FEB 21 1914 LxvisioD BS49 B5a Scctioo 28 THE BIBLE FOR HOME AND SCHOOL SHAILER MATHEWS, General Editor PROFESSOR OF HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE THEOLOGY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE BOOKS OF AMOS, HOSEA AND MICAH JOHN MERLIN POWIS SMITH THE BIBLE FOR HOME AND SCHOOL SHAILER MATHEWS, General Editor GENESIS By Professor H. G. Mitchell DEUTERONOMY By Professor W. G. Jordan JUDGES By Professor Edward L. Curtis JOB By Professor George A. Barton ISAIAH By Professor John E. McFadyen AMOS, ROSEA, AND MICAH By Professor J. M. Powis Smith MATTHEW By Professor A. T. Robertson ACTS By Professor George H. Gilbert GALATIANS By Professor B. W. Bacon EPHESIANS AND COLOSSI ANS By Reverend Gross Alexander HEBREWS By Professor E. J. Goodspeed VOLUMES IN PREPARATION I SAMUEL By Professor L. W. Batten PSALMS By Reverend J. P. Peters MARK By Professor M. W. Jacobus JOHN By Professor Shailer Mathews ROMANS By Professor E. I. Bosworth I AND II CORINTHIANS By Professor J. S. Riggs THE BIBLE FOR HOME AND SCHOOL A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOKS OF « AMOS. HOSEA, AND MICAH BY JOHN MERLIN POWIS SMITH, Ph.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1914 All rights reserved Copyright, 1914, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1914. The references in the foot-notes marked " SV" are to the American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible. Copyright, 1901, by Thomas Nelson & Sons. By permission of the Publishers. J. S, Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co, Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. GENERAL INTRODUCTION The Bible for Home and School is intended to place the results of the best modern biblical scholarship at the disposal of the general reader. It does not seek to dupli- cate other commentaries to which the student must turn. Its chief characteristics are {a) its rigid exclusion of all processes, both critical and exegetical, from its notes ; {b) its presupposition and its use of the assured results of historical investigation and criticism wherever such results throw light on the biblical text; (c) its running analysis both in text and comment; {d) its brief explana- tory notes adapted to the rapid reader ; {e) its thorough but brief Introductions ; (/) its use of the Revised Version of 1 88 1, supplemented with all important renderings in other versions. Biblical science has progressed rapidly during the past few years, but the reader still lacks a brief, comprehensive commentary that shall extend to him in usable form mate- rial now at the disposition of the student. It is hoped that in this series the needs of intelligent Sunday School teachers have been met, as well as those of clergymen and lay readers, and that in scope, purpose, and loyalty to the Scriptures as a foundation of Christian thought and life, its volumes will stimulate the intelligent use of the Bible in the home and the school. SHAILER MATHEWS. CONTENTS PAGB Introduction to Amos 1-14 I. The Book of Amos i II. The Times of Amos 4 III. The Man and his Message 7 IV. Recent Literature on Amos 12 The More Important Abbreviations . . . -13 Text and Commentary on Amos i5~^^ Introduction to Hosea 69-86 I. The Book of Hosea .....•• 7^ II. The Times of Hosea 75 III. The Man 77 IV. The Message of Hosea ^3 V. Literature on Hosea ....«•• 85 Text and Commentary on Hosea ..... 87-154 Introduction to Micah i55~'70 I. The Book of Micah ....•• ^57 II. The Prophet Micah '59 III. The Times of Micah i6l IV. The Message of Micah 165 V. Literature on Micah ^^9 Text and Commentary on Micah .... 1 71-21 1 Index • • 213-216 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF AMOS INTRODUCTION I. The Book of Amos I. CONTENTS The Book of Amos, as it now stands, falls into the following divisions : I. The Superscription (i : i), stating the authorship, subject, and date of the book ; II. The Theme of the Prophecy (1:2); III. Jehovah's Purpose to smite the Neighbors of Israel and Israel itself (i : 3-2 : 16), being a series of oracles against Damascus, Moab, etc. ; IV. The Sin of Samaria and her Judgment (3 : 1-4 : 3), including a justification of the prophet's message, a state- ment of Samaria's incredible wickedness and of her sur- passing splendor and luxury, and a denunciation of the sensualistic women ; V. Israel's Failure to learn from her Experience (4 : 4-13) ; VI. The Doom of Israel and the Way of Escape (5 : 1-17), containing a dirge upon Israel, a call to repent- ance, and a picture of the coming grief ; VII. The Doom of Exile (5 : 18-27) ; VIII. The Punishment of the Heedless Rich (6 : 1-7) ; IX. The Desolation of Samaria (6 : 8-14) ; X. Three Visions of Approaching Judgment (7 : 1-9), one as devouring locusts, a second as devastating drought, and the third as a plumb-line used for destruction ; XL A Historical Interlude (7 : 10-17), being an account of Amos's preaching at Bethel ; INTRODUCTION XII. A Fourth Vision (8 : 1-3) depicting Israel's End ; XIII. The Sins of Israel and their Penalty (8 : 4-14) ; XIV. A Final Vision of Inevitable Ruin (9 : 1-4) ; XV. A Eulogy upon Jehovah's Power (9 : 5-6) ; XVI. Israel without Special Privileges from Jehovah (9 : 7-10) ; XVII. The Glorious Future of Israel (9: 11-15). 2. UNITY The Book of Amos has suffered little at the hands of editors. The following passages, for reasons stated in the commentary in each case, are regarded as of later origin than the days of Amos. They reflect the histori- cal conditions and the opinions of later times, viz. i : 2, The Theme of the Book ; i : 9-10, The Oracle against Tyre; 1:11-12, Oracle against Edom; 2:4-5, Oracle against Judah; 4:12-13 and 5:8-9 and 9:5-6, Dox- ologies, setting forth the power of God ; 6 : 9-10, detailed expansion of the description of the disease- smitten com- munity ; 9 : 8-15, a modification of the foregoing judgment and a promise for the days to come. With the exception of the last addition (9:8b-i5), these supplementary materials do not essentially affect the thought of the prophecy of Amos. It has come down as little stained by the hands that have transmitted it as any book of the Old Testament. It may, indeed, well be that the materials in the book are not now arranged in the order of their original utterance and that the visions of chaps. 7-9 chronologically preceded the addresses of chaps. 1-6; but even so, little is lost by the change, for there is but little development in the thought of the prophet from first to last. Amos came to the front, ap- parently, with his message clearly formulated in his own INTRODUCTION mind and found no need to change it afterwards to any serious extent. 3. TEXT The text of the Book of Amos is one of the best pre- served in the Old Testament. There are very few pas- sages where the testimony of the versions and the obscurity of the Hebrew compel us to suppose a corruption of the text. The more noticeable corruptions are confined to the following verses: viz. i : 11, 15; 2:7; 4:3, 9; 5 : 26; 6: 1, 2, 12. 4. LITERARY STYLE The style of Amos is vigorous and effective. The simplicity and directness of his speech are notable. The presentation of his thought is always straightforward and clear. His figurative and illustrative material is largely drawn from outdoor life. The sounds that greeted his ears every day are again and again echoed in his utter- ances. Lions roar, birds flutter, bears growl, serpents hiss, locusts swarm, cattle low, wagons rattle, and horses prance in his pages. His language is vivid, concrete, and picturesque. It is poetry, in short, not prose, that he writes. The poetic quality of his oracles is given a fitting poetic dress. Parallelism, the well-known characteristic of Hebrew poetry, meets us everywhere. Not only so, but to a large extent his poetry falls into regular strophes, particularly in such passages as 1:3-2:8 and 4:4-11, with their repetition of lines and refrains. In 5:1 &.., use is made of the familiar elegiac rhythm, to bewail the fall of Israel. Boldness and strength, producing a cer- tain t3^e of grandeur, are characteristic of the poetry of Amos. He cares nothing for beauty for its own sake, and grace is only an incidental accompaniment of effective 3 INTRODUCTION strength. He is too tremendously in earnest to spend time upon delicacy and finesse. II. The Times of Amos I. DATE The date of the prophetic activity of Amos can be deter- mined with a fair degree of definiteness. According to 7 : lo f . he was a contemporary of Jeroboam II, who reigned from 783 to 743 B.C. The superscription (i : i) adds nothing to this information, since Jeroboam and Uzziah were contemporaries for some time, and the earth- quake there mentioned cannot be dated. If 8 : 9 reflects a recent eclipse, such an event is known to have occurred in 763 B.C. The conquest of Gath by Uzziah (2 Chron. 26 : 6) seems to be presupposed in 6 : 2. The downfall of Hamath (6 : 2) cannot be definitely placed, but may have occurred in connection with the campaigns under Adad- nirari, Shalmaneser, and Ashurdan, who repeatedly operated in northern and central Syria, between the years 806 and 765 B.C. The silence of Amos regarding the rise of Tiglath- pileser, from 745 B.C. on, and concerning the tribute paid to Assyria in 738 and the deportation of 734, seems to indicate clearly that his work was done before these stir- ring events took place. He is, consequently, generally placed in the period between 765 and 750 B.C. 2. HISTORICAL SITUATION This date is supported by the fact of the vagueness of Amos's references to the agent, through whom Jehovah's wrath is to be executed upon Israel ; cf . 3 : 1 1 ; 4 : 2 f . ; 5:27; 6: 14; 7:11,17. The reason for this vagueness lies in the uncertainty of the historical situation of that 4 INTRODUCTION time. At the death of Adad-nirari of Assyria, in 783 B.C., the Assyrian Empire entered upon a struggle for life. Between 783 and 773 B.C., Shalmaneser headed six cam- paigns against the kingdom of Urartu, which lay to the north of Assyria, in the region above Lake Van. In the course of this struggle, the foe on one occasion pressed down to within a few days' journey of Nineveh. The Syrian states farther west, who had leagued together against Assyria in 854 B.C. and again in 849 and 846, and had been harassed by her armies in almost each successive year from 843 to 828 B.C. and again from 806 to 797 B.C., were naturally vitally interested in the prog- ress of the contest between Assyria and Urartu and cast in their lot with Urartu against Assyria. Hence, after repelling Urartu, Shalmaneser pushed west in 773 and attacked Damascus. His successors, Ashurdan and Ashur- nirari campaigned against Hadrach in central Syria in 772 and 765 B.C. and defended Arpad against the Chaldi of Urartu in 754 B.C. This was the last flicker of Assyrian power in the West until the accession of Tiglath-pileser in 745 B.C. These were days of waning power in Assyria, and the future of the western lands was by no means clearly recognizable. Would Assyria revive and reassert her old-time power? Or would the peoples of Urartu succeed in displacing her power by their own ? Amos did not undertake to answer this question for his contempo- raries. He is content to indicate the north as the direction whence destruction is coming upon the states of Syria and Palestine. During this same period, the reign of Jeroboam II, Israel was enjoying a prosperity that had not been equalled since the reign of Solomon. Egypt was powerless to trouble her, the last days of the 2 2d Dynasty being marked 5 INTRODUCTION by internal conflicts and schisms that consumed all her energy. As a result of the Assyrian campaigns in the West, under Shalmaneser (859-825 b.c.) and Adad- nirari (812-783 B.C.), Syria, the old enemy of Israel, who had reduced her to a pitiable state in the reigns of Jehu (2 Kings 10:32) and Jehoahaz (2 Kings 13:7), had herself been rendered powerless and incapable of further molesting her southern neighbor. Jeroboam indeed, follow- ing up the successes of Joash (2 Kings 13: 25), expelled Damascus completely from the territory of Israel (2 Kings 14: 25-28). Judah, too, after Amaziah's vain attempt to assert independence from Joash (2 Kings 14:8-14), troubled Israel no more and probably paid regular tribute. Freed thus from external conflicts, Israel was left to recuperate from her exhausting wars with Syria and to develop her own internal resources in peace. The result- ing prosperity is reflected in the sermons of Amos. He tells us of palaces (3:10,11; 6:8); ''winter-houses," "summer-houses," houses with inlaid ivory finishings, and "houses of hewn-stone" (3:15; 5:11); and of house furnishings of silk and ivory (3 : 12 ; 6 : 4). He shows us the men absorbed in gainful, but unrighteous, business (8 : 4-6) ; the lust for wealth has blunted their moral consciousness. The abounding prosperity has produced a set of sensuous and materialistic men, who spend their time in the pursuit of pleasure and self-gratification (6 : 4-6). They are urged on in their unrighteous ways by their wives, contemptible, ease-loving, self-indulgent and sensual, lost to all true womanhood (4 : i). The natural result of such prosperity was a feeling of self-confidence in Israel (6:13). The leaders were un- troubled by care and free from the disturbances of fear (6: i). Believing, as did all the people of that day, that 6 INTRODUCTION prosperity was the indisputable evidence of the favor of Jehovah toward Israel, they rejoiced in the confidence that God was with them (5:14). They laughed at the suggestion of a day of judgment upon the nation, and put the thought far away from them (6:3). They revelled in their security and congratulated themselves upon their piety. III. The Man and his Message I. THE man To this care-free, joyous, and self-satisfied generation came Amos with his message of woe. The fact that he was a native of Judah did not render him or his message any more acceptable (cf. 7:12). His home at Tekoa (1:1) lay from ten to twelve miles to the south of Jeru- salem. Situated upon the top of a high hill, it commanded a wide view, looking down upon the Dead Sea to the east and across to the hills of Moab. Here he carried on the twofold occupation of a shepherd and a dresser of syca- more trees (1:1; 7 : 14 f.). Thence he probably set out from time to time upon visits to the larger markets with the products of his flock and of his industry. Right at his door lay Bethlehem ; Jerusalem but an hour's walk farther ; Hebron about the same distance to the southwest; and Bethel less than twenty-five miles away. To such points as these he may have gone frequently in pursuit of his business, and even longer journeys are not out of the question. Through his own observations while upon such trips and through conversations with other men from more distant parts whom he encountered in Tekoa, in Jerusalem, Bethel, and elsewhere, he learned to know the conditions of life in Judah and in the North and heard more or less definite rumors of the doings of the neighboring INTRODUCTION peoples and of the affairs of the more distant Assyria and Urartu. Returning to his regular duties at Tekoa, the long, lonely vigils of his shepherd life afforded him abundant leisure for thought. As the simple, sincere, and keen- eyed shepherd pondered over what he had seen and heard and contrasted the luxury, vice, and heartlessness of the merchants and rulers with the poverty, the sufferings, and the wrongs of hard-working men belonging to his own social level, he became conscious of an irresistible appeal to forsake his flocks and to go forth as a prophet of the Lord (7 : 15). 2. THE MESSAGE The message of Amos ran counter to all the beliefs of his day. His thought of God was in irreconcilable con- flict with that of those to whom he preached. For them, Jehovah was Israel's God. His interests were bound up with those of his people. He could not but prosper them and protect them, as long as they fulfilled the obligations to him, which they recognized as resting upon them. To doubt regarding the continuance, — yea, the increase — of Israel's prosperity and power among the nations was to be disloyal to Jehovah. Religion and patriotism combined to develop in Israel a jubilant optimism. Prophets, priests, and people were at one, all carried away by an enthusiasm of faith and a zeal without knowledge. If some temporary misfortune, such as an earthquake or a drought, checked the flow of enthusiasm for a moment, it did but rush on and over the barrier with added momen- tum thereafter (cf. 4:4 ff.). Amos's generation was in the main satisfied, content to ''let well enough alone." Its members were faithful to the traditions that had come down from the fathers, both in the social sphere and in 8 INTRODUCTION that of religion. They were of good old conservative stock and resented change. Economic and political safety lay in strict adherence to the old paths. What better proof of the efl&cacy of this policy than the pre- vailing prosperity? Let him who proposes change take heed lest the whole social, economic, and political order come tumbling about his ears! Amos was radically committed to a change, both in the social order and in the domain of religion proper. His idea of God far transcended national limits. For him, Jehovah was God of the nations, guiding their courses and ordering their fates (cf. i : 3-2 13; 9:7). Not that the nations and Israel were precisely on the same plane before Jehovah, but that Israel, enjoying special privi- leges from him, was under special responsibilities to him for the neglect of which she will be held strictly account- able (3:2; cf. 2 : 9 ff.). Amos also set himself against the popular conception of the cultus. His statements at times sound as though he would do away with the ritual completely ; cf. 3 : 14 ; 4 *• 4 f- ; 5 • S> 21-23, 25 f. ; 8:10, 14; 9:1. But allowance must be made for the rhetorical exuberance of the prophetic indignation. It is scarcely conceivable that in such an age Amos ever seriously contemplated a worship without ritualistic elements. It is rather that he insisted that sacrifices and offerings, feasts and fasts, were not in themselves the chief desire of Jehovah. Jehovah was more concerned about the offerer than the offering. Ritual is good, but character is better; and ritual apart from character is worse than useless. Righteousness is the indispensable prerequisite to the continuance of the divine favor. The great work of Amos was thus that of insisting that the religion of his day keep pace with the advancing, ethical 9 INTRODUCTION conscience. The question with him, as contrasted with his opponents, was not, ''What is the custom?" but, "What is right and just?" From this point of view, he studied the social order in Israel and pronounced it iniquitous. He saw wealth accumulating in the hands of the few, while the masses were reduced to the lowest depths of poverty. He charged the wealthy with cheating, robbery, and oppression and called down upon them the wrath of God. He knew the conditions whereof he spoke. The signs of great wealth were visible to all. The methods by which it had been attained were only too well known. As a peasant farmer, Amos had had sheep and wool to sell in the markets of the land. He had been compelled to take small prices for his products like all other sellers in his class. He and his neighbors barely managed to keep soul and body together through their industry. But those who bought their goods and who fixed the price to be paid fared sumptuously every day and clothed them- selves in purple and fine linen. This sort of thing helped to kindle the prophetic fire in the bosom of Amos. With the return of prosperity to Israel upon the establishment of a relatively long period of peace and rest, those favored by position and power, or by the possession of exceptional business capacity, turned the stream of wealth into their own pockets. Not content with what could be done tow- ard this by legal means, many allowed themselves to be carried across the line of legality by their thirst for gain. The purchase of court decisions (2:7; 5:11), the use of false weights and measures (8:5), and the general distortion of justice and right (5:7; 6:12) brought the poorer classes into an abject state of poverty (2:6; 5:11; 8 : 6), so that in many cases they were forced to sell them- selves into slavery in order to pay their debts. 10 INTRODUCTION Amos was a fearless and outspoken critic of this state of things. He went through the North exposing the real situation. He assured the dominant classes that the state could not endure under such conditions. He de- clared it to be Jehovah's purpose to wipe the kingdom from off the face of the earth on account of its violence and wrong-doing. The only escape from this coming destruction was to be sought in a complete revolution of conduct (5 : 4-6, 14 f. , 24). The religion of the day must be ethicized and socialized. The cry of the suffering poor must no longer ring in the ears of Jehovah. In the announcement of the threatened doom, Amos makes use of an existing belief regarding a coming day of Jehovah. By his contemporaries, this day was looked upon as a time when Jehovah would manifest himself in marvellous fashion upon earth in the overthrow of all Israel's foes and in the exaltation of Israel to supremacy over the nations. Amos sees in the coming day the ap- proach of Jehovah's punishment upon Israel herself for her own sins (5 : 18 ff.). He thus gives the old idea a new significance and makes of it a mighty ethical force, of which effective use was made by later prophets. He also brings the idea down out of the region of indefinite and hazy expectation and ties it up firmly with a set of his- torical events. He was apparently unable to name defi- nitely the agent through whom Jehovah's will was to be wrought out upon Israel ; but he was quite sure that one of the great northern peoples would come down with fire and sword as the scourge of God. Such preaching naturally aroused the antagonism not only of all the vested interests in general, but also of the rulers in particular, and he received orders from the court to flee for his life. Such is too often the fate of those INTRODUCTION who set themselves against the order of things as they are. Though a native of Judah, Amos did his work in the North. The reason lies in the fact that the North was by far the more important of the two halves of the Hebrew people and that the time of crisis for her was fast approach- ing. Moreover, as blood-relatives and as politically in the closest possible relation to Israel, the men of Judah were vitally interested in all that concerned Northern Israel. Disaster there meant imminent danger for Judah. Amos, apparently, had little hope for the success of his mission, and his words betray little emotion in regard to the message of doom it was his to deliver. But no man could have gone forth to preach such a message to men, without having entertained some hope. He who could be satisfied with a bare announcement of destruction as an end in itself would be less than human. The very fact that he preached shows that he hoped. Yea, further, it reveals his love for his brethren of the North. This affection shows itself also in his appeal to Jehovah on two occasions to stay his hand (7: 2, 5). But whatever his hopes or his fears, the fate he foresaw befell Israel within a quarter of a century or thereabouts after his death. His work as a prophet failed of its immediate purpose; while his ability to diagnose the social and political situation of Israel and to foretell its fate was completely established. IV. Recent Literature on the Book of Amos Harper, W. R. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea [The International Critical Commentary] (1905). INTRODUCTION Smith, Geo. Adam. The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. I (1896). Driver, S. R. The Books of Joel and Amos, with Intro- duction and Notes [The Cambridge Bible] (1897). Mitchell, H. G. Amos, an Essay in Exegesis (2d ed., 1900). HoRTON, R. F. The Minor Prophets [The Century Bible] (1904). Eiselen, F. C. The Minor Prophets [Whedon's Com- mentary] (1907). McFadyen, J. E. A Cry for Justice (19 12). Cornill, C. H. Prophets of Israel (1898). Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History (2d ed., 1896). Cheyne, T. K. Article "Amos," Encyclopagdia Biblica, Vol. I (1899). Article ''Amos," Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth ed.). Welch, Adam C. The Religion of Israel under the King- dom (1912). The More Important Abbreviations AV The Authorized Version. Gr. Septuagint. Heb. Hebrew. m margin. RV British Revised Version. sv Standard American Revision Syr. Syriac. Tg. Targum. Vg. Vulgate. 13 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF AMOS I. The Superscription, i : i i : i 1. The words of Amos, who was among the herdmen i of Tekoa, which he saw concerning Israel in the days of Uzziah king of Judah, and in the days of Jero- boam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake. II. The Theme of the Prophecy, i : 2 2. And he said, The Lord 2 shall roar from Zion, and utter his voice from Jerusalem ; And the pastures ^ of the shepherds shall mourn, and the top of Carmel shall wither. 1 Gr. In Akkareim. 2 gV reads Jehovah, throughout the Old Testament, s m. habitations. 1. Among the herdmen, i.e. one of the herdmen, or better shep- herds, having their headquarters at Tekoa, which was twelve miles to the south of Jerusalem. Saw is often equivalent to prophesied, as here. Israel, here and throughout the book, means the Northern Kingdom as distinguished from Judah. Uzziah is placed first, although his reign did not begin until after that of Jeroboam (2 Kings 15: i). The dates of these reigns cannot be precisely determined ; but Jeroboam probably reigned from about 780 B.C. to 739 and Uzziah began about 766 B.C. The earthquake mentioned here is referred to again in Zech. 14:5; but nothing further is known of it. For the probable date of the activity of Amos, see the Introduction. 2. In figurative speech the message of the prophet is summa- rized as a prophecy of woe. The picture is that of a drought, so severe that the top of Carmel will be parched. This was one of the most beautiful and fertile spots in Palestine; cf. Isa. 33 : 9; 15 THE BOOK OF AMOS III. Jehovah's Purpose to smite Israel's Neighbors AND Israel, i : 3-2 : 16 1. An Oracle against Damascus, i : 3-5 3. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Damascus, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; ^ Because they have threshed Gilead with threshing instruments of iron : ^ 1 m. revoke my word. 2 Qr. because they sawed with iron saws the women with child of those in Gilead. Nah. 1 : 4. Jehovah will send terror upon the land, like that caused by the lion's roar. And Jehovah's attack will be as uni- versal and disastrous as that of a total drought. The first half of the verse occurs also in Joel 3:16. The entire verse in Amos has been considered as a later addition to the book. One of the chief reasons for this view is the fact that Jerusalem is made the seat of Jehovah's residence, while the prophecy concerns itself almost exclusively with the Northern Kingdom, and the law centralizing worship at Jerusalem was not adopted till 621 B.C. long after the days of Amos. 3. The prophet begins with a series of threats against some of the people surrounding Israel. Damascus was the capital of a district in Syria which had long been hostile to Israel and at times had reduced her to dire straits; cf. 2 Kings 13:3-7. Such a message as this would naturally be pleasing to the prophet's audience. But in the time of Amos, Israel was undisturbed by Damascus and free to pursue the road to prosperity. The col- location of one number with the next higher, as in three and four, is a well-known method in Hebrew of indicating an indefinite number; cf. Jer. 36 : 23 ; Prov. 30: 15, 18, 21, 29. I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; this is a very ambiguous sentence in Hebrew. It may mean, " I will not revoke it," viz. the punishment determined upon already; or " I will not turn him back," viz. the foe from the north who is destined to bring disaster upon Damascus; or "I will surely punish him," viz. Damascus. This latter rendering suits the context best; but it is not so well supported by Hebrew usage as the other two. Threshed Gilead is probably descriptive of the barbarities 16 THE BOOK OF AMOS 1:5 4. But I will send a fire into the house of Hazael, and it shall devour the palaces ^ of Ben-hadad. 5. And I will break the bar of Damascus, and cut off the inhabitant ^ from the valley of Aven,^ And him that holdeth the sceptre from the house of Eden,4 and the people of Syria shall go into captivity unto Kir, Saith the Lord. 1 Gr. foundations. 2 m. him thai sitteth on the throne. » Gr. On. * m. Beth-Eden; Gr. men of Earran. inflicted by Syria upon Northern Israel during the long years of warfare, especially in the reigns of Jehu and his son ; cf . 2 Kings 8:12; io:32f. ;i3:7. Threshing instruments of iron, z.e. prob- ably, one of the instruments still used in modern Syria, viz.^ a sledge made of planks with sharp pieces of iron fastened upon its under side. This was drawn over the grain by oxen. 4. Hazael and Ben-hadad represent the kings of Damascus, the former being the name of the founder of the dynasty that held the throne in the time of x\mos (2 Kings 8:7-13, 29; 10:32; 13 : 22), and the latter having been held by at least three kings (i Kings 15 : 18 f. ; 20 : i ff. ; 2 Kings 13 : 3). 5. The bar of Damascus is a case of synecdoche, the part being placed for the whole. The bars used to fasten a city's gates are not infrequently representative of the defences of a city; cf. Judg. 16:3; I Kings 4:13; Jer. 51 : 30 ; Lam. 2:9). The valley of Aven cannot be definitely located. The name itself^ means " valley of vanity " and may be a sarcastic nickname coined by Amos for some well-known region in Syria. The house of Eden is probably better taken as Beth-eden; cf. similar names, e.g. Beth-lehem, Beth-rehob, Beth-car, Beth-shemesh. This place likewise is as yet unidentified. Shall go into captivity, i.e. will be carried away by a conqueror. This policy of deporting conquered peoples had been practised by Assyria since the days of Tiglath- pileser I (iioo b.c.) and was probably not confined to Assyria. Babylonia, at least, later adopted it. Kir is mentioned again in 9 : 7 as the place whence the Syrians had migrated into Syria. Its location is unknown. The complete overthrow of Damascus was effected by Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria (745-727 B.C.) in 732 B.C. and is narrated in his Annals. C 17 THE BOOK OF AMOS 2. An Oracle against the Philistines, i : 6-8 6. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Gaza, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; Because they carried away captive the whole people,^ to deliver them up to Edom : 7- But I will send a fire on the wall of Gaza, and it shall devour the palaces thereof : 8. And I will cut off the inhabitant from Ashdod, and him that holdeth the sceptre from Ashkelon ; And I will turn mine hand against Ekron, and the remnant of the Philistines shall perish, Saith the Lord God. 1 Heb. an entire captivity. 6. Gaza is named as representative of the Philistine confeder- acy, being probably the largest Philistine city and, perhaps, the centre of the slave trade here denounced. The whole people ; i.e. not necessarily an entire nation, but more probably the population of some city or district. There was bitter hostility between the He- brews and the Philistines at various times ; e.g. Judg. 14 : 4; 15:11; I Sam.4ff., lyff.; Obad. 19 ; Isa. n : 14; 14 : 29-32; Jer. 25 : 20; 47; Zeph. 2 : 4-7 ; Ezek. 25 : 15-17 ; Zech. 9 : 5-7. Yet this outrage may not have been perpetrated upon the Hebrews at all, but upon some other community; cf. 2: i. We have no means of identifying the episode to which reference is made. Edom seems to have been the centre of a slave trafhc among the nations of western Asia; cf. vs. 9. Those sold were captives taken in war and in plundering raids upon neighboring territory. 8. Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Ekron were three leading cities in the Philistine confederacy (cf. i Sam. 6: 17). Gath is the only one not mentioned. Ashdod (3:9; Isa. 20 : i) was an influential city situated three miles from the sea-coast and due west from Jerusalem. Ashkelon was directly on the coast and about nine or ten miles south of x\shdod ; while Ekron was on the northern border of Philistia, about nine miles from the sea. The remnant of the Philistines, i.e. all the Philistines shall be destroyed wher- ever they may be. 18 THE BOOK OF AMOS mi 7,. An Oracle against Tyre, i : 9-10 9. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Tyre, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; Because they delivered up the whole people^ to Edom, and remembered not the brotherly covenant : ^ 10. But I will send a fire on the wall of Tyre, and it shall devour the palaces thereof. 4. An Oracle against Edom, i : 11-12 11. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Edom, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; 1 Heb. an entire captivity. 2 Heb. the covenant of brethren. 9. Tyre and Sidon were the chief cities of Phoenicia. The former city was built upon an island about half a mile away from the mainland and by the time of x'Vmos had become the leading city of Phcenicia. Israel's early relations with Tyre were friendly; cf. 2 Sam. 5:11; I Kings 5 : i £F. ; 9:13; 16:31. But the prophets repeatedly threatened her with destruction ; cf . Isa. 23 ; Jer. 25 : 22; Ezek. 26: 15 ff. ; Zech. 9 : 2 f . Absolutely nothing is known regarding any such offence as that with which Tyre is here charged. The covenant referred to here is not known, since it can hardly be that made so far back as the reign of Solomon (i Kings 5 : 7) between Israel and Tyre. Apparently Tyre has violated its treaty with some neighboring state by raiding it and selling the captives into slavery to Edom. Tyre was smitten repeatedly by the Assyrian and succeeding empires down to the reign of Alexander. The oracle against Tyre is probably a later insertion in the prophecy of Amos. It does but repeat the charge made against the Philistines ; geographically Tyre should have preceded Philis- tia ; and the form of the oracle is markedly different from that of the preceding in that it lacks the concluding " saith the Lord " and it has nothing corresponding to the last two lines in the oracles 19 i:i2 THE BOOK OF AMOS Because he did pursue his brother with the sword, and did cast off all pity,^ And his anger did tear perpetually ,2 and he kept his wrath for ever : ^ 12. But I will send a fire upon Teman, and it shall devour the palaces of Bozrah.^ $. An Oracle against Ammon, i : 13-15 13. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of the children of Ammon, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; 1 Heb. destroyed his compassion. Gr. he outraged a mother upon the ground. 2 Syr. and he retained forever his wrath. ^ Gr. he guarded unto victory. * Gr. the foundations of its walls. against Damascus and Gaza. It probably comes from an editor who felt that Tyre ought not to escape the judgment passed upon its neighbors. 11. Edom is the only nation ever recognized in the Old Testa- ment as a brother of Israel. The relations between the two prior to the exile were not such as to give Israel great cause for com- plaint; cf. Numb. 20:14-21; Deut. 2:1-8; i Sam. 14:47; 2 Sam. 8 : 14 ; i Kings 9 : 26 ; 11 : 14-22 ; 22 : 48 f. ; 2 Kings 3:8 ff. ; 8:20-22; 14:7. Nor was Israelitish feeling against Edom apparently very bitter; cf. Deut. 23:7. The exile brought a marked change, because Edom took advantage of Judah's weakness to plunder the territory of her neighbor and to encroach upon it ; cf . Obad. ; Isa. 63 : i ff. ; Mai. i : 2 ff. His anger did tear is better rendered with Syriac and Vulgate, he retained his anger. 12. Teman is a synonym for Edom in Jer. 49: 7, 20; Obad. 9 ; Hab. 3:3. Bozrah probably designates the chief city of Edom at the time of this oracle; cf. Gen. 36:33; Isa. 34:6; 63 : I ; Jer. 49: 7 ff., 13, 22. It is perhaps represented by the little modern village of Buseire. This oracle, too, probably was added by a later hand. The reasons for this opinion are as follows: (i) The attitude toward Edom here reflected was one that did not arise until after the Exile; (2) the lack of definiteness in the specification of Edom's THE BOOK OF AMOS 1:15 Because they have ripped up the women with child of Gilead, that they might enlarge their border : 14. But I will kindle a fire in the wall of Rabbah, and it shall devour the palaces thereof, With shouting in the day of battle, with a tempest in the day of the whirlwind : 15. And their king^ shall go into captivity, he 2 and his princes together, Saith the Lord. 1 Gr. its kings; Syr. and others, Milcom. 2 Qx., Syr., and others, their priests. crime ; (3) Petra, the capital of Edom in the days of Amos, is not mentioned, while Teman and Bozrah, which are named, are found chiefly in post-exilic writings ; (4) the form of this oracle accords with that against Tyre rather than with those against Damascus and the Philistines. 13. Ammon had not been in conflict with Israel very frequently, so far as we can learn, from the time of David on; cf. 2 Sam. 8:12; 10; 12:26-31; 2Chron. 20; 26:8; 27:5. Its territory lay across the Jordan and to the north of Moab, just east of the hill country of Gilead, which was occupied by Gad and Manasseh. The crime charged against Ammon is a definite act of horrible cruelty which seems to have been of recent occurrence ; but there is no other record of it. Ripped up the women with child; the Hebrews themselves were not free from guilt on this score ; cf . 2 Kings 8:12; 15 : 16 ; PIos. 10 : 14; 13 : 16 ; Nah. 3 : 10 ; Ps. 137 : 9. It was an act in keeping with the barbarities of crude times. Enlarge their border ; there was no chance for the expansion of the Ammonites on the east, because of the ever encroaching desert. They had to choose between Moab on the south and Israel on the west and north, and they would naturally go in the direction in which the less effective resistance was offered. 14. Rabbah, or " Rabbath of the Ammonites " as it is more commonly called, was the chief city and was located near the sources of the river Jabbok, about 25 miles to the northeast of the Dead Sea. Shouting, i.e. the war-cries of the enemy. Whirl- wind; the destruction is to include human and divine agencies, both cooperating to bring about the downfall of Ammon. 15. He is probably better read, with the versions, his priests. These, with the princes, comprising the two most influential 2; I THE BOOK OF AMOS 6. An Oracle against Moab, 2 : 1-3 2. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Moab, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; Because he burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime : 2. But I will send a fire upon Moab, and it shall devour the palaces of Kerioth ; ^ 1 Gr. its cities. classes in the state, represent the utter overthrow of the kingdom. Whether the Ammonites actually went into exile or not, we do not know. But they were completely subdued by the Assyrians and remained tributary to them from the time of Tiglath-pileser's campaign against Syria in 734 B.C. I. Moab lay along the southern half of the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, its northern boundary being in the vicinity of the river Arnon. It was occupied by a stronger and more aggres- sive people than the Ammonites; cf. Isa. 16:6; Zeph. 2: 10; Jer. 48: 19, 42. They had been made tributary to Israel by Omri and continued so through the reign of Ahab (2 Kings 3:4). But after his death (2 Kings 1:1; 3 : 5), a successful revolt was carried through by Mesha, King of Moab, whose record of the event is recorded and preserved for us upon the " Moabite stone." They were never again subject to Israel, so far as the records show. Disaster to Moab is threatened because he burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime. This was an act of impiety in the eyes of all ancient peoples, since the repose of the departed spirit depended upon the proper burial of the body. To destroy the body left the spirit to wander up and down upon the face oT the earth. It is particularly noticeable that the Hebrew prophet is here announcing the coming of divine punishment upon Moab for a crime wrought, not against Israel, but against Edom, a foreign nation. This would seem to indicate that he thought of Jehovah as not confining his interest to Israel, but as extending it wheresoever the furtherance of high moral standards required the exercise of his power. It may be, of course, that at the time referred to here, to which we can get no clew, Edom was either a vassal or an ally of Israel, in which case an injury to Edom was tantamount to an injury to Israel itself. But the extension of THE BOOK OF AMOS 2:4 And Moab shall die with tumult,^ with shouting, and with the sound of the trumpet : 3. And I will cut off the judge from the midst thereof, and will slay all the princes thereof with him, Saith the Lord. 7. An Oracle against Judah, 2 : 4-5 4. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Judah, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; Because they have rejected the law of the Lord, and have not kept his statutes, ^ Gr. in weakness. Jehovah's interests beyond the borders of Israel is clearly con- templated by Amos; cf. 9 : 7. 2. Kerioth is mentioned also in Jer. 48 : 24, 41 ; but its identi- fication is uncertain. It was evidently a leading city and it may have been identical with " Ar of Moab," for the two names never appear together. Moab is threatened with invasion, just like Ammon; the tumult, shouting, and sound of the trumpet are indicative of the attack of an enemy. 3. The term judge evidently here designates the king, one of whose functions it was to administer justice. Exile is threatened only in the cases of Damascus and Ammon. Nothing is known as to the history of Moab immediately after the days of Amos, except that she paid tribute to the successive Assyrian kings, beginning with Tiglath-pileser. She did venture upon war with Assyria in the reign of Sargon, but though defeated and amerced a heavy fine she continued her national existence until wiped out by the advancing fxood of the Nabataeans after the exile of Judah. 4. Judah stands for the southern Kingdom. The only other references to it in Amos are 1:2; 6:1; 7:12; 9:11. In the time of Amos, the North and South seem to have been upon fairly good terms. Amos himself was a citizen of Judah (i : i). Law is here parallel with statutes. The former includes all the teach- ings of the prophets and the general directions regarding the religious and social life that issued from the priests from time to 23 2:5 THE BOOK OF AMOS And their lies have caused them to err, after the which their fathers did walk : 5. But I will send a fire upon Judah, and it shall devour the palaces of Jerusalem. 8. An Oracle against Israel, 2 : 6-16 6. Thus saith the Lord : For three transgressions of Israel, yea, for four, I will not turn away the punishment thereof ; time. The statutes were such definite legal enactments as were in existence at the time this oracle was written. There is no reference here to the " law of Moses " as a whole, as now presented in the Pentateuch. Their lies is a designation of the idols which Judah has worshipped. These can render her no aid. Hence, they are nothing but lies ; cf. Jer. 23 : 13 f. Walk is here equiva- lent to " worship and obey " ; cf. Deut. 4:3; 11:28; 13:2, 4. 5. Judah and Jerusalem suffered severely at the hands of enemies more than once after the days of Amos, viz. in the Syro- Ephraimitish invasion in the days of Ahaz (Isa. chap. 7), in the invasion of Sennacherib in 701 B.C. (Isa. chap. 36), in the Baby- lonian attack and deportation of 597 B.C. (2 Kings 24: 10 ff.),and in the second attack ending in the fall of the city in 586 B.C. (2 Kings 25 : i ff.). These verses (2 : 4, 5) probably formed no part of the message of Amos, but were added by an editor who felt that Amos must have denounced the wickedness of his own people. In support of this treatment of the passage, it may be urged (i) that the charge against Judah lacks the concrete and specific details of crime characterizing the oracles against the other peoples; (2) that the form of this oracle is like that of the late prophecies against Tyre and Edom, rather than that of the genuine oracles ; (3) that Amos would hardly have treated the sins of his own nation so briefly in comparison to his treatment of the sins of Israel ; (4) that the spirit and language of the accusation are identical with those of Deuteronomy which arose more than a century after the time of Amos ; (5) that its presence takes the edge off the oracle against Israel, the- coming of which we are now bound to expect. 6. Israel will not escape in the great catastrophe that is to befall the world. Her sins are too many and too glaring. The 24 THE BOOK OF AMOS 2:8 Because they have sold the righteous for silver, and the needy for a pair of shoes : 7. That pant after ^ the dust of the earth ^ on the head of the poor, and turn aside the way of the meek : And a man and his father will go unto the same maid,^ to profane my holy name : 8. And they lay themselves down beside every altar upon^ clothes taken in pledge,^ 1 Gr. that tread upon. ^ Gr. inserts here, and struck with the fists. ^ m. young woman. * Gr. omits upon. ^ Gr. and tying their clothes togetJter with cords they made veils about the altar. Israelites, who have listened to prophecies against their enemies with warm approval and a smug feeling of self-righteousness, are now startled out of their ease by this sudden attack of the prophet upon themselves. The first charge brought against them is that of social injustice. They have sold poor but righteous people into slavery lor debts of the most trivial amount. Apparently, rich creditors were unable to make use of all those whom they seized for debt and consequently they farmed them out to others. There is no essential difference between peonage of that sort and slavery. 7. That pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor. This is hardly a possible translation of the Hebrew text; nor is the present Hebrew text susceptible of translation. Follow- ing the hint given by the Septuagint, we suppose that the original reading was, that hiifet the heads of the poor., and that the remainder of the sentence is due to a mistaken interpretation of the original which was preserved alongside of the true reading and was at last mixed with it. The way is the right dealing due toward the poor, the course of justice. The phrase go unto the maid is of doubtful meaning. Most naturally it implies that the father sets the son the example of indulgence in sexual license, by patronizing either ordinary harlots or temple prostitutes. In either case Jehovah's name would be brought into disrepute or treated as an unholy thing as the result of such action. 8. And they lay themselves, etc. Better, and they spread out clothes taken in pledge beside every altar. Thus they not only desecrate the sanctuary by their immorality, but they wrong the 25 219 THE BOOK OF AMOS And in the house of their God they drink the wine of such as have been fined. ^ 9. Yet destroyed I the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height of the cedars, and he was strong as the oaks ; Yet I destroyed his fruit from above, and his roots from beneath. 10. Also I brought you up out of the land of Egypt, and led you forty years in the wilderness,^ to possess the land of the Amorite. 11. And I raised up^ of your sons for prophets, and of your young men for Nazirites. ^ Gx. from sycophants ; Syr. old. ^ Syr. adds and brought you in. ^ Gt. and I took. poor at the same time and violate one of the ancient laws ; see Exod. 22 : 26. In the house of their God is better rendered in the houses of their gods ; that is, in the local sanctuaries all over the land ; not merely in the temple at Jerusalem. The wine of such as have been fined was probably that purchased with money ob- tained by the unjust imposition of fines upon the poor. 9. Amorite is the name used by Amos to designate the occu- pants of Canaan at the time when Israel took possession of the land. Tradition had magnified their height and strength until they were thought of as veritable giants; cf. Numb. 13: 22 ff., 33; Deut. 1:28; 2:10,20; 3:11. They were, notwithstand- ing their strength, destroyed root and branch by Jehovah. Yet such a favor to Israel seems to have been insufficient to keep her loyal to Jehovah's commands. Other statements regarding the conquest do not represent the destruction of the Amorites as having been so complete as Amos reports, e.g. Exod. 23:32 f . ; 34: 12; Judg. i: 27-36. 10. The deliverance from Egypt was the great outstanding fact in evidence of Jehovah's power and of his love for Israel. Scriptures never tire of lajdng emphasis thereon; cf. Ex. 19:4; Deut. 32:10; Ps. 78:53; Jer. 2 : 2. 11. When Moses and Joshua, the leaders of the Exodus and the Conquest, passed away, other leaders were needed. These were furnished by Jehovah in the form of prophets and Nazirites taken from among the Israelites themselves. Of the former, the best known prior to Amos are Deborah, Samuel, Gad, Nathan, 26 THE BOOK OF AMOS Is it not even thus, O ye children of Israel ? saith the Lord. 12. But ye gave the Nazirites wine to drink ; and commanded the prophets, saying. Prophesy not. 13. Behold, I will press you in your place, as a cart presseth that is full of sheaves.^ 14. And flight shall perish from the swift,^ and the strong shall not strengthen his force, Neither shall the mighty deliver himself : 15. neither shall he stand that handleth the bow ; And he that is swift of foot shall not deliver himself: neither shall he that rideth the horse deliver him- self: 1 m. / am pressed under you, as a cart is pressed that is full of sheaves. Gr. Therefore, behold, I roll under you as the cart rolls that is full of straw. 2 ni. refuge shall fail the swift. Ahijah, Elijah, Micaiah, and Elisha. Of the latter order, the most conspicuous members known are Samson and Samuel. The Nazirite was one set apart by a special vow to the service of God. 12. But Israel spurned these gifts of God. Ye gave the Nazirites wine, which was evidently a thing from which their vows constrained them to refrain ; cf. i Sam. i : 11 ; Judg. 13 : 4, 5, 7, 14; Numb. 6: 2-21. Prophesy not; for examples of such prohibition, cf. 7:13,16; i Kings 13:4; 18:4; 19:2; 22:8, 26 f. ; 2 Kings i : 9 £f. ; 6 : 31. 13. With this verse begin the threats of punishment for the sins described in the foregoing verses. The translation of the verse is very uncertain, since the verb used occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament. Perhaps, it should be rendered thus, Behold, I will make a shaking under you as a cart shakes that is full of sheaves. The language is most naturally interpreted as descriptive of an earthquake. Further, the terror and help- lessness depicted in the following verses are the natural effect of such a shock. Amos did not confine his threats to one kind of punishment. He sometimes threatened war (3:11; S|27; 6:14), sometimes drought, pestilence, etc. (7:1-6), sometimes eclipse and a world cataclysm (8 : 8, 9). 15 f. Neither speed, strength, courage, skill in combat, nor horsemanship will avail to secure escape in the frightful catastro- 27 1 6 THE BOOK OF AMOS 1 6. And he that is courageous among the mighty ^ shall flee away naked in that day, Saith the Lord. IV. The Sin of Samaria and her Judgment, 3:1-4:3 I. A Justification of the Prophefs Message , 3 : 1-8 3. Hear this word that the Lord hath spoken against you, O children of Israel, against the whole family which I brought up out of the land of Egypt, saying, 2. You only have I known of all the families of the earth : Therefore I will visit upon you all your iniquities. ^ Gr. and the strong shall not find his heart in strength. phe that is to come. Naked, i.e. not waiting to provide himself with clothes or weapons, or casting aside such things as impedi- ments to his flight. Complete rout and demoralization will prevail. In that day, i.e. the day of Jehovah, the day of disaster, which is described more fully in 5 : i8 £f. 3:1. Children of Israel is defined by the following clause as including both Israel and Judah. The oracle concerns itself immediately only with Israel proper; but the two peoples were so closely related in all their interests that what was of importance to the one was likewise significant for the other. The prophet starts his discourse by speaking of Jehovah, but at once slips into the use of the first person as though Jehovah himself were speak- ing. The prophets were not careful to distinguish between them- selves and Jehovah in their utterances, because they regarded themselves as but the spokesmen of Jehovah. 2. You only have I known, i.e. having power to choose any of the various peoples, Jehovah had fixed his love upon Israel only. This conception of Jehovah as sustaining an especially close rela- tion to Israel was shared in by all the prophets as well as by the nation as a whole. Therefore I will visit upon you, i.e. special privilege involves corresponding responsibility. The greater the love that Israel has enjoyed, the more heinous are her sins. 28 THE BOOK OF AMOS 3:6 3. Shall two walk together, except they have agreed ? ^ 4. Will a lion roar in the forest, when he hath no prey ? Will a young lion cry out of his den, if he have taken nothing ? 5. Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth,^ where no gin is set for him ? Shall a snare spring up from the ground, and have taken nothing at all ? 6. Shall the trumpet be blown in a city, and the people not be afraid ? Shall evil befall a city, and the Lord hath not done it ? 1 m. made an appointment. Gr. if they do not know one another. 2 Gr. fall upon the ground. 3. The prophet now cites several illustrations of the law of cause and effect, for the purpose of establishing the proposition that his prophetic message has been given him by Jehovah. He is under a prophetic compulsion to speak as he does. Except they have agreed; better, are agreed, or as in margin. The fact that the two walk together is the result of an underlying prior cause. 4. The lion's roar is caused by the proximity or the possession of prey. Then the prey may well tremble. Israel seems deaf to the roar of the lion which portends her destruction. 5. The words in a snare may be mistaken repetition of the word snare in the next question. The first question then be- comes simply — does a bird fall to the ground without any cause? Or, approached from another side, does a snare spring up without cause? Different kinds of traps for catching birds and small game are spoken of here. 6. The trumpet meant is that which indicates the approach of an enemy to the attack. The people do well to be afraid when they hear it. Evil is here not moral evil, but calamity or disaster. Whenever such comes, Jehovah is responsible for the visitation. This was the old prophetic theology, which made all disaster due to Jehovah's wrath against sin. 29 3:7 THE BOOK OF AMOS 7. Surely the Lord God will do nothing, but he revealeth his secret^ unto his servants the prophets. 8. The lion hath roared, who will not fear ? The Lord God hath spoken, who can but prophesy ? 2. Samaria'' s Wickedness would astonish Neighboring Peoples, 3 : 9-1 1 9. Publish ye in^ the palaces^ at Ashdod,^ and in ^ the palaces in the land of Egypt, and say, Assemble yourselves upon the mountains^ of Samaria, and behold what great tumults^ are therein, and what oppressions in the midst thereof. ^ Gr. his instruction. 2 m. ypon. ' Gr. lands. ^ Gr. in the Assyrians. 6 Gr. and Syr. mountain. ^ Gr. wonderful things. 7. This verse reveals the assurance of Amos that he knew the full purpose of Jehovah regarding Israel. His secret is the plan or purpose known only to himself and to those to whom he chooses to reveal it. The prophets are favored with the possession of this purpose. Consequently, when they speak, men should listen eagerly. 8. The lion hath roared, i.e. warning of disaster has been given. Those who have heard it can but fear. Hath spoken, i.e. in the ears of his people ; and the message is so clear and plain that all should be able to prophesy. Amos thus represents himself as only uttering w^hat has been clearly revealed by Jehovah and should be discerned by all. Perhaps he alludes here to certain events or conditions in western Asia which seemed to him to threaten destruction to Israel. In any case, he is speaking the truth of Jehovah and Israel should listen. Such preaching is not without significance and may not be safely ignored. 9. The prophet conceives of Samaria's sins as so great that if the nobles of Philistia and Egypt were to see them for themselves, they would be stricken with astonishment or horror. Mountains is better read in the singular, with Gr. and Syr., since Samaria 30 THE BOOK OF AMOS 10. For they know not to do right/ saith the Lord, who store up violence and robbery in their palaces. 11. Therefore thus saith the Lord God, An adversary tliere shall be, even round about the land : 2 And he shall bring down thy strength from thee, and thy palaces shall be spoiled. 3. The Luxury and Splendor of Samaria and Bethel will be brought to Nothing, 3 : 12-15 12. Thus saith the Lord : As the shepherd rescueth out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear ; 1 Gr. not the things which shall he before her. Syr. not to do reproof. 2 Gr. Tyre round about — thy land will be deserted. Vg. The land will be oppressed and surrounded. Syr. An enemy will march about the land. here denotes the city, not the kingdom as a whole. Samaria was splendidly situated, upon a hill about 300 feet high, and was strongly fortified. The Assyrians besieged it for three years, before they could conquer it. The social wrongs of the city ap- peared so terrible to the simple, but clear-sighted countryman, that he describes them as tumults. The normal social order is turned upside down. Chaos and confusion rule in the moral world. 10. They laiow not, i.e. they have become so habituated to wrong-doing that they have forgotten how to do right. _ It is second nature for them to rob and defraud. That Amos is here describing the rich is clear from the phrase in their palaces. The prophets were always the defenders of the poor.^ By robbery and violence are meant the wealth and luxury obtained by unjust and oppressive methods. 11. An adversary, etc.; this sentence is very difficult and obscure in the Hebrew and is probably corrupted from a better text, which is represented by the Syriac translation. In any case, a foreign invasion is here threatened. The strength and pride of the land, viz. the palaces, are to be laid low. That which the rich owners have gained by robbery of the weak will now in turn be spoiled, i.e. carried off as plunder by the invader. 12. The note struck in the last lines of the foregoing section is 31 13 THE BOOK OF AMOS So shall the children of Israel be rescued ^ that sit in Samaria In the corner of a couch, and on the silken cushions of a bed.^ 13. Hear ye, and testify against the house of Jacob, saith the Lord God, the God of hosts. 14. For in the day that I shall visit the transgressions of Israel upon him, I will also visit the altars of Beth-el, 1 Syr. be carried away. 2 m. According to some ancient versions and MSS. in Damascus on a bed. taken up again here. Two legs, or a piece of an ear represent the fragments gathered up by the shepherd and presented as evidence of the fate that had befallen his sheep; cf. Exod. 22 : 13. Lions were a common foe to flocks in Palestine ; cf . i Sam. 17:34 f. ; Gen. 37:33. Just as the sheep was practically a total loss, so will Israel be almost completely destroyed. Sit in Samaria in the comer of a couch, and on the silken cushions of a bed. Whatever the precise significance of these references to household furniture may be, the general meaning is clearly a pro- test against the self-indulgence and luxury of the wealthy nobles of Samaria. The text here is very uncertain. 13. The address is not to any particular persons, but is of a rhetorical character. House of Jacob is here the Northern King- dom, as appears from the specific mention of Bethel in v. 14. The Lord God, the God of hosts ; this is the only appearance of this full title for Jehovah in the Old Testament. 14. Visitation for sin will begin at the sanctuary. This is not due to any objection to the existence of a shrine at Beth-el, for the attitude of exclusiveness which limited all worship to the temple at Jerusalem did not become the law of the land till the days of Josiah. Bethel was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Israel ; cf. Gen. 12:8; 35:7. But the Israelites were indulging in a false sense of security on the ground of their religion. They believed that so long as they kept up the performance of the ritual and observed the established convention in morals and religion, they could be sure of the protection of Jehovah, their God. But Amos is seeking to convince Israel that the religion of Jehovah is a far deeper and more searching thing than they have supposed. They do not know the character of Jehovah and thus cannot 32 THE BOOK OF AMOS And the horns of the altar shall be cut off and fall to the ground. 15. And I will smite the winter house with the summer house ; And the houses of ivory shall perish, and the great ^ houses shall have an end, Saith the Lord. 4. The Selfish and Besotted Women of Samaria are doomed to become Exiles, 4 : 1-3 4. Hear this word, ye kine of Bashan, that are in the mountain of Samaria, Which oppress the poor, which crush the needy, which say unto their lords. Bring, and let us drink. 1 m. many. please him by a cultus that rests upon a total misunderstanding of his requirements. Consequently the temples which Israel had regarded as the outward assurance of its safety will be the first to fall beneath the attack of the foe. No more startling message than this could have been delivered to his generation by Amos. The horns of the altar were of importance in the celebra- tion of certain sacrifices ; cf . Lev. 4 : 30. 15. The winter house with the summer house; these were probably but different parts of one and the same structure ; cf . Judg. 3 : 20 ; Jer. 36 : 22. One of the inscriptions recently found at Zinjirh, in northern Syria, sets forth the work of Bar-rekub, King of Shamal, a vassal of Tiglath-pileser IV of Assyria, in decorating the palace of his fathers, and says of the result, "it is for them a summer house and a winter house." Such large houses were, of course, possible only for the rich. Houses of ivory, i.e. finished or adorned with ivory, are referred to also in i Kings 22 : 39 and Ps. 25 : 8. Ivory was of course very costly ; cf. i Kings 10: 18. I. Khie of Bashan, a derogatory characterization of the women of Samaria ; cf. Isa. 3:16; 4:1. Bashan lay to the east of the Jordan, north of the river Yarmuk, and was famous for its pasturage and fat cattle; cf. Mic. 7: 14; Deut. 32: 14; Ezek. 39 : 18. Which oppress the poor, which crush the needy, not D 33 THE BOOK OF AMOS 2. The Lord God hath sworn by his holiness, that, lo, the days shall come upon you, That they shall take you away with hooks, and your residue with fish hooks. ^ 3. And ye shall go out at the breaches, every one straight before her ; ^ and ye shall cast yourselves into Harmon,^ Saith the Lord. V. Israel has failed to learn by Experience, 4 • 4-13 4. Come to Beth-el, and transgress ; to Gilgal, and multiply transgression ; 1 Gr. burning plagues will cast you into caldrons heated from beneath. 2 Qj-. a;;j yg shall be brought forth naked before one another. ^ m. The ancient versions vary in their rendering of this clause. The text is probably corrupt. AV and ye shall cast them into the palace. AV m. and ye shall cast away the things of the palace. Gr. and you will be cast out into the mountain Romman. Vg. aiid you will be cast out into Armon. Syr. and they will be cast out to the mountain of Armenia. directly, but through the demands they make upon their lords. The husbands in the endeavor to gratify the wishes of their sen- suous wives are driven to methods which involve bringing the poor and weak to destitution. Let us drink; cf. Isa. 28 : i ff. A.11 this suffering is brought about simply to provide means for a debauch on the part of the rich oppressors. 2. By his holiness, i.e. by himself, for holiness is of the essence of God. Days, i.e. days of judgment and punishment. Hooks, fish hooks ; the figure changes here apparently from cattle to fish and suggests the total helplessness of fish when caught by hook and line ; cf. Hab. 1:14. Your residue, i.e. the last of you ; not one shall escape. 3. The breaches are those made in the walls of the city by the besieger. They are to go out, not as fugitives, but as captives, marching in the line of prisoners, every one straight before her, i.e. straight ahead. Shall cast yourselves is probably better read shall be cast. Into or toivard Harmon; no such place is elsewhere mentioned. Hence its location is unknown. Indeed it is by no means certain that we have a place name here, since the text is hopelessly corrupt. See the renderings of the versions cited above. 34 THE BOOK OF AMOS 4:6 And bring your sacrifices every morning, and your tithes every three days ; 5. And offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving ^ of that which is leavened,^ and proclaim freewill offerings^ and publish them :^ For this liketh you, O ye children of Israel, saith the Lord God. 6. And I also have given ^ you cleanness^ of teeth in all your cities, 1 Gr. and they read outside of law. 2 Targ. of violence. * Syr. and vow vows. 4 Syr. and pay. Gr. joins with following clause and renders, announce that the children of Israel loved these things. ^ Gr. will give. ^ Gr. toothache. Syr. and Targ. bluntness. 4. Come to Beth-el, etc. The request is ironical, as the re- mainder of the clause clearly indicates. The prophet practically condemns the whole cultus, wherever carried on. The reason for this is that Israel has no proper conception of Jehovah and thinks to guarantee prosperity by zealous performance of the ritual. In such circumstances, every act of the cultus is a fresh insult to Jehovah. Sacrifices every morning and tithes every three days are of course illustrations of extreme zeal in the cultus. The Deuteronomic law (14: 28; 26: 12) called for tithes every three years ; let the Israelites bring them every three days. Even that will be of no value, so long as the fundamental necessity of the religious mind is lacking. 5. The use of leavened bread in the sacrifices in general was prohibited by the early law; cf. Exod. 23: 18. But its use in connection with the thank-offering is especially enjoined in Lev. 7:13; cf. Lev. 2:11. But Amos is not passing judgment upon the question whether leavened bread was or was not legitimate in sacrifice ; he is rather describing the cultus as it was actually conducted and condemning the shallow optimism that regarded it as the essential thing in the religion of Jehovah. To proclaim freewill offerings, which were voluntary gifts expressive of grati- tude to Jehovah, was wholly contrar}^ to the spirit and purpose of such offerings; cf. Luke 18:9-14; Matt. 6 : i ff. For this liketh you, i.e. so you love to do ; cf. Jer. 5:31. 6. And I also have given; the pronoun "I" is emphatic and may be given its proper significance thus, and yet it was^ I who gave. Israel has gone on blindly and heedlessly, not recogniz- ing in the calamities that have befallen her the purpose of these 35 4:7 THE BOOK OF AMOS And want of bread in all your places : yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. 7. And I also have withholden the rain from you, when there were yet three months to the harvest : And I caused it to rain upon one city, and caused it not to rain upon another city : One piece was rained upon, and the piece whereupon it rained ^ not withered. 8. So two or three cities wandered ^ unto one city to drink water, and were not satisfied : Yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. 9. I have smitten you with blasting and mildew : ^ the multitude of ^ your gardens and your vineyards 1 Gr. 7 -will rain. 2 Gr. imll assemble. s Syr. adds and with hail. * Gr. you have multiplied. chastisements from Jehovah. Famine was always looked upon in Israel as due to the wrath of Jehovah; cf. 2 Sam. 21 : i ff. ; I Kings 17: I ff. Amos protests that Israel has not understood her rebuke, but has contented herself with multiplying sacri- fices to Jehovah, instead of turning to him with hearts morally renewed. Yet have ye not returned, etc. ; this is a poetic refrain occurring at the close of the several stanzas of this poem ; cf . vss. 8, 9, 10, II. 7. The withholding of rain at a time within, or until, three months to the harvest was necessarily fatal to the crops. The rainy season of Palestine continues from January into April. More or less intermittent showers fall from October through December. But the rainfall is often very unevenly distributed. Thomson, for example, tells of having seen the Jordan valley dry and parched when the region around Tiberias was clothed in luxuriant green, with abundant flowers. The drought here described was, of course, the cause of the famine mentioned in vs. 6 ; but it is enlarged upon in order to bring clearly into view the pangs of thirst it involved. 9. The blasting was that caused by the parching east wind (cf. Isa. 27:8; Ezek. 17:10); while the mildew was brought about by a combination of dampness and great heat. The 36 THE BOOK OF AMOS 4:11 and your fig trees and your olive trees hath the palmerworm devoured : yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. 10. I have sent among you the pestilence^ after the man- ner of Egypt : your young men have I slain with the sword, and have carried away your horses ;^ And I have made the stink of ^ your camp* to come up even into your nostrils ; yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. 11. I have overthrown so7ne among you, as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah, And ye were as a brand plucked out of the burning : yet have ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord. 1 Gr. and Vg. death. 2 Heb. with the captivity of your horses. 3 Gr. in fire. * Syr. your stench. multitude of represents a very abnormal construction in Hebrew ; it is probably better to follow many scholars here and translate, / have laid waste. The palmerwonn, literally the gnawer, is a designation for the locust, whose ravages were among the worst scourges that could befall an agricultural people ; cf . 7 : i f . The combination of scourges here detailed would mean practically the destruction of all the means of subsistence. 10. After the manner of Egypt, i.e. terrible and devastating like the plagues sent upon the Egyptians in connection with the Exodus of the Hebrews. The young men slain with the sword are probably those who had fallen in the long struggle between Israel and Damascus; cf. 2 Kings 8 : 12, 28 ; io:32f. ; 13:3-7, 22-25. Horses seem to have been looked upon with particular disfavor by some of the religious leaders of Israel, because the use of them in war seemed to be a confession of distrust in Jehovah's power to deliver his people; cf. Deut. 17: 16; Isa. 30: 16; Ps. 20: 7; 33: 17. The stink of your camp doubtless means the stench arising from the corpses of the slain, which also gave rise to the pestilence already mentioned. 11. I have overthrown among you, i.e. probably by an earth- quake or volcanic eruption involving the destruction of one or more towns. The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is an illus- 37 12 THE BOOK OF AMOS 12. Therefore thus^ will I do unto thee, O Israel : and because I will do this unto thee, prepare to meet^ thy God, O Israel. 13. For, lo, he that formeth the mountains,^ and createth the wdnd, and declareth unto man what is his thought,^ That maketh the morning darkness, and treadeth upon the high places of the earth ; The Lord, the God of hosts, is his name. 1 Vg. these things. Tg. wJiat. 2 Qr. and Syr. to call upon. ^ Gr. he that takes away thunder. * Gr. man his anointed. Syr. how great is his glory. Tg. what are his works. Vg. his declaration. tration of the completeness and terror of the destruction that has come; cf. Gen. chap. 19. A brand plucked out of the burn- ing betokens a marvellous deliverance. Vss. 12 and 13 are quite generally conceded to be a later addition to the prophecy, which has been substituted for something that was more definite and specific and so better suited to the needs of Amos's times than to those of later ages. 12. Therefore, i.e. because past corrections have been of no avail. Thus is b}^ reason of its very indefiniteness more terrible and affrighting than a specific statement might have been. It looks forward to punishments to come and not backward upon those already experienced. The scope of this is identical with that of the preceding " thus." Prepare to meet thy God is a call to repentance. Israel is urged to present herself before God in such a state of mind as to appease his wrath that she may thus escape the threatened doom. 13. This catalogue of the activities of Jehovah is to em- phasize the impossibility of resisting or escaping his power and therefore the necessity of seeking his pardon. He made the visible world and he sustains it with all of its phenomena as only an omnipotent God could. He makes and controls the winds and storms and causes the interchange of darkness and light. What is his thought ; the translation of this clause is very uncer- tain ; cf . the renderings of the Versions cited above. The text is probably corrupt. If RV be the correct rendering, it seems to mean that Jehovah is lord not only of the outer world, but also of the thoughts of men, which have their source in him. 38 THE BOOK OF AMOS 5:4 VI. The Doom of Israel and her Way of Escape, 5:1-17 I. A Dirge over Prostrate Israel, 5 : 1-6 5. Hear ye this word which I take up for a lamenta- tion over you, O house of Israel. 2. The virgin of Israel is fallen ; she shall no more rise : She is cast down ^ upon her land ; there is none to raise her up. 3. For thus saith the Lord God : The city that went forth a thousand shall have a hundred left, And that which went forth a hundred shall have ten left, to the house of Israel. 4. For thus saith the Lord unto the house of Israel, 1 m. lieth forsaken. 1. A lamentation, i.e. the dirge that was chanted upon the occasion of the death of an individual; cf. 2 Sam. i : 17; Ezek. 28: 12; 32: 2; 2 Chron. 35: 25. The dirge continues through vs. 3. The prophet pronounces this dirge in anticipation of the downfall or death of the nation. He transports himself and his audience in imagination to the days following the disaster he expects, and he speaks from the standpoint of that future time. House of Israel here means the Northern Kingdom, as appears from the mention of the " house of Joseph " in vs. 6. 2. Virgin of Israel occurs here for the first time ; its only other appearances are Jer. 18 : 13; 31 '.4, 21. The point of the figure is probably in that it represents Israel as free and untrammelled by the yoke of any foreign master. Her condition will be hopeless, there being none to raise her up. 3. The population will be almost wiped out, having only one tenth left of its former numbers. The reference may be merely to the fighting strength of the people, but it is more natural to apply the statement to the population as a whole. 39 5:5 THE BOOK OF AMOS Seek ye me, and ye shall live : 5. but seek not Beth-el, Nor enter into Gilgal, and pass not to Beer-sheba : For Gilgal shall surely go into captivity, and Beth-el shall come to nought.^ 6. Seek the Lord, and ye shall live ; lest he break out like fire in the house of Joseph,^ And it devour and there be none to quench it in Beth-el :» 1 m. become vanity (Heb. Avert). Gr. he as though not existing. 2 Gr. lest the house of Joseph be burned like fire. ^ Gr. for the house of Israel. 4. Seek ye me, and ye shall live : but seek not Beth-el, etc. The only escape from the destruction just described as awaiting Israel is to be found through seeking Jehovah. But this is ex- actly what the Israelites claimed to be doing in all their cultus. Hence Amos proceeds to define his meaning more closely by set- ting the worship at the various local shrines in contrast with the worship of Jehovah. Jehovah is truly sought only when the worshipper is intent upon doing righteousness and justice. No abundance of or diligence in ritual can compensate for the absence of a passion for the right. 5. Beer-sheba was located in the extreme south, being com- monly contrasted wuth Dan in the extreme north, as representa- tive of the farthest limits of Israel in those directions. It was on the road to Egj^pt and thirty miles to the southwest of Hebron. It is not likely that citizens of the North visited Beersheba in any great numbers ; hence, it is probably mentioned as a suggestion to Judah that she too is in need of reformation. Beth-el shall come to nought is perhaps better read Bethel shall become Beth- aven, i.e. the place now called "house of God" shall become " house of idolatry " ; cf. Hos. 4 : 15. The fate of Bethel will be a warning to all idolaters. 6. Break out like fire is perhaps better read, send fire ; cf . 1:4, 7,10, 12,14; 2:2,5. Beth-el is singled out as representative of the entire Northern Kingdom, since it was the centre of the cultus which was so far removed from the prophet's ideal of true religion. 40 THE BOOK OF AMOS 5:9 2. Israel must repent and forsake her Sins, 5 : 7-15 7. Ye who turn^ judgement to wormwood,^ and cast down^ righteousness to the earth. 8. Seek him that maketh the Pleiades and Orion,* and turneth the shadow of death ^ into the morning, And maketh the day dark with night ; that calleth for the waters of the sea. And poureth them out upon the face of the earth ; the Lord is his name ; 9. That bringeth sudden^ destruction upon the strong, so that destruction^ cometh^ upon the fortress. 1 Gr. the one who makes. 2 Gr. the summit. ' Gr. and he placed. * Gr. that maketh all things and transformeth. Yg. Arcturus and Orion. ^ m. deep darkness. ^ Gi. that distrihuteth. ^ Gr. sufering. ^ All versions, he bringeth. m. causeth. 7. The English Bible connects this verse with the foregoing context, but it seems to belong logically with the following para- graph. It is possible that some introductory words have been lost from the beginning of the verse. Wormwood, as an herb con- sidered poisonous by the ancients, represents the total perversion of justice and right of which the leaders and officials are guilty. 8. Verses 8 and 9 are evidently unrelated to the immediate context and are probably to be credited to some late editor. The words seek him are not in the Hebrew, but are supplied by the English versions in order to connect this passage with what precedes it. The purpose of the interpolation is to set forth clearly and strongly the great power of Jehovah whom the Israel- ites are so heedlessly insulting by their unethical cultus and life ; cf, 4 : 13 ; 9:5,6. The Pleiades and Orion are chosen as two of the most conspicuous and best-known constellations to represent the whole heavens. Shadow of death is better translated here and everywhere by deep darkness; cf. Ps. 23 : 4. This and the following phrase describe the regular unfailing interchange of day and night. Calleth for the waters of the sea, etc., this de- scribes the process of evaporation by which the clouds are formed and rain made possible; cf. Job 36: 27. 9. He whose might makes and sustains the order of nature is the one who also bringeth sudden destruction upon the strong. Nothing is able to resist his power. So that destruction cometh is better read, with all the versions, so that he bringeth destruction. 41 5: 10 THE BOOK OF AMOS 10. They hate him that rep rove th in the gate, and they abhor him that speaketh uprightly.^ 11. Forasmuch therefore as ye trample upon^ the poor, and take exactions from him of wheat : ^ Ye have built houses of hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in them ; Ye have planted pleasant vineyards, but ye shall not drink the wine thereof. 12. For I know how manifold are your transgressions and how mighty are your sins ; Ye that afflict the just, that take a bribe, and that turn aside the needy in the gate from their right. 13. Therefore he that is prudent shall keep silence in such a time ; for it is an evil time."* 1 Gr. abhorred a pure word. 2 Gr. they bufeted. Vg. you plundered. ^ Gr. and took choice gifts from them. * Gr. a time of the wicked. 10. The thought of vs. 7 is here resumed. Him that reproveth in the gate, i.e. any one, whether an official or a private person, who rebukes the exercise of injustice in the courts, which were held at the gates of the cities; cf. Deut. 22 : 15 ; Ruth 4 : i ff . ; i Kings 22 : 10. 11. Take exactions from him of wheat; the excuse upon which such demands were based is not indicated. Whatever it was, the result was practically a tax levied upon the poor by the rich for the purpose of increasing their own wealth. In return for this tyrannical oppression, the rich are to be deprived of all these things that they hold so dear, by being driven into exile; cf. Zeph. i: 13; Mic. 6: 15. 12. This verse enters upon a further specification of the sins of Israel's rich and powerful classes. Afflict the just, etc. i.e. they condemn the innocent in suits at law, and to this end they receive bribes from the parties interested in the perpetration of such injustice, so that the needy have no chance in the gate, i.e. in the courts. Justice is for sale to the highest bidder. 13. Prudent, probably, means shrewd and cautious. Such an one knows that protest against such conditions is useless and 42 THE BOOK OF AMOS 14. Seek good, and not evil, that ye may live : And so the Lord, the God of hosts, shall be with you, as ye say. 15. Hate the evil, and love ^ the good, and establish judgement in the gate : It may be that the Lord, the God of hosts, will be gracious unto the remnant of Joseph. 3. Bitter Grief awaits the Israelites, 5 : 16-17 16. Therefore thus saith the Lord, the God of hosts, the Lord : 2 1 Gr. Just as you say, We hate the evil and love. 2 Qj. and Syr. omit the Lord. keeps silence, lest speech may get him into disfavor with the influential rich. 14. This is really a threat to the effect that unless they do seek good, destruction awaits them; cf. vss. 4, 15. And so; better that so, i.e. if you do. God of hosts shall be with you, as ye say ; i.e. Israel prides itself on being the people of Jehovah and is certain that Jehovah can and will do nothing but good for his nation; cf. Mic. 3:11; Jer. 7 : 10. But Amos declares that the exercise of the favor of Jehovah toward Israel is conditioned upon the good character and conduct of the nation's leaders. Jehovah is under no obligation to treat Israel generously and kindly, unless the people conform their lives to the high moral standard he has set for them. Shall be is rather may be. 15. It may be; the prophet does not feel sure. The sins of Israel may have been so numerous and heinous that no change of heart at this late date can turn aside the punishment due. The remnant of Joseph means the Northern Kingdom as a whole in its present reduced and depleted condition. The long wars with Syria, though now over, had decimated the population and wasted the land, so that even though prosperity was once more enjoyed under Jeroboam, yet as compared with the kingdom of the days of Omri and Ahab Amos looks upon the present population as a mere remnant of the former greatness. 16. In a closing paragraph, Amos for the third time in this 43 THE BOOK OF AMOS Wailing shall be in all the broad ways ; and they shall say in all the streets, Alas ! alas ! And they shall call the husbandman to mourning, and such as are skilful of lamentation to wailing.^ 17. And in all vineyards ^ shall be wailing : for I will pass through the midst of thee, saith the Lord. VII. The Doom of Exile, 5 : 18-27 18. Woe unto you that desire the day of the Lord ! wherefore would ye have the day of the Lord ? it is darkness, and not light. 1 m. Heb. and proclaim wailing to such as are skilful of lamentation. Vg. and to wailing those who know how to wail. ^ Gr. ways. oracle announces the approaching doom. Wailing, i.e. for the dead and for the stricken nation. The address closes with the note upon which it began ; cf . s : i f . The broad ways are the open spaces near the gates where justice has so often been set at naught. The husbandman will be involved as well as the denizen of the city. The mourning will be universal, reaching all classes. Skilful of lamentation designates professional mourners. 17. In all vineyards, i.e. where joy is usually at its highest. Pass through, even as he had done in Egypt; cf. Exod. 11:4. The form of the punishment is left indefinite ; war or pestilence is most probable. 18. You that desire the day of the Lord ; there were evidently many who were confident of Jehovah's favor toward Israel and ■were impatiently longing for the coming of Jehovah's day of punitive wrath upon the nations at large, the enemies of Israel. The result of this day, as they are anticipating, will be the down- fall of all the foes of Israel and the political elevation and exalta- tion of Israel itself. But Amos warns them that it is darkness, and not light. They are totally mistaken in their expectations regarding the character of Jehovah's day. Instead of deliver- ance and glory for Israel, it will bring chastisement and humilia- tion. 44 THE BOOK OF AMOS 5:23 19. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him ; Or ^ went into the house and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him. 20. Shall not the day of the Lord be darkness, and not light? even very dark, and no brightness in it ? 21. I hate, I despise your feasts, and I will take no delight- in your solemn assem- blies. 22. Yea, though ye offer me your burnt offerings and meal offerings,^ I will not accept them : neither will I regard the peace offerings ^ of your fat beasts. 23. Take thou away from me the noise of thy songs ; for I will not hear the melody of thy viols. 1 m. and. 2 Heb. will not smell. Gr. adds sacrifices. » m. burnt offerings with your meal offerings. * m. thank offerings. 19. The punishment that awaits Israel will be inevitable. Any attempt to escape will be simply avoiding Scylla and falling into Charybdis. Went into the house, the place of greatest natural security, only to have a serpent bite him there ; probably, one hidden in a crevice of the wall. 21. No amount of ritualistic ceremonies can appease the wrath of Jehovah. Feasts and the like, as they are now con- ducted, are but an additional aggravation to Jehovah. Take no delight in ; the literal Hebrew idiom (see above) is a survival from an earlier stage of thought, when the gods were conceived of as actually smelling the odor of the sacrifices; cf. Gen. 8:21; Exod. 29 : 41 ; 30 : 38. The Babylonian story of the flood says that " the gods inhaled the sweet savor, the gods gathered like flies around the sacrifice." 23. This is one of the earliest testimonies to the use of in- strumental music in the sacred ritual ; cf. 2 Sam. 6:5; Is. 30 : 32 ; Amos 8 : 10. 45 5:24 THE BOOK OF AMOS 24. But let judgement roll down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty ^ stream. 25. Did ye bring unto me sacrifices and offerings ^ in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel ? 26. Yea, ye have borne ^ Siccuth^ your king^ and Chiun^ your images, the star of your god, which ye made to your- selves. 1 m. everflowing. 2 m. ^neal oferings. ^ m. shall take up . . . And I will cause, etc. * m. the tabernacle of; so Gr., Syr., Vg., SV. ^ Qr. Syr., and Vg. all take as the name of an idol, either Molech or Milcom. * m. the shrine of; so SV. Gr. Raiphan. 24. Let judgement roll down as waters; this is the first re- quirement of Jehovah, and lacking this, all else is useless. A mighty stream; better, a perennial stream; i.e. one that does not dry up in the hot season as so many of the winter torrents do. 25. Did ye bring, etc.; probably better rendered, was it sacrifices and offerings that you brought, etc. ? That is, were the success of the Exodus and the care of Jehovah for Israel during the wanderings dependent upon a multiplicity of sacrificial gifts, or rather, was there not something else necessary to please Jehovah, viz. the exercise of justice and right? 26. Yea, ye have borne; this is probably better treated as a threat, for the future, viz. And so you shall carry, i.e. into exile, the following idolatrous objects ; cf . Isa. 46 : i f . Siccuth your king and Chiun your images, the star of your god, v/hich, etc. ; perhaps, this should be read, Saccuth, your king and Keivan, your god, {the star,) your images, which etc. Saccuth is a title of the Assyrian god Saturn, and Kewan is the regular Assyrian name of the same god. The word star is a marginal note pointing out the character of this god, which has found its way into the text. For the change in the order of words here suggested, cf. the rendering of Gr., viz. " the tent of Moloch and the star of your god Raiphan, their images," etc. It seems necessary to conclude that this whole vs. originated after the times of Amos and found its way into his book. Amos elsev/here makes very little of the charge of idolatry, a sin of so serious a nature that he could not have minimized or ignored it, if he had been conscious of its presence in any alarming degree. Furthermore, the worship of Assyrian gods came in first in the later days, after Assyrian in- fluence and control had become dominant in Palestine. 46 THE BOOK OF AMOS 27. Therefore will I cause you to go into captivity be- yond Damascus, saith the Lord, whose name is the God of hosts. VIII. The Fate of the Careless Rich, 6 : 1-7 6. Woe to them that are at ease in^ Zion, and to them that are secure in the mountain of Samaria, The notable men of the chief of the nations to whom the house of Israel comeP 2. Pass ye unto Calneh, and see ; and from thence go ye to Hamath the great: 1 Gr. and Syr., who despise. 2 Gr. they heat down authorities of nations ; and entered in themselves. house of Israel, pass, etc. Syr. nations, and spoil for themselves the house of Israel. 27. Captivity, in the form of the deportation of whole com- munities into foreign lands as is here threatened, was first practised by the Assyrians as far as we can discover, having been an original feature of the policy of Tiglath-pileser I (about iioi- iioo B.C.). Amos nowhere distinctly names the Assyrians as the agents of Jehovah's punishment upon Israel ; but in the phrase beyond Damascus he most probably has them in mind. As a matter of history, the end of the Northern Kingdom and the deportation of its people were brought about by Assyria in the years 734-722 B.C. 1. At ease in Zion; the prevailing spirit in both Zion and Samaria, among the rich and powerful, is one of untroubled con- fidence and security. They are conscious of no shortcomings or offences which should give cause for any alarm regarding the future. Here again Amos shows that, while his message is pri- marily to the Northern Kingdom, he does not regard the South as blameless, nor as destined to escape punishment. The notable men of the chief of the nations ; better, with a slight change of text, note the chief of the nations, which is continued by, and enter into them, house of Israel, a better interpretation in this context than to whom the house of Israel come. With this translation, vs. i is naturally continued by vs. 2. 2. Calneh is not yet definitely identified ; hence nothing is known of the event to which Amos here refers. Hamath the 47 THE BOOK OF AMOS Then go down to Gath of the Philistines : are they better than these kingdoms ? or is their border greater than your border ? 3. Ye that put far away ^ the evil day, and cause the seat ^ of violence to come near ; 1 Gr. Those coming to. Syr. Those awaiting. Vg. Ye who are separated from. 2 Gr. the Sabbath. great was the capital of Hamath, a state in northern Syria, situated on the Orontes. It was repeatedly engaged in hostilities with Assyria, to which it was almost continuously a vassal. The prophet evidently has in mind some recent disaster that has left Hamath prostrate. Gath was the nearest one of the five chief Philistine cities to the border of Israel. According to 2 Chron. 26 : 6, it was destroyed by Uzziah of Judah about 760 B.C. Are they better than these kingdoms? or is their border greater than your border? This is the only possible rendering of the present Hebrew text. The natural interpretation is to the effect that Israel has no cause for complaint, since her suc- cess and power are at least equal to that of her most influential neighbors. The questions might conceivably call for an affirma- tive answer, thus yielding the sense that Calneh and the other capitals were indeed larger and stronger than Israel and Judah, and yet they have fallen ; let Israel and Judah take warning. But this is forcing the language. It is better to change the text slightly and render, Are you better than these kingdoms? Or is your border greater than their border? This yields the required sense that Israel is small among the nations and has no warrant for counting upon immunity from the fate that has overtaken her stronger neighbors. 3. Ye that put far away the evil day; some were longing for the coming of the day of Jehovah, in the conviction that it could bring nothing but good to Israel (5 : 18) ; there were others who granted the possibility or probability that it would be a day of disaster for Israel, but with a shallow and selfish optimism they persuaded themselves easily that there was no likelihood of its immediate or speedy coming (cf. Isa. 5:19); it might descend upon future generations ; but why concern oneself about such far-off and hypothetical troubles? There is enough to keep any man bus}^ looking after his interests at the present day. And cause the seat of violence to come near, i.e. they encourage the exercise of oppression, instead of banishing it from their presence. 48 THE BOOK OF AMOS 4. That lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches, And eat the lambs out of the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the stall ; 5. That sing idle songs to the sound of the viol ; that devise for themselves instruments of music, like David ; ^ 6. That drink wine in bowls,^ and anoint themselves with the chief oils ; but they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph. 7. Therefore now shall they go captive with the first that go captive, and the revelry of them that stretched themselves shall pass away. 1 m. like David's. 2 m. in bowls of wine. 4. Beds of ivory, i.e. inlaid with ivory. Sennacherib carried away such couches from Judah as valuable plunder in the days of Hezekiah. Calves out of the midst of the stall ; i.e. especially fed and fattened. 5. Smg idle songs; better, improvise silly songs, a caustic characterization of their efforts in music. Devise for themselves instnmients of music, like David; not satisfied with existing means of musical expression, they invent new ones. While the masses toil and suffer, these indifferent rich waste time upon foolish trifles. This is one of the earliest statements testifying to the belief that David was possessed of great musical skill. 6. Drink wine in bowls ; the use of wine is forbidden by Mohammed and has always been placed under the ban by the Bedouin. To Amos, the champion of the poor and the exponent of the simple life, such reckless indulgence was criminal. But they are not grieved for the affliction of Joseph ; occupied fully with their revelry and debauch, thej^ have no time nor inclination to realize the stricken state of their country, the destruction of which is inevitable. 7. Those who have been the leaders in the sins of the day will be the first to go into captivity. They have led the way in the introduction and adoption of foreign customs in religious and social life ; they shall lead the way into exile among the foreigners E 49 THE BOOK OF AMOS IX. The Desolation of Samaria, 6:8-14 8. The Lord God hath sworn by himself, saith the Lord, the God of hosts : I abhor the excellency^ of Jacob, and hate his palaces: therefore will I deliver up^ the city with all that is therein. 9. And it shall come to pass, if there remain ten men 10. in one house, that they shall die.^ And when a . man's uncle ^ shall take him up, even he that burn- eth him^ to bring out the bones out of the house, and shall say unto him that is in the innermost parts of ^ the house,' Is there yet any with thee ? and he 1 m. pride. 2 Gr. I will lift up. ^ Gr. adds and (he rest will be left behind. * _m. kinsman. Gr. And their neighbours will take. * Qr. and will treat with unlawful molence. Syr. or he who is to bury him. ^ Gr. and Syr. omit the innermost parts of. whom they have so foolishly aped. And the revelry of them that stretched themselves shall pass away; better, and the pro- cession of the dissolute shall depart. 8. By himself; only elsewhere in Jer. 51 : 14; cf. Gen. 22: 16; Numb. 14: 28; Amos 4:2; Hebr. 6:13. Excellency; better, glory or pride ; i.e. the things of which Israel is proud. The city is, of course, Samaria. It is to be abandoned by Jehovah to the enemy. 9-10. These verses are almost certainly a later addition, expanding the description of the destruction of Samaria by the contribution of some concrete detail. The late origin is shown by the lack of both poetic form and poetic tone and by the fact that the narrative furnishes a smooth connection when these verses are removed. They describe the destruction wrought by a plague, whereas the context deals with a storming of the city by besiegers. Ten men in one house would be an unusually large number for the average house, and these ten are but a remnant of a larger household. The conditions are applicable only to the palaces of the rich. But even this handful of survivors shall die, all at least save one (vs. 10). A man's tmcle; Hebrew, his uncle, i.e. the survivor's uncle. Even he that bumeth him; Hebrew, and his burner ; i.e. the one that burns the spices and incense at 50 THE BOOK OF AMOS 6:13 shall say, No ; then shall he say, Hold thy peace ; for we may not make mention of the name of the Lord. 11. For, behold, the Lord commandeth, And the great house shall be smitten^ with breaches, and the little house with clefts. 12. Shall horses run upon the rock ? will one plow there with oxen ? ^ That ye have turned judgement into gall, and the fruit of righteousness into wormwood : 13. Ye which rejoice in a thing of nought, 1 m. he will smite the great house. 2 Gr. or will they be silent among females? the burial; cf. Jer. 34:5; 2 Chron. 16:14; 21:19. I^ the innermost parts of the house ; the sole survivor of the pestilence is crouching in terror, hidden away in some remote corner of the house, expecting his own end every hour. Then shall he say, Hold thy peace ! The utterance of him who has gone to bury the dead. He is terrified into silence by the scene. For we may not make mention of the name of the Lord. This is better rendered for one must not, etc., and regarded as the statement of the narrator of the scene, rather than as belonging either to the survivor or the " burner." This represents them both as overwhelmed by superstitious terror, afraid even to mention Jehovah's name, lest he should strike them dead. In Hebrew thought, the name and the personality were closely allied, the name being conceived of as actually a manifestation or part of the personality. Hence the name was gifted with extraordinary power and must not be spoken carelessly. Indeed, in late Hebrew usage it was unlaw- ful to pronounce the name of Jehovah at all. 11. The great house and the little house include all the dwell- ings of the city, both of the rich and of the poor. The city will be razed to the ground. 12. Shall, or can, horses run upon the rock? This is an un- natural and well-nigh impossible thing. Will one plow there with oxen? The word there is not in the Hebrew, and, in its absence, the Hebrew yields no suitable meaning. It is better, by a slightly different reading, to render, can one plow the sea with oxen? This is another unnatural and impossible thing. In just such abnormal fashion ye have turned judgement into gall, etc.; cf. Deut. 29: 18. 13. Rejoice in a thing of nought; they deceive themselves, 51 6: 14 THE BOOK OF AMOS which say, Have we not taken to us horns by our own strength ? 14. For, behold, I will raise up against you a nation, O house of Israel, saith the Lord, the God of hosts ; And they shall afHict you from the entering in of Hamath unto the brook of the Arabah. X. Visions of Approaching Judgment, 7 : 1-9 I. Devouring Locusts, 7 : 1-3 7. Thus the Lord God shewed me: and, behold, he formed ^ locusts 1 Gr., Syr., Tg. a brood. supposing to be something worth while that which is after all nothing. Taken to us horns ; i.e. gotten power, the horn being a symbol of strength; cf. Jer. 48:25; Deut. 33:17; Ps. 75 : 5, 10. They boast as though the prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II were all due to themselves, whereas they coiild do nothing apart from Jehovah. 14. The chastisement for all this wilful sin and self-deception is now declared. A nation; though not named, the agent of Yahweh's wrath whom Amos had in mind was probably Assyria ; cf. 5:27. The entering in of Hamath was the pass through the Lebanons, at the southern entrance of which Dan was located ; cf. 2 Kings 14: 25; Numb. 24: 8. It marks the extreme north of Israel's territory. The brook of the Arabah, which evidently indicates the extreme southern limit, is not definitely known. If the threat applies only to Northern Israel, this must have been a stream flowing into the northern end of the Dead Sea. But if Judah is included in the disaster (cf. vs. i), it was probably the Wady-el-Hasy, which flows into the southern end of the Dead Sea and separates Moab from Edom, or the Wady-el-Arish, known as " the brook of Egypt " ; cf. Numb. 34 : 5. _ I. It is not improbable that these visions belong to the be- ginning of Amos's ministry, having held the same place in his experience as the inaugural visions of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and other prophets had held in theirs. I. Formed; better, was forming. It was the latter growth 52 THE BOOK OF AMOS 7:4 In the beginning of the shooting up of the latter growth ; And, lo, it was the latter growth after the king's mowings.^ 2. And it came to pass that when they made an end of eating the grass of the land, Then I said, O Lord God, forgive, I beseech thee: how shall Jacob stand P^ for he is small. 3. The Lord repented concerning this : It shall not be, saith the Lord.^ 2. A Devastating Drought j 7 : 4-6 4. Thus the Lord God shewed me: and, behold, the Lord GoD'^ called to contend by fire ;^ 1 Gr. there was a locust, one Gog the king. 2 Gr., Syr., Vg. who will raise up Jacob? ' Syr. omits saith the Lord. * Gr. omits. ^ Qx. called the judgement in fire. after the king's mowings; this is probably a note added later for the purpose of fixing the precise time of the appearance of the locusts. It does not aid us much, however; for we know noth- ing of the time of the king's mowings. But apparently the locusts were so timed as to appear when the rains were all past and the new grass was just springing up. Thus their destructive work would completely ruin the crops. 2. They made an end of eating; better, by a slight change of text, when they were making an end, etc. The sympathies of Amos were aroused and he interceded with Jehovah to put a stop to the destruction of Israel before it was too late. For he is small ; the very weakness and insignificance of Israel seem to Amos to furnish sufficient basis for an appeal to the clemency of Jehovah. 3. The Lord repented, i.e. relented or changed his purpose. For other cases of the same anthropomorphic point of view, cf. I Sam. 15:35; Jon. 3 : 9 ; Gen. 6 : 7 ; Joel 2 : 14. Saith the Lord ; better, said the Lord. In this vision, y\mos probably describes the punishment of Israel as he had first conceived of it. But the punishment had been withheld and, as time passed, he came to see that more stringent measures must be taken by Jehovah. 4. Called to contend; for similar representations, compare 53 7:5 THE BOOK OF AMOS And it devoured the great deep, and would have eaten up the land. 5. Then said I, O Lord God, cease, I beseech thee : how shall Jacob stand ? for he is small. 6. The Lord repented concerning this : This also shall not be, saith the Lord God.^ 3. The Plumhline of Destruction, 7 : 7-9 7. Thus he^ shewed me: and, behold, the Lord stood beside^ a wall made by a plumbline,^ with a plumbline in his hand. 8. And the Lord said unto me, Amos, what seest thou ? And I said, A plumbline. Then said the Lord, Behold, I will set a plumbline in the midst of my people Israel ;• 1 Syr. omits saith, etc., as in vs. 3. 2 Qr., Vg. the Lord. ^ Or, upon. * Gr., Syr, a wall of adamant. Isa. 3 : 13 f. ; Hos. 4:1; Mic. 6 : 2, and the story of Elijah and the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel (i Kings 18 : 19 ff.). Those called to the contest are, perhaps, the worshippers of other gods than Jehovah within Israel. As Jehovah had settled the question of his supremacy by fire in Elijah's day, so now he proposes the same test once more. But the fire here is the scorching heat of the sun, which kills all vegetation. The great deep denotes the "waters underneath the earth" (Exod. 20:4), whence all the springs and wells were thought of as being supplied, cf . Gen. 7 : 11; Deut. 33:13; Ps. 24:2. All the streams and springs were dried up and it seemed as though the very land itself were burn- ing up, when Amos once again interceded with success. 7. Made by a plumbline is probably a phrase due to error in the transmission of the text. If correct, it means that the wall had once been in plumb ; but the whole vision implies that it was now out of plumb and was therefore doomed to be torn down. The plumbline serves simply to show the wall's variation from the perpendicular ; it is not itself an instrument of de- struction ; cf. Isa. 34: 11; 2 Kings 21: 13. 8. I will set a plumbline, i.e., make a test of their moral and spiritual condition and make it manifest to everybody. Pass by 54 THE BOOK OF AMOS I will not again pass by them any more : 9. And the high places of Isaac ^ shall be desolate, and the sanctuaries 2 of Israel shall be laid waste; And I will rise against the house of Jeroboam with the sword. XI. Amos charged with Conspiracy, 7 : 10-17 10. Then Amaziah the priest of Beth-el sent to Jero- boam king of Israel, saying, Amos hath conspired against thee in the midst of the house of Israel : the 1 Gr.; Syr. of laughter. ^ Qr, the festivals. them, ^".6. forgive them; cf. Mic. 7: 18; Prov. 19: 11. Jehovah, who had yielded to the intercession of Amos in the two preceding visions, now forestalls any plea on his part by declaring his de- cision to punish to be irrevocable. 9. The high places of Isaac and the sanctuaries of Israel are especially denounced, not because they were thought of as illegal shrines, for the worship at these local sanctuaries was not pro- hibited by law until the adoption of the Deuteronomic Code in the days of Josiah ; but because of the unspiritual and immoral character of the worship itself. As Amos clearly points out again and again, the Israelites had no true conception of the character of Jehovah and of the requirements for pleasing him. The worship at these shrines was conducted for the purpose of pleasing Jehovah and thus guaranteeing prosperity to the wor- shippers ; the destruction of the shrines was the most convincing evidence that the worship was useless. I will rise against the house of Jeroboam with the sword; Amos evidently expected the blow to fall speedily. As a matter of fact, Jeroboam's son Zechariah was the last of the dynasty, having been slain by the usurper, Shallum. But the " sword " expected by Amos was almost certainly the army of Assyria, and this did not molest Israel until the reign of Menahem (2 Kings 15 : 19), while actual war did not come till the time of Pekah (2 Kings 15 : 29), when Tiglath-pileser carried captive a large part of the population. 10. The priest of Beth-el ; evidently not the only priest at this great shrine, but the chief priest. This shrine with its priest- hood was under the special patronage of the king (vs. 13) ; hence Amaziah was especially sensitive to attacks upon the king and 55 7:ii THE BOOK OF AMOS 11. land is not able to bear all his words. For thus Amos saith, Jeroboam shall die by the sword, and Israel shall surely be led away captive out of his land. 12. Also Amaziah said unto Amos, O thou seer, go, flee thee away into the land of Judah, and there eat 13. bread, and prophesy there : but prophesy not again felt a responsibility to keep the king informed regarding all such matters. Amos hath conspired; there was no other possible interpretation of such words as those spoken by Amos in vs. 9 for one like Amaziah, whose interests were almost wholly identical with those of Jeroboam. The throne of the Northern Kingdom was only too often the aim of conspirators ; it had arisen indeed in conspiracy (i Kings 12) and had already seen three changes of dynasty due to the same cause (i Kings 15:27; 16:9, 16; 2 Kings 9), while the reigning dynasty in turn was to end by the same method in the days of Jeroboam's son (2 Kings 15 : 10). Hence the priest, lacking Amos's profound insight and high con- ception of personal character, naturally looked upon his words as intended to foment discontent and revolt. The land is not able to bear, i.e. such talk must be stopped lest it create a state of public unrest and dissatisfaction that may bring disaster to the throne. 11. This is as fair a report of Amos's message as could be ex- pected of an opponent; cf. vs. 9; 5 : 27. Its only lack is that it fails to mention the causes assigned by Amos for the disaster he foretells. The effect of the message upon Jeroboam is not recorded. The following suggestion to Amos may have been due to word received from the king, or to Amaziah's desire to give i\mos warning that he might flee from the wrath to come, or to a hope of thereby avoiding troublesome complications, the prophet being too sacred and perhaps too popular a personality to be attacked by the king with impunity. 12. Seer; a term of reproach in Amaziah's mouth, meaning impracticable dreamer. There eat bread, and prophesy there ; the point of this sneer is its implication that Amos is but one of the common herd of prophets who prophesy for the money they can make thereby. Amaziah therefore suggests to him that he has brought his wares to the wrong market. Let him take that kind of prophecy to Judah ; it will be popular there and bring large returns, for the Southerners will rejoice in predictions of disaster to the North. 13. It is the king's sanctuary, and a royal house, i.e. it is no 56 THE BOOK OF AMOS any more at Beth-el : for it is the king's sanctuary, 14. and it is a royal house. Then answered Amos, and said to Amaziah, I was^ no prophet, neither was^ I a prophet's son;^ but I was^ an herdman, and a dresser of sycomore trees : and the Lord took me 15. from following the flock, and the Lord said imto me, Go, prophesy unto my people Israel. Now therefore hear thou the word of the Lord : Thou sayest, Pro- 16. phesy not against Israel, and drop not thy word^ against the house of Isaac; therefore thus saith the 17. Lord: Thy wife shall be an harlot in the city, and thy sons and thy daughters shall fall by the sword, ^m. am. 2 m. o„g of the sons of the prophets; see i Kings 20 : 35. 3 Gr. Thou shall not stir up a mob. place to be talking against the king. It was the religious head- quarters of the nation and the seat of a royal residence. The capital proper was, of course, at Samaria. 14. Amos repudiates the charge that he is a professional prophet who uses his office for the purpose of gain to himself. He does not belong to the " sons of the prophets," i.e. the profes- sional prophetic guilds. I was (or, am) a herdman; in 1:1, Amos is classed with the shepherds, and here the word " herd- man " should either be changed to " shepherd " or else inter- preted so as to mean " herder of sheep," rather than "cowherd." A dresser of sycomore trees; this tree still grows in Palestine and Egypt ; its fruit grows in grapelike clusters and is somewhat like a small fig in size, but is very insipid and woody. As a culti- vator of such trees and a shepherd, Amos must have been of rather low financial standing in his community. 15. The consciousness of his divine call to prophesy came while he was in pursuit of his regular occupations. Amos felt, not that he had chosen prophecy as his profession, but that, wholly apart from any volition of his own, he had become a prophet by the divine compulsion. 16. Thou sayest; Amos may have meant to set the word of Amaziah in contrast with the word of Jehovah. Drop not thy word, i.e., preach not. 17. Thy wife shall be an harlot in the city; i.e. she will be publicly ravished by the victorious soldiers of the invading army. 57 8: 1 THE BOOK OF AMOS and thy land shall be divided by line ; and thou thy- self shalt die in a land that is unclean, and Israel shall surely be led away captive out of his land. XII. A Vision of Israel's End, 8 : 1-3 8. Thus the Lord God shewed me : and behold, a basket of summer fruit.^ 2. And he said,^ Amos, what seest thou? And I said, A basket of summer fruit. Then said the Lord unto me, The end is come upon my people Israel ; I will not again pass by them any more. 3. And the songs ^ of the temple^ shall be howlings in that day, saith the Lord God : 1 Gr. a basket of the bird-catcher. 2 Syr. And Jehovah said unto me. ^ Gr. the compartments. * m. palace. Divided by line ; i.e. distributed in portions among the colonists imported by the conqueror; cf. Mic. 2:4; Jer. 6: 12; 2 Kings 17 : 24. A land that is unclean; i.e. a land under the sway of other gods than Jehovah; cf. i Sam. 26:19. Be led away captive ; undaunted by Amaziah's opposition, Amos reiterates the threats to which the priest had taken such serious exception. This was his great burden; he could not rest quietly beneath it. He must relieve his laden soul by expression. 8:1. Strange as it seems to us, the whole point of this vision lies in the pun upon the word for summer fruit (viz. qayits). Its sound suggested the similarly sounding word for end (viz. qets). Thus there is brought out once more exactly the same message as that expressed in the third vision. Punning, or paronomasia, was a favorite exercise with the prophets and was employed to add emphasis and vividness to some of their most striking utterances, cf . Mic. I : 10 fif. ; Jer. i : 11 f. ; 50 : 20, 34; Hos. 1:5; Ezek. 25 : 16. There is no especial significance in the choice of summer fruit for the symbol of destruction. Any other word that would have furnished the desired play upon words would have done just as well. 3. And the songs of the temple, etc. ; better, with a slight change of text, and the singing-women of the palace shall wail. 58 THE BOOK OF AMOS 8:6 The dead bodies shall be many ; in every place shall they cast them forth with silence.^ XIII. The Sins of Israel and their Penalty, 8 : 4-14 4. Hear this, O ye that would swallow up^ the needy ^ and cause the poor of the land to fail,* 5. Saying, When will the new moon be gone, that we may sell corn?^ and the sabbath, that we may set forth ^ wheat ? ^ Making the ephah small, and the shekel great, and dealing falsely with balances of deceit ; 6. That we may buy the poor for silver, 1 m. have they cast them forth: he silent t Gr. / will cast them forth to silence. 2 Gr. that destroy into the dawn. Syr. that despise. 3 Syr. omits. * Gr. that oppress the poor of the land. Syr. omits cause to fail. ^ Vg. hire. Gr. omits corn. ^ m. Heb. open. '' Gr. and Syr., treasure. Their joy and mirth will be turned into terror and lamentation. There will be a mass of carcasses, a slaughter without regard to rank or sex. In every place ; burial will go by default. The carcasses will be left upon the face of the ground to be mauled and devoured by birds and beasts of prey. This was the most awful calamity conceivable in the ancient world. With silence ; better, Hush ! The horror of the situation will be so overwhelm- ing that speech will seem sacrilege ; cf . 6 : lo. 4. Swallow up ; better, with slightly different vowels, trample upon. Those addressed are evidently the greedy and all-power- ful rich. 5. In their lust for gain, they shrink not from the violation of any law or custom. New moon and sabbath both evidently required cessation from work and business; cf. i Sam. 20: 5-34; 2 Kings 4:23; Isa. 1:13; Hos. 2:11. Various methods of cheating are listed. In selling grain they gave small measure, or manipulated the scales so as to take more weight in money than they were entitled to. The ephah has been variously estimated at from 2x\ to 40I quarts. The shekel likewise is of uncertain value, but is usually reckoned at about $10.80 if of gold, and at 60 cents if of silver. 6. The first two phrases are found in essence in 2:6. And 59 8; 7 THE BOOK OF AMOS and the needy for a pair of shoes, and sell the refuse^ of the wheat.^ 7. The Lord hath sworn by the excellency of Jacob, Surely I will never forget any of their works.^ 8. Shall not the land tremble for this, and every one mourn that dwelleth therein ? Yea, it shall rise up wholly ^ like the River ; and it shall be troubled and sink again,^ like the River of Egypt. 9. And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God, That I will cause the sun to go down^ at noon, and I will darken the earth ^ in the clear day. 10. And I will turn your feasts into mourning, and all your songs into lamentation ; 1 Gr. fro7n all. 2 Gr. the race. ' Gr. their works will he forgotten unto the victory. < Gr. and Syr., ruin. ^ Gr. i), shall subside. ^ Gr. The sun will go down. ' Gr. and the earth will become dark. sell the refuse of the wheat; not satisfied with giving small measure and cheating the buyer in the weight of his money, they add to their sins by forcing upon him grain of the poorest quality. 7. The excellency of Jacob, or glory^ of Jacob. This oath is sworn either by Jehovah himself who is Israel's glory (cf. 6:8; I Sam. 15: 29), or by the vainglorious pride of Israel which is unchanging (cf. Hos. 5 : 5 ; 7 : 10). I will never forget ; cf . 8 : 2 ; 7 : 8. Any of their works ; or, all their works, i.e. their evil deeds. 8. Tremble ; i.e. as in an earthquake. This ; i.e. for the wickedness of Israel. Like the River; i.e. like the Nile; cf. 9:5. The annual rise of the Nile with its corresponding sub- sidence is in the prophet's mind. 9. In that day, viz. the great and terrible day of Jehovah. At noon, viz. in an eclipse. An eclipse had actually occurred on June 15, 763 B.C., which astronomers describe as having been visible at Jerusalem as a fairly large partial eclipse. Such phe- nomena were for the mass of the people in Amos's time inexplicable except as miraculous portents, betokening the divine wrath. 10. Sackcloth; the garb of mourners; Isa. 15:3; 22:12. Baldness ; an artificially produced baldness, which was another 60 THE BOOK OF AMOS And I will bring up sackcloth upon all loins, and baldness upon every head ; And I will make it as the mourning for an only son,^ and the end thereof ^ as a bitter day. 11. Behold, the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in the land, Not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the words ^ of the Lord. 12. And they shall wander^ from sea to sea,^ and from the north even to the east ; They shall run to and fro to seek the word of the Lord, and shall not find it. 13. In that day shall the fair virgins and the young men faint for thirst. 14. They that swear by the sin^ of Samaria, 1 Gr. a beloved one. 2 Qr. and those with htm. ^ Gr., Syr., Vg. and Tg. the word. * Syr. and they shall assemble. * Gr. and the waters of the sea shall roll. « Gr. ac- cording to the propitiation. Syr. by the idols. evidence of mourning; cf. Deut. 14:1; Isa. 3:24; 22:12; Mic. 1 : 16. Mourning for an only son; the most intense of all sorrows; cf. Jer. 6: 26; Zech. 12: 10. The end thereof ; viz. of the mourning. As a bitter day; i.e. without hope. 11. In their dire distress and despair, the people will turn to Jehovah for aid, but he will give them no recognition. Cf. Mic. 3:6. 12. From sea to sea, viz. from the Dead Sea to the Mediter- ranean ; or perhaps, from one end of the earth to the other. From the North even to the East ; i.e. no portion of the earth will be left unvisited in the effort of the people to find God. 13. The fair virgins and the young men, viz. the very flower of the land. For thirst; not for water, but for Jehovah; cf. vs. II ; Ps. 42 : I, 2. 14. Swear by; i.e. worship; cf. Deut. 6:13; 10:20; Isa. 48 : I ; Jer. 12 : 16. The sin of Samaria; viz. (if the trans- lation be correct), the calves made by Jeroboam I for Northern Israel's worship. But, in view of the parallel references to the worship of special gods at Dan and Beersheba, it is probably 61 THE BOOK OF AMOS and say, As thy God, O Dan, liveth ; and, As the way^ of Beer-sheba liveth ; Even they shall fall, and never rise up again. XIV. A Final Vision of Inevitable Destruction, 9 ' 1-4 9. I saw the Lord standing ^ beside the altar : and he said, Smite the capitals,^ that the thresholds may shake : And break them in pieces ^ on the head of all of them ; and I will slay the last of them with the sword : There shall not one of them flee away, and there shall not one of them escape.^ 1 m. manner. Gr. thy God. 2 j^x. upon. ^ Gr. upon the mercy-seat. * Gr. and cut through. Vg. avarice. ^ m. he thatfleeth of them shall not flee away, and he that escapeth of them shall not be delivered. better to translate here, Ashimath of Samaria, the reference being to the goddess of that name. Mention is made in the Elephantine Papyri, recently discovered, of a corresponding male deity, viz. Asham, of Bethel. Thy God, O Dan; the contemporaries of Amos, while recognizing Jehovah as the nation's only God, believed in the existence of other gods, and sought the aid of various local and family gods in the many crises of their daily lives; cf. Isa. 2:8; Hos. 5:12; 13:4; Jer. 2:28. The way of Beer-sheba ; if this rendering be correct, it means the manner of worship at Beersheba, or the festal pilgrimages thither. But we should expect rather the name of the God especially wor- shipped at Beersheba and the word " way " is probably due to a deliberate change from that name, which would naturally be odious in the sight of all later worshippers of Jehovah. Never rise up again; cf. 5 : 2, I. The altar; viz. at Bethel, or some other great sanctuary of the Northern Kingdom. And he said, viz. to one of his agents; cf. 2 Sam. 24:16. The capitals, i.e. the tops of the columns upon which the roof of the sanctuary was supported. The thresholds ; the building is to be shaken and shattered from roof to foundation. And break them in pieces on the head of all of them ; i.e. smash the capitals or pillars over the heads of 62 THE BOOK OF AMOS 2. Though they dig ^ into hell,^ thence shall my hand take them ; And though they chmb up to heaven, thence will I bring them down. 3. And though they hide themselves in the top of Car- mel, I will search and take them out thence ; And though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the serpent, and he shall bite them. 4. And though they go into captivity before their enemies, thence will I command the sword, and it shall slay them: And I will set mine eyes upon them for evil, and not for good. 1 Gr. hide away. 2 m. Heb. Sheol. all the worshippers. The last of them; if any of them escape destruction in the collapse of the shrine, it will but be to perish by the sword. Not a single soul will escape. 2. Kell; better with m. Sheol, the abode of all departed spirits. It was located in the depths of the earth and so was the most inaccessible spot conceivable in that direction. Heaven, i.e. the highest conceivable point. 3. The top of Carmel; 1800 feet above sea level, covered with dense woods and honeycombed by a labyrinth of caves, over 2000 in number ; hence an ideal hiding-place for fugitives. The serpent, viz. the sea dragon supposed by ancient peoples to have its home at the bottom of the sea ; cf. Isa. 27:1. 4. Go into captivity ; even here, where other gods were sup- posed to be all-powerful, Jehovah will manifest his supreme power in bringing death upon them. Mine eyes upon them for evil ; there can be no eluding the all-seeing eye of Jehovah, which henceforth will single them out for punishment, instead of for blessing. 63 THE BOOK OF AMOS XV. A Eulogy upon Jehovah's Power, 9 : 5-6 5. For the Lord, the God of hosts, is he that toucheth the land and it melteth,^ and all that dwell therein shall mourn ; And it shall rise up wholly^ like the River ; and shall sink again, like the River of Egypt ; 6. It is he that buildeth his chambers in the heaven, and hath founded his vault ^ upon the earth; He that calleth for the waters of the sea and poureth them out upon the face of the earth ; The LoRD^ is his name. XVI. Israel may expect no Special Privilege from Jehovah, 9 : 7-10 7. Are ye not as the children of the Ethiopians unto me, O children of Israel ? saith the Lord. 1 Gr. atid maketh it shake. 2 Gr. its ruin shall rise up. ^ Gr. his command. Syr. his promise. * Gr., Syr. the Lord of Hosts. 9 : 5-6. This section is quite generally recognized as coming from the pen of some later writer, whose mind turned to thoughts of Jehovah's mighty power as he read the words of Amos and looked back upon the course of history and realized what Jehovah had wrought in fulfilment of the prophet's threatenings. The con- siderations in support of late origin are the same as in the case of the similar passages 4:13 and 5 : 8-9. 5. It melteth; a reference to volcanic or seismic disturbances; cf. Mic. I : 4. Rise up, etc. ; almost a word for word repetition of the latter part of 8 : 8. 6. Chambers in the heaven; i.e. the storehouses in which Jehovah was thought of as keeping the rain, snow, wind and hail; cf. Ps. 135:7; 147 : 16 f. His vault, i.e. the arching firmament which overhangs the earth, the edges of which were supposed to rest upon the earth; cf. 26: 11. Calleth for the waters, etc. ; a repetition of the latter part of 5 : 8. 7. This was a most astonishing statement in the ears of Amos's listeners. Their whole religious life was based upon the 64 THE BOOK OF AMOS Have not I brought up Israel out of the land of Egypt, and the Philistines from Caphtor/ and the Syrians from Kir? 2 8. Behold, the eyes of the Lord God are upon the sinful kingdom, and I will destroy it from off the face of the earth ; Saving that I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob, saith the Lord. 1 Gr,, Syr., Tg., Vg. Cappadocia. 2 Gr. a pit. Vg. Cyrene. proposition that Israel was Jehovah's chosen people. The Ethiopians were a far-removed people, who had by this time con- quered upper Egypt, including Thebes. They were doubtless despised by Israel as black and barbarous ; and yet the prophet puts them upon the same level before Jehovah with Israel her- self. The deliverance of Israel from Egypt had always been used as convincing proof of Jehovah's power and of his love for Israel. Yet Amos dares to say that Jehovah has done just as much for the Philistines and the Syrians, both of them long hated by Israel as most persistent foes. Caphtor is best identified with Crete, whence the Philistines emigrated to the south. The recent dis- covery of the so-called Phaestos Disc in Crete makes this origin of the Philistines practically certain. Kir is mentioned in i : 5 as the place whither the Syrians will be carried captive when Jehovah's wrath alights upon them. Nothing is known concern- ing its location. 8. Eyes of the Lord God are upon ; as in 9 : 4. The sinful kingdom ; viz. Northern Israel. From off the face of the earth ; no stronger statement of final and total destruction could be made. Saving that I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob ; this is exactly the contrary of what has just been said. It, with the following two verses, is from the pen of a later writer who sought to make the words of Amos accord precisely and literally with the events of history as they were now known. The house of Jacob probably denotes Northern Israel ; cf . 5 : i, 4, 6 ; 6 : 8, 14 ; 7 : 2, 5, 10, 16 ; 8:7. But since a different writer speaks here, it may be that the phrase is not used in the same sense as it had with Amos and that it denotes Israel, as a whole, both north and south. F 65 THE BOOK OF AMOS 9. For, lo, I will command, and I will sift^ the house of Israel among all the nations, Like as graijt is sifted in a sieve, yet shall not the least grain 2 fall upon the earth. 10. All the sinners of my people shall die by the sword, who say. The evil shall not overtake nor prevent us. XVI. A Picture of the Glorious Future, 9:11-15 11. In that day will I raise up the tabernacle of David that is fallen, 1 m. Heb. cause to move to and fro. ^ Gr. ruin. g. Sift the house of Israel among all the nations, i.e. send the Israelites into exile. Yet shall not the least grain fall upon the earth ; i.e. the experience of exile will eliminate all the worthless in Israel, but the truly pious will be protected and preserved. This writer describes, not destruction as Amos had done, but purification through chastisement resulting in the preservation of all the good. ID. All the sinners of my people shall die by the sword; this is the point of view of later times, when the sufferings of the righteous had become a source of serious perplexity to the pious. Looking back upon the exile of Northern Israel, this writer ac- counts for the death of all who perished by reason of that event on the ground that they v/ere sinners who deserved to die and did die in order that the just Jehovah might be able to shower blessings upon the pious remainder. Evil shall not overtake nor prevent us ; the same point of view on the part of the wicked is expressed in 6 : 3 and Mic. 3: 11. It arose from the belief that Jehovah was bound to defend his own people from disaster at the hands of enemies, and that as the most powerful of all gods he was abundantly able to do so. The thought that the justice of Jehovah could lead him to doom his own chosen people to destruction was incredible to the masses. Prevent here has the meaning "go before" or "anticipate," as in the petition of the prayer-book, " Prevent us, O Lord, in all our doings by thy most gracious favor, etc." 66 THE BOOK OF AMOS And close up the breaches thereof ; and I will raise up his ruins, and I will build it as in the days of old ; ^ 12. That they may possess the remnant of Edom,^ and all the nations, which are ^ called by my name, saith the Lord that doeth this. 13. Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, 1 SjT. adds, as the years of generation after generation. 2 Qr. that the remnant of men may seek out me. ^ m. were. 9 : 11-15. This section is the work of a later writer. The chief considerations in support of this view are as follows. Amos else- where predicts destruction ; here restoration and blessing are announced, and that too, without any ethical prerequisites on Israel's part. Amos's whole message emphasized the ethical and spiritual ; this concerns itself wholly with the material side of life. Amos thinks of Jehovah as God of the universe; never elsewhere as "thy God" (vs. 15). This passage seems to look back upon the Exile as an accomplished fact (vs. 11, 14 f.). The attitude toward Edom is one characteristic of exilic and post- exilic days. These are the words of a prophet of later days who realized the necessity of bringing faith and hope back to the dis- couraged post-exilic community. 11. In that day, viz. the day of Jehovah. The tabernacle of David that is fallen, i.e. the dynasty and kingdom of Judah, which are now overthrown and held in subjection by a foreign foe. As in the days of old, viz. the pre-exilic age as a whole or the days of David in particular. 12. Possess the remnant of Edom; cf. Obad., Isa. 63: 1-6, and other exilic and later writings for the same attitude of hos- tility toward Edom in particular. And all the nations ; and yet Amos had declared that Israel had no advantage over other peoples in Jehovah's eyes; cf. 9: 7. This writer looks for the supremacy of Israel over all the surrounding peoples. Which are called by my name, i.e. those which in the days of Israel's greatest glory had been subject to her power ; the Davidic sway is to be restored as at the first. To " call a name over " anything was to assert ownership of it ; cf. Jer. 7: 10; Deut. 28 : 10 ; 2 Sam. 12:28. 13. The plowman shall overtake the reaper, etc., i.e. the seasons will be so favorable that the crops will mature with mar- 67 14 THE BOOK OF AMOS That the plowman shall overtake the reaper/ and the treader of grapes him that soweth seed ; ^ And the mountains shall drop sweet wine, and all the hills shall melt.^ 14. And I will bring again the captivity of my people Israel, and they shall build the waste cities, and inhabit them; And they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof ; they shall also make gardens, and eat of the fruit of them. 15. And I will plant them upon their land, and they shall no more be plucked up out of their land Which I have given them, saith the Lord thy God. 1 Gr. that the harvest will overtake the vintage. 2 Qr. and the cluster of grapes shall turn dark in the seedtime. ^ Gr. will be planted together. Vg. will be cultivated. vellous rapidity and will crowd one upon the other almost faster than the farmer can take care of them. The vintage ordinarily begins in September and seedtime just as soon as the ground has been softened by the October rains. The mountains shall drop sweet wine ; the mountain sides were commonly clothed with vineyards; cf. Joel 3: 18. The hills shall melt, i.e. seem to be dissolved in the flow of wine from the vineyards. 14. Bring again the captivity, i.e. restore the exiles to their own land. Build the waste cities, etc. ; external and material power and possessions occupy all of this writer's attention. Amos could not have left a promise of the reign of justice and righteousness out of his picture of the future. Plant vineyards, and drink the wine thereof, etc. ; a promise of permanent habi- tation and possession, which is stated even more explicitly in vs. 15. There will be no more captivity or exile. 68 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF HOSEA INTRODUCTION I. The Book of Hosea I. CONTENTS The Book of Hosea resolves itself naturally into two main divisions, viz. chaps 1-3 and 4-14. The former section is permeated throughout by allusions to and interpretations of Hosea's own personal and family expe- riences. This element disappears in the latter chapters, which contain sermons setting forth repeatedly the guilt of Israel and her impending doom. The first division may be further divided into five sections, viz.: I. The Superscription to the Book (i : i) ; II. The Unhappy Marriage of Hosea (i : 2-9) ; III. A Promise of Israel's Restoration to Jehovah's Favor (i : 10-2 : i) ; IV. Israel's Sin, Punishment, Repentance, and Resto- ration (2 : 2-23) ; V. Hosea's Purchase and Discipline of a Wife (3 : 1-5). The second division includes fifteen sections, viz. : VI. Jehovah's Quarrel vvdth Israel (4 : 1-19) ; VII. Jehovah's Judgment upon Israel (5 : 1-14) ; VIII. Israel's Facile Repentance and Indelible Guilt (5:15-6:11); IX. The Deep-seated Corruption of Israel (7 : 1-7) ; X. Israel's Disloyalty to Jehovah (7 : 8-16) ; XI. Israel's Rulers, Gods, and PoUcies are Hostile to Jehovah (8 : 1-14) ; 71 INTRODUCTION XII. Israel deserting Jehovah and deserted by Jeho- vah (9:1-17); XIII. The Destruction of Israel's Altars and Idols (10:1-8); XIV. The Long-standing and Deep-rooted Sin of Israel and its Inevitable Outcome (10 : 9-15) ; XV. Jehovah's Love for Israel (11 : i-ii) ; XVI. The Unpardonable Deceit of Israel (11:12- 12 : 14) ; XVII. How are the Mighty Fallen (13 : 1-16) ; XVIII. A Call to Repentance (14: 1-3); XIX. Pardon and Promise (14 : 4-8) ; XX. A Word to the Wise (14 : 9). In neither division of the book is there discernible any logical or chronological relationship among its constituent sections. The sections in themselves reveal considerable logical arrangement ; but there is no steady progress from section to section. They are merely arranged side by side like pearls upon a string ; there is no vital connection binding each to its predecessor. This is more or less true of all of the prophetic books ; but there is less of logic in Hosea than in any other of the prophets. 2. UNITY In a book so loosely tied together as Hosea, the tempta- tion is strong for the interpreter to solve difficult transi- tions by the omission of offending verses. But the body of the book, as a whole, justifies its claim to Hoseanic authorship. The passages that must be denied to Hosea are relatively few, viz. 1:1, 7 ; i : 10-2 :i; 4:11; 6:11; II : 9-11 ; 12 : 3-6 ; 12 : 12 f. ; 14 : 4-9 ; and probably 8 : 14. The considerations leading to the setting aside of these verses will be found stated in the commentary 72 INTRODUCTION in connection with the respective passages. In addition to these foreign elements it is probable that 2 : 6-7 and 9 : 16 are misplaced in their present positions. Exception is taken by some interpreters to such pas- sages as 2 : 6-7, 14-16, 18-23 and 3 : 5, on the ground that they are inconsistent with Hosea's messages of destruction and reflect the attitude of later prophets. But this position does not seem to be well taken. It is scarcely conceivable that a prophet who loved his nation as Hosea evidently did could have confined his preaching to words of doom. The whole purpose of the prophet's preaching was to bring about repentance and consequent deliver- ance. If he had had no hope of success, why did he preach ? Surely a prophet could find no satisfaction in a message of destruction to a people for whom he knew there was no possibility of escape. Positing then an ele- ment of hope in the heart of the prophet, it remains only to determine whether the passages in question are other- wise intelligible as uttered by Hosea. For answer to this question, reference may be had to the interpretation of the material in the commentary. 3. TEXT The text of the Book of Hosea is one of the worst preserved in the Old Testament. Many passages have been so mutilated as to be now unintelligible. Some of these can be restored with a fair degree of certainty by the aid of the translations into Greek and Syriac, espe- cially the Septuagint and the Peshitto. In other cases, we have no recourse but critical conjecture, guided by the fragments of the text as it now stands, by the renderings of the Versions, and by the demands of the context. Varying degrees of approximation to certainty are attained 73 INTRODUCTION by this process. But in not a few cases the recovery of the original reading of the text seems past hope, unless new copies of the text should be uncovered by the spade of some fortunate excavator. A suggestion of the diffi- culty of the text of Hosea is afforded by the long array of variant readings appended to many of the sections of the translation in the following commentary. 4. STYLE The uncertainty of the text of Hosea complicates the effort to formulate a judgment of the literary style of the book. Much of the obscurity that now characterizes many passages is doubtless not to be charged against Hosea himself, but against those through whose hands the text has come down to the present time. The vocabulary of Hosea is rich and varied. He uses many synonyms and thus avoids the monotony of the constant repetition of a few words. His utterance is more ornate than that of Amos and is especially charac- terized by its frequent similes, comparisons, and meta- phors ; cf. especially chaps. 5-7 and 13. This means a corresponding loss in simplicity, directness, and force. But this is more than atoned for by the added beauty and charm. Hosea's words are poetic through and through. There is scarcely a prosaic phrase among them, aside from the biographical material in chaps, i and 3. He is an artist in words ; he writes in pictures. His imagery is concrete and sensuous, worked out in some cases in detail and leaving little to the imagination. There is less regularity in the poetic form of Hosea than in that of Amos. The parallelism is, on the whole, less clearly marked and there is less evidence of strophic organization of the material. 74 INTRODUCTION There are, for example, no recognizable poetic refrains in Hosea. This lack in the mechanical form is due to the dominance of the poetical spirit, which refuses to be limited in its expression by rigid formal considerations. II. The Times of Hosea I. DATE The tradition represented in the superscription of the Book of Hosea makes the prophet to have been contem- porary with Amos in the reigns of Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam of Israel and to have continued his activity on into the reign of Hezekiah. Tested by the contents of the prophecy, this tradition seems in general to be correct. The threat in i : 4 fixes for us the farthest point back that is definitely known within Hosea's lifetime. There the downfall of the house of Jehu is still in the future. That event took place in the murder of Zechariah, the son of Jeroboam, within six months after the death of Jeroboam himself (2 Kings 15 : 8-12). Hosea therefore was prophe- sying in 743 B.C., but how long he had been a prophet at that time cannot be known. The lower limit to the period of his prophetic work seems to be indicated by the fact that he is wholly silent regarding the Syro-Ephraim- itic attack upon Judah in 735 B.C. This consideration is strengthened by the references in 5 : i ; 6:8, and 12:11 to the district of Gilead as being still in the possession of Israel ; this was not true after the events of 735-734 B.C. 2. HISTORICAL SITUATION The conditions reflected in Hosea's sermons accord well with what is known of the period from 745 B.C. to 735 B.C. Jeroboam's death {ca. 743) was followed by the murder 75 INTRODUCTION of his son Zechariah in the same year, at the hands of Shallum. He in turn, after a month, was slain by Men- ahem, who took the throne and held it, after a short but bloody civil war, for a period of ten years. His son and successor Pekahiah was ousted and slain by Pekah, an- other usurper, who cooperated with Syria against Judah in 735 B.C. In addition to these internal troubles, Tiglath- pileser IV invaded Israel in 738 B.C., and exacted heavy tribute from her (2 Kings 15 : 19 f.). The prosperity that had characterized the reign of Jeroboam II rapidly disappeared upon his death. Internal strife, coupled with foreign invasion and heavy tribute, made the conditions of life and business unstable and drained the resources of the kingdom to the dregs. Amid charges of moral and religious degeneracy, Hosea includes an occasional statement that reveals the political and economic conditions of his time. He alludes twice (7 : 3-7 ; 8 : 10) to the dynastic changes, conspiracies, and murders of the day. He speaks of the overtures made by the government both to Assyria and to Egypt for succor (5:13; 7:8, 11; 8:8 ff.; 12:1). These appeals may have been from rival aspirants for the throne who sought foreign aid in their attempt to establish themselves. As a matter of fact, Menahem certainly held his throne by the grace of Assyria; and, a little later, the downfall of Pekah was aided by Assyria, who placed Hoshea upon the throne as his successor. The prophet realized clearly the relative weakness of his country in comparison with the great powers and the contempt felt for her by them (7 : 9, 16 ; 8 : 8 ; 13). He looked forward to the approach- ing downfall of his country, at the hands of either Assyria or Egypt; but seems to have been unable to decide be- tween them (8 : 13 ; 9 : 3, 6 ; 10 : 6 ; 11:5). Either the 76 INTRODUCTION relative strength of the two great powers and the outcome of the rivalry between them was not apparent in Hosea's time, or Hosea was not a keen observer of the political situation. As history has shown, the future lay in the hands of Assyria. But this was not so evident in the period from 750 to 735 B.C. as it is now. It has been contended that Hosea's work fell between 735 and 721 B.C. But Hosea's uncertainty regarding the outcome of the struggle for supremacy in the Western world seems to put such a sup- position out of the question. After 735-732 B.C. there could have been no doubt regarding Assyria's power. She was then mistress of the West down to the very gates of Egypt. During the early years of Tiglath-pileser IV, there was room for uncertainty. He fell heir to a weak and disorganized kingdom. He was beset by foes on every hand, and spent his first ten years in bringing into subjec- tion the people of Urartu on the north, the Syrians in the west, and the Babylonians to the south. Egypt was powerless to intervene effectively in western Asia during the whole period from 750-721 B.C. But she seems to have possessed a fatal facility in persuading the little Western folk to trust her and lean upon her. Hosea's attitude of uncertainty is intelligible, therefore, before 735-732 B.C., but incomprehensible after that date. Hosea had fallen on evil days. Decline, degeneration, and destruction stared Israel in the face on every side. He saw his country trembling on the edge of the precipice, before the final plunge. It was his task to try to save her. III. The Man Hosea was not an outsider, like Amos, but a native citizen of the Northern Kingdom. This may be fairly inferred from the contents of his prophecies, though no 77 INTRODUCTION direct statement is made regarding either his place of residence, his position in society, or his call to prophecy. His northern origin is indicated by his use of such phrases as ''our king" (7:5), ''in the house of Israel I saw" (6 : 10), and "the land" (i : 2) as meaning Northern Israel. His detailed knowledge of affairs in the North and fre- quent mention of northern cities point in the same direc- tion. The difference in attitude between him and Amos toward Israel may in part be due to the fact that Amos was an intruder while Hosea was at home. The evils of which Amos can speak without emotion break the heart of Hosea. Hosea was endowed with a strongly emotional and high-strung temperament. The floods of conflicting emo- tions run high in his utterances. Love for his nation, hatred of the wicked and oppressive, tender regard for the afflicted and doomed people, severity in the denuncia- tion of sin, and longing for deliverance from destruction follow one another in rapid succession and intertwine in all his thought. The rush of emotion at times makes his speech tumultuous. Beneath all this play of emotion there lay a profoundly religious view of life and of history, and this gave color and proportion to his whole message. The outstanding feature in the all too brief account of his personal career is the story of his marriage and the birth of his three children. This has always held the attention of interpreters and has played a large part in their estimate of the character and personality of Hosea. The interpretation of this record which has found accept- ance with most scholars in recent years is to the effect that Hosea fell in love with a young woman of good repu- tation, but with latent tendencies toward sensuality. Three children were born during the union, but not all 78 INTRODUCTION of them were Hosea's. He discovered his wife's infidelity, and at length she deserted him for another. His love for her led him to buy her back from her paramour, with the intention of restoring her to her former status as his wife, after having subjected her to restraint and seclusion for a period. Brooding upon this tragedy in his own experi- ence, Hosea came to see the hand of Jehovah in it pointing out to him his prophetic message. For his own experi- ence with his wife was but a duplicate of Jehovah's ex- perience with Israel. Jehovah had loved Israel, but she had spurned his love and taken up with other gods. Hence she must be disciplined by exile before she can be taken back into Jehovah's favor. Attractive as this interpretation is, because it presup- poses so psychologically intelligible an experience, it nevertheless must be abandoned. The narrative as it stands will not support such a view; it leaves too many lacunae to be filled in by the imagination. Not a word is said regarding Gomer's departure from home, nor as to the reason for Hosea's purchase of his recalcitrant wife, when she was already his by right and by law. Further- more, the phrase "woman of harlotries" (1:2) is given a forced meaning when it is made to denote a woman with a tendency toward vice, rather than a vicious woman. The same peculiarity of construction occurs in Hos. 4:12 and 5:4 and also, e.g., in Prov. 31:10; Ruth 3:11; Prov. 11:16 and 21:9, in none of which is there any suggestion of latent tendency or possibility as contrasted with an actual, positive characteristic or capacity. Again, so vital an element in the experience as the fact that Gomer's character was not discovered by Hosea until after the marriage could scarcely have been left unmen- tioned in the story. Lastly, that 3 : i should simply say 79 INTRODUCTION "a wife," rather than ^Hhy wife," is scarcely possible if the woman in question was Hosea's fugitive wife. The natural sense of the story requires that the woman be an out-and-out harlot, whom Hosea married with his eyes wide open. He was led to undertake this extraordi- nary step by the conviction that it was the will of God that he should so do. That Hosea should have conceived of Jehovah as requiring this repulsive act of him is a hypothesis fraught with no more difficulty morally than the view that he conceived of Jehovah as requiring him to marry a woman, who, as Jehovah knew, would turn out to be a harlot. Moral problems of this kind would not trouble men who were able to think of Jehovah as hardening Pharaoh's heart to the end that he might be destroyed (Exod. 7 : 3 f. ; lo : i), or to represent Jehovah as moving David to number Israel in order that he might have a warrant for punishing him (2 Sam. 24 : i f.), or to inspire a body of prophets to tell a lie (i Kings 22 : 20-23). The moral standards of to-day cannot be carried back and made applicable to the age of Hosea. Nor is the marriage of a woman of the street by the prophet psychologically difficult. The psychology of a prophet was not that of the normal man. He was dominated by the idea that he was the spokesman and representative of Jehovah. Anything that he could conceive of as Jehovah's command would be of binding force upon him. The fact that the action called for was abnormal would be no obstacle to his per- formance of it. Witness such examples as are furnished in Ezek. 4:9-15 ; 24 : 16-18 ; Isa. 20 : 1-4 ; Jer. 16 : i f. The extraordinary character of the marriage was in fact the warrant for its taking place. Its purpose required that it should attract widespread attention. It and the children that followed it were alike vivid object lessons 80 INTRODUCTION for all Israel. It was intended to provoke questioning on the part of the people that the way might be open for Hosea to deliver his message in reply. It was thus a lesson for the nation, not for Hosea himself. It was to show Israel how she was treating Jehovah, her spiritual husband. Instead of the loyalty to him which common decency re- quired, she was running after other gods continually. In this connection, it must be borne in mind that the marriage is meant to represent the present situation in Israel ; it is not a representation of past history. Conse- quently, it is not a part of its purpose to symbolize the initiation of the relationship between Jehovah and Israel, when all was as it should have been. It is the existing abnormal and shocking relationship that the prophet seeks to impress upon his people's consciousness. Then, too, it is worthy of notice that Hosea was not made a prophet by his marriage, as has been maintained, for he was a prophet before his marriage. He entered upon the marriage itself in obedience to the voice of Jehovah in his soul (1:2). He gave the first child born a name of prophetic significance (1:4, 5), though not yet aware, on the current view, of his wife's unfaithfulness. It was because he was a prophetic spirit that a marriage of this sort was possible for him. A prophet had few rights that Jehovah was bound to respect. This interpretation of the marriage experience empha- sizes the self-sacrifice of Hosea. He looks upon himself as belonging wholly to his people and to his God. There is no sacrifice for the good of Israel or for the service of Jehovah that can be called too great. He is a willing tool in Jehovah's hands, absolutely submissive to Jehovah's will. ''Shall the clay say to him who molds it, What makest thou?" (Isa. 45:9). G 81 INTRODUCTION Chapter 3, as ordinarily interpreted, has yielded the strongest support for the view that Hosea's wife first fell into evil ways after her marriage. But there is not the slightest necessity for interpreting it as a second stage in Hosea's experience with Gomer. It is equally natural to regard it as another version of the original marriage. To make the story complete, we need both versions. From these we may reconstruct the narrative thus : Hosea felt himself called upon by Jehovah to marry a prostitute, living with her paramour in open shame. Perhaps he put the thought away from him for a time ; but the con- viction would not down. "Jehovah said to me again. Go, etc." Hence, he took to wife Gomer bath Diblaim. During this union, three children were born, of whom Hosea makes use, each in turn, to repeat to Israel the message conveyed likewise by the marriage itself. There- upon, Hosea places his wife under restraint and in seclu- sion, breaking off all marital relations with her, and thus conveys to Israel the announcement that the nation's unfaithfulness to Jehovah will make her captivity and exile necessary, and that only after purification by such disciplinary treatment can she be restored to the favor of Jehovah. The man who could take upon himself a relationship like that and could exploit his act for the education of the public was not only utterly self-abasing and self-effacing in his devotion to his country, but was evidently endowed with a strongly dramatic temperament. This, combined with the inherent value of his message, succeeded in im- pressing his preaching deeply upon the consciousness of Israel, so that it became a permanent element in Hebrew religion. 82 INTRODUCTION IV. The Message of Hosea Amos was concerned with the rights of man, Hosea with the rights of God. Hosea was not bUnd to ''man's inhumanity to man." But his teaching was not so distinctively and prevailingly social as that of Amos. In his enumeration of the shortcomings of Israel in the ethical sphere, he never once mentions the poor and their sufferings; cf. 4:2; 5:11; 6:8, 9; 10:4; 12:7, 8. This was because his whole being was absorbed in the theme of Israel's attitude toward Jehovah. His funda- mental note is that Israel should be loyal to Jehovah to the exclusion of all other gods, by reason of the fact that he has chosen her as his own people from among the peoples of the earth. Hence Hosea attacks the Baal-worship of his day with uncompromising hostility ; cf . 2 : 8, 13, 16, 17 ; 7:16; 11:2; 13:1. The hold of Baalism upon the pop- ular consciousness was tenacious. Israel had come into Canaan from the desert. Their God had been able to supply all their need as nomads. But now they had come into a i^w world. They were under the necessity of learn- ing the ways of the new agricultural life from the Canaan- ites. But the Canaanites carried on their agricultural operations under the auspices of the local Baalim, the gods of the land. The religion of Baal and the tillage of the soil were inseparably connected. If the Hebrews would learn successful farming, they must take over with it a lot of Baalistic usages. The Baalim had reigned supreme over the soil of the land and its products for centuries. Could Jehovah dispossess them from their heritage? Would it not be folly to forsake the gods who had long granted the gifts of the soil and to trust one's fortunes to a god who had thus far been associated with wholly 83 INTRODUCTION different interests? This struggle between Jehovah and the Baalim was still keen in Hosea's time, and Hosea there- fore insists upon Jehovah's exclusive claim to recognition even in the domain of agriculture ; cf. especially 2 : 3-13. Out of the same feeling of loyalty to Jehovah arose Hosea's protest against the poHtical programmes of the day. Some look for aid to Egypt; others to Assyria; cf. 5:13; 7:8-12; 8:9, 10; 12:1; 14:3. But to Hosea all such policies mean lack of faith in Jehovah. Is not he able and willing to care for all the interests of his people, if they will but walk in his way ? Such dis- trust of him is in itself a heinous sin. Elijah, Elisha, and Amos had said nothing against the image-worship of their day. But to Hosea, with his spirit- ual conception of God, such a materialistic representation of Jehovah was unendurable. He therefore denounces image-worship in general (4 : 12, 17 ; 11:2; 14 : 3) and, in particular, the cultus of the golden calves (8:5, 6 ; 10: 5, 6; 13 : 2). To the mind of the prophet there was little to choose between calf-worship and Baalism. The misconception of Jehovah inseparable from the worship of him under the guise of a calf, so distorted his character as to put him on a level but little above that of the Baalim. Both rituals alike emphasized the generative, life-giving, fertilizing powers of the deity and consequently degenerated into crass sensuality; 4:2, 10, 13, 14, 18. So Hosea attacked the cultus, just as Amos had done ; though from a different point of view. Amos had objected to cultus as a substitute for justice toward fellow-men; Hosea objects that the cultus in itself is bad. It is the expres- sion of a wrong conception of Jehovah. It is for this reason that Hosea is always talking about the necessity of a knowledge of Jehovah ; cf. 2 : 8, 20 ; 84 INTRODUCTION 3:1, 6; 5:4; 6:6; 11:3. The great sin of Israel is that of inexcusable ignorance. She has had innumerable evidences of Jehovah's attitude toward her; but has steadily refused to learn by her experiences. This, for Hosea, is the tragedy of Hebrew history. He himself is dominated by the thought of Jehovah's love for Israel and he is amazed and grief-stricken because that love receives no adequate recognition or return in Israel. It is, on the contrary, met by the basest ingratitude. There is but one possible outcome of such a situation, viz. punishment and that of the most drastic character. There is a way of escape through genuine repentance; but this way Israel will not take. Hence, she must be carried into exile that she may realize the powerlessness of the gods in whom she has placed her trust and may come to a new consciousness of Jehovah's love. Chas- tised and purified, she may once more return to her land and there worship Jehovah with a zeal according to knowledge and with an undivided heart. V. Literature on Hosea Harper, W. R. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea [The International Critical Commentary] (1905). Smith, George Adam. The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. I (1896). Horton, R. F. The Minor Prophets [The Century Bible] (1904). EiSELEN, F. C. The Minor Prophets [Whedon's Com- mentary] (1907). Cheyne, T. K. Hosea, with Notes and Introduction [Cambridge Bible] (1884). Cornill, C. H. Prophets of Israel (1898). 85 INTRODUCTION Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History (2d ed., 1896). Welch, Adam C. The Religion of Israel under the Kingdom (191 2). BuDDE, K. Religion of Israel Prior to the Exile (1899). KiRKPATRiCK, A. F. Doctrine of the Prophets (3d ed., 1901). Davidson, A. B. Article ''Hosea," in Hastings's Dic- tionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899). Smith, W. R., and Marti, K. Article "Hosea," in Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901). Robinson, H. W. Article "Hosea," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, nth ed. Smith, J. M. Powis. " The Marriage of Hosea," in Bib- lical World, Vol. XLII (1913). 86 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF ROSEA I. The Superscription, i : i 1:2 1. The word of the Lord that came unto Hosea the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. II. The Unhappy Marriage of Hosea, i : 2-9 2. When the Lord spake at the first by ^ Hosea ,^ the Lord said unto Hosea, Go, take unto thee a wife of whoredom and children of whoredom : 1 m. with. 2 Gr., Syr., Vulg., Tg. The beginning of the word (or speaking) of Jehovah through Hosea. 1. Hosea; nothing is known of him, nor of Beeri, his father, aside from what this book tells us. Hosea was probably a native of Northern Israel (see Introduction, §111). In the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; this would place Hosea's activity beginning at least as early as 785 B.C. and as lasting till at least 715 B.C., a period of about 70 years. And in the days of Jeroboam, who reigned from about 780 b.c. to about 743 B.C. But it seems fairly certain that the period of Hosea's ministry cannot have extended longer than from some time before 743 B.C. to 735 B.C. (see Introduction, § II). This fact, to- gether with the further facts that a northern prophet would scarcely have placed the kings of Judah before his own king, and that most of the superscriptions to prophetic books have undergone editorial modification at least, makes it clear that this superscription is from the pen of a later editor. 2. When the Lord spake at the first; better either in the beginning when Jehovah spake, or the beginning of that which 87 i:3 THE BOOK OF HOSEA For the land doth commit great whoredom, departing from the Lord. 3. So he went and took Gomer the daughter of Dib- 4. laim ; and she conceived, and bare him a son. And the Lord said unto him, Call his name Jezreel ; for yet a little while, And I will avenge ^ the blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu,^ And will cause the kingdom of the house of Israel to cease. 1 m. Heb. visit. 2 Gr. Judah. Jehovah spake. This seems to be a special superscription, belong- ing particularly to chaps. 1-3, which certainly contain the earliest known prophecies of Hosea. Go, take, etc. ; the precise meaning of this statement is one of the chief problems in the book of Hosea. Is it to be understood as implying that Hosea deliberately married a harlot, knowing her character at the time, but believing him- self ordered of Jehovah to enter upon this repugnant alliance? Or, does it mean rather that Hosea in the heyday of his youth married a young woman whom he supposed to be virtuous, that she forsook the path of virtue after her marriage, and that Hosea, looking back upon the whole heartbreaking experience, interpreted it as Jehovah's way of preparing him for and calling him to the work of a prophet? In view of all the facts, it seems better to adopt the former view (see Introduction, § III). Commit great whoredom, departing from the Lord ; the prophet presents the relation between Jehovah and Israel as that between husband and wife. Israel is charged with having forsaken Jehovah for other gods. 3. Gomer the daughter of Diblaim; nothing is known of this woman nor her father aside from what Hosea tells us. Her name, unlike that of her children, has no certain symbolical significance. 4. Call his name Jezreel; cf. the names given by Isaiah to his sons (7:3; 8: 1-4; cf. 7: 14). I will avenge the blood of Jezreel, i.e. the massacre by Jehu of the royal family and its supporters; see 2 Kings 9:30-10:14. This was evidently uttered before the close of the reign of Jeroboam II, for the end 88 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 1:7 5. And it shall come to pass at that day, That I will break the bow of Israel in the valley of Jezreel. 6. And she conceived again, and bare a daughter. And the Lord said unto him,^ Call her name Lo-ruhamah : ^ for I will no more Have mercy upon the house of Israel, that I should in any wise pardon them.^ 7. But I will have mercy upon the house of Judah, and will save them by the Lord their God, And will not save them by bow, nor by sword, nor by battle, by horses, nor by horsemen. 1 Syr. And Jehovah said to me. Heb. And he said to him. ^ m. That is, That hath not obtained mercy. ^ Syr. for I will carry them away, completely. Vg. hut I will wholly forget them. Gr. but I will surely array myself against them. of his dynasty came only six months after his death with the murder of his son Zechariah. Will cause the kingdom of the house of Israel to cease ; Hosea clearly expected the end of the dynasty of Jehu and the fall of the Northern Kingdom to come together. But the latter event did not arrive till 721 B.C. 5. The bow, i.e. the power (Gen. 49:24; Jer. 49:35; Job 29: 20). In the valley of Jezreel; as the scene of the crime it is most fittingly chosen as the scene likewise of the vengeance, Jezreel lay in the plain of Esdraelon, the site of many important battles. No evidence of any event which would literally comply with this prediction is available. The difference between Hosea's estimate of Jehu's acts and that of the prophetic contemporaries of Jehu is striking and of great significance for a right under- standing of prophecy. 6. Lo-ruhamah, i.e. she is not pitied, or loved. I will no more have mercy; the decree of punishment is irrevocable. Thus early in his prophecy, Hosea declares the case of Israel to be hope- less. 7. But I will have mercy upon the house of Judah; this verse is quite generally conceded to be a later addition to the prophecy. It unduly interrupts the story of Hosea's family affairs ; its attitude toward Judah is that of other late passages in Hosea, not that of Hosea himself ; it seems to reflect a knowl- 89 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. Now when she had weaned Lo-ruhamah, she con- 9. ceived, and bare a son. And the Lord said, Call his name Lo-ammi : ^ for ye are not my people, and I will not be your God? III. A Promise of Restoration to Jehovah's Favor, 1 : 10-2 : 1 10. Yet the number of the children of Israel shall be as the sand of the sea, which cannot be measured nor numbered ; ^ m. i.e., not my people. 2 m. Heb. for you. edge of the marvellous deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib in 701 B.C., and the phrase Jehovah their God is a characteristic expression of the Deuteronomic writers. Will not save them by bow, etc. ; this reliance upon Jehovah alone with renunciation of all ordinary means of defence is a state of mind belonging to later times when the powerlessness of Judah had become only too ap- parent ; cf. Ezek. 39 : i-io ; Joel 2:32; 3 : 14-17 ; Zech. 14 : 3 ff. 8. When she had weaned Lo-ruhamah, etc. ; the period covered by the birth of the three children would approximate six years, and perhaps more, since children were not weaned till they were two or three years old. 9. Lo-ammi, i.e. not my people, symbolizes the complete break of the relationship between Jehovah and Israel. And I will not be your God ; God is supplied here by the translators ; the Heb. says only and I am not for you, which is equivalent to " I have nothing to do with you." This is sufficiently clear and strong and needs no addition. 1 : 10-2 : 1. This passage is denied to Hosea by many interpre- ters, since it interrupts a context concerned wholly with punish- ment and it presupposes the exile of Judah as having already taken place. The latter consideration certainly seems to dis- pose of the claim of vs. 11 to Hoseanic origin, and the former at least compels us to suppose that this passage was not placed in its present position by Hosea. 10. Children of Israel are probably here the northern Israel- ites. As the sand of the sea; for similar promises, cf. Mic. 2:12; 90 THE BOOK OF HOSEA And it shall come to pass that, in the place where it was said unto them, Ye are not my people, it shall be said unto them. Ye are the sons of the living God. II. And the children of Judah and the children of Israel shall be gathered together, and they shall appoint themselves one head, and shall go up from the land : for great shall be the day of Jezreel. 2. Say ye unto your brethren,^ Ammi ; ^ and to your sisters,^ Ruhamah.^ IV. Israel's Sin, Punishment, Repentance, and Res- toration, 2 : 2-23 I. The Sin of Israel, 2 : 2-5 2. Plead ^ with your mother, plead ; ^ for she is not my wife, neither am I her husband : 1 Gr. brother. 2 m. ^j-y people. ^ Gr. sister. * m. That hath obtained mercy. 5 Gr. and Vg. judge. Isa. 48 : 19. In the place where it was said ; better, instead of its being said. Sons of the living God, i.e. in distinction from the worshippers of lifeless idols. II. The disruption of the kingdom was brought about in part by the influence of contemporary prophets (cf. i Kings 11 : 29 'ff. ; 12 : 22 &.). This prophet does not necessarily condemn that act as unwise or ungodly ; but he does look forward to a time when the schism shall be healed; cf. Is. 11: 13; Ezek. 37: 22. One head, i.e. a king from David's line. And shall go up from the land, i.e. from the land of exile, in order to return home. The day of Je25reel ; the name Jezreel now receives a new interpreta- tion ; whereas in i : 4 it signified destruction, it here means restoration. It is the day of Jehovah upon which he will smite Israel's foes and exalt Israel to a position of power. I. This repeats essentially the thought of 1:10; cf. 2:23, Say ye ; it is not clear to whom this is addressed. It looks much 91 THE BOOK OF HOSEA And let her put away ^ her whoredoms from her^ face, and her adulteries from between her breasts ; 3. Lest I strip her naked, and set her as in the day that she was bom, And make her as a wilderness, and set her ^ Hke a dry land, and slay her with thirst ; 4. Yea, upon her children will I have no mercy ; for they be children of whoredom. 5. For their mother hath played the harlot : she that conceived them hath done shamefully : 1 Gr. and I will take away. ^ Gr. my. ' Syr. omits set her. like a fragment torn from its original context and misplaced here. It may have been spoken to the citizens of Judah, urging them to recognize and receive the returning exiles from Northern Israel as Jehovah's people ; or ta those who had remained at home, call- ing them to welcome the returning exiles. 2. Plead ; better, strive; the Israelites are addressed as in- dividuals. Your mother, i.e. the nation as a whole. For she is not my wife, etc. ; a parenthetical statement, perhaps added by a later hand, calling attention to the fact that the natural relation of Jehovah to Israel has been broken off. And let her put away her whoredoms; this is the purpose of the " striving " urged upon the Israehtes. The worship of other gods by Israel is incompatible with loyalty to Jehovah. 3. Strip her naked; the figure of the adulterous woman still holds. We have no other reference to such a custom as this in Israel, though it is known to have been in force elsewhere. As in the day that she was born; cf. Ezek. 16:39. Then Israel was without any kind of possessions and so in need of everything. And make her as a wilderness, etc. ; the figurative element here gives way to the real, and the fate awaiting land and people is set forth. 4. Will I have no mercy ; a reaffirmation of 1:6. Children of whoredom ; cf. i : 2. 5. Their mother hath played the harlot, i.e. Israel has been false to Jehovah. Children suffer for the parents' sins (cf. Deut. 5:9); hence the individual Israelites bear punishment 92 THE BOOK OF HOSEA For she said, I will go after my lovers, that give me my bread and my water, my wool and my flax, mine oil and my drink.^ 2. Jehovah must chastise Israel, 2 : 6-13 6. Therefore, behold, I will hedge up thy way^ with thorns, and I will make a fence against her, that she shall not find her paths. 7. And she shall follow after her lovers, but she shall not overtake them ; and she shall seek them, but shall not find them : Then shall she say, I will go and return to my first husband ; for then was it better with me than now. 1 m. Heb. drinks. Gr. whatever befits me. 2 Qr. her way. for the sins of the nation. My lovers, i.e. the Baalim, or local deities worshipped in Canaan from the earliest times and still recognized in Hosea's day as the givers of the crops, etc. The struggle between Jehovah and the Baalim for complete suprem- acy in Canaan was not yet finished. Hosea is an ardent cham- pion of Jehovah. Vss. 6 and 7 seem out of place here, for they interrupt the ex- cellent connection between vs. 5 and vs. 8 and they introduce the element of punishment somewhat prematurely ; it is not in place logically before the close of vs. 9. There is not sufficient reason, however, for denying the verses to Hosea; they have simply been misplaced by an editor of the book. 6. Thy way; better as in Gr. her way; " d. her paths." The ways in which Israel has walked are to be rendered impassable and untraceable. All her efforts to obtain help through gods other than Jehovah will prove futile. 7. The blessings Israel expects from the Baalim will utterly fail her in spite of all her zeal in their behalf. _ This will bring her to her senses and drive her to take refuge in Jehovah. For then was it better with me than now ; in her days of suffering 93 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. For she did not know that I gave her the corn, and the wine, and the oil, and multiplied unto her silver and gold, which they used for Baal.^ 9. Therefore will I take back ^ my corn in the time thereof, and my wine in the season thereof. And will pluck away my wool, and my flax ^ which should have covered her nakedness. 10. And now will I discover her lewdness^ in the sight of her lovers, and none shall deliver her out of mine hand. 11. I will also cause all her mirth to cease, her feasts, her new moons, and her sabbaths, and all her solemn assemblies.^ 1 Gr. And silver I have multiplied for her. This one, however, made (things) of silver and gold for the Baal. Syr. and silver and gold I multiplied to her, and from it they made Baal. m. made into the image of Baal. 2 m. return, and take away. ^ Gr. iny garments. ^ra. shame. ^ m.. appointed feasts. and disaster, Israel will look back longingly to the days of pros- perity when she served Jehovah. The prophet can have in mind only the period before the conquest of Canaan, for the worship of the Baalim by Israel set in immediately thereafter. 8. This is in direct continuation of vs. 5. Which they used for Baal ; this is the climax of ingratitude and insult. It is un- certain whether the use spoken of was that these things were offered to the Baalim in sacrifice, etc., or that the gold and silver had been converted into images of the Baalim. 9. The withdrawal of the blessings will bring Israel to a recog- nition of the fact that they do not come from the Baalim, but from Jehovah, For all the prayers and offerings presented to the Baalim will be of no avail in bringing back the desired blessings. Covered her nakedness; cf. Ezek. i6 : 8. 10. And now, i.e. and so, or consequently. Her lovers, i.e. the Baalim, who are regarded by the prophet as real gods. And none shall deliver her ; the Baalim will be forced to stand by and look helplessly upon the distress of Israel. 11. Her mirth, her feasts, etc. ; it is noticeable that mirth is 94 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 12. And I will lay waste her vines and her fig trees, whereof she hath said, these are my hire that my lovers have given me : And I will make them a forest,^ and the beasts of the field shall eat them. 13. and I will visit upon her the days of the Baalim, unto which she burned incense ; ^ When she decked herself with her earrings^ and her jewels, and went after her lovers, and forgat me, saith the Lord. 3. The Restoration of Israel to Jehovah^ s Favor, 2 : 14-23 14. Therefore, behold, I will allure her, and bring her into the wilderness, and speak com- fortably ^ unto her. 1 Gr. a witness. 2 m. wherein she burned incense to them. ^ m. nose-rings. * m. Heb^^to her heart. here defined as consisting in religious activities. The religion of early Israel was joyous through and through ; cf. Exod. 32 : 5 f . ; Judg. 21 : 19 ff. ; I Sam. 1:3,7, 13 ff. There was as yet no deep- seated consciousness of the wrath of Jehovah resting upon Israel. 12. Vines and fig trees, representative of all the products of the soil. My hire that my lovers have given me ; the rewards given Israel by the Baalim for her service. A forest ; better, a thicket, as also in i Sam. i4:25f. ; Isa. 21:13; Jer. 26:18. Beasts of the field, i.e. wild animals. 13. The days of the Baalim; the period during which Israel has worshipped these Canaanitish gods. Burned incense ; or more generally, made offering. Decked herself; the figure of the harlot is still in mind ; but it is also a fact that jewelry was often a part of Semitic sacred costumes. Forgat me ; the wor- ship of the Baalim was regarded by the prophets as incompatible with the worship of Jehovah. 14. Israel is to be led away from her land and subjected to gentle discipline. The mercy of Jehovah will not fail her; but she will be sustained thereby. 95 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 15. And I will give her her vineyards^ from thence, and the valley of Achor^ for a door of hope :^ And she shall make answer^ there, as in the days of her youth, and as in the day when she came up out of the land of Egypt. 16. And it shall be at that day, saith the Lord, that thou shalt call ^ me Ishi ; ^ and shalt call ^ me no more Baali.^ 17. For I will take away the names of the Baalim out of her mouth, and they shall no more be mentioned ^ by their name. 18. And in that day will I make a covenant for them with the beasts of the field, ^Gr. her vines; Yg. her vinedressers. '^ m. i.e., troubling. ^ Gr. to open her understanding. Vg. to open hope. Syr. that her understanding may be opened. * m. sing; so Vg. Gr. and Syr. be humbled. ^ Gr., Vg., he will call. « m. my hus- band. ' m. my master. « m. be remembered. 15. From thence, i.e. she will be restored from the place of exile to the vineyards whence she was snatched awsLy. Valley of Achor ; a valley on the northern boundary of Judah (Josh. 7 : 24; 15 : 7). This valley, the name of which is troubling, will be a veritable door of hope to the returning exiles as they pass through it in their approach to Judah. And she shall make answer there, etc, ; Israel will again respond joyfully and loyally to Jehovah's will, as she did in the days of her early history. 16. The name Ishi, i.e. my husba?id, expresses the new con- ception of Jehovah, in contrast with the old, denoted by the name Baali, i.e. my Baal, or my master. This latter name implies the thought of Jehovah as but one Baal among many other Baals, though certainly the chief Baal. The prophet thinks of Jehovah as radically different from the Baalim. 17. The passing away of the Baals will be so complete that their very names will be forgotten. 18. This idyllic description of universal peace, not only be- tween man and man, but also between animals and man, expresses the longing of a soul weary of the strife and bloodshed of the 96 THE BOOK OF HOSEA and with the fowls of heaven, and with the creep- ing things of the ground : And I will break ^ the bow and the sword and the battle out of the land, and will make them to lie down safely. 19. And I will betroth thee unto me for ever ; yea, I will betroth thee unto me in righteousness, and in judgement, and in lovingkindness, and in mercies. 20. I will even betroth thee unto me in faithfulness : and thou shalt know the Lord. 21. And it shall come to pass in that day, I will answer,^ saith the Lord, I will answer the heavens, and they shall answer the earth ; 22. And the earth shall answer the corn, and the wine, and the oil ; and they shall answer Jezreel.^ 1 Syr., Tg. / will cause to cease. 2 Qj-., Syr. om. / will answer. ' m. i.e., whom God soweth. world as he has known it. Many scholars regard this verse as a later addition to the book of Hosea, but such hopes as these are timeless. They have no roots in the soil of any particular age, and there is nothing in them inconsistent with early origin. 19. I will betroth thee unto me for ever; the marriage that has been broken off is to be renewed, never to be sundered again. Judgement; perhaps, better, justice. Righteousness, justice, lovingkindness, mercies, and faithfulness (vs. 20) are to be the gifts of Jehovah to his bride. They are in part qualities that he desires in her and, in part, representative of his own attitude toward her. 20. Thou shalt know the Lord; the knowledge of Jehovah that results from this process of discipline and education fitting her to be Jehovah's bride is an insight into his real character and a consequently new understanding of his requirements, which are spiritual and moral, and cannot be satisfied by ritual. 21-22. The people of Israel (= Jezreel), in the good days to H 97 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 23. And I will sow her unto me in the earth ;^ and I will have mercy upon her that had not ob- tained mercy ; ^ And I will say to them which were not my people,^ Thou art my people ; and they shall say, Thou art my God. V. Hosea's Purchase of a Wife and her Discipline, 3 ' 1-5 3. And the Lord said unto me, Go yet, love a woman beloved of her friend and^ an adulteress, even as the Lord loveth the children of Israel, though they turn unto other gods, and love^ cakes of raisins. So I 1 m. land. 2 Heb. Lo-ruhamah. 3 Heb. Lo-ammi. * m. of her husband, yet an etc.; Gr. and Syr. loving evil and etc. ^ m. them that love etc. come, will call upon the soil for crops ; they in turn will appeal to the heavens for rain ; and the heavens will turn to Jehovah, the giver of the rain, who will grant the coveted blessing. With- out his aid, there can be no enjoyment of the fruits of the earth ; cf. 2 : 8-13. 23. I will sow her, etc. ; the scattered Israel will be brought back and re-sown in her own land that she may bring forth fruit unto Jehovah. I will have mercy, etc. ; the old relationship between Jehovah and his people will be fully restored ; cf. i : 9. There is nothing in verses 21-23 that is inconsistent with Hosea's authorship. He certainly entertained hopes for his nation after the days of punishment and purification were over. The things promised here are but the restoration of what had been taken away in punishment. On the general bearing of this chapter upon the story of Hosea's life, see Introduction, pp. 78-79. I. Go yet, love a woman; opinions have differed as to whether this was a command to renew his love for Gomer, the first wife, and to restore her to the position to which she had forfeited all claim, or to transfer his affections to another woman of equally bad reputation. It seems more likely, however, that this is but another version of the story of his first marriage. In that case, yet is either due to the pen of an editor who did not 98 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 2. bought ^ her to me for fifteen pieces of silver, and an homer of barley ,2 and an half homer ^ of barley : * 3. And I said unto her, Thou shalt abide for me many days ; thou shalt not play the harlot, and thou shalt not be any man's wife : so will I also be toward thee. 4. For the children of Israel shall abide many days without king, and without prince, and without sac- rifice, and without pillar,^ and without ephod or 1 Gr. and Syr. and I hired. 2 Syr_ omits of barley. 3 Heb. lethech. * Gr. a skin of wine. ^ m. obelisk; Gr., Syr., and Vg. altar. understand the real situation and regarded this as a new stage in Hosea's marital experience; or, better still, it is to be con- nected with the preceding verb and translated, And Jehovah said to me again, Go, etc. This implies either a repetition of the command to marry a harlot, or a previous commission that has not been recorded here. Beloved of her friend and an adulteress ; " friend " conveys a wrong impression here; it is rather a para- mour; cf. Jer. 3:1; Lam. 1:2. The description accords per- fectly with that in 1:2. Even as Hosea will love her while she longs for other men, so Jehovah loves Israel, while they turn unto other gods, i.e. to the Baalim of the local shrines through- out Israel; cf. 2:8, 13, 17. And love cakes of raisins; these were evidently favorite offerings in the worship of the Baalim ; cf. 2 Sam. 6 : 19. 2. So I bought her to me; this militates against the view that the woman in question had already been married to Hosea and had forsaken him for another ; for in that case Hosea would be under no obligation to pay for her restoration to himself. It is rather the price that Hosea paid when he first married Gomer. Marriage was commonly regarded as a purchase in early Israel ; cf. Gen. 29: 15 ff. An homer, i.e. about eight bushels. Half homer; this is only a guess; the meaning of the Heb. word lethech is wholly unknown. 3. The evil ways of the past must be forsaken and by long isolation she may fit herself to be Hosea's wife in fact as well as in name. Yet Hosea asks of his wife only the same loyalty that he offers on his own part. 4. ^ Israel, like Hosea's wife, must go into isolation and be deprived of all her legitimate privileges, both political and reli- gious, that thereby she may come into a true appreciation of Jehovah. The exile is clearly foretold here. Pillar; the con- 99 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 5. teraphim :^ afterward shall the children of Israel re- turn, and seek the Lord their God, and David their king ; and shall come with fear unto the Lord and to his goodness in the latter days. VI. Jehovah's Quarrel with Israel, 4 : 1-19 I. The Quarrel and its Cause, 4 : 1-3 4. Hear the word of the Lord, ye children of Israel : for the Lord hath a controversy with the inhabi- tants of the land, because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowl- edge of God in the land. 2. There is nought but swearing and breaking faith, 1 Gr. priesthood or oracles. secrated stone which accompanied practically every altar and was an object of worship. Ephod; an image, probably of Jehovah (cf. Judg. 8 : 26 f. ; 17:3, 5, 13; i Sam. 23 : 6, 9 ff.)> much used in the process of obtaining oracles from Jehovah. Teraphim; evidently an image of some god (cf. Judg. 18: 20; I Sam. 19 : 13), and apparently in good repute in early Israel. 5. The exile will yield fruits of righteousness for Israel; she will be cured of her idolatrous practices. David their king; the prophet looks for a reunion of the two kingdoms under the Davidic dynasty in the post-exilic period. Come with fear; an attitude of awe will characterize their relations to Jehovah because of the terrible chastisement they have endured. And to his goodness, i.e. his blessings. In the latter days; the indefinite future. 1. A controversy; a term denoting a case in court. Truth, mercy, knowledge of God ; these are the requirements of Jehovah from his people. The moral qualities have their root in a right conception of God. 2. Swearing; not profanity, but the taking of an oath in the name of Jehovah, which is right enough in itself. But they take such oaths only in the expectation of breaking faith, which was one of the most heinous of offences. This and the following crimes show a condition of moral chaos in Israel such as set in THE BOOK OF ROSEA and killing, and stealing, and committing adultery ; they break out,^ and blood toucheth^ blood. 3. Therefore shall the land mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein shall languish,^ with the beasts of the field ^ and the fowls of heaven ; Yea, the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away.^ 2. The Priest^ s Responsibility for Israel's Sifij 4:4-6 4. Yet ^ let no man strive, neither let any man reprove ; for thy people are as they that strive with the priest.^ 1 Gr. {and committing adultery) are poured out upon the land. Vg. have overflowed. Syr. have spread. ^ Syr. mingles with. * Gr. shall be diminished with all etc. Syr. shall mourn. * Gr. adds and with the creeping things of the earth. ^ Vg. shall be gathered together. Gr. shall depart. ^ Vg., however. Syr. because no one is etc. Gr. in order that no etc. "> Gr., my people are like a rebellious priest. Syr., thy people are striving like a priest. after the death of Jeroboam II. They break out; the precise meaning here eludes us ; some would refer it to burglars breaking in and plundering houses. Some regime of violence is evidently thus characterized. A slight change of text would yield they crush, i.e. the poor. Blood toucheth blood; one crime follows hard upon the heels of another. 3. Shall the land mourn; better, here and in the following verbs, taken as present, doth the land mourn, this and the following being a description and explanation of the existing conditions, rather than a threat for the future. The prophet, apparently, is speaking at a time of severe drought. Every one that dwelleth therein, including both man and beast, as the verse goes on to state. The fishes of the sea; this item might be urged as pointing to a coming rather than a present disaster, on the ground that no actually existing drought ever had so terrible an effect. But allowance must always be made for the rhetorical language of the prophets. The word sea is at times used of " rivers," and the drying up of rivers, with consequent disaster to the fish in them, is a natural result of drought. 4. Yet let no man strive, etc. ; no one is in a position to com- plain against another, for they are all alike guilty. For thy people, etc. ; better, with a slight change of text, for my people are like its priestlings, people and priests are alike bad. THE BOOK OF HOSEA 5. And thou shalt stumble ^ in the day, and the prophet also shall stumble with thee^ in the night ; and I will destroy thy mother.^ 6. My people are destroyed^ for lack of knowledge : because thou hast rejected knowledge, I will also reject^ thee, that thou shalt be no priest to me : Seeing thou hast forgotten the law of thy God, I also will forget thy children. 3. The Contagion of the Priest'' s Wickedness, 4 : 7-10 7. As they were multiplied, so they sinned against me : ^ I will change^ their glory into shame. 1 Gr. and he shall he weak. Syr. and thou shall he heavy. ^ Some MSS. of Gr. him. ' Gr. hy night I made thy mother similar. Vg. at night I made thy mother silent. Syr. and thy mother was silent. * Gr. was made similar. Vg.. was silent. ^ m. according to another reading, / have rejected. ^ Syr. omits against me. '' Syr. and Tg. they changed. 5. And thou shalt stumble in the day; better, connecting the last word of vs. 4 with this vs., O priest, thou shall stumble by day. This is an announcement of the fate awaiting the priest- hood ; in the full light of day, the priests will be unable to con- trol their course. And the prophet, i.e. the self-seeking prophets who prostitute their high calling to base ends. In the night; the very time when the prophet was most apt to receive his visions and dreams will be the time of his downfall ; there will be no guiding vision for him. And I will destroy thy mother ; if the text is correct, " mother " must designate either the nation as a whole or the priestly order. But probably the text should be corrected to read thy people, i.e. the nation of Israel. 6. For lack of knowledge; Israel has refused to learn the lessons taught by the prophets ; hence, she must come to ruin. Knowledge of the true character of Jehovah and his requirements is what the prophet laments as wanting. Thou ; evidently, the priesthood. The northern priesthood is to be discredited in the eyes of all by the fall of the kingdom. The law of thy God; this was chiefly the oral teachings of the priests and prophets, though the Decalogue and the Covenant Code were probably already in existence. Thy children, either the descendants of the priests of Hosea's day, or the people in general ; cf . the Catholic designation of the priest as " father." 7. They signifies the priests; cf. vs. 8. Prosperity has made THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. They feed on the sin^ of my people, and set their heart on their iniquity .^ 9. And it shall be, like people, like priest : and I will punish them for their ways, and will reward them their doings. 10. And they shall eat, and not have enough ; they shall commit whoredom, and shall not increase : ^ because they have left off to take heed to the Lord.* 4. The Sensual Idolatry of Israel, 4 : 11- 14 II. Whoredom and wine and new wine take away the understanding.^ 1 Gr. and Vg. sins. 2 Qr. their iniquities. ' Gr. shall not find pleasure. Vg. and have ceased. •* Gr. have forsaken Jehovah in order to preserve ([vs. ii] harlotry) ; Syr. have forsaken Jehovah and love ([vs. 11] harlotry). ^ Heb. heart. them more sinful. I will change is better read, as in Syr. and Tg., they have changed. Their glory, i.e. their position as represen- tatives of Jehovah, the righteous God. 8. The sin of my people is the fact that they multiply sacri- fices and offerings to Jehovah in the belief that this is the kind of worship which he most desires. The priests indorse that point of view, for it adds greatly to their own resources, seeing that they receive a share of the sacrifices. Their iniquity ; the sin of the people in the practice of the sacrificial cultus. 9. And it shall be ; better, it has come to he. Like people, like priest; both are equally guilty. Those who should have furnished an example of holy and godly life are no better than the corrupt masses. Therefore, punishment awaits both priests and people. 10. Famine will be one element in the work of chastisement. Shall not increase, i.e. shall have no children; but children were not sought from such sensual practices. Hence, it is better to follow the Greek rendering and, slightly changing the text, read, shall find no satisfaction. Heedlessness of Jehovah's will cannot go unpunished. 11. This is a parenthetic comment interrupting the progress of thought from vs. 10 to vs. 12. It probably originated as a marginal note by some editor or reader. Debauchery makes fools of men. 103 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 12. My people ask counsel at their stock, and their staff declareth unto them : For the spirit of whoredom hath caused them to err, and they have played the harlot from under their God. 13. They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, Under oaks and poplars and terebinths, because the shadow thereof is good : Therefore your daughters play the harlot, and your brides^ commit adultery. 14. I will not punish your daughters when they play the harlot, nor your brides^ when they commit adultery; For they themselves go apart with harlots, and they sacrifice with the harlots : m. daughters-in-law. 12. Their stock, their staff, evidently a protest against the consultation of images for the purpose of learning the divine will. The images referred to may possibly have been the ephod and teraphim. The spirit of whoredom, played the harlot ; these expressions are figurative, denoting Israel's disloyalty to Jehovah. 13. Sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains ; a practice taken over from the Canaanitish Baalism and therefore obnoxious to Jehovah. Bum incense ; better, make oferings; the term is comprehensive enough to include incense offerings, but cannot be confined to them. Under oaks, etc. ; trees have always oc- cupied an important place in nature religions, being looked upon as favorite lodging places of deity. Therefore your daughters play the harlot, etc. ; the practice of licentious rites was a vital part of Baalism and religions related to it. If the fathers take up the cultus of the Baalim, they need not be surprised when their daughters depart from the path of virtue. 14. Though the women are guilty, yet they will not be pun- ished, for the responsibility for their guilt rests upon their fathers and husbands who led the way into guilt. Go apart ; it seems to have been the custom to indulge in these licentious practices out- 104 THE BOOK OF HOSE A And the people that doth not understand shall be overthrown.^ 5. Israel's Incurable Guilt, 4 : 15-19 15. Though thou, Israel, play the harlot, yet let not Judah offend ;2 And come not ye unto Gilgal, neither go ye up to Beth-aven,^ nor swear, As the Lord liveth. 16. For Israel hath behaved himself stubbornly, like a stubborn^ heifer : now will the Lord feed them as a lamb in a large place. 1 Gr. the people that understands was entangled {with harlotry [using two first words of vs. 15]). 2 m. become guilty. Gr. bid thou, Israel, do not err; and Judah, do not enter into Gilgal, etc. Sjt. Israel, do not thou make Judah guilty. ^ Gr. to the house of On. Tg. Bethel. ^ Vg. lascivious. side of the sacred precincts of the sanctuaries. Harlots, i.e. women who sacrificed their virtue in honor of the deity and were regarded as "holy" on that account. Doth not understand; the only basis for national perpetuity is a right conception of God and of his requirements. 15. Some scholars regard this vs. as of later origin, because of its reference to Judah and the different attitude toward Judah in 5 : 5, 10, 13 f. ; 6:4. But only the first half of the vs. concerns Judah ; Israel and Judah were so vitally related that a prophet could hardly avoid considering them both together ; and the wish that Judah might refrain from sin is not inconsistent with the fact that she has already become guilty. Come not ye, addressed to Israel. Gilgal, the northern city by that name. Beth-aven, probably a sarcastic pun on "Beth-el," viz. " house of sin " for " house of God." Nor swear, etc.; not a prohibition of profan- ity, nor of taking oath by the name of Jehovah ; for that was later inculcated; cf. Deut. 6:13; 10:20. Probably the phrase a^ Beersheba has dropped out because of its similarity in Hebrew to the word " swear " ; cf. Am. 5:5; 8:14. 16. Stubbornly, i.e. has refused to be lead or driven in Jeho- vah's vv^ay. Now will the Lord feed them, etc. ; better, as a question implying the unreasonableness of such expectations, 105 17 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 17. Ephraim is joined to idols ; let him alone. ^ 18. their drink is become sour : 2 They play the harlot continually ; her rulers^ dearly love shame.* 19. The wind hath wrapped her up in its wings ; ^ and they shall be put to shame because of their sacrifices.® VII. Jehovah's Judgment upon Israel, 5 : 1-14 I. IsraeVs Ignorance and Pride, 5 : 1-7 5. Hear this, O ye priests, and hearken, ye house of Israel, 1 Gr. he has made for himself stumbling-blocks. Vg. send him away. 2 m. their carouse is over. Gr. he has chosen Canaanites. Vg. their banquet was separated. Syr. omits the phrase. ^ jjeb. shields. * m. they are given up to love; her rulers are a shame. Gr. they loved shame from its wantonness. Vg. they loved to bear away the shame of its protectors. Syr. and they loved shame and fear. ^ m. skirts. Gr. a storm of wind art thou in her wings. Syr. the wind will howl in her wings. ^ Gr., Syr., and Tg. their altars, m. their altars shall be put to shame. viz. now can Jehovah feed them, etc. ? Their conduct has made it impossible. 17. Israel's league is with alien gods, not with Jehovah. He is inseparably attached to them ; it is useless to expend efforts to change his course. Idols are here the golden calves established by Jeroboam II as representative of Jehovah (cf. 8:5), and other images connected with Baal worship. 18. The text of this vs. is in very bad condition; the Hebrew in its present form is practically untranslatable. The uncer- tainty is reflected in the renderings of the ancient versions. Their drink is become sour ; this is a most unlikely rendering of the Hebrew and, furthermore, yields no sense here. The only possible translation of the Hebrew is, their drunkenness has departed. A slight change of text yields, A company of sots! They are devoted to wine and women. Her rulers dearly love shame ; the literal Hebrew shields is used for " rulers " also in Ps. 47 : 9 ; 89 : 18. They have really lost all sense of shame. 19. Israel will be swept away to destruction as hy a violent wind. Because of their sacrifices ; better, with the versions, and they shall be ashamed of their altars. The disaster which Jehovah 1 06 THE BOOK OF HOSEA And give ear, O house of the king, for unto you pertaineth^ the judgement : For ye have been a snare at Mizpah,^ and a net spread upon Tabor. 2. And the revolters are gone deep in making slaugh- ter ;3 but I am a rebuker ^ of them all.^ 3. I know Ephraim, and Israel is not hid from me : For now, O Ephraim, thou hast played^ the harlot, Israel is defiled. ^m. against you is. 2 Gr. and Vg. in the watch. 'm. {and the revolters are gone deep) in corruption. Gr. which those hunting the chase fixed fast. Vg. and victims thou hast turned down into depth. « Heb. a rebuke. » Gr. of you. ^ Gr., Syr., and Vg. Ephraim has played. will send will show the powerlessness of the religion practised at these altars. 1. Both religious and secular authorities are included with the nation as a whole, as being especially guilty. To you; probably addressed particularly to the last-mentioned class, the princes and courtiers. The judgement; not in the sense of^ a sentence of condemnation, but rather as meaning " the exercise of justice." The nobles are the ones especially responsible for the preservation of right. But instead of that they have been a snare at Mizpah and a net spread upon Tabor ; the figure is of huntsmen laying traps for the unwary and innocent. No reason is known for the express mention of Mizpah and Tabor here. 2. And the revolters are gone deep in making slaughter; better, with a correction of text, and the pit of Shittim they have made deep. That the Hebrew text has undergone corruption ap- pears from the renderings of the versions and from the lack of meaning that it yields in this context. As corrected, the figure of the hunter is carried on. The pit was used for the capturing of large animals. But I am a rebuker of them all ; better, with one slight change of text, and there is no rebuke for any of them. They sin with impunity. 3. Though Israel knows not Jehovah, he knows Israel through and through. 107 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 4. Their doings will not suffer them^ to turn unto their God: for the spirit of whoredom is within 2 them, and they know not the Lord. 5. And the pride ^ of Israel doth testify^ to his face: therefore Israel and Ephraim shall stumble in their iniquity; Judah also shall stumble with them. 6. they shall go with their flocks and with their herds to seek the Lord ; But they shall not find him; he hath withdrawn himself from them. 7. They have dealt treacherously against the Lord : for they have borne ^ strange children : Now shall the new moon^ devour them with their fields.^ 1 m. they will not frame their doings. ^ m. in the midst of. « m. the excellency. * Gr., Syr. shall he humbled, s m. together. Gr. have been begotten to them. ^ m. a month. Gr. mildew. '' Heb. portions. 4. They are so enmeshed in evil that they have no power to repent and seek Jehovah. The spirit of whoredom is here appar- ently the spirit of devotion to other gods. Hence it is impossible that they should properly know the Lord. 5. The pride of Israel is probably Israel's arrogant confidence in the all-sufficiency of its ritualistic worship of Jehovah. Doth testify ; better will testify, i.e. will prove its falsity and empti- ness in the coming time of trial. Judah also, etc.; these words are dropped as a gloss by some scholars, but without sufficient reason; cf. 4: 15 ; 6:4. 6. No matter how persistent and abundant the sacrifices, they will be unable to obtain any response from Jehovah to their appeals. For their seeking will be actuated by false ideas and unworthy motives. 7. Dealt treacherously; have been unfaithful, disloyal. Borne strange children ; the children do but follow in their fathers' steps; they have no place among those who have been brought up " in the nurture and admonition of the Lord." Now shall the new moon devour them; the precise meaning here is very 108 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 5:10 2. Ephraim's Downfall, 5 : 8-14 8. Blow ye the cornet in Gibeah,^ and the trumpet in Ramah : ^ Sound an alarm at Beth-aven,^ behind thee, O Benjamin.'* 9. Ephraim shall become a desolation in the day of rebuke : among the tribes of Israel have I made known that which shall surely be. 10. The princes of Judah are like them that remove the landmark : I will pour out my wrath upon them like water. 1 Gr. upon the hills. 2 Qr.' upon the heights. ' Gr. in the house of On. _ * m. After thee, Benjamin! Gr. Benjamin trembled. Vg. behind thy back, Benjamin. uncertain. Perhaps, it may be interpreted as a threat that de- struction may overtake them within a month. Or, it may refer to the practice of moon-worship in Israel and thus mean that this idolatry will but involve Israel in ruin. With their fields; i.e. the products of their fields. 8. A vivid announcement of approaching disaster at the hands of an enemy. The towns Gibeah and Ramah were, as their names indicate, located on heights, and hence fit places from which to sound the alarm. Beth-aven (= house of wickedness) is al- most certainly a term of reproach used instead of Bethel ( = house of God). Bethel was only about ten miles to the north of Jeru- salem, while Ramah and Gibeah were right under the shadow of the southern capital. Behind thee, O Benjamin; if the text be correct, this is evidently some cry of alarm, or summons to flight. It is probable that we should follow the suggestion furnished by the Greek, and change the text slightly so as to read, make Benjamin to tremble. The disasters in the neighboring regions will terrify Benjamin. 9. Become a desolation; this was literally done in 722 b.c. by the Assyrians under Sargon. Have ^ I made known ; the prophet asserts the certainty of the coming judgment. 10. The princes of Judah ; some scholars change Judah to Israel here and in the following verses, on the ground that Hosea concerned himself wholly with the North. But this seems of 109 II THE BOOK OF HOSEA 11. Ephraim is oppressed/ lie is crushed ^ in judgement, because he was content^ to walk after the com- mand.^ 12. Therefore am I^ unto Ephraim as a moth,^ and to the house of Judah as rottenness.^ 13. When Ephraim saw his sickness, and Judah saw his wound,^ Then went Ephraim to Assyria, and sent ^ to King Jareb : ^^ But he is not able to heal you, neither shall he cure you of your wound. 1 Gr. Ephraim oppressed his opponent. 2 Gr. he trampled down. ' Gr. he began. < Gr. and Syr. after vanity. Yg. after filth. ^ m. And I was. ^ Gr. like confusion. '' Gr. like a goad. « Qr. ifig pain. Vg. the bond. ^ Gr. sent elders. i" m. a king that should contend. Gr. King Jareim. Vg. the king, the avenger. doubtful validity, when we recall that the warning cry of vs. 8 was addressed to towns near the border of Judah and to Ben- jamin, a part of the Southern Kingdom. Remove the landmark ; one of the crimes most reprehensible in the sight of the prophet's hearers. These marks indicated the extent of a person's property and were easily moved so as to increase the area of one man's land and decrease his neighbor's. 11. Ephraim is oppressed, etc.; the miseries that Israel already endures are easily accounted for. Crashed in judgement, i.e. the judgment of God, which has already begun to overtake the land. Was content to; better, has deliberately. Walk after the command ; this is so ambiguous that it is probable the text is wrong. It is better to follow the Greek and Syriac render- ing, walked after vanity, viz. the idol gods of Canaan. 12. As a moth, as rottenness; internal corruption and decay will but make the work of the foreign invader more easy. Israel and Judah were so closely related geographically, politically, economically, and socially that the disaster of one must be the disaster of both. 13. Went Ephraim to Assyria, and sent to King Jareb ; realiz- ing the desperate situation in which she is, Ephraim has tried to form an alliance with Assyria. No king Jareb is known. It is probable that, with a slight correction, we should read, the great king, a common designation of Assyria's rulers. No other testimony is at hand regarding any friendly relations between no THE BOOK OF HOSEA 6:15 14. For I will be unto Ephraim as a lion,^ and as a young lion to the house of Judah : I, even I, will tear and go away ; I will carry off, and there shall be none to deliver. VIII. Israel's Facile Repentance and Indelible Guilt, 5: 15-6: 11 I. IsraeVs Repentance, 5 : 15-6 : 3 15. I will go and return to my place, till they acknowledge their offence,^ and seek my face: In their affliction they will seek me earnestly.^ 6. Come,^ and let us return unto the Lord:^ For he hath torn, and he will heal us ; he hath smitten, and he Avill bind us up. 1 Gr. panther. ^ m. have borne their guilt. Gr. have disappeared {i.e. have been destroyed). Vg. you fail. ^m. adds saying; so also Gr., Syr., and Tg. * Gr. and Syr. let us go. ^ Gr. adds our God. Assyria and Israel prior to 734 B.C. Hosea saw no possibility of aid in that direction. The prophets always inculcated reliance upon Jehovah rather than upon foreign help. 14. It is useless to seek aid from Assyria, since the source of Israel's trouble is Jehovah himself whose treatment of his people will be as destructive and irreparable as the lion's attack upon a flock. 15. Acknowledge their offence ; better, following the versions, become confounded. Jehovah intends to leave Israel to itself. Then, realizing need of him, Israel will repent, confess its sins, and seek Jehovah. Seek me earnestly; better seek me. When in trouble, resort will be made to Jehovah for relief, a common human method of procedure. I. Come, etc.; these words are best treated, with the ver- sions, as belonging to the seekers of 5:15. And he will heal us ; rather, that he may heal us. The punishment of Jehovah has been bestowed only that he may have the joy of forgiving Israel in response to its cries. And he will bind ; rather, that he may bind., as in the foregoing phrase. Israel thus, in its very resolu- III THE BOOK OF HOSEA 2. After two days will he revive us: on^ the third day he will raise us up,^ and we shall live before him. 3. And let us know, let us follow on to know the Lord ; his going forth ^ is sure as the morning : And he shall come unto us as the rain, as the latter rain that watereth the earth. 2. Jehovah's Resentment, 6 : 4-6 4. O Ephraim, what shall I do unto thee ? O Judah, what shall I do unto thee ? For your goodness^ is as a morning cloud, and as the dew that goeth early away. 1 Syr. and on. 2 Qr. a,g shall stand up. ' Gr. we shall find hint. * m. kindness. tion to seek Jehovah, shows its utter inability to comprehend its own sinfulness or Jehovah's attitude toward it. 2. After two days will he revive us : on the third day he will raise us up ; rather, he will revive us after a couple of days, or on the third day. He will raise us up, etc. ; Israel looks upon her disasters as only temporary ; Jehovah will soon restore her to the favor and prosperity she once enjoyed. Live before him, i.e. under his favoring eye. 3. Let us know, let us follow on to know the Lord, i.e. let us be persistent in our search for the knowledge of Jehovah. His going forth is sure as the morning ; better, following the lead of the Greek, we shall find him when we search for him; it is an expression of the shallow assurance of Israel that Jehovah is waiting to gratify her wishes. The rain; the heavy winter rains. Latter rain ; the later spring rains. 4. O Ephraim, etc. ; a cry of despair ; there is nothing that Jehovah can do that will avail ; Ephraim is past help. O Judah; the Southern Kingdom comes in here again, as else- where, for a share of the prophet's attention. Many would change " Judah " here into " Israel "; but this is unnecessary. For your goodness, etc. ; there is no depth to the piety of Israel ; her penitence is too superficial ; it has no abiding value. Hence, it makes no appeal to Jehovah. THE BOOK OF HOSEA 5. Therefore have I hewed them by the prophets ; ^ I have slain them by the words of my mouth : and thy judgements ^ are as the hght that goeth forth. 6. For I desire goodness,^ and not sacrifice ; and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings. 3. IsraeVs Guilty 6 : 7-1 1 7. But they like Adam ^ have transgressed ^ the covenant : ^ there have they dealt treacherously against me. 1 Gr. / cut of your prophets. 2 Gr. and Syr. my judgment. ^ m. kindness. * m. men. ^ Gr. who transgresses. • m. are as men that have transgressed a covenant. Syr. my covenant. 5. Therefore have I hewed them by the prophets; the prophets of early Israel consistently preached punishment and disaster (cf. Jer. 28 : 8) ; through their work Jehovah was hewing Israel into shape, like a block of marble. I have slain them by the words of my mouth ; an even stronger statement of the same thought. And thy judgements are as the light that goeth forth ; the change of person is so abrupt here that it is better to translate with the versions, and my judgment is like the light, -which goes forth; i.e. both clear and unfailing. No one will fail to see the punishment of Jehovah, the coming of which is as certain as the day. 6. The mistake of Israel was in thinking that Jehovah's primary interest was in sacrifice and ritual. He insists rather upon true piety, embracing love for both God and man. The first requisite is to know God as he is. 7. But they like Adam have transgressed the covenant; this is a very obscure statement, because there is no record of any " covenant " with Adam. Nor is it much better to translate like men, with the margin; for a statement that men acted "like men" does not add much weight. The word there in the follow- ing sentence seems to call for a place-name here. The nearest readings are in Edom, or in Syria or in Admah. But nothing is known of the specific occasion to which reference seems to be I 113 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. Gilead ^ is a city of them that work iniquity, it is stained with blood. 9. And as troops of robbers wait for a man,^ so the company^ of priests murder in the way toward Shechem : yea they have committed lewdness. 10. In the house of Israel I have seen a horrible thing ; there whoredom is found in Ephraim,^ Israel is defiled. 11. Also, O Judah, there is a harvest appointed for thee,^ when I bring again the captivity of my people. 1 Gr. there did Gilead despise me, a city working iniquity, stirring up waters. 2 m, and as robbers lying in wait, so etc. Gr. and thy strength of a man {who is) a pirate. Syr. and thy strength like that of a man of bands. Vg. and like the throat of robber men. 3 Gr. they hid. Syr. they united. * Syr. Ephraim played the harlot. * Gr. begin to gather fruit for thyself. made. Have they dealt treacherously agamst me, i.e. they have been disloyal to Jehovah in that they worshipped other gods ; or, by their sinful conduct, they have brought Jehovah into ill repute. 8. Gilead is a city ; everywhere else it is a district ; no such city is known. Nothing is known that warrants the charges pre- ferred against Gilead here. But the records of Israelitish history are far from complete. 9. A very obscure verse, the precise translation and signifi- cance of which are wholly uncertain. Perhaps we should render, and like bandits lying in wait is the gang of priests by the way; they murder at Shechem. We lack the intimate knowledge of the' situation necessary to make this intelligible. It is doubtful whether the text has been correctly transmitted. Lewdness is here, rather, crime in general. 10. In the house of Israel ; probably to be corrected to in Bethel, an easy change. This furnishes the antecedent for the following there. Whoredom is found in Ephraim ; to be corrected to thou hast played the harlot, Ephraim; i.e. Israel has been untrue to Jehovah. The worship of the calves at Bethel and Dan was strongly objected to by Hosea. 11. Also, O Judah, there is a harvest appointed for thee; the punishment availing for Israel will also fall upon Judah. This 114 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 7:3 IX. The Deep-seated Corruption of Israel, 7 : 1-7 7. When I would heal Israel,^ then is the iniquity of Ephraim uncovered, and the wickedness of Samaria ; For they commit falsehood : ^ and the thief entereth in,^ and the troop of robbers ^ spoileth ^ without. 2. And they consider not in their hearts^ that I remember all their wickedness : Now have their own doings beset them about ; they are before my face. 3. They make the king^ glad with their wickedness, and the princes with their lies.^ 1 Gr. joins this phrase with 6 : ii. 2 gyr. adds before me. ^ Gr. adds to him, which seems to be an error for to the house. * Gr. the robber. ^ m. maketh a raid. 6 Gr. joins with vs. 2 and renders, in order that they may sing with, like those singing ■with their heart. "> Gr., Syr. Kings. » Syr. kings glad with their wickedness and their lies; their princes are all adulterers. is probably a note added by a late editor who realized that the sins for which Samaria fell were found also in Judah and merited a like punishment. When I bring again the captivity of my people ; if this be the right rendering, the Exile is presup- posed as an existing fact and the line must be thought of as of exilic or post-exilic origin. It may be rendered when I would change the fortune of my people, in which case it might belong to Hosea, but would have to be joined to 7 : i rather than 6: 11. 1. Jehovah's desire to forgive and bless Israel is frustrated by her wickedness, which ever thrusts itself upon his attention. Falsehood is fraud and corruption of many kinds. Burglary and highway robbery are common occurrences. 2. Israel cannot escape the result of its ill doing, for it is never out of Jehovah's sight. 3. They make the king glad, etc. ; the rulers are delighted with the results that accrue to them through the craft and tyr- anny of their subordinates. There may be allusion here to some special occasion of drunkenness and debauchery, which is further described in vs. 4. IIS T5E BOOK OF HOSEA 4. They are all adulterers : they are as an oven heated by the baker ; ^ He ceaseth ^ to stir the jire^ from the kneading of the dough until it be leavened.^ 5. On the day of our king the princes made them- selves^ sick with the heat® of wine : he stretched out his hand ^ with scorners. 6. For they have made ready ^ their heart like an oven, whiles they lie in wait : ^ their baker ^^ sleepeth all the night ; In the morning it burneth ^^ as a flaming fire. 1 Gr. oven horning for cooking. 2 Qr. of burning. ^ Gr. from the flame. Syr. from the city. Vg. the state ceases gradually. * Vg. from the mixing of the ferment until it he all fermented. Syr. one kneading dough until it be leavened. ^ m. him. ^ Gr. the days of our kings the rulers began to be heated; similarly Syr. and Vg. ' Syr. they stretched out their hands. ^m., Heb. brought near. Vg. they have applied. Gt. their hearts burned. * Gr. in breaking them in pieces, which is joined with the following phrase. Vg. when he shall lie in wait for them, i" Syr. and Tg. their anger. Gr. Ephraim. " Gr. early it came to pass, it burned. 4. They are all adulterers, viz. king, princes, and people. They are as an oven, etc. ; better, they are like a burning oven whose baker ceased to stir up the flame from the kneading of the dough until its leavening. This is a characterization of the fires of passion, the precise point of which it is not possible to state posi- tively. 5. On the day of our king; some special festive occasion, which cannot be definitely placed now, though doubtless well known to the prophet's hearers. The princes made themselves sick with the heat of wine ; the marginal rendering made him sick is attractive ; reference is perhaps made to the murder of King Zechariah, in the midst of a drunken carousal. He stretched out his hand; the exact meaning of these words is unknown. 6. For they have made ready their heart ; this translation is out of the question ; nor is the Hebrew susceptible of a rendering that yields good sense. It is better to follow the Greek and read their hearts burn. Whiles they lie in wait; better, with their plotting. Their baker; this yields no satisfactory meaning; hence we must read, with the Syriac and Targum, their anger. Their wrath and treachery smoulder all night long to burst forth into flames in the morning. 116 THE BOOK OF HOSEA They are all hot as an oven, and devour their judges ; All their kings are fallen : there is none among them that calleth unto me. X. Israel's Disloyalty to Jehovah, 7 : 8-16 Ephraim, he mixeth himself among the ^ peoples ; Ephraim is a cake ^ not turned. Strangers have devoured his strength, and he knoweth it not : yea, gray hairs are here and there ^ upon him, and he knoweth it not. 1 Gr. his. * Gr. and Vg. a loaf baked in the ashes. ^ Heb. sprinkled. Gr. have blossomed forth. Vg. are poured forth. Syr. are come forth. 7. A figurative characterization of the spirit of the times. Following Jeroboam, six kings reigned within approximately twenty years, some of them but a few months, and four of them were slain as a result of conspiracy and revolt. There is none among them, etc. ; none know how to reach the heart of Jehovah. They are, in the prophet's judgment, wilfully blind to the things that make for purity and justice. 8. Ephraim, he mixeth himself, i.e. he associates with and seeks help from foreign peoples, a procedure that can only bring irretrievable ruin. A cake not turned, i.e. burned on the side next the fire, but dough on the other side. There is no con- sistency of character in the life of Israel. No deep-seated prin- ciples control the national policies, but a facile opportunism which is ready to turn in a new direction at a moment's notice. 9. Strangers, i.e. the foreign nations upon whom Israel has depended. They have grown strong at the expense of Israel. His strength; his resources of every kind. He knoweth it not; he is unconscious of the steady drain which is sapping his vitality. The personification of Israel as a man growing weaker and weaker is now carried one step further. Gray hairs ; he has already begun to manifest evidences of the weakness of old age. Are here and there ; better, are sprinkled, as in the Hebrew. 117 7^10 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 10. And the pride ^ of Israel doth testify ^ to his face : yet they have not returned unto the Lord their God, nor sought him, for all this.^ 11. And Ephraim is like a silly dove, without under- standing : ^ they call ^ unto Egypt, they go to Assyria. 12. When they shall go, I will spread my net upon them; I will bring them down as the fowls of the heaven : I will chastise them, as their congregation hath heard.® 13. Woe unto them ! for they have wandered from me ; destruction ^ unto them ! for they have trespassed against me : Though I would redeem them, yet they have spoken lies against me. 1 m. excellency. 2 Gr., Syr., and Vg. shall be humbled. ' Gr. and Vg. in all these. Syr. omits the phrase. ■* Heb. heart. * Syr. they covie. * m. when the report cometh to their congregation. Gr. in the report of their tribulation. Syr. according to the report of their testimony. '' Gr. miserable are they. 10. The pride of Israel; the arrogance which has kept Israel from acknowledging its error and turning to Jehovah. Doth testify to his face ; the course of events is making the folly of Israel's policy clear to every one. The present helpless state of the nation is convincing evidence. Yet they have not returned unto the Lord, etc. ; the crowning proof of their obstinac}^ and folly. 11. The dove was celebrated in antiquity for its simple and unsuspecting nature. So Ephraim flits back and forth between Egypt and Assyria, blind to the dangers that threaten from both alike. 12. I will spread my net; the figure of the dove continues. Israel is to be caught in the snare of Jehovah, who will thus show the nation its powerlessness. As their congregation hath heard ; these words are meaningless ; nor is any one of the corrections that have been proposed for the present Hebrew text at all satisfactory. 13. Wandered from me, viz. to find aid in Egypt or Assyria. Trespassed, or rebelled. Though I would redeem them, yet, etc. ; 118 THE BOOK OF HOSEA .7:16 14. And they have not cried unto me with their heart ,^ but they howl upon their beds : They assemble themselves ^. for corn and wine, they rebel ^ against me. 15. Though I have taught^ and strengthened their arms, yet do they imagine mischief against me. 16. They return, but not to him that is on high ; ^ they are like a deceitful ^ bow : Their princes shall fall by the sword for the rage ^ of their tongue : this shall be their derision ^ in the land of Eg3^t. ' Gr. their hearts have not cried to me. Syr. with all their heart. 2 Gr. they cut them- selves. Vg. they were ruminating. Syr. they were striving. ^ Syr. and they rebel. Gr. they were trained. * m. chastened them. Gr. omits. 5 Qr. and Syr. return unto nothing. Vg. turn in order that they might be without a yoke. ^ Gr. a strung. ' Gr. coarseness. ^ Gr. depreciation. Tg. works. Syr. entanglement. better, and shall I redeem them, when they etc. ? It is unreasonable to expect help from Jehovah when all that they do and say shows misrepresentation and wrong conception of Jehovah. 14. Not cried unto me with their heart; their appeals to Jehovah have been only half-hearted and insincere. Upon their beds ; a slight change of text yields the more appropriate sense, heside their altars. They assemble themselves ; better, with the Greek, they cut themselves, i.e. in their eagerness for corn and wine, they inflict wounds upon themselves in the hope that the blood running down from their bodies upon the altar will constitute an irresistible appeal to Jehovah, leading him to grant what they desire; cf. i Kings 17:27, 28. They rebel against me ; not- withstanding all their zeal in sacrifices and offerings, they stub- bornly refuse to listen to the words of Jehovah through his prophets. 15. Though I have taught {i.e. trained) and strengthened their arms ; Jehovah has exercised a parent's watchcare over Israel, but to no purpose so far as securing filial affection and obedience are concerned. 16. They return, but not to him that is on high ; this is a most unlikely rendering of the Hebrew text. The best rendering is they turn, not upwards; but even this is unlikely and yields unsatisfactory sense. Perhaps, we should correct the text so as to read, they turn to the Baalim. Like a deceitful bow; one that 119 8: 1 THE BOOK OF HOSEA XI. Israel's Rulers, Gods, and Policies are Hostile TO Jehovah, 8 : 1-14 I. IsraeVs Punishment is Close at Hand, 8: 1-3 8. Set the trumpet to thy mouth. ^ As an eagle he cometh against the house of the Lord: 2 Because they have transgressed my covenant, and trespassed against my law. 2. They shall cry unto me,^ my God,^ we Israel ^ know thee. ^ Syr. thy mouth is like a trumpet. Gr. into their bosom like earth. ? m. The trumpet to thy mouth! As an eagle against the house of the Lord I ^ Syr. adds, and say. * Syr. our God. Gr. Cod. s Gr. and Syr. omit. cannot be depended upon to send the arrow to its mark. Their princes, the leaders in Israel's rebellious policies, shall fall by the sword, viz. that of the Assyrian army in all probability, for the rage, or insolence, of their tongue, in that they have spoken against the polic}^ of trusting only in Jehovah and have sought help in foreign lands. This shall be their derision in the land of Egypt; while they depend upon Egypt for aid and deliverance from all danger, disaster will befall them and Egypt will accord them only contempt. 1. Set the trumpet, etc.; the margin's rendering exactly represents the Hebrew text. Apparently it is a call to arms or to flight, because of the immediate approach of the enemy. Eagle is rather, vulture, swooping down upon Israel as his prey. House of the Lord, i.e. not the temple, but the land of Israel; cf. 9 : 15 and the regular Assyrian title for the land of Israel, viz. house of Omri. Transgressed my covenant, and trespassed against my law ; reference is made to the covenant at Sinai between Israel and Jehovah and to such laws as are contained in the Covenant Code (Ex. 20 : 23-23 : 33) and are reflected in the teachings of the prophets. 2. They shall cry, in the coming day of disaster. Unto me; not to the Baalim, whose aid will then be recognized as of no avail. My God, we Israel know thee ; they will then urge an intimate acquaintance and fellowship with Jehovah as ground for his intervention in their behalf. THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8:5 3. Israel ^ hath cast off that which is good : the enemy shall pursue him.^ 2. The Rulers and the Golden Calves are doomed to De- struction, 8 : 4-6 4. They have set up kings, but not by me ; they have made princes,^ and I knew it not : ^ Of their silver and their gold have they made them idols/ that they may be cut off. 5. He hath cast off thy calf, O Samaria ; mine anger is kindled against them : How long will it be ere they attain to innocency ? ^ 1 Gr. Because Israel. * Gr. they pursued an enemy. » m. they have removed them. Gr. they ruled. ^ Gr. and they did not know me. ^ Gr. Get rid of. Vg. thy calf is cast forth. Syr. they have loathed. ^ Gr. until when will they he unable to be cleansed in Israel? Similarly Vg. and Syr. 3. Israel hath cast off, etc. ; Israel's past conduct belies his present words. He has steadfastly rejected everything making for better and higher life. Therefore, the enemy shall pursue him; Jehovah will use the army of the foreigner to execute his will regarding Israel. 4. Set up kings, but not by me ; reference is probably made to the series of revolts, conspiracies and usurpations of the throne that set in upon the death of Jeroboam II, upon none of which did the approval of Jehovah rest, according to Hosea. I knew it not; better, / knew them not; i.e. I did not indorse them. Idols ; probably the golden calves of Bethel and Dan are here denounced. These were images of Jehovah, and Hosea is the first prophet to protest against the making of such images. That they may be cut off, i.e. with the result that they will be cut off; a case of result conceived of as purpose, a common Hebrew usage. 5. He hath cast off thy calf; this use of the third person is difficult, being preceded and followed by the first person. We should probably make a slight correction to the first person, and translate / ahhor thy calf. O Samaria ; probably, the name here denotes the country at large, though calves may have been in- stalled in Samaria and other towns, besides Bethel and Dan. THE BOOK OF HOSEA 6. For from Israel is even ^ this ; The workman made it, and it is no God : yea, the calf of Samaria shall be broken in pieces. ^ 3. Israel's Foreign Policy is Ruinous, 8 : 7-10 7. For they sow the wind, and they shall reap the whirlwind : ^ He hath no standing corn ; the blade shall yield no meal ; ^ If so be it yield, strangers shall swallow it up. 8. Israel is swallowed up : now are they among the nations as a vessel wherein is no pleasure.^ 1 Syr. omits. 2 Qr, because wandering was thy calf, Samaria. Vg. shall be in spiders' webs. Syr. is not thy calf for error, Samaria? ^ Gr. their end will receive them. * m. it hath no stalk; the blade, etc. Gr. a sheaf did not have strength to yield fine meal. * Gr. useless. Vg. unclean. How long will it be ere they attain to innocency? Better, for how long? They cannot remain unpunished. 6. A denunciation of the calves as of wholly human and arti- ficial origin, hence not to be credited with divine power. Indeed, their powerlessness will be shown by their total destruction ; they will be shattered to fragments. 7. Wind is nothingness and emptiness as found in Israel's policies. Whirlwind is the destruction that such futile policies involve. He hath no standing com ; the blade shall yield no meal ; better translated, a stalk which has no growth, which yields no meal. The figure is now changed from Israel as the sower to Israel as that which is sown. The nation is a blasted plant, which can produce nothing. If by any chance it should yield, strangers shall swallow it up. The resources of Israel are sure to be de- voured by foreign powers. 8. Israel is swallowed up, etc. ; the process has already begun ; Israel is even now losing its identity through absorption by the nations. She has ceased to be a force to be reckoned with in the politics of Western Asia. THE BOOK OF HOSEA 9. For they are gone up to Assyria, like a wild ass alone by himself : ^ Ephraim hath hired lovers.^ 20. Yea, though^ they hire"^ among the nations, Now ^ will I gather them ; and they begin ^ to be minished^ by reason of the burden^ of the king of princes.^ 4. IsraeVs Worship is Unacceptable to Jehovah, 8: 11-14 II. Because Ephraim hath multiplied altars to sin, altars have been unto him to sin.^^ 1 Gr. Ephraim has blossomed according to itself. 2 Gr. they have loved gifts. Vg. they have given rewards to their lovers. Syr. loves a gift. ^ Gr. because of this. ■* Gr. and Syr. they be delivered over. ^ Syr. omits. ^ Gr. they shall cease. Vg. and Syr. they shall rest. ' m. they shall sorrow a little, or for a little while; Heb. a little. 8 Gr. from anointing. ^ Gr., Syr., Vg., and Tg., king and princes, i" Gr. hath multi- plied altars, for sins have the beloved altars been to him. Syr. unto him for great sin. 9. Are gone up to Assyria, i.e. for help. Like a wild ass alone by himself ; these animals usually went in droves ; thus Israel's conduct is unusual. It may be that reference is made to Israel's having refused to cooperate with other peoples in resisting invasion and having been the only one to have recourse to Assyria. Or more probably, the reference is to a wild ass wandering in search of a mate, as appears from the following phrase. Ephraim hath hired lovers; the figure of an unfaithful wife is taken up again here as in chaps 1-3. Ephraim has been untrue to Jehovah in seeking love among the peoples of foreign gods. It is tempting to suppose an easy error in the text here and to read instead of it, a phrase parallel to the preceding mention of Assyria, viz. to Egypt they give love-gifts. ID. Though they hire among the nations, now will I gather them ; Israel wandering among the nations in search of support will be brought back by Jehovah, but only that he may send her into exile. And they begin to be minished, etc. ; better, following the Greek, and they shall cease for a little from anointing kings and princes, i.e. into exile they are to go where there will be no occasion for changes of dynasty. II. Another phase of Israel's guilt now is taken up. We must translate, with the Greek, because Ephraim has multiplied altars, altars have becojne sin for him; i.e. Israel has put its confidence in 123 12 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 12. Though 1 1 write for him my law in ten thousand precepts; ^ they ^ are counted as a strange thing.* 13. As for the sacrifices of mine offerings,^ they sacri- fice flesh and eat it ; but ^ the Lord accepteth them not : Now will he remember their iniquity, and visit their sins ; they shall return to Egypt. ^ * Syr. and I. 2 Qj-. / ^// ii;rite down for him an abundance, and my laws were etc. Vg. my multifold laws. 3 m. / wrote for him the ten thousand things of my law, but they etc. *_Syr. he reckoned them as foreign, my words. ^ Gr. the beloved altars, which is joined with vs. 12. Vg. they ofer sacrifices. Syr. my choice sacrifices. ^ Gr. be- cause if they sacrifice a sacrifice and eat flesh, the Lord, etc. ^ Gr. adds, and eat unclean things among the Assyrians. the effectiveness and validity of its ritualistic worship and has neglected the weightier matters of the law; hence the worship itself is a sin. 12. Though I write for him my law in ten thousand precepts ; better rendered, though I should write for him myriads of my laws. Perhaps there is reference here to the tradition that Jehovah him- self wrote the decalogue. In any case, the thought is that even if Israel possessed innumerable laws written by Jehovah himself, they would he reckoned as those of a foreigner, a better rendering than that of the text. Israel would ignore them just as the real significance of Jehovah's existing laws is lost sight of. 13. As for the sacrifices of mine ofiferings, they sacrifice flesh and eat it; these words are very difficult and obscure. Perhaps the original text read, they love sacrifices and they sacrifice flesh and eat. The point of such a charge is that in the observance of the sacrificial ritual, the Israelites are ministering to the satis- faction of their own appetites rather than to the honor of Jehovah. Therefore, the Lord accepteth them not. On the contrary, their sin calls insistently for punishment. Hence, they shall return to Egypt" Hosea means either that Israel will again go into captiv- ity as she once was in Egypt, or that she will again go to Egypt itself as captive. The earlier prophets of the eighth century B.C. were not apparently quite certain as to Israel's fate, whether it was to be brought about by Assyria or by Egypt ; cf . 9 : 3 ; Isa. 7:18. 124 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 14. For Israel hath forgotten his Maker, and builded palaces ; ^ and Judah hath multiplied fenced cities : But I will send a fire upon his cities, and it shall devour the castles ^ thereof. XII. Israel deserting Jehovah and deserted by Jehovah, 9: 1-17 I. IsraeVs Unfaithfulness to he punished by Exile, 9 : 1-9 9. Rejoice not, O Israel, for joy,^ like the peoples ; for ^ thou hast gone a whoring from thy God, Thou hast loved hire upon ^ every cornfloor.^ 2. The threshing-floor and the winepress shall not feed^ them, and the new wine shall fail her.^ 1 m. temples. Gr. groves. ^ m. palaces. Gr. their foundations. ^m. unto exultation. Gr. do not exult; simi\a.Tly Yg., Syr. and Tg. ^m.that. ^ Syr. from. 6 Syr. omits corn. "> Gr. know. Syr. satisfy. s Gr_^ gyj-,^ Vg. and Tg. them. 14. This verse describes the sin of Israel as a failure to depend wholly upon Jehovah for support, which is manifested in the policy of multiplying fortifications as the nations around her have done. The latter half of the verse is evidently borrowed from Am. I : 4-2 : 5, where it occurs as the repeated refrain. It is not unlikely that the whole of vs. 14 is a note added by an editor. 1. Rejoice not, O Israel, for joy, like the peoples; better, with a slight change of text, rejoice not, Israel; exult not, like, etc. Probably these words were spoken in connection with some festal ceremony, such as the Harvest Feast. Israel, having for- saken its God, has even less ground for rejoicing than the nations, for they are true to their own gods, at least. Thou hast loved hire upon every cornfloor; the products of the soil have been accepted as gifts from the Baalim whom they worship. 2. But Jehovah, the real giver of these blessings, will withhold them henceforth ; cf . 2 : 8, 9. 125 THE BOOK OF HOSEA They shall not dwell ^ in the Lord's land ; but Ephraim shall return ^ to Egypt, and they shall eat unclean food in Assyria. They shall not pour out wine offerings to the Lord, neither shall they be pleasing unto him : Their sacrifices shall be unto them as the bread ^ of mourners ; ^ all that eat thereof shall be polluted : For their bread shall be for their appetite ; it shall not come into the house of the Lord. What -will ye do in the day ^ of solemn assembly, and in the day of the feast of the Lord ? ^ Gr. did not dwell. ^ Gr. dwelt. ' m. neither shall their sacrifices be pleasing unto him; their bread shall be unto them as the bread. * Syr. of affliction. * Gr. days. 3. Ephraim shall return to Egypt;' cf. 8 : 13. And they shall eat unclean food in Assyria ; food not prepared in accordance with Hebrew dietary laws and the product of a land acknowledging the sway of other gods than Jehovah, and consequently itself unclean. 4. They shall not pour out wine offerings to the Lord ; either because there will be no wine to pour out, or because in the land of the conqueror the pouring of libations to Jehovah will be pro- hibited. For wine-drinking in connection with worship, cf. I Sam. 1 : 24; 10 : 3 ; Am. 2 : 8. Neither shall they be pleasing unto him, etc. ; by a different grouping of the words and a couple of slight changes in the text, we secure the better reading, neither will they arrange sacrifices for him; their bread will he like the bread of mourning. Drink offerings and food offerings to Jeho- vah will be alike discontinued. Their food will all be unclean (cf. Jer. 16:7; Deut. 26 : 14) and will render unclean all who eat of it. Their bread shall be for their appetite; it shall not come into the bouse of the Lord; eating, which normally always had religious significance, will now lose all of this and become a mere process of satisfying the cravings of the physical nature. 5. What will ye do, etc. ; the celebration of the great festal days will be impossible in a land that is not Jehovah's. The great joyous occasions will all cease, becoming nothing but a sad mem- ory of better times. 126 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 6. For, lo, they are gone away from^ destruction, yet Egypt shall gather them up, Memphis shall bury them : Their pleasant things ^ of silver, nettles ^ shall pos- sess them : ^ thorns shall be in their tents. 7. The days of visitation are come, the days of recompence are come ; Israel shall know it : ^ The prophet is a fool, the man that hath the spirit is mad, for the multitude of thine iniquity, and because the enmity is great. ^ 1 Syr. gone into. 2 Gr. Michmash. ^ Gr. destruction. Syr. the foreigner. * Gr. it. 5 Gr. shaU be ill-treated. ^ Gr. hy reason of the multitude of thy sins thy madness is ful- filled. Syr. on account of the multitude of thy wickedness, thy wantonness is increased. Vg.for the multitude of thine iniquity and the multitude of folly. 6. For, lo, they are gone away from destruction ; this seems to say exactly the opposite of the facts in the case. It is much better to suppose d, slight error in the text and correct to they shall go to Assyria, which is balanced by Egypt shall gather them up, just as in 9 : 3 ; cf. 7 : 16 and 8 : 13. Memphis shall bury them ; Memphis is mentioned as one of the most important cities of Egypt and as the site of extensive burial-grounds. The sojourn in Eg3'-pt will not be of short duration, but for life. Their pleasant things, etc. ; the scenes of their former wealth and splen- dor will be given up to desolation and ruin. 7. The days of visitation are come, the days of recompence are come ; the prophet is certain of the truth of his message ; Israel's past sins are now to receive their full measure of punish- ment. Israel shall know it ; she will at last realize the meaning of the harsh experiences through which she has to pass. The prophet is a fool ; the man that hath the spirit is mad ; this is best considered as a remark or opinion of the people regarding Hosea and prophets of his point of view. To this Hosea makes answer, admitting that appearances are against him, but laying the responsibility for the character of his utterances upon the people themselves ; for the multitude of thine iniquity and be- cause the enmity is great. This is enough to distract any good man, let alone a prophet. 127 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. Ephraim was a watchman with^ my ^ God : as for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his ways, and enmity in the house of his God. 9. They have deeply corrupted themselves,^ as in the days of Gibeah : ^ he will remember their iniquity, he will visit their sins. 2. The Exceeding Sinfulness and Utter Rejection of Israel, 9: 10-17 10. I found Israel like grapes in the wilderness ; I saw your^ fathers as the firstripe® in the fig tree at her first season : ^ 1 m. watcheth against. ^ Gr. omits my. ' Gr. connecting with vs. 8, they planted folly firmly in the house of God, they perished, etc. * Gr. and Syr. of the hill. ^ Gr., Syr. and Vg. i/zez>. ^ Gr. a watchman. '' Syr. omits, at her first season. 8. Ephraim was a watchman with my God ; as for the prophet, etc. ; this verse is one of the most obscure in the book of Hosea. We might render, Ephraim' s watchman with my god — namely, the prophet — a fowler's snare, etc. But that is extremely in- volved and calls for a slight change of text. The simplest render- ing of the text as it stands is, Ephraim is a watchman with my God, a prophet; a fowler's snare is upofi all his ways, etc.; but this yields no fitting meaning. As simple a change of text as any gives us, A spy is Ephraim, the people of my God; as for the prophet, a fowler's snare is upon all his ways. That is, instead of being met with sympath}^ and cooperation, the prophet finds the whole people suspicious of him and setting traps to catch him. And enmity in the house of his God, the word " enmity " is best treated as a mistaken repetition from the end of v. 7. " House of his God " means the land of Israel, as in 8 : i, and is to be con- nected with vs. 9. 9. They have deeply corrupted themselves ; better, with a slight change of text and joined to vs. 8, in the house of his God, they have digged a deep pit. This is parallel to a fowler's snare is in all his ways and means the same thing. As in the days of Gibeah ; the only known episode to which reference can be made 128 THE BOOK OF HOSEA But they came to Baal-peor, and consecrated ^ them- selves unto the shameful thing ; ^ and became abominable like that which they loved. ^ 11. As for Ephraim, their glory shall fly away like a bird: there shall be no birth, and none with child, and no conception. 12. Though they bring up their children, yet will I bereave them, that there be not a man left: 4 yea, woe also to them when I depart from them ! ^ 1 m. separated. 2 Heb. to shame. ^ Gr. like the loved ones. * Gr. they shall be made childless from men. ^ Gr. them, my flesh from them. Syr. when I take vengeance upon them. is that recorded in Judg. 19, and that case has no especial bearing upon this. He will remember their iniquity, he will visit their sins; repeated from 8 : 13. ID. Like grapes in the wilderness; an object of delight. The firstripe in the fig tree at her first season ; evidently a much esteemed delicacy. They came to Baal-peor ; probably the same as Beth-peor, the full name of which may have been Beth-baal- peor; cf. Numb. 23 : 28; 25:3,5; 31:16; Deut. 3:29; 4:46. And consecrated themselves unto, set themselves apart religiously to the service of, the shameful thing, or as in Hebrew, shame. This is probably a later substitute for Baal which stood here originally; cf. Ish-baal and its later equivalent, Ish-bosheth {i.e. shame), Merib-baal and Mephibosheth. And became abominable ; literally, abominations , a term commonly applied to foreign gods, idols, and unclean objects. 11. Swift and sudden destruction will befall Israel. The propagation of the nation will cease ; there will be no new genera- tions born. 12. If by any chance they should rear more children, Jehovah will bring total bereavement upon them. Yea, woe also to them when I depart from them; failing to realize what Jehovah's favor has meant to them, he will open their blind eyes by deserting them altogether and leaving them to the tender mercies of the powerless gods they have been serving. K 129 13 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 13. Ephraim, like as I have seen Tyre, is planted in a pleasant place : ^ but Ephraim shall bring out his children to the slayer.^ 14. Give them, O Lord : what wilt thou give ? give them ^ a miscarrying womb and dry breasts. 15. All their wickedness is in Gilgal ; for there I hated them, because of the wickedness of their doings I will drive them out of my house : I will love them no more ; all their princes are revolters. 16. Ephraim is smitten,^ their root is dried up, they shall bear no fruit : ^m.as I have seen, is like Tyre that is planted, etc. Gr. Ephraim, as I saw, set their children for a prey. Syr. Ephraim, as thou hast seen Tyre, is planted in its buildings. Vg. Ephraim, as I saw, Tyre was founded in beauty. 2 Qj-_ iq slaughter. ^ Gr. omits give them. ^ Gr. has sufered. 13. Ephraim, like as I have seen Tyre, is planted in a pleasant place ; the difficulty and uncertainty of this sentence is attested by the widely variant renderings offered by the versions. A more probable textual reading yields. As for Ephraim, they will set its children as a prey. This makes excellent connection be- tween vs. 12 and vs. 13b. Ephraim shall bring out his children to the slayer ; it was a common practice when cities were captured for the victors to slay both v/omen and children; cf. 3: 10; 10 : 14; 13 : 16 ; Isa. 13 : 16; Ps. 137 : g. 14. Give them, O Lord: what wilt thou give? etc.; Hosea entreats Jehovah to bring upon Israel the curse of childlessness, which after all is a lesser evil than to bear children only to see them dashed in pieces by a ruthless foe. 15. All their wickedness is in Gilgal ; for there I hated them; no reason is known for the singling out of Gilgal as the concen- tration of Ephraim's sin and the primal cause of Jehovah's dis- pleasure ; but cf. 4:15; 12:11; Numb. 4: 4; 5:5. My house ; the land of Palestine as in 8 : i. I will love them no more ; not necessarily " never again," but rather, " no longer." All their princes are revolters; viz. from Jeho^^ah, their God. 16. This vs. is more in keeping with the thought of vss. 11-14 THE BOOK OF HOSEA lo; yea, though they bring forth, yet will I slay the beloved fruit of their womb. 17. My 1 God will cast them away, because they did not hearken unto him: and they shall be wanderers among the nations. XIII. The Destruction of Israel's Altars and Idols, 10 : 1-8 10. Israel is a luxuriant vine,^ which putteth forth his fruit : According to the abundance of his fruit he hath multiplied his altars ; according to the goodness^ of his land they have made goodly ^ pillars.^ 1 Gr. omits. 2 Gr. the fruit flourishing. ^ m. prosperity. * Gr. he huilt. * m. obelisks. than with that of 15 and 17. It is probably misplaced here. Ephraim is smitten ; their root is dried up ; the figure is that of a tree smitten by drought so that it can bear no fruit. Though they bring forth; if such a thing were possible; cf. 8: 7. Yet will I slay the beloved fruit of their womb ; cf. vs. 12. 17. My God; Hosea now speaks in his own person. His use of " my " in itself reflects his conviction that Ephraim has no claim upon Jehovah. Will cast them away ; viz. into exile. Because they did not hearken unto him ; but have rebelliously rejected the entreaties of his prophets. They shall be wanderers among the nations ; just as they have wandered away from Jehovah (7 : 13), so now shall the}^ wander as exiles among the peoples to whom they have looked for help instead of trusting in their God. I. The days of Jeroboam II, in whose reign Hosea began his work, were characterized by great prosperity in Israel. Hence the figure of the luxuriant vine, which putteth forth his fruit. In recognition of this prosperity Israel had erected nu- merous altars and greatly increased the number of its pillars. These were apparently used in the service of the Baalim, who were looked upon as the givers of the fruits of the soil. The pillars were solitary upright stones erected at sanctuaries in honor 131 10 : 2 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 2. Their heart is divided ; ^ now shall they be found guilty : 2 He shall smite ^ their altars, he shall spoil their pillars.^ 3. Surely now shall they say, we have no king : For we fear not Jehovah ; and the king, what can he do for us ? 4. They speak ^ vain words, swearing ^ falsely in making covenants : ^ Therefore judgement springeth ^ up as hemlock ^ in the furrows of the field. ^° 1 m. he hath divided their heart; or, their heart is smooth. Gr. they divided their hearts. 2 Qj-. iiigy jg destroyed. Vg. shall they perish. ^ Gr. utterly destroy. ■* m. obelisks. Gr. their pillars shall be destroyed. ^ Gr. speaking (which agrees with king of vs. 3). s Gr. pretexts. Vg. of vision. ^ m. they swear falsely ; they make cove- nants. ^ ra. shall spring. '^Gx. grass. Syr. briars. '■'^ Syr. in a field of untitled land; similarly Gr. of some god. They were commonly used by both Canaanites and Israelites. 2. Their heart is divided ; viz. between the Baalim and Jehovah. Now shall they be found guilty ; better, be confounded. He shall smite ; Jehovah will bring ruin upon the pillars and altars erected in honor of the Baalim. 3. Now shall they say; perhaps rather, do they say introducing a description of the current state of mind. We have no king; perhaps a reflection upon the frequent changes in the kingship that set in after the death of Jeroboam II ; or even an expression of hostility toward the kingship, in that the monarch is declared of no value to his people. For we fear not Jehovah ; this looks like a judgment regarding Israel's religion by some later writer. It is hardly conceivable that the contemporaries of Hosea could be justly charged with indifference toward or repudiation of Jehovah. Their failure was rather in not giving him their whole allegiance and in not understanding, and accepting the standards of social justice upon which he insisted. And the king, what can he do for us? He is helpless and useless. 4. They speak vain words ; words that mean nothing, hollow and insincere. Swearing falsely in making covenants; better, they swear to falsehood ; they make bargains ; they lie and cheat 132 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 5. The inhabitants of Samaria shall be in terror ^ for the calves 2 of Beth-aven:^ For the people thereof shall mourn over it, and the priests thereof ^ that rejoiced over it, for the glory thereof, because it is departed from it. 6. It shall also be carried ^ unto Assyria for a present to king Jareb.® Ephraim shall receive shame,^ and Israel shall be put to shame because of his own counsel. 7. ^5 /(7r Samaria, her king is cut off, ^ as foam ^ upon the water. 1 Gr. and Syr. shall dwell. Vg. and Tg. shall worship. 2 Gr. and Syr. calf. 3 Gr. the house of On. ^ Gr. as they provoked him. ^ Gr. those binding it carried. ^ Gr. the King Jareim. Vg. the king, the avenger. '' Gr. in a gift. Vg. shame will seize Ephraim. ^ m. Samaria is cut of with her king. Gr. Samaria cast of her king. Vg. Samaria made her king to pass over. » m. twigs. Gr. a chip. in all their dealings. Therefore judgement; evidently in the sense of punishment. Springeth up ; better, with m., shall spring up. As hemlock; some poisonous weed, not necessarily " hemlock." Disasters are to befall Israel from every quarter, multiplying like noxious weeds. 5. The calves of Beth-aven; (better in singular, calf) which should be, if it were a real god, a source of strength and courage to Israel, will be instead an occasion for anxiety and fear, being totally incapable of protecting itself from disaster. Hosea is the first of the prophets to denounce the calf-worship of the North; cf. 8:5. Beth-aven, meaning house of evil, is probably not a real place-name, but an ironical epithet for Beth-el, house of God. That rejoiced over it; better, correcting the text, shall agonize for it. Because it is departed ; literally, has gone into exile. 6. On the carrying away of idols by their captors, cf. Isa. 46 : i. Kmg Jareb is totally unknown ; no such name occurs in the known records of Assyria ; cf. note on 5 : 13. Shame because of his own counsel ; i.e. the folly of the policy of reliance upon other nations and other gods rather than upon Jehovah will be fully revealed. 7. Foam; better, a chip. The king of Israel, helpless as a 133 10 : 8 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. The high places also of Aven, the sin of Israel, shall be destroyed : the thorn and the thistle shall come up on their altars ; And they shall say to the mountains, Cover us ; ^ and to the hills, Fall on us.^ XIV. The Long-standing and Deep-rooted Sin of Israel and its Inevitable Outcome, 10:9-15 9. O Israel, thou hast sinned ^ from ^ the days of Gibeah : ^ there they stood ; ^ that the battle against the children of iniquity should not overtake them in Gibeah.^ 1 Syr. and Tg. them. 2 Gr. and Vg. Israel has sinned. ' m. more than in. * Gr. the hills. * m. there have they continued. ^ m. shall not the battle against the chil- dren of iniquity overtake thetn in Gibeah? chip floating on the surface of a mighty river and unable to deter- mine its own course, is slain. The reference may be to some recent event, or it may be an allusion to the fate of the northern kings in general. 8. Aven, probably for Bethel, as in vs. 5. The sin of Israel; not because they were illegal altars, for the law prohibiting them had not yet been promulgated ; but because they represent the whole mistaken cultus of Israel which fails to take into account the demand of Jehovah for righteousness and justice. The calf- conception of Jehovah is an insult to his majesty and his moral sublimity. Hence, the altars will be destroyed, and abandoned to the thorn and the thistle. In their terror before the coming judgment, the people will cry out for instant death ; cf . Luke 23 : 30; Rev. 6:16; 9 : 16. 9 and 10. From the days of Gibeah; reference being made apparently to Judg. 19, to indicate that Israel's sin is of long standing. There they stood; this is an obscure statement, as is also the remainder of vss. 9 and 10. The revised version of the passage is very free, being rather interpretation than translation. Perhaps the whole passage should be reconstructed as follows : there they said, " War will not reach its in Gilead." But I came 134 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 10. When it is my desire/ I will chastise them ; and the peoples shall be gathered against them, when they are bound" to^ their two transgres- sions. 11. And Ephraim is a heifer that is taught, that loveth to tread out the grain; ^ but I have passed over upon her fair ^ neck : I will set a rider on Ephraim; Judah shall plow,® Jacob shall break his clods.^ 12. Sow to yourselves in righteousness,^ reap according to kindness ; ^ break up your fallow ground : ^^ for it is time ^^ to seek ^- the Lord, till he come and rain ^^ righteousness upon you. 1 Some codices of the Gr. omit the first phrase; others read for it, he came. Syr. in my rebuke. ^xn.. yoked. Gr. in their being trained; similarly Syr. ^Ta..Jor. ■* Gr. loveth strife. ^ Syr. omits. ^ Syr. shall tread. Gr. / will be silent as to Judah. 7 Gr. Jacob will strengthen him. Syr. Jacob will plunder hira. ^ Syr. sow to yourselves righteousness. ^ Gr. reap unto fruit of life. i" Gr. and Syr. kindle the light for your- selves. 11 Gr. connecting with previous phrase, the light of knowledge. 12 Qj- seek ye. 13 m. and teach you righteousness. Gr. till the fruits of righteousness come to us. against the children of iniquity and chastised them; the tribes were gathered against them for their two sins. This experience of the past should be a lesson to the Israel of the present. 11. Ephraim has been a trained heifer that rejoiced in the task of trampling around upon the threshing-floor and eating freely of the grain (cf. Deut. 25:4); but all this must now come to an end. But I have passed over upon her fair neck ; this is a curious statement, which is probably better changed to, hut I have caused a yoke to pass over upon her fair neck. Harsh experiences are now before Israel ; the days of ease are past. I v/lII set a rider on Ephraim; rather, / will make Ephraim draw the plough. Judah shall plow, Jacob shall break his clods; rather, Judah shall harrow for him, viz. Jacob, or Jacob may be an unnecessary explanatory note by some editor. 12. In righteousness ; better to take " righteousness " with- out " in " as the object of the verb, sow righteousness, as in the Syriac. Reap according to kindness ; better, following the Greek, reap the fruit of piety. Break up your fallow ground ; for it is 135 I0:i3 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 13. Ye have plowed ^ wickedness, ye have reaped iniquity ; ye have eaten the fruit of Hes : ^ for thou didst trust in thy way,^ in the multitude of thy mighty men.^ 14. Therefore shall a tumult arise among ^ thy people,® and all thy fortresses shall be spoiled,^ as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel^ in the day of battle : the mother was dashed in pieces with her children. 15. So shall Beth-el do unto you ^ because of your great wickedness : at daybreak ^° shall the king of Israel be utterly cut off. 1 Gr. why were you silent? 2 m. faithlessness. ^ Some codices of Gr. in thy sins; other codices, in thy chariots. < Gr. and Syr. in the abundance of thy might. ^ m. against. ^ Heb. peoples; but Gr., Syr. and Vg. people. ' Gr. and will inhabit all thy walled cities. ^ Gr. like the ruler Salaman from the house of Jeroboam. Syr. as Shalman from Bethel spoiled. Vg. as Salmana from the house of him who judged Baal. *m. so shall it be done unto you at Bethel, etc.; Gr. so will I do to you, house of Israel. 1° Some codices of Gr. like dawn. time to seek the Lord; better, following the Greek in part, break up for yourselves an unused field of knowledge; seek Jehovah. Till he come and rain righteousness upon you; better, again with the Greek, till the fruit of righteousness come unto you. 13. Israel's whole conduct in the past has been wicked and corrupt and has already brought upon her its inevitable reward. Thou didst trust in thy way ; better, with the Greek, in thy chariots. Israel has been puffed up with confidence in its military power and has forgotten its need of Jehovah. 14. A tumult, i.e. the confusion and terror of war. Among thy people, i.e. thy clans or tribes. Thy fortresses, in which so much trust has been misplaced, shall be spoiled. As Shalman, etc. ; nothing is known either as to the identity of the king or general mentioned, nor as to the location of the place. Some frightful destruction of a town is evidently called to mind. The mother was dashed in pieces, etc. ; cf. Gen. 32:11; 2 Kings 8:12; Ps. 137:8, 9- 15. So shall Beth-el do unto you; if text is correct, it means either that the foregoing is the natural outcome of the worship represented by the shrine at Bethel; or the god Bethel, whose 136 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 11:3 XV. The Love of Jehovah toward Israel, ii : i-ii I. Jehovah^ s Love in Days Gone by, 11 : 1-4 11. When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son ^ out of Egypt. 2. As they called ^ them, so they went from them : ^ they sacrificed unto the Baalim, and burned in- cense to graven images. 3. Yet I taught Ephraim to go ; I took them on my ^ arms ; but they knew not that I healed them. » Gr, his sons. 2 Gr. as I called. ' Gr. and Syr. from my face. * Heb. his. worship is attested by papyri recently discovered at Elephantine on the Nile, will show his nothingness by his inability to save his worshippers from the aforementioned fate. But it is perhaps better to read, in part with the Greek, so shall I do to you, Bethel, thus making Jehovah threaten Bethel with destruction. At daybreak; probably to be corrected to, like dawn, i.e. as suddenly as the dawn breaks out of the darkness, so unexpectedly will destruction come upon Israel's king. I. Called my son out of Egypt; elsewhere Hosea repre- sents Jehovah as Israel's husband (2 : 2, 7, 16) ; but any writer may change his figure and the reference to Israel's childhood here puts the relationship of wife out of the question. 2. As they called them, so they went from them ; this becomes easier from the point of view of Hebrew grammar and clearer in sense, if we read, following the Greek, the more I called them the farther they went away from me. The greater Jehovah's efforts through prophets to win Israel to himself, the less success had he. The Baalim and . . . graven images ; probably a charge of two kinds of sin, viz. Baal-worship and calf-worship. 3. Yet I; not the Baalim — an emphatic pronoun here. To go; better, to walk. The figure is that of an infant taking its first steps. I took them on my arms; ?.e. when tired. Jehovah exercised the endless love and patience toward Israel that char- acterize true parenthood. They knew not ; i.e. failed to realize that it was I who healed them. Hosea either changes his figure here, or the healing must refer to the parent's ministrations when the child is bruised by falls or injured in other ways. 137 ii:4 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 4. I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love ; ^ And I was to them as they that take off ^ the yoke ^ on ^ their ^ jaws, and I laid meat before them.® 2. Love spurned leads to Disaster, 11 : 5-7 5. He shall not return into the land of Egypt ; ^ but the Assyrian shall be his king, because they refused to return. 6. And the sword shall fall ^ upon his cities, and shall consume his bars,^ and devour them, because of their own counsels. 1 Gr. my love. 2 Gr. as a man striking. ^ Gr. and Tg. omit. ^ Syr. from upon. ^ Gr. his. ^ Gr. and I -will look toward him; I will be able for him. Aquila, and I bent toward him food. Syr. and I inclined toward them and they ate. ' Gr. Ephraim dwelt in Egypt. ^ m. shall rage against. Gr. and he was sick by the sword; similarly Syr. Vg. the sword began. ^ Gr. and ceased in his hands; similarly Syr. Vg. and consumed his chosen ones. 4. I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love ; the figure now changes to that of oxen guided by their driver. Je- liovah's guidance has been such as was suited to human beings, characterized by kindness and love. Jehovah was considerate of Israel, like the driver who removes the heavy yoke from upon the necks of his oxen, that their eating may be in comfort. And I laid meat before them ; a difficult phrase, perhaps to be read, / hent over him and gave him food. This closes the description of Jehovah's tender care for his people. 5. Here begins a statement of the penalty for scorning Je- hovah's claims. He shall not return into the land of Egypt; this is the opposite of what Hosea has said in 7: 16; 8 : 13 ; 9:3,6. It is practically certain that not should be connected with vs. 4 and translated to him, which is identical in sound with 7iot in its Hebrew form. This makes this vs. agree with Hosea's point of view elsewhere. But; better and; Egypt and Assyria are coupled together as instruments of punishment, as also in 9:3. They refused to return; a play on words — Israel is to return to Egypt because they will not return to Jehovah. 6. Shall fall on ; literally, shall whirl in, i.e. a scene of indis- 138 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 7. And my ^ people are bent ^ to backsliding from me: ^ though they call them to him that is on high,'^ none at all will ^ exalt him, 3. Jehovah's Inability to abandon Israel, 11:8-11 8. How shall I give thee up,^ Ephraim ? How shall I deliver thee/ Israel ? How shall I make thee as Admah ? How shall I set thee as Zeboim ? Mine heart is turned within me, my compassions are kindled together. 1 Heb. his. 2 Vg. shall hang. » Gr. from his dwelling. Syr. lo return to me. Vg. to my return. * Aquila and Theodction, to the yoke. ^ Gr. and God will he angry be- cause of his honor and will not. Syr. and calls upon God and meditates together, but no one raises hitnself. Vg. a yoke moreover shall be imposed upon them also, which mil not be carried away. ^ Syr. how shall I deliver thee. ' Gr. protect thee. Syr. help thee. criminate slaughter is before the prophet's mind. And shall consume his bars; probably an error for and shall consume in his cities, which may be an explanatory note on the previous shall ivhirl. And devour them, because of their own coimsels, i.e. their counsels of wickedness. But it is better to make a slight change and read, and devour in their fortresses. 7. My people are bent to backsliding from me; the Hebrew here is very obscure and of irregular grammatical construction. It is best corrected so as to ^deld, my people have wearied me with their rebellions. Jehovah's patience is exhausted ; Israel must now suffer. Though they call them to him that is on high ; this text is in even worse condition than the foregoing, being really untranslatable. The proper way to correct it awaits discovery. One recent reconstruction is, " unto the yoke Jehovah will ap- point them, since he has ceased to love them." Another rewrites the whole verse thus, " my people hang back day after day upon its cords ; * up, up,' does one call ; but not once does it arouse itself." The verse remains a riddle. 8. How shall, or how can, I give thee up ; the love of Jehovah for Israel is so deep that he cannot lightly contemplate the pros- pect of severing relationship with the nation and giving it over to destruction. Admah and Zeboim were cities of the plain which 139 II :9 THE BOOK OF HOSE A 9. I will not execute the fierceness of mine anger, I will not return ^ to destroy Ephraim : For I am God, and not man ; the Holy One in the midst of thee : and I will not enter into the city.^ 10. They shall walk^ after the Lord, who shall roar like a lion : for he shall roar, and the children shall come trem- bling from the west.'* 1 Gr. / will not abandon. 2 m. ^wV/ not come in wrath. ' Gr. / will walk. * Gr. and children of waters will be amazed. Syr. and children from the people shall tremble. were destroyed in the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah ; cf . Gen. 14: 8; 19: 28 f. Mine heart is turned within me, etc.; the feelings of Jehovah completely overcome him. 9. I will not execute the fierceness of mine anger; this and the following statements, through vss. 10 and 11, are quite the opposite of what Hosea has said thus far regarding Jehovah's purpose ; cf. vs. 6 ; 10 : 14 ; 9:152.; 8 : 13 f. ; 4:3. It is better to regard this whole section, vss. 9-1 1, as having originated with some later editor, whose convictions regarding Jehovah's mercy led him to supplement Hosea's words in this way. I will not return to destroy, i.e. I will not again punish Ephraim ; written probably after the fall of Samaria in 721 B.C. I am God, and not man; not subject therefore to feelings of passionate revenge, such as actuate human beings. Hence he will not allow himself to be carried away by unreasoning wrath to such an extent as to destroy Israel completely. The Holy One in the midst of thee ; cf . Isa. 6 : 3-7. The thought of holiness in early Israel laid emphasis upon the idea of separation from everything that was not holy. And I will not enter into the city ; the meaning of this statement in this context is so ambiguous that many re- cent scholars insist that the text must be in error here. No agree- ment prevails among those accepting this translation as to its bearing upon the discourse. The simplest emendation offered so far yields, and I come not to consume. 10. They shall walk after the Lord, who shall roar like a lion ; this is a description of the return from exile. Jehovah's call, like a lion's roar, will be heard far and wide, bringing joy to his people and terror to their enemies. Children shall come trem- bling from the west ; this again is a hopelessly obscure line. The 140 THE BOOK OF HOSEA n 11. They shall come trembling ^ as a bird out of Egypt, and as a dove out of the land of Assyria : And I will make them to dwell ^ in their houses, saith the Lord. XVT. The Unpardonable Deceit of Israel, 11:12- 12 : 14 12. Ephraim compasseth me about with falsehood, and the house of Israel with deceit : But Judah yet ruleth with God,^ and is faithful with the Holy One.^ 1 Vg. They shall fly away. ^ Gr. / will restore them. Syr. I will return them. ^ Gr. now God knows them, connecting Judah with the previous phrase. Vg. Judah, more- over, descends as a witness with God. Syr. until the people of God descend, treating Judah as in Gr. * m. and Judah is yet unsteadfast with God, and with the Holy One who is faithful. Gr. and will be named a holy people of God. Syr. a holy people and faithful. Hebrew says literally, and shall tremble sons from sea. But the exiles have been represented as living in Assyria on the east or in Egypt on the south. Hence there is no meaning in " from sea " or " from west " in speaking of their return. 11. As a bird and as a dove; probably intended to represent the swiftness of the return. Egypt and Assyria ; Hosea himself seems to have been uncertain where the Hebrew exiles would be taken, whether to Assyria or Egypt. As a matter of fact, the later Jewish exiles scattered themselves over the whole known world. And I will make them to dwell; we should probably read with the Greek, / will cause them to return to their houses. 12. Compasseth me about with falsehood; the whole religious atmosphere is surcharged with faithlessness to Jehovah ; cf . 4 : 2 ; 6:7; 7:1,3,13; ID : 4, 13. Judah yet ruleth with God; a very uncertain phrase; the word '^ ruleth " elsewhere means " roam around," which is wholly unsuitable here. The exact meaning is beyond recovery, but if the following phrase is correctly preserved, it seems necessary to suppose that this is a word of praise for Judah. In that case, this and the following phrase must be regarded as a later addition, for Hosea elsewhere does not discriminate in favor of Judah ; cf. 5 : 5, lo, 12 ff. ; 6:4; ID : II ; 12:2. But, in view of 12 : 2, it seems probable that the text here is corrupt, and that originally this was a word of denun- ciation, rather than praise. And is faithful with the Holy One, 141 12: 1 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 12. Ephraim feedeth on wind ^ and foUoweth after the east wind : he ^ continually multiplieth lies and desolation ; ^ And they make a covenant with Assyria, and oil is carried ^ into Egypt. 2. The Lord hath also a controversy with Judah, and will punish ^ Jacob according to his v/ays ; according to his doings will he recompense him. 3. In the womb he took his brother by the heel ; and in his manhood ^ he had power ^ with God : 1 Gr. Ephraim is a bad wind. 2 Syr. they. ^ Gr. falsehood. * Syr. they carry. Gr. he imported. Vg. he bore. ^ Heb. visit upon. « m. strength. Gr. troubles. ' m. he strove. Vg. he was straight. i.e. with God, in contrast to Israel that has been disloyal to Jehovah. The same doubt exists here as in the foregoing clause. If this be the true meaning, this clause too is of late origin. The only change thus far offered which yields the kind of sense called for is, and with sodomites is joined. 1. Feedeth on, or shepherds, the wind; i.e. the outcome of Ephraim's endeavor will be nothingness, or worse, for the east wind is the sultry, killing wind from the dry and parched desert. Desolation; better, with a slight change of text, falsehood; cf. II : 12. They make a covenant with Assyria, and oil is carried into Egypt; this is an evidence of Israel's deceit and faithlessness. They turn to foreign nations and their gods for aid, notwithstand- ing the fact that their sole allegiance and confidence are pledged to Jehovah. Furthermore, it may have been that they were dealing with both nations at the same time, planning to cast in their lot with the stronger when it should appear which way for- tune was going. 2. A controversy with Judah; a sharp contrast to 11:12. Jacob represents northern Israel. The doings of Israel are re- sponsible for the coming downfall ; cf . 4 : 9 ; 5:4. 3. The reference to Jacob in vs. 2 led some editor to inscribe upon the margin of a manuscript one of the traditions regarding Jacob which seemed to him characteristic and of interest in con- nection with Hosea's charges against Jacob. This editorial addition, with some editorial comment, is contained in vss. 3-6 and 12, 13. The genuine Hosea material in this chapter is thus limited to vss. i, 2, 7-1 1, 14. 142 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 4. Yea, he had power ^ over the angel, and prevailed : he wept, and made suppHcation unto him : ^ He found him ^ at Beth-el,^ and there he spake with us ; ^ 5. Even the Lord, the God of hosts ; ^ the Lord is his memorial. 6. Therefore turn thou to thy God : keep mercy and judgement, and wait on thy God continually. 7. He is a trafficker,^ the balances of deceit are in his hand: he loveth to oppress.^ 1 Vg. he was strong. Syr. omits. 2 Qr. fjjgy -ui^ept and they besought me. Syr. omits he wept. 3 Qr. ^^. 4 Qr. i^ //^g house of On. ^ Gr. to them. Syr. him. * m. for the Lord is the God of hosts. '' m. as for Canaan, the etc. or he is a Canaanite. Heb. Canaan. ^ m. defraud. Vg. calumny. In the womb, etc. ; cf . Gen. 25 : 26. He had power with God ; better, he strove with God; cf. Gen. 32 : 24-29. So also he strove with the angel; angel here is equivalent to God; cf. Gen. 16 : 10; 17: 18-20; Judg. 6: 11-24. 4. He found him at Beth-el and there he spake with us ; better, with him, as in Syriac. This is a reference to Jacob's dream; cf. Gen. 28 : 10-22. 5. Even the Lord, the God of hosts ; the Lord is his memorial ; better, Jehovah, the God of hosts, Jehovah is his name ; a specifica- tion of the person referred to in the foregoing spake with him. For memorial in sense of name or title, cf. Exod. 3:15. 6. Therefore turn thou to thy God ; perhaps, hy the help of thy God. The words are addressed to Israel in exhortation by the writer of this note. Keep mercy and judgement, etc. ; this is the kind of admonition common in later times and probably belongs to the Deuteronomic age. 7. He is a trafficker ; the balances of deceit are in his hand ; better, A Canaan! balances, etc., i.e. Jacob, or Israel, is charac- terized as a Canaanite, a designation almost equivalent to " a tricky merchant," for trade and commerce had been learned from the Canaanites by Israel ; cf. Prov. 31 : 24 ; Job 41 : 6 ; Zeph. i : 11. Deceitful balances are denounced also in Am. 8:5. To oppress; i.e. by reducing people to poverty through cheating them out of their hard-earned gains. 143 12:8 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 8. And Ephraim said, Surely I am become rich, I have found me wealth : ^ In all my ^ labours they shall find ^ in me ^ none iniquity that were sin.^ 9. But I am the Lord thy God^ from the land of Egypt ; I will yet again make thee to dwell in tents, as in the days of the solemn feast. 10. I have also spoken unto the prophets, and I have multiplied visions ; and by the ministry ^ of the prophets have I used similitudes. 1 Gr. relief. Vg. an idol. Syr. pain. 2 Gr. his. ^ Gr. shall be found. Syr. none of my labors suffices. * Gr. for him. ^ Syr. for the sin which he has sinned. Gr. on account of the sins which he sinned. ^ Gr. inserts who brought thee up. Syr. and Tg. insert who caused thee to go forth. ^ Heb. hand. 8. And Ephraim said ; better, btit Ephraim says, i.e. Ephraim retorts to the charges of crookedness that she has acquired wealth thereby. Prosperity was for the early Hebrew a proof of the divine favor. Hence the patent facts show that the prophet's charges cannot be true ; prosperity presupposes piety. In all my labours they shall find in me none iniquity that were sin; the meaning of this is that Israel repudiates the charge of cheat- ing, and declares that all her wealth has been honestly obtained. It is better translated, however, with some change of text, none of his gains shall suffice to him for the guilt wherein he has sifined. The wealth Israel has secured will not serve to justify the treach- ery and deceit which have contributed to the gaining of it. 9. But; better, for. 1 am the Lord thy God., etc., better, /, Jehovah, thy God from the land of Egypt, will again make, etc. The punishment awaiting Israel for her sin will be in kind a repetition of exile from home land, like the Egyptian bondage. As in the days of the solemn feast, i.e. the feast of booths, when all the people took to tent life; cf. Lev. 23 : 39-43. 10. I have also spoken unto the prophets, etc., i.e. Jehovah has done everything in his power to turn Israel into the right paths, but she has persisted in going astray. She will not learn to do right. Have I used similitudes ; it must be rendered by a verb in the future, will I ; but this meaning yields little sense here. Perhaps, we should associate the verb with another root 144 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 11. Is Gilead iniquity ? ^ they are altogether vanity ; in Gilgal they sacrifice bullocks : ^ Yea, their altars are ^ as heaps ^ in the furrows of the field. 12. And Jacob fled into the field of Aram, and Israel served for a wife, and for a wife he kept sheep. 13. And by a prophet ^ the Lord brought Israel up out of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved.^ 14. Ephraim hath provoked to anger most bitterly : ^ 1 Gr. unless Gilead is, then they, etc. Syr. in Gilead is pain. 2 Qr. surely false ones were in Gilead, rulers sacrificing. Syr. to vanity ye sacrifice oxen in Gilgal. ^ m. shall be. < Gr. tortoises. ^ Syr. prophets. « m. kept. '' Gr. Ephraim was angry and provoked to anger; similarly Syr. and render, through the prophets will I destroy. They have re- fused to take the prophets as guides to safety ; now they shall be led by them to ruin ; cf . 4:5; 6:5; Mic. 3:52. 11. Is Gilead iniquity? Doubtless to be corrected, with the Syriac, to in Gilead is iniquity; cf. 6:8. In Gilgal; cf. 4: 15; 9:15. They sacrifice bullocks ; there was nothing reprehensible, so far as we know, in the sacrifice of oxen in Gilgal. Sacrifice in the days of Hosea was legitimate at any shrine dedicated to Jehovah. The probability is that we should read they sacrifice to demons, a charge of idolatrous worship of alien gods. If this reading be correct, the preceding phrase, they are altogether vanity, is a marginal note characterizing the " demons," which has crept into the text. Yea, their altars are, etc. ; a comparison of the numerous idolatrous altars to the piles of stone dotting the fields after the stones lying on the surface have been gathered together. The downfall of Gilead came through Tiglath-pileser of Assyria; cf. 2 Kings 15: 29. His own record of the event, in a badly preserved text, runs thus : " the town Gilead . . . Abel . . . which is a part of the land of the house of Omri . . . the broad, throughout its extent I added to the territory of Assyria ; and established my officer as governor over them." 12. This and vs. 13 belong to the editorial addition. The story referred to occurs in Gen. 27 : 41-30 : 43. 13. A prophet; evidently Moses is meant; for a similar estimate of his function, cf. Deut. 18: 15, 18. L 145 i3:i THE BOOK OF HOSEA therefore shall his blood be left ^ upon him, and his reproach shall his Lord return unto him. XVII. How ARE THE MiGHTY FALLEN ! t^ I I-16 I. Baal Worship spells Ruin, 13 : 1-8 13. When Ephraim spake, there was trembling ; ^ he exalted himself in Israel : ^ but when he offended in Baal, he died.^ 2. And now ^ they sin more and more, and have made them molten images of their silver, Even idols according to their own understanding,^ all of them the work of the craftsmen : 1 Gr. and Syr. be poured out. Vg. shall come. 2 m. -i^Jien Ephraim spake with trembling. Gr. according to the word Ephraim ordinances. Syr. when he spake Ephraim ■was trembling. ^ Gr. {ordinafices) he himself took in Israel. Syr. and he was prince in Israel; similarly Tg. * m. when he became guilty, etc. Gr. and he set them for the Baal and died. ^ Gr. omits now. ^ Gr. according to the image of idols. Vg. idols as if a likeness. Syr. according to their likeness. 14. This is the return which Israel has made to Jehovah's efforts in her behalf; cf. vs. 10. Blood be left upon him, i.e. the crimes he has committed shall not be forgiven, but shall remain upon him as a burden of guilt to be avenged. His re- proach; either the reproach brought upon Jehovah by the sins of his people, or the reproach resting upon Israel on account of its many sins. Re^arn unto him, i.e. repay to him in fitting penalty. 1. The influence of Ephraim in days gone by was very great ; his words carried weight. He exalted himself in Israel ; better, he was a prince in Israel. Ephraim is thought of here not as a name for the whole Northern Kingdom, but as repre- senting simply the main tribe in Israel, from which leadership had come in the past. But all this power passed away as a result of the adoption of Baal worship, which sounded the death-knell of the nation. 2. There is no improvement at the present day; rather, Israel goes from bad to worse. Molten images, i.e. the calves of Bethel, Dan, and other shrines; cf. 8 : 5, 6. According to their own understanding ; better, with the versions, according to their pattern. The work of the craftsmen; nothing godlike about 146 THE BOOK OF HOSEA They say of them, Let the men that sacrifice ^ kiss the calves. 3. Therefore they shall be as the morning cloud, and as the dew that passeth early away, As the chaff that is driven with the whirlwind out of the threshing-floor, and as the smoke out of the chimney. 4. Yet I am the Lord thy God ^ from the land of Egypt ; and thou shalt know ^ no god but me, and beside me there is no saviour. 5. I did know thee* in the wilderness, in the land of great drought.^ 6. According to their pasture, so were they filled ; they were filled,^ and their heart was exalted: therefore have they forgotten mc. 1 m. the sacrificers of men. Gr. sacrifice ye men; the calves have indeed forsaken. 2 Gr. adds here, the one establishing the heavens and creating the earth, whose hands created all the host of the heavens, and I did not show them to thee in order that thou mightest follow after them; and I led thee. Syr. inserts, who led thee. ^ m. thou knowest. * Gr. and Syr. / shepherded thee. ^ Gr. in an uninhabited land. Vg. in a land of soli- tude. Syr. in a land of drought, which was not inhabited. « Gr. according to their pas- tures; and they were filled imtof Illness. Syr. and thou didst shepherd them; and their bellies were filled. them ; the product of human hands. They say of them, Let the men that sacrifice kiss the calves ; this is very difficult, both from the point of view of Hebrew grammar and from that of meaning. It is, perhaps, better to read, to such those sacrificing say, God. Men kissing calves ! Kissing was an act of worship ; cf . i Kings 19 : 18. This last phrase is the prophet's exclamation of disgust. 3. The prophet heaps up descriptions of the speedy downfall of the Northern Kingdom. 4. From the land of Egypt, i.e. from the time of the Exodus ; perhaps we should insert before this, with the Greek and Syriac, who led thee. Thou shait know; better, with the margin, thou knowest. All Israel's good has come from Jehovah. 5. I did know thee in the wilderness; better, with Gr, and Syr., / shepherded thee, etc. ; cf. Ps. 23 : i. 6. According to their pasture, so were they filled ; they were filled; better, with some change of text, when they pastured, 147 I3t7 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 7. Therefore am I ^ unto them as a lion : as a leopard will I watch by the way : ^ 8. I will meet them as a bear that is bereaved of her whelps, and will rend the caul of their heart : And there will I ^ devour them like a lion ; the wild beast shall tear them. 2. I sraeVs Princes are Powerless before Jehovah, 13:9-11 9. It is thy destruction,'* O Israel, that thou art against me, against thy help.^ 10. Where now is thy king, that he may save thee in ^ all thy cities ? And thy judges^ of whom tho^ saidst,^ Give me a king and princes ? ^ 1 Gr. / will he. 2 Gr. as a leopard according to the way of the Assyrians. ' Gr. they. Syr. a lion {devour them). * m. thou art destroyed, O Israel, for thou, etc. 6 TO., for in me, in thy help — , or, hut in me is thy help. Gr. who will help in thy de- struction, O Israel? Syr. / have destroyed thee, Israel; who will help thee? ^ Syr. and. T Gr. let him judge thee. ^ "iyr. whom thou didst ask from me and say. » Gr., Syr. and Tg. a prince. they completely sated themselves. Yet, notwithstanding such boun- teous favor, their heart was exalted : therefore have they for- gotten me. Their sense of self-sufficiency shut out the thought of Jehovah. Man's needs keep him in mind of God. 7. Am I; better, with Greek, / will he. The punishment of their sin is now described. Will I watch by the way, ready to jump upon the passing prey. Another possible reading is^ sug- gested by the Greek, viz. / will he to them like a lion, like a leopard, on the way to Assyria; i.e. as they go to Assyria to seek aid, Jehovah will fall upon them with destruction. 8. The caul of their heart; literally, the enclosure of their heart, i.e. their breast. And there, viz. by the roadside, or on the way to Assyria, 9. It is thy destruction ; better, with a very easy correction, I will destroy thee. That thou art against me, against thy help; a most unlikely meaning for the Hebrew. The second of the marginal renderings is much more probable. But the Greek and 148 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 13:14 11. I have given ^ thee a king in mine anger, and have taken him away in my wrath. 3. Irrevocable Doom, 13 : 12-16 12. The iniquity of Ephraim is bound up ; his sin is laid up in store. 13. The sorrows of a travailing woman shall come upon him: he is an unwise son ; For it is time ^ he should not tarry in ^ the place of the breaking forth of children. 14. I will ransom them from the power ^ of the grave ; ^ I will redeem them from death : 1 Gr. and Syr. and I gave. 2 Gr. omits it is time. Syr., Vg. and Tg. for now he, etc. * m. when it is time, he standeth not in. * Heb. hand. ^ Heb. Sheol. Syriac suggest a better reading, viz., Yea, who will be thy help? No one can protect Israel against Jehovah's wrathful power. 10. An ironical question intended to emphasize the helpless- ness of the regularly constituted authorities. Of whom thou saidst ; either at the time of the founding of the monarchy, or at the disruption, or in connection with the various changes of dynasty in the North. 11. I have given . . . and have taken; rather, I give . . . and take. The various changes and upheavals in the dynasties of the North can but mean that Jehovah has used the kingship as an instrument with which to punish Israel. The beginning and the end of the monarchy are alike proofs of Jehovah's anger. 12. Bound up, like money tied up in a bag, stored away for future reference. Jehovah will not forget Ephraim's sins, but will repay them in due time. 13. Sorrows ; better, pains or pangs; agonizing and inesca- pable pain. An unwise son, or child; one who fails to cooperate in the labor of birth. Israel is now not the mother, but the child on the point of being born. For it is time ; better, for now. He should not tarry ; literally stand; by his delay he forfeits his life. Some weakness and indecision in the national character is apparently in the mind of the prophet. 14. I will ransom them ... I will redeem them ; better 149 13115 THE BOOK OF HOSEA O death, where ^ are thy plagues ? ^ O grave, ^ where ^ is thy destruction ? ^ Repentance shall be hid from mine eyes. 15. Though he be fruitful ^ among his brethren, an east wind shall come, the breath ® of the Lord coming up ^ from the wilderness, And his spring shall become dry,^ and his fountain shall be dried up : ® He ^^ shall spoil the treasure of all pleasant vessels. 16. Samaria shall bear her guilt ; ^^ for she hath rebelled against her God : 1 m. 7 will be; so Vg. 2 Qj-. thy right. Vg. thy death. Syr. thy victory. ^ Heb. Sheol. * Gr. and Syr. thy sting. Vg. thy bite. ^ Gr., Syr. and Vg. separate. * m. tvind. ' Gr. the Lord will bring a burning wind upon him; similarly Vg. and Tg. 8 Gr. and will dry up his veins; similarly Vg. and Syr. ^ Gr. and will dry up his fountains; similarly Vg. ^^ ra.it. ^^ m. become desolate ; so Gr. taken as a question, shall I (or can I) ransom them . . . shall I redeem them? A promise of redemption is wholly out of place here ; the last clause of the verse renders it impossible. Moreover it is in conflict with Hosea's attitude elsewhere throughout the book; cf. vs. 16; 10:14, 15; 12:14. O death, where are thy plagues? etc.; not a cry of victory over death, but a summons to death to send its destroying agencies against Israel. The interpretation of this verse embodied in i Cor. 15 • 55 was based upon the Greek translation found in the Septuagint, which was the Bible of the early church, and does not represent the thought of Hosea. Repentance shall be hid from mine eyes ; Jehovah's purpose to punish is fixed and immutable. 15. Though he be fruitful; a pun on Ephraim, the sound of which in Hebrew suggests the word for fruitful. Among his brethren ; it is difficult to see who Ephraim's brethren can be ; for Hosea here designates the whole nation as Ephraim. Possibly the neighboring peoples of Moab, Ammon, Edom, etc. are meant. An attractive emendation yields, as the reed among the waters. An east wind ; the most destructive to vegetation, bringing with it parching heat from the desert, which dries up all the water- sources. He shall spoil the treasure ; now the figure is dropped and the bald reality is substituted ; the eastern conqueror will carry away all treasures as spoil. 16. Bear her guilt; cf. 10: 2; 13: i. A slight change gives ISO THE BOOK OF HOSEA 14:2 They shall fall by the sword ;^ their infants shall be dashed in pieces, and their women with child shall be ripped up. XVIII. A Call to Repentance, 14 : 1-3 14. O Israel, return unto the Lord thy God ; for thou hast fallen by thine iniquity. 2. Take with you words, and return unto the Lord : ^ Say unto him, Take away all iniquity ,2 and accept that which is good : ^ so will we render as bullocks the ofering of our lips.* 1 Gr. and Syr. add your God. 2 Gr. in order that you may not receive iniquity. Syr. that he may leave for you iniquity. ^ m. receive us graciously. * Gr. and Syr. we will render the fruit of our (Syr. your) lips. will he laid waste. The punishment for her sin will be devastat- ing and terrible. For similar practices in war, cf. 10: 14; Am. 1:13; 2 Kings 8:12; 15:16; Ps. 137:9; Judg. 1:6 f . ; Josh. 10 : 24. There is no good reason for denying 14 : 1-3 to Hosea. The aim of Hosea's ministry certainly was to call Israel to repentance, that thereby she might escape the impending disaster. The content of this call is in no way inconsistent with the message of Hosea as found elsewhere. 1. For a similar strain, cf. 2:2; 10:12. Thou hast fallen; disaster has already set in ; cf . 5 : 11-13 ; 7:9. By thine iniquity ; cf. 4: 2; 5:5. 2. Take with you words; not sacrificial gifts, but words ex- pressive of a change of heart. Take away all iniquity is equiva- lent to " forgive us our sins," being an acknowledgement of guilt and a plea for pardon. And accept that which is good ; if this text be correct the meaning must be " accept what is good, viz. that we pay, etc." But it is not improbable that a slight error has crept in and that the original reading was that we may receive good. So will we render as bullocks the offering of our lips, this is rather an interpretation than a translation. The Hebrew is literally and ive will render bullocks our lips, which is probably an error for and we will render the fruit of our lips, which is found in the Greek and Syriac. 151 14^3 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 3. ^ Asshur shall not save us ; we will not ride upon horses : Neither will we say any more to the work of our hands, Ye are our gods : for in thee the fatherless findeth mercy .2 XIX. Pardon and Promise, 14 : 4-8 4. I will heal their backsliding,^ I will love them freely :* for mine anger is turned away from him. , 1 Syr. begins with and they will say. 2 Gr. the one in thee pities the fatherless. Syr. because thou pitiest the fatherless ; similarly Vg. ^ Gr. their dwellings. Syr., Vg. and Tg. their penitence. * Syr. their vows. 3. Asshur, i.e. Assyria, shall not save us, i.e. dependence for help will no longer be made upon Assyria; cf. 5 : 13 ; T.ii; 8:9; 12: I. Jehovah alone will be relied upon. We will not ride upon horses; no trust will be placed in cavalry; cf. 10:14. Egypt seems to have been looked upon as the chief source of the horse supply; cf. Isa. 30:16; 31:1; Ezek. 17:15; ^ Kings 10 : 28. The work of our hands ; a relinquishment of idolatry ; cf. 13 : 2 ; 5:12; 8 : 5, 6 ; 10 : 5, 6. For in thee the fatherless findeth mercy; in contrast with the powerless and unfeeling idols and the futile aid of foreign powers, friendless Israel now realizes that Jehovah, the mighty God, will exercise forbearance and love toward his people. This section (vss. 4-8) is, on the whole, best regarded as the expression of later thought. It is an assurance oi pardon and prosperity to Israel such as it is difficult to ascribe to Hosea. There is no foundation for it in the prophecy thus far.^ Israel has only been urged to repent ; she has not recorded her intention to accept the invitation. There is not in this section itself any statement that Israel has changed her character or her course. Hosea could not well have made such glowing statements as these without emphasizing the fact of the moral and spiritual regenera- tion of Israel. These verses, like those at the close of Amos, have been placed here by a later editor in order that the close of Hosea's book might sound the note of hope and positive res- toration of the divine favor. 4. This verse is in direct contradiction to 13 : 14-16 and the burden of Hosea's preaching. Such a change in Jehovah's atti- tude requires a preceding and corresponding change in the heart 152 THE BOOK OF HOSEA 14:8 $. I will be as the dew unto Israel : he shall blossom as the lily, and cast forth his roots ^ as Lebanon. 6. His branches shall spread,^ and his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon. 7. They that dwell under his shadow shall return ; ^ they shall revive^ as the corn, and blossom as the vine : the scent thereof ^ shall be as the wine of Lebanon. 8. Ephraim shall say, What ^ have I ^ to do any more with idols ? ^Vg. his root will hurst forth. ^ Syr. sprout. ^ Syr. shall be built. Gr. they shall turn and shall dwell under his shadow. * Gr., Syr. and Tg. sJiall live. Gr. adds and shall he drunk. * m. his memorial. ^ m. O Ephraim, what. ^ Gr. has he. of Israel. Love them freely; not because of any reward from them, but of my own free initiative. Mine anger is turned away from them; cf. 11:9; Isa. 9:12, 17, 21; 10:4; 5:25. 5. As the dew; refreshing and invigorating; cf. 6:4. The lily; the precise species of lily is not known. There are in Palestine as elsewhere several varieties. Cast forth his roots like Lebanon ; referring either to the roots of the mountains or to the roots of the cedars that cover them. 6. Branches; better, shoots, the young growth springing up around the roots of a tree ; literally his suckers. The beauty of the olive tree is associated with its usefulness and value. Smell as Lebanon, i.e. the odor of the cedars; cf. Song of Songs 4 : 11. 7. They that dwell imder his shadow shall return ; the figure of the nation as a flourishing tree continues. Those that dwell under his shadow must be the individual members of the nation, to whom return from exile is here promised. But it is better to correct the text slightly and read, they shall again dwell under his shadow; viz. the exiles shall be restored to their homes and " abide under the shadow of the Almighty." They shall revive as the com ; a comparison with the rapid and luxurious growth of grain. But a slightly different text yields the better meaning, they shall live well-watered like a garden. The scent thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon ; i.e. the odor of the garden by which the renown of Israel is represented, shall be as famous and wide- spread as that of the wine of Lebanon ; cf . vs. 6. 153 14:9 THE BOOK OF HOSEA I have answered/ and will regard ^ him : I am like a green fir tree ; from me is thy fruit found. XX. A Word to the Wise, 14:9 9. Who is wise, and he shall understand these things ? prudent, and he shall know them ? For the ways of the Lord are right, and the just shall walk in them ; but transgressors shall fall therein. 1 Gr. and Syr. / have humbled him. ^ Gr. overpower. Syr. glorify. Vg. guide. 8. Ephraim shall say, What have I to do, etc. ? The words " shall say " are not in the Hebrew ; hence it is easier to follow the Greek and render, What has Ephraim to do, etc. ? Jehovah asks this question ; it presupposes the answer " nothing." I have answered and will regard him ; better, / will answer and will care for him. Jehovah assures Israel of far better provision and pro- tection than idols could ever furnish. I am like a green fir tree ; Jehovah evidently is still the speaker. The refreshing shade of the cypress, not fir tree, is the point of the comparison. From me is thy fruit fotmd ; neither fir nor cypress produces fruit ; evidently the prophet's thought has leaped from the evergreen to the fruit tree. All the blessings of Israel come from Jehovah. 9. This is a closing word added by an editor who would com- mend the study of the Book of Hosea to seekers after wisdom. Who is wise, etc.? Rather, Who is wise? Let him understand these things, etc., i.e. such things as these constitute the fit study of the man who would be wise in the ways of Jehovah. Prudent, i.e. discerning, intelligent. Right, or straight. The same ways prove easy for some and hard for others ; the just find joy in the doing of God's will, but transgressors stumble over it. They have no heart for it. 154 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF MICAH 15s INTRODUCTION I. The Book of Micah I. THE TEXT The text of Micah has come down in a very poor state of preservation. Hosea alone among the Minor Prophets is in worse condition and there is little in the Old Testa- ment as a whole that is more corrupt. This fact, of course, makes any translation conjectural to a large ex- tent and leaves the meaning of the prophet open to ques- tion at many points. The most uncertain portion of the text is contained in chaps, i and 2. This is due to three causes, viz. (i) the presence of many proper names, which are always easily corrupted in transmission ; (2) the denunciatory character of the material in these chapters, which would provoke the ameliorating activity of later editors; and (3) the fact that these chapters fall within the oldest section of the book. 2. STYLE Micah combines the clarity of Amos with the passion of Hosea. That a prophet with intense feeling should indulge in a series of puns as in i : 10 ff . may seem strange ; but it must be borne in mind that the pun was employed, not from the point of view of its humor, but for the pur- pose of making a deep impression through a striking phrase. Most terrible denunciations were often stated in such forms ; cf . Isa. 3:16 ff. The style of chaps. 1-3 157 INTRODUCTION is straightforward and vigorous. The language is pic- torial throughout this section. The speech of Micah abounds in metaphors, from one to another of which he leaps in rapid succession. He is a poet of high rank, using not merely poetic material in the expression of his thought, but giving to it also a carefully wrought out poetic form. The regularity of this poetic form is less marked than in the case of Amos, but on the other hand is more pronounced than in Hosea. The total effect is that of discourse in the highest degree vivid, strong, and logically effective. In the latter portion of the book, chaps. 4-7, there is a marked change. On the whole, these chapters seem to proceed from a less vigorous mind. For the most part, the movement of thought is much more calm and reflec- tive. The sharp denunciation of chaps. 1-3 is much less in evidence. The vividness and passion of those chapters is likewise missing. The contrast between 1-3 and 4-7 is that between a tumbling mountain torrent and a placid lake. But there is not the same unity of style throughout 4-7 as is found throughout 1-3. 3. UNITY This leads us to the question of the unity of the book of Micah. The book resolves itself naturally into three divisions, viz. chaps. 1-3, chaps. 4-5, and chaps. 6-7. Chaps. 1-3 contain almost exclusively denunciations of sin and threats of punishment ; chaps. 4-5 are made up prevailingly of words of hope and encouragement ; while chaps. 6-7 mingle threat and promise. But the point of view and the background change so often within these divisions that, from the time of Ewald on (1867 a.d.), 158 INTRODUCTION many scholars have maintained that the book was not all written by Micah himself. Chaps. 1-3, with the exception of i : 7 and 2:12, 13, are generally accepted as representing the thought and style of Micah. But with reference to chaps. 4-5 and 6-7 the judgment of scholars is far otherwise. Chaps. 4 and 5 are composed of a collection of materials from various sources, their only bond of connection one with another being an attitude of hope and expectation toward the future of Israel. The only portions in them which might possibly have originated with Micah are 4 : 14 and 5 : 8-12. The passages 4: 11-13 and 5 : 6-8 reflect the same back- ground and breathe the same spirit ; the remaining materials have no close relationship with them or w^ith one another. For example, the attitude toward the pagan world in 4: 12-13 is quite different from that in 4: 1-4, and the conception of the Messiah in 5 : 1-3 is not in keeping with that in 5 : 4-5. In chaps. 6-7, the only possible descendants from Micah himself are 6 : 9-16 and 7 : 1-6, and this is only a possi- bihty. Micah's authorship of the rest is excluded. The same lack of inner coherence characterizes these chapters as chaps. 4-5. Two passages, viz. 7 : 7-10 and 7 : 14-20, may have some mutual relationships ; but even they are separated each from the other by 7:11-13, a wholly foreign element in this context. The two chapters as a whole seem to evince a variety of historical backgrounds and a multiple authorship. II. The Prophet Micah All we know regarding Micah is contained in Micah, chaps. 1-3 and Jer. 26:18. His name means "Who is 159 INTRODUCTION like Jehovah ? " But this is no evidence of unusual piety on his part or that of his parents, since Hebrew children were commonly named after Jehovah, even when the parents were not especially noted for zeal in his service; Ahab and Ahaz, for example, named their children in honor of Jehovah. The description of him as '^the Morashtite" (i : i ; Jer. 26:18) distinguishes him from the many other bearers of his name, seven of whom appear in the Old Testament. The most distinguished of these, next to our prophet, was Micaiah ben Imlah, who is confused with our prophet in i Kings 22 : 28, where a sentence from the book of Micah is ascribed to Micaiah ben Imlah. This term "Morashtite" is the only guide we have to the home of Micah. It most naturally points to Moresheth- Gath (i : 14), a small town lying in the low hills of the Shephelah, bordering upon the territory of Philistia and in close proximity to Gath itself. The list of towns in 1 : 10 ff., the destruction of which calls forth the poign- ant grief of Micah, seems to point to that same region and so to strengthen our belief that the home of the prophet was on the western slope of the hills of Judah. Amos had lived less than twenty miles away, on the other side of the range of hills. But whereas Amos had been sur- rounded by rocky and barren wastes, Micah lived in the midst of most fertile fields. It is as the tiller of these fields and as one thoroughly acquainted with all the beauties of the country landscape and the simple joys of rustic life, that Micah comes before us. He speaks as a peasant pleading the cause of fellow-peasants against the rich oppressor. He measures the urban culture by the uncompromising standards of the country-side and pronounces it wanting. 160 INTRODUCTION Micah was fearless and outspoken in his criticism of the rulers and the rich. This boldness of utterance seems to have made a deep impression, for his example was cited in defence of Jeremiah's prophetic freedom a century later; Jer. 26 : i8. He was bound by few traditions and no conventions. He saw beneath the glitter and polish of the city and discerned the underlying injustice and vice. He unflinchingly exposed corruption and dared to threaten the capital city itself with destruction on account of its sins. His was a task from which any man might well shrink. But for Micah the voice of duty was the voice of God. We have no record of any vision or trance in his experience. The prophetic fire was kindled in him by the contemplation of his country's ills. III. The Times of Micah I. THE DATE The superscription (1:1) places Micah "in the days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah." This statement, like those in Hos. I : i and Isa. 1:1, is probably of late origin. But from Jer. 26 : 18 we learn that "Micah the Morashtite was prophesying in the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah." It is hardly likely that Micah prophesied in the reign of Jotham or in the early part of the reign of Ahaz, for he is wholly silent regarding the great catastrophe of 735 to 734, involving the invasion of the North by Tiglath-pileser and the depopulating of the regions beyond Jordan (2 Kings 15 : 29). This silence would be inexplicable if Micah had prophesied as a contemporary of those events. For more definite information concerning the time of Micah's work, we turn to chaps. 1-3. The very first prophecy (i : 2-9) deals with the coming destruction of M l6l INTRODUCTION Samaria, with which imminent danger to Jerusalem is connected. This seems, of course, to require the dating of Micah before the fall of Samaria, which happened in 721 B.C. But nowhere, either in Assyrian or Biblical records, is there any suggestion of danger to Jerusalem and Judah in 721 B.C. Isaiah did not anticipate any trouble for Judah at that time. As a matter of fact, Samaria was not destroyed in 721 B.C. Neither in the Old Testament nor in Sargon's own narrative is there any mention of a destruction of Samaria. On the contrary, Sargon says, ^'more than before I caused it to be inhabited." Far from being annihilated, Samaria was found among the enemies of Sargon in 720 B.C. New colonies were planted in the province by Sargon in 715 B.C. and later by Esar- haddon and Ashurbanipal (Ezra 4 : 2, 9, 10). An Assyrian governor was resident in the city as late as 645 B.C. It is, therefore, by no means necessary to limit the period for Micah's appearance by the year 721 B.C. The message of Micah may have been called forth by the situation at the time of Ashdod's revolt against Sargon in 7 13-7 1 1 B.C., or by the crisis at the time of Sennach- erib's invasion in 701 B.C. It is not at all improbable that Samaria was involved in both of these rebellions. The materials in chaps. 1-3 seem to belong to one period, in that they reflect similar conditions throughout, and in view of the section i : 10-16, which seems to lay out a line of march for Sennacherib's army, it is reasonable to interpret these chapters as called forth by that great occasion. 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CHAPS. I-3 From 715 to 701 B.C., the political situation in Judah was one of turmoil. Assyria was in control of Judah and 162 INTRODUCTION of Syria as a whole. Her dominion involved the pay- ment of heavy tribute by the subject peoples. The free- dom-loving mountaineers of Judah fretted under the heavy burden. Syria at large was restless. Egypt, the nearest neighbor on the south and always eager to control Syria, was constantly adding fuel to the flame of discon- tent, in the hope of involving Assyria, her ancient rival, in such difficulties as would furnish Egypt herself oppor- tunity to supplant Assyria in the control of the Mediter- ranean coast lands. The Ethiopian Shabaka founded a new dynasty in Eg3^t in 712 and brought that nation into a condition that rendered her a much more formidable foe for Assyria than she had hitherto been. Jerusalem under Hezekiah was inevitably drawn into the political whirlpool. Conflicting parties arose in Judah, particu- larly pro-Assyrian and pro-Egyptian groups. Not- withstanding the influence of the prophet Isaiah, the influ- ence of Egypt prevailed in Syria's councils, and revolt * was organized in Philistia in 713 and in Judah in 705 B.C. But it was all of no avail. Assyria speedily broke down all opposition, and the little peoples wTre more helplessly in her power than ever. Social and economic conditions in Judah at this time were much like those in Israel as reflected in the prophecy of Amos. Notwithstanding, the heavy burden of taxation did not prevent the accumulation of wealth. Sennacherib thus records the plunder carried away by him from Jeru- salem in 701 B.C. : ''Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred talents of silver, precious stones, . . . large lapis lazuli, couches of ivory, thrones of elephant skin and ivory, ivory, ushu and urkarinu woods of every kind, and his daughters, his palace- women, male and female singers, to Nineveh, my royal city, I caused to be brought after me." 163 INTRODUCTION This is not an inventory of the possessions of a poverty- stricken nation. The wealth of Judah, however, was not generally dis- tributed. It was in the hands of a relatively small class. Nor was this aristocracy of wealth content with its hold- ings. The passion for riches had taken hold upon them. Everything had to give way to the attainment of this end. Justice, righteousness, and mercy find no place for them- selves. The processes of law are made to work to the advantage of the rich as over against the poor. Judges sell their decisions (3:11). The defenceless poor are deprived of their homesteads that the estates of the rich may be enlarged (2 : 2, 9). No measures are too extreme in the mad race for wealth (3 : 1-3). Even the ministers of religion are carried away by the craze and flatter the rich, while they denounce the poor (3 : 5 ff., 11). Materialism and commercialism bade fair to drive all respect for human rights from the field. The desire for power and display was stronger than the longing for nobil- ity of character and beauty of soul. The ideal of the simple life which had been inherited from the nomadic ancestors was being crowded out by the lust for place and prestige. In the rush for the coveted prizes, the poor and weak were being ruthlessly trampled under foot. Their cry arose to heaven, whence came in return the call to Micah to step forward fearlessly as the spokesman and champion of the rights of the poor and the supremacy of the claims of Jehovah upon the life. 3. THE BACKGROUND OF CHAPS. 4-7 In passing from chap. 3 to chap. 4 of Micah, we enter a new world, or rather a series of them. For the most 164 INTRODUCTION part, the occurrence of the Exile is presupposed. The gaze is on the whole toward the future and the attitude is one of hope. The shortcomings of the present are both in the moral and the religious sphere. Idolatry is practised and cheating and lying are prevalent. But not enough details are given to enable us to place much of this material at any specific period in the exiHc or post-exilic age. Nor is it possible to determine with any degree of assurance that the bulk of it belongs to any one age. It may easily have come together as the result of a slow process of accretion covering many generations. No definite por- trayal of a specific historical background for the whole of chaps. 4-7 is at all possible. What may be ventured with regard to the individual sections of these prophecies will be found in the commentary upon these chapters. IV. The Message of Micah The social note, so prominent in Amos, is struck again by Micah. It is the theme everywhere present, upon which new variations are continually wrought out. The thought of Micah is not new ; yet he is much more than a mere repeater of other men's words. He speaks as a peasant in behalf of peasants. The wrongs of his neigh- bors are his own wrongs. He has toiled and suffered, hoped and prayed with the men of his community. They are all bound together by the fellowship of labor and pain. Micah's message reflects this common experience. His whole being quivers with feeling. There is nothing of the detached attitude of Amos; we are reminded rather of the personal passion of Hosea. Micah was confronted by a religious attitude on the part of the ruling classes which made all his work diflficult. 165 INTRODUCTION It was essentially the same as that with which Amos had had to contend. Its most definite formulation is furnished by Mic. 3:11, viz. ^'Is not Jehovah in the midst of us? Disaster cannot befall us." This absolute assurance of the favor of Jehovah toward Judah obstructed the way for the entrance of any far-reaching ethical truth. It represented an air-tight conservatism in religion, the preservation of which would have made all religious progress impossible. Its presupposition was that Judah was doing all that could reasonably be required in the service of Jehovah. Were not his offerings and sacrifices being faithfully sustained? Was not every ritualistic obligation zealously discharged ? Yea, was not the letter of both ritual and moral law sedulously observed? The prescribed round of duties, as they themselves had de- fined it, was being daily fulfilled. Micah ran athwart this smug, complacent attitude of mind with a more vital conception of God. He presented the claim of Jehovah upon his people as far more compre- hensive and searching than they were willing to admit. To fulfil these stereotyped obligations of ritual and morals was not enough to guarantee the divine favor. Jehovah was a just and righteous God and demanded justice and righteousness on the part of his worshippers. Nor could this justice be content with mere conformity to legal requirements. It insisted upon a full recognition of human rights as such. A legality that made it possible for the rich to exploit the poor was abhorrent to Jehovah. To Micah the rustic, the luxury and vice of the city, involving as it did the poverty and degradation of the peasant, was the most terrible offence in the sight of Jehovah (1:5). He demands such a conception of jus- tice between man and man as will enable each to live his 166 INTRODUCTION own life in the full enjoyment of all the privileges and blessings to which his industry and ability entitle him. Seeing no possibility of the establishment of such an ideal state of society under existing conditions, Micah sees no escape from the execution of the wrath of Jehovah upon his people. That punishment will affect the whole country-side, but it will fall with terrific force upon Samaria and Jerusalem (i : 6 ; 3:12). These two cities are to be razed to the ground. This announcement is proof of the courage and independence of Micah. Never before had a prophet threatened Jerusalem with destruction. Such a catastrophe had been unthinkable. Was not Jehovah's temple there ? Could, or would, Jehovah aban- don his own sanctuary to desecration and destruction at the hands of the enemy ? For Micah, Jehovah's interest in the establishment and enforcement of justice and right was far greater than his interest in any institution, even his own temple. It is to be remembered, however, that to Micah's mind the destruction of Jerusalem did not necessarily mean the end of the nation. For him, an inhabitant of the rural hillside, the destinies of the nation were not bound up with the fate of the city. He may very well have thought of the future of his people as being in the hands of the country people. Certainly, whatever form his hope for the future may have taken, he had such a hope. His thought of God was not so broad and so detached from his own personal interests as to have made it possible for him to conceive of the total and final separation of Jehovah from his people. Indeed, no prophet ever arrived at that stage of thought. For all of them the bond between Jehovah and Israel was indissoluble and eternal. But Micah has left no record of the character of his con- 167 INTRODUCTION ception of the future. The message needed in his day was not one of hope and peace, but one of denunciation and threat. The preaching of Micah evidently made a deep impres- sion. It was remembered a hundred years later, and his experience was turned to good advantage in saving Jeremiah from the wrath of his foes (Jer. 26 : i8). It was remembered, indeed, precisely because of the courage and daring it reflected. The astonishing prediction of the utter destruction of Jerusalem could not be forgotten. The strength of Micah's message is attested in still another way ; viz., by the accretions it received from time to time. The message of Micah could not be left unmodi- fied and unchallenged. The last recorded word of a prophet of Jehovah could not be allowed to stand as an oracle of disaster. Hence later prophetic editors, at various times, added to the words of Micah words of their own, intended either as interpretations of Micah's standpoint or as supplementary prophecies, furnishing the vision of Messianic glory that was wholly lacking in the original message. These later additions are not to be depreciated because they were late. Some of them are equal in beauty of expression, depth of insight, and knowledge of truth to the best that is in Micah's own words. Those who seek for a correct diagnosis of the essence of true religion must always turn to the splendid utterance in Mic. 6:6-8. And reading this and other similar words, we shall be protected from the common error of supposing that all creative religious thought came to an end with the Exile. 168 INTRODUCTION V. Literature upon the Book of Micah Smith, J. M. Powis. A Critical and Exegetical Commen- tary on the Book of Micah [International ^Critical Commentary] (191 1). Smith, Geo. Adam. The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol I (1896). Cheyne, T. K. Micah, with Notes and Introduction [Cambridge Bible] (1882). Margolis, M. L. Micah (The Holy Scriptures, with Commentary, 1908). HoRTON, R. F. The Minor Prophets [The New Cen- tury Bible] (1904)- Smith, W. Robertson. The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History, 2d ed. (1895). Kent, C. F. Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets [Student's Old Testament, Vol. Ill] (1910). Robinson, H. W. Article "Micah" in Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth ed.). Driver, S. R. Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1910). CoRNiLL, C. H. Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old Testament (1907). Fowler, H. T. A History of the Literature of Ancient Israel (191 2). Budde, K. The Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899). Marti, K. The Religion of the Old Testament (1907). CoRNiLL, C. H. The Prophets of Israel (1897). Gray, G. B. Article ''Book of Micah," in Hastings, A Dictionary of the Bible (1909). 169 INTRODUCTION Gray, G B. A Critical Introduction to the Old Testa- ment (1913). Moore, G. F. The Literature of the Old Testament [Home University Library of Modern Knowledge] (1913). 170 A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF MICAH I. The Superscription i : i 1. The word of the Lord that came ^ to Micah the Morashtite ^ in the days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze- kiah, kings of Judah, which he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. 11. The Doom of Israel, i : 2-9 2. Hear, ye peoples, all of you ; ^ Hearken, O earth, and all that therein is : ^ And let the Lord God be witness against you,^ the Lord from his holy temple. 1 Gr. and the word of the Lord came. 2 Syr. and Tg. from Mareshah. ' Gr. peoples words. * Heh. its fulness. ^ m. among. 1. Micah; a name meaning, "who is like Jehovah?" Morashtite ; i.e. a native of Moresheth ; cf. i : 14. In the days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; we have no prophecies of Micah from the days of Jotham. His main activity was certainly in the reign of Hezekiah; cf. Jer. 26:18. See Introduction, § III. Which he saw ; equivalent to prophesied; saw marks the revealed character of the prophet's message. The superscription is probably from an editorial pen, perhaps the same that wrote the superscriptions to Isaiah and Hosea. The only point at which its accuracy need be questioned is the statement regarding the date of Micah's work. 2. Ye peoples, i.e. all the peoples of the earth, as is shown by the parallel address to the earth. The nations are summoned to witness Israel's judgment since from it they may take warning to themselves. Witness against you, i.e. the condemnation of Israel will appeal to the conscience of the heathen, who know themselves to be even more guilty than Israel. His holy temple, 171 THE BOOK OF MICAH 3. For, behold, the Lord cometh forth out of his place, and will come down, and tread ^ upon the high places of the earth. 4. ""And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft,^ As wax before the fire, as waters that are poured down a steep place. 5. For the transgression of Jacob is all this, and for the sins ^ of the house of Israel. What is the transgression of Jacob? is it not Samaria ? and what are the high places ^ of Judah ? are they not Jerusalem ? 6. Therefore I will make Samaria as an heap ^ of the field, and as the plantings of a vineyard : 1 Gr. omits and tread. 2 Gr. and the mountains will be shattered under him and the valleys melted. ^ Gr. and Tg. sin. ^ Syr. is the sin. Gr. and Tg. is the sin of the house. 6 Gr. the hut of a watcher. Syr. a country-house. i.e. his heavenly dwelling, not the temple in Jerusalem, as is shown by vss. 3, 4. 3-4. A description of Jehovah's manifestation of himself in punitive wrath. The imagery is based upon the observance of earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. 5. Jacob is the Northern Kingdom. Israel should probably be changed to Judah, in view of the latter part of the verse where Samaria and Jerusalem are parallel. Is it not Samaria? As the headquarters of all the corruption of the nation, the capital city is named as representative of Israel's sin. What are the high places of Judah? This must be changed with the Syriac (cf. the Greek and Targum) to what is the sin of Judah? High places were not especially characteristic of Jerusalem; the parallelism with " transgression " calls for " sin " ; and Micah was concerned with social wrongs rather than with matters of ritual. As a dweller in the country, Micah was shocked by the vice and injustice of the cities and realized too their baneful influence upon the country as a whole. 6. The destruction here foretold is to be total. Such a fate 172 THE BOOK OF MICAH And I will pour down the stones thereof into the valley/ and I will discover the foundations thereof. 7. And all her graven images shall be beaten to pieces, and all her hires shall be burned with fire, and all her idols will I lay desolate : For of the hire of an harlot hath she gathered them,^ and unto the hire of an harlot shall they return. 1 Gr. to chaos. Vg. like a stone-pile in a field. 2 Syr., Tg. and Vg. have they been gathered. did not befall Samaria till the days of John Hyrcanus (Josephus, Antiquities, XIII, 10, § 3), who destroyed it in 109 B.C. The plantings of a vineyard, i.e. a planted vineyard. This was the kind of ground least apt to be used for building purposes, because of the great amount of work and loss involved in the removal of the vines. Into the valley ; Samaria was on a hill (i Kings 16 : 24). Discover, i.e. uncover or lay bare. 7. This verse has been added to Micah's prophecy by an editor who interpreted the destruction of Samaria as a judgment upon idolatry. The vs. interrupts the connection between vs. 6 and vs. 8 ; the lamentation of vs. 8 is not on account of the destruc- tion of the idols described in vs. 7, but because of the picture pre- sented in vs. 6. Furthermore, Micah's grievance was against the perversion of the social order ; it is therefore unlikely that he would make idolatry the chief reason for the fall of Samaria, as is done in vs. 7. The idolatry of Samaria is a favorite topic in later proph- ecies; cf. Isa. 2:20; 10:10 f . ; 27:9 f . ; 30:22; 31:7. Her hires ; better, her images. Burning is hardly a natural process to apply to wages ; but it fits images admirably, whether made of solid metal or of wooden cores, overlaid with metal. This gives three words for " idol " in this verse ; but Hebrew possesses at least twelve. For of the hire of an harlot has she gathered them ; not that prostitution was the source of the many images, but that the prosperity ascribed to the favor of the Baalim made them possible; cf. Hos. 2: 5. And unto the hire of an harlot shall they return ; we may not ask a poet how idols that have been broken and burned could again be used for har- lot's hire; cf. Job 1:21. He may be thinking of the fact that the conquering nation will carry off the idols of Samaria and present them as trophies before its own gods. 173 i:8 THE BOOK OF MICAH 8. For this will I wail ^ and howl, I will go stripped and naked : I will make a wailing like the jackals, and a mourning like the ostriches. 9. For her wounds are ^ incurable: for it is come even unto Judah ; It reacheth unto the gate of my people, even to Jerusalem. III. Lamentation over Israel's Doom, i : 10-16 10. Tell it not in Gath,^ weep not at all : ^ At Beth-le-Aphrah ^ have I rolled myself ® in the dust. * Gr. has all verbs of this vs. in 3d pers. sing., Syr. in 2d pers. sing., and Tg. in 3d pers. plur. 2 q^^ Syr., Vg. and Tg. her wound is. ^ Gr. Those in Gath, do not enlarge. Syr. do not rejoice. * Gr. those in Akeim, do not build. ^ Gr. from house mockeries. Syr. in Beth-ophrah. ^ Gr., Syr. and Vg. roll yourselves. 8. For this ; viz. the downfall of Samaria, which, of course, not only appealed to the prophet as an Israelite interested deeply in the fate of the whole people but also because disaster to Samaria did but bring nearer the day of calamity to Jerusalem. Stripped and naked ; better, barefoot and stripped, i.e. in the garb of a mourner or a captive ; cf. 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Isa. 20 : 2-4. Assyrian bas-reliefs represent captives totally devoid of clothing ; but the language here may imply merely the discarding of the outer garment. Mourning like the ostriches ; the cry of this bird is a hideous screech. 9. Her wounds are incurable ; rather, her wound is incurable, as in the versions. The prophet is referring to the disasters of 721 B.C. and the following 3^ears (see Introduction, § III), as full warrant for his grief. For it is come even unto Judah; this is the climax of his sorrow. The gate of my people ; the central market of Judah and the seat of the highest legal authority, hence the natural gathering place of the clans. Even to Jerusalep; the situation before the prophet is probably that of the invasion by Sennacherib in 701 B.C., when Jerusalem seemed threatened by the same fate that had overtaken Samaria in 721 B.C. The section i : 10-16 is the most obscure and difficult in the whole book of Micah. This is largely due to the uncertainty of 174 THE BOOK OF MICAH 11. Pass ye away/ O inhabitant ^of Shaphir,- in naked- ness^ and shame : The inhabitant of Zaanan is not come forth ; the wailing of Beth-ezel * shall take from you the stay thereof.^ 12. For the inhabitant of Maroth waiteth anxiously for good : ^ ^ Gr. your mockeries. Syr. serve for thyself. ~ Gr. the one dwelling beautifully ; Vg. beautiful habitation. ^ Gr. her cities, and omits and shame. * Gr. (come forth) to mourn the house next to her. * m. its statiding place. Gr. from you a plague of pain. Vg.from you what stood for itself. Syr. from you its blow. ® m. for . . . is in travail for good. Gr. who began for good to the one inhabiting pains? Vg. because the one dwelling in bitterness is weakened for good. Syr. because the inhabitant is weakened for good and has rebelled. the text, some suggestion of which is afforded by the foregoing array of variant readings. 10. Tell it not in Gath ; a quotation from 2 Sam. i : 20, which indicates at the start the mournful character of this oracle. Weep not at all ; this, if correct, must be ironical or sarcastic. But it is probably an error for an earlier reading which contained the name of a town corresponding to Gath ; perhaps, in Baca, weep bitterly. Baca was a portion of the valley southwest of Jerusalem in the direction of Bethlehem. Beth-le-Aphrah is otherwise unknown and furnishes an isolated case of names of this formation. Perhaps we should change to Beth-ophrah, with the Syriac and Theodotion. Have I rolled myself in the dust; the first person seems out of place here, occurring not again until vs. 15, where it is representative of Jehovah. It is better to read with the versions, roll yourselves; this is an action expressive of the most extreme grief. 11. Shaphir is most probably identified with Sawafir, to the southeast of Ashdod. The captives from this town will pass away into exile, recognizable as captives by all on account of their nakedness ; cf. note on i : 8. Zaanan is perhaps the same as Zenan (Josh. 15: 37), in the Shephelah. Is not come forth, i.e. is shut up within its walls, afraid to venture out. The wailing ; this is hard to interpret with the following words and perhaps represents some word for fortress, or the like, whence the citizens of Zaanan do not come forth. Of Beth-ezel shall take from you the stay thereof ; this with the preceding wailing yields no satis- factory meaning. Taking * wailing ' with the previous sentence, we may restore the remainder, with slight diflSiculty, thus, Beth-ezel 175 i:i3 THE BOOK OF MICAH because evil is come down from the Lord unto the gate ^ of Jerusalem. 13. Bind the chariot ^ to the swift steed,^ O inhabitant of Lachish : she was the beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion ; for the transgressions of Israel were found in thee. 14. Therefore shalt thou give a parting gift to More- sheth-gath.4 The houses of Achzib ^ shall be a deceitful thing unto the kings of Israel. 1 Gr., Syr. and Tg. gates. 2 Gr. and Vg. a noise of chariots. ' Gr. and of riders. Vg. of stupor. 4 Gr. and Vg. he will give emissaries as far as the inheritance of Gath. 6 Gr., Syr. and Vg. of deceit. is taken from its site ; i.e. is razed to the ground. Its location is unknown, for it is nowhere else mentioned. 12. For the inhabitant of Maroth, etc.; better, with a little change of text, How has the inhabitant of Maroth hoped for good! But all to no purpose, for evil, i.e. disaster, has come down from the Lord unto the gate of Jerusalem. Hence, Maroth, which is otherwise unknown, must have been not far removed from Jerusalem. The prophet is picturing the onward march of an invading army as it passes from point to point, leaving ruin in its trail. 13. Flight is urged upon the inhabitants of Lachish, which was situated sixteen miles northeast of Gaza and two miles south of Eglon. As a frontier fortress, it was a place of great strategic importance to Judah. She was the beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion ; nothing at all is known as to the reason for this judgment regarding Lachish. It may be that this is the prophetic opinion regarding the tribute sent by Hezekiah to Sennacherib at Lachish ; cf. 2 Kings 18 : 14-16. Israel here designates the whole people of which Judah was now the more important part. 14. A parting gift to Moresheth-gath ; Judah is to lose one of her daughter villages into the hands of the enemy. The gift is that bestowed by a parent upon his daughter when she is married. Moresheth-gath seems to have been in the vicinity of Gath, hence near the Philistine border. Micah's appellation ' Morash- tite,' was probably due to this having been his home. If so, how his heart must have bled as he foretold the fate of his beloved vil- lage ! The houses of Achzib ; probably better Beth-achzih. Josh. 176 THE BOOK OF MICAH 15. I will yet bring unto thee, O inhabitant of Mareshah him that shall possess thee : ^ the glory of Israel shall come even unto Adullam.^ 16. Make thee bald, and poll thee for the children of thy delight : enlarge thy baldness ^ as the eagle ; ^ for they are gone into captivity from thee. IV. The Wrongs of the Poor, 2:1-11 2. Woe to them that devise^ iniquity and work evil upon their beds ! 1 Gr. until they bring the inheritances, inhabitress of Lachish; an inheritance. 2 Syr. even for ever. ^ Gr. widowhood. ^ m. vulture. ^ Gr. they were devising. 15 : 44 locates Achzib somewhere in the Shephelah of Judah, in the neighborhood of Libnah, Keilah and Mareshah. What so unimportant a place could have done to warrant such a charge is unknown. Achzib and the word for deceitful thing, viz. Achzab, are so similar in sound as to suggest that the occasion for a pun may have been the prophet's chief reason for the charge. 15. Mareshah is represented in Palestine to-day either by Merash, two miles south of Beit-jibrin (the ancient Eleutheropolis), or by Tel-Sandahannah, one mile to the southeast of Merash. The play on words here is between Mareshah, which means a possession, and yoresh which means a dispossessor. The glory of Israel shall come even unto Adullam ; this is exceedingly difficult of interpretation, that usually adopted being, '' Israel's nobles shall seek safety in a cave " (cf. i Sam. 22:1 ff.). Adullam is probably the modern Id-el-mije, six miles northeast of Beit-jibrin, An attractive correction of the text here yields the following sense. The glory of Israel will perish forever. 16. Make thee bald, and poll thee ; this is in token of mourn- ing; cf. Jer. 31 : 20. The children of thy delight; viz. the cities and villages she has lost. As the eagle ; better rendered, the vulture, distinguished from the eagle by its bare head and neck. For they are gone (or, will go) into captivity from thee ; the fate already announced for Northern Israel by Amos and Hosea is now threatened for Judah. I. Them that devise iniquity; viz. the rich, who work out all kinds of nefarious schemes in order to increase their wealth. N 177 THE BOOK OF MICAH When the morning is light, they practise it, because it is in the power of their hand.^ 2. And they covet fields, and seize them^ and houses, and take them away : and they oppress a man and his house, even a man ^ and his heritage. 3. Therefore thus saith the Lord : Behold, against this family do I devise an evil, from which ye shall not remove your necks. Neither shall ye walk haughtily ; ^ for it is an evil time. 4. In that day shall they take up a parable against you, and lament with a doleful lamentation,^ and say,^ 1 Gr. because they lifted not their hands to God. Syr. because they lifted their hands against God. Vg. because their hand is against God. Aquila, because his hand is strong. 2 Syr. omits and seize the?n. Gr. attd rob orphans. ^ Syr. omits a man and. * Gr. adds suddenly. ^ m. with the lamentation, It is done. Gr. and a lamentation will be lamented in melody. « Gr. saying. Vg. of those saying. Upon their beds, i.e. they lie awake at night pondering upon how they can get the better of the poor. When the mommg is light ; they improve the earliest hours of daylight to put their wicked plans into practice. Because it is in the power of their hand; or better, because it is in their power; i.e. they do wrong because they can do so with impunity. 2. They covet fields, and seize them; to wish for them is to take them. Their desire knows no restraint. The prophet does not detail the steps of the process of seizure, e.g. through fore- closure of mortgages, usurious rates of interest, bribery of judges, and the like. No legal procedure can make right in Micah's eyes the fact that his poor neighbors are being ousted from their home- steads by the grasping rich; cf. i Kings 21 ; Hos. 5 : 10; Isa. 5 : 8. They oppress (or, crush) a man and his house, etc. ; his property gone, home, family, and man, too, follow it to ruin. _ 3. In vss. 1-2, Micah has expressed his own judgment of the sins of the rich. Now Jehovah speaks in his own person. Do I devise ; not iniquit}^, as the rich do, but an evil, i.e. a calamity, which will rest upon the wicked like a heavy burden, beneath which they are bowed down to the earth. For it is an evil time ; better, for it will be a disastrous time. 4. In that day ; viz. the coming day of Jehovah, when he will 178 THE BOOK OF MICAH 2:6 We be utterly spoiled : he changeth ^ the portion of my people ; how doth he remove it ^ from me ! ^ to the rebel- lious he divideth ^ our fields. 5. Therefore thou shalt have none that shall cast the line by lot ^ in the congregation of the Lord. 6. Prophesy ye not, thus they prophesy.^ They shall not prophesy ^ to these : ^ reproaches shall not depart.^ 1 Gr. was measured by line; similarly Syr. - m. Jiow doth he depart. Gr. and not was there one hindering him from departing. ^ Syr. omits from me. * Gr. were divided. Syr. with the measuring line. * Syr. none who will measure by line and divide by lot. 6 m. prophesy ye not, they are ever prophesying, say they. Gr. and Syr. prophesy ye not with tears. Vg. prophesy ye not, speaking. '' Syr. you shall not prophesy. Vg. he will not drop. ^m. of these things; their reproaches never cease. * Vg. will not overtake. Syr. not overtake you. bring judgment upon the wicked. Shall they take up a parable against you, etc. ; better, with some change of text, a taunt song will be raised concerning you and a lament will he wailed, saying; the observers of the disaster will break out in sarcastic words of triumph at the expense of suffering Judah. We be utterly spoiled, etc. ; the text of this latter part of the vs. is in bad disorder. It should probably be restored so as to read, the portion of my people is measured with the measuring line aiid there is none to restore it; to our captors our land is allotted; we are utterly devastated. These are words spoken by the foe, who ironically assume the role of suffering Judah, speaking in the name of her people. They mourn over the loss of their territory, which has been seized by the foe. 5. This vs. is best treated as a later note attached to Micah's words by some reader. It has no close connection with either vs. 4 or vs. 6 ; nor does it possess any poetical qualit}', either in form or content, such as would show its allegiance to its context. Thou shalt have ; some individual or some group within the nation is evidently addressed. To cast the line by lot; an ex- pression nowhere else found. It seems to refer to the laying out of the boundaries of landed property. There will be no more of this, for the entire land will have been seized by the foe. The congregation is here the entire nation. 6. Prophesy ye not, etc. ; this text is in bad condition, being but a series of meaningless repetitions. It is better to correct it 179 2:7 THE BOOK OF MICAH 7. Shall it be said,^ O house of Jacob, Is the spirit of the Lord straitened ? ^ are these his doings ? Do not my words ^ do good to him that walketh uprightly ? ^ 8. But of late ^ my people is risen up as an enemy : ye strip the robe ^ from off the garment ^ from them that pass by securely ^ as men averse from war.^ 1 m. thou that art named the house of Jacob. Gr. the one saying, the house of Jacob has angered the spirit of the Lord. 2 m, impatient. ^ Gr. my words. * Gr. do good and walk straight. ^ Heb. yesterday. ^ Gr. his skin. ' Gr. and Syr. against his peace. ^ Gr. to take away hope. ^ Gr. a ruin of war. Syr. and ye turn to war. SO as to read, Do not keep on prophesying such things. The op- ponents of the prophet bid him cease; they are weary of his message. Similar prohibitions had met former prophets ; cf . Am. 2:12; 5:10; 7:10 ff. Reproaches shall not depart. Shall it be said, O house of Jacob ; here again the text demands correction. The following calls for the omission of one word found in the Hebrew, Shame cannot overtake the house of Jacob. The prophet's opponents are still speaking and they resent his threat of destruction upon Israel ; it is an unheard of thing ; cf . 3:11; Am. 3:2. The phrase shall it be said is better read the one speaking or the speaker, and regarded as a marginal note in- tended to indicate the " house of Jacob " or its representatives as uttering this statement. 7. Is the sphit of the Lord straitened? ?.e. is Jehovah impa- tient? Do we not know him to be long-suffering and infinite in mercy? The prophet's critics continue to speak. Are these his doings? Would he do such things as you foretell ? By no means. Do not my words ; better his words. Do good to him that walketh uprightly ; better, do good to Israel. The self-satisfied people, secure in the consciousness of Jehovah's favor to his own people, ask Micah if Jehovah's words do not always mean prosperity for Israel. Can any other message be conceivable? 8. The prophet's answer to the protest of vss. 6 and 7 is now made. The Hebrew text of this verse is badly broken. A literal rendering would give, formerly my people as an enemy raised up (or, raised up an enemy) ; from before a garment a cloak ye strip from those passing by (in) confidence, returned from war. Even this, with its imperfect sense, involves serious grammatical difficulty. A better reading is, but ye have become my people's foe, ye rise up against them that are at peace; ye strip of from those passing by in confidence booty of war. These words are addressed 180 THE BOOK OF MICAH 9. The women ^ of my people ye cast out from their pleasant houses ; from their young children ye take away^ my glory for ever.^ 10. Arise ye, and depart; for this is not your rest: because of uncleanness that destroyeth,^ even with a grievous destruction. 11. If a man walking in wind and falsehood^ do lie, saying, I will prophesy unto thee of wine and of strong drink; he shall even be the prophet^ of this people. 1 Gr. those leading. 2 Gr. because the wicked works were driven out; ye draw near. 2 Gr. to the mountains. * Qj._ yg j/^;; ^g destroyed. ^ m. in a spirit of falsehood. 6 Gr. be of the drop. Vg. upon whom it is dropped. to the wicked leaders of the people, who are accused of being shepherds who devour the sheep. They take advantage of their position to rob the defenceless and unsuspecting public; cf. 3 : 5. 9. The women of my people, etc. ; in their lust for land and wealth, they do not shrink from driving women and children out of their homes into beggary and starvation. My glory ; probably a term for the fathers who as yeomen of Israel are the glory of Jehovah. 10. Now the prophet breaks out with the sentence of exile. This is not your rest, or resting-place. Those who have expelled others are now in turn to be expelled and that not merely from their homes, but from their country. Because of uncleanness that destroyeth, etc. ; a better reading is, because of uncleanness, ye shall he destroyed ivith, etc. Men who were doubtless rigid in their adherence to the ritualistic requirements of clean and un- clean are here notified ,that because of the uncleanness of their hearts destruction is coming upon them. 11. This vs. is, like vs. 5, probably a later addition to Micah's words. It lacks connection with the immediate context and it is not poetry in any sense, as the context is. Walldng in wind and falsehood; or, in a spirit of falsehood, i.e. one whose whole conduct is false, upon whom no reliance can be placed. Of wine and strong drink, i.e. a prophet who would promise an abundance of sensuous, materialistic blessings, such as these, would at once be accepted as the prophet of this people, without any challenge. 181 THE BOOK OF MICAH V. The Exiles' Return, 2:12, 13 12. I will surely assemble,^ O Jacob, all of thee ;2 I will surely gather the remnant of Israel ; I will put them ^ together as the sheep of Bozrah : ^ as a flock in the midst of their pasture, they shall make great noise by reason of the multi- tude of men. 13. The breaker is gone up ^ before them : they have broken forth and passed on to the gate,^ and are gone out thereat : And their king is passed on before them, and the Lord at the head of them. 1 Gr. shall be gathered. 2 Gr. with all. ^ Gr. I will put his return. * Gr. and Syr. in affliction. Vg. in a sheepfold. * Gr. on account of the breach. ^ Syr. omits to the gate. The people are given over to sensuous pleasures, having no true thought of God before their eyes. These vss, (2:12-13) are quite generally conceded to be of exilic or post-exilic origin. They do not connect with the con- text. They presuppose the exile as an existing state, from which deliverance is promised ; and they lay down no conditions re- garding character as a prerequisite to that deliverance. All this is in marked contrast with Micah's point of view. 12. The remnant of Israel, which is now scattered among the nations. Put them together, i.e. the widely scattered groups of exiles will be brought together. As the sheep of Bozrah ; better, with a slight change of reading, like sheep in the fold. As a flock, etc. ; this and the preceding figure suggest Jehovah's pro- tecting care of his people. They shall pake great noise, etc. ; literally, they shall roar because of men, i.e. they will be crowded with people; cf. Isa. 17: 12. 13. The breaker is gone up before them; better, will go up. Jehovah will go before his people like the ram of the flock to break down every barrier and surmount every obstacle. They have broken forth and passed on to the gats ; better, will break forth and pass through, in the wake of their leader, and will go out thereat, rather than are gone out. And their king is passed on ; better, will pass on. " Their king " is, of course, Jehovah himself. 182 THE BOOK OF MICAH 3:4 VI. The Sins of Leaders and Prophets, 3 : 1-8 3. And I ^ said, Hear,^ I pray you, ye heads of Jacob,^ and rulers ^ of the house of Israel : Is it not for you to know judgement ? 2. who hate the good, and love the evil ; Who pluck off their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their bones; 3. Who also ^ eat the flesh of my people ; and they flay their skin from off them, and break their bones : Yea, they chop them in pieces, as for ^ the pot, and as flesh within the caldron. 4. Then ^ shall they cry unto the Lord, but he will not answer them : 1 Gr. and Syr. he. 2 Gr. and Syr. add this, as in vs. 9. 3 Gr., Syr. and Tg. house of Jacob, as in vs. 9. ^ Gr, the rest; so also in vs. 9. 6 Gr. in what way they. 6 Gr. like flesh Jor. ^ Gr. so. For the promise is for a time when they no longer have an earthly king. For other allusions to Jehovah as king, cf. Jer. 22 2; Zeph. 3:15; Isa. 33 : 22 ; 41 : 21 ; Ps. 89 : 18. I, And I said; this phrase lacks all connection with any prior statement. Either some foregoing context has been lost, or it is merely a marginal note by some reader. Hear, etc. ; this address is practically identical with that in vs. 9 ; both here and there, as appears from vs. 10, those addressed are the officials of Judah in general and of Jerusalem, in particular. Know judge- ment, or justice; those in power are under especial obligation to manifest the principles of justice in all their dealings. 2. This and the following vs. express Micah's judgment of the rulers' motives, which is based upon their conduct. The highly figurative language is intended to convey a vivid impression of the heartlessness and brutality of those in power. The poor were a prey for the rich and existed only to be exploited. 3. As for the pot; better, with the Greek, like meat for the pot. 4. Then, i.e. in the coming judgment; cf. 2 : 3, 4, 10. Will hide his face ; a common figure for the displeasure of God ; cf . 183 3:5 THE BOOK OF MICAH Yea, he will hide his face from them at that time, according as^ they have wrought evil in their doings.2 Thus saith the Lord concerning the prophets that make my people to err ; that bite with their teeth and cry, Peace ; And whoso putteth not into their mouths, they even prepare war ^ against him : Therefore it shall be night unto you, that ye shall have no vision ; and it shall be dark unto you, that ye shall not divine ; And the sun shall go down upon the prophets, and the day shall be black over them. 1 Gr. and. Syr. because. 2 Gr. they have dealt wickedly in their practices against themselves. ' Gr. stirred up war. Isa. I : 15; 8:17; Deut. 31 : 17 f. ; 32 : 20; Job 13 : 24; Ps. 13 : i. According as; better, inasmuch as. They have wrought evil in their doings ; or, have made their deeds evil. 5. Vss. 5-8 are concerned with a new class of offenders, the prophets of the day. To Micah, they seem a class of self-seekers and impostors ; he himself is the only true prophet. As a matter of fact, a more generous judgment would regard them as a set of men in the main sincere enough, but dominated by a too narrow patriotism and a too low conception of God. Hence their inter- pretation of the events of the day differed radically from Micah's. Some of them, no doubt, were consciously abusing their office, by seeking personal gain thereby. That bite with their teeth and cry. Peace ; or, u safe ; and that which thou carriest away will I give up to the sword. 15. Thou shalt sow, but shalt not reap : thou shalt tread the olives, but shalt not anoint thee with oil ; and the vintage, but shalt not drink the wine.^ 16. For the statutes of Omri are kept,^ 1 Gr. / will begin to smite thee. ?■ m. thy emptiness. Gr. it will he dark. Syr. thy dysentery. ^ Vg. seize; so Syr., Tg. ^ Gr. and Syr. omit the wine. ^ Gr., Syr., Tg. and Vg. thou keepest. 13. Therefore I also have smitten thee with a grievous wound ; better, after the Greek, I will begin to smite thee, a threat of what is about to befall Jerusalem. I have made thee desolate; better, continuing the preceding sentence, to lay thee in ruins. 14. Thou shalt eat, etc. ; shut up in a besieged city, the supplj' of food will run short. And thy humiliation ; this word is wholly unknown ; the context seems better satisfied b}" some such render- ing as " thy hunger" or " thy emptiness." Thou shalt remove, etc. ; all attempts to escape with their goods will fail. Destruc- tion awaits ail. 15. The enjoyment of the fruits of their labors will be denied them, because of the approach of invading foes ; cf. Deut, 28 : 30 ff. This is the only passage which directly mentions the treading of the olives ; cf . Joel. 2 : 24. The finest oil was beaten out ; Exod. 27: 20; Lev. 24: 2. But the greater quantity was trodden out. Anoint thee with oil; a common practice in hot climates; cf. Am. 6:2; 2 Sam. 12 : 20 ; 14 : 2 ; Ruth $: Z'l 2 Chron. 28 : 15. 16. The statutes of Omri; no specific laws are elsewhere credited to Omri. It is probable that this simply means that the life of Judah and Jerusalem is reproducing that of the Northern Kingdom, the sins of which brought ruin in 721 B.C. Omri and 203 THE BOOK OF MICAH and all the works of the house of Ahab, and ye walk in their counsels : That I should make thee a desolation/ and the inhabitants thereof an hissing ; and ye shall bear the reproach of my people.^ XVIII. The Faithlessness of Israel, 7 : 1-6 1. Woe is me ! for I am as when they have gathered ^ the summer fruits, as the grape gleanings of the vintage : There is no cluster to eat ; my soul desireth the firstripe fig.^ 2. The godly man is perished out of the earth, and there is none upright among men : They all lie in wait ^ for blood ; ^ they hunt^ every man his brother with a net.^ 1 m. an astonishment. 2 Gr. of peoples. ^ Gr. and Vg. as one who gathers. * m. nor firstripe fig which my soul desired. 5 Gr. all strive. ^ Syr. omits /or blood. '' Gr. oppress. 8 Gr. with oppression. Vg. to death. Syr. and Tg. to destruction. Ahab are named as the strongest and most representative kings of the north. That I should make thee a desolation, etc. ; a common Hebrew point of view, which attributes what was the inevitable, though undesigned, consequence of an act to the delib- erate purpose of the actor. The reproach of my people ; better, with the Greek, the scorn of the peoples, i.e. the surrounding na- tions will laugh Judah to scorn in the midst of her woes. The date of this section (7 : 1-6) cannot be definitely indicated. The general situation reflected seems to be more easily explained as belonging to the post-exilic age. But a better knowledge of Israel's history might reveal a pre-exilic period which could be characterized as here. 1. Zion is here speaking' and says, / am become like the gatherings of the summer fruit, like the gleanings of the vintage. There is not a cluster to eat, not an early fig that my soul desires. Zion likens herself to one seeking fruit after the fruit harvest is past, doomed to the pangs of disappointment and hunger. 2. The godly and the upright are those represented by the 204 THE BOOK OF MICAH 7:4 3. Their hands are upon that which is evil ^ to do it diligently ; ^ the prince asketh, and the judge is ready for a reward;^ And the great man, he uttereth the mischief of his soul: thus they weave it together.^ 4. The best of them is as a brier : ^ the most upright ^ is worse than a thorn hedge : ^ 1 m. both hands are put forth for evil. 2 gyr. their hands they make ready for evil and they do not good. Gr. they made ready their hands unto evil. Vg. over the evil of their hands they say good. ^ Syr. the prince asks, give; and the judge says, give a bribe. * Gr. and I will take away. Syr. and they reject. Vg. they have confused it. ^ Gr. as a de- vouring moth. Syr. like a rag. ^ Syr. which is torn in pieces. Gr. and travels slowly. ^ m. the straightest is, as it were, taken from a thorn hedge. Syr. by the moth. Vg. like a thorn from a hedge. Gr. according to a canon. " grapes " and " figs " of vs. i. The earth is rather Ihe land, i.e. Palestine. For a similarly hopeless state of society, cf. Ps. 12:2; Isa. 57:1; Jer. 5:1. They all lie in wait for blood, etc. ; the methods of the hunter are here described as representative of the heartless devices by which Israelites seek to obtain the advantage one over another. They are mad with lust for wealth. Human rights are ignored. 3. Their hands are upon that which is evil to do it diligently; better, following the Greek, they have made ready their hands to do evil. The accused have deliberately prepared themselves for evil deeds; cf. Jer. 4: 22; 13: 23. The prince asketh and the judge is ready for a reward ; the words is ready are not in the Hebrew ; the original text was probably, the prince asks for a bribe, the phrase and the judge having been inserted later to show what aspect of the prince's activity is meant ; cf. 2 Sam. 15 : 2 ff. ; I Kings 3 : 16 fit*. Bribery seems to be the inveterate habit of the Oriental. And the great man, etc. ; the wealthy and influential individual expresses his wish and it is realized for him by the judges whose decisions are for sale. Thus they weave it together ; the precise meaning of the Hebrew here is dubious, but the general sense must be that through the conspiracy of the ruling classes the ordinary citizen is in devious ways robbed of his rights. 4. The best of them is as a brier ; rough and ugly to deal with, but at the same time susceptible to easy and quick destruction ; cf. Exod. 22:6; Isa. 9 : 18; 10 : 17. The most upright is worse than a thorn hedge ; this does not represent the Hebrew, which 205 7:5 THE BOOK OF MICAH The day of thy watchmen/ even thy visitation, ^ is come ; now shall be their perplexity.^ 5. Trust ye not in a friend, put ye not confidence in a guide : Keep the doors of thy mouth from her that lieth in thy bosom. 6. For the son dishonoureth the father, the daughter riseth up against her mother. The daughter in law against her mother in law ; a man's enemies are the men of his own house. XIX. The Downfall of the Foe, 7 : 7-10 7. But as for me, I will look unto the Lord ; ^ I will wait for the God of my salvation : ^ 1 Gr. on the day of watching. Vg. the day of thy watching. 2 Gr. alas, alas, thy vengeances. ^ Gr. their wailings. Vg. their devastation. ^ m. In the Lord will I keep watch. 2 Qr.^ gy-. and Vg. God my saviour. says more just than a hedge, yielding no sense. It is better, with a slight correction, to read, the most upright of them is like a hedge, suggestive of roughness or obstruction; cf. Prov. 15:19. The day of thy watchmen, etc. ; viz. thy prophets, who from the be- ginning have announced the coming of the day of Jehovah. Their perplexity; or their rout. 5. Agiiide; better, an intimate. In ascending climax ending with the wife, the faithlessness of all men, even one's most in- tim.ate friends and relatives, is pointed out. There is no slur upon woman especially ; she simply shares the general depravity. 6. Insubordination and lack of filial piety were unpardonable sins among Semites; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15, 17; Deut. 21 : 18 ff.; Lev. 20:9; Prov. 20: 20; and the Code of Hammurabi, §§ 186, 192, 195. This section (7 : 7-10) originated somewhere in the exilic or post- exilic age. Israel is no longer looking forward to punishment, but is already enduring it. The later attitude of bitterness toward the nations is plainly present here. 7. The I of this vs. is contrasted with something else ; but no satisfactory contrast is present in this context. The vs. is appar- 206 THE BOOK OF MICAH 7:10 8. my God will hear me. Rejoice not against me, O mine enemy : when I fall, I shall arise ; When I sit in darkness, the Lord shall be a light unto me. 9. I will bear the indignation of the Lord, because I have sinned against him ; Until he plead my cause, and execute judgement for me : He will bring me forth to the light, and I shall behold his righteousness. 10. Then mine enemy shall see it, and shame shall cover her ently a fragment originally belonging to some other context. The speaker may be either an individual in distress or the Jewish community which is expressing its confidence in the coming of Jehovah's aid. 8. Mine enemy; probably a collective term, including all of Judah's enemies. I shall arise ; such faith in Jehovah and con- fidence regarding the future were characteristic of all the later prophets. It is one of the marvels of history. Darkness and light commonly represent calamity and prosperity respectively; cf. Am. 5:18; Isa. 62 : i ff. ; Job 30 : 26. 9. I will bear; or / must hear. All Semites attributed mis- fortunes, national or individual, to the anger of the gods. Israel was keenly conscious of the burden of Jehovah's wrath; cf. 2 Kings 23 : 26 f . ; 24 : 20 ; Isa. 42 : 24 f . Until he plead my cause, etc.; Jehovah's anger will not last forever. When his wrath against Judah is satisfied, he will take up her cause against the nations, to the utter confusion of the latter; cf. Ps. 103:9; Zech. I : 15 f. His righteousness is here, as in Isa. chaps. 4o-55> equivalent to Israel's vindication. The piety of Israel,^ as^ com- pared with the nations, makes it incumbent upon the justice of God to vindicate her against her foes. Only so can he be right- eous. 10. The vindication of Israel involves the putting to shame of her foes. There are combined here the joy of seeing Jehovah's enemies overwhelmed and the satisfaction for which the long oppressed human spirit cries out; cf. Nah. chap. 3; Ps. 109; 207 II THE BOOK OF MICAH Which said unto me, where is the Lord thy God ? Mine eyes shall behold her: now shall she be trodden down as the mire of the streets. XX. Restoration and Return, 7:11-13 11. A day for building thy walls/ in that day shall the decree ^ be far removed. 12. In that day shall they come unto thee,^ from Assyria and the cities of Egypt,'* And from Egypt ^ even to the River, and from sea to sea, and from mountain ^ to ^ moun- tain. 13. Yet shall the land be desolate because of them that dwell therein, for the fruit of their doings. 1 m. in the day that thy walls are to he built. 2 m. boundary. 3 Q]-_ come thy cities. Syr. come thy time. * Gr., Syr., Vg. and Tg. the border. ^ Gr. and unto a division from Tyre; similarly Syr. ^ Syr. a}id Eor. ' Gr. and Vg. /row. and Obadiah. Where is the Lord thy God? a stereotyped taunt at the powerlessness of Jehovah; cf. 2 Kings 18:34; Joel 2: 17; Ps. 79: 10; 115: 2. Behold her, or gaze upon her, with gloating satisfaction; cf. Chad. vss. 12, 13; Ezek. 28: 17; Ps. 22: 18. This prophecy (7:11-13) originated somewhere in the period between the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. and the rebuilding of the walls in the days of Nehemiah; cf. vs. 11. 11. A day for building thy v/alls ; the address is to Jerusalem, which is promised that the walls now shattered will be restored. In that day shall the decree be far removed; better, will the boundary be far distant. An expansion of territory is here promised. 12. From Assyria and the cities of Egypt; better, with an easy correction of the text, from Assyria even to Egypt. This assures the return of the Jewish exiles from all over the Oriental world. Even to the River, i.e. the Euphrates. From sea to sea, etc. ; no particular seas and mountains are meant. It is rather an indefinite expression equivalent to " from one end of the world to the other." 208 THE BOOK OF MICAH 7:15 XXI. A Prayer for Jehovah's Aid, 7 : 14-20 14. Feed ^ thy people with thy rod, the flock of thine heritage, which dwell solitarily, in the forest ^ in the midst of Carmel : Let them feed in Bashan and Gilead, as in the days of old. 15. as in the days of thy ^ coming forth out of the land of ^ Egypt will I show unto him ^ marvellous things. 1 m. rule. 2 Syr. solitarily, sheep. ^ Syr. and Tg. their. * Gr. omits the land of. 5 Gr. ye shall see. Syr. and Tg. / will shew them. 13. The land; better, the earth; not Canaan, but the earth in general, where the foes of Israel dwell ; cf. Jer. 49 : 13, 17 ; 50 : 23 ; Zeph. 2:13, 15; Joel 3:19. Their doings; which have been from the prophets' point of view essentially evil. This closing section of the book (7 : 14-20) seems to have come from the later days. The people are in reduced circumstances and long for a manifestation of Jehovah's power in their behalf. They crave vengeance upon their oppressors. This passage and vss. 9-10 reflect the same general attitude and may well have come from the same times. 14. Feed, or shepherd; cf. Ps. 23 : i ff. ; 28:9. Thy rod, or thy staff, the shepherd's crook. Thine heritage ; or thy possession; cf. Isa. 63:17; Jer. 10:16; Deut. 4:20; 9:26. Carmel ; better, a garden ; the figure is representative of Israel confined to the bare hilltops of Judah, access to the fertile plains being cut off, since these are held by foes. Let them feed, or 7nay they feed; the prayer is that Israel may be given back all its former territory, even the regions east of the Jordan, which were lost irrevocably in 734 B.C. 15. Thy coming forth; the Exodus is thus represented also in Judg. 5 : 4. Will I show unto him ; Jehovah must be the speaker, but this is irreconcilable with " thy coming forth." Hence, it seems necessary to read as an imperative, viz. show us. The prophet pleads for Jehovah's marvellous interposition, as in the wonderful days of old. P 209 THE BOOK OF MICAH 1 6. The nations shall see and be ashamed of all their might : they shall lay their hand upon their mouth, their ears shall be deaf. 17. They shall lick the dust Hke a serpent; like ^ crawl- ing things of the earth they shall come trembling out of their close places : ^ They shall come with fear unto the Lord our God, and shall be afraid because of thee.^ 18. Who is a God like unto thee, that pardoneth iniquity, and passeth by the transgression of the remnant of his heritage ? He * retaineth not his anger for ever,^ because he ^ delighteth in mercy. 1 Gr. omits like. 2 gyr. from their paths. Gr. in their den. ^ Syr. omits because of thee. * Syr. thou. ^ Gr. for a witness. 16. The nations shall see, etc. ; it is better here, and in vs. 17, to translate the verbs as precatives, viz. 7nay the nations see and he ashamed of all their might; may they lay hand upon mouth; and may their ears be deaf. The vaunted power of the nations is so puny in comparison with that of Jehovah, that a revelation of the latter to them would paralyze all their powers; cf. Judg. 18: 19; Isa. 52:15; Job 21:5; 29:9; 40:4. 17. They shall lick; or better, may they lick dust, etc., i.e. prostrate themselves upon the ground before Jehovah. They shall come trembling out of their close places ; or may they come trembling out of their dens, whither they will have fled in terror. The state of mind called for in this and the following pleas is one eminently fitting for the nations that had so long taunted Israel with the powerlessness of her God. 18. Who is a God like unto thee; a common thought in the Old Testament ; cf. Exod. 15 : 11 ; Ps. 71:19; 77: 14; 86:8. The point of comparison elsewhere is always the power of Jehovah ; here it is his mercy. Yet the thought of this power has been strongly expressed in vss. 16 and 17. But this forgiving mercy is limited to the remnant of his heritage ; viz. the survivors of afflicted Judah. He retaineth not his anger for ever, etc. ; a common idea in the Psalter; e.g. 25: lo; 30:6; 32: 10. THE BOOK OF MICAH 7-20 19. He will turn again and have compassion upon us; he will tread ^ our iniquities under foot : and thou 2 wilt cast all their ^ sins into the depths of the sea. 20. Thou wilt perform "^ the truth ^ to Jacob, arid the mercy to Abraham, which thou hast sworn unto our fathers from ^ the days of old. 1 m. subdue. Syr. and he will gather together. 2 Syr., Tg. and Vg. he. Gr. they will be. 3 Qr., Syr. and Vg. our. * Gr. he will give. ^ m. thou wilt shew thy faithful- ness, fi Gr. according to. 19. He will turn again and have compassion upon us; better, he will again show us mercy. His kindness of old warrants faith in its repetition. Tread our iniquities under foot ; as though they were serpents or enemies of some other kind to be overthrown. Such treatment of sins is not elsewhere mentioned in the Old Testament. Their sins ; better, with the versions, our sins. 20. Jacob and Abraham here represent the existing commu- nity of their descendants. These names recall the kindness of Jehovah in the past; cf. Exod. 34: 6. Which thou hast sworn, etc. ; referring perhaps to Gen. 22 : 16 ff. and 28 : 13 f. in particular, but in general to all the prophets' promises. INDEX TO COMMENTARY ON AMOS, ROSEA, AND MICAH INDEX Achor, 96. Achzib, 176 f. Adam, 113. Admah, 139. Adullam, 177. Ahab, 204. Anamon, 21. Amorite, 26. Analysis of Amos, i. Hosea, 71 f. Micah, 158. Ar of Moab, 23. Ashdod, 18. Asherim, 198. Ashkelon, 18. Assyria, 46 f., 48, 76 £., 195. Aven, 17, 134. Baal-peor, 129. Babylon, 190, Bashan, 33. Beer-sheba, 40, 62. Beth-aven, 109, 133. Bethel, 32, 35, 40, 109, 136 f. Beth-ezel, 175. Bethlehem, 193. Bozrah, 20. Bribery, 185 f., 205. Burial, 22, 59. Calf- worship, 121 f. Caphtor, 65. Carmel, 15, 63. Cypress, 154. Damascus, 16, 17, Date of Amos, 4. Date of Hosea, 75, 87. Micah, 161 f. Day of Jehovah, 11, 44, 60, 67, 184. Debtors, 25. Dirge, 39. Drought, 1 01. Earthquake, 15, 27. Eclipse of sun, 4. Edom, 20, 22, 67. Ekron, 18. Ephah, 59. Ephod, 100, 104. Ephrathah, 193. False prophets, 184. Famine, 36. Filial piety, 206. Gath, 48. Gaza, 18. Gibeah, 109. Gilead, 114, 145. Gilgal, 130, 14s, 199. God, Amos's idea of, g, 28, 32, 65. Hosea's idea of, 84 f. Micah's idea of, 165 fi., 186. Gomer, 88. Hamath, 52. Harmon, 34. Hope, of Amos, 12. Hosea, 73. Micah, 167. Human sacrifice, 200. Image- worship, 104, 106. Incense-ofierings, 104. 215 INDEX Jareb, no, 133. Prosperity of Israel, 6, 131, 144. Jewelry, 95. Judah, 164. Jezreel, 89. Puns, 58, 105, 150. Judah, 23, 52, 87, 89, 141 172. Rabbah, 21. Kerioth, 23. Rain, 36. Kir, 17. Ramah, 109. Righteousness of God, 207. Landmarks, no. Ritual, 9, 32, 35, 40, 45, 55, 103, Late passages, 2, 16, 19, 20, 24 41, 113, 124. 46, 50, 64, 65, 66, 57, 89, 90, 103, 115, 125, 142, 152, 154, Samaria, 173. 158 f., 171, 173, 179 181, 182, Sargon, 109. 186, 188, 191, 194, 196, 198, Sennacherib, 163, 197. 200, 204, 206, 208, 209. Shalman, 136. Licentiousness, 104. Shalmaneser, 5. Literature, on Amos, 12 f Shaphir, 175, on Hosea, 85 f. Shekel, 59. on Micah, 169 f. Shittim, 199. Slave-trade, 18. Mareshah, 177. Style of Amos, 3. Maroth, 176. of Hosea, 74 f. Marriage of Hosea, 78 flf., 88. of Micah, 157 f. Memphis, 127. Sycomore, 57. Message, of Amos, 8, Syria, 43- Hosea, 83 f. Micah, 165 S. Tabor, 107. Messianism, 193, 196. Tekoa, 7, i5- Miriam, 199. Teman, 20. Mizpah, 107. Teraphim, 100, 104. Moab, 22, 23. Text of Amos, 3. Moabite stone, 22. Hosea, 73 f. Moresheth-Gath, 176. Micah, 157, 174. Mourning, 186. Threshing instruments, 17. Music, 45, 49. Tithes, 35. Tyre, 19. Name of God, 51. Nazirite, 27. Unity of Amos, 2. Nimrod, 195. Hosea, 72 f. Micah, 158 f. Olives, 203. Omri, 203, Wine, 48, 126, 153. Philistines, 65. Zaanan, 175. Pillars, 131. Zeboim, 139. Poetry of Hosea, 74 f. Zion, 186. 216 THE BIBLE FOR HOME AND SCHOOL The Bible for Home and School Edited by SHAILER MATHEWS, D.D., Dean of the Divinity School, and Professor of Historical and Comparative Theology in the University of Chicago, Editor of the Series of " New Testament Handbooks," etc. "BibUcal science has progressed rapidly during the past few years, but the reader still lacks a brief but comprehensive commentary that shall extend to him in usable form material now at the disposition of the student. 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