and the sermon delivered; and a table was provided for the administration of the Lord's Supper, which already in Ter- tullian's time had come to be called altar. The custom which had sprung up, as we have seen (§ 66), of adopting both Jewish and heathen rites and ceremonies, led soon to a wide divergence from the original simplicity of Christian worship. Thus gold and silver vessels began to be used at the Lord's supper ; incense was used in many Churches ; and some suppose that even images were introduced as early as this century, but at first only in private houses, and on signet-rings and goblets ; and even these were condemned by Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian (§ 65.), who recommended instead of them such symbols to be used, as might remind men of the mysteries or historical facts of Christianity. Thus Clement says : " Let our signets be a dove (the symbol of the Holy Ghost), a fish (lXeY2 — 'Irjo-ovs Xpio-Tos, Qeov Yioy, ^coTrjp), a ship (navis, the symbol of a Church, whence nave), a lyre (symbolizing Christian joy), or an anchor (for Christian hope)." Heathen converts, and half-heathen sects, such as the Carpocratians, who only ascribed to Christ, equally with Plato and other heathen philosophers, the highest purity and moral aspiration, were the first to introduce pictures and images of Christ and his Apostles ; and before the end of this century they adorned with them the walls of their churches. The Council of Elliheris {Elvira, near Granada, in the South of Spain), early in the following century (see § 464.), ordered that " no object to be worshipped should be represented on the walls." Specific efficacies were also ascribed to religious rites and ceremonies. Thus at Baptism, a special kind of ministers, called exorcists, pretended by prayers and loud threatening shoutings, to expel from Candidates for that holy rite the evil demons, that were supposed to possess the uncon- verted. So also frequent fasting, and abstaining from marriage, CENT. III.] Fasts and Festivals. 75 were supposed to be the means of averting the same dreaded ^beings; and hence also persons under the excommunication of the Church, as well as the unbaptized, were carefully avoided, as being under the influence of such mahgnant demons. The sign of the cross was especially considered to be a powerful aid against evil Spirits, till Christians began to consider it as a sign of blessing, and made it almost involuntarily on any sudden or supposed calamity or danger. Fasting, at first an act of voluntary disciphne or self-denial, was first attempted to be regulated on fixed rules by the Montanists (§ 74.); but the Church as yet had no law upon the subject. On Wednesday and Friday (§ 67.) it now became usual to fast till the ninth hour (3 p.m.); and this half fast, to distinguish it from the -proper jejunia, was called statio, and those days dies stationum, as being the sentry-posts or icatches of the soldiers of Christ. ' The anniversary of the Crucifixion was now also observed as a rigid fast, and sometimes extended to fortf/ hours, whence gradually arose the Quadragesimal or Lenten Fast of fort?/ days (see § 280.). 85. The strict observance of the Jewish Sabbath, which was long kept up by Christian converts from Judaism, was early transferred to the Christian Sabbath (§ 48.); and on it, Tertullian says, " we ought to abstain, not only from kneehng (see § 255 note), but from every pursuit attended with anxiety, deferring business, lest we give place to the devil." The festival of Easter, in commemoration of the Resurrection of Christ, was now extended to the forty days following, which he spent on earth with his disciples until his Ascension, and the ten days after, ending with the day of Pentecost (TrcvTTjKoo-Trj sc. rjfiepa — fiftieth day), on which was commemorated the descent of the Holy Spirit, (^Acts ii.). The Council of Elliheris afterwards limited the festive observance of all these fifty days to the day of Pente- cost only. — Tlie festival of the Epiphany (§ 278.), or Manifes- tation of Christ as the Messiah at his Baptism, began also to be observed in the Eastern Church, as that of the Nativity or 76 The Clergy, [cent. III. Christmas was introduced in the West ; and both these festi- vals were afterwards adopted in all branches of the Church. — The administration of Baptism was still confined to Easter day and Pentecost; but in the prospect of imminent death, either from sickness or martyrdom, it was allowed to be administered on any day. This indulgence, combined with the more rigid renunciation of sin and worldliness, which was required, led to the delay of baptism in many cases to the hour of death. The preparation for that Sacrament by instruction, was also extended to a period of tioo, and even three years, which, however, in special cases, was shortened. — Public prayers were now offered up three times a day, after the custom of the Jews, at the third, the sixth, and ninth hours, and the Lord's Supper was administered at one or other of these services, varying in different places, and more frequently in some places than in others. The unbaptized, and persons under the censure of the Church, were not admitted to that Sacrament, though it was often administered even to infants. — In this century, the philosophical spirit which had been introduced among Church teachers, especially at Alexandria, led to the lengthening of Sermons, which gradually became exhibitions of rhetorical skill. Origen (§ 89.*), the great Catechist of the Alexandrian School, was espe- cially noted as the most eloquent and learned preacher of his time ; and he first introduced the custom of making sermons consist of expositions of chosen texts from Scripture. 86. The higher Clergy began to arrogate to themselves undue superiority over the laity, and to delegate the more laborious and less dignified duties of their office to men of inferior degree, specially appointed to their discharge under a variety of denominations, unsanctioned by Holy Writ. Thus arose suhdeacons, acolythes, (followers or attendants), readers, (i.e. of the Scriptures to Catechumens), exorcists (see § 84), ostiarii (doorkeepers), copiatce or fossarii, (superintendents of funerals). The Bishops, especially those of the larger cities, assumed princely state and authority, and supremacy over all CENT. III.] Cyprian^ Bishop of Carthage. 77 other Bishops, in their Province. Those of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria (§ 63.), assumed even the supremacy over the Universal Church of Christ, especially the first-named, as we have seen already in the case of Victor in the Paschal contro- versy (§ 68). In this century especially Pope Stephen I. acted with the utmost violence of temper towards the Asiatic and African Bishops, for decreeing in their Synods, under the guidance of the learned and pious Cypeian, Bishop of Carthage^ that heretics, and those baptized by heretics, to be admitted into communion with the orthodox Churches, must be rebaptized. The imperious Roman Pontiff, having arrived at the contrary decision, excommunicated all who differed from him. (see page 79.). 87. This overbearing conduct of the Bishops of Rome was the chief cause of the divisions and schisms, which mark this period of the history of the Church. We have already alluded (§ 79.) to the disputes which ensued, when the lapsed sought again readmission into the bosom of the Church. Many claimed immediate reception, or obtained the intercession of Martyrs about to suffer death, whose last request was deemed sacred. But as in the worst cases evidence of sincere repentance was insisted on before readmission, great discontent arose, of which designing persons took advantage to promote their own ends. Cyprian, the illustrious Bishop of Carthage, where he was bom a. d. 200, took a leading part in these events. Having been converted in 245 or 246, he was elected Bishop in 248, only Jive presbyters being opposed to his election, among whom NovATus became his bitterest enemy. Soon after, when the Decian persecution began to rage, he withdrew for a while into concealment, in order to reserve himself for the good of his people, alleging the example and precept of our Lord himself. (John vii. 1; xi. 54.). Fourteen months after, at Easter 251, he returned to Carthage, and held a Council to calm the excitement which had been stirred up during his absence on the subject of the lapsed. It was decided that the lihellatici were to be readmitted at once on signifying their repentance. The sacrificati were 78 Novatus and Novatian. [cent. hi. subjected to a shoi*t probation; those in danger of death might meanwhile be at once restored to communion ; and in the following year all duly penitent were received back. This further delay displeased those who had already long desired to be restored to communion; and their discontent was still more inflamed by Novatus and the other old adversaries of Cyprian, who even proceeded to set up one of themselves, Fortunatus, as schismatical Bishop of Carthage, whose consecration by five Bishops, who were themselves deprived for heresy and apostasy, was procured by the gold of a rich man, named Felicissimus, whom Novatus had appointed as his Deacon without episcopal ordination, and after whom this schism at Carthage was named. The Roman Church, under Cornelius and Lucius (§ 81.), had upheld the more lenient course, and had even been instrumental in diverting Cyprian from the more rigid measures of discipline, to which at first he had been inclined. But Novatian, a distinguished presbyter at Rome, had there violently opposed the readmission of the lajjsed, being, according to some accounts, actuated in his opposition by his disappointment, in seeing Cornelius preferred to himself in the election to the Roman see. When now Cyprian joined the more lenient party, and Novatus, then at Rome, drew Novatian into his own hostility against that prelate, this Roman presbyter decided to assume the Episcopal dignity, and induced some Bishops of inferior note to consecrate him ; and rival Bishops of the Novatian party were set up also in many of the principal sees. Though the Novatians were orthodox in doctrine, and faithful confessors and martyrs of the faith, calling themselves Cathari or Puritans, yet they continued long to be violent opponents to the Church, even rebaptizing its members on receiving them into their own communion. An offer was afterwards made (at the Council of Niccea, § 95.), to admit the Novatian Clergy into the Church, on their abandoning their peculiar views on ecclesiastical discipline; but they seem still to have remained as schismatics in the sixth century. Though in these disputes the Roman Bishop had taken a CENT. III.] Stephen^ Bishoj^ of Rome. 79 decided part, and so bronght about the great Novatian schism, yet he had not sought arbitrarily to impose his view on other Churches. But in 253, Stephen, the successor of Lucius, began to act with the same arrogance as Victor had displayed in the previous century (§ 68.). The question having arisen, whether members of the schismatic Churches were to be rebaptized on being received back into the orthodox Church, as maintained by Cyprian and the Asiatic Churches, Stephen decided, in opposi- tion to several Councils held both in Asia and Africa, that such persons were to be admitted with the mere imposition of hands. And when those Churches persisted in their views, asserting that ministers out of the pale of the true Christian Church could not admit men into that Church by baptism, he proceeded to excommunicate, first, the Churches of Asia, and then the revered Bishop of the Carthaginian Church, on the ground that the occupier of the Cathedra Petri was supreme over all other Bishops and Churches, as JEpiscopus Episcoj^omm. The Council of Aries, a. d. 314, decided against Cyprian's view, provided only the form of baptism in the name of the Trinity had been used. These violent dissensions among Christians themselves no doubt tended to weaken the salutary influence of the Church, and to encourage the enemies of Christianity to seek its ruin and extinction ; whilst a firm and compact union among themselves would have inspired universal respect and awe. Cyprian, who was deservedly venerated by the whole body of Christians of his time, as well as by many heathens, whom he, with his Clergy and people, had tended during the plague at Carthage, when abandoned by their own friends, at length fell himself under the persecution of Valerian (§ 81.). In 257 he was banished to Curubis, forty miles from Carthage; and on the 14th of September in the following year he was publicly beheaded, in the presence of many of his people. His Roman adversary, Stephen, suffered martyrdom in the same year, without exciting the same universal sorrow and regret. Cyprian held many of the rigid principles of Tertulltan 80 Monarchians. Patripasslans. [cent. hi. (§ 65.), whom he called his master, and some portion of whose writings he read daily. Though a man of the most tender and charitable feelings, he entertained very high notions of the episcopal power and dignity. He was willing to pay deference and respect to the Bishop of Kome, as the chief of the Church of the great metropolis of the empire ; but he refused to consider him as superior in power and authority to all other Bishops. Nevertheless he firmly asserted the unity of the great Church of Chpjst, and offered uncompromising resistance to all schismatics, who of their own accord withdrew from its fold. 88. The Monarchiaii view of Christianity, the origin and nature of which may be traced (§.75) to the rigidly mono- theistic principle, which the Jewish converts derived from the Old Testament, and to the reaction of this same view upon those who were induced by it to abandon the polytheistic system, was still further developed in this century. Two classes, entirely distinct from one another, come under this designation of Monarchians. The first are those, who agreed with the Ehionites (§. 71.) and rationahsts, in refusing to assign to Christ equality with the Father, although some granted that a portion of the divine essence and nature was imparted to Him at His birth or at His baptism ; the second extended this equality not only to His essence and nature, but also to His personality, thus making the Christ who suffered on the cross the same as the Father, and therefore called Patripassians. To this latter class belonged Praxeas in the former century (see §. 75.), and NoETUs of Smyrna in the earUer half of this. They professed to glorify Christ by identifying Him with the invisible Father, Who, they said, could, when He pleased, manifest Himself, as He had done in the hypostatical (personal or substantial, from vTro'o-Tao-ts) form of Christ; and they grounded their view on such texts as Rom. ix. 5 ; John x. 30 ; xiv. 9. The Church, which held the doctrine of the Logos, as set forth in the Proem of St. John's Gospel, could not allow such a doctrine to pass unnoticed ; but no severe measures seem CENT. Ill ] Theodotus. Artemon. 81 to have been adopted against those who held it, beyond the assertion, and the gradually perfected theological developement, of the true trinitarian doctrine of the Logos. But it was different with those who denied more or less the perfect divinity of the Son of God. That view prevailed at this time chiefly at Rome, where it first gained notice when advocated by a man named Theodotus, said to have been originally a tanner at Byzantium (§ 95.) ; but from the notice taken of his opinions by early writers, he must have been a man of learning and influence. The chief point in his doctrine was, that he concluded from Luke i. 31, that Christ was not the incarnation of the Holy Ghost, because it was only said to Mary, " Tlie Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee ; " and that Jesus was thus only an ordinary man, though specially imbued with the divine Spirit of God. Though it does not appear, that Theodotus expressly denied the miraculous birth of the Saviour, yet he was excommunicated by Victor (§ 68.) about the beginning of the third century. A distinguished Confessor, named Natalis, had been elected Bishop of the party of Theodotus, but soon after recanted, and was received back into the Church. Another monarchian party at Rome acknowledged Artemon as their chief, and were mostly remarkable for their devotion to the mathematical sciences, and to the dialectic philosophy of Aristotle, which led them to take a purely rationalistic view of Christianity, and to disparage the divine authority of the Old Testament, in order thereby to deprive the New Testament of all influence except that of a mere literary composition, which they criticised with the greatest freedom, seeking to explain away, by various readings and suggested corrections, all passages that ran counter to their rationalistic views. The Artemonites^ as a party, still flourished late in this century, and their views were no doubt the proximate cause of the great heresy, which soon after began to distract the Church (§ 95.). To avoid the unchristian extremes to which both these F 82 Beryllus. Sahellius. Paul. [cent. hi. monarchian systems led, Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra, in Arabia, conceived an intermediate view of the personaUty of Christ, which represented him as without any independent personal existence before his manifestation in the flesh, but as attaining such distinct divine personality afterwards by a special exercise of the divine power. At a Synod held in Arabia a. d. 244, Origen (§ 89.*), who had been invited to attend, confuted and reclaimed Beryllus. Soon after, however, Sabellius, a native of Ptolemais^ in the Pentapolis of northern Africa, the most learned among the monarchians, constructed a system, which, from the strong opposition that was excited against it in the Church, must have struck at the very foundations of Christian belief, though its exact nature can scarcely be understood from the few frag- ments of his writings found cited by opponents. He, seems to have acknowledged the Son and Holy Ghost as different phases or developements of the one original divine Monad, or God the Father, appearing under different personifications on different occasions. His design was evidently, in adopting the terminology of the Church, to explain away the exact meaning of the Church into a forced agreement with the monarchian view of the unity of the Godhead. Paul of Samosata (§ 76.), a vain and excitable man, who was elected Bishop of Antioch about a. d. 260, revived again the purely rationalistic view of Christianity, allowing only that an especial power of intelligence was imparted to the man Jesus. At a Synod held at Antioch in 264, Paul made a plausible defence for himself against Gregory, Bishop of Neo- Ca^sarea, and his brother Athexodore (§ 89*.), Firmilian, Bishop of Ceesarea in Cappadocia, and against a strongly condemnatory letter to the Synod from Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria ; and, no doubt through his enjoying the patronage of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra {Tadmor of the imlderness\ he escaped condemna- tion and deposition. But at a later Council, held in 270, he was drawn out by a presbyter, named Malchion, an able logician, CENT. III.] Manichean Heresy. 83 to state his whole theory more openly, when he was deposed, and DoMNus, the son of his predecessor, appointed in his stead. 89. The old heresies of the preceding century continued and multiplied in this. Manes, one of the Persian Magi, having become acquainted with Christianity, sought to reconcile and combine it with the religion of Zoroaster (§ 41.), and with Buddhism, with which he had become acquainted, when, having been expelled from Persia by the Magi as a heretic there, he travelled and resided in India, China, and other parts of Asia, where that creed still prevails ; and thus he became the founder of the great Manichean heresy. Himself of Magian birth, according to the oriental account of his life, he was early converted to Christianity, and perhaps ordained; and returning to Persia in 272, after the death of king Sapor, who had banished him, he converted his successor Hormus or HoRMisDAs. But in the reign of the next king, Behran or Varanes, he held a pubHc discussion with the Magi; and being declared worsted in argument, he was either flayed, crucified, or sawn asunder, a. d. 277. The Greek version of his story derives his system from a Saracen merchant, named Scythian, who was devoted to philosophical studies, and whose wealth and writings fell at his death into the hands of his servant Terebinth, who assumed the name of Buddas. At the death of the latter, the property was seized by a widow with whom he lived, who gave it to a young man named Cubricds or CoRBicius, whom she had bought as a boy and freed ; and this young man, adopting the name of Mani or Manes, became the great heresiarch. His system was a repetition of the various Gnostic attempts (§ 72.) to account to the full satisfaction of the human intellect for all the phenomena of Hfe and nature. To the fantastic developement by the Gnostics of a compound of Chris- tianity with the dualism of Zoroaster, he added the Buddhist notion, that the spirit of light and purity, which he called Jesus patibiliSj is throughout nature struggling for hberation against the opposing spirit of evil, which is represented by corporeal f2 84 Origen [cent. III. matter, and with which it is everywhere mixed up. Thns in the material food taken by the elect and sanctified believers, particles of the passible Jesus are set free, so that man saves Christ. Like MoNTANUs (see § 74), he pretended to be the Comforter^ identified Jesus Christ with the Persian god Mithras, and considered his human body as only a shadowy form. He also held the two Principles of Light and Darkness, as the creations respectively of a good and an evil being, who existed from all eternity ; and he taught that human souls after death pass through water and fire to the sun, with many other absurdities. The rule of life he instituted was extravagantly severe. The later Manicheans were governed by a general assembly, the President of which presumed to be the representative of Christ, and had under him twelve Masters^ seventy-two Bishops, with Presbyters and Deacons. The persecutions to which they were exposed, induced them in the next century to assume various names as disguises, such as Encratites, Apotactics, Solitaries, &c. This heresy continued till the fifteenth century under the names of Paulicians, Cathari, Patarini, and Alhigenses (see § 136). 89.* Of the Chiistian writers of this century the most distinguished was Origen, who was bom at Alexandria a. d. 185, and carefully trained and instructed at the catechetical school there under Clement (§ 65.) ; so that, when at the age of 17 he lost his pious and affectionate father, Leonides, who suffered martyrdom in 203 (§ 60.), he was able to maintain himself by tuition, in which he was so successful, that Demetrius, 11th Bishop of Alexandria, employed him, when only 18 years of age, as catechist, during the absence of Clement (§ 64.). About this time he is said also to have studied philosophy under Ammonius Saccas (§ 64.), whose instruction entirely changed the religious views of Origen, who hitherto, with simple and earnest faith, had clung to the literal sense of Scripture, and had even carried out literally such texts as 3fatt. x. 10, and xix. 1 2 ; but now, fascinated by the logical refinements of a CENT. III.] Catechist at Alexandria. 85 highly intellectual system of philosophy, he found in every simplest statement of Scripture, a moral and a mystical sense, and a type of heavenly events. A visit to Rome in 211, where Zephyrinus had succeeded Victor (§ 68.) in 201, seems to have given a further impulse to his mind; and on his return he took up the study of Hebrew, the better to be able to investigate the true meaning of Scripture. To obtain more leisure, he gave up his junior classes to Heraolas, one of his earliest pupils, who afterwards succeeded him as Catechist^ and in 231 succeeded Demetrius as Bishop. A political insurrection at Alexandria in 215 induced Origen to visit Palestine where his former fellow student, Alexander, 32nd Bishop of Jerusalem, and Theoctistus, Bishop of Csesarea, desired him to preach before them, though a layman; at which Demetrius took umbrage, and ordered his immediate return to resume his duties. But from this time his position was so unpleasant, that he embraced every opportunity to absent himself. Thus he accepted soon after an invitation to visit Arabia, where he is said to have met Hippolytus {see below.) Again, in the year 217 or 218 (or according to some as late as 223), he was summoned to Antioch by Mamm^a (§ 77.) ; and in 228 he was invited to Greece, to confute certain heresies prevalent there. When on this last occasion he was returning through Palestine, he was, at the age of 43, ordained by his friends the Bishops there, who thus thought to meet the former objections of the Bishop of Alexandria. But this prelate was now only the more incensed against him, objecting to his ordination on account of his being a eunuch ; and on his return in 230, he had him deprived of his office and his orders, and excommunicated. After this he finally withdrew to CcBsarea Stratonis in Palestine, where he taught philosophy and theology, and converted many heathens who came to study under him, among whom were Theodore, better known as Gregory Thaumaturgus, later Bishop of Neoccesarea in Pontus, and his brother Athenodore, who also became a Bishop in the same country (§ 88.). After 5 or 6 years' residence in 86 Origen teaches at CcBsarea, [cent. hi. Palestine, the persecution of IMaximin (§ 78.) drove him to Cassarea in Cappadocia, where his pupil, Firmiliakus, was Bishop, and where he was sheltered by a rich lady, who had in her possession the library of Sym^iachtjs, a learned Ebionite (§ 71.), who had translated the Old Testament into Greek, and had written a Commentary on the so-called Gospel according to the Hebrews, supposed to have been founded upon an original Gospel of St. Matthew, written in Hebrew. This library furnished Origen with materials for his own great work, an account of which is given below. On the death of Maximin he returned to Palestine, whence he was again summoned in 244 to attend a Synod in Arabia, where Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra (§ 88.), who held Sabellian or Monarchian doctrines, was condemned, but was convinced of his error by Origen, and brought back to the Church. In the Decian persecution (§ 79.) Origen suffered severely from tortures he was made to undergo, after which his constitution was much shattered, and he died in 254 at Tjtc. The views of Origen entailed on the Church a fierce con- tention between their advocates and opponents, which lasted for several centuries. Instead of acknowledging in the pheno- mena of the visible universe but a glimpse of the glories that shall be revealed to the human soul, and in the intellectual powers of the human mind an earnest and a foretaste of the heavenly knowledge and the high prerogatives to which it is destined to attain hereafter, — he yielded so entirely to the fascination of intellectual pride and power, as to ascribe to the human mind full authority and abiUty, not only to unravel from the words of Scripture, and from the phenomena and ap- parent laws of nature, the most secret intentions of God, and His actual modes of proceeding in the original creation, and in the supreme direction and control of all things, but even to define the limits of His power, and the very nature and essence of His own constitution, and of all spiritual existences. Tims he maintained, not exactly the eternity of matter^ which was held CENT. III.] Doctrines of Origen. 87 by the Gnostics (§ 41.), but that something had ever existed on which God had constantly exercised his creative power, and that numerous worlds had existed before the present creation, and would be called into existence after it ; that every thing in the material, had its anti-type in the spiritual world; that the original number of souls created is finite, and that they constantly appear in various forms or impersonations, — a kind of metempsychosis or transmigration of souls; that every soul at the Resurrection has to pass through fire, finally to dwell in a glorified organization, whose germ is already in the human body ; — that all punishment is corrective, intended to restore all creatures to perfection ; that the death of any righteous man may help to redeem others; that none are without hope, but that infinite ages {ala>v€9 tSdv alcavcov) of suffering must have an end when the due effect has been wrought, and that alav means a limited time ; that even Satan is only precluded by his own will from forsaking evil; and that, on the other hand, the saved in Paradise may fall again, and be incarnated. — His views of the Incarnation and mediatorial work of Christ are obscured by his favourite mystical interpretations, and he thought even the crucifixion to be a type of heavenly occurrences. The history of the Fall of man he considered only as an allegory ; and in other cases he maintained, that the story in Scripture was but a device of the Holy Spirit, to convey a moral and a mystical sense. He appears to have been a truly pious and devout Christian; but these arbitrary refinements led astray many weaker minds, and so compelled the heads and guides of the Church to maintain against them the plain doctrines of the Gospel. Hence arose, especially after Origen's death, many violent disputes, until, about 541, the Emperor Justinian (§ 118.) ordered a Synod to be held under Mennas, the Patriarch of Constantinople, at which the peculiar doctrines of Origen were condemned as heretical. The tone of his mind and character was peculiarly meek and gentle ; and though he was wholly de- voted to what he conceived to be Christian truth, he indulged in no harshness or violence in setting forth and maintaining his views. 88 Writings of Origen. [cent. hi. Most of his works are known only from unfaithful translations or casual citations by later writers. The chief work of his that has come down to us entire in the original, is (i) Against Celsus, already alluded to (§ 76.), in eight Books, written in the time of Philip the Arab (§ 78.), at the request of Origen's pupil and wealthy patron, Ambrosius, who constantly urged him to undertake works in defence of Chris- tianity and in elucidation of the Scriptures, purchasing for him numerous MSS. and early Versions, and maintaining for him a number of transcribers ; whence Origen used to call him his work-driver (epyobLaxrrjs). ii. De Oratione Dominica., On the Lord's Prayer, is another that has come down to us entire in the original. iii. De Martyrihus, or De Martyrio^ written to comfort those who were suffering in the persecution of Maximin (§ 78.). iv. De Principiis (Trept dpxa>v), the great object of attack by his enemies, in four Books : 1. On the Persons of the Trinity, on the Fall, on rational natures, on material and spiritual Beings, and Angels. 2. On the World and things in it, the identity of the God of the Old and New Testaments, the Incarnation, the Resurrection, the Punishment of the Wicked. 3. On the Freedom of the Will, Satan, the Temptation of Man, Origin of the World and its end. 4. The Divine Original, and mode of studying the Scriptures. We have important fragments of the original, especially of Books 3 & 4, and the entire Latin version of Kufenus (§ 109.), and some fragments of that of Jerome. V. 'E^rjyTjTiKdj OT Commentaries on Scripture in three Divisions. 1. Tofioi, or Volumes of full Commentaries on various Books of Scripture, as on Genesis, on Exodus, on Ezekiel, &c. and on St. Matthew, St. John, the Epistle to the Eomaus, &c. Only few fragments remain. 2. SxoXia, or shorter notes on obscure passages, known only from citations in early writers. 3. Homilies or Sermons, chiefly delivered at Csesarea, some taken down from extemporaneous discourses when he was over 60 years of age, few now extant in the original, but many in Latin transla- tions by Jerome and Eufinus. CENT, in,] His Hexapla. 89 vi. irpeofiare'is ill ten Books, in imitation of those of his master Clement (§ 65.), all lost except two or three fragments in Jerome, vii. On the Besurrection, of which but few fragments are saved. viii. Numerous Letters, of which Eusebius had collected a hundred ; but all except a few have perished. But the most important and useful of his labours was ix. The Hexapla, or sixfold text of Scripture in parallel columns : 1. Hebrew text, in Hebrew characters. 2. Same in Greek characters. 3. Greek Version by Aquila, a Jewish proselyte of the middle of the second century. 4. Greek Version of Symmachus, a Samaritan Ebionite, early in the third century. 5. Septuagint Version (LXX.) made at Alexandria in Egypt in the third century before Cheist. 6. Greek Version of Theodotion, also a Jewish proselyte, a little later than Aquila. The four Versions alone were known as the Tetrapla ; and we find also the names Octapla and Enneapla, because in some of the Books there were a ffth, a sixth, and a seventh version, known as the Editio Quinta, Sexta, and Septima. The chief object of this work was, to correct the free and often incorrect translation of the LXX. by means of the others, many texts not found in the Hebrew being marked with an obelisk (f), and others omitted in the LXX. inserted with an asterisk (*). The original of this great work was preserved in the public library of Caesarea, founded by Pamphilus, the defender of Origen, with which it probably perished when destroyed by the Arab followers of Mahomed, a. d. 653, the whole having never been copied, the revised version of the LXX. alone having come into general use. There is reason to believe that Origen wrote many other treatises on the Scriptures, and against some heresies ; but the lists of his works given by Euserics and Jerome are lost, and some works have been erroneously ascribed to him. 90 Writings of Africanus, Cyprian^ [cent. hi. The next writer we have to mention is Julius Africanus, a senior contemporary of Origen, to whom he addressed a Letter^ in refutation of his opinion that the Stor^ of Susannah, in the Apocrypha, is a genuine portion of the Book of Daniel. (2) He was also the first Christian writer of a General History (xpovoypacjila) in fve Books, of which only a few fragments exist ; as also of (3) a Letter to Aristides, on the reconciliation of the Genealogies of Our Lord by St. Matthew and St. Luke. (4) It is doubtful whether another work ascribed to him, with the title of KeVroi, was really his, unless opinions in it, inconsistent with those of his other works, are taken as proofs of its earlier composition. He resided at Emmaus, a city 176 stadia north- west from Jerusalem (compare Luke xxiv. 13.), which, being in a decayed condition, was at his request ordered to be rebuilt by the Emperor Heliogabalus (§ 77.). Cyprian (§ 87.) wrote (1) . De Gratia Dei, soon after his conversion. (2) . 2)e Idolorim Vanitate, resembling the early Apologies, date 247. (3) . Testimonia, in three Books, on the Messianic Prophecies in the Old Testament. (4) . De DiscipUna et Kabitu Virginim, in 248, in praise of celibacy. (5) . De TJnitate Hcclesice, in which he lays the foundation of the Eomish doctrine of the Catholic Church under the headship of Peter, written during the Novatian Schism, a.d, 252. (§ 87.). (6) . De Lapsis, in the same year, and sent to Eome. (7) . De Oratione Dominica, about same date, on prayer, with long comments on the several petitions of the Lord's Prayer, held in high esteem by all parties, both ancient and modern. (8) . De Mortalitate, in the same year, cheering Christians during a pestilence, in view of immortal life. (9) . Ad Demetrianum, to the Proconsul of Africa, against ascribing the plague and famine to the Christians. (10) . De JExhortatione Martyrii, during the persecution of Gallus (see § 81.) (11) . De Rehaptismate (see § 87.)- ( 12) . De Opere et Eleemosynis, about 254, also called De Misericordia. (13) . De Bono Patientice, in 256. (14) . De Zelo et Livore, against envy and malice, written during his disputes with Stephen, Bishop of Eome (see § 87.). (15) . Lastly, we have also upwards of Eighty Letters on the various topics of his time. CENT. III.] Dionyskis, Miniicius, Hippolytus. 91 Two treatises, Be Spectaculis, and De Laude Martyrii, some critics deny to be his. — Tlie similarity of the titles and subjects of some of these works to tracts by Tertullian, proves what has been said above of Cyprian's regard for that Father. — His Life was written by his Deacon Pontius. — Many other worlvs were formerly ascribed to Cyprian, but are now referred, either to Cornelius, Bishop of Rome (a), and other contemporaries, or to later writers. DioNYsius of Alexandria, Origen's pupil, succeeded Heraclas as Catechist in 232, and as Bishop in 247. He escaped the Decian and Valerian persecutions (§ 79 and 81.), and wrote many treatises and Epistles. We have fragments of (1) . On Promises (IlepI eirayyeXiwv), a refutation of the CMliasi doctrine (see § 40.), which had been held in Egypt by a numerous party, headed by the venerable Nepos, Bishop of Arsinoe, at whose death in 255, Bionysius had taken great pains to con- vince his adherents of their error, and succeeded by his learning and moderation. (2) . Against Sabellius, 4 Books or Epistles, addressed to Biony- sius, Bishop of Pome, to clear himself of the charge of holding the opposite error of denj-ing the Bivinity of Christ, and his equahty with the Father {onoovaiov, see § 95.). He maintains the Uternal Generation of the Logos, as taught by Oeigen. (3) . On Nature, maintaining the belief in a Providence, in opposition to the atomic system of the Epicureans. A considerable fragment is preserved in Eusebius. (4) . Pragments of numerous Letters. MiNUcius Felix, an advocate at Rome before his conversion, lived during the interval between M. Aurelius and Diocletian ; but the date of the only work we have of him, with the title Odavius, an Apology, referred to by Cyprian, must have been earlier than this Father. Hippolytus, commonly called Bishop of Partus JRomanus, either at the mouth of the Tiber, or the modern Aden in Arabia, or else an Arabian Bishop who suffered martyrdom near Rome,, (a) The Tracts Lapsis Spes Venice nan deneganda, and De Disciplina et Bono Pudicitice, as Erasmus thought. 92 Writings of Methodius, [cent. hi. is known to have written many works in Greek, a list of which was found on a statue of an ecclesiastic discovered outside Rome in 1551, near a church known as that of St. Laurence or St. Hippolytus. The only work of his now known, (besides a few fragments), is that called Philosophumena, of which only the first Book was formerly known, and ascribed to Origen. Books 2 and 3 have never been discovered ; but the last six Books were found in a MS. brought in 1842 from a convent in Mount Athos, in Turkey in Europe. This work is considered to be only the first portion of a larger work, called Adversus Omnes HcereseSy mentioned by several early writers. Two other titles. Contra Hoeresin Noeti, and De Theologia, refer perhaps only to parts of the same great work. Other titles refer to (1) . Commentaries on many Books of the Old Testament. (2) . Demonstratio de Christo et Antichristo. (3) . Ad GrcBcos. (4) . De Charismatihus. (5) . De Virgine Corinthiaco. (6) . Canon Paschalis, part of Tlepl tov Haaxa. and some others are named by early writers. The age and position of Hippolytus have been much dis- cussed of late years. Methodius, first Bishop of Olympus, in Lycia, Asia Minor, then of Patara, another city there, whence he was called Fatarensis, and lastly translated to the see of Tyre, wrote chiefly against Pamphilus, the defender of Origen, and against the latter's doctrine. His chief work, still extant, is (1) . Symposium, or Banquet of the Ten Virgins, in praise of ceUbacy. — His other works were. (2) . De Eestirrectione, against Oeigen, of which only fragments exist. (3) . De Fythonissa, against the same, entirely lost. (4) . De Lihero Arhitrio, On Pree Will, exists nearly complete, but is by some attributed to Maximus, an earher writer. (5) . Adversus Forphyrium, against Poephyet, the disciple of Ammonius Saccas (§ 64.)> who was in his time the chief adversary of Christianity, and died about 305. (6) . De Creatis. (7) . De Sv>neone et Anna. (8) . De Martyrihus; and some others. CENT. III.] Of Thaumaturgus, and Arnohius. 93 Gregory, siimamed Thaumaturgus^ already named above (p. 85.), the faTOurite and affectionate pupil of ORIGE^-, is known as an author by (1) . A Panegyric Address to Origeii^ in which he gives an account of the chief events of his life, embeUished a century later, in a biography by Gregory of Nyssa, with many wonderful stories, which had obtained currency concerning the successful mission- ary Bishop, who, when placed in charge of his native city, Xeo- ctBsarea, found only seventeen Christians, and when he died left there only so many heathens; whence his historical surname, the Wonder-tcorker. (2) . A Paraphrase on Ecclesiasies. (8). A Confession of Faith, or Creed on the doctrine of the Trinity, reputed to have been a special revelation to him, and later appealed to during the Arian controversy. A second part was added by another hand, touching on matters which grew out of that controversy. (4). An Epistle on the subject of the Lapsed (§ 79). Ammoxius, a Christian teacher of this centmy, wrote (1) . A Sarmony of the Four Gospels, still extant; and (2) . A Treatise on the Agreement betioeen Moses and Christ Arnobius, at first a rhetorician of Sicca, in Numidia {Algeria), and an opponent of Christianity, was conyerted near the close of the century, and wrote an Apology or Defence of Christianity, entitled Disputationes adversus Gentes, in seven Books, in which he exhibits no acquaintance with the Old Testament, and but little with the New, which tends to confirm the story, that he was led to embrace Christianity by a dream. Lastly we have to mention a Christian Poet, named Codiodian, also a native of northern Africa, whose work, Instnictiones, or Exhortations and Rules of Living, gives an accotmt of his conversion by the study of the Bible and its promise of eternal life, exhorts sinners to penitence, reproves the Clergy of his time for negligence and corruption, and laments the conduct of the Lapsed during the late persecutions. It is needless here to mention the names of other writers, whose works have either entirely perished, or of which onlv occasional citations by other writers have reached us. 94 Diocletian's [cent. IV. FOURTH CENTURY. 90. The reign of Diocletian passed, as we have seen (§ 82.), without any authorized persecutions against the Chris- tians, until A. D. 303, when a series of violent persecutions were set on foot, which proved the death-struggle of paganism, and ended in the complete triumph, and permanent estabhshment and supremacy of Christianity, throughout the Roman World. 91. The favour openly shown to those who professed the Christian religion by Constantius Chlorus, one of the Ccesars (§ 82.), combined with the general spread of Chris- tianity, notwithstanding, or rather in consequence of, the continued persecutions, and the impressions made by the fortitude of the sufferers on the public mind, began to alarm the pagan priests, who applied to Diocletian for measures of repression against the Christians. And when they failed to draw this prince from his poHtic course, they had recourse to Galerius, a rude and illiterate soldier, over whom they easily prevailed. He obtained from his father-in-law Diocletian, A. D. 303, an Edict, to pull down all Christian Churches, to bum their books and writings, and deprive them of all honours and appointments in the state. They might also be subjected to torture and the loss of civil rights, and even of freedom; and Christian slaves were deprived of all chance of liberation. Though the moderation of Diocletian had prevented bloodshed, yet the refusal to surrender the Sacred Books was attended with great peril ; whilst those who did dehver them up, among whom were several Bishops, were stigmatised among Christians as traditorSj on whose account later great disturbances ensued, leading to the Donatist schism in Africa (see § 104). Some magistrates, charged with the execution of the Edict, were reluctant to have recourse to extremities, and suggested the surrender of any other writings, when they saw the Christians determined to withhold their Sacred Books. Mensurius, Bishop A. D. 306.] Persecution. 95 of Carthage, surrendered some writings of heretics, instead of Bibles. Others, however, were compelled by torture to conform to the Edict; and many, through excess of zeal, needlessly exposed themselves to the fury of their enemies. Some Bishops, among whom was Mensurius, advised more sober and prudent conduct, and refused to consider those as martyrs, who by their fanaticism had provoked their own ruin. When it was found that the spiiit of the Christians was not yet broken, the first occasion that offered was seized, to induce the aged Emperor to sanction severer measures. An accidental fire in Diocletian's palace at Nicomedia on the Propontis or Sea of Marmora, as well as certain seditions in Syria and Armenia, being attributed to the Christians, drew forth three successive Edicts, ordering the Bishops and ministers to be cast into prison, and all Christians without distinction of age or sect, to be forced, even by the most cruel torments, to abjure their religion, and sacrifice to the gods. 92. The ambition of Galerius led him, a. d. 305, to compel Diocletian and Maximian to abdicate ; and assuming the title of Augustus, he gave the same title to Constantius Chlorus, together with the government of the Western provinces of the Empire, Spain, Gaul, and Britain, where imder him the Christians consequently enjoyed peace and protection. But Galerius bestowed the title of Augustus also on his early friend Licixius, and on Maximin, the Governor of Egypt and Syria, both of whom were unfavourable to the cause of Christianity. The latter especially carried on the persecution with the utmost fury in the provinces under his rule, when in other parts of the Empire it had already abated. 93. On the death of Chlorus a. d. 306, his son Constantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, was saluted Emperor by the legions in Britain, where he then happened to be. Thereupon Maxentius, son of the deposed Maximian, rebelled, and assuming the purple, he took his father for his colleague. Amidst the dis- turbances that now ensued, Constantine fomid means to assume 96 End of the last Persecution. [cent. iv. the lead in the affairs of government; and already a calm had begun to set in, and even Christians, \y1io had been sent to labour in the mines, felt a relaxation from the former severity of their treatment. But, probably through the influence of Maximin, a new Edict suddenly appeared in 308, directing the restoration of all the heathen temples, and the attendance at the altars of all free men and women, as well as slaves, and even children ; and to do violence to the consciences of Christians, all provisions offered for sale in the markets, were ordered to be sprinkled with wine and water offered to idols. Those who disobeyed were again subjected to torture, and even death ; and on one occasion thirty-nine Christians were beheaded at once. Among the martyrs of this period were, Peter, sixteenth Bishop of Alex- andria; Pamphilus, the defender, and Methodius, Bishop of Tyre, the impugner, of the doctrines of Origen (§ 89*.). In the year 310, however, the last illness of Gai.erius induced him to relent, when he found that the vitality of the Christian Church was undiminished by the most sanguinary measures. He revoked his cruel decrees; and by an Edict issued in 311, he granted toleration to Christians, requesting their prayers for himself and for the state. In May of that same year he died, and his power passed into the hands of Licmius. In the following year 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius near Rome, and in alliance with Licinius granted to the Christians perfect liberty in the exercise of their religion, which was further confirmed by the Edict of Milan, a. d. 313. In that year also, Maximin, who had continued to persecute the Church in the eastern provinces, was defeated by Licinius near the Bosphorus, having sought in his last extremity to conciliate his Christian subjects by granting them free toleration. Neither he, nor Maxentius, long survived their respective defeats. 94. Constantine is supposed to have about this time openly embraced Christianity, though he continued a Cotechumen (§47.") till shortly before his death, when he received baptism at the hands of Ettsehius, Bishop of Nienmedia, where ho died at the A. D. 337.] Character of Constantine. 97 age of 64, a. d. 337. In the Life of Constantine, written by EusEBius, Bishop of Ccesarea, he is said to have been led to the adoption of Christianity by a vision of a glittering cross, with the inscription " By this conquer " (rovrw vUa)^ which he saw in the heavens before the opening of the campaign in which he defeated Maxentius. The Emperor had a splendid banner made with the cross and the monogram of the Saviour, which was called the Labarum^ and was carried before the anny ; and ever after he had an almost superstitious regard for the symbol of the cross. Constantine was sole ruler of the Eoman Empire from the year 324, when Licinius, who was married to the sister of Constantine, but had constantly been engaged in disputes and even war with him, was finally defeated by him on the heights of Scutari^ on the Bosphorus, and deposed and banished to Thessa- lonica; and being accused of plotting, he was soon after strangled by order of Constantine. Tliough Licinius had joined in the Edicts of toleration which had been issued in favour of Christianity, he appears never to have been a Chris- tian himself; and during his disputes with Constantine, he had sided with the malcontent pagans, and persecuted the Christians in the eastern provinces under his sway, especially as they were adherents of his rival. Constantine now invited all his subjects to embrace Christianity, and made amends to all who had suffered in its cause. He discountenanced all the old rites and superstitions, gradually prohibited the open practice of them, unroofed and pulled down many heathen temples, and had some of them purified and consecrated as Christian churches. His general bearing towards the Church, even when it must have appeared a dangerous policy to revolt the adherents of paganism, leaves us no room for doubting his sincere attachment to Christianity. Nevertheless many acts of his were incon- sistent with true Christian principle. He had his eldest son Crispus put to death upon the calumnious representations of his second wife Fausta, the daughter of Maximian; and upon a hint that her charges had been false, she was herself suffocated G 98 Heresy of Arius. [cE^'T. iv. in a bath. The son of Licixius was also cut off under mys- terious circumstances, notwithstanding the prayers of his mother, the Emperor's favourite sister; and several courtiers suffered death as victims of his passion or suspicion. But he seems to have applied for comfort to his conscience to a distinguished Bishop, probably Hosius, Bishop of Cordova ; and, though his power was too unbounded for any one to have dared to reprove him very severely, his earnest zeal for the spread of Christianity and the peace and prosperity of the Church, seems to indicate, that he rested on the forgiveness of sins and the hopes of salvation, which the Gospel of Christ holds out to the penitent sinner. 95. The Trinitarian and Anti- Trinitarian^ or Monarchian^ views of the former century (§. 88.) assumed more prominence in this. At the beginning of the century, a countiyman of Sabellius (§ 88.), named Arius, had been ordained Deacon by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria ; but soon after, having joined the schismatic party of Meletius (see below), he had been excom- municated. Achillas, who became Bishop in 311 after the martyrdom of Peter, readmitted Arius, ordained him Presbyter, and gave him charge of a parish in Alexandria, named BaucaliSj the parochial system having been early introduced there. On this Bishop's death a few months after his accession, Arius is by some said to have been the unsuccessful rival of Alexander, who was elected to that see. Arius, being infected with the spirit of logical discussion, which the learning and piety of Origen (§ 89*) had spread in the East, had arrived at the con- clusion, that, as Christ is in Scripture said to be the only begotten Son of the Father, He cannot have existed before He was begotten, so that once He was not {^v ore ovk ^v)\ and for the same reason he considered Him as inferior to the Father, and so only divine in a limited sense, the word begotten being understood by him as equivalent to created. When the new Bishop, Alexander, and others of the Egyptian clergy, charged Aiuus with holding heretical opinions, and denying the divinity A. D. 325.] Council of Niccea. 99 of Christ, he retorted with the charge of Sahellianism. This made an inquiry necessary, fii'st by the clergy of Alexandria, then by a Synod of a hundred African Bishops, held in 321, by Tvhich Arius was excommunicated and deprived. We are told that only two Bishops, twelve Presbyters, and twelve Deacons, and some virgins^ sided with him. He now withdrew to Palestine; and when Eusebius, Bishop of Ceesarea, failed in an attempt to bring about a reconciliation, he was next driven to retire to Asia Minor, where he was received by another Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, who aftenvards became one of the heads of the Arian party. Here Arius wrote his poetical work, called Thalia, and a collection of hymns for sailors, millers, and pilgrims, intended to spread and popularize his views among the lower orders. These compositions are reported to have contained very little deserving the name of poetry, but contributed to the form- ing of a numerous party and exciting violent discussions. When CoNSTANTiNE in 324 became sole ruler of the whole Roman Empire (§ 94.), and was desirous of establishing Christianity as the dominant and only reUgion among his subjects, he felt this division in the Church a great obstacle to his plan. He there- fore sent Hosius, Bishop of Cordova (§ 94.), whom he held in high estimation, with a letter to the Bishop of Alexandria, and one to Arius, enjoining peace and union, and mutual forbearance. When this failed of the desired effect, he summoned a Council of Bishops from all parts of his dominions, to be held, a. 325, at Niccea, in Bithynia, a province in the north of Asia Minor, intended to be a Universal Council, or, as it was called, Q^lcumenical (^oUovfievr] sc. yrj = the inhabited world). The number of Bishops present has usually been set down at 318, but it varies in the different early accounts. But few Western Bishops attended, among whom was Hosius, who probably presided, since his name appears at the head of the subscriptions to the Canons of the Council. Some members of the inferior orders of Clergy were also present, among whom the most distinguished was Athanasius, then a young man, and Archdeacon of Alexandria, g2 100 Nicene Creed. [cent. IV. whose able arguments mainly influenced the decision of the Council. Arius was permitted to state and defend his opinions before the Council on several occasions ; but those who shared his views did not perhaps exceed twenty^ among whom Eusebius of Nicomedia was the chief. Eusebius of Caesarea belonged to a party who took a moderate view of the dispute, and desired to steer a middle course between the extreme opposing views ; and from them arose soon after what was called the Semi-Arian party. Constantine was often present at the deliberations, and took part in them. — The Bishop of Csesarea proposed for adoption a formal Creed, which expressed the doctrine of the divinity of Christ in terms, which Arius might easily have reconciled with his most advanced tenets, though it was com- posed for the most part in Scriptural phrases. The substance of this Creed was nevertheless adopted ; but with the approbation of the Emperor, obtained through the great influence of Hosius, such additions were made to it, as would fully contradict the peculiar doctrines of Arius. Thus very (aXrjOivos) was added in the phrase " very God of very God " ; after begotten, was added not made (ou Troirjdevra), since Arius considered begotten equivalent to created; and the phrase " Being of one substance with the Father " {pfxoov(riov rw Trarpt) was inserted, in opposition to the idea of inferiority of the divine nature of the Son to that of the Father. The Creed thus completed, forms that part of what now passes under the name of the Nicene Creed, ending with the words "whose Idngdom shall have no end" (§ 101.). A con- demnatory sentence was also passed both on Arius and his doctrine ; and he, and the only two Bishops who refused to subscribe the Creed, Theonas and Secundus, both Africans, were excommunicated and deposed, and further banished by the Emperor to Illyria. He banished also to Gaul, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis, Bishop of Nicaja, who had indeed subscribed the Creed, but, like the Bishop of Caisarea, with disingenuous reservations and explanations, whilst they refused to subscribe the sentence against Arius. CENT. IV.] Meleticin Sch{s7n. Canons. Celibacy. 101 Tlie decision of the Council of Xicsea on the subject of Easter, or the Paschal controversy, has already been noticed (§ 68. note). It had also to decide upon the Meletian Schism in Egypt, 'which had arisen during the Dioclesidn persecution (§ 91.), when, Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, having concealed himself for a while, Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, the second Metropolitan of Egypt, who had been released from prison, took upon himself to administrate the Alexandrian diocese, ordaining and excom- municating as he pleased, and strongly condemning Peter and all others, who had evaded martyrdom by any compliance or concealment. — The Council decided, that Meletius, a man of restless character, should be confined to his own see as mere titular Bishop, without the power of further ordination. The Bishops and other clergy appointed by him and his party, should only enter upon their offices at the next legal vacancy, if deemed worthy by the communities. Xevertheless the Schism was kept up for about a century longer. Twenty Canons were also passed for regulating the govern- ment and discipline of the Church, among which were the following : That two Synods should be held in each Province every year ; that the election of a Bishop must be confirmed by the Metropolitan before consecration ; that consecration must be performed by thi^ee Bishops at least ; prohibiting the translation of Bishops from one diocese to another ; defining the limits of jurisdiction of the great sees of xllexandria, Eome, and xintioch ; that in no city should there be more than one Bishop at the same time, unless one be a reconciled Novatian (see § 87.) ; that a Deacon should not usurp the privileges of a Presbyter, &c. It was proposed to prohibit the marriage of the clergy ; but on the urgent advice of Paphndtius, an Egyptian Bishop, him- self a rigid ascetic from his youth, the old rule was retained, that those unmarried when ordained should continue so. The Council of IlUhcris (§ 81.) had decreed the celibacy of the clergy. 96. Constantly, the sister of Coxstantine, who had been married to Liclnius, and had fallen under the influence of the 102 Arius recalled. Athctnasius banished, [cent. iv. Arians, at her death, a. d. 327, recommended Eutocius, her chaplain, to her brother's protection ; and this Presbyter, who soon gained great influence with the Emperor, so much so that he entrusted to him his last will, easily persuaded him, that* Arius had been wrongfully condemned. Arius was recalled, and invited to Court, where he satisfied the Emperor by a general confession of belief in the three names of the Trinity, and by professing to desire the cessation of schisms and controversies; and he easily obtained the recall of his friends, Theognis and EusEBius. But Athanasius, who on the death of Alexander, a few months after the dissolution of the Nicene Council, had been made Bishop of Alexandria at the age of 30, refused to readmit Arius upon the entreaties and threats of the Arians, and even upon the command of the Emperor himself. When various frivolous charges were made against Athanasius, especially that he had aided with money in a conspiracy against the Emperor, he was summoned by the latter into his presence, and easily cleared himself. But the activity of Athanasius in the administra- tion of his diocese brought him into frequent collision both with the Arians and Meletians in Egypt; and the firm exercise of his authority led his adversaries to accuse him before the Emperor of arbitrary and violent proceedings. Constantine then called another Council, which met at Tyre^ in 335, under the presidency of EusEBius of Csesarea, to investigate the charges against Athanasius. The latter appeared reluctantly before this hostile assembly, accompanied by many Egyptian Bishops ; but he was even refused a seat, and was finally deposed and excommunicated. On his appeal to the Emperor, his fiercest enemies charged him with having threatened to stop the supply of corn from Egypt to the new city of Constantinople , which Constantine had built on the site of the ancient Byzantium ; and he was at once banished to Treves or Triers^ on the Moselle^ A. d. 336. In this year the Emperor dedicated the Church, which his mother Helena had built over the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and there Arius was admitted to communion. But when soon after A. D. 347.] Council of Sardica, 103 the Emperor commanded Alexander, the centenarian Bishop of Byzantium, also to admit the heresiarch to communion at Constantinople, and the Bishop strongly objected to do so, declaring that he would more willingly die, Arius was suddenly seized with illness on the evening before the day appointed, and died ; but his party retained their ascendency for some time. 97. CoNSTANTiNE II., the eldest of the three sons of Con- STANTINE the Great, to whom he left his own original provinces of Britain, Spain, and Gaul, restored Athanasius to his see, where he arrived in 338, after an absence of nearly two years and a half, and was received with great joy. But his enemies soon renewed their charges against him; and the younger CoNSTANTiNE haviug fallen in 340, in a civil war against his youngest brother Constans, who was the ruler of Italy, Constan- Tius, the second of the brothers, who ruled the Eastern portion of the Empire, gave his sanction to the decree of a Council held at Antioch in 341, which confirmed the previous deposition of Athanasius, and appointed in his stead a Cappadocian named Gregory, who at once caused the most violent outrages to be committed upon the Churches and persons of the Athanasian party. Athanasius thereupon fled to Rome, where Julius was then 34th Bishop, who called a Council of fifty Italian Prelates, which decided against the Arians, and Constans stood on the same side. His brother Constantius had also seen his capital a scene of bloodshed, through the violence with which the Church party he favoured had sought to set up there a Bishop holding their views, in 342, at the death of Eusebius of Nicome- dia, who had been translated to that see in 339, in opposition to one of the Nicasan canons. Both Emperors, therefore, com- plied with the proposal of Julius, to call a General Council at Sardica, in Blyria, in 347, to give peace to the distracted Church. There met upwards of 300 Western Bishops, but only 7 6 Eastern. Tlie latter seeing their numerical inferiority, refused to agree to the decision of the former, that Athanasius and the Bishops in a similar position should take their seats as members 104 Councils of Aries and Milan. [cent. iv. of the Council, and they withdrew to Pliilippopolis in Thrace, where they again voted the deposition of the Athanasian Bishops, as well as of Julius. At Sardica the decision of the Roman Synod was confirmed, and it was determined to abide by the Creed of Nicsea. GREGORy having been assassinated in 349, Con- STANTius in three successive letters invited Athanasius to return to his see, where his people received him with rapture. 98. In the following year, however, Cokstans, a man of weak and corrupt character, was assassinated by his rebellious officer Magnentius, who assumed the imperial title, but after a struggle of three years was reduced to extremities by Constan- Tius, and fell by his own hands, a. d. 353. The Arians, seeing Athanasius deprived of his imperial patron, resumed their accusations against him, alleging that he had even sought the favour of the usurper. Liberius, who in 352 had succeeded Julius in the see of Rome, was induced to agree to a Council of Western Bishops, to meet at Aries in 353. The condemnation of Athanasius was here obtained by such pressure from those who knew the Emperor's wishes, that Liberius, who had not himself been present, urged the necessity of calling another Council; and as the opposite party had their own reasons for desiring the same thing, 300 Western Bishops, and a few from the East, met at Milan in 355. As the Emperor had amved there, all present were easily overawed into signing a sentence of condemnation against the Alexandrian Bishop, with the exception of Eusebius, Bishop of VercelU, near Milan, a man of zeal and wisdom in his office ; Hilary of Poitiers, one of the ablest writers of the age (§ 109.) ; and Lucifer of Cagliari, in the island of Sardinia, a man of a vehement and fanatical temperament. These three, and other Bishops, were banished and superseded. Liberius himself was exiled to Thrace for his firm opposition against all the wiles and the power of Constan- Tius ; and Hosius, now about a hundred years old, was for the same reason exiled to Sirmiumj in Hungary, on the Saave. Both these men, worn out by the hardships of exile, signed in 357 an A. D. 361.] Homooiision and Homoiousion. 105 Arian creed, and were allowed to return to their sees. Athana- sius was attacked at Alexandna during divine service by a large body of soldiers, who rushed into the church at night, early in 356. The firmness of the Bishop never forsook him amidst the confusion and bloodshed that ensued, till he was carried out in a swoon, and taken for protection into the deserts of Egypt, where he lived in concealment among the monks and hermits until the death of Constantius, in 361. George of Cappadocia, a frantic Barbarian, was meanwhile placed in the Episcopal throne of Alexandria ; where he acted in so outrageous and tyrannical a manner, that, after having been once expelled by the people and restored by force, he was murdered by the pagan population at the first news of the Emperor's death. 99. The reign of Coxstantius is especially remarkable for the numerous Synods and Councils, that were held in various parts of the empire, and to which the Bishops were conveyed by the public conveyances at the expense of the state; so that com- plaints were made, that the accommodation of the pubhc was interrupted by the constant free travelling of so many eccle- siastics. The Emperor was entirely under the influence of his courtiers, especially of the eunuchs^ who, as chamberlains and other officials at court, exercised almost unbounded control. These persons, as well as the empress and her ladies, were early won over by Arian ecclesiastics ; and the loose discussion of the most sacred religious doctrines spread throughout all ranks of people, even of the lowest orders, so that the populace was ready to be stirred up to any degree of fanatical excitement. The great object of the ruling party appears to have been, to obscure as much as possible the real point at issue, and to make it appear that the terms ofioovcriov (§ 95.) and Sfioiova-iov (from 6^0109, like, proposed by the Semi-Arians) were so nearly identical, that the omission of these terms altogether from the Creed was all that was necessary to reconcile all parties. Hence no less than five Creeds were drawn up at various synods held at Antioch from 341 to 3-45, and three at Sirmium from 351 to 357. Lastly, through the efforts of the two most active and 106 Councils of Rimini and Seleucia. [cent. iv. plotting Arian court Bishops, Ursacius and Valens, it was ordered that two councils should assemble in 359 : one at Ariminum or Rimini, on the Italian shore of the Adriatic, for the Western Bishops ; and the other at Seleucia, in the south of Asia Minor, for those from the East. It was proposed that a formal creed should be drawn up, discarding for ever the discussion of the ovrrla or essence of the personal nature of Christ, merely stating in general, that the Son of God is like (ofioios) the Father, " as Holy Scripture teaches." When it was found that the majority at Kimini was determined simply to abide by the Nicene Creed, like previous ¥/estem Councils, and that the Eastern Council decided to abide by the fourth creed of Antioch, it was resolved to compass the original design by craft. Ten delegates from each Council were required to attend the Emperor, who delayed meeting them ; and meanwhile Ursacius and Valens urged them to comply with the Emperor's desire for peace, terrifying them with threats of his displeasure, and finally inducing them to sign the form of confession proposed. Then the Councils, the members of which were anxious to return to their homes before winter, were also cajoled or terrified to subscribe; and in the following year 360, a Council, assembled at Constantinople, confirmed that creed. 100. Julian, the only surviving member of the family of CoNSTANTiNE, which had been almost exterminated by the soldiers at his death, succeeded Constantius as Emperor. This prince, having withdrawn himself from public life to avert the suspicions of his cousins, and in his retirement pursued the study of Greek literature with great zeal and avidity, had conceived a desire of restoring the ancient superstitions of polytheism, and abolishing Christianity ; whence he acquired the surname of Apostate. With this view he proclaimed a general toleration of all religious opinions, and recalled all who had been banished for their rehgion. But he wrote himself books against Christianity ; en- couraged the worst of the sectaries to bring dishonour on the Gospel; shut up the Christian Schools; and sought by every means A. D. 375.] Julian the Apostate. Valens. 107 to bring Christianity into discredit. Tlius he endeavoured to restore the Jews to Jerusalem, and to rebuild the temple ; but the works are said to have been constantly interrupted by earth- quakes, and flames and balls of fire rising out of the earth. His reign, however, was but short; for having failed in an expedition against the Persians, who harassed the frontiers, he died of a wound received in an attack upon his retreating army, A. D. 363. He was succeeded by Jovian, who restored Athana- sius to his see, from which he had been again driven by Julian in the preceding year, and favoured the Nicene party ; though he left all others unmolested, and even extended toleration to the pagans, being only desirous of peace. He came to terms of peace with the Persians, which were universally received with dissatisfaction, but were the best he could obtain, and enabled him to continue the retreat, and extricate the army from danger. But eight months after his election he died suddenly in an obscure town of Asia Minor, and Yalentinian, a meritorious Christian officer, was elected as his successor a. d. 364. 101. The new Emperor himself favoured the Nicene doc- trines, but his wife JustIna upheld the Arian Bishop of Milan, AuxENTius, till his death ten years after. Valentinian gave up the Eastern part of the Empire to his brother Valens, who also was strongly attached to the Arian party, and maintained EuDoxius as Arian Bishop of Constantinople, the successor of Macedonius, who had been expelled in 360, and then joined the Semi- Avians y thence also called Macedonians, The Nicene party had to sustain much persecution from their adversaries; but Athanasius was too formidable through the fervent attachment of the people of Alexandria, and he continued in peaceful posses- sion of his see till his death a. d. 373. Valentinian, who had ably defended both the Eastern and Western Empire against the inroads of barbarous nations and the internal dangers of rebellious captains, died suddenly in 375, and was succeeded by his son Gratian, only 16 years of age, who shared the throne with his younger brother Valentinian II, only four years old. 108 General Council of Constantinople, [cent. iv. Valens fell in 378, in the battle of Adrianople against the revolted Goths, whom he had allowed to settle south of the Danube. Gratian now summoned to a share of the imperial power Theodosius, later sumamed the Great, who ruled from A. D. 379 — 395, and for a time averted by his skill and valour the impending ruin. He distinguished himself by his efforts to extirpate the last vestiges of paganism by severe enactments, and to make the Nicene doctrines triumph over all heretical opinions. He also summoned the Second (Ecumenical Council to be held at Constantinople a. d. 381, to decide upon a new heresy introduced by the Macedonians, who denied the personality of the Holy Ghost. This Council added the conclusion to the Nicene Creed (see § 95), as it now stands, except the words "and the Son" (filioque), added without authority by the Churches in Spain in the Jifth or sixth century, and thence adopted in the Gallican Church. This last addition gave rise to the schism between the Greek and Latin Churches, which began in the eighth, and finally led to their permanent separation, in the eleventh century (See § 141). 102. In this century Christianity was spread among several barbarous nations beyond the limits of the Roman Empire, or who had invaded its territories, and obtained settle- ments within its borders. This was generally effected by those who fled from the Diocletian persecutions, and sought refuge among the barbarians ; or by the monks and hermits, who withdrew into the deserts on the outskirts of civilization. Commercial intercourse also carried a knowledge of the Gospel to distant countries. Very early in this century, Tiridates, king of Armenia, was converted by his countryman Gregory, surnamed the Illuminator ((fycoTtarrrjs), andr Christianity was here first adopted as the national state rehgion.. . .A trading or scientific exploring expedition or caravan introduced Chris- tianity into Abyssinia and Ethiopia, where the influences, if any, of the conversion of the royal chamberlain, recorded in Acts viii. 27 — 38, seem to have passed away. Frumentius, CENT. IV.] Sj^read of Christianity. 109 who, when a mere youth, liad been spared at the massacre of the caravan, and employed at the court of the prince, obtained great influence, which he knew how to employ for the benefit of Christian merchants trading there, and obtained permission for them to build a church, which soon led to the conversion of the nation. He then proceeded to Egypt about the year 330, and received consecration at the hands of Athanasius as the first Bishop of the Abyssinian Church, which has main- tained itself down to the present time, through all the convulsions and desolation wrought by Mahometanism in the adjoining countries. — The people of Iberia (the present Geoi^gid) was converted about the same time by a Christian female or nun, who was taken captive, and performed kind services to the prince's family in sickness. — The Goths ^ who now came in vast hords from the more northern parts of Europe, and attacked the border provinces of the Roman Empire (§ 80.), and finally overran and took possession of the whole western portion of it, had been early made acquainted with Christianity ; and Theo- PHiLus, called Bishop of the Goths, subscribed the canons of the Council of Nic£ea. Persecuted Christians had taken refuge among them, and others had been carried captive ; among whom, or sprung from them, was Ulphilas, or Vulfilas (a Gothic or Teutonic name, meaning Wolf, though he was of Roman descent), who is generally regarded as the Apostle of the Goths, since he permanently established Christianity among them, by inventing an Alphabet and reducing their language to writing, and then translating the Bible* into the * He is said to have omitted the BooTcs of Samuel and Kings, not to stimulate the already fierce and warhke character of the Goths by the accounts of the wars of Israel; but these were added later. It was made from the Greek ; the Old Testament from the LXX. (see p. 89.), of which only a few fragments now remain, from Kings, Ezra, and Neliemiah. The only early MS. of the New Testament of this Version, known as the Codex Argentetis, supposed to be of the sixth century, is now in the University Library at Upsal, in Sweden. 110 Spread of Christianity. [cent. iv. Maeso- Gothic or west Gothic dialect. He was bom about the year 318, and was consecrated about the age of 30 by EusEBius, the Arian Bishop of Nicomedia, whose views he was persuaded to adopt, though previously he held the Nicene creed, as he had been taught by his predecessor Theophilus. He repeatedly headed embassies, and carried on negotiations for his people with the Roman Emperors; and the advantageous terms he obtained increased his popularity and influence among his people. On his last embassy to Theodosius on behalf of his Arian countrymen, he died at Constantinople a. d. 388. — The missions to India (§ 61.) or the Indian Ocean, were carried on in this century by Theophilus, a native of Dm, the island of Socotra, off the southern coast of Arabia, or the isle of Diu, in the gulf of Cambay, to the N. W. of Bombay. In the time of Constantine, he was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, where he was ordained, and conse- crated Bishop, and sent back to his native country, whence he visited various places along the coast of India. — Tlie deserts of Syria and Arabia were filled with monlvs, who acted as missionaries, of whom Hilarion (§ 108*.) was one of the most noted; and later, about the year 372, one Moses, a hermit of great sanctity, was urged by the Saracen Queen, Mavia, to become the Bishop of her nation. But the Jews, who were very numerous in Arabia, offered great opposition to the preachers of the Gospel. — Martin, Bishop of Tours, acquired the title of Apostle of the Gauls, by his exertions in converting those idolaters. The progress of Christianity was greatly advanced by the zealous pursuit of every branch of knowledge by the most eminent Christian doctors, which was encouraged by the Christian Emperors of this century, and enabled them to cope with the accomplished advocates of paganism. 103. On the other hand, the Christian Sectaries, who had fled from their Catholic brethren into Persia, suffered there for /oHt/ years (a. d 330 — 370) the most fearful perse- cutions from the king, Sapor II, who thought they would CENT. IV.] Donatist Schism. Ill communicate intelligence to the Emperors, with whom he was at war. We saw that Christianity had already in the foi-mer century penetrated into Persia, and degenerated there into the Manichean heresy (§ 89.). After the death of Manes more orthodox teachers probably gave a better tone to the Persian Church; for we find that Constantine, on receiving an embassy from Sapor, requested in a letter to him protection for the Persian Christians. Their Bishop, Simeon, resided at the royal capital, Seleucia-Ctesiphon, which was built on both sides of the river Tigris; the former part by Seleucus-Nicator, who after the death of Alex.\nder the Great became king of the East; the latter by the Parthian kings. The venerable prelate suffered martyrdom in 343, with many others of the clergy and laity. Sapor reigned from 309 (or 312) to 381 ; and the violent persecutions and numerous cases of martyrdom, stated to have taken place throughout his reign, indicate the wide spread of Christianity among the Persian people. 104. A violent schism arose a. d. 311 in Africa, when, on the death of Mensurids (§ 91.), his Archdeacon C^cilianus having been elected Bishop of Carthage during the absence of the Numidian Bishops, the latter refused to recognise him, alleging as their reason, that one of the Bishops, who had con- secrated him, was a traditor (see § 91). Various charges were also brought against him, arising from his having supported his late Bishop in checldng the fanatical spirit that prevailed during the last persecution. When he refused to appear before an assembly of 70 Numidian Bishops who had arrived at Carthage, they excommunicated him, and elected Majorinus in his stead. On finding that Constantine was displeased with them and their proceedings, they requested an inquiry by GalHc Bishops, who under Constantius Chlorus had not been required to deliver up their Bibles as traditor s (§ 92.). The Emperor ordered MiLTiADES or Melchiades, Bishop of Rome, to try the case, with twenty other Gallic and Italian Bishops, before whom C^ecilian with ten friendly Bishops, met Donatus, Bishop of Casw Nigrce, 112 Donatist Schism. [cent. IV. and ten Numidian Bishops. The latter, however, rejected all terms of compromise or accommodation, and demanded a new trial, which the Emperor also granted, and called an assembly of 200 Bishops of the Western Churches to meet at Aries in 314 (§ 168.). The decision here being again to the same effect, the Numidians appealed to the Emperor in person, who consented to give them a hearing in 316 at Milan; but he could arrive at no other conclusion than the Councils, and severely punished the factious Africans. The latter were only the more embittered by their repeated failures ; and Majorinus having died, another DoNATUs, whom they called the Great, was elected to succeed him, an able, but proud and violent man, who perpetuated the dissensions, which now came to be called after him the Donatist Schism. The Emperor now endeavoured to soften down their fanaticism by indulgent treatment, and recalled the severe decrees he had passed against them ; but their fury only increased as well as their numbers, till the community numbered 400 Bishops. They encouraged a large body of armed ruffians, who passed by the name of Circumcelliones, and who with religious cries went about committing the most dreadful atrocities. Under the Emperor Constans several attempts were made to win them over by grants of money; and when these failed, violent measures were resorted to, which inflicted martyrdom on many of them. The most violent of these persecutions took place in 347, under the imperial prefect Macarius, when Donatus and other leading Bishops of the party were exiled, whilst many by their violence courted martyrdom, or fell by their own hands. The freedom which they enjoyed with all the sectaries under the Emperor Julian (§ 100.), tended only to stimulate their fanaticism to a greater height. At length internal divisions and the charitable energy of Augustine, Bishop of Hippo-regius in Numidia, caused an abatement of the violence and fanaticism, if not the decline of this faction, in the beginning of the fifth century. But the conquest of Africa by the Vandals, who under Genseric crossed over from Spain a. d. 427, revived the spirit of the CENT. IV.] ApoUinaris. 113 Donatists, and this party was not suppressed till tlie re-conquest of Africa by Belisarius, the celebrated general of the Emperor Justinian, a. d. 534. 105. As the various forms of Sabellianism had denied all distinctions of the Godhead into separate personalities, con- sidering Christ, as the Son of God, to be only, as it were, a dramatic personification exhibited by the Deity, and the Holy Ghost to be only an emanation from it; — and as the various phases of Arianism had in a more or less covert manner denied the existence in Christ of any thing but mere humanity; — so now among the refutations of those heresies a new phase of false doctrine had developed itself in the teaching of Apolli- narids, or Apollinaris, who, after having written against the Arians and obtained the esteem of Athanasius, had been elected Bishop of Laodicea^ whither his father, a rhetorician, had removed from Alexandria. Both father and son had distinguished themselves by the composition of literary works upon Scripture subjects, in imitation of the ancient classics, such as a poetical version of the Psalms, and a tragedy on the Passion of Christ, still extant, for use in the education of Christian youth, who had been excluded, by the decrees of . Julian the Apostate, from the public schools, where alone the ancient hterature was permitted to be used. The younger Apollinaris was a man of an intensely logical mind, and thought that he had arrived at a mathematical demonstration of the orthodox creed, as held by the catholic Church. He adopted the Platonic view, that man consists both of an animal soul, and a rational or intellectual soul, in a material body; and he considered that the rational soul, as the ruling principle, determined man's free-ivill, or free choice of good or evil, and so became the source of sin. This element, therefore, he ex- cluded from the humanity of Christ, who was sinless, considering the divine Logos with the remaining elements of human nature to constitute the God-man. In opposition to this Athanasius maintained, that the true Christ could not be explained or H 114 Priscillian. [cent. IV. demonstrated by human reason: but if His nature was not altogether homogeneous with that of man, He could not be to us an example of holy life ; nor could He redeem human nature in its completeness, unless He had Himself assumed all the parts of which it consists. The doctrine of Apollen'aris was formally condemned by the General Council of Constantinople in 381 (§ 101.), as well as by several local synods; but he re- tained his bishopric till his death some ten years later, and even appointed sectarian Bishops among his followers in various cities. Another sect also arose in Spain, named FnsciUians, who revived many Mamchean (§. 89.) and Gnostic 41.) notions: — such as Dualism and the Emanation theory, and Docetic views (§ 41.) of the body of Christ; and they especially introduced the principle, that falsehood is allowable for a holy end, and therefore also in order to propagate their doctrines under an outward conformance to the received Church views. Priscillian was a wealthy Spaniard, devoted to an austere course of Ufe and theological study; and he had derived his pecuhar views from one Marcus, who had come over from Egypt. PRIScrLLIA^-'s eloquence soon raised up followers, among whom were several Spanish Bishops. Hygixus, Bishop of Cordova, Idacius of Merida, and Ithacius of Sossuba, set themselves in opposition to him, and at the Council of Ccesar-Augusta (Saragossa) A. D. 380, he and his followers were condemned, and an imperial edict was obtained for theu- exile. They in vain appealed to Damasus, Bishop of Rome, and Ambrose of ^Milan ; and when Maximus, a rebelHous officer, murdered the Emperor Gratian (§ 101.) and assumed imperial power in the West a. d. 383, until defeated and slain by Theodosius in 388, the adverse party easily incited the needy usm-per by the prospect of possess- ing himself of Priscilll^n's wealth, to order him and his principal followers to be put to death, in spite of the urgent entreaties and intercessions of ]\L\rtix of Tours (§ 102), and A^iBRosE of Milan, who, though opposed to the heresy, were imwilhng to see death inflicted as a punishment for erroneous CENT. IV.] Church and State. 115 doctrine. This termination was the result of the appeal of Priscillian to the imperial usurper, from the Council of Bordeaux, assembled in 384. But this severity does not seem to have had the effect of suppressing the sect ; for the Council of Toledo^ A. D. 400. also passed decrees against theij doctrines. And again at the Council of Braga, in 536, new laws were enacted against them. 106. While the Church was struggling against heathen tyranny, it retained its independence in its internal government and discipline. But even then it occurred that the imperial authority was invoked, as when Alexander Severus (§ 77.) was appealed to in a dispute about a site for a church, which he decided against the claim of the corporation of cooks or innkeepers; and when Aurelian (§ 82. 88.), after his victory over Zexobia, was required to decide the case of Paul of Samosata, who persisted in retaining his church and its tempo- raHties, after he was deposed by a Council. When Constantine the Great declared himself a Christian, and showed an interest in the prosperity and peace of the Church, it was natural, that, as head of the state, he should be regarded with the utmost confidence. Thus when the Arian controversy distracted the Church, the Bishops who had access to him, urged him to take upon himself the decision of the matters in dispute, and give peace to the Church. And though he, following the example of the heathen Emperor Aurelian, who had referred the matter to the decision of the Bishops of Rome and Italy, called the General Council of Nicoea to decide the dispute, he saw the necessity of assuming supreme control and direction in the matter, in order to ensure an authoritative decision, to which all would be willing to submit. Having once acquired and exercised this influence, it was not likely he would rehnquish it again, though he claimed for himself only the external govern- ment of the Church, pretending to leave all doctrinal and internal matters to the Bishops and Councils. But he scrupled not at times to take upon himself to determine such matters h2 116 Condition of the Clergy. [cent. iv. also ; whilst the Bishops often decided upon external affairs, especially in their respective dioceses. They had early come to be considered as supreme judges among the members of their churches ; and though some objected to this task, as interfering with their* proper spiritual functions, yet the necessity of many cases, as well as the ambition of some Bishops, tended thus gradually to increase their power and dignity. They were also generally considered as the guardians of widows and orphans, who were frequently recommended to their care by dying parents, or by their testamentary disposal. The Bishops were also expected to intercede with the Emperors or Governors of provinces, both for individuals and communities, when any had incurred their displeasure. Thus Flavianus, the aged and invalid Bishop of Antioch, a. d. 387, hastened to Constantinople, and obtained from Theodosius pardon for his townspeople, who, oppressed by excessive taxation, had risen in insurrection. All these circumstances tended to increase the power and influence, and consequently the pride and ambition, of the Episcopal body. The chief among the lower orders of the ministry likewise assumed greater consequence, and began to adopt the titles of Archpresbyters and Archdeacons : the former being the chief of the Cathedral Clergy or Dean ; the latter the principal among the Deacons, generally in attendance upon the Bishop. The number of Deacons had been limited in the largest cities to seven, the original number appointed by the Apostles (Acts vi. § 4.). But the number was often increased ; and in the sixth century the principal church at Constantinople had about a hundred. Deaconesses began to be discontinued in this century in the Western Church, having been forbidden perhaps already by the Council of Laodkea, a. d. 372 or 381, and by Western Synods in the ffth and sixth centuries. In the East they continued as late as the twelfth century, especially in the case of the wives of Bishops, who were required to be separated from their husbands. 107. We have seen (§ 03.) that already in the second CENT. iV.] Patriarchal Sees. 117 century a preeminence over ordinary Bishops was claimed by, and assigned to, those of Kome, Antioch, and Alexandria, the centres or capitals of the chief divisions of the Koman Empire, and as being the heads of Churches founded originally by Apostles, or at least, as in the case of Alexandria, by St. ]\Iark, under the especial direction of St. Peter. The title of Patriarchs came to be appropriated to the occupants of those sees by way of distinction. The Bishop of Jerusalem would have been entitled to such preeminence more than any ; but the destruction of the city, and the removal of the primitive Apostolic Church to Pella (§ 29.), as well as its comparative insignificance after its return (§ 57.), until it acquired importance again through the reverence in which it was held by Constantine and his successors, delayed a similar distinction from being assigned to that oldest Bishopric till the fifth century. Antioch, the great capital of the East, being the first city out of Palestine where a Christian Church was planted (§ 9.), and long the centre of Apostolical missions, seems to have retained its preeminence from the first undisputed. Alexandria, the great seat of learning for nearly three centuries before the Christian era, after Athens had begun to decline, and then rendered illustrious by a long series of Christian teachers (§ 64.) distinguished alike for sacred and profane erudition, who laboured successfully to spread the knowledge of the Gospel, not only over the whole of northern Africa, but likewise over Arabia and India, also naturally gained and retained an undisputed superiority. With Rome the case seems to have been very different, since its superiority was attained gradually, and upon very different grounds. At the commencement of the Paschal controversy (§ 68.), it would appear as if the venerable Polycarp repaired to the ancient capital, to expostulate with its Bishop upon the unseemly presumption, with which the Romish Church set itself up against the paramount authority of more ancient Churches and better informed Apostolical men. And this feeling against Rome seems to have grown only more universal, when, not long after, Victor attempted to impose his authority upon 118 Arrogance of Roman Bishops, [cent. iv. the Eastern Churches; and it was still undiminished in the middle of the following century, when Stephen acted with the same presumption (§ 86.). The high view which Cyprian took (p. 80.) of the unity of the Church of Christ, and his consequent disinterestedness in ascribing a certain supremacy over it to the Bishop of the great centre of the Roman world, with which he desired to see the Church co-extensive, seem to have fostered in Stephen and his successors a pride, which could not even pretend to be founded upon any eminence in learning or adminis- trative talents, nor yet upon any influence with the secular power of the state. The natural authority of the Roman see over the numerous Churches it had been instrumental in founding in the West, as well as over the Gallic and other neighbouring Churches, remote from their Oriental mother Churches (§ 59.), was increased afterwards, when Diocletian began to fix the imperial residence at a distance from Rome; (§ 91.); and when still later Constantine transferred the supreme goveniment entirely to his new capital (§ 96.), leaving the Roman Pontiff gradually to an-ogate to himself supreme dignity in the old capital, as Christianity began to prevail there, as everywhere, and with it to assume almost regal pomp and splendour, and to claim the first place among all the Bishops of the Church. Since Proconsular Africa was a political dependency of the Itahan Government, where the Latin language was cuiTent, the Bishops of Rome claimed also to exercise supreme authority there, in opposition to the ancient rights of the see of Alexandria, which was attached to the Prefecture of the East, and where the Greek language was spoken. To decide this clashing of ecclesiastical authority, the Council of Niccea in its sixth Canon had said: " Let the ancient customs prevail in Egypt, Libya, and Penta- polis," (thus including all northern Africa), " that the Bishop of Alexandria have authority over them all, since this is also customary for the Bishop of Rome, as also at Antioch, and in other Provinces (enapxiais), that the privileges are preserved to the Churches." Thus the supremacy of these three Churches CENT. lY.] Increase of their Foiver, 119 is declared co-ordinate, and limited to their respective Proyinces, none being subordinate to any ojie ; and it would seem that there were other Provinces equally constituted, though the new capital, then building, may have been pointed at by anti- cipation. Before Byzantium was rebuilt and enlarged by Con- STAXTixE, and its name changed to Constantinople, its Bishop Alexander (§ 96.) was subordinate to the Metropolitan Bishop of the neighbouring city of Heraclea. But afterwards he tacitly assumed supreme independent rank as the Bishop of the new Capital of the whole Empire ; and the Council of Constantinople (§ 101.) in its second Canon decreed, that the see of the new metropolis, then occupied by Nectartus, should take rank next after that of Rome, " on account of its being a Xew Rome." Hence the precedence of the Roman See, as of that of Con- stantinople, was manifestly founded exclusively upon the political preeminence of the city, and not upon any right derived from its presumed original establishment by St Peter as the chief of the Apostles. Johx, surnamed Chrysostom (Golden-mouthed) for his eloquence, the successor of Xectarius, assumed juris- diction, as well as rank, over the territories surrounding the city, and soon extended his authority over Thrace, Pontus, and Asia, whence arose constant conflicts with the Bishops both of Rome and Antioch. From that time forward, however, as ac- cession of circumstances combined to give increased importance to the Bishops of Rome, and gradually to lessen that of the other principal Bishops. The latter were often heretics, or schismatically appointed by heretical parties, who had expelled the rightful Bishop. Some such instances have been given in the preceding sketch, and others may be seen in larger histories. The Roman See however had hitherto been always occupied by orthodox men, except that perhaps Eleutherius was for a moment misled by the Montanists (§ 75.), and Liberius had likewise for a moment yielded, through bodily and mental weak- ness, to the pressure upon him of his Arian adversaries (§ 98.). Neither had the Roman Church yet been distracted by schism, 120 Superstitious Doctrines and Rites, [cent. iv. except when, during the banishment of Liberius, Felix was consecrated in his room, but expelled again on the return of the lawful Bishop, after which he lived in retirement till his death; and again, when on the death of Liberius, a. d. 366, Ursinus was elected as his successor, and Damasus was also elected by those who had been attached to Felix; and after several years of contention, and even bloodshed, Damasus was confirmed in the see by the Emperor Gratian, about a. d. 378. The authority of the Eoman Bishops was considerably increased, when Athanasius, being driven from his see, took refuge at Kome; and when Julius, then Bishop, was able to make his views prevail at the Council of Sardica in favour of his illus- trious guest (§ 97.). At length, the triumph of the same views under the Emperor Theodosius (§ 101.), and the steady adherence to those views by the Roman Bishops, made that see, as it were, a centre of reference to all Churches on all occasions; a circumstance of which they artfully availed themselves, to extend their authority and jurisdiction, until they at length riveted their yoke upon the neck of the greater portion of the Christian world. 108. The superstitious doctrines, which we have seen introduced in the former century, were now carried to still greater extravagance. Such were the veneration of the relics and images of departed saints, prayers for the dead, especially on the anniversaries of the deaths of martyrs celebrated at their tombs, and the doctrine of purgatory. The public pro- cessions and supplications to appease the gods, and the lustrations of the heathens, were now also imitated by Christians. The festivals in honour of saints and martyrs were multiplied without limit; and fasts^ hitherto left to the free will of individuals, were now fixed by laws, especially the Lent fast or Quadragesimal. At baptism, salt, as an emblem of purity, was put into the mouth of the candidate, who was anointed before and after the ceremony, and obliged to wear white garments for seven days after. Baptismal fonts were now also introduced, and placed in the porches of the churches, CENT. IV.] Preaching. 121 whicli began to be built and adorned with all the pomp of heathen temples. At the Lord's Supper the bread and Avine were held up before distribution, to be gazed on by the people with awe ; whence the adoration of the elements, now customary in the Roman Church, was originally derived. This Sacrament was also often celebrated at the tombs of martyrs, and at funerals; which gave rise to the masses, afterwards performed in honour of the saints and for the benefit of the dead. The distinction between the Missa Catechumenorum and Missa Fidelium, or the service for the unbaptized and for the baptized, the latter including the Lord's Supper after the Sermon (§ 85.), ceased when Christianity and infant Baptism began generally to prevail ; the word missa ( = missio) being used to signify the dismissal of the several portions of the congregation, all who were baptized remaining to the end. — Tlie increased importance of the Sermon led eloquent men to make great display of their oratorical powers ; and the practice which at Antioch had been transferred from the theatres and the schools of the rhetoricians already in the time of Paul of Samosata (§ 89.), of waving handkerchiefs, uttering cries of approbation, and clapping hands, now was adopted at Constantinople and other places, though Chrysostom and others discountenanced it. Short-hand writers took down the sermons of popular preachers (p. 88. v. 3.), and copies of them were circulated, and thus handed down to posterity; though it was customary also with the clergy to write their discourses, and read them off, or commit them to memory for dehvery. — The right of asylum or sanctuary, formerly belonging to heathen temples and altars, was now also claimed for Christian churches; at first, by universal consent, and later, when the privilege was abused, it was regulated by express laws. — Singing during divine service was no doubt introduced from the earliest age of the Church (see Matt. xxvi. 30 ; Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16; Jam. V. 13.). Indeed, hymns were in such general and popular use among Christians, that heretics, as Bardesanes (p. 61.) 122 Monachism, [cent. IV. and Arius (p. 99.), sought to promulgate their doctrines in hymns set to popular tunes; and Ephreii the Syrian (§ 109.) adapted orthodox hymns to those old tunes. In the present century church music was regulated by the appointment of singers (yjrdXTai) or choristers, taken from the younger clergy, to lead the singing of the congregation ; and Ambrose of Milan, Hilary of Poictiers, Chrysostom, and others, took pains to improve the hymns and music. 108* A great feature in the history of the Church during this century, was the developement of ascetic and monastic life. This did not originate within the Christian Church, but had already been adopted from ancient oriental practice by the Jews, as in the case of the Essenes on the western shores of the Dead Sea, and the Therapeutcs near lake Moeris, in northern Egypt (see § 35.). The persecutions which drove many Christians to take refuge among the barbarous nations beyond the Roman frontiers (§ 102.), sent others to seek shelter in dens and caves of the earth,' of whom Paul the Hermit^ in the Thehaid of southern Egypt (§ 79.), who died a. d. 341, aged 113, is said to have set an example followed by great numbers, with whom the deserts in and about Egypt were studded at the period under consideration. They were persons who thought they could better avoid the temptations that beset them in the world, and devote themselves wholly to religious meditation, ' if they withdrew into solitary retirement ; whence they were called anchorets (from dvaxcopeco to retire), or hermits (eremites, from cprj^ios lonely, solitary). The most celebrated of these was Antony, a native of the Thebaid, an uneducated, though gifted man, acquainted only with his native tongue, the Coptic or primitive Egyptian. He was born in 251, and lived to the age of 105. In a Life, attributed to Athanasius, (p. 127.), he is said to have sold all his considerable landed property, at the age of 24, and to have visited Paul and many other famous Egyptian ascetics; and then to have shut himself up in a tomb or mausoleum, and to have removed ten years after CENT. IV.] Antony. Hilcirion. Pachomms. 123 to a ruined castle on the Ked Sea, where he remained in solitude for twenty years. He then received disciples, who settled in great numbers in his neighbourhood. He was re- garded with the highest reverence, even by the Emperors, and, like other recluses, was consulted by men in their difficulties. In 311 he visited Alexandria, to comfort the sufferers from the persecution of Maximin (§ 93.); and again about 352, to raise his voice against Arianism. At his death he ordered the burial and strict concealment of his body, that it might not minister to the morbid reverence for relics, which then began to prevail, and which he strongly condemned. HiLARiON, a native of Palestine, having completed his education in the schools at Alexandria, visited and spent some time with Antony; and on his return in 306, he established himself as an anchoret in a lonely place near Gaza, his native town, and his example was soon followed by some 3000 others. He died a. d. 356. The lonely and indolent life of these solitary hermits, however, did not suit the more social and charitable, as well as industrious characters of some, who nevertheless equally longed to retire from the distracting cares and temptations of the world, and devote themselves exclusively to religious duties. Some such established themselves in two or three adjoining cells; and instead of withdrawing into deserts, they mostly lived in or near towns or the larger villages. In Egypt they were called Sarabaites, in Syria Remohotli. But the worldly spirit and corruption to which they were exposed, and often yielded, led others to found more numerous asso- ciations, remote from the busy world. These establishments were called Ccenobia {koivo^iu, from kolvos common, ^Los life.), and the members Coenobites. The originator of these was Pachomius, who was born in the Thebaid a. d. 292, and died in 348. After his discharge from military service, he lived for twelve y.ears with an aged hermit. Then he founded a society or brotherhood in the island of Tabenne, in 124 Coenobites. Nuns. Nitrian Monks, [cent. iv. the Nile, not far from Thehes, which soon numbered 1400 monhs (ixovaxos, from fxovos alone). Seven other similar vionas- teries soon rose around under his rule, which during his lifetime raised the number of monks to 3000, and soon after his death it rose to 7000 ; and before the middle of the following century the brotherhood numbered 50,000. They lived in strict community of goods; and, like the Essenes, were employed in various useful pursuits, as agriculture, ship- building, the making of ropes, mats, and baskets, of the rushes of the Nile and other materials. Their produce was taken down the river in their own ships, and sold at Alexandria ; and besides supplying the wants of the society, liberal distribu- tions were made to the poor, the sick and disabled, and even to those confined in the prisons. A probation or novitiate of three years had to be passed before admission into the fraternity ; and the only pledge required was that of absolute obedience to the Abbot or Abbas- General (from the Hebrew and Syriac words for father), or Archimandrite (from fidvbpa a fold). They wore a peculiar dress, made of goatskins, and lived at first three together in a cell, many of which extended in lines forming streets {Xavpai or XdlBpai, a word used also at Alexandria for Parishes). Later these cells were constructed in connected buildings (povaa-Tripia Monasteries). — Pachomids invited his sister to establish near him a similar society of females, who were called Nuns, a word supposed to be of Coptic derivation, meaning sacred or chaste. The success which attended the undertaking of Pachomius, spread the already existing enthusiasm for a monastic life as rapidly and as widely, as the example of Antony had extended that for the life of a hermit. Macarius, a contemporary of Pachomius, founded a similar brotherhood on the Nitrian mountain, on the western borders of Egypt, which soon numbered 5000 monks. The ascetic spirit which had thus developed itself in Egypt, and had already been carried into Syria by HiLARiON, soon propagated itself in its Monastic form over CENT. IV.] Spread (^Abuses of Monasticism. 125 Asia and Europe. Thus Ephraim or St. Ephrem founded monasteries in Mesopotamia; Eustathius, afterwards Bishop of Sebaste (formerly Cabira), and later condemned as a heretic, in Armenia and adjoining provinces. Basil, later Bishop of Ciesarea in Cappadocia (a. d. 370.), during five years of ascetic retirement (357 — 362), founded monastic houses in Pontus, the rules and regulations of which became most famous. Martin, Bishop of Tours, a. d. 375, established some in France. Some monks who accompanied Athanasius to Rome in 340, were aided by that Bishop's " Life of Antony^''' to stir up the monastic spirit in Italy, where numerous establishments soon sprang up ; and the enthusiasm was soon raised to the highest pitch by the almost frantic praises of celibacy and monasticism, especially of women, proclaimed by the passionate and excitable Jerome, and the more soberminded Ambrose (§ 109.), who to that end pro- claimed the perpetual virginity of Mary, the mother of Jesus. The enthusiasm thus excited, vented itself in all kinds of excesses and disorders, so that it was decreed by synods and Councils, that no monasteries might be founded, except with the approbation, and under the supervision, of the Bishop of the diocese. The austerities that were voluntarily practised, caused in many cases insanity and suicide ; in others they excited so great a pride and self-righteous spirit, that persons thinldng they had by their self-mortification attained to absolute purity, presumed to set all others right by the exercise of arbitrary power, committing often the utmost enormities in their fury ; whilst many from the same feeling, thinking them- selves now secure of salvation, allowed themselves the fullest liberty in the indulgence of their natural passions and aj^petites. Some seeing these baneful effects from the established system, founded new orders of monks under new rules and regulations. Thus the Fuchites in Syria, during the latter half of this century, devoted themselves entirely to prayer (eu^'?)? without any austerities or laborious occupations, supplying their imme- diate wants by begging, as later did the mendicant friars (§ 144.). 126 Reformers. [cent. IV. Thus they became a set of mystics and idealists, believing in dreams as revelations ; considering the inward spiritual state all that is essential, and under the immediate rule of the divine essence itself, which they thought they had received into their souls. They were consequently led to undervalue external conduct, so that many of them abandoned themselves to every vice. They were known by different names : as Messalians, from a Chaldee word, meaning the same as Euchites; Choreutce (xopos\ from the dances they introduced in their worship; Enthusiasts, from their claim to inspiration and revelation ; and after various leaders, Lampetians, Adelphians, MarciamstSj Eustathians. Under the latter name, as followers of Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste, mentioned above, they were condemned by the Council of Gangra (circ. 365 a.d.) as heretical. The Novatianists (p. 78) and Manicheans declared the monkish practices to be heathenish. Aerius, an Armenian Presbyter, rejected, as un- necessary to a religious hfe, fasting, the observation of festivals, almsgiving, as well as prayers for the dead ; and he also denied the superiority of Bishops over Presbyters. Helvidius, a Roman layman, Jovixiax, a Roman monk, Bonosus, Bishop of Sardica, also attacked the extravagant veneration of IVIary, or Mariolatry, which had arisen from making her the type of a virgin life, as well as the other notions of the time, and were hence called Antidicomarianites. Yigilantius, a Gallic or Spanish Presbyter, declared against the supposed intercession of saints and martyrs, their being present and working miracles at their tombs, and the veneration of their relics ; as also the use of lighted candles in Churches during the day, the keeping of vigils, fasting, celibacy, and monasticism. Though these men and their views were condemned at the time, yet their opposition to the prevailing corruptions of the age tended to keep alive a sound sense of pure Gospel truth. 109. Among the theological writers of this century, thj first to be noticed is Athanasius, whose history has been traced in the general events of his time. His works treat mainly of CENT. IV.] Writings of Athanasius & Eusehius. 127 subjects connected with the Arian controversy, and include, under their Latin titles, by which they are generally known, though written in Greek : 1. Oratio contra Gentes. 2. Oratio de Incamatione. 3. Orationes iv. contra Arianos. 4. Apologia contra Arianos. 5. Apol. de Fuga sua. 6. Apol. ad Imperatorem Constaniium. 7. Historia Arianorum ad Monachos. 8. Liber de Incamatione Verhi. 9. Epistola Encyclica ad Episcopos. 10. JEp. de NiccBnis Decretis. 11. Ep. ad Episcopos ^gyptii et LihycB. 12. EpistolcB iv. ad Serapionem. 13. Ep. de Synodis Arimini et Seleucice. 14. Ep. ad Rvjinianum. 15. Tomus ad Antiochenos. 16. Synopsis Sacrce ScnpturcB. Besides Treatises on Unpardonable Sin, On the Fsalms, and minor pieces. An anonymous Life of Antony, the Sennit, is also generally ascribed to him. (p. 122). The next to be noticed is Eusebius of Ccesarea, who wrote in Greek : 1. The well known Ecclesiastical Sistory, valuable as giving an account of the Christian Church down to his o\vn time, and of many historical and theological writers, whose works are lost to us, excepting the portions here introduced. 2. Prceparatio Evangelica, in 15 Books "i both on the Evidences of 3. Demonstratio Evangelica, in 20 Books ) religion. 4. De Ecclesiastica Theologia. 6. Chronicon, in 2 Books, in proof of the antiquity of the Old Testa- ment, and giving extracts from ancient Egyptian and other writers of history. 6. De Martyribus FalcestincB, 7. De Vita Constantini. 8. Against Hierocles, who was mainly instrumental in stirring up the Dioclesian Persecution, and wrote a Book, comparing Christ with Apollonius of Tyana, a philosopher who hved in the age of the Apostles, and of whom later miraculous stories were circulated. 9. Against Marcelltis, Bishop of Ancyra, condemned in 336 for Sabel- hanism by the Synod of Constantinople. 10. Onomasticon de Zocis Hebraicis, on places named in the Old Testa- ment. 11. Commentaries on various portions of Scripture, or Homihes, mostly lost. 12. Epistles inserted in the works of other writers. He vvTote also a lAfe of Pamphilus (§ 93.), which is lost; as is also his share of that author's Defence of Origen, in sio: Books, of which only the ft^rst is left in an arbitrary Latin translation by Eufinus. DiDYMUs, the celebrated teacher in the Catechetical School of xYlexandria, though bhnd from his fourth year, yet became 128 Greg, of Nazianzen. Basil the Or eat. [cent. iv. distinguished in every branch of learning. He died a. d. 395, aged 85. His only works still extant are : 1. Be Spiritu Sancto Liher, in a Latin translation by Jerome. 2. Commentaries on the Canonical Epistles, in a Latin translation by Epipha^'ius. 3. Adversus JIanichaos, in Greek, and a Latin version. 4. De Trinitate, in a Latin translation, found in MS. in 17G9 at Bologna. Other works of his, now lost, are named by ancient writers. Gregory of Nazianzum, bom about 329, who with the brothers Gregory of Nyssa and Basil of Ccesarea (p. 125), defended the Nicene doctrine in the East, was first made Bishop of Sasima, in Cappadocia, in 372; then he assisted, and soon succeeded, his father Gregory, in his native place, 374 ; on the death of Valens (§ 101.) he proceeded on a mission to Con- stantinople, where he preached in a private building, to counteract the Arianism prevailing there; and in 381, the year of the General Council, he was appointed Bishop there by Theodosius (§ 101.). But the party spirit ran too high for him to resist, and he resigned in 382, resuming the administration of the still vacant see of Xazianzum, till in the following year a Bishop was appointed, when he retired to enjoy literary ease till his death in 389 or 390. His works consist of : 1. Orations and Sermons, among which Jive which he preaxjhed on the Trinity at Constantinople, and which won for him the title 6eoXoyos, and the funeral oration on his friend Basil of Csesarea, stand pre- eminent. 2. Poems, among which is a Carmen de Episcopis, in which he satirizes the corruptions among the clergy of his time; and a Foem in which he describes the experiences of his life. 3. Letters. 4. Jtis Win. 5. He also with his friend Basil, compiled a volume of extracts from Origen, under the title of (pLXoKaXia. Basil the Great, born a. d. 329, received his education at Xeo-Ciesarea in Pontus, at Ca^sarea in Cappadocia, at Constan- tinople, where he attended the lectures of Libaxius, the pagan rheto- rician, and at Athens, from 351 to 355, where he made acquaint- ance with Julian the Apostate and Gregory of Nazianzum. He then practised as a pleader at Csesarea. But after visiting the CENT. IV.] Greg, of Nyssa. Cyril of Jerusalem. 129 monks in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, in 357, he with his friend Gregory established similar institutions in Pontus, the rule of which was adopted throughout Asia. After engaging here in the study of Scripture and of the writings of Origen, from 358 to 370, he returned to Caesarea, where he soon after suc- ceeded to that see, which he held till his death in 379. His wi-itings are most important for the accurate information they give of the doctrines and liturgical observances of the time. They comprise : 1. Forty-eight Homilies on the Psahns, and on various subjects. 2. Two Books on Baptism. 3. On ihe Holy Spirit. 4 A Liturgy (see § 24^, 299, 301.). 5. Ets Ti]v ''E^arifiepov, on the Six Dayi Creation, 6. Commentary on Isaiah^ chapters I. — VI. 7. On true Virginity. 8. Against Uunomius the Avian. 9. 'Ao-/ct)Tt/cd, Monastic rules of life, including ridiKd, or Christian Morals. 10. Letters. 11. Minor pieces, some falsely ascribed to him. Gregory of Nyssa, born 331, was younger brother of Basil, who ordained him Bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, in 372. He was deposed by the Arians in 375 ; recalled by the Emperor Gratian in 378 ; went on a mission of inspection of the churches of Arabia till 381, when he attended the General Council at Constantinople, and died about 394. His writings, like those of his brother and namesake, show a strong leaning to Origenism, and comprise : 1. Treatises on doctrinal theology against the Arians, Apollinarians, and Manichceans, and on practical religion. 2. Homilies. 3. Bio- graphies. 4. Letters. Cyril, Bishop of Jemsalem (see § 292.), born in 315, became Bishop in 351 ; was deposed in 358 by Acacius, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, who claimed to exercise the authority of Metropolitan over him; was restored again by the Council of Seleucia (§ 99.); again deposed by a Synod of Constantinople in 360 ; restored in 362, after the death of Constantius ; again I 130 Apollinaris. Hilary of Poitiers, [cent. iv. deposed and banished by the Emperor Valens in 367 ; recalled at that Emperor's death in 378; was present at the General Council of Constantinople in 381 ; and died in 386. His works are 1. Twenty-three Lectures to Cateohumens^ on the Creed, on Baptism, the Chrism, and the Lord's Supper, 2. A Letter to CoNSTANTiFS, on a luminous Cross which appeared at Jerusalem in the year 351. 3. A Somily on John v. 1 — 16. Apollinaris the Elder and the Younger^ father and son (§ 105.), the latter of whom died about 390, wrote many useful educational and doctrinal works, the authorship of which is variously assigned to the one or the other, of which we have remaining only : 1. A Tragedy, on the Suffering of Christ. 2. A poetic Version of Fsalms. 3. A work in 30 Books against Poephyey, one of the bitterest adversaries of Christianity in the third century, considered as the best defence of Christianity against paganism. Hilary, Bishop of his native town Poitiers from a. d. 350, was the champion of orthodoxy in the West, and was in con- sequence of that banished to Phrygia by Constantius in 356 (§ 98.). He presented himself uninvited at the Council of Seleucia in 359, and boldly defended the Homoousion doctrine. He returned to his see on the accession of the Emperor Julian in 361, where he exerted himself with more or less success in reclaiming or depriving all clergy infected with erroneous doctrine, and died in 368. His chief writings, which are in Latin, are : 1. A Commenta/ry on St Matthew, apparently founded on those of Origen. 2. Be Trinitate, in xii Books, against the Arian doctrine, his most important work. 3. De Synodis, a Letter addressed from his place of exile to the Bishops of Gaul, Britain, and other parts of the West, maintaining the orthodoxy of the principal Eastern Bishops. 4. A Commentary on the Psalms, ending mth Ps. LXXIX. 5. Three Treatises addressed to the Emperor Constantius, dated respectively 355, 3G0, 361; the first asking protection for the Catholics against the Arians; the second urging his own restora- tion ; the third a violent invective againt the Emperor. 6. Against Auxentius, the Arian Archbishop of Milan (§ 101.). CENT. IV.] Lactantius. Ambrose of Milan. 131 7. Fragments of various lost works. Jerome, and other early Fathers, also mention as his, a translation of Oeigen's Commenta/ry on Joh, a Hymn-BooJc, and several other works, which are either entirely lost, or represented by the Fragments. Various other works are falsely attributed to him. Lactantius (Z. Ccelius or Ccecilius Fmnianus) is a Latin Father, of whom little is known. He is supposed to have been born about the middle of the third century at Fiimium^ on the Adriatic, and to have studied in Africa under Arnobius (p. 93.). His fame as a rhetorician at the opening of the fourth century- gained for him the notice of the Emperor Diocletian ; but when it was found that he had embraced Christianity, he was left to pine in want and obscurity, till Constantine entrusted to him the education of his son Crispus, (§ 94.), then residing at Treves in Gaul, where he died about a. d. 330. 1. His chief work is the Divine Institutions, in vii Books, in which he exposes the absurdity of the pagan superstition, defends Chris- tianity, and expounds its beauty and wisdom. 2. An Ahlreviation of the above. 3. Be Ira Dei, against the Epicurean idea, that the Deity does not concern himself about the conduct of men. 4. De Formatione Sominis, on the wisdom and goodness of God, as evi- denced by the perfect adaptation of the various parts of the human frame to their functions. 5. De Mortihus Fersecutorvim, or as Jerome calls it De Fersecutione, which, bearing the name of L. CiECiLius, has been identified as his by the eloquent style, and pure and elegant Latinity, which it has in common with his other works. Other writings of his, named by Jerome, are now lost ; and some ascribed to him are spurious, and of a later age. Ambrose, the son of a Praetorian Preefect, bom in the year 340, was made consular Praefect of Liguria (^Genoa), in- cluding Lombardy, and its capital Milan, in 370 ; and in 374, on the death of the Arian Bishop Auxentius (§ 101.), he was, to his own surprise, unanimously chosen as Bishop by the people, though as yet an unbaptized catechumen. His noble character obtained for him the fihal reverence of the Emperor Gratian (§ 101.), whose mother Jdstina, however, being strongly attached to Arianism, was his irreconcilable enemy, since he firmly resisted all her claims in favour of the adherents •to her party, and soon 12 132 J erome . [cent. IV. drew over all the citizens to the side of orthodoxy. Theodosius the Great^ who in 388 visited Milan (§ 101.), was awed by the character and dignified bearing of Ambrose. And when in 390, the Emperor had ordered a treacherous and indiscriminate mas- sacre of the people of Thessalonica, because the Governor of the city had been slain in a tumult, Ambrose refused him admission to communion, till after he had submitted to eight months' penance, and showed himself sincerely penitent for his conduct in the matter. Ambrose died in 397, two years after Theodosius. He is known to have regulated the Church services, and especially the musical parts (§ 107.) ; and the Officium Amhro- sianum and Missa Ambrosiana are adaptations of his arrange- ments. His chief works are : 1. De Officiis Ministrorum, his best work. 2. Sexaemeron, on the Creation. 3. De Fide, and 4. De Spiritu Sancto, treatises on the Trinity. 5. De Mysteriis. 6. De Sacramentis. 7. De Pcenitentia. With Letters, Homihes, and Commentaries on Scripture, and treatises in praise of CeUhacij and Monasticism, which he advocated with the utmost enthusiasm. But many of these writings are lost. Jerome or Hieronymus, is the most copious and voluminous, as well as the most learned, of the early Fathers. He was bom of Christian parents at Stridon, on the northern borders of Dalmatia, as early as 331, or as late as 345, according to different writers. He was educated at Rome ; and after travel- ling in Gaul, where he became acquainted with the works of Hilary, we find him in 370 at Aquileia, at the head of the Adriatic sea, where he became the intimate friend of Rufikus. In 373 he set out on extensive travels in the East, during which he fell ill at Antioch, which seems to have made so deep an impression upon him, that he withdrew to the desert of Chalcis, east of Syria, where for several years he devoted himself to close study of the Scriptures and of the Hebrew language. In 379 he proceeded to Antioch, where the Bishop Paulinus ordained him Presbyter. For the next three years he resided at Constantinople, enjoying the friendship of Gregory of Nazianzum. In 382 he began to act as Secretary to Damasus, Bishop of Rome, when he CENT. IV.] Jerome . 133 devoted himself with enthusiasm to the cause of monasticism, especially urging young women to devote themselves to perpetual virginity, after the supposed example of the Virgin Mary, towards whom as such he enjoined the highest veneration. His fiery elo- quence had a most powerful effect upon the women of Kome, many, belonging to the noblest families, resolving to adopt his advice. When this drew upon him the enmity of their families, he with- drew after the death of Damasus, a. d. 384, to the East, whither he was followed by several distinguished ladies, among whom were Paula, a rich widow, and her daughter Eustochium, with whom he visited Egypt, where he attended the lectures of Didy- Mus. In 386 they settled at Bethlehem, where they erected several monastic establishments for men and for women, which were soon crowded. Here he made his celebrated translation of the Bible, and wrote many of his works. He died in 420, aged from 75 to 89 years. His works, written in pure and elegant Latin, may be divided into several classes, as : I. Biblical Commentaries: 1. On Genesis. 2. On Ecclesiastes. 3. On Canticles (translation from Origen). 4 On Isaiah, in 18 Books, his best. 5. On the visions of Isaiah (translation from Origen), 6. On Jeremiah, in 6 Books, extending over 32 chapters. 7. On Ezekiel, in 14 Books. 8. On Daniel. 9. Translation of 28 Homilies of Origen on Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 10. On the XII Minor Prophets. 11. On Matthew, in 6 Books. 12. Translation of 39 Homihes of Origen on St Luke. 13. On St. Paul's Epistles to Galatians, Ephesians, Titus, and Philemon. 14. Translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, brought down \.q fiftij-three years later. II. Biblical Translations: Latin Version of Old Testament from Origen's Hexapla (p. 89.) ; which, however, was lost through some person's fraud or carelessness, with the exception of Job and Psalms, and the openings of Chronicles, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Solomon's Song. Then the whole was retranslated from the original Hebrew; the New Testament with the aid of old Latin versions. III. Minor Works and Treatises : Life of Paul, the Hermit (§ 79.). 2. Life of Hilarion (§ 108*.). 3. Rule of Pachomius (ibid.) 4. Translation of Didymus' third Book on the Holy Spirit. 5. Dispute between Lucifer and the orthodox (§98.). 6. Against Helvidius (p. 126.) 7. Against Jo vinian (iiid). 8. Against Yigilantius (iSic^.). 9. Against John, Bishop of Jerusalem (against Origenism. a. d. 399.). 134 Rujinus. [cent. IV. 10. Against Rufinus. 11. Against the Pelagians. 12. "De Viris Illustribus" (on Ecclesiastical writers, 135 short lives.). 13. On Hebrew Names (taken from Philo's Old Testament and Origen's New Testament Names (§ 89*.). 14. On the situation and names of Hebrew places (translated from Eusebius's Geography of Pales- tine) ; and some others. IV. One hundred and fifty Letters to and from various persons. A translation from the Chaldee of the " Gospel according to the Sehrews,'* Commentaries on the Fsalms and on other parts of Scripture, the translation of Ori'gen's Frincipia, and several other works, are now lost. EuFiNUs was probably by a few years the junior of his friend Jerome, and a native of some place in the region along the north of the Adriatic, perhaps Concordia. He entered a monas- tery at Aquileia, where he was baptized in 372, and lived in intimate friendship with Jerome. Soon after he went to Alex- andria, where he studied under Didymus; and after travelling about the East with Melania, a pious and wealthy noble lady of Eome, he withdrew to a monastery on the Mount of Olives, near Jerusalem. Hence he corresponded with Jerome, then in the desert of Chalcis, until their friendship was interrupted in 393 by their taking opposite sides in the dispute, which now became fierce, upon the subject of Origen's writings, which the friends had studied together with equal admiration ; but when now the evil tendency of their mystic subtleties was generally condemned, as having given rise to all the heresies that had so long distracted the Church, Jerome, setting himself up as the champion of orthodoxy, fiercely attacked his former friend with the most rancorous acrimony for remaining attached to his favourite author. An outward reconciliation was effected between them by mutual friends in 397, before Rufinus returned with Melania to Italy ; where he soon after published a translation of Origen's Prmcipia, with Pamphilus's Defence of Origen (p. 89.), and Jerome's eulogy prefixed to his translation of Origen's treatise on the Canticles of Solomon {see above), adding also an exposition of the corruptions of Origen's works, that had been introduced into them by friends and by adversaries. This publication drew from Jerome the bitterest invective and abuse against his former friend, which led to violent attacks in their CENT. IV.] Chrysostom. 135 respective writings against one another in 402, in wliicli tliey seem to have exhausted all their venom, until the feud gradually subsided. Rufixts devoted his few remaining years to literary labours in Italy, whence he fled, on the invasion of Alaric (§ 110.), to Sicily, where he died in 410. The original works of Rufixus are not remarkable for any transcendent abilities ; and in his Translations he took the most unwarranted hberties with his authors. The former embrace : 1. On Jacob's Blessings on his Sons. 2. Kistoria Ereynitica, the Lives of above thirt}^ Xitrian Monks. 3. JExposition of the Apostles' Creed. 4. The Tract on the Adulterations of the WorTcs of OEIGE^', already noticed. 5. A Defence of his orthodoxy, addressed to Pope AnastjLSIus (A. D. 398—402.) 6. The Invective against JEEOilE. Tlie Translations consist of : 1. Ecclesiastical Exstory of EusEBiTS, freely rendered, and carried down in two additional books to the death of the Emperor Theo- Dosirs. 2. Origen's Principia. His 17 Somilies on Genesis, 13 on Exodus^ 16 on Leviticus, 28 on Xumbers, 26 on Joshua, 9 on Judges, one on I. Kings, 4 on Canticles, 10 on tJie Epistle to the Romans. 3. The Defence of Origen hy Tarnphilus. 4. Ten Tracts of Gregory of Nazianzum. 5. Eight Somilies of Basil the Great. 6. The Monastic Begulation (Eegula) of Basil. 1. The Becognitio-iis of Clemens Eomanus (see § 49.) and several others ; whilst some of his works are lost, and many others bearing his name are spurious. John, sumamed Chrysostom or Golden-mouthed for his elo- quence, bom in 347, was the favourite pupil of the pagan rhetori- cian LiBAXius, and at the age of 20 entered upon the profession of the law. But he soon quitted it to devote himself to the study of rehgion, and was baptized by Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, his native city. He was then ordained as Reader; and, after the death of his pious mother in 370, passed two years in a cavern and four in a monastery, when his health drove him back to Antioch, where in 381 he was ordained Deacon, and in 386 Presbyter, and appointed chief preacher at Antioch. The reputation of his eloquence caused his- appointment as Pati-iarch 136 Chrysostom. [cent. IV. of Constantinople in 397, where the strictness of his own hfe, the reforms he sought to introduce among the Clergy, and his firmness against the Arians and others, raised up many enemies. He also drew upon himself the enmity of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, who had consecrated him, but was jealous of the precedence given to the see of Constantinople over his own. Some Nitrian monks (p. 124.) having taken offence at the worldly spirit of their Metropolitan, who had also censured some doctrines of the monks, proceeded to Constantinople, and Chrysostom ventured to intercede for them with Theophilus. The latter was enraged at this illegal interference with the affairs of his diocese, as he considered it to be, and never rested till he obtained the deposition of Chrysostom in 403. The riots and disturbances, that ensued after his departure from the city, compelled the emperor to recall him. But the power of his enemies, and his own indiscretion, caused his final removal at Whitsuntide, in the following year. He was taken to Cucusus in Mount Taurus, where his wants were ill provided for, till his friends supplied him with funds, which he spent in sending missions to the Goths, to Persia, and other quarters. But in 407 he was carried from one place to another amidst great hardships ; and at length he died at Comana, in Pontus, in the autumn of that year. Thirty years after, his remains were transferred to Constantinople, where they were received with the profoundest veneration by the Emperor Theodosius II. and the whole population. Chrysostom in his preaching and writings avoids allegorical and mystical interpretations of Scripture, but investigates the meaning gram- matically, as Origen had set him the example ; though instead of Origen's mysticism, he gives to the language of the Bible a practical, ethical, and doctrinal application. His works, which are very voluminous, are : 1. Treatise on the Priesthood, in VI Books, written in 381, soon after his being ordained Deacon. 2. On Providence, in III Books ; and several others. 3. Homilies on portions of Scripture, on Doctrine, and Practice. Those on St. Paul's Epistles are by many considered superior to CENT v.] Honorius and Arcadius. 137 all ancient theological writings. Those on St Matthew, delivered at Antioch, a. d. 390—397, are highly praised by Thomas Aquinas, the ''Angelic Doctor" the great luminary of learning in the thir- teenth century. 4. Commentaries on Scripture, some of which were lost in a fire at Constantinople. 6. Letters, addressed to many persons. 6. Liturgies. Besides the above, we may name, as of less note, Ephraim the Syrian (p. 125.), author of various controversial works, and of orthodox hymns to the tunes of the popular hymns of the heretical Bardesanes (p. 61.), which were thus superseded : — Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, the author of a work On all Heresies, verj inaccurate and full of errors, and so of little authority : — Macarius (p. 124.), of whom we have some 50 Homilies : — Optatus, Bishop of Ililevi, in Numidia, whose work on the Donatist Schism^ in 6 Books, with a seventh added later by the author, or by some junior contemporary, is very useful : — SuLPicius Seyerus, a native of Gaul, whose historical works are without critical merit, and full of chronological and other blunders : — Paulints, Bishop of Nola, and Prudentius, a Spaniard, Christian poets; and many others, whose Hterary remains are collected in the Patrologia EcclesijB Latinse, and Patrologia Grasca. FIFTH CENTURY. 110. Theodosius the Great, at his death, a. d. 395, divided his dominions between his sons, Honorius and Arcadius, the former of whom had the Western Empire, and resided in Italy ; the latter had the Eastern Empire, and resided at Constanti- nople. The West was now overrun by innumerable hosts of barbarians, among whom the Goths under Alaric, who had served under Theodosius the Great, and the Huns under Attila, caused the greatest calamities ; till, after a rapid succession of Emperors, the last of them, named Romulus Augustulus, was 138 Nestoriiis. Theodore of Mopsuestia. [cent. v. ignominiously deposed by Odoacer, chief of the E'eruU, who proclaimed himself king of Italy, a. d. 47 6. He was in his turn conquered by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths , a. d. 493, who was supported by the Emperor of the East, to whom he and his successors yielded a formal submission. Many of these barbarous nations had been converted by Arian missionaries, and others embraced Christianity, as each chief settled with his comparatively small body of followers among the population he had subdued. Thus Clovis or Louis, the chief of the Salian Franks, who issued from Germany, and made himself master of Gaul, embraced Christianity a. d. 496 ; as did also the Burgun- dians, another German tribe, who settled in Gaul. These barbarian tribes set about the extirpation of paganism with all the zeal of new converts, and soon effected by violence, what repeated imperial Edicts had failed to do. 111. In the East, the reign of Arcadius was but short, and he was succeeded by Theodosius II., a. d. 408, who reigned till A. D. 450. This part of the Empire being less harassed by invasions and wars, was the scene of violent religious contro- versies and contentions. That which was excited by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, caused very great disturbances, which continued for several centuries under various forms. He was the disciple of Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia, in Cilicia, the leader of a school of divines, who sought to bring down everything in Scripture to a level of the human understanding, by bringing to bear upon it the reasonings of ordinary criticism and the grammatical explanation of the text. Theodore had, during the thirty-five years that he held his bishopric (394 — 429), and long before, been considered an orthodox preacher and writer, and the champion of the Church against the Arian, Apollinarian, and other sectaries. But after his death the tendency of his doctrines was discovered from the views put forth by his disciple Nestorius. It was then found, that in his writings he held erroneous views on Original Sin, and taught that the work of Christ was not so much to restore the human A. D. 431.] General Council of Ei^hestis. 139 race from a state of ruin and perdition, the consequence of sin, as to raise man's imperfect nature to a position, where he may be enabled to reaHze the true end of his existence. Hence he held humanitarian views of the person and character of Christ ; and whilst professing to hold the incarnation of the Divine Word or Logos, he yet dwelt upon the progressive moral developement of His human nature, and denied the exaltation of that nature to divine perfection till after His resurrection. This view led Nestorius to entertain doubts as to the Divinity of Christ, to which he gave vent in his objection to the title of BeoTOKos, or Mother of God, under which great honours began to be lavished on the Virgin Mary (p. 133.), maintaining that it would be sufficient to style her ;^ptoT07-oVo$-, or Ilother of Christ. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, a violent and worldly man, and like his uncle and predecessor, Theophilus, the bitter enemy of Chrysostom (p. 135.), jealous of the superiority enjoyed by the see of Canstantinople, took immediate advantage of the open assertion of his view by Nestorius, to raise up violent enmity against him in Constantinople and the East, as well as at Rome and in the "West. He accused him of denying the union of the two natures, the Godhead and Manhood, in the person of Jesus Christ ; and having prevailed upon the Emperor to call a Third (Ecumenical Council at Ephesus, a. d. 431, Cyril proceeded in all haste to condemn and degrade Nestorius from his Bishopric, before the arrival of John, Patriarch of Antioch, and many other Bishops, who had been summoned to the Council; whence new and bitter dissensions arose. The doctrine established by this council, and which has since been held by nearly all Christendom, is, that Christ is one divine Person, in whom two natures were united, without being mixed or confounded (see our Second Church Article, and the Athana- sian Creed). The Emperor Theodosius II. reluctantly yielded to the view of his courtiers, who had been bribed with enormous sums by Cyril, to sanction the decree of deposition of Nestorius; and when at the next avoidance of the see the patriarch's friends 140 Eutyches. Dioscorus. Leo. [cent. v. sought to obtain his restoration, his enemies renewed their efforts, and procured his banishment, first to Petra, in Idumcea, thence to the Great Oasis in Africa, whence he escaped to Egypt, where he soon sunk under the cruel hardships he was made to undergo. The so called Nestorian doctrine was after- wards spread by his active and zealous followers, through Chald^a, Persia, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary, and China, and still prevails among various tribes in the East. 112. The opposition to the Nestorian principle of dividing the two natures of Christ, the Divine and the human, led his adversaries to the opposite extreme ; and one Eutyches openly declared the unity of the nature of Christ, considered as the Incarnate Word. He was summoned to appear before a Council of Bishops, assembled at Constantinople by the Patriarch Flavi- ANUS, where he maintained his belief in one incarnate nature of God the Word, but refused to disclaim the errors with which he was charged. He was excommunicated and deposed as Abbot of a large monastery, being jconsidered to hold the eiTor of Apollinarius (§. 105). The Eutychian party appealed to a general council, which the Emperor agreed to summon, and which met at Ephesus a. d. 449, under the presidency of Dios- corus, the worthy successor of Cyril in the see of Alexandria, and still more arrogant and furious. Leo, Bishop of Rome, instead of appearing personally, sent a Letter to Flavian, in which he so ably explained and illustrated from Scripture the doctrine of the union of the two perfect natures in Christ, that it was appealed to as the standard of orthodoxy upon this point. The proceedings of the Council were so violent, that it received the name of latrocinium, or a band of robbers. Through the influence of Dioscorus the Eutychian cause triumphed. Flavi- anus was condemned and deposed; and after being brutally beaten and ill-treated by Dioscorus himself, and by others of his adversaries, he died a few days after. Leo, and a synod of Western Bishops, refused to acknowledge the decrees of this Council as valid, and demanded a new General Council. The new Emperor A. D. 451.] General Council of Chalcedon. 141 Marcian, who succeeded Theodosius II. in 450, summoned the Fourth (Ecumenical Council to meet in 451 at Chalcedon^ on the Bosphorus, opposite Constantinople, where Jive or six hundred Bishops assembled, including but very few from the West. After several stormy sessions, during which the Egyptian Patriarch was deserted by all except thirteen members, he was deposed for his violence, rather than for false doctrine, and banished to Gangra, in Paphlagonia, where he died three years after. The Council confirmed the decrees of the three previous (Ecumenical Councils of Niceea, Constantinople, and Ephesus ; approved Leo's Letter to Flavian, and maintained that Christ was " perfect God and perfect Man, of the same substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and of the same substance with man as regards his manhood, to be acknowledged in two natures, without con- fusion, change, division, or separation ; &c., &c." The Eutychian party had been brought to own that Christ was " of two natures," as having had two natures before his Incarnation ; but they would not acknowledge that afterwards he was in two natures. Hence they were known as Monophysites (from yLovrj single, cpvo-is nature). This Council also confirmed the title of Patriarch, lately assumed by the Bishop of Jerusalem ; it raised the Patriarchs of Constantinople to perfect equality with the Popes of Rome, and confirmed them in the jurisdiction they had assumed over several provinces beyond the original limits of their see, especially Blyricum, which was claimed by Rome. Hence the jealousy existing between these two sees was further heightened, till finally the two Churches were entirely separated from communion with each other (§ 141.). 113. The disputes between the Monophysites and Catholics nevertheless continued at Constantinople, Antioch, and Alex- andria, and great confusion ensued by the repeated changes aad depositions of Bishops. At length the Emperor Zeno, surnamed the Isaurian (a.d. 474 — 491), to appease the contentions, required the subscription to a declaration, called the Henoticon, (from ivoTTjt unit?/), drawn up in 482 with the advice of Acacius, 142 Felagius and [cent. v. Patriarch of Constantinople (a. d. 471 — 489.), confirming the Nicene creed, as completed by the Council of Constantinople {§ 101.), condemning both Nestorius and Edtyches, and main- taining that Christ is " of the same substance with the Father as touching his Godhead, and with man as touching his Man- hood ;" but avoiding the contested phrases " of" or " in two natures." An ambiguous allusion in this document to the Council of Chalcedon, however, offended the ultra catholics ; and in Egypt, the extreme Eutychians refused their assent, and formed a party known as the AcepJiali {a privative , and K€(f)akr])j because they had no head. 114. After the East had been so long distracted by the disputes concerning the nature and personality of Christ, a new contest arose in the West, upon the subject of the real condition of man in respect to that salvation, which has been wrought out for the human race by the Son of God. This new discussion was originated by a native of Wales or Ireland, named Morgan^ which in the Welsh or Celtic tongue signifying sea-horn^ was rendered by the classical word Pelagius, and his doctrine was called Pelagianism. He was a monk, probably of the celebrated monastery of Bangor; and his character stood high in his age for learning, piety, and purity of life. After long study of the theological writers of the Eastern churches, and having perhaps visited the East, he appeared at Rome at the beginning of the fifth century, and there wrote his Commentaries on St PauVs Epistles, still extant, in which, especially in that on the Epistle to the Romans, his peculiar doctrine may be traced, although the present text is considerably altered from the original. At Rome, Pelagius obtained great influence over an advocate, named CcELESTius, whom he induced to devote himself to a religious life as a monk; and he it was who first opened the great controversy. The peculiar doctrines which constitute Pelagianism, are, that Adam did not communicate to his posterity the stain of sin, as the consequence of the Fall of our first parents in Paradise ; and that men do not stand in need of divine Grace to enable them Ho do good works pleasant and acceptable to CENT, v.] Pelagianism. 143 God,' but that they can do so of their own free will, and so an-ive at a state of impeccalility {see ix. and x. of the xxxix Articles). CcELESTirs appears to have been refused ordination in Africa A. D. 410, and was condemned and excommunicated there in 412 by a Council held at Carthage. Pelagius appears also to have visited Carthage, where he met Augustine; and both he and CcELESTius after this visited Palestine, and made acquaintance with Jerome (p. 132.), who became their vehement antagonist. A Council held at Jerusalem in 415, and another at Lydda {Diospolis) late in the same year, acquitted Pelagius, when charged with holding heretical opinions by some ecclesiastics of the West. Meanwhile Ccelestius was ordained at Ephesus, and Pelagius published a book on the " Freedom of the Will " ; and in 416 a synod at Carthage, and another at 3Iilevi, in Numidia, condemned their doctrine, and hastened to inform Innocent, Bishop of Rome, of the circumstances of the case, and he joined in the condemnation of the Pelagian opinions. Pelagius and C(elestius proceeded to Rome in the year 417, and found there the new Bishop, Zosimus, favourable to their views. But upon their condemnation in the same year by a numerous Council, held at Carthage under the auspices of Augustine (p. 112.), and their consequent banishment by an imperial decree, the Pope yielded up his infallihility (§ 444.), and joined in condemning Pelagianism. From this time Pelagius is lost sight of in history, and probably died soon after, since he had already attained an advanced age. His doctrine, however, which had been held more or less explicitly by Theodore of Mopsuestia^ and other early Fathers, as appears from passages in their writings, was still maintained by many Italian and Gallic Bishops ; and Julian, Bishop of Eclanmiiy near Beneventum, became the leader of Pelagianism The General Council of Ephesus (§ 111.), in 431, found it necessary to pass a con- demnatory canon against the Pelagians. But the most distin- guished adversary of the doctrines of Pelagius was Augustine. 144 Augustine. [cent. v. This distinguished Latin Father was bom a. d. 354, at Thagaste, a city in Numidia, and an Episcopal see. His father was a heathen, but his mother, Monica, was a pious Christian, and had her son trained up as a catechumen from his tenderest years. He studied at Carthage, and early evinced an energetic mind and character. Having lost his father at the age of 17, he was led by some wayward tendency of his mind to embrace Manichean doctrines in his nineteenth year, and continued attached to that party, till in his 28th year his eyes were opened to the real nature and tendency of their morals and maxims ; and then he became a sceptic in his rehgious views. In 383 he visited Rome, and there failed to obtain a maintenance as a lecturer, as well as at IMilan, where he heard Ambrose preach. His failure and disappointment seem to have thrown him into an illness, which appears to have produced in him a more serious and religious turn of mind. His mother, who joined him in 384, availed herself of this state of his mind, and induced him to place himself again in the position of a catechumen ; and at length, on Easter Eve a. d. 387 he was baptized by Ambrose (see § 263.). In the following year, after the death of his mother, he returned to Africa. He was ordained at Hippo Regius in 391 ; and in 395 became coadjutor Bishop there to Valerius, at whose death in the same year, he succeeded to that see, which he adorned with his learning and Christian zeal till his death, a. d. 429. The doctrine with which Augustine met that of Pelagius was, that Adam by his free-will became estranged from God, and that thenceforward man's will was only bent on evil, to which he was as it were in bondage ; wherefore, in order to regain his free-will to do good, he needs the aid of God, the only fountain of goodness, who is willing to bestow this aid freely by the influence of His Holy Spirit, that is, by his free grace, acting on man's inner nature (see § 398, 399.). This grace, moreover, he considered to be bestowed only on a certain limited number of men, whom God by His predestination, or predetermined purpose, has decreed to deliver and save from the condemnation, under CENT, v.] and Augustinianism. 145 which all the posterity of Adam have fallen by his guilt, which is communicated by natural generation. For he deemed that the whole human race, afterwards sprung from Adam, was already present in his person. And this he thought was proved by the passage Horn. v. 12. as mistranslated in the Latin Version of Jerome (p. 133.), which his ignorance of Greek compelled him solely to rely upon ; viz. in quo omnes peccaverunt, " in ivhom all have sinned," in Greek icf) rendered correctly in our Version " for that." It will be seen here that the tendency of Pelagianism, like that of former heresies (see § 88.), was, to throw men upon their own natural reason as their only resource for their guidance, to the disparagement of everything in Scripture that transcends the human understanding ; whereas Augustine, in accordance with the actual declarations of Scripture, and with the general belief of the Christian Church from the beginning, maintained, that God exercises a providential superintendence and absolute control over the affairs and destinies of mankind. The most advanced reasonings of some of the Pelagian party led to a cold rationalism, and the rejection of every thing in the Bible except its moral injunctions; whilst some among the adherents of Augustine, carried his views of the absolute predestination of a limited number to the ultimate attainment of salvation, through the influence of the irresistible grace of God causing their final perseverance^ to such an extreme in their logical deductions, that there appeared persons who charged the Augustinian system with leading to the dangerous conclusions, that human actions are immaterial, and human efforts for the conversion of the wicked unavaiUng, in the face of God's free gijt of grace in accordance with his secret decrees, predetermined from everlast- ing. So dangerous it is to presume to define the actual mode of God's dealing with his creatures, by the mere aid of human reason, and the devious and contradictory intricacies of argument in which it may lose itself in pursuing its thoughts, so suscep- tible of shght errors of reasoning, undiscoverable by the disputants K 146 Sem i-Pe lagians. [cent. v. on either side, but likely to lead, if pursued into their logical consequences, to the most dangerous extremes. Hence a party arose, later known as Semi- Pelagians^ who sought to establish a middle course between the two opposing tendencies. The foundation of this party is generally traced to John Cassian, who, after being trained in a monastery at Beth- lehem, and then residing for a long time among the monks in Egypt, had been ordained as Deacon by Chrysostom (p. 135.), after whose fall he removed to Rome ; and having been ordained as Presbyter, he finally settled at Marseilles (MassiUa, whence his followers were first called Massilians), where he founded a monastery for each sex, about the year 425 (see § 430.). He acknowledged the universal corruption of human nature to be the result of the Fall of our first parents, and agreed with Augustine as regards the necessity of grace ; but he refused to make religious principles depend on mere logical demonstration, and refers every thing to simple faith in the love of God, who wills not the death of any man, but that all should come to repentance and to the knowledge of salvation, and freely gives of His Spirit to all them that ask it. Hence he rejected the doctrine of absolute predestination and election; and he con- sidered the conflict between the flesh and the spirit as the con- sequence of the Fall, which by the co-operation of grace is made a salutary moral training to us, whereby we are placed on our guard against all spiritual enemies within us and without. Tliese two partly coincident, partly divergent lines of doctrine, as traced out by Augustine and Cassian respectively, have ever since divided the Western Church, both founded in sincere faith and practice ; the only difference being, that the former system was based upon the rigid logical deductions of a certain view of human nature in its relation to God, and thus aiming at satisfy- ing the doubts of intellectual and subtle minds, like that of Augustine; whereas the latter was based upon the practical inward experiences of human nature, and so appealing to the hearts of the unphilosophical and simple-minded. 115. Tlie superstitions, which had in the former century CENT, v.] Superstition and Corruption. 147 begun to be introduced (§ 108.), became generally prevalent in this. Such were the belief in purgatory, encouraged by Augustine; the general introduction of pictures and images of saints and martyrs in churches, the actual adoration offered to them, and the excessiye veneration of their relics. — The extension of ascetic and monastic ideas gave more strength to the hitherto languid principle of celibacy as incumbent on the clergy, which now began to be enforced by the Popes, and through them by Synods. The wars and devastations, caused by the inroads of the northern barbarians, made the practice of processions, and the chanting of Litanies, composed for the occasion, very common, with a view to the aversion of the calamities which threatened whole com- munities. For this purpose pompous vestments were adopted by the clergy, and the churches were gorgeously decked out and ornamented, and lighted up with numerous tapers even in the day time. In order to procure funds for such objects, the giving of alms, and donations to the clergy, were recommended as means of obtaining forgiveness of sins. The corruption of the characters of both clergy and laity, caused by this mercenary principle, and the rapid increase of church property, soon made it desirable and necessary to dispense with the performance of 'public penance in churches; and Pope Leo L, surnamed the Great, in 457 substituted for it the private confession of sins to a priest. The scandals which had arisen from the same cause, had made it necessary to discontinue the Agapce, or Feasts of Charity, at the celebration of the Lord's Supper, which now began to be celebrated daily, often by the priest alone. Hence spmng the solitary masses of later times, performed for payment, and presumed to procure special benefits for the living or the dead. Lastly, tithes were exacted as the dues of the clergy, instituted by divine command in the Old Testament, which was in other respects employed to minister to the superstition of the time, no longer to be satisfied by the simple purity of worship and of life prescribed in the New. 116. In this century paganism still maintained itself, not K 2 148 St. Patrick converts the Irish, [cent. v. only among the lower classes, especially in country villages (whence pagani), but also among a class of philosophers still presiding over the schools at Athens, and called Neo-Platonists and Eclectics (§ 65.). Among these were Heron, the Mathe- matician ; Syrianus, his contemporary, and Proclus, his disciple ; and Marinus, the disciple and biographer of Proclus. Several Emperors issued Edicts, prohibiting under severe penalties the exercise of the heathen sacrifices and worship. In 451 such a joint Edict was issued by Yalentinian III. (p. 154.) and Marcian (§ 112.); and in 4G7 another by Anthemius and Leo; though Anthemius himself has been charged with a secret leaning towards heathenism, but upon insufficient grounds. Christianity continued to spread among the barbarians who came in contact with Koman civilization, or to whom the influence of missionaries and ascetics extended. Thus some Saracenic nomads were converted by Symeon, a Syrian monk, known by the surname of Stylites, from the extraordinary mode of penance or discipline he inflicted on himself, in standing for years on the summit of a high column {(TTv\r)\ whence he addressed exhortations and advice to all comers, among whom were the envoys of sovereigns. In this century Patricius or St. Patrick, in his own language Succath, a native of Scotland, converted the Irish, among whom he had lived for six years as a captive, having been carried off by pirates at the age of sixteen. Ten years after his escape he was again earned off to Gaul in the same manner ; and after obtaining his freedom, he is said to have visited Rome with a determination to enter into holy orders. If the received account is true, the news just then arrived of the death of Palladius, a missionary sent by Pope Coeles- TiNUs to the Scots, as the natives of Ireland were then called ; and Pope Sixtus III. sent Patrick to that island in the same year 432, when he was forty-Jive years old. He was ordained Bishop in Britain, a fact which is almost inconsistent with his mission under the authority of the Roman see. In spite of the opposition of the Druids, he appears to have gained great influence over the people, of all ranks and ages, whom lie assembled by boat of CENT, v.] Christianiti) in Europey Persia, dc. 149 drum, to instruct them in the principles and doctrines of Chris- tianity. He had a great advantage over his predecessor in his acquaintance with the people's language, which he even reduced to writing by the invention of an alphabet. He ordained a native clergy, and founded monastic institutions. Another celebrated missionary was Severinus, the Apostle of Norictim or Southern Germany, who, from 457 till his death in 482, zealously exerted himself in preaching the Gospel to the heathen. The Franks who crossed the Khine as early as the year 430, and gradually spread over Belgium and Gaul, at length in 485 under Clovis, their chieftan, defeated Syageius, the Roman commander in Gaul, and founded the kingdom of France. Clovis and his people were heathens till the year 496, when after the battle of Tolhiac (Ziilpig, near Bonn) he was converted by his Queen, Clotilda, a Burgundian princess, and was bap- tized on Christmas-day, with 3000 of his waniors, at Bheims, by the Archbishop Remigius. His conversion, however, appears to have been but outward, for king and people continued as barbarous and ferocious as ever. The Goths and Vandals also, in Italy, Spain, and Africa, as partizans of tlie Arian Christians, showed themselves but little influenced by the spirit of the Gospel in their fierce and cruel persecution of the Catholics. In Persia likewise, a thirty years' persecution began in 418, in con- sequence of a temple of the fire- worshippers, dedicated to OiDiuzD, having been destroyed by the over-zealous Abdas, Bishop of Susa. The protection extended to the fugitive Chris- tians, caused a war between the Persian and Roman Empires, during which the generous conduct of Acacius, a Mesopotamian Bishop, who sold the church plate to redeem the Persian prisoners in the hands of the Romans, and sent them home, won the heart of the Persian sovereign in favour of his Christian subjects. The persecution had extended also to Armenia, then subject to Persia, the calamities of which arc recorded by Moses of Chorene, the Armenian historian. 150 Writings of Augustine, [cent. v. 116.* The Ecclesiastical writers of the time, with a few marked exceptions, had greatly degenerated from the zeal, piety, and learning of those who adorned the earlier ages of the Church. This decline must be attributed to the disturbed state of society during the inroads of the barbarians, who overthrew for a time the institutions, which had kept together the framework of the Eoman Empire ; and the degraded state of. general literature, which began to usher in the dark ages, must be ascribed to the same cause. The great luminary of Christian learning in this century was Augustine, whose history has been traced above (§ 114.). His earliest writings were : 1. Be Apto et Pulchro, when he was a Manichean, at the age of 27. 2. De Morihus UcdesicB Catholicce et ManichcBorum. 3. De Quantitate Animce. 4. De Libera Arbitrio. 6. De Genesi. Against the Manicheans, after his return to Africa. 6. De Vera JReligione. 7. De duabus Animabm, against the Manicheans. 8. De TItilitate Credendi. 9. Contra Fatisttm Manichceum. His writings against the Donatists (§ 104.) embrace 1. Contra Parmeiftanum. 2. Contra Cresconium. 3. Contra literas Vetiliani. 4. A Poem against the Donatists. 5. Gesta cum Emerito 6, Breviculus Collationis (see § 104.) 7. Ad Donatistas post Collationem. 8. Contra Gaudentium, the last work he wrote in this cause. Against the Pelagians he wrote : 1. De Libero Arbitrio. 2. De Natura et Gratia. 3. De Gratia Christi. 4. De Corruptione et Gratia. 5. De Gestis Pelagii. 6. De Peccati Origine. 7. De Peccatorum Meritis et Remissione. 8. Expositio Prsepositionum ex Epistola ad Romanes. 9. De Perfectione Justonim. 10. De Praedestinatione Sanctorum. 11. De Dono Perseverantise. 12. Contra Julianum, a work left unfinished, against the Bishop of Eclanum, the head of the party after the death of Pelagius. (p. 143.). Of his other works, which it is needless to enumerate all, some of the chief are : 1. De Anima et ejus Origine. 2. De Fide et Operibus, 3. De Doctrina Christiana. 4. De Spiritu et Litera. 5. De Unitate Ecclesiae. 6. De Opere Monachorum. 7. De Nuptiis et Concupiscentia. 8. De Hseresi. 9. Qusestiones in Exodum. 10. Enarrationes in Psalmos. 11. De Bono Conjugali. 12. De Catechizandis Rudibus. CENT, v.] of Pelagius, and Cassian. 151 But the most important of all his works were 1. De Civitate Dei. 2. His Confessions. 3. His Eetractations. The first is a defence of Christianity, and of God's government of his people, against the heathens, who objected, that great calamities had befallen the early Christian Church ; that the peaceful doctrines of the Gospel were inconsistent with good government ; and lastly, that the complicated evils, which had befallen the Roman Empire, were a punishment for the neglect of the worship of the heathen gods. This work is a noble monument of earnest faith and zeal, but its logic is not always sound. It was begun in the year 413, and was not finished tiU 426. The next work gives an account of his youthful course of sensuahty, worldHness, and scepticism, and of the various steps that led to his conversion. The last is a review of all the errors in his writings, with a view to their correction, and the explanation of such passages as had been misunderstood and misinterpreted. Pelagius, the celebrated antagonist of Augustine, wrote many treatises on the subject of his peculiar views, but few of which have come down to us entire. Of others we have only quotations in the Anti-Pelagian works of Augustine, whilst the rest are lost. Those extant are : 1. Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul, in 14 Books, at one time attributed to Jeeome (p. 132.), the objectionable passages of the original having been expunged. 2. Letter to Demetrias, in which his views on human nature are clearly stated. 3. Libellus Fidei, a formal confession of faith, addressed to Pope Innocent I. a. d. 417. Cassl\.n, the author of Semi-Pelagiamsjn, was bom about A. D. 360 in the East, either in Syria or Pontus; and hfter receiving his education in a monastery at Bethlehem, he went in 390 with his faithful friend, Gekmanus, to Egypt. Seven years after he revisited Palestine, and returned again to the Thebaid. In 403 he went to Constantinople, and was ordained Deacon by Chrysostom (p. 135.), at whose fall he went on a mission on his 152 Prosper. M. Mercator. Theodoret. [cent. v. behalf to Pope Innocent. In 415 we find liim a Presbyter, and Abbot of the monastery of St. Victor, at Marseilles, then con- taining 5000 monks. After his death, which took place after 433, he was canonized. His extant writings are : 1. De Institutis CoenoUorum, in xii Books, by which the numerous monasteries that sprang up in southern Gaul were regulated. 2. Collationes Patrum, being xxiv Conversations with Egyptian Monks on various rehgious topics. In the thirteenth he gives his pecuhar views on original sin, free-will, divine grace, and predestination, steering a middle course between the doctrines of Pelagius, and those of Augustine. 3. Be Incarnatione Christi, written about 430, against Nestoeius, at the request of Leo, then still Archdeacon, later Pope. Cassian's style is simple and inornate, but plain, firm, and decisive, free from the affectation and meretricious finery, which characterize the literature of his time. Prosper of Aquitaine, in the south-west of Gaul, had settled in Provence, where the Semi-Pelagian doctrines were then spreading ; and there he ably headed a small party holding the theological views of Augustine. Besides several historical works, and a poem, " Carmen de Ingratis," against those who rejected the doctrine of the necessity and free gift of divine grace, he wrote also the following controversial works : 1. De Gratia Dei et Lihero Arbitrio. 2. Pro Augustino Responsiones. 3. De Reliquiis Hareseos Pelagiance. 4. Expositio Psalmorum C. ad CL. 5. Select Opinions from Augustine'' s worJcs, and some others. Marius Mercator, a zealous layman, wrote many treatises against Pelagius and Nestorius, during the first half of this century. His writings have not been noticed by any ancient author except Augustine ; and they were wholly unknown in modern times, till they were discovered in a MS. in the Vatican Library at Rome in the 17th century. They consist of : — 1. A Treatise against Ccelestius, the Pelagian, written in the year 418. 2. Commonitorium, written in Greek, and some years afterwards trans- lated into Latin. 3. And nearly 20 other tracts or treatises. Theodorbtus, born at Antioch about 390, became Bishop of Cyrus or Cyrrhus on the Euphrates, about 420, and was one of CENT, v.] Cyril of Alexandria. Orosius. 153 the ablest and most Yoluminous writers of his time, some of whose worivs brought upon him the bitter persecution of those who were opposed to Nestorius (§ 111.), whose part he took, rather because he thought him wronged by furious enemies, than because he entirely approved his theological views ; for after- wards he showed himself opposed to those views. His extant works are : 1. Commentaries on most of the Books of the Old Testament and on the Epistles of St. Paul. 2. Hcclesia^ical Sistonj, from Constantine to the death of Theodore of Mopsuestia, a. d. 429. 3. Lives of Thirty celebrated Sermits. 4. Several Treatises against Cyril of Alexandria and the Eutychians. 5. Hcereticarvm Fahularam Epitome, in which he bitterly attacks Nestorius, to conciliate the Eutychians. 6. On Seathen Philosophy. 7. Orations, Homilies, and Tracts. 8. Nearly 200 Letters, historically important. Cyril, Bishop or Patriarch of Alexandria from 412 to 444, wrote many works, which, in spite of his violent temper and questionable moral character, were held in high esteem among the orthodox. Those extant are : 1. Commentaries on the Pentateuch, Isaiah, the Twelve Minor Pro- phets, and John. 2. Against Nestorius. 3. Against Julian. 4. Several Treatises on the Trinity. 5. Several on the Incarnation. 6. On Spiritual Worship. 7. Somilies and Epistles. 8. Varioics controversial ivorJcs. Orosius, a Spanish Presbyter, who in 413 went over to Africa to visit Augustine, at his request wrote an account of the views of the Priscillianists (§ 105.) and Origenists in Spain, which is known by the title of Commonitorium. In 414 he went to Palestine, to check the progress of Pelagius, and for that purpose wrote (2) his book entitled " De Arhitrii Libertate. On his return to Africa he wrote (3) a Universal History^ to disprove the assertion of the heathens, that the calamities of the time, caused by the invasions of the barbarians in the Roman 154 Leo I. Isidore of Pelusium. [cent. v. Empire, were brought upon it by the gods as a punishment for the neglect of their worship, and the general adoption of Chris- tianity, by showing that the furious passions of men had always produced similar calamities. This work, which is not at all to be relied upon for its facts, was translated into Anglo-Saxon by Idng Alfred the Great. The Epistles or Letters of Orosius to Augustine and others, are lost ; and various other works have been falsely ascribed to him. Leo I, Pope of Rome, a. d. 440 — 461, was a man of great intellectual power, of a lofty and aspiring mind, and distinguished political ability. His great object was to establish the supremacy of the " Apostolic Chair " over all other Churches ; and he obtained from Valentinian III, Emperor of the West, an Edict, giving the Bishop of Eome supremacy over the Churches of Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Britain. Of his writings we possess 96 Sermons^ and 173 Letters on heresies, controversies, and other religious or ecclesiastical subjects. Many Tracts by unknown authors, or spurious productions of later times, have been falsely ascribed to him. Palladius, born about 367, became a monk at the age of 20, and Bishop of Hellenopolis, in Bithynia, in 400, and was trans- lated to Aspuna, in Galatia, in 419 or 420, where he soon after died. He is chiefly known as the author of the Lausiac History ^ so called because addressed to Lausus, chamberlain to the Emperor Theodosius II, giving accounts of many monks and hermits, with which the writer became acquainted in his very extensive travels in Egypt, Asia, and Europe. A life of Chry- sosTOM has also been ascribed to him, but is not considered to be his. Pope Ccelestinus in the year 431, wrote a letter ad Epis- copos Gallorum, against Cassian and the Semi-^elagians. Isidore, Abbot of Pelusium, in Egypt, a native of Alexandria"., and an adherent of Chrysostom in opposition to the Patriarchs Theophilus and Cyril, possessed very great influence and authority in his time. He died at an advanced age about 450, CENT, v.] Socrates. Sozomen. Philostorgius. 155 and left above 2000 letters, almost all learned and pious exposi- tions of passages of Scripture. A work against the Gentiles, ascribed to him by ancient authors, is lost. Socrates, who was born at Constantinople about 379, and practised there as a pleader, is the author of an Ecclesiastical History^ extending from the time of ConsTANTiNE to the year 439, which year he must therefore have survived. His work, which is intended as a continuation of that of Eusebius, is carefully written, and the judgment formed of the various parties is founded upon an impartial weighing of the evidences on both sides, as might be expected from one practised in legal proceedings. Sozomen, also a lawyer of Constantinople, was bom at Bethel in Palestine, where he contracted an admiration of monastic hfe. " He also wrote an Ecclesiastical History^ ending abruptly at the death of Honorius, a. d. 423. He borrows from Socrates, adding besides an account of the ascetics. He excels his pre- decessor in style, but is his inferior in judgment. He lived till after the year 443, but the exact date of his death is unknown. Philostorgius, an Arian, also wrote a History in the Arian interest, extending from the year 300 to 425, which, however, has only come down to us in an abstract by Photius, a writer of the eighth century. Gennadius, a Presbyter of Marseilles, wrote a continuation of Jerome's " De Viris Ulustribus," containing one hundred short lives, and extending from 392 to 495. The last life given is his own, in which he says : " Scripsi (1) Adversus Omnes Hcereses Libros VIII. (2) Adversus Nestorium VI. (3) Adversus Pelagium III. (4) Tractatus de Millennio et Apocalypsi (5) Epistola de Fide 3Iea, ad Gelasium " (Pope, d. 496.). The last work, and the Lives, are alone extant. Besides the above, we have fragments of the celebrated Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia (§ 111.), chiefly consisting of citations from his numerous works in the Acts of the Fifth (Ecumenical Council (§ 118.), which condemned him and his writings 124 years after his death. He wrote Commentaries on 156 De Vocatione Gentium.'" [cent. v. nearly all the Books of the Bible, and he considered the Book of Job, the Song of Solomon, the Epistle of St James, the 2nd and 3rd of John, and that of Jude, as uncanonical. His Com- mentaries on Jonah, Obadiah, and Xahum, the Prefaces to Amos, Zacchariah, Haggai, Hosea, and fragments of those on St. Luke, are alone extant, with some fragments of a treatise called 'EpfXT]V€ta ttJs ktl(T€co9, one on the Nicene Creed, and one on Baptism, and a Confession of Faith. — We have also the Acts of the First Council {Niccea) by Gelasius of Cyzicus, who is by some writers styled Bishop of Casarea in Palestine. — Arxobius the younger (see p. 93.), a Semipelagian, wrote an allegorical Commentary on the Psalms. — Maxdids, Bishop of Turin, who also lived during the first half of the century, has left some 230 Horailies and Sermons, chiefly on the Festivals of the Church, and on the lives of saints and martyrs; and some Tracts on Baptism, against Pagans, against Jews, and on portions of the New Testament. They are weak and scarcely worthy of preservation. — Salviax, a learned Presbyter, bom at or near Treves, was never raised to the Episcopal order, but was styled the " Master of Bishops." His extant works are (1) Adversus Avaritiam, to reprove the corruption of the clergy of his time ; and (2) De Providentia Dei, with reference to the troubles and wars of his time. Lastly, we have to notice two anonymous works, which appeared in this century, on the Pelagian controversy, under the titles " i)e Vocatione Gentium'^ (On the Call of All Nations), and " Prcedestinatus " (Predestined). The former work, which has been attributed to Prosper of Aquitaine (see above), from its similarity in thoughts and style to his writings, seems designed to reconcile the two opposing views. But the decided adoption of Augustine's views by Prosper in his genuine works, makes it improbable that he would have sought to promote a com- promise. Some moderns have supposed it to have been written by Pope Leo the Great, before he was raised to that highest dignity. But in that case it would afterwards have been acknow- A. D. 518.] Disturbances at Constantinople. 157 ledged as his, especially as Pope Gelasius, who cites it as anonymous, considers it as orthodox. Though the leaning of the doctrine of the book is decidedly in favour of Augustine, yet his name is nowhere mentioned in it, probably the better to effect the intended compromise. The second book appears to have proceeded from a party who carried the predestinarian views to their most extreme con- sequences, and maintained that the predestined were certain of attaining to salvation in the end, whatever may be their conduct in this hfe. These extreme opinions, though known to have been held at the time, have yet led some to consider the book as composed by a Semi-Pelagian (p. 146.), in order to discredit the doctrine of Augustine, by exhibiting it in its worst tendencies. Nevertheless there are features in this remarkable tract, which indicate too strong an individuality of thought for the supposition, that it was composed by one writing in an assumed personality. SIXTH CENTURY. 117. The disputes between the advocates of the Council of Chalcedon (§. 112.) and the Monophy sites , had been by no means settled by the agreement of the moderate men of both parties to accept the Henoticon of Zeno (§. 113.) ; and the reign of his suc- cessor, Anastasius I. (a. d. 491 — 518.), was distracted by distur- bances, caused by the zealots on both sides, in Syria, Egypt, and Constantinople. In order to reconcile the opponents, Anas- tasius had been induced by a monk, Severus, later Patriarch' of Antioch, to add to the Trisagion (see § 300.) the words "Thou who wast crucified for us" (6 o-raupox^eis bC rifxas), as antagonistic to their common adversaries, the Nestorians. These words had been already added in 463, by Peter, surnamcd Gnapheus^ or the Fuller (a trade he had exercised as monk), Patriarch of Antioch (§. 264.), who was a Monophysite ; whence they were violently objected to at Constantinople, as not appH- cable to the whole Trinity, but only to CuRibT. The disturbances, 158 Justinian. [cent. VI.. which began in the Cathedral, were continued in the streets, and led to a religious civil war, which for ten years devastated the Eastern Empire. Vitalian, a commander of the army, took advan- tage of this state of things in 514, and with a force of heathen barbarians besieged the capital, till he compelled the Emperor to uphold the decrees of Chalcedon. His successor, Justin (a. d. 518 — 527.), who was governed by his chief ministers, Vitalian and Justinian, allowed the orthodox party to hold undisputed supremacy, and to restore the communion with Rome, which had been interrupted since Felix, Bishop of Eome (483 — 492.), had, in defence of the Council of Chalcedon and of Leo's Letter to Flavian (§. 112.), excommunicated Acacius, Patriarch of Con- stantinople, and been excommunicated by the latter in turn, A. D. 484. 118. The long and able reign of Justinian (a. d. 527 — 565) tended to restrain the open violence of the sectaries; for this Emperor, relying upon the power he acquired over the whole Western as well as Eastern Empire, through the valour of his generals Belisaeius and Narses, assumed the functions of both temporal and ecclesiastical legislator. But the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Monophysite party, succeeded by her intrigues to get Anthimus, Bishop of Trebizond, appointed Patriarch of Constantinople in 535; and when the Pope, Agapetos, in the following year, visited the eastern capital as ambassador of Theodoric (§. 110.), and on the discovery of the Patriarch's views procured his deposition, as having violated the Nicene canon against translation (§ 95.), the Empress by new intrigues obtained the Roman see for Vigilius, the Archdeacon in attendance on Agapetus, when the latter opportunely died on his journey homewards, a. d. 538. Vigilius made a secret compact with the Empress against the Council of Chalcedon, though he upheld its decrees outwardly, not to shock the universal feehn^ of the West ; and he gave a donative of 200 pounds of gold to Belisarius, the imperial general and governor in Italy, for his aid in procuring his election. The double part undertaken by A. D. 553.] The Three Chapters:' 159 this Prelate compelled him to act cautiously ; and the Empress being thus disappointed in her expectation of him, found another tool in Theodore of Ascidas, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, who generally resided at Constantinople. This man held many of the views of Origen, and so with his followers had excited the hostility of the orthodox party, who defended the Council of Chalcedon. This party induced the Emperor in 541 to assemble a synod under Mennas, the new Patriarch of Constantinople, which condemned the chief points objected to in the Origenist doctrines (p. 87.). To counteract the effect of this decision, Theodore persuaded the Emperor, that his favourite scheme of conciliating the Monophysites with the Catholic Church party might be effected, by the condemnation of Theodore of Mop- suestia and his writings (§. 111.), of the writings of Theodoret against Cyril of Alexandria, and the Epistle of Ibas of Edessa to IVIaris ; though these fathers had been finally acquitted of the charge of heresy by the Council of Chalcedon (§. 112.). Jus- tinian therefore in 544 issued an Edict, condemning the writings in question, which was known as the Edict against the " Three Chapters " (de tribus capituUs, nepl rpiav Ke^aXa/wi/). This gave rise to a violent opposition in Africa and the Western Church, where the authority of the Council of Chalcedon was deemed to be attacked. Many Bishops and clergy in the East, who refused to subscribe the Edict, were banished. But in the West it was found necessary to proceed with more caution. Yigilius, the double-minded Bishop of Rome, on his refusal to subscribe, was summoned to Constantinople, where he was detained for seven years, trying in vain to please both parties, by secretly binding himself to comply with the Emperor, and outwardly siding with the Western and African opposition, led by Facundus, the learned Bishop of Hermiane, and an able divine, Fulgentius Ferrandus. At length, when in 551 the Emperor issued a second Edict, more stringent than the former, Vigilius forbad its reception by the clergy on pain of excommunication. Tlie Emperor would then have proceeded to extremities against him, had he not taken 160 Fifth General Council. [cent. vi. sanctuary in a Church, and soon after escaped to Chalcedon. Justinian now called a Fifth (Ecumenical Council^ to assemble at Constantinople in 553, which approved the imperial Edicts ; and many Bishops, who refused to submit to its decrees, were deposed and banished. Yigilius, who was anxious to be released from the custody in which he was held, at length yielded, and acceded to the decrees of the Council; but on his return journey to Rome in 555, he died at Syracuse, in Sicily. His successor, Pelagius, recognised the Council ; but a schism arose in the Italian Church, headed by the Metropolitan of Aquileia, and embracing those who rejected the Fifth General Council as adverse to that of Chalcedon. This schism lasted for a century and a half, and led to the new Patriarchate of Aquileia, later transferred to Grado. The Monophysite party at Alexandria broke up into several sections, the two principal of which were the Phthartolatrce or Corruptibilists, who maintained that the body of Christ was corruptible; and the Aphthardocetce, or Incorruptibilists, who asserted the contrary. Justinian at his death, a. d. 565, ac- knowledged the latter as orthodox. In 545, Jacob BARADiEUS (also called Zanzalus) was made Patriarch of a schismatic Monophysite church in Syria and Mesopotamia, having his see at Antioch. He died in 578, and his party were after him called Jacobites. These violent disputes between the Eastern and Western Churches, were soon after heightened by the new controversies upon the Procession of the Spirit (§. 101.), and the worship of images (§ 130.), which ultimately led to their entire severance. (§141.). The Emperors who succeeded to the Eastern Empire during the remainder of the century, were too much occupied with their wars against Persia in the East, and against the Lombards in Italy, to devote much attention to ecclesiastical affairs. 119. The Bishops or Patriarchs of Rome continued their encroachments upon the authority and independence of other A. D. 590.] Gregory the Great. 161 Christian Bisliops; an(? in spite of the humiliations to which ViGiLiDS and others were forced to submit, they availed them- selves of circumstances, and of the weakness of individual Emperors, to enhance their own power and dignity. Thus when John I, in 525, went on an embassy to Constantinople for Theo- DORic, almost the whole population came out to meet him, with the Emperor Justin at their head, who prostrated himself before the Pontiff. Nevertheless they were as yet obliged to remain in subjection to the Gothic kings of Italy, who enforced the right to confirm their election, which was now always attended with great contests and corruption. And when in 552, Justinian became master of Italy by the conquests of his generals, he was not backward in enforcing the same right. But after his death their influence and power rapidly increased, especially by the aid, which they were able to render to the Emperors against the Lombards. A dispute arose a.d. 588, between Pope Pelagtus II. and John the Faster^ Patriarch of Constantinople, who styled himself (Ecumenical or Universal Bishop, which was opposed to the universal supremacy claimed by the Roman Pontiff, as Judge in the place of God and Vicegerent of the Most High, titles already given him a century before by Ennodius, Bishop of Ticinum (Pavia), in a panegyric on Pope Syivbiachus, who was opposed by a rival Pope, named Laurentius. At length Gregory I., surnamed the Great, who occupied the Papal chair from 590 to 604, carried the power of the Roman see to the highest degree it had yet attained. He was of a patrician family, well educated, but unacquainted with Greek. He had been Prsetor of Rome, till, at the age of foi^ti/, he founded six monas- teries, of one of which he became abbot ; and Pope Pelagius IL had made him one of the seven Deacons of the Church of Rome, and employed him as his agent (^Aprocrisiarius or Eesponsalis) at- the court of Constantinople. Acting upon the progressive assumptions of his predecessors, Gregory was actuated by the firm conviction, that, as the successor of St. Peter, considered as the chief of the Apostles, he was invested with the sovereign L 162 Benedict of Nursia. [cent. vi. supremacy over the whole Church of Christ. Though personally humble, and unwiUing to receive the title of Papa Universalis^ given him by the Patriarch of Alexandria, whom he rebuked for having in a letter called his friendly remonstrances commands; yet he continued the angry controversy with John the Faster^ about the title of (Ecumenical Bishop. He claimed supreme jurisdiction over all churches, and the right to hear appeals, even from Constantinople ; and he began, in the case of Leander, Bishop of Seville, the practice of confirming episcopal elections by the bestowing of the pallium, a robe of honour, made of white linen, whence arose afterwards the violent dis- putes and sanguinary wars, about the right of investiture. (§ 139.). 120. Gregory, who was himself raised from the position of a monk to the most influential position in the Church, was an ardent promoter of monastic institutions, and always favoured the monks, promoting them to lucrative posts as Bishops and Clergy. He wrote the life of Benedict of Nursia, who was bom about A. D. 480, and who, having early entered a monastery, became in 528 the founder of the celebrated order of Benedictines. He had seen the corruptions which had begun to prevail among the monks ; and when made abbot of a monastery near Subiaco, he attempted to introduce reforms. But meeting with opposition, he resigned in 510, and founded twelve new houses, each with an abbot and 12 monks. The chief of these was at Monte Cassino, in Campania, under his own immediate superintendence. His mle of discipline, which he drew up and published in 529, was less austere than those of other fraternities, since he thus hoped to withhold his monks the better from seeking relaxation in corrupt excesses. They were required to devote part of their time to reading and study ; and Cassiodorus, a senator, who had held high offices of state under the Gothic kings of Italy, and at last, when seventy years old, had retired to a monastery he had founded in Calabria, a. d. 539., took up this feature of the Bene- dictine rule, furnished his institution with an extensive Hbrary, CENT. VI.] Columha. Columhan. St. Gall. 163 and promoted among his monks the study both of ecclesiastical and profane literature. Thus the Benedictines became the con- servators of ancient learning, and have been the means of handing down to us all that we possess of ancient Hterature, many of them being regularly employed in transcribing ancient manu- scripts. Benedict died a. d. 543 ; and Cassiodorus, after spend- ing three and ticenty years in his literary retirement, and writing several works, died a. d. 562, at the age of 93. 121. Many of the barbarous tribes who continued to de- vastate Europe, especially the central part, Germany, were in this century one by one christianized. This was partly effected by hermits who had estabhshed themselves on the Rhine; but the chief mission work was perfonned by the numerous and crowded mission houses and monasteries, which had sprung up in Ireland as a rich harvest from the seed sown by St. Patrick (§. 116.). Thus CoLoiBA crossed over to Scotland about the year 565, and estabhshed a mission school, which laboured in the conversion of the Picts and Scots, and the Saxons of Xorthumbria (§ 169.). About 590, another Irishman, Coloib.\x, with twelve companions, went to evangelize the Franks, estabhshing himself among the Yosges mountains ; and soon his community increased, and filled several monasteries in the adjoining provinces, ruled on very rigid regulations. But by taking upon himself to reprove the clergy, as well as the court of the Burgundian kingdom, he drew upon himself the enmity of the powerful, and was banished. He then went to Switzerland, where one of his countrymen, Gallus, by his knowledge of the German language, was enabled to preach to the people, and obtained a great name as St. Gall, the Apostle of the Swiss. Others of the companions of Columban carried on the missions in southern Germany after the death of Severinus. (§. 116.). In 596 AcGusTiN'E was sent to Britain by Gregory the Great, with forty monies, to convert the Saxons, who had gradually gained possession of the country, since, at the middle of the former century, successive bodies of them had passed over l2 164 Conversion of Heathens d Avians, [cent. iv. from Scandinavia and northern Germany, and driven the ancient Britons, who were probably all Christians, to the fastnesses of Wales and Cornwall (§ 170.). Many other barbarous tribes, then settled on roaming along the lower Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caspian, as the Heruli, Alani, Lazi, Abasgi, &c. were also converted about this time. And Cosmas Indicopleustes, or the Indian Navigator, a Nestorian merchant of Persia, who made exploring voyages ajpout the Indian Ocean, in his account of his discoveries says, that he found Christian Churches at Ceylon (Taprobane), Malabar (Male), and Calcutta (Calliana). In the earlier part of this century many Jews were also converted in the East, and towards the end of the century many were converted in the West, often by compulsion, and so without sincerity or lasting effect. .In 517, SiGisMUND, the king of the Burgundians, with his people, renounced the Arian doctrines, and joined the catholic church. In 558 the Suevi in Spain did the same; and so did king Eecared and his people, the Visigoths in Spain, in 589. The Lombards, who with some exceptions were still heathens when soon after the middle of the centuiy they first invaded northern Italy, were gradually converted by Arian missionaries ; but in 590, their king, Agilulph, decided on adopting the catholic doctrines. In Persia the war between Chosroes I. and the Emperor Justinian, a. d. 540 — 545, led the former to persecute the Chris- tians under his rule, excepting those who were Nestorians and Monophysites, and as such opposed to the despotic orthodoxy of the Eoman Emperor ; and the orthodox Persian Church never recovered from the effects of that persecution. 122. The corruptions of the Gospel doctrines, and of the rites of public worship, continued to increase and multiply. The private confession, introduced in the preceding century by Pope Leo the Great (§ 115.), was abused by the clergy, who imposed pecuniary penalties for the sins confessed to them, and exhorted men to purchase remission of their sins by liberalities to eccle- CENT. VI. J Corruptions among the Clergy. 165 siastical institutions, and the intercession of departed saints by the same means. Hence the property held by ecclesiastics was enormously increased, as well as by tithes and other payments, at first voluntary, but now gradually enforced by Councils, and express laws and edicts. The blind veneration of the clergy, inspired into the barbarians by working upon their superstition, drew both from sovereigns and people constant bequests and donations of lands and all kinds of valuables, which at times brought upon them the hostiUty of rude chieftains and tribes, but ended in giving not only to the Popes, but to other Bishops, the power of sovereign territorial lords. It had also the natural effects of corrupting the morals of the clergy, and of leading many to seek ordination for the sake of the emoluments and the power attached to the clerical status, who by their character and attainments were wholly unfit for the faithful and efficient discharge of its sacred functions. Hence numerous Councils and Synods were continually held everywhere for the express purpose of upholding discipline among the clergy, and for regula- ting the disposal and management of ecclesiastical property ; and the Emperor Justinian issued repeated laws and edicts, regulating the qualifications required in persons to be ordained, and the ages at which they might be admitted into holy orders. A deacon was to be at least 25, a presbyter 35, and a deaconess 40 years of age. The frequent commission of crimes and offences by ecclesiastics, also led to th^ withdrawal of jurisdiction over them from the civil authorities, in order to avoid public scandal. Clerical celibacy began also to be enforced, especialiy in the West, not only by the canons of Councils, but by imperial edicts and enactments, from the time of Justinian onward. New denomina- tions of clergy were also introduced, as Defensores, who had to defend the faith against attacks from heretics and unbelievers; Apocrisiarn, who were Bishops and others sent to distant cities, to enforce there the authority of the Popes, and keep them informed of all occurrences ; Cardinal Bishops, Presbyters, and 166 Church Ritual. [cent. vi. Deacons, raised above their brethren in dignity and influence at Kome, often named in the writings of Gregory the Great (see § 139.). Gregory was also the first to introduce the term Simony, to signify the purchase of spiritual offices, after the example of Simon Magus {Acts viii. 18, &c.); a practice now very common, and frequently repressed by laws and canons. The incapacity of many of the clergy for preaching, also led to the magnifying of outward formalities and ceremonies ; and the ability to recite a creed and a few set forms in Latin, which was not understood by the heathen barbarians, was generally the only preparation for baptism. For throughout the West, the Latin language continued to be used in the church services, though the new populations were wholly unacquainted with it. Gregory, with an astounding fertility of imagination, invented innumerable superstitious rites and ceremonies; among these he prescribed a pompous ceremonial for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, which he called the Canon of the Mass. He also devoted him- self to the improvement of choral singing (§ 108.), and himself trained the choristers ; and the modes he composed or introduced are still known as the Gregorian Chants. In this century also began the practice of dedicating churches to saints; and the number of festivals was further increased by that of the Purifica- tion of the Virgin Mary, and the anniversaries of the deaths of many saints. The collection of Canons of Councils and Decretal Letters of previous Popes, often spurious, by Dionysius Exiguus, or the Little, early in this century, as a code of church law, tended further to rivet the yoke of Papal authority on the Western Church, regarding which Gregory and his successors felt bound to carry out the assumptions of their predecessors. 123. In this century, the darkest ignorance began to spread over the whole clerical body, and few, if any, original writers can be named. The chief writings of this age consist of what are called Chains (Catenas), that is, collections of opinions and interpretations of Scripture, drawn from the works of the ancient Fathers. We may name Evagrius, a Greek Ecclesiastical His- i CENT. VI.] Ecclesiastical Writers. 167 torian, whose work is defaced by fabulous stories ; — Gregory, Bishop of Tours the Father of French history, known for his Annals of the Franks^ which, however, often show his credulity and superstition ; — Cassiodorus, whose chief work is his Historia Ecclesiastica Tripartita^ compiled from the histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret; whilst his History of the Goths is lost to us, except as exhibited in the abridgment by Jornandes, a monk, or Bishop, of Eavenna; — Isidore, Bishop of Seville, the most voluminous writer of his time, but very superficial and inaccurate, writing on all branches of learning, on the arts and sciences, on Grammar, on History, Chronology, and Biography, Tracts and Essays on general religious and moral sub- jects. Comments on Scripture, on rites and ceremonies, on monas- tic rules, poems, &c. ; — Boethius, a Koman statesman under the Gothic kings, whom he at last offended, it is said, by upholding the catholic doctrines in opposition to their Arian views, and was put to death with cruel tortures, a. d. 525. He is known for his work De Consolatione PhilosophicBj translated into Anglo- Saxon by king Alfred the Great; in which, however, no mention is made of Christianity, whence some have doubted whether he was really a Christian. He was the first who, abandoning the Platonic philosophy, discredited together with the writings of Origen and his followers, brought the Aristotelian philosophy into prominence, which gave rise to the so called scholastic theology of the Middle Ages. — But the most remark- able writer among all his contemporaries was Gregory the Great, who is generally considered the last of the early Fathers. But though he exhibits a sound and penetrating intellect, his judg- ment is constantly obscured by the weakness and superstition of his time. He persistently discredited and discouraged the pursuit of, ancient profane Greek and Roman literature, and thus deprived men's minds of all means of enlightenment amidst the gloom of ignorance now rapidly closing in over mankind ; whilst many useful and interesting works of antiquity have in consequence been lost to us through the neglect in which they 168 Works of Dionysius the Areopagite. [cent. vi. fell. Gregory's own works consist chiefly of Epistles, Dialogues, and Homilies. His Regula Pastoralis is a summary of much that lies scattered through his writings on the duties of the Clergy, and designed to make the clerical character and office more respected and efficient. Hence it became soon after a text book, recommended by Councils for the guidance of the clergy. In his Moralia he, like Augustine, showed the intimate relation between Christian morals or practical Christianity, and Christian doctrine. His Liher Sacramentorum, and similar works, nevertheless, though well calculated to impose upon the ignorant barbarians in his time, and acquire some hold upon their furious passions and superstitious minds, yet led the way, by the indefinite multiplication of rites and ceremonies, and the exaggerated importance attached to them, to the neglect of all vital religion and purity of life. The decay of all learning, and the inability of the living writers to gain the attention of men to their own writings, induced some to pass off their compositions as the newly dis- covered remains of distinguished men of old, or to append them to names noted in legendary or in real history. Among such spurious writings or forgeries, the most celebrated are the fictitious works of Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts xvii. 34.), first mentioned in the ye.ar 533 at Constantino]3le, but impugned soon after on these grounds: that no writers had hitherto alluded to them; that they were not included by Eusebius in his catalogue of writings of the early Fathers; that in them are cited the Epistles of Ignatius (§ 53.) who lived after Dionysius; and lastly, that they dwell on church traditions of much later origin. Nevertheless they acquired great influence, first in the East, and later in the West, and gave rise to a mystical, contemplative, and dialectic theology, which divided with Aristotelian scholasticism the favour of the mediasval divines. A. D. 632.] Mahomet, 169 SEVENTH CENTURY. 124, This century is chiefly remarkable for the calamities which fell on Christendom, in consequence of the rise of the Mahometan imposture. We have seen (§ 102.) that Christianity had already penetrated into Arabia, whither it was carried by hermits, refugees, and missionaries; who met, however, with great opposition, and often persecution, from the Jews, who dwelt there in great numbers. The native Arabs were still gross idolaters, chiefly devoted to a Idnd of fetish worship, such as is still found to prevail in central Africa. ^Iahomet, having become acquainted with some of the leading features both of Judaism and Christianity, was strongly impressed with the monotheistic doctrine, as most opposed to the degraded worship of his country- men. But regarding the doctrine of the Trinity as a con'uption ■of monotheism, he conceived the idea of forming a new religion, selecting for that purpose what he thought best in both ; and he added various absurdities of his own invention, which he professed to have received by direct revelation from God, whose chief prophet he declared himself to be, superior to Moses and Jesus, whom he acknowledged as true, but inferior prophets. His doctrines and revelations were aftei-wards collected in a volume, called the Koran, the sacred book of Mahometanism. In his native place, Mecca, he was not very successful ; and in a. d. 622 he was expelled with his few followers by his idolatrous fellow citizens. This flight (Arab. Hegira) afterwards became the epoch from which the IMahometan era dates. He fled to Medina, where he was more successful; and he was now enabled to raise a number of fighting men, with whom he triumphed over his enemies, and succeeded in establishing his religion in Arabia by force of arms. After his death, a, d. 632, the Caliphs, his successors as heads of the new faith, felt bound to follow his example, in propagating his creed by force and violence ; and with large and fierce multi- tudes they rushed, Hke a mighty and irresistible torrent, over Asia and Africa, and within eighty years desolated by fire and by sword 170 Monothelites. [cent. vii. the most fertile and civilized regions, which have ever since remained under the cloud of this false religion. The numerous and lately flourishing Christian Churches, long established there, which had already early in this century suffered severely by the inroads and devastations of the Persians, till the latter were repulsed, and finally vanquished, a. d. 625, by Heraclius, Emperor of the East, now almost totally disappeared before the more ferocious ignorance of these barbarous sons of the desert. The bulk of the laity, sunk in superstitious ignorance through the neglect and misconduct of the clergy, who were engrossed and distracted by disputes and controversies upon minute points of doctrine, and so neglected their duty of instructing and preaching to the people, were easily prevailed upon to forsake their ancient faith, by the alternative proposed to them by the Mahometans, of death or the adoption of the creed of the latter (§ 64.)- 125. Tliese calamities, however, could not yet check the hair-splitting distinctions, which were still made by the ecclesi- astics of this time in points of doctrine. Some of the Mono- phy sites (see § 112.) had now so far modified their opinions, as to agree that there were two natures in the person of Christ, but insisted that these two natures had but one will, and so came to be called Monothelites. The Emperor Heraclius (610 — 641), like his predecessors, anxious to strengthen his empire by reconciling all his subjects in one bond of faith, eagerly listened to the suggestion, that the difference about one or two natures in Christ was immaterial, since it must be acknowledged that there could be in Him but one mode of willing and working, one divine human energy {^ivepyda OeavdpiKT]') y an expression found in the spurious writings of Dionysius the Areopagite (§ 123.), now held in high estimation. Cyrus, Bishop of Phasis, on the East of the Black Sea, eagerly seconded the emperor in this view ; and in 630 he was made Patriarch of Alexandria, where he soon brought over many Monophysites to his mode of thinking, and reunited them to the Catholic Church. A. D. 648.] Ecthesis and Type of Faith. 171 But a monk of Palestine, named Sophronius, raised up a strong opposition at Alexandria, which was for a time suppressed by the conciliating spirit of Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, to whose decision the matter was referred. But when Sophronius in 634 was made Patriarch of Jerusalem, he felt no longer bound by the submission he had promised to that decision, and again advocated the existence of two ivills in Christ, as necessary to constitute the ' two whole and perfect natures, the Godhead and Manhood' (see our second Church Article). Sergius now obtained the decision of the Pope Honorius in favour of the Monothelite view; but both agreed that this subtle question ought to be left alone, as not decided by the old Fathers or former Councils, and that union was preferable to such unprofitable controversies. The Emperor, however, in 638, following the example of several of his predecessors (§ 113, 118.), presumed to decide the matter by an Edict, known as the Ecthesis (eKdeais Trjs Trio-Tecos)^ or Ex- position of the Faith, probably drawn up by Sergius. It acknow- ledged in Christ one person in two natures, forbidding the expressions, one will or two wills, to be used, as offensive to the opposing parties, though manifestly favouring the Monothelite view. This Edict, though received in the East, now distracted by the victorious progress of the Saracens through Palestine and all Syria, nevertheless raised a storm of opposition in Africa and the West. The Popes, who succeeded Honorius, condemned the Ecthesis, and the Emperor, Constans II., revoked it in 648, to satisfy the opponents. But he issued another Edict, called the Type of Faith {tvttos tt^s Tria-Tecm), which, without pretending to decide anything as regarded the disputed point, directed, that men should abide by the fonn of faith laid down before this controversy arose ; and that no one should be molested for taking either side in it, on pain of severe penalties, whatever the position of the offenders. Notwithstanding this decree, the Pope, Martin I, held the First Lateran Council, so called from being held in a church built on or near the site of the Imperial Lateran Palace at Rome. Here the Ecthesis and the Type 172 Sixth (Ecumenical Council, [cent. vii. were both condemned, the former as heretical, the latter as latitudinarian, and the Dyothelite doctrine (of two wills) was firmly upheld, and all advocates of monotheletism were anathe- matized, of course including the Pope Hoxorius (see § 444.). The Emperor, determined to put down all opposition, ordered the Exarch, or Governor of Italy, who resided at Ravenna, and ruled Italy as an outlying Province or Exarchate of the Eastern Empire, to bring Martin to Constantinople, to answer a charge of high treason, as having been implicated in some treasonable practices together with the former Exarch. The old man was carried off at midnight, for fear of an insurrection at Rome in his favour, and taken to the island of Naxos in the Archipelago, where he was kept for a year in close seclusion, and very harshly treated. He was then, in September 654, taken to Constan- tinople, where for more than three months he was kept in a common prison, and then brought to trial and condemned. His life was spared on the intercession of the aged Patriarch, Paul, of Constantinople ; but after spending about three months more in another prison, he was carried to the Crimea, where, after enduring absolute want, he died in 655. Others who rejected the Type, were treated with still greater cruelty. The next two Popes, EuGENius and Vitalian, elected under imperial influence, appear at least to have been passive. But Adeodatus (672 — 678) showed greater independence, and consequently all communion between him and the Eastern Church was interrupted. At length, the Emperor Constantine IV., sumamed Pogonatus (668 — 685), sincerely desirous to see these disputes and divisions in the Church cease, proposed to the Pope, Domnus, to have the disputed points investigated and decided; and. for this purpose the Sixth (Ecumenical Council was called, a. d. 680, to meet at Constantinople, in a vaulted chamber in the imperial palace, known as the Trullus, whence it was called the Trullan Council. The final decision was given in favour of Dyotheletism, that " two wills, and two natural modes of working, were united in Christ, without schism, confusion, and change, the human will A. D. 692.] Second Trullan Council. 173 being invariably subject to the divine will." All who had upheld the opposite view were anathematized, including Patriarchs of Constantinople and the Pope Honorius. Nevertheless the mono- thelite party still continued under the leadership of IVIacarius, Patriarch of Antioch ; and Justinian II. found it necessary in 692 to hold another Trullan Council, to carry out and supple- ment the canons and decrees of the Fifth and Sixth Councils, and thence known as Concilium Quinisextum (^a-vvoBos irevBeKTrj). The defeated party afterwards maintained itself in a monastery near Mount Lebanon, under an Abbot named Maron, from whom they were called Maronites. At the time of the Crusades they still maintained their pecuHar doctrine ; but towards the end of the twelfth century they were induced to unite outwardly with the Romish Church. To this day, however, they have their own Patriarch, allow their clergy to marry, receive the com- munion in both lands, and use their own language in their Church Services, And here we must close the ancient history of the Christian Church, in order to cast a rapid view over its progress during the Dark Ages of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition, which now overspread the human race ; a period, during which its vital germ, transplanted into a new and as yet uncultivated soil, was retarded in its growth, but drew fresher and purer nurture, which enabled it again to shoot forth more vigorous and majestic branches, that were to bear richer and more abundant fruits. 174 Papal Aggrandizement, [cent. viii. MEDIEVAL CHURCH. 126. The main feature in the histoiy of the Church during the Middle Ages, consists in the encroachments of the Bishops of Eome on the jurisdiction of the other chief Bishops of Christen- dom ; and when in the Seventh Century the power of the latter was greatly weakened, and in some cases destroyed, through the extinction of so many churches in Asia and Africa by the progress of Mahometanism, the See of Rome was left without a rival able to cope effectually with its aggrandizing spirit. As in other matters, so on the subject of Religion, men had gradually come to look to the ancient Capital of the Roman world as a court of ultimate appeal on all disputed points; and being at various times called in as arbiters, the Bishops of Rome began to assume to themselves the authority of judges in the las.t resort, and as such to pronounce decisions, and claim obedience to them, even though their arbitration was not requested. That which gave the greatest impetus to this assumption in early times, was perhaps the appeal of Athanasius to Pope Julius, and the authority the latter was allowed to assume at the Council of Sardica (see § 97). From that time the Popes began to give the title of Vicar of the Apostolic See of Jiome, to various Bishops, as those of Thessalonica, Aries, Sens, Seville, Britain, Germany, &c., whereby those prelates became actually their dependents. 127. The regal pomp in which the Popes lived at Rome imposed upon the barbarians, who now rushed in from all sides upon the Western Provinces of the Empire ; and who, but lately converted to Christianity, and ignorant of the other chief Bishops of the Christian world, looked upon the Pope with superstitious awe, as the High Priest of their new religion. To rivet this hold upon the minds of the barbarians, the crafty pontiffs wrought upon their ignorance and superstition. Hence the rapid multi- plication of rites and doctrines, unknown to the Apostolic Church, and not even hinted at in the writings of the early Fathers. Hence also the use of the Latin tongue in the religious services A.D. 741.] Image- Worship. 175 among all these nations, who were unacquainted with it ; espe- cially in the liymns^ the litanies^ and the Canon of the Mass of Gregory the Great. This pontiff was also a zealous advocate of the miraculous powers of the relics of saints and martyrs : and these, as well as angels, were invoked in his litanies. This last custom was derived from the practice of the early Fathers, of emphatically apostrophizing saints and martyrs. 128. Gregory also was the first, who mentioned, as a doc- trine^ the idea of a purgatory, before the day of judgment, which had been previously only advanced, as a mere opinion, by Origen and Augustine, and then only as supposed to take effect at the day of judgment. The idea itself was probably first suggested by the extravagant assertion of Manes, mentioned above (§ 89), that souls after death should pass through water and fire to the Sun.* Gregory, however, disapproved of the worship of images, which had been very early set up in Churches (see § 84), to honour the memory of holy men ; but they were afterwards supposed to become the abodes of the souls of the departed, drawn down from heaven by the adoration offered to them. 129. This impious superstition caused the jealousy, already existing between the Popes and the Court of Constantinople, to break out into open war in the beginning of the Eighth Century. The Emperor Philippicus, desirous to put a stop to image- worship, caused certain pictures to be removed from the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, and ordered the Pope to do the same at Home, a. d. 712. The latter however immediately caused new pictures to be put up, and condemned the Emperor as an apostate. In the reign of a succeeding Emperor, Leo III., sumamed the Isaurian (a. d. 716 — 741), the flame broke out with renewed fury, and the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches continued with little interruption, till their final separation in the eleventh Century, (see § 141). * The doctrine of Purgatory was declared an article of faith by the Council of Florence, a. d. 1439, though always rejected by the Eastern Church. 176 Second Council of Niccea. [cent. viii. 130. The two factions were called Iconoclasts or image- breakers, headed by Leo ; and Iconolattrs or image-worshippers, led successively by Popes Gregory II. and III., who excom- municated Leo, and excited his subjects to rebellion. Most of the Emperor's deputies were expelled or massacred, whilst he in return withdrew Sicily and other provinces from the juris- diction of the Popes. The Empress IRE^'E, who ruled the Empire during the minority of her son Coxstantine VL, called the Second Council of Niccea, a. d. 787., where, under the auspices of Pope Adrian L, the worship of images was solemnly sanctioned. The controversy about the word Jilioque,'' which had been introduced into the Xicene Creed (see § 101.), was also raised now, and added fuel to the war between the two parties, the Latin or Western Church having adopted, and the Greek or Eastern Church rejected, that term. 131. The confusion caused by these disputes enabled the Lombards, a barbarous tribe settled for nearly two centuries in the north of Italy, to encroach upon the territories around Rome. The alarmed Pontiff, Stephen II., applied for aid to Pepen, whose usurpation of the throne of France he had lately sanctioned by a formal coronation. (§ 147.). Pepin defeated the Lombards, and gave the central parts of Italy, which he took from them, to the Pope and his successors. This was the origin of the temporal sovereignty of the Pope over the Patrimony of St. Peter, as it was called, which was soon after confirmed and extended by Charle:magne, the son of Pepin. 132. This increase of the Pope's dignity and power, tended in a proportionate degree to increase the authority and pride of the other clergy, whose ignorance led them in consequence to the greatest extravagance. Regardless of the true spirit of the Christian rehgion, they fostered the grossest superstitions, and pretended to mystic powers, whereby they might impose upon the minds of their flocks, still more ignorant than tliemselves. They promised remission of punishment after death for any crimes, in return for liberal donations to the Church and Clergy ; A. I). S31.] Trans uhstantia t io n. 177 thus accumulating vast wealth, which tended to increase their power over the impoverished people. Hence also sprung up a traffic in the relics of pretended saints and martyrs, to which every magic virtue was ascribed; offerings to the images and shrines of saints were enjoined ; bodily mortijications, pilgrim- ages, the building and endowing of churches, chapels, and monasteries, were encouraged ; and innumerable festivals and superstitious Htes were devised with a most fertile ingenuity. The popular veneration, thus attached to the clerical character, caused the institution of many new monastic orders, which sent forth swarais of men, who, from want of education and employ- ment, fell into the most disgusting vices and immoralities ; so that they corrupted that society, which they professed to guide into the way everlasting. 133. A new controversy was raised a. d. 831 by Paschasius Radbert, a French monk, concerning the manner in which the body and blood of Christ are present in the Eucharist ; and this led to the doctrine of Transuhstantiation^ whereby it is asserted, that after consecration nothing but the outward figure of the bread and wine remains, and that the same body, which was born of the Virgin, crucified, buried, and raised from the dead, takes the place of those elements. This doctrine was opposed by Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz, the leading writer of the age; by Johannes Scotus, an Irishman (thence called Erigena), celebrated for his theological and philosophical erudition ; and by Bertram or Ratram, a learned French monk, whose treatise is still extant. The term Transuhstantiation was first introduced by Pope Innocent III, at the Fourth Council of the Lateran, a. d. 1215, where all further disputes upon the subject were forbidden by the adoption of the doctrine of Radbert by the Church of Rome, then at the height of its power. The Eastern Church never held this doctrine in the Romish sense, if at all (which is doubtful), till induced by the Jesuits in the seventeenth century to declare its adhesion to it. 178 Predestination. [cent. IX. 134. About the middle of the ninth Century, a Saxon monk, named Godeschalcus, revived also the doctrines of Pre- destination and Divine Grace, which in the early part of the fifth century had been already taught by Augustine in his refutation of Pelagianism (§ 114.). It was now opposed by Rabanus Maurus, and by Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, who cast Godeschalcus into prison, where he died a, d. 868. Ratram, and many others of the French clergy, defended the doctrine, that God desires only the salvation of the elect, and that Christ " only jdied for those thus predestined to salvation ; whilst all " others were predestined to damnation." This controversy was again revived at the Reformation (see Article XVII. § 425.). 135. The contest between the Emperor and the Pope, con- cerning the jurisdiction of the latter (§ 125.), was carried on with increased animosity in the ninth century. The Emperor Michael III., (a. d. 842 — 867), having deposed Ignatius, Patri- arch of Constantinople, and appointed the learned Photius in his stead A. d. 858, the former appealed to Pope Nicholas I ; who, having first in vain demanded the restoration to the See of Rome of the Provinces of lllyricum, Macedonia, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and Sicily, withdrawn from it by Leo the Isaurian (see § 130.), as also Bulgaria, lately christianized, sought to revenge his defeated ambition by excommunicating Photius. But he was in his turn treated in the same manner by that prelate. And though Ignatius was soon after restored by the Emperor Basilius, yet neither of them was disposed to gratify the Pope's ambition. 136. About this time a sect, known by the name of Pauli- cians, had to endure cruel persecutions as heretics. This sect had first risen into note about the middle of the seventh century, being traced by some writers to two brothers, Paul and John, the sons of a woman of Samosata (§ 76.), named Callinice, who lived in the fourth century. But others have derived their name from their well known partiality for the Apostles Paul and John, especially the former, in opposition to the Judaizing tendency A. D. 811.] Paulicians. 179 ascribed to St. Peter. Tlieir name navXtKiavoi must thus be considered as derived from Jlav\iier's judgment, and put forth a Bull of excommunication against both Henry and Anne ; and having summoned Henry to appear before him in person or by proxy, he assembled a court of consistory, com- posed of 22 cardinals, at Rome, which in March 1534 pronounced the marriage with Cathereste valid and indissoluble, and the Pope gave sentence accordingly. Henry, who had still seemed anxious to be reconciled with the Pope, as long as he had any hope of attaining his own end, now obtained from ParKament the entire abrogation of the Papal Supremacy, and the recog- nition of his own, already aclmowledged by Convocation (§ 186.). At the same time the authority of the Canon Law^ founded on the papal Decretals (see § 151.), was abolished in England, as also the presentment of Archbishops and Bishops to the see of Eome, and their consecration by authority from the Pope, it being ordered that their election was to be made henceforth by the Cathedral Chapters, under the king's licence and letters missive naming the person to be chosen (see § 200.). All appeals to Rome, and the payment of Peter's Pence and all other taxes to the Pope, were forbidden ; the payment of first-fruits and an annual tenth of all spiritual livings, was transferred to the crown ; and it was declared to be no longer heresy to speak against the Bishop of Rome or his decrees. 234 Sir TJiomas More. Cromivell. [a. d. 1535. 189. The refusal of many persons to submit to all these new laws, led to many cruel executions. Among the most distin- guished persons who suffered was Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, one of the most learned prelates of that age, who suffered death on June 22nd, 1535 ; and Sir Thomas More, the first layman raised to the Chancellorship as Wolsey's successor, highly dis- tinguished for his legal knowledge and literary attainments, who refused to take the oath of supremacy, and was beheaded July 6th, in the same year. Several persons also had been executed with Elizabeth Barton, called the Maid of Kent, whom they had countenanced in her pretended prophecies and revelations concerning the death of Henry. Besides these, the following were condemned to the flames for heresy : Bilney, a clergyman of Cambridge ; Bainham, a lawyer ; Tewkesbury, a citizen of London ; Byfield, a monk ; Frith, Tracy, Hewett, and others. This excessive severity of the ecclesiastical courts made the Parliament ready to pass, and the people to accept, any law calculated to curb the overgrown power of the clergy. "When therefore many of them, especially the Franciscan Friars (§ 140.), refused to take the oath of supremacy, the king was induced to exercise his authority as supreme head of the Church of England, by instituting a visitation of all monasteries and other religious houses, for the reformation of discipline and manners, and for promoting the cause of religion and virtue ; and at the head of a commission for that purpose he placed Thomas Cromwell, with the title of Vicar-general, afterwards changed to Lord-Vicegerent. Next, to invalidate the authority received by the Bishops from Rome, the king suspended their episcopal jurisdiction, and after some delay restored it by a licence from himself (a. d. 1535). In this year Henry opened a communication with the German Reformers, and invited Melancthon and other divines to visit England. But when in the following year Queen Catherine died, and Anne Boleyne was beheaded, they thought all obstacles were now removed to Henry's reconciliation with the Pope, and therefore refused to trust him. A. D. 1536.] Progress of the Reformation. 235 190. The year 1536 began with the dissolution by Parliament of all Monasteries^ whose revenues were under £200. per annum, of which there were 375. In this year also an Act was passed, declaring all grants made by papal bulls to be void ; and another subjecting all emissaries from the Pope to a writ of prcemunire (see § 181.). Convocation also passed the first formal Act of Eeform, (the X Articles), declaring the Bible and the tliree Creeds to be the basis of faith^ and upholding the authority of the first four General Councils ; that justification depends only on the merits of Christ, though works are necessary to obtain salvation ; that penance is a necessary sacrament ; Confession to a priest necessary and effectual to absolution ; and the Corporal presence .to be believed; Saints to be honoured as examples, and their images retained for the same reason, but not worshipped ; purgatory left doubtful, but prayers for the dead^ as also for the intercession of the saints, retained. Baptism also was declared absolutely neces- sary ; but the other four Sacraments were not mentioned. The king at the same time commanded the clergy to set up Bibles in English and Latin in their churches for the people to read ; to instruct the young in the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments, in their mother tongue ; to explain to the people the new doctrines of faith and ceremonies, and at least four times in the year that of the king's supremacy. 191. A rebellion which broke out in Lincolnshire in 1537, supposed to have been fomented by the monks, was made a pre- text for dissolving more Monasteries. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Lords Darcy and Hussey, with several Abbots and others, executed. In this year also was put forth the ' Bishops' Book ' or ' The Godly and Pious Institution of a Christian man,' composed by a Committee of Bishops appointed by Convocation, and containing the Lord's Prayer, Ave Maria, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Seven Sacraments, and some other forms. Much in this book was taken from Marshall's Primer (see § 242.), a similar publication, published without authority two years previously ; and another commission of Bishops revised and printed a new edition of it in 1540 (see § 196). 236 The Six Articles. [a. d. 1539. 192. Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, and others that were staunch adherents of Rome, endeavoured in 1538 to gain over the king, and defeat their adversaries by setting him against them on the subject of the corporal presence, which he main- tained, while many of the Reformers rejected it. They first procured the condemnation of one John Lambert for denying that doctrine. This unfortunate man, having appealed to the king, had to hold a discussion against his Majesty in West- minster Hall, in which he was of course defeated, and condemned to be burnt in Smithfield. The king, vain of his learning at all times, and now elated with his triumph and the flattery of the papal party, was easily persuaded by them to issue a proclama- tion against the marriage of the clergy ; and in 1539, the Duke of Norfolk, who was at the head of the party, caused an Act to be passed by Parliament, known as that of the ' Six Articles.^ These maintained: 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. The withholding of the cup from the laity ; 3. The celibacy of the clergy ; 4. The validity of vows of chastity ; 5. The efficiency of private masses ; and 6. The necessity of Auricular Confession. The penalty for offending against any of these points was in some cases immediate death ; in others, on a second offence. 193. Crankier, who strenuously opposed these measures, had so great an influence with the king, that the new law was not only not applied to him, but its ill effects diminished by other measures he was able to procure of an opposite tendency. Thus in the same year all the Monasteries were suppressed ; six new Bishoprics were founded, viz. Westminster, Oxford, Gloucester, Bristol, Chester, and Peterborough; and the printing of the Bible was ordered, and its free use allowed, by royal proclamation. Nevertheless Crankier found it necessary to send his wife and children abroad (§ 187.); and great numbers were imprisoned for not conforming to the new Act, though afterwards pardonea, probably through the intercession of Cranmer, for whom the king always continued to entertain a sincere regard. Some of the Bishops resigned rather than conform (§ 198.). A. D. 1540.] Fall of Cromwell. 237 194. Meanwhile Anxe Boleyne, after having given birth to Elizabeth, was executed on a charge of treason, May 19, 153G ; and Jane Seymour, Henry's next Queen, died October 14, 1537, after having given birth to Edward. The king was afterwards induced to marry in 1540, Anne of Cleves, a very flattering portrait of whom had been exhibited to him by Cromwell. Henry, finding her on her arrival in this country a very ordinary person, wreaked his vengeance on CRo:\nYELL, who was executed June 13, 1540, on a frivolous charge of ha\-ing threatened the king's life. Anne was divorced, and the king married Catherine Howard, the niece of the Duke of Norfolk, which strengthened the influence of his party. About the same time, Barnes, Jerome, and Gerard, three ecclesiastics, were burnt for heresy, and several papists were executed for denying the king's supremacy. 195. In May 1541, the Bible, translated into English by T\"^fDALE, CoYERDALE, and others, was revised and printed by authority, and set up in all churches, so that all might read it ; the previous order to this effect, obtained from the king by Cromwell in 1536 (see § 190), ha^dng been neglected in many parishes, on account of the scarcity of Bibles as yet printed. This Bible was the year after referred to the Universities for the correction of certain errors, which Gardiner had made a plea for withdrawing it entirely, but had thus been defeated by Cranmer. Some Homilies also were published about this time, to supply such of the clergy as were unable to preach, or abstained from doing so for fear of committing themselves on any point of doctrine in these disturbed times ; whilst many on this account began to adopt the custom of writing their sermons. 196. In 1543, Tyndale's translation of the Bible was pro- hibited by an Act of Parhament, by which at the same time burning for heresy was abolished altogether for laymen, and till third conviction for clerks. These provisions were contained in an Act, passed through the influence of Gardiner, which was intended to put a stop to the writing and acting of what were called Mysteries^ or Plays founded on Biblical subjects, which 238 King's Book and King's Primer, [a. d. 1544. partook in a great measure of the coarse ribaldry, with which many dramatic pieces of the time abounded. With this view the Act curtailed the liberty of reading the Scriptures, and limited it to heads of families and the educated classes. In this year also the ^Bishops Book' (§ 191) was republished in an improved form under the new title of ' Necessary Doctrine and Erudition of any Christian man ; ' and being addressed by the king to the people, was called the * King's Booh.' 197. In 1544 the English Litany appeared in its present form, but still containing invocation to saints and angels, and a deprecation of the Pope's tyranny, together with other forms ; and it was followed the year after by various prayers, the whole being known by the name of the King's Primer. This book contained in a Comment on the Lord's Prayer the following exposition of the Eucharist : " The lively bread of the blessed " body of our Lord Jesd Christ, and the sacred cup of the " precious and blessed blood, which was shed for us on the " cross." Many of the prayers in this collection were selected by the Queen, Catherine Parr, a widow, whom the king had married in 1543, Catherine Howard having been executed the year before, on a charge of immorality before her marriage with the king. The new Queen was very favourable to the Reforma- tion, and to this perhaps we may attribute the appointment of such Bishops as Holgate to York, Heath to Worcester, Kitch- iNG to Llandaff, Day to Chichester, Sampson to Lichfield, and Holbeach to Rochester. 198. On the passing of the Six Articles (§ 192.), Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, and Shaxton of Salisbury, had resigned their sees, rather than submit. The latter being afterwards charged with denying the Corporal Presence, had been detained for some time in prison, and in 1546 condemned to be burnt. He recanted, however, and so escaped death; and he even preached at Smithfield, at the burning of a number of reputed heretics, among whom was Anne, daughter of Sir William Askew, who had distributed tracts against transubstantiation A. D. 1547.] Edward VI . 239 and other Romish doctrines in London, and even at Court. This young lady was put to the severest torture by Lord "Wriothesley, the Lord Chancellor, a bigoted papist, who with Gardiner was bent on compassing the ruin of Crankier and the Queen ; but they were nevertheless shielded against all attacks by the king's sincere affection. Towards the end of his life, however, Henry grew very violent in temper, and several persons were executed by his orders without any adequate cause. Among these were the Earl of Surrey, who suffered January 19, 1547 ; and his father, the Duke of Norfolk, was lying under the same sentence, when the death of Henry, January 27, prevented its being carried into effect. 199. Edward YI. being only ten years old at his accession (§ 194.), the government was carried on by his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, as Lord Protector, who was favourable to the Refor- mation. Cranmer, content to direct the affairs of the Church, assisted and supported by Archbishop Holgate, and Holbeach (see § 197.), now translated to Lincoln, Goodrich of Ely, and Ridley, appointed to Rochester in September of this year, now obtained the appointment of a Royal Visitation on Church matters. The people, relying on support in high quarters, had begun tumultuously to remove images in several places. These disorders were forbidden, and the clergy themselves charged with the removal of all idoHzed images. The bishops were directed to preach themselves, and to enjoin their clergy to do so. To assist the latter, the First Booh of Homilies (§ 195.) was put forth, written chiefly by Cranmer, Ridley, Latdier, and some others. The lessons appointed were ordered to be regularly read in the churches ; and, for the use of the people, Udale's trans- lation of the Paraphrase on the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles by Erasmus, a distinguished scholar and reformer of Holland, was set up in all churches, together with the Bible. Prayers for the dead, processions, pilgrimages, and other super- stitious practices, were also prohibited ; and the reformed services, enjoined by the Books put forth during the late reign, were ordered to be universally adopted. 240 Reform Measures. [a. d. 1548. 200. The first year of Edward VI. also saw the * Six Articles^ (see § 192.), and other Acts having the same ten- dency repealed, the Lord's Supper administered to the laity in both kinds, and the prohibition of private Masses. Ttjnstal, Bishop of Durham, one of the council of government appointed by Hexry VIII. for the minority of his son, was under various jDretexts kept in his distant diocese, on account of his attachment to the Eomish system ; and the Chancellor Wrio- THESLEY, one of the heads of the same party, was also got rid off. Bonner, bishop of London, and Gardiner, were imprisoned, probably only for political reasons, the former being soon after set at liberty; but both were deprived of their sees two years after. A law was also passed enabling the sovereign to appoint bishops by letters-patent^ whereby the Episcopal rank and juris- diction was conferred on them, as in the case of a person being raised to the peerage by letters-patent (see § 188.). The spiritual functions only were conferred by the act of consecration. The usual mode of proceeding when a bishopric is vacant, is by conge-cTelire, directed to the dean and chapter of the cathedral by the sovereign, who at the same time nominates a person to be elected by them ; and if they refuse to elect him, they are liable to a writ of prcemunire for infringing the royal prerogative. 201. In February, 1548 an order was issued for the removal of all remaining images; and a few weeks after a Communion Service was published, partly in Latin, whilst such portions which more especially concerned the lay-communicants were in English. This Service was chiefly taken from the SaUsbury Missal (§ 241.), which had been long generally used in the southern half of England. Cranmer also published a translation of the Nuremberg Catechism, enlarged in 1553, as is supposed, by Ponet, Bishop of Winchester. These Catechisms did not contain the explana- tions of the Sacraments, which were added by Dr. John Overali after the Hampton Conferences in 1604 (see § 222.). 202. In 1549, the first complete Liturgy was given to the English people in their native tongue, and may be considered as A. D. 1552. J Liturgies. Vestments. 241 mainly instrumental in firmly establishing the Reformation in this country. The people, long kept in suspense by the disputa- tions of the contending parties, were now enabled to judge for themselves as to the conformity of the doctrines of the Refor- mers, both in faith and ceremonies, to the Bible, which was already in general use. This Liturgy differed considerably from the pre- sent, and contained various superstitious rites, which were omitted in the revised edition put forth in 1552 (see § 245.), in which also various additions were inserted, and the whole confirmed by Parlia- ment. Several foreign divines of great learning, and holding Professorships in the English Universities, especially Martin BucER (§ 162.) and Peter Martyr (§ 163.), were of great service in the compilation of these Liturgies, particularly of the latter. In this there was also inserted an Ordination Service^ slightly altered from one put forth in 1550, and very nearly the same as that now in use, in which the portions of Scripture to be read and a few expressions are changed. It was taken from the Roman Service, with the addition of many of the questions addressed to the persons to be ordained. An Act of Uniformity was also now passed, enjoining the general adoption of the new Liturgy under heavy penalties (§ 208, 211, and 235.). 203. In 1550 Hooper was appointed to the bishopric of Gloucester, and caused some trouble by his objections to the coloured chimere, the cope, and other vestments ; but he at length consented to wear them on public occasions only. Here Bucer and Peter Martyr again gave the wholesome advice to Hooper, to conform to established usages in such indifferent matters. Ridley succeeded Bonner (see § 200) in the see of London, with which Westminster was now consolidated. He was very active in suppressing the superstitions still existing, and caused stone altars to be everywhere replaced by wooden tables, which were soon generally adopted, to counteract the Romish doctrine of the sacrifice of Masses on the altar by the priest. 204. In the year 1551, a commission of ' Bishops and other learned and godly men ' prepared the first body of Articles, forty- Q II . 242 Death of Somerset. [a. d. 1553. two in number, which were published the year after in Latin and English by the king's authority (§ 337). But Cranmer is sup- posed the sole author of them, as he declared in the next reign that they were 'his doings.' He probably consulted the other bishops. An Act passed in 1549, legalizing the marriages of the clergy, was confirmed in the Parliament of 1552 by a declaratory Act, to obviate scruples still prevailing among the people on the subject. This year was also noted for the execution of the Protector Somerset (see § 199..), on an unproved charge brought against him by the Duke of Northumberland, who supplanted him, and was like him a patron of the Reformation. The year 1553, the last of Edward's reign, was marked by the foundation of Christ's Hospital and St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London, through the charity and wisdom of the young king, who died July 6th. Short, eventful, and generally beneficial, as this reign had been, it did not escape the infection of the intolerant spirit of the time. In May 1550, the fearful scenes which had so often been enacted in Smithfield under other auspices, were once more exhibited imder those of the gentle and amiable Edward, and the pious and charitable Cranmer, in the person of Joan Bourchier, who had been already imprisoned for about a year on the charge of denying the humanity of Christ. The warrant for her execu- tion by burning was wrung from the young king by the earnest and over-zealous Archbishop ; and a year after, a Dutch surgeon, named Paris, was also burnt for denying the divinity of Christ. The blood thus shed by Reformers was soon after fearfully aveng- ed by the unbridled cruelties of their opponents. 205. The people had been so long accustomed to the super- ficial superstitions of Rome, that their minds, unused to deep religious impressions, had not yet had time to be thoroughly imbued with the more spiritual doctrines and services of the re- formed Church. Hence we see the universal changes, intro- duced by Mary, submitted to without much opposition by the body of the nation. It would seem, indeed, that to silence the objections still made to the Reformation, it was necessary to A. D. 1558.] Marys Reign. 243 sicken the nation with the inherent spirit of popery by means of the enormities of this reign. Mary, while she had still to fear the party who had set up Lady Jane Grey as her competitor for the throne, had promised liberty of conscience to those who sup- ported her cause. But she was no sooner safely seated on the throne, than she placed Gardiner at the head of the government. Bonner at once returned to his See. Cranmer was sent to the Tower for high treason, and many of the reformed clergy fled the country. Parliament readily repealed all the Acts of the previ- ous reign, that had sanctioned any alterations in religious affairs. Convocation affirmed the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and de- clared the book of Common Prayer heretical for denying it. 206. Mary's marriage with Philip, king of Spain, in 1554, excited the displeasure of the people more than the abrogation of their religious liberty. A rebellion broke out in Kent, in conse- quence of which the Duke of Suffolk, Sir Thomas Wyatt, and upwards of fifty others were executed. In-itated by this opposi- tion, or encouraged by the success in its suppression, Mary now adopted severe measures against the Refonners. The married clergy were ejected from their livings, and sixteen bishoprics be- came vacant for the same and other causes. Cranmer, Ridley, and Latevier, had to hold a disputation at Oxford, after which the two latter were burnt in 1555, and Cranmer in the beginning of the following year. Rogers was burnt at Smithfield; Hooper at Gloucester; Taylor at Hadley ; and Saunders at Coventry. The whole number of those who suffered in this reign for rehgion, was two hundred and seventy. 207. Gardiner died in 1555 ; and after Cranmer's death, Cardinal Pole, who was nearly related to the royal family, was made Archbishop of Canterbury. Mary died in November 1558, and Pole shortly after her ; and the nation now looked forward to the next reign with hope and confidence, which prepared them to accept the restoration of the reforaied religion with joy. 208. Elizabeth began her reign with the greatest modera- tioni and pmdence, retaining even many members of Mary's Q 2 244 ElizahetJis Reign. [a. d. 1559. Council ; but she at once ordered all who were imprisoned on religious charges to be set at liberty. It was well known that the daughter of Anne Boleyne was favourable to the Reforma- tion, and no surprise was felt at the early appointment of a com- mittee to examine the Book of Common Prayer of Edward's reign; and finally the Book of 1552 was adopted in 1560, but with the vestments ordered in that of 1549 (see § 246.). Mean- while she allowed the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Litany, the Ten Commandments, with the appointed Gospels and Epistles, to be used in English. Parliament restored the Royal Supremacy, though Elizabeth scrupled to assume the title of Head of the Church in any sense ; and therefore she appointed a Commission to exercise that authority, which in 1559 became the Court of High Commission. The Romanist bishops were all opposed to her and her measures ; and Oglethorp, bishop of Carlisle^ was the only one who would consent to crown her. The Act of Uniformity (§. 202.), which was passed in 1559, required all the beneficed clergy to take the oath of supremacy, or suffer deprivation. Four- teen bishops, and 175 others, out of nearly 10,000 clergy, submit- ted to the penalty. Kitching, bishop of Llandaff^ was the only one on the Episcopal bench who took the oath. 209. Dr. Matthew Parker, who had been Chaplain to Anne Boleyne, was reluctant to accept the metropolitical See, till December 1559, when he was consecrated by several of the bishops, who had fled the country in the previous reign ; namely, ScoRY, former bishop of Chichester, afterwards of Hereford; CovERDALE of Exeter, but not restored ; Barlow of Wells, later of Chichester; and Hodgkin, suffragan bishop of Bedford.* The * About forty years later the Papists invented a story, to the effect that Parker and the other Bishops elect met together at a tavern called the Nag's Head, and as Oglethorpe, Bishop of Carlisle, the only Bishop who had consented to crown Elizabeth, refused to consecrate them, Scoby had laid a Bible on the head of each, and so declared them to be consecrat- ed. This story is commonly known as the Nag's Head Fable. A. D. 1562.] Archbishop) Parker. 245 Archbishop and the other bishops, appointed in the course of 1560, devoted themselves to the regulation of their dioceses, and the instruction and improvement of their clergy, among whom there prevailed the grossest ignorance, and, consequently, super- stition. This state of things stifficiently accounts for the strong popish spirit still rife both at the Universities and in the Lower House of Convocation. The exertions of Parker, himself a man distinguished for his attainments, aided by others, were di- rected to this point. Upwards of fifty Injunctions for regulating the affairs of the Church, resembling those that had marked the accession of Edward, and XI Articles for the instruction of the clergy and people in doctrine, were also issued by the authority of the Queen and the Court of High Commission, as temporary measures, till Convocation and Parliament should settle every thing on a permanent basis. Great lustre, as well as strength, was also imparted to the clerical body by the Apology for the Church of England^ written in elegant Latin by Bishop Jewel, and published in 1562. He assigns valid reasons for separating from Rome, and proves that our Church has rather returned to the position of the primitive Church, than been guilty of any schism from the Catholic body. 210. The Reformers, who had fled from England early in Mary's reign, and had been favourably received and relieved by the Reformers in Germany, naturally embraced those doctrines which were most at variance with those of Rome, and therefore eagerly took the side of Zuingle and Calvin (see § 162-3), or what was called the Reformed Church, as distinguished from the Lutheran or Protestant Church. Discussions were consequently raised among the English, who resided at Basle, Zurich, Geneva^ Strasburg, and especially at Frankfort, where a church had been placed at their disposal for public worship, and John Knox (see § 220) chosen by them as their minister. These discussions ran chiefly on Freewill and Predestination (see § 114); and when the exiles returned to their native country after the accession of Elizabeth, they set in action that spirit of Puritanism, which was destined 246 The Puritans, [a. d. 1565. afterwards to cause so much confusion both in Church and State. The rise of this spirit made it necessary to revise the Articles of 1552 (see § 204). Parker, therefore, having replaced some and verbally altered others, chiefly in accordance with a Confession published by the Lutherans in 1551 at Wurtemberg, laid them before Convocation in 1562; and thirty-eight, which passed, were printed in Latin and English in 1563. A second book of Homilies (see § 199.) was also printed in this year, chiefly composed by Jewel. About this time was published also a book bearing the title Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum, which had been compiled in the reign of Edward VI. by Cranmer, or under his auspices, as a substitute for the Canon Law (§ 151.), the authority of which in this country had been abolished. But this new code was never sanctioned by any legislative authority, and so did not receive the force of law. 211. Fuel was added to the puritanical spirit introduced into the Church, when in 1565 Elizabeth enforced a clause in the Act of Uniformity (see § 208.), which provided that the same " ornaments of the church, and of the ministers thereof, " shall be retained, and be in use, as were in this Church of England by the authority of Parliament, in the second year of "the reign of King Edward the Sixth^^ {see Rubric before Morning Prayer). Many of the London clergy were deprived for refusing to comply. Jewel, Sandys, Grindal, Whitgift, were all more or less averse to the dresses. Parker, dreading the spirit of division arising in the bosom of the Church, strictly enforced the Act, on which the Queen particularly insisted ; though even at court the puritan party had many supporters. 212. The severity of the measures, adopted to enforce uni- formity of vestments, only tended to draw out further objections to the Ecclesiastical laws and forms of the time. Thus the sign of the Cross still retained in Baptism, the answers made by the Sponsors in the name of the child instead of their own, the veiling then ordered in the case of the Churching of Women, the use of Organs and Music in churches, and especially in Cathedrals, the A. D. 1566.] Brownists. 247 neglect of preaching by many ministers, and non-residence of incumbents, were made subjects of severe complaints. The custom introduced about this time among the clergy in various dioceses, of meeting together for discussions, called ProphesT/ings, with a view to mutual improvement, offered opportunities for discussing the alleged grievances and objections. The Bishops were there- fore ordered to suppress these Prophesyings, and thus drew the enmity of the Puritans on themselves ; the consequence of which was, that Episcopacy^ already dispensed with by Calvin and the Church of Geneva, became distasteful to the English Puritans, and was declared unscriptural by them. The proceedings of the High Court of Commission (see § 208.), and of its inferior Com- missioners throughout the country, who scrupled not to take bribes and so became extortionate, together with the appro- priation of much Church property by Elizabeth to avoid apply- ing to Parliament for supplies, were so many additional causes of complaints for those, who were discontented with the esta- blishment. 213. Finally, in 1566, large numbers seceded from the Church, and began to hold Conventicles in private, for celebrating divine service after the forms of the Calvinists, when the ' Adver- tisements,^ a series of Canons enforcing uniformity in doctrines, forms of worship, ceremonies, and vestments, were put forth by the Bishops, and sanctioned by the Queen's Proclamation. These seceders were called Brownists, after their leader Robert Brow^ne, who, however, towards the end of his Hfe, returned into the bosom of the Church; as did also Thomas Cartwright, who in 1570, when Margaret Professor of Divinity at Cambridge, pubhcly spoke both against Episcopacy and the English Liturgy, and in 1572 joined the seceders. 214. In 1571 Convocation again revised the Articles (see § 210.), and Parker caused the insertion of the twenty-ninth, thus making the present Thirty-nine Articles complete ; and the Ratification subjoined 'to them was also' then added. An Act of Parliament of the same year required the subscription by the 248 Elizabeth Excommunicated, [a. d. 1585. clergy to such of the Articles as " concern the confession of the " true Christian faith and the doctrine of the Sacraments," thus excluding the 19th, 20th, 35th, and 36th. 215. Pope Pius V. having in 1569 excommunicated Eliza- beth, and dispensed her subjects from their allegiance, and the Bull of excommunication having been exhibited in London the following year, Parliament in 1571 passed three laws, to defeat its effects on the Roman Catholics in England. One law made it treason to call Elizabeth an unlawful sovereign or a heretic ; another made it treason or liable to a prcemunire to introduce Papal Bulls, or to seek a reconciliation with Rome ; by the third the property of emigrants was forfeited under certain conditions. These laws were kept in terrorem over the Roman Catholics, now forming a sectarian body, without being put into operation till 1577, when the partisans of Mary Queen of Scots, then confined in prison by Elizabeth, began to be active to procure her liberation and accession to the throne of England. 216. At the death of Parker in 1575, Grindal, Bishop of London, succeeded to the primacy. But having attempted in the following year to restore Prophesyings on a better plan than formerly, and written a severe letter to the Queen, when she desired him to put them down, he was suspended in 1577, and the primacy offered to Whitgift, who- declined it during the life of the lawful possessor. Grindal was restored shortly before his death, which occurred in 1583. The new Primate, in order to enforce more strict conformity, required the suhscription by the clergy to the three Articles, standing at present in the thirty- sixth Canon, viz. 1. Affirming the King's supremacy, and denying the jurisdiction of any foreign prince in England; 2. Accepting the Book of Common Prayer ; 3. Acknowledging the Thirty-nine Articles to be agreeable to the Word of God. These Articles are still required to be signed at Ordination. 217. In 1585 a law was passed competing all Jesuits (see § 161.), who would not take the oath of supremacy, to quit the country on pain of death. The same year was also marked A . D. 1588.] The Spanish Armada. 249 by the appointment of Richard Hooker as Master of the Temple, where he soon became engaged in a discussion on Church govern- ment with Walter Travers, the Afternoon Lecturer, who was disappointed of the Mastership, and was attached to the anti-epis- copaUan views of Calvin and the Puritans. This led Hooker to write his celebrated work on Ecclesiastical Polity^ the first four Books of which were pubHshed in 1594, the fifth in 1597, and the remaining three not till after the author's death. 218. The year 1586 was made remarkable chiefly by the Babbington Conspiracy ; the year following by the execution of IVIary, Queen of Scots, and the year after that by the threat- ened invasion of England by the Spanish Armada. The Roman Catholics behaved with the most patriotic spirit, with few excep- tions, and joined heartily in the defence of their country against the common enemy. The Puritan party, however, took the op- portunity of the external danger, to increase the internal divisions and troubles. They especially published writings in which they abused the Bishops and Episcopacy in general. From the object in view the writer of the most notorious of these publications adopted the fictitious name of JMartin Marprelate, which after- wards became proverbial for all writers in the same tone. In 1593, when a new alarm was raised of foreign invasion, very severe laws were enacted affecting both the above extreme parties. Thus all were compelled to attend their parish Church on pain of imprisonment ; and perseverance in non-conformity was punished with banishment, and with the punishment of felons in case of unauthorized return to England. Their property also was placed under sequestration. Popish recusants were forbidden to quit their place of residence on pain of forfeiture of their property ; and if this was below twenty marks per annum, or £40 real property, they were expelled the country, and on their return punished as felons. 219. A dispute having arisen at Cambridge, in 1595, concerning absolute predestination and reprobation, Archbishop Whitgift, with some of the other bishops and divines, drew up 250 Lambeth Articles. [a. b. 1603. at Lambetli Palace IX Articles^ affirming the absolute predesti- nation of a certain number which can neither be increased nor diminished; and that all not included in this number will be necessarily damned for their sins. As a consequence of this doctrine they also denied that "we may depart from grace given" either finally or totally ; and such a clause the puritans desired to have introduced into the XVIth Article, at the beginning of the next reign (§ 423.). These Lambeth Articles were by many considered contrary to the letter, and were so certainly to the spirit and tone, of the Thirty-nine Articles ; and consequently, instead of allaying differences, they tended only to excite stronger objections. Some writers say they were on that account sup- pressed by authority ; but as they had never received the sanction of law or of any lawful authority, this could not have been necessary, 220. Elizabeth died in 1603, and was succeeded by James I., son of Mary, Queen of Scots. The new doctrines of the Re- formation had been early introduced into Scotland; and the opposition of the nobles to king James V, the father of Mary, having led him to form a close alliance with the clergy, with the violent and bigoted Cardinal Beaton at their head, the discontented nobles naturally sought the support of the Re- formers. Thus the Reformation in Scotland assumed that spirit of resistance to the constituted authorities of the State, which finally led the Reform party to usurp a great share, and for a time, the whole power, of the government. The burning of George Wishart, a zealous Reformer, having led to the subse- quent assassination of Beaton by the friends of Wishart, in 1546, the Papists invoked the aid of France, and the Reformers that pf Henry VIII. Soon after, the failure of the negotiations for a marriage between Edward VI. and the infant Mary, then Queen of Scotland, and her marriage to Francis, the Dauphin ol France, gave the latter country the preponderance in Scotland. This induced the Reforaiers to conclude a formal Covenant for their mutual defence and support in 1557 ; and two years after A. D. 1604.] Hamilton Court Conference. 251 they were greatly strengthened by the arrival of John Kxox (see § 210), whose energetic and indomitable character acquired him the title of the Founder of the Reformed Church of Scotland. The impetuous eloquence of this man led his party to the com- mission of great excesses against the opposite party, and the support of Elizabeth gave him the victory. Like Calvin, whose disciple he was, he obtained a great influence both in civil and ecclesiastical affairs; and he was enabled in 1560 to procure the sanction by the Scottish Parliament of the Confession of Faith," which was finally approved by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. 221. All parties entertained hopes of attaching James to their own views. The Papists considered he was bound to avenge his mother and her religion. The Puritans relied upon the care they had taken to instil their doctrines into his mind from earliest infancy ; and on his progress from Scotland they presented to him the famous Millenary petition, so called from an exaggeration of the signatures of 800 clergymen which it contained, setting forth their various objections to the cere- monies, formularies, and polity of the Church. The English Episcopalians, though at first somewhat doubtful, were soon reassured by the reply of Ja^ies to their deputation, sent to congratulate him on his accession. He promised to maintain the Church of England as established in the reign of queen Elizabeth. 222. In January 1604, the king summoned a Conference be- tween the Episcopahans and Puritans, to meet at Hampton Court, The former were represented by Archbishop Whitgift, and eight other Bishops, including Bancroft of London, Matthew of Durham, and Bilson of "Winchester, with the Deans Andrews, Overall, and Barlow, in all about twenty; but only four Pm-itan divines were summoned, Drs. Reynolds, and Sparks, from Oxford, and Knewstubbs and Chaderton, from Cambridge. His Majesty presided ; and his anxiety for information on the disputed points, his truly wise remarks, his counsel of moderation. 252 The Gunpowder Plot. [a.d. 1605. and his dignified bearing, astonished all, eilenced the most violent, and gave him a decided and natural superiority in the conferences. The explanations given by the bishops were perfectly satisfactory to the king, who declared that he had called the Conference only to obtain information for himself, without intending them to come to any decision on any matters. The chief alterations after- wards made on the royal authority alone, consisted in the modification of three or four Rubrics, especially that before Private Baptism^ which no longer allowed midwives or laymen to administer this sacrament ; the addition of the Prayer for the Eoyal Family, the various occasional Thanksgivings, and the Explanations of the Sacraments at the end of the Catechism (see § 201). 223. The chief result of the discussions at Hampton Court was the revision or retranslation of the Bible, for which a com- mission was at once issued, and led to the publication of our present Authorized Version in 1611. Convocation in the same year drew up a body of 141 Canons, which were sanctioned by the royal assent. These still form the code of Ecclesiastical law, but are binding only on the clergy, since they have never passed through Parhament. Many of them have subsequently been abrogated by other enactments of the Legislature. Parhament passed an Act making alienations of Church property illegal for the future ; and the existing statutes against Jesuits and popish recusants were likewise renewed. James also in several pro- clamations insisted on the strict observation of the laws against nonconformists. 224. Some of the Roman Catholics, seeing all their hopes of James blasted, now entered into the diabolical conspiracy which framed the Gunpowder-plot. It would be uncharitable and unfair, to cast the blame of this dark scheme upon Roman Catholics in general, either individually or collectively. Yet the heads of that body having assumed the responsibility of this atrocity, more horrible if possible than the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (§ 165.), by canonizing Garnet the Jesuit, the A.D.I 611.] Perial Acts against Papists. 253 chief mover in it, as they had before done by a public thanks- giving in Rome for the success of that other deed of horror, it is impossible to avoid attributing to their peculiar tenets, at least as they were then understood, the tendency which led men to plan and execute such enormities, and glory in them afterwards. 225. The consequence of this event was the enactment of severe laws against Roman Catholics, which have only been repealed in our days. Popish recusants had to pay £20 per month, whilst continuing so, or two-thirds of their property at once. If attending their Parish Church, they must take the sacrament at least once a year, under heavy penalties. They must take the oath of allegiance, if called upon by bishops or justices of the peace, on pain of imprisonment or prcemunire. Conversion to Rome was made treason. Rewards were offered for informations against recusants harbouring priests. They were forbidden to come within ten miles of London, if not authorized to trade there ; to exercise the professions of physicians and apothecaries, or of barristers and attorneys; to hold commissions in the army or navy ; to be teachers of youth ; to be married, christened, or buried, by any rites but those of the Church of England ; to send their children to receive their educa- tion abroad ; or to inherit property without taking the oath of allegiance. In consequence of these laws, twenty-eight priests and seven laymen were executed, and a great nimiber banished. 226. In this reign the last hurning in Smithjield for religion took place, in the person of an enthusiast named Bartholomew Legate a. d. 1611. In the same year also a man named Wightmax was burnt at Litchfield. 227. In the beginning of this century, a Dutchman named IL\RMENSEN, which was Latinized into Arminius, a minister at Amsterdam, and afterwards Professor of Divinity at the Univer- sity of Leyden, began with great learning and ability to oppose the Calvinistic doctrines of absolute predestination and the divine decrees. Hence arose great controversies, not only in Holland, where Calvinism prevailed then as now, but also in all other 254 Synod of Dort. [a. d. 1618. Protestant countries. Armixius died in 1609, but his followers continued the controversy; and not content with the original doctrine of their chief, that Christ died for all men, they added other new articles, especially, that no individual ought to be punished by the magistrate for his religious opinions merely, if he live peaceably, and obey the laws. Some of them even adopted Socinian views (§ 352.), denying the divine attributes of Jesus Christ. When neither the Prince of Orange, nor Grotius, and other eminent men, could restore peace and forbearance towards one another between the opposing parties, a synod was summoned at Dort or Dordrecht in 1618, at which eminent dirines from various countries, especially from England, attended. The latter obtained great influence by acting with the same moderate spirit which is embodied in our Articles. The Arminians, objecting to the mode of proceeding adopted, declined entering upon the argument, and were condemned by their opponents without being heard. There were especially Five points decided : — 1. Predestination and Election. 2. Eedemption by the death of Christ. 3. Human Corruption. 4. Method of Conversion to God. 5. Final perseverance of saints. It is worthy of obsei-vation that on these points, except the second, our Church Articles are cautious and temperate. 228. It had been the anxious object of James during the whole of his reign, to establish in Scotland a system of Church government similar to that of the Church of England ; whilst in England he had sought to establish the Calvinistic doctrines in which he had been brought up. In 1606 an Act was passed by a Scottish Parliament, assembled at Perth, restoring the order of Bishops, which had been abolished during James's minority ; and before the end of 1608 all the thirteen Sees of Scotland were filled up. In 1610, three of these Bishops repaired to London by the king's order, to receive Episcopal consecration at the hands of the English Bishops. In 1616, in a General Assembly of A. D. 1625.] Reign of Charles I. 255 the Clergy and Laity, held at Aberdeen, a Liturgy was ordered to be drawn up for the use of the Scotch Church; but the opposition and troubles raised by the Presbyterian party, left this project to the more rash hands, who held the reins of government in the following reign. In another Assembly, which met at Perth in 1618, the Five Articles were passed concerning kneeling on receiving the Lord's Supper, its private administra- tion to the sick, private baptism in cases of need, confirmation, and the observation of Christmas, Good-Friday, Easter-day, Ascension-day, and Whitsunday ; and these were ratified by a ParHament assembled at Edinburgh in 1621. In the latter part of his reign, when James became anxious to secure a Spanish princess for his son, he not only left his son-in-law, Frederick, the Elector Palatine, then engaged in the thirty years' war (see § 161), to be stripped of all his possessions by Austria; but he also sought to relieve his Roman Catholic subjects of the severity of the penal Acts. He hkewise in 1622 forbad preaching on any subjects, except those treated of in the Homilies, Articles, and Catechism. By these proceedings he gave a religious colouring to that discontent, which broke out in such a tempest over his son's head. 229. Charles I. succeeded his father in 1625; and the failure of his Spanish marriage -negotiations making him ill disposed to the Roman Catholic party, he attached himself closely to the Church of England, and carried on the government to a great extent through its ministers. They had to preach in favour of his forced loans, which were to enable him to dispense with Parliaments ; and the advice of William Laud, Bishop of London, and from 1633 Archbishop of Canterbury, was almost implicitly followed in everything. This prelate was strongly opposed to the doctrines of the Calvinists; and in a treatise, which he published in 1625, he openly maintained the Arminian views (§ 227.). The state of public opinion at the time, coupled with his known influence at court, caused such an outcry against these threatened innovations, that to allay the discontent, the 256 Archbishop Laud. [a. d. 1528. king issued a Proclamation in the following January, declaring, that his majesty would admit of no innovations in the doctrine, " discipline, or government of the Church, and therefore charges " all his subjects, and especially the clergy, not to pubhsh or "maintain, in preaching or writing, any new inventions or "opinions, contrary to the said doctrines and disciphne esta- "blished by law, &c." Laud employed this proclamation to suppress all Calvinist writings, and licensed only those that favoured his own Arminianist opinions. He also induced the King in 1628 to reprint the Articles, with the Declaration which is still prefixed in the Prayer Book, but is without any signature or date ; a circumstance which has given rise to dis- putes, whether it was composed in the reign of Charles, or in the preceding reign. The injunction in this document, to take the Articles in their ' literal and grammatical sense,' was con- sidered by the Arminians as favourable to their views. 230. Another favourite point in Laud's ambition was the establishment of one united Church in all Great Britain and Ireland ; and the unflinching perseverance and regardlessness of all opposition, with which he set about to effect his purpose, ultimately brought both him and his master to the scaffold. For it was this that set the Parliament against the king, especially when the opposition in Parliament determined the king and his advisers, to dispense with Parliaments altogether. Thus the injudicious perseverance of Laud caused the commission of one fault after another : it acted in determined opposition to the prevailing spirit of the age in ecclesiastical affairs ; it suppressed Parliamentary opposition by the suppression of Parliamentary government itself ; it thus led to arbitrary taxation, which excited the people of England to assert their ancient privileges; it offended by arbitrary measures the still unsubdued sense of religious and political independence, both in Scotland and Ireland ; and the universal discontent and accumulated troubles, thus stirred up on all sides, brought on the ruin of the Church and the Monarchy. A. D. 1660.] Restoration of Clmrles II. 257 231. It is unnecessary here to trace the events that succeed- ed each other so rapidly, till the Restoration of Charles II. in 1660. The horrors of civil war, however, and the prostration un- der a military despotism, the hypocritical Uniformity of Purita- nism and the distraction of all Christian Unity under the Inde- pendent regimen, have not been able to efface the primitive purity of Gospel doctrine, and the truly Apostolical moderation, which the holy sincerity of the Fathers of our Reformation has engrafted on the religious feelings of the British people. 232. The Convention-Parliament, as it was named, which recalled Charles, confirmed the clergy ordained previous to December 25, 1659, though without Episcopal Ordination, and all incumbents instituted on a lawful vacancy (see § 235.). Nine of the Bishops, deposed under the Commonwealth, surviv- ed; thirteen were consecrated in the course of the year; and four sees, having been kept vacant in the hope of inducing Baxter and other leading nonconformists to accept them, were filled up in the beginning of 1661. All incumbents, who had been depriv- ed, entered at once again into their benefices ; as did also heads and fellows of Colleges, who had been ejected. 233. Charles had issued a declaration from Breda^ in Hol- land, dated April 14, 1660, in one clause of which he had promised to appoint a Commission to inquire into Ecclesiastical affairs. This Commission was appointed March 25, 1661, and held its first meeting at the Savoy Palace^ April 15th. It consisted of twelve Bishops and twelve Non-conformist divines. The predetermination on the part of the Bishops to yield nothing material, and the captious spirit of the other party, especially with regard to the Liturgy, which they chiefly objected to, caused the four months originally assigned to these Conferences to elapse without any agreement between the parties ; and thus a most favourable op- portunity (it is to be hoped not the last) was lost, of uniting per- haps the whole Protestant body of the nation into one national Church. 234. Convocation, which assembled in May 1661, is chiefly R 258 Penal Acts agst. Non-Conformists, [a. d. 1670. to be noticed for passing a sulsidy of four shillings in the pound. This was the last time the clergy taxed themselves, having ever since paid the same taxes as the rest of the people ; a custom in- troduced under the Commonwealth, and found to act well. 235. In 1662 was enacted the last Act of Unifonnity (§ 202 and 208.), which required all the beneficed clergy to de- clare their assent and consent to everything contained in the Liturgy; and if they neglected to do so before the 24th of August, they were ipso facto deprived. Two thousand incum- bents thus lost their preferments. The Act also now decided with regard to the Church of England, that those, who had not received Episcopal Ordination, should not hold preferment, or ad- minister the Lord's Supper (see § 232.). Subscription was also required to a declaration "that it is unlawful to take up arms " against the kmg on any pretence whatever."' 236. The Corporation Act of 1661 imposed the oaths of su- premacy and allegiance, and against taldng up arms, together with the necessity of taking the Lord's Supper in the form of the Church of England, previous to entering on any Corporation- office. The Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670 forbad, under fine and imprisonment, attendance at any conventicle. The Five- Mile Act of 1665, prohibited non-confoimiist ministers from com- ing within that distance from any place where they had officiated. 237. When Charles's extravagance and hcentiousness made it necessary for him to yield to the influence of the French king, exercised by a French woman, whom Charles had created Duchess of Portsmouth, he began to grant toleration to all persuasions, but chiefly intended to favour papists a. d. 1672. He had himself in exile been brought up by Roman CathoHc teachers ; and though in his most licentious years he had little or no rehgion, as his life advanced and he came under the influence of Roman CathoHcs, he is said to have been sincerely attached to that Church. The knowledge of this excited a strong spirit of opposition in Parliament; and the Commons in 1673 pro- nounced his Declaration of Toleration, published the year before, A. D. 1688.] Revolution of 1688. 259 illegal. Tlie anti-papal spirit was roused again among the people, and showed itself in the ready belief in popish plots, pretended to have been discovered by one Dr. Titus Gates. In the midst of this excitement, 1678, an Act was passed by Parhament, excluding papists from both Houses, by imposing the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, and a declaration against transubstantiation, on all members and peers, before taking their seats. Li the same year the Habeas Corpus Act was passed. 238. Such was the state of public opinion, when the head- strong and bigoted James II succeeded his brother in 1685. His open violation of every safeguard of civil and religious liberty, disgusted the nation, the Parliament, and the army ; till at length, deserted by all, he was obliged to avail himself of the connivance at his escape from the country, and from a people, which regarded him with too great contempt, to deem him worthy of the fate of his father. 239. William III, son-in-law of Ja^ies II, who had been called in by many of the most influential men of the nation, and was universally received as the deliverer of England from Popery and a French yoke, was a determined opponent of Popery, and of Louis XIV, king of France. His government, however, during James's lifetime was by many only considered as a mle de facto, and not de jure ; and on this ground, the Archbishop, Sancroft, and seven bishops, with about 400 of the clergy, refused to take the oaths to him, and were deprived as non-jurors. They kept up a separate communion, ordaining bishops and presbyters, and issuing liturgies of their own, till the death of their last Bishops, Gordon in 1779, and Cartwright in 1799. A Tolera- tion Act was passed, giving entire liberty of worship to all dissenters, except the Roman Catholics. But a Commission, issued ill 1689, to make such alterations as would satisfy the non-conformists, who had been greatly instrumental in bringing about this Revolution, failed through the opposition of the Lower House of Convocation, though the Bishops were in favour of concessions. Hence arose a violent antagonism in this reign and R 2 260 Clairch Principles maintained. the next between the two parties, respectively adverse and favourable to dissenters, which were distinguished as the High Church and Low Church parties. But though in Scotland Epis- copacy was abolished in 1589, the Episcopal Church of England has retained its vitality in the face of every opposition and danger. And though we may regret that the spirit of dissent should have been so long kept up by continued exclusion, when timely conces- sions might have led to the comprehension of the dissenting body in the Church ; yet if we consider the character of those times, we must perhaps conclude, that concessions, then made, would have led ultimately to the entire subversion of acknowledged Church principles. COMMON PRAYER. INTRODUCTION. 240. From the earliest times it was the practice among the Jews to offer up prayers in pre-composed set forms only ; and this practice continued till the time of our Saviour, and was adopted by Him, and followed by His Apostles and the primitive Christians. The earliest set form used in solemn worship, that is found in the Scriptures, is Moses' hymn on the deliverance of the Israelites from the Egyptians at the Red Sea, which was sung in alternate strains, by Moses and the men on one side, and by his sister Miriam and the women in response (Exod. xv.). And among other set forms prescribed by Moses upon God's command, we have a form for the expiation of an uncertain murder (Deut. xxi. 7), to be used by the elders of a city. The whole Book of Psalms also was used as a set form from the time of David, who appointed the Levites " to stand every morning to " thank and praise the Lord, and likewise at even " (1 Chron. xxii. 30.). It is also an established fact, that the Jews have always continued, down to the present day, to use set forms of prayers. Our Saviour, therefore. Who constantly attended in the synagogues, must have joined in these set forms then in use. He also gave a set form of prayer to His disciples, which, we find, was used by them from the earliest time: though some pretend that He gave it only as a model ; an idea which seems to be sanctioned by the translation of ovtqjs in our version by " after this manner,'' instead of more correctly " thus " (Matth. vi. 9.). The objection founded on the omission of the Doxology 262 Common Prayer. in Luke xi. 4., which is therefore considered by the objectors as an interpolation in Matthew, applies equally to the argument of its being a model for prayers, as of its being a fixed form. It is also alleged that Christ only gave it for a time, till they should be aided in their prayers by the Holy Ghost, when they were to pray in His name, which hitherto they had not done ; and that therefore in the Acts of the Apostles it is not mentioned, though other prayers are. But if this institution be considered as temporary, the same yiew may be taken of Christ's other institutions. And as for praying in His name, that means nothing else than in His mediation and atonement; and we can only call God Our Father^ in the name of Christ, as joint heirs with Him. Further, in the Acts, everywhere except in two places (i. 24, and iv. 24), it is only said that they prayed ; which may include the repetition of the Lord's Prayer, which we know was always used somewhat later. Justin Marti'r states that the Lord's Prayer {^vxh Xoyou tov nap avrov, a Prayer of His com- posing') was used in the administration of the Lord's Supper. Tertullian calls it the prayer appointed by law {legitima), said before other prayers, as a foundation for them. Cyprian also says, no prayer is more spiritual and true. Chrysostom, Augustine, and others, mention it as necessary for all, and used always at the Lord's Supper. Therefore this pre-composed set form was used in the primitive Church. And from 1 Cor. xiv. 26 ; Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16, it appears also, that joint Psalmody was instituted by the Apostles, as a constant part of divine service. Again, at Acts iv. 23, we are told that the assembled brethren, on the return of Peter and John from the Council, " lifted up their voices with one accord, and said," &c. ; which shews that the form there used must have been familiar to all. Lastly, Justin Martyr mentions kolvoi evxac, Common Prayers (Apol. i. 65.). Origen in his treatise against Celsus speaks of evxal TTpoa-TaxBcla-aij appointed prayers. Cyprian, in his work on the Lapsed, has Preces Solemnes {stated Prayers). EusEBius, in his life of Constantine the Great says, the latter Liturgies of the Primitive Church. 263 used in his Court evxa\ evdea-jioi, authorized iwayers. Tliere were also Liturgies in use in different Churches, attributed to St. Peter, St. Mark, and St. James ; and later some by Basil (a. d. 370), iVjiBRosE (a. d. 374:), and Chrysosto3i (a. d. 390). The former, however, as they are now extant, contain much that has been interpolated in the fourth and fifth centuries, as well as portions agreeing with statements of the earliest Christian writers, espe- cially concerning the form of administering the Communion ; but, together with those attributed to authors of later date, they certainly exhibit the forms in use in the fifth century. Hence it is sufficiently evident, that pre-composed set foi-ms of prayers and praises, were the great feature in the public worship of the primitive Church; and the portions, which are common to all the above fonnularies, may well be considered as the forms of the earliest Christian Church services. THE ENGLISH LITURGY. 241. It is not known what particular forms were in use among the earliest Christians in this country. But in the beginning of the fifth century, when the aid of some Gallican Divines was called in against the Pelagian heresy (see § 168), these are said to have introduced the Gallican Liturgy, derived, as is supposed, from St. John, or from his disciple Polycarp, who sent over Irenjius to christianize Gaul (see § 59). Augus- tine (§ 170.) of course brought with him the Roman Service Books, which his patron, Gregory the Great, had filled with an accumulation of forms and formularies. The disputes which arose between the ancient British Church, and that now first founded among the Saxons, seem to have tended to keep up also a difference in the forms of worship, which was fm'ther increased by new importations at the Conquest; and every Bishop still had the power of introducing new forms, and varying the previously established practice. 264 Early English Uses, Salisbury Zilturg'y. Thus we find, that, in the reign of William the Conqueror, Oswald or Osmund, Bishop of SaUsbury, compiled a Liturgy for his diocese, to stop the violent disputes, accompanied by bloodshed, that had broken out at Glastonbury, when a newly appointed Norman Abbot attempted to introduce novel practices into the public worship. Similar special Liturgies existed in other dioceses, whence the Uses of Salisbury, Hereford, Bangor, York, and Lincoln, mentioned in the Preface to our Prayer Book. The Salisbury Liturgy, however, was used most extensively, especially in the southern half of England, during the Middle Ages, and from it much was transferred into the Books compiled at the Reformation. It consisted of several parts : I. The Breviary^ comprising the daily services, with special services for Sundays; and in the thirteenth century prayers to the Virgin and Saints were added : 11. The Missal, containing the Canon of the Mass (see § 122), or the Communion Service, called the Sacramentarium before the time of Gregory the Great, and including the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels: III. The Ritual or Manual, containing the occasional services, such as that of Baptism, Matrimony, the Visitation of the Sick &c : IV. the Pontifical, containing the rites of Confirmation, Ordination &c. administered by the Bishop or Pontiff alone. 242. Primers. The earliest Books published in English at the Reformation were called Primers, a word in use as early as the fourteenth century, to signify a version in the vulgar tongue of the most common prayers for individual devotions. The first was composed by William Marshall, Archdeacon of Nottingham, and pubhshed in 1535, but without authority. Next followed the * Bishops' Book' (see § 191), composed by a Committee of Convocation in 1537, and containing the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, the Creed, the Commandments, the Seven Sacraments, and some other pieces, reprinted with altera- tions in 1540 and 1543. In 1539 appeared also a Primer by HiLSEY, Bishop of Rochester. In 1544 were pubhshed some prayers for Processions and Litanies in English; and in 1545 Prayer- Book q/'1549. 265 appeared the King's F rimer, containing the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Commandments, and the Litany with petitions to angels, saints, and martyrs, and for deHverance * from the tyrrany * of the Pope.' It also contained the Venite and the Te Deuni, with some Hymns and Collects, in Enghsh. 243. First Eng-lisli Communion Service. In 1548 was published, with the sanction both of Convocation and Parliament, a short Communion Seryice in English, to be used by the priest in administering the Sacrament to the people in both kinds, after having gone through the Latin Mass. To it was added an Exhortation to mutual charity as regards confession to a priest, which was left optional. First Prayer Sook of Edward VZ. The year after, 1549, a full Liturgy in Enghsh was issued. The Morning and Evening Service began with the Lord's Prayer, and the Prayers for the king, the royal family, and the clergy, were wanting. The Litany was not ordered to be read on Sundays, and still contained the petition against the tyranny of Rome. An Introit or Psalm was appointed to be sung as the priest went to the altar to celebrate the Communion. The Commandments were not yet used in the Communion Service, and in the praise for the Saints the Virgin was named. The bread and wine were to be consecrated by the sign of the cross, and a prayer was offered up for their sanctification by the Spirit and Word of God. Only the first clauses of the present presentation sentences, pronounced on administering the bread and the cup respectively, were inserted, and water was mixed with the wine. In Baptism, exorcism (see § 84.), the chrism or anointing with oil, and the chrisom or white garment, were directed to be used, the baptismal water to be consecrated once a month, and the child to be thrice dipped {trine immersion). The Catechism was without the explanations of the Sacraments (see § 201), and only part of the Confirmation Service was inserted, and that without the promise ; and the sign of the cross was directed to be used. In Matrimony money was to be given to the bride with the ring, and the sign of the cross 266 The Ordination Service. used. In the Visitation of the Sick, Tobias and Sarah, from the Apocrypha, were named, the sign of the cross was used, and chrisjn, if the sick desired it. In the Burial Service there were prayers for the dead, and the Eucharist was to be celebrated at funerals. The Psalms were so arranged as to be read through once a month, instead of, as formerly, once a week. The Apostles' Creed was substituted for the Athanasian on Sundays, the latter being appointed to be read only thirteen times in the year. The priests were to wear the surplice in churches, and to add the hood when preaching, or at all times when officiating in Cathedrals. The Bishop at Communion to wear a rochet, with surplice or alhe (the latter being a white linen garment kept close to the body by a girdle or sash), and the vestment or cope, which was a coat without sleeves, and was often richly embroidered, in imitation of the robe put on our Saviour in mockery. The cope corresponded to the collohium of the Latin, and the o-cikkos of the Greek Church. The Bishop's pastoral staff was to be carried by himself or his chaplain. Kneeling, crossing one's-self, and knocking on the breast, were left optional. The use of images and crucifixes, of incense and holy water, and of candles in honour of the saints and at the altar, and other superstitious practices, were abolished. The Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, were almost all taken from the Salisbury Missal before mentioned ; as was also the Litany, from which, however, a great number of superstitious invocations to the Virgin, and many saints, were expunged, though the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel for the Festival of Mary Magdalene on 22nd July were still retained. Much also was derived from a a work called * Consultation about Religion,' drawn up by Melancthon and Bdcer for Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne (§ 157.). 244. In 1550, the Ordination Service was put forth, framed by a Committee of Divines from that of the Roman Church, most of the questions to the Candidates being newly in- serted. The portions of Scripture read, and the oath of supre- macy, were different from the present. It was reviewed and altered two years after, when it was adopted into the revised Prayer-Book. Prayer- Booh o/* 1552. 267 245. Second Prayer Book of Edward VI, The su- perstitions, that had been allowed to creep into the Liturgy, made a revision of it necessary in 1552, when Cranmer and other Divines, with the advice of ^L^tin Bucer (§ 162.). and Peter jMartyr(§ 163), made the following alterations. The introductory Sentences, the Exhortation, Confession, and Absolution, were added at the opening of the daily services, and were probably suggested by the Liturgy of a Congregation in connexion with the Reformed Church of Strasburg, which had obtained permission to settle at Glastonbury under their Pastor Pollaxus, who in the preceding year had published a Latin translation of a modified form of Calvin's French Liturgy of 1545. About the same time also, the Services of a German Congregation, settled in London, were published in Latin by their minister, John a-Lasco, from which many phrases, especially in the Confession and Absolution, appear to have been derived. The Litany was now ordered to be read on Sundays; the words 'commonly called the Mass' were left out in the title of the Communion Service ; the Commandments were now fii'st added from the above-named Liturgies ; the Introit was omitted, as were also the name of the Virgin in the praises for the saints, the sign of the cross in consecrating the bread and wine, and the mixing of water with the wine. To the title of the ' Prayer for the whole state of Christ's Church,' was added * militant here on earth,^ to discoimtenance all prayer for the de- parted. The invocation of the Word and the Holy Ghost was also struck out, but has since been restored in the AmeiHcan Church (§ 250). The second clauses of our present presentation sentences were inserted, instead of the first ; and Tcneeling was en- joined in receiving the Sacrament. Li Baptism, exoi^cism, the chrisju, the chrisom, and trine immersion j were discontinued, and water consecrated for the occasion, as at present. Tlie sign of the cross was omitted in Confirmation and Matrimony, as also the giving of money to the bride. In the Visitation of the Sick-, the sign of the cross, the chrism, and the mention of Tobias and Sarah, were omitted ; as were the prayers for the dead, and the 26S Subsequent Alterations. Euchaiist 2ii funerals. The alhe and cope were also now forbid- den. Some of the prayers, now used towards the conclusion of the daily Services, stood at the end of the Litany ; and those for Eain and Fair Weather, at the end of the Commiuiion Service. The Fasts and Festivals were arranged as at present in the Ca- lendar prefixed to the Prayer Book, in accordance with an Act of Parliament passed in 1553, and that of Mary Magdalene was omitted. 246. The Act of Uniformity, passed in the first year of queen Elizabeth, restored, as we have seen (§ 208), the Second Prayer-Book of Edward VI, but the vestments were retained as ordered in Edward's first Book ; and by the Act of Uniformity of Charles II, 1662, these are still lawful, though universally discontinued. The following were the alterations introduced into the Book itself by a Commission of eight divines, Cox, Grindal, PiLKixGTON, and Whitehead, who in the previous reign had taken refuge abroad, and Bill, May, Parker, and Sir Thomas Smith, Secretary of State : some Sunday lessons were altered ; in the Litany, the petition against ' the tyranny of Rome' was omitted, and that for the Queen altered ; in the Communion Ser- vice, both the clauses of the presentation sentences of the two Books of Edward VI., were conjoined, as at present, and the explanation, given at the end of the Communion Service, of the rubric directing that communicants shall kneel when receiving the bread and wine, was omitted ; that now placed there being an altered form of it, reintroduced after the Savoy Conferences in 1662 (see § 233.). The present Prayers for the king and clergy were now first added. 247. At the Hampton Court Conferences in 1604 (§ 222., some alterations were made, which were not sanctioned by any legislative authority, but by royal proclamation only. They consisted in the addition of the Prayer for the Koyal Family, of the Thanksgiving for Fair Weather and some others, of the ex- planations of the Sacraments added to the Catechism by Dr. John Overall, and the insertion of the words * lawful minister' in the rubric before Private Baptism, to prevent the christening Laud's Alterations. 269 being performed by midwives or laymen, as had been the custom in case of imminent danger of a child's dying. 248. Prayer Book of 1638. An edition of the Praytr Book was issued in 1638, in which there were many slight devia- tions from former editions, chiefly verbal ; and these changes were imputed to Archbishop Laud, whose desire to bring about a re- action in the Church caused them generally to be looked upon with great suspicion and displeasure. Thus the word Minister was almost everywhere changed into Priest^ besides several other arbitrary alterations. These would probably not have been taken so much into account, had not people's suspicions been excited by Laud's attempt in the preceding year, to force upon the people of Scotland a Liturgy, containing some superstitions long dis- carded, and expressions particularly offensive to the Scotch, especially in the Communion Service. 249. Xiast Revision of the Prayer Book. At the Savoy Conferences (see § 233.) the Presbyterians delivered in a paper containing their objections to the Prayer-book, the principal of which were, that the alternations between the Minister and people, in repeating various parts of the service, caused a con- fused muttering, and broke up the sense of the words, especially in the Litany ; that the observation of fasts and Saint's days ought not to be countenanced ; that the portions of Scripture occurring in the Liturgy were taken from the incorrect version of Tyndal and Coverdale, as pubhshed in Cranmer's Great Bible of 1539, and that lessons were appointed to be read from the Apocrypha ; that portions of Scripture, not taken from the Epistles, were appointed to be read as Epistles ; that all ex- temporaneous prayer was excluded, and that expressions were often introduced assuming all persons in the congregation to be converted, regenerated, and in a state of grace ; that the petitions in the Collects were too brief, and the General Confession not sufficiently explicit ; and that various formalities and vestments were introduced, inconsistent with the spirit of the Keformation. They also proposed an entirely original Liturgy, drawn up by 270 Last Revisio7i. Baxter, their principal divine. These objections were entirely set aside by the Bishops, and Convocation was authorized by the King's letter to revise the Book of Common Prayer. The Ser- vices for the 29th of May and the 30th of January, and the order of Baptism for persons of riper years^ become necessary through the neglect of that Sacrament during the Common- wealth, were now added ; as was likewise the Form of Prayer to be used at Sea. In the following year, 1662, Parliament intro- duced the following further changes. The Authorized Version of the Bible (§ 223.) was adopted everywhere, except in the Communion sentences, the Commandments, and the Psalms, where Tyndal's version was retained, as being clearer and smoother, though not so accurately translated. The Morning and Evening prayers were separated, and the last five prayers added to each, being taken from the end of the Litany. The Occasional Prayers were also separated from the Litany, and that for Parlia- ment, that For all conditions of men, the general Thanksgiving, and that For Kestoration of Peace at home, were added, together with the two Ember Prayers^ the latter of which was taken from the Scotch Liturgy. Some new Collects were inserted, others interchanged, or verbally altered. The Exhortations for the Communion were considerably altered, and ordered to be read the preceding Sunday, one day's notice being required of persons in- tending to communicate; and the General Confession in the Communion Service was ordered to be said by the people as well as the minister (see also § 247.). The last five prayers in the Visitation of the Sick were also now first added. At Confirma- tion, the consent of the curate was made necessary, unless the Bishop especially dispensed with it ; and this rite was no longer indispensable in order to be admitted to the Lord's Supper. The Minister was at his own discretion to use the Absolution for the Sick, if the latter 'humbly and heartily desire it.' The Churching of Women may be read from the Desk, instead of the Communion-table, as is still the custom in some places ; and the Psalms were also changed in this Service. A new-married Later Attempt at Revision. 271 coliple need not, as before, receiYC the Communion. Lastly, the Baptismal font was, at the Ordinary's direction, to be placed in any convenient position, other than the porch of the Church; and in the Catechism, the words 'because they promise them both by their sureties,' were substituted for : * they do perform them by their sureties who promise etc' But various alterations were made by no means calculated to prove satisfactory to the objec- tors. Thus in the Litany, the words Rebellion and Schism were introduced for the first time, reflecting upon the proceedings of the Puritans during the time of the Commonwealth ; the word * Church' was in several places substituted for * Congregation,' and the three orders of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, were par- ticularly specified in the petition for the Clergy in the Litany, which previously had been ' Bishops, Pastors, and Ministers of the Church;' and the Eubric asserting that "it is certain by " God's Word, that children which are baptized, dying before " they commit actual sin, are undoubtedly saved," was now first placed at the end of the form of Public Baptism of Infants, to serve as a refutation to those who maintain the necessity of adult Baptism, — this rubric having pre\dously formed part of the Con- firmation service, to prevent the sacrament of Baptism from being deemed incomplete without the rite of Confirmation. 250. Xaast attempt to conciliate Nonconformists* The friendly feeling and the patriotism, shown during the reign of James 11. by the Protestant Dissenters, as well as the decided Calvinistic prepossessions of William III, made it desirable at the Revolution of 1688, to make another attempt at conciliation and comprehension. In 1689, therefore, a Commission was issued to ten Bishops and twenty others, comprising Lamplugh, Archbishop of York, Compton, Bishop of London, Spratt, of Rochester, and Burnet, of Salisbury, with the most distinguished divines of the time, such as Stillingfleet, Patrick, Tillotson, Beveridge, Hall, and Tennison. They were directed to con- sider the alterations necessary to be made in the Common Prayer, the Canons, the constitution and powers of Ecclesiastical Courts, 272 Modern demands of Revision. and some other matters. A series of recommendations were con- sequently proposed to Convocation, which the Upper House were willing to take into consideration; but the factious spirit, that soon showed itself in the Lower House, caused the session to be closed veiy early without any thing being effected. American Iiiturgry- The alterations then proposed have nearly all been carried out in the American Liturgy. They consist chiefly in the following particulars. The lessons from the Apo- cryphal Books are omitted, and the others differently divided. Eepetitions of the Lord's Prayer, the Creeds, the Gloria Patri, and other parts of the daily services, are avoided; and these omissions shorten the time of the service, which is especially desirable, without breaking up the Offices as now used. The Absolution of the Sick is likewise omitted, as is also the Athana- sian Creed. Tlie Psalms are left to the selection of the Minister. Other omissions are, the Commination, and the twenty-first Article, and the last Rubric but one in public Baptism of infants. 251. Since the Revolution no further attempts have been made, to alter either the doctrines, or the formularies and cere- monies of the Church of England. But there has for some time been a party in the Church, desirous of modifying the services of the Prayer Book, as to their length, and certain other points; and this desire has recently been strengthened and extended by the attempts of various parties to make the Prayer Book more confoi-mable to their respective views. Those who some time since sought to give additional importance to outward forms and ceremonies, and with that view explained the Rubrics and certain incidental expressions as capable of bearing a sense wholly incon- sistent with the doctrines of the xxxix Articles; and who, to make them correspond with the supposed implicit sense of the Liturgy, would interpret the Articles themselves in what was termed a non-natural sense, — so alarmed all who placed the es- sentials of religion and of worship in the inward feelings and devotions of the heart and soul, that they began to desire an alteration in those portions of our Liturgy which were in their Preface and Calendar. 273 opinion misinterpreted by their opponents. But the activity of a new party, who seek to eliminate from rehgious formularies and doctrines whatever seems outwardly to be adverse to the indepen- dent conclusions of human reason, as founded upon the disclo- sures of natural science, has caused the two parties, formerly opposed to each other, to draw more closely together in defence of true religion, and to resist the apparent desire to subvert what- ever is most venerated in the records of the Christian Churches. Hence a reluctance on the part of many to disturb in the slightest degree the time-honoured and deeply impressive forms of our devotional Manual and of our Authorized Version of the Scrip- tures ; whilst others deem it prudent and desirable, to make such alterations as can be safely made without disturbing the faith and devotional feelings of the rehgious pubUc, in the hope that, such alterations having been once made, no new agitation could be^stirred up again for further changes. ANALYSIS OF THE LITURGY. 252. The present Preface is supposed to have been com- posed by Sanderson, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1661, and explains the revision which then took place. It was prefixed to the old prefatory matter, which treats of the Services and Ceremonies of the Church, and the appointed order of reading the Psalms and Lessons. 253. The Calendar was intended to supply the place of the ancient Lcctionarium, or Table of Lessons from Scripture, appointed to be read each day. Besides the Festivals on which we commemorate the Apostles and Evangelists, there were inserted the names of some Saints' days from the Roman Calendar, chiefly for their local connexion with different districts in England, where markets, fairs, and other fixed periods, had been usually regulated by them. The Tables following sufficiently explain s 274 Golden Number. Reading Desk. themselves. We will only observe, that the tables for finding Easter are founded on the Metonic Cycle of the Moon, of nineteen years, after which period, it was found by Meto, an Athenian Astronomer (b. c. 433.), that the full moon would recur again on the same days of the solar year. Thus, commencing the Cycle with the first year of the Christian era, we add one to the present year, and divide the sum by 19 ; the remainder, called the Golden Nimher, gives the number of years elapsed since the commence- ment of the last Cycle. Since Easter depends on the first full moon after the Vernal Equinox, which occurs on the 21st of March (see § 68), the above Cycle is found useful in calculating it. Nevertheless a correction of one day in every 300 years is necessary, for the Cycle is deficient by an hour and a half from the full period of 19 solar years. Hence the Tables at present in use hold good only till 1899, and other tables are added in most Prayer Books to be used afterwards. 254. Heading* Desk. At the Eeformation it was thought proper to discontinue the practice of the priest's standing on the steps of the altar when praying, turning his face to the East, and his back to the people. Hence a rubric in the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI. directed him to * turn so that the people might best hear;' and in 1559 (see § 208), the rubric now placed before the order of Morning Prayer was added, giving to the Ordinary^ i. e. the Bishop, as exercising the ordinary jurisdiction in Church mat- ters, the discretion of determining the place where the prayers shall be read. This led to the now usual position of the Reading- DesTc in the body of the Church ; which, together with the rubric of 1552, just alluded to, seems to discountenance the practice still observed in some places both by ministers and people, of turning round to the east at particular portions of the service. 255. We have seen (§ 245), that all which precedes the Lord's Prayer was added in 1552. The Sentences with which the Minister opens the services are intended as a scriptural foun- dation for the Exhortation and General Confession that follow, and to show the necessity of entering into the presence of God Kneeling. General Confession. 275 with a deep sense of our guilt, which should be the first thing to drive us to him for pardon and forgiveness, before we can presume to ask for other blessings. The attitude of kneelingr, which is directed in the rubric be- fore the General Confession, and elsewhere in our Liturgy, appears to have prevailed from the earliest ages. Thus, in the Old Testament, we find in 2 Cliron, vi. 13, that at the dedication of the temple Solomon " kneeled down upon his knees before all " the congregation of Israel, and spread forth his hands towards " heaven, and said &c." So Ezra (ix. 5.) says, especially in the case of confession of sins : " I fell upon my knees, and spread out "my hands unto the Lord my God, and said &c;" and Daniel " (vi. 10) is said to have kneeled upon his knees three times a day and prayed" (see also Fs. xcv. 6; 1 Kings xix. 18; Isa. xlv. 23.). In the New Testament we have both the example of our Lord himself {Luke xxii. 41), and of the Apostles Peter (Acts ix. 40) and Paul (Acts xxi. 5 ; iii. 14) ; as well as of Stephen, the Protomartyr (Acts vii. 60), for this which seems almost the natural attitude for prayer and supplication,* This Confession has been inserted thus early in the service, " after the example of the early Christians, who in all Churches, " immediately upon their entering into the house of Prayer, made " confession of their sins to God, every man pronouncing his own " confession with his own mouth" (Basil ad. Cler. NeoccBsar. 63). At the last Kevision it was objected, that this Confession was not sufficiently explicit (see § 249) ; but the wording of it is such as to recall to the mind of the attentive worshipper the most vivid picture of his own individual sins. Compare Isa. liii. 6 ; Ps. cxix. 176 ; 1 Pet. ii. 25 ; Jer. xviii. 12 ; Ps. li. 3, 4 ; Matt, xxiii. * On the Lord's day, however, and between Easter and Whitsunday, it seems to liave been the practice amonj? the early Christians in many places, to stand at prayers ; and this was universally enforced by the Council of Nicsea, the humiliating posture being deemed inconsistent with the joyful- ness of the day or season. s 2 276 The Absolution. 23; Fs. xxxviii. 3; Ps. vi. 2; Prov. xxviii. 13; Ileb. viii. ]2; Tit. u. 11, 12. 256. The Absolution which follows, is certainly not intend- ed as an authoritative and perfunctive act of pardon, granted by the Minister to the people present, for the sins just confessed by them ; for no positive expression to that effect occurs in it. He only makes this proposal to the people, that, whereas God ' pardoneth and absolveth all them that trul?/ repent'' &c., there- fore ' let us beseech him to grant us true repentance' &c. Hence both the objectors to our Book of Common Prayer, as well as others, who seek to find in our formularies an affinity with those of Rome, are mistaken, if they think they see here anything akin to the authoritative remission of sin, arrogated by the Romish priesthood ; and, indeed, if we remember that this form was insert- ed in the Prayer Book of 1552, as an improvement, through the influence of Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr, after the example of Calvin's French Liturgy (see § 245), it is clear that such an interpretation is unwarranted. The same may be said as regards the form of Absolution in the Communion Service^ which, so far from being an absolute and positive conveyance of forgiveness, is but the expression of a wish or prayer on the part of the Minister, that God may pardon and deliver the communicants present from all their sins, &c. The form of Absolution in the Visitation of the Sick seems at first sight to be more positive and absolute ; but the Rubric preceding it, and its history, must remove such an impression. In the first place, the special confession, to which the sick person is to be moved, is not to be urged upon him, un- less it appear, that he feel his conscience troubled by any weighty matter. And then, even if he have made such a special confes- sion, the Priest is not directed to absolve him, unless he humbly and heartily desire it of his own accord. Hence if we consider the time when the Prayer Book was first issued, we shall find that this form was intended to meet some exceptional cases, of persons dying under the torment of a guilty conscience, and ac- customed, when yet under Romish instruction, to look for priestly Amen. 277 absolution to free them from the torments of Pnrgatorj. Out of mercy to such misguided souls, beguiled of their otherwise fervent faith, and supposing them to be truly rej>entnnt in the sight of God, our Church has framed this formula, in terms suited only for the age immediately succeeding the Eeformation, and rarely called for in our times. Since the substitution of the word Priest for Minister in 1638 (§ 248), th e now almost universal practice, of precluding a Deacon from reading the Absolution at the be- ginning of Morning and Evening Service, has been founded on the words '■Priest alone^ occurring in the Rubric, which are only intended to imply, that the Minister is to read this hy himself, and that the people are not to repeat it after him, as they had done the Confession. The officiating Deacon now either omits the Absolution, and goes to the Lord's Prayer following ; or he substitutes some Collect upon pardon and forgiveness ; or some priest present reads the Absolution from the Communion Table. But these practices are all alike uncanonical, as being contrary to the Rubric and the Fourteenth Canon of our Church.* Com- pare Ez. xviii. 23; xxxiii. 11; 1 Tim. ii. 3, 4,; 2 Pet. iii. 9; Mark xvi. 15, 16 ; Luhe xxiv. 47 ; Acts iii. 19 ; Psalm Ixxxvi. 5; Acts ii 38; 2 Tim. ii. 25; Luhe id. 13; Heh. xiii. 20, 21; 1 Pet. iv. 2 ; Rom. ii. 7 ; 1 John v. 11. 257. The word Amen, directed in the next Rubric to be said * here and at the end of all other prayers' by the people, is a Hebrew word, meaning true, firm, certain, or as substantive truth (Isa. Ixv. 16.). It is also used to express a wish or affirmation, * so be it,' or ' yes, I believe it.' It was used, according to the Talmudists, from the earliest times, either with the force of an oath, as Numb. v. 22 ; or as declaring consent and approbation, * Dr. Bennet, On the Common Prayer, speaks upon this subject, as if in his time the question was only mooted, about the propriety of a Deacon's reading the Absolution; and he decides, that he may read it, as well as preach a Sermon on repentance and pardon, or read the first of the intro- ductory sentences, or other passages of Scripture to the same effect. 278 The LorcVs Siip2^er. as after each of the curses, directed by Moses to be pronounced on Mount Ebal, Dent, xxvii.; or, lastly, in confimiation of any thing, as Jer. xxviii. 6. The Jews put ' Amen, Amen' at the end of each of the five Books of Psalms, according to their division, which in the Greek and Latin Versions is rendered ' so he if {ye'voiTo, fiat.). They have also from the earhest ages used it at the end of prayers ; and since the three letters composing the word are the initials of the words * God, Merciful King,' they pro- nounce it with peculiar emphasis, and in the loudest tone of voice, as if importunately invoking the attention of the Almighty to their prayers. Tliis example seems to have been followed by the early Christians, who, according to Jerome (p. 132.), echoed out the Amen like a clap of thunder ; and Clemens of Alexandria, who lived at the end of the second and beginning of the thi7'd century, states, that " at the last acclamations of their prayers, " they raised themselves on tip-toe, as if they desired at that " word to raise up their bodies as well as their souls to heaven," It was thus natural, that it should be retained in all Christian Liturgies, especially as it is found similarly used in various places in the New Testament ; as at the end of the Lord's Prayer, JIatt. vi. 13, and in Horn. i. 25; ix. 5. See also 1 Co?\ xiv. 16; Bev. V. 14; xix. 4. 258. That the Xiord's Prayer formed part of all the ser- vices of the primitive Church, has been shown already in § 240. It is here ordered to be repeated by the people after the Minister, the old practice having been for the Minister to repeat it by him- self, and to raise his voice at the petition ' lead us not into temptation ;' whereupon the people responded with the last peti- tion ' but deliver us from evil^^ as is still the practice in the Romish Church. Our Church, in this and many other matters, follows the custom of the ancient Greek and Galhcan Churches, the above direction having been added at the last revision in 1662 (see § 249), when the Doxology (see § 240) was likewise added for the first time, here and wherever the Lord's Prayer is com- bined with praise and thanksgi\-ing, being omitted only in prayers Gloria Patri. The Psalter. 279 and supplications. — The Versicles or Responses, as tlicy are called, which follow, are found in the early Eastern Liturgies passing by the names of St. James and Chrysostom (p. 135), and others of the Western Church, and are taken from verse 15 of the Penitential Psalm li, and from Psalm Ixx. 1. 259. The G-loria Patri has passed through a great variety of shapes into its present form, it being customary to vary it at different times and places, so as to praise each of the persons of the Holy Trinity in, ivith, hy, and, through the others in turn. But when the Arians, to meet their heretical doctrines, adopted the fomi, Glory to the Father, hy the Son, in the Holy Ghost, the form adopted by Athanasius, their great opponent, and by all orthodox Churches, was, Glo?y be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, both now and ever, icorld vnthout end ; and this was further expanded in the Western Church by the addition of the words, as it was in the beginning. It was used at the end of the last Psalm for the day in the Eastern Church, and in the Western Church at the end of each Psalm. THE PSALTER. 260. Hitherto we have been engaged in jjenitential devo- tions. Now we are roused to the celebration of the praises ot God by the I\Iinister's exclamation. Praise ye the Lord ; which is only the English version of the word Hallelujah, anciently consi- dered so sacred, that it was retained in its original form, as in Rev. xix., and in every ancient Liturgy, especially in the services for Easter. In the first Book of Idng Edward YI. it was like- wise preserved, and considered as the chonis of the angels, in which we were joining, The response following was first used in the Scotch Liturgy, and thence transferred to our own at the last revision (§. 249.). 261. The Psalms here introduced are especially suitable to the praise of God, which now is intended to occupy the worship- pers, having been used for the same purpose in the temple at Jerusalem. The Ninety-Fifth Psalm has from the earliest times 280 Psalmody. been appointed to be read every day, perhaps in consequence of its introduction in Heh. iii., and what is there said in verse 13. Before the Eeformation they were divided into seven portions, so that all the Psalms were read through once every week. In the Greek Church they are divided into twenty portions, and so the whole is read through in twenty days. Their present division was made by our Reformers ; and at first it was ordered, that on the last day of January they should be recommenced, and ended on the first day of March ; whilst in the other months, having thirty-one days, the same Psalms were ordered to be read on the last two days of the month. It was first directed in the Scotch Liturgy, that this arrangement should be adopted in every month, so that the Psalter is always commenced on the first day of the month; and this plan was soon after adopted in the English Prayer Book also. The custom of reciting them in alternate verses by minister and people, or by two antiphonic choruses, has been derived from the earliest Jewish custom, as appears from Exod. XV. 21., where Miriam and the women are said to have responded to the men, by resuming the words of the first verse of the hymn, which was done no doubt more than once during its recital. See also ^J^^ra iii. 10, 11; Neh. xii. 31 — 40. Several of the Psalms appear to have been written specially with a view to such alternate recitation, as Ps. cxiv, cxviii, and cxxxvi. Theodoret, a writer of the ffth century (p. 1 52), assigns the intro- duction of this custom into the Church of Antioch to Flavianus and DiODORUS ; and Isidore, who wrote about the same time, says that Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan (a. d. 374 — 397) introduced it into the Latin church (see p. 132). "We are told also in Pliny's celebrated Epistle to Trajan (§ 51), that the Christians brought " before him asserted, that on a stated day they assembled before " daylight, and recited alternately among themselves (dicere secum " invicem) a hymn to Christ as God." This responsive alterna- tion has been preserved throughout our Liturgy, giving to the people an active share in the celebration of divine worship, in con- formity with the minister's exhortation to the people, Praise ye The Lessons. 281 the Lord^ and their own declaration, O^ir mouth shall shew forth Thy i^raise. It is worthy of observation, that both in the Romish Church, and among various bodies of Protestant Dissenters, the burden of the pubhc worship is thrown almost entirely upon the officiating Minister, the people performing the part of passive assistants or spectators ; and this affords one out of many proofs, of the faithful adherence of our Church to the best authenticated practices of the primitive Christian Churches. THE LESSONS. 262. In the Synagogues, established after the return from the Babylonish captivity in every place where Jews resided in any numbers, the Books of Moses and the Prophets were read every Sabbath day at the time of our Sa\dour and his Apostles, as appears from Acts xiii. 15, and xv. 21. This custom appears to have grown up gradually, the Prophets having first been substi- tuted for the Books of Moses, the reading of which was pro- hibited by AxTiocHUs Epiphanes b. c. 163, lest they should be thereby reminded of their former independent polity, and so stirred up to rebellion against him ; and when afterwards, under the Maccabean princes, they did for a time recover their indepen- dence, the two parts of the Old Testament were combined. This practice seems to have been kept up among the early Christians in their meetings for divine worship, with the additional reading of the writings of the Apostles and Evangelists. Thus Justin Martyr {Apol. I. 67) says, it was a custom in his time to read lessons from the Prophets and ApostUs in the Christian assemblies. In the fourth century, the Council of Laodicea ordered Lessons from Scripture to be mingled with the Psalms. There were Lection- aries, containing the Scriptures divided into portions, appointed to be read from day to day (§ 253). In course of time various Apocry- phal writings were introduced, such as the Epistles of Clemens RoMANUs to the Corinthians (§ 49) ; the Shepherd of Hennas, a work written in the second century by Hermas, brother of Pius I, Bishop of Rome (see §. 49.) ; besides Homilies composed 282 First and Second Lessons. by distinguished fathers, and legends of Martyrs and Saints. Such spurious and legendary writings had during the Middle Ages almost everywhere superseded the reading of the Scriptures, when, soon after Luther's first condemnation of the abuses that had crept into the Church, Cardinal Quignonius was directed by Pope Clement YII. to revise the Romish Service Books, and he restored the lessons from Scripture, taking for his motto the injunction of the Saviour, Search the Scriptures^.... for they are they ivhich testify of me {John v. 39). This praiseworthy revival of the primitive practice was, how^ever, condemned by the Council of Trent (§ 157 &c.), but was approved of and adopted by the Reformers. Our Church directs the Old Testament to be read for the rirst Xicssons, in such a manner, that the whole is read through once in the year ; with the omission of the Books of Chronicles, because they contain nearly the same as those of Samuel and Kings ; and the Song of Solomon, the literal sense of which makes it unfit for public reading during the time of congregational worship, wherefore the Jews were prohibited from reading it till they were thirty years old ; and also many chapters of EzEKiEL, on account of their obscure mystical meaning. The book of Isaiah is read as Advent approaches, instead of in its regular order, since the direct prophecies of this book, pointing to the coming of the Saviour, are specially fitted to prepare us for the consideration of that event. The Apocryphal books are nearly all taken in after the Canonical books, and before Isaiah is begun, being read by the Church ' for example of life and instruc- tion of manners', but yet they arc not applied ' to establish any ' doctrine' {see Article vi.). The Book of ' Bel and the Dragon' and the ' Story of Susannah' were not in the Calendar till 1661. The Second Iiessons are taken from the New Testament, which is thus read through three times in the year. The Book of Revelation alone is excepted, of which only the first and last Chapters are read on the festival of St. John the Evangelist, and part of the nineteenth on All Saints' day (November 1). Our Reformers, without any authority from antiquity, have thought Te DeuTYiy dc. 283 fit to appoint a special course of Zicssons for the Sundays throughout the year, beginning on Advent Sunday with Isaiah; and Genesis is begun on Septuagesima Sunday, since the account of the Fall of man is best adapted to the penitential season of Lent. The Second Lessons are not varied for Sunday. On Festivals special lessons are appointed, bearing some reference to the day ; and the first lessons are often taken from the Apocrypha. Since the Church has not appointed any lessons from the Apocrypha for any Sunday in the year, there- fore, if any Festival, for which the lesson is taken from the Apocrypha, should fall on a Sunday, this Apocryphal Lesson ought not to be read, but that appointed for the Sunday. THE CANTICLES. 263. The Te jDeum, appointed to be said ' daily throughout the year' after the first Lesson, is said to have been composed by Ajvibrose, Archbishop of Milan (see p. 131.), for the baptism of Augustine (p. 144); though the composition has been also ascribed to Augustine himself and to others. It has in all ages exercised the skill of musical composers, and has been adapted by them to various chants, composed for various special occasions ; and it is generally sung in celebrations of victories, at coronations, and other solemnities. The Canticle which follows now as an alterna- tive for the Te Deum, was in the First Book of Edward VI. appointed to be read instead of it in Lent. But when instead of one Hymn after each lesson, at both Morning and Evening Ser- vice, two were inserted in the Second Book of 1552, by the addition of the hundredth, ninety -eighth, and sixty -seventh Psalms, the choice was here also left to the discretion of the Minister. The Benedicite is found in the Apocryphal Book, entitled the Song of the three Children, and appears to be a paraphrase of the hundred-and-forty -eighth Psalm. The Benedictus, read after the Second Lesson in the Morning, is the hymn of Zacharias on the birth of his son John the Baptist {Luke. i. 68), praising God for the expected coming of ' the dayspring from on high'; and as 284 The Ajjostles Creed. such it is snitable to be said by us here, after reading a portion of the history of the incarnate Saviour or the propagation of his Gospel, taken from the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles. The USag'nificat, read after the First Lesson at Evening Service, is the Hymn of the Virgin Mary in response to the salutation of her cousin Elizabeth, and may be compared with that of Hannah, the mother of Samuel (1 Sam. ii, 1 — 10). The Nunc Bimittis, after the Second Evening Lesson, is the Song of Simeon the Just, on beholding the Lord's Christ, as had been promised him by the Holy Ghost, before his death (Luke ii. 29—32). We need scarcely add, that the names usually given to the above Hymns, as well as to the Psalms following them, are the first words of their Latin Versions, according to a practice in the Latin or Western Church ; whence the Lord's Prayer w^as called the Pater Xoster, and the Creed derived its name from Credo, I believe. THE CREEDS. 264. The earliest Creeds, with which we are now acquainted, are found in Iren.eus's treatise against Heresies (i. 10. 11), and in Tertullian's book de Prcescript. Hceres. cap. 13. Most of the Articles in that which is now commonly called the Apostles'' Creed, and is read in the ordinary Morning and Evening Prayers, are found in the Epistles of Ignatius (see § 53) ; and the whole of it occurs in the works of Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan (see p. 131.). and of Eufinus, a Presbyter of Aquileia (see p. 134.), both of whom lived towards the end of the fourth century. From this, however, are to be excepted the Articles : Maker of heaven and earth, inserted at the Council of Niceea (§ 95.) ; He descended into hell, the Communion of Saints, and the life everlasting, which were not added till the fifth century. It was called in Latin Symbolum, either from avii^aXXo}, to cast together, according to an ancient legend, that the Apostles each put in an Article; or from the military sense of the word, a watch-word ; or most probably from the symbols or secret signs, communicated to persons on being initiated in the Pagan mysteries. The repetition The Athcvutsian Creed. 285 of it during public worship began in the fifth century, being introduced by Petrus Gnapheus, Bishop of Autioch (§ 117.) ; and it was thence adopted at Constantinople in the beginning, and by the Council of Toledo in Spain towards the end, of the next century. The Church of Rome did not sanction the practice till the eleventh century, though in France and England it had been introduced more than two centuries before. 265. The Creed, which passes under the name of Athanasius, was certainly not written by that illustrious Bishop of ^Alexandria, who, after long and violent persecutions from the Aiians (see § 97), died a. d. 375. It was not evtn written originally in his language, which was Greek, but in Latin, and probably called after him, because it asserted what were called the Athanasian doctrines, as maintained by him in opposition to those of Abius (see § 95). Its composition has been ascribed to Yigilius, bishop of Thapsus in Sicily ; or upon better grounds, according to Dr. "Waterland, to Hilary, who was Bishop of Aries, in France, about A. D. 430. It was first adopted into the public services in France, by the middle of the seventh century ; and thence it was soon after introduced into England, as well as into the Greek Chm-ch, but was not used by the Church of Rome till more than a century later. This Creed has been obnoxious to many sound churchmen, on account of what are called the damnatory clauses ; which, having been composed in times of violent controversies and animosities, might now very properly be struck out, as has been suggested by some distinguished di\ines, were it not for a reluctance to tamper with so ancient a composition. The con- demnation, however, as Archbishop Seeker asserts, is not more uncharitable and severe, than that of our Saviour himself, in Mark xvi. 16, * He that believeth and is baptized, shall be saved; 'but he that believeth not, shall be damned :' and it is directed only against those who reject the doctrine of the Trinity from * presumptuous self-opinion or wilful neglect;' not against those who do so from ' want of infonuation, weakness of apprehension, *or even excusable wrongness of disposition.' These clauses. 286 The Nicene Creed. therefore, are to be considered as extending only to the holding of the Catholic Faitli, which is stated in the third and fourth clauses to be this, that we worship one God in Trinity^ and Trinity in Unity ; neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance. From thence down to the twenty-sixth clause or verse, is a mere illustration, as a sermon on a text. This is shewn by the tenor of the 26th verse, which thus resumes the thread dropped at the fourth verse : ' So that &c.' {see Wlieatly on the Common Prayer, chap. iii. Sect 15). 266. The Nicene Creed, recited in our Communion Service, derives its name from the Council of Nicasa (see § 95), where the first part of it was composed in refutation of the doctrines held by Arius and his followers. This portion concludes with the words ' whose kingdom shall have no end ;' the remainder was added at the Council of Constantinople (see § 101), as commonly supposed, to refute other heretical doctrines that had been put forth., Both this Council, however, and that of Ephesus in 431, upheld the finality of the Creed of Nicasa, and the actual addition was not authorized till 451, by the Council of Chalcedon (§ 112.). * CEEEB OF NIC^A. {From Dean Stanley's Eastern ChurcJi.) \Ye believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker'' of all things both visible and invisible : And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father,* only begotten that is to say, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made, both things in heaven and things in earth, — who for us men and for our salvation came down (from the heavens), and was made flesh, and was made man, (and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate and) suffered, (and was buried), and rose again on the third day (according to the Scriptures) ; went up into the heavens, and is to come again (with glory) to judge the quick and the dead, (and of his kingdom there shall be no end). And in the holy Ghost, (Here follows the addition to the end). (a) of heaven and earth, and— (6) before all worlds. These clauses and those in parentheses ahove, were afterwards added. Those in Jfalics have since been omitted. The Litany. 287 In the Western Chiirclies the word filioque was afterwards added, as we have seen, to assert the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son, as well as from the Father ; a doctrine which greatly- contributed afterwards to the great Schism between the Greek and Latin Churches (see § 141). Our version is taken from the Latin Missal of Sarum (§ 241), with the omission of the word holy before ' Catholic and Apostolic Church.' The original Greek ran in the first person plural, as having been composed by the assembled members of the Councils; but when the practice of reciting the Creeds in the public services was adopted, this was transposed into the first person singular.* THE LITANY. 267. After the recital of the Creed, a new portion of the Service begins, consisting almost exclusively of prayers and supplications. This being expressed by the word Litany (from \iTaLvco to pray), we may consider all that intervenes between the Creed and the Litany as introductory to the latter. The saluta- tion of the Minister to the people, ' the Lord be with you,' is taken from Ruth ii. 4. and 2 Thess, iii. 16, and was used in the earliest times, together with the people's response ' and with thy Spirit.' The exhortation ' let us pray,! in the Latin Service Books * Oremw5,' is taken from the reiterated exclamations of the Deacon in the early Church, de-qdcoixeVf eKrevcos derjdcoixevj inTeueo-repop derjdconev, let US 2)ray, let us pj^ay earnestly, let us pray more earnestly. The versicle ' 0 Lord, have mercy upon us,' is from Psalm cxxiii. 3, where it is twice repeated ; and the insertion of the middle verse ' Christ, have mercy upon us,' makes the three as it were an invocation to the whole Trinity. These sentences were very early used in the public services, and are found in most ancient Liturgies ; and the expressions being so very familiar to all Christians, were retained in their original Greek form, ' Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison^ {Kvpte iXerjo-ov, Xptcrre eXerjo-ov), even in the Latin formularies. In our Prayer Book they occur again in the Litany, in the offices for the Solemnization of Matrimony, 288 The Lesser Litany. for the Visitation of the Sick, for the Burial of the Dead, for the Churching of Women, and in the Commination, always as an introduction to the Lord's Prayer; and nothing can be more solemn and impressive, after the anxious utterance of these de- tached and earnest invocations, especially in the Litany, than the sudden full outburst of the united voices of the whole Congrega- tion in the copious and comprehensive Prayer, of the Saviour's own composing. These versicles are called the Lesser Xiitany, their frequent repetition having formerly constituted the whole Litany appointed for some minor occasions. — The six Versicles which come next, with their respective responses, are petitions more fully expressed in the six Prayers which follow ; viz. the Collect for the day, which is generally for mercy and salvation ; the Prayers for the Sovereign and Royal Family; that for the Clergy and People ; the Second Collect for the day, which is for Peace ; and the Third, which is for Grace. They are taken from Fsalm Ixxxv. 7 ; xx. 9 (as erroneously translated in the Septua- gint Version); cxxxii. 9; xxviii. 9; li. 10, 11. The ffth peti- tion and response are not taken from the Psalms, but seem to be founded on God's promise to David in 1 Ckron. xxii. 9. It appears to have been formerly objected to these clauses, that they imply, that we should not desire peace in our time, had we any other to fight for us besides God ; but the true sense in which they must be taken is undoubtedly this, that we pray God to fight for us, if necessary, and procure us peace, because we have none other to look to for help. Compare Psalm xxii. 11. 268. Omitting the Collects for the present, we proceed to consider tbe Ztitany, a word, which, as we have seen, signifies a Prayer or Supplication, such as is appointed in Joel ii. 17, and like the fifty-first Psalm^ which has been called David's Litany. The word was at first applied to supplications, recited in short alternate sentences during Processions, made through the streets of towns during times of special afflictions, perhaps in imitation of the lustrations of the ancient heathens, which were attended with similar processions. Their first introduction among Christi- The Litany. 289 ans is attributed to the Arians, who, when forbidden to have places of pubHc worship in Constantinople, marched in procession through the city to their place of meeting outside, singing and chanting as they went. The attraction they presented to the people induced the orthodox Church to adopt them also ; so that gradually they were celebrated with the greatest pomp on various solemn occasions, whilst in times of calamity the people walked barefoot, chanting Litanies with solemn devotion. About the middle of the fifth century, such Litanies were introduced in France by Mamercus or Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne (see § 59), under the Latin name of Rogations^ to be used during some pub- lic calamity on the three days before Ascension Thursday, thence called Rog'ation days. They were afterwards adopted in other Western Churches, being called Gang days by the Anglo-Saxons, from the processions with which they were celebrated. Pope Gregory the Great (see § 121) composed a seven-fold Litany (Litania septiformis), so called, because used in a procession of the people ranged in seven classes. When in process of time these processions were carried to excess (see § 144), and attended with scandalous conduct on the part of those engaging in them, it was ordered at the Council of Cologne, * that the Litanies should for the future be used only within the walls of the Church.' This rule was adopted by our Refonners ; and the Law has imposed it also upon the Romanists in this country, when other restraints, under which they were formerly placed, were removed by recent legislation. 269. Our Litany agrees in many respects with one com- posed by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, towards the end of the fourth century, as well as with one, which appears to have been in use in this country as early as the eighth century. At the Reformation the invocations to numerous Saints, which followed singly immediately after the invocations to the Trinity, were at once ordered to be omitted by Cromwell (§ 189.) ; though some of these were still inserted in the first English Litany, published separately by Henry VIII. in 1544 (see § 197), and in that con- T 290 The Litany. tained in the King's Primer of 1545. In the Prayer Book of 1549 these were entirely omitted from the Litany, and certain clauses, not found in the Latin Service Books, were inserted from ancient Liturgies. Such were the deprecations against ^plague, pestilence, famine^ and battle the petition to ' strengthen such as do stand &c.'; with the two following ones, and that to ^forgive our enemies, persecutor^, and slanderers.'' Some parts were entirely new such as the words ' miserable sinners the deprecations against hypocrisy and envy, against sedition, privy conspiracy, and rebellion &c. ; the words rebellion and schism having been added at the last revision in the reign of Charles II, in consequence of the calamities the nation had lately suffered from these causes (see § 249). After 'privy conspiracy' there followed ^from the tyranny of the Bishop of Borne and all his ' detestable enormities,^ till expunged by Elizabeth (see § 246). Several of the Obsecra- tions, as they are called, namely, those by our Saviour's Tempta- tion, by his Agony and Bloody Siceat, and the impressive prayer which follows for deliverance ' in all time of our tribulation, in all time of our wealth, &c.,' are also due to our Refoi-mers. 270. In the first Prayer Book of King Edward, the Litany was placed after the Communion Service, with directions for its use on Wednesdays and Fridays, which days began early to be specially observed, as those on which our Lord was betrayed and crucified (see § 67.). It was not directly enjoined to be used on Sundays, till the publication of the Prayer Book of 1552 ; though probably it had been so used, since in certain notes at the end of the fonner Book it was stated, that on Easter day, Whit- sunday, and some other festivals, portions of Scripture might be used instead of the Litany. It appears originally to have been intended as a separate Service; but it was, as early as King Edward's time, used as an introduction to the Communion, and this practice was confirmed by an Injunction issued in the second year of Queen Elizabeth. In 1575 Archbishop Grindal directed, that the Morning Prayer, Litany, and Communion, should be combined as one Service, and this practice has prevailed The Litany. 291 ever since ; and in accordance with it, the rubric after the third Collect for Grace was inserted at the last Revision in 1661, taken from the rubric placed before the Litany in the Scotch Common Prayer Book. 271. The first four clauses are called Invocations, and are repeated by the people after the minister, and in some places together with him, as in all cases where they have to say the same words. The next six are called Deprecations, that is, prayers for deliverance from evils. In the second of these, blind- ness of heart, as in Eph. iv. 18, means a callous state of heart : and in the next, deadly sin, as in our XVIth Article, does not mean such sin as in the Church of Rome is called mortal, as dis- tinguished from venial sin, that is, expiable here by acts of pen- ance or devotion ; but it means such as David in Psalm xix. 13 calls presumptuous sins, and from which he prays especially to be kept. After the Deprecations follow the Obsecrations, two clauses, in which we beseech the Saviour, by all he has suffered and done for us, to deliver us from the evils, named in the five preceding clauses, in all the various circumstances and stages of our existence, mentioned in the clause which succeeds the Obse- crations themselves. Instances of such Obsecrations are found in Rom. xii. 1, and 2 Cor. x. 1, though there they are addressed to men. We next come to what are called Intercessions, in which we offer up prayers ' for all sorts and conditions of men,* according to St. Paul's directions 2 Tim. ii. 1, "that supplica- tions, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks be made for all men," especially "for kings and all that are in authority." Therefore, when the Litany is not said, the Prayers for all Condi- tions of men, for the Queen and Royal Family, and for the Clergy and people, are used in its stead. Then follow the Supplica- tions, in which we make earnest appeals to the Saviour in his various capacities, for his intercession, for peace, and for mercy ; and after the emphatic cries of the Lesser Litany (see § 267), we break forth in the all-comprehending petitions of the Lord's Prayer, as if we had at length penetrated to the throne of Grace, t2 292 Special and to the very presence of our Almighty Father himself, to whom the longer prayers that now follow are addressed. All this part of the Litany appears to be an addition made in the Jifth or sixth century, when the inroads of the barbarous hordes from the North and East threatened universal desolation (see § 127 and § 149). The versicles that folloV the Lord's Prayer are taken from Psalm ciii. 10. The words ' Let us pray' {see § 267) were often used in ancient Liturgies, to mark the transition from the short alter- nate petitions {preces) to the longer prayers (orationes) recited by the minister alone. The Prayer against persecution which follows, is partly composed of scripture sentences (Psalm li. 17 ; X, 17), and partly of Collects in ancient Liturgies, and is found entire in the Salisbury Missal (§ 241.), with the title. For tribula- tion of heart. The following sentences are mostly taken from the Psalms^ as Ixxix. 9, and xliv. 1. 26 ; and conclude, like the Psalms, with the Gloria. Then, as if yet unable from very earnestness to cease their appeals for help and mercy, the suppliants recom- mence their supplications anew, ending at length with the words of the Psalmist, " 0 Lord let thy mercy be showed upon us, as we do put our trust in thee" Psalm xxxiii. 22. The con- cluding Prayer was originally compo^d by Pope Gregory the Great, but corrupted in succeeding ages by the addition of petitions for the intercession of saints, which our Reformers omitted, whilst they even improved the original form.* SPECIAL AND OCCASIONAL PRAYERS AND THANKSGIVINGS. 272. The five Prayers, now placed at the end both of the Morning and Evening Services, were at first added to the Litany, whence they were transposed to their present place at the last revision in 1662 (see § 249). The Prayer for the XLingr, or Queen regnant, is taken almost verbatim from the Sacramentary of Pope Gregory the Great, but was not inserted in our Liturgy * The word righteously in this prayer me^ins rightfully, justly. Occasional Prayers. 295 till the time of Queen Elizabeth, to be used on such occasions when the Litany is not read. The Prayer for the Royal Family was added on the accession of James I, the first Protestant sovereign of England who had offspring. It began originally thus : " Almighty God, which hast promised to be a " Father of thine elect and of their seed;" but this was altered to the present form in 1632, when, on the death of James's daughter, Elizabeth, her name and that of her husband, Frederick, the Elector Palatine of Germany (§ 161), were struck out. The Prayer for the Clergry and People was first inserted in our Liturgy at the revision on the accession of Queen Elizabeth, being also taken from the Sacramentary of Gregory, or according to some, from that of Pope Gelasius, compiled a century before the other. The opening words, taken from Psalm cxxxvi. 4, are here applied to the Church, to indicate God's marvellous support and preservation of his Church through all ages. The word Curate, in its original acceptation, signifies one who has the cure of souls, whether as Incumbent (in French cure) or Assistant. The Prayer of St. Chrysostom, as it is called, is by some ascribed to that distinguished Bishop of Constantinople, though it is not found in the oldest copies of the Liturgy that bears his name, but in that attributed to his contemporary Basil, Bishop of Ceesarea. The concluding words of the service are taken from 2 Cor. xiii. 14, and are changed from a blessing into a prayer, by substituting the word us for you of the original. Though these Five Prayers were at first placed at the end of the Litany, they were no doubt always used at the conclusion of the daily service, since in the Scotch Liturgy, after the Third Collect, it is directed, that ' then shall follow the prayer * for the king's majesty, with the rest of the prayers at the end ' of the Litany, to the benediction.' 273. Prayers for special occasions of distress or public calamity are so obvious and so natural, that it is not to be wondered at, that Solomon, at the dedication of his temple, should look forward to the people's coming there to pray for 294 Special Prayers, special aid and support from on high, in times of war, drought, pestilence, and famine (1 Kings viii.). Hence we find in ancient Liturgies (§ 240) also prayers added for such occasions ; and in the Service Books still in use, both in the Eastern and Western Churches, full offices with Collect, Epistle, and Gospel, are provided for every such case. Our Church has thought it sufficient to supply short prayers, to be added to the usual services as occasion may require. Those for Rain and Fair Weather^ having been placed after the six Collects at the end of the Communion Service as early as the first Book of Edward VI., were transferred to their present place in 1552, when the next four were added. The second Prayer for the time of Dearth and Famine was omitted during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, but restored at the last revision* of 1662. — The Prayers for Ember Weeks are peculiar to our Church, and were not added till the reign of Charles II, the latter of the two being taken from the Scotch Liturgy. The Ember-days are the "Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, after the first Sunday in Lent, after the feast of Pentecost or Whitsunday, after the fourteenth of September, and after the thirteenth of December, as decreed at the Council of Placentia a. d. 1095 ; and they were early set apart as days of humiliation, and of prayer for blessings on the four seasons of the year, and especially on the Ordinations^ which in course of time came to be held at these periods {see Alford on Acts xiii. 2.). In the thirty first Canon of our Church it is directed, 'that no Deacons and Ministers be made and ' ordained, but only upon the Sundays immediately following the ^jejunia quatuor temporum, commonly called Ember-weeks.' From this term the contracted form of quatemher was derived, whence the apocopated corruption Ember; though the more popular derivation of the word is from the practice, during those seasons of fasting and humihation, of wearing sackcloth and ashes, and of baking cakes on embers after the fast, called ember-bread. — The Prayer to be said after any of the former^ was added in Elizabeth's reign, and placed after that in time and Thanksgivings. 295 of Plague and Sickness, which was then the last ; but when the Ember prayers were inserted, it was placed after these, though in many editions it has been erroneously placed after the ' Prayer 'for all conditions of men.' — The Prayer for Parliament was first added at the last revision, being taken from an ' Order of Fasting' issued in 1625. The epithet most religious, occurring in it, as apphed to the Sovereign, is either meant in the sense of the Latin term sacrosatictus, applied to magistrates whose persons were inviolable, as for instance the Eoman Tribunes of the people ; or it is equivalent to the Greek evae^ea-Taros applied to sovereigns, either like a^^da-ros, Augustus, or in the sense of religiously just and faithful in the discharge of solemn duties (See Justin Martyrs Apology I. ch. 1. 2.).* The * Prayer for all Conditions of men ' was also added at the last revision, to be used when the Litany is not said. It is ascribed to Bishop Sanderson, though others assign the authorship to Bishop Gunning, who, according to Wheatley, had added much more that was omitted when inserted in the Prayer Book; which accounts for the word finally coming so early in so short a composition. f — The Thanksgivings were also added after the Savoy Conferences (§ 233.), where the Puritans had suggested the propriety of praising God for the aids and deliverances vouchsafed to us in answer to our prayers. The G-eneral Tbanksgriving* was either drawn up by Bishop Sanderson, or more probably by Dr. Reynolds, one of the Puritan divines present at the above Conferences, who soon after deserted their ranks, and became Bishop of Norwich. * On some other expressions in this Prayer, see under Article xxxrv. In Ireland there is also a form of Prayer for the Lord-Lieutenant and Lords Justices. t The expression 'for Christ his sake' at the end of the Prayer, is a form of the Gothic or Teutonic termination of the Genitive or Possessive case in es, as, is, or ys, which from the thirteenth century downwards was often written apart from the noun, and not unfrequently took the form his or hys. 296 Collects, THE COLLECTS, EPISTLES, AND GOSPELS, AND CHURCH FESTIVALS. 274. The Collects are short prayers, so called, either because used when the people are collected together, (a populi collectione Collectce appellari coeperunt^ Alcuin, see p. 195.) ; or because they are collective or comprehensive summaries of petitions ; or because they are collected from the corresponding Epistles and Gospels. They are so short, as are indeed all the prayers of our Liturgy, after the model of our Lord's Prayer. Many of them were in use in the time of Gelasius, who was Pope from a. d. 492 to 496, and who collected and arranged them with some new ones in his Sacraraentary ; and many others are found in the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great (§ 119.), compiled a century later. These are nearly all found in the Salisbury Missal (§ 241.), whence they were transferred to the Prayer Book, in an improved form and style, by our Reformers, who also composed the following twenty-three new ones : Those for The First two Sundays in Advent. Christmas Day. Quinquagesima Sunday. Ash Wednesday. First Sunday in Lent. First and Second Sundays after Easter. The Festivals of St. Peter^ St. James, St. Matthew, St. Thomas, St. Matthias, St. Simon, St. Jude, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. Barnabas, St. John the Baptist, and All Saints, which were first published in the Book of 1549 ; that for >S^^. Andrew's day in that of 1552 ; and those for the third Sunday in Advent, the sixth after the Epiphany, and Easter Even, in the year 1662. — The Collects seem to divide the Christian year into two great divisions. From Advent to Trinity, the incidents of Epistles J and Gospels. 297 Christ's earthly Hfe are commemorated, whilst the remainder teach us to follow his example. They are appointed to be read with the Communion Service immediately before the Nicene Creed, together with the appointed Epistle and Gospel, which were therefore always printed in the Sacramentaries or Missals ^ as the Books containing the fonn of administering the Lord's Supper were formerly called ; and they are also read in the daily Services before the two fixed Collects. The first of the latter, both for Morning and Evening Service, are found in the Sacra- mentary of Pope Gregory, that for the Morning praying for outward peace, that for the Evening for inward peace. The third Collects for the two Services are taken from the Sacra- mentary of Gelasius. The Epistles^ and Gospels are said to have been selected, and appointed for the same days as now, by Jerome (p. 132), about A. D. 378, the choice having been previously left to the Bishop or officiating Minister. In our Prayer Book they were taken from Cranmer's Great Bible of 1539, until at the Savoy Conferences the Puritans objected to the errors of translation in that Version, when they were from that time forward taken from the Authorized Version of the reign of James L, published in 1611 (see § 223.). 275. The season of Advent, the opening of the Ecclesi- astical year, commemorates the coming of the Saviour in the flesh, and was instituted in a very early age as a preparation for Christmas, being specially treated of in a Homily, dating back as far as a. d. 450. The Epistles and Gospels appointed for it, either place before us the circumstances of Christ's first coming, or point to His second Advent. The origin of the Jirst three Collects is mentioned in the last paragraph ; that for the fourth Sunday is the same as that in the Salisbury Missal, but improved in style and expanded. * The Epistle was anciently, and in the Greek Church still is, called the * Apostle/ meaning the portion of the Apostolic Epistle appointed to be read. 298 Chnstmas. 276. Christmas-day (§ 85.) is the supposed anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ, the true day and month being unknown, and the year, through some early chronological error, being properly four years before the commencement of the Christian era, as now we reckon. As in the first Lessons we read the prophecies of Christ's coming in the flesh, so in the Second Lessons, the Epistle, and Gospel, we see their fulfilment. In the Collect we pray, that we may obtain the benefit of His birth, by being bom again by the influence of His Holy Spirit. Of the proper Psalms, the xixth, ' The heavens declare the glory of God, &c.', points to the star which led the wise men of the East to Bethlehem ; the XL\i:h, said to have been composed on the marriage of Solomon to Pharaoh's daughter, is appHed to the union of Christ and His Church ; the Lxxx^'th is wholly appHcable to the Saviour. Of those for the Evening Service, the Lxxxixth speaks of the new Covenant made with David, and of the Anointed, who should be God's 'first-born, higher than the kings of the earth;' the cxth is cited and appHed to himself by Jesus (see Matth xxii. 44 ; Acts ii. 34, 35 ; 1 Cor. xv. 27 ; Heh. i. 13) ; the cxxxii. speaks of the coming of the Son of God into his temple, 'his resting place,' and was composed for the dedication of Solomon's temple (see 2 Chron. vi. 41, 42). 277. The Festivals of St. Stephen, St. John, and Innocents' day, were arbitrarily, or in consequence of some traditions, fixed on the three days succeeding Christmas; and this is the case with the other Church Festivals. The Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, generally refer immediately to the subjects comme- morated on those days, and so explain themselves or one another. The Collect for Christmas-day is also used on the Sunday after, the Epistle and Gospel being changed, but referring to the same subject. The Festival of the Circumcision, on the eighth day after the Nativity of Christ, was not observed till the eleventh century, a little before the time of St. Bernard, who wrote a Sermon upon it. In the Collect we pray for the power of mortifying the flesh by self-denial. The Epistle sets forth the The Epiphany. 299 pre-eminence of faith over the works of the law, as in the case of Abraham, who was accepted for his faith before he had com- phed with the requirement of the law; and the Gospel relates the event commemorated. 278. The Bpiphany (§ 85.) signifies and commemorates the Manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, as foretold in the first Lessons for the day ; and also the manifestation of the Trinity at His Baptism, and of His divine jwwer in performing His fii^st miracle at the marriage in Cana, as set forth in the second Lessons. Hence the old name of the day, Epiphaniw, marking the three Manifestations. In the Latin Church baptisms took place on this day, as well as on Easter and Whit- Sunday, the only days for administering that Sacrament in the Greek Church. The Collect and Gospel for this day are the same as in the old Service Books; but the Epistle was substituted for Isaiah lx, now read for the first Lesson.* 279. Prom Christmas to the Epiphany, the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, set forth the Incarnation and humanity of Christ; those for the Sundays after the Epiphany exhibit his divine power, as manifested in his miracles and discourses. Those for the first five Sundays are from the Sacramentary of Gregory, except that, at the Restoration, in the fourth, ' by reason of the frailty of our nature,' was substituted instead of ' for man's fi-ail- ness ;' and the latter part ran thus : ' Grant to us the health of * body and soul, that all those things which we suffer for sin, by * thy help we may well pass and overcome, through &c.' Till the Reformation also, the Epistle was the same as that for the first Sunday in Advent (§ 275.). Those for the sixth Sunday were added at the last Revision, till which time those for the preceding Sunday used to be repeated. 280. The first Sunday in Xientf (see § 108.) being about * In the reign of James I., and down to the Eestoration, Isai. xl. was appointed for this Lesson, but only by a typographical error, as is supposed, which has been continued in some later editions. t Lent, Saxon for Spring. 300 Lent. Ash -Wednesday. forty days before Easter, came in early times to be called Quadragesima Sunday; and Lent, the Quadragesimal Fastj whence the French word Careme for Lent. Hence the Sundays next preceding were called Qninquagesima, Sexagesimal and Septuagesima, as if in round number 50, 60, and 70 days before Easter respectively. The Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, now begin to teach us humility and self-denial, enforcing this teaching by the examples and discourses of Christ and His Apostles. They are all the same as in the ancient Liturgies, except the beautiful Collect for Quinquagesima Sunday, composed by our Eeformers (see § 274.). 281. Shrove Tuesday is so called, from the old Saxon word shrive, to confess, confession being deemed necessary among Roman Catholics, as a preparation for the coming season. The abstinence from flesh, and from carnal and worldly enjoyments, however, which was prescribed during Lent, soon induced the people to indulge in riotous excesses on this last day before the great Fast ; and this was the origin of the Carnival in Roman Catholic countries. 282. Asb-Wednesday, or Dies Cinerum, was also called Caput Jejunii, being the first day of the great Lenten Fast, when penitents appeared bare-footed before their Bishop, clothed in sackcloth, with ashes strewed on their heads. As a substitute for these practices our Reformers composed the Commination Service. The Collect for this day was made new for the first Book of Edward VI. ; the Epistle and Gospel were taken from the old formularies. 283. Those for the following Sundays in Lent, are all taken from the Old Services, except the first Collect, which was made new for the Reformation, and the last was in former times used on Good- Friday. They are calculated to impress us with humihty for our sins, and with the necessity of self-denial and mortification of our carnal lusts, and of the pursuit of purity and charity, after the example of our Saviour, exhibited to us in the Gospels. The last Sunday before Easter is called Palm-Sunday, Fassioji Week. Good Friday. 301 it having been formerly customary to carry about Palm branches on this day, in commemoration of our Lord's triimiphal entry into Jerusalem, when the people strewed branches in His way. {Matth. xxi. 8). 284. The week preceding Easter is called Passion Week, or Holy Week, and Epistles and Gospels are appointed for every day in it, in the selection of which our Keformers deviated from the old formularies, appointing the chapters of the four Evange- lists, relating the circumstances of our Saviour's passion, for the Gospels ; and new Epistles also were chosen, more suitable to the season. The Thursday in this week is called Blaunday Thursday (Dies Mandati), because Christ on that day insti- tuted the Sacrament of His Supper, and ordered it to be commemorated for ever ; or, according to others, because on this day, after having washed His Apostles' feet, He uttered the words : * A new Commandment {Mandatum novum) I give unto you, ' that ye love one another.' Hence arose the custom in various countries, for Bishops, nobles, and even kings, to wash the feet of twelve poor persons on this day, still observed by the Pope and the Queen of Spain ; but it has been discontinued in England since the Revolution of 1688, the sovereign now only causing alms to be distributed to a certain number of poor, a practice which formerly accompanied the above custom. 285. Good Friday (§ G7), a term peculiar to the English language, commemorates the Crucifixion of our Saviour, which took place on the Friday before the Passover, called the prepara- tion {Luke xxiii. 54) ; whence this day was anciently called the Parasheue (Trapao-Kevf], preparation) and Holy Friday, and among our Saxon ancestors it was laiown as Long-Friday. The three Collects appointed for the day are found in the ancient Sacra- mentaries; the first was in the Prayer Book of 1549 ordered to be used at Morning Prayer, the two others at Communion. The Psalms and portions of Scripture, selected for the Services of the day, all bear upon the great event commemorated. 286. The Collect for Saster Sven is one of those com- 302 Easter. Rogation- Days . posed expressly for our Liturgy, no special collect for the day being found in the old formularies ; that for the previous Sunday was probably used till the Scotch Liturgy was compiled. On the name Easter see § 170. The early Christian authors used both for the Crucifixion and the Resurrection the Hebrew word Pascha {Passover)^ with the addition of a-ravpuKrifiov and dvaa-rdo-ifiov respectively. On the dispute about the day on which it should be most properly kept see § 68. The Sentences from Scripture placed before the Collect are taken from a collection of Anthems by Gregory the Great, and are directed to be used instead of the Venite or xcvth Psalm. The Collect is an expansion of that given in the old Liturgies, and the Psalms, and other portions of Scripture to be read, have obvious bearings upon the character of the day. Easter-day and Wliit-sunday were the principal days on which in early ages persons were baptized, who wore white garments, called chrisomes, till the next Sunday; whence the first Sunday after Easter came to be called Dominica (sc. dies) in Albis, the Lord's day in white. Before the Eeformation, the Collect for Easter day was ordered to be repeated on the Sunday after; but at the last revision, the one appointed in 1549 for a Second Communion on Easter-day, was appropriated to this Sunday. On the following Sundays after Easter are commemorated the joyful completion of man's redemption by our Saviour's Re- surrection, and the expectation of the promised Comforter is set before us in the Gospels, whilst the Epistles teach us the highest and holiest duties of Christians, to believe in Christ, to rise from the death of sin, to he patient, meek, loving, and charitable. The Collect for the Second Sunday was made new in 1549 ; that for the fourth till the Restoration began : * Almighty God, which 'dost make the minds of all faithful men to be of one will, ' Grant, &c.' For the Rog'ation days see § 268. 287. As the Ascension of our Lord took place forty days after His Resurrection (Acts i. 3), so Ascension day or Holy Whit- Sunday, Trinity Sunday. 303 Thursday, comes forty days after Easter, and was from early times kept as a Commemoration of that event. The Collect, Epistle, and Gospel, are taken from the old Sacramentaries, and the Psalms and Lessons are especially suited for the day. The Collect for the Sunday following was a little altered at the Eefor- mation, the Epistle and Gospel remaining as of old. 288. Whit-Sunday (§ 67.) corresponds to the Jewish Feast of Weeks or Pentecost, as it was called from nevTeKocrrrjy fiftieth, being the fiftieth day after the Passover. Thus this Sunday is the fiftieth day after Easter, and commemorates the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the Apostles and disciples {Acts ii. 4) after Christ's Ascension. The name is derived either from the French word huit, eight, being the eighth Sunday from Easter Sunday inclusive ; or more probably because the persons, who in early ages were baptized on this day in great numbers {see § 69), wore the ichite gannents (chrisomes), formerly cus- tomary after baptism. The Collect is from the old Missals; and the Psalms and other portions of Scripture to be read this day, are chosen for their references to the events commemorated. The week after Whit- Sunday is one of the Emher-weeJcs, on which see § 273. 289. The setting apart of a day for the special consideration of the Trinity (see § 74), is said to have originated in some monasteries as late as the Pontificate of Alexander III, who died A. D. 1181 ; and it was not estabhshed by authority till a. d. 1305, by Benedict XIII, or according to some not till the fifteenth century. Previously this Sunday was kept as the Octave of Whit- Sunday, and the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel, are still the same as were then used. Each of the Lessons introduces the three persons of the Godhead. The Collects for the Sundays after Trinity are prayers for those graces, which enable us to lead a Christian life here on earth ; as those which preceded were for faith in those mysteries, which must fit us for the life eternal. They are all from the old Missals, and are twenty-five in number. But as there may be 304 Saints Days. twenty-six or twenty-seven Sundays from Trinity to Advent, a Rubric is added, directing the twenty-ffth to be always read on the last Sunday before Advent; and to make up the necessary number, those after the Epiphany, which were omitted, are ordered to be read now. 290. Soon after the Apostohc age it became customary, to commemorate annually the deaths of those, who had suffered as Martyrs for the Christian faith (§ 108) ; and these commemora- tions being often celebrated at their graves, soon degenerated into superstitious observances. When in process of time the Chucrh of Rome took upon itself to canonize the departed (§ 148), and fill the calendar with anniversaries of presumed Saints^ special services came to be provided for each, in which prayers and supplications were addressed to the Saints for their intercession or immediate aid, as to Christ and to God himself. At the Reformation these numerous Saints' days were of course struck out of the Calendar, and few special services were retained except on days commemorating the Apostles and Evangelists them- selves ; and such services tend not so much to their honour, as to the stirring up in our hearts of gratitude to God for their minis- trations and examples, and a holy desire to follow them. Four other days, however, of a different character, are appointed by our Church, the Purification and Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, Saint MichaeVs day, and All Saint's day. The two former refer to circumstances in the Incarnation of our Saviour, and have no reference whatever to the Virgin herself. The first of them com- memorates the Presentation of the infant Jesus in the temple as a first-born male child, as commanded in the Mosaic Law (Exod. xiii. 11 — 13), whence the name of the day in our Liturgy is also ' The Presentation of Christ in the Temple.' The other name is derived from another Mosaic command (Levit. xii. 8). This festival is said to have been first instituted in the sixth century, and was called vTranavTr), or the meeting, because the aged Simeon met the Saviour when brought in by His parents, and declared Him to be " a light to lighten the Gentiles" &c. (Luke ii. 32). Hence Saints Days. 305 arose the ancient custom of lighting np Churches and, houses with great numbers of lamps or candles on this day, ^Yhich thus obtained the name of Candlemas. The Annunciation is founded on Luke i. 26 — 33. — The festival of St. Michael, or Michaelmas^ was probably retained by our Reformers as a substitute for the different days set apart for the worship of the Angels in the Romish Calendar, as All Saints' day for those dedicated to the worship of Saints ; but our Church has discarded all worship of the creature for that of the Creator on these days. The former was first solemnized in the eighth century, and in the beginning of the 7iinth was sanctioned by the Council of Mentz. The latter was instituted early in the seventh century by Pope Boniface IV., when Phocas, emperor of the Eastern Empire, had changed the Pantheon at Rome from a temple to all the gods, into a church dedicated to all the Saints. This festival was originally cele- brated on the 1st of May, until it was transferred to the 1st of November by Pope Gregory TV. a. d. 834. The Collects for these immovable festivals^ are nearly all new since the Reformation, the exceptions being those for the Conversion of St. Paul, the Purification^ the Annunciation, St. Philip and St. James, St. Bartholomew, and St Michael. THE LORD'S SUPPER. 291. We find from the earliest accounts of the Christian Church, that the disciples of Christ faithfully observed his dying command to partake of bread and wine in remembrance of him ; for whenever we are told that they met together to break bread, we must understand, that they partook of the Lord's Supper {See Acts ii. 42, 46; xx. 7 ; 1 Cor. x. 16; xi. 23—29, and Plini/'s Letter § 51.). The earliest form of administering the Sacrament was undoubtedly accompanied with prayer, which is often men- tioned with it ; and Justin Martyr, in describing the form used in the latter half of the second century, states plainly that various forms of prayer were gone through (§ 70.). But as no special form was prescribed by our Lord himself at its institution, the u 306 Ancient Liturgies. mode of administration was at first perhaps left to the officiating Elder. The inconveniences attending such a course seem, how- ever, to have called upon different churches in early times, to establish some regular form to be used generally ; and this appears to have given rise to the various ancient Liturgies that have come down to us under various names {see § 240 ad Jin.), consisting chiefly of forms for administering the Lord's Supper. Thus the word Liturgy seems almost to have been applied exclusively to the Communion Service. 292. The description given by Justin is as follows : Prayers " being ended, we greet one another with a kiss. Then bread, " and a cup of wine mixed with water, are brought to the pre- " siding brother (i. e. Bishop or Minister), who, having taken it, " offers up praise to the Father of all, through the name of the " Son and Holy Spirit, and a long thanksgiving (evxapio'TLav inl "ttoXv) for having been vouchsafed these things by Him;... and "when he has ended the prayer and thanksgiving, and all the "people have answered Amen, those who are called Deacons " among us give to every one present of the consecrated (evxapia-- TrjQivTos, literally, /or which thanks have been offered) bread and " wine and water, and carry some to those who are absent. And "this meal is among us called Eucharist" (Apol. i. 65.). We learn from Cyril, who was Bishop of Jerusalem about the time when the Nicaean Council was assembled (see §. 95), that the following was the mode then observed there. The presbyter or priest, having washed his hands with water, presented to him by the deacon (^Psalm xxvi. 6.), the latter cries aloud, " Receive ye " one another, and let us kiss one another." This kiss was in token of brotherly love and forgiveness of all wrongs, in accor- dance with Christ's injunction {Matt. v. 23). The priest then exclaimed, " Lift up your hearts,^'' when the people answered " We lift them up unto the Lord.'''' The former then said " Let us give thanks to the Lord,'^ and they answered " It is meet and right.''^ Then making mention of heaven and earth, of angels and archangels, they took up the liymn of the Seraphim crying round Canon of the Mass. 307 God's throne, " Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth." Then followed the invocation of the Holy Ghost (see § 243) to conse- crate the bread and wine ; after which came a prayer for the peace of the Church and the whole world, for kings and governors, for the poor, the sick, and the afflicted, in which mention was made of the holy men and others departed this life. Then was said the Lord's Prayer, which being ended, the priest said " Holy things to holy men," the people answering, " One only is Holy, one only is the Lord, Jesus Christ." And now the commmiicants were invited to partake of the bread and wine by the call, " Come, taste and see, that the Lord is gracious;" and the whole service was concluded with a prayer and thanksgiving. — In the succeed- ing centuries constant additions were made to the ceremonies, till at the end of the sixth century Pope Gregory the Great compiled what has been called the Canon of the Mass (see § 122), a name said to be derived from the final exclamation of the priest, missa est (sc. Congregatio), the congregation is dismissed (see § 108.). The word has been retained in our lano^uasre in the names of cer- tain festivals, on which Masses were celebrated in commemoration of persons or events, such as Christmas^ Michaelmas, Lammas-day, Candlemas. In the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. the title of this service was " The Supper of the Lord, and the Holy Com- munion, commonly called the Mass;" terms applied to it by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xi. 20, and x. 16. The word Eucharist is from the Greek ivxapio-rla, thanksgiving, as explained above. 293. The first introductory Rubric is now nowhere enforced, the rule being to admit all who come to the ' Lord's table' (1 Cor. X. 21), if nothing is known against them ; and as regards the two following Rubrics, the law does not permit a clergyman to exclude any one as a ' notorious evil liver,' unless convicted in a court of justice. However, if a person in a state of drunkenness, or known to live openly in adulteiy, or the like, were to present himself, the minister would be no doubt considered justified in refusing communion to such, until there were some ground for supposing such a person repentant, and anxious to forsake such evil courses. u 2 308 The Ten Commandments. The last Rubric was first added in the Prayer Book of 1552. After the Lord's Prayer and the Collect following it, there came in the Book of 1549 a direction to sing the IntroH, which was a Psalm appointed for each Sunday and holy-day throughout the year ; which ended, there was to be said or sung, what is called the Lesser Litany (see § 267), with the Gloria in Excelsis, ' Glory be to God on high,' &c., now placed in the Post Com- munion (§ 304). 293* The Ten Commandments were added in 1552, with the Rubric preceding, which contained the words ' turning to the people,' first added in the Scotch Liturgy of 1637 {see § 230 and § 248); and these, with the ending 'for the time past &c.,' were first inserted in ours at the last Revision in 1662. The addition of the Commandments to the Communion Service is wholly without precedent in any ancient Liturgies, being first found in the daily Service of the Strashurg Liturgy, mentioned above (§ 245). The two Prayers for the Sovereign are the compositions of our Reformers, and in the first Prayer Book came after the Collect for the day. The Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, and the Nicene Creed, have been treated of above (§ 266 and § 274.). In Elizabeth's reign {see 24th Canon of our Church) it was ordered, that the principal Minister should be assisted by a Gospeler and Epistler, i. e. one Minister to read the Gospel, and one to read the Epistle ; whence is derived the practice, still prevalent where more than one clergyman is present, for one to read the Epistle. The order to sta7id during the reading of the Gospel, was first added in the Scotch Liturgy, in conformity with ancient practice ; and the custom of singing " Glory be to thee, 0 Lord," before the Gospel, still prevalent among us, and " Hallelujah," or " Thanks be to God for his holy Gospel," now very rarely used, at its conclusion, is also derived from antiquity, being mentioned by Chrysostom (see p. 135). The Rubric following the Creed, was first added at the Bidding Prayer. 309 Eestoration ; but the direction there given, that ' then also shall notice be given of the Communion,' is inconsistent with that given, in all the previous editions of the Prayer Book, in the Rubric before the usual Exhortation on giving notice of the celebration of the holy Communion, where it is ordered that such notice should be given ' after the Sermon or Homily ended.' The Rubric immediately preceding the Offertory Sentences, also supposes the Minister to have been in the pulpit, in directing him to * return to the Lord's Table.' Hence it appears, that it was intended to leave the minds of the congregation undisturbed after the conclusion of the Sermon, by transposing all notices to the place where they are now directed to be given in the above Rubric ; and the Rubnc before the Exhortation ought therefore to be modified. 294. The Sermon or Homily^ ordered to follow the Creed, was of course customary from the very earliest ages, after the example of our Lord and his Apostles, who preached the Gospel on all occasions, when the people were assembled around them. The two words are synonymous, being respectively the Latin and Greek terms for a discourse^ sermo and ofickia. Tiie former, however, has come to mean an original composition of him who pronounces it ; the latter, one of those discourses which were set forth under that name by authority at the time of the Reformation {see § 195, 199, 210, and Article xxxv.). Before the Sermon, it is ordered in the Jlfti/-Jifth Canon, that the Preacher should use the form of bidding- prayer there set forth ; but some Collect or other prayer is now generally substituted, except in the Universities and Cathedral Churches, and on some public occasions. 295. The OflPertory Sentences, to be read whilst the Abns* are being collected, have been selected by our Church to * From the German almosen, a corruption of the Greek word iXerjfxoavvii, used by early Latin writers on theology without being translated. 310 Prayer for the Church Militant. supply the place of the Anthem, which used formerly to be sung on this occasion. The two Sentences from the Book of Tobith or Tobias are, besides the Benedicite, or Song of the Three Children (placed after the Te Deum in the Order of Morning Prayer), the only passages from the Apocryphal Books introduced into our formularies. Those of the Offertory Sentences enjoining offerings to the clergy, are no longer necessary where they have a stated legal income assigned them ; but in early ages the clergy were in a great measure maintained by offerings made on those occasions. Hence we find, that till the last Eevision of the Prayer Book (§ 249.) it was ordered, that the alms should be put into the poor box ; the words ' alms for the poor ' being then first added, to explain the only words previously put, * the ' devotions of the people.'' In primitive times, offerings of bread and wine, to be used in administering the Lord's Supper, were also made by the more wealthy members of the community, and denominated Oblations ; and it is no doubt to this practice, and the abuse of it in the Corinthian Church, that St. Paul alludes in 1 Cor. xi. 21. The collection of Alms during divine service was already prescribed by St. Paul (1 Cor. xvi. 2) ; and Justin Martyr states (Apol. i. G7), that it took place in his time every Sunday. 296. Prayer for the Church Militant. In the Prayer for the whole state of Christ's Church which follows, and which, like the Intercessions in the Litany (see § 271), is founded on 1 Tim. ii. 1 &c., we begin with beseeching acceptance at God's hand both of our alms and prayers, and then proceed to make intercession for ' all sorts and conditions of men.' Such prayers have been used at the administration of the Lord's Supper in all Christian Churches, from the earliest ages ; but ours is an original composition of our Reformers. In the first Prayer Book it contained supplications for the dead, and special mention of the Virgin Mary, which were omitted in that of 1552 (§ 245.), when * militant here in earth ' was added to the previous title, in order to limit the prayer to the living only : the present mention of those ' departed this life ' was inserted at the last Exhortations. 311 Revision in 1662. In the first Book the words * all Christian kings, princes, and governors,' were likewise wanting, as also the words ' and especially to this Congregation here present.' 297. The Exhortations to be used 'when the Minister * giveth warning for the celebration of the holy Communion,' are also the compositions of our Reformers, none such being found in any previous Liturgies. The first only was in the Prayer Book of 1549 ; the second was added in 1552, said to be composed by Peter Martyr (see § 202.), and appointed to be read at the time of the Communipn, after the Prayer for the Church Militant. Wherefore, when in 1662 both these Exhor- tations were directed to be. used on 'the Sunday, or some * Holy-day, immediately preceding ' the administration of the Sacrament, the opening sentences were changed, and the whole wording considerably altered. The first now contains instructions to prepare ourselves for taking the Lord's Supper ; the second reproves those who are ' negligent to come to the holy Communion,' and put forth vain and frivolous excuses. The advice given is wholesome and scriptural, being founded on 1 Cor. xi. 28, Matt. V. 23, 24, xxii. 2 — 14, and on the words of our Lord himself at the institution of this sacrament. The advice to a person of an unquiet conscience, to go to ' some discreet and learned Minister 'of God's Word, ...that hy the Ministry of God's Holy Word he * may receive the henejit of absolution^' must by no means be considered as a recommendation to private confession^ with a view to priestly absolution^ according to the prevailing practice of the Church of Rome ; for in the preceding part of this Exhortation, the Church directs each person by himself to strive to reconcile his life and conscience with ' the rule of God's Commandments.' And even here, the application to a Minister is with a view to the better understanding of God's Covenant of grace and mercy, and to the obtaining of His pardon for the sins which burden the penitent conscience ; wherefore the benefit of absolution is expressly said to be obtained ' by the Ministry of God's Holy Word,' and not by the Ministry of the priest. However, the total ignorance of the Atonement of Christ and general Gospel truth, which 312 The Confession and Absolution. prevailed when our formularies were compiled, in consequence of the almost total and wilful neglect of preaching and instructing the people in God's Word, is now so far dispelled, and the conditions on which the sinner may approach his Saviour, and obtain directly from Him, and through Him, plenary forgiveness for all his transgressions, are now so univerally known among us, through the constant and regular preaching and teaching of God's Word in our Churches and Schools, and the domiciliary visiting now customary in almost every parish, that it is rarely deemed necessary to read more than the opening sentences of the Exhortations we have been considering. The Sxhortation used ' at the time of the celebration of * the Communion,' was till the Restoration combined with one of the preceding two, and is chiefly founded on the exhortations of St. Paul in 1 Cor. xi. 27, &c. The words ' we provoke him to 'plague us with divers diseases and sundry kinds of death,' appear to be an application of St. Paul's words (ibid. v. 30.) : " For this cause many are weak and sickly among you, and "many sleep;" which he uses to express the penal consequences of the drunkenness and excesses (ibid. v. 21), that were indulged in at Corinth at the love-feasts (see § 70), which preceded or followed the Communion, and were on that account soon after discontinued. The Invitation, as the next paragraph is called, is founded upon a corresponding form in the ancient Liturgies. 298. Before the Restoration of Charles II., the Con- fession was ordered to be made ' in the name of all those that ' were minded to receive the Holy Communion, either by one of 'them, or by one of the Ministers;' but it was then directed to be repeated by all after the Minister. The Absolution, which is taken from the Salisbury Missal, with the addition of the words " Our heavenly Father, who of his great mercy hath " promised forgiveness of sins to all them that ivith hearty " repentance and true faith turn unto him," has already been explained above {see § 256). The comfortable words, or Sentences from Scripture, which follow, were added in our Liturgy The Eucharist ia. 313 without precedent from antiquity, and seem intended to indicate the true source whence absolution of sins is to be obtained, and which was only implied in the preceding form. 299. All that now follows is taken almost literally from the most ancient liturgies, as those of St. James, Chrysostom, and Basil (§ 240). The short sentences which come first, and which, as we have seen (§ 292), were mentioned by Cyril of Jerusalem, and nearly a century previously by Cyprian* {see § 81 and § 86 and page 79), were called the Lauds. They were in the primitive Church only the introduction to the Eucharistia (evxapia-rla) properly so called, which was a long Thanksgiving to God for all his mercies of creation, providence, and redemption, whence the whole service took the name of Eucharist ; and our Church, in the Prayer following the Lord's Prayer in the Post-Communion, still calls the service a ' sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving' (see also Heh. xiii. 15). The passage from Justin Martyr, quoted above (§ 292), also clearly shews, that this thanksgiving formed a great feature in the earliest mode of celebrating the Communion. In later Liturgies this part of the service was shortened, and in the Roman Missal it was entirely omitted ; and our Church has followed the example, probably because the Sacrament itself was considered a Eucharistic commemoration of the benefits of our Lord's death, of which we are partakers thereby (see Ps. cxvi. 12, 13.). Still, forms of thanksgiving for special mercies are provided for certain festivals, called Proper Prefaces ; and these, though in the first Book of Common Prayer only appointed for the days themselves, are now ordered to be repeated for seven days after, in accordance with an ancient custom of observing an octave^ as it * Ideo et sacerdos ante Orationera prsefatione prsemissa parat fratrum mentes dicendo, sursum corda {lift up your hearts); ut dum respondet plebs, habemus ad Dominum, admoneatur nihil ahud se quara Dominum cogitare debere. De Orat Domin. Or. 213. Whence the Homily on 'Common Prayer and Sacraments' infers, that the prayers must have been in a lan- guage the people understood, else they could not have made such responses at the proper time. 314 The Trisagium. was called, of the great Churcli festivals, as the Jews were com- manded to do {see Levit. xxiii. 36). 300. The Anthem ' Therefore with Angels, &c.' is called the Trisag'iam (rpiaayiov, thrice holy), from the words ' Holy, holy, holy. Lord God of hosts,' which Isaiah (vi. 3.) gives as the song of the Seraphim around God's throne (see § 117.). Before the final clause of this hymn, there was inserted in the first Book * Hosanna in the highest, blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord,' which was omitted in that of 1552. 301. In the former Book also, the ' Prayer for the Church Militanf came in here, followed by the Prayers of Consecration and Oblation (§ 304), the Lord's Prayer, the Priest's words 'The peace of the Lord be ' always with you,' and the response ' And with thy spirit,' the General Confession and Absolution, with the comfortable sentences from Scripture; and in other respects, the order of the first Book varied considerably from the later Editions of our Prayer Book. The Prayer ' We do not presume &c.,' called the Address, and which before 1552 came immediately before the presentation of the bread and wine, as it still does in the Scotch Liturgy (§ 248.), is an instance of the return of our Reformers to the practice of the primitive Church; for it is not found in any of the formularies of the Latin Church, being taken from the Liturgy of Basil the Great, Bishop of Csesarea (see § 240.). 302. The Prayer of Consecration is the most ancient part of the whole Communion office, especially the latter part, from ' Who in the same night &c.', which early tradition ascribed to the Apostles themselves ; and it certainly occurs in every Liturgy that has come down to us, without any variation in its form (see 1 Cor. xi. 23 &c.) After it, or combined with it, there used to be an invo- cation of the Holy Spirit to bless and sanctify the bread and wine, so that they might to the worthy recipient be the body and blood of Christ. But as the Holy Ghost cannot have been present at the original institution of the sacrament by Christ Himself, not being sent down till after His Ascension {see John vii. 39.; xvi. 7), it The Administration. 315 was thought fit hy our Eeformers in 1552, to omit the sentence invoking the Spirit,* together with the signing of the cross, and substitute for it the words, " Grant that we receiving these thy creatures, &c." This last word was no doubt inserted in opposition to the Romish Church, where the priest is said creare creatorem, to create the Creator, according to its doctrine of transuhstantiation (see § 133). Hence, when in consecrating the elements he is supposed to operate this mystic and miraculous transformation, he stands before the altar, to screen the operation from the unhal- lowed eyes of the people ; and in the Greek Church they shut the chancel-door, or draw a curtain. Our Church, to dismiss all idea of mystery or miracle on the part of the priest, has ordered that he shall ' break the bread before the 2')eople' (see Rubric before Prayer of Consecration), and only stand before the table to set the bread and wine in order, which is now generally done before com- mencing the Offertory, that the service itself may not be inter- rupted by these preparations. On the doctrines which our Church holds on the subject of the Lord's Supper, see what has been said upon the Articles xt\^iii. — xxxi, at the end of this volume. 303. In the time of Ambrose {see p. 131), the only words used in presenting the bread and wine to the communicants were, 'the body,' and 'the blood, of our Lord Jesus Christ;' to which the communicant answered ^ Amen,' as was the practice even before that time, according to ancient Liturgies. The words following, '■preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life,' were added by Pope Gregory, and, with the former words, constituted the presentation sentences in the Book of 1549. But as they seemed to favour the idea of transuhstantiation, they were struck out in 1552, and the second clauses of our present forms, ' Take and eat this, &c.', and ' Drink this ^c.,' substituted. But in the reign of Elizabeth both parts were combined, as we have them now; whilst in the Scotch Liturgy (§ 248.) the form of 1549 * It has since been restored in the Scotch and American Liturgies (see § 245.). 316 Gloria in Excelsis. only is used, with the word ^ Amen^ by the receiver (see § 243 and § 245). When the minister himself receives, he changes the second person to the first person, and at the end some say ' may ' God make me truly thankful.' The Rubric directs, that the bread and wine shall be given to the communicants into their hands, contrary to the Romish practice of putting it into their mouths, to prevent any from dropping in the double transfer (see under Article xxx.), 304. The Post-Communion, as all the rest of the service is sometimes called, begins, like the first part of the service, with the Lord's Prayer. The former of the two prayers which follow, is, with some omissions, nearly the same as the Prayer of Oblation, which in the Book of 1549 came immediately after the Prayer of Consecration ; whilst the latter Prayer was used here only, and is in its substance in accordance with ancient forms. The " G-loria in excelsis," which, as we have seen (§ 293), was in 1549 put early in the Communion Service, has been since properly transposed to the conclusion, in accordance with what we are told of our Lord and his Apostles {Matt. xx\i. 30). The opening of it is the hymn of the Angels at our Lord's nativity {Luke ii. 14), and was thrice repeated in the Liturgy ascribed to St. James. The latter part is paiily from Rev. xv. 4., and partly is traced to the middle of the second century ; and the whole, with but little variation, is found m the Apostolical Constitutions, a composition of the second or third century (§. 49), and was used in the daily Service already in the time of Athanasius {see § 96.). In the Greek Church it is used con- stantly in the daily services. The Blessing, which conclud.es our Communion Service, consists of the words of St. Paul in Phil. iv. 7., and a brief paraphrase on Numh. vi. 24, which is also used in the Visitation of the Sick. The six Collects which follow are to be used at the discretion of the Minister; and they are inserted here, as were formerly those for Rain and Fair Weather {see § 273), in the same Tlie Last Ruh'ics. 317 manner as the last five prayers of the daily services were placed at the end of the Litany {see § 273), until at the last Ke vision of the Prayer Book they received their present place. The first three are taken from ancient formularies ; the others appear to be original compositions. One or more of them, it is directed, should be used if there is no Communion, when the service of the day concludes with the Prayer for the Church Militant, as directed in the first Rubric that follows; though the Rubric before these Collects says after the Offertory : another instance of the inconsistency of the Rubrics, requiring adjustment. 305. The second and third JRuhrics are designed to prevent the solitary Masses^ customary in the Romish Church, when the Priest says Mass and receives the Sacrament by himself. The number of communicants required is limited to three, to comply with our Saviours declaration " where two or three are gathered " together in my name, there am I in the midst of them " {Matt. xviii. 20.). The fifth Rubric dispenses ^vith the round wafer, intro- duced in the eleventh century, when scruples arose concerning the wasting of crumbs of the bread ; and such wafers were in course of time stamped with a cross or a lamb. The wafer was still ordered in the first Prayer Book of Edward YI, but without any stamp or mark, and larger and thicker than had been usual ; but in the second Book, the present Rubric, with slight verbal variations, was substituted, to remove all cause for superstitious notions (§ 141.). The first clause of the next Rubric was added in 1552; the remainder first appeared in the Scotch Liturgy, and thence was taken into our own at the last Revision. It is intended to chscountenance the Romish practice of reserving the consecrated elements, to be lifted up for worship in the j>yx, or receptacle on the altar, at the Mass, or carried in procession, and regarded as the actual body of Christ; a superstition, which the doctrine of transubstantiation had grafted upon the ancient practice of carrying some of the bread and wine to the absent and the sick {see § 292), which, having been abused, was already condemned and prohibited as early as the year 367 by the Council of 318 The Last Rubrics. Laodicea. In the Scotch Rubric, * to the end there may be Kttle 'left, he that officiates is required to consecrate with the least;' and this probably is the design of our Rubric, which provides for the consecration of more, ' if the consecrated bread and wine be ' all spent before all have communicated.' In the earliest times, the bread and wine were brought by each communicant in such quantity as he could afford ; and it was intended to be put together, and then equally distributed to all present, probably as a mark of that fellowship, which was carried out in the community of goods, at fii'st observed to a certain extent. But the abuse of this practice, as evidenced by 1 Cor. xi. 21, led to the rale, that each householder in turn provided all that was necessary for the whole community. This custom, which continued as long as the Sacrament was generally administered according to the ancient manner, was again mtroduced into the Prayer Book of 1549 ; though the obvious inconvenience, which did often arise from it, soon threw the charge upon the Minister or the Church, as is now done by the Rubric. 306. The frequency of communicating is directed to be ' at * least three times in the year,' according to the three great festivals of the Jews, at which each individual was bound to present himself before the Lord in the temple at Jerusalem {Deut. xvi. 16). Easter is to be one of these occasions, since the Sacrament itself commemorates the sacrifice of the death of Christ, consummated at the time of that festival. What the ecclesiastical duties, mentioned in the same rubric mean, is not known ; some considering them to have been in commutation of tithes, others freewill offerings, still customary in some parishes under the name of Easter-offerings. The direction for the disposal of the alms collected was added in 1662, though now they are exclusively devoted to the relief of the sick and destitute. The declaration about kneeling was first added in 1552, but again omitted in the reign of Elizabeth, from the time-serving policy then pursued, and restored, in a remodelled form as regards the verbal composition and arrangement, in 1662. In the Baptism. 319 primitive Church, according to Cyril {see § 292), the people received the Sacrament standing, because that was deemed the most reverential, or because the Passover was ordered to be eaten standing and in haste {Exod. xii. 11); although after entering into the Holy Land they appear to have eaten it in a reclining posture, as did our Lord and his Apostles, according to the manners of the time. The Pope receives the Sacrament sitting. On the custom of kneeling at devotional services see § 255. This practice, now almost universal at the Sacrament, was no doubt early adopted in the administration of the holy Communion, though the precise time of its being first introduced is unknown ; a fact which perhaps goes to prove its antiquity. At the Refomiation some parties objected to it, because it might seem an act of adoration, as practised in the Romish Church. BAPTISM. 307. Ablution or Baptism appears to have been used by almost every nation of antiquity as a religious purification. The Jews probably derived it from Egypt, and used it both for men, women, and children, on being received as proselytes to their religion from other nations. The Greeks and Romans also had their lustrations and purifications by water, both for crimes, and as initiations into their mysteries or most solemn religious fraternities. Hence it was adopted by John the Baptist as a symbol of repentance and pmification from former sin, and by our Lord as the initiatory Sacrament of his Church {Matt, xxviii. 19). The Jews called the baptism of proselytes their new hirth^ or being born again; and therefore our Saviour wondered that NicoDEMus, being a Master of Israel^ did not understand him {John iii. 3 — 10. cf. Tit. iii. 5.) That the early Christians did consider baptism as symbolical of a new birth, appears from the ceremonies soon superadded to the originally simple rite {see § 66, and § 69). That infants were baptized by the Apostles may be inferred from Acts ii. 38, 39, where St. Peter enjouis his hearers to 320 hifa n t Baptism . " Repent and be baptized every one for the promise is unto "you and to your children;'' from Acts xvi. 15, where we are told that Lydia was baptized " and her household^'' which most probably comprised children ; as did also that of the keeper of the prison at Philippi, who " was baptized, he and all his'' Besides, as Baptism superseded circumcision, it was no doubt like it administered to children, especially as our Saviour expressly said : " Suffer the little children to come unto me {Mark x. 14); " shewing by this, as well as by not specially excepting children, that he intended no deviation from the established practice in this respect. Justin Martyr, before the middle of the second century, speaks of persons who from childhood had been disciples (JfiaOrjTcvQriaav. Apol. I. 15) ; and comparing Baptism with circum- cision, he says, it is " incumbent on cdl alike to receive it " {ncio-Lv e^eTOf ofxoLcos Xafx^dveiv. Dial. Tryph. -43.). iRENiEUS and Tertullian in the same century, and Origex early in the next, speak expressly of Infant Baptism as prevalent in their time. ' In the time of the Apostles, as we learn from various passages in the new Testament, baptism was administered at whatever time and place persons desired it; but when in later times, in consequence of numerous heresies which had sprung up, a regular course of instruction came to be required, before persons were admitted to Baptism, stated times were fixed for admi- nistering it, chiefly Easter-day and Whitsunday {see § 69), when the solemnities drew large numbers together : Easter being the commemoration of our Lord's Resurrection, of which Baptism is a figure {Rom. vi. 4) ; and Whitsunday being the day on which, after St. Peter's discourse, three thousand were baptized {Acts ii. 41). In the Eastern Church the Epiphany was also one of these occasions, being considered as the day on which our Lord himself was baptized {see § 278). Afterwards, down to the eighth century, this Sacrament was administered during the whole interval between Easter and Whitsunday ; and then the earliest practice was restored of baptizing at all seasons, as is the custom among us. aS/9071.907's. Bap t isteries. 321 308. Oar form of public Baptism of Infants is to be used in the Church, and the first Rubric declares it most convenient that it be administered on Sundays or other Holy-days, assigning reasons for this rule ; but it nevertheless permits Baptism on any other day. The second Rubric, relating to Sponsors (§. 69) and their number, was inserted at the Revision in 1662, and is founded on a direction issued by Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1236, and confirmed by the Council of Worcester in 1240, Sponsors were first required in the second century (see § 69), being mentioned by Tertullian; and they are intended to be additional securities ' that the child may be virtuously brought *up to lead a godly and a Christian life,' should the parents neglect their duty or die {see 29th Canon). By a Canon lately passed by Convocation under Royal licence, parents are permitted to act as Sponsors with one other person. When the numbers applying for baptism in the early ages began to increase, baptisteries were erected near the churches, especially set apart for the purpose. In later times, fonts were placed in the porch of the church ; and in course of time they were removed into the church, yet placed near the entrance, to signify that baptism is the entrance or admission into the fold of the Church. 309. The opening question of the service is meant to guard against a second Baptism of the same child, which would be inconsistent with the declaration of St. Paul, that there is but one Baptism, as there is one Lord, and one faith (Eph. iv. 5). Much of the introductory matter that follows is derived from the ancient formalities on admitting a person to the preliminary degree of Catechumen, preparatory to baptism (see § 47), as em- bodied in Hermann's Consultation (see § 243), from which much of our baptismal services is taken. The first Exhortation founc's the necessity of baptism upon our Saviours declaration to Nicode- Mus in John iii. 5, after alluding to birth-sin (see under Article ix). The first of the two Collects which follow, comparing this sacrament with the flood of Noah and the passage of the Red X 322 BajJ t isma I Rege n e ra i ion . Sea {see 1 Pet. iii. 21, and 1 Cor. x. 2), and alluding to the consecration of water by our Lord's own baptism in Jordan, prays for the gift of God's grace to the child about to be baptized ; and the same prayer is carried ont more fully in the Second Collect. 310. The word reg-eneration (TraXiyyevca-la), used only twice in the New Testament (Matt. xix. 28, and Tit. iii. 5), and introduced here, has since the time of Augustine {see under Article xvii), and especially of late in our own Church, been the source of much controversy : some understanding it in a sense resembling the Eomish idea of the opus operatum, or an influence of the Holy Spirit necessarily accompanying the ceremonial act of baptism ; others more in the sense of conversion, followed by a constant operation of God's Spirit, whereby ' the inward man is ' renewed day by day ' (2 Cor. iv. 16). 311. After the second Collect there followed in the first Prayer Book"of Ed^yard VPs reign, a form of exorcism {see § 84), which was left out in 1552, in compliance with Bucer (see § 202). Next came the sentence 'the Lord be with you,' followed by the usual response ; and then the Gospel {Hark X. 13 — 16), which was used in ancient times on admitting Catechumens, and at Baptism, declaring as it does, Christ's willingness to receive infants. The Exhortation which follows, is an encouragement drawn from the declarations of the Gospel. In the first Book, after a somewhat different conclusion, it was followed by the Lord's Prayer and the Creed ; after which came the Thanksgiving, ending, as did the two Collects, with a prayer for the gift of the Sj^irit to the infant. The Address to the Sponsors (§ 69.) explains to them the nature of the sponsorial office. Then follows the Renunciation of the devil, the world, and the flesh, and a declaration of faith in the doctrines of the Gospel, according to the ancient custom described by Cyril {see § 292). He states, that the candidates for baptism were placed at the entrance of the baptistry with their faces to the West, and required to renounce the devil and all his works, the world and all its pomps and vanities ; after which they faced The Administration. 323 round to the East, and declared their belief in God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, in one baptism of repentance for the remission of sins, and in everlasting life. Questions Hke those here put, were used already in the time of Tertullian {see § 60), and were retained in our service in spite of the objections of the Puritans at the Hampton Court Conferences {see § 222.). The last of the four questions was added at the Restoration, and in the Book of 1549 they were broken into eight {Compare Tit. ii. 11 — 14; 1 John ii> 15, 16; Heh. xi. 6 ; John xiv. 1 ; Matt, xxviii. 19; Acts ii. 14; Eccl. xii. 13.). 312. The short petitions which come next, were at first placed with the Consecrating Prayer at the end of the baptismal services, and directed to be used only when the water in the font was consecrated, which was then done only once a month. It ran in the plural number, referring to all that might during that period be baptized ; and this accounts for the present tenor of the last petition. The consecration was introduced by another prayer, left out at the accession of Elizabeth ; and the words * sanctify this water &c,' were inserted at the last Revision, instead of ' grant that all thy servants which shall be baptized in * this water, prepared for the ministration of thy holy Sacrament,' which had also been left out in 1552. 313. The practice of naming new-born children was cus- tomary, not only among the Jews at circumcision {see Gen. xxi. 3, 4; Luhe i. 59, 60; ii. 21), but also among the Greeks and Romans ; so that it was naturally adopted by the early Christians. In the first Prayer Book, unction (xpiV/ia), and the white garment, thence called chrisome {see § 69), as well as trine immersion in the name of the three Persons of the Trinity, were still ordered, but discontinued in 1552. The latter ceremony was early introduced ; and though still observed in the Greek Church, and one of the points of contention on which it separated from that of Rome {see § 141.), was first discontinued in the Spanish Church, when the Arians {see § 95 &c.) thence argued, that the Church had always considered the three persons x2 324 The Administration. of the Trinity as distinct substances. But as the word BaTrrlCeiv, properly signifj'ing to dip, is used in the Xew Testament (3Iark vii. 4 ; Luke xi. 38) also in the sense of making affusion or sprinJding, the latter custom soon obtained in cases of illness and weakness, as appears from the writings of Tertullian and Cyprian {see § 81 and § 86), and thence was adopted generally in the Western Church. The discretion left in the Rubric to the parents of the child, has also made sprinkling the usual practice with us since the latter part of Elizabeth's reign, though the direction is to dip. The sign of the cross, which had been so greatly abused by superstitious notions attached to it, though still directed in several of our services in the first Liturgy of Iving Edward {^see § 243), has since been discontinued every- where except at Baptism ; and here, thoiigh at first ordered between the two opening Collects, is now delayed till after the act of baptizing, that it may not be deemed an essential pai-t of the sacred rite itself, and explained as a mere token to the child itself and to others, that hereafter he must not he ashamed of the cross of Christ with which he has been here marked as his soldier and servant {compare Rev. vii. 3 ; xiv. 1. 9 ; Ezek. ix. 4). When at the Hampton Court Conferences the Puritans objected to it, it was defended by the 30th Canon published the year after. 314. The Exhortation, the Lord's Prayer, and Thanks- giving, with which the office of Baptism properly concludes, were first added in the Prayer Book of 1552. The final Exhortation then especially points out to the Sponsors what is their duty towards the child, until it is of age to he hrought to the Bishop to he confirmed, as the concluding paragraph directs, which assumed its present form of an injunction at the last Revision, having previously been only a Rubric. The Rubric which follows, is a modified fomi of a declaration on Baptism in the Bishops' Book, X-)ublished in 1537 {see § 191), asserting 'that infants and child- ' ren, dying in their infancy, shall undoubtedly be saved thereby, 'and else not'; which last words behig omitted here, implies Private and Adult Baptism. 325 evidently, that our Reformers did not maintain, that infants dying unbaptized are not saved. 315. The title of the form for Private Baptism in both books of king Edward, and in that of Elizabeth, was ' Of them ^ that be baptized in private houses in time of necessity;' to which was added in James I's reign, *by the Minister of the * Parish or any other lawful Minister that can be procured,' it having previously been lawful, as it still is in the Church of Rome, for laymen, and even midwives, to baptize infants in extremities. The ratification of the private baptism, in case the child survives, after the form which follows, has nothing that requires special explanation, beyond what has already been said in the preceding paragraph. We will only remark, that the question, ' With what words was this child baptized V points to the necessity of using the words of Christ's own institution (3Iatt. xxviii. 19). This has in all ages and branches of the Church of Christ been deemed so essential, that in any case where a doubt remains as to the proper baptism of any individual, our Church in the final Rubric of this service, to guard against reiteration of the rite of baj^tism, provides a hypothetical form, introduced by the words, ' If thou art not already baptized ^c' It is to be observed also, that the officiating Minister at a private baptism is by the present state of the law bound, to register the same in due form in the Parish books. 31(3. During the time of the Commonwealth various sects had arisen, who disregarded the necessity of pa^do-haj^tism, or baptism of infants {naldes), especially the Anabaptists. Hence, at the Restoration, it became necessary to provide the present form of Baptism for Such as are of riper years, and had grown up in those disturbed times without being baptized. Such persons are of course required to answer the questions put for themselves, and the Exhortations are addressed to them directly; and the Sponsors, who are equally required for them, are addressed only as witnesses to their vows and promises, and desired to exhort them to observe the same. The Gospel in this 326 The Catechism. service is a portion of our Lord's discourse with Nicodemus in John iii., being applicable to adults. THE CATECHISM. 317. This term is derived from the same word as Catechumen (see § 47), KaTTjxeo), to sound into one's ears, to instruct hy ivord of mouth, and is used by .S'^. Jjulce i. 4 ; Acts xviii. 25 ; xxi. 21. We have seen (§ 201), that Cranmer's translation of the Nuremberg Catechism, published 1548, was enlarged in 1553 by- Bishop PoNET. This was further improved and enlarged in 1563 by Alexander Noel, Dean of St. Paul's, and approved by Convocation; and in 1570 there appeared three Catechisms by Noel, known as the greater, middle, and smaller Catechisms. To the last of these, somewhat altered. Dr. Overall, then Dean of St. Paul's, and afterwards Bishop of Norwich, was in 1604 commissioned to add the Explanations of the Sacraments, thus completing our present Church Catechism. It was at first combined with the order of Confirmation, as being required to be known by candidates for that rite. The first Rubric at the end of the Catechism was framed at a time, when there were no regular schools for the children of the poor connected with every church, carefully superintended and directed by the parochial clergy themselves, as we have at present; and therefore the observation of the direction here given, which must tend to the interruption of the regular course of divine service, is now generally dispensed with. It is besides inconsistent with the Fifty-Ninth Canon, which directs that "every Parson, Vicar, "or Curate, upon every Sunday or Holy-day, before Evening " Prayer, shall, for half an hour or more, examine and instruct " the youth and ignorant persons of his parish, in the Ten " Commandments, the Articles of the Belief, and in the Lord's " Prayer, and shall diligently hear, instruct, and teach them the "Catechism, set forth in the Book of Common Prayer;" and this is now everywhere done in our Sunday Schools. Confirmation. 327 CONFIRMATION. 318. The rite of Confirmation is not a Sacrament, as the Romish Church teaches (^see Article xxv. and Remarks upon if), not having been ' ordained hy Christ Himself {see definition of Sacrament in Catechism), but being only founded upon the recorded practice of the Apostles {Acts viii. 14 — 17 ; xix. 5, 6 ; Heb. vi. 2). The power of actually conferring the gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands, committed by our Lord only to his Apostles personally, has indeed ceased ; but the expediency of continuing this rite appears from the universal practice of the Church in all ages. The last two Rubrics after the Catechism refer to the required age of persons to be presented for Confirmation, and their preparation for it. In the primitive Church, indeed, it was administered at once to persons baptized in the presence of the Bishop, whether adults or infants ; and iu the Greek Church this is still done by the priest himself who baptizes. But in the Western Church Confirmation was early made a separate rite, and the Candidate required openly to take his baptismal vows upon himself, that thereby he might become conscious of his own responsibility at an age, when the young become especially exposed to the temptations of the world, the flesh, and the devil, which they have renounced. The opening address or Preface was, previous to the last Revision of the Prayer Book, only a Rubric, taken from Hermann's Consultation (§ 243). The solemn question following was added at the same time, with the answer * I do,' to be made audibly by the Candidates. The versicles are from Psalms cxxiv. 8 ; cxiii. 2 ; cii. 1 ; the last being substituted in 1552 for the usual salutation, The Lord be with you; And with thy spirit. The Collect is taken from the Liturgy of Ambrose of Milan (§ 240.), and that of the Greek Church, and prays for the sevenfold gifts of the Spirit enumerated by Isaiah xi. 2. In the first Prayer Book there followed here a form of words, to be used by the Bishop 328 Matrimony. lefore^ and another after making the sign of the cross on the forehead of each person confirmed ; but as the crossing was dispensed with since, the present form was substituted, to be used whilst laying on the hands. The use of unction at Con- firmation, which began in the second or third century, was discontinued at the Eeformation, as not of Apostolical institution. Then the Lord's Prayer follows, as it does after the administra- tion of the Lord's Supper and Baptism ; and it is succeeded by a Collect, prajring that spiritual grace may attend the persons confirmed. Tlie service concludes with one of the Collects placed at the end of the Communion Service, introduced here at the Restoration ; and then the Bishop dismisses the congrega- tion with a blessing. The Rubric added is founded upon the ancient practice of administering the Communion to persons immediately after Confirmation, when that rite accompanied Baptism, even in the case of infants ; but it leaves sufficient latitude for admitting persons to the Sacrament, even before Confirmation, under particular circumstances. MATRIMONY. 319. It has from the earliest times been deemed requisite in the Christian Church, as it always had been among the Jews, to solemnize marriages under the auspices of religion ; and for this purpose proper forms of prayers and ceremonies were composed both in the Eastern and Western Churches, as previously among the Jewish nation. Our form is nearly all taken from the ritual or mafiual (see § 241) in use before the Reformation. The banns,* required by an ancient law of our Church to be published on three several occasions previous to the solemnization of marriage, appear to be derived from the practice of the primitive Church, according to Tertullian. The Rubric immediately preceding the Preface, which orders that * From the feudal term bannum, proscription by public proclamation, and thence any public proclamation. Matrimony. 329 * the persons to be married shall come into the body of the * church,' mtroduced at the Keformation a practice varying from that previously existing, when the greater portion of the cere- monies were performed outside the church door; and the direction for the position of the parties was also then first added. The causes of impediment to marriage, alluded to both in the Prefatory Address, and in the Charge which follows, are a previous marriage not dissolved by death or otherwise, and relationship within the forbidden degrees. The solemn questions, put by the Minister to the bride and bridegroom respectively, constitute what is called the Espousals, which formerly took place at some time previous to the solemnization of marriage, and were attended with various ceremonies, discontinued in later times. The duties of husband and wife here specified, are founded on Ephes. v. 22 — 33. ; 1 Co7\ vii. 10. sq. ; Col. iii. 18, 19; 1 Fet. iii. 5 — 7. The question, 'who giveth this ' woman to be married to this man,' points to the paranymphus or Brideman, who according to ancient custom attended the bride. The vows to be spoken by the man and woman them- selves, were always in English, even when the whole service- books were in Latin ; and hence the antiquated terms ' till *• death us depart ' and ' I plight thee my troth,' were retained in the earliest editions of our Book of Common Prayer. But at the Restoration of Charles II in 1661, the former was altered, both here, and in Ruth i. 17 ; whilst troth, being an old form of the word truth, and the root of hetrothe, was retained. The giving of a ring at marriage was probably derived from the ancient custom of having seals in rings, so that the conferring of such a ring was a token of the utmost confidence and intimacy. The giving of other articles of gold and silver, as well as the use of the cross at the time of marriage, has been discontinued since 1552. In the declaration pronounced by the bridegroom on giving the ring, the word iced in the old Saxon meant to pledge; and the word worship, so strongly objected to by the Puritans in 1661, here only bears the meaning of to honour, and in this sense 330 Visitation of the Sick. loorship and worslujjful are still applied to certain Magistrates. The ring is ordered to be put on the fourth finger, from an ancient notion that a vein from this finger communicated directly Trith the heart ; and the custom used to be, to put it first on the thumb, and then successively on each of the other fingers, at the mention of the several persons of the Trinity, thus leaving it on the fourth. After a prayer for the wedded pair, the priest joins their hands, pronouncing the words of our Saviour, Matt. xix. 6. The Minister's declaration which follows is not from the ancient rituals, but from HEEMA^"^''s Consultation (see § 243). The blessing which succeeds, properly concludes the Marriage cere- mony, the remainder of the service being used formerly, when the persons married were required to receive the holy Communion, which was dispensed with at the last Revision. It is only necessary further to observe, that in the Prayer beginning * 0 ' God of Abraham &c.,' the first Prayer Book mentioned Tobith and Sarah ; which, being an allusion to the Apocryphal Book of Tobias, was in 1552 changed to the present form, alluding to Abraham and Sarah. VISITATION OF THE SICK. 320. As the visiting of the sick is recommended by our Lord himself {Matt. xxv. 44, 45.), as a duty incumbent upon all Christians, so it is in a more especial manner the duty of the Christian minister ' to search for the sick, poor, and imjDotent * people,' as it is declared in our Ordination Service, that he may support their faith in their time of weakness, or strive to turn to account the season of affliction to the salvation of their souls. Hence St. James (v. 14) directs, that if any be sick, he should ' call for the elders of the Church and our Church has provided its Ministers with a form of prayers for such occasions, either to be used as it stands, or to serve them as a model {see 67th Canon). On the use of oil to anoint the sick, mentioned by St. James, see below under Article xxv. It was still permitted to be used in the first Prayer Book of Edward VI., if the sick Communion of the Sick. 331 particularly desired it {see § 244) ; but together with the sign of the cross was discontinued in 1552. The opening salutation of our form of service is conifonnable to our Lord's own direction (Luke X. 5.) ; and this was at first followed by Psalm cxliii., for which in 1552 was substituted a sentence and response from the Litany. The second Collect, beginning ' Hear us, Almighty &c.' was also considerably altered in 1552, by the omission of an allusion to Tobith and Sarah, as referring to an Apocryphal Book; and again in 16G2, by the omission of an allusion to Peter's wife's mother (Matt. yiii. 14.), and the centurion's servant (Luke vii.), which are instances of miraculous cures, such as we have no right now to expect. As the main point in visiting the sick must be the preparation of his soul for heaven, every other consideration ought to be deemed subservient to that ; and hence the directions in the Eubric regarding his worldly affairs, are only intended to remove all anxiety concerning them from his mind. On the Confession and Absolution see what has been said above (§ 256). The seventy-first Psalm has, in other Churches as well as our own, been selected as most suitable to be read to the sick; though it is to be observed, that at the Restoration the last five verses of it were omitted in this place. The second of the three Benedictions which follow, concludes with the words of St. Peter in Acts iv. 12.; and the last is from Numbers vi. 24 — 26. The special Prayers were added in 1662. It was customary as early as the time of Justin jVLi.RTYR (Apol. I. 65), to carry some of the bread and wine, consecrated for the Commmiion, to the absent sick ; and this was ordered to be done in a rubric in the Prayer Book of 1549. But the superstitions that had prevailed on this subject, caused our Reformers to omit this direction, and to order the bread and wine to be consecrated m the sick man s house ; a practice which was common in the early Church. The same provision is made here, as in the ordinary celebration of the Lord's Supper (see § 305), that there must be some persons to partake with the 332 Burial Service. priest and the sick man, to discountenance the Romish practice of SoHtary Masses ; though a latitude is left in the last Rubric in case of contagious diseases. And in the last Rubric but two it is stated, that if through any unavoidable cause the Sacrament cannot be administered to a dying person, yet if he truly repent, and believe in the atonement and redemption wrought by Christ in dying for us on the cross, ' he doth eat and drink the body ' and blood of our Saviour Christ profitably to his soul's health, ' although he do not receive the Sacrament with his mouth.' BURIAL OF THE DEAD. 321. That religious solemnities were gone through at the funerals of the early Christians, in accordance with the practice among the Jews, appears from the custom which soon arose, of performing religious rites at the tombs of Saints and Martyrs, even on the anniversaries of their deaths ; whence arose the observation of Saints' days, and the practice of praying for the dead, and even administering the Communion at funerals, as we are specially told was done at the funerals of Ambrose in the fourth, and of Augustine in the fifth century, which was the origin of celebrating Masses for the dead. Our Burial Service, however, is designed for the edification of the living ; and therefore, in order to discourage an evil course of life, it is directed in the opening Rubric, that this service is not to be read over those, who through life have despised the Christian rite of baptism ; or who by their unrepented wicked lives have placed themselves without the pale of Christian Communion; or who by the verdict of a Jury are declared to have laid violent hands upon themselves. The same object is kept in view in some passages of the service, where the dead, whatever may have been his life, is spoken of in the hope of his being saved; being designed to impress us with feelings of charity even towards the most notorious sinners, and with a sense of God's mercy to such, on the charitable supposition, that they may, unknown to us, have turned to him in sincere Churching of Women. 333 repentance, and been accepted, even in their last extremity, as in the case of the thief on the cross. Therefore those are wrong, who on light grounds refuse to perform this service in sucli cases, where the living value it sufficiently to desire it. Prayers for the dead and the celebration of the Communion at funerals, though still retained in the first book of Common Prayer, were omitted in 1552 {see § 243 & 245). The sentences from Sciipture with which the Service opens, are intended to cheer the mourners, who bring their dead for burial, with ' a ' sure and certain hope of the resurrection to eternal life.' In the first Prayer Book, the Psalms which followed here were the cxvith, cxxxixth, and cxLvith, which were entirely omitted in 1552, and the present ones were inserted in 1662. After the Lesson came also a prayer for the dead, introduced by the Lord's Prayer preceded and followed by various short supplica- tions; but these were omitted at the first revision. What is now called the Collect, consists partly of what was the Collect when the Communion was celebrated at funerals, and the conclusion of another prayer. The concluding blessing was added at the last revision. CHURCHING OF WOMEN. 322. As it was the custom among the Jews, for women after childbirth to offer a sacrifice for their purification (see § 290), as commanded by Moses {Lev. xii), so from the earliest times they have been required to present themselves before God with a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving ; although before the Reformation the form provided for the occasion, from which ours is taken, was still called the Purification, till in 1552 it was altered to the present title. The time for this service has never been defined in our Church, though the rubric says the usual time ; but iu the Greek Church the fortieth day is named. At the last revision the woman was directed to ' come into the church * decently apparelled,'' instead of veiled, as was formerly the practice ; and to ' kneel down in some convenient place,' instead 334 Th 6 Co Til minat ion . of -niofh nnto the place where the table standeth,' to which an objection was made by the Puritans. In some places a pew or other place in the church is set apart for the puqjose : though the general practice is to Imeel at the rails of the Communion table, where this office is read after the usual ser\-ice. It is often read immediately before or after the General Thanksgiving, and seems foiTQerly to have been used immediately before the Com- munion Serrice. Our Church varies from all other Churches, by prefixing a Preface to this and eveiy other office in its Liturgy, to fix the attention of the worsbippers. The Psalms now nsed are more appropriate than those used before -the Eeformation, which were the cxxist and cxxviiith, the former with the xxviith beiug still used in the Scotch Liturgy. After the Lord's Prayer with the usual introduction, the service concludes mth some brief supplications, and a Collect, which was slightly altered at the last revision. THE COMMINATION. 323. As Moses {Deut. xi. 29 ; xxvii. 12—26) had directed curses and blessings to be pronounced on Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, so the Romisb Church had established a practice of reading, four times in the year, a form of cursing on all who in- jured or insulted the Church, either in the persons of its clergy or in its property. This General Sentence or Curse, as it was called, was forbidden to be used by Hexey YIII in 1533 ; and in the next reign our Reformers composed this service, to be used every year on the first day of Lent or Ash- Wednesday. The ' godly discipline' of the primitive Church, aUuded to in the Preface, consisted in the public expression of penitence (open penance) for their misconduct, rec^uired of those who had been excommunicated, before they could be received again into the bosom of the Church. The Exhortation which follows the Curses is almost entirely drawn from Scripture The Jifty-Jirst Psalm, called David's Litany (see § 268), is esi^ecially suited for the occasion, being one of the most penitential of all he composed. The Ordinal. 335 Tlie Collects and Prayers that follow sufficiently explain them- selves ; and the conclndiug blessing, like that at the end of the Visitation of the Sick, taken from Numh. vi. 24, was added at the Restoration in 1662. This office has been excluded from the American Prayer Book, with the exception of the two Collects near the end, which are used on Ash- Wednesday before the General Thanksgiving. 324. At the last revision the Forms o f Prayer to he used at Sea were first added. Tliose for the Fifth of November, the Thirtieth of January, and Tweuty-Xinth of ^lay, were compc)Sed at the same time, and approved by Convocation. But they were not sanctioned by Parliament, though the commemoration of those days was ordered by special enactments; neither were they included in the Prayer Book. They have a few years ago been omitted from the Prayer Book, and the observation of the days has been abrogated. THE ORDINAL. 325. "VTe shall have occasion to speak of the Scripture authority for transmitting the ministerial functions in the Church of Christ by Ordination^ when we come to consider Article xxiii of our Church. The original forms, observed in ordaining Jklinisters of the various orders, consisted no doubt simply in prayers and the laying on of hands, with some declaration as to the office and the duties thereof; but these were gradually ex- panded in the Mediaeval Church, by the introduction of a multi- phcity of ceremonies, on some of which see what is said below on the subject of orders, under Article xxw The earliest set form of Ordination widi which we are acquainted, is found in the last Book of the Apostolical Constitutions (§ 49.), a work of the second or third centnry, but falsely pretending to date as far back as the age of the Apostles themselves. This form is 33G Ordination Services. perfectly general in its terms, praying for the gift of the Holy Spirit to the Candidate, that he may perform the sacred r-ites of the Church blameless. We do not find the slightest evidence during the first nine centuries of the Christian Church, that the power to offer sacrifices to God and to celebrate Masses for the quick and the dead, was pretended to be conferred at ordination, or that the Chalice and Paten were delivered to the newly ordained Priest, as has since been customary in the Romish Church. At the Reformation, the Ordination Services, as previously used in the English Church, were greatly simplified, and stripped of all unmeaning and superstitions observances, and the whole so remodelled, as to tend to the spiritual edification of those engaged in it. The first form was drawn up by a commission of six Bishops, and six other divines, probably the same who had drawn up the Prayer Book ; and who, by an Act of Parliament passed in 1549, were ■ directed to frame an office for Consecrating and Ordaining Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, thus excluding what the Romish Church calls the Ordines Minores {see § 86.). This form was issued in March 1550, and used for the consecra- tion of six Bishops, and a large number of other clergy; and when the Prayer Book was revised in 1552, the Ordinal, which was also fui-ther revised, was inserted in it (§ 202.). In 1549, the chrism or anointing of the hands, and the words relating to sacrifices and Masses, had been omitted; and in 1552, the deliver- ing of the sacred vessels was also discontinued. After having been suppressed during Mary's reign, the reformed Ordinal was restored on the accession of Elizabeth. In 1562 Convocation acknowledged it by passing Article xxxvi, which specially treats of it; and again confirmed it in 1571, when the xxxix Articles were settled in their present form. It was also sanctioned by an Act of Parliament in 1566, and was restored in 1660, having been disregarded during the Commonwealth ; and it was then reduced to its present form. ?>26. The Preface is still the same as in the first Ordinal, Ordination Services. 337 and is attributed to the pen of Craxmer. The clause concerning the requisite ages of those to be ordained, is in accordance with the Statute 13 Eliz. cap. 12. The times here said to be appoint- ed for Ordination are the Sundays after the Ember Week {see Canon xxxi. and above §• 273.). The introductory part is taken from the old Pontifical (§ 241.), as is also the use of the Litany with a special suffrage for those ordained, and the Communion Sei-vice. The oath of supremacy is of course peculiar to our ritual, as are also most of the questions, at least in the Ordination of Deacons and Priests, having formerly been customary only at the consecration of Bishops. Deacons are ordained before, and Priests after, the reading of the Gospel ; and the long address to the latter is also a peculiar feature in our Service. The Prayers occurring in our Ordination Service, are also very much altered. The Hymn of invocation to the Spirit, Veni Creator Spiritus, is of great antiquity, and has been commonly ascribed to Ambrose (§ 240.), though not found in the old editions of his works. It has been used at Ordinations since the latter part of the eleventh century. In the foi-m of words pronounced at the laying on of hands, the words '■ for the office and work of a Priest (or Bishop) in the ' Church of God, now committed unto thee by the imposition of ' our hands,' were not added till the Restoration of Charles II. The delivery of the New Testament or Bible at Ordination, seems to have originated in the English Church, whence it was first introduced into France about the ninth century, and soon after adopted in other Churches. Till 1552 it was also customary to deliver the pastoral staff to a newly consecrated Bishop, on pronouncing the words, ' Be to the flock of Christ a shepherd.' — The American Episcopal Church uses the same form, with the omission of the oaths, and a slight verbal variation here and there ; and as an alternative of the usual words pronounced at the laying on of hands, it has added this form : * Take thou authority to execute the office of a priest in the Church of God, now committed to thee &c.' See further what is said below under Article the 36th. THE XXXIX ARTICLES. INTRODUCTION. 327. At the first promulgation of Christianity, a declaration of belief in the heads of Christian doctrines was deemed suf- ficient, to be baptized and received as a member of the Church. This declaration appears to have varied, as to the verbal expres- sions, in different Churches, and is supposed to be alluded to by St. Paul, when he speaks of ' that form of sound words, which thou hast heard of me' (2 Tim. i. 13.) ; and ' that form of doctrine 'which was delivered you' (Eom. vi. 17.). The verbal discre- pancies of these Creeds is shewn by the abstracts of the Christian faith, given by the earliest of the Apologists. They were kept by the Churches to which they had been first delivered, as a depositum or trust {irapaOrjKr) or TrapaKaTaOrjKrj, 1 Tim. vi. 20, and 2 Tim. i. 14) committed to its keeping. The Apostles' Creed, as it is now called, was made up of such primitive formulie, as was also that compiled at Mcsea, where many such formulae were examined ; and the addition afterwards made at the Council of Constantinople {see § 101), had already been used in some particular churches. Thus it was the multiplication of heresies, that caused the enlargement of Creeds, and the adoption of one established form for all churches as a standard of orthodoxy {see also § 47.). 328. A new Bishop, on his appointment, had to make a profession of his faith, according to the form received in his church ; and this he sent round to the most eminent Bishops, who held communion with him or not, as they regarded his r.ro- fession sound or otherwise. The Third General Council (see Articles of Henry VIII. 339 § 111) left the Creed as it found it, but made additional decrees, explanatory of points of faith, which all new Bishops had to ac- cept. In the first Canon of the fourth Council of Carthage, there is given a full account of the special declaration, which was then required of a Bishop ; and when such decrees were soon after multiphed by different Councils, the Bishops had to make a general declaration, that they received and would observe all the decrees and traditions of holy Councils and Fathers. The Church of Rome afterwards added a formal, but loosely worded oath, to observe all declarations previously established. 329. As at the first spread of Christianity, so again at the Eefoi-mation, men's special thoughts and studies were directed to religious subjects and doctrines ; and when, among the many who engaged in discussion upon these subjects, some were found who entered into extravagant speculations, which had the effect of ex- citing the minds of large masses to violent excesses both in thinl?:- ing and acting, it became necessary for the sober and moderate leaders of the Reformation movement, to put forth declarations of their actual tenets, so as not to be confounded with the violent and unreasonable asserters of pernicious doctrines. Hence arose Confessions of Faith, such as that of Augsburg {see § 156), and of other communities who separated from the Church of Rome at that time. 330. This example was followed in England in the reign of Henry YIII., when after communications with the German Reformers, and especially with Melancthon (§ 151.), X Articles were drawn up and published, declared to have been ' devised by the King's Highness' Majesty to establish Christian quietness.' These Articles give a definition of Justification, which is a literal rendering of a passage in Melancthon's work, entitled ''Loci Theologici,' published 1535. In 1538 several Gennan divines visited England (§ 189.), and assisted in compiling XIII Articles, founded on those of 1536, and on the Confession of Augsburg (§ 156.). The original document of these Articles is still pre- served {see § 338.), and was used in compiling our present y2 340 Articles of Edward VI. Church Articles, in which no further traces of the Confession of Augsburg are found than those in this document. 331. In Edward VI's reign XLII. Articles were published in English and Latin, a. d. 1552. They were founded on the fandamental Article of the Reformation, that the whole doctrines of the Christian religion are contained in the Scriptures ; and they were issued by Royal authority, in the same manner, and by the same right, as the first law in the Code of Justinian was issued. That law is an edict of Theodosius, sanctioning the doctrine received by Damasus, Bishop of Rome (a. d. 384 — 398), and Peter, Bishop of Alexandria. The right alluded to is, according to Bishop Burnet, the exercise of private judgment by the sovereign in his public capacity, as by others in their private capacity. 332. The same Prelate distinguishes between Articles of Faith, and Articles of Doctrine ; the former being only such as are declared in Scripture to be necessary to salvation. The lat- ter, however, are such as those held by the Judaizing Christians in the time of the Apostles ; namely, 1st, that Jewish converts were still bound to observe the Mosaic Law ; 2nd, that the observance of that law is indispensable to all men in order to sal- vation. The main distinction between the Roman and the differ- ent Protestant Churches, as regards their Articles of belief, is, that the former imposes absolutely upon all men its Articles both of Faith and Doctrine, as necessary to salvation; whereas the latter do not presume absolutely to exclude from salvation all who do not agree with them on every doctrinal point. Nevertheless, each Church requires of those who desire to be teachers within it, that they should subscribe willingly, and ex animo, all its Articles, and to acknowledge them agreeable to the Word of God. 333. In the Forty-two Articles of 1552, the 39th is on the Resurrection of the Dead; the 40th declares, that the souls of men do not perish with their bodies, (' neque otiosi dormianV being added in the original) ; the 41st is on the Millennarians ; and the 42nd asserts, that all shall not be saved at last. Articles of Elizabeth, 15G2. 341 334. This body of Articles was professed to be drawn np ' by the Bishops and other learned and godly men,' under a Com- mission conferred by an Act, passed in the reign of Henry VIII, but not acted upon. This Act was renewed in 1549, to remain in force till the end of 1552. They were, however, supposed to have been drawn up chiefly by Cranmer, aided by Ridley, though " questions relating to them were given about to many Bishops "and Divines, who gave in their several answers, which were " collated and examined very maturely : all sides had a free and " fair hearing before conclusions were made." In Mary's reign, Cranivier nevertheless declared, that ' they were his doings.' 335. In some places a striking coincidence is found to exist, not only in general doctrine, but even in words, with the Augs- burg Confession of 1530 (see § 330.), which was first printed in 1531, and republished with some alterations in 1540. In the 17th Article there are also expressions evidently taken from Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans, as translated from the original German into Latin by Justus Jonas, in 1523. Bishop Burnet, in his History of the Reformation, gives the original Forty-two Articles, and points out their variations from the Tliirty-nine. 336. In 1562 Archbishop Parker submitted to Convocation a new body of Articles, in which he omitted the 10th, 16th, 19th, and 41st, of those of Edward's reign, and introduced four new oneSj standing as 5th, 12th, 29th, and 30th. The 6th was made less favourable to tmdition, and distinguishes between the Ca- nonical Scriptures and the Apocrypha. The 28th omits a clause contradictory to Consubstantiation and Uhiquitarianism (see under Article xxviii.). Fifteen others are more or less altered; and all the alterations are chiefly drawn from the Wurtemburg Confession, composed in 1551. Convocation omitted the last three, and the 29th was left out in the printing ; so that this first body of Articles of Elizabeth's reign consisted only of Thirty-Eight. The Titles of sixteen of them were altered by Convocation, and other slight alterations were made. Thus 342 Articles of 1571. altered, they were subscribed by both Houses of Convocation of the Province of Canterbury, and by the Lower House, the Bishops of Durham and Chester, and the Archbishop, of the Province of York. They were printed the year following both in Latin and English. 337. In 1571 Archbishop Parker procured a revision of the Articles, reintroducing the 29th, and thus making up the present Thirty-Nine, which were subscribed in the Upper House by the Archbishop and Bishops, and by all the clergy of the Lower House. When they were published the year after under the superintendence of Bishop Jewel, the Ratification, still sub- joined to them in the Prayer-book, was added. 338. Some disputes afterwards arose concerning the authen- ticity of the opening clause of the 20th Article, which did not exist in some copies ; and the greatest uncertainty has hitherto prevailed, which copy is the authorized one. This uncertainty was afterwards increased, when in 1666 the Records of Convoca- tions were burnt in the great fire of London. The disputed clause is : Habet Ecclesia ritus sive cceremonias statuendi jtjs et in fidei controversiis auctoritatem. In some early copies this clause is wholly wanting; one of 1563 has the clause with the omission of the words Sive cceremonias. It is also to be remarked, that the word^ws is rendered in English by power, instead of right. The clause is supposed not to have been in the copy as signed by Convocation, but only in that finally sanctioned by the Queen, as edited by Jewel, who made sundry textual emendations. In 1604 the copy subscribed by both Houses of Convocation did contain the clause. 339. An attempt had been made in Parhament in 1566, to enforce the subscription of the Articles by the Clergy ; but the measure was dropped on account of the Queen's opposition, who considered it as an encroachment on her supremacy. In 1571, however, she yielded her consent to an Act requiring the Clergy to subscribe such of them ' as concern the confession of the true Christian Faith and the doctrine of the Sacraments,' thus seem- Subscription to the XXXIX Articles. 343 ing to exclude the 19th, 20th, 35th, and 36th (§. 214.). But the subscription of all is required by the 36th Canon of 1604. And tliis has been given ever since by aU the Bishops and Clergy of the Church, and by every Graduate of our Universities, comprising almost all the greatest minds, that have during nearly three cen- turies guided and instructed the nation; an authority for the soundness of these Articles, and their faithfulness to the Word of God, on which they are professedly founded, which must tend to recommend them to all, who value religion for the conviction it brings to the mind of God's purposes regarding human souls, and his promise of their eternal salvation and felicity {see § 251.). 840. Various objections to the subscription, required of those who enter into the Ministry of the Church, have at different times been made by parties differing widely from one another in the motives that prompt their objections. Thus we have seen (§. 251.) that those, whose views gave them a leaning to Romish Church principles, sought to evade the obligations they had taken upon themselves by subscription and by their oaths at Ordination, by explaining the words of the Church Articles in a non-natural sense. Others now object to subscription in any sense, because their views of religion are wholly inconsistent with all hitherto received ideas of Christian doctrine. 341. Hence various arguments are advanced in support of this new objection. It is said that many are repelled from the Christian IVIinistry, by the compulsory adoption of set forms of explanation of the Church's views of Christian doctrine, binding them to refrain from all teaching inconsistent with, or contra- dict^iy to these explanatory forms; and that the Ministry of a National Church should be open to all individuals in the nation, irrespective of any peculiar views they may entertain of the dis- tinctive docti-ines of Christianity. And if any of those, who have subscribed and bound themselves to maintain and teach no doctrine inconsistent with the Church's formularised code, have allowed themselves to be imbued with ideas and principles at variance with it, and persist in teaching them in violation of their solemn 344 Subscription to the XXXIX Articles. undertaking, they claim to be bound by the letter of the Church's law no further than the legal interpretation of that letter ; thus seeking by evasive legal quibbles to screen themselves from the temporal penalties of their desertion of doctrines, which, with the solemn feelings of men about to enter upon the sacred functions of the Christian Ministry, established for the moral elevation and spiritual edification and salvation of immortal souls, they had professed to adopt and firmly beheve. 342. Again, it is alleged that young men at the earliest age required for ordination, are not yet qualified to fathom all the bearings of the abstruse doctrines treated of in the Articles, so as to decide upon subscribing to them conscientiously and ex animo. But if such young men can judge of their meaning and bearings sufficiently to decide for themselves that they cannot consci- entiously subscribe to them, and so refrain from entering the Church Ministry, surely men at that same age may on the other hand be duly qualified to decide for themselves upon adopting them, especially when they see their seniors, comprising men in the foremost ranks of every department of learning and science, not only holding those doctrines, but ably and zealously maintain- ing and defending them. 343. Such young men have two courses before them. Having solemnly dedicated themselves to the service of the Christian Church, as established in their country, they may make it their study to carry out faithfully the purposes proposed by the Church, and strive to understand ever more thoroughly the princi- ples and doctrines which form the groundwork of Christianity as taught by the Church. Or they may allow themselves to be drawn aside by every novelty and wind of doctrine, broached by a few ardent but mistaken minds, and pursue these in all their windings and tendencies, till they think the opinions with which they started, derived through a succession of many generations of the most powerful intellects, are erroneous, and no longer calculated to enlighten men as to the real object of their existence, and the real purposes of their Creator in calling them into being. Arrangement of the Articles, -345 Bat in this latter case they must not presume to demand, that the time honoured institutions and doctrines of the Church shall at once he discarded upon their mere dictum, or transformed into the new views so recently struck out by modern thinkers. 344. The Church with the utmost latitude of indulgence to the kaleidoscopic views of the human mind, must nevertheless, with the most rigid adherence to long estabhshed institutions and rules of faith, draw a wide distinction between the mere dictates of human reason, or the results arrived at by deductions from the apparent laws prevailing in the material universe, and developed by, the investigations of physical science, — and those higher intuitions of the human soul, further developed by the dis- closures of revealed truth, which point to a higher existence far beyond the range of actual human investigation, but nevertheless at least equally reliable, and founded upon equally sound founda- tions, as the most undoubted results of human reasonings ; and it can never consent to adopt the latter as the sole guides and supports of immortal souls, in their struggles to pass through the things of time and sense to an immortal existence. It must therefore reject as teachers and expounders of its principles and doctrines, both those who decline entering its mhiistry, and to bind themselves to maintain its written laws in their obviously implied sense ; and those who, after having thus bound themselves, have allowed their minds to be imbued with views inconsistent with their former profession. 345. The arrangement of the Thirty-Nine Articles is very distinct and judicious. The Jirst Jive treat of the doctrine of the Trinity ; the three following establish the rule of Christian Faith ; from the Ninth to the Eighteenth inclusive they bear reference to Christians, considered as individuals ; and thence to the end they relate to Christians, considered as members " of a Church or religious Society. They are intended not only to declare positive doctrines, but also to refute acknowledged heresies, especially the en'ors and corruptions of the Church of Rome. 346 ARTICLE 1. De Fide in Sacrosanctam Trinitatem. 346. TJnus est vivus et verus Deus, scternus, incorporeus, impartibilis, impassibilis ; immensse potentiss, sapientise, ac bonitatis, Creator et Con- servator omnium, turn visibilium, turn invisibilium. Et in unitate hujus divinse naturae, tres sunt Personsc, ejusdem essentise, potentise ac seterni- tatis ; Pater, Filius, et Spiritus Sanctus. Of Faith in the Holy Trinity. 347. There is but one living and true God, everlasting, ^^'^ without body,'^^ parts, or passions of infinite power, wisdom, ^''^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. (a) The Lord is the true God, He is the Hving God, and an ever- lasting King. Jer. x. 10. Thus saith the Lord the King of Israel, and his Redeemer the Lord of hosts : I am the First, and I am the Last; and beside me there is no God : I know not any. Isa. xliv. 6. 8. There is one God, and there is none other but He. MarTc xii. 32. There is none other God but one. 1 Cor. viii. 4 Ye turned to God from idols to serve the living and true God. 1 Thess. \. 9. Now unto the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only wise God, be honour and glory for ever and ever. 1 Tim. i. 17. Also Deut. xxxii. 39, 40 ; Exod. xx. 3 ; Isa. xlv. 22; Dan. vi. 26; Hah. i. 12; Fs. xc. 2; John xvii. 3; 2 Cor. vi. 16; Jam. ii. 19 ; 1 John v. 20. {h) To whom will ye liken God ? or what likeness will ye compare unto him? Isa. xl. 18. Take ye therefore good heed unto yourselves, for ye saw no manner of similitude on the day that the Lord spake unto you in Horeb out of the midst of the fire. Deut. iv. 15. God is a Spirit, and they that worship him, must worship him in spirit and in truth. Johii iv. 24. Also John i. 18. Acts xvii. 29 ; Rom. i. 20—23. (c) Do not I fill heaven and earth? saith the Lord. Jer. xxiii. 24. {d) God is not a man, that he should lie ; nor the son of man, that he should repent; Ntim. xxiii. 19. I am the Lord, I change not. Mai. iii. 6. Also Joh xxii. 2 — 4. xxxv. 6 — 8. God cannot be tempted with evil. James i. 13. With whom is no variableness, neither shadow of turn- ing, ib. 17. {e) I am the Almighty God. Gen. xvii. 1. Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that did he in heaven and earth, in the seas, and all deep places. Ps. cxxxv. 6. Also Joh xxxvi. 5 ; Ban. ii. 20—22. With God all things are possible. Matt. xix. 26. (/) Great is our Lord, and 9f great power: his understanding is infinite. Ps. cxlvii. 5. He is mighty in strength and wisdom. Joh xxxvi. 5. O the depth of the riches both jf the wisdom and knowledge of God ! how unsearchable are his judgments and his ways past finding out ! Rom. xi. 33. Remarks on Article I. 347 and goodness;'^' the Maker,^^^^ and Preserver**' of all things, both visible and invisible; and in unity of this Godhead there be three Persons/^' of one substance, power, and eternity: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. {g) And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed: The Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, aud abun- dant in goodness and truth. Exocl. xxxiv. 6. The goodness of God endureth continually. Ps. lii. 1. The earth is fuU of the goodness of the Lord. Ps. xxxiii. 5. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, which according to his abundant mercy hath begotten us again unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance incor- ruptible and undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for you, who are kept by the power of God through faith unto salvation. 1 Pet. i. 3—5. ill) In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. Gen. i. 1. I am the Lord that maketh all things. Isa. xliv. 24. By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth. Ps. xxxiii. 6. Also Jer. X. 12. IG; Isa. xlii. 6. By him were all things created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or princi- pahties, or powers: all things were created by him, and for him ; and he is before all things, and by him all things consist. CoL. i. 16, 17. (z) Thou, even thou, art Lord alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heavens, mth all their host, the earth, and all things that are therein, the seas, and all that is therein, and thou preservest them all. Nell. ix. 6. Upholding all things by the word of his power. Heh. i. 3. {k) Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord. JDeut. vi. 4. God is one. Gal. iii. 20. The Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. Gen. i. 2. Let us make man in our image, ib. 26. Also Gen. iii. 22; xi. 7; Exod. xx. 3. I and my Father are one. John x. 30, The Comforter, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, he shall testify of me. John XV. 26. Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Matt, xxviii. 19. The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the com- munion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all. 2 Cor. xiii. 14. There are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the VYord, and the Holy Ghost, and these three are one. 1 John V. 7. Note. This last text is one of disputed authenticity. But the doc- trine of the Trinity may be supported by many other texts. REMARKS ON ARTICLE I. 348. This Article treats, first, of the existence, unity, and attributes of the Deity ; and secondly, of the Trinity in Unity. The existence of the Deity appears, 1°, from the order of causes, leading us to one original or First Cause, necessarily existing in and by itself ; 2°, from the design manifest throughout the whole creation, shewing that it must be the work of an intelligent 348 Remarks on Article I. agent ; 3°, from the universal consent among men in their behef in some such agent or creator : wherefore men are either descended from one common progenitor, who had that knowledge imparted to him, or all must have that idea implanted in them, and this can only have been done by the Creator Himself; 4°, from miracles and prophecies^ possible only to Him Who has created, and therefore both is able to change, and also foreknows, the course of all things. 349. The Unity of the Deity appears from the absurdity of supposing two or more first causes, or two or more creators and governors of the universe absolutely agreeing, both in their moral conceptions of right and wrong, of good and evil, and likewise in their conceptions of the physical things to be created by them. In the former this may be possible in beings superior to all other things, and for that very reason infinitely perfect, wise, and powerful ; but we cannot conceive, why or how two or more different beings, all alike infinitely perfect, wise, and powerful, should necessarily agree in every intent and idea of their mechanical acts and physical constructions. Yet if we consider the order, as well as the uniformity and invariableness, of the laws in operation throughout created nature, such agree- ment must necessarily exist. Hence there cannot be more than one such infinitely perfect, wise, and powerful Creator. 350. The attributes of infinite perfection, wisdom, and power, are inseparable from the idea of absolute superiority over all other things in every respect, and therefore in goodness. This infinite goodness of God is manifested in the provision made for the wants and enjoyments of all His sensitive creatures, and the adaptation of all their faculties to the gratification of those wants, and the attainment of those enjoyments ; and above all, in His making His moral and accountable creature, man, capable of the most exquisite rational enjoyments, independent of every material obstacle, and furthermore, of conceiving the highest hopes and aspirations. To the believer God's infinite goodness is further manifested, by the glorious schemes of Revelation Reynai'ks on Article I. 349 and Salvation, whereby those hopes and aspirations are fully assured of ultimate, though conditional, fulfilment and satis- faction. 351. The word Trinity, as before stated (see § 74), was first used in Greek by Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, a. d. 181 ; in Latin, by Tertullian, a. d. 200 ; and adopted by the Council of Alexandria, a. d. 317. The plurality of persons in the Godhead is indicated in various incidents related in the Old Testament. Thus in Gen. xviii. we are told of Abraham, that " The Lord appeared unto " him in the plains of Mamre : and he sat in the tent door in the " heat of the day ; and he lift up his eyes and looked, and lo, " three men stood by him." Then in v. 3 we find him addressing them, or one of them, as "My Lord;" and in v. 25 as "the " Judge of all the earth." Now since " No man hath seen God " {the Father) at any time " (1 John iv. 12 ; compare John v. 37), we must conclude that this was God the Son, whom the Father had sent {Isa. vi. 8 ; John v. 23). The same applies to the Angel who wi-estlcd mth Jacob {Gen. xxxii. 24 — 30); to "the Angel of the Lord," who appeared to Moses in the burning bush, and said, " I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraham, the " God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob " {Exod. iii. 2. 6) ; to " the Captain of the Lord's host," who appeared to Joshua at Jericho {Josh. v. 14, 15), and is himself called Lord or Jehovah in vi. 2 ; and to the Angel of the Lord, mentioned in Judges ii. 1. and xiii. Tlien again the great prophet, whom God would raise up for His people, like unto Moses {Deut. xviii. 15), the Messenger of the New Covenant {Mai. iii. 1), the Child that should be born "to be Kuler in Israel" {Mic. v. 2), the ' Righteous Branch,' the King that should " reign and prosper, "and execute judg-ment and justice in the earth" {Jer. xxiii. 5), is by Jeremiah called " The Lord Jehovah our Righteousness " {ih. ver. 6), and by Isaiah (ix. 6), " His name " is called Wonderful, Counsellor, The Mighty God, The ever- " lasting Father, The Prince of Peace." These are manifest 350 Remarlcs on Article I. indications of a divine personality, which is not the supreme God and Father of heaven and earth, and yet on all occasions identifies Himself with Him. Again, the Holy Spirit of God was personally present at the Creation {Gen. i. 2; Job xxvi. 13), and is ever an active agent in the affairs of men {Job xxxiii. 4 ; Isai. xlviii. 16; Psal. civ. 30). Moreover, when in the Old Testament the Godliead is represented as moved by human feel- ings and passions, as repenting, grieving, angry, and the like, it seems to be done in order to prepare mankind for conceiving the Incarnation of Deity in the human person of the Great High Priest, Wlio was " touched with the feeling of our infirmities, "and was in all points tempted like as we are. ...that He might " be a merciful and faithful High Priest in things pertaining to " God, to make reconciliation for the sins of the people" {Heh. iv. 14, 15; ii. 17). In the New Testament we have a clear mani- festation of the three Persons at the baptism of Jesus Who Him- self was the Son ; the Holy Ghost descended upon Him in the forai of a dove ; and the Father spoke : " This is my beloved Son " in whom I am well pleased'''' {Luke iii. 21, 22 ; Comp. Matt. xvii. 5.). It is further testified in the institution of baptism by our Saviour : "Go ye, teach all nations, baptizing them in the "name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost" {Matt, xxviii. 19.). 352. The Article is directed against the Avians {see § 95.), as well as against the Socinians of the 16th century, also called Unitarians and Antitrinitarians. This sect was founded by L^Lius SociNUs and Faustus Socinus, uncle and nephew, who were natives of the north of Italy, where in 1546 they formed a society of about forty members. But persecution caused many of them to take to flight. They settled in Poland, where Faustus established and spread their doctrines after his uncle's death. In 1574 they published a Catechism at Cracow, which by its sim- plicity and plainness of language differed greatly from the subtle and insidious reasoning of another Catechism, published about the year 1600, at Racow, another town in Poland, which belonged Remarks on Article I. 351 to Jacobus a Sieno, then the head of the sect. The Catechism is still considered the confession of Faith of the Unitarians. 353. During the eighteenth century, several "distinguished writers in England maintained Arian and Socinian doctrines; these were, first, Whiston, Professor of Mathematics at Cam- bridge ; next followed Dr. Samuel Clarke, who fell into Arian- ism by maintaining the subordination of the Three Persons of the Godhead to one another, but was ably confuted by the Dr. Waterland. Lastly, towards the end of the century, Dr. Priestly boldly and learnedly advanced the purely humanitarian doctrines of the Socinians, being opposed in various writings of Bishop HoRSLEY. In the present century, some German philoso- phers have advocated Pantheism^ a system which maintains, that the Deity is nothing but a mystic influence pervading all things, so that God is every thing, and every thing is God. This seems to have been the actual spirit of Paganism, and the Greek and Roman Philosophers appear to have reconciled their minds and consciences to the upholding of the popular rehgion by means of Pantheistic views. The doctrines of the religions of Brahma and Buddha, as philosophically represented in their sacred books, are also founded upon the same system. Spixoza, a Jew, who died at the Hague in 1677, a man of an inquiring, subtle, and philoso- phical mind, who had been partially enlightened by Gospel truth, left at his death a work on Ethics, in which he clearly set forth the principles of Pantheism. The German philosophers alluded to, employ this system to explain by it the mysteries of the Christian rehgion. Other writers of Gennany and America, known as Neologists, have of late years maintained with subtle sophistry a system of rationalism, which by a frigid criticism seeks to underaiine the authority of the Scriptures, and to reduce the Gospel doctrines to the merest humanitarian \'iews of the cha- racter of the Saviour. 352 ARTICLE 11. I)e Verho, sive Filio Dei, qui verus homo /actus est. 354. FiLius, qui est verbum Patris, ab seterno a Patre genitus, verus et seternus Deus ac Patri consubstantialis, in utero beatse Yirginis ex illius substantia naturam bumanam assumpsit: ita ut duse naturae, divina et humana, integre atque perfecte in unitate personse fuerint inseparabiliter conjunctse, ex quibus est unus Christus, verus Deus et verus homo; qui vere passus est, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, ut Patrem nobis reconcih- aret, essetque hostia, non tantum pro culpa originis, verum etiam pro omni- bus actualibus hominura peccatis. Of the Word or Son of God, which was made very Man. 355. The Son, which is the Word of the Father, begotten from everlasting of the Father, ^""^ the very and eternal God,'^^ of one substance with the Father^''^, took Man's nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin,*^' of her substance : so that two whole and perfect natures, that is to say, the Godhead and Man- hood, were joined together in one Person,'^^ never to be divided, SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. But thou, Bethlehem Ephra- tah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel, whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting. 3Ec. v. 2. And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us (and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father) full of grace and truth. John i. 14. Before Abraham was, I am. John. viii. 58. Also, John iii. 16 ; Mev. xix. 13; Heh. i. 1—6. h. In the beginning was the Word, and the AYord was with God, and the Word was God. John i. 1. We are in him that is true, even in his Son Jesus Christ. This is the true God, and eternal life. 1 John v. 20. Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, and to-day, and for ever. Heb. xiii. 8. Also, Col. i. 16, 17; Heh. i. 8, 10. and iii. 1 — 4. c. I and my Father are one. John X. 30. He that seeth me seeth him that sent me. John xii. 45. d. Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. Isai. vii. 14. Unto us a (ihild is born, unto us a son is given ; and the government shall be upon his shoulder : and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The mighty God, the everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace. Isai. ix. 6. When the fulness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman. Gal. iv. 4. It behoved him to be made like unto his brethren. Heh. ii. 17- Also, Gen. iii. 15; Matt. i. 22, 23; Fhil. ii. 6—8; 1 John iv. 3. e. The fathers, of whom as con- cerning the flesh Christ came, who is over all, God blessed for ever. Amen. ^om. ix. 5. In him dwellcoh all the fulness of the Godhead bodily. Col. ii. 9. God was manifest in the flesh, 1 Tim. iii. 16, RemarJcs on Article II. 353 whereof is one Christ, very God and very Man;^^^ who truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and'^' buried, to reconcile his Father to us,'**' and to be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual sins of men.''' /. Unto you is born this dav in John x. 17, 18; Maff. xxvii. 57—60; the city of David, a Saviour, which j 1 Thess. v. 9,110; 1 Pet. iii. 18. is Christ the Lord. Luke ii. 11. | ;^ We were reconciled to God And Simon Peter answered and said, ^he death of his Son. Rom. v. 10. Thou art the Christ, the Son of the | tj^i^ ^re of God, who hath living God Matt xvi. 16 There is j.econciled us to himself by Jesus one Mediator between God and man, i Q^^i,, ^^^-^ g^^eu to us the the man Christ Jesus. ir^/».iL o. 1 Mmistrv of reconcihation ; to wit, g. Forasmuch then as Christ . ^^i^, ^^.^ Clirist reconciling hath suflered lor us in the flesh, arm , ^^^^^^ himself, not imputing yourselves likewise with the same ; ^i^g^j. trespasses unto them, and hath mmd. 1 Pet iv 1. And when they ; committed unto us the word of were come to the place, which is , i-econciliation. 2 Cor. v. IS, 19. Also, called Calvary, there they crucified roJ. i. 21, 22; Eph. ii. 16-18; Heh. him. Liilce. xxm. 33. When they ! saw that he was dead already, they . " '* brake not his legs : but one of the | i. He was wounded for our soldiers with a spear pierced his side, | transgressions, he was bruised for and forthwith came thereout blood our iniquities: the chastisement of and water. John xix. 33, -34. Theu , our peace was upon him, and with took they the body of Jesus, and I his stripes we are healed. All we, wound it in linen clothes with the : like sheep, have gone astray : we spices, as the manner of the Jews is ! have turned every one to his own to bury. !Xow in the place where he ' way, and the Loed hath laid on him was crucified there was a garden; i the iniquity of us all. Isa. liii. 5, 6. and in the garden a new sepulchre, ! Christ hath loved us, and hath given wherein was never man yet laid, i himself for us, an offering and a There laid they Jesus therefore be- ; sacrifice to God for a sweet smelling cause of the Jews' preparation day, \ savour. Fph. v. 2. Aho.'Heh. ix. 28; for the sepulchre was nigh at hand. | 1 John i. 7; 1 Cor. v. 7: xv. 22; Johoh John xix. 40—42. Also, Isai. iii. 9: i. 29; Rom. v. 18; Col. ii. 14. REMARKS ON ARTICLE II. 356. This Article asserts three main points: — 1. The Di- vinity of Christ. 2. His Humanity. 3. His Atonement. Tlie first is proved chiefly by the introduction or Proeme of St. John's Gospel, written professedly, as is supposed, against the error of Cerinthus and others, who denied at that time already the di^-inity of Christ (§ 40.). lliis cannot be twisted into any other meaning without abstruse reasoning, such as those who deny this doctrine have in all ages been compelled to apply to it, in order to give some semblance of plausibility to their side z 354 Remarks on Article II. of the argument ; and on which St. John could not have calculated in the generality of the Christians of his time, to whom he addressed himself. An important proof also is derived from St. Paul's Epistle to the Philipians (ii. 6 — 11). In this passage it is to be observed, that as the form of a servant or subject, implies the true character of a servant, so the form of God implies necessarily, by the nature of the argument, the true character of God. The same persons consider the words ' he thought it not rohhery, to be used in a figurative sense, and to mean that he did not desire or aim at it greedily, as robbers do ; or they take aptrayiios (robbery) as used for apn-ayiia, which they render 'a thing to be vehemently desired or caught at.'' But neither the usage of the Greek language, nor the ordinary style of the Apostle warrant such an artificial and far-fetched rendering. 357. Further, the names, attributes, and operations of Deity are assigned to Christ in the following passages : Acts xx. 28 ; John iii. 16; Titus ii. 13; James ii. 1; Rev. i. 8, and xix. 16. Also in the passages cited from the Septuagint Version of the Old Testament by the writers of the New, the name Jehovah is applied to Christ, The creation, preservation, and government of all things, are likewise ascribed to Him in Col. i. 16, 17 ; Matt. xi. 27, andix. 6; Johnii. 25; v. 25, 26; vi. 39, 40; xiv. 13, and XV, 26. 358. Another argument for the Divinity of Christ is derived from the fact, that the unity of the Deity as an object of worship is maintained not only in the Old, but in the New Testament, as in Matt. iv. 10 ; Acts xiv. 15, and xvii. 29 ; 1 Tliess. i. 9 ; Bev. xix. 10. Therefore the ivorship ascribed to Him as to Deity in many places,, as in Lulce xxiv. 52 ; 2 Cor. xii. 8, 9; Pliil. ii. 10; Heb. i. 5; Rev, v. 8; and, above all, St. Stephen's last prayer, in Acts vii. 59, 60, — prove that he was regarded as God. 359. Lastly, it does not appear, that the Jews anywhere accused the Christians of idolatry for this direct worship of Christ, or that they considered it inconsistent with His claim to Remarks on Article II. 355 be the Messiah, for they appHed the words in Exod. xxiii. 20, 21,' and Hag. ii. 9, to the coming of the Messiah. 360. The Arians, whilst maintaining that He was a created being, and that therefore there was a time when He was not, allow that He was of a very sublime or angelic nature, and that God on this account had ordered Him to be worshipped. The Socinians say, that He was exalted to the honour of worship as being a prophet illumined and authorized beyond all others. But the former idea is refuted by Heh. ii. 16, '■He took not on Him the nature of angels^ hut the seed of Ahraham' The Socinian idea is refuted in Heh. iii. 3, 4, where Moses, who was the most eminent of all the prophets in many respects, is declared inferior to Christ, Who is identified with the Deity Himself: both views are also inconsistent with Heh. i. 4 — 14. 361. The Humanity or Incarnation of Christ is proved by the texts in note (rZ), and Eev. i. 5 — 8, 17, 18; and Gen. iii. 15. The life and sufferings of Christ were so manifest and self-evident, that this doctrine has never been rejected by any but a few irrational enthusiasts. 362. The union of the tiuo natures in one person can be conceived only, by considering the analogy of the union of soul and body to form the personality of a man. But as we are plainly unable exactly to comprehend the actual mode of combina- tion and mutual agency in the latter case, we may well rest content to be equally ignorant in the former. 363. Finally, as regards the atonement : the nature of this doctrine, in the case of trespass-offerings and of the scape-goat in the book of Leviticus^ was so well understood by the Jews, as actually freeing men from their sins, that we cannot conceive that the Apostles would, if not absolutely satisfied themselves, have dared so positively to ascribe to Jesus the universal and absolute performance of such an expiation, as they have done in the following texts : Matt. xx. 28 ; John i. 29 ; Rom. iii. 25 ; 2 Cor. V. 21; Eph. i. 7 ; Col. i. 14, 20—22; Heh. ix. 11—14, 26, 28; X. 10, 12, 14, 19, 29; xiii. 12, 20; 1 Pet. i. 19; z 2 356 Remarks on Article III. ii. 24 ; iii. 18 ; 1 John ii. 2. That this atonement extended not only to the guilt entailed by the sin of Adam, but to all sins of men, is proved by Eom. v. 16, " The judgment was hy one " {offence) to condemnation, but the free gift is of many offences unto justification." Also 1 John i. 7, " The blood of Jesus " Christ cleanseth us from all sin." The Socinians, who regard Christ as a mere man, of course deny altogether the doctrine of the Atonement. N.B. — The fact mentioned in the text adduced in note {g), that blood and water came from Jesus' side when pierced with a spear, has been proved in special treatises of medical men on this subject, to be an infallible evidence of death in human bodies. ARTICLE III. De Descensu Christi ad Inferos. 364. QUEMADMODUM Christus pro nobis mortuus est, et sepultus, ita est etiam credendus ad inferos descendisse. Of the Going down of Christ into Hell. 365. As Christ died for us,^^^ and was buried, so also it is to be believed, that he went down into hell.*"^ SCRIPTURE PROOFS. a. Our Lord Jesus Christ, who died for us. 1 Thess. v. 9, 10. h. Christ died for our sins, ac- cording to the Scriptures, and was buried. 1 Cor. xv. 4. c. His soul was not left in hell. Acts ii. 31. Now that he ascended, what is it but that he also descended first into the lower parts of the earth? He that descended is the same also that ascended up far above all heavens, that he might fill all things. Eph. iv. 9, 10. REMARKS ON ARTICLE III. 366. The descent of Christ into hell is not mentioned in the Gospels. It is not indeed mentioned by any ecclesiastical writer till Rufinus, in the fifth century, when this Article was added to the Apostles' Creed, as mentioned above {see § 261.). Remarks on Article III. 357 The words (descendit ad inferno) were then understood to mean nothing else but burial^ as in Eph. iv. 9. When the Creed, assigned to Athanasius, was put forth, the term was changed to Hades ("AtSTyy), but still meant only burial^ which is not otherwise mentioned in that Creed. The words, thus introduced, have since been made to point to St. Peter's application of the words in Psalm xvi. 10, Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell," in his Sermon on the day of Pentecost {Acts ii.). In this sense Hades is understood, as by the ancient Greeks, to mean the place of departed souls, as distinguished from Taprapos, the place of punishment for the wicked ; and it has been further taken in connexion with the words in 1 Pet. iii. 19, "He went and "preached to the spirits in prison." In the Articles of King Edward, indeed, this Article had the following addition : " That " the body of Christ lay in the grave until His resurrection ; " but His spirit, which He gave up, was with the spirits which " were detained in prison, or in hell, and preached to them, as " the place in St. Peter testifieth." Some explain this text by the supposition, that Christ went down and preached to the Antediluvians in Hades, to bring them the glad tidings, that He had actually offered the sacrifice of their redemption. This Article is aimed at some who denied the actual separation of Christ's body and soul, considering Him to have been only in a trance or state of coma. 358 ARTICLE IV. De Eesurrectione Christi. 367. Christus vere a mortuis resurrexit, suumque corpus cum came, ossibus, omnibusque ad iDtegritatem humanse naturfc pertiuentibus, recepit; cum quibus in coelum ascendit, ibique residet, quoad extremo die ad judicandos homines reversurus sit. Of the Resurrection of Christ. 368. Christ did truly rise again from death/^^ and took again his body, with flesh, bones, and all things appertaining to the perfection of Man's nature,*^^ wherewith he ascended into heaven, ('^^ and there sittetli,^^^ until lie return to judge all Men at the last day.^^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. Him God raised up the third day, and shewed him openly ; not to all the people, but unto witnesses chosen before of God, even to us, who did eat and drink with him after he rose from the dead. Acts X. 40, 41. Christ. ..rose again the third day, according to the Scriptures. 1 Cor. XV. 3, 4. Who was delivered for pur offences, and was raised again for our justification. Rom. iv. 25. Also Acts ii. 30—32; 1 Cor. XV. 4—7; Mark xvi. 7—14; Lulce xxxiv. 5—8, and 15—48; John xx. 14—17, 19, 20, 26, 27. h. Behold my hands and my feet, that it is I myself; handle me, and see; for a spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have. Luke xxiv. 39. Then saith he to Thomas, Heach hither thy finger, and behold my hands; and reach hither thy hand, and thrust it into my side, and \>Q not faithless, but beUeving. John XX. 27. c. And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he was parted from them, and carried up into heaven. Luke xxiv. 51. So then after the Lord had spoken unto them, he was received up into heaven, and sat on the right hand of God. Mark xvi. 19. Also Acts i. 9—11. d. Christ sitteth on the right hand of God. Col. iii. 1. The Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand, until I make thine enemies thy footstool. Ps. ex. 1. Who being the brightness of his glory, and the express image of his person, and upholding all things by the word of his power, when he had by himself purged our sins, sat down on the right hand of the majesty on high. Eeb. i. 3. Also Acts i. 9—11 ; Eph. i. 20 ; Eeh. viii. 1, 2. e. He commanded us to preach unto the people, and to testify that it is he which was ordained of God to be the judge of quick and dead. Acts X. 42. Whom the heaven must receive until the times of restitution of all things. Acts iii. 21. Also Acts xvii. 31; Rom. ii. 16; 2 Cor. v. 10; 2 Tim. iv. 1. REMARKS ON ARTICLE IV. 369. The doctrine of the Resurrection of Christ has never been denied or called in question by any Heretics or Sectaries, Remarks on Article IV. 359 and has by all been considered the main basis of the Christian belief, the undisputed starting point of all other Christian doctrines. The true miraculous character of Christ's own supernatural acts have been questioned, and attempts have been made to explain them away; but no ground has ever offered for disputing or doubting the literal truth of the story of his Resurrection. And this is not to be wondered at, if we consider the utter inability of his persecutors to disprove it. The simple production of the dead body would have exploded at once and for ever the super- natural story of the poor ignorant fishermen, and exposed their fond credulity. Those who had such power and influence, as to procure the execution of Christ, even in spite of the reluctance of the Eoman Governor of the land, surely had power to keep possession of the body afterwards, and to produce it openly, if it had remained in its inanimate state in the tomb, or even if it had been carried off by the disciples by some trick. But this latter supposition is wholly incredible. That a few poor, irresolute, and frightened men, who had even forsaken their Master in His last extremity to provide for their own. safety, should at once have resolved on the bold attempt of frightening or mastering, for they could not elude, a vigilant guard of Roman warriors, and that when Jerusalem was crowded with strangers, cannot be supposed even for a moment. Had the body then been produced, we might have heard of a few illiterate persons sticldng obstinately to the story they had once put forth ; but we should certainly not have seen such multitudes join a cause, which at that very time had been shewn to rest on so ridiculous an imposture. The discovery of the imposture must have been carried into all lands by the Jews, who were then in great numbers in Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover, and at its conclusion returned to their usual places of residence. But we find that not only the original asserters of the story, but thousands of others m every country, believed it, and embraced and died for the religion founded upon it. They could have been induced to do so by nothing but their firm behef of its truth ; for there was nothing in the persons of 360 Remarks on Article V, the Apostles, nor was there any pomp or show of worship, to attract or fascinate them, 370. The Ascension rests solely upon the credit of the Apostles, which cannot be refused them, if the Eesurrection is believed. Tlie latter, besides, bears out the truth of all the New Testament writings ; so that, if its credibility is established, and the authenticity of the books proved, belief cannot be withheld as regards the rest of this Article. Further proof, however, is presented by the agreement with passages in the Old Testament, especially Psalm xvi. 10, and ex. 1. ARTICLE V. De Spiritu Sancto. 371. Spieitus Sanctus, a Patre et Fiho procedens, ejusdem est cum Patre et Filio essentise, majestatis, et glorise, verus ac seternus Deus. Of the Holy Ghost. 372. The Holy Ghost, proceeding from the Father and the Son,<*^ is of one substance, majesty, and glory, with the Father and the Son,^^^ very and eternal God.^^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. The Comforter, which is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father will send in my name, he shall teach you all things. John xiv. 26. When the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, He shall testify of me. John xv. 26. This Jesus hath God raised, &c and having re- ceived of the Father the promise of the Holy Ghost, he shed forth this which ye now see and hear. Acts ii. 32—33. h. The proofs of the Unity of the Godhead apply to this head of the Article. (§ 347 note a) c. Peter said : Ananias, why hath Satan filled thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost? Thou hast not lied unto men, but unto God. Acts v. 3, 4. The eternal Spirit. Heb. ix. 14. Now the Lord is that Spirit. 2 Cor. iii. 17. REMARKS ON ARTICLE V. 373. By the Holy Ghost is meant, either the Spirit or Inspiration, shed forth at Pentecost on the Apostles, and on Remarks on Article V. 361 others ; or that inward assistance, whereby men's minds are changed and renewed. The former operation of the Spirit was only exerted on particular occasions and on a small number of persons ; whereas the latter is promised to all Christians : Luke xi. 13 : '■ Much more shall your heavenly Father give the * Holy Spirit to them that ask him.' The latter is the ordinary operation of the Spirit, and is called Grace. The former is extraordinary, and is either suggestive, as in the case of the prophets ; or superintending, as in the case of the authors of the other books of Scripture. 374. That the Holy Ghost is not merely an energy, operation^ quality, or power, or any other attribute of the Deity, as the Socinians and the Jews maintain, but a distinct Person, is proved by those texts, which assign to it operations, that can only be wrought by a person. Thus Jesus Christ Himself says, He *• will pray the Father, and He shall give you another Comforter, Hhat He may abide with you for ever'' {John xiv. 16). And * the Comforter, which is the Holy Ghost, whom the Father will * send in my name. He shall teach you all things ' [ibid. 26). So JRom. viii, 27 : ' The Spirit maketh intercession for the * saints;' and in 1 Pet. iii. 18, we read that Christ, 'being put ^ to death in the flesh,' was ' quickened by the Spirit.^ 375. That He proceeds from the Son as well as from the Father, appears from His being called the Spirit of Christy 1 Pet. i. 11; and in John xv. 26, and xvi. 7, Christ declares that He Himself will send ' the Comforter, even the Spirit of Hruth.' On the Procession of the Holy Ghost see further § 238. The remaining points of the xlrticle are sufficiently proved by the texts adduced. 362 ARTICLE VI. De Divinis Scripturis, quod sufficiant ad Salutem. 376. ScEiPTUEA sacra continet omnia quae ad salutem sunt necessaria, ita ut quicquid in ea nec legitur, neque inde probari potest, non sit a quo- quam exigendum, ut tanquam articulus fidei credatur, aut ad salutis necessitatem requiri putetur. Sacrse Scripturse nomine, eos Canonicos libros veteris et novi Testa- menti intelligimus, de quorum auctoritate in Ecclesia nunquam dubitatum est. De Nominihus et Numero Lihromm sacrce Canonicce Scriptures veteris Testamenti. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numeri, Deuteronomia, Josuse, Judicum, Euth, Prior liber Samuelis, Secundus liber Samuelis, Prior liber Eegum, Secundus liber Eegum, Prior liber Paralipomenwn, Secundus liber Paralipomenwn, Primus liber Esdraj, Secundus liber Esdrse, Liber Hester, Liber Job, Psalmi, Proverbia, Ecclesiastes, vel Concionator, Cantica Solomonis, IV. Prophetse Majores, XII. Prophetee Minores. Alios autem libros, ut ait Sieronymus^ legit quidem Ecclesia ad exempla vitse et formandos mores: illos tamen ad dogmata confirmanda non adhibet;— ut sunt : Tertius liber Esdrse, guartus liber Esdrse, iber Tobise, Liber Juditb, Eeliquum libri Hester, Liber Sapientise, Liber Jesu filii Sirach, Baruch Propheta, Canticum trium Puerorum, Historia Susannse, De Bel et Dracone, Oratio Manassis, Prior liber Maccabseorum, Secundus liber Maccabseorum. Novi Testamenti omnes libros, ut vulgo recepti sunt, recipimus, et babemus pro Canonicis. Of the Sufficiency of Holy Scripture for Salvation. 377. Holy Scriptube containeth all things necessary to Article VI. 363 salvation : '^^ so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation.*^^ In the name of the Holy Scripture, we do understand those Canonical Books of the Old and New Testa- ment, of whose authority was never any doubt in the Church. Of the Names and Number of the Canonical Boohs. Genesis. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Euth, The First book of Samuel, The Second book of Samuel, The First Book of Kings, The Second Book of Kings, The First Book of Chronicles, The Second Book of Chronicles, The First Book of Esdras, The Second Book of Esdras, The Book of Esther, The Book of Job, The Psalms, The Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher, Cantica, or Song of Solomon, Four Prophets the Greater, Twelve Prophets the Less, And the other Books, as Hierome saith, the Church doth read for example of hfe and instmction of manners ; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine. Such are these following : SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. These are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that be- heving ye might have Hfe through his name. John xx. 31. From a child thou hast known. the holy Scriptures, which are able to make thee wise unto salvation, through faith which is in Christ Jesus. All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness; that the man of God may be perfect, throughly furnished unto all good works. 2. Tim. iii. 15— 17. h. The law and the testimony, if they speak not according to this word, it is because there is no Ught in them. Isai. viii. 20. Ye shall not add to the word which I command you, neither shaU ye diminish aught from it. Deut. iv. 2. AVhat thing soever I command you, observe to do it; thou shalt not add thereto, nor diminish from it. Beut. xii. 32. There be some that trouble you, and would pervert the Gospel of Christ. But though we, or an angel from heaven, preach any other Gospel unto you than that which we have preached unto you, let him be ac- cursed. As we said before, so say I now again. If any man preach any other Gospel unto you than that ye have received, let him be accursed. Qal. i. 7—9. Also, Rev. xxii. 18, 19. 364 Remarks on Article VI. The Third Book of Esdras, The Fourth Book of Esdras, The Book of Tobias, The Book of Judith, The rest of the Book of Esther, The Book of Wisdom, Jesus the Son of Sirach, Baruch the Prophet, The Song of the Three Children, The History of Susanna, Of Bel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Manasses, The First Book of Maccabees, The Second Book of Maccabees, All the Books of the New Testament, as they are eommonly received, we do receive and account them Canonical. REMARKS ON ARTICLE VI. 378. The principle established in this Article is the main foundation of the Reformation, and that upon which the Pro- testant Churches separated from that of Rome. The Papists hold with MoNTANUs (see § 74), that the Bible does not contain all things necessary to salvation, but that Jesus Christ and His Apostles did impart more knowledge and more commandments than were committed to writing in the Books of the New Testa- ment ; and that such supplementary communications are handed down to posterity by tradition, whereby in progress of ages the doctrines of Christianity are supposed to become more and more developed, the Church being the infallible judge of the traditions brought forward from time to time. Yet the absence of any satisfactory reason, why God should not have caused all neces- sary doctrines and precepts to be written by inspired men, as well as those that are actually so written, together with the fact that no proof whatever can be adduced, that God has committed such infallible . authority to any individual or body of men, is sufficient altogether to invalidate such empty assertions. Their origin is to be sought undoubtedly in those chains (catence), or compilations of excerpt opinions and comments on the Scriptures, which were drawn from the early Ecclesiastical writers during the dark ages, and obtained unlimited authority (§ 123.). It was in the same manner that the traditions of the Jews were gradually engrafted upon the Law and the Prophets, and were so strongly discountenanced both by our Saviour and His Apostles as com- mandments of men, made to supersede the doctrines of the Scriptures. Remarks on Article VI. 365 379. The Canon of the Old Testament rests upon the authority of the Jews, the enemies of Christianity, who always preserved the text with the utmost care, and still agree with us in all points as to the letter. Tliey had Targums, that is, Para- phrases and Commentaries, upon all the Books of the Old Testa- ment which we hold to be Canonical, written between the time of their return from Captivity and the time of our Lord and His Apostles ; and though the Apocryphal Books came mto circula- tion during this interval, and were included in the Septuagint Translation, yet are no such Commentaries found upon these. Ail the Canonical Books are also quoted or referred to in the New Testament, with the exception of the Books of Judges, Ezra, Kehemiah, Esther, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, which from the nature of their contents afforded no scope for citation, although they can clearly be proved to be Canonical, and to have been so considered from the earliest times. The Jews numbered Twenty-Two Books, corresponding to the letters of their Alphabet, the two Books of Samuel, the two Books of Kings, Ezra and Xehemiah, being respectively counted as single Books, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah included v^ith. his Prophecies, and Ruth with Judges, whilst the Twelve Minor Prophets formed one Book. This division is given by Josephus, a contemporary of our Lord and his Apostles; and, at the end of the fourth century, Jerome still gives the same number as received among the Jews. Moreover we know, that the latter had ascertained the number of the w^ords, and even of the letters, contained in their Sacred Books, and were most scrupulous, as they are still, in preserving the very forms of the characters in which they are written. And lastly, the Books received among them at the present day correspond exactly to our own. Modern criticism, however, is using all its efforts in elaborate arguments upon the most minute points of historical allusions, textual variations, peculiarities of opinion or doctrine, and other instances of supposed internal evidence, puzzled out from the various books by the most refined and subtle investigations, to 366 Remarks on Article VI. invalidate the hitherto universal opinion, that these Books really belong to the respective ages to which they have generally been referred. It has even been maintained that they were all written many ages subsequent to the events and circumstances recorded •in them or alluded to as contemporaneous with the respective writers, and that they were never collected into one body till long after the Babylonish captivity, nor even written much before that Exile. Yet the critics who make these wild startling assertions, and are so ' slow of heart to believe the things that are written,' in order to magnify the assumed results of their own subtlety of investigation and research, are credulous enough to believe whatever they find sculptured upon the ruins of Egyptian and Assyrian cities, often decyphered from mere conjecture, and then read in accordance with their own foregone conclusions, and which may in turn be upset by any more plausible conjectures or by new disclosures. But it is all but impossible to believe, that a nation which had attained such power and splendour as the Jewish nation under David and Solomon, and entertained so strong an idea of its own divinely declared superiority over all other nations, would have received as authentic, books only then produced, deriving their national origin from an oppressed race of slaves, if those books had not been previously known to exist as contemporaneous records of the events recorded in them. Not even after the Babylonish Captivity or Exile would they have received books unknown before, giving such striking accounts of their former power and grandeur, combined with so degraded an origin ; nor can we possibly imagine that fictitious records of a long succession of events could have been compiled with all the minutest details of contemporary chronicles, and then received by a great nation as their true history. Far more likely does it seem, that the pyramids and the monuments of Egypt, exhibiting the sculptured records in question, are to be referred to an age subsequent to the Mosaic records, seeing that the latter make no allusion, designed or undesigned, to the former, as must have been the case, if a later writer, who must have known something of Egypt, had compiled the earliest books of the Jcwisli Scriptures. RemctrJcs on Article VI. 367 Besides, had the Jewish Scriptures been of such a recent date, the Jewish people would not on their return to the Holy Land from Babylon have required the Targums to interpret and explain them, written as they would have been in their own then current dialect. But if they were written in the antiquated dialect of a, long past age, the necessity of such Paraphrases and Commen- taries is evident, since the language of the people had become corrupted and changed by the admixture of many Chaldee words and modes of speech during their long Exile. 380. The Apocryphal books were all written after the last books of the Old Testament, namely, the books of the three prophets of the Second Temple, ELvggai, Zachariah, and Malachi ; and none of them earlier than 300 b. c, and the Books of Esdras perhaps as late as 30 b. c. They were most probably written by some learned Jews at Alexandria, but have never been received by the ancient Jews of Palestine, nor by modern Jews, as inspired writings. Most of them were included in the Septuagint (LXX.) Translation (see p. 89.), and so were received by those early Christian Fathers, whose ignorance of Hebrew made them dependent on that Greek Version, or on the Old Latin Version made from it, for their knowledge of the Old Testament. The German and English Reformers rejected them as uninspired, but the Council of Trent (§ 157.), for the first time expressly declared them to be Canonical. That they were not considered as Holy Scripture in the time of our Lord, is certain ; for though both He and the Apostles continually refer to the different books of the Old Testament, yet no mention whatever is made of the books in question. 381. The Books of the New Testament were all written before the end of the first century of the Christian Era; but some having been originally designed for particular communities, they did not all for some time become universally known to all Christians. However, before the conclusion of tlie second century^ we find from the quotations made from them by all the Christian writers of that time, that the whole were received as 368 Remarks on Article VI. Canonical, though some exceptions were at first taken to the Epistle of St. James, the Second of St. Peter, the Second and Third of St. John, and that of St. Jude. They were early- collected into one volume ; and in the persecution of Diocletian (§ 91.) they were deemed to be the very mainstay of Chris- tianity, and as such ordered to be delivered up and destroyed, and referred to with titles of reverence, as the Holy or Divine Scriptures, the Divine Oracles, or Oracles of the Lord ; and they were appealed to by all sects as being of decisive authority, and even by adversaries, as containing the precepts held sacred by the Christians. They were first authoritatively declared to form the Canon of the New Testament at the Council of Laodicea, a. d. 363 ; and again at the Third Council of Carthage A. D. 397. 382. We may further remark, that Jesus Christ declared the Scriptures sufficient to salvation, when he reproved the Pharisees for making the word of God of none effect by their traditions (^Marlc vii. 15.) ; and when he said to them, " Search " the Scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life" {John V. 39). So in Acts xvii. 11, the people of Beroea are commended for searching the Scriptures daily, ivhether these things were so. And in the Epistles to the Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews, the prejudices of the Jews are always combated from the Scriptures, never from tradition ; whilst in the passage from St. Paul's Second Epistle to Timothy, adduced above, he declares inspired Scripture " profitable for doctrine, for reproof, " for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of " God may be perfect^ throughly furnished unto all good works." Hence we may safely conclude, in the words of the Article, that Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salva- tion. Nevertheless the idea has been started, that the Bible is not, as a whole, the Word of God, though it may contain the Word of God ; and it is said, that this expression is neither applied to the collective Scriptures in the Bible itself, nor in this, which is RemarJcs on Article VI, 369 called the ' pivot' Article of the Church of England. But almost every writer of the Bible is declared to be writing upon the dicta- tion of " the Word of God," which came unto him ; and if the separate Books must thus be considered as the written Word of God, surely a fortiori the collective Books must be so considered. The expression as used Heb. iv. 12, ' The Word of God is quick ' and powerful &c.,' where several quotations from Scripture had been made, can only be taken in this general sense. And though it so happens that the phrase does not occur in this particular Article of our Church, it is used in its fullest application in Articles xix, xx, xxi, xxii, xxn^, xxvi, xxxn', and xxxvii. ; so that the assertion is only an unworthy quibble. And that " all " Scripture is given by the inspiration of God''' (2 Tim. iii. 16.) is not only a direct and positive assertion in an undisputed book of the New Testament, but is implied in all the passages already quoted, and in the express declarations of our Lord himself : " They " have Moses and the Prophets, let them hear them if they hear not Moses and the Prophets, neither will they be persuaded " though one rose from the dead " {Luke xvi. 29. 31.). Lastly, when we consider the whole uniform tenor of the Sacred Books of our Bible, though written throughout a long series of ages by so many minds, the soberness of their language, the manly simplicity of their style, the utter absence of the inflated tone of wild superstition which characterizes all other so called Sacred Books, the invariable persistent aim to raise men's thoughts and feelings towards God and His high purposes in creating them, we cannot refuse to adopt the universal belief, that the Holy Volume is indeed and in truth the very Word of God, Who was not likely to leave the creatures, whose whole history, and whose marvellous, still ever progressing intellectual devclope- ment, point to a destiny far beyond their present state, without clear and plain intimations of His high purposes with regard to them. Note— In the Articles of King Edward, this contained no catalogue of the Canonical Books, nor distinguished them from the Apocryphal Books. All this latter part was added in 1562. a a 370 ARTICLE VII. De Veteri Testamento. 383. Testamextum Yetus Novo contrarium non est : quandoquidem tarn in Yeteri, quam in Novo, per Christum, qui unicus est Mediator Dei et honiinum, Deus et homo, seterna vita humano generi est proposita. Quare male sentiunt, qui veteres tantum in promissiones temporarias sperasse confingunt. Quanquam lex a Deo data per Moseu, quoad csere- monias et ritus, Christianos non astringat, neque civilia ejus prajcepta in aliqua republica necessario recipi debeant, nihilomiuus tamen ab odedientia mandatorum, quae Moralia vocantur, nullus quantumvis Christianus est solutus. Of the Old Testament. 384. The Old Testament is not contrary to the New;^""* for both in the Old and New Testament, everlasting life is offered to Mankind by Christ/^^ who is the only Mediator between God and Man/*^* being both God and Man.**^^ "Wherefore they are not to be heard, which feign that the old Fathers did look only for transitory promises.'^' Although the Law given from God by SCEIPTUKE PROOFS. a. God who at sundry times, and c. For there is one God, and one in divers manners, spake in time Mediator, between God and man, the past unto the fathers by the pro- man Christ Jesus. 1 Tim. ii, 5. He phets, hath in these last days spoken is the Mediator of the New Testa- unto us by his Son. Heb. i. 1. To ment. Reb. ix. 15. If any man sin, Abraham and his seed Avere the ^te have an Advocate with the promises made. He saith not, And ; Father, Jesus Christ the righteous, to seeds, as of many ; but as of one, j 1 John ii. 1. and to thy seed, which is Christ, j Gal. iii. 16. Had ye believed Moses, | d. This point is proved by the ye \vould have believed me, for he text adduced under Article II., wrote of me. John v. 46. Also Acts I note (e) iii. 25 ; LuJce xxiv. 44 ; Matt. v. 17, 18 ; | Gal. iii. 24. | e. Tour father Abraham rejoiced h. Search the Scriptures, for in ' to see my day ; and he saw it, a,nd them ye think ye have eternal life, was glad. John viii. 56. These all died and they are they which testify of 1 in faith, not having received the me, John v. 39. And many of them, that sleep in the dust of the earth, shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. Dan. xii. 2. Also 1 Pet. i. 10. promises, but having seen them afar off, and were persuaded of them, and embraced them. Heb. xi. 13. They desire a better country, that is, an heavenly. Ibid. 16. Also ibid. 35, and 1 Cor. x. 1—4. Remarks on Article VII. 371 Moses, as touching Ceremonies and Rites, do not bind Christian men,<^' nor the Civil precepts thereof ought of necessity to be received in any commonwealth ; yet notwithstanding, no Chris- tian man whatsoever is free from the obedience of the Command- ments which are called Moral. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. f. The law was our School- j master to bring us unto Christ : but after that faith is come, we are no longer under a Schoolmaster. Gal. iii. 24, 25. Stand fa>t in the liberty, wherewith Christ hath made us free, and be not entangled again with the yoke of bondage. Gal. v. 1. Also Heh. vii. 12. and Col. ii. 16, 17. g. Then said Paul, I stand at Caesar's judgment seat, where I ought i j to be judged. Acts xxv. 10. Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. Eom. xiii. 1. Also 1 Pet. ii. 13, 14. h. Do we then make void the law through faith ? God forbid : yea we establish the law. Eom. iii. 81. The law is holy, and the commandment holy, and just, and good. Rom. vii. 12. Also 1 Cor. vii. 19 ; James ii. 8—11 ; Matt. V. 17—20. REMARKS ON ARTICLE VII. 385. This Article, with some additional words, made up the sixth and nineteenth of those of Edw\\rd VI. It is directed against all Antinomians, that is, opponents of the Law (vofios) or Old Testament Dispensation ; and declares that that Dispensation taught men the doctrine of everlasting Salvation through the promised Messiah or Christ. This appears from the following passages of the Old Testament: Gen. iii. 15. "The seed of the " woman shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel ; " the promise to Abraham, " In thee shall all the families of the " earth be blessed " {Gen. xii. 3 ; xxii. 18 ; xx\-i. 24 ; xxviii. 14.); Jacob's blessing to Judah : " The sceptre shall not depart from " Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh " come" (Gen. xlix. 10.); the declaration of Moses : " The Lord " thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst of " thee, of thy brethren, like unto me ; unto him ye shall hearken " {Dent, xviii. 15.) ; Balaam's prophetic declaration : " Tliere shall " come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel " (Xumb. xxiv. 17.) ; expressions in Psalms ii., xvi., xxii., xlv., ex.: " Thou art my Son, this day have I begotten thee ; " " Thou wilt *' not leave my soul in hell, neither wilt thou suflfer thine Holy A A 2 372 Remarks on Article VIL " One to see corruption ; " " They pierced my hands and my feet, " — they part my garments among them, and cast lots upon my "vesture; " " Thy throne, 0 God, is for ever and ever; " " The " Lord said unto my Lord, Sit thou on my right hand, till I "make thine enemies thy footstool;" " The Lord sware, and will " not repent, thou art a priest for ever, after the order of Mel- " chisedec ; " so also Isai. vii. 14. : " Behold, a Virgin shall con- "ceive and bear a son;" ibid. xi. 1 — 10, "And there shall come " forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse — to it shall the Gentiles "seek." So /saz. xlii. 1 — 4; liii; Ixi ; Jer. xxiii. 5 ; xxxi. 31 ; EzeJc. xxxvi. 25 ; Joel ii. 28 ; Micah v. 2 ; Haggai ii. 6 — 9 ; Zechariah ix. 9 ; Mai. iii. 1 ; iv. 1 ; Dan. ix. 24 — 27 ; and Job xix. 25, 26. All these passages have never been so applicable altogether to any one person, as to Jesus. In early times (§ 89.) the Manicheans rejected the Old Testament, as being the work of their supposed Supreme Author of Evil, whilst the New was considered as that of the Supreme Author of Good. At the time of the Keformation, some enthusiasts, followers of Agricola, an eminent Lutheran divine, began to carry Luther's doctrine of Justification by Faith so far, as to reject the whole Old Testa- ment, including the Moral law of God. Agricola himself was silenced by the influence of Luther, after whose death, however, he is said to have, again taught the same doctrine; and his followers, first called Antinomians, allowed themselves every in- dulgence of their passions, pretending that it was sufficient to have a lively faith in the promises of salvation thi'ough the merits of Christ. The Moral Law consists of the Ten Commandments and similar other precepts, which Christ was so far from abro- gating, that He extended them to our inmost thoughts and feelings. * 373 ARTICLE VIIL De Tribus Symholis. 386. Symbola tria, NiccByium, Aihanasii, et quod vulgo Apostoloi'um appellatur, omuino recipienda sunt et credenda : uam firmissimls Suriptu- raruui testimoniis probari possunt. Of the Three Creeds. 387. The three Creeds, Nicene Creed, Athanasius's Creed, and that which is commonly called the Apostles' Creed, ought thoroughly to be received and believed, for they may be proved by most certain warrants of holy Scripture. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. The proofs adduced on the first five Articles apply equally to those parts of the Creeds, iu which the doctrines concerning the three Persons of the Trinity are asserted. Besides these, the following proofs from Scripture may be adduced. The Apostles' C/'eed. — Believe in the Lord your God, so shah ve be estabhshed. 2 Chron. xx. 20. T\'ith- out faith it is impossible to plea^ie him; for he that cometh to God, must believe that he is'. Reb. xi. 6. Have we not all one Father ? Hath not one God created us ? Mai. ii. 10. To us there is but one God, the Father, of whom are all things, and we in him ; and one Lord, Jesus Christ, by whom are all things, and ■vve by him. 1 Cor. viii. 6. Of old hast thou laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hands. Ps. cii. 25. Also Isa. xlv. 18 ; xhiii. 12, 13. I beheve that Jesus Christ is the Son of God. Acts viii. 37. Also John vi. 69; xiv. 1; XX. 31. The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee ; there- fore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee, shall be called the Son of God. Luke i. 35. The Holy Catholic Church, ^c. Ye are come to the General Assembly and Church of the fii-st-born, which are written in heaven. Heb. xii. 22, 23. Also Col. i. 18; i:ph. v. 27; Matt. xvi. 18; Itei\ v, 9. That which we have seen and heard declare we unto you, that ye also may have fellowship with us ; and truly our fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ; if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship one with another. 1 John i. 3. 7. In whom we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins. Eph. i. 7. The hour is coming, in the which all that are in the graves shall hear his voice, and shall come forth; they that have done good unto the resurrection of life, and they that have done evil unto the resurrection of damnation. Johyi V. 28, 29. Also Isa. xxvi. 19; Rom. viii. 23 ; 1 Cor. xv. 52. He gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting hfe. John iii. 16. Also Matt. XXV. 46. The Athanasian Ceeed. — "What must I do to be saved ? Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved. Acts xvi. 30, 31. He that believeth and is baptized, shall 374 Scripture Proofs. be saved ; but he that beheveth not shall be damned. 3Iar7c xvi. 16. Elect according to the foreknowledge of Gk)d the Father, through sanctifi- cation of the Spirit, unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ. 1 Pet. i. 2. Through him we both have access by one Spirit unto the Father. EpTi. ii. 18. The Jews sought the more to kill him, because he said also that God was his Father, making himself equal with God. John V. 18. He that hath seen me, hath seen the Father ; Believe me that I am in the Father, and the Father in me. John xiv. 9. 11. Now the Lord is that Spirit. 2 Cor. in. 17. That thou mayest love the Lord thy God, for he is thy life. Beut. xxx. 20. Christ who is our life. Col. iii. 4. The Spirit is life. Rom. viii. 10. As the Father raiseth up the dead and quicJceneth them, even so the Son quickeneth whom he will. John v. 21, It is the Spirit that quickeneth. John vi. G3. Before me there was no God formed. Isa. xliii. 10. He {the Son) is before all things, and by him all things consist. Col. i. 17. Also Gen. i. 2. Canst thou by searching find out God.^ Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection It is as high as heaven, what canst thou do ? Deeper than hell, what canst thou know? the measure thereof is longer than the earth, and broader than the sea. Job xi. 7—9. Thou, O Lord, art our Father, thy name is from everlasting. Isa. Ixiii. 16. Unto the Son he saith, Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever. Heh. i. 8. Who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without spot to God. Heh. ix. 14. There is one body, and one Spirit, even as ye are called in one hope of your calUng; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one Ood and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all. Eph. iv. 4 — 6. Without controversy great is the mystery of godliness; God was manifest in the flesh. 1 Tim. iii. 16. God who at sundry times and in divers manners spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he hath appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds; who being the brightness of his glory, and the express image of his person, and upholding all things by the word of his power, &c. Heh. i. 1—3. The man that is my fellow, saith the Lord of hosts. Zech. xiii. 7. My Father is greater than I. John xiv. 28. God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ. Acts ii. 36. [He] took upon him the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of men. Phil. ii. 7. W^e must all appear before the judg- ment-seat of Christ, that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath done, whether it be good or bad. 2 Cor. V. 10. Also Matt. xxv. 31, 32; Rev. XX. 12 ; Dan. xii. 2 ; Ps. i. 5. The Nicene Creed. The Sciipture Proofs of this Creed are the same as those given for the other two. For Remarks on the Three Creeds, see above §§ 2G4 — 266. 375 ARTICLE IX. De Peccato Originali. 388. Peccatum origiuis non est, (ut fabulantur Pelagiani,) in imitatione Adami situm ; sed est vitium et depravatio naturse ciijuslibet hominis ex Adamo naturaliter propagati: qua fit, ut ab originali justitia quam longissime distet, ad malum sua uatura propendeat, et caro semper adversus spiritum concupiscat; unde in unoquoque nascentium iram Dei atque damuationem meretur. Manet etiara in renatis hscc naturse depravatio ; qua fit, ut aflectus carnis, Greece (ppovijua a-apKo^, quod alii sapieutiam, alii sensum, alii affectum, alii studium carnis interpretantur, legi Dei non subjiciatur. Et quanquam renatis et credentibus nulla propter Christum est condemnatio, peccati tamen in sese rationem habere concupiscentiam fatetur Apostolus. Of Original or Birth-sin. 389. Original Sin standetli not in the following of Adam'^'^^ (as the Pelagians do vainly talk), but it is the fault and corruption of tlie Nature of every man, that naturally is en- gendered of the offspring of Adam whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness, ^"^^^ and is of his own nature inchned to evil, so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the Spirit ; ^^'^ and therefore m every person born into this world, it deserveth God's wrath and damnation. And this infection of SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. Death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's transgression. Som. v. 14. h. Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean? Not one. Job xiv. 4. How can he be clean that is born of a woman ? ibid. xxv. 4. Be- hold, I was shapen in wickedness, and in sin did my mother conceive me. Psal. li. 5. That which is born of the flesh is flesh. John iii. 6. I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing. Rom. vii. 18. Also Eom. V. 12, 15—19, and 1 Cor. XV. 22. c. God saw that the wickedness of man Avas great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts | of his heart was only evil continually. Gen. vi. 5. The imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth. Gen. viii. 21. The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked: who can know it ? Jer. xvii. 9. There is none righteous, no not one. Eom. iii. 10. See also Psal. xiv. 2, 3; Matt. XV. 18, 19; 1 Kings viii. 46. d. The flesh lusteth against the spirit. Gal. v. 17. e. The wa^es of sin is death. Rom. vi. 23. 'VV e were by nature the children of wrath. J£ph. ii. 3. Be not deceived ; God is not mocked : for whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. For he that soweth to his flesh, shall of the flesh reap cor- ruption. Gal. vi. 7, 8. 376 Remarks on Article IX. nature doth remain, yea, in them that are regenerated ; ^''^ whereby the lust of the flesh, called in Greek, phronema sarkos,^^^ which some do expound the wisdom, some sensuality, some the affection, some the desire of the flesh, is not subject to the Law of God. And although there is no condemnation for them that believe and are baptized, yet the Apostle doth confess, that concupis- cence and lust hath of itself the nature of sin.^^^ SCEIPTURE PEOOFS continued. f. I delight in the law of God after the inward man. But I see another law in my members, warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity to the law of sin, which is in my members. Bom. vii. 22, 23. We are all as an unclean thing, and all our righteous- nesses are as lilthy rags. Isa. Ixiv. 6. g. The carnal mind (to cjipovrj/uLa tTi<3 aapKo^) is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be. Eom. viii. 7. h. He that believeth and is bap- tized shall be saved. Mark xvi. 16. There is therefore now no condemna- tion to them which are in Christ Jesus. Mom. viii. 1. Also, John v. 24. i. I had not known sin but by the law : for I had not known lust, except the law had said. Thou shalt not covet. JRom. vii. 7. When lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin; and sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death. Jam. i. 15. REMARKS ON ARTICLE IX. 390. Before the time of Augustine (see § 114), the corrup- tion of human nature, entailed upon us by the fall of Adam, was known by the terms "old sin," "old guilt," "common curse;" but that prelate first called it original sin. The Pelagians, as we have seen (§ 114.), denied the existence of original sin, and held that we are implicated in Adam's sin only if we follow or imitate him, which by our own fj^ee will we may avoid. Hence they also deemed men capable of arriving at a state of impeccahility without the necessity of grace. 391. The Socinians (§ 352) coincide with the Pelagians in their opinion that Adam's sin was personal ; and being the first sin committed by man, thus sin entered into the world ' (Tiom. V. 12.), and that Adam was from the beginning made mortal. 392. The Church of Eome holds that original sin is quite taken away by Baptism, and that Adam was made originally with the natural disposition now acting within us and leading us to evil, but that in him it was restrained by supernatural aids. Remarks on Article IX. 377 393. Tlie followers of Augustine hold, that there is no reason to suppose, that Baptism takes away all the effects of original sin ; but that it is enough that we are delivered by it from God's wrath, and become entitled to divine aid against the corrupt inclinations of our nature. This aid or gj^ace they consider, moreover, as freeli/ given by God to those whom he has elected or predestined from all eternity ; whilst they consider all others as left in that state of damnation brought on by Adam's sin. Others have carried this view further, and declare all, who are not among the elect, as altogether reprobate, and absolutely condemned by God's eternal decrees. The latter are called Supra-lapsarians, the former Sub-lapsarians. 394. Some have considered the words, God's wrath and damnation, which are the strongest terms in the Article, as capable of a lower sense ; as, loss of God's favour, the sentence of natm-al death, the troubles of hfe, and the corruption of our faculties. These regard it as indicative of the usual moderation of the compilers of the Articles, that the main point, the imputation of Adam's sin to his posterity as their own act, is not expressly taught in the Article. 395. The chief foundation of the doctrine is the comparison of St. Paul in Bom. v. 12 & 18, between the universal corruption and condemnation in consequence of Adam's transgression, and the universal justification of all men by Jesus Chmst. It is supported also by the following texts, in addition to those already adduced in the notes : 1 Kings viii. 46, " There is no man that "sinneth not;" Prov. xxiv. 16, "A just man falleth seven times." Eccl. vii. 29, " God hath made man upright, but they have "sought out many inventions ; " 2 Cor. v. 17. "If any man be " in Christ, he is a new creature : old things are passed away ; "behold all things are become new." Rom. viii. 7, 8. "The " carnal mind is enmity against God : for it is not subject to the " law of God, neither indeed can be. So then they that are in " the flesh cannot please God." 378 ARTICLE X. De lihero Arhitrio. 396, Ea est hominis post lapsum AcIje conditio, ut sese, naturalibus suis viribus et bonis operibus, ad fidem et invocationem Dei convertere ac prseparare non possit. Quare absque gratia Dei, quae per Christum est, nos prEeveniente ut velimus, et co-operante dam volumus, ad pietatis opera facienda, qu9s Deo grata sunt et accepta, nihil valemus. Of Free Will. 397. The condition of Man after the fall of Adam is such, that he cannot turn and prepare himself, by his own natural strength and good works, to faith and calling upon God:^^^ Wlierefore we have no power to do good works, pleasant and ac- ceptable to God, without the grace of God by Chnst preventing us,*^' that we may have a good will, and working with us, when we have that good will. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. They that are in the flesh cannot please God. Rom. viii. 8. The natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness unto him ; neither can he know them, because they are spiri- tually discerned. 1 Cor. ii. 14. We are not sufficient of ourselves to think anything as of ourselves, but our sufficiency is of God. 2 Cor. iii, 5. Without me ye can do nothing. John XV. 5. Also, 1 Cor. xii. 3; Jer. X. 23; xxxi. 18, 19; Frov. xvi. 1. h. No man can come unto me, except the Father which hath sent me draw him. John vi. 44. It is God which worketh in you both to will and to do, of his good pleasure. Phil. ii. 13. You hath he quickened, who were dead in trespasses and sins. Eph. ii. 1. By the grace of God I am what I am. And his grace which was bestowed upon me was not in vain, but I laboured more abun- dantly than they all : yet not I, but the grace of God which was with me. 1 Cor. XV. 10. Also, Isai. xxvi. 12; EzeTc. xxxvi. 26, 27 ; 2 Cor. iv. 6; Phil. iv. 13. Note. Preventing is used here in the now obsolete sense of the word, going before. REMARKS ON ARTICLE X. 398. This Article asserts the loss of a Free Will in man to choose what is good in thought and action, in consequence of the fall of Adam, who was created with absolute free will to choose good or evil. Hence, as was seen in the preceding Article, man is ever prone to evil ; and in order to ' cease to do evil and learn * to do well,' he requires aid to overcome his evil desires. This aid is afforded by the Holy Ghost, and is called Gracey which is Remarks on Article X. 379 of two kinds, 2'>i'^vent{ng and co-operating. The necessity of both was denied by the Pelagians, and the former only by the Semi- Pelagians {See § 114, near the end.). 399. Some, as the Calvinists, insist on the irresistible force of grace^ which, they say, is given only to the elect. But Our Lord himself said : " Your heavenly Father shall give the Holy ^' Spirit to them that ask him^^ (Luke xi. 13,). If it be said that we must first have excited in us the tvill to ask, since we are told that "it is God that worketh in us both to will and to do of his good pleasure," which seems to imply the first beginnings and the progress of a Christian life : it may be remarked, that the means by which God does stir up our will to turn to Him, is by His revealed dispensations^ in which His Spirit primarily ad- dresses our souls. Here we are perpetually invited to turn to God ; and the neglect of these invitations is what St. Paul deprecates, when he says, " Quench not the Spirit " (1 Thess. v. 19.). By this view we shall be led to ' Search the Scriptures' with diligence, with gratitude for the grace there offered us, with faith in God's promises there given us, and with a humbled sense of our sinful nature before the ever ready mercy of God. Note. Till 1562 this Article began at the words 'We have no power &c;' and at the last revision of the xxxix Articles in 1571, ' Working with us' was substituted for ' Working in us.' ARTICLE XL De Hominis Justificatione. 400. Tantum propter meritum Domini ac Servatoris nostri Jesu Christi, per fidem, non propter opera et merita nostra, justi coram Deo reputamur. Quare sola fide nos justificari, doctrina est saluberrima ac consolationis plenissima, ut in HomiliS. de Justificatione hominis fusius explicatur. . Of the Justification of Man. 401. We are accounted righteous before God, only for the merit of our liord and Saviour Jesus Christ by Faith, and not for 380 Remarks on Article XI. our own works or deservings.'^^ Wherefore that we are justified by Faith only,<^^ is a most wholesonie doctrine, and very full of comfort ; as more largely is expressed in the Homily of Justifi- cation. SCKIPTURE PROOFS. a. Knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law, but by the faith of Jesus Christ, even we have believed in Jesus Christ, that we might be justified by the faith of Christ, and not by the works of the law: for by the works of the law shall no flesh be justified. Oal. ii. 16. All have sinned, and come short of the glory of God ; being justified freely by his grace, through the re- demption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood. Eom. iii. 23—25. Therefore being justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ. Rom. v. 1. Also, Phil. iii. 9. h. For by grace are ye saved through faith ; and that not of your- selves : it is the gift of God ; not of works, lest any man should boast. Eph. ii. 8—9. Now our Lord Jesus Christ himself, and God, even our Father, which hath loved us, and hath given us everlasting consolation and good hope through grace, com- fort your hearts, and stablish you in every good word and work. 2 Thess. ii. 16, 17. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XI. 402. To be accounted righteous is what is termed justifica- tion^ which refers to this life, as sanctification, or the purification of our souls by the Holy Spirit, refers to the life to come. We are said to be justified by faith, a term generally used in the New Testament for the complex idea of Christianity or the Gospel, as opposed to the Law or Mosaic dispensation. Hence faith means more than mere historical belief; for, as St. James says (ii. 19.), " The devils also believe and tremble." But in faith is compre- hended also all the positive commands of the Gospel, to lead a holy life and to perform works of charity. However, it is to be observed, that we are not justified on account of this faith (§ia nlariv or 8ta ttjv Triariv), but b?/ faith {jriaTeL, ck Trlarecds, dia TrtVrea)?). That is, faith is the condition on which we shall be made partakers of ' the redemption that is in Christ Jesus;' but it is not a merit for which we shall be justified. For we are justified before God * only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.' 403. Further we are justified by faith vnly ; that is, " with- out the deeds of the (ceremonial) Law" {Horn. iii. 28 ; Gal. ii. Article XII. 381 16); so that tlie other Christian graces and virtues comprehended in Gospel faith, are not dispensed with, but only the performance of sacrificial rites, which were reckoned as meritorious acts in themselves. Herein indeed consists the great error of the Church of Rome, which, before the Reformation, had led to so gross a corruption of the true Christian faith. For it held and still holds, that the use of the Sacraments is sufficient lo justify, and even to sanctify us. Tliis all Protestants utterly deny, as a doctrine con- trary to the whole Gospel teaching, and tending to enervate all religion, and to turn the Sacraments, that were appointed to quicken and excite our piety, and to convey grace to us upon our coming devoutly to them, into means of deadening all faith, and giving them in men's opinions the nature of charms, which of themselves, and without due preparation and devotion, will make up for all defects in them, and so give them a title and a right to the free mercies of God. The Homily of Justification named in the Article is supposed to be that entitled * Of the Salvation of all Mankind,^ being the third of the first book of Homilies (§ 199.). ARTICLE XII. De bonis Operihus. 404. Bona opera, quae sunt fructus Fidei, et justificatos sequuntur, quan- quam peccata nostra expiare, et divini judicii severitatem ferre non possunt; Deo tamen grata sunt, et accepta in Christo, atque ex vera et viva fide necessario profluunt ; ut plane ex illis seque fides viva cognosci possit, atque arbor ex fructu judicari. Of Good Works. 405. Albeit that. Good Works, which are the fniits of faith and follow after Justification, cannot put away our SCRIPTURE PROOFS. a. Herein is my Father glorified, I being alone. Yea, a man may say that ye bear much fruit, John xv. 8. thou hast failh, aud 1 have works ' Faith, if it have not works, is dead, shew mc thy faith without thy works' 382 Remarks on Article XII. sins,*^^ and endure the severity of God's Judgment, yet are they pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ, ''^^ and do spring out necessarily of a true and lively Faith ; '"^^ insomuch that by them a lively faith may be as evidently known, as a tree discerned by the fruit, SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. and I will shew thee my faith by my i Let your li^ht so shine before men, works. Jam. ii. 17, 18. Being made | that they may see your good works, free from sin, and become servants ! and glorify your Father which is in to God, ye have your fruit unto holi- | heaven. Matt. v. 16. ness, and the end everlasting life. ! d. The fruit of the Spirit is love, Rom. vi. 22. This is a faithful saying, ; joy, peace, long-suflFering, gentleness, and these things I will that thou ; goodness, faith, meekness, tempe- affirm constantly, that they which ; ranee ; against such there is no law. have believed in God might be care- Gal. v. 22, 23. Giving all diligence, ful to maintain good works. Tit. iii. 8. . add to your faith virtue, and to Also I^ph. ii. 10; Gal. v. 6; Col. i. 10; | virtue knowledge, and to knowledge Tit. iii. 8. I temperance, and to temperance h. When ye shall have done all ! patience, and to patience godhness, these things which are commanded | and to godliness brotherly kindness, you, say, We are unprofitable ser- | and to brotherly kindness charity, vants; we have done that which was \ For if these things be in you and our duty to do. Lv.Jce xvii. 10. By the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be justified in his sight, for by the law is the knowledge of sin. Rom. iii. 20. c. To do good and to communicate abound, they make you that ye shall neither be barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 Fet. i. 5—8. e. Every good tree bringetli forth good fruit. — Wherefore by their forget not ; for with such sacrifices fruits ye shall know them. Matt. God is well pleased. Seb. xiii. 16. ' vii. 17. 20. Also Psal. i. 1—4. IIE3IARKS ON ARTICLE XII. 406. This is one of the Articles introduced by Archbishop Parker in 1562 {see § 336.), to refute the sects of the Anti- nomians, Solifidians, and Gospellers, who denied the necessity of good works, as the Ascetics had done in the early ages of Christianity ; which gave rise to men's leading a secluded life in monasteries, and even in caves and deserts, to devote themselves wholly to a vacant, abstract exercise of faith. The good works which are said to be pleasing and acceptable to God in Christ, are such as follow after justification, and therefore, by the pre- ceding Article, after the exercise of faith in Jesus Christ. Thus St. Paul says : " Let every one, that nameth the name of Christ, " depart from iniquity" (2 Tim. ii. 19.). As then every one that calls himself .by the name of Christ, that is, after he has by baptism become entitled as a Christian to the l)cnefits wrought Article XIII. 383 for us by Christ's death, shall depart from iniquity ; so also he will as a natural consequence proceed to practice good works, which are thus truly the fruits of his faith. 407. The Council of Trent {see § 157.) has decreed, that men by their good works have so fully satisfied the law of God, according to the state of this life, that nothing is wanting to them, and that these good works of themselves merit eternal life. The Church of Rome also holds, that a work cannot be called good, if it is not entirely good, and free from all mixture of sin ; and that the good works of holy men, that is, men who have received plenary absolution from their sins, are thus perfect, and therefore meritorious. We believe, according to the Article, that human nature is so weak and so degenerated, that as far as our natural powers operate in any action, there is always still some stain of sin in it ; and that a good work is considered by God according to the main both of the action and the intention of him that does it ; and as a father pities his children, so God passes over the defects of those who serve him sincerely, though not perfectly. This acceptance of the intention is illustrated in our Saviour's Parables of the Talents and of the Ten Virgins, as also in the description of the last judgment in Matt, xxv., &c. ARTICLE XIII. Le Operibus ante Justijicationem. 40S. Opeea qu8G fiunt ante gratiam Christi, et Spiritus ejus afflatum, cum ex fide Jesu Christi non prodeant, miuime Deo grata sunt ; ncque gratiam (ut multi vocant) de coogruo merentur : immo cum non sint facta, ut Deus ilia fieri voluit et prsecepit, peccati rationem habere non dubitamus. Of WorJcs before Just ijicat ion. 409. Works done before the grace of Christ, and the Inspiration of his Spirit, are not pleasant to God,''*^ forasmuch SCRIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. "Without me ye can do nothing, i Horn. viii. 9. Without faith it is Jofin XV. 5. If any man have not the | impossible to please GoD. Seb. xi. 6. Spirit of Christ, he is none of his. ■ Also Mom. viii. 8. 384 Remarlcs on Article XIII. as they spring not of faith in Jesus Christ, neither do they make men meet to receive grace/^^ or (as the school authors say) deserve grace of congruity : yea, rather, for that they are not done as God has willed and commanded them to be done,^*^' we doubt not but that they have the nature of sin.^"^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. I. As the branch cannot bear of regeneration, and renewing of the fruit of itself, except it abide in the Holy Ghost. Tit. iii. 5. vine ; no more can ye, except ye c. It is not of him that willeth, abide in me. I am the vine, ye are nor of him that runneth, but of God the branches : he that abideth in me that shevveth mercy. Mom. ix. 16. and I in him, the same bringeth i Whatsoever ye do in word or deed, forth much fruit, John xv. 4, 5. Not i do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, by works of righteousness which we ' giving thanks to God and the Father have done, but according to his by him. Col. iii. 17. mercy he saved us, by the washing * d. Whatsoever is not of faith, is sin. jRom. xiv. 23. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XIII. 410. As we saw in the former Article, that the works of those who are baptized, and have faith in Christ, are not wholly pure, but are graciously accepted by God for Christ's sake, it follows in this Article that the works of unbelievers are still less pleasing to God. This declaration was necessary to refute the Pelagians (§ 114.), who, denying the corruption of man by the Fall of Adam, as well as the necessity of grace, held as a neces- sary consequence, that any man may of himself arrive at a state of impeccability^ and so do works acceptable to God. 411. The School- authors, mentioned in the Article, are those who, in the Middle Ages, applied to religious subjects the dialec- tical arguments and subtle distinctions, employed in the different metaphysical Schools. These assigned to good works, merits, either ex congruo, or ex condigno. The former apply to persons in a state of nature and unbelief, and are rewarded by God out of liberality ; whilst the latter attach to works done with the aid of grace, and to them, they say, a reward is in justice due. The Homily ' Of Good Works,' being the Fifth of the First book of Homilies (§ 199.), may be consulted in further illustration of this Article. 385 ARTICLE XIV. De Operihus Super erogationis. 412. OPEBi., quae Supererogationis appellant, non possuat sine arro- gantia et impietate prsedicari ; nam illis declarant homines, non tantum se Deo reddere qu?e tenentur, sed plus in ejus gratiam facere quam deberent : cum aperte Christus dicat, Cum feceritis omnia qusecunque prsecepta sunt vobis, dicite, Servi inutiles sumus. Of Works of Supererogation. 413. VoLU^^TARY Works, besides, over, and above God's Commandments,'^^ which they call Works of Supererogation, cannot be taught without arrogancy and impiety ; for by them men do declare, that they do not only render unto God as much as they are bound to do, but that they do more for his sake, than of bounden duty is required; whereas Christ saith plainly '^^, When ye have done all that are commanded you, say, We are unprofitable servants. SCEIPTUEE PROOFS. a. In vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the command- ments of men. Matt xv. 9. Beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy or vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the world, and not after Christ. Let no man judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the sab- bath days, which are a shadow of things to come; but the body is of Christ. Let no man beguile you of your reward in a voluntary humility and worshipping of angels, intruding into those things which he hath not seen, vainly puffed up by his fleshly mind, and not holding the Head; from which all the body by joints and bands having nourishment mi- nistered, and knit together, in- creaseth with the increase of God. Col. ii. 8. 16—19. h. Doth he thank that servant because he did the things.that ^yere commanded? I trow not. So like- wise ye, when ye shall have done all these things which are commanded you, say, "NYe are unprofitable ser- vants, we have done that which was our duty to do. Luke xvii. 9, 10. Also Job xxii. 2, 3; xxxv. 7; Luke xviii. 10—14. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XIV. 414. The Romish doctrine of supererogation is founded on the supposition, that there are in the New Testament counsels of perfection, or rules, by the observance of which men can arrive 386 Remarhs on Article XIV. at a higher degree of holiness than is necessary for obtaining their own salvation, and consequently, by the transfer of their own superabundant merits, can procure the salvation of others, whose merits are deficient. The disposal of this supposed reserve fund, collected from all supereminently holy men, was usurped during the Middle ages by the Pope, who, as it were, drew cheques upon it, which he termed indulgences. Now, since it was proved in the Eleventh Article, that " We are accounted " righteous before God only for the merit of our Lord and " Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not for our own ivorks or " deserving s,^' it is unnecessary to prove the fallacy of the idea, that any merits or deservings of any man can go to procure the salvation of any other man, when they are not even taken into account for his own salvation. So far indeed from having any merits to spare, we arc told every where in Scripture that " there " is none that doeth good, no not one " {Ps. xiv. 3 ; Rom. iii. 10.); " In many things we offend all " {Jam. iii. 2.) ; and " none can " by any means redeem his brother, nor give to God a ransom " for him " {Ps. xlix. 7.). The answer of our Saviour to the young man, who professed to have kept all the commandments, If thou wilt be perfect^ go and sell all that thou hast, &c." {Matt. xix. 21.), only shews, that none can be perfect^ for all have some such besetting sin, as love of riches was in this man, from which it is so exceedingly difficult to be released. The answer of the five wise to the five foolish Virgins, " Not so, lest " there be not enough for us and you; but go ye rather to them "that sell, and buy for yourselves " {Matt. xxv. 9.), so far from favouring the point, shews only that the wise virgins knew better than to transfer any of their oil to the others ; and that it was only the foolish^ certainly not intended as an example for Christ's Church to follow, who proposed such a course, which would inevitably have proved fatal to both. The advice, " go to them " that sell," &c., is only a carrying out of the idea of the parable, the whole of which, indeed, is intended only, to enforce the necessity of watching for the coming of the Lord, and by no Article XV, 387 means, to hint at anything like meritorious works of men. The passage from St. Luke, cited in note (b), is indeed of itself sufficient to prove, that no other passage in Scripture can by any possibility be supposed to warrant this notion of works of supere- rogation, which is one of the most delusive of all the errors of the Komish Church. ARTICLE XV. De Christo, qui solus est sine peccato. 415. Cheistus, in nostrse naturae veritate, per omnia simihs factus est nobis, excepto peccato, a quo prorsus erat immunis, turn in came, turn in spiritu. Venit ut agnus absque macula, qui mundi peccata per immola- tionem sui semel factam tolleret ; et peccatum, ut in quit Johannes, in eo non erat. Sed nos reliqui, etiam baptizati et in Christo regenerati, in multis tamen olfendimus omnes ; et si dixerimus, quod peccatum non habe- mus, nos ipsos seducimus, et Veritas in nobis non est. Of Christ alone without Sin. 416. Christ, in the truth of our nature, was made like unto us in all things, sin only except, from which he was clearly void both in his flesh and in his spirit. He came to be the Lamb without spot,'*^' and who, by the sacrifice of himself once made, should take away the sins of the world : and sin (as St. John saith) was not in him. But all we the rest, although baptized SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. As the children are partakers of flesh and blood, he also himself took part of the same. ITeb. ii. 14 In all things it behoved him to be made like unto his brethren. Ibid. 17. b. The prince of this world Cometh, and hath nothing in me. John xiv. 30. Who did no sin, nei- ther was guile found in his mouth, 1 Pet. ii, 22. In him is no sin. 1 John iii. 5. Also Heb. vii. 27 ; John viii, 46. c. Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world. John i. 29. d. Now once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself. Heb. ix. 26. Ye know that ye were not redeemed with corruptible things but with the precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot. 1 Fet. i. 18, 19. B B 2 388 Remarks on Article XV. and bom again in Christ, yet offend in many things and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us.^^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. e. In many things we offend all. , /. If we say that we have no sin Jam. iii. 2. The Scripture hath con- ' we deceive ourselves, and the truth eluded all under sin. Gal. iii. 22. I is not in us. 1 John i. 8. There is none righteous, no, not one. I Mom. iii. 10. Also Eccl. vii. 20. ' REMARKS ON ARTICLE X^^ 417. The Pelagian doctrine of human impeccability (§ 390.) is refuted in this Article, as well as that of the Socinians, that Christ was peccable, as being a mere man, which also leads them to deny the atonement. That Zacharias and Elizabeth are called "both righteous before God" {Luke i. 6.), can be meant only comparatively, as desiring and striving to become righteous^ by obedience to God's commandments, and, as the Jews applied the word, the scrupulous observance of the outward forms of religion ; for immediately after Zacharias is punished with dumbness for his unbehef. In the same manner Abel and others are styled righteous, and David is even called a man after God's own heart, though he committed great and crying sins. ARTICLE XVI. De Peccato post Baptismum. 418. NoN orane peccatum mortale post Baptismum voluntarie perpe- tratum est peccatum in Spiritum Sanctum, et irremissibile. Proinde lapsis a Eaptismo in peccata locus poenitentise non est negandus. Post acceptum Spiritum Sanctum possumus a gratia data recedere, atque peccare ; denuoque per gratiam Dei resurgere, ac resipiscere. Ideoque iUi damnandi sunt, qui se, quamdiu hie vivaut, amplius non posse peccare affirmant, aut vere resipiscentibus venisc locum denegant. Remarks on Article XVI. 389 Of Sin after Baptism. 419. Not every deadly sin willingly committed after Baptism is sin against the Holy Ghost and unpardonable. '"'^ Wlierefore the grant of repentance is not to be denied, to such as fall into sin after Baptism. After we have received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from grace given,^''^ and fall uito sin, and by the grace of God we may rise again, and amend our lives.^*^^ And therefore they are to be condemned, which say, they can no more sin as long as they live here, or deny the place of forgiveness to such as truly repent. '^'^ SCEIPTUBE PEOOFS. id) I say unto you, All manner ' refers only to the Novatians, who in of sin aud blasphemy shall be for- j the third Century objected to the given unto men, but the blasphemy , read mission of the lapsed into the against the Holy Ghost shall not be Church, {see § 87.) forgiven unto men. And ^^•hosoever ! (p) Ye are fallen from grace, speaketh a word agamst the Son of j q^i y. 4. Peter is called blessed, man, it shall be forgiven him; but ; j^^^tt. xvi. 17; and vet in chapter whosoever speaketh against the Holy I ^xvi, we find that he fell from grace. Ghost, It shah not be forgiven him, and denied the Lord. wm-M Vo"" ^"^^hT^ sT ' The example of Peter after And thl?e is atin^^tUo'del'th'- i 1^ ^'^11 also goes to prove this point. 1 John V. 17. If we confess our sins, | (e) Brethren, if a man be over- he is faithful aud just to forgive us taken in a fault, ye which are our sins, aud to cleanse us from all ] spiritual restore such an one in the unrighteousness. Hid. i. 9. Also : spirit of meekness, considering thy- 2 Cor. ii. 6—8. \ self, lest thou also be tempted. Gal. (h) This part of the Article j vi. 1. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XVI. 420. By deadly sin in this Article, we are not to understand such sins as in the Church of Rome are called mortal, in opposi- tion to others called venial, and supposed to be expiable by acts of penance or devotion, or by interconmiuhication of merits of supe- rerogation (§ 414). This distinction, indeed, is not warranted by Scripture, where we are told that he who offends in one point is guilty of all {Jam. ii. 10.). But as St. John says " there is a sin not imto death," we must conclude, that there are offences which do not necessarily endanger salvation, as do heinous and wilful sins, if unrepented. Such offences, therefore, can only be 390 Remarks on Article XVI. sins of ignorance and infirmity, which do not of themselves tend to close men's hearts against sincere repentance. 421. The term ' sin against the Holy Ghost' alludes to our Lord's denunciation of those, who attributed his miracles, wrought in attestation of his divine mission, to the aid of Beelzebub. Such miracles performed afterwards by the Apostles, as proofs of their divine commission to preach the Gospel, were the strongest proofs of the truth of that Gospel that could be given. Since then these miracles were wrought through the influence of the Holy Ghost poured out upon the Apostles, those who still refused to receive the Gospel, may well be said to sin against the Holy Ghost. This sin can therefore no longer be committed in the same sense at the present day ; and so sin against the Holy Ghost can only mean blasphemy, and a blasphemous rejection of the Gospel of Salvation. 422. At the time of the Eeformation various enthusiasts, mistaken under the general name of Anabaptists, adopted the old heresy of the Novatians, that a man, falling into sin after baptism, cannot again recover from his lost condition; which, however, is fully refuted by the example of Peter after denying our Lord. 423. At the Hampton Court Conferences {see § 222.) the Puritans, whose doctrine of Predestination and Election leads them to maintain, that the elect cannot forfeit their salvation on account of the irresistible grace bestowed on them, desired to have the words " though not finally " added after depart from "grace given." They were, however, overruled {see also § 219.). 391 ARTICLE XVII. De Prcedestinatione et Electione. 424. Pejedestinatio ad vitam est seternum Dei propositum, quo, ante jacta mundi fundaraenta, suo consilio, nobis quidem occulto, constanter decrevit, eos, quos in Christo elegit ex hominum genere, a maledicto et exitio liberare, atque, ut vasa in honorem efficta, per Christum ad seternam salutem adducere. Uude, qui tarn prseclaro Dei beneficio sunt donati, illi Spiritu ejus, opportuno tempore operante, secundum propositum ejus vocantur: vocationi per gratiam parent : jnstificantur gratis: adoptantur in filios Dei: unigeniti ejus Jesu Christi imagini efficiuntur conformes: in bonis operibus sancte ambulant : et demum, ex Dei misericordia, pertingunt ad sempiternam felicitatem. Quemadmodum Praedestinationis et Electionis nostrse in Christo pia consideratio, dulcis, suavis, et ineffabilis consolationis plena est vere piis, et his qui sentiunt in se vim Spiritus Christi, facta carnis et membra, quae adhuc sunt super terram, mortificantem, animumque ad coelestia et superna rapientem; tum quia fidem nostram de seterna salute consequenda per Christum plurimum stabilit atque confirmat, tum quia amorem nostrum in Deum vehementer accendit : Ita hominibus curiosis, carnalibus, et Spiritu Christi destitutis, ob oculos perpetuo versari Prsedestinationis Dei senten- tiam, perniciosissimum est prsccipitium ; unde illos Diabolus protrudit vel in desperationem, vel in seque perniciosam impurissimse vitse se- curitatem. Deinde, promissiones divinas sic amplecti oportet, ut nobis in sacris Uteris generahter propositse sunt; et Dei voluntas in nostris actionibus ea sequenda est, quam in verbo Dei habemus diserte revelatam. Of Predestination and Election. 425. Predestination to Life is the everlasting purpose of God/*^ whereby (before the foundations of the world were laid) he hath constantly decreed by his counsel, secret to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those whom he hath chosen in Christ out of mankind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting salvation, as vessels made to honour. Wherefore, they which SCEIPTUKE PROOFS. a. God who hath saved us, and called us with an holy calling, not according to our works, but according to his own purpose and grace, which was given us in Christ Jesus before the world began. 2 Tim. i. 9. h. According as he hath chosen us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy, and without blame before him in love. Having predestinated us unto the adoption of children by Jesus Christ to himself, according to the good pleasure of his will. Eph. i. 4, 5. 392 Article XVII. be endued with so excellent a benefit, of God, be called according to God's purpose, by liis Spirit working in due season r''^^ They through Grace obey the calling i'*^^ They be justified freely i^*^' They be made sons of God by adoption : ^^^^ They be made like the image of his only begotten Son Jesus Christ : They walk religiously in good works ; '^^ and at length, by God's mercy, they attain to everlasting felicity.*'^ As the godly consideration of Predestination and our Election in Christ, is full of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable comfort to godly persons, and such as feel in themselves the working of the Spirit of Christ,^^' mortifying the works of the flesh,*"'' and their earthly members, and drawing up their mind to high and heavenly things,**^' as well because it doth establish and confirm their faith of eternal Salvation, to be enjoyed through Chnst,*^' as because it doth fervently kindle their love towards God : ^'^^ So, SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. The vessels of mercy which he had before prepared unto glory. Rom. ix. 23. Also Acts ix. 15; 2 Thess. ii. 13 ; 1 Fet. ii. 9. e. Whom he did predestinate, them he also called. Bom. viii. 30. Also Uph. i. 18; 2 Tim. i. 9; Beb. iii. 1. d. As many as were ordained to eternal life believed. Acts xiii. 48. Also Rom. vi. 17. and F^al. xc. 3. , e. TVhom he called, them he also justified. JRom. viii. 30. Being justi- j fied freely by his grace through the ; redemption that is in Christ Jesus. Rom. iii. 24. /. That we might receive the adoption of sons, &c. Gal. iv. 5—7. g. Whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of his Son. Rom., viii. 29. Also 1 Cor. XV. 49. and Col. iii. 10. h. We are his workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath before or- I dained that we should walk in them. £ph. ii. 10. i. Whom he justified, them he also glorified. Rom. viii. 30. Also Matt. XXV. 34. and 1 Fet. i. 3—5. k. We joy in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom we have received the Atonement. Rom. v. 11.— Also 1 Fet. i. 8. I. According to the power that worketh in us. JSph. iii. 20. m. If ye through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, ye shall live, Rom. viii, 13, And they ' that are Christ's have crucified the I flesh, with the afiections and lusts. ! Gal. V, 24, n. Mortify therefore your mem- bers which are upon the earth. Col. iii, 5, 0. Our conversation is in heaven. FMl. iii, 20. Also Col. iii. 1—2. p. Who shall lay any thing to the charge of God's elect? It is God that justifieth. Who is he that con- j demneth ? It is Christ that died, yea i rather that is risen again, who also I maketh intercession for us. Who shall separate us from the love of Christ.? &c. Rom. viii. 33—39. I q. We love him because he first loved us. 1 John iv. 19. Remarks on Article XVII. 393 for curious and carnal persous,^''^ lacking the Spirit of Clirist/"^ to have continually before their eyes the sentence of God's Predesti- nation, is a most dangerous downfall, whereby the devil doth thrust them either into desperation,^*' or into wretchlessness^*^' of most unclean living, no less perilous than desperation. Furthermore, we must receive God's promises in such wise as they be generally set forth to us in holy Scripture.''' And in our doings, that will of God is to be followed, wliich we have expressly declared unto us in the Word of God.'"^' SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. r. Intruding into those things whi(;li he hath not seen, vainly puffed up in his fleshly mind. Col. ii. 18. s. These are sensual, not having the Spirit. Jiide 19. — Also i2om. viii. 9. t. Our beloved brother Paul also, according to the wisdom given unto him, hath written unto you. As also in all his epistles, speaking in them of these things, in which are some things hard to be understood, which they that are unlearned and unstable, wrest, as they do other Scriptures, to their own destruction. 2 Fet. iii. 15—16. u. Wretchlessness, i. e. recMess- ness, carelessness. V. Secret things belong unto the Lord our God, but those things that are revealed belong unto us and to our children. Dent, xxix, 29. Let him that is athirst come ; and who- soever will, let him take the water of life freely. Rev. xxii. 17- to. He hath shewed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God. Micak vi. 8. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XVII. 426. This Article is intended to express the doctrine of the Church of England upon the much controverted question of Predestination and the Decrees of God ; and nowhere does the moderation of our Church exhibit itself more prominently. In order to fully appreciate this moderation, it will be necessary to state as briefly as possible the various opposing views, that have been entertained upon this head. This is a controversy arising out of natural religion ; the acknowledged prescience of God having led to the idea, that, foreknowing the future, God must also have predetermined all future events. There are four distinct views, that have been advanced by the parties respectively known as the Supralapsarians, the SiiblajJsan'ans, the Avminians or Hmonstrants, and the Socinuins. 394 Remarks on Article XVII. 427. The Supralapsarians hold, that God, considering only His own glory, decreed absolutely from everlasting, who should be saved, and who should be damned ; that He gives to the former the effectual and irresistible aid of His grace, from which they cannot depart or fall, and to the latter only such aids as should render them inexcusable. These two parts of God's decree are called Election and Reprobation. This system altogether denies free ivill to man, which would make God dependent in forming His decrees on what His free creatures will do. It also denies that there can be a certain prescience of future contingents; which would involve this contradiction, that things, which are not certainly to be, are certainly foreseen. The words of Christ, John xvii. 9, 10, are explained as an intercession for the elect only. Tlie doctrine is further supported by the passages Eph. ii. 10 ; 2 Cor. v. 17 ; Phil. ii. 13; Psal. ex. 3; Jer. xxxi. 33, 34; Ezek. xxx^^. 26, 27; Rom. ix. 21. The necessary consequence of absolute decrees and efficacious grace is final perseverance; that is, that men cannot fall or depart finally from grace given {See under Art. xvi. fin.). This is supported by the text, " having loved his own which were in the world, he loved them ^'unto the end" (Johi xiii. 1.). 428. The SuUapsarians hold, that Adam indeed sinned freely^ and brought condemnation on his posterity; and that God then decreed to save a great number through the death of His Son by the aid of an effectual grace, without taking any notice of the rest. In their arguments they run very close upon the Supralapsarian doctrine. The Remonstrants say, that God deals with men according as they use their liberty ; and fore- seeing how every one would use it, has decreed all things con- cerning them in this life and the next ; that Christ died for all men, and that all have sufficient aid given them ; which, however, every one may use or neglect, and that temporarily or permanently. As the Predestinarians make the glory of God the foundation of their reasoning, so the Remonstrants reason from God's other attributes, His justice, goothiess, truth, and Remarks on Article XVII. 395 holiness. They say, that God in the Scriptures often appeals to men as to these attributes. We are called upon to imitate Him in them; to be holy and merciful, as He is holy and merciful. Hence our natural conceptions of these attributes, thus appealed to by God Himself, must be sufficient guides to us. But how can we think it justice and mercy, that any should be condemned for a deed, committed long before they had existence ? What becomes of the offers of grace and mercy, the obtestations, exhortations, and expostulations upon them, every where in Scripture, if God has formed antecedent decrees, that they should not be effectual ? The Scriptures often say that God "is not willing that any "should perish, but that all should come to repentance" (2 Pet. iii. 9). "As I liye, saith the Lord God, I have no " pleasure in the death of the wicked ; wherefore tarn yourselves, "and Hve" {Ez. xviii. 32, and xxxiii. 11). Further, to what purpose is preaching, if men are not to be persuaded to 9, free act of choice, as free agents ? If God has chosen to create men as free agents, and governs the world accordingly, this does not make Him dependent on what His free creatures will do, so as to derogate from His authority or glory. As for His certain prescience of future contingencies, we see throughout the Scriptures a thread of very positive prophecies, which were punctually accomplished, though depending on the free agency of man. Hence it appears that the certainty of God's prescience is not causal, but eventual. The Scriptures even exhibit some instances of conditional prescience ; as that the men of Keilah would deliver up David to Saul (1 Sam. xxiii. 11, 12), evidently on condition of David's staying there, which he did not. So Christ's assertion concerning Tyre and Sidon, Sodom and Gomorrah {Matt. xi. 21 — 23), shows a conditional prescience. Hence, as every man has sufficient aid, if not to save him, yet at least to bring him to a state of salvation, all are inexcusable, if they wilfully neglect the means of salvation. But, besides what is simply necessary, some may have higher privileges and aids given them, which God foresees will be effectual. Lastly, Christ 396 Remarks on Article XVII. is said to be the propitiation for the sins of the whole world (1 John ii. 2) ; and as hy the offence of one (Adam) judgment came upon all men to condemnation ; so hy the righteousness of one, the free gift came upon all men to justification of life {Rom. V. 18). That grace is not irresistible, they show from Eph. iv. 30 ; Acts vii. 51 ; Matt, xxiii. 37 ; Isa. v. 4. Keproba- tion they refute, among many others, by the following texts : Hos. xiii. 9; John v. 40; Ezek. xxxiii. 11. Final perseverance they refute by Heh. vi. 4 — 6 and x. 38, and EzeJc. xviii. 24. 429. The Socinians agree with the Remonstrants in denying absolute decrees ; and with the Supralapsarians or Calvinists, in denying the possibility of certain prescience of future contingencies. 430. Though the point was discussed by the ancient heathen philosophers and the Jews, and the fi'eedom of the will was touched upon by Oeigex and other early Christian writers, yet the real controversy sprang from the Pelagian doctrines (§ 114.). Cassian (p. 151.), who about that time arrived at Marseilles from the East, taught that God decreed all future events ; but ho denied grace, as did later the Semi-Pelagians (p 146.). He allowed a co-operating grace, but subject to the freedom of the will. Augustine, the zealous opponent of Pelagianism, opposed him, and held that baptism was accompanied by an inward regeneration; that all thus regenerate had a measure of grace, but were not all predestined to persevere; and with regard to those not thus predestined, he agreed with the Sublapsarians. 431. The controversy was revived, as we have seen 134.), in the ninth century by Godeschalcus. Luther first held Augustine's views, but after his death the Lutherans fell into the Semi-Pelagian opinions. Calvin embraced the views of Augustine, with the addition of absolute Reprobation ; Arminius (§ 227.) those of Cassian, the disciple of Chrysostom, held also by the Greek Church. 432. It will be observed that the Article does not decide absolutely in favour of any of the above views. First it enlarges upon the good effects of the godly considercdion of predestination Article XVIII. 397 on godly persons ; and then it proceeds to state the evil effects on curious and carnal j^ersons of having continually/ before their eyes the sentence of God's 2^^'^destinationy as if on that account censuring the doctrine ; and concludes with the advice, not to pretend to find in the Word of God any doctrines, but such as are generaUy set forth or expressly declared. As for Reprobation, it is neither mentioned, nor even hinted at. 433. Elsewhere the Church of England has set forth its doctrine on this head more positively. Thus in the Communion Service we own, that Christ by the one oblation of Himself once offered, made there a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction, for the sins of the whole world ; and in the catechism it is said, that God the Son hath redeemed all mankind ; wliicli must be considered as the most solemn declaration of the Church, being the doctrine in which she instructs her children. ARTICLE XVIII. De sperandd ceternd Salute tantum in Nomine Christi. 434. Sunt et ilh anathematizandi, qui dicere audent unumqueinque in Lege aut Secta, quain profit etur, esse servandum, mocio juxta illara et lumen naturae accurate vixerit: cum sacra3 literse tantum Jesu Christi nomeu prfedicent, in quo salvos fieri homines oporteat. Of Obtaining Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ. 435. They are also to be had accursed, that presume to say, that every man shall be saved by the Law or Sect which he professeth,^*' so that he be dihgent to frame his life according to SCEIPTUEE FEOOFS. a. Many deceivers are entered him not into your house, neither into the world, who confess not that ; bid him God speed ; for he that Jesus Christ is come into the flesh. | biddeth him God speed is partaker Tiiis is a deceiver and an Antichrist of his evil deeds. 2 John 7. 9—11. Whosoever transgresseth, and { Other foundation can no man lay abideth not in the doctrine of ! than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ, hath not God. lie that j Christ. 1 Cor. hi. 11. By the works abideth in the doctrine of Christ, I of the law shall no flesh be justified, he hath bath the Father and the I Gal. ii. 16. Also Gal. i. 7,8; Rom. Son. if there come any unto you, I iii. 9. 12. 23. and brnig not this doctrine, receive | 398 Remarks on Article XVIII. that Law, and the light of Nature. For holy Scripture doth set out unto us only the Name of Jesus Christ, whereby men must be saved. SCEIPTUEE PROOFS continued. h. Neither is there salvation in any other; for there is none other name nnder heaven given among men, Avhereby we must be saved. Acts iv. 12. Jesus saith unto him, I am the way, the truth, and the life ; no man cometh unto the Father but by me, John xiv. 6. To him give all the prophets witness that through his name whosoever beheveth in him shall receive remission of sins, Acts X. 43. REiyiARKS ON ARTICLE XVIII. 436. The principle condemned in this Article was first set up by certain orators and apologists for heathenism, in their ad- dresses to the early Christian Emperors, and it has also been since adopted by Mahojiet in the Koran (§. 124.). This condemnation is by no means intended to be applied to all Christian Sects not agreeing with us, nor even to the benighted heathens, who have never had the Gospel preached to them; for since there is no express declaration in Scripture against the latter, it is not for us to take upon ourselves to pronounce their damnation. St. Paul even says, " When the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by " nature the things contained in the law, these having not the "law, are a law unto themselves, &c." {Rom. ii. 14.). But though we cannot positively pronounce all such damned, we have on the other hand no authority to promise them salvation ; though it is not for us to circumsribe God's mercy, if He should be pleased to extend His uncovenanted mercy to any of them, and thus make the death of Christ efficient to save even them that are without the Gospel. Note. The word accursed is equivalent to the word anathemay used in the primitive Church against such as were excluded from communion with the Church, implying literally, ^Jit to he put away from the earth.'' 399 ARTICLE XIX. De Ecclesid 437. EccLESiA Christi visibilis est coetus fidelium, in quo verbum Dei purum prsedicatur, et Sacramenta, quoad ea quae necessario exiguntur. juxta Chrisli institutum recte administrantur. Sicut erravit Ecclesia Hierosolymitana, Alexandrina, et Antiocbena; ita et erravit Ecclesia Romana, non solum quoad agenda et cseremoniarum ritus, verum in Lis etiam quae credenda sunt. Of the Church. 488. The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men/^^ in the which the pure word of God is preached/^^ and the Sacraments be duly administered according to Christ's ordinance/*^^ in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same. As the Church of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, have erred ; so also the Church of Borne hath erred, not only in their living and manner of Ceremonies, but also in matters of Faith. ^"^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. Unto the Church of God which is at Corinth, to them that are sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints, with all that in every place call upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both theirs and ours. 1 Cor. i. 2. To the saints and faithful brethren in Christ. Col. i. 2. That thou mayest know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in the house of God, which is the Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of the truth. 1 Tim. iii. 15. And the Lord added to the Church daily such as should be saved. Acts ii. 47. b. Faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the Word of God. liom. X. 17. And he ordained twelve, that they should be with, him, and that he might send them forth to preach. Mark iii. 14. If any man speak, let him speak as the oracles of God. 1. Pet. iv. 11. Also, Matt, xxviii. 18— 20; Actsxui. 12. c. When they beheved Philip preaching the things concerning the kingdom of God, and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women. Acts vui. 12. They continued steadfastly in the Apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread, and in prayers. Acts ii. 42; Also 1 Cor. 23—26. d. Now the spirit speaketh ex- pressly, that in the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits, and doctrines of devils; speaking lies in hypocrisy; having their conscience seared with [ a hot iron; forbidding to marry, and j commanding to abstain from meats. ! 1 Tim. iv. 1—3. Also 2 Tim. iv. 1—5. ' 2 Thess. ii. 2—12. 400 Remarks on Article XIX. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XIX. 439. The Greek word Ecclesia (jKKk-qa-ia) is here translated by our word Church {see § 83), originally used for the house or place of worship, then applied in a more extended sense to those assembled there for worship. The term eKKKrjcr'ia (from eKKoKdvj to call out, or summon) is derived from the Athenian Constitu- tion, where it meant the assembly of the citizens for political pur- poses. 440. The Article lays it down as a fundamental rule, that we are to judge of the purity of a Church by the conformity of its doctrines with the Scriptures, and not to judge of doctrines by the authority and decisions of the Church, as held by Romanists. In fact, it decides in favour of private judgment in determining what is, or what is not, in accordance with the express declara- tions, 'generally set forth to us in holy Scripture' (see Article XVII. ad Jin.). The Church of England only withholds from her members the unrestricted exercise of private judgment in regard to 'the traditions and ceremonies of the Church' (see Article xxxiv), and that only in order that ' all things be done decently 'and in order' (1 Cor. xiv. 40.). 441. The Romanists insist on the infallibility of the Church, which they suppose to be asserted in some passages of Scripture (1 Tim. iii. 15.), and to which they require all Christians to sub- mit their own private judgment. But this plainly presupposes that all men are agreed as to what is a Church ; and next, as to which is the Church, seeing that almost from the beginning there have been several bodies of men calling themselves Churches ; and lastly as to the applicability, and even the exact meaning, of the passages referred to. Hence, before men can be expected to admit the infallihilitTj claimed, they must of course be supposed to have exercised their private judgment, as to all these prelimi- nary points. Besides, by the primary principle of reasoning, it is absurd to prove the infallibility of the Church from the Scrip- tures, and afterwards refer for the meaning of those same Scrip- tures to the Church. Remarks on Article XIX. 401 442. Furthermore, they define this infalUble Church by certain notes or marks, which, they pretend, are pecuhar to it ; viz. the name catJiolic, antiquity^ extent^ duration^ succession of Bishops^ union among themselves and with their head, conformity of doctrine with former times, miracles, prophecy, sanctity of doctrine, holiness of life, temporal felicity, curses upon their enemies, a constant progress or efficacy of doctrine, the confession of adversaries (Bellarmine.). But, instead of ending controversies about this infalhbihty, all these points start innumerable questions to be first decided; such as, what each of these notes or attributes imply ; whether they are proofs of infalHbility ; whether they be- long all to the Church claiming to be infallible ; whether all be necessary to constitute infallibility ; and if not, how many of them. In discussing these questions no use must be made of the Scriptures; for if the Scriptures have their authority from the testimony, or rather decisions, of the infallible Church, no use can be made of them till that be first fixed. Some of these attributes are such as did not at all belong to the Church in the best and purest times, when its extent was very limited, its duration short; it enjoyed no temporal felicity, nor the acknowledgment of its adversaries. Nor need a body of men, continuing long and prosperously in a constant succession, necessarily be considered as infallihle, though they may assume the name Catholic. The questions concerning conformity of doctrine with former times, and sanctity of doctrine, would lead men to the necessary exercise of jjvivate judgment in so many and such intricate inquiries, that it may as well be at once entirely conceded. As for Episcopal succession, it is confessedly still kept up in some corrupt Churches. Union with a head is no proof of infallibility, till it has been first proved that the Church ought to have a head, and that he must necessarily be infallible himself. HoUness of life, to be a proof, must also be proved to combine of necessity with infallibiHty. Miracles wrought by particular persons do not prove their Church infallible ; else the Jewish Church might be proved infallible by the miracles of Elijah and Elisha, whereas c c 402 Remarks on Article XIX. it fell repeatedly into idolatry. The same argument applies to prophecy. In short, if all these attributes were proved to be infallible signs of infallibility, the question would still arise, whether the Church of Rome has them all, and whether it be the only Church that has them. 443. And not only would it be necessary that every man should exercise his private judgment upon all these points, before he can acknowledge the existence of infallibility m any Church ; but the Church of Rome itself, in calling upon men to abandon the errors of other Churches, actually allows them to judge for themselves in the vital point, as to what communion ought to be chosen or forsaken. And if we refer to the Scriptures in their general style and method, we find in them a constant appeal to our reason and intellectual faculties. If the mere dictates of the Church or of infallible men were the foundation of faith, our Saviour and the Apostles would not have employed long reason- ings, explanations, and illustrations, to convince men's minds. Therefore we must conclude, that we need not believe doctrines to be true, simply because the Church teaches them ; but we must search the Scrij^tw^es, and consider any Church a true Church, according as its doctrines agree with them. 444. In the next place, the Church of Rome itself declares that the Churches of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, have erred ; and as for itself, many of its ablest men have placed the infallibility of the Church, not in the Popes personally, but in a General Council. That Pope Liberius (a. d. 352 — 367) was guilty of error in condemning Athanasius, and embracing Semi- Arianism (see above § 98), has never been disputed. Pope ZosiMUs (§ 114.) himself acknowledged his error in approving the doctrines of Pelagius, and joined in condemning them. So also Pope HoNORius (a. d. 625 — 639) was condemned by the Sixth General Council {see above § 125), and anathematized by several succeeding Popes, for holding the Monothelite doctrine. In these cases both the Eastern and Western Churches were agreed, that a Pope might be a heretic. It was not, indeed, till Remarks on Article XIX. 403 the Eiglith Century, tliat the Bishops of Rome, elate with the importance given them by the Carlovingian princes of France, assumed to themselves absolute authority over other Churches, having till then only striven for the first place among the leading Bishops or Patriarchs. This assumption they now began to found on a volume, then first produced, purporting to be a collec- tion of the Decretal Epistles of the Popes of the first ages, and which in those times of universal ignorance was easily credited, but has long since been plainly proved to be an imposture {see § 148* and 151.). 4-15. The chief proof adduced for the infallibility and supremacy of the See of Rome or the Pope over the whole Christian Church, is Christ's remarks to Peter, Matt. xvi. 17 — 19. The Roch, there meant, many consider as referring to Christ himself ; some to the confession of faith in Him, just pronounced by Peter ; and others to the Apostles in general, in whose name Peter had just returned an answer to Christ ; or lastly, to Peter himself, as being the first called to the ministry. This last explanation, though most favourable to the Romish doctrine, must be very far stretched to warrant the notion, that it can be applied to all Peter's successors, supposing the Popes to be so. Moreover, the dispute among the Apostles, who should be chief among them, appears to have been by no means decided by this declaration of our Lord, as no doubt it would have been, had the meaning been that assigned to it by the Church of Rome ; for the same point was still canvassed among them in the very night in which our Saviour was betrayed. Nor does it appear, that after the effusion of the Holy Ghost, which certainly inspired them with the full understanding of Christ's words, they thought there was anything peculiarly given to Peter above the rest. He was questioned upon his baptizing Cornelius ; and when it was discussed in the Council of Jerusalem, whether the Gentile converts were to be subjected to the Mosaical Law, he delivered his opinion only as one of the Apostles, and it was James whose opinion led to a decision {Acts xv. 13.). Peter was even charged c c 2 404 Article XX. by St. Paul with dissimulation in that matter, for which, the latter says, he withstood him to his face {Gal. ii. 11.). In the same Epistle St. Pall also plainly asserts the equality of his own opinion with his, declaring that he received no authority from him, and owed him no submission. 446. The Churches of Alexandria and Antioch, being both founded by St. Peter, or at lea^t by St. Mark and St. Barnabas respectively, under his auspices (§ 9, 15, and 64.), did not set up any such claim ; nor do we find that Peter himself ever made any such declaration. When he wrote his Second Epistle, in which he mentions a revelation he had received from Christ of his approaching dissolution, though that was a proper occasion for declaring such an important matter, he says notliing that relates to it. Thus the greatest of all privileges is pretended to be lodged in a succession of Bishops, without any one passage in Scripture alluding to it. Note. The visible Church means ' Christ's Church militant ' here in earth,' as distinguished from ' the general assembly and ' Church of the first-born, which are written in heaven (Eeb. xii. 23.). ARTICLE XX. De Ecclesice Auctoritate. 447. Habet Ecclesia Eitus sive Caeremonias statuendi jus, et in fidei controversiis auctoritatem ; quamvis Ecclesise non licet quicquam instituere, quod verbo Dei scripto adversetur, nec unum Scriptural locum sic exponere potest, ut alteri contradicat. Quare, licet Ecclesia sit divinorum librorum testis et conservatrix, attamen ut adversus eos nihil decernere, ita prseter illos nihil credeudum de necessitate salutis debet obtrudere. Of the Authority of the Church. 448. The Church hath power to decree Eites or Ceremonies,^*' sceiptube proofs. a. For this cause I left thee in I Tit. i. 5. Let all things be ('one Crete, that thou shouldest set iu decently and in order. 1 Cor. xiv. 40. order the things that are Avanting. J As they went through the cities, they Article XX. 405 and authority in Controversies of Faith And yet it is not law- ful for the Church to ordain any thing that is contrary to God's Word written, neither may it so expound one place of Scripture, that it be repugnant to another. ^'^^ Wherefore, although the Church be a witness and a keeper of Holy Writ, yet, as it ought not to decree anything against the same, so besides the same ought it not to enforc-e anything to be believed for necessity of Salvation. SCRIPTtJEE PROOFS continued. delivered them the de(;rees for to keep, that were ordained of the Apos- tles and Elders which were at Jeru- salem. And so were the Churches estabhshed in the faith, and increased in number daily. Acts xvi, 4, 5. There are many unruly and vain talkers and deceivers whose mouths must be stopped. Titus i. 10, 11. Also Matt, xxviii. 20; Rom. xvi. 17, 18. Heh. xiii. 17. h. There rose up certain of the sect of the Pharisees which believed, saying, That it was needful to circum- cise them, and to command them to keep the law of Moses. And the Apos- tles and Elders came together for to consider of this matter Then pleased it the Apostles and Elders, mth the whole Church, to send chosen men of their own company to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas, namely, Judas surnamed Barsabas, and Silas, chief men among the brethren ; and they wrote letters by them after this manner : The Apos- tles and Elders and brethren send greeting unto the brethren which are of the Gentiles in Antioch and Syria and Cilicia. Forasmuch as we have heard, that certain which went out from us, have troubled you with words, subverting your souls, saying, Ye must be circumcised, and keep the law ; to whom we gave no such commandment : it seemed good un- to us, being assembled with one accord, to send chosen men unto you with our beloved Barnabas and Paul. We have sent therefore Judas and Silas, who shall also tell you the same things by mouth. For it seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things: That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornica- tion; from which if ye keep your- selves, ye shall do well. Acts xv. 5. 6. 22—29. ' c. If any man speak, let him i speak as the Oracles of God. 1 Pet. . iv. 11. Which things also we speak, I not in the words which man's wisdom ' teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost ! teacheth, comparing spiritual things i with spiritual. 1 Cor. ii. 13. Let us I prophecy {expound) according to the ' proportion of faith. Rom. xii. 6, Also Matt. XV. 3—6. 9. d. Though we, or an angel from heaven, preach any other Gospel to you than that we have preached un- to you, let him be accvirsed. Gal. i. 8. Peter and John answered and said unto them, AVhether it be right in the sight of God to hearken unto you more than unto God, judge ye. Acts iv. 19. What thing soever I command you, observe to do it; thou shall not add thereto, nor diminish from it. Beut. xii. 32. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XX. 449. The opening words of this Article are not found in 406 Remarks on Article XX. the original copy signed by both Houses of Convocation, and still extant; but the printed editions all have it {see § 338.). The Article is intended to answer those who say, that, where the Scriptures are silent, there ought to be no rules made, but that all men should be left free. It is true, that in the New Testa- ment there are but few rules laid down as to rites and ceremonies, and those mostly in general terms ; as : " Let all things be done to edification, in order, and to peace;" " Lay hands suddenly on no man." But we see that Christ, speaking of those forms and ceremonies which the Jews had added to the ordinances of Moses, — as, for instance, the services and offices of their syna- gogues, their washings or baptisms, &c. — only reproved them for overrating the importance of these rites, yet did not condemn them ; for he said of the divine precepts, " These ought ye to have done," adding, " and not to leave the other undone" {Matt, xxiii. 23.). 450. We find that certain Apostolical rules and practices, such as the hiss of peace^ and the order of deaconesses, were discontinued, when they excited mockery and scandal. Hence it is surely allowable to adopt new rules in matters indifferent, if even existing practices might be abrogated on the plea of expedi- ency. We are required to assemble ourselves together, to form ourselves into a body, both for worshipping God jointly, and for maintaining order and love among the society of Christians ; and we ought therefore to acquiesce in some rules and regulations, adopted by common consent or long practice for such ends, and allow them to be enforced by those who have lawful authority among us. Nevertheless " we must obey God rather than men" (^Acts V. 29), and not consent to any forms contrary to express directions in Scripture. 451. The second point maintained by the Article is, that the Church has authority in matters of faith ; i. e, not an absolute authority, founded on a pretended infallibility, but an authority of order: being properly only the right of private judgment, ex- tended from the individual to assembled numbers, supposed more Article XXL 407 likely to arrive at the truth in disputed matters by means of their collective wisdom, applied before forming a decision. As a Scriptural example of such an assembly, deciding on matters of faith and doctrine, we have the Council of Jemsalem, whose proceedings are given in Acts xv. 452. Lastly, though we thus admit that the Church is " a " witness and a keeper of Holy Writ," yet we acknowledge, that a body of men may be faithful, as ui the case of the Jews, in pre- serving the text of the Scriptures, and in handing them down without corruption ; but that it may be mistaken in their mean- ing, as were the Jews with regard to the Mes^siah. ARTICLE XXL De Auctoritate Conciliorum Gemraliam. 453. Geneealia Concilia sine jussu et voluntate principum congregari non possunt; et ubi convenerint, — quia ex homiuibus constant, qui non omnes Spiritu et verbo Dei reguntur— et errare possunt, et interdum errarunt, etiam in his quae ad Deum pertinent. Ideoque quae ab illis consti- tuuntur, ut ad salutem necessaria, neque robur habent neque auctoritatem, nisi ostendi possint e sacris Uteris esse desumpta. Of the Authority of General Councils. 454. General Councils may not be gathered together with- out the commandment and will of Princes ; and when they be gathered together, (forasmuch as they be an assembly of men, whereof all be not governed with the Spirit and Word of God) they may err, and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining unto God.f^^ SCBIPTUEE PKOOFS. a. Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. Rom. xiii. 1. Also 2 Chron. xxiv. 5, and xxix. 4. h. And when they had called the Apostles, and beaten them, they commanded that they should not 408 Remarks on Article XXI. Wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation, have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy Scripture. '^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. speak in the name of Jesus, and let them go. And they departed from the presence of the Council, rejoicing that they were counted A\orthy to suffer shame for his name. Acts v. 40, 41. c. The law and... the testimony, if they .speak not according to this word, it is because there is no light in them. Isa. viii. 20. Also Gal. i, 8; Deut. iv. 2 ; ■ and xii. 32. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXI. 455. A GENERAL Council, in the strict sense of the term, can mean only an assembly of the whole Church of Christ, at least by representation ; and no Councils have ever been held coming up to this standard. The (Ecumenical (see § 95.) Councils of early times were mostly attended only by such Bishops, as were sum- moned by the Emperors, and were able to attend ; and in later times, the Councils assembled by the assumed authority of the Popes, commencing with the First Lateran Council, a. d. 1123, were generally formed of such Bishops, and Abbots of great in- fluence and distinction, as were summoned on account of their Imown submission to the Pope, and with the object of lessening the unpalatable harshness of the dictatorial power unwarrantably assumed by the Pontiffs, by seeming to defer to the collective wisdom of the Church. When later the abandoned conduct of a long series of Popes, and farther, the double elections of Popes during the Great Western Schism (§ 146), from a. d. 1378 to 1414, had loosened the general deference to the presumed infallibility of the Popes, we see the successive Councils, of Pisa in 1409 {see § 146), of Constance in 1414, and of Basle in 1431 {see § 147), assume to themselves authority over the Popes themselves. In consequence of the violent contentions between these two pre- tended depositaries of supreme power and infallibility, no general Council has been called since that of Trent, which was summoned by Pope Paul III in 1545, suspended from 1552 to 1562, and dissolved in 1563 by Pope Pius IV {see § 157.). Remarks on Article XXI. 409 456. That such Councils cannot now be called without the consent of princes, is evident from the text adduced in note (a), which forbids the Clergy to obey the summons of a foreigner in preference to their own temporal head, to whom the text mani- festly applies. The example of the assembly of the Apostles, Elders or Presbyters, and Brethren or Laymen, mentioned in Acts XV, is clearly no precedent, having been merely a consulta- tion of the inspired Apostles with such other Christians of note as were then at Jemsalem, and all of whom we know to have been specially endowed with the Holy Ghost. The claim to infallibility of Councils is founded on the words in Acts xv. 28, " It seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us." But this can evidently be meant only with regard to the point on which a decision was required, namely, whether the Gentiles were to be subjected to the yoke of the Mosaic Law ; and it had " seemed " good to the Holy Ghost " in the case of Corxelius, that they should not. This gives the words a clear and distinct sense, agreeing with all that had gone before ; whereas it would appear strange that the Apostles should presume to strengthen the authority of the Holy Ghost by their own. Besides, it is universally acknowledged that the various Councils in the reign of CoxsTAXTius erred in approving Arianism in opposition to the First Council of Nic£ea (see § 98, 99), as did also the Second Council of Ephesus, which sanctioned the Eutychian heresy, and was condemned soon after by the Council of Chalcedon {see § 112)- 410 ARTICLE XXII. De Purgatorio. 457. DocTRiNA Romauensium de Purgatorio, de Indulgentiis, de Veneration e et Adoratione turn imaginum, turn reliquiarum, necnon de Invocatione Sanctorum, res est futilis, inaniter conficta, et nullis Scrip- turarum testimoniis innititur : immo Verbo Dei contradicit. Of Purgatory. 458. The Romish doctrine concerning Pnrgatory/^^ Pardons/''^ Worshipping and Adoration, as well of Images^'^^ as of Reliques/'^^ and also invocation of Saints, is a fond thing vainly invented, SCEIPTURE PROOFS, a. And Jesus said unto him. Verily I say unto thee, to-day shalt thou be with me in paradise. LuJce xxiii, 44. By one offering he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified. Heh. x. 14. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might ; for there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom, in the grave whither thou goest. jE'ccZ. ix. 10. Behold, now is the accepted time; behold, now is the day of salvation. 2 Cor. vi. 2, I heard a voice from heaven, saying, unto me. Write, Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord from henceforth : yea, saith the Spirit, that they may rest from their labours ; and their works do follow them. Rev. xiv. 13. h. None of them can by any means redeem his brother, nor give to God a ransom for him. Psal. xlix. 7. Who can forgive sins but Ood only ? MarJc ii. 7. To the Lord our God belong mercies and forgive- nesses. Dan. ix. 9. I, even I, am he that blotteth out thy transgressions for mine own sake, and will not remember thy sins. Isai. xliii. 25. Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world. John i. 29. Ye are washed, ye are sanctified, ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and by the Spirit of our God. 1 Cor. vi. 11. The blood of J esus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin. 1 John i. 7. c. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any like- ness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them. Exod. XX. 4, 5. Cursed be the man that maketh any graven or molten image, an abomination unto the Lord, the work of the hands of the crafts- man, and putteth it in a secret place. Deut. xxvii. 15. d. He (i. e. Hezekiah) removed the high places, and brake the images, and cut down the groves, and brake in pieces the hrazen serpent, which Moses had made ; for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to it. 2 Kings xviii. 4. e. Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee hence, Satan; for it is written. Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve. Matt. iv. 10. As Peter was coming in, Cornelius met him. Remarks on Article XXII. 411 and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God.'*'' SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. and fell down at his feet, and wor- shipped him. But Peter took him lip, saying, Stand up, I myself also am a man. Acts x. 25, 26. Also Acts xiv. 13—15. and Rev. xix. 10. /. Let no man beguile you of your reward in a voluntary humility. and worshipping of angels, intruding into those things which he hath not seen, vainly puffed up by his fleshly mind. Col. ii. 18. Little children, keep yourselves from idols. 1 John V. 21. Also 1 Tim. ii. 5. REMAPvKS ON ARTICLE XXII. 459. In the Articles of Edward VI, the doctrine here called Eomish, was called the doctrine of Schoolmen; for the Eomish Church had not absolutely adopted these superstitions, as it did later, just before the publication of our present Articles : namely, in the Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent (§ 157.). The yjoxdi perniciously was also inserted before "repug- " nant to the Word of God." The doctrine of a Purgatory was taught by Plato {Plicedo, cap. 62. Stcdlh.) ; and the Jews also had a notion, that the souls of some men continued for a year going up and down in a state of purgation. We have also seen (§ 89) that Manes, the author of the Manichean sect, held, that souls after death pass through water and fire to the Sun. To these floating opinions were added in the Third Century the practice of praying for the dead; of which we find such full evidence in the writings of Tertullian and Cyprian, that the matter of fact is not to be denied. But these prayers were offered up even for the Apostles and the Virgin Mary ; and the souls of those prayed for were certainly supposed to be in heaven and at rest, but not in a state of consummate blessedness enjoying the Vision of God. Some of the early Fathers also speak of a probatory fire, to purify the souls destined for salvation, and to take place at the last great conflagration of the world. Hence it appears that these early notions, themselves pure inventions, were altogether different from the doctrine taught by the Eomish Church ; which did not obtain, indeed, till Pope 412 Remarks on Article XXII. Gregory the Great introduced, at the end of the Sixth Century, his Canon of the Mass. Thereupon the offering up of Masses, as sacrificial atonements for the dead, was introduced, and soon was made a source of profit to the clergy in the corrupt times that followed ; and the munificent endowments men were exhorted to make to found such Masses, tended of course to perpetuate the superstition. When afterwards objections were raised to it, scripture passages were adduced, and tortured into proofs sanc- tioning the doctrine. 460. The doctrine of the Church of Rome now is, that eveiy man is liable both to temporal and to eternal punishments for his sins : that God, on account of the death and intercession of Christ, does indeed pardon sin as to its eternal punishment ; but the sinner is still liable to temporal punishment, which he must expiate by acts of penance and sorrow in this world, together with such other sufferings as God shall think fit to lay upon him. But if he does not expiate these in tliis life, there is a state of suffering and misery in the next world, where the soul is to bear the temporal punishment of its sins, to continue for a longer or shorter period ; and in order to shorten this punishment, the prayers and works of supererogation of men here on earth, or the intercession of the saints in heaven, but, above all things, the sacrifice of Masses, are of great efficacy. Now, God has made faith and patience under adversities in this life a main condition of His Xew Covenant, in which he promises that He will remember our sins and iniquities no more {Jer. xxxi. 34 ; Heh. viii. 12) ; and He has declared that such adversities are not the punishments of an angiy God, but the chastisements of a kind and merciful Father. Wherefore, though God may think fit sometimes to interpose in this world by blessings as well as punishments, no arguments can thence be drawn to prove a reserve of such punishments in another state. 461. The passages of the New Testament adduced in proof are, first, Matt. v. 26, " Thou shalt by no means come out thence, " till thou hast paid the uttermost farthing;" a mere figurative Remarks on Article XXII. 413 phrase in a parable, referring entirely to circumstances of this world. Secondly, Matt. xii. 32, Whosoever speaketh against " the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the world to come :" whence it is argued that there are some sins which are forgiven in the world to come ; though it would seem to furnish a stronger argument against the eternity of the torments of hell, since the sin alluded to is declared the only one not forgiven. But neither of these startling doctrines, not anywhere else explicitly stated in Holy Writ, and plainly refuted by many passages, can be established by mere inference from a difficult expression. Thirdly, 1 Cor. 13 — 15, " Every man's work shall be made manifest : for the day shall " declare it, because it shall be revealed by fire ; and the fire shall " try every man's work of what sort it is. If any man's work " abide which he hath built thereupon, he shall receive a reward. " If any man's work shall be burnt, he shall suffer loss : but he " himself shall be saved, yet so as by fire." Though this passage may seem to favour the notion of some early fathers regarding a great fire or conflagration through which all were to pass at the last day, yet can it by no means favour the idea of the Romish Purgatory, which is unsupported by any passage of the writings of the earlier fathers ; and even a passage in Theodoret, a writer of the Fifth Century, brought to bear upon the subject, is proved to be an interpolation. The Apostle, alluding to those who corrupted the pure Gospel by raising upon its foundation a structure of Judaism and heathen Philosophy, evidently means some great trial ; probably the destruction of Jerusalem and of the whole Jewish system, which would destroy their tcork, though the corruptors themselves should be saved, by discovering and acknowledging the trath of the teaching of Christ and His Apostles, proved and illustrated by that event. The fire in v. 13. may also mean the fire of the Holy Ghost {Acts ii. 3.), Who is to " lead into all truth," and so should try the doctrine built upon the foundation of Jesus Christ. So Johi the Baptist couples the Holy Spirit with the idea of fire : " He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire" (Luke iii. If!.) 414 Remarks on Article XXII. 462. In short, had the Apostles known anything of a Purgatory, they would most undoubtedly have clearly set forth such an important doctrine. They told their converts, that " through much tribulation we must enter into the kingdom of "heaven" {Acts xiv. 22,); that "their present sufferings were " not worthy to be compared to the glory that was to be revealed " {Rom. viii. 18) ; and that " our light af&iction, which is but for a " moment, w^orketh for us a far more exceeding and eternal weight "of glory" (2 Cor. iv. 17.). Here a powerful consideration is passed over in silence, that by these afQictions they should be spared so many of the torments of Purgatory. It is impossible to suppose, that they would have neglected to tell men of any effectual means they knew, to avoid the torments of such an intermediate state. But the Scriptures every where speak only of two classes, the good and the bad ; the former to " inherit the "kingdom of God," the latter to "depart into everlasting fire " prepared for the devil and his angels " {Matt. xxv. 34. 41 ; John V. 29). Christ, in the parable of Lazarus and Dives, represents their souls as carried at once to their different abodes ; and to the thief on the cross He said : " To-day thou shalt be " with me in paradise." St. Paul, at his approaching dissolution, comforts himself with the prospect of the " crown of righteous- " ness " he should receive (2 Tim. iv. 8.) ; and he speaks of these two events as certain consequents one of another, " to depart " and be with Christ " {Phil. i. 23.), and " to be absent from " the body and present with the Lord " (2 Cor. v. 8.) ; and he says in general, " We know, that if our earthly house of this " tabernacle be dissolved, we have a building of God, an house "not made with hands, eternal in the heavens" {ibid. v. 1.). Finally, St. John heard a voice commanding him to write : " Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord from hence- " forth, that they may rest from their labours" {Rev. xiv. 13.). 4G3. Though the title of this Article is only " Of Purgatory," yet it refutes four other doctrines of Rome, more or less depending Remarks on Article XXII. 415 on or connected with the former. Pardons, which are the same as Indulgences, are granted by a power lodged in the Pope, and are said to remit the punishments of Purgatory. These indul- gences are connected with the doctrine of supererogation, and are in fact cheques upon the fund of supererogatory merits of the saints {see Article xiv.). These pardons or exemptions from punishments are granted for a shorter or longer period, according to the sums of money paid for them to the Pope, or those upon whome he confers the right of traffic in them by way of pension or favour. Bishop Burnet says, that he had seen one for " ten " hundred thousand " years, but does not state the price paid for it. 464. The Gnostics were the first who introduced images into Christian worship, though they can scarcely be called Christ- ians ; for Iren^us, Epiphanius, and Augustixe state, that they worshipped not only the image of Christ, but also of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle. Other Christians at first abstained from all representations and figures in their worship, and were re- proached with Atheism by the heathens on that account. Paintings on the walls of the churches, however, appear to have been introduced as early as the Third Century, and were condemned by the Council of Elliberis, in Spain, a. d. 305 {see § 84.). Private persons had in their possession statues of Christ and the Apostles, and were censured for it by Eusebius. From Augustine's writings it appears, that he knew of no images in churches in the beginning of the Fifth Centur)^ ; yet we find they were introduced into churches before that time in Pontus and Cappadocia, probably to conciliate the heathens. In those idolatrous times such pictures in places of worship soon were I looked upon with reverence, and finally worshipped. In the Sixth Century, Serenus, Bishop of Marseilles, to prevent such ' worship, destroyed the images ; and though Pope Gregory the Great approved his motive, yet he censured the act. For the controversy about images between the Iconoclasts and Iconolaters, which arose in the Eighth Century, see § 130. 416 Remarks on Article XXII. 465. The following texts may further be brought against image-worship: Deut. iv. 12. 15, 16. 23; xii. 30; xvi. 22; Levit. xxvi. 1 ; Isa. xl. 18—27 ; xliv. 9—21 ; Jer. x. 1—16 ; Hahah. ii. 18—20; Psal. cvi. 19, 20; Acts vii. 41; xvii. 16. 24—29; Bom. i. 23. 25. 466. The worship and adoration of the reliques of saints and martyrs, arose from the high veneration in which the martyrs were held in the times of persecutions ; and it was combined with the invocatioji of the saints, or the prayers for the intercession of these saints, whose souls were supposed to hover about the places where their bodies were buried. In the First Three Centuries we find no traces of this superstition ; though then, if at any time, the martyrs and saints, including the Apostles and immediate disciples of Christ, may be supposed to have been eminently deserving of the highest veneration. But neither were their bodies or any portions of them preserved in those times, nor were miracles said to have been wrought by them. Passages are found in the writings of the fathers of the succeeding ages, indicating that the superstition then prevailed ; but there is reason to suppose that many of these are interpolated. Chrysostom, a celebrated and eloquent preacher (p. 135.), even endeavours to remove the prejudice against the Gospel arising from the want of miracles in his time. It appears also that none of the adversaries of Christianity, Trypho, Celsus, or Lucian (§ 76), allude to the practice, as they would probably have done with bitter raillery, had reliques been venerated in their time. But in the Fourth Century we find Julian the Apostate and others reproach Christians with it. The relics of Christ, the Virgin Mary, the true Cross, the Apostles, and others, produced after this time, though never heard of before, can therefore have been nothing but impostures. Such relics were often enshrined ; they were thought the best preservatives both for body and soul ; they were distributed as valuable presents, or sold through all countries ; so that there were often many heads of the same saints produced in different places. The discovei-y of the Catacombs of Rome Article XXIII. 417 furnished no doubt at length an inexhaustible store. 467. In refutation we may adduce, besides the texts given, that the body of Moses appears to have been concealed for this very reason from the people (Deut. xxxiv. 6.); and though we are told that Elisha's bones wrought miracles (2 Kings xiii. 21.), yet no veneration appears to have been shown them. 468. As for Invocation of Saints, St. Paul forbids the "worshipping of angels" {Col. ii. 18.); and so when 8t. John fell down before the angel in the Apocalypse, he was told, " See " thou do it not ; worship God ; I am thy fellow-servant" (Rev. xix. 10. and xxii. 9.). Augustine, in the Jifth century says ex- pressly, " Let not the worship of dead men be any part of our " religion : they ought to be honoured, that we may imitate them ; but not worshipped." 469. The Council of Trent (§ 157.) ordered that due " wor- " ship should be given to the images," that relics should be " venerated," and condemned all who deny that the saints reign with Christ, and ofi'er their prayers to God for men. ARTICLE XXIII. De Ministrando in Ecclesid. 470. NoN licet cuiquam sumere sibi munus publice prsedicandi, aut administrandi Sacramenta in Ecclesia, nisi prius fuerit ad hsec obeunda legitime vocatus et missus. Atque illos legitime vocatos et missos existimare debemus, qui per homines, quibus potestas vocandi ministros atque mittendi in vineam Domini publice concessa est in Ecclesia, co-optati fuerint et adsciti in hoc opus. Of Ministering in the Congregation. 471. It is not lawful for any man to take upon him the office of public preaching or ministering the Sacraments in the Congregation, before he be lawfully called, and sent to execute the same.^''^ And those we ought to judge lawfully called and SCEIPTUEE PROOFS. a. I have not sent these prophets, yet they ran ; I have not spoken to them, yet they prophesied. Jer. xxiii. 21. No man taketh this honour unto himself, but he that is called of God as was Aaron. Heh. v. 4. Also Num. xvi. 1—35; 2 Chron, xxvi. 16—21. D D 418 Remarks on Article XXIII. sent, which be chosen and called to this work by men who have public authority given unto them in the Congregation, to call and send Ministers into the Lord's vineyard.*^' SCEIPTUKE PROOFS continued. h. And he ordained twelve, that they should be with him, and that he might send them forth to preach. Mar/c iii. ]4. After these things the Lord appointed other seventy also, and sent them two and two before his face into every city and place, whither he himself would come. Luke X. 1. Then said Jesus to them again,.... as my Father hath sent me, even so send I you. John xx. 21. As they ministered to the Lord and fasted, the Holy Ghost said. Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called them. And when they had fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on them, they sent them away. Acts xiii. 2, 3. Also 2 Cor. V. 18. 20; Acts xiv. 21—23; XX. 28; 1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6; ii. 2; Tit. 15. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXIII. 472. The first part of this Article is proved by Leviticus viii, where the family, age, and qualifications of those that might serve in the priesthood, are particularly set forth. In the New Testa- ment, our Lord said to the Apostles : " as the Father hath sent ''me, even so send I you" (John xx. 21.); evidently implying that He had power to transmit to others the commission He held Himself. When the Apostles went planting Churches, they in their turn appointed others over each particular Church ; as Epaphras or Epaphroditus at Colossse, Timothy at Ephesus, and TiTDS in Crete. Concerning the succession in which the ministry was to be continued, St. Paul said to Timothy : " The things " which thou hast heard of me among many witnesses, the same " commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able to teach others " also" (2 Tim. ii. 2.). He gives him further directions upon the various parts of public worship, " supplications, prayers, interces- " sions, and giving of thanks" (1 Tim. ii. 1.). He informs him of the necessary qualifications for Bishops and Deacons, and this he did that Timothy during Paul's absence " might know how to "behave himself in the house of God" (1 Tim. iii.); and cautions him to "lay hands suddenly on no man" (1 Tim. v. 22.). He gives him authority to rebuke, to entreat, to honour, to censure, to Remarks on Article XXIII. 419 receive accusations against elders^ to divide the word of truth, to preach the ivord, to be instant in season, out of season, to reprove, censure, exhort, to do the work of an Evangelist, to make full proof of the ministry (2 Tim. ii. 15; iv. 2, 5.). Titus was "left in Crete to set in order the things that were wanting," and to "ordain Elders in every city" {Tit. i. 5, 9, 13.). He is charged to rebuke the people sharply, to censure an heretic, to admonish him tivice, and if still uncorrected, to i^eject him (Tit. iii. 10.). To the Ephesians he says (iv. 11. 13), Christ "gave apostles, pro- " phets, evangelists, pastors and teachers," to continue in succes- sion, " till we all come in the unity of the faith and of the " knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man." So we are told generally that the Apostles "ordained Elders in every Church" (Acts xiv. 23.). And St. Peter exhorts the elders to " feed the flock of God, taking the oversight thereof" (1 Fet. v. 2.). The epistles of Clemens (§ 49), and Ignatius (§ 53), are likewise directed to the good government of the Churches by their pastors, and sufficiently shew that the Apostolical constitution was kept up in their age, as we have ample evidence that it was in the succeeding ages. 473. The second part of the Article defines those that are lawfully called to the ministry. Bishop Burnet says : " This is "put in very general words. The Article does not resolve this " into any particular constitution, but leaves the matter open and " at large for such accidents as had happened, and such as might "still happen. They who drew it had the state of the several " Churches before their eyes, that had been differently reformed ; and although their own had been less forced to go out of the "beaten path than any other, yet they knew that all things " among themselves had not gone according to those rules that " ought to be sacred in regular times." However, in our own Church we consider none lawfully called without Episcopal Ordi- nation ; and have reason to be thankful, that no political difficulties have broken up the regular Apostolical Constitution of our Church. D D 2 420 ARTICLE XXIV. De loquendo in Ecclesia lingua, quam Populus intelligit. 474. Lingua Populo non intellecta publicas in Eoclesia preces peragere, aut Sacramenta administrare, verbo Dei et primitivse Ecclesise consnetudini plane repugnat. Of Speaking in the Congregation in such a Tongue as the People under standeth. 475. It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God,'*^ and the custom of the primitive Church, to have public prayer in the Church, or to minister the Sacraments, in a tongue not understanded of the people. SCEIPTUKE PEOOFS. a. Except ye utter by the ton- gue words easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken? For ye shall speak into the air. 1 Cor. xiv, 9. If the whole church be come together into one place, and all speak with tongues, and there come in those that are unlearned or unbe- lievers, will they not say that ye are mad? But if all prophesy, and there come in one that believeth not, or one unlearned, he is convinced of all, he is judged of all; and thus are the secrets of his heart made manifest, and so faUing down on his face he will worship God, and report that God is in you of a truth, ibid. 23—25. RE>IARKS ON ARTICLE XXIV. 476. This Article is directed against the Romish rule, of celebrating public worship in the Latin tongue, in which the numerous formularies of that Church, commencing from Gregory THE Great (§ 119), are composed; and these had been imposed, together with the Papal supremacy, on all the barbarian tribes converted to Christianity in the dark ages. The custom is justi- fied by the plea of the infallibility of the Church which imposed it ; as also that the three languages, in which Pilate ordered the superscription to be written over the cross, are the only ones in which divine worship ought to be celebrated. The absurdity of these reasons has caused the Church of Rome to give up the rigid Article XXV. 421 adherence to the custom, and, in this country at least, the Papists have been shamed into the more reasonable practice of having most of the prayers in the Missal in the language of the people ; though the Mass is still muttered by the priest to himself in Latin {see § 127.). ARTICLE XXV. De Sacramentis. 477. Saceamenta a Christo instituta non tan turn sunt notse professi- onis Christianorum, sed certa qusedam potius testimonia, et efficacia sigua gratise, atque bonse in nos voluntatis Dei, per quse invisibihter ipse in nos operatur, nostramque fidem in se non solum excitat, verum etiam confirmat. Duo a Christo Domino nostro in Evangelio instituta sunt Sacramenta, scilicet Baptismus, et Coena Domini. Quinque ilia vulgo nominata Sacramenta, scilicet Confirmatio, Poeni- tentia, Ordo, Matrimonium, et Extrema Unctio, pro Sacramentis Evangelicis habenda non sunt: ut quse partim a prava Apostolorum imitatione profluxerunt, partim vitse status sunt in Scripturis quidem probati; sed Sacramentorum eandem cum Baptismo et Coena Domini rationem non habentes, ut quse signum aliquod visibile, sen cseremoniam a Deo institutam, non habeant, Sacramenta non in hoc instituta sunt a Christo, ut spectarentur aut circumferreutur, sed ut rite illis uteremur. Et in his duntaxat qui digne percipiunt, salutarem habent effectum: qui vero indigne percipiunt, damnationem, ut inquit Faulus, sibi ipsis acquirunt. Of the Sacraments. 478. Sacraments ordained of Christ be not only badges or tokens of Christian men's profession ; but rather they be certain sure witnesses, and effectual signs of grace and SCEIPTURE PROOFS. a. As many as have been baptiz- ed into Christ, have put on Christ. Gal. iii. 27. Know ye not that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death ? Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death; that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the Glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in new- ness of life. Por if we have been planted together in the likeness of his death, we shall be also in the likeness of his resurrection. Rom. vi. 3—5. As often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do shew the Lord's death till he come. 1 Cor. xi. 26.— Also Acts ii. 41, 42; Col. ii 12. 422 Article XXV. God's goodwill towards us/^' by the which he doth work invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but also strengthen and con- firm our faith in him. There are two Sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is to say, Baptism, ^''^ and the Supper of the Lord.'^^ Those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confir- mation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and Extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures : but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God. The Sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them. And in such only as worthily receive the same, they have a wholesome effect or operation : but they that receive them un- worthily, purchase to themselves damnation, as St Paul saith.^^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. h. Baptism doth also now save us, (not the putting away the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience towards God) by the resurrection of Jesus Christ. 1 Fet. iii. 21. The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the commu- nion of the body of Christ? 1 Cor. X. 16. c. Go ye therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them. Matt, xxviii. 19. He that believeth and is baptiz- ed shall be saved. Mark xvi. 16. d. The Lord Jesus, the same night in which he was betrayed, took bread; And when he had given thanks, he brake it, and said, Take, eat ; this is my body which is broken for you; this do in remembrance of me. After the same manner also he took the cup, when he had supped, saying, this cup is the new testament in my blood. This do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me. 1 Cor. xi. 23-25. e. Whosoever shall eat this bread and drink this cup of the Lord unworthily, shall be guilty of the body and blood of the Lord. But let a man examine himself, and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of that cup. For he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh damnation to himself, not discerning the Lord's body. Ibid. 27—29. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXV. 479. The word Sacrament has no determined Scriptural Remarks on Article XX V. 423 signification, since it is not found either in the Old or New Testa- ment. It was, however, very early applied to those vows by which Christians bound themselves to their religion; and it is used as such by Pliny, in his letter to Trajan (see § 51), either from the information he alleges to have obtained from the Chris- tians themselves, or from his own application of a word, well known to all men at that time, as the oath usually administered to the Roman soldiery. And here we may observe, that St. Paul having already frequently used military terms applied metaphori- cally to Christians (2 Tim. ii. 3, 4 and Eph. vi. 11 — 17), it is not improbable that the term Sacramentum was also thus applied by the early Christian teachers, to make their converts comprehend the solemn obligations they took upon themselves. The rites, therefore, which we understand, when we speak of Sacraments, were not considered merely as badges and distinctions by which Christians are known, as the standards or other distinc- tive marks among soldiers ; but they are permanent federal rites, by which Christians bind themselves to the Captain of their Salvation, being instituted by Christ Himself to unite us to Him, and so accompanied by a divine grace and benediction, as a mutual pledge on His part to those who worthily and faithfully enter upon His Sacraments. 480. The term then being applied exclusively to the federal rites instituted by Christ Himself, we must determine their character from the words and mode of institution, as given in the Scriptures. In conformity with this sound principle, our Church in the Catechism defines a Sacrament to consist of an outward visible sign or material symbol, and an inward spiritual grace ; a definition, which is founded upon the accounts given in the Gospels of the institution by our Saviour of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and satisfied by no other rites ordered in the New Testament, or introduced in succeeding ages. Hence neither the doctrine of Zuinglius (§. 162.) and the Socinians (§ 352) is sound, that the Christian Sacraments are only badges and tokens of profes- sion; nor is the Church of Rome justified in characterizing the 424 Remarks on Article XXV. five other rites, specified in the Article, as Sacraments, and ascrib- ing to them sacramental virtues and attributes. 481. Of these so called Sacraments, Confirmation is only the ratification of the Sacrament of Baptism, and is intended as an acknowledgment by the Bishop, as the chief of the community into which the baptized person had been previously admitted by an inferior minister, of the validity of that admission; and this acknowledgment is made in the name of that whole community, and the person admitted makes thus publicly profession of his membership. The rite itself is founded on the account given in the Vlllth Chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, where it is stated, that after Philip the Deacon had baptized some persons at Samaria, Peter and John were sent down by the Apostles from Jerusalem ; and when they had " prayed for them, that they " might receive the Holy Ghost... then laid they their hands on " them, and they received the Holy Ghost." Here we do not see the definition of a Sacrament satisfied. Confirmation was not instituted as a permanent rite by Jesus Christ Himself ; it was not administered with any visible material sign or symbol ; it had no promise of an inward spiritual grace attached to it. As for the gift of the Holy Ghost to those persons, that was attended with the visible effects usual at that time ; for we read, that Simon !Magus {see § 6 and § 39) saw^ that through laying on of the Apostles' hands the Holy Ghost was given. Now it is certain that no such visible effects attend any Christian rites at present, and we have reason to suppose, that the power of imparting those active virtues of the Holy Ghost was limited to the Apostles themselves, since we are told that Peter sharply rebuked Simon for aspiring to the same power; and though this rebuke is generally applied to his offer of purchasing that power for money, yet do we find nowhere that any one else either demanded or was freely endowed with it. The Church of Rome has been so fully sensible of the necessity of a material symbol as a constituting characteristic of a Sacrament, that they have devised the chrism, a mixture of olive-oil and opobalsamum, with which the sign of the Remarks on Article XXV. 425 cross is made on the forehead. For this there is not the sHghtest warrant in Scripture; for the anointing of the sick with oil {Jam. v. 14.), cannot authorize its use to other purposes. 482. By Penance is properly meant the public confession of sorrow for such offences, as brought scandal upon the Church or community to which the offender belonged; and such open confession was required of the guilty person, before he was again recognised as a brother, and admitted into communion with the Church. It was not till above a thousand years after Christ, namely about the time of the Crusades {see § 142), that the Pope began to assume the power, imheard of in the Church before, of remitting sins against God's commandments, and even granting plenary indulgence^ for specified periods of time, of all punishments in this life and in the life to come, for any sins that a person might commit. Penance, considered in this light, was made a Sacrament, and endowed with the virtues and attributes of the real Sacraments, though the ancient forms of receiving penitents consisted only of a declaration or blessing in the form of a prayer. The glaring abuses, which in those times of ignorance and barbarism were at once founded on this presumed power of the priesthood, in the imposition of pecuniary and other easy penalties for the most heinous offences, strike so directly at the very foundation of Christianity, and indeed of all religion and morality, that a general outcry was raised against the imposture, as soon as the darkness of the Middle Ages began to pass away. The passage appealed to is John xx. 23 : " Whosesoever sins ye " remit, they are remitted unto them ; and whosesoever sins ye retain, they are retained." Now these words appear to confer unlimited authority, without any condition impKed. But the Romish Church, in order to constitute Penance a Sacrament, requires as conditions^ first, confession, which they regard as the outward visible sign ; and secondly, at least attrition, by which they mean an imperfect contrition, such as a momentary sorrow for some sin upon any motive however slight. If, however, any conditions are laid upon us for the obtainmg of pardon for our 426 Remarks on Article XXV. sins in order to our Salvation, they should be all those named in the Gospel, as faith, hope, charity, contrition, obedience. There- fore, since no condition is here named as a restraint upon this general power that is pretended to be given to priests by those words of our Saviour, they must either be considered as simple and unconditional^ or they must be limited to all the conditions that are expressed in the Gospel. And thus we think we are fully justified in saying, that by these words our Saviour did indeed fully empower the Apostles to publish His Gospel to the world, and to declare the terms of salvation and of obtaining the pardon of sin ; in which they were to be infallibly assisted, so that they could not err in discharging their commission : and the terms of the covenant of grace being thus settled by them, all who were to succeed them were also empowered to go on with the publication of this pardon and of those glad tidings to the world ; so that whatsoever they declared in the name of God, conformably to the tenor of that which the Apostles were to settle, should be always made good. We do also acknowledge, that the pastors of the Church have, in the way of censure and government, a ministerial authority to remit or retain sins, as they are matters of scandal or offence ; though that indeed does not seem to be the meaning of those words of our Saviour. And therefore we think that the power of pardoning and retaining is only declaratory ; so that all the exercises of it are then only effectual, when the declarations of the pardon are made conformably to the conditions of the Gospel. This doctrine of ours, as to penance and absolu- tion^ has been maintained by some of the best Romish authors, and some of the greatest schoolmen. Besides, the practice and tradition of the Church must be relied on in this respect, if in anything ; since there was nothing that both clergy and laity were more concerned to know and to deliver down faithfully than this, on which the authority of the one and the salvation of the other depended so much. The first occasion on which the Church had to exercise this discipline, was when those who had been guilty of apostasy during the persecutions of the Third Century Remarks on Article XXV. 427 {see § 79 & § 87.), desired to be received again into communion with the Church. In the Fourth Century, the previous strictness of the lives of Christians was much relaxed by the great numbers who embraced Christianity after the example of the emperors. Thus the chief business of the Councils, which met in that and the following century, consisted in establishing disciplinary regu- lations. Confession was at first made publicly. But the looseness of manners that had crept in making this inexpedient, the Bishop, or a penitentiary priest appointed by him, received Private Confes- sion; though the penance was still always public, and some sins were still pubHshed. But even this caused such scandal, that Nectarius (§ 107.), who was Patriarch of Constantinople about the end of the Fourth Century, and Chrysostom, his successor, prohibited secret confession altogether. In some places, however, it still continued. In the Fifth Century penance also began to be exercised in private ; and in the Seventh Century all public penance was discontinued, chiefly in consequence of the publication of the Penitential of Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury (a. d. 668-690), in which he gave a graduated scale of offences, with rules for proceeding with each kind {see § 172). This was eagerly adopted by the Western Church, and on it the whole monstrous system of pardons and indulgences was afterwards founded. 483. Orders J or formal Ordination by prayer and laying on of hands, to the holy functions of ministering the sacraments and preaching, we retain as we find it practised by the Apostles ; but we see in it none of the essentials of a Sacrament. All ancient rituals, and all writers of the First Seven Centuries, speak of nothing as essential to Orders but prayer and imposition of hands. In the tenth or eleventh centuries a new form was introduced of delivering the vessels in ordaining priests, with words giving them power to offer sacrifices to God and to celebrate Masses. These vessels were then considered as the material symbol, and the words as the formula of the Sacrament. If then this Sacrament^ as such, did not exist in the first nine centuries^ the Church must have been without valid orders ; which is absurd. 428 Remarks on Article XXV. Matrimony has no claim whatever to be regarded as a Sacra- ment. And having none of the essentials of a Sacrament assigned to it in the Gospel, St. Paul (1 Cor. vii. 6, &c.) speaks concerning it only from his own private judgment, as he himself declares ; which would hardly have been the case, had he con- sidered it as a Sacrament : nor would he have advised those, who like himself were able to abstain from it, to do so. His words in the Epistle to the Ephesians (v. 32), where he says of it, " This "is a great mystery,'''' are immediately explained by him, as if fearing they might be mistaken, by saying : But I speak concerning Christ and the Church." The Greek word " mystery " having been translated in the Vulgate by " sacrament," probably first led to this error. 484. The practice of giving extreme Unction to persons at the point of death, is founded on Mark vi. 13, and Jam. v. 14, 15, where oil is mentioned as applied to the sick. But this is undoubtedly done with a view to healing the sick, whereas the Church of Eome only administers it when there is little or no hope of recovery left, and calls it the sacrament of the dying. The anointing in the above passages was avowedly to effect a miraculous cure ; and since the Church does not now claim that miraculous power, there can be no occasion for applying the oil. For the same reason it is vain to say, that the benefit to the sick here intended is meant in a spiritual sense ; for the words and the context cannot bear such a sense. We find no mention of any unction of the sick till the beginning of the Fifth Century, when Pope Innocent I, in an Epistle, answers inquiries upon the subject made by another Bishop, which would certainly not have been made, had unction been always one of the acknowledged Sacraments of the Christian Church. However, in none of the ' Lives of the Saints ' before the ninth century, is there any mention made of their having extreme unction administered to them, though the circumstances attending their death are often very minutely related, and their receiving the Eucharist is of^en mentioned. Anointing of the sick indeed seems to have been Article XXVI. 429 practised from the seventh century : but from the prayers used with it, it is evident that recovery was intended, and that it was used, not as a sacrament for tlie benefit of the soul, but as a process beneficial to the body, as still practised in the Greek Church. Frequent failure in curing the disease led in the tenth century to its application to the soul. 485. In the concluding clause the word Sacraments means the sacramental elements, and refers only to the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper, called by the Romanists the host {hostia, a victim for sacrifice^ which is elevated at the celebration of the Mass, and carried about in public processions, when the people kneel or prostrate themselves in adoration of it. Such public processions being prohibited by the law in this country, are now performed within the Roman Catholic places of worship. Note. Worthily means, with repentance and faith, as explained in the 28th Article. ARTICLE XXVI. De vi institutionum divinamm, quod earn non tollat malitia Ministrorum. 486. QuAMYis in Ecclesia visibili bonis mali semper sunt admixti, atque interdum ministerio Yerbi et Sacramentorum administrationi praesint; tamen cum non suo, sed Christi nomine, agant, ejusque mandate et auctoritate ministrent, illorum ministerio uti licet, cum in verbo Dei audiendo, tum in Sacramentis percipiendis. Neque per illorum malitiam eflfectus institutorum Christi tollitur, aut gratia douoriim Dei minuitur, quoad eos qui fide et rite sibi oblata percipiunt ; quse propter institutionem Christi et promissionem efficacia sunt, licet per malos administrentur. Ad Ecclesiae tamen disciplinam pertinet, ut in malos ministros inqui- ratur, accusenturque ab his, qui eorum flagitia noverint; atque tandem, justo convicti judicio, deponantur. Of the Unworthiness of the Ministers^ ivhich hinders not the effect o f the Sacraments. 487. Although in the visible Church the evil be ever 430 Article XXVI. mingled with the good/^* and sometimes the evil have chief authority in the Ministration of the Word and Sacraments; yet forasmuch as they do not the same in their own name, but in Christ's, and do minister by his commission and authority, we may use their Mnistry, both in hearing the Word of God, and in receiving of the Sacraments. Neither is the effect of Christ's ordinance taken away by their wickedness, nor the grace of God's gifts diminished from such as by faith and rightly do receive the Sacraments ministered unto them, which be effectual because of Christ's institution and promise, although they be ministered by evil men^^\ Nevertheless, it appertaineth to the discipline of the Church, that enquiry be made of evil IVIinisters, and that they be accused of those that have knowledge of their offences ; and finally, being found guilty, by just judgment be deposed. SCEIPXrEE PEOOFS. a. Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophe- sied in thy name ? and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works? And then wiU I profess unto them, I never knew you : depart from me, ye that work iniquity. Matt. vii. 22, 23. Jesus answered them, Have not 1 chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil. John vi. /O. Such are false apostles, deceitful workers, trans- forming themselves into the apostles of Christ. And no marvel: for Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. Therefore it is no gi-eat thing if his ministers also be transformed as the ministers of righteousness, whose end shall be ac- cording to their works, 2 Cor. xi. 13—15. Also Matt. xiii. 47—49; Rev. ii. and iii. h. The Scribes and Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. All, therefore, what- soever they bid you observe, that observe and do ; but do not ye after their works, for they say, and do not. Matt, xxiii. 2, 3. We preach not ourselves but Christ Jesus the Lord. 2 Cor. iv. 5. Wc are ambassadors for Christ, as though God did be- seech you by us: we pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God. 2 Cor. v. 20. AVho then is Paul, and who is Apollos, but ministers by whom ye beheved, even as the Lord gave to every man? 1 Cor. iii. 5. Let a man so account of us, as of the ministers of Christ, and stewards of the mysteries of God. 1 Cor. iv. 1. c. I have planted, Apollos water- ed; but God gave the increase. So then neither is he that planteth any thing, neither he that watereth; but God that giveth the increase. 1 Cor. iii. 6. 7. We have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellency of the power may be of God, and not of us. 2 Cor. iv. 7. Some indeed preach Christ even of envy- and strife; and some also of good will What then ? notwithstanding, every way, whether in pretence, or in truth, Christ is preached; and I therein do rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. Phil. i. 15. 18. Also 1 Cor. ix. 27. d. Against an elder receive not an accusation, but before two or three witnes.ses. Them that sin re- Remar^ks on Article XXVI . 431 biike before all, that others also may fear. 1 Tim. v. 19, 20. He that troublefch you shall bear his judg- ment, whosoever he be I would they were even cut ofi', which trouble you. Gal v. 10. 12. Also 3 Johi 9, 10. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXVI. 488. This Article was framed in opposition to the Ana- baptists, who at the time of the Eeformation revived the doctrine of the Donatists {see § 104.), who held that not only heresy and schism, but also personal sins, invalidate the sacred functions of Christian Ministers. The latter sectaries rested upon certain passages in the writings of Cyprian, whom we have already found (§ 87) overzealous in the case of the readmission of the lapsed into the Church. But the celebrated Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, answered all that was cited from Cyprian in such a man- ner, as to set us an example, how we ought to distinguish between a due respect for the early Fathers, and an implicit adoption of all their opinions. The Church of Rome agrees with us in this particular ; but it has adopted another opinion, which must fill men's minds with equally distracting fears and doubts. This opinion is, that if the ministering priest has a secret intention, that the sacrament he administers shall be invalid, it becomes so ; and an anathema was passed at the Council of Trent against all who deny this doctrine. It is evidently intended to enhance the authority and power of the priest, but tends to destroy the whole credit of the Christian religion, in which the Sacraments are declared to be so necessary and efficacious. We hold that Sacra- ments are valid, if 'duly administered according to Christ's *■ ordinance' (see Article xix) ; and efficacious, if received by faith ' and rightly.' 489. The last paragraph of the Article is so. clear, that it needs no explanation; and so evident, that it needs no proof. Eli was threatened with punishment for his son's misconduct (1 Sam. iii. 11); Nadab and Abihu, sons of Aaron were punish- ed {Lev. x. 2) ; and Timothy was charged by St. Paul to enforce discipline among the Clergy (1 Tim. v. 1. 19, 20 and vi. 3. 5.). 432 Article XXVII. In the primitive Church, ministers who had been excommunicated for misconduct, though they might be receiyed again into the Church, were not again admitted to the functions or privileges of their order. ARTICLE XXVIL De Baptismo. 490. Baptismus non est tantum professionis signum, ac discriminis nota, qu^ Christiani a non Christianis discernantur, sed eiiam est signura Eegenerationis, per quod, tanquam per instrumentura, recte Baptismum suscipientes Ecolesise inseruntur; promissiones de remissione peccatorum, atque adoption e nostra in filios Dei per Spiritum Sanctum, visibihter obsignantur; tides confirmatur, et vi divinse invocationis gratia augetur. Baptismus parvulorum omnino in Ecclesia retinendus est, ut qui cum Christi institutione optime congruat. Of Baptism. 491. Baptism is not only a sign of profession, and mark of difference, whereby Christian men are discerned from others that be not christened ; but it is also a sign of regeneration or new birth, '^'^ whereby, as by an instrument, they that receive baptism rightly are grafted into the Church : The promises of forgive- ness of sin, and of our adoption to be the sons of God by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed and sealed, '"^^ faith is con- SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. This head has already been proved under Article xxv. note {a). b. Jesus answered and said unto him, Verily, verily, I say unto thee. Except a man be born again, he can- not see the kingdom of God.... Ex- cept a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. John iii. 3. o. If any man be in Christ, he is a new creature. 2 Cor. v. 17. According to his mercy he saved us, by the wash- ing of regeneration, and rene\^dng of the Holy Ghost. Tit iii. 5. c. For as the body is one, and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body ; so also is Christ. Eor by one Spirit we are all baptized into one body. 1 Cor. xii. 12, 13. The Church, which is his body, the ful- ness of him that lilleth all in all. IJph. i. 22, 23. Also Eo7n. vi 3—5. d. Then Peter said unto them, Bepent, and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the Holy Ghost. Acts ii. 38. And now why "tarriest thou ? Arise, and be baptized, and wash away thy sins, calling on the name of the Lord. Acts xxii. 16. Ye ".re all the children of God by faith in Christ Jesus. For as many of you Article XXVII, 433 firmed,'^' and grace increased,'*"^ by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young children is in any wise to be retained in the Church as most agreeable with the institution of Christ. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ. Gal. iii. 26, 27. Be(;ause ye are sons, God hath sent forth the Spirit of his Son into your hearts, crying, Abba, Father. Gal. iv. 6. Who hath also sealed us, and given us the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts. 2 Cor. i. 22. Ye were s-ealed with that Holy Spirit of promise, which is the earnest of our inheritance. Eph. i. 13, 14. e. Then they that gladly received his word were baptized &c....and they continued steadfastly in the Apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread and in prayers. Acts ii. 41, 42. Let us draw near with a true heart in full assurance of faith, having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and our bodies washed with pure water. Heb. x. 22. /. And the Apostles said unto the Lord, increase our faith. Luke xvii. 5. For this cause I bow my knees unto the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, of whom the whole family in heaven and earth is named, that he would grant you, according to the riches of his glory, to be strengthened with might by his Spirit in the inner man ; that Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith; that ye, being rooted and gi-ounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all saints what is the breadth, and length, and depth, and height (of)— and to know— the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge, that ve might be filled with all the fulness of God. Eph. iii. 14—19. Also Col. i. 9, 10. g. And they brought young child- ren unto him, that he should touch them, and his disciples rebuked those that brought them. But Avhen Jesus saw it, he was much displeased, and said unto them, Suffer the little childrea to come unto me, and forbid them not, for of such is the kingdom of God. Yerily I say unto you. Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not enter therein. And he took them up in his arms, put his hands upon them, and blessed them. Mark x. 13 — 16. Also Luke xviii. 15, 16. The promise is unto you and to your children. Acts ii, 39. She was baptized and her household. Acts xvi. 15. And he.... was baptized, he and all his. ibid. 33. Also 1 Cor. i. 16; vii. 14. EEMAilKS ON AETICLE XXVII. 492. Baptism is a federal admission into the Christian Church, as circumcision was into the Jewish Church. The Jews, at the time of our Saviour, had adopted baptism also as a rite of admission for Gentile converts ; and St. Paul's expression (1 Cor. X, 2.), that the Israelites " were all baptized unto Moses " in the cloud and in the sea," seems to point to an opinion then prevailing among the Jews to that effect. The message of enquiry sent by the Pharisees to John the Baptist, also shews that they considered baptism as a suitable rite to be performed 434 Remarks on Article XXVII. by the expected Messiah or his forerunner Eltas. John's Baptism, however, was different from that instituted by Christ after his resurrection (Matt, xxviii. 19.), in that it was not administered in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; and hence we find that St. Paul at Ephesus rebaptized those who had been baptized unto John's baptism by Apollos (Acts xix. 5.). The preparation and condition for John's baptism was repentance only ; but for the baptism instituted by Christ there is moreover required faith (see Catechism), or beUef in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, in whose name a person is baptized. And this implies likewise a belief in the Atonement of Christ, that is, in the kingdom of God. This our Saviour expresses in his words to Nicodemus : " Except a man be born " again, he cannot see the kingdom of God ; " and " Except a " man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into "the kingdom of God" {John iii. 3. 5.). Here is evidently meant that entire change and renovation of a man's mind and of all his powers, through which he must pass, before he can discern the true character of the dispensation of the Messias ; for that is the sense in which the kingdom of God is spoken of almost universally throughout the New Testament. St. Paul, in this view of Baptism, says : God " has saved us by the washing of "regeneration and renewing of the Holy Ghost" (Tit. iii. 5.); and this he explains elsewhere to mean our being dead unto sin, and buried with Christ ; our being risen and quickened with Him, and made alive unto God (Rom. vi. ; Col. ii.). Hence it is plain, that, though Baptism is more than a mere sign of profession and mark of difference, yet it is not of the nature of a charm, as if the very act (opus operatum, as the Romanists term it) always and necessarily carried with it an inward regeneration. The dis- pute about regeneration in Baptism arose with Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (§ 114.), who thought that all who were baptized were also regenerated, but made a difference between the regenerated and the predestinated. Our Article puts the efficacy of Baptism, in order to the forgiveness of our sins, and our adoption and salvation, Article XXVIII. 435 upon the vii-tue of prayer to God ; tliai is, upon those vows and other acts of devotion that accompany them. ■ 493. The last sentence concerning Infant Baptism is an instance of that moderation, which pervades all the Articles, and bears evidence of the wisdom of our Reformers; and of their holy earnestness of ^^^ii'P^^^j which did not allow itself to be drawn into the controversial animosities of the time. To this moderation we must no doubt ascribe, under Providence, the firm establishment of our Church ; and it is only to this that we can look for the preservation of its integrity amidst the renewed polemical animosities of our day. It was above all essential on this point at the time of the Reformation, when those violent sectaries, the Anabaptists, had renewed the Antip^edobaptist doctrine of Peter Bouis, who collected a party around him in France, about a. d. 1030. The opposition to them in Germany in the Sixteenth Century drove them to the commission of the most criminal excesses. — The texts adduced shew the grounds upon which the opinion of our Church is founded. ARTICLE XXVIIL De Coend Domini. 494. CcENA Domini non est tantum signum mutuse benevolentise Chris- tianorum inter se, varum potius est Sacrameutum nostrse per mortem Christi redemptionis : atque adeo rite, digne, et cum fide sumentibus, panis, quem frangimus, est commuuicatio corporis Christi; simihter poculum benedictionis est communicatio sanguinis Christi. Panis et Vini Transubstantiatio iu Eucharista ex sacris Uteris probari non potest; sed apertis Scripturse verbis adversatur, Sacramenti naturam evertit, et multarum superstitionum dedit occasionem. Corpus Christi datur, accipitur, et manducatur in Coen^ tantum ccelesti et spirituali ratione. Medium autem, quo corpus Christi accipitur et man- ducatur in Coena, fides est. Sacramentum Eucharistife ex institutione Christi non servabatur, cir- cumferebatur, elevabatur, nee adorabatur. E E 2 436 Article XXVIII. Of the Lord's Supper. 495. The supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another/^^ but rather is a Sacrament of our Redemption by Christ's death/^^ insomuch that to such as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ; and likewise the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ.'^) Tran substantiation (or the change of the substance of Bread and Wine) in the Supper of the Lord, cannot be proved by Holy Writ, but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, over- throweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions. ^"^^ The Body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavenly and spiritual manner.*^' And the mean SCRIPTURE PROOFS. a. By this shall all men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to another. John xiii, 35. Beloved, if God so loved us, we ought also to love one another. John iv. 11. For we being many are one bread, and one body, for we are all partakers of that one bread. 1 Cor. x. 17. Also 1 John iii. 23 ; Rom. xii. 5. b. And he took bread, and gave thanks, and brake it, and gave unto them, saying. This is my body, which is given for you ; this do in remem- brance of me. Likewise also the cup after supper, saying, This cup is the New Testament in my blood, which is shed for you. Luke xxii. 19, 20. Also Matt. xxvi. 26, 27. c. The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ? 1 Cor. x. 16. d. As often as ye eat this bread, and drink this (!up, ye do shew the Lord's death till he come. 1 Cor. xi. 26. Whom the heaven must re- ceive until the time of restitution of all things. Acts iii. 21, e. I am the bread of life : he that Cometh to me shall never hunger; and he that believetli on me shall never thirst He that belie veth on me hath everlasting life. I am that bread of life. Your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness, and are dead. This is the bread which cometh down from heaven, that a man may eat thereof, and not die. I am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any man eat this bread, he shall live for ever ; and the bread that I will give is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh ray blood, hath eternal life; and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed. He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him. As the living Father hath sent me, and I live by the Father : so he that eateth me, even he shall live by me. This is that bread which came Remarks on Article XXVIII. 437 whereby the Body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith.(f) The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped. SCKIPTUEE PROOFS continued. down from heaven : NOT as your fathers did eat manna, and are dead : he that eateth of this bread shall live for ever Many therefore of his disciples, when they had heard this, said, This is an hard saying : who can hear it? When Jesus knew in himself that his disciples murmured at it, he said unto them, Doth this offend you? What and if ye shall see the Son of man ascend up where he was before ? It is the spirit that quicJceneth; the FLESH PEOFITETH NOTHING : the WORDS that I speak unto you, THEY are spirit, and THEY are life. John vi. 58. 47—51. 53—58. 60—63. /. See note e. g. See note h. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXVIII. 496. In the Articles of Edward YI. the following paragraph on Transubstantiation was added : " Forasmuch as the truth of man's nature requireth that the body of one and the selfsame man Cannot be at one time in divers places, but must needs be in one certain place; therefore the body of Christ cannot be present at one time in many and divers places : and, because, as Holy Scripture doth teach, Christ was taken up into heaven, and there shall continue unto the end of the world ; a faithful man ought not either to believe or openly confess the real and bodily presence, as they term it, of Christ's flesh and blood in the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper." This paragraph was in the copy subscribed by Convocation in Elizabeth's reign, but was omitted in the published copy from a sense of moderation, and as being indeed superfluous, after what precedes. The doctrine of Transubstantiation was not thought of, as we have seen (§ 133.), till the middle of the ninth century. In the preceding centuries we find no mention whatever of it, though almost all the other doctrines of Christianity were subjected to discussion, and decisions made upon them by Councils. The early Fathers, in all their arguments against heretics, appeal to the evidence of our senses ; and especially against the Docetae {see § 41.), who 438 Remarks on Article XXVIII, denied the reality of our Lord's body. It is by this evidence only that God convinces the world of the authority of those whom He sends to speak in His name. He gives them a power to work miracles, which is an appeal to the senses of mankind ; and it is the strongest appeal that can be made. For those who stood out against the evidence of Christ's miracles, are said to have no cloak for their sins. We can only receive a revelation by hearing .or reading, by our ears or by our eyes. If then any part of this revelation destroys the certainty of the evidence which our senses give us, it destroys itself ; for we cannot be bound to believe it upon the evidence of our senses, if this is a part of it, that our senses are not be trusted. Now, the Romanists say, that the bread and wine, after consecration, are annihilated ; and that, instead of them, their outward appearances or accidents alone remain, under which the real body of Christ is present. This transformation they attribute to miracle, perpetually repeated at the celebration of every Mass through all ages. Of this they are so firmly convinced, that they pay to these elements of bread and wine the same adoration, which they would pay to the real person of Jesus Christ, if He were visibly present. This we consider barefaced idolatry. And since, according to another doctrine of theirs, the true consecration, and therefore the true transubstantiation, depends upon the intention of the priest {see § 488.), but the adoration takes place at every celebration of the Mass ; it is evident that they must themselves confess, that this doctrine must have frequently caused acts of idolatry in the worshippers. Nor can it be objected, that there are mysteries in the Christian religion, which contradict the experience of our senses, and even our reason, which is a faculty superior to our senses. For there is a great difference to be made between our reasonings upon difficulties, which we cannot understand, and our reasonings upon clear principles and physical facts. The one may be false, but the other must be true. We are sure that a thing cannot be one and three in the same respect; for our reason assures us of this, and we do and must believe it. But we know Remarks on Article XXVIII. 439 that in different respects the same thmg may be one and three. And since we cannot know all the possibilities of those different respects, we must believe it upon the authority of a divine reve- lation ; though if a revelation should affinn, that the same thing is one and three in the same respect, we should not, and, indeed, could not believe it. To obviate such insurmountable objections to their doctrine, the schoolmen of the middle ages invented a whole new system of physical philosophy, with a special nomen- clature for the properties and attributes of things. Thus they say that uhicatwn, or the being in a place, is but an accident to a substance ; and so the same body's being in many places at the same time, means only that it has a few more of these accidents produced in it by miraculous agency. This, they think, meets the difficulty of conceiving, that the whole real body of Christ should be present at the same time in every place where the Sacrament is administered. They were compelled to have re- course to these and many other subtleties to uphold this new doctrine ; whilst the ancients, who disputed with the most acute arguments upon so many other things — as the attributes of the Deity, the essence and persons of the Trinity, and others — did nevertheless conceive of no such doctrine, and consequently needed not to have recourse to any such subtleties. Neither did the Jews, or any of the heathen adversaries, ridicule the early Christians for this doctrine, as they did for others ; and had this doctrine been held at that time, there can be no doubt, that antagonists like Julian the Apostate {see § 100.), who had him- self been carefully instmcted in all points concerning the Christian religion, would have availed themselves of it. And lastly, when . accused by their enemies of celebrating Thyestean suppers and eating human flesh, we find the Fathers simply denying it as a downright calumny, without any allusion to any such doctrme as the real presence of the actual body of Christ ; which, however, would have been the most obvious explanation, had they held it at that time. 440 Remarks on Article XXVIII. 497. The Lutherans hold the doctrine of Consuhstantiation ; that is, that the bread and wine remain what they are, but the body of Christ is also present at the same time. Some of them are called uhiquitarians, because thev hold that the body of Christ is everywhere, as well as in the Sacrament. Others consider that the words of Christ must necessarily be true in their literal sense : and that His body is therefore present m, vnth, and under the bread and wine. Nearly all the same arguments, adduced before, apply here equally. However, they do not carry this there opinion further, and do not practice adoration of the elements in consequence of it ; and therefore we hold communion with them, since they do not allow that opinion to influence their morals, nor the purity of religious worship. 498. As we consider neither of the above doctrines tenable against the arguments adduced, and others that might be adduced, so we think them also contrary to the express words of Scripture, as given in the texts above. Since Christ in saying " He that eateth of this bread shall live for ever," evidently promised a spiritual life ; therefore we conclude that the hread^ which He called His flesh, must also be meant to be to us spiritual food. Hence the Article says : The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten after a heavenly and spiritual manner. 499. The concluding sentence of the Article condemns not only the lifting up and worshipping of the consecrated bread and wine, as practised in the Romish Church, but also their carrying the elements in processions to the sick, and reserving them for the absent. This latter custom has also given rise to subtle dis- cussions, whether and how long the body of Christ continues, when the bread becomes mouldy, and the wine sour. 500. The only Christians at the present day, who do not celebrate the sacrament of the Lord's supper, are the Quakers, who make their whole religion to consist in contemplative love. 441 ARTICLE XXIX. De Manducatione Corporis Christi, et impios illud non manducare. 501. Impii, et fide viva destituti, licet carnaliter et visibiliter, ut Augus- tirnis loquitur, corporis et sanguinis Christi Sacramentum dentibus premant, nullo tamen modo Christi participes efficiuntur : sed potius tantse rei Sacra- mentum, seu symbolum, ad judicium sibi mauducant et bibunt. Of the Wicked, ivhich eat not the Body of Christ in the use of the Lord's Svpper. 502. The Wicked, and such as be void of a lively faith, although they do carnally and visibly press with their teeth (as St Augustine saith) the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ ; yet in no wise are they partakers of Christ, but rather to their Condemnation, do eat and drink the sign or Sacrament of so great a thing. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. When he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon. And after the sop, Satan entered into him. John xiii. 26, 27. Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord, and the cup of devils : ye can- not be partakers of the Lord's table, and of the table of devils. 1 Cor. x. 21. He that eateth and drinketh un- worthily, eateth and drinketh dam- nation to himself, not discerning the Lord's body. 1 Cor. xi. 29. Also 1 Cor. V. 7, 8. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXIX. 503. This Article is intended to refute the Romanists, who maintain that the mere receiving of the sacrament (opus operatum) procures remission of sins, since, by their doctrine of Transubstan- tiation, all communicants receive the body of Christ. But if, as we say, Christ is present in a spiritual manner, and if the mean whereby the body of Christ is received be faith, then such as beheve not, do not receive Him. Our Saviour expressly said : " Whoso eateth my flesh a*id drinketh my blood, hath eternal " life " {John vi. 54.). Whence we conclude, that no man does truly receive Christ, who does not at the same time receive with Him a right to eternal life. Not only Augustine, but many others of the Fathers, express this opinion in strong terms. 442 ARTICLE XXX. De utrdque Specie. 504 Calix Domini laicis non est denegandus: utraque enim pars Dominici Sacramenti, ex Christi institutione et prsecepto, omnibus Cliris- tianis ex aequo administrari debet. Of Both Kinds. 505. The Cup of the Lord is not to be denied to the Lay- people : for both the parts of the Lord's Sacrament, by Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to be ministered to all Chris- tian men alike. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of it. Matt. xxvi. 27. And he took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. Mark xiv. 23. As often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do show the Lord's death till he come. 1 Cor. xi. 26. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXX. 506. The practice condemned in this Article arose from the doctrine of Transubstantiation. For considering the whole body of Christ to be present under each of the elements, men were at first led to think it sacrilegious to waste any of either. They therefore dipped the bread in the wine and so partook of both at once, contrary to the separate institution of each by our Saviour. They also devised a means of sipping the wine through tubes, to avoid its dripping on their beards ; and in the Eleventh Century small wafers of unleavened bread began to be used, to prevent the waste of crumbs, and these wafers were afterwards stamped with a crucifix (see § 305.). In the Thirteenth Century Pope Innocent IV. permitted all to hav^ the cup who were cautious not to spill any. In all preceding ages we find, both from the Fathers and from all the ancient Liturgies, that the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds to all. At length the Council of Constance, in 1414 (see § 146.), decreed, that it should be con- Article XXXI. 443 secrated in both kinds, but administered to the laity only in one kind, " since Christ was entire and truly under each kind." 507. We consider the word " a//," added in the institution when the cup is mentioned, though not with the bread, as suffi- ciently decisive. If it be said, that the Apostles were ordained ministers, we answer, that they were not such till they received their mission after Christ's resurrection, when He breathed *' on them, and saith unto them, Receive ye the Holy Ghost &c." {John XX. 22.). Further, the text quoted from St. Paul shews, that he meant both the bread and the cup to be taken by all the Corinthian Christians. ARTICLE XXXL De unicd Christi Oblatione in Cruce perfectd. 508. Oblatio Christi semel facta, perfecta est redemptio, propitiatio, et satisfactio pro omnibus peccatis totius mundi, tarn originahbus quam actua- libus : neque praeter illam unicam est ulla alia pro peccatis expiatio. Unde Missarum sacrificia, quibus vulgo dicebatur sacerdotem offerre Christum, in remissiouera poenae aut culpa;, pro vivis et defunctis, blasphema figmenta sunt, et perniciosae impostures. Of the one Oblation of Christ finished upon the Cross. 509. The Offering of Christ once made,^*^ is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world, both original and actual and there is none other SCEIPTUEE PROOFS. a. Now once in the end of the | world hath he appeared to put away sin b}^ the sacrifice of himself. Heh. ix. 26. AVe are sanctified through { the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all. And every priest standeth daily ministering and offer- ing oftentimes the same sacrifices, which can never take away sins : but this man, after he had offered one sacrifice for sins, for ever sat down on the right hand of God. Heh. x. 10—12. b. Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world. John i. 29. If any man sin, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous, and he is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for the sins of the whole world. 1 John ii. 1, 2. 444 Remarks on Article XXXI. satisfaction for sin, but that alone. '.'^^ Wherefore the sacrifices of Masses, in the which it was commonly said, that the Priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous fables, and dangerous deceits. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. c. By one offering he hath per- fected for ever them that are sancti- fied. Seh. X. 14. There remaineth no more sacrifice for sin. Heh. x. 26. God was in Christ reconcihng the world unto himself, not imputing their trespasses unto them. 2 Cor. v. 19. In whom we have redemption through his blood, even the forgive- ness of sins. Col. i. 14. d. Nor yet that he should offer himself often, as the high priest entereth into the holy place every year with blood of others; for then must he often have suffered since the foundation of the world: but now once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself. Seh. ix. 25, 26. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXI. 510. Here the doctrine of the Church of Kome, that the celebration of the Lord's supper is an expiatory sacrifice, is con- futed. Next to the infallibility of the Church, or rather of the Pope, this is the doctrine on which the papists lay the greatest stress, and in which both priests and people are better instructed than in any other point. Till the twelfth century, solitary Masses., that is, the celebration of the communion by the priest alone without any communicants, was never tolerated. As early as the reign of Charlemagne, in the beginning of the ninth century, the council of Mentz decreed, that no priest should say Mass alone ; so that the abuse must have already commenced then. In the early ages we find no mention of the Communion anywhere as a sacrifice for men's sins offered to God. All the ancient Liturgies show that it was considered as a grateful commemoration of the sacrifice of Christ's death, in which we renew, by renewed acts of faith, our covenant with God, and share in the effects of that death which He suffered for us. All the early writers bear testi- mony to the same thing. Justin Martyr in his Second Apology (§ 55 and 65.) says, that Christians had no other sacrifices but prayers and praises {see also Heh. xiii. 15.). So the Apologises Athenagoras and Minucius Felix {see § 55 and 65.), justify Eemarh on Article XXXI. 445 Christians for having no other sacrifice but pure hearts, clean consciences, and a steadfast faith. Clemens of Alexandria and Tertullian (§ 65.), Origen and x^rnobius (§ 89.*), write to the same effect. The adversaries of Christianity also constantly re- proach Christians for having no sacrifices ; and especially Julian the Apostate (§ 100.), who was perfectly acquainted with all that con- cerned Christianity, yet makes the same objection, without consider- ing the Communion as a sacrifice. The idea of the sacrifice of the Mass arose indeed only from the doctrines of Purgatory and Transubstantiation. By the latter, the bread and wine were considered to be miraculously changed into the real body of Christ, which was then considered to be offered up to God by the priest as an atoning sacrifice, just as Christ offered himself at the Crucifixion as an atoning saciifice for the sins of mankind. And hence arose the assumption of the dignity of a sacrificing priesthood by the clergy ; which was heightened by the power they pretended to, of saving the souls of men from the pains of purgatory by saying Masses. We need not here again dwell upon the abuses of trafficking in these Masses for money. The texts adduced sufficiently refute the idea of a sacrifice of expiation in the Mass, and of a sacrificing priesthood. And St. Paul in the Epistle to the Hebrews clearly explains the application of these terms to Christ. Speaking of the Levitical priests he says, " And they truly were many priests, because they were not " suffered to continue by reason of death ; but this man, because " he continueth ever, hath an unchangeable priesthood" (^Heh. vii. 23, 24.). Thus clearly appropriating the rank of the Priesthood of the New Dispensation to Christ alone. And after arguing long, that Christ's death is the only sacrifice needed any more, he asks : If the sacrifices offered year by year had purged the worshippers, "then would they not have ceased to be offered?" {Heh. X. 1, 2.). And answers conclusively : " Every priest stands " daily ministering and offering oftentimes the same sacrifices, " which can never take away sins : but this man, after he had " offered one sacrifice for sins, for ever sat down on the right 446 Article XXXII. " hand of God .... For by one offering he hath perfected for ever "them that are sanctified" (Heh. x. 11 — 14.). Here we have the thread of a full and clear discourse, to show that in the strict sense of the words we have but one priest and one sacrifice under the Gospel; and this is the doctrine which our Church holds and maintains in this Article. ARTICLE XXXII. De Conjugio Sacerdotum. 511. Episcopis, Presbyteris, et Diaconis nullo mandate divino prsecep- tum est, ut aut coelibatum ■voveant, aut a matrimonio abstineant. Licet igitur etiam illis, ut cseteris omnibus Christianis, ubi hoc ad pietatem magis facere judicaverint, pro suo arbitratu matrimonium contrahere. Of the Marriage of Priests. 512. Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, are not commanded by God's Law either to vow the estate of single life, or to abstain from marriage : therefore it is lawful for them, as for all other Christian men, to marry at their own discretion, as they shall judge the same to serve better to godliness. ^''^ SCEIPTUEE PKOOFS, a. Marriage is honourable in all. Sel. xiii. 4. Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles, and as the brethren of the Lord, and Cephas ? 1 Cor. ix. 5. A bishop must be blameless, the husband of one wife. 1 Tim. iii. 2. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children and their own houses well. Ibid. 12. Also 1 Tim. iv. 1—3, REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXII. 513. The law of Moses, so far from forbidding priests to marry, made their office, even that of the High Priest, hereditary in their families ; so that they were in fact compelled to marry to obey the law of God. Our Saviour certainly made no change in this respect ; for he chose Peter as his first Apostle, who w£*s married, since we are told that Jesus cured his wife's mother of a Remarks on Article XXXI 1 . 447 fever {Matt. viii. 14.). No doubt most of the other Apostles were hkewise married. St. Paul, in giving such special directions regarding the quaUfications of men for the various degrees of the ministiy, so far from enjoining celibacy, says in several places that they should be husbands of one wife; though speaking generally of all men, he says : " He that is unmarried careth for " the things that belong to the Lord ; but he that is married " careth for the things that are of the world ;" but " It is better "to marry than to burn" (1 Cor. vii. 32, 33. 39.). If in the early ages of the Church men had left their wives when ordained, we should no doubt have foimd the enemies of Christianity reproaching them with it. We find indeed that a certain Bishop, charged vrith le\qty, to clear himself, proposed at the Council of Niccea, that the clergy should depart from their wives (§ 95.); but the historian expressly declares, that till then they had lived with their wives. Second marriages were indeed discountenanced among the clergy. In after times we find such repeated Canons passed by Roman and African synods against the marriage of the clergy, that it is evident that they were not obeyed. In the Greek Church men are usually married before they enter into holy orders, and continue to live with their wives and families ; and only when promoted to the rank of Bishops, generally when already advanced in years, are they required to separate from their wives. We find Gallican and Spanish Synods mention the wives of Bishops and Priests as Episcopm and PreshytercB. In the Saxon times the Cathedral clergy in England were openly mamed, till Duxstan in the Tenth Century charged them to forsake their wives on pain of deprivation. Pope Gregory VII, as we have seen (§ 137), to withdraw the clergy as much as possible from the jurisdiction of princes, and place them under his own absolute control, compelled them to put away their wives. Laxfranc, who was Archbishop in the reign of William the Conqueror, only imposes celibacy on the clergy in Cathedrals ; but his successor Axselm imposed it on all the clergy. The crying abuses brought about by the compulsory celibacy of the 448 Article XXXIII, clergy, caused the Reformers, both in Germany and in England, to dispense with it ; though men had become so accustomed to see the clergy distinguished by it from the laity, that the change caused some displeasure among the people at first. The first portion of the Article was all that was pubUshed in the first set of Articles, leaving the conclusion to be inferred. ARTICLE XXXIII. De excommunicatis vitandis. 514. Qui per publicam Ecolesise denunciation em rite ab unitate Ecclesise prsecisus est, et excommunicatus, is ab universa fidelium multi- tudine, donee per poenitentiam pubhce reconciliatus fuerit arbitrio Judicis competentis, habendus est tanquam Ethnicus et Publicanus, Of Excommunicate Persons, how they are to he avoided 515. That person which by open denunciation of the Church is rightly cut off from the unity of the Church, and excommuni- cated,^*^ ought to be taken of the whole multitude of the faithful, as an Heathen and Publican, until he be openly reconciled by penance, and received into the Church by a Judge that hath authority thereunto. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. For I verily have judged already in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, when ye are gathered together, and my spirit, with the power of our Lord Jesus Christ, to dehver such an one unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of our Lord Jesus. 1 Cor. v. 3, 4, 5. h. If he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church; but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man and a publican. Matt, xviii. 17. Now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous. or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner; with such an one no not to eat. 1 Cor. v. 11. Also 1 Cor. V. 12. c. Sufficient unto such a man is this punishment, which was inflicted of many. So that contrariwise ye ought rather to forgive him, and comfort him, lest perhaps such an one should be swallowed up of over- much grief. 2 Cor. ii. 6, 7. If any man obey not our word by this epistle, note that man, and have no company with him, that he may be ashamed. Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother. 2 Thess. iii. 14, 15. Remarlcs on Article XXXIII. 449 REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXIII. 516. The strict purity of character and conduct, required of those who were considered as members of the Christian brother- hood in the earliest times, made it necessary to exclude from the community such as brought scandal upon it by unbecoming con- duct. The case alluded to by St. Paul in the texts adduced shows, that this severity of discipline began already in the Apostolic times. When the numbers of Christians increased, and instances of misconduct were of more frequent occurrence, regular rules of discipline were estabhshed ; and offenders were either ex- cluded only from the partaking of the Communion, until they had gone through certain acts and forms of penance ; or, for heinous or repeated offences, were entirely expelled from the Church. We have seen what disputes arose on this subject between those who were willing to receive back the lapsed^ that is, those who had been guilty of temporary apostasy ; and those who wished to exclude them at once feom the Church {see § 79 and 87.). In the corrupt times that soon followed, down to the time of the Reformation, the sentence of excommunication was a weapon hurled by parties against each other upon the slightest provocation ; and especially formidable in the hands of the Popes in the days of their greatest power, when the thunders of the Vatican brought down certain destruction upon the devoted head. At the present day, when the established tribunals in all Christian countries take cognizance of moral delinquencies, the custom of excommunicating those guilty of such offences has fallen into desuetude ; and with it that of exacting public penance on their desiring again to be received into the communion of the Church. Nevertheless, our Church acknowledges the right of its ministers to refuse admis- sion to the communion to "open and notorious evil livers " (§ 293.). But it is only a temporary suspension; for the minister must within fourteen days after give an account to the Ordinary (§ 254.), who will then take further measures against the person complained of. These difficulties cause the right of exclusion never to be put in practice at the present day. F F 450 ARTICLE XXXIV. De Traditionihus Ecclesiasticis. 517. Traditiones atque Cseremonias easdem non omnino necessarium est esse ubique, aut prorsus consimiles : nam et varies semper fuerunt, et mutari possunt, pro regionum, temporum, et morum di-versitate, modo nihil contra verbum Dei instituatur. Tradiliones et cseremonias Ecclesiasticas, quae cum verbo Dei non pugnant, et sunt auctoritate publica institutse atque probata), quisquis private consilio volens, et data opera, publice violaverit, is, ut qui peccat in publicum ordinem Ecclesise, quique Isedit auctoritatem Magistratus, et qui infirraorum fratrum conscientias vulnerat, publice, ut cseteri timeant, arguendus est. Quselibet Ecclesia particularis sive nationalis auctoritatem habet insti- tuendi, mutandi, aut abrogandi cseremonias aut ritus Ecclesiasticos, humana tantum auctoritate institutes, modo omnia ad sedificationem fiant. Of the Traditions of the Church. 518. It is not necessary that Traditions and Ceremonies be in all places one, and utterly like; for at all times they have been divers, and may be changed according to the diversities of countries, times, and men's manners, so that nothing be ordained against God's Word.^^^ Whosoever, through his private judg- ment, willingly and purposely doth openly break the traditions and ceremonies of tbe Church, which be not repugnant to the Word of God, and be ordained and approved by common authority, ought to be rebuked openly, (that others may fear to do the like),^^' as he that offendeth against the common order of the SCRIPTURE PROOFS. Of. The Idngdom of God is not meat and drink, but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost. For he that in these things serveth Christ is acceptable to God, and approved of men. Let us there- fore follow after the things which make for peace, and things where- with one may edify another. Rom. xiv. 17—19. Let all things be done decently and in order. 1 Cor. xiv. 40. h. Them that sin rebuke before all, that others also may fear. 1 Tim. V. 20. Warn them that are unruly. 1 Thess. V. 14. Judge this, that no man put a stumbling block or an occasion to fall in his brother's way. Rom. xiv. 13. If any man seem to be contentious, we hav6 no such custom, neither the Churches of God. 1 Cor. xi. 16. Remarks on Article XXXIV. 451 Church/^^ and liiirtetli the authority of the Magistrate/"^^ and woundeth the consciences of the weak brethren J'^^ Every particular or national Church hath authority to ordain, change, and abolish, ceremonies or rites of the Church ordained only by man's authority, so that all things be done to edifying.*^' SCEIPTUEE PROOFS continued. c. Now we command you, brethren, ! subject, not only for wrath, but also intbenameof our Lord Jesus Christ, for conscience' sake. -Ro??i. xiii. 1, 5. that ye withdraw yourselves from ! Obey them that have the rule over every brother that walketh dis- you, and submit yourselves ; for they orderly, and not after the tradition watch for your souls, as they that which ye received of us. 2 Thess. j must give account, that they may do iii. 6. I beseech you, brethren, mark it with joy, and not with grief, for them with, cause divisions and of- j that is unprofitable for you. Jleb. fences contrary to the doctrine which j xiii. 17. e. When ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak con- science, ye sin against Christ. 1 Cor. viii. 12. ye have learned, and avoid them. For they that are such serve not our Lord Jesus Christ. Bom. xvi. 17, 18. d. Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake. 1 Fet. ii. 13. Let every soul be sub- j /. Let us therefore follow after ject unto the higher powers. For ! the things which make for peace, and there is no power but of God : the things wherewith one may edify powers that be are ordained of God i another. i2om. xiv. 19. Let all things Wherefore ye must needs be j be done unto edifying. 1 Cor. xiv. 26. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXIY. 519. By Traditions are here meant modes and customs of celebrating pubhc worship, not the supposed articles of faith which the Church of Eome considers to be handed down from the time of the Apostles as supplementary to the Scriptures, and therefore necessary to salvation. The latter have been already condemned in the Sixth Article. That the Church has the right to establish and regulate such rites and ceremonies has already been shewn in the Twentieth Article. It remains therefore only to show, that private persons are bound to conform themselves to such ceremonies, especially when they are also enacted by the national legislature ; and that the latter has the power to legislate in such matters for the Church, we acknowledge in the Prayer for the High Court of Parliament, where we pray God, " to " direct and prosper all their consultations, to the advancement of F F 2 452 Remarks on Article XXXIV. " His glory and the good of His Church," and confess that under God it depends on their endeavours, " that reHgion and piety may " be estabhshed among us for all generations." Since then we are bound to " obey them that have the rule over us, and to " submit ourselves," we may not " willingly and purposely break ^'the traditions and ceremonies of the Church, which be not " repugnant to the Word of God," especially if we profess to be members of that body for which they are " ordained and approved by common authority ;" and above all, when as officers and ministers within that body, we have subscribed, and solemnly promised and engaged to conform and adhere to them. 520. The second part of this Article is against the unal- terableness of laws made in matters such as those discussed here. Since we acknowledge in the Church the legislative power in such matters, that power must of course reside with the Church in every age ; and therefore one age cannot bind another age by its legislation, without depriving the latter of its inherent authority and power. The laws of God are binding on all men in all ages ; but the laws of the Church, as well as the laws of every state, are only provisions made for the present state of things. As therefore circumstances change, the Church may vary its " traditions and ceremonies," if it be found requisite to do so for the great ends of religion. The same reasonings will apply to different countries. The only question is, whether the Canons of General Councils and others may be altered or dispensed with by particular national Churches. Though the different branches of Christ's Church ought to hold communion together, since our Saviour in His last and longest prayer besought His Father that those whom He had given Him might be one body {John xvii. 11. 21), yet this difference is to be observed between the Christian and the Jewish religion, that the latter was specially confined to one nation and to one country, whilst Christianity was to be universal, and to extend over all nations, differing in climates and natural temperaments, in languages and customs. Since then the legislative power in question is given to the Remarhs on Article XXXIV. 453 Church only in order to edification, every nation must be the proper judge of that within itself. The Councils held during the integrity of the Roman Empire must be considered as national synods, which neither had, nor assumed, the right to impose their Canons on the Christians of Persia, India, and Ethiopia. Neither did those Councils attempt to remove the great diversities in rules and rituals, which then prevailed. The Council of Niceea made but few canons with any such tendency ; those of Constan- tinople and Ephesus made fewer still ; and even the Council of Chalcedon made but few to repress the abuses that had crept into the Church in the Fifth Century. Moreover, these early canons were entirely excluded by the Canon Law of Rome, founded on forged decrees, purporting to have been passed by the earliest Popes (see § 148,* 151, and 444). The subordination of Churches and Sees in the Roman Empire was regulated after the importance of cities ; and since that Empire has been broken up, every new empire, kingdom, or state, is equally an entire body within itself. The citizens of each are bound to submit to the powers that be, and hence it cannot be intended that they should be in any respect dependent on any foreign authority. Besides, we know, that great diversity of forms existed at all times. The Eastern and Western Churches differed greatly from each other. The Galilean Liturgy differed from the Roman Missal ; till Charlemagne, in his attempt to form again one united empire, compelled the adoption of the latter in France. Even in Italy the Liturgy of Ambrose was adhered to in many places. And in England also, customs and ceremonies differed greatly in various parts, the consequence, no doubt, of their separation during the Heptarchy (§ 241.). Though, therefore, different national Churches should have a charitable and brotherly correspondence and communication with one another, yet the authority of the magistrate and the obligations of pastoral care require, that every Church should act within herself as an entire and indepen- dent body. 454 ARTICLE XXXV. De Homiliis. 521. ToMUS secundus Homiliarum, quarum singulos titulos huic Articulo subjunximus, continet piam et salutarem doctrinam, et his tem- poribus necessarian!, non minus quam prior Tomus Homiliarum, quae editae sunt tempore Edvardi Sexti : itaque eas in Ecclesiis per ministros diligenter et clare, ut a populo intelligi possint, recitandas esse judicavimus. Of the Homilies. 522. The Second Book of Homilies, the several titles whereof we have joined under this Article, doth contain a godly and wholesome Doctrine, and necessary for these times, as doth the former Book of Homilies, which were set forth in the time of Edward the Sixth ; and therefore we judge them to be read in Churches by the Ministers, diligently and distinctly, that they may be understanded of the people. Of the Names of tlie Homilies. 1. Of the right use of the Church. 2. Against peril of Idolatry. 3. Of repairiiig and keeping clean of Churches. 4. Of good WorJcs : first of Fasting. 5. Against Gluttony and Drunken- ness. 6. Against lExcess of Apparel. 7. Of Prayer. 8. Of the Place and Time of Prayer. 9. That Common Prayers and Sacra- ments ought to he ministered in a known tongue. 10. Of the reverend estimation of God's Word. 11. Of Alms-doing. 12. Of the Nativity of Christ. 13. Of the Passion of Christ. 14. Of the Resurrection of Christ. 15. Of the worthy receiving of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ. 16. Of the Gifts of the Soly Ghost 17. For the Rogation-days. 18. Of the state of Matrimony. 19. Of Repentance. 20. Against Idleness, 21. Against Rebellion. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXV. 523. The word Homily is derived from ofiiKla, comraunication, conversation, or instruction. We have seen (§ 195.), that Homilies were already put forth in Henry's reign to be read as Sermons by Ministers who were unable or unwilling to preach. The First Book of Homilies, referred to in the Article, was Remarks on Article XXXV, 455 published soon after Edward's accession, and contains Twelve Sermons, headed : — 1. A fruitful Extiortatioa to the Eeading of Holy Scripture. Of tlie Misery of all Mankind, Of^he Salvaiion of all Mankind. Of the true and lively Faith. Of Good Works. Of Christian Love and Charity. Against Swearing and Perjury. 8. Of the Declining from God. 9. An Exhortation against the Pear of Death. 10. An Exhortation to Obedience. 11. Against Whoredom and Adul- tery. 12. Against Strife and Contention. The Second Book, which was not finished till about the time of king Edward's death, was not published till the reign of Elizabeth {see § 210.). The Article maintains the doctrines taught in them against the Romanists, who consider them here- tical : and against the Puritans and Presbyterians, and other sectaries, who think that nothing but the Scriptures ought to be read in churches, and therefore preach extemporaneously, or learn their discourses by heart. In these Homilies the Scriptures are often applied as they were then understood, not so critically as they have been explained since. But by this approbation of the two Books of Homilies it is not meant to be implied, that every passage of Scripture or argument that is made use of in them is always convincing, or that every expression is so severely worded,' that it may not need correction or explanation. All that we profess, is only, that they contain a godly and wholesome doctrine. 456 ARTICLE XXXVI. De Episcoporum et Ministrorum Consecratione. 524. LiBELLUS de Consecratione Archiepiscoporum et Episcoporum, et de Ordinatione Presbyterorum et Diaconorum, editus nuper temporibus jEdvardi VI., et auctoritate Parliamenti illis ipsis temporibus confirmatus, omnia ad ejusmodi consecrationem et ordinationem necessaria continet: et nihil habet, quod ex se sit aut superstitiosum aut impium. Itaque quicunque juxta ritus illius Libri consecrati aut ordinati sunt, ab anno secundo prsedicti regis JEdvardi usque ad hoc tempus, aut in posterum juxta eosdem ritus consecrabuntur aut ordinabuntur, rite, atque ordine, atque legitime statuimus esse et fore consecrates et ordinatos. Of Consecration of Bishops and Ministers. 525. The Book of Consecration of Archbishops and Bishops, and Ordering of Priests and Deacons, lately set forth in the time of Edward the Sixth, and confirmed at the same time by- authority of Parliament, doth contain all things necessary to such Consecration and Ordering : neither hath it anything, that of itself is superstitious and ungodly. And therefore whosoever are consecrated or ordered according to the Rites of that Book, since the second year of the forenamed king Edward unto this time, or hereafter shall be consecrated or ordered according to the same Rites; we decree all such to be rightly, orderly, and lawfully consecrated and ordered. SCEIPTUEE PROOFS. And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Take Aaron and his Sons with him, and the garments, and the anointing oil, and gather thou all the congregation together unto the door of the tabernacle of the congre- gation. And Moses did as the Lord commanded him ; and the assembly was gathered together unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. And Moses said unto the congrega- tion, This is the thing which the Lord commanded to be done. And Moses brought Aaron and his sons, and washed them with water. And he put upon him the coat, and girded him with the girdle, &c and he put the mitre upon his head; also upon the mitre, even upon his fore- front, did he put the golden plate, the holy crown, as the Lord com- manded Moses. And Moses took the anointing oil and he poured of the anointing oil upon Aaron's head, and anointed him, to sanctify him. And Moses brought Aaron's sons, and put coats upon them, &c And Moses took of the anointing oil, and of the blood which was upon the altar, and sprinkled it upon Aaron, and upon his garments, and upon his sons, and upon his son's garments Reriiarks on Article XXXVI. 457 SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. with him ; and sanctified Aaron and his garments, and his sons, and his sons' garments with him. And Moses said unto Aaron and to his sons Ye shall not go out of the door of the tabernacle of the congregation until the days of your consecra- tion be at an end. Lev. viii. 1—13 ; 30 — 33. And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying. Take the Levites from among the children of Israel and thou shalt bring the Levitas before the tabernacle of the congregation, and thou shalt gather the whole assembly of the children of Israel together; and thou shalt bring the Levites before the Lord, and the children of Israel shall put their hands upon the Levites ; and Aaron shall offer the Levites before the Lord for an offering of the children of Israel, that they may execute the service of the Lord, yianh. viii. 5— 11. Then said Jesus to them As my Father hath sent me, even so send I you. And when he had said this, he breathed on them, and saith unto them, Receive ye the Holy Ghost: Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them; and whose soever sins ye retain, they are re- tained. John XX. 21 — 23. If a man desire the office of a Bishop, he desu-eth a good work. 1 Tim. iii. 1. For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain Elders {Presbyters) in every city. Tit. i. 5. Let these also first be proved ; then let them use the office of a Deacon, being found blameless. 1 Tim. iii. 10, Wherefore I put thee in remembrance, that thou stir up the gift of God which is in thee, by the putting on of my hands. 2 Tim. i. 6. Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee by pro- phecy, with the laying on of the hands of the presbytery. 1 Tim. iv. 14. Also Acts vi. 6; xiii. 3; xiv. 23; 1 Tim. V. 22. ON ARTICLE XXXVI. 526. The divine institution of rites and ceremonies for the ordination and consecration of ministers of religion is proved in the texts of Scripture adduced above. As to the essentials of Ordination, see under Article xxiii. ; as also under Ai-ticle xxv., where the views of the Church of Eome in considering Orders as one of their Seven Sacraments were treated of. It was there shown, that prayer and imposition of hands was all that was thought necessary in the primitive Church ; and that the forms added in the Boman Pontifical are new, and cannot therefore be deemed indispensably necessary. Both the Eastern and Western Churches have so often changed their forms of Ordination, that our Church may well claim the same Power of appointing a form of her own {^See further above § 202.). The chief exception that can be made to our form of giving Orders, is to the words " Receive ye the Holy Ghost," which were used by our Saviour, when after 458 Article XXXVII. His Resurrection He gave His final commission to the Apostles. It is objected, that the Church in her best times considered them inapplicable to. other circumstances ; and they have indeed been used in conferring Orders for little more than the last six himdred years. But since the several functions and administrations, that are in the Church, are by the Apostles said to flow from one and the same Spirit, we may consider that the Holy Ghost is now given, though in a much lower degree, to those who are inwardly moved of God to undertake that holy office. Indeed, the words may be understood to be in the nature of a wish or prayer, as if it were said: 3fay ye receive the Holy Ghost; and so it will better agree with what follows : And be thou a faithful dispenser of the Word and Sacraments. Or it may be said, that in those sacred missions the Church considers itself as acting in the name and person of Christ ; as in Baptism it is expressly said : I baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost ; and in the Communion we repeat the words of Christ, and apply them to the elements, as pronounced by Him. The Canons of the Fourth Council of Carthage, a. d. 399, are the chief authority for the ceremonial of our Ordination Service. See further what has been said on the Ordinal above in § 325-6. ARTICLE XXXVII. De Civilihus Magistratibus. 527. Regia Majestas in hoc Anglice regno, ac cseteris ejus dominiis, summam habet potestatem, ad quam omnium statuum hujus regni, sive illi Ecclesiastici sint sive Civiles, in omnibus causis suprema gubernatio pertinet, et nulli externse jufisdictioni est subjecta, nec esse debet. Cum Regisc Majeslati summam gubernationem tribuimus, quibus titulis intelligimus animos quorundam calumniatorum offendi, non damus Eegibus nostris aut verbi Dei, aut Sacramentorum, administrationem : quod etiani Injunctiones, ab ElizahetM Eegina nostra nuper editsc, apertissime testar- tur ; sed cam tantum prserogativam, quam in Sacris Scripturis a Deo ipso omnibus piis Principibus videmus semper fuisse attributam: hoc est, ui Article XXXVIL 459 omnes status atque ordines fidei sufie a Deo commissos, sive illi Ecelesiastici sint sive Civiles, iu officio contineant, et contumaces ac delinquentes gladio civili coerceant. Eomanus Pontifex nullam habet jurisdiction era in hoc regno Anglia. Leges Eegni possunt Christianos, propter capitalia et gravia crimina, morte punire. Christianis licet, ex mandato Magistratus, arma portare, et justa bella administrare. Of the Civil Magistrates. 528. The Queen's Majesty hath the chief poAver in 'this Realm of England^ and other her dominions, unto whom the chief government of all Estates of this Realm, Tvh ether they be Ecclesiastical or Civil, in all causes doth appertain, and is not, nor ought to be, subject to any foreign jurisdiction.'''^ AYhere we attribute to the Queen's Majesty the chief govern- ment, by which Titles we understand the minds of some slanderous folks to be offended ; we give not to our Princes the ministering either of God's Word, or of the Sacraments, the which thing the Injunctions also lately set forth by Elizabeth our Queen do most plainly testify ; but that only prerogative, which we see to have been given always to all godly Princes in Holy Scriptures by God himself; that is, that they should rule all states and degrees committed to their charge by God, whether they be Ecclesiastical or Temporal, and restrain with the civil sword the stubborn and evil-doers. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake ; whether it be to the King, as supreme, or unto governors, as unto them that are sent by him for the punishmeat of evil-doers, and for the praise of them that do well. 1 Pet. ii. 13, 14. h. And they Avithstood LTzziah the king, and said unto him. It ap- pertaineth not unto thee, Uzziab, to burn incense unto the LofiD, but to the priests, the sons of Aaron, that are consecrated to burn incense : go out of the sanctuary ; for thou hast trespassed: neither shall it be for thine honour from the LoED God. 2 Chron. xxvi. 18. c. And Hezekiah appointed the courses of the priests, and the Levites after their courses, every man accord- ing to his service. 2 Chron. xxxi. 2. Kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their Queens thy nursing mothers. Isa. xlix. 23. Let every soul be sub- ject unto the higher powers; for there is no power but of God : the powers that be are ordained of God. Rom. xiii. ]. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the 460 Remarks on Article XXXVII. The Bishop of Rome hath no jurisdiction in this Realm of England. The laws of the Realm may punish Christian men with death for heinous and grievous offences.''^' It is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars.'^^ SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS continued. ordinance of God : and they that ! e. And the soldiers likewise de- resist shall receive to themselves ' manded of him, saying, And what damnation. For rulers are not a, shall we do? And he said unto them, terror to good works, but to the evil, j Do violence to no man, neither accuse Wilt thou then not be afraid of the any falsely ; and be content with power ? do that which is good, and your wages. Luke iii. 14. There was thou shalt have praise of the same : ; a certain man in Csesarea called for he is the minister of God to thee Cornehus, a centurion of the band for good. Rom. xiii. 1-4. Also 2 Kings \ called the Italian band, a devout xii. 7. and xxiii. 21; 1 Chron. xvi. 4. I man, and one that feared God with d. He is the minister of God, a 1 all his house, which gave much alms revenger to execute wrath upon him | to the people, and prayed to God that doeth evil. Rom. xiii. 4. I alway. Acts x. 1, 2. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXVII. 529. In the first body of Articles this was much shorter, and ran thus : The King of England is supreme head in earth, " next under Chiist, of the Church of England and Ireland ; " and after the paragraj^h against the Pope's jurisdiction, worded as now, there was added : " The civil magistrate is ordained and " allowed of God ; wherefore we must obey him, not only for " fear of punishment, but also for conscience' sake." Queen Elizabeth, to silence the cavil of the Papists and Puritans, the " slanderous folks " alluded to in the Article, removed the word head^ as especially objected to in the case of a female sovereign, and the terms chief power and chief government were substituted for it. In the Injunctions, mentioned as set forth by her in 1559, it was also declared, " Her Majesty neither doth nor ever will " challenge any authority, other than that was challenged and " lately used by the said King Henry the Eighth and King " Edward the Sixth, which is and was of ancient time due to " the imperial crown of this realm ; that is, imder God to have Remarks on Article XXXVII. 461 " the sovereignty and rule over all manner of persons bom within "these realms, dominions, and comitries, of what estate, either "ecclesiastical or temporal, whatsoever they may be; so as no " other foreign power shall or ought to have any superiority over " them." 530. The power of the sovereign in ecclesiastical matters is expressed in this Article under such reserves, and with such moderation, that no just objection can be brought against it; and it is only what all kings, even those in communion with Eome, assume to themselves, and that often with a much more unlimited authority. Li the Old Testament Moses and the kings of Israel interfered in all matters of religion ; and Samuel said in express terms to Saul, that he was made the head of the tribes of Israel, without excepting the tribe of Levi (1 Sam. xv. 17.). Abimelech, the High-Priest, appeared before Saul to answer certain charges on matters connected with the worship of God. David made many laws about sacred matters, such as the order of the courses of the priests, and the time of their attendance at the public service. When he died, and was informing Solomon of the extent of his authority, he told him that the courses of the priests and all the people were to be wholly at his commandment (1 Chron. xxiii.). Solomon consequently appointed them to their several charges in the service of God ; and " the priests and " Levites departed not from the commandment of the king con- " cerning any matter " (2 Chron. viii. 15.). He deposed Abiathar from his office of High-priest, without his authority to do so being questioned. Both David and Solomon were indeed in some respects particularly inspired ; but in the above matters they do not appear to have acted by virtue of inspiration. Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah, gave many directions and orders in sacred matters ; and though the priests withstood Uzziah, when he would burn incense in the holy place, yet they did pretend to no privilege, nor opposed the commands of their kings. The texts adduced from the New Testament, and the injunction of Christ Himself to " Render unto Csesar the things which are Cajsar's," 462 Remarts on Article XXXVII. plainly show that He did not intend that His religion should in any way lessen the temporal authorities. The Christian Emperors, CoNSTANTiNE,, Theodosius, and Justinian, made many laws in Ecclesiastical matters, such as concerning the age, qualifications, and duties of the clergy. They both summoned and presided over General Councils. Charlemagne in. many of his Capitularies takes upon himself to regulate Ecclesiastical affairs. In England the sovereigns began early, and long continued, to maintain this part of their authority. Both the Saxon and Danish kings made many laws in matters ecclesiastical. After the Conquest many laws were made in opposition to those practices which favoured the authority the Popes were then assuming ; such as appeals to Rome, or the departure of Bishops, without the king's leave, to seek investiture at the hands of the Pope (§ 177 & 178.). The Constitutions of Clarendon were asserted by both King and Parliament, and by the whole body of the clergy, as the ancient customs of the kingdom. Though later the Popes managed to get the upper hand at times, yet even at the height of their arrogance elsewhere, they were still opposed by various of our sovereigns. In short, neither the relations of nature, such as that of parent and child, or husband and wife, nor the civil relations of master and servant, of prince and subject, can be affected by men's per- suasions in matters of religion. 531. Though the term head is omitted in the Article, yet we have seen that it is founded on an expression of Samuel to Saul. It is a figure of speech, which in the strictest sense applies only to Christ with regard to His Church; He only ought to be obeyed in all things, submitted to, and depended on, and from Him all the functions and offices derive their virtue. But since a figure may be used in a less strict sense, head may stand as the fountain of order and government, of protection and direction ; a sense in which the sovereign may well be called the head of the Church. Hence it follows as a matt'^r of course, that a foreign Bishop or Potentate can have no jurisdiction in this country. 532. The paragraph on capital punishments meets tlie Remarks on Article XXXVII. 463 objection, that they are inconsistent with the gentleness of the Gospel. But though it may have an appearance of charity and compassion to think, that men ought not to be put to death for their crimes, but to be kept alive that they may repent of them ; yet since the fear of death is the most powerful means for deter- ring men from crime, and a feeble indulgence and undue leniency of the laws may become the cause of increased disorders, it follows, that charity must choose the smaller evil, and have recourse sometimes, in extreme cases, to capital punishments. The same charity, that obliges us as Christians not to foster anger and hatred in our hearts, demands that we should be cautious lest we break up the order and peace of mankind, and abandon it to the injustice and violence of wicked men. As capital punishments are then necessaiy to human society, so they are often real blessings to those on whom they fall. And we may safely con- clude, that a man who can harden himself against the terrors of death, when they come upon him so solemnly, so slowly, and so certainly, whilst he is in perfect health and well able to reflect on the consequences of it, is not likely to be wrought upon by a longer continuance of life, or by the approach of natural death. 533. Almost the same arguments apply to the last para- graph on the lawfulness of war. For if miprincipled ambition and tyranny would, when allowed to follow their own course unopposed, bring incalculable misery on large masses of men, true charity requires that we should take up arms, and lessen the evils that impend The passages of Scripture subjoined to the Article show, that all the clauses of it are fully supported by the Word of God. 464 ARTICLE XXXVIII. De illicitd hononim Communicatione. 534 Tacultates et bona Christianorum non sunt communia, quoad jus et possessionem; ut quidam Anabaptistse falso jactant. Debet tamen quisque de his quse possidet, pro facultatum ratione, pauperibus eleemosynas benigue distribuere. Of Christian men's Goods, which are not common. 535. The Riches and Goods of Christians are not common, as touching the right, title, and possession of the same/^^ as certain Anabaptists do falsely boast. Notwithstanding, every man ought, of such things as he possesseth, liberally to give alms to the poor, according to his ability. SCEIPTUEE PEOOFS. a. And all that believed were together, and had all things common ; and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had need. Acts ii. 44, 45. And the multitude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul; neither said any of them that aught of the things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common Neither was there any among them that lacked ; for as many as were possessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the prices of the things that were sold, and laid them down at the Apostles' feet : and distribution was made unto every man according as he had need. Acts iv. 32. 34, 35. But a certain man named Ananias, with Sapphira his wife, sold a possession, and kept back part of the price and brought a certain part, and laid it at the Apostles' feet. But Peter said, Ananias, why hath Satan filled thine heart to lie to the Holy Ghost, and to keep back part of the price of the land ? Whiles it remained, was it not thine own? and after it was sold, was it not in thine own power? Acts V. 1 — 4. b. Give alms of such things as ye have. Luke xi. 41. Hemember the words of the Lord Jesus, how he said. It is more blessed to give than to receive. Acts xx. 35. Distributing to the necessity of saints; given to hospitality. Rom. xii. 13. Upon the first day of the week let every one of you lay by him in store, as God hath prospered him. 1 Cor. xvi. 2. Charge them that are rich in this world, that they be not highminded, nor trust in uncertain riches, but in the living God, who giveth us richly all things to enjoy; that they do good, that they be rich in good works, ready to distribute, willing to com- municate. 1 Tim. vi. 17, 18. Also 2 Cor. ix. 6, 7; Heh. vi. 10; xiii. 16; 1 John iii, 17. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXVIII. 536. The words in Acts ii. 44, "All that believed were Article XXXIX. 465 together, and had all things in common," have been laid hold of by some persons, to establish community of goods as a principle imposed on all Christians in the Gospel. But since this would encourage idleness, and impose on a few industrious persons the unfair task of labouring for all, whereas St. Paul "commanded, " that if any would not work, neither should he eat" (2 Thess. iu. 10), it follows, that a detached passage of Scripture cannot warrant the adoption of a principle, so extensive and apparently injurious in its application. We read of Deacons being appointed by the Apostles to minister to the destitute members of the Apostolic Church at Jerusalem; which could not have been necessary had they continued to have literally all things in com- mon. Neither could the perpetual injunctions in the Scriptures, to distribute alms among the poor, have any application in the supposed case of a community of goods. Therefore the obhgation to give alms has been properly added in the Article to the refuta- tion of that other principle. ARTICLE XXXIX. De jurejurando. 537. QuEMADMODUsi jiiramentum vauum et temerarium a Domino nostro Jesu Christo, et Apostolo ej us Jacoho, Christianis hominibus inter- dictum esse fatemur; ita Christianorum religionem minima probibere censemus, quin jubente magistratu, in causa Mei et cbaritatis, jurare Uceat, modo id fiat juxta Prophetse doctrinam in justitia, in judicio, et veritate. Of a Christian man's Oath. 538. As we confess that vain and rash Swearing is forbidden Christian men by our Lord Jesus Christ, and James his Apostle, so we judge, that Christian Religion doth not prohibit, but that SCIIIPTURE PROOFS. a. Swear not, neither by heaven, yea, and your nay, nay ; lest ye neither by tbe earth, neither by any fall into condemnation. James v. 12. other oath; but let your yea be Ye shall not swear by my name G G 466 Remar}:s on Article XXXIX. a man may swear when the Magistrate requireth, in a cause of faith and charity, so it be done according to the Prophet's teaching, in justice, judgment, and truth. SCEIPTUEE PROOFS continued. falsely, neither shalt thou profane Sam. xxiv. 21; 2 Chron. xv. 14, 15 the name of thy God. Levit. xix. 12. Seb. vi. 5. Also Uxod. XX. 7', s^n(13Iatt.\.S4—S7. c And thou shalt swear, The Lord liveth, in truth, in judgment, b. Thou shalt fear the Lord thy i and in righteousness. Jer. iv. 2. God, and serve him, and shalt sn ear Also 3Iatt. xxvi. 63, 64 ; 2 Ccn: i. 23 ; by his name. Deut. vi. 13. Also 1 ■' Eom. i. 9. REMARKS ON ARTICLE XXXIX. 539. Oaths were employed in solemn asseverations among men from the earliest times. Instances are given in Gen. xxi. 23 — 24 ; xxvi. 31 ; xxxi. 53 ; Judges xvii. 2 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 24, 28, 44. From Lev. v. 1, we learn, that under the Jewish consti- tution the nature of an oath did not consist in the swearing of the person who gave evidence, but in an adjuration from the judge to that person. Llence the prohibition of our Saviour and St. James cannot apply to an oath taken before a judge, which is only the modern form of the ancient adjuration, adopted be- cause considered more solemn and impressive ; for the person adjured could not help being put under such an oath, and our Saviour himself complied in such a case (^Matt. xxvi. 63 — 64.). Instances of solemn oaths in the Xew Testament are found in Ro^m. i. 9 ; 2 Cor. i. 23 ; Gal. i. 20 ; Rev. x. 5, 6. THE RATIFICATION. This Book of Articles before rehearsed, is again approved, and allowed to be holden and executed ivithin the Realm, by the assent and consent of our Sovereign Lady Elizabeth, by the grace of God, of England, France, and Ireland, Qxieen, Defender of the Faith, Sfc. Which Articles were deliberately read and co7\firmed. again by the subscription of the hands of the Archbishops and Bishops of the Upper-house, and by the subscrij^tion of the whole Clergy of the Aether-house in their Convocation, in the Year of our Lord, 15/1. EXAMINATION PAPERS. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY OF THE FIRST THREE CENTURIES. April, 1864. 1. GiTE the principal arguments for and against the genuineness of the Ignatian Epistles. Give the titles and a brief sketcli of the works attributed to the other Fathers, commonly called Apostolic. Which of these are probably genuine? Give a short summary of the arguments for and against in each case. 2. Give a short account of the tenets of the Neo-Platonist school at Alexandria. Who was its founder ? Who were its more eminent followers among the Christians? 3. In the second century what evidence have we on the following points ; — (1) The regular observance of the Lord's day : (2) The existence of set forms of worship : (3) The manner of celebrating Baptism and the Lord's Supper ? 4. Give a brief account of the Paschal controversy. 5. Write a short history of one of the following three Fathers : Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian. 6. What was the Novatian schism ; at what councils was it condemned ; what was the decision of the church ? Distinguish between the audientes, genu-flectentes, and competentes. What were the agapse ; about what period did they cease to be general in the church; are there now any analogous customs in any part of the church ? 7. Translate : KOI aWa de 6 auTos (haav ck -Trapa^oVetos aypd/S VTrOCrT1J(TO/JLeVTJacrt ye fiijv t6v Kva(pea UeTpov /cat Tecrcrapa tuvtu JcaWtcrTa T7j KadoXio eKKXrja/a kTrivoriaai...T6 -re dyiov aviJL(3oXoi>, ei> irdcnj a-vv66io Trappr](Tia e^aSeadai, airu^ irporepov t»7 dy'ia kuL fxeydXrj 'jrapao'Kevfj fiovov Xeyofxevov. Explain this ])assage. To whom else has this institution been ascribed? What would be its dat« according to the two statements? and how may they be reconciled? 14. Give the Nicene Creed in Greek or Latin ; marking by brackets the later interpolations or additions, with their dates. 15. Explain the following suggestion of the Hoyal Commissioners of 1689. in a Note to the clause of the Nicene Creed : " Who proceedeth from the Father and the Son." — "It is humbly submitted to the Convocation whether a note ought not here to be added with relation to the Greek Church, in order to our maintaining Catholic communion." 16. Give the dates, and name the Authors or Compilers, as far as known, of the Litany, the Occasional Prayers and Offices, the Catechism, and the Ordinal. 17. Mention some specific objections of the Puritans to particular parts of our Prayer Book as it now stands; with the answers made to those objections by Hooker or other Divines. Octohei — , 1864. 1. What ti-aces of a prescribed Form of Prayer may be discovered in the Old and New Testaments ? What notices of the primitive Christian Worship occur in the Acts of the Apostles and the apostolical Epistles ? 2. Give a detailed account of the Christian public AVorship in the second century, as it may be gathered from the writings of Christian or Pagan authors ; citing your authorities for every particular, with their respective dates. 3. What is probably the earliest Liturgy now extant? Where is it found ? Give some account of its arrangement, and indicate in particular such parts or expressions as have been retained in subsequent Liturgies, and are included in our own. 4. What are the principal Liturgical variations between the Greek and the Latin Churches? In which of them does the Anglican Church symbolize rather with the former than with the latter? 5. Give the Latin names for the following holy days, &c., Ash- Wednesday, Maunday-Thursday, Good-Friday, Easter-Eve, Easter-Day, 472 The Liturgy. [1865. the four Ember-seasons, Lent. When was " Dominioi in Passione Domini" and how were the days of the week following designated ? 6. Give some account of the Church-books in use in the English Church before the Eeformation. Explain the words Missa, Introit, Gradale, Antiphona, Tractus, Sequentise, Memorise, Ordinarium, Canon, as used in the Sarum Missal. 7. What is known of the date and authorship of the Athanasian Creed? what other names has it? Give the Latin of the verse, "The Father incomprehensible," &c. 8. What various reading is there in the original of the Te Deum, on the verse, "Make them to be numbered with Thy saints," &c., and what authority has it? 9. Give the original Latin of the passage in the Liturgy, " Lift up your hearts," Ans. " We lift them up unto the Lord." 10. Translate and comment on the following passage from the Apos- tolical Constitutions. 'Ejcao-Ttjs iijxipa^ crvvadpo'i^eade opdpov Kal earirepa^, xj/dWovrei kuI irpocrevyofxevoL kv to'l's KvpiaKoi's' opdpov fiev Xeyovxes \i/a\fx6v tov ^/3', ecnrepat TOV p/j.'. fxdXiarTa 6e ev ttj vfxepa tov aafS^aTOv, Kal ev tij tov K.vpiov ^vaarTaariimM, ttj KvpLUKy, (nrovdaLTepu3t, 104, 109. Macarius. founder of Nitrian Monas- tery, 108.* Macarius, Patriarch of Alexandria, 125. ^Maccabees, 33. Macedonia, St. Paul in, 16, 19, 21, 22. Macedonians or Semi-Arians, 101. Macedonius, Patriarch of Constanti- nople, his heresy, 101. Macrianus, 81, 82. Mayi, 89. ^laguentius, 98. Mahomet, 64, 89,* 124, 436. Mahometanism overthrows Christian Churches in the East, 124. Majorinus heads the Douatist party, 104. Malta (=xMelita), 24. Malchion, 88. Mamma^a, Julia, 77, 89.* Mandate, Papal, 182. Manes, 89, 103, 128. Mauicheans, 82,89, 103, 105, 111, 136. Mantua, Council of, 157. Manual, see Ritual. Marcian, Emperor, 112, 116. Marcion, heresy of, 65, 73. :Marco Polo in China, 148. Mariolatri/, 108.* Marius Mercator, Anti-Pelagian writer, 116.* Mark, 11, 15, 6^1, 65. Maronites, 125. Marprelate attacks Episcopacy, 218. Marpurg, Conference of, 162. Martin, Bishop of Tours, 102, 105. Martin I. Pope, 125. Martin V. Pope, 146, 147. Mary, Queen, 205—207. Mary, Queen of Scots, 215, 218. Mass, Canon of the, 108, 122, 127, 148,* 243, 292, 508-510. Masses, sohtary, 115, 200, 305, 510; for the dead. 321. 488 Index. Matrimony, 319, 483. Matthew, St. 25 ; Hebrew Gospel of 57, 61, 65, 89.* Matthew, Bishop of Durham, 222. Matthias, chosen in the place of Judas Iscariot, 1, 25, 43. Matthias, Emperor, 161. Maunday Thursday, 284. Maurice, Duke of Saxony, 157, 159. Maxentius, Emperor, 93. Maximian, Emperor, 82, 92. Maximin, Emperor, 78, 89,* 92, 93, 108.* Maximus, Bishop of Turin, his wri- tings, 116.* Melancthon, 151, 153, 156, 157, 162, 189, 243. Melania, 109. Melchiades, Pope, 104. Meletian Schism, 95. Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, 95. Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, 109. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, the Apolo- gist, 55, 65. Menander, a Samaritan heretic, 39. Mendicant Friars, 108, 140, 144, 182. Mennas, Patriarch of Constantinople, 118. Mensurius, Bishop of Carthage, 91, 104. Methodius, Bishop of Patara, 89* 93. Methodius, Apostle of the Sclavonian nations, 148. Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 141. Michael I. Emperor, 136. Michael III. Emperor, 135, 136. Michaelmas, 290. Milan, Edict of, 93. Miletus, 22. Millenary Petition, 221. Millennium, 40, 53. Miltiades, the Apologist, 55, Miltiades, Pope, 104. Minucius Pelix, the Apologist, 55, 89* 510. Miracles, Post-Apostolic, 61, 62. Mishna, 33. Missa Catechumenorum, \ ^ rvo Mi!ssa Fidelium, ) ' ' Missal, Salisbury, 241. Mithras, 89. Monarchians, 75, 88, 95. Monasteries dissolved, 190, 191, 193. Monasticism, 108* 115, 120, 132, 137, 140, 148 * Monica, mother of Augustine, 114. Monophijsites, 112, 113, 117, 118, 121, Monothelites, 125. Montanus, heresy of, 65, 74, 84, 89, 378. Moravians converted, 148. More, Sir Thomas, 189. Mortmain, Statute of, 181. Moses of Chorene, Armenian his- torian, 116. Muhlberg, Battle of, 157. Munster, Peace of, 161. Muratori, Canon of, 65. Music in divine worship, 48, 108. Mysteries, 196. Nag's Head Fable, 209, note. Nantes, Edict of, 165. Narses, 118. Natalis, 88. Nathanael, 25. Nativity, 85. Nazarenes, 57, 71. Nectarius, Patriarch of Constanti- nople, 107. Neo-Platonists, 64, 116. , Nero, Emperor, 24, 28. Nerva, Emperor, 25, 31. Nestorius, Patriarch of Constanti- nople, 111, 113, 121. Nestorian Missions in China, 148. New Testament, Canon of, 146, 381; early versions, 61. Nicsea, Council of, 68, note, 94, 95, ,106, 107, 116* 456, 513. Nicsea, Second Council of, 130. Nicene Creed, 95, 101, 266, 386, 387. Nicephorus, Emperor, 136. Nicholas I. Pope, 135. Nicholas II. Pope, 139. Nicholas V. Pope, 147, 148*. Nicolaitans, 41. Nisibis, Christian School at, 64. Noel's Catechisms, 317. Noetus, the Patripassian, 75, 88. Nonconformists, see Puritans. Non-jurors, 239. Norfolk, Duke of, 192, 194, 198. Northampton, Council of, 178. Novatian, 87, 95, 422. Novatus, 87. Nuremberg, Peaceof, 156 ; Catechism, 201, 3i7. Oaths, not unscriptural, 537—539. Octave, 299. Odin, worship of, 148. Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury, 175. Odoacer, king or the Heruli, 110. Index. 489 CEcolampadiu-', Swiss Eeformer, 162. (Ecumenical Bishop, 119. (Ecumenical Council, First, 95 ; Second, 101 ; Third, 111 ; Fourth, 112; Fifth, 118; Sixth, 125. Offertory Sentences, 295. Oglethorpe, Bishop of Carhsle, 208. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham, 183. Ophites, Gnostic Sect, 72. Optatus, Bishop of Milevi, historian, 109. Orders, three, of Clergy, 45 ; lower, 86. Ordinal (Ordination Service), 202, 244, 325, 326, 483, 524—526. Ordinary, 254. Ordination, 1, 43; Episcopal, 470 — 473. Origen, 64, 65, 76, 78, 79, 85, 88, 89* 95, 109, 118, 128, 167, 240, 307, 430, 510. Original sin. 111, 114, 388—395. Ormuzd, Persian god of Fire, 116. Orosius, Anti-Pelagian writer, 116*. Overall, Dr., his addition to Cate- chism, 201, 222, 317. Pachomius founds first Monastery, 108*. Paganism, 115. Palladius, predecessor of St. Patrick, 116. Palladius, historian, 116*. Pallium, 119. Palm Sunday, 283. Palmyra, 83, 88. Pamphilus, patron, defender, and biographer of Origen, 89,* 93, 109. Pandulph, Papal legate to king John, 179. Pantpcnus, of Alexandria, 61, 64. Papal encroachments, 119, 126, 135. Paphnutius, Egyptian Bishop, on celibacy, 195. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, 53, 65. Pardons, 148*. Paris, Dr., burnt in Edward VI's reign, 204. Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, 20^^211, 214, 216, 246, 336, 337. Paschal controversy, 66, 86, 95, 107, 171, 253. Pascha^ius Radbert teaches Tran- substantiation, 133, 148. Passau, Pacification of, 159. Patarini, see Manicheans. Patriarchates, 63, 107, 112. Patrick, St. 116, 121, 169. Patrimony of St. Peter, 131. Patripassians, 73, 74, 88. Paul, St. 7, 9, 11 — 24, 26, 57, 71, 73, 167. Paul, the Hermit, 79, 108*. Paul of Samosata, 88, 106, 108. Paul III. Pope, calls Council of Trent, 157. Paula, the friend of Jerome, 109. Paulicians, 87, 89, 136. Pauliuus, Bishop of Nola, 109. Pecocke, Bishop of Chichester, 184. Pekin, Christianity in, 148. Pelagius, Heresy of, 114, 116* 168, 388—390, 398, 410, 417. Pelagius I. Pope, 118. Pelagius II. Pope, 119. Fella, Church of Jerusalem at, 29, 57, 107. Penal Laws, against papists, 225, 228 ; against non-conformists, 236; re- laxed by Charles II. 237; re-im- posed by Parliament, ih. Penance, public, 115: private, 172, 482. Penitential of Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, 172, 452. Pentecost, see Whitsunday. Pepin, king of France, 131, 148. Persea, 10. Peregrinus Proteus, Life of, by Lucian, 76. Pergamus, 26. Perpetua and Felicitas, Martyr.«, 77. Persecutions of Christians : — first, 5. second, under Nero, 28. third, under Domitian, 30. fourth, under Marcus Aurelius, 59. fifth, under Severus, 60. sixth, under Decius, 79, 87. seventh, under Gallus, 81. eighth, under Valerian, ih., 87. ninth & tenth, under Diocletian, 90, 91, 168; in Persia, 116. Perseverance, final, 114. Persia, Christians in, 103, 116, 121. Peshito S.vriac Version of New Testa- ment, 61. Peter, St. 6, 8, 10, 15, 25, 26, 445, 446. Peter, Bishoi) of Alexandria, 93, 95. Peter, t he Fuller, 117, 264. Peter, Martyr, 163, 202, 203, 245, 256, 296. Peter's pence, 176, 182, 188. Pharisees, 23, o3. 490 Index. Philadelphia, 26. Philemon, Epistle to, 24. Philip, St., the Apostle, 25. Philip, the Deacon, 6. Philip the Arabian, Emperor, 78. Philippi, 16, 22, 26. Philippians, Epistle to the, 24. Phihppicus, Emperor, 129. Philosophers, pagan, 116. FJiilosophumena, authorship of the, 89*. Philostorgius, Arian historian, 1 16*. Photinus, heresy of, 105. Photius, historian, 116*, 135. FJdhartolatrcs, 118. Pilate, Acts of, 42. Pilgrimages, 148* Pisa, Council of, 146. Pius I. Pope, 49. Pius 11. Pope, 147. Pius V. Pope, excommunicates Queen Elizabeth, 215. Platonic philosophy, 65. Platonists, 64, 116. Pliny, Epistle of, to Trajan, 50 — 52, 61, 261, 479. Pole, Cardinal, 207. Pollanus, Liturgy of, 245, 293*. Polycarp, 53, 59, 65, 68, 73, 107, 241. Polycrates, Bishop of Ephesus, 68. Ponet, Bishop of Winchester, Cate- chism of, 201. Pontifical, 241. Pontius, Deacon and Biographer of Cyprian, 89*. Pontus, 26. Popes resist the Emperors, 125, 135 ; profligacy of, 137. Porphyry, bitterest opponent of Christianity, 109. Post-Communion, 304. Pothinus, founder of Gallic Churches, 59, 61. " Prcedestinatus," an ultra-predesti- narian book, 116*. Prcemuni/re, Statute of, 181, 185, 186, 190, 200. Praxeas denies the Trinity, 75, 88. Prayers, set forms of, 85, 240, 24 1, 272, 273, 324. Predestination, 116, 134, 162, 163, 210, 219, 227 419, 422—433. Prefaces, Proper, 299. Presbyters, 45. Presbyterianism, 163. Prester, John, 148. Priestly, the Socinian, 353. Primer, Marshall's 191, 242; King's, 197, 242; Bishop Hilsey's, 242. Priscilla, 16. Priscillians, heresy of the, 105. Probus, Emperor, 82. Procession of the Holy Ghost, 101, 118, 130, 375. Processions, 108; see also Litany. Property, Church, 115, 122. Prophesyings, 212, 216. Prosper, of Aquitania, Anti-Pelagian writer, 116*. Protestants, 155. Provisions, 182. Prudentius, 109. Prussians converted, 148. Psalmody, 108, 122. Psalter, 260, 261. Pulpits, 84. Purgatory, 108, 115, 128, 138, 148* 457—462, 510. Purification of Virgin Mary, 122, 290. Puritanism, 210—213, 218, 223, 232, 233, 236, 249. Quadragesimal Fast, see Lent. Quadratus, the Apologist, 54. Quignonius, Cardinal, reforms the Breviary, 262. Quinisextan Council, 125. Eabanus Maurus opposes transub- stantiation, 133 ; and predestination, 134. Padbert, see Paschasius E-adbert. Eatification, added to the XXXIX Articles, 214, 342. Eationalists, 88. Eatisbon, Diet of, 157. Eatram opposes transubstantiation, 133; defends predestination, 134. Eeading Desk, 254. Eeal presence, see Lord's Supper. Eecared, chief of Visigoths in Spain, converted by Arians, 121. Pecognitions, 49. Eecusants, popish, 218, 223, 225. Eeform in Church demanded, 143, 146. Reformatio Lequm, 210. Eeformation, 149, 150—166, 185—239. Regeneration, 310, 430, 492. Eelics, 108, 127, 132, 457, 458, 466, 467. Eeligious Peace in Germany, ICO, Eemigius, Archbishop of Eheims, 116. Eeprobation, see Predestination. Reservations, 182. Index. 491 Hesponsalis, Papal Agent, 119. Eesurrection of Christ, 67, 367—369. Reynolds, Puritan divine, 222. Eidley, Bishop of London, 199, 203, 206. Rimini, Arian Council of, 99, 168. Eites and Ceremonies, 66, 132, 447 — 450, 519. See also " Corruptions." Ritual, 241. Rogations. See Litany. Rogers burnt, 206. Roman Catholics, Laws against, 215. Romans, Epistle to the, 2i. Rome, set on fire by Nero, 28 ; Church of, 19: a Patriarchate, 63. Ambition and encroachments of the Church of, 119, 126, 127 ; Bishops of, claim universal supre- macy, 86, 107, 112, 119, 126, 135, 445. Rosary, 138. Rufinus, 49, 89* 109, 264, 366. Russians converted, 148. Sabbath, Jewish, 85. SabelUus, heresy of, 75, 88, 95, 105. Sacramentaries, 240, 272. Sacraments, 66, 148* 477—485, 488. Sacrijicati, 79. Sacrifices, heathen, prohibited, 116. Sadducees, 23, 34. Sadoc, see Zadok. Salisbury Liturgy, 201, 241, 243. Salvation through Christ alone, 434 —436. Salvian 116*. Samaritans, 6, 37. Sanballat, chief of the Samaritans, 37. Sancroft, Archbishop, Non-juror, 2 19. Sanctuar?/, right of, 108. Sandys, Bishop, 211. Sapor L, king of Persia, 89. Sapor II., 103. Sardica, Council of, 97, 107, 126. Sardis, 26, Saturninus, heresy of, 72. Saunders, burnt at Coventry, 206. Savoy Conference, 233, 246, 249. Sawtrey, burnt in Smithfield, 183. Schism between the Eastern and Western Churches, 141; Great Western, 146, 455 ; the word in- serted in our Litany, 269. Scholastic theology, 123; doctors, 144. Schools, early Christian, 64, 100. Schwabach, Articles of, 156. Scotland, Reformation in, 220, 228, 230. Scotus, Johannes, Scholastic Doctor, adverse to transubstantiation, 1 33. Scriptures read in Christian As- semblies, 48, Sects, Jewish, 32—37. Secundus, African Bishop, at Nicsea, deposed, 95. Seleucia, 64, Semi-Arians, 95, 99, Semi-Pelagians, 114, 398, 430, 431. Septuagint Version, 89* 379, Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, Sergius, Pope, 148. Sermons, 85, 108, 195, 294. Seventy, the, 1. Severinus, Apostle of Southern Ger- many, 116, 12^1. Severus, Alexander, Emperor, 77, 83. Severus, Septimius, Emperor, perse- cution under, 60, 64, Shaxton, Bishop of Salisbury, 198, " Shepherd" of Hermas, 49, Sigismund and his Burgundians con- verted, 121, Simeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, 25. Simeon, Persian Bishop, 103. Simon Magus, 6, 39, 481. Simon Zelotes, 25. Simony, 6, 122, 137, 140, Sixtus II., Pope, 81;— IIL, 116;— IV., 148*. Slavonic nations converted, 148, Smaicald, League of, 156; Articles of, 157, Smithfield, last burning in, 226. Smyrna, 59, 64, Socinians, 352, 360, 363, 374, 391, 429, 480. Socrates, Ecclesiastical historian, 116* 123. Soliman, Sultan of the Turks, be- sieges Vienna, 156. Solitary Masses, 305, 510. Solitaries, see Manicheans. Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, 125. Sozomen, Ecclesiastical historian, 116* 123, Spinoza, 353. Spires, Diet of, 154; Second ditto, 155, Spirit, see Holy Ghost. 492 Index, Sponsors, 69, 308. Stephen, the Deacon, 4; his death 5. Stephen I., Pope, 81, 86, 87, 107;— II., 131. Stephen, St., king of Hungary, 148. Stephen, king of England, 178. Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, 176. St. James, the Elder, 10; the Less, 11. Liturgy of, 299. St. John, the Apostle, 30; Knights of, 143. St. Michael's Day (Michaelmas), 290. Strasburg, Reformers at, 163; Li- turgy of, Stylites, Simeon, 116. SvMapsarians, 393, 428. Subscription to the Articles, 214, 216. Subsidy, voted by the Clergy, 234. Suetonius, on early Christians, 26. SuflFolk, Duke of, rebellion of, 206. Suffragan Bishops, 44. Sulpitius Severus, historian, 109. Sunday, 22, 48, 67. Supererogation, Works of, 412 — il4. Supralapsarians, 393, 427. Supremacy in Church of Eoman Emperors, 106 ; of Popes, see Eome; of kings of England, 186, 188, 194, 527—531. Symholum, 264. Symraachus, 89*. Symmachus, Pope, 119. Synods in Second Century, 63; of Dort, 227. Tacitus, the historian, 27. Tacitus, Emperor, 82. Tadmor, 83, 88. Tapers, lighted in churches by day, 115. Targums, 379. Tarsus, 23. Tatian, the Apologist, 55, 65, 72. Taylor, burnt at Hadley, 206. Templars, 143. Tertullian, 30, 42, 55, 60, 65, 74, 75, 84, 167, 240, 264, 307, 308, 311, 313, 351 459, 510. Tetzel sells Indulgences in Germany, 150. Teutonic knights, 143. " Thalia^ Poem by Arius, 95. Thebaid, Ascetics of the, 79. Theban Legion. 82. Theoctistus, 89*. Theodora, Empress, 118. Theodore of Ascidas, 118. Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, 172. Theodore of Mopsuestia, 111, 114, 116*. Theodoret, 45, 116* 123. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, 110, 118, 119. Theodosius the Great, 101, 105, 107, 109, 110. Theodosius II.. 109, 111. Theodotion's Greek Version of the Old Testament, 89*. Theodotus, the Monarchian, 75, 88. Theognis, Bishop of Nicsea, 95, 96. Theonas, African Bishop at Nicene Council, 95, Theophilus. Bishop of Antioch, 55, 65, 75, 351, Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, 109, 111, Theophilus, a Gothic Bishop, at the Nicene Council, 102, Theophilus of Diu, visits India, 102. Therapeutce-, 35, 108*. Thessalonica, 16. Thessalonians, Epistles to the, 16, Thirty Tears' War, 161. Thomas, St., the Apostle, 25, 61. " Three Chapters," 118. Thundering Legion, 62. Thurijicati, 79. Thyatira, 26. Timotheus, 16, 19; Epistles to, 24. Tiridates, king of Armenia, con- verted, 102. Tithes, 115, 122. Titus, 20, 21, 43; Epistles to, 24. Titus destroys Jerusalem, 29. Titus Oates, 237. Toleration. 237, 239. Torgau, Articles of, 156. Trachonitis, 10. Traditors, 91, 104. Traditions, 517—519. Trajan, Emperor, 25, 52, 54. Transmigration of Souls, 73. Transuhstantiation, 133, 148* 182, 192, 205, 302, 494—497, 510. Trent, Council of, 157—159, 262, 380, 407,455, 459,469, 488. Trine Immersion at Baptism, 141, 313. Trinity, 55, 75, 95—99, 346—375. Trinity Sunday, 289. Trisagium, 117, 300. Troas, 16, 20—22, 26. Index. 493 Trullan Councils, First and Second. I 125. Trvpho, 65, 400. Tuustal, Bishop of Durham, 200. Tvndale, 195, 1%, 249, 330. ''Type of Faith r 125. Ubiquitarian?, 341, 49". Ulphilas, Apostle of the Goths, 102. Ulpian, 7". Vuction, extreme, 14S*, 484. Universities, consulted on Henry YIlI's marriase, Uniformity, Ed^^ ard YI's Act of, 202 ; Ehzabeth's, 208 ; Charles II's, 235, 246. Urban II., Pope, 177;— VI., 146. Ursacius, Arian Bishop, 99. Ursinus, Pope, 107. Utrecht, Willibrord, first Archbishop of, 148. Valens, Arian Bishop, 99, Yalens. Emperor, 101. Yalentine, heresy of, 73. Yalentiniau I., Emperor. 100, 101 ;— II., 101;— III., 110, UG*. Yalerian, Emperor, 81. Yallombrosa, Coenobites of, 1-10. Ver.ncles, 267. Version, Authorized, of the Bible, 223. Vespasian in Judpea, 29. Vestments, 115,203, 208,211, 243, 245, 246. Vicars Apostolic of See of Rome, 126. "Yice-iierent of the Most High," title first given to Pope, 119. Victor, Pope, 60, 68, 107. Vigilantius, opposes invocation of Saints, 108*. Yigilius, Pope, 118. Virgil, 27. Virgin Marv, 111, 138. Visitation of the Sick,_320. Yitalian, Emperor, 11 < . Yitalian, Pope, 125. " Voeatione Geniivm" Anonymous treatise De, 116*. Wafer, used for bread in the Lords Supper. 305. Waldenses, 144. AVarham, Archbishop of Canterburv, 187. Wartburg, Luther concealed in the, 152. Wednesdav, when first observed, 67, S4.. Wendic tribes converted, 148. Westphaha, Peace of. IGl. AVhitby. Council of. 171. "Whiigift, Archbishop cf Canterbury, 211, 216, -219, 222. Whitsunday, 67, 69, 85. 288. Wickliff'e, 146. 182, 329, 330. Wightman, burnt at Litchfield in James I's reign. 226. "Wilfrid , Archbishop of York, con- verts the Saxons of Sussex, 172. "William the Conqueror, 175, 176, 178. William II., 177;— III.. 2,S9, 250. AVillibrord, converts Frisians, 148. Winchester, Council of, 176. Winfrid, Apostle of Germany, 148, 173. Wishart, burnt in Scotland, 221. Wolsey, Cardinal. 185. Worms, Luther before Diet of, 152, Wriothesley, Lord Chancellor, 198, 200. Wurtembnrg, Confession of. 210. 341. W.vatt, Sii' Thomas, rebelhon of, 206. Zacharias, Pope. 148. 173, Zadoc (Sadoc), founder of the sect of Sadducees, 34. Zeno, Emperor, publishes the Heno- ticon, 113, 117. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 88, 105. Zephyrinus, Pope. 89*. Zosimus, Pope, holds Pelagian doc- trines. 114. 444. Zuingle, the S\Yiss Reformer, 162, 210, J. Hall & Son, Printers, Cambridge. J. HALL AND SON'S LIST OF EDUCATIONAL WORKS. BY THE REV. DR. PINNOCK. Scripture History ; An Analysis of, Intended for Readers of Old Testament HiSTOEY, and the University Examinations ; with a Copiom Index, and Examination Questions. Fourteenth Edition. 18mo. cloth, 3/6 New Testament History ; An Analysis of, Embracing the Criticism and Interpretation of the original Text ; with Questions for Examination. For the Universities^ and for Ordination. 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