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THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 NATURAL  HISTORY. 
 
 By  WILLIAM  SMELLIE, 
 
 MEMBER  OF  THE  ANTK^UARIAN  AND  ROTAL  SOCIETIES  OF  KDINBtfRGK, 
 
 DOVER,  N.  H. 
 
 PUBLISHED  BY  THOMAS  b*  TAPP AN,  b*  SAMUEL  BRAGG,  JUN. 
 
 SOLD  BY    THEM   AT  THEIR  RESPECTIVE     BOOK  STORES    IN 
 
 PORTSMOUTH  AND  DOVER  ;  BY  ISAIAH  THOMAS,  JUN. 
 
 IN  WORCESTER  ;    BY    WRIGHT,    GOODENOW  AND 
 
 STOCKWELL;  IN  BOSTON,  AND  TROY,  N.  Y- 
 
 1S08. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 E 
 
 iVERY  Prefece,  befide  occafional  or  csplanator)'  remarks, 
 fhould  contain  not  only  the  general  defign  of  the  v/ork,  but  the  motives  and 
 circumftances  which  induced  the  author  to  write  upon  that  particular  fubje(5l;. 
 If  this  plan  had  been  univerfally  obferved,  prefaces  would  have  exhibited  a  fliort, 
 but  a  curious  and  ufeful,  hiftory  both  of  literature  and  of  authors.  Influenced 
 by  this  idea,  I  Ihall  give  a  very  compendious  account  of  the  origin,  dcS^n,  and 
 progrefs  of  the  following  work. 
 
 About  fifteen  years  ago,  in  a  converfation  with  the  late  worthy,  refpeda* 
 ble,  and  ingenious  Lord  KAMES,upon  the  too  general  neglc<5l  of  natural  know- 
 ledge, His  Lordfhip  fuggefled  the  idea  of  compofmg  a  Book  on  the  Puiloso- 
 PHX-  OF  Natural  History,  In  a  work  of  this  kind,  he  propofed  that  the 
 produ<5lions  of  Nature,  which  to  us  are  almoft  infinite,  fliould,  inftead  of  being 
 treated  of  individually,  be  arranged  under  general  heads  ;  that,  in  each  of  thefe 
 divifions,  the  known  fadls,  as  well  as  reafonings,  fhould  be  colle6^ed  and  meth- 
 odifed  in  the  form  of  regular  difcourfes ;  that  as  few  technical  terms  as  poffible 
 fhould  be  employed  ;  and  that  all  the  ufeful  and  amufing  views  arifing  from  the 
 different  fubjevSls  fhould  be  exhibited  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  convey  both  plea- 
 fure  and  information. 
 
 This  talk  His  Lordfhip  was  pleafed  to  think  me  not  altogether  unqualified 
 to  attempt.  The  idea  ilruck  me.  I  thought  that  a  work  of  this  kind,  if  exe- 
 cuted even  with  moderate  abilities,  might  excite  a  tafte  for  examining  the  vari- 
 ous objeds  which  every  where  folicit  our  attention.  A  habit  of  obfervation  re- 
 fines our  feelings.  It  is  a  fource  of  interefting  amufement,  prevents  idle  or  vic- 
 ious propenfities,  and  exalts  the  mind  to  a  love  of  virtue  and  of  rational  enter- 
 tainment. I  likewife  refleded,  that  men  of  learning  often  betray  an  ignorance 
 on  the  mod  common  fubjeds  of  Natural  Hiltory,  which  it  is  painful  to  remark, 
 
 I  HAVE  been  occafionally  employed,  flnce  the  period  which  I  have  mention- 
 ed, in  collecting  and  digefting  materials  from  the  molt  authentic  fources.  Thefe 
 materials  1  have  interfperfcd  with  fuch  obfcrvations,  reflexions,  and  reafonings, 
 as  occurred  to  me  from  ccnfiderirg  the  multifarious  fubjecfts  of  which  I  have 
 
S  ^  PREFACE. 
 
 ventured  to  treat,  T  knew  that  a  deliberate  perufal  of  the  numerous  writers 
 from  Ariftotle  downwards,  would  require  a  confiderable  portion  of  time.  But 
 the  avocations  of  bufinefs,  and  the  tranflating  of  a  work  fo  voluminous  as  the 
 Natural  History  of  the  Count  de  Bufpon,  rendered  my  progrefs  much 
 flower  than  I  wi{hed.  I  now,  however,  with  much  diffidence,  fubmit  my  labours 
 to  public  opinion.  An  examination  of  the  Contents,  however,  will  convey  a 
 more  clear  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  work  than  a  multiplicity  of  words.  But  I 
 thought  it  proper  to  prefix  a  Ihort  account  of  the  circumftances  and  motives 
 which  induced  me  to  engage  In  an  undertaking  fo  extenfxve,  and  fo  difficult  to 
 perform  with  tolerable  fuccefs. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  manner  of  writing,  It  is  perhaps  impcffible  for  a  North 
 Briton,  in  a  work  of  any  extent,  to  avoid  what  are  called  Scotticisms.  But 
 I  have  endeavoured  to  be  every  where  perfpicuous,  and  to  fhun  every  fentiment 
 or  expreffion  which  might  have  a  tendency  to  injure  fociety,  or  to  hurt  the  feel- 
 ings of  individuals. 
 
 Inhulgent  readers,  though  they  muft  perceive  errors  and  Imperfe6lions, 
 will  naturally  n:iake  feme  allowance  for  the  variety  of  refearch,  and  the  labour 
 of  condenfing  fo  much  matter  into  fo  fmall  a  compafs.  He  is  a  bad  author,  it 
 has  been  faid»  who  affords  neither  an  aphorifm  nor  a  motto. 
 
 I  CANNOT  refrain  from  mentioning  a  circumftance  which  has  often  made 
 me  uneafy.  The  expediations  of  fome  friends  were  higher  than  I  was  confcious 
 my  abilities  could  reach. 
 
 UroN  the  whole,  the  general  defign  of  this  publication  is,  to  convey  to  the 
 minds  of  youth,  and  of  fuch  as  may  have  paid  little  attentioi\to  the  ftudy  of  Na- 
 ture, a  fpecies  of  knowledge  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  acquire.  This  knowledge 
 will  be  a  perpetual  and  inexhauflible  fource  of  manly  pleafures ;  it  will  afford 
 innocent  and  virtuous  amufijment,  and  will  occupy  agreeably  the  leifurc  or  va- 
 <;?int  hours  of  life. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER     I.  PAGR, 
 
 Of  the  Diflingitljhing  CharaBers  of  Animals^  Plants^  and 
 Minerals.  The  analogies  betiveen  the  plant  and  animal ^ 
 arifing  from  their  fruElure  and  organs^  their  growth  and 
 tiourifhmenty  their  dijjeminaticn  and  decay     -  -  -     IS 
 
 CHAPTER     II. 
 
 Of  the  Organs  and  General  Structure  of  Animals.  A  fhort 
 view  of  the  external  and  internal  parts  of  the  human  body. 
 The  fruBure  of  Quadrupeds y  Birds,  Fijhes,  and  InfeBs, 
 Hoiu  far  peculiarities  offruclure  are  conneBed  with  pecu- 
 liarities  of  manners  and  difpofitions^  -  -  54 
 
 CHAPTER    IIL 
 
 Of  the  Refpiration  of  Animals.  Air  necejpiry  to  the  exiflencc 
 of  all  animated  beings.  The  various  modifications  of  the 
 organs  employed  by  Nature  for  the  tranfmiffion  of  air  into 
 animal  bodies.  -  -  -  -  112 
 
 CHAPTER     IV. 
 
 Of  the  motions  of  Anintals.  The  caufes  and  inflruments  of 
 animal  motion.  Animal  compared  with  mechaJiical  jno- 
 Hon.  -  ,  ,  ^  -  U© 
 
10  CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER      V.  PAGE. 
 
 Of  the  InJltnEi  of  Animals.     Divifiott  of  InfinBs,     Exam- 
 pies  of  pure  inftlncl.      Offuch  infincts  as  can  accommodate 
 themf elves  to  peculiar  circumflances  and  fituatmis.      Of  in- 
 flinEls  improveable  by  obfervation  and  experience.      Soine  re- 
 marks and  conclufiom  from  this  vieiu  of  inflincl  -  153 
 
 CHAPTER     VI. 
 
 Of  the  Senfes  in  General  -              -                -               168 
 
 Of  Smelling              -  -                 -              _             169 
 
 OfTafing              .  -              «              -                       172 
 
 Of  Hearing                 -  -               -               -             175 
 
 Of  Touch              -  -              -              .                    181 
 
 Of  Seeing                  -  -              -              -              185 
 
 CHAPTER     VII. 
 
 Of  the  Infancy  of  Animals.  Some  fpecies  continue  longer y 
 and  others  ffjorter^  in  this  fate.  Different  modes  of 
 managing  infants  in  different  countries,         -  -  202 
 
 CHAPTER     VIII. 
 
 Qf  the  Food  of  Animals.  Their  growth  and  expanfion.  The 
 'varieties  of  food  ufedby  men  and  other  animals.  EffeEls 
 of  peculiar  foods         -         -         -         -         -  214< 
 
 CHAPTER     IX. 
 
 Of  the  Sexes  of  Animals.  The  mental  and  corporeal  differen- 
 ces between  males  and  females.  Some  animals  endoived 
 with  both  fexes  in  the  fame  individual  -  242 
 
 Sect.  II.      Of  the  Sexes  of  plants  •  -  -     251 
 
 CHAPTER     X. 
 
 Of  Puberty^     Its  fymptoms  and  effcEls  in  different  Animals    26^J 
 
CONTENTS.  11 
 
 CHAPTER       XI.  PAGE. 
 
 Of  Love.       Its  exprejftotjs  and  effeHs  in  different  Animals, 
 
 Pairing.      Seafons.     Parental  AffeElion       -  -  274 
 
 CHAPTER     XII. 
 
 Of  the  Transformations  of  Animals,  Transformation  of  the 
 caterpillar  tribes,  Offrogs^^c,  All  animals  iinder^ 
 go  changes  in  their  form  and  afpeEl.  What  are  the  pro- 
 hahle  intentions  of  Nature  in  changing  forms       -     -       291 
 
 CHAPTER     XIII. 
 
 Of  the  Habitations  of  Animals,  Their  different  modes  of 
 conJlruEling  abodes  for  warmth  and  proteBion  to  them- 
 felves  and  their  offspring.  The  form  and  manner  of  their 
 hahifations  accommodated  to  the  exigencies  of  the  animal     315 
 
 CHAPTER     XIV. 
 
 Of  the  Hoffilities  of  Animals,  Why  animals  prey  upon  one 
 another y  hut  feldom  on  their  own /pedes.  Advantages  de- 
 rived from  this  feemingly  deJlruBive  infiitution  of  Na- 
 ture        -         -  -----  Sf8 
 
 CHAPTER     XV. 
 
 Of  the  Artifices  of  Animals  in  catching  their  prey  and  efcap- 
 ing  their  enemies,  Thefe  artifices  are,  in  general,  pure- 
 ly infilnElive  \  hut  fome  animals  can  vary  their  mode  of 
 attack  or  defence  according  to  particular  circumfiances 
 and  fttuations  -  -  ,  .  403 
 
 CHAPTER     XVI. 
 
 Of  the  Society  of  Animals.  What  are  the  motives  and  advan* 
 iages  of  it.  Gregarious  tribes.  Whether  man  belongs  to 
 this  tribe,     Society  of  two  kinds         -  -         -       418 
 
12  CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER    XVII. 
 
 Of  the  Docility  of  Animals.  How  far  improveahle  by  cut" 
 tare,     EffeEls  of  domejlicatim  -  -  4«39 
 
 CHAPTER     XVIII. 
 Of  the  CharaElers  and  Dlfpofttions  of  Animals.     Rapacious* 
 
 Mild.     Timid.     Bold.     Generous  -         -  •     467 
 
 CHAPTER     XIX. 
 Of  the  Principle  of  Imitation  in  Animals.     1/  the  nearejl 
 
 approach  to  reafoning  and  language         -  -  472 
 
 CHAPTER     XX. 
 
 Of  the  Migration  of  Animals.  More  general  than  common* 
 ly  believed.  The  probable  motives  which  induce  animals 
 to  migrate         -  -  -  -  «.  476 
 
 CHAPTER    XXI. 
 
 Of  the  Longevity  and  Death  of  Animals.  A  comparative 
 view  of  Animals  with  regard  to  the  duration  of  life y 
 and  its  confequences  -  -  -  506 
 
 CHAPTER     XXII. 
 
 Of  the  Progrejfive  Scale  of  Animals.  Stops  at  many  and  why* 
 In  this  world,  it  appears  to  be  impoffible  that  a  beitig  fu' 
 perior  to  man  could  exift.    Reajons  for  this  opinim*     •    521 
 
THE 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 NATURAL    HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER     I. 
 
 Di/l'mgui/hhig  characters  of  Animals ^  Plants ^  and  Minerals — The 
 Analogies  between  the  plant  and  animal^  ariftngfrom  their  Jiruc- 
 ture  and  organs ^  their  growth  and  nourijhmenty  their  dijjemina- 
 tion  and  decay* 
 
 IN  ATUR  AL  Bodies,  when  viewed  as  they  have 
 a  relation  to  man,  are  marked  with  chara£lers  fo  apparent, 
 that  they  efcape  not  the  obfervaticn  of  the  moft  unenlight- 
 ened minds.  In  a  fyftem  where  all  the  conftituent  parts 
 have  a  reciprocal  dependence,  and  are  connected  by  relations 
 fo  fubtile  as  to  elude  the  perception  of  animals,  fuch  obvious 
 fcharaclers  were  indifpenfible.  Without  them,  neither  the 
 affairs  of  human  life,,  nor  the  fun£lions  of  the  brute  creation, 
 could  be  carried  on.  Chara£lers  of  this  kind  are  accommo- 
 dated to  the  apprehenlion  of  brutes  and  of  vulgar  men. 
 
 But,  when  the  produ(Slions  of  nature  are  more  clofely  ex- 
 amined ;  when  they  are  fcrutinized  by  the  eye  of  philofophy, 
 the  number  of  their  relations  and  differences  is  difcovered  to 
 be  almofl  infinite  ;  and  their  lliades  of  difcrimination  are 
 often  fo  delicate,  that  no  fenfe  can  perceive  them.     Nothing 
 
 B 
 
a  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 apparently,  is  more  eafy  than  to  diftinguilli  an  animal  from 
 a  plant ;  and  yet  the  proper  diftindtion  has  puzzled  the  moft 
 acute  enquiries^  and  perhaps  exceeds  the  limits  of  human 
 capacity. 
 
 '  A  plant,'  fays  Jungius,  *  is  a  living  but  not  3.  fcniii; nihodyy 
 
 <  which  is  fixed  in  a  determined  place,  and  grows,  increafes 
 
 <  in  fize,  and  propagates  its  fpecies*.'  In  this  definition  living 
 pov/ers  are  afcribed  to  vegetables  ;  but  they  are  denied  the 
 faculty  of  fenfation.  Life,  without  fome  degree  of  fenfation, 
 is  an  incomprehenfible  idea.  An  animal  limited  to  the  lenfe 
 of  feeling  alone,  is  the  loweft  conception  we  can  form  of  life. 
 Deprive  this  being  of  the  only  {enfe  it  polTeiTes,  and,  though 
 its  figures  fhould  remain,  we  would  inftantly  conclude  it  to 
 be  as  inanimate  as  a  ftone.  The  life  attributed  to  plants 
 feems  to  be  nothing  more  than  an  analogical  dedudlion  from 
 their  growth,  nutrition,  continuation  of  their  fpecies,  and 
 iimilar  circumftances. 
 
 Ludwig  defines  vegetables  to  be    *  natural  bodies,  always 
 
 *  endowed  with  the  fame  form,  but  deprived  of  the  power  of 
 
 <  local  motionf  .*  Every  branch  of  this  definition  is,  with 
 equal  propriety,  applicable  to  precious  ftones,  falts,  and  fome 
 animals  ;  and,  therefore,  requires  no  farther  attention. 
 
 Sir  Charles  Linnaeus,  in  his  Fundameiita  Botanica,  intends 
 to  difcriminate  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature  in  two  lines. 
 
 <  Stones,'  fays  he,    '  groiu  ;  vegetables  grow  and  live  ;  ani- 
 
 *  mals  grow,  live,  andy^^/f .'  This  is  an  aflemblage  of  words, 
 the  meaning  of  which  is  entirely  perverted.  The  idea  of 
 growth  implies  nutrition  and  expanfion  by  the  intervention 
 of  organs.  The  magnitude  of  ftones  may  be  augmented  by 
 an  accretion  of  new  matter.  But  this  is  not  growth,  or  ex- 
 panfion of  parts.  The  fecond  definition,  *  that  vegetables 
 grow  and  live,    is  equally    inaccurate.     Infi:ead  of  proving 
 
 •  Rail  Hift,  Plant,  p.  i.        f  Ludwig,  Phil.  Bot.  p.  i.         \  Fund.  Bot.  ^  j. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  1$ 
 
 the  life  of  plants,  Linnaeus  takes  it  for  granted,  and  makes  it 
 the  character iftic  between  vegetables  and  brute  matter.  The 
 third,  *  that  animals  grow,  live  and  feel,''  is  not  leis  excep- 
 tionable. Growth,  life,  and  mere  fenfation,  convey  the  moil 
 ignoble  notions  of  animated  beings.  From  this  definition, 
 we  would  be  led  to  imagine,  that  Linnaeus  meant  to  defcribe 
 the  condition  of  a  polypus  or  an  oyfter.  All  animals,  it  is 
 true,  grow,  live,  and  feel ;  but  thefe  are  only  the  paffive 
 properties  of  animals.  The  definition  includes  none  of 
 thofe  infl:in^ive,  intelledlual,  and  active  powers  which  exalt 
 the  animal  above  the  vegetable,  and  fo  eminently  dlftinguifii 
 the  different  tribes  from  each  other. 
 
 Thefe  and  many  other  abortive  attempts  have  been  made 
 to  afcertain  the  precife  boundaries  between  the  animal  and 
 vegetable.  Definitions  have  been  the  perpetual  aim  of  moft 
 writers  on  this  fubjedl.  But  definitions,  when  applied  to  nat- 
 ural obje(n:s,  muft  always  be  vague  and  elufory.  We  know 
 not  the  principle  of  animal  life.  We  are  equally  ignorant 
 of  the  efi^ential  caufe  of  vegetable  exiftence.  It  is  vain, 
 therefore,  to  dream  of  being  able  to  define  what  we  never 
 can  know.  We  may,  however,  difcover  fome  qualities  com-p 
 mon  to  the  animal  as  well  as  to  the  vegetable. 
 
 Senfation,  motion,  and  ftrucSture  of  parts,  give  animals  a 
 more  extenfive  range  in  their  connecSlion  with  external  ob- 
 jecfts,  A  certain  portion  of  intelle^l,  joined  to  the  vital  prin- 
 ciple, feem  to  be  the  moft  diftinguifhing  properties  of  ani- 
 mals, and  to  conftitute  their  efience  or  being.  Animals  will, 
 determine,  a6t,  and  have  a  communication  with  diftant  ob- 
 jects by  their  fenfes.  They  have  the  laws  of  nature,  iu 
 4bme  meafure,  at  command.  They  protect  thcmielves  from 
 injury  by  employing  force,  fwiftnefs,  addrefs,  and  cunning. 
 But  vegetables  remain  fixed  in  the  fame  place,  and  are  fuDJe<St 
 to  every  thing  that  moves.  Animals  eat  at  intervals  -,  their 
 Ibod  requires  time  for  digeftion,  and  to  anfwer  the  complies- 
 
IG  THE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 ted  purpofes  of  fecretion  and  nutrition.  The  ftructure  of 
 plants  is  more  iimple  j  they  receive  perpetual  nourifhment 
 without  injury.  Animals  fearch  for  and  feledl  particular 
 kinds  of  food.  But  plants  mufb  receive  whatever  is  brought 
 to  them  by  the  different  elements.  Animals  exift  on  the 
 furface  and  in  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth.  In  the  air,  in 
 water,  in  the  bodies  of  men  and  other  animals,  in  the  internal 
 parts  of  plants,  and  even  in  ftones.  But  if  we  except  a  £q\y 
 aquatics,  plants  are  fixed  to  the  earth  by  roots. 
 
 All  animals,  it  has  been  affirmed,  have  a  heart,  or  particu- 
 lar fountain  for  propelling  and  diftributing  their  fluids  to 
 the  different  parts  of  their  bodies  :  but  caterpillars,  and  ma- 
 ny other  infects,  have  no  fuch  general  receptacle. 
 
 The  loco-motive  faculty  has  been  confidered  as  peculiar  to 
 animals.  But  even  this  character  is  extremely  fufplcious, 
 Oyfters,  fea-.nettles,  the  gall-infects,  and  a  variety  of » other 
 animals,  can  hardly  be  faid  to  enjoy  the  povv^er  of  local  mo- 
 tion. Many  fpecies  remain  forever  fixed  to  the  rocks  on 
 which  they  are  produced,  and  have  no  motion  but  that  of 
 extending  or  contraiSling  their  bodies.  Beiides,  examples 
 of  different  kinds  of  motion  are  difcoverable  irf  the  vegetable 
 kingdom.  When  the  roots  of  a  tree  meet  with  a  ffone,  or 
 any  other  obftrudlion  to  their  motion,  in  order  to  avoid  it, 
 they  change  their  former  dire<Elion.  They  turn  from  barren 
 to  fertile  earth,  which  indicates  fomething  analogous  to  a  fe?- 
 lection  of  food.  Like  the  polypus,  plants,  when  confined  In 
 d  houfe,  uniformly  bend  toward  the  window  or  aperture 
 through  which  the  rays  of  light  are  introduced. 
 
 The  fenfitive  plant  poffeffes  the  faculty  of  motion  in*  an 
 eminent  degree.  The  fllghtefl  touch  makes  its  leaves  fud- 
 denly  fhrink,  and,  together  with  the  branch,  bend  down 
 toward  the  earth.  But  the  moving  plant,  or  hedyfarum 
 movens,  of  which  there  are  fpecimens  in  the  botanic  garden 
 of  Edinburgh,  furniflies  the  moft  aftonifliing  example  of  ver 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  17 
 
 getable  motion.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Eaft  Indies.  Its  move- 
 ments are  not  excited  by  the  contat^  of  external  bodies,  but 
 folely  by  the  influence  of  the  fun's  rays.  The  motions  oi 
 this  plant  are  confined  to  the  leaves^  which  are  fupported  by 
 long  flexible  foot  ftalks.  When  the  fun  fliines,  the  leaves 
 move  brifkly  in  every  direction.  Their  general  motion 
 however, is  upward  and  downward,  but  they  not  unfrequently 
 turn  almoft  round  ;  and  then  their  footftalks  are  evidently 
 twifted.  Thefe  motions  go  on  inceflantly  as  long  as  the  heat 
 of  the  fun  continues  ;  but  they  ceafe  during  the  night, 
 and  when  the  weather  is  cold  and  cloudy.  Our  wonder  is 
 excited  by  the  rapidity  and  conftancy  of  the  movements  pe- 
 culiar to  this  plant.  The  frequency,  however,  of  limilar 
 motions  in  other  plants,  renders  it  probable  that  the  leaves 
 of  all  vegetables  move,  or  are  agitated  by  the  rays  of  the 
 fun,  though  many  of  thefe  movements  are  too  flow  for  our 
 perception. 
 
 The  American  plant  called  dionaea  mufdpula^  or  Vinus's  fiy^ 
 trapi  affords  another  inftance  of  rapid  vegetable  motion.  Its 
 leaves  are  jointed,  and  furnifhed  with  two  rows  of  flrong  prick- 
 les. Their  lurfaces  are  covered  with  a  number  of  minute 
 glands,  which  fecrete  a  Iweet  liquor,  and  allure  the  approach 
 of  flies.  When  thefe  parts  are  touched  by  the  legs  of  a  fly, 
 the  two  lobes  of  the  leaf  inllantly  rife  up,  the  rows  of  pric- 
 kles lock  themfelves  fafl  together,  and  fqueeze  the  unwary 
 animal  to  death.  If  a  ftraw  or  a  pin  be  introduced  between 
 the  lobes  the  fame  motions  are  excited. 
 
 When  a  feed  is  fown  in  a  reverfed  pofition,  the  young  root 
 turns  downwards  to  enter  the  earth,  and  the  ftem  bends 
 upward  into  the  air.  Confine  a  young  fleni  to  an  inclined 
 pofition,  and  its  extremity  will  foon  alTume  its  former  per- 
 pendicular diredlion.  Twifl  the  branches  of  any  tree  in  fuch 
 a  manner  that  the  inferior  furfaces  of  the  leaves  are  turn- 
 ed  towards   the   fky,  and  you  will,  in  a  iLort  tin'ie,  per- 
 
IS  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ceive  that  all  thefe  leaves  refiime  their  original  pofition. 
 Thefe  motions  are  performed  fooner  or  later,  in  proportion 
 to  the  degree  of  heat,  and  the  flexibility  of  the  leaves. 
 Many  leaves,  as  thofe  of  the  mallow,  follow  the  courfe  of  the 
 fun.  In  the  morning,  their  fuperior  furfaces  are  prefented 
 to  the  eaft  ;  at  noon,  they  regard  the  fouth  ;  and,  when  the 
 fun  fets,  they  are  directed  to  the  weft.  During  the  night, 
 or  in  rainy  weather,  thefe  leaves  are  horizontal  5  and  their 
 inferior  furfaces  are  turned  toward  the  earth. 
 
 What  has  been  denominated  the  fleep  of  plants,  affords  an 
 Inflance  of  another  fpecies  of  vegetable  motion.  The  leaves 
 of  many  plants  fold  up  during  the  night  ;  but  at  the  ap- 
 proach of  the  fun,  they  expand  with  renewed  vigour.  The 
 common  appearances  of  moft  vegetables  are  fo  changed  in 
 the  night,  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  different  kinds, 
 even  by  the  afliflance  of  light. 
 
 The  modes  of  folding  in  the  leaves,  or  of  fleeping,  are  ex- 
 tremely various.  But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  they  all 
 difpofe  themfelves  fo  as  to  give  the  beft  proteftion  to  the 
 young  ftems,  flowers,  buds,  or  fruit.  The  leaves  of  the  tam- 
 arind tree  contradl  round  the  tender  fruit,  and  protect  It 
 from  the  no£lurnal  cold.  The  caffia  or  fenna,  the  glycine, 
 and  many  of  the  papilionaceous  plants,  contract  their  leaves 
 in  a  flmilar  manner.  The  leaves  of  the  chickweed,  of 
 the  afclepias,  atriplex,  &c.  are  difpofed  in  oppoilte  pairs. 
 During  the  night,  they  rife  perpendicularly,  and  join  fo 
 clofe  at  the  top,  that  they  conceal  the  flowers.  The 
 leaves  of  the  fida  or  althea  theophrifti,  of  the  ayenia,  and 
 Oenothera,  are  placed  alternately.  Though  horizonal,  or 
 even  depending,  during  the  day,  at  the  approach  of  night 
 they  rife,  embrace  the  ftem,  and  prote(Sl  the  tender  flowers. 
 The  leaves  of  the  folanum,  or  nightfliade,  are  horizontal  du- 
 ring the  day  •,  but,  in  the  night,  they  rife  and  cover  the 
 lowers.     The   Egyptian  vetch  ere^s  its  leaves  during  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTOIIT.  IS 
 
 night,  In  fuch  a  manner  that  each  pair  feem  to  be  one  leaf 
 only.  The  leaves  of  the  white  lupine,  in  the  ftate  of  fleep, 
 hang  down,  and  prote<Sl  the  young  buds  from  being  injured 
 by  the  nocturnal  air. 
 
 Thefe  and  iimilar  motions  are  not  peculiar  to  the  leaves  of 
 plants.  The  flowers  have  alfo  the  power  of  moving.  Da- 
 ring the  night,  many  of  them  are  inclofed  in  their  calixes. 
 Some  flowers,  as  thofe  of  the  German  fpurge,  geranium 
 ftriatum,  and  common  whitlow  grafs,  when  afleep,  hang  their 
 mouths  toward  the  earth,  to  prevent  the  noxious  effects  of 
 rain  or  dew. 
 
 The  caufe  of  thofe  movements  which  conftltute  the  fleep 
 of  plants,  has  been  afcribed  to  the  prefence  or  abfence  of  the 
 fun's  rays.  In  fame  of  the  examples  I  have  given,  the  mo- 
 tions produced  are  evidently  excited  by  heat.  But  plants 
 kept  in  a  hot-houfe,  where  an  equal  degree  of  heat  is  pre- 
 ferved  both  day  and  night,  fail  not  to  contracSl  their  leaves, 
 or  to  fleep,  in  the  fame  manner,  as  when  they  are  expofed  to 
 the  open  air.  This  fact  evinces,  that  the  fleep  of  plants  is 
 rather  owing  to  a  peculiar  law,  than  to  a  quicker  or  flower 
 motion  of  their  juices. 
 
 A  ftomach  and  brain  have  been  reckoned  eflential  charac- 
 teriftics  of  the  animal  ;  and  plants  are  faid  to  poflefs  nothing 
 analogous  to  thefe  organs.  But  the  polypus  has  no  fl:omach ; 
 or  rather,  like  vegetables,  its  wdiole  body  may  be  confidered 
 as  a  ftomach.  Its  internal  cavity  contains  no  vifcera  ;  and, 
 when  this  animal  is  turned  outflde  in,  it  fl:ill  continues  to  Hve, 
 and  to  digeft  its  food,  in  the  fame  manner  as  if  it  had  receiv- 
 ed no  injury.  The  mode  by  which  plants  are  nourifhed  is 
 extremely  analogous.  They  imbibe  food  by  the  roots,  the 
 trunk,  the  branches,  the  leaves,  and  the  flowers.  Inflead, 
 therefore,  of  having  no  ftomach,  their  whole  ftrucSture  is 
 ftomach.  With  regard  to  the  brain,  the  polypus,  and  many 
 ©ther  infeds,  are  deprived  of  that  organ.     Hence  neither 
 
^0  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 itomach  nor  brain  are  eflential  chara6lers  which  difcrimlnate 
 the  animal  from  the  vegetable. 
 
 But  all  animals  are  endowed  with  fenfation,  or  at  leaflt 
 with  irritability,  which  laft  has  been  confidered  as  a  diftin£t- 
 ive  character  of  animal  life.  Senfation  implies  a  diftin^l  per- 
 ception of  pleafure  and  pain.  We  infer  the  exiftence  of 
 fenfation  in  organized  bodies,  when  we  perceive  that  they 
 have  organs  iimilar  to  our  own,  or  when  they  a(51:,  in  certain 
 circumftances,  in  the  fame  manner  as  v/e  a6l.  If  an  organ- 
 ized being  has  eyes,  ears,  and  a  nofe,  we  naturally  conclude 
 that  it  enjoys  the  fame  fenfations  as  thefe  organs  convey  to  us. 
 If  we  fee  another  being,  whofe  ftru^lure  exhibits  nothing 
 analogous  to  our  organs  of  fenfation,  contracting  with  rapid- 
 ity when  touched,  directing  its  body  uniformly  to  the  light, 
 feizing  fmall  infe£ts  with  teniacula,  or  a  kind  of  arms,  and 
 conveying  them  into  an  aperture  placed  at  its  anterior  end,  we 
 hefitate  not  to  pronounce  that  it  is  animated.  Cut  off  its 
 arms,  deprive  it  of  the  faculty  of  contracting  and  extending 
 its  body,  the  nature  of  this  being  will  not  be  changed  ;  but 
 v/e  will  be  unable  to  determine  wdiether  it  poiTeiTes  any 
 portion  of  Hfe.  This  is  nearly  the  condition  of  the  fmall 
 fe£lions  of  a  polypus,  before  their  heads  begin  to  grow.  The 
 wheel-animal,  the  eels  in  blighted  wheat,and  the  fnails  record- 
 ed in  the  philofophical  tranfaCiions,  afford  inftancesof  every 
 appearance  of  fenfation,  or  even  of  irritability,beingfufpended, 
 not  for  months,  but  for  feveral  years,  and  yet  the  life  of 
 thefe  animals  is  not  extinguiflied  ;  for  they  uniformly  revive 
 upon  a  proper  application,  of  moifcure. 
 
 Thefe  and  llmilar  fa6ts  fliow,  that  we  are  entirely  ignorant 
 of  the  effence  and  properties  of  life.  What  life  really  is, 
 feems  too  fubtile  for  our  underftanding  to  conceive,  or  our 
 fenfes  to  difcern.  If  we  have  no  other  criterions  to  diftinguifh 
 life,  than  motion,  fenfation,  and  irritability,  the  animals  juft 
 mentioned  conti-nued   for  years  in  a  ffate  which    every  man 
 
-     OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  21 
 
 %vould  pronounce  to  have  been  perfectly  dead.  It  Is  poflible, 
 therefore,  that  life  may  exifl:  in  many  bodies  which  are  com- 
 monly thought  to  be  as  inanimate  as  ftones.  Hence  it  would 
 be  rafh  to  exclude  plants  from  every  fpecies  of  fenfation* 
 The  degrees  of  fenfation  decreafe  imperceptibly  from  man  to 
 the  fea-nettle^  gall-infe6ts,  and  what  are  called  thq  moft  im- 
 perfect animals.  Every  vegetable,  as  well  as  the  fenlitive 
 plant,  fhrinks  when  wounded.  But,  in  moft  of  them,  the 
 motion  is  too  flow  for  our  perception.  When  trees  grow 
 near  a  ditch,  the  roots  which  proceed'  in  a  direftion  that 
 would  necefiarily  bring  them  into  the  open  air,  inftead  of 
 continuing  this  noxious  progrefs,  fink  below  the  level  of  the 
 ditch,  then  flioot  acrofs,  and  regain  the  foil  on  the  oppofite 
 fide.  When  a  root  Is  uncovered,  without  expofing  It  to 
 much  heat,  and  a  wetfpunge  is  placed  near  It,  but  In  a  different 
 dire<ftion  from  that  in  which  the  root  Is  proceeding,  in  a 
 Ihort  time  the  root  turns  towards  the  fpunge.  In  this  man- 
 ner the  dlredllon  of  roots  may  be  varied  at  pleafure.  All 
 plants  make  the  firongeft  efforts,  by  inclining,  turning,  and 
 even  twifting  their  ftems  and  branches,  to  efcape  from  dark- 
 nefs  and  fhade,  and  to  procure  the  influences  of  the  fun. 
 Place  a  wet  fpunge  under  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  they  foon  bend 
 downward,  and  endeavour  to  apply  their  inferior  furfaces  to 
 the  fpunge.  If  a  veffel  of  water  be  placed  within  fix  Inches 
 of  a  growing  cucumber,  in  twenty-four  hours  the  cucumber 
 alters  the  diredlion  of  its  branches,  bends  either  to  the  right 
 or  left,  and  never  ftops  till  it  comes  into  contact  with  the 
 water.  When  a  pole  is  placed  at  a  confiderable  diftance 
 from  an  unfupported  vine,  the  branches  of  which  are  pro- 
 ceeding in  a  contrary  diredlion  from  that  of  the  pole,  in  a 
 fhort  time,  it  alters  its  courfe,  and  ftops  not  till  it  clings 
 around  the  pole. 
 
 Facls  of  this  kind    excite    our  wonder  ;  but  they  by  no 
 means   prove  that  vegetables  live,  or  that  they  are  endowed 
 
22  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 with  fenfatiorijwhich  implies  a  diftincl  perception  of  pleafure^ 
 and  pain. 
 
 There  is  an  inferior  fpecies  of  fenfatlon,  which  is  diftin- 
 guifhed  by  the  term  irritability.     This  term  denotes  that  pow- 
 er by  which  mufcular  fibres,  even  after  they  are  detached 
 from  the  body,  contract  upon  the  appUcation  of  any  flimulat- 
 ing  fnbftance,  whether  folid  or  fluid.     The  heart  of  a  frog 
 when  pricked  with  the  point  of  a  pin  continues  to  beat,  or 
 t-o  contra(St   and   dilate,    for  feveral  hours  after  it  has  been 
 cut  out  of  the  animal's  body.  The  heart  of  a  viper  or  of  a  turtle 
 beats  diftinctly  from  twenty  to  thirty  hours  after  the  death 
 of  thefe  animals.     The  periftaltic  motion  of  the  inteflines  is 
 produced  by  their  irritability.     Yv^hen  the  inteftines  of  a  dog, 
 ©r  any  other  quadruped,  are  fuddenly  cut  into  different  por- 
 tions, ail  thefe  portions  crawl  about  like  worms,  and  contraft 
 upon  the  flighted  touch.     Though  irritability  be  unqueflion- 
 ably  a  vital  principle,  yet  it  is  equally  certain  that  mufcular 
 fibres,  when  feparated  from  the  body  to  which  they  belong, 
 have  no  diflincl  perception  of  plealure  or  pain.     Their  re- 
 gular contracSlion  and  dilatation  are  evident  fymptoms  of  life, 
 which,  in  many  cafes,  may  lead  us  to  attribute  living  powers 
 to  ,fubflances  that  enjoy  neither  Ufe  nor  fenfation,     Henccj, 
 though  all  plants  were  irritable,  this  circumflance  would  not 
 prove  that  they  are  poffeiTed  of  life.     The  contradtion  and 
 dilatation  of  the  fenfitive  plants,  and  the  various  motions  of 
 the  leaves,  branches,  flowers,-and  roots  of  vegetables  formerly 
 mentioned,  feem  to  indicate  that    moft  plants  are  endowed 
 with  irritability.     Perhaps  all  vegetables  have  more  or  lefs  of 
 this  quality.     The  heart,  inteflines,  and  diaphragm,  are  the 
 moft  irritable  parts  of  animal  bodies  ;  and,  to  difcover  whe- 
 ther this  quality  refides  in  all  plants,  experiments  fhould  be 
 made  chiefly  on  their  leaves,  flowers,  buds,  and  the  tender 
 Sbres  of  the  roots. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  f5 
 
 From  this  narration  of  fadts,  it  appears,  that  plants  make  a 
 very  near  approach  to  animals  ;  and  that  this  fimilarity,  as 
 well  as  the  difficulty  of  fixing  the  precife  boundaries  by  which 
 thefe  two  great  kingdoms  of  nature  are  limited,  are  direft 
 confequences  of  the  organization  of  vegetables.  It  is  owing 
 to  their  organic  ftrudlure  alone,  that  plants  and  animals  are 
 capable  of  affording  reciprocal  nourifhment  to  each  other. 
 This  organic  ftrudlure,  though  greatly  diveriified  in  the  dif- 
 ferent fpecies  of  animals  and  vegetables,  evinces  that  nature 
 in  the  formation  of  both,  has  a6ledupon  the  fame  general  plan. 
 May  we  not  prefume,therefore,  as  plants  as  well  as  animals  are 
 compofed  of  a  regular  fyftem  of  organs,  that  the  vegetable 
 part  of  the  creation  is  not  entirely  deprived  of  every  quality 
 which  we  are  apt  to  think  peculiar  to  animated  beings  ?  I 
 mean  not  to  infinuate,  that  plants  can  perceive  pleafure  or 
 pain.  But,  as  many  of  their  motions  and  affections  cannot 
 be  explained  upon  any  principle  of  mechaniim,- 1  am  inclined 
 to  think,  that  they  originate  from  the  power  of  irritability, 
 which,  though  it  implies  not  the  perception  of  pleafure  and 
 pain,  is  the  principle  that  regulates  all  the  vital  or  involun- 
 tary motions  of  animals.  To  afcertain  this  point,  would  re- 
 quire a  fet  of  very  nice  experiments.  I  fhail  mention  one, 
 which  might  be  performed  w^ith  tolerable  eafe.  It  w^as  form- 
 erly remarked,  that  plants  kept  in  a  hot  houfe,  where  the 
 degree  of  heat  is  uniform,  never  fail  tofleep  during  thenigjit. 
 This  is  diredl  evidence,  that  heat  alone  is  not  the  caufe  of 
 their  vigilance.  But  they  are  deprived  of  light.  Let,  there- 
 fore, a  ftrong  artificial  light,  without  increafing  the  heat,  be 
 thrown  upon  them.  If,  notwithflanding  this  light,  the  plants 
 are  not  roufed,  but  continue  to  fleep  as  ufual,  then  it  may  be 
 prefumed  that  their  organs,  like  thofe  of  animals,  are  not  on- 
 ly irritable,  but  require  the  reparation  of  fome  invigorating 
 influence  which  they  have  loft  while  awake,  by  the  agita- 
 tion's of  the  air  and  the  fun's  rays,  by  the  act  of  growing,  or 
 by  fome  other  latent  caufe. 
 
24  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 It  is  almoft  unnecclTary  to  mark  the  diftincSlIon  between 
 vegetables  and  minerals.     The  tranlition  from  the  animal  to 
 the  plant  is   efFe(51:ed  by  fhades  Co  imperceptible,  as  to  elude 
 the  moft  acute  obfervers.     But,  between  the  plant  and  the 
 mineral,  there  is  a  vaft  chafm  in  the  chain  of  being,  which 
 may  be  the  fource  of  great  difcoveries.     In   bodies  purely 
 mineral,  not  a  veftige  of  organization  can  be  difcovcred.  The 
 fibrous  ftru6lure  of  the  afbeftos  has  been  regarded  as  an  ap- 
 proach towards  organization,  and  as  llie  link  which  connedls 
 the  mineral   to  the  vegetable  kingdom.     But  this  is  one  of 
 thofe  {Irained  analogies  which  are  too   often   employed    by 
 theoretical  writers.     Though  the  aibeftos  is  compofed  of  a 
 kind  of  threads  or  fibres,  thefe  fibres  are  not  tubular  5  nei- 
 ther are  they  interwoven,  like  that  regular  tilTue  or   fabrig 
 which  fo  remarkably  diftinguifhes  organized  from  brute  mat- 
 ter.    Of  courfe,  the   magnitude  of  the  afbeftos  can  only  be 
 jncreafed  by  the   appolition  of  new  matter,  and  not  by  any 
 developement  or    expanfion   of  parts.     But    though,  in  the 
 mineral  kingdom,  nature  ceafes  to  organize,  fhe  continues  to 
 arrange. 
 
 The  regular  configuration  of  falts,  chryftals^  and  other  pre- 
 cious flones,  has  been  confidered  by  fome  authors  as  the  re- 
 fult  of  an  organic  procefs.  But  the  uniform  figure  of  falts 
 and  chryftals  may  be  the  efteft  of  certain  laws  of  attra(Slion 
 peculiar  to  each  fpecies.  None  of  thefe  particles  can  be  re- 
 garded as  a  germ  or  bud.  They  are  only  the  elements  or 
 conftituent  parts,  which,  when  applied  to  each  other,  form 
 a  whole.  They  never  expand  or  grow,  like  the  embrios  of 
 animals  or  plants.  They  remain  for  ever  in  the  fame  flat e 
 without  diminution  or  increafe,  except  v/hen  feparated  by 
 force,  or  magnified  by  an  accumulation  of  frefii  matter.  The 
 chryflalline  juice  is  not  aflimulated  by  vefiels  :  It  is  prepared 
 by  a  chymical  operation  of  nature.  The  bodies  of  plants 
 ^nd  animals  are  machines,   exceedingly  ela'borate,   and  more 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  25 
 
 or  lefs  complicated.  Thefe  machines,  by  means  of  difFerent 
 organs,  have  the  power  of  converting  other  animals  and  ve- 
 getables into  their  own  fubftance.  By  this  affimulation,  all 
 their  dimenfions  are  increafed  ;  and  their  various  parts  uni- 
 formly prefer ve  the  fame  proportions  with  regard  to  each 
 other,  and  continue  to  perform  their  refpedlive  funcflions. 
 Befides,  organized  bodies  not  only  multiply  their  fpecies, 
 but  fome  of  them  pofTefsthe  power  of  reproducing  fuch  parts 
 as  are  forcibly  abftradled  from  them. 
 
 In  thefe  and  many  other  qualities  common  to  the  animal 
 and  vegetable,  there  is  not  the  fmalleft  analogy  to  be  found 
 in  the  mineral  kingdom.  Between  the  mofi:  regular  foffils, 
 as  falts  and  chryftals,  and  the  moft  imperfect  animal  or  ve- 
 getable, the  diftance  is  immenfe.  Figured  foffils  are  not 
 more  organized  than  a  column  or  a  portico.  In  the  formation 
 of  the  former,  nature^  in  that  of  the  latter,  man,  is  the  artift. 
 When  no  iimilarity  is  to  be  dilcovered  in  thofe  foffils  which 
 are  nearly  uniform  in  their  configuration,  we  are  not  to  eX" 
 pe£l:  it  in  the  more  loofe  and  Irregular  parts  of  brute  matter. 
 Here, nature,  regardlefs  of  fymmetry,  conjoins  heterogeneous 
 materials  of  which  fhe  compofes  irregular  malTes.  Many 
 ftones,  flints,  and  other  concretions,  afford  examples  of  tHis 
 kind.  More  art,  it  muft  be  acknowledged,  appears  in  the  for^ 
 mation  of  metals  :  but  their  flructure  exhibits  no  veftiges  of 
 organization, 
 
 ANALOGIES. 
 HAVING  fhown  the  extreme  difficulty  of  fixing  the  boun- 
 daries which  f?parate  the  animal  from  the  vegetable  king- 
 dom, I  proceed  to  the  more  pleafing  taflc  of  enumerating 
 fpme  of  thofe  beautiful  analogies  which  fubfifl  between  them. 
 To  render  this  fubjeift  the  more  agreeable  and  inftrudtive,  in- 
 itcad  of  bringing  together  an  unconne^led  mafs,  I  fliall  trace 
 ihe  analogies  between  the  animal  and  plant,  under  the  ar- 
 rangement of  JiruBure  and  organs^  grcivih  and  nourijl.mcnt ^  dif-. 
 ft'minaUon  cud  demy. 
 
26  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 STRUCTURE  and  ORGANS. 
 
 IN  all  organized  bodies,  a  fimilarity  of  flrudlure  Teems  to 
 be  iiuavoidable.  The  bodies  of  men  and  quadrupeds  conlifl 
 of  a  feries  of  connected  bones,  which  run  from  the  head  to 
 the  rump.  This  feries  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  back- 
 bone, from  each  fide  of  which,  a  number  of  arched  bones  pro- 
 ceed. Some  of  thefe  join  the  breaft-bone  by  means  of  car- 
 tilages, and  form  a  vaulted  cavity,  which  contains  and  de- 
 fends the  heart,  and  other  vifcera  proper  to  the  cheft.  The 
 bones  of  the  pelvis,  and  of  the  four  extremities,  are  joined  to 
 the  back-bones  by  articulations  and  membranes.  By  the 
 fame  contrivance,  the  cranium  is  fixed  to  the  upper  end  of 
 the  back  bones.  Into  different  procefTes  and  portions  of  all 
 thefe  bones,  a  great  number  of  mufcles,  or  bundles  of  flefliy 
 ^bres  are  inferted.  Thefe  mufcles  are  the  inffcruments  which 
 give  rife  to  all  the  varieties  of  animal  motion.  The  bones  of 
 the  head,  or  cranium,  contain  the  brain  and  cerebellum,  a 
 prolongation  of  which  runs  through  the  whole  extent  of  the 
 canal  in  the  back-bone,  and  is  known  by  the  iQvin  Jpitial  mar^ 
 row.  From  the  brain  and  fpinal  marrow  proceed  all  the 
 nerves,  or  inflruments  of  lenfation.  Thefe  nerves,  the  ram- 
 ifications of  which  are  infinitely  various  and  minute,  are  dif- 
 tributed  upon  the  heart,  lungs,  blood  vefTels,  bowels,  and 
 mufcles,  till  they  terminate  on  the  flcin,  or  external  covering 
 of  the  body.  The  heart  is  the  fountain,  or  general  recepta- 
 cle of  the  blood.  The  contraction  of  the  heart  propels  the 
 blood  through  the  arteries,  which  are  likewife  difl:ributed,by 
 numerous  and  complicated  ramifications,  over  every  part  of 
 the  body,  and  terminate  in  the  veins,  which  again  colledl  the 
 whole  arterial  blood  into  one  cavity^  and  reconvey  it  to  the 
 heart.     This  circulatory  procefs  goes  on  during  life. 
 
 Befide  the  organs   already  mentioned,  there  are   others, 
 termed /t'cretory,   becaufe  they  feparate  peculiar  fluids  froni 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORt.  27 
 
 the  general  mafs  of  circulating  blood.  The  flomach  and  in- 
 teftines  are  furniflied  with  a  vaft  number  of  fmall  tubes,  call- 
 ed laBeal  dutlsy  which  feparate  and  abforb  the  nutritious  parts 
 of  the  aliment,  and  reject  all  the  groffer  and  ufelefs  particles. 
 Thefe  duels,  after  innumerable  communications  with  each 
 other,  unite  into  one  large  tube,  diftinguifhed  by  the  name 
 oit\iQ  thoracic  duEl^  which  is  the  general  refervoir  of  the  chyle, 
 or  fecreted  liquor.  This  chyle,  which  is  a  mild  fluid,  palTes 
 from  the  thoracic  duct  to  the  fiibclavian  vein  ;  and  by  this 
 vein  it  is  conveyed  to  the  hea:rt,  where  it  mingles  with  the 
 blood,  and  is  circulated  through  the  body,  for  the  nourifh- 
 ment  of  its  different  parts.  It  is  of  no  moment,  for  our  pre- 
 fent  purpofe,  to  be  more  particular,  efpecially  as  this  fubjeft 
 will  be  afterwards  more  fully  handled.  I  fhall  therefore  juft 
 mention,  that  there  are  particular  organs  or  glands  for  fecre- 
 ting  various  fluids,  which  are  necefTary  to  the  exiftence  of 
 the  larger  animals,  as  the  kidneys  for  the  fecretion  of  urine  ; 
 the  liver  for  the  fecretion  of  gall  ;  the  flomach  for  the  fecre- 
 tion of  the  gaftric  juices  ;  the  falivary  glands  for  the  fecre» 
 tion  of  faliva,  &c. 
 
 From  this  flietch  of  the  ftructure  of  man  and  of  quadru- 
 peds, very  little  attention  is  neceflary  to  perceive,  that  na- 
 ture purfues  a  fimilar  plan  in  the  formation  of  birds  and  filhes. 
 
 In  that  numerous  clafs  of  animals  diftinguifhed  by  the 
 name  of  mfeElSy  there  is  a  great  variety  of  form  and  flrudlure. 
 In  many  of  thefe,  nature  feems  to  depart  from  her  general 
 mode  of  operation.  But,  upon  a  more  accurate  examination, 
 this  feeming  departure  will  appear  to  be  only  an  extenfion  of 
 that  univerfal  plan  which  flie  obferves  in  the  formation  of 
 all  animated  beings.  Some  infe6ls,  the  lobfter,  and  all  the 
 cruftaceous  and  fhell  animals,  have  their  bones  on  the  out- 
 fide  of  their  bodies.  To  thefe  bones  the  mufcles  and  other 
 inftruments  of  motion  are  attached.  Many  fpecies  have  no 
 bones  *,  but  their  bodies  coniift  of  a  fuccefiion  of  rings  inca- 
 
23  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fed  into  each  other.  By  contradling  and  dilating  thefe  rings, 
 all  the  movement's  of  this  kind  are  performed.  The  head, 
 in  fome  fpecles,  changes  its  form  every  moment.  It  contra(Sts 
 or  dilates,  appears  or  difappears,  at  the  pleafure  of  the  animal. 
 Thefe  motions  arc  permitted  by  the  flexibility  of  the  mem- 
 branes, or  coverings  of  the  head.  In  other  fpecies,  the  form 
 of  the  head  is  permanent,  owing  to  the  hardnefs  of  the  cover- 
 ings,  which  are  fcaley  or  cruftaceous,  and  approaches  nearer 
 to  that  of  the  more  perfect  animals. 
 
 Many  infers  are  deftltute  of  particular  organs.  Some  want 
 eyes,  ears,  brain,  and  noftrils.  Other  have  an  acute  fenfe  of 
 fmelling,  though  we  know  not  the  form  nor  fituation  of  the 
 organ.  The  inferior  fpecies  of  infects  have  no  internal  lungs, 
 but  receive  air  by  lateral  pores,  and  fometimes  by  long  tubes, 
 or  tracheae,  which  protrude  from  different  parts  of  the  body. 
 Many  infe6ls  have  no  heart,  or  general  refervolr  for  the  re- 
 ception and  propulfion  of  the  blood.  But  we  difcover  by  the 
 microfccpe,  that  their  blood  circulates  by  the  pulfation  of  ar- 
 teries, and  that  their  different  fluids  are  fecreted  by  glands. 
 In  a  word,  nature,  in  the  firudlure  and  fundtions  of  animals, 
 defcends,  by  degrees  almofi:  imperceptible,  from  man  to  the 
 polypus,  a  being  which,  ever  flnce  its  oeconomy  and  proper- 
 ties were  difcovered  by  M.  Trembley,  has  continued  to  afton- 
 ifh  both  phiiofophers  and  naturalifts.  The  ftru6lure  of  thfe 
 polypus,  which  inhabits  frefli  water  pools  and  ditches,  is  ex- 
 tremely fimple.  Its  body  conflfts  of  a  Angle  twbe,  with  long 
 ieutacula^  or  arms,  at  one  extremity,  by  which  it  feizes  fmall 
 worms,  arid  conveys  them  to  its  mouth.  It  has  no  proper 
 head,  heart,  flomach,  or  inieftines  of  any  kind.  This  fim- 
 plicity  of  flructure  gives  rife  to  an  equal  fimpliclty  in  the 
 oeconomy  and  functions  of  the  animal.  The  polypus,  though 
 it  has  not  the  diftinctlon  of  fex,  is  extremely  prolific.  When 
 about  to  multiply,  a  fmall  protuberance  or  bud  appears  on 
 the  furface  of  its  body.     This  bud  gradually  fwells  and  ex- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2^ 
 
 tends.     It  includes  net  a  young  polypus,  but  is  the  real  ani- 
 mal in  miniature,  united  to  the  mother  as  a  fucker  to  the  pa- 
 rent tree.      The   food  taken  by  the  mother  palTes  into   the 
 young  by  means  of  a  communicating   aperture.     When  the 
 fhooting  polypus  has  acquired  a  certain  growth,  this  aperture 
 gradually  clofes,  and  the  young  drops  off,  to  multiply  its  fpe- 
 cies  in  the  fame  manner.     As  every  part  of  a  polypus  is  ca- 
 pable of  fending  off  Ihoots,  it  often  happens,  that  the  young 
 before  parting  from  the    mother,  begin  to  fhoot  ^  and  the 
 parent  animal  carries  feveral  generations  on  her   own  body. 
 There    is  another  fingularity  in  the  hiftory  of  the  polypus. 
 When  cut  to  pieces   in  every  direction  fancy  can  fuggeii,  it 
 not  only  contin-ues  to  exift,  but  each  fection  foon  becomes  ?.n 
 animal  of  the  fame  kind.  What  is  ftill  more  furpriling,  when 
 inverted  as  a  man  inverts  the  finger  of  a  glove,  tlie   polypus 
 feems  to  have  fuffered  no  material  injury  ;  for  it  foon  begins 
 to  take  food,  and  to  perform  every  other    natural  fundlion. 
 Here  we  have  a  wonderful  inftance  of  animal  ductility.     No 
 divifion,   however  minute,  can  deprive  thefe  worms  of  life. 
 What  infallibly  deftroys   other   animals,   ferves  only  in  the 
 polypus,  to  multiply  the  number  of  individuals.     M.  Trem- 
 bley,  in   the  courfe  of  his  experiments,  difcovered,  that  dif- 
 ferent portions  of  one  polypos  could  be  ingrafted  on  another. 
 Two  tranfverfe    fe^Slions  brought  into  contact  quickly  unite, 
 and  form  one  animal,  though  each  ledtion  belongs  to  a  differ- 
 ent fpecies.     The  head  of  one  fpecies  may  be  ingrafted  on 
 the  body  of  another.     When  a  polypus  is  introduced  by  the 
 tail  into  another's  body,  the   two  heads  unite,  and  forni  one 
 individual.     Purfuing  thefe  ftrange  operations,  M.  Trembley 
 gave  fcope  to  his  fancy,  and,  by  repeatedly  fplitting  the  head 
 and  part  of  the  body,  formed  hydras  more  complicated  than 
 ever  ftruck  the  imagination  of  the  moft  romantic  fabulifts. 
 
 D 
 
so  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 This  fliort  account  of  the  general  ftrucHiure  of  animals  was 
 a  necefTary  preparation  for  perceiving  more  clearly  their  con* 
 ne(Slion  with  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
 
 The  ftructure  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  confifts  of  a 
 feries  of  veiTels  difpofed  in  a  regular  order.  Thefe  veflels 
 are  deftined  to  perform  the  different  functions  neceflary  to 
 the  nourllhment,  growth,  and  diflemination  of  the  plant.  In 
 trees,  and  moft  of  the  larger  vegetables,  three  diftin<Sl:  parts 
 are  to  be  obferved  ;  the  bark,  the  wood,  and  the  pith.  The 
 bark  likewife  confifts  of  three  parts  ;  the  il-win,  the  body,  and 
 the  I'lhery  or  inner  circle  j  which  laft,  about  the  end  of  au- 
 tumn, aflumes  the  fame  texture  and  firmnefs  with  the  wood. 
 The  lubftance  of  the  bark  is  compofed  of  a  number  of  lon- 
 gitudinal fap  and  air  vefTels,  which  have  the  appearance  of 
 fine  threads,  running  from  the  root  to  the  trunk  and  branch- 
 es. Belide  thefe  veflfels,  the  bark  is  furnifhed  with  a  paren- 
 chymatous or  pulpy  fubftance,  in  which  there  are  a  vafl  va» 
 riety  of  foUkull^  or  fmall  bladders.  The  bark  is  connected  to 
 the  wood  by  tranfverfe  infertions  of  the  parenchyma. 
 
 The  wood  confifls  of  two  diftin£t  fubftances  •,  the  one  is 
 denfe,  and  compa(SI:,  and  conftitutes  what  is  termed  the  lig- 
 neous body ;  the  other  is  porous,  moift,  and  pulpy,  and  is 
 therefore  called  t\\Q  parenchymatous  part  of  the  wood.  A 
 portion  of  wood  is  placed  alternately  between  a  fimilar  por- 
 tion of  parenchyma.  Thefe  alternate  portions  proceed  from 
 the  edges  of  the  pith,  as  radii  from  the  center  of  a  circle, 
 widening  proportionally  as  they  approach  the  circumference. 
 Both  of  them,  however,  like  the  bark,  are  furnifhed  with 
 numberlefs  fap  and  air  vefTels. 
 
 The  pith  or  heart  is  bounded  on  all  fides  by  the  wood, 
 and  is  compofed  of  the  fame  materials  :  It  Is  nothing  but  a 
 Taft  congeries  of  air  and  fap  vefTels,  interwoven  with  the 
 parenchyma  and  bladders,  not  unlike  the  tifTue  of  gauze  or 
 lace.     This  texture  is  common  to  every  part  of  the  trunk. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  31 
 
 being  only  more  clofe  and  compa<Sl  in  the  bark  and  wood  than 
 in  the  pith.  It  is  well  known  that  the  pith  of  plants  dimin- 
 iflies  in  proportion  to  their  age.  The  reafon  is  obvious  *, 
 every  year  the  ring  of  veflels,  which  lies  contiguous  to  the 
 wood,  dries,  condenfes,  and  becomes  wood. 
 
 The  leaves  of  vegetables  conlifi:  of  a  fine  lldn,which  inclo- 
 fes  the  parenchyma  or  pulp.  This  {km,  like  that  of  animals, 
 is  an  organic  body,  furniflied  with  an  immenfe  number  of  par- 
 enchymatous and  ligneous  fibres,  and  interwoven  in  a  manner 
 precifely  fimiiar  to  that  of  the  trunk  and  branches.  When 
 the  ikin  is  removed,  the  pulp  appears,  and  is  every  where 
 interfperfed  with  imall  cylindrical  fibres,  wound  up  into  mi- 
 nute bladders.  A  large  nerve  runs  along  the  middle  of  every 
 leaf,  and  continually  fends  off  branches,  which  gradually  de- 
 creafe  in  magnitude,  till  they  reach  the  edge  or  difc.  This 
 principal  nerve  is  a  colledtion  of  fmall  tubes,  which,  at  proper 
 diftances»  go  off,  and  are  diftributed  over  the  leaf  in  a  man- 
 ner precifely  fimiiar  to  the  diftribution  of  the  nerves  over 
 the  human  body. 
 
 With  regard  to  flowers  and  fruits,  their  general  texture  is 
 the  fame  with  that  of  the  parts  already  delcribed,  differing 
 only  in  various  proportions  of  the  ligneous  veiTeis  and  paren- 
 chymatous or  pulpy  fubftance.  That  vegetables  are  pcirelTed 
 of  fecretory  glands,  is  apparent  from  the  almofl  infinite  va- 
 riety of  their  taftos,  odours,  and  colours.  Thefe  fenfible 
 qualities  differ  even  in  different  parts  of  the  fame  plant. 
 But  the  glandular  fecretion  of  vegetables  is  mofl  confpicuous 
 in  the  flowers  and  fruit.  Many  flowers  fecrete  a  ne(Slareous 
 fluid,  which  is  more  grateful  to  the  palate  than  the  fineft 
 honey.  The  glands  of  fome  fruits,  as  thofe  of  the  lemon  and 
 orange,  fecrete  liquors  of  very  different  qualities.  The  vef- 
 fels  of  the  rhind  contain  an  acrid  effentlal  oil,  while  thofe  of 
 the  parenchyma  or  pulp  fecrete  an  agreeable  acid. 
 
32  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 This  fimilarity  in  the  general  ftru(9:ure  of  animals  and 
 plants  is  ftrongly  corroborated  by  the  analogous  parts  in  both 
 being  deftined  to  anfwer  the  fame  purpofes. 
 
 The  oeconomy  and  functions  of  vegetables,  as  well  as  thofe 
 of  animals,  are  the  refults  of  a  vafcular  texture.  Each  of 
 thefe  claiTes  of  beings  have  veiTels  deftined  to  the  perform- 
 ance of  fimilar  offices.  In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  fluids 
 are  circulated  by  the  pulfation  of  the  heart  and  arteries. 
 The  juices  of  plants  do  not  circulate  j  but  they  are  raifed 
 from  the  root  to  the  trunk,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and 
 fruit  by  the  fap-velTels.  The  afcenfion  of  the  fap  has  been 
 afcribed  to  capillary  attraflion.  But,  though  no  motion  is 
 perceptible  in  the  fap-velTels  Iimilar  to  the  puliation  of  arte- 
 ries ;  yet,  both  the  propullion  of  the  fap,  which  moves  w^itli 
 great  force,  and  the  fecretion  of  different  fluids  by  different 
 parts  of  the  fame  plant,  imply  an  a61:ion  in  thefe  veffels.  In 
 animals,  the  gall,  the  urine,  the  faliva,  are  all  concocted  from 
 the  general  mafs  of  blood  by  the  adtion  of  particular  veffels. 
 Fluids  of  thefe  different  qualities  exift  not  in  the  blood  itfelf ; 
 they  are  created  by  an  incomprehenflble  operation  of  the 
 veffels  peculiar  to  their  refpe6live  glands.  In  plants,  the  fap 
 afcends,  and  different  fluids  are  fecreted  from  it  by  glandular 
 veffels.  Here  the  fame  effects  are  produced  both  in  the  an- 
 imal and  the  plant.  We  muff,  therefore,  attribute  them  to 
 the  fame  caufe,  namely,  the  adion  of  veffels.  Befides,  the 
 fap,  which  is  the  blood  of  plants,  moves  with  a  force  often 
 equivalent  to  the  weight  of  the  atn)ofphere.  M.  Bonnet 
 remarks*,  that  he  has  feen,  by  means  of  coloured  liquors, 
 the  vegetable  fap  move  three  inches  in  an  hour  j  and  Dr. 
 Hales,  in  his  ftatics,  has  fhown,  that  the  leaves  are  the  prin- 
 cipal organs  of  tranfpiration.  He  like  wife  confiders  them 
 to  be  the  infrruments  which  raife  the  fap.  But  it  has  fince 
 been  difcovered,  that  coloured  liquors  rife  equally  high  in 
 *  Oeuvres,  torn.  i.p.  140. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  30 
 
 branches  deprived  of  leaves,  and  that  they  do  not  rife  at  all 
 in  dried  plants.  Hence  the  fap  of  vegetables  is  not  taken 
 up  in  the  fame  manner  as  a  fpunge  imbibes  water,  but  is  for- 
 ced to  afcend  by  an  unknown  a£lion  of  the  veiTels.  The 
 fpring  of  the  tracheae  may  put  in  motion  the  air  they  con- 
 tain, and  that  air  may  have  fome  influence  on  the  general 
 movement.  But,  by  whatever  powers  the  fap  is  moved,  the 
 exiftence  of  the  motion  is  certain  ;  and  it  is  equally  certain, 
 that  this  movement  of  the  fap  produces  the  fame  efFe^s  in  the 
 vegetable,  that  the  force  of  the  heart  and  arteries  does  in  the 
 animal. 
 
 The  motion  of  the  fap  in  vegetables.  Is  not  properly  a  cir- 
 culation fimilar  to  that  of  the  blood  in  the  more  perfect  ani- 
 mals. It  afcends  and  defcends  in  the  fame  veffels  ;  and  thefe 
 motions  are  evidently  affected  by  heat  and  cold.  The  fap 
 rifes  copioufly  in  a  warm  day,  and  defcends  during  the  night, 
 nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  mercury  rifes  and  falls  in 
 the  thermometer.  But,  though  the  analogy  here  fails  with 
 regard  to  man  and  the  larger  animals,  yet  it  holds  in  the  ta- 
 jenia,  the  polypus,  and  many  other  infedls,  which  exhibit  not 
 the  fmalleft  veftiges  of  circulation  in  their  juices. 
 
 The  pith,  or  medullary  fubftance  of  plants,  has  fome  re- 
 femblance  to  the  brain  and  fpinal-marrow  of  animals.  When 
 the  texture  of  the  brain  or  fpinal-marrow  is  deftroyed,  life  is 
 extinguiflied  ;  and,  when  the  pith  of  plants  is  deftroyed  or 
 dried  up  by  age,  they  no  longer  retain  the  power  of  vegeta- 
 ting. The  leaves  of  plants  are  analogous  to  the  lungs  of  an- 
 imals. It  is  by  the  lungs  that  the  perfpiration  of  animals  is 
 chiefly  effected  :  and  plants  difcharge  moft  of  their  fuperflu- 
 ous  moifture  by  the  leaves.  They  expofe  a  large  furface  to 
 the  a<5lion  of  the  fun,  which  produces  a  tranfpiration  fo  copi- 
 ous, that  fome  plants  throw  out  fifteen  or  twenty  times  more 
 in  a  given  period,  than  is  difcharged  from  the  human  body. 
 When  a  plant  is  deprived  of  its  leaves  in  fummer,  inftead  of 
 
34  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ripening  its  fruit,  it  is  in  great  danger  of  dying  for  want  of 
 thofe  organs  which  carry  off  the  fuperfluous  juices  that  arife 
 from  the  root.  A  plant,  in  this  lituation,  may  be  confidered 
 as  labouring  under  an  afthma,  or  dying  of  a  fuffocation. 
 
 Befide  the  leaves,  plants  tranfpire  by  the  pores  of  the  fkin. 
 But  the  quantity  emitted  in  this  manner  is  not  nearly  equal 
 to  that  which  ifTues  from  the  leaves.  The  fame  thing  hap- 
 pens with  regard  to  man  and  quadrupeds.  Though  they  like- 
 wife  perfpire  through  the  fkin,  yet  by  much  the  greater  quan- 
 tity of  perfpirable  matter  is  difcharged  by  the  lungs.  Befide 
 throwing  out  fuperfluous  or  noxious  matter  by  the  leaves, 
 plants,  by  the  fame  organs,  abforb  from  the  atmofphere,  and 
 perhaps  from  the  lun's  rays,  fome  unknown  matter,  which  is 
 necelTary  to  their  exiflence.  The  lungs  of  animals  likewife 
 derive,  from  the  fame  fources,  a  particular  matter  or  princi- 
 ple, without  which  life  could  not  long  be  continued. 
 
 Another  analogy  between  the  flruclure  of  plants  and  an- 
 imals merits  obfervation.  The  round  bones  of  animals  con- 
 fifl  of  concentric  flrata  or  plates,  which  can  be  eafily  fepara- 
 ted  ;  and  the  wood  of  plants  confifl  of  concentric  layers  of 
 hardened  veflels,  which  feparate  when  macerated  in  water. 
 A  tree  acquires  an  additional  ring  every  year  ;  and,  by  coun- 
 ting thefe  rings,  a  pretty  exadl  eftimation  of  its  age  may  be 
 attained. 
 
 Thebranches  of  plants  have  been  confidered  asanalogous  to 
 the  arms  or  tentacula  of  animals.  But  this  is  one  of  thofe 
 ftrained  analogies  which  fliould  be  carefully  avoided.  The 
 great  ufe  of  branches  is  evident.  By  producing  an  amazing 
 number  of  leaves,  a  large  furface  is  expofed  to  the  air  and  fun, 
 to  anfwer  the  important  purpofes  of  tranfpiration  and  abforp- 
 tion.  If  there  is  any  thing  in  plants  analogous  to  the  arms 
 or  tentacula  of  animals,  it  muft  be  confined  to  fuch  fpecies 
 as  twifl  themfelves  around  poles  or  trees,  as  the  ivy,  the  vine, 
 th^  convolvulus,  &c.  and  to  fuch  as  fupport  their  trunks  on 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  35 
 
 Other  bodies  by  means  of  little  hooks,  as  the  goofe-grafs,  and 
 many  other  kinds. 
 
 All  thefe  analogies,  it  may  be  remarked,  are  confined  to 
 large  animals  and  large  vegetables  5  but  they  hold  not  inthat 
 numerous  tribe  of  plants  called  grajps.  Inftead  of  being  filled 
 with  wood  and  pith,  their  flems  are  perfedlly  hollow  ;  and, 
 to  fortify  thefe  plants,  Nature  has  beflowed  on  them  flrong 
 joints  or  knots,  which  are  placed  at  regular  diflances  in  each 
 fpecies.  But,  though  fome  of  the  analogies  which  fubfifl  be- 
 tween the  larger  animals  and  vegetables  exifl  not  in  the  fmal- 
 ler  plants,  this  circumftance,  inftead  of  infringing,  confirms 
 the  general  plan  of  nature.  To  difcover  the  analogies  be- 
 tween tubular  plants  and  animals,  we  muft  examine  the  flruc- 
 ture  of  the  minuter  tribes  of  animated  beings.  The  grafTes 
 have  neither  pith  nor  w^ood  internally  \  and  the  polypus,  the 
 taenia,  and  many  other  infe6ls,  have  no  bones,  heart,  or  in- 
 teftines,  but  are  fimple  tubes,  perfedlly  refembling  the  empty 
 ftems  of  the  gramineous  plants.  Befides,  the  ligneous,  or  at 
 leaft  the  herbaceous  part  of  thefe  plants,  is  placed  on  the  out- 
 fide,  fimilar  to  the  cruftaceous  and  fliell  animals,  wdiofe  bones 
 are  fituated  externally.  Another  analogy  mufl  not  be  omit- 
 ted. The  fucculent  vegetables,  fuch  as  the  houfe-leek,  the 
 mufhroom  tribes,  and  many  fea-plants,  confift  almoft  entirely 
 of  a  pulpy  or  parenchymatous  fubftance,  and  may  be  crufhed 
 to  a  jelly  by  the  fiighteft  prefllire.  The  texture  of  worms, 
 caterpillars,  and  of  all  the  foft  infe(Sts,  is  extremely  fimilar  to 
 that  of  the  fucculent  vegetables. 
 
 II.  GROWTH  AND  NOURISHMENT. 
 
 THE  fecond  fource  of  analogies  between  the  plant  and  an- 
 imal is  derived  from  the  modes  of  their  growth  and  nourifh- 
 ment. 
 
 Many  ingenious  theories  have  been  invented,  with  a  vievr 
 to  explain  the  myfterious  operation  by  which  the  growth 
 
S6  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 and  nourifliment  of  animals  and  vegetables  are  effeded.  But 
 I  fhall  confine  myfelf,  at  prefent,  to  fuch  remarks  as  are  pure- 
 ly analogical,  and  may  be  fully  imderflood  without  a  minute 
 knowledge  of  the  different  ways  by  which  growth  and  nour- 
 Khment  have  been  fuppofed  to  be  accomplifhed. 
 
 Animals,like  vegetables,  gradually  expand  from  an  embryo 
 or  gelatinous  ftate,  and,  according  to  their  kinds,  arrive  foon- 
 er  or  later  at  perfedlion.     This  expanfion  and  augmentation 
 offubftance  is  the  idea  conveyed  hj  the  word  groivth.  With- 
 out fome  nutritious  matter  taken  into  the  body,  and  aflimila- 
 ted,  by  the    adion   of  veiTels,  to  the  fubftance  of  the  being 
 that  receives  it,  growth  cannot  take  place.     Moifture  is  the 
 chief  food  of  plants.     But  the  food  of  animals,  in  general,  va- 
 ries with  the  fpecies.     This  fact  led  fome  philofophers  to  con- 
 clude, that  every  plant  extracted  from  the  foil  a  food  peculiar 
 to  its  ov^^i  nature.     It  was,  however,  afterwards  difcovered, 
 by  repeated  experiments,  that   vegetables  can  grow,  and  ac- 
 quire a  very  confiderable  degree  of  bulk  and  weight,  without 
 exhaufting  a  perceptible  quantity   of  the    earth   in  which 
 they   are    planted.       Thefe    experiments    are  a    fufficient 
 proof,  that  moifture  conilitutes  the  chief  nourishment  of 
 plants.     They  likewife  indicate,  that  vegetables, however  di- 
 verfified  in  their  figure,  denfity,  and  fibrous  arrangement,are 
 more  fimple    in  their  texture   than  animals.     But,  notwith- 
 llanding  thefe  feeming  differences    in  the    nourifhment  of 
 plants  and  animals,  Nature  fails  not  to  obferve  the  famecourfe 
 in  both  kingdom.s.     The  food  of  the  animal,  before  it  is  con- 
 verted into    nourifliment,  muft  go    through  the    intricate 
 procefs  of  digeftion.     But,  after  the  food  has    been    con- 
 verted  into  chyle,  and  the  chyle  into  blood,  this  blood  be- 
 comes a  common  fluid,   from  which  all  nourifliment   and  all 
 animal  fluids    are  derived.     Here  the  analogy  is   apparent. 
 Moifture  is  to  the  plant  precifely  what  blood  is  to  the  animal. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  37 
 
 Each  of  them  extracts  its  noiirifhment  from  a  common  fluid  ; 
 and,  in  both,  this  fluid  is  changed,  by  the  acSlion  of  veflels, 
 into  the  various  juices  peculiar  to  the  different  fpecies. 
 
 When  growth  flrfl:  commences,  the  embryos  of  plants  and 
 animals  are  in  fimilar  circumftances.  Soon  after  conception, 
 the  foetus  is  inclofed  in  its  membranes,  and  is  nouriflied,  till 
 mature  for  birth,  by  blood  which  it  receives  from  the  uterus 
 and  placenta.  In  the  fame  manner,  the  embryo  of  a  plant  is 
 inclofed  in  the  membranes  of  the  feed  ;  and  its  fibrous  roots 
 are  fpread  over  the  lobes  or  pulpy  part.  After  the  feed  is 
 fown,  and  vegetation  commences,  the  embryo  is  nouriflied  by 
 moifture,  which  the  lobes  abforb  from  the  earth,  and  convey 
 it  to  the  minute  tubes  of  the  feminal  root.  In  many  plants, 
 thefe  lobes  rife  above  the  furface  of  the  ground,  in  the  form 
 of  leaves,  and  continue  to  nourifli  and  prote^l  the  tender 
 plume  or  ftem,  till  it  acquires  flrength  fufhcient  to  fupport 
 the  aflaults  of  the  air  and  weather.  A  plant,  in  this  fltuation, 
 may  be  faid  lo  have  two  roots  ;  one,  the  fibres  of  which  are 
 dilFufed  through  the  fubflance  of  the  lobes,  or  feminal  leaves, 
 and  another  attached  to  the  foil. 
 
 The  nourifhment  thus  conveyed  to  vegetables  by  the  fem- 
 inal leaves,  is  extremely  analogous  to  that  of  animals  by  the 
 milk  of  the  mother.  The  texture  of  young  animals  is  fo  lax 
 and  unelaftic,  that  the  food  fuited  to  maturer  years  v/ould 
 foon  put  a  period  to  their  exiftence.  But  Nature  has  provi- 
 ded againil  this  inconveniency.  She  has  endowed  females 
 with  a  fet  of  vefTels  deftined  for  the  fecretion  of  a  mild  liquor, 
 fo  far  conco(^ed  and  animalized  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  ten- 
 der and  flaccid  condition  of  their  young.  A  fimilar  provi- 
 fion  of  nourifhment  is  afforded  to  the  young  vegetable.  For 
 fome  time  after  the  plume  and  radicle  have  begun  to  ihoot, 
 their  texture  is  fo  extremely  tender,  that  they  are  unable  to 
 fupport  each  other  without  fome  foreign  aid.  This  aid  is  af- 
 forded them  by  the  feminal  leaves.  Thefe  leaves  abforb  dews, 
 
 E 
 
SS  THE    PHILOSOPHT 
 
 air,  and  other  fine  fluids,  which  are  concealed  and  aflimilated 
 in  the  veflels  of  the  feminal  root,  and  then  conveyed,  in  a  kind 
 of  vegetable  form,  to  the  feeble  veiTels  of  the  plume.  Hence 
 it  is  apparent,  that  the  nouriiliment  of  young  animals  by 
 milk,  and  of  young  vegetables  by  feminal  leaves,  is  the  fame 
 inftitution  of  nature,  and  effected  by  fimiiar  inftruments. 
 
 Plants,  like  animals,  pafs  gradually  from  an  embryo,  or  in- 
 fant flate,  to  that  of  puberty.  At  this  period  of  their  exift- 
 ence,  they  have  acquired  that  firmnefs  of  texture,  and  that 
 evolution  of  parts,  which  conftitute  the  perfection  of  their 
 natures,  and  enable  them  to  produce  beings  every  way  fiir  ilar 
 to  themfelves.  In  both  kingdoms,  the  age  of  puberty  arrives 
 later  or  more  early,  according  to  the  difference  of  fpecies. 
 Some  animals  live  a  few  months  only.  Many  of  the  infeft 
 tribes  are  produced,  grow  to  maturity,  propagate  their  kind, 
 and  die  in  the  courfe  of  a  fingle  feafon.  Others,  as  feveral 
 flies,  beetles,  &c.  exiil;  two  years.  Thus  animals  have  a  pro- 
 grefiive  duration  of  iife.  The  dormoufe  lives  fix  years^  the 
 hare  feven  or  eight,  the  bear  tv»?enty  or  twenty  live,  the  cam^ 
 el  forty  or  fifty,  the  rhinoceros  feventy  or  eighty,  the  ele- 
 phant two  hundred  ;  and  fome  birds  and  fiflies  are  fuppofed 
 to  exifl  during  three  or  four  centuries.  The  fame  progreflive 
 duration  takes  place  among  vegetables.  Some  plants  are  an- 
 nual, as  mofl  of  the  efculent  kinds  ;  others,  as  the  hedge- 
 parfley,  the  wild  carrot,  the  parfnip,  the  fox-glove,  the  fcurvy 
 grafs,  &c.  are  biennial  ;  others  exift  three,  five,  feven,  ten, 
 twenty,  thirty,  fixty,  and  a  hundred  years  ;  and  the  oak,  like 
 the  elephant  and  thofe  birds  and  fiflies  which  are  famed  for 
 longevity,  continues  to  adorn  the  forell:  for  feveral  centuries. 
 
 The  manner  by  vdiich  the  nutritious  particles  are  extract- 
 ed from  food,  is  very  fimiiar  in  the  animal  and  the  plant.  In 
 the  animal,  this  operation  is  performed  by  the  lacteal  veffels, 
 which  are  diftributed  over  the  internal  furface  of  the  ftomach 
 and  inteflines.  In  the  plant,  the  fame  ofHce  is  performed  by 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTOHY.  59 
 
 the  veflels  of  the  root-  and  leaves.  Hence  animals  are  orga- 
 nized beings  nourilhed  by  roots  fituated  within  their  bodies  •, 
 and  plants  are  organized  bodies  which  abford  their  nourifh- 
 ment  by  roots  placed  externally.  Beiides,  in  all  viviparous 
 animalsj  the  foetus  Is  nourilhed,  not  by  food  taken  in  at  the 
 mouth,  butbyveffels  attached  to  the  placenta.  ThefevelTels 
 perform  the  fame  office  to  the  foetus,  that  roots  do  to  vege- 
 tables. 
 
 Warmth  and  molfture  are  favourable  to  the  production  of 
 large  and  juicy  plants  ;  and  the  animals  that  feed  upon  thefe 
 fucculent  and  rich  vegetables,  are  likewife  larger  than  thofe 
 which  inhabit  cold  countries,  where  the  plants  are  fmaller, 
 more  rigid,  and  contain  fewer  nutritive  particles. 
 
 Some  plants  grow  in  particular  climates  only.  The  rubus 
 arcliciis,  a  fpecles  of  bramble,  fo  common  In  Norway  and  Ca- 
 nada, hardly  endures  the  climate  of  Upfal,  in  Sweden.  But 
 the  alftne  media ^  or  chickweed,  and  feveral  gralTes,  are  diftii- 
 fed  over  almoft  the  whole  globe.  In  the  fame  manner,  fome 
 animals,  as  the  camel,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  elephant,  are 
 produced  in  warm  climates  only  •,  while  others,  as  the  rein- 
 deer, glutton,  and  marmot,  are  confined  to  the  colder  regions 
 of  the  earth  •,  and  man,  in  the  animal,  like  fome  graifes  in  the 
 vegetable  kingdom,  is  univerfal,  and  Inhabits  every  climate. 
 Some  plants,  as  well  as  fome  animals,  are  amphibious,  as 
 the  rufh  and  the  frog  •,  others  are  parafites,  and  feed  on  the 
 juices  they  extract  from  the  different  fpecies  to  which  they 
 adhere.  The  miffeltoe,  for  example,  feeds  upon  the  oak  ; 
 moft  trees  afford  nourifliment  to  certain  moffes  and  fungous 
 plants  ',  and  every  animal  is  fed  upon  by  fmailer  kinds. 
 
 The  growth  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  may  be  accele- 
 rated or  retarded  by  promoting  or  checking  their  perfpira- 
 tion,  and  by  excluding  them  from  proper  exercife  and  air. 
 When  men,  or  other  animals,  are  confined  to  fituatlons 
 which   prevent  the   free  accefs  of  pure  air,  their  growth  ifs 
 
40  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 retarded  ;  and  their  fickly  colour  indicates  a  defecft  of  vigour. 
 Plants,  when  placed  in  fimilar  circum fiances,  are  always  weak, 
 dwarfifh,  and  unnaturally  coloured.  But  exercife  is  equally 
 necelTary  to  the  health  and  vigour  of  plants,  as  it  is  to  thofe 
 of  animals.  The  exercife  of  animals  is  effecled  by  various 
 kinds  of  fpontanecus  motion.  Plants  are  likcwife  exercifed 
 by  motion  ;  but  that  motion  is  not  voluntary  ;  it  is  commu- 
 nicated to  them  by  the  a6lion  of  the  air.  The  agitation 
 which  they  receive  from  the  winds  enables  them  to  extend 
 their  roots,  prevents  them  from  a  growth  too  rapid,  and,  of 
 courfe,  ftrengthens  their  whole  fabric.  It  is  owing  to  the 
 want  of  this  agitation,  that  plants  brougiit  up  in  houfes,  or 
 in  other  conhned  fituations,  flioot  out  to  an  unnatural  length  ; 
 that  their  ftems  and  branches  are  always  flender  and  weak  ; 
 and  that  they  ripen  not  their  fruit  like  thofe  which  are  expo- 
 fed  to  the  open  air. 
 
 To  conclude  this  branch  of  the  fubjeiSt,  plants  and  animals 
 are  fo  nearly  allied^  that  their  grov/th  and  nourifhment  are 
 not  only  effecled  by  fimilar  inflruments,  but  fome  parts  of  an- 
 imal bodies  evidently  partake  of  a  vegetable  nature.  Thus, 
 the  hairs,  the  nails,  the  beaks,  and  the  horns,  are  a  fpecies  of 
 vegetables,  as  appears  from  their  comparative  total  infenfibil- 
 ity,  as  well  as  from  the  mode  of  their  growth  and  repro- 
 duction. 
 
 III.     DISSEMINATION  and  DECAY. 
 
 WE  fhall  next  take  an  analogical  view  of  the  difTemination 
 and  decay  of  the  animal  and  vegetable. 
 
 The  power  of  reprodu(^ion  is  peculiar  to  the  plant  and 
 animal.  Each  of  them  is  capable  of  producing  beings  every 
 way  fimilar  to  the  parent.  But  the  modes  by  which  this  fln- 
 gular  effect  is  accompliflied,  are  very  different  in  appearance. 
 It  is  our  prefent  purpofe  to  remove  this  apparent  difference, 
 and  to  fhow  that  animals  and  vegetables  multiply  their  fpecies 
 in  a  manner  extremely  analogous. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  41 
 
 Animals  have  long  been  divided  into  viviparous  and  ovipa- 
 rous. The  one  clafs  produce  their  young  alive,  the  other 
 lay  eggs,  which  muft  be  hatched  either  by  the  heat  of  the 
 fun,  or  by  that  of  the  mother.  This  divifion,  though  very 
 comprehenlive,  is  not  perfedt.  Several  animals  have  lately 
 been  difcovered  which  are  neither  viviparous  nor  oviparous  ; 
 and  there  are  animals  which  unite  both  thefe  modes  of  mul- 
 tiplication. 
 
 The  viviparous  clafs  comprehends  men,  quadrupeds,  and 
 fome  fiflies,  reptiles,  and  infedls.  The  oviparous  includes 
 birds,  fome  reptiles,  and  mofi:  of  the  infe£t  tribes.  But  the 
 armed  polypus,  or  hydra  of  Linnaeus,  inflead  of  being  either 
 viviparous  or  oviparous,  multiplies  its  fpecies,  as  formerly 
 remarked,  by  fending  off  fhoots  from  the  body  of  the  parent. 
 
 Another  fpecies,  called  the  hell-polyptiSy  or  hydra ficntorca  of 
 Linnaeus,  multiplies  by  fplitting  longitudinally.  In  twenty- 
 four  hours,  thefe  diviiions,  which  adhere  to  a  comiT.on 
 pedicle,  refplit,  and  form  four  diRindl  animals.  Thefe  four, 
 in  an  equal  time,  again  fplit  \  and  thus  they  proceed  doub- 
 ling their  numbers  daily,  till  they  acquire  a  figure  fomewh^t 
 refembling  a  nofegay.  The  young  afterwards  feparate  from 
 the  parent  ftock,  attach  themfelves  to  the  roots  or  leaves  of 
 aquatic  plants,  and  each  individual  gives  rife  to  a  new  colony. 
 
 The  funnel-fliaped  polypus  multiplies  by  fplitting  tranf- 
 verfely.  Of  the  individuals,  accordingly,  which  proceed 
 from  this  diviiion,  one  has  the  old  head  and  a  new  tail,  and 
 the  other  a  new  head  and  the  old  tail.  The  fuperior  divliioii 
 fwims  off,  and  fixes  jtfelf  to  fome  other  fubflance  ;  but  the 
 inferior  diviiion  remains  attached  to  the  former  pedicle. 
 
 The  dart-millepes  affords  another  example  of  multiplica- 
 tion by  fpontaneous  feparation.  This  infecl  divides,  about 
 two-thirds  below  the  head.  Into  two  diflin^l  and  perfect  ani- 
 mals ;  and  it  feems  to  poffefs  no  other  mode  of  continuing 
 the  fpecies. 
 
42  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The  multiplication  of  the  various  animalcules  which  ap- 
 pear in  infufions  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubftances,  long  oc- 
 cupied the  attention,  and  eluded  the  refearches  of  philofo* 
 phers.  This  difcovery  of  the  increafe  of  fome  larger  animals 
 by  fpontaneous  divifion,  gave  rife  to  the  conjecSture,  that  thefe 
 microfcopic  animalcules  might  multiply  their  numbers  in  a 
 fimilar  manner.  This  conje<Sture  was  communicated  to  M. 
 de  Sauflure  in  a  letter  from  Bonnet,  who  received  an  anfwer, 
 dated  at  Genoa,  September  28,  1769,  to  the  following 
 purpofe. 
 
 <  What  you  propofe  as  a  doubt,'  fays  M  de  Saufllire,    *  I 
 
 <  have  verified  by  inconteftible  experiments,  namely,  that 
 «  infufion-animalcules  multiply  by  continued   divifions  and 
 
 *  fubdivilions.  Thofe  roundifh  or  oval  animalcules  that 
 «  have  no  beak  or  hook  on  the  fore  part  of  their  bodies, 
 «  divide  tranfverfely.     A  kind  of  ftridlure,  or  ftrangulation 
 
 *  begins  about  the  middle  of  the  body,  which  gradually  in- 
 
 *  creafes,  till  the  two  parts  adhere  by  a  fmall  thread  only. 
 
 *  Then  both  parts  make  repeated  efforts,  till  the  divifion  is 
 ^  completed.     For  fometime  after  feparation,  the  two  animals 
 
 *  remain  in  a  feemingly  torpid  ftate.     They  afterwards  be- 
 
 *  gin  to  fwim  about  brilkly.     Each  part  is  only  one  half  the 
 
 <  fize  of  the  whole  •,  but  they  foon  acquire  the  magnitude 
 '  peculiar  to  the  fpecies,  and  multiply  by  fimilar  divifions.' 
 '  To  obviate    every  doubt,  ^  continues  our  author,  <  I  put  a 
 
 <  fingle  animalcule  Into  a  drop  of  water,  which  fplit  before 
 
 <  my  eyes.  Next  day  I  had  five,  the  day  after,  fixty, 
 «  and,  on  the  third  day,  their  number  was  fo  great,  that  it  was 
 
 *  impoflible  to  count  them*. 
 
 *  Another  fpecies,  with  a  beak  or  horn  on  the  fore  part  of 
 
 *  its  body,  which  I  obtained  from  an  infufion  of  hemp-feed, 
 
 *  multiplied  llkewife  by  divifion,  but  in  a  manner  fi:iil  more 
 ^  fingular  than  the  former.     This  animalcule,  when  about  to 
 
 *•  La  Palingenefie  Philofophlque,  par  C.  Eonnct,  torn  p,  428.  4V9. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  43 
 
 «  divide,  attaches  itfelf  to  the  bottom  of  the  infulion,  contracts 
 
 *  its  body,  which  is  naturally  oblong,  into  a  fpherical  form, 
 
 <  fo  that  the  beak  entirely  difappears.  It  then  begins  to 
 ^  move  brilkly  round,  fometimes  from  right  to  left,  and 
 «  fometimes    from  left  to  right,  the  centre  of  motion  being 
 
 <  always  fixed.  Towards  the  end,  its  motion  accelerates, 
 «  and,  inftead  of  a  uniform  fphere,  two  crofs-like  divifions 
 «  begin  to  appear.  Soon  after,  the  creature  is  greatly  agi- 
 '  tated,  and  iplits  into  four  animalcules  perfectly  fimilar, 
 
 *  though  fmaller  than  that  from  which  they  were  produced. 
 
 <  Thefe  four  increale  to  the  ufual  fize,  and  each,  in  its  turn, 
 '  fubdivides  into  other  four*.'  Sec, 
 
 The  beauties  of  nature  have  been  juftly  celebrated  in  the 
 uniformity  of  her  productions.  This  uniformity  was  early 
 remarked,  and  gave  rife  to  the  ancient  divilion  of  animals 
 into  viviparous  and  oviparous,  which  continued  to  be  adopt- 
 ed as  an  univerfal  maxim  till  within  thefe  hundred  years. 
 Before  this  period,  it  was  believed  by  philofophers,  that  all 
 animals  vv^ere  either  brought  forth  alive, or  hatched  from  eggs. 
 Among  the  ancients,  indeed,  and  even  down  to  the  time 
 of  the  celebrated  Rcdi,  this  maxim  included  chiefly  the  more 
 perfedl  animals  -,  for,  wdih  regard  to  moft  of  the  infecl  tribes, 
 they  imagined  that  thefe  v/ere  produced  by  putrefa6lion,  and 
 the  admixture  of  particular  kinds  of  matter.  But  Redi,  by 
 a  feries  of  unquefiionable  experiments,  exploded  the  doflrine 
 of  the  equivocal  generation  of  infecls  •,  and  then  the  maxim, 
 without  further  inveftigation,  was  extended  to  the  whole 
 animal  kingdom.  Redi's  experiments  and  remarks  turned 
 the  attention  of  philofophers  to  the  minuter  tribes  of  animals. 
 In  the  courle  of  a  lew  years,  accordingly,  feveral  eminent 
 men  arofe.  Reaumur,  Bonnet,  Trembley,  Ellis,  Spalanzani, 
 and  a  multitude  of  other  waiters,  opened  new  views  with  re- 
 
 *  Idem,  p.   430, 
 
44?  '  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 gard  to  the  manners  and  oeconomy  of  animated  beings*.  M. 
 Bonnet  has  furniihed  inconteftible  evidence,  that  feveral  fpe- 
 cies  of  the  puceron,  or  vine-fretter,  are  both  oviparous  and 
 viviparous.  In  fummer,  thefe  infecSts  bring  forth  their  young 
 alive  ;  but,  in  autumn,  tliey  depofit  eggs  upon  the  bark  and 
 branches  of  trees.  Here  the  intention  of  nature  is  apparent. 
 The  puceron  is  unable  to  furvive  the  winter  colds;  and,  there- 
 fore, though  viviparous  during  the  warm  months,  the  fpecies 
 could  not  be  continued  without  this  vA{e  provifion.  The 
 puceron,  it  fliould  appear,  is  naturally  difpofed  to  produce  live 
 young.  The  foetus  is  inclofed  in  a  membrane,  which,  like 
 that  of  the  larger  animals,  burfts  before  exclufion.  But,  when 
 the  cold  feafon  commences,  the  general  texture  of  the  ani- 
 mals, as  well  as  the  membranes  inclofing  the  foetus,  becomes 
 more  firm  and  tenacious  j  and  this,  perhaps  is  the  phyfical 
 reafon  why  they  are  viviparous  in  fummer,  and  oviparous  in 
 autumn.  Many  other  flies  are  known  to  be  viviparous. 
 Upon  further  examination,  all  thefe  will  probably  be  difcov- 
 ered  to  be  alfo  oviparousf . 
 
 The  puceron  exhibits  another  phaenomenon  ftill  more 
 fmgular.  The  maxim,  that  multiplication  prefuppofed  im- 
 pregnation by  fexual  embraces,  w^as  formerly  thought  to  be 
 univerfal.  Neither  fliould  the  reception  of  this  maxim  be 
 regarded  as  a  matter  of  wonder  ;  for  it  was  founded  on  a  very 
 general  and  ftrong  analogy.  But  the  following  fa6ts  fhow, 
 that  nature,  though  uniform  in  many  fteps  of  her  progrefs,  is 
 not  invariably  limited  to  the  fame  mode  of  operation.  On 
 the  20th  day  of  May,  M.  Bonnet  took  a  young  puceron, 
 the  moment  after  dropping  from  the  womb  of  its  mother, 
 and  fliut  it  up  in  a  glafs  veflel,  to  prevent  all  poflibility  of 
 communication  with  any  individual  of  the  fpecies.  A  fprig 
 of  the  tree  on  which  the  animal    was  produced,  fupplied  it 
 
 *  Traite  d'liifecSlologle,  par  C- Bonnet,  torn.  i.p.  194. — 202. 
 f  See  Reaumur,  torn,  8.  edit.  i2mo,  p.  153.  et  leq. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  45 
 
 with  nourlfliment.  The  creature  changed  its  Ikin  four  times, 
 namely,  on  the  23d,  26th,  29th,  and  31ft  days  of  the  fame 
 month.  After  a  minute  detail  of  circumftances,  M.  Bonnet 
 informs  us,  that  his  imprifoned  puccron  grew  with  rapidity  •, 
 that,  on  the  1ft  day  of  June,  it  brought  forth  ;  and  that, 
 from  this  day  to  the  21ft,  it  produced  no  lefs  than  95  young, 
 all  full  of  life  and  vigour*.  He  frequently  repeated  this  ex- 
 periment, and  it  was  always  followed  with  the  fame  event. 
 
 M.  Bonnet,  fufpedling  that  a  ftngle  impregnation  might 
 influence  both  the  mother  and  her  immediate  offspring,  re- 
 folved  to  obviate  every  difficulty.  For  this  purpofe,  he  con- 
 fined, in  feparate  glafles,  young  of  the  fucceflive  births, 
 as  they  dropped  from  their  mothers.  Each  of  thefe,  however, 
 were  equally  fertile,  though  he  continued  the  experiment  to 
 the  ninth  generation  from  the  original  parentf . 
 
 Facts  of  this  kind,  which  feem  to  interrupt  the  ordinary 
 current  of  nature,  fliould  infpire  philofophers  with  caution. 
 They  fhould  create  reverence  for  fuch  of  her  operations  as  are 
 already  known  ;  but  they  fliould  likewife  check  that  rafli 
 fpirit  which  too  frequently  draws  unlimited  concluiions,  be- 
 fore the  fubje^l  be  fully  inveftigated.  Of  all  indutSbions 
 regarding  the  hiftory  of  nature,  the  neceflity  of  fexual  com- 
 merce for  multiplying  the  fpecies  appeared  to  be  the  moft 
 general  and  the  moft  legitimate.  The  oeconomy  of  the  pu- 
 ceron,  however,  demonftrates,  that  even  this  law  is  not  indif- 
 penfable,  and  that  nature  has  the  power  of  changing  her  fteps, 
 and  of  accomplifhing  the  fame  purpofes  by  various  means. 
 
 Having  enumerated  the  different  modes  by  which  animals 
 multiply  their  fpecies,  I  fhall  next  fliow,  that  the  multiplica- 
 tion of  vegetables  is  extremely  analogous. 
 
 The  viviparous,  as  well  as  the  oviparous  animals,  are  fup- 
 pofed  to  proceed  from  eggs,  with  this  difference,  that  the 
 
 *  Bonnet, Trake  d'Infedlologie,  torn.  i,p.39.;  and  Reaumur,  torn.  i2.p,  :^53. 
 f  Bonnet,  Traite  d'lnfcdologie,  torn.  i.  p.  74,  et  fcq. 
 
 F 
 
i6  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 young  of  the  viviparous  are  hatched  in  the  uterus  previous 
 to  their  exckifion. 
 
 Many  ftriking  anologies  fubfift  between  the  eggs  of  ani- 
 mals and  the  feeds  of  plants.  When  placed  in  proper  cir- 
 cumftances,  they  both  produce  young  every  way  iimilar  to  the 
 parents.  To  accompli fh  this  wonderful  efFeifV,  the  egg  re- 
 quires impregnation  and  heat.  Moifture,  warmth,  and  foil, 
 or  fome  fimilar  matrix,  are  neceflary  for  the  exclufion  of  the 
 young  plant.  This  analogy  has  been  extended  much  farther 
 by  Linnaeus,  and  other  fbpporters  of  the  fexual  fyftem  of 
 plants.  They  maintain,  that  impregnation  is  equally  indif- 
 penfable  to  the  vegetation  of  the  feed,  as  to  the  fertility  of 
 the  egg.  But,  as  this  doclrine  will  be  difculTed  when  we 
 come  to  treat  of  fexes  in  general,  we  fliall  here  difmifs  it 
 without  farther  remark. 
 
 Eggs  are  not  only  analogous  to  feeds,  in  their  general  def- 
 tination  of  reproducing  individuals,  and  continuing  the  fpe- 
 cies,  but  there  is  a  great  iimilarity  in  the  flructure  and  ufes 
 of  their  refpecSlive  organs.  '^ 
 
 The  internal  parts  of  the  egg  are  covered  with  a  cruft  or 
 fhell,  and  two  membranes.  Befide  thefe,  the  yoke  is  includ- 
 ed in  a  feparate  membrane.  When  the  two  firft  membranes 
 are  removed,  the  white  appears  every  way  invefting  the  yoke. 
 In  the  white,  or  rather  on  the  membrane  of  the  yoke,  a  fmall 
 cicatrice  is  difcernible,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  punElum 
 fallens^  or  embryo  of  the  future  animal.  After  two  or  three 
 days  incubation,  this  puncliim  /aliens  becomes  red,  and  fhoots 
 out  blood -veflels,  which  are  difperfed  through  the  yoke,  in 
 the  fame  manner  as  the  velTels  of  a  foetus  are  diftributed 
 over  the  placent^. 
 
 A  feed  is  likewife  covered  with  a  fhell,  or  cruftaceous 
 membrane.  Another  membrane  invefls  the  whole  ker- 
 nel, or  pulpy  lobes  of  the  feed.  Each  lobe,  like  the 
 yoke  of  the  egg^  \%  involved  in  a  feparate  membrane.     In 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  47 
 
 every  feed  there  is  alfo  a  fmall  cicatrice,  or  aperture,  through 
 which  the  young  plant  ilTues.  Immediately  under  this  ci- 
 catrice, the  plume,  or  future  plant,  is  difcernible,  refembling 
 the  puncltims  fallens  of  the  Q%^^,  The  branches  of  the  radicle 
 proceed  from  this  piume,  and  are  difperfed  through  the  iub- 
 ftance  of  the  lobes,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  blood-veflels 
 iiTue  from  the  punclum  /aliens  of  the  e^g^  and  are  diflributed 
 over  the  yoke.  It  is  by  the  pulp  of  the  lobes  that  the  radicle 
 and  plum.e  are  nouri£hed,tiU  the  one  flioots  down  into  the  foil, 
 and  the  other  mounts  above  the  furface.  In  feeds,  there  is 
 nothing  analogous  to  the  white  of  an  e^g.  Such  a  provifion 
 would  have  been  fuperfluous  ;  for  the  earth,  in  which  the 
 feeds  are  to  germinate,  mufl  always  be  moift,  otherwife  the 
 young  plant  could  not  receive  nourifhment,  after  iiTuing 
 from  the  feed.  Belides,  the  eggs  of  fifties  have  no  white, 
 becaufe  they  are  perpetually  moiftened  with  water. 
 
 The  analogies  ariling  from  the  multiplication  of  animals 
 and  plants,  by  means  of  eggs  and  feeds,  are  the  raofl  com- 
 mon, and  the  m.oft  obvious.  Eggs  and  feeds  are  evidently 
 organs  formed  on  the  fame  plan,  and  deftined  by  Nature  to 
 anfwer  the  fame  general  intention  :  But  the  multiplication 
 of  plants,  as  well  as  that  of  animals,  is  not  confined  folely  to 
 one  mode. 
 
 The  young  of  viviparous  animals,  though  they  probably 
 originate  from  fmall  eggs,  are  not  brought  forth  till  they 
 have  acquired  a  certain  age  and  firmnefs  of  texture.  It  may 
 be  thought,  that  there  is  no  multiplication  of  plants  which 
 has  any  refemblance  to  that  of  viviparous  animals.  We 
 fliould  reflect,  however,  that  plants  can  multiply  by  buds. 
 Now,  a  bud  has  no  analogy,  either  in  texture  or  appearance, 
 to  a  feed.  Buds  arife  from  the  ftems  or  branches  of  vege- 
 tables. One  objedl  in  their  formation  is  to  produce  leaves 
 and  branches,  as  well  as  to  extend  the  length  of  the  trunk 
 or  fi:em.     But  they  are  hkewife  endowed  with  the  faculty  of 
 
48  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 reproducing  new  individuals.  In  this  refpecV,  trees  and 
 fhrubs  may  be  conlidered  as  viviparous  plants  ;  becaule  they 
 produce  out  of  their  own  bodies  an  organ,  which,  though  dif- 
 fering in  every  view  from  a  {eed,  is  brought  forth  alive,  and, 
 when  properly  cherifiied,  is  converted  into  a  being  perfedlly 
 fimilar  to  the  parent,  and  capable  of  continuing  its  fpecies. 
 The  embryo  of  a  bud  commences  its  exiftence  under  the 
 bark.  Here  it  remains,  for  fome  time,  inclofed  in  membra- 
 nous coverings,  and  attached  to  the  bark  by  minute  fibres, 
 which  convey  to  it  a  nourillmient  fuited  to  its  condition. 
 When  arrived  at  a  certain  fize  and  conliflence,  it  pierces  the 
 bark,  and  fhoots  out  into  the  open  air.  If  allowed  to  re- 
 main on  the  parent,  it  foon  burfts  through  its  membranes, 
 and,  in  tim.e,  gives  rife  to  a  new  branch  :  But,  when  detach- 
 ed from  the  parent,  and  placed  in  proper  circumftances,  it 
 becomes  a  new  individual  of  the  fame  fpecies. 
 
 Bulbous  rooted  plants  furnifii  a  ftill  ftronger  analogy  be- 
 tween the  increafe  of  viviparous  animals  and  that  of  vegeta- 
 bles. In  the  end  of  autumn,  if  the  coats  of  any  bulbous 
 root  be  carefully  diffedted,  the  entire  plant  in  minature  will 
 appear  in  the  centre  of  the  root.  In  fpring,  this  fmail 
 plant,  like  a  foetus  inclofed  in  the  uterus,  pierces  the  coats  of 
 which  the  root  coniifts,  and  gradually  grows  till  it  flowers, 
 ripens  its  feeds,  and  dies  at  the  approach  of  winter,  when  a 
 new  plant  is  again  formed  in  the  old  root.  Here  we  have 
 an  example  of  the  multiplication  of  plants  iimilar  to  that  of 
 the  puceron  j  but  the  order  of  time  is  reverfed.  The  puce- 
 ron  is  viviparous  in  fummer,  and  oviparous  In  autumn  ;  but 
 bulbous-rooted  plants  may  be  confidered  as  oviparous  In 
 fummer,  and  viviparous  in  autumn. 
 
 The  fame  analogy  is  to  be  traced  in  thofc  roots  which 
 have  what  are  called  eyes,  like  the  potatoe.  Thefe  eyes  arc 
 all  plants  In  minature,  which  live  in  that  flate  during  the 
 winter,  and,  when  committed  to  the  foil,  come  to  maturity 
 in  fummer. 
 
OF    NATURx^L    HISTORY.  49 
 
 There  are  ftill  other  modes  of  multiplying  common  to 
 the  animal  and  vegetable.  Many  plants  are  multiplied  by 
 fuckers^  flips,  and  cuttings. 
 
 The  animal  kingdom  furnifhes  examples  of  allthefe  modes 
 of  multiplication.  The  fuckers  of  plants  have  an  exa6t  anal- 
 ogy to  the  fhoots  of  a  polypus.  When  feparated  from  the 
 parent,  the  fucker  becomes  a  perfect  plant,  and  the  fhoot  of 
 the  polypus  a  perfedl  animal.  Plants  are  capable  of  multi- 
 plication  by  flips  and  cuttings  :  And  the  portions  of  a  poly- 
 pus, however  fmall,  or  when  cut  in  any  direction,  repro- 
 duce, and  become  perfefl  animals  of  the  fame  fpecies. 
 
 But  fome  fpecies  of  the  polypus,  the  dart-millepes,  and 
 (everal  animalcules  which  appear  in  infulions  of  animal  and 
 vegetable  fubftances,  multiply  by  fplitting,  or  fpontaneous 
 feparation.  Here  the  analogy  between  the  animal  and  vege- 
 table might  be  fuppofed  to  fail.  The  water-lentil,  hovv^ever, 
 a  fmall  plant,  which  covers  the  furface  of  flagnating  pools, 
 multiplies  its  fpecies  by  detaching  thin  films  from  the  under 
 fide  of  the  leaf.  Thefe  films  or  tender  leaves  produce  roots, 
 and  vegetate  into  a  regular  plant. 
 
 We  muft  not  difmifs  this  lubje(St  till  another  analogy  be 
 unfolded.  All  animals  have  feafons  peculiar  to  their  refpec- 
 tive  kinds.  Some  of  the  larger  animals  produce  in  the 
 fpring,  others  in  fummer,  others  in  autumn,  and  others  in 
 winter.  With  regard  to  the  infeCi  tribes,  their  feafons  are 
 fiiill  more  various.  Every  month,  every  week  of  the  year, 
 gives  birth  to  diiFerent  fpecies.  The  leafons  of  plants  are 
 diverfified  in  a  fimilar  manner.  The  growth  of  difl^erent 
 vegetables  is  difhributed  over  the  whole  year.  Particular 
 tribes  fpring  up  at  the  fam.e  uniform  periods.  In  this  beau- 
 tiful diverfity  of  arrangement,  the  intentions  of  Nature  are 
 evident.  If  all  plants  were  to  rufh  forward  at  the  fame 
 time,  they  would  infallibly  choke  each  other.  The  furface 
 of  the  earth  could  not  afford  them  room.     Nature  has  there- 
 
50  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fore  wifely  ordained,  that  the  earth  fhould  ahvays  be  cover- 
 ed with  plants  :  But  flie  has  alfo  ordained,  that  particular 
 tribes  fhould  die  at  flated  periods,  to  make  way  for  the  ex- 
 iftence  of  others.  The  fame  inconvenience  would  happen 
 if  the  produ<Stion  of  all  animals,  and  particularly  that  vaft 
 number  of  fpecies,  and  that  immenfe  profufion  of  individu- 
 als, to  which  the  infe£l  tribes  give  birth^  were  to  take  place 
 at  one  period.  The  air  would  be  fo  crowded  with  noxious 
 creatures,  that  neither  man  nor  the  larger  animals  could  poffi- 
 bly  exift.  Beiides,  the  fpecies  which  feed  upon  particular 
 plants,  if  they  were  produced  at  a  time  when  thefe  plants  did 
 not  flourlfh,  would  Infallibly  perlfli  for  want  of  food.  In 
 Lapland,  where  the  duration  of  heat  Is  extremely  fhort,  the 
 whole  Infe6ls  which  inhabit  that  dreary  and  barren  region 
 are  produced  In  a  few  weeks.  Though  the  number  of  fpe- 
 cies, compared  with  thofe  of  the  more  prolific  climates,  be 
 very  limited,  the  inconvenience  is  feverely  felt.  But  every 
 natural  evil  is  accompanied  with  fome  advantage.  The  rein- 
 deer, upon  which  the  exiftence  of  the  Laplanders  chiefly  de- 
 pends, are  tormented  by  the  fwarms  Of  flies.  To  avoid  their 
 numberlefs  enemies,  thefe  animals  leave  the  vallies,  and 
 afcend  the  mountains,  where  the  cold  Is  too  great  for  the 
 flies  to  follow.  In  thefe  lofty  regions,  the  reln-deer  feed 
 during  the  hot  feafon,  and  return  to  the  vallies  after  the  cold 
 has  deflroyed  the  myriads  of  InfecSls.  This  forced  migration 
 has  too  good  effects  :  It  both  preferves  the  health  of  the 
 rein-deer,  and  the  vegetables  In  the  vallies,  which  otherwife 
 would  have  been  prematurely  exhaufted. 
 
 The  operation  of  engrafting  was  long  thought  to  be  pecu- 
 Har  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  But  M.  Trembley  found, 
 that  feveral  fpecies  of  the  frefh-water  polypus  could  fuccefs- 
 fully  undergo  this  wonderful  procefs.  Since  his  time,  it  has 
 been  difcovered,  that  the  aEllnia^  or  fea-nettle.  Is  likewlfe 
 capable  of  being  engrafted  to  an  individual  of  the  fame  or  of 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  51 
 
 a  dilFerent  ipecies.  In  all  thefe  inftances,  the  portions  of 
 the  divided  animals  grow  together,  and  become  diftindl  in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 Having  traced  the  general  analogies  between  the  ftruclure 
 and  oeconomy  of  the  animal  and  vegetable,  from  the  rudi- 
 ments of  their  exifbence  till  they  have  acquired  full  maturi- 
 ty, and  performed  the  necefTary  office  of  multiplying  their 
 fpecies,  we  proceed  to  the  laft  and  only  melancholy  branch 
 of  this  fubjecSt,  the  unavoidable  decay  and  death  of  every  fuc- 
 cefhve  individual  in  both  kingdoms. 
 
 It  is  an  invariable  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized  bodies 
 fhould  have  a  conftant  tendency  to  difTolution.  But  the 
 periods  of  their  exiftence  vary  according  to  the  fpecies. 
 Previous  to  actual  refolution,  plants  as  well  as  animals  are 
 fubject  to  a  number  of  analogous  affections  and  difeafes. 
 When  over-heated,  plants  fhow  evident  marks  of  languor 
 and  fatigue  :  Their  leaves  become  flaccid,  their  flems  and 
 branches  bend  toward  the  earth,  their  juices  evaporate,  and 
 their  whole  texture  alTumes  the  appearances  of  v;eaknefs  and 
 decay.  The  application  of  too  great  a  degree  of  cold  makes 
 the  flowers,  the  leaves,  the  bark,  and  even  the  woody  fibres, 
 fhrivel  and  contradt  in  their  dimenfions.  "When  deprived 
 of  proper  light  and  air,  their  colours  fade,  and  they  foon  ac- 
 quire a  lurid  and  fickly  afpe<5l.  They  are  likewife  fubje(Sl  to 
 be  flarved  for  want  of  nourifiiment.  The  growth  of  plants, 
 as  well  as  that  of  animals,  is  checked  by  fcanty  fupplies  of 
 food.  When  the  foil  or  fituation  is  unkindly,  vegetables  are 
 always  weak  and  dwarfifh,  and  their  prolific  powers  are  di- 
 miniflied.  They  may  alfo  be  poifoned  by  the  abforption  of 
 fluids  hoftile  to  their  conflitutlon.  Beflde  thefe  general  af- 
 fedlions,  common  to  the  plant  and  animal,  vegetables  are  in- 
 jured and  often  killed,  by  particular  difeafes. 
 
 Some  difeafes  attack  the  leaves  only,  imd  produce  fpots  of 
 various  colours,  rugofities,  pufiules,  galls,   &c.     Others  are 
 
52  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 peculiar  to  the  flowers  and  fruit,  and  often  occafion  barren- 
 nefs  for  a  feafon  ;  and  fometimes  this  fterility  continues  dur- 
 ing the  exiftence  of  the  plant.  Others  afTault  the  vifcera,  or 
 internal  organs,  and  gave  rife  to  obftrudlions,  tumors,  and  a 
 gradual  refolution  and  corruption  of  the  whole  fabrick. 
 Many  of  the  difeafes  of  plants  are  produced  by  the  infe^l 
 tribes.  Their  wounds  and  depredations  are  not  confined  to 
 particular  parts,  but  extend  from  the  root  to  the  ftem,  branch- 
 es, leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit.  Infe£ts  not  only  injure  the 
 fubftance  of  plants,  but,  by  feeding  on  their  juices,  deprive 
 them  of  a  part  of  their  nourifliment,  and  occafion  various  dif- 
 eafes or  changes  in  their  organization.  Other  difeafes  of 
 plants  derive  their  origin  from  change  of  climate,  from  miaf- 
 mata  or  noxious  vapours  in  the  atmofphere,  and  from  im- 
 proper culture.  When  wounded  by  external  injuries,  vege- 
 tables dlfcharge  their  blood  in  copious  ftreams.  If  the  wound 
 be  not  mortal,  the  fibres  on  all  fides  gradually  flioot  out  and 
 clofe  the  fra(^ure  by  a  callous  fubfi:ance. 
 
 From  this  general  enumeration,  it  is  obvious,  that  the 
 difeafes  of  plants  are  not  only  fimilar  to  thofe  of  animals, 
 but  proceed  from  the  fame  caufes.  In  both  kingdoms,  fome 
 difeafes  are  only  partial  or  fuperficial,  and  are  cured  either 
 by  Nature,  or  by  the  afliftance  of  art.  Others  are  mortal, 
 and  fucceeded  by  a  total  putrefa(Slion  or  decompofition  of 
 the  individual. 
 
 But,  though  plants  fhould  efcape  the  numberlefs  difeafes 
 which  daily  threaten  them,  they  have  no  defence  againfl  the 
 flower  approaches  of  old  age,  and  its  unavoidable  confequence, 
 death.  In  progrefs  of  time,  the  vefTels  gradually  harden 
 and  lofe  their  tone.  The  juices  no  longer  move  with  equal 
 celerity  as  in  youth.  They  are  not  abforbed  with  the  fame 
 precifion.  They  at  laft  flagnate  and  corrupt.  This  corrup- 
 tion is  foon  communicated  to  the  vefTels  in  which  the  juices 
 are  contained,  and  produces  a  total  cefTation  of  all  the  vital 
 fun6lions. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  '        53 
 
 The  life  of  animals  is  diveriified  by  a  number  of  fucceflive 
 changes.  Infancy,  youth,  manhood,  old  age,  are  charaeter- 
 ifed  by  imbecility,  beauty,  fertility,  dotage.  All  thefe  vicif- 
 litudes  are  confpicuous  in  the  vegetable  world.  Weak  and 
 tender  in  infancy,  beautiful  and  vigorous  in  youth,  robuft: 
 and  fruitful  in  manhood,  and,  when  old  age  approaches,  the 
 head  droops,  the  fprings  of  life  dry  up,  and  the  tottering 
 vegetable,  like  the  animal^  returns  to  that  duft  from  which 
 it  fprung. 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  by  taking  a  retrofpe£live  view  of  the  ex- 
 treme difficulty  of  afcertaining  the  boundaries  which  diftin- 
 guifli  the  animal  from  the  vegetable,  and  of  the  fimilarities 
 in  their  ftru6lure  and  organs,  in  their  growth  and  nouriih- 
 ment,  in  their  difTemination  and  decay,  it  is  apparent,  that 
 both  thefe  kingdoms  conftitute  the  fame  order  of  beings,  and 
 that  Nature,  in  the  formation  of  them,  has  operated  upon 
 one  great  and  common  model. 
 
54  THE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 CHAPTER     11. 
 
 Of  the  organs  and  generalJlruElure  cf  Animals — AJhort  view  of 
 
 the  external  and  infernal  parts  of  the  human  body — This  fruc-^ 
 
 tare  compared  with  thofe  of  Qiiadrupeds,  Birds,  Fifies,  and  In^* 
 
 feEls — How  far  peculiarities  of  fruclure  are    connected  with 
 
 peculiarities  of  manners  and  difpofitions. 
 
 In  treating  of  this  fubjedl,  it  is  not  intended  to 
 dive  into  the  depths  of  anatomical  refearch.  On  the  con- 
 trary, I  fhall  exhibit  fhort  views  only  of  the  general  ftruc- 
 ture  and  organization  of  the  various  claffes  of  animated 
 beingSj  from  man,  who  is  the  mofl:  perfect  animal  of  which 
 we  have  any  knowledge,  down  to  the  infect  tribes.  Con- 
 fideringman,  therefore,  as  the  ftandard  of  animal  perfection, 
 we  fhall  inftitute  frequent  comparifons,  and  mark  peculiar 
 diftindlions  between  him  and  the  brute  creation,  both  with  re- 
 gard to  form,  manners  and  fagaclty.  By  following  this  plan, 
 I  hope  I  fhall  be  enabled  to  render  a  fubje£l  which  at  firft 
 fight,  may  have  a  forbidding  afpedl,  both  interefting  and  a- 
 greeable» 
 
 STRUCTURE  OF  MAN. 
 The  bones  may  be  regarded  as  the  bafis  upon  which  the 
 human  body  is  conflructed.  The  fpine,  or  back-bone,  con- 
 fifls  of  a  number  of  vertebrae,  or  fmall  bones,  conne£led  to- 
 gether by  cartilages,  articulations,  and  ligaments.  In  the 
 centre  of  each  vertebrae  there  is  a  foreman,  or  a  hole,  for  the 
 lodgement  and  continuation  of  the  fpinal  marrow,  which  ex- 
 tends from  the  brain  to  the  rump.  From  thefe  vertebrae 
 the  arched  bones  called  ribs  proceed  ;  and  feven  of  them 
 join  the  breaft-bone  on  each  fide,  where  they  terminate  in 
 cartilages,  and  form  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  or  chefl.  This 
 cavity  contains  the  heart  and  lungs  ;  and  the  oefophagus,  or 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  3% 
 
 gullet,  paiTes  through  it  to  reach  the  ftomach.  The  nve  lo^ver 
 ribs,  with  a  number  of  mufcles,  form  another  cavity  termed 
 the  abdomen,  or  belly,  in  which  are  contained  the  ftomach, 
 the  bowels,  the  omentum,  or  cawl,  the  liver,  the  gall-bladder, 
 the  fpleen,  the  pancreas,  and  the  kidneys.  The  chefi:  and 
 abdomen  are  feparated  from  each  other  by  the  diaphragm,  or 
 midriff.  The  lower  part  of  this  laft  cavity  contains  the 
 bladder  of  urine,  and  the  redtum,  or  termination  of  the  in- 
 teftines.  Beiide  thefe,  in  females,  the  pelvis  includes  the 
 uterus  and  its  appendages.  This  part  of  the  cavity  is  form- 
 ed by  the  os  facrum,  or  termination  of  the  back-bone,  and 
 the  two  ofFa  innominata. 
 
 The  bones  of  the  cranium  and  face  are  very  numerous. 
 They  are  connedled  together  by  means  of  futures,  articula- 
 tions, and  membranes.  The  bones  of  the  cranium  include 
 the  brain  and  its  two  membranous  coverings,  called  the  pia 
 and  dura  mater,  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  of  which  1^^  the 
 fpinal  marrow  is  a  prolongation.  The  bones  of  the  upper 
 and  under  jaw  form  another  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the 
 tongue  and  organs  of  fpeech. 
 
 The  only  remaining  bones  are  thole  of  the  upper  and 
 lower  extremities.  The  llioulder  and  collar  bones  articulate 
 with  the  top  of  the  arm  and  the  breafr-bone.  The  arm-bone, 
 or  OS  humeri,  is  joined  to  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm,  call- 
 ed ulna  and  radius,  and  thefe  laft  to  the  bones  of  the  carpus, 
 or  wrift,  by  means  of  articulations  and  firm  membranes.  To 
 the  bones  of  the  wrift,  thofe  of  the  metacarpus  and  fingers 
 are  attached  in  a  fimilar  manner. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  lower  extremities,  the  thigh-bone  ar- 
 ticulates above  v/ith  the  hip-bone,  and  below  with  the  leg- 
 bone  and  the  rotula,  or  knee-pan.  The  leg,  like  the  fore- 
 arm, Is  compofed  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and  fibula,  which 
 articulate  with  each  other,  and  with  the  tarfal,  or  heel-bones 
 of  the  foot ;  and  to  thefe  laft  the  metatarfal  bones,  and  thofe 
 ©f  the  toes,  are  joined. 
 
56  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 From  this  outlme,  feme  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  human 
 jQieleton.  The  other  parts  of  which  our  bodies  are  compof- 
 ed  fhall  be  mentioned  in  the  fame  curfory  manner. 
 
 The  mufcular  part  of  the  human  fabric  conlifts  of  numer- 
 ous bundles  of  flefliy  fibres.  Each  bundle  or  diftincl  mufcle, 
 is  inclofed  in  a  cellular  membrane,  by  which  means  they 
 may  be  raifed,  or  feparated  from  one  another  by  the  hand 
 of  the  anatomift.  They  are  inferted^  by  ftrong  tendinous  ex- 
 tremities, into  the  different  bones  of  which  the  fkeleton  is 
 compofed,  and,  by  their  contraftion  and  difteniion,  give  rife 
 to  all  the  movements  of  the  body.  The  mufclesj  therefore, 
 may  be  confidered  as  fo  many  cords  attached  to  the  bones  ; 
 and  Nature  has  fixed  them  according  to  the  moft  perfecSl 
 principles  of  mechanifm,  fo  as  to  produce  the  fitteft  motions 
 in  the  bones  or  parts  for  the  movement  of  which  they  are 
 intended. 
 
 Tl^e  heart  is  a  hollow  mufcular  organ  of  a  conical  fhape, 
 and  confifts  of  four  diflincSl  cavities.  The  two  largeft  are 
 called  ventricles,  and  the  two  fmalleft  auricles.  The  heart  is 
 inclofed  in  the  pericardium,  a  membranous  bag,  which  like- 
 wife  contains  a  quantity  of  water,  or  lymph.  This  water  lu- 
 bricates the  heart,  and  facilitates  all  its  motions.  The  heart 
 is  the  general  refervoir  of  the  blood.  By  the  contra(Stions 
 and  dilations  of  this  mufcle,  the  blood  is  alternately  thrown 
 out  of,  and  received  into,  its  feveral  cavities.  When  the 
 heart  contracts,  the  blood  is  propelled  from  the  right  ventri- 
 cle into  the  lungs  through  the  pulmonary  arteries,  which, 
 like  all  the  other  arteries,  are  furniflied  with  valves  that  play 
 eafily  forward,  but  admit  not  the  blood  to  regurgitate  toward 
 the  heart.  The  blood,  after  circulating  through  the  lungs, 
 returns  into  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  by  the  pulmonary 
 vein.  At  the  fame  inflant,  the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood 
 into  the  aorta,  a  large  artery  which  fends  off  branches  to 
 fupply  the  head  and  arms.      Another  large   branch  of  the 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  57 
 
 aorta  defcends  along  the  inlide  of  the  back-bone,  and  detach-. 
 es  numerous  ramifications  to  nourifh  the  vifcera  and  inferlo? 
 extremities.  After  ferving  the  moft  remote  extremities  of 
 the  body,  the  arteries  are  converted  into  veins,  which,  in 
 their  return  toward  the  heart,  gradually  unite  into  larger 
 branches,  till  the  whole  terminate  in  one  great  trunk  called 
 the  vena  cava,  which  difcharges  itfelf  into  the  right  ventriclo 
 of  the  heart,  and  completes  the  circulation. 
 
 Befide  the  heart,  the  thorax  or  cheft  contains  the  lung?, 
 or  organs  of  refpiration.  They  are  divided  into  five  lobes, 
 three  of  which  lie  on  the  right,  and  two  on  the  left  fide  of 
 the  thorax.  The  fubftance  of  the  lungs  is  chiefly  compofed 
 of  infinite  ramifications  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  which, 
 after  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  minute,  terminate 
 in  little  cells  or  veficles,  which  have  a  free  communication 
 with  one  another.  At  each  infpiration,  thefe  pipes  and  cells 
 are  filled  with  air,  which  is  again  difcharged  by  refpiration. 
 In  this  manner,  a  circulation  of  air,  which  is  neceflary  to  the 
 exiftence  of  men  and  other  animals,  is  conflantly  kept  up  as 
 long  as  life  remains. 
 
 The  inftruments  and  procefs  of  digefilon  fall  next  to  be 
 confidered.  The  ftomach  is  a  membranous  and  m.ufculnr 
 bag  furnifhed  with  two  orifices  :  By  the  one  it  has  a  com- 
 munication with  the  ocfophagus,  or  gullet,  and  by  the  other 
 with  the  bowels,  which  begin  at  the  ftomach  and  terminate 
 at  the  anus.  In  the  ftomach  and  inteftines  there  are  im- 
 menfe  numbers  of  minute  veflels  called  laHeals,  the  mouths 
 of  which  are  conftantly  open  for  the  reception  of  the  nutri- 
 tious particles.  iVfter  being  molfiened  and  lubricated  by  the 
 faliva,  the  food  is  received  into  the  ftomach,  where  it  is  ftill 
 farther  diluted  by  the  gaftric  juice,  which  has  the  power  of 
 diirolving  every  kind  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubflancc. 
 When  the  food  has  remained  fome  time  in  the  ftomach,  it 
 is  reduced    to  a  grayifh  pulp,  mixed  with  fome  chylous  or 
 
58  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 milky  particles.  The  thinner  and  more  perfeclly  digefted 
 parts  of  the  food  gradually  pafs  through  the  pyloricsy  or  lower 
 aperture  of  the  ftomach,  into  the  inteftines,  where  they  are 
 ftill  farther  attenuated  and  digefted  by  the  bile  and  pancrea- 
 tic juices.  "While  the  food  is  in  this  fluid  ftate,  it  receives 
 the  denomination  of  chyle^  and  is  continually  abforbed  by  the 
 mouths  of  the  la£teal  veins.  Thefe  veflels  arife,  like  net- 
 work, from  the  inner  fervice  of  the  inteftines,  pafs  obliquely 
 through  their  coats,  and^  running  along  the  mefentery,  unite, 
 as  they  advance,  into  larger  branches,  and  at  laft  terminate 
 in  the  thoracic  du6t,  or  general  receptacle  of  the  chyle.  Be- 
 fide  the  ladleals,  there  is  another  fyftem  of  veiTels  called 
 lymphatic^  or  abforbent  veins  :  They  are  minute  pellucid 
 tubes,  and  generally  lie  clofe  to  the  large  blood-veffels.  The 
 lymphatics  from  all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  gradually 
 unite  as  they  approach  the  thoracic  du61:,  into  which  they 
 pour  a  colourlefs  fluid  by  three  or  four  large  trunks  j  and 
 the  lymphatics  from  all  the  fuperior  parts  of  the  body  like- 
 wife  difcharge  their  lymph  into  the  fame  du6l  as  it  runs  up- 
 ward to  terminate  in  the  left  fubclavian  vein.  By  this  cu- 
 rious and  beautiful  machinery,  the  chyle  and  lymph,  which 
 confift  of  the  nutritious  matters  extracted  from  the  food, 
 enter  the  circulating  fyftem,  are  converted  into  blood,  and 
 afford  that  conftant  fupply  of  nourifhment  which  the  per- 
 petual wafte  of  our  bodies  demands. 
 
 We  fhall  next  give  a  fketch  of  thofe  important  organs  by 
 which  we  are  enabled  to  multiply  and  continue  the  fpecies. 
 The  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  mode  by  which  the 
 quantity  of  it  is  continually  kept  up  by  frefti  fupplies  of 
 chyle,  are  efte(n:s  which,  in  fome  meafure,  correfpond  with 
 our  ideas  of  the  machinery  employed.  The  organs  of  gener- 
 ation exhibit  a  ftill  more  complex  fpecimen  of  exquifite 
 mechanifm.  But  the  machinery  employed,  without  the  aid 
 of  experience,  could  never  fuggeft  the  moft  diftant  idea  oi 
 >he  efted  to  be  produced. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  59 
 
 In  the  male,  the  organs  of  generation  confift  of  the  teftes, 
 the  feminal  vefTels,  and  the  penis.  The  teftes  are  two  glan- 
 dular bodies  which  pofTefs  the  power  of  converting  the  blood 
 into  femen.  They  are  originally  formed  and  lodged  in  the 
 abdomen  ;  and  it  is  not  till  after  birth  that  they  commonly 
 pafs  into  the  groin,  and  fi'om  thence  fall  into  the  fcrotum, 
 which  is  a  miifcular  bag  prepared  for  their  reception  and 
 defence.  The  teftes  of  the  hedgehog  and  of  fome  other 
 quadrupeds  remain  in  the  abdomen  during  life.  Inftances 
 of  the  fame  kind  fometimes  happen 'in  the  human  fpecies. 
 Each  tefticle  is  compofed  of  the  fpermatic  artery  and  vein. 
 The  blood  paiTes  very  flowly  through  the  fpermatic  artery, 
 and  produces  an  infinite  number  of  convolutions  in  the  fub- 
 ftance  of  the  tefticle,  where  it  depofits  the  femen,  which  is 
 taken  up  by  the  femeniferous  tubes.  Thefe  tubes  at  length 
 unite,  and,  by  an  immenfe  number  of  circumvolutions,  form 
 a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  tefticle,  commonly  known  by  the 
 term  epididymis.  The  tubes  of  the  epidydymis,  after  termi- 
 nating in  an  excretory  du6l  called  vas  defet\msy  afcend  toward 
 the  abdominal  rings,  and  depofit  the  femen  in  the  feminal 
 veficles,  which  are  two  foft  convoluted  bodies  fttuated  be- 
 tween the  re£tum  and  bladder,  and  unite  at  their  lower  ex- 
 tremity :  From  thefe  refervoirs  the  femen  is  occafionally 
 difcharged  through  the  fhort  canals  which  open  into  the 
 urethra.  The  penis  is  a  cavernous  and  fpungy  fubftance 
 perforated  longitudinally  by  a  canal  called  urethra^  which,  by 
 communicating  with  the  bladder  and  feminal  veflels,  anfwers 
 the  double  purpofe  of  difcharging  both  the  urine  and 
 femen. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  female  organs,  the  uterus  and  its  ap- 
 pendages merit  a  principal  attention.  The  uterus  is  a  hol- 
 low mufcular  body  fituated  between  the  redham  and  bladder, 
 and,  when  not  in  an  impregnated  ftate,  refembles  a  pear, 
 with  the  thickeft  end  turned  toward  the  abdomen.     The  en- 
 
^0  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 trance  into  the  cavity  of  the  uterus  forms  a  fmall  protuber- 
 ance, which  has  been  compared  to  the  mouth  of  a  tench,  and 
 from  this  circumftance  it  has  received  the  name  of  os  tincae. 
 The  uterus  is  connected  to  the  fides  of  the  pelvis  by  two 
 broad  Hgaments,  which  fupport  it  in  the  vagina  in  a  pendu- 
 lous iituation.  From  each  fide  of  the  bottom  of  the  uterus 
 the  tv/o  Fallopian  tubes  arife,  pafs  through  the  fubftance  of 
 the  uterus,  and  extend  along  the  broad  ligaments  till  they 
 reach  the  QAgo.  of  the  pelvis  ;  from  whence  they  are  reflect- 
 ed backward,  and  turning  over  behind  the  ligaments,  their 
 extremities  hang  loofe  in  the  pelvis.  Thefe  extremities,  be- 
 caufe  they  have  a  ragged  appearance,  are  CTxWed  ^mbrwe,  or 
 morfus  diaboli :  Each  Fallopian  tube  is  about  three  inches 
 long.  Their  cavities  are  at  firfl  very  fmall,  but  become  gra- 
 dually larger,  like  a  trumpet,  as  they  approach  the  fimbriae. 
 Near  the  fimbriae  of  each  tube,  about  an  inch  from  the  uter- 
 us, are  fituated  the  ovaria,  or  two  oval  bodies,  about  half  the 
 iize  of  the  male  teflicle.  They  are  covered  with  a  produc- 
 tion of  the  peritoneum,  and  hang  loofe  in  the  pelvis.  In 
 their  fubflance  there  are  feveral  minute  veficles  filled  with 
 lymph.  The  number  of  thefe  veficles  feldom  exceeds 
 twelve  in  each  ovarium^  In  mature  females,  thefe  veficles 
 become  exceedingly  turgid  ;  and  a  yellow  coagulum  gradual- 
 ly forms  in  one  of  them,  which  iricreafes  till  its  coat  difap- 
 pears.  It  then  changes  into  a  hemifpherical  body  called  cor^ 
 pus  luteum^  which  is  defcribed  as  being  hollow  and  containing 
 within  its  cavity  very  minute  eggs,  each  of  which,  it  is  fup- 
 pofed,  may  be  impregnated,  and  produce  a  foetus.  After 
 impregnation,  one  of  thefe  eggs,  as  we  are  informed  by  anat- 
 omifls,  is  abforbed  by  and  pafTes  through  the  Fallopian  tube 
 into  the  uterus,  where  it  is  nourilhed  till  mature  for  birth. 
 
 We  fliall  conclude  this  fubjedl  with  a  concife  account  of 
 the  inftruments  of  fenfation.  The  organs  hitherto  defcribed 
 convey  nothing  more  than  the  idea  of  an  automaton,  or  felf- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  61 
 
 moving  machine.  But  fenfation,  or  the  perception  of  plea- 
 iure  and  p:iin,  is  efrefled  by  organs  of  a  peculiar  kind.  Thefe 
 organs  are  all  comprehended  under  the  general  appellation  of 
 the  brain  and  nerves. 
 
 Befide  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  the  brain  is  invefted  with 
 two  membraneSj  called  dura  and  pia  mater,  becaufe  they  were 
 fuppofed  by  the  Arabians  to  be  the  lource  of  all  the  other 
 meiTibranes  of  the  body.  Under  the  denomination  of  l>rain 
 are  comprehended  three  diflincl  parts,  the  cerci>ny7rj,tl\e  wre- 
 helluiUi  and  medulla  oblongata.  The  cerebrum  is  a  foft  medul- 
 lary mafsj  fituated  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  ikull,  and  divid- 
 ed, by  a  portion  of  the  dura  mater,  into  two  hemifpheres.  It 
 conliils  of  two  fubftances,  the  cortical,  which  is  greyifh,  and 
 the  medullary,  which  is  ibfi;er,  and  of  a  very  white  colour. 
 The  cerebellum  is  divided  into  two  lobes,  and  its  fubftance  is 
 firmer  and  more  compa-ri:  than  that  of  the  cerebrum.  It  is 
 likewife  compofeu  of  the  cortical  and  medullary  fubftances. 
 The  reunion  of  the  medallary  fyoRances  of  the  cerebrum 
 and  cerebellum,  at  the  bafts  of  the  fkuU,  forms  the  medid'a 
 cblongatay  of  which  the  fpinal  marrow  is  a  continuation.  The 
 brain  of  the  human  fpecies  is  proportionally  much  larger 
 than  that  of  quadrupeds. 
 
 The  brain  and  fpinal  marrow  are  fuppofed  to  be  the  oricrin 
 of  all  the  nerves  or  inftruments  of  fenfation.  The  nerves 
 are,  in  general,  cineritious,  fliining,  inelaftic  cords.  But 
 they  differ  from  each  other  in  ftze,  colour,  and  confiftence. 
 From  numberlefs  experiments  and  obfervations,  it  is  unquef- 
 tionable,  that  the  nerves  are  the  inftruments  both  of  ienfa- 
 tion  and  of  animal  morion.  But,  how  thefe  ,efte6ls  are  pro- 
 duced by  the  nervous  influence  is  a  difcovery  ftill  to  be  made. 
 The  inquiry,  however,  has  given  rife  to  feveral  ingenious 
 conjectures  and  hypothefes.  Some  phynologifts  have  main- 
 tained, that  the  nerves  are  folid  cords,  which  may  be  divided 
 into  an  infinite  number  of  minute  filaments  j  and  that,  by 
 
 H 
 
^f  "tllE    PHlLOSOPHir 
 
 the  vibrations  of  thefe  cords,  the  various  imprcffions  and 
 modifications  of  feeUng  are  conveyed  to  the  brain.  Others, 
 with  more  plaufibiHty,  have  fuppofed,  that  the  nerves  are 
 affemblages  of  fmall  tubes  ;  that  a  fubtile  fluid,  fometimes 
 called  afiimal /pints,  is  fecreted  in  the  brain  and  fplnal  mar- 
 row ;  and  that  by  the  influence  or  motions  of  this  fluid  all 
 the  fenfations  of  animals  are  tranfmitted  to  the  fenforium, 
 or  general  repolitory  of  ideas.  But  it  is  needlefs  to  dwell 
 upon  a  fubject  covered  with  darknefs,  and  which  all  the 
 efforts  of  human  powers  will  probably  never  bring  to  light. 
 
 Anatomifts  have  defcribed  forty  pair  of  nerves.  Ten  of 
 them  proceed  from  the  medulla  oblongata  of  the  brain,  and 
 thirty  from  the  fpinal  marrow.  Thefe  nerves,  by  fending 
 off  innumerable  ramifications,  are  dlflrlbuted,  like  a  net- 
 work, over  every  part  of  the  body,  till  they  terminate,  in  the 
 form  of  a  minute  papillae,  upon  the  fl:in.  That  the  nerves 
 are  the  i^nmediate  inftruments  of  fenfation,  as  well  as  of  muf- 
 cular  motion,  has  been  proved  by  a  thoufand  uncontro- 
 vertible experiments.  When  the  trunk  of  the  fciatic  nerve 
 is  cut,  the  thigh  and  leg  on  that  fide  inflantly  lofe  all  motion, 
 and  all  fenfe  of  pain,  below  the  incifion,  and  neither  time 
 nor  art  can  ever  reflore  the  power  of  feeling  or  of  moving. 
 But  the  parts  betv/een  the  incifion  and  the  fpinal  marrow, 
 v^hich  is  a  continuation  of  the  brain,  retain  their  ufiial  de- 
 grees both  of  motion  and  of  fanfation.  From  this  experi- 
 ment, it  is  evident,  that  the  nerves  are  the  organs  by  which 
 fenfation  and  motion  are  efFedted,  and  that,  for  thefe  im- 
 portant purpofes,  an  uninterrupted  connexion  between  any 
 particular  nerve  and  the  brain,  or  fpinal  marrow,  is  indif- 
 penfible. 
 
 This  fKetch  of  the  human  fabric  requires  an  apology  to 
 anatomical  readers,  who  mull:  be  fenfible  of  its  many  imper- 
 fe6lions.  To  perfons  who  have  not  ftudied  that  curious  and 
 #feful  fcience,  I  imagined  a  general  view  of  the  jftrudlure  of 
 
OF    NATURAI,    HISTORY.  6S 
 
 man,  if  properly  compofed,  might  enable  them  to  acquire 
 more  diftincft  ideas  of  the  many  fecming  deviations  from  the 
 common  plan  obferved  by  Nature  in  the  formation  of  the  in- 
 ferior and  more  imperfe6t  animals. 
 
 OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 Having  delineated  the  ftru(5lure  and  organs  of  the  human 
 fpecies,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  intelledt,  or  fagacity, 
 of  inferior  animals  augments  or  diminifhes  in  proportion  as 
 the  formation  of  their  bodies  approaches  to,  or  recedes  from, 
 that  of  man.  Quadrupeds,  accordingly,  are  more  intelligent 
 than  birds  ;  the  fagacity  of  birds  exceeds  that  of  fifhes  j  and 
 the  dexterity  and  cunning  of  iilhes  are  fuperior  to  thofc  of 
 moft  of  the  infecl  tribes.  Tlie  fame  gradation  of  mental  pow- 
 ers is  exhibited  in  different  fpecies  of  the  fame  clafles  of  ani- 
 mals. The  form  of  the  ourang  outang  makes  the  neareft 
 approach  to  the  human  ;  and  the  arts  he  employs  for  his  de- 
 fence, the  acSlions  he  performs,  and  the  fagacity  he  difcovers, 
 are  fo  aftonifhing,  that  fome  philofophers  have  confidered 
 him  as  a  real  human  beinjy  in  the  moft  debafed  ftao-e   of  fo- 
 
 t>  to 
 
 ciety.  Next  to  the  ourang  outang,  the  organs  of  the  differ- 
 ent fpecies  of  apes  and  monkeys  have  the  greateft  refem- 
 blance  to  thofe  of  man  ;  and  their  powers  of  imitation,  their 
 addrefs  in  procuring  their  food,  and  in  managing  their 
 young,  their  ingenuity,  and  their  fagacious  manners,  have 
 contributed  to  the  amufement,  and  excited  the  admiration  of 
 mankind  In  all  ages  and  nations.  The  fame  relation  be- 
 tween form  and  intellefl  may  be  traced  in  the  dog,  the  cat, 
 the  fow,  the  horfe,  the  flieep,  and  the  other  fpecies  of 
 quadrupeds. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  general  fl:ru(5lure  and  figure  of  quad- 
 rupeds, a  great  variety  is  exhibited  in  the  different  kinds. 
 But  when  examined  in  detail,  it  is  apparent,  that  they,  as 
 well  as  man,  are  all  formed  upon  one  primitive  and  general 
 
64?  THE    PHILOSOPFIY 
 
 defign.  Befide  the  organs  of  lenfation,  of  circulation,  of  di- 
 geftion,  and  of  generation,  without  which  moft  animals  could 
 neither  fubfift  nor  multiply,  there  is,  even  among  thofe  parts 
 that  chiefly  contribute  to  variety  in  external  form,  fuch  a 
 wonderful  refemblance  as  necelTarily  conveys  the  idea  of  an 
 original  plan  upon  which  the  whole  has  been  executed.  For 
 example,  when  the  parts  conflituting  a  horfe  are  compared 
 with  the  human  frame,  inftead  of  being  ftruck  with  their 
 difference,  we  are  aftoniflied  at  their  Angular  and  almoft 
 pe5-fe61:  refemblance.  Take  the  ilieleton  of  a  man,  fays  Buf- 
 fon,  incline  the  bones  of  the  pelvis ;  fliorten  thofe  of  the 
 thighs,  legs,  and  arms  •,  join  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers  and 
 toes  ;  lengthen  the  jaws  by  Hiortening  the  frontal  bones  ;  and, 
 laftly,  extend  the  fpine  of  the  back.  This  fl^eleton  would 
 no  longer  reprefent  that  of  a  man  ;  It  would  be  the  flcele- 
 ton  of  a  horfe.  For,  by  lengthening  the  back-bone  and  the 
 jaws,  the  number  of  the  vertebrae,  ribs,  and  teeth,  would  be 
 increafed  ;  and  it  is  only  by  the  number  of  thefe  bones,  and 
 by  the  prolongation,  contra6lion,  and  junction  of  others,  that 
 the  fkeleton  of  a  horfe  differs  from  that  of  a  man.  The  ribs, 
 w^hich  are  effential  to  the  figure  of  animals,  are  found  equally  in 
 man,  in  quadrupeds,  in  birds,  in  fifhes,  and  even  in  the  tur- 
 tle. The  foot  of  the  horfe,  fo  apparently  different  from  the 
 hand  of  a  man,  is  compofed  of  Ihnilar  bones  ;  and,  at  the 
 extremity  of  each  finger,  we  have  the  fame  fmall  bone,  re- 
 fembhng  the  flioe  of  a  horfe,  which  bounds  the  foot  of  that 
 animal.  Raife  the  fkeletons  of  quadrupeds,  from  the  ape-kind 
 to  the  moufe,  upon  their  hind-legs,  and  compare  them  with 
 the  flveleton  of  a  man,  the  mind  will  be  inflantly  ftruck 
 with  the  uniformity  of  ftru^ture  and  defign  obferved  in  the 
 formation  of  the  whole  group.  This  uniformity  is  fo  con- 
 frant,  and  the  gradations  from  one  fpecies  to  another  are  fo 
 imperceptible,  that  to  difcover  the  marks  of  their  difcrimina- 
 tion  requires  the  mofl  minute  attention.  Even  the  bones  of 
 the  tail  will  make  but  a  flight  impreffioa  on  the  obferver. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  6^ 
 
 The  tail  Is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  os  coccygls,  or  rump- 
 bone,  which  is  fhort  in  man.  The  orang  outang,  and  true 
 apes,  have  no  tail  ;  and,  in  the  baboons,  and  feveral  other 
 quadrupeds,  the  tail  is  exceedingly  fhort.  Thus,  in  the 
 creation  of  animals,  the  Supreme  Being  feems  to  have  cm- 
 ployed  only  one  great  idea,  and,  at  the  fame  time,  to  have  di- 
 verfiiied  it  in  every  poffible  manner,  that  men  might  have 
 an  opportunity  of  admiring  equally  the  magnificence  of  tha 
 execution  and  the  fimplicity  of  the  defign. 
 
 In  quadrupeds,  as  well  as  in  man,  the  bones  are  connected 
 by  articulations  and  membranes  ;  and  the  different  move- 
 ments of  thefe  bones  are  performed  by  the  operation  of  muf- 
 cles.  The  number,  difpofition,  and  form  of  the  mufcles  with 
 a  few  exceptions  arifing  from  the  figure  and  destination  of 
 parts  peculiar  to  particular  animals,  are  nearly  the  fame  in 
 men  and  in  quadrupeds.  The  circulation  of  their  blood, 
 the  fecretion  of  their  fluids,  and  the  procefs  of  digeftion,  are 
 carried  on  by  organs  perfectly  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  human 
 body.  In  the  external  covering,  a  fmall  difference  takes 
 place.  Quadrupeds  are  furniflied  with  a  thick  covering  of 
 hair,  or  wool,  to  defend  them  from  the  injuries  of  the 
 weather.  Being  deflitute  of  art  fufficient  to  make  garments. 
 Nature  has  fupplled  that  defe6l,  by  giving  tliem  a  cpat  of 
 hair,  which  varies  in  thicknefs  according  to  the  feafon  of  the  * 
 year  and  the  difference  of  cHmate.  In  Ruffia,  Lapland, 
 Kamtfchatka,  and  all  the  northern  regions,  the  furs  of  ani- 
 mals are  very  thick  and  warm.  But,  in  Turkey,  Africa,  and 
 the  fouthern  parts  of  Afia  and  America,  moft  quadrupeds  are 
 thinly  clad,  and  fome  of  them,  as  the  Turkilli  dog,  are  total- 
 ly deflitute  of  hair. 
 
 The  fkin  of  quadrupeds  is  difpofed  nearly  in  the  fame  man- 
 ner as  the  human,  only  it  is  more  elaflic.  Immediately  un- 
 der the  fkin,  there  is  a  thin  mufcular  fubftance,  called _/)^;/;'/" 
 sulus  carmfuSf  wMch  is  common  to  all  quadrupeds,  except  the 
 
66  THE    FHILOSOPHT 
 
 hog  and  armadillo  kinds.  This  fubftance,  wKich  is  peculiar 
 to  quadrupeds,  chiefly  covers  the  trunk,  and,  by  luddenly 
 faking  and  Ihrivelling  the  flcin,  enables  thefe  animals  to 
 drive  off  infects,  or  other  ofFenfive  bodies. 
 
 The  fubftance  of  the  nerves,  or  organs  of  fenfation,  is  the 
 fame  in  the  quadruped  and  in  man.  They  originate  from 
 the  brain  and  fpinal  marrow,  and  are  diftributed  over  all  the 
 internal  and  external  parts  of  the  body,  in  the  fame  manner 
 as  in  the  human  frame. 
 
 Thus  it  appears,  that,  in  general  ftru^lure  and  organiza- 
 tion, the  brute  creation  is  nearly  alUed  to  the  human  fpecies. 
 Some  differences,  however,  merit  attention  ;  becaufe  a  flight 
 variation  in  flrufture,  efpecially  of  the  internal  organs,  is 
 pften  accompanied  with  great  diverfities  in  difpolitions^  food, 
 and  manners. 
 
 Some  animals  feed  upon  fleflj,  others  upon  vegetables,  and 
 others  upon  a  mixture  of  both.  The  difpofltions  of  fome 
 fpecies  are  fierce  ;  and  their  manners  convey  to  us  the  ideas 
 of  cruelty  and  of  barbarifm  j  the  difpofltions  and  manners  of 
 Other  fpecies  are  foft  and  placid,  and  excite  in  us  idc^is  of 
 ynildnefs,  complacency,  and  innocence.  The  ferocity  of  the 
 jtyger  and  hyaena  forms  a  perfect  contraft  to  the  gentlenefs 
 and  inofi-'enflve  behaviour  of  the  flieep  and  the  ox.  This 
 oppofltion  of  manners  has  given  rife  to  the  diftindlion 
 of  animals  into  rapacious  and  mild,  carnivorous  and  herbivo- 
 irous.  In  the  flru(R:ure  of  thefe  animals,  whofe  charadlers 
 are  fo  oppofite,  fome  differences  have  been  difcovered,  which 
 indicate  the  intentions  of  Nature  in  forming  them,  and  fully 
 juftify  the  feeming  cruelty  of  their  condu6l. 
 
 In  all  the  carnivorous  tribes,  the  flomach  is  proportionally 
 fmallcr,  and  the  inteftines  fliorter,  than  in  thofe  animals 
 which  feed  upon  vegetables.  As  animals  of  the  former  kind 
 livefolely  on  flefli,  the  fhortnefs  and  narrownefs  of  their  in- 
 teflines  are  accommodated  to  the  nature  of  their  food.     Ani- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  6"f 
 
 nicil  food  is  more  eafily  reduced  to  chyle,  and  becomes  fooner 
 putrid,  than  vegetable.  Of  courfe,  if  its  juices  were  allow- 
 ed to  remain  long  in  the  inteftines,  inftead  of  nourifhing  the 
 body,  they  would  produce  the  moft  fatal  diftempers.  Be- 
 iide  this  accommodation  of  the  inteftines  to  the  nature  of  their 
 food,  carnivorous  animals  are  furnifhed  with  the  neceflary 
 inftruments  for  feizing  and  devouring  their  prey.  Their 
 heads  are  roundifli,  their  jaws  ftrong,  and  their  tulles  very 
 long  and  iliarp.  Some  of  them,  as  the  lion,  the  tyger,  and 
 the  whole  cat-kind,  are  provided  with  long  retractile  claws. 
 Thus  both  the  internal  and  external  ftrudlure  of  this  clafs  of 
 animals  indicate  their  deftination  and  manners.  The  rapid 
 dlgeftion  of  their  food  is  a  confequence  of  the  ftrength  and 
 fliortnefs  of  their  inteftines  ;  and  the  intolerable  cravings  of 
 their  appetite  neceffarily  create  a  fiercenefs  and  rapacity  of 
 difpolltion.  Nothing  lefs  than  blood  can  fatiate  them.  Their 
 cruelty,  and  the  devaftation  they  make  among  the  v/eaker 
 and  more  timid  tribes,  are  efFedts  refulting  folely  from  the 
 ftrudlure  and  organs  with  which  Nature  has  thought  proper 
 to  endow  them.  Hence,  if  there  be  any  thing  reprehenfible 
 in  the  manners  and  difpofttions  of  carnivorous  animals.  Na- 
 ture alone  is  to  blame  ;  for  all  their  actions  are  determined 
 by  the  irrefiftible  impulfes  of  their  organization.  But,  even 
 in  this  feeraingly  cruel  arrangement,  Nature  muft  not  be  ralli- 
 ly  accufed.  Y/lien  we  come  to  treat  of  the  hoftihties  of  animals, 
 I  hope  tobeable  to  fh*ow,  thatNature,  in  the  formation  of  rapa- 
 cious creatures,  has  adled  with  her  ufual  wifdom,  and  that 
 beings  of  this  kind  have  their  ufes  in  the  general  fyftem  and 
 oeconomy  of  the  univerfe. 
 
 As  to  the  herbivorous  tribes,  or  thofe  animals  which  feed  upon 
 grain  and  herbage,  a  flight  variation  of  organs  produces  the 
 greateft  effedts  upon  their  difpofltion  and  manners.  The  in- 
 teftines of  this  tribe  are  very  long,  capacious,  and  convoluted. 
 Vegetable  food,  efpecially  herbage,  contains  a  fmaller  quan- 
 
68  taE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 tity  of  nutritive  matter  than  the  flefli  of  animals  ;  neither  is 
 it  fo  ealily  reduced  to  chyle.  A  large  quantity,  therefore, 
 as  well  as  a  longer  detention  in  the  Aomach  and  inteftinesj 
 IS  necefTary  for  the  nourifhment  of  thefe  creatures.  Several 
 quadrupeds  comprehended  under  this  order  ruminate  or 
 chew  the  cud.  Thefe  are  furniflied  with  no  lefs  than  four 
 ftomachs.  The  food  after  mafiication,  is  thrown  into  the 
 firft  ftomach,  where  it  remains  fome  time  •,  after  v^'-hich,  the 
 animal  forces  it  up  again  into  the  mouth,  and  gives  it  a  fec- 
 ond  chewing.  It  is  then  fent  directly  into  the  fecond  fto- 
 mach, and  gradually  pafTes  into  the  third  and  fourth  ;  and, 
 laftly,  it  is  tranfmitted  through  the  convolutions  of  the  in- 
 teftines,  and  the  dregs,  or  faeces,  are  thrown  out  of  the  body. 
 By  this  machinery,  herbivorous  animals  are  enabled  to  de- 
 vour large  quantities  of  vegetable  aliment,  to  retain  it  long  In 
 their  boivels,  and  confequently  to  extract  from  it  nutritive 
 matter  fufficient  for  their  growth,  fupport,  and  multiplica- 
 tion. Here  the  quantity  compenfates  the  quality  of  the  nii- 
 triment. 
 
 It  Is  true,  that  the  liorfe,  the  afs,  the  hare,  and  fome  other 
 animals  which  live  upon  herbage  and  grain,  have  only  one 
 ftomach.  But,  though  the  horfe  and  afs  have  one  ftomach 
 only,  their  inteftines  are  furniflied  with  facs  or  pouches  fo 
 large,  that  they  may  be  compared  to  the  paunch  of  ruminat- 
 ing animals  •,  and  hares^  rabbits,  the  Guiney-pig,  &c.  have 
 blind  guts  fo  long  and  capacious,  that  they  are  equivalent  to 
 a  fecond  ftomach.  The  hedgehog,  the  wild  boar,  the  fquir- 
 rel,  &c.  whofe  ftomach  and  inteftines  are  of  a  mean  capacity, 
 eat  little  herbage,  but  live  chiefly  upon  feeds,  fruits,  and 
 roots,  which  contain,  In  fmall  bounds,  a  greater  quantity  of 
 nutritive  matter  than  the  leaves  or  ftems  of  plants. 
 
 The  external  form  of  herbivorous  animals,  like  that  of  the 
 rapacious.  Is  accommodated  to  their  difpofitlons  and  the  oe- 
 conomy  they  are  obliged  to   obfervc.     That  they  might  be 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  69 
 
 enabled  to  reach  the  furface  of  the  earth  with  eafe,  the  legs 
 of  the  larger  kinds  are  proportionally  fliort  ;  their  head  and 
 neck  long  ;  and  the  muicles  and  tendons  of  the  neck  are  en- 
 dowed with  prodigious  firength.  Without  thefe  peculiari- 
 ties of  ftru£ture,  they  could  not  fupport  the  prone  pofture  of 
 the  head  in  the  tedious  operation  of  browfing  large  quantities 
 of  herbage.  The  arrangement  and  form  of  their  teeth  like- 
 wife  indicate  the  deftinaticn  of  the  ruminating  tribes.  They 
 have  no  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  -,  and  they  are  totally 
 deprived  of  tulks,  or  canine  teeth.  This  laft  circumftance, 
 joined  to  their  want  of  claws,  {hews  that  they  are  not  intend- 
 ed to  prey  upon  other  animals.  Horns  are  the  only  weapons 
 of  defence  with  which  they  are  provided.  From  the  nature 
 of  their  food,  therefore,  and  the  internal  and  external  con- 
 figuration of  their  bodies,  it  is  evident,  that  animals  of  this 
 defcription  mud  be  humble  in  their  deportment  and  mild  in 
 their  difpofition.  This  order  of  animals,  accordingly,  have 
 uniformly  been  celebrated  for  gentlenefs  of  manners,  fub- 
 miffion,  aud  timidity.  Man  has  availed  himfelf  of  thofe  dif- 
 pofitions,  by  reducing  almofl  the  whole  of  this  tribe  to  a  do- 
 meilic  flate.  But,  in  all  this  gracioufnefs  of  afpe£t  and  tra£la- 
 bility  of  temper,  the  animals  themfelves  have  no  merit. 
 Their  motions  and  adlions  are  neceffary  refults  of  the  organs 
 which  Nature  has  beftowed  on  them.  It  is  obvious,  there- 
 fore, that  the  diverfity  of  tafles  and  difpofitions  exhibited  by 
 different  animals,  arifes  not  folely  from  any  fuperior  agreea- 
 blenefs  of  particular  kinds  of  food  to  their  palates,  or  to  a  pe- 
 culiar bias  of  their  minds  to  benevolence  and  peace,  but  from 
 a  phyficalcaufe  depending  on  the  flrufture  of  their  bodies. 
 
 From  what  has  been  advanced,  it  follows,  that  man,  whofe 
 flomach  and  inteflines  are  proportionally  of  no  great  capaci- 
 ty, could  not  live  upon  herbage  alone.  It  is  an  inconteftible 
 fa£l,  however,  that  he  can  live  tolerably  well  upon  bread, 
 herbs,  and  the  fruits,  roots,  and  feeds  of  plants ;  for  we  know 
 
 I 
 
70  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 whole  nations,  as  well  as  particular  orders  of  men,  who  are 
 prohibited  by  their  religion  from  eating  any  animal  fubftance. 
 But  thcfe  examples  are  not  fufficient  to  convince  us,  that  the 
 health,  vigour,  and  multiplication  cf  mankind  would  be  im- 
 proved by  feeding  folcly  upon  pot-herbs  and  bread.  Be- 
 fides,  his  flomach  and  inteftines  are  of  a  mean  capacity  be- 
 tween thofe  of  the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  animals* 
 From  this  circumftance  alone  we  are  warran*Led  to  conclude, 
 that  Nature  intended  him  to  feed  partly  on  animal  and  part- 
 ly on  vegetable  fubftances  j  and  daily  experience  teaches  us, 
 that  men  fed  in  this  manner  are  larger,  ftronger,  and  more 
 prolific,  than  thofe  who  are  confined  to  a  vegetable  diet.  If 
 man  had  no  other  fources  of  fuperiority  over  the  other  ani- 
 mals than  thofe  which  originate  from  the  fl:ru6lure  of  his 
 body,  his  difpofitions  ought  to  be  a  medium  between  thofe 
 of  the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  tribes.  When  consider- 
 ed merely  as  an  animal,  this  appears  to  be  really  the  cafe. 
 Vulgar  and  uninformed  men,  when  pampered  with  a  variety 
 of  animal  food,  are  much  more  choleric,  fierce,  and  cruel  in 
 their  tempers  than  thofe  who  live  chiefly  on  vegetables. 
 Animal  food  heats  the  blood,  and  makes  it  circulate  with  ra- 
 pidity. In  this  fituation,  every  obje£l  capable  of  exciting  ap- 
 petite or  paflion  operates  with  redoubled  force.  The  weak 
 mind  yields  to  the  impulfe,  and  gives  vent  to  every  fpecies  of 
 outrage  which  can  debafe  human  nature. 
 
 In  the  formation  of  his  body,  man  has  fome  advantages 
 over  particular  animals.  But  thefe  advantages  are  inconfid- 
 erable,  and  none  of  them,  perhaps,  are  peculiar  to  the  fpecies. 
 The  ftru^Slure  of  all  animals  is  nicely  adjufled  to  their  defti- 
 nation,  and  the  fi:ation  they  occupy  in  the  general  fcale  of 
 Being.  The  body  of  man  Is  evcdi,  and  his  attitude  is  faid  to 
 be  that  of  command.  His  majeflic  deportment,  and  the 
 firmnefs  of  his  movements,  announce  the  fuperiority  of  his 
 ?ank.    His  arms  are  not  mere  pillars  for  the  fupport  of  his 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  71 
 
 body.  His  hands  tread  not  the  earth ;  neither  do  they  lofe, 
 by  friclion  and  prefllire,  that  exquifite  deUcacy  of  feeling  for 
 which  Nature  had  originally  intended  them.  His  arms  and 
 hands,  on  the  contrary,  are  formed  for  purpofes  of  a  more 
 noble  kind.  They  are  deftined  for  executing  the  commands 
 of  his  will,  for  laying  hold  of  bodies,  for  removing  obftacles, 
 for  defending  him  from  injuries,  and  for  feizing  and  retain- 
 ing objeds  of  pleafure.  The  features  of  this  pi(Slure  are 
 exacl  delineations  ;  but  they  are  not  the  exclufive  privilege 
 of  man.  The  orang  outang  walks  ered:,  and  he  derives 
 equal  advantages  from  his  hands  and  arms  as  the  human 
 fpecies.  Some  apes  have  likewife  the  power  of  walking 
 ere£t,  with  the  additional  faculty  of  employing  their  hands 
 and  arms  as  legs.  They  can  walk,  run,  or  leap,  by  the  in- 
 ftrumentality  either  of  two  or  of  four  extremities,  as  their 
 Situation  or  neceflities  may  require.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
 the  fabric  of  man's  body  that  entitles  him  to  claim  a  fuperio- 
 rity  over  the  other  animals.  The  formation  of  their  bodies 
 is  adjufled  with  equal  fymmetry  and  perfection  to  the  rank 
 they  hold  in  the  general  fyflem  of  animation.  Many  of 
 them  excel  us  in  magnitude,  ftrength,  fwiftnefs,  and  dexteri- 
 ty in  particular  movements.  Their  fenfes  are  often  more 
 acute  ;  they  feize  their  prey,  or  procure  herbage,  fruits,  and 
 feeds  of  trees,  with  more  facility  than  man,  when  limited  to 
 the  powers  of  his  animal  nature.  Hence  the  great  fource  of 
 man's  fuperiority  over  the  brute  creation  mufl  be  derived 
 from  his  mental  faculties  alone.  Brutes  enjoy  the  fame  in- 
 flindts,  the  fame  appetites,  and  the  fame  propenfities,  as  ap- 
 pear in  the  conftitation  of  the  human  mind.  But  the  in- 
 ftintSls  of  brutes,  though  they  are  exerted  with  great  certain- 
 ty and  precilion,  are  much  circumfcribed  with  regard  to  ex- 
 tenfion  and  improvement.  Like  man,  they  dcri-L  advan- 
 tages from  experience.  But  the  conclun^?n3  they  draw  from 
 this  fource  are  always  feeble  and  extr€.*iely  limited.  Neither 
 
72  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 do  they  poiTefs  the  ineftimable  faculty  of  tranfiiiltting  the 
 knowledge  acquired  by  individuals  from  generation  to  gener- 
 ation. By  means  of  their  fenfes,  they  learn  to  diftinguilh 
 their  enemies,  or  hurtful  objects,  at  a  diilance  ;  and  they 
 know  how  to  avoid  them.  Experience  teaches  them  to  dif- 
 criminate  objects  of  pleafure  from  thofe  of  pain  ;  and  they 
 adl  according  to  the  feeHngs  excited  by  thefe  objects.  Some 
 animals  can  even  accommodate  their  inftindls  to  particular 
 circumftances  and  fituations.  The  feelings  of  brutes  are 
 often  more  exquifite  than  ours.  They  have  fenfations  j  but 
 their  faculty  of  comparing  them,  or  of  forming  ideas,  is 
 much  circumfcribed.  A  dog  or  a  monkey  can  imitate 
 fome  human  a(^ions,  and  are  capable  of  receiving  a  certain 
 degree  of  inftru6tion.  But  their  progrefs  foon  flops  :  Na- 
 ture has  fixed  the  boundaries  of  mental  as  well  as  of  corpo- 
 real powers  ;  and  thefe  boundaries  are  as  various  as  the  num- 
 ber of  diflindl  fpecies.  Our  wonder  is  equally  excited  by 
 the  fagacity  of  fome  animals,  and  by  the  flupidity  of  others. 
 This  gradation  of  mental  faculties  originates  from  the  num- 
 ber or  paucity  of  inflin6ls  beftowed  on  particular  fpecies, 
 joined  to  the  greater  or  fmaller  power  of  extending  or  modi- 
 fying thefe  inflin(Sts  by  experience  and  obfervation.  Man 
 is  endowed  with  a  greater  number  of  infiindls  than  any  other 
 animal.  The  fuperiority  of  his  rank,  however,  does  not 
 proceed  from  this  fource  alone.  Man  enjoys  beyond  every 
 other  animal  the  faculty  of  extending,  improving,  and  modi- 
 fying the  different  inflindls  he  has  received  from  Nature.  It 
 is  this  faculty  which  enables  him  to  compare  his  feelings,  to 
 form  ideas,  and  to  reafon  concerning  both.  The  bee  makes 
 cells,  and  the  beaver  conflrucls  habitations  of  clay.  The 
 order  of  their  architedure,  however,  is  invariably  the  fame. 
 Man  likewife  builds  houfes  :  But  he  is  not  forced,  by  an  ir- 
 refiflible  inftincH:,  to  work  always  on  the  fame  plan.  His 
 habitations,  on  the  contrary,  vary  with  the  fancy  of  the  in- 
 dividuals who  defign  and  conflru^t  them. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^2 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  the  dignity  of  man's  rank  depends  not 
 upon  the  flruclure  of  his  organs.  It  is  from  the  powers  of 
 his  intellect  alone  that  he  is  entitled  to  claim  a  fuperioriiy 
 ever  the  brute  creation.  Thefe  powers  enable  him  to  form 
 ideas,  to  aburaft,  to  reafon,  to  invent,  and  to  reach  all  the 
 heights  of  fcience  and  of  art. 
 
 The  remarks  formerly  made  are  applicable  to  quadrupeds 
 in  general.  But,  before  concluding  this  branch  of  the  fub- 
 je6i:,  we  fhall  point  out  a  few  peculiarities  in  the  flrudcure  of 
 particular  fpecies. 
 
 Befide  the  four  ftomachs  common  to  ruminating  animals, 
 the  camel  and  dromedary  have  a  fifth  bag,  which  ferves 
 them  as  a  refervoir  for  holding  water.  This  bag  is  capable 
 of  containing  a  very  large  quantity  of  that  necefiary  element. 
 When  the  camel  is  thirfty,  and  has  occalion  to  macerate  his 
 dry  food  in  the  operation  of  ruminating,  by  a  iimple  con« 
 traction  of  certain  mufcles,  he  makes  part  of  this  water  af- 
 cend  into  his  ftomach,  or  even  as  high  as  the  gullet.  This 
 flngular  confcruction  enables  him  to  travel  fix,  eight,  or  even 
 twelve  days  in  the  fandy  deferts,  without  drinking,  and  to 
 take  at  once  a  prodigious  quantity  of  water,  which  remains 
 in  the  refervoir  pure  and  limpid  j  becaufe  neither  the 
 humours  of  the  body,  nor  the  juices  that  promote  digeftion, 
 can  have  accefs  to  it.  Befide  this  fingularity  of  firu^ture, 
 the  camel  has  two  large  flefhy  bunches  on  his  back,  and  the 
 dromedary,  or  fwift  camel,  one  bunch  ;  and  the  feet  of 
 both  are  covered  with  a  very  tough,  but  flexible  fubftance. 
 The  conformation  of  thefe  animals  enables  them  to  travel 
 with  heavy  loads  through  the  fandy  deferts  of  the  Eaft, 
 where  the  horfe  or  the  afs  would  inevitably  perifh ;  becaufe 
 Nature  has  not  provided  them  with  refervoirs  for  holding 
 and  preferving  w^ater,  which  are  indiipenfible  in  countries 
 w^here  none  of  that  element  can  be  procured  but  in  particu- 
 lar places,  that  are  often  diftant  many  days  journey  from 
 
H  THE  PHILOSdPHT 
 
 each  other.  When  we  confider  the  ftruclure  of  the 
 camel  and  dromedary,  we  cannot  be  deceived  with  regard  to 
 their  deftination.  The  four  ftomachs  indicate  a  vegetable 
 diet,  and  the  fame  docility  and  gentlenefs  of  manners  which , 
 characlerife  the  whole  ruminating  tribes.  From  the  addi- 
 tion of  a  fifth  bag,  or  refervoir  for  the  reception  and  prefer- 
 yation  of  water,  we  fhould  expedt  to  find  fome  peculiarity 
 of  difpofition.  In  this  conjedlure  we  are  not  deceived.  Of 
 ^11  animals  which  man  has  fubjugated,  the  camel  and  drome- 
 dary are  the  moft  abje£l  flaves.  With  incredible  patience 
 and  fubmifiion  they  traverfe  the  burning  fands  of  Africa  and 
 Arabia,  carrying  burdens  of  amazing  weight.  Inftead  of  dif- 
 covering  fymptoms  of  reluctance,  they  fpontaneoufly  lie 
 down  on  their  knees  till  their  mafter  binds  the  unmerciful 
 load.  Arabia,  and  fome  parts  of  Africa,  are  the  drieft  and 
 moft  barren  countries  in  the  world.  Both  the  conftitutiori 
 and  ftru£lure  of  camels  are  nicely  adapted  to  the  foil  and 
 climate  in  which  they  are  produced.  The  Arabians  confid- 
 er the  camel  as  a  gift  fent  from  heaven,  a  facred  animal, 
 without  whofe  afiiftance  they  could  neither  fubfift,  trafiick, 
 nor  travel.  The  milk  of  the  camel  is  their  common  food. 
 They  alfo  eat  its  flefh  ;  and  of  its  hair  they  make  garments. 
 In  pofi^eflion  of  their  camels,  the  Arabs  want  nothing,  and 
 have  nothing  to  fear.  In  one  day  they  can  perform  a  jour- 
 ney of  fifty  leagues  into  the  defert,  which  cuts  ofF  every  ap- 
 proach from  their  enemies.  All  the  armies  in  the  world  would 
 perifh  in  purfuit  of  a  troop  of  Arabs.  An  Arab,  by  the 
 afiiftance  of  his  camel,  furmounts  ail  the  difiicukies  of  a 
 country  which  is  neither  covered  with  verdure,  nor  fupplied 
 with  water.  Notwithftanding  the  vigilance  of  his  neigh- 
 bours, and  the  fuperiority  of  their  firength,  he  eludes  their 
 purfuit,  and  carries  ofl^,  with  impunity,  all  that  he  ravages 
 from  them.  When  about  to  undertake  a  depredatory  expe- 
 dition, an  Arab  makes  his  camels  carry  both  his  and  their 
 
OF   NATURAL   HISTORY.  75 
 
 own  provifions.  When  he  reaches  the  confines  of  tho 
 defert,  he  robs  the  fir  ft  pafTengers  who  come  in  his  way,  pil- 
 lages the  folitary  houfes,  loads  his  camels  with  the  booty, 
 and,  if  purfued,  he  accelerates  his  retreat.  On  thefe  occa- 
 fions  he  difplays  his  own  talents  as  well  as  thofe  of  his  camels. 
 He  mounts  one  of  the  iieeteft,  condufls  the  troop,  and  oblio-- 
 es  them  to  travel  day  and  night,  without  almoft  either  flop- 
 ping, eating,  or  drinking  ;  and,  in  this  manner,  he  often 
 performs  a  journey  of  SOO  leagues  in  eiglit  days. 
 
 Another  order  of  quadrupeds  deferves  our  notice.  Thofe 
 which  have  been  diftinguiflied  by  the  appellation  of  amphib- 
 ious, are  capable  of  remaining  a  long  time  under  water. 
 They  live  chiefly  upon  fifhes,  and,  without  this  faculty  of 
 continuing  a  confiderable  time  under  water,  they  would  be 
 unable  to  procure  their  food.  To  this  tribe  belong  the  feal, 
 the  walrus,  the  manati,  the  fea-lion,  8cc.  The  feal  and  wal- 
 rus are  mors  nearly  allied  to  land-quadrupeds  than  to 
 the  cetaceous  animals  ;  becaufe  they  have  four  diftlncH: 
 legs,  though  nothing  but  the  feet  project  beyond  the  flcin. 
 The  toes  of  the  feet  are  all  connected  by  membranes,  vdiicli 
 enable  thefe  animals  to  Avim  in  queft  of  their  prey.  They 
 differ  from  terreftrial  quadrupeds  by  the  fingular  faculty  of 
 living  with  equal  eafe  either  in  air  or  inwater.  This  pecu- 
 liarity of  economy  and  manners  prefuppofes  the  neceflity  of 
 fome  deviation  from  the  general  ilrudlure  of  quadrupeds  ; 
 and  Nature  has  accomplifhed  this  purpofe  by  a  very  fimple 
 artifice. 
 
 In  man,  and  in  all  land-quadrupeds,  the  lungs  of  the  foetus? 
 have  no  motion,  and  receive  no  more  blood  than  is  requifite 
 for  their  growth  and  nourifliment.  But,  immediately  after 
 birth,  the  young  animals  refpire,  and  the  whole  mafs  of 
 blood  circulates  through  their  lungs.  To  carry  on  the  cir- 
 culation in  the  foetus  ftate,  another  pafTage  was  necefTary. 
 The  blood  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart,  inftead  of  pafTm^ 
 
76  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 into  the  pulmonary  artery,  and,  after  circulating  through  the 
 lungs,  returning  into  the  left  auricle  by  the  pulmonary  vein, 
 palTes  diredlly  from  the  right  to  the  left  auricle  through  an 
 aperture  called  the  foramen  ovalc^  v/hich  is  fituated  in  the 
 partition  of  the  heart  that  feparates  the  cavities  of  the  two 
 auricles.  By  this  contrivance,  the  mafs  of  blood,  without 
 deviating  into  the  lungs,  enters  the  aorta,  and  is  diftributed 
 over  every  part  of  the  body.  In  man,  and  the  other  terref- 
 trial  animals,  the  foramen  ovale  of  the  heart,  which  permits 
 the  fcetus  to  live  without  refpiration,  clofes  the  moment  af- 
 ter birth,  and  remains  fhut  during  life.  Animals  of  this  con- 
 ftru(5tion  can  neither  live  v/ithout  air,  nor  remain  long  under 
 water  without  being  fuffocated. 
 
 But,  in  the  feal,  walrus,  and  other  amphibious  animals, 
 the  foramen  ovale  continues  open  during  life,  though  the 
 mothers  bring  forth  on  land,  and  relpiration  commences 
 immediately  after  birth.  By  means  of  this  perpetual  aper- 
 ture in  the  feptum  or  partition  of  the  heart,  which  allows  a 
 direct  communication  of  the  blood  from  the  vena  cava  to  the 
 aortajthefe  animals  enjoy  the  privilege  of  refpiring,  or  not,at 
 their  pleafure. 
 
 This  fingularity  in  the  flru^lure  of  the  heart,  and  the 
 confequent  capacity  of  living  equally  on  land  and  in  water, 
 mufl  necelTarily  produce  fom.e  peculiarities  in  the  manners 
 and  difpolitions  of  amphibious  animals.  The  feal,  accord- 
 ingly, whofe  hiftory  is  beft  known,  may  be  confidered  as 
 holding  the  empire  of  the  filent  ocean.  To  this  dignity  he 
 is  entitled  by  his  voice,  his  figure,  and  his  intelligence,  which 
 render  him  fo  fuperior  tothe  fiflies,  that  they  feem  to  belong 
 to  another  order  of  beings.  Though  his  oeconomy  be  very 
 different  from  that  of  our  domeftic  animals,  he  is  fufcepti- 
 ble  of  a  fpecies  of  education.  He  is  reared  by  putting  him 
 frequently  in  v/ater.  He  is  taught  to  give  a  lalute  with  his 
 head  and  his  voice.     He  approaches  when  called  upon.  His 
 
OF   :>IATURAL    HISTORY.  V7 
 
 fenfes  are  equally  acute  as  tliofe  of  any  quadruped  ;  and,  of 
 courfe,  his  fenfatior.s  and  Intelledl  are  equally  aftive.  Both 
 are  exhibited  in  the  gentleneis  of  his  manners,  his  focial  dif- 
 pofition,  his  afrection  for  the  female,  his  anxious  attention 
 to  his  offspring,  and  the  expreffive  modulation  of  his  voice. 
 Befides,  he  enjoys  advantages  which  are  peculiar  to  him.  He 
 is  neither  afraid  of  cold  nor  of  heat.  He  lives  indilFerently 
 on  herbsj  fiefli,  or  fifli.  He  inhabits,  without  inconvenience, 
 water,  land,  or  ice.  When  affiftance  Is  necefTary,  the  feals 
 underftand  and  mutually  affift  one  another.  The  young 
 diftinguifli  their  mother  In  the  midil  of  a  numerous  troop. 
 They  knov/  her  voice  ;  and,  when  flie  calls,  they  never  fail 
 to  obey. 
 
 Before  difmlffing  this  branch  of  the  fubjecSi:,  the  elephant 
 mud  not  be  paiTed  over  in  iilence.  His  ftruclure  is  uncom- 
 mon, and  fo  are  his  talents.  The  elephant  is  the  largeft  and 
 moft  magnificent  animal  that  at  prefent  treads  the  earth. 
 Though  he  daily  devours  great  quantities  of  herbage,  leaves, 
 anabranches  of  trees,  he  has  but  one  flomach,  and  does  not 
 ruminate.  This  want,  however,  is  fupplied  by  the  magni- 
 tude and  length  of  his  inteftines,  and  particularly  of  the  co- 
 lon, which  is  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  by  fifteen  or 
 twenty  in  length.  In  proportion  to  the  fize  of  the  elephant, 
 his  eyes  are  very  fmall ;  but  they  are  lively,  brilliant,  and  ca- 
 pable of  a  pathetic  expreffion  of  fentiment.  He  turns  them 
 flowly,  and  with  mildnefs,  towards  his  m after.  When  he 
 fpeaks,  the  animal  regards  him  with  an  eye  of  friendfhip  and 
 attention.  Fie  feems  to  refle^l  with  deliberation,  and  never 
 determines  till  he  has  examined,  without  pafiion  or  precipita- 
 tion, the  orders  which  he  Is  defired  to  obey.  The  dog, 
 whofe  eyes  are  very  expreffive,  Is  too  prompt  and  vivacious 
 to  allow  us  to  dlfdnguifh  with  eafe  the  fucceffive  fhades  of 
 his  fenfations.  But,  as  the  elephant  Is  naturally  grave  and 
 moderate,  we  perceive  in  his  eyes  the  order  and  fucceflion  of 
 
 K 
 
^8  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 his  thoughts.  His  ears  are  very  large,  and  much  longer, 
 even  in  proportion  to  his  body,  than  thofe  of  the  afs.  They 
 lie  flat  on  the  head,  and  are  commonly  pendulous  •,  but  he 
 can  raife  and  move  them  with  fuch  facility,  that  he  ufes 
 them  as  a  fan  to  cool  himfelf,  and  to  defend  his  eyes  from 
 dud  and  infedls.  His  ear  is  likewife  remarkably  fine  ;  for 
 he  delights  in  tli«  found  of  mufical  inflruments,  and  moves 
 hi  cadence  to  the  trumpet  and  tabour. 
 
 But,  in  the  ilirudture  of  the  elephant,  the  mofi:  fingular 
 organ  is  his  trunk  or  probofcis.  It  is  compofed  of  mem- 
 branes, nerves,  and  mufcies  ;  and  it  is  at  once  an  inflrument 
 of  feeling  and  of  motion.  The  animal  can  not  only  move  and 
 bend  the  trunk,  but  he  can  contract,  lengthen,  and  turn  it  on 
 all  fides.  The  extremity  of  the  trunk  terminates  in  a  pro- 
 tuberance that  ftretches  out  on  the  u  pper  fide  in  the  form  of 
 a  finger  5  by  means  of  which  he  lifts  from  the  ground  the 
 fmalleft  pieces  of  money  ;  he  fele6ls  herbs  and  flowers,  and 
 picks  them  up  one  by  one  ;  he  unties  the  knots  of  ropes, 
 opens  and  fliuts  gates  by  turning  the  keys  or  pufiiing  back 
 the  bolls.  In  the  middle  of  the  protuberance  or  finger, 
 there  is  a  cavity  in  the  form  of  a  cup,  and,  in  the  bottom  of 
 the  fup  are  the  apertures  of  the  two  organs  of  fmelling  and 
 refpiration.  This  hand  of  the  elephant  poffefTes  feveral  ad- 
 vantages over  that  of  the  human.  It  is  more  flexible,  and 
 equally  dexterous  in  laying  hold  of  objecSts.  Befides,  he  has  his 
 nofe  in  his  hand,  and  is  enabled  to  combine  the  power  of  his 
 lungs  with  the  action  of  his  finger,  and  to  attra(Sl  fluids  by  a 
 ikrong  fu(Slion,  or  to  raife  heavy  bodies  by  applying  to  them 
 the  edge  of  his  trunk,  and  making  a  vacuum  within  by  a 
 Tigorous  infpiration.  Hence  delicacy  of  feeling,  acutenefs 
 of  fmelling,  facility  of  movement,  and  the  power  of  fu6i:ion, 
 are  united  at  the  extremity  of  the  elephant's  trunk.  Of  all 
 the  inftruments  which  Nature  has  beitowed  on  her  mofh 
 favourite  produdions,  the  trunk  of  the  elephant  feems  to  be 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  79 
 
 the  moft  complete,  as  well  as  the  mofl:  admirable.  It  is  not 
 only  an  organic  inftrument,  but  a  triple  fenfe,  whofe  united 
 functions  exhibit  the  efFecls  of  that  wonderful  fagacity  which 
 exalts  the  elephant  above  all  other  quadrupeds.  He  is  not 
 fo  fubjecl,  as  fome  other  animals,  to  errors  of  vifion  ;  be- 
 caufe  he  quickly  redtifies  them  by  the  fenfe  of  touch  •,  and, 
 by  uling  his  trunk  as  a  long  arm,  for  the  purpofe  of  touch- 
 ing remote  obje(5ls,  he  acquires,  like  man,  clear  ideas  of  dif- 
 tances.  But  other  animals,  except  fuch  as  have  a  kind  of 
 arms  and  hands,  can  only  acquire  ideas  of  diftances  by  trav- 
 erfing  fpace  with  their  bodies.  Delicacy  of  feeling,  the  flexi- 
 bility of  the  trunk,  the  power  of  fusion,  the  fenfe  of  fmel- 
 ling,  and  the  length  of  the  arm,  convey  ideas  of  the  fub- 
 ftance  of  bodies,  of  their  external  form,  of  their  weight,  of 
 their  falutary  or  noxions  qualities,  and  of  iheir  diftances. 
 Thus,  by  the  fame  organs,  and  by  a  fimultaneous  adt,  the  ele- 
 phant feels,  perceives,  and  judges  of  feveral  things  at  one 
 time.  It  is  by  virtue  of  this  combination  of  fenfes  and 
 faculties  in  the  trunk  that  the  elephant  is  enabled  to  per- 
 form fo  many  wonderful  actions,  notwithftanding  the  enor- 
 mity of  his  mafs  and  the  difproportions  of  his  form.  The 
 thicknefs  and  rigidity  of  his  body ;  the  fhortnefs  and  fliff- 
 nefs  of  his  neck  -,  the  fmallnefs  of  his  head  ;  the  largenefs 
 of  his  ears,  nofe,  and  tu&s  ;  the  minutenefs  of  his  eyes, 
 mouth,  genitals,  and  tail ;  his  flraight,  clumfy,  and  almoft 
 inflexible  limbs  ;  the  fhortnefs  and  fmallnefs  of  his  feet  ;  the 
 thicknefs  and  callofity  of  his  fliin ;  all  thefe  deformities  are 
 the  more  obvious  and  difagreeable,  becaufe  they  are  model- 
 led on  a  large  fcale,  and  mofl  of  them  are  pecuHar  to  the 
 elephant. 
 
 From  this  fingular  conformation,  the  animal  is  fubje^ed 
 to  many  inconveniences.  Fie  moves  his  head  with  difficul- 
 ty, and  cannot  turn  back  without  making  a  large  circuit. 
 For  this  reafon,  the  hunters   attack  him   behind,    or   on 
 
80  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  flanksj  and  avoid  the  efiefls  of  his  rage  by  circular 
 movements.  He  cannot  feize  any  object  on  the  ground 
 with  his  mouth,  becaufe  his  neck  is  too  fliff  to  allow  his 
 head  to  reach  the  earth.  He  is  therefore  obliged  to  lay 
 hold  of  his  food,  and  even  of  his  drink,  with  his  nofe,  and 
 then  convey  them  to  his  mouth.  It  is  likewife  a  confe- 
 quence  of  this  frru6Vure,  that  the  young  elephants  are  faid 
 to  fuck  with  their  nofe,  and  afterv/ards  pour  the  milk  into 
 their  gullet. 
 
 OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  BIRDS. 
 From  the  figure  and  movements  of  the  feathered  tribes, 
 we  fhould  be  led  to  imagine  that  the  ftru6ture  of  their 
 organs  was  extremely  different  from  that  of  quadrupeds. 
 Their  oeconomy  and  manner  of  living  required  fome  varia- 
 tions in  their  frame.  But  thofe  variations  are  by  no  means 
 fo  many  or  fo  great  as  might  be  expected.  Inftead  of  hairs, 
 their  bodies  are  covered  with  feathers,  which,  belide  the 
 beautiful  variety  of  their  colours,  proted-  this  clafs  of  anir 
 mals  from  the  afTaults  of  rain  and  cold.  They  have  only  a 
 couple  of  legs  ;  but  Nature  has  furniflied  them  with  two  ad- 
 ditional inftruments  of  motion,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
 rife  from  the  furface  of  the  earth,  and  to  fly  with  amazing 
 rapidity  through  the  air.  The  wings  are  articulated  with 
 the  breaft-bone,  and  their  motions  are  performed  by  mufcles 
 of  remarkable  ftrength.  Many  birds  are  continually  pafling 
 through  hedges  and  thickets.  To  defend  their  eyes,  there- 
 fore, from  external  injuries,  as  well  as  from  too  much  light 
 when  flying  in  oppofition  to  the  rays  of  the  fun,  they  are 
 furnifhed  with  a  membrane  called  mcmhrana  niclitansy  which, 
 like  a  curtain,  can  at  pleafure  be  drawn  over  the  whole  eye. 
 This  covering  is  neither  opaque  nor  pellucid  ;  but,  being 
 fomewhat  tranfparent,  it  allows  as  many  rays  to  enter  as  ren- 
 der  any  objedl  jufl  vifible,  and  enable  them  to  direct  their 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  Si 
 
 progrefs  through  the  air.  It  is  by  the  inftrumentality  of 
 this  membrane  that  the  eagle  looks  at  the  fun.  The  feath- 
 ers of  all  birds  are  inferted  into  the  fkin  in  fuch  a  manner 
 that  they  naturally  lie  backward  from  the  head  j  and  allow 
 the  rain  to  run  off  their  bodies,  and,  by  turning  their  heads 
 in  oppofition  to  the  wind,  prevent  the  wind  from  rumpling 
 their  feathers  and  retarding  their  flight.  Belide  this  provi- 
 fion,  the  rump  of  birds  terminates  in  a  large  gland,  which 
 feeretes  an  oily  fubftance.  When  the  feathers  are  too  dry, 
 or  any  way  difordered,  the  animals  fqueeze  this  gland  with 
 their  bills,  extracl  the  oil,  and  with  it  they  befmear  and  drefs 
 the  feathers.  By  this  means  the  admillion  of  water  is  total- 
 ly prevented.  Birds  have  no  feparate  ribs  ;  but  the  breaft- 
 bone,  which  Is  very  large,  joins  the  back-bone,  and  fupplies 
 their  place. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  external  figure  of  birds,  the  form  of 
 their  bodies  is  nicely  adapted  to  their  manners  and  the  mode 
 of  life  they  are  deftlned  to  purfue.  By  flriking  the  air  v/ith 
 their  wings,  they  move  forward  in  that  element,  and  their 
 tail  ferves  them  as  a  rudder  to  direct  their  courfe.  Their 
 breaft-bone,  inftead  of  being  flat,  rifes  gradually  from  the 
 fpine  and  terminates  in  a  fharp  ridge  or  keel,  which  enables 
 them  to  cut  the  air  with  greater  facility.  For  the  fame  pur- 
 pofe,  the  heads  of  birds  are  proportionally  fmaller  than  thofe 
 of  quadrupeds,  and  mofl  of  them  terminate  in  light  fharp - 
 pointed  beaks.  They  are  likewife  deprived  of  external  ears, 
 and  of  protuberant  noftrils.  Their  tails,  inftead  of  verte- 
 brae, mufcles,  and  fkin,  coniift  entirely  of  featjiers.  They 
 have  no  pendulous  fcrotum,  no  bladder,  no  flefhy  uterus. 
 Neither  have  they  an  epiglottis^  though  many  of  them  pof- 
 fefs  great  powers  of  modulation,  and  fome  of  them  may 
 even  be  taught  to  articulate  words.  To  lighten  their  beaks, 
 they  are  deprived  of  lips  and  teeth  \  and  their  abdomen  or 
 belly  ;s  proportionally  fmall  and  narrow. 
 
$3  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 From  this  general  view  of  the  external  figure  and  ftruc- 
 ture  of  birds,  it  is  apparent,  that  Nature  has  defigned  them 
 for  two  diftin(St  kinds  of  motion.  They  can,  at  pleafure, 
 either  walk  on  the  furface  of  the  earth,  or  mount  aloft,  and 
 penetrate  the  airy  regions  with  prodigious  fwiftnefs. 
 
 Some  peculiarities  in  the  internal  flrudlure  of  birds  deferve 
 our  notice. 
 
 Like  quadrupeds,  the  feathered  tribes  are  divided  into 
 granivorous  and  carnivorous  •,  and  their  manners  and  difpo- 
 tions  correfpond  with  their  internal  and  external  conformation. 
 
 In  the  granivorous  clafs,  the  oefophagus  or  gullet  runs 
 down  the  neck,  and  terminates  in  a  pretty  large  membranous 
 fac,  called  the  ingluvles^  or  craw,  where  the  food  is  macerat- 
 ed, and  partly  diiTolved  by  a  Hquor  fecreted  from  glands 
 fpread  over  the  furface  of  this  fac.  Some  birds,  as  the 
 rooks  and  the  pigeon  kind,  have  the  power  of  bringing  up 
 the  food  from  this  fac  into  their  mouths,  and  feeding  their 
 young  with  it  in  a  half  digefted  form.  After  macerating  for 
 fome  time,  the  food  pafTes  through  the  remainder  of  the  gul- 
 let into  another  fpecies  of  flomach  denominated  'uentnculus 
 fiiccentiiriatusy  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  gullet.  Here 
 the  food  receives  a  farther  dilution.  From  this  fecond 
 flomach,  the  food  is  tranfmitted  to  the  gizzard,  or  true 
 flomach,  which  confifts  of  two  very  ftrong  mufcles,  covered 
 externally  v/ith  a  tendinous  fubftance,  and  lined  with  a  thick 
 firm  membrane.  The  remarkable  flrength  of  the  gizzard 
 was  formerly  fuppofed  to  affift  the  digeftion  of  granivorous 
 birds  by  attrition.  But  this  notion  has  of  late  been  entirely 
 exploded  ;  for  Do<Stor  Stevens,  and,  after  him,  Spalanzani, 
 have  demonftrated,  by  unequivocal  experiments,  that  digef- 
 tion  is  performed  f  olely  by  the  diiTolving  powers  of  the  gaftric 
 juices.*  'The  other  inteftines  are  proportionally  larger,  and 
 much  longer  than  thofe  of  the  carnivorous  birds. 
 
 See  Stevens  Diflbrt,  Med.  Inauj.  De  Aliment orum  Cojicodione,  Edin,  i777v 
 ^nd  Spalanzani, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  8S 
 
 The  ftruclure  of  the  her.rt,  in  granivorous  birds,  is  nearly 
 the  fame  with  that  of  quadrupeds. 
 
 The  lungs  hang  not  loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  but 
 are  fixed  to  the  back-bone  :  Neither  are  they  divided  into 
 lobes,  as  in  man  and  other  animals  whofe  fpines  admit  of 
 confiderable  motion.  They  are  red,  fpongy  bodies,  covered 
 with  a  membrane  that  is  pervious,  and  communicates  with 
 the  large  veficles  or  air-bags  which  are  fpread  over  the  whole 
 abdom.en.  Thefe  velicles,  when  diftended  with  air,  render 
 the  bodies  of  birds  fpecifically  light.  They  likewife  fupply 
 the  place  of  a  diaphragm,  and  ftrong  abdominal  mufcles. 
 They  produce  the  fame  effefls  on  the  vifcera  as  thefe  muf- 
 cles would  have  done,  without  the  inconveniency  of  giving 
 an  additional  w^eight  to  the  body. 
 
 Birds  have  no  bladder  of  urine  :  But  a  blueifh-coloured 
 canal,  or  ureter,  is  fent  off  from  each  kidney,  and  terminates 
 in  the  recSlum.  Their  urine  is  difcharged  along  with  the 
 faeces.  It  is  a  v/hitifh  fubftance,  and  turns  chalky  when  ex- 
 pofed  to  the  air. 
 
 The  tefticles  of  the  male  are  fituated  on  each  fide  of  the 
 back-bone,  and  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  the 
 animal.  From  the  tefi:icies  proceed  two  feminal  duels, 
 which  at  firft  are  ftraight,  but  afterv/ards  acquire  a  convolut- 
 ed form,  as  in  the  epidydymus  of  man.  Thefe  du«^s  termi- 
 nate In  the  penis,  of  which  the  cock  has  too,  one  on  each 
 fide  of  the  common  cloaca.  They  are  very  fmall  and  fhort  5 
 and,  from  this  circumftance,  they  long  efcaped  the  notice  of 
 anatomiils. 
 
 In  the  female,  the  clufi:er  of  yolks,  being  analogous  to  the 
 human  ovaria,  are  attached  tg  the  back-bone  by  a  membrane. 
 This  membrane  is  very  thin,  and  continues  down  to  the 
 Uterus.  The  yolk,  after  feparating  from  its  fiialk,  pafl^es  into 
 a  canal  called  the  infundibulum,  where  it  receives  a  gelatinous 
 liquor,  which,  with  what  it  farther  acquires  in  the  uterus,, 
 
84  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 compofes  the  white  of  the  egg.  The  uterus  is  a  large  bag^ 
 fituated  at  the  end  of  the  infundibulum,  and  is  full  of  wrink- 
 les on  the  infide.  Here  the  egg  receives  its  laft  covering, 
 or  fhell,  and  is  pufhed  out  of  the  vagina  at  an  aperture  pla- 
 ced immediately  above  the  anus. 
 
 From  this  defcription  of  the  ftruflure  of  granivorous  birds, 
 the  analogy  between  them  and  the  herbivorous  quadrupeds 
 is  confpicuous.  In  both,  the  number  of  their  ftomachs,  the 
 length  and  capacity  of  their  inteftines,  and  the  quality  of 
 their  food,  are  very  fimilar.  But  this  analogy  is  not  confin- 
 ed to  ftrudlure  and  organs :  It  extends  to  manners  and  dif- 
 politions.  Like  the  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  this  order  of 
 birds  are  diftinguifhed  by  the  gentlenefs  and  complacency 
 of  their  tempers.  Contented  with  the  feeds  of  plants,  or 
 fmall  infe£ls,  the  ftronger  never  wage  war  with  the  weaker. 
 Their  chief  attention  is  occupied  in  procuring  food,  in  hatch- 
 ing and  rearing  their  young  ;  and  their  vigilance  is  kept 
 perpetually  active  in  eluding  the  fnares  of  men  and  other 
 rapacious  animals.  The  whole  are  a  timid  race,  and  many 
 of  them  are  fo  tractable  that  they  may  eafily  be  rendered 
 domeftic.  Man,  accordingly,  ever  attentive  to  his  intereft, 
 has  not  failed  to  derive  advantage  from  the  innocence  and 
 ftupidity  of  thefe  animals.  Of  the  gallinaceous  and  duck 
 kind,  which  are  the  moft  prolific,  and  confequently  the  moft 
 profitable,  he  has  chiefly  feledled  the  lien,  the  goofe,  the 
 duck,  the  turkey,  and  the  peacock.  In  this  feledlion  he  has 
 difcovered  his  fagacity  j  for,  infl:ead  of  pairing,  thefe  birds 
 are  polygamous,  one  male  being  fufiicient  to  fertilize  a  num- 
 ber of  females,  which  is  a  great  faving  in  the  article  of  food. 
 
 With  regard  to  carnivorous  birds,  their  general  confor- 
 mation is  nearly  the  fame  with  thofe  of  the  granivorous 
 kind.  They  have  the  fame  number  of  ftomachs  j  but  all  of 
 them  are  fmaller  and  weaker.  Their  intefi:ines  are  alfo 
 much  fhorter.     To  enable  them  to  procure  food,  they  are 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  85 
 
 obliged  to  fly  quickly,  and  continue  long  on  the  wing, 
 Tiieir  wings,  accordingly,  are  proportionally  longer,  and 
 they  have  more  ftrength  in  their  mufcles.  For  the  purpofe 
 of  feizing  and  devouring  prey.  Nature  has  beftowed  on  them 
 ftrong  hooked  bills,  and  long  fliarp  claws  or  pounces.  They 
 have  alfo  large  heads,  lliort  necks,  ftrong  brawny  thighs, 
 and  fharp-fighted  eyes. 
 
 Like  rapacious  quadrupeds,  birds  of  prey  are  capable  of 
 enduring  hunger  for  a  great  length  of  time.  This  faculty  is, 
 perhaps,  acquired  partly  by  habit  ;  becaufe  the  obtaining  of 
 their  food  is  often  very  precarious.  The  females  are  larger, 
 ftronger,  and  more  beautiful  both  in  lliape  and  plumage, 
 than  the  males.  For  this  reafon,  the  male  hawks  are  called 
 tercels  or  thirds,  becaufe  they  are  fuppofed  to  be  one  third 
 lefs  than  the  females.  Nature  feems  to  have  beftowed  this 
 fuperiority  of  iize  and  ftrength  upon  the  female,  becaufe  fhe 
 is  obliged  to  procure  food  both  for  herfelf  and  for  her  pro- 
 geny. 
 
 The  analogy  between  the  ftru£lure  of  rapacious  birds  and 
 carnivorous  quadrupeds  is  obvious.  Both  of  them  are  pro^ 
 vided  with  weapons  which  indicate  deftru^Slion  and  rapine. 
 Their  manners,  are  alfo  fierce  and  unfocial.  They  never,  if 
 the  vulture  be  excepted,  herd  together  in  flocks,  like  the  in- 
 offenfive  granivorous  tribes.  When  not  on  the  wing,  they 
 conceal  themfelves  on  the  tops  of  fequeftered  rocks,  or  in  the 
 depths  of  the  forefts,  v/here  they  fpend  their  time  in  fullen 
 folitude.  Thofe  of  them  which  feed  upon  carion,  as 
 the  raven,  have  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  fo  acute,  that  they 
 fcent  dead  carcalTes  at  amazing  diftances. 
 
 Beiide  thefe  great  divifions  of  birds  into  granivorous  and 
 rapacious,  whofe  manners  and  difpofitions  perfectly  coincide 
 with  the  ftru6lure  of  their  bodies,  there  are  other  tribes  to 
 whom  Nature  has  given  peculiar  organs.  In  all  thefe  devia^ 
 tions  from  the  common  ftrufture,  a  flngularitv  in  the  mode 
 
 L 
 
%;6  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 of  living,  and  the  oeconomy  of  the  animal,  is  the  invariable 
 refult. 
 
 Like  the  amphibious  animals,  a  number  of  fowls  live  chief- 
 ly in  the  water,  and  feed  upon  filhes  and  aquatic  infedts. 
 To  enable  them  to  fwim  and  to  dive  in  queft  of  food,  their 
 toes  are  conne£led  together  by  broad  membranes  or  v/ebs. 
 By  ftretching  their  toes,  and  fLriking  the  water  backward 
 with  thefe  webs,  their  bodies  are  movecl  forward,  and  they 
 employ  their  tail  as  a  rudder  to  direct  their  courfe.  With- 
 out thefe  additional  inftruments,  fowls  could  not  fwim  ;  and, 
 accordingly,  fuch  birds  as  are  not  provided  v/ith  vv^ebs  never 
 take  to  the  water.  But  thofe  furnifhed  with  webs  have  fuch 
 a  ftrong  propenfity  to  water,  that,  when  reftrained  from 
 their  favourite  element,  they  difcover  the  greateil  uneafinefs, 
 and,  when  their  liberty  is  reftored,  they  fly  in  a  direct  ccurle 
 either  to  the  fea,  a  river,  or  a  lake. 
 
 There  is  another  tribe  of  aquatic  birds,  fome  of  which 
 feed  upon  fifhes  and  infecls,  and  others  live  principally  by 
 fucking  certain  juices  from  mud.  Both  thefe  kinds  frequent 
 marfhy  places,  or  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers.  They 
 do  not  fwim,  but  v;ade,  in  quefl  of  food.  This  Angularity 
 in  their  manners  required  a  correfpondent  variation  in  theii" 
 form  and  ftruclure.  To  enable  them  to  wade  in  waters  and 
 in  mires.  Nature  has  provided  them  with  long  legs,  naked  of 
 feathers  for  a  conliderable  {pace  above  the  knees.  Their 
 toes  are  not,  like  thofe  of  the  fwimmers,  conneded  by  con- 
 tinued membranous  webs.  Moft  of  them  have  likewife 
 very  long  necks  and  bills,  to  enable  them  to  fearch  for  and 
 apprehend  their  food.  To  thefe  tribes  belong  the  crane,  the 
 heronS;,  the  bittern  or  miredrum,  the  ftork,  the  fpoon-biil, 
 the  woodcock,  the  fnipe,  and  many  other  fpecies. 
 
 Having  given  a  general  idea  of  the  ftructure  and  ©econo- 
 my of  birds,  we  fliail  next  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  form 
 and  manners  of  fifhes. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  "St 
 
 OF  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  ORGANS  OF  FISHES. 
 
 It  is  one  great  and  benevolent  intention  of  Nature,  that 
 no  part  of  the  univerfe  ihould  be  deprived  of  inhabitants. 
 The  earth,  the  air,  the  waters,  are  full  of  living  beings, 
 who  are  not  only  confcious  of  their  exiftence,  but  enjoy  de-r 
 grees  of  happinefs  proportioned  to  their  natures,  and  the 
 purpofes  they  are  deftined  to  anfwer  in  the  general  fcale  of 
 animation.  The  different  elements  in  which  they  live  necef- 
 farily  required  a  variety  in  their  form,  their  food,  and  their 
 manners.  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  and  air  have  alrea- 
 dy been  partially  defcribed  :  Thofe  of  the  waters  are  next 
 to  be  confidered. 
 
 The  bodies  of  moft  fi.{hes  are  covered  with  a  ftrong, 
 thick,  flvin,  in  which  numberlefs  fcales  are  inferted  in  an 
 imbricated  form,  or  like  tiles  on  the  roofs  of  houfes.  Many 
 of  them,  and  particularly  thofe  which  are  fhaped  like  the  cod, 
 the  trout,  and  the  haddock,  have  a  longitudinal  line  on  each 
 fide.  In  thefe  lines  there  are  a  number  of  fmall  duch  or 
 apertures,  which  throw  out  a  mucous  fubftance  that  lubri- 
 cates their  fkins,  and  feems  to  anfwer  the  fame  purpofes  as 
 the  mucous  glands  or  ducSts  placed  in  moft  of  our  internal 
 prgans. 
 
 Fiflies  are  deftitute  of  hands  and  feet.  Their  progreflive 
 motion,  therefore,  is  performed  in  a  manner  different  from 
 that  of  quadrupeds  and  birds.  Their  inflruments  of  mo- 
 tion are  fins,  or  machines  coniifling  of  a  number  of  eiaftic 
 beams,  connected  to  one  another  by  firm  membranes.  Their 
 tails  are  of  the  fame  texture.  Their  fpine  is  remarkably 
 flexible  toward  the  pofterior  part  of  the  body,  and  here  the 
 ftrongeft  mufcies  are  likewife  inferted.  They  have  a  power 
 of  contra£ling  and  dilating  their  tails  at  pleafure  •,  by  which 
 means,  and  by  the  afliilance  of  the  fins,  they  move  forward 
 in  the  fame  manner  as  a  boat  with  oars  on  its  fides  and  a 
 rudder  at  its  ftern.     Fifhes  have  no  neck  :  As  they   feciv 
 
88  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 their  food  in  a  horizontal  pofition,  and  can  move  their 
 bodies  either  upward  or  downward,  a  long  neck  would  necef- 
 farily  have  impeded  their  motion  through  the  water. 
 
 The  form  of  fiflies  is  extremely  various ;  and,  if  their 
 hiftory  were  fufficiently  known,  the  connection  between 
 their  ftrudture  and  their  manners  would  be  equally  apparent 
 as  in  the  other  tribes  with  which  we  are  better  acquainted. 
 Some  fiflies  are  long  and  cylindrical,  as  the  fea-ferpent,  and 
 all  the  eel-fhaped  fpecies.  The  eel -kind,  from  their  figure, 
 are  enabled  to  trail  their  bodies  along  the  bottom,  and  to 
 conceal  themfelves  below  the  fand  or  mud.  Others  are  lefs 
 cylindrical,  and  proportionally  fliorter,  as  the  mackrel,  the 
 cod,  the  herring,  the  falmon,  &c.  Thefe,  from  the  num- 
 ber and  pofition  of  their  fins,  as  well  as  from  the  fhape  of 
 their  bodies,  are  defl:ined  for  quicker  motion,  and  for  trav- 
 elling to  great  diftances  in  queft  of  food,  or  for  fpawning  in 
 fhoals  or  in  rivers.  Others,  as  the  flounder,  the  flcate,  the 
 turbet,  torpedo,  &c.  are  broad  and  comprefi^ed.  Thefe,  like 
 the  eel-kind,  frequent  muddy  bottoms.  Others  are  triangu^ 
 iar,  quadrangular,  round,  &c.  Befide  thofe  which  approach 
 to  regular  figures,  the  variations  and  compofitions  are  fo  nu- 
 merous, that  the  forms  of  fifties  are  much  more  diverfified 
 than  thofe  of  quadrupeds  or  birds.  To  defend  themfelves 
 againfl:  their  enemies,  many  fiflies  are  armed  with  fi:rong, 
 iharp  fpines  or  prickles.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  and  like- 
 wife  for  wounding  or  killing  their  prey,  fome  have  a  large 
 horn  on  their  front,  and  others  a  fword,  or  rather  a  faw, 
 which  are  tremendous  weapons.  The  more  timid  and  de- 
 fencelefs  tribes  are  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  rapid  mo- 
 tion j  and  fome  of  them  have  fins  fo  large  and  flexible,  that, 
 when  hard  purfued,  they  are  enabled  to  leave  their  natural 
 element,  to  dart  through  the  air  to  confiderable  diftance*;, 
 and  difappoint  th^  defigns  of  their  enemies. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,  69 
 
 Fidies  are  as  much  diverfified  in  fize  as  in  figure.  The 
 ocean  produces  the  largeft  animals  which  now  inhabit  this 
 <rlobe.     The  enormous  maffes  of  the  whale  and  walrus  tribes 
 
 o 
 
 far  exceed  thofe  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  or  river-horfe, 
 the  largeft  terreftrial  animals  of  which  we  have  any  proper 
 knowledge.  From  the  immenfe' bones,  however,  found  in 
 Siberia  and  many  parts  of  Europe,  we  are  induced  to  believe, 
 that  land  animals  have  formerly  exifted  whofe  fize  muft  have 
 been  much  larger  than  that  of  the  prefent  elephant.  This 
 animal,  whofe  fpecies  is  now  fuppofed  to  be  extinguifhed,  is 
 known  among  naturalifts  by  the  denomination  of  the  inmn- 
 mouth.  Near  the  river  Ohio,  fome  prodigious  bones  and 
 teeth  have  lately  been  difcovered,  which  indicate  an  animal 
 of  incredible  magnitude. 
 
 With  regard  to  internal  ftru^lure,  iifhes  like  land-animals, 
 are  furnifhed  with  a  back-bone  and  ribs,  which  run  from  the 
 head  to  the  tail.  To  thefe,  the  bones  of  the  head,  and  the 
 fins,  all  the  mufcles  and  inftruments  of  motion,  are  attached. 
 
 The  mouths  of  moft  fifhes  are  furnifhed  with  teeth  ;  but 
 in  fome,  as  the  mullet,  fturgeon,  &c.  the  teeth  are  wanting. 
 In  fome,  the  teeth  are  iituated  on  the  jaw-bones,  in 
 others,  on  the  tongue  and  palate.  The  teeth  of  fiflies 
 are  principally  defigned  for  laying  hold  of  and  detaining 
 their  prey,  which  they  generally  fwallow  entire.  For  this 
 purpofe,  the  teeth  are  commonly  ferrated,  or  bent  inward, 
 like  tenter-hooks.  By  this  flrudure,  fmall  fifhes  are  ealily 
 forced  downwards,  and  their  return  is  at  the  fame  time 
 prevented. 
 
 In  fifhes,  the  organ  of  fmelling  is  large  ;  and  they  have  a 
 power  of  contra<StIng  and  dilating,  at  pleafure,  the  entry  into 
 their  nofe. 
 
 It  was  formerly  doubted  whether  fiflies  were  endowed 
 with  the  fenfe  of  hearing.     But  that  doubt  is  now  fully  y^- 
 
BO  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 moved  ;  becaufe  it  has  been  found,  that,  like  other  animals, 
 they  have  a  complete  organ  of  hearing,  and  that  water  is  a 
 proper  medium  for  the  conveyance  of  found.  JBefides,  in  the 
 in  the  ilcate,  and  fome  other  genera,  the  learned  and  inge- 
 nious Dr.  Monro,  ProfeiTor  of  A.natomy  in  the  College  of 
 Edinburgh,  has  lately  difcovered  an  aperture  which  leads  di- 
 jreflly  to  the  internal  parts  of  the  ear. 
 
 The  gullet  of  iiihes  is  fo  fhort  that  it  is  hardly  to  be  dif- 
 tinguifhed  from  the  ftomach,  w^hich  is  of  an  oblong  figure. 
 The  guts  are  very  fhort,  making  only  three  convolutions,  the 
 laft  of  which  terminates  in  the  common  vent  for  the  faeces, 
 urine,  and  femen.  From  this  ftructure  of  the  ftomach  and 
 inteftines,  analogy  would  lead  us  to  conclude,  that  fifhes 
 live  chiefly  upon  animal  food.  Experience,  accordingly, 
 teaches  us,  that  almoft  all  fiflies  prey  upon  the  fmaller  kinds, 
 and  even  devour  their  own  young.  The  liver  is  proportion- 
 ally large,  of  a  whitiih  colour,  and  iituated  on  the  left  fide. 
 The  gall-bladder  lies  at  a  confiderable  diflance  from  the 
 liver,  and  difcharges  the  gall  into  the  gut.  In  fifhes,  the 
 organs  of  generation  are  two  bags  fituated  in  the  abdomen, 
 and  uniting  near  the  anus.  In  the  male,  thele  bags  are  filled 
 with  a  thick  whitifh  fubftance  called  the  ;«///,  and  in  the  fe- 
 male with  an  infinite  number  of  minute  eggs  called  the  roe. 
 At  the  feafon  of  fpawning,  the  bags,  of  both  male  and  fe- 
 male are  greatly  diftended  ;  but,  at  other  times,  the  male 
 Organs  can  fcarcely  be  diflinguifhed  from  thofe  of  the  fe- 
 male. 
 
 The  fwimming  bladder  is  an  oblong,  white,  membranous 
 bag,  which  contains  nothing  but  a  quantity  of  claftic  air. 
 It  lies  clofe  to  the  back-bone,  and  has  a  pretty  flrong  mufcu- 
 lar  coat.  By  contracTdng  this  coat,  and,  of  courfe,  condenf- 
 ing  the  air  it  contains,  fome  fifhes  are  enabled  to  render 
 their  bodies  fpecifically  heavier  than  water,  and  to  fink  to 
 the  bottom  ;  and,  when  the  mufcuiar  fibres  ceafe  to  adl,  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  91 
 
 Sir  dilates,  and  makes  their  bodies  fpecifically  lighter.  By 
 this  curious  piece  of  mechanifm,  the  animals  have  the  power 
 of  finking  to  the  bottom,  or  of  riling  to  the  furface.  Ac- 
 cording  to  the  different  degrees  of  contradlion  and  dilation 
 of  this  bladder,  fifhes  can,  at  pleafure,  keep  themfelves  high- 
 er or  lower  in  the  water.  Hence  fiounders,  foles,  fkate,  and 
 other  fifhes  which  have  no  fv^'imming  bladder,  always  grovel 
 at  or  near  the  bottom.  It  is  likewife  a  confequence  of  the 
 relaxation  of  this  bladder,  that  dead  fifhes  which  are  furnifh- 
 ed  v/ith  it  uniformly  rife  to  the  furface.  The  air-bag,  in 
 fome  fifhes,  communicates,  by  a  duel,  with  the  gullet,  and, 
 in  others,  with  the  flomach.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  air- 
 bag,  there  are  red-coloured  glandular  bodies  conne£led  with 
 the  kidneys.  From  the  kidneys  the  ureters  proceed  down- 
 ward to  their  infertion  in  the  urinary  bladder,  which  lies  in 
 the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  urethra  terminates 
 in  the  anus, 
 
 Fifhes  have  a  membranous  diaphragm,  or  midrifF,  that 
 forms  a  fack  in  which  the  heart  is  contained.  The  heart  is 
 of  a  triangular  figure.  It  has  only  one  auricle,  one  ventri- 
 cle, and  one  great  artery.  This  artery,  inflead  of  fupplying 
 all  the  parts  of  the  body,  as  in  the  frog,  is  diftributed  entire- 
 ly on  the  gills.  All  the  branches  terminate  there,  and  be- 
 come at  lafl  fo  fmall  that  they  efcape  the  naked  eye.  The 
 branchiae,  or  gills,  lie  in  two  large  flits  on  each  fide  of  the 
 head,  and  are  analogous  to  the  lungs  of  land-animals.  The 
 figure  of  the  gills  is  femicircular,  and  on  each  fide  of  them 
 are  immenfe  numbers  of  fibrils  refembling  fringes.  The 
 gills  are  perpetually  fubjected  to  an  alternate  motion  from 
 the  prefTure  of  the  water  and  the  aftion  of  the  mufcles. 
 They  are  covered  with  a  large  flap,  which  allows  an  exit  to 
 the  water  necelTarily  taken  in  by  the  animals  every  time 
 their  mouths  are  opened.  The  blood  is  again  collected  by  a 
 vafk  number  of  fmall  veins,  which,  inftead  of  going  back  sl 
 
92  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fccond  time  to  the  heart,  immediately  unite,  and  form  nn 
 aorta  defcendens,  which  fends  off  branches  to  fupply  all  the 
 parts  of  the  body,  except  the  gills.  From  the  extremities 
 of  thefe  branches  the  blood  is  coUedted  by  veins,  and  return- 
 ed to  the  heart  neariyin  the  fame  manner  as  in  other  animals. 
 
 The  organs  by  which  the  nutritious  part  of  the  food  of 
 fiOaes  are  extracted  and  conveyed  to  the  general  mals  of 
 blood,  and  known  by  the  names  of  lacSleal,  abforbent,  and 
 lymphatic  velTels,  are  fo  analogous  to  thofe  of  men  and  quad- 
 rupeds, that  it  is  unnecelTary  to  defcribe  them.  For  the 
 fame  reafon,  no  defcription  (hall  be  given  of  the  nerves, 
 which,  as  in  other  animals,  proceed  from  the  brain  and  fpinal 
 marrow,  and  are  diflributed  over  every  part  of  the  body. 
 
 Having  finiflied  this  fketch  of  the  ltru6lure  and  organs  of 
 iiflies,  it  is  almoft  needlefs  to  remark,  that,  though  they  live 
 in  a  different  element,  and  vary  greatly  from  land  animals  in 
 figure.  Nature,  in  the  formation  of  their  bodies,  in  the  mode 
 of  their  nutrition,  refpiration,  and  fenfation,  has  acted  upon 
 the  fame  great  and  general  plan. 
 
 We  are  now  to  take  a  view  of  the  flrudure  of  infe<Sls,  a 
 numerous  clafs  of  animals,  moft  of  whom  recede  farther 
 from  the  common  mode  of  animal  organization  than  any  of 
 the  other  claffes. 
 
 OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 
 
 In  the  firft  chapter,  a  few  obfervations  were  made  con- 
 cerning the  ftruclure  and  organs  of  infecSls,  in  order  to  fhow 
 more  clearly  the  analogies  betv/een  animals  and  vegetables. 
 Thefe  it  is  unneceffary  to  repeat.  We  fhall  therefore  pro- 
 ceed to  a  more  particular  examination  of  the  flru^lure  of  in- 
 fers, and  to  trace  the  connetlHiion  between  that  and  their 
 manners. 
 
 Infects  exhibit  fuch  an  immenfe  variety  in  figure,  colour, 
 and  difpofition  of  parts,  that  Naturalifts  have  found  it  necef- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  93 
 
 fary  to  arrange  them  into  different  tribes  or  families.  Thefe 
 tribes  are  diftinguiflied  from  one  another  by  certain  peculi- 
 arities in  the  ftrudlure  of  their  bodies. 
 
 The  moft  general  divifion  of  infedls  is  derived  from  the 
 circumflance  of  their  having  or  wanting  v/ings,  and  from  the 
 number  and  fubftances  of  v^rhich  thefe  inftruments  of  motion 
 are  compofed.  They  are  diftinguiflied  from  all  other  ani- 
 mals by  many  peculiarities  of  form.  None  of  the  other 
 clafles  have  more  legs  than  four.  But  moft  infers  have  fix  5 
 and  many  of  them  have  eight,  ten,  fourteen,  flxteen,  eighteen, 
 and  even  a  hundred,  legs.  Beiide  the  number  of  legs,  in- 
 fects are  furniflied  with  antennae  or  feelers.  Thefe  feelers, 
 by  which  infedls  grope  and  examine  the  fubftances  they  meet 
 with,  are  compofed  of  a  great  number  of  articulations  or 
 joints.  Linnaeus,  and  other  Naturalifts,  maintain,  that  the 
 ufes  of  thefe  feelers  are  totally  unknown.  But  the  flighteft 
 attention  to  the  manner  in  which  fome  infe^ls  employ  their 
 feelers  will  fatisfy  us  of  at  leaft  one  ufe  they  derive  from 
 thefe  organs.  When  a  winglefs  infect  is  placed  at  the  end 
 of  a  twig,  or  in  any  fituation  where  it  meets  with  a  vacuity, 
 it  moves  the  feelers  backward  and  forward,  elevates,  depref- 
 fes,  and  bends  them  from  fide  to  fide,  and  will  not  advance 
 farther,  left  it  fliould  fall.  Place  a  ftick,  or  any  other  fub- 
 ftance,  within  reach  of  the  feelers  ;  the  animal  immediately 
 applies  them  to  this  new  object,  examines  whether  it  is  fufHcient 
 to  fupport  the  weight  of  its  body,  and  inftantly  proceeds  in  its 
 journey.  Though  moft  infefts  are  provided  with  eyes,  yet 
 the  lenfes  of  which  they  confift  are  fo  fmall  and  convex,  that 
 they  can  fee  diftin^lly  but  at  fmall  diftances,  and,  of  courfe, 
 muft  be  very  incompetent  judges  of  the  vicinity  or  remote- 
 nefs  of  objects.  To  remedy  this  defeat,  infedls  are  provided 
 with  feelers,  which  are  perpetually  in  motion  while  the  ani- 
 mals walk.  By  the  fame  inftrumeots,  tliey  are  enabled  to 
 walk  with  fafety  in  the  dark. 
 
 M 
 
§4  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 No  Other  animals  but  the  infect  tribes  have  more  than  tw© 
 eyes.  Some  of  them  have  four,  as  the  phalangium  ;  others, 
 as  the  fpider  and  fcorpion,  have  eight  eyes.  In  a  fev%^  infe(ib, 
 the  eyes  are  fmooth  ;  in  all  the  others,  they  are  hemifpheri- 
 cal,  and  confifl:  of  many  thoufand  diil>ri6l  lenfes.  The  eyes 
 are  abfolutely  immoveable  :  But  this  defect  is  fupplied  by 
 the  vaft  number  of  lenfes,  which,  from  the  diverfity  of  their 
 portions,  are  capable  of  viev/ing  objefts  in  everv  diredlion. 
 By  the  f  nallnefs  and  convexity  of  thefe  lenfes,  which  pro- 
 duce the  fame  effect  as  the  object  glafs  of  a  microfcope,  in- 
 fects are  enabled  to  fee  bodies  that  are  too  minute  to  be  per- 
 ceived by  the  human  eye. 
 
 Another  peculiarity  deferves  our  notice.  No  animal,  ex- 
 cept a  numerous  tribe  of  four-v/inged  infects,  have  more  than 
 two  wings. 
 
 "With  regard  to  fex,  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fiflies,  are  dif- 
 Hnguifhed  into  males  and  females.  But  the  bee  and  the  ant 
 furnifli  examples  of  neuters,  which  are  abfolutely  barren  : 
 And  the  earth-worm,  and  feveral  lliell  infers,  are  herma- 
 phrodite, each  individual  pofTeffing  the  prolific  powers  of 
 both  male  and  female. 
 
 It  is  like  wife  remarkable,  that  all  winged  infects  undergo 
 three  metamorphofes  or  changes  of  form  :  The  egg  is  dii- 
 charged  from  the  body  of  the  female  in  the  fam.e  manner 
 as  in  other  oviparous  animals.  By  a  wonderful  inftin<St, 
 thefe  feemingly  ftupid  creatures  uniformly  depofit  their  eggs 
 on  fuch  animal  or  vegetable  fubftances  as  furnifli  proper 
 food  for  the  v/orm  or  caterpillar,  that  is  to  be  hatched  by 
 the  heat  of  the  fun.  The  worm  or  caterpillar  is  the  iirft 
 l^ate.  The  bodies  of  caterpillars  are  foft  and  moift.  They 
 have  no  wings,  and  are  totally  deprived  of  the  faculty  of 
 generation.  After  continuing  for  fome  time  in  this  reptile 
 ftate,  they  are  transformed  into  a  chryfalis,  which  is  drier 
 and  harder  than  the  caterpillar.     The  chryfalis  of  fome 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^i 
 
 infe<fls  are  naked,  and  thofe  of  others  are  covered  with  a 
 lilken  \veb,  fpuii  by  the  animals  before  their  change  is  com- 
 pleted. In  this  flate,  many  of  them  lie  motionlefs,  and 
 feemingly  inannimate,  during  the  whole  winter.  When  the 
 fpring  or  fummer  heats  return,  they  burfl  from  their  laft 
 prifon,  and,  from  vile  reptiles,  are  transformed  into  beauti- 
 ful flies.  In  this  perfect  ftate  they  are  exceedingly  adlive, 
 fly  about  in  quefl  of  their  mates,  and,  after  propagating 
 their  fpecies,  the  females  depofit  their  eggs,  and  the  fame 
 circle  of  animation  and  change  perpetually  goes  round. 
 Hence  the  ftru^ture  and  figure  of  the  fame  individual  ani- 
 mals are  three-fold,  which  renders  the  knowledge  of  infe6ls 
 extremely  complicated,  as  we  muft  be  acquainted  with  them 
 in  the  feveral  forms  they  fucceilively  afiiime. 
 
 There  is  another  peculiarity  in  the  ftruiSlure  of  infe^ls. 
 They  are  deprived  of  bones.  But  that  defect  is  fupplied, 
 in  fome,  by  a  membranous  or  mufcular  fkin,  and,  in  otliers, 
 by  a  cruftaceous  or  horny  covering.  In  this  circumftance, 
 infects  refemble  the  fliell-animals,  whofe  bones  conflitute 
 the  external  parts  of  their  bodies. 
 
 In  general,  the  bodies  of  infe(Sts  are  compofed  of  a  head, 
 trunk,  and  abdomen.  The  head  is  commonly  attached  to 
 the  trunk  by  a  joint  or  articulation.  Befide  eyes,  feelers, 
 and  mouth,  the  heads  of  fome  infefts  are  furnilhed  with 
 palpi  fixed  to  the  mouth  ;  and  they  are  either  four  or  fix  in 
 number.  Each  of  them  gonfifls  of  two,  three,  or  four  joints, 
 and  are  often  miftaken  for  the  antennae  or  feelers.  Thefe 
 inftruments  feem  to  ferve  the  animals  inftead  of  h?.nds  ;  for 
 they  employ  the  palpi  to  bring  the  food  to  their  mouths, 
 and  to  keep  it  fleady  while  eating.  It  is  aflerted  by  Lin- 
 naeus, and  other  Naturalifts,  that  the  heads  of  infecls  are  def- 
 titute  of  brains,  noftrils  and  ears.  The  minutenefs  of  the 
 animals  under  confideration  may  have  hitherto  prevented  us 
 from  diftinguifhing  thefe  organs.     If  they  want  a  brain,  it 
 
06  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 is  certain  that  their  fenfe  of  feeing  is  acute  ;  and  we  know 
 that  they  are  amply  fupplied  with  nerves,  wliich  produce 
 the  fame  effe<Sts  as  the  brain  in  larger  animals.  If  they  are 
 deprived  of  noftrils,  the  flighteft  attention  muft  convince  us, 
 that  fome  of  them  poffefs  the  {enie  of  fmelling  in  a  very  high 
 degree.  Upon  any  other  fuppofition,  how  fliould  the  dif- 
 ferent fpecies  of  flies,  the  moment  they  efcape  from  the 
 chryfalis  ftate,  diflinguifh,  and  diredtly  approach,  the  differ- 
 ent animal  and  vegetable  fubftances  Nature  has  deftined  for 
 their  refpe(Slive  nourifhment  ?  A  piece  of  meat  is  no  fooner 
 expcfed  to  the  air  than  it  is  covered  with  flefli  flies,  upon 
 which  they  both  feed  and  depoflt  their  eggs.  Without  this 
 fenfe,  how  fhould  wafps,  and  other  flies,  be  allured  from 
 coniiderable  diftances  into  bottles  encrufted  with  honey  or 
 molafl^es  ?  Thefe,  and  fimilar  actions,  cannot  be  effects  of 
 fight  *,  for  the  diftance,  the  minutenefs,  and  frequently  the 
 poiition  of  the  food,  render  it  irapoflible  for  the  eye  to  dif- 
 cover  thofe  fubfliances  to  which  they  inftantly  refort. 
 
 With  regard  to  hearing,  it  is  more  difiicult  to  determine 
 whether  infe<Sl:s  be  endowed  with  this  fenfe.  We  can  judge 
 of  it,  not  by  the  knife  of  the  Anatomift,  but  by  the  affections 
 and  motions  of  the  animals  themfelves.  Several  trials  I  have 
 made  on  houfe-flies  incHne  me  to  think  that  thefe  animals 
 poffefs  a  fenfe  of  a  nature  fimilar,  at  Icaft,  to  that  of  hearing. 
 At  the  diflance  of  three  or  four  feet,  a  fmart  flroke,  even 
 upon  a  flone  wall,  alarms  and  puts  them  to  flight.  But  this 
 may  partly  be  attributed  to  the  vibration  in  the  wall,  or  the 
 concufhon  of  the  air,  produced  by  the  flroke.  To  obviate 
 this  difiiculty,  at  the  fame  difl:ance  of  between  three  and 
 four  feet,  I  ftruck  the  air  repeatedly  with  a  bookbinder's 
 folder,  without  giving  the  fmallefl  alarm  ^o  the  flies.  But, 
 when  I  flruck  the  folder  againfl  the  boards  of  a  book,  which 
 I  held  in  my  hand,  and  made  a  fmart  noife,  the  animals 
 were  inftantly  alarmed,  and  flew  off  at   the   fecond  ftrokeo 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  97 
 
 The  fame  effe£t  is  produced  in  a  room  jull:  light  enough  to 
 render  the  animals  vifible.  Thefe  trials,  which  I  have  oftea 
 repeated,  feem  to  indicate  that  flies,  if  they  are  really  depriv- 
 ed of  ears,  are  endowed  with  an  analogous  fenfe,  though  we 
 are  ignorant  of  its  fituation. 
 
 Naturalifts  have  limited  the  fenfes  of  infects  to  thofe  of 
 feeing  and  feeling.  But  the  above  remarks  render  it  more 
 than  probable  that  flies  poflefs  likewife  the  fenfes  of  fmelling 
 and  of  hearing  :  Neither  fhould  the  fenfe  of  tafte  be  denied 
 them  j  for,  though  they  may  be  aflifted  by  fmelling  to  dil- 
 cover  and  feleft  their  food,  we  cannot  fuppofe  that  Nature 
 has  denied  them  the  pleafure  which  other  animals  fo  univer- 
 fally  derive  from  eating.  Befides,  an  agreeable  fenfation, 
 fimilar  to  that  of  tafle,  muft  accompany  an  action  which  re- 
 moves the  pain  arlling  from  hunger. 
 
 The  mouth  of  infecSts  is  generally  placed  in  the  under 
 part  of  the  head  •,  but,  in  fome,  it  is  fituated  in  the  breaft. 
 The  jaws,  inflead  of  being  horizontal,  are  often  tranfverfe, 
 and  furnifhed  with  teeth.  The  greater  number  of  winged 
 infects  are  provided  with  a  probofcis  or  trunk,  an  inftrume!;it 
 by  which  they  extra6l  the  juices  from  animal  or  vegetable 
 fubftances.  The  probofcis  of  infects  is  a  machine  of  a  very 
 complicated  nature.  In  butterflies,  the  probofcis  is.  fituated 
 precikly  between  the  two  eyes.  Though  fome  of  them  ex- 
 ceed three  inches  in  length,  they  occupy  but  a  fmall  fpace. 
 When  a  butterfly  is  not  in  queft  of  food,  the  probofcis  is 
 rolled  up  in  a  fpiral  form,  flmJlar  to  that  of  a  watch-fpring, 
 each  fuccefflve  ring  covering  the  one  which  precedes.  The 
 fubfhance  of  the  probofcis  has  fome  rcfemblance  to  that  gi 
 horn.  It  tapers  from  the  bafe  to  the  extremity.  It  is  com- 
 pofed  of  two  fimilar  and  equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  co#i- 
 cave,  and,  when  joined,  form  three  diflin^l  tubes.  Reaumur 
 has  rendered  it  probable,  that  thefe  tubes  enable  the  animals 
 to  extradl  the  juices  of  plants,   to  condufl  air  into  thik 
 
OS  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 bodies,  and  to  convey  the  fenfation  of  fmelliiig.  Henee  the 
 probofcis  of  infedls  is  an  inftrument  which  ferves  them  for  a 
 mouth,  a  nole,  and  a  wind-pipe. 
 
 The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  or  body  of  infedlis  is  called 
 the  thorax,  and  the  under  part  the  abdomen  or  belly.  The 
 abdomen  contains  the  ftomach  and  other  vifcera.  It  con- 
 fifts  of  feveral  rings  or  fegments,  and  is  perforated  with  fpi- 
 racula,  or  tubes,  which  fupply  the  want  of  lungs.  The  ab- 
 domen is  terminated  by  the  tail,  which,  in  fome  infedls,  is 
 nrmed  with  a  fting,  a  foreceps,  abriftle,  or  a  kind  of  claw 
 2ivith  a  moveable  thumb. 
 
 The  legs  are  compofed  of  three  parts,  connected  to  each 
 other  by  joints,  andreprefent  tlie  thighs,  fhanks,  ankles,  and 
 feet  of  larger  animals. 
 
 The  wings  of  infedls  are  fo  diverfified  in  number,  confift- 
 ence,  and  colour,  that  Linnaeus  has  made  them  the  founda- 
 tion of  the  feveral  orders  or  divifions  into  which  he  divides 
 this  numerous  clafs  of  animals.  Some  infe6ls  are  furniflied 
 with  four,  and  others  with  two  wings,  and  fome  of  them  are 
 entirely  deflitute  of  thefe  inftruments  of  motion. 
 
 The  four-w^inged  infedls  are  arranged  into  five  orders. 
 The ji?r/?  order  Linnaeus  diftinguifhes  by  the  name  of  coleop^ 
 fera^  or  thofe  infedls  whofe  upper  pair  of  wings  confift  of  a 
 hard,  cruftaceous,  or  horny  fubftance.  Thefe  cover  and  de- 
 fend the  under  pair,  which  are  of  a  more  foft  and  flexible 
 texture.  This  order  comprehends  the  whole  of  what  is  prop- 
 erly called  fcarabaeiy  or  the  beetle  tribe.  Like  other  wing- 
 ed infe£ls,  all  the  beetles  live  for  fome  time  in  the  form  of 
 caterpillars,  or  grubs. 
 
 As  a  farther  confirmation  of  the  connection  of  manners 
 with  form  and  flru6ture,  it  is  here  worthy  of  remark,  that 
 the  fame  animals,  when  in  the  ftate  of  caterpillars,  live  in  a 
 different  manner,  and  feed  on  fubftances  of  a  very  different 
 l;ind  from  thofe  they  confume  after  their  transformation  into 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  99' 
 
 fiies.  The  caterpillars  of  the  garden-beetle,  cock-chafer,- 
 &c.  lead  a  folitary  life  under  ground,  and  confume  the  roots 
 of  plants.  Thofe  of  others  feed  upon  putrid  carcafTes,  every 
 kind  of  flefli,  dried  fkins,  rotten  wood,  the  dung  of  men  and 
 quadrupeds,  and  the  fmall  infects  called  pticerons,  or  miiefrcU 
 iers.  The  devourers  of  the  puceron  contribute  to  cure  fuch 
 plants  as  happen  to  be  infefled  with  the  phthirlaftS)  or  loufy 
 difeafe.  But,  after  their  transformation  into  flies,  many  of 
 the  fame  animals,  v/hich  formerly  fed  upon  dung  and  putrid 
 tarcaffes,  are  nourilhed  by  the  pureft  ne^lareous  juices  ex- 
 trafled  from  fruits  and  flowers.  The  creatures  themfelves, 
 with  regard  to  what  may  be  termed  individual  animation^  have 
 fulFered  no  alteration.  But  the  fabrick  of  their  bodies,  their 
 inftruments  of  motion,  and  the  organs  by  which  they  take 
 their  food,  are  materially  changed.  This  change  of  ftruc- 
 ture,  though  the  animals  retain  their  identity,  produces  the 
 greateft  diveriity  in  their  manners,  their  oeconomy,  and  the 
 powers  of  their  bodies.  In  the  caterpillar  ftate,  thefe  ani- 
 mals are  extremely  voracious,  and,  in  many  inftances,  acquire 
 a  greater  magnitude  than  they  poflefs  after  transformation  ^ 
 but  they  are  incapable  of  multiplying  their  fpecies,  and  of  re- 
 ceiving nourifhment  from  the  fame  kinds  of  food.  Belides, 
 many  caterpillars,  previous  to  their  transformation,  live  even 
 in  a  different  element.  The  ephemeron  fly,  when  in  the 
 caterpillar  ftate,  lives  no  lefs  than  three  years  in  the  water, 
 and  extra£ls  its  nourifliment  from  earth  and  clay.  After 
 transformation,  this  animal  feldom  exifls  longer  than  one 
 day,  during  which  the  fpecies  is  propagated,  and  myriads  of 
 eggs  are  depofited  on  the  furface  of  the  water.  Thefe  eggs 
 produce  worms  or  caterpillars,  and  the  fame  procefs  goes  per- 
 petually round. 
 
 Linnaeus'sy^<:c)«fi?  order  of  infects,  or  hemiptera^  have  like- 
 wife  four  wings.  But  the  upper  pair,  inftead  of  being  hard 
 and  horny,  rather  refenible  fine  vellumo     Thev  cover  the 
 
100  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 body  horizontally,  and  do  not  meet  in  a  dlretSl  line,  forming 
 a  ridge  or  future,  as  in  the  beetle  tribe.  The  whole  of  this 
 order  are  furnilhed  with  a  probofcis  or  trunk  for  extra^Tting 
 their  food. 
 
 This  order  comprehends  feveral  genera  or  kinds,  lome  of 
 which  we  fhall  mention  in  a  curfory  manner. — The  hlaita^  or 
 cockroach,  is  an  animal  which  avoids  the  light,  and  is  particu- 
 larly fond  of  meal,  bread,  putrid  bodies,  and  the  roots  of 
 plants.  It  frequents  bakers  fliops  and  cellars,  and  flies  the 
 approach  of  danger  with  great  fwiftnefs. — The  head  of  the 
 manti^y  or  camel-cricht^  appears,  from  its  continual  nodding 
 motion,  to  be  flightly  attached  to  the  thorax.  This  infect  is 
 regarded  by  the  Africans  as  a  facred  animal  ;  becaufe  it  fre- 
 quently affumes  a  praying  or  fupplicating  pofture,  by  refting 
 on  its  hind  feet,  and  elevating  and  folding  the  iirfh  pair. 
 The  grylltis  comprehends  a  number  of  fpecies,  fome  of  which 
 are  called  grafshoppers y  others  locujls,  and  others  crickets.  The 
 larvae,  or  caterpillars  of  the  grylli,  have  a  great  refemblance 
 to  the  perfect  infects,  and,  in  general,  live  under  ground. 
 Many  of  thefe  infe£ls  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  Others, 
 which  live  in  houfes,  prefer,  bread,  and  every  kind  of  farina- 
 ceous fubilance. — '^i^hQ  fulgora,  or  fire-fly  :  The  foreheads  of 
 feveral  of  this  genus,  efpecially  of  thofe  that  inhabit  Chinaj 
 and  other  hot  climates,  emit  a  very  lively  fhining  light  during 
 the  night,  which  often  alarms  thofe  who  are  unacquainted 
 with  the  caufe  of  the  appearance. — ^The  cicada,  frog-hoppery 
 Qx  jlea4ocuJ}  :  The  larvae,  or  caterpillars,  of  fome  of  this  ge- 
 nus, difcharge  a  kind  of  froth  or  faliva  from  the  anus  and 
 pores  of  the  body,  under  which  they  conceal  themfelves  from 
 the  rapacity  of  birds  and  other  enemies. — The  papa  or  nva^ 
 ier  fcorpion,  frequents  flagnant  waters.  It  lives  chiefly  on  a- 
 quatic  infe^ls,  and  is  exceedingly  voracious. — ^The  cimex  or 
 bug  :  Many  fpecies  of  this  genus  feed  upon  the  juices  of 
 plants,  and  others  upon  the  blood  of  animals.     Some  of  them 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  101 
 
 are  found  in  waters,  and  others  frequent  houfes,  among 
 which,  though"  it  wants  wings,  is  the  bed-bug,  a  peftlferous 
 infect,  which  is  too  well  known,  and  too  generally  difFufed. 
 The  bugs  differ  from  other  infecHis  by  their  foftnefs ;  and  moft  of 
 them  emit  a  very  foetid  fmell.  The  aphis, puceron,  owme-fretter : 
 Thefe  infedls  are  very  common,  and  are  generally  termed  the 
 lice  of  the  plants  which  they  infeft  :  The  puceron,  as  remark- 
 ed in  the  firft  chapter,  is  viviparous  in  fu mmer,  and  ovipa- 
 rous in  autumn.  Numbers  of  them  are  devoured  by  the 
 ants,  on  account,  as  is  fuppofed,  of  a  fweet  liquor  with  which 
 their  bodies  are  perpetually  moiftened.  Chermes  :  The  lar^ 
 vae  or  caterpillars  of  this  infe<Sl;  have  fix  feet,  and  are  gen- 
 erally covered  with  a  hairy  or  woolly  fubftance.  The  winged 
 Infecls  leap  or  fpring  with  great  agility,  and  infeft  a  number 
 of  different  trees  and  plants  :  The  females,  by  means  of  a  tube 
 at  the  termination  of  their  bodies,  infert  their  eggs  under 
 the  furface  of  the  leaves,  and  the  worms,  when  hatched  give 
 rife  to  thofe  tubercles,  or  galls,  with  which  the  leaves  of  the 
 afh,  the  fir,  and  other  trees,  are  fometimes  almoft  entirely 
 covered. 
 
 The  third  order  or  tribe  of  four-winged  infedls  confifts  of 
 three  genera  only.  But  the  fpecies  comprehended  under 
 them  are  exceedingly  numerous.  All  butterflies  and  moths 
 belong  to  this  order.  Their  wings  are  covered  with  a  fari- 
 naceous powder,  or  rather  with  a  kind  of  fcales  or  feathers, 
 dlfpofed  in  regular  rows,  nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  tiles 
 are  laid  upon  the  roofs  of  houfes.  The  elegance,  the  beauty 
 the  variety  of  colours  exhibited  in  their  wings,  are  produced 
 by  the  difpofition  and  different  tinctures  of  thefe  minute 
 feathers.  The  infedls  of  this  order,  on  account  of  their  beau- 
 ty and  eafy  prefervation,  have  always  been  the  favourites  of 
 colledors,  and  particularly  of  thofe  of  the  female  fex.  When 
 the  feathers  are  rubbed  off,  the  wings  appear  to  be  nothing 
 
 N 
 
l02f  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 more  than  a  naked,  and  often  a  tranfparent  membrane.  The 
 feelers  of  the  papUiOi  or  butterfyy  are  thickeft  at  their  extremi- 
 ty, and  often  terminate  in  a  kind  of  capitulum,  or  head. 
 Their  wings,  when  fitting,  or  at  reft,  are  ere6V,  their  extremi- 
 ties join  each  other  above  the  body,  and  the  animals  fly  a- 
 bout,  in  queft  of  food  and  of  their  mates,  during  the  day. 
 The  moths  are  divided  into  two  genera,  the  one  called 
 fphinx,  or  haivh  moth,  and  the  other  phalaena^  or  moth.  The 
 feelers  o^ihefphinx  are  thicker  in  the  middle  than  at  the  ex- 
 tremities, and  their  form,  in  fome  meafure,  refembles  that  of 
 a  prifm.  The  wings  are,  in  general,  defle<Sled,  their  outer 
 margins  declining  towards  the  fides.  They  fly  about  early 
 in  the  morning,  and  after  fun-fet ;  and,  by  means  of  their 
 probofcis^  like  the  butterflies,  they  fuck  the  juices  of  plants. 
 The  phalaeriay  or  jtioth  :  The  feelers  of  this  genus  are  feta- 
 ceous,  and  taper  from  the  bafe  to  the  point.  When  at  reft, 
 their  wings  are  commonly  deflected  ;  and  they  fly  during 
 the  night.  Previous  to  their  transformation,  the  caterpillars 
 of  the  whole  of  this  genus  fpin  webs  for  covering  and  pro- 
 tedling  the  animals  while  in  the  chryfalis  ftate.  From  a  fpe- 
 cies  of  this  tribe  mankind  have  derived  one  of  the  greateft 
 articles  of  luxury  and  of  commerce  which  now  exifts  in  the 
 world.  That  feemingly  contemptible,  that  difgufting  reptile 
 known  by  the  appellation  of  the filk -wonn,  in  its  paflage  from 
 the  caterpiflar  to  the  chryflilis  ftate,  produces  thofe  fplendid 
 materials  which  adoi'n  the  thrones  of  Princes,  and  add  digni- 
 ty and  luftre  to  female  beauty*. 
 
 The  wings  o^ihejotirth  order,  diftinguifhed  by  the  name 
 of  neuropteray  are  membranaceous,  naked,  and  fo  interfperfed 
 with  delicate  veins,  that  they  have  the  appearance  of  beauti- 
 ful net-work.  Their  tail  has  no  fting  ;  but  that  of  the  male 
 is  frequently  furniflied  with  a  kind  of  forceps  or  pincers. 
 To  this  order  belongs  the  lihella^  or  drago7i-fly,  an  infe«St  of 
 ■^ery  fplendid  and  variegated  colours.     It  is  a  large  and  well 
 
 *  See  Chap.  XI,  concerning  the  Transformation  of  Animals. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  103 
 
 known  fly,  and  frequents  rivers,  lakes,  pools,  and  flngnatlng 
 waters,  in  which  the  females  depolit  their  eggs.     Their  mode 
 of  generating  is  lingular.     DiflFerent  fpecies  of  them   appear 
 from  the  beginning   of  fummer  to  the  middle  of  autumn. 
 They  generally  fly  in  pairs  and  in  a  flraight  line,  the  male  pur- 
 fuing  the  female.     The  organs  of  the  male  are  iituated  in  his 
 breaft  :  When  he  overtakes  her,  with  the  forceps  in  his  tail 
 he  lays  hold  of  her  by  the  neck,  while  fhe,  by  an  inflinctive 
 impulfe,  makes  the  lower  end  of  her  body  approach  the  male 
 org;ins.     In  this  united  fltuation  they  form  a  kind  of  ring, 
 have  the  appearance  of  a  double  animal,  and  fly  along  till 
 the  purpofe  is  accomplilhed.     Under  the  fame  order  is  com- 
 prehended the  phryganea,  or  fpriftg-fly  :  The  larvae  or  cater- 
 pillars of  this  genus  live  in  the  water,  and  are  covered  with 
 a  filken  tube.     They  have  a  very  Angular  afpefl ;  for,   by 
 means  of  a  gluten,  they  attach  to  the  tubes  in  which  they  are 
 inclofed  fmall  pieces  of  wood,  fand,  gravel,  leaves  of  plants, 
 and  not  unfrequently  live   teftaceous  animals,  all  of  which 
 they  drag  along  with  them.     They  are  very  commonly  found 
 in  falads  of  the  water-crefs  ;  and,  as  they  are   often  entirely 
 covered  v;ith  green  leaves,  they  have  the  appearance  of  ani- 
 mated plants.     They  are  in  great  requefl:  among  fifhermen, 
 by  whom  they  are  diftinguifhed  by  the  name  ofjlcne,  or  cod- 
 bait.     The  fly,  or  perfect  infetSl,  frequents  running  waters, 
 in  which  the  females  depofit  their  eggs. 
 
 Thefft/j  order  is  termed  /jymenoptera.  In  general,  the  in- 
 fedis  belonging  to  this  order  have  four  membranaceous  and 
 naked  wings.  In  fome  of  the  genera,  however,  the  neuters, 
 and,  in  others,  the  males,  or  even  the  females,  have  no  wings. 
 Their  tails  except  in  the  male  fex,  are  armed  with  a  fting. — 
 The  female  of  the  cyriips,  an  infe(51:  belonging  to  this  order, 
 inferts  her  eggs  into  the  leaves  of  the  oak,and  the  caterpillars 
 produced  from  them  giv-  rife  to  the  galls  employed  in 
 the    compofition  of  ink.     This  order  likewife  includes  the 
 
101  •  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 wafp,  the  bee,  and  the  ant.  Many  of  the  wafp  kind,  like 
 the  bees,  Hve  in  fociety,  make  combs  in  which  the  females 
 4epofit  their  eggs,  and  feed  their  caterpillars  with  an  inferior 
 fpecies  of  honey.  Others  cf  them  conflrudl:  a  feparate  neft 
 for  each  individual  egg.  The  bee  is  an  infedl  too  well  known 
 to  require  a  particular  defcription.  The  males  have  no  fting  •, 
 but  the  females,  and  the  drones,  or  neuters,  have  a  very  fliarp 
 pointed  fting  concealed  in  their  abdomen.  The  female  of 
 the  honey  bee  is  much  larger  than  the  male,  or  the  neuter. 
 Her  feelers  contain  fifteen  articulations.  Her  abdomen  is 
 compofed  of  feven  fegments,  and  is  much  longer  than  her 
 wings.  The  feelers  of  the  male  contain  only  eleven  articula- 
 tions. The  neuters  are  much  fmallar  than  the  m.ales  or  fe- 
 males, and  their  feelers  confift  of  fifteen  articulations.  The 
 fting,  with  which  the  male  and  female  ards  are  armed,  is  con- 
 cealed within  the  abdomen.  The  males  and  females  of  the 
 ant  are  furnifhed  with  wings,  but  the  neuters  are  deprived 
 of  thefe  inftruments  of  motion.  The  ants  live  in  focieties 
 which  are  compofed  of  males,  females,  and  neuters,  The 
 males  are  much  fmaller  than  the  females  and  neuters.  Soon 
 after  the  males  and  females  propagate  the  fpecies,  they  all 
 die.  Some  of  the  neuters,  however,  farvive  the  winter  ; 
 but  they  remain  in  their  habitation  without  movement,  or 
 difcovering  any  figns  of  life.  From  thefe  circumfcances  in 
 the  hiftory  of  ants,  it  is  apparent,  that  the  induflry  and  fa- 
 gacity  fo  long  and  fq  univerfally  afcribed  to  thefe  little  ani- 
 jnals  could  be  of  no  ufe  either  to  thenifelves  or  their  proge- 
 ny. The  female,  after  depofiting  her  eggs,  takes  no  farther 
 care  of  her  offspring.  But,  what  is  fingular,  the  important 
 pifice  of  feeding  the  larvae^  or  caterpillars,  after  the  eggs 
 are  hatched,  is  left  entirely  to  the  neuters.  This  afFecStionate 
 and  afliduous  attentionof  the  neuters  to  a  progeny  neither 
 begot  nor  brought  forth  by  them,  is  fo  aftonifhing,  fo  con- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  105 
 
 trary  to  tke  general  oeconomy  of  Nature,  that  no  reafon- 
 iiig  or  theory  can  account  for  a  fa6l  fo  uncommon,  till  far- 
 ther difcoveries  fhall  be  made  in  the  hlflory  of  thefe  fur- 
 prlfing  animals.  What  is  ftill  more  fmgular,  after  the  cater- 
 pillars are  transformed  into  the  chryfalis  ftate,  the  neuters 
 are  inceiTantly  and  anxioufly  employed  in  preferving  the 
 chryfales  from  humidity  when  the  weather  is  wet,  and  in  ex- 
 pofing  them  to  the  warmth  of  the  fun  when  it  is  fair.  Thefp 
 chryfales  are  larger  than  the  animals  themfelves,  and  yet  they 
 carry  them    off  with  eafe  and  rapidity. 
 
 The  fixth  order  of  infe6ls  is  termed  diptcra^  or  two-wing- 
 ed infects.  The  different  fpecies  of  this  order,  befide  v/ings, 
 are  furnifhed  with  what  is  called  a  Ijalter  or  a  po'ifcv^  which 
 is  lituated  under  each  wing,  and  is  terminated  by  a  ccpltu- 
 luniy  or  knob.  This  order  comprehends  ten  genera  and  a  mulr 
 titude  of  fpecies.  The  caterpillars  of  the  oejlrus^  or  gadjly, 
 lie  concealed  in  the  fkins  of  cattle,  where  they  are  nourifh- 
 ed  during  the  whole  winter.  The  perfect  infects  are  frequent 
 wherever  horfes,  cows,  or  fheep,  are  grazing.  Sonie  of 
 them  depofit  their  eggs  in  the  fliins  of  cows  or  oxen  5  others 
 depoiit  them  in  the  inteftines  of  horfes,  to  which  they  get 
 accefs  by  the  anus  ;  and  others  in  the  noftrils  of  fheep.  In 
 thefe  habitations,  the  caterpillars  reiide  till  they  are  fuU 
 grown,  when  they  throw  themfelves  down  to  the  earth,  and 
 generally  pafs  the  chryfalis  flate  under  the  firfl:  ftone  they 
 meet  with.  The  mtifcay  or  common  j^^  :  The  mouth  of  this 
 infedl  conlifts  of  a  foft,  flefliy  probofcis,  with  two  lateral  lips. 
 The  caterpillars  of  fome  of  this  genus  devour  the  pucerons  ; 
 others  confume  all  kinds  of  putrid  flefh  -,  others  are  found 
 in  cheefe  j  others  in  the  excrements  of  different  animals  ; 
 and  many  of  them  live  in  the  water,  and  prefer  that  which 
 is  moft  corrupted  and  muddy.  The  mouth  of  the  cidcx^  or 
 gnat  confifts  of  a  flexible  flieath,  inclofnig  four  briftles,  or 
 pointed  flings.     The  feelers  of  the  female  gnat  are  plain  liks 
 
106  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 a  thread  ;  but  thofe  of  the  male  are  beautifully  feathered. 
 The  worms  or  caterpillars  of  this  genus  are  commonly  found 
 in  ftagnant  waters.  The  gnats  generally  frequent  woods  and 
 marlhy  places.  The  females,  in  particular,  are  very  trouble- 
 fome,  and  fting  feverely.  The  feet  of  the  hippobofca  or  horfe- 
 Jly,  are  armed  with  a  number  of  nails  or  crotchets.  In  fome 
 fpecies,  the  wings  crofs  each  other  •,  in  others,  they  are 
 open.  The  horfe -flies  frequent  woods  and  marfhy  grounds, 
 and  are  extremely  incommodious  to  birds  and  quadrupeds, 
 whofe  blood  is  the  only  food  of  thefe  infedts. 
 
 The  feventh  order  of  infedls  Linnaeus  denominates  aptera, 
 becaufe  neither  males  nor  females  are  furniflied  with  wings. 
 This  order  comprehends  thirteen  genera,  and  a  great  num- 
 ber of  fpecies,  many  of  which  are  very  ofFenlive  and  noxious 
 to  the  human  fpecies.  The  pediculus,  or  loufe,  has  fix  legs, 
 two  prominent  eyes,  and  its  mouth  contains  a  fling  or  fucker, 
 by  which  it  extracts  blood  and  other  juices  from  the  bodies 
 of  animals.  Though  almoft  every  different  animal  is  infefled 
 with  a  peculiar  fpecies  of  lice,  fpecific  characters  of  very  few 
 of  them  have  hitherto  been  afcertained.  Lice  are  of  various 
 forms.  Some  of  them  are  oval,  others  oblong,  and  others 
 long  and  flender.  They  are  oviparous  animals,  and  their 
 eggs  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  their  bodies.  Be- 
 fore they  arrive  at  maturity,  they  change  their  fkin  feveral 
 times.  They  are  fuppofed  to  be  hermaphrodites.  This  cir- 
 cumflance,  if  true,  may  partly  account  for  their  prodigious 
 multiplication.  Swammerdam,  who  dllTedled  a  great  num- 
 ber, afTures  us,  that  he  never  found  one  without  an  ovary, 
 nor  ever  difcovered  the  organs  peculiar  to  the  male  fex.  If 
 this  flrufture  be  univerfal,  the  loufe  is  an  hermaphrodite  of 
 a  very  peculiar  kind  ;  becaufe  it  mufl  be  capable  of  foecun- 
 dating  itfelf.  Several  fpecies  of  worms  are  hermaphrodites  ; 
 but,  inflead  of  foecunding  themfelves,  they  are  obliged  to  im- 
 pregnate each  other.    The  puleKy  orjleay  has  likewife  fix  legs, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  107 
 
 the  articulations  of  which  are  fo  exceedingly  elaftic,  that  the 
 animal  is  enabled  by  their  means,  to  fpring  to  furprifing  dif- 
 tances.  It  has  two  fine  eyes,  and  its  body  is  covered  with 
 cruftaceoiis  fcales.  The  flea  is  the  only  infect  belonging  to 
 this  order  which  undergoes  a  transformation  fimilar  to  that 
 of  the  former  orders  :  All  the  other  winglefs  infects  are  pro- 
 duced in  a  perfecSt  ftate  either  by  the  mother,  or  from  eggs. 
 The  caterpillars  of  the  flea  have  forked  tails,  and  are  very 
 fmall  and  lively.  They  may  be  nourifhed  in  boxes,  and  fed 
 with  flies,  which  they  greedily  devour.  Before  changing  in- 
 to the  chryfalis  fl:ate,  they  live  fourteen  or  fifteen  days  in 
 the  form  of  caterpillars.  Araneay  or  fpider  :  This  genus 
 comprehends  a  great  many  fpecies.  The  fpider  has  eight 
 feet^  and  an  equal  number  of  immoveable  eyes.  The  chief 
 prey  of  the  fpider  is  flies,  animals  whofe  motions  are  ex- 
 tremely quick  and  defultory.  To  enable  the  fpider  to  ob- 
 ferve  their  movements  in  every  direction,  fhe  is  furnillied 
 with  eight  eyes,  the  pofltion  of  which  merits  attention  ; 
 Two  of  them  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  head,  other  two 
 on  the  front,  and  two  on  each  fide.  The  mouth  is  armed 
 with  two  crotchets,  by  which  it  feizes  and  kills  its  prey. 
 Round  the  anus  there  are  fevcral  mufcular  infl:ruments, 
 fhaped  like  nipples  or  teats.  Each  of  thefe  contain  about  a 
 thoufand  tubes  or  outlets  for  threads  fo  extremely  minute, 
 that  many  hundreds  of  them  mufl:  be  united  before  they 
 form  one  of  thofe  vifible  ropes  of  which  the  fpider's  web  is 
 compofed.  The  figure  of  the  web  varies  according  to  the 
 fpecies,  or  the  fituation  the  animal  choofes  for  its  abode. 
 After  the  web  is  completed,  fome  fpecies  refide  in  the  center, 
 and  others  occupy  the  extremity  of  their  habitations,  where 
 they  lie  in  ambufh,  with  aftonifhing  patience,  till  an  ill-fated 
 fly  is  accidently  entangled.  The  fpider,  from  the  vibration 
 of  the  threads,  perceives  his  prey,  ruflies  forth  from  his  cell, 
 infl:antly  feizes  it  with  his  fangs,  devours  its  vitals,  and  after- 
 
iOS  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 wards  rejefls  the  exhaufted  carcafe.  Spiders  prey  upon  all 
 weaker  infe^lsj  and  even  upon  their  own  fpecies.  The 
 fcorpion  ;  this  venomous  infecSl  is  a  native  of  warmer  cli- 
 mates than  thofe  of  the  north  of  Europe.  It  has  eight  feet, 
 and  two  claws,  the  laft  of  which  are  fituated  on  the  fore  part 
 of  the  head.  Like  the  fpider,  the  fcorpion  has  eight  eyes, 
 three  of  which  are  placed  on  each  fide  of  the  breaft,  and  the 
 other  two  on  the  back.  The  tail  is  long,  jointed,  and  termi- 
 nates in  a  fliarp  crooked  fting.  The  venom  of  the  fcorpion 
 is  more  deftruilive  than  that  of  any  other  infe6l  •,  and  is 
 fometimes  fatal  in  Africa  and  other  hot  regions. 
 
 The  tajl  diviflon  of  infe(5ls  is  termed  vermes  or  worms,  by 
 Linnaeus.  This  clafs  comprehends  not  only  all  the  infe<5ls 
 commonly  called  luorms,  but  all  the  teftaceous  animals,  and 
 the  zoophites,  or  plant-animals.  The  ftructure  of  feveral 
 genera  belonging  to  this  clafs  is  extremely  flngular.  After 
 giving  a  few  examples,  we  fhall  haften  to  the  conclufion  of 
 the  prefent  fubjedl. 
 
 ■  The  body  of  the  gordws,  or  hair~iuorm,  is  long,  fliaped 
 like  a  thread  or  hair,  fmooth,  and  round.  A  fpecies  of  the 
 hair-worm  is  very  common  in  our  frefla  waters,  and  is  per- 
 fe(SLly  harmlefs.  In  Scotland,  it  is  a  vulgar  and  foolifli  no- 
 tion, that  the  hair  of  a  horfe's  tail,  when  thrown  into  the 
 v/ater,  is  converted  into  this  worm.  Though  inofFeiiiive  iri 
 this  country,  the  hair-worm  of  Africa,  and  of  both  the  In- 
 dies, is  extremely  noxious.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellowifli  colour, 
 and  is  frequently  met  v^'ith  among  the  grafs,  efpecially  when 
 covered  with  dew.  It  often  infinuates  itfelf  into  the  naked 
 feet  or  limbs  of  children  and  unwary  perfons,  v^^here  it  pro- 
 duces an  inflamation,  which  is  fometimes  fatal.  It  may  be 
 extrafted  by  tying  a  thread  round  its  head,  and  then  pulling 
 it  gently  out  of  its  abode.  But  this  operation  requires  great 
 caution  \  for,  if  the  animal  is  broken,  the  part  which  remains 
 does  not  die,  but,  in  a  fhort  time,  regains  what  it  had  loft, 
 
OF  NATURAL   HISTORY.  109 
 
 and  becomes  equally  entire  and  troublefome  as  if  it  had  re^ 
 ceived  no  injury.  The  lumhricus  or  earth-ijuorm  :  The  body 
 of  this  worm  is  cylindrical,  coniifts  of  many  rings,  and  the 
 middle  is  encompalTed  with  an  elevated  belt.  It  is  likewife 
 furni(hed  with  fharp  prickles,  which  the  animal  can  erefl  or 
 deprefs  at  pleafure.  Through  certain  perforations  in  the 
 Ikin,  it  occafionally  emits  a  flimfy  fluid,  which  lubricates  its 
 body,  and  facilitates  its  paflage  into  the  foil.  The  inteftines 
 of  this  worm  are  always  filled  with  a  fine  earth,  which  feems 
 to  conflritute  its  only  nourifhment.  Earth-worms,  like  fnails, 
 are  hermaphrodite.  The  parts  of  generation  are  placed  near 
 the  neck,  and  they  mutually  impregnate  each  other.  This 
 operation  is  performed  on  the  furface  of  the  ground  •,  and, 
 while  thus  employed,  they  will  allow  themfelves  to  be  crufli- 
 ed  to  pieces  rather  than  part.  The  females  depofit  their 
 eggs  in  the  earth,  where  they  are  hatched.  Thefe  worms, 
 like  the  polypus,  when  cut  through  the  middle,  reproduce, 
 and  each  portion  becomes  a  diftincl  individual.  According 
 to  the  different  periods  of  their  growth,  their  colour  varies  ; 
 but,  in  general,  it  is  a  du&y  red. 
 
 The  fepia,  or  cuttle-fijhy  though  comparatively  a  large  ani- 
 mal, fome  of  them  being  two  feet  long,  is  ranked  by  Linnae- 
 us under  the  clafs  of  worms.  The  fiiruclure  of  the  cuttle 
 iifli  is  remarkable.  Its  body  is  cylindrical,  and,  in  fome  of 
 the  fpecies,  is  entirely  covered  with  a  flefhy  flieath  j  in  oth- 
 ers, the  fiieath  reaches  only  to  the  middle  of  the  body.  The 
 fepia  has  eight  tentacula,  or  arms,  befide  two  feelers,  as  they 
 are  called,  which  are  much  longer  than  the  arms.  Both  the 
 feelers  and  arms  are  furniilied  with  flrong  cups,  or  fuckers, 
 fliaped  like  the  cup  of  an  acorn,  by  means  of  which  the  ani- 
 mal feizes  its  prey,  and  firmly  attaches  itfelf  to  rocks,  or  to 
 the  bottom  of  the  fea.  It  has  two  large  and  prominent  eyes. 
 What  is  flill  more  Angular,  it  is  furnifhed  with  a  hard, 
 flrong,  horney  beak,  precifely  fimilar,  both  in  texture  and 
 
 O 
 
i'iO  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fubftance,  to  the  bill  of  a  parrot.  With  this  bill,  the  cuttle-^ 
 fifh  is  enabled  to  break  the  fhells  of  limpets,  and  other 
 fh ell-animals,  upon  which  it  chiefly  feeds.  In  the  bel- 
 ly, there  is  an  aperture  through  which  the  animal,  when  pur- 
 fued  by  its  enemies,  emits  a  fluid  as  black  as  ink,  tinges  the 
 water,  and  often  efcapes  by  this  ingenious  ftratagem.  The 
 Ancient  Romans  frequently  ufed  this  black  fluid  as  ink  in 
 Writing.  The  males  and  females  copulate  by  a  mutual  em- 
 brace. The  female  depofits  her  eggs  upon  fea-plants  in  par- 
 cels refembling  bunches  of  grapes.  At  the  inftant  they 
 drop  from  the  mother,  the  eggs  are  white  ;  but  the  male  im- 
 mediately coats  them  over  with  a  black  liquor.  The  male 
 perpetually  accompanies  the  female.  When  the  female  is 
 attacked,  he  braves  every  danger,  and  often  refcues  her  at 
 the  hazard  of  his  own  Hfe.  The  bone  of  the  cuttle-fifh  is 
 very  light,  and,  when  pulverized,  it  is  employed  by  different 
 artifts  in  making  moulds. 
 
 The  medufa  is  an  animal  which  has  the  appearance  of  a; 
 lifelefs  mafs  of  jelly  floating  on  the  furface  of  the  ocean.  Its 
 body  is  roundifli,  flattened  underneath,  and  the  mouth  is 
 lituated  in  the  centre  of  the  under  part.  There  are  many 
 fpecies  of  this  feemingly  moft  imperfeit,  defencelefs,  and  ab- 
 jefl  part  of  animated  nature.  They  are,  however,  furnifh- 
 ed  with  tentacula,  by  which  they  feize  infe^Sts  and  the  fmall 
 fry  of  fiflies,  convey  them  to  their  mouths,  and  devour  them. 
 Although  the  fport  of  the  waves,  and  the  prey  of  every  fifli 
 that  approaches  them,  they  are  gregarious  animals,  and,  par- 
 ticularly in  warm  climates,  fometimes  colle£l  in  fucli  num- 
 bers as  to  have  the  appearance  of  whitifli  rocks  under  the 
 furface  of  the  ocean. 
 
 WE  have  thus  given  a  fhort  flietch  of  the  fl:ru(51;ure  of 
 animals,  from  man  down  to  the  infe<St  tribes,  and  Ihall  now 
 conclude  with  a  few  remarks. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORt.  Ill 
 
 In  all  the  variety  of  animated  beings  wliofe  general  struc- 
 ture has  been  exhibited,  the  intelligent  reader  will  ealily  per- 
 ceive, that  the  bodily  forms  of  the  different  kinds  are  exactly 
 adapted  to  the  rank  they  hold  in  the  creation,  and  that  their 
 oeconomy  and  manners  are  ftrldlly  and  invariably  connedted 
 with  their  ftru£lure  and  organs.  If  a  new  animal  appears, 
 and  if  its  figure  be  uncommon,  it  may  with  fafety  be  pro- 
 nounced, that  its  manners  are  equally  uncommon.  Change 
 the  external  or  internal  form  of  an  animal ;  diminifli  the 
 number  of  ftomachs  in  the  ruminating  tribes  ;  or  give  to  the 
 horfe  a  parrot's  bill  •,  and  the  fpecies  will  be  annihilated. 
 
 The  comparative  power,  or  ftrength,  of  animals  depends 
 not  on  ftrudlure  alone.  Mental  faculties,  and  docility,  of 
 the  capacity  of  receiving  inftrudllon,  feem  to  be  the  greateft 
 fources  of  animal  power.  Hence  man's  unlimited  empire 
 over  all  other  creatures.  The  inventions  of  language,  of 
 arms,  of  writing,  printing,  and  engraving,  have  been  the 
 chief  means  of  extending  his  influence,  and  of  his  acquiring 
 the  dominion  of  the  earth.  By  thefe  arts,  men  tranfmit  the 
 improvements,  the  inventions,  and  the  acquisitions,  of  one 
 age  to  another.  By  thefe  arts,  the  difpolitions  of  men  are 
 foftened,  their  manners  become  more  and  more  civilized, 
 humanity  is  gradually  extended  and  refined,  and  the  groiTer 
 anijiiofities  yield  to  external  politenefs  and  decorum  at  leafl, 
 if  the  feelings  themfelves  be  not  blunted.  How  far  this  pro- 
 grefs  of  fclence,  and  the  peaceful  arts  of  life,  by  the  accumu- 
 lation of  ages,  may  proceed,  it  is  impoflible  to  determine. 
 But  the  time,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  is  not  very  remote,  when 
 the  fiercer  contentions  of  nations  will  ceafe,  when  felfifh- 
 nefs  and  venality,  which  at  prefent  feem  to  be  infeparable 
 from  commercial  flates,  will  give  way  to  generofity  of  tem- 
 per, and  uprightnefs  of  conduct. 
 
112  THE  PHIL0S0PH¥ 
 
 CHAPTER    III. 
 
 Of  the  Refpiration  of  Animals — Air  necejjary  to  the  exiflence  of 
 all  animated  beings — The  various  modifications  of  the  organs 
 employed  by  Nature  for  the  tranfmiffion  of  Air  into  animal 
 bodies, 
 
 IT  is  foreign  to  the  defign  of  this  chapter  to 
 mention  the  different  kinds  of  air  •,  to  unfold  its  compofi- 
 tion ;  or  to  recapitulate  the  innumerable  benefits  derived 
 from  it  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  in  the  arts  of 
 life,  and  in  the  texture  and  cohefion  of  inanimate  bodies, 
 For  our  purpofe,  it  is  fufficient  to  obferve,  that  by  air  is 
 meant  that  common  elaftic  fluid  which  pervades  this  globe, 
 and  which  by  its  weight,  its  prelTure  in  all  directions,  and  its 
 compreflibility,  infinuates  itf^lf  into  every  vacuity,  and  is 
 neceflary  to  the  exiflence  of  every  animal  and  vegetable 
 being. 
 
 In  man,  and  the  larger  land  animals,  air  is  taken  into  the 
 body  by  the  lungs.  When  an  animal  infpires,  the  external 
 air  pafTes  through  the  apertures  of  the  mouth  and  nofe  into 
 the  trachea  or  wind-pipe,  and  thence  directly  into  the  lungs. 
 This  air,  by  inlinuating  itfelf  into  the  numerous  cells  of  the 
 lungs,  necefTarily  inflates  them,  and,  when  retained  for  a 
 fecond  or  two,  produces  an  uneafy  fenfation.  To  remove 
 this  difagreeable  feeling,  the  animal  inftin£tively,  by  the  ex- 
 ertion of  particular  mufcles  deflined  by  Nature  for  that 
 purpofe,  forces  out  the  air,  and  thus  removes  the  offending 
 caufe.  The  lungs,  after  the  air  is  thrown  out,  inflead  of  be- 
 ing inflated,  coUapfe  ;  and,  if  a  frefla  fupply  is  not  foon  tak- 
 en in,  a  fimilar  uneafy  fenfation  is  felt,  which  obliges  the 
 animal  again  to  infpire.  This  alternate  reception  and  rejec- 
 tion of  air  goes  on  during  the  life  of  the  animal,  and  is   dif- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  lig 
 
 tingulfhed  by  the  general  name  of  refpiratioju  But,  whea 
 treating  more  accurately  of  the  fubje^l,  the  a6l  of  taking  air 
 into  the  lungs  is  called  infpirationy  and  the  a<St  of  throwing  it 
 out  is  termed  expiration. 
 
 That  the  refpiration  of  air  is  indifpenfible  to  the  exiftence 
 of  land  animals,  has  been  proved  by  innumerable  experi- 
 ments made  with  the  air-pump.  Mice,  rats,  rabbits,  cats, 
 dogs,  &c.  when  placed  in  an  exhaufted  receiver,  inftantly 
 become  reftlefs,  and  difcover  fymptoms  of  pain.  Their 
 bodies  fwell,  and  their  life  is  foon  extinguifhed.  Indeed, 
 our  own  feelings  are  fufficient  to  afcertai^i  this  fadl.  No 
 perfon  can  remain  long  either  in  a  fiiate  of  infpiration  or  ex- 
 piration without  being  fuffocated. 
 
 But  the  alternate  motions  of  infpiration  and  expiration, 
 joined  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  lungs,  may 
 be  conlidered  as  the  more  mechanical  effe^^s  of  refpiration. 
 Though  thefe  operations  are  abfolutely  necefTary  to  the  ex- 
 iftence  of  animals,  yet  the  air  itfelf  has  been  fuppofed  to  im- 
 part fome  vital  principle  to  the  blood,  without  which  life 
 could  not  be  continued. 
 
 The  ingenious  Dodlor  Crawford,  in  his  treatife  on  Animal 
 Heat,  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  the  refpiration  of  air  is 
 the  caufe  of  that  vital  warmth  without  which  no  animal  can 
 exift.  After  mentioning  a  well  known  fadl,  that  all  bodies, 
 whether  animate  or  inanimate,  contain  a  certain  cv^antity  of 
 fire  as  a  principle  in  their  compofition,  the  Do^lor  remarks, 
 that  this  quantity,  in  different  bodies,  varies  according  to 
 their  nature  or  texture  ;  that  this  fire,  when  in  a  latent  or 
 quiefcent  ftate,  is  termed  ahfolute  heat  \  that,  when  fubflances 
 of  different  textures  have  a  given  quantity  of  heat  thrown  in- 
 to them,  their  temperature  will  be  difcovered  to  be  difl'erent 
 by  the  thermometer  j  for  the  fame  quantity  of  heat  which 
 raifes  one  body  to  a  certain  degree,  will  raife  another  to  a 
 
114  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 greater  or  a  lefs  ;  and  this  difFerent  difpofitlon  of  bodies  Is 
 called  their  capacity  of  containing  abfolute  heat. 
 
 Do£lor  Crawford  next  endeavours  to  prove  by  experi- 
 ments, that,  when  phlogifton  is  added  to  any  body,  its  ca- 
 pacity of  containing  abfolute  heat  is  diminifhed  j  and  that, 
 when  phlogifton  is  abftra^led  from  the  fame  body,  its  capaci- 
 ty of  receiving  abfolute  heat  is  augmented.  Hence  he  in- 
 fers, that  heat  and  phlogifton  feem  to  conftitute  two  oppo- 
 fite  principles  in  nature.  By  the  a6lion  of  heat  upon  bodies, 
 the  force  of  their  attraction  to  phlogifton  is  diminiftied  ; 
 and,  by  the  action  of  phlogifton,  a  part  of  the  abfolute  heat, 
 which  exifts  in  every  fubftance  as  an  element,  is  expelled. 
 « Hence,'  fays  the  Dodlor,  '  animal  heat  feems  to  depend 
 «  upon  a  procefs  fimilar  to  a  chemical  elective  attraction. 
 '  The  air  is  received  into  the  lungs,  containing  a  great  quan- 
 
 <  tity  of  abfolute  heat.  The  blood  is  returned  from  the  ex- 
 « tremities,  highly  impregnated  with  phlogifton.  The  at- 
 «  traClion  of  the  air  to  the  phlogifton  is  greater  than  that  of 
 ^  the  blood.  This  principle  will  therefore  leave  the  blood  to 
 «  combine  with  the  air.     By  the  addition  of  the  phlogifton, 
 
 *  the  air  is  obliged  to  depofit  a  part  of  its  abfolute  heat ;  and, 
 «  as  the  capacity  of  the  blood  is,  at  the  fame  moment,  in- 
 '  creafed  by  the  feparation  of  the  phlogifton,  it  will  inftantly 
 «  unite  with  that  portion  of  heat  which  had  been  detached 
 
 *  from  the  air. 
 
 *  We  learn  from  DoClor  Prieftley's  experiments  with  ref- 
 
 *  pe(St  to  refpiration,  that  arterial  blood  has  a  ftrong  attrac- 
 
 *  tion  to  phlogifton  :    It  will,  confequently,  during  the  cir- 
 
 *  culation,  imbibe  this  principle  from  thofe  parts  which  re- 
 
 <  tain  it  with  the  leaft  force,  or  from  the  putrefcent  parts  of 
 
 *  the  fyftem  :  And  hence  the  venous  blood,  when  it  returns 
 
 *  to  the  lungs,  is  found  to  be  highly  impregnated  with  phlog- 
 
 <  ifton.     By  this  impregnation,  its  capacity  for  containing 
 
 *  heat  is  diminiftied.     In  proportion^  therefore,  as  the  blood, 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  115 
 
 <  which  had  been  d^phlogiflicated  by  the  procefs  of  refplra- 
 <tIon,  becomes   again  combined   with   phlogifton,   in   the 
 
 <  courfe  of  the  circulation,  it  will  gradually  give  out  that  heat 
 
 <  which  it  had  received  in  the  lungs,  and  difFufe  it  over  the 
 
 <  whole  fyftem.^*' 
 
 The  Do£lor  afterwards  proceeds  to  affign  a  reafon  why 
 the  heat  of  animals  is  always  equal.  <  As  animals/  fays  he, 
 f  are  continually  abforbing  heat  from  the  air,  if  there  were 
 « not  a  quantity  of  heat  carried  off,  equal  to   that  which  is 
 
 <  abforbed,  there  wcJuld  be  an  accumulation  of  it  in  the  ani- 
 
 <  mal  body.     The  evaporation  from  the  furface,  and  the  cool- 
 
 *  ing  power  of  the  air,  are  the  great  caufes  which  prevent 
 
 *  this  accumulation.     And   thefe  are   alternately  increafed 
 
 *  and  diminifhed,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce  an  equal 
 
 *  effedl.     When  the  cooling  power  of  the  air  is  diminifhed 
 
 *  by  the  fummer  heats,  the  evaporation  from  the  furface  is 
 ^  increafed  j  and  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  coohng  power 
 
 <  of  the  air  is  increafed  by  the  winter  colds,  the  evaporation 
 
 *  from  the  furface  is  proportionally  diminiflied  f  .* 
 
 This  theory,  though  not  fapported  by  mathematical  evi- 
 dence, is  not  only  ingenious,  but  feems  to  make  a  nearer  ap- 
 poach  to  truth  than  any  that  has  hitherto  been  invented  f . 
 
 Refpiration,  belide  being  the  probable  caufe  of  the  equable 
 continuation  of  heat  in  ani.nals,  produces  many  other  faluta- 
 ry  and  ufeful  effefis  in  the  oeconomy  of  animated  bodies. 
 There  is  a  moft  intimate  connediion  between  the  a<St  of  ref- 
 piring  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  When  refpiration 
 is,  for  a  fhort  time,  interrupted  by  the  fumes  of  burning  ful- 
 
 •  Crawford  on  Animal  Heat,  pag.  73.  f  Ibid.  pag.  84. 
 
 t  If  the  reader  is  dcfirous  of  feeing  fome  pertinent  reniarks  on  Do6lof 
 Crawford's  Theory  of  Animal  Heat,  he  may  confult  Dodtor  Gardiner's  Obfer- 
 vations  on  the  Annual  Oeconomy,  and  on  the  Caufes  and  Cure  of  Difeafes,  ai> 
 ingenious  and  ufsful  performance,  lately  publilhed,  and  which  merits  much  mors 
 attention  from  Philofophers  ^nd  Phyf;ciani  than  it  has  bitherto  received. 
 
11(S  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 pluir,  by  mepliitic  air,  or  by  remaining  fome  minutes  under 
 water,  the  atStion  of  the  heart  ceafes.  But,  in  many  cafes  of 
 this  kind,  the  motion  of  the  heart  may,  and  frequently  has 
 been  renewed,  by  blowing  air  into  the  lungs,  and  by  the  ap- 
 plication of  {Simulating  fubftances  to  different  organs  of  the 
 body.  In  perfons  feemingly  dead  from  a  temporary  fufpen- 
 iion  of  refpiration,  if  the  lungs  can  be  excited  to  a(ft,  the  mo- 
 tion of  the  heart  inftantly  commences,  the  circulation  of  the 
 blood  is  reftored,  and  life  is  recovered.  This  intimate  con- 
 nection between  refpiration  and  the  adtion  of  the  heart,  is 
 one  of  thofe  aftonifhing  facts  in  the  animal  oeconomy,  the 
 caufes  of  which  v/ill  perhaps  forever  elude  the  keeneft  re- 
 fearches  of  the  human  intelledt.  All  we  know  is,  that  cer- 
 tain functions  are  indifpenlible  to  the  exiftence  of  animals, 
 and  that,  if  any  of  them  are  fufpended  for  a  few  feconds, 
 life  is  extinguiflied  ;  namely,  the  action  of  the  brain  and 
 nerves,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  refpiration,  and  a  pro- 
 bable refult  of  refpiration,  animal  heat.  Thefe  functions, 
 from  their  importance  in  the  fyftem,  have  received  the  ap- 
 pellation of  vital  fun 8 ions.  There  are  other  functions  of  the 
 body,  called  natural,  which  are  no  lefs  neceflfary  to  life,  as 
 the  digeftion  and  concoction  of  aliment,  the  various  fecre- 
 tions  and  excretions.  But  they  are  diftinguifhed  from  the 
 vital  functions,  becaufe  fome  of  them  may  be  fufpended  for 
 a  conliderabie  time  without  materially  injuring  the  body. 
 
 F.efpiration  commences  inftantly  after  birth,  and  is  inftinc-^ 
 tively  continued  during  life.  In  the  foetus  ftate,  as  formerly 
 mentioned*,  refpiration  is  unnecelTary,  becaufe  the  circula- 
 tion of  the  general  mafs  of  blood  is  carried  on  through  a  dif- 
 ferent channel.  In  the  a6t  of  infpiration,  v/e  are  confclous 
 of  making  a  certain  effort  ;  but  in  the  a6t  of  expiration  we 
 fcarcely  perceive  any  exertion  whatever. 
 
 *  See  above,  page  66. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  117 
 
 Befide  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  continuation 
 of  the  vital  warmth,  refpiration  gives  rife  to  many  other  im- 
 portant fuaftions  in  the  animal  oeconomy.  All  animals  who 
 rcfJ3ire,  beiide  a  watery  vapor,  exhale  great  quantities  of  me- 
 phytic  or  corrupted  effluvia,  which,  if  retained  in  the  lungs, 
 or  breathed  by  other  animals,  would  foon  prove  fatal.  The 
 mufcles  of  refpiration,  of  which  we  have  the  command,  are 
 employed  in  many  other  operations  of  the  body,  beiide  the 
 mere  a6l  of  breathinf^  air.     All  animals  furnillied  with  lunps 
 
 O  (J 
 
 exprefs  their  wants,  their  affections  and  averfions,  their 
 .pleafures  and  pains,  either  by  words,  or  by  founds,  peculiar 
 to  each  fpecies.  Thefe  different  founds  are  produced  by 
 ffraitening  or  widening  the  glottis  and  wind -pipe,  or,  in 
 general,  the  paffage  through  which  the  air  paffes  in  refpira- 
 tion. The  inferior  animals  are  by  this  means  enabled  to  ex- 
 prefs themfelves,  though  not  by  articulate  founds,  in  fuch  a 
 manner  as  to  be  perfectly  intelligible  to  every  individual  of 
 a  fpecies.  On  man  alone.  Nature  has  beflowed  the  faculty 
 of  fpeaking,  or  of  expreffing  his  various  feelings  and  ideas, 
 by  a  regular,  exteniive,  and  eftablifhed  combination  of  arti- 
 culate founds.  To  have  extended  this  faculty  to  the  brate 
 creation,  would  not,  it  is  probable,  have  been  of  any  ufe  co 
 them  ;  for,  though  fome  animals  can  be  taught  to  articulate, 
 yetj  from  a  defect  in  their  intellect,  none  of  them  Icem  to 
 have  any  idea  of  the  proper  meaning  of  the  words  they  utter. 
 Speech  is  performed  by  a  very  various  and  complicated  ma- 
 chinery. In  fpeaking,  the  tongue,  the  lips,  the  jaws,  the 
 whole  palate,  the  nofe,  the  throat,  together  with  the  muf- 
 cles, bones,  &c.  of  which  thefe  organs  are  compofed,  are  all 
 employed.  This  combination  of  organs  we  are  taught  to 
 ufe  when  fo  young  that  we  are  hardly  confcioKs  of  the  la- 
 borious talk,  and  far  lefs  of  the  manner  by  which  we  pro- 
 nounce different  letters  and  words.  The  mode  of  pronounc- 
 ing letters  and  words,  however,  may  be  learned  by  attentive- 
 
lis  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ly  obferving  the  different  organs  employed  by  the  fpeaker. 
 By  this  means  we  are  enabled  to  correct  various  defe£ls  of 
 fpeech,  and  even  to  teach  the  dumb  to  fpeak  ;  for  dumbnefs 
 is  feldom  the  eife<St  of  imperfedtion  in  the  organs  of  fpeech, 
 but  generally  arlfes  from  a  want  of  hearing  ;  and  it  is  im- 
 poffible  for  deaf  men  to  imitate  founds  which  they  never 
 heard,  except  they  be  taught  to  u{q  their  organs  by  vifion 
 and  by  touching. 
 
 When  about  to  laugh,  we  make  a  very  full  infpiration, 
 which  is  fucceeded  by  frequent,  interrupted,  and  fonorous 
 expirations.  When  the  titillation  is  great,  whether  it  arifes 
 from  the  mind  or  body,  thefe  convuliive  expirations  fome- 
 times  interrupt  the  breathing  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  endan- 
 ger fuffocation.  Moderate  laughing,  on  the  contrary,  pro- 
 motes health  :  By  agitating  the  whole  body,  it  quickens  the 
 circulation  of  the  blcod,  gi\^es  an  inexpreiiible  chearfulnefs 
 to  the  countenance,  and  baniflies  every  kind  of  anxiety  from 
 the  mind. 
 
 In  weeping,  we  employ  nearly  the  fame  organs  as  in  laugh- 
 ing. It  commences  with  a  deep  infpiration,  which  is  fuc- 
 ceeded  by  iliort,  broken,  fonorous,  and  difagreeable  expira- 
 tions. The  countenance  has  a  difmr^l  afpe6t,  and  tears  are 
 poured  out.  Weeping  originates  from  grief,  or  other  pain- 
 ful fenfations  either  of  body  or  mind  :  When  full  vent  is 
 given  to  tears,  grief  is  greatly  alleviated.  Both  laughing 
 and  weeping  have  been  reckoned  peculiar  to  man.  But 
 this  notion  feems  not  to  be  well  founded.  Though  the 
 other  animals  exprefs  not  their  pleafures  or  pains  in  the  farne 
 manner  as  we  do,  yet  all  of  them  exhibit  their  pleafant  or 
 painful  feelings  by  fymptoms  or  cries,  which  are  perfe<51:ly 
 underflood  by  the  individuals  of  each  fpecies,  and,  in  many 
 inflances,  by  man.  A  dog,  when  hurt,  complains  in  the  bit- 
 tereft  terms  ;  and,  when  he  is  afraid,  oj;  perhaps  melancholy, 
 fee  exprefles  the  iituation  of  his  mind  by  the  moft  deplora- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  119 
 
 ble  howlings.  A  bird,  when  lick,  ceafes  to  fing,  droops  the 
 win  or,  abftains  from  food,  afTumes  a  lurid  afpect,  utters  me- 
 lancholy, weak  cries,  and  exhibits  every  mark  of  depreiTed 
 fpirits.  By  this  means,  animals  intimate  the  afiutance  they 
 require,  or  foften  thofe  who  maltreat  them.  Their  plain- 
 tive cries  are  fometimes  fo  afte6ling  as  to  difarm  their  ene- 
 mies, or  procure  the  aid  of  their  equals.  On  the  other 
 hand,  when  animals  are  pleafed  or  carefTed,  they  difcover,  by 
 their  countenance,  by  theiir  voice,  by  their  movements,  une- 
 quivocal fymptoms  of  chearfulnefs  and  alacrity  of  mind. 
 Thus  the  expreflions  of  pleafure  and  pain  by  brute  animals, 
 though  not  uttered  in  the  precife  manner  with  thofe  of  the 
 human  fpecies,  are  perfe£lly  analogous,  and  anfwer  the  fame 
 intentions  of  Nature. 
 
 By  refpiration,  and  the  inflruments  employed  in  the  per- 
 formance of  it,  the  larger  animals  are  not  only  brought  forth, 
 but  are  enabled  to  extract  milk  from  the  breads  of  the 
 mother.  By  refpiration,  odors  are  conveyed  to  the  ncfe  j 
 coughing,  fneezing,  yawning,  fighing,  naging,  vomiting,  and 
 many  other  functions  in  the  animal  oeconomy,  are  at  leaft 
 partly  accompiiflied. 
 
 After  this  general  view  of  the  refpiration  of  man  and  of 
 quadrupeds,  we  proceed,  according  to  the  method  laid  down, 
 to  give  fome  account  of  the  fame  function  in  the  other  cialles 
 of  animals. 
 
 With  regard  to  birds,  though,  hke  other  land-animals, 
 they  refpire  by  means  of  lungs,  Nature  has  enabled  them  to 
 tranfmit  air  to  almoft  every  part  of  their  bodies.  The  lung^ 
 of  birds  are  fo  firmJy  attached  to  the  diaphragm,  the  ribs, 
 the  lides,  and  the  vertebrae,  that  they  can  admit  of  very  lit- 
 tle dilatation  or  contraction.  Inftead  of  being  impervious, 
 the  fubftance  of  the  lungs,  as  well  as  of  the  diaphragm,  to 
 which  they  adhere,  is  perforated  with  many  holes  or  pafTag- 
 
1^0  THE   PmLOSOPHY 
 
 es  for  tKe  tranfmiffion  of  air  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body*^. 
 To  each  of  thefe  perforations  a  diftincl  membranous  bag  is 
 joined.  Thefe  bags  are  extremely  thin  and  tranfparent. 
 They  extend  through  the  whole  of  the  abdomen,  are  attach- 
 ed to  the  back  and  fides  of  that  cavity,  and  each  of  tliem  re- 
 ceives air  from  their  refpetSlive  openings  into  the  lungs.  The 
 cells  in  birds  which  receive  air  from  the  lungs  are  found  not 
 only  in  the  foft  parts,  but  in  the  bones.  That  ingenious  and 
 accurate  anatomift,  Mr.  John  Hunter  of  London,  remarks, 
 that  the  bones  of  birds  which  receive  air  are  of  two  kinds  : 
 
 *  Some,  as  the  fternuqi,  ribs,  and  vertebrae,  have  their  Inter- 
 
 <  nal  fubflance  divided  into  innumerable  cells,  whilft  others, 
 «  as  the  OS  humeri  and  the  os  femoris,  are  hollowed  out  into 
 
 *  one  large  canal,  with  fometimes  a  few  bony  columns  run- 
 
 *  ning  acrofs  at  the  extremities.     Bones  of  this  kind  may  be 
 
 *  diftinguifhed  from  thofe  that  do  not  receive  air  by  certain 
 ^  marks  :  1 .  By  their  lefs  fpecific  gravity  :  2.  By  being  lefs 
 «  vafcular,  and  therefore  whiter  :  3.  By  their  containing  lit- 
 
 *  tie  or  no  oil,  and  confequently  being  more  eafily   cleaned, 
 
 *  and,  when  cleaned,  appearing  much  whiter  than  common 
 
 <  bones  :  4.  By  having  no  marrow,  or  even  any  bloody  pul- 
 
 <  py  fubftanee  in  their  cells  :  5.  By  not  being,  in  general,  fo 
 
 *  hard   and  firm   as  other    bones  ;    and,  6.  By  the  pafTage 
 
 *  that  allows  the  air  to  enter  the  bones,  which  can  eafily  be 
 
 *  perceived.     In   the  recent  bone  v/e  may  readily  difcover 
 
 <  holes,  or  openings,  not  filled  with  any  fuch  foft  fubftanee  as 
 
 *  blood-veiTels  or  nerves  ;  and  it   happens   that   feveral  of 
 
 *  thefe  holes  are  placed  together,  near  the  end  of  the  bone 
 
 <  which  is  next  to  the  trunk  of  the  bird  ;  and  are  diftinguilh- 
 
 *  able  by  having  their  external  edges  rounded  off ;  which  is 
 
 <  not  the  cafe  with  the  holes  through  which  either  nerves  or 
 
 <  blood-vefTels  pafs  into  the  fubftanee  of  the  bonef . 
 
 •This  fadl  feems  to  have  been  firft  mentioned  by  the  celebrated  Do^or 
 Harvey.     See  Harvey  de  Generat.  Animal.  Exercit,  3, 
 ■J  Hunter's  Obfwvations  on  cfrtain  parts  of  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  page  79, 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  12V 
 
 Mr.  Hunter  afterwards  informs  us,  that  the  lungs,  at  thq 
 anterior  part,  open  into  a  number  of  membranous  cells, 
 which  lie  upon  the  fides  of  the  pericardium,  and  communi- 
 cate with  thofe  of  the  fternum.  At  the  fuperior  part,  th^ 
 lungs  open  into  the  large  cells  of  a  loofe  net-work,  through 
 which  the  wind-pipe,  gullet,  and  large  vefTels,  pafs  as  they 
 proceed  to  and  from  the  heart.  Thefe  cells,  when  diftend- 
 ed  with  air,  augment  confiderably  the  part  where  they  are 
 fituated  ;  and  this  augmentation,  or  fwelling,  is  generally  a 
 mark  either  of  anger  or  of  love.  This  tumefaction  is  remark- 
 able in  the  turkey-cock,  in  the  pouting  pigeon,  and  in  the 
 breaft  of  a  goofe  when  fhe  cackles.  Thefe  cells  communi- 
 cate with  others  in  the  axilla,  under  the  large  perioral  muf- 
 cle.  In  moft  birds,  the  axillary  cells  communicate  with  the 
 cavity  of  the  os  humeri  by  fmall  openings  in  the  hollow  fur- 
 face  near  the  head  of  that  bone.  In  fome  birds,  thele  cells 
 are  continued  down  the  wing,  and  communicate  with  the  ul- 
 na and  radius  ;  in  others,  they  extend  even  to  the  pinions. 
 The  pofterior  edges  of  the  lungs  open  into  the  cells  of  the 
 vertebrae,  into  thofe  of  the  ribs,  the  canal  of  the  fplnal  mar- 
 row, the  facrum,  and  other  bones  of  the  pelvis  ;  from  thefe 
 parts  the  air  finds  a  paflage  into  the  thigh-bone.  *  Thus,' 
 continues  our  learned  and  indefatigable  author,  <  the  cells  of 
 *the   abdomen,   thofe   furrounding  the  pericardium,  thofe 
 
 <  fituated  at  the  lower  and  forepart  of  the  neck,  and  in  the 
 axilla,  thofe  in  the  cellular  membrane  ueder  the  pectoral 
 mufcles,  as  well  as  in  that  which  unites  the  fkin  to  the  body, 
 *  all  communicate  with  the  lungs,  and  are  capable  of  being 
 •«  filled  with  air  ;  and  again  from  thefe  the  cells  of  the  fler- 
 
 <  num,  ribs,  vertebra  of  the  back  and  loins,  bones  of  the  pel" 
 
 <  vis,  the  humeri,  the  ulna  and  radius,  with  the  pinions  and 
 '  thigh-bones,  can  in  many  birds  be  furnifhed  vylth  air*.' 
 
 •  Kunter*$  Obfcrvatlons  on  c<^rtain  parts  of  the  Animal  Oqzonomy,  page  8 1 
 
}22  '  THE   PHILOSpPHY 
 
 Thefe  fadls,  which  our  author  candidly  acknowledges  had 
 been  formerly  oblerved,  led  him,  id  the  year  1758,  to  make 
 experiments  on  the  breathing  of  birds,  in  order  to  prove  the 
 free  communication  between  the  lungs  and  the  fcverai  parts 
 of  the  body  mentioned  above. 
 
 <  Firft,'  fays  he,  « I  made  an  opening  into  the  belly  of  a 
 
 *  cock,  and  having  introduced  a   filver  canula,  tied  up  the 
 ^  trachea  *,  I  found  that  the  animal  breathed  by  this  opening, 
 
 *  and  might  have  lived  ;  but,  by  an  inflamation  in  the  bow- 
 
 <  els  coming  on,  adheiions  were  produced,  and  the  commu° 
 ^  nication  cut  ofF. 
 
 *  I  next  cut  the  wing  through  the  os  humeri,  in  another 
 «  fowl,  and  tjing  up  the  trachea,  as  in  the  cock,  found  that 
 ^  the  air  pafTed  to  and  from  the  lungs  by  the  canal  in  this 
 
 *  bone.     The  fame  experiment  was  made  with  the  os  femo- 
 
 <  ris  of  a  young  hawk,  and  was  attended  with  nearly  the  like 
 
 <  fuccefs  *.' 
 
 The  extreme  fingularity  of  this  almoil  univerfal  diffuiion 
 of  air  through  the  bodies  of  birds,  naturally  excited  a  delire 
 to  difcover  what  might  be  the  intention  of  Nature  in  pror 
 ducing  a  fi:ru£lure  fo  extraordinary.  Mr.  Hunter  firft  imagi- 
 ned that  it  might  be  intended  to  aflift  the  adt  of  flying,  by 
 increaling  the  volume  and  ftrength  of  the  animal,  without 
 adding  to  its  weight,  which  muft  be  diminifhed  ;  becaufe 
 the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  external  air  is  fuperior  to  that  of 
 the  internal  air,  which  is  rendered  more  rare  by  the  heat  of 
 the  animal's  body.  This  opinion  was  corroborated,  by  con- 
 lidering  that  the  feathers  of  birds,  and  particularly  thofe  of 
 the  wings,  contain  a  great  quantity  of  air.  With  his  ufual 
 ingenuoufnefs,  however,  Mr.  Hunter,  in  oppofition  to  his 
 fir  ft  conje(5lure,  informs  us,  that  the  oftrich,  which  does  not 
 fly,  was  amply  provided  with  air-cells  difperfed  through  its 
 body ;  that  the  wood-cock,  and  fome  other  flying  birds,  were 
 *  Ibid,  page  8i. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  123 
 
 not  fo  liberally  fupplied  v/ith  thefe  cells  as  the  oflricli  •,  and 
 that  the  bat  had  no  fach  peculiarity  of  ftrudure.  With  re- 
 gard to  the  oftrich,  though  it  is  not  intended  to  fly,  it  runs 
 with  amazing  rapidity^  and,  confequently,  requires  fimilar 
 refources  of  air. 
 
 He  next  conje(Shired,  from  analogy,  that  the  air-cells  in 
 birds  ought  to  be  coniidered  as  an  appendage  to  the  lungs  ; 
 becaufe  in  the  fnake,  viper,  and  feveral  other  amphibious 
 animals,  the  lungs  are  continued,  in  the  form  of  two  bags, 
 through  the  whole  abdomen,  the  upper  part  of  which  can  on- 
 ly perform  the  cifice  of  refpiration  with  any  degree  of  efFe£l ; 
 becaufe  the   lower   part  has  comparatively  few  air-veflels. 
 
 *  The  air,^  fays  Mr.  Hunter,  <  mufl  pafs  through  this  upper 
 «  part  before  it  gets  to  the  lower  in  infpiration,  and  mufk  alfo 
 '  repafs  in  expiration  ;  fo  that  the  refpiratory  furface  has 
 «  more  air  applied  to  it   than  what  the  lungs  of  themfelves 
 
 <  could  contain.     There  is,  in  fact,  a  great  fimilarity  between 
 
 <  birds  and  that    clafs  of  animals  called  amphihicus  ;  and,  al- 
 
 <  though  a  bird  and  a  Ihake  are  not  the  fame  in  the  conilruc- 
 
 <  tion  of  the  refpiratory  organs,  yet  the  circumfiance  of  the 
 
 <  air  palling  in  both  beyond  the  lungs,  into  the  cavity  of  the 
 
 <  abdomen,  naturally  leads  us  to  fuppofe,  that  a  ftrudiure  fo 
 <limilar  is  defigned  in  each  to  anfwer  a  fimilar  purpofe. 
 «  This  analogy  is  ftill  farther  fupported  by  the  lungs  in  both 
 
 <  confiiling  of  large  cells.     Now,  in  amphibious  animals,  the 
 
 <  ufe  of  fuch  a  conformation  of  lungs  is  evident  j  for  it  is  in 
 «  confequence  of  this  fl:ru6lure  that  they  require  to  breathe 
 « lefs  frequently  than  others.     Even  confidering  the  matter 
 
 *  in  this  light,  it  may  ftili,  in  birds,  have  fome  conne^ftion 
 
 <  with  flying,  as  that  motion  may  eafily  be  imagined  to  ren- 
 «  der  frequency  of  refpiration  inconvenient,  and  a  refervoir 
 
 <  of  air  may  therefore  become  Angularly  ufeful.  Although 
 «  we  are  not  to  confider  this  flirudlure  in  birds  to  be  an  exten- 
 
 <  iion  of  lungs,  yet  I  can  eaiily  conceive  this  accumulation  of 
 
isi. 
 
 THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 *  air  to  be  of  great  ule  in  refpiratidn  ;  for,  as  we  obferved  irt 
 
 *  the  viper,  that  the  air,  in  its  pafTage  to  and  from  thefe  cells, 
 « muft  certainly  have  a  conliderable  efFe£l  upon  the  blood  in 
 
 <  the  lungs,  by  allowing  a  much  greater  quantity  of  air    to 
 
 <  pafs  in  a  given  time,  than  if  there  was  no  fuch  conftru(5tioii' 
 
 <  of  parts.     And  this  opinion  will  not  appear  to  be  ill  found- 
 
 <  ed,  if  we  confider,  that,  both  in  the  bird  and  the  viper,  the 
 
 <  furface  of  the  lungs  is  fmall  in  comparifon  to  what  it  is  in 
 '  many  other  animals  which  have  not  this  extenfion  of  cavi- 
 
 *  ty.     We  muft  not,  however,  give  up  the  idea  of  fuch  ftruc- 
 
 <  ture  being  of  ufe  in  flying ;  for  I  believe  we  may  fet  it  down 
 
 <  as  a  general  rule,  that,  in  the  birds  of  longeft  and  higheft 
 
 <  flight,  as  eagles,  this  extenfion,  or  difFufion  of  air,  is  carried 
 
 <  farther  than  in  the  others  ;  and  this  opinion  is  ftrengthen- 
 
 *  ed,   by  comparing   this  ftru£lure  with  the  refpiratory  or- 
 
 <  gans  in  the  flying  infects,  which  are  compofed  of  cells  dif- 
 
 <  fufed  through  the  whole  body  -,  and   thefe  are   extended 
 
 *  even  into  the  head  and  down  the  extremities,  while  there 
 
 <  is  no  fuch  ftrufture  in  thofe  that  do  not  fly,  as  the  fpider,'&c. 
 
 Though  Mr.  Hunter's  modefty  has  not  permitted  him  to 
 draw  his  conclufion  in  a  pofitive  manner,  he  feems  to  have 
 proved  decidedly,  that  one  ufe  of  the  general  diffufion  of  air 
 through  the  bodies  of  birds  is  to  prevent  their  refpiration 
 from  being  flopped  or  interrupted  by  the  rapidity  of  their  mo- 
 tion through  a  refifting  medium.  The  refiftance  of  the  air 
 increafes  in  proportion  to  the  celerity  of  the  motion.  Were 
 it  poflible  for  man  to  move  with  a  fwiftnefs  equal  to  that  of 
 a  fwallow,  the  refiftance  of  the  air,  as  he  is  not  provided  with 
 internal  refervoirs  fimilar  to  thofe  of  birds,  would  foon  fuffb- 
 cate  him.  Neither  does  the  difiiculty  he  mentions,  with  re- 
 gard to  the  ftrudure  of  the  oftrich,  feem  to  contradict  his 
 theory  •,  for  though,  as  formerly  remarked,  the  oftrich  does 
 not  fly,  he  runs  with  aftonifhing  rapidity. 
 
OF   NATURAL   HISTORY.  l2^ 
 
 The  refpiratlon  of  air  is  not  only  neceflary  to  the  exift- 
 ence  of  land-animals,  but  to  that  of  fishes  ot  every  denomi- 
 nation. Coetaceous  fifties,  or  thofe  of  the  whale -kind,  ref- 
 plre,  like  man  and  quadrupeds,  by  means  of  lungs  ;  and,  of 
 courfe,  they  are  obliged,  at  certain  intervals,  to  come  to  the 
 furface,  in  order  to  throw  out  the  former  air,  and  to  take  in 
 a  frefh  fupply. 
 
 Inflead  of  lungs,  the  other  fpecies  of  fiihes  are  furniihed 
 with  gills,  through  which  they  refpire  both  water  and  air  ; 
 for  air  is  univerfally  difFufed  or  mixed  with  every  portion  of 
 water.  When  a  free  communication  with  the  external  air  is 
 prevented  by  ice,  or  by  artifice,  liflies  immediately  difcover 
 fymptoms  of  uneafinefs,  and  foon  perifli.  TElian  informs  us, 
 that,  in  winter,  when  the  river  Ifter  was  frozen,  the  fifhers 
 dug  holes  in  the  ice  ;  that  great  numbers  of  fiihes  reforted 
 to  thefe  holes  ;  and  that  their  eagernefs  was  fo  great,  that 
 they  allowed  themfelves  to  be  feized  by  the  hands  of  the 
 fifhermen.  Rondeletius  made  many  experiments  on  this 
 fubjecl.  If,  fays  he,  fifhes  are  put  into  a  narrow-mouthed 
 vefTel  filled  with  water,  and  a  communication  with  the  air  be 
 preferved,  the  animals  live,  and  fwim  about,  not  for  days  and 
 months  only,  but  for  feveral  years.  If  the  mouth  of  the  vef- 
 fel,  however,  be  fo  clofely  fhut,  either  with  the  hand,  or  any 
 other  covering,  that  the  pafTage  of  the  air  is  excluded,  the 
 fifties  fuddenly  die.  Immediatsly  after  the  mouth  of  the 
 veffel  is  clofed,  the  creatures  rufh  tumultuoufly,  one  above 
 another,  to  the  top,  contending  which  of  them  fhall  foonefl 
 receive  the  benefit  of  the  air*.  In  the  fliallow  parts  of  riv- 
 ers, when  frozen,  many  fifhes  are  found  dead.  But,  when 
 parts  of  a  river  are  deep  or  rapid,  the  fifhes  fly  from  the  ice, 
 and  by  this  means  avoid  deftruflion. 
 
 Thefe^  and  fimilar  experiments,  have  been  repeated  by  Mr. 
 Willoughby,  and  many  other  authors  5  and  they  have  uni- 
 
 *  Rondeietius,  lib,  4.  cap.  9. 
 
 Q 
 
If0  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fbrmly  been  attended  with  the  fame  event.  A  carp,  iri  a 
 large  vefTel  full  of  water,  was  placed  in  the  receiver  of  an- 
 air-pump.  In  proportion  as  the  air  was  exhaufted  by  work- 
 ing the  pump,  the  furface  of  the  animal's  body  was  covered 
 with  a  number  of  bubbles.  The  carp  loon  breathed  quicker, 
 and  with  more  difficulty  :  A  little  after,  it  rofe  to  the  fur- 
 face  in  queft  of  air.  The  bubbles  on  its  furface  next  difap- 
 peared  \  the  belly,  which  before  was  greatly  fwoUen,  fudden- 
 ly  collapfed  ;  and  the  animal  funk  to  the  bottom,  and  expir- 
 ed in  convulfions. 
 
 Thus  the  refpiration  of  air  is  as  necefTary  to  the  exiftence 
 of  fifhes  as  to  that  of  land-animals  ;  for  none  of  them  can 
 live  long  when  deprived  of  this  vivifying  element.  Fiflies, 
 indeed,  feem  to  require  a  fmaller  quantity  of  air  than  ani- 
 mals who  have  a  conftant  and  free  communication  with  the 
 atmofphere.  The  bodies  and  fluids  of  fifhes  are  colder  than 
 thofe  of  land-animals  ;  a^d,  of  courfe,  if  Do£lor  Crawford's 
 theory  be  well  founded,  iiflies  require  lefs  air  to  fupport  the 
 proportionally  fmall  quantity  of  heat  they  pofTefs. 
 
 An  analogy  between  fifhes  and  birds  deferves  here  to  be 
 noticed.  Both  of  thefe  clafTes  of  animals  are  rapid  in  their 
 motions  ;  and  both  of  them^  befide  refpiring  by  lungs  or 
 gills,  have  receptacles  of  air  within  their  bodies.  Fifhes 
 tranfmi^  fmall  quantities  of  air  through  their  gills  ;  but  Na- 
 ture has  provided  mofl  of  them  with  air-bags  or  bladders, 
 which  may  anfwer  the  double  purpofe  of  enabling  them  to 
 afcend  and  defcend  in  the  water,  and  to  communicate  a  vital 
 principle  to  their  \thole  fyflem. 
 
 We  fhall  conclude  this  fubje(St  with  an  account  of  the 
 modes  employed  by  Nature  for  tranfmitting  air  into  the  bo- 
 dies of  INSECTS. 
 
 In  this  feemingly  contemptible,  and  often  noxious  clafs  of 
 sbnimals.  Nature  has  exhibited  a  wonderful  diverfity  of  form, 
 «f  manners,  of  inftinds,  of  deformity,  and  of  beauty.     But, 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  I?? 
 
 however  inflgnliicant  thefe  creatures  may  appear  to  inatten-f 
 tive  obfervers,  Nature  has  been  equally  provident  in  the  for- 
 mation of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  means  of  preferving  the 
 different  individuals,  according  to  their  kinds,  as  in  the 
 larger  animals,  which  have  the  appearance  of  more  import- 
 ance in  the  fcale  of  being.  To  infe<Sts  fhe  has  denied  lungs 
 iimilar  to  thofe  of  men,  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fiihes  ;  but, 
 as  the  tranfmiilion  of  air  into  their  bodies  was  necefTary  to 
 continue  the  principle  of  life,  fhe  has  furnilhed  them  with 
 peculiar  inftruments  and  apparatus  for  accomplifliing  this  in- 
 difpenlible  purpofe. 
 
 Air  is  conveyed  into  the  bodies  of  infefts  by  inftruments 
 called  tracheae  or  Jl'igmata,  The  tracheae,  or  wind-pipes,  are, 
 in  many  infedls,  long  tubes  protruding  externally  from  differ- 
 ent parts  of  the  body.  In  fome,  they  proceed  from  the 
 pofterior  part,  and  have  the  appearance  of  one,  two,  or  three 
 tails  J  in  others,  they  arife  from  the  back  or  fides.  The 
 iligmata  are  fmall  holes,  generally  of  a  different  colour  from 
 the  reft  of  the  body,  and  run  along  the  fides  of  many  cater- 
 pillars in  regular  and  beautifully  dotted  lines.  That  theie 
 tracheae  and  ftigmata  are  deftined  for  the  tranfmiilion  of  air, 
 has  been  proved  by  repeated  experiments  ;  for,  when  ftopped. 
 up  by  the  application  of  oil,  or  other  unduous  fubftances,  the 
 animals  foon  loofe  their  exiftence. 
 
 In  contemplating  the  parts  of  animals,  when  the  ufes  of 
 thefe  parts  are  not  apparent,  we  are  apt  to  deceive  ourfeke* 
 by  rafhly  fuppofing  them  to  anfwer  purpofes  for  which  they 
 were  never  intended  by  Nature.  Impreffed  with  this  idea, 
 M.  de  Reaurhur  was  not  fatisfied  with  the  notion  of  Goedart 
 and  others,  that  the  long  tails  of  certain  worms  were  intend- 
 ed to  keep  them  fteady  in  their  motions,  and  to  prevent 
 them  from  rolling.  Reaumur  obferved,  that  thefe  worms 
 or  grubs  could  lengthen  or  fliorten  their  tails  at  pleafure, 
 but  that  they  were  always  longer  thaii  the  animal's  body. 
 
12S  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Becaufe  thefe  tails  have  feme  refemblance  to  that  of  a  rat, 
 he  diftingulfhes  the  animals  by  the  name  of  rat-tailed  luorms, 
 Thefe  worms  are  aquatic,  and  never  appear  on  dry  ground 
 till  they  are  about  to  undergo  their  firil  transformation. 
 Reaumur,  in  order  to  obferve  their  oeconomy  more  clofely, 
 collected  a  number  of  rat-tailed  worms,  and  put  them  into  a  glafs 
 velTel  filled  two  inches  high  with  water.  At  firfl  they  were 
 conflderably  agitated,'  each  feemingly  fcoirching  for  a  proper 
 place  of  repofe.  Some  of  them  fwam  acrofs^  others  attached 
 themfelves  to  the  fides,  and  others  refled  at  the  bottom  of 
 the  vefTel.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour  they  were  almofl:  entirely 
 tranquil,  and  Reaumur  foon  difcovered  the  real  ufe  of  their 
 long  tails.  Upon  examining  the  vefTel,  he  found  that  each 
 of  the  animals;  in  whatever  lituation  they  were  placed,  ex- 
 tended its  tail  exa<5lly  to  the  furface  j  that,  like  other  aquatic 
 infecTtB,  t\x<i  refpiration  of  air  v^'as  neceffary  to  their  exifl- 
 encQ  ;  and  that  the  tail,  which  is  tubular,  and  open  at  the 
 extremity,  was  the  organ  by  which  this  operation  was  per- 
 formed. In  this  experiment,  the  difiance  from  the  bottom 
 to  the  furface  was  two  inches,  and,  of  courfe,  the  tails  were 
 of  an  equal  length.  To  difcover  how  far  the  animals  could 
 extend  their  tails,  this  mofl  ingenious  and  indefatigable  phi- 
 lofopher  gradually  augmented  the  height  of  the  water,  and 
 the  tails  uniformly  rofe  to  the  furface  till  it  was  between  five 
 and  fix  inches  high.  When  the  water  was  raifed  higher, 
 the  animals  immediately  quitted  their  flation  at  the  bottom, 
 and  either  mounted  higher  in  the  water,  or  fixed  upon  the 
 fides  of  the  vefTel,  in  fituations  which  rendered  it  conve- 
 nient for  them  to  reach  the  furface  with  the  points  of  their 
 tails.  Thefe  tails  confift  of  two  tubes,  both  of  which  are 
 capable  of  extenfion  and  contradion.  The  firfl  tube  is  al- 
 ways vifible  ;  but  the  fecond,  which  is  the  proper  organ  of 
 refpiration,  is  exferted  only  when  the  water  is  raifed  to  a  cer- 
 tain height.     Through  this   tube  the  air  is   conveyed  into 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  IgJJ 
 
 two  large  tracheae  or  wind-pipes  within  the  body  of  the  ani-». 
 mal,  and  maintains  the  principle  of  life.  When  the  tails  are 
 below  the  furface,  they  occalionally  emit  fmall  bubbles  of 
 air,  which  are  vilible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  and  immediately  re- 
 pair to  the  furface  for  frefli  fupplies.  Thefe  rat-tailed  worms 
 pafs  the  iirli;  and  longefl  part  of  their  lives  under  water  5 
 when  near  the  time  of  their  transformation,  they  leave  the 
 water,  go  under  the  ground,  and  are  there  tranformed  into 
 chryfalids  ;  and,  laRly,  from  this  {late  they  are  transformed 
 hito  flies,  and  fpend  the  remainder  of  their  exiftence  in  the 
 air. 
 
 Another  fpecies  of  aquatic  worms  merit  attention.  They 
 frequent  marilies,  ditches,  and  flagnating  waters.  Their  gen- 
 eral colour   is   a   jrreenilh  brown.     Their  bodies  condft  of 
 
 o 
 
 eleven  rings  •,  and  their  ikin  is  not  cruftaceous,  but  rather 
 refembles  parchment.  Though  tliefe  animals,  before  their 
 transformation  into  flies,  live  in  Vv'ater,  air  is  neceilary  to  fbp? 
 port  their  principle  of  life  •,  and  the  apparatus  with  whicl^ 
 Nature  has  farnillied  them  for  that  important  purpofe  de^ 
 ferves  our  notice.  The  b.ft  ring,  or  termination  of  their 
 bodies,  is  open,  and  ferves  as  a  conductor  of  air.  From  this 
 laft  ring  proceed  a  number  of  hairs,  which,  when  examined 
 by  the  microfcope,  are  found  to  be  real  feathers  with  regu^ 
 lar  vanes.  In  particular  iituations,  they  bend  the  lafi  ring 
 in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  reach  the  furface  of  the  water  or 
 mud  in  which  they  are  placed.  Thefe  feathers  prevent  the 
 water  from  entering  into  the  tube,  or  organ  of  refpiration  ; 
 and,  when  the  animal  raifes  the  termination  of  its  body  to 
 the  furface,  in  order  to  receive  air,  it  ere£ts  and  fpreads  the 
 feathers,  and  by  this  means  expofes  the  end  of  the  tube  to 
 the  atmofphere.  When  cautioufly  cut  open,  two  large  \ei~ 
 fels,  or  tracheae,  appear  on  each  fide,  and  occupy  almoft  one 
 half  of  the  body.  Both  of  thefe  wind-pipes  terminate  in  the 
 ©pen  tube,  or  lafl  ring.     Though  thefe  worms  are  furniflied 
 
ISO  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 with  organs  of  refpiration,  and  a£lually  refpire  air,  yet  M.  de 
 Reaumur  difcoverered  that  fome  of  them  could  live  more 
 than  twenty-four  hours  without  refpiration. 
 
 So  anxious  is  Nature  to  provide  animals,  in*  every  ftate  of 
 their  exiftence,  with  air,  that,  after  the  transformation  of 
 many  infe^ls  into  chryfalids,  fhe  creates  inftruments  for  that 
 purpofe,  which  did  not  exill  previous  to  their  transforma- 
 tion. The  rat-tailed  worms,  formerly  mentioned,  foon  after 
 they  are  transformed  into  chryfalids,  inflead  of  a  foft  pliable 
 Ikin,  are  covered  with  a  hard  cruftaceous  fubftance,  feeming- 
 ly  impervious  to  the  air ;  and  the  tail,  which  was  the  wind- 
 pipe of  the  animal  in  its  firft  ftate,  gradually  vanifhes.  In  a 
 few  hours,  however,  four  hollow  horns  fhoot  out,  two  from 
 the  fore,  and  two  from  the  hind,  part  of  what  was  the  head 
 of  the  animal.  Thefe  horns,  which  are  hard  and  tubular, 
 M.  de  Reaumur  difcovered  to  be  real  wind-pipes,  deftlned 
 for  the  introdudlion  of  air  into  the  cbryfulis,  a  llate  in  which 
 the  animals  have  the  appearance  of  being  almoft  totally  dead, 
 and,  of  courfe,  fhould  feem  to  have  little  ufe  for  refpira- 
 tion. He  likewife  difcovered  that  thefe  horns,  which  hrid 
 pierced  the  hard  exterior  covering,  terminated  in  as  many 
 tracheae  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  This  faft  affords  a 
 ftrong  example  of  the  neceility  of  air  for  fuftaining  the  prin- 
 ciple of  life,  even  in  its  loweft  condition.  After  thefe  ani- 
 mals pafs  from  the  chryfalis  ftate  to  that  of  flies,  they  are 
 deprived  both  of  their  tails  and  horns.  But  Nature,  in  this 
 laft  ftage  of  their  exiftence,  has  not  left  them  without  proper 
 refources  for  the  introduction  of  air  into  their  bodies.  In- 
 ftead  of  protuberant  tracheae  in  the  form  of  tails  or  horns, 
 they  now,  like  other  flies,  receive  air  by  means  of  ftigmata, 
 or  holes,  varioufly  difpofed  over  different  parts  of  the  body. 
 
 The  nymph  of  the  libella,  or  dragon-fly,  refpires  water, 
 in  the  fame  manner  as  men  and  quadrupeds  refpire  air.  Wo 
 r?c9iye  and  throw  out  the  air  hy  the  mouth  and  noftrils^ 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  131 
 
 Btlt  the  nymphs  or  the  llbella  receive  and  ejeCt  water  by  an 
 aperture  at  the  termination  of  their  bodies.  Thefe  nymphs 
 fometimes  throw  out  the  water,  at  certain  intervals,  with 
 fuch  force,  that  the  ftream  is  perceptible  at  the  diftance  of 
 two  or  three  inches  from  their  bodies.  "When  kept  fome 
 time  out  of  water,  the  defire  or  neceffity  of  refpiration  is 
 augmented  ;  and,  accordingly,  when  replaced  in  a  vefTel  fil- 
 led with  water,  infpirations  and  refpirations  are  repeated 
 with  unufual  force  and  frequency.  If  you  hold  one  of  thefe 
 nymphs  in  your  hand,  and  apply  drops  of  water  to  the  pofte- 
 rior  end  of  its  body,  it  inftantly,  by  an  apparatus  fimilar  to 
 the  pifton  of  a  pump,  fucks  in  the  water,  and  the  dimenfions 
 of  its  body  are  vifibly  augmented.  This  water  is  again 
 quickly  thrown  out  by  the  fame  inftrument.  But,  though 
 this  infefl  refpires  water,  air  feems  to  be  not  the  lefs  necef<» 
 fary  to  its  exiftence  ;  for,  like  other  infefls,  the  whole  inte- 
 rior part  of  its  body  is  amply  provided  with  large  and  con- 
 voluted tracheae  ;  and,  externally,  there  are  feveral  ftigmata 
 deftined  for  the  introdudtion  of  air*. 
 
 The  worms,  or  nymphs,  of  the  ephemeron  flies  merit  at* 
 tention.  They  have  received  the  denomination  o£  ephemeron, 
 becaufe  almoft  none  of  them  furvive  the  day  in  which  they 
 are  transformed  into  flies.  But  many  of  them  Uve  not  one 
 hour  after  their  transformation.  When  in  the  worm  and 
 nymph  fhates,  they  generally  live  in  holes  near  the  fur  face  of 
 the  water  ;  and,  under  thefe  two  forms,  continue  to  grow 
 till  they  are  mature  for  pafllng  into  the  lafl:  and  fliortefl:  pe- 
 tiod  of  their  exiftence.  Swammerdam  informs  us,  that  fome 
 of  them  remain  three  years  under  water,  others  two,  and 
 others  one  only.  During  their  abode  in  this  element,  they 
 are  nouriflied  and  prepared  for  their  laft  and  fatal  change. 
 Immediately  after  the  males  have  joined  their  mates,  and  the 
 females  have  depoflted  their  eggs  in  the  water,  both  periib, 
 *  Reaumur,  torn.  xa.  page  187.  i^mo  edition. 
 
132  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 but  not  b2fore  they  have  left  the  rudiments  of  a  numerous 
 race  of  fuccelTors.  As  long  as  thefe  infe£ls  live  in  the  water, 
 to  inattentive  obfervers,  their  general  appearance  is  nearly 
 the  fame.  When  they  have  paiTed,  however,  into  nymphs, 
 the  veftiges  of  wings  may  be  perceived,  which  we  look  for 
 in  vain  during  their  firil:  or  worm  ftate.  In  both  ftates,  the 
 infect  which  is  to  become  an  ephemcron  fly  has  fix  legs  at- 
 tached to  the  breaft.  The  head  is  triangular,  and  from  the 
 bafe  of  each  eye  proceeds  an  articulated  feeler.  The  body 
 is  compofed  of  ten  rings,  from  the  laft  of  which  three  tails, 
 that  probably  perform  the  office  of  tracheae,  arife.  Thefe 
 tails,  in  fome  fpecies,  are  as  long  as  the  animal's  body,  and 
 are  fringed  with  hairs  which  have  a  refemblance  to  feathers. 
 But  what  principally  deferves  our  notice  on  this  fubjecl  is, 
 that,  on  each  fide  of  the  body,  there  are  fix  or  {even  protu- 
 berances, which  have  the  appearance  of  fo  many  oars.  With 
 thefe  inftruments  the  animals  defcrlbe  arches  in  the  water, 
 iirft  on  one  fide,  and  then  on  the  other,  with  afi:onifliing  ra- 
 pidity. This  circumftance  led  Clutius,  and  fome  other 
 authors,  to  think  that  thefe  protuberances  were  fins,  or  in- 
 ftruments of  motion,  and  that  the  animals  were  fiflies.  But 
 Reaumur  remarked  that  they  moved  thefe  fins  with  the 
 fame  rapidity  when  the  animals  were  at  refi:  as  when  they 
 were  in  motion  ;  and  that,  inftead  of  fins,  when  examined 
 by  the  microfcope,  he  difcovered  them  to  be  gills,  through 
 \vhich  the  creatures  refplre.  Each  gill  confifts  of  a  fliort 
 trunk,  and  two  large  branches,  or  tubes,  which  give  off  on 
 all  fides  a  number  of  fmaller  ramifications,  and  are  perfeaiy 
 fimilar  to  the  tracheae  of  other  infers.  At  the  origin  of 
 every  gill,  two  tracheae  penetrate  the  trunk,  and  are  difperf- 
 ed  through  the  body  of  the  animal. 
 
 Though  the  ftigmata,  or  refpiratory  organs,  of  caterpillars 
 and  other  infe(Sls,  were  long  known  to  ferve  the  purpofe  of 
 infpiration,  yet  it  was  uncertain  whether  the  animals  refpired 
 
OF   NATURAL    KISfOllY.  133 
 
 by  the  fame  orifices,  till  Bonnet,  and,  after  him,  Reaumur, 
 afcertained  the  fact  by  many  curious  and  accurate  experi- 
 ments. The  firft  of  thefe  authors  immerfcd  numbers  of 
 caterpillars,  of  different  kinds,  and  at  different  times,  in 
 water,  and  he  obferved,  both  with  the  naked  eye,  and  by  the 
 affilf  ance  of  a  glafs,  bubbles  of  air  ifTuing  from  various  parts 
 of  their  bodies,  and  particularly  from  the  ftigmata.  To  re- 
 move all  deception  from  his  experiments  before  immerlion, 
 he  carefully  moiftened  the  caterpillars  with  water,  in  order 
 to  diflod^e  any  portions  of  the  external  air  that  might  be  ad- 
 hering to  their  bodies.  Some  of  them  he  allowed  to  remain 
 fo  long  under  water,  that  they  had  every  appearance  of  death. 
 He  then  raifed  the  head  and  the  two  anterior  fligmata  above 
 the  furface.  The  head,  and  firft  pair  of  legs,  foon  began  to 
 move  from  fide  to  fide  ;  and  the  body  necefTarily  partook  of 
 the  fame  motions.  During  thefe  movements,  many  bubbles 
 of  air  ifTued  from  the  poilerior  and  intermediate  ftigmata, 
 which  ftiil  remained  under  water ;  but  the  membranous  limbs 
 continued  nearly  at  reft.  He  next  kept  a  caterpillar  under 
 water  till  all  motion  was  fufpended.  Then  he  elevated  the 
 anus  and  the  two  laft  ftigmata  above  the  furface,  that  they 
 might  have  a  communication  with  the  external  air.  He 
 kept  the  animal  in  this  fituation  about  half  an  hour,  without 
 any  fymptoms  of  re-animation.  After  raifing  the  body  fuc- 
 ceffively  from  the  laft  to  the  firft  pair  of  ftigmata,  ftill  the 
 animal  exhibited  no  fymptoms  of  life  *,  but,  when  he  expof- 
 ed  the  whole  body  to  the  external  air  for  half  an  hour,  the 
 powers  of  life  completely  returned.  After  fufpending  the 
 caterpillar  about  two  hours  with  the  laft  five  pair  of  ftigma- 
 ta above  the  furface,  he  found  that  life  was  not  extinguiflied. 
 He  then  raifed  the  water  till  the  anus  and  laft  pair  of  ftigma- 
 ta only  were  expofed  to  the  atmofphere.  He  allowed  the 
 caterpillar  to  remain  in  this  fituation  more  than  half  an  hour  ; 
 and  he  obferved  that  it  often  bended  its  body  with  a  view  to 
 
 R 
 
i34t  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 reach  the  furface,  and  that,  during  thefe  efForts,  bubbles  oi 
 air  ifTued  from  the  anterior,  but  not  from  the  pofterior  ftig- 
 mata.  He  Hkewife  remarked,  that,  on  the  fmalleft  motion 
 of  the  animal,  thefe  bubbles  were  difcharged,  but  that  they 
 were  augmented  both  in  quantity  and  fize,  in  proportion  to 
 the  agitations  of  the  body.  M.  Bonnet  immediately  raifed 
 the  water  till  it  covered  the  two  laft  ftigmata  ;  the  caterpil- 
 lar was  violently  agitated  j  but  no  bubbles  of  air,  the  com- 
 munication being  cut  off,  appeared,  and  all  motion  ceafed. 
 He  inftantly  lowered  the  water,  and  expofed  the  two  pofte- 
 rior  ftigmata  to  the  air  ;  the  animal  refumed  its  movements  j 
 but  in  a  moment  after  it  expired.  By  another  experiment, 
 M.  Bonnet  difcovered  that  a  caterpillar  lived  eight  days  fuf- 
 pended  in  water,  during  all  which  time  it  breathed  folely  by 
 the  two  pofterior  ftigmata. 
 
 After  thefe,  and  many  other  facts  of  a  ftmilar  kind,  which 
 demonftrate  that  air  is  neceflary  for  the  fupport  and  contiua- 
 tion  of  animal  life,  it  fhall  only  be  remarked,  that,  when  cat- 
 erpillars undergo  their  laft  change,  and  appear  in  the  form 
 of  flies  of  every  denomination.  Nature  has  ftill  furnilhed  them 
 with  ftigmata,  or  refpiratory  organs. 
 
 Reptiles  of  all  kinds  are  hkewife  furnifhed  with  organs  of 
 fefpiration.  Land-fnails,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  bury 
 themfelves  in  the  earth,  or  retire  into  holes  of  rocks,  or  of 
 old  buildings,  where  they  remain  in  a  torpid  ftate  during  the 
 feverity  of  the  feafon.  For  protection  and  warmth,  thefe 
 animals,  when  they  go  into  their  Winter  habitations,  form,  by 
 means  of  a  flime  or  faliva  that  iflues  from  every  pore  of  theii* 
 bodies,  a  membranous  cover  which  ftops  up  the  moiiths  of 
 their  fhells.  But  this  pellicle  or  cover,  though  apparently 
 pretty  hard  and  folid,  is  fo  thin  and  porous  as  not  entirely  to 
 exclude  the  entrance  of  air,  without  which  the  principle  of 
 life  could  not  be  continued.  Accordingly,  when,  by  acci- 
 dent the  pellicle  is  made  too  thick,  and  prevents  a  communi- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  %$$ 
 
 «atIon  with  the  external  air,  the  animal,  to  remedy  the  evil, 
 makes  a  fmall  aperture  in  its  cover.  In  this  ftate  fnails  re- 
 main fix  or  feven  months,  without  food  or  motion,  till  the 
 genial  warmth  of  the  fpring  breaks  their  flumber,  and  calls 
 forth  their  active  powers.  Hence  it  fhould  appear,  that  air  is 
 more  neceflary  to  the  prefervation  of  animal  life  than  food 
 itfelf  ;  for,  in  numberlefs  inftances,  animals  can  live,  not  for 
 days  or  weeks,  but  for  months,  without  fupplies  of  nour- 
 ifliment.  None  of  them,  however,  are  capable  of  exifting 
 nearly  fo  long  without  having  fome  communication  with 
 the  air. 
 
 With  regard  to  fnails  that  live  in  frefh  waters,  or  in  the 
 ocean,  the  fpecies  of  which  are  numerous,  their  manner  of 
 refpiring  is  lingular.  All  of  them  have  an  aperture  on  the 
 right  fide  of  the  neck.  This  aperture  ferves  the  complicat- 
 ied  purpofes  of  difcharging  the  faeces,  of  lodging  the  organs 
 of  generation,  of  afcending  and  defcending  in  the  water, 
 and  of  refpiration.  They  are  frequently  obferved  to  fi:rait- 
 pn  the  orifice  of  this  aperture,  to  ftretch  it  out  in  the  form 
 of  an  oblong  tube  ;  and,  in  this  {late,  they  rife  to  the  fur- 
 face,  in  order  to  expel  the  former  air,  and  take  in  a  new 
 fupply. 
 
 But,  though  air  feems  to  be  an  indifpenfible  principle  of 
 animal  life,  yet  many  animals  can  live  longer  without  the  ufe 
 of  this  element,  or  at  leaft  with  fmaller  quantities  of  it,  than 
 others.  Even  men,  by  long  pradlice,  acquire  the  faculty  of 
 retaining  the  air  in  their  lungs  for  an  almoft  incredible  length 
 of  time.  Some  of  thofe  wretched  creatures  who  are  com- 
 pelled by  tyranny  to  dive  for  pearl-oyfters,  have  been  known 
 to  continue  under  water  three  quarters  of  an  hour  without 
 receiving  a  frefh  fupply  of  air.  Thofe  animals  which  lie 
 torpid  during  the  winter,  as  the  hedge-hog,  the  4ormoufe, 
 the  marmot,  &c.  though  perhaps  not  entirely  deprived  of  all 
 communication  with  the  air,  exift,  without  any  apparent 
 
136  THE   PrflLOSOPHY 
 
 breathing,  till  the  heat  of  the  fpring  reflores  their  wonted 
 powers  of  life,  when  the  refpiration  of  air  becomes  again 
 equally  neceffary  as  before  their  torpor  commenced.  The 
 toad,  like  all  the  frog-kind,  is  torpid  in  winter.  At  the  ap- 
 proach of  winter,  the  toad  retires  to  the  hollow  root  of  a  tree, 
 to  the  cleft  of  a  rock,  and  fometimes  to  the  bottom  of  a  ditch 
 or  pond,  where  it  remains  for  months  in  a  ftate  of  feeming  in- 
 feniibility.  In  this  laft  fituation,  it  can  have  very  little  com- 
 munication with  the  air.  But  ftill  the  principle  of  life,  is 
 continued,  and  the  animal  revives  in  the  fpring.  What  is 
 more  wonderful,  toads  have  been  founds  in  a  hundred  place? 
 of  the  globe,  inclofed  in  the  heart  of  folid  rocks,  and  in  the 
 bodies  of  trees,  where  they  have  been  fuppofed  to  exiil:  for 
 centuries,  without  any  apparent  accefs  either  to  nourlflnnent 
 or  to  air  ;  and  yet  they  were  alive  and  vigorous.  In  the 
 Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  year  1719,  we 
 have  an  account  of  a  toad  found  alive,  and  healthy,  in  the 
 heart  of  an  old  elm.  Another,  in  the  year  1731,  was  dif- 
 covered,  near  Nantz,  in  the  heart  of  an  old  oak,  without  any 
 vifible  entrance  to  its  habitation.  From  the  fize  of  the  tree, 
 it  was  concluded,  that  the  animal  muft  have  been  confined  in 
 that  fituation  at  leaft  eighty  or  a  hundred  years.  In  the 
 many  examples  of  toads  found  in  folid  rocks,  exact  impref- 
 fions  of  the  animals  bodies,  correfponding  to  their  refpe£live 
 fizes  were  uniformly  left  in  the  {lones  or  trees  from  which 
 they  were  diflodged  ;  and,  to  this  day,  it  is  faid,  that  there  is  a 
 marble  chimney-piece  at  Chatfworth  with  a  print  of  a  toad 
 in  it  ;  and  a  traditionary  account  of  the  place  and  manner  in 
 which  it  was  difcovered. 
 
 Thefe,  and  fimilar  fa61s,  are  fupported  by  authorities  fo 
 numerous  and  fo  refpecStable,  that  it  is  unneceiTary  to  quote 
 them.  Many  abortive  attempts  have  been  made  to  account 
 for  an  animal's  growing  and  living  very  long  in  the  fituationg 
 above  defcyibed,  without  the  poffibility  of  receiving  notiriQi-. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  137 
 
 inent  or  air  ;  efpecially  as,  like  all  other  animals,  when  put 
 into  an  exhaufted  receiver,  the  toad  foon  lofes  its  exiftence. 
 Upon  this  fubjedl  I  fhall  only  hazard  two  obfervations.  The 
 toad,  it  is  well  known,  when  kept  in  a  damp  place,  can  live 
 feveral  months  without  food  of  any  kind,  though,  in  its  ftate 
 of  natural  liberty,  it  devours  voracioufly  fpiders,  maggots, 
 ants,  and  other  infects.  Here  we  have  an  inftance,  and  there' 
 are  many,  of  an  animal  whofe  conftitution  is  fo  framed  by 
 Nature,  that  it  can  exift. feveral  months  without  receiving 
 any  portion  of  food.  According  to  our  ideas  of  the  necefiity 
 of  frequent  fupplies  of  nourishment,  it  is  nearly  as  difficult 
 for  us  to  conceive  an  abftinence  of  four  or  fix  months  as  one 
 of  as  many  years,  or  even  centuries.  The  one  fasSl,  therer 
 fore,  though  we  are  unable  to  account  for  either,  may  be  as 
 readily  admitted  as  the  other.  The  fame  remark  is  equally 
 applicable  to  the  regular  refpiration  of  air.  The  toad,  and 
 many  other  animals,  from  fome  peculiarity  in  their  confii- 
 tution,  can  live  very  long  in  a  torpid  ftate  without  fecming 
 to  refpire,  and  yet  their  principle  of  life  is  not  entirely  extinr 
 guifhed.  Hence  the  toad  may,  and  adlually  does,  live  many 
 years  in  fituations  which  exclude  a  free  intercourfe  v/ith  the 
 external  air.  Befides,  almoft  all  the  above,  and  fimiiar  fadls, 
 mufb,  from  their  nature,  have  been  difcovered  by  commou 
 labourers,  who  are  totally  unqualified  for  examining  every 
 circumftance  with  the  difcerning  eye  of  a  philofopher.  In 
 rocks  there  are  many  chinks,  as  well  as  filTures,  both  hori- 
 zontal and  perpendicular ;  and  in  old  trees  nothing  is  more 
 frequent  than  holes  and  vacuities  of  different  dimenfions,. 
 Through  thefe  fifTures  and  vacuities  the  eggs  of  toads  may  ac- 
 cidentally be  conveyed  by  water,  the  penetration  of  whick 
 few  fubftances  are  capable  of  refifting.  After  the  eggs  ar^ 
 hatched,  the  animals  may  receive  moifture,  and  fmall  por^ 
 tions  of  air,  through  the  crevices  of  rocks,  or  the  channel* 
 ^f  aged  trees.     But  I  mean  not  to  perfuade  j  for  I   canuoi 
 
J 38  «*HE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fatisfy  myfelf.  All  I  Intend  is  to  recommend,  to  thofe  genr 
 tlemen  who  may  hereafter  chance  to  fee  fuch  rare  phae^ 
 nomena,  aftri£^  examination  of  every  circumflance  that  can 
 throw  light  on  a  fubject  fo  dark  and  myfterious  -,  for  the 
 vulgar,  ever  inclined  to  render  uncommon  appearances  ftill 
 more  marvellous,  are  not  to  be  trufted. 
 
 From  the  fa6h  I  have  enumerated,  it  Is  apparent  that  air, 
 in  certain  proportions,  according  to  the  ftru<Sture  and  con- 
 ilitution  of  every  animated  being  of  which  we  have  any 
 knowledge,  is  indifpenfibly  neceffary  for  the  exiftence  and 
 continuation  of  animal  life.  Not  only  men,  quadrupeds, 
 birds,  fifhes,  reptiles,  and  the  larger  infe£ls,  but  even  fleas, 
 mites,  the  minute  eels  found  in  pafte  or  in  vinegar,  and  the 
 animalcules  produced  by  infufing  animal  or  vegetable  fub- 
 dances  in  water,  inevitably  perifh  when  deprived  of  this  all- 
 vivifying  element. 
 
 With  regard  to  plants,  air  is  fo  neceffary  to  their  exiftence, 
 that  they  do  not  vegetate  in  an  exhaufted  receiver.  Plants, 
 as  formerly  mentioned,  are  furniflied  with  numerous  air^ 
 vefTels,  or  refpiratory  organs.  They  abforb  and  tranfmit  air 
 through  every  pore.  When  placed  in  an  exhaufted  receiver, 
 the  air  contained  in  every  part  of  their  fubftance  is  foon  ex^ 
 trailed  ;  and,  in  proportion  as  this  air  Is  likewife  pumped  out 
 by  the  machine,  the  flowers  and  leaves  fhow  evident  fympr 
 toms  of  debility  jthey  become  flaccid,  pendulous,  and  aflTume 
 a  lickly  appearance  ;  and,  if  retained  in  that  iituation  a  cer- 
 tain length  of  time,  their  vegetating  powers  are  irrecoverably 
 extinguifhed. 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  as  the  air  we  continually  breathe  is  an 
 univerfal  menftruum,  and,  of  courfe,  liable  to  be  impregnat- 
 ed with  exhalations,  from  every  fubftance  to  which  It  has  ac- 
 cefs,  the  great  importance  of  a  perfonal,  as  well  as  of  domeftic 
 cleanhnefs,  is  an  obvious  reflexion.  In  building  towns  or 
 Jaoufes,  the  fituation,  with  regard  to  air,  is  a  capital  objedt? 
 
OF  NiTURAL    HISTORY.  l35 
 
 The  vicinity  of  marfhes,  of  ftagnating  waters,  of  manufac- 
 tures of  tallow,  oil,  fal  ammoniac,  the  fmelting  or  corroding 
 of  metals  of  every  kind,  and  many  other  operations  which 
 contaminate  the  air,  fhould  be  either  avoided  or  removed, 
 as  they  are  the  pefts  of  our  fenfes,  and  the  poifoners  of  our 
 conftitutions.  Even  in  northern  climates,  houfes  furrounded 
 with  trees,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  luxuriant  vegetables, 
 are  always  damp,  and  infefted  with  infefls  ;  and  hence  the 
 ambient  air  is  replete  with  the  feeds  of  difeafe.  Precautions 
 pf  this  kind  are  ftill  more  necefTary  in  hot  climates.  Air, 
 like  other  menftruums,  abforbs  a  greater  or  lefs  proportion 
 of  the  particles  of  bodies,  according  to  its  degree  of  heat. 
 In  Madrid,  however,  in  Conftantinople,  and  in  many  other 
 cities  of  warm  regions,  the  houfes  are  crouded  together,  the 
 ftreets  are  narrow,  and  covered  with  filth  of  every  kind.  We 
 cannot,  therefore,  be  furprifed,  that  human  beings  exifting  in 
 fuch  fituations  iJbould  be  fo  frequently  infeded  with  peftilen* 
 tial  difeafej* 
 
U^  I^HE  PHiLOSOPfit 
 
 CHAPTER     IV. 
 
 ^,,  Of  Motion, 
 
 JViOTION,  in  the  opinion  of  Ariftotle,  and  tli6 
 admirers  of  ancient  philofophy,  can  only  be  produced  by 
 mind  ;  and  hence  they  define  7nind  to  be  X\\q  power  of  mov^ 
 ing.  By  the  fame  mode  of  reafoning,  it  may  be  faid  that  ref^ 
 or  inaBivity^  is  the  power  of  being  moved.  But  fuch  fpeculations 
 are  foreign  to  the  nature  of  this  work,  and  perhaps  fruitlefs 
 in  themfelves.  Though  it  is  impoffible  to  give  an  unexcep- 
 -^ionable  definition  of  motion,  the  phaenomenon  itfelf  is  ob- 
 vious to  every  man's  fenfes. 
 
 All  the  terreftrial  objects  which  prefent  themfelves  to  our 
 obfervation  are,  with  regard  to  motion,  diflinguifhable  into 
 two  general  clafles.  The  firfi:  confifts  of  thofe  which  are 
 endowed  with  a  fpontaneous  or  felf-moving  power,  and  with 
 fome  qualities  and  affedtions  fimilar  to  thofe  of  our  minds. 
 The  fecond  confifts  of  all  thofe  obje£ls  in  which  no  fuch 
 qualities  and  afFe£lions  appear,  and  are  of  a  nature  fo  paffive, 
 that  they  never  move  of  themfelves,  nor,  when  put  in  mo- 
 tion, do  they  ever  ftop  without  fome  external  influence  or 
 refiftance.  The  firfl:  clafs  of  obje6ts,  from  their  pofTeffing 
 the  pov/er  of  fpontaneous  motion,  and  other  qualities  pecu- 
 liar to  animated  beings,  are  eafily  diftinguiflied  from  body, 
 or  matter,  which  is  totally  deprived  of  all  thefe  qualities. 
 In  confequence  of  its  paffive  nature,  matter  not  only  never 
 changes  its  ftate  without  external  force,  but  refifls  when  any 
 fuch  change  is  attempted  to  be  made.  When  at  refl,  it  can- 
 not be  put  in  motion  without  dfficulty  ;  and,  when  in  mo- 
 tion, a  certain  force  is  required  to  ftop  its  courfe.  The 
 force  with  which  matter  perfeveres  in  its  ftate,  and  refifls 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  141 
 
 any  change,  Is  called  its  vis  inertiaey  and  is  always  propor- 
 tional to  the  quantity  of  matter  in  any  particular  body. 
 When  we  double  or  triple  a  body,  we  uniformly  find,  that 
 the  force  reqiiilite  to  move  it  with  equal  celerity  muft  like- 
 wife  be  doubled  or  tripled.  Thefe,  and  fimilar  faifts,  which 
 are  refults  of  perpetual  experience,  fliow  that  body  is  equal- 
 ly indifferent  to  motion  and  reft  ;  that  this  indifference 
 feems  to  be  the  natural  confequence  q£  the  moft  abfolute 
 inactivity  •,  and  that  the  power  of  beginning  motion  is  pe- 
 culiar to  aiTbive  and  intelligent  beings.  Leaving,  therefore, 
 all  metaphyfical  fpeculations  on  this  fubjeiSt,  we  fhall  give 
 fome  remarks  upon  the  motions  of  animals. 
 
 In  general,  all  the  progrefUve  motions  of  animals  are  per- 
 formed by  the  inftrumentality  of  mufcles,  tendons,  and  arti- 
 culations. The  operation  of  mufcles  depends  upon  fome 
 unknown  influence  derived  to  them  from  the  brain  and 
 nerves.  Hence  the  brain  and  nerves  are  the  fources  of  every 
 motion  as  well  as  of  every  fenfation.  With  regard  to  the 
 caufes  which  determine  the  a6i:ions  of  animals,  thefe  muft  be 
 referred  to  fenfation,  and  the  confequent  exertions  of  intel- 
 le£l.  The  firft  impreflion  an  objedl  makes  upon  our  fenfa- 
 tions  ftimulates  us  either  to  approach  or  retire  from  it,  ac- 
 cording as  it  excites  afFe^ion  or  averfion.  Thefe  motions 
 neceffarily  refult  from  the  firli  imprelEon  made  by  the  ob- 
 ]eO:.  But  man,  and  many  other  animals,  have  the  power  of 
 reiifting  thefe  original  motives  to  acStion,  and  of  remaining 
 at  reft,  without  either  retiring  or  approaching.  <  If  a  man,' 
 fays  the   Count  de  BufFon,  <  were  deprived   of  fight,  he 
 
 <  would  make  no  movement  to  gratify  his  eyes.     The  fame 
 
 <  thing  would  happen,   if  he  were  deprived  of  any  of  the 
 
 <  other  fenfes  ;   and,  if  deprived  of  every  fenfe,  he  would 
 
 <  remain  perpetually  at  reft,  and  no  obje(5l  would  excite  him 
 
 <  to  move,  though,  by  natural  conformation,  he  were  fully 
 
 <  capable  of  motion.*     Natural  wants,  as  that  of  taking  nour- 
 
 S 
 
I#^  THE   PHILOSOrHY 
 
 iflitnent,  neceHarlly  excite  defu*e  or  appetite.  But,  if  a  man 
 be  deprived  of  feofation,  want  cannot  exiH:,  becaufe  all  its 
 fources  are  annihilated.  This  is  cutting  off  all  the  caufes, 
 and  at  the  fame  time  looking  for  the  effejTcs.  An  animal 
 witnout  fome  fenfation  is  no  animal,  but  a  dead  mafs  of  mat- 
 ter. Sentiment  is  the  only  flimulus  to  animal  motion  •,  the 
 aptnefs  of  the  parts  produces  the  cfFeft,  which  varies  accord^ 
 ing  to  the  ftruflure  and  deftination  of  thefe  parts.  The 
 fenfe  of  want  creates  defire.  Whenever  an  animal  perceives 
 an  obje(St  fitted  to  fupply  its  wants,  delire  is  the  neceffary 
 €onfequence,  and  action  or  motion  inftantly  fucceeds. 
 
 Belide  progreffive  motion,  the  motion  of  hands,  and  other 
 parts  of  animal  bodies,  which  are  all  effected  by  means  of 
 mufcles,  and  are  fubjeft  to  the  will  of  the  creatures  who  per- 
 form them,  there  are  other  motions  that  have  little  or  no 
 dependence  on  our  inclinations.  Of  this  kind  are  the  a6lion 
 of  the  heart,  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the  digeftion  of 
 food,  the  periftaltic  motion  of  the  bowels,  the  progrefs  of 
 the  chyle  from  the  ftomach  and  inteftines  to  the  fubclavian 
 vein,  the  movement  of  the  various  fecreted  liquors,  llich  as 
 the  gall,  the  urine,  the  faliva,  &c.  Thefe,  together  with  the 
 a6tion  of  the  lungs  in  refpiration,  have  received  the  denomi- 
 nation of  vital  and  invohmlary  motions^  becaufe  m.oll:  of  them 
 go  on  without  any  confcious  exertions  of  the  intelleclual 
 principle.  If  fuch  a  variety  of  nice  and  complicated  move- 
 ments had  been  left  to  the  determination  and  dire<51:ion  of 
 our  minds,  they  mud  neceffarily  have  occupied  too  much  of 
 our  attention  j  and  many  of  them  would  infallibly  have  been 
 negle£led  during  fleep,  wheri  confcioufnefs  is  often  tilmofi: 
 totally  fufpended.  But  Nature  in  her  operations  is  always 
 wife.  She  has  given  to  man,  and  other  animals,  the  direc- 
 tion of  no  movements  but  what  are  eafily  performed,  con- 
 tribute to  pleafure  and  health,  and  enable  them  to  acquire 
 food  correfponding  to  the  ftruclure  of  their  bodies  and  the 
 €\ements  in  which  they  live. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  143 
 
 It  never  was  my  intention,  and,  indeed,  it  would  have 
 been  foreign  to  tiie  defign  of  this  work,  and  ill  fuited  to  that 
 clafs  of  mankind  to  whom  I  wifli  chiefly  to  be  ufclul,  to  en- 
 ter into  the  rationale  of  animal  motion  ;  to  mention  the  num- 
 ber, infertion,  and  direction,  of  the  mufcles  employed  in 
 moving  the  different  parts  of  animated  bodies  ;  or  to  ac- 
 count for  the  modes  by  which  animals  walk,  leap,  fly,  fwim, 
 creep,  &c.  Such  difcuflions  would  not  only  require  a 
 volume,  but  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  the  depths  of 
 anatomical  and  mathematical  knowledge.  What  follows, 
 therefore,  will  confift  of  lome  defultory  obfervations  j  and 
 the  fubje£l  fliall  be  concluded  by  enumerating  a  few  exam- 
 ples of  movements  peculiar  to  certain  animals. 
 
 The  motions  of  animals  are  proportioned  to  their  weight 
 and  fl:ru£lure.  A  flea  can  leap  fome  hundred  times  its  own 
 length.  Were  an  elephant,  a  camel,  or  a  horfe,  to  leap  in 
 the  fame  proportion,  their  weight  would  crufli  them  to 
 atoms.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  fpiders,  worms, 
 and  other  infecls.  The  foftnefs  of  their  texture,  and  the 
 comparative  fmallnefs  of  their  fpecific  gravity,  enable  them 
 to  fall  with  impunity  from  heights  that  would  prove  fatal  to 
 larger  and  heavier  animals. 
 
 Motion  gives  birth,  perfe£\ion,  death,  and  reprodu6lion, 
 to  all  animal  and  vegetable  beings.  It  is  the  caufe  of  all 
 that  divernty  and  change  which  perpetually  aiFefl  every  ob- 
 je£l  in  the  univerfe.  The  globe  we  inhabit,  as  well  as  the 
 innumerable  and  ftupendous  heavenly  bodies  which  prefent 
 themfelves,  in  forms  apparently  minute  to  our  obfervation, 
 confl:antly  exhibit  motions  of  the  moft  inconceivable  rapidi- 
 ty. The  magnitude  of  this  earth,  when  coniidered  with  re- 
 lation to  man,  and  other  animals,  appears  to  be  exceedingly 
 great.  It  is  indeed  fufficiently  fpacious,  and  fufiicicntly  pro- 
 lific, for  the  conveniency  and  maintenance  of  its  inhabitants. 
 The  magnificent  objects  difplayed  on  its  furface  excite  the 
 
144?  TPE  PHitOSOPHT 
 
 admiration  of  every  beholder.  It's  plains  and  mountains,  its 
 rivers  and  lakes,  its  iflands  and  continents,  its  leas  and  oceans, 
 continually  folicit  attention,  gratify  curioiity,  and  call  forth 
 the  powers  of  reafon  and  refledlion.  But,  when  compared 
 to  the  other  heavenly  bodies,  the  number  and  m.agnitude  of 
 which  exceed  all  the  po^vers  of  human  conception,  the  gran- 
 deur of  our  earth  diminifhes.  Inftead  of  exciting  wonder, 
 it  almoft  vanifhes  from  our  fight.  Initead  of  an  immenfe 
 globe,  it  dwindles  into  a  point,  feems  to  occupy  nofpace,  and 
 lofes  itfelf  in  the  boundlefs  regions  of  the  univerfe,  Con- 
 iiderations  of  this  kind  are  apt  to  deprefs  the  dlrnity  of 
 man,  and  to  lelTen  his  importance  in  the  great  fcaie  of  be- 
 ing ;  but  they  expand  his  mental  faculties,  and  exalt  his 
 ideas  concerning  that  inconceivable  Power  which  firft  pro- 
 duced, and  {lUI  fupports,  thofe  aflonifiiing  orbs. 
 
 The  diiTerent  movements  to  which  animals  are  ftimulated 
 by  the  deiire  of  food,  by  love,  by  the  appetite  for  frolic  and 
 exercifc,  by  their  hoftilities,  and  by  other  exciting  caufes, 
 give  animation  and  vivacity  to  the  whole  fcene  of  nature. 
 A  filent  and  motionlefs  profpe<Sl,  however  beautiful  and  va- 
 riegated, foen  ceafes  to  pleafe,  and  at  laft  becomes  infupport- 
 able.  Motion,  fays  Mr.  Harris,  is  the  object  or  caufe  of  all 
 fenfation.  In  muiic  we  hear  it  ;  in  favours  we  tafte  it  ;  in 
 odors  vye  fmeU  it  ;   in  touch  we  feel  it  ;   in  light  we  fee  it. 
 
 Animals  furnifhed  with  deftru6live  weapons,  or  endowed 
 with  uncommon  ftrength,  courage, 'or  ingenuity,  are  propor- 
 tionally flower  in  their  movements  than  the  weaker  kinds. 
 The  fame  remark  Is  applicable  to  thofe  fpecies  whofe  food  is 
 always  at  hand.  Worms,  caterpillars,  and  many  other  in- 
 fects, in  order  to  procure  nourifhment,  are  under  no  neceffi- 
 ty  of  taking  an  extenfive  range.  But  the  motions  of  birds 
 attd  fillies  are  extremely  rapid  ;  becaufe,  in  quefl  of  food, 
 they  are  obliged  to  pafs  through  large  tracks,  and  they  have 
 ^Ifp  many  energies  to  avoid. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  14^ 
 
 Timid  animals,  as  tiie  hare,  the  rabbit,  the  Guiney-pig, 
 ^c.  are  almoft  perpetually  in  motion.  Even  when  perfedly 
 undifturbed,  they  are  refllefs,  and  betray  a  continual  anxiety 
 of  danger.  They  run  about,  flop  fhort,  eredt  their  ears 
 and  liften.  The  Guiney-pig  frequently  raifes  itfelf  on  its 
 hind  legs,  and  fnufFs  all  around  to  catch  the  fcent  of  food 
 when  hungry,  or  to  increafe  its  circle  of  hearing  when  afraid. 
 
 The  movements  of  many  animals  are  fo  extremely  flow, 
 that  fome  of  them,  particularly  thofe  of  the  fhell  tribes,  are 
 generally  fuppofed  to  be  deftitute  of  the  power  of  moving, 
 It  is  a  common  notion,  that  both  frefli  and  fait  water  muf^ 
 cles  have  not  the  locomotive  faculty.  But  this  is  a  vulgar 
 error.  It  is  almOft  unneceiTary  to  mention,  that  the  exte- 
 rior part  of  mufcles  confifts  of  two  fhells  hinged  together, 
 which  the  animals  can  open  or  fhut  at  pleafure.  Every  per- 
 fon  mufl  likewife  have  obferved,  in  the  ftruclure  of  the  ani- 
 mal itfelf,  a  flefliy  protuberance  of  a  much  redder  colour, 
 and  denfer  conliftence,  than  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
 This  mufcular  protuberance,  which  confifls  of  two  lobes,  has 
 been  denominated  a  trimk,  or  tongue  :  But  it  is  an  inftru- 
 ment  by  which  the  creature  is  enabled  to  perform  a  pro- 
 grefiive,  though  a  very  flow  motion  •,  and,  therefore,  in  de- 
 fcribing  its  manner  of  moving,  I  fhall  call  thefe  two  lobes 
 the  animal's  tentacula,  or  feet. 
 
 When  inclined  to  remove  from  its  prefent  lituation,  th^ 
 river-mufcle  opens  its  fhell,  thrufts  out  its  tentacula,  and, 
 while  lying  on  its  fide  in  an  horizontal  pofition,  digs  a  fmali 
 furrow  in  the  fand.  Into  this  furrow,  by  the  operation  of 
 the  fame  tentacula,  thd  animal  makes  the  fliell  fall,  and  thus 
 brings  it  into  a  vertical  pofition.  "We  have  now  got  our  muf- 
 cle  on  end  •,  but  how  is  he  to  proceed  ?  He  flretches  forward 
 his  tentacula,  by  which  he  throws  back  the  fand,  lengthens 
 the  furrow,  and  this  fulcrum  enables  him  to  proceed  on  his 
 journey. 
 
146  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 With  regard  to  marine  mufcles,  their  progrejQive  motion 
 is  performed  in  the  fame  manner,  and  by  the  fame  inftru- 
 ments.  When  not  in  motion,  they  are  all  firmly  attached  to 
 rocks,  or  fmall  ftones,  by  many  tlireads  of  about  two  inches 
 jn  length,  which  ferve  the  double  purpofes  of  an  anchor  and 
 cable,  without  this  provilion  of  Nature,  thefe  animals  muft 
 become  the  fport  of  the  waves,  and  the  fpecies  would  foon  be 
 annihilated.  But,  how  does  the  creature  fpin  thefe  threads  ? 
 A  cylindrical  canal  extends  from  the  origin  to  the  extremi- 
 ty of  the  tentacula.  In  this  canal  an  extremely  glutinous 
 fubftance  is  fecreted,  which  the  animal,  by  the  operation  of 
 certain  mufcles,  has  the  power  of  forcing  out,  and  of  attach- 
 ing it,  in  the  form  of  ftrong  threads,  to  ftones  or  other  folid 
 bodies.  More  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  of  thefe  cables  are 
 often  employed  in  mooring  a  fingle  mufcle  *.  The  fub- 
 ftance of  the  threads  is  exceedingly  vifcous,  indigeftible  in 
 the  human  ftomach,  and  is  probably  the  caufe  of  thoi'e 
 fatal  confequences  which  fometimes  happen  to  inattentive 
 eaters.  In  Scotland,  thefe  threads  are  called  the  beards  of 
 mufcles,  and  ftiould  be  carefully  pulled  off  before  the  animals 
 ^re  thrown  into  the  ftomach. 
 
 Other  bivalved  fhell-fifhes,  the  fpecies  of  which  are  nu- 
 merous, perform  a  progreflive  or  retrograde  motion  by  an  in- 
 ftrument  that  has  no  fmall  refemblance  to  a  leg  and  foot. 
 But  the  animals  can,  at  pleafure,  make  this  leg  alTume  ahnoft 
 every  kind  of  form,  according  as  their  exigencies  may  re- 
 quire. By  this  leg  they  are  not  only  enabled  to  creep,  to  fmk 
 into  the  mud,  or  difengage  themfelves  from  it,  but  to  per- 
 form a  motion,  which  no  man  could  fuppofe  fliell-fifhes  were 
 capable  of  performing.  When  the  tellina,  or  limpin,  is  about 
 to  make  a  fpring,  it  puts  the  fhell  on  the  point  or  furamit,  as 
 if  with  a  view  to  diminifh  friction.  It  then  ftretches  out  the 
 leg  as  far  as  poflible,  makes  it  embrace  a  portion  of  the  ftiell> 
 *  Oeuvres  de  Bonnet,  torn.  5.  pag.  361.  4to  edit, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  :^4,7 
 
 iind,  by  a  fudden  movement,  fimilar  to  that  of  a  fpring  let 
 loofc,  it  ftrikes  the  earth  with  its  leg,  and  actually  leaps  to  a 
 coniiderable  diftance  *. 
 
 The  fpout-fifli  f  has  a  bivalved  fhell,  which  refembles  the 
 handle  of  a  razor.  This  animal  is  incapable  of  progi*effive 
 motion  on  the  furface  •,  but  it  digs  a  hole  or  cell  in  the  fand, 
 fometimes  two  feet  in  depth,  in  which  it  can  afcend  and  de- 
 fcend  at  pleafure.  The  inftrument  or  leg  by  which  it  per- 
 forms all  its  movements  is  iituated  at  the  centre.  This  leg 
 is  flefliy,  cylindrical,  and  pretty  long.  When  neceflary,  the 
 animal  can  make  the  termination  of  the  leg  afTume  the  form 
 of  a  ball.  The  fpout-fifh,  when  lying  on  the  furface  of  the 
 fand,  and  about  to  fink  into  it,  extends  its  leg  from  the  infe- 
 rior end  of  the  fhell,  and  makes  the  extremity  of  it  take  on  the 
 form  of  a  (hovel,  fharp  on  each  fide,  and  tetminating  in  a 
 point.  Wich  this  inflrument  the  animal  cuts  a  hole  in  the 
 fand.  After  the  hole  is  made,  it  advances  the  leg  ftill  far- 
 ther into  the  fand,  makes  it  afTume  the  form  of  a  hook,  and 
 with  this  hook,  as  a  felcrum,  it  obliges  the  fhell  to  defcend 
 into  i  he  hole.  In  this  manner  the  animal  operates  till  the 
 fhell  totally  difappears.  When  it  choofes  to  regain  the  fur-* 
 face,  it  puts  the  terminaticn  of  the  leg  into  the  fhape  of  a  ball, 
 and  makes  an  effort  to  extend  the  whole  leg  ;  but  the  ball 
 prevents  any  farther  defcent,  and  the  mufcular  effort  neceffa* 
 rily  puflies  the  fliell  upward  till  it  reaches  the  furface,  or  top 
 of  the  hole.  It  is  amazing  with  v/hat  dexterity  and  quick- 
 nefs  thefe  feemingly  awkward  motions  are  performed. 
 
 It  is  remarkable  that  the  fpout-fifh,  though  it  lives  in  fait 
 water,  abhors  fait.  When  a  little  fait  is  thrown  into  the 
 hole,  the  animal  inftantly  quits  his  habitation.  But  it  is  fiill 
 more  remarkable,  thatj  if  you  feize  the  animal  with  your 
 hand,  and  afterwards  allow  it  to  retire  into  its  cells  you  may 
 ftrew  as  much  flilt  upon  it  as  you  pleafe,  but  the  fifh  will  never 
 
 *  Oeuvres  de  Bonner,  torn.  5,  pag,  341.  410  edit. 
 
 t  The  name  of  the  animal  in  Scotland.     In  England  it  is  called  razor-fift. 
 
14:S  *rHE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 again  make  Its  appearance.  If  you  do  not  handle  the  ani- 
 mal, by  applylug  fait,  you  may  make  it  come  to  the  furface 
 as  often  as  you  incline  ;  and  fifliermen  often  make  ufe  of 
 this  ftratagem.  This  behaviour  indicates  more  fentiment 
 and  recolle£lion  than  one  ftiould  naturally  expeft  from  a 
 fpout-fifli. 
 
 The  fcallop,  another  well  known  bivalved  fliell-iifh,  has 
 the  power  of  progreflive  motion  upon  land,  and  likewife  of 
 fwimming  on  the  furface  of  the  water.  When  this  animal 
 happens  to  be  deferted  by  the  tide,  it  opens  its  fhell  to  the 
 full  extent,  then  (huts  it  with  a  fudden  jerk,  by  which  it  often 
 rifes  five  or  fix  inches  from  the  ground.  In  this  manner  it 
 tumbles  forward  till  it  regains  the  water.  When  the  fea  is 
 calm,  troops,  or  little  fleets  of  fcallops,  are  often  obferved 
 fwimming  on  the  furface.  They  raife  one  valve  of  their  fUell 
 above  the  furface,  which  becomes  a  kind  of  fail,  while  the 
 other  remains  under  the  water,  and  anfwers  the  purpofe-  of 
 an  anchor,  by  fteadying  the  animal,  and  preventing  its  being 
 overfet.  AVhen  an  enemy  approaches,  they  inftantly  fhut 
 their  fhells,  plunge  to  the  bottom,  and  the  whole  fleet  difap- 
 pears.  By  what  means  they  are  enabled  to  regain  the  fur- 
 face, we  are  flill  ignorant. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  locomotive  faculty  of  the  oyfter,  the 
 following  fadls  are  recorded  in  the  Journal  de  Phyfmue  by 
 the  Abbe  Di^quemare.  Like  many  other  bivalved  fhell-fifh, 
 the  oyfter  has  the  power  of  f quirting  out  water  with  a  con- 
 fiderable  force.  By  thus  fuddenly  and  forcibly  ejedling  a 
 quantity  of  water,  the  animal  repulfes  fuch  enemies  as  en- 
 deavour to  iaflnuate  Into  its  fhell  while  open.  By  the  fame 
 operation,  if  not  firmly  attached  to  rocks,  to  flones,  or  to  one 
 another,  the  oyfler  retreats  ba,ckwards,  or  flarts  to  a  fide  in 
 a  lateral  direcSlion.  Any  perfon  may  amufe  himfelf  with  the 
 fquirting  and  motions  of  oyfl:ers,  by  putting  them  in  a  plate 
 fituated  in  a  horizontal  pofition,  and  which  contains  as  much 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  149 
 
 fea-water  as  Is  fufficient  to  cover  them.  The  oyfter  has  been 
 reprefented  by  many  authors  as  an  animal  deflitute  not  only 
 of  motion,  but  of  every  fpecies  of  fenlation.  The  Abbe  Dic- 
 quemare,  however,  has  fhown,  that  it  can  perform  movements 
 perfectly  confonant  to  its  wants,  to  the  dangers  it  apprehends, 
 and  to  the  enemies  by  v»^hich  it  is  attacked.  Inftead  of  being 
 deflitute  of  all  fenfation,  oyflers  are  capable  of  deriving 
 knowledge  from  experience.  When  removed  from  fitua- 
 tions  which  are  conftantly  covered  with  the  fea,  devoid  of  ex- 
 perience, they  open  their  fhells,  lofe  their  water,  and  die  in 
 a  few  days.  But,  even  when  taken  from  fimilar  fituations, 
 and  laid  down  in  places  from  which  the  fea  occafionally  re- 
 tires, they  feel  the  effects  of  the  fun's  rays,  or  of  the  cold 
 air,  or  perhaps  apprehend  the  attacks  of  enemies,  and  accor- 
 dingly learn  to  keep  their  iliells  clofe  till  the  tide  returns. 
 Condudl  of  this  kind  plainly  indicates  both  fenfation  and  a 
 degree  of  intelligence. 
 
 The  progreffive  motion  of  the  fea-urching,  or  fea-egg,  a 
 well  known  multivalved  fhell-fifh,  merits  our  attention.  This 
 animal,  of  which  there  are  feveral  fpecies,  is  round,  oval,  or 
 fhaped  like  a  bias-bowl.  The  furface  of  the  fhell  is  divided 
 into  beautiful  triangular  compartments,  and  covered  with 
 numberlefs  prickles  ;  from  which  laft  circumftance  it  has  re- 
 ceived the  appellation  of  ^'^^-z/rr^/;/,  or  fea-hedge-hog.  Thefe 
 triangles  are  feparated  by  regular  belts,  and  perforated  by  a 
 great  number  of  holes.  Each  hole  gives  lodgment  to  a  flefhy 
 horn  fimiiar  to  thofe  of  the  fnail,  and  fufceptible  of  the  fame 
 movements.  Like  the  fnail,  the  fea-urchin  ufes  its  horns 
 when  in  motion  ;  but  their  principal  ufe  is  to  fix  the  animal 
 to  rocks,  ftones,  or  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  By  means  of 
 the  horns  and  prickles,  which  proceed  from  almoft  every 
 point  of  the  fhell,  the  fea-urchin  is  enabled  to  walk  either  on 
 its  back  or  on  its  belly.  The  limbs  it  mofl  generally  employs 
 are  thofe  which  furround  the  mouth.     But,  when  it  choofes, 
 
 T 
 
150  TriE    PHlLOSOPHt 
 
 It  can  move  forward,  by  turning  on  itfelf  like  the  wheel  of  a 
 coach.  Thus  the  fea-urchin  furnilhes  an  example  of  an  ani- 
 mal employing  many  thoiifand  limbs  in  its  various  move- 
 ments. The  reader  may  try  to  conceive  the  number  of  muf- 
 cles,  of  fibres,  and  of  other  apparatus,  which  are  requifite  to 
 the  progrclHve  motion  of  this  little  animal. 
 
 The  motion  of  that  fpecies  of  medufa,  or  fea-nettle, 
 which  attaches  itfelf  to  rocks,  and  to  the  larger  fhell-fiffi,  is 
 extremely  flow.  The  fea-nettles  aflume  fuch  a  variety  of 
 figures,  that  it  is  impofiible  to  defcribe  them  under  any  de- 
 terminate fhape.  In  general,  their  bodies  have  a  refemblance 
 to  a  truncated  cone.  The  bafe  of  the  cone  is  applied  to  the 
 rock  or  other  fubflance  to  which  they  adhere.  With  regard 
 to  colour,  feme  of  them  sre  red,  fome  greeniflij  fome  whitifh, 
 and  others  are  brov/n.  When  the  mouth,  which  is  very 
 large,  is  expanded j  its  margin  is  furrounded  with  a  great 
 number  of  flefliy  filaments,  or  horns,  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the 
 fnail.  Thefe  horns  are  difpofed  in  three  rows  around  the 
 mouth,  and  give  the  animal  the  appearance  of  a  flower. 
 Through  each  of  thefe  horns  the  iea-nettle  fquirts  water, 
 like  fo  many  jets-d'eau.  What  is  peculiar  in  the  ftructure 
 of  thefe  creatures,  the  whole  interior  part  of  their  body  or 
 cone,  is  one  cavity  or  fi:omach.  When  fearching  for  food, 
 they  extend  their  filaments,  and  entangle  any  fmall  animals 
 they  encounter.  When  they  meet  with  their  prey,  they  in- 
 fbantly  fwallow  it,  and  fliut  their  mouths  clofe  like  a  purfe. 
 Though  the  animal  fhould  not  exceed  an  inch,  or  an  inch 
 and  a  half,  in  diameter,  as  it  is  all  mouth  and  ftoniach,  it 
 fwallows  larare  whelks  and  mufcles.  Thefe  fhell-animals 
 fometimes  remain  many  days  in  the  fcomach  before  they  are 
 ejected.  Their  nutrifying  parts  are  at  laft,  however,  ex- 
 tracted J  but  how  does  the  fea-nettle  get  quit  of  the  fhell  ? 
 The  creature  has  no  other  aperture  in  its  body  but  the  mouth, 
 and  this  mouth  is  the  inftrument  by  which  it  both  receives 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  I5i 
 
 iiourifliment,  and  dlfcharges  the  excrement,  or  unprofitable 
 part  of  its  food.  When  the  fhellls  not  too  large,  the  fea-net- 
 tle  has  the  power  of  turning  its  infide  out,  and  by  this  ftrange 
 manoeuvre  the  fhcll  is  thrown  out  of  the  body,  and  the  ani- 
 mal refames  its  former  ftate.  Eut,  when  the  fliell  prelents 
 itfelf  in  a  wrong  pofition,  the  animal  cannot  difcharge  it  in 
 the  ufual  manner  ;  but,  what  is  extremely  fingular,  near  the 
 bafe  of  the  cone,  the  body  of  the  creature  fplits,  as  if  a  large 
 wound  had  been  made  with  a  knife,  and  through  this  gafli 
 the  Ihell  of  the  mufcle,  or  other  Ihell,  is  ejected. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  progreffive  motion  of  the  fea-nettle,  it 
 is  as  flow  as  the  hour-hand  of  a  clock.  The  whole  external 
 part  of  its  body  is  furniflied  with  numerous  mufcles.  Thefe 
 mufcles  are  tubular,  and  filled  v/ith  a  fluid,  which  makes 
 them  projeft  in  the  form  of  prickles.  By  the  infl:rumentali- 
 ty  of  thefe  mufcles.  the  animal  is  enabled  to  perform  the 
 very  flow  motion  juft  now  mentioned.  But  this  is  not  the 
 only  m.eans  by  which  the  fea-nettle  is  capable  of  moving. 
 When  it  pleafes,  it  can  loofen  the  bafe  of  the  cone  by  which 
 it  is  attached  to  the  rock,  reverfe  its  body,  and  employ  the 
 filaments  round  its  mouth  as  fo  many  limbs.  Stiil,  however, 
 its  movements  are  imperceptibly  flow.  For  thefe  fads  feve- 
 ral  authors  might  be  quoted  ;  but  we  fliail  refer  the  reader 
 folely  to  M.  de  Bonnet  *. 
 
 Before  we  conclude  this  chapter,  we  fhall  jufl:  mention  a 
 mode  of  flying  which  is  peculiar  to  certain  infetfls.  The 
 mafon-heey  which  is  one  of  the  folitary  fpecies,  has  received 
 that  appellation,  becaufe  it  confl:ru(Sls  a  nell  with  mud  or 
 mortar.  Externally,  this  neft  has  no  regular  appearance  ; 
 and  is,  therefore,  generally  regarded  as  a  piece  of  dirt  acci- 
 dentally adhering  to  a  wall.  This  habitation,  however  un- 
 feemly  in  its  exterior  afpeiSf,  is  furniflied  with  regular 
 cells,  and  often  gives  rife  to  great  conflicts.  When  the  real 
 ^  Oeuvres  de  Bonnet,  4to  edit.  torn.  5,  page  345, 
 
152  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 proprietor  is  abroad  in  queft  of  materials  to  finifli  the  neft,  a 
 ftranger  takes  poffeffion.  At  meeting,  a  battle  always  en- 
 fues.  This  battle  is  fought  in  the  air.  Sometimes  they  fly 
 with  fuch  rapidity  and  force  againft  each  other,  that  both 
 parties  fall  to  the  ground.  But,  in  general,  like  birds  of 
 prey,  the  one  endeavours  to  rife  above  the  other,  and  to 
 give  a  downward  blow.  To  avoid  the  ftroke,  the  under- 
 moft,  inftead  of  flying  forward  or  laterally,  Is  frequently  ob- 
 ferved  to  fly  backward.  This  retrograde  flight  is  likevvife 
 performed  occafionally  by  the  common  houfe-fly,  and  feme 
 other  infers,  though  we  are  unable  to  perceive  what  fl:imu- 
 lates  them  to  employ  this  uncommon  movement. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,  15^ 
 
 CHAPTER     V. 
 
 Of  the  hiJlmB  of  Animals — Dhnfton  of  Ivflmcis — Examples  of 
 Pure  Inflintt — Of  fuch  Infllncls  as  can  accommodate  them- 
 felves  to  peculiar  circurnfances  and  ftuaiions — Of  InflinBs 
 improveable  by  obfervation  and  experience — ^ome  remarks  and 
 conclufions  from  this  view  of  Inflincl, 
 
 JViANY  theories  have  been  invented  with  a  view 
 to  explain  the  infi-incflive  actions  of  animals  ;  but  none  of  them 
 have  received  the  general  approbation  of  Philofophers.  This 
 want  of  fuccefs  in  the  inveftigation  of  a  fubject  fo  curious  and 
 fo  interefting  muft  be  owing  to  the  operation  of  fome  pow- 
 erful caufes.  Two  of  thefe  caufes  appear  to  be  a  want  of  atr 
 tention  to  the  general  oeconomy  and  manners  of  animals, 
 and  miftaken  notions  concerning  the  dignity  of  human  na- 
 ture. From  peruUng  the  compofitions  of  moft  authors  who 
 have  written  upon  animal  inftincV,  it  is  evident,  that  they 
 have  chiefly  derived  their  ideas,  not  from  the  various  mental, 
 qualities  difcoverable  in  different  fpecies  of  animals,  but 
 from  the  feelings  and  propenfities  of  their  own  minds.  Some 
 of  them,  at  the  fame  time,  are  fo  averfe  to  allow  brutes  a 
 participation  of  that  intelle£L  which  man  pofTefTes  in  fuch  an 
 eminent  degree,  that  they  conflder  every  animal  adfion  to, 
 be  the  refult  of  pure  mechanifm.  But  the  great  fource  of 
 error  on  this  fubjedl  is  the  uniform  attempt  to  diftinguilh 
 inftin^live  from  rational  motives,  I  fliall,  however,  endea- 
 vour to  fhow  that  no  fuch  diflinctlon  exifts,  and  that  the 
 reafoning  faculty  itfelf  is  a  neceiTary  refult  of  inflincSf. 
 
 The  proper  method  of  inveftigating  fubjecfs  of  this  kind,, 
 is  to  colle(St  and  arrange  the  faiSfs  which  have  been  difcover^ 
 ed,  and  to  confider  whether  thefe  fa6ls  lead  to  any  general 
 conclufions.     This  method  I  have  adopted  >  ajid  fiiall  ther^-. 
 
154  THE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 fore  exhibit  examples  of  pure  Inftin(Sls  ;  of  fuch  inftinfts  as 
 can  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar  circumftances  and 
 fituations  *,  and  of  in{lin6ls  improveable  by  obfervaiion  and 
 experience.  In  the  laft  place,  I  fhall  draw  fome  conclu- 
 llons. 
 
 I.     Of  Pure  Injlinas, 
 
 By  pure  inftln(n:s,  I  mean  thofe,  which,  independent  of  all 
 inftru<Stion  or  experience,  inftantaneoufly  produce  certain 
 actions  when  particular  obie(Sts  are  prefented  to  animals,  or 
 when  they  are  influenced  by  peculiar  feelings.  Of  this 
 clafs  the  following  are  examples. 
 
 In  the  human  fpecies,  the  inftindl  of  fucking  is  exerted 
 immediately  after  birth.  This  inftindl  is  not  excited  by  any 
 fmell  peculiar  to  the  mother,  to  milk,  or  to  any  other  fub- 
 -ftance  5  for  infants  fuck  indifcriminately  every  thing  brought 
 into  contact  with  their  mouths.  The  deiire  of  fii:l<irig, 
 therefore,  is  innate,  and  coeval  with  the  appetite  for  air. 
 
 The  voiding  of  urine  and  excrement,  fneezing,  retraction 
 of  the  mufcles  upon  the  application  of  any  painful  fdmulu^, 
 the  moving  of  the  eye-lids,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  sre 
 likewife  effeCls  of  original  inftinCls,  and  eflential  to  the  ex- 
 iftence  of  young  animals. 
 
 The  love  of  light  is  exhibited  by  infants  at  a  very  early 
 period.  I  have  remarked  evident  fyroptoms  cf  this  attach- 
 ment on  the  third  day  after  birth.  When  children  are  far- 
 ther advanced,  marks  of  the  various  paffions  gradually  cppear. 
 The  paflion  of  fear  is  difcoverable  at  the  age  of  two  months. 
 It  is  called  forth  by  approaching  the  hand  to  the  child's  eye, 
 and  by  any  fudden  motion  or  unufual  noife.  I  once  infti- 
 tuted  a  courfe  of  experiments  to  afceriain  the  periods  when 
 the  various  paffions,  principles,  or  propenfities,  of  the  hu- 
 man mind  are  unfolded,  and  to  mark  the  caufes  which  iirfl 
 l^roduced  them.     But,  in  lefs  than  five  months  after  the. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  155 
 
 birth  of  the  child,  the  bulinefs  became  too  complicated  and 
 extenfive  for  the  time  I  had  to  beftow  on  fubjeds  of  this 
 nature. 
 
 The  brute  creation  affords  innumerable  examples  of  pure 
 inftin£ls. 
 
 When  caterpillars  are  fh:;iken  off  a  tree  in  every  direction, 
 all  of  them  inftantly  turn  toward  the  trunk,  and  climb  up, 
 though  they  had  never  formerly  been  on  the  furface  of  the 
 ground. 
 
 Young  birds  open  their  mouths  upon  hearing  any  kind 
 of  noife,  as  well  as  that  of  their  mother's  voice.  They  have 
 no  appreheniions  of  harm  ;  neither  do  they  offer  to  ufe 
 their  wings  till  they  acquire  more  ftrength  and  experience. 
 The  lion's  cub  is  not  ferocious  till  he  feels  force  and  activity 
 for  deftruftion. 
 
 Infedls  invariably  depofit  their  eggs  in  fituations  moft  fa- 
 vourable for  hatching  and  affording  nourifhment  to  their 
 future  progeny.  Butterflies,  and  other  infedls,  whofe  off- 
 fprirjg  feed  upon  vegetables,  uniformly  fix  their  eggs  upon 
 fuch  plants  as  are  moft  agreeable  to  the  palate  and  conftitu- 
 tion  of  their  young.  Water  infects  never  depofit  their  eggs 
 on  dry  ground.  I  have  feen  butterflies  which  had  been 
 transformed  in  the  houfe  exhibit  marks  of  the  greatefl:uneafi- 
 Xieis  becaufe  they  could  not  find  a  proper  nidus  for  their 
 eggs ;  and,  when  every  other  refource  failed,  they  pafted  the 
 eggs  on  the  panes  of  the  window. 
 
 Some  fpecies  of  animals  look  not  to  future  wants.  Others, 
 as  the  bee  and  the  beaver,  are  endowed  with  an  inftin^l 
 which  has  the  appearance  of  forefight.  They  conftrudt 
 magazines,  and  fill  them  with  provifions. 
 
 The  common  bees  attend  the  female,  or  queen,  do  her 
 many  little  fervices,  and  even  feed  her  with  honey  from 
 their  trunks*.     When  deprived  of  the  female^  all  their  la- 
 
 *  Reaumur,  ij^mo  edit,  vol,  9.  page  300. 
 
166  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 bours  ceafcf,  till  a  new  one  is  obtained,  whom  they  treat 
 with  much  refpecV,  and  renew  their  ufual  operations  J.  They 
 make  cells  of  three  different  diineniions,  for  holding  work- 
 ers, drones,  and  females  ;  and  the  queen-bee,  in  depofiting 
 her  eggs,  dhlinguifhes  the  three  different  kinds,  and  never 
 puts  a  royal  or  a  drone  egg  into  the  cells  deftined  for  the  re- 
 ception of  the  working  bees.  What  is  equally  lingular,  the 
 number  of  thcfe  ceils  is  proportioned  to  that  of  the  different 
 bees  to  be  produced.  One  royal  cell  weighs  as  much  as  one 
 hundred  of  t;he  common  kind  §.  When  there  are  feveral 
 females  in  a  hive,  the  bees  work  little  till  they  have  deftroy- 
 ed  all  the  females  but  one.  If  more  than  a  fmgle  female 
 were  allowed  to  remain  in  a  hive,  a  greater  number  of  eggs 
 would  be  laid  than  the  working  bees  are  able  to  make  cells 
 for  receiving  them. 
 
 The  v;ood-piercing  bee,  which  is  one  of  the  folitary  fpe- 
 cies,  gnaws  with  amazing  dexterity  and  perfeverance,  a  large 
 hole  in  old  timber.  After  laying  her  eggs  in  the  cells,  fhe 
 depolits  fuch  a  quantity  of  glutinous  matter  as  nouriflies  the 
 worms  produced  from  thefe  eggs  till  the  time  of  their  trans- 
 formation into  flies.  She  then  paftes  up  the  mouth  of  the 
 hole,  and  leaves  her  future  offspring  to  the  provlfion  flie 
 hag  made  for  them. 
 
 The  bees  of  that  fpecies  which  build  cylindrical  nefts  with 
 rofe-lcaves,  exhibit  a  very  peculiar  inftindl.  They  firft  dig  a 
 cylindrical  hole  In  the  earth.  When  that  operation  Is  finlili- 
 ed,  they  go  in  quell  of  rofe-bufhes  ;  and,  after  fele6ling 
 leaves  proper  for  their  purpofe,  they  cut  oblong,  curved,  and 
 even  round  pieces,  exadlly  fuited  to  form  the  different  parts 
 of  the  cylinderlj.  "^ 
 
 The  folitary  wafp  digs  holes  in  the  fand.  In  each  hole  flie 
 depolits  an  egg.  But  how  is  the  worm,  after  it  is  hatched, 
 to  be  nourilhed  ?    Here  the  inftln^l  of  the  mother  merits 
 
 f  Ibid,  page  320.  t  Ibid,  page  340- 
 
 (  Ibid.  torn.  iQ.  page  124,         |j  Reaumur,  torn,  x  i.  page  138. 
 
OF    NATURAL     HISTORY.  157 
 
 attention.      Though   fhe   feeds   not   upon   flefli   herfelf,  and 
 certainly  knows  not  that  an  animal  is  to  proceed  from  the  egg, 
 and  far  lefs  that    this   animal  muft  be  nourifhed   wiih  other 
 animals,  fhe  collets  ten  or  twelve    fmall  green   worms,  which 
 (he  piles  one  above  another,  rolls  them  up  in  a  circular  form, 
 and  fixes  them  in  the  hole  in  fiich  a  manner  that  they  cannot 
 move.     When  the    wafp-worm   is  hatched,  it  is  amply  ftored 
 with  the  food  Nature  has  deflined  for  its  fupport.     The  green 
 worms  are  devoured  in  fucceflion  ;*    and  the  number  depofited 
 is  exaftly  proportioned  to  the   time  necelTary  for  the  growth 
 and  transformation    of  the  wafp-worm   into   a    fly,   when    it 
 iffues   from    the    hole,  and  is    capable  of  procuring  its  own 
 nourifliment.f 
 
 There  are  many  other  inftances  of  ichneumon  wafps  and 
 flies,  which,  though  they  feed  not  then^felves  upon  worms, 
 lay  up  provifions  of  thefe  animals  for  the  nourilhment  of 
 their  young  ;  and  each  kind  is  adapted  to  the  conflitution  or 
 the  worm  that  is  to  proceed  from  their  eggs.  J 
 
 Birds  of  the  fame  fpecies,  unlefs  when  reftrained  by  pecu- 
 liar  circumftances,    uniformly  build  their  nePi.s  of  the  fame 
 materials,   and  in  the   fame  form  and  fituation,  though  they 
 inhabit    very  different  climates.     When  removed  by  necfefiity 
 from    their  eggs,   they  haften  back   to    them   with    anxiety. 
 They  turn  and  faift   their  eggs,   which  has  the  eff-'£l  of  heat- 
 ing them  equally.     Ducks  and  gez^s  cover  up  their  eggs  till 
 they  return  to  the   ned.     A  hen  fits   w^ith   equal  ardour  upon 
 eggs  of  a  different   fpecies,    or  even  upon   artificial    eggs.      I 
 have  often  contemplated  with  wonder  an  inftindl  of  the  fwal- 
 low.     When  her   offspring  are    very    young,  like  other  fmall 
 birds,  file  carries  their  excrements  out  of  the  ned.     But,  after 
 they  are  older,  fhe  attaches    herfeif   to   tm    fide    of  the   reft, 
 and  by  fome  geilurel  and  founds,  folicits  the  young   to  void 
 
 *  Reaumur,  torn,  la,  n.-^ge  iS,         t  IbM,  psgc  aa. — ii- 
 ^Ileaumur,  coin.  ii.  page  5S. 
 
 u 
 
f5B  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 their  excrements  :  One  of  them  immediately  turns  round, 
 elevates  its  hind  parts  above  the  edge  of  the  neft,  makes  the 
 proper  effort,  and  the  mother,  before  the  dung  is  half  protrud- 
 ed from  the  anusj  lays  hold  of  it  with  her  bill,  drags  it  out, 
 carries  it  off,  and  drops  it  at  a  diftance  from  the  neft.  In  all 
 thefe  operations,  men  recognife  the  intentions  of  Nature  ;  but 
 they  are  hid  from  the  animals  who  perform  them. 
 3ff,  The  fpider,  the  dermeftes,  and  many  infers  of  the  beetle 
 kind,  exhibit  an  inilin6l  of  a  very  uncommon  nature.  When 
 put  in  terror  by  a  touch  of  the  finger,  the  fpider  runs  off  with 
 great  fwiftnefs  :  But,  if  he  finds,  that,  whatever  diredion  h^ 
 takes,  lie  is  oppofed  by  another  finger,  he  then  feems  to  def- 
 pair  of  being  able  to  efcape,  contrads  his  limbs  and  body, 
 lies  perfedlly  motionlefs,  and  counterfeits  every  fymptom  of 
 death.  In  this  fituation  I  have  pierced  fpiders  with  pins,  and 
 torn  them  to  pieces^  without  their  difcovering  the  fmalleft 
 mark  of  pain.  This  fimulation  of  death  has  been  afcribed  to 
 a  ftrong  convulfion,  or  ftupor,  occafioned  by  tenor.  But  this 
 fblution  of  the  phenomenon  is  erroneous.  I  have  repeatedly 
 tried  the  experiment,  and  uniformly  found,  that,  if  the  obje<El 
 of  terror  be  removed,  in  a  few  feconds  the  animal  runs  off 
 with  great  rapidity.  Some  beetles,  when  counterfeiting 
 death,  fuffer  themfelves  to  be  gradually  roafted,  without 
 moving  a  fmgle  joint. 
 
 It  is  unneccffary  to  give  more  examples  of  pure  inffin^ls. 
 I  flull  therefore  proceed  to  the  fecond  clafs,  namely, 
 
 ]I.      Of  IrJlhiBs    'which   can    accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar 
 v"  circumflances  and fituat'ions . 
 
 To  this  clafs  n?any  human  inftinfts  may  be  referred.  But, 
 as  thefe  inftinflive  propenfities  are  likewife  highly  improveable 
 by  experience  and  obfervation,  examples  of  tbem  will  fall  more 
 naturally  to  be  given  under  the  third  clafs. 
 
GF    NATURAL     »1ST0RY.  J59 
 
 '■'  Thofe  animals  are  mod  perfe6l  whafe  fphere  of  knowledge 
 extiends  to  the  greateft  nuraber  of  objeds.  When  interrupted 
 in  their  operations,  they  know  how  to  re  fume  their  labours, 
 and  to  accomplifh  their  purpofes  by  different  means.  Some 
 animals  have  no  other  power  but  that  of  com  racing  or  eis- 
 tending  their  bodies.  But  the  falcon,  the  "dog,  and  the  fox^ 
 purfiie  their  prey  with  intelligence  and  addrefs.    "**  ^^^  a^s  X^ds 
 
 The  oflrich  has  been  accufed  of  uniiaturalnefs,  bccaijfe  fiie 
 leaves  her  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  fun.  In  Sen^ 
 egal,  where  the  heat  is  great,  flie  neglet^a  her  eggs  during  the 
 day,  but  fits  upon  them  in  the  night.  At  the  Cape  of  Good 
 Hope,  however,  where  the  degree  of  heat  is  lefs,  the  oftrich, 
 like  other  birds,  fits  upon  her  eggs  botli  day  and  night. 
 
 Rabbits  dig  holes  in  tlie  ground  for  warmth  and  protediion. 
 But,  after  continuing  long  in  a  domcfiic  ftate,  that  rcfource 
 being  unnecefl'ary,  they  feldom  employ  this  art.* 
 
 Bees,  when  they  have  not  room  enough  for  their  operatione, 
 augment  the  depth  of  their  honcy-cells.-j-  The  female  bee, 
 when  the  cells  are  not  fufiiciently  numerous  to  receive  her  egg?, 
 lays  two  or  three  in  each  cell.  But,  a  few  days  after,  when 
 the  cells  are  increafcd,  the  working  bees  remove  all  the  fuper- 
 numerary  eggs,  and  dcpofit  them  in  the  new  conflruCted  cells. |. 
 
 When  a  wafp,  in  attempting  to  tranfport  a  dead  compan- 
 ion from  the  neft,  finds  the  load  too  heavy,  Le  cuts  off  its  head, 
 and  carries  it  out  in  two  portions.!! 
 
 Iii  countries  infefted  with  moiikcys,  many  biidj,  wliich  in 
 other  climates,  build  in  bufiies  and  the  clefts  of  trees,  fufper.d 
 tlielr  nefts  upon  flendcr  twigs,  and  by  tuis  ingenious  device, 
 elude  the  rapacity  of  their  enemies. 
 
 The  nymphs  of  water-moths,    cornmonly   called   ccd-hatt 
 
 cover  themielves,  by   means  of  gluten,   with   pieces  of  wood, 
 
 *  Gazette  Liter,  tora.  3,  pa^^  228.  f  Rcauniir,  ton:.  10,  page  29. 
 
 ^  Ibid,  page  240  ^  Ibid.  torn.  II,  page   241. 
 
160 
 
 THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ftraw,  fmail  fliells,  or  gravel.  It  is  necelTary  that  they  fiiould 
 always  be  nearly  in  equilibrium  with  the  water  in  which  they 
 live.  To  accomplifli  this  purpofe,  when  their  habitations  are 
 too' heavy,  they  add  a  piece  of  wood,  when  too  light  a  bit  of 
 gravel.* 
 
 I  had  a  cat  that  frequented  a  clofet,  the  door  of  which  was 
 faftcned  by  a  common  iron  latch.  A  window  was  fituated 
 near  the  door.  When  the  door  was  fhut  the  cat  gave  herlelf 
 no  uneafmefs.  As  foon  as  (he  tired  of  her  confinement,  fhe 
 mounted  on  the  fole  of  the  window,  and  with  her  paw  dexter- 
 oufly  lifted  the  latch  and  came  out.  This  practice  fhe  contin- 
 ued for  years. 
 
 Thefe  examples,  I  hope,  are  fufficient. 
 
 III.  The  third  clafs  comprehends  all  tho/e  Injlin&s  'which  are 
 impro'veabk  hy  experience  and  ohfervatlon. 
 The  fuperiority  of  man  over  the  other  animals  feems  to  de- 
 pend chiefly  on  the  great  number  of  inftindts  with  which  his 
 Hiiiid  is  endowed.  Traces  of  every  inftinft  he  poffefTes  are  dif- 
 covcrable  in  the  brute  creation.  But  no  particular  fpecies  en- 
 joys the  whole.  On  the  contrary,  moft  animals  are  limited  to 
 a  fmall  number.  This  appears  to  be  the  reafon  why  the  in- 
 ftin<Sls  of  brutes  are  ftrongcr,  and  more  fteady  in  their  operation, 
 than  thofe  of  man.  A  being  adluated  by  a  great  variety  of 
 motives  rcuft  neceffarjly  reafon,  or,  in  other  words,  hefitate  in 
 his  choice.  Its  condu£l,  therefore,  muft  often  waver  ;  and  he 
 will  have  the  appearance  of  being  inferior  to  another  creature 
 who  is  {limulated  to  adlion  by  a  fmaller  number  of  motives. 
 Man,  accordingly,  has  been  confidcred  as  the  mod  vaciUant 
 and  inconfident  of  all  animals.  The  remark  is  jull  ;  but,  in- 
 dead  of  a  ccnfurc,  it  is  an  encon?.ium  on  the  fpecies.  The  ac- 
 tions of  a  dog,  or  a  monkey,  for  the  fame  rcr.fon,  are  more  vari- 
 ous, whimficil  and  uncerlain,  than  thofe  of  a  fheep  or  a  cow. 
 *  Bonnet,  torn.  4,  page  209, Rcai^muf;  ton).  5,  pngc  ^ij. 
 
OF    KATURAL    HISTORY.  J(5[ 
 
 Moft  human  inftinfts  receive  improvement  from  experience 
 and  obfervation,  and  are  capable  of  a  thoufaad  modifications. 
 This  is  another  fource  of  man's  fupcriority  over  the  brines. 
 When  we  are  (limulated  by  a  particular  inftind,  inftead  of  in- 
 ftantly  obeying  the  impulfe,  another  inUinft  arifes  in  oppofition, 
 creates  hefitation,  and  often  totally  extinguiihes  the  original 
 motive  to  adion.  The  inftinft  of  fear  is  daily  counteradled 
 by  ambition  or  refentment  ;  and,  in  fome  minds,  fear  is  too 
 powerful  for  refentment,  or  any  other  inftinft  we  poffefs.  The 
 inftind  of  anger  is  often  reftrained  by  the  apprehenfion  of  dan. 
 ger,  by  the  fenfe  of  propriety,  by  contempt,  and  even  by  com- 
 paflion.  Sympathy,  which  is  one  of  our  moft  amiable  inflinds, 
 frequently  yields  to  anger,  ambition  and  other  motives.  The 
 inftindlor  fenfe  of  morahly  is  too  often  thwarted  by  ambition, 
 refentment,  love,  fear,  and  feveral  of  what  I  call  modified  or 
 compounded  inflindls,  fuch  as  avarice,  envy,  8cc. 
 
 The  following  are  examples  of  modified,  compounded,  or 
 extended  inftindls. 
 
 SuperRition  is  the  xu{lin£l  of  fear  extended    to  imaginary 
 obje6ls  of  terror. 
 
 Devotion  is  an  extenfion  of  the  inftin6l  of  love   to  the  Firil 
 Caufe,  or  Author  of  the  Univerfe. 
 
 Reverence   or  refpe6l   for  eminent  characters  is  a  fpccics  of 
 devotion. 
 
 As'arice   is   the   inilin6l  of  love  dirc£led  to  an  improper 
 objca. 
 
 Hope  is  the  inftin^t  of  love  directed  to  future  good. 
 Envy  is  compounded  of  love,  avaiicc,  ambition  and  fear. 
 Benevolence  is  the  in{lin(il  of  love  diiTafed  over  all  animated 
 beings. 
 
 Sympathy    is   the    in(li:id  of   fear   transfeircd  to  ancilieij. 
 pcrfor.;  and  rcflefled  back  ;ipon  curC-jlvcs. 
 
16^  THE    PHILOSOPKT 
 
 In  this  manner,  all  the  modified,  compounded,  or  extended 
 paflions  and  propenfities   of  the  human  mind,  may  be  traced ' 
 back  to  their  original  inftinas.  ■^^f"^^''  ^'3  hiuaii  hmhal 
 
 '  '  'Thfe  inftinils  of  brutes  are  likewife  improved  by  obfer^-^^ 
 tion  and  experience.     A  young  dog,  like  a  child,  requires  both 
 lime  and  art  to  unfold  and  perfeft  his  natural  inftinfts.     If  ne-' 
 gledted  by  man,  he  learns  from  his  companions  how  to  a6i  in 
 particular  fituations  :   But,  when  he  enjoys  both  thefe  fources  ' 
 of  information,  his  talents  are  improved  to  a  degree  that  often 
 excites  our  aftonifliment.     The  fame  remark  applies  to  all  do- 
 cile animals,  as  the  elephant,  the  horfe,  the  camel,  &c.     Every 
 man's  rccolle6iIon  will  fupply  him  with  many  examples  of  the 
 improveable  talents  of  brutes  ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  unneceffaty. 
 to  be  more  explicit.  " 
 
 Having  exhibited   inftances  of  pure    inftlna,  of  inftinfts 
 which  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar  circumftances  and 
 fituations,  and    of  inftinfts  improveable   by  obfervation  and  ; 
 experience,  I  ftiall  now  hazard  a  few  remarks. 
 
 From  the  examples  I  have  given,  it  appears  that  inilind  is 
 an  original  quality  of  mind,  which,  in  many  animals,  may'b^ ' 
 improved,  modified,  and  extended,  by  experience  ;  that  fome  ' 
 inftinflsare  coeval  with  birth  ;  and  that  others,  as  fear,  anger, 
 the  principle  of  imitation,  and  the  power  of  reafoning,  or  bal- 
 ancing motives,  are  gradually  unfolded,  according  to  the  exi- 
 gencies of  the  animal.  One  of  the  ftrongeft  inftinfts  appears 
 not  till  near  the  age  of  puberty  ;  but,  by  bad  example,  and 
 improper  fituations,  this  inllin6live  defirc  is  often  prematurely 
 excited.  The  minds  of  brutes,  as  well  as  thofe  of  men,  have 
 original  qualities,  dellincd  for  the  prefervation  of  the  individ- 
 ual and  the  continuation  of  the  foecies.  The  calling  forth  of 
 thcfe  qualities  is  not  cxtir.d,  but  the  exertion  or  energy  of 
 inftina.  Inftinas  exift  before  they  aa.  What  man  or 
 brutes  learn  by  experience,  though  this  experience  be  fouudcd 
 
OF   NATURAL     HISTOa^V.  1  Q^ 
 
 on  inftindt,  cannot  with  propriety  be  called  inilindive  knowl- 
 edge, but  knowledge  derived  from  experience  and  obfen'atipn. 
 Inftinft  fhould  be  limited  to  fuch  aftions  as  every  individual  o£ 
 a  fpecies  exerts  without  the  aid  either  of  experience  or  imitation. 
 Hence  inftinft  may  be  defined,  *  Every  original  quality  of  mind 
 <  which  produces  particular  feelings  or  anions,  when  the  proper 
 '  obJ€<Ss  are  prefented  to  it.'  Thefe  qualities  or  inllincls  vary 
 in  particular  fpecies.  Some  are  endowed  with  many,  and 
 others  with  few.  In  fomethey  are  ftronger,  in  others  weaker  ;,, 
 and  their  ftrength  or  weaknefs  feems  to  be  exaclly  proportion-, 
 ed  to  their  number.  The  diiTcrence  of  talents  among  men  who 
 have  had  the  fame  culture  ariiles  from  a  bluntnefs,  or  abfolute 
 deprivation  of  fome  original  or  modified  inflindls.  Tade,  or 
 love  of  particular  objedls,  whether  animated,  inanimated,  or  ar- 
 tificial, is  in  fome  men  fo  obtufe,  that  we  often  fay  it  is  entirely 
 waating.  Infefls  have  fewer  inftinfts  than  men  or  quadru- 
 peds ;  but  the  exertions  of  infers  are  fo  uniform  and  flcady, 
 that  they  excite  the  admiration  of  every  beholder. 
 
 Senfation  imphes  a  fentient  principle  or  mind.  Whatever 
 feels,  therefore,  is  mind.  Of  courfe,  the  lo-vved  fpecies  of  ani- 
 mals are  endowed  with  mind  :  But  the  minds  of  animals  have 
 very  different  powers  ;  aixl  thefe  powers  are  exprclTed  by  pecu- 
 liar aftions.  The  ftruAure  of  their  bodies  is  uniformly  adapt- 
 ed to  the  powers  of  their  minds.  We  never  fee  a  ma'ure  ani- 
 mal attempting  adiioiis  which  Nature  has  not  enabled  it  to  per- 
 form, by  bellowing  on  it  proper  indiruments.  A  bee  colleds- 
 the  materials  of  honey  and  wax,  but  attempts  not  to  gnaw  rot- 
 ten wood,  like  the  vvafp.  Neither  docs  pcculia'-ity  of  llrufture 
 prompt  the  adlions  of  brutes.  Calves  pufh  with  their  heads 
 long  before  their  horns  are  grown.  This,  and  fimilar  examples, 
 fhew,  that  the  inftincls  of  brutes  exid  previous  to  the  expan- 
 fion  of  thofe  inftrumcuts  which  Nutuie  intended  they  flioald 
 employ. 
 
164-  •      THE     PHILOSOPHY 
 
 This  view  of  inftir.61  is  fnnple,  removes  every  objeftion  to 
 the  exiilence  of  mind  in  brutes,  and  unfolds  all  their  a6tions,  by 
 referring  them  to  motives  perfectly  fimilar  to  thofe  by  which 
 man  is  adiuated.  There  is,  perhaps,  a  greater  difference  be- 
 tween the  mental  powers  of  fome  animals  than  between  thofe 
 of  man  and  the  mod  fagacious  brutes.  Inftindls  may  be  con* 
 fidered  as  fo  many  internal  fenfes,  of  which  fome  animds  have 
 a  greater  and  others  a  fmaller  number.  Thefe  fenfes,  in  dif- 
 ferent fpecies,  arc  like  wife  more  or  lefs  dudile  ;  and  the  ani- 
 mals pofTeffing  them  are,  of  courfe,  more  or  lefs  fufceptible  of 
 improving,  and  of  acquiring  knowledge. 
 
 The  notion  that  animals  are  machines,  is  perhaps  too  ab- 
 furd  to  merit  refutation.     Though  no  animal  is  endowed  with 
 mental  powers  equal  to  thofe  of  man,  yet  there  is  not  a  faculty 
 of  the  human  mind,  but  evident  marks  of  its  exigence  are  to  be 
 found  in  patticular  animals.     Scnfes,  memory,  imagination,  the 
 principle  of  imitation,  curiofity,   cunning,  ingeniaity,  devotion, 
 or  refpe£l  for  fuperiors,   gratitude,    are  all  difcoverable  in  the 
 brute  creation.     Neither  is  art  denied  to  them.     They  build  in 
 various  ftyles  ;  th.cy  dig  j  they  wage  war  ;  they  extraA  pecu- 
 liar fub^ances  from  water,  from  plants,    from  the  earth  ;   they 
 modulate  their  voices  fo  as  to  communicate    their  wants,   their 
 fentiments,  their  pleafures  and  pains,  their  apprchenfions  of  dan- 
 ger, and  their  profpe£ls  of  future  good.      Every  fpecies  has  its 
 own  language,  which  is  perfc(5lly  undcrftood  by  the  individuals. 
 They  afli  and  give  afliftance  to  each  other.     They  fpeak  of  their 
 necelTities  ;  and  this  branch  of  their  language  is  more  or  lefs  ex- 
 tended, in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their  wants.     Geftures 
 and  inarticulate  founds  are  the  figns  of  their  thoughts.     It  is  ne- 
 ccffary  that  the  fame  fentiments  flrould  produce  the  fame  founds 
 and  the  fame  movements  ;  and,  confequently,  each  individual  of 
 a  fpecies  muft  have  the  fame  organization.     Birds  and  quadru* 
 psdsj  accordingly,  are  incapable  of  holding  difcourfe  to  cack 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  165 
 
 Other,  or  communicating  the  ideas  and  feelings  they  poflefs 
 in  common.  The  language  of  gefture  prepares  for  that  of 
 articulation  ;  and  fome  animals  are  capable  of  acquiring  a 
 knowledge  of  articulate  founds.  They  firft  judge  of  our 
 thoughts  by  our  geflures ;  and  afterwards  acquire  the  habit 
 of  connecting  thefe  thoughts  with  the  language  in  which  we 
 exprefs  them.  It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  elephant  and  the 
 do^  learn  to  obev  the  commands  of  their  mafters. 
 
 Infants  are  exactly  in  the  fame  condition  with  brutes. 
 They  underltand  fome  of  our  geilures  and  words  long  before 
 they  can  articulate.  They  difcover  their  wants  by  geftures 
 and  inarticulate  founds,  the  meaning  of  which  the  nurfe 
 learns  by  experience.  Different  infants  have  different  modes 
 of  exprelling  their  wants.  This  is  the  reafon  why  nurfes 
 know  the  intentions  of  infants,  though  they  are  perfe<5lly  un- 
 intelligible to  ftrangers.  Yv^hen  an  infant,  accordingly  is 
 transferred  from  one  nurfe  to  another,  the  former  inflru6^ts 
 the  latter  in  the  geftures  and  inarticulate  language  of  the 
 child. 
 
 The  idea  of  a  machine  implies  a  feledl  combination  of  the 
 common  properties  of  matter.  The  regularity  of  its  move- 
 ments is  a  proof  that  they  are  totally  diftin6l  from  animal  or 
 fpontaneous  motion.  A  machine  has  nothing  analogous  to 
 fenfation,  which  is  the  loweft  charadteriftic  of  an  animal.  An: 
 animated  machine^  therefore,  is  an  abfurd  abufe  of  terms.  It 
 confounds  what  Nature  has  diftinguiflied  in  the  moft  unam- 
 biguous manner.  The  inftindts  of  brutes  are,  in  general, 
 ftronger,  and  lefs  fubjeiSl  to  reftraint,  than  tliofe  of  man. 
 The  reafon  is  plain  :  They  have  not  an  equal  number  of  in- 
 ftinfls  to  curb,  counterbalance,  or  moderate  their  motives  to 
 particular  adlions.  Hence  they  have  often  the  appearance  of 
 acting  by  mere  impulfe  ;  and  this  circumftance  has  led  fome 
 philofophers  to  confider  brutes  as  machines.  But  th  ey  re- 
 fie(5t  not  that  children,  favages,  and  ignorant  men,  a(Si:  nearly 
 
 W 
 
166  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 m  the  fame  manner.  It  is  fociety  and  culture  which  fofteR 
 and  moderate  the  paflions  and  adtions  of  men,  as  well  as  thofe 
 of  docile  animals. 
 
 Brutes,  like  men,  learn,  to  fee  objedls  in  their  proper  po* 
 iition,  to  judge  of  diftances  and  heights,  and  of  hurtful, 
 plcafureable,  or  indifferent  bodies.  Without  fome  portion  of 
 reafon,  therefore,  they  could  never  acquire  the  faculty  of 
 making  a  proper  ufe  of  their  fenfes.  A  dog,  though  pref- 
 fed  with  hunger,  will  not  feize  a  piece  of  meat  in  prefence 
 of  his  mafter,  unlefs  it  be  given  to  him  :  But,  with  his  eyes, 
 his  movements,  and  his  voice,  he  makes  the  moft  humble 
 and  expreffive  petition.  If  this  balancing  of  motives  be  not 
 reafoning,  I  know  not  by  what  other  name  it  can  be  called. 
 
 Animals,  recently  after  birth,  know  not  how  to  avoid 
 danger.  Neither  can  they  make  a  proper  ufe  of  their  mem- 
 bers. But  experience  foon  teaches  them  what  is  pleafant 
 and  w^hat  is  painful,  what  obje£ls  are  hurtful  and  what  falu- 
 tary.  A  young  cat,  or  a  dog,  who  has  had  no  experience  of 
 leaping  from  a  height,  will  without  hefitation,  precipitate  itfelf 
 from  the  top  of  a  high  wall.  But,  after  perceiving  that  cer- 
 tain heights  are  hurtful,  and  other's  inotfenfive,  the  animal 
 learns  to  make  the  diftindtion,  and  never  afterwards  can  be 
 prevailed  upon  to  leap  from  a  height  which  it  knows  will  be 
 produ6live  of  pain- 
 
 Young  animals  examine  every  obje£l  they  meet  with.  In 
 this  invefligation  they  employ  all  their  organs.  The  firil:  pe- 
 riods of  their  life  are  dedicated  to  ftudy.  When  they  run 
 about,  and  make  frolickfome  gambols,  it  is  Nature  fporting 
 with  them  for  their  inftruction.  In  this  manner  they  im- 
 prove their  faculties  and  organs,  and  acquire  an  intimate 
 knowledge  of  the  objeifts  which  furround  them.  IMen  who, 
 from  peculiar  circumftances,  have  been  prevented  from 
 mingling  with  companions,  and  engaging  in  the  different 
 amufements  and  exercifes  of  youth,  are  ahvays  awkwtird   in 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  167 
 
 their  movements,  cannot  life  their  organs  with  eafe  or  dexte- 
 rity, and  often  continue,  during  life,  ignorant  of  the  moil 
 common  objects. 
 
 From  the  above  fac^s  and  reafoning,  it  feems  to  be  ap- 
 parent, that  inftiniSls  are  original  qualities  of  mind  ;  that  eve- 
 ry animal  is  poiTefTed  of  fome  of  thefe  qualities  j  that  the  in- 
 telligence and  refources  of  aminals  are  proportioned  to  the 
 number  of  infl:in<5ls  with  which  their  minds  are  endowed ; 
 that  all  animals  are,  in  fome  meafure,  rational  beings  ;  and 
 that  the  dignity  and  fuperiority  of  the  human  intelle(ft  are 
 necefTary  refult-:^,  not  of  the  conformation  of  our  bodies,  but 
 of  the  great  variety  of  inftindls  which  Nature  has  been  pleaf- 
 €d  to  confer  on  the  fpecies, 
 
1$^  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER    VI. 
 
 Of  the   Zenfes. 
 
 JN  O  animal  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  is 
 endowed  with  more  than  the  five  external  fenfes  of  fmelling, 
 tafting,  hearing,  touch,  and  feeing ;  and  no  animal,  hov;- 
 ever,  imperfecSt,  is  deftitute  of  the  whole.  "Without  organs 
 of  fenfation,  in  a  fmaller  or  greater  number,  animal  or  intel- 
 ledlual  exiftence  is  to  us  an  inconceivable  idea.  Hence  the 
 notion  of  the  aacients,  and  of  a  very  few  moderns,  that  this 
 earth,  as  well  as  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  are  intelligent  be- 
 ings, though  they  have  not  the  veftige  of  any  inftrument  of 
 fenfation,  or  of  any  thing  analogous  to  our  ideas  of  animation, 
 except  mechanical  motion,  is  too  abfurd  even  to  be  ferioufly 
 mentioned. 
 
 Upon  this  interefting  fubje^V,  as  it  comprehends  every 
 fource  of  information,  and  every  motive  to  a6lion  in  man,  as 
 well  as  in  the  inferior  animals,  it  is  not  furprifing  that  fo 
 much  has  been  written,  and  that  fo  many  different  theories 
 have  been  invented,  and  fubmitted  to  public  infpe£lion. 
 Some  of  thefe  theories  (liall  be  taken  notice  of  in  a  curfory 
 manner,  and  others,  as  unworthy  of  attention,  fliall  be  paiTeci 
 over  in  filence. 
 
 Our  obfervations  on  the  different  inftruments  of  fenfation 
 fhall  proceed  in  the  following  order,  namely,  of  the  fenfes  of 
 fmelling,  of  tafting,  of  hearing,  of  touch,  and  of  feeing.  In 
 general,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  all  fenfation  is  conveyed 
 to  the  mind  by  an  unknown  influence  of  the  nerves.  If  the 
 optic,  olfactory,  or  any  nerve  diftributed  over  an  organ  of 
 fenfation,  be  cut,  or  rendered  paralytic,  the  animal  inftantly 
 lofes  that  particular  fenfe.  This  is  a  fa6l  univerfally  eftab- 
 lifhed  by  experiment.     But  that  the  nerves,  which  are  per- 
 
0?    NATURAL    HISTORY.  169 
 
 fedtly  fimilar  in  every  part  of  the  body,  fhould,  when  dlftrU 
 buted  over  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  tongue,  the  nofe,  convey  to 
 the  mind  feelings  fo  different,  is  the  moft  myfterious  part  of 
 this  fubje(St.  When  M.  de  Bonnet  tells  us,  that  every  organ 
 of  fenfe  probably  confifis  of  fibres  fpecifically  different  5  and 
 that  thefe  fibres  are  particular  fenfes  endowed  with  a  peculiar 
 manner  of  a£ling,  correfponding  to  the  perceptions  they  ex-j 
 cite  in  the  mind  ;  he  means  to  reafon  ;  but  he  does  no 
 more  than  give  a  circumlocution  for  the  h€t 
 
 OF  SMELLING. 
 
 IN  man,  and  many  other  animals,  the  organ  by  which  the 
 fenfe  of  fmelling  is  conveyed  to  the  mind,  has  received  the 
 general  appellation  of  mfe,  or  noflrils.  The  more  immediate 
 inftrument  of  this  fenfation  is  a  foft,  vafcular,  porous  mem- 
 brane, covered  with  numerous  papillae,  and  is  known  by  the 
 name  of  membrana  pituitariay  or  membrana  Schnmderiana.  This 
 membrane  is  totally  covered  with  infinite  ramifications  and 
 convolutions  of  the  olfactory  nerves.  Thefe  nerves  are  air 
 moft  naked,  and  expofed  to  the  action  of  the  air  which  paf- 
 fes  through  the  nofe  in  performing  the  fun<rtion  of  refpira- 
 tion.  But  Nature,  ever  attentive  to  the  eafe  and  conveni- 
 ence of  her  creatures,  has  furnilhed  the  noflrils  with  a  num° 
 ber  of  glands,  or  fmall  arteries,  which  fecrete  a  thick  infipid 
 mucus.  By  this  mucus,  the  olfactory  nerves  are  defended 
 from  the  a61-ion  of  the  air,  and  from  the  painful  ftimuli  of 
 acrid  odours. 
 
 The  odours  perceived  by  finelling  are  extremely  various. 
 Some  of  them  convey  to  us  the  moft  delightful  and  refrefli- 
 ing  fenfations,  and  others  are  painful,  noxious,  and  difguft- 
 ing.  All  bodies  in  Nature,  whether  folid  or  fluid,  whether 
 animated  or  inanimated,  continually  fend  forth  to  the  air 
 certain  efiluvia  or  emanations  from  their  refpedlive  fubftan- 
 ces.     Thefe  efiluvia  float  in  the  atmofphere,  and  a6i:  upo» 
 
ITO  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  olfa£lory  nerves  of  different  animals,  and  fometimes  of 
 different  individuals  of  the  fame  fpecies,  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
 to  produce  very  different  fenfations.  What  is  pleafant  to 
 the  noftrils  of  one  animal  is  highly  offenlive  to  thofe  of 
 another.  Brute  animals  felecl:  their  food  chiefly  by  employ- 
 ing the  fenfe  of  fmelling,  and  it  feldom  deceives  them.  They 
 caiily  diftinguifh  noxious  from  falutary  food  ;  and  they  care- 
 fully avoid  the  one,  and  ufe  the  other  for  nourifhment.  The 
 fame  thing  happens  with  regard  to  the  drink  of  animals.  A 
 cow,  when  it  can  be  obtained,  always  repairs  to  the  cleareft 
 and  frefliefl  ftreams  ;  but  a  horfe,  from  fome  infi:in£live  im- 
 pulfe,  uniformly  raifes  the  mud  with  his  feet,  and  renders 
 the  water  impure,  before  he  drinks. 
 
 In  the  fele^rtlon  of  food,  men  are  greatly  affifted,  even  in 
 the  moft  luxurious  flate  of  fociety,  by  the  fenfe  of  fmelling. 
 By  fmeUing  we  often  reje6l  food  as  noxious,  and  will  not 
 f  ilk  the  other  teft  of  tafting.  Victuals  which  have  a  putrid 
 fmeli,  as  equally  offenfive  to  our  noftrils  as  hurtful  to  our 
 Gonftitutions,  we  avoid  with  abhorrence  *,  but  we  are  allured 
 to  eat  fubftances  which  have  a  grateful  and  favoury  odour. 
 The  more  frequent  and  more  acute  difcernment  of  brutes  in 
 the  exercife  of  this  fenfe,  is  entirely  owing  to  their  freedom, 
 and  to  their  ufing  natural  productions  alone.  But  men  in 
 fociety,  by  the  arts  of  cookery,  by  the  unnatural  affemblage 
 of  twenty  ingredients  in  one  difh,.  blunt,  corrupt,  and  de- 
 ceive both  their  fenfes  of  fmelling  and  of  tafting.  Were  we 
 in  the  fame  natural  condition  as  the  brutes,  our  fenfe  of 
 fmelling  would  enable  us  to  diftinguifh,  with  equal  certainty, 
 noxious  from  falutary  food.  Brutes,  as  well  as  men,  prefer 
 particular  foods  to  others.  This  may  be  conftdered  as  a 
 fpecies  of  luxury  •,  but  it  fhould  likewife  be  conftdered,  that 
 all  the  articles  they  ufe  are  either  animal  or  vegetable  fub- 
 ftances in  a  natural  ftate,  neither  converted  into  a  thoufand 
 forms  and  qualities  by  the  operation  of  fire  and  water,  nor 
 having  their  favour  exalted  by  ftimulating  condiments.   Do- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  171 
 
 i-neftic  animals  are  nearly  in  the  fame  condition  with  luxuri- 
 ous men.  A  pampered  dog  fnutFs  and  rejefls  many  kinds 
 of  food,  which,  in  a  natural  {late,  he  would  devour  with 
 eajrernefs. 
 
 It  is  not  unworthy  of  rem^ark,  that,  in  all  animals, 
 the  organs  of  fmelling  and  of  tafling  are  uniformly  fituated 
 very  near  each  other.  Here  the  intention  of  Nature  is  evi- 
 dent. The  vicinity  of  thefe  two  fenfes  forms  a  double  guard 
 in  the  felection  of  food.  Were  they  placed  in  diftant  parts 
 of  the  body,  they  could  not  fo  readily  give  mutual  aid  to 
 one  another. 
 
 But  affiftance  in  the  choice  of  food  is  not  the  only  ad- 
 vantage that  men  and  other  animals  derive  from  the  fenfe  of 
 fmelling.  Every  body  in  nature,  whether  animal,  vegetablc> 
 or  mineral,  v/lien  expofed  to  the  air,  continually  fends  forth 
 emanations,  or  effluvia,  of  fuch  extreme  fubtlety,  that  no  eve 
 can  perceive  them.  Thefe  effluvia,  or  volatile  particles,  dif- 
 fufe  themfelves  through  the  air,  and  moft  of  them  are  re- 
 cognized, by  the  organ  of  fmelling,  to  be  either  agreeable  or 
 difagreeable.  To  give  fome  idea  of  the  inconceivable  mi- 
 nutenels  of  thefe  particles,  and  of  the  amazing  fenfibility  of 
 the  noftrils  of  animals,  the  odour  of  mulk  has  been  known 
 to  fill  a  large  fpace  for  feveral  years  without  lofing  any  per- 
 ceptible part  of  its  weight.  Thus,  the  air  we  breathe  is  per- 
 petually impregnated  with  an  infinity  of  different  particles 
 which  ftimulate  the  olfa£lory  nerves,  and  give  rife  to  the 
 fenfation  of  fmell.  When  our  fenfes  are  not  vitiated  by  un- 
 natural habits,  they  are  not  only  faithful  monitors  of  danger, 
 but  convey  to  us  the  moft  exquifite  pleafures.  Even  the 
 fenfe  of  fmelling  is  always  productive  either  of  pleafure  or 
 pain.  The  fragrance  of  a  rofe,  and  of  many  other  flowers, 
 is  not  only  pleafant,  but  gives  a  refrefhing  and  delightful 
 ftimulus  to  the  whole  fyftem,  and  may  be  confidered  as  a 
 fpecies   of  wholefome  nourifhment ;   while  the  odours  pro- 
 
17^  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ceedingfrom  hemlock,  and  from  many  other  noxious  vege- 
 table, animal,  and  mineral  fubftances,  are  highly  ofFenfive  to 
 om-  noftrils.  Hence  we  are  naturally  compelled  to  embrace 
 the  one  clafs  of  fenfations  and  to  avoid  the  other. 
 
 Some  animals,  as  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  raven,  Szc.  are  en- 
 dowed with  a  moft  exquifite  fenfe  of  fmelling.  A  dog 
 fcents  various  kinds  of  game  at  confiderable  diftances  ;  and, 
 if  the  facSl  were  not  confirmed  by  daily  experience,  it  could 
 hardly  gain  credit,  that  he  can  trace  the  odour  of  his  maf- 
 ter's  foot  through  all  the  winding  flreets  of  a  populous  city. 
 If  we  judge  from  our  own  feelings,  this  extreme  fenfibilitjr 
 in  the  nofe  of  a  dog  is  to  us  perfectly  incompreheniible. 
 
 The  fenfe  of  fmelling,  like  that  of  fome  other  fenfes,  may 
 be  perverted  or  corrupted  by  habit.  The  fnuffing,  chew- 
 ing, and  fmoaking  tobacco,  though  at  firft  difagreeable,  be- 
 come, by  the  power  of  habit,  not  only  pleafant,  but  almoft 
 indifpenfible.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  the  practice 
 of  fwallowing  ardent  fpirits,  the  moft  deleterious  of  all  poif- 
 ons,  becaufe  the  moft  extenlively  employed.  How  the  nat- 
 ural ftate  of  the  nerves,  and  of  the  fenfations  conveyed  by 
 them,  fhould  be  fo  completely  changed,  we  are  totally  ignor- 
 ant. The  conftitution  of  the  nerves  often  varies  in  diifer- 
 ent  individuals  of  the  fame  fpecies.  An  odour  which  is  dif- 
 guftful  to  one  man  is  highly  grateful  to  another.  I  knew  a 
 gentleman  who  was  in  the  daily  habit  of  lighting  and  put- 
 ting out  candles,  that  he  might  enjoy  the  pleafure  of  their 
 fmell.     Fev/  men,  I  fuppofe,  would  envy  him. 
 
 OF  TASTING. 
 
 THE  tongue  and  palate  are  the  great  inftruments  of  this 
 fenfation.  With  much  wifdom  and  propriety  the  organ  of 
 tafte  is  fituated  in  fuch  a  manner  as  enables  it  to  be  a  guar- 
 dian to  the  alimentary  canal,  and  to  aflift  the  organ  of  fmell 
 in  diftinguifhing  falutary  from  noxious  food.     The  tongue^ 
 
OF    NiiTURAL    HISTORY.  173 
 
 like  the  other  inftruments  of  fenfation,  is  amply  fupplied 
 with  nerves.  The  terminations  of  thefe  nerves  appear  on 
 the  furface  of  the  tongue  in  the  form  oi papillae  or  minute 
 nipples,  which  are  always  eredled  on  the  application  of  fapid 
 or  fdmulating  fubftances.  This  elevation  and  extention  of 
 the  papillae,  by  bringing  larger  portions  of  the  nerves  into 
 contact:  v/ith  the  fubflances  applied  to  the  tongue,  give  ad- 
 ditional ftrength  to  the  fenfation,  and  enable  us  to  judge 
 with  greater  accuracy  concerning  their  nature  and  qualities. 
 Belide  the  nervous  papillae,  the  tongue  is  perpetually  moift- 
 ened  with  faliva,  a  liquor  which,  though  inlipid  itfelf,  is  on» 
 great  caufe  of  all  taftes.  The  faliva  of  animals  is  a  very  pow- 
 erful folvent.  Every  fubftance  applied  to  the  tongue  is 
 partially  diflblved  by  the  faliva  before  the  fenfation  of  tafte 
 is  excited.     When  the  tongue  is  rendered  dry  by  difeafe,  or 
 
 any  other  caufe,  the  fenfe  of  tafte  is  either  vitiated  or  totally 
 annihilated. 
 
 In  fome  men,  the  fenfe  of  tafte  is  fo  blunt,  that  they  can- 
 not diflinguilli  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  different 
 fpecies  of  that  fenfation.  In  others,  whether  from  Nature  or 
 from  habit,  this  fenfe  is  fo  acute,  that  they  can  perceive  the 
 niceft  diftinclions  in  the  favour  of  loHds  and  of  liquids. 
 
 The  fenfations  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  tafte,  like  thofe 
 of  all  the  fenfes,  are  either  agreeable,  difagreeable,  or  indiffer- 
 ent. The  pleafures  arifing  from  this  fenfe  are  not  only  great, 
 but  highly  ufeful  to  every  animal.  The  fenfe  itfelf,  however, 
 is  comparatively  grofs  ;  for,  in  fmelling,  hearing,  and  feeing, 
 fenfations  are  excited  by  emanations  or  undulations  proceed- 
 ing from  bodies  at  great  diftances  from  the  animals  who  per- 
 ceive them.  But,  in  tafting,  the  gbjeft  muft  be  brought  in- 
 to actual  conta(Sl  with  the  tongue  before  its  qualities  can  be 
 difcovered.  How  this  proportionally  grofs  lenfe  fliould 
 have  been  feleded,  and  figuratively  applied  to  the  general 
 perception  of  every  thing  beautiful  and  fublime,  whether  in 
 
174  THE    FHILOSOPHY 
 
 Nature  or  in  art,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  inquirj^, 
 however,  v/ould  not  be  incurious,  whether  men  who  have 
 an  obtufe  fenfe  of  tailing  material  fubftances  are  likewife 
 deficient  in  the  perception  of"  beauty  and  deformity. 
 
 Tliough  the  fenfe  of  tafte  varies  in  fome  individuals,  yet, 
 like  figurative  tafte,  the  ftandard  of  agreeable  and  difagreea- 
 ble,  of  pleafant  and  painful,  is  almoft  univerlally  difFufed 
 over  mankind  and  the  brute  creation.  Every  horfe,  and 
 every  ox,  when  in  a  natural  ftate,  eat  and  rejedl  the  fame 
 fpecies  of  food.  But  men  in  fociety,  as  well  as  domeflic  ani- 
 mals, are  induced  by  habit,  by  neceflity,  or  by  imitation^  to 
 acquire  a  tafte  for  many  diflies,  and  combinations  of  fub- 
 ftances, which,  before  the  natural  difcriminating  fenfe  is  per- 
 verted, would  be  reje^led  with  difguft. 
 
 Some  individuals  of  the  human  fpecies  have  an  averfton  to 
 particular  kinds  of  food,  which  are  generally  agreeable. 
 This  averfton  may  be  either  original  or  acquired.  I  knew  a 
 child,  who,  from  the  moment  he  was  weaned,  could  never 
 be  induced  to  take  milk  of  any  kind.  Thefe  original  aver- 
 lions  muft  be  afcribed  to  fome  peculiar  modification  in  the 
 ftru£lure  of  the  organ,  or  in  the  difpofition  of  its  nerves. 
 But,  in  general,  difguft  at  particular  foods  is  produced  by 
 furfeits,  which  injure  the  ftom.ach,  and  create,  in  that  exqui- 
 fitely  irritable  vifcus,  an  infuperable  antipathy  to  receive 
 nourifliment  which  formerly  gave  it  fo  much  uneaftnefs  to 
 digged. 
 
 Brute  animals,  efpecially  thcfe  which  feed  upon  herbage, 
 and  are  not  liable  to  be  corrupted  by  example  or  neceflity, 
 diftinguifti  taftes  with  wonderful  accuracy.  By  the  applica- 
 tion of  the  tongue,  they  inftantly  perceive  whether  any 
 plant  is  falutary  or  noxious.  To  enable  them,  amidft  a 
 thoufand  plants,  to  make  this  difqrimination,  their  nervous 
 papillae,  and  their  tongues,  are  proportionally  much  larger 
 fihan  thofe  of  man. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  175 
 
 OF  HEARING. 
 THE  fenfation  of  hearing  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  un« 
 dulations  of  air  ftriking  the  ear,  an  organ  of  a  very  delicate 
 and  complex  flru^lure.  In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  exter- 
 nal ears  are  large,  and  provided  with  mufcles  by  wliich  they 
 can  erect  and  move  them  from  fide  to  fide,  in  order  to  catch 
 the  undulations  produced  in  the  air  by  the  vibrations  of  fono- 
 rous  bodies,  or  to  diftinguifh  with  greater  accuracy  the  fpe- 
 cies  of  found,  and  the  nature  and  fituation  of  the  animal  or 
 object  from  which  it  proceeds.  Though  the  human  ears, 
 ^  like  thofe  of  quadrupeds,^  are  furnifhed  with  mufcles,  evi- 
 dently intended  for  fimilar  movements,  yet,  I  know  not  for 
 what  reafon,  there  is  not  one  man  in  a  million  who  has  the 
 power  of  moving  his  ears.  "When  we  liften  to  a  feeble 
 found,  we  are  confcious  of  an  exertion  ;  but  that  exertion, 
 and  the  motions  produced  by  it,  are  confined  to  the  internal 
 parts  of  the  organ. 
 
 The  canals  or  paiTages  to  the  internal  parts  of  the  eai: 
 are  cylindrical,  fomewhat  contorted,  and  become  gradually 
 fmaller  till  they  reach  the  memhrana  tympanic  which  covers 
 what  is  called  the  drum  of  the  ear.  This  membrane,  which 
 is  extremely  fenfible,  when  a<Sl:ed  upon  by  indulations  of  air, 
 however  excited,  conveys,  by  means  of  a  complex  apparatus 
 of  bones,  nerves,  &c.  the  fenfation  of  found  to  the  brain  or 
 fentient  principle. 
 
 That  air  is  the  medium  by  which  all  founds  are  propagat- 
 ed, has  been  eftablifhed  by  repeated  experiments.  The 
 found  of  a  bell,  fufpended  in  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump, 
 gradually  diminifhes  as  the  air  is  exhaufted,  till  it  almofl  en- 
 tirely ceafes  to  be  heard.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
 quantity  of  air  is  increafed  by  a  condenfer,  the  intenfity  of 
 the  found  is  proportionally  augmented.  Mr.  Haufkbee,  in  a 
 paper  publifhed  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfa^lions,  has  prov- 
 ed, that  founds   actually  produced  cannot  be  tranfmitted 
 
176  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 through  a  vacuum,  or  a  fpace  deprived  of  air.  « I  took,* 
 fays  he,  «  a  flrong  receiver,  armed  with  a  brafs  hoop  at  the 
 ^  bottom,  in  which  I  included  a  bell  as  large  as  it  could  well 
 
 <  contain.     This  receiver  I  fcrewed  flrongly  down  to  a  brafs 
 
 <  plate  with  a  wet  leather  between,  and  it  was  full  of  common 
 
 *  air,  which  could  nowife  make  its  efcape.    Thus  fecured,  it 
 
 *  was  fet  on  the  pump,  where  it  was  covered  with  another 
 '  large  receiver.     In  this  manner,  the  air  contained  between 
 
 *  the  outward  and  inward  receivers  was  exhaufted.  Now 
 «  here  I  was  fure,  when  the  clapper  fliould  be  made  to  ftrike 
 
 <  the  bell,  there  would  be  actually  found  produced  in  the  in- 
 
 <  ward  receiver  ;   the  air  in  which  was  of  the  fame  denlity  as 
 
 *  common  air,  could  fufFer  no  alteration  by  the  vacuum  on 
 
 *  its  outfide,  fo  ftrongly  was  it  fecured  on  all  parts.     Thus,  all 
 
 <  being  ready  for  trial,  the  clapper  was  made  to  ilrike   the 
 
 <  bell ;  but  I  found  that  there  was  no  tranfmiffion  of  it 
 «  through  the  vacuum,  though  I  was  fure  there  was  a£lual 
 ^  found  produced  in  the  inward  receiver.' 
 
 To  enable  us  to  under ftand  the  manner  in  which  founds 
 are  propagated  through  the  air,  philofophers  have  had  re- 
 courfe  to  the  undulations  produced  by  a  ftone  thrown  into  a 
 pond  of  ftagnating  water.  Thefe  undulations  alTume  the 
 form  of  circular  waves,  which  fucceffively  proceed  from  the 
 place  where  the  ftone  ftruck  the  water,  as  from  a  center,  and 
 continually  dilate,  and  become  greater  and  greater  as  they 
 recede  from  that  center,  till  they  reach  the  banks  of  the  wa- 
 ter, where  they  either  vanifli  or  are  reflecSled.  Now,  as  air 
 is  likevvife  a  fluid,  iimilar  undulations,  though  to  us  invilible, 
 are  produced  in  it  by  the  vibrations  of  fonorous  bodies,  and 
 are  alfo  propagated  to  great  diftances  in  fucceflive  waves  or 
 rings.  Thefe  undulations  of  the  air,  when  they  come  into 
 contact  with  our  organs  of  hearing,  make  fuch  a  tremulous 
 impreflion  upon  them  as  excites  in  our  minds  the  fenfation 
 pf  found.     This  analogy,  though  not  altogether  perfed,  is 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  I7t 
 
 fuiRcient  to  illiiftrate  thofe  invifible  motions  of  the  air  by 
 which  Ibunds  are  conveyed  from  one  place  to  another,  and 
 to  give  an  idea  of  echoes,  or  refledl:ed  undulations  of  that 
 fluid. 
 
 The  celerity  with  which  founds,  or  undulations  of  airj 
 move,  has  been  exactly  computed.  All  founds,  whether 
 3cute  or  grave,  ftrong  or  weak,  move  at  the  rate  of  1142 
 feet  in  a  fecond  of  time.  Hence,  whenever  the  lightning  of 
 thunder,  or  the  fire  of  artillery,  are  feen,  their  actual  dif- 
 tances  from  the  obferver  may  be  eafily  afcertained  by  the 
 vibrations  of  a  pendulum.  This  velocity,  it  is  true,  may  be 
 a  little  augmented  or  diminiflied  by  favourable  or  by  con- 
 trary winds,  and  by  heat  or  cold.  But  the  difference,  even 
 in  high  winds,  is  fo  trifling,  that,  for  any  ufeful  purpofe,  it 
 fcarcely  merits  attention. 
 
 Infants  hear  bluntly,  becaufe  the  bones  of  their  ears  are 
 foft  and  cartilaginous  ;  and,  of  courfe,  the  tremulations  excited 
 in  them  by  the  motions  of  the  air  are  comparatively  weak. 
 Young  children,  accordingly,  are  extremely  fond  of  noife. 
 It  roufes  their  attention,  and  conveys  to  them  the  agreeable 
 fenfation  of  found ,  but  feeble  founds  are  not  perceivedj 
 which  give  infants,  like  deaf  perfons,  the  appearance  of  inat- 
 tention, or  rather  of  flupidity. 
 
 The  force  or  intenfity  of  found  is  augmented  by  reflecllon 
 from  furrounding  bodies.  It  is  from  this  caufe  that  the  hu- 
 man voice,  or  any  other  noife,  is  always  weaker,  and  lefs 
 diftinftly  heard,  in  the  open  air  than  in  a  houfe. 
 
 The  modifications  of  found  are  not  lefs  various  than  thofe 
 of  taftes  or  odours.  The  ear  is  capable  of  diftinguifking 
 Ibme  hundred  tones  in  found,  and  probably  as  many  degrees 
 of  ftrength  in  the  fame  tones.  By  combining  thefe,  many 
 thoufand  fimple  founds,  which  differ  either  in  tone  or  in 
 ftrength,  are  perceived  and  diftinguifhed  by  the  ear.  A 
 violin,  a  fiut^,  a  French-horn,  may   each  of  them  give  the 
 
ITS  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fame  tone  ;  but  the  ear  eafily  makes  the  diftIn(SlIon.  The 
 immenfe  variety  of  fenfations,  arifing  from  the  organs  of 
 fmeUing,  of  tafting,  and  of  hearing,  enables  animals  to  judge 
 concerning  the  nature  and  fituation  of  external  objefts.  By 
 habit  we  learn  to  know  the  bodies  from  which  particular 
 fpecies  of  founds  proceed.  Previous  to  all  experience,  we 
 could  not  diftinguifh  whether  a  found  came  from  the  right 
 or  the  left,  from  above  or  below,  from  a  greater  or  a  fmaller 
 diftance,  or  whether  it  was  the  found  of  a  coach,  of  a  drum, 
 of  a  bell,  or  of  an  animal.  By  catching  cold,  I  once  had  a 
 temporary  deafnefs  in  my  left  ear.  I  was  furprifed  to  find 
 that  I  had  loft  the  faculty  of  perceiving  the  fituation  from 
 which  founds  proceeded.  If  a  dog  barked  on  the  left,  I 
 thought  the  noife  came  from  the  right.  This  circumftance 
 excited  my  curofity  :  But,  upon  recollection,  1  knew  that 
 my  left  ear  was  deaf  j  and  that  every  found  I  heard  was  per- 
 ceived folely  by  the  right  j  and,  confequently,  I  difcovered 
 the  caufe  of  the  deception. 
 
 Hearing  enables  us  to  perceive  all  the  agreeable  fenfa- 
 tions conveyed  to  our  minds  by  the  melody  and  harmony  of 
 founds.  This,  to  man  at  lead,  is  a  great  fource  of  pleafure 
 and  of  innocent  amufement.  But  fome  men  are  almoft  total- 
 ly deftitute  of  the  faculty  of  diflinguifliing  mufical  founds, 
 and  of  perceiving  thofe  delightful  and  diverfified  feelings 
 excited  by  the  various  combinations  of  mufical  tones.  Moft 
 men  derive  pleafure  from  particular  fpecies  of  mufic.  But  a 
 mufical  ear,  in  a  refi:ri6ted  fenfe,  is  by  no  means  a  general 
 quaUfication.  An  ear  for  mufic,  however,  though  not  to  be 
 acquired  by  ftudy,  when  the  faculty  itfelf  is  wanting,  may  be 
 highly  improved  by  habit  and  culture.  Bufix)n,  after  exam- 
 ining a  number  of  perfons  who  had  no  ear  for  mufic,  fays, 
 that  every  one  of  them  heard  worfe  in  one  ear  than  in  the 
 other  •,  and  afcribes  their  inability  of  difi:inguifliing  mufical 
 <exprel]jon  to  that  defed.     But  a  mufical  ear  feems  to  have 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  179 
 
 JtD  dependence  on  acutenefs  or  bluntnefs  of  hearing,  whether 
 in  one  ear  or  in  both  ears.  There  are  many  examples  of 
 people  who  may  be  laid  to  be  half  deaf,  and  yet  are  both 
 fond  of  mufic,  and  fkilful  practitioners.  An  ear  for  mufic, 
 like  a  genius  for  painting,  or  poetry,  is  a  gift  of  Nature, 
 and  is   born  with  the  poiTelTor. 
 
 Befide  the  innumerable  pleafures  we  derive  from  mufic 
 and  agreeable  founds,  the  extenfion  and  improvement  of  ar- 
 tificlal  language  mull  be  confidered  as  obje£ls  of  the  greateft 
 importance  to  the  human  race.  "Without  the  fenfe  of  hear- 
 ing, mankind  would  forever  have  remained  mute.  I  men- 
 tion artificial i  or  improved  language,  becaufe,  from  a  thouf- 
 and  obfervations  which  every  perfon  muft  have  made,  it  is 
 perfectly  apparent,  that,  if  deftitute.of  a  natural  language, 
 neither  man  nor  the  brute  creation*  could  poffibly  have  ex- 
 ited and  continued  their  fpeclef.  As  brutes,  without  in- 
 formation or  experience,  are  capable  of  communicating  to 
 each  other,  by  particular  founds  and  gellures,  their  pleafures 
 and  pains,  their  wants  and  delires,  it  would  be  the  highefl: 
 abfurdlty  to  fuppofe  that  the  great  Creator  fhould  have  de- 
 nied to  man,  the  nobleft  animal  that  inhabits  this  globe,  the 
 fame  indifpenlible  privilege.  Without  a  balls  there  can  be 
 no  fabric.  Without  a  natural  no  artificial  language  could 
 poffibly  have  exifted.  This  point  is  clearly  demonftrated, 
 in  a  few  words,  by  that  mod  ingenious,  candid,  and  pro- 
 found philofopher,  Dr.  Thomas  Reid,  ProfefTor  of  Moral 
 Philofophy  in  the  Univeriity  of  Glafgow.  « If  mankind,* 
 fays  Dr.  Reid,  <  had  not  a  natural  language,  they  could  nev- 
 
 *  cr  have  invented  an  artificial  one  by  their  rcafon  and  inge- 
 '  nuity.     For  all  artificial  language  fuppofes  fome    compacSt 
 
 *  or    agreement    to  affix  a  certain  meaning  to   certain  ligns  ; 
 
 «  therefore,    there  muft  be   compadts  or  agreements  before 
 
 <  the  ufe  of  artificial  figns  ;    but  there  can  be  no  compacSt  or 
 
 •  Concerning  the  language  of  Beafls,  I  fhal!,  perhaps,  be  more  explicit  in  a- 
 faturc  work. 
 
l80  THE   PHILOSOPHir 
 
 « agreement  without  figns,  nor  without  language  ;  and  there- 
 «  fore  there  muft  be  a  natural  language  before  any  artificial 
 
 *  language  can  be  invented*/  Let  any  man  try  to  overturn 
 this  argument,  which  is  founded,  not  upon  metaphyjical  con- 
 jecture, but  upon  the  folid  bafis  oifacl  and  uncontrovertible 
 reafotiing.  The  elements,  or  conftituent  parts  of  the  natural 
 language  of  mankind,  the  Doctor  reduces  to  three  kinds  ; 
 modulations  of  the  voice,  geftures,  and  features.     <  By  means 
 
 *  of  thefe,'  fays  he,  *  two  flivages,  who  have  no  common  ar- 
 
 <  tificial  language,  can  converfe  together  \  can   communicate 
 
 <  their  thoughts  in  fome  tolerable  manner  \  can  afk  and  re- 
 
 <  fufe,  affirm  and  deny,  threaten  and  fupplicate  \  can  traffic, 
 
 *  enter  into  covenants,  and  plight  their  faith/ 
 
 I  can  perceive  only  one  plauiible  objedlion  to  this  reafon- 
 ing.  If,  it  may  be  faid,  man  were  endowed  with  a  natural 
 language,  this  language  muft  be  univerfal ,  from  what  fource, 
 then,  can  the  great  diverlity  of  languages  in  different  na* 
 tions,  and  tribes  of  the  human  race  be  derived  ?  The  folu- 
 tion  of  this  queftion  depends  not  upon  metaphyiical  argu- 
 ments, but  upon  fa£l  and  experience.  I  have  had  conlider- 
 able  opportunities  of  obferving  the  behaviour  of  children. 
 Infants,  when  very  young,  have  nearly  the  fame  modes  of  ex- 
 prefilng  their  pleafures  and  pains,  their  defires  and  averfions. 
 Thefe  they  communicate  by  voice,  gefture,  and  feature  ;  and 
 every  infant,  whatever  be  the  country,  climate,  or  language, 
 uniformly  exprefTes  its  feelings  almoft  in  the  fam>e  manner. 
 But,  when  they  arrive  at  nine  or  twelve  months  of  age,  a  dif- 
 ferent fcene  is  exhibited.  They  then,  befide  the  general 
 expreffions  of  feeling  and  defire,  attempt  to  give  names  to 
 particular  objects.  Here  artifice  begins.  In  thefe  attempts, 
 previous  to  the  capacity  of  imitating  articulate  founds,  every 
 individual  infant  utters  different  founds,  or  rather  gives  differ- 
 
 *  Dr.  Reld's  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind,  on  the  Principles  of  Common 
 Scnfe,  page  93. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  Igl 
 
 l^nt  names,  to  fignify  the  fame  objecfls  of  its  defire  or  averfion* 
 BefiJe  this  natural  attempt  tou'ards  a  nomenclature,  infants, 
 during  the  period  above  mentioned,  (for  the  time  varies  ac- 
 cording to  the  health  and  vivacity  of  the  child),  frequently 
 make  continued  orations.  Thefe  orations  confift  both  of  ar- 
 ticulate and  inarticulate  founds,  of  which  no  man  can  give 
 an  idea  in  writing.  But  moft  men,  and  every  woman  who 
 has  narfed  children,  will  perfectly  underftand  what  I  cannot 
 exprefs.  From  the  facl,  that  children  aftually  Utter  differ- 
 ent founds,  or  give  different  names  to  denote  the  fame  ob- 
 jects, I  imagine,  arifes  all  that  diversity  of  languages,  which, 
 by  exhaufting  time  and  attention,  retard  the  progrefs  and  im- 
 provement both  of  Art  and  Science.  If  any  number  of  chil- 
 dren, Or  of  folitary  favages,  fliould  chance  to  affociate,  the 
 names  of  objects  would  feon  be  fettled  by  imitation  and  con- 
 fent.  Ey  obfervation  and  experience  the  number  of  names 
 would  be  augmented,  as  well  as  the  qualities  or  attributes 
 of  the  obje<rts  themfelves  ;  and,  in  the  progrefs  of  time,  a 
 new  and  artificial  language  would  be  gradually  formed. 
 "While  this  operation  is  going  on  in  one  corner  of  a  country, 
 twenty  fimilar  affociations  and  cdrnpadts  may  be  forming,  or 
 already  formed,  in  different  nations,  or  in  different  diftridts 
 of  the  fame  nation,  all  of  which  would  give  birth  to  feparate 
 artiiicial  languages. 
 
 OF  TOUCH. 
 
 THE  fenfations  of  fmelling,  tafting,  hearing,  and  feeing, 
 are  conveyed  to  us  by  partial  organs,  which  are  all  confined 
 to  the  head.  But  the  fenfe  of  touching,  or  of  feeling,  is  not 
 only  common  to  thefe  organs,  but  extends  over  almoft  every 
 part  of  the  body,  whether  external  or  internal.  Though 
 every  fenfation  may  be  comprehended  under  the  general  ap- 
 pellation of  feelings  yet  what  is  called  the  fenfe  of  touch  is 
 properly  reftriaed  to  the   different  fenfations   excited   by 
 
1S2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 bodies  applied  to  the  Ikin,  and  particularly  to  the  tips  of 
 the  fingers. 
 
 With  regard  to  fenfation  in  general,  it  is  worthy  of  re- 
 mark, that  the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  noftrils,  the  tongue  and 
 palate,  the  palms  of  the  hands,  efpecially  towards  the  points 
 of  the  fingers,  are  more  amply  fupplied  with  nerves  than  any 
 other  external  parts  of  the  body.  The  terminations  of  the 
 nerves  On  the  furface  of  the  fkin  are  foft  and  pulpy,  and 
 form  minute  protuberances  refembling  the  nap  of  freeze- 
 cloth,  though  greatly  inferior  in  magnitude.  Thefe  protur- 
 berances  have  received  the  denomination  of  nervous  papiliae. 
 They  might  be  called  animal  feelers  \  for  they  are  obvioufly 
 the  immediate  inflruments  of  fenfation.  If  an  objedt  be  pre- 
 fented  to  the  eye,  or  any  other  organ  of  fenfation,  certain 
 feelings  are  excited,  which  are  either  agreeable  or  difagreea- 
 ble,  according  to  the  real  or  imaginary  qualities  which  we 
 confider  as  belonging  to  that  objedt.  The  feelings  thus  ex- 
 cited inftantly  produce  a  change  in  the  feniitive  organs  by 
 which  they  are  occalioned.  If  the  ob}e(5l  be  polTefied  of  dif- 
 agreeable  qualities,  averfion  is  the  neceiTary  confequence. 
 But,  if  beauty  and  utiHty  are  perceived  in  the  objedt,  pleaf- 
 ant  emotions  fpring  up  in  the  mind,  which  naturally  induce 
 a  fimilar  tone  or  difpofltlon  in  the  organs  fuited  for  the  en- 
 joyment of  thefe  qualities. 
 
 When  examining  or  enjoying  any  obje6l,  it  is  natural  to 
 inquire,  what  are  the  changes  produced  in  the  nervous  papil- 
 lae, or  organs  of  fenfation  1  If  an  object  poiTelled  of  agreea- 
 ble feelings  is  perceived,  the  nervous  papilla^  inflantly  extend 
 themfelves,  and,  from  a  ftate  of  flaccidity,  become  compara- 
 tively rigid  like  brifties.  This  extenfion  of  the  papillae  is 
 not  conjectural  :  It  is  founded  on  anatomical  obfervation, 
 and,  in  fome  cafes,  may  be  feen  and  felt  by  perfons  of  acute 
 and  dilcerning  fenfations.  When  a  man  in  the  dark  inclines 
 to  examine  any  fubftance,  in  order  to  difcover  its  figure,  or 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  1S3 
 
 Other  qualities,  he  perceives  a  kind  of  rigidity  at  the  tips  of 
 his  fingures.  If  the  fingers  are  kept  long  in  this  ftate,  the 
 rigidity  of  the  nervous  papillae  will  give  him  a  kind  of  pain 
 or  anxiety,  which  it  is  impoffible  to  defcribe.  The  caufe  of 
 this  pain  is  an  over-diftenlion  of  the  papillae.  If  a  imali  iu- 
 fecSt  creeps  on  a  man's  hand,  when  the  papillae  arc  flaccid,  its 
 movements  are  not  perceived  :  But  if  he  happen?  to  direct 
 his  eye  to  the  animal,  he  immediately  extends  his  papillae, 
 and  feels  diftindlly  all  its  motions.  If  a  body  be  prefent, 
 which,  in  the  common  ftate  of  the  nerves,  has  fcarcely  any 
 feiiiible  odour,  by  extending  the  papillae  of  the  noftrils,  an 
 agreeable,  dil'dgreeable,  or  indifferent  fmell  will  be  perceived. 
 When  two  perfons  are  whifpering,  and  we  wifh  to  know 
 what  is  faid,  we  ftretch  the  papillae,  and  the  other  organs  of 
 hearing,  which  are  exceedingly  complex.  If  a  found  is  too 
 low  for  making  an  impreffion  on  the  papillae  in  their  natural 
 ftate  of  relaxation,  we  are  apt  to  overftretch  the  organ,  which 
 produces  a  painful  or  irkfome  feeling.  When  we  examine 
 a  mite,  or  any  very  minute  object,  by  the  naked  eye,  a  pain  is 
 propagated  over  every  part  of  that  organ.  Several  caufes 
 may  concur  in  producing  this  pain,  fuch  as  the  dilating  of 
 the  pupil, and  the  adjufting  the  chryftaUine  lens;  but  the  chief 
 caufe  muft  be  afcribed  to  the  preternatural  Intumefcence  and 
 extenlion  of  the  papillae  of  the  retina,  the  fubftance  of  which 
 is  a  mere  congeries  of  nervous  terminations.  This  circum- 
 ftance  confirms  a  former  remark,  that  the  immediate  organs 
 of  fenfation  were  more  copioufly  fupplied  with  nervous  pa- 
 pillae than  thofe  parts  whofe  ufcs  require  not  fuch  exqullite 
 Cenfibihty  •,  for  a  diftin(Slion  in  this  refpedt  is  obfervable 
 even  among  the  fenfitive  organs  themfelves.  They  are  fur- 
 niflied  with  nerves  exaiSlly  proportioned  to  the  fubtility  of 
 the  objecSts  whofe  impreflions  they  are  fitted  to  receive.  The 
 eye  pofTelTes  by  far  the  greatefl:  number.  The  particles  of 
 light  are  fo  minute,  that,  had  not  this  wife  provifion  been 
 obferved  in  the  conflru^ion  of  the  eye,  it  could  never  have 
 
It4  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 been  able  to  diftinguifli  objed^s  with  fuch  accuracy  as  at  pre- 
 fent  it  is  capable  of  performing.  When  an  iniipicl  body, 
 or  a  body  which  conveys  but  a  very  feeble  fenfation  of  tafte, 
 is  applied  to  the  tongue,  we  are  confcious  of  an  eftbrt  which 
 that  organ  makes  in  order  to  difcover  the  quality  of  the  body 
 thus  applied.  This  effort  is  nothing  but  the  ftretching  of 
 the  nervous  papillae,  that  they  may  enlarge  th^  field  of  con- 
 tacft  with  the  body  under  examination. 
 
 The  pleafure  or  pain  produced  by  the  fenfe  of  touch  de- 
 pends chiefly  on  the  fridtion,  or  number  of  impulfes,  made 
 upon  the  papillae.  Embrace  any  agreeable  body  with  your 
 hand,  and  allov/  it  to  remain  perfectly  at  refl:,  and  you  will 
 find  the  pleafure  not  half  fo  exquifite  as  when  the  hand  is 
 gently  moved  backward  and  forward  upon  the  furface.  Ap- 
 ply the  hand  to  a  piece  of  velvet,  and  it  is  merely  agreeable  : 
 Rub  the  hand  repeatedly  on  the  furface  of  the  cloth,  and 
 the  pleafant  feeling  will  be  augmented  in  proportion  to  the 
 number  of  impulfes  on  the  papillae.  When  a  man  is  pinch^ 
 ed  with  hunger,  the  fight  or  idea  of  palatable  food  raifes  the 
 whole  papillae  of  his  tongue  and  ftomach.  From  this  cir- 
 cumftance  he  is  highly  regaled  by  eating.  But,  if  he  eats 
 the  fame  fpecies  of  food  when  the  flomach  is  lefs  keen, 
 the  pleafure  in  the  one  cafe  is  not  to  be  compared  with  what 
 is  felt  in  the  othpr.  The  caufe  is  obvious  :  His  defire  was 
 not  fo  urgent  •,  the  obje6V,  of  courfe,  was  lefs  alluring  \  and 
 therefore  he  was  more  remifs  in  eredling  his  papillae,  or  in 
 putting  theni  in  a  tone  fuited  to  fuch  eminent  gratification. 
 
 The  fame  obfervations  are  applicable  to  difagreeable  or 
 painful  objecls  of  contadl.  If  the  hand  is  laid  upon  a  gritty 
 ftone,  or  a  piece  of  rufty  iron,  the  feeling  is  difagreeable  v 
 but  if  it  is  frequently  rubbed  upon  the  furface  of  thefe  bodies, 
 the  feeling  becomes  infufFerably  irkfome. 
 
 It  is  by  the  fenfe  of  touch  that  men,  and  other  animals, 
 are  enabled  to  perceive  and  determine  many  qualities  of  ex- 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  185 
 
 tprnal  bodies.  By  this  fenfe  we  acquire  the  ideas  of  hard- 
 neis  and  foftnefs,  of  roughnefs  and  imoothnefs,  of  heat  and 
 cold,  of  prelTure  and  weight,  of  figure,  and  of  diftance.  The 
 fenfe  of  touch  is  more  uniform,  and  liable  to  fewor  decep. 
 tions,  than  thofe  of  fmelling,  tafting,  hearing,  and  feeing  ; 
 becaufe,  in  examining  the  qualities  of  obje£ls,  the  bodies 
 themfelves  muft  be  brought  into  actual  conta£l  with  the  or- 
 gan, without  the  intervention  of  any  medium,  the  varia« 
 tions  of  which  might  miflead  the  judgment. 
 
 OF  SEEING. 
 
 OF  all  the  fenfes,  that  of  feeing  is  unqueflionably  the  no* 
 bleft,  the  moft  refined,  and  the  moft  exteniive.  The  ear  in^ 
 forms  us  of  the  exigence  of  objeiSts  at  comparatively  fmall 
 diftances  ;  and  its  information  is  often  imperfecl  and  falia-t 
 cious.  But  the  organ  of  fight,  which  is  moll  admirably  con?^ 
 {lru<5led,  not  only  enables  us  to  perceive  thoufands  of  objects 
 at  one  glance,  together  with  their  various  figures,  colours, 
 and  apparent  pofitions,  but,  even  when  unarmed,  to  forn; 
 ideas  of  the  fun  and  planets,  and  of  many  of  the  fixed  flars  ^ 
 and  thus  conne6ls  us  with  bodies  fo  remote,  that  imagina^ 
 tion  is  lofi:  when  it  attempts  to  form  a  conception  of  their, 
 immenfe  magnitude  and  diftances.  This  natural  field  of 
 vifion,  however,  great,  has  been  vaftly  extended  by  the  in- 
 vention of  optical  inflruments.  When  aided  by  the  telef-? 
 cope,  the  eye  penetrates  into  regions  of  fpace,  and  per-  • 
 ceives  ftars  innumerable,  which,  without  the  afliftance  of  art, 
 would  to  us  have  no  exiftence.  Our  ideas  of  the  beauty^ 
 magnitude,  and  remotenefs  or  vicinity  of  external  objects,  are 
 chiefly  derived  from  this  delicate  and  acute  inflrumcnt  of 
 fen  fat  ion. 
 
 Before  proceeding  to  the  peculiarities  of  vifion,  and  the 
 general  properties  of  light,  we  fhall  give  ?.  fhort  defcription 
 of  the  flrutlure  of  the  eve. 
 
ISG  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The  globe  of  the  eye  is  coinpofed  of  three  humours,  cal- 
 led aqueous,  cryHalline,  and  vitreous  ;  and  of  the  rciinn,  ciliary 
 ligamcnty  and  iris.  All  thefe  are  contained  within  the/V^^ro- 
 tica  and  cornea,  or  capfule  of  the  eye.  The  white  part  of  the 
 cornea  is  opaque  ;  but  the  pupil,  or7%/6/  of  the  eye,  through 
 which  the  rays  of  light  pafs,  is  tranfparent.  The  aqueous 
 humour  is  a  menifcus,  or  a  convex  exteriorly,  and  concave  in- 
 ternally. The  crydallifie  humour  is  doubly  convex  ;  and  its 
 exterior  convexity  is  embraced  by  the  concave  furface  of  the 
 aqueous.  The  vitreous  humour  is  likewife  a  menjfcus ;  its 
 concave  furface  embraces  the  interior  convexity  of  the  cryf- 
 taUine,  and  its  convex  furface  is  encompalTed  by  the  retina^ 
 >vhich  is  a  fine  expanfion  of  th^  medullary  fibres  of  the  optic 
 nerve  fpread  upon  the  convex  furface  of  the  vitreous  humour, 
 and  covering  the  bottom  of  the  eye.  The  ciliary  ligament  is 
 a  ring  of  fibres,  which  inclofe  the  edges  of  the  cryflalline,  and 
 ftretch  in  right  lines  towards  its  center.  When  thefe  fibres 
 contrail,  the  diflance  between  the  retina  and  cryftalline  is 
 lengthened  •,  and  that  diftance  is  fhortened  when  thefe 
 ^bres  are  in  a  relaxed  ftate.  The  iris  is  that  coloured  circle 
 fvhich  furrounds  the  pupil. 
 
 By  this  curious  apparatus  all  the  phaenomena  of  vifion  are 
 ^conveyed  to  the  mind.  But,  before  we  enter  upon  the  man- 
 ner in  which  the  different  parts  of  the  eye  concur  in  tranf- 
 mitting  the  rays  of  light  and  the  images  of  objects  to  the 
 retina,  it  will  be  neceffary  to  give  fome  general  ideas  conr 
 cerning  the  nature  of  light,  which  is  the  univerfal  medium 
 of  vifion. 
 
 Light  conHfts  of  innumerable  rays,  which  proceed  in  di- 
 rect lines  from  every  part  of  luminous  bodies.  The  motion 
 pf  light,  though  not  inftantaneous,  is  inconceivably  fwift. 
 To  give  fome  comparative  idea  of  its  great  velocity,  it  has 
 been  difcovered  by  philofophers,  that  rays  of  light  coming 
 from  the  fun  reach  this  earth  in  feven  minutes.     Now,  the 
 
OF    Tv'ATURAL    H1STCHY.  1 S7 
 
 diftance  of  the  earth  from  the  fun  is  fo  immenfe,  that,  fup- 
 pofing  a  cannon  ball  to  move  at  the  rate  of  500  feet  in  a 
 fecond,  It  could  not  come  from  the  fun  to  the  earth  in  lefs 
 than  25  years.  At  this  rate,  the  velocity  of  light  will  be 
 above  io  million  of  times  greater  than  that  of  a  cannon  ball. 
 
 The  rays  of  light,  though  they  proceed  in  direct  lines 
 from  luminous  bodies,  are  refra<Sled,  or  bent  out  of  their  courfe, 
 in  paffi ng  through  different  mediums,  as  the  air,  glafs,  and 
 every  tranfparent  fubflance  •,  but,  whenthey  fall  upon  opaque 
 bodies,  they  are  reflected.  Rays  proceeding  from  any 
 object,  and  pafling  through  a  convex  glafs  or  lens,  are  refract- 
 ed and  colledled  into  a  point,  or  fmall  fpace,  at  a  certain  dif- 
 tance from  the  glafs,  which  is  called  the  focus  of  that  lens. 
 
 The  white  light  conveyed  to  us  by  the  fun  is  not  homoge- 
 neous, but  confifts  of  feven  differently  coloured  rays,  or  what 
 are  called  the  primary  colours.  Thefe  differently  coloured 
 rays  were  difcovered  by  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  to  have  different 
 degrees  of  refrangibiUty.  When  the  white  light  of  the  fun 
 "vvas  made  to  pafs  through  a  glafs  prifm,  he  found,  that,  in- 
 ftead  of  retaining  its  original  whitenefs,  it  exhibited  feven 
 diflindl:  colours,  and  that  this  phaenomenon  was  produced  by 
 the  feveral  rays  in  the  compofition  of  white  light  being  more 
 or  lefs  refra6led,  or  turned  from  their  dire(^l  courfe.  The 
 iimple  primary  colours  are  {q\qi\  in  number,  namely,  red, 
 orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  Red  is  tl^e 
 leaft,  and  violet  the  moft  refrangible  parts  of  white  light. 
 A  proper  mixture  of  all  the  feven  primary  colours  confti- 
 tutes  whitenefs  ;  and  by  various  combinations  of  the  prima- 
 ry colours,  all  the  compound  colours  exhibited  either  in  Na- 
 ture or  art  are  produced.  Any  furface  appears  black  when 
 it  refle£ls  little  or  no  light. 
 
 Tne  different  humours  of  the  eye,  and  the  cryftalline  lens, 
 are  all  denfer  than  air  or  water  ;  of  courfe,  their  power  of 
 refra£ling  the  rays  of  light  is  likewife  greater.  The  rays 
 proceeding  from  every  point  of  an  object  enter  the  pupil  l 
 
188  THfi   PHILQSOPHY 
 
 and  the  refra^lion  of  the  different  parts  of  the  eye,  which  act 
 as  a  lens,  necCiTarily  makes  them  crofs  each  other  Jn  their 
 pafTage  to  the  retina.  After  croffing,  they  diverge  till  they 
 are  flopped  by  the  retina,  where  they  form  an  inverted  pic- 
 ture. The  upper  part  of  the  object  is  painted  on  the  lower 
 part  of  the  retina,  and  the  right  fide  upon  the  left,  &c.  The 
 celebrated  Kepler  firft  difcovered,  that  diftindl,  but  inverted 
 pictures  of  every  object  we  behold  are  painted  on  the  retina 
 by  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  vifible  obje(5ts.  This 
 difcovery  naturally  led  Kepler,  as  well  as  many  other  philo-* 
 fophers  lince  his  time,  to  inquire  how  \re  fliould  fee  objects 
 erect  from  inverted  images  on  the  retina. 
 
 Many  ingenious  theories  have  been  invented,  and  many 
 volumes  have  been  written,  in  order  to  explain  this  feeming- 
 ly  difficult  queftion.  To  give  even  a  curfory  view  of  thefe 
 theories  would  not  only  be  tedious,  but  in  a  great  meafure 
 tifelefs.  V/e  fhall  therefore  only  remark,  that  their  ail* 
 thors  uniformly  alTumed  it  as  a  principle,  that,  becaufe  the 
 pictures  are  inverted  on  the  retina,  the  mind  ought  alfo  to 
 perceive  them  in  the  fame  pofjtion.  It  is  certain,  that,  unlefs 
 di(tin(5t  images  are  painted  on  the  retina,  objects  cannot  be 
 clearly  perceived.  If,  from  too  little  light,  remotenefs,  or 
 any  other  caufe,  a  picture  is  indiftin6tly  painted  on  the  reti- 
 na, an  obfcure  or  indiitin£t  idea  of  the  objedt  is  conveyed  to 
 the  mind.  The  picture  on  the  retina,  therefore,  is  fo  far 
 tJie  caufe  of  vifion,  that,  unlefs  this  pi6ture  be  clear  and  well 
 defined,  our  ideas  of  the  figure,  colour,  and  other  qualities 
 of  any  object  prefented  to  the  eye,  will  be  obfcure  and  im- 
 perfect. The  retina  of  the  eye  refembles  a  canvas  on  which 
 objects  are  painted.  The  colours  of  thefe  pi^ures  are  bright 
 or  obfcure,  in  proportion  to  the  diftances  of  the  objects  re- 
 prefented.  When  objects  are  very  remote,  their  pictures  on 
 the  retina,  are  fo  faint,  that  they  are  entirely,  obliterated  by 
 the  vigorous  and  lively  impreffions  of  nearer  obje^s,  with 
 
0?   NATURAL   HISTORY.  189 
 
 which  v/e  are  every  way  furrounded.  On  the  other  hand, 
 when  near  objects  emit  a  feeble  Ught  only,  compared  with 
 that  which  proceeds  from  a  remote  objeft,  as,  for  example, 
 when  we  view  luminous  bodies  in  the  night,  then  very  dif- 
 tant  objefts  make  diftiiicl:  pictures  on  the  retina,  and  become 
 perfectly  vifible.  Hence  a  man,  by  placing  himfelf  in  a 
 dark  iituation,  and  looking  through  a  long  tube,  without  the 
 intervention  of  a  glafs,  may  make  a  kind  of  telefcope,  which 
 will  have  a  confiderable  effect  even  during  the  day.  For 
 the  fame  reafon,  a  man  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  pit  can  fee 
 the  ftars  at  noon. 
 
 The  lirft  and  greateft  error  in  vifion,  in  the  opinion  of 
 many  authors,  arifes  from  the  inverted  reprefentation  of  ob- 
 je(fts  upon  the  retina  ;  and  they  maintain,  that,  till  children 
 learn  the  real  polition  of  bodies  by  the  fenfe  of  feeling,  they 
 fee  every  objedl  inverted.  But  new  born  animals,  whether 
 of  the  human  or  brute  fpecies,  fee  obje<Sls,  not  inverted,  but 
 in  their  real  politions,  independently  of  all  experience,  or  of 
 any  opportunity  of  re(5lifying  the  fuppofed  illufion  by  the 
 {en{e  of  touch.  Animals  fee  objects  in  their  real  pofition  by 
 a  lav;  of  Nature,  and  by  the  inftrumentality  of  the  eye  and 
 optic  nerve.  Were  it  not  a  law  of  Nature,  or  of  the  confti- 
 tution  of  animals,  to  fee  obje£ls  erefl,  though  their  images  be 
 inverted  on  the  retinae,  an  inverted  objedl  could  not  poffi- 
 bly  appear  inverted ;  for,  in  this  cafe,  we  fhould  not  be 
 obliged  to  have  recourfe  to  experience,  or  to  the  fenfe  of 
 feeling.  Belides,  it  is  an  eftabliflied  fa<5V,  that  blind  men, 
 who  had  been  reftored  to  fight  by  chirurgical  operations,  in- 
 ftantly  faw  objedls  in  their  real  pofition*.  There  is  no  rela- 
 tion to  the  principles  of  optics,  in  the  fenfation  of  feeling,  by 
 which  an  image,  painted  by  rays  of  light  on  foft  white  ner- 
 vous terminations,  is  conveyed  through  a  mofl  opaque  body, 
 in  a  long  courfe  of  perfefl  darknefs,  to  the  brain.     Indeed, 
 
 •  Haller.  Phyfiol,  torn.  ».  page  87. 
 
wo  THE   PHILOSOrHY 
 
 the  fenfe  by  which  the  perceiving  nerves  of  any  kind  affc' 
 afFe<5led,  is  not  an  image  or  idea  of  the  object.  The  idea  of 
 rednefs  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  lead  refrangible 
 portions  of  Hght  feparated  from  the  other  fix  coloured  rays 
 of  which  white  light  is  compofed.  The  pain  of  burning 
 reprefents  not  to  the  mind  any  thing  of  that  fwift  and  fubtle 
 matter  by  which  the  nervous  threads  are  broken  or  deflroy- 
 ed.  There  is  nothing  in  the  idea  of  a  fharp  found,  from  a 
 cord  of  a  certain  length,  which  can  inform  the  mind  that  this 
 eord  vibrates  2000  times  in  a  fecond.  * 
 
 Another  queftion  with  regard  to  vifion  has  been  much 
 agitated  by  philofophers.  Becaufe  a  feparate  image  of  every 
 object  is  painted  on  the  retina  of  each  eye,  it  was  concluded, 
 that  we  naturally  fee  all  objedls  double  *,  that  we  learn  to  cor- 
 real this  error  of  vifion  by  the  fenfe  of  touching  ;  and  that, 
 if  the  fenfe  of  feeing  were  not  conftantly  re^ified  by  that  of 
 touching,  we  fhould  be  perpetually  deceived  as  to  the  pofi- 
 tion,  number,  and  fituation  of  obje£ls.  The  Count  de  Bufibn 
 mentions  the  real  fa61:,  though  he  afcribes  it  to  a  wrong  caufe. 
 
 <  When  two  images/  fays  he,  '  fall  on  correfponding  parts  of 
 
 <  the  retina,  or  thofe  parts  which  are  always  afiefted  at  the 
 « fame  time,  obje<Sts  appear  fingle,  becaufe  we  are  accujlomed 
 «  to  judge  of  them  in  this  manner.     But,  when  the  images 
 
 *  of  objects  fall  upon  parts  of  the  retinae  which  are  not  ufual- 
 '  ly  afFe6ted  at  the  fame  time,  they  then  appear  double,  be- 
 
 <  caafe  we  have  not  acquired  the  hah'it  of  rectifying  this  un- 
 
 <  ufual  fenfution.  Mr.  Chefielden,  in  his  anatomy,  relates 
 '  the  cafe  of  a  man  who  had  been  afte£led  with  a  firabifmus;,  or 
 
 *  fc^uinting,  in  confequence  of  a  blow  on  the  head.     This  man 
 
 *  faw  every  obje(St  double  for  a  long  time  :  But  he  gradually 
 «  learned  to  correct  this  error  of  vifion,  with  regard  to  ob- 
 ^  je«5ls  which  were  fan:iiiiar  to  him  \  and,  at  laft,  he  faw  eve- 
 
 ♦  For  a  more  ample  difcuflion  of  this  point,  fee  lialler,  Phyfiol,  torn.  2,  ;— 
 and  Dr.  Reid's  Inquirj'. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  191 
 
 *  ry  obje6l  iingle  as  formerly,  though  the  fqnintlng  was  never 
 
 *  removed.  This  is  a  proof  ftill  more  direct,  that  we  really 
 <  fee  all  objects  double,  and  that  it  is  by  habit  alone  we  learn 
 
 *  to  conceive  them  to  be  fingle*.' 
 
 In  this,  and  other  pafTages,  the  Count  de  Buffon  has  point- 
 ed out  the  genuine  caufe  (or  ultimate  fa£l)  why  we  fee  ob- 
 jefls  fingle  with  two  eyes.  He  tells  us,  that,  though  a  dif- 
 tincfl  Image  is  painted  on  each  retinae,  whenever  thefe  images 
 are  painted  on  correfponding  points  of  the  retinae,  an  object 
 is  perceived  to  be  fingle.  It  is  equally  true,  that,  when  one 
 eye  is  diftorted  by  the  finger,  or  any  other  caufe,  in  fuch  a 
 manner  that  the  images  are  painted  on  points  of  the  ratinae 
 which  do  not  correfpond,  the  object  is  perceived  to  be  double. 
 Objedls  which  are  much  nearer,  or  much  more  remote,  than 
 that  to  which  both  eyes  are  dlre£led,  appear  double.  If  a 
 candle  is  placed  at  the  diftance  often  feet,  and  a  rnan  holds  his 
 finger  at  arm's-length  between  his  eyes  and  the  candle,  when 
 he  looks  at  the  candle,  he  fees  his  finger  double,  and  w  hen 
 he  looks  at  his  finger  he   fees  the  candle   double.     <  In  this 
 
 <  phaenomenon,'  Dr.  Reid  properly  remarks,  <  it  is  evident 
 
 *  to  thofe  who  underftand  optics,  that  the  pictures  of  objects 
 
 <  which  are  feen  double,  do  not  fall  upon  points  of  the  reti- 
 «  nae  which  are  fimilarly  fituated,  but  that  the  pictures  of 
 «  objects   feen  fingle  do  fall  upon  points  fimilarly  fituated. 
 
 *  Whence  we  infer,  that  as  the  points  of  the  two  retinae, 
 
 *  which  are  fimilarly  fituated  with  regard  to  the  centres,  do 
 
 <  correfpond,  fo  thofe  which  are  difiimilarly  fituated  do  not 
 
 *  correfpond.     It  is  to  be  obferved,  that  although,  in  fuch 
 
 <  cafes  as  are  mentioned  in  the  lafi:  phaenomenon,  we  have 
 «  been  accuftomed  from  infancy  to  fee   objects  double  which 
 
 <  we  know  to  be  fingle  ;  yet  cufiom,  and  experience  of  the 
 
 *  unity  of  the  object,  never  take  away  this  appearance  of  du- 
 i  plicityf.* 
 
 *  Buffon,  Tcl.  3,  pa^,  7,     Tranilat.       f  Dr.  Reid's  Inquiry,  &c,  page  187. 
 
19«  THE  PHILOSOPHT 
 
 The  fenfe  of  feeing,  without  the  aid  of  experience,  con- 
 veys no  idea  of  diftance.  If  not  affifted  by  the  fenfe  of 
 touching,  all  objefls  would  feem  to  be  in  contact  with  the  eye 
 itfelf.  Objedls  appear  larger  or  fmaller  according  as  they 
 approach  or  recede  from  the  eye,  or  according  to  the  angle 
 tliey  fubtend.  A  fly,  when  very  near  the  eye,  feems  to  be 
 larger  than  a  horfe  or  an  ox  at  a  diftance.  Children  can 
 have  no  idea  of  the  relative  magnitude  of  objefls,  becaufe 
 they  have  no  notion  of  the  different  diftances  at  which  they 
 are  feen.  It  is  only  after  mealuring  fpace  by  extending  the 
 hand,  or  by  tranfporting  their  bodies  from  one  place  to  anoth- 
 er, that  children  acquire  juft  ideas  concerning  the  real  dif- 
 tances and  magnitudes  of  obje(ri:s.  Their  ideas  of  magnitude 
 refult  entirely  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  extreme  rays  re- 
 flected from  the  fuperior  and  inferior  parts  of  the  objedl : 
 Hence  every  near  obje£l  muft  appear  to  be  large,  and  every 
 diflant  one  fmall.  But  after,  by  touch,  having  acquired 
 ideas  of  diftances,  the  judgment  concerning  magnitude  be- 
 gins to  be  re£lified.  If  we  judge  folely  by  the  eye,  and  have 
 not  acquired  the  habit  of  confidering  the  fame  objects  to  be 
 equally  large,  though  feen  at  different  diftances,  the  nearefl 
 of  two  men,  though  of  equal  fize,  would  feem  to  be  many 
 times  larger  than  the  fartheft.  But  we  know  that  the  lafl 
 man  is  equally  large  with  the  firft  ;  and,  therefore,  we  judge 
 him  to  be  of  the  fame  dimenfions.  Any  diftance  ceafes  to 
 be  familiar  to  us,  when  the  interval  is  vertical,  inftead  of  be- 
 ing horizontal  *,  becaufe  all  the  experiments  by  which  we 
 ufually  rectify  the  errors  of  vifion,  with  regard  to  diftances, 
 are  made  horizontally.  We  have  not  the  habit  of  judging 
 concerning  the  magnitude  of  objects  which  are  much  elevat- 
 ed above  or  funk  below  us.  This  is  the  reafon  that,  when 
 viewing  men  from  the  top  of  a  tower,  or  when  looking  up 
 to  a  globe  or  a  cock  on  the  top  of  a  fteeple,  we  think  thefe 
 objects  much  fmaller  than  when  feen  at  equal  diftances  in  a 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  193 
 
 horizontal  direction.  During  the  night,  on  account  of  the 
 darknefs,  we  have  no  proper  idea  of  diftance,  and,  of  courfe, 
 judge  of  the  magnitude  of  objects  folely  by  the  largenefs  of 
 the  angle  or  image  formed  in  the  eye,  which  necefTarily  pro- 
 duces a  variety  of  deceptions.  When  travelling  in  the 
 night,  we  are  liable  to  miflake  a  bufli  that  is  near  us  for 
 a  tree  at  a  diftance,  or  a  diftant  tree  for  a  bufh  which  is  at 
 hand.  When  benighted  in  a  part  of  the  country  with  which 
 we  are  unacquainted,  and,  of  courfe,  unable  to  judge  of  the 
 diftance  and  figure  of  objeds,  we  are  every  moment  Hable  to 
 all  the  deceptions  of  vifion.  This  is  the  origin  of  that  dread 
 which  fome  men  feel  in  the  dark,  and  of  thofe  ghofts  and 
 horrible  figures  which  fo  many  people  pofitively  aftert  they 
 have  feen  in  the  night.  Such  figures  are  commonly  faid  to 
 exift  in  the  imagination  only  ;  but  they  often  have  a  real  ex- 
 iftence  in  the  eye  ;  for,  when  we  have  no  other  mode  of  re- 
 cognifing  unknown  obje£ls  but  by  the  angle  they  form  in 
 the  eye,  their  magnitude  is  uniformly  augmented  in  propor- 
 tion to  their  vicinity.  If  an  obje6l,  at  the  diftance  of  twenty 
 or  thirty  paces,  appears  to  be  only  a  few  feet  high,  its  height, 
 when  viewed  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  eye,  will  feem 
 to  be  many  fathoms.  Objects,  in  this  fituation,  muft  excite 
 terror,  and  aftoniftiment  in  the  fpeflator,  till  he  approaches 
 and  recognifes  them  by  a£l:ual  feeling  ;  for  the  moment  a 
 man  examines  an  obje£l  properly,  the  gigantic  figure  it  aftum- 
 ed  in  the  eye  inftantly  vanifhes,  and  its  apparent  magnitude 
 is  reduced  to  its  real  dimenfions.  But  if,  inftead  of  approach- 
 ing an  objea  of  this  kind,  the  fpedlatcwr  flies  from  it,  he  re- 
 tains the  idea  which  the  image  of  it  formed  in  his  eye,  and 
 he  may  affirm  with  truth,  that  he  beheld  an  objeft  terrible 
 in  its  afpe<n:,  and  enormous  in  its  fize.  Hence  the  notion  of 
 fpeares,  and  of  horrible  figures,  is  founded  in  nature,  and 
 depends  not  folely  on  imagination. 
 
*94  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 When  we  have  no  idea  of  the  diflance  of  obje<fls  by  a  pre- 
 vious knowledge  of  the  fpace  between  them  and  the  eye,  we 
 try  to  judge  of  their  magnitudes  by  recognifmg  their  figures. 
 But,  when  their  figures  are  not  diftinguifhable,  we  perceive 
 thofe  which  are  mofl:  brilliant  in  colour  to  be  neareft,  and 
 thofe  that  are  moft  obfcure  to  be  at  the  greateft  diftance. 
 From  this  mode  of.  judging  many  deceptions  originate. 
 When  a  number  of  obje(fl:s  are  placed  in  a  right  line,  as 
 lamps  in  a  long  ftreet,  we  cannot  judge  of  their  proximity 
 or  remotenefs  but  by  the  different  quantities  of  light  they 
 tranfmit  to  the  eye.  Of  courfe,  if  the  lamps  neareft  the  eye 
 happen  to  be  more  obfcure  than  thofe  which  are  more  re- 
 mote, the  firft  will  appear  to  be  laft,  and  the  laft  firft. 
 
 Before  I  difmifs  this  fubje^t,  I  feel  an  irrefiftible  defire  of 
 giving  a  Ihort  view  of  the  Abbe  de  Condillac's  Traite  des  Sen^ 
 faiions*  \  a  moft  ingenious  performance,  which,  I  believe,  is 
 not  very  generally  known  in  this  country. 
 
 In  an  advertifement  prefixed  to  this  Treatife,  the  fagacious 
 and  learned  Abbe  defires  his  readers  to  abftra£l:  themfelves 
 from  all  their  preconceived  opinions,  and  to  imagine  the 
 fituation  and  feelings  of  a  ftatue,  limited,  at  firft,  to  a  fingle 
 fenfe,  and  afterwards  acquiring  gradually  the  whole  five. 
 
 1.  ^enje  of  fmelling  alone. 
 A  man,  or  a  ftatue,  who  had  no  fenfe  but  that  of  fmel- 
 ling, could  have  no  other  ideas  than  thofe  of  odours.  He 
 would  be  the  fmell  of  a  rofe,  a  violet,  or  a  jeflamine,  accord- 
 ing as  the  effluvia  of  thefe  objects  acled  upon  his  fingle  or- 
 gan of  fenfation.  From  agreeable  or  difagreeable  fmells  he 
 "^ould  acquire  ideas  of  pleafure  and  pain.  By  means  of 
 agreeable  and  difagreeable  fmells  frequently  repeated,  thefe 
 •  Frctn  the  edition  I754»  in  two  Tolumcs  12m. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  19^ 
 
 fenfatlons  would  remain  in  his  memory,  and  produce  defire 
 imd  averfion.     He  can  now  compare  the  fmell  of  a  rofe  with 
 that  of  an  hemlock.     As  foon  as  he  compares,  he  judges  of 
 the  relation  between    two  ideas.     In  proportion  as   thefe 
 comparifons  or  judgments  are  repeated,  he  acquires,  by  habit, 
 a  greater  facility  in  making  them.     He  can  judge  of  differ- 
 ent degrees  of  pleafure  and  pain.     Hence,  when  he  feels  un- 
 eafy,  he  recals  pleafant  fenfations  which  are  paft,  and  wifhes 
 for  their  return.      This  is   the  origin  of  defire  and  want. 
 Memory  is  the  recolle<5lion  only  of  what  is  paft  ;   but,  when 
 the  ideas  of  Objedts  prefent  themfelves  in  fo  lively  a  manner, 
 that  he  believes  they  are  adlually  prefent,  this  operation  of 
 the  mind  is  called  imagination.     Being  limited  to  the  u{e  of 
 one  fenfe,  he  would  learn  to  diftinguifh  fmells   with  greater 
 accuracy  than  beings  endowed  with  more  fources  of  informa- 
 tion.    Abftradlion  is  the  feparation  of  two  ideas  which  have 
 a  natural  connection.     By  reflecting  that  the  ideas  of  pain 
 and  pleafure  refult  from  different  modifications  of  his  exift- 
 cnce,  he  contra(5ls  the  habit  of  feparating  them,  and  thus  ac- 
 quires abftraft  notions.     To  our   ftatue,  a  violet  is  a  parti- 
 cular idea  only  ;   confequently,  all  his  abftractions  are  limited 
 to  different  degrees  of  pleafure  and  pain.     The  fucceffion  of 
 fenfations  will  give  him  fome  faint  ideas  of  number,  of  paft, 
 and  of  future  time.     Duration  is  an  idea  purely  relative,  and 
 changes  according  to  the  rapidity  or  flownefs  of  our  percep- 
 tions.    Our   ftatue  is  incapable  of  diftinguilhing  dreams,  or 
 a  lively   imagination,  from  real   fenfations.      By  the  aid  of 
 memory  he  recognifes  his  identity,  and  knows  his  prefent 
 from  his  paft  condition.     From  thefe  remarks  it  appears, 
 that  a  man  limited  to  one  fenfe  is   capable  of  acquiring  the 
 rudiments  of  every  human  faculty,  and  that  thefe  faculties 
 are  only  extended  by  the  addition  of  other  fenfes.     Nearly 
 the  fame  acquiiitions  would  be  made,  if  a  man  were  limited 
 to  any  of  the  other  fenfes. 
 
196  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 2.  Of  Hearing  alone. 
 The  pleafures  of  the  ear  arife  chleflj  from  the  fucceffiori 
 of  founds  conformably  to  the  rules  of  melody  or  of  harmony. 
 Hence  our  ftatue's  defires  would  not  be  confined  to  a  fingle 
 found  5  he  would  wifh  to  become  a  complete  air.  Sounds 
 produce  greater  emotions  than  odours.  They  excite  joy  or 
 fadnefs  independently  of  acquired  ideas.  Noife  alone,  with- 
 out nmfical  expreffion,  would  be  agreeable  :  And  mufic 
 would  convey  pleafure  proportioned  to  the  exercife  of  the 
 ear.  Simple,  and  even  coarfe  fongs,  would  at  firfi:  be  ravifli- 
 ing.  But,  when  gradually  accuftomed  to  mufic  more  com- 
 pounded, the  ear  would  difcover  new  fources  of  delight. 
 The  pleafure  of  a  fucceffion  of  mulical  tones  being  fuperior 
 to  that  of  a  continued  noife,  he  would  not  confound  the  one 
 with  the  other. 
 
 3.     Sindlifjg  and  Hearing  u?iited. 
 As  thefe  fenfes,  taken  feparately,   give  to  our  ftatue  no 
 idea   of  external   objedts,  neither  can  they  by  their  union. 
 He  would  never  fufpedl  that  he  had  two  different  organs  of 
 perception,  nor,  at  firft,  diftinguifh  two  modes  of  exiftence 
 in  himfelf.     Sounds  and  odours  would  be  confounded,  and 
 feem  to  be  only  one  fimple  modification.     He  would  learn, 
 however,  by  experience,  and  the  aid  of  memory,  to  diftin- 
 guifh  tv/o  fenfations  ;  and  then  he  would  think  that  his  ex- 
 iftence was  double.     His  train  of  ideas  is  more  varied  and 
 extenfive,  becaufe  he  has  two  kinds  of  modification  ;    and, 
 perhaps,  noife  would   feem  fo  different   from  harmonious 
 founds,  that  he  might  imagine  he  had  three  fenfes. 
 
 4.      Tajle  alone,  and  Tajle  united  ivith  Smelling  and  Hearing* 
 When  limited  to  tafte  alone,  the  ftatue  would  acquire  the 
 fame  mental   powers  as   with  fmelling  or  hearing.     Tafte 
 
OF   lUTURAL    HISTORY.  197 
 
 would  contribute  more  to  his  happinefs  and  mifery  than 
 fmelling  or  hearing  ;  becaufe  favours,  in  general,  affect  us 
 more  than  finells,  or  even  harmonious  founds. 
 
 When  tallie  is  united  with  fmelling  and  hearing,  the  ftatue, 
 after  learning  to  know  them  feparately,  would  be  enabled  to 
 diftinguifh  thefe  fenfations,  even  when  tranfmitted  to  him  at 
 the  fame  time  ;  and  therefore  his  exiftence  would  in  fome 
 meafure  be  tripled.  The  union  of  thefe  fenfes  would  ftill 
 farther  extend  and  diverfifj  the  train  of  his  ideas,  augment 
 the  number  of  his  deflres,  and  make  him  contrail  new 
 habits. 
 
 5*      Of  Sight  alo7ie. 
 
 Sight  and  all  fenfations  are  internal,  and  belong  to  the 
 mind.  The  difficulty  is  to  conceive  how  we  refer  thefe  fen- 
 fations to  external  obje6ls  or  caufes.  Our  ftatue  would  con- 
 flder  light  and  colour  as  modes  of  his  own  exiftence  ;  but 
 tould  have  no  idea  that  they  belonged  to  bodies  diftinft  from 
 himfelf.  At  firft  he  would  not  be  able  to  diftinguilli  one 
 colour  from  another  ;  but  he  would  foon  acquire  the  habit 
 of  confidering  one  colour  at  a  time,  and  thus  learn  to  dif- 
 tinguifh them.  By  fight  alone  he  could  have  no  idea  of 
 figure,  fituation,  extenfion,  or  motion. 
 
 6.     Sight  united  with  Smelly  Hearings  and  Tajle. 
 
 This  union  would  augment  our  ftatue's  mode  of  exiftence, 
 extend  the  chain  of  his  ideas,  and  multiply  the  objects  of  his 
 attention,  of  his  defires,  and  of  his  enjoyments.  But  he 
 would  ftill  continue  to  perceive  himfelf  alone,  and  could 
 have  no  idea  of  external  objects.  He  would  fee,  fmell,  tafte, 
 and  hear,  without  knowing  that  he  had  eyes,  nofe,  mouth,  or 
 ears,  nor  even  that  he  had  a  body.  With  the  fame  colour 
 before  his  eyes,  if  a  fucceflion  of  fmells,  favours,  and  founds, 
 were  prefented  to  him,  he  would  confider  himfelf  as  a  coloui 
 A  A 
 
t§s 
 
 THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fucceffively  odorlferoiiSj  favoury,  and  fonorous.  If  tKe  fame 
 odour  were  conftantly  prefent  with  him,  he  would  confides 
 himfelf  as  a  favoury,  fonorous,  and  coloured  odour, 
 
 7.      Of  Touching  alone. 
 
 The  fmalleft  degree  of  fentiment,  or  feeling,  which  a  man 
 limited  to  the  fenfe  of  touching  could  have,  would  arile  from 
 the  a6lion  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  particularly 
 from  the  motion  of  refpiration.  This  the  ABbe  calls  the 
 fundamenta/ fentimtritj  hecauk  with,  it  life  commences.  As 
 foon  as  this  fundamental  fentiment  has  undergone  any 
 change,  the  ftatue  is  confcious  of  his  own  exiftence.  When 
 not  flruck  by  any  external  body,  and  placed  in  a  temperate 
 tranquil  air,  of  an  equal  degree  of  heat,  he  would  only  re- 
 cognife  his  exiflence  by  the  confufed  impreffion  refnlting 
 from  the  motion  of  refpiration.  He  cannot  diftinguifh  the 
 different  parts  of  his  body,  and  confequently  has  no  idea  of 
 extenfion.  Different  feelings  perceived  at  the  fame  time 
 convey  a  confufed  fenfation  only.  But,  when  heat  and  cold 
 are  felt  in  fuccefHon,  he  diftinguilhes  them,  and  retains  in 
 his  memory  the  idea  of  each  fenfation.  Touching  different 
 parts  of  his  body,  and  of  external  objedls,  gradually  unfolds 
 the  ideas  of  extenfion,  folidity,  foftnefs,  hardnefs,  diflance,  &c. 
 Hence  he  no  longer  confounds  himfelf  with  his  modifications. 
 He  is  no  longer  heat  or  cold  ;  but  he  perceives  heat  in  one 
 part  and  cold  in  another.  By  means  of  the  hand,  he  diflin-^- 
 guifhes  his  own  perfon  from  external  objeiSts.  When  he 
 touches  the  parts  of  his  body,  each  part  returns  a  fenfation. 
 But,  when  he  touches  another  body,  he  feels  that  it  exifts, 
 but  returns  no  fenfation  ;  and  hence  he  learns  that  there  are 
 bodies  which  conflitute  no  part  of  himfelf. 
 
 Children  derive  the  greateft  happinefs  from  motion. 
 Even  falls  do  not  deter  them.  A  bandage  on  their  eyes 
 •^ould  give  them  lefs  pain  than  a  reflraint  on  theufe  of  their 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  l^S 
 
 Jimbs.  Motion,  befide  many  other  advantages,  gives  them 
 the  moft  lively  confcioufnefs  of  their  own  exlft;ence  and  pow- 
 ers. If  exercife  be  pleafant  to  children,  it  would  be  ftill 
 more  {o  to  our  ftatue  ;  for  as  yet  he  not  only  knows  no  ob- 
 iiacle  to  interrupt  his  movements,  but  he  will  foon  expe- 
 rience all  the  pleafures  to  be  derived  from  motion.  The 
 ftatue  at  firft  loves  every  body  that  does  not  hurt  him.  Pol- 
 iihed  and  fmooth  furfaces  will  be  agreeable  to  him  ;  and  he 
 will  be  delighted  to  find  that  Ixe  can  at  pleafure  enjoy 
 warmth  or  coolnefs.  He  will  receive  peculiar  pleafure  from 
 objefis,  which,  from  their^iigure  and  magnitude,  are  moft 
 accommodated  to  the  form  of  his  hand.  At  other  times,  the 
 difficulty  of  handling  obje<Sls,  on  account  of  their  fize  or 
 weight,  will  give  him  pleafure  by  furprife  ;  and  this  pleafure 
 will  be  augmented  by  the  fpace  he  difcovers  around  them, 
 which  will  render  the  motion  of  his  body  from  one  place  to 
 another  extremely  agreeable.  Solidity  and  fluidity,  hard- 
 nefs  and  foftnefs,  motion  and  reft,  will  be  pleafant  fenfations ; 
 for  the  more  he  contrafts  them,  the  more  they  will  attra^l 
 his  attention  and  extend  his  ideas.  But  the  habit  he  acquires 
 of  comparing  and  judging  is  the  greateft  fource  of  his  pleafures. 
 He  no  longer  touches  obje6ls  folelyfor  the  pleafure  of  hand-' 
 ling  them.  He  wiflies  to  know  their  relations,  and  he  feels 
 as  many  agreeable  fenfations  as  he  forms  new  ideas. 
 
 Touching  expofes  him  more  frequently  to  pain  than  the 
 other  fenfes.  But  pleafure  is  always  within  his  reach,  and 
 pain  is  felt  only  at  intervals.  His  delires  confift  chiefly  of 
 the  efforts  of  his  mind  to  recal  the  moft  agreeable  ideas. 
 But  that  kind  of  deftre  of  wdiich  the  fenfe  of  touch  renders 
 him  capable,  includes  motion,  or  the  power  of  fearching 
 for  fenfations.  Hence  his  enjoyments  arc  not  limited  to  the 
 ideas  prefented  by  the  imagination,  but  extend  to  all  the  ob- 
 jects he  can  reach  j  and  his  delires,  inftead  of  being  concen- 
 trated into  modes   of  his  exiftence,  as  in  the  other  fenfes. 
 
500  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 lead  him  always  to  external  bodies,  which  are  the  objeds  of 
 his  love,  hatred,  and  other  paffi«ns. 
 
 By  motion  he  acquires  the  idea  of  fpace.  Repeated  expe- 
 rience of  difcovering  new  fenfations  renders  him  capable  of 
 curiofity.  But  pain  reprefTes  his  defire  of  moving,  and  makes 
 him  diffident.  Hence  he  learns  to  move  with  caution  ;  and 
 the  fame  chance  that  led  him  to  lay  hold  of  a  flick,  will  teach 
 him  to  ufe  it  for  exploring  what  may  be  hurtful  to  him. 
 Pleafure  and  pain  are  the  fources  of  all  his  ideas,  the  num- 
 ber of  which  acquirable  by  our  ftatue  is  almoft  infinite.  He 
 learns  to  compare  his  different  fenfations,  and  to  diftinguifk 
 different  bodies.  He  acquires  the  idea  of  figure,  and  be- 
 comes capable  of  reflection  and  abflra£tion.  He  acquires 
 like  wife  the  ideas  of  number,  of  duration,  of  fpace,  and  of 
 immenfity. 
 
 8.  Of  Touch  united  with  Smelling, 
 On  this  fuppofition,  the  flatue  would  perceive  himfelf  to 
 be  two  different  beings,  one  that  he  could  touch,  and  anoth- 
 er which  he  could  not.  When  chance  made  him  lay  hold 
 of  an  odorous  body,  he  would  find  that  its  fmell  was  ftronger 
 ,pr  weaker,  in  proportion  as  he  brought  the  body  nearer,  or 
 removed  it  farther  from  his  face.  This  experiment  frequent- 
 ly repeated  will  give  him  the  idea  that  fmell  proceeds  from, 
 pr  is  a  quality  of  bodies.  By  the  fame  means  he  difcovers 
 the  organ  of  fmeiling.  From  this  fource  his  ideas  concern- 
 ing the  qualities  of  bodies  are  greatly  extended. 
 
 9.  Hearing,  TaJJe,  and  Touching,  united. 
 At  firft  our  flatue  is  totally  occupied  with  this  new  fenfe, 
 and  believes  himfelf  to  be  the  finging  of  birds,  the  noife  of 
 a  cafcade,  &c.  By  the  exercife,  however,  of  handling  fono- 
 rous  bodies,  or  of  letting  them  fall,  he  perceives  that  found 
 is  produced  by  impulfe  or  coUifion,  gradually  difcovers  this 
 new  organ,  and  that  noife  is  a  property  of  bodies  even  at  a 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  201 
 
 10.  Of  Sight  united  with  all  the  other  Setifes. 
 The  eye  conveys  no  idea  of  diftance,  of  magnitude,  of 
 figure,  or  of  lituation,  without  the  affiftance  of  touching. 
 Either  from  chance,  or  from  the  pain  occafioned  by  too  ftrong 
 a  light,  the  ftatue  carries  his  hand  to  his  eyes.  The  colours 
 of  objects  inftantly  difappear.  He  removes  his  hand,  and 
 the  colours  return.  Hence  he  learns  that  colours  are  not 
 modes  of  his  exiftence,  but  that  they  feem  to  be  fomething 
 exifting  in  his  eyes,  in  the  fame  manner  as  he  feels  at  the 
 ends  of  his  fingers  the  obje<fls  he  touches. 
 
 The  Abbe,  in  the  fame  ingenious  manner,  fhews  hov/,  by 
 experience  and  habit,  by  motion  and  touching,  we  acquire  a 
 facility  in  corre(Sting  the  errors  of  vifion.  But  our  iimit^ 
 permit  us  not  to  follow  him  an  farther. 
 
502  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER     VII. 
 
 Of  Infancy. 
 
 IjY  the  term  Infancy^  in  this  chapter,  is  gener- 
 ally meant  that  portion  of  Ufe  whicii  commences  at  birth, 
 and  terminates,  at  that  period  when  animals  have  acquired 
 the  power  of  felf-prefervation,  without  any  affiftance  from 
 |:heir  parents.  This  period  varies  greatly  in  different  ani- 
 mals. Of  courfe,  when  different  fpecies  are  mentioned,  the 
 term  infancy  mufl  have  very  different  limitations  v,?ith  regard 
 to  time. 
 
 The  {late  of  infancy,  in  the  human  fpecies,  continues  lon- 
 ger than  in  any  other  animal.  Infants,  immediately  after 
 birth,  are  indeed  extremely  helplefs,  and  require  every  aflifl- 
 ^nce  and  attention  from  the  mother.  Mofl  writers,  however, 
 on  this  fubje£c  feem  to  have  exaggerated  not  only  the  imbe^ 
 cility,  but  the  miferies  of  the  infant  ftate,  '  An  infant,'  fays 
 Buffon,  <  is  more  helplefs  than  the  young  of  any  other  animal ! 
 ^  Its  uncertain  life  feems  every  moment  to  vibrate  on  the 
 ^  borders  of  death.  It  can  neither  move  nor  fupport  its  bo- 
 *  dy  :  It  has  hardly  force  enough  to  exifl,  and  to  announce, 
 
 <  by  groans,  the  pain  which  it  fuffers  ;   as  if  Nature  intended 
 f  to  apprife  the  little  innocent,  that  it  is  born  to  mifery,  and 
 
 <  that  it  is  to  be  ranked  among  human  creatures  only  to  par- 
 ?  take  of  their  infirmities  and  of  their  afflidtions*.' 
 
 This  humiliating  picture  is  partly  juft,  and  partly  mifre- 
 prefented.  Though  infants  remain  longer  in  a  flate  of  im- 
 becility than  the  young  of  other  animals,  they  are  by  no 
 moans  more  helplefs.  The  inftant  after  birth,  they  are  capa- 
 ble of  fucking  whatever  is  prefented  to  their  mouths. 
 When  in  the  fame  condition,  the  young  of  the  opoffum,  of 
 hares,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  &c.  can  do  more.  They  can 
 *  BufTon,  vol,  a,  page  369.Tranil3t. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  205 
 
 iiekher  move  nor  fupport  their  bodies.  Befides,  many  quad- 
 rupeds are  deftitute  of  the  fenfe  of  feeing  for  feveral  days 
 after  birth.  But  the  faculty  of  viiion  Is  enjoyed  by  infants 
 the  moment  after  they  come  into  the  \vorld.  This  faculty, 
 in  a  few  hours,  becomes  a  great  fource  of  pleafure  and  amufe- 
 ment  to  them  ;  but  it  is  denied,  for  fomc  days,  to  many 
 other  fpecies  of  animals.  The  young  of  moft  birds  are 
 equally  weak  and  helplefs  as  ,human  infants.  The  former 
 have  no  other  powers  but  thofe  of  refpiration,  opening  their 
 mouths  to  receive  food  from  the  parent,  and  ejecling  the  ex- 
 crement, after  the  food  has  been  properly  digefted.  If  in- 
 fants really  fufFer  more  pain  and  mifery  than  other  animals 
 in  the  fame  ftate.  Nature  feems  not  to  merit  that  feverity  of 
 cenfure  which  fhe  has  fometimes  received.  Man  in  foclety, 
 like  domeftic  animals,  by  luxury,  by  artificial  modes  of  living, 
 by  unnatural  and  vicious  habits,  debilitate  their  bodies,  and 
 tranfmit  to  their  progeny  the  feeds  of  weaknefs  and  difeafe, 
 the  eflfefts  of  which  afe  not  felt  by  thofe  V'^ho  live  more  agree- 
 ably to  the  general  oeconomy  and  intentions  of  nature.  The 
 children  of  favages,  for  the  fame  reafon,  whether  in  the  hun» 
 ting  or  fliepherd  flate,  are  more  robuft,  more  healthy,  and 
 Hable  to  fewer  dlfeafes  than  thofe  produced  by  men  in  the 
 more  enlightened  and  refined  ftages  of  fociety.  Even  undei* 
 the  fame  governments,  and  in  the  fame  ftate  of  civilization;^ 
 a  fimilar  gradation  of  imbecility  and  difeafe  is  to  be  obferved*- 
 The  children  of  men  of  rank  and  fortune  are,  in  general, 
 more  puny,  debilitated,  and  difeafed,  than  thofe  of  the  pea-" 
 fant  or  artificer.  Still,  however,  children,  in  their  progrefs 
 from  birth  to  maturity,  have  innumerable  fource s  of  pleafure, 
 which  alleviate,  if  they  do  not  fully  compenfate,  the  pain 
 which  muft  unavoidably  be  endured,  whether  in  a  more  nat-' 
 ural  or  more  artificial  fi:ate  of  mankind.  If  luxury  and  civil- 
 ization debilitate  the  conftitutions  of  children,  they  give  rife 
 to  many  real  enjoyments  which  are  totally  unknown  to  thi 
 
20-1  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 favage.     His  wants  are  fewer  ;  but  his  gratifications  are  more 
 than  proportionally  diminiflied. 
 
 Though  the  period  of  human  infancy  be  proportionally 
 long,  it  is  too  often  increafed  by  improper  management.  In 
 this,  and  many  other  countries  of  Europe,  infants  have  no 
 fooner  efcaped  from  the  womb  of  their  mothers,  and  have 
 enjoyed  the  liberty  of  ftretching  their  limbs,  than  they  are 
 again  condemned  to  a  more  cruel  and  unnatural  bondage. 
 The  head  is  fixed  in  one  pofition  j  the  legs  are  fettered  ;  the 
 arms  -  are  bound  down  to  the  fides  ;  and  the  little  innocents 
 are  laced  with  bandages  fo  ftrait  that  they  cannot  move  a  An- 
 gle joint.  The  reflraint  of  fwaddling  bands  muft  be  pro- 
 ductive of  pain.  Their  original  intention  was  to  prevent  the 
 head  and  limbs  from  being  diftorted  by  unnatural  or  hurtful 
 pofitions.  But  it  was  not  confidered,  that  the  efforts  made 
 by  infants  to  difentangle  themfelves,  have  a  greater  tendency 
 to  diflort  their  members  than  any  poflures  they  could  afTume^ 
 if  they  enjoyed  a  greater  degree  of  liberty.  But,  if  the  ef- 
 forts for  Hberty  made  by  infants  fettered  in  this  cruel  manner 
 be  hurtful,  the  flatij  of  inactivity  in  which  they  are  forced  to 
 remain,  is,  perhaps,  equally  noxious.  Infants,  as  well  as  all 
 Jroung  animals,  are  extremely  prone  to  motion.  It  promotes 
 the  growth  and  expanfion  of  their  organs.  It  likewiie  invig- 
 orates all  their  members,  a:  i  facilitates  the  circulation  and 
 fecretion  of  their  different  fluids.  But,  when  infants  are  de- 
 prived of  exercife,  or  of  the  power  of  performing  their  nat- 
 ural movements,  the  oppofite  effects  are  produced.  The 
 want  of  exercife  retards  their  growth  and  weakens  their  con- 
 flitution.  Thofe  children,  therefore,  who  are  allowed  full 
 freedom  of  motion  will  always  be  the  mofl  healthy  and  the 
 mod  vigorous.  We  are,  however,  happy  to  remark,  that, 
 by  the  efforts  of  philofophers  and  phylicians,  the  practice  of 
 employing  tight  bandages  has  of  late  become  lefs  general, 
 efpecially  among  intelligent  midwives  and  mothers.     But,  tf 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  205 
 
 eradicate  long  eftablKlied  prejudices,  and  to  difFufe  more  en- 
 lightened and  falutnry  notions  through  a  whole  country,  can- 
 not be  eiFetfted  without  a  great  length  of  time  and  vigorous 
 exertions. 
 
 From  what  caufes  or  circumftances  particular  modes  in  the 
 nianagement  of  Infants  originate,  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 
 But  it  is  certain  that  fivages,  and  ruder  nations.  In  their  treat- 
 ment of  infants,  often  difcover  more  difcernmcnt,  and  pro- 
 priety of  conduct,  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  moft  polilhed 
 itages  of  focietv.  The  negroes,  the  favages  of  Canada,  of 
 Virginia,  of  Brafll,  and  the  natives  of  almofr  the  whole  of 
 .South  America,  inftead  of  ufing  fwaddllng-bands,  lay  their 
 infants  naked  into  hammocks,  or  hanging  beds  of  cotton, 
 or  into  cradles  lined  with  fur.  The  Peruvians  lenve  the 
 arms  of  their  infants  perfeclly  loofe  In  a  kind  of  Avathing- 
 bug.  When  a  little  older,  they  are  put,  up  to  the  middle,  in 
 a  hole  dug  out  of  the  earth,  and  lined  with  linen  or  cotton. 
 By  this  contrivance,  their  arms  and  head  are  perfe£lly  free, 
 and  they  can  bend  their  bodies,  and  m.ove  their  arms  and 
 head,  without  the  finalleft  danger  of  falling,  or  of  receiving 
 any  injury.  To  entice  them  to  walk,  whenever  they  are 
 able  to  fiiep,  the  breaft  is  prefented  to  them  at  a  little  diftance. 
 The  children  of  negroes,  when  very  young,  cling  round, 
 with  their  knees  and  legs,  one  of  their  m.other's  haunches, 
 and  grafp  the  breaft  with  their  hands.  In  this  poiition  they 
 adhere  fo  firmly,  that  they  fupport  themfelves  vrithout  any 
 affiftance,  and  continue  to  fuck  v/ithout  danger  of  falling, 
 though  the  mother  moves  forward,  or  works  at  her  ufual  la« 
 hour.  Thefe  children,  at  the  end  of  the  fecond  month,  be- 
 gin to  creep  on  their  hands  and  knees  ;  and,  in  this  fituation, 
 they  acquire,  by  habit,  the  faculty  of  running  with  furprlfing 
 quicknefs. 
 
 Savages  are  remarkably  attentive  to  the  cleanlinefs  of  their 
 
 children.     Though  they  cannot  afford  to  change  their  furs 
 
 B  B 
 
'i06  TIIL    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fo  frequently  as  we  do  our  linen,  this  defe(Sl  they  fupply  by 
 other  fubftances  of  no  value.  The  favagcs  of  North  Ameri- 
 ca  put  wood-duft,  obtained  from  decayed  trees,  into  the  bot^ 
 torn  of  the  cradle,  and  renew  it  as  often  as  it  is  necelTary. 
 Upon  this  powder  the  children  are  laid,  and  covered  with 
 fkins.  This  powder  is  very  foft,  and  quickly  abforbs  moif- 
 ture  of  every  kind.  The  children  in  Virginia  are  placed 
 naked  upon  a  board  covered  with  cotton,  and  furnilhcd  with 
 a  proper  hole  for  tranfmitting  the  excrement.  This  practice 
 is  likev/ife  almoft  general  in  the  eaftern  parts  of  Europe,  and 
 particularly  in  Turkey.  It  has  another  advantage  :  It  pre- 
 vents the  difmal  effe6]:s  which  too  often  proceed  from  the 
 negligence  of  nurfes. 
 
 Many  northern  nations  plunge  their  infants,  immediatel}^ 
 after  birth,  into  cold  water,  without  receiving  any  injury. 
 The  Laplanders  expofe  their  new-born  infants  on  the  fno\? 
 till  they  are  almofi:  dead  with  cold,  and  then  throw  them  into 
 a  warm  bath.  During  the  firft  year,  this  feemingly  harfli 
 treatment  is  repeated  three  times  every  day.  After  that  pe- 
 riod, the  children  are  bathed  in  cold  water  thrice  every  week. 
 It  is  a  general  opinion  in  northern  regions,  that  cold  bathing 
 renders  men  more  healthy  and  robuft  *,  and  hence  they  inure 
 their  children,  from  their  very  birth,  to  this  habit.  In  the 
 ifthmus  of  Americaj  the  inhabitants,  even  when  covered  with 
 fvveat,  plunge  themfeives  with  Impunity  into  cold  water. 
 The  mothers  bathe  in  cold  water,  along  with  their  infants> 
 the  moment  after  delivery  5  yet  much  fewer  of  them  die  of 
 child-bearing,  than  in  nations  where  a  pra^lice  of  this  kind 
 would  be  confidcred  as  extremely  hazardous. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  food  of  infants,  it  fliould  confift,  for 
 the  firft  two  months,  of  the  mother's  milk  alone,  A  child 
 may  be  injured  by  allowing  it  any  other  nourillimcnt  before 
 the  end  of  the  firft  month.  In  Holland,  in  Italy,  in  Turn- 
 key, and  over  the  whole  Levant,  children,  during  the  firft 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2.07 
 
 year,  are  not  permitted  to  tafte  any  other  food.  The  Cana- 
 dian ravages  nurfe  their  children  four  or  live  years,  and 
 fometlmes  fix  or  feven.  In  cafes  of  neceffity,  the  mjlk  of 
 quadrupeds  may  fupply  that  of  the  mother.  But,  in  fuch 
 cafes,  the  child  fliould  be  obh ged  to  fiick  the  animal's  teat ; 
 for  the  degree  of  heat  is  always  uniform  and  proper,  and  the 
 milk,  by  the  a(Stion  of  the  mufcles,  is  mixed  with  the  fallva, 
 which  is  a  great  promoter  of  digeftion.  Several  robuil  peaf- 
 ants  have  been  known  to  have  had  no  other  nurfes  than  ewes. 
 After  two  or  three  months,  children  may  be  gradually  accuf- 
 tomed  to  food  fomewhat  more  folld  than  milk.  Before  the 
 teeth  (lioot  through  the  gums,  Infants  are  incapable  of  maftl- 
 cation.  During  that  period,  therefore^  it  is  obvious  that  Na- 
 ture intended  they  fliould  be  nourifhed  folely  by  fofc  fub- 
 {lances.  But,  after  tliey  are  furniOied  with  teeth,  It  is  equal • 
 ly  obvious,  that  they  ihould  occafionally  be  allowed  food  of 
 Z  more  folid  texture. 
 
 The  bodies  of  infants,  though  extremely  delicate,  are  lefs 
 affected  by  cold  than  at  any  other  period  of  life.  This  eltc(fl 
 may  be  produced  by  the  fuperior  quicknefs  In  the  pulfation 
 of  the  heart  and  arteries  which  takes  place  in  fmall  animals. 
 The  pulfe  of  an  infant  is  more  frequent  than  that  of  an 
 adult.  The  pulfe  of  a  horfe,  or  of  an  ox,  Is  .much  flower 
 than  that  of  a  man  ;  and  the  motion  of  the  heart,  in  very 
 fmall  animals,  as  that  of  a  linnet,  is  fo  rapid  that  it  Is  impof- 
 iible  to  count  the  ftrokes. 
 
 The  lives  of  children,  during  the  firO:  three  or  four  years, 
 are  extremely  precarious.  After  that  period,  their  exigence 
 becomes  gradually  more  certain.  According  to  SImpfon's 
 tables  of  the  degrees  of  mortality  at  diiferent  ages,  it  ap- 
 pears, that,  of  a  certain  number  of  infants  brought  forth  at 
 the  fame  time,  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  them  died  in  the 
 nrft  year,  more  than  a  third  In  two  years,  and  at  leaft  one 
 lialf  at  the  end  of  the  third  year.     Mr.  Simpfon  made  this 
 
30S  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 experiment  upon  children  born  in  London.  But  the  mor^ 
 tality  of  children  is  not  nearly  To  great  in  every  place  j  for 
 M.  Dupre  de  S.  Maur,  by  a  nun:iber  of  experiiPients  made  in 
 France,  has  fhown,  that  one  hair  of  the  children  born  at  the 
 fame  time  are  not  extin£t  in  lefs  than  feven  or  eight  years. 
 
 To  treat  of  the  difeafes  of  children,  or  to  enter  minutely 
 into  the  caufes  which  contribute  to  the  great  mortality  of 
 mankind  in  earher  infancy,  is  no  part  of  our  plan.  In  gener- 
 al, thefe  caufes  are  to  be  referred  to  unnatural  pradrlces  in 
 the  management  of  children,  introduced  by  fuperftition,  by 
 ignorance,  and  by  foolifli  notions  arifing  from  over -refine- 
 ment, from  prejudice,  and  from  hypothetical  fyftems,  while 
 the  oeconomy  and  analogy  of  Nature,  in  the  condu6l  and 
 iituation  of  the  inferior  animals,  are  almofh  totally  negle^led. 
 Every  animal,  except  the  human  fpecics,  brings  forth  its 
 young  without  any  foreign  aid.  But  incredible  numbers  of 
 children,  as  well  as  of  mothers,  are  daily  maimed,  enfeebled, 
 and  deftroyed,  by  the  ignorance  and  barbarity  of  midwives 
 and  accoucheurs.  An  infant  is  no  fooner  brought  into  the 
 world  than  it  is  crammed  with  phyiic.  Nature's  medicine 
 for  cleanfmg  the  bowels  of  infants  is  the  milk  of  the  mother. 
 But  midwives  abfurdly  imagine  that  drugs  will  anfwer  this 
 purpofe  much  better.  All  other  animals  that  give  fuck  nurfe 
 their  own  offspring :  But  we  too  frequently  delegate  this 
 tender  and  endearing  oiHce  to  ftrange  women,  whofe  confti- 
 tutions,  habits  of  life,  and  mental  difpolitions,  are  often  total- 
 ly different  from  thofe  of  the  genuine  parent.  Infants,  re- 
 cently after  birth,  frequently  fuffer  from  giving  them,  inftead 
 of  the  mother's  milk,  v/ine-whey,  water-gruel,  and  flmilar 
 unnatural  kinds  of  nourifhment.  In  this  period  of  their  ex- 
 iftence,  however,  very  little  food,  but  a  great  deal  of  refl:, 
 is  necefTary  for  promoting  their  health,  and  fecuring  their 
 eafe  and  tranquility  •,  for  infants,  when  not  teazed  by 
 officious  cares,  fleep  almofl:  continually  during  fcvcral  v/eeks 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  209 
 
 after  birth.  Young  animals  are  naturally  fond  of  being  in 
 the  open  air  ;  but  our  infants,  particularly  in  large  towns, 
 are  almoft  perpetually  fhut  up  in  warm  apartments,  which 
 both  relaxes  their  bodies  and  enervates  their  minds.  The 
 great  agility,  ftrength,  and  fine  proportions  of  favages,  are 
 refults  of  a  hardy  education,  of  living  much  in  the  open  air, 
 and  of  an  unreftrained  ufe  of  all  their  organs  the  moment 
 after  they  come  into  the  world. 
 
 In  young  animals,  as  well  as  in  infants,  there  is  a  gradual 
 progrefs,  both  in  bodily  and  mental  powers,  from  birth  to 
 maturity.  Thefe  pov/ers  are  unfolded  fooner  or  later,  ac- 
 cording to  the  nature  and  exigencies  of  particular  fpecies. 
 This  progrefs,  in  man,  is  very  flow.  Man  acquires  not  his 
 full  ftature  and  ftrength  of  body  till  feveral  years  after  the 
 age  of  puberty  :  And,  with  regard  to  his  mind,  his  judg- 
 ment and  other  faculties  cannot  be  faid  to  be  perfectly  rin(^. 
 before  his  thirtieth  year. 
 
 In  early  infancy,  though  the  impreflions  received  froni 
 new  objecSls  muft  be  ftrong,  the  memory  appears  to  be  weak. 
 Many  caufes  may  concur  in  producing  this  effect.  In  thi? 
 period  of  our  exiftence,  almoft  every  object  is  new,  and,  of 
 courfe,  ingrolTes  the  whole  attention.  Hence  the  idea  of 
 any  particular  object  is  obliterated  by  the  quick  fiicceffion 
 and  novelty  of  others,  joined  to  the  force  v/ith  which  they 
 aiSt  upon  the  mind.  Haller  afcribes  this  want  of  recolle6lioii 
 to  a  weaknefo  of  memory  ;  but  it  feems  rather  to  proceed 
 from  a  confufion  which  neceffarily  refults  from  the  number 
 and  flrong  impreffions  of  new  objects.  The  memory  ripens 
 not  fo  much  by  a  gradual  increafe  in  the  ftrength  of  that 
 faculty,  as  by  a  dimunition  in  the  number  and  novelty  of  the 
 objects  which  folicit  attention.  In  a  fevv^  years  children  are 
 enabled  to  exprefs  all  their  wants  and  defires.  The  number 
 of  new  objeas  daily  diminilhes,  and  the  impreffions  made  by 
 thofe  with  which  they  are   familiar   become  comparatively 
 
 & 
 
210  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fmall  and  unlntereftlng.  Hence  their  habits  of  attention, 
 and  the  ardour  of  their  minds,  begin  to  relax.  Inftead  of  a 
 general  and  undiftlnguifliing  gratiticatien  of  their  fenfes, 
 this  is  the  period  when  it  is  neceflary  to  ftimulate  children, 
 by  various  artifices,  to  apply  their  minds  fteadily  to  the  ex- 
 ^mition  of  particular  objects,  and  to  the  acquifition  of  new 
 ideas  from  more  complicated  and  refined  fources  of  informa-r 
 tion.  The  great  bafis  of  education  is  a  habit  of  attention. 
 When  this  important  point  is  gained,  the  minds  of  children 
 may  be  molded  into  any  form.  But  that  reftlefliiefs,  and 
 appetite  for  motion,  which  Nature,  for  the  wifeft  purpofes, 
 has  implanted  in  the  confi:itution  of  all  young  animals,  fhould 
 not  be  too  feverely  checked.  Health  and  vigour  of  body 
 ^re  the  furefi:  foundations  of  ftrength  and  improvement  of 
 mind. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  duration  of  infancy,  from  man  to  the 
 infedl  tribes,  it  feems,  in  general,  to  be  proportioned,  not  to 
 jt'he  extent  of  life,  but  to  the  fagacity  or  mental  powers  of 
 Xhe  different  claffes  of  animated  beings.  The  elephant  re- 
 quires 30  years,  and  the  rhinoceros  20,  before  they  come  to 
 perfeft  maturity,  and  are  enabled  to  multiply  their  fpecies. 
 But  thefe  years  mark  not  the  period  of  infancy  ;  for  the  ani- 
 mals, in  a  much  (horter  time,  are  capable  of  procuring  their 
 own  food,  and  are  totally  independent  of  any  aid  from  their 
 parents.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  the  camel,  the 
 horfe,  the  larger  apes,  &c.  Their  ages  of  puberty  are  four, 
 two  and  a  half,  and  three  years.  But,  in  thefe  quadrupeds, 
 the  terminations  of  infancy  are  much  more  early.  The 
 fmaller  quadrupeds,  as  hares,  rats,  mice,  &c.  are  mature  at 
 the  end  of  the  firft  year  after  birth  ;  and  the  Guiney  pig 
 and  rabbit  require  only  five  or  fix  months.  There  is  a  gra- 
 dation of  m.ental  pov;ers,  though  not  without  exceptions, 
 from  the  larger  to  the  more  minute  quadrupeds  ;  for  the 
 dog  and  fox,  whpfe  fagacity  is  very  great,  come  to  maturity 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTOJlY.  21 1 
 
 in  one  year,  and  their  fcate  of  infancy  is  fhort.  But,  of  all 
 animals,  the  infancy  and  helplefs  condition  of  men  are  the 
 moft  prolonged  ;  and  the  fuperiority  and  dudlility  of  his 
 mind  will  not  be  queilloned. 
 
 The  infant  ftate  of  birds  is  very  fhoft.  Moft  of  the  feath- 
 ered tribes  arrive  at  perfedion  in  lefs  than  iix  months  j  and 
 their  fagacity  is  comparatively  limited. 
 
 With  regard  to  iiflies,  if  the  whale  and  feal  kind,  v,'ho 
 fuckle  their  young,  be  excepted,  they  receive  no  aid  from 
 their  parents.  Fillies  no  fooner  efcape  from  the  eggs  of 
 their  mother,  than  they  are  in  a  condition  to  procure  noiu-ifh- 
 ment,  and  to  provide,  in  fome  meafure,  for  their  own  flifety. 
 Of  the  fagacity  of  iidies,  owing  to  the  element  in  which 
 they  live,  we  have  very  little  knowledge.  But  their  general 
 character  is  ftupidity,  joined  to  a  voracious  and  indifcrimi- 
 nating  appetite  for  food.  In  oppolition  to  an  almoft  general 
 law  of  Nature  which  fublifts  among  other  animals,  fi{hes  de- 
 vour, without  dirrin(flion,  every  fmaller  or  weaker  animal, 
 v/hether  it  belongs  to,  a  difierent  fpecies,  or  to  their  own. 
 In  animals  of  a  much  higher  order,  voracity  of  appetite  is 
 feldom  accompanied  with  ingenuity  or  elegance  of  tafte. 
 When  tlie  principal  attention  of  an  animal  is  engroffed  with 
 any  fenfual  appetite,  it  is  a  fair  concluiion  that  the  mental 
 powers  are  weak,  becaufe  they  are  chiefly  employed  upon 
 the  grofieft  of  all  objects.  If  this  obfervation  be  juft,  fiflies 
 muft  be  ranked  among  the  moft  ftupid  animals  of  equal  mag- 
 nitude and  a(rtivity. 
 
 The  infant  ftate  of  infedts  is  a  various  and  complicated 
 fubjecL.  After  they  efcape  from  the  egg^  they  undergo  fo 
 many  changes,  and  alTume  fuch  a  variety  of  forms,  that 
 it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  period  of  their  exiftence 
 which  correfponds  to  the  condition  of  infancy  in  the  larger 
 animals.  Different  fpecies  remain  longer  or  fhorter  in  the 
 form  of  v/orms,  caterpillars,  or  grubs,  before  they  are  changed 
 
^[$  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 into  chryfiilids,  and  afterwards  into  flies.  When  young,  like 
 other  animals,  they  are  fmall  and  feeble  :  But,  even  in  their 
 nioft  helplefs  condition,  with  a  very  few  exceptions,  Nature 
 is  their  only  nurfe.  They  require  no  aid  from  their  parents, 
 who,  in  general,  are  tiK^tally  unacquainted  with  their  progeny. 
 But,  as  formerly  obfcrved,  when  treating  of  inftincV,  ihe 
 mothers  uniformly  dcpoiit  their  eggs  in  Situations  which  af- 
 ford both  proteclion  and  nouriiliment  to  their  young.  The 
 parent  fly,  according  to  the  fpecies,  invariably,  unlefs  retrain- 
 ed by  neceflity,  depofits  her  eggs  upon  particular  plants, 
 in  the  bodies  of  otlier  animals,  in  the  eartli,  or  in  water. 
 Whenever,  therefore,  an  infect  receives  exifience  in  its  pri^ 
 mary  form,  all  its  v/ants  are  fupplied.  Though  the  motlier, 
 after  the  worms  iffuc  from  the  eggs,  takes  no  charge  of  her 
 offspring,  and  frequently  does  not  exifl  at  the  time  they  come 
 forth,  vet,  by  an  unerring  and  pure  inftinct,  fiic  uniformly 
 places  them  in  fituations  where  the  young  find  proper  nour- 
 ilhment,  and  every  thing  neceiTary  to  their  feeble  condition. 
 
 To  this  general  law,  by  which  infects  are  governed,  there 
 are  feveral  exceptions.  Bees,  and  fom.e  other  files,  not  only 
 confl:ru(St  nefls  for  their  young,  but  adlually  feed,  and  moil 
 anxioufly  protect  them. 
 
 From  what  has  been  faid  concerning  the  Infancy  of  ani- 
 mals, one  general  remark  merits  attention.  Nature  has  uni- 
 formly, though  by  various  modes,  provided  for  the  nourlfli- 
 ment  and  prefervation  of  all  animated  beings  while  they  are 
 in  an  infantine  ftate.  Though  the  human  fpecies  continues 
 long  in  that  flate,  the  attachment  and  folicitude  of  both 
 parents,  inftead  of  abating,  in  proportion  to  the  time  and  la- 
 bour beflowed  on  their  progeny,  conflantly  augment,  and 
 commonly  remain  during  life.  The  reciprocal  affeclion  of 
 parents  and  children  is  one  of  the  greatefl  fources  of  human 
 liappinefs.  If  the  love  of  children  were  not  flrong,  and 
 if  it  did  not  increafe  with  time  the  labour,  the  confirant 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  213 
 
 attention,  the  anxiety  and  fatigue  of  mothers  would  be 
 infufFerablc.  But  here  Nature,  whofe  wifdom  is  always 
 conrpicuous,  makes  afreftion  brave  every  difficulty,  and  footh 
 every  pain.  If  a  child  be  fickly,  and  require  uncommon 
 care,  the  exertions  of  the  mother  are  wonderfully  fupported: 
 Pity  unites  with  love  ;  and  thefe  two  paffions  become  fo 
 firong,  that  hardfliips,  and  fatigue  of  every  kind,  are  fufFer- 
 ed  with  chearfulnefs  and  alacrity. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  inferior  tribes  of  animals,  Nature  has 
 noL  been  lefs  provident.  To  quadrupeds  and  birds  fhe  has 
 given  a  ftrong  and  marked  affection  for  their  offspring,  as 
 long  as  parental  care  is  neceffary.  But,  whenever  the  young 
 begin  to  be  in  a  condition  to  prote<Sl:  and  provide  for  them- 
 felves,  the  attachment  of  the  parents  gradually  fubfides  ; 
 they  become  regardlefs  of  their  offspring,  at  lafl  banifli  them 
 u'ith  blows,  from  their  prefence,  and^  after  that  period,  feem 
 to  have  no  knowledge  of  the  obje<5ls  which  fo  lately  engrof- 
 fed  all  the  attention  of  their  minds,  and  occupied  all  the  In- 
 dufl:ry  and  labour  of  their  bodies. — Here  the  dignity  and  fu- 
 periority  of  man  appears  in  a  confpicuous  light.  Inftead  of 
 loling  the  knowledge  of  his  offspring  after  they  arrive  at  ma- 
 turity, his  affeclion  expands,  and  embraces  grandchildren, 
 and  great-grandchildren,  with  equal  warmth  as  if  they  had 
 immediately  originated  from  himfelf. 
 
 C  e 
 
^^4  THE   PHILOSOlPHY 
 
 CHAPTER    VIII. 
 
 Of  the  Growth y  and  Foody  of  Auimals, 
 
 IT  is  a  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized  bodieffy 
 whether  animal  or  vegetable,  require  food,  in  order  to  ex- 
 pand and  ftrengthen  their  parts  when  yc  mg,  and  to  preferve 
 health  and  vigour  after  they  have  arrived  at  maturity.  The 
 food  of  animals  is  digefted  in  the  ftomach  and  inteftines  : 
 By  this  procefs  it  is  converted  into  chyle,  and  abforbed  by 
 the  lacteal  veflels,  in  the  manner  defcribed  in  Chap.  2.  page 
 48.  But  how  this  chyle,  or  nutritious  matter,  after  ming- 
 ling with  the  general  mafs  of  blood,  contributes  to  the  growth, 
 and  repairs  the  waflie  of  animal  bodies,  is  a  myftery  which- 
 probably  never  will  be  unfolded  by  human  fagacity.  It  has, 
 however,  like  many  other  fecrets  of  Nature,  given  rife  to 
 feveral  ingenious  theories  and  conjectures,  fome  of  which" 
 fhall  be  flightly  mentioned. 
 
 Buffon  confiders  the  bodies  of  animals  and  vegetables  as 
 Trhat  he  calls  internal  moulds.  He  fays,  that  the  matter  of 
 nutrition  is  not  applied  by  juxta-pofition,  but  that  it  pene- 
 trates the  whole  mafs  ;  that  each  part  receives  and  applies 
 thofe  particles  only  which  are  peculiar  and  neceflary  to  its 
 own  nature  •,  and  that,  by  this  means,  the  whole  parts  of  the 
 body  are  gradually  and  proportionally  augmented.  This  nu- 
 tritive matter,  he  remarks,  is  organic,  and  limllar  to  the' 
 body  itfelf  •,  and  hence  the  fize  of  the  body  is  increafed, 
 without  any  change  in  its  figure  or  fubftance.  The  matter 
 ejected  by  the  different  excretions  he  confiders  to  be  a  fepa- 
 ration  of  the  dead  from  the  vivifying  and  organic  parts  of 
 nourifliment,  which  are  diftributed  over  the  body  by  an^ 
 adtlve  power  :  This  power  fimilar  to  that  of  gravity,  pen- 
 etrates the  internal  fubflance  of  the  body,  and  attracts  the 
 f^rganic  particles,  which  are  thus  puflied  on  through  all  \w 
 
Of   NilTURAL    HISTORY.  ^15 
 
 parts.  As  thefe  organic  particles  are  fimilar  to  the  body  it* 
 felf,  their  union  with  the  different  parts  augments  its  fize, 
 without  changing  its  figure.  To  unfold  an  embryo  or  germ, 
 nothing  more  is  requifite  than  that  it  contain,  in  miniature, 
 a  body  fimilar  to  the  fpecies,  and  be  placed  in  proper  cir- 
 cumftances  for  the  acquifition  of  frefh  organic  particles  to 
 increafe  its  fize  and  unfold  its  members.  Hence  nutrition, 
 developement,  and  reproduction,  are  all  effects  of  the  fame 
 caufe. 
 
 This  account  of  the  nutrition  and  growth  of  organic  bodies 
 has  the  appearance  of  an  ingenious  theory.  But  an  atten- 
 tive reader  will  eafily  perceive,  that  it  contains  no  other  in- 
 formation, than  that  animals  and  vegetables  are  nourifhed 
 and  grow  by  the  intervention  of  the  nutritious  particles  of 
 food.  This  is  a  fact  univerfaliy  known  and  admitted.  But 
 we  are  ftill  as  ignorant  as  ever  of  the  mode  by  which  this 
 myfterious  operation  is  performed. 
 
 Other  authors  have  fuppofed  that  the  brain  is  a  large 
 gland  ;  that  the  nerves  diflributed  over  the  whole  body  are 
 the  duels  or  canals  of  this  gland  j  and  that  the  principal  ufe 
 of  the  brain  is  to  fecrete  nutritious  matter,  and  to  tranfmit 
 it  by  the  nerves  to  the  various  parts  of  the  fyflem,  in  order 
 to  expand  the  different  organs  of  which  it  is  compofed,  or 
 to  repair  the  wafte  they  may  have  fufFered  from  labour  and 
 other  caufes. 
 
 This  theory  prefuppofes  that  the  nerves  are  tubular,  and 
 contain  a  fluid  :  But  both  of  thefe  circamfiances  have  hith- 
 erto eluded  the  refearch  of  the  ableft  anatomifts.  Befides, 
 the  learned  and  indefatigable  Doctor  Monro,  in  his  Nervous 
 SyReniy  has  rendered  it  highly  improbable  that  the  nerves  are 
 the  inftruments  of  nutrition.  The  Doctor  reafons  in  the 
 following  manner.  On  comparing  different  animals,  he  re- 
 marks, we  find  no  correfpondence  between  the  fize  of  their 
 brain,  the  rapidity  of  their  growth,  or  the  quantity  of  nourifh- 
 
216  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 merit  they  receive.  An  ox  is  fix  times  heavier  than  a  man  ; 
 but  the  brain  of  an  ox  weighs  not  above  a  fourth  part  of 
 that  of  a  man.  On  this  fuppolltion,  an  ox's  brain  muft  fe- 
 Crete  twenty-four  times  more  nouriOimcnt  than  a  portion 
 equal  to  it  of  the  human  brain.  In  two  years  an  ox  acquires 
 his  full  fize.  His  brain  muft,  of  courfe,  be  fiippofed  to  tranf- 
 mit  daily  through  the  nerves  two  or  three  pounds  of  fiefh, 
 bones,  &c.  But  the  much  larger  brain  of  a  man  does  not, 
 in  an  equal  time,  add  to  his  body  a  fiftieth  part  of  that 
 weight. 
 
 <  In  monfters,  fays  the  DosSlor,    « I  have  found  the  limbs 
 
 *  very  plump,  though  the  brain  was  very  fmall.  Nay,  in 
 '  fome  monfters,  the  head  has  been  wanting,   yet  the  limbs 
 
 *  were  as  large  and  perfe<St  as  common.  In  other  monfters 
 *■  with  one  head  and  two  bodies,  I  have  found  that  the  brain 
 «  furnifhed  the  nerves  of  the  head  and  fpinal  marrow  on  the 
 
 <  right  ftde  of  the  monfter ;  yet  the  left  fpinal  marrow,  at  the 
 
 <  top  of  which  there  was  only  a  fmall  medullary  knob,  about 
 
 <  the  fize  of  a  large  pea,  was  as  perfect  as  the  right  one  •,  and 
 «  that  body,  and  its  limbs,  Vv'cre  as  large,  and  as  well  nourilh- 
 «  ed,  as  thofe  on  the  right  ftde.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
 «  there  were  two  heads  of   the  ordinary  ftze,   and  only  one 
 
 *  body,  the  limbs  were  not  remarkable  for  their  ftze. 
 
 <  "VVe  fee  that  organs,   of  which  the  nerves  are   (o   fmall 
 
 <  that  we  cannot  trace  them  by  difteclion,  as  the  bones,  the 
 «  placenta,  &c.  grow  as  quickly  as  the  other  organs,  in  which 
 
 <  the  nerves  are  lar^e  and  numerous. 
 
 o 
 
 <  A  year  after  I  had  cut  acrofs  the  fciatic  nerve  of  a  living 
 
 <  frog,  I  could  not  perceive  that  limb  fmaller  than  the  other  •, 
 
 <  yet  it  continued  to  be  infenfible  and  motionlefs.  Nay, 
 '  when  I  had  broken  the  bones  of  the  infenfthle  limb,  or 
 «  wounded  the  Ikin  and  ftefti,  I  found  that  the  callus  formed, 
 ^  and  the  wounds  healed,  as  readily  as  if  the  nerve  had  been 
 «  entire.     The  event  was  the  fame  after  dividing,  tranfverfe- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  217 
 
 «  Iv,  the  lower  or  pofterior  end  of  the  fpinal  marrow  of  the 
 
 *  frog. 
 
 <  It  is  well  known/   concludes  our  anther,  ^  that,  if  pow- 
 
 <  der  of  madder  root  is  mixed  with  the  food  of  a  young  ani- 
 
 <  mal,  the  bones  become  red  ;  or,  if  a  bone  has  been  brok- 
 «  en,  that  the  callus  joining  its  parts  will  be  red.     The  ferum 
 
 <  of  the  blood,  in  the  firfc  place,,  is   deeply  tinged  j  but  the 
 
 *  red  colour  of  the  bones  is  not  folely,  nor  even  chiefly,  owln^. 
 
 <  to  the  coloured  ferum  or  blood  circulating  ;  for  I  have 
 «  found,  that,  after  injecting  water  into  the  vciTels  till  thefo 
 '  were  emptied  of  the  blood,  and  that  the  water  came  out 
 '  colourlefs,  the  tinge   in  the  bones   appeared  equally  deep, 
 
 *  and  was,  therefore,  plainly  owing  to  a  great  quantity  of  the 
 '  red  earth  added  to  the  bones  in  the   time  of  their  growth. 
 
 <  But  this  eartli  was  not  tranfmitted  by  the  nerves  ;  for  the 
 '  colour  of  thefe,  as  I  found,  remained  unchanged.'         ,  ,- 
 
 That  the  nutritious  particles  of  food  are  conveyed  by  the 
 arteries,  and  applied  by  their  extremities  to  the  various  parts 
 of  animal  bodies  which  require  to  be  repaired  or  expanded, 
 is  an  opinion  not  only  befi:  fupported  by  facls,  but.  adopted 
 by  all  the  more  rational  phyfiologiflis.  The  principal  fa(^g 
 and  arguments  in  fupport  of  this  theory  fliall  nov/  be  m,en- 
 tioned. 
 
 The  chyle,  as  form^erly  remarked,  is  converted  into  blood » 
 The  glutinous  part  of  the  blood,  known  by.the  nameof 
 cGagulablc  lynph^  refembles  the  white  of  an  ^"^g.  That  the 
 white  of  an  egg  is  the  fole  nouriihment  of  the  chick  before 
 its  exclulion,  is  an  eftablifiied  facl ;  and  the  conclufion,  from 
 analogy,  that  the  lymph  of  blood  is  deftlned  for  the  growth 
 and  reparation  of  animal  bodies,  is  by  no  means  unnatural. 
 «  Without  repeating,'  fays  Dr.  Monro,  <  our  extreme  uncer- 
 «  tainty  as  to  the  tubular  nature  of  the  nerves,  and  the  im- 
 ^  probability  that  canals  {o  exceedingly  minute  as  thofe  with- 
 
 *  in  the  nerves  muft  be,  and  of  fuch  length,  are  deiiined  iox 
 
618  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 *  the  conveyance  of  gl^e,  do  we  not  find,  that  this  very  maU 
 
 *  ter  is  feparated  by  the  exhalant  branches  of  the  arteries  of 
 
 <  the  peritoneum,  pleurae,  and  other  fhut  facs,  and  univerfaU 
 «  ly,  by  the  branches  of  the  arteries  of  the  cellular  mem- 
 
 <  brane  ?     The  kinds  of  matter  neceffary  for  the  growth  and 
 
 <  nourifhment  of  our  feveral  organs  are  fo  various  and  differ- 
 
 *  ent  in  their  nature,  that  it  is  altogether  incredible  they 
 f  can  be  furnifhed  by  the  nerves  :  Thus,  water  is  needed  for 
 
 *  the  extenfion  of  the  fore-part  of  the  eye,  vifcid  matter  for 
 f  the  cryftaUine  and  vitreous  humours,  earth  for  the  growth 
 
 <  of  the  bones  ;   Sec.  ;  whereas   we  can    as  ealily  conceive 
 
 <  thefe  to  be/urniflied  by  the  arteries,  as  that,  in  one  place, 
 f  they  fhould  furnifli  faliva,  in  another  bile,  &c.  As  the 
 f  wafte  of  the  feveral  organs  is  carried  off  by  the  veffels, 
 f  either  circulating  or  abforbent,  why  fliould  we  doubt  that 
 f  the  circulating  fluids  can  add  a  particle  in  the  place  of  one 
 ?  that  has  been  carried  off,  or  that  an  artery  can  fupply  what 
 ^  has  been  abforbed  by  a  lymphatic  vein  ?  As  it  is  granted 
 f  that  the  fecretion  of  all  other  kinds  of  matter  in  the  bodies 
 f  of  animals  is  performed  by  the  branches  of  the  arteries,  is 
 
 <  it  not  incredible  that  there  fhould  be  an  exception  to  the 
 f  general  rule  in  the  fecretion  of  the  nourifhment  ?  Surely 
 f  that  power  which  can  convert  the   food   into  blood,   and 
 
 *  can  change  the  blood  into  bile  and  faliva,  is  fufficient  to 
 f  convert  it  into  nourifhment. 
 
 <  I  will  now  add,'  continues  our    author,    <  that  in    calli^ 
 
 *  cicatrices,  or  accretions,  there  are  numberlefs   new  formed 
 
 *  veffels  filled,  in  the  living  animal,  with  red  blood,  and  which 
 
 *  can   readily    be  inje£led.     Nay,    I    found  by  experiment, 
 
 <  that  fuch  new  formed   veffels,   produced  by   the  oppofite 
 
 *  fides  of  a  wound,  unite  into  continued  canals,  or  anaflamofe. 
 
 *  If,  then,  in  a  callus,  new  earthy  or  offeous  fibres,  and  new 
 
 *  veffels,  can  be  formed  by  the  original  arteries,  mufl  we 
 f  not  believe  that  the  wafte  of  this  earth,  and  of  thefe  veffels^ 
 
o?  NATURAL  History.  2ljf 
 
 *  can  be   ever  after  fupplied  by   the   arteries    which  formed 
 
 <  them  ?    If  foy  are  we   not  to   conclude,  that  the  wafte  of 
 
 *  other  arteries,  and  of  other  organs,  is  fuppHed  in  the  fame 
 
 *  manner  from  the   arteries  ?  If  the   quantity  of  blood  natu- 
 '  rally  circulating  through  a  limb  be  diminifhed,  as  by  tying 
 
 *  the  trunk  of  the  brachial  artery,   in  the  operation  for  an 
 'aneurifm,   the  arm  lofes  part  of  its  ftrength  and  flze  ;  but 
 
 <  the  lofs  is  lefs  than,  at  firfl  fight,  might  be  expected  ;   be- 
 
 *  caufe  the  anaftominng  (or  uniting)  canals  foon  come  to  be 
 '  greatly  enlarged. 
 
 '  Upon  the  whole/  the  Do6lor  concludes,   ^  there  are  few 
 
 *  points  in  phyfiology  fo  clear,  as,   1.  That  the  arteries  pre- 
 
 *  pare,  and  direflly  fecrete  the    nouriftiment   in  all  our   or- 
 
 <  gans  ;  and,  2.  That  the  nerves  do  not  contain  nor  condudt 
 
 *  the  nourifliment,  but,  by  enabling  the  arteries  to  aft  prop- 
 
 *  erly,  contribute  indirectly  to  nutrition.* 
 
 The  ingenious  Charles  Bonnett  endeavors  to  {how,  thai 
 the  parts  of  all  organifed  bodies  are  contained,  in  miniature, 
 in  germs  or  buds  ;  that  thefe  germs,  when  placed  in  proper 
 fituations,  gradually  unfold  and  increafe  in  magnitude  ;  that 
 the  various  members  of  animals  and  vegetables  are  expand-* 
 ed,  both  longitudinally  and  laterally,  by  food  adapted  to 
 their  refpe<Stive  natures  j  and  that  every  germ  actually  in- 
 cludes the  rudiments  of  the  whole  animals  or  vegetables 
 which  are  to  proceed  from  it  during  all  fucceffive  gene- 
 rations. 
 
 With  regard  to  vegetables,  it  is  true,  that  the  feed  firfl: 
 produces  a  fmall  tree,  which  it  contained  in  miniature  with-* 
 in  its  lobes.  At  the  top  of  this  fmall  tree  a  bud  or  germ  is 
 formed,  which  contains  the  Ihoot  or  tree  tliat  is  to  fpring 
 next  feafon.  In  the  fame  manner,  the  fmall  tree  of  the 
 fecond  year  produces  a  bud  which  includes  a  tree  for  the 
 third  year  ;  and  this  procefs  uniformly  goes  on  as  long  as 
 the  tree  continues  to  vegetate.     At  the  extremity  of  each 
 
220  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 branch,  buds  are  iikewiie  formed,  which  contain,  in  minia- 
 ture, trees  limilar  to  that  of  the  firft  year.  From  thefe,  and 
 iimilar  fach,  it  is  concluded,  that  all  thefe  germs  were  con- 
 tained in  the  original  feed  ;  for  the  firfr  bud  was  fucceeded 
 by  a  fimilar  bud,  which  was  not  unfolded  till  the  fecond 
 year,  and  the  third  bud  was  not  expanded  till  the  third  year  ; 
 and,  of  courfe,  the  feed  may  be  faid  to  have  contained  not 
 only  the  v/hole  buds  which  would  be  formed  in  a  hundred 
 years,  but  all  the  feeds,  and  all  the  individuals,  which 
 weald  fucceiTively  arrive  till  the  final  deftruclion  of  the 
 fpecles. 
 
 Thefe  fa£ls  are  known  and  eftablifhed  ;  but  the  reafoning 
 deduced  from  them  is  fallacious,  or,  what  amounts  to  the 
 f^ime  thing,  is  perfectly  incomprehenfible.  The  feed  is  un- 
 queftionably  the  origin  or  caufe  of  all  future  individuals, 
 which  may  be  infinite.  But  the  idea  that  it  really  contained 
 the  germs  of  all  the  individuals,  which  v/ere  to  fpring  from 
 it  as  a  fource,  is  not  only  abfurd,  but  exceeds  all  the  powers 
 of  human  imagination  to  conceive.  Theories  of  this  kind, 
 of  v»^hich  there  are  too  many  in  almoft  every  department  of 
 fcience,  hardly  merit  examination.  Every  feed,  and  every 
 animal,  according  to  this  doctrine,  includes  in  its  own  body 
 an  infinite  pofterity  !  If  we  aflent  to  reafonings  of  this  kind, 
 we  muftlofe  ourfelves  in  the  labyrinths  of  infinity  ;  and,  in- 
 ftead  of  throwing  light  upon  the  fubjedt,  we  fhall  involve  it 
 in  tenfold  darknefs.  All  we  know  concerning  the  nature 
 of  growth  and  nutrition  is  extremely  limited.  We  know 
 that,  in  the  animal  kingdom,  nutrition  is  performed  by  means 
 of  the  blood,  which  is  forcibly  propelled  through  every  part 
 j6f  the  body  by  the  adlion  of  the  heart  and  arteries  ;  and  that 
 vegetables,  in  a  fimilar  manner,  are  nourifhed  by  the  afcen- 
 {ion  and  didribution  of  the  fap.  But,  how  the  nutritive 
 particles  are  applied  to  the  various  parts  of  organized  bodies, 
 and  how  they  expand  the  organs,  or  repair  their  continual 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  221 
 
 vv-afte  andlofs  of  fubftance,  we  muft  content  ourfelves  with 
 remaining  in  perpetual  ignorance. 
 
 In  general,  the  food  of  animals,  and  particularly  of  the  hu- 
 man fpecies,  confifts  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubftances, 
 combined  v^'ith  water  or  other  fluids.  The  Gentoo,  and 
 ibme  other  fouthcrn  nations,  live  entirely  upon  vegetable 
 diet.  From  the  accounts  we  have  of  the  different  regions  of 
 the  earth,  it  appears,  that  the  natives  of  warm  climates, 
 where  the  cultivation  of  plants  is  pra^lifed,  employ  a  greater 
 proportion  of  vegetable  food  than  in  the  more  northern 
 countries.  The  inhabitants  of  Lapland  have  little  or  no  de- 
 pendence on  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  They  neither  fow  nor 
 reap.  They  ftill  remain,  and,  from  the  nature  of  their  cli- 
 mate, muH;  forever  remain,  in  the  fhepherd  Urate.  Their 
 comparative  riches  confifl:  entirely  of  the  number  of  rein-deer 
 poneiTed  by  individuals.  Their  principal  nourifhment  is  de- 
 rived from  the  ilefh  and  milk  of  thefe  animals.  In  autumn, 
 hov/ever,  they  catch  great  multitudes  of  fowls,  moft  of  them 
 of  the  game  kind.  With  thefe,  while  frefh,  they  not  only 
 fupply  their  preient  wanrs^  but  dry  and  preferve  them 
 through  the  winter.  They  likewife  kill  hares,  and  other 
 animals,  which  abound  in  the  woods  and  mountains  ;  but 
 the  flefh  of  the  bear  is  their  greateft  delicacy.  In  their  lakes 
 and  rivers,  they  have  inexhaufcible  ftores  of  fiflies,  which,  in 
 fummer  and  autumn,  they  dry  in  the  fun,  or  in  ftoves,  and 
 in  winter  they  are  preferved  by  the  froft.  The  Laplanders 
 drink  water,  or  animal  oils  ;  but  never  tafte  bread  or  fait. 
 They  live  in  a  pure  air,  and  have  fufficient  exercife.  Their 
 conflitutions  are  attempered  to  the  coldnefs  of  the  climate  ; 
 and  they  are  remarkable  for  vigour  and  longevity.  The 
 gout,  the  ftone,  the  rheumatifm,  and  many  other  difeafes 
 which  torture  the  luxurious  in  milder  climes,  are  totally  un- 
 known to  them.  With  the  few  gifts  which  Nature  has  be- 
 ftowed  oi\  them,  they  remain  fatisfied,  and  live  happily  a- 
 Dd 
 
2^2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 mong  their  mountains  and  their  ftorms.  If  fouthern  nations' 
 afford  examples  of  people  who  feed  nearly  on  vegetables  a- 
 lone,  the  Laplanders  furnifh  one  of  the  oppofite  extreme  ; 
 for  they  are  almoft  entirely  carnivorous  animals. 
 
 To  Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  and  Britain,  the  fame  ob- 
 fervation  is  applicable.  In  thefe  countries,  animal  food  is 
 much  more  ufed  than  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Barbary,  and 
 the  other  fouthern  regions  of  the  globe.  Many  reafons  may 
 be  alligned  for  thefe  differences  in  the  food  of  nations.  The 
 natural  productions  of  the  earth  depend  entirely  on  the  cli- 
 mate. In  warm  climates,  the  vegetables  which  grow  ipon- 
 taneoufly  are  both  more  luxuriant  and  more  various.  The 
 number  and  richnefs  of  their  fruits  far  exceed  thofe  of  cold- 
 er regions.  From  this  circumftance,  the  natives  muff  be 
 ftim  ulated  to  ufe  a  proportionally  greater  quantity  of  vege- 
 table food  ;  and  we  learn  from  hiftory,  and  from  travellers, 
 that  this  is  a£lually  the  cafe.  In  cold  countries,  on  the  con- 
 trary, vegetables  are  not  only  fewer,  but  more  rigid,  and 
 contain  lefs  nourifliment*  The  inhabitants,  accordingly,  are 
 obliged  to  live  principally  on  animal  fubftances.  If  we  ex- 
 amine the  mode  of  feeding  in  different  nations,  it  will  be 
 found,  that  in  proportion  as  men  approach  or  recede  from 
 the  poles,  a  greater  or  lefs  quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable 
 fubftances  are  ufed  in  their  diet.  Cuftom,  laws,  and  reli- 
 gious rites,  it  muff  be  allowed,  produce  confiderable  differ- 
 ences in  the  articles  of  food,  among  particular  nations,  which 
 have  no  dependence  on  climate,  or  the  natural  productions 
 of  the  earth.  But  when  men  are  not  fettered  or  prejudifed 
 by  extraneous  circumftances,  or  political  inftitutions,  the  na- 
 ture of  their  food,  is  invariably  determined  by  the  climates 
 they  inhabit.  The  variety  of  food,  in  any  country,  is  likewife 
 greatly  influenced  by  culture,  and  by  imitation.  Commerce 
 occafionally  furniflies  new  fpecies  of  food,  particularly  of  the 
 vegetable  kind.  In  Scotland,  till  about  the  beginning  of  this 
 century,  the  common  people  lived  almoft  entirely  upon  grain^ 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2^i5 
 
 Since  that  period,  the  culture  and  ufe  of  the  potatce,  of  many 
 fpecics  of  colewortSj  and  of  fruits,  have  been  introduced, 
 and   univerfally  diffufed  through  the  nation. 
 
 Whether  man  was  originally  intended  by  Nature  to  live 
 folely  upon  animal  or  vegetable  food  ?  is  a  quefrion  which 
 has  been  much  agitated  both  by  the  ancients  and  the  mod- 
 erns. Many  fadts  and  circumflances  concur  in  eftablifliing 
 the  opinion,  that  man  was  defigned  to  be  nourifhed  neither 
 by  animals  nor  vegetables  folely,  but  by  a  mixture  of  both. 
 Agriculture  is  an  art,  the  invention  of  which  muft  depend  on 
 a  number  of  fortuitous  circumftances.  It  requires  a  long  fuc- 
 ceffion  of  ages  before  favage  nations  learn  this  art.  They  de- 
 pend entirely  for  their  fubfiftence  upon  hunting  wild  animals, 
 fiihing,  and  fuch  fruits  as  their  country  happens  fpontane- 
 oufly  to  produce.  This  has  uniformly  been  the  manner  of 
 living  among  allthe  favage  nations  of  which  we  have  any  prop- 
 er knowledge  •,  and  feems  to  be  a  clear  proof,  that  animal 
 food  is  by  no  means  repugnant  to  the  nature  of  man.  Be- 
 fides,  the  furface  of  the  earth,  even  in  the  moll:  luxuriant 
 climates,  and  though  affifted  by  culture,  is  not  capable  of  pro- 
 ducing vegetable  food  in  fufHcient  quantity  to  fupport  the 
 human  race,  after  any  region  of  it  has  become  fo  populous  as 
 Britain,  France,  and  many  other  nations.  The  general  prac- 
 tice of  mankind,  when  net  retrained  by  prejudice  or  fuper- 
 ftition,  of  feeding  promircuoufly  on  animal  and  vegetable  lub- 
 ftances,  is  a  flrong  indication  that  man  is,  partly  at  lead,  a 
 carnivorous  animal.  The  Gentoos,  though  their  chief  diet 
 be  vegetables,  afford  no  proper  argument  againft  thisreafon- 
 ing.  They  are  obliged,  by  their  religion,  to  abitain  froni 
 the  flefli  of  animals  ;  and  they  are  allowed  to  ufe  milk,  which 
 is  a  very  nourifhing  animal  food.  Notwithftanding  this  in- 
 dulgence the  Gentoos,  in  general,  are  a  meagre,  fickly,  and 
 feeble  race.  In  hot  climates,  however,  a  very  great  pro- 
 portion of  vegetable  diet  may  be  ufed  v/ithout  any  bad  con- 
 fequences. 
 
224  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Other  arguments,  tending  to  the  ,  fame  conchifion  are  der 
 rived  not  from  the  cuftom  or  pra61:ices  of  particular  nations, 
 but  from  the  fi:ru6ture  of  the  human  body.  All  ani- 
 mals which  feed  upon  vegetables  alone,  as  formerly  remarked, 
 have  ftomachs  and  inteftines  proportionally  larger  than  thofe 
 that  live  folely  on  animal  fubffcanccs.  Man,  like  the  carni- 
 vorous tribes,  is  furniflied  with  cutting  and  canine  teeth, 
 and,  like  the  graminivorous,  with  a  double  row  of  grinders. 
 The  dimenlions  of  his  ftomach  and  inteftines  likewife  hold  a 
 mean  proportion  between  thefe  two  tribes  of  animals,  v;hich 
 differ  fo  efTentially  in  their  charadters  and  manners. — From 
 thefe  and  fimilar  arguments,  I  have  no  helitation  to  conclude, 
 that  a  promifcuous  ufe  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubftances  is 
 no  deviation  from  the  original  nature  or  deftination  of  man- 
 kind, whatever  country  they  may  inhabit. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  different  proportions  of  animal  and 
 vegetable  food  which  are  moft  accommodated  to  the  health 
 and  vigour  of  mankind,  no  general  rule  can  be  given  that 
 could  be  applicable  to  difi^erent  climates,  and  to  the  different 
 conftitutions  of  individuals.  Anim.al  food,  it  is  certain,  gives 
 vigour  to  the  body,  and  may  be  ufed  more  liberally  by  the 
 adtive  and  laborious  than  thofe  who  lead  a  ftudious  and  fe- 
 dentary  life.  A  great  proportion  of  vegetable  food,  and  par- 
 ticularly of  bread,  is  confidered,  by  the  mofi  eminent  phyii- 
 cians,  as  beft  adapted  for  men  wdio  are  fond  of  fcience  and 
 literature  -,  for  full  meals  of  animal  food  load  the  ftomach, 
 and  feldom  fail  to  produce  dulnefs,  yawning,  indolence,  and 
 many  difeafes  which  often  prove  fatal. 
 
 The  remainder  of  this  chapter,  from  unavoidable  caufes, 
 muft  confift  of  obfcrvations  of  a  more  defultory  kind. 
 
 Moft  animals,  when  they  live  long  on  a  particular  fpecies 
 of  food,  are  apt  to  be  affected  with  difeafes,  w4iich  generally 
 arife  from  coftivenefs,  or  its  oppofite.  The  guiney-pigs, 
 after  being  confined  for  fome  time  to  colewoi:ts,  contract  a 
 loofenefs,  which  often  terminates  in  death.     But,  when  thofg 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  225 
 
 .animals  are  at  full  liberty,  they  prevent  this  effea,  by  an 
 inftindt  which  teaches  them  to  make  frequent  changes  from 
 moift  to  drv  food  :  If  they  are  reftrained  in  their  choiccj 
 thev  will  eat,  as  a  fuccedaneum,  paper,  linen,  and  even  vvool- 
 len  cloths. 
 
 Though  fome  animals,  and  many  vegetables,  would  be  nox- 
 ious to  man,  if  ufed  as  food,  yet  in  general,  that  matter  is 
 more  regulated  by  chance  and  cuftom  than  by  rational  mo- 
 tives. By  experience,  and  the  aid  of  our  fenfes,  we  acquire 
 a  tolerable  facility  of  diftinguifhing  falutary  from  noxio  us 
 food.  Other  animals  fele<Sl:  their  food  inftinclively  j  and 
 their  choice  is  chiefly  determined  by  the  fenfe  of  fmelling. 
 The  fpaniel  hunts  his  prey  by  the  fcent  j  but  the  grey-hound 
 depends  principally  upon  the  ufe  of  his  eye.  When  thQ 
 grey-hound  lofes  fight  of  a  hare,  he  inftantly  gives  up  the 
 chace,  and  looks  keenly  around  him,  but  never  applies  his 
 nofe,  in  order  to  difcover  the  track.  Some  rapacious  ani- 
 mals, as  wolves  and  ravens,  difcover  carrrion  at  difiancesj 
 which,  if  we  were  to  judge  from  our  own  fenfe  of  fmellingj 
 would  appear  to  be  altogether  incredible.  Others,  as  eagles, 
 hawksj  gnlls,  &c.  furprife  us  no  lefs  by  the  acutenefs  of  their 
 fight.  They  perceive,  from  great  heights  in  the  air,  micej 
 fmall  birds,  and  minute  fifhes  m   the  water. 
 
 One  great  caufe  of  the  difi:ufion  of  animals  over  every 
 part  of  the  globe,  is  to  be  derived  from  the  diverfity  of  ap- 
 petites for  particular  fpecies  of  food,  implanted  by  Nature 
 in  the  different  tribes.  Some  fifties  are  only  to  be  found 
 in  certain  latitudes.  Some  animals  inhabit  the  frigid,  others 
 the  torrid  zones  •,  fome  frequent  deferts,  mountains,  woods, 
 lakes,  and  meadows.  In  their  choice  of  fituation,  they  arc 
 uniformly  determined  to  occupy  fuch  places  as  furnifli  them 
 with  food  accommodated  to  their  natures.  Monkies,  the 
 elephant,  and  rhinoceros,  fix  on  the  torrid  zone,  becaufe 
 they  focd  or^   vegetables  which   flourifli   there  during   the 
 
226  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 whole  year.  The  rein-deer  inhabit  the  cold  regions  of  the 
 north,  becaufe  thefe  countries  produce  the  greateft  quantity 
 of  the  lichen,  a  fpecies  of  mofs,  which  is  their  beloved  food. 
 The  pelican  makes  choice  of  dry  and  defcrt  places  to  lay 
 her  eggs.  When  her  young  are  hatched,  fl\e  is  obliged  to 
 bring  water  to  them  from  great  dlftances.  To  enable  her 
 to  perform  this  neceflary  office,  Nature  has  provided  her 
 with  a  large  fac,  which  extends  from  the  tip  of  the  under 
 mandible  of  her  bill  to  the  throat,  and  holds  as  much  water 
 as  will  fupply  her  brood  for  feveral  days.  This  water  fhe 
 pours  into  the  nefl  to  cool  her  young,  to  allay  their  thirft, 
 and  to  teach  them  to  fwim.  Lions,  tigers,  and  other  rapa- 
 cious animals,  refort  to  thefe  nefts,  drink  the  water,  and  are 
 faid  not  to  injure  the  young  *.  The  goat  afcends  the  rocky 
 precipice,  to  crop  the  leaves  of  flirubs,  and  other  favourite 
 plants.  The  floth  and  the  fquirrel  feed  upon  the  leaves  and 
 the  fruit  of  trees,  and  are,  therefore,  furnifhed  with  feet 
 which  enable  them  to  climb.  Water-fowls  live  upon  filhes, 
 infe61:s,  and  the  eggs  of  fifties.  Their  bill,  neck,  wings,  legs, 
 and  whole  ftru6lure,  are  nicely  fitted  for  enabling  them  to 
 catch  the  food  adapted  to  their  natures.  Their  feeding  upon 
 the  eggs  of  fifties  accounts  for  that  variety  of  fifties  which 
 are  often  found  in  lakes  and  pools  on  the  tops  of  hills,  and 
 on  high  grounds  remote  from  the  fea  and  from  rivers.  The 
 bat  and  the  goat-fucker  fly  about  during  the  night,  when 
 the  whole  air  is  filled  with  moths,  and  other  no6lurnal  in- 
 fects. The  bear,  who  acquires  a  prodigious  cjuantity  of  fat 
 during  the  fummer,  retires  to  his  den,  when  provifions  fail 
 him,  in  winter.  For  fonie  months,  he  receives  his  fole  nour- 
 iftiment  from  the  abforption  of  the  fat  which  had  been  pre- 
 vioufly  accumulated  in  the  cellular  membrane. 
 
 A  glutton,  brought  •  from   Siberia  to  Drefden,  eat  every 
 day,  fays  M.  Klein,  thirty  pounds  of  flefti  without  being  fat- 
 
 *  Amoen.  Acad,  vol.  z,  p.  4;. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  227 
 
 isfied.  This  hO:  indicates  an  amazing  digeftlve  power  in  fo 
 fmall  a  qiiadrnped  ;  for  the  ilory  of  his  fqueezing  his  fides 
 between  two  trees^  in  order  to  make  him  difgorge,  is  a  mere 
 fable*. 
 
 Siberia,  Kamtfchatka,  and  the  polar  regions,  are  fuppofed 
 to  be  the  abodes  of  mifery  and  defolation.  They  are,  it 
 mufl:  be  allowed,  infefted  with  numerous  tribes  of  bears, 
 foxes,  gluttons,  and  other  rapacious  animals.  But  it  fliould 
 be  conlidered,  that  thefe  voracious  animals  fupply  the  natives 
 with  both  food  and  clothing.  To  elude  the  attacks  of  fero- 
 city, and  to  acquire  polTeffion  of  the  flcins  and  carcafles  of 
 fuch  creatures,  the  induftry  and  dexterity  of  favage  nations 
 are  excited.  The  furs  are  demanded  by  foreigners.  The 
 inhabitants  by  this  means  learn  commerce  and  the  arts  of 
 life  ;  and,  in  the  progrefs  of  time,  bears  and  wild  beads  be- 
 come the  inftruments  of  polidiing  a  barbarous  people.  Thus, 
 the  moil  fubftantial  good  often  proceeds  from  apparent  mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 There  is  hardly  a  plant  that  is  not  rejected  as  food  by 
 fom.e  animals,  and  ardently  defired  by  others.  The  horfe 
 yields  the  common  water-hemlock  to  the  goat,  and  the  cow 
 the  long-leafed  water-hemlock  to  the  flieep.  The  goat, 
 again,  leaves  the  aconite,  or  bane-berries,  to  the  horfe,  &:c. 
 Plants  which  afford  proper  nourifliment  to  fome  animals, 
 are  by  others  avoided,  becaufe  they  would  not  only  be  hurt- 
 ful, but  even  poifonous.  Hence  no  plant  is  abfolutely  dele- 
 terious to  animal  life.  Poifon  is  only  a  relative  term.  The 
 euphorbia,  or  fpurge,  {o  noxious  to  man,  is  greedily  devour- 
 ed by  fome  of  the  infect  tribes. 
 
 It  is  a  maxim  univerfaliy  received,  that  every  animal,  af- 
 ter birth,  grows,  or  acquires  an  augmentation  of  fize.  The 
 fpider-fly,  however,  affords  an  exception.  The  mother  lays 
 an  QQg  fo  difproportionally  large,  that  no  perfon,  without 
 •  Gaz,  Literaire,  vol.  i.  page  481. 
 
M^  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  aid  of  experience,  could  believe  it  to  have  been  proctiiced 
 by  this  infecl.  When  the  egg  is  hatched,  a  fly  proceeds 
 from  it,  which,  at  the  moment  of  birth,  equals  the  parent  in 
 magnitude.  Upon  a  ftrifter  examination  of  this  egg,  it  has 
 been  difcovercd,  that  the  infeft,  v^^hile  in  the  belly  of  its 
 niotheir,  undergoes  a  transformation  into  the  nymph  or  chry- 
 falis  ftate  j  and  that,  inftead  of  a  worm,  a  fly  is  produced 
 from  it,  of  the  fame  dimenfions  as  the  parent.  This  difcov- 
 ery,  however,  does  not  diminifli  our  wonder,  that  any  ani- 
 mal ihould  actually  give  birth  to  a  fubftance  as  large  as  its 
 own  body,  and  that  its  fize  fliould  never  afterwards  receive 
 any  augmentation*. 
 
 When  caterpillars,  fome  time  before  their  change,  are  de- 
 prived of  food,  they  diminifh  to  at  leaft  one  half  of  their 
 former  flze.  Their  chryfalids,  of  courfe,  as  well  as  the  but- 
 terflies which  proceed  from  them,  are  proportionally  fmalU 
 From  this  fa£l  we  learn  the  importance  of  feeding  all  young 
 animals  well  till  they  acquire  their  full  growth. 
 
 It  is  a  remark  of  the  ingenious  Reaumur,  that  fuch  In- 
 fects as  feed  upon  dead  carcafles,  and  whofe  fecundity  Is 
 great,  never  attack  live  animals.  The  fiefh-fly  depoflts  her 
 eggs  in  the  bodies  of  dead  animals,  where  her  progeny  re- 
 ceive that  nourifliment  which  is  befl:  fuited  to  their  conilitu- 
 tlon.  But  this  fly  never  attempts  to  lay  her  eggs  In  the 
 fiefh  of  found  and  living  animals.  If  Nature  had  determin- 
 ed her  to  obferve  the  oppoflte  conduct,  men,  quadrupeds, 
 and  birds,  would  have  been  dreadfully  a£BI(Sl:ed  by  the  ravag- 
 es of  this  Angle  infect.  Left  it  might  be  Imagined  that  the 
 flefli-fly  felected  dead,  inftead  of  live  animals^  becaufe.  In 
 depofiting  her  eggs,  fhe  was  unable  to  pierce  the  flcin  of  the 
 latter,  M.  de  Reaumur  made  the  following  experiment,  which 
 removed  every  doubt  that  might  arife  on  the  fubjecSV.  He 
 carefully  pulled  off  all  the  feathers  from  the  thigh  of  a  young 
 
 ind  Eonner,  torn,  3.  p.  363. — 369. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  229 
 
 pigeon,  and  applied  to  It  a  thin  flice  of  beef,  in  which  there 
 were  hundreds  of  maggots.     The  portion   of  beef  was  not 
 Aifficient  to  maintain  them  above  a  few  hours.     He  fixed  it 
 to  the  thigh  by  a  bit  of  gauze  •,  and  he  prevented  the  pigeon 
 from  moving,  by  tying  its   wings    and  legs.     The  maggots 
 foon  fhewed  that  their  prefent  iituation  was  difagreeable  to 
 them.     Moft  of  them  retired  from  under  the  flice  of  beef  ; 
 and  the  few  that  remained  perifhed  in  a  fhort  time.     Their 
 death  was  probably  occaiioned  by  the  degree  of  heat  in  the 
 pigeon's   body  being   greater   than   their  conftitution  could 
 bear.     Upon   the  fame  pigeon   M.  de  Reaumur  performed 
 another  experiment.     He  took  ofF  the  flvin  from  its  thigh, 
 laid  bare  the  fleHi,  and  applied  immediately  another  flice  of 
 beef  full  of  maG^Gfots.     The  animals  difcovered  evident  marks 
 of  uneafinefs  ;  and  all  of  them  that  remained  on  the  fleili  of 
 the  pigeon  were  deprived  of  life,   as   in  the  former  experi- 
 ment, in  lefs  than  an  hour.     Thus  the  degree  of  heat  that  Is 
 neceflary  to  fuch  vrorms  as  inhabit  the  interior  parts  of  ani- 
 mals, is  defl:ru6live  to  thofe  fpecies  which  Nature  has  deftin- 
 ed  to  feed  upon  the  flefli  of  dead  animals.   Hence  the  worms 
 fometimes  found  in  ulcerous  fores,  mufl  belong  to  a  dilierent 
 fpecies  from  thofe  upon  which  the  above  experiments  were 
 made. 
 
 The  growth  of  fome  worms,  which  feed  upon  anim.al  or 
 vegetable  fubftances,  is  extremely  rapid.  Redi  remarked, 
 that  thefe  creatures,  the  day  after  they  efcaped  from  the  egg^ 
 had  acquired  at  leaft  double  their  former  fize.  At  this  pe- 
 riod he  weighed  them,  and  found  that  each  worm  weighed 
 feven  grains  •,  but  that,  on  the  day  preceding,  it  required 
 from  twenty-five  to  thirty  of  them  to  weigh  a  fingle  grain. 
 Hence,  in  about  the  fpace  of  twenty-four  hours,  each  of 
 thefe  v/orms  had  become  from  155  to  ^210  times  heavier 
 than  formerly.     This  rapidity  of  growth  is   remarkable  in 
 
 E  E 
 
250  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 tltofe  maggots    which   are   produced  from  the  Cggs    of  the 
 common  flefli-fly. 
 
 Before  we  difmlfs  this  fubje£V,  a  few  obfervatlons  on  that 
 power,  inherent  in  all  animal  bodies,  of  dillblving,  and  con- 
 verting into  chyle,  every  nutritive  fubflance  thrown  into  the 
 flomach,  merit  attention. 
 
 In  order  to  explain  the  procefs  of  digeftlon,  fome  phyii- 
 cians  and  phllofophers  have  had  recourfe  to  mechanical  force, 
 and  others  to  chemical  action.  The  fupporters  of  mechanical 
 force,  maintained,  that  the  ftomachs  of  all  animals  comminu- 
 ted, or  broke  down  into  fmall  portions,  every  fpecies  of  food, 
 and  prepared  it  for  being  converted  into  chyle.  The  chemical 
 phllofophers,  on  the  contrary,  fupported  the  opinion,  that 
 the  food  was  dilTolved  by  a  fermentation  induced  by  the  fa- 
 liva  and  gaftric  juices.  The  difputes  which  naturally  arofe 
 from  thefc  feemingly  oppofite  theories,  ftimulated  the  inqui- 
 ries of  the  ingenious,  and  produced  feveral  curious  and  im- 
 portant difcoveries.  Reaumur,  M'Bride,  Stevens,  Spalanza- 
 ni,  Hunter,  have  all  exerted  their  induftry  and  talents  upon 
 this  fubjecSl:.  To  give  even  an  abridged  view  of  their  differ- 
 ent labours  would  be  both  tedious,  and,  at  the  fame  time, 
 would  not  coincide  with  the  defign  of  this  work.  I  fliall 
 therefore  confine  myfelf  to  {orvxe  refults  of  their  experience 
 and  labours.  Spalanzani,  who  is  a  voluminous  writer  on  this 
 fubjefc,  relates  not  only  the  difcoveries  of  his  predecefTors, 
 but  has  enriched  his  w^ork  with  numerous  experiments  and 
 obfervatlons  made  by  himfelf.  In  his  inveftigation  of  the 
 procefs  of  digcftion,  and  the  action  of  the  flomach,  he  ob- 
 ferves  the  following  order  : 
 
 1,  He  tre-cits  of  animals  witli  flrong  raufcular  ftomachs,  as 
 common  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks,  geefe,  pigeons,  &c.  2.  Of 
 animals  with  ftomachs  of  an  intermediate  confiflence,  as 
 crows,  herons,  ccc.  3.  Of  animals  with  membranous  flonv- 
 rschs,  as  frogs,  lizards,  earth  and  water  fnakes,  vipers,  fiflies,- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  -231 
 
 fhecp,  the  ox,  the  horfe,  the  owl,  the  falcon,  the  eagle,  the 
 cat,  the  dog,  man,  &c. 
 
 With  regard  to  birds  which  are  furniflied  with  mufcular 
 ftomachs,  or  gizzards,  Spalanzani,  in  imitation  of  Reaumur, 
 procured  fmall  glafs  and  metal  balls  and  tubes,  perforated 
 with  many  holes.  Thefe  he  filled  with  different  kinds  of 
 food,  and  forced  them  down  the  throats  of  common  fowls, 
 turkeys,  &c.  He  filled  balls  with  barley,  or  other  grains, 
 in  their  entire  flate,  and  allowed  them  to  remain  in  the  ftom- 
 achs of  ducks,  turkeys,  and  other  fowls,  for  twenty-four,  and, 
 in  fome  cafes,  for  forty-eight  hours.  He  then  killed  the 
 animals,  took  the  balls  out  of  their  ftomachs,  and  after  exam- 
 ining the  grains  attentively,  he  could  not  difcover  that  the 
 gaftric  juice,  to  the  action  of  which  they  wery  fully  expofed 
 by  the  numerous  holes  in  the  balls,  had  made  the  fmallefl 
 impreHion  upon  them.  They  fuffered  no  diminution  of 
 fize,  and  exhibited  no  marks  of  dilTolution.  Thefe  experi- 
 ments he  often  repeated  upon  a  number  of  fowls  provided 
 with  mufcular  Itomachs,  and  the  event  was  uniformly  the 
 fame  :  In  no  inftance  did  the  gaftric  juice  produce  any  fol- 
 vent  effect  upon  the  grain  contained  in  the  balls.  After 
 thefe  unfuccefsful  attempts,  he  fufpedled,  that,  though  the 
 gaftric  juice  was  unable  to  diffolve  grains  in  their  entire 
 ftate,  it  might  act  as  a  menftruum  upon  them  when  fuflici- 
 ently  m.afticated  or  brulfed.  To  afcertain  this  point,  he  af- 
 terwards filled  his  balls  v/ith  bruifed  grains,  and  introduced 
 them  into  the  ftomachs  of  different  fowls,  as  cocks,  ducks, 
 turkeys,  wood-pigeons,  &c.  In  all  the  numerous  trials  he 
 made  with  bruifed  grain,  he  invariably  found,  that  the  grain 
 was  more  or  lefs  diffolved  in  proportion  to  the  time  the  bails 
 were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ftomach. 
 
 Reaumur  and  Spalanzani,  in  the  courfe  of  their  experi- 
 ments upon  the  digeftion  of  birds  with  mufcular  ftomachs, 
 difcovered  a  wonderful  communicating  force  which  thefe 
 llomachs  poffefs.     When  tin  tubes  full  of  grain  were  thrown 
 
2S2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 into  the  fhomachs  of  turkeys,  and  allowed  to  continue  there 
 a  confiderabie  time,  they  were  found  to  be  broken,  cruflied, 
 or  diftorted,   in  a  moft   flngular  manner.     *  Having  found,' 
 
 <  fays  Spalanzani,  <  that  the  tin  tubes  which  I  ufed  for  com- 
 
 <  mon  fowls  were  incapable  of  refifting  the  ftomach  of  tur- 
 '  keys,  and  not  happening  at  that  time  to    be  provided  with 
 
 <  any  tin  plate  of  greater  thicknefs,  I  tried  to  flrengthen 
 *■  them,  by  foldering  to   the  ends  two  circular  plates  of  the 
 
 <  fame  metal,  perforated  only  with  a  few  holes  for  the  ad- 
 *■  million  of  the  gaftric  fluid.  But  this  contrivance  was  inef- 
 «  fedtual  5   for,  after  the  tubes  had  been  twenty  hours  in  the 
 
 <  ftomach  of  a  turkey,  the  circular  plates  were  driven  in,  and 
 
 *  fome  of  the  tubes  were  broken,  fome  comprelTed,  and 
 «  fome  diftorted,  in  the  moft  irregular  manner*.' 
 
 The  fmooth  and  blunt  fubftances  formerly  employed, 
 Spalanzani  remarks,  though  fo  violently  acled  upon,  could 
 not  injure  the  ftomach  *,  he  therefore  tried  what  efFcifls 
 would  he  produced  by  iliarp  bodies  thrown  into  the  gizzards 
 of  fowls.  He  found  that  the  ftomach  of  a  cock,  in  the  fpace 
 of  twenty-four  hours,  broke  oft"  the  angles  of  a  piece  of 
 rough  jagged  glafs.  Upon  examining  the  gizzard,  no 
 wound  or  laceration  appeared.  *  Twelve  ftrong  tin  needles,' 
 «  fays  Spalanzani,  '  were  firmly  fixed  in  a  ball  of  lead,  the 
 
 <  points  projecSling  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  fur- 
 «  face.     Thus  armed,  it  was  covered  with  a  cafe  of  paper, 
 
 <  and  forced  down  the  throat  of  a  turkey.     The  bird  retain- 
 
 <  ed  it  for  a  day  and  a  half  without  flicwing  the  leaft  fymptom 
 «  of  uneafinefs.  Why  the  ftomach  ftiould  have  received  no 
 «  injury    from   fo   horrid  an  inftrument   I   cannot  explain  ; 
 
 <  The  points  of  the  twelve  needles  were  broken  off  clofe  to 
 «  the  furface  of  the  ball,   except  two  or  three,  of  which  the 
 
 *  ftumps  projeifted  a  little  higher.  Two  of  the  points  of  the 
 S  needles  were  found  among  the  food  ;  the  other  ten  I  could 
 
 •  Sjvalanzatii'i  DilTcrtations,  vol  i.  jv  12. 
 
GF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  238 
 
 ^  not  difcover,  either  in  the  ftomach  or  the  long  track  of  the 
 «  inteftines  ;  and  therefore  conchided,  that  they  had  palTed 
 '  out  at  the  vent  *.' 
 
 The  fame  author  made  a  fecond  experiment  feemingly 
 i\i\\  more  crueL  He  fixed  twelve  fmall  lancets,  very  fnarp 
 both  at  the  points  and  edges,  in  a  fimilar  ball  of  lead.  <  The 
 
 <  lancets/  fays  he,  '  were  fuch  as  I  ufe  for  the  direction  of 
 
 *  fmall  animals.  The  ball  was  given  to  a  turkey  cock,  and 
 « left  eight  hours  in  the  ftomach  j  at  the  expiration  of  which 
 
 *  time  that  organ  was  opened  ;  but  nothing  appeared  ex- 
 ^  cept  the  naked  ball,  the  twelve  lancets  having  been  broken 
 
 <  to  pieces.     I  difcovered  three  of  them   in  the  large  intef- 
 
 <  tines,  pointlefs,  and  mixed  v/ith  the  excrements ;  the  other 
 
 *  nine  were  miffing,  and  had  probably  been  voided   at  the 
 
 <  vent.     The  ftomach  was  as  found  and  entire  as  that  vv'hich 
 
 *  had  received  the  needles.     Two  capons,  of  which  one  was 
 
 *  fubjecled  to  the  experiment  with  the  needles,  and  the 
 ^  other  with  the  lancets,  fuftained  them  equally  well.' 
 
 The  fmall  ftones  fo  commonly  found  in  the  ftomachs  of 
 many  of  the  feathered  tribes,  have  been  fuppofed  to  fheatii 
 the  gizzard,  and  to  enable  it  to  digefi,  or  at  leaft  to  break 
 down  into  fmall  fragments,  glafs,  iron,  wood,  ftones,  and 
 other  hard,  and  even  fliarp-pointed  fabftances.  Spdanzr-.ni 
 has  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the  mufcular  acSlIon  of  the 
 gizzard  is  equally  powerful,  whether  the  fmall  ftones  are 
 prefent  or  abfent.  To  afcertain  this  point,  he  took  wood- 
 pigeons  the  moment  they  efcaped  from  the  eggt  fed  and  nurf- 
 ed  them  himlelf  till  they  were  able  to  peck  :      «  They  were 
 
 *  then,'  continues  our  author,  <  confined  in  a  cage,  and  fup- 
 
 *  plied  at  firft  with  vetches  foaked  in  v/arm  water,  and  after- 
 
 *  v/ards  in  a  dry  and  hard  ftate.     In  a  month  after  they  had 
 
 <  begun  to  peck,  hard  bodies,  fuch  as  tin  tubes,  glafs  globules, 
 «  and  fragments  of  broken  glafs,  were  introduced  with  the 
 f  food.     Care  was  taken  that  each  pigeon  fliould  fwallow  on- 
 
 *   Spalanzani's  Diff.  vol,  i,  page  ic. 
 
284  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 *  ly  one  of  thefe  fubftances.     In  two  days  afterwards  they 
 
 <  were  killed.     Not  one  of  the  ftomachs  contained  a  fingle 
 
 <  pebble  •,    and  yet  the  tubes  were  bruifed  aud  flattened,  and 
 
 *  the  fpherules  and  bits  of  glafs  blunted  and  broken  :  This 
 
 *  happened  alike  to  each  body  ;   nor  did  the  fmalleft  lacera- 
 
 <  tion  appear  on  the  coats  of  the  ftomach.'  From  feveral  ex- 
 periments of  a  fimilar  nature,  and  accompanied  with  the 
 fame  events,  Spalanzani  concludes  this  fubjedl  with  that  can- 
 dour which  is  always  a  genuine  chara(5teriftic  of  a  real  philo- 
 fophic  fpirit.     Upon  the  whole,   <  it  appears,'  fays  he,  *  that 
 
 <  thefe  fmall  ftones  are  not  at  all  neceffary  to  the  trituration 
 «  of  the  firmefh  food,  or  the  hardeft  foreign  fubftance,  con- 
 
 *  trary  to  the  opinion  of  many  anatomifls  and  phyiiologifts, 
 
 *  as  well  ancient  as  modern.  I  will  not,  however,  deny, 
 ?  that,  when  put  in  motion  by  the  gaftric  mufcles,  they  are 
 f  capable  of  producing  fome  efFe6l  on  the  contents  of  the 
 f  ftomach.' 
 
 The  celebrated  Mr.  John  Hunter,  in  his  Obfcrvatiom  on 
 JDigeftion*,  fairly  quotes  the  modeft  conclufion  of  Spalanzani. 
 But  he  inlifts  that  ftones  are  extremely  ufeful  in  the  com- 
 minution of  grain,  and  other  fubftances,  which  conftitute  the 
 food  of  many  fowls.  <  In  conftdering,'  Mr.  Hunter  re- 
 marks, « the  ftrength  of  the  gizzard,  and  its  probable  ef- 
 ^  fe6ls  when  compared  with  the  human  ftomach,  it  muft  ap- 
 f  pear  that  the  gizzard  is,  in  it  (elf,  very  fit  for  trituration, 
 «  We  are  not,  however,  to  conclude,  that  ftones  are  entirely 
 «  ufelefs  J  for,  if  we  compare  the  ftrength  of  the  mufcles  of 
 f  the  jaws  of  animals  who  maftigate  their  food,  with  thofe 
 f  of  birds  v.'ho  do  not,  we  fhall  fay,  that  the  parts  are  well 
 ^  calculated  for  the  purpofe  of  maftication  ;  yet  we  are  not 
 «  from  thence  to  infer,  that  the  teeth  in  fuch  jaws  are  ufelefs, 
 
 <  even  although  we  have  proof  that  the  gims  do  the  bufi- 
 
 <  nefs  when  the  teeth  are  gone.     If  ftones  are  of  ufe,  which 
 
 *  Page  156, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2$B 
 
 ^  we  may  rcafonably  conclude  they  are,  birds  have    an   ad- 
 
 *  vantage  over  animals  having  teeth,    fo    far   as   flones   are 
 «  always  to  be  found,  while  the  teeth  are  not  renewed.  If  we 
 
 *  conftantly  find  in  an  organ   fubftanccs   which  can  only  be 
 
 <  fubfervient  to  the  fun6lions  of  that  organ,  fliould  we  deny 
 
 <  them  that  ufe^  although  the  part  can  do  its  office  without 
 
 <  them  ?     The  ftones  affiil:  in  grinding  down  the  grain,  and, 
 «  by  feparating  its  parts,  allow  the  gaflric  juice  to  come  more 
 
 <  readily  in  contafl  with  it.' 
 
 The  next  feries  of  experiments  were  made  upon  animals 
 with  what  Spalanzani  denominates  intermediate  ftomachs  be- 
 tween the  mufcular  and  membranous,  as  ravens, crows,  herons, 
 &c.  The  povver  and  a£lion  of  thefe  intermediate  ftomachs  are 
 fuperior  to  thole  of  the  membranous  kind,  but  greatly  inferior 
 to  thofe  of  the  m.ufcular.  The  tin  tubes,  or  balls,  which 
 pigeons  and  turkeys, foon  flatten  and  disfigure,  remain  unal- 
 tered in  the  ftomach  of  crows.  Their  gaftric  m.ufcles,  how- 
 ever, are  by  no  means  inert.  Though  they  are  unable  to 
 comprefs  or  diftort  tin  tubes,  they  are  capable  of  producing 
 this  effect  upon  thin  tubes  of  lead.  Birds  whofe  ftomachs 
 are  of  an  intermediate  kind,  vv^ith  regard  to  the  thicknefs 
 and  ftrength  of  their  mufcular  coats,  may  be  denominated 
 onmivoroiis.  They  eat  grafs,  herbs,  grain,  and  flefh  of  every 
 kind.  When  we  make  experiments,  upon  the  digeftivc 
 powers  of  gallinaceous  birds,  the  animals  muft  be  killed  be* 
 fore  we  can  learn  what  effe£l:s  have  been  produced  on  the' 
 fubftances  inclofed  in  the  balls  or  tubes.  But,  on  crows 
 and  ravens,  experiments  of  this  kind  may  be  repeated  as- 
 often  as  v/e  pleafe,  without  deftroying  a  fingle  individual. 
 £ubftances  which  they  are  incapable  of  digefting,  as  metal- 
 He  tubes,  they  have  the  power  of  difgorging,  or  returning 
 by  the  mouth,  in  the  fame  manner  as  falcons,  and  other  birds 
 of  prey,  throw  up  the  feathers  and  hair  of  the  animals  they 
 have  devoured.     In  birds  of  prey,  this  vomiting  is  common-* 
 
2^^ 
 
 TtiE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Iv  performed  every  twenty-four  hours  ;  but,  In  crows,  it 
 happens  at  lead  every  nine,  and  not  unfrequently  every  two 
 or  three  hours. 
 
 Spalanzani,  as  in  the  former  experiments,  thrufi;  dov>'n 
 perforated  tubes,  filled  with  different  fubftances,  into  the 
 flomachs  of  crows.  Thefe  tubes  were  uniformly  thrown  up 
 by  the  animals  in  a  few  hours.  When  the  tubes  v/ere  filled 
 with  entire  grains,  as  wheat  or  beans,  he  found  that  the  gaf  • 
 trie  juice,  though  the  tubes,  being  repeatedly  forced  down, 
 continued  in  the  flomach  for  the  fpace  of  forty-eight  hours, 
 had  exerted  no  folvent  power.  As  the  huHvS  of  the  feeds 
 reiliied  the  aclion  of  the  gaftric  juice,  he  bruifed  them,  and 
 i-epeated  the  experiment.  *  Four  tubes  full  of  this  coarfe 
 « liour/   f;\ys   he,  *  were   given  to   a  crow  :  They  remained 
 
 *  eight  hours  in  the  ftomach,  and  proved  the  juftnefs  of  my 
 
 *  fufpicion  ',   for,  upon  examining  the  contents,  I  found  a- 
 
 *  bove  a  fourth  part  wanting.  This  could  arife  from  no 
 «  other  caufe  but  folutlon  in  the  gaftric  liquor,  v/ith  which, 
 ^  the  remainder  was  fully  impregnated.     Another  obferva- 
 
 *  tion  concurred  in  proving  the  fame  propofition  :  The  larg- 
 
 *  eft  bits  of  wheat  and  bean  were  evidently  much  diminifh- 
 
 <  ed  :  This  muft  have  been  owing  to  the  gaftric  liquor  hav- 
 ^  ing  corroded  and  diiTolved  good  part  of  them,  as  the  nitrous 
 «  acid,  diluted  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  gradually  con- 
 ^  fumes  calcareous  fubftances.     I  replaced  what  remained  of 
 
 *  the  feeds  in  the  tubes,  and  committed  them  again  to  the 
 
 *  ftomach,  wherein   they  remained,    at    different  intervals, 
 
 <  twenty-one  hours  ;  at  the  end  of  which  period  they  were 
 
 *  entirely  diffolved  ;  nothing  being  left  but  lome  pieces  of 
 
 *  hufk,  and  a  few  inconfiderable  fragments  of  the  feeds. 
 «  Wheat  and  beans  floating  loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  ftom- 
 «  ach,  undergo  the  fame  alteration  as  in  the  tubes.  When 
 «  I  fed  my  crows  with  thefe  feeds,  I   obferved,  that,  before 
 
 *  they  fwallowed  them,  they  fct  them  under  their  feet,  and 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  237 
 
 *  reduced  them  to  pieces  by  repeated  ftrokes  of  their  long 
 «  and  heavy  beaks  :  And  now  they  digefted  them  very  well ; 
 f  nay,  this    procefs   was  very  rapid  in   comparifon  of  that 
 
 <  which  took  place  within  the  tubes.  But,  when  the  birds,  el- 
 «  ther  from  exceffi  ve  hunger,  or  violence,  fwallowed  the  feeds 
 
 <  entire,  the   greateft  part  of  them  pafled  out  entire  at  the 
 
 *  anus,  or  were  vomited.     We  cannot,  therefore,  be  fnrprif- 
 
 <  ed,  that   the  gaftric  juice  could   not  diiTolve  them  v/ithin 
 
 <  the  tubes,  Unce  it  was  incapable  of  effe(^l:ing  this  procefs 
 
 <  within  the  cavity  of  the  ftomach,  where  its  folvent  power  is 
 
 <  far  fuperlor.' 
 
 Similar  experiments  were  made  with  French  beans,  peafe, 
 nut-kernels,  bread,  apples,  and  different  kinds  of  flefli  and 
 fifh,  all  of  which  were  diffolved,  both  in  tubes,  and  in  the 
 cavity  of  the  ftomach,  by  the  gaftric  juice. 
 
 Spalanzani  finiflies  his  experiments  on  digeftion  with 
 thofe  animals  which  have  thin  membranous  ftomachs.  This 
 clafs  comprehends  an  immenfe  number  of  fpecies,  as  man, 
 quadrupeds,  fifhes,  reptiles.  In  thefe  the  coats  of  the  ftom- 
 ach feem  to  have  little  or  no  action  upon  their  contents,  the 
 gaftric  juice  being  fully  fufiiclent  to  break  down  the  food, 
 and  reduce  it  to  a  pulp. 
 
 With  regard  to  man.  Dr.  Stevens,  in  an  Inaugural  Differ- 
 tation  concerning  Digeftion,  publKlied  at  Edinburgh  in  the 
 year  1777,  made  feveral  experiments  upon  a  German,  who 
 gained  a  miferable  livelyhood  by  fwallowing  ftones  for  the 
 amufement  of  the  people.  He  began  this  ftrange  praflice 
 at  the  age  of  feven,  and  had  at  that  time  continued  it  about 
 tv/enty  years.  He  fwallowed  fix  or  eight  ftones  at  a  time, 
 fome  of  them  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg^  and  paffed  them  in 
 the  natural  way.  Dr.  Stevens  thought  this  poor  man  would 
 be  an  excellent  fubjedl  for  afcertaining  the  folvent  power  of 
 the  gaftric  juice  in  the  human  ftomach.  The  Doctor,  ac- 
 cordingly, made  ufe  of  him  for  this  purpofe.     He  made  the 
 
 F    F 
 
gf^S"  T'Hfi   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 German  fwallow  a   hollow  filver   fphere,  divided  into  two 
 cavities  by  a  partition,  and  perforated  with  a  great  number  of 
 holes,  capable  of  admitting  an  ordinary  needle.     Into  one  of 
 thefe  cavities  he   put    four  fcruples  and  a  half  of  raw  beef, 
 and  into  the  other  five  fcruples  of  raw  bleak.     In  twenty-one 
 hours  the  fphere  was  voided,  when  the  beef  had  loft  a  fcru- 
 ple  and  a  half,  and  the  fifli  two  fcruples.     A  few  days  after- 
 wards, the  German  fwallowed  the  fame  fphere,  which  con- 
 tained, in  one  cavity,  four  fcruples  and  four  grains  of  raw, 
 and,  in  the  other,  four  fcruples  and  eight  grains  of  boiled 
 beef.     The  fphere  was  returned  in  forty-three  hours  :  The 
 raw  fleih  had  loft  one  fcruple  and  two  grains,  and  the  boiled 
 one  fcruple   and  fixteen  grains.     Sufr^sedring  that,  if  thefe 
 fabftances  were  divided,  the  folvent  would  have  a  freer  accefs 
 to  them,  and  more  of  them  would  be  diftblved.    Dr.  Stevens 
 procured  another  fphere,  with  holes  large  enough  to  receive 
 a  crow's  quill.     He  inclofed  fome  beef  in  it  a  little  mafticat- 
 ed.     In  thirty-eight    hours  after   it  was  fwallowed,    it  was 
 voided  quite  empty.     Perceiving  how  readily  the  chewed 
 meat  was  diftblved,  he  tried  whether  it  would  diflblve  equal- 
 ly foon  without  being  chewed.     With  this  view,  he   put   a 
 fcruple  and  eight  grains  of  pork  into  one  cavity,  and   the 
 fame  quantity  of  cheefe  into  the  other.     The  fphere  was  re- 
 tained in   the   German's  ftomach  and  intcftines  forty-three 
 hours  ;  at  the  end  of  which  tim.e,  not  the  fmalleft  quantity 
 of  either  pork  or  cheefe  was  to  be  found  in  the  fphere.     He' 
 next   fwallowed  the  fame  fphere,  which  contained,  in  one 
 partition,  fome  roafted  turkey,  and  fome  boiled  fait  herring 
 in  the  other.     The  fphere  was   voided  in  forty-fix  hours  ; 
 but  no  part  of  the  turkey  or  herring  appeared  ;  for  both  had 
 been  completely  dilTolved.     Having  difcovered   that  animal 
 fubftances,  though  inclofed  in  tubes,  v/ere  eafily  diftblved  by 
 the  gaftric  juice,  the  Do61or  tried  whether  it  would  produce 
 the  fame  effe6l  upon  vegetables.     He,  therefore,  inclofed  ait 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  23^ 
 
 equal  quantity  of  raw  parfnep  and  potatoe  in  a  fpliere.  Af- 
 ter continuing  forty-eight  hours  in  the  alimentary  canal,  not 
 a  veftige  of  either  remained.  Pieces  of  apple  and  turnip, 
 both  raw  and  boiled,  were  diiToIved  in  thirty- iix  hours. 
 
 It  is  a  comfortable  circumftance,'  that  no  animal,  perhaps, 
 except  thofe  worms  which  are  hatched  in  the  human  intcfv 
 tines,  can  refift  the  diflblving  power  of  the  gadiic  juice. 
 Dr.  Stevens  inclofed  live  leeches,  and  earth-worms,  in  dif- 
 ferent fpheres,  and  made  the  German  fwallow  them.  When 
 the  fpheres  were  difcharged,  the  animals  were  not  only  de- 
 prived of  life,  but  completely  dilTolved,  by  the  operation 
 of  this  powerful  menflruum.  Hence,  if  any  live  reptile 
 fliould  chance  to  be  fwallowed,  we  have  no  reafon  to  appre- 
 hend any  danger  from  fuch  an  accident. 
 
 The  German  left  Edinburgh  before  the  Doctor  had  an 
 opportunity  of  making  a  farther  progrefs  in  his  experin^^ents. 
 He  therefore  had  recourfe  to  dogs  and  ruminating  animals. 
 In  the  courfe  of  his  trials  upon  the  folvent  power  in  the  gaf- 
 tric  fluid  of  dogs,  he  found  that  it  was  capable  of  diffolving 
 hard  bones,  and  even  balls  of  ivory  ;  but  that,  in  equal  times, 
 very  little  impreilion  was  made  upon  potatoes,  parfnep,  and 
 other  vegetable  fabitances.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  rumi- 
 nating animals,  as  the  fheep,  the  ox,  &c.  he  difcovered,  that 
 their  gaftric  juice  fpeedily  diiTolved  vegetables,  but  made  no 
 impreffion  on  beef,  mutton,  and  other  animal  bodies.  From 
 ^hefe  lafi:  experiments,  it  appears  that  the  diiFcrent  tribes  of 
 animals  are  not  lefs  difilnguiihed  by  their  external  figure, 
 and  by  their  manners,  than  by  the  quality  and  powers  of 
 their  gaftric  juices.  Dogs  are  unable  to  digefl  vegetables, 
 and  fheep  and  oxen  cannot  digefh  animal  fubftances.  As 
 the  gaftric  juice  of  the  human  ftomach  is  capable  of  diiTolv- 
 ing,  nearly  with  equal  eafe,  both  animals  and  vegetables 
 this  circumftance  affords  a  ftrong  and  almoft  an  irreiiitible, 
 proof,  that  Nature  origina^iiy  jjit^nded  man  to  feed  promifcu- 
 oufly  upon  both. 
 
?40  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Live  animals,  as  long  as  the  vital  principle  remains  In 
 them,  are  not  afFedled  by  the  folvent  powers  of  the  flomach. 
 
 *  Hence  it  is,'  Mr.  Hunter  remarks,  « that  we  find  animals 
 
 <  of  various  kinds  living  in  the  ftomach,  or  even  hatched  and 
 «  bred  there  ;  but  the  moment  that  any  of  thefc  lofe  the  liv- 
 
 <  ing  principle,  they  become  fubjec^  to  the  digeftive  powers 
 
 *  of  the  flomach.  If  it  were  poflible,  for  example,  for  a  man's 
 *hand  to  be  introduced  into  the  flomach  of  a  living  animal, 
 
 *  and  kept  there  for  fome  confiderable  time,  it  would  be  found 
 « that  the  dilTolvent  powers  of  the  flomach  could  have  no 
 '  efFe£l  upon  it  :  But,  if  the  fame  hand  were  feparated  from 
 
 <  the  body,  and  introduced  into  the  fame  flomach,  we  fhould 
 
 *  then  find,  that  the  flomach  w^ould  immediately  adl  upon  it. 
 
 <  Indeed,  if  this  were  not  the  cafe,  we  fliould  find  that  the 
 «  flomach  itfelf  ought  to  have  been  made  of  indigeflible  ma- 
 
 *  terials ;   for,  if  the  living  principle  was  not  capable  of  pre- 
 
 *  ferving  animal  fubftances  from   undergoing  that  procefs, 
 
 *  the  flomach  itfelf  would  be  digefled.     But  we  find  on  the 
 
 *  contrary,  that  the  flomach,  which  at  one  inflant,  that  is , 
 
 *  while  pofTefTed  of  the  living  principle,  was  capable  of  refifl- 
 
 *  ing  the  digeflive  powers  wdiich  it  contained,  the  next  mo- 
 
 <  ment,  viz.  when  deprived  of  the  living  principle.  Is  itfelf 
 
 <  capable  of  being  digefled,  either  by  the  digeflive  powers  of 
 «  other  ftomachs,  or  by  the  remains  of  that  power  which  it 
 
 *  had  of  digefling  other  things.' 
 
 When  bodies  are  opened  fome  time  after  death,  a  confid- 
 erable aperture  is  frequently  found  at  the  greatefl  extremity 
 of  the  flomach.     « In  thefe  cafes,'  fays  Mr,  Hunter,  '  the 
 
 *  contents  of  the  ftomach  are  generally  found  loofe  in  th$ 
 «  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  about  the  fpleen  and  diaphragm. 
 
 *  In  many  fubjecls,  this  digeflive  power  extends  much  farth- 
 
 <  er  than  through  the  flomach.  I  have  often  found,  that, 
 «  after  it  had  dlffolved  the  ftomach  at  the  ufual  place,  the 
 ^  contents  of  the  flomach  had  come  into  conta(St  with  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  24.1 
 
 *  Ipleen,  and  diaphragm,  had  partly  diffolved  the  adjacent 
 
 <  fide  of  the  fpleen,  and  had   diffolved  the  ftomach  quite 
 
 <  through  ;  fo  that  the  contents  of  the  ftomach  were  found 
 
 <  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  and  had  even  aflfe^ted  the  lungs 
 « in  a  fmall  degree.' 
 
^4t  Jlf^lE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 CHAPTER    IX. 
 
 Of  the  $exes  of  Animals  and  Ve^etahUs^ 
 — *<«^>>»»' — 
 
 SECTION  I. 
 
 Of  the  Sexes  of  Animals, 
 
 XxLL  the  larger  and  more  perfe<n:  animals  are 
 diftingulfhed  by  the  fexea  of  male  and  female.  The  bodies 
 of  males,  though  not  without  exceptions,  are,  in  general, 
 ftronger,  larger,  and  more  a£live,  than  thofe  of  the  females. 
 In  the  human  fpecies,  the  male  is  not  only  larger  than  the 
 female,  but  his  mufcular  fibres  are  firmer  and  more  compadl, 
 and  his  whole  frame  indicates  a  fuperior  ftrength  and  robuft- 
 nefs  of  texture.  He  does  not  acquire  his  full  growth,  and 
 befl  form,  till  he  arrives  at  the  age  of  thirty  years.  But,  in 
 women,  the  parts  are  rounder,  and  their  mufcular  fibres 
 more  feeble  and  lax  than  thofe  of  men,  and  their  growth 
 and  form  are  perfe<Si:  at  the  age  of  twenty.  A  fimilar  obfer- 
 vation  is  applicable  to  the  minds  of  the  two  fexes.  Man  is, 
 comparatively,  a  bold,  generous,  and  enterprifing  animal. 
 Women,  on  the  contrary,  are  timid,  jealous,  and  difpofed  to 
 actions  which  require  lefs  agility  and  firength.  Hence  they 
 are  entitled  to  claim,  and,  by  their  amiable  weakneiTes,  they 
 actually  receive  our  protection.  Men  are  endowed  with 
 majefty  of  figure  and  force  of  mind  •,  but  beauty,  and  the 
 graces,  are  the  proper  chara£teriftics  of  women.  The  laxity 
 and  foftnefs  of  their  texture  may.  In  fome  meafure,  account 
 for  the  timidity  and  lifiilefTnefs  of  their  difpofition  ;  for, 
 when  the  bodies  of  men  are  relaxed  by  heat,  or  by  any  other 
 caufe,  their  minds  become  not  only  timid,  but  weak,  unde- 
 termined, and  inactive. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  'I^iS- 
 
 The  focial  intercourfe  of  women  foftens  the  difpofitions, 
 and  foothes  the  cares  and  labours  of  the  men.  Their 
 little  female  humours,  caprices,  and  follies,  give  rife  to  many 
 exertions  of  virtue.  They  excite  in  us  compaflion,  humani- 
 ty, and  tendernefs  of  affection.  The  delicacy  of  their  bodies, 
 and  the  v/eaknefs  of  their  minds,  require  our  fupport  and 
 proteftion.  In  return,  the  gentle  and  infinuating  manner^ 
 of  the  women  have  a  dire£t  tendency  to  foften  and  fmooth 
 the  natural  roughnefs  of  men.  In  moft  governments,  wo- 
 men have  the  entire  management  and  training  of  children,  till 
 their  characters  and  difpoiitians  are  almoft  fixed  for  life. 
 This  is  an  important  office  ;  and  would  require  more  edu- 
 cation and  {en{e  than  they  commonly  receive  either  from 
 nature  or  art.  But  their  perfevering  and  unremitting  atten- 
 tion to  their  charge,  efpecially  when  children  are  fick  or 
 weakly,  is  fo  truly  aftonifhing,  that  no  man  could  have  pa- 
 tience to  perform  the  laborious  and  painful  talk.  Womeii 
 are  iikewife  faid  to  fufl'er  bodily  pain  with  more  refolution 
 than  men.  Women  reafon  rapidly  ;  but  their  reafoning, 
 though  often  acute,  is  feldom  folid. 
 
 Pvlodefty  is  one  of  the  mofb  diftinguifliing  and  attractive 
 characVeriftics  of  the  female  fex.  This  is  the  great  defence  with 
 which  Nature  has  armed  them  againft  the  artifices  and  deceit 
 of  the  males.  Modefty  has  a  double  effect :  It  both  attracts 
 and  repels.  It  heightens  the  defire  of  the  male,  and  deters 
 him  from  rudenefs,  or  improper  behaviour.  Were  women 
 deprived  of  this  amdable  quality,  all  their  charms  would  van- 
 ifh,  and  the  ardour  of  love  would  be  extinguifhed.  It  is, 
 therefore,  not  only  the  interefl  of  females  to  cultivate  mod- 
 efly,  but  to  guard,  with  the  moft  anxious  attention,  againft 
 the  fmalleft  incroachments.  Every  attack,  however  aparent- 
 ly  infignificant,  fliould  be  repelled  with  fpirit  and  intrepidity. 
 To  men  of  fenfibility,  a  fingle  glance  of  the  eye  will  tell 
 them  that  their  condua  is  improper,  and  make  them  not  on* 
 
2M  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ly  inftantly  defift,  but  prevent  every  future  attempt.  There 
 is  no  part  of  the  female  character  which  men  revere  fo  much 
 as  modefty.  It  is  the  brighteft  and  moft  valuable  jewel  with 
 which  a  woman  can  be  adorned.  A  fine  woman  without 
 modefty,  inftead  of  gaining  the  afFecSlions  of  men,  becomes 
 an  objedt  of  contempt,  and  even  of  difguft.  It  is  equally 
 the  intereft  of  men  to  cherifh,  and  not  to  injure  by  indelica- 
 cy, a  quality  from  which  they  derive  fo  much  pleafure  and 
 advantage. 
 
 It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  that  modefty  is  by  no  means 
 confined  to  the  human  fpecies.  Evident  traces  of  it  are  dif- 
 coverable  in  the  brute  creation.  Even  fo  low  as  the  infedt 
 tribes,  moft  females  repel  the  firft  attacks  of  the  males.  If 
 this  is  not  modefty,  it  has  all  the  effedls  of  it  ;  for  it  height- 
 ens the  refpeft  and  afFeftion  of  the  males,  and  makes  them 
 employ  every  alluring  art  to  procure  the  regard  of  the  fe- 
 male. 
 
 It  is  a  curious  fa£l,  that  moP:  carnivorous  quadrupeds  are 
 more  averfe  from  devouring  women  than  men.  The  bears 
 of  Kamtfchatka  follow  the  women  when  gathering  wjld 
 fruits  in  the  woods,  and,  though  mofl:  rapacious  animals,  do 
 them  no  farther  harm  than  robbing  them  of  part  of  the  fruit*. 
 The  afpedl  of  man  being  more  bold,  may,  perhaps,  create  an 
 idea  of  competition  and  danger,  and  excite  the  ferocity  and 
 courage  of  the  animal.  There  feems  to  be  inftinctive  ref- 
 pe6l,  if  not  dread,  of  the  human  kind  implanted  in  moll  ani- 
 mals. If  this  be  the  cafe,  the  above  fa£l  amounts  to  a  high 
 compliment  to  the  women  ;  for  they  receive  more  favour 
 from  the  brute  creation  than  the  men. 
 
 With  regard  to  animals,  in  general,  the  intercourfe  of  fex- 
 
 es  is  neceflary  for  the  multiplication  of  the  fpecies.     But,  as 
 
 formerly  remarked-]-,  feveral  of  the  lower  tribes  are  enabled 
 
 to  multiply  without  the  intervention  of  fexes.     In  fome  ani- 
 
 *  Gazette  Literaire,  vol.  i.  page  483.     f  See  chap.  i.  page  30.  &c. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  245 
 
 mals,  both  fexes  are  combined  In  each  individual.  The  earth- 
 worm, fnails,  and  feveral  fliell-fifhes,  are  hermaphrodites  ; 
 and  vet  the  conjundllon  of  two  is  neceflary  for  their  multi- 
 plication.   Mr.  Adanfon,  in  his  account  of    Senegal,  men- 
 tions fome  fliell-anlnials  which,  in  order  to  produce,  require 
 the  union  of  three  individuals.    In  the  polypus,  no  appear- 
 ance   of  fcxual  diftlnc^Ion    has  hitherto   been   difcovered. 
 Nature,  however,  has  not  denied  them  the  power  of  multi- 
 plication, which  is  efFedled  in  a  very  fingular  manner*.  Cater- 
 pillars of  every  denomination  are  totally  deftitute  of  fexes, 
 and  are  incapable,  while  they  remain  in  that  ftate,  of  mul- 
 tiplying their  fpecies.     But,  after  their  transformation  into 
 Hies,  the  diftindlion  of  fexes  is  apparent,  and  their  fertility 
 is  exceedingly  great* 
 
 Among  the  larger  animals,  the  difference  of  fize  and 
 figure  between  males  and  females  is  not  remarkable.  The 
 moft  ftriking  difi:in(Stions  arife  from  the  horns,  the  tufks,  the 
 creft,  Sec.  which  adorn  the  head  of  the  male,  and  are  often 
 wanting  in  the  female.  « But,  among  the  infecSt  tribes,  fome 
 males  differ  fo  greatly  from  the  females,  that  they  have  the 
 appearance  of  belonging  to  a  feparate  genus.  In  fome  but- 
 terflies, for  example,  the  female  is  deftitute  of  wings,  while 
 thofe  of  the  male  are  very  large.  The  male  and  female  of 
 thofe  animals  called  gall-infecls  bear  no  proportion  to  each 
 other,  either  in  fize  or  in  figure.  They  adhere  for  feveral 
 months  to  the  flems  and  branches  of  plants,  fhrubs,  and 
 trees,  without  any  apparent  movement.  They  have  every 
 appearance  of  galls,  being  of  a  fpherical  or  oval  figure,  from 
 which  circumftance  they  have  received  their  denomination, 
 and  were  long  confidered  as  vegetable  fubftances  deftitute  of 
 every  degree  of  animation.  Reaumur,  however,  by  a  ftri^l 
 examination  of  the  changes  they  undergo,  and  of  their  in- 
 ternal  ftru(Sl:ure,  difcovered  that  they  belong  to  the  animal 
 
 *  See  chap.  i.  page  30,  &c. 
 G    G 
 
^4^  tH'E    PHILOSOPHY  ' 
 
 kingdom.  He  found  that  they  contained  thoufands  of  fmaH 
 eggs,  and  that,  from  thefe  eggs,  fmall  animals  were  produc- 
 ed, which  ran  about  with  fome  quicknefs,  and  ipread  them- 
 felves  all  over  the  tree  or  bufh.  After  fome  days,  they  at- 
 tach themfelves  to  the  ftem  and  branches,  remain  immovea- 
 ble, and  gradually  increafe  to  their  full  dimenlions,  when 
 their  bodies  are  found  to  contain  numbers  of  eggs.  As  the 
 perfefl  animal  had  no  apparent  motion,  and  yet  multiplied 
 it?  fpecies,  it  was  firfl  thought  to  be  an  hermaphrodite  of  a 
 lingular  kind,  and  that  it  was  capable  of  producing  without 
 any  foreign  aid.  But  Reaumur  difcovered  that  they  were 
 impregnated  by  fmall  flies,  and  thefe  fmall  flies  were  male 
 gall  infects.  The  head,  the  body,  the  breaft,  and 
 the  fix  limbs  of  this  fiy,  are  of  a  deep  and  red  colour  ;  and 
 the  wings,  v/hich  are  proportionally  large,  are  white,  and 
 bordered  with  a  band  of  fine  carmine  red.  In  the  month  of 
 April,  he  perceived  numbers  of  thefe  files  wandering  about 
 on  the  gall-infedts.  He  obferved  that  they  pierced  the  cov^ 
 ering  of  the  gall-infeds  with  a  kind  of  fling  fhaped  like  a 
 needle.  This  circumftance  created  a  fufpicion  that  thefe  flies 
 were  the  males,  and  that  this  was  their  mode  of  impregnat- 
 ing the  eggs  of  the  female.  To  afcertain  this  point,  he  open- 
 ed a  number  of  gall-infecb,  which  had  no  uncommon  ap- 
 pearance, and,  in  fome  of  them,  he  found  the  males,  in  eve- 
 ry flage  of  their  exigence,  till  they  pierced  che  external 
 covering,  came  out  in  the  form  of  perfect  flies,  and  attached 
 themfelves,  as  ufual,  to  the  females.  The  glow-worm,  an 
 animal  condemned  to  crawl  perpetually  on  the  furface  of  the 
 earth,  is  a  female  ;  and  the  male  inrtead  of  a  reptile,  is  a 
 fcarabaeus,  or  beetle,  furnifhed  with  four  wings.  A  fpecies 
 of  phofphorus,  emitted  from  the  body  of  the  female,  excites 
 the  attention  of  this  apparently  ftrange  male,  who  darts 
 down  upon  her,  and  adlually  enables  her  to  continue  the 
 kind*.  The  female  of  another  fpecies  of  beetle  is  a  perfeft 
 *  Reaumur,     Oeuvres  dc  Bonnet,  toui,  2,  page  87.  edit,  dvo. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2*7 
 
 reptile,  and  has  not  the  fmalleft  veftige  of  wings.  But  the 
 male  is  a  real  beetle  with  four  wings,  and  is  fo  difpropor- 
 tioned  to  the  female  in  fize,  that  their  jun<^ion  fliould  ap^ 
 pear  to  be  equally  fingular  as  that  of  a  ram  with  an  elephant. 
 With  regard  to  the  pucerons,  or  vine-fretters,  the  males  are 
 winged ;  but  the  females  remain  during  Ufe  totally  deftitute 
 of  wings.  In  fome  fpecies  of  them,  however,  the  females 
 have  wings,  and  thefe  inftruments  of  motion  are  denied  to 
 the  males.  Between  the  lize  of  the  male  and  female  puce- 
 rons, there  is  likewife  a  remarkable  difproportion.  The 
 males,  particularly  thofe  which  have  no  wings,  are  fo  com- 
 paratively fmall,  that  they  run  about,  like  the  male  gall-in- 
 fects, upon  the  backs  of  the  females.  While  this  exercife 
 continues,  which  is  often  very  long,  the  female  remains  aU 
 moft  motionlefs.  The  more  infenlibility  and  liftleiTnefs 
 fhown  by  the  female,  the  male  exhibits  the  greater  ardour 
 and  agility.  In  this  iituation  he  pafTes  whole  days  without 
 taking  any  nourifhment. 
 
 In  birds  of  prey,  the  females  are  larger,  ftronger,  fiercer, 
 and  more  beautiful  than  the  males.  This  fuperiority  of 
 ftrength  and  magnitude  is  conferred  on  the  females,  becaufe, 
 in  general,  they  are  obliged  to  procure  food  both  for  them- 
 felves  and  for  their  progeny.  Vultures,  however,  are  to  be 
 excepted ;  for  the  males  are  equal  in  fize,  if  they  do  not 
 exceed  that  of  the  females.  In  the  gallinaceous  tribe  of 
 birds,  on  the  contrary,  the  males  are  larger,  more  beautiful, 
 and  more  courageous,  than  the  females.  The  pe?.cock,  the 
 turkey,  the  pheafant,  and  the  dunghill  cock,  are  remarkable 
 examples.  Dunghill  cocks,  efpecially  that  kind  of  them 
 which  are  called  game-cocks,  are  the  moft  intrepidly  bold  and 
 high-fpirited  animals  in  the  creation.  Nothing  but  abfolute 
 death  can  make  them  yield  to  an  antagonift.  In  the  domef- 
 tic  ftate,  at  leaft,  this  intrepidity,  and  this  daring  fpirit,  re- 
 fult  from  competition,  and  jealoufy  of  rivals.     Game-cocks, 
 
248  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 to  the  difgrace  of  humanity,  are  fed  and  trained  with  the 
 moft  fcriipulous  attention.  For  what  purpofe  ?  For  the 
 cruel  amufement  and  fortuitous  emolument  of  gamblers. 
 
 That  there  are  natural  hermaphrodites,  I  have  formerly 
 mentioned.  But,  in  man,  dogs,  cats,  unnatural  hermaphro- 
 dites, if  they  ever  exift,  are  fo  rare,  that  the  celebrated  anat- 
 omift,  Mr.  Hunter,  declares  he  never  favv  a  fingle  example. 
 But,  in  the  horfe,  the  afs,  black-cattle,  and  (heep,  he  has 
 feen  many  hermaphrodites.  It  is  faid  to  be  a  known 
 fadV,  that,  when  a  cow  brings  forth  two  calves,  one  of  them 
 a  male,  and  the  other  a  female,  the  female  is  incapable  of 
 propagation,  but  that  the  male  is  a  perfeft  animal.  In  Eng- 
 land, a  cow-calf  brought  forth  with  a  bull-calf  is  denominat- 
 ed a  free  martin^  and  is  as  well  known  among  farmers  as 
 either  cow  or  bull.  Mr.  Hunter  remarks,  that  a  cow-calf^, 
 brought  forth  in  the  fituation  above  mentioned,  may  be  eith- 
 er a  free  martin  or  a  perfect  female.     '  For,'  he  remarks, 
 
 *  I  have  reafon  to  believe,  that,  in  black  cattle,  fuch  a  devia- 
 
 <  tion  may  be  produced  without  the  circumftance  of  twins  ; 
 
 <  and,  even  when  there  are  twins,  the  one  a  male,  the  other 
 
 *  a  female,  they  may  both   have  the  organs  of  generation 
 
 <  perfectly  formed*.'  What  is  called  a  free  mariuiy  or  im- 
 perfect hermaphrodite,  as  far  as  obfervation  has  hitherto 
 extended,  is  confined  to  black-cattle.  The  free  martin 
 has  all  the  external  chara£leri flics  of  a  female  calf.  When 
 animals  of  this  dcfcriptlon  are  preferved  by  farmers,  it  is  not 
 for  the  purpofe  of  propagation,  but  for  yoking  with  the 
 oxen,  or  fattening  for  the  table.  They  neither  breed,  nor, 
 what  is  curious,  do  they  difcover  the  fmallefl  inclination  for 
 the  male,  nor  does  the  bull  pay  the  leaft  attention  to  them. 
 
 The  free  martin,  in  figure,  refembles  the  ox,  or  fpayed 
 heifer.     It  is  confiderably  larger  than  the  bull  or  cow,  and 
 its  horns  are  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  ox.     «  The  belly  of  the 
 *■  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  page  49. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  24i^ 
 
 <  free  martin,'  fays  Mr.  Hunter,    <  is  fimilar  to  that  of  an  ox, 
 
 <  having  more  refemblance  to  that  of  the  cow  than  of  the 
 
 *  buU.     Free    martins   are    very  fufceptible  of  growing  fat 
 
 <  with  food.     The  flefli,  hke  that  of  the  ox,  or  fpayed  heifer, 
 
 <  is  in  common  much  finer  in  the  fibre  than  either  the  bull 
 
 <  or  cow,  and  is  fuppofed  to  exceed  that  of  the  ox  or  heifer* 
 
 <  in  dehcacy  of  flavour,  and  bears  a  higher  price  at  market*.* 
 The  Romans  feem  to  have  had  fome  knowledge  of  free  mar- 
 tins, though  they  have  not  tranfmitted  to  us  any  peculiari- 
 ties in  the  ftrufture  of  thefe  animals.  With  them,  taurus 
 was  the  generic  name  of  the  ox  kind.  They  likewife  men- 
 tion taurae^  by  which,  it  is  thought,  they  meant  barren  cows. 
 Columella,  when  talking  of  cattle,  fays,  <  and,  like  the  tau- 
 
 <  rae^  which  occupy  the  place  oi  fertile  cows,  fhould  be  reject- 
 ^  ed  f .'  Varro  likewife  informs  us,  that  *  the  cow  which  is 
 ^  barren  is  called  taura^ 
 
 Mr.  Hunter  gives  an  anatomical  defcription  of  three  free 
 martins,  the  moft  perfe(St  of  which  we  {hall  tranfcribe. 
 
 <  Mr,  Arbtithnofs  Free  Martini. 
 <  The  external  parts  were  rather  fmaller  than  in  the  cow. 
 
 <  The  vagina  pafled  on,  as  in  the  cow,  to  the  opening  of  the 
 
 *  urethra,  and  then  it   began  to  contract  into   a  fmall  canal, 
 
 *  which  pafl^ed  on  to  the  divifion  of  the  uterus  into  two  horns  -, 
 
 *  each  horn  palTed  along  the  edge  of  the  broad  ligament  lat- 
 
 *  erally  towards  the  ovaria.     At    the   termination   of    thefe 
 
 *  horns   were  placed  both  the  ovaria  and  the  tefticles  j  both 
 
 *  were  nearly  of  the  fam^e  fize,  which  was  about  as  large  as  a 
 
 <  fmall  nutmaCg.     To  the  ovaria  I  could  not  find  any  Fallo- 
 
 «  pian  tube.     To  the  teflicles  were  vafa  deferentia  •,  but  they 
 
 *    Hunter's  Obfervations  on  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  p.  50.         f  Columella, 
 lib.  6.  chap.  22. 
 
 X  '  This  animal  was  feven  years  old,  had   been  often  yoked  with  the  oxen, 
 
 *  at  other  times  went  with  the  cows  and  bull,  but  never  {hov/ed  any  defirer. 
 
 *  fpr  either  the  one  or  the  other. ' 
 
g50  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 «  were  imperfeiH:.     The  left  one  did  not  come  near  the  tef« 
 
 ♦  tide  ;  the  right  one  came  clofe  to  it,  but  did  not  terminate 
 
 *  in  a  body  called  the  epididymis.  They  were  both  pervious, 
 
 <  and  opened,  into  the  vagina  near  the  opening  of  the  ure- 
 
 <  thra.  On  the  pofterior  furface  of  the  bladder,  or  between 
 «  the  uterus  and  bladdef,  were  the  two  bags  called  vejiculae 
 ^  Jeminales  in  the  male,  but  much  fmaller  than  what  they 
 ?  are  in  the  bull  :  The  du^ts  opened  along  with  the  vafa 
 5  deferentia  *.' 
 
 •  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  page  52. 
 
Wi 
 
 or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  251 
 
 SECTION    IL 
 
 Of  the  Sexef  of  Plants. 
 
 HEN  an  hypothefis,  or  theory,  has  obtained  a 
 general  reception  among  even  the  enlightened  part  of  man- 
 kind, it  is  extremely  difficult  to  eradicate  the  prejudice,  eith- 
 er by  arguments  or  by  fadts.  There  is  not  a  notion  more 
 generally  adopted,  than  that  vegetables  have  the  diftindtion 
 of  fexes,  and  that  the  influence  of  what  is  called  the  male  is 
 indifpeniibly  necelTary  to  the  fecundation  of  the  female,  or 
 feed-bearing  plant  :  A  notion  which  I  have  long  confidered 
 as  a  ftriking  example  of  the  danger  of  rafhly  yielding  alTent 
 to  the  alluring  feduQions  of  analogical  reafoning*. 
 
 Every  perfon  who  is  acquainted  with  the  fexual  theory  of 
 vegetables,  and  with  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  defended, 
 muft  acknowledge,  that  its  principal  fupport  is  derived  from 
 the  many  beautiful  analogies  which  fubfift  between  plants 
 and  animals.  Becaufe  all  animals  were  fuppofed  to  propa- 
 gate by  fexual  embraces,  and  becaufe  plants  refembled  ani- 
 mals in  their  growth,  their  nourlfliment,  their  dilTemina- 
 tion,  and  decay,  it  was  therefore  concluded,  that  all  vegeta- 
 
 *  The  fubftance  of  the  following  fads,  and  reafoning,  was  deliv  ^red,  abovS 
 twenty  years  ago,  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  in  prefence  of  the  late 
 worthy  and  learned  Dr.  Hope,  and  his  ftudents.  Dr.  Hope,  in  order  to  excite 
 induilry  and  attention  in  his  pupils,  appointed  annually  four  of  their  number' 
 to  give  a  lefturc,  or  difccurfc;  upon  fome  botanical  fubjsiil,  which  he  prefcrib* 
 cd  to  them.  To  me  the  ProfdTor  affigned  the  Sexes  of  Plants,  with  the  liber- 
 ty of  oppofmg  the  dotilrine  of  Linnaeus,  and  his  own.  Being  at  that  time  a 
 very  young  man,  and  a  ftridl  believer  iu  the  fexual  fyflem  of  plants,  I  willing- 
 ly undertook  the  talk,  becaufe  I  thought  I  had  the  chance  of  fliowlng  fome 
 little  ingenuity  in  attempting  to  (hake  a  theory  which  I  then  imagined  to  be 
 cftabliflied  upon  the  firmeft  bafis  of  fad  and  experiment.  But,  after  perufing 
 I/mnaeus's  works,  and  many  other  books  on  the  fubjed,  I  was  aftonifhed  to 
 find,  that  this  theory  was  fupported  neither  by  fads  nor  arguments,  which 
 could  produce  convidion  cvei^  in  the  moft  prejudiced  minds.  This  difeourfc 
 v^as  afterwards  publiilied  in  the  firft  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
 
25^  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 bles  were  either  male,  female,  or  hermaphrodite  ;  and  that 
 fexual  commerce  was  equally  neceflary  for  the  fecundation 
 of  the  vegetable  as  of  the  animal  tribes. 
 
 This  analogy  was  plaufible,  and  feemed  to  beftow  a  fplen- 
 did  uniformity  on  the  conduct  of  Nature.  But  experiment, 
 the  only  teft  of  natural  truths,  has  totally  annihilated  this 
 beautiful  fabrick.  The  numberlefs  fpecies  of  vine-fretters, 
 of  polypi,  of  millepedes,  and  of  infufion  animalcules,  nmlti- 
 ph^,  without  having  recourfe  to  the  common  laws  of  gener- 
 ation. Here,  then,  the  analogy  ftops ;  and,  inftead  of  bring- 
 ing aid  to  the  fexualift,  operates  powerfully  againfi:  his  fav- 
 ourite hypothefis.  If  many  fpecies  of  animals  are  deftitute 
 of  all  the  endearments  of  love,  what  fliould  induce  us  to 
 fancy  that  the  oak  or  the  mufliroom  enjoy  thefe  diftin- 
 guifhed  privileges  ? 
 
 The  analogy,  bciides,  is  frequently  contradicted  in  the  or- 
 dinary oeconomy  of  vegetables.  It  is  univerfally  allowed, 
 for  example,  that,  even  in  oviparous  animals,  the  eggs  can 
 bnly  be  impregnated  while  they  are  in  a  gelatinous  or  mere 
 embryo  ftate.  When  farther  advanced,  their  membranes, 
 or  fhells,  acquire  a  confiftence  fufficient  to  refift  the  male- 
 inflaence.  But,  among  the  vegetable  tribes,  every  circum- 
 ilance  is  reverfed.  In  moft  hermaphrodite  plants,  (I  mufh 
 fpeak  in  the  language  of  the  fyftem),  the  feeds  are  not  only 
 not  in  a  gelatinous  ftate,  but  have  acquired  confiderable  bulk 
 and  folldity,  long  before  the  pollen,  or  fuppofed  fecundat- 
 ing dufi:,  is  thrown  out  of  its  capfules. 
 
 The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  dioicous  plants,  or  fuch 
 as  are  barren  and  feed-bearing  in  different  individuals. 
 What  conclufion  is  here  to  be  drawn  ?  Analogy  fails  ;  and 
 facfts  contradict  the  analogy.  The  pollen  of  moft  plants 
 flieds  after  the  feeds  of  their  refpedtive  fpecies  are  far  ad- 
 vanced in  fize  and  confiftence.  If  this  pollen  had  the  power 
 of  fecundating,  it  could  feldom  impregnate  plants  of  its  own 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  253 
 
 fpecles  ;  becaufe,  when  it  is  difchnrged,  the  feeds  are  pad 
 the  proper  rcafon  ;  but,  by  flying  proaiircuoufly  abroad,  this 
 pollen  might  impregnate  different  fpecies  which  happened 
 then  to  be  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  reception  of  male  influ- 
 ence. Confider  the  confequences  of  fuch  an  arrangement. 
 Is  not  this  to  make  Nature  operate  againfl:  her  own  inten- 
 tions ?  Nature  intends  that  plants  fhould  multiply  and  per- 
 petuate their  kind?, ;  but  the  fexual  hypotheils  makes  her 
 take  the  moil  effeclual  meafarei  to  prevent  that  intention, 
 and  to  introduce  univerfal  anarchy  among  the  vegetable 
 tribes.  Were  this  theory  true,  the  whole  vegetable  king- 
 dom, in  a  few  years,  would  be  utterly  confounded  :  Inftead 
 of  a  regular  fucceflion  of  marked  fpecies,  the  earth  would 
 be  covered  with  monftrous  produdlions,  which  no  botanift 
 could  either  recognife  or  unravel. 
 
 The  propagation  of  plants  by  fuckers,  flips,  and  cuttings, 
 is  a  curious  h'St  in  the  hiftory  of  vegetation.  The  ftrawber- 
 ry  is  commonly  raifed  by  flips  taken  from  the  old  root,  or 
 by  fuckers  fent  off  from  the  plant.  In  either  of  thefe  meth- 
 ods, the  plants  flourifh,  and  produce  fruit.  Many  bulbous 
 and  eye-rooted  plants,  and  mofl  fhrubs  and  trees,  may  be 
 propagated  in  the  fame  manner.  "Where,  it  may  be  afked, 
 do  thefe  plants  procure  impregnation  ?  That  they  grow,  and 
 produce  fertile  fruit,  is  undeniable  ;  and  yet,  according  to 
 the  fexual  hypothefis,  the  pollen  of  the  male  is  indifpenflbly 
 neceffary  to  the  ripening  and  fertilization  of  the  fruit.  By 
 means  of  fuckers,  flips,  cuttings,  an^i  layers,  the  whole  globe 
 might  be  fpread  over  with  vegetables,  without  the  poffibility 
 of  a  Angle  impregnation. 
 
 Though  the  argument  from  analogy  fliould  be  inconclu- 
 five,  yet,  (zj  the  fexualifl:s,  we  appeal  to  fa<5ls.  I  fhall, 
 therefore,  give  a  fliort  view  of  the  principal  facls  employed 
 to  fupport  the  fexual  intercourfe  of  plants. 
 
 H  H 
 
25-^  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 After  what  has  been  remarked,  it  will  not  be  expefted 
 that  I  (liould  mention  thofe  parts  of  Linnaeus's  reafoning 
 which  are  derived  from  analogy.  In  many  inftances,  he 
 has  puQied  analogy  fo  far  beyond  all  decent  limits,  that 
 it  becomes  truly  ridiculous.  For  example,  he  .  gravely  tells 
 lis,  *  that  the  calix  reprefents  the  marriage  bed ;    the  carolla 
 
 *  the  curtains  ;   the  filaments  \.\\q  fpermatic  vcjjcls  ;  the  anthe- 
 
 <  rae   the  te/les  ;    the  pollen  the  male  fcmen  \   the  ftigma  the 
 
 *  extremity  of  the  female  organ  \   the  ftylus  the  vagina  ;  the 
 
 <  germcn  the  ovarium  j  the  pericarpium  the  imprtgnaied  ova- 
 
 <  ri^m  ;  and  the  feeds  the  ^^^J*.' 
 
 The  moft  plaiifible  fa 61  in  favour  of  the  fexual  hypothells 
 is  derived  from  the  culture  of  the  date-bearing  palm-tree. 
 Haffelquiftf,  and  fome  other  travellers,  mention  their  hav- 
 ing feen  flowering  branches  of  male  trees  fixed  to  the  fe- 
 males by  Arabian  gardeners,  v/ho  alledged,  that,  unlefs  this 
 operation  were  performed,  their  dates  would  neither  be 
 good  nor  plentiful.  This  pra(Stice  can  boafi:  of  an  antiquity 
 long  prior  to  the  notion  of  fexes  in  plants.  How  it  came  to 
 be  introduced,  it  is  of  little  importance  to  inquire.  We 
 know  that  the  cuflom  is  ftill  fald  to  prevail  :  But  we  like- 
 wife  know,  that  there  is  not  an  authentic  fadl  v/hich  fliows 
 any  connedlion  bctv^^een  the  praBice  and  the  event,  though 
 that  be  an  eflential  ingredient  in  the  controverfy.  The 
 eaftern  nations  are  famous  for  introducing  fiiperflition  into 
 every  part  of  their  oeconomy  ;  and  it  is  equally  difi^cult  to 
 account  for  their  manners  as  for  their  culture  of  palm  trees. 
 
 Mylius's  letter  to  Dr.  Watlbn,  recorded  in  the  Philofophi- 
 cal  Tranfaclions,  is  an  attempt  to  remove  this  difficulty,  and 
 to  fliow  a  neceflary  connexion  between  the  male  and  female 
 palm.     Myllus  writes  to  his  correfpondent.  *  That  a  female 
 
 <  palm-tree  grew  many  years  in  the  garden  belonging  to  the 
 
 *  Sponfalia  Plantarum,  in  Amoen,     Acad.  vol.  1.  page  103. 
 
 f  Huflelquifl's  Travels,  page  iii.  416.  Kempfer.  hnioQn,  page  706= 
 Tournc'fort  liag.  paji^c 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  255 
 
 ^  Royal  Academy  at  Berlin,  without  producing  any  ripe  or 
 
 *  fertile  fruit ;   that  a  male  branch,  with  Its  flowers  in  full 
 
 *  blow,  was  brought  from  Leiplic,   about  twenty   German 
 
 <  miles   from    Berlin,   and  fufpended  over  the  female  tree. 
 
 <  The  refult  was,  that  the  female  yielded,  the  lirft  year,  100 
 
 <  ripe  dates.     The    fame  experiment  being  repeated  the  fol- 
 
 *  lowing  year,  2000  ripe  fruit  were  produced.' 
 
 Not  to  call  Mylius's  veracity  in  queftion,  the  experiment 
 is  both  Inconclufive  and  defective.  Berlin  is  not  the  climate 
 of  palm  trees.  The  tree,  he  informs  us,  bore  flowers  and 
 fruit  for  thirty  years  before  the  trial  was  made  ;  but  the 
 fruit,  it  is  faid,  never  came  to  maturity.  Plants  feldom  pro- 
 duce ripe  fruit  in  a  climate  not  adapted  to  their  nature,  un^ 
 til  they  have  grown  there  a  long  time.  Mylius's  palm-tree 
 had  carried  unripe  fruit  for  thirty  years.  According  to  the 
 ufual  courfe  of  exotic  plants,  therefore.  It  is  natural  to  think, 
 that  like  the  American  aloe,  the  tree,  duriiag  all  this  time, 
 was  making  gradual  advances  toward  perfection  ;  that,  when 
 the  male  branch  happened  to  be  fufpended  over  the  female, 
 the  plant  had  arrived  at  the  hlghefl  degree  of  maturity  it 
 could  ever  acquire  in  the  climate  of  Berlin  ;  and,  of  courfe, 
 that  the  accidental  circumfiance  of  fufpending  the  pialc 
 branch  over  it,  at  this  critical  period,  might  give  rife  to  the 
 deception  of  attributing  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  to  the 
 prefence  of  the  male  branch.  Tlie  produtSlIon  of  100  ripe 
 fruit  only  the  iirft  year,  and  2000  the  feccnd,  is  a  ilrong 
 corroboration  of  this  account  of  the  matter.  At  any  rate, 
 the  experiment  is  exceedingly  defe£live  and  unfatisfa6tory. 
 To  convince  any  man  that  the  fertility  of  this  tree  was 
 folely  owing  to  fome  impregnating  virtue  communicated  to 
 it  by  the  male,  a  branch  fhould  have  been  fufpended  over 
 the  female  one  year,  omitted  the  next,  and  fo  on  alternately 
 for  a  fuccefTion  of  feafons,  or,  as  the  fexualifls  would  exprefs 
 it,  giving  her  a  hufband  one  year^  and  denying  her  that  gra- 
 
$56  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 tiiication  the  next.  After  treating  the  female  in  this  man^ 
 ner,  if  it  had  uniformly  happened,  that  the  fruit  ripened 
 every  year  the  male  branch  was  fufpended,  and  that  none 
 came  to  maturity  when  that  operation  was  omitted,  then 
 there  would  have  been  fome  foundation  for  fuppofing  a  con- 
 nection between  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  and  the  prefence 
 of  the  male  branch.  But,  as  this  necelTary  precaution  was 
 omitted,  the  experiment  is  incomplete,  and  the  conciuilon 
 drawn  from  it  precipitate  and  unphilofophic. 
 
 In  accounting  for  the  fecundity  of  all  the  dmcous"^  and 
 fnonoecwus\  plants,  the  fexualifts  have  recourfe  to  the  aid  of 
 the  winds,  and  of  infers.  They  betake  themfelves  to  this 
 ftrange  refuge,  in  order  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  fe- 
 male plants,  when  fituated  at  a  diftance  from  males,  are  im- 
 pregnated. Some  of  them,  as  Kalm,  and  others,  are  per- 
 fectly fatisfied  with  this  fuppofed  aerial  commerce  of  vege- 
 tables, even  when  the  males  are  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  miles 
 diftant  from  the  females  !  Here,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
 the  multiplication  of  fpecies  is  one  of  the  moft  important 
 laws  of  Nature.  All  the  laws  of  Nature  are  fixed,  fteady, 
 and  uniform,  in  their  operation  :  None  of  their  efFcvts  are 
 abandoned  to  thofe  uncertainties  which  necelTarily  refult 
 from  chance,  or  from  any  fortuitous  train  of  circumftances. 
 But,  is  there  any  thing,  in  northern  climates  at  leaft,  more 
 defultory  and  capricious  than  the  direction  and  motion  of 
 the  winds  }  Can  we  form  a  conception  of  any  thing  more 
 cafual  and  uncertain  than  the  wayward  paths  of  infe<fl:s  ? 
 The  very  fuppofition,  therefore,  that  Nature  has  expofcd 
 the  fertility  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom, 
 and  many  of  them,  too,  plants  of  the  utmoft  importance  to 
 man,  and  other  animals,  to  fuch  accidental  caufes,  is  repug- 
 
 *  Plants  which  have  the  male  charadler  in  one  individual,  and  the  female  ip 
 another. 
 
 f  Plants  which  liave  both  the  male  and  female  chrra'flers  in  the  fame  indi- 
 vidual . 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^st 
 
 iiant  to  every  idea  of  found  philofophy.  Befides,  the  re- 
 verfe  has  been  proved  by  Dr.  Alfton,  Camerarius,  and  Tour- 
 nefort.  Thefe  gentlemen  reared  female  plants  of  the  fpi- 
 nage  and  hemp  in  fuch  fituations,  and  with  fuch  fcrupulous 
 precautions,  to  prevent  any  fuppofed  impregnation  by  means 
 of  the  wind,  or  of  infects,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the 
 pollibility  of  any  communication  between  the  males  and  fe- 
 males. Thefe  females,  however,  produced  fertile  feeds  in 
 the  greateft  abundance. 
 
 Since  thefe  experiments  were  made,  it  has  been  difcover- 
 ed,  that  male  flowers  are  fometimes  found  iurkin":  on  the 
 female  plants  of  the  fpinage  and  hemp  :  And  this  difcovcry 
 the  fexualifts  think  fufncient  to  account  for  the  fuccefs  of 
 Dr.  Alfton's  experiments.  But,  inftead  of  folving  the  difli-^ 
 culty,  this  circumftance  feems  to  involve  it  in  ftill  deeper  ob- 
 fcurity :  for,  that  the  pollen  ifluing  from  the  antherae  of  a 
 male  flower  or  two  lliould  rife,  fall,  and  turn  round  in  every 
 dire(Si:ion,  fo  as  to  light  precifely  on  the  ftigmata  of  all  the 
 fuperior,  inferior,  and  circumjacent  female  flowers,  appeari- 
 to  exceed  the  common  powers  of  human  faith.  Belides^ 
 this  circumftance  would  feem  to  indicate,  that  there  is  no 
 fteadinefs  in  what  is  called  vegetable  f exes.  We  are  even  told^ 
 that  trees,  which  had  continued  many  years  under  the 
 chara6ter  of  females,  but,  from  fome  ftrange  metamorphofiSj 
 had  fuddenly  dropped  their  female  forms,  and  aflumed  th^: 
 more  robuft  features  peculiar  to  the  male  part  of  the  crea- 
 tion ! 
 
 It  was  hinted  above,  that  all  the  dioicous,  monoecious,  as 
 well  as  moft  of  the  hermaphrodite  flowers,  being  impregnat- 
 ed by  means  of  the  wind,  feemed  not  to  accord  with  the 
 rules  of  philofophizing  ;  we  fliall  now  examine  that  do(^lrine 
 more  clofely. 
 
 The  pollen  is  allowed  to  be  too  large  to  get  admiflion  into 
 the  fligmata,  though  laid  upon  them  with  the  greateft  dex- 
 
258  rUTL    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 terity.  This  JIfliculty  the  fexualifts  Imagine  to  be  removed, 
 when  they  tell  us,  that  moifture  makes  the  pollen  fpllt,  and 
 difcharge  a  fubtle  aura,  and  that  this  aura  impregnates  the 
 feeds.  But,  though  the  pollen  iliould  explode  by  the  appli- 
 cation of  moifture,  and  difcharge  a  fubtle  aura,  this  explo- 
 fion  could  never  effect  the  purpofes  of  impregnation  :  For, 
 when  the  pollen  was  lying  on  the  ftigma,  the  aura  muft  ne- 
 ceiTarlly  blow  ofl',  inftead  of  being  abforbed  by  that  part  of 
 the  ::lant.  Is  not  the  fuppofition  fingular,  and  even  contra- 
 dictory, that  a  plant  lliould  be  impregnated  by  a  fubftance 
 forcibly  blown  away  from  the  female  ? 
 
 This  reafoning  proceeds  upon  the  admiffion,  that  the  pol- 
 len is  laid  with  dexterity  upon  the  ftigma.  But  it  will  re- 
 ceive additional  force,  when  I  defy  all  the  naturalifts  in  the 
 univerfe  to  produce  an  inftance  of  a  ftngle  grain  of  pollen 
 being  ever  feen  on  any  part  of  a  female  plant,  even  when  at 
 no  great  diftance  from  a  male,  far  lefs  upon  the  ftigmata  of 
 each  feparate  flower.  Granting,  however,  the  pollen  to  be 
 carried  oft^from  the  male  by  the  wind,  yet,  as  the  fuppofed 
 fecundating  aura  it  contains  is  much  lighter  than  air,  and  is 
 difcharged  by  the  flighteft  moifture,  it  can  never  fall  down 
 upon  the  diftant  females,  but  muft  rife  and  diftipate  in  the 
 higher  regions  of  the  atm.ofphere.  It  may  alfo  be  difcharg- 
 ed by  the  application  of  rain  or  dews  before  the  pollen  is  car- 
 ried off  by  the  wind  from  the  male  flowers  :  And,  if  th§ 
 "Vvinds  blow  in  a  dneclion  contrary  to  the  fttuation  of  the  fe- 
 male plants  for  a  few  critical  hours,  the  females  muft  be  ren- 
 dered barren,  at  leaft  for  a  feafon. 
 
 It  is  an  eftabliftied  fa<ft,  that  coleworts,  turnips,  &:c^  when 
 growing  in  gardens,  fometin"ies  produce  new  varieties.  Thefe 
 varieties  the  fexualifts  uniformly  hold  up  as  inftances  of  hy- 
 brids, or  mongrels,  from  fortuitous  commixtures  of  diff'erent 
 males  and  females.  This  conclufion,  however,  feems  to  be 
 precipitate.     It  is  well  known  to  nurferymen  and  gardeners. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  259 
 
 that,  from  feeds  of  the  fame  individual  plants,  varieties 
 fometimes  appear.  If  thefe  varieties  chance  to  have  any 
 quaUties  lijperior  in  value  to  the  original  plants,  their  feeds, 
 flioots,  or  flips,  are  collected,  and  the  new  kind  is  propagat- 
 ed with  diligence.  That  the  beauty  of  llowers,  and  the 
 magnitude  and  flavour  of  fruits  are  improveable  by  particu- 
 lar modes  of  culture,  and-  even  by  unknown  accidents,  is  an 
 undeniable  truth  :  That  thefe  improved  qualities,  in  what- 
 ever manner  procured,  continue  in  the  kind  unlefs  allowed  to 
 degenerate  by  negligence,  is  not  lefs  true.  But  there  is  nothing 
 fo  wonderful  in  thefe  phenomena  as  to  require  the  mofl:  un- 
 bounded ftretches  of  fancy  to  account  for  them.  Are  not 
 the  beauty,  ftrength,  and  magnitude  of  animals,  equally  im- 
 proveable by  culture  ?  Does  not  an  ox,  tranfported  from 
 the  comparatively  barren  mountains  of  Scotland,  to  the  rich 
 paftures  of  Yorkfl:iire,  affume  qualities  very  different  from 
 thofe  he  originally  poflTefled  ?  Why,  then,  Ihould  an  iiicon- 
 iiderable  change  in  the  conflitution  of  a  colev-'ort,  or  a  tur- 
 nip, excite  furprife  ?  Plants  are  liable  to  be  diverfifled  by 
 numberlefs  accidents.  Perpetually  fixed  to  the  fame  locat 
 fituation,  they  muft  receive,  indifcriminately,  fuch  nourifli- 
 ment  as  is  transmitted  to  them  by  the  earth  and  air.  When 
 different  kinds  happen  to  grow  very  near  each  other,  and-, 
 as  they  have  not  the  choice  of  rejedling  fuch  food  as  is  pre* 
 fented  to  them,  may  not  exudations  from  the  one  be  abforb* 
 ed  by  the  roots  of  the  other  .?  May  not  the  matter  which 
 tranfpires  fo  copioufly  from  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  one 
 plant  be  conveyed  to,  and  abforbed  by,  thofe  of  a  different 
 kind  ?  And  may  not  this  foreign  nourifhment  occafional- 
 ly  introduce  fome  changes  in  the  colour,  texture,  or  flavour, 
 of  the  leaves,  flowers,  or  fruit  ?  Nay,  is  it  not  reafonable 
 to  fuppofe,  that  folutions  of  various  mineral  fubflances,  the 
 a(Slion  of  particular  manures,  and  a  thoufand  other  circum- 
 ftances,  may  often  induce  fuch  changes  ?  Why,  then, 
 ihould  we  have  recourfe  to  unnatural  and  fl:rained  analc- 
 
^6d  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 gies,  when  the  phenomena  may   be  folved  upon  the  princi- 
 ples of  found  philofophy  ? 
 
 The  learned  Dr.  Hope,  late  Profeflcr  of  Botany  in  the 
 Univerfity  of  Edinburgh,  who  was  a  ftrenuous  fupporter  of 
 Vegetable  fexes,  thought  he  had  almoft  eftablifhed  the  theo- 
 ry by  the  following  experiment  upon  the  lychnis  dioica,  of 
 which  two  varieties  are  natives  of  Scotland,  the  one  bearing 
 white,  and  the  other  red  flowers.  The  Do6tor,  about  twelve 
 years  ago,  raifed  a  white  female  and  a  red  male  under  the 
 fame  glafs-bell,  which  was  funk  {q  far  in  the  foil  as  to  prevent 
 all  communication  with  other  vegetables.  The  bell  termi- 
 nated in  a  tube,  which,  for  the  occafional  introduction  of  a 
 little  frefh  air,  was  ftufted  with  mofs.  The  feeds  of  the 
 white  female  were  fown  next  feafon  ;  and,  inftead  of  \vhite, 
 the  plants  produced  red  flowers,  in  confequence,  it  was 
 imagined,  of  the  influence  of  the  male  upon  the  female. 
 He  likewife  aflerted,  that  the  red  kind,  when  left  to  Nature, 
 never  brought  forth  white  flowers,  nor  the  white  kind  red 
 flowers. 
 
 Upon  this  experiment  we  have  to  remark,  1.  That  noth- 
 ing is  more  dangerous,  or  more  fallacious  in  philofophy,  than 
 the  aflumption  of  general  pofltions  without  an  accurate  in- 
 veftigation.  The  Doctor  advanced,  for  example,  that  the 
 red  and  white  lychnis,  when  in  a  natural  ftate,  never  change 
 their  colours.  This  pofltion  is  neither  capable  of  admifiion 
 nor  denial  ;  becaufe  no  experiment,  nor  inquiry,  feems  ever 
 to  have  been  made  on  the  fubjefl:  :  Yet  it  is  aflumed  as  a 
 premifc  to  the  ccnclufion,  that  the  change  of  the  white  into 
 a  red  lychnis  was  occafioned  by  the  influence  of  the  red  male 
 upon  the  white  female. 
 
 2.  That  hybrids,  or  mules,  uniformly  participate  of  both 
 the  fpecies  or  varieties  by  which  they  are  engendered.  A  jack- 
 afs  and  mare  never  produce  a  Ample  afs  or  horfe,  but  a  mule, 
 or  mixture  of  the  two.     It  fhould  feem,  however,  that  this 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  261 
 
 rei  lyciiiils  transfufed  its  own  individual  qualities,  without 
 allowing  a  iingle  particle  of  the  female  to  appear.  This  is 
 contrary  to  every  analogy.  If  the  change  had  originated 
 from  fe5cual  commixture,  the  progeny  ought  not  to  have 
 been  completely  red,  but  pied,  or  a  mixture  of  red  and 
 wiiite.  To  whatever  caufe,  therefore,  this  change  may  be 
 attributed,  it  can  never  be  afcribed  to  any  thing  analogous 
 to  generation. 
 
 3.  That  colour  is  a  delicate  and  ilu£luating  quality.  It 
 depends  ih  much  on  light,  air,  health,  and  perhaps  fome  un- 
 knov\rn  caufes,  that  botanifts,  with  great  propriety,  have  re-- 
 jecled  it  as  a  fpecific  characler.  Sufpe^ling  that  caufes  of 
 this  nature  might  change  the  colour  of  the  white  lychnis  un- 
 der conlideraiion,  I  examined  the  condition  of  fome  plants 
 then  fubjc^'led  to  the  fame  trials  in  our  Botanic  Garden. 
 The  ^towers  both  of  the  red  and  white  lychnis  were  then  in 
 full  blow  under  the  bell,  the  glafs  of  which  was  thick,  and 
 of  a  darker  green  than  our  common  beer-bottles.  The 
 light,  of  courfe,  tranfmitted  to  the  plants  was  lurid  and  ob- 
 fcure.  They  were  alfo  deprived  of  a  free  circulation  of  air. 
 Under  thefe  unnatural  circumftances,  the  plants  had  a  lickly 
 afpecl.  The  flowers  of  the  red  variety,  inftead  of  a  vivid 
 red,  were  almoft  perfectly  white.  Here  we  have  nearly  an 
 equal  change  made  upon  the  fame  plant,  without  the  poffi- 
 bility  of  its  being  efFcsfted  by  the  intercourfe  of  fexes.  If 
 plants  are  thus  deprived  of  proper  light  and  air,  it  cannot 
 be  furprifing  to  fee  changes  produced  in  the  colour  of  their 
 immediate  defcendents.  The  contaminated  air  efcaping 
 from  the  plants  themfelves,  and  from  the  foil  under  the  bell, 
 may  be  fufficlent  to  produce  this  effedt.  I  formerly  men- 
 tioned, that  the  colour  and  other  qualities  of  plants  grow- 
 ing near  each  other,  may  be  changed  by  abforbing  the  mat- 
 ter of  tranfpiration  and  exudation.  The  argument  is  appli- 
 cable with  the  peculiar  force  to  plants  imprifoned  fo  clofely, 
 
 I  I 
 
2T612  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 and  having  fo  little  accefs  to  frefli  air.  In  this  fituationj 
 they  muft,  of  neceffity,  feed  upon  each  other.  Confine  a 
 man  and  a  woman  for  years  in  a  fmall  ill-aired  cell,  and  ob- 
 ferve  their  afpefl,  and  that  of  their  progeny.  Their  ap- 
 pearance will  be  very  different  from  that  of  children  pro- 
 duced by  healthy  parents,  and  enjoying  the  benefit  of  the 
 fun's  rays,  and  of  the  open  air. 
 
 4.  That,  Independently  of  all  thefe  arguments,  the  experi- 
 ment is^  incomplete.!  Even  on  the  fuppofition  of  the  cxift- 
 cnce  of  fexes  in  plants,  the  conclufion  drawn  from  it  cannot 
 be  admitted.  The  fame  change,  for  inflance,  might  have 
 happened,  if,  inftead  of  a  white  female  and  red  male,  a 
 white  female  had  been  imprifoned  with  a  red  female.  In 
 this  cafe  there  could  be  no  commixture  of  fexes  j  and  yet, 
 it  is  highly  probable,  that  both  would  have  ripened  their 
 feeds,  and  that  thefe  feeds  would  have  produced  plants  dif- 
 ferently coloured  from  the  fame  varieties  growing  in  a  natur- 
 ral  flate.  Till  thefe  indifpenfible  parts  of  the  experiment', 
 therefore,  be  tried,  nothing  can  be  concluded  in  favour  of 
 the  fexual  fyflem. 
 
 5.  That  flowers  growing  from  the  fame  root,  fruits  upon 
 the  fame  tree,  or  raifed  from  feeds  of  the  fame  individual 
 plant,  often  vary  in  colour,  fize,  figure,  and  texture.  Thefe 
 varieties  are  apparent  to  the  mod:  fuperficial  obfervers  5  but 
 they  can  never,  with  any  degree  of  propriety,  be  afcrlbed  to 
 the  influence  of  fcx.  The  caufes  of  fuch  variations  are 
 rather  to  be  looked  for  in  the  expofure  of  the  plants  with 
 rcT^ard  to  lieht  and  air,  the  nature  of  the  foil,  the  mode  of 
 culture,  accidental  injuries  from  dews,  from  electrical  fire, 
 from  the  poifon  or  w^ounda  of  InfeiSts,  and  from  the  abforp- 
 tion  of  mineral  folutions.     In  a  v/ord,  if  v/e  are  to  hope   for 
 
 'an  explanation  of  thefe,  and  other  minute  changes  in  the  ap- 
 pearances of  plants,  recourfe  muft  be   had  to  chemical  and 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2-63 
 
 plillofophical  principles,  and  not  to  an  hypothetical  coni- 
 rnerce  of  fexes. 
 
 The  difcourfe  was  concluded  with  the  following  fentiment  : 
 But  I  aim  not  at  complete  refutation  ;  for  experiments  are 
 Itill  to  be  made.  I  only  wifh  to  render  the  fexual  commerce 
 of  plants  fufpicious,  that  the  minds  of  men  may  be  freed 
 from  the  fetters  of  a  fyftem,  which  has,  perhaps,  too  long 
 received  the  general  aflent  of  Europe  ;  and  that  the  oecono^ 
 my  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  may  again  be  open  to  impar,- 
 tiai  inveftigation. 
 
 To  remove  the  poffibility  of  male  influence  being  convey^ 
 ed  by  means  of  the  wind,  or  of  infe<Si:s,  about  ten  or  twelve 
 years  ago,  I  thought,  if  a  female  plant  could  ripen  her  feeds 
 within  doors  during  the  winter,  the  experiment  would  infal- 
 libly determine  the  controverfy.  With  this  view,  I  confin- 
 ed a  female  lychnis,  which  is  a  native  plant  of  this  country, 
 and  gave  her  fuch  a  degree  of  heat  as  made  her  produce 
 flowers  three  months  before  any  male  flowers  of  the  fame 
 fpecies  were  blown  in  Briiain.  The  flowers  and  the  young 
 feed  had  every  appearance  of  health  and  vigour.  But  the 
 plant  itfeif,  as  ufually  happens  to  vegetables  when  forced  to 
 grow  in  unnatural  fltuations,  was  feeble,  flender,  and  double 
 the  common  length  it  acquires  in  the  fields.  I  waited  the 
 event.  My  expectations,  however,  were  difappointed  ;  for 
 the  flowers  dropped  long  before  the  feeds  were  ripened. 
 The  plant  was  kept  three  years  in  the  fame  fituation  ;  but 
 ftill  the  flowers  dropped,  and  no  ripe  feeds  were  produced. 
 As  the  health  of  plants  like  that  of  animals,  depends  upon 
 many  circumftances,  as  expofure  to  the  open  air,  to  light,  to 
 the  agitations  of  the  wind,  which  to  them  anfwers  the  invig- 
 orating purpofe  of  exercife,  to  nocturnal  dews,  to  natural 
 rains,  inflead  of  artificial  waterings,  &c.  I  refolved  to  place 
 the  female  lychnis  in  a  fituation  where  Ihe  might  enjoy  all 
 thefe  advantages,  and   at  the  fame  time   be  removed  from 
 
264  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 every  fufplcion  of  a  conne<ftIon  with  male  influence.  For 
 this  purpofe,  I  applied  to  my  learned  and  ingenious  friend 
 Dr.  Daniel  Rutherford,  now  ProfefTor  of  Botany  in  the  Uni- 
 verfity  of  Edinburgh,  who,  at  that  time,  had  a  fmall  garden, 
 or  rather  a  little  area,  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  which  was 
 furrounded  with  houfes  of  five  and  fix  ftories  high,  and  dif- 
 tant  from  any  male  lychnis  about  an  Englifli  mile.  Dr. 
 Rutherford  received  this  female  lychnis  into  his  garden. 
 The  firfi:  fummer  after  her  adiniffion,  being  enfeebled  by  her 
 former  three  years  confinement,  flie  dropped  her  flowers, 
 without  producing  fertile  feeds.  During  three  or  four  fuc- 
 ceeding  years,  however,  fhe  remained  in  the  fame  fituation ; 
 and  fhe  not  only  ripened  her  feeds,  but  thefe  feeds  vegetat- 
 ed, without  the  poffibility  of  any  male  impregnation  ;  for 
 the  Do£lor,  after  the  young  plants  were  in  a  ftate  of  difcrimi- 
 nation,  uniformly  extirpated  all  the  males,  and  never  could 
 difcover  the  veftige  of  a  fingle  male  upon  the  female  plants. 
 Her  female  progeny,  however,  continued  to  bear  fertile  feeds 
 for  feveral  fucceflive  generations.  If,  after  this,  and  fome 
 experiments  formerly  mentioned,  any  fexuaiifi:  choofes  to 
 have  recourfe  to  the  wind,  and  to  infects,  he  may  enjoy  his 
 theory  ;  but  few  men  of  penetration  will  join  him  in  opinion. 
 
 But,  if  thefe  fa^ls  and  reafonings  fhould  not  be  fufficient 
 to  convince  every  believer  in  the  fexual  fyfi:em  of  plants  that 
 the  hypothefis  has  no  foundation  in  Nature,  Spalanzani, 
 a  late  ingenious  Italian  naturalift,  has,  by  a  number  of  expe- 
 riments, removed  the  poffibility  of  any  rational  doubt  on  the 
 fubje^V. 
 
 Spalanzani,  In  order  to  make  a  complete  inveftigatlon  of 
 this  fubjecl,  performed  a  number  of  experiments  on  what 
 are  called  hermaphrodite,  mo?joecious  and  dioicous  plants. 
 
 Hermaphrodite  plants  comprehend  all  thofe  which  have 
 ftamina  and  piftils,  or  the  male  and  female  organs,  in  the 
 fame  flowers.     To  difcover  whether  the  pollen  had  any  in- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  26:5 
 
 • 
 
 fluence  upon  the  fertility  of  the  feeds,  Spalanzani  forced  op- 
 en the  petals,  or  flower-leaves,  fome  time  before  they  began 
 to  expand.  He  then  cut  off  all  the  ftamina,  or  male  parts, 
 before  he  fuppofed  foecundating  duft  was  ripe,  leaving  the 
 female  part  to  its  fate.  The  refult  was,  that,  in  many  of  the 
 plants,  the  feeds  did  not  ripen,  or  even  acquire  their  full 
 Hze  ;  in  others,  they  grew  to  the  natural  iize  ;  but  after  be- 
 ing committed  to  the  ground,  they  did  not  germinate. 
 Above  thirty  years  ago,  a  fimilar  fet  of  experiments  were 
 made,  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  by  the  late 
 Dr.  Alfton,  the  then  ProfefTor  of  Botany.  But,  whether 
 Dr.  Alfton's  experiments  were  performed  with  greater  dex- 
 terity than  thofe  of  Spalanzani,  it  is  impoflible  to  determine. 
 The  event,  however,  was  the  reverfe  ;  for  Dr.  Alfton's 
 plants,  which  were  treated  in  the  fame  manner  with  thofe  of 
 Spalanzani,  not  only  ripened  their  feeds,  but  thefe  feeds, 
 when  fown,  were  found  to  be  as  fertile  as  if  no  fuch  opera- 
 tion had  been  performed.  But  no  experiments  of  this  kin4 
 can  be  made  with  any  degree  of  certainty  upon  hermaphro- 
 dite plants  ;  becaufe  they  are  impracticable,  without  wound- 
 ing and  injuring  the  tender  flowers.  By  forcing  open  the 
 petals  fome  days  before  they  would  naturally  unfold,  the  in- 
 terior parts  of  the  flowers  are  prematurely  expofed  to  the 
 aiSlion  of  the  air,  of  dews,  and  of  the  fun's  rays.  Beiides, 
 no  man  can  determine  what  changes  the  young  feeds  may 
 undergo,  what  injury  they  may  fufi^er,  by  an  unnatural  de- 
 privation of  the  ftamina.  In  every  flower  treated  in  this 
 rough  manner,  an  extravafation  of  fap  mufl:  unavoidably  be 
 produced.  If  a  pregnant  animal  is  wounded,  and  in  a  part 
 too  fo  intimately  connedled  with  the  foetus,  what  reafon  have 
 we  to  expe<Sl  a  fertile  and  well-proportioned  ofispring  ? 
 
 Spalanzani  next  proceeded  to  trials  on  the  monoecious 
 plants,  or  thofe  which  bear  both  male  and  female  flowers 
 feparately  on  the  fame  individual.     In  fpring  1777,  he  fow- 
 
-266  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ed  two  fpecies  of  the  pumpion,  which  belong  to  this  divifion 
 of  plants,  in  a  fituation  removed  from  every  fufpicion  of  for- 
 eign connection  by  means  of  the  wind  or  of  infects.  <  In  the 
 beginning  of  June/  fays  he,  *  two  individuals,  for  I  had  ord- 
 ered two  only  to  be  raifed,  were  juft  beginning  to  put 
 forth  a  few  flower-buds  towards  the  bottom  of  the  ftalk. 
 At  this  early  period,  the  male  flowers  may  be  eafiiy  diftin- 
 guiflied  from  the  female.  The  former  alfo  denominated 
 barre?i  by  botanifts,  have  a  flender  ftalk  ;  while  the  ftalk 
 of  the  latter,  where  it  joins  the  calyx,  forms  a  tumor,  con- 
 lifting  of  the  immature  fruit.  I  paid  daily  vifits  to  thefe 
 two  individuals,  and  very  carefully  watched  the  progrefs  of 
 both  forts  of  flowers.  That  there  might  be  no  fufpicion 
 of  the  pollen  exerting  any  influence  upon  the  females,  the 
 males  were  deftroyed  at  their  firft  appearance.  As  fruit, 
 when  a  fmall  quantity  only  is  left  upon  a  plant,  is  fooner 
 ripe,  and  grows  to  a  larger  ftze,  becaufe  it  receives  a  great- 
 er quantity  of  nutritious  juice,  I  left  on  each  of  my  two  in- 
 dividuals two  flowers  only.  The  buds  that  made  their  ap- 
 pearance afterwards  were  taken  away,  along  with  the  male 
 flowers.  Meanwhile  my  four  gourds  grew  rapidly.  Find- 
 ing that,  tow^ards  the  middle  of  September,  they  had  at- 
 tained the  ufual  (ize,  I  gathered  one,  in  order  to  infpeft  the 
 internal  parts.  The  flefti  was  too  foft,  becaufe  the  fruit  was 
 not  thoroughly  ripe  ;  but,  in  colour,  ftruiTture,  and  tafte,  it 
 refembled  fruit  produced  by  plants  which  had  their  male 
 flowers.  The  feeds  were  in  a  great  number,  and,  as  well 
 internally  as  externally,  were  perfedlly  formed.  At  the 
 end  of  the  month,  the  other  three  gourds  were  quite  ripe. 
 I  therefore  gathered  them,  and  put  the  feeds  of  each  into 
 a  feparate  box,  tliat  I  might  be  able  to  examine  them  at 
 pleafure.  The  lobes  filled  the  whole  infide  of  the  feeds, 
 and  had  all  the  characters  of  perfeiSl  maturity. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  26^ 
 
 « Thn5  far/   continues  our   author,    « there    is  a  perfect 
 ^agreement  with  the  obfervations  made  on  the  feeds  offome 
 
 <  hermaphrodite  plants,  which  feemed,  notwithftanding  they 
 « were  deprived  of  the  eiFicacy  of  the  pollen,  to  have  acquir- 
 «  ed  the  fame  degree  of   perfedlion  as   thofe  impregnated  in 
 
 <  the  ufual  manner.     But,  as  they    did   not   grow,   however 
 
 <  perfect  they  might  be  in  appearance,  becaufe  they  had  not 
 
 <  been  vivified  by  the  pollen,  I  imagined,  that,  for  the  fame 
 « reafon,  the  feeds  of  my  three  gourds  would  not  grow.  It 
 '  was,  however,  proper  to  make  the  experiment.  I  therefore 
 f  dried  one  hundred    and  fifty  in  the  fun,   and  afterwards 
 
 <  planted  them  in  three  pots,  fifty  in  each,  taken  from  fepa- 
 «  rate  gourds.  But  the  latenefs  of  the  feafon,  it  being  the 
 «  10th  of  October,  the  confiant  rain,  and  the  coUnefs  occa- 
 «fioned    by  it,  circumftances   unfavourable   to    vegetation, 
 
 <  obliged  me  to  place  my  pots   in  a  ftove,  which,  though  it 
 
 <  was  not  heated,  v/as  kept  warm  by  a  contiguous  chimney, 
 «  The  event  did  not  by  any  ?neans  correfpond  to  my  expectation.  I 
 *  took  it  for  granted^  that  none  of  the  feeds  would  germitjate  j 
 ^  and  yet    they  alniDfi  all  came  up  very  well  *.' 
 
 Here  it  is  pleafant  to  obferve  candour  and  fair  experiment 
 triumphing  over  deep  prejudice.  From  the  above,  and  many 
 other  paiTages,  it  is  evident  that  Spalanzani  was  a  keen  fex- 
 iialift,  and  that  he  expected  his  experiments,  inftead  of  over- 
 throwing, w^culd  confirm  his  faith  •,  but,  like  a  true  phiiofo- 
 pher,  he  candidly,  though  w^ith  reluctance,  unhinges  his  fa- 
 vourite opinion. 
 
 *  I  referved  the  remainder  of  the  feeds,'  continues  Spalan- 
 zani,    <  for  another  experiment  to  be  made  the  following 
 
 <  fpring.  Before  it  can  be  afierted  that  fructification  has 
 ^  been   complete,   it  is  neceflliry,  according   to   the    deter- 
 
 <  mination  of  botanifls,  not  only  that  the  feeds  fliould  grow, 
 «  but  that  they  fhouid  alfo  be  capable  of  bringing  produ(Stive 
 
 ♦  Spalu-nzaui's  DilTcrtationSj  vol  z.  p.  276.  &c. 
 
26S  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 «  feeds,  or,  in  other  words,  of  perpetuating  the  fpecies.  Tliat 
 '  I  might  learn  whether  the  feeds  of  my  three  gourds  enjoy- 
 
 <  ed  this  prerogative,  caufed  fome  of  them  to  be  planted  in 
 « the  fame  place  in  May  1778  ;  and,  when  they  were  grown 
 f  to  fome  fize,  they  were,  as  in  the  foregoing  experiment, 
 
 *  carefully  ftripped  of  all  their  male  flowers,    one  female 
 
 *  flower  only  being   left   on  each  individual.     Thefe  flowers 
 
 *  were  furnilhed  with  fmall  gourds,  which  grew  ripe  towards 
 
 <  the  beginning  of  autumn,  and  the  feeds  they  produced  gre\ir 
 
 <  juft  as  well  as  the  former  */ 
 
 With  regard  to  dioicous  plants,  or  thofe  which  produce 
 male  flowers  on  one  individual  and  femalie  flowers  on  another, 
 they  are  by  far  the  moil  unexceptionable  fubje£ls  for  deter-' 
 mining  the  exiftence  or  non-exiftence  of  fexes  in  plants. 
 Accordingly,  Bonnet,  Fourgeroux,  and  Spalanzani,  &c.  about 
 the  year  1770,  placed  female  plants  of  this  defcription  in 
 iituations  fo  flrictly  guarded  againfl:  the  poflibility  of  foecun- 
 datingduft  being  conveyed  to  the  females  either  by  the  air 
 or  by  infe£ls,  that  the  fuppofltion  of  male  influence  baflies 
 all  the  powers  of  imagination.  Thefe  females,  however, 
 uniformly  produced  ripe  feeds  *,  and  thefe  feeds  were  as  pro- 
 lific as  if  they  had  been  furrounded  with  males. 
 
 From  the  fa6ts  and  arguments  above  related,  and  many 
 others  which  might  be  adduced,  it  appears,  that  this  beauti- 
 ful theory,  derived  from  a  mifliaken  analogy,  has  no  founda- 
 tion in  Nature.  I  would  not  have  dwelt  fo  long  on  this  fub- 
 je£V,  if  I  had  not  flncerely  wifhed  that  the  minds  of  men 
 might  be  emancipated  from  the  fetters  of  a  fyfl:em  which  has 
 to.o  long  received  the  almofl  univerfal  aflent  of  the  literary 
 world  ;  and  that  the  oeconomy  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
 inay  again  be  open  to  impartial  inquiries. 
 *  Spalanzani'sDifTcrtatlons,  vol.  %.  p,278. 
 
Ti 
 
 «F   NATURAL    HXSTbRY.  269 
 
 CHAPTER  X. 
 
 Of  the  Puberty  of  Animals, 
 
 HE  puberty  of  animals  commences  at  that  period 
 of  their  exiftence  when  Nature  endows  them  with  the  pow- 
 er of  multiplying  the  fpecies.  This  period  is  as  various  as 
 the  different  tribes  of  animals.  In  fome  it  arrives  fooner,  in 
 others  later ;  but,  in  every  animal,  it  is  accompanied  with, 
 fome  remarkable  changes  in  conftitution  and  affections.  Fr6ni 
 infancy  to  puberty  there  is  a  gradual  increafe  of  fize  ;  but, 
 immediately  after  that  period,  in  both  fexes,  the  growth  of 
 the  body  makes  a  fudden  fpring,  and  acquires  redoubled 
 ftrength  and  activity.  The  growth  of  animals,  however, 
 does  not  always  ftop  at  the  age  of  puberty.  Men,  quadru- 
 peds, and  fifhes,  continue  to  grow  for  fome  time  after  their 
 capacity  of  multiplying.  But  moft  birds  and  infetfts  feem  to 
 acquire  their  full  dimeniions  before  they  arrive  at  the  age  of 
 puberty. 
 
 Before  puberty,  the  voice  of  a  man,  like  that  of  a  woman, 
 is  fhrill  and  feeble.  But,  after  that  period,  it  becomes  rough 
 and  ftrong.  This  effedt  is  produced  by  fome  unaccountable 
 and  fudden  change  in  the  organs  of  fpeech,  which  is  not 
 confined  to  the  hiiman  fpecies  \  for  the  voice  of  a  horfe  or  a 
 bull  is  deeper  after  than  before  puberty.  In  eunuchs,  no  fuch 
 alteration  of  voice  is  to  be  obferved  ;  for  their  voice,  though 
 fiirill  and  piercing,  can  never  produce  a  low  or  deep  note. 
 At  this  period,  too,  that  diftinguifhing  characteriftic  of  man, 
 the  beard,  begins  to  appear,  together  with  other  external 
 and  internal  changes,  which  it  is  unneceffary  to  relate.  But 
 eunuchs  are  totally  deftitute  of  beards.  Thefe  two  fafls 
 indicate  a  conne(^ion  which  merits  the  attention  of  phi- 
 lofophers. 
 
 K  K 
 
f70  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 With  regard  to  the  female  fex,  they  are  by  no  means  ex- 
 empted from  conftitutional  changes  when  they  arrive  at  the 
 age  of  puberty.  The  alteration  in  the  tone  of  their  voice,  if 
 it  does  happen,  is  hardly  perceptible.  Neither  are  their 
 faces  deformed  by  a  beard,  which,  according  to  our  prefent 
 ideas,  would  have  a  difgufting  efFecl.  At  this  period,  hov/- 
 ever,  their  mammae  fwell,  and  a  periodical  evacuation  takes 
 place,  which  produces  wonderful  revolutions  in  their  confti- 
 tution  and  aue£lions.  In  both  fexes,  the  mental  changes 
 are  not  lefs  remarkable  than  the  corporeal.  The  powers  of 
 the  mind  expand,  the  force  of  genius  is  felt,  and  very  differ- 
 ent objects  folicit  attention  :  Inftead  of  peurile  amufements, 
 ambition,  a  warm  and  unafFecled  friendfliip,  a  generofity  and 
 unfufpicious  demeanour,  both  in  words  and  aclions,  are  the 
 almoU  univerfal  chara£leriflics  of  this  period  of  human  life. 
 I  mention  it  with  pleafure,  that,  as  far  as  my  obfervation  ex- 
 tends, in  youth,  unlefs  they  are  corrupted  by  example,  by 
 negle^l,  or  by  other  caufes,  all  men  are  honeft,  friendly,  gen- 
 erous, and  humane.  If  this  remark  be  true.  Nature  is  fully 
 exculpated.  But,  when  a  young  man  enters  into  the  bufinefs 
 of  life,  his  candour  and  ingenuoufnefs  foon  meet  with  a- 
 iliock.  This  is  the  painful  reverfe.  Inftead  of  liberality 
 and  integrity  of  condu6l,  he  has  to  encounter  with  felfifh- 
 nefs,  chicane,  and  too  often  with  dire£l  villary.  This  un- 
 happy dilcovery  turns  his  thoughts  into  a  different  current^ 
 contrails  the  noble  opennefs  of  his  heart,  renders  him  fufpi- 
 cious  and  guarded,  and,  if  he  fhall  chance  to  retain  his  in- 
 tegrity, he  is  obliged  to  alTume,  at  leaft,  the  appearance  of 
 jealoufy  and  deceit.  I  by  no  means  intend  this  to  be  the 
 univerfal  chara^ler  of  mankind  j  I  only  lament  that  it  is-  too- 
 i^eneral. 
 
 In  every  race  of  mankind  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
 ledge, the  females  arrive  fooner  at  puberty  than  the  males,. 
 But  the  age  of  puberty  differs  in  different  countries.     This- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  271 
 
 difTerence  feems  to  originate  from  two  caufes,  the  tempera- 
 ture of  the  climate,  and  the  quality  of  the  food.  Children  of 
 citizens,  and  of  opulent  parents,  who  are  fed  with  rich  and 
 nourifliing  victuals,  arrive  fooner  at  this  flate.  Children, 
 on  the  contrary,  brought  up  in  the  country,  or  whofe  parents 
 are  poor,  require  two  or  three  years  longer  ;  becaufe  their 
 food  is  not  only  coarfe,  but  too  fparingly  given.  In  the 
 fouthern  regions  of  Europe,  and  in  large  cities,  the  females 
 arrive  at  puberty  about  the  age  of  twelve,  and  the  males 
 about  fourteen.  But,  in  northern  climates,  and  in  the  coun- 
 try, girls  hardly  come  to  maturity  till  they  are  fourteen,  and 
 boys  not  before  lixteen.  In  the  warmeft  regions  of  Afla, 
 Africa,  and  America,  the  age  of  puberty  in  females  com- 
 mences at  ten,  and  fometimes  at  nine. 
 
 After  puberty,  the  Count  de  BufFon  rem.arks,  «  marriage 
 
 <  is  the  natural  flate  of  man.     A  man  ought  to  have  but  one 
 
 <  wife,  and  a  woman  but  one  hufband.  This  is  the  law  of 
 «  Nature  ;   for  the  number  of  females  is  nearly  equal  to  that 
 
 *  of  the  males.     Such  laws  as  have  been  ena^ed  in  oppofi- 
 
 <  tion  to  this  natural  principle,  have  origiw.ated  folely  from 
 «  tyranny  and   ignorance.     Reafon,  humanity,  and  juflice^ 
 
 *  revolt  againd:  thofe  odious  feraglios,  in  which  the  liberty 
 '  and  the  afFe£lions  of  many  women  are  facrificed  to  the 
 '  brutal  paffion  of  a  iingle  man.     Does  this  unnatural  pre- 
 
 *  eminence  render   thofe  tyrants   of  the  human  race  miore 
 
 <  happy  ?    No  !  Surrounded  with  eunuchs^  and  with  women 
 
 <  who  are  ufelefs  to  themfelves  and  to  other  men,  they  are 
 
 *  tormented  with  the  conftant  appearance  of  that  accumulat- 
 
 <  ed  load  of  mifery  they  have  created.' 
 
 All  animals,  as  well  as  thofe  of  the  human  fpccics,  under- 
 go, at  the  age  of  puberty,  iimilar  changes  in  the  form  of 
 their  bodies,  and  in  the  difpofitions  of  their  mind?.  From 
 mild,  placid,  and  gentle,  they  become  bold,  reliefs,  and  un- 
 governable.    Their  bodies  are  then,  in  flrength  and  fymme- 
 
272  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 try,  perfe(^ly  accommodated  to  the  new  fentlments  which 
 Nature,  for  wile  purpofes,  excites  in  their  minds.  In  th^ 
 deer  kind,  the  horns  of  the  males  appear  not  till  they  are 
 fit  for  multiplying  the  fpecies.  At  this  period,  the  creft, 
 the  wattles,  and  the  plumage  of  the  male  gallinaceous  birds 
 acquire  additional  beauty,  and  their  courage  and  ftrength 
 are  greatly  augmented.  The  pigeon,  inftead  of  being  queru- 
 lous, timid,  and  voracious,  whenever  the  age  of  puberty  ar- 
 rives, feels  emotions  of  a  very  different  kind,  Confcious  of 
 the  new  vigour  he  has  acquired,  he  affumes  a  bold  and  im- 
 portant air.  He  ftruts  about  with  a  majeftic  pride,  and  im- 
 mediately addrefles,  with  all  the  gaity  of  a  lover,  fome  fav- 
 orite female,  whom  he  folicits  with  the  moft  affiduous  gal- 
 lantry and  attention.  After  the  coy  female  gives  her  afTent, 
 their  after  conduct  exhibits  fuch  a  mutual  and  ardent  affec- 
 tion, and  fuch  a  conftant  fidelity,  as  afford  no  inconfiderable 
 pattern  to  the  human  fpecies. 
 
 With  regard  to  fifhes,  we  are  totally  ignorant  of  the  pe- 
 riods when  the  different  tribes  of  them  acquire  the  power  of 
 multiplying.  From  the  element  they  inhabit,  from  the  ra- 
 pidity of  their  motions,  and  from  their  defultory  and  wander- 
 ing mode  of  living,  we  are  equally  ignorant  of  many  other 
 important  parts  of  their  oeconomy  and  manners.  This  con- 
 tinues to  be  an  ample  field  for  future  inveftigation,  and  high- 
 ly worthy  of  the  attention  of  naturalifls. 
 
 The  oeconomy  and  manners  of  infedls  are  more  open  to 
 infpeclion.  Thofe  of  the  winged  tribes  undergo  many  chang- 
 es, both  in  figure  and  fIruiSlure,  before  they  arrive  at  the  age 
 of  puberty.  They  firfl  efcape  from  the  eggs  in  the  form  of 
 minute  caterpillars.  In  this  ftate  they  are  exceedingly  vora- 
 cious, and  grow  with  rapidity  to  their  full  fize  ;  but  they 
 are  deftitute  both  of  the  power  and  of  the  organs  neceifary 
 for  the  multiplication  of  the  fpecies.  They  are  next  form- 
 ed into  chryfalids  :    In  this  flate,  their  bodies  are  covered 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  273 
 
 with  a  kind  of  cruft  or  fhell,  from  which  the  animals  have 
 ^gain  to  efcape,  as  from  a  fecond  egg.  In  this  imprifoned 
 condition,  they  remain  during  a  longer  or  fhorter  period, 
 according  to  the  fpecies,  or  to  the  feafon  of  the  year  in 
 which  they  are  transformed.  After  their  transformation  in- 
 to flies,  they  burft  this  crufl  or  fhell,  and  appear  in  the  form 
 of  flies,  furniftied  with  wings,  legs,  feelers,  &c.  of  all  which 
 they  were  deftitute  in  their  former  ftate.  When  transform- 
 ed into  flies,  caterpillars  have  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty. 
 They  are  now  perfe<St  animals,  and  endowed  with  the  faculty 
 of  tranfmitting  a  numerous  progeny  to  pofterity. 
 
§*?i  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER    XL 
 
 Of  Love, 
 
 X  HE  great  intention  of  Nature,  in  endowing  al-r 
 moft  every  animal  with  a  fexual  attachment,  is  the  multipli- 
 cation and  continuation  of  the  refpe£live  fpecies.  But,  with 
 regard  to  man,  and,  in  an  inferior  degree,  to  all  pairing  ani- 
 mals, love  is  the  fource  of  many  other  focial  and  important 
 advantages.  Love,  or  a  ftrong  affection  for  a  particular  wo- 
 man, is  to  young  men,  perhaps,  one  of  the  greatefl  incen- 
 tives to  virtue  and  propriety  of  condu^l.  In  northern  coun^ 
 tries,  it  feldom  rifes  to  that  degree  of  frensy,  which,  in  warm- 
 er climates,  not  only  engrofTes  the  whole  attention,  but  often 
 totally  unhinges  the  powers  of  the  mind.  In  northern  re- 
 gions, however,  it  occupies  more  gently  the  imagination, 
 gives  a  chearfulnefs  and  alacrity  to  the  bufinefs  or  fludies  of 
 life,  and,  if  reciprocal,  difFufes  over  the  mind  and  body  a  pla- 
 cid happinefs,  and  a  tranquility  of  difpofition,  which  greatly 
 contribute  to  the  health  and  vigour  of  both.  A  young  man 
 in  love,  thinks  that  the  eyes  of  his  favourite  continually  be- 
 hold  him.  Through  this  amiable  medium  he  views  all  his 
 actions,  and  even  his  thoughts.  Llis  afFe£tion  and  venera- 
 tion are  fo  great,  that  he  is  in  fome  meafure,  deterred  from 
 regarding  any  other  woman,  and,  what  is  of  more  import- 
 ance, from  indulging  any  loofe  or  irregular  appetite.  The 
 difpofitions  and  afFedlions  of  the  female  are  the  fame  with 
 thofe  of  the  male.  Her  attention  is  com.pletely  engrofled  ; 
 and  fhe  never  thinks  or  dreams  of  any  man,  but  of  him  who 
 is  the  objedl  of  her  afFedlion.  A  young  man  and  a  young 
 woman  in  love  exhibit  the  moft  innocent  and  the  moft  amia- 
 ble picture  of  human  nature.     Actjiated  by  no  interefted 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  275 
 
 motives,  and  regardlefs  of  future  contingencies,  they  obey 
 the  fupreme  command  of  Nature.  How  much  is  it  to  be 
 lamented,  that,  from  the  cruel,  but  perhaps  unavoidable  infti- 
 tutions  and  cuftoms  of  civil  focieties,  it  is  fo,  often  not  only 
 prudent,  but  necelTary,  to  check,  and  even  to  overcome,  this 
 powerful  law  of  Nature  ? 
 
 Many  are  the  advantages  that  mankind  derive  from  fo- 
 eiety  and  regular  governments,  and  we  fliould  chearfully 
 fubmit  to  thofe  hardfhips  and  inconveniences  to  which  they 
 give  rife.  But  every  man,  however  fubmiflive  to  the  laws 
 of  his  country,  muft  regret  that  neceffity  which  makes  them 
 oppofe  any  of  the  laws  of  Nature,  and  efpecially  the  almofl 
 irreiiftlble  law  of  love. 
 
 In  the  prefent  ftate  of  fociety,  it  muft  be  acknowledged, 
 early  marriages,  among  people  in  the  ordinary  and  dependent 
 Kinks  of  life,  are  extremely  hazardous.  When  both  parties 
 are  induftrious  and  oeconomical,  fuch  marriages  are  not  only 
 the  moft  natural,  but  are  productive  of  the  greateft  happi- 
 nefs  and  cordiality.  But  the  reverfe  is  dreadful !  Children, 
 ftraitened  circumftances,  refentment  of  parents,  whether  real 
 or  affecfted,  too  often  produce  all  the  complicated  miferies 
 to  which  mankind,  in  their  loweft  ftate  of  degradation,  can 
 be  fubjeCled.  Among  this  order  of  men,  therefore,  it  is  of 
 the  higheft  importance  that  the  law  of  Nature  fhould  yield, 
 for  fome  time  at  leaft,  to  the  inftitutions  of  fociety,  and  to 
 thofe  prudential  motives  which  parents  learn  from  expe- 
 rience to  be  ingredients  effential  to  the  comfort  and  Imppi- 
 xiefs  of  life. 
 
 Men  of  fortune  and  of  opulence  have  it  in  their  power 
 to  obey  the  lav,^s  of  Nature  and  of  love  ;  and  fome  exam- 
 ples, though  few  in  number,  occafionally  happen  of  rich  men 
 acting  a  dilinterefted  part  in  their  matrimonial  engagemente, 
 Inftead  of  following  ti  e  dictates  of  Nature,  many  men  of 
 fortune  and  independ6>ice,  difregarding  the  high  privilege 
 
il6 
 
 THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 thejr  enjoy,  facrifice  their  tafle,  their  paffion^  and  often  their 
 happinefs  during  hfe,  at  the  llirine  of  Gold.  To  accompHfti 
 this  fordid  end,  they  often  embrace  deformity^  difeafe,  ignor-^ 
 ance,  peevillinefs,  and  every  thing  that  is  difgufting  to  hu- 
 man nature.  Let  fuch  individuals  fuffer  their  punifhment; 
 But  what  are  the  confequences  to  the  public  ?  Men  of  rank, 
 in  all  nations  and  governments,  not  only  regulate,  in  a  great 
 meafure,  the  manners  of  their  inferiors,  but  are  the  natural 
 guardians  of  the  ftate.  For  thefe  important  purpofes,  their 
 minds  fhould  be  noble,  generous,  and  bold  5  and  their  bodies 
 fliould  be  flrong,  mafculine,  fit  to  encounter  the  fatigues  of 
 war,  and  to  repel  every  hoftile  aflault  that  may  be  made  up- 
 on their  country.  But,  when  men  of  this  defcription,  what- 
 ever be  their  motives,  intermarry  with  weak,  deformed,  puny, 
 br  difeafed  females,  their  progeny  muft  of  neceffity  degen- 
 erate. The  ftrength,  beauty,  and  fymmetry  of  their  ancef- 
 tors  are,  perhaps,  for  ever  loft.  What  is  ftill  more  to  be  re- 
 gretted, debility  of  body  is  almoft  univerfaliy  accompanied 
 with  weaknefs  of  mind.  Thus,  by  the  avarice,  ambition,  or 
 inattention,  of  one  individual,  a  noble  and  generous  race  is 
 completely  deftroyed.  By  reverfing  this  condu(Sl,  it  is  true, 
 the  breed  may  again  be  mended  5  but,  to  repair  a  fingle 
 breach,  many  generations,  endowed  with  prudence  and  cir- 
 cuihfpedion,  v\^ill  be  requifite.  A  fucceffive  degeneration, 
 however,  is  an  infallible  confequence  of  imprudent  or  inter- 
 fefted  marriages  of  this  kind.  One  puny  race  may  for  fome 
 time  be  fucceeded  by  another,  till  at  lail:  their  confliitutions 
 become  fo  feeble  that  the  animals  lofe  the  faculty  of  multi- 
 plying their  fpecies.  This  gradual  degeneration  is  one 
 great  caufe  of  the  total  extinction  of  confpicuous  and  noble 
 families.  That  it  fhould  be  fo,  is  a  wile  and  beneficent  infti- 
 tution  of  Nature  ;  for,  if  fuch  debilitated  races  were  conti- 
 nued, a  univerfal  degeneration  would  foon  take  place,  and 
 mankind  would  be  unable  to  perform  the  duties,  or  to  under- 
 
OF   NAtURAL    HISTORY.  277 
 
 go  the  kbours  of  life.     Nature  firft  chaftifes,  and  at  laft  ex- 
 tirpates, all  thofe  who  act  contrary  to  her  eftablifhed  laws. 
 
 Befide  the  pleafares  refulting  from  fociety,  and  from  mu- 
 tual attachment  in  man,  and  in  pairing  animals,  the  natural 
 love  of  offspring  is  a  foUrce  of  the  moft  engaging  endear- 
 ments. The  innocence  and  helplefs  condition  of  infants  call 
 forth  our  pity  and  protedlion.  When  a  little  farther  ad- 
 vancedj  their  beauty,  their  fmiles,  and  their  fprightlinefs,  ex- 
 cite the  moft  agreeable  emotions.  In  their  progrefs  from 
 infancy  to  manhood,  we  obferve  with  pleafure  the  unfolding 
 of  their  mental  powers.  They  imitate  our  adlions  long  be- 
 fore they  can  exprefs  their  defires,  or  their  wants,  by  lan- 
 guage. Their  attempts  in  the  acquifitiou  of  language  are 
 extremely  curious  and  amufing.  Their  firft  fyftem  of  gram- 
 mar conlifts  entirely  of  fubftantive  nouns.  It  is  long  before 
 they  learn  the  ufe  of  adjectives  or  of  copulatives,  and  ftill 
 longer  before  they  employ  the  verb.  Their  fpeeches  are 
 fliort,  aukward,  and  blundering ;  but  they  are  animated, 
 and  uttered  with  aftonifhing  force  and  vivacity  of  expreffion 
 in  their  eyes,  and  in  the  geftures  of  their  bodies.  At  this 
 period  of  life,  children  are  folely  adluated  by  Nature  and 
 imitation.  After  they  acquire  words  fufficient  for  convey- 
 ing the  few  ideas  they  poiTefs,  they  begin  to  reafon,  or  rath- 
 er to  employ  the  language  of  reafoning ;  for,  at  this  period 
 of  life,  children,  when  they  mean  to  give  a  reafon  why  they 
 fhould  have  any  indulgence  or  gratification,  almoft  univer- 
 fally  argue  againft  themfelves,  and  employ  a  reafon  why 
 their  denres  Ihould  not  be  granted.  This  ridiculous  mode 
 of  reafoning  excites  laughter,  and  affords  pleafure  and  amufe- 
 ment  to  the  parents.  It  likewife  fliows,  that  our  firft  at- 
 tempt toward  reafoning  is  principally,  if  not  folely,  the  effe<5l 
 of  imitation  ;  for  the  reafoning  power,  at  this  period,  is  not 
 fully  unfolded,  becaufe  many  human  inftindls,  or  mental 
 qualities,  have  not   vet  been  called  forth  into  aflion.     But 
 
 L  L 
 
273  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 li€re  I  muft  ftop.  To  do  juftice  to  this  mterefting  fubie(nE 
 would  require  volumes. 
 
 The  love  of  offspring,  which,  though  not  univerfal,  is  per- 
 haps the  ftrongeft  and  moft  adlive  principle  in  human  na- 
 ture. It  overcomes  the  fenfe  of  pain,  and  fometimes  even 
 the  principle  of  felf-prefervation.  A  remarkable  and  a  me- 
 lancholy example  of  the  flrength  of  parental  afFe(Stion  wa3 
 lately  exhibited,  and,  for  the  honour  of  our  fpecies,  defervea 
 to  be  recorded.  In  the  beginning  of  January  1786,  the 
 Halfewell  Eafl  Indiaman,  Captain  Richard  Peirce,  was  un- 
 fortunately wrecked  on  the  coaft  of  Dorfetfliire.  Belide  fe- 
 veral  other  ladies,  Captain  Peirce  had  two  of  his  own  daugh-* 
 ters  on  board.  When  the  fliip  was  in  the  extremity  of  dan- 
 ger, fome  of  the  company,  by  fwimming,  and  other  feats  of 
 activity,  got  upon  a  rock.  In  this  dreadful  lituation.  Cap- 
 tain Peirce  aflied  Mr.  Rogers,  his  third  mate,  if  any  plan 
 could  be  devifed  for  faving  the  ladies  ?  Mr.  Rogers  repli- 
 ed, <  It  is  impoffible  \  but  you  may  fave  yourfelf.'  Upon 
 which  the  Captain,  addreffing  himfelf  to  his  daughters,  and 
 enfolding  them  in  his  arms,  fliid,  *  Then,  my  dear  children, 
 «  we  ihall  not  part  ;  we  fhall  perifh  together  !'  Mr.  Rogers 
 quitted  the  fliip  and  reached  the  rock  :  An  univerfal  iliriek 
 of  defpair  was  heard,  in  which  the  voices  of  female  diftrefs 
 and  horror  were  lamentably  diftinguifliable.  In  a  few  mo* 
 ments  all  v^^as  huflied  ,  the  fliip,  with  every  perfon  on  board, 
 had  then  gone  to  the  bottom.  Parents  chearfully  fubmit  to 
 the  hardell:  labour,  and  expofe  themfelves  to  the  greateft 
 dangers  in  order  to  procure  nourifliment  to  their  young,  or 
 to  proteft  them  from  injury. 
 
 A  bitch,  during  the  operation  of  difTetSlicn,  licked  her 
 young,  v/hofe  prefence  feemed  to  make  her  forget  the  moft 
 excruciating  tortures  j  and^  Vvdien  they  were  removed,  ihe 
 tittered  the  moft  dolorous  cries.  Certain  .fpecies  of  fpiderg 
 mclofe  their  eggs  in  a  fiiken  bag  fpun  and  wove  by  them- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  279 
 
 felves.  This  bag  they  fix  to  their  back,  and  carry  it  along 
 with  them  wherever  they  go.  They  are  extremely  nimble 
 in  their  motions.  But,  when  the  bag  is  forced  from  a  fpider 
 of  this  kind,  her  natural  agility  forfakes  her,  and  fhe  falls 
 into  a  languid  ftate.  When  the  bag  is  again  prefented  to  her, 
 flie  inftantly  feizes  it,  and  carries  it  off  with  rapidity.  The 
 young  fpiders  no  fooner  efcape  from  the  eggs  than  they  dex- 
 teroufly  arrange  themfelves  on  the  back  of  the  mother,  who 
 continues  for  fome  time  to  carry  them  about  with  her,  and  to 
 fupply  all  their  wants.  Another  fpccies  of  fpider  attaches 
 her  bag  of  eggs  to  her  belly.  This  fpider  is  likewife  very 
 agile,  and  fo  ferocious  and  determined  in  the  protection  of 
 her  eggs,  that  fhe  has  been  known  to  fuffer  death  rather  than 
 relinquifti  them.  The  deer  fpontaneoufly  prefents  herfelf 
 to  be  chafed  by  the  dogs,  to  prevent  them  from  attacking 
 her  fawn.  When  the  fox  perceives  that  her  young  have 
 been  difturbed  in  her  abfence,  flie  carries  them  off,  one  after 
 another,  and  conceals  them  in  a  new  retreat.  Wafps  feed 
 their  young,  when  in  the  worm  or  caterpillar  ftate,  in  the  fame 
 manner  as  pigeons  and  other  birds  that  difgorge.  The  pigeon, 
 after  fv/allowing  grain,  retains  it  for  fome  time  in  her  ftom- 
 ach,  till  it  is  foftened  and  macerated  :  She  then  difgorges, 
 and  throv/s  it  into  the  mouths  of  her  young.  «  In  the  fame 
 '  manner,'  fays  Reaumur,  <  I  have  obferved  a  female  wafp 
 «  fwallow  a  large  portion  of  an  infect :  In  a  fliort  time  after- 
 ^  wards,  fhe  traverfed  the  different  cells  of  her  nefl,  difgorg- 
 <  ed  the  contents  of  her  flomach,  and  diftributed  food  in  this 
 «  half  digefted  form  to  her  young  worms*,' 
 
 All  animals,  man  perhaps  not  excepted,  acquire  a  double 
 portion  of  force  and  courage  after  they  bring  forth,  A  cow, 
 at  leaft  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  is  a  placid  and  phlegmatic  ani- 
 mal :  But,  whenever  flie  produces  a  calf,  a  wonderful 
 change  is  exhibited  :  She  inftantly  becomes  vigilant,  active, 
 *  Reaumnv,  torn,  il-  page  23c,  i^zrao.  edit. 
 
880  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 and  even  ferocious,  in  the  defence  of  her  young.  A  lionef? 
 deprived  of  her  cubs  prefents  the  mod  dreadful  picture  of 
 anxiety,  rage,  and  rapacity.  Defcending  lower  in  the  fcale 
 of  animation,  the  fame  change  is  to  be  remarked.  A  do- 
 meflic  hen  is  a  timid,  indocile,  and  obftinately  ftupid  crea- 
 ture. Though  chaccd,  harralTed,  and  even  put  in  dange? 
 of  her  life,  fifty  times  in  a  day,  fhe  never  learns  to  avoid  a 
 garden,  or  any  particular  place  which  fhe  is  accuflomed  to 
 frequent,  or  to  which  fhe  is  led  by  her  appetite  for  food. 
 But,  the  moment  her  chickens  are  hatched,  iriftead  of  her 
 ufual  timidity,  fhe  becomes  as  bold  as  a  lion.  When  fhe 
 thinks  her  young  are  in  danger,  flie  briftles  up  her  feathers,, 
 affumes  a  fiercenefs  in  her  eye,  makes  an  alarming  nolfe,  and 
 attacks.  In  the  moffc  furious  manner,  and  without  diftinctionj 
 every  animal  that  comes  near  her.  By  the  fuddennefs  of 
 her  onfets,  fhe  often  alarms  men,  and  a£lually  intimidates 
 5ind  beats  off  dogs  and  ether  animals  that  could  devour  her 
 in  an  inftant. 
 
 Though  feveral  of  the  infe£l:  tribes  difcover  a  flrong  attach- 
 ment to  their  young,  yet  all  thofe  which  undergo  transforma- 
 tions, and  do  not  form  focieties,  muft  be  completely  ignor..- 
 ant  of  the  exiflence  of  their  progeny  ;  becaufe,  in  general, 
 the  parents  die  before  the  young  are  hatched.  Nature,  how- 
 ever, has  endowed  thofe  fpecies  with  an  infl:in£l  which  produ- 
 ces all  the  effecEls  of  parental  affection  :  They  uniformly  depo- 
 fit  their  eggs  in  fubflances  which  afford  to  the  young, immedi- 
 ately after  their  efcape  from  the  egg,  a  nourifhment  adapted 
 to  their  refpedlive  conftitutions,  and  a  comfortable  and  fafe 
 protection  from  injury.  Thus  nature,  ever  attentive  to  the 
 continuaiion  and  happinefs  of  her  produ(Stion5,  however 
 feemingly  infignificant  in  the  fcale  of  being,  often  employs 
 very  different  means  to  accomplifli  the  fame  beneficent  pur- 
 pofes. 
 
 Nature  has  unqueftionably  attached  pleafure  to  all  the  ne- 
 ceffary  functions  of  animals,     ^ut  this  pleafure  cannot  h^. 
 
6F    NATURAL    HISTORY.  2S1 
 
 tonfidered  as  the  original  caufe  of  any  particular  a(flion  j  for 
 the  experiment  muft  be  made  before  the  animal  can  difcover 
 whether  the  refult  is  to  be  agreeable  or  difagreeable.  The 
 truth  is,  that  Nature  has  beftowed  on  the  minds  of  all  ani- 
 mated creatures  a  number  of  laws  or  inftincls  perfectly  ac- 
 commodated to  the  fpeciesj  and  which  irrefiftibly  compel 
 them  to  perform  certain  actions.  The  effeiSts  of  thefe  laws 
 we  perceive  :  But  the  caufes,  or  the  modes  by  which  they 
 operate  on  animal  minds,  are  infcrutable.  We  may  and 
 muft  admire,  but  we  can  never  penetrate  the  myfterles  of 
 Nature. 
 
 Bonnet,  and  fome  other  naturalifts,  imagine  they  are  ex- 
 hibiting the  caufes  of  that  ftrong  and  mutual  attachn^.ent  be- 
 tween parents  and  their  offspring,  when  they  tell  us,  that,  in 
 man,  and  quadrupeds,  and  birds,  the  mother  is  fond  of  hev 
 young,  becaufe  their  natural  actions  give  rife  to  agreeable 
 fenfations ;  that,  from  the  ftructure  of  the  mammae,  a  gen- 
 tle, but  pleafant  fenfation,  is  excited  by  the  adllon  of  fuck- 
 ing ;  that  the  mother  is  often  incommoded  by  too  great  ^^ 
 quantity  of  milk,  and  that  fucking  relieves  her  ;  that  the 
 young  love  their  mother,  becaufe  fhe  feeds,  prote(Sls,  and  com- 
 municates to  them  a  cherifliirig  warmth  ;  that,  among  the 
 feathered  tribes,  and  particularly  thofe  which  fit  upon  their 
 young,  by  the  gentle  motions  of  the  little  ones,  an  agreeable 
 fenfation  is  excited  in  the  belly  of  the  mother,  which  is  then 
 frequently  deprived  of  feathers.  All  thefe  fources  of  recip- 
 rocal pleafure  may  be  true  :  But  ftill  they  are  only  effe(fts,  and 
 not  original  caufes,  of  filial  and  parental  affection  ;  for  that 
 mutual  attachment  exifts  the  moment  after  the  young  ani- 
 mals come  into  the  world,  and,  of  courfe,  previous  to  all  ex- 
 perience of  titillation,  of  heat,  of  habit,  or  of  any  other  cir- 
 cumftanccs  that  may,  perhaps,  contribute  to  ftrengthen  or 
 prolong  the  exertion  of  the  primary  caufe,  which  muft  re- 
 main forever  concealed  from  human  penetration. 
 
2:S2  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 In  moft  animals,  except  the  human  fpecies,  parental  and 
 filial  affetftion  ceafe  whenever  the  young  are  able  to  provide 
 for  themfelves.  The  pleafures  derived  from  fucking,  and 
 from  other  circumftances  formerly  mentioned,  might  for 
 fome  time  remain  ;  but  the  young  grow  large,  unwieldy, 
 petulent,  and  enter  Into  competitions  for  food,  which  not 
 only  contribute  to  alienate  the  affe6tion  of  the  parents,  but 
 even  to  excite  rcfentment  and  averfion.  Thefe,  however, 
 are  only  fecondary  caufes.  The  purpofes  of  Nature  are  ful- 
 filled. The  ardour  of  afFe£lIon,  which  was  indlfpenfably 
 necefTary  to  the  protection  and  rearing  of  the  young,  being 
 now  no  longer  ufeful,  is  fo  totally  extingulfhed,  that  neither 
 the  parents  nor  the  offspring  are  capable  of  recognizing  one 
 another.  This  temporary  and  amiable  inftinft  is  obliterated, 
 and  never  revives  till  the  fervours  of  love  are  again  felt,  and 
 a  new  progeny  appear. 
 
 Marriage  or  panning,  though  by  no  means  an  unlverfal  in- 
 ftltutlon  of  Natnre,  is  not  unfrequently  exhibited  in  the  ani- 
 mal creation.  With  regard  to  man,  both  male  and  female 
 are  inftlnClively  impelled  to  make  a  feleCtion.  The  force  of 
 this  natural  impulfe  is  ftrongly  felt  by  every  young  and  un- 
 corrupted  individual.  When  not  retrained  by  neceffity,  or 
 other  powerful  motives,  men  and  w^omen  would  intermarry 
 long  before  it  would  be  prudent  in  civilized  or  artificial 
 -ftates  of  fociety.  This  unlverfal,  and  almoft  irrefiftlble 
 impulfe  of  felectlon,  is  to  me  the  flrongefl  argument  in  fa- 
 vour of  monogamy,  or  the  union  of  pairs,  among  the  human 
 fpecies. 
 
 The  fame  impulfe,  or  law  of  Nature,  takes  place  among 
 many  other  animals,  as  the  partridge  tribes,  the  fwallow,  the 
 linnet,  and,  in  general,  all  the  fmall  birds.  The  afliduity,  at- 
 tention, mutual  afFe<Slion,  laborious  vigilance,  and  fleadfaft 
 fidelity  of  pairing  animals,  are  truly  admirable,  and  to  inge-. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISYORY.  2$3 
 
 nuous  minds,  afford  the  moll  exemplary  admonitions  to  vir- 
 tue and  conjugal  attachment. 
 
 Befide  this  forcible  impulfe  of  fele<Sl;ion  implanted  by  Na^ 
 ture  in  man,  and  in  every  other  pairing  animal,  fome  other 
 fa^ts  deferve  to  be  noticed.  In  all  pairing  anim.als,  including, 
 of  courfe,  the  human  race,  the  males  and  females  produced 
 are  nearly  equal.  This  is  a  pkin  indication  that  Nature 
 deftined  thefe  animals  to  pair,  or  to  maray.  Injuftice,  jeal- 
 oufy,  animoiity,  and  every  animal  calamity,  would  enfue,  if 
 this  order  of  Nature  were  encroached  upon  in  creatures  who 
 are  endowed  with  the  inftincV  of  fexual  fele£lion. 
 
 It  is  not  incurious  to  remark,  that  human  inftitutions  often 
 contradi6l  the  laws  of  Nature.  The  dunghill  cock  and  hen^ 
 in  a  natural  flate,  pair.  In  a  domeftic  flate,  however,  the 
 cock  is  a  jealous  tyrant,  and  the  hen  a  proftitute.  But,  even 
 in  this  unnatural  fociety,  a  feledlion  is  fometimes  to  be  ob- 
 ferved.  The  fame  phenomenon  is  exhibited  among  man-^ 
 kind,  when  placed  in  certain  fltuations.  Like  domeftic 
 poultry,  the  Turks,  and  fome  Aliatic  and  African  nations, 
 influenced  by  an  accurfed  government,  and  by  an  execrable 
 religion,  rebel  againft  the  law  of  love,  and  of  reciprocal  at-* 
 tachment.  In  thefe  countries,  a  rich  man  not  only  engroll^ 
 es,  but  imprifons  and  tortures,  as  many  beautiful  women  aa 
 his  fortune  enables  him  to  fupport.  Deftitute  of  all  thofof 
 endearments  which  arife  from  mental  communication,  from 
 parental  tendernefs  and  afFe6lion,  from  mutual  confidence 
 and  folace,  he  is,  while  young,  perpetually  tormented  with 
 jealous  apprehenlions.  As  he  advances  in  life,  his  jealoufy 
 and  Ills  terror  augment.  Though  his  females  are  fcrupu- 
 loufly  guarded  from  every  intrufion,  by  fervile  and  mutilat-* 
 cd  wretches,  his  fears  incrcafe  with  his  years  and  debility:^ 
 frill  a  premature  and  comfortlefs  old  age  puts  a  period  to  his 
 infignificant  and  liftlefs  exiftence. 
 
 In  general,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  all  thofe  fpecies  of  ani* 
 mals^  whcfe  oltspring  require,  for  fome  time,  the  induftry  and 
 
^84  THE    PHlLOSOPHt 
 
 fupport  of  both  parents,  are  endowed  with  the  in{lin£^  of  fe- 
 lection,  or  of  pairing.  With  regard  to  the  feathered  tribes, 
 pairing  is  almoft  univerfal.  A  diftinclion,  however,  as  to 
 the  duration  and  circumftances  of  their  pairing  is  to  be  ob- 
 ferved.  The  young  of  all  the  fmall  birds,  as  well  as  of  mofk 
 of  the  larger  kinds,  continue  for  fome  vv'eeks  in  a  weak  and 
 helplefs  condition.  The  mother  is  not,  like  quadrupeds, 
 provided  with  organs  fitted  to  fecrete  milk  -,  of  courfe,  flie  is 
 unable  to  nourifli  them  out  of  her  own  body.  She  is  therefore 
 obliged  to  go  r.broad  in  quefl:  of  food  for  them.  But  the  proge- 
 ny are  {o  numerous,  that  all  her  induftry,  if  net  affifted  by 
 the  father,  would  be  ineffectual  for  their  fupport  and  protec- 
 tion. In  all  birds  whofe  young  are  in  this  condition,  the 
 males  and  females  not  only  pair,  but  each  of  them  is  endow- 
 ed with  the  ftrongeft  parental  aifedlion.  Both  are  et|ually 
 anxious  and  induflrious  in  procuring  food  for  their  mutual 
 offspring.  This  parental  care  and  attachment  uniformly  con- 
 tinues till  the  young  are  fledged,  and  have  acquired  fufHcient 
 ftrength  to  provide  for  themfelves.  Eagles,  and  fome  other 
 birds  of  prey,  continue  faithfully  in  pairs  for  years,and  perhaps 
 during  life.  Thefe  fa£ls  afford  a  ftrong  argument  in  favouif 
 of  marriage  among  mankind.  No  animal  remains  fo  long 
 in  the  infant  and  helplefs  ftate  as  the  children  of  men  ;  and 
 iio  mother  could,  with  her  own  induflry,  poffibly  fuckle  and 
 procure  nouriihment  for  a  numerous  family.  Here,  as  in 
 the  feathered  tribes,  the  afTiftance  of  the  father  becomes 
 indifpenfible.  On  this  fubjefl:,  a  curious  inftindl  merits 
 attention.  The  male  of  moft  birds  not  only  feiecls  a  fe- 
 male, but,  with  great  affiduity,  brings  food  to  her  ^vhen 
 iitting  on  her  eggs,  and  often  relieves  her,  by  fitting  on  them 
 himfelf. 
 
 There  are  other  fpecies  of  pairing  birds,  whofe  young,  as 
 foon  as  they  are  hatched,  are  capable  of  eating  their  food 
 Tr'hen  prefented  to  them,  and  of  eourfe,  require  lefs   labour 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  283 
 
 from  the  parents.  In  thefe  fpecies,  accordingly,  the  male 
 pays  no  attention  to  the  progeny,  becaufe  it  is  unneceflary  j 
 but  the  mother  carefally  leads  them  about  to  places  where 
 proper  food  is  to  be  had,  protects  them  from  injuries,  and 
 communicates  heat  to  them  by  covering  them  with  her 
 wings. 
 
 Quadrupeds,  efpecially  thofe  which  feed  upon  grafs,  do 
 not  pair  ;  becaufe,  while  the  female  gives  fuck  to  her  young, 
 {he  herfelf  is  feeding.  Befide,  the  young  of  this  tribe,  very 
 foon  after  birth,  can  eat  grafs  and  other  vegetables.  The 
 Count  de  Buffon  reniarks,  that  the  roe- deer,  though  they  feed 
 Upon  grafs,  are  to  be  excepted  from  this  rule  j  for  they  pair 
 and  have  annually  but  one  litter.  Lions,  tigers,  wolves,  and 
 other  rapacious  quadrupeds,  do  not  pair.  The  whole  labour 
 of  procuring  food  is  devolved  upon  the  female,  which  often 
 fliortens  her  own  life,  as  well  as  that  of  her  offspring.  In 
 relation  to  man,  this  is  a  fortunate  circumftance,  for,  if  beafts 
 of  prey  paired,  a  dangerous  multiplication  of  thofe  deftruc- 
 tive  fpecies  would  be  the  confequence.  But  pairing  is  efTen- 
 tially  neceflary  to  birds  of  prey ;  becaufe,  during  the  procefs 
 of  incubation,  the  female  would  not  have  time  fufficient  for 
 procuring  food  *,  which,  in  thefe  animals,  requires  both  pa- 
 tience and  addrefs.  Some  quadrupeds,  particularly  thofe 
 which  lay  up  provifions  for  the  winter,  as  the  beaver,  pair. 
 As  foon  as  the  young  beavers  are  produced,  the  males  aban- 
 don the  ftock  of  proviiions  to  the  females,  and  go  in  queft  of 
 food  for  themfelves.  But  they  by  no  means  relinquifh  their 
 mates  ;  but  frequently  return  and  viflt  them  while  they  are 
 fuckling  their  young. 
 
 If  man,  and  fome  of  the  pairing  animals  be  excepted,  the 
 feafons  of  love  are  limited  to   particular   times  of  the    year. 
 Thefe  feafons,  though  various,  are  admirably  adapted  to  the 
 nature  and  oeconomy  of  the  different  fpecies.     In  all  ani- 
 mals of  this  kind,  the  feafons  of  love,  and  the  times  of  fe- 
 
 M   M 
 
28:6  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 male  geftation,  are  fo  contrived  by  Nature,  that  the  offspring 
 when  brought  forth,  are  amply  fupplied  with  the  particular 
 fpecies  of  food  upon  which  they  principally  live.  Though 
 the  times  of  geftation  vary  confiderably  among  fuch  quadru- 
 peds as  feed  upon  grafs,  the  refpedlive  females  uniformly 
 bring  forth  early  in  fummer,  when  the  grafs  is  tender  and 
 luxuriant.  The  mare  comes  in  feafon  in  fummer,  carries 
 eleven  months,  and  is  delivered  in  the  beginning  of  May. 
 Sheep  and  goats  come  in  feafon  in  the  end  of  October  or  be- 
 ginning of  November.  They  carry  five  months,  and  pro- 
 duce when  the  grafs  begins  to  fpring.  It  is  worthy  of  ob- 
 fervation,  that,  though  the  times  of  geftation  in  the  fame 
 fpecies,  and  in  all  latitudes,  never  alter,  yet  the  feafons  of 
 love,  and  times  of  delivery,  vary  with  the  climate.  In  Italy, 
 fheep  come  in  fealbn  in  the  months  of  June  or  July.  The 
 females,  as  ufual,  carry  five  months,  and  bring  forth  in  No- 
 vember or  December,  the  very  period  when  grafs,  in  that 
 climate,  is  in  its  beft  ftate  for  pa-fture  ;  for,  in  April,  it  is 
 burnt  up,  and  fheep  have  nothing  to  browfe  upon  but  fhrubs. 
 The  rutting  feafon  of  the  ftag  is  in  the  end  of  September 
 and  beginning  of  0£tober,  and  the  female  brings  forth  in 
 May  or  the  beginning  of  June.  Thefe  animals  inhabit  the 
 higheft  mountains  of  Scotland,  where  the  grafs,  of  courle, 
 does  not  begin  to  fpring  fo  early  as  in  the  lower  parts  of 
 that  country.  Beavers  come  in  leafon  about  the  end  of  au- 
 tumn, and  bring  forth  in  January,  when  their  ftore-houfes 
 are  full  of  provilions.  The  young  of  pairing  birds  are  pro- 
 duced in  the  fpring,  when  the  weather  begins  to  be  comfort- 
 ably warm,  and  their  natural  food  abounds.  In  a  word,  the 
 bringing  forth,  or  hatching,  of  all  animals,  not  excluding 
 the  infe(St  tribes,  uniformly  takes  place  at  thole  feafons  of  the 
 year  when  the  nature  of  the  weather,  and  the  food  peculiar 
 to  the  fpecies,  are  beft  adapted  to  the  conftitution  of  their 
 offspring.     Caterpillars  of  every  kind  are  never  hatched  till 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  g87 
 
 the  various  plants  on  which  they  feed  though  they  grow  in 
 different  months,  have  put  forth  their  leaves. 
 
 We  fliall  conclude  this  fubjed,  by  giving  a  Table  of  the 
 Relative  Fecundity,  &c.  of  Animals,  which,  in  a  Ihort  com- 
 pafs,  folves  a  number  of  queftions  with  regard  to  the  natural 
 hiftory  of  quadrupeds.  It  is  taken  from  the  eighth  volume 
 of  the  Tranflation  of  Buffon,  to  whofe  authority  moft  read- 
 ers will  be  inchned  to  give  great  weight. 
 
288 
 
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OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  g91 
 
 CHAPTER  XII. 
 
 Of  the  Transformation  of  Anhnah. 
 
 1  HE  transformation  of  caterpillars,  and  of  dif- 
 ferent kinds  of  worms,  into  winged  infe(Sts,  has  long  excited 
 the  attention,  as  well  as  the  admiration  of  mankind.  But 
 the  truth  Is,  that  every  animal,  without  exception,  undergoes 
 changes  in  ftruiSlure,  mode  of  exiftence,  and  external  appear- 
 ances. Mankind,  from  their  embryo  ftate,  to  their  final 
 dilTolution,  aflume  many  different  forms.  Some  weeks  after 
 conception,  the  rudiments  of  a  human  being  are  to  be  per- 
 ceived. As  pregnancy  advances,  the  approaches  to  the  per- 
 fect figure  become  gradually  more  difi:inguifhable,  till  the 
 period  of  birth.  While  in  the  foetus  fi:ate,  the  head  is  dif- 
 proportionally  large,  when  compared  with  the  other  parts 
 of  the  body  ;  nourifliment  is  conveyed  to  it  by  very  differ- 
 ent channels  ;  and  refpiration  is  not  necelTary,  becaufe  the 
 circulation  of  the  blood  is  not  carried  on  in  the  fame  manner 
 as  after  birth.  Even  after  birth,  the  form,  fymmetry,  and 
 organs  of  the  animal  are  by  no  means  complete.  The  head 
 continues  for  fome  time  to  be  difproportionally  large  •,  the 
 hands  and  feet  are  not  properly  fhaped  ;  the  legs  are  crook- 
 ed \  the  hair  on  the  head  is  fhort  and  fcanty  ;  no  teeth  as 
 yet  appear  -,  and  there  is  not  a  veftige  of  a  beard.  In  a  few 
 months,  however,  the  fymmetry  of  all  the  parts  is  evidently 
 improved,  and  the  teeth  begin  to  fhoot.  The  growth  of  the 
 whole  body,  as  well  as  the  flrength  and  beauty  of  its  form 
 gradually  advance  to  perfection  till  the  fixth  or  feventh  yecir, 
 when  another  change  takes  place.  At  this  period,  the  firft 
 fet  of  teeth  are  fhed,  and  are  replaced  by  new  ones.  From 
 boyhood  to  puberty,  the  fize  of  the  body,  and  of  its  differ- 
 ent members,  increafe.     When  the  age  of  puberty  arrives. 
 
^9i 
 
 THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 feveral  important  changes  are  produced  in  the  fyftem  of 
 both  males  and  females.  The  beard  now  makes  its  appear- 
 ance ;  the  dimenfions  of  the  body,  in  mod  individuals,  are 
 fuddenly  augmented  ;  and  both  fexes  become  capable  of 
 multiplying  the  fpecies.  From  this  period,  to  the  age  of 
 twenty-five  or  thirty,  the  mufcles  fwell,  their  interfaces  are 
 filled  with  fat,  the  parts  bear  a  proper  proportion  to  each 
 other,  and  man  may  now  be  confidered  as  a  perfect  animal. 
 tn  this  ftate  of  bodily  perfection  and  vigour,  he  generally 
 remains  till  he  reaches  his  fiftieth  year.  Then  a  new  but  a 
 gradual  change  begins  to  appear.  From  the  fiftieth  year  to 
 the  age  of  feventy  or  eighty,  the  powers  of  the  body  decline 
 in  their  fhrength  and  adtivity.  The  mufcles  lofe  their  fpring 
 and  their  force.  The  vigour  of  manhood  is  no  longer  felt ; 
 and  the  withered  decrepitude  of  old  age  is  fucceeded  by 
 death,  its  unavoidable  confequence. 
 
 The  mind  of  man  undergoes  changes  as  well  as  his  body. 
 The  tafle,  the  appetites,  and  the  difpofitions,  are  in  perpetual 
 fluctuation.  How  diff"erent  is  the  tafire  of  a  child  from  that 
 of  a  man  ?  Fond  of  gewgaws  and  of  trifling  amufements,  chil- 
 dren frolic  away  their  time  without  much  thought  or  reflec- 
 tion. Yfhen  advancing  toward  puberty,  their  difpofitions 
 and  defires  fuller  a  gradual  mutation.  New  inftinCts  are  un- 
 folded, and  a  {enfe  of  propriety  begins  to  be  perceived. 
 They  dcfpife  their  former  occupations  and  amufements  ;  and 
 different  fpecies  of  objects  folicit  and  obtain  their  attention. 
 Their  powers  of  reflection  are  now  confiderably  augmented  ; 
 and  both  fexes  acquire  a  modefty  and  a  fliynefs  with 
 regard  to  each  other.  This  auk  ward,  but  natural  bafhful- 
 nefs,  by  the  intercourfe  of  fociety,  as  well  as  by  the  impulfes 
 .of  Nature,  vanifhes  foon  after  puberty,  when  the  ftate  of 
 manhood  and  of  gallantry  commences.  From  this  period, 
 to  the  age  of  twenty-five  or  thirty,  men's  minds  aiTume  a 
 bold,  enterprifing,   and  adtive  tone.     They  engage  in   the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  293 
 
 bufinefs  of  life,  look  forward  to  futurity,  and  have  a  defire  of 
 marrying  and  of  eftablifhing  families.  All  the  focial  appe- 
 tites are  in  vigour  ;  folid  and  manly  friendships  are  formed  ; 
 and  man  goes  on  for  fome  time  to  enjoy  every  kind  of  happi- 
 nefs  which  his  nature  is  capable  of  affording.  I  wifh  the 
 next  change  had  no  exigence.  At  fifty  or  fixty,  the  mental 
 powers,  in  general,  like  thofe  of  the  body,  begin  to  decline, 
 till  feeble  and  tremulous  old  age  arrives,  and  death  clofes  the 
 mutable  fcene  of  human  life. 
 
 With  regard  to  quadrupeds^  both  before  and  after  birth, 
 they  undergo  fimilar,  and  many  of  them  greater,  changes  of 
 form  than  thsfe  of  the  human  fpccies.  Their  mental  pow- 
 ers, likewife,  their  difpoiitions  and  manners,  as  well  as  the 
 objects  of  their  attention,  vary  according  to  the  different 
 flages  of  their  exiftence.  Many  of  them  come  into  the 
 world  blind,  and  continue  for  fome  time  before  they  receive 
 the  {qxi^q  of  feeing.  How  many  changes  are  exhibited  in 
 the  dog  from  birth  till  all  his  members  are  completely  form- 
 ed, and  all  his  inftin^ls  are  unfolded  and  improved  by  expe- 
 rience and  education  ?  The  deer -kind  acquire  not  their 
 magnificent  and  beautiful  horns  before  the  age  of  puberty  ; 
 and  even  thefe  are  annually  caft  oiFand  renewed.  Similar 
 changes  take  place  in  quadrupeds  of  every  denomination  ; 
 with  examples  of  which  every  man's  experience  and  recol- 
 lection will  readilv  fupply  him  ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  unnecef- 
 fary  to  be  more  particular. 
 
 Neither  are  Birds ,  in  their  progrefs  from  birth  to  maturi- 
 ty, exempted  from  changes.  Like  quadrupeds,  many  birds 
 are  blind  for  fome  time  after  they  are  hatched.  In  this  con- 
 dition, how  different  are  their  form  and  appearances  from 
 thofe  of  the  perfeft  animals  !  At  firft,  they  are  covered  with 
 a  kind  of  down  inftead  of  feathers.  Even  after  the  feathers 
 ihoot,  they  are  often  of  a  colour  different  from  that  which 
 
 they  acquire  when  full  grown.     The  beautifully  variegated 
 
 N  N 
 
21)4^  THE    PHILOSOPHt 
 
 colours  ofthe  peacock's  tail  appear  not  till  he  arrives  at  lils' 
 third  year  *.  Birds  that  have  crefts,  or  wattles,  live  a  con- 
 fiderable  time  before  they  acquire  thefe  ornaments,  or  marks 
 of  diftincStion.  All  birds  annually  molt,  or  caft  their  fea- 
 thers, in  the  fame  manner  as  quadrupeds  ihed  their  hair,  the 
 new  pufliing  out  the  old. 
 
 Frogs,  and  many  other  a?nphibious  animals,  undergo  great 
 changes  in  their  form  and  il:ru6lure.  When  it  firll  efcapes 
 from  the  egg,  a  frog  appears  in  the  form  of  a  tadpole,  an 
 animal  with  a  large  roundifli  head,  and  a  comprelTed  or  flat 
 tail,  but  totally  deftitute  of  feet  and  legs.  In  this  ftate  it  re- 
 mains a  condderable  time,  when  the  two  fore-feet  begin  to 
 fhoot,  and  have  an  exa-ft  refemblance  to  the  buds  of  trees. 
 As  their  growth  advances,  the  toes  and  legs  are  diftinguilha- 
 ble.  The  fame  procefs  goes  on  with  the  hind-legs,  only 
 they  are  fomewhat  later  in  making  their  appearance.  Dur- 
 ing the  growth  of  the  legs,  the  blood  being  drawn  into  dif- 
 ferent channels,  the  tail  fufFers  a  gradual  mortification,  till  at 
 lafi:  it  totally  vaniflies,  and  the  tadpole  is  metamorphofed 
 into  a  quadruped.  Tadpoles  never  come  out  of  the  water  ; 
 but,  after  their  transformation  into  frogS;,  they  become  am- 
 phibious, and  occalionally  frequent  both  land  and  water. 
 
 The  cntjlaceous  tribes,  as  lobfters,  crabs,,  &c.  belide  the  dif- 
 ferent appearances  they  affume  while  growing  to  perfection, 
 caft  their  fhells  every  year.  When  this  change  is  about  to 
 happen,  they  retire  into  the  crevices  of  rocks,  or  flielter 
 themfelves  below  detached  ftones,  with  a  view  to  conceal 
 and  defend  their  bodies  from  he  rapacious  attacks  of  other 
 fillies.  After  the  fhells  are  caft,  the  animals  are  exceeding-* 
 ly  weak  and  defencelefs.  Inftead  of  their  natural  defence 
 of  hard  ftiells  and  ftrong  claws,  they  are  covered  only  with  ^ 
 thin  membrane  or  fliin.  In  this  fcate  they  become  an  eafy 
 grey  to  almoft  every  fifh  that  fwims.  The  Ikin,  however, 
 *  Liimaei  Aaiocn.  Acad,  vol,  4.  p.  ^dZ, 
 
OF   -NATURAL    HISTORY.  §95 
 
 gradually  thickens  and  grows  harder,  till  it  acquires  the  ufual 
 degree  of  firmnefs.  By  this  time  the  animals  have  refum-ed 
 their  former  flrength  and  activity  ;  they  come  out  from  their 
 retirements,  and  go  about  in  queft  of  food. 
 
 Serpents,  and  many  other  reptiles,  caft  their  f!dns  an- 
 nually. The  beauty  and  luftre  of  their  colours  are  then 
 highly  augmented.  Before  cafting,  the  old  flcins  have  a 
 tarnilhed  and  withered  appearance.  The  old  fiiins,  like 
 the  firft  fet  of  teeth  in  children,  are  forced  ofFby  the  grovv-th 
 of  the  new. 
 
 We  come  now  to  give  fome  account  of  the  transformations 
 of  infccfs^  which  are  both  various  and  wonderful.  All  wing- 
 ed infe(fts,  without  exception,  and  many  of  thofe  which  are 
 deflitute  of  wings,  muft  pafs  through  feveral  changes  before 
 the  animals  arrive  at  the  perfe6lion  of  their  natures.  The 
 appearance,  the  ftrudlure,  and  the  organs  of  a  caterpillar,  of 
 a  chryfalis,  and  of  a  fly,  are  fo  different,  that,  to  a  perfon  un- 
 acquainted with  their  transformations,  an  identical  animal 
 would  be  confidered  as  three  diftincl  fpecies.  Without  the 
 aid  of  experience,  who  could  believe  that  a  butterfly,  adorn- 
 ed with  four  beautiful  wings,  furnillied  w^ith  a  long  fpiral 
 probofcis  or  tongue,  inftead  of  a  mouth,  and  with  fix  legs, 
 fliould  have  proceeded  from  a  difgufting,  hairy  caterpillar, 
 provided  with  jaws  and  teeth,  and  fourteen  feet  ?  Without 
 experience,  who  could  imagine  that  a  long,  white,  finooth, 
 foft  worm,  hid  under  the  earth,  fliould  be  transformed  into 
 a  black,  cruftaceous  beetle,  having  wings  covered  with  horny 
 tflytra,  or  cafes  ? 
 
 Upon  this  branch  of  the  fubject,  we  fhall,/r/?,  give  an  ex-  ' 
 ample  or  two  of  the  moft  common    transformations    of   In- 
 fects ;  and,  fecofidly,  defcribe  fome  of  the  more  uncommon 
 kinds. 
 
 Befide  their  final  metamorphofis  into  flies,  caterpillars  un- 
 dergo feveral  intermediate  changes.     All  caterpillars  caft  or 
 
295  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 change  their  Ikins  oftener  or  more  feldom,  according  to  the 
 fpecies.     Malpighius  informs   us,  that  the  filk-vvorm,   pre- 
 vious to  its  chryfahs  flate,   cafts  its   fltin   four   times.     The 
 firft  fkin  is  caft  on  the  10th,  11th,  or  l^ith  day,  according  to 
 the  nature  of  the  feafon  •,  the  fecond  in  live  or  fix  days  after  •, 
 the  third  in  five  or  lix  days   more  ;  and  the   fourth  and  laft 
 in  fix  or  feven  days  after  the  third.     This  changing  of  ikin 
 is  not   only  common  to  all  caterpillars,  but  to   every  infe£t 
 whatever.     Not  one  of  them  arrives  at  perfection  vi^ithout 
 cafting  its  flvin  at  leaft  once  or  twice.     The  lliin,  after  it  is 
 call,  preferves  fo  entirely  the  figure  of  the  caterpillar  in  its 
 head,  teeth,  legs,  colour,  hair,  &c.  that  it  is  often  miftaken 
 for  the  animal  itfelf.     A  day  or  two  before  this  change  hap- 
 pens, caterpillars  take  no  food  :    They  lofe  their  former  ac- 
 tivity, attach  themfelves  to  a  particular  place,  and  bend  their 
 bodies  in  various  dire£i:ions,  till  at  laft  they  efcape  from  the 
 old  ikin,  and  leave  it  behind  them.     The  inteftinal  canal  of 
 caterpillars  is  compofed  of  two  principal  tubes,  the  one  in- 
 ferted  into  the  other.     The  external  tube  is  compact  and 
 flefhy  ;   but  the  internal  one  is  thin  and  tranfparent.    Some 
 days  before  caterpillars  change  into  the  chryfalis  ftate,  they 
 void,   along    with  their  excrement,  the  inner  tube  which 
 lined  their  ftomach  and  inteftines.     When  about  to  pafs  in- 
 to the  chryfalis  ftate,  which  is  a  ftate  of  imbecility,  caterpil- 
 lars fele£l  the  moft  proper  places  and  modes  of  concealing 
 themfelves    from  their   enemies.     Some,  as  the  filk-worm, 
 and    many    others,   fpin   filken  webs  or  cods  round  their 
 bodies,  which  completely  difguife  the  animal  form.    Others 
 leave  the  plants  upon  which  they   formerly  fed  and  hide 
 themfelves  in  the  little  cells  which  they  make  in  the  earth. 
 The  rat -tailed  worm  abandons  the  water  upon  the  approach 
 of  its  metamorphofis,  retires  under  the  earth,  where  it  is 
 changed  into  a  chryfalis,  and,  after   a  certain  time,  burfts 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  29T 
 
 from  its  feemingly  inanimate  condition,  and  appears  in  the 
 form  of  a  winged  infe<5l.  Thus  the  fame  animals  pafs  the 
 firft  and  longeft  period  of  their  exiftence  in  the  water,  anoth- 
 er under  the  earth,  and  the  third  and  laft  in  the  air.  Some 
 caterpillars,  when  about  to  change  into  a  chryfalis  ftate, 
 cover  their  bodies  with  a  mixture  of  earth  and  filk,  and  con- 
 ceal themfelves  in  the  loofe  foil.  Others  incruft  themfelves 
 with  a  filky  or  glutinous  matter,  which  they  pufh  out  from 
 their  mouths,  without  fpinning  it  into  threads.  Others  re- 
 tire into  the  holes  of  walls  or  of  decayed  trees.  Others  fuf- 
 pend  themfelves  to  the  twigs  of  trees,  or  to  other  elevated 
 bodies,  with  their  heads  undermoft.  Some  attach  them- 
 felves .to  walls,  with  their  heads  higher  than  their  bodies, 
 but  in  various  inclinations  ;  and  others  choofe  a  horizontal 
 pofition.  Some  fix  themfelves  by  a  gluten,  and  fpin  a  rope 
 round  their  middle  to  prevent  them  from  falling.  Thofe. 
 which  feed  upon  trees  attach  themfelves  to  the  branches,  in- 
 flead  of  the  leaves,  which  are  lefs  durable,  and  fubject  to  a 
 greater  variety  of  accidents.  The  colours  of  the  caterpillars 
 give  no  idea  of  thofe  of  the  future  flies. 
 
 In  general,  the  figure  of  chryfalids  approaches  to  that  of  a 
 cone,  efpecially  in  their  pofterior  part.  When  under  this 
 form,  the  infecl  feems  to  have  neither  legs  nor  wings.  It  is 
 incapable  either  of  walking  or  of  crawling.  It  takes  no 
 nourifhment,  becaufe  it  has  no  organs  fuited  to  that  purpofe  5 
 yet,  in  fome  fpecies,  life  is  continued  for  feveral  months  be- 
 fore their  laft  metamorphofis  takes  place.  In  a  word,  it 
 feems  to  be  a  lifelefs  mafs.  But,  upon  a  more  attentive  ob- 
 fervation,  it  pofiefTes  the  power  of  bending  upwards  and 
 downwards  the  pofterior  part  of  its  body.  The  fkin,  or  ex- 
 terior covering,  of  thofe  which  do  not  fpin  cods,  feems  to  be 
 of  a  cartilaginous  nature.  It  is  commonly  fmooth  and  fliin- 
 ing.  In  fome  fpecies,  however,  the  fkin  of  the  chryfalis  is 
 more  or  Icfs  covered  with  hair,  and  other  rugofities.  Though 
 
2^8  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 chryfallds  differ  both  in  figure  and  colour,  their  appearances 
 are  by  no  means  fo  various  as  thofe  of  the  caterpillars  from 
 which  they  are  produced.  The  colour  of  fome  chryfalids  is 
 that  of  pure  gold,  from  which  circumflance  the  whole  have 
 received  their  denomination.  For  the  fame  reafon  they  are 
 called  aiirel'iae  in  Latin.  Some  are  brown,  others  green  *,  and, 
 indeed,  they  are  to  be  found  of  almoft  every  colour  and 
 £hade. 
 
 The  life  of  winged  infecSls  confiffs  of  three  principal  pe- 
 riods, which  prefent  very  different  fcenes  to  the  fludent  of 
 Nature.  In  the  flrft  period,  the  infecl  appears  under  the 
 form  of  a  luor^n  or  caterpillar.  Its  body  is  long,  cylindrical, 
 and  confifts  of  a  fucceffion  of  rings,  which  are  generally 
 membranous,  and  encafed  within  each  other.  By  the  aid  of 
 its  rings,  or  of  crotchets,  or  of  feveral  pairs  of  legs,  it  crawls 
 about  in  queft  of  food  ;  and  its  movements  are,  in  fome  fpe- 
 cles,  remarkably  quick.  Its  head  is  armed  with  teeth,  or 
 pincers,  by  which  it  eats  the  leaves  of  plants  or  other  kinds  of 
 food.  In  this  flate,  it  is  abfolutely  deprived  of  fex,  and,  con- 
 fequently,  of  the  power  of  multiplication.  Its  blood  moves 
 from  the  tail  toward  the  head.  It  refpires  either  by  ftigma- 
 ta  or  fmall  apertures  placed  on  each  fide  of  its  body,  or  by 
 one  or  feveral  tubes  fituated  on  its  poflerior  part,  which  have 
 the  refemblance  of  fo  many  tails.  In  the  fecond  period,  the 
 infe£l:  appears  under  the  form  of  a  nymph,  or  that  of  a  chry- 
 falis.  When  an  infecSt,  after  throwing  off  the  fkin  of  the 
 caterpillar,  exhibits  all  its  external  parts,  only  covered  with 
 foft  and  tranfparent  membranes,  it  is  called  a  nymph.  But, 
 v^^hen  to  thefe  membranes  is  added  a  common  and  cruftace* 
 ous  covering,  it  receives  the  name  of  a  chryfalis.  While  in 
 the  ftate  of  a  nymph,  or  that  of  a  chryfalis,  infe(Sls,  in  gener- 
 al, are  totally  inaflive,  and  feem  not  to  pofTefs  any  powers  of 
 life.  Sunk  into  a  kind  of  deep  fleep,  they  are  little  affected 
 with  external  objeiTts.     They  can  make  no  ufe  of  their  eyes. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  29.^ 
 
 tljelr  month,  or  any  of  their  members  ;  for  they  are  all  im^ 
 prifoned  by  coverings  more  or  iefs  ftrong.  No  cares  occu- 
 py their  attention.  Deprived  of  the  faculty  of  motion,  they 
 remain  fixed  in  thofe  iltuations  which  they  have  chofen  for 
 their  temporary  abode,  or  where  chance  has  placed  them, 
 till  their  final  metamorphoiis  into  flies.  Some  of  them,  how- 
 ever, are  capable  of  changing  place  ;  but  their  movements 
 are  flow  and  painful.  Their  blood  circulates,  but  in  a  con^ 
 trary  direction  from  what  takes  place  in  the  caterpillar  ftate  ;- 
 for  it  proceeds  from  the  head  toward  the  tail.  Refpiration 
 continues  to  go  on,  but  the  organs  are  differently  fltuatedt 
 In  the  caterpillar,  the  principal  organs  of  refpiration  were 
 placed  at  the  pofterior  part  of  the  body  -,  but  now  thefc 
 fame  organs  are  to  be  found  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  ani- 
 mal. In  the  third  period,  the  infe(^  has  acquired  that  per- 
 fe(St  organization  which  correfponds  to  the  rank  it  is  to  hold 
 in  the  icale  of  animation.  The  bonds  of  the  nymph,  or  of 
 the  chryfalis,  are  now  burft  afunder,  and  the  infe6t  commenc- 
 es a  new  mode  of  exiftence.  All  its  members,  formerly  foft, 
 inactive,  and  folded  up  in  an  envelope,  are  expanded, 
 ftrengthened,  and  expofed  to  obfervation.  Under  the  form 
 of  a  worm  or  caterpillar,  it  crawled  •,  under  thofe  of  a 
 nymph,  or  chryfalis,  its  power  of  motion  was  almofl:  annihi- 
 lated j  under  the  lafl:  form,  it  is  furnifhed  with  fix  fpringy 
 legs,  and  two  or  four  wings  with  which  it  is  enabled  to  fly 
 through  the  air.  Infliead  of  teeth  or  pincers,  with  which  it 
 divided  a  grofs  aliment,  it  has  now  a  trunk  by  which  it  ex- 
 tracts the  refined  juices  of  the  mofl:  delicate  flowers.  Inflead 
 of  a  few  fmooth  eyes  which  it  poflTefl^ed  in  the  worm  or  cat- 
 erpillar fbate,  the  new  infe£l  is  furniflied  with  both  fmooth 
 and  convex  eyes,  to  the  number  of  feveral  thoufands. 
 
 The  internal  parts  of  the  infect  have  likewife  undergone 
 as  many  changes  as  the  external.  The  texture,  the  propor- 
 tions, and  the   uumber   of  the-  vifccra,  are  greatly  altercdv 
 
806  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Some  have  acquired  an  additional  degree  of  coniiftence  5 
 others,  on  the  contrary,  are  rendered  finer  and  more  deli- 
 cate. Some  receive  a  new  form,  and  others  are  entirely  an- 
 nihilated. Laftly,  fome  organs  in  the  perfect  infedl,  which 
 feemed  formerly  to  have  no  exiftence,  are  unfolded,  and  be- 
 come vifible.  The  moft  important  of  this  laft  kind  are  the 
 organs  of  generation.  The  caterpillar,  the  nymph,  and  the 
 chryfalis,  were  of  no  fex.  But,  after  transformation,  both 
 fexes  are  diilingui  (liable,  and  the  animals  are  capable  of  mul- 
 tiplying their  fpecies. 
 
 We  fhall  now  give  fome  examples  of  transformations 
 which  deviate  from  the  common  mode. 
 
 Some  infe£ls  hold  a  middle  rank  between  thofe  which 
 preferve  their  original  figure  during  life,  and  thole  that  fuf- 
 fer  transformations.  Their  exiftence  is  divided  iino  two 
 periods  only.  They  walk  in  the  firft,  and  fly  in  the  lecond. 
 Thus  their  only  metamorphoiis  confifts  of  the  addition  of 
 wings,  the  growth  and  expanfion  of  which  are  performed 
 without  any  condderable  alteration  in  the  figure  01  their 
 bodies. 
 
 There  is  not  a  law  eftabliflied  among  organized  bodies 
 tvhich  feems  to  be  fo  univerfal,  as  that  all  of  them  grov/,  or 
 augment  in  fize,  after  birth,  till  they  arrive  at  maturity.  If 
 a  hen  were  to  bring  forth  an  egg  as  large  as  her  own  body, 
 and  if  this  egg,  when  hatched,  were  to  produce  a  bird  of 
 equal  dimenfions  with  either  of  the  parents,  it  would  be  con- 
 fidered  as  a  miracle.  But  the  fpider-JIy,  fo  denominated 
 from  its  figure,  affords  an  example  of  a  fimilar  prodigy. 
 This  fly  actually  lays  an  egg,  from  which  a  new  fly  is  hatch- 
 ed that  is  as  large  and  as  perfedl  as  its  mother.  This  egg  is 
 toundifh,  is  at  firft  white,  and  afterwards  afTumes  a  fhining 
 black  colour.  Upon  a  more  accurate  examination,  however, 
 this  production  was  found  to  be  an  egg  only  in  appearance. 
 When  the  envelope  is  removed,  inftead  of  a  gelatinous  fub- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  301 
 
 fiance,  tlie  new  infeft,  furniflied  with  all  its  members,  is 
 difcovered.  But  this  dlfcovery  does'  not  render  the  fa£t  the 
 lefs  wonderful.  All  winged  infeiSls  undergo  their  different 
 transformations  after  being  expelled  from  the  bodies  of  theii 
 rriothers,  and  receive  great  augmentations  of  lize  before  their 
 mttamorpncr^^  into  the  nymph  or  chryfiiMs  ftate,  after  which 
 their  growth  (lops.  But  the  fpider-fly  ufFord-s  an  inftance 
 of  an  infecSl  transformed  in  the  belly  of  its  mother,  and 
 which  grows  no  more  after  it  eft^apes  from  its  envelope. 
 This  fa6l  is  fully  authenticated  by  Reaumur*,  Bonnetf ,  and 
 other  naturalifls. 
 
 The  worm  from  which  the  tipula  or  crane-fly  is  produced 
 is  perfe61:ly  fmooth.  Immediately  before  its  fir  ft  transfor- 
 mation it  retires  under  ground.  After  this  metamorphofis, 
 tlie  furface  of  the  nymph  is  fnrniflied  with  a  number  of 
 prickles.  By  means  of  thefe  prickles,  the  nymph,  when 
 about  to  be  transformed  into  a  fly,  raifes  Itfelf  in  its  hole  till 
 the  cheft  of  the  infe^l  is  above  ground.  The  fly  then  burfts 
 its  prifon,  mounts  into  the  air,  and  leaves  its  former  cover- 
 ing behind  in  the  earth. 
 
 Many  fpecies  of  flies  depofit  their  eggs  in  the  leaves  and 
 different  parts  of  plants.  Soon  after  the  egg  is  inferted  into 
 the  leaf,  a  fmall  tubercle  begins  to  appear,  which  gradually 
 increafes  in  magnitude  till  the,  animal  is  hatched,  and  1i:as 
 pafTed  through  its  diirerent  transformations.  Thefe  tuber- 
 cles are  known  by  the  name  of  galls,  and  are  very  different 
 in  their  form,  texture,  colour,  and  fize.  Galls  of  every 
 kind,  however,  derive  their  origin  from  the  flings  of  infedls, 
 which  generally  belong  to  the  clafs  of  flies.  The  female 
 fly,  by  means  of  her  fting,  makes  incifions  in  the  leaves  or 
 branches  of  a  tree,  and  in  each  incifion  flie  lays  an  egg. 
 This  egg  is  at  firft  extremely  minute  ;  but  it  foon  acquires 
 
 *  Reaumur,  vol.  I2.  page  412.  edit.  lamo. 
 
 f  Oeuvresdc  Bonnet,  vol.  4.  page  28.  edit,  8vo. 
 
 O  o 
 
302  f HE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 a  confiderable  bulk,  and  the  gall  has  arrived  at  its  full  fi^e^ 
 before  the  worm  is  hatched.  This  gall  feems  to  be  analo- 
 gous to  the  membranes  which  invefl:  a  foetus,  and  expand 
 m  all  direftions  in  proportion  to  its  growth.  That  the  eggs 
 of  oviparous  animals  grow  while  in  the  ovarium  is  unlverfally 
 known  ;  but  it  is  fingular  that  the  eggs  of  gall-flies  ihould 
 grow  after  being  feparated  from  the  body  of  the  mother. 
 Thefe  eggs  muft  undoubtedly  be  furnifhed  with  external  vef- 
 fels,  or  a  kind  of  roots,  by  which  they  extract  juices  from 
 the  internal  cavity  of  the  gall.  Malplghius  afcribes  the 
 origin  of  galls  to  a  corrofive  liquor  introduced  by  the  fly  into 
 the  wound.  But  Reaumur,  to  account  for  the  growth  of  a 
 gall,  thinks  it  unneceflary  to  have  recourfe  to  any  fuppofed, 
 poifonous  fluids,  and  attributes  it  to  the  fuperabundant  nutri- 
 cious  juices  derived  to  that  particular  part  by  the  continual 
 adlion  of  the  abforbent  veiTels  of  the  egg,  joined  to  its  heat,, 
 which  may  be  compared  to  a  little  fiie  placed  in  the  center 
 of  the  tumour. 
 
 Whether  thefe  caufes  are  fufiiclent  to  explain  the  growth 
 of  galls,  we  fliall  fubmit  to  the  judgment  of  the  reader.  But, 
 that  the  eggs  depoflted  by  the  flies  augment  in  flze  -,  that 
 worms  proceed  from  them  ;  that  thefe  worms  are  nourlflied, 
 and  live  a  certain  time  imprifoned  in  the  galls ;  that  they 
 are  there  transformed  into  nymphs  or  chryfalids  ;  and,  laftly, 
 that  they  are  metamorphofed  into  the  winged  infects,  which, 
 by  gnawing  an  aperture  through  the  gall,  take  their  flight 
 in  the  air  •,  are  known  and  incontefl:ible  fadts,  of  the  truth  of 
 which  every  m.ui  may  eaflly  fatisfy  himfelf.  Examine  the 
 common  oak-galls,  or  thofe  of  any  other  tree  •,  if  any  of 
 t-hom  happen  to  have  no  aperture,  cut  them  gently  open, 
 and  you  are  certain  to  And  an  egg,  a  worm,  a  chryfalis  or,  a 
 fiy  :  But  in  fuch  as  are  perforated  by  a  cylindrical  hole,  not 
 a  veflige  of  an  animal  is  difcoverable.  The  galls  which  make 
 an  ingredient  in  the  compofltion  of  ink  are  thick,  and  their 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  305 
 
 texture  is  very  ftrong  and  compact :  That  the  fmall  animals 
 they  contain  fhould  be  able  to  pierce  through  fuch  a  rigid 
 fubftance  is  truly  wonderful. 
 
 In  the  general  order  of  Nature  among  oviparous  animals, 
 each  egg  includes  one  embryo  only.  A  fingular  fpecies  of 
 eggs,  however,  difcovered  by  the  celebrsitad  Mr.  Folks,  late 
 Prefident  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  muft  be  excepted. 
 He  found  great  numbers  of  them  in  the  mud  of  fmall 
 rivulets.  In  fize  they  equalled  the  head  of  an  ordinary  pin. 
 They  were  of  a  brown  colour^  and  their  furface  was  crufla- 
 ceous,  through  which,  by  employing  the  microfcope,  feveral 
 living  worms  were  diftincSlly  perceptible.  By  dexterouily 
 breaking  the  fhell,  he  diflodged  them  ;  and  he  found  with 
 furprife,  that  eight  or  nine  worms  were  contained  in,  and 
 proceeded  from  the  fame  egg.  They  were  all  well  formed, 
 and  moved  about  with  great  agility.  Each  of  them  was  in- 
 clofed  in  an  individual  membranous  covering,  which  was  ex- 
 tremely thin  and  tranfparent.  It  were  to  be  wifhed  that  the 
 transformations  of  thefe  extraordinary  animals  had  been 
 traced.- 
 
 Some  caterpillars,  when  about  to  transform,  make  a  belt 
 pafs  round  their  bodies.  This  belt  is  compofed  of  an  afl'em- 
 blage  of  iilken  threads  fpun  by  themfelves,  the  ends  of  which 
 they  pafte  to  the  twigs  of  bufhes,  or  other  places  where  they 
 choofe  to  attach  their  bodies.  They  likewife  lix  their  hind 
 legs  in  a  tuft  of  fiik.  After  transformation,  the  chryfalids 
 remain  fixed  in  the  fame  manner  as  before  their  metamor- 
 phoiis.  The  belt  is  loofe,  and  allows  the  chryfalis  to  per- 
 form its  flow  and  feeble  movements. 
 
 The  whole  moth-kind,  as  well  as  the  fik-worm,  immedi^ 
 ately  before  their  transformation  into  the  chryfalis  ftate,  cov- 
 er their  bodies  with  a  cod  or  clue  of  lilk,  though  the  nature 
 of  the  fiik,  and  their  mode  of  fpinning,  are  very  different. 
 The  cods  of  the  filk-worm  are  compofed  of  pure  filk.  Their 
 
S04  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 figure  Is  generally  oval,  which  necefiarily  refults  from  that 
 of  the  aivnal's  body  upon  which  they  are  moulded.  When 
 fpinning,  iliey  twifl  their  bodies  into  the  form  of  an  S.  The 
 cod  is  produced  by  numberlefs  circumvolutions  and  zigzags 
 of  the  fame  thread.  The  filk  is  fpun  by  an  inftrument  fitua- 
 ted  near  the  mouth  of  the  infe6^.  The  filky  matter,  before 
 it  is  manufactured  by  the  fpinning  inftrument,  appears  under 
 the  form  of  a  gum  almoft  liquid,  which  is  contained  in  two 
 large  refervoirs  comtorted  like  the  inteftines  of  larger  ani- 
 mals, and  which  terminate  at  the  fpinning  inftrument  by  two 
 parallel  and  flender  conduits.  Each  conduit  furnifhes  mat- 
 ter for  one  thread.  The  fpinning  inftrument,  as  is  evident 
 when  viewed  by  the  microfcope,  unites  the  two  threads  in- 
 to one.  Thus  a  thread  of  filk,  which  has  the  appearance  of 
 being  iingle,  is  in  reality  double,  and  fpun  with  great  dexteri- 
 ty. Some  writers,  who  delight  in  the  marvellous,  afcribe 
 forefight  to  the  filk-worm  in  fpinning  its  cod.  The  lilk- 
 worm,  it  muft  be  acknowledged,  a(fts  as  if  it  forefaw  the  ap- 
 proaching event.  But  the  truth  is,  that,  when  the  animal 
 has  acquired  its  full  growth,  its  refervoirs  of  filk  are  com- 
 pletely tilled.  It  then  feems  to  be  ftrongly  ftimulated  to 
 evacuate  this  glutinous  matter.  Its  different  movements  and 
 attitudes,  while  difcharging  the  filk,  produce  thofe  oval  bun- 
 dles which  clothe  and  ornament  vaft  numbers  of  the  human 
 fpecies. 
 
 Another  fpecies  of  caterpillar  conftru£ls  its  cod  in  the 
 form  of  a  boat  with  the  keel  uppermoft  ;  but  it  confifts  not 
 entirely  of  pure  filk.  The  animal,  with  its  teeth,  detaches 
 fmall  triangular  pieces  of  bark  from  a  bufh  or  a  tree.  Thefe 
 pieces  of  bark  it  paftes  upon  its  body  by  means  of  a  gluti- 
 nous or  filky  fubftance,  and  they  conftitute  a  principal  part 
 of  Its  cod. 
 
 Another  fpecies  works  alfo  in  wood,  though  not  with  equal 
 art  as  the  former.     Its  cod  is  compofed  entirely  of  fmall  ir-- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^^ 
 
 regular  fragments  of  dried  wood.  Thefe  fragments  the  anw 
 mal  has  the  addrefs  to  unite  together,  and  to  form  of  them  ^ 
 kind  of  a  box  which  covers  and  defends  its  whole  body.  It 
 accomplifhes  this  purpofe  by  mpiftening,  for  fome  moment?, 
 the  pieces  of  \yood  in  its  mouth,  and  then  attaches  them  to 
 each  other  by  a  glutinous  fubftance.  Of  this  mixture  the 
 caterpillar  forms  a  cod,  the  folidity  of  which  is  nearly  equal 
 to  that  of  wood. 
 
 The  mofi:  folitary  of  all  infe£ts  are  thofe  who  live  in  the 
 internal  parts  of  fruits.  Many  of  them  undergo  their  meta- 
 morphofis  in  the  fruit  itfelf,  which  affords  them  both  nourifh-. 
 ment  and  a  fafe  retreat.  They  dig  cavities  in  the  fruit, 
 which  fome  of  them  either  line  with  filk,  or  fpin  cods. 
 Others  leave  the  fruit,  and  retire  to  be  transformed  in  the. 
 earth. 
 
 The  metamorphofis  of  infe£ls  has  been  regarded  as  a  fud^ 
 den  operation,  becaufe  they  often  burft  their  fhell  or  filky_ 
 covering  quickly,  and  immediately  appear  furnifhed  with 
 wings.  But,  by  more  attentive  pbfervation,  it  has  been  dif- 
 covered  that  the  transformation  of  caterpillars  is  a  gradual 
 procefs  from  the  moment  the  animals  are  hatched  till  they 
 arrive  at  a  ftate  of  perfe<Stion.  Why,  it  may  be  alked,  do 
 caterpillars  fo  frequently  ca{|  their  Ikins  ?  The  new  fkin, 
 and  other  organs,  were  lodged  under  the  old  ones,  as  in  fo 
 many  tubes  or  cafes,  and  the  animal  retires  from  thefe  cafes, 
 becaufe  they  have  become  too  ftrait.  The  reality  of  thefe 
 encafements  has  been  demonflrated  by  a  fimple  experiment. 
 When  about  to  molt  or  caft  its  fkin,  if  the  foremoft  legs  of  a 
 caterpillar  are  cut  off,  the  animal  comes  out  of  the  old  fkin 
 deprived  of  thefe  legs.  From  this  fa£l,  Reaumur  conje6tur- 
 ed,  that  the  chryfalis  might  be  thus  encafed,  and  concealed 
 under  the  laft  Ikin  of  the  caterpillar.  He  difcovered  that  the 
 chryfalis,  or  rather  the  butterfly  itfelf,  was  inclofed  in  the 
 body  of  the  caterpillar.     The  probofcis,  the  antenae,  the 
 
806  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 limbs,  and  the  wings,  of  the  fly  are  fo  nicely  folded  up,  that 
 they  occupy  a  fmall  fpace  only  under  the  two  firfl  rings  of 
 the  caterpillar.  In  the  firft  fix  limbs  of  the  caterpillar  are 
 encafed  the  fix  limbs  of  the  butterfly.  Even  the  eggs  of  the 
 butterfly  have  been  difcovered  in  the  caterpillar  long  before 
 its  transformation. 
 
 From  thefe  fadls  it  appears,  that  the  transformation  of  in- 
 fe<fts  is  only  the  throwing  off"  external  and  temporary  cover- 
 ings, and  not  an  alteration  of  the  original  form.  Caterpil- 
 lars may  be  confidered  as  analogous  to  the  foetufes  of  men 
 and  of  quadrupeds.  They  live  and  receive  nourifhment  in 
 envelopes  till  they  acquire  fuch  a  degree  of  perfe<ftion  as 
 enables  them  to  fupport  the  fituation  to  which  they  are  ulti- 
 mately deflined  by  Nature. 
 
 One  would  not  readily  believe  that  the  excrements  of  a 
 butterfly  fhould  be  capable  of  exciting  confternation  in  the 
 minds  of  the  people.  But  this  event  has  frequently  happen- 
 ed in  different  places  and  nations.  Among  many  other 
 prodigies  which  have  terrified  nations,  ^ow^rj-  of  blood  h.2.ve 
 been  enumerated  by  hiflorians.  Thefe  fhowers  of  blood 
 were  fuppofed  to  portend  great  and  calamitous  events,  as 
 wars,  the  deftrudlion  of  cities,  and  the  overthrow  of  empires. 
 About  the  beginning  of  July,  in  the  year  1 608,  one  of  thefe 
 pretended  fhowers  of  blood  fell  in  the  fuburbs  of  Aix,  and 
 for  feveral  miles  round.  This  fuppofed  fhower  of  blood, 
 M.  de  Reaumur  remarks,  would  probably  have  been  tranf- 
 mitted  to  us  as  a  great  and  a  real  prodigy,  if  Aix  had  not 
 then  been  pofTefTed  of  a  philofopher,  who,  amidfl  other  fpe- 
 cies  of  knowledge,  did  not  negledl  the  operations  and  oecon- 
 omy  of  infects.  This  philofopher  was  M.  de  Peirefc,  whofe 
 life  is  written  by  GafTendi.  This  life  contains  a  number  of 
 curious  fadls  and  obfervations.  Among  others,  M.  de  Peirefc 
 difcovered  the  caufe  of  the  pretended  fhower  of  blood  at 
 AiXi  which  had  created  fo  general  an  ala^rm.     About  the  bc^ 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  SO? 
 
 ginning  of  July,  the  walls  of  a  church-yard  adjacent  to  the, 
 city,  and  particularly  the  walls  of  the  fmall  villages  in  the  "* 
 neighbourhood,  were  obferved  to  be  fpotted  with  large  drops 
 of  a  blood-coloured  liquid.  The  people,  as  well  as  fome 
 theologians,  confidered  thofe  drops  as  the  operation  of  for- 
 cerers,  or  of  the  Devil  himfelf.  M.  de  Peirefc,  about  that 
 time,  had  picked  up  a  large  and  beautiful  chryfalis,  which  he 
 laid  in  a  box.  Immediately  after  its  transformation  into  the 
 butterfly  ftate,  M.  de  Peirefc  remarked,  that  it  had  left  a 
 drop  of  blood*coloured  liquor  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and 
 that  this  drop,  or  ftain,  was  as  large  as  a  French  fou.  The 
 red  drains  on  the  walls,  on  flones  near  the  highways,  and  in 
 the  fields,  were  found  to  be  perfectly  llmilar  to  that  on  the 
 bottom  of  M.  de  Peirefc's  box.  lie  now  no  longer  hefltat- 
 ed  to  pronounce,  that  all  thofe  blood-coloured  flains,  where- 
 ever  they  appeared,  proceeded  from  the  fame  caufe.  The 
 prodigious  number  of  butterflies  which  he,  at  the  fame  time, 
 faw  flying  in  the  air,  confirmed  his  original  idea.  He  like- 
 wife  obferved,  that  the  drops  of  the  miraculous  rain  were 
 never  found  in  the  middle  of  the  city  ;  that  they  appeared 
 only  in  places  bordering  upoR  the  country  ;  and  that  they 
 never  fell  upon  the  tops  of  houfes,  or  upon  walls  more  elevat- 
 ed than  the  height  to  which  butterflies  generally  rife.  What 
 M.  de  Peirefc  faw  himfelf,  he  fliowed  to  many  perfons  of 
 knowledge,  or  of  curiofity,  and  eflablillied  it  as  an  incontef- 
 tible  fa£l:,  that  the  pretended  drops  of  blood  were,  in  reality, 
 drops  of  a  red  liquor  depofited  by  butterflies. 
 
 To  the  fame  caufe  M.  de  Peirefc  attributes  fome  other 
 ihowers  of  blood  related  by  hifuorians  j  and  it  is  worthy  of 
 remark,  that  all  of  them  are  faid  to  have  happened  in  the 
 w^arm  feafons  of  the  year,  when  butterflies  arc  moft  nume- 
 rous. Among  others,  Gregory  of  Towers  mentions  a  fhov/- 
 er  of  blood  which  fell,  in  the  time  of  Childebert,  in  differ- 
 ent parts  of  Paris,  and  upon  a  certain  houfe  in  the  territory 
 
§0^  trtE   PHILOSOPHlr 
 
 tf  Senlls  ;  and,  about  the  end  of  the  month  of  June,  anoth- 
 er likewife  fell  under  the  reign  of  King  Robert. 
 
 M.  de  Reaumur  remarks,  that  almoft  all  the  butterflies 
 which  proceeded  from  different  fpecies  of  hairy  caterpillars 
 in  his  pofTeflion,  voided  at  leafl:  one,  and  often  feveral  large 
 drops  of  excrement,  which  had  the  colour  of  blood.  The 
 hairy  caterpillar  that  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  elm-tree, 
 after  its  transformation,  emits  drops,  the  colour  of  which  is  of 
 a  more  deep  red  than  that  of  blood  ;  and,  after  being  dried, 
 their  colour  approaches  to  that  of  carmine.  From  another 
 caterpillar  of  the  elm,  which  is  larger,  and  much  more  com- 
 mon than  the  former,  proceeds  a  butterfly,  that,  immediately 
 after  its  transformation,  emits  a  great  quantity  of  red  excre- 
 ment. This  fpecies  of  caterpillar,  in  particular  years,  is  fo 
 humerous,  that  it  lays  bare  the  whole  trees  in  certain  difl:ri6\s. 
 Myriads  of  them  are  transformed  into  chryfalids  about  the 
 end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June.  "When  about  to  undergd 
 their  metamorphofis,  they  often  attach  themfelves  to  the 
 walls,  and  even  enter  into  the  cduntry  houfes.  If  thefe  but- 
 terflies were  all  brought  forth  at  the  fame  time,  and  flew  in 
 the  fame  diredtion,  tkeir  number  would  be  fufliclent  to 
 form  fmall  clouds,  to  cover  the  fl:ones,  &c.  of  particular  dif- 
 trifts  with  blood-coloured  fpots,  and  to  convince  thofe  who 
 wifh  to  fright  themfelves,  and  to  fee  prodigies,  that  a  fhower 
 of  blood  had  fallen  during  the  night.  Some  of  thofe  hairy 
 caterpillars  which  live  in  foclety  upon  nettles,  likewife  emit 
 an  excrementltious  matter  of  a  red  colour.  A  thoufand  ex- 
 amples of  the  fame  kind  might  be  enumerated.  Hence  the 
 notion  of  miraculous  or  portentous  fliowers  of  blood  fhould 
 be  forever  baniflied  from  the  minds  of  men. 
 
 I  would  not  have  faid  fo  much  upon  this  fubje^l,  if  I  had 
 not  confldered  it  to  be  the  duty  of  every  man,  when  it  is  in 
 his  power,   to  remove   popular  prejudices,  efpecially  when 
 
6V   NATURAL    HISTORY.  gO^ 
 
 liiey  have  a  direiSt  tendency  to  terrify  the  minds  of  men,  and 
 to  cheridi  Ignorance  and  luperflition. 
 
 We  not  only  read  of  fliowers,  but,  what  feems  to  be  more 
 unaccountable,  of  fountains  running  occaiionally  with  blood 
 inftead  of  water.  Sir  David  Dalrymple,  one  of  the  Senators 
 of  the  College  of  Juftice  in  Scotland,  a  gentleman  not  more 
 diftinguiihed  by  liis  learning  and  deep  refearch,  than  by  his 
 fcrupulous  integrity  and  propriety  of  condu<n:,  relates,  in  his 
 Annals  of  Scotland*,  upon  the  authority  of  Hoveden  and 
 Benedidlus  Abbas,  that,  In  the  year  1184<,  «  A  fountain  near 
 
 <  Kilwinningf ,  in  the  fliire  of  Air,  ran  blood  for  eight  days 
 *  and  eight  nights  without  intermiflion.  This  portent  had 
 '  frequently  appeared,  but  never  for  fo  a  long  fpace.  In  the 
 « opinion  of  the  people  of  the  country,  it  prognoftlcated  the 
 «  efFulion  of  blood.     Benedidtus  Abbas,  and  R.   Hoveden, 
 
 <  relate  the  {lory  of  this  portent  with  perfefl  credulity.    Be- 
 
 <  nedictus  Abbas  improves  a  little  upon  his  brother  ;  for  he 
 
 <  is  politive  that  the  fountain  flowed  with  pure  blood.'  If  Kil- 
 winning, like  Aix,  had  polTeiTed  fuch  a  philofopher  as  Peirefc, 
 the  rednefs  of  the  v/ater,  if  ever  it  did  appear,  would  have 
 received  a  moft  fatlsfadlory  explanation. 
 
 Transformations  are  not  peculiar  to  animals.  All  orga- 
 nized bodies  pafs  through  fucceflive  changes.  Plants,  of 
 courfe,  are  not  exempted  from  mutation.  What  an  amaz- 
 ing difference  between  an  acorn  and  a  ilately  oak  ?  The 
 feeds  of  plants  may  be  compared  to  the  chryfallds  of  butter- 
 flies. The  feed,  like  the  chryfalis,  contains,  in  miniature, 
 all  the  parts  of  the  future  plant.  Thefe  parts  require  only 
 time,  and  other  circumftances  neceffary  to  vegetation,  for 
 their  complete  evolution.  How  different  are  the  feed- 
 leaves  from  thofe  of  the  plume  ?  Befide  the  general  chang- 
 es arifmg  from  growth,  plants  undergo  a  number  of  meta- 
 
 *  Vol,  I.  page  298. 
 
 f  A  Scottifli  village. 
 
 P    P 
 
^l6  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 morphofes  from  other  caufes.  In  northern  climates,  if  we 
 except  a  few  evergreens,  trees,  during  winter,  are  entirely 
 ftripped  of  their  leaves.  Inftead  of  the  pleafanl  emotions 
 excited  by  the  variety  of  figures,  movements,  colours,  and 
 fragrance  of  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  during  the  fpring 
 and  fummer,  nothing  is  exhibited  in  winter  but  the  barO 
 ftems  and  branches.  In  this  flate,  the  trees  of  the  foreft 
 have  a  lugubrious  appearance,  and  remind  us  of  death  and 
 of  Ikeletons.  Very  different  are  the  emotions  we  feel  in 
 the  fpring,  when  the  buds  begin  to  burft,  and  the  leaves  to 
 expand.  When  fummer  approaches,  another  beautiful 
 change  takes  place.  The  flowers,  with  all  their  fplendour 
 of  colours,  and  fweetnefs  of  flavours,  are  then  highly  de- 
 lightful to  our  fenfes.  After  performing  the  ofiice  of  cher- 
 ilhing  and  protedling  the  tender  fruit  for  fome  time,  the 
 flowers  drop  off,  and  a  new  change  is  exhibited.  When  the 
 flowers  fall,  the  young  fruit  appear,  and  gradually  grow  to 
 maturity,  perpetually  prefenting  varieties  in  their  magnitude, 
 colour,  odour,  and  flavour.  When  the  fruit  or  feeds  are 
 fully  ripe,  they  are  gathered  for  the  ufe  of  man,  drop  down 
 upon  the  earth,  or  are  devoured  by  birds  and  other  animals. 
 After  this  change  happens,  to  which  all  the  others  were  only 
 preparatory,  the  leaves  begin  to  fhed,  winter  commences, 
 and  the  fame  feries  of  metamorphofes  gO  on  during  the  ex- 
 iftence  of  the  plant. 
 
 The  changes  juft  now  mentioned  are  ahnual,  and  are  ulti- 
 mately intended  to  fupply  men  and  other  animals  with  food. 
 But  plants  are  fiibjecSled  to  changes  of  form  from  caufes  of  a 
 more  accidental  nature.  Varieties  or  changes  in  the  figure 
 of  plants  are  often  produced  by  foil,  by  fituation,  by  culture, 
 and  by  climate. 
 
 A  plant  is  compofed  of  the  bark,  the  liber  or  inner  circle, 
 the  wood,  and  the  pith.  The  calyx  or  cup,  the  caroUa  or 
 flower  leaves,  the  ftamina,  and  piftils,  are  only  expanflons  of 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  31  J 
 
 the  bark,  the  liber,  the  wood,  and  the  pith.  The  petals  of 
 all  flowers,  in  a  natural  ftate,  are  fingle.  But,  when  tranf- 
 planted  into  gardens,  many  of  them,  efpecially  thofe  which 
 are  furnilhed  with  numerous  ftamina,  as  the  anemone,  the 
 poppy,  the  peony,  the  ranunculus,  the  daify,  the  marigold, 
 the  rofe,  &c.  double,  or  rather  multiply  their  flower-leave? 
 without  end.  This  change  from  fingle  to  double,  or  mon- 
 ftrous  flowers,  as  they  are  called,  is  produced  by  too  great  a 
 quantity  of  nutricious  juices,  which  prevents  the  fubflance  of 
 the  liber  from  condenfing  into  wood,  and  transforms  the  fta- 
 mina  into  petals  j  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that, 
 when  thefe  double  flowering  plants  are  committed  to  a  poor 
 foil,  they  become  drier,  are  reduced  to  their  natural  ftate, 
 and  produce  fingle  flowers  only.  Plants  which  inhabit  the 
 valleys,  when  tranfported  to  the  tops  of  mountains,  or  other 
 elevated  fituations,  not  only  become  dwarfifli,  but  undergo 
 fuch  changes  in  their  general  fl:ru(Elure  and  appearance,  that 
 they  are  often  thought  to  belong  to  a  different  fpecies,  though 
 they  are,  in  reality,  only  varieties  of  the  fame.  Siniilar 
 changes  are  produced  when  Alpine  or  mountain  plants  are 
 cultivated  in  the  valleys. 
 
 From  culture  and  climate,  likewife,  plants  undergo  many 
 changes.  But  this  fubje6l  is  fo  generally  known,  that  to  en- 
 large upon  it  would  be  entirely  fuperflous.  We  fliall  only 
 remark,  that  the  older  botanifl:s,  when  they  perceived  the 
 fame  fpecies  of  plants  growing  in  a  different  foil,  or  in  a  dif- 
 ferent climate,  afliime  fuch  different  appearances,  confidered 
 and  enumerated  them  as  diftincl  fpecies.  But  the  modern 
 botanifts,  to  prevent  the  unneceffary  multiplication  of  fepa- 
 rate  beings,  have  endeavoured  to  reduce  all  thofe  varieties 
 arifing  from  fortuitous  circumftances  to  their  original  fpecies. 
 From  thefe  fa6ls,  and  many  others  which  might  be  men- 
 tioned, it  appears,  that,  in  both  the  animal  and  vegetable 
 kingdoms,  forms  are  perpetually  changing.     The  mineral 
 
512  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 kingdom  is  not  lefs  fubje(St  to  metamorphofes  ;  but  thefe  be- 
 long not  to  our  prefent  fubje(St.  Thougli  forms  continually 
 change,  the  quantity  of  matter  is  invariable.  The  fame  fub- 
 ilances  pafs  fucceffively  into  the  three  kingdoms,  and  confti- 
 tute,  in  their  turn,  a  mineral,  a  plant,  an  infe(Sl,  a  reptile,  a 
 fifh,  a  bird,  a  quadruped,  a  man.  In  thefe  transformations, 
 organized  bodies  are  the  principal  agents.  They  change  or 
 decompofe  every  fubftance  that  either  enters  into  them,  or 
 is  expofed  to  the  action  of  their  powers.  Some  they  affimu- 
 late,  by  the  procefs  of  nutrition,  into  their  own  fubfiatice  ; 
 others  they  evacuate  in  different  forms  j  and  thefe  evacua- 
 tions make  ingredients  in  the  compofitions  of  other  bodies, 
 as  thofe  of  infedls,  whofe  multiplication  is  prodigious,  and 
 affords  a  very  great  quantity  of  organized  matter  for  the 
 nourifhment  and  fupport  of  almofl  every  animated  being. 
 Thus,  from  the  apparently  vileft  and  mofk  contemptible  fpe-= 
 cies  of  matter,  the  richeft  productions  derive  their  origin. 
 The  mofl  beautiful  flowers,  the  mofl  exquifite  fruits,  and  the 
 mofl  ufeful  grain,  all  proceed  from  the  bofom  of  corrup- 
 tion. The  earth  is  continually  beftowing  frefli  gifts  upon 
 us  •,  and  her  powers  would  foon  be  exhaufled,  if  what  fhe 
 perpetually  gives  were  not  perpetually  reftored  to  her.  It  is 
 a  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized  bodies  fhould  be  decom- 
 pofed,  and  gradually  transform.ed  into  earth.  While  under- 
 going this  fpecies  of  diiTolution,  their  more  volatile  particles 
 pafs  into  the  air,  and  are  diffufed  through  the  atmofphere. 
 Thus  animals,  at  leafl  portions  of  them,  are  buried  in  the  air, 
 as  well  as  in  the  earth,  or  in  water.  Thefe  floating  particles 
 foon  enter  into  the  compofition  of  new  organized  beings, 
 who  are  themfelves  deftined  to  undergo  the  fame  revolutions. 
 This  circulation  of  organized  matter  has  continued  fince  th^ 
 commencement  of  the  world,  and  will  proceed  in  the  fame? 
 courfe  till  its  final  defl:ru<Stion. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  51^ 
 
 With  regard  to  the  intentions  of  nature  in  changing  forms, 
 a  complete  inveftigation  of  them  exceeds  the  pov/ers  of  hu- 
 man refearch.  One  great  intention,  from  the  examples  above 
 enumerated,  Cannot  efcape  obfervation.  In  the  animal  world, 
 every  fuccellive  change  is  a  new  approach  to  the  perfedlion  of 
 the  individuals.  Men,  and  the  larger  animals,  feme  time  af- 
 ter the  age  of  puberty,  remain  ftationary,  and  continue  to, 
 multiply  their  fpecies  for  periods  proportioned  to  their  ref- 
 peftive  fpecies.  When  thofe  periods  terminate,  they  gradu- 
 ally decay  till  their  final  dilTolution.  The  fame  obfervation 
 is  applicable  to  the  infect  tribes,  whofe  transformations  ftrike 
 us  with  wonder.  The  caterpillar  repeatedly  moults  or  cafts 
 off  its  fliin.  The  butterfly  exifted  originally  in  the  body  of 
 the  caterpillar  j  but  the  organs  of  the  fly  were  too  foft,  and 
 not  fufficiently  unfolded.  It  remains  unfit  to  encounter  the 
 open  air,  or  to  perform  the  functions  of  a  perfedl:  animal,  till 
 fome  time  after  its  transformation  into  a  chryfalis.  It  then 
 burfts  through  its  envelope,  arrives  at  a  ftate  of  perfe(ftion, 
 multiplies  its  fpecies,  and  dies.  All  the  changes  in  the  vege- 
 table kingdom  tend  to  the  fame  point.  In  the  procefs  of 
 growing,  they  are  perpetually  changing  forms  till  they  pro- 
 duce fruit,  and  then  they  decay.  Some  plants,  like  caterpil- 
 lars, go  through  all  their  transformations,  death  not  excepted, 
 in  one  year.  But  others,  like  man  and  the  larger  animals, 
 befide  the  common  changes  produced  by  growth  and  the  evo- 
 lution of  different  organs,  continue  for  many  years  in  a  ilate 
 of  perfedlion  before  the  periods  of  decay  and  of  diffolution 
 arrive.  But  thefe  perennial  plants  undergo,  every  year,  all 
 the  viciflitudes  of  the  annuals.  They  every  year  increafe 
 in  magnitude,  fend  forth  new  leaves  and  branches,  ripen  and 
 dilTeminate  their  feeds,  and,  during  winter,  remain  in  a  tor*, 
 pid  ftate,  or  fuffer  a  temporary  death.  Thefe  annual  chang-. 
 es  in  trees,  &c.  have  fome  refemhlance  to  thofe  of  animalj 
 which  produce  at  certain  dated  feafons  only. 
 
314  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 The  dlftributlon  of  life  to  an  immenfity  of  fucceffive  indi- 
 viduals feems  to  be  another  intention  of  Nature  in  change 
 jng  forms,  and  in  the  diffolution  of  her  productions.  Were 
 the  exiftence  of  individuals  perpetual,  or  were  it  prolonged 
 for  ten  times  the  periods  now  eftablifhed,  life  would  be  de- 
 fied to  myriads  of  animated  beings,  who  enjoy  their  prefent 
 limited  portion  of  happinefs. 
 
bF   kATURAL   HISTORY.  Sl^l 
 
 CHAPTER     Xni. 
 
 Of  the  Habitations  of  Animals, 
 
 jyiANY  animals,  as  well  as  thofe  of  the  humafi 
 fpeclesj  are  endowed  by  Nature  with  an  archite(ftonic  facuU 
 ty.  This  faculty  is  beftowed  upon  them  for  a  number  of 
 wife  and  ufeful  purpofes.  It  enables  them  to  conftru61:  pro- 
 per habitations  for  concealing  themfelves,  for  defending  them 
 againft  the  attacks  of  their  enemies,  for  ftieltering  and  cher- 
 i filing  their  young,  and  for  protecting  them  from  the  injuries 
 pf  the  weather. 
 
 All  animals  of  the  fame  fpecies,  when  not  reftralned  by  acci- 
 dental caufes,  uniformly  build  in  the  fame  ftyle,  and  ufe  the 
 fame  materials.  From  this  general  rule  man  is  to  be  except- 
 ed. Poflefled  of  a  fnperior  number  of  inflin£ls,  of  which 
 the  reafoning  faculty  is  a  refult*,  he  can  build  in  any  flyle, 
 and  employ  fuch  materials  as  his  tafte,  his  fancy,  or  the  pur- 
 pofes for  which  the  fabric  is  intended,  ihall  dire£l:  him.  A 
 cottage  or  a  palace  are  equally  within  the  reach  of  his  pow-* 
 ers.  In  treating  of  this  fubjedt,  we  mean  not  to  trace  the 
 progrefs  of  human  architedlure,  which,  in  the  earlier  flages 
 of  fociety,  is  extremely  rude,  but  to  confine  ourfelves  to  that 
 bf  the  inferior  tribes  of  animated  beings. 
 
 With  regard  to  quadrupeds,    many   of  them  employ  no 
 
 kind  of  architecture,  but  live  continually,  and  bring  forth 
 their  young,  in  the  open  air.  When  not  under  the  imme- 
 diate protection  of  man,  thefe  fpecies,  in  rough  or  ftormy 
 weather,  fhelter  themfelves  among  trees  or  bullies,  retire  un- 
 der the  coverture  of  projecting  rocks,  or  the  fides  of  hills 
 oppofite  to  thofe  from  which  the  wind  proceeds.  Befide 
 thefe  arts  of  defence,  to  which  the  creatures  are  prompted  by 
 *  See  Ghap.  V.  Of  loftindt. 
 
516  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 inftln-5t  and  experience,  Nature  furnlfhes  them,  during  the 
 winter  months,  with  a  double  portion  of  long  hair,  which 
 protects  them  from  cold,  and  other  afPaults  of  the  weather. 
 
 Of  the  quadrupeds  that  make  or  choofe  habitations  for 
 themfelves,  fome  dig  holes  in  the  earth,  fome  take  refuge  in 
 the  cavities  of  decayed  trees,  and  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and 
 fome  actually  conflru^l  cabins  or  houfes.  But  the  artifices 
 they  employ,  the  materials  they  ufe,  and  the  fituations  they 
 jelect,  are  fo  various,  and  fo  numerous,  that  our  plan  necef- 
 farily  limits  us  to  a  few  of  the  more  curious  examples. 
 
 The  Alpine  marmot  is  a  quadruped  about  lixteen  inches 
 in  length,  and  has  a  fhort  tail.  In  figure,  the  marmots  have 
 fome  refemblance  both  to  the  rat  and  to  the  bear.  When 
 tamed,  they  eat  every  thing  prefented  to  them,  as  flefh, 
 bread,  fruit,  roots,  pot-herbs,  infecls,  &c.  They  delight  in 
 the  regions  of  frofh  and  of  fnow,  and  are  only  to  be  found 
 on  the  tops  of  the  highefi:  mountains.  Thefe  animals  remain 
 in  a  torpid  flate  during  winter.  About  the  end  of  Septem* 
 ber  or  ;the  beginning  of  October,  they  retire  into  their  holes, 
 '^nd  never  come  abroad  again  till  the  beginning  of  April. 
 Their  retreats  are  formed  with  much  art  and  precaution. 
 With  ,thek  feet  and  claws,  which  are  admirably  adapted  to 
 the  purpofc,  they  dig  the  earth  with  amazing  quicknefs,  and 
 throw  it  behind  them.  They  do  not  make  a  fimple  hole,  or 
 a  ftraight  or  winding  tube,  but  a  kind  of  gallery  in  the  form 
 of  a  Y,  each  branch  of  which  has  an  aperture,  and  both  ter- 
 minate in  a  capacious  apartment,  where  feveral  of  the  ani- 
 mals lodge  together.  As  the  whole  operation  is  performed 
 on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain,  this  innermoft  apartment  is 
 alone  horizontal.  Both  branches  of  the  Y  are  inclined* 
 One  of  the  branches  defcends  under  the  apartment,  and 
 follows  the  declivity  of  the  mountain.  This  branch  is  a 
 kind  of  aquedudl,  and  receives  and  carries  off  the  excre- 
 ments of  the  animals  ;   and  the  other,  which  rifes  above  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  SI 7 
 
 principal  apartment,  is  ufed  for  coming  in  and  going  out. 
 The  place  of  their  abode  is  well  lined  with  mofs  and  hay, 
 of  which  they  lay  up  great  ftore  during  the  fummer.  They 
 -are  focial  animals.  Several  of  them  live  together,  and  work 
 in  common  when  forming  their  habitations.  Thither  they 
 retire  during  rain,  or  upon  the  approach  of  danger.  One  of 
 them  ftands  centinel  upon  a  rock,  while  the  others  gambol 
 upon  the  grafs,  or  are  employed  in  cutting  it,  in  order  to 
 make  hay.  If  the  centinel  perceives  a  man,  an  eagle,  a  dog, 
 or  other  dangerous  animal,  he  alarms  his  companions  by  a 
 loud  whiftle,  and  is  himfelf  the  laft  that  enters  the  hole. 
 As  they  continue  torpid  during  the  winter,  and,  as  if  they 
 forefaw  that  they  would  then  have  no  occafion  for  victuals, 
 they  lay  up  no  provifions  in  their  apartments.  But,  when 
 they  feel  the  firft  approaches  of  the  fleeping  feafon,  they 
 Ihut  up  both  paflages  to  their  habitation  ;  and  this  operation 
 they  perform  with  fuch  labour  and  folidity,  that  it  is  more 
 eafy  to  dig  the  earth  any  where  elfe  than  in  fuch  parts  as 
 they  have  thus  fortified.  At  this  time  they  are  very  fat, 
 weighing  fometimes  twenty  pounds.  They  continue  to  be 
 plump  for  three  months  ;  but  afterwards  they  gradually  de- 
 cline, and,  at  the  end  of  winter,  they  are  extremely  emaciat- 
 ed. When  feized  in  their  retreats,  they  appear  rolled  up  in 
 the  form  of  a  ball,  and  covered  with  hay.  In  this  ftate, 
 they  are  fo  torpid  that  they  may  be  killed  without  feeming 
 to  feel  pain.  The  hunters  fele£t  the  fatteft  for  eating,  and 
 keep  the  young  ones  for  taming.  Like  the  dormice,  and  all 
 the  other  animals  which  flcep  during  winter,  the  marmots  are 
 revived  by  a  gradual  and  gentle  heat :  And  it  is  remarkable, 
 that  thofe  which  are  fed  in  houfes,  and  kept  warm,  never 
 become  torpid,  but  are  equally  adtive  and  lively  during  the 
 whole  year. 
 
 We  fhall  now  give  a  fliort  account  of  the  operations  and 
 archlte£lure  of  the  beaver.     This  amphibious  quadruped  is 
 
 Q  Q 
 
Bl&  •       ftiE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 about  three  feet  in  length,  and  its  tail,  which  is  of  an  otzi 
 figure,  and  covered  with  fcales,  is  eleven  inches  long.  He" 
 tifes  his  tail  as  a  rudder  to  direiSl  his  courfe  in  the  water. 
 In  places  much  frequented  b^  man,  the  beavers  neither  aflb- 
 cinte  nor  build  habitations.  But,  in  the  northern  regions 
 of  both  Continents,  they  allemble  in  the  month  of  June  or 
 July,  for  the  purpofes  of  uniting  into  fociety  and  of  build- 
 ing a  city.  From  all  quarters  they  arrive  in  numbers,  and 
 foon  form  a  troop  of  two  or  three  hundred.  The  opera-* 
 tions  and  architecture  of  the  beavers  are  fo  well  defcribed  by 
 the  Count  de  Buffon,  that  we  fhall  lay  it  before  our  readers 
 nearly  in  his  own  words.  The  place'  of  rendezvous,  he  re- 
 marks, is  generally  the  Situation  fixed  upon  for  their  eftablifh- 
 ment,  and  it  is  always  on  the  banks  of  waters.  If  the  waters 
 be  fiat,  and  feldom  rife  above  their  ordinary  level,  as  in 
 lakes,  the  beavers  make  no  bank  or  dam.  But  in  rivers  or 
 brooks,  where  the  water  is  fubjeft  to  rifings  and  fallings,  they 
 build  a  bank,  which  traverfes  the  river  from  one  fide  to  the 
 other,  like  a  fluice,  and  is  often  from  80  to  100  feet  long,  by 
 10  or  12  broad  at  the  bafe.  This  pile,  for  animals  of  fo 
 fmall  a  fize,  appears  to  be  enormous,  and  prefuppofes  an  in- 
 credible labour*.  But  the  folidity  with  which  the  work  is 
 confl:ru6led  is  ftill  more  aftonlfliing  than  its  magnitude.  The 
 part  of  the  river  v/here  they  eredt  this  bank  is  generally 
 fliallow.  If  they  find  on  the  m^argin  a  large  tree,  v/hich  can  be 
 made  to  fall  into  the  river,  they  begin,  by  cutting  it  down,  to 
 form  the  principal  bafis  of  their  work.  This  tree  is  often  thick- 
 er than  a  man's  body.  By  gnawing  it  at  the  bottom  with  their 
 four  cutting  teeth,  they  in  a  fliort  time  accomplifh  their  pur- 
 pofe,  and  alv/ays  make  the  tree  fall  acrofs  the  river.  They 
 next  cut  the  branches  from  the  trunk  to  make  it  lie  level. 
 Thefe  operations  are  performed  by  the  joint  induftry  of  the 
 ■whole  community.     Some  of  them  at  the  fame  time  travdrfe 
 
 *  Tlie  hriT^cft  beavers  weigh  only  50  or  Co  pounds. 
 
OF    NATURjiL    HISTORY.  31^ 
 
 the  banks  of  the  river,  and  cut  down  fmaller  trees,  from  the 
 fize  of  a  man's  leg  to  that  of  his  thigh.  Thefe  they  cut  to  a 
 certain  length,  drefs  them  into  flakes,  and  fn-ft  drag  them 
 by  land  to  the  margin  of  the  river,  and  then  by  water  to  the 
 place  where  the  building  is  carrying  on.  Thefe  piles  they 
 iink  down,  and  interweave  the  branches  with  the  larger 
 flakes.  In  performing  this  operation  many  difficulties  are 
 to  be  furmounted.  In  order  to  drefs  thefe  flakes,  and  to 
 put  them  in  a  fituation  nearly  perpendicular,  fome  of  the 
 beavers  mufl  elevate,  with  their  teeth,  the  thick  ends  againft 
 the  margin  of  the  river,  or  againfl  the  crofs  tree,  while  oth- 
 ers plunge  to  the  bottom,  and  dig  holes  with  their  fore-feet 
 to  receive  the  points,  that  they  may  ftand  on  end.  When 
 fome  are  labouring  in  this  manner,  others  bring  earth,  which 
 they  plafh  with  their  feet,  and  beat  firm  with  their  tails. 
 They  carry  the  earth  in  their  mouths,  and  with  their  fore- 
 feet. They  tranfport  earth  in  fuch  quantities,  that  they  fill 
 with  it  all  the  intervals  between  the  piles.  Thefe  piles  con- 
 fifl  of  feveral  rows  of  flakes,  of  equal  height,  all  placed  oppo- 
 site to  each  other,  and  extend  from  one  bank  of  the  river  to 
 the  other.  The  ftakes  facing  the  under  part  of  the  river 
 are  placed  perpendicularly  ;  but  thofe  which  are  oppofed  to 
 the  ftream  flope  upward  to  fuftain  the  preffiire  of  the  water  ; 
 fo  that  the  bank,  which  is  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide  at  the 
 bafe,  is  reduced  to  two  or  three  at  the  top.  Near  the  top, 
 or  thinnefl  part  of  the  bank,  the  beavers  make  two  or  three 
 Hoping  holes,  to  allow  the  furface-water  to  efcape.  Thefe 
 they  enlarge  or  contrail  in  proportion  as  the  river  rifes  or 
 falls  J  and,  when  any  breaches  are  made  in  the  bank  by  fud- 
 den  or  violent  inundations,  they  know  how  to  repair  them 
 when  the  water  fubfides. 
 
 Hitherto  all  thefe  operations  were  performed  by  the  unit- 
 ed force  and  dexterity  of  the  whole  community.  They  now 
 feparate   into  fmaller  focieties^  who  build  cabins  or  houfes. 
 
'S20  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Thefe  cabins  are  confi:ru6led  upon  piles  near  the  margin  ot 
 the  river  or  pond,  and  have  two  openings,  one  for  the  ani- 
 mals to  the  land,  and  the  other  for  throwing  thcmfelves  into 
 the  water.  The  form  of  thefe  edifices  is  either  round  or 
 oval,  and  they  vary  in  lize  from  four  or  five  to  eight  or  ten 
 feet  in  diameter.  Some  of  them  confift  of  three  or  four 
 ftories.  Their  walls  are  about  two  ftfet  thick  ;  and  are  raif- 
 ed  perpendicularly  upon  planks,  or  plain  ftakes,  which  ferve 
 both  for  foundations  and  floors  to  their  houfes.  When  they 
 confift  of  but  one  ftory,  they  rife  perpendicularly  a  few  feet 
 only,  afterwards  aflTume  a  curved  form,  and  terminate  in  a 
 dome  or  vault,  which  anfwers  the  purpofe  of  a  roof.  They 
 are  built  with  amazing  folidity,  and  neatly  plaftered  with  a 
 kind  of  ftucco  both  within  and  without.  In  the  application 
 of  this  mortar  the  tails  of  the  beavers  ferve  for  trowels,  and 
 their  feet  for  plafhing.  Their  houfes  are  impenetrable  to 
 rain,  and  refift  the  moft  impetuous  winds.  In  their  conftruc- 
 tlon,  they  employ  different  materials,  as  wood,  ftone,  and  a 
 kind  of  fandy  earth,  which  is  not  liable  to  be  difix)lved  in 
 water.  The  wood  they  ufe  is  generally  of  the  light  and  ten- 
 der kind,  as  alders,  poplars,  and  willows,  which  commonly 
 grow  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  are  more  eafily  barked, 
 cut,  and  trtinfported,  than  the  heavier  and  more  folid  fpecies 
 of  timber.  They  always  begin  the  operation  of  cutting  trees 
 at  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  above  the  ground  ;  they  la- 
 bour in  a  fitting  pofture  ;  and,  befide  the  convenience  of 
 this  pofture,  they  enjoy  the  pleafure  of  gnawing  perpetually 
 the  bark  and  wood,  which  are  their  favourite  food.  Of  thefe 
 provifions  they  lay  up  ample  ftores  in  their  cabins  to  fupport 
 them  during  the  winter.  Each  cabin  has  its  own  magazine, 
 which  is  proportioned  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  who 
 have  all  a  common  right  to  the  ftore,  and  never  pillage  their 
 neighbours.  Some  villages  are  compofed  of  twenty  or 
 twenty-five  cabins.     But  thefe  large  eftabliftiments  are  not 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  82^ 
 
 frequent  ;  and  the  common  republics  feldom  exceed  ten  or 
 twelve  families,  of  which  each  have  their  own  quarter  of  tho 
 village,  their  own  magazine,  and  their  feparatc  habitation. 
 The  fmalleft  cabins  contain  two,  four,  or  iix,  and  the  largr 
 eft  eighteen,  twenty,  and  fometimes  thirty  beavers.  As  to 
 males  and  females,  they  are  almoft  always  equally  paired. 
 Upon  a  moderate  computation,  therefore,  the  fociety  is  often 
 compofed  of  150  or  200,  who  all,  at  firft,  labour  jointly  in 
 raifing  the  great  public  building,  and  afterwards,  in  felecl 
 tribes  or  companies,  in  making  particular  habitations.  In 
 this  fociety,  however  numerous,  an  univerfal  peace  is  main- 
 tained. Their  union  is  cemented  by  common  labours  ;  and 
 it  is  perpetuated  by  mutual  conveniency,  and  the  abundance 
 of  provifions  which  they  amafs  and  confume  together.  A 
 fimple  tafte,  moderate  appetites,  and  an  averfion  to  blood 
 and  carnage,  render  them  deftitute  of  the  ideas  of  rapine  and 
 of  war.  Friends  to  each  other,  if  they  have  any  foreign 
 enemies  they  know  how  to  avoid  them.  When  danger  ap- 
 proaches, they  advertife  one  another,  by  ftriking  their  broad 
 tail  on  the  furface  of  the  water,  the  noife  of  which  is  heard 
 at  a  great  diftance,  and  refounds  through  all  the  vaults  of 
 their  habitations.  Each  individual,  upon  thefe  occafions, 
 confalts  his  own  fafety  -,  fome  plunge  into  the  water  ;  oth- 
 ers conceal  themfelves  within  their  walls,  which  can  be  pene- 
 trated only  by  the  fire  of  heaven,  or  the  fteel  of  man,  and 
 which  no  animal  will  attempt  either  to  open  or  to  overturn. 
 Thefe  retreats  are  not  only  fafe,  but  neat  and  commodious. 
 The  floors  are  fpread  over  with  verdure  :  The  branches  of 
 the  box  and  of  the  fir  ferve  them  for  carpets,  upon  which 
 they  permit  not  the  fmalleft  dirtinefs.  The  window  that 
 faces  the  water  anfwers  for  a  balcony  to  receive  the  frefh  air, 
 and  for  the  purpofe  of  bathing.  During  the  greater  part  of 
 the  day,  the  beavers  fit  on  end,  with  their  head  and  the  an- 
 terior parts  of  theif  body  elevated,  and  their  pofterior  parts 
 
322  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 funk  in  the  water.  The  aperture  of  this  v^^indow  is  fuffici- 
 .ently  raifed  to  prevent  its  being  flopped  up  with  the  ice, 
 which,  in  the  beaver  climates,  is  often  two  or  three  feet 
 thick.  When  this  accident  happens,  ihey  flope  the  fole 
 of  the  window,  cut  obHquely  the  ftiikes  which  fupport  it, 
 and  thus  open  ii  communication  with  the  unfrozen  water, 
 They  often  fwim  a  long  way  under  the  ice.  The  continual 
 habit  of  keeping  their  tail  and  pofterior  parts  of  their  body 
 in  the  water,  appears  to  have  changed  the  nature  of  thei^r 
 flefli ;  for  that  of  their  anterior  parts,  as  far  as  the  reins, 
 has  the  tafte  and  conliftence  of  the  flefh  of  land-animals  ; 
 but  that  of  the  tail  and  pofterior  parts  has  the  odour  and  all 
 the  other  qualities  of  fifh.  The  tail,  which  is  a  foot  long,  an 
 inch  thick,  and  five  or  fix  inches  broad,  is  a  genuine  portion 
 pf  a  fifii  attached  to  the  body  of  a  quadruped  ;  It  is  wholly 
 covered  with  fcales,  and  below  the  fcales  with  a  Ikin  perfectly 
 fimilar  to  that  of  large  fifties.  In  September,  the  beavers 
 colledt  their  provifions  of  bark  and  of  wood.  Till  the  end  of 
 winter,  they  remain  in  their  cabins,  enjoy  the  fruits  of  their 
 labours,  and  tafi:e  the  fweets  of  domeftic  happinefs.  This 
 is  their  time  of  repofe,  and  their  feafbn  of  lovp.  Knowing 
 and  loving  one  another,  each  couple  unite,  not  by  chance,  but 
 by  tafie  and  a  real  feledlion.  The  females  bring  forth  in  the 
 end  of  winter,  and  generally  produce  two  or  three  at  a  time. 
 About  this  period  they  are  left  by  the  males,  who  retire  to 
 the  country  to  enjoy  the  pleafures  and  the  fruits  of  the  fpring. 
 They  return  occafionally,  however,  to  their  cabins  ;  but 
 dwell  there  no  more.  The  mothers  continue  in  the  cabins, 
 and  are  occupied  in  nurfing,  protecting,  and  rearing  their 
 young,  which  in  a  few  weeks  are  in  a  condition  to  follow 
 their  dams.  The  beavers  aflemble  not  again  till  autumn, 
 unlefs  their  banks  or  cabins  be  injured  by  inundations  ;  for, 
 when  accidents  of  this  kind  happen,  they  fuddenly  coUeCl 
 their  forces,  and  repair  the  breaches  that  have  been  made. 
 
Of  natural  history.  529p 
 
 This  account  of  the  fociety  and  operations  of  beavers, 
 however  marvellous  it  may  appear,  has  been  eftablifliecl  and 
 confirmed  byfo  many  credible  eye-witnefles,  that  it  is  impof- 
 fible  to  doubt  of  its  reality. 
 
 The  habitation  where  moles  depofit  their  young  merits  a 
 particular  defcription  j   becaufe  it   is  confl:ru£led  with  pecu- 
 liar intelligence,   and  becaufe    the   mole  is    an  animal  with 
 which  we  are  well  acquainted.     They  begin   by  raiiing  the 
 earth,  and  forming  a  pretty  high  arch.     They  leave   parti- 
 tions, or  a  kind  of  pillars,  at  certain  diftances,  beat  and  prefs 
 the  earth,  interv/eave  it  with  the  roots  of  plants,  and  render  it 
 fo  hard  and  folid,  that  the  water  cannot  penetrate  the  vault, 
 on  account  of  its  convexity  and  iirmnefs.  They  then  elevate 
 a  little  hillock  under  the  principal  arch  5  upon  the  latter 
 they  lay  herbs  and  leaves  for  a  bed  to  their  young.     In  this 
 iituation  they  are  above  the  level  of  the   ground,  and,  of 
 courfe,   beyond   the  reach  of  ordinary  inundations.     They 
 are,  at  the  fame  time,  defended  from  the  rains  by  the  large 
 vault  that  covers  the  internal  one,  upon  the  convexity  of 
 which  laft  they  reft  along  with  their  young.     This  internal 
 hillock  is  pierced  on  all  iides  with  floping  holes,  which  de* 
 fcend  ftill  lower,  and  ferve  as  fubterraneous  pafles  for  the 
 mother  to  go    in  queft  of  food  for  herfelf  and  her  offspring* 
 Thefe  by-paths  are  beaten  and  firm,  extend  about  twelve  or 
 fifteen  paces,  and  iffue  from  the  principal  manfion  like  ray? 
 from  a  centre.     Under  the  fuperior  vault  we  likewife  fmtf 
 remains  of  the  roots  of  the  meadow  faffron,  which  feem  to' 
 be  the  fir  ft  food  given  to  the  young.     From  this  defcription 
 it  appears,  that  the  mole  never  comes  abroad  but  at  confider-- 
 able  diftances  from  her  habitation.     Moles,  like  the  beavers,^ 
 pair  ;  and  fo  lively  and  reciprocal  an  attachment  fubfifts  be- 
 tween them,  that  they  feem  to  difrelifh  all  other  fociety.    In 
 their  dark  abodes  they  enjoy  the  placid  habits  of  repofe  and 
 of  folitude,  the  art  of  fecuring  themfelves  from  injury,  of  al-* 
 
324  THE   PHlLOSOPnt 
 
 mofl  Inftantaneoufly  making  an  afylum  or  habitation,  and  oi 
 procuring  a  plentiful  fubfiftence  without  the  neceffity  of  go- 
 ing abroad.  They  fhut  up  the  entrance  of  their  retreats* 
 and  feldom  leave  them,  unlefs  compelled  by  the  admifiioii 
 of  water,  or  when  their  manfions  are  dcmoliihed  by  art. 
 
 The  nidification  of  Birds  has  at  all  times  defervedly  called 
 forth  the  admiration  of  mankind.  In  general,  the  nefts  of 
 birds  are  built  with  an  art  fo  exquiilte,  that  an  exaft  imita-- 
 tion  of  them  exceeds  all  the  powers  of  human  lliill  and  in- 
 duftry.  Their  ftyle  of  architedture,  the  materials  they  em- 
 ploy, and  the  fituations  they  felefl,  are  as  various  as  the  dif- 
 ferent fpecies.  Individuals  of  the  fame  fpecies,  whatever  re- 
 gion of  the  globe  they  inhabit,  colle(St  the  fame  materials^  ar- 
 range and  conftru£l:  them  in  the  fame  form,  and  make  choice 
 of  fimllar  fituations  for  ere^llng  their  temporary  habitations  ;. 
 for  the  nefts  of  birds,  thofe  of  the  eagle-kind  excepted,  after 
 the  young  have  come  to  maturity,  are  forever  abandoned  by 
 the  parents. 
 
 To  defcribe  minutely  the  n^fts  of  birds  would  be  a  vain  at- 
 tempt. Such  defcriptions  could  not  convey  an  adequate  idea 
 of  their  architedlurc  to  a  perfon  who  had  never  fecn  one  of 
 thofe  beautiful  and  commodious  habitations,  which  even 
 aftonlfh  and  excite  the  amazement  of  children. 
 
 The  different  orders  of  birds  exhibit  great  variety  In  the 
 materials  and  fiirufture  of  their  nefts.  Thofe  of  the  rapaci- 
 ous tribes  are  in  general  rude,  and  compofed  of  coarfe  mate- 
 rials, as  dried  twigs,  bents,  &c.  But  they  are  often  lined 
 with  foft  fubftances.  They  build  in  elevated  rocks,  ruinous 
 and  fequeftered  caftles  and  towers,  and  in  other  folitary  re- 
 tirements. The  aiery  or  neft  of  the  eagle  is  quite  flat,  and 
 not  hollow,  like  thofe  of  other  birds.  The  male  and  female, 
 commonly  place  their  neft  between  two  rocks,  in  a  dry  and 
 inaccefhble  fituation.  The  fame  neft,  It  is  faid,  ferves  the 
 eagle  during  life.     The  ftruclure  is  fo  confiderable,  and  com- 
 
OF    NiiTURAL    HISTORY,  825 
 
 pofed  of  fucli  folid  materials,  that  it  may  laft  many  years.  Its 
 foi'in  refembtes  that  of  a  floor.  Its  bafis  coniifts  of  flicks 
 about  five  or  fix  feet  in  length,  which  are  fupported  at  each 
 end,  and  thefe  are  covered  with  feveral  layers  of  ruflies  and 
 heuh.  An  eagle's  neft  was  found  in  the  Peak  of  Derby- 
 fliire,  whicii  Willoughby  defcrlbes  ia  the  following  manner  i 
 « It  '^ras  made  of  great  fticks,  refting  one  end  on  the  edge  of 
 "f  a  i-ock^  the  other  on  a  birch  tree.  Upon  thefe  was  a  layer 
 ^  of  ruihes,  and  Over  them  a  layer  of  heath,  and  on  the  heath 
 •f  rufhes  again  ;  upon  which  lay  one  young,  and  an  addle  egg ; 
 *  and  by  them  a  lamb,  a  hare,  and  three  heath  pouts.  The 
 f  neft  was  about  two  yixMs  %.rare,  and  had  no  hollow  in  it.* 
 But  the  butcher  birds,  or  Ilirikes,  which  are  lefs  rapacious 
 than  eagles  and  hawks,  build  their  habitations  in  fhrubs  and 
 buihes,  and  employ  mofs,  wool,  and  other  foft  materials. 
 
 The  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  Pies  in  the  ingenious 
 Mr.  Pennant's    Genera   of  Birds,  are  extremely  irregular  in 
 conn:ru61:ing  their  nefts.     The  common  magpies  build   their 
 nefts  in  trees,  and  their  ftructure  is  admirably  contrived  for 
 affording  warmth  and  protection  to  the  young.     The  neft  is 
 iiot  open  at  the  top  :     It  is  covered,   in  the  mofl:  dexterous 
 manner,  with  an  arch   or  dome,  and  a  fmall  opening  in  the 
 fide  of  it  is  left,  to  give  the  parents  an  opportunity  of  pafHng 
 in  and  out  at  their  pleafure.    To  proteft  their  eggs  and  young 
 from  the  attacks    of  other    animals,  the  magpies   place,  all 
 round    the   external  fiirface   of  their  nefl,  fliarp  briars  and 
 thorns.     The  long-tailed  titmoufe,  or  ox-eye,  builds  nearly 
 like  the  wren,  but  with  ftill  greater  art.     With  the  fame  ma- 
 terials  as  the  reft  of  the  ftruflure,  the  titmoufe  builds  an 
 arch  over  the  top  of  the  neft,  which  refembles  an  egg  erefV- 
 ed  upon  one  end,  and  leaves  a  fmall  hole  in  the  fide  for  a 
 palfage.     Both  eggs  and  young,  by  this  contrivance,  are  de- 
 fended   from   the  injuries   of  the  air,  rain,  cold,  &c.     That 
 the  young  may  have  a  foft  and  warm  bed,  flic  lines  the  in- 
 
 R  R 
 
326  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fide  of  the  neft  with  feathers,  down,  and  cobwebs.  The  fides 
 and  roof  are  compofed  of  mofs  and  wool  interwoven  in  the 
 moft  curious  and  artificial  manner. 
 
 In  treating  of  inftindl,  it  was  mentioned,  that,  in  warm 
 climates,  many  fmall  birds  fufpended  their  nefts  on  tender 
 twigs  of  trees,  to  prevent  them  from  being  deftroyed  by  the 
 monkeys.  In  Europe,  there  are  only  three  birds  which  build 
 penfile  nefts,  namely,  the  common  oriola,  the  parus  penduli- 
 nus,  or  hang-neft  titmoufe  ;  and  another  penfile  nefi:,  belong- 
 ing to  fome  unkown  bird,  was  lately  difcovered  by  Mr.  Pen- 
 nant, near  the  houfe  of  Blair  in  Athole,inthe  north  of  Scot- 
 bnd.     *  In  a  fpruce  fir-tree,'  Mr.  Pennant  remarks,  «  was  a 
 
 *  hang-nefl:  of  fome  unknown  bird,  fufpended   at  the  four 
 
 *  corners  to  the  boughs.  It  was  open  at  top,  an  inch  and  a 
 ^  half  diameter,  and  two  deep  ;    the  fides  and  bottom  thick  ^ 
 
 *  the  materials  mofs,  worfi:ed,   and  birch  bark,  lined  with 
 
 <  feathers*/ 
 
 Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Indian  Zoology,  gives  the  following 
 curious  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  motaciila  futoria, 
 or  taylor  bird,  builds  its  neft.  « Had  providence,'  Mr.  Pen- 
 nant remarks,  <  left  the  feathered  tribes    unendowed  with 
 
 *  any  particular  inftin^l,  the  birds  of  the  torrid  zone  woukl 
 «  have  built  their  nefts  in  the  fame  unguarded  manner  as 
 
 *  thofe  of  Europe  j  but  there  the  lefl^er  fpecies,  having  a  cer- 
 
 <  tain  prefclence  of  the  dangers  that  furround  tiiem,  and  of 
 « their   own  weaknefs,  fufpend    their  nefts    at   rhe  extreme 
 
 <  branches  of  the  trees  :  They  are  confcious  of  inhabiting  a 
 
 *  climate    replete   with  enemies  to  them  and  their  young  j 
 
 *  with  fnakes  that  twine  up  the  bodies  of  the  treesj  and  apes^ 
 «  that  are  perpetually  in  fearch  of  prey  ;  but,  heaven-in- 
 '  ftrudled,  they  elude  the  gliding  of  the  one,  and  the  acSlivity 
 «  of  the  other.     The  brute  creation  are  more  at  enmity  with 
 
 *  one  another  than  in  other  climates  j   and  the  birds  are 
 
 *  Pennant's  Tour,  vol.  i.  page  104.  3d  editioa. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  327 
 
 *  obliged  to  exert  an  unufual  artifice  in  placing  their  little 
 «  broods  out  of  the  reach  of  an  invader.     Each  aims  at  the 
 
 *  fame  end,  though  by   different  means  ;   fome  form  their 
 
 <  penfile  neft  in  Ihape  of  a  purfe,  deep  and  open  at  top,  oth» 
 
 *  ers  with  a  hole  in  the  fide,  and  others,  ftill  more  cau- 
 '  tious,  with  an  entrance  at  the  very  bottom,  forming  their 
 
 *  lodge  near   the  fummit*.     But  the  taylor-bird  feems  to 
 
 *  have  greater  diffidence  than  any  of  the  others  :     It  will 
 
 *  not   trufl  its   neft   even   to  the    extremity    of   a  flender 
 
 <  twig,  but  makes    one   more    advance  to    fafety  by  fixing 
 
 <  it  to  the  leaf  itfelf.  It  picks  up  a  dead  leaf,  and  fur- 
 '  prifing   to  relate,  fews   it    to  the   fide   of  a  living  onef, 
 
 <  its  flender  bill  being  its  needle,  and  its  thread    fome  fine 
 
 *  fibres,  the  lining  feathers,  goffamer,  and  down.  Its  eggs 
 ^  are  white,  the  colour  of  the  bird  light  yellow  ;   its  length 
 
 *  three  inches  ;  its  weight  only  three  fixteenths  of  an  ounce  ; 
 
 <  fo  that  the  materials  of  the  neft,  and  its  own  fize,  are  not 
 « likely  to  draw  down  a  habitation  that  depends  on  fo  flight 
 '  a  tenure  ij:.' 
 
 Birds  of  the  gallinaceous  or  poultry  kind  lay  their  eggs  on 
 the  ground.  Some  of  them  fcrape  a  kind  of  a  hole  in  the 
 earth,  and  line  it  with  a  little  long  grafs  or  ftraw. 
 
 It  is  a  Angular,  though  a  well  attefted  fa^V,  that  the  cuckow 
 makes  no  neft,  and  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her  own  young. 
 
 <  The  hedge-fparrow,'  fays  Mr.  Willoughby,  <  is  the  cuckow's 
 
 *  nurfe,  but  not  the  hedge-fparrow  only,  but  alfo  ring-doves, 
 
 <  larks,  finches.  I  myfelf,  with  many  others,  have  feen  a 
 '  wag-tail  feeding  a  young  cuckow.  The  cuckow  herfelf 
 «  builds  no  neft  j   but  having   found  the  neft  of  fome  little 
 
 *  bird,  fhe  either  devours  or  deftroys  the  eggs  fhe  there  finds, 
 
 *  This  inftindl  prevails  alfo  among  the  birds  on  the  banks  of  the  Gambia,  in 
 Africa,  which  abounds  with  monjceys  and  fnakes  :  others,  for  the  fame  end, 
 m;ike  their  neft  in  noles  of  the  banks  that  overhang  that  vaft  river  ;  Pur- 
 ch;:s,  vol, 2, page  1576. 
 
 +  A  neft  of  this  bird  is  preferved  in  the  Britifh  Mufeum. 
 j  Pennant's  Indian  Zoology,  page  7. 
 
3.28  THE    THILOSOPHY 
 
 <  and,  in  the  room  thereof,  lays  one  of  her  own^  and  fo  for^ 
 
 <  fakes  it.     The  filly  bird  returning,  fits  on  this  egg,  hatches 
 
 <  it,  and,  with  a  great  deal  of  care 'and  toil,  broods,  feeds,  and 
 
 <  cherifhes  the  young  cuckow  for  her  own,  until  it  be  grown 
 ^  up  and  able  to  fly  and  fhift  for  itfelf.     Which  thing  feems 
 
 <  fo  ftrange,  monftrous,  and  abfurd,  that  for  my  part  I  cannot 
 
 <  fufiiciently  wonder  there  fliould  be  fuch  an  example  in  Na- 
 *  ture ;  nor  could  I  ever  have  been  induced  to  believe  that 
 
 <  fuch  a  thing  had  been  done  by  Nature's  inftindt,  had  I  not 
 
 <  with  mine  own  eyes  feen  it.     For  Nature,  in  other  things, 
 
 <  is  wont  conftantly  to  obferve  one  and  the  fame  law  and  or- 
 
 <  der,  agreeable  to  thehigheft  reafon  and  prudence;  which  in 
 
 <  this  cafe  is,  that  the  dams  make  nefls  for  themfelves,  if  need 
 
 <  be,  fit  upon  their  own  eggs,  and  bring  up  their  own  young 
 
 <  after  they  are  hatched*.*  This  oeconomy,  in  the  hiflory 
 of  the  cuckow,  is  not  only  fingular,  but  feems  to  con- 
 tradict one  of  the  mofb  univerfal  laws  eftabhllied  among  ani- 
 mated beings,  and  particularly  among  the  feathered  tribes, 
 namely,  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  their  offspring.  Still, 
 however,  like  the  oftrich  in  very  warm  climates,  though  the 
 cuckow  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her  young,  Ihe  places  her 
 ^ggs  in  fituations  where  they  are  both  hatched  and  her  ofF- 
 fpring  brought  to  maturity.  Here  the  ftupidity  of  the  one 
 animal  makes  it  a  dupe  to  the  rapine  and  chicane  of  the  other  ; 
 for  the  cuckow  always  deftroys  the  eggs  of  the  fmall  bird 
 before  £he  depofits  her  own. 
 
 Moft  of  the  pafTerine  or  fmall  tribes  build  their  nefts  in 
 hedges,  fhrubs,  or  bufhes ;  though  fome  of  them,  as  the  lark 
 and  the  goat-fucker,  build  upon  the  ground.  The  nefts  of 
 fmall  birds  are  more  delicate  in  their  flru6lure  and  contriv- 
 ance than  thofe  of  the  larger  kinds.  As  the  fize  of  their 
 bodies,  and  likewife  that  of  their  eggs,  are  fmaller,  the  mate- 
 rials of  which  their  nefls  are  compofed  are  generally  warmero 
 *  Willoughby's  Ornithology,  page  98. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  $g^ 
 
 Small  bodies  retain  heat  a  fhorter  time  than  thofe  which  are 
 large.  Hence  the  eggs  of  fmall  birds  require  a  more  conftanc 
 fnpply  of  heat  than  thofe  of  greater  dimenhons.  Their 
 nefts,  accordingly,  are  built  proportionally  warmer  and  deep** 
 er,  and  they  are  lined  with  fofter  fubftances.  The  larger 
 birds^  of  courfe,  can  leave  their  eggs  for  fome  time  with  im-? 
 punity  ',  but  the  fmaller  kinds  fit  moft  affiduoufly  ;  for, 
 when  the  female  is  obliged  to  go  abroad  in  queft  of  food,  the 
 neft  is  always  occupied  by  the  male.  When  a  nefb  is  finifli- 
 ed,  nothing  can  exceed  the  dexterity  of  both  male  and  fe- 
 male in  concealing  it  from  the  obfervation  of  man,  and  of 
 other  deftruiflive  animals.  If  it  is  built  in  bullies,  the  pliant 
 branches  are  difpofed  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  hide  it  entirely 
 from  view.  To  conceal  her  retreat,  the  chaffinch  covers  the 
 outfide  of  her  neft  with  mofs,  which  is  commonly  of  the 
 fame  colour  with  the  bark  of  the  tree  on  which  the  builds^ 
 The  common  fwallow  builds  its  neft  on  the  tops  of  cliim- 
 neys  ;  and  the  martin  attaches  hers  to  the  corners  of  win- 
 dows, or  under  the  eaves  of  houfes.  Both  employ  the  fame 
 materials.  The  neft  is  built  with  mud  well  tempered  by  the 
 bill,  and  moiftened  with  water  to  make  it  more  firmly  co? 
 here  ;  and  the  mud  or  clay  is  kept  ftill  firmer  by  a  mixture, 
 of  ftraw  or  grafs.  Within  it  is  neatly  lined  with  feathers. 
 Willoughby,  on  the  authority  of  Bontius,  informs  us,  <  That, 
 «  on  the  fea  coaft  of  the  kingdom  of  China,  a  fort  of  fmall 
 
 <  party-coloured  birds,  of  the  fhape  of  fwallows,  at  a  certain 
 «  feafon  of  the  year,  viz.  their  breeding  time,  come  out  of 
 '  the  midland  country  to  the  rocks  ;  and  from  the  foam  or 
 i  froth  of  the  fea-water  dafhing  and  breaking  againft  the 
 
 <  bottom  of  the  rocks,  gather  a  certain  clammy,  glutinous 
 «  matter,  perchance  the  fperm  of  whales,  or  other  fifties,  of 
 
 <  which  they  build  their  nefts,  wherein  they  lay  their  eggs, 
 
 <  and  hatch  their  young.  Thefe  nefts  the  Chinefe  pluck 
 f  from  the  rocks,  and  bring  them  in  gceat  numbers  into  the 
 
330  THE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 <  Eaft  Indies  to  fell  ;  which  are  efteemed  by  gluttons  great 
 '  delicacies,  who,  difTolving  them  in  chicken  or  mutton  broth, 
 *  are  very  fond  of  them,  preferring  them  far  before  oyfters, 
 « muflirooms,  or  other  dainty  and  lickerifli  morfels  which 
 ^  mofl:  gratify  the  palate.  Thefe  nefts  are  of  a  hemifpherical 
 ^  figure,  of  the  bignefs  of  a  goofe-egg,  and  of  a  fubftance  re- 
 f  fembling  ifing-glafs*.' 
 
 Moft  of  the  cloven-footed  water-fowls,  or  waders,  lay  their 
 eggs  upon  the  ground.  But  the  fpoon-bills  and  the  common 
 heron  build  large  nefts  in  trees,  and  employ  twigs  and  other 
 coarfe  materials  ;  and  the  ftorks  build  on  churches,  or  on 
 the  tops  of  houfes.  Many  of  the  webb-footed  fowls  lay  their 
 eggs  likewife  on  the  ground,  as  the  terns,  and  fome  of  the 
 gulls  and  merganfers.  But  ducks  pull  the  down  from  their 
 own  breafts  to  afford  a  warmer  and  more  comfortable  bed 
 for  their  young.  The  auks,  the  guillemots,  and  the  puffins 
 or  coulternebs,  lay  their  eggs  on  the  naked  {helves  of  high 
 rocks.  The  penguins,  for  the  fame  purpofe,  dig  large  and 
 deep  holes  under  ground. 
 
 It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  that  birds  uniformly  pro- 
 portion the  dimenfions  of  their  nefts  to  the  number  and  lize 
 of  the  young  to  be  produced.  Every  fpecies  lays  nearly  a 
 determined  number  of  eggs.  But,  if  one  be  each  day  ab- 
 ftraifted  from  the  neft,  the  bird  continues  to  lay  daily  more 
 till  her  number  Is  completed.  Dr.  Lifter,  by  this  practice, 
 made  a  fwallow  lay  no  lefs  than  nineteen  eggs. 
 
 The  habitations  of  IiifeBs  are  next  to  be  confidered.  On 
 this  branch  of  the  fubjedV,  we  ihall  firft  give  fome  examples 
 of  abodes  conftruiSted  by  folitary  workers,  and  next  of  thofe 
 habitations  which  are  executed  by  aflbciated  numbers. 
 
 In  feveral  preceding  parts  of  this  work,  and  particularly 
 in  the  chapter  upon  Inftindt,  the  reader  will  find  fome  in- 
 ftancps  of  the  fkill  and  induftry  exhibited  by  infe^ls  for  the 
 •  Willougbby's  Ornitholpgy,  page  z\$. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  831 
 
 convenient  lodging  and  protecfllon  of  their  young.  Thefe  it 
 is  unneceflary  to  repeat.  We  fliall  therefore  proceed  to  give 
 fome  examples  of  a  different  kind. 
 
 There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  bees  diftinguifhed  by  the  ap- 
 pellation oi  folitaryy  becaufe  they  do  not  alTociate  to  carry  on 
 any  joint  operations.  Of  this  kind  is  the  mnfoti-beey  fo  called 
 becaufe  it  builds  a  habitation  compofed  of  fand  and  mortar. 
 The  nefts  of  this  bee  are  fixed  to  the  walls  of  houfes,  and, 
 ■when  finifhed,  have  the  appearance  of  irregular  prominences 
 arifing  from  dirt  or  clay  accidentally  thrown  againft  a  wall 
 or  ftone  by  the  feet  of  horfes.  Thefe  prominencies  are  not 
 fo  remarkable  as  to  attract  attention  ;  but,  when  the  exter- 
 nal coat  is  removed,  their  ftruflure  is  difcovered  to  be  truly 
 admirable.  The  interior  part  confifts  of  an  aflemblage  of 
 different  cells,  each  of  which  affords  a  convenient  lodgement 
 to  a  white  worm,  pretty  fimilar  to  thofe  produced  by  the 
 honey-bee.  Here  they  remain  till  they  have  undergone  all 
 their  metamorphofes.  In  conftru<Sling  this  nell:,  which  is  a 
 work  of  great  labour  and  dexterity,  the  female  is  the  fole 
 operator.  She  receives  no  affiftance  from  the  male.  The 
 manner  in  which  the  female  mafon-bees  build  their  nefts  is 
 the  mofl:  curious  branch  of  their  hiftory. 
 
 After  choofmg  a  part  of  a  wall  on  which  fhe  is  refolved  to 
 fix  an  habitation  for  her  future  progeny,  flie  goes  in  quefl: 
 of  proper  materials.  The  neft  to  be  conftrudted  mufi:  confiil 
 of  a  fpecies  of  mortar,  of  which  fand  is  the  bafis.  She  knows, 
 like  human  builders,  that  every  kind  of  fand  is  not  equally 
 proper  for  making  good  mortar.  She  goes,  therefore,  to  a 
 bed  of  fand  and  felects,  grain  by  grain,  the  kind  which  i» 
 beft  to  anfwer  her  purpofe.  With  her  teeth,  which  are  as 
 large  and  as  ftrong  as  thofe  of  the  honey-bee,  flie  examines 
 and  brings  together  feveral  grains.  But  fand  alone  will  not 
 make  mortar.  Recourfe  muff  be  had  to  a  cement  fimilar  to 
 the  flacked  lime  employed  by  mafons.     Our  bee  is  unae* 
 
iS^  tHE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 qualnted  with  lime,  but  fhe  pofTefTes  an  equivalent  in  her  oWri 
 body.  From  her  mouth  Ihe  throws  out  a  vifcid  liquor,  with 
 which  fhe  moiftens  the  firft  grain  pitched  upon.  To  this 
 grain  fhe  cements  a  fecond,  which  fhe  moiftens  in  the  fame 
 manner,  and  to  the  former  two  fhe  attaches  a  third,  and  {o 
 on,  till  flie  has  formed  a  mafs  as  large  as  the  fhot  ufually  em-* 
 ployed  to  kill  hares.  This  mafs  (he  carries  off  in  her  teeth 
 to  the  place  fhe  had  chofen  for  ereding  her  nefl,  and  makes 
 k  the  foundation  of  the  firft  cell.  In  this  manner  flie  la- 
 hours  incefTantly  till  the  whole  celk  are  completed,  a  work 
 tvhich  is  generaHy  accompli fhed  in  five  or  fix  days.  All  the 
 cells  are  fimilar,  and  nearly  equal  in  dimenxions.  Before 
 they  are  covered,  their  iigure  refembles  that  of  a  thimble. 
 She  never  begins  to  make  a  fecond  till  the  firft  be  finifliedi 
 £ach  cell  is  about  an  inch  high,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  in  dia- 
 meter. But  the  labour  of  building  is  not  the  only  one  this 
 female  bee  has  to  undergo.  When  a  cell  has  been  raifed  to 
 5ne  half  or  two  thirds  of  its  height,  another  occupation  com- 
 mences. She  feems  to  know  the  quantity  of  food  that  will 
 be  neceffary  to  nourifh  the  young  that  is  to  proceed  from  the 
 Ibgg,  from  its  exclufion  till  it  acquires  its  full  growth,  and  paf** 
 fes  into  the  chryfaliis  flate.  The  food  which  is  prepared  for 
 the  fupport  of  the  young  worm  confifts  of  the  farina  or  pow- 
 der of  flowers,  diluted  with  honey,  which  forms  a  kind  of 
 pap.  Before  the  cell  is  entirely  finlfhed,  the  mafon-bee  col- 
 lects from  the  flowers,  and  depofits  in  the  cell,  a  large  quan- 
 tity of  farina,  and  afterwards  difgorges  upon  it  as  much 
 honey  as  dilutes  it,  aud  forms  it  into  a  kind  of  pafle,  or  fyrup. 
 When  this  operation  is  performed,  fhe  completes  her  cell, 
 Jmd,  after  depofiting  an  egg  in  it,  covers  the  mouth  of  it  with 
 the  fame  mortar  fhe  ufes  in  building  her  neft.  The  egg  is 
 now  inclofed  on  all  fides  in  a  walled  habitation  hermetically 
 fealed.  A  fmall  quantity  of  air,  however,  gets  admiffion  to 
 the  worm,  otherwife  it  could  not  exift.  Reaumur  difcovered 
 
0^    NATURAL    HISTORY.  339 
 
 that  the  air  actually  penetrated  through  this  feemingly  com- 
 pact mafon- vv^ork. 
 
 As  foon  as  the  lirft  cell  is  completed,  the  mafon-bee  lays 
 the  foundation  of  another.  In  the  fame  neft  £he  often  con-* 
 flructs  {even  or  eight  cells,  and  fometimes  only  three  or* 
 four.  She  places  them  near  each  other,  but  not  in  any  re- 
 gular order.  This  induftrious  animal,  after  all  her  cells  are 
 conftru(fted,  filled  with  provifions,  and  fealed,  covers  the 
 whole  with  an  envelope  of  the  fame  mortar,  which,  when 
 dry,  is  as  hard  as  a  ftone.  The  neft  now  is  commonly  of  an 
 oblong  or  roundifh  figure,  and  the  external  cover  is  com- 
 pofed  of  coarfer  fand  than  that  of  the  cells.  As  the  nefts 
 are  almoft  as  durable  as  the  walls  on  which  they  are  placed, 
 they  are  often,  in  the  following  feafon,  occupied  and  repair- 
 ed by  a  ftranger  bee.  Though  inclofed  with  two  hard  walls, 
 when  the  fly  emerges  from  the  chryfalls  ftate,  it  firft  gnaws 
 with  its  teeth  a  pafTage  through  the  wall  that  fealed  up  the 
 mouth  of  its  cell,  afterwards,  with  the  fame  inftruments,  it 
 pierces  the  ftill  ftronger  and  more  compadl  cover  which  in- 
 vefts  the  whole  neft  j  at  laft  it  efcapes  into  the  open  air,  and, 
 if  a  female,  in  a  ftiort  time,  conftru6h  a  neft  of  the  fame 
 kind  with  that  which  the  mother  had  made.  To  all  thefe 
 fa6i:s,  Du  Hamel,  Reaumur,  and  many  other  naturalifts  of 
 credit  and  reputation,  have  been  repeatedly  eye-witnefTes. 
 
 From  the  hardnefs  of  the  materials  with  which  the  mafon- 
 bee  conftru6ls  her  neft,  from  the  induftry  and  dexterity  fhe 
 employs  to  protect  her  progeny  from  enemies  of  every  kind, 
 one  Ihould  naturally  imagine  that  the  young  worms  were  in 
 perfe(Sl  fafety,  and  that  their  caftle  was  impregnable.  But, 
 notwithftanding  all  thefe  favourable  precautions,  the  young 
 of  the  mafon-bee  are  often  devoured  by  the  inftin61ive  dex- 
 terity of  certain  fpecies  of  four-winged  infe<5ls,  diftinguiflied 
 by  the  name  of  ichneumon  files .  Thefe  flies,  when  the  ma-* 
 fon-bee  has  nearly  completed  a  cell,  and  filled  it  with  por- 
 
3S4  tHE  philosophy' 
 
 vifions,  depofit  their  own  eggs  in  her  cell.  After  the  egg^' 
 of  the  ichneumon  flies  are  hatched,  their  worms  devour  not 
 only  the  provifions  laid  up  by  the  mafon-bee,  but  even  her 
 progeny  whom  Die  had  laboured  ih  hard,  and  with  fo  much 
 aft  and  ingenuity,  to  prote6l.  But  the  mafon-bee  has  an  ene- 
 my ftill  more  formidable.  A  certain  fly  employs  the  fame 
 ftratagem  of  iniinuating  an  egg  into  one  of  her  cells  before 
 it  is  completed.  From  this  egg  proceeds  a  ftrong  and  rapa- 
 cious worm,  armed  with  prodigious  fangs.  The  devaftations 
 of  this  worm  are  not  confined  to  one  cell.  He  often  pierces 
 through  each  cell  in  the  neft,  and  fucceflively  devours  both 
 the  mafon-worms,  and  the  provifions  fo  anxioufly  laid  up  for 
 their  fupport  by  the  mother.  This  ftranger  worm  is  after- 
 wards transformed  into  a  fine  beetle,  v,  ho  is  enabled  to  pierce 
 the  nefl,  and  to  make  his  efcape. 
 
 The  operations  of  another  fpecies  of  folitary  bees,  called 
 tuood-piercerff  merit  attention.  Thefe  bees  are  larger  than 
 the  queens  of  the  honey-bee.  Their  bodies  are  fmooth,  ex- 
 cept the  fides,  which  are  covered  with  hair.  In  the  fpring, 
 they  frequent  gardens,  and  fearch  for  rotten,  or  at  leafl:  dead 
 wood,  in  order  to  make  an  habitation  for  their  young.  When 
 ft  female  of  this  fpecies,  for  fhe  receives  no  affiftance  from 
 the  male,  has  fele<51ed  a  piece  of  wood,  or  a  decayed  tree, 
 flie  commences  her  labour  by  making  a  hole  in  it,  which  is 
 generally  dlre6led  toward  the  axis  of  the  tree.  When  fhe 
 has  advanced  about  half  an  inch,  fhe  alters  the  diredlion  of 
 the  hole,  and  conducts  it  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
 wood.  The  fize  of  her  body  requires  that  this  hole  fliould 
 have  a  confiderable  diameter.  It  is  often  fo  large  as  to  ad- 
 mit the  finger  of  a  man,  and  it  fometimes  extends  from 
 twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  length.  If  the  thicknefs  of  the 
 wood  permits,  flie  makes  three  or  four  of  thefe  long  holes  in^ 
 its  interior  part.  M.  de  Reaumur  found  three  of  thefe  pa- 
 i^allel  holes  in  an  old  efpalier  poll.     Their  diameters  exceed- 
 
^  OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  3^5 
 
 ed  half  an  inch.     This  labour,  for  a  fingle  bee,  is  prodigious  ; 
 but,  in  executing  it,  {he  confumes  weeks,  and  even  months. 
 
 Around  the  foot  of  a  poft  or  piece  of  wood  where  one  of 
 thefe  bees  are  working,  little  heaps  of  timber- du ft  are  always 
 found  lying  on  the  ground.  Thefe  heaps  daily  increafe  in 
 magnitude,  and  the  particles  of  duft  are  as  large  as  thofe 
 produced  by  a  hand-faw.  The  two  teeth  with  which  the" 
 animal  is  provided  are  the  only  inftruments  (he  employs  in 
 making  fuch  confiderable  perforations.  Each  tooth  confifts 
 of  a  folid  piece  of  fhell,  which  in  fhape  refembles  an  auger. 
 It  is  convex  above,  concave  below,  and  terminates  in  a  fharp 
 but  ftrong  point. 
 
 Thefe  long  holes  are  defigned  for  lodgings  to  the  worms 
 that  are  to  proceed  from  the  eggs  which  the  bee  is  foon  to 
 depoiit  in  them.  But,  after  the  holes  are  finiihed,  her  la- 
 lour  is  by  no  means  at  an  end.  The  eggs  muft  not  be  min- 
 gled, or  piled  above  each  other.  Every  feparate  worm  muft 
 have  a  diftincl  apartment,  without  any  communication  with 
 the  others.  Each  long  hole  or  tube,  accordingly,  is  only  the 
 outer  walls  of  a  houfe  which  is  to  conftft  of  many  cham- 
 bers ranged  one  above  another.  A  hole  of  about  twelve 
 inches  in  length  (he  divides  into  ten  or  twelve  feparate  ap- 
 artments, each  of  which  is  about  an  inch  high.  The  roof 
 of  the  loweft  room  is  the  floor  of  the  fecond,  and  fo  on  to 
 the  uppermoft.  Each  floor  is  about  the  thicknefs  of  a  French 
 crown.  The  floors  or  divifions  are  compofed  of  particles  of 
 wood  cemented  together  by  a  glutinous  fubftance  from  the 
 animal's  mouth.  In  making  a  floor,  flie  commences  with 
 gluing  an  annular  plate  of  wood-duft  round  the  internal  cir- 
 cumference of  the  cavity.  To  this  plate  ftie  attaches  a  fec- 
 ond, to  the  fecond  a  third,  and  to  the  third  a  fourth,  till  the 
 whole  floor  is  completed.  The  undermoft  cell  requires  only 
 J.  roof,  and  this  roof  is  «i  floor  to  the  feoond,  3cc. 
 
336  THE   PHILOSOPHT 
 
 We  have  hitherto  defcrlbed  the  wonderful  affiduity  of 
 this  animal  in  conftrucling  her  cells.  But  this  operation, 
 though  great,  and  feemingly  fuperior  to  the  powers  of  a 
 creature  fo  fmall,  is  not  her  only  labour.  Before  roofing  in 
 the  firft  cell,  fhe  fills  it  with  a  pafte  or  pap,  compofed  of  the 
 farina  of  flowers  moiflened  with  honey.  The  quantity  of 
 pafte  is  equal  to  the  dimenfions  of  the  cell,  whicli  is  about  an 
 inch  high,  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  Into  this  pafte, 
 which  is  to  nourifli  the  future  worm,  fhe  depofits  an  egg. 
 Immediately  after  this  operation,  flie  begins  to  form  a  roof, 
 which  not  only  inclofes  the  firft  cell,  but  ferves  as  a  floor  to 
 the  fecond.  The  fecond  cell  flie  likewife  fills  with  pafte, 
 depofits  an  egg^  and  then  covers  the  whole  with  another  roof. 
 In  this  manner  fhe  proceeds,  till  flie  has  divided  the  whole 
 tube  into  feparate  cells.  A  fingle  tube  frequently  contains 
 from  ten  to  a  dozen  of  thefe  cells.  When  the  cells  are  all 
 inclofed,  the  bufinefs  of  this  laborious  bee  is  finifhed,  and  fhe 
 takes  no  more  charge  of  her  future  progeny.  The  attention 
 •and  folicitude  beftowed  by  many  other  animals,  in  rearing 
 their  young,  are  exerted  after  birth.  But,  in  the  wood- 
 piercing  bee,  as  well  as  in  many  other  infedts,  this  inftindlive 
 attachment  is  reverfed.  All  her  labours  and  all  her  cares 
 are  exerted  before  flie  either  fees  her  offspring,  or  knows 
 that  they  are  to  exift.  But,  after  the  defcription  that  has 
 been  given  of  her  amazing  operations,  fhe  will  not  be  confid- 
 ered  as  an  unnatural  mother.  With  aftonifliing  induftry 
 and  perfeverance,  fhe  not  only  furniflies  her  young  with  fafe 
 and  convenient  lodgings,  but  lays  up  for  them  ftores  of  pro- 
 vifions  fufHcient  to  fupport  them  tilt  their  final  metamorpho- 
 lis  into  flies,  when  the  new  females  perform  the  fame  almoft 
 incredible  operations  for  the  protection  and  fuftenance  of 
 their  own  ofi^spring.  When  the  young  worm  is  hatched,  it 
 has  fcarcely  fufHcient  fpace  to  turn  itfelf  in  the  cell,  which 
 is  almoft   entirely  filled  with  the  pappy  fubftance  formerly 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  S37 
 
 mentioned.  But,  as  this  fubftance  is  gradually  devoured  by 
 the  worm,  the  fpace  in  the  cell  neceflarily  enlarges  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  growth  and  magnitude  of  the  animal. 
 
 We  are  informed  by  M.  de  Reaumur*,  that  Mr.  Pitot 
 furnifhed  him  with  a  piece  of  wood,  not  exceeding  an  inch 
 and  a  half  in  diameter,  which  contained  the  cells  of  a  wood- 
 piercing  bee.  He  cut  ofF  as  much  of  the  wood  as  was  fufli- 
 cient  to  expofe  two  of  the  cells  to  view,  in  each  of  which 
 was  a  worm.  The  aperture  he  had  made,  to  prevent  the  in^ 
 juries  of  the  air,  he  clofed,  by  pafting  on  it  a  bit  of  glal^. 
 The  cells  were  then  almoft  entirely  filled  with  pafte.  The 
 two  v/orms  were  exceedingly  fmall,  and,  of  courfe,  occupied 
 but  little  fpace  between  the  walls  of  the  cells  and  the  mafs  of 
 pafte.  As  the  animals  increafed  in  fize,  the  pafie  daily  di- 
 minifhed.  He  began  to  obferve  them  on  the  12th  day  of 
 June  ;  and,  on  the  27th  of  the  fame  month,  the  pafle  in  eacli 
 cell  was  nearly  confumed,  and  the  worm,  folded  in  two,  occu- 
 pied  the  greater  part  of  its  habitation.  On  the  2d  of  July^ 
 the  provifions  of  both  worms  were  entirely  exhaufled  ;  and, 
 befide  the  worms  themfelves,  there  remained  in  the  cells 
 only  a  few  fmall,  black,  oblong  grains  of  excrement.  Thq 
 five  or  lix  following  days  they  fafted,  which  feemed  to  be  a 
 neceiliiry  abftinence,  during  which  they  were  greatly  agitat- 
 ed. They  often  bended  their  bodies,  and  elevated  and  de- 
 prefled  their  heads.  Thefe  movemtjnts  were  preparatory  tq 
 the  great  change  the  animals  were  about  to  undergo.  Be- 
 tween the  7th  and  8th  of  the  fame  month,  they  threw  oft 
 their  fliins,  and  were  metamorphofed  into  nymphs.  On  the 
 30th  of  July,  thefe  nymphs  were,  transformed  into  flies  fimi- 
 lar  to  their  parents.  In  a  range  of  cells,  the  worms  are  of 
 different  ages,  and,  of  courfe,  of  different  fizes.  Thofe  in 
 the  lower  cells  are  older  than  thofe  in  the  fuperior  ;  be- 
 caufe,  after  the  bee  has  filled  with  pafle  and  enclofed  its  firf^ 
 
 *  Tom.  1 1,  page  58.  lamo  edition. 
 
•358  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 icell,  a  confiderable  time  is  requifite  to  colle£l:  proviiions,  and 
 to  form  partitions  for  every  fucceflive  and  fuperior  cell.  The 
 former,  therefore,  muft  be  transformed  into  nymphs  and 
 flies  before  the  latter.  Thefe  circumftances  are  apparently 
 forefeen  by  the  common  mother  ;  for,  if  the  undermoft 
 worm,  which  is  oldeft,  and  fooneft  transformed,  were  to 
 force  its  way  upward,  which  it  could  eafily  do,  it  would  not 
 only  difturb,  but  infallibly  deftroy  all  thofe  lodged  in  the  fu- 
 perior cells.  But  Nature  has  wifely  prevented  this  devafta- 
 tion;  for  the  head  of  the  nymph,  andconfequently  of  thefly,  is 
 always  placed  in  a  downward  dire6lion.  Its  firfl  inftin<Stive 
 movements  muft, therefore,  be  in  the  famedire£lion.  That  the 
 young  flies  may  efcape  from  their  refpedtive  cells,  the  moth- 
 er digs  a  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  long  tube,  which  makes 
 a  communication  with  the  undermoft  cell  and  the  open  air. 
 Sometimes  a  fimilar  paiTage  is  made  near  the  middle  of  the 
 tube.  By  this  contrivance,  as  all  the  flies  inftin(Slively  en- 
 deavour to  cut  their  way  downward,  they  find  an  eafy  and 
 convenient  pafl^age  ;  for  they  have  only  to  pierce  the  floor 
 of  their  cells,  which  they  readily  perform  with  their  teeth. 
 
 Another  fmall  fpecies  of  folitary  bees  dig  hoks  in  the 
 earth  to  make  a  convenient  habitation  for  their  young. 
 Their  nefts  are  compofed  of  cylindrical  cells  fixed  to  one 
 another,  and  each  of  them,  in  figure,  r^femblgs  a  thimble. 
 Their  bottom,  of  courfe,  is  convex  and  rounded.  Th?  bot- 
 tom of  the  fecond  is  inferted  into  the  entry  of  the  firft  ;  and 
 the  entry  of  the  fecond  receives  the  bottom  of  the  third. 
 They  are  not  all  of  the  fame  length.  Some  of  them  are  five 
 lines  long,  others  only  four,  and  their  diameters  feldom  ex- 
 ceed two  lines.  Sometimes  only  two  of  thefe  cells  are  join- 
 ed together  ;  and,  at  other  times,  we  find  three  or  four, 
 which  form  a  kind  of  cylinder.  This  cylinder  is  compofed 
 pi  alternate  bands  of  two  difl'erent  colours  :    Thofe  of  the 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  SSJf 
 
 tieifroweft,  at  the  junfture  of  two  cells,  are  white,  and  thofe 
 of  the  broadeft  are  of  a  reddifli  brown.  The  cells  confifl 
 of  a  number  of  fine  membranes,  formed  of  a  glutinous  and 
 tranfparent  fubftance  from  the  animal's  mouth.  Each  cell 
 our  bee  fills  with  the  farina  of  flowers  diluted  with  honey, 
 and  in  this  pafte  flie  depofits  an  egg.  She  then  covers  the 
 cell,  by  gluing  to  its  mouth  a  fine  cellular  fubftance  taken 
 from  the  leaves  of  fome  plant  j  and  in  this  manner  flie  pro- 
 ceeds till  her  cylindrical  neft  is  completed.  The  worms 
 which  are  hatched  from  the  eggs  feed  upon  the  pafte,  fo 
 carefully  laid  up  for  them  by  the  mother,  till  they  are  tranf- 
 formed  into  flies  fimilar  to  their  parents. 
 
 Among  wafps,  as  well  as  bees,  there  are  folitary  fpecies, 
 which  carry  on  no  joint  operations.  Thefe  folitary  wafps 
 are  not  lefs  ingenious  in  conftru£ling  proper  habitations  for 
 their  young,  nor  lefs  provident  in  laying  up  for  them  a  ftore 
 of  nourifhment  fufficient  to  fupport  them  till  they  are  tranf- 
 formed  into  flies,  or  have  become  perfedl  animals*.  But,  to 
 give  a  detailed  defcription  of  their  operations  would  lead  us 
 into  a  prolixity  of  which  the  plan  of  our  work  does  not  admit. 
 
 On  this  fubjeft,  however,  it  cannot  efcape  obfervation,  that 
 all  the  fagacity  and  laborious  induftry  exerted  in  the  various 
 inftances  of  animal  architecture  above  defcribed,  have  one 
 uniform  tendency.  They  are  defigned  for  the  multiplica- 
 tion, protection,  and  nourifhment  of  offspring.  But  many  of 
 them  are  fo  artful,  and  require  fuch  perfevering  labour,  that 
 the  human  mind  is  bewildered  when  it  attempts  to  account 
 for  them.  If  we  attend  to  the  operations  of  quadrupeds,  of 
 birds,  and  of  infeCls,  moft  of  them,  like  pregnant  women, 
 feem  to  know,  from  their  own  feelings,  and  forefight,  not 
 only  their  prefent  condition,  but  what  futurity  is  to  produce. 
 To  folve  this  problem,  recourfe  has  been  had  by  Des  Cartes, 
 by  Buffon,  and  by  other  philofophers,  to  conforoiation  of 
 
 *  See  page  12S, 
 
5id  'THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 body  and  mechanical  impulfe.  Their  reafonings,  however, 
 though  often  ingenious,  involve  the  fubje£l  in  tenfold  obfcur- 
 ity.  We  can  hardly  fuppofe  that  the  animals  actually  fore- 
 fee  what  is  to  happen,  becaufe,  at  firft,  they  have  not  had 
 even  the  aid  of  experience  ;  and,  particularly  in  fome  of  the 
 infect  tribes,  the  parents  arc  dead  before  their  young  are 
 produced.  Pure  inftindts  of  this  kind,  therefore,  muft  be  re- 
 ferred to  another  fource.  In  a  chain  of  reafoning  concern- 
 ing the  operations  of  Nature,  fuch  is  the  conftitution  of  our 
 minds,  that  we  are  under  the  neceility  of  reforting  to  an  ulti- 
 mate caufe.  What  that  caufe  is,  it  is  the  higheft  prefump^ 
 tion  in  man  to  pretend  to  define.  But,  though  we  mufk  for- 
 ever remain  ignorantof  the  caufe,  we  are  enabled  to  trace,and 
 even  to  underftand,  partially,  fome  of  the  efFecSls  ;  and,  from 
 thefe  e£Fe£ls,  we  perceive  the  moft  confummate  wifdom,  the 
 moft  elegant  and  perfecSl  contrivances  to  accomplifli  the  mul- 
 tifarious and  wonderful  intentions  of  Nature.  In  contemplat- 
 ing the  operations  of  animals,  from  man  down  to  the  feem-^ 
 ingly  moll:  contemptible  infexH:,  we  are  necelTarily  compelled 
 to  refer  them  to  pure  indlindls,  or  original  qualities  of  mind, 
 "Variegated  by  Nature  according  as  the  neceffities,  preferva- 
 ^ion,  and  continuation  of  the  different  fpecies  require.  Let 
 any  man  try  to  proceed  a  ftep  farther,  and,  however  he  may 
 deceive  himfelf,  and  flatter  his  own  vanity,  he  muft  find,  at 
 $aft,  that  he  is  clouded  in  obfcurity,  and  that  men  who  have 
 a  more  correct  and  unprejudiced  mode  of  thinking  will  brand 
 him  with  abfurdity,  and  of  ailing  in  direct  oppofition  to  the 
 conftitution  and  frame  of  the  human  mind. 
 
 I  fhall  now  give  fome  examples  of  the  operations  of  aflb- 
 ciating  infefls,  who  conftrucSt  habitations  by  exerting  a  com- 
 mon and  a  mutual  labour. 
 
 'f  he  flcill  and  dexterity  of  the  honey-bees ,  difplayed  in  the 
 conftru'flion  of  their  combs  or  nefts,  have  at  all  times  called 
 forth  the  admiration  of  mankind.     They  are  compofed  of 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  341 
 
 cells  regularly  applied  to  each  others  fides.  Thefe  cells  are 
 uniform  hexagons  or  fix-lided  figures.  In  a  bee-hive,  every 
 part  is  arranged  with  fuch  fymmetry,  and  fo  finely  finifhed, 
 that,  if  limited  to  the  fame  materials,  the  moft  expert  work- 
 man would  find  himfclf  unqualified  ta  conftru<St  a  fimilar 
 habitation,  or  rather  a  fimilar  city. 
 
 Mofi:  Natural  Hifiorians  have  celebrated  bees  for  their 
 wifdom,  for  the  perfection  and  harmony  of  their  republican 
 government,  and  for  their  perfevering  indufiry  and  wonderful 
 oeconomy.  All  thefe  fplendid  talents,  however,  the  late  in- 
 genious Count  de  Bufron  has  endeavoured  to  perfuade  us, 
 are  only  refults  of  pure  mechanifm.  But  this  is  not  the 
 proper  place  to  enter  into  a  difcuflion  of  this  point.  It  will 
 fall  more  naturally  to  be  treated  of  when  we  come  to  de- 
 fizribe  the  focieties  eftabliilied  among  different  gregarious 
 animals.  We  fliall  therefore,  at  prefent,  confine  ourlelves 
 chiefly  to  the  mode  in  which  bees  conflrucl  their  habita- 
 tions. 
 
 In  the  formation  of  their  combs,  bees  feem  to  refolve  a 
 problem  which  would  not  be  a  fittle  puzzling  to  fome  geo- 
 meters, namely,  a  quantity  of  wax  being  given,  to  make  of 
 it  equal  and  fimilar  cells  of  a  determined  capacity,  but  of  the 
 largeft  fize  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  matter  employed, 
 and  difpofed  of  in  fiich  a  manner  as  to  occupy  in  the  hive 
 the  leafl  poffible  fpace.  Every  part  of  this  problem  is  com- 
 pletely executed  by  the  bees.  By  applying  hexagonal  cells 
 to  each  other's  fides,  no  void  fpaces  are  left  between  them  ; 
 and,  though  the  fame  end  might  be  accomplifiied  by  other 
 figures,  yet  they  would  necefTarily  require  a  greater  quantity 
 of  wax.  Befides,  hexagonal  cells  are  better  fitted  to  receive 
 the  cylindrical  bodies  of  thefe  infecSts.  A  comb  confifts  of 
 two  fi:rata  of  cells  applied  to  each  other's  ends.  This  arrange- 
 ment both  fiives  room  in  the  hive,  and  gives  a  double  entry 
 into  the  cells  of  which  the  comb  is  compofed.     As  a  farther 
 
 T   T 
 
34:2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 faving  of  wax,  nnd  preventing  void  fpaces,  the  bafes  of  the 
 cells  in  one  frratum  of  a  comb  ferve  for  bafes  to  the  oppofite 
 ftratum.  In  a  word^  the  more  minutely  the  conftrudlion  of 
 thefe  cells  are  examined,  the  more  will  the  admiration  of  the 
 obferver  be  excited.  The  v/alls  of  the  cells  are  fo  extremely 
 thin,  that  their  mouths  would  be  in  danger  of  fufFering  by  the 
 frequent  entering  and  ifTuing  of  the  bees.  To  prevent  this 
 difafter,  they  make  a  kind  of  ring  round  the  margin  of  each 
 cell,  and  this  ring  is  three  or  four  times  thicker  than  the  walls. 
 It  is  difficult  to  perceive,  even  with  the  afliftance  of  glafs- 
 hives,  the  manner  in  which  bees  operate  when  conftrucTting 
 their  cells.  They  are  fo  eager  to  afford  mutual  aliiflance, 
 and,  for  this  purpofe,  fb  many  of  them  crowd  together,  and 
 are  perpetually  fucceeding  each  other,  that  their  individual 
 operations  can  feldom  be  diilinclly  obferved.  It  has,  how- 
 ever, been  plainly  difcovered,  that  their  two  teeth  are  the  oji- 
 ly  inftruments  they  employ  in  modelHng  and  polifliing  the 
 wax.  With  a  httle  patience  and  attention,  we  perceive  cells 
 juft  begun :  We  likewife  remark  the  quicknefs  with  which 
 a  bee  moves  its  teeth  againft-  a  fmall  portion  of  the  cell.  This 
 portion  the  animal,  by  repeated  ftrokes  on  each  fide,  fmooths, 
 renders  compaft,  and  reduces  to  a  proper  thinnefs  of  con- 
 fiftence.  While  fome  of  the  hive  are  lengthening  their 
 hexagonal  tubes,  others  are  laying  the  foundations  of  new 
 ones.  In  certain  circumftances,  when  extremely  hurried, 
 they  do  not  complete  their  new  cells,  but  leave  them  impcr- 
 fe6l  till  they  have  begun  a  number  fufficient  for  their  prefent 
 exigencies.  WHien  a  bee  puts  its  head  a  little  way  into  a 
 cell,  we  ealily  perceive  it  fcraping  the  walls  with  the  points 
 of  its  teeth,  in  order  to  detach  fuch  ufelefs  and  irregular 
 fragments  as  may  have  been  left  in  the  work.  Of  thefe 
 fragments  the  bee  forms  a  ball  about  the  fize  of  a  pin-head, 
 comes  out  of  the  cell,  and  Cvirries  this  wax  to  another  part 
 @f  the  work  where  it  is  needed.     It   no  fooner  leaves  the 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  34'S 
 
 cell  tlian  It  is  fucceeded  by  another  bee,  which  performs 
 the  fame  office,  and  in  this  manner  the  work  is  fucceflively 
 carried  on  till  the  cell  is  completely  poliihed. 
 
 The  cells  of  bees  are  deligned  for  different  pnrpofes. 
 Some  of  them  are  employed  for  the  accumulation  and  prc- 
 fervation  of  honey.  In  others,  the  female  depofits  her  eggs, 
 and  from  thefe  eggs  worms  are  hatched,  which  remain  in 
 the  cells  till  their  final  transformation  into  flies.  The  drones 
 or  males  are  larger  than  the  common  or  working  bees  ;  and 
 the  queen,  or  mother  of  the  hive,  is  much  larger  than  either. 
 A  cell  deftined  for  the  lodgment  of  a  male  or  female  worm 
 mud,  therefore,  be  confiderably  larger  than  the  cells  of  the 
 fmaller  working  bees.  The  number  of  cells  dePdned  for  the 
 reception  of  the  working  bees  far  exceeds  thofe  in  which  the 
 males  are  lodged.  The  honey-cells  are  always  made  deeper 
 and  more  capacious  than  the  others.  When  the  honey  col- 
 lected is  fo  abundant  that  the  veiTels  cannot  contain  it,  the 
 bees  lengthen,  and  of  courfe  deepen  the  honey-cells. 
 
 Their  mode  of  working,  and  the  difpolitlon  and  dhiuon 
 of  their  labour,  when  put  into  an  empty  hive,  do  much  hon- 
 our to  the  fagacity  of  bees.  They  immediately  begin  to  lay 
 the  foundations  of  their  combs,  which  they  execute  with 
 furpriUng  quicknefs  and  alacrity.  Soon  after  they  begin  to 
 conftrucft  one  comb,  they  divide  into  tv/o  or  three  companies, 
 each  of  which,  in  different  parts  of  the  hive,  is  occupied 
 with  the  fame  operations.  By  this  divilion  of  labour,  a 
 greater  number  of  bees  have  an  opportunity  of  being  employ- 
 ed at  the  fame  time,  and,  confequently,  the  common  work  is 
 looner  finlflied.  The  combs  are  generally  arranged  in  a  dl- 
 recLion  parallel  to  each  other.  An  interval  or  ftreet  between 
 the  combs  is  always  left,  that  the  bees  may  have  a  free  paf- 
 fage,  and  an  eafy  communication  with  the  different  combs 
 in  the  hive.  Thefe  flreets  are  juft  wide  enough  to  allow 
 two  bees  to  pafs  one  another.     Befide   thefe  parallel  flreets, 
 
244<  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 to  {horten  their  journey  when  working,  they  leave  feveral 
 round  crofs  pafTages,  which  are  always  covered. 
 
 Hitherto  we  have  chiefly  taken  notice  of  the  manner  in 
 "which  bees  conftrudt  and  pohfh  their  cells,  without  treating 
 of  the  materials  they  employ.  We  have  not  marked  the  dif- 
 ference between  the  crude  matter  collected  from  flowers  and 
 the  true  wax.  Every  body  knows  that  bees  carry  into  their 
 hives,  by  means  of  their  hind  thighs,  great  quantities  of  the 
 farina  or  duil  of  flowers.  After  many  experiments  made  by 
 Reaumur,  with  a  view  to  difcover  whether  this  dufl:  contain- 
 ed real  wax,  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge,  that  he  could 
 never  find  that  wax  formed  any  part  of  its  compofltion.  He 
 at  length  difcovered,  that  wax  was  not  a  fubftance  produced 
 by  the  mixture  of  farina  with  any  glutinous  fubfliance,  nor 
 by  trituration,  or  any  mechanical  operation.  By  long  and 
 attentive  obfervation,  he  found  that  the  bees  actually  eat  the 
 farina  which  they  fo  induftrioufly  colle^l  •,  and  that  this  fari- 
 na, by  an  animal  procefs,  is  converted  into  wax.  This  di- 
 geftive  procefs,  which  is  neceflary  to  the  form.ation  of  wax, 
 is  carried  on  in  the  fecond  fl:omach,  and  perhaps  in  the  intef- 
 tines  of  bees.  After  knowing  the  place  where  this  operation 
 is  performed,  chymifts  will  probably  allow,  that  it  is  equally 
 difficult  to  make  real  wax  with  the  farina  of  flowers,  as  to 
 make  chyle  with  animal  or  vegetable  fubftances,  a  work 
 which  is  daily  executed  by  our  own  ftomach  and  intefl:ines, 
 and  by  thofe  of  other  animals.  Reaumur  likewife  difcover- 
 ed, that  all  the  cells  in  a  hive  were  not  deftined  for  the  re- 
 ception of  honey,  and  for  depoliting  the  eggs  of  the  female, 
 but  that  fome  of  them  were  employed  as  receptacles  for  the 
 farina  of  flowers,  a  fpecies  of  food  that  bees  find  necefl^ary 
 for  the  formation  of  wax,  which  is  the  great  bafls  and  raw 
 material  of  all  their  curious  operations.  When  a  bee  come« 
 to  the  hive  with  its  thighs  filled  with  farina,  it  is  often  met 
 near  the  entrance  by  fome  of  its  companions,  who  firfl:  take 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  345 
 
 ofT  the  load,  and  then  devour  the  provlfions  fo  kindly 
 brought  to  them.  But,  when  none  of  the  bees  employed 
 in  the  hive  are  hungry  for  this  fpecies  of  food,  the  carriers 
 of  the  farina  depofit  their  loads  in  cells  prepared  for  that  pur- 
 pofe.  To  thefe  cells  the  bees  refort,  when  the  weather  is 
 fo  bad  that  they  cannot  venture  to  go  to  the  fields  in  queft 
 of  frefh  provilions.  The  carrying  bees,  however,  commonly 
 enter  the  hive  loaded  with  farina.  They  walk  along  the 
 combs  beating  and  making  a  noife  with  their  wings.  By 
 thefe  movements  they  feem  to  announce  their  arrival  to  their 
 companions.  No  fooner  has  a  loaded  bee  made  thefe  move- 
 ments, than  three  or  four  of  thofe  within  leave  their  work, 
 come  up  to  it,  and  firft  take  off  its  load,  and  then  eat  the  ma- 
 terials it  has  brought.  As  a  farther  evidence  that  the  bees 
 actually  eat  the  farina  of  flowers,  when  the  ftomach  and  in- 
 teftines  are  laid  open,  they  are  often  found  to  be  filled  with 
 this  dufl,  the  grains  of  which,  when  examined  by  the  mi- 
 crofcope,  have  the  exa<^  figure,  colour,  and  coniiftence  of 
 farina,  taken  from  the  antherae  of  particular  flowers.  Aftei;, 
 the  farina  is  digefled,  and  converted  into  wax,  the  bees  pof- 
 fefs  the  power  of  bringing  it  from  their  ilomachs  to  their 
 mouths.  The  infirument  they  employ  in  furnifliing  mate- 
 rials for  conflru6ling  their  waxen  cells  is  their  tongue.  This 
 tongue  is  fituated  below  the  two  teeth  or  fangs.  When  at 
 work,  the  tongue  may  be  feen  by  the  affiftance  of  a  lens  and 
 a  glafs-hive.  It  is  then  in  perpetual  motion,  and  its  motions 
 are  extremely  rapid.  Its  figure  continually  varies.  Some- 
 times it  is  more  fharp,  at  others  it  is  flatter,  and  fometimes  it 
 is  more  or  lefs  concave,  and  partly  covered  with  a  mo'ft 
 pafte  or  wax.  By  the  different  movements  of  its  tongue  the 
 bee  continues  to  fupply  frefh  wax  to  the  two  teeth,  whicli 
 are  employed  in  raifing  and  faihloning  the  walls  of  its  cell, 
 till  they  have  acquired  a  fufhcient  height.  As  foon  as  the 
 moift  pafle  or  wax  dries,  which   it  does  almoft  iriHantane- 
 
S^Q  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 oufly,-  it  then  affumes  all  the  appearances  and  qualities  of 
 common  wax.  There  is  a  ftill  ftronger  proof  that  wax  is  the 
 refult  of  an  animal  procefs.  When  bees  are  removed  into  a 
 new  hive,  and  clofely  confined  from  the  morning  to  the  even- 
 ing, if  the  hive  chances  to  pleafe  them,  in  the  courfe  of  this 
 day  feveral  waxen  cells  will  be  formed,  without  the  poffioili- 
 ty  of  a  fingle  bee's  having  had  accefs  to  the  fields.  Befides, 
 the  rude  materials,  or  the  farina  of  plants,  carried  into  the 
 hive,  are  of  various  colours.  The  farina  of  fome  plants  em- 
 ployed by  the  bees  is  whitifh  ;  in  others  it  is  of  a  fine  yel- 
 low colour  ;  in  others  it  is  almoft  entirely  red  *,  and  in  oth- 
 ers it  is  green.  The  combs  conftruiSted  with  thefe  differ- 
 ently coloured  materials  are,  however,  uniformly  of  the  fame 
 colour.  Every  comb,  efpecially  when  it  is  newly  made,  is  of 
 a  pure  white  colour,  which  is  more  or  lefs  tarnifhed  by  age, 
 the  operation  of  the  air,  or  by  other  accidental  circumftances. 
 To  bleach  wax,  therefore,  requires  only  the  art  of  extract- 
 ing fuch  foreign  bodies  as  may  have  infinuated  themf'elves 
 into  its  fubftance  and  changed  its  original  colour. 
 
 Bees,  from  the  nature  of  their  conftitution,  require  a 
 warm  habitation.  They  are  likewife  extremely  folicitous 
 to  prevent  infedls  of  any  kind  from  getting  admittance  into 
 their  hives.  To  accomplifh  both  thefe  purpofes,  when  they 
 take  pofleflion  of  a  new  hive,  they  carefully  examine  every 
 part  of  it,  and,  if  they  difcover  any  fmall  holes  or  chinks, 
 they  immediately  pafte  them  firmly  up  with  a  refinous  fub- 
 flance  which  differs  confiderably  from  wax.  This  fubftance 
 was  not  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Pliny  mentions  it  under 
 the  name  o£  propolis,  or  bee-glue.  Bees  ufe  the  propolis  for 
 rendering  their  hives  more  clofe  and  perfect,  in  preference 
 to  wax,  becaufe  the  former  is  more  durable,  and  more  pow- 
 erfully refifts  the  viciffitudes  of  weather  than  the  latter. 
 This  glue  is  not,  like  wax,  procured  by  an  animal  procefs. 
 The  bees  colledl  it  from  different  trees,  as  the  poplars,  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  847 
 
 birches,  and  the  willows.  It  is  a  complete  production  of 
 Nature,  and  requires  no  addition  or  manufadlure  from  the 
 animals  by  which  it  is  employed.  After  a  bee  has  procured 
 a  quantity  fufficient  to  fill  the  cavities  in  its  two  hind  thighs, 
 it  repairs  to  the  hive.  Two  of  its  companions  inftantly 
 draw  out  the  propolis,  and  apply  it  to  fill  up  fuch  chinks, 
 holes,  or  other  deficiencies,  as  they  find  in  their  habitation. 
 But  this  is  not  the  only  ufe  to  which  bees  apply  the  propo- 
 lis. They  are  extremely  felicitous  to  remove  fuch  infecls  or 
 foreign  bodies  as  happen  to  get  admiflion  into  the  hive. 
 When  fo  light  as  not  to  exceed  their  powers,  they  firfl  kill 
 the  infecl  with  their  ftings,  and  then  drag  it  out  with  their 
 teeth.  But  it  fometimes  happens  that  an  ill-fated  fnail  creeps 
 into  the  hive.  It  is  no  fooner  perceived  than  it  is  attacked 
 on  all  lides  and  ftung  to  death.  But  how  are  the  bees  to 
 carry  out  a  burden  of  fuch  weight  ^  This  labour  they  know 
 would  be  in  vain.  They  are  perhaps  apprehenfive  that  a 
 body  fo  large  would  difFufe,  in  the  courfe  of  its  putrefadlion, 
 a  difagreeable  or  noxious  odour  through  the  hive.  To  pre- 
 vent fuch  hurtful  confequences,  immediately  after  the  ani- 
 mal's death,  they  embalm  it,  by  covering  every  part  of  its 
 body  with  propolis,  through  v/hich  no  efHuvia  can  efcape. 
 When  a  fnail  with  a  fliell  gets  entrance,  to  difpofe  of  it  gives 
 much  lefs  trouble  and  expence  to  the  bees.  As  foon  as  this, 
 kind  of  fnail  receives  the  firft  vvound  from  a  fting,  it  natural- 
 ly retires  within  its  fliell.  In  this  cafe,  the  bees,  inftead  of 
 pafting  it  all  over  with  propolis,  content  themfelves  with 
 gluing  all  round  the  margin  of  the  fliell,  which  is  fufficient 
 to  render  the  animal,  forever  iaimoveably  fixed. 
 
 But  propolis,  and  the  materials  for  making  wax,  are  not 
 the  only  fubftances  tliefe  induflrious  animals  have  to  coUedl. 
 As  formerly  remarked,  befide  the  whole  winter,  there  are 
 many  days  in  fummer  in  which  the  bees  are  prevented  by 
 the  wejither  from  going  abroad  in  quefl  of  provifions.  They 
 
34:8  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 are,  therefore,  under  the  neceility  of  collet^hig,  and  amafliii* 
 in  cells  deftined  for  that  purpofe,  large  quantities  of  honey. 
 This  fweet  and  balfamic  liquor  they  extract:,  by  means  of 
 their  probofcis  or  trunk,  from  the  nectariferous  glands  of 
 flowers;  The  trunk  of  a  bee  is  a  kind  of  rough  cartilaginous 
 tongue.  After  collecting  a  few  fmall  drops  of  honey,  the 
 animal  with  its  probofcis  conveys  them  to  its  mouth  and 
 fwallows  them.  From  the  oefophagus  or  gullet,  it  paflcs  in- 
 to the  firft  ftomach,  which  is  more  or  lefs  fwelled  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  quantity  of  honey  it  contains.  When  empty,  it 
 has  the  appearance  of  a  fine  white  thread  :  But,  when  filled 
 with  honey,  it  affiimes  the  figure  of  an  oblong  bladder,  the 
 membrane  of  which  is  fo  thin  and  tranfparent,  that  it  allows 
 the  colour  of  the  Hquor  it  contains  to  be  diil:in£lly  feen. 
 This  bladder  is  well  known  to  children  who  live  in  the  coun- 
 try. They  cruelly  amufe  themfelves  with  catching  bees, 
 and  tearing  them  afunder,  in  order  to  fuck  the  honey.  A 
 fmgle  flower  furnifiies  but  a  fmall  quantity  of  honey.  The 
 bees  are,  therefore,  obliged  to  fly  from  one  flower  to  anoth- 
 er till  they  fill  their  firft  flomachs.  When  they  have  ac- 
 compliflied  this  purpofe,  they  return  directly  to  the  hive, 
 and  difgorge  in  a  cell  the  whole  honey  they  have  collected. 
 It  not  unfrequently  happens,  hov/ever,  that,  when  on  its  way 
 to  the  hive,  it  is  accofled  by  a  hungry  companion.  Hov/  the 
 one  can  communicate  its  neceflity  to  the  other,  it  is  perhaps 
 impofiible  to  difcover.  But  the  fadl  is  certain,  that,  v/hen 
 two  bees  meet  in  this  fituation,  they  mutually  flop,  and  the 
 one  whofe  ftomach  is  full  of  honey  extends  its  trunk,  opens 
 its  mouth,  which  lies  a  little  beyond  the  teeth,  and  like  ru- 
 minating animals,  forces  up  the  honey  into  that  cavity.  The 
 hungry  bee  knows  how  to  take  advantage  of  this  hofpitable 
 invitation.  With  the  point  of  its  trunk  it  fucks  the  honey 
 from  the  other's  mouth.  When  not  flopped  on  thd  road, 
 the  bee  proceeds  to  the  hive,  and  in  the  fame  manner  offers 
 its  honey  to  thofe  who  are  at  work,  as  if  it  meant  to  prevent 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  349 
 
 the  neceflity  of  quitting  their  labour  in  order  to  go  in  queft 
 of  food.  In  bad  weather,  the  bees  feed  upon  the  honey 
 laid  up  in  open  cells  ;  but  they  never  touch  thefe  refervoirs 
 when  their  companions  are  enabled  to  fupply  them  with 
 frelh  honey  from  the  fields.  But  the  mouths  of  thofe  cells 
 which  are  deftined  for  preferving  honey  during  winter,  they 
 •always  cover  with  a  lid  or  thin  plate  of  wax. 
 
 Though  not  fl:ri6i:ly  connected  with  the  prefent  fubjecH:, 
 we  cannot  refrain  from  giving  fome  account  of  the  ingenious 
 Mr.  Debraw's  difcoveries  concerning  the  fex  of  bees,  and  the 
 manner  in  which  their  fpecies  is  multiplied*.  It  was  almoft 
 univerfally  believed,  both  by  ancients  and  moderns,  that  bees, 
 like  other  animals,  propagated  by  an  adlual  intercourfe  of  the 
 male  and  female,  though  it  never  could  be  perceived  by  the 
 moft  attentive  obfervers.  Pliny  remarks,  that  apium  coitus 
 "oifns  ejl  jiunqtiam  ;  and  even  the  indefatigable  Reaumur,  not- 
 wich {landing  the  many  minute  refearches  and  experiments 
 he  made  concerning  every  part  of  the  oeconomy  of  bees,  and 
 though  he  reprefents  the  mother,  or  queen-bee,  as  a  perfedl 
 Meffalina,  could  never  detecl  an  a61:ual  intercourfe.  From 
 this  lingular  circumftance,  Maraldi,  in  his  obfervations  upon 
 beesf ,  coiije(Stared  that  the  eggs  of  bees,  like  thofe  of  fifhes, 
 were  impregnated  after  they  were  depolited  in  the  cells  by 
 the  mother.  He  was  farther  confirmed  in  this  opinion,  by 
 uniformly  obferving  that  a  whitlfli  liquid  fubftance  furround- 
 ed  each  egg  which  turned  out  to  be  fertile  •,  but  that  thofe 
 eggs  round  which  no  fuch  fubftance  was  to  be  found  were  al- 
 ways barren.  The  working  bees,  or  thofe  which  colledt  from 
 flowers  the  materials  of  wax,  have  generally  been  confidered 
 as  belonging  to  neither  fex.  But  Mr.  Schirach,  a  German 
 NaturalifV,  in  his  Hijlory  of  the  Qiteen  of  the  BeeSy  maintains, 
 that  all  the  common  bees  are  females  in  a  difguifed  or  barren 
 
 ♦  See  Philofophical  Tranfacflions,  ann.  1777,  Part  I.  page  15. 
 f  Hift,  de  I'Acad.  de  Scien,  ann,  1 7 1  z. 
 U    U 
 
35(X  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ftate ;  tliat  the  organs  which  diftinguifh  the  fex,  and  parti-^^ 
 cularly  the  ovaria,  are  either  obUterated,  or,  on  account  oi 
 their  minutenefs,  have  not  hitherto  been  difcovered  ;  that, 
 in  the  early  period  of  its  exiftence,  every  one  of  thefe  bees  is- 
 capable  of  becoming  a  queen-bee,  if  the  community  choofe 
 to  nurfe  it  in  a  certain  manner,  and  to  raife  it  to  that  dif- 
 tinguifhed  rank  ;  and  that  the  queen-bee  lays  only  two  kinds- 
 of  eggs,  namely,  thoie  that  are  to  produce  drones  or  males, 
 and  thofe  from  which  the  working  bees  are    to  proceed. 
 
 The  conje6lure  of  Maraldi  concerning  the  impregnation  of 
 tl>e  eggs  after  they  are  depofited  in  the  cells,  as  well  as  the 
 obfervations  of  Mr.  Schirach  concerning  the  fex  of  the  work- 
 ing bees,  have  been  completely  verified  by  the  experiments 
 ©f  Mr.  Debraw^  Both  Maraldi  and  Reaumur  had  long  ago 
 difcovered,  that,  in  every  hive,  befide  the  large  drones,  there 
 are  males  or  drones  as  fmall  as  the  working  bees.  By  means 
 of  glafs -hives,  Mr.Debraw  obferved,  that  the  queen-bee  begins 
 to  depofit  her  eggs  in  the  cells  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  af- 
 ter the  bees  begin  to  work.  On  the  firft  or  fecond  day  af- 
 ter the  eggs  are  placed  in  the  cells,  he  perceived  feveral  bees 
 finking  the  poflerior  parts  of  their  bodies  into  each  cell, 
 where  they  continued  but  a  fhort  time.  After  they  had  re- 
 tired, he  faw  plainly  with  the  naked  eye  a  fiiiall  quantity  of 
 whitifh  liquor  left  in  the  bottom  of  each  cell  that  contained 
 an  egg.  Next  day  he  found  that  this  liquor  was  abforbed  in- 
 to the  egg,  which,  on  the  fourth  day,  is  hatched.  When 
 the  worms  efcape  from  the  6ggs,  they  are  fed  for  eight  or 
 ten  days  with  honey  by  the  working  bees.  After  that  pe- 
 riod they  fliut  up  the  mouths  of  the  cells,  where  the  worms 
 continue  inclofed  for  ten  days  more,  during  which  time  they 
 undergo  their  different  transformations. 
 
 *  I  immerfed,'  fays  Mr.  Debraw,  «  all  the  bees  in  water  ^ 
 <  and,  when  they  appeared  to  be  in  a  fenfelefs  ftate,  I  gently 
 «  prefled  every  one  of  them  between  ti\j  fingers,  in  order  tc? 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  S51 
 
 *  diftinguifli  thofe  armed  with  flings  from   thofe  that  had 
 
 *  none,  which  laft  I  might  fufpe£l  to  be  males.  Of  thefe  I 
 ^  found  fixty-feven,  exa<Slly  of  the    Hze  of  common  bees, 
 
 *  yielding  a  little    whitlfh  liquor  on  being   prefTed   between 
 
 *  the  fingers.  I  killed  every  one,  and  replaced  the  fwarm 
 '  in  a  glafs-hive,  where  they  immediately  applied  again  to  the 
 '  work  of  making  cells  ;   and,  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  ve- 
 
 *  ry  early  in  the  morning,  I  had  the  pleafure  to  fee  the  queen- 
 
 <  bee  depofiting  her  eggs   in  thofe  cells,  which  Ihe   did  by 
 
 *  placing  the  pofterlor  part  of  her  body  in  each  of  them.  I 
 f  continued    to    watch    moft  part  of  the   enfuing   days,  but 
 
 *  could  difcover  nothing  of  what  I  had  feen  before.  The 
 «  eggs,  after  the  fourth  day,  inftead  of  changing  in  the  man- 
 
 <  ner  of  caterpillars,  were  found  in  the  fame  ftate  they  were 
 ^  in  the  firft  day.'  The  next  day  about  noon,  the  whole 
 fwarm  forfook  the  hive,  probably  becaufe  the  animals  per^ 
 ceived,  that,  without  the  affiftance  of  males,  they  were  un- 
 qualified to  multiply  their  fpecles.  To  fhow  the  necefilty 
 of  the  eggs  being  fecundated  by  the  male  influence,  Mr.  De- 
 braw  relates  an  experiment  ftill  more  decifive. 
 
 <  I  took/   fays  he,  <  the  brood-comb,  which,  as  I  obferved 
 
 <  before,  had  not  been  impregnated  ;   I  divided  it   into   two 
 
 <  parts  j  one  I  placed  under  a  glafs-bell.  No.  1.  with  honey- 
 
 *  comb  for  the  bees  food  ;  I  took  care  to  leave  a  queen,  but 
 f  no  drones,  among  the  common  bees  I  confined  in  it.  The 
 «  other  piece  of  brood-comb  I  placed  under  another  glafs- 
 «  bell.  No.  2.  with  a  few  drones,  a  queen,  and  a  number  of 
 '  common  bees  proportioned  to   the  fize  of  the  glafs.     The 
 
 <  refult  was,  that,  in  the  glafs  No.  1.  no  impregnation  hap- 
 
 <  pened  ;  the  eggs  remained  in  the  fame  ftate  they  were  in 
 f  when  put  into  the  glafs  ;  and,  upon  giving  the  bees  their 
 f  liberty  on  the  feventh  day,  they  all  flew  away,  as  was  found 
 f  to  be  the  cafe  in  the  former  experiment  :  Whereas,  in  the 
 
 *  glafs  No.  2.  I  faw,  the  very  day  after  the  bees   had  beea 
 
S5S  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ^  put  under  It,  the   impregnation  of  the  eggs  by  the  drones 
 
 *  in  every  cell  containing  eggs  ;  the  bees  did  not  leave  their 
 
 <  hive  on  receiving  their  liberty  j   and,  in  the  courfe  of  twen- 
 
 <  ty  days,  every  egg  underwent  all  the  above  mentioned  ne- 
 
 *  ceflary  changes,  and  formed  a  pretty  numerous  young  col- 
 
 *  ony,  in  v^^hich  I  was  not  a  little  ftartled  to  find  /w(?  queens.' 
 
 The  appearance  of  a  new  queen  in  a  hivcj  where  there  was 
 no  large  or  royal  cell,  made  Mr.  Debraw  conjeflure  that  the 
 bees  are  capable,  by  fome  particular  means,  of  transforming 
 a  common  fubjedl:  into  a  queen.  To  afcertain  the  truth  of 
 this  conjedlure,  he  provided  himfelf  with  four  glafs-hives, 
 into  each  of  which  he  put  a  piece  of  brood-comb  taken  from 
 an  old  hive.  Thefe  pieces  of  brood-comb  contained  eggf, 
 worms,  and  nymphs.  In  each  hive  he  confined  a  fufficient 
 number  of  common  bees,  and  fome  drones  or  males,  but 
 took  care  that  there  fhould  be  no  queen. 
 
 «  The  bees,'  Mr.  Debraw  remarks,  <  finding  themfelves 
 f  without  a  queen,  made  a  ftrange  buzzing  noife,  which  laft- 
 ?  ed  near  two  days,  at  the  end  of  which  they  fettled,  and  be- 
 « took  themfelves  to  work.  On  the  fourth  day,  1  perceived 
 f  in  each  hive  the  beginning  of  a  royal  cell,  a  certain  ifulica- 
 
 *  tion  that  one  of  the  inclojed  luorms  ivould  foon  he  converted  into  a 
 
 *  queen.     The  conftru^lion  of  the  royal  cell  being  nearly  ac- 
 
 *  compliflied,  I  ventured  to  leave  an  opening  for  the   bees 
 
 <  to  get    out,  and  found  that  they  returned  as  regularly  as 
 
 <  they  do  in  common  hives,  and   (hewed   no  inclination  to 
 
 <  leave  their  habitation.  But,  to  be  brief,  at  the  end  of  twen- 
 
 <  ty  days,  I  obferved  four  young  queens  among  the  new  pro- 
 «  geny.' 
 
 To  thefe  experiments  of  Mr.  Debraw,  It  was  objected,  that 
 the  queen-bee,  befide  the  eggs  which  fhe  depoflts  in  the 
 royal  cells,  might  likewife  have  laid  royal  or  female  eggs  in 
 the  common  cells  ;  and  that  the  pieces  of  brood-comb,  fo 
 fuccefsfully  employed  in  his  experiments  for  the  production 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  353 
 
 of  a  queen,  had  always  happened  to  contain  one  of  thefe  roy- 
 al eggs,  or  rather  one  of  the  worms  proceeding  from  them. 
 But  this  objection  was  afterwards  removed  by  many  other 
 accurate  experiments,  the  refults  of  which  were  uniformly 
 the  fame  ;  and  the  objecStors  to  Mr.  Debraw's  difcovery  can^ 
 didly  admit,  that,  when  the  community  ftands-  in  need  of  a 
 queen,  the  working-bees  poflefs  the  power  of  railing  a  com- 
 mon fubjecl  to  the  throne  ;  and  that  every  worm  of  the  hive 
 is  capable,  under  a  certain  courfe  of  management,  of  becom- 
 ing the  mother  of  a  numerous  progeny.  This  metamorpho- 
 fis  feems  to  be  chiefly  accomplifhed  by  a  peculiar  nourilli- 
 ment  carefully  adminiftered  to  the  worm  by  the  working- 
 bees,  by  which,  and  perhaps  by  other  unknown  means,  the 
 female  organs,  the  germs  of  which  previoufly  exifted  in  the 
 embryo,  are  expanded,  and  all  thofe  differences  in  form  and 
 fize,  that  fo  remarkably  diftinguifh  the  queen  from  the  work- 
 ing-bees, are  produced. 
 
 It  is  always  a  fortunate  circumftance  when  difcoveries, 
 which  at  firft  feem  calculated  folely  to  gratify  curiolity,  are 
 capable  of  being  turned  to  the  advantage  of  fociety.  Mr. 
 Debraw,  accordingly,  has  not  failed  to  point  out  the  advan- 
 tages that  may  be  derived  from  his  refearches  into  the  oecon- 
 omy  and  nature  of  bees.  By  his  difcovery,  we  are  taught 
 an  eafy  mode  of  multiplying,  without  end,  fwarms,  or  new 
 colonies,  of  thefe  ufeful  infe(Sls.  Befide  the  great  increafe 
 of  honey,  if  this  difcovery  were  fufficlently  attended  to,  con- 
 fiderable  funis  annually  expended  in  importing  wax  into  this 
 kingdom  from  the  Continent  might  be  faved.  The  pradlice 
 of  this  new  art,  Mr.  Schirach  informs  us,  has  already  extend- 
 ed itfelf  through  Upper  Lufatia,  the  Palatinate,  Bohemia, 
 Bavaria,  Silefia,  and  Poland.  In  fome  of  thefe  countries,  it 
 has  excited  the  attention,  and  acquired  the  patronage  of  gov- 
 ernment. The  Emprefs  of  Ruflia,  who  never  lofes  fight  of 
 a  fingle  article  by  which  the  induftry,  and,  of  courfe,  the 
 
S5*  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 happinefs  of  her  fubjefls  can  be  augmented,  has  fent  a  proper 
 perfon  to  Klein  Bautzen  to  be  inftru£led  in  the  general  prin* 
 ciples,  and  to  learn  all  the  minutiae  of  this  new  and  import- 
 ant art. 
 
 TVafpSy  like  the  bees,  affociate  in  great  numbers,  and  con* 
 ftrudl,  with  much  dexterity  and  Ikill,  a  common  habitation. 
 There  are  many  fpecies  of  wafps,  fome  of  which  unite  into 
 focieties,  and  others  fpend  their  lives  in  perfecSl  folitude. 
 But,  in  this  place,  we  fliall  conline  our  attention  to  the  ope- 
 rations of  the  common  afTociating  wafp,  an  infe<5t  fo  well 
 known,  even  to  children,  that  it  requires  no  defcription. 
 Though  bees,  as  well  as  wafps,  are  armed  with  a  Iting,  yet 
 the  former  may  be  regarded  as  a  placid  and  harmlefs  race« 
 Bees  are  continually  occupied  with  their  own  labours.  Their 
 chief  care  is  to  defend  themfelves  ;  and  they  never  take 
 nourifhment  at  the  expence  of  any  other  animal.  Wafps,  on 
 the  contrary,  are  ferocious  animals,  who  live  entirely  on  ra- 
 pine and  deftrudtion.  They  kill  and  devour  every  infect 
 that  is  inferior  to  them  in  ftrength.  But,  though  warHke  and 
 rapacious  in  their  general  manners,  they  are  polifhed  and 
 peaceable  among  themfelves.  To  their  young  they  difcover 
 the  greateft  tendernefs  and  affe<5lion.  For  their  protedlion 
 and  conveniency  no  labour  is  fpared  *,  and  the  habitations  they 
 conftrudt  do  honour  to  their  patience,  addrefs,  and  fagacity. 
 Their  archite(Slure,  like  that  of  the  honey-bee,  is  lingular, 
 and  worthy  of  admiration  ;  but  the  materials  employed  fur- 
 plfli  neither  honey  nor  wax.  Impelled  by  an  inftindtlve  love 
 of  pofterity,  they,  with  great  labour,  fkill,  and  affiduity,  con- 
 ftru(Sl:  combs,  which  are  likewife  compofed  of  hexagonal  or 
 lix-fided  cells.  Though  thefe  cells  are  not  made  of  wax, 
 they  are  equally  proper  for  the  rece  ption  of  eggs,  and  for 
 affording  convenient  habitations  to  the  worms  which  pro- 
 ceed from  them  till  their  transformation  into  wafps. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  35.^ 
 
 in  general,  the  cells  of  the  wafps  are  formed  of  a  kind 
 of  paper,  which  with  great  dexterity,  is  fabricated  by  the  ani- 
 mals themfelves.  The  number  of  combs  and  cells  in  a  wafp's 
 nefl  is  always  proportioned  to  the  number  of  individuals  aflb- 
 elated.  DiiFerent  fpecies  choofe  different  fituations  for  build- 
 ing their  nefts.  Some  expofe  their  habitations  to  all  the  in- 
 juries of  the  air  ;  others  prefer  the  trunks  of  decayed  trees  5 
 and  others,  as  the  common  kind,  of  which  we  are  principal- 
 ly treating,  conceal  their  nefts  under  ground.  The  hole 
 which  leads  to  a  wafp's  neft  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter. 
 This  hole  is  a  kind  of  gallery  mined  by  the  wafps,  is  feldom 
 in  a  ftraight  line,  and  varies  in  length  from  half  a  foot  to  two 
 feet,  according  to  the  diftance  of  the  nefb  from  the  furface 
 of  the  ground.  When  expofed  to  view,  the  whole  neft  ap- 
 pears to  be  of  a  roundifh  form,  and  fometimes  about  twelve 
 or  fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  ftrongly  fortified  all 
 round  with  walls  or  layers  of  paper,  the  furface  of  which  is 
 rough  and  irregular.  In  thefe  walls,  or  rather  in  this  exter- 
 nal covering,  two  holes  are  left  for  paftages  to  the  combs. 
 The  wafps  uniformly  enter  the  neft  by  one  hole,  and  go  out 
 by  the  other,  which  prevents  any  confufion  or  interrup- 
 tion to  their  common  labours. 
 
 We  are  now  arrived  at  the  gates  of  this  fubterraneous  ci- 
 ty, which,  though  fmall,  is  extremely  populous.  Upon  re- 
 moving the  external  covering,  we  perceive  that  the  whole  in- 
 terior part  conlifts  of  feveral  ftoreys  or  floors  of  combs, 
 •which  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and  nearly  in  a  horizontal 
 pofition.  Every  ftorey  is  compofed  of  a  numerous  aflem- 
 blage  of  hexagonal  cells;,  very  regularly  conftru61:ed  with  a 
 matter  refembling  afti-coloured  paper.  Thefe  cells  contain 
 neither  wax  nor  honey,  but  are  folely  deftined  for  containing 
 the  eggs,  the  worms  which  are  hatched  from  them,  the 
 nymphs,  and  the  young  wafps  till  they  are  able  to  fly. 
 Wafps  nefts  ar^  not  always  compofed  of  an  equal  number  of 
 
B^6  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 combs.  They  fometimes  confift  of  fifteen,  and  fometimes 
 of  eleven  only.  The  combs  are  of  various  diameters.  The 
 firft,  or  uppcrmoft-,  is  often  only  two  inches  in  diameter, 
 while  thofe  of  the  middle  fometimes  exceed  a  foot.  The 
 lowefb  are  alfo  much  fmaller  than  the  middle  ones.  AH 
 thefe  combs,  like  fo  many  floors  or  fkoreys  ranged  parallelly 
 above  each  other,  aflford  lodging  to  prodigious  numbers  of 
 inhabitants.  Reaumur  computed,  from  the  number  of  cells 
 in  a  given  portion  of  comb,  that  in  a  medium  fized  neil, 
 there  were  at  leaft  10,000  cells.  This  calculation  gives  an 
 idea  of  the  aftonilhing  prolific  powers  of  thefe  infefls,  and 
 of  the  vaft  numbers  of  individuals  produced  in  a  fingle  feafon 
 from  one  nefi:  ;  for  every  cell  ferves  as  a  lodging  to  no  lefs 
 than  three  generations.  Hence  a  moderately  fized  nefi;  gives 
 birth  annually  to  30,000  young  wafps. 
 
 The  difi'erent  ftoreys  of  combs  are  always  about  half  an 
 inch  high,  which  leaves  free  pafi^ages  to  the  wafps  from  one 
 part  of  the  neft  to  another.  Thefe  intervals  are  fo  fpacious, 
 that,  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animals,  they  may  be 
 compared  to  great  halls,  or  broad  ftreets.  Each  of  the  larg- 
 er combs  is  fupported  by  about  fifty  pillars,  which,  at  the 
 fame  time,  give  folidity  to  the  fabric,  and  greatly  ornament 
 the  whole  nefi:.  The  lefier  combs  are  fupported  by  the  fame 
 ingenious  contrivance.  Thefe  pillars  are  coarfe,  and  of  a 
 roundifli  form.  Their  bafes  and  capitals,  however,  are  much 
 larger  in  diameter  than  towards  the  middle.  By  the  one 
 end  they  are  attached  to  the  fuperior  comb,  and  by  the  oth- 
 er to  the  inferior.  Thus  between  two  combs  there  is  al- 
 ways a  fpecles  of  ruftic  colonade.  The  wafps  begin  at  the 
 top  and  build  downward.  The  uppermoft  and  fmallefi  comb 
 is  firft  confirucSted.  It  is  attached  to  the  fuperior  part  of 
 the  external  covering.  The  fecond  comb  is  fixed  to  the 
 bottom  of  the  firft  •,  and  in  this  manner  the  animals  proceed 
 till  the  whole  operation  is  completed.     The  connedling  pil- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  357 
 
 iars  are  comnofeJ  of  the  fame  kind  of  paper  as  the  reft  of 
 the  neii.  To  allow  the  wafps  entries  into  the  void  fpaces, 
 roads  are  left  between  the  combs  and  the  external  envelope 
 
 or  cover^g. 
 
 Having  given  a  general  Idea  of  this  curious  edifice,  it  is 
 next  natural  to  inquire  how  the  wafps  build,  and  how  they 
 employ  themfelves  in  their  abodes.  But,  as  all  thefe  myfte- 
 ries  are  performed  under  the  earth,  it  required  much  indus- 
 try and  attention  to  difcover  them.  By  the  ingenuity  and 
 perfeverance  of  M.  de  Reaumur,  however,  we  are  enabled 
 to  explain  fome  parts  of  their  internal  oeconomy  and  man- 
 ners. This  indefatigable  naturalift  contrived  to  make  wafps, 
 like  the  honey-bees,  lodge  and  work  in  glafs- hives.  In  this 
 operation  he  was  greatly  afhfted  by  the  ardent  afFeclion 
 which  thefe  animals  have  to  their  offspring  ;  for  he  found,, 
 that,  though  the  nefi:  was  cut  in  different  directions,  and 
 though  it  was  expofed  to  the  light,  the  wafps  never  deferted 
 it,  nor  relaxed  in  their  attention  to  their  young.  When 
 placed  in  a  glafs-hive,  they  are  perfectly  peaceable,  and  nev- 
 er attack  the  obferver,  if  he  calmly  contemplates  their  ope- 
 rations -,  for,  naturally,  they  do  not  fling,  unlefs  they  are 
 irritated. 
 
 Immediately  after  a  wafp's  nefl  has  been  tranfported  from 
 its  natural  fituation,  and  covered  with  a  glafs-hive,  the  firft 
 operation  of  the  infedls  is  to  repair  the  injuries  it  has  fuffered. 
 With  wonderful  activity  they  carry  off  all  the  earth  and 
 foreign  bodies  that  may  have  accidentally  been  conveyed  in- 
 to the  hive.  Some  of  them  occupy  themfelves  fixing  the 
 neft  to  the  top  and  fides  of  the  hive  by  pillars  of  paper  fimi- 
 lar  to  thofe  which  fupport  the  different  ftories  or  ftrata  of 
 combs  ;  others  repair  the  breaches  it  has  fuftained  ;  and 
 others  fortify  it  by  augmenting  confiderably  the  thicknefs  of 
 its  external  cover.  This  external  envelope  is  an  operation 
 peculiar  to  wafps.     Its  conftru6lion  requires  great   labour  ; 
 
 W  w 
 
35$  "f HE   I'HiLOSOPHt 
 
 for  it  frequently  exceeds  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thicknefs,  smd 
 rs  compofed  of  a  number  of  ftrata  or  layers  as  thin  as  paprer^  , 
 between  each  of  which  there  is  a  void  fpace.  This  cover  is 
 a  kind  of  box  for  incloiing  the  combs,  and  defending  them 
 from  the  rain  which  occafionally  penetrates  the  earth.  For 
 this  purpofe  it  is  admirably  adapted.  If  it  were  one  folid 
 mafs,  the  conta£l  of  water  would  penetrate  the  whole,  and 
 rieach  the  combs.  But,  to  prevent  this  fatal  efFeft,  the  anr- 
 Ulals  leave  confiderable  vacuities  between  each  vaulted  layer, 
 which  are  generally  fifteen  or  fixteen  in  number.  By  this 
 ingenious  piece  of  architedlure,  one  or  two  layers  may  be 
 moiftened  with  water,  while  the  others  are  not  in  the  leaft 
 afFefted. 
 
 The  materials  employed  by  wafps  in  the  confl:ru(5lion  of 
 their  nefts  are  very  diiTerent  from  thofe  made  ufe  of  by  the 
 honey-bee.  Inftead  of  colle£ling  the  farina  of  flowers,  and 
 digefting  it  into  wax,  the  wafps  gnaw  with  their  two  fangs, 
 which  are  ftrong  and  ferrated,  fmall  fibres  of  wood  from  the 
 fafhes  of  windows,  the  pofts  of  efpaliers,  garden  doors,  &c. 
 but  never  attempt  growing  or  green  timber.  Thefe  fibres, 
 which,  though  very  flender,  are  often  a  line,  or  a  twelfth  part 
 of  an  inch  long.  After  cutting  a  certain  number  of  them, 
 the  animals  collecSV  them  into  minute  bundles,  tranfport  them 
 to  their  neft,  and,  by  means  of  a  glutinous  fubftance  furnifhed 
 from'their  own  bodies,  form  them  into  a  moift  and  dudlile 
 pafte.  Of  this  fubftance,  or  papier  mache,  they  conftrudl  the 
 external  cover,  the  partitions  of  the  neft,  the  hexagonal 
 cells,  and  the  folid  columns  which  fupport  the  feveral  layers 
 or  ftories  of  combs. 
 
 The  conftrudling  of  the  neft  occupies  a  comparatively 
 fmall  number  of  labourers.  The  others  are  diff'erently  em- 
 ployed. Here  it  is  necefiary  to  remark,  that  the  republics 
 of  wafps,  like  thofe  of  the  honey-bees,  confift  of  three  kinds 
 ©f  flies,  males,  females,  and  neuters.     Like  the  bees,  allby 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  359 
 
 the  number  of  neuters  far  furpafles  thofe  of  both  males  and 
 females.  The  greateft  quantity  of  labour  is  devolved  upon 
 the  neuters ;  but  they  are  not,  like  the  neuter  bees,  the  on- 
 ly workers  j  for  there  is  no  part  of  their  different  operations 
 which  the  females,  at  certain  times,  do. not  execute.  Neither 
 do  the  males,  though  their  induftry  is  not  comparable  to  that 
 of  the  neuters,  remain  entirely  idle.  They  often  occupy 
 themfelves  in  the  interior  part  of  the  neft.  The  greateft 
 part  of  the  labour,  however,  is  performed  by  the  neuters. 
 They  build  the  neft,  feed  the  males,  the  females,  and  even 
 the  young.  But,  while  the  neuters  are  employed  in  thefe 
 different  operations,  the  others  are  abroad  in  hunting  par- 
 ties. Some  attack  with  intrepidity  live  infe<51:s,  which  they 
 fometimes  carry  entire  to  the  nefl ;  but  they  generally 
 tranfport  the  abdomen  or  belly  only.  Others  pillage  butch- 
 ers ftalls,  from  which  they  often  arrive  with  a  piece  of  meat 
 larger  than  the  half  of  their  own  bodies.  Others  refort  to 
 gardens,  and  fuck  the  juices  of  fruits.  When  they  return 
 to  the  nefl,  they  diftribute  a  part  of  their  plunder  to  the  fe- 
 males, to  the  males,  and  even  to  fuch  neuters  as  have  been 
 ufefully  occupied  at  home.  As  foon  as  a  neuter  enters  the 
 neft,  it  is  furrounded  by  feveral  wafps,  to  each  of  whom  it 
 freely  gives  a  portion  of  the  food  it  has  brought.  Thofe 
 who  have  not  been  hunting  for  prey,  but  have  been  fucking 
 the  juices  of  fruits,  though  they  feem  to  return  empty,  fiil 
 not  to  regale  their  companions  ;  for,  after  their  arri\'til,  they 
 ftatlon  themfelves  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  neft,  and  dif- 
 charge  from  their  mouths  two  or  three  drops  of  a  clear  li- 
 quid, which  are  immediately  fwal lowed  by  the  domeftics. 
 
 The  neuter  wafps,  though  the  mo  ft  laborious,  are  the 
 fmalleft-  ;  but  they  are  extremely  a6live  and  vivacious.  The 
 females  are  much  larger,  heavier,  and  flower  in  their  move- 
 ments. The  males  are  of  an  intermediate  fize  between  that 
 of  the  females  and  neuters.     From  thefe  differences  in  fize, 
 
$60  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 it  is  eafy  to  diftinguifli  the  different  kinds  of  thole  wafps 
 which  build  their  nefts  below  the  ground.  In  the  hive  of 
 the  hoiley-bee,  the  number  of  females  is  always  extremely 
 fmall ;  but,  in  a  wafp's  neft,  there  are  often  more  than  three 
 hundred  females.  During  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  Au- 
 guft,  they  remain  conftantly  in  the  neft,  and  are  never  i'ten 
 abroad  except  in  the  beginning  of  fpring,  and  in  the  months 
 of  September  and  Ocflober.  During  the  fummer,  they  are 
 totally  occupied  in  laying  their  eggs  and  feeding  their  yoang. 
 In  this  laft  operation,  they  are  affifted  by  the  other  wafps  j 
 for  the  females  alone,  though  numerous,  would  be  infuifi- 
 cient  for  the  laborious  tafk.  A  wafp's  neft,  when  complet- 
 ed, fometimes  confifts  of  fixteen  thoufand  cells,  each  of 
 which  contains  an  egg,  a  worm,  or  a  nymph.  The  eggs  are 
 white,  tranfparent,  of  an  oblong  figure,  and  differ  in  fize, 
 according  to  the  kind  of  wafps  which  are  to  proceed  from 
 them.  Some  of  them  are  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a  fmall 
 pin.  They  are  fo  firmly  glued  to  the  bottoms  of  the  cells, 
 that  it  is  v/ith  difficuity  they  can  be  detached  without  break- 
 ing. Eight  days  after  the  eggs  are  depofited  in  the  cells, 
 the  worms  are  hatched,  and  are  considerably  larger  than  the 
 eggs  which  gave  birth  to  them.  Thefe  worms  demand  the 
 principal  cares  of  the  wafps  who  continue  always  in  the  neft. 
 They  feed  them,  as  birds  feed  their  young,  by  giving  them, 
 from  time  to  time,  a  mouthful  of  food.  It  is  aftoniftiing 
 to  fee  with  what  indnftry  and  rapidity  a-  female  runs  along 
 the  cells  of  a  comb,  and  diftributes  to  each  v/orm  a  portion 
 of  nutriment.  In  proportion  to  the  ages  and  conditions  of 
 the  worms,  they  are  fed  with  foHd  food,  fuch  as  the  bellies 
 of  infers,  or  with  a  liquid  fubftance  difgorged  by  the  moth- 
 er. When  a  worm  is  fo  large  as  to  occupy  its  whole  cell,  it 
 is  then  ready  to  be  metamorphofed  into  a  nymph.  It  then 
 refufes  all  nourifhment,  and  ceafes  to  have  any  conne6lion 
 with  the  wafps  in  the  neft.     It  ftiuts  up  the  mouth  of  its  ccii 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  361 
 
 with  a  fine  filken  cover,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  filk-worm 
 and  other  caterpillars  fpin  their  cods.  This  operation  is 
 completed  in  three  or  four  hours,  and  the  animal  remains  in 
 the  nymph  ftate  nine  or  ten  days,  when,  with  its  teeth,  it 
 deftroys  the  external  cover  of  the  cell,  and  comes  forth  in 
 the  form  of  a  winged  infect,  which  is  either  male,  female,  or 
 neuter,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  egg  from  which  it  was 
 hatched.  In  a  fliort  time,  the  wafps  newly  transformed  re- 
 ceive the  food  brought  into  the  neft  by  the  foragers  in  the 
 fields.  Yv^hat  is  flill  more  curious,  in  the  courfe  of  the  iirft 
 day  after  their  transformation,  the  young  wafps  have  been 
 obferved  going  to  the  fields,  bringing  in  provifions,  and 
 diftributing  them  to  the  worms  in  the  cells.  A  cell  is  no 
 fooner  abandoned  by  a  young  wafp,  than  it  is  cleaned,  trim- 
 med, and  repaired  by  an  old  one,  and  rendered,  in  every  ref- 
 pect,  proper  for  the  reception  of  another  egg. 
 
 As  formerly  mentioned,  wafps  of  different  fexes  diiTer 
 greatly  in  fize.  The  animals  know  how  to  conftru6t  cells 
 proportioned  to  the  dimenfions  of  the  fly  that  is  to  proceed 
 from  the  egg  which  the  female  depofits  in  them.  The  neu» 
 ters  are  fix  times  fmaller  than  the  females,  and  their  cells 
 are  built  nearly  in  the  fame  proportion.  Cells  are  not  only 
 adapted  for  the  reception  of  neuters,  males,  and  females^ 
 but  it  is  remarkable  that  the  cells  of  the  neuters  are  never 
 intermixed  with  thofe  of  the  males  or  females.  A  comb  is 
 entirely  occupied  with  fmall  cells  fitted  for  the  reception  of 
 neuter  worms.  But  male  and  female  cells  are  often  found 
 in  the  fame  comb.  The  males  and  females  are  of  equal 
 length,  and,  of  courfe,  require  ceils  of  an  equal  deepnefs. 
 But  the  cells  of  the  males  are  narrower  than  thofe  of  the  fe- 
 males, becaufe  the  bodies  of  the  former  are  never  fo  thick 
 as  thofe  of  the  latter. 
 
 This  wonderful  afl^emblage  of  combs,  of  the  pillars  which 
 fupport  them.,  and   of  the  external  envelope,   is  an  edifice 
 
S6$  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 which  requires  feveral  months  labour,  and  ferves  the  animals 
 one  year  only.     This  habitation,  fo  populous  in  fumraer,  is 
 almoft  deferted  in  winter,  and  abandoned  entirely  in  fpring ; 
 for,  in  this  laft  fealbn,  not  a  lingle  wafp  is  to  be  found  in  a 
 nei\  of  the  preceding  year.     It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the 
 firft  combs  of  a  neft  are  always  accommodated  for  the  recep- 
 tion of  the  neuter   or  working  wafps.     The  city,  of  which 
 the  foundation  has  juil:  been  laid,  requires  a  number  of  work- 
 men.    The  neuter  or  working    wafps   are  accordingly  hrft 
 produced.     A  cell  is  no  fooner  half  completed  than  an  egg 
 of  a  neuter  is  depofited  in  it  by  the  female.     Of  fourteen  or 
 fifteen  combs  inclofed  in  a  common  cover,  the  four  laft  only 
 are  deftined  for  the  reception  of  males  and  females.     Hence 
 it  uniformly  happens,  that,  before  the  males  and  females  are 
 capable  of  taking  flight,  every  wafp's  neft  is  peopled  with  fev- 
 (gral  thoufand  neuters   or   workers.     But  the  neuters,  who 
 are  firft  produced,  are  likewife  the  firft  that  perifh  •,  for  not 
 one  of  them  furvives  the  termination  even  of  a  mild  winter. 
 It  was  remarked  by  the   ancient  naturalifts,  that  fome  wafps 
 lived  one  year  only,  and  others  two.     To  the  former  Arif- 
 totle  gives  the  appellation  of  operant,  which  are  our  workers 
 or  neuters,  and  to  the  latter  matnces,  which  are  our  females. 
 The  female  wafps  are  ftronger,  and  fupport  the  rigours  of 
 winter  better  than  the  males  or  neuters.      Before  the  end  of 
 winter,  however,  feveral  hundred  females  die,  and  not  above 
 ten  or  a  dozen  in  each  neft  furvive  that  feafon.     Thefe  few 
 females  are  deftined   for  the  continuation   of  the    fpecies. 
 Each  of  them  becomes  the  founder  of  a  new  republic.  When 
 a  queen-bee  departs  from  a  hive  in  order  to  eftabliili  a  new 
 one,    fhe    is    always   accompanied     with   feveral    thoufand 
 induftrious    labourers,   ready    to   perform    every    neceflary 
 operation.     But  the  female  wafp  has  not  the  aid  of  a  fmgk 
 labourer  ;  for  all  the  neuters  are  dead  before  the  beginning 
 «>f  the  fpring.     The  female  alone  lays  the  foundation  of  ^  * 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  ?6'3 
 
 hew  t-epublic.  She  either  finds  or  digs  a  liole  under  the 
 earth,  builds  cells  for  the  reception  of  her  eggs,  and  feeds 
 the  worms  which  proceed  from  them.  Whenever  any  of 
 thefe  neuter  worms  are  transformed  into  flies,  they  immedi- 
 ately ailifl  their  parent  in  augmenting  the  number  of  cells 
 and  combs,  and  in  feeding  the  young  worms,  which  are 
 daily  hatching  from  the  eggs.  In  a  word,  this  female  wafp, 
 which  in  fpring  was  perfectly  folitary,  without  any  proper 
 habitation,  and  had  every  operation  to  perform,  has, 
 in  autumn,  feveral  thoufands  of  her  offspring  at  her  devo- 
 tion, and  is  furnifhed  with  a  magnificient  palace,  or  rather 
 city,  to  prote<St  her  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather  and  from 
 external  enemies. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  male  wafps,  it  is  uncertain  whether 
 any  of  them  furvive  the  winter.  But,  though  not  fo  indo- 
 lent as  the  males  of  the  honey-bee,  they  can  be  of  little  affif^- 
 ance  to  the  female  *,  for  they  never  engage  in  any  work  of 
 importance,  fuch  as  conflruiSlIng  cells,  or  fortifying  the  ex- 
 ternal cover  of  the  nefl.  They  are  never  brought  forth  till 
 towards  the  end  of  Auguft ;  and  their  fole  occupation  feems 
 to  be  that  of  keeping  the  nefl  clean  :  They  carry  out  every 
 kind  of  filth,  and  the  carcafTes  of  fuch  of  their  companions 
 as  happen  to  die.  In  performing  this  operation,  two  of  them 
 often  join,  and,  as  mentioned  in  another  place,  when  the  load 
 is  too  heavy,  they  cut  off  the  head,  and  tranfport  the  dead 
 animal  at  two  times. 
 
 In  the  beginning  of  fpring,  when  the  female  wafp  has  built 
 her  fubterraneous  habitation,  which  is  foon  to  be  peopled 
 with  thoufands  of  flies,  flie  has  no  occafion  for  the  males  ; 
 becaufe,  In  the  month  of  September  or  Oflober,  fhe  had 
 been  previoufly  impregnated.  The  males  and  females  are 
 produced  at  the  fame  time,  and  they  are  nearly  equal  In  num- 
 ber. Like  the  male  honey-bees,  the  male  wafps  are  deflltute 
 •  of  icings,  but  the  females  and  neuters  have  ftings,  the  poifcn^ 
 
364  tHE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ous  liquor  of  which,  Vv'hen  introduced  into  any  part  of  the 
 human  body,  excites  inflammationj  and  creates  a  confiderable 
 degree  of  pain. 
 
 The  habitations  and  the  oeconomy  of  the  common  ant  are 
 exceedingly  curious.  But,  as  they  are  fo  well  known,  and 
 fo  obvious  to  infpe^lion  and  examination,  we  fliall  not  de- 
 tain the  reader  with  a  defcription  of  them.  To  fupply  this 
 defecb,  we  fliall  give  fome  account  of  the  truly  wonderful 
 operations  of  the  termites^  which  are  generally  called  ^vhlle- 
 irnts"^,  though  they  belong  to  a  different  genus  of  infecls. 
 Thefe  animals  infeft  Guinea,  and  all  the  tropical  regions, 
 where,  for  their  depredations  of  property,  they  are  greatly 
 dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  -,  from  v;hich  circumftancc  they 
 have  received  the  name  of  Fatalis  or  Deflrticlor. 
 
 The  following  abridged  account  of  the  termites^  and^of  the 
 wonderful  habitations  they  build,  is  fele^led  from  an  excel- 
 lent defcription  of  them  in  a  Letter  from  Mr.  Henry  Smeath- 
 man,  of  Clement's  Inn,  to  Sir  Jofeph  Banks,  which  was 
 publifhed  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfaftionsf.  Though  the 
 nefls,  or  rather  hills,  conil:ru£led  by  the  termites,  are  men- 
 tioned by  many  travellers,  their  defcriptions  and  obferva- 
 tions  are  by  no  means  fo  accurate  as  thofe  of  the  ingenious 
 Mr.  Smeathman.  Of  thefe  infedls  there  are  feveral  fpecies  ; 
 but  they  all  refemble  each  other  in  form,  and  in  their  man- 
 ner of  living.  They  differ,  however,  as  much  as  birds,  in 
 the  ffile  of  their  architecture,  and  in  the  feledlion  of  the  ma- 
 terials of  which  their  nefts  are  compofed.  Some  build  on 
 the  furface,  or  partly  above  and  partly  below  the  ground, 
 and  others  on  the  trunks  or  branches  of  lofty  trees. 
 
 Before  defcribing  the  nefts  or  hills,  it  is  neceffary  to  give 
 fome  idea  of  the  animals  themfelves,  and  of  their  general 
 
 *  In  the  windward  p:irt3  of  Africa,  they  are  denominated  bugga,  buggs  ;  in 
 the  Weft- Indies,  wood  lice,  wood  ants,  or  white- ants.     They  are  likewife  cal- 
 led piercers,  eaters,  or  cutters,  becaufe  they  cut  almofl  every  thing  in  pieces,  • 
 f  Vol.  71.   part  I.  page  139, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  S65 
 
 oeconomy  and  manners.  We  fliall  confine  ourfelves  to  that 
 fpecies  called  termites  hellicofi^  or  fighters  becaufe  they  are  larg- 
 eft,  and  befl  known  on  the  coall:  of  Africa. 
 
 The  republic  of  tbe  termites  bellitofi,  Hke  the  other  fpecies 
 of  this  genus,  confifts  of  three  ranks,  or  orders  of  infedls  : 
 1.  The  working  in fetfls,  which  Mr.  Smeathman  diftinguifhes 
 by  the  name  or  labourers  ;  2.  The  fighters,  or yc^AZ/Vrj-,  which 
 perform  no  kind  of  labour  ;  and,  3.  The  winged,  or  perfect 
 infects^  which  are  male  and  female,  and  capable  of  multiply- 
 ing the  fpecies.  Thefe  lafl  Mr.  Smeathman  calls  the  nobility 
 or  gentry  ;  becaufe  they  neither  labour  nor  fight.  The  no- 
 bility alone  are  capable  of  being  raifed  to  the  rank  of  kings 
 and  queens.  A  few  weeks  after  their  elevation  to  this  ftate, 
 they  emigrate,  in  order  to  eftablifh  new  empires. 
 
 In  a  neft  or  hill,  the  labourers,  or  working  infciSts,  are  al- 
 ways mofl  numerous  :  There  are  at  leaft  one  hundred  labour- 
 ers to  one  of  the  fighting  infects  or  foldiers.  When  in  this 
 ftate,  they  are  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  which  is 
 rather  fmaller  than  fome  of  our  ants.  From  their  figure,  and 
 fondnefs  for  wood,  they  are  very  generally  known  by  the 
 name  of  luood-liee. 
 
 The  fecond  order,  or  foldiers,  differ  in  figure  from  that 
 of  the  labourers.  The  former  have  been  fuppofed  to  be 
 neuters,  and  the  latter  males.  But,  in  faft,  they  are  the 
 fame  infedls.  They  have  only  undergone  a  change  of  form, 
 -and  made  a  nearer  approach  to  the  perfedl  ftate.  They  are 
 now  much  larger,  being  half  an  inch  in  length,  and  equal  in 
 fize  to  fifteen  of  the  labourers.  The  form  of  the  head  is 
 likewife  greatly  changed.  In  the  labourer  ftate,  the  mouth 
 is  evidently  formed  for  gnawing  or  holding  bodies  :  But,  in 
 the  foldier  ftate,  the  jaws  being  fhaped  like  two  ftiarp  awls 
 a  little  jagged,  are  deftined  folely  for  piercing  or  wounding. 
 For  thefe  purpofes  they  are  very  well  calculated  ;  for  they 
 are  as  hard  as  a  crab's  claw,  and  placed  in  a  ftrong  liorny 
 .  X  X 
 
$66  THE    PHILOSOPIit 
 
 head,  which  is  of  a  nut-brown  colour,  and  larger  than  the 
 whole  body. 
 
 The  figure  of  the  third  order,  or  that  of  the  infecSl  in  its 
 perfect  (late,  is  ftill  more  changed.  The  head,  the  thorax, 
 and  the  abdomen,  differ  almoft  entirely  from  the  fame  parts 
 in  the  labourers  and  foldiers.  Befide,  the  animals  are  now 
 furnifhed  with  four  large,  brownifh,  tranfparent  wings,  by 
 which  they  are  enabled,  at  the  proper  feafon,  to  emigrate 
 and  to  eftablifh  new  fettlements.  In  the  winged  or  perfe<n: 
 ftate,  they  have  likewife  acquired  the  organs  of  generation, 
 and  are  greatly  altered  in  their  iize  as  well  as  in  their  figure. 
 Their  bodies  now  meafure  between  fix  and  feven  tenths  of 
 an  inch,  their  wings,  from  tip  to  tip,  above  two  inches  and  a 
 half,  and  their  bulk  is  equal  to  that  of  thirty  labourers,  or 
 two  foldiers.  Inftead  of  a£live,  induftrious,  and  rapacious 
 little  animals,  when  they  arrive  at  their  perfect  ftate,  they  be- 
 come innocent,  helplefs,  and  daftardly.  Their  numbers  are 
 great  ;  but  their  enemies  are  ftill  more  numerous.  They 
 are  devoured  by  birds,  by  every  fpecies  of  ants,  by  carnivo- 
 rous reptiles,  and  even  by  the  inhabitants  of  many  parts  of 
 Africa.  This  laft  faft  is  attefted  by  Pifo,  Margrave,  De 
 Laet,  Konig,  Moor,  Sparman,  and  by  many  other  travellers, 
 as  well  as  by  Smeathman.  After  fuch  devaftation,  it  is  fur- 
 priling  that   a  fingle  pair   fliould   efcape  fo   many  dangers. 
 
 <  Some,  however,'  fays  Mr.  Smeathman,  <  are  fo  fortunate  ; 
 
 <  and  being  found  by  fome  of  the  labouring  infects,  that  are 
 
 *  continually  running  about  the  furface  of  the  ground  under 
 
 *  their  covered  galleries,  are  elecled  Kings  and  Queens  of  new 
 
 <  ftates  •,  all  thofe  who  are  not  fo  ele(5ted  and  preferved  cer- 
 
 *  tainly  perifh.     The  manner  In  which  thefe  labourers  pro- 
 «  teiSt  the    happy   pair    from  their  innumerable  enemies,  not 
 
 <  only  on  the  day  of  the  maiTacre  of  almoll:  all  their  race,  but 
 
 *  for  a  long  time  after,  will,  I  hope,  juftify  me  in  the  ufe  of 
 «  the  term  ehcJion.     The  little  induftrious  creatures  immedi- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  6(57 
 
 *  ately  inclofe  them  in  a  fmall  chamber  of  clay  fultable  to 
 
 <  their  iize,  into  which,  at  firft,  they  leave  but  one  fmuU  en- 
 « trance,  large  enough  for  themfelves  and  the  foldiers  to  go 
 
 <  in  and  out,  but   much  too  little  for  either  of  the  royal  paix 
 
 *  to  make  ufe  of  5  and,  when  neceflity  obliges  them  to  make 
 «  more  entrances,  they  are  never  larger  ;  fo  that,  of  courfe, 
 «  the  voluntary  fubjeBs  charge  themfelves  with  the  tafk  of  pro- 
 '  viding  for  the  offspring  of  their  fovereigns,  as  well  as  to  work 
 '  and  to  fight  for  them,  until  they  have  raifed  a  progeny  ca- 
 ^  pable  at  leaft  of  dividing  the  talk  with  them. 
 
 «  It  is  not  till  this,  probably,  that  they  confummate  their 
 '  marriage,  as  I  never  law  a  pair  of  them  joined.  The  bufi- 
 «  nefs  of  propagation,  however,  foon  commences  ;  and  the 
 '  labourers  having  conftru^fted  a  fmall  wooden  nurfery,  carry 
 
 <  the   eggs  and  lodge  them  there  as   faft  as  they  can  obtain 
 
 *  them  from  the  queen, 
 
 <  About  this  time   a  moft  extraordinary  change  begins  to 
 
 *  take   place  in   the  queen,  to  which  I  know  nothing  fimilar, 
 
 <  except  in  xhe  pulex  penetrans  of  Linnaeus,  ih^  jigger  of  the 
 «  Weft-Indies,  and  in  the  different  fpecies  oi  coccus,  cochineal. 
 « The  abdomen  of  this  female  begins  gradually  to  extend 
 '  and  enlarge  to  fuch  an  enormous  iize,  that  an  eld  queen  will 
 
 *  have  it  ingreafed  fo  as  to  be  ffteen  hundred  or  tiuo  ihoufand 
 
 *  tinics  the  bulk  of  the  reft  of  her  body,  and  t-iventy  or  thirty 
 S  thoufand  times  the  bulk  of  a  labourer,  as  I  have  found  by 
 «  carefully  weighing  and  computing  the  different  ftates.  The 
 
 <  fkin  between  the  fegments  of  the  abdomen  extends  in  eve- 
 
 *  ry  direction  ;   and  at  laft  the  fegments  are  removed  to  half 
 
 *  an    inch  diftance  from   each  other,    though,   at   firft,   the 
 
 *  length  of  the  whole  abdomen  is  not  half  an  inch.    I  conjcc- 
 
 <  ture  the  animal  is  upwards  of  two  years  old  when  the  abdo- 
 «  men  is  increafed  to  three  Inches  in  length  :  I  have  fome- 
 
 <  times  found  them  of  near  twice  that  fize.     The  abdomen  is 
 
 <  now  of  an  irregular  oblong  (hape,  beinc;  contr<i61:ed  by  the 
 
368  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 « mufcles  of  every  fegment,  and  is  become  one  vaft  matrix 
 
 <  full  of  eggs,  which  make  long  circumvolutions  through  an 
 
 <  innumerable  quantity  of  very  miimte  velTels  that  circulate 
 « round  the  infide  in  a  ferpentine  manner,  which  would  exer- 
 «  cife  the  ingenuity  of  a  flcilful  anatomift  to  diffedt  and  deve- 
 
 *  lope.     This  fingular  matrix  is  not  more  remarkable  for  its 
 
 *  amazing  extenfion  and  Aze  than  for  its  periftaltic  motion, 
 «  which  refembles  the  undulating  of  waves,  and  continues  in- 
 
 <  cefTantly  without  any  apparent  effort  of  the  animal  -,  fo  that 
 
 *  one  part  or  other,  alternately,  is  riling  and  linking  in  per- 
 «  petual  fucceffion,  and  the  matrix  feems  never  at  reft,  but  is 
 «  always  protruding  eggs  to  the  amount  (as  I  have  frequent- 
 ^  ly  counted  in  old  queens)  of  fixty  in  a  minute,  or  eighty 
 
 *  thoufand  and  upward  in  one  day  of  twenty-four  hours. 
 
 « Thefe  eggs  are  inftantly  taken  from  her  body  by  the  at- 
 ^  tendants,  (of  whom  there  always  are,  in  the  royal  chamber 
 
 <  and  the  galleries  adjacent,  a  fufficient  number  in  waiting), 
 
 <  and  carried  to  the  nurferies,  which,  in  a  great  neft,  may 
 '  fome  of  them  be  four  or  five  feet  diftant  in  a  ftraight  line, 
 
 *  and,  confequently,  much  farther  by  their  winding  galleries. 
 
 *  Here,  after  they  are  hatched,  the  young  are  attended  and 
 '  provided  with  every  thing  neceffary  until  they  are  able  to 
 
 <  fhift  for  themfelves,  and  take  their  fhare  of  the  labours  of 
 «  the  community.' 
 
 We  fliall  now  endeavour  to  give  fome  idea  of  the  almoft 
 incredible  architecture  and  oeconomy  of  thefe  wonderful  in-^ 
 feas. 
 
 Tjie  nefts  of  the  termites  heUicofi^  or  wood-lice,  are  called 
 hills  by  the  natives  of  Africa,  New  Holland,  and  other  hot 
 climates.  This  appellation  is  highly  proper  ;  for  they  are 
 often  elevated  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  furface  of  the 
 earth,  and  are  nearly  of  a  conical  figure.  Thefe  hills,  inftead 
 of  being  rare  phenomena,  are  fo  frequent  in  many  places 
 near  Senegal,  that,  -as  defcribed' with   great  propriety  by 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  569 
 
 Monf.  Adanfon,  their  number,  magnitude,  and  clofenefs  of 
 fituation,   make   them  appear  like  villages  of  the   Negroes. 
 
 *  But,  of  all  the  extraordinary  things  I  obferved,'  fays  Monf« 
 Adanfon,  *  nothing  ftruck  me  more  than  certain  eminences, 
 
 <  which  by  their  height  and  regularity,  made  me  take  them, 
 '  at  a  diftance,  for  an  afTemblage  of  Negroe  huts,  or  a  con- 
 
 <  liderable  village,  and  yet  they  v\^ere  only  the  nefts  of  cer- 
 
 <  tain   infedls.     Thefe  nefls  are  round  pyramids,  from  eicrlit 
 
 *  to  ten  feet  high,  upon  nearly  the  fame  bafe,  with  a  IVnooth 
 '  furface  of  rich  clay,  exceffively  hard  and  well  built*.'  Job- 
 fon,  in  his  hiftory  of  Gambia,  tells  us,  that  «  the  ant-hills  are 
 «  remarkably  caft  up  in  thofe  parts  by  pifmires,  fomc  of 
 '  them  twenty  foot  in  height,  of  compaflb  to  contayne  a  doz- 
 
 <  en  of  men,  with  the  heat  of  the  fun  baked  into  that  hard- 
 ^  nefle,  that  we  ufed  to  hide  ourfelves  in  the  ragged  toppes 
 
 <  of  them,  when  we  took  up  ftands  to  fhoot  at  deere  or  wild 
 
 *  beafts  -]-.'  Mr.Bofman  remarks,  in  his  defcription  of  Guinea, 
 that    '  the    ants   make  nefts   of  the    earth  about  twice  the 
 
 <  height  of  a  man  :{:.' 
 
 Each  of  thefe  hills  is  compoled  of  an  exterior  and  an  inte- 
 rior part.  The  exterior  cover  is  a  large  clay-fliell,  which  is 
 fhaped  like  a  dome.  Its  ftrength  and  magnitude  are  fuffi- 
 cient  to  inclofe  and  protege  the  interior  building  from  the  in- 
 juries of  the  weather,  and  to  defend  its  numerous  inhabitants 
 from  the  attacks  of  natural  or  accidental  enemies.  The  ex- 
 ternal dome  or  cover  is,  therefore,  always  much  ftronger 
 than  the  internal  building,  which  is  the  habitation  of  the  In-, 
 fects,  and  is  divided  with  wonderful  artifice  and  regularity 
 into  a  vaft  number  of  apartments  for  the  reiidence  and  ac- 
 commodation of  the  king  and  queen,  for  the  nuriing  of  their 
 progeny,  and  for  magazines,  which  are  always  v/ell  ftorcd 
 with  provilions. 
 
 *  Adanfon's  Voyage  to  Senegal,  8vo,  page  153.- — 337.   Voyage  de  Senegal 
 4to,  page  83.-99.  • 
 
 t  Purchases  Pilgrims^  vol.  S,  page  1570,  \  Page  276,-493. 
 
370  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Thefe  hills  make  their  firft  appearance  in  the  form  of 
 conical  turrets  about  a  foot  high.  In  a  fhort  time  the  infe^ls 
 ere^t,  at  a  little  diftance,  other  turrets,  and  go  on  increafing 
 their  number  and  widening  their  bafes,  till  their  underworks 
 are  covered  with  thefe  turrets,  which  the  animals  always 
 raife  higheft  in  the  middle  of  the  hill,  and,  by  filling  up  the 
 intervals  between  each  turret,  colic  (SI  them,  at  laft,  into  one 
 great  dome. 
 
 .  <  The  royal  chamber,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,  <  which  is 
 f  occupied  by  the  king  and  queen,  appears  to  be,  in  the  opin- 
 <  ion  of  this  little  people,  of  the  moft  confequence,  and  is  al- 
 '  ways  fitUcited  as  near  the  centre  of  the  interior  building  as 
 
 *  poffible,  and  generally  about  the  height  of  the  common  fur- 
 f  face  of  the  ground.    It  is  always  nearly  in  the  fliape  of  half 
 
 *  an  Qgg,  or  an  obtufe  oval,  within,  and  may  be  fuppofed  to 
 '  reprefent  a  long  oven.     In  the  infant  ftate  of  the  colony,  it 
 
 *  is  not  above  an  inch,  or  thereabout,  in  length  *,    but  in  time 
 ?  will  be  increafed  to  fix  or  eight  inches,  or  more,  in  the  clear, 
 
 *  being  always  in  proportion  to  the   fize  of  the   queen,  who, 
 
 *  increafing  in  bulk  as  in  age,  at  length  requires  a  chamber 
 F  of  fuch  dimenllons.' 
 
 The  entrances  into  the  royal  chamber  v\^iil  not  admit  any 
 animal  larger  than  the  foldiers  or  labourers.  Hence  the 
 king  and  queen,  which  lafl,  when  full  grown,  is  a  thoufand 
 times  the  weight  of  a  king,  can  never  poflibly  go  out.  The 
 royal  chamber  is  furrounded  by  an  innumerable  quantity  of 
 others,  which  are  of  difi^erent  fizes,  figures,  and  dimenfions  ; 
 but  all  of  them  are  arched  either  in  a  circular  or  an  elliptical 
 form.  Thefe  chambers  either  open  into  each  other,  or  have 
 communicating  palTliges,  which  being  always  clear,  are  evi- 
 dently intended  for  the  conveniency  of  the  foldiers  and  atten- 
 dants, of  whom,  a.s  v/ill  foon  appear,  great  numbers  are  neccf- 
 fary.  Thefe  apartments  are  joined  by  the  magazines  antl 
 nurferies.     The  magazines  arc  chambers  of  clay,  and  are  ?<,t 
 
OF    NATURAL    IIISTORT.  371 
 
 all  times  well  ftoreJ  with  provifions,  which,  to  the  naked  eye, 
 feem  to  confill:  of  the  rafpings  of  wood  and  plants  which  the 
 termites  deftroy  ;  but,  when  examined  by  the  microfcope, 
 they  are  found  to  confift  chiefly  of  the  gums  or  infpiflated 
 iuices  of  plants,  thrown  together  in  fmall  irregular  mafles. 
 Of  thefe  mafles,  fome  are  finer  than  others,  and  refemble  the 
 fugar  about  preferved  fruits  -,  others  refemble  the  tears  of 
 gum,  one  being  quite  tranfparent,  another  like  amber,  a  third 
 brown,  and  a  fourth  perfe^lly  opaque. 
 
 The  magazines  are  always  intermixed  with  the  nurferies, 
 which  lafl:  are  buildings  totally  different  from  the  reft:  of  the 
 apartments.  They  are  compofed  entirely  of  wooden  mate- 
 rials, which  feem  to  be  cemented  with  gums.  Mr.  Smeath- 
 man  very  properly  gives  them  the  appellation  of  nurferies  ; 
 becaufe  they  are  invariably  occupied  by  the  eggs,  and  the 
 young  ones,  which  flrfl:  appear  in  the  fliape  of  labourers  ; 
 but  they  are  as  white  as  fnow.  Thefe  buildings  are  exceed- 
 irtgly  coinpatSt,  and  are  divided  into  a  number  of  fmall  irre- 
 gular-fliaped  chambers,  not  one  of  which  is  half  an  inch 
 wide.  They  are  placed  all  round,  and  as  near  as  pofllble  to 
 the  royal  apartments.  When  a  nefl:  or  hillock  is  in  the  in- 
 fant ftate,  the  nurferies  are  clofe  to  the  royal  apartment. 
 But  as,  in  procefs  of  time,  the  body  of  the  queen  enlarges,  it 
 becom^^s  necefll;ry,  for  her  accommodation,  to  augment  the 
 dimenfions  of  her  chamber.  She  then,  likewife,  lays  a  great- 
 er number  of  eggs,  and  requires  more  attendants  ;  of  courfe, 
 it  is  neceflary  that  both  the  number  and  dimenfions  of  the 
 adjacent  apartments  fliould  be  augmented.  For  this  pur- 
 pofe,  the  fmall  firfi:  built  nurferies  are  taken  to  pieces,  re- 
 built a  little  farther  off,  made  a  fize  larger,  and  their  num- 
 ber, at  the  fame  time,  is  increafed.  Thus  the  animals  are 
 continually  employed  in  pulling  down,  repairing,  or  rebuild- 
 ing their  apartments  ;  and  thefe  operations  they  perform 
 with  wonplerful  fagacity,  regularity,  and  forefight. 
 
372  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 One  remarkable  circuaiftance  regarding  the  nurferies  muft 
 not  be  omitted.  They  are  ahvays  flightly  overgrown  with  a 
 kind  of  jnonldy  and  plentifully  fprinkled  with  white  globules 
 about  the  fize  of  a  fmall  pin's  head.  Thefe  globules,  Mr. 
 Smeathman  at  firft  conjectured  to  be  the  eggs  ;  but,  when 
 examined  by  the  microfcope,  they  evidently  appeared  to  be 
 a  fpecles  of  mufhroom,  in  (hape  refembling  our  eatable  mufli- 
 room  when  young.  When  entire,  they  are  white  like  fnovy 
 a  little  melted  and  frozen  again  ;  and,  v/hen  bruifed,  they 
 feem  to  be  compofed  of  an  infinite  number  of  pellucid  parti-  . 
 cles,  approaching  to  oval  forms,  and  are  with  difficulty  fepa- 
 rated  from  each  other.  The  mouldinefs  feems  likewife  to 
 confift  of  the  fame  kind  of  fubftance*. 
 
 The  nurferies  are  enclofed  in  chambers  of  clay,  like  thofe 
 which  contain  the  provifions ;  but  they  are  much  larger.      In 
 the  early  ftate  of  the  neft,  they  are  not  bigger  than  an  hazel 
 nut  -,  but,   in  great  hills,  they  are  often  as  large  as  a  child's 
 head  of  a  year  old. 
 
 The  royal  chamber  is  fituated  nearly  on  a  level  with  the 
 furface  of  the  ground,  at  an  equal  diftance  from  all  the  lides 
 of  the  building,  and  diredlly  under  the  apex  of  the  hill.  On 
 all  fides,  both  above  and  below,  it  is  furrounded  by  what  are 
 called  tlifi  royal  apartments ^  which  contain  only  labourers  and 
 foldiers,  who  can  be  intended"  for  no  other  purpofe  than  to 
 continue  in  the  neft  either  to  guard  or  ferve  their  common 
 father  and  mother^  on  whofe  fafety  the  happinefs,  and,  in  the 
 eftimation  of  the  Negroes,  the  exigence  of  the  whole  com- 
 munity depends.       Thefe    apartments  compofe  an   intricate 
 
 *  Mr  Konig,  who  examined  the  termites  nefts  in  the  Eaft-Indies,  conje(5tures, 
 that  tliefe  mufhrooms  are  the  food  of  the  young  infers.  This  fuppofition 
 implies,  tiiat  the  old  ones  have  a  method  of  providing  for  and  promoting  the 
 growth  of  the  muOiroom ;  '  a  circumftance,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,  'which, 
 'however  ftrange  ta  thofc  unacquainted  with  the  fagacity  of  thofe  infeds,  I 
 
 •  will  venture  to  fay,  from  many  ojthcr  extraordinary  facSls  I  have  feen  of  them, 
 
 •  is  not  very  improbable.'  ^ 
 
bF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  "  StS 
 
 labyrinth,  which  extends  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter  from 
 the  royal  chamber  on  every  fide.  Here  the  nurferies  and 
 magazines  of  provifions  begin  ;  and,  being  feparated  by  fmall 
 empty  chambers  and  galleries,  which  furround  them,  and 
 communicate  with  each  other,  are  continued  on  all  fides  to 
 the  outward  fliell,  and  reach  up  within  it  two  thirds  or  three- 
 fourths  of  its  height,  leaving  an  open  area  in  the  middle 
 under  the  dome,  which  refembles  the  nave  of  an  old  cathe- 
 dral. This  area  is  furrounded  by  large  Gothic  arches,  which 
 are  fometimes  two  or  three  feet  high  next  the  front  of  the 
 area,  but  diminifh  rapidly  as  they  recede,  like  the  arches  of 
 aifles  in  perfpectives,  and  are  foon  loft  among  the  innumera^ 
 ble  chambers  and  nurferies  behind  them.  All  thefe  cham- 
 bers and  pafTages  are  arched,  and  contribute  mutually  to  fup- 
 port  one  another.  The  interioiir  building,  or  afTemblage  of 
 nurferies,  chambers,  and  paflages,  has  a  flattifh  roof  without 
 any  perforation.  By  this  contrivance,  if,  by  accident,  water 
 fhould  penetrate  the  external  dome,  the  apartments  below 
 are  preferved  from  injury.  The  area  has  alfo  a  flattilh  floor, 
 which  is  fituated  above  the  royal  chamber.  It  Is  likewife 
 water  proof,  and  fo  conflrudted,  that,  if  water  gets  admit* 
 tance,  it  runs  ofF  by  fubterraneous  pafTages,  which  are  of  an 
 aftonifhing  magnitude.  <  1  meafured  one  of  them,'  fays  Mn 
 Smeathman,  <  which  was  perfectly  cylindrical,  and  thirteen 
 <  Inches  in  diameter.'  Thefe  fubterraneous  pafTages  are  thick* 
 ly  lined  with  the  fame  kind  of  clay  of  which  the  hill  is  com* 
 pofed,  afcend  the  internal  part  of  the  external  fhell  In  a  fpi* 
 rat  form,  and,  winding  round  the  whole  building  up  to  the 
 top,  interfedt  and  communicate  with  each  other  at  different 
 heights.  From  every  part  of  thefe  large  galleries  a  number 
 of  pipes,  or  fmaller  galleries,  leading  to  different  apartments 
 of  the  building,  proceed.  There  are  hkewife  a  great  many 
 which    lead  downward,  by  floping  defcents,   three  and  fouf 
 
 feet  perpendicular  under  ground,  among  the  gravel,   from 
 
 Y  Y 
 
S74f  THE   PHILOSOPMT 
 
 which  the  labouring  termites  fele£t  the  finer  parts,  \vhichj> 
 after  being  worked  up  in  their  mouths  to  the  confiftence  of 
 mortar,  become  that  foUd  clay  or  ftone  of  which  their  hills, 
 and  every  apartment  of  their  buildings,  except  the  nurferies, 
 are  compofed.  Other  galleries  afcend  and  lead  out  horizon- 
 tally on  every  fide,  and  are  carried  under  ground,  but  near 
 thefiirface,  to  great  diftances.  Suppofe  the  whole  nefts  with- 
 in a  hundred  yards  of  a  houfe  were  completely  deftroyed,  the 
 inhabitants  of  thofe  at  a  greater  diflance  will  carry  on  their 
 fubterraneous  galleries,  and  invade  the  goods  and  merchan- 
 dizes contained  in  it  by  fap  and  mine,  unlefs  great  attention 
 and  circumfpedliion  are  employed  by  the  proprietor. 
 
 Mr.  Smeathman  concludes  his  defcription  of  the  habita- 
 tions of  the  termites  hellicofi^  with  much  modefty,  in  the  fol- 
 lowing words  :  <  Thus  1  have  defcribed,  as  briefly  as  the  fub- 
 '  je<St  would  admit,  and   I  trull:   without  exaggeration,  thofe 
 
 <  wonderful  buildings,  whofe   fize,  and  external  form,  have 
 
 <  often  been  mentioned  by  travellers,  but  whofe  interior,  and 
 
 <  moft  curious  parts  are  fo  little  know^n,  that  I  may  venture 
 
 *  to  confider  my  account  of  them  as  new,  which  is  the  Only 
 
 *  merit  it  has  ;  for    they  are  conftrudled  upc^n   fo  different  a 
 
 <  plan  from  any  thing  elfe  upon  the  earth,  and  fo  complicat- 
 «  ed,  that  I  cannot  find  words  equal  to  the  tafli.' 
 
 When  a  breach  is^  made  in  one  of  the  hills  by  an  ax,  or 
 other  infi:rument,the  firfl  objedt  that  attracts  attention  is  the 
 behaviour  of  the  foldiers,  or  fighting  infedls.  Immediately 
 after  the  blow  is  given,  a  foldier  comes  out,  walks  about  the 
 breach,  and  feems  to  examine  the  nature  of  the  enemy,  or 
 the  caufe  of  the  attack.  He  then  goes  in  to  the  hill,  gives 
 the  alarm,  and,  in  a  fhort  time,  large  bodies  rufh  out  as  faft 
 as  the  breach  will  permit.  It  is  not  eafy  to  defcribe  the  fury 
 thefe  fighting  infedts  difcover.  In  their  eagernefs  to  repel 
 the  enemy,  they  frequently  tumble  down  the  fides  of  the 
 ^illybut  recover  themfelves  very  quickly,  and  bite  every  thing 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  S75 
 
 tiiey  encounter.  This  biting,  joined  to  the  ftriking  of  their 
 forceps  upon  the  building,  makes  a  crackling  or  vibrating 
 noife,  which  is  fomevvhat  ihriller  and  quicker  than  the  tick- 
 ing of  a  watch,  and  may  be  heard  at  the  diftance  of  three 
 or  four  feet.  While  the  attack  proceeds,  they  are  in  the 
 moft  violent  buftle  and  agitation.  If  they  get  hold  of  any 
 part  of  a  man's  body,  they  inftantly  make  a  wound,  which 
 difcharges  as  muck  blood  as  is  equal  to  their  own  weight. 
 When  they  attack  the  leg,  the  ftain  of  blood  upon  the  flock- 
 ing extends  more  than  an  inch  in  width.  They  make  their 
 hooked  jaws  meet  at  the  firft  ftroke,  and  never  quit  their 
 hold,  but  fufFer  themfelves  to  be  pulled  away  leg  by  leg,  and 
 piece  after  piece,  without  the  fmalleft  attempt  to  efcape.  On 
 the  other  hand,  if  a  perfon  keeps  out  of  their  reach,  and 
 gives  them  no  farther  difturbance,  in  lefs  than  half  an  hour 
 they  retire  into  their  neft,  as  if  they  fuppofed  the  wonderful 
 monfter  that  damaged  their  caftle  had  fled.  Before  the 
 whole  foldiers  have  got  in,  the  labouring  infeds  are  all  in 
 motion,  and  haften  toward  the  breach,  each  of  them  having 
 a  quantity  of  tempered  mortar  in  his  mouth.  This  mortar 
 they  ftick  upon  the  breach  as  fafl  as  they  arrive,  and  perform 
 the  operation  with  fo  much  difpatch  and  facility,  that,  not- 
 withftanding  the  immenlity  of  their  numbers,  they  never 
 ftop  or  embarrafs  one  another.  During  this  fcene  of  appar- 
 ent hurry  and  confuiion,  the  fpeclator  is  agreeably  furprifed 
 when  he  perceives  a  regular  wall  gradually  arifing  and  filling 
 up  the  chafm.  While  the  labourers  are  thus  employed,  al- 
 moft  all  the  foldiers  remain  within,  except  here  and  there 
 one,  who  faunters  about  among  fix  hundred  or  a  thoufand 
 labourers,  but  never  touches  the  mortar.  One  foldier,  how- 
 ever, always  takes  his  ftation  clofe  to  the  wall  that  the  labour- 
 ers are  building.  This  foldier  turns  himfelf  leifurely  on  all 
 fides,  and,  at  intervals  of  a  minute  or  two,  raifes  his  head, 
 beats  upon  the  building  with  his  forceps,  and  makes  the  yi. 
 
$79  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 brating  noife  formerly  mentioned.  A  loud  hifs  inftantly  * 
 iflues  from  the  inlide  of  the  dome  and  all  the  fubterraneous 
 caverns  and  paflages.  That  this  hifs  proceeds  from  the  la- 
 bourers is  apparent ;  for,  at  every  fignal  of  this  kind,  they 
 work  with  redoubled  quicknels  and  alacrity.  A  renewal  of 
 the  attack,  however,  inftantly  changes  the  fcene.  *  On  the 
 «  firft  ftroke,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,  « the  labourers  run 
 « into  the  many  pipes  and  galleries  with  which  the  building 
 ^  is  perforated,  which  they  do  fo  quickly,  that  they  feem  to 
 
 *  vanifh  ;  for  in  a  few  feconds  all  are  gone,  and  the  foldiers 
 
 *  rufh  out  as  numerous  and  as  vindi(Stive  as  before.  On  find- 
 f  ing  no  enemy,  they  return  again  leifurely  into  the  hill,  and 
 
 *  very  foon  after,  the  labourers  appear  loaded  as  at  firft,  as 
 «  adVive,  and  as  fedulous,  with  foldiers  here  and  there  among 
 '  them,  who  act  juft  in  the  fame  manner,  one  or  other  of 
 
 *  them  giving  the  fignal  to  haften  the  bufinefs.  Thus  the 
 «pleafure  of  feeing  them  come  out  to  fight  or  to  work,  alter- 
 
 *  nately,  may  be  obtained  as  often   as  curiofity  excites,  or 
 
 <  time  permits  j  and  it  will  certainly  be  found,  that  the  one 
 
 <  order  never  attempts  to  fight,  or  the  other  to  work,  let  the 
 «  emergency  be  ever  fo  great.' 
 
 It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  explore  the  interior  parts  of 
 a  nefi:  or  hill.  The  apartments  which  furround  the  royal 
 chamber  and  the  nurferies,  and  indeed  the  whole  fabrick, 
 have  fuch  a  dependence  on  each  other,  that  the  breaking  of 
 one  arch  generally  pulls  down  two  or  three.  There  is  anoth- 
 er great  obftacle  to  our  refearches,  namely,  the  obftinacy  of 
 the  foldiers,  who,  fays  our  author,  *  fight  to  the  very  lafi:, 
 « difputing  every  inch  of  ground  fo  well  as  often  to  drive 
 «  away  the  Negroes  who  are  without  fhoes,  and  make  white 
 
 <  people  bleed  plentifully  through  their  ftockings.  Neither 
 ^  can  we  let  a  building  fi:and  fo  as  to  get  a  view  of  the  interior 
 « parts  without  interruption  ;  for,  while  the  foldiers  are  de- 
 ^  fending  the  out-works,  the  labourers  keep  barricading  all 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  877 
 
 ^the  way  againft  us,  ftopping  up  the  different  galleries  and 
 
 *  paflages  which  lead  to  the  various  apartments,  particularly 
 
 <  the  royal  chamber,  all  the  entrances  to  which  they  hll  up 
 
 <  fo  artfully  as  not  to  let  it  be  diftinguifhable  while  it  remains 
 
 <  moift ;  and,  externally,  it  has  no  other  appearance  than 
 « that  of  a  fliapelefs  lump  of  clay.  It  is,  however,  eafily 
 «  found  from  its  fituation  with  rerpe<5l  to  the  other  parts  of 
 « the  building,  and  by  the  crowds  of  labourers   and  foldierg 
 
 *  which  furround   it,   who  Ihew  their  loyalty  and  fidelity  by 
 
 *  dying  under  its  walls.     The  royal  chamber,  in  a  large  neft, 
 
 *  is  capacious  enough  to  hold  many  hundreds  of  the  atten- 
 f  dants,  befides  the  royal  pair  ;   and  you  always  find  it  full  of 
 
 <  them  as  it  can  hold.     Thefe  faithful  fubjecls  never  abandon 
 
 *  their  charge  even  in  the  laft  diftrefs  5  for,  whenever  I  took 
 
 <  out  the  royal  chamber,  and,  as  I  often  did,  preferved  it  for 
 
 <  fome  time  in  a  large  glafs  bowl,  all  the  attendants  continued 
 «  running   in    one  dire£tion  round  the  king  and  queen  with 
 
 *  the  utmofl  folicitude,  fome  of  them  ftopping  at  the  head  of 
 
 *  the  latter,  as  if  to  give  her  fomething.  When  they  came 
 '  to  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  they  took  the  eggs  from 
 
 <  her,  and  carried  them  away,  and  piled  them  carefully  toge- 
 
 <  ther  in  fome  part  of  the  chamber,  or  in  the  bowl  under,  or 
 
 *  behind  any  pieces  of  broken  clay  which  lay  moft  conveni- 
 
 <  ent  for  the  purpofe.' 
 
 In  this  chapter,  I  have  given  a  fuccin(St  view  of  the  i'agaci- 
 ty,  dexterity,  and  archite^onic  powers,  exhibited  in  the  con- 
 ftr^^lion  of  habitations  by  the  different  claffes  of  animals^ 
 But  I  am  not  without  apprebeniions,  that,  in  my  endeavours 
 to  avoid  prolixity,  I  may  have,  in  fome  inftances,  degenerat- 
 ed into  obfcurity.  Enough,  however,  I  hope,  has  been  faid, 
 either  for  the  purpofes  of  admiration  or  of  reafoning  ;  and, 
 therefore,  I  fhall  not  anticipate  the  refleiStions  of  my  reader;}? 
 but  proceed  to  the  next  fubjefto 
 
378  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER  XIV. 
 
 Of  the  Hojlilities  of  Animals. 
 
 IN  contemplating  the  fyftem  of  animation  exliib-. 
 ited  in  this  planet,  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  any  ex- 
 tenlive  knowledge,  the  mind  is  ftruck,  and  even  confound- 
 pd,  with  the  general  fcene  of  havock  and  devaftation  which 
 is  perpetually,  and  every  where,  prefented  to  our  view. 
 There  is  not,  perhaps,  a  lingle  fpecies  of  animated  beings, 
 whofe  exiftence  depends  not,  more  or  lefs,  upon  the  death 
 ;ind  deftru£tion  of  others.  Every  animal,  when  not  prema- 
 turely deprived  of  life  by  thofe  who  are  hoftile  to  it,  or  by 
 accident,  enjoys  a  temporary  exiftence,  the  duration  of  which 
 is  longer  or  fhorter  according  to  its  nature,  and  the  rank  it 
 holds  in  the  creation  ;  and  this  exiftence  univerfally  termi- 
 nates in  death  and  diflblution.  This  is  an  eftablifhed  law  of 
 Nature,  to  which  every  animal  is  obliged  to  fubmit.  But 
 this  neceflary  and  univerfal  deprivation  of  individual  life, 
 though  great,  is  nothing  when  compared  to  the  havock  occafi- 
 oned  by  another  law,  which  impels  animals  to  kill  and  devour 
 different  fpecies,  and  fometimes  their  own.  In  the  fyftem 
 of  Nature,  death  and  diftblution  feem  to  be  indifpenfible  for 
 the  fupport  and  continuation  of  animal  life. 
 
 But,  though  almoft  every  animal,  in  fome  meafure,  de- 
 pends for  its  exiftence  on  the  deftrudlion  of  others,  there  are 
 fome  fpecies  in  all  the  different  tribes  or  clafles,  which  are 
 diftinguifhed  by  the  appellation  of  carnivorous  or  rapacious^ 
 becaufe  they  live  chiefly,  or  entirely,  on  animal  food.  In 
 the  profecution  of  this  fubje6l,  therefore,  we  fliall  in  the^/j/? 
 place,  mention  fome  examples  of  animal  hoftility  and  rapac-^ 
 ity  •,  and,  in  the  7iext  place,  endeavour  to  point  out  fuch  ad- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  37^ 
 
 Vantages  as  refult  from  this  apparently  cruel  inftitution  of 
 Nature.  On  the  laft  branch  of  the  fubjedt,  however,  the 
 reader  muft  not  expert  to  have  every  difficulty  removed,  and 
 every  queftion  folved.  Like  all  the  other  parts  of  the  oecon- 
 omy  of  Nature,  the  neceffity,  or  even  the  feeming  cruelty 
 and  injuftice,  of  allowing  animals  to  prey  upon  one  another, 
 is  a  myftery  which  we  can  never  be  enabled  completely  to 
 unravel.  But  we  are  not  entirely  without  hopes  of  fhowing 
 feveral  important  utilities  which  refult  from  this  alraofl  uni- 
 verfal  fcene  of  animal  devaflation. 
 
 Of  all  rapacious  animals,  Man  is  the  moft  univerfal  de- 
 ftroyer.  The  dertrudlion  of  carnivorous  quadrupeds,  birds, 
 and  infe£ls,  is,  in  general,  limited  to  particular  kinds.  But 
 the  rapacity  of  man  has  hardly  any  linjitation.  His  empire 
 over  the  other  animals  which  inhabit  this  globe  is  almoft 
 univerfal.  He  accordingly  employs  his  power,  and  fubdues 
 or  devours  every  fpecies.  Of  fome  of  the  quadruped  tribes, 
 as  the  horfe,  the  dog,  the  cat,  he  makes  domeftic  flaves  j 
 and,  though  in  this  country,  none  of  thefe  fpecies  is  ufed. 
 for  food,  he  either  obliges  them  to  labour  for  him,  or  keeps 
 them  as  fources  of  pleafure  and  amufement.  From  other 
 quadrupeds,  as  the  ox,  the  flieep,  the  goat,  and  the  deer 
 kind,  he  derives  innumerable  advantages.  The  ox-kind,  in 
 particular,  after  receiving  the  emolunients  of  their  labour  and 
 fertility,  he  rewards  with  death,  and  then  feeds  upon  their 
 carcaffes.  Many  other  fpecies,  though  not  commonly  ufed 
 as  food,  are  daily  malTacred  in  millions  for  the  purpofes  of 
 commerce,  luxury,  and  caprice.  Myriads  of  quadrupeds  arc 
 annually  deftroyed  for  the  fake  of  their  furs,  their  hides, 
 their  tulks,  their  odoriferous  fecretions,  &c. 
 
 Over  the  feathered  tribes  the  dominion  of  man  is  not  lefs 
 extenfive.  There  is  not  a  fingle  fpecies  in  the  numerous 
 and  diverfified  clafs  of  birds,  which  he  either  does  not,  or 
 may  not,  employ  for  the  nourifhment  of  his  body.     By  his 
 
38d  THE   f>HlLOSOPHlf 
 
 fagaclty  and  addrefs  he  has  been  enabled  to  domefticate  ma- 
 ny of  the  more  prolific  and  delicious  fpecies,  as  turkies,  geefe, 
 and  the  various  kinds  of  poultry.  Thefe  he  multiplies  with- 
 out end,  and  devours  at  pleafure. 
 
 Neither  do  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters  efcape  the  rapaci- 
 ty of  man.  Rivers,  lakes,  and  even  the  ocean  itfelf,  feel  the 
 power  of  his  empire,  and  are  forced  to  fupply  him  with  pro- 
 vilions.  Neither  air  nor  water  can  defend  againft  the  inge- 
 nuity, the  art,  and  the  defi:ru6tive  induftry  of  the  human 
 fpecies.  Man  may  be  faid  even  to  have  domefticated  fome 
 fiihes.  In  artificial  ponds,  he  feeds  and  rears  carp,  tench, 
 perch,  trout,  and  other  fpecies,  and  with  them  occafionally 
 furnifhes  his  table. 
 
 It  might  have  been  expedled,  that  infe£ls  and  reptiles, 
 fome  of  which  have  a  moft  difgufting  afpecSt,  would  not  have 
 excited  the  human  appetite.  But  we  learn  from  experi- 
 ence, that,  in  every  region  of  the  earth,  many  infe6ls  which 
 inhabit  both  the  earth  and  the  waters,  are  efteemed  as  deli* 
 cate  articles  of  luxury.  Even  the  viper,  though  its  venom 
 be  deleterious,  efcapes  not  the  all-devouring  jaws  of  man. 
 
 Thus  man  holds,  and  too  often  exercifes,  a  tyrannical  do** 
 minion  over  almoft  the  whole  brute  creation,  not  becaufe  he 
 is  the  ftrongefl:  of  all  animals,  but  becaufe  his  intelledl,  though 
 of  a  fimilar  nature,  is  vaftly  fuperior  to  that  of  the  moft  faga- 
 tious  of  the  lefs  favoured  tribes.  He  reigns  over  the  other 
 animals,  becaufe,  like  them,  he  is  not  only  endowed  with  fen- 
 timent,  but  becaufe  the  powers  of  his  mind  are  more  exten- 
 five.  He  overcomes  force  by  ingenuity,  and  fwiftnefs  by  art 
 and  perfevering  induflry.  But  the  empire  of  man  over  the 
 brute  creation  is  not  abfolute.  Some  fpecies  elude  his  pow- 
 er by  the  rapidity  of  their  flight,  by  the  fwiftnefs  of  their 
 courfe,  by  the  obfcurity  of  their  retreats,  and  by  the  element 
 in  which  they  live.  Others  efcape  him  by  the  minutenefs  of 
 their  bodies  j  and,  inftead  of  acknowledging  their  fovereign, 
 
OF    NATURAL    IIISTORr.  38 1 
 
 Others  boldly  attack  him  with  open  hoftility.  He  Is  ah'b 
 infulted  and  injured  by  the  flings  of  infects,  and  by  the  poif- 
 onous  bites  of  ferpents.  In  other  refpedls,  man's  empire, 
 thoLinrh  comparatively  great,  is  very  much  limited.  He  has 
 no  influence  on  the  univerfe,  on  the  motions  and  afFec- 
 tions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  on  the  revolutions  of  the 
 globe  which  he  inhabits.  Neither  has  he  a  general  domin- 
 ion over  animals,  vegetables,  or  minerals.  His  power  reach- 
 es not  fpecies,  but  is  confined  to  individuals.  Every  order 
 of  being  moves  on  its  courfe,  perifhes,  or  is  renewed,  by  the 
 irreflrtible  power  of  Nature.  Even  man  himfelf,  hurried 
 along  by  the  general  torrent  of  time  and  of  Nature,  cannot 
 prolong  his  exiftence.  He  is  obliged  to  fubmit  to  the  uni- 
 verfal  law  •,  and,  like  all  other  organized  beings,  he  is  born, 
 grows  to  maturity  and  dies.  Though  man  has  been  enabled 
 to  fubdue  the  animal  creation  by  the  fuperior  powers  of  his 
 mind,  his  empire,  like  all  other  empires,  could  not  be  flrmly 
 eftablifhed  previous  to  the  inftitution  of  pretty  numerous  fo- 
 cieties.  Almofl:  the  whole  of  his  power  is  derived  from  fo- 
 ciety.  It  matures  his  reafon,  gives  exertion  to  his  genius, 
 and  unites  his  forces.  Before  the  formation  of  large  focie- 
 ties,  man  was  perhaps  the  moft  helplefs  and  the  leaft  formi- 
 dable of  all  animals.  Naked,  and  deftitute  of  arms,  to  him 
 the  earth  was  only  an  immenfe  defert  peopled  with  ftrong 
 and  rapacious  monflers,  by  whom  he  was  often  devoured. 
 Even  long  after  this  period,  hiftory  informs  us,  that  the  firfl 
 heroes  were  deftroyers  of  wild  beafts.  But,  after  the  human 
 fpecies  had  multiplied,  and  fpread  over  the  earth,  and  when, 
 by  means  of  fociety  and  the  arts,  man  was  enabled  to  con- 
 quer a  conliderable  part  of  the  globe,  he  forced  the  wild 
 beafts  gradually  to  retire  to  the  deferts.  He  cleared  the 
 earth  of  thofe  gigantic  animals  who,  perhaps,  now  no  longer 
 exift,  but  whofe  enormous  bones  are  flill  found   in  different 
 
 regions,  and  are  preferved  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious.    He 
 
 Z  z 
 
-^8'^  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 reduced  the  numbers  of  voracious  and  noxious  fpecles.  He 
 oppofed  the  powers  and  the  dexterity  of  one  animal  to  thofe 
 of  another.  Some  he  fubdued  by  addrefs,  and  others  by 
 force.  In  this  manner  he,  in  procefs  of  time,  acc^uired  to 
 himfelf  perfedl  fecurity,  and  eftabhfhed  an  empire  that  has 
 no  other  Hmits  than  inacceffible  folitudes,  burning  fands, 
 frozen  mountains,  or  obfcure  caverns,  which  are  occupied 
 as  retreats  by  a  few  fpecies  of  ferocious  animals. 
 
 Next  ta  jnan,  the  carnivorous  quadrupeds  are  the  mofl:  nu- 
 merous  and  the  moil:   deftrudlive.     DijS'erent  parts   of  the 
 earth  are  infefted  with  lions,  tigers,  panthers,  ounces,  leop- 
 ards, jaguars,  cougars,  lynxes,  wild  cats,  dogs,  jackals,  wolves, 
 foxes,  hyaenas,  civets,  genets,  polecats,  martins,  ferrets,  er- 
 mines, gluttons,  bats,  &c.    Though  all  thefe,  and  many  other 
 tribes  of  quadrupeds,  live   folely  upon  blood  and  carnage, 
 yet  fome  of  them,  a^  the  tiger,  the  wolf,   the  hyaena,  and 
 many  other   inferior  fpecies,  are  much  more  rapacious  and 
 deftructive  than  others.     The  lion,  though  furrounded  with 
 prey,  kills  no  more  than  he  is  able  to  confume.     But  the  tiger 
 is  grofsly  ferocious,  and  cruel  without   necefiity.     Though 
 fatiated  with  carnage,  he  perpetually  thirfts  for  blood.     His 
 reftlefs  fury  has  no  intervals,  except,  when  he  is  obliged  to 
 lie  in  ambufli  for  prey  at  the  fides  of  lakes  or  rivers,  to  which 
 other  animals  refort  for  drink.     He  feizes  and  tears  in  pieces 
 a  freih  animal  with  equal  rage  as  he  exerted   in  devouring 
 the  firf^.     He  defolates  every  country  that  he  inhabits,  and 
 dreads  neither  the  afpefl  nor  the  arms  of  man.     He  facrific- 
 es  whole  fiOcks  of  domeftic  animals,  and  all  the  wild  beafts 
 which  come  within  the  reach  of  his  terrible  claws.     He  at- 
 tacks the  young  of  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  and  fome- 
 tiraes  even  ventures  to  brave  the  lion.     His  predominant  in- 
 ftin£l  is  a  perpetual  rage,  a  blind  and  undiftinguilhing  fero- 
 city, which  often  impel  him    to  devour  his  own  young,  and 
 to  tear  their  mother  in  pieces  when  flie  attempts  to  defend 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTOE.y.  383 
 
 them.  He  delights  in  blood,  and  gluts  himfelf  with  it  till 
 he  is  intoxicated.  He  tears  the  body  for  no  other  purpofo 
 than  to  plunge  his  head  into  it,  and  to  drink  large  draughts 
 of  blood,  the  fources  of  which  are  generally  exhaufted  before 
 his  thirft  is  appeafed.  The  tiger  is  perhaps  the  only  animal 
 whofe  ferocity  is  unconquerable.  Neither  violence,  reftraint, 
 nor  bribery,  have  any  effect  in  foftening  his  temper.  With 
 harfli  or  gentle  treatment  he  is  equally  irritated.  The  mild 
 and  conciliating  influence  of  fociety  makes  no  impreflion  on 
 the  obduracy  and  incorrigiblenefs  of  his  difpofitlon.  Time, 
 inftead  of  foftening  the  ferocioufnefs  of  his  nature,  only  exaf- 
 perates  his  rage.  He  tears,  with  equal  wrath,  the  hand 
 which  feeds  him,  as  that  which  is  raifed  to  ftrike  him.  He 
 roars  and  grins  at  the  fight  of  every  living  being.  Every 
 animated  obje£l  he  regards  as  a  frefh  prey,  v/hich  he  devours 
 before  hand  with  the  avidity  of  his  eyes,  menaces  it  with 
 frightful  groans,  and  often  fprings  at  it  without  regarding 
 bis  chains,  which  only  reftrain,  but  cannot  calm  his  fury. 
 
 In  temperate  climates,  the  wolf  feems  to  exceed  all  other 
 animals  in  the  ferocity  and  rapacioufnefs  of  his  difpoiition. 
 When  prefled  with  hunger,  he  braves  every  danger.  He 
 attacks  all  thofe  animals  which  are  under  the  protection  of 
 man,  efpecially  fuch  as  he  can  carry  off  with  eafe,  as  lambs, 
 kids,  and  the  fmaller  kinds  of  dogs.  When  fuccefsful  in 
 his  expeditions,  he  returns  often  to  the  charge,  till,  after  be- 
 ing chafed  and  wounded  by  men  and  dogs,  he  retires,  dur- 
 ing the  day  to  his  den.  In  the  night  he  again  ilTues  forth, 
 traverfes  the  country,  roams  round  the  cottages,  kills  all  the 
 animals  wdiich  have  been  left  without,  digs  the  earth  uuder 
 the  doors,  enters  with  a  terrible  ferocity,  and  puts  every  liv- 
 ing creature  to  death,  before  he  choofes  to  depart,  and  carry 
 off  his  prey.  When  thefe  inroads  happen  to  be  fruitlels,  ha 
 returns  to  the  woods,  fearches  about  with  avidity,  follows 
 the  track  and  the  fcent  of  wild  beads,  and  purfues  them  till 
 
584  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 they  fall  a  prey  to  his  rapacity.  In  a  word,  when  his  hunger 
 is  extreme,  he  lofes  all  idea  of  fear,  attacks  women  and  chil- 
 dren, and  fometimes  men  ;  at  lafl  he  becomes  perfe6lly  furi- 
 ous by  excellive  exertions,  and  generally  falls  a  facriHce  to 
 pure  rage  and  diftracSlion.  When  feveral  wolves  appear  to- 
 gether, it  is  not  an  aflbciation  of  peace,  but  of  war.  It  is  at- 
 tended with  tumult  and  dreadful  growlings,.  and  indicates  an 
 attack  upon  fome  of  the  larger  animals,  as  a  ftag,  an  ox,  or 
 a  formidable  maftive.  This  depredatory  expedition  is  no 
 fooner  ended  than  they  feparate,  and  every  individual  re- 
 turns in  filence  to  his  folitude.    Wolves  are  fond  of  human 
 
 ^flefh.  They  have  been  known  to  follow  armies,  to  come  in 
 troops  to  the  field  of  battle,  where  bodies  are  carelefsly  inter- 
 red, to  tear  them  up,  and  to  devour  them  with  an  infatiable 
 avidity  :  And,  when  once  accuflomed  to  human  flefli,  thefe 
 wolves  ever  after  attack  men,  prefer  the  fliepherd  to  the. 
 flock,  devour  women,  and  carry  oft  children.  Whole  coun- 
 tries are  fometimes  obliged  to  arm,  in  order  to  deflroy  the 
 wolves.  It  is  a  fortunate  circumftance  that  thefe  dangerous 
 and  deftrudtive  animals  have  been  long  totally  extirpated 
 from  Great  Britain  and  her  iflands. 
 
 Neither  are  \S\q  feathered  tribes  exempted  from  the  general 
 law  of  devaftation.  But  the  number  of  birds  of  prey,  pro- 
 perly fo  called,  is  much  lefs  in  proportion  than  that  of  carni- 
 vorous quadrupeds.  Birds  of  prey  are  likewife  weaker  ;  and, 
 of  courfe,  the  deftruftion  of  animal  life  they  occafion  is  much 
 more  limited  than  the  immenfe  devaftations  daily  commit- 
 ted by  rapacious  quadrupeds.  But,  as  if  tyranny  never  loft 
 fight  of  its  rights,  great  numbers    of  birds  make  prodigious 
 
 ,  depredations  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters.  A  vaft 
 tribe  of  birds  frequent  the  waters,  and  live  folely  upon  fifhes. 
 In  a  certain  fenfe,  every  fpecies  of  bird  may  be  faid  to  be  a 
 bird  of  prey  ;  for  almoft  the  whole  of  them  devour  flies, 
 worms,  and  other  infe<^s,  either  for  food  to  themfelves  oi: 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  385 
 
 their  Toung.  Birds  of  prey,  like  carnivorous  qiiaJrupeds, 
 arc  not  fo  prolific  as  the  milder  and  more  inofFeniive  kind;,. 
 Moil:  of  them  lay  only  a  fmall  number  of  eggs.  The  great 
 e?Me  and  the  ofprey  produce  only  two  eggs  in  a  feafon.  The 
 pi':^eon,  it  may  be  faid,  lays  no  more.  But  it  ihould  be  con- 
 lidered  that  the  pigeon  produces  two  eggs  three,  four,  or  five 
 times,  from  fpring  to  autumn.  All  birds  of  prey  exhibit  an 
 obduracy  and  a  ferocioufnefs  of  difpofition,  while  the  other 
 kinds  are  mild,  chearful,  and  gentle,  in  their  afpe£l  and  man- 
 ners. Moll:  birds  of  prey  expel  their  offspring  from  the  nell, 
 and  relinquifh  them  to  their  fate,  before  they  are  fufliciently 
 able  to  provide  for  themfelves.  This  cruelty  is  the  efiect  of 
 perfonal  want  in  the  mother.  When  prey  is  fcanty,  v/hich 
 often  happens,  (he  m  a  manner  ftarves  herfelf  to  fupport  her 
 young.  But,  when  her  hunger  becomes  exceflive,  flie  for- 
 gets her  parental  efFection,  ftrikes,  expels,  and  fometimes, 
 in  a  paroxyfm  of  fury  produced  by  want,  kills  her  offspring. 
 An  averfion  to  fcciety  is  another  eS'e£t  of  this  natural  and 
 acquired  obduracy  of  temper.  Birds  of  prey,  as  well  as  car- 
 nivorous quadrupeds,  never  afTociate.  Like  robbers,  they 
 lead  a  folitary  and  wandering  life.  Mutual  attachment  unites 
 the  male  and  the  female  ;  and,  as  they  are  both  capable  of 
 providing  for  themfelves,  and  can  give  mutual  afiiftance  in 
 making  vv^ar  againil:  other  animals,  they  never  feparate,  even 
 after  the  feafon  of  love.  The  fame  pair  are  uniformly  found 
 ill  the  fame  place  ;  but  they  never  afTemble  in  flocks,  nor 
 even  afTociate  in  famihes.  The  larger  kinds,  as  the  eagles, 
 require  a  greater  quantity  of  food,  and,  for  that  reafon,  nev- 
 er allow  their  own  offspring,  after  they  have  become  rivals, 
 to  approach  the  places  which  the  parents  frequent.  But  all 
 thofe  birds,  and  all  thofe  quadrupeds,  which  are  nourifhed  by 
 the  productions  of  the  earth,  live  in  familiesj  are  fond  of 
 fociety,  and  afTemble  in  numerous  flocks,  without  quarreU 
 ling  or  difturbing  one  another. 
 
586  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Both  the  earth  and  the  air  furnifli  examples  of  rapacious 
 animals.  In  thefe  elements,  however,  the  number  of  carni- 
 vorous animals  is  comparatively  fmall.  But  every  inhabi- 
 tant of  the  waters  depends  for  its  exiftence  upon  rapine  and 
 deftrudtion.  The  life  of  every  ji^  from  the  fmalleft  to  the 
 greateft,  is  one  continued  fcene  of  hoftility,  violence  and  eva- 
 lion.  Their  appetite  for  food  is  almoft  infatiable.  It  impels 
 them  to  encounter  every  danger.  They  are  in  continual 
 motion  -,  and  the  object  of  all  their  movements  is  to  devour 
 other  fifhes,  or  to  avoid  their  own  de{lru(Sl:ion.  Their  de- 
 lire  for  food  is  fo  keen  and  undiftinguifhing,  that  they  gree- 
 dily fwallow  every  thing  which  has  the  appearance  of  ani- 
 mation. Thofe  that  have  fmall  mouths  feed  upon  worms 
 and  the  fpawn  of  other  fifhes  ;  and  thofe  whofe  mouths  are 
 larger  devour  every  animal,  their  own  fpecies  not  excepted, 
 that  can  pafs  through  their  gullet.  To  avoid  deflru(Stion, 
 the  fmaller  fry  retire  to  the  ihallows,  where  the  larger  kinds 
 are  unable  to  purfue  them.  But,  in  the  watery  element,  no 
 iituation  is  abfolutely  fafe  ;  for,  even  in  the  fh allows,  the 
 oyfter,  the  fcallop,  and  the  mufcle,  lie  in  ambulh  at  the  bot- 
 tom, with  their  fhells  open,  and,  when  a  fmall  fifh  comes  in- 
 to contact  with  them,  they  inflantly  clofe  their  fhells  upon 
 him,  and  devour  at  leifure  their  imprifoned  prey.  Neither 
 is  the  hunting  or  purfuit  of  fifhes  confined  to  particular  re- 
 gions. Shoals  of  one  fpecies  foUov/,  with  unwearied  ardour, 
 thofe  of  another  through  vafl  tratSls  of  the  ocean.  The  cod 
 purfues  the  whiting  from  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  to  the 
 fouthern  coafts  of  Spain. 
 
 It  is  a  remarkable  circumftancc  in  the  hiflory  of  animated 
 Nature,  that  carnivorous  birds  and  quadrupeds  are  lefs  proli- 
 fic than  the  inoffenfive  and  afTociating  kinds  •,  but,  on  the 
 contrary,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters,  who  are  all  car- 
 nivorous, are  endowed  with  a  mofr  aftonifhing  fecundity. 
 AH  kinds  of  fifhes^  a  few  only  excepted,  are  oviparous.  No;- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  387 
 
 withftanding  the  amazing  deftrucSlIon  of  their  eggs  by  the 
 faiallcr  fry  that  frequent  the  fhores,  by  aquatic  birds,  and 
 by  the  larger  iiflies,  the  numbers  which  efcape  are  fufficient 
 to  fupply  the  ocean  with  inhabitants,  and  to  afford  nourifh- 
 ment  to  a  very  great  portion  of  the  human  race.  A  cod, 
 for  inftance,  according  to  the  accurate  computation  of  Lew- 
 enhoeck,  produces,  from  one  roe,  above  nine  miUions  of  eggs 
 in  a  fingle  feafon.  The  flounder  lays  annually  above  one 
 million,  and  the  mackarel  more  than  five  hundred  thoufand  : 
 An  increafe  fo  great,  if  permitted  to  arrive  at  maturity,  that 
 the  ocean  itfelf,  in  a  few  centuries,  would  not  be  fpacious 
 enough  to  contain  Its  animated  productions.  This  wonder- 
 ful fertility  anfwers  two  valuable  purpofes.  In  the  midft  of 
 numberlefs  enemies  it  continues  the  refpe£l:lve  fpecies,  and 
 furnifhes  to  all  a  proper  quantity  of  nourifhment. 
 
 We  have  thus  feen  that  man,  fome  quadrupeds,  fome  birds, 
 and  all  fiflies,  are  carnivorous  animals.  But  this  fyftem  of 
 carnage  defccnds  ftill  lov/er.  Many  of  the  infeEl  tribes  derive 
 their  nourifhment  from  putrid  carcaiTes,  from  the  bodies  of 
 living  animals,  or  from  killing  and  devouring  weaker  fpecies. 
 How  many  flies  are  daily  facrificed  by  fplders,  a  moft  vora- 
 cious and  a  moft  numerous  tribe  of  infects  .''  In  return,  fpi- 
 ders  are  greedily  devoured  by  flies  which  are  diftinguifhed 
 by  the  name  of  khnemnojis.  The  number  of  thefe  ichneu- 
 mon flies  is  inconceivable  j  and,  if  it  were  not  for  the  pro- 
 digious havock  they  make  upon  caterpillars  and  other  infefts, 
 the  fruits  of  the  earth  would  be  entirely  deflroyed.  Wafps 
 are  extremely  fond  of  animal  food.  They  fi'equent  butch- 
 ers flails,  and  beat  off*  the  flefli  fly,  and  every  other  infe£t 
 that  reforts  thither  for  the  purpofe  of  depouting  its  eggs  in 
 the  meat.  Butchers  take  the  advantage  of  this  jealous  war- 
 fare. They  encourage  the  wafps,  and  make  centinels  of 
 them,  by  giving  them  livers,  which  they  prefer  to  more 
 fibrous  flefli,  probably  becaufe  they  can  cut  livers  more  eafi- 
 ly  with  their  teeth. 
 
388  THE    FHILOSOPHY 
 
 The  llbella,  dragon,  or  lady-fly,  is  well  known  by  ihe 
 beauty  of  its  colours  and  the  fymmetry  of  its  form.  For 
 thefe  external  qualities  it  has  received  the  appellation  of 
 lady-fy.  Its  difpofitions  and  its  mode  of  life,  however,  are 
 more  ferocious  and  waHike  than  thofe  of  the  Amazones. 
 Like  birds  of  prey,  they  hover  about  in  the  air,  for  the  fole 
 purpofe  of  devouring  alnioft  every  fpecies  of  winged  infedl. 
 They  accordingly  frequent  marfhy  grounds,  pools  of  water, 
 and  the  margins  of  rivers,  where  infects  moil:  abound. 
 Their  appetite  is  fo  grofs  and  voracious,  that  they  not  only 
 devour  fmall  flies,  but  even  the  large  flefli-fly,  moths,  and 
 butterflies,  of  every  kind. 
 
 It  has  been  often  faid,  that  no  animal  fpontancoufly  feeds 
 upon  its  ovs^n  fpecies.  This  remark  has  probably  been  in- 
 tended as  an  apology  for,  or  at  leaft  a  limitation  to,  the  gen- 
 eral fyftem  of  carnage  eflabliflied  by  Nature.  But  the  ob- 
 fervation,  whatever  might  have  been  its  intention,  is  unhap- 
 pily a  refult  of  ignorance  •,  for  fome  quadrupeds,  all  fifhes, 
 and  many  infe(Sl:s,  make  no  fuch  difcrimination.  The  weak- 
 er are  uniformly  preyed  upon  by  the  ftronger.  Reaumur 
 put  twenty  of  thofe  caterpillars  which  feed  upon  the  leaves 
 of  the  oak  into  a  vial.  Though  he  regularly  fupplied  them 
 with  plenty  of  frefli  oak  leaves,  he  obferved  that  the  number 
 of  dead  ones  daily  increafed.  Upon  a  more  attentive  exam- 
 ination into  the  caufe  of  this  mortality,  he  found,  that  the 
 ftronger  attacked  with  their  teeth,  killed,  fucked  out  the 
 vitals  of  their  weaker  companions,  and  left  nothing  but  the 
 head,  feet,  and  empty  flcins.  In  a  few  days,  one  only  of  the- 
 twenty  remained  in  life. 
 
 Caterpillars  have  myriads  of  external  enemies,  as  birds  of 
 almofl:  every  kind,  mrjiy  of  the  fmallar  quadrupeds,  their 
 own  fpecies,  and  numberlefs  infecfts.  But  this  vaft  fource 
 of  devaftation  is  fl:ill  augmented  by  what  may  be  denominat- 
 ed their  internal  enemies.     Many  flies  depofit  their  eggs  in 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  389 
 
 the  bodies  of  caterpillars.  From  thefe  eggs  proceed  fmall  mag- 
 gots, which  gradually  devour  the  vitals  of  the  animal  in  which 
 they  refide.  When  about  to  be  transformed  into  chryfalids, 
 they  pierce  the  flcln  of  the  caterpillar,  fpin  their  pods,  and 
 remain  on  the  empty  fkin  till  they  affume  the  form  of  flies, 
 and  efcape  into  the  air  to  perform  the  fame  cruel  office  to 
 nnot4ier  unfortunate  reptile.  Every  perfon  muil  recollect  to 
 have  feen  the  colewort  or  cabbage  caterpillar  fi:uck  upon  old 
 Walls,  or  the  windows  of  country  cottages,  totally  covered 
 with  thefe  chryfalids,  which  have  the  form  of  fmall  maggots, 
 and  are  of  a  fine  yellow  colour.  One  of  the  moft  formi- 
 dable enemies  of  the  caterpillar  is  a  black  worm,  with  fix 
 cruftaceous  legs.  It  is  as  long,  and  thicker  than  an  ordina- 
 nary  fized  caterpillar.  In  the  fore  part  of  the  head  it  has 
 two  curved  pincers,  w^ith  which  it  quickly  pierces  the  belly 
 of  a  caterpillar,  and  never  quits  the  prey  till  it  is  entirely  de- 
 voured. The  largefb  caterpillar  is  not  fufficient  to  nourifh 
 this  worm  for  a  fingle  day  j  for  it  daily  kills  and  eats  fever- 
 al  of  them.  Thefe  gluttonous  worms,  when  gorged  with 
 food,  become  inacSlive,  and  almoft  motionlefs.  When  in  this 
 fatiated  condition,  young  worms  of  the  fame  fpecies  attack 
 and  devour  them.  Of  all  trees,  the  oak,  perhaps,  nourifhes 
 the  greatefl  number  of  different  caterpillars,  as  well  as  of  dif- 
 ferent infecfls.  Amongft  others,  the  oak  is  inhabited  by  a 
 large  and  beautiful  beetle.  This  beetle  frequents  the  oak, 
 probably  becaufe  that  tree  is  inhabited  by  the  greatefl  num- 
 ber of  caterpillars.  It  marches  from  branch  to  branch,  and, 
 when  difpofed  for  food,  attacks  and  devours  the  firfl:  cater- 
 pillar that  comes  in  its  way. 
 
 The  pucerons,  vine-fretters,  or  plant-lice,  are  very  injuri- 
 ous to  trees  and  vegetables  of  almoft  every  kind.  Their 
 fpecies  are  fo  numerous,  and  all  of  them  are  endowed  with 
 fuch  a  wonderful  fertiUty,  that  we  fhould  expe(Sl  to  fee  the 
 leaves,  the  branches,  and  the  flems  of  every  plant  totally  cov- 
 A  A  a 
 
S90  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ered  with  them.  But  this  aftonifhing  fecundity,  and  the  de- 
 vaftation  thefe  fmall  infects  would  unavoidably  produce 
 among  the  vegetable  tribes,  is  checked  by  numberlefs  ene- 
 mies. Myriads  of  infedls  of  different  clafles,  of  different 
 genera,  and  of  different  fpecies,  feem  to  be  produced  for  no 
 other  purpofe  but  to  devour  the  pueerons.  Some  of  thefe 
 infedts  are  fo  voracious,  that^  notwithftanding  the  extreme 
 prolific  powers  of  the  pueerons,  we  have  reafon  to  be  fur- 
 prifed  that  their  fpecies  are  not  entirely  anniliilated.  On 
 every  leaf  inhabited  by  the  puceron  we  find  worms  of  differ- 
 ent kinds.  Thefe  worms  feed  not  upon  the  leaves,  but  up- 
 on the  pueerons,  whom  they  devour  with  an  almoft  incredi- 
 ble rapacity.  Some  of  thefe  worms  are  transformed  into 
 flies  with  two  wings,  others  into  flies  with  four  wings,  and 
 others  into  beetles.  While  in  the  worm-ftate,  one  of  thefe 
 gluttonous  infects  will  fuck  out  the  vitals  of  twenty  pueerons 
 in  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Reaumur  fupplied  a  fingle  worm 
 with  more  than  a  hundred  pueerons,  every  one  of  which  it 
 devoured  in  lefs  than  three  hours. 
 
 Befide  the  general  fyftem  of  carnage  produced  by  the  ne- 
 celRty  of  one  animal's  feeding  upon  another,  there  are 
 other  fources  of  deftrudion,  which  originate  from  very  dif- 
 ferent motives.  Man  is  not  the  only  animal  who  wages 
 war  with  his  own  fpecies.  War  among  mankind,  in  certain 
 accidental  fituations  of  fociety,  may  be  produdlive,  to  parti- 
 cular nations  or  communities,  of  beneficial  effe<SVs.  But  eve- 
 ry advantage  derived  by  war  to  one  nation  is  acquired  at  the 
 expence,  and  either  the  partial  or  the  total  ruin  of  another. 
 If  univerfal  peace  could  be  completely  eftablifhed,  and  if  the 
 earth  were  cultivated  to  the  higheft  perfection,  it  is  not  pro- 
 bable that  the  multiplication  of  the  human  fpecies  would  ever 
 rife  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  exceed  the  quantity  of  provifions 
 produced  by  agriculture,  and  by  the  breeding  of  domeftic 
 animals,  neceffary  for  their  exigence  and  happinefs.     But, 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  391 
 
 as  long  as  men  are  actuated  by  ambition,  by  refentment,  and 
 by  many  other  hoftile  paffions,  war  and  animofity,  with  all 
 their  train  of  blood-fhed  and  calamity,  will  forever  continue 
 to  harrafs  and  perfecute  the  human  kind.  Let  us,  however, 
 be  humble.  We  cannot  unfold  the  myfteries  of  Nature  ; 
 but  we  may  admire  her  operations,  and  fubmit,  with  a  becom- 
 ing relignation,  to  her  irreliftible  decrees.  The  man,  if  fuch 
 a  man  there  be,  whofe  ftrength  of  mind  enables  him  to  ob-^ 
 ferve  fteadfaftly  this  condudl,  is  the  only  real  philofopher. 
 
 As  formerly  remarked,  man  is  not  the  only  animal  that 
 makes  war  with  his  own  fpecies.  Quadrupeds,  birds,  fiflies, 
 infefls,  independently  of  their  appetite  for  food,  occafionally 
 light  and  kill  each  other.  On  this  fubje£l  we  fhall  confine 
 ourfelves  to  a  few  examples  derived  from  the  infecl  tribes. 
 
 A  fociety  or  hive  of  bees  confifts  of  a  female,  of  males, 
 and  of  drones,  or  neuters.  Thefe  three  kinds  continue,  for 
 fome  time,  in  the  moft  perfect  harmony,  and  mutually  pro- 
 tect and  aflift  each  other.  The  neuters,  or  working  bees, 
 difcover  the  ftrongeft  attachment  and  afFedlion  to  the  males, 
 even  when  in  their  worm  ftate.  The  neuters  are  armed 
 with  a  deadly  fting,  of  which  the  males  are  deftitute.  Both 
 are  equally  produced  by  the  fame  mother,  and  live  in  the 
 fame  family.  But,  notwithftanding  their  temporary  aiFedlion, 
 there  are  times  when  the  neuters  cruelly  maflacre  the 
 males.  Among  the  laws  of  poliflied  republics,  we  lind  fome 
 which  are  extremely  barbarous.  The  Lacedemonians  were 
 allowed  to  kill  fuch  of  tlieir  c?hildren  as  were  produced  in  a 
 defective  or  maimed  ftate,  becaufe  they  would  become  a  bur- 
 den upon  the  community.  The  laws  of  the  Chinefe  permit 
 adtions  equally  inhuman.  We  perhaps  know  not  all  the 
 reafons  why  the  neuter  bees  treat  the  males  with  fo  much 
 cruelty.  There  is  a  time,  however,  when  the  males  become 
 perfectly  ufelefs  to  the  community  ;  and  it  is  not  incurious 
 to  remarkj  that   the  general  maflacre  never  commences  till 
 
S92  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 this  period  arrives.  "Whenever  a  ftranger  bee  enters  a  hive, 
 his  temerity  is  uniformly  puniflied  with  death.  But  mortal 
 combats  are  not  unfrequent  between  bees  belonging  to  the 
 fame  hive.  Thefe  combats  are  mofh  frequent  in  clear  and 
 warm  weather.  Sometimes  two  combatants  come  out  of  the 
 hive  clofely  faftened  to  each  other.  At  other  times  the  at- 
 tack is  made  in  the  air.  But,  in  whatever  way  the  battle  be- 
 gins, both  combatants  uniformly  come  to  the  ground  before 
 it  is  terminated  by  the  death  of  one  of  the  parties.  When 
 they  reach  the  ground,  each  individual,  like  a  wreftler,  en- 
 deavours to  gain  the  moft  advantageous  pofition  for  flinging 
 his  adverfary  to  death.  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  fting 
 is  left  in  the  wound.  If  this  were  generally  the  cafe,  every 
 combat  would  prove  fatal  to  two  bees  ;  for  the  vidlor  could 
 not  long  furvive  the  lofs  of  his  fting.  Thefe  battles  fome- 
 times  continue  near  an  hour  before  one  of  the  flies  is  left  ex- 
 piring on  the  ground. 
 
 Befide  thefe  fingle  combats,  general  a(Si:ions  are  not  unfre-; 
 quent,  efpecially  in  the  fwarming  feafon.  When  two  fwarms, 
 or  colonies,  happen  to  contend  for  the  fame  habitation,  a 
 general  and  bloody  engagement  immediately  enfues.  Thefe 
 engagements  often  continue  for  hours,  and  never  terminate 
 without  great  havock  on  both  fides.  The  fting  is  not  the 
 only  weapon  employed  in  war  by  bees.  They  are  furnifhed 
 with  two  ftrong  fangs  or  teeth,  with  which  they  cruelly  tear 
 each  other.  Even  in  general  engagements,  all  the  combats 
 are  fingle.  But,  when  the  great  flaughter  of  the  males  is 
 committing,  three  or  four  neuters  are  not  aftiamed  to  attack 
 a  fingle  fly. 
 
 Every  wafp's  neft,  about  the  beginning  of  October,  exhib- 
 its a  fmgular  and  a  cruel  fcene.  At  this  feafon,  the  wafps 
 ceafe  to  bring  nourifliment  to  their  young.  From  afFe<Slion- 
 ate  mothers  or  nurfes,  they  at  once  become  barbarous  ftep- 
 mothers.  They  are  worfe  j  for  they  drag  the  young  worms 
 from  their  cells,  and  carry  them  out  of  the  neft.     Being  thus 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  S93 
 
 expofed  to  the  weather,  and  deprived  of  nourlfhment,  every- 
 one of  them  unavoidably  perifhes.  This  devaftation  is  not 
 hke  that  of  the  honey-bees,  confined  to  the  male-worms. 
 Here  no  worm,  of  whatever  denomination  or  fex,  efcapes  the 
 general  and  undiftinguifhing  maflacre.  Befide  expofing  the 
 worms  to.  the  weather,  the  wafps  kill  them  with  their  fangs. 
 This  fadt  feems  to  be  a  violation  of  parental  affection,  one  of 
 the  ftrongefl:  principles  in  animal  nature.  But  the  inten- 
 tions of  Nature,  though  they  may  often  elude  our  refearch- 
 es,  are  never  wrong.  What  appears  to  us  cruel  and  unnat- 
 ural in  this  inftiniStive  devaftation  committed  annually  by  the 
 wafps,  is  perhaps  an  a6l  of  the  greatefl  mercy  and  compaffion. 
 "Wafps  are  not,  like  the  honey-bees,  endowed  with  the  in- 
 ftintft  of  laying  up  a  ftore  of  provifions  for  winter  fubfiftencc. 
 If  not  prematurely  deftroyed  by  their  parents,  the  young 
 muft  necefTarily  die  a  more  cruel  and  lingering  death,  occa- 
 fioned  by  hunger.  Hence  tiiis  feemingly  harlh  conduct  in 
 the  oeconomy  of  wafps,  inftead  of  affording  an  exception  tq 
 the  univerfal  benevolence  and  wifdom  of  Nature,  is,  in  reali- 
 ty, a  merciful  inftitution.  Eefides,  as  the  multiplication  of 
 wafps  is  prodigious,  and  as  they  are  a  noxious  race  both  to 
 man  and  other  animals,  and  efpecially  to  many  tribes  of  in- 
 fects, if  their  increafe  were  not  checked  by  fuch  a  dreadful 
 carnage,  their  depredations,  in  a  few  years,  would  annihilate 
 other  fpecies,  break  the  chain  of  Nature,  and  even  prove  de- 
 ftructive  to  man  and  the  larger  animals. 
 
 The  fame  inftin£live  flaughter,  and  probably  for  the  fame 
 reafons,  is  made  by  the  hornets.  Towards  the  end  of  0(Slo- 
 her,  all  the  worms  and  nymphs  are  dragged  out  of  the  nefj: 
 and  killed.  The  neuters  and  males  fall  daily  vi«Sl:ims  to  the 
 cold  ;  fo  that,  at  the  end  of  winter,  a  few  fertile  females  on* 
 ly  remain  to  continue  the  fpecies. 
 
 According  to  the  adopted  plan,  we  fhall  finifli  this  fubjei^ 
 with  fome  obfervations  which  m.ay  have  a  tendency  to  re^on? 
 
$94?  .  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 eile  our  minds  to  a  fyftem  fo  deflru<rtive  to  individuals  of 
 every  fpecies,  that  humanity,  when  not  enlightened  by  a  ray 
 of  philofophy,  is  apt  to  revolt,  and  to  brand  Nature  with 
 cruelty  and  oppreffion.  Nature,  it  muft  be  confefled,  feems 
 almoft  indifferent  to  individuals,  who  periili  every  moment 
 in  millions,  without  any  apparent  compundlion.  But,  with 
 regard  to  fpecies  of  every  defcription,  her  uniform  and  un- 
 interrupted attention  to  the  prefervation  and  continuation  of 
 the  great  fyftem  of  animation  is  confpicuous,  and  merits  ad- 
 miration. Life,  it  fhould  appear,  cannot  be  fupported  with- 
 out the  intervention  of  death.  Through  almoft  the  whole 
 of  animated  Nature,  as  we  have  feen,  nothing  but  rapine, 
 and  the  deftrudlion  of  individuals,  prevail.  This  deftruc- 
 tion,  however,  has  its  ufe.  Every  animal,  after  death,  ad- 
 minifters  life  and  happinefs  to  a  number  of  others.  In  ma- 
 ny animals,  the  powers  of  digeftion,  and  of  affimilation,  are 
 confined  to  animal  fubftances  alone.  If  deprived  of  animal 
 food,  fuch  fpecies,  it  is  evident,  could  not  exift.  The  chief 
 force  of  this  obfervation,  it  is  admitted,  is  applicable  folely 
 to  the  carnivorous  tribes,  ftridlly  fo  denominated.  But,  from 
 the  fa(fts  formerly  enumerated,  and  from  the  daily  experi- 
 ence of  every  man,  it  is  apparent,  that,  perhaps,  no  animal 
 does  or  can  exift  totally  independent  of  food  that  is  or  has 
 been  animated.  Sheep,  oxen,  and  all  herbivorous  animals, 
 though  not  from  choice,  and  even  without  confcioufnefs, 
 daily  devour  thoufands  of  infefls.  This  may  be  one  reafon 
 why  cattle  of  all  kinds  fatten  fo  remarkably  in  rich  paftures  j 
 for  infedls  are  always  moft  numerous  where  the  herbage  is 
 luxuriant.  Nature  is  fo  profufe  in  her  animated  produc- 
 tions, that  no  food  can  be  eat,  and  no  fluid  can  be  drunk,  in 
 which  animal  fubftances,  either  in  a  living  or  dead  ftate,  are 
 not  to  be  found. 
 
 To  this  reafoning  it   may  be   objecSled,  Why  has  Nature 
 eftabliflied  a  fyftem  fo  cruel  ?  why  did  fhe   render  it  necef^ 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  395 
 
 fary  that  one  animal  could  not  live  without  the  deftru6lion 
 of  another  ?  To  fuch  queftions  no  anfwer  can  be  either  giv- 
 en or  expecSled.  No  being,  except  the  Supreme,  can  unfold 
 this  myftery.  Perhaps  it  even  exceeds  the  limits  of  poflibil- 
 ity  to  eftabliHi  fuch  an  extended  fyftem  of  animation  upon 
 any  other  foundation.-  From  the  general  benevolence  of  the 
 great  Creator,  we  are  warranted  to  conclude  that  this  is  real- 
 ly the  cafe.  But  it  is  fruitlefs  to  dwell  upon  fubjedls  which, 
 are  infcrutable,  and  far  removed  beyond  the  powers  of  hu- 
 man intelle6l.  We  fhall  therefore  defcend,  and  endeavour 
 to  point  out  fome  advantages  w^hich  refult  from  this  myfte- 
 rious  inftitution  of  Nature. 
 
 On  this  branch  of  the  fubject,  the  reader  will  eafily  per* 
 ceive  that  much  order  or  conne<5l:ion  is  not  to  be  expected. 
 
 The  hoftilities  of  animals,  mankind  not  excepted,  give  rife 
 to  mutual  improvement.  Animals  improve,  and  difcover  a 
 fuperiority  of  parts,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  enemies 
 they  have  to  attack  or  evade.  The  weak,  and  confequently 
 timid,  are  obliged  to  exert  their  utmoft  powers  in  inventing 
 and  praflifing  every  poflible  mode  of  efcape.  Pure  inflin£l 
 powerfully  prompts  ;  but  much  is  learned  by  experience  and 
 obfervation.  Rapacious  animals,  on  the  contrary,  by  fre- 
 quent difappointment,  are  obliged  to  provide  againft  the 
 cunning  and  alertnefs  of  their  prey.  Herbivorous  animals, 
 as  they  have  little  difficulty  in  procuring  food,  are  propor- 
 tionally ftupld  *,  but  they  would  be  ftill  more  ftupid,  if  they 
 had  no  enemies  to  annoy  them.  Man,  if  his  attention  and 
 talents  were  not  excited  by  the  animofities  of  his  own  fpe- 
 cies,  by  the  attacks  of  ferocious  animals,  and  even  by  thofe 
 of  the  infedl  tribes,  would  be  an  indolent,  an  incurious,  a  dir- 
 ty, and  an  ignorant  animal.  Thofe  of  the  human  race,  ac- 
 ^cordingly,  who  procure  their  food  with  little  or  no  induftry, 
 as  we  learn  from  a  multitude  of  travellers  and  voyagers,  are 
 perfe(ftly  indolent  and  brutifhly  flupid.     Timid  animals  nev- 
 
396  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 er  ufe  the  arts  of  defence,  or  provide  agalnft  danger,  except 
 from  three  caufes,  pure  inftindl,  which  is  implanted  in  their 
 natures,  imitation,  and  experience.  By  experience,  timid 
 animals  are  taught  the  arts  of  evailon.  FHght  is  inflin6live  ; 
 but  the  modifications  of  it  are  acquired  by  imitation  and  ex- 
 perience. 
 
 HoftiUties,  in  fome  infLances,  feem  to  arife,  not  from  a 
 natural  antipathy  of  one  fpecies  to  another,  but  from  a  fear- 
 city  of  food.  The  celebrated  Captain  Cook  informs  us,  that, 
 in  Staten  Ifland,  birds  of  prey  affemble  promifcuoufly  with 
 penguias  and  other  birds,  without  the  one  offering  any  inju- 
 ry, or  the  other  difcovering  the  fmalleft  fymptom  of  terror. 
 In  that  Ifland,  the  rapacious  birds,  perhaps,  find  plenty  of 
 food  from  dead  feals,  fea-llons,  and  iiflies. 
 
 A  profuiion  of  animal  life  feems  to  be  the  general  inten- 
 tion of  Nature.  For  this  purpofe,  when  not  modified  or  re- 
 {trained  by  the  induftry  and  intelligence  of  man,  fhe  uni- 
 formly covers  the  furface  of  the  earth  with  trees  and  vegeta- 
 bles of  every  kind,  which  fupply  myriads  of  animated  beings 
 with  food.  But  the  greatefl  pofli'ole  extentlon  of  life  would 
 ftill  be  wanting,  if  animals  did  not  prey  upon  each  other.  If 
 all  anim.als  were  to  live  upon  vegetables  alone,  many  fpecies, 
 and  millions  of  individuals,  which  now  enjoy  life  and  happi- 
 nefs,  could  have  no  exiftence  j  for  the  produdlions  of  the 
 earth  would  not  be  fufficient  to  fupport  them.  But,  by  mak- 
 ing animals  feed  upon  each  other,  the  fyfl:em  of  animation 
 and  of  happinefs  is  extended  to  the  greatefl:  poffible  degree. 
 In  this  view,  Nature,  inftead  of  being  cruel  and  oppreffive,  is 
 highly  generous  and  beneficent. 
 
 To  diminifli  the  number  of  noxious  animals,  and  to  aug- 
 ment that  of  ufeful  vegetables,  has  been  the  uniform  fcope 
 of  human  induftry.  A  few  fpecies  of  animals  only  are  of 
 immediate  utility  to  man.  Thefe  he  either  cultivates  with 
 care,  or  hunts  for  his  prey.     The  ox,  the  fheep,  the  goat, 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  39? 
 
 and  other  animals  which  are  under  his  peculiar  prote£lion, 
 he  daily  ufes  for  food.  This  is  not  cruelty.  He  has  a  right 
 to  eat  them  :  For,  like  Nature,  though  he  occaiionally  de- 
 ftrovs  domeftic  animals,  a  timid  and  docile  race  of  beings, 
 by  his  culture  and  protection  he  gives  life  and  happinefs  to 
 millions,  which,  without  his  aid,  could  have  no  exiftence. 
 The  number  of  individuals,  among  animals  of  this  defcrip- 
 tion  if  they  were  not  cheriflied  and  defended  by  man,  would 
 be  extremely  limited-,  for,  by  the  mildnefs  of  their  difpofitions, 
 the  comparative  weaknefs  of  their  arms,  and  the  univerfal 
 and  ftrong  appetite  for  them  by  rapacious  quadrupeds  and 
 birds  of  prey,  though  the  fpecies  might,  perhaps,  be  contin- 
 ued, the  number  of  individuals  would,  of  neceility,  be  very 
 fmall. 
 
 There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyflem  of  animal  de- 
 il:ru6lion.  If  the  general  profusion  of  the  animated  produc- 
 tions of  Nature  had  no  other  check  than  the  various  periods 
 to  which  their  lives,  when  not  extinguifhed  by  hoftilities  of 
 one  kind  or  another,  are  limited,  the  whole  would  foon  be 
 annihilated  by  an  univerfal  famine,  and  the  earth,  inftead  of 
 every  where  teeming  with  animals,  would,  unlefs  re-peopled 
 by  a  new  creation,  exhibit  nothing  but  a  mute,  a  lifelefs,  and 
 an  inaflive  fcene.  If  even  a  fingle  fpecies  were  permitted  to 
 multiply  without  difturbance,  the  food  of  other  fpecies 
 would  be  exhaufted,  and,  of  courfe,  a  period  would  be  put 
 to  their  exiftence.  The  herbivorous  and  frugivorous  races, 
 if  not  reftrained  by  the  carnivorous,  would  foon  increafe  to  a 
 hurtful  degree.  Carnivorous  animals  are  the  barriers  fixed 
 by  Nature  to  noxious  inundations  of  other  kinds.  The 
 carnivorous  tribes  may  be  compared  to  the  hoe  and  the  prun- 
 ing hook,  which,  by  diminifhing  the  number  of  plants  when 
 too  clofe,  or  lopping  off  their  luxuriancies,  make  the  others 
 grow  to  greater  perfection.  To  thofe  fwarms  of  infecfls 
 which  cover  the  furface  of  the  earth,  are  oppofed  an  army  of 
 
 B   B  b 
 
39§  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 birds,  an  aiTtlve,  a  vigilant,  and  a  voracious  race.  Hares,  rab- 
 bits, mice,  rats,  are  expofed  to  the  depredations  of  carnivo- 
 rous quadrupeds  and  birds.  The  larger  cattle,  as  the  ox, 
 the  deer,  the  fheep,  &c.  are  not  exempted  from  enemies  : 
 And  man,  by  the  fuperiority  of  his  mental  powers,  checks 
 the  multiplication  of  the  carnivorous  tribes,  and  maintains 
 the  balance  and  empire  of  the  animal  fyftem.  Thofe  fpecies 
 which  are  endowed  with  uncommon  fertility  have  the  great- 
 eft  number  of  enemies.  The  caterpillar,  the  puceron,  and 
 infecls  in  general,  one  of  the  moft  prolific  tribes  of  animals, 
 ftre  attacked  and  devoured  by  numerous  hoftile  bands.  No 
 fpecies,  however,  is  ever  exhaufted.  The  balance  between 
 gain  and  lofs  is  perpetually  preferved.  The  earth,  the  feas, 
 the  atmofphere,  may  be  conlidered  as  an  immenfe  and  varie- 
 gated pafture.  In  this  view,  it  is  moft  judicioufly  cultivated 
 and  ftocked  by  the  numerous  animated  beings  which  it  is 
 deftined  to  fupport.  Every  animal  and  every  vegetable  fur- 
 nifh  fubfiftence  to  particular  fpecies.  Thus,  nothing  of  value 
 is  loft  ;    and  every  fpecies  is  abundantly  fupplied  with  food. 
 
 That  the  general  balance  of  animation  is  conftantly  preferv- 
 ed, we  learn  from  daily  experience.  The  reader,  however, 
 I  prefume,  v/ill  not  be  difpleafed  to  have  fome  examples  of 
 the  modes  employed  by  Nature  to  accomplifli  this  effedl  fug- 
 gefted  to  him. 
 
 After  an  inundation  of  the  Nile,  the  lower  parts  of  Egypt 
 are  greatly  infefted  with  ferpents,  frogs,  mice,  and  other  ver- 
 min. At  that  period,  the  ftorks  refort  thither  in  immenfe 
 multitudes,  and  devour  the  ferpents,  frogs,  and  mice,  which, 
 without  this  dreadful  carnage,  would  be  highly  noxious  to 
 the  inhabitants.  Belon,  a  moft  ingenious  and  faithful  French 
 naturallft,  remarks,  that,  in  many  places,  the  land  could  not 
 be  inhabited,  if  the  ftorks  did  not  deftroy  the  amazing  num- 
 bers of  mice  which  frequently  appear  inPaleftine,  and  other 
 parts  of  the  Eaft  bordering  upon  Egypt.     The  Egyptian  vul- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  399 
 
 Uire,  fays  Haflelquift,  is  of  a  fingular  benefit  to  that  country. 
 It  eats  up  all  the  dung  and  off-falls  in  the  towns,  and  the  car- 
 caffes  of  camels,  horfes,  afTes,  &c.  in  the  fields,  which,  if  not 
 quickly  devoured,  would,  in  that  warm  climate,  by  their  pu- 
 trefcency,  be  produdtive  of  difeafe  and  death  to  the  inhabi- 
 tants. Putrid  carcaiTes,  in  all  countries,  are  both  offenfive 
 to  the  noftrils  and  hurtful  to  health.  But  Nature,  by  various 
 inftruments,  foon  removes  the  evil.  An  animal  no  fooner 
 dies,  than,  in  a  very  fliort  time,  he  is  confumed  by  bears, 
 wolves,  foxes,  dogs,  and  ravens.  In  fituations  where  thefe 
 animals  dare  not  approach,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  towns  and 
 villages,  a  dead  horfe,  in  a  few  days,  is  devoured  by  myriads 
 of  maggots.  In  the  uncultivated  parts  of  America,  ferpents 
 and  fnakes  of  different  kinds  abound.  After  it  was  difcov-- 
 ed  that  fwine  greedily  devoured  ferpents,  hogs  were  uni- 
 formly kept  by  all  new  fettlers.  Caterpillars  are  deflru£tive 
 to  the  leaves  and  fruits  of  plants.  Their  numbers  and  va- 
 rieties are  immenfe.  But  their  devaftations  are  checked  by 
 many  enemies.  Without  a  profufion  of  caterpillars,  moft  of 
 the  fmaller  birds,  efpecially  when  young,  could  not  be  fup- 
 ported.  By  devouring  the  caterpillars,  thefe  birds  preferve 
 the  fruits  of  the  earth  from  total  deftrudlion.  Mr.  Bradley, 
 in  his  general  treatife  of  hufbandry  and  gardening,  has  pub- 
 lifhed  a  letter,  in  which  the  author  oppofes  the  common 
 opinion,  that  birds,  and  particularly  fparrows,  do  much  mif- 
 chief  in  our  gardens  and  fields.  The  fact  is  admitted.  But 
 the  great  utility  of  thefe  birds  is  overlooked  :  For  this  author 
 proves,  that  they  are  much  more  ufeful  than  noxious.  He 
 ihows,  that  a  pair  of  fparrows,  during  the  time  they  have 
 their  young  to  feed,  deftroy,  every  week,  3360  caterpillars. 
 This  calculation  he  founded  upon  adfual  obfervation.  He 
 difcovered  that  the  two  parents  carried  to  the  nefl  40  cater- 
 pillars in  an  hour.  He  then  fuppofes,  which  is  a  moderate 
 fuppofition,  that  the  fparrows  enter  the  neft  only  1 2  houi;s 
 
400  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 each  day,  which  is  a  daily  confumption  of  480  caterpillars. 
 This  fum,  nvultiplled  by  7,  or  the  days  of  the  week,  gives 
 8360  caterpillars  extirpated  weekly  from  a  garden.  The 
 utility  of  thefe  birds  is  not  limited  to  this  circumftance 
 alone  ;  for  they  likewife  feed  their  young  with  butterflies, 
 and  other  winged  infe£l5,  each  of  which,  if  not  deftroyed  in 
 this  manner,  would  be  the  parent  of  feveral  hundreds  of  cater-' 
 pillars.  Thofe  butterflies  and  caterpillars  which  are  covered 
 with  hair  are  rejected  by  fome  birds,  who  prefer  flies  of  a 
 fmoother  and  fmaller  kind.  But  thefe  hairy  fpecies,  it 
 fliould  be  coniidered,  are  the  food  of  the  worms  which  are 
 transformed  into  thofe  fmaller  flies  that  afford  nourifhment 
 to  the  birds  which  reject  the  hairy  caterpillars  and  butter-? 
 flies. 
 
 Shell-fifhes  are  extremely  prolific, and  fo  flrongly  fortified 
 by  Nature,  that  their  increafe,  one  ihould  imagine,  would 
 foon  augment  to  a  degree  that  might  be  hurtful  to  other 
 fpecies.  Their  noxious  multiplication,  however,  is  checked 
 by  numberlefs  enemies.  But  their  mofl  defl:ru6tive  enemy 
 is  the  trochus,  which  is  a  kind  of  a  fea-fnail.  This  animal  is 
 furnifhed  with  a  ftrong,  mufcular,  hollow  trunk,  bordered  at 
 the  extremity  with  a  cartilage  toothed  like  a  faw.  Againft 
 this  inilrument,  which  a6ls  like  an  augre,  no  fliell,  however, 
 hard  or  thick,  is  a  fufHcient  defence.  Thefe  animals,  called 
 trochi,  fix  thomfelves  upon  an  oyfler  or  a  mufcle,  bore  through 
 the  fhell  with  theirtrunk,anddevourtheirpreyat  theirleifure. 
 The  animal  attacked,  if  a  bivalve,  may  open  or  fhut  its  fhell ; 
 bat  no  efforts  of  this  kind  can  be  of  any  avail ;  for  the  tro- 
 chus remains  immoveably  fixed  till  it  has  completely  fucked 
 out  the  vitals  of  its  prey.  In  this  cruel  occupation  the  tro- 
 chus often  continues  for  days,  and  even  weeks,  before  the 
 life  of  the  animal  attacked  is  fully  extinguifhed.  The  ope- 
 ration of  the  trochus  may  be  feen  in  the  fhells  of  many  oyf- 
 ters,  mufcles,  and  other  fhell-fifhes ;  for  their  ihells  are  often 
 pierced  with  a  number  of  circular  holes. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY,  4^| 
 
 The  amazing  fize  and  ftrength  of  the  whale,  one  fliould 
 imagine,  would  fecure  it  from  the  infults  of  every  other  ani- 
 mal. But,  befide  the  annual  depredations  made  by  man  upon 
 the  cetaceous  tribes,  they  are  often  attacked  and  killed  by 
 the  fword-fifh.  The  fnout  of  this  comparatively  fmall  ani- 
 mal is  armed  with  a  long,  hard,  proje^lion  of  bone,  each 
 edge  of  which  is  furnifhed  with  a  number  of  ftrong,  flat,  and 
 iharp  points,  or  teeth,  fome  of  which,  efpecialiy  near  thjg 
 fnout,  are  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  With  this  inftru- 
 ment  the  fword-fifh  boldly  attacks  the  whale*  I  have  often 
 had  the  pleafure,  fays  Pere  Labat*,  of  feeing  their  combats. 
 The  whale  has  no  other  defence  but  its  tail,  with  which  it 
 endeavours  to  ftrike  its  antagonift.  But,  as  the  fword-fiflx 
 is  more  active  and  nimble  than  the  whale,  he  eafily  parries 
 the  blow  by  fpringing  into  the  air,  and  renewing  the  attack 
 with  his  faw-like  inftrument.  AVhenever  he  fucceeds,  the 
 fea  is  dyed  red  with  the  blood  ifluing  from  the  wound.  The 
 fury  of  the  whale  appears  from  the  vehemence  with  which 
 it  lafhes  the  waters,  each  ftroke  refounding  like  the  report 
 of  a  cannon. 
 
 Many  fmall  birds,  and  particularly  the  wren  and  the  tit» 
 moufe,  may  be  feen,  during  the  wanter-feafon,  pecking  at 
 the  buds  and  branches  of  trees  in  our  gardens.  To  thefe 
 little  animals  Nature  has  entrufled  the  charge  of  preventing 
 the  noxious  multiplication  of  thofe  worms  which  feed  upon 
 fruits.  Nature,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  trace  her  opera- 
 tions, does  nothing  in  vain,  or  without  fome  valuable  inten- 
 tion. No  animals  exift  which  are  not  ufeful,  either  by  af- 
 fording nourifhment  to,  or  preventing  the  hurtful  increafe  of 
 other  fpecies. 
 
 Upon  the  whole,  every  animated  being  that  inhabits  this 
 globe  feems  to  be  deflined  by  Nature,  not  for  its  own  indi- 
 vidual exiftence  and  happinefs  alone,  but  likewife  for  the  ex- 
 
 *  NouY,  Voyage,  torn,  6.  page  150- 
 
402  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 iftence  and  happlnefs  of  other  animated  beings.  A  circle 
 of  animation  and  of  deftrudlion  goes  perpetually  round. 
 This  is  the  oeconomy  of  Nature.  Different  fpecies  of  ani- 
 mals live  by  the  mutual  deftruftion  of  each  other.  Even 
 among  individual  men,  the  ftrong  too  often  opprefs  the 
 weak  •,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wife  inftru6t  the  ignor- 
 ant. Thefe  are  the  bonds  of  fociety,  and  the  fources  of  im- 
 provement. 
 
6f  n-atural  history,  403 
 
 CHAPTER  XV. 
 
 5y  _  Of  the  Artifices  of  Animals, 
 
 It  will  be  recolle£ted,  that  many  inftanccs  of  th« 
 dexterity  and  artifices  employed  by  different  animals  in  va- 
 rious parts  of  their  manners  and  oeconomy,  have  been  occa- 
 fionally  mentioned  in  feveral  of  the  foregoing  chapters. 
 This  circumftance,  to  avoid  repetitions,  will  neceffarily  ren- 
 der the  prefent  chapter  proportionally  fhort. 
 
 The  artifices  pracStifed  by  animals  proceed  from  feveral 
 motives,  many  of  which  are  purely  inflinctive,  and  others 
 are  acquired  by  experience  and  imitation.  Their  arts,  in 
 general,  are  called  forth  and  exerted  by  three  great  and  im- 
 portant caufes,  the  love  of  life,  the  defire  of  multiplying  and 
 continuing  the  fpecies,  and  that  flrong  attachment  which 
 every  animal  has  to  its  offspring.  Thefe  are  the  fources  from 
 v/hich  all  the  movements,  all  the  dexterity,  and  all  the  fagac- 
 ity  of  animals  originate.  The  principle  of  felf-prefervation  is 
 inflin£live,  and  flrongly  impreffed  upon  the  minds  of  all  ani- 
 mated beings.  It  gives  rife  to  innumeriible  arts  of  attack 
 and  defence,  and  not  unfrequently  to  furpriling  exertions  of 
 fagacity  and  genius.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  the 
 delire  of  multiplication,  and  to  parental  affe6lion.  Upon 
 this  fubjedl  we  fliall,  as  ufual,  give  fome  examples  of  animal 
 artifice,  which  may  both  amufe  and  inform  fome  readers. 
 
 vYhen  a  bear,  or  other  rapacious  animal,  attacks  cattle, 
 llicy  inffantly  join  and  form  a  phalanx  for  mutual  defence. 
 In  the  fame  circumftances,  horfes  rank  upon  lines,  and  beat 
 off  the  enemy  with  their  heels.  Pontopidon  tells  us,  that 
 the  fmall  Norwegian  horfes,  when  attacked  by  bears,  inftead 
 of  flriking  with  their  hind-legs,  rear,  and,  by  quick  and  re- 
 peated flrokes  v/ith  their  fore-feet,  either  kill  the  enemy,  or 
 
401:  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 oblige  him  to  retire.  This  curious,  and  generally  fuccefsful 
 defence,  is  frequently  performed  in  the  woods,  while  a  trav- 
 eller is  fitting  on  the  horfe's  back.  It  has  often  been  re- 
 marked, that  troops  of  wild  horfes,  when  fleeping  either  in 
 plains  or  in  the  foreft,  have  always  one  of  their  number 
 awake,  who  a6ts  as  a  centinel,  and  gives  notice  of  any  ap- 
 proaching danger. 
 
 Margraaf  informs  us,  that  the  monkeys  in  Brazil,  while 
 they  are  fleeping  on  the  trees,  have  uniformly  a  centinel  to 
 warn  them  of  the  approach  of  the  tiger  or  other  rapacious 
 animals  ;  and  that,  if  ever  this  centinel  is  found  fleeping, 
 his  companions  inftantly  tear  him  in  pieces  for  his  neglect  of 
 duty.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  when  a  troop  of  monkeys  are 
 committing  depredations  on  the  fruits  of  a  garden,  a  centi- 
 nel is  placed  on  an  eminence,  who,  when  any  perfon  ap- 
 pears, makes  a  certain  chattering  noife,  which  the  reft  un- 
 derftand  to  be  a  fignal  for  retreat,  and  immediately  fly  off 
 rmd  make  their  efcape. 
 
 The  deer-kind  are  remarkable  for  the  arts  they  employ  in 
 order  to  deceive  the  dogs.  With  this  view  the  ftag  often 
 returns  twice  or  thrice  upon  his  former  fleps.  He  endea- 
 vours to  raife  hinds  or  younger  ftags  to  follow  him,  and  to 
 draw  off  the  dogs  from  the  immediate  obje£l:  of  their  purfuit. 
 If  he  fucceeds  in  this  attempt,  he  then  flies  ofF  with  re^ 
 doubled  fpeed,  or  fprings  off  at  a  fide,  and  lies  down  on  his 
 belly  to  conceal  hlmfelf.  When  in  this  fltuation,  if  by  any 
 means  his  foot  is  recovered  by  the  dogs,  they  purfue  him 
 with  more  advantage,  becaufe  he  is  now  confiderably  fa- 
 tigued. Their  ardour  increafes  in  proportion  to  his  feeble- 
 nefs  ;  and  the  fcent  becomes  ftronger  as  he  grows  warm. 
 From  thefe  circumftances  the  dogs  augment  their  cries  and 
 their  fpeed  *,  and,  though  the  ftag  employs  more  arts  of 
 efcape  than  formerly,  as  his  fvviftnefs  is  diminifhed,  his  doub- 
 lings and  artifices  become  gradually  lefs  effedual.     No  other 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  405 
 
 i^efoiiree  Is  now  left  him  but  to  fly  from  the  earth  which  he 
 treads,  and  go  into  the  waters,  in  order  to  cut  off  the  fcent 
 from  the  dogs,  when  the  huntfmen  again  endeavour  to  put 
 them  on  the  track  of  his  foot.  After  taking  to  the  water, 
 the  ftag  is  fo  much  exhaufted  that  he  is  incapable  of  run- 
 ning much  farther,  and  is  foon  at  hay,  or,  in  other  words, 
 turns  and  defends  himfelf  againlt  the  hounds.  In  this  fitua- 
 tion  he  often  wounds  the  dogs,  and  even  the  huntfmen,  by 
 blows  with  his  horns,  till  one  of  them  cuts  his  hams  to  make 
 him  fall,  and  then  puts  a  period  to  his  life.  The  fallow-deer 
 is  more  dehcate,  lefs  favage,  and  approaches  nearer  to  the 
 domeftic  ftate  than  the  ftag.  The  males,  during  the  rutting 
 feafon,  make  a  bellowing  noife,  but  with  a  low  and  interrupt- 
 ed voice.  They  are  not  fo  furious  as  the  ftag.  They  never 
 depart  from  their  own  country  in  queft  of  females  ;  but 
 they  bravely  fight  for  the  poffeflion  of  their  miftreffes.  They 
 affociate  in  herds,  which  generally  keep  together.  When 
 great  numbers  are  affembled  in  one  park,  they  commonly 
 form  themfelves  into  two  diftin(Sl:  troops,  which  foon  become 
 hoftile  ;  becaufe  they  are  both  ambitious  of  poffeffing  the 
 fame  part  of  the  inclofure.  Each  of  thefe  troops  has  its  own 
 chief  or  leader,  who  always  marches  foremoft,  and  he  is  uni- 
 formly the  oldeft  and  ftrongeft  of  the  flock.  The  others 
 follow  him  ;  and  the  whole  draw  up  in  order  of  battle,  to 
 force  the  other  troop,  who  obferve  the  fame  conduct,  from 
 the  beft  pafture.  The  regularity  with  which  thefe  combats 
 are  conducted  is  Angular.  They  make  regular  attacks,  fight 
 with  courage,  and  never  think  themfelves  vanquiflied  by  one 
 check  ;  for  the  battle  is  daily  renewed  till  the  weaker  are 
 completely  defeated,  and  obliged  to  remain  in  the  worft  paf- 
 ture. They  love  elevated  and  hilly  countries.  When 
 hunted,  they  run  not  ftraight  out,  like  the  ftag,  but  double, 
 and  endeavour  to  conceal  themfelves  from  the  dogs  by  va- 
 rious artifices,  and  by   fubftituting  other   animals  in  their 
 
 C  c  c. 
 
406  ^YHE   PHlLOSOPHt 
 
 / 
 place.  "When  fatigued  and  heated,  however,  they  take  the 
 tvater,  but  never  attempt  to  crofs  fuch  large  rivers  as  the  (lag. 
 Thus,  between  the  chace  of  the  fallow-deer  and  of  the  flag, 
 there  is  no  material  difference.  Their  fagacity  an1d  inftin£ls, 
 their  fhifts  and  doublings,  are  the  fame,  only  they  are  more 
 frequently  practifed  by  the  fallow-deer.  As  he  runs  not  fo 
 far  before  the  dogs,  and  is  lefs  enterprifing,  he  has  oftener 
 occaiion  to  change,  to  fubflitute  another  in  his  place,  to 
 double,  return  upon  his  former  tracks,  &c.  which  renders 
 the  hunting  of  the  fallow-deer  more  fubjedl:  to  inconvenien- 
 eies  than  that  of  the  flag. 
 
 The  roe-deer  is  inferior  to  the  flag  and  fallow-deer  both 
 in  flrength  and  ftature  ;  but  he  is  endowed  with  more  grace- 
 fulnefs,  courage,  and  vivacity.  His  eyes  are  more  brilliant 
 and  animated.  His  limbs  are  more  nimble  *,  his  movements 
 are  quicker,  and  he  bounds  with  equal  vigour  and  agility. 
 He  is  likewife  more  crafty,  conceals  himfelf  with  greater  ad- 
 drefs,  and  derives  fuperior  refources  from  his  inftincls. 
 Though  he  leaves  behind  him  a  flronger  fcent  than  the  flag, 
 which  increafes  the  ardour  of  the  dogs,  he  knows  how  to 
 evade  their  purfuit,  by  the  rapidity  with  which  he  commenc- 
 es his  flight,  and  by  his  numerous  doublings.  He  delays  not 
 his  arts  of  defence  till  his  flrength  begins  to  fail  him  ;  for 
 he  no  fooner  perceives  that  the  firfl  efforts  of  a  rapid  flight 
 have  been  unfuccefsful,  than  he  repeatedly  returns  upon  his 
 former  fleps  ;  and,  after  confounding,  by  thefe  oppofite  mo- 
 tions, the  dire6lion  he  has  taken,  after  intermixing  the  pref- 
 ent  with  the  paft  emanations  of  his  body,  he,  by  a  great 
 bound,  rifes  from  the  earth,  and,  retiring  to  a  fide,  lies  down 
 flat  on  his  belly.  In  this  immoveable  fituation,  he  often  al- 
 lows the  whole  pack  of  his  deceived  enemies  to  pafs  very 
 near  him.  The  roe-deer  differs  from  the  flag  in  difpofition, 
 manners,  and  in  almofl  every  natural  habit.  Inflead  of  afTo* 
 ciating  in  herds,   they  live  in  feparate  families.    The  two 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  407 
 
 parents  and  the  young  go  together,  and  never  mingle  with 
 ftrangers.  They  are  conftant  in  their  amours,  and  never 
 unfaithful  like  the  flag.  The  females  commonly  produce 
 two  fawns,  the  one  a  male  and  the  other  a  female.  Thefe 
 young  animals,  who  are  brought  up  and  nouriftied  together, 
 acquire  a  mutual  affection  fo  ftrong,  that  they  never  depart 
 from  each  other.  This  attachment  is  fomething  more  than 
 love  ;  for,  though  always  in  comf^any,  they  feel  the  rut  but 
 once  a  year,  and  it  continues  only  fifteen  days.  At  this  pe- 
 riod the  father  drives  ofF  the  fawns,  as  if  he  intended  that 
 they  fliould  yield  their  place  to  thofe  which  are  to  fucceed, 
 in  order  to  form  new  families  for  themfelves.  After  the 
 rutting  feafon,  however,  is  paft,  the  fawns  return  to  their 
 mother,  and  continue  with  her  fome  time  longer  j  after 
 which  they  feparate  forever,  and  remove  to  a  diftance  from 
 the  place  of  their  nativity.  When  about  to  bring  forth,  the 
 female  feparates  from  the  male  ;  and,  to  avoid  the  wolf,  her 
 moft  dangerous  enemy,  conceals  herfelf  in  the  deepeft  re- 
 ceiTes  of  the  foreft.  In  a  week  or  two  the  fawns  are  able  to 
 follow  her.  "When  threatened  with  danger,  flie  hides  them 
 in  a  clofe  thicket  ;  and,  fo  ftrong  is  her  parental  affe<5tion, 
 that,  in  order  to  preferve  her  offspring  from  deitru<5lion,  (he 
 prefents  herfelf  to  be  chafed. 
 
 Hares  polTefs  not,  like  rabbits,  the  art  of  digging  retreats 
 in  the  earth.  But  they  neither  want  inftinct  fufficient  for 
 their  own  prefervation,  nor  fagacity  for  efcaping  their  ene^ 
 mies.  They  form  feats  or  nefls  on  the  furfa.ce  of  the  ground, 
 where  they  watch,  with  the  moft  vigilant  attention,  the  ap- 
 proach of  any  danger.  In  order  to  deceive,  they  conceal  them- 
 felves between  clods  of  the  fame  colour  with  that  of  their 
 own  hair.  When  purfued,  they  firfl  run  with  rapidity,  and 
 then  double,  or  return  upon  their  former  fteps.  From  the 
 place  of  ftarting,  the  females  run  not  fo  far  as  the  males  ; 
 but  they  double  more  frequently.  Hares  hunted  in  the  place 
 
40S  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 where  they  were  brought  forth,  feldom  remove  to  a  great 
 diftance  from  it,  but  return  to  their  form  ;  and,  when  chaf- 
 ed two  days  fucceflively,  on  the  fecond  day  they  perform  the 
 fame  doubUngs  they  had  pra<ftifed  the  day  before.  When 
 hares  run  ftraight  out  to  a  great  diftance,  it  is  a  proof  that 
 they  are  ftrangers.  Male  hares,  efpecially  during  the  moft 
 remarkable  period  of  rutting,  which  is  in  the  months  of  Jan- 
 uary, February,  and  March,  fometimes  perform  jonrnies  of 
 feveral  miles  in  queft  of  mates  ;  but,  as  foon  as  they  are 
 ftarted  by  dogs,  they  fly  back  to  the  place  of  their  nativity. 
 ^  I  have  feen  a  hare,'  Fouilloux  remarks,  '  fo  fagacious,  that, 
 
 <  after  hearing  the  hunter's  horn,  he   ftarted  from  his  form, 
 
 *  and,  though  at  the  diftance  of  a  quarter  of  a  league,  went 
 
 <  to  fwim  in  a  pool,  and  lay  down  on  the  rufhes  in  the  mid- 
 
 <  die  of  it,  without  being  chafed  by  the  dogs.  I  have  feen  a  hare 
 
 <  after  running  two  hours  before  the  dogs,  pufti  another  from 
 «  his  feat,  and  take  pofleflion  of  it.     1  have  feen  others  fwim 
 
 *  over  two  or  three  ponds,  the  narroweft  of  which  was  eighty 
 «  paces  broad.  I  have  feen  others,  after  a  two  hours  chace, 
 «  run  into  a  fheep-fold  and  lie  down  among  them.     I  have 
 
 *  feen  others,  when  hard  puflied,  run   in  among  a  flock  of 
 
 <  fheep,  and  would  not  leave  them.     I  have  feen  others,  af- 
 
 <  ter  hearing  the  noife  of  the  hounds,  conceal  themfelves  in  the 
 «  earth.  I  have  feen  others  run  up  one  flde  of  a  hedge  and 
 «  return  by  the  other,  when  there  was  nothing  elfe  between 
 «  them  and  the  dogs.  I  have  feen  others,  after  running  half 
 «  an  hour,  mount  an  old  wall,  fix  feet  high,  and  clap  down 
 
 <  in  a  hole    covered  with  ivy.     Laftly,   I  have  feen  others 
 
 <  fwim  over  a  river,  of  about  eighty  paces  broad,  oftener 
 ^  than  twice,  in  the  length  of  two  hundred  paces.' 
 
 The  fox  has,  in  all  ages  and  nations,  been  celebrated  for 
 craftinefs  and  addrefs.  Acute  aiid  circumfpedt,  fagacious 
 and  prudent,  he  diverfifies  his  condu£V,  and  always  referves 
 fome  art  for   unforefeen  accidents.     Though  nimbler  than 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  409 
 
 the  wolf,  he  triifts  not  entirely  to  the  fwiftnefs  of  his  courfco 
 He  knows  how  to  enfure  fafety,  by  providing  himfelf  with 
 an  afylum,  to  which  he  retires  when  danger  appears.  He  i? 
 not  a  vagabond,  but  lives  in  a  fettled  habitation  and  in  a  do- 
 meftic  ftate.  The  choice  of  fituation,  the  art  of  making  and 
 rendering  a  houfe  commodious,  and  of  concealing  the  aven- 
 ues which  lead  to  it,  imply  a  fuperior  degree  of  fentiment 
 and  refledlion.  The  fox  poflefles  thefe  qualities,  and  em- 
 ploys them  with  dexterity  and  advantage.  He  takes  up  his 
 abode  on  the  border  of  a  wood,  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
 of  cottages.  Here  he  liftens  to  the  crowing  of  the  cocks  and 
 the  noife  of  the  poultry.  He  fcents  them  at  a  diftance.  He 
 choofes  his  time  with  great  judgment  and  difcretion.  He 
 conceals  both  his  route  and  his  deiign.  He  moves  forv/ard 
 with  caution,  fometimes  even  trailing  his  body,  and  feldom 
 makes  a  fruitlefs  expedition.  When  he  leaps  the  wall,  or 
 gets  in  underneath  it,  he  ravages  the  court-yard,  puts  all  the 
 fowls  to  de^th,  and  then  retires  quietly  with  his  prey,  which 
 he  either  conceals  under  the  herbage,  or  carries  off  to  his 
 kennel.  In  a  fhort  time  he  returns  for  another,  which  he 
 carries  off  and  hides  in  the  fame  manner,  but  in  a  different 
 place.  In  this  manner  he  proceeds,  till  the  light  of  the  fun, 
 or  fome  movements  perceived  in  the  houfe,  admonifh  him 
 that  it  is  time  to  retire  to  his  den.  He  does  much  mifchief 
 to  the  bird-catchers.  Early  in  the  morning  he  vilits  their 
 nets  and  their  bird-lime,  and  carries  off  fucceffively  all  the 
 birds  that  happen  to  be  entangled.  The  young  hares  he 
 hunts  in  the  plains,  feizes  old  ones  in  their  feats,  digs  out 
 the  rabbits  in  the  warrens,  finds  out  the  nefts  of  partridges, 
 quails,  &c.  feizes  the  mother  on  the  eggs,  and  deftroys  a 
 prodigious  number  of  game.  Dogs  of  all  kinds  fpontane- 
 oufly  hunt  the  fox.  Though  his  odour  be  ftrong,  they  often 
 prefer  him  to  the  ftag  or  the  hare.  When  purfued  he  runs 
 to  his  hole  ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  fend  in  terriers  te 
 
410  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 detain  him  till  the  hunters  remove  the  earth  above,  and 
 either  kill  or  feize  him  alive.  The  moft  certain  method, 
 however,  of  deftroying  a  fox  is  to  begin  with  fhutting  up 
 the  hole,  to  ftation  a  man  with  a  gun  near  the  entrance,  and 
 then  to  fearch  about  with  the  dogs.  When  they  fall  in  with 
 liim,  he  immediately  makes  for  his  hole.  But,  when  he 
 comes  up  to  it,  he  is  met  with  a  difcharge  from  the  gun.  If 
 the  fhot  mifles  him,  he  flies  off  with  full  fpeed,  takes  a  wide 
 prcuit,  and  returns  again  to  the  hole,  where  he  is  fired  up- 
 on a  fecond  time  j  but,  when  he  difcovers  that  the  entrance 
 is  fliut,  he  darts  away  ftraight  forward,  with  the  intention  of 
 never  revifiting  his  former  habitation.  He  is  next  purfued 
 by  the  hounds,  whom  he  feldom  fails  to  fatigue  ;  becaufe, 
 with  much  cunning,  he  palTes  through  the  thickeft  part  of 
 the  foreft,  or  places  of  the  moft  difficult  accefs,  where  the 
 dogs  are  hardly  able  to  follow  him  ;  and,  when  he  takes  to 
 the  plains,  he  runs  ftraight  out,  without  either  flopping  or 
 doubling.  But  the  moft  eff^ectual  way  of  deftroying  foxes  is 
 to  lay  fnares  baited  with  live  pigeons,  fowls,  &c.  The  fox 
 is  an  exceedingly  voracious  animal.  Beflde  all  kinds  of  flefli 
 and  fiflies,  he  devours,  with  equal  avidity,  eggs,  milk,  cheefe, 
 fruits,  and  particularly  grapes.  He  is  fo  extremely  fond  of 
 honey,  that  he  attacks  the  nefts  of  wild  bees.  They  at  firft 
 put  him  to  flight  by  numberlefs  flings  ;  but  he  retires  for 
 the  fole  purpofe  of  rolling  himfelf  on  the  ground  and  of 
 crufliing  the  bees.  He  returns  to  the  charge  fo  often,  that 
 he  obliges  them  to  abandon  the  hive,  which  he  foon  uncov- 
 ers, and  devours  both  the  honey  and  the  wax.  Some  time 
 before  the  female  brings  forth,  (he  retires,  and  feldom  leaves 
 her  hole,  where  flie  prepares  a  bed  for  her  young.  When 
 flie  perceives  that  her  retreat  is  difcovered,  and  that  her 
 young  have  been  difturbed,  flie  carries  them  off",  one  by  one, 
 into  a  new  habitation.  The  fox  fleeps  in  a  round  form,  like 
 ^he  dog  5   but,  when  ho  only  repofes  himfelf,  he  lies  on  hi.3 
 
OF    isUTURAL    HISTORY.  4ll 
 
 belly  vvltii  his  hind-legs  extended.  It  is  in  this  iituation  that 
 he  eyes  the  birds  on  the  hedges  and  trees.  The  birds  have 
 fuch  an  antipathy  againfl  him,  that  they  no  fooner  perceive 
 him  than  they  fend  forth  fhrill  cries  to  advertife  their  neigh- 
 bours of  the  enemy's  approach.  The  jays  and  blackbirds, 
 in  particular,  follow  the  fox  from  tree  to  tree,  fometimes 
 two  or  three  hundred  paces,  often  repeating  the  watch-cries. 
 The  Count  de  Buffon  kept  two  young  foxes,  which,  when 
 at  liberty,  attacked  the  poultry  ;  but,  after,  they  v/ere  chain- 
 ed, they  never  attempted  to  touch  a  Ungle  fowl.  A  living 
 hen  was  fixed  near  them  for  whole  nights  -,  and,  though 
 deftitutc  of  vidluals  for  many  hours,  in  fpite  of  hunger  and 
 of  opportunity,  they  never  forgot  that  they  were  chained, 
 and  gave  the  hen  no  difturbance. 
 
 In  Kamtfchatka,  the  animals  called  gluttons  employ  a  fingu- 
 lar  ftratagem  for  killing  the  fallow-deer.  They  climb  up  a 
 iree,  and  carry  with  them  a  quantity  of  that  fpecies  of  mofs 
 of  which  the  deer  are  very  fond.  When  a  deer  approaches 
 near  the  tree,  the  glutton  throws  down  the  mofs.  If  the  deer 
 flops  to  eat  the  the  mofs,  the  glutton  inftantly  darts  down  up- 
 on its  back  and,  after  fixing  himfelf  firmly  between  the  horns, 
 tears  out  its  eyes,  which  torm.ents  the  animal  to  fuch  a  degree, 
 that,  whether  to  put  an  end  to  its  torments,  or  to  get  rid  of  its 
 cruel  enemy,  it  ftrikes  its  head  agalnft  the  trees  till  it  falls 
 down  dead.  The  glutton  divides  the  flefh  of  the  deer  into 
 convenient  po  rtions,  and  conceals  them  in  the  earth  to  ferve 
 for  future  provifions.  The  gluttons  on  the  river  Lena  kill 
 horfes  in  the  fame  manner*. 
 
 There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  rats  in  Kamtfchatka.  The 
 moft  remarkable  kind  is  called  tcgukhitch  by  the  natives. 
 Thefe  rats  make  neat  and  fpacious  nefts  under  ground.  They 
 are  lined  with  turf,  and  divided  into  different  apartments,  in 
 which  the  rats  depofit  ftores  of  provifions  for  fupporting 
 them  during  the  winter.  It  is  worthy  of  remark^  that  the 
 *  Gazette  Literaire,  vol,  x.  page  481. 
 
412  THE    PHILOSOPHt 
 
 rats  of  this  country  never  touch  the  provifions  laid  up  fo^ 
 winter,  except  when  they  cannot  procure  nourifliment  any 
 where  elfe.  Thefe  rats,  hke  the  Tartars,  change  their  habi- 
 tations. Sometimes  they  totally  abandon  Kamtfchatka  for 
 feveral  years,  and  their  retreat  greatly  alarms  the  inhabitants, 
 which  they  confider  as  a  prefage  of  a  rainy  feafon,  and  of  a 
 bad  year  for  hunting.  The  return  of  thefe  animals  is,  of 
 courfe,  looked  upon  as  a  good  omen.  Whenever  they 
 appear,  the  happy  news  is  foon  fpread  over  all  parts  of  the 
 country.  They  always  take  their  departure  in  the  fpring, 
 when  they  aflemble  in  prodigious  numbers,  and  traverfe  riv- 
 ers, lakes,  and  even  arms  of  the  fea.  After  they  have  made 
 a  long  voyage,  they  frequently  lie  montionlefs  on  the  fhore, 
 as  if  they  v/ere  dead.  When  they  recover  their  ftrength 
 they  recommence  their  march.  The  inhabitants  of  Kamt- 
 fchatka are  very  felicitous  for  the  prefervation  of  thefe  ani- 
 mals. They  never  do  the  rats  any  injury,  but  give  them 
 every  alliftance  when  they  lie  weakened  and  extended  on  the 
 ground.  They  generally  return  to  Kamtfchatka  about  the 
 month  of  Odlober  ;  and  they  are  fometimes  met  with  in 
 fuch  prodigious  numbers  that  travellers  are  obliged  to  ftop 
 two  hours  till  the  whole  troop  pafles.  The  track  of  ground 
 they  travel  in  a  fingle  fummer  is  not  lefs  wonderful  than  the 
 regularity  they  obferve  in  their  march,  and  that  inftindlive 
 impulfe  which  enables  them  to  forefee,  %vith  certainty,  the 
 changes  of  times  and  of  feafons. 
 
 Yv'^ith  regard  to  Birds,  their  artifices  are  not  lefs  nume- 
 rous nor  lefs  furprifing  than  thofe  of  quadrupeds.  .The  eagle 
 and  hawk  kinds  are  remarkable  for  the  fharpnefs  of  their 
 fight  and  the  arts  they  employ  in  catching  their  prey.  Their 
 movements  are  rapid  or  flow,  according  to  their  intentions, 
 and  the  fituation  of  the  animals  they  wifh  to  devour.  Rapa- 
 cious birds  uniformly  endeavour  to  rife  higher  in  the  air 
 than  their  prey,  that  they  may  have  an  opportunity  of  dart- 
 ing forcibly  down  upon  it  with  their  pounces.     To  counter- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  4 IS 
 
 a(fi:  thefe  artifices,  Nature  has  endowed  the  fmaller  and  more 
 innocent  fpecies  of  birds  with  many  arts  of  defence.  When 
 a  hawk  appears,  the  fmall  birds,  if  they  find  it  convenient, 
 conceal  themfelves  in  the  hedges  of  brufh-wood.  When 
 deprived  of  this  opportunity,  they  often,  in  great  numbers, 
 feem  to  follow  the  hawk,  and  to  expofe  themfelves  unnecef- 
 farily  to  danger,  while,  in  faft,  by  their  numbers,  their  per- 
 petual changes  or  direction,  and  their  uniform  endeavours  to 
 rife  above  him,  they  perplex  the  hawk  to  fuch  a  degree,  that 
 he  is  unable  to  fix  upon  a  fingle  object  ;  and,  after  exerting 
 all  his  art  arid  addrefs,  he  is  frequently  obliged  to  relinquifh 
 the  purfuit.  When  in  the  extremity  of  danger,  and  after 
 employing  every  other  artifice  in  vain,  fmall  birds  have  been 
 often  known  to  fly  to  men  for  prote<5lion.  This  is  a  plain 
 indication  that  thefe  animals,  though  they  in  general  avoid 
 the  human  race,  are  by  no  means  fo  much  afraid  of  man  as 
 of  rapacious  birds. 
 
 The  ravens  often  frequent  the  fea-fhores  in  queft  of  food. 
 When  they  find  their  inability  to  break  the  fhells  of  muf- 
 cles,  &c.  to  accomplifh  this  purpofe  they  ufe  a  very  ingeni- 
 ous ftratagem  :  They  carry  a  mufcle,  or  other  fhelUfifli, 
 high  up  in  the  air,  and  then  dafli  it  down  upon  a  rock,  by 
 which  means  the  fhell  is  broken,  and  they  obtain  the  end 
 they  had  in  view. 
 
 The  wood-pecker  is  furnifhed  with  a  very  long  and  volu- 
 ble tongue.  It  feeds  upon  ants  and  other  fmall  infects.  Na- 
 ture has  endowed  this  bird  with  a  Angular  infiiiniSb.  It  knows 
 how  to  procure  food  without  feeing  its  prey.  It  attaches  it- 
 felf  to  the  trunks  of  branches  of  decayed  trees  ;  and,  where- 
 ever  it  perceives  a  hole  or  crevice,  it  darts  in  its  long  tongue, 
 and  brings  it  out  loaded  with  infe6ls  of  different  kinds.  This 
 operation  is  certainly  infi:in£live  •,  but  the  inftindl  is  aflifted 
 by  the  inftruclion  of  the  parents  ;  for  the  young  are  no  foon- 
 er  able  to  fly,  than  the  parents,   by  the  force  of  example, 
 
 D  D  d 
 
414  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 teach  them  to  refort  to  trees,  and  to  infert  their  tongue^  in- 
 difcriminately  into  every  hole  or  filTure. 
 
 Ofthe  oeconomy  oiFiJJjesy  as  formely  remarked,  our  know- 
 ledge is  extremely  limited.  But,  as  the  ocean  exhibits  a 
 perpetual  and  a  general  fcene  of  attack  and  defence,  the 
 arts  of  afTault  and  of  evafion  muft,  of  courfe,  be  exceedingly 
 various.  For  the  prefervation  of  fome  fpecies  of  fiflies,  Na-* 
 ture  has  armed  them  with  ftrong  and  fharp  pikes.  Others, 
 as  the  perch-kind,  are  defended  with  ftrong  bony  rays  in 
 their  fins.  Others,  as  the  univalve  fhell-fifh,  retire  into 
 their  fhells  upon  the  npproach  of  danger.  The  bivalves  and 
 maltivalves,  when  attacked,  inflantly  fhut  their  fliells,  which, 
 in  general,  is  a  fufficient  prote(Slion  to  them.  Some  uni- 
 valves, as  the  limpet-kind,  attach  themfelves  fo  firmly,  by 
 excluding  the  air,  to  rocks  and  ftones,  that,  unlefs  quickly 
 furprifed,  no  force  inferior  to  that  of  breaking  the  fliell  can 
 remove  them.  The  fiying-fifii,  when  purfued,  darts  out 
 of  the  water,  and  takes  refuge  in  the  air,  in  which  it  is  for 
 fome  time  fupported  by  the  operation  of  its  large  and  pli- 
 able fins.  The  torpedo  is  furnilhed  with  a  remarkable  ap- 
 paratus for  felf-prefervation  :  It  repels  every  hoflile  attempt 
 by  an  eledlrical  flroke,  which  confounds  and  intimidates  its 
 enemies.  Several  fifhes,  and  particularly  the  falmon  kind, 
 when  about  to  generate,  leave  the  ocean,  afcend  the  rivers, 
 depofit  their  eggs  in  the  fand,  and,  after  making  a  proper  ;;/- 
 diis  for  their  future  progeny,  return  to  the  ocean  from  whence 
 they  came.  Others,  as  the  herring-kind,  though  they  fel- 
 dom  go  up  rivers,  afTemble  in  myriads  from  all  quarters,  and 
 approach  the  fhores,  or  afcend  arms  ofthe  fea,  for  the  pur- 
 pofe  of  propagating  the  fpecies,  and  cherifhing  their  off- 
 spring. "When  that  operation  is  performed,  they  leave  the 
 coafts  and  difperfe  in  the  ocean,  till  the  fame  inflindf  ive  im- 
 pulfe  forces  them  to  obferve  a  fimilar  condudl  next  feafon^ 
 This  migration  of  falmons,  herrings,  and  many  other  fifhes, 
 from  the  ocean  to  the  rivers  or  fhores,  is  of  infinite  advantage 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  415 
 
 ^  mankind.  They  fupply  us  occafionally,  and  in  feme  coun- 
 tries, as  Great-Britain  and  particularly  Scotland,  with  abund- 
 ance of  nourifhing  and  luxurious  food  ;  and,  if  our  fifheries 
 were  once  put  upon  a  proper  footing,  they  would  foon  confti-. 
 tute  one  of  the  mofl:  powerful  incentives  to  induftry,  and  be- 
 come a  great  and  important  fource  of  national  ftrcngth  and 
 profperity. 
 
 The  i?ife&  tribes,  though  comparatively  diminutive,  are 
 not  deficient  in  artifice  and  addrefs.  With  much  art  the 
 fpider  fpins  his  web.  It  ferves  him  the  double  purpofe  of  an 
 habitation,  and  of  a  machine  for  catching  his  food.  With 
 incredible  patience  and  perfeverance  he  lies  in  the  center  of 
 his  web  for  days,  and  fometimes  for  weeks,  before  an  ill-fat- 
 ed fly  happens  to  be  entangled.  One  fpecies  of  -fpider, 
 which  is  fmall,  of  a  blackifli  colour,  and  frequents  cottages 
 or  out-houfes,  I  have  known  to  live  during  the  whole  win- 
 ter months  without  almofl:  the  poflibility  of  receiving  any 
 nourifliment ;  for,  during  that  period,  not  a  fly  of  any  kind 
 could  be  difcovered  in  the  apartment.  If  they  had  been 
 fixed  in  a  torpid  ftate,  like  fome  other  animals,  the  wonder 
 of  their  furviving  the  want  of  food  fo  long  would  not  have 
 been  fo  great.  But  in  the  fevereft  weather,  and  through  the 
 whole  courfe  of  the  winter,  they  were  perfedlly  adlive  and 
 lively.     Neither  did  they  feem  to  be  in  the  leaft  emaciated. 
 
 The  formico-leoy  or  ant-lion,  is  a  fmall  infecH:,  fomewhat  re- 
 fembling  a  wood-loufe,  but  larger.  Its  head  is  flat,  and  arm- 
 ed with  two  fine  moveable  crotchets  or  pincers.  It  has  fix 
 legs,  and  its  body,  which  terminates  in  a  point,  is  compofed 
 of  a  number  of  membranous  rings.  In  the  fand,  or  in  finely 
 pulverifed  earth,  this  animal  digs  a  hole  in  the  form  of  a  fun- 
 nel, at  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  in  ambufh  for  its  prey. 
 As  it  always  walks  backward,  it  cannot  purfue  any  infe£l:.  To 
 fupply  this  defeat,  it  lays  a  fnare  for  them,  efpecially  for  the 
 ant,  which  is  its  favourite  food.  It  generally  lies  concealed 
 under  the  fand  in  the  bottom  of  its  funnel  or  trap,  and  fel- 
 
416  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 dom  exhibits  more  than  the  top  of  its  head.  In  digging  a 
 funnel,  the  formica-leo  begins  with  tracing  a  circular  furrow 
 in  the  fand,  the  circumference  of  which  determines  the  fize  ^ 
 of  the  funnel,  which  is  often  an  inch  deep.  After  the  firft 
 furrow  is  made,  the  anim4  traces  a  fecond,  which  is  always 
 concentric  with  the  firft.  It  throws  out  the  fand,  as  with  a 
 Ihovel,  from  the  fucceffive  furrows  or  circles,  by  means  of  its 
 fquare  flat  head  and  one  of  its  fore-legs.  It  proceeds  in  this 
 inanner  till  it  has  completed  its  funnel,  which  it  does  with 
 furprifing  promptitude  and  addrefs.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
 artful  fnare  it  lies  concealed  and  immoveable.  When  an  ant 
 happens  to  make  too  near  an  approach  to  the  margin  of  the 
 funnel,  the  fides  of  which  are  very  fteep,  the  fine  fand  give? 
 way,  and  the  unwary  aniqial  tumbles  down  to  the  bottom. 
 The  formica-leo  inftantly  kills  the  ant,  buries  it  under  the 
 fand,  and  fucks  out  its  vitals.  It  afterwards  puihes  out  the 
 ^mpty  ikin,  repairs  the  diforder  introduced  into  its  fnare, 
 and  again  lies  in  ambufh  for  a  frefli  prey. 
 
 We  formerly  took  fome  notice  of  that  fpecies  of  fpider 
 which  carries  her  eggs  in  a  bag  attached  to  her  belly.  A 
 fpider  of  this  kind  was  thrown  into  the  funnel  of  a  formica- 
 loe.  The  latter  inftantly  feized  the  bag  of  eggs,  and  endeav- 
 oured to  drag  it  under  the  fand.  The  fpider  from  a  ftrong 
 love  of  offspring,  allowed  its  own  body  to  be  carried  along 
 with  the  bag.  But  the  flender  filk  by  which  it  was  fixed  to 
 the  animal's  belly  broke,  and  a  feparation  took  place.  The 
 fpider  immediately  feized  the  bag  with  her  pincers,  and  exert- 
 ed all  her  efforts  to  regain  the  objecft  of  her  affections.  But 
 thefe  efforts  were  ineffecflual  •,  for  the  formica-leo  gradually 
 funk  the  bag  deeper  and  deeper  in  the  fand.  The  fpider, 
 however,  rather  than  quit  her  hold,  allowed  herfelf  to  be  bu- 
 ried alive.  In  a  fhort  time,  the  obferver  removed  the  fand, 
 and  took  out  the  fpider.  She  was  perfecTtly  unhurt ;  for  the 
 formica-leo  had  not  made  any  attack  upon  her.     But,  f© 
 
or   NATURAL    HISTORY.  417 
 
 ftrong  wa5  her  attachment  to  her  eggs,  that,  though  fre- 
 quently touched  with  a  twig,  fhe  would  not  relinquifti  the 
 place  which  contained  them*. 
 
 When  arrived  at  its  full  growth,  the  formica-leo  gives  up 
 the  bufinefs  of  an  enfnaring  hunter.  He  deferts  his  former 
 habitation,  and  crawls  about  for  fome  time  on  the  furface  of 
 the  earth.  He  at  laft  retires  under  the  ground,  fpins  a  round 
 filken  pod,  and  is  foofi  transformed  into  a  fly. 
 
 *  Oouvres  de  Bonnet,  vol.  4,  page  295.  8vp  edit.  Amfterdom  1769, 
 
 > 
 
418  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER     XVL 
 
 Of  the  Society  of  Animals. 
 
 X.  HE  afTociatlng  principle,  from  which  fo  many- 
 advantages  are  derived,  is  not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies, 
 but  extends,  in  fome  inftnnces,  to  every  clafs  of  animals. 
 
 It  is  remarked  by  Buffon,  and  fome  other  authors,  that 
 the  ftate  of  Nature,  which  had  long  occupied  the  attention 
 and  refearches  of  philofophers,  was  rejected  by  them  after 
 the  diicovery  was  made.  In  the  eftimation  of  the  authors 
 alluded  to,  the  favage  ftate  is  the  ftate  of  Nature.  The  firft 
 natural  condition  of  mankind  is  the  union  of  a  male  and  a  fe- 
 male. Thefe  produce  a  family,  who,  from  neceffity,  or,  in 
 other  words,  from  parental  and  filial  affecSlion,  continue  toge- 
 ther, and  affift  each  other  in  procuring  food  and  fhelter. 
 This  family,  like  moft  families  in  eftabliftied  civil  focieties, 
 feel  their  own  weaknefs,  and  their  inability  to  fupply  their 
 ■wants  without  more  powerful  refources  than  their  feeble  ex- 
 ertions. When  this  wandering  and  defencelefs  family  acci- 
 dentally meet  with  another  family  in  the  fame  condition.  Na- 
 ture, it  is  faid,  teaches  them  to  unite  for  mutual  fupport  and 
 protection.  The  aflbciation  of  two  families  may  be  confider- 
 ed  as  the  firft  formation  of  a  tribe  or  nation.  When  a  num- 
 ber of  tribes  happen  to  unite,  they  only  become  a  larger  or 
 or  more  numerous  nation,  A  ngle  pair,  it  is  true,  if  placed 
 in  a  fi.tuatlon  where  plenty  of  food  could  be  procured  with- 
 out much  labour,  might,  in  a  fucceflion  of  ages,  produce  any 
 indefinitlve  number.  This  is  precifely  the  fituation  in  which 
 Mofes  has  placed  our  firft  parents.  He  has  added  another  cir- 
 cumftance  highly  favourable  to  a  fpeedy  population.  Inftead 
 ©f  the  prefent  brevity  of  human  life,  he  informs  us,  that 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  41  j 
 
 jaen,  In  the  firft  periods  of  the  world,  hved  and  propagated 
 feveral  hundred  years. 
 
 In  countries  thinly  peopled  with  favages,  it  is  extremely 
 probable,  that  focieties  are  formed  by  the  gradual  union  of 
 families  and  tribes.  The  increafe  of  power  arifing  from  mu- 
 tual affiftance,  and  a  thoufand  other  comfortable  circumftan- 
 ces,  foon  contribute  to  cement  more  firmly  the  afTociated 
 members.  Some  of  the  arts  of  life,  beiide  that  of  banting, 
 are  occalionally  difcovered  either  by  accident  or  by  the  inge- 
 nuity of  individuals.  In  this  manner,  gradual  advances  are 
 made  from  the  favage  to  the  civilized  condition  of  mankind* 
 This  is  a  very  fliort  view  of  the  origin  of  fociety,  which  has 
 been  adopted  by  moft  authors  both  ancient  and  modern, 
 though  many  of  them  have  derived  the  afTociating  principle 
 from  very  different,  and  even  from  oppoiite  eaufes,  which  it 
 is  no  part  of  our  plan  either  to  enumerate  or  refute.  Some 
 writers,  as  Ariftotle,  and  a  few  moderns,  implicit  followers 
 of  his  opinions,  deny  that  man  is  naturally  a  gregarious  or 
 afTociating  animal.  To  render  this  notion  confiflent  with 
 the  a6lual  and  univerfal  flate  of  the  human  race,  thefe  au- 
 thors have  had  recourfe  to  puerile  conceits,  and  to  queftion- 
 able  fadls,  which  it  would  be  fruitlefs  to  relate.  Other  writ- 
 ers, pofTeffcd  of  greater  judgment  and  difcernment,  and  lefs 
 warped  with  vanity  and  hypothetical  phantoms,  have  deriv- 
 ed the  origin  of  fociety  from  its  real  and  only  fource,  Nature 
 herfelf. 
 
 That  the  afTociating  principle  is  inflin^llve  hardly  requires 
 a  proof.  An  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  any  human  being,  and 
 to  the  univerfal  condition  of  mankind,  is  fufficient.  Thefe 
 feeUngs,  it  may  be  faid,  are  acquired  by  education  and  habit. 
 By  thefe  eaufes,  it  is  true,  our  focial  feelings  are  ftrengthen- 
 ed  and  confirmed  ;  but  their  origin  is  coeval  with  the  exifl- 
 ence  of  the  firft  human  mind.  Let  any  man  attend  to  the  eyes^ 
 the  features,  and  the  geftures  of  a  child  upon  the  breafl, 
 
4€0  tHE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 when  another  child  Is  prefented  to  It  ;  both  inftantly,  pre- 
 vious to  the  poffibility  of  inftru<Stion  or  habit,  exhibit  the 
 moft  evident  expreffions  of  joy.  Their  eyes  fparkle,  their 
 features  and  geftures  demon ftrate,  in  the  moft  unequivoca- 
 ble  manner,  a  mutual  attachment,  and  a  ftrong  defire  of  ap- 
 proaching each  other,  not  with  a  hoftile  intention,  but  with 
 an  ardent  afFeftlon,  which,  in  that  pure  and  uncontaminated 
 flate  -^f  our  being,  does  honour  to  human  nature.  When 
 farther  advanced,  children  who  are  ftrangers  to  each  other> 
 though  their  focial  appetite  is  equally  ftrong,  difcover  a  mu- 
 tual Ihynefs  of  approach.  This  fhynefs  or  modefty,  how- 
 ever, is  foon  conquered  by  the  more  powerful  inftinfl  of 
 affoclation.  They  daily  mingle  and  fport  together.  Their 
 tiatural  affe£l:Ions,  which,  at  that  period,  are  ftrong,  and  un- 
 biaffed  by  thofe  felfifti  and  vicious  motives  which  too  ofteri 
 conceal  and  thwart  the  intentions  of  Nature,  create  warm 
 friend  {hips  that  frequently  continue  during  their  lives,  and 
 produce  the  moft  beneficial  and  cordial  effects.  When  we 
 thus  fee  with  our  eyes,  that  the  aftbciating  principle  appears 
 at  a  period  much  more  early  than  many  of  our  other  InftintSls, 
 who  will  liften  to  thofe  writers  who  choofe  to  deny  that  man 
 is,  naturally,  an  aflociating  or  gregarious  animal  ? 
 
 With  regard  to  the  advantages  we  derive  from  aflbcia- 
 tlon,  a  volume  would  not  be  fufficient  to  enumerate  them. 
 Man,  from  the  comparatively  great  number  of  inftindls  with 
 Sffhich.  his  mind  is  endowed,  neceffarily  poflefTes  a  portion  of 
 the  reafoning  faculty  highly  fuperior  to  that  of  any  other  ani- 
 mal. He  alone  enjoys  the  power  of  communicating  and  ex- 
 prefling  his  ideas  by  articul:xte  and  artificial  language.  This 
 ineftimable  prerogative  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  greateft  fecon- 
 dary  bonds  of  fociety,  and  the  greateft  fource  of  improvement 
 to  the  human  intelle£l.  Without  artificial  language,  though 
 Nature  has  beftowed  on  every  animal  a  mode  of  exprefl^ng 
 its  wants  and  defires,  its  pleafures  and  pains,  what  an  humil- 
 
OF    NilTURAL    HISTORY.  421 
 
 iating  figure  would  the  human  fpecies  exhibit,  even  upon  the 
 llippofition  that  they  did  aflbciate  ?  But,  when  language  and 
 aflbciation  are  conjoined,  the  human  intclle^V,  in  the  progrefs 
 of  time,  arrives  at  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Society 
 gives  rife  to  virtue,  honour,  government,  fubordination, 
 arts,  fcience,  order,  happinefs.  All  the  individuals  of  a  com- 
 munity condudl  themfelves  upon  a  regulated  fyfhem.  Under 
 the  influence  of  eftablifhed  laws,  kings  and  magiftrates,  by 
 the  exercife  of  legal  authority,  encourage  virtue,  reprefs  vice, 
 and  diffufe,  through  the  extent  of  their  jurifdidlions,  the  hap- 
 py efFe^Sts  of  their  adminiftration.  In  fociety,  as  in  a  fertile 
 climate,  human  talents  germinate  and  are  expanded  ;  the 
 mechanical  and  liberal  arts  flourifh ;  poets,  orators,  hoftori- 
 ans,  philofophers,  lawyers,  phyficians,  and  theologians,  are 
 produced.  Thefe  truths  are  pleafant ;  and  it  were  to  be 
 wiflied  that  no  evils  accompanied  them.  But,  through  the 
 whole  extent  of  Nature,  it  fiiould  appear,  from  our  limited 
 views,  that  good  and  evil,  pleafure  and  pain,  are  neceflary 
 and  perpetual  concomitants. 
 
 The  advantages  of  fociety  are  immenfe  and  invaluable. 
 But  the  inconveniencies,  hardfhips,  injuftice,  oppreffions,  and 
 cruelties,  which  too  often  originate  from  it  are  great  and  la- 
 mentable. Even  under  the  mildeft  and  beft  regulated  gov- 
 ernments, animolities,  jealoufies,  avarice,  fraud,  and  chicane, 
 are  unfortunately  never  removed  from  our  obfervation.  In 
 abfolute  monarchies,  and  particularly  in  defpotic  govern- 
 ments, the  fcenes  of  private  and  of  general  calamity  and  dif- 
 trefs  are  often  too  dreadful  to  be  defcribed.  Notwithfland- 
 ing  all  thefe  difadvantages,  however,  any  government  is  pre« 
 ferable  to  anarchy ;  and  the  comforts,  pleafures,  and  improve- 
 ments, we  receive  from  aflbciating  with  each  other,  overbal- 
 ance all  the  evils  to  which  fociety  gives  rife. 
 
 From  an  attentive  obfervation  of  the  manners  and  oecono- 
 my  of  animals,  fociety  has  been  diftinguifhed  into  two  kinds, 
 
 E  K  e 
 
422  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 which  have  been  called  proper,  and  improper.  1 .  Proper  Sscietiei^ 
 comprehend  all  thofe  animals  who  not  only  live  together  in 
 numbers,  but  carry  on  certain  operations  which  have  a  diredl 
 tendency  to  promote  the  welfare  and  happinefs  of  the  com- 
 munity. 2.  Improper  Societies,  include  all  thofe  animals  wha 
 herd  together,  and  love  the  company  of  each  other,  without 
 carrying  on  any  common  operations. 
 
 1.  Proper  Societies, — It  is  almoft  needlefs  to  remark  that 
 man  holds  the  firft  rank  in  animal  aflbciations  of  this  kind'. 
 If  men  did  not  allift  each  other,  no  operation  of  any  magni- 
 tude, or  which  could  fliow  any  great  fuperiority  of  talents 
 above  thofe  of  the  brute  creation,  could  poffibly  be  efFe^led. 
 A  fingle  family,  or  even  a  few  families  united,  like  other  car- 
 nivorous animals,  might  hunt  their  prey,  and  procure  a  fuf- 
 ficient  quantity  of  food.     They  might  like  the  bear,  lodge  in 
 the  cavities  of  trees  -,  they  might  occupy  natural  caves  m  the 
 rocks  ;  they  might  even  build  huts  with  branches  of  trees 
 and  with  turf,    and  cement  thefe  grofs  materials  with  clay,^ 
 This  lowefl:  and  mofl:  abject  view  of  human  nature  is  not  ex- 
 aggerated.    It  were  to  be  wifhed  that  this  grovelling  condi- 
 tion of  mankind  were  fidlitious,  and  that,  in  many  regions  Of 
 the  globe,   it  did  not,  at  this  moment,  exift.     Thefe  opera- 
 tions of  men,  when  only  acquainted  with  the  mere  rudiments 
 of  fociety,  indicate  parts  little  fuperior  to  thofe  of  the  brutes. 
 Man,  even  in   his  moft  uninformed  ftate,  poflefTes  the    in- 
 ftindls,  or  the  germs,  of  every  fpecies  of  knowledge  and  of 
 genius.     But  they  muft  be  cherifhed,  expanded,  and  brought 
 gradually  to  perfection.     It  is  by  numerous  and  regularly 
 eftablifhed  focieties    alone  that  fuch  glorious  exhibitions  of 
 human  intellecl  can   he  produced.     What  is  the  hut   of  a 
 favage  when  compared  to  the  palace  of  a  prince  ?  or  what  his 
 canoe  when  compared  to  a  firft  rate  fhip  of  war  ? 
 
 .Next  to  the  intelligence  exhibited  in  human  fociety,  that 
 of  the  beavers  Is  the  moft  confpicuous.     Their  operations  in 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  425 
 
 preparing,  faftiloning,  and  traiifporting,  the  heavy  materials 
 for  building  their  winter  habitations,  as  formerly  remarked*, 
 are  truly  aftonifhing  ;  and,  when  we  read  their  hiftory,  we 
 are  apt  to  think  that  we  are  perufing  the  hiftory  of  man  in 
 a  period  of  fociety  not  inconfiderably  advanced.  It  is  only 
 by  the  united  ftrength,  and  co-operation  of  numbers,  that  the 
 beavers  could  be  enabled  to  produce  fuch  wonderful  efFe^ls  ; 
 for,  in  a  folitary  ftate,  as  they  at  prefent  appear  in  fome 
 northern  parts  of  Europe,  the  beavers,  like  folitary  favages, 
 are  timid  and  ftupid  animals.  They  neither  afTociate,  ncr 
 attempt  to  conftrudl  villages,  but  content  themfelves  v;ith 
 digging  holes  in  the  earth.  Like  men  under  the  opprefilon 
 of  defpotic  governments,  the  fpirit  of  the  European  beavers 
 is  deprefTed,  and  their  genius  is  extingulihed  by  terror,  and 
 by  a  perpetual  and  necefiTary  attention  to  individuul  fafety. 
 The  northern  parts  of  Europe  are  now  To  populous,  and  the 
 animals  there  are  fo  perpetually  hunted  for  the  fake  of  their 
 furs,  that  they  have  no  opportunity  of  afTociatlng  ;  of  courfe, 
 thofe  v\'onderful  remarks  of  their  fagacity,  which  they  exhib- 
 it in  the  remote  and  uninhabited  regions  of  North  America, 
 are  no  longer  to  be  found.  The  fociety  of  beavers  is.  a  fo- 
 ciety of  peace  and  of  affecStlon.  They  never  quarrel  or  in- 
 jure one  another,  but  live  together  in  different  numbers,  ac- 
 cording to  the  dimeniions  of  particular  cabins,  in  the  moft 
 perfedt  harmony.  The  principle  of  their  union  is  neither 
 monarchical  nor  defpotic.  For  the  inhabitants  of  the  differ- 
 ent cabins,  as  well  as  thofe  of  the  whole  village,  feem  to  ac- 
 knowledge no  chief  or  leader  whatever.  Their  affociation 
 prefents  to  our  obfervation  a  model  of  a  pure  and  perfect  re- 
 public, the  only  bafis  of  which  is  mutual  and  unequivocal  at- 
 tachment. They  have  no  law  but  the  law  of  love  and  of  pa- 
 rental affecftion.  Humanity  prompts  us  to  wifh  that  it  were 
 poffible  to   eftablifli  republics  of  this  kind  among  mankind. 
 
 *  Sec  above,  page  31^,  &c^ 
 
424t  THE  philosopM' 
 
 But  the  difpofitions  of  men  have  little  affinity  to  thofe  of'  the 
 beavers. 
 
 The  hampfter,  or  German  marmot,  and  fome  other  quad- 
 rupeds of  this  kind,  live  in  fociety,  and  affift  each  other  iu 
 digging  and  rendering  commodious  their  fubterraneous  hab- 
 itations. The  operations  of  the  marmots  have  already  been 
 defcribed  ;  and  the  nature  of  their  fociety,  as  they  continue 
 during  the  winter  in  a  torpid  ftate,  is  either  lefs  known,  or 
 does  not  excite  fo  much  admiration  as  that  of  the  beavers. 
 
 Pairing  birds,  in  fome  meafure,  may  be  confidered  as 
 forming  proper  focieties  -,  becaufe,  in  general,  the  males  and 
 females  mutually  affift  each  other  in  building  nefts  and  feed-r 
 ing  their  young.  But  this  fociety,  except  in  the  eagle  tribes, 
 commonly  continues  no  longer  than  their  mutual  offspring 
 are  fully  able  to  provide  for  themfelves.  None  of  the  feath. 
 ered  tribes,  as  far  as  we  know,  unite  in  bodies,  in  order  to 
 carry  on  any  operation  common  to  the  whole. 
 
 Neither  do  we  learn  from  hiftory  that  fifhes  ever  aflbciate 
 for  the  purpofe  of  executing  any  common  operation.  Many 
 of  them,  as  herrings,  falmons,  &c.  affemble  in  multitudes  at 
 particular  feafons  of  the  year  ;  but  this  affociation,  to  which 
 they  are  impelled  by  inftin<fl,  has  no  common  obje£l ;  for 
 each  individual  is  flimulated  to  a(Sl  in  this  manner  by  its  own 
 motives,  and  no  general  effe£t  is  produced  by  mutual  exer-; 
 tions. 
 
 In  proper  focieties,  each  individual  not  only  attends  to  hl& 
 own  prefervation  and  welfare,  but  all  the  members  co-ope- 
 rate in  certain  laborious  offices  which  produce  many  common 
 advantages  that  could  not  otherwife  be  procured.  In  fome 
 focieties,  the  general  principle  of  affociation  and  of  mutual 
 labour  is  purely  inftlnflive,  though,  in  many  cafes,  individu- 
 als learn,  by  obfervation  and  experience,  to  modify  or  ac- 
 commodate this  general  principle  according  to  particular  ac- 
 cidents or  circumftances  j  fome  examples  of  which  have  al- 
 ready been  given  in  the  chapter  upon  infLin<fl. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  42^ 
 
 The    infe<n:  tribes  furnifh  many  inftances  of  proper  fo- 
 cietles.     The  honey-bees  not  only  labour   in  common  with 
 aftonifhing  affiduity  and  art,  but  their  whole  attention  and 
 afFe6lions  feeni  to  centre  in  the  perfon  of  the  queen  or  {ov- 
 ereign  of  the  hive.     She  is  the  bafis  of  their  aiicciation  and 
 of  all  their  operations.     When  flie  dies  by  any  accident,  the 
 whole  community  are  inftantly  in  diforder.     All  their  labour's 
 ceafe.     No  new  cells  are  conftru6led.     Neither  honey  nor 
 wax  are  coUecSled.     Nothing  but    perfect   anarchy  prevails, 
 till  a  new  queen  or  female  is  obtained.     The  government  or 
 foclety  of  bees  is  more  of  a  monarchical  than  of  a  republican 
 nature.     The  whole  members  of  the  ftate  feem  to  refpccl 
 and  to  be  direcSled  by  a  fingle  female.     This  fad  affords  a, 
 ftrong  inftance  of  the   force    and  wifdom  of  Nature.     The 
 female  alone  is  the  mother  of  the  whole  hive,  however  nu-^ 
 merous.    Without  her  the  fpecies  could  not  be  continued. 
 Nature,  therefore,  has  endowed  the  reft  of  the  hive  with  a 
 wonderful  afFedlion  to  their  common  parent.    For  the  recep-? 
 tion  of  her  eggs  Nature   impels  them  to  conftrudt  cells,  and 
 to  lay  up   ftores  of  provifions  for  winter  fubfiftence.    Thcfe 
 operations  proceed  from  pure  inflinflive  impulfes.    But  every 
 inftincl  neceffarily  fuppofes  a  degree  of  intelle<fl:,  a  fubftratuni 
 to  be  a<Sted  upon,  otherwife  no  impulfe  could  be  felt,  and  of 
 courfe,  no  aclion  nor  mark  of  intelligence  could  poilibly  be 
 produced. 
 
 That  the  intelligence,  the  government,  and  the  fagacity  of 
 bees,  have  been  frequently  exaggerated,  and  as  frequently 
 mifunderftood,  no  real  philofppher,  or  natural  hiftorian,  will 
 pretend  to  deny.  But  the  late  ingenious  Count  de  Bufixjn, 
 through  the  whole  of  his  great  w^ork,  betrays  the  ftrongefb 
 inclination  to  deny  that  brutes,  even  thofe  which  are  efi:ecm- 
 ed  to  be  the  moft  fagacious,  as  the  dog,  the  elephant,  &:c. 
 not  to  mention  the  inferior  tribes,  as  birds,  fifhes,  and  infecls, 
 are  endowed  with  the  fmallefl  portion  of  mind  or  inte^Iei^^ 
 
420  '  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 but  that  all  their  movements,  their  expreflions,  their  derires, 
 their  arts,  are  folely  the  refults  of  mechanical  impulfes. 
 The  Count  is  peculiarly  fevere  in  his  declamations  againft  the 
 iagacity  of  the  honey-bees,  and  the  celebrators  of  their 
 oeconomy  and  manners.  '  The  genius  of  folitary  bees,'  he 
 remarks,  '  is  vaftly  inferior  to  that  of  the  gregariotis  fpecies  ; 
 and  the  talents  of  thofe  which  aiTociate  in  fmall  troops 
 are  lefs  confpicuous  than  of  thofe  that  affemble  in  nume- 
 rous bodies.  Is  not  this  alone  fufficient  to  convince  us,  that 
 the  fieming  genius  of  bees  is  nothing  but  a  refult  oi  pure  me- 
 chaniftriy  a  combination  of  movements  proportioned  to  num- 
 bers, an  efFe6t  which  appears  to  be  complicated,  only  be- 
 caufe  it  depends  on  thoufands  of  individuals  ?  It  muft, 
 therefore^  be  admitted,  that  bees,  taken  feparately,  have  lefs 
 genius  than  the  dog,  the  monkey,  and  moft  other  animals  : 
 It  will  likewife  be  admitted,  that  they  have  lefs  docility, 
 lefs  attachment,  and  l^fs  fentiment  ;  and  that  they  poffefs 
 fewer  qualities  relative  to  thofe  of  the  human  fpecies. 
 Hence  we  ought  to  acknowledge,  that  their  apparent  in- 
 telligence proceeds  folely  from  the  multitude  utiited.  This 
 union,  however,  prefuppofes  not  intelledlual  powers  ;  for 
 they  unite  not  from  moral  views  :  They  find  themfelves 
 together  without  their  confent.  This  fociety,  therefore,  is 
 a  phyfical  aflemblage  ordained  by  Nature,  and  has  no  de- 
 pendence on  knowledge  or  reafoning.  The  mother  bee 
 produces  at  one  time,  and  in  the  fame  place,  ten  thoufand 
 individuals,  which,  though  they  were  much  more  ftupid 
 than  I  have  fuppofed  them,  would  be  obliged,  folely  for  the 
 prefervation  of  their  exiftence,  t®  arrange  themfelves  into 
 fome  order.  As  they  all  a(fi:  againft  each  other  with  equal 
 forces,  fuppofing  their  firft  movements  to  produce  pain, 
 they  would  foon  learn  to  diminifh  this  pain,  or,  in  other 
 ?  words,  to  afford  mutual  affiftance  :  Thev,  of  courfe,  would 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  427 
 
 *  exhibit  an  air  of  Intelligence,  and  of  concurring  in  the  ac- 
 icompHOiment  of  the  fame  end.  A  fuperiicial  obferver 
 «  would  inftantly  afcribe   to  them  \iews  and  talents  which 
 
 <  they  by  no  means  poiTefs  :  He  would  explain  every  action  : 
 
 <  Every  operation  would  have  its  particular  motive,  and  pro- 
 
 <  dixies  of  reafon  would  arife  without  number  ;  for  ten 
 «  thoufand  individuals  produced  at  one  time,  and  obliged  to 
 i  live  together,  mufc  all  aft  in  the  very  fame  mannrr  ;   and, 
 
 <  if  endowed  with  feeling,  they  mud  acquire  the  fame  habits, 
 
 <  alTume  that  arrangement  which  is  the  leaft  painful,  or  the 
 «  moft  eafy  to  themfelves,  labour  in  their  hive,  return  after 
 «  leaving  it,  &c.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  many  wonderful 
 «  talents  afcribed  to  bees,  fuch  as  their  architedhire,  their 
 «  geometry,  their  order,  their  forefight,  their  patrlotifm,  and, 
 «  in  a  word,  their  republic,  the  whole  of  which,  as  I   have 
 
 *  proved,  has  no  exiftence  but  in  the  imagination  of  the  ob- 
 «  ferver*.' 
 
 That  this  mode  of  reafoning  ftiould  have  been  ferioufly 
 adopted  by  fo  great  a  literary  character  as  that  of  the  Count 
 de  Buffon,  is  truly  aftonilhing.  The  fubftance  of  the  argu^ 
 ment  is,  that  ten  thoufand  bees,  or  other  gregarious  infects, 
 when  brought  into  exiftence  at  the  fame  time,  and  in  the 
 fame  place,  muft  necelTarily  by  the  inconvenience  or  pain 
 arifing  from  mutual  prefTure,  aflume  an  arrangement,  and 
 conftrucl  commodious  and  artful  habitations  for  the  whole 
 community.  I  hate  polemical  argumentation  •,  and  philofo* 
 phical  abfurdities  are  the  moft  difficult  to  refute.  If  teil 
 thoufand  butterflies,  or  any  other  flies,  whofe  inftlnftive  or 
 mental  powers  differed  from  thoie  of  the  bee,  fhould  be 
 brought  forth  at  the  fame  time,  and  in  the  fame  place,  which 
 might  be  eaftly  effected  by  colledling  their  chryfalids,  would 
 thefe  animals,  from  the  inconveniencies  or  pain  they  might 
 fuffer  by  being  crouded  together,  affume  a  proper  arrange- 
 •  Tranflation,  vol,  3,  page  285. 
 
42^  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ment,  and  build  habitations  fuited  to  their  mutual  comfort 
 and  prefervation  ?  No.  If  not  allowed  to  efcape  from  their 
 prefent  lituation,  they  would  fuffocate  each  other  •,  and,  if 
 any  of  thern  were  permitted  to  get  out  of  their  prifon,  inflead 
 of  returning,  like  the  bees,  they  would  avoid  it  with  as  much 
 horror  as  a  perfon  who  had  made  his  efcape  from  the  Black 
 Hole  of  Calcutta.  No  declamatory  reafoning,  however  fpe- 
 cious,  will  ever  change  the  nature  of  truth.  Without  fome 
 portion  of  intellect,  or  what  is  fynonimous,  of  mental  powers, 
 how  fliould  the  different  kinds  of  bees  in  the  fame  hive  be 
 induced  to  perform  fo  many  different  operations  ?  While 
 fome  are  bufily  employed  at  home  in  the  conftrudlion  of 
 cells,  others  are  equally  induftrious  in  the  fields  collecting 
 materials  for  carrying  on  the  work.  They  are  no  fooner 
 relieved  from  their  load  by  their  companions  and  fellow-la- 
 bourers in  the  hive,  than  they  again  repair  to  the  fields, 
 and,  v/ith  perfevering  indufi:ry,  fly  from  flower  to  flower 
 till  they  have  amafled  another  load  of  materials,  which  they 
 immediately  tranfport  to  the  hive.  In  this  laborious  ofiice 
 they  perfift  for  many  hours  every  day  when  the  weather 
 permits.  Will  any  man  pretend  to  afTert,  that  thefe,  and 
 many  fimilar  operations  performed  by  bees,  are  the  refults  of 
 mechanical  impulfes*  ?  Are  bees,  when  colleifting  honey, 
 and  the  farina  of  flowers,  at  great  difi:ances  from  the  hive, 
 compelled  by  the  mechanical  preflure  of  multitudes,  to  af- 
 fume  a  certain  arrangement,  and  all  of  them  to  aft  in  the 
 fame  manner  ?  Can  any  animal  be  pofi^efled  of  more  liber- 
 ty, or  be  more  free  from  mechanical  reftraint  than  a  bee  while 
 roaming  at  large  in  the  fields  ?  Befides,  what  fliould  force  a 
 bee,  while  wallowing  in  luxury,  to  return  fo  repeatedly  to 
 the  hive  with  no  other  view  than  to  feed  its  companions,  or 
 to  furnifli  them  with  materials  for  their  work  ?  Here  every 
 idea  of  mechanical  impulfe   is  utterly  excluded.     That  bees, 
 
 *  For  feveral  curious  operations  of  bees,  which  ic  will  be  difficult  to  recon- 
 cile with  any  principles  of  naechanifm,  the  reader  may  confult  page  336,  &c. 
 
OF.NiiTURAL    HISTORY.  429 
 
 as  v\^ell  as  other  animals,  are  aiSluated  by  motives,  or  impulfes, 
 it  is  willingly  allowed.  But  thefe  are  not  mechanical  impul- 
 fes. They  are  the  wife  and  irrefiftible  impulfes  of  Nature 
 upon  their  minds.  If  bees  did  not  affociate,  and  mutually 
 affifl:  one  another  in  their  various  operations,  the  fpecies 
 would  foon  be  annihilated.  Not  one  of  them,  it  is  probable, 
 would  furvive  the  firft  winter.  But  Nature  ever  folicitous 
 for  the  prefervation  of  her  produftions,  has  endowed  their 
 minds  with  an  afTociating  principle,  and  with  inftindts  which 
 ftimulate  them  to  perform  all  thofe  wonderful  operations 
 that  are  neceffary  for  the  exiftence  of  individuals,  and  the 
 continuation  of  the  fpecies. 
 
 What  are  called  the  common  caterpillars  afford  an  inftance  of 
 proper  afTociation.  About  the  middle  of  furamer,  a  butter- 
 fly depoiits  from  three  to  four  hundred  eggs  on  the  leaf  of 
 a  tree,  from  each  of  which,  in  a  few  days,  a  young  caterpil- 
 lar proceeds.  They  are  no  fooner  hatched  than  they  begin 
 to  form  a  common  habitation.  They  fpin  filken  threads, 
 which  they  attach  to  one  edge  of  the  leaf,  and  extend  them 
 to  the  other.  By  this  operation  they  make  the  two  edges 
 of  the  leaf  approach  each  other,  and  form  a  cavity  refem- 
 bling  a  hammock.  In  a  fhort  time,  the  concave  leaf  is  com- 
 pletely roofed  with  a  covering  of  filk.  Under  this  tent  the 
 animals  live  together  in  mutual  friendlhip  and  harmony. 
 When  not  difpofed  to  eat  or  to  fpin,  they  retire  to  their  tent. 
 It  requires  feveral  of  thefe  habitations  to  contain  the  whole. 
 According  as  the  animals  increafe  in  iize,  the  number  of 
 their  tents  is  augmented.  But  thefe  are  only  temporay  and 
 partial  lodgements,  conflrudled  for  mutual  conveniency,  till 
 the  caterpillars  are  in  a  condition  to  build  one  more  fpacious, 
 and  which  will  be  fufficient  to  contain  the  whole.  After 
 gnawing  one  half  of  the  fubftance  of  fuch  leaves  as  happen 
 to  be  near  the  end  of  fome  twig  or  fmall  branch,  they  begin 
 their  great  work.     In  conftrufling  this  new  edifice  or  neft. 
 
 F  F  f 
 
430  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  caterpillars  encrufl  a  confiderable  part  of  the  twig  with 
 white  fiik.  In  the  faaie  manner,  they  cover  two  or  three  of 
 fuch  leaves  as  are  nearefl  to  the  termination  of  the  twig. 
 They  then  fpin  filken  coverings  of  greater  dimenfions,  in 
 which  rhey  inclofe  the  two  or  three  leaves  together  with  the 
 twig.  The  neft  is  now  fo  fpacious  that  it  is  able  to  contain 
 the  whole  community,  every  individual  of  which  is  employ- 
 ed in  the  common  labour.  Thefe  nefts  are  too  frequently 
 feen,  in  autumn,  upon  the  fruit-trees  of  our  gardens.  They 
 are  ftill  more  expolied  to  obfervation  in  winter,  when  the 
 leaves,  which  formerly  concealed  many  of  them,  are  fallen. 
 They  confift  of  large  bundles  of  white  filk  and  wither- 
 ed leaM'es,  without  any  regular  or  conftant  form.  Some  of 
 them  are  flat,  and  others  roundifli  ;  but  none  of  them  are 
 deftitute  of  angles.  By  different  plain  coverings  extended 
 from  the  oppofite  fides  of  the  leaves  and  of  the  twig,  the  in- 
 ternal part  of  the  neil:  is  divided  into  a  number  of  different 
 apartments.  To  each  of  thefe  apartments,  which  feem  to  be 
 very  irregular,  there  are  paflages  by  which  the  caterpillars 
 can  either  go  out  in  queft  of  food,  or  retire  in  the  evening, 
 or  during  rainy  weather.  The  filken  coverings,  by  repeated 
 layers,  become  at  laft  {o  thick  and  flrong,  that  they  refift  all 
 the  attacks  of  the  wind,  and  all  the  injuries  of  the  air,  dur- 
 ing eight  or  nine  months.  About  the  beginning  of  Odlober, 
 or  when  the  froft  firft  commences,  the  whole  community  fhut 
 themfelves  up  hi  the  nefl:.  During  the  winter  they  remain 
 inimoveable,  and  feemingly  dead.  But,  when  expofed  to 
 heat,  they  foon  difcover  lymptoms  of  life,  and  begin  to  creep. 
 In  this  country,  they  feldom  go  out  of  the  neil  till  the  mid- 
 dle or  end  of  April.  Vf  hen  they  ILut  themfelves  up  for  the 
 winter,  they  are  very  fmail  ;  but,  after  they  have  fed  for 
 fome  days  in  fpring  upon  the  young  and  tender  leaves,  they 
 fmd  the  neft  itfelf,  and  all  the  entrances  to  it,  too  fmall  for 
 the  iucreafed  fize  of  their  bodies.     To  remedy  this  inconve- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HiSTORy.  431 
 
 nlency,  thefe  dlfguftlng  reptiles  know  how  to  enlarge  both 
 the  nefl  and  its  pafFages  by  additional  operations  accommo- 
 dated to  their  prefent  ftate.  Into  thefe  new  lodgings  they 
 retire  when  they  want  to  repofe,  to  fcreen  themfelves  from 
 the  injuries  of  the  weather,  or  to  caft  their  fls:ins.  In  fine, 
 after  cafting  their  ikins  feveral  times,  the  time  of  their  dif- 
 perfion  arrives.  From  the  beginning  to  near  the  end  of 
 June,  they  lead  a  folitary  life.  Their  focial  difpofition  is  no 
 longer  felt.  Each  of  them  fpins  a  pod  of  coarfe  brown- 
 ifli  filk.  In  a  few  days  they  are  changed  into  chryfalids  y 
 and,  in  eighteen  or  twenty  days  more,  they  are  transformed 
 into  butterflies. 
 
 Caterpillars  of  another  fpecies,  which  Reaumur  dlftlnguifh- 
 es  by  the  appellation  of  the  procejfwnar^  caterpillar^  live  in  fo- 
 ciety  till  their  transformation  into  flies.  Thefe  caterpillars 
 are  of  the  hairy  kind,  and  are  of  a  reddifh  colour.  They  in- 
 habit the  oak,  and  feed  upon  its  leaves.  AVhen  very  young, 
 they  have  no  fixed  or  general  habitation.  But,  after  they 
 have  acquired  about  one  half  of  their  natural  fize,  they  af- 
 femble  to<Tethcr,  and  conftruft  a  neft  fufUcieat  to  accomm.o- 
 date  the  whole.  The  nefts  of  thefe  caterpilhrs  are  attached 
 to  the  trunks  of  the  oak,  and  are  fituated  fometimes  near  the 
 earth, and  fometimes  feven  or  eight  f^et  above  its  furface.  They 
 confift  of  difl'erent'flrata,  or  layers,  of  filk,  which  are  fpun 
 by  the  united  labour  of  the  whole  community.  Their  figure  js 
 neither  Rriking  nor  uniform.  On  the  part  of  the  oak  to  which 
 they  are  fixed  they  form  a  protuberance  fimilarto  thofe  knots 
 which  are  feen  upon  trees.  This  protuberance  fometimes 
 refembles  a  fegment  of  a  circle,  and  fometimes  it  is  three  or 
 four  times  longer  than  it  is  broad.  Some  of  thefe  nefts  are 
 from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  and  from  five  to  fix 
 inches  wide.  About  the  middle  of  their  convexity,  they  of- 
 ten rife  more  than  four  inches  above  the  furface  of  the  tree. 
 
432  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Between  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  the  layers  of  filk  a  fingle 
 hole  is  left,  to  allow  the  animals  to  go  out  in  queft  of  food, 
 and  to  retire  into  the  nefl  after  they  are  fatiated.  Not  with - 
 ftanding  the  great  bulk  of  thefe  nefts,  and  though  there  are 
 often  three  or  four  of  them  upon  the  fime  tree,  and  never 
 elevated  above  the  height  of  diftincft  vifion,  they  are  not 
 eafily  perceived  j  for  the  filk  of  which  they  are  compofed  is 
 cinereous,  and  refembles,  in  colour,  thofe  mofles  with  which 
 the  trunk  of  the  oak  is  generally  covered. 
 
 The  inhabitants  of  a  neft,  which  are  numerous,  march  out, 
 about  the  fetting  of  the  fun,  to  forage,  under  the  condudl  of 
 a  chief  or  leader,  all  whofe  movements  they  uniformly  fol- 
 low. The  order  they  obferve  is  fingular.  The  firft  rank 
 confifts  of  fingle  animals,  the  fecond  of  two,  the  third  of 
 three,  the  fourth  of  four,  and  fometimes  more.  In  this  man- 
 ner they  proceed  in  queft  of  food  with  all  the  regularity  of 
 difciplined  troops.  The  chief  or  leader  has  no  marks  of 
 pre-eminence  ;  for  any  individual  that  happens  firfl  to  ifTue 
 from  the  neft,  from  that  circumftance  alone,  becomes  the 
 leader  of  an  expedition.  After  making  a  full  repaft  upon 
 the  neighbouring  leaves,  they  return  to  the  neft  in  the  fame 
 regular  order  ;  and  this  practice  they  continue  during  the 
 whole  period  of  their  exiftence  in  the  caterpillar  ftate.  It 
 was  from  this  ftrange  regularity  of  movement  that  Reaumur, 
 with  much  propriety,  denominated  thefe  animals  proccfficnary 
 caterpillars  .  When  arrived  at  maturity,  each  individual 
 fpins  a  filken  pod,  is  converted  into  a  chryfalis,  and  after- 
 wards afTumes  the  form  of  a  butterfly.  This  laft  transfor- 
 mation breaks  all  the  bonds  of  their  former  afTociation,  and 
 the  female  flies  dcpolit  their  eggs,  v/hich,  when  hatched, 
 produce  new  colonies,  who  exhibit  the  fame  oeconomy  and 
 manners.  ' 
 
 There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  caterpillars  who  are  real  re- 
 publicans,  and   whofe  difcipiine,  manners,  and  genius,  are 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  433 
 
 equally  diverfiiied  as  thofe  of  the  inhabitants  of  different 
 nations  and  climates.  Some,  like  particular  favages,  con- 
 ftrucl  a  kind  of  hammocks,  in  which  they  take  their  victuals, 
 repofe,  and  fpend  their  lives  till  the  period  of  their  trani- 
 formation.  Others,  like  the  Arabs  and  Tartars,  conftru^t 
 and  live  in  filken  tents,  and,  after  confuming  the  neighbour- 
 ino-  herbage,  they  leave  their  former  habitations,  and  encamp 
 on  frefh  pafture.  Under  thefe  tents  they  are  not  only  pro- 
 tefted  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather,  but  they  repofe  in 
 them  when  fick,  or  in  a  ftate  of  inactivity.  They  go  out  of 
 their  tents  at  particular  times  in  queft  of  food,  and  bften  to 
 confiderable  diftances  ;  but  they  never  lofe  their  way  back. 
 It  is  not  by  fight  that  they  are  directed  with  fo  much  cer- 
 tainty to  their  abodes.  Nature  has  furniflied  them  with 
 another  guide  for  regaining  their  habitations.  We  pave  our 
 ftreets  with  ftones  ;  but  the  caterpillars  cover  all  their  roads 
 vvith  filken  threads.  Thefe  threads  make  white  tracks, 
 which  are  often  more  than  a  fixth  of  an  inch  wide.  It  is 
 by  following  thefe  filken  tracks,  however  complicated,  that 
 the  caterpillars  never  mifs  their  nefls.  If  the  road  is  broke 
 by  a  man's  finger  drawn  along  it,  or  by  any  other  accident, 
 the  caterpillars  are  greatly  embarrafTed.  They  flop  fudden- 
 ly  at  the  interrupted  fpace,  and  exhibit  every  mark  of  fear 
 and  of  difHdence.  Here  the  march  flops,  till  an  individual; 
 more  bold  or  more  impatient  than  his  companions,  travcrfes 
 the  gap.  In  his  pailage,  he  leaves  behind  him  a  thread  of 
 filk,  which  ferves  as  a  bridge  or  condu6lor  to  the  next  that 
 follows.  By  the  progreflion  of  numbers,  each  of  which 
 fpins  a  thread,  the  breach  is  foon  repaired.  We  cannot  fup- 
 pofe  that  thefe  flupid  animals  cover  their  roads  to  prevent 
 their  wandering.  But  they  never  wander,  becaufe  their 
 roads  are  covered  with  filk.  In  this,  as  well  as  in  many 
 other  inflances.  Nature  obliges  animals  to  embrace  the  mod 
 effedlual  means  of   felf-prefcrvation,  and   even  of  conve- 
 
434  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 niency,  without  their  perceiving  the  utility  of  their  own  ope- 
 rations. The  caterpillars,  whofe  manners  we  have  been  de- 
 fcribing,  fpin  alraoft  continually,  becaufe  they  are  continual- 
 ly obliged  to  evacuate  a  filky  matter,  fecreted  from  their 
 food  by  veflels  deftined  for  that  purpofe,  and  included  in 
 their  inteftincs.  In  obeying  this  call  of  Nature,  they  effec- 
 tually fecure  their  retreat  to  their  neft,  and  perhaps  their 
 exigence.  It  may  be  faid,  that  caterpillars  aflbciate  for  no 
 other  reafon  but  becaufe  they  are  all  produced  at  the  fame 
 time  from  eggs  depofited  near  each  other.  But  many  other 
 fpecies  of  caterpillars,  who  are  brought  to  life  in  the  very 
 fame  circumftanccs,  never  aflbciate  or  acb  in  concert  in  the 
 performance  of  any  mutual  labour.  The  filk-worms  alTord 
 a  limilar  example.  It  is  true,  they  fpontaneoufly  remain 
 aflembled  in  the  fame  place,  which  is  of  great  advantage  to 
 manufacture.  But  the  individuals  of  other  fpecies  difperfe 
 immediately  after  birth,  and  never  re-unite.  Spiders,  when 
 newly  hatched,  begin  with  fpinning  a  web  in  common  j  but 
 they  foon  terminate  this  aflx)ciation  by  devouring  one  another. 
 
 As  caterpillars  do  not  engender  till  they  arrive  at  the  but- 
 terfly ftate,  their  aflx)ciations  have  no  refpect  to  the  rearing 
 or  education  of  young.  Self-prefervation  and  individual 
 conveniency  are  the  only  bonds  of  their  union.  A  perfe^ 
 equality  reigns  among  them,  without  any  dilliincStion  of  fex, 
 or  even  of  fize.  Each  takes  his  (liare  of  the  common  labour-, 
 and  the  whole  fociety,  which  conftitutes  but  one  family,  is 
 the  genuine  iiTuc  of  the  fame  mother. 
 
 The  aflTociatlon  and  oeconomy  of  the  common  ants  merit 
 fome  attention.  With  wonderful  induftry  and  a£livlty  they 
 collect  materials  for  the  confl:ru<fl:Ion  of  their  ned.  They 
 unite  in  numbers,  and  afiift  each  other  in  excavating  the 
 earth,  and  in  tranfporting  to  their  habitation  bits  of  ftraw, 
 fmall  pieces  of  wood,  and»other  fubftanc'es  of  a  fimilar  kind, 
 which  they  employ   in  lining  and  fupporting  their  fabterra- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HiSTaRY.  435 
 
 neous  galleries.  The  form  of  tlielr  neft  or  hill  is  fomcwhat 
 conical,  and,  of  courfe,  the  water,  when  it  rains,  runs  eafily 
 off,  without  penetrating  their  abode.  "CTnder  this  hill  there 
 are  many  galleries  or  paiTages  which  communicate  with  each 
 other,  and  refemble  the  ftreets  of  a  fmall  city. 
 
 The  ants  not  only  afibciate  for  the  purpofe  of  conftrud- 
 ing  a  common  habitation,  but  for  cherifhing  and  protecting 
 their  offspring.  Every  perfon  muft  have  often  obferved, 
 when  part  of  a  neft  is  fuddenly  expofed,  their  extreme  fo- 
 licitude  for  the  prefervation  of  their  chryfalids  or  nymphs, 
 which  often  exceed  the  lize  of  the  animals  themfelves. 
 With  amazing  dexterity  and  c.uicknefs  the  ants  tranfport 
 their  nymphs  into  the  fubterraneous  galleries  of  the  neft, 
 and  place  them  beyond  the  reach  of  any  common  danger. 
 The  courage  and  fortitude  with  which  they  defend  their 
 young  is  no  lefs  aftonifhing.  The  body  of  an  ant  was  cut 
 through  the  middle,  and,  after  fuffering  this  cruel  treatment, 
 fo  ftrong  was  its  parental  affecStion,  with  its  head,  and  one 
 half  of  the  body,  it  carried  oft*  eight  or  ten  nymphs.  They 
 go  to  great  diftances  in  fearch  of  proviftons.  Their  roads, 
 which  are  often  winding  and  involved,  all  terminate  in  the 
 neft. 
 
 The  wifdom  and  forelight  of  the  ants  have  been  celebrat- 
 ed from  the  remotcft  antiquity.  It  has  been  afterted  and  be- 
 lieved, for  near  three  thoufand  years,  that  they  lay  up  maga- 
 zines of  proviftons  for  the  winter,  and  that  they  even  cut  oft* 
 the  germ  of  the  grain  to  prevent  it  from  fiiootlng.  But  the 
 ancients  were  never  famed  for  accurate  refearches  into  the 
 nature  and  operations  of  infe£ts.  Thefe  fuppofed  magazines 
 could  be  of  no  ufe  to  the  ants  •,  for,  like  the  marmots  and 
 dormice,  they  fleep  during  the  winter.  A  very  moderate 
 degree  of  cold  is  fufiicient  to  render  them  torpid.  In  faCt, 
 it  is  now  well  known  that  they  amafs  no  magazines  of  pro- 
 vifions.     The  grains  v/hich,  with  fo  much  induftry  and  la- 
 
436  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 hour,  they  carry  to  their  neft,  are  not  intended  to  be  food  to 
 the  animals,  but,  like  the  bits  of  ftraw  and  wood,  are  em- 
 ployed as  materials  in  the  conftru6lion  of  their  habitation. 
 
 2.  Imprcper  Societies.  Mahy  animals  are  gregarious,  though 
 they  unite  not  with  a  view  to  any  joint  operation,  fuch  as 
 conftrj(Sling  common  habitations,  or  mutually  and  indifcrim- 
 inately  nourifhing  and  protefling  the  offspring  produced  by 
 the  whole  fociety.  But,  even  among  animals  of  this  defcrip- 
 tion,  there  are  motives  or  bonds  of  alTociation,  and,  in  many 
 inftances,  they  mutually  affift  and  defend  each  other  from 
 hoftile  alTaults. 
 
 The  ox  is  a  gregarious  animal.  When  a  herd  of  oxen  are 
 pafturing  in  a  meadow,  if  a  wolf  makes  his  appearance,  they 
 inftantly  form  themfelves  in  battle  array,  and  prefent  their 
 united  horns  to  the  enemy.  This  warlike  difpolition  often 
 intimidates  the  wolf,  and  obliges  him  to  retire. 
 
 In  winter,  the  hinds  and  young  flags  affociate,  and  form 
 herds,  which  are  always  more  numerous  in  proportion  to 
 the  feverity  of  the  weather.  One  bond  of  their  fociety  feems 
 to  be  the  advantage  of  mutual  warmth  derived  from  each 
 other's  bodies.  In  fpring  they  difperfe,  and  the  hinds  con- 
 ceal themfelves  in  the  forefts,  where  they  bring  forth  their 
 young.  The  young  ftags,  however,  continue  together  j  they 
 love  to  brovv  fe  in  company  •,  and  heceflity  alone  forces  them 
 to  feparate. 
 
 The  Count  de  Buffon  reprefents  (heep  as  ftupid  creatures, 
 which  are  incapable  of  defending  themfelves  againft  the  at- 
 tacks of  any  rapacious  animal.  He  maintains  that  the  race 
 muft  long  ago  have  been  extinguiflied,  if  man  had  not  tak- 
 en them  under  his  immediate  prote<Stion.  But  Nature  has 
 furnifhed  every  fpecies  of  animated  beings  with  weapons 
 and  arts  of  defence  which  are  fufficient  for  individual  prefer- 
 vation  as  well  as  the  continuation  of  the  kind-  Sheep  are 
 endowed  with  a  ftrong  afTociating  principle.     When  threat- 
 
©F    NATURAL    Hr STORY.  43? 
 
 eneci  with  an  attack,  like  foldlers,  they  form  a  line  of  battle, 
 and  boldly  face  the  enemy.  In  a  natural  ftate,  the  rams 
 cortftitute  one  half  of  the  flock.  They  join  together  and 
 form  the  front.  When  prepared  in  this  manner  for  repel- 
 ling an  afTault,  no  lion  or  tiger  can  refift  their  united  impet- 
 uofity  and  force. 
 
 A  family  of  hogs,  when  in  a  ilate  of  natural  liberty,  never 
 feparate  till  the  young  have  acquired  flrength  fufficient  to 
 repel  the  wolf.  "When  a  wolf  threatens  an  attack,  the  whole 
 family  unite  their  forces,  and  bravely  defend  each  other. 
 
 The  wild  dogs  of  Africa  hunt  in  packs,  and  carry  on  a 
 perpetual  war  againft  other  rapacious  animals.  The  jackals 
 of  Ada  and  Africa  likewife  hunt  in  packs.  But,  though  ani- 
 mals of  this  kind  mutually  affijft  each  other  in  killing  prey, 
 individual  advantage  is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only  bond  of 
 this  temporary  union. 
 
 Another  kind  of  fociety  is  obfervable  among  domeftic  ani- 
 liials.  Horfes  and  oxen,  when  deprived  of  companions  of 
 their  own  fpecies,  afTociate,  and  difcover  a  vifible  attachment. 
 A  dog  and  an  ox,  or  a  dog  and  a  cow,  when  placed  in  cer- 
 tain circumftances,  though  the  fpecies  are  remote,  and  even 
 hoftile,  acquire  a  ftrong  afFe<Stion  for  each  other.  The  fame 
 kind  of  aflbciation  takes  place  between  dogs  and  cats,  be- 
 tween cats  and  birds,  &c.  If  domeftic  animals  had  a  ftrong 
 averfion  to  one  another,  man  could  not  derive  fo  many  ad- 
 vantages from  them.  Horfes,  oxen,  flieep,  Sec.  by  browfing 
 promifcuoufly  together,  augment  and  meliorate  the  common 
 pafture.  By  living  under  the  fame  roof,  and  feeding  in  com- 
 mon, this  afTociating  principle  is  ftrengthened  and  modified 
 by  habit,  which  often  commences  immediately  after  birth. 
 A  Angle  horfe  confined  in  an  inclofure,  difcovers  every  mark 
 of  uneaftnefs.  He  becomes  reftlefs,  neglects  his  food,  and 
 breaks  through  every  fence  in  order  to  join  his  companions 
 
 G    G    g 
 
438  '  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 in  a  neighbouring  field.     Oxen  and  cows  will  not  fatten  in 
 the  fineft  pafture,  if  they  are  deprived  of  fociety. 
 
 From  the  fa£ls  and  remarks  contained  in  this  chapter,  it 
 ieems  to  be  evident,  that  the  principle  of  aflbciation  in  man, 
 as  well  as  in  many  other  animals,  is  purely  inftindlive  *,  and 
 that  this  principle  may  be  flrengthened  and  modified  by  the 
 numberlefs  advantages  derived  from  it,  by  imitation j  by  hab- 
 it, and  by  many  other  circumftances. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  439 
 
 CHAPTER     XVII. 
 
 Of  the  Docility  of  Animals. 
 
 (Jf  all  animals  capable  of   culture,  man  is  the 
 fnoft  duMe.     By  inftrudlion,  imitation,  and  habit,  his  mind 
 may  be  moulded  into  any  form.     It  may  be  exalted  by  fci- 
 ence  and  art  to  a  degree  of  knowledge,  of  which  the  vulgar 
 and  uninformed  have  not  the  moft  diftant  conception.    The 
 reverfe  is  melancholy.     When  the  human  mind  is  left  to  its 
 own  operations,  and  deprived  of  almoft  every  opportunity  of 
 focial  information,  it  finks  fo  low,  that  it  is  nearly  rivalled  by 
 the  moft  fagacious  brutes.     The  natural  fuperiority  of  man 
 over  the  other  animals,  as  formerly  remarked,  is  a  necefiary 
 refult  of  the  great  number  of  inftindls  with  which  his  mind 
 is  endowed.      Thefe  inftindts  are  gradually  unfolded,  and 
 produce,  after  a  mature  age,  reafon,  abflra6lion,  invention, 
 fcience.     To  confirm  this  truth,  it  would  be  fruitlefs  to  have 
 recourfe  to  metaphyfical  arguments,  which  generally  miflead 
 and  bewilder  human  reafon.     A  diligent   attention  to  the 
 actual  operations  of  Nature  is  fufHcient  to  convince  any  mind 
 that    is  not  warped  and  deceived  by  popular  prejudice,  the 
 fetters  of  authorities,  as  they  are  called,  whether  ancient  or 
 modern,  or  by  the  vanity  of  fuppcrting  preconceived  opinions 
 and  favourite  theories.     Let  any  mxan  reflect  on  the  progrefs 
 of  children  from  birth  to  manhood.      At  firfl,  their  inflindls 
 are  limited  to  obfcure  fenfations,  and  to  the  performance  of 
 a  few  corporeal  actions,  to  which  they  are  prompted,  or  rath- 
 er compelled,  by  certain  Simulating  impulfes  unneccflary  to 
 be  mentioned.     In  a  few  months,  their  fenfations  are  per- 
 ceived to  be  more  diftinct,  their  bodily  actions  are  better  di- 
 j:'e<rted5  "cw  infiincls  are  unfolded,  and  they  aflume  a  greater 
 
jt^O  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 appearance  of  rationality  and  of  mental  capacity.  When  ftili 
 farther  advanced,  and  after  they  have  acquired  fome  ufe  of 
 language,  and  fome  knowledge  of  natilral  obje£l:s,  they  begin 
 to  reafon  ;  but  their  reafonings  are  feeble,  and  often  pre- 
 pofterous.  In  this  manner  they  uniformly  proceed  in  im- 
 provement till  they  are  a(Sl"uated  by  the  laft  infi:in£V,  at  or 
 near  the  age  of  puberty.  After  this  period,  they  reafon  with 
 fome  degree  of  perfpicuity  and  juftnefs.  But,  though  their 
 whole  inftincSts  are  now  unfolded  and  in  a£lion,  every  power 
 of  their  minds  requires,  previous  to  its  utmoft  exertions,  to 
 be  agitated  and  polifhed  by  an  examination  of  a  thoufand 
 natural  and  artificial  objects,  by  the  experience  and  obferva- 
 tions  of  thofe  with  whom  they  afTociate,  by  pubhc  or  private 
 inftrucftion,  by  ftudying  the  writings  of  their  predeceflbrs 
 and  contemporaries,  and  by  their  own  refleiStions,  till  they  ar- 
 rive at  the  age  of  thirty-five.  Previous  to  that  period,  much 
 learning  may  have  been  acquired,  much  genius  may  have 
 been  exerted  ;  but,  before  that  time  of  life,  judgment,  ab- 
 ftra^lion,  and  the  reafoning  faculty,  are  not  fully  matured. 
 This  progrefs  is  the  genuine  operation  of  Nature,  and  the 
 gradual  fource  of  human  fagacity  and  mental  powers.  The 
 fame  progrefs  is  to  be  obferved  in  the  powers  of  the  body. 
 It  arrives,  indeed,  fooner  at  perfe6lion  than  the  mind.  But, 
 if  the  progrefs  of  the  mind  greatly  preceded  that  of  the  body, 
 what  a  miferable  and  aukvvard  figure  would  human  beings, 
 at  an  early  period  of  their  exiflence,  exhibit  ?  A<Stive  and 
 vigorous  minds,  ftimulated  to  command  what  the  organs  of 
 their  bodies  vv^ere  unable  to  obey,  would  produce  peeviih- 
 nefs,  anger,  regret,  and  every  diftrefling  paflion. 
 
 The  bodies  of  men,  though  not  fo  ductile  as  their  minds, 
 are  capable,  when  properly  managed  by  early  culture,  of 
 wonderful  exertions.  Men,  accuftomed  to  live  in  polilhed 
 focieties,  have  little  or  no  idea  of  the  a<Slivity,  the  courage, 
 the  patience,  and  the  perfevering  induflry  of  favages,  when 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  iil 
 
 iimply  occupied  in  hunting  wild  animals  for  food  to  them- 
 felves  and  their  families.  The  hunger,  the  fatigue,  the  hard- 
 fhips,  which  they  not  only  endure,  but  defpife  with  fortitude, 
 would  amaze  and  terrify  the  imagination  of  any  civilized  Eu- 
 ropean. 
 
 Befide  man,  many  other  animals  arc  capable  of  being  in- 
 ftrudted.  The  ape-kind,  and  efpeciaily  the  larger  fpecies  of 
 them,  imitate  the  actions  of  men  without  any  inftru6lion. 
 This  imitation  they  are  enabled  to  perform  with  the  greater 
 exadtnefs,  on  account  of  their  flrudture.  The  orang-outang, 
 a  native  of  the  fouthern  regions  of  Africa  and  India,  is  as  tall 
 and  as  ftrong  as  a  man.  He  has  no  tail.  His  face  is  flat. 
 His  arms,  hands,  toes,  and  nails,  are  perfe(SLly  fimilar  to  ours. 
 He  walks  conftantly  on  end  ;  and  the  features  of  his  vifage 
 make  a  near  approach  to  thofe  of  the  human  countenance. 
 He  has  a  beard  on  his  chin,  and  no  more  hair  on  his  body 
 than  men  have  when  in  a  flate  of  nature.  He  knows  how 
 to  bear  arms,  to  attack  his  enemies  with  ftones,  and  to  de- 
 fend himfelf  with  a  club.  Of  all  the  apes,  the  orang-outang, 
 or  luild  mati,  as  he  is  called  by  the  Indians,  has  the  greateft 
 refemblance  to  a  man  both  in  the  ftruclure  of  his  body  and 
 in  his  manners.  There  are  two  fuppofed  fpecies  of  orang- 
 outang, a  larger  and  a  fmaller.  The  latter  has  been  feveral 
 times  brought  to  Europe,  and  accurate  defcriptions  have 
 been  given  both  to  his  external  and  internal  parts.  Eut, 
 with  regard  to  the  larger  kind,  who  is  faid  to  exceed  the  or- 
 dinary ftature  of  man,  we  have  nothing  to  rely  on  but  the 
 relations  of  travellers.  Bontius,  who  was  the  chief  Phyfician 
 in  Batavia,  afhrms  exprefsly,  that  he  faw,  with  admiration, 
 feveral  individuals  of  this  fpecies  walking  on  their  two  feet. 
 Among  others,  he  remarked  a  female,  who  feemed  to  have  a 
 fenfe  of  modefty,  who  covered  her  face  Vvith  her  hands  when 
 men  approached  her  with  whom  fhe  was  unacquainted,  who 
 wept,  groaned,  and  feemed  to  want  nothing  of  humanity  bul: 
 
442  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  faculty  of  fpeech*.  Many  other  furprifing  a^ftlons  per- 
 formed by  this  animal  are  recorded  by  different  voyagers, 
 which  it  is  unneceffary  to  repeat,  efpecially  as  we  have  a  fuf- 
 ficient  number  of  facls  attefted  by  unequivocal  evidence. 
 The  Count  de  Buffon,  with  much  probability,  confiders  what 
 zre  called  the  large  and  fmall  orang-outangs  to  be  the  fame 
 fpecies  of  animals ;  for  thofe  hitherto  brought  to  Europe 
 were  very  young,  and  had  not  acquired  one  half  of  their 
 flature. 
 
 *  The  orang-outang,'  fays  Buffon,  <  which  I  faw,  walked 
 '  always  on  two  feet,  even  when  carrying  things  of  conlider- 
 '  able  weight.     His  air  was  melancholy,  his  movements  meaf- 
 
 <  ured,  his  difpofitions  gentle,  and  very  different  from  thofe 
 ^  of  other  apes.     He  had  neither  the  impatience  of  the  Bar^ 
 
 *  bary  ape,  the  malicioufnefs  of  the  baboon,  nor.  the  extrav- 
 ^  agance  of  the  monkeys.  It  may  be  alledged  that  he  had 
 «  the  benefit  of  inftruction  ;  but  the  apes,  which  I  fhall  com- 
 «  pare  with  him,  were  educated  in  the  fame  manner.  Signs 
 ^  and  words  were  alone  fufficient  to  make  our  orang-outang 
 ^  acl  :  But  the  baboon  required  a  cudgel,  and  the  other  apes 
 
 <  a  whip  1,   for  none  of  them  would  obey  without  blows.     I 
 
 <  have  {een  this  animal  prefent  his  hand  to  conduct  the  peo- 
 '  pie  who  came  to  vifit  him,  and  walk  as  gravely  along 
 ^  with  them  as  if  he  had  formed  a  part  of  the  company.  I 
 «  have  fcen  him  fit  dovm  at  a  table,  unfold  his  towel,  wipe 
 f  his  lips,  ufe  a  fpoon  or  a  fork  to  carry  the  victuals  to  his 
 i  mouth,  pour  his  liquor  into  a  glafs,  and  make  it  touch  that 
 ^  of  the  perfon  who  drank  along  with  him.     When  invited 
 
 *  to  drink  tea,  he  brought  a  cup  and  a  faucer,  placed  them  on 
 
 *  the  table,  put  in  fugar,  poured  out  the  tea,  and  allowed  it 
 ?  to  cool  before  he  drank  it.     All  thefe  a£lions  he  pcrform- 
 
 /  pd  without  any  other  inftigation  than  the  figns  or  verbal  or^ 
 ?  ders  of  his  mafier,  and  often  of  his  own  accord.     He  did  no. 
 
 *  Jac.  Bont.  Hift.  Nat.  Ind.  czj).  3a, 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  44<^ 
 
 *  injury  to  any  perfon  :    He  even  approached  company  with 
 
 <  circumfpeftion,  and  prefented  himfelf  as  if  he  wanted  to  be 
 
 *  carefTed.     He  was  very  fond  of  dainties,  which  every  body 
 
 *  gave  him  :    And,   as   his   breaft   was   difeafed,  and  he  was 
 
 *  afflicted  with  a  teazing  cough,  this  quantity  of  fweet meats 
 
 *  undoubtedly  contributed  to  fliorten  his  hfe.  He  Hved  one 
 "fummer  in  Paris,  and  died  in  London  the  following  winter. 
 « He  eat  almofc  every  thing  ;  but  preferred  ripe  and  dried 
 «  fruits  to  all  other  kinds  of  food.  He  drank  a  little  wine  *, 
 <but  fpontaneouily  left  it  for  milk,  tea,  or  other  mild  li- 
 «  quors*.' 
 
 M.  de  la  Brofle  purchafed  two  orang-outangs  from  a  Ne- 
 gro, whofe  age  exceeded  not  twelve  months.     *  Thefe  ani^ 
 
 *  mals,'  he  remarks,    <  have  the  inftincl  of  fitting  at   table 
 
 <  like  men.  They  eat  every  kind  of  food  without  diftinc- 
 «  tion.     They  ufe  a  knife,  a  fork,  or  a  fpocn,  to  cut  or  lay 
 
 *  hold    of  what    is  put  upon  their  plate.     They  drink  wine 
 
 <  and  other  liquors.     We   carried  them  abroad.     At  table, 
 
 <  when  they  wanted  any  thing,  they  made  themfelves  be  un- 
 «  derftood  by  the  cabin-boy  :  And,  when  the  boy  refufed  to 
 
 <  give  them  what  they  demanded,  they  fometimes  became  en- 
 
 *  raged,  feized  him  by  the  arm,  bit,  and  threw  him  down. 
 «  The  male  was  feized  with  licknefs  on  the  road.     He  made 
 
 <  himfelf  be  attended  as  a  human  being.  He  was  even  twice 
 *bled  in  the  right  arm  :  And,  whenever  he  found  himfelf 
 «  afterwards  in  the  fame  condition,  he  held  out  his  arm  to 
 '  be  bled,  as  if  he  knew  that  he  had  formerly  received  bene* 
 «  jit  from  that  operation/ 
 
 We  are  informed  by  Francis  Pyrard,  ^  that,   in   the  pro- 
 
 <  vince  of  Sierra-Leona,  there  is  a  fpecies  of  animals  called 
 
 <  l^aris,  (the  orang-outang,)  who  are  flrong  and  well  limbed, 
 
 <  and  fo  induftrious,  that,  when  properly  trained  and  fed, 
 «  they  work  like  fervants ;  that  they  generally  walk  on  the 
 
 *  BuiTon,  vol.  8,  page  86.  tranf. 
 
444  THE    PHILOSOPHT 
 
 «  two  hind-feet  ;  that  they  pound  any  fubfliances  in  a  mor- 
 «  tar  •,  that  they  go  to  bring  water  from  the  river  in  fmall 
 «  pitchers,  which  they  carry  full  on  their  heads.     But,  when 
 
 <  they  arrive  at  the  door,  if  the  pitchers  are  not  foon  taken 
 
 <  off,  they  allov/  them  to  fall  ;  and^  when  they  perceive  the 
 ■  '  pitcher  overturned  and  broken,  they  weep  and  lament*.' 
 With  regard  to  the  education  of  thefe  animals,  the  teftimony 
 of  Schoutton  correfponds  v/ith  that  of  Pyrard.  «  They  are 
 « taken,'  fays  he,  «  with  fnares,  taught  to  walk  on  their  hind- 
 
 <  feet,  and'  to  ufe  their  fore-feet  as  hands  in  performing  dif- 
 «  ferent  operations,  as  rinfing  glafTes,  carrying  drink  round 
 
 *  the  company,  turning  a  fpit,'  &c.  f  Guat  informs  us,  that 
 he  *  faw  at  Java  a  very  extraordinary  ape.  It  was  a  female. 
 «  She  was  very  tall,  and  often  walked  ere6L  on  her  hind-feet. 
 
 <  On  thefe  occafions,  fhe  concealed  with  her  hands  the  parts 
 «  which  diftinguifh  the  fex.  She  made  her  bed  very  neatly 
 «  every  day,  lay  upon  her  fide,  and  covered  herfelf  with  the 
 «  bed-clothes.  AVhen  her  head  ached,  fhe  bound  it  up  with 
 «  her  handkerchief  *,  and  it  was  amufing  to  fee  her  thus 
 «  hooded  in  bed.     I  could  relate   many  other  little  articles 
 
 <  which  appeared  to  be  extremely  fingular.  But  I  admired 
 '^  them  not  fo  much  as  the  multitude  ;  becaufe,  as  I  knew  the 
 «  delign  of  bringing  her  to  Europe  to  be  exhibited  as  a  fhew, 
 
 <  I  was  inclined  to  think  that  fhe  had  been  fm/ght  many  of 
 
 *  thefe  monkey  tricks,  which  the  people  confidered  as  being 
 «  natural  to  the  animal.  She  died  in  our  fhip,  about  the  lati- 
 «  tude  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  figure  of  this  ape 
 «  had  a  very  great  refemblance  to  that  of  manf .' 
 
 We  have  now  enumerated  the  principal  fadls  regarding 
 this  extraordinary  animal,  which  have  been  related  by  voyag- 
 ers of  credit,  and  by  thofe  who  have  feen  and  examined  him  in 
 
 *  Voyages  de  Francois  Pyrard,  torn.  2.  page  331. 
 f  Voyages  de  Schoutton  aux  Indes  Orientales. 
 t  Voyages  de  Fran,  Ic  Guat,  torn.  %.  page  96. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  445 
 
 Europe  ;  and  fhall  only  remark,  that,  notwithftandlng  the 
 great  finilarlty  of  his  ftru£ture  and  organs  to  thofe  of  the  hu- 
 man fpecles,  his  genius  and  talents  feem  to  be  very  limited.  The 
 form  of  his  body  enables  him  to  imitate  every  human  a£lion. 
 But,  though  he  has  the  organs  of  fpeech,  he  is  deftitute  of 
 articulate  language.  If,  however,  he  were  domefticated,  and 
 proper  pains  beftowed  for  inftrudling  him,  he  might  unquef- 
 tionably  be  taught  to  articulate.  But,  fuppofing  this  point  to 
 be  obtained,  if  he  remained  incapable  of  refledlion,  if  he  was 
 unable  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  words,  or  to  difcover 
 by  his  expreffions  a  degree  of  inteUe6l  greatly  fuperior  to 
 that  of  the  brute  creation,  which  I  imagine  would  be  the  cafe, 
 he  could  never,  as  fome  authors  have  held  forth,  be  exalted 
 to  the  diftinguifhed  rank  of  human  beings. 
 
 Of  all  quadrupeds,  of  whofe  hiftory  and  manners  we  have 
 any  proper  knowledge,  the  elephant  is  the  moft  remarkable 
 both  for  docility  and  underftanding.  Though  his  fize  is 
 enormous,  and  his  members  rude  and  difproportioned,  which 
 give  him,  at  firft  fight,  the  afpe£l  of  dullnefs  and  ftupidity, 
 his  genius  is  great,  and  his  fagacious  manners,  and  his  fedate 
 and  collefled  deportment,  are  almoft  incredible.  He  is  the 
 largeft  and  ftrongeft  of  all  terreftrial  animals.  Though 
 naturally  brave,  his  difpofitions  are  mild  and  peaceable.  He 
 is  an  aflbciating  animal,  and  feldom  appears  alone  in  the  for- 
 efts.  When  in  danger,  or  when  they  undertake  a  depreda- 
 tory expedition  into  cultivated  fields,  the  elephants  aflemble 
 in  troops.  The  oldefl:  takes  the  lead  j  the  next  in  feniority 
 brings  up  the  rear ;  and  the  young  and  the  feeble  occupy 
 the  center.  In  the  forefts  and  folitudes  they  move  with  lefs 
 precaution  ;  but  never  feparate  fo  far  afunder  as  to  render 
 them  incapable  of  affording  each  other  mutual  afliftance 
 when  danger  approaches.  A  troop  of  elephants  conftitutes 
 a  moll  formidable  band.  Wherever  they  march,  the  foreft 
 feems  to  fall  before  them.     They  bear  down  the  branches 
 
 H  H  h 
 
446  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Upon  which  they  feed  ;  and,  if  they  enter  into  an  Inclofure, 
 they  foon  deftroy  all  the  labours  of  the  huibandmac.  Their 
 invadons  are  the  more  tremendous,  as  there  is  hardly  any 
 means  of  repelling  them  -,  for,  to  attack  a  troop,  when  thus 
 united,  v.'ould  require  a  little  army.  It  is  only  when  one  or 
 two  elephants  happen  to  linger  behind  the  reit,  that  the  hun- 
 ters dare  exert  their  art  and  ingenuity  in  making  an  attack  ; 
 for  anv  attempt  to  difturb  the  trocp  would  certainly  prove 
 fatal  to  the  aflailants.  When  an  infult  is  offered,  the  ele- 
 phants inftantly  move  forward  againft  the  offender,  tofs  him  in 
 the  air  with  their  tulks,  and  afterwards  trample  him  to  pieces 
 under  their  feet,  or  rather  pillars  of  flefli  and  bone.  Let  not 
 the  chai'a<5ler  of  this  noble  and  majeftic  animal,  however,  be 
 niifreprefented.  With  force  and  dignity  he  refents  every 
 affront  *,  but,  when  not  difturbed  by  petuience  or  aclual  inju- 
 ry, he  never  {hov.'s  an  hoftiie  intention  either  againft  man  or 
 any  other  animal.  Elephants  live  entirely  on  vegetables,  and 
 have  no  thirft  for  blood.  Such  is  their  focial  and  generous 
 difpofition,  that,  when  an  individual  chances  to  meet  with  a 
 luxurious  fpot  of  pafture,  he  immediately  calls  lo  his  com- 
 panions, and  invites  them  to  partike  of  his  good  fortune. 
 
 The  elephant  poffeffes  all  the  fenfes  in  perfection  :  But, ' 
 in  the  fenfe  of  touching,  he  excells  all  the  brute  creation. 
 His  trunk  is  the  chief  inftrument  of  this  fenfe.  In  an  ele- 
 phant of  fourteen  feet  high,  the  trunk  is  about  eight  feet 
 long,  and  five  feet  and  an  half  in  circumference  at  the  bafe. 
 It  is  a  large  uefliy  tube,  divided  through  its  whole  extent  by 
 a  feptum  or  partition.  It  is  capable  of  motion  in  every  di- 
 rection. The  animial  can  fliorten  or  lengthen  it  at  pleafure. 
 It  anfvvcrs  every  purpofe  of  a  hand  ;  for  it  grafps  large  ob- 
 jefts  with  great  force,  and  its  extremity  can  lay  hold  of  a  fix- 
 pence,  or  even  of  a  pin.  The  trunk  of  the  elephant  affords 
 him  the  fame  means  of  addrefs  as  the  ape.  It  ferves  the  pur- 
 pofes  of  an  arm  and  a  hand.     By  this  inflrument,  the   ele- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  447 
 
 phant  conveys  large  or  fm&U  bodies  to  bis  mouth,  places 
 them  on  his  back,  embraces  them  fall:^  or  throws  them  forci- 
 bly to  a  diftance.  In  a  ftate  of  nature  and  perfect  freedom, 
 the  difpolitions  of  the  elepliant  are  neither  fanguinary  nor 
 ferocious.  They  are  gentle  creatures,  and  never  exert  their 
 {Irength,  or  employ  their  weapons,  but  in  defending  them- 
 felves  or  protetSling  their  companions.  Even  when  deprived 
 of  the  inftruction  of  mien,  they  poflefs  the  fagacity  of  the 
 beaver,  the  addrefs  of  the  ape,  and  the  acutenefs  of  the  dog. 
 To  thefe  mental  talents  are  added  the  advantages  of  amaz- 
 ing bodily  ftrength,  and  the  experience  and  knov.dedge  he 
 acquires  by  hving  at  leafl:  two  centuries.  AVith  his  trunk  he 
 tears  up  trees.  By  a  pufh  of  his  body  he  m.akes  a  breach 
 in  a  wall.  To  this  prodigious  ftrength  he  adds  courage, 
 prudence,  and  coolnefs  of  deportment.  As  he  never  makes 
 an  attack  but  when  he  receives  an  injury,  he  is  univerfally 
 beloved  ;  and  all  animals  refpecSt,  becaule  none  have  any  reaf- 
 on  to  fear  him.  In  all  ages,  men  have  entertained  a  venera- 
 tion for  this  moft  magnificent  and  fagacicus  of  terreftrial 
 creatures.  The  ancients  regarded  him  as  a  miracle  of  Nature, 
 and  he  is,  in  reality,  one  of  her  greateft  efforts.  Eut  they 
 have  greatly  exaggerated  his  faculties.  Without  helitation, 
 they  have  afcribed  to  him  high  intellectual  powers  and  morid 
 virtues.  Pliny,  ^lian,  Plutarch,  and  other  authors  of  a 
 more  modern  date,  have  beftowed  on  the  elephant  not  only 
 rational  manners,  but  an  innate  religion,  a  kind  of  daily  ador- 
 ation of  the  fun  and  moon,  the  ufe  of  ablution  before  worfliip, 
 a  fpirit  of  divination,  piety  toward  heaven  and  their  fellow 
 creatures,  whom  they  affift  at  the  approach  of  death,  and,  af- 
 ter their  deceafe,  bedew  them  with  tears,  aud  cover  their 
 bodies  with  earth. 
 
 When  tamed  and  inflrucled  by  man,  the  elephant  is  foon 
 rendered  the  mildefi:  and  moft  obedient  of  all  domeftic 
 animals.     He  loves  his  keeper,  carelTcs  him,  and  anticipates 
 
448  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 his  commands.  He  learns  to  comprehend  ligns,  and  even  to 
 underftand  the  expreffion  of  founds.  He  diftinguiilies  the 
 tones  of  command,  of  anger>  and  of  approbation,  and  regu- 
 lates his  actions  by  his  perceptions.  The  voice  of  his  maf- 
 ter  he  never  miftakes.  His  orders  are  executed  with  alacri- 
 ty, but  without  any  degree  of  precipitation.  His  movements 
 are  always  meafured  and  fedate,  and  his  character  feems  to 
 correfpond  with  the  gravity  of  his  mafs.  To  accommodate 
 thofe  who  mount  him,  he  readily  learns  to  bend  his  knees. 
 With  his  trunk  he  falutes  his  friends,  ufes  it  for  raifing  bur- 
 dens, and  affifts  in  loading  himfelf.  He  loves  to  be  clothed, 
 and  feems  to  be  proud  of  gaudy  trappings.  In  the  fouthern 
 regions,  h$  is  employed  in  drawing  waggons,  ploughs,  artd 
 chariots.     <  I  was  eye-witnefs,*  fays  P.  Philippe,  <  to  the  fol- 
 
 *  lowing  fa(Sts.    At  Goa,  there  are  always  fome  elephants  em- 
 
 *  ployed  in  the  building  of  fhips.     I  one  day  went  to  the  fide 
 
 *  of  the  river,  near  which  a  large  fliip  was  building  in  the 
 
 *  city  of  Goa,  where  there  is  a  large  area  filled  with  beams 
 
 *  for  that  purpofe.     Some  men  tie  the  ends  of  the  heaviefl 
 
 *  beams  with  a  rope,  which  is  handed  to  the  elephant,  who 
 
 *  carries  it  to  his  mouth,  and,  after  twifting  it  round  his  trunk, 
 «  draws  it,  without  any  conductor,  to  the  place  where  the  fhip 
 
 *  is  building,  though  it  had  only  once  been  pointed  out  to 
 
 *  him.     He  fometimes  drew  beams  fo  large  that  more  than 
 
 *  twenty  men  would  have  been  unable  to  move.  But,  what 
 <  furprifed  me  ftill  more,  when  other  beams  obftru^ed  the 
 
 *  road,  he  elevated  the  ends  of  his  own  beams,,  that  they  might 
 «  run  eafily  over  thofe  which  lay  in  his  way.     Could  the  mofl 
 
 *  enlightened  man  do  more  *?'  When  at  work,  the  elephant 
 draws  equally,  and,  if  properly  managed,  never  turns  reflive. 
 The  man  who  conducts  the  animal  generally  rides  on  his 
 neck,  and  employs  a  hooked  iron  rod,  or  bodkin,  with  which 
 he  pricks  the  head  or  fides  of  the  ears,  in  order  to  pufh  the 
 
 *  Voyage  d'Orient.  page  367. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^4-9 
 
 creature  forward,  or  to  make  him  turn.  But  words  are  com- 
 monly fufficient.  The  attachment  and  afFeftion  of  the  ele- 
 phant are  fometlmes  fo  flrong  and  durable  that  he  has  been 
 known  to  die  of  grief,  when,  in  an  unguarded  paroxyfm  of 
 rage,  he  had  killed  his  guide. 
 
 Before  the  invention  of  gun-powder,,  elephants  were  em- 
 ployed in  war  by  the  African  and  Afiatic  nations.     *  From 
 
 *  time  immemorial,'   fays  Schouten,  *  the  Kings  of  Ceylon, 
 
 *  of  Pegu,  and  of  Aracan,  have  ufed  elephants  in  war.  Nak- 
 <  ed  fabres  were  tied  to  their  trunks,  and  on  their  backs 
 f  were  fixed  fmall  wooden  caftles,   which   contained    five 
 
 *  or  fix  men  armed  with  javelins,  and  other  weapons  *.* 
 The  Greeks  and  Romans,  however,  foon  became  acquainted 
 with  the  nature  of  thefe  monftrous  warriors.  They  opened 
 their  ranks  to  let  the  animals  pafs,  and  directed  all  their 
 weapons,  not  againft  thp  elephants,  but  their  conductors. 
 Since  fire  has  now  become  the  element  of  war,  and  the  chief 
 inftrument  of  defl:ru£l:ion,  elephants,  who  are  terrified  both 
 at  the  flame  and  the  noife,  would  be  more  dangerous  than 
 ufeful  in  our  modern  battles.  Th^  Indian  Kings,  however, 
 ftill  arm  elephants  in  their  wars.  In  Cochin,  and  other  parts 
 of  Malabar,  all  the  warriors  who  fight  not  on  foot  are  mount- 
 ed on  elephants  f ,  The  fame  practice  obtains  in  Tonquin, 
 Siam,  and  Pegu.  In  thefe  countries,  the  kings  and  nobles  at 
 public  feftivals  are  always  preceded  and  followed  by  nume- 
 rous trains  of  elephants,  pompoufly  adorned  with  pieces  of 
 Ihining  metal,  aud  clothed  with  rich  garments.  Their  tulks 
 are  ornamented  with  rings  of  gold  and  filver ;  their  ears  and 
 cheeks  are  painted  with  various  colours  ;  they  are  crowned 
 with  garlands  •,  and  a  number  of  fmall  bells  are  fixed  to  dif- 
 ferent parts  of  their  bodies.  They  delight  in  gaudy  attire  ; 
 for  they  are  chearful  and  carefling  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
 
 •  Voyage  de  Schouten,  page  32. 
 t  Thevcnot,  torn.  3.  page  261. 
 
450  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ber  and  fplendour  of  their  ornaments.  The  Afiatics,  who 
 were  very  anciently  civilized,  perceiving  the  fagacity  and  do- 
 cility of  the  elephant,  educated  him  in  a  fyftematic  manner, 
 and  modiiied  his  dif[)oiitions  according  to  their  own  man- 
 ners, and  the  ufeful  labours  in  v^^hich  his  ftrength  and  dexte- 
 terity  could  be  employed. 
 
 A  domeftic  elephant  performs  more  labour  than  could  be 
 accomplifhed  by  fix  horfes  •,  but  he  requires  much  care  and 
 a  great  deal  of  food.  He  is  fubjedt  to  be.  over-heated, 
 and  muft  be  led  to  the  water  twice  or  thrice  a- day.  He 
 eafily  learns  to  bathe  himfelf.  With  his  trunk  he  fucks  up 
 large  quantities  of  water,  carries  it  to  his  mouth,  drinks  part 
 of  it,  and,  by  elevating  his  trunk,  makes  the  remainder  run 
 over  every  part  of  his  body.  To  give  fome  idea  of  the  la- 
 bour he  performs,  and  the  docility  of  his  difpofitions,  it  is 
 worthy  of  remark,  that,  in  India,  all  the  bales,  facks,  and 
 tuns  tranfported  from  one  place  to  another,  are  carried  by 
 elephants.  They  carry  burdens  on  their  bodies,  their  necks, 
 their  tuiks,  and  even  in  their  mouths,  by  giving  them  the  end 
 of  a  rope,  which  they  hold  faft  with  their  teeth.  Uniting 
 fagacity  Vvith  ftrength,  they  never  break  or  injure  any  thing 
 committed  to  their  charge.  From  the  margins  of  the  riv- 
 ers, they  put  weighty  bundles  into  boats  without  wetting 
 them,  lay  them  down  gently,  and  arrange  them  where  they 
 ought  to  be  placed.  When  the  goods  are  difpofed  as  their 
 maflers  dire6l,  they  examine  with  their  trunks  whether  the 
 articles  are  properly  flowed  ;  and,  if  a  cafjv  or  tun  rolls, 
 they  go  fpontaneoufly  in  queil:  of  frones  to  prop  and  render 
 it  firm. 
 
 In  the  elephant,  the  fenfe  of  fmeUing  is  acute,  and  he  is 
 pafilonately  fond  of  odoriferous  flowers,  which  he  collects 
 one  by  one,  forms  them  into  a  nofegay,  and,  after  gratifying 
 |iis  nofe,  convevs  them  to  his  mouth. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORV.  451 
 
 In  Iiicila,  the  domeftic  elephants,  to  whom  the  ufe  of  water 
 is  as  necedliry  as  that  of  air,  are  allowed  every  poffible  con- 
 veniency  for  bathing  themfelves.  The  animal  goes  into  a 
 river  till  the  water  reaches  his  belly.  He  then  lies  down  on 
 one  fide,  fills  his  trunk  feveral  times,  and  dexteroufly  throws 
 the  water  on  fuch  parts  as  happen  to  be  uncovered.  The 
 mafler,  after  cleaning  and  currying  one  fide,  defires  the  ani- 
 mal to  turn  to  the  other,  which  command  he  obeys  with  the 
 greateft  alacrity  ;  and,  when  both  fides  have  been  properly 
 cleaned,  he  comes  out  of  the  river,  and  flands  fome  time  on 
 the  bank  to  dry  himfelf.  The  elephant,  though  his  mafs  be 
 enormous,  is  an  excellent  Avimmer  ;  and,  of  courfe,  he  is  of 
 great  ufe  in  the  paffage  of  rivers.  When  employed  on  oc- 
 calions  of  this  kind,  he  is  often  loaded  with  two  pieces  of 
 cannon  which  admit  three  or  four  pound  balls,  befide  great 
 quantities  of  baggage  and  feveral  men  fixed  to  his  ears  and 
 his  tail.  When  thus  heavily  loaded,  he  fpontaneoufly  enters 
 the  river  and  fwims  over  with  his  trunk  elevated  in  the  air 
 for  the  benefit  of  refpiration.  He  is  fond  of  wine  and  ar- 
 dent fpirits.  By  fiiowing  him  a  vefTel  filled  with  any  of 
 thefe  liquors,  and  promifing  him  it  as  a  reward  of  his  labours, 
 he  is  induced  to  exert  the  greateft  efforts,  and  to  perform 
 the  mofl  painful  tafks.  The  elephant,  as  we  are  informed 
 by  M.  de  BufTey,  quoted  by  the  Count  de  Buffon,  is  employ- 
 ed in  draggini^  artillery  over  mountains,  and,  en  thefe  occa- 
 fions,  his  fagacity  and  docility  are  conrpicuous.  Horfes  or 
 oxen,  v/hen  yoked  to  a  cannon,  make  all  their  exertions  to 
 pull  it  up  a  declivity.  But  the  elephant  pufhes  the  breach 
 forvs^ard  with  his  front,  and,  at  each  effort,  fupports  the  car- 
 riage with  his  knee,  which  he  places  againft  the  wheel.  He 
 feems  to  underfland  what  his  cornach^  or  conductor,  fays 
 to  him.  When  his  condu(9:or  wants  him  to  perform  any 
 painful  labour,  he  explains  the  nature  of  the  operation,  and 
 gives  the  reafons  which  fhould  induce  him  to  obey.     If  the 
 
452  THE    pmiOSOPHY 
 
 elephant  fhows  a  relu6lance  to  the  tafk,  the  coruack  promif- 
 es  to  give  him  wine,  arrack,  or  any  other  article  that  he  is 
 fond  of,  and  then  the  animal  exerts  his  utmoft  efforts.  But 
 to  break  any  promife  made  to  him  is  extremely  dangerous. 
 Many  cornacks  have  fallen  vidlims  to  indifcretlons  of  this 
 kind.  <  At  Dehan,*  fays  M.  de  Bufley,  *  an  elephant,  from 
 «  revenge,  killed  his  cornack.  The  man's  wife,  who  beheld 
 ^  the  dreadful  fcene,  took  her  two  children,  and  threw  them 
 
 *  at  the  feet  of  the  enraged  animal,  faying,  St?ice  you  have  Jlain 
 
 *  my  hujhand^  take  my  life  alfo,  as  ivell  as  that  of  my  children, 
 «  The  elephant  inftantly  flopped,  relented,  and,  as  if  ftung 
 <  with  remorfe,  took  the  oldeft  boy  in  its  trunk,  placed  him 
 
 *  on  its  neck,  adopted  him  foi*  hi|  cornack,  and  v/ould  never 
 «  allow  any  other  perforl  to  mount  it/ 
 
 From  the  members  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
 we  learn  fome  curious  fa£ts  with  regard  to  the  manners  of 
 the  Verfailles  elephant.  This  elephant,  they  remark,  feem- 
 ed  to  know  when  it  was  mocked,  and  remembered  the  affront 
 till  it  had  an  opportunity  of  revenge.  A  man  deceived  it, 
 by  pretending  to  throw  fome  food  into  its  mouth.  The  ani- 
 mal gave  him  fuch  a  blow  with  its  trunk  as  knocked  him 
 down,  and  broke  two  of  his  ribs.  A  painter  wanted  to  draw 
 the  animal  in  an  unufual  attitude,  with  its  truuk  elevated, 
 and  its  mouth  open.  The  painter's  fervant,  to  make  it  re- 
 main in  this  pofition,  threw  fruits  into  its  mouth,  but  gener- 
 ally made  only  a  faint  of  throwing  them.  This  conduct  en- 
 raged the  elephant  ;  and,  as  if  it  knew  that  the  painter  was 
 the  caufe  of  this  teazing  impertinence,  inflead  of  attacking 
 the  fervant,  it  eyed  the  mafler,  and  fquirted  at  him  from  its 
 trunk  fuch  a  quantity  of  water  as  fpoiled  the  paper  on  which 
 he  was  drawing.  This  elephant  commonly  made  lefs  ufe 
 of  its  ftrength  than  its  addrefs.  It  loofed,  with  great  eafe 
 and  coolnefs,  the  buckle  of  a  large  double  leathern  flrap, 
 with  which  its  leg   was  fixed  •,  and,  as  the  fervants   had 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  453 
 
 wrapped  the  buckle  round  with  a  fmall  cord,  and  tied  many- 
 knots  upon  it,  the  creature,  with  much  deUberation,  loofed 
 the  whole,  without  breaking  either  the  ftrap  or  the  cord. 
 
 It  is  remarked  by  le  P.  Vincent  Marie,  that  the  elephant, 
 when  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  is  highly  efteemed  for  his  gentle- 
 nefs,  docility,  and  friendfhip  to  his  governour.  When  def- 
 tined  to  the  immediate  fervice  of  princes,  he  is  fenfible  of 
 his  good  fortune,  and  maintains  a  gravity  of  demeanour  cor- 
 refponding  to  the  dignity  of  his  fituation.  But,  if,  on  the 
 contrary,  lefs  honourable  labours  are  ajfligned  to  Kim,  he 
 grows  melancholy,  frets,  and  evidently  difcovers  that  he  is 
 humbled  and  depreiTed.  He  is  fond  of  children,  carefles 
 them,  and  appears  to  difcern  the  innocence  of  their  manners. 
 The  Dutch  voyagers  relate*,  that  by  giving  elephants  what 
 is  agreeable  to  them,  they  are  foon  rendered  perfedlly  tame 
 and  fubmiffive.  They  are  fo  fagaclous,  that  they  may  be 
 faid  to  be  deftitute  of  the  ufe  of  language  only.  They  are 
 proud  and  ambitious  ;  and  they  are  fo  grateful  for  good  ufage, 
 that,  as  a  mark  of  refpetSl,  they  bow  their  heads  in  paffing 
 houfes  where  they  have  been  hofpitably  received.  They  al- 
 low themfelves  to  be  led  and  commanded  by  a  child  ;  but 
 they  love  to  be  praifed  and  carefled.  When  a  wild  elephant 
 is  taken,  the  hunters  tie  his  feet,  and  one  of  them  accofts 
 and  falutes  him,  makes  apologies  for  binding  him,  protefts 
 that  no  injury  is  intended,  tells  him,  that,  in  his  former  con- 
 dition, he  frequently  wanted  food,  but  that,  henceforward, 
 he  fliall  be  well  treated,  and  that  every  promife  fhall  b^  per- 
 formed to  him.  This  foothing  harangue  is  no  fooner  fin- 
 ifhed  than  the  elephant  placidly  follows  the  hunterf. 
 From  this  fa£l,  however,  we  muft  not  conclude  that  the  ele- 
 phant underftands  language,  but  that,  like  the  dog,  he  has  a 
 ftrong  difcerning  faculty.     He  diftinguifties  efteem  from  con- 
 
 *  Voyage  dc  la  Compagnie  des  Indcs  de  HoUande,  torn.  i.  page  411. 
 
 f  Voyage  d'Oricnt,  du  P,  Phillippe,  page  364. 
 
 I   I   i 
 
4'54?  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 temptj  friendrhip  from  hatred,  and  many  other  emotions 
 which  are  expreiTed  by  human  geftures  and  features.  For 
 this  reafon,  the  elephant  is  more  ealily  tamed  by  mildnefs 
 than  by  blows. 
 
 '  I  have  frequently  remarked,'  fays  Edward  Terry*,  « that 
 '  the  elephant  performs  many  actions  which  feem  to  proceed 
 «  more  from  reafon  than  from  infl:in6l.  He  does  every  thing 
 « that  his  mafter  commands.  If  he  wants  to  terrify  any  per- 
 '  fon,  he  runs  upon  him  with  every  appearance  of  fury,  and, 
 
 <  when  he  comes  near,  ftops  fliort,  without  doing  the  perfon 
 
 <  the  fmalleft  injury.  When  the  mafter  choofes  to  affront  any 
 «  man,  he  tells  tlie  elephant,  who  immediately  colle^ls  water 
 
 <  and  mud  with  his  trunk,  and  fquirts  it  upon  the  objeft 
 «  pointed  out  to  him.  The  Mogul  keeps  fome  elephants 
 «  who  ferve  as  executioners  to  criminals  condemned  to  death. 
 
 <  When  the  condu(Slor  orders  one  of  thefe  animals  to  dif- 
 *  patch  the  poor  criminals  quickly,  he  tears  them  to  pieces  in 
 
 <  a  moment  with  his  feet :  But,    if  defired  to  torment  them 
 
 <  flowly,  he  breaks  their  bones  one  after  another,  and  makes 
 « them  fufFer  a  punifhment  as  cruel  as  that  of  the  wheel.' 
 
 Next  to  the  elephant,  the  dog  feems  to  be  the  moft  docile 
 quadruped.  A  wild  dog  is  a  paffionate,  ferocious,  and  fan- 
 guinary  animal.  But,  after  he  is  reduced  to  a  domeftic  ftate, 
 thefe  hoftile  difpofitions  are  fupprefTed,  and  they  are  fuc- 
 ceeded  by  a  warm  attachment,  and  a  perpetual  deiire  of 
 pleafing.  The  perceptions  and  natural  talents  of  the  dog  are 
 acute.  When  thefe  are  aided  by  inftru6lion,  the  fagacity  he 
 difcovers,  and  the  actions  he  is  taught  to  perform,  often  ex- 
 cite our  vv'onder.  Thofe  animals  which  man  has  taken  un- 
 der his  immediate  protection  are  taught  to  perform  artificial 
 atftions,  or  have  their  natural  inftincts  improved,  by  three 
 modes  of  inftru6lion,  punifltment,  reward,  and  imitation* 
 More  du(Slile  in  his  nature  than  moft  other  animals,  the  dog 
 *  Terry's  Vo)'agc  to  the  Eall  Indies,  page  ijr 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  455 
 
 not  only  receives  inftru6lIon  with  rapidity,  but  accompnodates 
 his  behaviour  and  deportment  to  the  manners  and  habits  of 
 thofe  who  command  him.  He  affumes  the  very  toiiC  of  the 
 famllv  in  which  he  relides.  Eager,  at  all  times,  to  pleafe  his 
 mafter,  or  his  friends,  he  furioufly  repels  beggars  •,  becaufe 
 he  probably,  from  their  drefs,  conceives  tliem  to  be  either 
 thieves,  or  competitors  for  food. 
 
 Though  every  dog,  as  well  as  every  man,  is  naturalty  a 
 hunter,  the  dexterity  of  both  Is  highly  improved  by  expe- 
 rience and  inftru6lion.  The  varieties  of  dogs,  by  frequent 
 intermixtures  with  thofe  of  different  climates,  and  perhaps 
 with  foxes  and  wolves,  are  fo  great,  and  their  inftlndls  are 
 fo  much  diverfified,  that,  even  though  they  produce  with 
 each  other,  we  fliould  be  apt  to  regard  them  as  different  fpe- 
 cies.  What  a  difference  between  the  natural  dilpofitions  of 
 the  fhepherd's  dog,  the  fpaniel,  and  the  grey-hound  ?  The 
 Ihepherd's  dog,  independently  of  all  inftruction,  feems  to  be 
 endowed  by  Nature  with  an  innate  attachment  to  the  prefer- 
 vation  of  fheep  and  cattle.  His  docility  is  likewile  fo  great, 
 that  he  not  only  learns  to  underftand  the  language  and  com- 
 mands of  the  fliepherd,  and  obeys  them  with  faithfulnefs  and 
 alacrity,  but,  when  at  distances  beyond  the  reach  of  his  maf- 
 ter's  voice,  he  often  ftops,  looks  back,  and  recognifes  the  ap- 
 probation or  diiapprobatlon  of  the  fbepherd  by  the  mere 
 waving  of  his  hand.  He  reigns  at  the  head  of  a  flock,  and 
 is  better  heard  than  the  voice  of  his  mailer.  His  vigilance 
 and  aclivity  produce  order,  difcipline,  and  fafety.  Sheep 
 and  cattle  are  peculiarly  fubje£tedto  his  management,  whom 
 he  prudently  conducts  and  protefts,  and  never  employs  force 
 againft  them,  except  for  the  prefervation  of  peace  and  good 
 order.  But,  when  the  flock  committed  to  his  charge  is  at- 
 tacked by  the  fox,  or  wolf,  or  other  rapacious  animals,  he 
 makes  a  full  difplay  of  his  courage  and  iagacity.  In  fitua- 
 tions  of  this  kind,  both  his  natural  and  acquired  talents  are 
 
4:56  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 exerted.     Three  fhepherds  dogs  are  faid  to  be  a  match  for  a 
 bear,  and  four  for  a  lion. 
 
 Every  perfon  knows  the  docility  and  fagacity  of  fuch  dogs 
 as  are  employed  in  condu6ling  blind  mendicants.  Johannes 
 Faber,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Ray,  informs  us,  that  he  knew  a 
 blind  beggar  who  was  led  through  the  ftreets  of  Rome  by  a 
 middle  fized  dog.  This  dog,  befide  leading  his  mailer  in 
 fuch  a  manner  as  to  protect  him  from  all  danger,  learned  to 
 diftinguifh  not  only  the  ftreets,  but  the  houfes  where  his 
 mafter  was  accuftomed  to  receive  alms  twice  or  thrice  a-weekc 
 Whenever  the  animal  came  to  any  of  thefe  flreets,  with 
 which  he  was  well  acquainted,  he  would  not  leave  it  till  a 
 call  had  been  made  at  every  houfe  where  his  mafter  was 
 ufually  fuccefsful  in  his  petitions.  When  the  beggar  began 
 to  aflc  alms,  the  dog,  being  wearied,  lay  down  to  reft  j  but 
 the  mafter  was  no  foonfer  ferved  or  refufed,  than  the  dog 
 rofe  fpontaneoufly,  and,  without  either  order  or  fign,  pro- 
 ceeded to  the  other  houfes  where  the  beggar  generally  re- 
 ceived fome  gratuity.  I  obferved,  fays  he,  not  without  plea- 
 fure  and  furprife,  that,  when  a  halfpenny  was  thrown  from  a 
 window,  fuch  was  the  fagacity  and  attention  of  this  dog,  that 
 he  went  about  in  queft  of  it,  lifted  it  from  the  ground  with 
 his  mouth,  and  put  it  into  his  mafter's  hat.  Even  when 
 bread  was  thrown  down,  the  animal  would  not  tafte  it,  un- 
 lefs  he  received  a  portion  of  it  from  the  hand  of  his  mafter. 
 Without  any  other  inftru£lion  than  imitation,  a  maftiff', 
 when  accidentally  fhut  out  from  a  houfe  which  his  mafter 
 frequented,  uniformly  rung  the  bell  for  admittance.  Dogs 
 can  be  taught  to  go  to  market  with  money,  to  repair  to  a 
 known  butcher,  and  to  carry  home  the  meat  in  fafety. 
 They  can  be  taught  to  dance  to  mufic,  and  to  fearch  for  and 
 find  any  thing  that  is  loft*. 
 
 •  For  thefe,  and  many  other  inftances  of  the  fagacity  and  docility  of  the  dog, 
 ilie  reader  may  confult  Synopfis  <^adrupedum  a  Joanne  Raio,  p  6.  &c. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  457 
 
 There  is  a  dog  at  prefent  belonging  to  a  grocer  in  Edin- 
 burgh, who  has  for  fome  time  amiifed  and  aftoniflied  the 
 people  in  the  neighbourhood.  A  man  who  goes  through 
 the  ftreets  ringing  a  bell  and  felling  penny  pies,  happened 
 one  day  to  treat  this  dog  with  a  pye.  The  next  time  he 
 heard  the  pyeman's  bell,  he  ran  to  him  with  impetuoiity, 
 feized  him  by  the  coat,  and  would  not  fuiFer  him  to  pafs. 
 The  pyeman,  who  underftood  what  the  animal  wanted,  fliov;- 
 ed  him  a  penny,  and  pointed  to  his  mafter,  who  llood  in  the 
 ftreet-door,  and  faw  what  was  going  on.  The  dog  immedi- 
 ately fupplicated  his  mafter  by  many  humble  geftures  and 
 looks.  The  mafter  put  a  penny  into  the  dog's  mouth,  which 
 he  inftantly  delivered  to  the  pyeman,  and  received  his  pye. 
 This  traiEck  between  the  pyeman  and  the  grocer's  dog  has 
 been  daily  pra<Sl:ifed  for  months  paft,  and  ftill  continues. 
 
 Dogs,  horfes,  and  even  hogs,  by  rewards  and  puniftiments, 
 and,  I  am  afraid,  often  by  cruelty,  may  be  taught  to  perform 
 actions,  as  we  have  frequently  feen  in  public  exhibitions, 
 which  are  truly  aftonifhing.  But  of  thefe  we  mufl  not  enter 
 into  any  detail. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  horfe,  the  gentlenefs  of  his  difpoft  ^ 
 tions,  and  the  docility  of  his  temper,  are  fo  well  and  fo  uni~ 
 verfally  known,  that  it  is  unneceflary  to  dwell  long  upon  the 
 fubje£l.  To  give  fome  idea  of  what  inftru(Stion  horfes  re- 
 ceive when  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  we  ihall  mention  fome  traits 
 of  their  form  and  manners  when  under  no  reftraints.  In 
 South  America  the  horfes  have  multiplied  prodigioufly,  and, 
 in  that 'thinly  inhabited  country,  live  in  perfect  freedom. 
 They  fly  from  the  prefence  of  man.  They  wander  about  in 
 troops,  and  devour,  in  immenfe  meadows,  the  producStions  of 
 a  perpetual  fpring.  Wild  horfes  are  ftronger,  Hghter,  and 
 more  nervous,  than  the  generality  of  thofe  which  are  kept 
 in  a  domeftic  ftate.  They  are  by  no  means  ferocious. 
 Though  fuperior  in  ftrcngth  to  moft  animals,  they  never 
 
458  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 make  an  attack.  When  affaulted,  however,  they  either  dil- 
 dain  the  enemy,  or  ftrike  him  dead  with  their  heels.  They 
 aiTociate  in  troops  from  mutual  attachment,  and  neither 
 make  war  with  other  animals  nor  among  themfelves.  As 
 their  appetites  are  moderate,  and  they  have  a  few  obje6ls  to 
 excite  ^nvy  or  difcord,  they  live  in  perpetual  peace.  Their 
 manners  are  gentle,  and  their  tempers  focial.  Their  force 
 and  ardour  are  rendered  confpicuous  only  by  marks  of  emu- 
 lation. Tiiey  are  anxious  to  be  foremoft  in  the  courfe,  to 
 brave  danger  in  croffing  a  river,  or  in  leaping  a  ditch  or  pre- 
 cipice ;  and,  it  is  faid,  that  thofe  horfes  which  are  moft  ad- 
 venturous and  expert  in  thefe  natural  exercifes,  are,  when 
 domefticated,  the  moft  generous,  mild,  and  tractable. 
 
 Wild  horfes  are  taken  notice  of  by  feveral  of  the  ancients. 
 Herodotus  mentions  v»rhite  wild  horfes  on  the  banks  of  the 
 Hypanis  in  Scythia.  He  likewife  tells  us,  that,  ifi  the  north- 
 ern part  of  Thrace,  beyond  the  Danube,  there  were  wild 
 horfes  covered  all  over  with  hair  five  inches  in  length.  The 
 wild  horfes  in  America  are  the  ofi'spring  of  domeftic  horfes 
 originally  tranfported  thither  from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards. 
 The  author  of  the  hiftory  of  the  Buccaneers*  informs  us, 
 that  troops  of  horfes,  fometimes  conlifting  of  500,  are  fre- 
 quently met  with  in  the  ifland  of  St.  Domingo  -,  that,  when 
 they  fee  a  man,  they  all  ftop  j  and  that  one  of  their  number 
 approaches  to  a  certain  diftance,  blows  through  his  ncftrils, 
 takes  flight,  and  is  inftantly  followed  by  the  whole  troop.  He 
 defcribes  them  as  having  grofs  heads  and  limbs,  and  long 
 necks  and  ears.  The  inhabitants  tame  them  with  eafe,  and 
 then  train  them  to  labour.  In  order  to  take  them,  gins  ©f 
 ropes  are  laid  in  the  places  vv'here  they  are  known  to  frequent. 
 When  caught  by  the  neck,  they  foon  ftrangle  themfelves, 
 unlefs  fome  perfon  arrive  in  time  to  difentangle  them.  They 
 are  tied  to  trees  by  the  body  and  limbs,  and  are  left  in  that 
 
 *  L'Hift.  des  Avanter.r.    Flibufliers,  torn.  i.  page  no. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  4:50 
 
 litaatioii  two  days  without  viftuals  or  drink.  This  treat- 
 ment is  generally  fufficient  to  render  them  more  tradtable, 
 and  they  foon  become  as  gentle  as  if  they  had  never  been 
 wild.  Even  when  any  of  thefe  horfes,  by  accident,  regain 
 their  liberty,  they  never  relume  their  favage  flate,  but  know 
 their  mailers,  and  allow  themfelves  to  be  approached  and  re- 
 taken. 
 
 From  thefe,  and  fimilar  fa6ls,  it  may  be  concluded,  that 
 tiie  difpoHtions  of  horfes  are  gentle,  and  that  they  are  natur- 
 ally difpofed  to  affbciate  with  man.  After  they  are  tamed 
 they  never  forfake  the  abodes  of  men.  On  the  contrary, 
 they  are  anxious  to  return  to  the  ftable.  The  fweets  of  hab- 
 it feem  to  fupply  all  they  have  loft  by  flavery.  When  fa- 
 tigued, the  manfion  of  repofe  is  full  of  comfort.  They  fmell 
 it  at  conliderable  diftances,  can  diftinguifh  it  in  the  midfl:  of 
 populous  cities,  and  feem  uniformly  to  prefer  bondage  to 
 liberty.  By  fome  attention  and  addrefs  colts  are  flrft  ren- 
 dered tractable.  When  that  point  is  gained,  by  different 
 modes  of  management,  the  docility  of  the  animal  is  improv^- 
 ed,  and  they  foon  learn  to  perform  with  alacrity  the  various 
 labours  affigned  to  them.  The  domeftication  of  the  horfe 
 is  perhaps  the  noblefl:  acquilition  from  the  animal  world 
 which  has  ever  been  made  by  the  genius,  the  art,  and  the  in- 
 duftry  of  man.  He  is  taught  to  partake  of  the  dangers  and 
 fatigues  of  war,  and  feems  to  enjoy  the  glory  of  vidlory.  -He 
 encounters  death  with  ardour  and  with  magnanimity.  He  de- 
 lights in  the  tumult  of  arms,  and  attacks  the  enemy  with  re- 
 folutioa  and  alacrity.  It  is  not  in  perils  and  conflicts  alone 
 that  the  horfe  co-operates  with  the  difpolitions  of  his  mafler. 
 He  even  feems  to  participate  of  human  pleafures  and  amufe- 
 ments.  He  delights  in  the  chafe  and  the  tournament,  and 
 his  eyes  fparkle  with  emulation  in  the  courfe.  Though  bold 
 and  intrepid,  however,  he  does  not  allow  himfelf  to  be  hur- 
 ried on  by  a  furious  ardour.     On  proper  occafions,  he  re- 
 
460      '  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 prefles  his  movements,  and  knows  how  to  check  the  natural 
 fire  of  his  temper.  He  not  only  yields  to  the  hand,  but 
 feems  to  confult  the  inclination  of  his  rider.  Always  obe- 
 dient to  the  imprefHons  he  receives,  he  flies  or  ftops,  and 
 regulates  his  motions  folely  by  the  will  of  his  mafter. 
 
 Mr.  Ray,  who  wrote  about  the  end  of  lad  century,  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  had  feen  a  horfe  who  danced  to  mufic, 
 who,  at  the  command  of  his  mafter,  affefted  to  be  lame,  who 
 fimulated  death,  lay  motionlefs  with  his  limbs  extended,  and 
 allowed  himfelf  to  be  dragged  about,  till  fome  words  were 
 pronounced,  when  he  inftantly  fprung  upon  his  feet*.  Fa6ls 
 of  this  kind  would  fcarcely  receive  credit,  if  every  perfon 
 were  not  now  acquainted  with  the  wonderful  docility  of  the 
 horfes  educated  by  Aftley,  and  other  public  exhibitors  of 
 horfemanfhip.  In  exhibitions  of  this  kind,  the  docility  and 
 prompt  obedience  of  the  animals  deferve  more  admiration 
 than  the  dexterous  feats  of  the  men. 
 
 Animals  of  the  ox>kind,  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  are  dull  and 
 phlegmatic.  Their  fenfibility  and  talents  feem  to  be  very 
 limited.  But  we  fliould  not  pronounce  rafhly  concerning 
 the  genius  and  powers  of  animals  in  a  country  where  their 
 education  is  totally  negledled.  In  all  the  fouthern  provinces 
 of  Africa  and  Afia,  there  are  many  wild  bifons,  or  bunched 
 oxen,  which  are  taken  when  young  and  tamed.  They  are 
 foon  taught  to  fubmit,  without  refiftance,  to  all  kinds  of  do- 
 meftic labour.  They  become  fo  tradable,  that  they  are 
 managed  with  as  much  eafe  as  our  horfes.  The  voice  of 
 their  mafter  is  alone  fufficient  to  make  them  obey,  and  to 
 direct  their  courfe.  They  are  fhod,  curried,  carefled,  and 
 fupplied  abundantly  with  the  beft  food.  When  managed  In 
 this  manner,  thefe  animals  appear  to  be  different  creatures 
 from  our  oxen.  The  oxen  of  the  Hottentots  are  favourite 
 domeftics,  companions  in  amufements,  affiftants  in  all  labori- 
 
 *  Rail  f  ynopfis  Anlmalium  Quadrupedum,  page  IQ, 
 
OJF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  461 
 
 ous  exercifes,  and  participate  the  habitation,  the  bed,  and 
 the  table  of  their  mafters.  As  their  nature  is  improved  by 
 the  gemlenefs  of  their  education,  by  the  kind  treatment  they 
 receive,  and  the  perpetual  attention  beftowed  on  them, 
 they  acquire  fendbiUty  and  inteUigence,  and  perform  actions 
 which  one  would  not  expe£l  from  them.  The  Hottentots 
 train  their  oxen  to  war.  In  all  their  armies  there  are  con- 
 iiderable  troops  of  thefe  oxen,  which  are  eafily  governed,  and 
 are  let  loofe  by  the  chief  when  a  proper  opportunity  occurs. 
 They  inftantly  dart  with  impetuofity  upon  the  enemy.  They 
 flrike  with  their  hornsj  kick,  overturn,  and  trample  under  their 
 feet  every  thing  that  oppofes  their  fury.  They  run  ferocioufly 
 into  the  ranks,  which  they  foon  put  into  the  utmoft  diforder, 
 and  thus  pave  the  way  for  an  eafy  vidlory  to  their  mafters*. 
 Thefe  oxen  iire  likewife  inftrufted  to  guard  the  flocks,  which 
 they  condudt  with  dexterity,  and  defend  them  from  the  at- 
 tacks of  Grangers,  and  of  rapacious  animals.  They  are  taught 
 to  diftinguifla  friends  from  enemies,  to  underftand  fignals, 
 and  to  obey  the  commands  of  their  mafter.  When  paftur- 
 ing,  at  the  fmalleft  fignal  from  the  keeper,  they  bring  back 
 and  collect  the  wandering  animals.  They  attack  all  ftrangers 
 with  fury,  which  renders  them  a  great  fecurity  againft  rob- 
 bers. Thefe  brackeleys,  as  they  are  called,  know  every  inhabi- 
 tant of  the  kraal,  and  difcover  the  fame  marks  of  refpedt  for 
 all  the  men,  women,  and  children,  as  a  dog  does  for  thofe 
 who  live  in  his  maflier's  houfe.  Thefe  people  may,  there- 
 fore, approach  their  cattle  with  the  greateft  fafety.  But,  if  a 
 ftranger,  and  particularly  an  European,  fhould  ufe  the  fame 
 freedom,  without  being  accompanied  with  one  of  the  Hotten- 
 tots, his  life  would  be  in  imminent  dangerf . 
 
 •  Voyage  de  Cap,  par  Kolbe,  torn.  I-  page  i6o. 
 f  Voyage  dc  Cap,  par  Kolbe,  page  307. 
 
 K    ^  k 
 
462  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 NotwithftanJing  the  many  farprifing  a£lions  which  differ- 
 ent quadrupeds  may  be  taught  to  perform,  none  of  them, 
 though  their  organs  are  much  more  perfect  than  thofe  of 
 birds,  have  ever  been  able  to  pronounce  articulate  founds- 
 But  many  birds,  without  much  inftrudlion,  learn  to  pro- 
 nounce words,  and  even  fentences.  In  parrots,  the  diflin- 
 guifliing  accuracy  of  their  ear,  the  acutenefs  of  their  atten- 
 tion, and  their  ftrong  inftin^live  propenfity  to  imitate  founds 
 of  every  kind,  have  juftly  procured  them  univerfal  admira-^ 
 tion.  When  in  a  ftate  of  domeftication,  the  parrot  learns  to 
 pronounce  the  common  ftreet-calls,  befide  many  words  and 
 phrafes  occaiionally  employed  by  the  family  in  which  he  re- 
 fides.  Though  the  limitation  of  his  mental  powers  does 
 not  permit  him  to  learn  any  extent  of  language,  or  the  proper 
 ufe  and  meaning  of  words,  he  not  unfrequently  difcovers  the 
 alTociation  between  the  obje£l:  and  the  found.  A  woman 
 every  morning  pafTed  the  window,  where  a  parrot's  cage  was 
 fixed,  calling  fait.  The  parrot  foon  learned  to  imitate  the 
 call.  But,  before  any  found  could  be  heard,  he  no  fooner 
 caft  his  eye  upon  the  woman  than  he  tittered  her  ufual  call. 
 In  this,  and  many  other  limilar  cafes,  the  objects  and  the 
 founds  are  evidently  connecSted  in  the  mind  of  the  animal. 
 How  far  thefe  afTociations  might  be  carried  by  a  patient  and 
 perfevering  education,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  In  this 
 manner,  however,  parrots  might  be  taught  a  conliderable  vo- 
 cabulary of  fubfkantive  nouns,  or  the  proper  names  of  com- 
 mon objeds.  But  his  intellect,  it  is  more  than  probable, 
 would  never  reach  the  ufe  of  the  verb,  and  other  parts  of 
 fpeech. 
 
 Behde  parrots,  jays.  Sec.  who  learn  to  pronounce  articu- 
 late founds,  there  is  another  race  of  birds  whofe  docility  de- 
 fervcs  to  be  mentioned.  Singing  birds,  thofe  lively  and  fpi- 
 rited  little  animals,  attempt  not  to  articulate.  But  their  mu- 
 ilcal  cars  are  as  delicate  and  difcerniug  as  their  voices   are 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  463 
 
 melodious  and  delightful.  The  vivacity,  the  extent  of  voice, 
 and  the  imitative  powers  of  thefe  beautiful  creatures,  have  at 
 all  times  excited  the  attention  and  conciliated  the  aflciSlions 
 of  mankind.  When  domefticated,  thefe  birds,  befidc  their 
 natural  notes,  foon  acquire  the  faculty  of  linging  conlidera- 
 ble  parts  of  artificial  tunes.  Thefe  imitations  are  effcvfts  of 
 natural  inftincH:.  But,  in  exhibitions,  I  have  feen  linnets  fim- 
 ulate  death,  and  remain  perfectly  tranquil  and  unmoved, 
 when  fmall  cannons  were  fired,  within  an  inch  of  their  bo- 
 dies, from  a  wooden  fort.  Thefe  little  creatures  have  even 
 been  taught  to  lay  hold  of  a  match  and  fire  the  cannons 
 themfelves. 
 
 The  docility  and  fagacity  of  animals  have  always  been  con- 
 fidered  as  wonderful.  But  this  wonder  is  partly  the  effedt 
 of  inattention  ;  for,  though  man  is  unqueftionably  the  chief 
 of  the  animal  creation,  the  other  animals,  according  to  the 
 number  of  inftincls,  or,  which  amounts  to  the  fame  thing, 
 according  to  the  mental  powers  with  which  Nature  has  en- 
 dowed them,  comparatively  approach  to  or  recede  from  the 
 fagacity  and  genius  of  the  human  fpecies.  The  whole  is  a 
 graduated  fcale  of  intelligence.  A  philofopher  fhould,  there- 
 fore, contemplate  and  admire  the  whole,  but  fhould  never  be 
 furprifed  at  any  partial  exhibitions  of  the  general  fcene  of  in- 
 telledt  and  animation. 
 
 "We  fhall  conclude  this  fubjeiSi:  with  a  few  remarks  concern- 
 ing the  changes  produced  in  animals  by  domestication. 
 
 Climate  and  food  are  the  chief  caufes  which  produce  chang- 
 es in  the  magnitude,  figure,  colour,  and  conftitution,  of  wild 
 animals.  But,  befide  thefe  caufes,  there  are  others  which 
 have  an  influence  upon  animals  when  reduced  to  a  domeftic 
 or  unnatural  ftate.  When  at  perfect  liberty,  animals  feem 
 to  have  fele^ted  thofe  particular  zones  or  regions  of  the  globe 
 which  are  moft  confonant  to  the  nature  and  conftitution  of 
 each  particular  tribe.    There  they  fpontaneoufly  remain,  and 
 
464  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 never,  like  man,  difperfe  themfelves  over  the  whole  furface 
 of  the  earth.  But,  when  obliged  by  man,  or  by  any  great 
 revolution  of  Nature,  to  abandon  their  native  foil,  they  un- 
 dergo changes  fo  great,  that,  to  recognife  and  diftinguifli 
 them,  recourfe  muft  be  had  to  the  moft  accurate  examina- 
 tion. If  we  add  to  climate  and  food,  thofe  natural  caufes  of 
 alteration  in  free  animals,  the  empire  of  man  over  fuch  of 
 them  as  he  has  reduced  to  fervitude,  the  degree  to  which  ty- 
 ranny degrades  and  disfigures  Nature  will  appear  to  be  great- 
 ly augmented.  The  mouflon,  the  ftock  from  which  our  do- 
 nieftic  flieep  have  derived  their  origin,  is  comparatively  a 
 large  animal.  He  is  as  fleet  as  a  flag,  armed  with  horns  and 
 ftrong  hoofs,  and  covered  with  coarfe  hair.  With  thcfe  na- 
 tural advantages,  he  dreads  neither  the  inclemency  of  the  fky, 
 nor  the  voracity  of  the  wolf.  By  the  fwiftnefs  of  his  courfe, 
 he  not  only  efcapes  from  his  enemies,  but  he  is  enabled  to 
 relift  them  by  the  ftrength  of  his  body  and  the  folidity  of 
 his  arms.  How  different  is  this  animal  from  our  domeftic 
 Iheep,  who  are  timid,  weak,  and  unable  to  defend  them- 
 felves .''  "Without  the  prote<5lion  of  man,  the  whole  race 
 would  foon  be  extirpated  by  rapacious  animals  and  by  win- 
 ter-florms.  In  the  warm^eft  climates  of  Africa  and  of  Afia, 
 the  mouflon,  who  is  the  common  parent  of  the  fheep,  appears 
 to  be  lefs  degenerated  than  in  any  other  region.  Though  re- 
 duced to  a  domeftic  ftate,  he  has  preferved  bis  ftature  and  his 
 hair  ;  but  the  fize  of  his  horns  is  diminifhed.  The  fheep  of 
 Barbary,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Perfia,  &c.  have  undergone  greater 
 changes  ;  and,  in  proportion  as  they  approach  toward  either 
 pole,  they  diminifh  in  fize,  in  ftrength,  in  fwiftnefs,  and  in 
 courage.  In  relation  to  man,  they  are  improved  in  fome  ar». 
 tides,  and  vitiated  in  others.  Their  coarfe  hair  is  converted 
 into  fine  wool.  But,  with  regard  to  Nature,  improvement 
 and  degeneration  amount  to  the  fame  thing  ,  for  both  imply 
 ^n  alteration  of  the  original  cenftitution^ 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  465 
 
 The  ox  Is  more  influenced  by  nourifhment  than  any  other 
 domeflic  animal.  In  countries  where  the  pafture  is  luxuri- 
 ant, the  oxen  acquire  a  prodigious  fize.  To  the  oxen  of 
 Ethiopia  and  and  fome  provinces  of  Aiia,  the  ancients  gave 
 the  appellation  of  Biill-elephatits,  becaufe,  in  thefe  regions, 
 they  approach  to  tlie  magnitude  of  the  elephant.  This  efFe6l 
 is  chiefly  produced  by  the  abundance  of  rich  and  fucculent 
 herbage.  The  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  indeed  every 
 high  and  northern  country,  afford  flriking  examples  of  the 
 influence  of  food  upon  the  magnitude  of  cattle.  The  oxen, 
 as  well  as  the  horfes,in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Scotland, 
 are  extremely  diminutive  ;  but,  when  tranlported  to  richer 
 pafture,  their  fize  is  augmented,  and  the  qualities  of  their 
 flefh  are  improved.  The  climate  has  likewife  a  confiderable 
 influence  on  the  nature  of  the  ox.  In  the  northern  regions 
 of  both  continents,  he  is  covered  with  long  foft  hair.  He 
 has  likewife  a  large  bunch  on  his  flioulders  ;  and  this  defor- 
 mity is  common  to  the  oxen  of  Aiia,  Africa,  and  America, 
 Thofe  of  Europe  have  no  bunch.  The  European  oxen,  how^ 
 ever,  Teem  to  be  the  primitive  race,  to  which  the  bunched 
 kind  afcend,  by  intermixture,  in  the  fecond  or  third  genera- 
 tion. The  difference  in  their  fize  is  remarkably  great.  The 
 fmall  zebu,  or  bunched  ox  of  Arabia,  is  not  one  tenth  part  of 
 the  magnitude  of  the  Ethiopian  buil-elephant. 
 
 The  influence  of  food  upon  the  dog-kind  feems  not  to  be 
 great.  In  all  his  variations  and  degradations,  he  appears  to 
 follow  the  difference^  of  climate.  In  the  \vanr-cfl  climateSj^ 
 he  is  naked  -,  in  the  northern  regions,  he  is  covered  with  a 
 coarfe  thick  hair  ;  and  he  is  adorned  with  a  fine  filky  robe 
 in  Spain  and  Syria,  where  the  mild  temperature  of  the  air 
 converts  the  hair  of  mofl:  quadrupeds  into  a  kind  of  filk, 
 Befide  thefe  external  variations  produced  by  climate,  the  dog 
 undergoes  other  changes,  which  proceed  from  his  fituation, 
 his  captivity,  and  the  nature  of  the  Int^rcourfe  he  holds  witk 
 
466  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 man.  His  fize  is  augmented  or  diminiflied  by  obliging  the 
 fmaller  kinds  to  unite  together,  and  by  obferving  the  fame 
 conduct  with  the  larger  individuals.  The  fliortening  of  the 
 tail  and  ears  proceeds  alfo  from  the  hand  of  man.  Dogs  who 
 have  had  their  ears  and  tails  cut  for  a  few  generations,  tranf- 
 mit  thefe  defers,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  their  defcendants. 
 Pendulous  ears,  the  moft  certain  mark  of  domeftic  fervitude 
 and  of  fear,  are  almoft  univerfal.  Of  many  races  of  dogs,  a 
 few  only  have  retained  the  primitive  ftate  of  their  ears. 
 Ere6l  ears  are  now  confined  to  the  wolf-dog,  the  fhepherd*s 
 dog,  and  the  dog  of  the  North. 
 
 The  colour  of  animals   is  greatly  variegated  by  domefti- 
 
 cation.  The  dog,  the  ox,  the  fheep,  the  goat,  the  horfe,  have 
 alTumed  all  kinds  of  colours  and  even  mixtures  of  colours,  in 
 the  fame  individuals.  The  hog  has  changed  from  black  to  white ; 
 and  white,  without  the  intermixture  of  fpots,  is  generally  ac- 
 companied with  efTential  imperfe£tions.  Men  who  are  remark- 
 ably fair,  and  whofe  hair  is  white,  have  generally  a  defe£l  in 
 their  hearing,and,  at  the  fame  time,  weak  and  red  eyes.  Quad- 
 rupeds which  are  entirely  white  have  likewife  red  eyes  and  a 
 duUnefs  of  hearing.  The  variations  from  the  original  colour 
 are  moft  remarkable  in  our  domeflic  fowls.  In  a  brood  of 
 chickens,  though  the  eggs  be  laid  by  the  fame  hen,  and 
 though  the  female  be  impregnated  by  the  fame  male,  not 
 one  of  them  has  the  fame  colours  with  another. 
 
 Domeftication  not  only  changes  the  external  appearances 
 of  animals,  but  alters  or  modifies  their  natural  difpolitions. 
 The  dog,  for  example,  when  in  a  ftate  of  liberty,  is  a  rapa- 
 cious quadruped,  and  hunts  and  devours  the  weaker  fpecies  : 
 But,  after  he  has  fubmitted  to  the  dominion  of  man,  he  re- 
 linquifhes  his  natural  ferocity,  and  is  converted  into  a  mean, 
 fervile,  patient,  and  parafitical  flave. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  467 
 
 CHAPTER     XVIIL 
 
 Of  the  Characlers  of  Atiimals, 
 
 vJN  this  fubje£l  it  never  was  intended  to  paint 
 the  chara£ters  of  every  fpecies,  even  of  the  larger  animals. 
 The  reader  will  eafily  recollefV,  that,  in  many  parts  of  this 
 work,  much  has  already  been  faid  with  regard  to  the  tem- 
 pers, difpofitions,  and  manners,  of  a  great  number  of  animals. 
 Thefe  we  fhall  not  repeat,  but  proceed  to  fome  general  re- 
 marks. 
 
 On  every  animal  Nature  has  imprinted  a  certain  charaBevy 
 which  is  indelibly  fixed,  and  diftlnguifhes  the  fpecies.  This 
 characSler  we  difcover  by  the  a(Stions,  the  air,  the  counten- 
 ance, the  movements,  and  the  whole  external  appearance. 
 The  courage  of  the  Hon,  the  ferocity  of  the  tiger,  the 
 voracloufnefs  of  the  wolf,  the  pride  of  the  courfer,  the 
 duUnefs  and  indolence  of  the  afs,  the  cunning  and  ad- 
 drefs  of  the  fox,  the  affe£lion  and  docility  of  the  dog,  the 
 fubtlety  and  felfifhnefs  of  the  cat,  the  mildnefs  of  the  fheep, 
 the  timidity  of  the  hare,  the  vivacity  of  the  fquirrel,  are 
 proper  examples.  Thefe  characlers,  when  under  the  h..  3uence 
 of  domeftlcation,  may  be  modified  by  education,  of  which 
 rewards  and  punifliments  are  the  chief  infbruments  employ- 
 ed. But  the  original  charadler,  imprefled  by  the  hand  of 
 Nature,  is  never  fully  obliterated.  Thofo  animals  which 
 feem  to  have  been  deftined  by  Nature  to  live  in  perpetual 
 ilavery  under  tlie  dominion  of  man,  have  the  mildefi:  and 
 moft  gentle  difpofitions.  It  is  pleafant,  but,  at  the  fame  time^ 
 fomewhat  contemptible,  to  fee  a  troop  of  oxen  guided  by  the 
 whip  ot  a  child. 
 
468  ^HE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 In  the  human  fpecles,  the  variety  of  tempers,  afFe<n:Ions, 
 averfions,  and  ftudies,  is  indifpenfibly  neceflary  for  fupport- 
 ing  the  focial  ftate,  and  carrying  on  the  general  bufinefs  of 
 hfe.  Some  minds  are  formed  for  ftiidy  and  deep  refearch, 
 and  others  for  aflion,  courage,  and  the  exertion  of  bodily 
 powers.  The  fame  variety  in  the  difpofitions  and  manners 
 of  the  different  tribes  of  animals  is  equally  necefTary  for  peo- 
 pHng  the  earth,  and  tor  fupplying  the  reciprocal  exigencies 
 of  its  inhabitants. 
 
 Befide  the  general  fpecific  characters  of  animals,  individual 
 charadlers,  efpecially  among  the  human  race,  are  ftrongly 
 marked,  and  greatly  variegated.  In  every  government,  and 
 particularly  in  commercial  ftates,  human  characters,  indepen- 
 dently of  the  original  bias,  or  genius,  flamped  by  Nature  on 
 individual  minds,  are  often  fo  difguifed  by  a  thoufand  arti- 
 fices, that  it  requires  not  only  time,  but  frequent  interefting 
 fcenes,  before  a  man  can  difcover  the  real  charaCler  even  of 
 an  intimate  companion.  Many  men  afTociate  together  in 
 the  moft  harmonious  manner,  and  fliow  every  fymptom  of 
 friendfhip  and  attachment  ;  but,  when  any  of  them  happens 
 to  be  diftreffed,  and  to  require  aid,  all  this  apparent  friend- 
 fliip  inftantly  vanifhes,  the  afpecSt  of  the  countenance,  inftead 
 of  exhibiting  fympathy  and  cordiality,  is  converted  into  a 
 cold  referve,  and  the  unfortunate  former  companion  is  firfb 
 iliunned,  and  then  deferted.  This  piClure  of  human  nature, 
 we  are  forry  to  remark,  is  too  general ;  but,  thank  Heaven, 
 it  is  not  univerfal  ;  for  there  always  were,  and  ftill  are,  men 
 of  noble  and  generous  minds,  who  willingly  facrifice  part  of 
 their  own  interefl:  to  that  of  their  friends. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  characters  of  quadrupeds,  befide  the 
 fpecific  difpofitions  which  difliinguifli  the  different  kinds, 
 each  individual  pofTefTes  a  peculiar  character  by  which  it  may 
 be  difcriminated  from  any  other.  Thefe  individual  charac- 
 ters may  be  difcovered  not  only  by  the  afpeCt,  but  by  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HrSTORY.  469 
 
 actions  of  animals.  Some  dogs,  even  of  the  fame  race,  are 
 furly,  churlifh,  and  revengeful.  Others  are  gay,  frolick- 
 Ibmc,  and  friendly.  The  countenances  of  men,  which  al- 
 ways indicate  fome  part  of  their  original  and  genuine  charac- 
 ter, are  as  various  as  their  numbers.  Though  lefs  fubje6l  to 
 Sfeneral  obfervation.  Nature  has  marked  the  countenances  of 
 every  animal,  even  down  to  the  infecSt  tribes,  with  fome 
 charafteriftic  flrokes,  which  enable  them  to  diftinguifh  one 
 another,  and  even  to  contracSl  particular  attachments.  To  us, 
 the  finall  birds,  fuch  as  fparrows  and  linnets,  appear  to  be  fo 
 perfe<?cly  iimllar,  that,  though  we  had  an  opportunity  of  fee- 
 ing great  numbers  of  them  colle«Sl:ed  in  one  place,  it  would 
 require  much  time  and  attention  to  be  enabled  to  make  indi- 
 vidual diftin£lions.  After  they  have  brought  up  their  young, 
 they  alTociate  oromifcuoully  in  flocks ;  but,  when  the  genial 
 fpring  arrives,  a  different  fcene  is  exhibited.  The  flocks 
 difappear.  Each  male  has  fele^led,  courted,  and  retired  with 
 a  female  to  build  a  neft,  to  hatch  eggs,  and  to  nourifh  and 
 fupport  their  young.  If  Nature  had  not  ftamped  upon  every 
 individual  a  peculiar  mark,  it  would  be  impoffible  that  the 
 immenfe  multitudes  who  pair,  or  join  in  matrimony,  fhould 
 be  capable  of  diftinguilhing  and  adhering  faithfully  to  one 
 another.  A  fhepherd,  who  has  been  long  accuftomed  to  fu- 
 perintend  a  numerous  flock,  knows,  by  the  countenances, 
 and  other  natural  or  accidental  marks,  every  individual.  I 
 knew  a  fliepherd,  who  not  only  difl:inguifhed  every  individu- 
 al of  above  two  hundred  fheep,  but  gave  to  each  a  particu- 
 lar name. 
 
 The  characters  of  quadrupeds,  and  even  of  fome  birds,  are 
 indicated  by  obfcure  refemblances  between  the  lineaments  of 
 their  faces,  and  thofe  of  men  of  different  features  and  difpo- 
 (itions.  Some  men,  in  the  general  expreflion  of  their  coun- 
 tenances, refemble  goats,  others  fheep,  others  oxen,  others 
 fwine,   others  lionsj  others  dogs,  others  foxes,  others  owls, 
 
 L  L  I 
 
470  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 Others  hawks.  Even  in  particular  races  of  the  fame  fpecies, 
 fimilarities  of  this  kind  may  be  traced.  I  know  fome  men 
 who  refemble  terriers,  others  greyhounds,  others  fpaniels, 
 others  the  {hepherd's  dog,  others  the  lap-dog,  &c.  Some  of 
 thefe  refemblances  may  be  regarded  as  fanciful,  and  perhaps 
 they  frequently  are.  But,  in  general,  when  the  refemblance 
 to  a  particular  animal  is  ftrongly  marked  in  the  human  coun- 
 tenance, the  difpolitions  of  the  men  have  a  ftriking  affinity 
 to  thofe  of  the  animal.  Men  who  refemble  the  fox  are  uni- 
 formly cunning  and  deceitful.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  ox 
 are  dull,  ftupid,  and  phlegmatic.  Thofe  who  refemble  the 
 lion  are  bold,  open,  generous,  and  witty.  Thofe  who  refem- 
 ble the  cat  are  circumfpedl,  deligning,  and  avaricious.  Thofe 
 who  refemble  the  greyhound  are  vigilant,  adiive,  and  fmart. 
 Thofe  who  refemble  the  lap-dog  are  vain,  prefumptuous, 
 petulent,  and  lafcivious.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  fow  are 
 difguftful  both  in  their  appearance  and  in  their  difpofitions. 
 Thofe  who  refemble  a  crofs-made  horfe  are  cruel,  unfeeHng, 
 and  highly  felfifli.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  fpaniel,  of 
 whom  the  cxam.ples  are  numerous,  are  fawning,  mean,  and 
 parafitical.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  fheep  are  dull,  timid, 
 and  inofFenfive.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  goat  are  fanciful, 
 obftinate,  and  libidinous.  Thofe  who  refemble  a  fine  horfe 
 are  intrepid,  generous,  tractable,  and  good  humoured.  Thofe 
 who  refemble  a  hawk  are  quick,  defultory,  and  ingenious. 
 Thofe  who  refemble  the  owl  are  dark,  defigning,  and  treach- 
 erous. Thofe  who  refemble  the  bee  are  active,  ignorant,  and 
 induftrious.  It  is  needlefs  to  multiply  examples.  Every  man's 
 recolledtion  and  obfervation  will  furnifli  him  with  number- 
 lefs  coincidences  between  the  fimilarities  in  ftrudlure  and 
 features  to  particular  animals,  and  the  form,  difpofitions,  and 
 manners,  of  the  men  who  pofiefs  them. 
 
 Comparifons  have    been  infi:ituted,  and  analogies  traced, 
 between  the  ftrudure,  afpedl,  and  difiwfitions,  of  fome  quad- 
 
OF    NiiTURAL    HISTORY.  471 
 
 rupeds  and  thofe  of  certain  birds,  which  fliow  a  uniformity 
 in  the  general  plan  of  Nature.  Among  birds,  as  well  as 
 quadrupeds,  fome  fpecies  are  carnivorous,  and  others  feed 
 upon  fruits,  grain,  and  various  kinds  of  herbage.  The  eagle, 
 which  is  a  noble  and  a  generous  bird,  reprefents  the  lion. 
 The  vulture,  which  is  cruel  and  infatiable,  reprefents  the  ti- 
 ger. The  kite,  the  buzzard,  and  the  raven,  who  live  chiefly 
 on  offals  and  carion,  reprefent  the  hyaena,  the  wolf,  and  the 
 jackal.  The  falcon,  the  fparrow-hawk,  and  other  birds  em- 
 ployed in  hunting,  reprefent  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  lynx,  &c. 
 The  owl,  who  fearches  for  her  prey  in  the  night,  reprefents 
 the  cat.  The  heron  and  cormorant,  who  feed  upon  fifhes, 
 reprefent  the  beaver  and  the  otter.  Peacocks,  hens,  and  all 
 other  birds  which  have  a  crop,  or  craw,  reprefent  oxen,  fheep, 
 goats,  and  other  ruminating  animals. 
 
472  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 CHAPTER  XIX. 
 
 Of  the  'Principle  of  Imitation, 
 
 IMITATION  neceflarlly  implies  fome  degree  of 
 intelligence.  All  animals,  particularly  thofe  of  the  more  per- 
 fect kinds,  are  endowed  with  the  principle  of  imitation.  The 
 confequence  is  obvious,  that  all  anipials  pofTefs  a  certain  por- 
 tion of  intell€(Stual  power.  In  man,  the  principle  of  imita- 
 tion appears  at  a  very  early  period  of  his  exiftence.  In  the 
 more  advanced  ftages  of  life,  this  principle  is  fo  interwoven, 
 v/ith  other  motives  of  adling  and  thinking,  that  it  is  difficult 
 to  diftinguifli  it  as  a  feparate  inftincl,  and  equally  difficult  to 
 conquer  the  habits  and  prejudices  to  which  it  has  given  rife. 
 The  lefs  a  man  has  cultivated  his  rational  faculties,  the  more 
 powerful  is  the  principle  of  imitation  over  his  adlions  and  his 
 habits  of  thinking.  Moft  women,  of  courfe,  are  more  in- 
 fluenced by  the  behaviour,  the  fafhions,  and  the  opinions  of 
 thofe  with  whom  they  afTociate  than  men.  From  this  almoft 
 irreliftible  inftinfl,  we  fhould  learn  the  extreme  danger  of 
 frequenting  the  company  of  the  diflblute  and  unprincipled  ; 
 for  bad  habits  are  foon  acquired,  but  very  difficult  to  con- 
 quer. It  is  a  comfortable  circumftance,  hov/ever^  that  if  men, 
 efpecially  when  young,  are  fortunate  enough  to  fall  in  with 
 the  fociety  of  the  virtuous  and  intelligent,  the  principle  of 
 imitation,  fo  benevolent  is  Nature,  ads  w^ith  redoubled  force. 
 If  we  attend  to  our  own  feelings,  we  muO:  acknowledge,  that, 
 in  the  acquiHtion  of  bad  habits,  there  is  an  evident  force  up- 
 on our  natural  inclinations,  but  that,  in  virtuous  affiDciations, 
 the  mind  acquiefces  with  pleafure,  and  feels  no  reftraint  in 
 complying  with  the  examples  it  perceives  nor  in  acquiring 
 the  correfpondent  habits.     We  are  prone  to  evil ,  but,  whea 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORt.  4-73 
 
 not  corrupted  by  improper  imitations,  Nature  has  made  us 
 much  more  prone  to  good. 
 
 Artificial  language,  which  we  learn  entirely  by  imitation, 
 diftinguiflies  us,  more  than  any  other  circumftance,  from  the 
 brute  creation.  The  proper  ufe  of  it  likewife  forms  the  chief 
 difference  between  one  man  and  another  •,  for,  by  language, 
 one  man  difcovers  a  fuperiority  of  knowledge  and  of  genius, 
 while  others  exprefs  by  it  nothing  but  borrowed  or  confufed 
 ideas.  In  an  idiot,  or  in  a  parrot,  it  marks  only  the  moft  ab- 
 }eCz  degree  of  ftupidity.  It  fliows  the  incapacity  of  either  to 
 produce  a  regular  chain  of  thinking,  though  both  of  them 
 be  endowed  with  organs  capable  of  expreffing  what  paffes 
 within  their  minds.  Men  whofe  fenfes  are  delicate,  and 
 whofe  minds  are  eafily  affected,  make  the  beil  aclors,  and  the 
 beft  mimics.  Children,  accordingly,  are  extremely  alert  in 
 imitating  the  adlions,  the  geftures,  and  the  manners,  of  thofc 
 with  wham  they  affociate.  They  are  dexterous  in  perceiv- 
 ing ridiculous  figures  and  reprefentations,  which  they  imi- 
 tate with  eafe  and  propriety.  Hence  we  perceive,  in  the 
 education  of  children,  the  infinite  importance  of  regulating 
 the  principle  of  imitation. 
 
 The  education  of  the  inferior  animals,  though  iliort,  is  al- 
 ways fuccefsful.  By  imitation,  they  foon  acquire  all  the 
 knowledge  poffeffed  by  their  parents.  They  not  only  de- 
 rive experience  from  their  own  feelings,  but,  by  imitation, 
 they  learn  and  employ  the  experience  of  others.  Young 
 animals  model  their  actions  entirely  upon  thofe  of  the  old. 
 They  fee  their  feniors  approach  or  fly  when  they  perceive 
 particular  objedls,  hear  particular  founds,  or  fmell  certain 
 odours.  At  flrft,  they  approach  or  fly  v.'ithout  any  other 
 determining  principle  but  that  of  imitation.  Afterwards, 
 they  approach  or  fly  fpontaneoufly,  becaufe  they  have  then 
 acquired  the  habit  of  approaching  or  flying,  whenever  they 
 feel  the  fame  or  flmilar  fenfations.     Many  inflin^ls,  as  terror 
 
474  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 upon  bearing  particular  foundsj  the  appearance  of  natural 
 enemies,  the  fele<5lion  of  food,  &c.  feem  to  be  partly  the  effects 
 of  imitation.  It  is  remarked  by  Ulloa,  that,  in  the  year  1 743, 
 the  dogs  in  Juan  Fernades  had  loft  the  faculty  of  barking. 
 When  aflbciated  with  other  dogs,  it  was  with  great  difilculty 
 that  they  again  learned,  by  imitation  to  bark.  The  caufe  of 
 thefe  dogs  loofing  the  expreffion  of  their  ufual  language  in  a 
 domefcic  ftate,  it  is  not  eafy  to  invefligate.  Perhaps,  by  the 
 aid  of  experience,  and  their  own  fagacity,  they  difcovered 
 that  barking  warned  their  prey  to  efcape  from  danger.  The 
 jackals,  however,  who  are  confidered  as  belonging  to  the  dog- 
 kindj,  not  only  hunt  in  packs,  but,  during  the  chafe,  make  a 
 loud  znd  a  hideous  noife.  Mr.  White,  in  his  Natural  Hiflo- 
 ry  of  Selborne,  a  work  which  contains  much  information, 
 and  dlfcovers  a  good  and  benevolent  heart  in  the  author,  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  had  an  opportunity  of  feeing  two  dogs,  a 
 male  and  a  female,  which  had  been  brought  from  Canton  in 
 China.  Thefe  dogs,  v/hich,  in  China,  are  fattened  for  eat- 
 ing, are  about  the  fize  of  an  ordinary  fpaniel,  and  are  of  a 
 yellow  colour.  *  When  taken  out  into  a  field,'  he  remarks, 
 « t'  e  bitch  fliowed  fome  difpofltion  for  hunting,  and  dwelt 
 «  on  the  fccnt  of  a  covey  of  partridges  till  flie  fprung  them, 
 '  giving  her  tongue  all  the  time.  The  dogs  in  South  Ame- 
 '  rica  are  dumb  -,  but  thefe  bark  much  ih  a  fliort  thick  man- 
 'ncr,  like  foxes  •,  and  have   a  furly  favage  demeanour,  like 
 
 <  their  anceftors,  which  are  not  domefdcated,  but  bred  up  in 
 
 <  flies,  where  they  are  fed  for  the  table  with  rice-meal,  and 
 
 <  other  farinaceous  food.  Thefe  dogs,  having  been  taken 
 «  on  board  as  foon  as  weaned,  could  not  have  learned 
 ^  much  from  their  dam  ;  yet  they  did  not  relifh  flefli  when 
 
 <  they  came  to  England.     In  the  iflands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
 
 <  the  dogs  are  bred  upon  vegetables,  and  would  not  eat  flefli 
 ?  when  offered  them  by  our  circumnavigators.' 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  47* 
 
 From  fa<Sts  of  this  kind,  of  which  a  great  number  might 
 be  mentioned,  the  following  obfervations  natui-ally  arifc. 
 Thefe  Chinefe  dogs,  though  defcended,  probably  for  many 
 generations,  from  a  race  of  anceftors  who  never  had  the 
 leafi:  experience  or  education  in  hunting,  preferved  their 
 original  inftin£t  of  fcenting  and  purfuing  game.  The  dog 
 is  a  grofsly  carnivorous  animal ;  for  he  prefers  carion  to  any 
 other  kind  of  nourifhment  •,  yet  the  Chinefe  dogs  difcovered 
 no  particular  relifli  for  the  flefli  of  animals.  Thus  it  ap- 
 pears, that,  by  habits,  acquired,  not  by  the  individual,  but 
 by  a  train  of  anceftors,  both  the  tafte  and  the  conftitution  of 
 animals  may  be  greatly  altered.  From  the  fame  fa£t:s,  how- 
 ever, it  is  equally  evident,  that  Nature  can  n^ver  be  entirely 
 conquered.  The  moment  the  Chinefe  dogs  firfl  faw  a  field, 
 they  both  fcented  and  hunted  game.  Imitation  and  habit 
 feem  to  have  greater  efFcdls  upon  the  m.ode  of  living,  feed- 
 ing, and  the  corporeal  fabrick,  than  upon  the  original  inftincSls 
 of  the  mind.  Thefe  dogs,  even  when  they  came  to  Eng- 
 land after  a  long  voyage,  had  not  acquired  the  habit  of  gree- 
 dily devouring,  like  other  dogs,  either  frefli  meat  or  carion  5 
 but,  on  the  firft  opportunity  afforded  to  them,  they  difcover- 
 ed  an  inclination  to  hunt. 
 
4-76  THE    PHiLOSOPHy 
 
 CHAPTER     XX. 
 
 Of  the  Aligrailcn  of  Ammcih» 
 
 X  HE  Kon.  Dallies  Barrington,  In  his  Ejja^  on  the 
 Periodical  Appearing  ami  Difappearing  of  certain  Birds y  at  differ^ 
 ent  times  of  the  year'^y  has,  by  many  Ingenious  arguments,  as 
 well  as  curious  fa^ls,  rendered  it  extremely  probable,  that  no 
 birds,  however  ftrong  and  fwift  In  their  flight,  can  poflibly 
 fly  over  fuch  large  trails  of  the  ocean  as  has  been  commonly 
 fuppcfed.  He  admits  partial  migrations  or  fittings,  as  he 
 calls  them,  though  he  does  not  attempt  to  afcertain  the  dif- 
 tances  of  thefe  flittlngs.  With  regard  to  the  fwallows,  of 
 which  there  are  feveral  fpecies  in  Britain,  fome  natural ifts, 
 of  whom  the  Hon.  Daines  Barrington  is  one,  are  inclined  to 
 think  that  they  do  not  leave  this  ifland  at  the  end  of  autumn, 
 but  that  they  lie  in  a  torpid  ftate  till  the  beginning  of  fum- 
 mer  in  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees, 
 the  recefles  of  old  buildings,  the  holes  of  fand-banks,  and  in 
 fimilar  fltuations.  That  fwallows,  in  the  winter  months, 
 have  fometimes,  though  very  rarely,  been  found  in  a  torpid 
 flate,  is  unqueftionably  true.  Neither  is  the  inference,  that, 
 if  any  of  them  can  furvive  the  winter  in  that  fl:ate,  the 
 whole  of  them,  may  fubfift,  during  the  cold  feafon,  in  the 
 fame  condition,  in  the  fmallell  degree  unnatural.  Still,  how- 
 ever, the  numbers  of  fwallows  which  appear  in  this  ifland, 
 as  well  4s  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  during  the  fummer  months, 
 are  fo  very  conflderable,  that,  if  the  great  body  of  them  did 
 not  migrate  to  fome  other  cliniate,  they  fliould  be  much 
 more  frequently  found  in  a  torpid  ftate.  On  the  contrary, 
 v«^hen  a  few  of  them  are  difcovered  in  that  fl:ate,  it  is  regarded 
 •  Phil.  Tranfadl,  vol.  62,  page  265,  &c. 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  477 
 
 as  a  wonder  even  by  the  country  people,  who  have  the 
 greateft  opportunities  of  ftuinbling  upon  fadts  of  this  kind. 
 When,  accordingly,  a  few  fvvallows  or  martins  are  found 
 torpid  in  winter,  and  have  been  revived  by  a  gentle  heat, 
 the  fact,  and  few  fuch  fadls  there  are,  is  carefully  recorded 
 as  fingular  in  all  the  periodical  publications  of  Europe. 
 
 Mr.  Pennant  informs  us,  from  undoubted  authority,  that 
 fome  quails,  and  other  birds  which  are  generally  fuppofed  to 
 leave  this  ifland  in  winter,  retire  to  the  fea-coafts,  and  pick 
 up  their  food  among  the  fea-weeds*. 
 
 *  Ouails,'  Mr.  Pennant  remarks,  «  are  birds  of  paiTage  ; 
 '  fome  entirely  quitting  our  iflands,  others  fhifting  their 
 '  quarters.      A  gentleman,    to   whom  this  work  lies  under 
 
 *  great  obligations,  has  aflured  us,  that  thefe  birds  migrate 
 '  out  of  the  neighbouring  inland  counties,  into  the  hundreds 
 
 <  of  EfTcx  in  Odlober,  and  continue  there  all  the  winter :    If 
 
 *  froft  or  fnow  drive  them  out  of  the  flubble-fields  and 
 '  marfhes,  they  retreat  to  the  fea-fide,  flielter  themfelves  a- 
 •^  mong  the  weeds,  and  live  upon  what  they  can  pick  up 
 «  from  the  algae,  &c.  between  high  and  low  water  mark. 
 
 <  Our  friend  remarks,  that  the  time  of  their  appearance  in 
 
 *  EiTex  coincides  with  that  of  their  leaving  the  inland  coun- 
 '  ties  f .' 
 
 A  quail,  it  muft  be  allowed,  fecms  to  be  very  much  un- 
 qualified for  a  long  migration  •,  for  its  tail  is  fhort,  the  bird 
 never  rifes  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the  ground, 
 and  it  feldom  flies  above  three  hundred  yards  at  a  time.  Be- 
 lon,  however,  an  author  of  great  fagacity  and  credit,  tells 
 us,  that,  in  his  paffage  from  Rhodes  to  Alexandria,  many, 
 quails  flying  from  north  to  fouth,  were  taken  in  his  fhip. 
 From    this    circumftance,    he    remarks,  «  I   am    perlliaded 
 
 <  that  they  fhift  places  ♦,   for  formerly,  when  I  failed  out  of 
 
 *  Brit.  Zool.  Vol,  i.  page  aio.  .id  edit.  8vo, 
 I  Pennant,  ibid. 
 
 M  M  m 
 
478  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 « the  Iflo  of  Zant  to  Morea,  or  Negropont,  in  the  spring,  I 
 «  obferved  quails  flying  the  contrary  way,  at  which  time,  al- 
 «  fo,  a  grcat  many  were  taken  in  our  (hip.'  This  traverfe 
 they  might  be  enabled  to  accomplifh  by  paihng  from  one 
 ifland  to  another  in  the  Mediterranean. 
 
 Inftances  of  fwallows  and  fome  other  birds  alighting  on  the 
 mads  and  cordage  of  veflels,  at  confiderable  diftances  from  any 
 ihorc,  are  not  fo  numerous  as  might  be  expedVed.  Neither 
 have  they  been  often  obferved  flying  over  feas  in  great  flocks. 
 Mr.  Peter  CoUinfon,  in  a  letter  printed  in  the  Philofophical 
 tranfadtiohs,    fays,    ^  that  Sir  Charles  Wager  had  frequently 
 
 <  informed  him,  that,  in  one  of  his  voyages  hom.e  in  the 
 *  fpring,  as  he  caipe  into  foundings  in  our  channel,  a. great 
 «  flock  of  fwallows  almoil:  covered  his  rigging  j    that    they 
 
 <  were  nearly  fpent  and  famiilied,  and  were  only  feathers  and 
 
 <  bones  •,  '  but,  being  recruited  by  a  night's  reft,  they  took 
 
 <  their  flight  in  the  morning.' 
 
 M.  Adanfon,  in  his  voyage,  informs  us,  that,  about  fifty- 
 leagues  from  the  coaft  of  Senegal,  four  fwallows  fettled  upon 
 the  fliip,  on  the  lixth  day  of  October  ;  that  thefe  birds  were 
 taken  *,  and  that  he  knev/  them  to  be  the  true  fwallow  of 
 Europe,  which  he  conjectures  were  then  returning  to  the 
 coaft  of  Africa.  The  Hon.  Daines  Barrington,  with  more 
 probability,  fuppofes  that  thefe  fwallows,  inftead  of  being  on 
 their  palTage  from  Europe,  were  only  flitting  from  the  Cape 
 de  Verde  iflands  to  the  continent  of  Africa,  a  much  fhorter 
 flight,  but  to  v/liich  they  feemed  to  be  unequal,  as  they  were 
 obliged,  from  fatigue,  to  light  upon  the  fhip,  and  fail  into 
 the  hands  of  the  failors. 
 
 Swallows,  Mr.  Kalm  remarks,  appear  in  the  Jerfies  about 
 the  beginning  of  April.  They  are,  on  their  firft  arrival, 
 wet,  becaufe  they  have  juft  emerged  from  the  fea  or  lakes, 
 at  the  bottom  of  v/hich  they  had  remained  in  a  torpid  ftate 
 during  the  whole  winter.     But  Mr.  Kalm,  who  wiflies  to  fup- 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  479 
 
 port  the  torpidity  of  fwallows  during  the  winter,  likewife  in- 
 forms us,  that  he  himfelf  met  with  them  at  fea,  nine  hun- 
 dred and  twenty  miles  from  any  land*. 
 
 Thefe,  and  fimilar  facts,  the  Hon.  Daines  Barrington  en- 
 deavours to  explain,  by  fuppofing  that  birds  difcovered  in 
 fuch  fituations,  inftead  of  attempting  to  crofs  large  branches 
 of  the  ocean,  have  been  forcibly  driven  from  fome  ccaft  by 
 ftorms,  and  that  they  would  naturally  perch  upon  the  firfb 
 vefTel  which  came  within  their  view. 
 
 In  Britain,  five  fpecies  of  fwallows  appear  in  the  fummer 
 and  difappear  in  the  winter.  1.  The  houfe-fwallow  makes 
 its  appearance  about  twenty  days  earlier  than  the  martin,  or 
 any  other  of  the  fwallow  tribe.  They  are  often  feen  about 
 the  13th  day  of  April.  They  difappear  about  the  end  of 
 September.  A  few  days  previous  to  their  departure,  they 
 aflemble  in  great  flocks  on  the  tops  of  houfes,  churches,  and 
 trees,  from  whence  they  are  fuppofed  to  take  their  flight. 
 This  unufual  and  temporary  afibciation  of  numbers  indicates 
 the  impulfe  of  fome  common  inftinct  by  which  each  indivi- 
 dual is  actuated.  The  houfe  fwallow  Is  eafiiy  dlftinguilhed 
 from  the  other  fpecies  by  the  fuperior  forkinefs  of  its  tail, 
 and  by  a  red  fpot  on  the  forehead,  and  under  the  chin. 
 This  fpecies  build  in  chimneys,  and  make  its  neft  of  clay, 
 but  leaves  the  top  quite  open.  2.  The  martin  is  inferior  in 
 iize  to  the  former,  and  its  tail  is  much  lefs  forked.  The 
 martins  appear  in  Britain  foon  after  the  houfe-fwallow. 
 They  build  under  the  eaves  of  houfes  :  The  neft  is  compof- 
 ed  of  the  fame  materials  as  thofe  of  the  houfe-fwallow  ;  but 
 it  is  covered  above,  and  a  fmall  hole  only  is  left  in  the  fide 
 for  the  ingrefs  and  egrefs  of  the  birds.  The  martins  totally 
 difappear  about  the  beginning  of  October.  3.  The  f.^nd- 
 martin,  or  bank-martin,  is  by  much  the  fmalleft  of  the  fwal- 
 low-kind  that  vifit  Britain.  The  fand-martins  arrive  very 
 *  Voy,  torn.  I.  page  24. 
 
480  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 foon  after  the  houfe-fwallow,  and  difap'pear  about  Michael- 
 rpas.  They  dig  confiderable  holes  in  fand-pits  and  in  the 
 banks  of  rivers,  where  they  build  their  nefts,  which  confift 
 not  of  mud,  like  thofe  of  the  former  fpecies,  but  of  grafles 
 and  feathers  laid  together  in  a  very  flovenly  manner.  It  is 
 worthy  of  remark,  that  thefe  birds  do  not  employ  the  cavi- 
 ties they  dig  in  fummer  for  winter- quarters  ;  fmce  fand- 
 banks,  fo  perforated,  have  been  carefully  fearched  in  the 
 winter,  and  nothing  was  found  but  empty  nefls*.  4.  The 
 fwift,  or  black  martin  of  Willoughby,  is  the  largeft  of  our 
 fwallows,  and  is  the  lateft  of  arriving  in  this  country  ;  for 
 the  fwifts  are  feldom  feen  till  the  beginning  of  May,  and 
 commonly  appear,  not  in  flocks,  but  in  pairs.  Swifts,  hke 
 the  fand-martins,  carry  on  the  bufinefs  of  incubation  in  the 
 dark.  They  build  in  the  cranies  of  caftles,  towers,  and  ftee- 
 ples.  Straw  and  feathers  are  the  materials  they  ufe.  They 
 difappear  very  early  ;  for  they  are  almoft  never  feen  after 
 the  middle  of  Auguft.  5.  The  goatfucker,  which  belongs 
 to  the  fwallow  tribe,  is  likewifq  a  bird  of  palTage.  Like  the 
 other  fwallows,  it  feeds  upon  winged  infecSlg.  But,  inftead 
 of  purfuing  its  prey  during  the  day,  it  flies  only  in  the  night, 
 and  feizes  moths,  and  other  nofturnal  infects.  From  this 
 circumfl:ance,  it  has  not  improperly  received  the  appellation 
 of  the  nocliinial  fivalloiv.  The  goat-fucker  fbays  only  a  fhort 
 time  in  Britain.  It  appears  not  till  about  the  end  of  May,  and 
 retires  in  the  middle  of  Augufl.  It  lays  its  eggs,  which  arc 
 commonly  two,  and  fometimes  three,  on  the  bare  ground. 
 
 To  give  catalogues  of  the  numerous  birds  of  pafTage  which 
 frequent  this  ifland,  as  well  as  other  countries,  and  to  mark 
 the  times  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  would  be  deviating 
 entirely  from  our  plan.  For  clrcumftances  of  this  kind,  thp 
 curious  may  confult  Catefby,  Klein,  Linnaei  Amoenitates 
 •Academicae,  White,  Sec.  But,  as  the  periodical  appearanc*? 
 *  White's  Natural  Hillory  of  Sclborne,  page  177. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  481 
 
 and  dilappearance  of  the  fwallow-trlbe  have  given  rife  to  dif- 
 ferent theories  and  opinions,  we  fhall  briefly  relate  thofo 
 opinions,  and  conclude  with  fome  remarks  on  migration  in 
 general. 
 
 Herodotus  and  Profper  Alpinus  mention  one  fpecies  of 
 fwallow  which  refides  in  Egypt  during  the  whole  year*  ; 
 and  Mr.  Loten,  late  governour  of  Ceylon,  afTured  Mr.  Pen- 
 nant, that  thofe  of  Java  never  remove.  If  thefe  be  excepted, 
 all  the  other  known  kinds  retreat  or  migrate  periodically. 
 Swallows  migrate  from  almoft  every  climate.  They  remove 
 from  Norway  f ,  from  North  America  :}:,  from  Kamtfchatka§, 
 from  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  from  Aleppo  ||,  and 
 from  Jamaica  5[. 
 
 Concerning  the  periodical  appearance  and  difappearance 
 of  fwallows,  there  are  three  opinions  adopted  by  different 
 natural ifts.  The  firft  and  mofl  probable,  is,  that  they  re- 
 move from  climate  to  climate  at  thofe  particular  feafons 
 when  winged  infecls,  their  natural  food,  fails  in  one  country 
 or  diftrlcl:  and  abounds  in  another,  where  they  likewife  find 
 a  temperature  of  air  better  fuited  to  their  conftitutions.  In 
 fupport  of  this  opinion,  we  have  the  teftimony,  as  formerly 
 mentioned,  of  Sir  Charles  Wager,  of  M.  Adanfbn,  and  of 
 many  navigators.  It  is  equally  true,  however,  that  fome 
 fpecies  of  fwallows  have  been  occaiionally  found  in  a  torpid 
 ftate  during  winter.  Mr.  Collinfon  gives  the  evidence  of 
 three  gentlemen  who  were  eye-witneffes  to  a  number  of 
 fand-martins  being  drawn  out  of  a  cliff  on  the  Rhine  in  the 
 Month  of  Marcli  1762**.  The  Hon.  Dalnes  Barrington,  in 
 the  year  1768,  communicated  to  Mr.  Pennant,  on  the  au- 
 thority of  the  late  Lord  Belhaven,  the  following  fadt :  *  That 
 
 *  Profp.  Alp,  torn.  i.  page  193, 
 f  Pontopp.  Hift.  Norw.  ii.  98.     ^  Catelby's  Carol,  v   i.  page  51.  App.  8. 
 ^  Hid.  Kamtrdiatba,  page  1 6a.   H  RufTcl's  Alep.  page  70.  f  Phil.  Tranf.  No.  36. 
 ♦*  Philofoph.  Trarifadi.  vol.  S3,  P^S^  i°^-  ^^^'  ^4- 
 
482  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 <  numbers  of  fwallows  have  been  found  in  old  dry  walls,  and 
 
 <  in  fand-hills,  near  his  Lordfhip's  feat  in  Eaft  Lothian  j  not 
 
 <  once  only,  but  from  year  to  year  •,  and  that,  when  they 
 «  were  expofed  to  the  warmth  of  a  fire,  they  revived*'/ 
 Thefe,  and  other  fadls  of  the  fame  kind,  feem  to  be  uncon- 
 trovertible J   and  Mr.  Pennant  infers  from  them,  that  *  we 
 
 <  muft  divide  our  belief  relating  to  thefe  two  fo  different  opi- 
 
 *  nions,  and  concludej  that  one  part  of  the  fwallow  tribe  mi- 
 
 <  grates  and  that    others   have  their  winter-quarters   near 
 
 *  home  f .'  But  we  fliould  rather  incline  to  think,  with  thofe 
 naturalifts  who  fuppofe  that  the  torpid  fwallows  which  are 
 occatlooally,  though  very  rarely,  difcovered  in  the  winter 
 feafon,  have  been  obliged  to  remain  behind,  becaufe  they 
 were  too  young,  weak,  difeafed,  or  fuperannuated,  to  under- 
 take a  long  and  fatiguing  flight.  Still,  however,  that  the 
 torpidity  of  the  feathered  tribes  fhould  be  folely  confined  to 
 the  fwallows,  is  a  very  fmgular  fadl  in  the  hiftory  of  Nature. 
 Among  quadrupeds,  there  are  many  fpecies  who  lie  in  a  dor- 
 mant or  torpid  Ad.te  during  winter.  But,  if  the  fwallow  be 
 excepted,  not  a  flngle  fpecies  of  birds,  notwithflanding  the 
 great  numbers  v/hich,  at  ftated  times,  appear  and  difappear 
 in  every  corner  of  the  globe,  has  ever  been  difcovered  in 
 that  ftate.  This  circumftance  alone,  though  we  cannot  yet 
 afcertain  the  precife  places  to  which  different  fpecies  of  birds 
 of  pafTage  refort,  is  a  mofl  convincing  proof  of  migration  in 
 generah 
 
 It  has  been  afTerted,  and  even  believed,  by  fome  naturalifts, 
 that  fwallows  pafs  the  winter  immcrfed  under  the  ice,  at  the 
 bottom  of  lakes,  or  beneath  the  waters  of  the  fea.  Olaus 
 Magnus,  i^chbifhop  of  Upfal,  feems  to  have  been  the  firll 
 who  adopted  this  opinion.  He  inform.s  us,  that  fwallows 
 are  found  in  great  cluflers  at  the  bottoms  of  the  northern 
 
 •  Pennant's  Britiih  Zoofogy,  vol.  2.  page  230.  8vo  edit, 
 f  Ibid.  251, 
 
©F    NATURAL    HISTORY.  48S 
 
 lakes,  with  mouth  to  mouth,  wing  to  wing,  foot  to  foot,  and 
 that  in  autumn  they  creep  down  the  reeds  to  their  fubterra- 
 neous  retreats*.  *  That  the  good  Archbifhop,'  Mr.  Pennant 
 archly  remvirks,  « did  not  want  credulity  in  other  inftances. 
 *  appears  from  this,  that,  after  having  ftocked  the  bottoms 
 
 <  of  the  lakes  with  birds,  he  ftores  the  clouds  with  mice, 
 
 <  which  fometimes  fall  in  plentiful  fliowers  on  Norway  and 
 « the  neighbouring  countries !'  Klein  has  endeavoured  to  fup- 
 port  the  notion  that  fwallows  lie  under  water  during  the 
 winter,  and  gives  the  following  account  of  their  manner  of 
 retiring,  which  he  colle<Sled  from  fome  countrymen  :  They 
 aflerted,  he  tells  us,  that  the  fwallows  fometimes  affembled 
 in  numbers  on  a  reed  till  it  broke  and  funk  them  to  the  bot- 
 tom :  That  their  immerfion  was  preceded  by  a  kind  of 
 dirge,  which  lafled  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  :  That 
 others  united,  laid  hold  of  a  ftraw  with  their  bills,  and  plung- 
 ed down  in  fociety  :  That  others,  by  clinging  together  with 
 their  feet,  formed  a  large  mafs,  and  in  this  manner  commit- 
 ted themfelves  to  the  deepf. 
 
 Two  reafons  feem  to  render  this  fuppofed  fubmerfion  of 
 fwallows  impoffible.  In  the  firft  place,  no  land-animal  can 
 exift  fo  long  without  fome  degree  of  refpiration.  The  otter, 
 the  feal,  and  water. fowls  of  all  kinds,  when  confined  under 
 the  ice,  or  entangled  in  nets,  foon  perifh  ;  yet  it  is  well 
 known,  that  animals  of  this  kind  can  remain  much  longer 
 under  water  than  thofe  who  are  deftitute  of  that  peculiar 
 ftru<^ure  of  the  heart  which  is  neceffary  for  any  confiderable 
 relidence  beneath  that  penetrating  element.  Mr.  John  Hun- 
 ter, in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Pennant,  informs  us,  '  That  he  had 
 
 <  diflecled  many  fwallows,  but  found  nothing  in  them  differ- 
 
 <  ent  from  other  birds  as  to  the  organs  of  refpiration  :    That 
 
 <  all  thofe  animals  which  he  had  dilTedled  of  the  clafs  that 
 
 •  Derham's  Phyf.  Theol.  page  349. 
 t  Klein  Prod.  Hift.  Avium,  page  S05.  2g6. 
 
4S4f  THfe    PHILOSOPHt 
 
 «  ileep  during  winter,  fuch  as  lizards,  frogs,  Sec.  had  a  very 
 
 <  different  conformation  as  to  thofe  organs  :  That  all  thofe 
 
 <  animals,  he  believes,  do  breathe  in  their  torpid  flate  j  and, 
 
 <  as   far  as  his  experience  reaches,  he  knows  they  do  ;    and 
 
 <  that,  therefore,  he  efteems  it  a  very  wild  opinion,  that  ter- 
 '  reftrlal  animals  can  remain  any  long  time  under  water 
 '  without  drowning.'  Another  argument  againft  their  fub- 
 merfion  rifes  from  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  animals  them- 
 felves.  Of  all  birds,  the  fvvallovv  tribes  are  perhaps  the 
 lighteft.  Their  plumage,  and  the  comparative  fmallnefs  of 
 their  weight,  indicate  that  Nature  deftined  them  to  be  almofl 
 perpetually  on  the  wing  in  queft  of  food.  From  this  fpeci- 
 fic lightnefs,  the  fubmerlion  of  fwallov/s,  and  their  continu- 
 ing for  months  under  water,  amount  to  a  phyfical  impoffi- 
 bility.  Even  water-fowls,  when  they  wifh  to  dive,  are  oblig- 
 ed to  rife  and  plunge  with  confiderable  exertion,  in  order  to 
 overcome  the  reliftance  of  the  water.  Klein's  idea  of  fwal- 
 lows  employing  reeds  and  ftraws  as  means  of  fubmerlion  is 
 rather  ludicrous  j  for  thefe  light  fubftances,  inftead  of  being 
 proper  inftruments  for  affifting  them  to  reach  the  bottom, 
 would  infaUibly  contribute  to  fupport  them  on  the  furface, 
 and  prevent  the  very  objeif}:  of  their  intention.  Befides,  admit- 
 ting the  poffibility  of  their  reaching  the  bottom  of  lakes  and 
 feas,  and  fuppofing  they  could  exift  for  feveral  months  with- 
 out refpiratlon,  what  would  be  the  confequence  ^  The 
 whole  would  foon  be  devoured  by  otters,  feals,  and  iiflies  of 
 various  kinds.  Nature  is  always  anxious  for  the  prefervation 
 of  fpecies.  But,  if  the  fwallovv  tribes  were  deftined  to  re- 
 main torpid,  during  the  winter  months,  at  the  bottom  of 
 lakes  and  feas,  Ihe  would  acSt  in  oppofition  to  her  own  inten- 
 tions ;  for,  in  a  feafon  or  two,  the  whole  genus  would  be 
 annihilated* 
 
 Mr.  White  of  Selborne  has  favoured  us  with  the  follow- 
 ing information  concerning  the  migration  of  fwallows  :     *  If 
 
CF    NATURAL    Hf STORY.  485 
 
 ever  I  faw,*  lliys  he,  <  any  thing  like  aflual  migration,  it 
 was  laft  Michaelmas  day,  1 768.  I  was  travelling,  and  out 
 earlv  in  the  morning  :  At  firft  there  was  a  vaft  fog  ;  but, 
 by  the  time  that  1  was  got  feven  or  eight  miles  from  home 
 towards  the  coaft,  the  fun  broke  out  into  a  delicate  warm 
 day.  We  were  then  on  a  large  heath  or  common,  and  I 
 could  difcern,  as  the  mift  began  to  break  away,  great  num- 
 bers of  fwallows  cluftering  on  the  ftinted  ihrubs  and  bufh- 
 es,  as  if  they  had  rooded  there  all  night.  As  foon  as  the 
 air  became  clear  and  pleafant,  they  all  were  on  the  wing  at 
 once,  and,  by  a  placid  and  eafy  flight,  proceeded  on  fouth- 
 ward  towards  the  fea  :  After  this  I  did  not  fee  any  more 
 flocks,  only  now  and  then  a  fl:raggler.  When  I  ufed  to 
 rife  in  a  morning  laft  autumn,  and  fee  the  fwallows  and 
 martins  cluftering  on  the  chimneys  and  thatch  of  the  neigh- 
 bouring cottages,  I  could  not  help  being  touched  with  fe- 
 cret  delight,  mixed  with  fome  degree  of  mortification  : 
 With  delight,  to  obferve  with  how  much  ardour  and  punc- 
 tuality thofe  poor  little  birds  obeyed  the  ftrong  impulfe  to- 
 wards migration,  or  hiding,  imprinted  on  their  minds  by 
 their  great  Creator ;  and  with  fome  degree  of  mortifica- 
 tion, when  I  reflected,  that,  after  all  Our  pains  and  enquir- 
 ies, we  are  yet  not  quite  certain  to  what  regions  they  do 
 migrate  ;  and  are  ftill  farther  embarrafled  to  find,  that 
 fome  do  not  aclually  migrate  at  all*.' 
 In  another  part  of  this  work,  Mr.  White  fays  :  <  But  we 
 muft  not  deny  migration  in  general  •,  becaufe  migration 
 certainly  does  fubfift  in  fome  places,  as  my  brother  in  An- 
 dalufia  has  fully  inform.ed  me.  Of  the  motions  of  thefe 
 birds  he  has  ocular  demonftration,  for  many  weeks  toge- 
 ther, both  fpring  and  fall  :  During  which  periods,  myriads 
 of  the  fwallow  kind  traverfe  the  Straits  from  north  to  fouth, 
 and  from  fouth  to  north,  according  to  the  feafon.     And 
 
 *  Whirl's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selbornc,  page  64.65. 
 N   N  n 
 
486  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 <  tliefe  vaft  migrations  confift  not  only  of  hirudines  (fwallows,) 
 
 <  but  of  bee  birds y  hoopoes ^  oropendulos^  ox  golden  thrujhes^  &c.  &c« 
 
 <  and  alfo  many  of  our  foft  billed  fummer  birds  of  pajfage  ;  and, 
 «  moreover,  of  birds  which  never  leave  us,  fuch  as  all  the 
 *  various  forts  of  hawks  and  kites.     Old  Belon,  two  hundred 
 
 <  years  ago,  gives  a  curious  account  of  the  incredible  armies 
 
 <  of  hawks  and   kites,  which  he  faw  in  the  fpring-time  trav- 
 
 <  erfing  the  Thracian  Bofphorus  from  Aiia  to  Europe.  Be- 
 «  fides  the  above  mentioned,  he  remarks,  that  the  proceflion 
 
 <  is  fwelled  by  whole  troops  of  eagles  and  vultures*.' 
 
 Mr.  White  like  wife,  with  much  propriety,  remarks,  that 
 our  inquiries  concerning  the  migration  of  birds  have  been 
 too  much  confined  to  the  fwallow  tribes  ;  while  little  atten- 
 tion has  been  paid  to  the  fhort-winged  birds  of  paflage, 
 fuch  as  quails,  red-ftarts,  nightingales,  wliite-throats,  black- 
 caps, &c.  All  thefe,  though  feemingly  ill  qualified  for  long 
 flights,  difappear  in  the  winter,  and  not  one  of  them,  not- 
 withftanding  their  immenfe  numbers,  has  ever  been  found 
 in  a  torpid  ftate. 
 
 To  mark  the  times  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  birds 
 of  paflage  in  diff'erent  countries,  and  in  difterent  diftricfts  of 
 the  fame  countries,  and  the  probable  motives  arifing  from 
 the  ftate  of  the  country  with  regard  to  heat  and  cold,  and  to 
 that  of  the  food  peculiar  to  each  kind,  would  throw  much 
 light  upon  the  hifliory  of  migration.  To  Mr.  White  of  Sel- 
 borne  we  are  obliged  for  the  following  lifts  of  birds  of  paf- 
 fage  which  he  has  obferved  in  his  neighbourhood.  Thefe 
 lifts  are  arranged  nearly  in  the  order  of  time. 
 
 •  M'hkeN  Natural  Hifcory  of  Selborne,  page  139. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY. 
 
 487 
 
 Liji  of  Summer  Birds  cf  Pajfage. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Usually  appear  aboui 
 
 1.  Wryneck, 
 
 Middle  of  March. 
 
 2.  Smalleft  willow-wren, 
 
 March  23. 
 
 3.  Houfe-fwallow, 
 
 April  13. 
 
 4.  Martin, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 5.  Sand-Martin, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 6.  Black-cap, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 7.  Nightingale, 
 
 Beginning  of  April. 
 
 8.  Cuckoo,  ^ 
 
 Middle  of  April. 
 
 9.  Middle  willow-wren, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 10.  White-throat, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 11.  Red-ftart, 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 12.  Stone-curlew, 
 
 End  of  March. 
 
 1  Q.      'T'nrflf*  Hnvp 
 
 lo,    xuriic-uuvt:, 
 
 14.  Grafshopper-lark, 
 
 Middle  of  April. 
 
 15.  Swift, 
 
 April  27. 
 
 16.  Lefs  reed-fparrow, 
 
 1  1      T.inri_r"oil 
 
 J.  1  •     XjtlllU.   I  d.11, 
 
 18.  Largeft  willow- wren. 
 
 End  of  April. 
 
 19.  Goat-fucker,  or  fern-owl. 
 
 ,  Beginning  of  May. 
 
 20.  Fly-catcher, 
 
 CMay  12.  This  is  the  lateil: 
 ^     fummer  bird  of  palTage. 
 
 Mofl:  foft-billed  birds  feed  upon  infedls,  and  not  on  grain 
 or  feeds  ;  and,  therefore,  they  retire  before  winter.  But 
 the  following  foft-billed  birds,  though  they  eat  infefls,  remain 
 with  us  during  the  whole  year  ;  fuch  as  the  red-breaft  and 
 wren,  who  frequent  out-houfes  and  gardens  during  the  win- 
 ter, and  eat  fpiders,  &c.  •,  the  hedge-fparrow,  who  frequents 
 finks  for  crumbs  and  other  fweepings  ;  the  white  wagtail, 
 the  yellow-wagtail,  and  the  gray  wagtail,  who  frequent  (hal- 
 low rivulets  near  the  fpring  heads,  where  the  water  feldom 
 
4SS  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 freezes,  and  feed  upon  the  aurellae  of  infe£ls  ;  the  wheat  ear, 
 fome  of  which  are  to  be  feen  during  the  winter,  &c. 
 
 LiJ}  ef  Winter  Birds  cf  Pajfage  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Selborne. 
 
 1.  The  ring-oufeh  This  bird  appears  about  Michaelmas 
 week,  and  is  a  new  migration  lately  difcovercd  by  Mr.  White. 
 
 2.  The  red-wing,  or  wind-thrufh,  appears  in  Britain  about 
 old  Michaelmas.  They  come  in  great  flocks  from  the  froz- 
 en regions  of  the  north. 
 
 3.  Field-fare.  Thefe  birds  vilit  Britain  In  immenfe  num- 
 bers about  Michaelmas,  and  depart  about  the  end  of  Febru- 
 ary, or  the  beginning  of  March.  They  pafs  the  fummer  in 
 the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  likewife  in  Lower  Auftria*. 
 They  breed  in  the  largeil  trees,  feed  on  berries  of  all  kindsf , 
 but  prefer  thofe  of  the  juniper.  It  is  piobable  that  the  field- 
 fares which  migrate  into  Britain  come  from  Norway  and  the 
 northern  regions  of  Europe,  becaufe  we  find  that  they  both 
 breed  and  winter  in  Pruflia,  Auft:riaJ,  and  the  more  temper- 
 ate climates. 
 
 4.  The  Royfi:on-crow,  or  hooded  crow  pf  our  countryman 
 Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  is  likewife  a  bird  of  pafilige.  It  vifits  us 
 in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  departs  with  the  wood-cocks. 
 They  frequent  the  inland  as  well  as  the  maritime  parts  of 
 Britain.  When  near  the  coafts,  they  feed  upon  crabs,  muf- 
 cles,  and  other  fheli-filhes.  They  breed  in  Sweden,  build 
 their  nefi:s  in  trees,  and  lay  four  eggs|l.  They  likewife  breed 
 in  the  fouthern  parts  of  Germany,  and  particularly  on  the 
 banks  of  the  Danube  % 
 
 5.  The  wood-cock  appears  in  this  country  about  old  Mi- 
 chaelmas. During  the  fummer,  wood- cocks  inhabit  the 
 Alps**,  Norway,  Swedenff,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
 
 *  Kramer  Elench.  page.  361.     f  I.inn.  Faun.  Suec  fp.  78. 
 
 \  Klein  Hift,  Avium,  page  178. 
 
 II  Linn,  Faun.  Suec.  fp.  88.     ^  Kramer,  page  ^iZZ^ 
 
 **  Willoughby's  Ornithology,  page  290, 
 
 •!:f  M.  de  Gcer's  and  Dr.  Walierius's  letters  to  Mr.  Penna.nt. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  18  9 
 
 rope.  From  thefe  countries  they  retire  as  foon  as  the-froft  com- 
 mences, which,  obliges  them  to  migrate  into  milder  climates, 
 where  the  foil  is  open,  and  more  adapted  to  their  mode  of 
 feeding  ;  for  they  live  ©n  worms,  which  they  fearch  for  with 
 their  long  bills  in  loft  and  moift  grounds  in  the  midil:  of  woods. 
 Wood-cocks,  taking  the  advantage  of  the  night,  or  of  foggy 
 weather,  arrive  here  in  flocks  :  But  they  foon  feparate  •,  and, 
 before  returning  to  their  fummer  quarters,  they  pair.  They 
 fly  and  feed  during  the  night.  They  begin  their  flight  in 
 the  evening,  and  return  to  their  retreats  in  the  glades  when 
 day  commences.  They  depart  from  Britain  about  the  end  of 
 February  or  the  beginning  of  March.  Some  of  them,  how- 
 ever, like  the  ftraggling  fwallows,  have  been  known  to  breed, 
 and  to  remain  here  during  the  whole  year*.  It  is  likewife 
 known  that  wook-cocks  migrate  from  France,  Germany,  and 
 Italy,  and  that  they  make  choice  of  cold  northern  climates 
 for  their  fummer  refidence.  About  the  end  of  October  they 
 vifit  Burgundy,  but  remain  there  four  or  five  weeks  only  ; 
 becaufe  it  is  a  dry  country,  and,  on  the  firfl  frofb,  they  are 
 obliged  to  retire  for  want  of  fuflenance.  In  tlie  winter, 
 they  are  found  as  far  fouth  as  Smyrna,  Aleppof,  and  Barba- 
 ryj.     They  are  even  very  common  in  Japan  1|. 
 
 6.  The  fnipe.  Snipes  are  enrolled  as  birds  of  palTare  by 
 Mr.  White,  though  he  acknowledges  that  fome  of  them  con- 
 ftantly  breed  in  England.  «  In  winter/  Mr.  Pennant  re- 
 marks, <  fnipes    are   very    frequent   in   all   our  marlhy  and 
 
 *  wet  grounds,  where  they  lie  concealed  in  the  rullies,  &c.  In 
 '  the  fummer,  they  difperfe  to  different  parts,  and  are  found 
 '  in  the  midft  of  our  higheft  mountains,  as  well  as  our  lew 
 
 *  moors.     Their  neft  is  made  of  dried  gr:ifs.     They  lay  four 
 
 *  eggs  of  a  dirty   olive  colour,   marked   with   dufl-cy   fnots. 
 
 *  Pennant's  Britifh  Zoology,  vol.  2  page  349.  8vo. 
 
 f  Rufil'l's  Hiftory  of  Aleppo,  page  64.     j:  Shaw's  Travels,  page  253. 
 
 II   Kaempfcr'a  Kift,  Japan,  vol,  1,  page  129. 
 
490  The  philosophy 
 
 <  Their  young  are  fo  often  found  in  England,  that  we  doubt 
 '  whether  they  ever  entirely  leave  this  ifland*. 
 
 7.  The  jack-fnipe.  This  bird,  which  is  very  common  in 
 Scotland,  and  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  is  rank- 
 ed by  Mr.  White  as  a  winter  bird  of  paflage,  without  men- 
 tioning either  the  time  of  its  arrival  or  departure  ;  and  Mr. 
 Pennant  is  entirely  filent  on  the  fub;e6l  f . 
 
 8.  The  wood-pigeon.  Mr.  White,  without  mentioning 
 either  the  time  of  their  appearing  or  difappearing,  tells  us, 
 that  «  they  feldom  appear  till  late  ;  nor  in  fuch  plenty  as 
 <formerlyf.' 
 
 9.  The  wild-fwan.  During  hard  winters,  this  bird  fre- 
 quents the  coafts  of  Britain  in  large  flocks  ;  but,  from  any 
 information  we  have  been  able  to  obtain,  it  docs  not  breed  in 
 our  ifland.  Martin,  in  his  Hiftory  of  the  Hebrides,  or  Wef- 
 tern  IflesH,  informs  us,  that  wild  fwans  arrive  in  great  num- 
 bers in  Lingey,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  in  the  month  of  Octo- 
 ber, and  remain  there  till  March,  when  they  retire  more 
 northward  to  breed.  For  this  purpofe,  the  fwans  like  moft 
 other  water-fowls,  prefer  fuch  places  as  are  leaft  frequent- 
 ed by  mankind.  During  fummer,  the  lakes,  marfhes,  and 
 forefts  of  Lapland  are  filled  with  myriads  of  water-fowls.  In 
 that  northern  region,  fwans,  geefe,  the  duck  tribe,  goofand- 
 ers,  divers,  &c.  pafs  the  fummer  •,  but  in  autumn  they  re- 
 turn to  us,  and  to  other  more  hofpitable  fliores§. 
 
 10.  The  wild-goofe.  The  wild  geefe,  it  is  probable,  breed 
 in  the  retired  regions  of  the  north.  They  arrive  here  in 
 the  beginning  of  winter,  and  frequently  feed  on  our  corn 
 grounds.     They  fly  at  a  great  heighth,  and  obferve  regulari- 
 
 ♦  Pennant's  BrkiHi  Zoology,  vol  a,  page  358.  8vo. 
 f  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selborne,  page  1 17  ;  and  Pennant's  Britifh  Zoo^ 
 logy,  vol.  2.  page  359.  8vo.  / 
 
 %  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selborne,  page  117. 
 
 {)  Delcription  of  the  Weftern  Ifles,  page  71. 
 ^  Linn,  Flora  Lapponica,  page  273.  Qeuvreg  de  Maupertuis,tom.  3.  page  J41. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  491 
 
 ty  in  their  movements.  They  fometimes  form  a  flraight 
 line  ;  and,  at  others,  they  afTume  the  fhape  of  a  wedge, 
 which  facilitates  their  progrefs  through  the  refilling  air. 
 
 With  regard  to  the  wild-duck,  pochard,  wigeon,  and  tea), 
 though  Mr.  White  places  them  in  the  Hft  of  birds  of  paflage, 
 he  does  not  mention  either  the  times  of  their  arrival  or  de- 
 parture. Though  it  be  probable  that  mod  of  the  duck-kind 
 migrate,  yet  it  is  certain,  that  fome  individuals  of  different 
 fpecies  of  them  breed  in  this  country,  and  continue  in  it  dur- 
 ing the  whole  year.  As  to  the  duck-kind  in  general,  Mr. 
 Pennant  remarks  :  <  Of  the  numerous  fpecies  that  form  this 
 
 <  genus,  we  know  of  no  more  than  five  that  breed  here.    The 
 
 *  tamefiuan  and  tame  goofe^  the  Shield  duck^  the  eider  ducky  and 
 
 <  a  very  fmall  portion  of  the  wild  ducks.  The  reft  contribute 
 '  to  form  that  amazing  multitude  of  water  fowl  that  annually 
 «  repair  from  moft  parts  of  Europe  to  the  woods  and 
 «  lakes  of  Lapland,  and  other  Arctic  regions*,  there  to  per- 
 
 *  form  the  funiftions  of  incubation  and  nutrition  in  full  fecu- 
 
 *  rity.     They    and  their  young  quit  their  retreat  in  Septem- 
 
 <  ber,  and  difperfe  themfelves  over  Europe.     With  us  they 
 
 <  make  their  appearance  the  beginning  of  Odlober,  circulate 
 
 <  firft  round  our  fliores,  and  when  compelled  by  fevere  froft, 
 
 <  betake  themfelves  to  our  lakes  and  riversy.' 
 
 In  winter,  the  bernacles,  or  brent-ducks,  appear  in  vaft 
 flocks  on  the  north-wefi:  coafts  of  Britain.  They  are  very 
 fliy  and  wild  ;  but,  when  taken,  they  foon  grow  as  familiar 
 as  our  domeftic  ducks.  They  leave  the  Britifh  fliores  in  Fe- 
 bruary, and  migrate  as  far  as  Lapland,  Greenland,  and  even 
 SpitfbergenJ. 
 
 The  folan-gcefe,  or  gannats,  are  Hkewlfe  birds  of  pafTage. 
 They  frequent  the  ifle  of  Ailfay,  near  the  Frith  of  Clyde  ; 
 
 •  Collea.  Voyag.  Dutcli  EaR  India  Company,  8vo.  1703.  page  ig.  Cluii 
 Exot.  page  368. 
 
 f  Pennant's  Britifh  Zoology,  vol.  a.  page  5 19  y.o. 
 \  Linn,  Amoen   Acad.  torn.  4.  page  585.     Barent's  Voyage,  p-.ge  19. 
 
492  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 the  rocks  adjacent  to  St.  Kilda,  the  moft  remote  of  the  He- 
 brides ;  the  Skelig  iiles,  off  the  coaft  of  Kerry  ;  and  the  Bafs 
 ifle  in  the  Frith  of  Fourth.  The  multitudes  which  frequent 
 thefe  places  are  prodigious.  To  give  an  idea  of  their  num- 
 bers, the  reader  will  not  be  difpleafed  to  fee  Dr.  Harvey's 
 fhort  account  of  the  Bafs.     *  There  is  a  fmall  iiland  in   the 
 
 *  Frith  of  Fourth,  called  the  Bafs  Ifia?id,  which  does  not  ex- 
 «  ceed  one  mile  in  circumference.  The  furface  of  this  iiland, 
 '  during  the  months  of  May  and  June,  is  fo  entirely  covered 
 «  with  nefts,  eggs,  and  young  birds,  that  it  is  fcarcely  polTible 
 
 <  to  walk  without  treading  on  them.  The  flocks  of  birds 
 «  Oil  the  wing  are  {o  prodigions,  that  they  darken  the  air 
 «  like  clouds,   and  their  noife  is  fo  great,  that  a  man  cannot 
 
 *  without  difficulty  hear  his  neighbour's  voice.  If,  from  the 
 « top  of  the  precipice,  you  look  down  upon  the  fea,  you  will 
 
 <  fee  it  on  every  fide  covered  with  infinite  numbers  of  birds 
 «  of  different  kinds,  fwimming  about  and  hunting  for  their 
 
 *  prey.     When   failing   round   the  ifland,  if  you  furvey  the 
 
 <  banging  cliff^s,  you  will  perceive,  in  every  cragg,  or   fifliire 
 
 <  of  the  rocks,  innumerable  birds  of  various  kinds,  more  than 
 
 <  the  ftars  of  heaven  in  a  ferene  night.  If  you  view  the  dif- 
 «  tant  flocks,  either  flying  to  or  from  the  ifland,  you  will 
 «  imagine  them  to  be  a  vafl:  fmarm  of  bees*.'  The  rocks  of 
 St.  Kilda  fcem  to  be  equally  frequented  by  folan  gecfe  j  for 
 Martin,  in  his  defcription  of  the  Hebrides,  informs  us,  that 
 the  inhabitants  of  this  fmall  ifland  confume  annually  no  lefs 
 thari  22,600  young  birds  of  this  fpecies,  bcfide  an  amazing 
 number  of  their  eggs.  The  folan  gQQ^Q  and  their  eggs  con- 
 ftitute  the  chief  food  of  thefe  iflanders.  They  preferve  both 
 the  fowls  and  the  eggs  in  fmall  pyramidal  fl:one  buildings, 
 which,  to  prote6l  the  food  from  moifture,  they  cover  with 
 the  aflies  of  turf.  The  folan  geefe  are  birds  of  paflage. 
 Their  firft  appearance  is  in  March,  and  they  continue  till 
 
 *  Hcrvey  de  Generat.  Animal.  Exercit.  1 1. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  493 
 
 Auguft  or  September.  But,  in  general,  the  times  of  their 
 breeding  and  departure  feem  to  coincide  with  the  arrival  of 
 the  herring,  and  the  migration  of  that  fifh  from  our  coafts. 
 It  is  more  than  probable  that  thefe  birds  attend  the  herrings 
 and  pilchards  during  their  whole  circuit  round  the  Britifli 
 iflands ;  for  the  appearance  of  the  folan  geefe  is  always  ef- 
 teemed  by  the  fifliermen  as  a  certain  prefage  of  the  approach 
 of  the  herrings  or  pilchards.  In  queft  of  food,  thefe  birds 
 migrate  as  far  fouth  as  the  mouth  oftheTagus  ;  for  they  are 
 frequently  feen  off  Lilbon  during  the  month  of  December. 
 
 The  crofs-beak,  the  crofs-bill,  and  the  lilk-tail,  are  likewife 
 enumerated  by  Mr.  White  as  birds  of  pafTage.  «  But  thefe,* 
 fays  he,  *  are  only  wanderers  that  appear  occafionally,  and 
 <  are  not  obfervant  of  any  regular  migration*.' 
 
 The  long-legged  plover,  and  fanderling,  vilit  us  in  winter 
 only  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  every  fpecies  of  the 
 curlews,  wood-cocks,  fand-pipers,  and  ploversf,  which  for- 
 fake  us  in  the  fpring,  retire  to  Sweden,  Poland,  Pruffia,  Nor- 
 way, and  Lapland,  both  to  feed  and  to  breed.  They  return 
 to  us  as  foon  as  the  young  are  able  to  fly  •,  becaufe  the  frofts, 
 which  fet  in  early  in  thefe  countries,  totally  deprive  them  of 
 the  means  of  fubfiftence.  For  the  fame  reafon  they  leave 
 us  in  fummer,  as  the  drynefs  and  hardnefs  of  the  ground 
 prevent  them  from  penetrating  the  earth  with  their  bills  in 
 quefl:  of  worms,  which  conftitute  the  natural  food  of  thefe 
 birds. 
 
 From  the  fa£ls  which  have  been  enumerated,  and  from 
 others  of  a  fimilar  nature,  it  is  evident,  that  many  birds,  both 
 of  the  land  and  water  kinds,  migrate  from  one  climate  to 
 another.  But,  even  in  the  fame  climate  and  country,  birds 
 occafionally  perform  partial  migrations.  During  hard  win- 
 ters, when  the  furface  of  the  earth  is  covered  with  fnow, 
 
 *  "White's  Natural  Hlftory  of  Selborne,  page  iiS. 
 f  Linn.  Amoen.  Acad.  torn.  4.  page  588.  Klein  dc  Avium  Migrat  page  187. 
 
 O  o  © 
 
494  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 many  birds,  as  larks,  fnipes,  &c.  retire  from  the  inland  parts 
 of  the  country  to  the  fea-fliores,  where  they  pick  up  a  fcan- 
 ty  fubiiftance.  Others,  as  the  wren,  the  red-breafl:,  and  many 
 of  the  fmall  birds,  or  fparrow-kind,  refort  to  gardens,  and 
 the  habitations  of  men.  Their  intention,  it  is  obvious,  is  to 
 procure  food  and  Ihelter. 
 
 There  are  three  principle  obje£ls  of  migration  :  Food, 
 temperature  of  air,  and  convenient  lituations  for  breeding. 
 Such  birds  as  migrate  to  great  diftances  are  alone  denominat- 
 ed birds  ofpaffage.  But  all  birds  are,  in  fome  meafure,  birds 
 of  pafTage,  though  they  do  not  migrate  to  places  fo  remote 
 from  their  fomer  abodes.  At  particular  thnes  of  the  year, 
 moft, birds  migrate  from  one  county  to  another,  or  from  the 
 more  inland  diftri<Sts  toward  the  fhorcs.  Thefe  partii;)  mi- 
 grations ©f  fmall  birds  are  well  known  to  bird-catchers,  who 
 make  a  livelihood  by  enfnaring  them  into  their  nets, 
 and  felling  them.  The  birds  fly,  as  the  bird-catchers  term 
 it,  about  the  end  of  September,  and  during  the  months  of 
 October  and  November.  There  is  another,  but  lefs  coniid- 
 erable,  flight  in  March.  Some  begin  their  flight  annually 
 about  Michaelmas  ;  others,  as  the  wood-larks,  fucceed,  and 
 continue  their  flight  till  the  middle  of  O^Tlober  j  but  the 
 green-flnch  does  not  migrate  till  thefrofl  obliges  it  to  remove 
 in  queft  of  food  and  flicker.  Thefe  partial  migrations,  or 
 flittings,  are  performed  from  day-break  till  noon.  Another, 
 but  fmaller,  flight  commences  at  tu'o  o'clock,  and  continues 
 till  night  approaches.  The  times  v/hen  particular  birds  mi- 
 grate from  one  fltuation  to  another  are  well  known  to  the 
 bird-catchers,  who,  by  means  of  call-birds,  nets,  and  other 
 devices,  feize  great  numbers  of  them,  and,  after  accufl:oming 
 them  for  fome  time  to  reflraint  and  flavery,  fell  them,  for 
 conflderable  prices,  to  curious  men  and  vaiimfical  women. 
 A   diligent  attention  to  thefe  partial  migrations,  and  their 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  49.5 
 
 motives,  would  foon  unfold  the  caufes  of  thofe  of  a  more  ex- 
 tenflve  kind. 
 
 Migration  is  generally  fuppofed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  feath- 
 ered tribes.  This  is  a  limited  idea,  which  has  originated 
 from  inattention  to  the  oeconomy  of  Nature.  Birds  migrate 
 with  a  view  to  remedy  the  inconveniencies  of  their  prefent 
 fituation,  and  to  acquire  a  more  commodious  ftation  with  re- 
 gard to  food,  temperature,  generation,  and  fhelter.  From 
 fimilar  motives,  men,  fometimes  in  amazing  multitudes,  have 
 migrated  from  north  to  fouth,  difplaced  the  native  inhabi- 
 tants, and  fixed  eftablifliments  in  more  comfortable  climates 
 than  thofe  which  they  had  relinquiflied.  Thefe,  in  their 
 turn,  have  fallen  vidlims  to  frefh  and  barbarous  emigrants. 
 Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  more  northern  nations,  as 
 Norway,  Sweden,  Scotland,  &c.  notwithftanding  a  "very  (Irong 
 attachment  to  their  native  countries,  there  feems  to  be  a  na- 
 tural or  inftinftive  propenfity  to  migrate.  Poverty,  the  rig- 
 our of  climate,  curiofity,  ambition,  the  falfe  reprefentations 
 of  interefted  individuals,  the  opprefHon  of  feudal  barons,  and 
 limilar  circumftances,  have  of  late  given  rife  to  great  emigra- 
 tions of  the  human  fpecies.  But,  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
 that  the  emigrations  from  fouth  to  north,  except  from  the 
 love  of  conqueft  in  ambitious  nations,  are  fo  rare,  that  the 
 inftindt  feems  hardly  to  exift  in  thofe  more  fortunate  climates. 
 Curiofity  is  a  general  inflindlive  principle,  which  operates 
 ftrongly  in  the  youthful  periods  of  life,  and  flimulates  every 
 man  to  vifit  places  that  are  diftant  from  his  ordinary  refi- 
 dence.  This  innate  defire  is  influenced  by  the  relations  of 
 travellers,  and  by  many  other  incentives  of  a  more  interefted 
 kind.  Without  the  principle  of  migration,  mankind,  it  is 
 probable,  would  never  have  been  fo  univerlally  diffused  over 
 the  furface  of  the  earth.  It  is  counterbalanced,  however, 
 by  attachment  to  thofe  countries  which  gave  us  birth,  a  prin- 
 ciple ftill  more  powerful  apd  efTicient.     Tove  of  our  native 
 
496  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 country  is  fo  ftrong,  that,  after    gratifying  the   migrating 
 principle,  almofh  every  man  feels  a  longing  defire  to  return. 
 
 Savages,  as  long  as  their  ftore  of  food  remains  unexhauft- 
 ed,  continue  in  a  liftlefs  inaftive  flate.  They  exhauft  many 
 days  fitting  in  perfeft  indolence,  and  feem  not  to  be  prompt* 
 ed  by  any  motives  of  curiofity.  They  have  not  a  concep- 
 tion of  a  man's  walking  either  for  amufement  or  exercife. 
 But,  when  their  provifions  Uegin  to  fail,  an  aftonifhing  re- 
 ■verfe  takes  place.  They  then  roufe  as  from  a  profound 
 ileep.  In  queft  of  wild  beafts,  birds,  and  fiflies,  they  mi- 
 grate to  immenfe  diftances,  exert  the  greateft  feats  of  adtivi- 
 ty,  and  undergo  incredible  hard  {hips  and  fatigue.  After  ac- 
 quiring a  ftore  of  provifions,  they  return  to  their  wonted 
 haunts,  and  remain  inadtive  till  their  food  again  begins  to 
 fail. 
 
 Quadrupeds  likewife  perform  partial  migrations.  At  the 
 approach  of  winter,  the  ftag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the  roebuck, 
 leave  the  tops  of  the  lofty  mountains,  and  come  down  to  the 
 plains  and  copfes.  Their  chief  objects,  in  thefe  flittings,  are 
 food  and  fhelter.  When  fummer  commences,  they  are  har^ 
 rafted  with  diff*erent  fpecies  of  winged  infedls,  and,  to  avoid 
 thefe  enemies,  they  regain  the  fummits  of  the  mountains,^ 
 where  the  cold  and  the  heighth  of  the  fituation  proteiSl  them 
 from  the  attacks  of  the  flies.  In  ;^Jorway,  and  the  more 
 northern  regions  of  Europe,  the  oxen,  during  the  winter, 
 migrate  to  the  fliores  of  the  fea,  where  they  feed  upon  fea- 
 plants  and  the  bones  of  fifties  ;  and  Pontoppidan  remarks, 
 that  the  cattle  know  by  inftin<SV  when  the  tide  retires,  and 
 leaves  thefe  articles  of  food  upon  the  fliorc.  In  Orkney  and 
 Shetland,  the  ftieep  in  winter,  for  the  fame  purpofes,  uni- 
 formly repair  to  the  ftiore  at  the  ebbing  of  the  tides.  Rats, 
 particularly  thofe  of  the  northern  regions  of  Europe,  ap- 
 pear, from  time  to  time,  in  fuch  myriads,  that  the  inhabi- 
 tants of  Norway  and  Lapland  imagine  the  animals  fall  from 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  497 
 
 heaven.  The  celebrated  Linnaeus,  who  paid  great  attention 
 to  the  oeconomy  of  thefe  migrating  rats,  remarked,  that  they 
 appeared  in  Sweden  periodically  every  eighte-en  or  twenty 
 years.  When  about  to  migrate,  they  leave  their  wonted 
 abodes,  and  aflemble  together  in  numbers  inconceivable.  In 
 the  courfe  of  their  journey,  they  make  tracks  in  the  earth 
 of  two  inches  in  depth  ;  and  thefe  tracks  fometimes  occupy 
 a  breadth  of  feveral  fathoms.  "What  is  fingular,  the  rats,  in 
 their  march,  uniformly  purfue  a  flraight  line,  unlefs  they  are 
 forced  to  turn  alide  by  fome  unfurmountable  obftacle.  If  they 
 meet  with  a  rock,  they  firft  try  to  pierce  it,  and,  after  difcov- 
 ering  the  attempt  to  be  impracticable,  they  go  round  it,  and 
 then  refume  the  ftraight  line.  Even  a  lake  does  not  inter- 
 rupt their  pafTage  ;  for  they  either  traverfe  it  in  a  ftraight 
 Hne  or  perifh  in  the  attempt ;  and,  if  they  meet  with  a  bark 
 or  other  veiTel,  they  do  not  alter  their  direction,  but  climb 
 up  the  one  fide  of  it  and  defcend  by  the  other. 
 
 Frogs,  immediately  after  their  transformation  from  the 
 tadpole  ftate,  leave  the  water,  and  migrate  to  the  meadow  or 
 marfhy  grounds  in  queft  of  infects.  The  numbers  of  young 
 frogs  which  fuddenly  make  their  appearance  in  the  plains  in- 
 duced Rondeletius,  and  many  other  naturalifts,  to  imagine 
 that  they  were  generated  in  the  clouds  and  fliowered  down 
 upon  the  earth.  But  if,  Uke  the  worthy  and  intelligent  Mr, 
 Derham,  they  had  examined  the  fituation  of  the  place  with 
 regard  to  ftagnating  waters,  and  attended  to  the  nature  and 
 transformation  of  the  animals,  they  would  foon  have  difcov- 
 ered  the  real  caufe  of  the  phenomenon. 
 
 Of  all  migrating  animals,  particular  kinds  of  fifhes  make 
 the  longed  journies,  and  in  the  greateft  numbers.  The  muL 
 tiplication  of  the  fpecies,  and  the  procuring  of  food,  are  the 
 principal  motives  of  the  migration  of  fiflies.  The  falmon,  a 
 filh  which  makes  regular  migrations,  frequents  the  northern 
 regions  alone.  It  is  unknown  in  the  Mediterranean  fea,  and 
 in  the  rivers  which  fall  into  it  both  from  Europe  and  Africa- 
 
498  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 It  is  found  in  feme  of  the  rivers  of  France  that  empty  them- 
 felves  into  the  ocean*.  Salmons  are  taken  in  the  rivers  of 
 Kamtfchatkaf,  and  appear  as  far  north  as  Greenland.  Sal- 
 mons live  both  in  the  ocean,  and  in  frefli  waters.  For  the 
 purpofe  of  depofiting  their  fpawn,  they  quit  the  fea  in  the 
 month  of  September,  and  afcend  the  rivers.  So  ftrong  is 
 the  iniiindt  of  migrating,  that  they  prefs  up  the  rivers  with 
 amazing  keennefs,  and  fcarccly  any  obflacle  is  fufficient  to 
 interrupt  their  progrefs.  They  fpring,  with  great  agility, 
 over  cataracts  of  feveral  feet  in  heighth.  In  their  leaps, 
 they  fpring  ftraight  up  with  a  ftrong  tremulous  motion,  and 
 do  notj  as  has  been  vulgarly  fuppofed,  put  their  tails  in  their 
 mouths.  When  they  find  a  place  which  they  think  proper 
 for  depofiting  their  eggs,  the  male  and  female  unite  their 
 labours  in  forming  a  convenient  receptacle  for  the  fj^awn  in 
 the  fand,  which  is  generally  about  eighteen  inches  deep.  In 
 this  hole  the  female  depofits  her  eggs,  and  the  mothers  milt, 
 which  they  are  iaid  to  cover  carefully  with  their  tails  ;  for, 
 after  fpawning,  their  tails  are  deprived  of  fkin.  The  eggs, 
 when  not  difturbed  by  violent  floods,  lie  buried  in  the  fand 
 till  the  fpring,  and  they  are  hatched  about  the  end  of  March. 
 The  parents,  however,  after  this  important  ofhce  has  been 
 performed,  haften  back  to  the  fea,  in  order  to  cleanfe  them- 
 felves,  and  to  recover  their  ftrength.  Toward  the  end  of 
 March,  the  young  fry  begin  to  appear,  and  thcy  gradually 
 increafe  in  lize  till  they  acquire  the  length  of  four  or  five 
 inches,  and  are  then  called  fmeltS)  or  /moiilts\.  About  the 
 beginning  of  May,  all  the  conliderable  rivers  of  Scotland  are 
 full  of  falmon-fry.  After  this  period,  they  migrate  to 
 the  Sea.  About  the  middle  of  June,  the  earlieft  of  the  fry 
 begin  to  appear  again  in  the   rivers.     At  that  time  they  ar^ 
 
 *  Rondelct.  de  F'uviat.  page  167. 
 f   Hid.  Kemtfchatka,  page  J43. 
 \  See  an  account  of  the  Salmon  Fifhery  on  the  river  Tweed,  communicated 
 to  Mr.  Pennant  by  Mr.  Potts,  Frit   Zool.  vol.  3.  page  241.  8vo.  edit* 
 
OV    NATURAL    HISTORY.  499 
 
 from  twelve  to  fixteen  inches  long,  and  gradually  augment, 
 both  in  number  and  lize,  till  about  the  end  of  July  or  begin- 
 ning of  Auguft,  when  they  weigh  from  fix  to  nine  pounds. 
 This  is  a  very  rapid  growth.  But  a  gentleman  of  credit  at 
 Warrington  informed  Mr.  Pennant  of  a  growth  ftill  more 
 rapid.  A  falmon,  weighing  feven  pounds  and  three  quar- 
 ters, was  taken  on  the  feventh  day  of  February.  It  was  mar- 
 ked on  the  back,  fin,  and  tail,  with  fcifTars,  and  then  turned 
 into  the  river.  It  was  retaken  on  the  I7th  day  of  the  fol- 
 lowing month  of  March,  and  then  it  weighed  feventeen 
 pounds  and  a  half.  The  feafon  for  filhing  falmon  in  the 
 Tweed  begins  on  the  30th  of  November,  and  ends  on  old 
 Michaelmas  day.  In  that  fingle  river,  it  is  computed  that 
 no  lefs  than  tiOSOOO,  at  a  medium,  are  annually  caught, 
 -which,  together  with  the  products  of  many  other  rivers  on 
 both  (ides  of  Scotland,  not  only  afford  a  wholefome  and  pal- 
 atable food  to  the  inhabitants,  but  form  no  inconliderable 
 article  of  commerce. 
 
 Herrings  are  likewife  a<Sluated  by  the  migrating  principle. 
 Thefe  flflies  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  northern  and  tenv 
 perate  regions  of  the  globe.  They  frequent  the  highefl  lati- 
 tudes, and  are  fomctimes  found  on  the  northern  coafts  of 
 France.  They  appear  in  vaft  flioals  on  the  coad  of  America, as 
 far  fouth  as  Carolina.  In  Chefapcak  bay  there  is  an  annual  in- 
 undation of  herrings  •,  and  Mr.  Catefby  informs  us,  that  they 
 cover  the  fhores  in  fuch  amazing  numbers  as  to  becom.e  offcn- 
 five  to  the  inhabitants.  The  great  winter  rendezvous  of  the 
 herrings  is  within,  or  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  where  they  re- 
 main feveral  months, and  acquire  firength  after  being  weaken- 
 ed by  the  fatigues  of  fpawnlng,  and  of  a  long  migration.  In 
 thefe  feas,  infect  food  is  much  more  abundant  than  in  warm- 
 er latitudes.  They  begin  their  migration  fouthward  in  the 
 fpring,  and  appear  off  the  Shetland  iflands  in  the  months  of 
 April  and  May.     Thefe,  however,  are  only  the  foreruimers 
 
500  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 of  the  immenfe  (hoal  which  arrives  in  June.  Their  approach 
 is  recognifed  by  particular  figns,  fuch  as  the  appearance  of 
 certain  fiihes,  the  vaft  number  of  birds,  as  gannets  or  folan 
 geefe,  which  follow  the  Ihoal  to  prey  upon  the  herrings.  But 
 when  the  main  body  arrives,  its  breadth  and  depth  are  {o 
 great  as  to  change  the  appearance  of  the  ocean  itfelf»  The 
 Ihoal  is  generally  divided  into  columns  of  five  or  fix  miles  in 
 length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth.  Their  progreflive  mo- 
 tion creates  a  kind  of  rippling  or  fmall  undulations  in  the 
 v/ater.  They  fometimes  fink  and  difappear  for  ten  or  fifteen 
 minutes,  and  then  rife  again  toward  the  furface.  When  the 
 fun  fliines,  a  variety  of  fplendid  and  beautiful  colours  are 
 refle6ted  from  their  bodies.  In  their  progrefs  fouthward, 
 the  firffc  interruption  they  meet  with  is  from  the  Shetland 
 iflands.  Here  the  flioal  divides  into  two  branches.  One  branch 
 fkirts  th3  eaftern,  and  the  other  the  weflern  fhores  of  Great 
 Britain,  and  fill  every  bay  and  creek  with  their  numbers* 
 Thofe  which  proceed  to  the  v/efl:  from  Shetland,  after  vifit- 
 ing  the  Hebrides,  where  the  great  fifhery  is  carried  on,  move 
 on  till  they  are  again  interrupted  by  the  north  of  Ireland, 
 which  obliges  them  to  divide  a  fecond  time.  One  divifion 
 takes  to  the  weft,  where  they  are  fcarcely  perceived,  being 
 foon  loft  in  the  immenfity  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  oth- 
 er divifion  goes  into  the  Irifh  fea,  and  affords  nourifliment 
 to  many  thoufands  of  the  human  race.  The  chief  obje6l  of 
 herrings  migrating  fouthward  is  to  depofit  their  fpawn  in 
 warmer  and  more  fhallowfeas  than  thofe  of  the  Frigid  Zone. 
 This  inftin6l  fecms  not  to  be  prompted  by  a  fcarcity  of  food ; 
 for,  when  they  arrive  upon  our  coafts,  they  are  fat  and  in 
 fine  condition  5  but,  when  returning  to  the  ocean,  they  are 
 weak  and  emaciated.  They  continue  in  perfejStion  from 
 the  end  of  June  to  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  they  be- 
 gin to  depofit  their  fpawn.  The  great  ftations  of  the  her- 
 ring fiftieries  are  off  the  Shetland  and  the  weftern  iflands, 
 and  along  the  coaft  of  Norfolk, 
 
OP    NATURAL    HISTORY.  501 
 
 Befide  falmons  and  herrings,  there  are  many  lifhes  which 
 obferve  a  regular  migration,  as  mackerels,  lampreys,  pil- 
 chards, &c.  About  the  middle  ot  July,  the  pilchards  which 
 are  a  fpecies  of  herrings,  though  fmaller,  appear  in  vaft  fhoals 
 x)ff  the  coafts  of  Cornwall.  When  winter  approaches,  like 
 the  herrings,  they  retire  to  the  Arctic  feas.  Though  fo  near- 
 ly allied  to  the  herring,  it  is  not  incurious  to  remark,  that 
 the  pilchards,  in  their  migration  for  the  purpofe  of  fpawning, 
 choofe  a  warmer  latitude  ;  for,  ofi*  the  coaft  of  Britain,  the 
 great  fhoals  never  appear  farther  north  than  the  county  of 
 Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  illands.  Dr.  Borlafe,  in  his  hiftory 
 of  Cornwall,  gives  the  following  account  of  the  pilchard  fifh- 
 ery  :  *  It  employs,'  fays  he,  <  a  great  number  of  men  on  the 
 «  Tea,  training  them  thereby  to  naval  affairs  ;  employs  m.en, 
 «  v/omen,  and  children,  at  land,  in  faking,  preffing,  wafliing, 
 «  and  cleaning,  in  making  boats,  nets,  ropes,  cafks,  and  all  the 
 
 <  trades  depending  on  their  conftrudlion  and  fale.     The  poor 
 «  is  fed  with  the  offals  of  the  captures,  the  land  with  the  re- 
 
 *  fufe  of  the  fifh   and  fait ;  the  merchant  finds  the  gains  of 
 
 *  commifHon  and  honeft  commerce,  the  fiiherm^an  the  gains 
 
 <  of  the  fifh.     Ships  are  often  freighted  hither  with  fait,  and 
 «  into   foreign  countries   with   the  fifh,  carrying  off,    at  the 
 
 *  fame  time,  part  of  our  tin.     The  ufual  produce  of  the  num- 
 «  ber   of  hogflieads  exported  each  year,  for  ten  years,  from 
 
 <  1747  to  1756  inclufive,  from  the  four  ports  of  Tawy,  Fal- 
 
 <  mouth,  Penzance,  and  St.  Ives,  it  appears,  that  Tawy  has 
 
 <  exported  yearly  1732  hogflieads  ;    Falmouth,  14631  hogf- 
 
 <  heads  and  two  thirds  ;  Penzance  and  Mounts-Bay,  13149 
 
 <  hogfheads  and  one  third;  St.  Ives,  1282  hogflieads  :  In  all 
 «  amounting  to  29795  hogflieads.     Every  hogfliead,  for  ten 
 
 <  years  lafl  paft,  together  with  t'le  bounty  allowed  for  each 
 
 <  hogihead  exported,  and  the  oil  made  out  of  each  hogfhead, 
 
 <  has  amounted,  one  year  with  another  at  an  average,  to  the 
 
 <  price  of  one  pound  thirteen  fhillings  and  three  pence  ;   fo 
 
 P  p  p 
 
^0'^  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 **  that  the  cafli  paid  for  pilchards  exported  has,  at  a  medittmy 
 ^  annually  amounted  to  the  fum  of  L.  49532  :   10  ;  0/ 
 
 Of  the  land- crab  there  are  feveral  fpecies.  The  migra- 
 tion of  what  is  called  the  vio/et  la?id-crab  deferves  fome  notice^ 
 It  inhabits  the  warmer  regions  of  Europe  :  But  its  particular 
 refidence  is  in  the  tropical  climates  of  Africa  and  America. 
 Land-crabs  generally  frequent  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
 country,  which  are,  of  courfe,  moft  remote  from  the  fea. 
 They  inhabit  the  hollows  of  old  trees,  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and 
 holes  which  they  themfelves  dig  in  the  earth.  They  are  ex- 
 tremely numerous.  In  the  months  of  April  and  May,  they 
 leave  their  retreats  in  the  mountains,  and  march  in  millions' 
 to  the  fea-fliore.  At  this  period  the  whole  ground  is  cover- 
 ed with  them  ;  and  a  man  can  hardly  put  down  his  foot 
 without  treading  on  them*.  The  object  of  their  aiigration 
 is  to  depolit  their  fpawn  on  the  fea-fhore.  In  their  progrefs 
 towards  the  fea,  like  the  northern  rats,  the  land-crabs  move 
 hi  a  ftraight  line.  Even  when  a  houfe  intervenes,  inftead 
 of  deviating  to  the  right  or  left,  they  attempt  to  fcrfle  the 
 walls.  But,  when  they  meet  with  a  river,  they  are  obliged 
 to  wind  along  the  courfe  of  the  ftream.  In  their  migration 
 from  the  mountains,  they  obferve  the  greateft  regularity  and 
 commonly  divide  into  three  battalions  or  bodies.  The  firft 
 confifts  of  the  ftrongeft  and  boldeft  males,  who,  like  pioneers, 
 march  forward  to  clear  the  route,  and  to  face  the  greatefb 
 dangers.  The  females,  wdio  form  the  main  body,  defcend 
 from  the  mountains  in  regular  columns,  which  are  fifty  paces 
 broad,  three  miles  long,  and  fo  clofe  that  they  almoft  entire- 
 ly cover  the  ground.  Three  or  four  days  afterwards,  the 
 rear-guarti  follows,  which  confifts  of  a  ftraggling  undifciplin- 
 ed  troop  of  males  and  females.  They  travel  chiefly  during 
 the  night  ;  but,  if  it  rains  by  day,  (for  m-oifture  facilitates 
 their  motion),  they  proceed  in  their  flow  uniform  manner. 
 *  Voyage  aus  lUcs  Francoifes  par  Labat,  torn.  %.  page  221. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  ^03 
 
 When  the  fun  fhines,  and  the  furface  of  the  ground  is  dry, 
 they  make  an  univerfalhalt  till  the  evening,  and  then  refume 
 their  march.  When  alarmed  with  danger,  they  run  back- 
 ward in  a  diforderly  manner,  and  hold  up  their  nippers  in  a 
 threatening  pofture.  They  even  feem  to  intimidate  their 
 enemies  ;  for,  when  difturbed,  they  make  a  clattering  noife 
 with  their  nippers.  But,  though  they  ende;wour  to  render 
 themfelves  formidable  to  their  enemies,  they  are  cruel  to  each 
 other.  When  an  individual,  by  any  accident,  is  fo  maimed 
 that  he  cannot  proceed,  his  companions  immediately  devour 
 him,  and  then  purfue  their  journey.  After  a  fatiguing  and 
 tedious  march,  which  fometimes  continues  three  months  be-- 
 fore  they  reach  the  fhore,  they  prepare  themfelves  for  de- 
 pofiting  their  fpawn.  The  eggs  ftill  remain  in  the  bodies  of 
 the  animals,  and  are  not  excluded,  as  ufual  to  this  genus,  un- 
 der the  tail.  To  facilitate  the  maturation  and  e;Kclufion  of 
 the  eggs,  the  land-crabs  no  fooner  arrive  on  the  fliore,  than 
 they  approach  to  the  margin  of  the  fea,  and  allow  the  waves  to 
 pafs  feveral  times  over  their  bodies.  They  immediately  re- 
 tire to  the  land  ;  the  eggs,  in  the  mean  time,  come  nearer 
 to  maturity,  and  the  animals  once  more  go  to  the  water,  de- 
 pofit  their  eggs,  and  leave  the  event  to  Nature.  The  bunch- 
 es of  fpawn  are  fometimes  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg  ;  and  it  is 
 not  incurious  to  remark,  that,  at  this  very  period,  num.bers 
 of  fifhes  of  different  kinds  are  anxioufly  waiting  for  this  an- 
 nual fupply  of  food.  Whether  the  painful  migration  of  the 
 land-crabs,  or  the  wonderful  inflin(St  of  the  fiflies  which 
 await  their  arrival,  in  order  to  devour  their  fpav/n,  is  the 
 moft  aftonifhing  h£t,  we  fhall  leave  to  the  confideration^of 
 philofophers.  The  eggs  which  efcape  thefe  voracious  fifhes 
 are  hatched  under  the  fand.  Soon  after,  millions  of  minute 
 crabs  are  {2en  leaving  the  fhore,  and  migrating  flowly  to- 
 ward the  mountains.  Mofl  of  the  old  ones,  however,  re- 
 •iiain  in  the  flat  parts   of  the  country  till  they  regain  their 
 
504  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ftrengtii.  They  dig  holes  in  the  earth,  the  moutlis  of  which 
 they  cover  with  leaves  and  mud.  Here  they  throw  oflf  their 
 old  ihells,  remain  quite  naked,  and  almoft  without  motion 
 for  fix  days,  when  they  become  fo  fat  that  they  are  efteemed 
 delicious  food.  When  the  new  fhell  has  hardened,  the  ani- 
 mals, by  an  inftindlive  impulfe,  march  back  to  thofe  moun- 
 tains which  they  had  formerly  deferted.  In  Jamaica,  where 
 they  are  numerous,  the  land-crabs  are  regarded  as  great  deli- 
 cacies J  and  they  are  fo  abundant,  that  the  flaves  are  often 
 fod  entirely  upon  them. 
 
 The  migrating  principle  is  not  confined  to  men,  quadru- 
 peds, birds,  and  reptiles  :  It  extends  to  many  of  the  infeEl 
 tribes.  Numberlefs  inhabitants  of  the  air  pafs  the  firfi:  fi:ages 
 of  their  exifirence  In  the  waters.  There  they  remain  for 
 longer  or  (horter  periods,  according  to  the  fpecies.  Previous 
 to  their  transformation  into  chryfalids,  they  quit  the  waters, 
 and  come  upon  dry  ground,  where  they  undergo  their  amaz- 
 ing change.  Infiiead  of  adlive  water -worms,  they  dig  or  find 
 holes  in  the  earth,  v^here  they  are  converted  into  chryfalids, 
 or  feemingly  inanimated  beings,  and,  in  a  fhort  time,  mount 
 into  the  air  in  the  form  of  winged  infecSls.  Similar  migra- 
 tions are  to  be  obferved  among  land-infeiTts.  But  migration 
 is  not  confined  to  w^ater-worms.  Many  fpecies  of  caterpil- 
 lars which  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  flirubs,  and  other 
 vegetables,  when  about  to  undergo  their  transformation, 
 leave  their  former  abodes,  defcend  from  the  trees,  and  con- 
 ceal themfelves  in  the  earth.  The  hiving  of  bees,  when  nu- 
 merous colonies  remove  in  order  to  efiiablllh  new  fettlements, 
 is  another  infiiance  of  the  migration  of  infects.  Indeed,  if 
 we  except  bees,  wafps,  ants,  and  a  few  others,  mofi:  infects, 
 whether  they  inhabit  the  air,  the  earth,  or  the  w^aters,  are 
 perfect  wanderers,  having  no  fixed  place  of  refidence.  Some 
 of  them,  as  the  fpider  tribes,   build  temporary  apartments  ; 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  505 
 
 but;  when  cUfturbed,  they  migrate  to  another  commodioug 
 place,  and  erect  new  habitations. 
 
 From  the  fa(fts  which  have  been  enumeratedj  it  is  appar- 
 ent, that  the  principle  of  migration,  or  ihe  defire  of  chang- 
 ing fituations,  is  not  confined  to  particular  birds,  but  ex- 
 tends through  almofl  the  whole  fyllem  of  animation.  Men, 
 quadrupeds,  birds,  fiihes,  rei)tiles,  infedls,  all  aiford  ftril^ing 
 examples  of  the  migrating  principle.  From  the  fame  fa£ls 
 it  is  equally  apparent,  that  the  general  motives  for  migrating 
 are  fimilar  in  every  clafs  of  animals.  Food,  multiplication 
 of  fpecies,  and  a  comfortable  temperature  of  air,  are  evident^ 
 ly  the  chief  caufes  which  induce  animals  to  remove  from  one 
 place  to  another,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  fame  thing,  from 
 one  climate  to  another.  Partial  emigrations,  or  emigrations  to 
 fmall  diftances,  are  prompted  by  the  fame  inftin^tive  motives 
 which  induce  animals  of  a  different  ftrudlure  to  undertake 
 long  and  fatiguing  excurfions.  But,  previous  to  aflual  mi- 
 gration, what  are  the  peculiar  feelings  of  different  animals, 
 and  what  fhould  flimulate  them  to  proceed  uniformly  in  the 
 direction  that  ultimately  leads  them  to  the  fituations  moft 
 accommodated  to  their  wants  and  their  conftitutions,  are 
 myflieries,  with  regard  to  which,  like  every  other  part  of  the 
 oeconomy  of  Nature,  it  is  the  duty  of  philofophers,  inftead 
 of  attempting  to  pufh  their  inquiries  beyond  the  bounds  of 
 human  ability,  to  obferve  a  refpe£lable  filence. 
 
^06  THE    PHILOSOPHY' 
 
 CHAPTER     XXI. 
 
 Of  the  Longevity  and  Dijfohitton  of  Organifed  Bodies, 
 
 IT  is  a  law  of  Nature,  though  a  melancholy  one, 
 that  all  organifed  bodies  fhould  be  diflblved.  The  periods 
 of  difTolution,  however,  are  as  various  as  the  fpecies,  and  the 
 intentions  of  Nature  in  producing  them. 
 
 In  the  human  kind,  the  brevity  of  life  is  regarded  as  an 
 object  of  regret.  One  half  of  mankind  die  before  they  ar- 
 rive at  eight  years  of  age.  From  that  early  period  to  eighty, 
 befide  the  deftru6lion  of  war,  and  other  accidents,  Nature 
 kills  them  annually  in  millions.  Some  inftances  may  be  giv- 
 en of  men  whofe  lives  were  prolonged  beyond  the  ufual  pe- 
 riod of  human  exlftence.  Such  men  are  not  to  be  envied  ; 
 nor  fhould  they  be  confidered  as  favourites  of"  Nature.  With 
 refpe^l  to  maturity  of  judgment,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
 world,  no  man  can  be  faid  to  exift  till  he  pafTes  thirty  years 
 of  age.  Give  him  thirty  or  thirty-five  more,  and,  in  gener-^ 
 al,  both  mind  and  body  are  vifibly  declined.  Thofe  people, 
 therefore,  who  arrive  at  an  extraordinary  age  may  be  faid  to 
 exift,  but  they  do  not  live.  AH  intelledlnal  enjoyments  and 
 exertions,  which  conftitute  the  chi^f  dignity  and  happin^fs 
 of  man,  are  gonp.  There  are  exceptions  ;  but  thefe  excep- 
 tions are  confirmations  of  what  we  have  advanced.  Man- 
 kind, in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  have  been  faid  to  live 
 for  feveral  centuries.  We  mean  not  to  contradifl  the  alTer- 
 tion.  But  we  mufk  remark,  that,  if  ever  men  lived  fo  long, 
 they  muft  have  been  very  different  both  in  the  fi:ru£lure  of 
 their  bodies  and  in  their  manners,  from  thofe  who  now  exifl^ 
 From  infancy  to  manhood,  there  Is  a  gradual  growth  or  ex-^ 
 tenfion  of  our  organs^     After  this  period,  and  when  we  ad-> 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  507 
 
 Vance  In  years,  the  bones  harden,  the  mufcles  turn  ftifF,  the 
 «artilages  are  converted  into  bones,  the  membranes  into  car-- 
 tilages,  the  flomach  and  bowels  lofe  their  tone,  and  the 
 Avhole  fabric,  inftead  of  being  foft,  flexible,  and  obedient  to 
 the  inclinations,  or  even  the  commands  of  the  mind,  becomes 
 rigid,  ina<fi:ivej  and  feeble.  Thefe  are  the  general  and  pro- 
 greffive  caufes  of  death,  and  they  are  common  to  all  animals. 
 There  are  modes  of  living  more  favourable  to  health  than 
 others.  But  examples  are  not  wanting  of  men  who  have  ar- 
 rived at  extreme  old  age,  without  obferving  either  temper- 
 ance, or  any  of  the  other  modes  of  living  which  are  general- 
 ly fuppofed  to  be  favourable  to  longevity.  Some  men,  who 
 lived  temperately,  and  even  abflemioufly,  have  reached  to 
 great  ages :  Others,  who  obferved  the  very  oppoiite  conduct, 
 who  lived  ft  eely,  and  often  intemperately,  have  had  their  ex- 
 iftence  equally  prolonged.  But,  in  general,  notwithflanding 
 a  few  exceptions,  temperance,  a  placid  and  chearful  difpofl- 
 tion,  moderate  exercife,  and  proper  exertions  of  mind,  con- 
 tribute, in  no  uncommon  degree,  to  the  prolongation  of  life. 
 
 A  few  examples  of  longevity  in  the  human  fpecies,  though 
 no  general  conclufions  can  be  drawn  from  them,  may  not  be 
 incurious  to  the  reader.  We  fliall  not  go  back  to  a  ramote 
 and  obfcure  antiquity,  but  confine  ourfelves  to  more  modern 
 times,  v/lien  the  modes  of  living  were  nearly  the  fame  as  they 
 are  at  prefent. 
 
 On  this  fubjedlj  tlie  celebrated  Lord  Verulam,  in  his  Syi* 
 va  Sylvarum*,  gives  the  following  paiTage,  chiefly  tranflated 
 from  the  feventh  book  of  PHny's  Natural  Hifl:ory  :  «  The 
 '  year  of  our  Lord  feventy-fix,  falling  into  the  time  of  Vef- 
 
 <  paflan,  is  memorable  ;  in  which  we  fliall  find,  as  it  were  a 
 
 <  kalendar  of  long-lived  men  :  For  that  year  there  was  a  tax- 
 *  ing,  (now  a  taxing  is  the  moil  authentical  and  truefl:  inform- 
 «  er  touching  the  ages  of  men),  and  in  that  part  of  Italy  whiclv 
 
 <  lieth  between  the   Appenniae  mountains  and  the  river  Po, 
 
 *  Page  293. 
 
508  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 *  there  were  found  124  perfons  that  either  equalled  or  ex* 
 
 *  ceed  an  hundred  years  of  age,  namely, 
 
 «  Fifty-four         -  -  *         of  100  years  each. 
 
 *  Fifty-feven         -         -  -  110 
 
 •Two  -         -         -         -  125 
 
 <  Four  -         -  .  -  130 
 <Four             -         .         -         -  135  or  137 
 •Three             -         -         -         -         140 
 
 <  Befide  thefe,  Parma,  in  particular,  afforded  five,  whereof, 
 
 <  Three  were  -  -         -  120  years  each. 
 «Two                -         -         -         -  130 
 
 <  One  in  Bruxelles  -  -  125 
 
 <  One  in  Placentia  -  *  131 
 
 <  One  in  Faventia  -  -  132 
 
 •  A  certain  town,  then  called  Velleiatium,  liti'*ate  in  the 
 « hills  about  Placentia,  afforded  ten,  whereof 
 
 <  Six  were         -         -         -        -  110  years  each, 
 
 <  Four  -  -  ^  120 
 
 <  One    in    Riniino,    whofe    name  was 
 
 <  Marcus  Aponius  -  .  150/ 
 
 The  moft  extraordinary  inflance  of  longevity  in  Great 
 Britain  was  exhibited  in  the  perfon  of  Henry  Jenkins.  He 
 was  a  native  of  Yorkfliire,  lived  to  the  amazing  age  of  1 69 
 years,  and  died  on  the  8th  day  of  December  1670. 
 
 Next  to  Jenkins  we  have  the  famous  Thomas  Parre,  who 
 was  a  native  of  Shropfhire,  and  died  on  the  16th  day  of 
 November  1635,  at  the  age  of  152. 
 
 Francis  Confift,  a  native  of  Yorkfhire,  aged  150,  died  in 
 January  1768. 
 
 Margaret  Forfter,  aged  136,  and  her  daughter,  aged  104, 
 were  natives  of  Cumberland,  and  both  alive  in  the  year  1771. 
 
 William  Evans,  aged  145,  lived  in  Carnarvon,  and  ftill 
 exifted  in  the  year  1782. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  50& 
 
 Diitmter  Radaloy,  aged  140,  lived  in  Harmenftead,  and 
 died  on  the  16th  day  of  January  1782. 
 
 James  Bowels,  aged  1 52,  lived  in  Killingworth,  and  died 
 on  the  15th  day  of  Auguft  1656. 
 
 The  Countefs  of  Defmond,  in  Ireland,  faw  her  140th  year. 
 
 Mr.  Eclefton,  a  native  of  Ireland,  lived  to  the  age  of  143) 
 and  died  in  the  year  1691. 
 
 John  Mount,    a  native  of  Scotland,  faw  his  136th  year, 
 and  died  on  the  27th  day  of  February  1776. 
 William  Ellis  of  Liverpool  died  on  the  1 6th  day  of  Auguft 
 1780,  at  the  age  of  130. 
 
 Colonel  Thomas  Winfloe,  a  native  of  Ireland,  aged  146, 
 died  on  the  22d  day  of  Auguft  1 766. 
 
 John  Taylor  was  born  in  Carrygill,  in  the  county  of  Cum- 
 berland. He  was  bred  a  miner.  His  father  died  when 
 John  was  only  four  years  of  age.  Poverty  obliged  him  to  be 
 fet  early  to  work.  During  two  years  he  drefled  lead  ore  for 
 2  d.  a-day.  The  next  three  or  four  years  he  affifted  the 
 miners  in  removing  the  ore  and  rubbifti  to  the  bank,  for 
 which  he  received  4  d.  a-day.  At  this  period  there  happen- 
 ed a  great  folar  eclipfe,  which  was  diftinguifhed  in  Scotland 
 by  the  appellation  of  Mirk  Monday'^,  This  event,  which  he 
 always  repeated  with  the  fame  circumftances,  is  the  chief 
 aera  from  which  John's  age  has  been  computed.  After  la- 
 bouring many  years  both  in  this  and  the  neighbouring  king- 
 dom, he  died,  near  Leadhills  in  Scotland,  in  the  month  of 
 May  1770,  at  the  great  age  of  133. 
 
 Though  the  above  modern  examples  of  extraordinary- 
 longevity  reft  chiefly  on  the  authority  of  periodical  publica- 
 tions, yet  there  is  not  a  doubt,  that,  in  all  countries,  and  at 
 all  times,  fome  perfons  of  both  fexes  have  arrived  at  ages  far 
 beyond  the  common  periods  of  human  life.     If  the  reader  is 
 
 *  Mirk,  in  the  Scottifh  dialed,  fignifies  dark  ;  and  the  eclipfe  happen-cd  ia 
 tke  year  165  a* 
 
5W  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 defirbus  of  feeing  many  inftances  of  longevity,  he  may  con« 
 fult  Bacon's  Hijiot-y  of  Life  and  Death  *,  Whitehurft's  Inquiry 
 into  the  Original  State  and  formation  of  the  Earth  f,  and  Dr. 
 Fothergill's  Obfervations  on  Longevity  \. 
 
 The  general  caufes  of  death  have  already  been  mentioned. 
 But,  in  women,  the  operation  of  thefe  caufes  is  frequently 
 retarded.  In  the  female  fex,  the  bones,  the  cartilages,  the 
 mufcles,  as  well  as  every  other  part  of  the  body,  are  fofrer 
 and  lefs  folid  than  thofe  of  men  :  Neither  are  they  generally 
 fo  much  fubjedled  to  bodily  exertions.  Their  conftituent 
 parts,  accordingly  require  more  time  in  hardening  to  that 
 degree  which  occafions  death.  Women  of  conrfe  ought  to 
 live  longer  than  men.  This  reafoning  is  confirmed  by  the 
 bills  of  mortality  ;  for  upon  confulting  them,  it  appears,  that, 
 after  women  have  pafTed  a  certain  time,  they  live  much  lon- 
 ger than  men  who  have  reached  the  fame  period.  The  du- 
 ration of  the  lives  of  animals  may  in  fome  meafure  beeftima- 
 ted  by  the  time  occupied  in  their  growth.  An  animal,  or 
 even  a  plant,  as  we  learn  from  experience,  which  acquires 
 maturity  in  a  fhort  time,  periflies  much  fooner  than  thofe 
 ^hich  are  longer  in  arriving  at  that  period.  In  the  human 
 fpecies,  when  individuals  grow  with  uncommon  rapidity, 
 they  genefally  die  young.  This  circumftance  feems  to  have 
 given  rife  to  the  common  proverbial  expreflion,  feon  ripe f. on 
 rotten.  Man  grows  in  ftature  till  he  be  fixteen  of  eighteen 
 years  of  age  ;  but  the  thicknefs  of  his  body  is  not  completely 
 unfolded  before  that  of  thirty.  Dogs  acquire  their  full 
 length  in  one  year  v  but  their  growth  in  thicknefs  is  not 
 iinifhed  till  the  end  of  the  fecond.  A  man,  who  continues 
 to  grow  for  thirty  years,  may  live  ninety  or  a  hundred  :  But 
 a  dog,  whofe  growth  terminates  in  two  or  three  years,  lives 
 only  ten  or  twelve.     The  fame  obfervation  is  applicable  to 
 
 *  Sylva  Sylvarum,  page  273.  &c. 
 
 f  id  Edit   page  1 65. 
 
 \  Annual  Regifter,  Natural  Hiftory  divlfion,  page  6  f. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  511 
 
 moft  animals.  Fifhes  continue  to  grow  for  a  great  number 
 of  years.  Some  of  them,  accordingly,  live  during  feveral 
 centuries  ;  becaufe  their  bones  and  cartilages  feldom  acquire 
 the  denfity  of  thofe  of  other  animals.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
 confiJered,  as  a  general  fadl,  that  large  animals  Hve  longer 
 than  fmall  ones,  becaufe  the  former  require  more  time  to 
 complete  their  growth.  Thus  the  caufes  of  our  diflblution 
 are  inevitable  5  and  it  is  equally  impoifible  to  retard  that 
 fatal  period,  as  to  change  the  eftablilhed  laws  of  Nature. 
 When  the  conftitution  is  found,  life  may,  perhaps,  by  mode- 
 rating the  paifions,  and  by  temperance,  be  prolonged  for  a 
 few  years.  But  the  varieties  of  climate,  and  the  modes  of 
 living,  make  no  material  differences  with  regard  to  the  peri-r 
 od  of  our  exiftence,  which  is  nearly  the  fame  in  the  Europe- 
 an, the  Negro,  the  Afiatic,  the  American,  the  civilized  man 
 and  the  favage,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  citizen  and  the  pea* 
 fant.  Neitherdoes  the  difference  of  food, orof  accommodation, 
 make  any  change  on  the  duration  of  life.  Men  who  are  fed 
 on  raw  fleOi  or  dried  fifh,  on  fago  or  rice,  on  caflada  or  roots, 
 live  as  long  as  thofe  who  ufe  bread  and  prepared  vi£luals. 
 If  luxury  and  intemperance  be  excepted,  nothing  can  alter 
 thofe  laws  of  mechanifm  which  invariably  determine  the 
 number  of  our  years.  Any  little  differences  which  may  be 
 remarked  in  the  term  of  human  life,  feem  to  be  chiefly  ow- 
 ing to  the  quality  of  the  air.  In  general,  there  are  more  old 
 men  in  high  than  in  low  countries.  The  mountains  of  Scot- 
 land, of  Wales,  and  of  Switzerland,  have  furniflied  more 
 examples  of  longevity  than  the  plains  of  Holland,  Flanders, 
 Germany,  or  Poland.  But  if  we  take  a  furvey  of  mankind, 
 whatever  be  the  climate  they  inhabit,  or  their  mode  of  living, 
 there  is  fcarcely  any  difference  in  the  duration  of  life. 
 When  men  are  not  cut  off  by  accidental  difeafes,  individuals 
 may  every  where  be  found  who  live  ninety  or  an  hundred 
 years.     Our  anceftors,  with  few  exceptions,  never  exceeded 
 
51S  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 this  period  ;and,fince  the  days  of  David  King  of  the  Jews,  it 
 has  undergone  no  variation.  Befide  accidental  difeafes,  which 
 are  more  frequent,  as  well  as  more  dangerous,  in  the  latter 
 periods  of  life,  old  men  are  fubjedled  to  natural  infirmities 
 that  originate  folely  from  a  decay  of  the  different  parts  of 
 the  body.  .  The  mufcles  lofe  their  tone,  the  head  fhakes,  the 
 hands  tremble,  the  limbs  totter,  the  fenfibility  of  the  nerves 
 is  blunted,  the  cavities  of  the  veffels  contract,  the  fecretory 
 organs  are  obftru(Sled,  the  blood,  the  lymph,  and  the  other 
 fluids,  extravafate,  and  produce  all  thofe  fymptoms  and  dif- 
 eafes which  are  commonly  afcribed  to  a  vitiation  of  the  hu- 
 mours. The  natural  decay  of  the  folids,  however,  appears 
 to  be  the  original  caufe  of  all  thefe  maladies.  It  is  true,  that 
 a  bad  ftate  of  the  fluids  proceeds  from  a  depravity  in  the  or- 
 ganization of  the  folids.  But  the  efFe^ls  refulting  from  a  nox- 
 ious change  in  the  fluids  produce  the  moft  alarming  fymp- 
 toms. When  the  fluids  flagnate,  or  if,  by  a  relaxation  of  the 
 vefleis,  an  extravafation  takes  place,  they  foon  corrupt,  and 
 corrode  the  weaker  parts  of  the  folids.  Hence  the  caufes 
 of  diflblution  gradually,  but  perpetually,  multiply,  our  inter- 
 nal enemies  grow  more  and  more  powerful,  and  at  laft  put 
 a  period  to  our  exiftence. 
 
 With  regard  to  Quadrupeds^  the  caufes  of  their  diflblution 
 are  precifely  the  fame  with  thofe  which  deflroy  the  human 
 fpecies.  The  times  of  their  growth  bear,  likewife,  fome  pro- 
 portion to  the  duration  of  their  lives.  But,  as  we  have  alrea- 
 dy given  a  table  of  the  ages  at  which  difi'erent  quadrupeds  are 
 capable  of  multiplying  their  fpecies,  and  of  the  general  dura- 
 tion of  their  lives,  to  avoid  unnecelTary  repetitions,  we  muft 
 refer  the  reader  to  page  !288  of  this  work. 
 
 Some  Birds  afford  inftances  of  great  longevity.  In  this  clafs 
 of  animals,  the  duration  of  life  is  by  no  means  proportioned  to 
 the  times  of  their  growth.  Moft  of  them  acquire  their  full 
 dimenfions  in  a  few  months,  and  are  capable  of  multiplying 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  5 IS. 
 
 the  fpecies  the  firft  fpring  or  fummer  after  they  are  hatch* 
 ed.  In  proportion  to  the  fize  of  their  bodies,  birds  are 
 much  more  vivacious,  and  Uve  longer  than  either  men  or 
 quadrupeds.  Swans  have  been  faid  to  Uve  three  hundred 
 years  j  but,  though  mentioned  by  refpe<Stable  writers,  the 
 affertion  is  not  fupported  by  any  authentic  evidence.  Mn 
 Willoughby,  in  his  Ornithology*,  remarks,  <  We  have  been 
 
 <  aiTured  by  a  friend  of  ours,  a  perfon  of  very  good  credit, 
 f  that  his  father  kept  a  goofe  known  to  be  fourfcore  years  of 
 
 <  age,  and  as  yet  found   and   lufty,  and  like  enough  to  have 
 
 <  lived  many  years  longer,  had  he  not  been  forced  to  kill  her 
 «  for  her  mifchievoufnefs,  worrying  and  deftroying  the  young 
 *  geefe  and  goflings.'  In  another  part  of  this  valuable  work, 
 Mr.    Willoughby  tells    us,  '  that  he  has  been   afiiired  by 
 
 <  credible  perfons,  that  a  goofe  will  live  a  hundred  years  or 
 i  moref.' 
 
 In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  duration  of  Hfe  bears  fome 
 proportion  to  the  times  of  their  growth.  But,  in  Birds,  their 
 growth,  and  their  powers  of  reproduction,  are  more  rapid, 
 though  they  live  proportionally  longer-  Some  fpecies  of 
 birds,  as  all  the  gallinaceous  tribes,  can  make  ufe  of  their 
 limbs  the  moment  they  iflue  from  the  fliell  •,  and,  in  a  month 
 or  five  weeks  after,  they  can  likewife  employ  their  wings,. 
 A  dung-hill  cock  has  the  capacity  of  engendering  at  the  age 
 of  four  months,  but  does  not  acquire  his  full  grov.'th  in  lefs 
 than  a  year.  The  fmaller  birds  are  perfecl  in  four  or  five 
 months.  They  grow  more  rapidly,  and  produce  much  foon- 
 $r  than  quadrupeds,  and  yet  they  live  proportionally  much 
 longer.  In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  duration  of  life  is 
 about  fix  or  feven  times  more  than  that  of  their  growth. 
 According  to  this  rule,  a  cock  or  a  parrot,  who  arrive  at  their 
 ftiU  growth  and  powers  in  one  year,  fliould  not  live  above 
 
 *  Page  14. 
 f  Ornithology,  page  2j6, 
 
514  THE  PHILOSOPHY 
 
 fix  or  feven.  But  Nature  knows  none  of  our  rules.  She 
 accommodates  her  conduct,  not  to  our  fhallow,  and  often 
 prefumptuous  conchifions,  but  to  the  prefervation  of  fpecies, 
 and  to  the  fupport  and  general  balance  of  the  great  fyftem  of 
 animated  beings.  Ravens,  though  capable  of  providing  for 
 themfelves  in  lefs  than  a  year,  fometimes  have  their  lives 
 protracted  more  than  a  century.  The  Count  de  BufFon  in- 
 forms us,  ih^it,  in  feveral  places  of  France,  ravens  have  been 
 known  to  arrive  at  this  extraordinary  age,  and  that,  at  all 
 times,  and  in  all  countries,  they  have  been  efteemed  birds  of 
 great  longevity*. 
 
 <  Eagles,'    iays  Mr.  Pennant,  <  are  remarkable  for   their 
 
 <  longevity,  and  for  their  power  of  fuftaining  a  long  abfti- 
 
 *  nence  from  food.     A  golden  eagle,   which  has   now  been 
 
 <  nine  years  in  the  polTeflion  of  Owen  Holland,  Efq.  of  Con- 
 
 *  way,  lived  thirty-two  years  with  the  gentleman  who  made 
 
 *  him  a  prefent  of  it  *,    but  what  its  age  was  when  the  latter 
 
 *  received  it  from  Ireland  is  unknown.     The  fame  bird  alfo 
 
 *  furniflies  a  p  oof  of  the  truth  of  the  other  remark,  having 
 
 *  once,  through  the  neglecSt  of  fervants,  endured  hunger  for 
 
 *  twenty -one  days,  without  any  fuftenance  whatfoeverf.* 
 The  pelican  that  was  kept  at  Mechlin  in  Brabant  during  the 
 reign  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  was  believed  to  be  eighty 
 years  of  age.    '  What  is  reported  of  the  age  of  eagles  and 
 
 <  ravens,*  fays  Mr.  Willoughby,  *  although  it  exceeds  all  be- 
 ^  lief,  yet  doth  it  evince  that  thofe  birds  are  very  long-livedj.* 
 Pigeons  have  been  known  to  live  from  twenty  to  twentyi- 
 two  years.  Even  the  fmaller  birds  live  very  long  in  propor- 
 tion to  the  time  of  their  growth  and  the  Hze  of  their  bodies. 
 Linnets,  gold-finches,  &c.  often  live  in  cages  fifteen,  twenty, 
 ^nd  even  twenty-three  years. 
 
 •  Hift.  Nat,  des  Oifeaux,  torn.  3.  page  32, 
 f  Britifh  Zoology,  vol   i.  8vo.  edit,  page   123. 
 ^  Ornitholo;^y,  page  j  4. 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  51.  o 
 
 FiJheSy  whofe  bones  are  more  cartilaginous  than  thofe  of 
 men  and  quadrupeds,  are  long  of  acquiring  their  utmoft 
 growth,  and  many  of  them  live  to  great  ages.  Gefner  gives 
 an  inftance  of  a  carp  in  Germany  which  he  knew  to  be  one 
 hundred  years  old*.  BufFon  informs  us,  that,  in  the  Count 
 Maurepa's  ponds,  he  had  feen  carps  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
 years  of  age,  and  that  the  faft  was  attefted  in  the  moft  fatis- 
 facStory  manner.  He  even  mentions  one  which  he  fuppofed 
 to  be  two  hundred  years  oldf .  Two  methods  have  been  de- 
 Yifed  for  afcertaining  the  age  of  fiflies,  namely,  by  the  cir- 
 clesof  thercales,and  by  a  tranfverfe  fe£lionof  the  back-bone. 
 When  a  fc  le  of  a  fifh  is  examined  by  the  microfcope,  it  is 
 found  to  conlift  of  a  number  of  circles  within  one  another, 
 refembling,  in  fome  meafure,  thofe  rings  that  appear  on  the 
 tranfverfe fedtions  of  trees, by  which  their  ages  are  computed. 
 In  the  fame  manner,  the  ages  of  fifhes  may  be  afcertained 
 by  the  number  of  circles  on  their  fcales,  reckoning  for  each 
 ring  one  year  of  the  animal's  exiftence.  The  ages  of  Buffon's 
 carps  were  chiefly  determined  by  the  circles  on  their  fcales. 
 The  age  of  fifties  that  want  fcales,  as  the  fkate  and  ray-kind, 
 may  be  pretty  exa<Stly  known  by  feparating  the  joints  of  the 
 back-bone,  and  obferving  minutely  the  number  of  rings 
 which  the  furface  exhibits.  Both  of  thefe  methods  may  be 
 liable  to  deception  ;  but  they  are  the  only  natural  ones  which 
 have  hitherto  been  difcovered.  The  longevity  of  fifties  has 
 been  afcribed  to  feveral  caufes.  The  element  in  which  they 
 live  is  more  uniform,  and  lefs  fubjedt  to  accidental  changes 
 than  the  air  of  our  atmofphere.  Their  bones,  which  are 
 more  of  a  cartilaginous  nature  than  thofe  of  land  animals, 
 admit  of  indefinite  extenfion  ;  of  courfe,  their  bodies,  inftead 
 of  fiifFering  the  rigidity  of  age  at  an  early  period,  which  is 
 the  natural  caufe  of  death,  continue  to  grow  much  longer 
 than  thofe  of  moft  land-animals. 
 
 Gefner  de  Pifc.  page  31^ 
 t  Epocjues  de  la  Nature,  page  18s. 
 
516  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 As  to  the  age  of  Reptileiy  probably  from  the  uninterefting 
 nature  of  the  animals,  we  have  very  little  information.  But 
 two  letters  of  J.  Arfcott,  Efq.  j  of  Tehott  in  Devonfhire, 
 concerning  the  longevity  of  a  toad,  deferve  fome  notice. 
 Thefe  letters  were  addrefled  to  Dr.  Mille?,  Dean  of  Exeter, 
 and  by  him  communicated  to  Mr.  Pennant  in  the  year  1 768  : 
 It  would  give  me  the  greateft  pleafure,'  fays  Mr.  Arfcott,  '  to 
 be  able  to  inform  you  of  any  particulars  worthy  Mr.  Pen- 
 nant's notice,  concerning  the  toad  who  lived  fo  many  years 
 with  us,  and  was  fo  great  a  favourite.  It  had  frequented 
 fome  fteps  before  the  hall-door  fome  years  before  my  ac- 
 quaintance commenced  with  it,  and  had  been  admired  by 
 my  father  for  its  iize,  (which  was  of  the  largeft  I  ever  met 
 with),  who  conftantly  paid  it  a  vifit  every  evening.  I  knew 
 it  myfelf  above  thirty  years,  and,  by  conftantly  feeding  itj 
 brought  it  to  be  fo  tame,  that  it  always  came  to  the  candle, 
 and  looked  up,  as  if  eXpedling  to  be  taken  up  and  brought 
 upon  the  table,  where  I  always  fed  it  with  infefts  of  all 
 forts.  You  may  imagine  that  a  toad,  generally  detefted, 
 (although  one  of  the  moft  inotfenlive  of  all  animals),  fo 
 much  taken  notice  of  and  befriended,  excited  the  curiofity 
 of  all  comers  to  the  houfe,  who  all  delired  to  fee  it  fed  ;  fo 
 that  even  ladies  fo  far  conquered  the  horrors  inftilled  into 
 them  by  nurfes,  as  to  delire  to  fee  it*.'  In  the  fecond  letter, 
 Mr.  Arfcott  remarks,  <  I  cannot  fay  how  long  my  father  had 
 been  acquainted  with  the  toad  before  I  knew  it ;  but,  when 
 I  was  firft  acquainted  with  it,  he  ufed  to  mention  it  as  the 
 old  toad  I  have  known  fo  many  years  ;  I  can  anfwer  for 
 thirtj'fix  yearsf .'  <  In  refpe£t  to  its  end,  had  it  not  been 
 for  a  tame  raven,  I  make  no  doubt  but  it  would  have  been 
 now  living,  who  one  day,  feeing  it  at  the  mouth  of  its  hole, 
 pulled  it  out,  and,  though  I  refcued  it,  pulled  out  one  eye, 
 
 *  Pennant's  Brltifli  Zoology,  vol.  3.  page  323. 
 t  Ibid,  page  3.46. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HrSTORY.  517 
 
 ^  and  hurt  it  fo,  that,  notwithftanding  its  living  a  twelve- 
 *  month,  it  never  enjoyed  itfelf,  and  had  a  difficulty  in  tak- 
 ^  ing  its  food,  miffing  the  mark  for  want  of  its  eye.  Before 
 ^  that  accident  it  had  all  the  appearance  of  perfect  health*. 
 
 Moft  hifedsj  efpecially  after  their  laft  transformation,  are 
 (liort-lived.  But  the  fpecies  are  continually  fupported  by 
 their  wonderful  fecundity.  Thofe  animals  whofe  parts  re- 
 quire a  long  time  of  hardening  and  expanding  are  endowed 
 with  a  proportional  degree  of  longevity.  Infedts  grow,  and 
 their  bodies  harden,  more  quickly  than  thofe  of  larger  ani- 
 mals. Many  of  them  complete  their  growth  in  a  few  weeks, 
 and  even  in  a  few  days.  The  duration  of  their  exiftence  is 
 accordingly  lin'uted  to  very  ihort  periods.  Some  fpecies  of 
 liies  he  in  a  torpid  ftate  during  the  winter,  and  revive  when 
 the  heat  of  fpring  or  fummer  returns.  The  ephemeron  flies, 
 of  which  there  are  feveral  kinds,  feldom  live  above  one  day, 
 or  one  hour,  after  their  transformation.  But,  to  continue 
 the  fpecies,  Nature  has  taken  care  that  myriads  of  males  and 
 females  fliould  be  transformed  nearly  at  the  fame  inftant. 
 Were  it  otherwife,  the  males  and  females  could  have  no  op- 
 portunity of  meeting,  and  the  fpecies  would  foon  be  extin- 
 guilTied.  Other  kinds  are  transformed  more  irregularly,  and 
 live  feveral  days.  Here  the  wifdom  of  Nature  is  confpicuous : 
 She  prolongs  the  exiftence  of  thefe  animals  for  no  other 
 purpofe  but  to  allow  the  individuals  of  both  fexes  to  meet 
 and  multiply  the  fpecies.  Bees,  and  flies  of  all  kinds,  after 
 lying  long  in  water,  and  having  every  appearance  of  death, 
 revive  by  the  application  of  a  gentle  heat,  or  by  covering 
 their  bodies  with  alhes,  chalk  or  fand,  which  abforb  the  fu- 
 perfluous  moifture  from  their  pores.  Reaumur  made  many 
 experiments  upon  the  revivifcence  of  drowned  bees.  He 
 found,  that,  after  being  immerfed  in  water  for  nine  hours, 
 fome  of  them  returned  to  life ;    but  he  acknowledges  that 
 
 *  Pennant's  Britiih  Zoology,  vol.  3.  page  332. 
 
 R  R  r 
 
Bis  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 many  of  them,  in  tlie  fourth  part  of  this  time,  were  a^luaU)* 
 dead,  and  that  neither  heat,  nor  the  appHcation  of  abforbenft 
 powders,  could  reftore  them  to  Hfe.  Analogical  reafoning 
 is  often  deceitful,  but  it  frequently  leads  to  ufeful  truthsi 
 As  flies  of  ail  kinds,  after  immerfion  in  water,  and  exhibit- 
 ing every  mark  of  actual  death,  can  be  reftored  to  life  by- 
 covering  their  bodies  with  any  abforbent  fubftance,  without 
 the  affiftance  of  a  heat  fuperior  to  that  of  the  common  at- 
 mofphere,  might  not  the  ordinary  methods  employed  for 
 the  recovery  of  drowned  perfons  be  affifted  by  the  applica- 
 tion of  warm  aflies  or  chalk  ?  The  ftrudlure  of  a  fly  and 
 that  of  a  man,  it  is  allowed,  are  very  different.  But,  in  def- 
 perate  cafes,  when  every  other  method  fails,  no  faft  fliould 
 be  overlooked,  and  no  analogy  defpifed. 
 
 Plants  differ  as  much  in  the  periods  of  their  exiftence  as 
 animals.  Many  plants  perifli  yearly  *,  others  are  biennial, 
 triennial,  &-c.  But  the  longevity  and  magnitude  of  particular 
 trees  are  prodigious.  We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Evelyn, 
 that,  in  the  bodies  of  fome  Englifli  oaks,  when  cut  tranfverfe- 
 ly,  three,  and  even  four,  hundred  rings  of  wood  have  been 
 diftinguiflied.  A  ring  of  wood  is  added  annually  to  the 
 trunks  of  trees  ;  and,  by  counting  the  rings,  the  age  of  any 
 tree  may  be  pretty  exa6lly  afcertained*.  With  regard  to 
 the  magnitude  of  oaks,  fome  of  them  are  huge  maffes.  Dr. 
 Hunter,  in  his  Notes  upon  Eveyln's  Sylva,  remarks,  that 
 none  *  of  the  oaks  mentioned  by  Mr.  Evelyn  bear  any  pro- 
 «  portion  to  one  now  growing  at  Cowthorpe,  near  Wether- 
 *  by,   upon   an  eftate    belonging   to   the   Right  Hon.  Lady 
 
 <  Stourton.     The  dimenfions  are  almofl:  incredible.     With- 
 
 <  in  three  feet  of  the  furface,  it  meafures  fixteen  yards,  and, 
 
 <  clofe  by  the  ground,    twenty -fix  yards.     Its  height,  in  its 
 
 <  prefent  and  ruinous  ftate,  (1776,)  is  about  eighty-five  feet, 
 and   its   principle  limb  extends  fixteen  yards  from  the  boje. 
 
 *  See  Evelyn's  Sylva,  page  50J. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  519 
 
 « "When  compared  to  this,  all  other  trees  are  but  children  of 
 <  of  the  foreft*/ 
 
 From  the  fa£ls  which  have  been  enumerated,  it  appears, 
 that  all  animals,  as  well  as  vegetables,  have  ftated  periods  of 
 exiftence,  and  that  their  diflblution  is  uniformly  accomplifli- 
 ed  by  a  gradual  hardening  and  deficcation  of  their  conftituent 
 parts.  No  art,  no  medicine,  can  retard  the  operations  of 
 Nature.  It  is,  therefore,  the  wifdom  and  the  duty  of  every 
 •human  being  to  fail  down  the  irrefiftible  current  of  Nature 
 with  all  poffible  tranquility  and  refignation.  Life,  whether 
 fhort  or  long,  whether  fortunate  or  unfortunate,  when  the 
 fatal  period  arrives,  is  of  little  confequence  to  the  individual. 
 Society,  knowledge,  virtue,  and  benevolence,  are  our  only 
 rational  enjoyments,  and  ought  to  be  cultivated  with  dili- 
 gence. 
 
 With  regard  to  animals  in  general,  the  actual  duration 
 of  their  lives  is  very  different.  But  the  comp^irative  Ihort- 
 nefs  or  length  of  life,  in  particular  animals,  probably  de- 
 pends on  the  quicknefs  or  llownefs  of  the  ideas  which  pafs 
 in  their  minds,  or  of  the  impreflions  made  upon  their  fenfes. 
 A  rapid  fucceflion  of  ideas  or  impreflions  makes  time  feem 
 proportionally  long.  There  is  likewife  a  connedlion  between 
 the  quicknefs  and  flownefs  of  ideas,  and  the  circulation  of 
 the  blood.  A  man  whofe  pulfe  is  flow  and  fluggifli,  is  ge- 
 nerally dull  and  phlegmatic.  Raife  this  fame  man^s  pulfe 
 with  wine,  or  any  other  exhilirating  ftimulus,  and  you  im- 
 mediately quicken  his  fenfations,  as  well  as  the  train  of  his 
 ideas.  In  all  young  animals,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is 
 much  more  rapid  than  after  they  have  acquired  their  full 
 growth.  Young  animals,  accordingly,  are  frolickfome, 
 vivacious,  and  happy.  But,  when  their  growth  is  completed, 
 the  motion  of  blood  is  flower,  and  their  manners,  of  courie, 
 are   more   fedate,  gloomy,  and  ponfive.     Another  circum- 
 
 *  Ibid  page  500. 
 
520  THE   PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ftance  merits  attention.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  is- 
 flower  or  quicker  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  animals. 
 In  large  animals,  fuch  as  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  blood 
 moves  flowly,  and  the  fucceffion  of  their  ideas  is  proportion- 
 ally flow.  In  the  more  minute  kinds,  as  mice,  fmall  birds, 
 fquirrels,  &c.  the  circulation  is  fo  rapid  that  the  pulfes  of 
 their  arteries  cannot  be  counted.  Now,  animals  of  this  de- 
 fcription  aftonifh  us  with  the  quicknefs  of  their  movements, 
 the  vivacity  of  their  manners,  and  the  extreme  chearfulnefs 
 of  their  difpofitions. 
 
 Reaumur,  Condillac,  and  many  other  philofophers,  confid- 
 er  duration  as  a  relative  idea,  depending  on  a  train  of  con- 
 fcious  perception  and  fentiment.  It  is  certain  that  the  na- 
 tural meafure  of  time  depends  folely  on  the  fucceflion  of  our 
 ideas.  "Were  it  poflible  for  the  mind  to  be  totally  occupied 
 with  a  fingle  idea  for  a  day,  a  week,  or  a  month,  thefe  por- 
 tions of  time  would  appear  to  be  nothing  more  than  fo  many 
 inftants.  Hence  a  philofopher  often  lives  as  long  in  one  day, 
 as  a  clown  or  a  favage  does  in  a  week  or  a  month  fpent  in 
 mental  inaflivity  and  want  of  thought. 
 
 This  fubjedt  fhall  be  concluded  with  a  fingle  remark  :  If 
 it  be  true,  and  we  are  certain  that  it  is  fo  in  part,  that  ani- 
 mals of  every  fpecies,  whatever  be  the  real  duration  of  their 
 lives,  from  a  flow  or  rapid  fucceflion  of  ideas,  and  perhaps 
 from  the  comparative  intenfity  of  their  enjoyments,  live 
 equally  long,  and  enjoy  an  equal  portion  of  individual  happi- 
 nefs,  it  opens  a  wonderful  view  of  the  great  benevolence  of 
 Nature.  To  flore  every  portion  of  this  globe  with  animal 
 life,  fhe  has  amply  peopled  the  earth,  the  air,  and  the  waters. 
 The  multifarious  inhabitants  of  thefe  elements,  as  to  the 
 aflual  duration  of  their  lives,  are  extremely  diveriified.  But, 
 by  variation  of  forms,  of  magnitude,  of  rapidity  of  ideas,  of 
 intenfity  of  pleafures,  and,  perhaps,  of  many  other  circum- 
 flances,  fhe  has  conferred  upon  the  whole  nearly  an  equal 
 portion  of  happinefs. 
 
or    NATURAL    HISTORY.  521 
 
 CHAPTER     XXII. 
 
 Of  the  ProgreJJive  Scale  or  Chain  of  Beings  in  the  IJniverfi. 
 
 JL  O  men  of  obfervation  and  refle6\ion,  it  15  ap- 
 parent, that  all  the  beings  on  this  earth,  whether  animals  or 
 vegetables,  have  a  mutual  connecStion  and  a  mutual  depen- 
 dence on  each  other.  There  is  a  graduated  fcale  or  chain  o£ 
 exiftence,  not  a  link  of  which,  however  feemingly  infignifi- 
 cant,  could  be  broken  without  affedling  the  whole.  Super- 
 ficial men,  or,  which  is  the  fame  thing,  men  who  avoid  the 
 trouble  of  ferious  thinking,  wonder  at  the  defign  of  produc- 
 ing certain  infe<Sl:s  and  reptiles.  But  they  do  not  confider- 
 that  the  annihilation  of  any  one  of  thefe  fpecies,  though 
 fome  of  them  are  inconvenient,  and  even  noxious  to  man^ 
 would  make  a  blank  in  Nature,  and  prove  deftru<Slive  to 
 other  fpecies  who  feed  upon  them.  Thefe,  in  their  turn, 
 would  be  the  caufe  of  deftroying  other  fpecies,  and  the  fyf-^ 
 tern  of  devaftation  would  gradually  proceed,  till  man  himfelf 
 would  be  extirpated,  and  leave  this  earth  deflitute  of  all  ani^ 
 mation. 
 
 In  the  chain  of  animals,  man  is  unquefllonably  the  chief 
 or  capital  link,  and  from  him  all  the  other  links  defcend  by 
 almoft  imperceptible  gradations.  As  a  ,  highly  rational  ani- 
 mal, improved  with  fcience  and  arts,  he  is,  in  fome  meafure, 
 related  to  beings  of  a  faperior  order,  wherever  they  exift. 
 By  contemplating  the  works  of  Nature,  he  even  rifes  to 
 fome  faint  ideas  of  her  great  Author.  Why,  it  has  been 
 allied,  are  not  men  endowed  with  the  capacity  and  powers 
 of  angels  ?  beings  of  whom  we  have  not  even  a  conceptiono 
 With  the  fame  propriety,  it  may  be  allced,  why  have  not. 
 beafts  the  mental  powers  of  men  ?      Queftions  of  this  kind 
 
522  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 are  the  refults  of  ignorance,  which  is  always  petulant  and 
 pfefumptuous.  Every  creature  is  perfeft,  according  to  its 
 deftination.  Raife  or  deprefs  any  order  of  beings,  the 
 whole  fyftem,  of  courfe,  will  be  deranged,  and  a  new  world 
 would  be  neceflary  to  contain  and  fupport  them.  Particular 
 orders  of  beings  fhould  not  be  coniidered  feparately,  but  by 
 the  rank  they  hold  in  the  general  fyflem.  From  man  to. 
 the  minuteft  animalcule  which  can  be  difcovered  by  the  mi- 
 crofcope,  the  chafm  feems  to  be  infinite  :  But  that  chafm  is 
 aftually  filled  up  with  fentient  beings,  of  which  the  lines  of 
 difcrimination  are  almofl  imperceptible.  All  of  them  pofTefs 
 degrees  of  perfection  or  of  excellence  proportioned  to  their 
 flation  in  the  univerfe.  Even  among  mankind,  which  is  a 
 particular  fpecies,  the  fcale  of  intelledt  is  very  iCxtenfive. 
 What  a  difference  between  an  enlightened  philofopher  and 
 a  brutal  Hottentot  ?  Still,  however.  Nature  obferves,  for 
 the  wifefl  purpofes,  her  uniform  plan  of  graduation.  In  the 
 human  fpecies,  the  degrees  of  intelligence  are  extremely  va- 
 ried. Were  all  men  philofophers,  the  bufinefs  of  life  could 
 not  be  executed,  and  neither  fociety,  nor  even  the  fpecies, 
 could  long  exift.  Induflry,  various  degrees  of  knowledge, 
 different  difpofitions,  and  different  talents,  are  great  bonds 
 pf  fociety.  The  Gentoos,  from  certain  poHtical  and  religi- 
 ous inflitutions,  have  formed  their  people  into  different  cafts 
 or  ranks,  out  of  which  their  poflerity  can  never  emerge. 
 To  us,  fuch  inflitutions  appear  to  be  tyrannical,  and  reftraints 
 on  the  natural  liberty  of  man.  In  fome  refpects  they  are  fo  : 
 But  they  f eem  to  have  been  originally  refults  of  wifdom  and 
 obfervation  j  for,  independently  of  all  political  inflitutions, 
 Nature  herfelf  has  formed  the  human  fpecies  into  cafts  or 
 ranks.  To  fome  fhe  gives  fuperior  genius  and  mental  abili- 
 ties ;  and,  even  of  thefe,  the  views,  the  purfuits,  and  th^ 
 taftes,  are  moft  vronderfullv  di verified. 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  53^ 
 
 In  the  talents  and  qualities  of  quadrupeds  of  the  fame  fpe- 
 eies,  therQ  are  often  remarkable  differences.  Thefe  diflfer- 
 ences  are  confplcuous  in  the  various  races  of  horfes,  dogs,  &c. 
 Even  among  the  fame  races,  fome  are  bold,  fprightly,  and 
 fagaclous.  Others  are  comparatively  timid,  phlegmatic, 
 and  dull. 
 
 Our  knowledge  of  the  chain  of  Intelle(Slual  and  corporeal 
 beings  is  very  imperfetfl ;  but  what  we  do  know  gives  us  ex- 
 alted ideas  of  that  variety  and  progreffion  which  reign  in  the 
 univerfe.  A  thick  cloud  prevents  us  from  recognifing  the 
 moft  beautiful  and  magnificent  parts  of  this  immenfe  chain 
 of  being.  We  fhall  endeavour,  however,  to  point  out  a  few 
 of  the  more  obvious  links  of  that  chain,  which  falls  under 
 our  own  limited  obfervation. 
 
 ISIan,  even  by  his  external  qualities,  ftands  at  the  head  of 
 this  world.  His  relations  are  more  extenfive,  and  his  form 
 more  advantageous,  than  thofe  of  any  other  animal.  His  in-p 
 telledlual  powers,  when  improved  by  fociety  and  fcie|ice, 
 raife  him  fo  high,  that,  if  no  degrees  of  excellence  exifted 
 among  his  own  fpecles,  he  would  leave  a  great  void  in  the 
 chain  of  being.  Were  we  to  confider  the  characters,  the 
 manners,  and  the  genius  of  different  nations,  of  different 
 provinces  and  towns,  and  even  of  the  members  of  the  fame 
 family,  we  fliould  imagine  that  the  fpecles  of  men  were  as 
 various  as  the  number  of  individuals.  How  many  gradations 
 may  be  traced  between  a  ftupid  Huron,  or  a  Hottentot,  and 
 a  profound  philofopher  ?  Here  the  diftance  is  immenfe  ; 
 but  Nature  has  occupied  the  whole  by  almoft  infinite  ftiades 
 of  difcrimination. 
 
 In  defcending  the  fcale  of  animation,  the  next  ftep,  it  is 
 humiliating  to  remark,  is  very  fhort.  Man,  in  his  loweft 
 condition,  is  evidently  linked,  both  in  the  form  of  his  body 
 and  the  capacity  of  his  mind,  to  the  large  and  fmall  orang- 
 outangs.    Thefe  again,  by  another  flight  gradation,  are  con- 
 
S24f  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 nested  to  the  apes_,  who,  like  the  former,  have  no  tails.  It 
 is  wonderful  that  Linnaeus,  and  many  other  naturalifts, 
 ihould  have  overlooked  this  gradation  in  the  fcale  of  ani- 
 mals, and  maintained,  that  the  ifland  of  Nicobar,  and  fome 
 other  parts  of  the  Eaft  Indies,  were  inhabited  by  tailed  men. 
 Before  thofe  animals  whofe  external  figure  has  the  greateft 
 refemblance  to  that  of  man,  are  ornamented,  or  rather  de- 
 formed, with  tails,  there  are  feveral  fhades  of  difcrimination. 
 The  larger  and  fmaller  orang-outangs,  which  are  real  brutes, 
 have  no  tails.  Neither  are  the  numerous  tribes  of  apes  fur- 
 nifhed  with  this  appendage.  But  the  believers  in  tailed  men 
 gravely  tell  us,  that  there  is  nothing  furprifing  in  this  pheno- 
 menon, becaufe  a  tail  is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  os  ccccygis, 
 which  is  the  termination  of  the  back-bone.  They  confider 
 not,  however,  that,  inftead  of  accounting  for  the  exiftence 
 of  tailed  men,  they  do  nothing  more  than  fubftitute  a  learn- 
 ed circumlocution  for  the  fimple  word  tail.  It  is  here  wor- 
 th^jof  remark,  that  a  philofopher,  who  has  paid  little  atten- 
 tion to  natural  hillory,  is  perpetually  liable  to  be  deceived  ; 
 and  that  a  naturalift,  I  mean  a  nomenclator,  without  philo- 
 fophy,  though  he  may  be  ufeful  by  mechanically  marking 
 diftinclions,  is  incapable  of  enriching  our  minds  with  gener- 
 al ideas.  A  proper  mixture  of  the  two  is  beft  calculated  to 
 produce  a  real  philofopher.  From  the  orang-outangs  and 
 apes  to  the  baboons,  the  interval  is  hardly  perceptible.  The 
 true  apes  have  no  tails,  and  thofe  of  the  baboons  are  very 
 fhort.  The  monkeys,  who  form  the  next  link,  have  long 
 tails,  and  terminate  this  partial  chain  of  imitative  animals, 
 which  have  fuch  a  deteftable  refemblance  to  the  human 
 fram.e  and  manners. 
 
 When  examining  the  characters  by  which  beings  are  dif^ 
 tinguilhable  from  each  other,  we  perceive  that  fome  of  them 
 are  more  general,  and  include  a  greater  variety  than  others. 
 From  this  circumftance  all  our  diftributions  into  clafTes,  or- 
 
OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.  525 
 
 ders,  genera,  and  fpecies,  are  derived.  Between  two  clafles, 
 or  two  genera,  however.  Nature  always  exhibits  intermediate 
 productions  fo  clofely  allied,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
 afcertain  to  which  of  them  they  belong.  The  polypus,  which 
 multipties  by  fhoots,  or  by  fe(Stions,  from  its  body,  conne6ls 
 the  animal  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Thofe  worms  which 
 lodge  in  tubes  compofed  of  fand,  feem  to  link  the  infecSts  to 
 the  fhell  and  cruftaceous  animals.  Shell-animals  and  crufta- 
 ceous  infects  make  alfo  a  near  approach  to  each  other.  Both 
 of  them  have  their  mufcles  and  inftruments  of  motion  attach- 
 ed to  external  inftead  of  internal  bones.  From  reptiles,  the 
 degrees  of  perfedlion  in  animal  life  and  powers  move  forward 
 in  a  gradual  but  perceptible  manner.  The  number  of  their 
 organs  of  {qxi^q,  and  the  general  conformation  of  their  bo- 
 dies, begin  to  have  a  greater  analogy  to  the  ftru(5lure  of 
 thofe  animals  which  we  are  accuftomed  to  confider  as  belong- 
 ing to  the  more  perfe£l  kinds.  The  fnake,  by  its  form,  its 
 movements,  and  its  mode  of  living,  is  evidently  connecSled 
 with  the  eel  and  the  water-ferpent.  Like  reptiles,  moft  fifli- 
 es  are  covered  with  fcales,  the  colours  and  variety  of  which 
 often  enable  us  to  diftinguifh  one  fpecies  from  another.  The 
 forms  of  fifties  are  exceedingly  various.  Some  are  long  and 
 {lender  ;  others  are  broad  and  contradled.  Some  fifhes  are 
 flat,  others  cylindrical,  triangular,  fquare,  circular,  &c.  The 
 fins  of  fifhes,  from  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  are  anal- 
 ogous to  the  wings  of  birds.  Like  thofe  of  reptiles,  the 
 heads  of  fifhes  are  immediately  conne(5ted  to  their  bodies, 
 without  the  intervention  of  necks.  The  flying  fifhes,  whofe 
 fins  refemble  the  wings  of  bats,  form  one  link  which  unites 
 the  fifhes  to  the  feathered  tribes.  Aquatic  birds  fucceed,  by 
 a  gentle  gradation,  the  flying  fifhes. 
 
 In  tracing  the  gradations  from  fifhes  to  quadrupeds,   the 
 tranfition  is  almofl  imperceptible.     The  fea-lion,  the  morfe, 
 
 all  the  cetaceous  tribes,   the  crocodile,  the  turtle,  the  feals, 
 
 S  s  f 
 
^26  THE    PHILOSOPHY 
 
 have  fuch  a  refemblance,  both  in  their  external  and  Internal 
 llrudture,  to  terreftrial  quadrupeds,  that  fome  naturaHfts,  in 
 their  methodical  diftrlbutions,  have  ranked  them  under  the 
 ilame  clafs  of  animals.  The  bats  and  the  flying  fquirrels,  who 
 traverfe  the  air  by  means  of  membranous  inftead  of  feather- 
 ed wings,  evidently  connedl  quadrupeds  with  birds.  The 
 oftrich,  the  cafTowary,  and  the  dodo,  who  rather  run  than 
 fly,  form  another  link  between  the  quadruped  and  the  bird. 
 
 All  the  fubftances  we  recognife  on  this  earth  may  be  di- 
 vided into  organifed  and  animated,  organlfed  and  inanimat- 
 ed,  and  unorganifed,  or  brute  matter.  The  whole  of  thefe 
 pofl^efs  degrees  of  perfe^Ion,  of  excellence,  or  of  relative 
 utiUty,  proportioned  to  their  ftations  or  ranks  in  the  unlverfe. 
 Change  thefe  ftations  or  ranks,  and  another  world  would  be 
 necefl^ary  to  contain  and  fupport  them.  Beings  muft  not  be 
 contemplated  individually,  but  by  their  rank,  and  the  rela- 
 tions they  have  to  the  conftituent  parts  of  the  general  fyfliem 
 of  Nature.  Certain  refults  of  their  natures  we  confider  as 
 evils.  Deftroy  thefe  evils,  and  you  annihilate  the  beings 
 who  complain  of  them.  The  reciprocal  acStion  of  the  folids 
 and  fluids  conftitutes  life,  and  the  continuation  of  this  action 
 is  the  natural  caufe  of  death.  Immortality  on  this  earth, 
 therefore,  prefuppofes  another  fyftem  ;  for  our  planet  has 
 no  relation  to  immortal  beings.  Every  animal,  and  every 
 plant,  rifes,  by  gentle  gradations,  from  an  embryo,  or  gela- 
 tinous ftate,  to  a  certain  degree  of  perfection  exactly  propor- 
 tioned to  their  feveral  orders.  An  afl"emblage  of  all  the 
 orders  of  relative  perfecStion  confl:itutes  the  abfolute  perfec- 
 tion of  the  whole.  All  the  planets  of  this  fyftem  gravitate 
 toward  the  fun  and  toward  each  other.  Our  fyftem  gravi- 
 tates towards  other  fyftems,  and  they  to  ours.  Thus  the 
 whole  unlverfe  is  linked  together  by  a  gradual  and  almoft 
 imperceptible  chain  of  exiftences  both  animated  and  inani- 
 mated.     Were  there  no  other  argument  in  favour  of  the 
 
OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  52? 
 
 UNITY  of  DEITY,  this  uniformity  of  defign,  this  graduated 
 concatenation  of  beings,  which  appears  not  only  from  this 
 chapter,  but  from  many  other  parts  of  the  book,  fcems  to  be 
 perfe<fl:ly  irrefragable. 
 
 In  contemplating  Man,  as  at  the  head  of  thofe  animals 
 with  which  we  are  acquainted,  a  thought  occurred,  that  no 
 fentient  being,  whofe  mental  powers  were  greatly  fuperior, 
 could  poflibly  live  and  be  happy  in  this  world.  If  fuch  a 
 being  really  exifted,  his  mifery  would  be  extreme.  With 
 fenfes  more  delicate  and  refined  ;  with  perceptions  more 
 acute  and  penetrating  ;  with  a  tafte  fo  exquifite  that  the  ob- 
 je<^s  around  him  could  by  no  means  gratify  it  ;  obliged  to 
 feed  upon  nourifhment  too  grofs  for  his  frame  ;  he  muft  be 
 born  only  to  be  miferable,  and  the  continuation  of  his  exift- 
 ence  would  be  utterly  impoiTible.  Even  in  our  prefent  con- 
 dition, the  famenefs  and  infipidity  of  objedls  and  purfuits,  the 
 futility  of  pleafure,  and  the  infinite  fources  of  excruciating 
 pain,  are  fupported  with  great  difficulty  by  cultivated  and  re- 
 fined minds.  Increafe  our  fenfibilities,  continue  the  fame 
 objects  and  fituation,  and  no  man  could  bear  to  live.  Let 
 man,  therefore,  be  contented.  His  flation  in  the  univerfal 
 fcale  of  Nature  is  fixed  by  Wifdom.  Let  him  contem- 
 plate and  admire  the  works  of  his  Creator  ;  let  him  fill  up 
 his  rank  with  dignity,  and  confider  every  partial  evil  as  a 
 caufe  or  an  effect  of  general  good.  This  is  the  whole  du- 
 ty of  man. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A 
 
 A(flinia.     See  fea-nettle. 
 
 Air,  neceffary  to  the  exigence  of  all  animals  and  vegeta- 
 bles, 1 12.     Air-cells  in  birds  defcribed,  119.     Temporary 
 inftruments  fometimes  provided  for  its  admiffion  into  ani-- 
 mal  bodies,  130.     Some  animals  can  live  long  Vv'ithout  it 
 135,  136.     Air  is  always  impregnated  with  odorous  parti- 
 cles, 171.     The  medium  of  founds,  175. 
 Amphibious  animals.     See  animals.     Sketch  of  their  ftruc- 
 ture  and  difpofitions,   75.     The  foramen  ovale  of  their 
 hearts  continue  open  during  life,  76. 
 Analogy.     See  animals  and  plants.      Analogy  between  birds 
 and  fiflies,  126.     Sexes  of  plants  founded  on  falfe  analo- 
 gies, 952.     See  fexes. 
 Animal  heat.     An  attempt  to  account  for  it,  113. 
 Animacules.     Thofe  obtained  by  infunons  multiply  by  con- 
 tinued divilions  and  fubdivifions,  42. 
 Animals.    Difficulty  of  diftinguifhing  them  from  plants,   li. 
 See  plants.    All  of  them  endowed  with  fenfation,  20.     A 
 fketch  of  their  ftrudlure  and  organs,  23.     Analogies  be- 
 tween animals  and  plants,  originating  from  their  ftru6ture 
 and  organs,  ibid.  From  their  growth  and  nourifliment,  32, 
 39.  The  food  of  animals  compared  with  that  of  plants,  36. 
 Analogies  from  their  diflemination  and   decay,  40,  &c. 
 Some  animals  neither  viviparous  nor  oviparous,  41.  Some 
 are   both,  ibid  ;    and   fome  multiply  without    impre^^na- 
 tion,  44.      Analogies  between  the   eggs   of  animals  and 
 the  feeds  of  plants,  46.     Moft  animals  have  their  ieafons, 
 48,  288.     All  animals  fubjefl  to  difeafes  and  death,  51. 
 Of  the  organs  and  general  ftru^iure  of  animals,  54.  Struc- 
 ture of  man,  ibid.     Of  the  bones,  ibid.     Of  the  mufcular 
 parts,  56.     Of  the  lungs,  ibid.     Of  the  ftomach  and  in- 
 ftruments  of  digeftion,  57.     Of  the  organs  of  generation, 
 59.     Of  the  brain  and   nerves,  61.     Of  the  ftru(!^ure  of 
 quadrupeds,  63.     The  general  flru61:ure  of  c|uadrupeds  has 
 
550  INDEX. 
 
 a  great  refemblance  to  that  of  man,  63.  Peculiarities  la 
 the  fl:ru(Sture  of  carnivorous  animals,  66  ;  and  of  the  her- 
 bivorous tribes,  67.  Sketch  of  the  ftrufture  and  difpo- 
 fitions  of  amphibious  animals  75,  Sketch  of  the  ftruc- 
 ture  of  birds,  80.  Of  the  ftrucT:ure  of  fifhes,  87.  The 
 comparative  flrength  of  animals  depends  not  on  ftructure 
 alone,  111.  Of  their  refpiration,  112.  Moft  animals  ca- 
 pable of  exprefling  their  wants  and  defires,  118.  Of  their 
 motions,  140,  &c.  The  notion  that  animals  are  machines 
 abfurd,  165.  Of  the  infancy  of  animals,  202.  The^r 
 general  diffufion  over  the  globe  owing  partly  to  the  diver- 
 fitv  of  their  appetites  for  food,  225.  Of  the  fexes 
 of'  animals,  242.  Of  the  puberty  of  animals,  269.  All 
 animals  undergo  changes  at  the  age  of  puberty,  272. 
 Their  attachment  to  their  young,  278.  This  attachment 
 ceafes,  in  fome  animals,  as  foon  as  the  young  can  provide 
 for  themfelves,  282.  Many  of  them  marry  or  pair,  ibid. 
 Advantages  derived  from  the  variety  of  feafons  obferved 
 by  different  animals,  285.  Table  of  their  relative  fecundi- 
 ty, 288.  Of  their  transformations,  291.  AH  animals  un- 
 dergo changes,  ibid,  Cruftaceous  tribes  annually  caft  their 
 fhells,  294.  Of  the  habitations  of  animals,  315.  Opera- 
 tions of  animals  referred  by  fome  authors  to  mechanical 
 impulfes,  340.  Of  their  hoflilities,  378.  Man  the  moll: 
 univerfal  deftroyer  of  animal  life,  380.  Some  animals  de- 
 vour their  own  fpecies,  388.  Advantages  derived  from 
 animals  preying  upon  one  another,  393.  Profufion  of  an- 
 imal life  feems  to  be  a  general  intention  of  Nature,  396. 
 There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal  de- 
 ftrudion  j\nd  multiplication,  397.  Reftraints  againft  nox- 
 ious inundations  of  particular  f])ecies,  ibid.  Animals  not 
 deftined  for  individual  exiftence  alone,  401.  Of  the  arti- 
 fices of  animals,  403.  Of  the  fociety  of  animals,  418.  Of 
 gregarious  animals  who  carry  on  no  common  operations, 
 436.  Different  fpecies  aiTociate,  437.  Of  iheir  docility, 
 439.  Animals  of  the  ox  kind  dull  and  phlegmatic,  460. 
 Much  influenced  by  climate  and  dom.eflication,  463,  8cc. 
 Of  the  characters  of  animals,  469.  Of  their  principal  of 
 imitation,  472.  Of  the  migration  of  animals,  476.  Of 
 their  longevity,  506,  &c.  Thofe  which  grow  quickly  foon 
 perifh,  510.  All  animals  perfe<ft  according  to  their  deC 
 tination,  522. 
 
INDEX.  53  i 
 
 Ants.  Their  ftruc^ure  and  manners,  lOi.  Wood-ants,  their 
 furprifing  operations  and  manners.  See  termites.  Their 
 fociety,  434'. 
 
 Aphis,     See  puceron. 
 
 Apterous  infedls  defcribed,  106. 
 
 Arabians  conliJer  the  camel  as  a  gift  fent  from  heaven,  74. 
 Performs  joiirnies  of  fifty  leagues  in  one  day,  74, 
 
 Aranea.    See  fpiders. 
 
 Arteries.  The  probable  inflruments  of  nutrition  and  growth, 
 120. 
 
 Artifices.  General  fources  of  the  artifices  of  animals,  403. 
 Artifices  of  cattle,  horfes,  and  monkeys,  404.  Of  the 
 ftag,  ibid.  Of  the  fallow-deer,  405.  Of  the  roebuck, 
 406.  Of  the  hare,  407.  Of  the  fox,  408.  Of  the  glut- 
 ton, 411.  Of  the  Kamtfchatka  rats,  ibid.  Of  birds,  4 1 2. 
 Of  fifties,  414.     Of  infeas,  415. 
 
 Afbeftos.  Its  ftru(Slure  makes  no  approach  toward  organiza- 
 tion,  24. 
 
 Aureliae.     See  chryfalids. 
 
 B 
 
 Beavers.  Account  of  their  manners  and  archite<5lure,  317. 
 Live  peaceably  in  Society  with  each  other,  321.  Lay  up 
 provifions  for  winter,  322. 
 
 Bees.  The  general  ftructure  of  the  honey-bee,  104.  The 
 mafon-bee  fometimes  moves  in  a  retrograde  diredion,  15L 
 Some  of  their  inftindls  enumerated,  1 55.  Wood-piercing 
 bee  makes  a  nefi:  in  old  timber,  156.  When  pinched 
 for  room,  they  augment  the  depth  of  their  cells,  159. 
 Neft  of  the  mafon-bee,  331.  Ichneumon  flies  deilrudlive 
 to  bees,  333.  Operations  of  wood-piercing  bees,  334. 
 Of  other  folitary  bees,  338.  Operations  and  oeconomy  of 
 the  honey-bee,  340.  The  figure  and  mode  of  making 
 their  cells,  341.  Their  cells  are  defiined  to  anfwer  dif- 
 ferent purpofes,  343.  Their  divifion  of  labour,  ibid.  Their 
 wax  a  refult  of  a  digeftive  procefs,  ibid.  Eat  the  farina 
 of  flowers,  ibid.  Require  a  warm  habitation,  346  Mend 
 their  hives  with  propolis,  347.  Amafs  great  quantities  oi 
 honey,  347.  Occafionally  feed  one  another,  347.  Eggs 
 of  the  female  impregnated  by  the  males  after  they  are  de- 
 pofited  in  the  cells,  349.  Can  transform  a  common  fub= 
 je6t  into  a  queen  or  female,  352.  May  be  multiplied 
 without  end,  352.     The  neuters  maflTacre  the  males,  39  L 
 
532  I  N  D  E  Xo 
 
 Have  frequent  combats,  392.  Their  foclety  of  a  monar- 
 chical nature,  425.  The  Count  de  BuiFon's  mechanical 
 theory  of  the  operations  of  bees  examined,  427,  &c. 
 
 Beetle  tribe  of  inle^^s.  An  account  of  their  form  and  man- 
 ners, 99.  Many  of  them,  when  terrified,  hmulate  death, 
 158.  Remarkable  difi^erences  between  fome  of  the  males 
 and  females,  245. 
 
 Beings  fbould  not  be  contemplated  individually,  but  by  their 
 rank,  526.  None  fuperior  to  man  could  exift  in  this  world, 
 527. 
 
 Birds.  Sketch  of  their  ftru£lure,  80.  Their  form  adapt- 
 ed to  their  mode  of  living,  81.  Of  granivorous  birds, 
 82,  Analogy  between  them  and  herbivorous  quadru- 
 peds, 84.  Of  carnivorous  birds,  84,  386.  Birds  refpire 
 by  almoft  every  part  of  their  bodies,  and  even  by  the 
 bones,  119.  One  ufe  of  this  flru^lure,  122.  Analogy 
 between  birds  and  fiflies,  125.  When  not  reftrained, 
 Uniformly  build  nefts  in  the  fame  form,  and  of  the  fame 
 materials,  157.  The  great  comminuting  force  of  fome 
 t)f  their  ftomachs,  231.  Whether  the  Imall  ftones  they 
 fwallow  aflifl  the  digeftion  of  their  food,  233.  Among 
 birds  of  prey,  the  females  are  larger,  Wronger,  and  more 
 beautiful,  than  the  males,  247.  The  reverfe  takes  place 
 among  the  gallinaceous  tribes,  247.  Many  of  them  pair, 
 282,  283.  Changes  they  undergo  after  being  hatched, 
 295.  Of  their  nidification,  324,  325.  Of  their  artifices, 
 412.  Some  of  them  may  be  taught  articulation,  462.  Of 
 their  migration,  476,  &c.     Of  their  longevity,  512. 
 
 Bifons.     See  oxen. 
 
 Bletta.    See  Cockroach,  100. 
 
 Blood.  Its  circulation  conne6ted  with  refpiration,  117. 
 Showers  of  it  accounted  for,  308. 
 
 Bones.     Birds  breathe  through  them,  121. 
 
 Brackeleys,  a  fpecies  of  the  ox,  which  are  taught  by  the  Afri- 
 cans to  perform  wonderful  actions,  460,  &c. 
 
 Brain.     See  nerves. 
 
 Brain.  A  fhort  defcription  of  it,  61.  The  fource  of  all  fen- 
 fation  and  motion,  140.  Suppofed.to  fecrete  and  diftri- 
 bute  the  nutritious  matter  of  food,  217. 
 
 Breathing.     See  refpiration. 
 
 Brutes.     See  animals. 
 
 Bug.     Some  account  of  it,  100. 
 
INDEX.  ^  533 
 
 Butterflies.  Defcrlptlon  of  them,  101.  Gave  rife  to  the  notion 
 of  fhowers  of  blood,  307.     Void  drops  of  blood,  308. 
 
 C 
 
 Cabins.     See  beaver j. 
 
 Camel  and  dromedary,  bedde  four  ftomachs,  have  a  refer- 
 voir  for  holding  water,  73.  Their  manners  and  difpoh- 
 tions,  74. 
 
 Camel-cricket.     Regarded  as  a  facred  animal,  100. 
 
 Carnivorous  aninials.  See  animals.  Their  ftruclure  adapt- 
 ed to  their  difpofitions,  66.  Are  not  Co  apj:  to  devour  wo- 
 men as  men,  2  1 4.  Man  the  mofl  rapacious  of  all  animals, 
 380.  Of  carnivorous  quadrupeds,  382.  Of  carnivorous 
 birds,  386.  Of  carnivorous  infcxHis,  387.  Advantages 
 derived  from  animals  preying  upon  one  another,  394. 
 Carnivorous  animals  are  the  barriers  againfl:  noxious  inun- 
 dations of  other  kinds,  397. 
 
 Caterpillars.  See  infedls.  Their  mode  of  refpiring,  132. 
 Are  of  no  fex,  248.  When  they  arrive  at  the  age  of  pu- 
 berty, 270.  Of  their  transformations,  295.  Caft  their 
 lliins,  295,  303.  Their  different  modes  of  retiring  pre- 
 vious to  their  transformation.  A  defcriptlon  of  them,  294. 
 The  circulation  of  their  blood  changes  its  direftlon,  298, 
 Their  different  modes  of  behaving  when  about  to  trans- 
 form, 303.  Spinning  of  the  iilk-worm,  defcribed,  303. 
 The  flies  exift  in  the  bodies  of  the  caterpillars,  305.  Some 
 of  them  devour  their  own  fpccies,  386.  Have  number- 
 lefs  enemies,  388.  Without  a  profufion  of  them  fmall 
 birds  could  not  be  fupported,  399.  Common  kind  affo- 
 ciate,  429.     Some  of  them  are  republicans,  432. 
 
 Caufe.    We  muft  at  laft  have  recourfe  to  a  final  caufe,  339. 
 
 Cells.    See  bees,  and  wafps.    Air-cells  in  birds  defcribed,  12  L 
 
 Chain.   Of  the  progreflive  chain  of  beings,  521, 
 
 Changes  of  form.    See  transformations. 
 
 Characters  of  animals,  467.  How  they  may  be  modified,  ibid. 
 Individual  charadfers  often  ftrongly  marked,  468. 
 
 Chermes.  The  female  of  this  infedt  depoiits  her  eggs  in  the 
 leaves  of  trees,  and  produce  thofe  protuberances  called 
 galls,  101. 
 
 Children.  See  Infants.  The  gradual  progvefs  of  their  In^ 
 flings,  439. 
 
 Chryfalids.     A  defcriptlon  of  them,  297. 
 T  T  t 
 
534?  INDEX. 
 
 Cimex.     See  bug. 
 
 Cinyps.     A  fly  whofe  eggs  produce  galls  in  the  oak,  lOS. 
 
 Cleanlinefs.     Its  importance  to  health,  138. 
 
 Cock.     The  game  cock  a  moft  intrepid  animal,  24-7. 
 
 Cockroach.     Some  account  of  it,  100. 
 
 Colours.  The  origin  of  the  primary  ones,  187.  A  mixture 
 of  them  produces  whitenefs,  ibid.  Colour  no  fpecific  cha- 
 racter of  plants,  261,  262.  Colours  of  animals  greatly  va- 
 riec;ated  by  domeftication,  4'66. 
 
 Coleopterous  infeCls  defcribed,  98. 
 
 Combs.     See  bees  and  wafps. 
 
 Crabs.     An  account  of  the  migration  of  land  crabs,  502. 
 
 Crows.  Experiments  on  their  digeftive  powers,  235,  236, 
 237.  Endeavour  to  break  grain  before  they  fwallow  it, 
 236. 
 
 Cruftaceous  fifhes  caft  their  (hells  annually,  294. 
 
 Cuckoo  makes  no  neft,  and  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her 
 young,  327. 
 
 Culex.     See  gnat. 
 
 Cuttle-fifli.     Its  ftruClure  and  manners,  109. 
 
 D 
 
 Death.  All  animals  and  vegetables  fubje£\:  to  diffolution,  51, 
 292.  Life  cannot  be  fupported  without  the  intervention 
 of  death,  394.  There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyf- 
 tem  of  animal  deftruclion  and  multiplication,  397.  The 
 general  caufes  of  death,  507. 
 
 Deer.     Their  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  404. 
 
 Deity  neceflarily  one,  527. 
 
 Digeftion.  The  organs  of  digeftion  defcribed,  57,  B8.  The 
 mechanical  and  chemical  theories  of  it,  230.  Victuals 
 diflblved  by  the  gaftric  juice,  231.  Whether  the  fmall 
 ftones  fwallowed  by  birds  affift  their  digeftion,  233.  Great- 
 ly affifted  by  chewing,  or  by  comminution,  236.  Dr.  Ste- 
 vens's experiments  upon  digeftion  in  man  and  other  ani- 
 mals, 237.  After  death,  the  ftomach  is  difTolved  by  its 
 own  gaftric  juice,  240.  Bees  wax  a  refult  of  digeftion,  344. 
 
 Dipterous  infefts  defcribed,  105. 
 
 Docility  of  animals,  439,  &c. 
 
 Dog.  His  fenfe  of  fmelling  extremely  acute,  172.  Wild 
 dogs  hunt  in  packs,  437.  Next  to  the  elephant,  the  dog 
 m  the  moft  docile  animal,  454.     Accommodates  his  beha- 
 
INDEX.  555 
 
 viour  to  the  manners  of  thofe  who  command  him,  4!55. 
 Great  differences  in  their  natural  difpofitions,  ibid.  Con- 
 dudl  blind  perfons  with  great  fagacity,  456.  An  extraor- 
 dinary inftance  of  their  intelligence,  457.  The  influence 
 of  climate  upon  them,  465.  Fattened  in  China  for  the  ta- 
 ble, 474. 
 
 Domeftication.     Its  effe£ls  on  different  animals,  465. 
 
 Dragon-fly.     See  libella. 
 
 Dromedary.     See  camel. 
 
 E 
 
 Eagles.     Their  longevity,  514. 
 
 Ears.  See  hearing  and  fenfes.  Mufical  ear  a  gift  of  Na- 
 ture, 178. 
 
 Earth,  though  fpacious,  is  comparatively  fmall,  143. 
 
 Education  much  influenced  bythe  principle  of  imitation,  473. 
 
 Eggs.  Analogies  between  them  and  the  feeds  of  plants,  46. 
 Egg  of  the  fpider  fly  as  large  as  the  mother,  301.  Eggs  of 
 fome  infedts  grow  after  they  are  laid,  301,  302.  Several 
 worms  difcovered  in  the  fame  egg,  305.  Eggs  of  bees  im- 
 pregnated after  they  are  depoflted  in  the  cells,  351 . 
 
 Elephant.  Hisftrudlure,  77.  His  fagacity  and  manners,  79. 
 A  more  particular  account  of  this  animal,  445.  A  mild 
 and  obedient  domeftic,  447.  Elephants  were  formerly 
 employed  in  war,  449.  Their  fenfe  of  fmelling  very  acute, 
 450.  Revengeful  when  affronted,  452.  They  are  fenfible 
 of  good  fortune,  and  maintain  a  gravity  of  demeanour  cor- 
 refponding  to  the  dignity  of  their  lituation,  453.  They  al- 
 low themfelves  to  be  commanded  by  a  child,  ibid.  More 
 eafily  tamed  by  mildnefs  than  by  blows,  454. 
 
 Ephemeron-fly  lives  only  one  day  in  its  pfrfe<51:  (late,  butcon- 
 tinues  three  years  in  the  water  before  its  transformation, 
 99,  517.  The  nymphs  refpire  by  gills,  132,  133. 
 
 Evils  neceffary  in  this  world,  526. 
 
 Expiration.     See  refpiration. 
 
 Eyes.  No  animal,  except  the  infedl  tribes,  has  more  than 
 two,  94.  Defcription  of  the  eye,  186.  Inverted  pidures 
 on  the  retina,  189,  190.  Why  feen  flraight,  189.  Why 
 we  fee  Angle  with  two  eyes,  191.  Vilion  conveys  no 
 idea  of  diflance,  192.  Why  near  objects  appear  large, 
 and  diflant  ones  fmall,  192.     Origin  ofghofts,  &c.  192. 
 
536  INDEX. 
 
 F 
 
 Fallow-deer.     His  artifices  and  and  manners,  406. 
 
 Farina.  See  plants  and  fexes.  Farina  of  flowers  the  raw 
 material  of  wax,  344. 
 
 Feelers  of  infects.     One  ufe  of  them,  95. 
 
 Females.  See  fexes,  man  and  males.  Among  infecls,  great 
 differences  between  males  and  females,  245,  246,  247. 
 Female  birds  of  prey  larger,  ftronger,  and  more  beautiful 
 than  the  males,  247.  The  reverfe  takes  place  among  gal- 
 linaceous birds,  247.  Changes  in  body  and  mind  produ- 
 ced by  puberty,  271.  Arrive  fooner  at  that  period  thari 
 males,  271. 
 
 Fire-fly.  Emits  a  (liining  light  in  the  night,  100. 
 ^  Filhes.  Sketch  of  their  llrudure,  87.  Much  diverfified  in 
 figure,  89.  Are  endowed  with  the  fenfe  of  hearing,  89. 
 their  mode  of  refpiration,  125.  Analogy  between  them 
 and  birds,  126.  We  are  ignorant  of  the  periods  when 
 they  become  fit  for  multiplying,  272.  Cruftaceous  kinds 
 caft  their  fkins  annually,  294.  The  life  of  every  fifh  one 
 continued  fcene  of  hoftility,  3S6.  Shell-fifli  is  very  prolific, 
 400.  Their  artifices,  414.  Of  their  migration,  497, 
 Their  longevity,  511,  515. 
 
 Flea.  A  defcription  of  it,  106.  Undergoes  a  transforma- 
 tion like  that  of  winged  infedts,  107. 
 
 Flies.  See  infedls.  An  account  of  the  phrygania  or  fpring- 
 fly,  103.  Of  the  dragon-fly,  103.  OfVhe  cinyps,  the 
 eggs  of  which  give  rife  to  the  galls  on  oak  leaves,  105. 
 Gad-fly  very  troublefome  to  cattle,  105.  Of  the  common 
 fly,  105.  Of  the  gnat,  105.  Spider-fly  as  large  as  the 
 mother  when  it  efcapes  from  the  egg,  227,  300.  Some 
 depofit  their  eggs  in  the  leaves  of  plants,  301.  Ichneu- 
 mon flies  deftru6iive  to  bees,  333  \  and  other  infedls,  387. 
 Food  of  plants  and  of  animals  compared,  30.  Man  could 
 not  live  upon  herbage  alone,  69.  Food  neceflary  for  the 
 growth  and  expaniion  of  all  organifed  beings,  214.  See 
 growth.  The  general  ingredients  of  food,  221.  Rein- 
 deer, the  principal  food  of  the  Laplanders,  221.  Animal 
 food  more  ufed  in  proportion  as  people  recede  from  the 
 Equator,  223.  The  nature  of  man's  food  determined  by 
 the  climate,  224.  Man  deiigned  by  nature  to  feed  partly 
 on  animal  and  partly  on  vegetable  fubftances,  224.  Liv- 
 ing  long   on  a  particular  Ipecies  of  food  is  apt  to  create 
 
INDEX.  5-J7 
 
 difeafes,  22o.  Diverfity  of  food  ufcd  by  difierent  fpeciei 
 one  caufe  of  the  diffulion  of  animals  over  the  earth,  220'. 
 Every  animal  furnillied  with  proper  inftruments  for  procu- 
 ring food,  228.  Importance  of  feeding  all  young  animali 
 well,  228.  Infects  which  feed  upon  carrion  never  attack 
 live  animals,  228.  This  facSt  eftablifhed  by  experiments, 
 228,  229.  Spalanzani's  experiments  upon  the  digeftioii 
 of  food  by  various  animals,  230. 
 
 Foramen  ovale.  In  amphibious  animals  it  remains  open  da- 
 vm^  life,  76. 
 
 Formica-leo.     Its  artifices  and  manners,  415. 
 
 Forms  are  perpetually  changing,  311.     See  transformations. 
 
 Fox.     His  artifices  and  manners,  408. 
 
 Frogs.     Undergo  great  changes  in  their  form,  294. 
 
 Fulgora.     See  fire-fly. 
 
 G    • 
 
 Gad-fly,  extremely  troublefome  to  cattle,  both  in  its  cater- 
 pillar and  fly  ftate,  105. 
 
 Gall  infects.     Defcription  of  their  form  and  manners,  245. 
 
 Galls.  See  chermes.  The  eggs  of  the  cinyps  give  rife  to 
 thofe  on  oak  leaves,  103.     How  galls  are  formed,  301. 
 
 Gaflric  juice.  See  digeftion  and  fl:omach.  Its  folvent 
 power  aflifted  by  chevv'ing,  238.  No  dead  animal  fub- 
 flance  can  refifl:  its  pov/er,  238  j  but  it  has  no  effe<St  upon 
 living  animals,  240.  DiflxDlves  the  fl:omach  after  death, 
 240. 
 
 Generation.     See  multiplication. 
 
 Gentoos.  Live  almoft  entirely  on  vegetables,  221.  Their 
 cafts  founded  in  Nature,  522. 
 
 Germs.  Examination  of  Bonnet's  theory  of  them,  219. 
 See  growth. 
 
 Glow-worm.     See  worms. 
 
 Glutton.     His  artifices  and  manners,  41 1. 
 
 Gnat.     Account  of  it,  105. 
 
 Goat- fucker,  a  bird  of  paflage,  480, 
 
 Goofe.     Its  longevity. 
 
 Gordius.     See  worms. 
 
 Granivorous  birds.  Sketch  of  their  fl:ruclure,  82.  Analo- 
 gous to  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  84.  Their  gentle  man-» 
 ners,  8t. 
 
 Growth  of  animals  and  vegetables  extremely  analogous,  36j 
 
538  INDEX. 
 
 &c.  May  be  accelerated  or  retarded  by  certain  circum- 
 ftances,  39.  Buffon's  theory  of  growth,  214.  Nutrition 
 fuppofed  to  be  effected  by  the  brain  and  nerves,  215, 
 This  notion  rendered  improbable,  216.  More  probable 
 than  the  nutritious  particles  of  food  are  conveyed  and  ap- 
 plied by  the  arteries,  217.  Bonnet's  theory  of  germs  ex- 
 amined, 219,  2  0.  Our  limited  conceptions  of  the  nature 
 of  growth  and  nourifhment,  220.  All  animals  fuppofed 
 to  grow  after  birth,  227.  The  fpider-fly  affords  an  excep- 
 tion, 227.  Remarkable  rapidity  of  growth  in  fome 
 "worms,  229.  Animals  as  well  as  plants  which  quickly  ar- 
 rive at  maturity,  foon  perifh,  510. 
 
 Gryllus.     Some  account  of  it,  100. 
 
 Guiney-pig  contracts  a  loofenelsj  when  forced  to  eat  coleworts 
 for  fome  time,  224. 
 
 H 
 
 Habitations  of  animals.  When  not  reftrained,  animals  uni- 
 formly build  in  the  fame  ftile,  315.  Habitations  and  man- 
 ners of  the  alpine  marmot,  316.  Of  the  beaver,  317, 
 323.  Of  the  mole,  323.  Of  birds,  324.  Defcription  of 
 the  eagle's  nefl,  324.  Of  the  magpie's  nefl,  325.  Of  the 
 titmoufe's  neft,  325.  Of  penfile  nefls,  326.  Of  the  neft 
 of  the  taylor-bird,  326.  Nefts  of  fmall  birds,  328.  Of 
 water-fowls,  328.  Nefl  of  the  mafon-bee  331.  Of  the 
 wood  peircing  bee,  334.  Of  another  folitary  bee,  338. 
 Of  the  honey  bee,  340,  &c.  Of  the  wafps,  354.  Of  the 
 termites  or  wood-ants,  364.  Of  the  common  caterpillar, 
 429.     Of  the  proceflionary  caterpillar,  431. 
 
 Hares.    Their  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  407. 
 
 Health  promoted  by  moderate  laughing,  118. 
 
 Hearing.  Fifhes  endowed  with  that  fenfe,  89.  The  infiru- 
 ments  and  caufes  of  hearing,  175.  Why  infants  hear- 
 bluntly,  177.  The  pleafures  derived  from  hearing,  179. 
 The  fource  of  artificial  language,  ibid. 
 
 Heat.     See  animal  heat. 
 
 Hemipterous  infers.     Of  their  form  and  manners,  99. 
 
 Herbivorous  quadrupeds.  See  animals.  Their  form  adapt- 
 ed to  their  difpofitions,  68. 
 
 Hermaphrodites.  Some  infecfs  are  hermaphrodites,  248, 
 Many  inftances  of  hermaphrodites  among  horfes,  black 
 cattle,  and  flieep,  248,  249,  250. 
 
J  N  D  E  X.  $S9 
 
 Herrings  performs  extenfive  migrations,  499. 
 
 Hippobofca.     See  horfe-fly. 
 
 Hogs  aflbciate  and  defend  each  other,  437. 
 
 Honey  bee.     See  bee. 
 
 Horfe-fly.     Account  of  it,  106. 
 
 Horfes,  When  attacked  by  any  rapacious  animal,  rank  tip 
 in  lines  to  defend  themfelves,  403.  One  a<Sls  as  a  centinel, 
 ibid.  Aflbciate  with  oxen,  437.  The  gentlenefs  and  do- 
 ciHty  of  their  difpofltions,  457.  Notices  of  wild  horfes, 
 458.  Naturally  aflbciate  with  man,  459,  460.  Their 
 emulation  and  warlike  temper,  459.  Their  feats  in  exhi- 
 bitions, 460. 
 
 Hofl:ilities  of  animals,  374,  375.  Man  the  mofl:  rapacious 
 and  the  mofl:  univerfal  deftroyer,  380.  Of  rapacious  quad- 
 rupeds, 386.  Of  rapacious  birds,  388.  Every  fifli  rapa- 
 cious, 386.  Of  rapacious  infe^ls,  389.  Man  not  the  only 
 animal  that  makes  war  with  his  own  fpecies,  390.  Neu- 
 ter bees  maflacre  the  males,  391.  Bees  frequently  fight 
 with  each  other,  S92.  In  October,  wafps  maflacre  all 
 their  young,  392.  This  feeming  cruelty  is  perhaps  an  a£t 
 of  mercy,  ibid.  Hoftihties  of  animals  give  rife  to 
 mutual  improvement,  395.  There  is  a  wonderful  balance 
 in  the  fyftem  of  animaV  deftru61:ion,  397. 
 
 Hottentots.  Their  mode  of  training  and  infl:ru(fting  oxen, 
 460. 
 
 Hunter,  Mr.  John.  His  account  of  the  refpiration  of  birds- 
 121.     His  defcription  of  the  free-martin,  249. 
 
 Hymenopterous  infedls.     Their  form  and  manners,  103. 
 
 I 
 
 Ichneumon  flies.     See  flies  and  bees. 
 
 Imitation.    Its  effb(fts  upon  animals  as  a  principle,  473. 
 
 Infancy.     See  infants. 
 
 Intefledt.  The  degrees  of  it  extremely  varied  both  among 
 men  and  other  animals,  522. 
 
 Infants.  They  underftand  language  before  they  can  fpeak, 
 165.  Hear  bluntly,  177.  Are  fond  of  noife,  177.  In- 
 vent, at  the  age  of  nine  or  twelve  months,  an  artificial 
 language,  179,  180.  The  condition  of  human  infants  con- 
 fidered  as  miferable,  202.  This  notion  invalidated,  203. 
 Fond  of  motion,  204.  The  methods  of  managing  them 
 by  favages,  205  ;  and  by  northern  nations,  206.     Are  lefs 
 
54.0  INDEX. 
 
 affected  by  cold  than  at  any  other  period,  207.  Theif 
 lives  very  precarious,  ibid.  Caufes  of  their  difeafes  and 
 mortality,  208.  Sleep,  for  feveral  weeks,  almoft  conti- 
 nually, 208.  Their  memory  weak,  and  why,  209.  Du- 
 ration of  infancy  in  different  animals,  210.  Infant  ftate 
 of  birds  lliort,  211.  Infancy  of  fiflies,  ibid.  Of  infe6ts, 
 ibid.  The  ftrong  attachment  of  parents  to  their  young, 
 212. 
 
 Infe(Si:3.  A  fketch  of  their  fl:ru(flure,  26,  27.  A  more  en- 
 larged view  of  it,  92.  Diviiion  of  infects  from  their  wings, 
 93.  Ufe  of  their  feelers,  94^.  Undergo  three  changes  of 
 form,  97.  Some  of  them  endowed  with  the  fenfe  of  fmel- 
 ling,  97  5  and  fome  probably  v;ith  that  of  hearing,  97.  Ac- 
 count of  their  probofcis,  98.  Of  the  form  and  manners 
 of  the  beetle  tribe,  99.  Of  the  form  and  manners  of  the 
 hemipterous  tribe,  99.  Of  neuropterous  infects,  102.  Of 
 hymenopterous  infecb,  103.  Of  dipterous  infedls,  105. 
 Of  apterous  infects,  106.  Of  the  refpiration  of  infecSts,  127. 
 Examples  of  their  infkin^ts,  155.  Infects  have  few  in- 
 ftincls,  162.  Thofe  that  feed  upon  carrion,  never  attack 
 live  animals,  228.  Great  differences  between  fome  male 
 and  female  infedts,  243,  244,  245.  Defcription  of  the 
 form  and  manners  of  gall-infe(5ls,  245.  Infe(n:8  fuppofed 
 to  impregnate  certain  plants,  254.  Changes  they  under- 
 go before  their  age  of  puberty,  271.  Some  of  them  have 
 a  ftrong  affection  to  their  young,  277.  Of  their  transfor- 
 mations, 295.  Lives  of  winged  infe<Sts  conlifts  of  three 
 principal  periods,  298.  Their  internal  parts  changed  after 
 transformation,  298.  The  behaviour  of  different  caterpil- 
 lars when  about  to  transform,  303.  Their  transforma- 
 tion is  only  the  throwing  off  temporary  coverings,  305. 
 Nefts  of  various  infects  defcribed,  330.  Some  of  them 
 are  rapacious,  287.  Thoufands  of  them  daily  devoured 
 by  cattle,  394.  Infedts  afford  many  inftances  of  affocia- 
 tion,  425.  Some  of  them  migrate,  505.  Are  fhort  lived, 
 517. 
 
 Infpiration.     See  refpiration. 
 
 InftincTt.  Reafons  why  it  has  been  fo  little  underftood,  153. 
 Divifion  of  inll:in6ts,  153.  Of  pure  inftinOs,  154,  Exam- 
 ples of  it  in  the  human  fpecies,  ibid.  *,  in  the  brute  crea- 
 tion, 155.  Of  inftindts  which  can  accommodate  them- 
 felves  to  peculiar  circumftances,  158.     Of  inilindts  which 
 
INDEX.  64:1 
 
 arc  improveable  by  experience  and  obfervatlon,  160,  161, 
 Superiority  of  man  anfes  from  iiis  great  number  of  in- 
 llincls,  160.  ^Examples  of  modi  lied,  compounded,  or  ex- 
 tended inftincts,  161.  Inftindl  defined  and  explained,  162. 
 Infects  have  few  inftia^ls,  ibid.  Inftin^t  prel'uppofes  a  de- 
 gree of  intelle^,  4'25.  The  gradual  progrefs  of  inftinc^s  in. 
 children,  439.  When  they  begin  to  reafon  with  fome 
 propriety,  440.  The  education  of  animals  depends  greatly 
 on  the  principle  of  imitation,  473. 
 
 Irritability  defcribed,  20.  Many  plants  are  endowed  with 
 this  power,  20. 
 
 L 
 
 Lady-fly.    See  libella. 
 
 Language.  Mod  animals  can  exorefs  their  wants  and  de- 
 Hres,  118,  164,  179.  Artificial  a  refult  of  natural  lan- 
 guage, 179.  The  origin  of  the  great  diverfity  of  lan- 
 guages, 180.  Articulate  language  peculiar  to  man,  420. 
 Laplanders.  Live  chieiiy  on  the  rein-deer,  221.  Fond  of 
 bear's  iieQi,  ibid. 
 
 Laughing  defcribed,  118.     Not  peculiar  to  man,  ibid. 
 
 Leggs.  No  animal,  except  the  infe6l  tribes,  have  more 
 than  four,  93. 
 
 Libella.  A  defcription  of  it,  102.  Its  nymph  refpires 
 water,  130.     A  rapacious  animal,  388. 
 
 Life.  Our  ignorance  of  its  elTential  characleriftics,  19.  Its 
 duration  longer  or  fhorter  according  to  the  fpecies,  49. 
 Life  very  precarious  in  infancy,  207.  Lives  of  winged 
 infects  conlift  of  three  principal  periods,  298.  Life  can- 
 not be  fupported  without  the  intervention  of  death,  392. 
 
 -  A  profuiion  of  animal  life  feems  to  be  a  general  intention 
 ot  Nature,  396.  Of  the  duration  of  life  in  mian  and  other 
 animals,  506,  &c.     Its  duration  a  relative  idea,  520. 
 
 Light.     Some  of  its  properties,  186.    Its  refrangibility,  187. 
 
 Lobfters  caft  their  Ihells  annually,  294. 
 
 Longevity  of  animals,  506.  Some  remarkable  inftances  of 
 it  in  the  human  fpecies,  508.;  of  lifhes,  51 1,  515.  ;  of 
 quadrupeds,  513;  of  a  toad,  516;  of  infects  517;  of  plants, 
 518. 
 
 Loufe.     Its  ftrudturc  and  manners,  106. 
 
 Love.     The   fource    of  many  important  advantai:::es  ;    274. 
 Is  a  great  incentive  to  virtue,  274,  ibid.  Bad  effe<5fs  of  too 
 early  marriages,  275  ;  and  of  imprudent  ones,  276.  Love  of 
 U  uu 
 
54^  INDEX. 
 
 offspring  a  iburce  of  great  pleafures,  277  ;  remarkable  in- 
 ftances  oF  its  ftrength,  278,  279,  280.  Marriage  or  pair- 
 ing frequently  exhibited  in  the  brute  creation,  282.  Moft 
 animals  have  feafons,  283. 
 
 Lunibricus.     See  worms. 
 
 Lychnis  dioica.  Dr.  Hope's  experiments  upon  that  plant  ex- 
 amined, 260,  261.  Female  lychnis  ripened  feeds  with- 
 out the  poffibility  of  fexual  commixture,  263,  264^. 
 
 M 
 
 Magpies.    Defcription  of  their  nefts,  325. 
 
 Males.  See  fexes,  and  man.  Differences  between  males  and 
 females,  243,  244,  245.  Changes  produced  by  puberty, 
 269.  In  pairing  animals,  the  males  and  females  produced 
 are  nearly  equals  283. 
 
 Man.  Of  his  itrudlure  and  organs,  54,  From  his  internal 
 organs  he  could  not  live  upon  herbage  alone,  69.  His  fu- 
 periority  over  the  other  animals  derived  folely  from  his 
 mental  faculties,  70,  111,  164,  381.  He  alone  is  endow- 
 ed with  the  faculty  of  articulate  fpeech,  117,  420.  The 
 moft  inconliftent  of  all  animals,  161.  His  inftin6ts  im- 
 proveable  by  obfervation  and  experience,  162.  Deiigned 
 by  Nature  to  live  parth/  on  animal  and  partly  on  vegetable 
 fubftances,  223,  224.  His  texture  more  firm  and  compa6l 
 than  that  of  woman,  242.  See  women.  Changes  produced 
 by  puberty,  269.  After  puberty,  marriage  is  his  natural 
 ftate,  271.  A  ftriking  inftance  of  his  parental  affedion, 
 278.  Undergoes  many  changes  in  form  after  birth,  291. 
 His  mind  undergoes  changes  as  well  as  his  body  292.  The 
 moft  rapacious  of  all  animals,  379.  Without  fociety,  his 
 powers  are  limited,  381.  Not  the  only  animal  that  makes 
 war  with  his  own  fpecies  388.  The  moft  docile  of  all  ani- 
 mals, 439.  His  body  capable  of  great  exertions,  441. 
 The  refemblance  of  men  to  particular  animals  an  indica- 
 tion of  their  difpofitions,  469.  Of  man's  longevity  and 
 dirroliition,  506.  No  being  fuperior  to  him  could  exift  in 
 this  world,  527. 
 
 Manners  and  difpofttions  of  animals  connedled  with  their 
 form  and  ftrudture,  63,  66,  98,  108. 
 
 Mantis.     See  camel-cricket. 
 
 Mirmot,  Alpine.  Defcription  of  its  architedlure  and  man- 
 ners, 316,  317. 
 
INDEX.  5i$ 
 
 Marriage,  after  the  age  of  puberty,  is  the  natural  ftate  of 
 man,  271.  Difadvantages  of  too  eariy  marriages,  til 5, 
 Bad  efFedts  of  interefted  and  imprudent  ones,  275.  Argu- 
 ments in  favour  of  monogamy,  282,  283. 
 
 Martin.   Mr.  Hunter's  account  of  the  free-martin,  218,  2-19. 
 
 Martins  are  birds  of  paflage,  481, 
 
 Mafon-bee.    See  bee. 
 
 Matter.     Its  vis  inertiae,  140. 
 
 Mechanifm  inadequate  to  account  for  animal  a^Ttion,  S39. 
 
 Medufa  defcribed,  110.     Its  motions,  150.  ' 
 
 Memory  of  children  is  weak,  and  why,  209. 
 
 Metamorphofes.    See  transformations. 
 
 Migration  of  animals,  476.  Lifts  of  birds  of  pafTage,  with 
 the  times  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  487,  &c.  Partial 
 migrations,  494.  Principal  obje61s  of  migration,  495,  505. 
 Men  have  a  principle  of  migration,  496.  Quadrupeds  like- 
 wife  perform  partial  migrations,  497.  Migration  of  rats, 
 ibid.  ;  of  frogs,  497  *,  of  fiihes,  ibid.  ;  of  land-crabs,  502. 
 of  infeas,  504. 
 
 Millipes  multipUes  by  fpontaneous  feparation,  41. 
 
 Mind.  Its  faculties  the  chief  fource  of  animal  power.  Hi. 
 Minds  of  brutes  poflefled  of  original  qualities,  163.  The 
 loweft  fpecies  of  animals  are  endowed  with  minds,  164. 
 The  mind  of  man  undergoes  changes,  292. 
 
 Minerals,  no  analogy  between  them  and  vegetables,  24. 
 
 Modefty.  The  great  defence  and  ornament  of  women,  243 
 244.     Is  not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies,  244. 
 
 Moles.     Defcription  of  their  manners  and  operations,  323. 
 
 Monkeys.     When  fleeping,  one  acls  as  a  centinel,  404. 
 
 Motacilla.     See  titmoufe. 
 
 Moths.  An  account  of  them,  102.  Divided  into  two  kinds, 
 the  fphinx  and  phalaena,  ibid.  All  of  them,  when  about 
 to  transform,  fpin  cods  or  clues  of  lilk,  303. 
 Motion.  Spontaneous  motion,  140.  By  what  inftrument  it 
 is  performed,  141.  Vital  and  involuntary  motions,  142. 
 Motions  of  animals  proportioned  to  their  weight  and  ftruc- 
 ture,  143.  Motion  gives  animation  and  vivacity  to  the 
 whole  fcene  of  Nature,  144.  Deftruftive  animals  flower 
 in  their  motions  than  the  weaker  kinds,  145.  Progreflive 
 motion  of  the  mufcle,  ibid.  Motions  of  the  razor  or  fpout- 
 fifh,  147  ;  of  the  fcallop,  148  •,  of  the  oyftcr,  148;  of  the 
 fea-urchin,  149  j   of  the  medufa,  or  fca-ncttlc,   150.   Mo- 
 
54,4  I  N  D  E  "X. 
 
 tion  of  the  mafon-bee  fometimes  retrograde,  151.  The 
 rate  at  which  found  moves,  176.  ChiiJren  derive  great 
 happinefs  from  motion,  202. 
 
 Moutlon,  the  original  ftock  of  the  flieep,  464. 
 
 Muhiplication.  The  hydra  of  Linnaeus  multiplies  by  fend- 
 ing otFfhoots  from  its  body,  41.  The  bell-polypus  mul- 
 tiplies by  fplitting  longitudinally,  ibid ;  and  the  funnel- 
 fhaped  polypus  by  fplitting  tranfverfely,  41.  The  dart- 
 millepes  likewife  multiplies  by  fpontaneous  feparav'on, 
 ibid.  Infufion-animalcules  multiply  by  continued  diviftons 
 and  fubdivifions,  42.  Puceron  multiplies  without  impreg- 
 nation, 44.  A  profuiion  of  animal  life  one  great  intention 
 of  Nature,  396.  Noxious  multiplication  refrained  by  va- 
 rious caufes,  '597,  398. 
 
 Mufca.     See  flies. 
 
 Mufcles.     Their  progreflive  motion  defcribed,  145. 
 
 Mufcles.     The  inftruments  of  animal  motion,  141. 
 
 Mulical  ears.     See  ears. 
 
 N 
 
 Nature,  in  the  formation  of  animals  and  vegetables,  feems  to 
 have  a6led  upon  the  fame  general  plan,  20.  Her  inten- 
 tions in  changing  forms,  313.  If  properly  underftood, 
 her  intentions  are  never  wrong,  394.  Seems  to  pay  little 
 attention  to  individuals,  but  uniformly  fupports  the  fpe- 
 cies,  395.  Advantages  derived  from  her  allowing  ani- 
 mals to  prey  on  one  another,  396,  &c.  It  gives  rife  to 
 mutual  improvem.ent,  395.  A  profufion  of  animal  life 
 feems  to  be  a  general  intention  of  Nature,  396.  There  is 
 a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal  defl:ru6tion, 
 397.     Nature  obferves  a  uniform  gradation  of  beings,  522. 
 
 Nerves.  A  fliort  defcription  of  them,  6i.  The  fource  of 
 all  fenfation  and  motion,  141,  168,  182.  Their  papillae 
 the  immediate  inftruments  of  fenfation,  1 82. 
 
 Nefts.  See  birds  and  habitations.  Penfile  nefts,  326.  Cu- 
 rious neft  of  the  taylor-bird,  ibid.  Cuckow  makes  none, 
 327.  Nefts  of  different  birds,  328.  Nefts  of  various  in- 
 fers, 330.  Wafp's  neft  defcribed,  354.  Nefts  or  hills 
 of  the  termites,  365  ;  of  caterpillars,  429. 
 
 Nettle.     Sea-nettle's  motions  extremely  flow,  150. 
 
 Neuropterous  infects.     Defcription  of  them,  102, 
 
 Nidification.     See  birds. 
 
 Nofe.     Defcription  of  that  organ,  169. 
 
INDEX.  54^ 
 
 Nutrition,     See  food,  growth. 
 Nymphs.     A  defcription  of  them,  298. 
 
 O 
 Oak.     Account  of  a  remarkable  one,  518. 
 Ocean.     It  produces  the  largeft  animals  now  known,  89. 
 Odours.     The  reafon  why  they  excite  the  fenfe  of  fmeiling, 
 
 169.     The  particles  of  odorous  bodies  extremely  minute, 
 
 169. 
 Oeftrus.     See  gad-fly. 
 Orang-outang.     His  form  as  well  as  his  manners  make  the 
 
 neareft  approach   to  thofe  of  man,  63.     Walks  erect,  70. 
 
 An   acount  of  the    imitative  powers  of  what  is  called  the 
 
 larger    and   fmaller  fpecies,    441.     Their  manners,  442, 
 
 443,  444.  Belong  not   to  the  human  kind,  444.     Nearly 
 
 allied  to  man,  441. 
 Organs.     See  animals,  birds,  quadrupeds,  £{hes,  plants,  and 
 
 ftrufture. 
 Oftrich  vindicated  from  unnaturality,  159. 
 Ox-eye.     See  titmoufe. 
 Oxen,  dull  and  phlegmatic  animals,  but  capable  of  inftruc- 
 
 tion,  460,  461.     Much  changed  by  domeftication,  463. 
 Oyfter.     Its  motions  defcribed,  148.    Is  endowed  with  fome 
 
 degree  of  intelligence,  ibid. 
 
 P 
 
 Pairing.     See  marriage.     Many  animals  pair,  282,  284. 
 Palm-tree.     Its  mode  of  culture  in  Arabia  no  proof  of  the 
 
 fexes  of  plants.     See  fexes. 
 Palpi  of  inre<Q:s  defcribed,  95. 
 Papillae.     See  nerves. 
 Papilio.     See  butterfly. 
 Parental  affe^lion.     See  love. 
 Pediculus.     See  loufe. 
 
 Pelican.  Her  mode  or  fupplyingher  young  with  drink,  225.. 
 Phalaena.    See  moth. 
 Phryganea.     See  flies. 
 Pies.     Their  nefts  very  various. 
 Pilchards.     See  herrings. 
 Plants.     Difficulty  of  diftinguifliing  them  from  animals,  14. 
 
 Definitions  of  them  by  Jungius,  ibid.  ;   by  Ludwig,  ibid. ; 
 
 by  Linnaeus,  14.     Examples  of  the  motions  of  plants,  16, 
 
,546  INDEX. 
 
 17.  Their  whole  ftruiTtiire  may  be  confidered  as  a  ftomach 
 for  receiving  their  food,  19.  Other  examples  of  vegeta- 
 ble movements,  21,  22.  Many  of  them  have  the  power 
 of  irritability^  2 v.  Between  vegetables  and  mirierals  there 
 is  hardly  any  analogy,  2-1',  25.  Analogies  between  ani- 
 mals and  plants,  originating  from  their  ftrudkire  and  or- 
 gans, 25,  35.  Sketch  of  the  ilru^ture  of  plantSj  28,  30. 
 Their  oeconomy  and  functions  are  refults  of  a  valcular 
 texture,  32.  Analogies  ariiing  from  their  growth  and 
 nourllhment,  34,  40.  Food  of  plants  and  of  anim^als  com- 
 pared, 35.  Analogies  between  the  animal  and  vegetable 
 derived  from  their  diiTemination  and  decay,  40^  &c.  Anal- 
 ogies between  the  eggs  of  animals  and  the  leeds  of  plants, 
 46,  Some  plants  may  be  confidered  as  viviparous,  47. 
 Plants  have  their  feafons  as  well  as  animals,  49.  Are  all 
 fubjeft  to  many  difeafes,  and  at  lad  to  individual  dilTolu- 
 tion,  51.  Of  the  fuppofed  fexes  of  plants,  25 1 .  See  fex- 
 es.  Pollen  or  farina  of  plants,  fuppofed  to  be  analogous 
 to  the  male  organs  of  generation,  252.  New  varieties  of 
 plants  often  proceed  from  accidental  caufes,  257,  258. 
 Plants,  as  well  as  animals,  undergo  transformations,  309, 
 310.  See  transformations.  Thofe  which  grow  quickly 
 foon  perilli,  511.     Their  longevity,  518. 
 
 Pollen.     See  plants,  and  fexes. 
 
 Polypus.  Defcription  of  its  ftru6lure  and  mode  of  multiply- 
 ing, 28.  When  cut  to  pieces  in  any  direction,  each  fec- 
 tion  foon  becomes  a  perfect  animal,  29.  One  fpecies  may 
 be  engrafted  upon  another,  ibid.  Som^e  polypi  multiply 
 by  fplitting  longitudinally,  and  others  tranfveriely,  41, 
 Connedls  the  animal  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  526, 
 
 Probofcis  of  infects  defcribed,  97, 
 
 Propolis,  or  bee- glue.    See  bees. 
 
 Puberty.  This  period  of  life  arrives  later,  or  more  early,  ac- 
 cording to  the  difference  of  fpecies,  38.  Of  the  puberty 
 of  animals  in  general,  269.     Changes  produced  by  it,  269 
 
 270,  291.  Females  arrive  fooner  at  that  period  than  males, 
 
 271.  All  animals  undergo  changes  at  the  age  of  puberty, 
 271. 
 
 Pucerons.  Some  fpecies  are  both  viviparous  and  oviparous, 
 44.  Can  produce  without  impregnation,  44,  98.  Differ- 
 ences between  the  males  and  females,  247.  Devoured  by 
 namberlefs  enemies,  389. 
 
INDEX.  54? 
 
 Pulex.    See  flea. 
 
 O 
 
 puadrupeds.  Their  fl:ru(fture,  63.  The  nmllarity  of  theif 
 ftru6ture  and  organs  to  thofe  of  man,  63.  Of  the  carniv- 
 orous kinds,  66.  Of  the  herbivorous,  67.  Few  quadru- 
 peds pair,  285.  Undergo  changes  of  form  after  birth,  293. 
 Their  mental  powers  Ukewife  change,  ibid.  Some  of  them 
 conftru(St  habitations,  315.  Of  carnivorous  quadrupeds, 
 382.  Their  difcriminating  chara6ters,  468,  469.  Some  of 
 them  migrate,  496.    Of  their  longevity,  513. 
 
 Quails.     Of  their  migration,  477. 
 
 R 
 
 Rapacious.     See  carnivorous. 
 
 Rats  of  Kamtfchatka.      Fheir  artifices  and  manners,  4-11. 
 
 Ravens.  Their  mode  of  breaking  ilieil-fifhesj  413.  Their 
 longevity,  513. 
 
 Razor-fifh.     See  fpout-fifh. 
 
 Rein-deer,  the  chief  food  of  the  Laplanders,  221. 
 
 Refpiration.  Air  neceffary  to  the  exiftence  of  all  animal  and 
 vegetable  bodies,  112.  The  mode  in  which  refpiration  is 
 carried  on  by  man  and  the  larger  land  animals,  112.  Dr. 
 Crawford  has  rendered  it  probable  that  refpiration  is  the 
 caufe  of  animal  heat,  113.  Conne6led  with  the  circulation 
 of  the  blood,  115.  Commences  inftantly  after  birth,  and 
 continues  during  life,  116.  Of  laughing,  118.  Of  weep- 
 ing, ibid.  Many  fecondary  advantages  derived  from  ref- 
 piration, 119.  Birds  refpire  by  the  bones,  and  almoft  eve- 
 ry part  of  the  body,  as  well  as  by  the  lungs,  121.  Refpi- 
 ration of  fiflies,  125.     Refpiration  of  infe6ls,  126. 
 
 Retina.  Exte  nal  objecls  painted  on  it  in  an  inverted  por- 
 tion, 187.  Why  objects  are  feen  ere^t  notwithftanding 
 the  inverfion  of  the  pidlures,  188,  189.  Why  vifion  is 
 fmgle  though  a  pi(!:lure  is  painted  on  each  eye,  190,  191. 
 
 Roebuck.     His  artifices  and  manners,  406. 
 
 S 
 
 Saliva,  a  powerful  folvent,  173. 
 Salmons.     Of  their  mijrrations,  &c.  497. 
 Scale.     Of  the  progrefllve  fcale  of  beings,  521,  &c. 
 Scallop.     Its  motions  defcribed,  148. 
 
 Scarabaei,  or  the  beetle  tribe  of  infedls,  an  account  of  them^ 
 98. 
 
54S  INDEX* 
 
 Scorpion.     Account  of  It,  108. 
 
 Sea-nettle  capable  of  being  ingrafted,  50. 
 
 Seal.     Sketch  of  his  manners,  76. 
 
 Seafons.     See  love. 
 
 Seeds.     Analogies  between  them  and  the  eggs  of  animals,  45. 
 
 Seeing.     See  fenfes. 
 
 Senfation  implies  the  perception  of  pleafure  and  pain.  May- 
 be fufpended  without  death,  28.  See  fenfes.  Theory  of 
 fenfationi  182. 
 
 Senfes.  Fifhes  endowed  witliJthe  fenfe  of  hearing,  89.  Of 
 the  fenfes  in  general,  168.  Of  the  fenfe  of  fmelling,  169. 
 Men,  as  well  as  brutes,  affifted  in  the  fele6lion  of  food  by 
 the  {enfe  of  fmelling,  170.  Moft  odours  produ(5iive  either 
 of  pleafure  or  pain,  171.  The  fenfe  of  fmelling  in  fome 
 animals  remarkably  acute,  172.  Of  tafting,  172.  The 
 organs  of  tafte  and  fn}^jelling  affift  each  other,  173.  Senfe 
 of  tafting  comparatively  grofs,  174.  Senfe  of  hearing,  175. 
 The  pleafures  derived  from  it,  178.  Senfe  of  touch,  ISl. 
 Senfe  of  feeing,  185.;  conveys  no  idea  of  diftance,  192. 
 Errors  of  vlfion  corre^led  by  touch,  16^  Of  the  fenfe  of 
 fmelling  alone,  1 94.  Of  hearing  aloH^^^6.  ;  of  fmelling 
 and  hearing  united,  ibid. ;  of  tafte  aloli'fe,  and  united'  with 
 fmelling  and  hearing,  196  ;  of  light  alone,  197.;  of  fight 
 united  with  fmell,  hearing,  and  tafte,  197  ;  of  touching 
 alone,  198  ;  of  touch  united  with  fmelling,  200.  ;  of  hear- 
 ing, tafte,  and  touch  united,  ibid.  Of  fight  united  wdth 
 all  the  other  fenfes,  201. 
 
 Sepia.    See  cuttle-fiih. 
 
 Serpents  caft  their  fliins  annually,  295. 
 
 Sexes.  Of  the  fexes  of  animals,  242.  Their  intercourfe  not 
 always  neceftary  for  multiplication,  244.  See  multiplica- 
 tion. Caterpillars  are  of  no  fex,  245.  Among  the  larger 
 animals,  the  difi^erence  of  fize  betw^een  males  and  females 
 is  not  confiderable,  245  ;  but.  among  infects,  the  diff'er- 
 ence  often  great,  245,  246,  247.  Of  the  fuppoled  fexes 
 of  plants,  251.  The  arguments  employed  to  fupport  the 
 fexes  of  plants  are  entirely  analogical,  252.  Thefe  analo- 
 gies fiiown  to  be  without  foundation,  ibid.  Some  of  them 
 ridiculous,  254.  The  moft  plaufible  argument  in  fupport  of 
 vegetable  fexes  derived  from  the;  culture  of  the  date-bear- 
 ing palm,  ibid.  This  circumftance  brings  no  aid  to  the 
 fexualift,  254.    Mylius's  experiment  on  the  Berlin  palm 
 
I  N  I)  E  X.  5ifi 
 
 lmperfe£l  and  inconclufive,  255y  256,  Sexualifts  have  rcy 
 courfe  to  the  winds  and  to  infe^ls  for  the  impregnation  of 
 certain  plants,  ^56.  This  notion  refuted,  257,  258.  Ar- 
 gument from  new  varieties  examined,  258.  Dr.  Hope's 
 experiments  on  the  lychnis  dioica  examined,  260.  Spa- 
 lanzani's  experiments  on  the  fexes  of  plants,  264,  265. 
 Changes  produced  in  animals  by  puberty,  269.  The  male 
 bees  impregnate  the  eggs  after  they  are  depoilted  in  the 
 cells,  349. 
 
 Sheep  alTociate,  and  defend  each  other,  436.  Their  ori- 
 gih,  464. 
 
 Showers  of  blood  accounted  for,  306. 
 
 Silk  worms.     See  worms  and  caterpillars. 
 
 Skeletons,  of  all  quadrupeds,  when  railed  on  their  hind-legs^ 
 have  a  great  reiemblance  to  thofe  of  man;,  63. 
 
 Sleep,  of  plants,  18. 
 
 Smeathman.  His  account  of  tke  termites  or  wood -ants,  364. 
 
 Smelling.     See  fenfes. 
 
 Snails.     Their  mode  of  refpiring,  134,  135. 
 
 Society.  Not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies,  418.  Its  ori- 
 gin, ibid.  The  aflbciating  principle  is  inftinftive,  419.  Its 
 advantages,  ibid.  Gives  rife  to  many  virtues  and  fourcej 
 of  happinefs,  420.  Its  difadvantages,  421.  Without  air 
 fociation,  men  could  perform  no  extenlive  operations,  422. 
 Society  of  the  beavers,  422  ;  of  pairing  birds,  424  ;  of 
 the  honey-bees,  425  j  of  the  common  cTiterpillars,  429  , 
 of  the  proceflionary  caterpillars,  431.  Some  caterpillars 
 are  republicans,  432.  Society  of  ants,  434  5  of  gregari- 
 ous animals  who  carry  on  no  common  operations,  436. 
 
 Sound.  Its  medium  and  caufes,  176.  The  celerity  of  its 
 inotioxi,  177.  Augmented  by  reflexion,  177.  Its  modi- 
 fications, ibid. 
 
 Spalanzani.  Account  of  his  experiments  upon  digeilxon,  2SC. 
 His  experiments  on  the  fexes  of  plants,  264. 
 
 Sparrows  of  great  ufe  by  devouring  numbers  of  caterpillar*, 
 S99, 
 
 Speech.    See  language. 
 
 Sphinx.     See  moth. 
 
 Spiders.  Their  ftruclure  and  manners,  107.  When  terrili- 
 ed  fimulate  death,  1 58.  Their  attachment  to  their  young, 
 278.  Moft  Yoracious  animals,  387.  Some  furvive  th3 
 \vinter,  415. 
 
 W  w  w 
 
.^50  I  H  D  E  !^. 
 
 Spider-fly.     See  flies,  and  growth. 
 
 Spout  firii.  Its  motions  defcribed,  H7.  Conies  above  the 
 iand  upon  putting  fait  on  the  mouth  of  its  habitation,  147. 
 
 Stag.  His  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  404*.  Form  herds, 436. 
 
 Stevens  (Dr.)  His  experiments  on  digeftion  performed  by 
 means  of  a  German  who  was  in  the  habit  of  fwallowing 
 ftones,  237. 
 
 ^tigmati  of  infe£ls  defcribed,  and  their  ufes,  127. 
 
 Stomach.  Every  part  of  vegetables  may  be  confidered  as  a 
 ilomach,  19.  In  carnivorous  animals,  the  ftomach  is  pro- 
 portionally fmall,  (56.  Its  juice  dilTolves  all  kinds  of  vic- 
 tuals, 230.  Its  great  comminuting  force  in  certain  birds, 
 ^31,  &c.  In  maa  and  quadrupeds,  the  ftomach  feems  not 
 to  a£l:  upon  its  contents,  which  are  totally  diffolved  by  the 
 gaftric  juice,  237.  See  gaftric  juice.  After  death,  the 
 gaftric  juice  diflblves  the  ftomach,  240. 
 
 Storks  clear  Egypt  of  ferpents,  frogs,  mice,  &c.  39S. 
 
 Structure  and  organs.  Their  connection  with  manners  and 
 difpofitions,  6^,  66,  96,  111.  Structure  of  quadrupeds 
 has  a  great  refemblance  to  that  of  man,  63.  Structure  of 
 birds,  80.  Stru^ure  of  fillies,  87.  Strufture  of  infefts,  92. 
 
 Swallow.  A  curious  mftin(Sl  of  it,  157.  Swallow's  nefi:s,  328, 
 Of  their  migration  and  torpidity,  476,  &c.  Different 
 opinions  on  this  fubjedt  examined,  482.  Could  not  poIB- 
 bly  exifi:  under  water,  484. 
 
 Swans.     Their  longevity,  513. 
 
 Sword-filh  often  kills  the  whale,  401. 
 
 T 
 
 Tadpole.     See  frogs. 
 
 Tailed  men  have  no  exiftence,  594;. 
 
 Tafie,  See  fenfes.  The  inftruments  and  caiifes  of  the  feij-* 
 fation  of  tafting,  172.  Tafi:e  various  in  individuals  of  the 
 fame  fpecies,  174. 
 
 Taylor-bin'.     Defcrlption  of  its  wonderful  neft,  326. 
 
 Termites.  Mr.  Smeathman's  defcription  of  their  fingular 
 operations,  364.  Deicription  of  thefe  animals,  365.  Un- 
 dergo great  changes  in  form,  365,  366,  367.  Wonderful 
 proUfic  powers  of  the  females,  367.  Their  nefts  or  hills 
 defcribed,  368.  Of  their  royal  chamber,  370.  Of  their 
 nurferies,  371.  Of  their  magazines,  373.  Of  their  fubter- 
 raneous  paflages,  374.  Of  their  warlike  difpoiitions,  375, 
 Repair  their  habitations,  377. 
 
1  H  D  EX.  €5i 
 
 Tkcrer.     His  dlfpofitlons  are  grofsly  ferocious,  582. 
 
 Tit-moiife.     Defcrlptlon  of  its  nefts,  325. 
 
 Toads.  Inftances  of  their  being  found  alive  in  the  heart  of 
 trees,  and  inclofed  in  folid  ftones,  136,  137.  Their  lon- 
 gevity, 516. 
 
 Tongue' and  palate,  the  principal  inftruments  of  thefenfe  of 
 tafting,  173. 
 
 Touch.     See  fenfes. 
 
 Tracheae  of  infetfts  defcribed,  and  their  ufes,  127. 
 
 Transformations.  Every  animal  undergoes  changes,  291 ,  &:c. 
 Transformation  of  frogs,  294.      Cruftaceous  animals  caft 
 their  Ihells  annually,  291'.     Serpents  annually  calt  their 
 Ikins,  29.5.  Of  the  transformation  of  infedls,  ibid.  Tranf- 
 formation  of  the  filk-worm,  296  j  of  other  caterpillars, 
 ibid.    The  internal  parrs,  as  well  as  the  external  form,  of 
 winged  infedts  undergo  confidcrable  changes,  299.  Spider- 
 fly  transformed  into  a  chryfalis  before  efcaping  the  belly 
 of  its  mother,  300     The  behaviour  of  different  caterpil- 
 lars, when  about  to  transform,  303.    Transformation  of 
 infefts  is  only  the  throwing  off  temporary  coverings,  306. 
 Plants,  as  well  as  animak,   undergo  traasformations,  309» 
 Intentions  of  Nature  in  changing  forms,  313. 
 Trochus  deftroys  numbers  of  Ihell-fiffies,  400, 
 Turkey.    The  great  comminuting  force  of  its  ftomach,  231. 
 
 U 
 
 Urchin.     Motions  of  the  fea-urchin  defcribed,  1 49. 
 
 V 
 Vacuum.  Sounds  cannot  be  propagated  through  it,  17*. 
 Vegetables.     See  plants. 
 Vermes.    See  worms. 
 Vis  inertiae  defined,  144. 
 Viflon.    See  eyes  and  retina,  \ 
 
 W 
 War.    Man  not  the  only  animal  that  makes  war  with  his 
 
 own  fpecies,  391.  n.     j 
 
 Wafp.     Solitary  wafp  digs  holes  in  the  fand,  where  Ihe  de- 
 
 pofits  her  eggs,  1 56.    Feed  their  young  by  difgorgmg  like 
 
 the  pigeon,  279.      Their  manners  and   operations,  354. 
 
 "^heir  cells  compofed  of  paper,  355.    Defcription  of  their 
 
i6t  1  K  P  E  X. 
 
 nefl:,  ibid.  Their  manner  of  buUdingj  557.  Republics  of 
 .  wafps  confift  of  males,  females,  and  neuters,  358.  De- 
 Icription  of  the  different  kinds,  362.  Maffacre  their  youngj, 
 392. 
 
 "Wax.    Bees  wax  a  refult  of  a  digefcive  procefs,  ^44. 
 
 Weeping,  how  performed,  and  its  effects,  113.  Not  pecu- 
 liar to  man,  ibid. 
 
 V/hales  often  killed  by  the  fword-fifli,  401. 
 
 Winds.  Suppoied  to  impregnate  certain  plants,  256.  This 
 notion  refuted,  257,  258. 
 
 Wings.  No  animal,  except  infecVs,  have  more  than  two,  94. 
 Thofe  of  infecls  made  the  foundation  of  a  methodical  dif- 
 tribution,  98. 
 
 Wolf.     His  difpolitions  are  fierce  and  rapacious,  383,  384. 
 
 Women.  Their  texture  more  lax  than  that  of  man,  242. 
 Their  minds  are  likewife  more  timid,  242.  Social  inter- 
 courfe  with  them  foftens  the  difpofitions  of  men,  243, 
 Modefty  the  great  ornament  of  women,  ibid.  Carnivo- 
 rous quadrupeds  not  fo  apt  to  devour  women  as  men,  244. 
 See  multiplication,  and  fexes. 
 
 Wood-ants.    See  ants  and  termites.  » 
 
 Woodpecker.    Some  account  of  it,  413. 
 
 Worms.  Account  of  thefe  infedls,  108.  Of  the  hair-worm, 
 ibid.  Of  the  earth-worm,  109.  Rat-tailed  wormiS,  their 
 mode  of  refpiring  air,  128  In  fome  worms,  the  rapidity 
 of  their  growth  is  remarkable,  229.  Account  of  the  male 
 and  female  glow-worm,  246.  Silk-worms  fpin  pods  be^- 
 fore  their  transformation  into  flies,  296.  See  caterpillars. 
 Inftances  of  feveral  worms  proceeding  from  one  egg,  303. 
 The  manner  in  which  the  iilk-worms  fpin  their  cod  or 
 ([rlye^  303. 
 
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