LIBRARY OF THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY PRINCETON, N. J. PRESENTED BY Dr. Thomas n . ears ■Division _ nLi a-comique, originating in the eighteenth century in the vaudeville, gradually expanded and elevated its music and its subjects, and reduced the space given to the spoken dialogue, until in certain later works pathetic and cheerful scenes are mingled as in the higher grade of spoken comedy, and in some instances the subject is even tragic and the dialogue given in recitative. In such cases there is no apparent distinction between the grand opera and the op^ra-comique, and their desig- nation depends merely upon the theatre — Academie de Musique or Opera-comique — in which they are per- formed. This breaking down of the hard and fast dis- tinction between the serious and the comic orders resulted in that form of opera of " middle character " which has been one of the most important art contribu- tions of the nineteenth century. Another striking fact in the history of the French opera of the nineteenth century is the great share given to its development by foreign musicians. Among the most distinguished writers of French opera beginning with Gluck, a German, are Cherubini, Spontini and Ros- sini, Italians, and Meyerbeer and Offenbach, Germans. An opera always takes the national name of the language in which it is written ; there are national types of melody, because vocal melody is born of speech ; moreover, the works of these men are based on French forms and their style is colored in accordance with the requirements of the French spirit and French taste. Nevertheless, the FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 295 early education and the native habit of these Italian and German composers could not be outgrown, and the re- sult of all the influences involved has been a form of music which, if not cosmopolitan, is eclectic rather than strictly French. Even in the most original composers of French birth, such as Boieldieu, Auber and, later, Gounod and Bizet, the form and tone of their works have been to a large extent guided by the ideas of Gluck, Mozart, Meyerbeer and, in recent times, of Wagner. On the other hand the reconstituted French opera has re- acted upon Italy and Germany, its influence being unmistakable in the later works of Verdi and even in the dramas of Wagner. The rapid development of German instrumental music, and the powers of dramatic expression revealed in the orchestra of Mozart, Beethoven and Weber, must be recognized as one of the chief vitalizing forces in the creation of the new French opera. Add to these influences the strongly developed dra- matic sense of the French people which, from the days of Lully, separated the whole conception and treatment of the French opera from the Italian. The first of the naturalized Italians to contribute im- portant works to the modern French school was Luigi Cherubixi (1760-1842). He was born in Florence, enjoyed a strict training in the counterpoint of the Palestrina school, went to Paris in 1788 and became conspicuous as a writer of serious operas. He was successful with the public and was recognized as the most learned musician in France. His stern, uncom- promising, patrician character aroused the dislike of the 296 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC emperor Napoleon, who appreciated only the shallowest of Italian operas, his advancement was thereby hin- dered and he twice withdrew from the Paris stage The latter part of his career is distinguished by his masses and other religious works, which have gained him a place in the front rank of composers for the Cath- olic church. His sound early training in the severe ecclesiastical style, his experience in stage vocal music and his mastery of orchestral writing derived from his study of his favorite German models, Haydn and Mozart, are all apparent in these massive and brilliant compositions. The chief of these are the requiems in C minor and D (the latter for men's voices), the masses in D minor, A and C and the a capella Credo for eight voices. His most famous dramatic works are : " Demo- phon" (1788), "Lodoiska" (1791), " Medde " (1797), 44 Les deux Journees " (known in English as " The Water Carrier," 1800), 44 Anacreon" (1803) and < 4 Faniska" (1806). In 1822 he became director of the Paris Con- servatoire, and in this post showed great ability as teacher and administrator. In his later years he wrote symphonies, quartets and other instrumental works which have not added to his fame. 44 Les deux Journe'es " is still rarely performed ; Cheru- bim's other operas have been abandoned. His works display his accomplished musicianship ; they are wrought with earnestness ; the chief stress is laid upon the con- certed scenes and the choruses. He is a disciple of Gluck and the Germans ; not deficient in melody, yet he relied not upon the arts of the singer but upon character- ization. His works only lack that spark of genius which FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 297 alone is preservative. His importance is mainly historic as one of the founders of that higher form of French opera, technically classed as ope'ra-comique, in which serious subjects are treated in a manner similar to that employed in the grand opera, preserving only the spoken dialogue. Cherubini is best known to the general musi- cal public by certain of his very effective opera overtures, which are often given on the concert platform in Ger- many and France. The spirit of Gluck survived also in his disciple, Etienke-Henri M^hul (1763-1817), who shares with Cherubini the honor of leading the opera-comique into that path of dramatic earnestness and musical breadth in which it has won such distinction. Aban- doning the mythological machinery which had long ago lost all interest, and rising above the levity and superfici- ality of the comic opera, this new order chose themes lying nearer to contemporary concerns, mingling the serious and playful, aiming at a truthful characterization of ideas and feelings that act in the general life of humanity. M£hul had less learning than Cherubini, but more grace and spontaneity. He excelled in charac- ter drawing; with moderate means he attained dignity and penetration in the expression of genuine feeling. His fame rests chiefly upon his " Joseph," in which, although lacking a leading female role, the impression of patriarchal life is imparted with great skill and charm. A remarkable career was that of Gasparo Spon- tini (1774-1851), an Italian who came to Paris in 1803, threw himself into the current of opera set in motion by Gluck, and opened still another vein by seiz- 298 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ing subjects of an heroic, martial nature, and setting them forth with an unprecedented pomp of scenic parade and orchestral splendor. Such themes also hit a ruling taste during the Napoleonic regime, and Spontini has been gen- erally described as the dramatic interpreter of the spirit of French imperialism. He enjoyed a complete triumph in " La Vestale," a romantic Roman subject, in 1807. " Fer- nand Cortez," a Spanish and Mexican subject, followed in 1809, and " Olympie," a Greek subject, in 1819. Ap- pointed director of the royal opera in Berlin in 1820, he produced several operas, the chief of which is " Agnes von Hohenstaufen," a subject taken from mediaeval German life. Spontini's example in choosing heroic themes, based more or less on historic fact, and em- bellishing them with every means of scenic and orches- tral display, was followed by Rossini in " Guillaume Tell," Auber in " La Muette de Portici," Meyerbeer in " Les Huguenots " and " Le Prophete " and Wagner in "Rienzi." Spontini's purposes were always noble and he strove consciously to elevate the opera dramatically and musically; but in spite of some great gifts, his pathos is strained, his martial parade rings hollow. His operas have not depth and reality enough to maintain them in view of the elaborate equipment necessary to perform them. Their popularity never recovered from the heavy blow dealt by Weber's " Der Freischiitz " at its first performance at Berlin in 1821. The original conception of the ope*ra-comique as a portrayal of the humorous side of life was maintained by a brilliant company of writers, the most racy of whom before Auber was Francois- Admen Boieldietj FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 299 (1775-1834). Beginning with light operas in which a large amount of spoken dialogue was interspersed with song-like numbers, Boieldieu developed a style in which an earnest tone is often employed, and a music more continuous and developed with a view to the expression of a considerable range of sentiment. Boieldieu has abundant wit and sparkle, a characteristically French lightness of touch, and a gift of very delightful melody. His most successful operas are " Le Calif e de Bagdad," "Jean de Paris" and " La Dame blanche." The latter is a classic of the opera-comique, thoroughly French in spite of its Scotch subject, an admirable specimen of refined musical comed} T . The king of opera-comique in the generation follow- ing Boieldieu was Daniel-Fran^ois-Esprit Auber (1782-1871). In habit and temperament Auber was a genuine Parisian, and the pleasure-loving public of the gay city never possessed an entertainer more to their heart. His works combine in a representative degree those qualities of wit, grace and vivacity that especially characterize the lighter French drama. He was slow in " finding himself," and his first decided success was won only at the age of thirty-eight. From that time he rode on the top wave of popularity. His most important operas-comiques are "Le Macon," "La Fiance'e," " Fra Diavolo," " Le Cheval de bronze," " Le Domino noir " and " Les Diamants de la Couronne." The latter work approaches near to grand opera in largeness of scale and dramatic and orchestral force. Through Auber's talent for characterization he succeeded in giving an air of reality to his stage personages, among whom we find many 300 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Parisian types. He was very successful in seeking local color. He has an inexhaustible fund of piquant melody, while his cleverness in orchestration gives a raciness to his scores that has never lost its savor. Among other writers of ope*ra-comique the most successful in this period were Louis-Joseph-Ferdinand Harold (1791-1833) and Adolphe-Charles Adam (1803- 1856). Herold's best-known works are "Zampa" and " Le Pre* aux Clercs." The latter, which tends toward the grand opera style, is preferred in France. Herold is especially rich in orchestration. Adam, who is remem- bered chiefly for a few brilliant tenor songs in " Le Pos- tilion de Longjumeau," rarely rose above triviality. The French grand opera entered upon a new career of glory under the guidance of Rossini, Auber and Meyer- beer. Rossini made his permanent residence in Paris in 1824, revived some of his earlier works and modified them out of deference to French taste by pruning away some of their vocal redundancies, broadening the recitative and giving more space to concerted scenes and choruses. The climax of his effort to naturalize himself as a French composer was in his " Guillaume Tell," produced in the Acade'mie in 1829. This work is still considered Rossini's masterpiece, one in which his wonderful melodic gifts are held to the service of dramatic expression so far as such an achievement was in Rossini's nature. The way in which " Tell " appealed to the French musical judgment of the time and since is expressed by Chouquet, who calls attention to the freshness and grace with which Rossini has depicted the Alps and their pastoral inhabitants ; " the FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 301 notes which convey the distress of the agonized father ; the enthusiastic expression of the heroes of Switzerland ; the harrowing phrases which convey the anguish of a son renouncing all that he holds most dear ; the astonishing variety of the colors in which the conspiracy is painted ; the grandeur of the outlines ; the severity of the style ; the co-existence of so much variety with such admirable unity ; the truly Olympian dignity which reigns through- out " (Grove's Dictionary, article Rossini). Later events have served to dim the colors of this much-lauded work and a good deal of the substratum is found to be unstable ; but there is much in it that is strong and sincere, with melody that appeals to a lasting taste. The rather over- rated overture is still popular. The complete abandon- ment of the stage by Rossini after the production of this opera, at the age of thirty-seven, has never been satisfac- torily explained. In the development of the French heroic opera, on the way to its culmination in the hands of Meyerbeer, " Tell " is a transition work. So also was its famous rival of 1828, Auber's " La Muette de Portici," known in Eng- land and America as u Masaniello." This opera is based upon a revolt of the populace of the kingdom of Naples against the oppression of a tyrannical viceroy in 1647. Auber and his librettist, Scribe, made several departures from historic verity, particularly in the introduction of Fenella, the chief female character, who is dumb. The difficulty of finding at that time a soprano qualified for a leading role in the opera was thus cleverly surmounted. Auber's genius for piquant melody and orchestral color- ation, elsewhere so effectively displayed in opera-comique, 302 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC is used here for dignified ends and with brilliant success. He does not yield to the temptation to throw his weight upon theatrical pomp and show, but strives to individ- ualize his characters and to give the work local color. The latter purpose he effects by a liberal use of imitations of Italian folk songs and dances, such as the tarantella and barcarolle. This opera has a place in political history, for the revolution by which Belgium gained independence of Holland in 1830, although long preparing, came to an outbreak in Brussels under the excitement produced by a performance of " La Muette." This opera still holds its popularity. The history of the French grand opera culminates in Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864). He was a German Jew, born in Berlin; was a fellow pupil of Weber at Munich for a time and wrote one or two German operas; then went to Italy and adopted the Rossini manner; went to Paris in 1826, changed his direction a second time and built up the style by which he is now known. His chief works are "Robert le Diable " (1831), " Les Huguenots " (1836), " Le Pro- phete" (1849), "L'Etoile du Nord" (1854), " Le Par- don de Ploermel " (1859), known also as " Dinorah," and "L'Africaine" (1864). The first three in this list are those which have given him his fame. Few composers have been so much eulogized and so much reviled as Meyerbeer. The opinion of Wagner and Schumann, who denounced him as an unmitigated charlatan and trickster, may be set off against the view of his French admirers, many of them able critics, who pronounce him one of the greatest of musico-dramatic FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 303 geniuses. The truth doubtless lies between these two estimates. While in sheer musical imagination and science he cannot be called one of the greatest of musi- cians, yet he was not lacking in ideas, and was deficient in sustained development rather than in thematic inven- tion. His ingenuity and command in the matter of orchestral combination for dramatic purposes is unques- tioned. He had many great inspirations, and there are pages in his works that will always rank among the most powerful in opera history. Meyerbeer is usually spoken of as an eclectic. In music, as in literature and painting, there was at this time in France a chaos of opinion and a ferment in pro- duction, subjects and styles, the most incongruous jostling each other and contending for supremacy. The most sensational as well as the most normal features that had been developed in the French, Italian and Ger- man schools were seized by Meyerbeer and flung together, without regard to any lack of consistency that might result. The product, however, was something that had in an indescribable way the stamp of Meyerbeer's own personality. No operatic composer was ever more un- even, and this is due not only to a lack of spontaneity in creation, but still more to his intense desire to make " effect " at every point, no matter at what loss of musi- cal unity. A work of his is, therefore, as Mrs. Julian Marshall says (Grove's Dictionary, article Meyerbeer), a consummate piece of mosaic rather than an organic struc- ture. Yet this mosaic is undeniably brilliant, often keen and convincing in characterization, often shallow and pretentious. The accusation seems well grounded that 304 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Meyerbeer's one overweening desire was to gratify the taste of his audience, and that, not the most intelligent and reflective portion, but the mob of theatre-goers who crave novelty and sensation at all cost. To gain this end he did not spare himself the most exhausting labors. The apparent slowness of his composition is chiefly due to the endless revision to which he subjected his work, — not to make it more true and more worthy of the high- est dramatic demands, but more fetching at the first hearing. He often disfigured his arias by excessive colorature, catering thus to the vanity of singers and the love of portions of his audiences for Italian frippery. He is, of course, not to be held responsible for the public passion for gaudy and blatant scenic and musical effects, but instead of striving to bring theatrical pageantry under the control of a lofty poetic aim, he was careful to choose subjects and arrange scenes that would lend themselves most readily to fantastic and overloaded spectacle. Yet Meyerbeer was certainly an innovator in legitimate ways, his scores contain many beauties, he often shows an extraordinary dramatic imaginative power, his range of expression was very wide, he en- larged the scope of dramatic portrayal and in many ways influenced French opera, and German and Italian opera also, for good. At his best he is a melodist and harmo- nist of a high order, and in the use of the orchestra for dramatic characterization he showed an originality and versatility that have rarely been equalled. If his operas eventually disappear from the stage it will, perhaps, be not on account of unworthiness of their music to sur- vive, but because such subjects and characters as those FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 305 of " Robert le Diable," " L'Africaine," " Le ProphSte " and even " Les Huguenots " are no longer enjoyed by a public which is coming to demand greater simplicity and a finer psychologic interpretation. Meyerbeer's greatest work is unquestionably " Les Huguenots," and while portions are tawdry and coarse, others deserve all the praise that has been lavished upon them. Such scenes as the consecration of the swords and the last interview between Valentine and Raoul are not only the high- water mark of their author's genius, but seem destined to hold their place among the noblest pages in the literature of the opera. Even Wagner could pause in his denunciation of the arch-corruptor of dramatic taste, as he deemed him, to pay enthusiastic tribute to the genius that conceived these two powerful scenes. The success of Meyerbeer's three chief operas was hardly less in Germany than in France. From the first appearance of " Robert le Diable " until the opening of the Bayreuth theatre Meyerbeer dominated the German stage. The only composer in Meyerbeer's genre who could be called a rival was Jacques-Francois -Elias Hale'vy (1799-1862), whose grand opera, "La Juive " (1835), compounded of elements very similar to those of Meyer- beer's " historic " operas, contains enough of dramatic force and musical beauty to give it an honored place upon the French stage. Of Halevy's numerous operas- comiques only one, " L'Eclair," is considered worthy of the fame of the author of " La Juive." " In spite of its numerous defects the grand opera has 20 306 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC exercised an important influence upon the further de- velopment of the music drama. By a more productive drawing together of orchestral, mimetic and decorative means of effect, it pointed the way to a unified work of art. It effected a significant increase of the expressive power of the orchestra as compared with the classic heroic opera. It pointed the way to a blending of detached 4 numbers ' into solid scenes and acts. It held the opera singers — and this is perhaps its chief service — to actual dramatic tasks, and made at least a beginning in the education of singers to be actors. Thus the grand opera in its way helped to prepare the new music drama" (Merian, Geschichte der Musik im neunzehnten Jahrhunder€). The critical literature in English upon this very important phase of music history is not so ample as it should be. Hervey's French Music in the Nineteenth Century is sketchy, but sound and interesting, and written sympathetically. Apthorp's The Opera, Past and Present, also brief and cursory, is trustworthy. See also Famous Composers and their Works, series i, article Music in France; Henderson, How Music Developed; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music ; Grove's Dictionary, articles Opera, Schools. For the individual composers : Grove's Dictionary and Famous Coynposers and their Works are usually full and judicious. More than enough on Spontini is given by Spitta in his Grove's Dic- tionary article. Meyerbeer has received more attention from the critics than any other French composer. Mr. Apthorp's detailed and very able article in Musicians and Music Lovers is especially recommended. The strong points in Meyerbeer's work are also well brought out by Mr. Hervey in French Music in the Nineteenth Century. The article in Famous Composers, series i, by Pougin, an authoritative French historian, is also favorable. Schumann's unqualified condemnation of Meyerbeer's art may be found in Music and Musicians (trans, by F. R. Ritter), series i, article Meyerbeer's "Huguenots." Wagner's much quoted charac- terization of Meyerbeer in Opera and Drama (Ellis' trans.), FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 307 although malignant, is very entertaining and contains a good deal of truth. The biographies of Wagner, especially that by Glasenapp- Ellis, give much space to Meyerbeer and his relation to Wagner. Wagner's recollections of Spontini (Prose Works, Ellis, vol. iii) and of Auber (vol. v) are interesting. For famous singers of the French stage see allusions and references in the preceding chapter of this book. The part played by Scribe, the celebrated playwright and librettist for Auber, Meyerbeer and Hale'vy, in the shaping of the grand opera must be recognized. There is an interesting chapter on him by Brander Matthews in French Dramatists of the Nineteenth Century. Some of the most important works of the French writers of grand opera and opera-comique in this period are published in vocal and piano score by Novello, Boosey and others. Plots will be found in the books by Upton and Annesley. XXXVIII RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 LIST OF WORKS. — Dramatic: "Die Feen" (1833}, first performed at Munich, 1888 ; "Das Liebes- verbot" {1835-6), performed but once, at Magdeburg, 1836 ; "Rienzi " (1838-40), first performed at Dresden, 184% ; "Der fliegende Hollander" (184-1), first per- formed at Dresden, 181$; 44 Tannhduser " (1844-5), first performed at Dresden, 1845 ; 4 4 Lohengrin " (1846-8), first performed at Weimar, 1850 ; " Das Rheingold" (part i of 44 Der Ring des Nibelungen" ; 1853-4), fi^ performed at Munich, 1869; " Die Walkilre 99 (part ii of 44 Der Ring 99 ; finished 1856), first performed at Munich, 1870; "Siegfried" (part Hi of 44 Der Ring 99 ; finished 1869), first performed at Bay- reuth, 1876 ; 44 Die Gotterddmmerung 99 (part iv of " Der Ring 99 ; completed 1874), fi rsi performed at Bayreuth, 1876 ; 44 Tristan und Isolde 99 (completed 1859), first per- formed at Munich, 1865 ; "Die Meister -singer von Nilrn- berg 99 (completed 1867), first performed at Munich, 1868 ; 4 4 Parsifal 99 (completed 1882), first performed at Bayreuth, 1882. Orchestral and choral works, the most important of which are the symphony in C, "Faust" overture, "Sieg- fried Idyll," "Kaiser" march and "Das Liebesmahl der Apostel" (for male chorus and orchestra); a few piano pieces and songs. RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 309 Prose works, German edition, ten volumes, English translation by William Ashton Ellis, eight volumes. There is no other composer whose study involves so wide a range of inquiry as Richard Wagner. He was both composer and philosophic thinker, and the form and character of his dramas can be understood only in the light of the principles and motives which their author has himself expressed in his critical writings. The views which controlled him as a musical dramatist concern problems of music, poetry, ethics, history, sociology and politics, so that a comprehensive study of them would lead us into many of the leading intel- lectual movements of the nineteenth century. Wagner not only professed to be a reformer of the opera, but also tried to show how dramatic art might be made the mirror of the forces that work for progress in human life, and at the same time contribute to the elevation of society through its convincing presentation of the loftiest ideals. He conceived the music drama to be the highest form of art, — a means by which man may be revealed to man as he is and as he may be. Wagner's musical works were created under the stimu- lus of this enthusiasm, and his critical writings were designed to make his purpose apparent to the world and to prepare the public properly to comprehend his works in their every detail. This recognition of Wagner's purpose is necessary to a proper understanding of the man and his life. Although his music and poetry must stand or fall, like all art work, by their own inherent quality as pure art, yet judgment cannot be justly 310 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC passed without taking, for the moment at least, the com- poser's own point of view, and comparing the product with the motive. As respects the character of Wagner's works his aim was (1) to make the opera a serious and noble form of art, instead of a mere plaything or a means of pro- ducing temporary excitement; (2) to treat upon the stage subjects which had moral and intellectual as well as aesthetic value, and to create personages who could be recognized as genuine and representative, and (3) to raise poetry, music, action and scenery to the highest possible completeness and power, and to unite them all on equal terms for the production of a concentrated and immediate impression upon the emotion. The important events of Wagner's life may be hastily sketched as follows : Born at Leipzig, May 22, 1813, the youngest of a family of seven children, a number of whom became actors and singers. His father dying in Richard's infancy, his mother soon after married Ludwig Geyer, a successful actor and singer and writer of comedies. Wagner's earliest experience was in the shadow of the theatre. His first inclinations were towards literature ; his musical genius was slow in as- serting itself, but an impulse once received he mastered musical science with extraordinary speed. His few months of study in counterpoint with Weinlig were of great value, but the greater part of his musical knowl- edge was acquired by practice under his own direction and the study of the orchestral works of the older masters. His chief musical influences were drawn from the opera performances under Weber at Dresden and RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 311 the orchestral concerts at the Leipzig Gewandhaus. He became familiar with the dramatic works of the Greeks, Shakspeare, Goethe and Schiller. His early orchestral and piano compositions may be called appren- tice work. His first salaried position was at the Wiirz- bursr theatre as chorus master, where he wrote "Die Feen" (1833). He next became opera director at Magdeburg, where " Das Liebesverbot " was written. After a short stay at Konigsberg, where he married Wilhelmine Planer, an actress, he was appointed opera director at Riga in 1837. Ill success and ambition drove him to Paris in 1839 in the hope of bringing out " Rienzi." His life in Paris was one of disillusion and extreme privation, from which he was rescued by an appointment as second director at the Royal Opera of Dresden. He remained in this position seven years. His plans for the improvement of the Dresden opera were constantly thwarted ; " Tannhauser " was unappreciated ; " Lohengrin " could not obtain a performance ; the natural development of his genius and the realization of his reform plans were made impossible. A supposed participation in the futile attempt at revolution in Saxony in 1849 (the exact facts in the matter are not yet established) drove Wagner into precipitate flight to avoid arrest and he took refuge in Switzerland. Here he spent thirteen distressful years, supported chiefly by an annuity from a certain Frau Wille, occasional gifts from Liszt and others, and meagre proceeds from performances of his operas. The creative work of his years of exile includes " Tristan und Isolde," " Das Rheingold," " Die Walkiire," the first act of " Siegfried " 312 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and a large part of his prose writings. His condem- nation was revoked by the Saxon authorities and he returned to Germany in 1861. Disappointment con- tinued and he was saved from apparent ruin by King Ludwig II. of Bavaria, who summoned him to Munich to continue his work under the royal bounty. In spite of the king's favor and the production of " Tristan und Isolde," "Die Meistersinger," "Das Rheingold" and " Die Walkiire " a cabal of musicians and critics defeated the plan of founding a Wagner dramatic establishment at Munich, and arrangements were soon made for the building of a theatre at Bayreuth. The corner-stone was laid in 1873 and the work was completed in 1876 and dedicated by the first complete performance of "Der Ring des Nibelungen." The project for the establishment of a training school for actors and singers according to the new Wagnerian principles and for model performances of the masterpieces of German art was never fulfilled. Wagner married Cosima LiszWon Biilow in 1870. " Parsifal " was produced at Ba} r reuth in 1882. Wagner died at Venice, February 13, 1883. Wagner's life cannot, of course, be studied apart from the criticism of his works, but the standard biographies may be men- tioned here. First in authority and bulk is the Life of Richard Wagner by Glasenapp, translated and enlarged by Wm. Ash ton Ellis. It is still incomplete, four volumes having appeared (Janu- ary, 1905). It is a mine of trustworthy information, and is clear and interesting in spite of the vast amount of detail. Finck's Wagner and his Works, 2 vols., although not so judicial as might be wished, is the work of an able scholar and brilliant writer. An admirable book for its size is Henderson's Richard Wagner, his Life and his Dramas. The beautifully illustrated Life of Wagner, by H. S. Chamberlain, gives much valuable information. J ullienV RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 313 Richard Wagner, his Life and Works, 2 vols., trans, by Florence Hall, is the work of a well-known French authority. The small works by Kobbe and Muncker are well written, but not especially necessary to the student. Praeger's Wagner as I Knew him has been discredited. All that is certainly known concerning Wagner's connection with the Dresden revolutionary agitation is given by Ellis, 1849 : A Vindication. Among the numerous dictionary and magazine articles particu- lar mention need be made only of the excellent article Wagner in Grove's Dictionary, and the chapter on Wagner in Famous Composers and their Works. As sources of first-hand information important material was contributed by Wagner's own pen. There is a brief Autobio- graphical Sketch in Prose Works (Ellis), vol. i, extending to the year 1842, and an elaborate account of the development of his art and theories in A Communication to my Friends, 1851, Prose Works (Ellis), vol. i. Of the highest interest and value are the Corre- spondence of Wagner and Liszt, 2 vols., trans, by Hueffer; Letters of Richard Wagner to his Dresden Friends : Uhlig, Fischer, and Heine, trans, by Shedlock; Wagner's Letters to Roeckel, trans, by Sellar; Wagner's Letters to Wesendonck et al, trans, by Ellis ; Wagner's Letters to Heckel, trans, by Ellis; Letters of Wagner to Mathilde Wesendonck, trans, by Ellis. Nothing is more remarkable in the annals of music than the expansion of Wagner's powers as composer and dramatist, leading to a complete transformation of style. From " Rienzi " to " Tristan und Isolde " the musical progress of a century would almost seem to be concen- trated ; in the latter work there is absolutely no sugges- tion of the former, they appear as if they might belong to two different composers as they certainly do to two different epochs. The real Wagner begins with " Der fliegende Hollander," for while this work is like a sketch, or a statue blocked out in the rough, and still showing the influence of the French and Italian schools, the effort is apparent to fuse the musical and dramatic ele- 314 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ments together and unify the work by a single consistent dramatic conception. The study of Wagner's develop- ment may well begin with this opera. The goal for which Wagner was more or less consciously aiming is indicated already in his Remarks on Performing " The Flying Dutchman" {Prose Works, Ellis, vol. iii). Wagner's discovery that in bringing the music of a drama under the direct shaping control of the poetry he must recast the traditional forms is the clue to " Tann- hauser," for in this work we see him for the first time capable of grappling with his problem. His song becomes vastly more varied, pliable and expressive, and he shows a strength in the handling of the orchestra which is very significant in view of future results. Poetically " Tannhauser " is one of the most satisfactory of his works : it has dignity, unity, symmetry of plot, distinctness and consistency of characters and a vivid human interest sustained to the end. Three elements, not originally united in the sources from which Wagner drew, are skilfully combined, viz. the mediaeval story of Venus, Tannhauser and the pope's staff, the legend of the con- test of the minstrels, and the character of Elizabeth of the Wartburg (St. Elizabeth of mediaeval history). The ethical purport of the plan is unmistakable, although, as Wagner himself says, he had no intention of conveying a pious, sentimental lesson. " Tannhauser " is, however, a transition work ; there are musical " numbers " capable of detachment (Wolfram's invocation, Elizabeth's prayer, the pilgrims' choruses, the march, etc.), and there are passages, such as the duet between Tannhauser and RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 315 Elizabeth in the second act, which in their conven- tional cut and orchestral thinness seem strangely re- actionary. On the other hand in the renunciation of vocal display in the contest of the minstrels, and espe- cially in Tannhauser's narrative in the last act, we rind the prophecy of the Wagner of the later dramas. The latter scene should be especially studied; it is mature Wagnerianism in embryo. In the study of this opera Wagner's Remarks on the Performing of " Tannhduser " in the Prose Works, vol. iii (Ellis), are illuminating. In " Lohengrin " is seen a still more consistent effort to merge and interpenetrate the poetic and musical fac- tors ; the conventional periodic structure is broken up, and the aria and recitative distinctions are thrown aside in the attainment of a continuous and entirely flexible musical current. The bridal chorus and an occasional emptiness in transition passages betray a vanishing sur- vival of the old operatic habit. The musical invention is more sustained than in " Tannhauser," the orchestra- tion richer. The subject is more remote from human interest than in most of Wagner's works ; the psychologic motive does not seem adequate to the catastrophe. The great popularity of " Lohengrin " is probably due to the tone of mediasval chivalric and religious mysticism, which is diffused throughout a large part of the work. In " Lohengrin " the use of " leading-motives " becomes more prominent. The prelude is highly original in con- ception and treatment. It is interesting to note that " Der Ring des Nibe- lungen " was developed by Wagner out of the notion of a dramatic ballad on Siegfried's death. The text, there- 316 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC fore, was, we may say, composed backward and the music forward. This gradual expansion of a simple germ, and the growth of Wagner's mind with its hasty adoption of philosophic ideas from Feuerbach and Schopenhauer, not sufficiently thought out or assimi- lated, the number of years, with long interruptions, occupied with the work, — all will explain the dramatic confusions and inconsistencies which have made "Der Ring des Nibelungen " a stumbling-block to commenta- tors. The large space given in a drama to elements that are altogether epic, the almost complete withdrawal of Wo tan, the hero of the play, before the work is half over, the complete change in Siegfried's character and his pitiable failure to carry out the mission which the conception of the first part of the play lays upon him, the bewildering mixture of allegory and straightforward representation, are all due to the impossibility of clearly setting forth in dramatic form the modern problem of social restriction and individual freedom, by means of a literal presentation of the events in an ancient, crude nature myth. In individual scenes, however, Wagner rises to his highest pitch in this work ; and in the power with which it expresses every shade of human emotion, in the consummate skill with which its author shapes, directs and develops his vast material, it is a master- piece without parallel in the history of music. " Tristan und Isolde " and " Die Meistersinger," on the other hand, are clear and simple. Poetically they are Wagner's most consistent and perfect works, admi- rably adapted to musical treatment. The second, classed by its author as comedy, is of the French " middle char- RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 317 acter," the humorous scenes are accessory to the serious meaning of the work, which may be called a plea for liberality and progress in art production and art judg- ment. In Hans Sachs, the hero of the piece, Wagner has created one of the most poetic and attractive charac- ters in modern opera. " Tristan und Isolde " is simply a tragedy of love. In sheer luxury of tone, amazing variety in playing upon a single theme and in the sublimity of the expres- sion of passion Wagner in this work not only surpasses all other dramatic composers, but even rises above him- self. In " Tristan " his reform theories of musical and poetic amalgamation are carried out to the furthest possible completeness. There is not a single word repetition ; there is not the slightest concession to tradi- tional operatic structure. " Parsifal," like " Der Ring " and " Lohengrin," is an allegory, and shares the weaknesses of allegory, especially when put into dramatic form. The curious blend of religious mysticism and sensuousness has given rise to the most contradictory estimates of this work. Some look upon it as an act of worship, and the purest mod- ern portrayal of the essential principle in Christianity ; to others it is morbid and sensual, corrupt in its concep- tion and degrading in its effect. Musically there is a slight falling off in " Parsifal " as compared with its predecessors ; there is less spontaneity, less impression of endless resource in development of themes. Its panora- mas are the most beautiful in the history of the modern stage, and to them the overpowering effect of the work is largely due. 318 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC The stories of Wagner's plots have been told over and over with wholly needless repetition, in every conceivable manner, from the coolly analytic to the rhapsodical. There is even a " Wagner for Infants." We also have a multitude of " interpretations," from the sane and philosophic to the sentimental and ecstatic. The amount and diversity of the Wagner literature are bewildering ; the books and pamphlets in the various languages on Wagner and his teachings perhaps equal in number those on all the other nineteenth-century composers combined. The student will find difficulty in keeping his head clear. The simplest statements should be read first, and here we may recommend for the begin- ning of Wagner study, Lavignac's The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner and Henderson's Richard Wagner. Fuller accounts in the larger works of Finck, Chamberlain and Jullien, mentioned above. The profuse work of Glasenapp and Ellis is the final resort for the most minute facts connected with the conception and working out of Wagner's plays. As a study of the sources from which Wagner drew his plots and characters, Miss Weston's Legends of the Wagner Drama is of the highest value. See also Dippold's books, The Great Epics of Mediaeval Germany and Wagners Poem: " The Ring of the Nibelung." Wagner's own statement of his in- tentions and the circumstances under which his works were con- structed may be found in his Prose Works and Letters. Wagner's religious, ethical, social and political ideas are often passed over by commentators and biographers. They are involved, however, in a complete study of the Wagner question. Whether Wagner really contributed anything to the solution of the great problems of life which agitate the present age is a disputed question. For an emphatic affirmative see Chamberlain, Richard Wagner ; for an equally emphatic negative, Newman, A Study of Wagner. The second of these two is, in the opinion of the present writer, the ablest book on Wagner in the English language. The author is competent to discuss every phase of the difficult questions involved in the subject. While denying that Wagner had a philo- sophic mind at all, he unites with his most ardent admirers in the assertion of his unparalleled musical gifts. As a criticism of the dramatic structure of Wagner's operas, the book is also of high value. G. Bernard Shaw's The Perfect Wagnerite, which must be read with some qualification, is brilliant and suggestive. The texts of Wagner's dramas have been translated into English, RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 319 and all after " Lohengrin " are published in separate volumes. The versions of H. & F. Corder leave much to be desired; the attempts to preserve the alliteration in "The Ring of the Nibelung," for example, lead to almost grotesque results. Forman's translations of "Der Ring," "Tristan" and "Parsifal" are of a far higher order. A brief summary of the subjects involved in the analytic study of Wagner's works is all that properly comes within the scope of this volume. The student will use this outline as a guide in the study of Wagner's musical works, and in the reading of the Wagner com- mentaries. Wagner's abstruse speculations on " the birth of the art-work out of necessity," "the Folk as the community of all who feel a common and collective want," " turning the Willed-not into the Non-existing," " the inner man finding direct communication only through tone-speech," the nature of this convincing tone-speech, music as " the bearing power and poetry the begetting," the disintegration and therefore deca- dence of the composite art of the Greeks, the relative values of alliteration and end-rhyme, man in the myth, the "error" of the state, regeneration through love, etc., may be of interest to those who enjoy wandering in such cloudy regions, made all the more shifty by Wagner's peculiar philosophic jargon, and they have a bearing upon the study of Wagner the man. But these things have little to do with the enjoyment and appreciation of Wagner's dramas as creations of dramatic and musical art. The first study at least must be simply an exam- ination of the construction and development of these works and the technical methods employed. Wagner proclaimed himself a reformer of the opera and 320 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the creator of a new art construction, the lyric drama. Why was reform necessary ? What was the thing to be reformed ? The answer is be found in the history of the Italian, French and German opera, as indicated in pre- ceding chapters of this book. The radical error in the opera, as Wagner sums it up in his Oper und Drama, is that whereas the dramatic element should be the end and the musical element the means, in the opera the musical effect was always the end and the drama the means. Wagner conceived himself a poet first and musi- cian second. It is understood, of course, that Wagner was himself the author of all his texts. Granting that Wagner's texts and characters are superior to those of all other opera writers, was he not after all first and fore- most a musician? Do we not hear his works for the sake of their music primarily? Does he ever really subordinate music to verse except occasionally, as in some of the monologues, which are by general consent the most uninteresting passages in his works ? That there is, however, a greater unity among music, verse, action and scenery than in the operas of any other previous writer must be granted at once, and the first question should be in regard to this unity and how it is effected. We must bear in mind that from this point in the chapter to the end reference is only to Wagner's mature style, as found in " Der Ring," " Tristan," " Die Meistersinger " and "Parsifal." The attempt to merge poetic form and musical form, poetic rhythm and musical rhythm, produces a kind of melody that is, if not absolutely original, a complete logical development of a style of " continuous music " RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 321 already found among previous composers, as for example with Weber in "Euryanthe." The instinct of composers has always been towards a loosening of strict periodic form and a freely flowing composition in highly emo- tional situations (cf. the final scene between Don Gio- vanni and the statue in Mozart's opera). In conventional opera forms the rhythmic laws are essentially those of absolute music ; Wagner directs his persistent attack upon the aria as an outcome of the dance, and as utterly inadequate to true dramatic expression. With Wagner the melody is " composed poetically." The effect upon melody of this renunciation of the traditional laws of musical form is shown upon every page of Wagner's later scores. We find a prevailing declamatory charac- ter, accompanied recitative raised to its highest power, absence of vocal ornamentation, avoidance of complete cadences, exclusion of set forms of tune, fusion of the recitative and melodic styles, persistent modulation. There is nothing to prevent an instant change of key or rhythm at any point; the music reflects the slight- est shift of movement, mood and situation upon the stage. This is Wagner's "endless melody," running sometimes through a whole act without a break, at times rising into the most impassioned strains of regulated tunefulness, again sinking to a monotonous intoning; a musical current without form in the established sense, but still highly organized on the basis of the poetic movement, completely pliant to the composer's will, ex- pressive to the minutest detail. There is never any pause in the action to enable the singer to deliver a vocal " number " ; he merges his own personality in the 21 322 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC scene of which he is only one of several elements. The text, it will be observed, is not contrived to allow opportunity for set musical forms ; hence a more uniform diction and a more regular and steadily progressing dramatic movement. The form of the whole is poetic, not musical, form. The tendency in later opera history to expand the power of expression that lies in the orchestra and to lead it into the heart of the situation and the text — a development inevitable in view of the progress of sym- phonic music — reached its climax with Wagner. That he entirely subordinated the voice to the orchestra is asserted by some and denied by others. He certainly enhanced the function of the orchestra beyond all prece- dent. The leading melodies are not in the voice part but in the instrumental ; the voice melody is woven into the orchestral texture, obligato fashion ; it may be below or upon the surface of the concurrent sound. The orchestra's function is twofold, — to render emotion and to depict situation and movement. Wagner does not so much attempt to suggest individual temperaments as fundamental passions and motives in all their oscilla- tions. For example, it is not Tristan or Isolde as a dis- tinct personality that he strives to depict, but love as a quality, ebbing and flowing under various conditions. As a "musical scene-painter" Wagner's supremacy is not denied even by his adversaries ; in reinforcing the effect of a striking situation or picture by the orchestra he stands alone among opera composers. His resources of melody, harmony and tone color are always com- pletely adequate ; his audacity in bringing upon the stage RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 323 the tremendous catastrophes and gigantic personalities of the Norse myth is fully justified by his boundless com- mand of every orchestral resource. Take the final scenes in " Das Rheingold," "Die Walkiire," "Die Gotterdam- merung " as cases in point. His climax never fails ; musical effects accumulate until the primal forces of nature seem to have taken voice. And such music is not simply sensational and panoramic ; it is upon the sig- nificance of these scenes, the emotion with which they are surveyed, that the composer's thought is fixed. Great as these triumphs are, Wagner really rises to his climax as an orchestral composer in the portrayal of feeling. The love avowals in the second act of " Tristan und Isolde " and the anguish of Amfortas in " Parsifal," for example, have no parallels in the works of other composers. Wagner also uses the orchestra in a novel way to keep the thought and imagery in motion before the spectators mind when the scenes are shifted and the stage shrouded, as in the transition from the first to the second act in " Das Rheingold," and from the prologue to the first scene of " Die Gotterdiimmerung." The mutual relations of music, verse and action in the Wagnerian scheme are also established in a mechan- ical and systematic manner by the use of what are known as " leading-motives " (Leitmotive). A dramatic plot contains certain personal and impersonal elements, — acting personages, inanimate objects that furnish occasion or means of action (such as the caskets in " The Merchant of Venice," the sword in " Siegfried "), con- trolling emotions (love, anger, ambition, etc.), abstract 324 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC principles (such as justice, freedom) and so on. These dramatic elements may be called the dramatic motives. In Wagner's dramas all these dramatic motives have each a counterpart in a peculiar musical phrase, which at its first appearance is associated with the poetic mo- tive, and reappears whenever the idea is given by words, or appears before the eye, or when for any reason it is desirable to suggest the idea to the hearer's mind. These leading-motives often have an obvious appropri- ateness to the related object or conception (e. g. motive of Loge in " Das Rheingold "), often the association is arbitrary (e.g. motive of the ring). These motives are in the great majority of cases given by the orchestra, rarely by voices. In Wagner's later works the whole texture of the score is composed of developments, reit- erations and combinations of leading-motives. So far as suggesting a former idea by repeating a characteristic melody is concerned, the device is not original with Wagner. It is prominent in Weber's " Der Freischutz," suggested even in Mozart. Wagner was the first to make the leading-motive the whole basis of his musical structure. The gist of the whole matter is, however, that these phrases are not always exactly the same ; when the relations of their poetic counterparts are al- tered they also change in harmony, tempo, rhythm or even in some of their notes. The affinity between two ideas may be suggested by a resemblance of their lead- ing-motives. Motives are combined to express associa- tion of ideas, are broken off to indicate interruption or destruction, they are used for warning, consolation, rec- ollection, prediction, etc. In each of Wagner's greater RICHARD WAGNER, 1S13-1883 325 works there is a predominant leading-motive which is connected with the central dramatic factor (e. g. the ring in " Der Ring des Nibelungen," the Holy Grail in " Parsifal "). It must not be supposed that "Wagner uses leading- motives merely to tell the audience what to see with their mental eyes, as though the orchestral score were a sort of picture book. The Wagner analysis books are respon- sible for this defective notion, — they give names to the leading-motives which are in most cases merely fanciful, not thought of by Wagner. His especial aim was to give his music, otherwise vague and formless, a cohe- sion and organic plan, as a symphony writer builds up his work upon the development of leading themes. There is a close analogy here, Wagner simply using his motives in such a way that the music is tied to the words and action instead of bringing in the motives at random. In fact he distinctly announces that his music is the Beethovenian music developed, expanded and applied to dramatic purposes. In Wagner's works, therefore, the orchestra is a mir- ror which reflects everything that goes on upon the stage, — every change in scenery, every gesture, has its orchestral response. In this taking up of the action and poetry and carrying them over to the listener's emo- tion he relies not only upon melody, harmony and rhythm, but distinctively, as an advanced modern, upon tone color, in the use of which he is one of the greatest of the masters of his art. The student of harmony will find endless interest in Wagner's music. Steadily increasing in complexity, 326 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC we find in his later works (" Die Meistersinger " may be particularly cited) an unsurpassed mastery in free contrapuntal handling. Strange and bewildering com- binations often result, impossible to classify ; but where the case requires the harmony is simple, long passages even being found in which there is no change of tonal- ity. Such passages, however, are comparatively rare. Wagner's works offer the most beautiful tableaux that the history of the stage can show. He employed all the acquired skill of the scene painter and stage car- penter and machinist, and also demanded much that was novel. The scene in the Grail castle in " Parsifal," the mountain and forest scenes in " Der Ring," have no parallels for beauty and similitude. Wagner almost revolutionized the art of stage mounting. Many devices for producing illusion are remarkable for clev- erness. Others are in the very nature of the case un- successful, as for example the flight of the valkyrs through the clouds, the immolatiou of Brynhilde, the forest bird in " Siegfried." Scenic brilliancy with Wag- ner is, however, not an end in itself but a means. It is not merely decorative, it gives to the actors their nat- ural environment, it brings to the eye an impression in harmony with that conveyed by words, action and music. So with all accessories ; no other writer for the stage ever exercised so rigid a scrutiny over every detail of costume, decoration and mechanism. The im- pression upon the eye was to him no less a matter of concern than that upon the ear, and in the union of these impressions there must never be the slightest fric- tion or divergence. RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 327 As drill master and conductor Wagner was no less an adept and a law-giver to the whole modern school. His critical writings abound in complaints of the inca- pacity of opera singers to grasp the histrionic demands of the true lyric drama. The radical change that has come over the conception of the singer-actor's function and the methods of performance upon the German stage, and to a large extent upon the French and even the Italian, is mainly due to his teaching. In his essay On the Performing of " Tannhauser " (Prose Works, vol. iii) will be found the credo of the new school. The great symphony conductors of the present day are also the disciples of Wagner. (See his essay On Conducting.) In the latest developments of the art of orchestration Wagner is one of the leaders and masters. The service he demanded of the orchestra required an enlargement of its powers. In his treatment of the orchestra for dramatic purposes he built on Weber and Meyerbeer, drawing many useful hints from Berlioz. For technical illustrations of his methods of obtaining tone color for the purposes of description and expression the student is referred to the text books. Certain broad features which have to do with the general expansion of orches- tral writing may be indicated here. For example, he often divides the strings into many parts ; the wind instru- ments are grouped, not in pairs, as in the classic orches- tra, but almost always in threes or fours (three flutes, two oboes and an English horn, addition of the bass clarinet), in order that full harmonies may be obtained with instruments of one tone color, attaining also greater sonority and firmness ; the brass instruments are in- 328 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC creased in number, — six or eight horns, four trombones ; a complete family of tubas appears; the trumpets are reinforced by the bass trumpet. It may be said that his orchestra is composed of little orchestras containing instruments of the same timbre ; in uniting, contrasting, dividing, in novel combinations his ingenuity is exhaust- less. Instruments not commonly used in the orchestra are added for necessary effects of illustration, — his six harps are famous in operatic annals. He employs the percussive instruments — kettle and bass drums, cymbals, triangle — with moderation. It is not only a new orchestra that appears in Wagner's scores, but unheard-of powers are discovered in the old instruments, and an unexampled virtuosity is presupposed on the part of the players. All of Wagner's operas, beginning with " Der fliegende Hol- lander," are published in vocal score, piano accompaniment, English and German texts, by Schott and by Schirmer (the latter's edition preferred). The orchestral scores are expensive. Schirmer pub- lishes the full scores of " Der Ring " and " Parsifal " in octavo size at a proportionally reduced cost. Wolgozen's guides through the music of " Der Ring," "Tristan und Isolde" and "Parsifal" (thematic analyses with the leading-motives in notation) have been translated into English and are indispensable. For " Die Meis- tersinger," analysis by Heintz. For "Parsifal," Aldrich, A Guide to " Parsifal" ; Kufferath, The "Parsifal" of Richard Wagner. Among the commentaries Wagner's own exposition of his theories and methods takes the foremost place. The most voluminous and complete is Opera and Drama, forming vol. ii of the Prose Works (Ellis, tr.). Among the more condensed and clearer expositions are The Music of the Future (vol. iii), The Art Work of the Future (vol. i), A Communication to my Friends (vol. i). Among other essays of particular interest are Judaism in Music (vol. iii), Preface to the " Ring " Poem (vol. iii), Art and Revolution (vol. i), A German Musician in Paris (vol. vii), Beethoven (vol. v), On Conducting RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 329 (vol. iv), A Music School for Munich (vol. iv). A good selection has been made and translated by Burlingame, Art Life and Theories of Richard Wagner. Great care should be exercised in the selection of Wagner reading. The literature is very voluminous, and much of it is superficial and second-hand. No better beginning could be made than with Lavignac, The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Among the more concentrated discussions, especially to be recom- mended, are Henderson, Richard Wagner, his Life and Dramas; Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama; Henderson, Preludes and Studies; Grove's Dictionary, article Wagner; Famous Compos- ers and their Works, series i, article Wagner; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. i; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music. For disparaging criticism of "Parsifal," Huneker, Overtones, and Hen- derson, Modern Musical Drift. Among the larger works, Finck, Wagner and his Works ; Glasenapp-Ellis, Life of Richard Wagner ; Newman, A Study of Wagner. For Wagner's orchestration, Henderson, The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. For Wagner's scenery, see an excellent illustrated article by Apthorp in Scribner's Magazine, November, 1887. Also Burlingame, Art Life and Theo- ries of Richard Wagner : The Opera-house at Bayreuth. The biog- raphies also contain descriptions. Hostile criticism of Wagner's theories and style : Gurney, The Power of Sound, chap. 22; Statham, My Thoughts on Music and Musicians : Richard Wagner. The most violent attack is by Nordau in Degeneration. Nietzsche's famous diatribe, The Case of Wagner, has been Englished. A very lively impression of the bitterness of the conflict over Wagner's works at their first appearance can be obtained from the quotations of hostile critics given by Finck in Wagner and his Works. The student should be familiar with the objections to Wagner's method that have been raised. The supreme greatness of Wagner's musical genius is now almost universally recognized. The question that remains concerns the value of his musical style and method as a model for other composers. It may safely be said that imitation of Wagner can only lead to fail- ure. His genius was equal to his problems, but no 330 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC other may safely wield the thunderbolts of Jove. He has not formed a school ; it is generally felt that Wag- ner's was a mind altogether exceptional, and that his theories in their details, as he carried them out, are not of universal validity. Nevertheless his works, both dramatic and literary, are an inexhaustible storehouse of instruction and suggestion to composers, whatever may be the methods and tendencies of the future. Speaking in the broadest sense, Wagner's conception of the mutual relations of music, poetry and action will henceforth remain the basis of the opera. XXXIX DECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA The most conspicuous German composer, next to Wagner, in the last half of the nineteenth century, is Johannes Brahms (1833-1897). He was bom at Hamburg, made a public appearance as pianist at the age of fourteen, went on a concert tour with the Hun- garian violinist, Ramenyi, in 1853, when his compositions attracted the attention of Liszt and Schumann, the latter hailing him as a genius in the now famous newspaper article entitled "New Paths." From 1854 to 1857 he was director of music at the princely court of Detmold. Several changes of residence followed until finally he made Vienna his headquarters. His European reputa- tion was established by the production of " A German Requiem " (1867). He lived essentially the quiet life of a scholarly composer. His concert tours were few. As a pianist his style is usually described as hard and dry. His compositions cover the field of modern practice with the exception of the opera. He may be called equally eminent in all the classes — symphony, chamber, choral, piano and song composition — which he cultivated. The first fact to be noted in the case of Brahms is that he stood in pronounced opposition to the ruling tendencies of the time as represented by Wagner and the ultra-romanticists in orchestral music. He wrote no 332 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC operas; his instrumental works are without titles or poetic suggestions. Brahms, therefore, appeared as the champion of the classic idea of absolute music at a time when the opinion of a large section of the musical world was running strongly in the opposite direction. Around Brahms also, as well as around Wagner, a critical con- flict has raged, and aesthetic theories and prejudices have interfered with the calm estimate of his work. It is apparent, therefore, that he must be judged in accord- ance with the tests that apply to the particular order of music which he deliberately chose. Brahms may be called a reflective rather than a naive or spontaneous composer. He was not prolific ; his works are wrought with the greatest care, and elab- orated with a profound knowledge of musical science. The gravity and complexity of his music have always stood in the way of what is called popularity. After his Op. 10 his style did not materially change. The Op. 10, u set of ballads for the piano, is the only work in which he showed any inclination to follow the poetic or pro- gramme school. He remained ever after a disciple of the classic masters in form and technic. He has been called an imitator of Schumann in general mould and structure, but the resemblances between the two men are superficial. Brahms rarely sought for elegance, delicacy or spright- liness ; the bright and taking tunefulness, which we find in the South German masters, and even in Schumann, is exceptional in Brahms. His style is sonorous, broad, sometimes gloomy and hollow, at others vehement and splendid, generally very intricate in harmony and rhythm, sometimes dull and unattractive, always ingen- RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 333 ious, if not always persuasive. That he was a consum- mate master of form no one disputes, neither is his original inventive power denied. The discussion turns upon the beauty and the emotional appeal of his ideas. To some he is utterly unsympathetic. The love of his music is a matter of temperament, and it is probable, therefore, that Brahmsites and an ti-Brahm sites will al- ways live to misunderstand and flout each other. Brahms' piano works do not figure largely in recital programmes, but they are full of interesting matter for the student. Their difficulties are perhaps in excess of their " taking " properties. Their number is not large. They range in dimensions from the short caprices, fantasies and intermezzos to the sets of variations, sonatas and concertos. In concerted chamber works the piano is prominent. The very popular Hungarian dances for piano, four hands, are constructed on native Hungarian tunes. The comparison between these pieces and Liszt's Hungarian rhapsodies is interesting. Brahms had always a strong fondness for dance music, due probably to his highly pronounced sense of rhythm. The same side of his nature is seen in the beautiful " Liebeslieder " waltzes for four voices and piano four hands. Brahms' piano style is usually the free polyphonic, more open than Schumann's. He continues the tend- ency in piano music to the development of the left hand. His rhythm is often very complex and difficult to solve. He has an inveterate fondness for syncopa- tions, cross rhythms and sudden metrical changes. His tone effects are massive, often lacking resonance. He loves combinations of octaves and thirds and octaves 334 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and fifths, carrying thick harmonies far down into the bass, producing gloomy and drab effects of color. The extraordinary spread of his harmonies and daring skips, combined with his polyphonic intricacy, makes his piano works very difficult to play. In musical merit they do not greatly differ. His Handel and Paganini variations are frequently played by performers of the highest rank, for their immense difficulties are of a very effective kind. Brahms cultivated the song with an unflagging affec- tion. His solo songs with piano accompaniment number about two hundred, sixty or more of which are in folk- song style. To some critics his songs are of the first order, others disparage them. He follows the method of Schumann in giving about equal importance to voice and piano part. That he is not one of the great melo- dists is apparent ; although many of his songs possess melodies of haunting beauty. The accompaniment is very rich. The sentiment of the verse is always deeply felt and the writer's literary taste in selection of poems is unimpeachable. Simplicity and daintiness that seem hardly characteristic are often found (e. g. the beloved " Wiegenlied "). He does not reach the depth of pathos which Schubert often sounded ; he gives an inspiring portrayal of the joy of life in a style always dignified and noble. Brahms' most famous work is "Ein deutsches Requiem" for chorus and orchestra. It is not a requiem mass ; it is rather a cantata, the words, chosen from the Bible and forming a sort of funeral ode, setting forth the brevity of life and the hope of immortality. It is a work of the most solemn and imposing character, containing Brahms' RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 335 most attractive qualities as well as those most frequently attacked. The second number is perhaps the most orig- inal and impressive part of the work. Other choral compositions that have found favor with singing societies are the " Schicksalslied," the " Triumphlied " (written to celebrate the victory of Germany over France in 1870-71) and "Nanie." Other choral works are motets, songs for male, female and mixed choruses, etc. A strong series of chamber works — including string quartets, piano trios, quartets and quintets, clarinet quintet, etc. — leads up to his four symphonies, which may be considered in many respects the crown of his career. They have no titles ; they are based on the Beethoven style, as found in the fifth and seventh sym- phonies. The only change in form is the substitution of a quiet allegretto for the scherzo in the first and third symphonies. The third movement of the second sym- phony may be called a modernized minuet; the third movement of the fourth is an allegro in two-four time. Each symphony has its individuality; the second is lighter, more tuneful and vivacious than the others, and is evidently the most popular. In the fourth the com- poser's learning is more consciously displayed ; the work as a whole has not held so permanent an interest as the others. His mastery of the larger forms and of thematic development on classic principles is convincingly shown in these symphonies. His harmony, for example, in such movements as the second of the second symphony, has almost the weight of Bach. His orchestration lacks the brightness and glow of the modern school ; there is often 336 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC a thickness, even muddiness. Of his profound knowledge of orchestration there is no question ; he is a master in his own vein, but he cares less than the later writers in general for sensuous beauty of tone color as an end in itself. Brahms has already a place in solid critical discussion. Friendly and highly competent studies may be found in Mason, From Grieg to Brahms ; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music ; Studies in Music, ed. by Gray (essay by Spitta) ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. See also Deiters, Johannes Brahms ; Maitland, Masters of German Music. There is a very intelligent, on the whole unfa- vorable, criticism by Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven. 1 There is a thorough and able analysis of Brahms' piano music by Huneker, in Mezzotints in Modern Music : The Music of the Future. No other recent German composer looms so promi- nently as Brahms until we reach Richard Strauss. Especially conspicuous are Max Bruch and Josef Rhein- berger. They have not pushed out into new paths, but have done work that has given them honor in all coun- tries. Max Brtjch (1838- ), born at Cologne, was very precocious as a composer. He is romantic in temperament, but in education an offshoot of the con- servative Leipzig school. Although he has written music in every modern form, he is best known to the world by his cantatas for solos, chorus and orchestra, and his compositions for the violin. He is dear to pro- moters of musical festivals, for his cantatas, without being of the highest grade of difficulty, are solid in musicianship, very melodious, richly orchestrated and attractive in poetic subject and treatment. The list of cantatas includes " Odysseus " (probably the finest), 1 Weingartner has since modified this judgment. RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 337 " Achilleus," " Frithjof," " Arminius," " Schon Ellen " and " Das Lied der Glocke " (Schiller). Bruch's violin concerto in G minor, Op. 26, shares the favor of the concertos of Beethoven and Mendels- sohn, and is not unworthy of the comparison. Hardly less if at all inferior are the two concertos in D minor, Op. 4-4 and 58, the romance, Op. 42, and the " Scotch fantasie," Op. 46. There is a notable fantasie on Jewish melodies, " Kol Nidrei," for 'cello and orchestra. Bruch has consummate knowledge of the nature of the violin, and his works for this instrument have a breadth and sweep of melody, a vigor of rhythm, and a passionate fire which make them the delight of violin players and violin lovers. Josef Rheinberger (1838-1902) was one of the most solid musicians of his time, highly esteemed by musical scholars, eminent as a teacher of composition, as well as composer. His home during the greater part of his career was Munich. Brought up in the traditions of the classic school, he did not keep himself aloof from the romantic currents of the time, showing his romanti- cism not only in ballads and cantatas, but also in orches- tral works with titles. The most important of the latter is the symphony " Wallenstein," founded on Schiller's tragedy. Rheinberger is distinguished as a composer for the Catholic church and especially as a writer for the organ. He has written thirteen masses, besides motets and hymns, all of which have the true ecclesiastical reserve without pedantic dryness. His numerous organ compositions — sonatas, concertos, etc. — which contain a wealth of ideas perfectly suited to the 22 338 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC nature of the instrument, are developed with masterly musicianship, based on the best German traditions of organ music and yet not disdaining the new discoveries in technic and style. His music in all departments is of expert workmanship, yet full of individual character. The Austrian Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) as- sumed to carry the Wagnerian style and the Wagnerian orchestration into symphony and church composition, producing works imposing in dimensions, highly elabo- rated in harmony and counterpoint, but whose pretension is far in excess of their sheer musical value. At one time held up by a Vienna coterie as a rival of Brahms, his vogue has declined. He wrote eight symphonies (a ninth being left unfinished), three masses, a Te Deum and the One Hundred and Fiftieth Psalm for solos, chorus and orchestra and many smaller church works. Joseph Joachim Raff (1822-1882), a composer gifted with a very prolific invention, was at one time in great favor with the public, but in spite of many excellent qualities, his charm has not proved to be solidly based, and his works are falling into neglect. Partly on account of a fatal gift of fluency, still more perhaps on account of poverty, he published a large amount of ephemeral salon music, the influence of which can be seen even in his more serious compositions. He is most favorably known by one or two symphonies of the programme school, in which he shows himself a disciple of Liszt, whose friend and secretary he was at Weimar. The most esteemed of these symphonies are the " Leonore " (based on Burger's famous ballad) and the " Im Walde " symphony. RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 339 The central figure in musical Germany to-day is Richard Strauss (1864- ), whose huge and in every way extraordinary orchestral works have set the art world agog with wonder, and precipitated a critical controversy but little less violent than the Wagner war. Although he is the man who has driven the pro- gramme method to its furthest consequences, he began his life as composer with sober pieces for orchestra and chamber instruments which were without titles and loyal to the classic traditions. Going to Meiningen as orchestral conductor in 1885, he became converted to the principles of representative orchestral music, which he has followed ever since. He has written a successful opera, " Guntram," a violin concerto, a violin sonata, piano pieces and a large number of very characteristic and deeply expressive songs. The works that have given him his unique position in the world's regard are his symphonic poems, "Macbeth " (1887), "Don Juan " (1888), "Tod und Verklarung " (1889), "Also sprach Zarathustra" (1895), "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche" (1895), "Don Quixote" (1898), "Ein Helden- leben" (1899) and the " Symphonia Domestica" (1904). " Don Juan " is a musical paraphrase of Lenau's poem of that title. " Tod und Verklarung " is a portrayal of the last moments of a departing soul, as it reviews the struggles, victories and defeats of its past life. " Also sprach Zarathustra" is a musical paraphrase of Nietzsche's philosophic rhapsody of that title. " I did not intend to write philosophic music," says Mr. Strauss, "nor to por- tray Nietzsche's great work musically. I meant to convey musically an idea of the development of the human race 340 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC from its origin through the various phases of development (religious as well as scientific) up to Nietzsche's idea of the Uebermensch, the Beyond-Man of Goethe " (quoted by Henderson in Modern Musical Drift). The exploits and fate of the old German popular hero, Till Eulen- spiegel — knave, libertine and merry good fellow — are displayed with fantastic realism in u Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche." " Don Quixote " is a musical sum- mary, in the guise of theme and variations, of the crack- brained ambitions and fantastic adventures of Cervantes' hero, with his squire Sancho Panza. There is the battle with the windmills, dialogues of knight and squire, the meeting with Dulcinea, the conflict with the two magicians, the combat with the Knight of the Silver Moon, etc. " Ein Heldenleben," the most grandiose of Strauss' works, is in six parts, representing the Hero, the Hero's Antagonists, the Hero's Consort, the Hero's Battlefield, the Hero's Work of Peace, the Hero's Retirement from Worldly Life and Strife and Ultimate Perfection. The cacophonous fury of the fourth part seems to have frightened the critics into a dazed condition. Strauss shrinks from no conse- quences of his theory ; he is as consistent in his descrip- tion of the noises of a flock of sheep in " Don Quixote," the death rattle in " Tod und Verklarung " and the deafening tumult of a battlefield in " Ein Heldenleben " as he is in the idealization of the aspirations and vic- tories of the soul in "Also sprach Zarathustra" and " Tod und Verklarung." His works are condensed and detailed dramas, novels, philosophic schemes without words or action. From the grovelling and ugly to the RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 341 serene and sublime, from wit and irony to passion and beatific vision, Strauss ranges with boldest literalism and consuming ardor. Whatever may be said of the truth or falsehood of his method and his powers of abstract melodic invention, no other composer has made the instruments, both singly and in combination, more pliant to his will, or handled the free modern counter- point with more amazing results. The symphonic poems of Strauss seem to force all the powers of modern musical symbolism to their utmost limit. So precise and realistic are Strauss' effects, particularly in the delineation of the grotesque and humorous and even the ugly, so audacious is he in his treatment of form, so prodigiously clever in contrapuntal manipulation, that some enthusiastic admirers proclaim him the creator of a new art, the man who is to succeed Wagner in leading music into new regions of expression. Others see in him only a consummate technician with no really new ideas to give to the world, asserting that his de- fiance of order and moderation, his vast complexity without true musical imagination, will only ensure reaction toward simplicity. " His master-works are architectural marvels. In structure, in rhythmical com- plexity, in striking harmonies, ugly, bold, dissonantal, his symphonic poems are without parallel. This learn- ing, this titanic brush-work on vast and sombre can- vases, are never for music's sake : indeed one may ask if it is really music and not a new hybrid art. It is always intended to mean something, say something, paint someone's soul ; it is a half -mad attempt to make music articulate. Whatever else he has done Strauss 342 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC has unquestionably enlarged the territory of instru- mental music, and dowered with new and amazing eloquence the vast orchestral host. But tonality, stereo- typed forms, thematic utterance, rhythmic life itself, are all thrown at us in a kaleidoscopic whirl " (J. G. Hune- ker in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii). " Richard Strauss, standing upon the vantage ground made for him by Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, has evi- dently tried to carry the direct expression of the orches- tra to a higher plane by utilizing the best elements of their work. He has sought to make the orchestra tell stories, but he has not made the error of supposing that he could ignore the fundamental principles of musical form which constituted the ground plan of the old sym- phony. He has utilized themes with definite meanings attached to them, as Wagner did, without confining himself to two, as the older writers did, and as Liszt did in most of his works. He has returned in his later compositions to the fashion of clearly separated move- ments, while he has made them pass before the hearer without pauses between any two of them. He has de- veloped his themes according to the principles laid down by the symphonic masters, and has striven to enforce their meaning with all the effects of orchestral color. And withal he has endeavored to compose only music with a purpose, never music for its own sake. In short, Strauss has shown that the principles of musical form which the earlier writers painfully evolved out of their attempts to produce nothing beyond musical beauty, not only can be, but must be, utilized by the composer who cares nothing whatever about musical beauty, and RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 343 who aims only at making music a means of expression " (W. J. Henderson, Modern Musical Drift: Richard Strauss). These principles, asserted by Strauss in his sym- phonic poems, are a plump denial of the position, as- sumed as self-evident by the older aesthetics, that music by itself alone has no power of definite portrayal, but at the most can only symbolize the fundamental soul states, general moods such as joy, grief, hope, triumph, dejection, etc., never the events that produce them or the conditions, external or internal, by which they are in- duced. The whole history of instrumental music in the last three-quarters of the nineteenth century is a protest against the finality of this position, and the music of Strauss is the last word of this protest. If his com- positions are finally accepted as the expression of an ideal that is eternally valid, then, as the disciples of Strauss maintain, a new field for musical art is open, and the problems and tendencies of the twentieth cen- tury once for all proclaimed. Controversial literature upon Richard Strauss has begun to accumulate. Very able and enlightening contributions to the discussion may be found in Ernest Newman's article in the Fort- nightly Review, January, 1903; Huneker, Overtones, A Book of Temperaments ; and Henderson, Modern Musical Drift. The two books last mentioned are of high value, and should be read by all who wish to understand the meaning of the most pronounced musical tendencies of the present day. A conservative opinion on Strauss is that of the celebrated conductor, Felix Weingartner, in The Symphony since Beethoven. The brilliant article by Huneker in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii, should also be read. A biography of Strauss and condensed descriptions of his chief works are given by Huneker in Overtones. Mr. Henderson in 344 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Modern Musical Drift, chapter on Strauss, gives a terse history of the orchestra from Monte verde to Strauss. A skilful analysis of Strauss' work as a song writer may also be found in the above article by Henderson. Germany has not been lacking in opera composers since Wagner, some of them following his lead, some the old methods, but no one has been able, even tem- porarily, to distract attention from the great reformer of the lyric drama. Hermann Goetz (1840-1876) showed great talent in his brilliant and thoroughly individual opera, "Der Widerspenstigen Zalimung" ( Shakspeare's "Taming of the Shrew"), 1874. This work is quite independent of Wagner, and is one of the best comic operas of recent times. Karl Goldmark (1830- ) made himself famous in 1875 by his " Die Kdnigin von Saba," based on an imaginary tale of love and adventure, Solomon and the queen of Sheba being among the principal characters. The style and cast of this work show affiliation with Meyerbeer and Verdi in " Aida." " Merlin " (1886), less successful, shows more traces of the Wagner influence. Goldmark has also written symphonies and symphonic poems, among which the symphony " Landliche Hoch- zeit" has gained great favor in Germany. Goldmark belongs to the romantic school, has an abundant gift of tuneful melody and is clever in the invention of pi- quant orchestral effects, but lacks depth and passion. Among the younger Wagnerians the greatest stage success has been achieved by Engelbert Humper- dinck (1854- ), with his charming fairy opera " Hansel und Gretel," which portrays the adventures of a couple RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 315 of children with a wicked witch and the destruction of the latter. Humperdinck has shown great skill in the musical setting of this story, combining racy humor with romantic coloring. This admirable work, produced in 1893, has had international success, for Humperdinck has the art so to combine children's and fairy songs with complete technical musicianship in counterpoint and orchestration as to steer clear of trivi- ality on the one side and heaviness on the other. A fine vein of humor also lends to his work a unique attraction. A trail of Wagner is more or less distinct over a large number of the more recent German operas. In some it appears only in technical details, in others there is an obvious imitation in subjects (old German and Norse myth and hero lore) and abstruse philosophic symbolism. But it is evident that if the public wishes these things it will go to the great original himself, for he alone has shown the ability to deal with them in a convincing manner. Work such as that of August Bungert (1846- ), who has planned and partly finished a huge work in six parts on subjects drawn from the Iliad and Odyssey, for which he wishes to found a special festival house d la Bayreuth, excites little inter- est. Even brilliant and well-constructed operas, such as Richard Strauss' " Guntram," Klughardt's " Gudrun " and Schilling's "Ingwelde," are paled by the shadow of the gigantic structure under which they stand. There is great activity in opera composition at the present day in Germany, but a new and promising vein has not been opened. 346 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC The same may be said of recent German work in sym- phony, chamber music, cantata, piano music, song, etc. There has been an abundance of brilliant composi- tion in which figure such honored names as Kirchner, Reinecke, Bargiel, Herzogenburg, Hofmann, Draeseke, Nicode\ Hausegger, Mahler and many more, but noth- ing that shows signs of leading the art into new paths, — always excepting, of course, the work of Richard Strauss. Critical writing on the post- Wagner German school is not abundant in English. Famous Composers and their Works, series i, and Grove's Dictionary are trustworthy sources of information. J. A. Fuller Maitland has written a readable book on Masters of German Music in the series Masters of Contemporary Music. The very latest German work is well described in Arthur Elson's Modern Composers of Europe. XL RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE No other country at the present day shows greater musical activity or a more interesting group of com- posers than France. Although France is one of the oldest musical nations, modern harmonized music hav- ing apparently had its cradle in Paris, she has been out- stripped by her neighbors in productive genius, and even the styles that may be called French have been to a large extent fostered by foreigners. But the music produced on French soil has always had a decidedly national flavor, its vitality has never been exhausted and in no country at the present day is musical energy more active, ambitious and individual. It is only in comparatively recent times that France may be said to have " found herself " musically. French composers have usually shown a certain lack of self-reliance. Their work has not been sufficiently spontaneous ; it has been self-conscious, intellectual in the sense that it is guided too much by theories and traditions, academic rather than free, and so this timidity and reflectiveness have been the cause of much subjection to foreign influ- ences. The latest of these is the hypnotizing spell of Wagner, but now independence and nationalism in music is the cry, and there is a new and hopeful ferment among the younger coteries. No musicians of the pres- 348 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ent day are more thoroughly trained in their craft, — the strict discipline and the stern traditions of the all- powerful Paris Conservatoire are chiefly responsible for that; and with the multiplication of brilliant talents and governmental and social encouragement results of importance may be expected. A striking fact in the musical history of France in the last half-century is the broadening of the range of composition. Down to about 1870 secular music of importance, with the exception of the works of Berlioz, was almost entirely opera. Religious music, abundant in quantity, had only one or two productions of marked importance to show. But during the past twenty-five or thirty years France has produced a remarkable num- ber of composers who have distinguished themselves in instrumental composition, especially orchestral. The concert orchestras of Paris are among the finest in the world, and the splendid concert system of the city has brought instrumental music to the front in popular regard. Whereas formerly a composer enjoyed no es- teem until he had written a successful opera, the fact now is that artists in many cases gain notice through concert music, and are no longer unknown when they make their debut upon the stage. This condition of affairs is highly favorable to operatic music itself, for the whole tendency of modern music demands that a dramatic composer shall be a past master of musical science, including the art of orchestration. This re- quirement leads composers into study of the most serious and exhaustive character, and all the forms of composition profit by it and inspire each other. RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 349 Not less notable is the attention given by the new- school of French composers to chorus writing in oratorio, cantata and church music. The choral productions of such men as Gounod, Dubois, Franck and Tinel are well in line with the best German work of the same period. The French school of organ playing and composition now leads the world (Guilmant, Widor, Franck, Dubois, Gigout and others). It is based on a profound study of Sebastian Bach, and is shaped and colored under the influence of the splendor of Catholic liturgical art and the French love of rhythm, color and dramatic contrast. The first public concerts (the orchestral concerts in the Conservatoire were open only to students and musi- cians), in which the symphonies of Mozart and Bee- thoven could be heard, were instituted in 1839. Still more important, because reaching a greater number, were the " popular concerts " of Pasdeloup (1861). The good work of Pasdeloup has been continued to the present day by the unsurpassed orchestras of Colonne and Lamoureux. Abstract symphonies in classic form are still rare exceptions in French music. It is inevitable, the French mind being constituted as it is, that the demand should be for representative or programme music. A favorite form is the orchestral suite, for there is more freedom admitted in it than in the orthodox symphonic form. Equally cultivated is the symphonic poem. Rhapsodies on foreign airs are much beloved. There are works in the form of symphonies with a conspicuous violin part. Great numbers of overtures have been written, based on 350 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC subjects from history, poetry and fiction. On a larger scale works have followed the plan of Berlioz in the ode symphony or dramatic symphony, — a mixed form of vocal and instrumental pieces alternating, following the scheme of some well-known play and emphasizing its most salient features. In all this we see the natural working of the French mind. It is disinclined to think music abstractly. It demands words, a subject, a programme, a definite hint of some kind to stimulate the fancy and give a picturesque character to the music. Add to this the disposition to distrust the naive instinctive impulses of the emotion, the French love of conformity and reliance upon demon- stration in art, the too great consciousness of aesthetic theories and intellectual problems underlying art crea- tion, and we have gone a long way to explaining the peculiar phenomena of French music and the traits which still interfere with its progress towards the very highest achievements. In spite of the significant impulse towards orchestral and choral writing, the chief place in French music is still held by the opera. An immense number of works of talent have seen the light of the Paris theatres, rang- ing from the imposing and spectacular grand opera to the burlesque operetta. No longer is France dependent upon foreigners for the maintenance of her operatic dis- tinction ; everything is the work of native Frenchmen. It must be said that only rarely, as in the case of Gou- nod's " Faust " and Bizet's " Carmen," does a French opera win international fame, but the average is high. The French writers hold to the time-honored principle RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 351 of French opera that the music shall be poetically true and the plot and scene have independent dramatic value. The effort is to depict life and character rather than to astonish by vocalism or spectacular embellishment. Only a hasty review of the most conspicuous French composers of the last half-century can be allowed here. The most widely known of all is Charles Gounod (1818-1893). Like many other composers he has distinguished himself both as writer for the theatre and for the church, the union of the mystical and the sensu- ous in his temperament producing that warm, seductive, languishing and ecstatic manner which is peculiar to him and is felt in both his religious and his secular music. There is a certain softness and effeminacy in this style which is hardly in keeping with the highest demands of dramatic music, certainly not with those of church music. Gounod's immense popularity is due to his remarkable gift of voluptuous melody, which com- pletely captivates at the first hearing, and although it may cloy at last and never sounds the lowest depths of passion, at its best it is sincere and forcible and bears the marks of genuine feeling. Gounod's masterpiece, the opera "Faust" (1859), may without much risk be called the most popular stage work of modern times. It has been given more than a thousand times in Paris, while no one pretends to estimate the number of its pro- ductions in other countries. The title given to this work in Germany, viz. " Marguerite," is more appropri- ate, for it is in fact a dramatization of one episode in Goethe's poem. The soliloquy of Faust, the people's chorus, the meeting of Faust and Mephistopheles and 352 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the cellar scene are a mere perfunctory introduction to the real subject. Faust is little more than the tradi- tional stage lover, the attempts at characterization in the case of the mocking fiend are feeble and he is simply a vulgar go-between in an amorous escapade. The love scenes between Faust and Marguerite and the scenes in the church and the prison show Gounod's gifts of melody and dramatic expression at the highest point they ever reached. Of still greater moment in the his- tory of the French opera is the musical importance given to the portions intermediate between the arias, the ac- companied recitative, where we find some of the most characteristic and telling music in the work. In this re- spect Gounod strikes hands with the leaders of modern opera who insist upon continuity of musical movement, and a conception of style which refuses to subordinate dramatic progress to vocal display in set pieces. None of Gounod's other operas rival " Faust." The most important are "Philemon et Baucis," " La Reine de Saba," " Mireille " and " Romdo et Juliette." Of Gounod's numerous masses and hymns the "St. Cecilia Mass " (1855) has done almost as much as "Faust" to diffuse the Gounod cult. The most noted of his oratorios are " The Redemption " and " Mors et Vita." The former is in three parts : (1) the passion of Christ, which includes a very realistic march to Calvary ; (2) Christ's life on earth between his resurrection and ascension ; (3) the diffusion of Christianity by the apos- tles. This work is uneven ; there are portions of very mellifluous and Gounod-like melody, there are passages full of deeply felt pathos and there is much that is hollow RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 353 and pretentious. The "Mors et Vita" is long and mo- notonous. The first part is a requiem mass, the second deals with the judgment and the third with eternal life. A few of Gounod's songs are deservedly celebrated. His instrumental music is weak. Gounod, Autobiographical Reminiscences, trans, by Hutchinson; Marie de Bovet, Gounod, his Life and Works (personal traits, opinions, etc.); Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century, and Masters of French Music. The most eminent French composer now living is Camille Saint-Saens (1835- ). He is one of the most accomplished and versatile of modern musicians. He is the most successful instrumental writer of France since Berlioz, he has greatly distinguished himself in opera and religious music, he is one of the fore- most pianists in Europe and has held high positions as organist. He is also a brilliant litterateur, and has pub- lished excellent critical essays besides experiments in verse. His compositions include the operas " Samson et Dalila," "Henry VIII.," " Etienne Marcel" and "Phryne" — the first of which is frequently given in England and America in oratorio style ; a requiem and other church music ; a " biblical poem," " Le Deluge " ; a very strong and effective body of works for orchestra, chamber instruments and piano, of which the sym- phony in C minor, the piano concertos and the symphonic poems " Danse Macabre," " Phaeton," " La Jeunesse d'Hercule" and " Le Rouet d'Omphale" are among the most admired of all recent works of their re- spective classes ; choruses for men's voices and for mixed 23 354 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC voices; pieces for the organ, and many songs. Saint- Saens is one of the most learned composers of his time, a master in counterpoint and orchestration, and this learn- ing is handled with such facility that he always realizes the effect intended. He has not only distinguished himself in both vocal and instrumental music, but has achieved equal success in abstract and in programme music. Although he is unequal in his work, everything that he does has an air of distinction. He is celebrated not only for his technical ability and lucidity of style, but also for his versatility, his power of adjusting him- self to the special demands of the form of music in which he may be engaged. Lacking the depth and power of Cdsar Franck and the melodic invention of Gounod, his field is far broader than that of either of these, and in no form that he has touched has he failed to produce work that is brilliant and effective. In cleverness and in certainty of touch, mastery of form, elegance and finish he is a representative French artist. Interesting criticisms of Saint-Saens : Hervey, Masters of French Music, and French Music in the Nineteenth Century; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. The production of 44 Carmen " in 1875, the work of Georges Bizet (1838-1875), indicated that an opera composer of rare ability and promise had appeared, but the hopes thus excited were blasted by the gifted author's death in the same year. Although Bizet has written other music of marked excellence (the opera "Djami- leh," incidental music to Daudet's " L'Arle'sienne "), his fame will rest upon " Carmen," which is now uni- versally recognized as one of the most individual and RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 355 powerful works that the French stage has ever pro- duced. The text, arranged from M^rimeVs celebrated novel, is exceedingly well adapted to musical treatment, and Bizet has succeeded in imparting an extraordinary vividness to the characters, and in finding the right notes for all shades of sentiment, pathos and passion. The score is alive from beginning to end, the culminating moments never disappoint, the intermediate sections are never dull. It is also the work of a solid and inventive musician as well as of a true dramatist. The singular charm of the work is likewise due to the pronounced Spanish color skilfully achieved in melody, rhythm and orchestration. Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century ; Famous Com- posers and their Works, series i ; Hueffer, Musical Studies. Conspicuous among French opera composers of the present is Jules Massenet (1842- ), a composer of the greatest refinement and purity of style, based on profound learning and truth of feeling. His popu- larity is very great and deserved. He is noted for his skill in the portrayal of the tender passion, and in his clearly marked female types — Eve, Mary Magdalen, Herodias, Manon — and the lusciousness of his melody he comes into comparison with Gounod. His chief operas are " Manon Lescaut," " He*rodiade," " Esclar- monde," "Werther," "Le Cid," "Le Roi de Lahore." Massenet has also distinguished himself in orchestral suites and songs. Other French dramatic composers who have gained in- ternational renown are Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896) — "Mignon," " Hamlet"; Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) 356 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC — " Le Roi d'Ys " ; Ernest Reyer (1823- ) — " Sigurd," "Salammbo"; Vincent D'Indy (1852- ) — " Fervaal," libretto in prose by the composer; Emanuel Chabaier (1841-1894)— "Gwendoline," "Le Roi malgr^ lui"; Gustave Charpentier (1860- ) — in his remarkable opera " Louise " he has accepted the task of portraying the lights and shadows of contemporary humble life in its every-day environment, making the opera a realistic human document; Alfred Bruneau (1857- ), — a lit- erary and musical champion of the same idea, who has collaborated with the novelist Zola in the much dis- cussed operas " Le Reve," " L'Attaque du Moulin " and "Messidor " ; L<30 Delibes (1836-1891) — " Lakme," the ballet " Sylvia," a masterpiece of its kind ; Claude Achille Debussy (1862- ), — by virtue of his setting of Maeterlinck's "Pelleas et Melisande" and certain in- strumental works hailed by enthusiasts as " the coming man." Attention should be called here to the remarkable songs and piano pieces of Gabriel Faure' (1845- ) and Benjamin Godard (1849-1895), the violin works of Lalo and Godard, and the orchestral and chamber com- positions of D'Indy and Debussy. Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880) deserves recog- nition here as one of the most marked and repre- sentative figures of the Second Empire. As creator of the present type of ope'ra-bouffe and its most original and brilliant light, he has exerted a positive influence both for good and for harm. The character of his texts and the peculiarly pungent kind of music with which their most salient points are spiced, have brought RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 357 Offenbach under condemnation with serious minds ; but his intention was to add to public gayety, not to cor- rupt, and as a master of burlesque and satire, a man of remarkable musical gifts, albeit turned to the uses of levity, and as the originator of a type of musical farce which has been definitely adopted into French art, he must be seriously considered by the student of music history as well as by the student of manners. In Famous Composers and their Works, series ii, vol. i, the reader Trill find his fullest and most authoritative account of all the con- spicuous French composers of the later day, the excellent work of Philip Hale. Saint-Saens, Gounod, Thomas, Bizet and Massenet are treated in series i. The various movements which these composers represent, especially in opera, are tersely and intelli- gently characterized by Mr. Hervey in French Music in the Nine- teenth Century. See also Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present, and Hervey, Masters of French Music, article on Bruneau. For contemporary French composers generally, Elson, Modern Com- posers of Europe. There is a very thorough and instructive essay on Offenbach by W. F. Apthorp in Musicians and Music Lovers. The condition of the French operatic stage to-day is very hopeful. The Wagner influence so far as it re- pressed originality has been thrown off. "Nationality in music " is the cry. There is enthusiasm, self-confi- dence, a striving to express individuality which often results in the bizarre, outre and morbid, but is a sign of life and of a reaching forward. The controlling pur- pose is to bring music into closer affinity with literature in its most modern aspects, to lay stress upon the ex- pression of the soul state and the emotion that is the ground of action, rather than upon the externalities of action, and to blend drama and music according to the 358 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Wagnerian principle, though not by the Wagnerian technical formulas. A name which seems to loom larger and larger in the music of the present is that of Cesar Franck (1822-1890). He was born in Liege, Belgium, spent his musical life in Paris, a shy recluse, devout, indiffer- ent to worldly success, a man of rare simplicity of char- acter, a beloved and very able teacher, a profound student, an accomplished organist, slowly recognized as one of the greatest religious composers of the last half- century, successful also in orchestral and chamber music. His masterpiece is " Les Beatitudes," an oratorio, pub- lished in 1880, first performed entire in 1891. It is a work of extraordinary depth and pathos, powerful in dramatic contrast, showing the highest knowledge in treatment of voices and instruments, devout in senti- ment, exceedingly rich yet appropriate in coloring, complex and difficult in texture yet suffused with ex- quisite melody, glowing at every point with a romantic mystical splendor. Franck's organ works, although in- volved and severe, reveal a wealth of powerful and original ideas. Certain orchestral and chamber works are among the most notable of recent times. Basing his work on the most solid foundations (he has been called "the French Bach"), he was singularly receptive to progressive influences and exemplified the best of them in his work. Appreciative studies of Franck in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii ; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms ; Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century; Studies in Music, edited by Grey. XLI RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY Turning to modern Italy we find a colossus towering above all his contemporaries, the one opera composer of his time whose shining was not dimmed by the lustre of Wagner. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) may fairly be called the greatest dramatic composer that Italy has ever produced. He is exceptional among musicians for an intellectual vitality so enduring and resourceful that his most elaborate and powerful works were produced after he was fifty-seven years old, the last, "Falstaff," written at the age of eighty, being one of the freshest and most vigorous of his career. After reaching the confines of old age his development was so rapid and pronounced that all his previous work seemed but prep- aration and experiment. In his earlier period Verdi is commonly classed with Bellini and Donizetti, but hardly with justice, for although the form and technical basis of his operas were akin to theirs in accordance with Italian tradi- tion, he showed from the first an energy and dra- matic force which set him apart. This vigor was attained at the expense of much that was thin, noisy, sensational and tasteless, but gradually his style was enriched with the growth of musical knowledge; the nature of true dramatic expression was little by little 360 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC revealed to him; his range of emotional expression enlarged, he sought more and more to render feeling and inner motive as well as to paint outward act and situation; he gradually gained the power of moulding all elements of score and plot into a unity, aiming to make his music in form and character conform to the poetic requirements of the text and scene rather than to the old crude demand for vocal and spectacular effect. He always had a sense of dramatic claims and tried to gratify them according to his light. Since he was a man of superior intellect, of poetic feeling and artistic conscience, a larger measure of this light was constantly vouchsafed him, until in "Aida," "Otello" and " Falstaff " he virtually adopted the principles of Wagner and the later French composers. In sacrific- ing the undramatic "set piece " for the sake of continu- ous musical movement, enriching the recitative and the orchestral accompaniment, effecting a unity among all the factors — musical, poetic, and scenic — there is no imitation of Wagner, as has been alleged; Verdi pre- served his own characteristic style, albeit mellowed and refined, and there is no reason to believe that he would not have achieved the same result by virtue of his mental growth and independent study of the prob- lem if Wagner had not lived. Verdi wrote twenty-seven operas, beginning with "Oberto" (1839). "I Lombard!" (1843) and "Er- nani " (1844) gave him a European reputation. His fiery Italian patriotism during the great historic move- ment towards national consolidation and independence (see Midler, Political History of Recent Times) was RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 361 often manifest in his operas; be became the idol of the Italian people, was elected to the Italian parlia- ment in 1860 and appointed senator in 1875. In 1851 he opened a group of operas which gave him a popu- larity that has rarely been rivalled. " Rigoletto " (1851), "II Trovatore" (1853) and "La Traviata" (1853) show a great advance; they display his wonderful melodic gift in its most brilliant light, at the same time containing scenes of great dramatic spirit. "Un Ballo in Mas- chera" (1859) and "Don Carlos" (1867) were hardly less admired. But these works were still transitional; their powerful musical material is still unorganized, there are long stretches of barrenness, poetic truth is often sacrificed to immediate sensation. The group of mature works which has given Verdi his place of honor in the hearts of those who take the musical drama most seriously comprises " Aida " (1871), "Otello" (1887) and "Falstaff" (1893). "Aula" is one of the richest of his works in vocal melody, but melody is employed not for sensuous enjoyment but for poetic expression. Interest is maintained in the recitative portions as well as in the arias, and the orchestra for the first time attains primary importance. The tendencies towards a continuous form of music and a more condensed style, and the merging of voice and orchestra parts, are carried still further in "Otello" and "Falstaff." Greater space is also given to the chorus. The old Verdian stream of fascinating melody seems less affluent in these works, and for this reason some rate "Ai'da" above them. "Falstaff," the work of an octogenarian, is a comic opera, and one of the 362 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC freshest and most vivacious in the history of the stage. Moreover it yields to no other of Verdi's works in solidity of substance and tone quality; it is the result of his lifelong effort to gain mastery of the scienti- fic side of his art. In estimating the greatness of "Otello" and "Falstaff " full credit must be given to Verdi's collaborator, the poet-composer Arrigo Boito, who has fashioned out of Shakspeare two of the most perfect librettos ever written. Some go so far as to attribute much of Verdi's later conviction on the sub- ject of the rights of the drama in opera music to the personal influence of Boito. The "Manzoni Requiem" (1874) is one of the most beautiful works of its class, and reveals the musically mature Verdi of the " Aida " period. Objection has been taken to it on the ground of the theatricalness of certain numbers, but justice requires that it should be criticised in view of the nature and purpose of the Catholic ritual and the racial differences in religious feeling and expression between the peoples of the Latin and Teutonic stocks. Verdi, a man of genuine religious conviction, has composed a few other strongly individ- ual works for the church, including a deeply felt and musically lovely "Stabat Mater." Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Grove's Dictionary, articles Verdi, Opera; Pougin, Verdi, An Anecdotic History of his Life and Works; Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music ; Huneker, Overtones : Verdi and Boito. Italy, once the standard-bearer of musical progress, shows at the beginning of the twentieth century no such vitality and promise as France. The instru- RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 363 mental and choral movement, which has given new- vigor and hope to French music, has no parallel in Italy. Italian music at present means simply opera music, and it is doubtful if opera henceforth can flour- ish greatly unless sustained by a mastery of the orches- tral and choral forms. Italian composers have been numerous enough in recent times, but few of them have made any impression outside of their own coun- try, and these few, with the exception of Verdi, have aroused interest more by the hints of new possibilities in art than by their actual achievements. Arrigo Boito (1842- ), Verdi's accomplished collab- orator in "Otello" and "Falstaff," excited the highest expectations by virtue of his very strong and original " Mefistof ele, " produced in 1868, remodelled and con- densed and reperformed in 1875. He was hailed as the man who was to lead Italian music into new paths. These hopes have been disappointed, for although rumors have spread from time to time of a new opera from Boito's pen, nothing more has come. He seems to have definitely turned his great talent into literature rather than music. Within a few years, however, a new school of opera has appeared in Italy, some of the products of which made a tremendous noise in the world for a short period. In fact the sensation created by Mascagni's " Cavalleria Rusticana " (1890) and Leoncavallo's "Pa- gliacci " (1892) has had no parallel since the Rossini craze. These composers and others who pursued the same direc- tion undertook to compose dramas of real life, marked by condensed and swiftly moving action, characters taken 364 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC from the middle and lower grades of society, events exciting and often shocking, music highly colored, im- passioned, sometimes violent and coarse. This school may be called a counterpart of the naturalistic school in fiction and the spoken drama. In the typical produc- tions of this group of writers the animal side of human nature is emphasized, the native instincts and passions are displayed in all their nakedness. There is no re- lief of noble sentiment, no suggestion of moral reaction. The plots turn upon the basest impulses — hate, lust, jealousy — and the catastrophe is murder or suicide. A good deal of talent is displayed in some of these operas ; the plots are natural and have dramatic consistency; they follow the modern tendency by throwing chief weight upon the subject and scene, making the music exist not for vocal allurement, as in the old Italian opera, but for the sake of adding force to action and poetic development. The music is occasionally rich and effective, often blatant, shallow and sensational. This new idea of operatic realism in brief, highly electrified pieces (although suggested doubtless by features in Bizet's " Carmen ") broke suddenly upon the world in 1890, with "Cavalleria Rusticana," an opera in one act, by Pietro Mascagni (1863- ), which took the musical world of Europe by storm. "In the opera are these elements: simple means em- ployed by simple characters shake and harrow the spec- tators; dramatic touches are blows in their directness; the occasional absence of judicious art is forgotten in the exhibition of fierce truth. In his haste to tell his story Mascagni has no time to construct themes of RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 365 balanced length. Phrases are short and intense ; rhythm frets; dissonances rage and scream. There is feverish unrest from beginning to end; but the fever is the fever of a sturdy, hotblooded youth, and not the arti- ficial flush of a jaded maker of music " (Philip Hale, preface to Schirmer's edition of the opera). From the musical side alone " Cavalleria Rusticana " is not a great work. It is easy to see that its success is chiefly due to the vivid action and horrifying denouement. Mascagni has since written a number of operas, but all of them have been received with indifference. A rival to " Cavalleria Rusticana " on its own ground is "Pagliacci," by Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858- ). Its subject is very similar to that of Mas- cagni's work, and it owes its triumph to much the same causes. It is, however, superior musically. The promise of this work has not been fulfilled. Other prominent writers of this school are Tasca, Spinelli, Giordano and Puccini. The latter (1858- ) is the best equipped musically, and in his u La Boheme " (1897) he has produced a work that seems to possess real vitality. Lively description of the " verismo " school in Famous Compos- ers and their Works, series ii, by Torchi, an unsympathetic critic. Interesting characterization by Henderson in Modern Musical Drift: Italian Opera of To-day. See also Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music ; Elson, Modern Composers of Europe. XLII RECENT MUSIC IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA Those who look for signs of the times in the present-day activity in the world of music will observe with interest a vigorous movement in what may be called the border-lands of musical Europe, particu- larly Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and Scandinavia. Is the musical sceptre soon to slip from the grasp of Germany, Italy and France, and the primacy pass to the people of the Slavic race? There has long been evidence of musical vitality in these countries. They have cultivated artistic music for a long period, but until a comparatively recent day they were under the influ- ence of the older musical nations, producing music that was not national, but an echo of Italy and Germany. But now we are met by the significant fact that these eastern and northern countries are turning their atten- tion towards their own native music, the folk song and folk dance, finding there new sources of inspiration as well as new tonalities, rhythms and melodic forms. These nations are richly endowed with racy and in- dividual forms of folk music, and from these and from peculiar qualities of national instruments they have brought into the current of European music certain very marked and original features. The freshness IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 367 and energy of this new national music have revitalized the traditional forms, some of which seemed about to enter upon a period of decadence, and appear to fore- shadow a new epoch in musical evolution. No great monumental works have as yet arisen from these sources, but the time is not yet ripe. Novel and fas- cinating melodies, harmonies, rhythms and tone colors do not of themselves promise art works of the first order, — the question is of their expressive value and the intellectual power fitted to develop and co-ordinate them. With new and pregnant material, and a wide- spread musical activity, historic analogy bids us look confidently for the coming of the masters. Of these new national schools the later Russian holds an especially conspicuous place. Russia is the great unknown quantity in the history of the near future; the forces stirring there are watched with mingled hope and dread. The relation of art to national life is nowhere more apparent. Just as the people's voice is heard in Russia's powerful and gloomy literature, so there is likewise a tone of struggle in its music, a consciousness of undeveloped strength, an uncertainty as to what direction shall be taken when this strength is at last set free. The clash of influences, native and foreign, that causes the turmoil in Russian social and political life, is apparent in Russian musical history. Music is always cosmopolitan, its forms and technic are common to all nations, it speaks a universal language, the cry for nationalism, so insistent at the present day, can be obeyed only under very obvious limitations; but 368 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC there are certain distinctive traits that can be identified in the music of all nations, and Russia, within a few decades, has turned upon herself and is searching for the native materials that shall give her music an in- dividuality gratifying to the national pride. No country in Europe has a richer store of folk songs than Russia. Every section has its special local melo- dies, many of which have come down from great an- tiquity, transferred from the original Asiatic homes of those who practise them. Certain general traits they have in common, — limited compass, shortness of melo- dic themes, rhythmic irregularities, abrupt interchange of major and minor tonalities. Many are based on the ancient Greek modes. In spite of the dulness and hope- lessness of the life of the Russian masses, they are a singing people, and travellers certify in surprise to their skill and the beauty of their songs. Another important feature of Russian national music is the music of the church. The Russian church has never permitted the use of instruments in worship, not even the organ. Much of the liturgic music, and in the early days the whole of it, consists of chanting in a stylo similar to the Gregorian chant, reaching back with but slight modification to the earliest centuries of the church. Harmonized music was introduced late in the seventeenth century. Since that time the Italian influence has been felt, but never to the degree that in the Catholic church has often led to the denial of ecclesiastical traditions in favor of concert and dra- matic imitations. The tsars have given special atten- tion to perfecting religious music in their capitals, and IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 369 in beauty of tone and perfection of execution the music of the leading Russian choirs is not surpassed, perhaps not equalled in the world. The performances of the St. Petersburg imperial choir, with its sub-basses sing- ing nearly an octave below the usual bass register, excite the astonishment of all who hear them. The present condition of Russian church music is largely due to Dimitri Bortniansky (1752-1825), composer, compiler and editor, and reorganize!- of the imperial choir. In spite of these native musical treasures in church and folk music, secular cultivated music in Russia was, until a comparatively recent period, controlled by foreign in- fluences, at first Italian, then French. This was espe- cially true of opera, down to the middle of the nineteenth century. Instrumental music was hardly considered at all. An Italian opera was first heard in St. Petersburg in 1737, and the Italian music reigned supreme at the court until early in the nineteenth century, when French opera established a successful rivalry. The dominance of foreign fashions in opera was finally broken by Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (1804- 1857), who, in his "Life for the Tsar "(1836), rendered a service to Russia precisely equivalent to that conferred upon Germany by Weber in his " Der Freischutz. " Here was an opera on a national subject — the rescue of the reigning tsar from his Polish enemies by a peasant at the cost of his own life (an incident that actually oc- curred in 1613) — in which an extensive and syste- matic use of Russian and Polish types of melody was employed, attaining thereby a national coloring and pointing the way to a distinctive national form of 24 370 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC musical dramatic art. Glinka was a composer of learn- ing and genius, a master of melody, harmony and or- chestration; "Life for the Tsar" is a work of such power that reaction was impossible and the creation of a national school of music was convincingly assured. The professional musicians as well as the enthusiastic public saw at once the historic significance of this work, and Glinka is rightly considered as the father of modern Russian music. Glinka's second opera, "Ruslan and Ludmilla," confirmed his credit as a musician. It is an ultra -romantic work; the story is of Oriental origin, and the score contains reminis- cences of Russian, Finnish, Circassian and Persian national music. Glinka was immediately followed by composers less in ability than he, but as enthusiastically Russian. The most important are Dargomizhsky and Sierov. This older group was followed by a coterie who asso- ciated themselves together under the name of the " neo- Russian " school, promulgating certain principles which they asserted a truly Russian music should follow. Ce*sar Cui, one of the founders of the school, has given us its doctrines in detail. Symphonic music, thanks to Beethoven, Schumann, Liszt and Berlioz, has arrived at its complete development; henceforth nothing new can be accomplished in that field. It is otherwise with the opera ; dramatic music is still in a transition state. The opera is in its third stage of evolution — probably the last — which is that of accentuating by musical sounds the word that carries the thought. There are certain principles in dramatic music of the highest im- IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 3T1 portance: (1) It should have an intrinsic value, like absolute music, apart from the text; (2) vocal music should be in perfect accord with the sense of the words ; (3) the structure of the scenes ought to depend entirely upon the reciprocal situation of the personages, as well as the general movement of the piece. These rules, announced in 1856, are a protest against the musical triviality of the Italian opera and its disregard of dra- matic claims. They are, of course, the principles of Wagner, but the neo-Russians protested against what they called Wagner's sacrifice of vocal melody to the orchestra, and also rejected the "leading-motive." 1 The members of this group — the chiefs of the neo-Russian school — were Alexander Borodin (1834-1887), Mili Balakirev (1837- ), Cesar Cui (1835- ), Modeste Moussorgsky (1839-1886) and Nicolas Rimsky-Korsakov (1844- ). All of these composers have been able to extend their fame over Europe. Several have practised music in connection with other professions : Cui is a general in the Russian army and a professor of fortification in military schools ; Borodin was a professor of chemistry; Rimsky-Korsakov was for a time an officer in the navy. The latter is the most learned of the group, and his solid culture has preserved him from certain amateurish defects easily traceable in much of the work of his associates. It is rather singular that while these "new Russians" laid down as one of their beliefs that there could be no further progress in symphonic music and that the only hope of progress was in the opera, they are far 1 Cesar Cui, La Musique en Russie, pp. 71-9. 372 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC better known by their orchestral works than by their dramatic efforts. They have usually followed the principles of the programme school — Borodin's "In the Steppes of Central Asia " and Rimsky-Korsakov's " Antar " are famous. Borodin also excelled in absolute music. As a rule, not especially strong in melody, they have made bold experiments in harmony and rhythm, and have shown a striking command over all the resources of orchestral color. The novel quality of their music is largely due to the influence of the peculiar rhythms, tonalities and melodic formulas of the Russian folk song. The most prominent of their younger disciples is Alexander Glazounov (1865- ), a master of musical science and a writer of strong and original invention. Probably the greatest musical genius that Russia has produced, certainly the most admired in Western Europe and America, is Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (1840- 1893). He is not rated in Russia as a strictly national composer, and the " new Russian " party declares that he is more German than Russian. His music is among the most brilliant and individual of recent times, and its boldness, varied contrasts and the strain of passionate melancholy that runs through it have seemed to make it correspond to the general foreign notion of Russian life and character, and hence have given it an interest that is more than personal. He has produced notable work in orchestral music, both abstract and representa- tive, chamber music, piano music, opera, church music and song. The current impression of Tchaikovsky as a musical pessimist is due chiefly to the "Pathetic IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 373 symphony," his last work, which has been the most pronounced success of recent years in orchestral con- certs. There is certainly much in his music that is light and even joyful, but his most representative work is manifestly pervaded by a tone of struggle and revolt. Tchaikovsky seems never to have acquired a full mastery of his genius. He often rises to a thrill- ing grandeur and dramatic intensity, while again he is often trivial and sensational. In mastery of orchestral color he has hardly had a superior. Like all Russians he loves capricious rhythms, minor tonality, sombre chromatic progressions, harsh combinations, repetitions of abrupt figures, but he excels his compatriots in melodic invention. He is great in vivid moments, rather than in large and developed conceptions. He is certainly one of the notable men of his time, but his place in music history is not yet determined. Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894), the most famous pianist of his time next to Liszt, is even more familiar to the musical world than Tchaikovsky by reason of his meteoric concert tours over Europe and America; but although much of his music is known in every musical household he must be held decidedly inferior to his rival as a composer. He is also less national, and little that can be called positively Russian is to be found in his work. There has been no more ambitious composer, and he has produced a great amount of music from the largest to the smallest forms, but he just fails at every point to produce work of the first order. His operas and oratorios (the latter might be called religious operas) are more 374 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC pretentious than satisfying. His vein of melody, though abundant, is on the whole lacking in vigor and originality. His most admired compositions are the "Ocean symphony, " ballet music from certain operas, works for the 'cello, the splendid D minor piano concerto, a few piano pieces out of a vast num- ber and the Persian songs. The conservatories of St. Petersburg and Moscow offer as thorough discipline as any in Europe. From them proceeds a large and rapidly increasing company of composers who have something important to say and are trained to say it in a very effective manner. Their music is positive and individual, often experimental and extravagant, but possessing elements of unmistakable power. The fullest history of Russian music in English is in Famous Composers and their Works, series i (H. T. Finck), and series ii (Philip Hale). See also, Elson, Modern Composers of Europe, and Borodin and Liszt, translated by Rosa Newmarch from the French of Habets. For still further information the student would be dependent upon French books, notably Cesar Cui's Musique en Russie (unfortunately out of print and scarce), and Pougin's Essai historique sur la musique en Russie. The authoritative work on the life of Tchaikovsky is the biogra- phy by his brother, Modeste Tchaikovsky, abridged and translated into English by Rosa Newmarch. See also Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Rosa Newmarch, Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works ; important articles by Newman and Kelton in the Contempo- rary Review, July and September, 1900, June, 1901, and April, 1904. There is an elaborate study of Tchaikovsky's piano music by Huneker in Mezzotints hi Modern Music. For Rubinstein: Mc Arthur, Anton Rubinstein: A Biographical Sketch; Rubinstein, Autobiography, translated by Aline Delano; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. Two albums of Russian piano music, published by Schirmer, illustrate many salient points in the Russian musical style. IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 375 The Bohemians, allied in race to the Russians, are also obeying the present tendency to seek for fresh material in national sources. Until a recent period under bondage to foreign styles, they have declared their independence. The chief of the founders of the Bohemian national school is Feiedrich Smetana (1824-1884). His operas are the first of importance to be written to Czechic texts. " The Bartered Bride " announced the presence of a school of opera that is Bohemian in language, subjects and musical coloring. Equally important are Smetana's instrumental works by virtue of their patriotic purpose as well as inherent merit. He followed the Liszt-Berlioz direction, pro- ducing among many symphonic poems a notable cyclus of six on Bohemian subjects, — history, legend, land- scape. He even carried the representative idea into the string quartet (quartet, "Out of my Life," E minor). Smetana, while not to be classed among the greatest geniuses, was a composer of learning, originality and force, and his permanent influence is not to be mistaken. Famous Composers and their Works, series ii. In the mind of the musical world at large the repre- sentative Bohemian composer is Antoxin Dvorak (1841-1904). He was of peasant stock, his musical education was irregular, and he was forced to undergo a long and bitter struggle for recognition. At the age of thirty-six he leaped into fame with his captivating Slavic dances for orchestra. The strong Bohemian savor in these pieces pervades a large amount of his 376 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC instrumental music and also his songs. The most characteristic traits of his music are rather personal than national, and in the variety of forms which he has essayed and in his cultivation of both abstract and programme music he is decidedly cosmopolitan. He has an affluent gift of melody, great boldness and resource in harmony and is one of the greatest of the masters of orchestration. His numerous operas are not known outside of Bohemia — operas in the Eastern languages have so far been forced to pay the penalty of local re- striction, — but his symphonies, chamber works and choral compositions have excited general admiration. To his several years' residence in America are due his symphony, quintet and quartet on themes suggested by the plantation songs of the Southern negroes. Dvorak's belief that in this folk song was the founda- tion for a distinctively American school has not been accepted, and the works in question are considered more ingenious than convincing. Among his choral works on a large scale his noble "Stabat Mater," the " Requiem " and " The Spectre's Bride " have found much favor at musical festivals. Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music; Elson, Modern Com- posers of Europe. Unfavorable judgment by Runciman, Old Scores and New Readings. Some of the most delightful music of recent days has come from Scandinavia, — Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The northern folk songs are of a peculiar and exquisite charm, and they have tinged all the work of the Scandinavian composers more or less, particu- IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 377 larly since the European romantic movement threw the attention of the art world back to characteristic national subjects and racial feeling. By Scandinavian music we find that we commonly mean Norwegian, for in music, both popular and artis- tic, Norway far excels Denmark and Sweden. The composers that stand as the chief representatives of Scandinavian music are the Norwegians Grieg, Kjerulf, Svendsen and Sinding. One of the most beloved of modern composers is Eduard Grieg (1843- ). He was educated at the Leipzig Conservatory, but after leaving that institution in 1862 he turned his attention to the music, literature and folk lore of his native land. In spite of frequent visits to other countries, Grieg has retained his residence in Norway, devoting himself, in addition to composition, to promoting the musical interests of his people. As a composer his reputation chiefly rests upon his short, characteristic piano pieces and his songs, although his sonatas for piano and violin, piano concerto and his orchestral suites illustrating Ibsen's "Peer Gynt," are hardly less known and admired. As a musical miniature painter he has hardly had an equal since Schumann. He cultivates a peculiarly weird and vague kind of harmony and tonality, adopts the forms and rhythms of popular dances, and knows how to spread over his work an atmosphere of mystery and melancholy which serves to bring up associations with gloomy fjords, lonely shores and mountains, with their attendant le- gends of strange spirits of earth and sea. Although in this style Grieg finds a limited field, yet he has devel- 378 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC oped it with such charm of melody and harmony, such sweetness, tenderness and genuine feeling, that the whole world has been touched by its pathos and truth. The secret is that Grieg's music is no mere imitation of national strains, but a natural mode of expressing him- self as an original artist as well as a man of the people. Halfdan Kjerulf (1815-1868) is akin to Grieg in the qualities above mentioned, and not unworthy of com- parison with him. Johann Svendsen (1840- ) and Chris- tian Sinding (1856- ) are less conspicuously national in style, in spite of their frequent employment of native rhythms and melodic turns. They have both done strong work in orchestral and chamber music. Grieg has the lion's share of the comparatively small amount of commentary in English on the Scandinavian composers. For the school in general, Famous Composers and their Works, series i ; Elson, Modern Composers of Europe. For Grieg, Famous Composers, and Mason, From Grieg to Brahms. XLIII RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA Musical culture among the English-speaking nations was never in so vigorous a condition as at the present day. The appreciation of what is best in musical art is extending among the masses of the people; musical instruction is recognized as a necessary branch of edu- cation ; the methods of this instruction are being estab- lished on a thoroughly scientific basis ; through schools, trained private teachers, societies and an expanding concert system music is rapidly permeating the popular life. The effect of this widening and deepening cul- ture upon musical production cannot yet be confidently predicted, but it is certain that the value as well as the amount of original creation has increased in a very notable degree in recent years. Groups of composers in both England and America have contributed works which reveal a complete mastery of all the technical means of expression, and in many instances a decided individuality. In England the public insistence upon a continuation of the ideals and methods of Handel and Mendelssohn put composers for many years under a bondage that made progress impossible. The public refused a fair hearing to the claims of the new romantic school which was revolutionizing musical thought and production upon the continent, took its stand upon the 380 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF ML SIC classic traditions in instrumental music, discouraged opera and made religious music, in the Anglican anthem and the Handel -Mendelssohn oratorio, its para- mount interest. In spite of the dignity and morally elevating influence of English religious music it has not only contained few elements of progress in itself, but the excessive deference paid to it has discouraged those tendencies in which real hope of advancement lies. England has therefore done nothing of historic value in opera, symphony or piano music. Its composers, up to a very recent period at least, have been going around in a circle, producing oratorios, cantatas and church pieces in almost incalculable quantities, to the edification of the faithful and the indifference of the rest of the world. There have been of late signs of a better time. There has been what Mr. Fuller Maitland calls with much reason a Renaissance, and a small cluster of composers, whose activity chiefly covers the past quarter of a century, has challenged the attention of the musical world at large, and brought an honor upon English music which it has not enjoyed since the days of Henry Purcell. These men are still so much under the necessity of catering to English taste that a very heavy share of their work is con- fined to oratorio and cantata — for the provincial festi- val and the choral society still dominate English musical interest — but they have felt the trend of the age and have imparted to the time-honored forms they use a vivacity, a harmonic richness and a splendor of orchestral color that not only give these works a strength and individual flavor unknown to their prede- RECENT MUSIC D5 ENGLAND AND AMERICA 38l cessors, but also reveal a dramatic and instrumental talent that promises much when the conditions are favorable to greater freedom in subject and form. It is to be noticed that the British " Renaissance " is not rooted in the English, Scotch, Irish and Welsh folk music, and here we see a marked distinction between this revival and the contemporary movements among the Slavs, Czechs and Scandinavians. This may be held as militating against originality and inherent force in this new English work. This is, however, not a self-evident conclusion, for although nationality seems just now to be the cry among the ardent young leaders of continental music, yet something more than the ex- ploiting of indigenous material is required to give power and universality to works of art. The group of able men who sprang rather suddenly, as it would seem, out of the dead level of medioc- rity that had existed for one hundred and fifty years, includes Arthur Seymour Sullivan, Alexander Camp- bell Mackenzie, Charles Villiers Stanford, Frederick Hymen Cowen, Charles Hubert Hastings Parry and Edward Elgar. There are others hardly less worthy of conspicuous mention, such as Samuel Coleridge- Taylor, Arthur Goring Thomas, Hamish McCunn and Edward German. The fame of Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842- 1900) rests upon his clever and delightful comic operettas, of which "Trial by Jury," "Pinafore," "Patience," "The Pirates of Penzance" and "The Mikado " have won their composer international praise. It is by no means certain, however, that their ex- 382 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC traordinary popularity is not to be attributed to the librettist, W. S. Gilbert, even more than to the musi- cal partner, for the novel vein of topsy-turvy humor and genial satire gives these texts value as literature. Alexander Campbell Mackenzie (1847- ), born in Edinburgh, has produced notable work in oratorio, ode, cantata, opera, compositions for orchestra, violin and piano. Charles Villiers Stanford (1852- ) is of Irish birth; his best work is in vocal music, including compositions for the church, songs, choral ballads (in which he has shown a preference for Tenny- son's poetry) and dramatic works. He has also written symphonies and of course oratorios. Especial interest attaches to his arrangements of Irish national melodies. Mr. Stanford has also contributed interesting articles to the English reviews. Frederick Hymen Cowen (1852- ) is known favorably on the continent as well as at home for his romantic "Scandinavian symphony," one of the few instances in which English orchestral work has won consideration abroad. Five other sym- phonies have followed, besides suites in which fairy sub- jects have been treated with especial grace. The composer of routine is also shown in his operas, oratorios and songs. Charles Hubert Hastings Parry (1848- ) is, in the view of many, the ablest of this company, considered in his versatile capacity as composer, teacher, historian and critic. He is of the highest type of the university man in music, and in educated circles his scholarly attainments give him a regard which no other English musician enjoys in quite equal measure. His most important compositions in- RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 383 elude oratorios, cantatas, odes, orchestral and chamber works, incidental music to dramatic pieces and songs. His contributions to the history and criticism of music, particularly The Evolution of the Art of Music, the third volume of the Oxford History of Music and articles in Grove's Dictionary, by virtue of their comprehensive and accurate knowledge, philosophic grasp and clearness and force of style, are in the very front rank of their kind. Within a few years the very brilliant and challeng- ing work of Edward Elgar (1857- ) has made him for the time being one of the most talked-of com- posers of the day. His setting in oratorio form of Cardinal Newman's " Dream of Gerontius " has been the reigning sensation in circles devoted to choral music. Its intense dramatic contrasts and the empha- sis upon the most advanced treatment of the orchestra as the chief means of effect seem in the minds of many to announce a new epoch in the history of the oratorio. In this work, as in "The Apostles," the Wagnerian in- fluence appears, even to the systematic use of leading- motives. His few orchestral compositions and his songs, both for mixed voices and for solo, indicate a technical knowledge of the highest order in counterpoint and orchestration, as well as a prolific vein of melody. The progress of English music in the past few decades and the achievements of its leading representatives have been summed up in a very interesting way, albeit with some extravagant claims, by J. A. Fuller Maitland in English Music in the Nineteenth Century. See also Willeby, Masters of English Music ; Elson, Modern Com- posers of Europe, and articles in Famous Composers and their Works, 384 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC series i, and in Grove's Dictionary. Elgar's oratorio work is di» cussed in a lucid way by Henderson in Modern Musical Drift. No disparagement of the excellent and promising work of recent American musicians will be implied if they receive but scanty space in a volume whose aim is to trace the continued evolution of musical forms and styles. From the world -historic point of view it can- not be maintained that American composition has ad- vanced the development of the art, enlarged its field of expression or propounded new problems. Neither, it may be said, has English composition done this, but in a book intended for American students, there is no need of characterizing or even summarizing the work of composers whose names and achievements are al- ready familiar to all who are concerned with musical affairs. These achievements, although honorable, do not bulk very large, nor is their originality striking. American music began under English influences and has continued under those of Germany. It is eclectic and modest, even though it is not slavishly imitative. There is even individuality, as in the deeply expressive piano pieces and songs of Edward MacDowell. There is no native music, no national traditions on which to build. It is noticeable that nothing of importance has been produced in opera or symphony, and no people can hold a high standing among the musical nations that has not succeeded in one or both of these forms. There is no reason for discouragement in these facts. Artistic music in America is still very young. It is worthy of note that every one of the composers who RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 385 exemplify the best in American musical achievement is still living. A movement that virtually begins with such men as Paine, Buck, MacDowell, Parker, Chad- wick, Foote, Huss, Gleason, Kelly and the others that are worthy to rank with them, is one that inspires con- fidence. The powerful upward and outward movement in musical education , the enlarging concert system, the multiplication of musical societies and clubs, the in- creasing rewards of musical effort, the widening oppor- tunities and rising dignity of music as a profession, all point hopefully to the time when America, through its musical creation, will repay the debt she owes to her musical fatherlands. In spite of all encouragements the degradation of musical taste among large sections of the people, indeed among the vast majority, is a cause for serious concern. The newspaper that recently declared that on the whole musical taste in this country is lower than it was thirty years ago, although certainly in error, had many facts on which to base its gloomy opinion. No more forcible conclusion could be given to this book than to remind students of music that the future of their art, for good or ill, is in their hands. It is their duty not only to enlarge their knowledge and discipline and confirm their taste by every means in their power, but also to use their ability and influence unselfishly for the extension of knowledge and appreciation among the people. As an aid in fortifying such resolve let everyone study the noble life of Theodore Thomas. The honor which his memory now receives will be the lot in some degree of all who follow his example. 25 386 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Mr. L. C. Elson, in his History of American Music, has per- formed a difficult and delicate task with very great success, and his book will long remain the standard work on the subject. Hughes' Contemporary American Composers, is a vivacious and gen- erally just estimate of American compositions. See also Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in A merica ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i; summary by Krehbiel in appendix to Lavignac's Music and Musicians, edition of 1905. An important book is Theodore Thomas, an Autobiography, ed. by Upton. The second volume contains Mr. Thomas' complete programmes. There is an extensive bibliography in Elson 's history. A few very valuable books not previously cited are added here on account of their usefulness for general reference. Krehbiel, How to Listen to Music. Henderson, What is Good Music ? Lavignac, Musical Education. Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, edited by Philip Hale; published annually in bound volumes by C. A. Ellis. Riemann, Dictionary of Music, translated by Shedlock. Baker, Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. The Musical Guide, edited by Rupert Hughes. Lavignac's Music and Musicians, although already mentioned, is entitled to special recommendation. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST [The books marked with a star are, in the opinion of the author, of special value.] Aldrich (Richard). A Guide to "Parsifal." Boston, Ditson, 1904. *Ambros (A. W.). The Boundaries of Music and Poetry. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1893. *Annesley (Charles). The Standard Opera Glass. New York, Brentano's. Apthorp (W. F.). Musicians and Music Lovers. New York, Scribner, 1897. * . The Opera, Past and Present. New York, Scribner, 1901. Bach (A. B.). The Art Ballad : Loewe and Schubert. Edinburgh, Blackwood, 1891. *Baker (Theodore). A Biographical Dictionary of Musi- cians. New York, Schirmer, 1900. Barrett (W. A.). English Glee and Madrigal Writers. London, Reeves, 1877. Beethoven (Ludwig van). Letters. Tr. by Lady Wallace. 2 vols. New York, Hurd & Houghton, 1867. The same is published by Ditson, Boston. Benedict (Julius). Weber. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1881. Berlioz (Hector). Autobiography. Tr. by Rachel and Eleanor Holmes. 2 vols. London, Macmillan, 1884. . Letters. Preceded by a biography by Bernard. Tr. by Dunstan. 2 vols. London, Remington, 1882. 388 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Berlioz (Hector). Selections from his Letters and ^Es- thetic, Humorous and Satirical Writings. Tr. and preceded by a biographical sketch by Apthorp. New York, Holt, 1879. *Bie (Oscar). History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players. Tr. by Kellett and Naylor. New York, Dutton, 1899. Brooks (H. M.). Olden Time Music. Boston, Ticknor, 1888. Chamberlain (H. S.). Richard Wagner. Tr. by Hight. Two editions, one illustrated, one popular. London, Dent, 1897. Chappell (William). Old English Popular Music. 2 vols. London, Chappell. New York, Novello, 1893. . The History of Music. London, Chappell, 1874. Chorley (H. F.). Music and Manners in France and Ger- many. 3 vols. London, Longmans, 1841. Cummings (W. H.). Purcell. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1881. *Curwen (J. S.). Studies in Worship Music. 2 vols. London, Curwen, 1888. Davey (Henry). History of, English Music. London, Curwen, 1895. Deiters (Hermann). Johannes Brahms. Tr. by Rosa New- march. London, Unwin, 1888. Devrient (Eduard). My Recollections of Felix Mendels- sohn-Bartholdy. Tr. by Natalia Macfarren. London, Bentley, 1869. Dickinson (Edward). Music in the History of the Western Church. New York, Scribner, 1902. Dippold (G. T.). Richard Wagner's Poem: " The Ring of the Nibelung." New York, Holt, 1888. Edwards (H. S.). The Prima Donna. 2 vols. London, Remington, 1888. Ehlert (Louis). From the Tone World. Tr. by Helen Tretbar. New York, C. F. Tretbar, 1885. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 389 Ellis (W. A.). 18-49 : A Vindication. London, Paul, 1892. *Elson (Arthur). Modern Composers of Europe. Boston, Page, 1905. Elson (L. C). Curiosities of Music. Boston, Ditson, 1880. * . History of American Music. New York, Macmillan, 1904. . History of German Song. Boston, X. E. Conserva- tory of Music, 1888. . Editor and Author. See Famous Composers and their Works, series ii. Engel (Carl). Musical Instruments. (South Kensington Art Handbooks.) London. Chapman, 1875. . Kesearches into the Early History of the Violin Family. Loudon. Xovello, 1883. . The Music of the Most Ancient Nations. London, Murray, 186-1. *Famous Composers and their "Works. Series i. 3 vols., including one volume of musical illustrations. Ed. by Paine (J. K.), Thomas (Theodore) and Klauser (Karl). Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1891. * . Series ii. 3 vols., including one volume of musical illustrations. Elson (L. C.) and Hale (Philip), authors and editors. Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1900. Fay (Amy). Music Study in Germany. Chicago, Jansen & McClurg, 1881. Ferris (G. T.). Great Singers. 2 vols. Xew York, Appleton, 1893. . Great Violinists and Pianists. Xew York, Apple- ton, 1894. Fillmore (J. C). History of Pianoforte Music. Xew York, McCoun, 1884. Finck (H. T.). Chopin and other Musical Essays. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Paderewski and his Art. Looker-on Pub. Co., 1896. 390 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC *Finck (H. T.). Songs and Song Writers. New York, Scribner, 1900. . Strauss. Waltzes with Introduction. Boston, Knight. * . Wagner and His Works. 2 vols. New York, Scrib- ner, 1893. Fitzwilliam Virginal Book. Ed. by Maitland (J. A. F.) and Squire (W. B.). 2 vols. Leipzig and London, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1899. Fletcher (Alice) and Fillmore (J. C). A Study of Omaha Indian Music. Cambridge (Mass.), Peabody Museum, 1893. Fletcher (Alice). Indian Song and Story from North America. Boston, Small, 1900. Foster (M. B.). Anthems and Anthem Composers. Lon- don, Novello, 1901. Frost (H. F.). Schubert. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1881. Gehring (F.). Mozart. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1883. *Glasenapp (C. F.). Life of Richard Wagner. Tr. and enlarged by Ellis. 4 volumes already published. Lon- don, Paul, 1900. Goethe (J. W. von). Letters to Zelter. See Zelter. Gounod (Charles). Autobiographical Reminiscences. Tr. by Hutchinson. London, Heinemann, 1896. Graeme (Elliott). Beethoven : A Memoir. London, Griffin, 1870. Gray (Robin), editor. Studies in Music by Various Authors. New York, Scribner, 1901. *Grove (George). Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies. London, Novello, 1896. ^Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 4 vols. Lon- don, Macmillan, 1879-1890. New edition, revised and enlarged, edited by Maitland, now appearing. Gurney (Edmund). The Power of Sound. London, Smith, Elder & Co., 1880. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 391 *Haberl (F. X.). Magister Choralis. Tr. by Donnelly. New York, Pustet, 1892. Hadden (J. C). Haydn. (Master Musicians series.) Lon- don, Dent, 1902. Hadow (W. H.). A Croatian Composer. London, Seeley, 1897. * . Studies in Modern Music. 2 vols. New York, Macmillan, 1892-3. Hale (Philip), editor and author. See Famous Compo- sers and their Works, series ii. *Hanslick (Eduard). The Beautiful in Music. Tr. by Cohen. London, Novello, 1891. Harding (H. A.). Analysis of Form as displayed in Beethoven's Sonatas. London, Novello. Hart (George). The Violin: its Famous Makers and their Imitators. Large illustrated edition. London, Dulau, 1884. . The same, popular edition. London, Dulau, 1887. Heintz (Albert). " The Mastersingers of Nuremberg," by Richard Wagner. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1890. Helmholtz (H. L. F.). On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. Tr. by Ellis. London, Longmans, 1885. Helmore (Thomas). Plain Song. (Music Primers.) Lon- don, Novello. *Henderson (W. J.). How Music Developed. New York, Stokes, 1898. * . Modern Musical Drift. New York, Longmans, 1904. . Preludes and Studies. New York, Longmans, 1891. * . The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. New York, Scribner, 1899. * . Richard Wagner, his Life and his Dramas. New York, Putnam, 1901. * . What is Good Music ? New York, Scribner, 1898. 392 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Hensel (Sebastian). The Mendelssohn Family. Tr. by Klingemann. 2 vols. New York, Harper, 1881. *Hervey (Arthur). French Music in the Nineteenth Cen- tury. New York, Dutton, 1903. . Masters of French Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. Hipkins (A. J.). Description and History of the Piano- forte and the Older Keyboard Stringed Instruments. London, Novello, 1896. Hogarth (George). Memoirs of the Musical Drama. 2 vols. London, Bentley, 1838. Holmes (Edward). Life of Mozart. London, Novello, 1878. Hueffer (Francis). Half a Century of Music in England. Philadelphia, Gebbie, 1889. . Musical Studies. Edinburgh, Black, 1880. . Richard Wagner and the Music of the Future. London, Chapman, 1894. Hugbes (Rupert). Contemporary American Composers. Boston, Page, 1900. ♦Huneker (J. G.). Chopin : the Man and his Music. New York, Scribner, 1900. * . Mezzotints in Modern Music. New York, Scrib- ner, 1899. * . Overtones : a Book of Temperaments. New York, Scribner, 1904. *Jahn (Otto). Life of Mozart. Tr. by Pauline D. Towns- end. 3 vols. London, Novello, 1882. Jullien (Adolphe). Richard Wagner, his Life and Works. Tr. by Florence P. Hall. 2 vols. Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1892. Karasowski (Moritz). Frederic Chopin, his Life, Letters, and Works. Tr. by Emily Hill. 2 vols. London, Reeves, 1879. Kleczynski (Jean). Chopin's Greater Works. London, Reeves, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 393 Kobbe (Gustav). Wagner's Life and "Works. 2 vols. New York, Schirmer, 1890. *Krehbiel (H. E.). How to Listen to Music. New York, Scribner, 1897. . Studies in the Wagnerian Drama. New York, Harper, 1891. Kreissle von Hellborx (Heixrich). Life of Franz Schu- bert. Tr. by Coleridge. 2 vols. London, Longmans, 1869. Kufferath (Maurice). " Parsif al " of Richard Wagner. Tr. by Hennermann. New York, Holt, 1904. Lampadius (W. A.). Life of Mendelssohn. Tr. by Gage. New York, Leypoldt, 1865. Laxghaxs (Wilhelm). The History of Music in Twelve Lectures. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1886. *Lavigxac (Albert). Music and Musicians. Tr. by Marchant ; with appendix on Music in America, and the Present State of the Art of Music, by H. E. Kreh- biel. New York, Holt, latest edition 1905. * . The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Tr. by Esther Singleton. New York, Dodd, 1898. * . Musical Education. Tr. by Esther Singleton. New York, Appleton, 1903. Lee (Verxox), pseudonym; see Paget. Liszt (Fraxz). Letters. Collected and ed. by La Mara. Tr. by Constance Bache. 2 vols. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Life of Chopin. Tr. by Broadhouse. London, Reeves. . Correspondence with Wagner ; see Wagxer. *Maitlaxd (J. A. F.). English Music in the Nineteenth Century. New York, Dutton, 1902. . Masters of German Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Schumann. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1884. 394 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Mapleson (J. H.). Memoirs. 2 vols. London, Reming- ton, 1888. Marshall (Mrs. Julian). Handel. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1883. Mason (D. G.). Beethoven and his Forerunners. New York, Macmillan, 1904. . From Grieg to Brahms. New York, The Outlook Co., 1903. Mason (William). Memories of a Musical Life. New York, Century Co., 1901. Mathews (W. S. B.). A Hundred Years of Music in America. Chicago, Howe, 1889. Mc Arthur (Alexander). Anton Rubinstein : a Biograph- ical Sketch. Edinburgh, Black, 1889. # Mees (Arthur). Choirs and Choral Music. New York, Scribner, 1901. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Felix). Letters from Italy and Switzerland. Tr. by Lady Wallace. Boston, Ditson. . Letters, 1833-1847. Tr. by Lady Wallace. Boston, Ditson, 1866. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Karl). Goethe and Mendels- sohn. Tr. by Glehn. London, Macmillan, 1874. Moscheles (Ignaz). Recent Music and Musicians. Adapted from the German and tr. by Coleridge. New York, Holt, 1889. Mozart (W. A.). Letters. Tr. by Lady Wallace. 2 vols. Boston, Ditson. Muncker (Franz). Richard Wagner. Tr. by Landman. Bamberg, Buchner, 1891. Musical Guide. 2 vols. Ed. by Hughes (Rupert). New York, McClure, 1903. Naumann (Emil). History of Music. 2 vols. Tr. by Praeger. Ed. with additions on English Music by Ouseley. London, Cassell. *Newman (Ernest). A Study of Wagner. New York, Putnam, 1899. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 395 ♦Newman (Ernest). Gluck and the Opera. London, Do- bell, 1895. Newmarch (Rosa). Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works. London, Richards, 1900. *Niecks (Frederick). Frederic Chopin as a Man and Musician. 2 vols. London, Novello, 1888. *Oxford History of Music. Ed. by Hadow (W. H.). Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1901. To be complete in 6 vols. Already published : vols, i (Wooldridge), iii (Parry), iv (Maitland), v (Hadow). Paget (Violet), pseudonym, Vernon Lee. Belcaro. Lon- don, Unwin, 1887. * . Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy. London, Unwin, 1887. *Parry (C. H. H.). The Evolution of the Art of Music. New York, Appleton, 1896. Perkins (C. C.) and D wight (J. S.). History of the Handel and Haydn Society. Boston, Mudge, 1883-1893. Pigott (F. T.). The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. London, Batsford, 1893. Pirro (A.). Johann Sebastian Bach, the Organist, and his Works for the Organ. Tr. by Goodrich. New York, Schirmer, 1902. Pole (William). The Philosophy of Music. London, Triibner, 1879. . The Story of Mozart's Requiem. London, Novello, 1879. Pougin (Arthur). Verdi : An Anecdotic History of his Life and Works. Tr. by Matthew. London, Grevel, 1887. *Prout (Ebenezer). Applied Forms. London, Augener, 1895. * . Musical Form. London, Augener ; New York, Schirmer, 1893. * . The Orchestra. Vol. i, The Technique of the Instruments. Vol. ii, Orchestral Combination. Lon- don, Augener, 1897. 396 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Ramann (Lina). Franz Liszt, Artist and Man. Tr. in 2 volumes (incomplete) by E. Cowdery. London, Allen, 1882. Reissmann (August). Life and Works of Robert Schumann. Tr. by Abby L. Alger. London, Bonn's Standard Library, 1886. Riemann (Hugo). Catechism of Musical ^Esthetics. Tr. by Bewerunge. London, Augener. . Catechism of Musical History. 2 vols. London, Augener. : . Dictionary of Music (includes biographies). Tr. by Shedlock. London, Augener. Ritter (F. L.). Music in America. New York, Scribner, 1890. . Music in England. New York, Scribner, 1890. Rockstro (W. S.). Life of Handel. London, Macmillan, 1883. Rowbotham (J. F.). History of Music. 3 vols, (extends only to the Troubadours). London, Triibner, 1885-1887. . The same, abridged. 1 vol. London, Bentley, 1893. Rubinstein (Anton). Autobiography. Tr. by Aline Delano. Boston, Little, 1892. Hud all (H. A.). Beethoven. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1890. Runciman (J. F.). Old Scores and New Readings. Lon- don, Unicorn Press, 1899. Sand (George), pseudonym. Chopin: Sketches from "A History of My Life " and " A Winter in Majorca." Tr. by Grace Curtis. Chicago, Clayton, 1892. Sandys (William) and Foster (S. A.). History of the Violin. London, J. R. Smith, 1864. Schindler (Anton). Life of Beethoven. Ed. by Moscheles. Boston, Ditson, 1841. Schoelcher (Victor). Life of Handel. London, Cocks, 1857. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 397 Schumann (Robert). Early Letters. Tr. by May Herbert. London, Bell, 1888. . Life of Schumann, Told in His Letters. Tr. by May Herbert. 2 vols. London, Bentley, 1890. * . Music and Musicians. Tr. by F. R. Ritter. 2 vols. New York, Schuberth, 1880. Shaw (G. B.). The Perfect Wagnerite. London, Richards, 1902. *Shedlock (J. S.). The Pianoforte Sonata, Its Origin and Development- London, Methuen, 1895. Spillane (Daniel). History of the American Pianoforte. New York, Spillane, 1890. *Spitta (Phillip). Johann Sebastian Bach. Tr. by Clara Bell and J. A. F. Maitland. 3 vols. London, Noveilo, 1884-1888. Spohr (Ludwtg). Autobiography. Tr. from the German. London, Longmans, 1865. Stainer (John) and Barrett (W. A.). Dictionary of Musical Terms. Boston, Ditson. Stainer (John). The Music of the Bible. London, Cas- sell, 1882. Statham (H. H.). My Thoughts on Music and Musicians. London, Chapman, 1892. ♦Steinert (Morris). Steinert Collection of Keyed and Stringed Instruments. New York, Tretbar, 1893. Stoeving (Paul). The Story of the Violin. London, Scott, 1904. Stratton (S. S.). Mendelssohn. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. Streatfeild (R. A.). Masters of Italian Music. New Y^ork, Scribner, 1895. . The Opera. London, Nimmo, 1897. Tchaikovsky (Modeste). The Life of Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. Tr. and abridged by Rosa Newmarch. London & New York, Lane, 1905. 398 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Thibaut (A. F.). Purity in Music. Tr. by Broadhouse. London, Reeves. Thomas (Theodore). Autobiography. 2 vols. Ed. by Upton. Chicago, McClurg, 1905. Townsend (Pauline). Haydn. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1884. Upton (G. P.). The Standard Operas. Chicago, McClurg, 1891. . The Standard Oratorios. Chicago, McClurg, 1893. . The Standard Symphonies. Chicago, McClurg, 1893. *Wagser (Richard) and Liszt (Franz). Correspondence. Tr. by Hueffer. 2 vols. New York, Scribner, 1889. Wagner (Richard). Letters to Heckel. Tr. by Ellis. London, Richards, 1899. * . Letters to his Dresden Friends, Uhlig, Fischer and Heine. Tr. by Shedlock. London, Grevel, 1890. . Letters to Roeckel. Tr. by Sellar. Bristol, Arrowsrnith. . Letters to Wesendonck, et al. Tr. by Ellis. Lon- don, Richards, 1899. . Letters to Mathilde Wesendonck. Tr. by Ellis. New Y'ork, Scribner, 1905. * . Prose Works. Tr. by Ellis. 8 vols. London, Paul, 1892-1899. . Text of "Parsifal." Tr. by H. and F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. . The same. Tr. by Forman. . Text of "The Ring of the Nibelung." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. . The same. Tr. by Forman. London, Schott. . Text of "The Mastersingers of Nuremberg." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. . Text of "Tristan und Isolde." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. . The same. Tr. by Forman. London, Nutt, 1897. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 399 Wagner (Richard). Translations from prose writings, by Burlingame, under the title, Art Life and Theories of Richard Wagner. New York, Holt, 1889. *Wallaschek (Richard). Primitive Music. London, Longmans, 1893. Wasielewski (W. J. von). Life of Schumann. Tr. by Abby L. Alger. Boston, Ditson, 1871. Weber (Max von). C. M. von Weber: the Life of an Artist. Tr. by Simpson. 2 vols. Boston, Ditson. *Weingartner (Felix). The Symphony since Beethoven. Tr. by Maude B. Dutton. Boston, Ditson, 1904. Weitzmann (C. F.). History of Pianoforte Playing. Tr. by Baker. New York, Schirmer, 1893. * Weston (Jessie L.). Legends of the Wagner Drama. New York, Scribner, 1896. Willeby (Charles). Frederic Francois Chopin. London, Low, 1892. . Masters of English Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. Williams (C. F. A.). Bach. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1900. . Handel. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. * . The Story of Notation. London, Scott, 1903. Wolzogen (Hans von). Guide through the Music of Wagner's "Parsifal." Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1891. . Guide through the Music of Wagner's ' 1 Ring of the Nibelung." Tr. by Dole. New York, Schirmer. . Guide to Wagners "Tristan and Isolde." Tr. by Mosely. Leipzig, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1884. Zelter (C. F.) and Goethe (J. W. von). Letters. Selected and tr. by Coleridge. London, Bell, 1887. INDEX INDEX A Adam, 300. Additional accompaniments, 139. "Aula," 360, 361. " Alceste," Preface to, 148. Allegri, 47. " Also sprach Zarathustra," 339. Amati, 78. Ambrose, St., 17, 24. Anerios, The. 43. Anglican church, Music of the, 56. Anthem, Anglican, 59. Antiphonal singing in the early church, 16, 17. Antiphonary, 23. Arcadelt, 40. Aria, 93 ; in Bach's works, 125. Auber, 299, 301. Augustine, St., 17. B Bach, C. P. E., 87, 212. Bach, J. S., 114, 119 et seq., 139, 233, 236, 349. Balakirev, 371. ' Ballad, 208. Ballet, 100. Bargiel, 346. Bayreuth, 312. Beethoven, 171 et seq. Bellini, 290. Bennett, 241. Berger, 217, 234. Berlioz, 239, 260 et seq. Beza, 61. Bizet, 354. Boieldieu, 298. Boito, 363. Bononcini, 106. Borodin, 371, 372. Bortniansky, 369. Brahms, 253, 331. Breviary, 20. Brinchoys, 40. Bruch, 336. Bruckner, 338. Bruneau, 356. Buck, 385. Bull, 83. Bungert, 345. Byrd, 83. c Caccini, 67, 93. Caldara, 106. Cambert, 101. Cantata, Secular, 92 ; church, 117; in Bach's works, 126. Cantus firmus, 31, 33, 39. Carissimi, 92. " Carmen," 354, 364. Cassation, see Divertimento. Cavaliere, 68. " Cavalleria Rusticana," 364. Cavalli, 91, 101. Chabrier, 356. Chad wick, 385. Chambonnieres, 84. Chant, Anglican, 58. Chant, Gregorian, 22, 29. See also Plain Song. Charpentier, 356. Cherubini, 295. 404 INDEX Chopin, 243 et seg. Chorale, Lutheran, 50 ; its origin, 53, 120, 123. Chorale prelude, 123. Chorallied, 55. Chouquet, quoted, 300. Christians, Singing among the early, 15, 25. "Christus," Liszt's, 281. Cimarosa, 98, 106. Clari, 106. Clavichord, 82. Clemens non Papa, 40. Clementi, 217. Coleridge-Taylor, 381. Colonne, 349. Common Prayer, Book of, 57. Concerto da camera, 80. Concerto grosso, 89. Conducting, Modern orchestral, 282. Congregational singing, German, 51 ; English and American, 60. Corelli, 81. Counterpoint, 32, 33, 38. Couperin, 84. Cowen, 382. Ceramer, 217. " Creation, The," 160. Cremona, 78. Cruder, 114. Cui, 371. Cyprian de Eore, 47. Czerny, 218, 273. D "Dafne," 67. " Damnation de Faust." 267. Dance, Early connection of music and, 3, 4. " Dante " symphony, 279. Dargomizhsky, 370. Darwin's theory of the origin of music, 2. Dauvergne, 143. Debussy, 356. Delibes, 356. Diaphony, 30. D'Indy, 356. Discant, 31. Dittersdorf, 186. Divertimento, 157. "Don Giovanni," 167, 293, 321. Donizetti, 290. " Don Juan " (Strauss), 339. Draesecke, 346. " Dream of Gerontius, The," 383. Dubois, 349. Dufay, 40. Duni, 143. Dunstable, 35. Dvorak, 253, 375. E Eccard, 55. Egyptian music, 7. Ehlert, quoted, 242. " Ein Heldenleben," 340. Elgar, 383. " Elijah," 234, 237. Endless melody, 321. Etude, 215. " Euryanthe," 191, 194, 293, 321. F "Falstaff," 359, 361. Faure, 356. " Faust," 351. " Faust " symphony, 279. Faux-bourdon, 33 "Fidelio," 182, 293. Field, 217. Finale, Opera, 98. Finck, 40. Folk music, 4 ; in the Middle Ages, 35 ; in Austria, 158. Folk song, French, 37 ; German, 199; Russian, Bohemian and Scandinavian, 366. Foote, 385. Franck, 349, 358. INDEX 405 Franco of Cologne, 34. Franco of Paris, 34. Frank. 114. Franz, 230. "Freisehiitz, Der," 191, 193, 194, 293, 324. Frescobaldi. 75. Fugue, 75; origin and development of, 123; in Bach's works, 123, 129. G Gabrieli, Andrea, 47, 74. Gabrieli, Giovanni, 42, 47, 74. Gade, 241. Gafor, 40. Galilei, 67. Galuppi, 98, 106. German. 381. Gevaert. quoted, 25. Geyer, 310. Gibbons, 60, 83. Gigout, 349. Giordano, 365. Glarean. 40. 70. Glazounov, 372. Gleason, 3S5. Glinka. 369. Glossolalia. 15. Gluck. 11, 107, 146 et seq. Godard, 356. Goetz. 344. Goldmark, 344. Gombert, 40. Goudimel, 40. Gounod, 349, 351. Gradual, 23. Graun. 107. Greeks. Music of the. 9, 30. Gregorian chant, see Chant, Gre- gorian. Gregorian modes, see Modes. Gregory I., 24. G retry, 144. Grieg", 377. Guarneri, 78. Guido of Arezzo. 34. Guillaume de Mechault, 35. " Guillaume Tell," 300. Guilmant, 349. H Hale, quoted, 364. Halevy, 305. Hammerschmidt, 114. Handel. 92, 107, 126, 131 et seq., 160, 235, 236. " Hansel und Gretel," 344. Harmony, First theory of modern, 70. " Harold en Italie," 267. Harpsichord, 82. Hasse, 107. Hassler, 55. Hauptmann. 240. Hausegger, 346. Haydn, 153 et seq., 165. Hebrews, Music among the ancient, Helmore, quoted, 58. Henderson, quoted, 341. Herold, 300. Herzogenburg, 346. Hiller, Ferdinand, 241. Hiller, J. A., 186. Hobrecht, 40. Hofhaimer, 40. Hofmann, 346. " Huguenots, Les," 305. Hummel. 217. Humperdinck. 344. Huneker. quoted, 341. Hungarian rhapsodies, Liszt's, 277. Huss, 385. Hymnody, Early Christian, 15. I Imitation, 32. Instruments, Primitive. 3 ; Hebrew, S ; Greek, 12 ; mediaeval, 36. 406 INDEX " Iphigenie en Tauride," 149. Isaak, 40. J Jahn, quoted, 104, 157. Johannes de Muris, 35. Jommelli, 106. Josquin des Pres, 40. K Kalkbrenner, 218. Reiser, 116. Kelly, 385. Kirchner, 346. Kjerulf, 378. Klughardt, 345. Kreutzer, 196. Kuhnau, 86. L Lalo, 355. Lamoureux, 349. Lassus, 42, 48. Leading-motives, 323. Legrenzi, 106. Leo, 106. Leoncavallo, 365. Lesueur, 262. Lied, 198, 201. " Life for the Tsar," 369. Liszt, Cosima, 312. Liszt, Franz, 219, 271 et seq., 311, 333. Liturgies, Earliest Christian, 14. Liturgy, Anglican, 57. Liturgy, Catholic, 19. Loewe, 209. Logroscino, 106. " Lohengrin," 191, 315. Lortzing, 196. Lotti, 106. Ludwig II., 312. Lully, 102, 142, 146. Lute, 75. Luther, 51, 52, 54. M MacDowell, 384. Mackenzie, 382. Madrigal, 65. Mahler, 346. Maitland, quoted, 128. Marbecke, 58. " Marcellus, Mass of Pope/* 46. Marchettus, 35. Marenzio, 43. Marot, 61. Marschner, 196. " Masaniello," 301. Mascagni, 364. Masque, 132. Mass (form of worship), 19, 52. Mass (musical composition), 21, 95. Massenet, 355. Mastersingers, 36. Mattheson, 116. Mazurka, 246. McCunn, 381. Mees, quoted, 45. Mehul, 297. " Meistersinger, Die," 316. " Melody," Wagner's u endless," 321. Mendelssohn, 128, 232 et seq. Merian, quoted, 169, 199, 305. Merulo,47, 74. Metastasio, 108. Meyerbeer, 302. Minnesingers, 36. Missal, 20. Modes, Gregorian, 26, 71. Monsigny, 144. Monteverde, 90. " Mors et Vita," 352. Moscheles, 218, 234. Moussorgsky, 371. Mozart, 98, 146, 162 et seq. " Muette de Portici, La," 301. Miiller, 186. INDEX 407 N Naninis, The, 43. " Neo-Russian " school, 370. Netherland school, 34, 37, 38, 65. Neumae, 26. Nicode, 346. Notation, Mediaeval, 26. Notker Balbulus, 28. "Nozze di Figaro, Le," 167, 293. O " Oberon," 192, 193, 194. Ockenheim, see Okeghem. Ode symphony, 266. Odington, 34. Offenbach, 356. Okeghem, 40. Opera, Origin of, 66 ; in 1 Venice, 91 ; in Naples, 94 ; two classes of, 96 ; early, in France, 100 et seq., 146; opera seria, its char- acter, 105, 107; German roman- tic, 185 ; contending forces in, 283 et seq., 320 ; later Italian, 286 et seq. ; later French, 293 et seq. ; Wagner's criticism of, 320, 321. Opera buff a, 96 et seq., 143. Opera-comique, 142 et seq., 294. Oratorio, Origin of, 68, 117; idea of, as an art form, 134 et seq. Orchestration in the eighteenth cen- tury, 139 ; of Haydn and later, 158; of Beethoven, 178; of Weber, 193; modern, 255; of Berlioz, 264 ; of Wagner, 327. " Orfeo ed Euridice," 148. Organ, 55, 72, 73 et seq. ; early: organ music, 74 ; in Bach's works, 120, 122 et seq. Organum, 30. Origin of music, 1. " Otello," 361. Overture, Early Italian, 94; early French, 102. P Paganini, 273. Paine, 385. Paisiello, 98, 106. Palestrina, 39, 42, et seq. Parker, 385. Parry, 382. "Parsifal," 317. Pasdeloup, 349. "Passion according to St. Mat- thew," 127. Passion music, Origin and develop- ment of, 1 1 5 et seq. Patronage, Musical, in the eigh- teenth century, 159. Pergolese, 98, 106. Peri, 67. Perrin, 101. Philidor, 144. Phillippe de Vitry, 35. Pianoforte, Invention of the, 211 ; development of technic, 214, 275 ; construction of the, 216. Piccinni, 98, 147. Pierre de la Rue, 40. Pius X., his decree concerning church music, 49. Plain Song, 22, 27, 29, 59. Plana, Wilhelmine, 311. Polonaise, 246. Porpora, 106. Programme music, 184, 251 et seq., 278. Psalter, Geneva, 61. Puccini, 365. Purcell, 60, 133, 138. Puritans, Music among the, 61. Q Quartet, Origin of string, 156. R Raff, 338. Ranieau, 71, 85, 103, 142, 146. 408 INDEX " Rappresentatione di Anima e di Corpo 68. Recitative, Origin of, 67, 125. " Redemption, The," 352. Reichardt, 186. Reinecke, 346. Renaissance, 64, 65. Requiem mass, 21 ; Mozart's, 169. Reyer, 356. Rheinberger, 337. Richter, 240. Riemann, quoted, 69, 70. Rimsky-Korsakov, 371, 372. " Ring des Nibelungen, Der," 315. Romans, Music among the, 13. Romantic movement in Germany, 187 ; in France, 251, 261. Romantic opera, 190. Rosenmiiller, 114. Rossini, 286, 287, 300. Rousseau, 143. Rubinstein, 373. " Ruslan and Ludmilla," 370. S Sacchini, 106. Saint-Saens, 353. Sand, George, 244. Scales, Primitive, 5 ; Greek, 11» 12 ; Gregorian, see Modes ; mod- ern, their origin, 69. Scarlatti, Alessandro, 94, 106. Scarlatti, Domenico, 86. Scenery, Wagner's, 326. Scheldt, 114. Schein, 114. Schilling, 345. Schola Cantorum, 49. Schubert, 185, 186, 199, 241. Schumann, 220 et seq. Schiitz, 114 et seq. Senfl, 55. Sequence, 27. " Service," Anglican, 59. Sierov, 370. Sinding, 378. Singing in the early Italian opera, 93, 108 et seq. ; in the later opera, 291. Singspiel, 186. Smetana, 375. Sonata, 79, 86 etseq., 171, 179. Song, Definition of, 200. SpenceVs theory of the origin of music, 2. Spinelli, 365. Spitta, quoted, 37. Spohr, 185, 186, 195. Spontini, 297. Stanford, 382. St. Cecilia society, 48. " St. Elizabeth," 281. St. Gall, Convent of, 27. " St. Paul," 236. Stradella, 92. Stradivari, 78. Strauss, Johann, the elder, 241. Strauss, Johann, the younger, 241. Strauss, Richard, 339, 345. Suite, 79, 85. Sullivan, 381. Svendsen, 378. Sweelinck, 75. Symphonic poem, 279. " Symphonie fantastique," 265. Symphony, Origin of, 156. T Tallis, 60, 83. " Tannhauser," 314. Tasca, 365. Tchaikovsky, 372. Telemann, 116. Thalberg, 218. Thomas, Ambroise, 355. Thomas, Arthur Goring, 381. Thomas, Theodore, 385. " Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche," 340. Tinctoris, 40. Tinel, 349. " Tod und Verklanmg," 339. INDEX 409 Tourte, 78. Trent, Council of, 46. "Tristan und Isolde," 317. Troubadours, 36. Tye, 60. V Vaudeville, 143. Venice, Church music of, 47. Verdelot, 40. Verdi, 290, 339 et seq. Viadana, 71. Vinci, 106. Viol, 78. Violin, 78; its early music, 79. Vittoria, 43. w Wagner, 11, 197, 274, 285, 308 et seq., 347. Wallaschek's theory of the origin of music, 2. Walther, 55. Waltz, Origin of the, 241. Watts, 62. Weber, 185, 186, 188 et seq.; as piano composer, 194, 218, 239. Weingartner, quoted, 266, 269. "Well-tempered Clavichord," 129. Wesley, 62. Widor, 349. Wieck, Clara, 221. Wieck, Friedrich, 220. Willaert, 42, 47. Wille, Frau, 311. Witt, 48. z Zarlino, 71. " Zauberflote, Die," 168. Zelter, 199, 234. Zingarelli, 106. By EDWARD DICKINSON Professor of the History of Music, Conservatory of Music, Oberlin College Music in the History of the Western Church With an Introduction on Religious Music among Primi- tive and Ancient Peoples. Crown 8vo, $2.50 net. CONTENTS I. Primitive and Ancient Religious Music. II. Ritual and Song in the Early Christian Church. III. The Liturgy of the Catholic Church. IV. The Ritual Chant of the Catholic Church. V. Development of Mediaeval Chorus Music. VI. The Modern Musical Mass. VII. The Rise of the Lutheran Hymnody. VIII. The Rise of the German Cantata and Passion, 17th Century. IX. The Culmination of German Protestant Music — J. S. Bach. X. The Musical System of the Church of England. XI. Congregational Song in the English and American Churches. XII. Problems of Church Music in America. "A most scholarly contribution to the sacred side of musical study, and i3 probably the chief work on this topic that America has yet produced." — Louis C. Elson in The History of American Music. "It is an eager and comprehensive study which no intelligent minister can afford not to possess and ponder. It is a fine and scientific analysis of the stages by which this ministrant art has developed. Much research and large aesthetical as well as ethical philosophy have gone into this compact treatise." — President Stryker of Hamilton College in the Hamilton Record. MUSIC IN THE HISTORY OF THE WESTERN CHURCH By EDWARD DICKINSON " A volume of extraordinary interest and a mound of erudition. The article on Johann Sebastian Bach in the chapter 'The Culmination of German Prot- estant Music ' alone would make the book of value. Mr. Dickinson knows his subject thoroughly." — James Huneker in The Musical Courier. " No man in this country is better equipped than Prof. Dickinson for the pro- duction of such a book. His scholarship is profound, his critical poise serene, his musical sympathies wide, and his general reading great enough to enable him to assume something larger than a merely pedagogic attitude toward his subject. * * * The whole book is characterized by knowledge, firm mastery of the subject, and a nice adjustment of derails. It is excellently written and hand- somely printed. * * * Can be cordially recommended to all students of musi- cal art." — W. J. Henderson in the New York Times. " It is a very dignified, painstaking, thoughtful treatise, broad in its scope, scholarly in its method, and exceedingly suggestive and powerful upon many questions both of history and of aesthetics. It stands by itself in being neither a book of reference or a text-book on the one side nor a purely philosophical discussion on the other, but something between the two. Its treatment of many of the historical problems of the field is notable for thoroughness and skill, and its contribution to the philosophy of church music is positive and valuable. It will certainly establish itself at once as one of the indispensable handbooks on the subject." — Prof. Waldo S. Pratt, of Hartford Theo- logical Seminary. " There are pages that were the result of wide and patient research. There are sentences in which conclusions drawn only from indefatigable research are lucidly expressed. Nowhere is there a show of pedantry ; nowhere is there the suggestion of a man with preconceived theories, who shapes his facts or ignores facts to confirm his theories. There is independent thought ; there is the utmost catholicity of spirit. Furthermore, the author marshals his facts, relates his investigations, hands down his conclusions in a style that is clear, dignified, manly, entertaining ; his descriptions are often picturesque j at times he is eloquent." — Philip Hale in the Boston Journal. "To his evidently wide knowledge of the causes of church music in its many stages, and acquaintance with its historical environment, Professor Dickinson brings a broad and intelligent human sympathy. He shows critical fairness alike in his treatment of the Roman Catholic Mass and the rise of Lutheran hymnody, of Anglican church music and Puritan Psalmody in England and America. The treatment is free from unnecessary technicalities. This book furnishes just the sort of information every clergyman ought to have. At the same time it is full of suggestion to the specialist. The book is supplied with a good index and bibliographical appendix." — The Outlook. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS • NEW YORK Date Due Br 3 VI] 1 AP 2 4 '51 m 8/51 ... ■ 3 b Hi *" MM 1I-J - SMi nn tin ■ 1 1012 00056 7240