ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXTS. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/originalsanskrit01muir_0 ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXTS ON THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, THEIR RELIGION AND INSTITUTIONS. COLLECTED, TRANSLATED, AND ILLUSTRATED, J. MUIR, D.C.L., LL.D. VOLUME FIRST. MYTHICAL AND LEGENDARY ACCOUNTS OF THE ORIGIN OF CASTE, WITH AN ENQUIRY INTO ITS EXISTENCE IN THE YEDIC AGE. SECOND EDITION, REWRITTEN AND GREATLY ENLARGED. LONDON: TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1872. (All rights reserved.) Na visesho ’ sti varnanam sarvam Iruhmam idafh jagat j Brahmanu purva-srishtam hi karmabhir varnatam gatam I Mahabharata. “ There is no distinction of castes. This world, which, as created by Brahma, was at first entirely Brahmanic, has become divided into classes in consequence of men’s works.” — See pages 138 and 140. HERTFORD: STEPHEN AUSTIN ANU SONS, PRINTERS PREFACE. The main object which I have proposed to myself in this volume is to collect, translate, and illustrate the principal passages in the different Indian books of the greatest antiquity, as well as in others of comparatively modern composition, which describe the creation of man- kind and the origin of classes, or which tend to throw light upon the manner in which the caste system may have arisen. I have not, however, hesitated to admit, when they fell in my way, such passages explanatory of the cosmo- gonic or mythological conceptions of the Indians as possess a general interest, although not immediately con- nected with the chief subject of the book. Since the first edition appeared my materials have so much increased that the volume has now swelled to more than twice its original bulk. The second and third chapters are almost entirely new.1 The fourteenth and fifteenth sections of the fourth chapter are entirely so. Even those parts of the book of which the sub- 1 The contents of these chapters are not, however, absolutely new, but drawn from articles which I have contributed to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society since the first edition of the volume appeared. VI PREFACE. stance remains the same have been so generally expanded that comparatively little continues without some altera- tion of greater or less importance. In order that the reader may learn at once what ho may expect to find in the following pages, I shall supply here a fuller and more connected summary of their con- tents than is furnished by the table which follows this preface. The Introduction (pp. 1-6) contains a very rapid sur- vey of the sources from which our information on the subject of caste is to be derived, viz. the Yedic hymns, the Brahmanas, the Epic poems, and the Puranas, in which the chronological order and the general charac- teristics of these works are stated. The first chapter (pp. 1-160) comprehends the myth- ical accounts of the creation of man and of the origin of castes which are to be found in the Yedic hymns, in the Brahmanas and their appendages, in the Bamayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas. The first section (pp. 7-15) contains a translation of the celebrated hymn called Purusha Sukta, which appears to be the oldest extant authority for attributing a separate origin to the four castes, and a discussion of the question whether the creation there described was intended by its author to convey a literal or an allegorical sense. The second, third, and fourth sections (pp, 15-34) adduce a series of passages from the works standing next in chronological order to the hymns of the Eig-veda, which differ more or less widely from the account of the creation given in the Purusha Sukta, and therefore justify the conclusion PREFACE. Vll that in the Yedic age no uniform orthodox and authori- tative doctrine existed in regard to the origin of castes. In the fifth section (pp. 35-42) the different passages in Manu’s Institutes which hear upon the subject are quoted, and shewn to be not altogether in harmony with each other. The sixth section (pp. 43-49) describes the system of great mundane periods called Yugas, Man- vantaras, and Kalpas, as explained in the Puranas, and shews that no traces of these periods are to be found in the hymns of the Eig-veda, and but few in the Brah- manas (compare p. 215 f.). Sections seventh and eighth (pp. 49-107) contain the accounts of the different crea- tions, including that of the castes, and of the primeval state of mankind, which are given in the Vishnu, Vayu, and Markandeya Puranas, together with references (see pp. 52 ff., 68 ff.) to passages in the Brahmanas, which ap- pear to have furnished some of the germs of the various Puranic representations, and a comparison of the details of the latter with each other which proves that in some respects they are mutually irreconcileable (see pp. 65 ff., 102 ff.). The ninth section (pp. 107-114) adduces the accounts of Brahma’s passion for his daughter, which are given in the Aitareya Brahmana and the Matsya Purana. In the tenth section (pp. 114-122) are embraced such notices connected with the subject of this volume as I have observed in the Bamayana. In one of the passages men of all the four castes are said to be the offspring of Manu, a female, the daughter of Daksha, and wife of Kasyapa. The eleventh section contains a collection of texts from the Mahabharata and its appendage the Hari- Vlll PREFACE. vamsa, in which various and discrepant explanations are given of the existing diversity of castes, one of them representing all the four classes as descendants of Manu Yaivasvata (p. 126), others attributing the distinction of classes to an original and separate creation of each, which, however, is not always described as occurring in the same manner (pp. 128 ff. and 153); whilst others, again, more reasonably, declare the distinction to have arisen out of differences of character and action. This section, as well as the one which precedes it, also embraces accounts of the perfection which prevailed in the first yugas, and of the gradually increasing degeneracy which ensued in those that followed. The twelfth section (pp. 155-158) contains extracts from the Bhagavata Purana, which coincide for the most part with those drawn from the other authorities. One text, however, describes mankind as the offspring of Aryaman and Matrika ; and another distinctly declares that there was originally but one caste. The thirteenth section (pp. 159 f.) sums up the results of the entire chapter, and asserts the conclusion that the sacred books of the Hindus contain no uniform or con- sistent theory of the origin of caste ; but, on the con- trary, offer a great variety of explanations, mythical, mystical, and rationalistic, to account for this social phe- nomenon. The second chapter (pp. 160-238) treats of the tra- dition of the descent of the Indian nation from Manu. The first section (pp. 162-181) contains a series of texts from the Big-veda, which speak of Manu as the pro- genitor of the race to which the authors of the hymns PREFACE. IX belonged, and as the first institutor of religious rites ; and adverts to certain terms employed in the hymns, either to denote mankind in general or to signify certain tribal divisions. The second section (pp. 181-196) ad- duces a number of legends and notices regarding Manu from the Brahmanas and other works next in order of antiquity to the hymns of the Big-veda. The most in- teresting and important of these legends is that of the deluge, as given in the S'atapatha Brahmana, which is afterwards (pp. 216 ff.) compared with the later versions of the same story found in the Mahabharata and the Matsya, Bhagavata arid Agni Pur anas, which are ex- tracted in the third section (pp. 196-220). Some re- marks of M. Burnouf and Professor Weber, on the question whether the legend of a deluge was indigenous in India, or derived from a Semitic source, are noticed in pp. 215 f. The fourth section adduces the legendary accounts of the rise of castes among the descendants of Manu and Atri, which are found in the Puranas ; and quotes a story given in the Mahabharata about king Yitahavya, a Kshattriya, being transformed into a Brah- man by the mere word of the sage Bhrigu. In the third chapter (pp. 239-295) I have endeavoured to shew what light is thrown by a study of the hymns of the Eig- and Atharva- vedas upon the mutual relations of the different classes of Indian society at the time when those hymns were composed. In the first section (pp. 240-265) the various texts of the Eig-veda in which the words brahman and brahmana occur are cited, and an attempt is made to determine the senses in which those X PREFACE. words are there employed. The result of this examina- tion is that in none of the hymns of the Big-veda, except the Purusha Sukta, is there any distinct reference to a recognized system of four castes, although the occasional use of the word Brahmana, which is apparently equi- valent to Brahma-putra, or “the son of a priest,” and other indications seem to justify the conclusion that the priesthood had already become a profession, although it did not yet form an exclusive caste (see pp. 258 f., 2G3 ff.). The second section (pp. 265-280) is made up of quota- tions from the hymns of the Big-veda and various other later works, adduced to shew that persons who according to ancient Indian tradition were not of priestly families were in many instances reputed to be authors of Vedic hymns, and in two cases, at least, are even said to have exercised priestly functions. These two cases are those (1) of Devapi (pp. 269ff.), and (2) of Yisvamitra, which is afterwards treated at great length in the fourth chapter. This section concludes with a passage from the Matsya Purana, which not only speaks of the Kshattriyas Manu, Ida, and Pururavas, as “utterers of Yedic hymns” ( mantra-vadinah ) ; but also names three Yaisyas, Bha- landa, Yandya, and Sanklrtti, as “ composers of hymns” (: mantra-lcritah ). The third section (pp. 280-289) shews by quotations from the Atharva-veda that at the period when those portions of that collection which are later than the greater part of the Big-veda were composed, the pretensions of the Brahmans had been considerably developed. The fourth section (pp. 289-295) gives an account of the opinions expressed by Professor PREFACE. XI E. Eoth and Dr. M. Haug regarding the origin of castes. The fourth chapter (pp. 296-479) contains a series of legendary illustrations derived from the Bamayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, of the struggle which appears to have occurred in the early ages of Indian history between the Brahmans and the Kshattriyas, after the former had begun to constitute an exclusive sacerdotal class, but before their rights had become accurately defined by long prescription, and when the members of the ruling caste were still indisposed to admit their pretensions. I need not here state in detail the contents of the first five sections (pp. 296-317) which record various legends descriptive of the ruin which is said to have overtaken different princes by whom the Brahmans were slighted and their claims resisted. The sixth and following sections down to the thirteenth (pp. 317-426) contain, first, such references to the two renowned rivals, Va- sishtha and Visvamitra as are found in the hymns of the Big-veda, and which represent them both as Yedic rishis ; secondly, such notices of them as occur in the Brahmanas, and shew that Visvamitra, as well as Va- sishtha, had officiated as a priest; and, thirdly, a series of legends from the Bamayana and Mahabharata which describe the repeated struggles for superiority in which they were engaged, and attempt, by a variety of fictions, involving miraculous elements, to explain the manner in which Visvamitra became a Brahman, and to account for the fact which was so distinctly cer- tified by tradition (see pp. 361 ff.), but appeared so un- Xll PREFACE. accountable in later ages (see pp. 265 f., 364 ff.), that that famous personage, although notoriously a Kshattriya by birth, had nevertheless exercised sacerdotal functions.2 The fourteenth section (pp. 426-430) contains a story from the S'atapatha Brahmana about king Janaka, a Ra- janya, renowned for his stoical temperament and religious knowledge, who communicated theological instruction to 2 As I have omitted in the body of the work to say anything of the views of Signor Angelo de Gubernatis about the purport of the Yedic texts relating to Vasishtha and Visvamitra, I may state here that this young Italian Sanskritist, in his Essay, entitled “ Fonti Vediche dell’ Epopea ” (see the Ri vista Orientale, vol. i. pp. 409 ff., 478 ff), combats the opinion of Professor Roth that these passages refer to two historical personages, and to real events in which they played a part ; and objects that Roth “ took no account of the possibility that a legend of the heavens may have been based upon a human foundation ” (p. 409). Signor de Gubernatis further observes that the 33rd and 53rd hymns of the third Mandala of the Rig-veda “ may perhaps have been recited at a later period in connection with some battle which really occured, hut that the fact which they cele- brate seems to be much more ancient, and to be lost in a very remote myth ” (p. 410). Visvamitra, he considers, is one of the appellations of the sun, and as both the person who bears this name, and Indra are the sons of Kusika, they must be brothers (p. 412. See, however, the remarks in p. 347 f. of this volume on the epithet Kausika as applied to Indra). Sudas, according to Signor de Gubernatis (p. 413), denotes the horse of the sun, or the sun himself, while Vasishtha is the greatest of the Vasus, and denotes Agni, the solar fire, and means, like Visvamitra, the sun (p. 483). Signor de Gubernatis is further of opinion (pp. 414, 478, 479, and 483) that both the 33rd and 53rd hymns of the third, and the 18th hymn of the seventh Mandala are comparatively modern ; that the names of Kusikas and Visvamitras claimed by the authors of the two former, are fraudu- lently assumed ; while the last (the 18th hymn of the seventh Mandala) was composed by a sacerdotal family who claimed Vasishtha as its founder. I will only remark that the theory of Signor de Gubernatis appears to me to be an improbable one. But the only point of much importance for my own special purpose is that ancient Indian tradition represents both Vasishtha and Visvamitra as real personages, the one of either directly divine, or of sacerdotal descent, and the other of royal lineage. They may, however, have been nothing more than legendary creations, the fictitious eponymi of the families which bore the same name. PREFACE. Xlll some eminent Brahmans, and became a member of their class. In the fifteenth section (pp. 431-436) two other instances are adduced from the same Brahmana and from two of the Upanishads, of Kshattriyas who were in pos- session of truths unknown to the Brahmans, and who, contrary to the usual rule, became the teachers of the latter. The sixteenth section (pp. 436-440) contains an extract from the Aitareya Brahmana regarding king Yisvantara who, after at first attempting to prevent the S'yaparna Brahmans from officiating at his sacrifice, became at length convinced by one of their number of their superior knowledge, and accepted their services. In the seventeenth section (pp. 440-442) a story is told of Matanga, the spurious offspring of a Brahman woman by a man of inferior caste, who failed, in spite of his severe and protracted austerities, to elevate himself (as Yisvamitra had done) to the rank of a Brahman. The eighteenth section (pp. 442-479) contains a series of legends, chiefly from the Mahabharata, regarding the repeated exterminations of the Kshattriyas by the war- like Brahman Parasurama of the race of Bhrigu, and the ultimate restoration of the warrior tribe, and a variety of extravagant illustrations of the supernatural power of the Brahmans, related by the god Yayu to king Arjuna, who began by denying the superiority of the priests, but was at length compelled to succumb to the overwhelming evidence adduced by his aerial monitor. In the fifth chapter (pp. 480-488) I have given some account of the opinions entertained by Manu, and the XIV PREFACE. authors of the Mahabharata and the Puranas, regarding the origin of the tribes dwelling within, or adjacent to, the boundaries of Hindustan, but not comprehended in the Indian caste-system. The sixth and concluding chapter (pp. 489-504) con- tains the Puranic accounts of the parts of the earth ex- terior to Bharatavarsha, or India, embracing first, the other eight Yarshas or divisions of Jambudvipa, the cen- tral continent ; secondly, the circular seas and continents (dvlpas) by which Jambudvipa is surrounded; and, thirdly, the remoter portions of the mundane system. The Appendix (pp. 505-515) contains some supple- mentary notes. As in the previous edition, I have been careful to acknowledge in the text and notes of this volume the assistance which I have derived from the writings of the different Sanskrit Scholars who have treated of the same subjects. It will, however, be well to specify here the various publications to which I have been indebted for materials. In 1858, I wrote thus : “ It will be seen at once that my greatest obligations are due to Professor H. H. Wilson, whose translation of the Vishnu Purana, with abundant and valuable notes, derived chiefly from the other Puranas, was almost indispensable to the suc- cessful completion of such an attempt as the present.” In this second edition also I have had constant occasion to recur to Wilson’s important work, now improved and enriched by the additional notes of the editor Dr. Fitz- edward Hall. It is to his edition, so far as it has yet ap- PREFACE. XV peared, that my references have been made. I acknow- ledged at the same time the aid which I had received from M. Langlois’ French translation of the Harivarhsa, and from M. Burnouf’s French translation of the first nine hooks of the Bhagavata Purana, which opened up an easy access to the contents of the original works. A large amount of materials has also been supplied to me, either formerly or for the preparation of the present edition, by Mr. Colebrooke’s Miscellaneous Essays ; by Professor C. Lassen’s Indian Antiquities ; Professor Pudolph Eoth’s Dissertations on the Literature and History of the Yedas, and contributions to the Journal of the German Oriental Society, and to Weber’s Indische Studicn, etc. ; Professor Weber’s numerous articles in the same Journals, and his History of Indian Literature ; Professor Max Muller’s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Chips from a German Workshop, article on the Funeral rites of the Brahmans, etc. ; Professor Benfey’s Glossary of the Sama Yeda, and translations of Yedic hymns ; Dr. Haug’s text and translation of the Aitareya Brahmana : while much valuable aid has been derived from the written communications with which I have been favoured by Professor Aufrecht, as well as from his Catalogue of the Bodleian Sanskrit MSS. I am also indebted to Professor Muller for point- ing out two texts which will be found in the Appendix, and to Professor Goldstucker for copying for me two passages of Kumarila Bhatta’s Mlmansa-varttika, which are printed in the same place, and for making some corrections in my translations of them. XVI PREFACE. I formerly observed that at the same time my own researches had u enabled me to collect a good many texts which I had not found elsewhere adduced ; ” and the same remark applies to a considerable portion of the new matter which has been adduced in the present edition. CONTENTS PAGES. v. — xvi. PREFACE. 1 — 6. INTRODUCTION, containing a preliminary survey of THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 7 — 160. CHAPTER I. — Mythical accounts of the creation of MAN, AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 7 — 15. Sect. I. Ninetieth hymn of the tenth Book of the Rig- veda Sanhita, called Purusha-Sukta, or the hymn to Purusha. 15 — 16. Sect. II. Quotation from the Taittirlya Sanhita, vii. 1, 1, 4ff. 17 — 22. Sect. III. Citations from the S'atapatha Brahmana, the Taittirlya Brahmana, the Yayasaneyi Sanhita, and the Atharva-veda. 22 — 34. Sect. IY. Further quotations from the Taittirlya Brah- mana, Sanhita, and Aranyaka, and from the S'atapatha Brahmana. 35 — 42. Sect. Y. Manu’s account of the origin of castes. 43 — 49. Sect. YI. Account of the system of yugas, manvantaras, and kalpas, according to the Yishnu Purana and other authorities. 49 — 73. Sect. YII. Account of the different creations, including that of the castes, according to the Yishnu Purana, with some passages from the Brahmanas, containing the germs of the Puranic statements. 74 — 107. Sect. YIII. Account of the different creations, including that of the castes, according to the Yayu and Harkandeya Puranas. xvm CONTENTS. PAGES. 107—114. 114—122. 122—155. 155—158. 159—160. 161— 238. 162— 181. 181—196. 196—220. 220—238. 239— 295. 240— 265. 265—280. 280—289. 289—295. Sect. IX. Legend of Brahma and his daughter, according to the Aitareya Brahmana, and of S’atarupa, according to the Matsya Purana. Sect. X. Quotations from the Ramayana on the creation, and on the origin of castes. Sect. XI. Quotations from the Mahabharata and Hari- vamsa on the same subjects, and on the four yugas. Sect. XII. Citations from the Bhagavata Purana on the creation and on the origin of castes. Sect. XIII. Results of this chapter. CHAPTER II. — Teadition of the descent of the Indian eace feom Manu. Sect. I. On Manu as the progenitor of the Aryan Indians and the institutor of religious rites, according to the hymns of the Rig-veda Sect. II. Legend of Manu and the deluge from the S’ata- patha Brahmana, and other notices regarding Manu from the S'atapatha, Aitareya, and Taittiiiya Brahmanas, the Taittiriya Sanhita, and the Chandogya Upanishad. Sect. III. Extracts from the Mahabharata and the Matsya, Bhagavata, and Agni Puranas regarding Manu, and the deluge; and comparison of the versions of this legend adduced in this and the preceding section. Sect. IY. Legendary accounts of the origin of castes among the descendants of Manu and Atri, according to the Puranas. CHAPTER III On the mutual eelations of the DIFFEEENT CLASSES OF INDIAN SOCIETY, ACCOBDING TO THE HYMNS OF THE RlG- AND AtHABVA-YEDAS. Sect. I. On the signification of the words brahman and brahmana, etc., in the Rig-veda. Sect. II. Quotations from the Rig-veda, the Xirukta, the Mahabharata and other works, to show that according to ancient Indian tradition persons not of priestly families were authors of Yedic hymns, and exercised priestly functions. Sect. III. Texts from the Atharva-veda, illustrating the progress of Brahmanical pretensions. Sect. IV. Opinions of Professor R. Roth and Dr. M. Haug regarding the origin of caste among the Hindus. CONTENTS. XIX PAGES. 296—400. 296—298. 298—306. 306— 307. 307— 315. 316— 317. 317— 337. 337—371. 371—375. 375—378. 379—388. 388—397. 397—411. 411—414. 414—426. 426—430. 431—436. 436—440. 440—442. CHAPTER IV. — Early contests between the Brah- mans AND THE KsHATTRIYAS. Sect. I. Manu’s summary of refractory and submissive monarcbs. Sect. II. Legend of Vena. Sect. III. Legend of Pururavas. Sect. IV. Story of Nakuska. Sect. V. Story of Nimi. Sect. VI. Vasishtha, according to tke Rig-veda and later works. Sect. VII. Visvamitra, according to tke Rig-veda, Aita- reya Brahmana and later autkorities ; earlier and later relations of priestly families and tke otker classes. Sect. Vila. Do tke details in tke last two sections enable us to decide in wkat relation Vasishtha and Visvamitra stood to each otker as priests of Sudas ? Sect. VIII. Story of Trisanku. Sect. IX. Legend of Harischandra. Sect. X. Contest of Vasisktka and Visvamitra, and en- trance of the latter into tke Brahman caste, according to the Mahabharata. Sect. XI. Tke same legend, and those of Trisanku, and Ambarlska, according to the Ramayana, with a further story about Visvamitra from tke Mahabharata. Sect. XII. Other accounts from the Mahabharata of tho way in which Visvamitra became a Brahman. Sect. XIII. Legend of Saudasa, and further story of the rivalry of Vasishtha and Visvamitra, according to the Mahabharata, with an extract from the Raja Tarangim. Sect. XIV. Story from the S'utapatha Brahmana about king Janaka becoming a Brahman, with extracts from the Mahabharata about the same prince. Sect. XV. Other instances in which Brahmans are said to have been instructed in divine knowledge by Kshat- triyas. Sect. XVI. Story of king Visvantara and the S'yaparna Brahmans. Sect. XVII. Story of Matanga, who tried in vain to raise himself to the position of a Brahman. XX CONTENTS. PAGF.9. 442—479. Sect. XVIII. Legend of the Brahman Parasurama, the exterminator of the Kshattriyas, according to the Maha- bharata and the Bhagavata Purana, with a series of nar- ratives from the former work illustrating the superhuman power of the Brahmans. 480 — 488. CHAPTER V. Relation of the Bbahmanical Indians TO THE NEIGHBOURING TRIBES, ACCORDING TO MANU, THE Hahabharata, and the Puranas. 489 — 504. CHAPTER VI. Puranic accounts of the parts of the EARTH EXTERIOR TO BhaRATAVARSHA, OR INDIA. 505 — 516. Appendix, containing supplementary notes. 517 — 532. Index. ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA. Page 23, line 19, for “beingy eliow ” read “being yellow.” V CO CO yy 17 ff., for “ 59-64 ” read “ 58-63.” V 42, yy 4 from foot, for “p. 36 ” read “p. 37.” 46, yy 26, for “p. 42 ” read “ p. 43.” 47, yy 8, for « 12,826 ” read “iii. 826.” yy 51, yy 17, for “ Purushottasna ” read “ Purushottama.” V 123, yt 19, for “ to ” read “ tu." V 127, yy 18 f., for “the two by which these three are followed, those which follow, viz. in pp. 134 and 139.” yy 136, yy 18, for “ 116 " read “ 11 and 12.” yy 169, yy 26, for “ Vivaswat ” read “ Vivasvat.” yy 170, yy 28 and 33, for “ Mataris'wan ” read Mataris’van.” y » 171, yy 26, for “ As'wins ” read “ As'vins.” yy 180, yy 28, before “ Prajapatir ” insert “ii. 33.” yy 194, yy 5, for “ md bhaja ” read “m3 abhaja .” yy 221, yy 20, before “ Prishadhras ” insert “iv. 1, 12.” yy 222, yy 7, for “ is. 2 ” read “ ix. 2, 16.” yy — yy 13, before “ Nabhago ” insert “ iv. 1, 14.” yy 235, yy 1 9, for “ iv. ” read “ ix.” yy 251, yy 27, for “3” read “ 2.” yy 258, yy 3 from the foot, for “ viii.” read “ vii.” yy 274, yy 8, for “ lilipat” read “ DilTpat .” yy 280, yy 14, for “ was” read “ were.” yy 307, yy 10, for “ virat ” read “ viraj .” yy 308, yy 24, before “ Nahusho ” insert “ 12460.” yy 318, yy 4, for “139f ."read “ 161 f.” yr 371, yy 12, for “ vii.” read “ viia.” )> 399, yy 18, for “ 58, 18” read “ 56, 18.” yy OO “-I yy 2, for “ thei rdesertion ” read “ their desertion." ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXTS. PART FIRST. INTRODUCTION CONTAINING A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION. I propose in the present volume to give some account of the tra- ditions, legends, and mythical narratives which the different classes of ancient Indian writings contain regarding the origin of mankind, and the classes or castes into which the Hindus have long been dis- tributed. In order to ascertain whether the opinions which have prevailed in India on these subjects have continued fixed and uniform from the earliest period, or whether they have varied from age to age, and if so, what modifications they have undergone, it is necessary that we should first of all determine the chronological order of the various works from which our information is to be drawn. This task of classification can, as far as regards its great outlines, he easily ac- complished. Although we cannot discover sufficient grounds for fixing with any precision the dates of these different books, we are perfectly able to settle the order in which the most important of those which are to form the basis of this investigation were composed. From a comparison of these several literary records, it will be found that the Hindus, like all other civilized nations, have passed through various stages of development, — social, moral, religious, and intellectual. The ideas and beliefs which are exhibited in their oldest documents, are not the same as those which we encounter in their later writings. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. The principal books to which we must look for information on the subjects of our enquiry are the Vedas, including the Brahmanas and Upanishads, the Sutras, the Institutes of Manu, and the Itihasas and Puranas. Of these different classes of works, the Vedas are allowed by all competent enquirers to be by far the most ancient. There are, as every student of Indian literature is aware, four Vedas, — the Rig-veda, the Sama-veda, the Tajur-veda, and the Atharva- veda. Each of the collections of works known as a Veda consists of two parts, which are called its mantra and its brahmana.1 The Man- tras are either metrical hymns, or prose forms of prayer. The Rig- veda and the Samaveda consist only of mantras of the former descrip- tion. The Brahmanas contain regulations regarding the employment of the mantras, and the celebration of the various rites of sacrifice, and also embrace certain treatises called Aranyakas, and others called TJpanishads or Vedantas (so called from their being the concluding portions of each Veda), which expound the mystical sense of some of the ceremonies, and discuss the nature of the godhead, and the means of acquiring religious knowledge with a view to final liberation. The part of each Veda which contains the mantras, or hymns, is called its Sanhita.2 Thus the Rig-veda Sanhita means the collection of hymns belonging to the Rig-veda. Of the four collections of hymns, that belonging to the last-mentioned Veda, which contains no less than 1,017 of these compositions, is by far the most important for historical purposes. Next in value must be reckoned those hymns of the Atharva- veda, which are peculiar to that collection, another portion of which, however, is borrowed, in most cases, verbatim, from the Rig-veda.3 1 Siivana says in his commentary on the Rigveda (vol. p. i. p. 4) : Mantra-brdh mdnutmakam tavad adushtam lahlhanam \ ata eva Apastambo yajna-paribhashuyam evaha ‘ mantra-brahmanayor veda-ndmadheyam' \ “The definition (of the Yeda) as a book composed of mantra and brahmana, is unobjectionable. Hence Apastamba says in the Yajnaparibhfislia, ‘ Mantra and Brahmana have the name of Veda.’ ” 2 This definition applies to all the Sanhitas, except that of the Taittiriya, or Black Yajur, Veda, in which Mantra and Brahmana are combined. But even this Sanhita had a separate Brahmana connected with it. See Muller’s Anc. Sansk. Lit. p. 350, and Weber’s Indische Literaturgeschichte, p. 83. The general character of the Vajas- aneyi and Atharva Sanhitas is not affected by the fact that the last section of the former is an Upanishad, and that the fifteenth book of the latter has something of the nature of a Brahmana. 2 For further information on the Vedas, reference may he made to Professor Max Muller’s Ancient Sanskrit Literature, passim, and also to vols. ii. iii. and iv. of the present work. INTRODUCTION. 3 From this succinct account of the contents of the Yedas, it is clear that the Mantras must constitute their most ancient portions, since the Brahmanas, which regulate the employment of the hymns, of necessity pre-suppose the earlier existence of the latter. On this subject the commentator on the Taittirlya, or Black Yajur-veda, Sanhita thus expresses himself (p. 9 of the Calcutta edition) : — Yadyapi mantralrdhmandtmako vedas tathupi brdhmamsya mantra- vydklidna-rupatvdd mantra evddau samdmndtah | “ Although the Yeda is formed both of Mantra and Brahmana, yet as the Brahmana consists of an explanation of the Mantras, it is the latter which were at first recorded.”4 The priority of the hymns to the Brahmanas is accordingly attested by the constant quotations from the former which are found in the latter.5 Another proof that the hymns are far older than any other portion of Indian literature is to be found in the character of their language. They are composed in an ancient dialect of the Sanskrit, containing many words of which the sense was no longer known with certainty in the age of Yaska, the author of the Hirukta,6 and many grammatical forms which had become obsolete in the time of the great grammarian Panini, who refers to them as peculiar to the hymns ( chhandas ).7 A third argument in favour of the greater antiquity of the mantras is supplied by the fact that the gods whom they represent as the most prominent objects of adoration, such as Indra and Varuna, occupy but a subordinate position in the Itihasas and Puranas, whilst others, viz., Vishnu and Budra, though by no means the most important deities of the hymns, are exalted to the first rank, and assume a different character, in the Puranic pantheon.8 4 See also the passage quoted from the Nirukta in p. 174 of the 2nd vol. of this work, and that cited from Sayana in p. 195 of the same vol. Compare the the following passage of the Mundaka Upanishad, i. 2, 1 : Tad etat satyam manlrcshu harmani havayo yany apasyams tdni tretayam bahudha santatdni | “ This is true : the rites which the rishis saw (i.e. discovered by revelation) in the hymns — these rites were in great variety celebrated in the Treta (age).” 5 See vol. ii. of this work, p. 195, and the article on the “Interpretation of the Veda” in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. new series, pp. 316 ff. 6 See vol. ii. of this work,pp. 178 ff, and my article on the “Interpretation of the Yeda” in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. new series, pp. 323 If. 7 See vol. ii. of this work, pp. 210 ff. 6 See vol. ii. of this work, 212 ff, and vol. iv. 1, 2, and passim. 4 INTRODUCTION. On all these grounds it may be confidently concluded that the mantras, or hymns, of the Rig-veda are by far the most ancient remains of Indian literature. The hymns themselves are of different periods, some being older, and some more recent. This is shown not only by the nature of the case, — as it is not to be supposed that the whole of the contents of such a large national collection as the Rig- veda Sanhita* should have been composed by the men of one, or even two, generations, — but also by the frequent references which occur in the mantras themselves to older rishis, or poets, and to older hymns. 8 It is, therefore, quite possible that a period of several centuries may have intervened between the composition of the oldest and that of the most recent of these poems. But if so, it is also quite conceivable that in this interval considerable changes may have taken place in the religious ideas and ceremonies, and in the social and ecclesiastical institutions of the people among whom these hymns were produced, and that some traces of these changes may be visible on comparing the different hymns with each other. No sufficient data exist for determining with exactness the period at which the hymns were composed. Professor Muller divides them into two classes, the Mantras or more recent hymns, which he supposes may have been produced between 1000 and 800 years, — and the older hymns, to which he applies the name of Chhandas, and which he conceives may have been composed between 1200 and 1000 years, — before the Christian era. Other scholars are of opinion that they may be even older (see Miiller’s Anc. Sansk. Lit., p. 572, and the Preface to the 4th Yol. of the same author’s edition of the Rig-veda, pp. iv.-xiii). This view is shared by Dr. Haug, who thus writes in his introduction to the Aitareya Brahmana, p. 47 : “ We do not hesitate, therefore, to assign the composition of the bulk of the Brahmanas to the years 1400-1200 b.c. ; for the Samhita we require a period of at least 500- 600 years, with an interval of about two hundred years between the end of the proper Brahmana period. Thus we obtain for the bulk of Samhita the space from 1400-2000; the oldest hymns and sacrificial formulas may be a few hundred years more ancient still, so that we would fix the very commencement of Vedic literature between 2000- 2400 b.c.” 9 See yol. ii. of this work, pp. 206 if., and vol. iii. pp. 116 fi1., 121 if. INTRODUCTION. 5 Next in order of time to the most recent of the hymns come, of course, the Brahmanas. Of these (1) the Aitareya and S'ankhayana are connected with the Itig-vcda ; (2) the Tandya, the Panchavimsa and the Chhandogya with the Sama-veda; (3) the Taittiriya with the Tait- tiriya or Black Yajur-veda ; (4) the S'atapatha with the Vajasaneyi San- hita or White Yajur-veda ; and (5) the Gopatha with the Atharva-veda.10 These works, written in prose, prescribe, as I have already intimated, the manner in which the Mantras are to be used and the various rites of sacri- fice to be celebrated. They also expound the mystical signification of some of the ceremonies, and adduce a variety of legends to illustrate the origin and efficacy of some of the ritual prescriptions. That in order of age the Brahmanas stand next to the Mantras is proved by their simple, antiquated, and tautological style, as well as by the character of their language, which, though approaching more nearly than that of the hymns, to classical or Paninean Sanskrit, is yet distinguished by certain archaisms both of vocabulary and of grammatical form which are un- known to the Itihasas and Puranas.11 The most recent portions of the Brahmanas are the Aranyakas and Upanishads, of which the character and contents have been already summarily indicated. The remaining works which form the basis of our investigations come under the de- signation of Smriti, as distinguished from that of S'ruti, which is ap- plied to the Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The term Smriti includes (1) the Vedangas, such as the Nirukta of Yaska, (2) the Sutras or aphorisms, srauta and grihya, or sacrificial and domestic, etc., (3) the Institutes of Manu, (4) the Itihasas and Puranas. To the class of Itihasas belong (1) the Eamayana (said to be the work of Yalmiki), which contains an account in great part, at least, fabulous, of the adventures of Bama, and the Mahabharata, which describes the wars and adventures of the Kurus and Pandus, and embraces also a great variety of episodes and numerous mythological narratives, as well as religious, philosophical, and political discussions, which are inter- woven with, or interpolated in, the framework of the poem. This 10 For further details on these Brahmanas, the reader may consult Professor Max Muller’s Anc. Sansk. Lit. pp. 345 ff. ; Professor Weber’s Indisehe Literatur- geschichte, and Ir.dische Studien ; and Dr. Haug’s Aitareya Brahmana. 11 See, for example, the S'. P. Br. xi. 5, 1, 15 ; and the Taitt. Sankita, ii. 2, 10, 2, and ii. 6. 7. 1. 6 INTRODUCTION. work is said to be the production of Vyasa, but its great bulk, its almost encyclopaedic character, and the discrepancies in doctrine which are observable between its different parts, lead inevitably to the con- clusion that it is not the composition of a single author, but has received large additions from a succession of writers, who wished to obtain cur- rency and authority for their several opinions by introducing them into this great and venerated repository of national tradition.13 The Puranas are commonly said to be eighteen in number, in addition to certain inferior works of the same description called Upapuranas. Por an account of these books and a summary of their contents, I must refer to the late Professor H. II. Wilson’s introduction to his translation of the Vishnu Purana.13 In treating the several topics which are to be handled in this volume, I propose in each case to adduce, first, any texts bearing upon it which may be found in the hymns of the Rig-veda ; next, those in the Brah- manas and their appendages ; and, lastly, those occurring in any of the different classes of works coming under the designation of Smriti. By this means we shall learn what conceptions or opinions were entertained .on each subject by the oldest Indian authors, and what were the various modifications to which these ideas were subjected by their successors. t2 On the Ramayana and Mahubharata, see Professor Monicr 'Williams’s “ Indian Epic Poetry,” which contains a careful analysis of the leading narrative of each of the poems. 13 See also the same author’s analyses of the contents of the Vishnu, Yayu, Agni, and Bruhma-vaivartta Puranas in the “ Gleanings of Science,” published in Calcutta, and those of the Brahma and Padma Puranas in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. ix (1838) and No. x. (1839). CHAPTEB I. MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. It will be seen from the different tests to be adduced in this chapter, that from a very early period the Indian writers have propounded a great variety of speculations regarding the origin of mankind, and of the classes or castes into which they found their own community divided. The most commonly received of these explanations is the fable which represents the Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Yaisyas, and Sudras, to have been separately created from the head, the breast or arms, the thighs, and the feet of the Creator. Of this mythical account no trace is to be found in any of the hymns of the ltig-veda, except one, the Purusha Sukta. Although for reasons which will be presently stated, I esteem it probable that this hymn belongs to the most recent portion of the Rig- veda, it will be convenient to adduce and to discuss it first, along with certain other texts from the Brahmanas, Itihasas, and Puranas, which professedly treat of the origin of mankind and of caste, before we proceed to examine the older parts of the hymn-collection, with the view of ascertaining what opinion the authors of them appear to have entertained in regard to the earliest history of their race, and to the grounds of those relations which they found subsisting between the different classes of society contemporary with themselves. Sect. I. — 90 th Hymn of the 10 th Booh of the Rig-veda Sanhita, called Purusha Suhta, or the hymn to Purusha. This celebrated hymn contains, as far as we know, the oldest extant passage which makes mention of the fourfold origin of the Hindu race. 8 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, In order to appreciate the character of this passage, we must con- sider it in connection with its context. I therefore quote the whole of the hymn :M H. Y. x. 90. 1. Sahasra-sirshd Purushah sahasrdkshah sahasra- pdt | sa bhumim visvato vritvd atyatishthad dasdngulam | 2. Purushah evedarn sarvarh yad bhutam yachcha bhdvyam \ utdmritatvasyesdno yad annendtirohati | 3. Ptdvdn asya mahimd ato jydydihscha Purushah | pudo 'sya vised bhutdni tripdd asydmritam divi | 4. Tripdd urdhva ud ait Purushah pddo ’ syehdhhavat punah \ tato vishvan vyakrdmat sdsandnasane abhi | 5. tasmdd Viral ajdyata Virdjo adhi Purushah | sa juto aty arichyata paschud bhumim atlxo purah | 6. Yat Purushena havishd devdh yajnam atanvata \ vasanto asydsid djyam grishmah idh- mah sarad havih \ 7. Tam yajnam harhishi praukshan Purushaih jdtam agratah \ tena devdh ayajanta sddhydh rishayas cha ye \ 8. Tasmdd yajnut sarvahutah sambhritam prisliaddjyam | pasun turns chakre vuyavydn dranydn grdmyds cha ye | 9. Tasmdd yajnat sarvahutah richah sdmdni jajnire | chhanduihsi jajnire tasmdd yajus tasmdd ajd- yata | 10. Tasmdd asva ajdyanta ye ke cha ubhayudatah | gdvo ha jajnire tasmdt tasmdj jdtdh ajdvayah \ 11. Yat Purushaih vi ada- dhuh katidhd vi akalpayan \ mukham kirn asya kau bd.hu, led uru pudd uchyete ] 12. Brahmano ’ sya mukham usid bdhu rdjanyah Irritah | uru tad asya yad vaisyah padbhydih sudro ajdyata | 13. chandramdh manaso jdtas chakshoh suryo ajdyata | mukhdd Indras cha Agnis cha prdnud Vdyur ajdyata | 14. Nubhyah asid antari- lcsham slrshno dyauh samavarttata \ padbhydm bhumir disah srotrdt tatha lokdn akalpayan \ 15. Saptdsydsan paridhayas trih sapta samidhah kritdh \ devdh yad yajnam tanvdndh abadhnan Purusham pasum l 16. Yajnena yajnam ayajanta devas tdni dharmdni pratha- 14 The Purusha Siikta is also found in the Yajasaneyi Sanhita of the White Yajar-veda (31. 1-16) and in the Atharva-veda (19. 6. 1 ff.) See Colebrooke’s Miscel- laneous Essays, i. 167 f.> and note in p. 309 (or pp. 104, and 197, of Messrs. Williams and Norgate’s edition) ; Burnouf’s Bhagavata Purana, vol. i. Preface, pp. cxsiii. ff. ; Wilson’s Preface to his translation of the Rigveda, vol. i. p. xliv. ; Professor Roth’s remarks in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, i. pp. 78 f . ; Muller in Bunsen’s Philosophy of Univ. History, vol. i. p. 344 ; Muller’s Anc. Sank. Lit., pp. 570 f . ; Professor Weher’s translation in Indische Studien Lx. p. 5; and my own translation, notes and remarks in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865, pp. 353 ff., and for 1866, pp. 282 f. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 9 mam dsan [ te ha nulcam mahimunah sachanta yatra purve sudh- yah santi devah | “1. Purusha has a thousand heads,15 a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. On eveiy side enveloping16 the earth, he overpassed17 (it) by a space of ten fingers. 2. Purusha himself is this whole (universe), what- ever has been and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immort- ality, since (or, when) by food he expands.18 3. Such is his greatness, and Purusha is superior to this. All existences are a quarter of him ; and three-fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky.19 4. With three quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced here. He was then diffused everywhere over things which eat and things which do not eat. 5. Prom him was was bom Viraj, and from Viraj, Purusha.20 When born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. 6. When the gods per- formed a sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, the spring was its butter, the summer its fuel, and the autumn its (accompanying) offering. 7. This victim, Purusha, born in the beginning, they immolated on 15 The Atharva-veda (six. 6, 1) reads sahasra-bahuh, “ having a thousand arms,” the transcriber, perhaps, taking the verse literally, and considering that a being in human form, if he had a thousand eyes and a thousand feet, ought only to have five hundred heads, and not a thousand as in the text of the Rig-veda. 16 For vritva in the R. V. the Vajasaneyi Sanhita, 31. 1, reads spritva , which seems to mean nearly the same. 17 The word is atyatishthat. Compare the S'atapatha Rramana, xiii. 6, 1, 1, and aiishthdvdnah in S'. P. B. iv. 5, 4, 1, 2. Professor Weber renders atyatishthat “occupies” (Indische Studien, ix. 5). 18 The sense of this is obscure. Instead of yad annenatirohati , the A. V. reads yud anyendbhavat saha, (“ that which,” or, “since he) was with another.” 19 Compare A. Y. x. 8, 7 : ardhena visvnm bhuvanam j'ajdna yad asya ardham leva tad babhuva : “with the half he produced the whole world; what became of the (other) half of him ?” See also ibid. v. 13. 2C This sentence is illustrated by R. V. x. 72, 5, where it is said, Aditer Daksha ajayata Dakshad u Aditih pari \ “ Aditi was born from Daksha and Daksha from Aditi” — a text on which Yaska remarks (Nirukta, xi. 23) : tat katham upapadyeta [ samana-janmanau syatam iti | api vd deva-dharmena itaretara-janmanau sydtam it - aretatara-prakriti | “ how can this be possible ? They may have had a common birth ; or, conformably with their nature as deities, they may have been produced from one another, and possess the properties of one another.” Compare A. Y. 13. 4. 29 if., where Indra is said to have been produced from a great many other gods, or entities, and they reciprocally from him. In regard to Viraj, compare the notes on the verse before us in my article on the “ Progress of the Vedic religion,” etc., in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865, p. 354. 10 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, the sacrificial grass. With him the gods, the Sadhyas,21 and the rishis sacrificed. 8. From that universal sacrifice were provided curds and butter. It formed those aerial 22 (creatures) and animals both wild and tame. 9. From that universal sacrifice sprang the rich and saman verses, the metres, and the yajush. 10. From it sprang horses, and all animals with two rows of teeth ; kine sprang from it ; from it goats and sheep. 11. When (the gods) divided Purusha, into how many parts did they cut him up ? what was his mouth ? what arms (had he)? what (two objects) are said (to have been) his thighs and feet? 12. The Brahman was his mouth;23 the Raj any a was made his arms; the being (called) the Vaisya, he was his thighs;24 the S'udra sprang from his feet. 13. The moon sprang from his soul ( mams ), the sun from his eye, Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath.23 14. From his navel arose the air, from his head the sky, from his feet the earth, from his ear the (four) quarters : in this manner (the gods) formed the worlds. 15. When the gods, performing sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven sticks (stuck up) for it 21 See on the Sadhyas, Professor Weber’s note, Ind. St. is. 6 f., and the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1866, p. 395, note. 23 See, however, Vaj . Sanh. xiv. 30, to he quoted below. 23 Compare the Kaushitaki Brahmana Upanishad, ii. 9 : at ha paurnamdsydm purastdch chandramasam drisyamanam upatishtheta etaya eva avrita “ soma rajasi vichakshano pancha mukho’si prajapatih \ brdhmanas te ekam mukham | tern mukhena rajno ’tsi | tena mukhena mam annddam kura | raja te ekam mukham | tena mukhena viso’tsi ] tena mukhena mam annddam kuru | iyenas te ekam mukham uityddi | which is thus translated by Mr. Cowell : “ Next on the day of the full moon let him in this same way adore the moon when it is seen in front of him (saying), ‘thou art Soma, the brilliant, the wise, the five-mouthed, the lord of creatures. The Brahman is one mouth of thine, with that mouth thou eatest kings, with that mouth make me to eat food. The king is one mouth of thine, with that mouth thou eatest common men, •with that mouth make me to eat food. The hawk is one mouth of thine,” etc. The fourth month is fire, and the fifth is in the moon itself. I should prefer to render the words somo raja’ si, “ thou art king Soma," — “ king ” being a frequent designation of this god in the Brahmanas. See also M. Bh. iii. 12,962, where Vishnu is intro- duced as saying in the same mystical way : Brahma vaktram bhujau ksliattram uru, me samsthitdh vis ah | padau sudrdh hhavantime vikramena kramena cha | “ The Brahman is my mouth ; the Kshattra is my arms ; the Visas are my thighs ; these S tl liras with their vigour and rapidity are my feet.” 24 Instead of uru, “ thighs,” the Atharva-veda, six. 6, 6, reads madhyam, “middle.” 25 The Vaj. S. xxxi. 13, has a different and singular reading of the last half verse : irotrdd vuyus'cha pranas' cha mukhad agnir ajdyata | “ From his ear came Vayu and Frana (breath) and from his mouth Agni.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 11 (around the fire), and thrice seven pieces of fuel were made. 16. With sacrifice the gods performed the sacrifice. These were the earliest rites. These great powers have sought the sky, where are the former Sadhyas, gods.”26 I have above (p. 7) intimated an opinion that this hymn does not belong to the most ancient portion of the Eig-veda. This view is, however, controverted by Dr. Haug, who, in his tract on “the origin of Brahmanism ” (published at Poona in 1863), p. 5, writes as follows : “ The few scholars who have been engaged in the study of the Yedas unanimously regard this hymn as a very late production of Vedie poetry ; but there is no sufficient evidence to prove that. On the con- trary, reasons might be adduced to shew that it is even old. The mystical character of the hymn is no proof at all of its late wrigin. Such allegorical hymns are to be met with in every book of the col- lection of the mantras, which goes by the name of Eig-veda samhita. The Eishis, who were the authors of these hymns, delighted in such speculations. They chiefly were suggested to them by the sacrificial rites, which they daily were performing. According to the position which is assigned to it in the Yajur-veda (where it is found among the formulas referring to the human sacrifice), the hymn appears to have been used at the human sacrifices. That, at the earliest period of the Vcdic time, human sacrifices were quite common with the Brahmans, can be proved beyond any doubt. But the more eminent and distinguished among their leaders soon abandoned the practice as revolting to human feelings. The form of the sacrifice, however, seems to have been kept for a long time ; for the ritual required at that occasion is actually in the Yajur-veda ; but they only tied men of different castes and classes to the sacrificial posts, and released them afterwards, sacrificing animals instead of them.” If it could be satisfactorily shewn that this hymn, in the same form as we now possess it, existed contemporaneously with the barbarous practice of human sacrifices which Dr. Haug believes to have at one time prevailed in India, we should, no doubt, have in this circumstances a strong proof of its antiquity. But if it was merely adopted as a part of the ceremonial at a later period, when the immolation ox human This verse occurs also in R. V. i. 164. 50, and is quoted in Nirukta, xii. 14. See the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1866, p. 395, note, already referred to. 12 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, beings had ceased to be otherwise than formal and nominal, and animals were substituted as the actual victims, the evidence of its remote an- tiquity is greatly weakened. If we now compare the Purusha Sukta with the two hymns (162 and 163) of the first Mandala of the Rig-veda, it will, I think, he apparent that the first is not adapted to he used at a literal human sacrifice in the same manner as the last two are to he employed at the immolation of a horse. There are, no doubt, some mystical passages in the second of these two hymns, as in verse 3, where the horse is identified with Yama, Aditya, and Trita; and “in the last section of the Taittiriya Yajur- veda the various parts of the horse’s body are described as divisions of time and portions of the universe : ‘ morning is his head ; the sun his eye; the air his breath; the moon his ear,’ ” etc. (Colebrooke’s Essays, i. 62)."7 But the persons who officiate at the sacrifice, as referred to in these hymns, are ordinary priests of the ancient Indian ritual, — the hotri, adhvaryu, avayaj, etc. (i. 162, 5) ; and details are given of the actual slaughter of the animal (i. 162, 11). The Purusha Sukta, how- ever does not contain the same indications of the literal immolation of a human victim. In it the sacrifice is not offered to the gods, hut by the gods (verses 6, 7, 15, 16); no human priests are mentioned; the di- vision of the victim (v. 11) must he regarded, like its slaughter (v. 7), as the work of the deities only. And the Purusha mentioned in the hymn could not well have been regarded as an ordinary man, as he is identified with the universe (v. 2), and he himself, or his immo- lation, is represented as the source of the creation (vv. 8, 10, 13, 14), and of the Vedas (v. 9). As compared with by far the largest part of the hymns of the Rig- veda, the Purusha Sukta has every character of modernness both in its diction and ideas. I have already observed that the hymns which we find in this collection are of very different periods. This, I believe, is not disputed.28 The authors themselves, as we have seen, speak of newer and older hymns. So many as a thousand compositions of this description could scarcely have been produced within a very short space of time, and there is no reason to suppose that the literary activity of the ancient Hindus 27 Compare the commencement of the Brihaduranyaka Upanishad. 28 See Dr. Haug's own remarks (quoted above, p. 4) on the period when the hymns were composed. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 13 was confined to the period immediately preceding the collection of the hymns. But if we are to recognize any difference of age, what hymns can we more reasonably suppose to be the oldest than those which are at once archaic in language and style, and naive and simple in the character of their conceptions ? and, on the other hand, what composi- tions can more properly be set down as the most recent than those which manifest an advance in speculative ideas, while their language approaches to the modern Sanskrit? These latter conditions seem to be fulfilled in the Purusha Sukta, as well as in hymns x. 71 and 72, x. 81 and 82, x. 121, and x. 129. On this subject Mr. Colebrooke states his opinion as follows (Miscellaneous Essays i. 309, note) : “ That remarkable hymn (the Purusha Sukta) is in language, metre, and style, very different from the rest of the prayers with which it is associated. It has a de- cidedly more modern tone ; and must have been composed after the Sanscrit language had been refined, and its grammar and rhythm per- fected. The internal evidence which it furnishes serves to demonstrate the important fact that the compilation of the Yedas, in their present arrangement, took place after the Sanscrit tongue had advanced from the rustic and irregular dialect in which the multitude of hymns and prayers of the Yeda was composed, to the polished and sonorous language in which the mythological poems, sacred and prophane ( purdnas and cuvi/as), have been written.” Professor Max Muller expresses himself in a similar sense (Anc. Sansk. Lit., p. 570 f.) : “There can be little doubt, for instance, that the 90th hymn of the 10th book .... is modern both in its character and in its diction. It is full of allusions to the sacrificial ceremonials, it uses technical philosophical terms, it mentions the three seasons in the order of Vasanta, spring; Grishma, summer; and S'arad, autumn ; it contains the only passage in the Itig-veda where the four castes are enumerated. The evidence of language for the modern date of this composition is equally strong. Grishma, for instance, the name for the hot season, does not occur in any other hymn of the Big-veda ; and Yasanta also, the name of spring, does not belong to the earliest vocabulary of the Yedic poets. It occurs but once more in the Big- veda (x. 161. 4), in a passage where the three seasons are mentioned in the order of S'arad, autumn; Hemanta, winter; and Yasanta, spring.” 14 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Professor Weber (Indische Studien, ix. 3) concurs in this view. He observes: “That the Purusha Sukta, considered as a hymn of the Eig-veda, is among the latest portions of that collection, is clearly perceptible from its contents. The fact that the Sama-sanhita has not adopted any verse from it, is not without importance (compare what I have remarked in my Academical Prelections, p. 63). The Naigeya school, indeed, appears (although it is not quite certain),29 to have extracted the first five verses in the seventh prapathaka of the first Archika, which is peculiar to it.” We shall see in the following chapter that the word brdhmana occurs but rarely in the Eig-veda Sanhita, while brahman, “a priest,” from which the former is derived, is of constant occurrence. From this circumstance also, it may be reasonably concluded that the hymns in which the derivative occurs are among the latest. The same remark may be made of the word vaisya, as compared with vis.30 Mr. Colebrooke’s opinion of the character of the Purusha Sukta is given in the following passage of his “ Miscellaneous Essays” (vol. i. p. 161, note ; or p. 105 of Williams & Norgate’s ed. of 1858) ; “ I think it unnecessary to quote from the commentary the explanation of this curious passage of the Yedas as it is there given, because it does not really elucidate the sense ; the allegory is for the most part sufficiently obvious. In his tract on “ on the origin of Brahmanism,” p. 4, Dr. Haug thus remarks on verses 11 and 12 : “Now, according to this passage, which is the most ancient and authoritative we have on the origin of Brahmanism, and caste in general, the Brahman has not come from the mouth of this primary being, the Purusha, but the mouth of the latter be- came the Brahmanical caste, that is to say, was transformed into it. The passage has, no doubt, an allegorical sense. Mouth is the seat of speech. The allegory thus points out that the Brahmans are teachers and in- structors of mankind. The arms are the seat of strength. If the two 29 See on this subject Weber’s foot-note, p. 3. 30 Professor Aufrecht informs me that the word vaisya does not occur in any other hymn of the Rig-vcda but the Purusha Sukta ; only once in the Atliarva-veda, v. 1 7, 9 ; and not at all in the Vuj. Sanh., except in the Purusha Sukta. The same scholar remarks, as another proof of the comparatively late date of the Purusha Sukta, that it is the only hymn which refers to the four different kinds of Yedic compositions rich , samdn, chhandas, and yajush. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 15 arms of the Purusha are said to have been made a Kshattriya (warrior), that means, then, that the Kshattriyas have to carry arms to defend the empire. That the thighs of the Purusha were transformed into the Taisya means that, as the lower parts of the body are the principal repository of food taken, the Taisya caste is destined to provide food for the others. The creation of the Shudra from the feet of the Purusha, indicates that he is destined to be a servant to the others, just as the foot serves the other parts of the body as a firm support.” But whether the writer of the hymn intended it to be understood allegorically or not, it conveys no distinct idea of the manner in which he supposed the four castes to have originated. It is, indeed, said that the S'udra sprang from Purusha’s feet ; but as regards the three superior castes and the members with which they are respectively con- nected, it is not quite clear which ( i.e ., the castes or the members) are to be taken as the subjects and which as the predicates, and con- sequently, whether we are to suppose verse 12 to declare that the three castes were the three members, or, conversely, that the three members were, or became, the three castes. But whatever may be the sense of the passage, it is impossible to receive it as enunciating any fixed doctrine of the writers of what is called the Tedic age in regard to the origin of the four castes; since we find, if not in the mantras or hymns, at least in the Brahmanas (which, as we have seen in page 2, are esteemed by orthodox Indian writers as being equally with the hymns a part of the Teda), not only (1) texts which agree with the Purusha Sukta, but also (2) various other and discrepant accounts of the manner in which these classes were separately formed, as well as (3) third a class of narratives of the creation, in which the production of the human race is described without allusion to any primordial distinction of castes. To the first of these classes (viz., that of texts which coincide more or less exactly with the Purusha Sukta) belongs the following passage from the Taittirlya Sanhita. Sect. II. — Quotation from the Taittirlya Sanhita, vii. 1. 1. 4 ff. Prajupatir ahdmayata 11 prajayeya ” iti \ sa mukliatas irivritam nir- amimlta | tarn Aynir devatd ’nvasuyata gayatrl chhandro rathantaram 16 MYTHICAL ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION OF MAN, suma bruhmano manushyundm ajah pasundm \ tasmdt te mulchyuh mulchato hy asrijyanta | uraso bdhubhydm panchadasam niramimita \ tam Indro devatu ’ nvasrijyata trishtup chhando brihat suma rtijanyo manushyundm avih pasunum | tasmdt te virydvanto virydd hy asrijyanta | madhy- atah saptadasam niramimita | tam Visvedevdh devatuh anvasrijyanta jagatl chhando vairupam suma vaisyo manushydnum guvah pasundm | tasmdt te ddyd annadhdndd hy asrijyanta | tasmud bhuyumso ’ nye - bhyah | bhuyishthdh hi devatuh anvasrijyanta | pattah elcavimsam niramimita | tam anushtup chhando ’ nvasrijyata vairdjam suma sudro manushyundm asvah pasundm | tasmdt tau bhuta-sanhrdminuv asvas cha sudras cha \ tasmdt sudro yajne ’ navahlripto na hi devatuh an- vasrijyanta | tasmut puddv upajivatah \ patto hy asrijyetdm \ “ Prajapati desired, ‘ may I propagate.’ He formed the Trivrit {stoma) from his mouth. After it were produced the deity Agni, the metre Gayatrl, the Saman (called) Rathantara, of men the Brah- man, of beasts the goats. Hence they are the chief {muhhydh), because they were created from the mouth {mukhatah). Prom (his) breast, from (his) arms, he formed the Panchadasa {stoma). After it were created the god Indra, the Trishtubh metre, the Saman (called) Brihat, of men the Rajanya, of beasts the sheep. Hence they are vigorous, because they were created from vigour. Prom (his) middle he formed the Saptadasa {stoma). After it were created the gods (called) the Visvedevas, the Jagatl metre, the Saman called the Yairupa, of men the Vaisya, of beasts kine. Hence they are to be eaten, because they were created from the receptacle of food. Wherefore they are more numerous than others, for the most numerous deities were created after (the Saptadasa). Prom his foot he formed the Ekavimsa {stoma). After it were created the Anushtubh metre, the Saman called Yairaja, of men the S'udra, of beasts the horse. Hence theso two, both the horse and the S'udra, are transporters of (other) creatures. Hence (too) the S'udra is incapacitated for sacrifice, because no deities were created after (the Ekavimsa). Hence (too) these two subsist by their feet, for they were created from the foot.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 17 Sect. III. — Citations from the S’atapatha Brdhmana, the Taittirlya Brdhmana, the Vujasaneyi Sanhita, and the Atharva-veda. The following texts belong to the second class — i.e., that of those which recognize a distinct origination of the castes, but describe their creation differently from the Purusha Sukta : S'. P. Br. ii. 1, 4, 11 ff. — “Bhur ” iti vai Prajdpatir imam ajanayata “bhuvah ” ity antariJcsham “ svar” iti divam \ etdvad vai idam sarvaih ydvad ime lokah \ sarvena eva adhlyate | “bhur” iti vai Prajdpatir brahma ajanayata “ bhuvah ” iti tcshattram “ svar ” iti visam | etdvad vai idam sarvaih ydvad brahma kshattraih vit [ sarvena eva adhlyate | “ bhur ” iti vai Prajdpatir atmanam ajanayata “ bhuvah ” iti prajdih “svar” iti pasun | etdvad vai idam sarvaih ydvad dtmd prajdh pasavah | sarvena eva adhlyate | “ (Uttering) ‘ bhuh,’ Prajapati generated this earth. (Uttering) ‘bhuvah,’ he generated the air, and (uttering) ‘svah,’ he generated the sky. This universe is co-extensive with these worlds. (The fire) is placed with the whole. Saying ‘ bhuh,’ Prajapati generated the Brahman ; (saying) ‘ bhuvah,” he generated the Kshattra ; (and saying) ‘ svah,’ he generated the Vis. All this world is so much as the Brah- man, Kshattra, and Vis. The fire is placed with the whole. (Saying) ‘bhuh,’ Prajapati generated himself; (saying) ‘bhuvah’ he generated offspring ; (saying) ‘ svah,’ he generated animals. This world is so much as self, offspring, and animals. (The fire) is placed with the whole.” Taitt. Br. iii. 12, 9, 2. — Sarvaih hedam brahmand haiva srishtam | rigbhyo jdtam vaisyam varnam dhuh | yajurvedam kshattriyasyahur yonim | sdmavedo bruhmandndm prasutih | purve purvebhyo vacha etad uchuh \ “ This entire (universe) has been created by Brahma. Men say that the Vaisya class was produced from rich- verses. They say that the Yajur-veda is the womb from which the Kshattriya was born. The Sama-veda is the source from which the Brahmans sprang. This word the ancients declared to the ancients.” To complete his account of the derivation of the castes from the 2 18 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Vedas, the author had only to add that the Sudras had sprung from the Atharvangirases (the Atharva-veda) ; but he perhaps considered that to assign such an origin to the servile order would have been to do it too great an honour. Yajasaneya Sanhita, xiv. 28 ff. (= Taittiriya Sanhita, iv. 3, 10, 1). — ekayd astuvata prajdh adhiyanta Prajupatir adliipatir dsit | tisribhir astuvata brahma asrijyata Brahmanaspatir adliipatir dsit \ pahchabhir astuvata bhutuny asrijyanta Bhutandmpatir adhipatir dsit | saptabhir astuvata sapta rishayo ' srijyanta Bhdtd adhipatir dsit | navabhir astu- vata pitaro ' srijyanta Aditir adhipatny dsit | ekddasabhir astuvata ritavo ' srijyanta drtavuh adhipatayah dsan \ trayodasabhir astuvata rndsd asrij- yanta samvatsaro ' dhipatir dsit | pahchadasabhir astuvata hshattram as- rijyata Indro ' adhipatir dsit \ saptadasabhir astuvata pasavo 'srijyanta Brihaspatir adhipatir dsit \ navadasabhir astuvata sudruryav asrijyetdm ahordtre adliipatni dstdm \ ehaviihsatyd astuvata elcasaphuh pasavo ' srij- yanta Varuno 'dhipatir dsit | trayoviihsatyd astuvata kshudrdh pasavo 'srijyanta Pushd adhipatir dsit | panchavimsatyd astuvata aranydh pasavo 'srijyanta Vdyur adhipatir dsit | saptaviiiisatyd astuvata dydvd- prithivi vyaitam | Vasavo Rudra Aditydh anuvyayan | te eva adhipa- tayah dsan | navavimsatyd astuvata vanaspatayo 'srijyanta Somo 'dhipatir dsit | ekatrimsata astuvata prajd asrijyanta yavds cha ayavas clxa adhi- patayah dsan | trayastrimsatd astuvata bhutuny asdmyan Prajdpatih Parameshthi adhipatir dsit | “ He lauded with one. Living beings were formed : Prajapati was the ruler. He lauded with three : the Brahman (Brahman) was created : Brahmanaspati was the ruler. He lauded with five : existing things were created : Bhutanampati was the ruler. He lauded with seven : the seven rishis were created : Dhatri was the ruler. He lauded with nine : the Fathers were created : Aditi was the ruler. He lauded with eleven : the seasons were created : the Artavas were the rulers. He lauded with thirteen : the months were created : the year was the ruler. He lauded with fifteen : the Kshattra (the Kshattriya) was created : Indra was the ruler. He lauded with seventeen : animals were created : Brihaspati was the ruler. He lauded with nineteen : the S’iidra and the Arya (Vaisya) were created : day and night were the rulers. He lauded with twenty-one : animals with undivided hoofs were created: Varuna was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-three: AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 19 small animals were created : Pushan was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-five : wild animals were created : Yayu was the ruler (compare E.Y. x. 90, 8). He lauded with twenty-seven : heaven and earth sepa- rated : Yasus, Rudras, andAdityas separated after them: they were the rulers. He lauded with twenty-nine : trees were created : Soma was the ruler. He lauded with thirty-one : living beings were created : The first and second halves of the month 31 were the rulers. He lauded with thirty-one : existing things were tranquillized : Prajapati Pa- rameshthin was the ruler.” This passage is explained in the S'atapatha Brahmana viii. 4, 3, 1 ff. The following text is of a somewhat mystical description ; but appears to intimate a distinction in nature between the different castes corresponding to that of the gods with whom they are associated : S'. P. Br. xiv. 4, 2, 23 (= BrihadaranyakaUpanishad, i. 4, llff. (p. 235). — Brahma vai idam agre dsid ekam eva\\ tad ekam san na vyabhavat \ | tat sreyo rupam aty asrijata kshattram yuny etdni devatrd kshattrdni Indro Varunah Somo Rudrah Parjanyo Yanio Mrityur Isdnah iti \ tasmut kshattrdt par am ndsti | tasmdd brdhmanah kshattriydd adhastdd update rdjasuye kshattre era tad yaso dadhati | sd eshd kshattrasya yonir yad brahma | tasmdd yadyapi rdjd paramatum gachhati brahma era antatah upanisrayati svdm yonim \ yah u ha enam hinasti svdm sa yonim riclihati | sapdplydn bhavati yathd sreyunsam himsitvd | 24. Sa na era vyabhavat | sa visam asrijata yuny etdni deva-jdtdni ganasah dkhydyante vasavo rudrdh ddityuh visvedevdh marutah iti \ 25. Sa na eva vyabhavat | sa saudram varnam asrijata pushanam \ iyam vai pusha iyaih hi idam sarvaih pushy ati yad idam kincha | 26. Sa na eva vyabhavat \ tat sreyo rupam aty asrijata dharmam \ tad etat kshattrasya kshattram yad dhar- mah | tasmdd dharmut param ndsti | atho aballydn baliyamsam dsam- sate dharmena yathd rdjnd evam | yo vai sa dharmah satyaih vai tat | tasmdt satyaih vadantam dhur “ dharmam vadati ” iti | dharmam vd 31 The Taittirlya Sanhita reads ydvdh and ayavdh (instead of yavah and ayavdh as in the Vajasaneyi Sanhita) and in another passage, v. 3, 4, 5 (as I learn from Prof. Aufrecht), explains these terms to mean respectively months and half months (mdsd mi yavah ardhamasah ayavah), whilst the commentator on the V. S. understands them to mean the first and second halves of the month, in accordance with the S'.P. B. yiih 4, 3, 18, and viii. 4, 2, 11 ( purvapaksha vai yavah aparapaksha ayavdh | te hi idam sarvaih yuvate chayuvate cha) \ Prof. Aufrecht also points out that ydva is ex- plained in Katyayana’s S rauta Sutras, iv. 11, 8, as equivalent to yavamayam apupam , “ a cake of barley.” 20 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN vadantam “ satyam vadati” iti \ etad hy eta etad ubhayam bhavati \ 27. Tad etad brahma hshattram vit sudrah \ tad Agnind eva deveshu brahmubhavad brdhmano manushyeshu kshattriyena kshattriyo vaisyena •caisyali sudrena sudrah | tasmad Agndv eva deveshu lokam ichhante brdhmane manushyeshu | etubhyam hi rupabhydm brahma abhavat | 23. “ Brahma (here, according to the commentator, existing in the form of Agni, and representing the Brahman caste 32) was formerly this (universe), one only. Being one, it did not develope. It energetically created an excellent form, the Xshattra, viz., those among the gods who are powers ( kshattrdni ), India, Yaruna, Soma, Eudra, Paijanya, Yama, Hrityu, Isana. Hence nothing is superior to the Xshattra. Therefore the Brahman sits below the Xshattriya at the rajasuya-sacri- fice; he confers that glory on the Xshattra (the royal power).33 This, the Brahma, is the source of the Xshattra. Hence, although the king attains supremacy, he at the end resorts to the Brahma as his source. Whoever destroys him (the Brahman) destroys his own source. He becomes most miserable, as one who has injured a superior. 24. He did not develope. He created the Yis — viz., those classes of gods who are designated by troops, Yasus, Eudras, Adityas, Visvedevas, Haruts. 25. He did not develope. He created the Sudra class, Pushan. This earth is Pushan: for she nourishes all that exists. 26. He did not develope. He energetically created an excellent form, Justice ( Bharma ). This is the ruler ( kshattra ) of the ruler ( kshattra ), namely, Justice. Hence nothing is superior to justice. Therefore the weaker seeks (to overcome) the stronger by justice, as by a king. This justice is truth. In consequence they say of a man who speaks truth, ‘ he speaks 32 Atra yad aima-sabdenoktam srashtri Brahma tad Agnim srishtva agre Agni-ru- pdpannam Brahmana-jaty-abhimanavad asmin vakye Brahma-sabdenabhidhlyate | 33 This rendering of the last few words is suggested hy Professor Aufrecht. The commentators understand them to mean that the Brahmans give the king their own glory (that of being a Brahman) : and they refer to a formula by which at the rajasuya- sacrifice the king, after addressing the priest as Brahman, is addressed in return with the word “ Thou, king, art a Brahman” (tvaih rdjan brahmasi), etc. See the Taittiriya Sanhita i. 8, 16, 1, where the commentator remarks . “As in common life domestic priests and others, sitting below a king seated on his throne after his return from con- quering a foreign territory, address him with many benedictions and eulogies, so here too service is presented. By this benedictory service the power of cursing and showing kindness existing in the Brahmans is transferred to the king.” Reference is then made to the passage before us, as noticing this custom. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 21 justice;’ or of a man who is uttering justice, ‘he speaks truth.’ For this is both of these. 27. This is the Brahma, Kshattra, Vis, and Sudra. Through Agni it became Brahma among the gods, the Brah- man among men, through the (divine) Kshattriya a (human) Kshat- triya, through the (divine) V'aisya a (human) Vaisya, through the (divine) Sudra a (human) Sudra. Wherefore it is in Agni among the gods and in a Brahman among men, that they seek after an abode.” Taittiriya Brahmana, i. 2, 6, 7. — Daivyo vai varno brdhmanah | asuryyo sudrah. “ The Brahman caste is sprung from the gods ; the Sudra from the Asuras.” Taittiriya Brahmana, iii. 2, 3, 9. — Kdmarn eva ddru-pdtrena duhyat \ sudrah eva na duhyat \ asato vai esha sambhuto yat sudrah | ahavir eva tad ity dhur yat sudro dogdhi iti j agnihotram eva na duhyat sudrah \ tad hi na utpunanti | yadd Ichalu vai pavitram atyeti atha tad havir iti \ “ Let him at his will milk out with a wooden dish. But let not a Sudra milk it out. For this Sudra has sprung from non-existence. They say that that which a Sudra milks out is no oblation. Let not a Sudra milk out the Agnihotra. For they do not purify that. When that passes beyond the filter, then it is an oblation.” Atharva-veda, iv. 6, 1. — Brdhmano jajne prathamo dasasirsho dasus- yah | sa somam prathamah papau sa chahlrdrasam visharn | “The Brahman was born the first, with ten heads and ten faces. He first drank the soma; he made poison powerless.” As the description (which is, perhaps, a fragment of a longer account), stops short here, we are left in the dark as to the author’s ideas about the creation of the other castes. It would have interested us to know how many heads and faces he would have assigned to the other three castes. The student of Indian poetry is aware that the giant Ravana is represented in the Ramayana both as a Brahman and as having ten heads. As implying a separate origination of the Rajanya caste, the fol- lowing text also may find a place here : Taittiriya Sanhita, ii. 4, 13, 1. — Deed vai rdjanydj jdyamdnud abi- bhayuh \ tarn antar eva santaih du,mnu ' paumbhan | sa vai esho ’ pobdho jdyate yad rdjanyo \ yad vai esho ’ napobdho juyeta vrittrun ghafiis charet | yam ha may eta rdjanyam “ anapobdho juyeta vrittrun ghams chared ” iti tasmai dam aindra-bdrliaspatyaih cliarum nirvapet I aindro vai rdjanyo 22 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Irahma Brihaspatih \ brahmand eva enafh ddmno ' pombhandd munchati | hiranmayam duma dakshina sukshdd eva enarh daihno ’ pombhandd mun- chati | “ The gods were afraid of the Raj any a when he was in the womb. They bound him with bonds when he was in the womb. Con- sequently this Rajanya is born bound. If he were bom unbound he would go on slaying his enemies. In regard to whatever Rajanya any one desires that he should be born unbound, and should go on slaying his enemies, let him offer for him this Aindra-Barhaspatya oblation. A Rajanya has the character of Indra, and a Brahman is Brihaspati. It is through the Brahman that anyone releases the Rajanya from his bond. The golden bond, a gift, manifestly releases from the bond that fetters him.” In the following text of the Atharva-veda, xv. 8, 1, a new account is given of the origin of the Raj any as : So Wajyata tato rdjanyo Jdyata | “He (the Vratya) became filled with passion: thence sprang the Rajanya.” And in the following paragraph (A. V. xv. 9, 1 ff) we have the same origin ascribed to the Brahman also : Tadyasya evaiii vidvdn vrdtyo rdjno 'tithir grihdn agachhet sreydmsam enarn dtmano mdnayet | tathd kshattrdya ndvrischate tatha rdshtrdya ndvrischate \ ato vai Irahma cha kshattram cha udatishthatdm | te abru- tdm “ kam pravisava ” iti | “Let the king to whose house the Yratya who knows this, comes as a guest, cause him to be respected as superior to himself. So doing he does no injury to his royal rank, or to his realm. Prom him arose the Brahman (Brahman) and the Kshattra (Kshattriya). They said, ‘ Into whom shall we enter,’ etc.” Sect. IV. — Further Quotations from the Taittiriya Brdhmana, Sanhitd, and Aranyaka, and from the S’atapatha Brdhmana. The following passages belong to the third of the classes above ad- verted to, as in the descriptions they give of the creation, while they refer to the formation of men, they are silent on the subject of any separate origination of castes : AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 23 Taittirlya Brahmana, ii. 3, 8, 1. — Prajdpatir akumayata “ prajdyeya ” iti | sa tapo ’ tcpyata | so ’ntarvdn abhavat | sa haritah sydvo ’bhavat | tasmdt strl antarvatni harinl satl sydvd bhavati \ sa vijdyamdno garbhena atamyat j sa tuntah hrishna-sydvo ’ bhavat \ tasmdt tdntah krislinah sydvo bhavati | tasya asur eva ajlvat | 2. Tena asund asurdn asrijata | tad asurdnam asuratvaih | ya evam asurdnam asuratvaih veda asumun eva bhavati \ na enam asur jahdti \ so ’surdn srishtva pita iva amanyata \ tad arm pitrin asrijata [ tat pitrindm pitritvam \ ya evam pitrindm pitritvam veda pita iva eva svdnam bhavati (3) yanty asya pitaro havam | sa pitrin srishtva ’ manasyat | tad anu manushydn asrijata | tad manu- shydndm manushyatvam | yah evam manushydndm manushyatvam veda manasvi eva bhavati na enam manur jahdti | tasmai manushydn sasri- jdndya diva devatrd abhavat | tad anu devan asrijata | tad devanam devatvam \ ya evam devanam devatvaiii veda diva ha eva asya devatrd bhavati | tdni vai etdni chatvdri ambhdmsi devah manushydh pitaro ’ surah, | teshu sarveshu ambho nahhah iva bhavati \ “Prajapati desired, ‘may I propagate.’ He practised austerity. He became pregnant. He became yellow-brown.34 Hence a woman when pregnant, being yellow, becomes brown. Being pregnant with a foetus, be became exhausted. Being exhausted, he became blackish-brown. Hence an exhausted person becomes blackish-brown. His breath be- came alive. 2. With that breath (asu) he created Asuras. Therein con- sists the Asura-nature of Asuras. He who thus knows this Asura- nature of Asuras becomes a man possessing breath. Breath does not forsake him. Having created the Asuras, he regarded himself as a father. After that he created the Fathers (Pitris). That constitutes the fatherhood of the Fathers. He who thus knows the fatherhood of the Fathers, becomes as a father of his own : (3) the Fathers resort to his oblation. Having created the Fathers, he reflected. After that he created men. That constitutes the manhood of men. He who knows the manhood of men, becomes intelligent. Hind 33 does not forsake him. To him, when he was creating men, day appeared in the heavens. After that he created the gods. This constitutes the godhead of the gods. To him who thus knows the godhead of the gods, day appears in 34 NTla-sveta-misra-varnah, “ of a mixed blue and white colour,” says the Commentator. 35 Manuh = manana-saktih, “ the power of thinking.” Comm. 24 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, the heavens. These are the four streams,36 viz., gods, men, Fathers, and Asuras. In all of these water is like the air.” S'atapatha Brahmana, vii. 5, 2, 6. — Prajupatir vai idam agre dsld ehah eva | so ’ kdmayata “ annam srijeya prajdyeya ” iti \ sa prdnebhyah eva adhi pasun niramimita manasah purusharn chaJcshusho 'scam prdniid gum srotrudavim vdcho jam | tad yad endn pranebhyo 'dhi niramimita tasmud uhuh, “ prunuh paiavah" iti \ mano vai prdnunum prathamam \ tad yad manasah purusharn niramimita tasmud uhuh “ purushah pratha- mah pasundiii vlryyavattamah ” iti \ mano vai sarve prunuh \ manasi hi sarve prunuh pratishthitdh | tad yad manasah purusharn niramimita tasmud uhuh 11 purushah sarve pasavah ” iti | purushasya hy ete sarve lhavanti | “Prajapati was formerly this (universe), one only. He desired, ‘let me create food, and he propagated.’ He formed animals from his breaths, a man from his soul, a horse from his eye, a bull from his breath, a sheep from his ear, a goat from his voice. Since he formed animals from his breaths, therefore men say, ‘ the breaths are animals.’ The soul is the first of the breaths. Since he formed a man from his soul, therefore they say, ‘ man is the first of the animals, and the strongest.’ The soul is all the breaths; for all the breaths depend upon the soul. Since he formed man from his soul, therefore they say, ‘ man is all the animals;’ for all these are man’s.” S'. P. Br. xiv. 4, 2, 1 (= Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, p. 125). — Atmd eva idam agre dslt purusha-vidhah \ so 'nuvlhshya na anyad dtmano ’pasyat \ “so ’ ham asmi” ity agre vyuharat \ tato ’haih-ndmd abhavat \ tasmud apy etarhy umantrito “'ham ayam” ity eva agre uktvd atha anyad ndma prabrute yad asya bhavati | 2. Sa yat purvo 'smut sarvasmdt sarvun pdpmanah aushat tasmut purushah | oshati ha vai sa tarn yo ’ smut pur- ram bubhushati yah evaih veda | 3. So 'bibhet \ tasmud ehd/cl bibheti \ 35 The Commentary not very satisfactorily explains this as meaning, “ All these four abodes of the gods, etc., are like waters— i.e., suited to yield enjoyment, as ponds, rivers, etc., are fit for bathing, drinking,” etc. The phrase is repeated in the Vishnu Parana, i. 5 (vol. i., p. 79, of Dr. Hall’s edition) ; and in his note Professor Wilson says ambhamsi “is also a peculiar and probably a mystic term.” It is ex- plained in the Vayu Parana, as will be seen further on. The last words of the quo- tation from the Brahmana are obscure. In another passage of the same work (iii. 18, 1, 2) the terms ambhas, nabhas, and mahas, are declared to denote respectively “earth,” “air,” and “sky” ( . . . ayam vai lolio 'mbhamsi . . . antariksham vai nabhamsi . . . asau vai loko mahamsi). AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 25 sa ha ay am ikshdnchakre yad “ mad anyad nusti kasmdd nu libhemi” Hi | tatah eva asya bhayaih viydya \ kasmdd hy abheshyat \ dvitiyud vai bhayam bhavati | 4. Sa vai naiva reme | tasmad ekdkt na ramate | sa dvitiyam aichhat \ sa ha etdvdn asa yathd stri-pumuiiisau samparishvak- tau | 5. Sa imam eva dtmdnam dvedha ’ pdtayat \ tatah patih patni clia abhavatdm [ tasmad “ idarn ardhavrigalam iva svah ” iti ha sma dha Ydj- navalkyah \ tasmad akdsah striyd puryate eva | tdm samabhavat | tato manushydh ajdyanta | 6. Sd u ha iyam ikshdnchakre “ katham nu md dtmanah eva janayitvd sambhavati hanta tiro ’ sdni ” iti | 7. Sd gaur abhavat vrishabhah itaras turn sam eva abhavat \ tato guvah ajdyanta | 8. Vadava Hard abhavad asvavrishah itarah gardabhi Hard gardabhah Haras tdm sam eva abhavat | tatah ekasapham ajdyata | 9. Ajd Hard abhavad vastah itarah avir Hard meshah itarah | tdm sam eva abhavat tato ’javayo ’jdyanta | evam eva yad idaih kihcha mithunam d pippilikd- bhyas tat sarvam asrijata |37 “This universe was formerly soul only, in the form of Purusha. Looking closely, he saw nothing hut himself (or soul). He first said, ‘ This is I.’ Then he became one having the name of I. Hence even now a man, when called, first says, ‘this is I,’ and then declares the other name which he has. 2. Inasmuch as he, before ( purvah ) all this, burnt up ( aushat ) all sins, he (is called) purusha. The man who knows this burns up the person who wishes to be before him. 3. He was afraid. Hence a man when alone is afraid. This (being) considered that ‘ there is no other thing but myself : of what am I afraid ?’ Then his fear de- parted. For why should he have feared? It is of a second person that people are afraid. 4. He did not enjoy happiness. Hence a person when alone does not enjoy happiness. He desired a second. He was so much as a man and a woman when locked in embrace. 5. He caused this same self to fall asunder into two parts. Thence arose a husband and a wife.38 Hence Yajvanalkya has said that ‘this one’s self is like the half 39 of a split pea.’ Hence the void is filled up by 37 This passage has been already translated by Mr. Colebrooke, Essays i. 64, as well as by Dr. Roer, in the Bibliotheca Indica. 33 Manu and S'atarupa, according to the Commentator. 33 Compare Taitt. Br. iii. 3, 3, 5. Atho arddho vai esha dtmano yat patni | “ Now a wife is the half of one’s self and ibid. iii. 3, 3, 1 : Ayajno vai esha yo ’patnikah \ na prajdh prajdyeran | “ The man who has no wife is unfit to sacrifice. No children will be born to him.” “We must not, however, suppose from these passages tfiat the 26 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, ■woman.10 He cohabited with her. From them men were bom. 6. She reflected, ‘ how does he, after having produced me from himself, cohabit with me? Ah ! let me disappear.’ 7. She became a cow, and the other a bull ; and he cohabited with her. From them kine were produced. 8. The one became a mare, the other a stallion, the one a she-ass, the other a male-ass. He cohabited with her. From them the class of animals with undivided hoofs was produced. The one became a she-goat, the other a he-goat, the one a ewe, the other a ram. He cohabited with her. From them goats and sheep were produced. In this manner pairs of all creatures whatsoever, down to ants, were created.” The next passage describes men as descendants of Yivasvat, or the Sun, without specifying any distinction of classes : Taittirlya Sanhita vi. 5, 6, 1 f. — Aditih putrakumd sddhyebhyo deve- hhyo brahmaudanam apachat \ tasyai uchchheshanam adaduh \ tat prdsnat sd reto ’ dhatta | tasyai chatvdrah Aditydh ajdyanta \ su dvitlyam apa- chat | sd ’ manyata “ uchchheshandd me ime ’jnata \ yad agre prasishyami ito me vaslydihso janishyante ” iti | sd ’gre prdsnat sd reto ’ dhatta tasyai vyriddham dndam ajuyata | sd Adityebhyah eva tritlyam apachat llbhogdya me idarn sruntam astv ” iti | te ’bruvan “ varam vrindmahai yo ’tojdyd- tai asmdJcaiii sa elco ’ sat \ yo ’ sya prajdydm ridhydtai asmdkam bhogdya bhavdd” iti \ tato Vivasvan Adityo ’jdyata | tasya vai iyam prajd yad manushyuh \ tusv elcah eva riddho yo yajate sa devdndm bhogdya bhavati \ “ Aditi, desirous of sons, cooked a lirahmaudana oblation for the gods the Sadhyas. They gave her the remnant of it. This she ate. She conceived seed. Four Adityas were born to her. She cooked a second (oblation). She reflected, ‘ from the remains of the oblation these sons have been born to me. If I shall eat (the oblation) first, more brilliant estimation in which women were held hy the authors of the Brahmanas was very high, as there are other texts in which they are spoken of disparagingly; such as the following : Taitt. Sanh. vi. 5, 8, 2. — Sa sotno natishthata slrlbhyo grihyamanah \ tam ghritawi vajraih krilva ’ghnan tam nirindrigam bhutain agrihnan \ tasmdt striyo nirindriya adayadlr api papal pumsa upastilaram vadanli | “ Soma did not abide, when being poured out to women. Making that butter a thunderbolt they smote it. They poured it out when it had become powerless. Hence women, powerless, and portionless, speak more humbly than even a poor man.” (Compare the quotation in the Commentary on the Taitt. Sanhita, Vol. i. p. 996.) Taitt. Sanh. vi. 5, 10, 3. Tasmdt striyam jdtam parasyanti ut pumdmsam haranli | “ Hence they reject a female (child) when horn, and take up a male.” (Compare Nirukta, iii. 4.) 40 Compare Taitt. Br. iii. 3, 10, 4. Prajaya hi manushyah purnah, “ For by off- spring a man is completed.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 27 (sons) will be bom to me. She ate it first ; she conceived seed ; an im- perfect egg was produced from her. She cooked a third (oblation) for the Adityas, (repeating the formula) ‘ may this religious toil have been undergone for my enjoyment.’ The Adityas said, ‘ Let us choose a boon : let any one who is produced from this be ours only ; let anyone of his progeny who is prosperous be for us a source of enjoyment.’ In con- sequence the Aditya Yivasvat was born. This is his progeny, namely men.41 Among them he alone who sacrifices is prosperous, and be- comes a cause of enjoyment to the gods.”42 The passages next following do not specify separately the creation of men (who must, however, be understood as included along with other beings under the designation prajah, “ offspring,” or “ creatures,”) and therefore afford less distinct evidence that their authors did not hold the fourfold origin of mankind. The first of these extracts is especially interesting, both on account of its own tenor, and because (along with Taitt. Br. ii. 3, 8, 1 ff. quoted in p. 23) it contains the germ of one of the Puranic accounts of the creation which will be adduced in a subsequent section. Taitt. Br. ii. 2, 9, 1 ff. — Idafh vai agre naiva kinchana dsit \ na dyaur asld na prithivl na antariksham | tad asad eva sad mano ’ kuruta “ sydm ” iti | tad atapyata \ tasmdt tapanud dhumo jdyata | tad Ihuyo ’ tapyata tasmdt tapanud Agnir ajdyata \ tad Ihuyo ’ tapyata | 2. Tasmdt tapandj jyotir ajdyata \ tad lliuyo ’ tapyata \ tasmdt tapanud archir ajdyata \ tad Ihuyo 'tapyata \ tasmdt tapanud marichayo jdy anta | tad lliuyo’ tapyata \ tasmdt tapanud udaruh ajdyanta | tad Ihuyo ’ tapyata \ tad abhrarn iva 41 Compare Taitt. Br. i. 8, 8, 1. Adityah vai prajah , “Creatures are descended from Aditi.” 42 This story is told also, hut with more detail of names and somewhat differently, in Taitt. Br. i. 1,9, 10 ff. . Aditih putrahcama sddhyebhyo devebhyo bralimaudanam apachat | tasyai uchchheshanam adaduh | tat prasnat \ sa reto ’dhatta | tasyai Dhata cha Aryamd cha ajayetam | sa dvitTyam apachat tasyai uchchheshanam adaduh \ tat prasnat \ sa reto 'dhatta | tasyai Mitras cha Varunas cha ajayetam \ sa triliyam apachat | tasyai uchchheshanam adaduh \ tat prasnat | sa reto 'dhatta [ tasyai Aik- s'ascha Bhagas cha ajayetam | sa chaturtham apachat | taysai uchchheshanam ada- duh | tat prasnat \ sa reto 'dhatta tasyai Irdras cha Vivasvdmi cha ajayetam \ “ Aditi, desirous of sons, cooked a Brahmaudana oblation to the gods the Sadhyas. They gave her the remnant of it. She ate it. She conceived seed. Dhatri and Aryaman were horn to her.” She does the same thing a second time, when she hears Mitra and Varuna,— a third time, when she bears Amsa and Bhaga,— and a fourth time, when she bears Indra and Yivasvat. 28 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, samahanyata ] tad vastim abhinat | 3. Sa samudro ' bhavat | tasmat samu- drasya na pibanti | prajananam iva hi many ante | tasmat pasor jdyamdndd dpah purastud yanti | tad dasahotd anvasrijyata | Prajdpatir vai dasa- hotd | yak evarh tapaso vlryyam vidvdms tapyate bhavaty eva | tad vai ulam dpah salilam dslt | so 'rodlt Prajdpatih (4) 11 sa lcasmai ajhi yady asydpratishthdydh " iti | yad apsv avdpadyata sa prithivy abhavat \ yad vyamrishta tad antarilcsham abhavat | yad urdhvam udamrishta sd dyaur abhavat \ yad arodlt tad anayoh rodastvam | 5. Yah evarh veda na asya grihe rudanti \ etad vai eshdrh lohandm janma | ya evam eshdm lokdndih janma veda na eshu lohesho drttim drchliati | sa imam pratishthdm avin- data | sa imam pratishthdm vittvd ahdmayata “ prajdyeya " iti \ satapo Hapyata \ so ’ ntarvdn abhavat | sa jaghanud asurdn asrijata | 6. Tebliyo mrinmaye pdtre ’ nnarn aduhat I yd asya sd tanur dslt tarn apdhata \ sd tamisrd ’ bhavat \ so ’ hdmayata 11 prajdyeya ” iti | sa tapo Hapyata | so ’ ntarvdn abhavat | sa prajanandd eva prajdh asrijata | tasmdd imdh bhuyishthuh | prajanandd liy endh asrijata \ 7. Tdbhyo durumayc pdtre payo ’ duhat \ yd asya sd tanur dslt tdm apdhata \ sa jyotsnd 'bhavat \ so 'lcdmayata “ prajdyeya" iti | sa tapo 'tapyata so 'ntarvdn abhavat | sa upapahshubhydm eva ritun asrijata \ tebhyo rajate pdtre ghritam aduhat | yd asya sd tanur dslt (8) tdm apdhata | so ’ ho-rdtrayoh sandhir abhavat | so 'hdmayata “ prajdyeya" iti \ sa tapo' tapyata \ so 'ntarvdn abhavat | sa muhhdd devun asrijata | tebhyo liarite pdtre somam aduhat | yd asya sd tanur dslt tdm apdhata | tad ahar abhavat \ 9. Ete vai Prajupater dohah | ya evarh veda duhe eva prajdh | u diva vai no ’bhud” iti tad devdnam devatvaih \ ya evarh devdndrh dcvatvam veda devavdn eva bhavati | etad vai aho-rdtrdndrh janma \ ya evam aho-rdtrdnum janma veda na aho-rdtreshu drttim drchhati \ 10. Asato 'dhi mano ' srijyata | manah Prajdpatirn asri- jata | Prajdpatih prajdh asrijata | tad vai idam manasy eva paramam pratishthitam yadidam hihcha \ tad etat svovasyasam ndma Brahma \ vyachhantl vyuclihanti asmai vasyasl vasyasl vyuchhati prajuyate prajayd pasubhili pra parameshthino mdtrdrn upnoti ya evarh veda | “ At first this (universe) was not anything. There was neither sky, nor earth, nor air. Being non-existent, it resolved ‘ let me be.’ It became fervent. 43 From that fervour smoke was produced. It again 43 The word thus rendered is atapyata, which has the sense of “ being heated ” as well as “ practising austere abstraction.” I have purposely given an equivocal rendering, which may bear either sense. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 29 became fervent. From that fervour fire was produced. It again became fervent. From that fervour light was produced. It again became fer- vent. From that fervour flame was produced. It again became fervent. From that fervour rays were produced. It again became fervent. From that fervour blazes 44 were produced. It again became fervent. It became condensed like a cloud. It clove its bladder. That became the sea. Hence men do not drink of the sea. For they regard it as like the place of generation. Hence water issues forth before an animal when it is being born. After that the Dasahotri (a particular formula) was created. Prajapati is the Dasahotri. That man suc- ceeds, who thus knowing the power of austere abstraction (or fervour), practises it. This was then water, fluid. Prajapati wept, (exclaiming), (4) ‘ For what purpose have I been born, if (I have been born) from this which forms no support ?’45 That which fell 46 into the waters became the earth. That which he wiped away, became the air. That which he wiped away, upwards, became the sky. From the circumstance that he wept ( arodit ), these two regions have the name of rodasi, (worlds). 5. They do not weep in the house of the man who knows this. This was the birth of these worlds. He who thus knows the birth of these worlds, incurs no suffering in these worlds. He obtained this (earth as a) basis. Having obtained (this earth as a) basis, he desired, ‘ Hay I be propagated.’ He practised austere fervour. He became pregnant. He created Asuras from his abdomen. 6. To them he milked out food in an earthen dish. He cast off that body of his. It became darkness.47 He desired, ‘ May I be propagated.’ He practised 44 Such is the sense the commentator gives to the word udarah , which he makes = ulvana-jvalah. Professor Roth (s. v.) explains the word as meaning “ fogs.” 45 This is the mode of rendering suggested to me by Professor Aufrecht. After “if” the Commentator supplies the words — “ from this non-existing earth I can create no living creature.” 46 “Prajapati’s tears,” etc., according to the commentator. 47 Compare S'. P. Br. xi. 1, 6, 8 : Atlio yo ’yam avail pranas tena asurdn asrijata | ie imam eva prithivhn abhipadya asrijyanta | tasmai sasrijdnaya tamali iva dsa | 9. So ’vet “ pdpmunarh vai asrikski yasmai me sasrijdnaya tamali iva abhud” iti | tamstatah eva papmana ’vidliyat | tatah eva te parabhavann ityddi ( “ Then he created the Asuras from this lower breath of his. It was only after reaching this earth that they were created. On him, as he continued to create, darkness fell. 9. He understood, ‘ I have created misery, since darkness has fallen upon me as I was creating.’ Then he pierced them with misery, and they in consequence succumbed,” etc. The word rendered in the text by “cast off” is applied in Taitt. Sanh. i. 5, 4, 1, to serpents 30 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, austere fervour. He became pregnant. He created living beings ( prajuh ) from his organ of generation. Hence they are the most nu- merous because he created them from his generative organ. 8. To them he milked out milk in a wooden dish. He cast off that body of his. It became moon-light. He desired, ‘ May I be propagated. He practised austere fervour. He became pregnant. He created the seasons from his armpits. To them he milked out butter in a silver dish. He cast off that body of his. It became the period which connects day and night. He desired, ‘ May I be propagated.’ He practised austere fervour. He became pregnant. He created the gods from his mouth.4e To them he milked out Soma in a golden dish. He cast off that body of his. It became day. 9. These are Prajapati’s milkings. He who thus knows milks out offspring. ‘ Day (diva) has come to us this (exclamation expresses) the godhead of the gods. He who thus knows the godhead of the gods, obtains the gods. This is the birth of days and nights. He who thus knows the birth of days and nights, incurs no suffering in the days and nights. 10. Mind (or soul, manas,) was created from the non-existent. Mind created Prajapati. Prajapati created offspring. All this, whatever exists, rests absolutely on mind. This is that Brahma called SVovasyasa.49 For the man who thus knows, (Ushas), dawning, dawning, dawns more and more bright ; he becomes prolific in offspring, and (rich) in cattle ; he obtains the rank of Parameshthin.” S'. P. Br. vi. 1, 2, 11. — Atho uliuh | “ Prajupatir eva imun lolcun srishtva prithivydm pratyatishthat | tasmai imuh oshadhayo 'unarm, apa- chyanta | tad asndt | sa garblii abhavat \ sa urdhvebhyah eva prunebhyo devan asrijata | ye ’ vanchah pranas tebhyo martyah prajuh ” iti | yata- mathd 'srijata tathu. 'srijata \ Prajdpatis tv eva idaih sarvam asrijata yad idaih kihcha \ “Wherefore they say, ‘Prajapati, having created these worlds, was shedding their old skins ( sarpah vai jiryanto ’manyanta . . . tato vai te jirnds tanur apaglmata ). 48 Compare S’. P. Br. xi. 1, 6, 7, quoted in the 4th Yol. of this work, p. 22 f. 43 The Commentator explains this word to mean “ that which each succeeding day becomes transcendently excellent (uttarottara-dine vasiyo ’tisaycna sreshtham). Here, he says, the highest and absolute Brahma is not meant, but mind, which has the form of Brahma, and, by means of the series of its volitions, is every successive moment more and more world-creating” (sankalpa-paramparayd pratikslianam utiarottard- dhika-jagat-srashtritvad idrig-Brahma-rupatvad manah prasastam | AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 31 supported upon the earth. For him these herbs were cooked as food. That (food) he ate. He became pregnant. He created the gods from his upper vital airs, and mortal offspring from his lower vital airs. In whatever way he created, so he created. But Prajapati created all this, whatever exists.’” S'. P. Br. x. 1, 3, 1. — Prajdpatih prajuh asrijata [ sa urdhvebhyali eva prdnebhyo devan asrijata | ye ’ vdnchah pranas tebhyo martydh prajdh | atlia urdhvam eva mrityum prajdbhyo 'ttdram asrijata \ “Prajapati created living beings. From his upper vital airs he created the gods ; from his lower vital airs mortal creatures. After- wards he created death a devourer of creatures.” Taitt. Ar. i. 23, 1. — Apo vai idam dsan salilam eva ] sa Prajdpatir ekah pushkara-parne samabliavat | tasya antar manasi kumah samavart- tata “ idam srijeyam ” iti \ tasmdd yad purusho manasd ' Ihigachhati tad vdchd vadati tat karmand. karoti | tad eshd 'bhyanuktd “ kdmas tad agre samavarttatddhi \ manaso retah prathamam yad dslt | 2. Sato bandhum asati niravindan hridi pratishyd kavayo manishd ” iti | up a evam tad upanam- ati yat-kdmo bhavati yah evam veda \ sa tapo ’ tapyata | sa tapas taptvd sariram adhunuta \ tasya yad mamsarn dsit tato ’ rundh Ketavo Vdtara- kandli rishayah udatishthan | 3. Ye naklids te Yaikhdnasuh \ ye balds te PdlakJiilydh \ yo rasah so ’ pdm antaratali kurrnam bhutam sarpantam tam abravlt “mama vai tvan-mdmsd samabhut” | 4. “ na" ity abravit “ purvam eva aham ilia dsam ” iti \ tat purushasya purushatvam iti \ sa “ sahasra-slrshd purushah sahasrukshah sahasra-pdd” bliutvd udatishthat | tam abravlt “ tvam ve (sic. me or vai ?) purvam samabhut tvam idam purvah kurushva ” iti [ sa itah uddya apo (5) ’njalind purastdd upudadliut “ eva hy eva ” iti \ tatah Adityah udatishthat \ sd prdchl dik \ atha Arunah Ketur dakshinatah upudadhad “ eva hy Ague” iti | tato vai Agnir udatishthat \ sd dakshina dik | atha Arunah Ketuh paschud upd- dadhud “ eva hi Vdyo ” iti \ 6. Tato Vdyur udatishthat \ sd pratichl dik | atha Arunah Ketur uttaratah upudadhad “ evd hi Indra ” iti \ tato vai Indrah udatishthat | sd udlchl dik \ atha Arunah Ketur madhye updd- adhud “ evd hi Pushann” iti \ tato vai Pushd udatishthat | sd iyam dik | 7. Atha Arunah Ketur uparishtdd upudadhad “ evd hidevdh ” iti j tato deva-manushydh pitaro gandharvupsarasas cha udatishthan \ sd ur- dhvd dik | yah vipruslio vi par dpatan tdbhyo 'surah rakshdmsi pisachds- cha udatishthan | tasmdt te pardbhavan viprudbhyo 'hi samabhavan | taa 32 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, cshd bhyanuktd (8) “ dpo ha yad brihatlr garbham uyan daksham dadhdndh janayantih svayambhum | tatah ime 'dhyasrijyanta sargdh | adbhyo vai idam samabhut | tasmdd idam sarvam Bralvna svayambhv ” iti | tasmdd idam sarvam sithilam iva adhruvam iva abhavat | Prajdpatir v&va tat \ atrnanu dtmdnam vidhaya tad eva anuprdvisat | tad eshd 'bhyanuktd (9) “ vidhaya lolcdn vidhaya bhutuni vidhaya sarvdh pradiso disascha \ Prajupatih prathamajdh ritasya dtmand ” tmdnam abhisaihvivesa ” iti | “This was water, fluid. Prajapati alone was produced on a lotus- leaf. Within, in his mind, desire arose, ‘Let me create this.’ Hence whatever a man aims at in his mind, he declares by speech, and performs by act.50 Hence this verse has been uttered, ‘ Desire formerly arose in it, which was the primal germ of mind, (2) (and which) sages, searching with their intellect, have discovered in the heart as the bond between the existent and the non-existent’ (R. Y. x. 129, 4). That of which he is desirous comes to the man who thus knows. He practised austere fervour. Having practised austere fervour, he shook his body. Prom its flesh the rishis (called) Arunas, Ketus, and Yatarasanas51 arose. 3. His nails became the Yaikhanasas, his hairs the Balakhilyas. The fluid (of his body became) a tortoise moving amid the waters.52 He said to him, ‘ Thou hast sprung from my skin and flesh.’53 4. ‘ Ho,’ replied the tortoise, ‘ I was here before.’ In that (in his having been ‘ before ’ purvarn ) consists the manhood of a man ( purusha ). Becoming ‘ a man ( purusha ) with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet ’ 60 Compare Taitt. S. vi. 3, 10, 4, (quoted by Roth. s. v. abhigam) yad vai hridayena abhigachhati taj jihvaya vadati | 61 They are mentioned again in Taitt. Ar. i. 24, 4. See Biihtlingk and Roth’s Lexicon s.v. Ketu (where the Aruna Ketus are stated to be a sort of superior beings or demons) ; Artharva-veda, xi. 10, 2 ; Weber's Indische Studien, ii. 177 ; and the verse of the M. Bh. xii. 774 : Arundh Ketavas chaiva svadhayena divaih gatah | “ By sacred study the Arunas and Ketus have ascended to heaven.” 52 The Sanskrit scholar will observe that the text here is rather obscure. It is either corrupt, elliptical, or grammaticaUy irregular. 53 Here the Sanskrit, if it be not corrupt, must be irregular and incorrect. On the style of the Aranyakas, see Mr. E. B. Cowell’s Preface to the KaushTtaki Upanishad, p. viii., where it is remarked: “The Aranyakas appear to belong to a class of San- skrit writings, whose history has not yet been thorougly investigated. Their style, if we may judge from that of the TaittirTya and KaushTtaki, is full of strange solecisms which sometimes half remind us of the gathas of the Lalita Vistara. The present Upanishad has many peculiar forms, some of which are common to both recensions, while others appear only in one. Such are : nishincha , in p. 10 ; praiti for prayanti, in p. 51 ; saihveiyan, in p. 56 ; veti for vyeti, in p. 78 ; adudham, in p. 89, etc AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 33 (R.Y. x. 90, 1), lie arose. Prajapati said to him, * Thou wert produced before me : do thou first make this.’ He took water from this (5) in the cavity of his two hands, and placed it on the east, repeating the text, ‘so he it, o Sun.’54 Prom thence the sun arose. That was the eastern quarter. Then Aruna Ketu placed (the water) to the south, saying, ‘ so be it,’ o Agni.’ Thence Agni arose. That was the southern quarter. Then Aruna Ketu placed (the water) to the west, saying ‘ so he it, o Yayu.’ 6. Thence arose Yayu. That was the western quarter. Then Aruna Ketu placed (the water) to the north, saying ‘ so be it, o Indra.’ Thence arose Indra. That is the northern quarter. Then Aruna Ketu placed (the water) in the centre, saying ‘ so be it, o Pushan.’ Thence arose Pushan. That is this quarter. 7. Then Aruna Ketu placed (the water) above, saying ‘ so be it, o gods.’ Thence arose gods, men, fathers, Gandharvas and Apsarases. That is the upper quarter. Prom the drops which fell apart arose the Asuras, Eakshases, and Pisachas. Therefore they perished, because they were produced from drops. Hence this text has been uttered ; (8) ‘ when the great waters became pregnant, containing wisdom, and generating Svayambhu, from them were created these creations. All this was produced from the waters. Therefore all this is Brahma Svayambhu.’ Hence all this was as it were loose, as it were unsteady. Prajapati was that. Having made himself through himself, he entered into that. Where- fore this verse has been uttered ; (9) * Having formed the world, having formed existing things and all intermediate quarters and quarters, Prajapati, the firstborn of the ceremonial, entered into himself with himself.’ ” Prom an examination of the legends contained in the Brahmanas, of which some specimens have just been given, it appears (1) that they are generally, if not always, adduced, or invented, with the view of showing the origin, or illustrating the efficacy, of some particular ceremony which the writer wished to explain or recommend ; (2) that the accounts which they supply of Prajapati’s creative operations are 54 The formula is in the original eva hy eva. The Commentator says that the first word means “ objects of desire to he obtained,” and that the second eva signifies “the moving (Sun) the sense of the entire formula being, “ Thou, o Sun, art thyself all objects of desire.” The sis formulas here introduced had previously occurred at the close of a preceding section, i. 20, 1. 3 34 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, various and even inconsistent; and (3) that they are the sources of many of the details which are found in a modified form in the cos- mogonies of the Puranas. When we discover in the most ancient Indian writings such dif- ferent and even discrepant accounts of the origin of man, all put forth with equal positiveness, it is impossible to imagine that any uniform explanation of the diversity of castes could have been received at the period when they were composed, or to regard any of the texts which have been cited as more orthodox and authoritative than the rest. Even, therefore, if we should suppose that the author of the Purusha Sukta meant to represent the four castes as having literally sprung from separate parts of Purusha’s body, it is evident that the same idea was not always or even generally adopted by those who followed him, as a revealed truth in which they were bound to acquiesce. In fact, nothing is clearer than that in all these cos- mogonies, the writers, while generally assuming certain prevalent ideas as the basis of their descriptions, gave the freest scope to their individual fancy in the invention of details. In such circumstances, perfect coincidence cannot be expected in the narratives. We shall hereafter see that the Puranic writers reproduce some of these discrepancies in the traditions which descended to them from earlier generations, and add many new inconsistencies of their own, which they themselves, or their commentators, endeavour to explain away by the assumption that the accounts so differing relate to the occurrences of different Kalpas or Manvantaras (great mundane periods). Put of a belief in any such Kalpas or Manvantaras no trace is to be found in the hymns or Erahmanas : and, as we shall hereafter see, they must be held to be the inventions of a later age. The real explanation of these differences in the Brahmanas is that the writers did not con- sider themselves (as their successors held them) to be infallibly in- spired, and consequently were not at all studious to avoid in their narratives the appearance of inconsistency with the accounts of their predecessors. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES 35 Sect. V. — Manu’s Account of the Origin of Castes. I shall first quote a few verses from the beginning of Manu’s account of the creation : i. 8. So ’ Ihidhydya sarlrdt scat sisrilcshur vividlulh prajdh | apa eva sasarjddau tdsu vijam avdsrijat | 9. Tad andam dbhavad liaimam sahas- ramsu-sama-prabham \ tasmin jajne svayam Brahma sarva-loha-pitd- mahah | 10. Apo ndrd iti prohtdh dpo vai narasunavah | tali gad asydyanam purvam tena Ndrdyanah smritah | 11. Yat tat Icdranam avyaktaih nityaih sad-asaddtmakam | tad-visrishtah sa purusho loJc- Brahmeti hirttyate \ 12. Tasminn ande sa bhagavdn ushitvd parivate saram | svayam evutmano dhydnut tad andam aharod dvidhd | 53 “ 8. He (the self-existent) having felt desire,56 and willing to create various living beings from his own body, first created the waters, and threw into them a seed. 9. That seed became a golden egg, of lustre equal to the sun ; in it he himself was born as Brahma, the parent of all the worlds. 10. The waters are called ndrdh, for they are sprung from Nara ; and as they were his first sphere of motion (ayana= path), he is therefore called NdrdyanaY 11. Produced from the impercep- tible, eternal, existent and non-existent, cause, that male ( purusha ) is celebrated in the world as Brahma. 12. After dwelling for a year in the egg, the glorious being, himself, by his own contemplation, split it in twain.” After a description of various other preparatory creative acts (vv. 13-30) the author proceeds in vv. 31 ff. to inform us how the four castes were produced : i. 31. Lohdndfh tu vivriddhyartham muhlialdhuru-padatah | brdhma~ nam kshattriyam vaisyam sudram cha niravarttayat | 32. Dvidhd hrit- vdtmano deham ardhena purusho ’bhavat \ ardhena ndri tasydrh sa Vird- jam asrijat prabhuh \ 33. Tapas taptvd ’ srijad yarn tu sa svayam purusho 65 The ideas in this passage are derived (with modifications expressive of the theories current in the author’s own age) from the S'atapatha Brahmana, xi. 1,6, 1 ff. (see vol. iv. of this work, p. 21 f.) ; or from some other similar account in another Brah- mana. 56 See S'. P. Br. i. 7, 4, 1 : Prajdpatir ha vai svdih dulntaram abhidadhyau. 67 In the M. Bh. iii. 12952, Krishna says: apam ndrdh iti pura sa/njna-karma leritam mayb \ tena Narayano py ukto mama tat tv ayanaih sada \ “ The name of ndrdh was formerly assigned by me to the waters: hence I am also called Narayana, for there has always been my sphere of motion.” 36 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Virdt | tarn mam vittusya sarvasya srashtdraih dvija-sattamdh | 34. Aham prajdh sisrilcshus tu tapas taptvd suduscharam | patin prajdnam asrjam maharshln udito dasa \ 35. Marichim Atryangirasau Pulastyam Pulahaih Kratum \ Prachetasam Vasishtham cha Bhrigum Ndradam era cha | 36. Ete Manums tu saptdnydn asrijan bhuritejasak | devdn devanikdydihs cha maharshlms chdmitaujasah | 37. Taksha-rahhah-pisd- chdms cha gandharvdpsaraso ’ surdn \ ndgdn sarpdn suparndms cha pi- trindm cha prithaggandn | 38. Vidyuto ' sani-meghdmk cha rohitendra- dhanumsi cha | tilled nirghdta-ketums cha jyotimshy uchchavachdni cha \ 39. Kinnardn vdnardn matsydn vividhufiis cha vihangamdn | pasun mrigdn manushydtiis cha vydldms chobhayatodatah \ 40. Erimihi ta -patangdms cha yulid-mahshilca-mathunam | sarvafh cha damsa-masalcam sthdvaram, cha prithagvidham | 41. Evam etair idafh sarvam man-niyogdd mahdtma- bhih | yathuharma tapo-yogdt srishtam sthdvara-jangamam | 31. “That the worlds might be peopled, he caused the Brahman, the Kshattriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to issue from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet.58 32. Having divided his own body into two parts, the lord (Brahma) became, with the half a male (purusha), and with the half, a female ; and in her he created Yiraj.69 33. Know, 0 most excellent twice-horn men, that I, whom that male, (purusha)60 Viraj, himself created, am the creator of all this world. 34. Desiring to produce living creatures, I performed very arduous devotion, and first created ten Maharshis (great rishis), lords of living beings, (35) viz., Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Prachetas, Vasishtha, Bhrigu, and Narada.61 36. They, endowed with 58 On this Kulluka the Commentator remarks : Daivyd cha sak/yd mukhadibhyo hrahmanadi-nirmdnam Brahmano na •visankanlyam sruti-siddhatvdt \ “ It is not to be doubted that, by his divine power, Brahma formed the Brahman and the other castes from his mouth and other members, since it is proved by the Veda. He then quotes the 12th verse of the Purusha Sukta. 59 See the Purusha Sukta, verse 5. 60 It will be observed that Manu applies this term purusha to three beings, first to Brahma (v. 11), second to the male formed by Brahma from the half of his own body (v. 32), and third to Viraj, the offspring of the male and female halves of Brah- ma’s body (v. 33). It will be noticed that this story of Brahma dividing his body is borrowed from the passage of the S'. P. Br. xiv. 4, 2, 1, quoted above. 61 In the Ramayana, ii. 110, 2 ff., a different account is given of the origin of the world, in which no reference is made to Manu Svayambhuva. The order of the creation there described is as follows : First everything was water. Then Brahma Svayambhu, with the deities, came into existence— Brahma being said to have sprung AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 37 great energy, created62 other seven Manus, gods, and abodes of gods, and Maharshis of boundless might; (37) Yakshas, Hakshases, Pisachas, Gandharvas, Apsarases, Asuras, Yagas, Serpents, great Birds, and the different classes of Pitris ; (38) lightnings, thunderbolts, clouds, Indra’s hows unbent and bent, meteors, portentous atmospheric sounds, comets, and various luminaries ; (39) Ivinnaras, apes, fishes, different sorts of birds, cattle, deer, men, beasts with two rows of teeth ; (40) small and large reptiles, moths, lice, flies, fleas, all gadflies and gnats, and motionless things of different sorts. 41. Thus by my appointment, and by the force of devotion, was all this woeld both motionless and moving, created by those great beings, according to the (previous) actions of each creature.” The different portions of the preceding narrative of the creation of the human species are not easily reconcileahle with each other. For it is first stated in verse 31, that men of the four castes proceeded separately from different parts of Brahma’s body, — prior (as it would appear) ( 1 ) to the division of that body into two parts and to the suc- cessive production (2) of Viraj, (3) Manu, and (4) the Maharshis, who formed all existing creatures. And yet we are told in verse 39, that men were among the beings called into existence by those Maharshis, and in verse 41, that the entire moving as well as motionless woeld was their work. It is not said that the men created by the Maharshis were distinct from those composing the four castes, and we must, there- fore, assume that the latter also are included under the general appel- lation of men. But if men of the four castes had been already produced before the formation of all living creatures by the Maharshis, what necessity existed for the men of these castes being a second time called into being as a part of that later creation? It is possible that this from the sether ( alcasa ). Brahma, ■with his sons, created the world. From Brahma sprang Marlchi; from Marlchi, Kas'yapa ; from Kas'yapa, Vivasvat; and from Vivas- vat, Manu Yaivasvata. The original of this passage is quoted in the 4th vol. of this work, p. 29 if. 63 These great rishis seem to he the heings denoted by the word visvasrijah , “ crea- tors of the universe,” in the verse of Manu (xii. 50), which will be quoted below. Reference to rishis, or to seven rishis, as “formers of existing things” ( bhuta-kritah ), is also found in the Atharvaveda, vi. 108, 4 ; vi. 133, 4, 5 ; xi. 1, 1, 3, 24 ; xii. 1, 39 ; and the word bhutakritah, without the addition of rishis, is found in the same work iii. 28, 1 ; iv. 35. 2, and xix. 16. 2. 38 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, allegation of the separate creation of castes may have been engrafted as an after-thought on the other account.63 After other details, regarding the propagation, nature, etc, of created things (w. 42-50), the re-absorption of Brahma into the Supreme Spirit, and his alternations of sleep and repose, etc. (w. 50-57), Manu proceeds : 58. Id am sdstram tu kritva ’sau mum era svayam uditah \ vidhivad gruhaydmdsa Marichyudlms tv aham munin | 59. Mad vo ' yam JBhriguh sdstraiii sravayishyaty aseshatah \ etad hi matto ’ dhijage sarvam esho ’ Jchilam munih | 60. Tatas tathd sa tenokto maharshir JMJanund JBhriguh \ tdn abravld rishln sarvun prltdtmd “ sruyatdm ” iti | 61. Svdyambhu- vasydsya Manoh shad-vafiisyu JManavo ’ pare | srishtavantah prajdh svdh svdh mahdtmuno mahaujasah | 62. Svdrochishas cliauttamis cha Tdmaso JRaivatas tathd \ Chukshushas cha mahdtejd Vivasvat-suta era cha | 63. Svdyambhuvddydh saptaite JManavo bhuritejasah \ sve sve ’ ntare sarvam idam utpddydpus chardcliaram \ 59. “Having formed this Scripture, he (Brahma) himself in the beginning caused me to comprehend it according to rule ; as I did to Marichi and the other munis. 60. This Bhrigu will give you to hear this scripture in its entirety ; for this muni learned the whole from me. 61. Then that Haharshi (great rishi), Bhrigu being so addressed by Manu, with pleasure addressed all those rishis, saying, ‘ Let it be heard.’ 62. ‘ From this Hanu Svayambhuva sprang other Manus in six successive generations, great and glorious, who respectively created living beings of their own, — (63) viz., Svarochisha, Auttami, Tamasa, Eaivata, Chakshusha, and the mighty son of Yivasvat. 64. These seven 64 Manus of great power, of whom Svayambhuva was the first, have each in his own period ( antara ) produced and possessed the world.’ ” 63 In the same way it may be observed that in v. 22 Brahma is said to have formed the subtile class of living gods whose essence is to act, and of the S'adhyas ( karmaU manam cha devdndm so ’ srjat pruninam prabhuh \ mdhyanum cha ganaiii sukshmam ), and in v. 25, to have “called into existence this creation, desiring to form these living beings” ( srishtim sasarja chaivcma111 srashtum ichchann imah prajdh). But if the gods and all other creatures already existed, any such further account of their pro- duction by the Maharsliis, as is given in verse 36, seems to be not only superfluous hut contradictory. 64 It will be observed that here Svayambhuva is included in the seven Manus, al- though in verse 36 (see above) it is said that the ten Maharshis, who had themselves been created by Svayambhuva (vv. 34 f.), produced seven other Manus. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 39 After some preliminary explanations regarding the divisions of time as reckoned by men and gods, etc. (vv. 64-78), the author proceeds to tell us how long each of these Manus reigns : 79. Yat prak dvadasa-sahasram uditaih daivikam yugarn \ tad eka- saptati-gunam manvantaram ihochyate | 80. Manvantarany asankhyani sargah sandbar a eva cha | kridann ivaitat kurute Parameshthl punah punah | “The age ( yuga ) of the gods mentioned before, consisting of twelve thousand (years), when multiplied by seventy-one, is here called a manvantara. 80. There are innumerable manvantaras, creations and destructions. The Supreme Being performs this again and again, as if in sport.” A more detailed account of these great mundane periods will be given in the next section, when I come to take up the Vishnu Purana. Meanwhile it may be remarked that the present manvantara is that of the lust of the Manus above enumerated, or Manu Vaivasvata, who, according to verse 63, must have created the existing world. But if such be the case, it does not appear why the creation of Manu Svayam- bhuva, with which the present race of mortals can have little to do, should have been by preference related to the rishis in vv. 33 ff. It must, however, be observed that in v. 33 Manu Svayambhuva described himself as the former of “ this ” (?'.n tu pararddham Brahmano ’ nagha \ tasyante ’bhud mahakalpah Padmah iiy abhivisrutah | dvitiyasya AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES 45 dissolution, which occurs at the end of each Kalpa, or day of Brahma, is called nairnittika, incidental, occasional, or contingent. (See Wilson’s Vishnu Purana, vol. i. of Dr. Hall’s edition, p. 52, with the editor's note ; and vol. ii. p. 269. For an account of the other dissolutions of the universe I refer to the same work, vol. i. p. 113, and to pp. 630-633 of the original 4to. edition.) Of this elaborate system of Yugas, Manvantaras, and Ealpas, of enormous duration, no traces are found in the hymns of the Big-veda. Their authors were, indeed, familiar with the word Yuga ,78 which fre- quently occurs in the sense of age, generation, or tribe. Thus in i. 139, 8; iii. 26, 3; vi. 8, 5; vi. 15, 8; vi. 36, 5; x. 94, 12, the phrase yuge yuge 79 means “in every age.” In iii. 33, 8 ; x. 10, 10, we have uttard yugani, “future ages,” and in x. 72, 1, uttare yuge, “in a later age;” in vii. 70, 4, purvuni yugani, “former ages,”80 and iu i. 184, 3, yuga jurnd, “past ages.” Ini. 92, 11; i. 103, 4 ; i. 115, 2; i. 124, 2; i. 144, 4; 81 ii. 2, 2 ; v. 52, 4; vi. 16, 23; vii. 9, 4; viii. 46, 12; viii. 51, 9 ; ix. 12, 7 ;82 x. 27, 19 ; x. 140, 6 83 (in all of which places, except i. 115, 2, the word is combined with manushyd, mdnushu, manu- sJiah, or janundm ), yuga seems to denote “ generations ” of men, or pararddhasya varttamanasya mi dvija \ Vdrahah iti kalpo ’ yam prathamah pari- kalpilah | 78 In Professor Willson’s Dictionary three senses are assigned to yuga (neuter) (1) a pair; (2) an age as the Krita, Treta, etc. ; (3) a lustre, or period of five years. When used as masculine the word means, according to the same authority, (1) a yoke ; (2) a measure of four cubits, etc. ; (3) a particular drug. 79 Sayana, on iii. 36, 3, explains it by pratidinam, “ every day on vi. 8, 5 ; vi. 15, 8 ; vi. 36, 5, by kale kale, “ at every time.” 80 Sayana takes the phrase for former “ couples of husbands and wives,” mithundni jaydpatirupani. 81 In i. 92, 11 and i. 124, 2, Ushas (the Dawn) is spoken of as, praminati manushyd yugani, “ wearing away human terms of existence, or generations.” In commenting on the former text Sayana explains yugani as equivalent to krita-ireldddniiu the Krita, Treta, and other ages,” whilst in explaining the second, he takes the same word as signifying yugopalakshitan nimeshddi-kalavayavan, “the seconds and other component parts of time indicated by the word,” or as equivalent to yugmani, “ the conjunctions of men,” — since the dawn scatters abroad to their several occupations men who had been previously congregated together!” In his note on i. 144, 4, he gives an option of two different senses : manoh sambhandliini yugani jdyapati-rupani hotradhvaryu- rupaniva | “ couples consisting of husband and wife, or of the hotri and adhvaryu priests.” 82 This verse, ix. 12, 7, is also found in Sama V. ii. 552, where, however, yuja is substituted for yuga. 83 This verse occurs also in Sama V. ii. 1171, and Yaj. S. xii. Ill, 46 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, rather, in some places, “tribes” of men. In v. 73, 3, the phrase nuhusha yuga must have a similar meaning. In i. 158, 6, it is said that the rishi Dlrghatamas became "worn out in the tenth yuga; on which Professor Wilson remarks (R. Y. vol, ii. 104, note) : “ The scho- liast understands yuga in its ordinary interpretation ; hut the yuga of five years is perhaps intended, a lustrum, which would be nothing mar- vellous.” Professor Aufrecht proposes to render, “in the tenth stage of life.” The first passage of the Rig-veda, in which there is any indi- cation of a considerable mundane period being denoted, is x. 72, 2f., where “ a first,” or, “an earlier age {yuga) of the gods” is mentioned {devanum purvye yuge ; devanum prathame yuge) when “ the existent sprang from the non-existent” {asatah sad ajdyata) ; but no allusion is made to its length. In the same indefinite way reference is made in x. 97, 1, to certain “plants which were produced before the gods, — three ages {yugas) earlier ” {yah oshadhih purvdh jdtdh dcvelhyas tri- yiigam purdi). In one verse of the Atharva-veda, however, the word yuga is so employed as to lead to the supposition that a period of very long duration is intended. It is there said, viii. 2, 21 : satarh te ayutam hdyandn dve yuge trim chatvdri lerinmah j “ we allot to thee a hundred, ten thousand, years, two, three, four ages {yugas).,m As we may with probability assume that the periods here mentioned proceed in the ascending scale of duration, two yugas , and perhaps even one yuga, must be supposed to exceed 10,000 years. The earliest comparison between divine and human periods of dura- tion of which I am aware is found in the text of the Taitt. Br. quoted above in a note to p. 42 : “A year is one day of the gods.85 But so far as that passage itself shows, there is no reason to imagine that the statement it contains was anything more than an isolated idea, or that the conception had, at the time when the Brahmanas were compiled, been developed, and a system of immense mundane periods, whether 84 For the context of this line see Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1866, page 42. 85 An analogous idea is found in the S'atapatha Brahmana xiv. 7, 1, 33 ff. ( = Bri- hadaranyaka Upanishad pp. 817 ff. of Cal. ed.) atlia ye satam manushyanam anandak sa e/cah pitrmdmjitaloTcandm anandah | “ now a hundred pleasures of men are one pleasure of the Pitris who have conquered the worlds.” And so on in the same way ; a hundred pleasures of the Pitris equalling one pleasure of the Karmadevas (or gods who have become so by works) ; a hundred pleasures of the latter equalling one pleasure of the gods who were born such, etc. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 47 human or divine, had been elaborated. That, however, the authors of the Brahmanas were becoming familiar with the idea of extravagantly large numbers is clear from the passage in the Taitt. Br. iii. 12, 9, 2, quoted above, p. 41, in the note on Manu xii. 50, where it is said that the creators were engaged in a sacrifice for 100,000 years. Professor Roth is of opinion (see his remarks under the word Krita in his Lexicon) that according to the earlier conception stated in Manu i. 69, and the Mahabharata (12,826 ffi), the four Yugas — Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali, with their mornings and evenings, consisted respec- tively of no more than 4,800 ; 3,600; 2,400 ; and 1,200 ordinary years of mortals ; and that it was the commentators on Manu, and the com- pilers of the Puranas, who first converted the years of which they were made up into divine years. The verse of Manu to which Pro- fessor Roth refers (i. 69), and the one which follows, are certainly quite silent about the years composing the Krita age being divine years : Chatvdry ahuh sahasrdni varshdnatn tu Icritam yugam | tasya tdvach chhati sandhyd sandhyamschascha tathdvidhah ] 70. Itareshu sasandhyeshu sasandhafnseshu cha trishu | ehapdyena varttante sahasrani satdni cha | “ They say that four thousand years compose the krita yuga, with as many hundred years for its morning and the same for its evening. 70. In the other three yugas, with their mornings and evenings, the thousands and hundreds are diminished successively by one.” Yerse 71 is as follows: Yad etat parisankhydtam uddv era chatur- yugam \ etad dvadasa-suhasram devdndm yugam uchyate | which, as ex- plained by Medhatithi, may be thus rendered : “ Twelve thousand of these periods of four yugas, as above reckoned, are called a Yuga of the gods.” Medhatithi’s words, as quoted by Kulluka, are these : Chaturyugair eva dvadasa-sahasra-sanlchyair divyam yugam | “ A divine Yuga is formed by four yugas to the number of twelve thousand.” Kulluka, however, says that his predecessor’s explanation is mis- taken, and must not be adopted ( Medlidtither bhramo nudarttavyah ). His own opinion is that the system of yugas mentioned in w. 69 and 71 are identical, both being made up of divine years. According to this view, we must translate v. 71 as follows: “The period of four yugas, consisting of twelve thousand years, which has been reckoned above, is called a Yuga of the gods.” This certainly appears to be the 48 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, preferable translation, and it is confirmed by the tenor of verse 79. Yerse 71, however, may represent a later stage of opinion, as it is aot found in the following passage of the Alahabharata, where the previous verse (69) is repeated, and verse 70 is expanded into three verses, though without any alteration of the sense : M. Bh. iii. 12826 ff. — Adito manuja-vydghra kritsnasya jagatah kshaye \ chatvdry uhuh sahasrdni varslidndm tat kritam yugam | tasya tdvachchhatl sandhyu sandhydmscha tathdvidhah \ ,l In the beginning, after the destruction of the entire universe, they say that there are four thousand years : that is the Krita Yuga, which has a morning of as many hundred years, and an evening of the same duration.” And then, after enumerating in like manner the other three Yugas with their respective thousands and hundreds successively diminished by one, the speaker (the sage Markandeya) proceeds in verse 12831 : E&hd dvudasahasrl yngdkJiyd pariklrttitd | etat sahasra- paryantam alio brdhmam uduhritam | “ This period of twelve thousand years is known by the appellation of the Yugas. A period extending to a thousand of these is called a day of Brahma.” Nowhere, certainly, in this passage is any mention made of the years being divine years. The earliest known text in which the names of the four Yugas are found is a verse occurring in the story of S'unahsepha in the Aitareya Brahmana vii. 15 : Kalih sayuno bhavati sanjihanas tu dvaparah | uttish- thaihs tretd bhavati kritam sampadyate char an | “A man while lying is the Kali; moving himself, he is the Dvapara; rising, he is the Treta; walking, he becomes the Krita.”66 But this brief allusion leaves U3 86 This verse has been already translated no less than six times ; twice into German by Weber and Roth (Ind. Stud. i. 286 and 460), once into Latin by Streiter (see Ind. Stud. ix. 315), and thrice into English, by Wilson (Journ. R. A. S. for 1851, p. 99), Miiller (Anc. Sansk. Lit. p. 412), and Haug (Ait. Br. ii. 464). All these authors, except the last, concur in considering the verse as referring to the four Yugas. Dr. Haug, however, has the following note : “ Sayana does not give any explanation of this important passage, where the names of the Yugas are mentioned for the first time. These four names are, as is well known from other sources, . . . names of dice, used at gambling. The meaning of this Gatha is, There is every success to be hoped; for the unluckiest die, the Kali is lying, two others are slowly moving and half fallen, but the luckiest, the Krita, is in full motion. The position of dice here given is indi- catory of a fair chance of winning the game.” Both Dr. Haug’s translation and note are criticised by Professor Weber (Ind. Stud. ix. 319), Of the following verses, which occur in Manu ix. 301 f., the second is a paraphrase of that in the Aitareya Brah- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 49 quite in the dark as to the duration which was assigned to these yugas in the age when the Brahmana was compiled. Sect. VII. — Account of the different creations, including that of the castes, according to the Vishnu Puruna. I commence with the following general account of the cosmogony of the Vishnu Purana, extracted from Professor Wilson’s Preface to his translation of that work, vol. i. p. xciii. : “The first book of the six, into which the work is divided, is occupied chiefly with the details of creation, primary ( sarga ), and secondary ( pratisarga ) ; the first explains how the universe proceeds from Prakriti, or eternal crude matter;87 the second, in what manner the forms of things are developed from the elementary substances previously evolved, or how they re-appear after their temporary de- struction.89 Both these creations are periodical; but the termination of the first occurs only at the end of the life of Brahma, when not only all the gods and all other forms are annihilated, but the elements are again merged into primary substance, besides which only one spiritual being exists. The latter takes place at the end of every Kalpa or day of Brahma, and affects only the forms of inferior creatures and lower worlds, leaving the substances of the universe entire, and sages and gods unharmed.” 89 mana : Kritam treta-yugam chaiva dvaparam kalir era cha | rajno vrittani sarvani raja hi yugam uehyate | 302. Kalih prasupto bhavati sa jagrat dvaparam yugam \ karmasv abhyudyatas treta vicharams tu kritam. yugam | “ 301. The Krita, Tretii, Dvapara, and Kali yugas are all modes of a king’s action ; for a king is called a yuga. 302. While asleep he is the Kali; waking he is the Dvapara age ; intent upon action he is the Treta, moving about he is the Krita.” The former of these two verses of Manu is reproduced nearly verbatim in the M. Bh. xii. 3408 ; and the same idea is ex- panded in the same book of the same poem, w. 2674 ff., 2682, 2684, 2686, 2693 if. The words krita , treta , dvapara , and kali, are found in the Vaj.-Sanhita, xxx. 18, and in the Taitt. Brahmana, iii. 4, 1, 16 ; but in both places they denote dice, as does also the word krita in the Chhandogya Upan. iv. 1, 4 (where see the commentary). On the Yugas the reader of German may also consult Weber’s Indische Studien, i. pp. 39, 87 f., 282 ff. 87 [See Book i, chapter ii.] 88 [See the fourth and following chapters of Book i.] 83 See Book i. at the close of chapter vii. p. 113 of vol. i. of Professor Wilson’s translation, 2nd edition, and also p. 621 and 630 of the original 4to. edition. As regards, 4 50 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAh,, I proceed with the details of the creation which took place in the Varaha Kalpa, as described in book i. chapter 4, w. 2, ff: : Atlta-kalpdvasdne nisa-suptotthitah prabhuh \ sattvodriktas tato Brahma sunyarn lokam avaikshata | 3. JVdrdyanah paro ’ chintyah pareshdm api sa prabhuh | Brahma-svarupl bhavagdn anddih sarva- sambhavah | . . . 6. Toydntah sa mahlrh jndtvd jagaty ekdrnave pra- bhuh \ anumdndd tad-uddhurarh karttu-kdmah prajdpatih | 7. Akarot sa tanum any din kalpddishu yathu purd | matsya-kurmddikdm tadvad vardhaih vapur dsthitah | 8. Yeda-yajnamayam rupam asesha-jagatah sthitau | sthitah sthirdtmd sarvdtmd paramdtma prajdpatih \ 9. Jana- loka-gataih siddhair Sanakudyair abhishthutah \ pravivesa tadd toyam dtmudharo dhara-dharah | . . . . 45. Bvarh saihstuyamdnastu para- mdtmd malildharah | ujjahdra mahlrh kshipraih nyastavdihs cha mahdm- bliasi | 46. Tasyopari jalaughasya mahatl naur iva sthitd | vitatatatvdt tu dehasya na mahl ydti samplavam | tatah kshitim samdiii kritvd prithi- vydrh so’chinod girln | yalhd-vibhdgam bhagavdn anddih purushottamah | 47. Pruk-sarga-dagdhdn akhildn parvatdn prithivltale | amoghena prabhdvena sasarjdmogha-vdiiichhitah | 48. Bhuvi bhdgaih tatah kritvd sapta-dvlpdn yathdtathd | bhur-ddydihs chaturo lokdn purvavat sarna- kalpayat | 49. Brahma-rupadharo devas tato ’ sau rajasd ” vritah | chakara srishtim bhagavdihs chatur-vaktra-dharo Harih | 50. nimitta- mdtram evdsau srijydndm sarga-karmandm | pradhdna-kdranlbhutd yato vai srijya-saktayah | 51. Nimitta-mdtrarn muktvaikam nunyat kinchid apekshyate \ nlyate tapatdih sreshtha sva-saktyd vastu vastutdm | “2. At the end of the past (or Padma) Kalpa, arising from his night slumber, Brahma, the lord, endowed predominantly with the quality of goodness, beheld the universe void. 3. He (was) the supreme lord Narayana, who cannot even be conceived by other beings, the deity without beginning, the source of all things, existing in the form of Brahma.” [The verse given in Hanu i. 10, regarding the derivation of the word Narayana (see above p. 35) is here quoted]. “ 6. This lord of creatures, discovering by inference, — when the world had become one ocean, — that the earth lay within the waters, and being desirous to raise it up, (7) assumed another body. As formerly, at the beginnings of the Kalpas, he had taken the form of a fish, however, the statement with which the paragraph concludes, compare vol. i. p. 50, as well as vol. ii. p. 269, of the same work. AND OP THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 51 a tortoise, and so forth,90 (so now) entering the body of a boar (8), — a form composed of the vedas and of sacrifice, — the lord of creatures, who, throughout the entire continuance of the world, remains fixed, the universal soul, the supreme soul, self-sustained, the supporter of the earth (9), — being hymned by Sanaka and the other saints, who had (at the dissolution of the lower worlds) proceeded to Janaloka, — entered the water.” [He is then addressed by the goddess Earth in a hymn of praise, as Vishnu, and as the supreme Brahma, w. 10-24. The boar then rises from the lower regions, tossing up the earth with his tusk, and is again lauded by Sanandana and other saints in a second hymn, in the course of which he himself is identified with sacrifice, and his various members with its different instruments and accompaniments, vv. 25-44]. “45. Being thus lauded, the supreme soul, the upholder of the earth, lifted her up quickly and placed her upon the great waters. 46. Resting upon this mass of water, like a vast ship, she does not sink, owing to her expansion. Then, having levelled the earth, the divine eternal Purushottasna heaped together mountains according to their divisions. 47. He whose will cannot be frustrated, by his unfailing power, created on the surface of the earth all those mountains which had been burnt up in the former creation. 48. Having then divided the earth, just as it had been, into seven dvipas, he formed the four worlds Bhurloka and others as before. 49. Becoming next pervaded with the quality of passion, that divine being Hari, assuming the form of Brahma, with four faces, effected the creation. 50. But he is merely the instrumental cause of the things to be created and of the creative operations, since the properties of the things to be created arise from Pradhana as their (material) cause. 5 1 . Excepting an instrumental cause alone, nothing else is required. Every substance ( vastu ) is brought into the state of substance ( vastutu ) by its own inherent power.” 91 90 No mention is made in the Brahmanas (as I have already observed) of any such periods as the Kalpas. But here an attempt is made to systematize the different stories scattered through those older works which variously describe the manner in which the creation was effected — with the view, perhaps, of reconciling the discre- pancies in those free and artless speculations which offended the critical sense of a later age. 91 See Professor Wilson’s translation of these verses, and the new version proposed by the editor of the second edition, Dr. Hall, p. 66, note. I do not think the phrase 52 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, [Before proceeding further with the narrative of the Vishnu Purana, I wish to quote or refer to some passages from the Taittiriya Sanhita and Brahmana and from the S'atapatha Brahmana, which appear to furnish the original germs of the legends of the boar, fish, tortoise, and dwarf incarnations. The first of these texts is from the Taittiriya Sanhita, vii. 1,5, Iff: Apo vai idam agre salilam dsit | tasmin Prajdpatir vdyur bhutva ach- arat \ sa imam apahjat | tarn, vardho bhutva dharat | tdm Visvakarmd bhutva vyamdrt \ sd aprathata \ sd prithivy abhavat | tat pritliivyai prithivitvam | tasydm asrdmyat Prajdpatih | sa devdn asrijata Vasun Rudrdn Aditydn | te devdh Prajapatim abruvan “ prajuydmahai” iti | so ’ bravid “ yathd aham yushmdms tapasa asrikshi evarh tapasi pra- jananam ichchhadhvam” iti \ tebhyo ’ gnim ayatanam prdyachhad “ etena ayatanena srdmyata" iti | te ’ gnind dyatanena asrdmyan | te saihvatsare ekdm gdm asrijanta | “This universe was formerly waters, fluid. On it Prajapati, be- coming wind, moved.92 He saw this (earth). Becoming a hoar, he took her up. Becoming Visvakarman, he wiped (the moisture from) her. She extended. She became the extended one ( prithivl ). From this the earth derives her designation as the extended one. In her Prajapati performed arduous devotion. He created gods, Yasus, Budras, and Adityas. The gods said to Prajapati, ‘let us be propagated.’ He answered, ‘ As I have created you through austere fervour, so do ye seek after propagation in austere fervour.’ He gave them Agni as a resting-place (saying), ‘ With this as a resting-place perform your devotion.’ They (accordingly) performed devotion with Agni as a resting-place. In a year they created one cow, etc.”93 sva-saJctya can be properly rendered, as Dr. Hall does, “ by its potency.” The reading of the MSS. in v. 50, pradhana-karanibhutah seems to me doubtful, as it would most naturally mean “ have become the Pradhana-cause.” I conjecture pra- dhdna-lcaranodbhutah, which gives the sense which seems to be required. 92 It is possible that the idea assigned to the word Narayana (see Manu i. 10, above), “ he whose place of movement is the waters,” may be connected with this passage. See also Genesis i. 2, “ And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.” 93 After having noticed this passage in the Taittiriya Sanhita, I became aware that it had been previously translated by Mr. Colebrooke (Essays i. 75, or p. 44 of Williams & Norgate’s edition). Mr. Colebrooke prefaces his version by remarking, “ The pre- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 53 The second passage is from the Taittirlya Brahmana, i. 1, 3, 5 ff. Apo vai idam agre salilam asit | tena Prajdpatir asramyat “katham idam, sydd ” iti \ so ’ pasyat pushkara-parnam tishthat \ so ’manyata “ ash' vai tad yasminn idam adhitishtliati ” iti | sa vardho rupam kritva upa- nyamajjat | sa prithivim adliah archhat \ tasyd upahatya udamajjat \ tat pushkara-parne ’prathayat | yad “ aprathata" tat prithivyai prithivit- vam | “ahhud vai idam ” iti tad Ihumyai Ihumitvam | turn diso'nu vatah samavahat | tarn sa/rkardlliir adrimhat | “ This (universe) was formerly water, fluid.91 With that (water) Prajapati practised arduous devotion (saying), ‘ how shall this (uni- verse be (developed) ?’ He beheld a lotus-leaf standing.95 He thought, ‘ there is somewhat on which this (lotus-leaf) rests.’ He as a boar — having assumed that form — plunged beneath towards it. He found the earth down below. Breaking off (a portion of) her, he rose to the surface. He then extended it on the lotus-leaf. Inasmuch as he ex- tended it, that is the extension of the extended one (the earth). This became ( alhut ). From this the earth derives its name of hhumi. The wind carried her, to the four quarters. He strengthened her with gravel, etc., etc. The S'atapatha Brahmana, xiv. 1, 2, 11, has the following reference to the same idea, although here Prajapati himself is not the hoar : Iyati ha vai iyam agre prithivy dsa prudesa-mdtri \ turn Emushah iti vardhah njjaghdna | so ’ sydh patih Prajdpatis tena era enam etan-mithu- nena priyena dhdmnd samar dhayati kritsnam karoti | “Formerly this earth was only so large, of the size of a span. A boar called Emusha raised her up. Her lord Prajapati, therefore, prospers him with (the gift of) this pair, the object of his desire, and makes him complete.” Another of the incarnations referred to in the preceding passage of sent extract was recommended for selection by its allusion to a mythological notion, which apparently gave origin to the story of the Varaha-avatara, and from which an astronomical period, entitled Calpa. has perhaps been taken.” 91 The Commentator gives an alternative explanation, viz., that the word salila is the same as sarira, according to the text of the Veda, “ these worlds are sarira ” (“ ime vai lokah sariram ” iti sruteh ). 95 Supported upon the end of a long stalk” (dirghandlagre ’vasthitam), according to the Commentator. In a passage from the Taitt. Aranyaka, already quoted (p. 32, above), it is said that Prajapati himself was born on a lotus-leaf. 54 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, the Vishnu Purana is foreshadowed in the following text from the S'a- tapatha Brahmana, vii. 5, 1, 5 : Sa yat kurmo numa | etad vai rupaih Jcritvd Prajdpatih prajah asri- jata | yad asrijata akarot tat | yad akarot tasmdt kurmah \ kasyapo vai kurmah | tasmdd dhth “ sarvuh prajah kasyapyah” iti | sa yah sa kurmo sau sa Adityah | “As to its being called kurma (a tortoise) ; Prajapati having taken this form, created offspring. That which he created, he made ( akarot ) ; since he made, he is (called) kurmah. The word kasyapa means tortoise ; hence men say all creatures are descendants of Kasyapa. This tortoise is the same as Aditya.”96 The oldest version of the story of the fish incarnation, which is to he found in the S'atapatha Brahmana, i. 8, 1, Iff., will be quoted in the next chapter. Por the passages which appear to supply the germ of the dwarf in- carnation, the reader may consult the fourth volume of this work, pp. 54-58 and 107 f. It will have been noticed that in the passage above adduced from the Vishnu Purana, the word Narayana is applied to Vishnu, and that it is the last named deity who (though in the form of Brahma) is said to have taken the form of a boar. In the verses formerly cited from Manu (i. 9, 10), however, Narayana is an epithet, not of Vishnu, but of Brahma ; and in the following text, from the Ramayana, xi. 110, 3, it is Brahma who is said to have become a boar : Sarvam salilam evdsit prithivl tatra nirmitd | tatah samahhavad Brah- ma svayambhur daivataih saha 97 | sa vardhas tato Ihutvd projjahdra va- sundhardm ityddi | “ All was water only, and in it the earth was fashioned. Then arose 86 With this compare the mention made of a tortoise in the passage cited above, p. 32, from the Taitt. Aranyaka. 87 Such is the reading of Schlegel’s edition, and of that which was recently printed at Bombay, both of which, no doubt, present the most ancient text of the Ramayana. The Gauda recension, however, which deviates widely from the other, and appears to have modified it in conformity with more modern taste and ideas, has here also intro- duced a various reading in the second of the lines quoted in the text, and identifies Brahma with Vishnu in the following manner : tatah samahhavad Brahma svayam- bhur Vishnur avyayah | l< Then arose Brahma the self-existent and imperishable Vishnu.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 55 Brahma, the self existent, with the deities. He then, becoming a boar, raised up the earth,” etc. I now return to the narrative of the Vishnu Purana.] The further process of cosmogony is thus described in chapter v. : Maitreya uvdcha \ 1 . Tathd sasarjja devo ’sau devarshi-pitri-danavan | manushya-tiryag-vrikshadln bhu-vyoma-salilaukasah | 2. Yad-gunam yat-svabhuvam cha yad-ruparh cha jagad dvija \ sargddau srishtavdn Brahma tad mamdchakshva vistardt \ Pardsara uvdcha \ 3. Maitreya kathaydmy esha srinushva susamdhitah | yatha sasarjja devo ’ sau devadin akhildn vibhuh \ srishtirh chintayatas tasya kalpddishu yathd purd | abuddhi-purvakah sargah prddurbhutas tamomayah | 4. Tamo moho ma- hdmohas tdmisro hy andha-saihjnitah | avidya pancha-parvaishd prd- durbhuta mahdtmanah | 5. Panchadha ’ vasthitah sargo dhydyato ’ prati - lodhavdn | vahir-anto- prakasas cha samvrittdtmd nagdtmakah | 6. Mukliyd nagd yatas choktd mukhya-sargas tatas tv ayam | 7. Tam drish- tvd ' sddhakam sargam amanyad aparam punah \ tasyubhidhydyatah sargas tiryak-srotu 93 'bhyavarttata | 8. Yasmdt tiryak pravrittah sa tiryak- srotas tatah smritah \ 9. Pasvddayas te vikhyutds tamah-prayah hy ave- dinah | utpatha-grdliinas chaivatejndne jndna-mdninah [ 10. Ahamkritd ahammdnd ashtdvimsad-vadhunvituh | antah-prakdsds te sarve dvritas cha parasparam | 11. Tam apy asudhakam matvd dhydyato ’ nyas tato ’ bhavat | urdhvasrotas tritlyas tu sattvikorddhvam avarttata 99 | 12. Te sukha-prlti- bahuld bahir antas cha ndvritdh 100 | prakasd bahir antas cha urdhva- sroto-bhavdh smritah | 13. Tushty-dtmakas tritlyas tu deva-sargas tu yah smritah | tasmin surge ’bhavat pritir nishpanne Brahmanas tadd | 14. Tato 'nyarii sa tadd dadhyau sddhakam sargam uttamam | asddhakdms tu tan jndtvd mukhya-sargddi-sambhavdn \ 15. Tathd ’ bhidhyayatas tasya satyubhidyuyinas tatah \ prddurbhutas tadd 'vyaktdd arvdk-srotas tu sddhakah | 16. Yasmdd arvug vyavarttanta tato ’rvdk-srotasas tu te \ te cha prakdsa-bahuld tamodriktd 101 rajo’dhikdh \ tasmdt te duhkha - bahula bliuyo bhuyas cha kdrinah | prakasd bahir antas cha manushyd sddhakds tu te \ . . . . 23. Ity ete tu samdkhydtd nava sargah Praja- 93 Hi sandhir dr shah — Comm. 99 The reading of the Vayu P., in the parallel passage, is tasyabhidhyayato nityam sdttvihah samavarttata | urdhvasrotas tritlyas tu sa chaivordlivam vyavasthitah | The combination sdtt.vikordhvam in the text of the Vishnu P. must he arsha. i°° For ndvritdh the Vayu P. reads samvritah. 101 Iti sandhirarshah \ Comm. But there is a form tama. The Vayu P. has tamah- saktdh. 56 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, pateh | prukritd vaikritdS chaiva jagato mula-hetavah | srijato jagadlSa- sya kim anyach cTilirotum ichhasi | Maitreya uvacha | 24. Saihkshepdt kathitah sargo devudlnum tvayd mune | vistardch chhrotum ichhdmi tvatto munivarottama \ Pardsara uvacha | karmabhir bhdvituh purvaih kusaldkusalu is tu tuh | khydtyd tayd hy anirmuktuh samhure hy upa- samhritdh | 25. Sthdvardntdh surudyuscha prajd brahmafns chaturvi- dhuh | Brahmanah kurvatah srishtim jajnire mdnasis tu tuh | 26. Tato devdsurapitrln mdnushums cha chatushtayam \ sisrikshur ambhdmsy etdni svarn dtmdnam ayuyujat | 27. Yuktdlmanas tamouidtrd udrikta ’bhut Prajdpateh | sisrikshor jaghandt purvam asurdh jajnire tatah \ 28. Utsasarja tatas turn tu tamo-mdtrdtmikdm tanurn | sd tu tyaktd tanus tena Maitreydbliud vibhuvarl | 29. Sisrikshur anya-deha-sthah prltim upa tatah surah | sattvodriktdh samudbhutuh mukhato Brah- mano dvija | 30. Tyaktd sd ’pi tanus tena sattva-prdyam abhud dinam | tato hi balino rdtrdv asura devatd diva \ 31. Sattvamdtrdtmikdm eva tato ’nydm jagrihe tanum \ pitrivad manyamanasya pitaras tasya jajnire \ 32. Utsasarja pitrin srishtvd tatas tdm api sa prabhuh | sd chotsrishtd ’ bhavat sandhya dina-naktdntara-sthitih \ 33. Rajo-mdtrat- mikdrn any dm jagrihe sa tanurn tatah | rajo-mdtrotkatd jdtd manushya dvija-sattama | tdm apy diu sa tatydja tanum ddyah Prajdpatih | jyotsnd samabliavat sd ’pi pruk-sandhyu yd 'bhidhiyate \ 34. Jyotsno- dgame tu balino manushyuh pitaras tathd | Maitreya sandhya-samaye tasmad ete bliavanti vai | 35. Jyotsnd-ratry-ahani sandhya chatvdry etdni vai vibhoh | Brahmanas tu sariruni trigundpdsraydni cha | 36. Eajo-mdtrdtmikum eva tato ’ nyuth jagrihe tanum \ tatah kshud Brahmano jdtd jajne kopas tayd tatah | 37. Kshut-khdmdn andhakare ’ tha so’srijad bhagavdms tatah \ Virupuh smasrulu jutds te ’bhyadha- vaihs tatah prabhum | 38. “ Maivam bho rakshyatam esha” yair uktam rukshasds tu te \ uchuh “klidduma” ity anye ye te yakshds tu yakshandt | “Maitreya said: 1. Tell me in detail how at the beginning of the creation that deity Brahma formed the gods, rishis, fathers, danavas, men, beasts, trees, etc., dwelling respectively on the earth, in the sky, and in the water ; 2. and with what qualities, with what nature, and of what form he made the world. Parasara replied : 3. I declare to thee, Maitreya, how that deity created the gods and all other beings ; listen with attention. While he was meditating on creation, as at the beginnings of the (previous) Kalpas, there appeared an insentient crea- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 57 tion, composed of gloom {tamos'). 4. Gloom, illusion, great illusion, darkness, and what is called utter darkness — such was the five-fold ignorance, which was manifested from that great Being, 5. as he was meditating — an insensible creation,102 under five conditions, devoid of feeling either without or within,103 closed up, motionless. 6. And since motionless objects are called the primary objects, this is called the pri- mary ( mukliya ) creation.104 7. Beholding this creation to be ineffective, he again contemplated another. As he was desiring it the brute {tiryaksrotas) creation came forth. 8. Since (in its natural functions) it acts horizontally it is called Tiryaksrotas. 9. The (creatures com- posing it) are known as cattle, etc., distinguished mainly by darkness {tamas) ignorant, following irregular courses,105 while in a state of ignor- ance having a conceit of knowledge, (10) self- regarding, self-esteeming, affected by the twenty-eight kinds of defects, endowed with inward feeling, and mutually closed. 11. As Brahma, regarding this creation also as ineffective, was again meditating, another creation, the third, or urdhvasrotas, which was good, rose upward. 12. They (the creatures belonging to this creation) abounding in happiness and satisfaction, being unclosed both without and within, and possessed both of external and internal feeling, are called the offspring of the Urdhvasrotas crea- tion. 13. This third creation, known as that of the gods, was one full of enjoyment. When it was completed, Brahma was pleased. 14. He then contemplated another creation, effective and most excellent, since he regarded as ineffective the beings sprung from the primary and other creations. 15. While he, whose will is efficacious, was so desir- ing, the Arvaksrotas, an effective creation, was manifested.106 16. They 102 The Vayu P. here inserts an additional line, sarvatas tamasa chaiva dJpah kumbha-vad avritah | “ and covered on all sides with darkness, as a lamp by a jar.” 103 Vahir-anto’prakasascha appears to be the true reading, as the Commentator renders the last word by prakrishta-jndna-sunyah, “devoid of knowledge.” But if this be the correct reading, it is ungrammatical, as antah and aprakdsa would properly make antar-aprakd&a, not anto’prakasa. But the Purunas have many forms which are irregular ( arsha , “ peculiar to the rishis,” “ vedic,” or “ antiquated ” as the Com- mentators style them). The Taylor MS. of the Vayu Purina reads in the parallel passage bahir-antah-prakasascha. ‘oi See Dr. Hall’s note p. 70 on Professor "Wilson’s translation ; and also the pas- sage quoted above p. 16 from the Taitt. Sanh. vii. 1,1,4, where the word mukhya is otherwise applied and explained. 105 Bhakshyadi-vivekak-hmah | “Making no distinction in food, etc., etc.” Comm. 106 Compare M. Bh. xiv. 1038. 58 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, (the creatures belonging to it) are called Arvaksrotas, because (in their natural functions) they acted downwardly. And they abound in sen- sation ( pralcasa ) and are full of darkness (tamas) with a preponderance of passion {rajas). Hence they endure much suffering, and are con- stantly active, with both outward and inward feeling. These beings were men, and effective.”107 In the next following verses, 17-22, the names of the different crea- tions, described in the first part of this section, and in the second chapter of the first book of the Vishnu Purana, are recapitulated, and two others, the Anugraha and the Kaumara, are noticed, but not explained.105 The speaker Parasara then adds: “ 23. Thus have the nine creations of Prajapati, both Prakrita and Vaikrita, the radical causes of the world, been recounted. What else dost thou desire to hear regarding the crea- tive lord of the world ? Maitreya replies : 24. By thee, most excellent Muni, the creation of the gods and other beings has been summarily narrated : I desire to hear it from thee in detail. Parasara rejoins : Called into (renewed) existence in consequence of former actions, good or bad, and unliberated from that destination when they were absorbed at the (former) dissolution of the world, (25) the four descriptions of creatures, beginning with things immovable and ending with gods, were produced, o Brahman, from Brahma when he was creating, and they sprang from his mind. 26. Being then desirous to create these streams (ambha.7nsi)m — the four classes of Gods, Asuras, Fathers, and Men, he concentrated himself. 27. Prajapati, thus concentrated, received a body, which was formed of the quality of gloom (tamas) ; and as he desired to create, Asuras were first produced from his groin. 28. He then abandoned that body formed entirely of gloom ; which when abandoned by him became night. 29. Desiring to create, when he had occupied another body, Brahma experienced pleasure; and then gods, full of the quality of goodness, sprang from his mouth. 30. That body 107 The Vayu P. adds here : Lakshanais tarakadyaischa ashtadha cha vyavasthitah \ siddhatmano manushyas te gandharva-saha-dharminah \ ity esha tajasah sargo hy arvaksrotah prakTrttitah \ “ Constituted with preservative^5) characteristics, and in an eightfold manner. These were men perfect in their essence, and in nature equal to Gandharvas. This was the lustrous creation known as Arvaksrotas.” 106 See Dr. Hall's edition of Wilson’s Y. P. pp. 32 ff. ; and pp. 74 ff. 109 This word is borrowed from the passage of the Taittirlya Brahmana, ii. 3, 8, 3, quoted above, p. 23. Most of the particulars in the rest of the narrative are imitated from another passage of the same Brahmana, ii. 2, 9, 5 ff., also quoted above, p. 28. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 59 also, being abandoned by him, became day, -which is almost entirely good. Hence the Asuras are powerful by night110 and the gods by day. 31. He then assumed another body formed of pure goodness; and the Fathers were born from him, when he was regarding himself as a father.111 32. The Lord, after creating the Fathers, abandoned that body also ; which, when so abandoned, became twilight, existing between day and night. 33. He next took another body entirely formed of passion ; and men, in whom passion is violent, were pro- duced. The primeval Prajapati speedily discarded this body also, which became faint light ( jyotsna ), which is called early twilight. 34. Hence, at the appearance of this faint light, men are strong, while the fathers are strong at evening-twilight. 35. Horning-twilight, night, day, and evening-twilight, these are the four bodies of Brahma, and the receptacles of the three qualities. 36. Brahma next took another body entirely formed of passion, from which sprang hunger, and through it anger was produced. 37. The Divine Being then in darkness created beings emaciated with hunger, which, hideous of aspect, and with long beards, rushed against the lord. 38. Those who 6aid, ‘ Let him not be preserved ’ ( rahhyatum ) were called Bakshasas, whilst those others who cried, ‘ Let us eat (him)’ were called Yakshas from ‘ eating ’ ( yakshanat)}12 It is not necessary for my purpose that I should quote at length the conclusion of the section. It may suffice to say that verses 39 to 51 describe the creation of serpents from Brahma’s hair ; of Bhutas ; of Gandharvas ; of birds ( vayamsi ) from the creator’s life ( vayas ), of sheep from his breast, of goats from his mouth, of kine from his belly and sides, and of horses,113 elephants, and other animals from his feet ; of plants from his hairs; of the different metres and vedas from his eastern, southern, western, and northern mouths. Yerses 52 ff. contain a recapitulation of the creative operations, with some statement of the 110 In the Ramayana, Sundara Kanda 82, 13 f. (Gorresio’s edit.) we read : Hak- shasam rajani-kalah samyugesliu prasasyate | 14. Tasniad rcijan nisa-yuddhe jayo ’smakam na saihsayah | “Night is the approved time for the Rakshases to fight. We should therefore undoubtedly conquer in a nocturnal conflict.” 111 This idea also is borrowed from Taitt. Br. ii. 3, 8, 2. 112 See Wilson’s V. P. vol. i. p. 83, and Dr. Hall’s note. 113 See the passage from the Taitt. Sanh. vii. 1, 1, 4ff. quoted above, p. 16, where the same origin is ascribed to horses. 60 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, principles according to -which they -were conducted. Of these verses I quote only the following: 55. Teshuih ye ydni karmdni prdk-sristhydrh pratipedire \ tuny eva pratipadyante srijyamdndh punah punah | . . . 60. Yathdrtdv ritu-linguni ndndrupdni paryaye | drisyante tdni tanyeva tathd bhdvd yugudishu | 61. Karoty evamvidhdih srishtim kalpudau sa punah punah \ sisrikshdsakti-yukto 'sau srijya-sakti-prachoditah | “These creatures, as they are reproduced time after time, discharge the same functions as they had fulfilled in the previous creation ... 60. Just as, in each season of the year, all the various characteristics of that season are perceived, on its recurrence, to be the very same as they had been before ; so too are the beings produced at the beginnings of the ages.114 61. Possessing both the will and the ability to create, and im- pelled by the powers inherent in the things to be created, the deity produces again and again a creation of the very same description at the beginning of every Kalpa.” The sixth section of the same hook of the Y. P., of which I shall cite the larger portion, professes to give a more detailed account of the creation of mankind. Y. P. i. 6, 1. Maitreya uvdclia | Arvdksrotas tu kathito bhavata yas tu munushah | Irahman vistarato bruhi Brahma tam asrijad yathd | 2. Y atlid cha varndn asrijad yad-gunums clia mahdmune | yachcha teshurn smritam karma viprddlnaih tad uchyatdm | Pardsara uvacha | 3. Sat- yubhidhydyinas tasya sisrikshor Bralimano jagat \ ajdyanta deijasreshtha sattvodriktu mukhut p rajah | 4. Yakshaso rajasodriktus tathd’nya Brah- niano ’bhavan | rajasd tamasd chaiva samudriktus tathorutah | 5. Pack- bhyum anydh prajd Brahma sasarjja dvija-sattama | tamah-pradhunds tdh sarvus chuturvarnyam idaiii tatah | brdhmandh kshattnyd vaisydh sudruscha dvija-sattama | pudoru-vakshah-sthalato mukhatas cha samud- gatuh | 6. Yajna-nishpattaye sarvam etad Brahma chakura vai \ chd- turvarnyam mahdbhdga yajna-sudhanam uttamam \ 7. Yajnair dpyd- yitd deed vrishty-utsargena vai prajdh \ dpydyayante dharma-jna yajndh kalydna-hetavah \ 8. Nishpadyante narais tais tu sva-karma- bhirataih saad \ viruddhucharanupdaih sadbhih sanmdrga-gdmibhih | 9. Svargdpavargau mdnu&hydt prdpnuvanti nard mune | yach chdbhiru- chitam sthdnam tad ydnti manuju dvija | 10. Prajds tdh Brahmand srislitus chdturvarnya-vyavasthilau \ samyak sraddhu-samuchdra-pra- 111 Yerses similar to this occur in Manu i. 30 ; and in the Mahabh arata xii. 8550 f. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 61 vand muni-sattama | 11. T athechhd-vdsa-niratdh sarvabudha-vivarjituh | suddhuntah-karanah suddhah sarvanushthana-nirmalah | 14. 115 S'ud- dhe cha tdsum manasi suddhe ’ ntah-samsthite Uarau | suddha-jnanam prapasyanti Vishnv-dkhyam yena tatpadam | 15. Tatah kdldtmako yo 'sau sa chdmsah kathito Hareh \ sa pdtayaty agho ghoram alpam alpulpa- sdravat | 16. A dliarma-vlj a-bhutafii tu tamo-lobha-samudbhavam | pra- jdsu tdsu Maitreya rdgddikam asddhakam \ 17. Tatah sd sahajd siddhis tdsdih ndtlva jdyate | rasailldsddayas chdnydh siddhayo ’ shtau bhavanti yah | 18. Tdsu kshindsv aseshdsu varddhamane cha pdtake | dvandvudi- bhava-duhkhdrttds td bhavanti tatah prajdh | 19. Tato durgdni tds cha- krur vdrkshyam pdrvatam audakam \ kritimam, cha tathd durgam pura- karvatakddi yat | 20. Grihdni cha yathdnyayam teshu chakruh pura- dishu | iitdtapddi-bddhdndm prasamdya malidmate | 21. Pratikdram imam, kritva sitddes tdh prajdh punah | vdrttopuyam tatas chakrur hasta-siddham cha karma-jam \ . . . 26. Grdmydranydh smritd hy eta oshadhyas cha chaturdasa | yajna-nishpattaye yajnas tathd "sum hetur uttamah | 27. Etas cha saha yajnena prajdndm kardnam param \ parapara-vidah prdjnds tato yajndn vitanvate \ 28. Ahany ahany anushthdnam yajndnam munisattama \ upakdra-karam purhsdm kriya- mdndch cha sdnti-dam | 29. Teshdrn tu kdla-srishto 'sau papa-vindur malidmate | chetassu vavridhe chakrus te na yajneshu mdnasam | 30. Veda-vdddms tathd devdn yajnakarmddikam cha yat | tat sarvarn nin- damdnds te yajna-vydsedha-karinah | 31. Pravritti-marga-vyuchchitti- kdrino veda-nindakah | duratmdno durdchara babhuvuh kutildsaydh | 32. Saihsiddhuyum tu vdrttdydm prajdh srishtva Prajdpatih | maryd- ddm sthdpaydmdsa yathd-sthdnam yathd-gunam \ 34. Varndndm dsra- mdnam cha dharmdn dharma-bhritam vara | lokdms sarva-varndndm samyag dharmdnupdlindm | 35. Prdjdpatyam brahmandndm smritam, sthdnam kriydvatdm \ sthdnam aindrarh kshattriydndm sangrdmeshv anivarttindm | 36. Vaisyandm mdrutam sthdnam sva-dharmam anu- varttindm | gdndharvam Sudra-jatlndm paricharydsu varttindm | “Maitreya says: 1. You have described to me the Arvaksrotas, or human, creation : declare to me, o Brahman, in detail the manner in which Brahma formed it. 2. Tell me how, and with what qualities, he created the castes, and what are traditionally reputed to he the 115 There are no verses numbered 12 and 13, the MSS. passing from the 11th to the 14th. G2 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, functions of the Brahmans and others. Parasara replies : 3. When, true to his design, Brahma became desirous to create the world, crea- tures in whom goodness ( sattva ) prevailed sprang from his mouth ; (4) others in whom passion {rajas) predominated came from his breast ; others in whom both passion and darkness ( tamas ) were strong, pro- ceded from his thighs ; (5) others he created from his feet, whose chief characteristic was darkness. Of these was composed the system of four castes, Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Taisyas, and Sudras, who had respec- tively issued from his mouth, breast, thighs, and feet. * 6 . Brahma formed this116 entire fourfold institution of classes for the performance of sacrifice, of which it is an excellent instrument. 7. Nourished by sacrifices, the gods nourish mankind by discharging rain. Sacrifices, the causes of prosperity, (8) are constantly celebrated by virtuous men, devoted to their duties, who avoid wrong observances, and walk in the right path. 9. Men, in consequence of their humanity, obtain heaven and final liberation ; and they proceed to the world which they desire. 10. These creatures formed by Brahma in the condition of the four castes, (were) perfectly inclined to conduct springing from religious faith, (11) loving to dwell wherever they pleased, free from all suffer- ings, pure in heart, pure, spotless in all observances. 14. And in their pure minds, — the pure Hari dwelling within them, — (there existed) pure knowledge whereby they beheld his highest station, called (that of) Vishnu.117 15. Afterwards that which is described as the portion of Hari consisting of Time 118 infused into those beings direful sin, in the form of desire and the like, ineffective (of man’s end), small in amount, but gradually increasing in force, (16) the seed of unrighteous- ness, and sprung from darkness and cupidity. 17. Thenceforward their innate perfectness was but slightly evolved : and as all the other eight perfections called rasolldsa and the rest (18) declined, and sin in- creased, these creatures (mankind) were afflicted with suffering arising 116 How does this agree with the statements made in the Taitt. Sanh. vii. 1, 1, 4 ff. as quoted above, p. 16, and in the Taitt. Br. iii. 2, 3, 9, p. 21, that the S'udra is incapacitated for sacrifice, and that anything he milks out is no oblation? 117 This alludes to an expression in the Rig-veda, i. 22, 20. See the 4th vol. of this work, p. 54. 118 In regard to Kala, “ Time,” see "Wilson’s Y. P. vol. i. p. 18 f., and the passages from the Atharva-veda, extracted in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865, pp. 380 if. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 63 out of the pairs (of susceptibilities to pleasure and pain, etc., etc.) 19. They then constructed fastnesses among trees, on hills, or amid waters, as well as artificial fortresses, towns, villages, etc. 20. And in these towns, etc., they built houses on the proper plan, in order to counteract cold, heat, and other discomforts. 21. Having thus provided against cold, etc., they devised methods of livelihood depending upon labour, and executed by their hands.” The kinds of grain which they cultivated are next described in the following verses 22 to 25. The text then proceeds, verse 26 : “ These are declared to be the fourteen kinds of grain, cultivated and wild, fitted for sacrifice ; and sacrifice is an eminent cause of their existence. 27. These, too, along with sacrifice, are the most efficacious sources of progeny. Hence those who understand cause and effect celebrate sacrifices. 28. Their daily performance is beneficial to men, and delivers from sins committed. 29. But that drop of sin which had been created by time increased in men’s hearts, and they disregarded sacrifice. 30. Beviling the Yedas, and the prescriptions of the Yedas, the gods, and all sacrificial rites, etc., obstructing oblations, (31) and cutting off the path of activity,118 they became malignant, vicious, and perverse in their designs. 32. The means of subsistence being provided, Prajapati, having created living beings, established a distinction according to their position and qualities (see verses 3 to 5 above), (and fixed) the duties of the castes and orders, and the worlds (to be attained after death) by all the castes which perfectly fulfilled their duties. 33. The world of Prajapati is declared to be the (future) abode of those Brahmans who are assiduous in religious rites ; the realm of Indra the abode of those Kshattriyas who turn not back in battle ; (34) that of the Maruts the abode of those Vaisyas who fulfil their duties; and that of the Gandharvas the abode of the men of S'udra race who abide in their vocation of service.” In the remaining verses of the chapter (35 to 39) the realms of blessedness destined for the reception of more eminent saints are briefly noticed, as well as the infernal regions, to which the wicked are doomed. 1,9 Fravritti-marga-vyuchcJJiitti-lcdrinah. The Commentator ascribes this to the human race being no longer sufficiently propagated, for he adds the explanation : yajnananushthane devair avarshanad annabhavena praja-vriddher asiddlieh \ “because population did not increase from the want of food caused by the gods ceasing to send rain in consequence of the non-celebration of sacrifice.” 64 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, At the beginning of the seventh section, without any further enquiry on the part of Maitreya, Parasara proceeds as follows : Y. P. i. 7, 1. Tato ’ bhidhyayatas tasya jajnire mdnasih prajuh | tach- chharira-samutpannaih Jcdryais taih kdranaih saha | 2. Kshettrajndh samavarttanta gdtrebhyas tasya dhimatah | te sarve samavarttanta ye mayd pray uduhrituh | 3. Devudyuh sthuvaruntds cha traigunya- vishaye sthituh | evam bhutdni srishtdni chardni sthdvardni cha | 4. Yadd ’ sya tuh prajuh sarva va vyavarddhanta dhimatah | athdnydn mdnasdn putrun sadrisdn dtmano ’ srijat | 5. Blirigum Pulastyam Pu- laliarh Kratum Angirasam tathd \ Marlchifn Daksham Atrim cha Vasish- thaih chaiva mdnasdn \ nava Irahmdna ity ete purdne nischayaih gatdh | 6. Sanandanadayo ye cha purvafh srishtas tu Vedhasd | na te lokeshv asajjanta nirapekshuh prajdsu te \ sarve te chdgata-jndnd vita-ruga vimatsardh | 7. Teshv evam nirapeksheshu loka-srishtau mahdtmanah \ Brahmano ’ bhud mahukrodhas trailokya-dahana-kshamah | 8. Tasya krodhut samudbhuta-jvdld-muld-vidipitam | Brahmano ’bhut tadd sarvaih trailokyam akhilam mune | 9. Bhrukuti-kutildt tasya lalutdt krodha- dipitdt | samutpannas tadd Rudro madhyuhndrka-sama-prabhah | ardha- ndri-nara-vapuh prachando ’ tisariravdn | vibhajdtmdnam ity uktvd tarn Brahma ’ ntarcladhe punah \ 10. Tathokto'sau dvidhu stritvam purushat- vam tathd 'karot | bibheda purushtvarh cha dasadhu chaikadlid cha sah \ 11. Saumyusaumyais tathd sdntdsuntaih stritvam cha sa prabhuh | bi- bheda bahudhd devah svarupair asitaih sitaih \ 12. Tato Brahma "tma- sambhutam purvaih svdyambhuvam prabhum \ dtmdnam eva kritavdn pra- japdlam Manum dvija \ 13. S’atarupdm cha tdih nurim tapo-nirdhuta- kalmashdm \ svdyambhuvo Manur devah patnyartham jagrihe vibhuh \ 14. Tasmdch cha purushdd devi Satarupd vyajuyata | Priyavratottdna- pddau Prasutydkuti-sanjnitam | kanyd-dvayam cha dharma-jna rupau- ddrya-gununvitam | 15. Badau Prasutim Dakshayathukutim Ruchaye purd ityddi | “1. Then from him, as he was desiring, there were bom mental sons with effects and causes120 derived from his body. 2. Embodied spirits sprang from the limbs of that wise Being. All those creatures sprang forth which have been already described by me, (3) beginning 150 The Commentator explains these words kdryais taih kdranaih saha to mean “ bodies and senses.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 65 ■with gods and ending with motionless objects, and existing in the con- dition of the three qualities. Thus were created beings moving and stationary. 4. When none of these creatures of the Wise Being multi- plied, he next formed other, mental, sons like to himself, (5) Bhrigu, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Angiras, Marlehi, Daksha, Atri, and Yasish- tha, all born from his mind. These are the nine Brahmas who have been determined in the Puranas. 6. But Sanandana and the others who had been previously created by Yedhas (Brahma) had no regard for the worlds, and were indifferent to offspring. They had all attained to knowledge, were freed from desire, and devoid of envy. 7. As they were thus indifferent about the creation of the world, great wrath, sufficient to burn up the three worlds, arose in the mighty Brahma. 8. The three worlds became entirely illuminated by the wreath of flame which sprang from his anger. 9. Then from his forehead, wrinkled by frowns and inflamed by fury, arose Rudra, luminous as the midday sun, with a body half male and half female, fiery, and huge in bulk. After saying to him, ‘Divide thyself,’ Brahma vanished. 10. Being so ad- dressed, Rudra severed himself into two, into a male and a female form. The god next divided his male body into eleven parts, (l 1 ) beautiful and hideous, gentle and ungentle ; and his female figure into numerous portions with appearances black and white. 12. Brahma then made the lord Svayambhuva, who had formerly sprung from himself, and was none other than himself, to be Manu the protector of creatures. 13. The god Manu Svayambhuva took for his wife the female S’atarupa, who by austere fervour had become freed from all defilement. 14. To that Male the goddess S'atarupa bore Priyavrata and Uttanapada, and two daughters called Prasuti and Akuti, distinguished by the qualities of beauty and magnanimity. 15. He of old gave Prasuti in marriage to Daksha, and Akuti to liuchi.” From a comparison of the preceding narratives of the creation of mankind, extracted from the fifth and sixth chapters of the First Book of the Yishnu Parana, it will be seen that the details given in the different accounts are not consistent with each other. It is first of all stated in the fifth chapter (verse 16) that the arvaksrotas, or human creation was characterized by the qualities of darkness and passion. In the second account (verse 33) we are told that Brahma assumed a body composed of passion, from which men, in whom that quality is power- 6 06 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, ful, were produced.151 In neither of these narratives is the slightest al- lusion made to there having been any primeval and congenital distinc- tion of classes. In the third statement given in the sixth chapter (verses 3 to 5) the human race is said to have been the result of a four- fold creation ; and the four castes, produced from different parts of the creator’s body, are declared to have been each especially characterized by different qualities ( gunas ), viz., those who issued from his mouth by goodness ( sattva ), those who proceeded from his breast by passion {rajas), those who were produced from his thighs by both passion and darkness (i tamas ), and those who sprang from his feet by darkness. In the sequel of this account, however, no mention is made of any differences of con- duct arising from innate diversities of disposition having been mani- fested in the earliest age by the members of the different classes. On the contrary, they are described (verses 10 ff.) in language applicable to a state of perfection which was universal and uniform, as full of faith, pure-hearted and devout. In like manner the declension in purity and goodness which ensued is not represented as peculiar to any of the classes, but as common to all. So far, therefore, the different castes seem, according to this account, to have been undistinguished by any variety of mental or moral constitution. And it is not until after the deterioration of the entire race has been related, that we are told (in verses 32 f.) that the separate duties of the several castes were fixed in accordance with their position and qualities. This sketch of the moral and religious history of mankind, in the earliest period, is thus deficient in failing to explain how beings, who were originally formed with very different ethical characters, should have been all equally excellent dur- ing their period of perfection, and have also experienced an uniform process of decline. In regard to the variation between the two narratives of the creation found in the fifth chapterof the Yishnu Purana, Professor Wilson remarks as follows in a note to vol. i. p. 80 : “ These reiterated, and not always very congruous, accounts of the creation are explained by the Puranas as referring to different Kalpas or renovations of the world, and there- fore involving no incompatibility. A better reason for their appearance 121 Compare the passage given above at the close of Sect. Y. pp. 41 ff., from Hanu xu. 39 ff. and the remarks thereon. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 67 is the probability that they have been borrowed from different original authorities.”122 As regards the first of these explanations of the discrepancies in question, it must be observed that it is inapplicable to the case before us, as the text of the Yishnu Purana itself says nothing of the dif- ferent accounts of the creation having reference to different Kalpas : and in absence of any intimation to the contrary we must naturally assume that the various portions of the consecutive narration in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh chapters, which are connected with each other by a series of questions and answers, must all have reference to the creation which took place at the commencement of the existing or Yaraha Kalpa, as stated in the opening verse of the fourth chapter. Professor Wilson’s supposition that the various and discrepant accounts “have been borrowed from different original authorities” appears to have probability in its favour. I am unable to point out the source from which the first description of the creation, in the early part of the fifth chapter, verses 1 to 23, has been derived. But the second account, given in verses 26 to 35, has evidently drawn many of its details from the passages of the Taittirlya Brahmana ii. 2, 9, 5-9, and ii. 3, 8, 2f., and S'atapatha Brahmana xi. 1, 6, 6 ff. which I have quoted above. And it is possible that the references which are found in the former of these descriptions in the Yishnu Purana to different portions of the creation 122 The discrepancies between current legends on different subjects are occasionally noticed in the text of the Yishnu Purana. Thus in the eighth chapter of the first book, v. 12, Maitreya, who had been told by Parasara that S’ri was the daughter of Bhrigu andKbyati, enquires : Kshlrabdhau S'rlh purotpannd iruyate’mrita-mantliane | Bhri- goh Khyatyam samutpannety etad aha katham bhavan | “It is reported that S'ri was produced in the ocean of milk when ambrosia was churned. How do you say that she was horn to Bhrigu by Khyiiti ?” He receives for answer : 13. Nityaiva sd jagan- mdta Vishnoh S rlr anapayirii (another MS. reads anuyayml ) yathd sarvagato Vishnus tathaiveyam dvijottama \ “ S'ri, the mother of the world, and wife of Vishnu, is eternal and undecaying” (or, according to the other reading, “is the eternal follower of Vishnu”). “ As he is omnipresent, so is she,” and so on. The case of Daksha will be noticed further on in the text. On the method resorted to by the Commentators in cases of this description Professor Wilson observes in a note to p. 203 (4to. edition), “other calculations occur, the incompatibility of which is said, by the Commentators on our text and on that of the Bhagavata, to arise from reference being made to dif- ferent Kalpas ; and they quote the same stanza to this effect: Kvachit kvachil pa- raneshu virodho yadi lakshyate | kalpa-bhedddibhis tatra virodhah sadbhir isliyate | ‘ Whenever any contradictions in different Puranas are observed, they are ascribed by the pious to differences of Kalpas and the like.’ ” 68 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, being ineffective may have been suggested by some of the other details in the Brahmanas, which I shall now proceed to cite. At all events some of the latter appear to have given rise to the statement in the fourth verse of the seventh chapter of the Vishnu P. that the creatures formed by Brahma did not multiply, as well as to various particulars in the narratives which will be quoted below from the Vayu and Markan- deya Puranas. The Brahmanas describe the creative operations of Pra- japati as having been attended with intense effort, and often followed by great exhaustion ; and not only so, but they represent many of these attempts to bring living creatures of various kinds into existence, to sustain them after they were produced, and to ensure their propagation, as having been either altogether abortive, or only partially successful. The following quotations will afford illustrations of these different points : Taitt. Br. i. 1, 10, 1. Prajupatih prajuh asrijata | sa ririchuno'man- yata \ sa tapo ’ tapyata | sa utman vlryarn apasyat tad avarddhata \ “Prajapati created living beings. He felt himself emptied. He performed austere abstraction. He perceived vigour in himself. It increased, etc." Taitt. Br. i. 2, 6, 1. Prajupatih prajuh srishtva vrittom ’say at | tam devah Ihfitunum rasaiii tejah sambhritya tena enam abhishajyan “ mahun avavartti ” iti | “Prajapati after creating living beings lay exhausted. The gods, collecting the essence and vigour of existing things, cured him there- with, saying he has become great, etc.” Taitt. Br. ii. 3, 6, 1. Prajupatih prajuh srishtva, vyasramsata | sa hri- dayam bhdto ’sayat | “ Prajapati, after creating living beings, was paralysed. Becoming a heart, he slept.” S'. P. Br. iii. 9, 1, 1. Prajdpatir vai prajuh sasrijano ririchunah iva amanyata | tasmut par achy ah prajuh asuh \ na asy a prajuh sriye ’ nnud - yuya jajnire | 2. Sa aikshata “ arikshy aham asmai (? yasmai) u kumuya asrikshi na me sa kdmah samurdhi parachyo mat-prajuh abhuvan na me prajuh sriye ’nnudydya asthishata ” iti | 3. Sa aikshata Prajupatih “ katham nu punar utmdnam apyaydyeya upa mu prajuh samavartterams tishfheran me prajuh sriye annudyaya” iti I so ’ rchhan srumyams cha- 123 S rant ah — Comm. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 69 char a praju-kdmah | sa etdm ekddasimm apasyat \ sa ekudasinyd ishtvd Prajdpatih punar dtmdnam dpydyayata upa enam prajdh samdvarttanta atishthanta asya prajdh sriye ' nnddydya sa vaslydn era ishtvd 'bhavat | “ Prajapati when creating living beings felt himself as it were emp- tied. The living creatures went away from him. They were not pro- duced so as to prosper and to eat food. 2. He considered : ‘ I have become emptied : the object for which I created them has not been fulfilled : they have gone away, and have not gained prosperity and food.* 3. He considered : ‘ how can I again replenish myself ; and how shall my creatures return to me, and acquire prosperity and food ? ’ Desirous of progeny, he went on worshipping and performing religious rites. He beheld this Ekadasini (Eleven) ; and sacrificing with it, he again replenished himself; his creatures returned to him, and gained prosperity and food. Having sacrificed, he became more brilliant.” S'. P. Br. x. 4, 2, 2. So 'yam samvatsarah Prajdpatih sarvdni bhutdni sasrije yach cha prdni yach cha aprunam ubhaydn deva-manushydn \ sa sarvdni bhutdni sr ishtvd ririchdna iva mene \ sa mrityor bibhiyunchakdra | 2. Sa ha ikshdnchaJcre “ katham nv aham imdni sarvdni bhutdni punar dtmann dvapeya punar dtman dadhlya katham nv aham eva eshdm sar- veshdm bhutdndm punar dtmd sydm ” iti \ “This Tear, (who is) Prajapati, created all beings, both those which breathe and those that are without breath, both gods and men. Having created all beings he felt himself as it were emptied. He was afraid of death. 2. He reflected, ‘ How can I again unite all these beings with myself, again place them in myself? How can I alone be again the soul of all these beings ?’ ” S'. P. Br. x. 4, 4, 1. Prajapatim vai prajdh srijamdnam pdpmd mrit- yur abhiparijaylidna | sa tapo 'tapyata sahasram samvatsardn pdpmdnam vijihdsan | “Misery, death, smote Prajapati, as he was creating living beings. He performed austere abstraction for a thousand years, with the view of shaking off misery.” S'. P. Br. ii. 5, 1, 1. Prajdpatir ha vai idam agre ekah eva dsa | sa aikshata “ katham nu prajdyeya" iti | so ' srdmyat sa tapo 'tapyata | sa prajdh asrijata \ tdh asya prajdh srislitdh pardbabhuvuh | tuni imdni vaydmsi | purusho vai Prajdpater nedishtham | dvipdd vai ayam puru- shah | tasmad dvipado vaydmsi | 2. Sa aikshata Prajdpatih | “ yatlid TO MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, nv eva purd eko ’ bliuvam evarn u nv eva apy etarhy eka eva asmi ” iti \ sa dvitiydh sasrije \ tdh asya para eva babhuvuh \ tad idaih kshudraih sarl- sripam yad anyat sarpebhyah | tritiydh sasrije ity dims tdh asya pard eva babhuvuh | te ime sarpdh . . . . | 3 So ’ rchhan srumyan Prajapatir ikshdnchakre “ katham nu me prajdh srishtdh pardbha/vanti ” iti | sa ha etad eva dadarsa “ anasanatayd vai me prajdh pardbhavanti” iti | sa dtmanah eva agre stanayoh paya dpydyaydnchakre \ sa prajdh asrijata | tdh asya prajdh srishtdh standv eva abhipadya tds tatah sambabhuvuh \ tuh imdh aparubhutuh \ “ 1. Prajapati alone was formerly this universe. He reflected, ‘ How can I be propagated ? ’ He toiled in religious rites, and practised austere fervour. He created living beings. After being created by him they perished. They were these birds. Man is the thing nearest to Praja- pati. This being, man, is two-footed. Hence birds are two-footed creatures. Prajapati reflected, ‘ As I was formerly but one, so am I now also only one.’ He created a second set of living beings. They also perished. This was the class of small reptiles other than serpents. They say he created a third set of beings, which also perished. They were these serpents ... 3. Worshipping and toiling in religious rites, Prajapati reflected, * How is it that my creatures perish after they have been formed?’ He perceived this, ‘they perish from want of food.’ In his own presence he caused milk to be supplied to breasts. He created living beings, which resorting to the breasts were then pre- served. These are the creatures which did not perish.” Taitt. Br. i. 6, 2, 1. Vaisvadevena vai Prajdpatih prajdh asrijata \ tdh srishtdh na prujdyanta | so’gnir akdmayata “ aharn imuh prajanayeyam” iti | sa Prajupataye sacham adadhut j so ’sochat prajdm ichhamunah | tasmdd yam cha prajd bhunakti yam cha na tdv ubhau sochatah prajdm ichhamdnau | tdsv Agnim apy asrijat | tu Agnir adhyait (2) So mo reto 'dadhut Savitd prdjanayat | Sarasvatl vacham adadhut \ Pushd 5 poshayat | te vai ete trih samvatsarasya prayvjyante ye devdh pushti- patayah | samvatsaro vai Prajdpatih | samvatsarena eva asmai prajdh prdjanayat \ tdh prajuh jdtdh ILaruto ’ ghnan “ asmdn api na prdyuk- shata” iti | 3. Sa etam Prajapatir murutaih saptakapdlam apasyat I taiJi niravapat | tato vai prajubhyo ’ kalpata \ . . . sa Prajapatir asochat “ ydh purvuh prajdh asrikshi Marutas tuh avadhishuh katham aparuh AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 71 srijeya ” iti \ tasya sushma andam bhutam niravarttata | tad vyudaharat | tad aposhayat | tat prdjdyata \ “Prajapati formed living creatures by the vaisvadeva (offering to the Yisvedevas). Being created they did not propagate. Agni desired’ ‘let me beget these creatures.’ He imparted grief to Prajapati. Ho grieved, desiring offspring. Hence he whom offspring blesses, and he whom it does not bless, both of them grieve, desiring progeny. Among them he created Agni also. Agni desired (?) them. Soma infused seed. Savitri begot them. Sarasvatl infused into them speech. Pushan nour- ished them. These (gods) who are lords of nourishment are employed thrice in the year. Prajapati is the Year. It was through the year that he generated offspring for him. The Maruts killed those creatures when they had been born, saying ‘ they have not employed us also. 3. Prajapati saw this Maruta oblation in seven platters. He offered it. In consequence of it he became capable of producing offspring . . Prajapati lamented, (saying) ‘ the Maruts have slain the former living beings whom I created. How can I create others?’ His vigour sprang forth in the shape of an egg. He took it up. He cherished it. It became productive.” Taitt. Br. iii. 10, 9, 1. Prajdpatir devdn asrijata | te pdpmand sandi- tdh ajdyanta | tun vyadyat \ “Prajapati created gods. They were born bound by misery. He released them.” Taitt. Br. ii. 7, 9, 1. Prajdpatih prajdh asrijata | tdh asmdt srishtdh pardchir dyan | sa etam Prajdpatir odanarn apasyat | so ’ nnarn bhuto ’ tishthat | tdh anyatra annudyam avitvd Prajupatim prajdh updvart- tanta | “ Prajapati created living beings. They went away from him. He beheld this odana. He was turned into food. Having found food no- where else, they returned to him.” Taitt. Br. i. 6, 4, 1. Prajdpatih Savitd bhutvd prajdh asrijata | td enam atyamanyanta | ta asmud apdhrdman | td Varuno bhutvd prajdh Varunena agrdhayat \ tdh prajdh Varuna-grihitdh Prajupatim punar upudhuvan ndtham ichhamdndh | “ Prajapati, becoming Savitri, created living beings. They disre- garded him, and went away from him. Becoming Yaruna he caused Yaruna to seize them. Being seized by Yaruna, they again ran to Prajapati, desiring help.” 72 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Taitt. Br. ii. 2, 1, 1. Tato rai sa (Prajdpaiih) prajah asrijata | tdh asmat srishta apdkruman \ “ Prajapati then created living beings. They went away from him.” I have perhaps quoted too many of these stories, which are all similar in character. But I was desirous to afford some idea of their number as well as of their tenor. As regards the legend of S'atarupa, referred to in the seventh chapter of the first book of the Vishnu Purana, I shall make some further remarks in a future section, quoting a more detailed account given in the Matsya Purana. Of the two sons of klanu Svayambhuva and S'atarupa, the name of the second, Uttanapada, seems to have been suggested by the appear- ance of the word Uttanapad in Rig-veda x. 72, 3, 4, as the designation (nowhere else traceable, I believe) of one of the intermediate agents in the creation.121 A Priyavrata is mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana vii. 34, and also in the Satapatha Brahmana x. 3, 5, 14, (where he has the patronymic of Rauhinayana) but in both these texts he appears rather in the light of a religious teacher, who had lived not very long before the age of the author, than as a personage belonging to a very remote antiquity. Daksha also, who appears in this seventh chapter as one of the mindborn sons of Brahma, is named in R. V. ii. 27, 1, as one of the Adityas, and in the other hymn of the R.V. just alluded to, x. 72, vv. 4 and 5, he is noticed as being both the son and the father of the goddess Aditi. In the S'. P. ii. 4, 4, he is identified with Praja- pati.125 In regard to his origin various legends are discoverable in the Puranas. Besides the passage before us, there are others in the V. P. in which he is mentioned. In iv. 1, 5, it is said that he sprang from the right thumb of Brahma, and that Aditi was his daughter ( Brail - manascha dakshind ngush tlia-janma Dak shah \ Prajdpater Dakshasydpy Aditih). In another place, V. P. i. 15, 52, it is said that Daksha, al- though formerly the son of Brahma, was bom to the ten Prachetases by Marisha ( Dasabhyas tu Prachetobhyo Mdrishaydm Frajdpatih \ jajne Daksho mahubhugo yah purvam Brahmano ’bhavat | ). This double pa- 124 See the 4th vol. of this work, pp. 10 f. 125 See the 4th vol. of this work, pp. 10 ff. 24, 101 ; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, for 1865, pp. 72 ff . ; Roth in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vi. 75. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 73 rentage of Daksha appears to Haitreya, one of the interlocutors in the Purana, to require explanation, and he accordingly enquires of his in- formant, vr. 60 ff. : Angushthad dakshinad Dak-shah purvam jutah srutam may a | katham Pruchetaso bhuyah sa sambhuto mahamune | esha me samsayo brahman sumahdn hridi varttate | yad dauhitras cha somasya punah svasuratum gatah | Parasara uvdcha | utpattis cha mrodhascha nityau bhuteshu vai mune | rishayo ’tra na muhyanti ye change divya- chakshushah, | 61. Yvge yuge bhavanty ete Dakshadya muni-sattama | punas chaiva nirudhyante vidvdms tatra na muhyati | 62. Kdnishthyam jyaishthyam apy eshum purvam nubhud dvijottama | tapa eva gariyo ’bhut prabhuvas chaiva kdranam \ “ 60. I have heard that Daksha was formerly horn from the right thumb of Brahma. How was he again produced as the son of the Prachetases ? This great doubt arises in my mind ; and also (the question) how he, who was the daughter’s son of Soma,128 afterwards became his father-in-law. Parasara answered : Both birth and de- struction are perpetual among all creatures. Bishis, and others who have celestial insight, are not bewildered by this. In every age Daksha and the rest are born and are again destroyed : a wise man is not be- wildered by this. Formerly, too, there was neither juniority nor seniority : austere fervour was the chief thing, and power was the cause (of distinction).” The reader who desires further information regarding the part played by Daksha, whether as a progenitor of allegorical beings, or as a creator, may compare the accounts given in the sequel of the seventh and in the eleventh chapters of Book I. of the Y. P. (pp. 108 ff. and 152 ff.) with that to be found in the fifteenth chapter (vol. ii. pp. 10 ff.). I will merely add, in reference to Akuti, the second daughter of Manu Svayambhuva and S'atarupa, that the word is found in the Big-veda with the signification of “will” or “design;” but appears to be per- sonified in a passage of the Taittirlya Brahmana, iii. 12, 9, 5 (the con- text of which has been cited above, p. 41), where it is said: Ira patni visvasrijum akutir apinad havih \ “ Ira (Ida) was the wife of the creators. Akuti kneaded the oblation.” 126 See "Wilson’s Y. P. vol. ii. p. 2, at the top. 74 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Sect. VIII. — Account of the different creations , including that of the castes, according to the Vdyu and Mdrkandeya Purdnas. I now proceed to extract from the Vayu and Markandeya Puranas the accounts which they supply of the creation, and which are to the same effect as those which have been quoted from the Vishnu Purana, although with many varieties of detail. I shall first adduce a passage from the fifth chapter of the Vayu (which to some extent runs parallel with the second chapter of the Vishnu Purana127), on account of its containing a different account from that generally given of the triad of gods who correspond to the triad of qualities ( gums ). Vayu Purana, chapter v. verse 11. Ahar-muklie pravritte cha parah prakriti-sambhavah \ Tcshobhaydmdsa yogena parena paramesvarah | 12. Pradhunam purusham chaiva pravisydndam Mahesvarah | 13. Pradhanat kshobhyamdndt tu rajo vai samavarttata | rajah prava/rttakam tatra vljeshv api yathd jalam | 14. Guna-vaishamyam dsddya prasuyante hy adhishthitdh | gunebhyah kshobhyamdnebhyas trayo deed vijajnire \ 15. Asritdhm pa/ramd guhyuh sarvdtmdnah sarlrinah \ rajo Brahma tamo hy Agnih sattvam Vishnur ajdyata | 16. Eajali-prakdsako Brahma srash- tritvena vyavasthitah | tamah-prakdsako 'gnis tu kulatvena vyavasthitah \ 17. Sattva-prakdsako Vishnur auddslnye vyavasthitah | ete eva trayo lokd ete eva trayo gunuli j 18. Ete eva trayo vedd ete eva trayo ’gnayah | paraspardsritdh hy ete parasparam anuvratdh | 19. Parasparena vart- tante dharayanti parasparam | anyonya-mithund hy ete hy anyonyam upajivinah | 20. Eshanam viyogo na hy eshdm na tyajanti parasparam j Isvaro hi paro devo Vishnus tu mahatah parah \ 21. Brahma tu rajosa- driktah sarguyeha pravarttate f parascha purusho jneyah prakritiicha para smritu | “ 11, 12. At the beginning of the day, the supreme Lord Mahes- vara, sprung from Prakriti, entering the egg, agitated with ex- treme intentness both Pradhana (= Prakriti) and Purusha. 13. From 127 See pp. 27 and 41 f. of Wilson’s V. P. vol. i. 123 The Gaikowar MS. of the India office, No. 2102, reads asthituh, instead of dsritdh, the reading of the Taylor MS. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 75 Pradhitna, when agitated, the quality of passion {rajas) arose, which was there a stimulating cause, as water is in seeds. 14. When an in- equality in the Gunas arises, then (the deities) who preside over them are generated. From the Gunas thus agitated there sprang three gods (15), indwelling, supreme, mysterious, animating all things, embodied. The rajas quality was born as Brahma, the tamas as Agni,129 the sattva as Vishnu. 16. Brahma, the manifester of rajas, acts in the character of creator ; Agni, the manifester of tamas, acts in the capacity of time ; 17. Yishnu, the manifester of sattva, abides in a condition of in- difference. These deities are the three worlds, the three qualities, (18) the three Yedas, the three fires ; they are mutually dependent, mu- tually devoted. 19. They exist through each other, and uphold each other ; they are twin-parts of one another, they subsist through one another. 20. They are not for a moment separated ; they never aban- don one another. Isvara (Mahadeva) is the supreme god ; and Vishnu is superior to Mahat (the principle of intelligence) ; while Brahma, filled with rajas, engages in creation. Purusha is to be regarded as supreme, as Prakriti is also declared to be.” The sixth section of the Yayu P., from which thp next quotation will be made, corresponds to the fourth of the Yishnu P. quoted above. 1. Apo hj agre samabliavan nashte ’ gnau prithivi-tale \ sdntardlaila- line ’ smin naslite sthuvara-jangame | 2. Ekurmve tafia tasmin na prajna- yata Jcinchana | tafia sa hhagavan Brahma sahasrdlishah sahasra-pdt | 3. Sahasra-sirshd Purusho rukma-varno hy atinfiriyah | Brahma Nurd- yandhhyah sa suslivdpa salile tafia | 4. SattvofireJcut prabufifihas tu sun- yam lolcam ufiikshya sah | imam chofidharanty atra slolcam Nurdyanam prati | 5. Apo ndrd vai tanavah 130 ity apdm ndma susruma | apsu sete cha yat tasmdt tena Narayanah smritah | 6. Tidy am yuga-sahasrasya naisam hdlam upasya sah \ sarvary-ante pralcurute Irahmatvam sarga- kdrandt \ 7. Brahma tu salile tasmin vdyur hhutvd tafia ’ charat \ nisdyam iva lihafiyotih prdvrit-hule tatas tatah \ 8. Tatas tu salile tasmin vijnd- ydntargatdm malum \ anumdndfi asammudho hhumer ufidharanam prati ] The Mark. P. chap. 46, verse 18, has the same line, but substitutes Rudra for Agni, thus : Rajo Brahma tamo Rudro Vishnuh sattvam jagat-patih | The two are often identified. See Yol. IV. of this work, 282 ff. ^ wo See Wilson’s Yishnu I’urfma, p. 57, with the translator’s and editor’s notes. Verses 1 to 6 are repeated towards the close of the 7th section of the Vuyu P. with variations. 76 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, 9. Aicarot sa tanuih hy anyam Jcalpadishu yathd purd \ tato malidtma manasd divyafh rupam acliintayat | 10. Salilendplutdmhhumim drishtva sa tu samantatah \ “ him nu rupam mahat lcritvd uddhareyam aham ma- 1dm ” | 11. Jala-kridd-suruchiram vdrdham rupam asmarat \ adlirishyam sarva-lhutdndm vdnmayam dharma-sanjnitam | “ 1. AYlien fire had perished from the earth, and this entire world motionless and moving, together with all intermediate things, had been dissolved into one mass, and had been destroyed — waters first were produced. As the world formed at that time but one ocean, nothing could he distinguished. Then the divine Brahma, Purusha, with a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, (3) a thousand heads, of golden hue, beyond the reach of the senses — Brahma, called Narayana, slept on the water. 4. But awaking in consequence of the predominance (in him) of the sattva quality, and beholding the world a void — : Here they quote a verse regarding 'Narayana : 5. ‘ The waters are the bodies of Nara : such is the name we have heard given to them ; and because he sleeps upon them, he is called Narayana.’ 6. Having so continued for a noc- turnal period equal to a thousand Yugas, at the end of the night he takes the character of Brahma in order to create. 7. Brahma then becoming Vayu (wind) moved upon that water,131 hither and thither, like a firefly at night in the rainy season. 8. Discovering then by in- ference that the earth lay within the waters, but unbewildered, (9) he took, for the purpose of raising it up, another body, as he had done at the beginnings of the (previous) Ivalpas. Then that Great Being de- vised a celestial form. 10. Perceiving the earth to be entirely covered with water, (and asking himself) ‘ what great shape shall I assume in order that I may raise it up ?’ — he thought upon the form of a boar, brilliant from aquatic play, invincible by all creatures, formed of speech, and bearing the name of righteousness.” The body of the boar is then described in detail, and afterwards the elevation of the earth from beneath the waters, and the restoration of its former shape, divisions, etc.132 — the substance of the account being 181 This statement, which is not in the corresponding passage of the Vishnu P., is evidently borrowed, along with other particulars, from the text of the Taittirlya San- hitu, vii. 1, 5, 1, quoted above p. 52. 182 Following the passage of the Taittirlya Sanhita, quoted above, the writer in one verse ascribes to Brahma as Vis’vakarman the arrangement of the earth, talas teshu vislrncshu lokodadh i-girishv at/m | Visvakarma vibhajate kalpadishu punah punah \ AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 77 much the same, but the particulars different from those of the parallel passage in the Yishnu Purana. Then follows a description of the creation coinciding in all essential points 133 with that quoted above, p. 55, from the beginning of the fifth chapter of the Yishnu Purana. The further account of the creation, however, corresponding to that which I have quoted from the next part of the same chapter of that Purana, is not found in the same position in the Yayu Purana,134 but is placed at the beginning of the ninth chapter, two others, entitled Prati- sandhi - klrttana and Chaturusrama - vibhdga , being interposed as the seventh and eighth. With the view, however, of facilitating com- parison between the various cosmogonies described in the two works, I shall preserve the order of the accounts as found in the Yishnu Purana, and place the details given in the ninth chapter of the Yayu Purana before those supplied in the eighth. The ninth chapter of the Yayu Purana, which is fuller in its details than the parallel passage in the Yishnu Purana, begins thus, without any specific reference to the contents of the preceding chapter : Sid a uvdcha | 1. Tato ’ bhidhydyatas tasya jajnire mdnaslh prajdh | tach - chharlra - samutpannaih kdryais taih kuranaih salia | 2. Kshe- trajndh samavarttanta gdtrebhyas tasya dhlmatah | tato devdsura-pitrln mdnavam cha chatushtayam [ 3. Sisrikshur ambhdmsy etdni svdtmand samayuyujat | yuktdtmanas tatas tasya tamomdtrd svayambhuvah | 4. Tam abhidhydyatah sargam prayatno Phut Prajdpateh \ tato ’ sya jaghandt pvrvarn asurd jajnire sutdh \ 5. Asuh prdnah smrito viprais taj-janmdnas tato ’ surah | yaga srishtdsurds tanvd tdm tanum sa vyapohata 135 | 6. Sd ’ paviddhu tanus tena sadyo rdtrir ajuyata | su tamo-bahuld yasmat tato rdtris triydmikd | 7. Avritds tamasu rdtrau prajds tasmdt svapanty uta \ drishtva 'surdiiis tu devesas tanum anydm apadyata \ 8. Avyaktdm sattva-bahuldm tatas tdm so ’bhyayuyujat | tatas turn yunjatas tasya priyarn dsit prabhoh kila | 9. 1'ato tnukhe samutpannd dlvyatas tasya devatuh \ yato ’sya dlvyato jdtus tena devdh 133 This is also the case with the details given in the Mark. P. xlvii. 15-27 and ff. 131 The Mark. P. however observes the same order as the Yishnu P. 135 The reading in the passage of the Taitt. Br. ii. 2, 9, 6, from which this narra- tive is boiTowed (see above, p. 28), is apdhata,— which, however, does not prove that that verb with vi prefixed should necessarily he the true reading here ; as the Taylor and Gaikowar MSS. have vyapohata throughout, and in one place vyapohat . 78 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, prakirttitdh | 10. Dhutur divlti yah proktah kridayum sa vibhavyate | tasmut (r yasmtit ) tanvdih tu divy&yum jajnire tena devatdh \ 11. Devun srishtva ’tha devesas tanam anyum apadyata | sattva - mdtrutmikdm devas tato 'nyum so 'bhyapadyata 138 | 12. Pitrivad manyamunas tun putrdn prudhyuyata pralhuh | pitaro liy upapakshdbhyam 187 rutry-ahnor antard ' srijat \ 13. Tasmut te pitaro devuh putratvaih tena teshu tat | yayu srishtus tu pitaras turn tanuih sa vyapoliata | 14. Su 'paviddhu tanus tena sadyah sandhyu prajuyata \ tasmud alias tu devunum rutrir yd sd "suri smritd I 15. Tayor madhye tu vai paitrx yu tanuh su gari- yasi | tasmud devdsuruh sarve rishayo manavas tathd | 16. Te yuktds turn upusante rdtry-ahnor 138 madhyamum tanum | tato ’ nyum sa punar Brahma tanuih vai pratyapadyata | 17. Rajo-mdtrdtmikdm yam tu ma- nasu so ’srijat pralhuh \ rajah-prdydn tatah so ’ tha mdnasdn asrijat sutun | 18. Manasas tu tatas tasya munasd jajnire prajuh \ drishtva punah prajus chdpi svdrii tanuih turn apohata | 19. Su 'paviddhu tanus tena jyotsnd sadyas tv ajuyata | tasmud Ihavanti saiiihrislitd jyotsndydm udbliave prajuh \ 20. Ity etus tanavas tena vyapaviddhu mahatmand | sadyo rdtry-ahani chaira sandhyu jyotsnd cha jajnire | 21. Jyotsnd sandhyu tathd 'has cha sattva-mdtrutmakaih svayam | tamo-mdtrdtmihd rditrih sd vai tasmut triydmiku \ 22. Tasmud deed divya-tanvd 139 drish- tdh srishtd mukhut tu vai \ yasmdt teshdm diva janma balinas tena te divu | 23. Tanvu yad asurun rutrau jaghanud asrijat punah \ prdnebhyo rdtri-janmdno hy asahyd nisi tena te | 24. Etdny evam bhavishydndih devdnum asuraih saha \ pitrindm munavundm cha atltdndgateshu vai | 25. Manvantareshu sarveshu nimittdni bhavanti hi | jyotsnd rdtry-ahani sandhyu chatvdry amblidihsi tdni vai \ 26. Bhunti yasmdt tato ’mblidihsi bhu-sabdo ’ yam manishibhih | vyupti-diptyum nigadito pumuihs chdha Prajupatih \ 27. So 'niblidiiisy etuni drishtvd tu deva-dunava-munavdn \ pitrims chaivdsrijat so 'nydn utmano vividhun punah \ 28. Turn utsrijya tanuih Jcritsndm tato ’ nyum asrijat pralhuh \ murttiih rajas-tama-praydm punar evubhyayuyujat | 29. Andhakure kshudhdvishtas tato ' nyum srijate punah | tena srishtuh kshudhutmdnas te 'mbhdihsy udutum udyatuh | 30. “ Anibhuihsy etuni rakshuma ” uktavantascha teshu ye | rdkshasds te smritdh loke krodhutmdno nisdcharuh | 1=6 This line is omitted, in the Gaikowar MS. 137 The Gaikowar MS. seems to read upapdrsvabliyam. 138 The Gaikowar MS. reads Brahnano madhyamdih tanum . 139 The Guikowar MS. reads diva tanvu. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 79 “Sutasays: 1. Then, as he was desiring, there sprang from him mind-horn sons, with those effects and causes derived from his body. 2. Embodied spirits were produced from the bodies of that wise Being. 3. Then willing to create these four streams (ambhumsi) gods, Asuras, Fathers, and men, he fixed his spirit in abstraction. As Svayambhu was thus fixed in abstraction, a body consisting of nothing but dark- ness (invested him). 4. While desiring this creation, Prajapati put forth an effort. Then Asuras were first produced as sons from his groin. 5. Asu is declared by Brahmans to mean breath. From it these beings were produced ; hence they are Asuras.140 He cast aside the body with which the Asuras were created. 6. Being cast away by him, that body immediately became night. Inasmuch as darkness predominated in it, night consists of three watches. 7. Hence, being enveloped in darkness, all creatures sleep at night. Beholding the Asuras, how- ever, the Lord of gods took another body, (8) imperceptible, and having a predominance of goodness, which he then fixed in abstraction. While he continued thus to fix it, he experienced pleasure. 9. Then as he was sporting, gods were produced in his mouth. As they were born from him, while he was sporting ( divyatah ), they are known as Devas (gods). 10. The root div is understood in the sense of sporting. As they were born in a sportive ( divya )U1 body, they are called Devatas. 11. Having created the deities, the Lord of gods then took another body, consisting entirely of goodness ( sattva ). 12. Regarding himself as a father, he thought upon these sons : he created Fathers ( Pitris ) from his armpits in the interval between night and day. 13. Hence these Fathers are gods : therefore that sonship belongs to them. He cast aside the body with which the Fathers were created. 14. Being cast away by him, it straightway became twilight. Hence day belongs to the gods, and night is said to belong to the Asuras. 15. The body intermediate between them, which is that of the Fathers, is the most important. Hence gods, Asuras, Fathers, and men (16) worship in- tently this intermediate body of Brahma. He then took again another body. But from that body, composed altogether of passion {rajas), 140 This statement, which is not found in the parallel passage of the Vishnu Parana, is borrowed from Taitt. Br. ii. 3, 8, 2, quoted above. 141 Divya properly means “ celestial.” But from the play of words in the passage, the writer may intend it to have here the sense of “ sportive.” 80 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, which he created by his mind, he formed mind-born113 sons who had almost entirely a passionate character. 18. Then from his mind sprang mind-born sons. Beholding again his creatures, he cast away that body of his. 1 9. Being thrown off by him it straightway became morning twi- light. Hence living beings are gladdened by the rise of early twilight. 20. Such were the bodies wrhich, when cast aside by the Great Being, became immediately night and day, twilight and early twilight. 21. Early twi- light, twilight, and day have all the character of pure goodness. Hight has entirely the character of darkness ( tamas ) ; and hence it consists of three watches. 22. Hence the gods are beheld with a celestial body, and they were created from the mouth. As they were created during the day, they are strong during that period. 23. Inasmuch as he created the Asuras from his groin at night, they, having been bom from his breath, during the night, are unconquerable during that season. 24, 25. Thus these four streams, early twilight, night, day, and twilight, are the causes of gods, Asuras, Fathers, and men, in all the Manvantaras that are past, as well as in those that are to come. 26. As these (streams) shine, they are called amlhamsi. This root bhu is used by the intelligent in the senses of pervading and shining, and the Hale, Prajapati, declares (the fact). 27. Having beheld these streams (am- bhaiiisi), gods, Danavas, men, and fathers, he again created various others from himself. 28. Abandoning that entire body, the lord created another, a form consisting almost entirely of passion and darkness, and again fixed it in abstraction. 29. Being possessed with hunger in the darkness, he then created another. The hungry beings formed by him were bent on seizing the streams ( ambhamsi ). 30. Those of them, who said ‘ let us preserve ( rakshuma ) these streams,’ are known in the world as Blkshasas, wrathful, and prowling about at night.” This description is followed by an account of the further creation corresponding with that given in the same sequence in the Vishnu Purana ; and the rest of the chapter is occupied with other details which it is not necessary that I should notice. I therefore proceed to make some quotations from the eighth chapter, entitled Chaturasrama- vibln'ga, or “ the distribution into four orders,” which corresponds, in 112 Manasan. We might expect here however, manavan or nianushan , “ human,” in conformity with the parallel passages both in the Vishnu Purana (see above, p. 56), and the Markandeya Purana, xlviii. 11. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 81 its general contents, with the sixth chapter of the Vishnu Purana, hook i., but is of far greater length, and, in fact, extremely prolix, as well as confused, full of repetitions, and not always very intelligible. The chapter immediately preceding (■ i.e . the seventh), entitled Pra- tisandhi-klrttanam, ends with the words : “I shall now declare to you the present Ivalpa ; understand.” Suta accordingly proceeds at the opening of the eighth chapter to repeat some verses, which have been already quoted from the beginning of the sixth chapter, descriptive of Brahma’s sleep during the night after the universe had been dissolved, and to recapitulate briefly the elevation of the earth from beneath the waters, its reconstruction, and the institution of Tugas. At verse 22 the narrative proceeds : Kalpasxjud.au kritayuge prathame so ’ srijat prajdh | 23. Prug uktd yd mayd tubhyam purva-kule prajus tu tuh \ tasmin samvarttamune tu kalpe dagdhas tada ’ gnind | 24. Apruptd yds tapo-lokam jana-loham, samdsri- tdh | pravarttati punah sarge vxjartham tu bhavanti hi | 25. Vxjurthena sthitds tatra punah sargasya kurandt | tat as tdh srijyamdnds tu san- tdnurtham Ihavanti hi | 26. Bharmdrtha-kdma-mokshunum iha tdh sd- dhiJcah smritdh \ deeds cha pitaraschaiva rishayo manavas tathu \ 27. Tatas te tapasd yuktdh sthdndny upurayanti hi [ Brahmano mdnasds te vai siddhatmuno Ihavanti hi | 28. Ye sangadvesha-yuktena karmand te divaih gatdh \ dvarttamdnd iha te sarnhhavanti yxige yuge \ 29. Sva- karma-pliala-seshena khyutyd eliaiva tathdtmiku (? tathdtmakdh ) | sam- Ihavanti janul lokut karma-samsaya-bandhandt \ 30. Asayali kuranaiii tatra boddhavyam karmand tu sah \ laih karmabhis tu juy ante janul lokut sublidsubhaih | 31. Grihnanti te sarlruni ndnd-rupdni yonisliu | dc-vud- ydh sthdvardntds cha utpadyante pa/rasparam (? paramparam ) | 32. Teshdxh ye ydni karmdni prdk-srishtau pratipedire | tuny era pratipad- yante srijyamandh punah punah \ 33. Himsrdhiihsre mridu-krure dhar- mddharme ritdnrite \ tadbhdvitdh prapadyante tasmut tat tasya rochate j 34. Kalpeshv dsan vyatlteshu rupa-numdni ydni cha \ tuny evdndgate kale prdyasah pratipedire | 35. Tasmut tu nama-rupani tuny era pratipe- dire \ punah punas te kalpcshu juyante ndma-rupatah \ 36. Tatah sarge hy avashtabdhe sisrikshor Brahmanas tu vai | 37. 143 Prajus tu dhyuyatas 143 The narrative in the 49th chapter of the Markandeya Purana (verses 3-13) begins at this verse, the 37th of the Vayu Purana, and coincides, though with verbal differences, with what follows down to verse 47. Alter that there is more variation. 6 82 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, tasya satydbhidhydyinas tacld | mithunanam sahasram tu so ’ srijad vai mukhut tadd | 38. Jands te hy upapadyante sattvodriktuh suchetasahUi | sahasram anyad vakshasto mithunanam sasarja ha | 39. Te sarve rajaso- driktuh sushminas chdpy akushminah 145 | srishtvd sahasram anyat tu dvandvanum urntah punah \ 40. Rajas-tamolhyam udriktu ihdsilds tu te smritdh | padbliydm sahasram anyat tu mithunanam sasarja ha \ 41. Udriktus tamasd sarve nihsrikd hy alpa-tcjasdli \ tato vai harshamdnds te dvandvotpannus tu prdninah | 42. Anyonya-hrichliaydvishtd maithu- ndyopachakramuh | tatalipralhriti kalpe ’smin maithunotpattir uchyate | 43. Musi mdsy urttavam yat tu na tadd ” sit tu yoshitdm 146 1 tasmdt tadd na sushuvuh sevitair api maithunaih | 44. Ayusho ’ nte prasuyante mi- thundny eva tdh sakrit | kanthakdh kunthikas cliaiva utpadyante mumur- shatdm 147 | 45. Tatah prahhriti kalpe ’smin mithunanam hi samhhavah \ dhydne tu manasd tdsdm prajdndm jay ate sakrit \ 46. S'ahdudi-vishayah suddhah pratyekam panclia-lakshanah | ity evam mdnasl 143 purvam prdk- srishtir yd Prajdpateh | 47. Tasydnvavdye sambhutd yair idam puritam jay at | sarit-sarah-samudrdms cha sevante parvatdn api \ 48. Tadd ndtyanta-iltoshnd yuge tasmin cliaranti vai | prithvi-rasodlhavam ndma ahdram hy dharanti vai 149 | 49. Tdh prajdh kdma-chdrinyo mdnaslm siddhim dsthitdh | dharmddharmau na tusv dstdm nirviseshdh prajds tu tdh | 50. Tulyam dyuh sukhafh ruparh tdsdm tasmin krite yuge | dhar- mddharmau na tdsv dstdm kalpddau tu krite yuge | 51. Svena svenadlii- kdrena jajnire te krite yuge \ chatvuri tu sahasrdni varshdndm divya- sankhyayd | 52. Adyaiii krita-yugam prdhuh sandhyundm tu chatuh- satam \ tatah sahasrasas tusa prajdsu prathitdsv api | 53.150 Na tdsdm pratighdto ’sti na dvandmam ndpi cha klamah | parvatodadhi-sevinyo hy aniketdsrayds tu tdh | 54. Visokdh sattva-lahuldh hy ekdnta-sukhitdh prajdh | tdh vai nishkdma-chdrinyo nityam mudita-munasdh | 55. Pasa- 144 For suclietasah tlie Mark. P. reads sutejasah. 145 For asusluninah the Mark. P. reads amarshinah, “ irascible.” 146 I have corrected this line from the Markandeya Purana, 49, 9 b. The reading of the MSS. of the Vayu Purana cannot be correct. It appears to be: mdse mdse ’rttavam yad yat tat ladasid hi yoshitdm \ The negative particle seems to be indis- pensable here. 147 This half verse is not found in the Mark. P. 148 The Mark. P. has mdnushi, “human,” instead of mdnasl, “mental.” 149 This verse is not in the Mark. P. ; and after this point the verses which are common to both Puranas do not occur in the same places. 150 Verses 53-56 coincide generally with verses 14-18 of the Mark. P. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES 83 vah pakshinas chaiva na tadasan sarisripuh | nodbhijjd ndrakasm chaiva te hy adharma-prasutayah | 56. Na mula-phala-pushpam cha ndrttavam ritavo na cha \ sarva-kama-sukhah halo ndtyartham hy ushna-Sitata 153 | 57. Manobhilashitdh humus tdsdm sarvatra sarvadu | uttishthanti prithiv- ydm vai tdbliir dhydtd rasolvandh | 58. Balavarna-karl tdsdm siddhih sd roga-ndsini \ asaihskdryyaih sarirais cha prajds tali sthirayauvandh | 59. Tdsdm visuddliut sanhalpuj jay ante mithundh prajdh \ samamjanma cha rupam cha mriyante chaiva tuh samam | 60. Tadd satyam alobhas cha hshamd tushtih suhharn damah \ nirviseshus tu tuh sarvd rupdyuh- sila-cheshtitaih | 61. AbuddhipurvakamvriUam prajdnam jay ate svayam \ apravrittih krita-yuge harmanoh subhapdpayoh | 62. Varndsrama-vya- vasthds cha na tadu ”san na sankarah | anichhddvesha-yuktds te vartta- yanti parasparam \ 63. Tulya-rupdyushah sarvdh adhamottama-varj- lituh 153 | sukha-prdyd hy asokus cha udpadyante krite yuge \ 64. Nitya- prahrishta-manaso mahusattvd mahdbaldh | lubhdldbhau na tdsv dstum mitrdmitre priydpriye \ 65. Manasd vishayas tdsdm nirihundm pravart- tate | na lipsanti hi td'nyoyam ndnugrihnanti chaiva hi \ 66. Dhyunam param krita-yuge tretdydm jnunam uchyate \ pravrittam dvdpare yajnaih dunam kali-yuge vararn | 67. Sattvaih kritam rajas tretu dvdparam tu rajas-tamau \ kalau tamas tu vijneyam yuga-vritta-vasena tu | 68. Kulak krite yuge tv esha tasya sankhydm nibodliata | chatvdri tu sahasrdni var- shdndm tat kritam yugam | 69. Sandhyumsau tasya divydni satdny ashtau cha sankhyayd | tadd tdsdm babhuvdyur na cha klesa-vipat- tayah 151 | 70. Tatah kritayuge tasmin sandhydmse hi gate tu vai \ pudu- vasishto bhavati yuga-dharmas tu sarvasah | 71. Saudhydydm apy atltd- ydm anta-kdle yugasya vai | pudasas chdvasishte tu sandhya-dharme yugasya tu | 72. Evafn krite tu nihseshe siddhis tv antardadhe tadu \ tasyam cha siddhau bhrashtdydm mdnasydm abhavat tatah | 73. Siddhir 151 The Mark. P. has nakrdh , “ crocodiles,” in its enumeration. 153 The Mark. P. here inserts some other lines, 18£-21a, instead of 57 and 58n of the Vayu P. 153 The Mark. P. inserts here the following verses : 24. Chatvdri tu sahasrdni varshanam mdnushdni tu j ayuh-pramanam jivanti na cha klesdd vipattayah \ 25. Kvachit kvachit punah sd bhut kshitir bhdgyena sarvasah \ Icalena gachhata nbsarn upayanti yathd prajdh | 26. Tatha tuh kramnsahnasam jagmuh sarvatra siddhayah | tasu sarvasu nashtasu nabhasah prachyutd nardh (latuh in one MS.) | prdyasah kalpa- vrikshds te sambhutd griha-saihsthitah | 154 Instead of babhuvdyuh, etc., the Gaikowar MS. has prayuktdni na cha kleso babhuva ha I 84 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, anya yuge tasmims tretdydm antare kritd | sargddau yd mayd ’shtau tu munasyo vai praklrttitdh | 74. Ashtau tuli krama-yogena siddhayo ydnti sankshayam | kalpddau mdnasl luy ekd siddhir bhavati sd krite | 75. Manvantareshu sarveshu chatur-yuga-vibhdgasah \ varnusramdchdra-kritah karma-siddhodbhavah ( karma-siddhyudbhavah :) smritah | 76. Sandhyu kritasya padena sandhyu padena chumsatah \ krita-sandhyumsaka hy ete trims trim pdddn parasparam | 77. Hrasanti yuga-dharmais te tapah- sruta-baldyushaih | tatah kritumse kslnne tu babhuva tad-anantaram \ 78. Tretd-yugam amanyanta kritdihsam rishi-sattamdh \ tasmin kshine kritumse tu tach-chhishtusu prajusv iha \ 79. Kalpddau sampravrittdyds tretdyuh pramukhe tadu \ pranasyati tadu siddhih kula-yogena ndnyathd | 80. Tasydm siddhau pranashtdyum anyu siddhir avarttata | apdm saak- shmye pratigate tadu meghdtmand tu vai \ 81. Meghehhyah stanayitnu- bhyah pravrittam rrishti-sarjjanam \ sakrid era tayd vrislityd samyukte prithivi-tale | 82. Prudurdsaihs tadu tusuih vrikshds tu griha-samsthi- tahlss | sarva-pratyupabhogas tu tdsdih tebhyah prajuyate | 83. Vart- tayanti hi tebhyas tds tretu-yuga-mukhe prajdh | tatah kdlena maliatu idsdm era viparyayut | 84. Rugalobhdtmako bhuvas tadu hy ukasmiko ’ bhavat | yat tad bhavati ndrlnam jlvitunte tad urlavam | 85. Tadu tad vai na bhavati punar yuga-balena tu \ tdsdrn punah pravritte tu mdse mdse tad drttavam (- ve ?) | 86. Tat as tenaiva yogena varttatdm maithune tadu | tdsdih tdt-kula-bhdvitvud mast musy upayachhatdm | 87. Akule hy arttavot- pattir garbhotpattir ajuyata \ viparyyayena tdsdih tu tena kdlena bhuvina \ 88. Pranasyanti tatah sane vrikshds te grihasaiiisthituh | tat as teshu pranasliteshu vibhruntd vyukulendriyuh \ 89. Abhidhyuyanti turn siddhirn satyubhidhydyinas tadu | prudurbabhuvus tdsdih tu vrikshds te griha- samsthituh | 90. 156 Vastrdni cha prasuyante plialeshv dbharanuni cha \ teshv eva juyate tasam gandha-varna-rasunvitam \ 91. Amdkshikam ma- hdviryam putake putake madhu | tena tu varttayanti sma tnukhe treta- yugasya vai | 92. Krishta-tushtds tayd siddhyu prajd vai vigata-jvardh | punah kuldntarenaiva punar lobhdvritds tu tdh | 93. Vrikshdihs tdn paryagrihnanta madhu chdmdksliikam balut | tdsdih tendpachurena punar lobha-kritena vai \ 94. Pranashtd rnadhund surdham kalpa-vrikshdh kva- 155 Verses 27-35 of the Mark. P. correspond more or less to this and the following verses down to 98. 156 This and the following verses correspond more or less closely to the Mark. P. 30 ff. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 85 chit kvachit \ tasyarn evdlpa-sishtdydm sandhya-kala-vasat tadd | 95. varttatdm tu tadd tdsdih dvandvany abhyutthitdni tu \ sitavdtdtapais tlvrais tatas tdh duhkhita bhrisam | 96. Dvandvais tdh pidyamdnds tu chakrur dvaranuni cha | kritvd dvandva-pratlkuram niketdni hi bhejire | 97. Purvam nikdma-chdrds te aniketdsrayd hlirisam | yathd-yogyam yathd-priti niketeshv avasan punch | 98. Maru-dhanvasu nimneshu par- vateshu darlshu cha 157 | samsrayanti cha durguni dhanvdnam sdsvatoda- kam | 99. Yathd-yogaih yathd-kdmam sameshu vishameshu cha | urabdhus te niketd vai karttuiii sitoslina-pdranam | 100. Tatas td mdpaydmdsuh klietuni cha purdni cha | grdmdihs chaiva yathd-hhdgam tathaivdntah- purdni cha | . . . 123. 158 Kriteshu teshu sthdneshu punas chakrur gri- huni cha | yathd cha purvam dsan vai vrikshds tu griha-samsthitdh \ 124. Tathd karttum samdrahdhus chintayitvd punah punch \ vridclhds chaiva gatdh sakhd natds chaivdpard gatuh | 125. Ata urdhvam gatds chdnyd enam tiryaggatdh pardh | buddhya ’nvishya tathd ’nyd yd vrik- sha-sdkhd yathd gatdh \ 126. Tathd kritds tu taih sdkhas tdsmdch chhdlds tu tdh smritdh \ evam prasiddhuh sdkhdbhyah sdlus chaiva grihdni cha \ 127. Tasmdt td vai smritdh sdldh sdldtvarh chaiva tdsu tat | prasidati manas tdsu manah prdsddayams cha tdh \ 128. Tasmdd grihdni sdlus cha prusudus chaiva sanjnitdh | kritvd dvan- dvopaghdtams tun vdrttopdyam achintayan \ 129. 159 Nashteshu ma- dhund surddham kalpa-vriksheshu vai tadd | vishuda-vyukulus td vai prajds trishnd-kshudhdnvituh \ 130. Tatah prudurbabhau tdsdih sid- dhis tretd-yuge punah | vartturtha-sadhikd hy anyd vrishtis tasdiii hi kdmatah | 131. Tdsdih vrishty-udakdniha ydni nimnair gatdni tu \ vrishtyd nimndQ ) nirabhavan srotah-khutuni nimnagdh \ 132. Ecaiii nadyah pravrittds tu dvitlye vrishti-sarjane | ye purastud apdm stokd dpannuh prithivitale \ 133. Apdm bhumes cha samyogdd oshadhyas tdsu clidbhavan \ pushpa-mulaphalinyas tv oshadhyas tdh prajajnire | 134. Aphula-krishtus chdnuptd grdmydranyas chaturdasa \ ritu-pushpa-pha- Idschaiva vrikshdh gulmds cha jajnire \ 135. Prudurbhavas cha tretdydm ddyo ’ yam aushadhasya tu \ tenaushadliena varttante prajds tretdyuge tadd | 136. Tatah punar abhut tdsdiii rdgo loblias cha sarvasah | avasyam- 157 I have corrected this line from Mark. P. slix. 35. 158 Verses 52-54 of the Mark. P. correspond in substance to verses 123-128 of the Vavu P. 159 Verses 55-62 of the Mark. P. correspond to verses 129-137 of the Vayu P. 86 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, bhdvind ’ rthena tretd-yvga-vasena tu | 137. Tatas tah paryagrihnanta nadili kshetrani parvatan | vrikshdn gulmaushadliis cliaiva prasahya tu yathd-balam \ 138. Sicldlidtmdnas tu ye purvam vydkliydtah prdk krite mayd | Bralimano mdnasds te vai utpannd ye jandd ilia | 139. Santas cha sushminas cliaiva karmino duhkliinas tada \ tatah pravarttamunds te tretdydih jajnire punah | 140. Brdhmandh ksliattriyd vaisydh sudrd drohijands tathd | bhdvitdh purva-jdtlshu karmabhis cha sublidsubhaih | 141. Itas tebliyo ''bald ye tu satyasild hy ahmsakdh \ vita-lobhd jitdt- mdno nivasanti sma teshu vai | 142. Pratigriknanti kurvanti tebhyas change ’ Ipa-tejasah | evaiii vipratipanneshu prapanneshu parasparam | 143. Tenadosliena teshuih td oshadluyo mishatdm taddlm \ pranashtd hriya- mdnu vai mushtibhydfn sikafa yathd | 144 .m Agrasad bhur yuga-balad grdmyaranyds chaturdasa | phalam grihnanti pushpaischa phalaih patraih punah punah | 145. 103 Tatas tdsu pranashtdsu vibhrdntds tah prajds tadu | Svayambhuvam prabhum jagmuh kshudhdvislitdh prajdpatim \ 146. vritty-artham abhilipsantah ddau tretd-yugasya tu | Brahma Svayambhur bliagavdn jnutvd tdsdm mamshitam | 147. Tuktam pratyaksha-drislitena darsanena vichdryya cha \ grastdh prithivyd oshadhyo jndtva pratyaduhat punah | 148. Kritvdvatsaih sumerum tu dudolia prithivlm imam | dugdhe- yam gaus tada tena vijdni prithivi-tale | 149. Jajnire tdni vljdni grumyd- ranyus tu tdh punah | oshadhyah phala-pdkdntdh sana-saptadasds tu tdh \ . . . . 155. Utpanndh prathamaih hy etd ddau tretu-yugasya tu | 156. Aphula-krishtd oshadhyo grdmyaranyds tu sarvasah | vrikshd gulma- latd-vallyo ulrudhas trina-jdtayah | 157. Mulaih plialais cha rohinyo ’ grihnan pushpais cha yah phalam | prithvi dugdha tu vijdni ydni pur- vam Sv ay ambhuvd \ 158. Ritii-pushpa-phalus td vai oshadhyo jajnire tv iha | 163 yadu prasrishtd oshadyo na prarolianti tdh punah | 159. Tatah sa tdsdih vritty-artham vdrttopdyam cliakdra ha | Brahma Svayambhur bhagavdn liasta-siddhaih tu karma-jam \ 160. Tatah-pr abler ity athau- shadhyah krislita-pachyds tu jajnire \ samsiddhayam tu vdrttdydm tatas tdsdih Svayambhuvah | 161. Maryuduh sthupaydmdsa yathurabdliah parasparam | m ye vai parigrildtaras tdsdm dsan badlidtmakdh \ 162. Itareshdm krita-trdndn sthupaydmdsa kshattriydn | upatishtlianti ye tan 160 Mark. P. verse 63a. 161 Mark. P. verse 68i. 162 Verses 64-67 of the Mark. P. correspond to verses 145-149 of the Vayu P. i«3 Verses 73-75 of the Mark. P. correspond to verses 1585-160a of the Vayu P. 1M This with all what follows down to verse 171 is omitted in the Mark. P. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 87 vai ydvanto nirbkayds tathd | 163. Satyarn brahma yathd bhutam bru- vanto brdhmands tu te | ye clidnye ’py abalus teshum vaisasaih karma samsthitdh [ 164. Klnasd ndsayanti sma prithivydm prdg atandrituh | vaisydn era tu tan dhuh klnusdn vritti-sudhakun | 165. S'ochantas cha dr av ant as cka pa/richwryydsu ye ratdh | nistejaso ’lpa-vlryyds cka sudrdn tdn abravit tu sah | 166. Teshum karmdni dliarmams cka Brahma’ nu- vyadadhut prabhuh | samsthitau prakritdydm tu chaturvarnyasya sar- vasah \ 167. Punah prajds tu td mokut tan dkarmdn ndnvapdlayan \ varna-dharmair ajlvantyo ryarudhyanta parasparam \ 168. Brakmd tarn, artliam buddkvd tu ydtkdtatkyena vai prabhuh \ kshattriydndm balam dandam yuddham djlvam adisat | 169. Tujanddhyayanam chaiva tritl- yarh cha parigraham | brdhmandndrii vibhus teshum karmany etdny athd- disat | 170. Pdsupdlyaih vanijyam cha kriskim ckaiva visdfii dadau | silpdjlvam bkritim chaiva sudrdndfii vyadadhut prabhuh | 171. Sdman- ydni tu karmdni brahma-kskattra-visdm punah | ydjanudhyayanaih dunam samanydni tu teshu vai | 172. Karmdjlvafh tato dated tebkyas chaiva parasparam j lokdntareshu sthdndni teshdih siddhydy 105 addt prabhuh \ 173.100 Prdjdpatyam brdhmandndm smritaih sthdnaih kriydvatdm \ sthd- narh aindram kshattriydndm sangrdmeshv apaldyindm | 174. Vaisydndm mdrutam sthdnaih sva-dharmam upajlvindm \ ydndharvam sudra-jutindm praticlidrena ( parichdrena :) tishthatdm \ 175. Sthdndny etdni varndndih vyasydchdravatdm svayam | tat ah sthiteshu varneshu sthdpaydmdsa chdsra- mdn | 176. Grihastham brahmachdritvam vanaprastham sabhikshukam | dsramdms chaturo hy etdn purvam asthdp ay at prabhuh \ 177. Varna-kar- mdni yekechit teshum iha na kurvate \ krita-karmakshitih(:) prdhur dsra- ma-sthdna-vdsinah \ 178. Brakmd tun stkdpdydmdsa dsramdn ndmand- matah \ nirdesartham tatas teshum Brahma dharmdn prdbhdshata | 179. Prasthdndni cha teshum vai yamumscha niyamdms cha ha \ chdturvarnydt - makak purvam grikastkas tv dsrafnah smritah | 180. Trdyundm dsram- undih cha pratishthd yonir eva cha \ yathdkramam pravakshydmi yamais cha niyamais cha taih | . . . . 190. Veduh sdngds cha yajnds oka vra- tuni niyamds cha ye | 191. Na siddhyanti prudushtasya bhuvadoshe upd- gate | bahih-karmdni sarvuni prasiddhyanti ( na siddhyanti ?) kaddehana [ 165 I conjecture siddhydy addt to be the proper reading; The MSS. have siddhya- daddt, or siddhyadadat, etc. 166 Verses 173 f. are found in the Mark. P. verses 77 f. ; but all that follows down to verse 193 is omitted there 88 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, 192. Antar-bhava-pradushtasya Icurvato’hi pardkramdt | sarvasvarn apt yo dadyut kalushendntarutmand | 193. Na tena dharma-bhuk sa syad blmva eva hi kdranam | . . . . 199. Evam varndsramdndih vai prati- hhuge krite tadu | 200. Yadd ’sya na vyavardhanta prajd varndsramat - mikuh \ tato ’ nyd mdnasih so 'tha tretu-madhye ’ srijat prajuh \ 201. At- manas tuh sarlrdchcha tulyds cliaivdtmand tu vai | tasmin tretd-yuge prdpte madhyam prdpte kramcna tu | 202. Tato ’ nyd manasis tatra pra- juh srashtum prachakrame \ tatah satva-rajodrilctuh prajuh so ’ thdsrijat prabhuh I 203. Tharmdrtha-kdma-mokshdndm vurttuyds cliaiva sadhi- kuh | devus cha pitaras cliaiva rishayo manavas tatlid | 204. Yugu.nu- rupd dliarmena yair imd vicliitdh prajuh | upasthite tadu tasmin prajd- dliarme (- surge ?) Svayambhuvah \ 205. Abhidadhyau prajuh sarvd nund- riipds tu mdnasih \ purvoktu yd mayu tubhyam jana-lolcarh samdsritdh \ 206. Ealpe’tlte tu tu hy dsan devudyus tu prajd ilia | dhyuyatas tasya tdh sarvdh sambhuty -artham upasthituh | 207. Manvantara-kramenclia lea- nishthe prathame matdh \ khyutyd ’ nubandhais tais tais tu sarvartliair ilia bhuvituh | 208. Kusalukusala-prdyaih karmabhis taih sadu prajuh | tat-karma-phala-seshena upaslitabdhuh prajajnire | 209. JDevdsura-pitri- tvais tu pasu-pakshi-sarisripaih | vriksha-nuraka-kitatvais tais tair bha- vair upastlntuh j udhinartham prajdndm cha utmand vai vinirmame | “22. At the beginning of the Kalpa, in the first Krita age, he created those living beings (23) which I have formerly described to thee; hut in the olden time, at the close of the Kalpa, those crea- tures were burnt up hy fire. 24. Those of them who did not reach the Tapoloka took refuge in the Janaloka; and when the creation again commences, they form its seed. 25. Existing there as a seed for the sake of another creation, they then, as they are created, are produced with a view to progeny. 26. These are declared to accom- plish, in the present state (the four ends of human life, viz.), duty, the acquisition of wealth, the gratification of love, and the attain- ment of final liberation, — both gods, Fathers, Rishis, and Manus. 27. They, then, filled with austere fervour, replenish (all) places. These are the mental sons of Brahma, perfect in their nature. 28. Those who ascended to the sky hy works characterized by devotion to external objects, hut -not hy hatred, return to this world and are horn in every age. 29. As the result of their works, and of their destination, (returning) from the Janaloka, they are horn of the same character (as AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 89 before), in consequence of the (previous) deeds by which they are bound.107 30. It is to be understood that the cause of this is their tendency (or fate), which itself is the result of works. In consequence of these works, good or bad, they return from J analoka and are born, (31) and receive various bodies in (different) wombs. They are pro- duced again and again in all states, from that of gods to that of motionless substances. 32. These creatures, as they are born time after time, receive the same functions as they had obtained in each previous creation. 33. Destructiveness and undestructiveness, mild- ness and cruelty, righteousness and unrighteousness, truth and false- hood— actuated by such dispositions as these, they obtain (their several conditions) ; and hence particular actions are agreeable to particu- lar creatures. 34. And in succeeding periods they for the most part obtain the forms and the names which they had in the past Kalpas. 35. Hence they obtain the same names and forms. In the different Kalpas they are born with the same name and form. 36. Afterwards, when the creation had been suspended, as Brahma was desirous to create, (37) and, fixed in his design, was meditating upon offspring, — he created from his mouth a thousand couples of living beings, (38) who were bom with an abundance of goodness ( sattva ) and full of intel- ligence.168 He then created another thousand couples from his breast: (39) they all abounded in passion ( rajas ) and were both vigorous and destitute of vigour.169 After creating from his thighs another thousand pairs, (40) in whom both passion and darkness (tamas) prevailed, and who are described as active, — he formed from his feet yet another thousand couples (41) who were all full of darkness, inglorious, and of little vigour. Then the creatures sprung from the couples (or thus produced in couples) rejoicing, (42) and filled with mutual love, began to cohabit. From that period sexual intercourse is said to have arisen in this Kalpa. 43. But at that time women had no monthly discharge : and they consequently bore no children, although cohabit- 167 Karma-samiaya-bandhanat. I am unable to state the sense of saihsaija in this compound. 168 Suchetasah. The reading of the Murk. P. sutejasah, “ full of vigour,” is recom- mended, as an epithet of the Brahmans, by its being in opposition to alpa-tejasah, “ of little vigour,” which is applied to the S'udras a few lines below. 169 The reading of the Mark. P. amarshinah , “irascible,” gives a better sense than asushminah, “devoid of vigour,” which the Vayu P. has. 90 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CKEATION OF MAN, ation was practised. 44. At the end of their lives they once bore twins. Weak-minded boys and girls were produced when (their parents) were on the point of death. 45. From that period commenced, in this Ivalpa, the birth of twins; and such offspring was once only born to these creatures by a mental effort, in meditation (46), — (offspring which was) receptive (?) of sound and the other objects of sense, pure, and in every case distinguished by five marks. Such was formerly the early mental creation of Prajapati. 47. Those creatures by whom the world was replenished, born as the descendants of this stock, frequented rivers, lakes, seas, and mountains. 48. In that age ( yuga ) they lived unaffected by excessive cold or heat, and appropriated the food which was produced from the essences of the earth. 49. They acted according to their pleasure, existing in a state of mental perfection. They were characterized neither by righteousness nor unrighteousness; were marked by no distinctions. 50. In that Krita yuga, in the beginning of the Kalpa, their age, happiness, and form were alike : they were neither righteous nor unrighteous. 51. In the Ivrita age they were produced each with authority over himself. Four thousand years, according to the calculation of the gods, (52) and four hundred years for each of the morning and evening twilights, are said to form the first, or Krita, age.170 Then, although these creatures were multiplied by thousands, (53) they suffered no impediment, no susceptibility to the pairs of oppo- sites (pleasure and pain, cold and heat, etc. ) and no fatigue. They fre- quented mountains and seas, and did not dwell in houses. 54. They never sorrowed, were full of goodness ( sattva ), and supremely happy ; acted from no impulse of desire,171 and lived in continual delight. 55. There were at that time no beasts, birds, reptiles, or plants,173 (for these things are produced by unrighteousness),173 (56) no roots, fruits, 110 The first of the verses, -which will be quoted below, in a note on verse 63, from the Mark. P., seems to he more in place than the description of the Krita age given here, of which the substance is repeated in verses 68 and 69. 171 Perhaps we should read here nikama-charinyo instead of nishkdma- : if so, the sense will be, “ they moved about at will.” 172 The text adds here ndrakuh or narakah , which may mean “hellish creatures.’ 173 This, although agreeing with what is said further on in verses 82, 133, and 1 55, does not seem in consonance with what is stated in the Vishnu Puruna, verse 45, where it is declared : oshadhyah phala-mulinyo romabhyas tasya jajnire \ treta-yuga- mukhe Brahma kalpasyddau dvijottama \ srishtva pasv-oshadhlh samyag yuyoja sa tada ’dhvare \ “ Plants bearing roots and fruits sprang from his hairs. At the com- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 91 flowers, productions of the seasons, nor seasons. The time brought with it eyery object of desire and every enjoyment. There was no excess of heat or cold. 57. The things which these people desired sprang up from the earth everywhere and always, when thought of, and had a powerful relish. 58. That perfection of theirs both produced strength and beauty, and annihilated disease. With bodies, which needed no decoration, they enjoyed perpetual youth. 59. From their pure will alone twin children were produced. Their form was the same. They were bom and died together. 60. Then truth, contentment, patience, satisfaction, happiness, and self-command prevailed. They were all without distinction in respect of form, term of life, disposition and actions. 61. The means of subsistence were produced spontaneously without forethought on their parts. In the Krita age they engaged in no works which were either virtuous or sinful. 62. And there were then no distinctions of castes or orders, and no mixture of castes. Men acted towards each other without any feeling of love or hatred. 63. In the Krita age they were born alike in form and duration of life, with- out any distinction of lower and higher,174 with abundant happiness, free from grief, (64) with hearts continually exulting, great in dignity mencement of the Tretu age Brahma — having at the beginning of the Kalpa created animals and plants— employed them in sacrifice.” Although the order of the words renders the sense in some degree uncertain, it appears to be that which Prof. Wilson assigns in his translation (i. 84), “ Brahma, having created, in the commencement of the Kalpa, various [animals and] plants, employed them in sacrifices in the beginning of the Tretu age.” This interpretation is supported by the Commentator, who remarks: Tad evaih kalpasyadav eva pasun oshadhii cha srishtva ’nantaram treta-yaga-mukhe prapte sati samyag gramyaraiiya-vyasthayd tadd ’dhvare sanatayd ( samyaktayd ?) yuyoja krita-yuge yajnasycipravritteh \ “ Having then thus at the very beginning of the Kalpa created animals and plants, he afterwards, when the commencement of the Tretu age arrived, employed them properly, according to the distinction of domestic and wild, in sacrifice, — since sacrifice did not prevail in the Krita age.” This agrees with the course of the preceding narrative which makes no allusion to plants and animals having been produced in a different Yuga from the other beings whose creation had been previously described. (See Wilson i. 82-84.) The parallel passage in the Vayu P. x. 44-46, is confused. 171 The Mark. P. xlix. 24 inserts here the following lines : “ They lived for four thousand years of mortals, as the measure of their existence, and suffered no calamities from distress. 25. In some places the earth again enjoyed prosperity in every respect. As through lapse of time the creatures were destroyed, so too those perfections every- where gradually perished. 26. When they had all been destroyed, creeping-plants fell from the sky, which had nearly the character of Kalpa-trees (i.e. trees which yield all that is desired), and resembled houses.” 92 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, and in force. There existed among them no such things as gain or loss, friendship or enmity, liking or dislike. 65. It was through the mind (alone, i.e. without passion?) that these disinterested beings acted to- wards each other. They neither desired anything from one another ; nor shewed any kindness to each other.175 Contemplation is declared to be supreme in the Krita age, knowledge in the Treta ; sacrifice began in the Dvapara ; liberality is the highest merit in the Kali. 67. The Krita age is goodness ( sattva ), the Treta is passion (rajas), the Dvapara is passion and darkness ( tamas ), in the Kali it is to be understood that darkness (prevails), according to the necessary course of these ages. 68. The following is the time in the Krita age : understand its amount. Tour thousand years constitute the Krita ; (69) and its twilights endure for eight hundred divine years. Then their life was (so long ?)179 and no distresses or calamities befel them. 70. Afterwards, when the twilight in the Krita was gone, the righteousness peculiar to that age was in all respects reduced to a quarter (of its original sum). 71. When further the twilight had passed, at the close of the Yuga, and the righteousness peculiar to the twilight had been reduced to a quarter, (72) and when the Krita had thus come altogether to an end, — then perfection vanished. When this mental perfection had been destroyed, there arose (73) another perfection formed in the period of the Treta age. The eight mental perfections, which I declared (to have existed) at the ci’eation, (74) were gradually extinguished. At the beginning of the Kalpa mental perfection alone (existed), viz., that which existed in the Krita age. 75. In all the Manvantaras there is declared to arise a perfection proceeding from works, produced by the discharge of the duties belonging to castes and orders, according to the fourfold division of Yugas. 76. The (morning) twilight (deteriorates) by a quarter of the (entire) Krita, — and the evening twilight by (another) quarter ; — (thus) the Krita, the morning twilight, and the evening 175 This representation of the condition of mankind during the Krita age, the period of ideal goodness, was no doubt sketched in conformity with the opinions which pre- vailed at the period when the Purana was compiled ; when dispassion was regarded as the highest state of perfection. 176 It would seem as if the writer here meant to state that the period of life was that which in the verse of the Mark. P. (xlix. 24), quoted in the note on verse 63, it is declared to have been. But the expression here is, from some cause or other, im- perfect. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 93 twilight (together) deteriorate successively to the extent of three quarters, in the duties peculiar to the Yuga, and iu austere fervour, 6acred knowledge, strength, and length of life.177 Then after the evening of the Krita had died out, (78) the Treta age succeeded, — (which) the most excellent rishis regarded as the evening of the Krita. But when the evening of the Krita had died out, (79) from the in- fluence of time, and for no other reason, perfection disappeared from among the creatures who survived at the commencement of the Treta age which ensued at the beginning of the Kalpa. 80. When that per- fection had perished, another perfection arose. The subtile form of water having returned in the form of cloud (to the sky),178 (81) rain began to be discharged from the thundering clouds. The earth having once received that rain, (82) trees resembling houses179 were provided for these creatures. From them all means of enjoyment were pro- duced. 83. Men derived their subsistence from them at the beginning of the Treta. Subsequently, after a great length of time, owing to their ill fortune, (84) the passions of desire and covetousness arose in their hearts uncaused. The monthly discharge, which occurred at the end of women’s lives, (85) did not then take place : but as it com- menced again, owing to the force of the age (yuga), (86) and as the couples, in consequence of it, began to cohabit, and approached each other monthly, from necessity occasioned by the time, — (87) an un- seasonable179® production of the monthly discharge, and of pregnancy ensued. Then through their misfortune, and owing to that fated time, (88) all those house-like trees perished. When these had been de- stroyed, men disturbed and agitated, (89) but genuine in their desire, longed after that perfection (which they had lost). Then those house- like trees appeared to them ; (90) and among their fruits yielded clothes and jewels. On these trees too, in the hollow of every leaf, there was produced, (91) without the aid of bees, honey of great po- tency, having scent, colour, and flavour. By this means they sub- sisted at the beginning of the Treta, (92) delighted with this per- 117 Sucli is the only sense I can extract from these rather obscure lines. 178 Such is the only sense of the words here rendered which occurs to me. 179 Griha-Samsthitcih. Professor Wilson, in his Dictionary, gives “ like, resembling,” among the meanings of samsthita. 179 ® Instead of akale, “out of season,” Professor Aufrecht suggests akale, “in season,” as the proper reading. 94 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, fection and free from trouble. Again, through the lapse of time, becoming greedy, (93) they seized by force those trees, and that honey produced without bees. And then, owing to that misconduct of theirs, occasioned by cupidity, (94) the Kalpa trees, together with their honey, were in some places destroyed. As but little of it180 remained, owing to the effects of the period of twilight, (95) the pairs (of opposites, as pleasure and pain, etc.) arose in men when existing (in this state) ; and they became greatly distressed by sharp cold winds, and heats. 96. Being thus afflicted by these opposites, they adopted means of shelter : and to counteract the opposites they resorted to houses. 97. Formerly they had moved about at their will, and had not dwelt at all in houses : but subsequently they abode in dwellings, as they found suitable and pleasant, (98) in barren deserts, in valleys, on mountains, in caves ; and took refuge in fortresses, — (in a) desert with perpetual water.181 99. As a protection against cold and heat they began to con- struct houses on even and uneven places, according to opportunity and at their pleasure. 100. They then measured out towns, cities, villages, and private apartments, according to the distribution of each.” [The following verses 101-107 give an account of the different measures of length and breadth, which is followed, in verses 108-122, by a descrip- tion of the various kinds of fortresses, towns, and villages, their shapes and sizes, and of roads. The author then proceeds in verse 123 :] “These places having been made, they next constructed houses; and as formerly trees existed, formed like houses,183 (124) so did they (now) begin to erect them, after repeated consideration. (Some) boughs are spread out, others are bent down, (125) others rise upwards, while others again stretch horizontally. After examining thus by reflection how the different boughs of trees branch out, (126) they constructed in like manner the apartments (6ak huh) (of their houses) : hence they iso « Perfection ” seems to be here intended. If so, it would seem as if this line had been separated from its proper context. 181 Dlianvanam sasvalodakam. Perhaps we should read here with the Mark. P. xlix. 35, varkshyam pdrvatam audakam “ (fortresses) protected by trees, built on mountains, or surrounded by water.” 182 'Whatever may be thought of this rendering of the phrase, vrikshah grihasaih- sthitah, the Mark. P. (xlix. 52), at least, is quite clear : grihakdra. ijathd purvam tesham asan mahlruhah | tatlid sanismritya tat sarvam chakrur vesmani tah prgjah | “As they had formerly had trees with the shape of houses, so recalling all that to mind, these people built their dwellings.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES 95 are called rooms ( sdldh).lss In this way rooms and houses derive their appellation from branches. 127. Hence rooms are called said, and in that their character as rooms ( suldtvam ) consists. And inasmuch as the mind takes pleasure in them, and as they have gladdened ( prdsd - day an), the mind, (128) houses, rooms, and palaces are termed respec- tively griha, said, and prdsdda. Having adopted these means of defence against the ‘ opposites,’ they devised methods of subsistence. 129. The kalpa-trees having been destroyed along with their honey, those creatures, afflicted with thirst and hunger, became disquieted by dejection. 130. Then again another perfection arose for them in the Treta age, — which fulfilled the purpose of subsistence, — viz., rain at their pleasure. 131. The rain-water, which flowed into the hollows, hurst out in the form of springs, water- courses, and rivers, 1S1 through the rain. 132. Thus at the second fall of rain rivers began to flow. "When the drops of water first reached the ground, then (133) from the conjunction of the waters and the earth plants sprang up among them, which bore both flowers, roots, and fruits. 134. Fourteen kinds of plants, cultivated and wild, were produced without ploughing or sow- ing, as well as trees and shrubs which bore flowers and fruit at the proper season. 135. This was the first appearance of plants in the Treta age, and by them men subsisted at that period. 136. Then there again arose among them, universally, desire and cupidity, through a ne- cessary process, and as a result of the Treta age. 137. They then appropriated to themselves, by force and violence, rivers, fields, hills, trees, shrubs, and plants. 138. Those perfect beings, who were de- scribed by me as existing formerly in the Krita, — the mind-horn children of Brahma, who had been produced in this world when they came from the Janaloka, — (139) who were (some) tranquil, (some) fiery, (some) active, and (others) distressed, — were again born in the Treta, (140) as Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and injurious men, governed by the good and bad actions (performed) in former births. 141. Then those who were weaker than they, being truthful and innocent, dwelt among them, free from cupidity, and self-restrained ; (142) whilst 183 Tlie reasoning here does not seem very cogent, as the two words saklid and said do not appear to have any close connection. But such unsuccessful attempts at ety- mology are frequent in Sanskrit works. 184 The text here does not seem to be in a satisfactory state. The Calc, edition of the Mark. P. reads vrishtyavaruddhair abhavat , etc. 96 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, others, less glorious than they, took and did.185 When they had thus be- come opposed to each other, — (143) through their misconduct, while they struggled together, the plants were destroyed, being seized with their fists like gravel. 144. Then the earth swallowed up the fourteen kinds of cultivated and wild plants, in consequence of the influence exerted by the Yuga : for men had seized again and again the fruit, together with the flowers and leaves. 145. After the plants had perished, the famished people, becoming bewildered, repaired to Svayambhu the lord of creatures, (146) in the beginning of the Treta age, seeking the means of subsistence.156 Learning what they desired, (147) and determining by intuition what was proper to be done, the Lord Brah- ma Svayambhu, knowing that the plants had been swallowed up by the earth, milked them back. 148. Taking Sumeru as a calf, he milked this earth. When this earth (or cow)187 was milked by him, roots were 185 It is difficult to extract any satisfactory sense out of this line. 186 The S'. P. Er. ii. 4, 2, 1, also speaks of different classes of creatures applying to the creator for food : Prajapatim vai bhutdny upasldan | prajdh vai bhutdni | “ vi no dhehi yatha jlvarna” iti | tato devd yajnopavltino bliutva dakshinalii jdnv achya upa- sldan | tan abravld “ yajno vo 'nnam amritatvam va urg vah suryo vo jyotir ” iti | 2. At ha enam pitarah praehlndvltinah savyam jdnv achya upasldan | tan abravld limasi nidsi vo ’sandm svadha vo manojavo vas cliandrania vo jyotir ” iti | 3. Atha enam manushydh pravritah upasthalh kritvd upasldan | tan abravlt “sayam pratar vo ’sanam prajdh vo mrityur vo ’gnir vo jyotir ” iti | 4. Atha enam pasavah upasldan | tebhyah svaisham eva chakdra “ yadd eva yuyarn kaddcha labhadhvai yadi kale yady anakale atha eva asnatha” iti \ tasmdd ete yadd kaddcha labliante yadi kale yady anakale atha eva asnanti I 5. Atha ha enam sas'vad apy asurdh upasedar ity ahuh | tebhyas tamas cha maydih cha pradaddu | asty aha eva asura-mayd iti iva | parabhuta ha tv eva tdh prajdh \ tdh imah prajbs tathaiva upajlvanti yathaiva abhyah Praja- patir adadat \ “All beings resorted to Prajapati, — (creatures are beings),— (saying) ‘ provide for us that we may live.’ Then the gods, wearing the sacrificial cord, and bending the right knee, approached him. To them he said, ‘ let sacrifice be your food, your immortality your strength, the sun your light.’ 2. Then the Fathers, wearing the sacrificial cord on their right shoulders, and bending the left knee, approached him. To them he said, ‘ you shall eat monthly, your oblation ( svadha ) shall be your ra- pidity of thought, the moon your light.’ 3. Then men, clothed, and inclining their bodies, approached him. To them he said, ‘ ye shall eat morning and evening, your offspring shall be your death, Agni your light.’ 4. Then cattle repaired to him. To them he accorded their desire, (saying), ‘ Whensoever ye find anything, whether at the proper season or not, eat it.’ Hence whenever they find anything, whether at the proper season or not, they eat it. 5. Then they say that the Asuras again and again resorted to him. To them he gave darkness (tamas) and illusion. There is, indeed, such a thing as the illusion, as it were, of the Asuras. But those creatures succumbed. These creatures subsist in the very manner which Prajapati allotted to them.” 187 Gauh means both. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 97 produced again in the ground, — (149) those plants, whereof hemp is the seventeenth, which end with the ripening of fruits.” [The plants lit for domestic use, and for sacrifice are then enumerated in verses 150-155.] “ 155. All these plants, domestic? and wild, were for the first time188 produced at the beginning of the Treta age, (156) without cultivation, trees, shrubs, and the various sorts of creepers and grasses, both those which produce roots as their fruits, and those which bear fruit after flowering. The seeds for which the earth was formerly- milked by Svayambhu (158) now became plants bearing flowers and fruits in their season. When these plants, though created, did not afterwards grow, (159) the divine Brahma Svayambhu devised for the people means of subsistence depending on labour effected by their hands. 160. From that time forward the plants were produced and ripened through cultivation. The means of subsistence having been provided, Svayambhu (161) established divisions among them according to their tendencies.189 Those of them who were rapacious, and destruc- tive, (162) he ordained to be Kshattriyas, protectors of the others.190 As many men as attended on these, fearless, (163) speaking truth and propounding sacred knowledge ( brahma ) with exactness, (were made) Brahmans. Those others of them who had previously been feeble, en- gaged in the work of slaughter,191 who, as cultivators ( 'Jcinasah ), had been destructive, and were active in connection with the ground, were called Yaisyas, husbandmen ( Innasdn ), providers of subsistence. 165. And he designated as S'udras those who grieved ( sochantah ), and ran (i dravantah),m who were addicted to menial tasks, inglorious and feeble. 168 See the note on verse 55, above. 189 Yathdrarabhah. The Murk. P. has yatha-nyayam yatha-gunam, “according to fitness and their qualities.” 190 Itaresham krita-tranan. The M. Bh. xii. 2247, thus explains the word Kshat- triya : brahmananam kshata-trdndt tatah kshattriya uchyate | “ (a king) is called Kshattriya because he protects Brahmans from injuries.” 191 Vaisasafh karma. The former word has the senses of (1) “hindrance, impedi- ment,” and (2) “slaughter,” assigned to it in Wilson’s Dictionary. 192 The reader who is familiar with the etymologies given in Yaska’s Nirukta, or in Professor Wilson’s Dictionary on Indian authority, will not be surprised at the ab- surdity of the attempts made here by the Purana-writer to explain the origin of the words Kshattriya, Yais’ya and S'udra. To account for the last of these names he combines the roots such, “to grieve,” and dru, “to run,” dropping, however, of ne- cessity the last letter ( ch ) of the former. The word kshattriya is really derived from kshattra, “royal power;” and vaisya comes from vis, “people,” and means “a man of the people.” 7 98 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OP THE CREATION OF MAN, 166. Bralima determined the respective functions and duties of all these persons. But after the system of the four castes had been in all respects established, (167) those men from infatuation did not fulfil their several duties. Not living conformably to those class-duties, they came into mutual conflict. 168. Having become aware of this fact, precisely as it stood, the Lord Brahma prescribed force, criminal justice, and war, as the profession of the Kshattriyas. 169. He then appointed these, viz., the duty of officiating at sacrifices, sacred study, and the receipt of presents, to be the functions of Brahmans. 170. The care of cattle, traffic, and agriculture, he allotted as the work of the Taisyas ; and the practice of the mechanical arts, and service, he assigned as that of the Sudras. 171. The duties common to Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and Taisyas were the offering of sacrifice, study, and liberality. 172. Hav- ing distributed to the classes their respective functions and occupations, the Lord then allotted to them abodes in other worlds for their per- fection. 173. The world of Prajapati is declared to be the (destined) abode of Brahmans practising rites ; Indra’s world that of Kshattriyas who do not flee in battle; (174) the world of the Maruts that of Taisyas who fulfil their proper duty; the world of the Gandharvas that of men of Sudra birth who abide in the work of service. 175. Having allotted these as the future abodes of (the men of the different) classes, who should be correct in their conduct, he ordained orders ( dsra - mas) in the classes which had been established. 176. The Lord for- merly instituted the four orders of householder, religious student, dweller in the woods, and mendicant. 177. To those of them who do not in this world perform the duties of their castes, the men who dwell in hermitages apply the appellation of ‘ destroyer of works.’ 178. Brahma established these orders by name, and in explanation of them he de- clared their duties, (179) their methods of procedure, and their various rites. First of all there is the order of householder, which belongs to all the four classes, (180) and is the foundation and source of the other three orders. I shall declare them in order with their several obser- servances.” [The following verses 181-189, which detail these duties, need not be cited here. I shall, however, quote verses 190 ff. for their excellent moral tone.] “ 190. The Tedas, with their appendages, sa- crifices, fasts, and ceremonies, (191) avail not to a depraved man, when his disposition has become corrupted. All external rites are AND OF THE ORIUIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 99 fruitless (192) to one •who is inwardly debased, however energetically he may perform them. A man who bestows even the whole of his substance with a defiled heart will thereby acquire no merit — of which a good disposition is the only cause.” [After giving some further par- ticulars about the celestial abodes of the righteous, verses 194-198, the writer proceeds:] “199. When — after the division into castes and orders had thus been made — (200) the people living under that system did not multiply, Brahma formed other mind-born creatures in the middle of the Treta (201) from his own body and resembling himself. When the Treta age had arrived, and had gradually reached its middle, (202) the Lord then began to form other mind-bom creatures. He next formed creatures in whom goodness ( sattva ) and passion (rajas) predominated, (203) and who were capable of attaining (the four ob- jects of human pursuit) righteousness, wealth, love, and final liberation, together with the means of subsistence. Gods, too, and Fathers, and Bishis, and Manus (were formed), (204) by whom these creatures were classified (?) according to their natures in conformity with the Yuga. When this character(?) of his offspring had been attained, Brahma (205) longed after mental offspring of all kinds and of various forms. Those creatures, whom I described to you as having taken refuge in Janaloka, (206) at the end of the Kalpa, all these arrived here, when he thought upon them, in order to be reproduced in the form of gods and other beings. 207. According to the course of the Manvantaras the least were esteemed the first (?), being swayed by destiny, and by connec- tions and circumstances of every description. 208. These creatures were always born, under the controuling influence of, and as a recom- pence for their good or bad deeds. 209. He by himself formed those creatures which arrived in their several characters of gods, asuras, fathers, cattle, birds, reptiles, trees, and insects, in order that they might be subjected (anew) to the condition of creatures.”193 The substance of the curious speculations on the origin and primeval condition of mankind contained in the preceding passage may be stated as follows : In verses 22-34 we are told that the creatures, who at the close of the preceding Kalpa had been driven by the mundane confla- gration to Janaloka, now formed the seed of the new creation, which took place in the Krita Yuga, at the commencement of the present 193 1 confess that I have had great difficulty in attaching any sense to the last words. 100 MYTniCAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Kalpa. These were mind-born sons of Brahma, perfect in nature, and they peopled the world. As a rule, we are informed, those beings who have formerly been elevated from the earth to higher regions, return again and again to this world, and, as a result of their previous works, are born in every age, in every possible variety of condition, exhibiting the same dispositions and fulfilling the same functions as in their former states of existence. It is next stated, verses 35-40, that when creation had, in some way not explained, come to a stand-still, four classes of human beings, consisting each of a thousand pairs of males and females, characterized respectively by different qualities, physical and moral, were produced from different members of the Creator’s body.194 These creatures sought to propagate the race, hut abortively, for the reason specified (43). Children however were produced by mental effort (45 and 59), and in considerable numbers (52). The state of physical happiness, absolute and universal equality, moral perfection, and com- plete dispassion, in which mankind then existed, is depicted (48-65). The means of subsistence and enjoyment, which they are said to have drawn from the earth (48 and 57), were not of the ordinary kind, as we are informed (55 f.) that neither animals nor plants, which are the products of unrighteousness, existed at that period. No division into castes or orders prevailed during that age of perfection (62). A gradual declension, however, had been going on, and at the end of the Krita Yuga, the perfection peculiar to it had altogether disappeared (70-79). Another kind of perfection, peculiar to the Treta, however, subse- quently arose (73 and 80), and in the different Yugas there has existed a perfection springing from the performance of the duties belonging to each caste and order (75). The perfection described as prevailing in the Treta was of a physical kind, consisting in the production of rain and the growth of trees, shaped like houses, which at the same time yielded the materials of all sorts of enjoyments (80-82). Passion, however, in its various forms began to take the place of the previous dispassion (84). The constitution of women, which had formerly in- capacitated them for effective impregnation, became ultimately so modi- fied as to ensure the successful propagation of the species, which 191 This statement agrees with that in the Mark. P. xlix. 3 If. but differs from that already given from the Vishnu P. in so far as the latter does not specify the numbers created, or say anything about pairs being formed. AND OF TEE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 101 accordingly proceeded (84-87).195 We have then the destruction, and subsequent reproduction of the trees, formed like houses, described (88-91). These trees now produced clothes and jewels, as well as honey without bees, and enabled mankind to live in happiness and enjoyment. Again, however, the trees disappeared in consequence of the cupidity which led to their misuse (92-94). The absence of perfection occa- sioned suffering of various kinds, from moral as well as physical causes, and men were now driven to construct houses, which they had hitherto found unnecessary (96-99 and 123), and to congregate in towns and cities (100). Their houses were built after the model furnished by trees (123-128). The hunger and thirst which men endured from the loss of the trees which had formerly yielded all the means of subsist- ence and enjoyment, were relieved by means of a new perfection which appeared in the shape of rain, and the streams thereby gene- rated, and by the growth of plants, which now sprang up for the first time as a result of the conjunction of water and earth (130-135 and 155). Desire and cupidity, however, now again arose and led to acts of violent appropriation (136 f. ). At this juncture the perfect mind- bom sons of Brahma, of different dispositions, who had formerly existed in the Krita age, were reproduced in the Treta as Brahmans, Kshat- triyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and destructive men, as a result of their actions in their former existence (138-140). But in consequence of their dis- sensions and rapacity, the earth swallowed up all the existing plants (142-144). Under the pressure of the distress thus occasioned the inhabitants of the earth resorted to Brahma, who milked the earth, through the medium of mount Sumeru acting as a calf, and recovered the plants which had disappeared (145-149). As, however, these plants did not propagate themselves spontaneously, Brahma introduced agri- culture (158-160). Having thus provided the means of subsistence, he divided the people into classes according to their characteristics (160-165). But as these classes did not perform their several duties, and came into mutual conflict, Brahma prescribed their respective func- tions with greater precision (166-171) ; and assigned the future celestial abodes which the members of each class might attain by their fulfilment (172-174). He then ordained the four orders of householder, religious 195 It is not quite clear, however, what is intended by the word akale, “ out of season,” in verse 87. See the emendation proposed above in the note on that verse. 102 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, student, etc. (175-190). After a few verses in praise of moral purity (190-193), tlie abodes and destinies of the eminently righteous are set forth (194-199). Just when we had arrived at a point in the narra- tive, from which we might have imagined that it had only to be carried on further to afford us a sufficient explanation of the state of things existing up to the present age, we are suddenly arrested (199-202) by being informed that the people distributed according to the system of castes and orders did not multiply, and are introduced to a new mind- born creation, which took place in the Treta age, to remedy this failure. We are next told (203) of what appears to be another crea- tion of beings endowed with goodness and passion. And, finally, a yet further re-incorporation of previously existing souls is described as hav- ing taken place (205-209). It would thus seem that after all we are left without any account of the origin of the system of castes which prevailed when the Purana was compiled. The only suppositions on which this conclusion can be avoided are either (1) that the cessation in the increase of the generation alluded to in verse 200, which led to the new creation, was not universal, that the race than existing did not entirely die out, but that the old blood was re-invigorated by that of the newly created beings ; or (2) that the other set of creatures, mentioned in verse 203, as characterized by goodness and passion, were the pro- genitors of the present race of men. On these points, however, the text throws no light. The preceding account of the creation of mankind and of the vicissi- tudes and deterioration of society, is in some places obscure and con- fused, and its several parts do not appear to be consistent with each other. At the outset the writer describes the creation of four thousand pairs of human beings, of whom each separate set of one thousand is distin- guished by widely different innate characters, the first class having the quality of goodness, the second that of passion, the third those of passion and darkness, and the fourth that of darkness. Nevertheless (as in the parallel passage of the Vishnu Purana) we cannot find in the narrative the least trace of those inherent differences of character having for a long time manifested themselves by producing dissimilarity either of moral conduct or of physical condition ; for the perfection, which is described as existing in the Krita age, is spoken of as if it was universal ; and not only is no distinction alluded to as prevailing at this period between AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 103 the component parts of society, but we are expressly told that no castes or orders then existed. The deterioration also, which ensued towards the end of the Krita age, is described as general, and not peculiar to any class. How is this complete uniformity, first of perfection, and afterwards of declension, which, for anything that appears to the con- trary, is predicated of the descendants of the whole of the four thousand pairs, to be reconciled with the assertion that each thousand of those pairs was characterized by different innate qualities ? The difficulty is not removed by saying that the writer supposed that these inherent varieties of character existed in a latent or dormant state in the different classes, and were afterwards developed in their descendants; for he distinctly declares (verse 54) in general terms that mankind were at that period sattva-bahuluk, i.e. “ possessed the quality of goodness in abundance;” and in the earlier part of the subsequent narrative no allusion is made to the different qualities at first as- cribed to the four sets of a thousand pairs being separately deve- loped in the members of the four classes respectively. In verse 74, indeed, it appears to be assumed that the division into castes had existed from the creation; for we there find an assertion that in “all the Manvantaras, according to the division of the four yugas,” (includ- ing apparently the Krita) “ there is declared to have existed a perfec- tion effected by the observances of the castes and orders, and arising from the fulfilment of works;” but how is this to be reconciled with the express statement of verses 60 and 61, that “in the Krita age no works were performed which were either virtuous or sinful,” and that “ there then existed neither distinctions of caste or order, nor any mix- ture of castes? ” In the Treta age the state of deterioration continued, but no reference is made of any separation of classes till we come to verse 138, where it is said that the beings who in the Krita age had existed as the perfect mind-born sons of Brahma, were now, as a con- sequence of their former actions, recalled into human existence, and in conformity with their previous characters as calm, fiery, laborious, or depressed, became Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and men of violence. These creatures, after they had been furnished with the means of subsistence, were eventually divided into classes, according to their varieties of disposition, character, and occupation ; and as at first they did not fulfil their proper duties, but encroached upon each others’ 104 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, provinces, their functions were afterwards more stringently defined and the means of enforcing obedience were provided. Here it is intimated that different sets of beings were bom as Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vais- yas, and Sudras, on account of the different qualities which they had manifested in a previous existence, and that in conformity with those same characteristics they were afterwards formally distributed into castes. This description is therefore so far consistent with itself. The difference of caste is made to depend upon the dispositions of the soul. But how are we to reconcile this postulation of different characters formerly exhibited with the description given in the previous part of the narrative, where we are informed that, in the earlier parts, at least, of the Krita age, all men were alike perfect, and that no actions were performed which were either virtuous or vicious ? If such was the case at that period, how could the beings who then existed have manifested those differences of disposition and character which are asserted to have been the causes of their being subsequently reborn as Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Sudras, and Vaisyas? It may be admitted that the differences of character, which are attributed in the Purana to the four primeval sets of a thousand pairs of human beings, correspond to those qualities which are described as having subsequently given rise to the division into castes ; but the assertion of such a state of uniform and universal perfection, as is said to have intervened between the creation of mankind and the realization of caste, seems incompatible with the existence of any such original distinctions of a moral character. As regards this entire account when compared with the other two descriptions of the creation given in the previous part of this section, the same remarks are applicable as have been made in the last section, p. 65 f., on the corresponding passages from the Yishnu Purana. The chapter which I have just translated and examined, is followed immediately by the one of which I have already in a preceding page quoted the commencement, descriptive of the creation of Asuras, Gods, Fathers, etc., from the different bodies assumed and cast off successively by Brahma. I shall now give an extract from the following, or tenth chapter, in which the the legend of S'atarupa is related. Suta macha | 1. Evamlhuteshu lokeshu Brahmana loka-karttrinum | 196 This form karttrina (one which, as is well known, may be optionally employed in AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 105 yadti tdh na pravarttante prajuh kendpi hetund | 2. Tamo-matruvrito Brahma tada-prabhriti duhkhitah | tatah sa vidadhe buddhim artha- nischaya-gaminlm \ 3. Athutmani samasrdkshlt tamo-mdtrdm nijdt- mikdm | rajah-sattvam pardjitya varttamdnam sa dharmatah \ 4. Tapyate tena duhkhena sokaih chakre jagat-patih \ tamas tu vyanudat tasmdd rajas tach cha samdvrinot \ 5. Tat tamah pratinuttaih vai mi- thunaiii samvyajayata | adharmas clxarandj jajne himsa sohdd ajdyata | 6. Tatas tasmin samudbhute mithune charandtmani | tatas cha hhagavdn dslt prltischainam asisnyat \ 7. Scum tanurn sa tato Brahma tarn apoliad alhdsvardm | dvidhu ’karot sa tarn deham ardhena purusho ’ bhavat | 8. Ardhena narl sa tasya S'atarupd vyajdyata \ prdkritdm Ihuta-dhutrim tdiii kumdd vai srishtavdn vilhuh \ 9. Sa divam prithi- vim chaiva mahimnd vydpya dhishtliitd | Brahmanah sd tanuh purva divam dvritya tishthati \ 10. Yd tv ardhat srijate narl S'atarupd vyajd- yata | sd devl niyataih taptvd tapah parama-duscharam | hharttaram diptayasasam Purusham pratyapadyata \ 11. Sa vai Svayambhuvah purvam Purusho Manur uchyate | tasyaikasaptati-yugam Manvanta- ram ihochyate \ 12. Labdhva tu purushah patnim Satarupdm ayonijdm | tayd sa ramate sarddham tasmdt sd Ratir uchyate \ 13. Prathamah samprayogah sa kalpadau samavarttata \ Virdjam asrijad Brahma so ’ bhavat Purusho Virdt \ 14. Sa samrdt mdsarupdt tu vairdjas tuManuh smritah \ sa vairdjah prajd-sargah sa sarge purusho Manuh | 15. Vai- rdjdt purushdd vlrdch chhatarupd vyajdyata | Priyavratottanapudau putrau putravatdm varau | “ 1. When the worlds had thus been formed by Brahma their creator, hut the creatures, for some reason did not engage in action,107 (2) Brahma, enveloped in gloom, and thenceforward dejected, formed a resolution tending to ascertain the fact. 3. He then created in himself (a body) of his own, formed of pure gloom ( tamas ), having overpowered the passion {rajas) and goodness ( sattva ) which existed (in him) naturally. 4. The Lord of the world was afflicted with that suffering, and la- the neuter, but not in the masculine) is here used for metrical reasons. Such irregu- larities are, as we have seen, designated by the Commentators as arsha. It is unlikely that Brahman should be here used in a neuter sense. 197 The true reading here may be pravarddhante, in which case the sense will be “ did not multiply.” Compare the parallel passage in the Vishnu Purana, i. 7, 4, p. 64. 106 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF TnE CREATION OF MAN, mented.103 Ho then dispelled the gloom, and covered over the passion. 5. The gloom, when scattered, was formed into a pair.199 Unright- eousness arose from activity (?), and mischief sprang from sorrow. 6. That active (?) pair having been produced, he became glorious (?) and pleasure took possession of him. 7. Brahma after that cast off that body of his, which was devoid of lustre, and divided his person into two parts ; with the half he became a male ( purusha ) (8) and with the half a female : it was Satarupa who was so produced to him. Under the impulse of lust he created her a material supporter of beings. 9. By her magnitude she pervaded both heaven and earth. That former body of Brahma invests the sky. 10. This divine female S'atarupa, who was born to him from his half, as he was creating, by incessantly practising austere fervour of a highly arduous description, acquired for herself as a husband a Male (purusha) of glorious renown. He is called of old the Male, Manu Svayambhuva ; and his period (manvantara) is declared to extend to seventy-one Yugas. 12. This Male, having obtained for his wife, Satarupa, not sprung from any womb, lived in dalliance with her ( ramate ) ; and from this she is called Bati (the female personification of sexual love). 13. This was the first cohabitation practised in the beginning of the Kalpa. Brahma created Viraj ; he was the Male, Viraj. 14. He is the sovereign (samraj), from his having the form of a month ; and Manu is known as the son of Yiraj.200 This creation of living beings is called that of Viraj. In this creation Manu is the male. 15. S'atarupa bore to the heroic Purusha, son of Yiraj, two sons, Priyavrata and Uttanapada, the most eminent of those who have sons.” This is followed by a further genealogy, into which I will not enter. By comparing this account with the one extracted above, p. 64 f. from the Vishnu Purana, i. 7, 1 ff., it will be seen that while it makes no allusion to the production of Rudra, as related in the Vishnu Purana (which, as well as the birth of the mental sons of Brahma, the Vayu Purana had described in the preceding chapter, verses 67-83), it is somewhat fuller in regard to the legend of Satarupa ; and although it 198 With this account of Brahma’s dejection and grief the accounts quoted above pp. 68 ff. from the Brahmanas may he compared. 199 Compare the narrative of the Vishnu Puranu i. 7, 9 ff. quoted in p. 64 f. 290 Compare the account given in Manu’s Institutes, above, p. 36. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 107 does not allow that Brahma cohabited with his daughter, and assigns to her another husband, Manu SVayambhuva, it describes the creator as having been actuated by carnal desire in generating her. I shall give further illustrations of this story in the next section. Sect. IX. — Legend of Bralima and his daughter, according to the Aita- reya Brahmana, and of Satarupd, according to the Matsya Purdna. The story which forms the subject of the present section is noticed at some length in the fourth volume of this work, pp. 38-46, where one of the oldest passages in which it is related, is quoted from the S'atapatha Brahmana, i. 7, 4, 1 fF. , together with one of a comparatively late age from the Bhagavata Purana, iii. 12, 28 if. As however the legend, though repulsive in its character, is not without interest as illustrating the opinions which Indian mythologists have entertained regarding their deities, I shall quote two other texts in which it is narrated. The first, from the Aitareya Brahmana, iii. 33, has, no doubt (along with the passage of the S'atapatha Brahmana just referred to, and another from the same work, xiv. 4, 2, 1 fF., quoted above, in p. 24 fF.), furnished the ideas which are expanded in the later versions of the story. It is as follows : Prajdpatir vai svdm duhitaram abhyadhydyat | Dicam ity anye dhur Ushasam ity anye | tarn risyo bhutvd rohitdm bhutum abhyait \ tarn deed apasyan | “ akritam vai Prajdpatih Jcaroti” iti | te tarn aichhan yah enam amshyati \ etam anyonyasmin na avindan \ teshdm yd era ghoratamds tanvah dsaihs tdh ekadha samabharan \ tdh sambhritdh esha devo 'bhavat \ tad asya etad bhutavan-ndma \ bhavati vai sa yo ’ sya etad evam ndma veda | tarn deed abruvann “ ay am vai Prajdpatir akritam akar imam vidhya ” iti \ sa “ tathd” ity abravlt \ “ sa vai vo varam vrinai ” iti | “ vrinishva ” iti | sa etam era varam avrinlta pasundm adhipatyam | tad asya etat pasuman-ndma \ pasumdn bhavati yo ’ sya etad evam ndma veda | tarn abhydyatya avidhyat | sa viddhah urddhve udaprapatad ityddi201 \ 201 See the translation of this passage given by Dr. Haug in his Aitareya Brahmana 108 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, “ Prajapati lusted after his own daughter. Some call her the Sky, others Ushas. Becoming a buck, he approached her after she had be- come a doe. The gods saw him ; (and said) Prajapati does a deed which was never done (before).202 They sought some one who should take vengeance on him. Such a person they did not find among them- selves. They then gathered together their most dreadful bodies. These when combined formed this god (Rudra). Hence (arises) his name con- nected with Bhuta ( Bhutapati ). That man flourishes203 who thus knows this name of his. The gods said to him, ' This Prajapati has done a deed which was never done before: pierce him.’ He replied, ‘ so be it,’ (adding), ‘ let me ask a boon of you.’ They rejoined, ‘ ask.’ He asked for this boon, viz., lordship over cattle. Hence arises his name connected with Pasu ( Pasupati ). He who thus knows his name, be- comes the owner of cattle. He then attacked (Prajapati) and pierced him. He, when pierced, soared upwards,” etc. etc. The second passage I proposed to cite is from the Matsya Purana, chapter iii. verses 32 ff. : Etad tattvdtmakam leritva jagad dvedha ajljanat | 33. Sdvitrlm loka-siddhyartham hridi kritvd samustliitah | tat ah sanjapatas tasya Ihitva deham akalmasham | 34. strl-rupam arddliam akarod arddham purusha-rupavat | S'atarupa cha sa khydtd Sdvitri cha nigadyate \ 35. Sarasvaty atha Gdyatrl Brahmunl cha parantapa | tatah sa Brahmadevas tdm dtmajdm ity akalpayat | 36. Brishtvu tdm vyathitas tdvat kdma-vandrdito vihhuh | “ aho rupam alio rupam ” ity uvucha tadd ’vyayah | 37. Tato Vasishtha-pramukhd “ hliaginim ” iti chukrusuh | Brahma na kinchid dadrise tan-mukhdlo- kandd rite | 38. “ Aho rupam aho rupam ” iti aha punah punah \ tatah prandma-namrdm tdm punas tdm abliyalokayat \ 39. Atha pradakshinum chakre sd pitur varavarninl \ putrehhyo lajjitasydsya tad-rupdloka- nechhayd | 40. Avirbhutam tato vaktram daksliinam pdndu-gandavat | vol. ii. pp. 218 ff. ; and the remarks on this translation by Professor "Weber, Indische Studien, is. 217 if. ; and also Professor Roth’s explanation of the word bhutavat in his Lexicon. 2 o - This seems to be imitated in the line of the Bhagavata Purana iii. 12, 30, quoted in vol. iv. of this work, p. 40 : naitat purvaih kritam lead ye na karishyanti chapare \ “ This was never done hy those before thee, nor will those after thee do it.” 203 Bhavati. In the Brahmanas this verb has frequently the sense of prospering, as opposed to parabhavati, “ he perishes.” See Bothlingk and Roth’s Lexicon, s. v., and the passages there referred to. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 109 vismaya-sphurad-oshthaih cha pdschdtyam udagat tatah | 41. Chatur- thum abhavat paschad vdmarh kama-sardturam | tato ’ nyad abhavat tasya kdmdturatayd tathu | 42. Utpatantyas tadd "kdse ulokena kutu- haldt \ srishty-arthaih yat kritam tena tapah paramaddrunam | 43. Tat sarvam ndsam agamat sva-sutopagamechhayd \ tendsu 204 vaktram abhavat panchamam tasya dhimatah | 44. Avirbhavaj jatdbhischa tad vaktranchd- vrinot prabhuh \ tatas tan abravld Brahma putrdn dtma-samudbhavdn | 45. “ Prajdh srijadhvam abhitah sa-devdsura-mdnushuhv | evam icktds tatah sarve sasrijur vividhdh prajdh \ 46. Gateshu teshu srishtyartham prandmdvanatdm imam \ upayeme sa visvdtmd S'atarupdm aninditam | 47. Sambabhuva tayd surddham atikdmdturo vibhuh | salajjdm chakame devah kamalodara-mandire | 48. Yavad abda-sataiii divyarh yatlid ’ nyah prukrito janah | tatah kdilena mahatd tasydh putro 'bhavad Manuh \ 49. Svdyambhuva iti khydtah sa Virdd iti nah srutam | tad-rupa-guna-sdmd- nydd adhipurusha uchyate \ 50. Vairdjd yatra tejdtdh bahavah samsita- vratdh \ Svdyambhuva mahdbhdgdh sapta sapta tathd 'pare \ 51. Svd- rochishddydh sarve te Brahma-tulya-svarupinah \ Auttami-pramukhds tadvad yeshdih train saptamo 'dhund \ ( Adhydya . 4.) ITanar uvdcha | 1. Aho kashtataram chaitad angajdgamanam vibhoh \ Katharh na dosham agamat karmand tena Padmajah | 2. Parasparancha sambandhah sago- trdndm abhut katham \ vaivdhikas tat-sutdndm chhindi me saiiisayam vibho | Matsya uvdcha | 3. I) ivy ey am adi-srishtis tu rajo-guna-samud- bhavd | atindriyendriya tadvad atindriya-saririka | 4. Divya-tejomayl bhupa divya-jndna-samudbliavd \ na chdnyair abhitah, sakyd jndlurh vai mdmsa-chakshushd | 5. Yathd bhujangdh sarpdndm dkdse sarva-pakshi- ndm | vidanti mdrgdm divyandm divya eva na mdnavdh \ 6. Kdrydi- karyena devasclia subhusubha-phala-praduh \ yasmdt tasmdd na rdjendra tad-vichdro nrindm subhah | 7. Anyachcha sarva-devdndm adhishthutd chaturmukhah \ gdyatrl Brahmanas tadvad anga-bliutd nigadyate | 8, Amurtta-murttimad vdpi mithunancha prachakshate I Virancliir yatra bhagavdns tatra devi Sarasvati \ 9. Bhdratl yatra yatraiva tatra tatra Prajdpatih \ yathdtapena rahitd chhdyd vai (? na) dr ivy ate kvachit | 10. Guyatri Brahmanah pdrsvam tathaiva na vimunchati | veda-rdsih smrito Brahma Sdvitrl tad-adhishthita \ 11. Tasmdd na kaschid doshah sydt Sdvitri-gamane vibhoh \ tathdpi lajjdvanatah Prajdpatir abhut para | 12. Sva-sutopagamdd Brahma sasdpa Kusumdyudham \ yasmad mamdpi 804 Instead of tendsu the Gaikowar MS. reads tenordhva. 110 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, lhavatd manah samkshobhitam saraih | 13. Tasmdt tvad-deham achirud Rudro bhasmikarishyati | tatah prasddaydmdsa Kumadevas Chaturmu- kham | 14. “ Na mum akuranarh sapturh tvam ihdrliasi mam ava \ aliam evam-vidhah srishtas tvayaiva chaturdnana | 15. Indriya-kshobha-janakah sarveshdm eva dehindm \ stri-pumsor avichdrena mayd sarvatra sarvadu | 16. Kshobhyam manah, prayatnena tvayaivoktam purd vibho | tasmdd anaparddhena tvayd saptas tathd vibho | 17. Kuru prasddam bhagavan sva-Sarlrdptaye punali \ Brahma uvdcha \ 18. Vaivasvate ’ntare prdpte Yddavdnvaya-sambhavah | Rdmo ndma yadd martyo mat-sattva-balam asritah | 19. Avatiryydsura-dhvaihsl Bvurakdm adhivatsyati | tad- dhdtus tat-samascha 205 tvam tadu putratvam eshyasi ityddi \ “ 32. Having thus formed the universe, consisting of the principles, he generated a twofold creation, (33) having, with a view to the completion of the world, placed and kept Savitrl in his heart. Then as he was muttering prayers, he divided his spotless body (34) and gave to the half the form of a woman, and to the half that of a male. (This female) is called S'atarupa, Savitrl, (35) Sarasvatl, Gayatrl, and Brahmanl. Brahma then took her for his daughter. 36. Beholding her, the imperishable deity, distressed, tortured with the arrows of love, exclaimed, ‘ o what beauty ! o what beauty ! ’ 37. Then (his sons) headed by Yasishtha, cried aloud, ‘(our) sister.’ Brahma saw nothing else, looking only at her face; (38) and exclaimed again and again, ‘ o what beauty ! o what beauty ! ’ He then again gazed upon her, as she bend forward in obeisance. 39. The fair woman then made a circuit round her father. As on account of his sons he felt ashamed ; from his desire of gazing on her beauty (40) there appeared (on his head) a southern face with pale cheeks ; and there was afterwards ma- nifested a western face with lips quivering with astonishment. 41. A fourth was subsequently formed, beautiful, disquieted by the arrows of love. Then another was produced from the disturbing influence of the same passion, (42) and from eagerness in gazing after her as she rose upwards in the sky. That austere fervour, extremely dreadful, which Brahma had practised with a view to creation, (43) was entirely lost through his desire to approach his daughter (carnally). Through this was produced speedily the fifth face (or, according to one HS., the upper, 205 Such appears to be the reading of the Gaikowar MS. The original reading of the Taylor MS. has been erased, and another substituted, tatas tat-samaye tvam cha. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. Ill the fifth face) of the wise deity, (44) which appeared with matted hair, and which he covered up. Brahma then said to the sons who had sprung from him, (45) ‘ create living beings everywhere, gods, asuras, and men.’ They, being thus addressed, created beings of various kinds. 46. When they had gone away for the purpose of creating, he, who is the universe, took for his wife the unblamed S'atarupa. 47. Sickened with love, he cohabited with her : like any ordinary being, he loved her, — though she was full of shame — embowered in the hollow of a lotus, (48) for a hundred years of the gods. A long time after, a son was born to her, Manu (49) called Svayambhuva, who, as we have heard, is Yiraj. From their community of form and qualities he is called Adhipurusha.208 50. From him were sprung those numerous Vairajas, steadfast in religious observances, those seven glorious sons of Svayambhu, and those other seven Manus, (51) beginning with Svaro- chisha and Auttami, in form equal to Brahma, of whom thou 207 art now the seventh. (4th chapter) 1. Manu says : ‘ Ah ! this is most afflicting, this entrance of love into the god. How was it that the lotus-born did not incur guilt by that act? 2. And how did a matrimonial connection take place between persons of the same family who were sprung from him? Solve this doubt of mine, o Lord. The Fish replied: 3. This primeval creation was celestial, produced from the quality of passion (rajas) ; it had senses removed beyond the cognizance of sense, and bodies of the same description, (4) was possessed of celestial energy, derived from celestial knowledge, and cannot be perfectly perceived by others with the eye of flesh. 5. Just as serpents know the path of serpents, and (beings living) in the sky know the path of all sorts of birds, so too the celestials alone, and not men, know the way of celestials. 6. And since it is the gods who award the recompence, favourable or unfavourable, according as good or bad deeds have been done, — it is not good for men to examine this (question). 7. Further- more, the four-faced (Brahma) is the ruler of all the gods, and in like manner the Gayatrl is delared to be a member of Brahma. 8. And, as 206 Compare the Purusha Sukta, above p. 8, in the fifth verse of which the words Virajo adhi purushah occur. If the last two words are combined they give the name in the text. 207 This account is given by the deity represented as incarnate in a Fish, to Manu Yaivasvata. 112 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, they say, there is a pair consisting of the formless, and of that which has form. Wherever the divine Yiranchi (Brahma) is, there is also the goddess Sarasvatl. 9. Wherever Bharatl (a name of Sarasvati) is, there is also Prajapati. Just as shadow is nowhere seen without sun- shine, (10) so Gayatrl never forsakes the side of Brahma. He is called the collected Yeda, and Savitrl rests upon him ; (1 1) there can therefore he no fault in his approaching her. Nevertheless, Brahma, the lord of creatures, was bowed down with shame, (12) because he had ap- proached his own daugther, and cursed Kusumayudha 203 (Kama), (in these words) ‘As even my mind has been agitated by thy arrows, Budra shall speedily reduce thy body to ashes.’ Kamadeva then pro- pitiated the four-faced deity, saying, (14) ‘ Thou oughtest not to curse me without cause : preserve me. It is by thee thyself that I have been created with such a character, (15) an agitator of the organs of sense of all embodied creatures. The minds both of men and women must always and everywhere (16) be energetically stirred up by me with out hesitation : this thou thyself hast formerly declared. It is therefore without any fault of mine that I have been thus cursed by thee. 1 7. Be gracious, lord, that I may recover my body.’ Brahma answered : 18. ‘When the Yaivasvata Manvantara shall have arrived, a mortal, named Kama, sprung from the Yadava race, deriving force from my essence, (19) and, becoming incarnate as a destroyer of Asuras, shall inhabit Dvaraka. Thou shalt then become a son of his substance and like to him,” etc. The narrator of this legend does not hesitate to depict in the strongest colours (though without the least approach to grossness) the helpless subjection of Brahma to the influence of sexual desire. This illicit in- dulgence was regarded by the authors of the S’atapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas as in the highest degree scandalous, and they do not at- tempt to palliate its enormity by any mystical explanation, such as that which we find in the Matsya Purana. Whether this apology pro- ceeded from the original narrator, or from a later writer of a more sen- sitive disposition, who perceived its inconsistency with any elevated idea of the superior powers, is difficult to say. It is quite possible that the same writer who gave his fancy scope in describing the unbecoming scene, of which the substance had been handed down in works regarded 208 The word means “ He whose weapons are flowers.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 113 as authoritative, may also have thought it necessary to discover some device for counteracting the scandal. On the other hand, the original writer seems to cut himself off from the privilege of resorting to any mystical refinements to explain away the offence, by having in the first instance represented Brahma’s indulgence as on a level with that of ordinary beings. And even after the apology has been concluded, we are still told that Brahma could not help feeling ashamed of what he had done. The writer of the explanation ought to have perceived that if his defence was of any value, the deity for whom he was apologizing had no ground for humiliation. But he did not venture to expunge the popular features of the story. The grounds on which the apology pro- ceeds are partly of the same character as those which the writer of the Bhagavata Purana assumes in the passage (x. 33, 27 ff.) which is given in the fourth volume of this work, pp. 42 f., viz., that the gods are not to be judged on the same principles as men, — that “the celestials have laws of their own” ( sunt superis sua jura). The Bhagavata Purana has, however, different measures for Brahma and for Krishna ; for whilst the adultery of the latter is defended in the verses just re- ferred to, no desire is shown to vindicate the former in the other pas- sage, iii. 12, 28 ff., adduced in the same volume, page 40. As regards the details of the story according to the different Puranas, I may observe that while the Vishnu, the Vayu (see above, pp. 65, and 106), and the Markandeya Puranas, xl. 13 f., represent S'atarupa as the wife of Manu Svayambhuva, the Matsya Purana, as we have just seen, declares her to have been the spouse of Brahma himself, and the mother of Manu Svayambhuva.209 This is repeated in the twenty- sixth verse of the fourth chapter : Yd sd deharddha-sambhuta Gdyatrl brahma-vadim \ janani yd Manor devi S'atarupa S'atendriya | 27. Ratir lianas Tapo Buddhir raahad-adi- samudbhavdm | tatah sa S'atarupdydm mptdpatydny ajijanat | 28. Ye Marichyddayah putrdh mdnasds tasya dhlmatah \ teshdm ayam abhul lokah sarva-jndndtmahah purd | 29. Tato ’srijad Yamadevam trisiila- vara-dharinam | SanatJcumarancha vibhum purveshdm api purvajam | 30. 200 Compare the account given in Manu’s Institutes (above, p. 36), -which does not coincide in all particulars with any of the Puranas here quoted. 210 In this line the original readings are in several places erased in the Taylor IIS. I have endeavoured to restore it with the help of the Gaikowar MS. 8 114 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Vdmadevas tu bhagavdn asrijad mukhato dvijtin | rajanydn asrijad Idhvor Vit-sudrdv uru-pddayoh | . . . . 35. Svayambhuvo Manur dhimdms tapas taptvd suduscharam | patnim avdpa rupddhydm Anantdm ndma ndmatah \ Priyavratottdnapddau Manus tasydrn ajijanat \ “ She who was produced from the half of his body, Gayatri the de- clarer of sacred science, she who was the mother of Manu, the goddess S'atarupa {i.e. having a hundred forms), S'atendriya (i.e. having a hundred senses), (27) (was also) Eati, Mind, Austere Fervour, Intel- lect, sprung from Mahat and the other principles. He then begot upon S'atarupa seven sons. 28. This world, composed of all knowledge, sprang from Harlchi, and the others who were the mind-horn sons of that wise Being. He nest created Vamadeva (Mahadeva), the wielder of the excellent trident, and the lord Sanatkumara, bom before the earliest. 30. Then the divine Vamadeva created Brahmans from his mouth, Rajanyas from his breast, the Vis and the Sudra from his thighs and feet.” [After describing in the following verses some other creations of Vamadeva, the writer proceeds in verse 35 :] “ The wise Manu Svayambhuva, having practised austere fervour of the most arduous kind, obtained a beautiful wife named Ananta. On her he begot Priyavrata and TJttanapada.” Having made Manu the son of S'atarupa, the writer was obliged to give him another female for a wife, as we see he has here done. It will be observed that in this passage Vamadeva — and not Brahma, as in the other Puranas — is described as the creator of the four castes. Sect. X. — Quotations from, the Rdmdyana on the Creation , and on the Origin of Castes. The substance of the first of the following passages has already been stated above in a note on page 36. Part of it is also quoted in p. 54, and it is more fully cited in the fourth volume of this work, p. 29, but for facility of reference I repeat it here. Ramayana (Bombay edition) ii. 110, 1. Kruddham ajndya Rdmam tu Vasishthah pratyuvdcha ha | Jdbalir api jdnite lolcasydsya gatugatim | 2. N iv arttayitu-kumas tu tvdm etad vahjam abravit | imum loka-samut- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 115 pattirn loka-ndtha nibodha me | 3. Sarvarn salilam evdsit prithivl tatra nirmitd \ tatah samabhavat Brahma Svayambhur daivataih saha | 4. Sa vardhas tato bhutvd projjahdra vasundhardm | asrijach cha jay at sarvaiii saha putraili Icritatmabhih | 5. Akdsaprabhavo Brahma sdsvato nitya avyayah | tasmdd Marichih sanjaj'ne Maricheh Kasyapah sutah | 6. Vivas - van Kasyapdj jajne Manur Vaivasvatah svayam | sa tu prajupatih pur- vam Ucshvdlcus tu Manoh sutah \ 7. Yasyeyam pratliamam dattd samrid- dha Manuna malii \ tam I/cshvakum Ayodhydydm rdjdnam viddhi pur- valcam | “1. Perceiving Rama to be incensed211 Yasishtha replied: ‘Jabali also knows the destruction and renovation of this world. 2. But be spoke as be did from a desire to induce you to return. Learn from me, lord of tbe eartb, tbis (account of) tbe origin of the world. 3. The universe was nothing but water. In it tbe eartb was fashioned. Then Brahma Svayambhu came into existence, with tbe deities. He next, becoming a boar, raised up tbe eartb, and created tbe entire world, with the saints bis sons. 5. Brahma, tbe eternal, unchanging, and unde- caying, was produced from the aether ( dlcdsa ). Prom him sprang Marichi, of whom Kasyapa was the son. 6. Prom Kasyapa sprang Yivasvat : and from him was descended Manu, who wa3 formerly the lord of creatures ( prajdpati ). Ikshvaku212 was the son of Manu (7) and to him this prosperous earth was formerly given by his father. Know that this Ikshvaku was the former king in Ayodhya.” The account which I next quote does not agree with the last in its details, as, besides representing the Prajapatis or sons of Brahma to be seventeen in number, it places Marichi, Kasyapa, and Yivasvat in the same rank as contemporaries, while the former narrative declares them to have been respectively father, son, and grandson. Ramayana iii. 14, 5. Rdmasya vachanam srutvd hulam dtmdnam eva cha | uchachahshe dvijas tasmai sarva-bhuta-samudbhavam | 6. Purva- hale mahdbdho ye prajdpatayo ’ bhavan \ tan me nigadatali sarvdn aditah srinu Rughava | 7. Kardamah prathamas teshdih Viler itas tad-anan- taram | S'eshas cha Samsrayas chaiva Bahuputras cha viryavdn | 8. 211 On account of a materialistic and immoral argument which had been addressed to him by Jabali to induce him to disregard his deceased father’s arrangements regarding the succession to the throne. See Journ. Roy. As. Soc. vol. xix. pp. 303 ff. 41 2 The name Ikshvaku occurs in R. Y. x. 60, 4. See Professor Max Muller’s article in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. for 1866, pp. 451 and 462. 116 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Sthanur Marlchir Atris cha Eratus chaiva mahdbaiah | Pulastyas chdn- yirus chaiva Prachctdh Pulalias tatlid | 9. PaJcsho Vivasvdn aparo ’rish- tanemis cha Rdghava \ Easyapas cha mahatejds teshum uslch cha paschi- mah | 10. Prajdpates tu Dakshasya babhuvur iti visrutuh | shashfir duhitaro Puma yasasvinyo mahuyasdh | 11. Easyapah prat jay rdha tusdm ashtau sumadhyamdh | Aditirh cha Ditiih chaiva Panum api cha Kdlakdm | 12. Tdmrdih Erodhavasurh chaiva Manuih 213 chdpy Analdm api | tds tu kanyus tatah prltah Easyapah punar abravit | 13. Putrdms trailokya-bhartrin vai janayishyatha mat-samdn | Aclitis tan-mdndh Puma Ditischa Danur eva cha | 14. Edlakd cha mahuldho seshds tv amanaso 211 ’bhavan \ Aditydm jajnire deeds trayastrimsad arindama | 15. Adityd Vasavo Pudrd Asvmau cha parantapa | . . . . 29. Manur manushydn janayat Kdsyapasya mahdtmanah | brdhmandn kshattriydn vaisydn sudruiis cha manujarshabha \ 30. Mukhato brulimand jdtdh ura- sah ksliattriyds tatlid | urubhydiii jajnire vaisydh padbhyuih sudru iti srutih | 31. Sarvdn punya-phalun vrikshun Anald ’pi vyajayata \ “ 5. Having heard the words of Rama, the bird ( Jafdyus ) made known to him his own race, and himself, and the origin of all beings. 6. ‘ Listen while I declare to you from the commencement all the Praja- patis (lords of creatures) who came into existence in the earliest time. 7. Kardama was the first, then Vikrita, S'esha, Samsraya, the energetic Eahuputra, (8) Sthanu, Harlchi, Atri, the strong Kratu, Pulastya, Angiras, Prachetas, Pulaha, (9) Daksha, then Yivasvat, Arishtanemi, and the glorious Kasyapa, who was the last. 10. The Prajapati Dak- sha is famed to have had sixty daughters. 1 1 . Of these Kasyapa took in marriage eight elegant maidens, Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kalaka, (12) Tamra, Krodhavasa, Hanu,215 and Anala. Kasyapa, pleased, then said 213 Balarn Atibalam api. — Govr. 214 Manoratha-liinah. — Comm. 213 I should have doubted whether Manu could have been the right reading here, but that it occurs again in verse 29, where it is in like manner followed in verse 31 by Anala, so that it would certainly seem that the name Manu is intended to stand for a female, the daughter of Daksha. The Gauda recension, followed by Signor Gor- resio (iii. 20, 12), adopts an entirely different reading at the end of the line, viz. Balarn Atibalam api , “ Bala and Atibalu,” instead of Manu and Anala. I 6ee that Professor Roth s.v. adduces the authority of the Amara Kosha and of the Commen- tator on Panini for stating that the word sometimes means “ the wife of Manu." In the following text of the Mahabharata i. 2553, also, Manu appears to be the name of a female : Anavadyam Manuih Vaiiisam Asurarn Mdrganaprhjdm \ AnT/pcim Subhagam Bhasim iti Pradha vyajayata | “ Pradha (daughter of Daksha) bore Ana- vadya, Manu, Vansa, Asura, Marganapriya, Anupa, Subhaga, and Bhasl. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 117 to these maids, (13) ‘ye shall bring forth sons like to me, preservers of the three worlds.’ Aditi, Diti, Danu, (14) and Kalaka assented ; hut the others did not agree. Thirty-three gods were borne by Aditi, the Adityas, Yasus, Rudras, and the two Asvins.” [The following verses 15-28 detail the offspring of Diti, Danu, Kalaka, Tamra, Kro- dhavasa, as well as of Kraunehl, BhasI, S'yenl, Dhritarashtrl, and S'ukI the daughters of Kalaka, and of the daughters of Krodhavasa. (Compare the Mahabharata, i. 2620-2635 ; and Wilson’s Vishnu Pu- rana, vol. ii. pp. 72 f.) After this we come upon Manu and the creation of mankind.] “29. Manu, (wife) of Kasyapa,216 produced men, Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. 30. ‘Brahmans were born from the mouth, Kshattriyas from the breast, Vaisyas from the thighs, and Sudras from the feet,’ so says the Veda. 31. Anala, gave birth to all trees with pure fruits.” It is singular to observe that in this passage, after having repre- sented men of all castes as sprung from Manu, the writer next adds a verse to state, on the authority of the Veda, that the different castes were produced from the different parts of the body out of which they issued. Unless Manu’s body be here meant, there is a contra- diction between the two statements. If Manu’s body is meant, the assertion conflicts with the common account. And if the Manu here mentioned is, as appears from the context, a woman, we should na- turally conclude that her offspring was born in the ordinary way; especially as she is said to have been one of the wives of Kasyapa. The next passage from the Uttara Kan da of the Ramayana, 74, 8 £, describes the condition of men in the Krita age, and the subsequent introduction of the caste system in the Treta. The description pur- ports to have been occasioned by an incident which had occurred just before. A Brahman had come to the door of Rama’s palace in Ayodhya, carrying the body of his dead son,217 and bewailing his loss, the blame 210 The test reads Kasyapa, “ a descendant of Kasyapa,” who, according to Ram. ii. 110, 6, ought to be Vivasvat. But as it is stated in the preceding part of this passage iii. 14, 11 f. that Manu was one of Kas'yapa’s eight wives, we must here read Kas'yapa. The Gauda recension reads (iii. 20, 30) Manur manushyaihs cha tatha janayamasa Raghava, instead of the corresponding line in the Bombay edition. 21" The boy is said, in 73, 5, to have been aprapta-yauvanam balam pancha-varsha- sahasrakam | “ a boy of five thousand years who had not attained to puberty ! ” The Commentator says that varsha here means not a year, but a day ( varsha-sabdo ’tra 118 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, of which (as he was himself unconscious of any fault) he attributed to some misconduct on the part of the king. Rama in consequence con- voked his councillors, when the divine sage Narada spoke a3 follows : 8. S'rinu rdjan yathd ’kale prdpto bulasya sank shay ah | srutvd kart- tavyatdm rdjan kurushva Raghunandana | 9. purd krita-yuge rdjan brdhmand vai tapasvinah | 10. Abrdhmanas tadu rdjan na tapasvl ka- thanchana \ tasmin yuge prajvalite brahmabhute tv andvrite \ 11. Amri- tyavas tadu sarve jajnire dirgha-darsinah \ tatas tretu-yugaih ndma md- navdndm vapushmatum \ 12. Kshattriyd yatra jdyante purvena tapasd ’ nvituh | vlryyena tapasd chaiva te 'dhikdh purva-janmani | mdnavd ye mahutmunas tatra tretd-yuge yuge | 13. Brahma kshattraih cha tat sa/r- vam yat purvam avaram cha yat | yugayor ubhayor aslt sama-vlryya- samanvitam | 14. Apasyantas tu te sarve visesham adhikafh tatah | sthd- panaih chakrire tatra chdturvarnyasya sammatam \ 15. Tasmin yuge prajvalite dharmabhute hy andvrite \ adharmah pudam ekaih tu pdtayat priihivltule j . , . . 19. Pdtite tv anrite tasminn adharmena mahltale \ subhdny evdcharal lokah satya-dharma-parayanah | 20. Tretd-yuge cha varttante brdhmandh kshattriyus cha ye | tapo ’tapyanta te sarve susru- shdm apare jandh | 21. Sva-dharmah paramas teshdm vaisya-sudram tadu ” gamut \ pujdm cha sarva-varnunuih sudrus chakrur viseshatah | ..... 23. Tatah pudam adharmasya dvitiyam avdtdrayat | tato dvupara-sankhyd su yugasya samajuyata \ 24. Tasmin dvupara-sankhye tu varttamdne yuga-kshuye \ adharmas chdnritam chaiva vavridhe puru - sharshabha \ 25. Asmin dvdpara-sankhydte tapo vaisyan samavisat \ tribhyo yugebhyas trln varnun kramdd vai tapa dvisat \ 26. Tribhyo yugebhyas trln varndn dharmascha parinishthitah | na sudro labliate dharmam yugatas tu nararshabha | 27. Ulna-varno nripa-sreshtha tapyate sumahat tapah | bhavishyachclihudrayonyam hi tapas-cliaryd kalau yuge \ 28. adharmah paramo rdjan dvupare sudra-janmanah \ sa vai vishaya-paryante tava rdjan mahdtapdh | 29. Adya tapyati durbuddhis tena bula-badho hy ayam | Narada speaks : 8. “Hear, o king, how the boy’s untimely death occurred : and having heard the truth regarding what ought to be dinaparah ), — just as it does in the ritual prescription that a man should perform a sacrifice lasting a thousand years (*‘ sahasra-saihvatsaram satram updslta” iti vat), — and that thus some interpreters made out the boy’s age to be sixteen, and others under fourteen. But this would he a most unusual mode of reckoning age. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 119 done, do it. 9. Formerly, in the Krita age, Brahmans alone practised austere fervour ( tapas ). 10. None who was not a Brahman did so in that enlightened age, instinct with divine knowledge (or, with Brahma), unclouded (by darkness). 11. At that period all were born immortal, and far-sighted. Then (came) the Treta age, the era of embodied men, (12) in which the Kshattriyas were born, distinguished still by their former austere fervour ; although those men who were great in the Treta age had been greater, both in energy and austere fervour, in the former birth. 13. All the Brahmans and Kshattriyas, both the former and the later, were of equal energy in both Yugas.218 14. But not perceiving any more distinction (between the then existing men) they all219 next established the approved system of the four castes. 15. Yet in that enlightened age, instinct with righteousness, unclouded (by darkness), unrighteousness planted one foot upon the earth.” [After some other remarks (verses 16-18), which are in parts obscure, the writer pro- ceeds :] 19. “But, although this falsehood had been planted upon the earth by unrighteousness, the people, devoted to true righteousness, practised salutary observances. 20. Those Brahmans and Kshattriyas who lived in the Treta practised austere fervour, and the rest of man- kind obedience. 21. (The principle that) their own duty was the chief thing pervaded the Taisyas and S'udras among them : and the Sudras especially paid honour to all the (other) classes 23. Next the second foot of unrighteousness was planted on the earth, and the number of the Dvapara (the third yuga) was produced. 24. When this deterior- ation of the age numbered as the Dvapara, had come into existence, 218 The Commentator says, this means that in the Krita age the Brahmans were superior, and the Kshattriyas inferior (as the latter had not then the prerogative of practising tapas), but that in the Treta both classes were equal ( ubhayor yugayor madhye krita-yuge bralima purvam tapo-viryabhydm utkrishtam kshattram chavaram cha tabhyaih tapo-viryabhydm nyunam aslt \ tat sarvum brahma-kshattra-rupam ubliayam tretayam sama-virya-samanvitam aslt | krile kshattriyandm tapasy anadhi - karat, tadyuglyebhyo brahmanehhyas teshdm nyunata | tretayam tu ubliayo rapi tapo- ’dhikardd ubhav api tapo-viryabhydm. samau | But in the previous verse (12) it is said that the Kshattriyas were born in the Treta distinguished by their former tapas. But perhaps they were formerly Brahmans, according to verses 9, 10, and 12. 2>9 Manu and other legislators of that age, according to the Commentator ( Mam - adayah sarve talkalihah dharma-pravarttanadhikritah ). He adds that in the Krita age all the castes were spontaneously devoted to their several duties, although no fixed system had been prescribed [krile tu vinaiva sthapanam svayam eva sarve varndh sva- sva-dharma-ratdh). 120 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, unrighteousness and falsehood increased. 25. In this age, numbered as the Dvapara, austere fervour entered into the Yaisyas. Thus in the course of three ages it entered into three castes ; (26) and in the three ages righteousness ( dharma ) was established in three castes. But the Sudra does not attain to righteousness through the (lapse of these three) ages. 27. A man of low caste performs a great act of austere fervour. Such observance will belong to the future race of Sudras in the Kali age, (28) but is unrighteous in the extreme if practised by that caste in the Dvapara. On the outskirts of thy territory such a foolish person, of intense fervour, is practising austerity. Hence this slaughter of the boy.” Here then was a clue to the mystery of the young Brahman’s death A presumptuous Sudra, paying no regard to the fact that in the age2'20 in which he lived the prerogative of practising self-mortification had not yet descended to the humble class to which he belonged, had been guilty of seeking to secure a store of religious merit by its exercise. Hama mounts his car Pushpaka, makes search in different regions, and at length comes upon a person who was engaged in the manner alleged. The Sudra, on being questioned, avows his caste, and his desire to conquer for himself the rank of a god by the self-mortification he was undergoing. Hama instantly cuts off the offender’s head. The gods applaud the deed, and a shower of flowers descends from the sky upon the vindicator of righteousness. Having been invited to solicit a boon from the gods, he asks that the Brahman boy may be resusci- tated, and is informed that he was restored to life at the same moment when the Sudra was slain. (Sections 75 and 76. )251 The following curious account of the creation of mankind, among whom it states that no distinction of class (or colour) originally existed, is given in the Uttara Kanda, xxx. 19 ff., where Brahma says to Indra : Amarendra mayu buddhya prajuh srishtas tathd prabho | eka-varnah sama-bhushd eka-rupas cha sarvasah \ 20. Tdsuiii ndsti visesho hi darsane lakslianc ' pi vu | tato ’ ham chlgramands tuh prajuh samachintayam | 21. So ’ ham tdsdih viseshdrtham striyam ehum r ininname | yad yat prajdndm pratyangam visishtam tat tad uddhritam | 22. Tato mayu 221 The Tretii, according to the Commentator. 221 See the Rev. Professor Bancrjea’s Dialogues on the Hindu philosophy, pp. 44 ff., where attention had previously been drawn to the story. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 121 xupa-gunair ahalya stri vinirmitd j halam nameha vairupyam halyam tat-prabhavam bhavet \ 23. Yasyd na v id gate halyam tendhalyeti visruta | Ahalyety eva cha mayd tasyu ndma prakirttitam | 24. Nirmitdydm cha devendra tasydm nary am surarshabha | bhavishyatiti kasyaishd mama chintd tato ’bhavat | 25. Tv am tu S'akra tadd nartm jdnishe manasa prabho \ sthdnddhikatayd patnl mamaisheti purandara \ 26. Sa mayd nydsa-bliutd tu Gautamasya mahdtmanah \ nyasta bahuni varslidni tena niryatitd cha ha | 27. Tatas tasya parijndya mahdstliairyam mahdmu- neh | jnatvd tapasi siddhim cha patny-artham sparsitd tadd | 28. Sa taya saha dharmutma ramate sma mahdmunih | dsan nirasd deeds tu Gautame dattayd taya | 29. Train kruddlias tv ilia kdmutmd gated tasydsramam muneh | drishtarams cha tadd tdm strim dlptdm agni- sikhdm wa \ 30. Sd tvaya dharshitd S'akra kdmdrttena samanyund J drishtas tvaih cha tadd tena dsrame paramarshina \ 31. Tatah kruddhena tendsi saptah paramatejasd | gato ’si yena devendra dasa-bhdga-vipar- yayam \ “19. 0 chief of the immortals (Indra) all creatures were formed by my will of one class (or colour), with the same speech, and uniform in every respect. 20. There was no distinction between them in ap- pearance, or in characteristic marks. I then intently reflected on these creatures. 21. To distinguish between them I fashioned one woman. "Whatever was most excellent in the several members of different crea- tures was taken from them, (22) and with this (aggregate) I formed a female, faultless in beauty and in all her qualities. Hala means ‘ ugli- ness,’ and halya, ‘ what is produced from ugliness.’ 23. The woman in whom there is no halya, is called Ahalyd. And this was her name to which I gave currency. 24. "When this female had been fashioned, I anxiously considered to whom she should belong. 25. Thou, Indra, didst, from the eminence of thy rank, determine in thy mind, ‘ She must he my spouse.’ 26. I, however, gave her in trust to the great Gautama ; and after having retained her in charge for many years, he restored her. 27. Knowing then the great steadfastness of that distin- guished Muni, and the perfection of his austere fervour, T, in due form, gave her to him for his wife. 28. The holy sage lived with her in the enjoyment of connubial love. But the gods were filled with despair when she had been given away to Gautama. 29. And thou, Indra, angry, as well as inflamed with lust, wentest to the Muni’s hermitage, 122 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, and didst behold that female brilliant as the flame of fire. 30. She was then corrupted by thee who wert tormented by lust, as well as heated by anger.222 But thou wert then seen by the eminent rishi in the hermitage, (31) and cursed by that glorious being in bis indignation. Thou didst in consequence fall into a reverse of condition and fortune,” etc., etc. Sect. XI. — Extracts from the JUahdbhdrata on the same subjects. The first passage which I shall adduce is from the Adi Parvan, or first book, verses 2517 ff . : Vaisampdyana uvdcha \ hanta te kathayishydmi namaskritya Svayam- bhuve | surddindm ahaih samyak lokandm prabhavdpyayam \ Brahmano manasdh putrdh vulitdh shan-maharshayah | Marlchir Atry-angirasau Pulastyah Pulahah Kratuh | JBaricheh Kasyapah putrah Kasyapdt tu prajd imdh \ prajajnire mahdbhdgd Daksha-kanyds trayodasa | 2520. Aditir Ditir Danuh Kdld Dandyuh Simhikd tathd | Erodhd Pradhd eha Vised cha Vmatd Kapild Munih | Kadrus cha manujavydghra Daksha- kanyaiva Bhdrata | etdsdm virya-sampannam putra-pautram anantakam \ “ Yaisampayana said : I shall, after making obeisance to Svayam- bhu, relate to thee exactly the production and destruction of the gods and other beings. Six223 great rishis are known as the mind-born sons 222 In regard to this story of Indra and Ahalya, as well as to that of Brahma and his daughter, above referred to, see the explanation given by Rumania Bhatta, as quoted by Professor Max Muller in his Hist, of Anc. Sansk. Lit. p. 529 f. The name of Ahalya is there allegorically interpreted of the night, to which this name is said to have been given because it is absorbed in the day ( ahani Hyamanataya ). Indra is the sun. 223 Another passage (S'anti-p. 7569 ff.) raises the number of Brahma’s sons to seven by adding Vasishtha : Ekah Svayambhur bhagavdn ddyo Brahma sanatanah \ Brah- manah sapta vai putra mahatmanah Svayambhuvah | Marlchir Atry-Angirasau Pu- lastyah Pulahah Kratuh \ Vasishthascha mahdbhagah sadriso vai Svayambhuva | sapta Brahmana ity etepurane nischayaih gatiih | “ There is one primeval eternal lord, Brahma Svayambhu; who had seven great sons, Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, and Vasishtha, who was like Svayambhu. These are the seven Brah- mas who have been ascertained in the Puranic records.” In another part of the same S'antiparvan, verses 12685 ff., however, the Prajapatis are increased to twenty-one: Brahma Sthdnur Manur Daksho Bhrigur Bharmas tathd Tamah | Marlchir Angira ’trischa Pulastyah Pulahah Kratuh | Vasishthah Parameshthl cha Vivasvan Soma eva cha | Kardamas clidpi yah proktah Krodho Vikrlta eva cha \ ekavimsatir utpannas te prajdpatayah smritah | “ There are reputed to have been twenty-one Prajapatis produced, viz. Brahma, Sthanu, Manu, Daksha, Bhrigu, Dharma, Yama, Marichi, AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 123 of Brahma, viz., Marlchi, Atri, Angirag, Pulastya, Pulaha, and Kratu. Kasyapa was the son of Marichi ; and from Kasyapa sprang these creatures. There were bom to Daksha thirteen daughters of eminent rank, (2520) Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kala, Danayu, Simhika, Krodha, Pradha, Yisva, Yinata, Kapila, and Muni.224 Kadru also was of the number. These daughters had valorous sons and grandsons innu- merable.” Daksha, however, had other daughters, as we learn further on in verses 2574 ff., where the manner of his own birth also is related : Dakshas tv ajdyatungushthdd dakshindd bhaga/odn rishili | Brahmanah prithivipdla sdntdtmd sumahdtapdh \ vumad ajayatangushthdd bhdryd tasya mahdtmanah \ tasydm panchdsatam kanydh sa evajanayad munih \ .... 2577. Badau cha dasa Bharmdya saptavimsatim Indcwe | divyena vidhina rdjan Kasyapuya trayodasa | 2581. Paitdmahah llanur devas tdsya putrah prajdpatih \ tasydshtau Vasavah putrds teslidm vak- sliydmi vi&taram, | 2595. Stanaih tu dakshinam bhitva Brah- mano nara-vigrahah | nissrito bhagavdn Dharmah sarva-loka-sulchdvahah | trayas tasya vardh putrah sarva-bhuta-manohardh \ S'amah Kdmas cha Harshas cha tejasd loka-dhdrinah | 2610. Arushl to Manoh kanyd tasya patnl manishinah \ ..... 2614. Bvau putrau Brahmanas tv anyau yayos tishthati lakshanam \ loke Bhdtd Vidhdta cha yau sthitau Manund saha \ tayor eva svasd devl Lakshml padma-grihd subhu \ tasyds tu mdnasdh putrds turagdh vyoma-churinah | 2617. Prajdnum, annalcdmdndm anyonya-paribhakshandt \ Adharmas tatra sanjdtah sarva- bhuta-vindsakah | tasydpi Nirritir bhdryd nairritd yena Rakshasdh | ghords tasyds trayah putrah pdpa-karma-ratdh sadd \ Bhayo Ifahd- bhayas chaiva Mrityur bhutdntakas tathd \ na tasya bhdryd putro vd kaschid asty antako hi sah | Angiras, Atri, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vas'ishtha, Parameshthin, Yivasvat, Soma, the person called Kardama, Krodha, and Yiknta.” (Here, however, only twenty names are specified including Brahma himself.) Compare this list with those quoted above, p. 116, from the Ramayana, iii. 14, 7 ff., from Manu in p. 36, and from the Yishnu P. in p. 65. 221 That Muni is a name, and not an epithet, is shown (1) by the fact that we have otherwise only twelve names ; and (2) by her descendants, both gods and gandharvas, being afterwards enumerated in verses 2550 ff. {ity ete deva-gandharva Mauneyah paritcirttitah). Kapila, another of the thirteen daughters of Daksha is said to have been the mother of Ambrosia, Brahmans, kine, Gandharvas and Apsarasas ( amritam brdhmand gavo gandharvapsarasas tathd | apatyam kapildyas tu purane parikdrt ■ tit am | 1. 124 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, “2574. Daksha, the glorious rishi, tranquil in spirit, and great in austere fervour, sprang from the right thumb of Brahma.225 Prom the left thumb sprang that great Muni’s wife, on whom he begot fifty226 daughters. Of these he gave ten to Dharma, twenty-seven to Indu (Soma),227 and according to the celestial system, thirteen to Kasyapa.” I proceed with some other details given in the verses I have extracted : 2581. “ Pitamaha’s descendant, Manu, the god and the lord of creatures, was his (it does not clearly appear whose) son. The eight Yasus, whom I shall detail, were his sons 2595. Dividing the right breast of Brahma, the glorious Dharma (Bighteousness), issued in a human form, bringing happiness to all people. He had three eminent sons, S'ama, Kama, and Harsha (Tranquillity, Love, and Joy), who are the delight of all creatures, and by their might support the world 2610. ArushI, the daughter of Manu, was the wife of that sage (Chyavana, son of Bhrigu) 2614. There are two other sons of Brahma, whose mark remains in the world, Dhatri,228 and Vidhiitri, who re- mained with Manu. Their sister was the beautiful goddess Lakshml,229 whose home is in the lotus. Her mind-born sons are the steeds who move in the sky 2617. When the creatures who were de- sirous of food, had devoured one another, Adharma (Unrighteousness) was produced, the destroyer of all beings. His wife was Kirriti, and hence the Kakshasas are called Nairritas, or the offspring of Nirriti. She had three dreadful sons, continually addicted to evil deeds, Bhaya Mahabhaya (Pear and Terror) and Mrityu (Death) the ender of beings. He has neither wife, nor any son, for he is the ender.”230 The next passage gives a different account of the origin of Daksha ; and describes the descent of mankind from Manu : Adip. 3128. Tcjolhir udituh sarve maharshi-sama-tejasah \ dasa Pra- ia See above, p. 72 f. The Matsya P. also states that Daksha sprang from Brah- ma's right thumb, Dharma from his nipple, Kama from his heart, etc. 220 The passage of the Riimayana, quoted above, p. 116, affirms that they were sixty in number. Compare Wilson’s Yishnu P. vol. i. pp. 109 ff., and vol. ii. pp. 19 ff. 227 The Taitt. Sanhita, ii. 3, 5, 1, says Prajapati had thirty-three daughters, whom he gave to King Soma ( Prajapates Irayaslrimsad duhitara asan ] tdh Somdya rajne ’daddt). 223 Dhatri had been previously mentioned, in verse 2523, as one of the sons of Aditi. See also Wilson’s Yishnu P. ii. 152. 220 See Wilson’s Yishnu P. i. pp. 109, 118 ff., 144 ff. and 152. 2oo The Vishnu P. (Wilson, i. 112) says he had five children. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 125 chetasah putrdh santah punya-jandh smritdh | mukhajendgnind yais te purr am dag dim mahaujasah | tebhyah Prachetaso jajne Dalcsho Dakshud imdh prajuh | sambhdtdh purusha-vydghra sa hi loka-pitdmahah | Virinyu saha sangamya Dakshah Prachetaso munih \ dtma-tulyun aja- nayat saliasraih saihsita-vratdn \ sahasra-sankhydn sarnbhutdn Daksha - putrams cha Ndradah | molcsham adhydpayumusa sdnkhyajndnam atiut- tamam \ tatah panchdsatam kanydh putrikdh abliisandadhe \ Prajdpatih prajuh Dakshah sisrikshur Janamejaya \ dadau cha dasa Dharmdya Kasyapdya trayodasa I kulasya nayane yuktdh saptaviiiisatim Indave | 3135. Trayodasdndm patnlndm yd tu Ddkslidyanl vara | Mdrichah Kasyapas tasydm Aditydn samajijanat | Indrudin viryya-sampanndn Vivasvantam athupi cha \ Vivasvatah suto jajne Tamo Vaivasvatah pra- Ihnh | Murtandasya Manur dhlmdn ajdyata sutah prabhuh | Yamas chdpi suto jajne khydtas tasydnujah prabhuh | dharmdtmd sa Manur dhlmdn yatra vamsah pratishtliitah \ Manor vaihso mdnavdndm tato 'yam pratliito 'bhavat | brahma-kshatrudayas tasmad Manor jdtds tu mdnavdh \ tato ’ bhavad mahuruja brahma kshattrena sangatam \ 3140. Bruhmand mdnavds teshdm sdngam redam adhdrayan | Yenam Dhrishnum Narish- yantam Ndbhdgekshvukum era cha | Kurusham atha Suryatim tatlid chaivdslitamim Hum | Prishadhram navamam prdhuh kshattra- dharma- pardyanam \ Nubhdgdrishta-dasamdn Manoh putrdn prachalcshate | pan- chusat tu Manoh putrds tatliaivdnye ’bhavan Icshitau \ anyonya-bheddt te sarve vinesur iti nah srutam | Pururavas tato vidvun lldyaih samapad- yata | sd vai tasydbhavad mdtd pita chaiveti nah srutam | “ 3128. Born all with splendour, like that of great rishis, the ten sons of Prachetas are reputed to have been virtuous and holy ; and by them the glorious heings231 were formerly burnt up by fire springing from their mouths. Prom them was born Daksha Prachetasa ;232 and from Daksha, the Parent of the world (were produced), these creatures. Cohabiting with Ylrini, the Muni Daksha begot a thousand sons like himself, famous 231 “ Trees and plants,” according to the Commentator ( ’mahaprabhdva vriJcshau- shadhaydh). Compare Wilson's Vishnu P. ii. p. 1. 232 The same account of Daksha’s birth is given in the S'antip. 7573 : las ana ih lanayas tv eko Dalcsho nama prajdpatih \ tasya dve ndmanl loke Dakshah Ka iti cho- chyate | “These ten Prachetases had one son called Daksha, the lord of creatures. He is commonly called by two names, Daksha and Ka.” (Compare vol. iv. of this work, p. 13, note 30, andp. 24; and the S'atapatha Brahmana, vii. 4, 1, 19, and ii. 4, 4, 1, there quoted.) The following verse 7574 tells us that Kasyapa also had two names, the other being Arishtanemi. See Ram. iii. 14, 9, quoted above. 126 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, for their religious observances, to whom Narada taught the doctrine of final liberation, the unequalled knowledge of the Sankhya. Desirous of creating offspring, the Prajapati Daksha next formed fifty daughters, of whom he gave ten to Dharma, thirteen to Kasyapa, and twenty-seven, devoted to the regulation of time,233 to Indu (Soma) 3135. On Dakshayanl,234 the most excellent of his thirteen wives, Kasyapa, the son of Harlchi, begot the Adityas, headed by Indra and distinguished by their energy, and also Vivasvat.235 To Yivasvat was horn a son, the mighty Yama Yaivasvata. To Martanda {i.e. Yivasvat, the Sun) was born the wise and mighty Manu, and also the renowned Yama, his (Manu’s) younger brother. Righteous was this wise Manu, on whom a race was founded. Hence this (family) of men became known as the race of Manu. Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and other men sprang from this Manu. From him, o king, came the Brahman conjoined with the Kshat- triya. 3140. Among them the Brahmans, children of Manu, held the Veda with the Vedangas. The children of Manu are said to have been Yena, Dhrishnu, Narishyanta, Niibhaga, Ikshvaku, Karusha, S'aryati, Ila the eight, Prishadra the ninth, who was addicted to the duties of a Kshattriya, and Nabhagarishta the tenth. Manu had also fifty other sons ; but they all, as we have heard, perished in consequence of mutual dissensions. Subsequently the wise Pururavas was bom of Ila, who, we heard, was both his mother and his father.” The tradition, followed in this passage, which assigns to all the castes one common ancestor, removed by several stages from the creator, is, of course, in conflict with the account which assigns to them a fourfold descent from the body of Brahma himself. The S'antiparvan, verses 27 .9 if., contains -an account of the origin of castes which has evidently proceeded from an extreme assertor of the dignity of the Brahmanical order. The description given of the prerogatives of the priestly class is precisely in the style, and partly in almost the identical words, of the most extravagant declarations of 233 This phrase kalasya nayane yuktah had previously occurred in verse 2580, where it is followed hy the words sarva nakshatra-yoginyo loka-yatra-vidhanatali \ “ all identified with the lunar asterisms, and appointed to regulate the life of men.” See also Vishnu P. i. 15, 56, and Professor Wilson’s translation ii. p. 10, note 1, and p. 28, note 1. 234 i.e. Aditi. See verses 2520, 2522, and 2600 of this same book. 235 The account in the Ramayana, ii. 110, 5 if., agrees with this in making Ka- s’yapa son of Marichi, and father of Vivasvat. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 127 Manu (i. 99 f.) on the same subject. In other places, however, the Mahabharata contains explanations of a very different character re- garding the origin of the distinctions, social and professional, which prevailed at the period of its composition. A comparison of these various passages will afford an illustration of the fact already intimated in p. 6, 238 that this gigantic poem is made up of heterogeneous elements, the products of different ages, and representing widely different dog- matical tendencies, the later portions having been introduced by suc- cessive editors of the work to support their own particular views, with- out any regard to their inconsistency with its earlier contents. In fact, a work so vast, the unaided compilation of which would have taxed all the powers of a Didymus Chalkenterus, could scarcely have been created in any other way than that of gradual accretion. And some supposition of this kind is certainly necessary in order to explain such discrepancies as will he found between the passages I have to quote, of which the three first are the productions of believers (real or pretended) in the existence of a natural distinction between their own Brahmanical order and the other classes of the community, while the two by which these three are followed have emanated from fair and moderate writers who had rational views of the essential unity of mankind, and of the supe- riority of moral and religious character to any factitious divisions of a social description. In the first passage, Bhishma, the great uncle of the Pandus, when describing to Tudhishthira the duties of kings, introduces one of those ancient stories which are so frequently appealed to in the Mahabharata. "Without a minute study of the poem it would he difficult to say whether these are ever based on old traditions, or are anything more than mere vehicles invented to convey the individual views of the writers who narrate them. Bhishma says, S'antiparvan, 2749 : Ta eva tu sato rakshcd asatas cha nivarttayet | sa eva rdjnd Icarttavyo rdjan rdja-purohitah | 2750. Atrapy uduharantimam itihasam purd- tanam | Pururavasa Ailasya samvadam Mdtarisvanah \ Pururavd uvdcha | Kid ah svid Irahmano juta varnds chdpi Tcutas tray ah | Jcasmuchcha hhavati sreshthas tan me vyakhydtum arhasi \ Hdtarisvovdcha \ Brahmano mu- hhatah srishto Irahmano raja-sattama | Idhulhydm Tcshattriyah srishta urulhyam vaisya eva cha | varndnam parichdryydrtham traydndm Bha- 236 See also the fourth volume of this work, pp, 141 ff. and 152. 128 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, ratarshabha | varvas chaturthah sambhutah padbhyum sudro vinirmitah [ bruhmano jdyamu.no hi prithivy dm anujdyate 237 | Isvarah sarva-bliutdndm dharma-lcoshasya guptaye | 2755. Atah prithivy d yantaram kshattriyaih danda-dhurane j dvitiyam Dandam akarot prajdndm anutriptaye \ vaisyas tu dhana-dhunyena trin varndn bibhriyud imdn | sudro hy etun pari- chared iti Brahmunusdsanam \ Aila uvdcha | dvijasya kshattrabandhor vd kasyeyam prithivl bhavet \ dharmatah saha vittena samyag Vuyo pra- chakshva me | Vuyur uvdcha | viprasya sarvam evaitad yat kinchij jagatl- gatam \ jyeshthendbhijanenelia tad dharma-kusalu viduh \ svam eva brdh- mano bhunkte svam vaste svam daduti cha | gurur hi sarva-varndndih jyeshthali sreshthas cha vai dvijah | 2760. Paty-abhuve yathaiva stri devaram kurute patim \ esha te prathamah kalpali upady anyo bliaved atah I “ 2749. The king should appoint to be his royal priest238 a man ■who will protect the good, and restrain the wicked. 2750. On this subject they relate this following ancient story of a conversation between Pururavas the son of Ila, and Matarisvan (Vayu, the Wind- god). Pururavas said : You must explain to me whence the Brahman, and whence the (other) three castes were produced, and whence the superiority (of the first) arises. Matarisvan answered : The Brahman was created from Brahma’s mouth, the Kshattriya from his arms, the Yaisya from his thighs, while for the purpose of serving these three 237 Manu, i. 99, has adhi jdyate. 238 Rdja-purohitah. The king’s priest ( raja-puroliitali ) is here represented as one who should be a confidential and virtuous minister of state. Such is not, however, the cha- racter always assigned to this class of persons. In Manu xii. 46, quoted above (p. 41f.), the purohita is placed in a lower class than other Brahmans. And in the following verse (4527) of the Anus'asanaparvan, taken from a story in which the Rishis utter maledictions against anyone who should have stolen certain lotus roots, part of the curse spoken by Visvamitra is as follows : varshucharo ’stu bhritako rajnas cliastu puro- hitah | ayajyasya bhavatv ritvig visa-stainyam karotiyah \ “Let the man who steals lotus roots be a hireling trafficker in rain incantations (?) and the domestic priest of a king, and the priest of one for whom no Brahman should officiate.” Again, in verse 4579, the same person says : karotu bhritako' varsham rajnas chustu purohitah | ritvig astu hy ayajyasya yas te harati pushkaram | “Let him who steals thy lotus perform as a hireling incantations to cause drought, and be a king’s domestic priest, and the priest of one for whom no Brahman should officiate.” I have had partly to guess at the sense of the words varshdcharah and avarsham. The Commentator does not ex- plain the former; and interprets the latter (for which the Edinburgh MS. reads avar- shdh) by vrishli-nibandham , “ causing drought.” He adds, papishtjtah eva avarshdh, “ those who cause drought are most wicked.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF TUE FOUR CASTES. 129 castes was produced the fourth class, the Sudra, fashioned from his feet. The Brahman, as soon as born, becomes the lord of all beings upon the earth, for the purpose of protecting the treasure of righteous- ness. 2755. Then (the creator) constituted the Kshattriya the con- trouler of the earth, a second Yama to boar the rod, for the satisfaction of the people. And it was Brahma’s ordinance that the Vaisya should sustain these three classes with money and grain, and that the S'udra should serve them. The son of Ila then enquired : Tell me, Vayu, to whom the earth, with its wealth, rightfully belongs, to the Brahman or the Kshattriya ? Vayu replied : All this, whatever exists in the world, is the Brahman’s property339 by right of primogeniture : this is known to those who are skilled in the laws of duty. It is his own which the Brahman eats, puts on, and bestows. He is the chief of all the castes, the first-born and the most excellent. Just as a woman when she has lost her (first) husband, takes her brother in law for a second ; so the Brahman is thy first resource in calamity ; afterwards another may arise.” A great deal is shortly afterwards added about the advantages of concord between Brahmans and Kshattriyas. Such verses as the fol- lowing (2802) : “ From the dissensions of Brahmans and Kshattriyas the people incur intolerable suffering ” (: mitlio bhcdud brdhmana-kshat- triydndm prajd duhkham dussaliaih chdvisanti ) afford tolerably clear evidence that the interests of these two classes must frequently have clashed. In the same strain as the preceding passage is the following : Vanaparvan, 13436. JSfu dhy dp a n d d yujandd vd anyasmud vd prati- grahut \ dosJio Ihavati viprundm jvalitdgni-samd dvijuh \ durveda vd su- vedd vd prdkritdh samskritds tathd \ brdhmand nuvamantavyd bliasma- cliannd ivdgnayah \ yatlid smasdne dlptaujuh pdvako naiva dushyati \ evarh vidvun avidvun vd brdhmano daivatarn maliat \ prdkdrais cha pura- dvdraih prdsudais cha prithag-vidhaih \ nagardni na sobhante hlndni brdlmanottamaih | vedudhyd vritta-sampannd jnu7iavantas tapasvinah | yatra tishthanti vai viprds tan-ndina nagarairi nripa \ vraje vd, py athavd 239 Kulluka, the Commentator on Manu (i. 100), is obliged to admit that this is only spoken in a panegyrical or hyperbolical way, and that property is here used in a figurative sense, since theft is afterwards predicated by Manu of Brahmans as well as others (“ svam” iti stutyd uchyale | svam iva svaih, na tu svam eva | brah- manasydpi Manuna steyasya vakshvarndnatvat). 9 130 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, ’ ranye yatra santi baliu-srutdh \ tat tad nagaram ity dhuh pdrtha tlr- tliam clia tad lhavet | “ No blame accrues to Brahmans from teaching or sacrificing, or from receiving money in any other way : Brahmans are like flaming fire. "Whether ill or well versed in the Veda, whether untrained or accom- plished, Brahmans must never be despised, like fires covered by ashes. Just as fire does not lose its puiity by blazing even in a cemetery, so too, whether learned or unlearned, a Brahman is a great deity. Cities are not rendered magnificent by ramparts, gates, or palaces of various kinds, if they are destitute of excellent Brahmans. 13440. The place where Brahmans, rich in the Veda, perfect in their conduct, and aus- terely fervid, reside, is (really) a city ( nagara ). Wherever there are men abounding in Vedic lore, whether it be a cattle-pen, or a forest, that is called a city, and that will be a sacred locality.” The following verses from the Anusiisanap. 2160 ff. are even more extreme in their character, and are, in fact, perfectly sublime in their insolence : Brdhmandndm paribhavud asurdh salile saydk | brdhmandndm prasd- ddeh cha devdh svarga-nivdsinah | asakyam srashtum dkdsam aehdlyo himavun girih \ adhuryyu setund Gangd durjayu brdhmand bhuvi | na bralimana-virodhena sakyd sdstum vasundhard | brdhmand hi mahdtmdno devdndm api devatdh j tun pujayasva satataih dunena paricharyyayd \ yadlchhasi malilm bhoktim imam sdgara-mekhaldm | “ Through the prowess of the Brahmans the Asuras were prostrated on the waters ; by the favour of the Brahmans the gods inhabit heaven. The ether cannot be created ; the mountain Himavat cannot be shaken ; the Ganga cannot be stemmed by a dam ; the Brahmans cannot be conquered by any one upon earth. The world cannot be ruled in op- position to the Brahmans ; for the mighty Brahmans are the deities even of the gods. If thou desire to possess the sea-girt earth, honour them continually with gifts and with service.” The next passage seems to be self-contradictory, as it appears to set out witli the supposition that the distinction of castes arose after the creation ; while it goes on to assert the separate origin of the four classes : S'antiparvan, 10861. Janaka uvucha \ varno visesha-varndnum ma- liarshe kenajdyate \ etad ichhumy aham jndtum tad bruhi vadatum vara | yad etaj jdyate ’patyam sa evdyam iti srutih | katliam brdhmanato jtito AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 131 viseshe grahanaih gat ah | Parasara uvdcha | Evam etad maharaja yena jdtah sa eva sah \ tapasas tv apakarshena jdtigraha natdm gatah \ sukshet- trdchcha suvijdch cha punyo bhavati sambhavah \ ato ' nyatarato hinad avct/ro ndma jdyate | 10865. Vaktrad bhujubhydm urubhydm padbhydm chaivutha jajnire | srijatah Prajdpater lohdn iti dharmavido viduh \ mu- khajd brdhmands tdta bdhujdh kshattriyah smritdh | urujdh dhanino rdjan pddojdh parichdrakdh \ chaturndm eva varnundm dgamah puru- sharshabha | ato ’ nye vyatiriktd ye te vai sankarajdh smritdh | 10870. Janaka uvdcha \ Brahmanaikena jdtdndm ndnutvaih gotratah katliam \ bahuriiha hi loke vai gotrdni muni sattama | yatra tatra katliaih jutuh svayonim (? suyonim ) munayo gatah \ suddha-yonau samutpannd viyonau cha tathd 'pare \ Pardsara uvdcha | rdjan naitad bhaved grdhyam apakrishtcna janmand \ matdtmandfh samutpattis iapasd bhdvitatmandm \ utpudya putrdn munayo nripate yatra tatra ha \ svenaiva tapasd teshdm rishitvam pradadhuh punah \ .... 10876. Ete svdm prakritim prdptd Vaideha tapasosraydt | pratishthita veda-vido damena tapasaiva hi \ “Janaka asks: 10861. How, o great rishi, does the caste of the separate classes arise ? Tell me, as I desire to know. According to the Yeda, the offspring which is born (to any one) is the very man himself. How does offspring horn of a Brahman fall into distinct classes? Parasara replied: It is just as you say, o great king. A son is the very same as he by whom he was begotten ; but from decline of austere fervour, (men) have become included under different classes. And from good soil and good seed a pure production arises, whilst from those which are different and faulty springs an inferior pro- duction. Those acquainted with duty know that men were born from the mouth, arms, thighs, and feet of Prajapati when he was creating the worlds. The Brahmans sprang from his mouth, the Kshattriyas from his arms, the merchants from his thighs, and the servants from his feet. The scriptural tradition speaks only of four classes. The men not included in these are declared to have sprung from a mixture (of the four) 10870. Janaka asked : How is there a difference in race between men sprung from one and the same Brahma ? for there are now many races in the world. How have Hunis born anywhere (indiscriminately) entered into a good family ; some of them having sprung from a pure source and others from an inferior stock ? Parasara replied : It would not be credible that noble-minded men, whose souls 132 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, had been perfected by austere fervour, should have been the offspring of a degraded birth. Munis who had begotten sons in an indiscriminate way conferred on them the position of rishis by their own austere fervour.” The speaker then names a number of sages (10876) “famed for their acquaintance with the Yeda, and for their self-command and austere fervour,” as “having all attained to their respective conditions by practising the latter observance.” In the latter verses the speaker appears to admit, at the very mo- ment that he denies, the degraded origin of some of the renowned saints of Indian antiquity. What else is the meaning of the verse, “ Munis who had begotten sons in an indiscriminate way conferred on them the position of rishis by their own austere fervour?” No doubt it is intended to represent those as exceptional times : but while we refuse to admit this assumption, we may find some reason to sup- pose that the irregularities, as they were afterwards considered to be, which this assumption was intended to explain away, were really samples of the state of things which commonly prevailed in earlier ages. The next extract declares that there is a natural distinction between the Brahmans and the other castes ; and appears to intimate that the barrier so constituted can only he overpassed when the soul re-appears in another body in another birth : Anusasana-parva, 6570. Dev a uvdcha | Brdhmanyam devi ditshpr up- yam nisargdd bruhmanah subhe | kshattriyo vaisyasudrau vd nisargdd iti me matih | karmanu dushkriteneha sthdndd bhrasyati vai dvijah | jyeshtham varnam anuprdpya tasmdd raksheta vai dvijah \ sthito brdh- mana-dharmena brdhmanyam upajivati | kshattriyo vd ’ tha vaisyo vd bralmabliuyam sa gachhati \ yas tu brahnatvam utsrijya kshdttram dharmam nishevate | brdhmanydt sa paribhrashtah kshattra-yonau praja- yate | vaisya-karma clia yo vipro lobha-moha-vyapasrayah | brdhmanyam durlabham prdpya karoty alpa-matih sadu | sa dvijo vaisyatdm eti vaisyo vd sudratum iyat \ sva-dharmut prachyuto vipras tatah sudratvam dp- nute | . . . . 6590. Ebhis tu karmabhir devi subhair dcharitais tathd \ sudro brdhmanatdm ydti vaisyah kshattriyatdm vrajet \ sudra-karmani sarvdni yathdnydyam yathdvidhi \ susrusham paricharyydih cha jyeshthe varne prayatnatah | kurydd ityddi | Mahadeva says : 6570. “ Brahmanhood, o fair goddess, is difficult to AND OF TEE ORIGIN OF TEE FOUR CASTES. 133 be attained. A man, whether he he a Brahman, Kshattriya, Vaisya, or S'udra, is such by nature ; this is my opinion. By evil deeds a twice- born man falls from his position. Then let a twice-born man who has attained to the highest caste, keep it. The Kshattriya, or Vaisya, who lives in the condition of a Brahman, by practising the duties of one, at- tains to Brahmanhood. But he who abandons the state of a Brahman and practises the duty of a Kshattriya, falls from Brahmanhood and is born in a Kshattriya womb. And the foolish Brahman, who, having attained that Brahmanhood which is so hard to get, follows the pro- fession of a Vaisya, under the influence of cupidity and delusion, falls into the condition of a Vaisya. (In like manner) a Vaisya may sink into the state of a S'udra. A Brahman who falls away from his own duty becomes afterwards a S'udra 6590. But by practising the following good works, o goddess, a S'udra becomes a Brahman, and a Vaisya becomes a Kshattriya : Let him actively perform all the func- tions of a S'udra according to propriety and rule. i.e. obedience and service to the highest caste,” etc. The next passage is the first of those which I have already noted, as in spirit and tenor very different from the preceding. The conversation which it records arose as follows: Yudhishthira found his brother Bhh masena caught in the coils of a serpent, which, it turned out, was no other than the famous king Vahnsha, who by his sacrifices, austerities, etc., had formerly raised himself to the sovereignty of the three worlds ; but had been reduced to the condition in which he was now seen, as a punishment for his pride and contempt of the Brahmans. He promises to let Bhlmaseva go, if Yudhishthira will answer certain questions. Yudhishthira agrees, and remarks that the serpent was acquainted with whatever a Brahman ought to know. Whereupon the Serpent proceeds : Vana-parva, verses 12469 ff. : Sarpa uvdcha | brdhmanah ho bhaved rdjan vedyam him cha Yudhishthira | 12470. Bravihy 'dim at im team hi vdkyair anumimlmahe | Yudhishthira uvdcha | -'■atyam dunam kshamu silam a.nrisamsyam tapo ghrind j drisyanie yatra nagendra sa bruhmanah iti smritih | vedyaih sarpa par am, Brahma niriuhhham asuhham cha yat \ yatra gated na sochanti bhavatah him vivakshitam ( Sarpa uvdeha \ chu- turvarnyam pramdnam cha satyarh cha brahma ohaiva hi \ Sudreshv api cha satyam cha dunam ahrodlia ova cha | inrisamsyam ahimsd cha ghrind chaiva Yudhishthira | 'jedydrn yach chdtra airduhkham asuhham cha na- 134 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, rddhipa | tdbhyam hinam padaih clianyad na tad astiti lakshaye | Yu- dhishthira uvacha | 12475. S'udre tu yad bhavel lakshma dvije tach cha na vidyate | na vai siidro bhavech chhudro brdhmano na cha brahnanah | yatraital lalcshyate sarpa vrittam sa brahnanah smritah \ yatraitad na bhavet sarpa tarn sudram iti nirddiset | yat punar bhavata prolctam na vedyam vidyatlti cha \ tdbhydm hinam ato ’nyatra padaih ndstlti died api | evam etad matam sarpa tdbhyam hinam na vidyate \ yathd sitoshiayor madhye bhaved noshnaih na sitatd | evam vai sukha-duh- khdbhydm hinam ndsti padaiii kvachit | eshd mama matih sarpa yathd vd manyate bhavdn ] Sarpa uvacha | 12480. Yadi te vrittato rdjan brahnanah prasamikshitah | vrithu jdtis tadd ” yushman kritir yuvad na vidyate | Yudhishthira uvacha \ jdtir atra mahdsarpa manushyatve mahdmate | sankardt sarva-varndndiii dushparikshyeti me matih | same sarvdsv apatydni janayanti sadd nardh | van maithunam atho janma maranam cha samam nrindm | id am drsham pramdnam cha “ ye ya- jdmahe ” ity api \ tasmdch chhilam pradhdneshtam vidur ye tattva- darsinah \ “ prdh nubhi-varddhanut puihso jdta-karma vidhiyate ” | “ tadd ’sya mdtd sdvitri pita tv acharyya ucliyate ” | 12485. “ Tdvach chhudra-samo hy esha yavad vede na jdyate” | tasminn evam mati-dvaidhe Ifanuh Svdyambhuvo 'bravit | krita-krityuh punar varnd yadi vrittam na vidyate | sankaras tatra ndyendra balavdn prasamikshitah | yatreddnim mahdsarpa samskritaih vrittam isliyate \ tarn brdhmanam aham purvam uktavdn bhujagottama | “ 12469. The Serpent said: "Who may be a Brahman, and what is the thing to be known, o Yudhishthira ; — tell me, since by thy words I infer thee to be a person of extreme intelligence. Yudhishthira replied: 12470. The Smriti declares, o chief of Serpents, that he is a Brahman, in whom truth, liberality, patience, virtue, innocence, austere fervour, and compassion are seen. And the thing to be known is the supreme Brahma, free from pain, as well as from pleasure, — to whom, when men have attained, they no longer sorrow. "What is your opinion? The Serpent replied: The Yeda (brahma) is beneficial to all the four castes and is authoritative and true.240 And so we find in 240 Such is the sense assigned by the Commentator to this line, the drift of which is not very clear. The comment runs thus : Sarpas tu brdhmana-padena jati-malram vivakshilva iudre tal lakshanaiii vyabhichdrayati “ c/iaturvarnyam ” iti sarddhena | ehaturnam varnanam hitam | satyam pramdnam cha dharma-vyapastliapakam brahma vedah | sitdrd chdra -sniritcr api veda-mulakatvdt sarvo ’py dchdradih sruti-mulakah AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 135 S'udras also truth, liberality, calmness, innocence, harmlessness, and compassion. And as for the thing to be known, which is free from pain and pleasure, I perceive that there is no other thing free from these two influences. Yudhishthira rejoined: 12475. The qualities characteristic of a Sudra do not exist in a Brahman (nor vice versa). (Were it otherwise) the Sudra would not he a Sudra, nor the Brah- man a Brahman.211 The person in whom this regulated practice is per- ceived is declared to he a Brahman ; and the man, in whom it is absent, should be designated as a Sudra. And as to what you say further, that there is nothing other than this (Brahma) to he known, which is free from the susceptibilities in question ; this is also (my own) opinion, that there is nothing free from them. Just as between cold and heat there can be neither heat nor cold, so there is nothing free from the feeling of pleasure and pain. Such is my view ; or how do you con- sider ? The Serpent remarked : 12480. If a man is regarded by you as being a Brahman only in consequence of his conduct, then birth is vain until action is shown. Yudhishthira replied : 0 most sapient Serpent, birth is difficult to be discriminated in the present condition ity arthah \ evarn cha satyadikam yadi s udre ’py asti tarhi so ’pi brahmana eva sydd iti aha “ sudreshv api ” iti | “The serpent, however, understanding by the term Brahman mere birth, shows in a sloka and a half that Yudhishthira’s definition fails by being applicable also to a S'udra. Chaturvarnya means ‘ beneficial to the four castes.’ (Such is the Yeda), which is also ‘true’ and ‘ authoritative,’ as establishing what is duty. Inasmuch as the Smriti which prescribes a S'udra’s conduct is itself founded on the Veda; all conduct, etc., is based on the Yeda. And so if (the cha- racters of) truth, etc., are found also in a S'udra, he too must be a Brahman — such is his argument in the w’ords ‘ In S'udras also.’ ” According to this explanation the connection between the first line and the second and third may be as follows : The Veda is beneficial to all the castes, and therefore S'udras also, having the advantage of its guidance, although at second hand, may practise all the virtues you enumerate ; but would you therefore call them Brahmans? 241 This verse is not very lucid; but the sense may he that which I have as- signed. The Commentator says : Itaras tu brahmana-padena brahma-vidaih vivakshi- tvd s'udrdder api brahmanatvam abhyupagamya pariharati “ Sudre tv ” iti | S'udra- lakshya-kamadikam na brahmane ’sti na brahmana-lakshya-samadikam sudre ’sti ity arthah | sudro ’pi samady-upeto brahmanah \ brahmano ’pi kamady-upetah sudra eva ity arthah | “ The other (Yudhishthira), however, understanding by the word Brah- mana one who knows the Veda (or, Brahma), and conceding the fact of a S'udra’s Brah- manhood, obviates by the words ‘but in a S'udra,’ etc. (the objection thence drawn). The qualities, lust, etc., distinctive of a S'udra, do not exist in a Brahman, nor do the qualities tranquillity, etc., characteristic of a Brahman exist in a S'udra. A S'udra distinguished by the latter is a Brahman ; while a Brahman characterized by lust, etc., is a S'udra.” 136 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN of humanity, on account of the confusion of all castes.242 All (sorts of) 242 In the tenth vol. of his Indische Studien, p. 83, Professor Weber adduces some curious evidence of the little confidence entertained in ancient times by the Indians in the chastity of their women. He refers to the following passages : (1) Nidana Sutra, iii. 8. Uchchavacha-charandh striyo bhavanti \ saha deva-sakshye cha manushya-sdk- shye cha ycsham putro vakshye teshdm putro bhavishydmi | yams cha putran vakshye te me putruh bhavishyanti | “Women are irregular in their conduct. Of whatsoever men, I, taking gods and men to witness, shall declare myself to be the son, I shall be their son ; and they whom I shall name as my sons shall be so.” (2) S'atapatha Brahmana, iii. 2, 1, 40. Atha yad “ brahmanah” itydha | anaddha iva vai asya atah pura janam bhavati | idarn hy ahuh “ rakshchhsi yoshitam anusachante tad uta rak- shdrnsy eva reta ddadhati iti | atha atra addha jay ate yo brahmano yo yajnaj jdyate \ tasmad api rdjanyam vd vais'yam vd “ brahmanah ” ity eva bruydt | brahmano hi jdyate yo yajnaj jdyate \ tasmad ahuh “ na savana-kritam hanyad enasvi ha eva savana-krita" iti | “Now as regards what he says ‘ (this) Brahman (has been conse- crated) : ’ before this his birth is uncertain. For they say this that ‘ Rakshases follow after women, and therefore that it is Rakshases who inject seed into them.’” (Compare what it said of the Gandharvas in Atharva Y. iv. 37, 116, and Journ. Roy. As. Soc. for 1865, p. 301.) So then he is certainly born who is born from sacred science ( brahma ) and from sacrifice. Wherefore also let him address a Rajanya or a Vaisya as ‘ Brahman,’ for ho is horn from sacred science ( brahma , and consequently a Brah- man) who is born from sacrifice. Hence they say ‘let no one slay an offerer of a libation, for he incurs (the) sin (of Brahmanicide ?) by so doing.” (3) On the next passage of the S'. P. Br. ii. 5, 2, 20, Professor Weber remarks that it is assumed that the wife of the person offering the Varuna praghasa must have one or more para- mours : Atha pratipras'hbtd pratiparaiti \ sa patnim uddneshyan prichhati ‘ kena (jdrena Comm.) charasi’ iti | Varunyam vai etat sin karoli yad any asya saty anyena cliarati | atho “ na id me ’ntah-salpa juhuvad" iti tasmat prichhati \ niruktam vai enah kantyo bhavati | satyani hi bhavati | tasmad vd iva prichhati [ sa yad na prati- janlta jnatibhyo ha asyai tad ahitam syat | “ The pratiprasthatri (one of the priests) returns. Being about to bring forward the wife, he asks her, ‘ with what (paramour) dost thou keep company ?’ For it is an offence incurring punishment from Varuna that being the wife of one man she keeps company with another. He enquires ‘ in order that she may not sacrifice with me while she feels an inward pang.’ For a sin when declared becomes less : for it is not attended with falsehood. Therefore he enquires. If she does not confess, it will be ill for her relations.” (This passage is explained in Katyiiyana’s S'rauta Sutras, v. 5, 6-11.) (4) S'. P. Br. i. 3, 2, 21. Tad u ha uvdeha Ydjnavalkyo “ yathddishtam patnydh astu \ kas tad ddriyeta yat para- pumsd vd patni syat” | “ Yajnavalkya said this (in opposition to the doctrine of some other teachers) : ‘ let the prescribed rule he followed regarding a wife. Who would mind his wife consorting with other men?”’ The last clause has reference to the consequence which the other teachers said would follow from adopting the course they disapproved, viz., that the wife of the man who did so would become an adulteress. (5) Taitt. S. v. 6, 8, 3. Na agnim chitva ramam upexjad “ ayonau reto dliasyami ” iti \ na dvitiyam chitva ’nyasya striyam npeyat | na tritlyam chitva kancliana upeyat | reto vai etad nidhatt.e yad agnim chinute | yad upeyad retasa vyridhyeta \ “Let not a man, after preparing the altar for the sacred fire, approach a woman (a S'udra-woman, according to the Commentator), (considering) that in doing so, he would be discharging seed into an improper place. Let no man, after a second time preparing the fire- AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 137 men are continually begetting children on all (sorts of) -women. The speech, the mode of propagation, the birth, the death of all mankind are alike. The text which follows is Yedic and authoritative : ‘ We who (are called upon) we recite the text.’243 Hence those men who have an insight into truth know that virtuous character is the thing chiefly to be desired. ‘The natal rites of a male are enjoined to be performed before the section of the umbilical cord (Manu, ii. 29). Then Savitri (the Gayatrl, Manu ii. 77) becomes his mother and his altar, approach another man’s wife. Let no man, after a third time preparing the fire-altar, approach any woman : for in preparing the fire-altar he is discharging seed. Should he approach (a woman in these forbidden cases) he will miscarry with his seed.” This prohibition of adultery in a certain case, seems to prove that it was no uncommon occurrence, and is calculated, as Professor Weber remarks, to throw great doubt on the purity of blood in the old Indian families. 213 To explain the last elliptical expression I will quote part of the Commentator’s remarks on the beginning of Yudhishthira’s reply : Vogadtnam iva maithunasyapi sadliaranyaj jatir durjneyd \ tatha did srutih una chaitad vidmo brahmandh smo vayam abrahmand vd ” iti brdhmanya-samsayaih itpanyasyati | nanw jaty-anischaye katham “ bruhmano ’ham" ityddy abhimana-pur assay am ydgddau pravarttcta ity dsankyaha “idam drsham” iti | atra “ ye yajdmahe ” ity anena dia ye vayam smo brahmandh anye vd te vayam yajdmahe iti brahmanye ’navadliaranam darsilam | mantra-lingam api ilya evdsmi sa san yaje" iti | . . . . Tasmad achara cva brdh- manya-nischayahetur veda-prdmanyad ity upasaihharati | “ As the mode of propa- gation is common to all the castes, just as speech, etc. are, birth is difficult to be determined. And accordingly, by the words : ‘ We know not this, whether we are Brahmans or no Brahmans,’ the Veda signifies a doubt as to Brahmanhood. Then, having raised the difficulty ‘ how, if birth is undetermined, can a man engage in sacrifice, etc., with the previous consciousness that he is a Brahman, etc. ? ’ the author answers in the words ‘ this text is Vedic, etc.’ It is both shewn by the words ‘ we who .... recite,’ (which mean) ‘ we, whoever we are, — Brahmans or others, — we recite,’ that the fact of Brahmanhood is unascertained ; and this is also a cha- racteristic of the formula, ‘ whosoever I am, being he who I am, I recite.’ ” The comment concludes : “ Hence he briefly infers from the authoritative character of the Veda, that conduct is the cause of certainty in regard to Brahmanhood.” Prof. Aufrecht has pointed out to me that the words ye yajdmahe occur in S'. P. Br. i. 5, 2, 16, and in Taitt. S. i. 16, 11, 1. The Commentator on the last-named passage refers in explanation of them to As valayana’s S'rauta Sutras, i. 6, 4 f., where it is said that these two words constitute the formula called aguli, which comes in at the beginning of all the ydjyds which are unaccompanied by any anuyaja. The Commentator in- terprets the two words thus: sarve “ ye ” vayam hotaro 'dhvaryund “ yaja" iti pre- shitas te vayam “ yajdmahe ” yajyain pathamah | “ All we hotri priests who are called upon by the adhvaryu by the word ‘ recite,’ we recite, i.e. repeat the ydjyd." (See Haug’s Ait. Br. ii. p. 133, and note 11.) Prof. Aufrecht thinks the words in the Commentator’s note ya evdsmi sa san yaje may be a free adaptation of Atharva V. vi. 1 23, 3, 4. It does not appear from what source the words na chaitad vidmah etc. are derived. 138 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, religious teacher his father (Manu, ii. 170, 225). 12485. Until he is born in the Yeda, he is on a level with a Sudra ’ (Manu, ii. 172); — so, in this diversity of opinions did Manu Svayambhuva de- clare. The castes (though they have done nothing) will have done all they need do,2W if no fixed rules of conduct are observed. In such a case there is considered to be a gross confusion of castes. I have already declared that he is a Erahman in whom purity of conduct is recognized.” The next passage from the S'antiparvan, verses 6930 ff., is even more explicit than the last in denying any natural distinction between the people of the different castes : Bhrigur uvdcha \ Asrijad brdhmandn evam purvam Brahma prajd- patin | dtma-tejo ' bhinirvrittdn bhuskardgni-sama-prabhdn \ tatah satyaih cha dharmam clia tapo brahma cha sdsvatam | uchuram chaiva sauchaih cha svargdya vidadhe prabhuh \ deva-danava-gandharva daityasura-ma- horaguh | yaksha-rdkshasa-ndgus cha pisdchu manujds tathd | brdhmandh kshattriyd vaisyuh sudrus cha dvija-sattama | ye chdnye bhuta-sanghdndm varnds turns chdpi nirmame \ brdhmandndm sito varnah kshattriydnam cha lohitah \ vaisydndm pitako varnah sudrdndm asitas tatha | 6935. Bharadvdja uvdcha | Chdturvarnyasya varnena yadi varno vibliidyate | sarveshdm khalu varndndm drisyate varna-sankarah | kdmah krodho bha- yam lobhah sokas chintd kshudhd sramah | sarveshdm nah245 prabhavati kasmdd varno vibliidyate | sveda-mutra-purislidini ileshmd pittarh sa-soni- tam | tanuh ksharati sarveshdm kasmdd varno vibhajyate | jangamdndm asamkhyeyuh sthdvarundm cha jdtayah | teshdih vividha-varndndm knto varna-vinischayah | Bhrigur uvdcha \ BTa visesho ’sti varndndm sarvam brdhmam idaih jagat [ Brahmand purva srishtam hi karmabhir varnatdih gatam | 6940. Kdma-bhoga-priyds tlkshnuh krodhanuh priya-sdhasdh | 244 The Commentator thus explains the word krita-kri/ya : Krita-krityah sudra- tulydh | tathd cha smritih “ na s udre patakam kinchid na cha saihskdram arhati" iti teshdm samskdrdnarhalva-nishpdpatvdbhiddnat krita-krityatvam darsayati \ tadvat traivarnika api syur ity arthah J “ Krita krityah (lit. having done what was to be done) means, like S'udras ; so the Smriti (when it says), ‘ No sin exists in a Sudra, nor is he fit for purificatory rites,’ shews, by declaring the unfitness of this class for such rites, and its freedom from sin, that it has the character of krita-krityatvatva, i.e. of having done all it had to do. And such (in the event supposed) would be the case with men of the three (upper) classes also.” 245 The Calcutta edition reads na, “not,” which cannot be right. The MS. in the Library of the Edinburgh University has nah, “ of us.” AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 139 tyakta-svadharmd raktdngds te dvijdh Tcshattratdfh gat ah | gobhyo vrittim samdsthdya pltuh krishy-upajivinah | sva-dharmdn nanutishthanti te dvijd vaisyatdm gatdh \ himsdnrita-priyd lubdhuh sarva-karmopajlvinah | krishndh saucha-paribhrashtds te dvijdh sudratdih gatdh | ity etaih kar- mabhir vyastd dvijd varndntaram gdtuh \ dharmo yajna-kriyd teshdm nityam na pratishidhyate \ ity ete chaturo varnd yesham brdhmi saras- vatl | vihitd Brahmand purvaih laibhdt tv ajndnatdffi gatdh | 6945. Brdhmand brahma-tantra-sthds2ia tapas teshdm na nasyati \ brahma dhu- rayatdm nityam vratdni uiyamdms tathd | brahma chaiva param srishtam ye na jdnanti te ’ dvijdh | teshdm bahuvidhus tv anyds tatra tatra hi jdtayah \ pisdchd rdkshasdh pretd vividha mlecliha-jdtayah | pranashta- jndna-vijndndh svachhanduchdra-cheshtituh \ prajd brdhmana-samskdruh sva-karma-krita-nischaydh \ rishibhih svena tapasd srijyante chdpare paraih | udi-deva-samudbhutd brahma-muld ’kshayd ’vyayd | sd srishtir mdnasi ndma dharma-tantra-pardyana \ 6950. Bharadvdja uvdcha | Brdhmanah kena bhavati kshattriyo vd dvjottama | vaisyah sudras cha viprarshe tad bruhi vadatdm vara \ Bhrigur uvdcha | Jata-karmddibhir yas tu satiiskdraih samskritah suchih | vedadhyayana-sampannah shatsu karmasv avasthitah | sauchdchdra-sthitah samyag vighasdsi guru-priyah | nitya-vrati satyaparah sa vai brdhmana uchyate \ satyam ddnam athd- droha dnrisamsyam trapu ghrind | tapas cha drisyate yatra sa brdhmana iti smritah | kshattra-jam sevate karma vedddhyayana-sangatah | duna- ddna-ratir yas tu sa vai kshattriya uchyate \ 6955. Visaty dsu pasubhyas cha krishy-dduna-ratih suchih I vedadhyayana-sampannah sa vaisyah iti sanjnitdh | sarva-bhakshya-ratir nityam sarva - karma - karo ’suchih | tyakta-vedas tv andchdrah sa vai sudrah iti smritah \ sudre cliaitad bhavel lakshyam dvije tach cha na vidyate | sa vai sudro bhavech chhudro brdhmano brdhmano na cha \ “ Bhrigu replied : 6930. ‘ Brahma thus formerly created the Praja- patis, Brahmanic,247 penetrated by his own energy, and in splendour equalling the sun and fire. The lord then formed truth, righteousness, austere fervour, and the eternal veda (or sacred science), virtuous practice, and purity for (the attainment of) heaven. He also formed the gods, Danavas, Gandharvas, Daityas, Asuras. Hahoragas, Yakshas, 240 Brahma tantram = vedoktTinushthcmam | Comm. 24? Brahmandn , “ Brahmans,” is the word employed. It may mean here “ sons of Brahma.” 140 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, Rakshasas, Nagas, Pisachas, and men, Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Yaisyas, and S'udras, as well as all other classes ( varnuh ) of beings. The colour [varna) of the Brahmans was white ; that of the Kshattriyas red ; that of the Yaisyas yellow, and that of the S'udras black.’ 218 6935. Bhara- dvaja here rejoins: ‘If the caste {varna) of the four classes is dis- tinguished by their colour {varna), then a confusion of all the castes is observable. Desire, anger, fear, cupidity, grief, appre- hension, hunger, fatigue, prevail over us all : by what, then, is caste discriminated? Sweat, urine, excrement, phlegm, bile, and blood (are common to all) ; the bodies of all decay : by what then is caste dis- criminated ? There are innumerable kinds of things moving and sta- tionary : how is the class {varna) of these various obj ects to he deter- mined?’ Bhrigu replies : ‘There is no difference of castes:249 this world, having been at first created by Brahma entirely Brahmanic,250 243 It is somewhat strange, as Professor "Weber remarks in a note to p. 215 of his German translation of the Vajra Such!, that in the passage of the Kathaka Brahmana xi. 6, which he there quotes, a white colour is ascribed to the Vais'ya and a dark hue to the Rajanya. The words are these : Taeh ehkuklanam [brihJnam) adityebhyo nir- vapati tasmach chhukla iva vaisyo jdyate | yat krishnanam varunam tasmad dhumra iva rajanyah | “ Since the Vais'ya offers an oblation of white (rice) to the Adityas, he is born as it were white ; and as the Varuna oblation is of black (rice) the Rajanya is as it were dusky.” 249 Compare with this the words attributed in S'antiparvan, verses 2819 ff., to King Muchukunda, who had been reproached by the god Kuvera with trusting for victory to the aid of his domestic priest instead of to his own prowess : Muchukundas tatah kruddhah pratyuvacha Dhanesvaram \ nyaya-purvam asaihrabdham asambhrdntam idam vachah | brahma kshattram idam srishtam eka-yoni svayambhuva I prithag-bala- vidhdnam tanna lokam paripalayet | tapo-mantra-balam nityam brahmaneshu pratish- thitam \ astra-bahu -balum nityam kshattriyeshu pratishthitam | tdbhydm sambhuya karttavyam prajdnam paripalanam \ “Muchukunda then, incensed, addressed to the Lord of riches these reasonable words, which did not partake of his anger or excite- ment : ‘ Brahmans and Kshattriyas were created by Brahma from the same womb (or source) with different forces appointed to them : this cannot (neither of these separate forces can ?) protect the world. The force of austere fervour and of sacred texts abides constantly in the Brahmans ; and that of weapons and their own arms in the Kshattriyas. By these two forces combined the people must be protected.” 250 Brahmam is the word employed. That it is to be understood in the sense of “ Brahmanical ” appears from the following lines in which the word dvijdh must be taken in the special signification of Brahmans and not of “twice-born men” (who may be either Brahmans, Kshattriyas, or Vais'yas) in general. The Brahman is con- sidered to have been formed of the essence of Brahma, and to represent the original tvpe of perfect humanity as it existed at the creation. The Commentator takes the word brahmam as = brahmana-jatimat, “ having the caste of Brahmans ; ” and he explains the different colours mentioned in the next verses as follows : red ( rakta ) AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 141 became (afterwards) separated into castes in consequence of works. 6940. Those Brahmans {lit. twice-horn men), who were fond of sensual pleasure, fiery, irascible, prone to violence, who had forsaken their duty, and were red-limbed, fell into the condition of Kshattriyas. Those Brahmans, who derived their livelihood from kine, who were yellow, who subsisted by agriculture, and who neglected to practise their duties, entered into the state of Yaisyas. Those Brahmans, who were addicted to mischief and falsehood, who were covetous, who lived by all kinds of work, who were black and had fallen from purity, sank into the condition of Sudras. Being separated from each other by these works, the Brahmans became divided into different castes. Duty and the rites of sacrifice have not been always forbidden to (any of) them. Such are the four classes for whom the Brahmanic231 Sarasvati was at first designed by Brahma, but who through their cupidity fell into ignor- ance. 6945. Brahmans live agreeably to the prescriptions of the Yeda ; while they continually hold fast the Veda, and observances, and ceremonies, their austere fervour ( tapas ) does not perish. And sacred science was created the highest thing : they who are ignorant of it are no twice-born men. Of these there are various other classes in dif- ferent places, Pisachas, Rakshasas, Pretas, various tribes of Jllechhas, who have lost all knowledge sacred and profane, and practise whatever observances they please. And different sorts of creatures with the purificatory rites of Brahmans, and discerning their own duties, are created by different rishis through their own austere fervour. This creation, sprung from the primal god, having its root in Brahma, un- decaying, imperishable, is called the mind-born creation, and is devoted to the prescriptions of duty.’ 6950. Bharadvaya again enquires : * "What is that in virtue of which a man is a Brahman, a Kshattriya, means “ formed of the quality of passion ” ( rajo-guna-maya ) ; yellow (pita) “ formed of the qualities of passion and darkness” ( rajas-lamo-maya ), and black ( krishna or asita) “formed of darkness only ” ( kevala-tamomaya ). 231 Brahnii. This word is thus interpreted by the Commentator : vedamayl | chatur- nam api varnanam Brahmana purvam vihita | lobha-doshena tu ajnanatam tamo- bhavam gatah sudrah anadhikdrino vede jdtah | “ Sarasvati, consisting of the Veda, was formerly designed by Brahma for all the four castes : but the Sudras having through cupidity fallen into 1 ignorance,’ i.e. a condition of darkness, lost their right to the Veda.” See Indische Studien, ii. 194, note, where Professor Weber under- stands this passage to import that in ancient times the Sudras spoke the language of the Aryas. 142 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, a Taisya, or a S'udra; tell me, o most eloquent Brahman rishi.’ Bhrigu replies : ‘ He who is pure, consecrated by the natal and other ceremonies, who has completely studied the Yeda, lives in the practice of the six ceremonies, performs perfectly the rites of purification, who eats the remains of oblations, is attached to his religious teacher, is constant in religious observances, and devoted to truth, — is called a Brahman. 6953. He in whom are seen truth, liberality, inoffensive- ness, harmlessness, modesty, compassion, and austere fervour, — is de- clared to be a Brahman. He who practises the duty arising out of the kingly office, who is addicted to the study of the Yeda, and who delights in giving and receiving,25'2 — is called a Kshattriya. 6955. He who readily occupies himself with cattle,253 who is devoted to agri- culture and acquisition, who is pure, and is perfect in the study of the Yeda, — is denominated a Yaisya. 6956. He who is habitually addicted to all kinds of food, performs all kinds of work, who is unclean, who has abandoned the Yeda, and does not practise pure observances, — is traditionally called a Sudra. And this (which I have stated) is the mark of a S'udra, and it is not found in a Brahman : (such) a Sudra will remain a Sudra, while the Brahman (who so acts) will be no Brahman.”254 The passage next to he quoted recognizes, indeed, the existence of castes in the Krita age, hut represents the members of them all as having been perfect in their character and condition, and as not differ- ng from one another in any essential respects. It is related in the Yanaparvan that Bhimasena, one of the Pandus, 253 Danam viprebhyah | adanam prajabhyah, “Giving to Brahmans, receiving from his subjects.” — Comm. 253 Pasun vanjyaya upayoginah upalnbdhva visati pratishtlidm labhate \ “"Who perceiving cattle to be useful for trade, ‘ enters,’ obtains a basis (for his operations).” —Comm. As we have seen above p. 97, these etymologies are frequently far-fetched and absurd. 254 Ou this verse the Commentator annotates as follows : etat saiyadi-saptakam dvije traivarnike \ dharma eva varna-vibhage karanam na jdlir ity arthah | “ These seven virtues, beginning with truth (mentioned in verse G953), exist in the twice-born man of the first three classes. The sense is that righteousness, and not birth, is the cause of the division into classes.” This explanation is not very lucid. But the sense seems to be that the seven good qualities referred to are the proper characteris- tics of the three upper castes, while the defects specified in verse 6956 are the proper distinctive marks of the S'udras. Thus the S'udra who has the four defects will remain a S’udra, but a Brahman who has them will be no Brahman. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE . FOUR CASTES. 143 in the course of a conversation with his brother 255 Hanumat the mon- key chief, had requested information on the subject of the Tugas and their characteristics. Hanumat’s reply is given in verses 11234 ff. : Kritarh ndma yugam tdta yatra dharmah sandtanah \ kritam eva na karttavyaih tasmin kale yugottame | na tatra dharmah sidanti kshlyante na cha vai prajdh \ tatah krita-yugam ndma kdlena gunatdm gatam \ deva-ddnava-gandharva-yaksha-rdkshasa-pannagdh \ ndsan krita-yuge tuta tadd na kraya-vikrayah 256 j na sdma-r ig -yajur-varndfr'7 kriyd ndsich cha mdnavi j ahhidhydya phalam tatra dharmah sannydsa eva cha \ na tasmin yuga-saihsarge vyddhayo nendriya-kshayah \ ndsuyd ndpi ruditam na darpo ndpi vaikritam 258 | na vigrahahm kutas tandrl na dvesho na cha pai- sunam | 11240. Na bhayarn ndpi santdpo na chersliyd na cha matsarah j tatah paramakam Brahma sd gatir yogindm para \ dtmd cha sarva-bhu- tdndih suklo Ndrdyanas tadd | brdhmandh kshattriyuh vaisyuh sudrdscha hrita-lakshandh | krite yuge samabhavan sva-karma-niratdh prajdh | sa- mdsrayaih samdchdram sama-jnunam cha kevalam \ tadd hi sdmakarmdno varna dharman avdpnuvan I eka-deva-sadd-yuktdh eka-mantra-vidhi-kri- ydh | prithagdharrnds tv eka-vedd dharmam ekam anuvratdh | chdturas- ramya-yuktena karmand kdla-yogind | 11245. Akdma-phala-samyogdt prdpnuvanti param gatim \ dtma-yoga-samdyukto dharmo ’ yam krita- lakshanah | krite yuge cliatushpadds chdturvarnyasya sdsvatah \ etat krita- yugam ndma traigunya-parivarjjitam | tretdm api nibodha tram tasmin sattram pravarttate | pddena hrasate dharmo raktatdm ydti chuchyutah \ satya-pravrittus cha naruh kriyd-dharma-pardyanuh \ tato yajnuh pra- va/rttante dharmdscha vividhdh kriyuh | tretdydm bhdva - sankalpuh kriya-ddna-phalopagdih \ praclialanti na vai dharmut tapo-ddna-paru- yandh \ 11250. Sva-dharma-sthdh kriydvanto narus tretd-yuge ’ bha - van | dvupare tu yuge dharmo dvibhdgonah pravarttate | Vishnur vai pitatdfri ydti chaturdhu veda eva cha | tato ’ nye cha chatur-vedus tri- vedds cha tatlid pare | dvi-vedus chaika-vedus chdpy anrichas cha tathd pare | evafii sdstreshu bhinneshu bahudhd niyate kriyd | tapo-ddna-pra- vrittd cha rdjasl bhavati prajd | eka-vedasya chdjnunud vedus te baliavah 235 Both were sons of Vayu. See verses 11134, 11169 f. and 1 1 176 f. of this same hook. The Ramayana is mentioned in verse 11177. 256 The MS. in the Edinburgh University Library reads as the last pada : ddna- dhy ay ana-vis r amah. 25? The Edinburgh MS. reads vedah instead varnah. 253 Kapatam — Comm. 259 Vairam — Comm. 144 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, kritdh | sattvasya cheha vibhramsdt satye 200 kaschid avasthitah \ sattvdt prachyavamdndndm vyudhayo bahavo 'bhavan | 11255. Kdmds chopadra- vuschaiva tadd vai daiva-kdritdh | yair ardyamdndh subhrisam tapas tapyanti munavdh | kdma-kdmdh svarga-kdmu yajnums tanvanti chdpare \ evarh dvdparam, dsddya prajdh kshlyanty adharmatah | pddcnaikena Kaun- teya dharmah kali-yuge sthitah \ tdmasam yugam dsddya krishno bhavali Kesavah | veduchurdh prasdmyanti dharma-yajna-kriyds tathd | itayo vyd- dhayas trandri doshdh krodhadayus tathd | upadravds cha varttante udhayah kshud bliayam tathd \ yugeshv uvarttamdneshu dharmo vydvart- tate punah | dliarme vyuvarttamdne tu loko vydvarttate punah \ loke kslilne kshayam yunti blidvd loka-pravarttakuh \ yuga-kshaya-kritd dhar- muh prurthandni vikurvate | etat kaliyugaiJi ndma achirdd yat pravart- tate | yagdnuvarttanaih tv etat kurvanti chirajninah | “ 11234. The Krita is that age in which righteousness is eternal. In the time of that most excellent of Tugas (everything) had been done {krita), and nothing (remained) to be done. Duties did not then languish, nor did the people decline. Afterwards, through (the influence of) time, this yuga fell into a state of inferiority.261 In that age there were neither Gods,282 Danavas, Gandharvas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, nor Pannagas ; no buying or selling went on ; the Vedas were not classed205 as Saman, Rich, and Yajush; no efforts were made by men :26‘ the fruit (of the earth was obtained) by their mere wish : righteousness and abandonment of the world (prevailed). 200 The Edinburgh MS. reads satlve instead of satye. 261 In thus rendering, I follow the Commentator, whose gloss is this : Mulch- yam apy amukhyatam gatam | “ although the chief, it fell into inferiority.” In Bbhtlingk and Roth’s Lexicon this line is quoted under the word gunatd, to which the sense of “ superiority, excellence,” is assigned. 252 Compare with this the verses of the Vayu Puriina quoted in p. 90, which state that in the Krita age there were neither plants nor animals ; which are the products of unrighteousness. 263 I do not venture to translate “ there was then no [division of the Yeda into] Saman, Rich, and Yajush, nor any castes,” (1) because the Edinburgh MS. reads vedah instead of varnah, and the Commentator does not allude to the word varnah ; and (2) castes ( varnah. ) are referred to helow (verses 11242 f.) as existing, though without much distinction of character. The Commentator explains : trayl-dharmasya chitla- suddhy-arthatvat tasyas cha taddnlm svabhavatvdt na sdmddlny asan | “As the ob- ject of the triple veda is purity of heart, and as that existed naturally at that period, there were no (divisions of) Saman, etc.” 261 I follow the Commentator whose gloss is : “ Manavl kriya ” krishy-ady-dram - lha-bhuta | kintu “ abhidhydya phalam," sankalpdd era sarvam sampadyate | AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 145 No disease or decline of the organs of sense arose through the in- fluence of the age ; there was no malice, weeping, pride, or deceit ; no contention, and how could there he any lassitude ? no hatred, cruelty, (11240) fear, affliction, jealousy, or envy. Hence the supreme Brahma was the transcendent resort of those Yogins. Then Xarayana, the soul of all beings, was white.265 Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Taisyas, and Sudras possessed the characteristics of the Krita.268 In that age wdre born creatures devoted to their duties. They were alike in the object of their trust, in observances and in their knowledge. At that period the castes, alike in their functions, fulfilled their duties, were unceasingly devoted to one deity, and used one formula {mantra), one rule, and one rite. Though they had separate duties, they had hut one Veda, and practised one duty.267 By works connected with the four orders, and dependent on conjunctures of time,263 (11245) hut un- affected by desire, or (hope of) reward, they attained to supreme felicity. This complete and eternal righteousness of the four castes during the Krita was marked by the character of that age and sought after union with the supreme soul. The Krita age was free from the three qualities.269 Understand now the Treta, in which sacrifice com- menced,270 righteousness decreased by a fourth, Vishnu became red ; 265 In verse 12981 of this same Vanaparvan the god says of himself : svetah krita- yuge varnah pitas tretayuge mama \ rakto dvaparam asddya krishnah kali-yuge tatha | “ My colour in the Krita age is white, in the Treta yellow, when I reach the Dvapara it is red, and in the Kali black.” 268 The Commentator’s gloss is : kritdni svatah siddhani lakslianani samo damas tapa ity-adlni yesham te | “ They were men whose characteristics, tranquillity, etc , were effected, spontaneously accomplished.” On verse 11215 he explains the same term krita-lakshanah by krita-yuga-suchakah, “indicative of the Krita age.” 262 The different clauses of this line can only be reconciled on the supposition that the general principle of duty, and the details of the duties are distinguished. Bharma is the word used in both parts of the verse for “ duty.” 268 Kala-yogina. The Commentator explains : kalo darsddih | tad-yuktena | “ con- nected with time, i.e. the appearance of the new moon, etc.” 269 And yet we are told in the Vayu P. that the creation itself proceeded from the influence of the quality of passion (see above, p. 75), and that the four castes when originally produced were characterized in different ways by the three qualities, pp. 62 and 89 220 Compare S'anti-parva, 13088. Idam krita-yugain nama kdlah sreshthah pra- varttitah | ahimsya yajna-pasavo yuge’smin na tad anyatha | chatuslipat sakalo dhar- mo bhavishyaty atra vai surah \ tatas tretd-yugaih nama trayi yatra bhavishyati \ prokshitd yatra pasavo badham prapsyanti vai makhe | “ This Krita age is the most excellent of periods : then victims are not allowed to be slaughtered ; complete and 10 146 MYTHICAL ACCOUNTS OF THE CREATION OF MAN, and men adhered to truth, and were devoted to a righteousness de- pendent on ceremonies. Then sacrifices prevailed, with holy acts and a variety of rites. In the Treta men acted with an object in view, seeking after reward for their rites and their gifts, and no longer disposed to austerities and to liberality from (a simple feeling of) duty. 11250. In this age, however, they were devoted to their own duties, and to religious ceremonies. In the Dvapara age righteousness was diminished by two quarters, Vishnu became yellow, and the Veda fourfold. Soma studied four Vedas, others three, others two, others one, and some nono at all.271 The scriptures being thus divided, ceremonies were celebrated in a great variety of ways ; and the people being occupied with aus. terity and the bestowal of gifts, became full of passion ( rnjasl ). Owing to ignorance of the one Veda, Vedas were multiplied, And now from the decline of goodness ( sattva ) few only adhered to truth. When men had fallen away from goodness, many diseases, (11255) desires and calamities, caused by destiny, assailed them, by which they wero severely afflicted, and driven to practice austerities. Others desiring enjoyments and heavenly bliss, offered sacrifices. Thus, when they had reached the Dvapara, men declined through unrighteousness. In the Kali righteousness remained to the extent of one-fourth only. Ar* rived in that age of darkness, Vishnu became black : practices enjoined, by the Vedas, works of righteousness, and rites of sacrifice, ceased. Calamities, diseases, fatigue, faults, such as anger, etc., distresses, anxiety, hunger, fear, prevailed. As the ages revolve, righteousness again declines. When this takes place, the people also decline. When they decay, the impulses which actuate them also decay. The practices generated by this declension of the Yugas frustrate men’s aims. Such is the Kali Yuga which has existed for a short time. Those who are long-lived act in conformity with the character of the age.” The next passage from the same book (the Vana-parvan) does not make any allusion to the Yugas, but depicts the primeval perfection of mankind with some traits peculiar to itself, and then goes on to describe their decline. Markandeya is the speaker. perfect righteousness will prevail. Next is the Treta in which the triple veda will come into existence ; and animals will be slain in sacrifice.’’ See note 65, page 39, above. 271 The Commentator explains anrichas (“without the Rig-veda”) by krita krityah. On the sense of the latter word see above. AND OF THE ORIGIN OF THE FOUR CASTES. 147 12619. Nirmaldni sarlrdni viiuddhdni saririndm | sasarja dharma- tantrdni purvotpannah Prajapatih | amogha-phala-sankalpdh, suvratdh satyavadinah \ brahma-bhuta nardh punydh purandh kuru-sattama | sarve devaih samdh ydnti svachhandena nabhas-talam \ tatas cha punar dydnti sarve svachhanda-chdrinah | svachhanda-marands chdsan nardh svachhan- da-chdrinah | alpa-bddhd nirdtankah siddhurthu nirupadravdh \ drash- tdro deva-sanghdndm rishindm, cha mahatmanam | pratyakshdh sarva- dharmunam ddntd vigata-matsarah \ dsan varsha-sahasnyds tathd putra- sahasrinah | 12625. Tat ah kdluntare ’nyasmin prithivl-tala- charinah | kama-krodhadhibhutas te mdyd-vydjopajivinah | lobha-mohdbhibhutds te sakta dehais tato nardh \ asubhaih karmabhih pdpds tiryah-niraya- gdminah \ “The first-born Prajapati formed the bodies of corporeal creatures pure, spotless, and obedient to duty. The holy men of old were not frustrated in the results at which they aimed; they were religious, truth-speaking, and partook of Brahma’s nature. Being all like gods they ascended to the sky and returned at will. They died too when they desired, suffered few annoyances, were free from disease, accom- plished all their objects, and endured no oppression. Self-subdued and free from envy, they beheld the gods 272 and the mighty rishis, and had an intuitive perception of all duties.278 They lived for a thousand years, and had each a thousand sons. Then at a later period of time, the in- 2"2 See the passage from S'ankara’s Commentary on the Brahma Sutras i. 3, 32, in the 3rd vol. of this work, pp. 49 f., and note 49 in p. 95 ; and S'atapatha Brahmana, ii. 3, 4, 4, ubhaye ha vai idam agre saha asur deeds cha manushyas' cha | tad yad ha sma manushyanam na bliavati tad ha devan yachante “ idam vai no nasti idam no ’stv” Hi | te tasyai eva yachnyayai dveshena devas tirobhutd 11 na id hinasani na id dveshyo ’ sdni” iti | “Gods and men, together, were both originally (component parts of) this world. Whatever men had not they asked from the gods, saying, ‘ We have not this ; let us have it.’ From dislike of this solicitation the gods dis- appeared, (saying each of them) ‘ let me not hurt (them), let me not he hateful.’ ” Compare also the passage of the S'. P. Br. iii. 6, 2, 26, referred to by Professor Weber in Indische Studien, x. 158 : Te ha sma ete ubhaye deva-manushyah pitarah sampi- bante | sd esha sampa \ te ha sma drisyamana eva pura. sampibante uta etarhy adris- yamdnah \ “ Both gods, men, and fathers drink together. This is their symposium. Formerly they drank together visibly : now they do so unseen.” Compare also Plato, Philebus, 18 : Kal oi p\v nabjxioi, KpelrToves ryj-wv kcu iyyuripui 6ea v biKOvvres, ravT-qv arya = a Vais'ya, and not arya, is the word). In S'atapatha Brahmana, Kanva Sakha (Adhvara Kanda, i. 6), the same thing is clearly stated in these words (already partially quoted above, p. 176), for a copy of which I am indebted to Prof. Miiller : Tan na sarva era prapadyeta na hi devah sarvenaiva sangachhante | arya eva brahmano va kshattriyo va vaisyo va. te hi yajniyah | no eva sarvenaiva samvadeta na hi devah sarvenaiva samvadante aryenaiva brahmanena va kshattriyena va vaisyena va te hi yajniyah \ yady enam sudrena samvado vindet “ iltham enam nichaksliva ” ity any am bruyadesha dtkshitasyopacharah. “Every one cannot obtain this (for the gods do not associate with every man), but only an Arya, a Brahman, or a Kshattriya, or a Vais'ya, for these can sacrifice. Nor should one talk with everybody (for the gods do not talk with every body), but only with an Arya, a Brahman, or a Kshattriya, or a Vais'ya, for these can sacrifice. If any one have occasion to speak to a S'udra, let him say to another person, ‘ Tell this man so and so.’ This is the rule for an initiated man.” In the corresponding passage of the Madhyandina S’akha (p. 224 of Weber’s edition) this passage is differently worded. From Manu (ix. 149-157 ; x. 7 ff.) it is clear that Brahmans intermarried with S'udra women, though the offspring of those marriages was degraded. ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARVA-YEDAS 283 by the story of the rishi Chyavana and Sukanya, daughter of king S'aryata, narrated in the S'atapatha Brahmana, and quoted in my paper entitled “ Contributions to a Knowledge of Yedic Mythology,” No. ii., in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1866, pp. 11 ff. See also the stories of the rishi S'yavasva, who married the daughter of king Rathavlti, as told by the commentator on Rig-veda, v. 61, and given in Professor Wilson’s translation, vol. iii. p. 344. The next hymn, from the same work, sets forth with great live- liness and vigour the advantages accruing to princes from the employ- ment of a domestic priest. Atharva-veda, iii. 19, 1. Saihsitam me idam brahma samsitam viryam lalam \ samsitam kshattram ajaram astu jishnur (? jishnu) yeshdm astni purohitah | 2. Sam aharn eshdm rashtraih syami sam ojo viryam lalam \ vrischami satrundm bdhun anena havishd aham | 3. Nichaih padyantam adhare bhavantu ye nah surim maghavanam pritanydn \ kshinami brahmana ’ mitrdn unnaydmi svdn aham | 4. Tikshmydmsah parasor agnes tikshnatardh uta \ Indrasya vajrdt tikshniydmso yeshdm asmi purohitah | 5. Eshdm aham dyudhd saiii sydmi eshdm rashtraih suvlram vardhayami | eshdm kshattram ajaram astu jishnu eshdm chittam visve avantu devah \ 6. Uddharshantam Maghavan vdjindni ud virdndih jayatdm etu ghoshah \ prithagghoshdh ululayah ketumantah udiratdm | devah Indra-jyeshthuh Maruto yantu senayd | 7. Preta jayata narah ugrah vah santu bdhavah \ tikshneshavo abala-dhanvd.no hata ugrdyudhdh abaldn ugra-bdhavah \ 8. Avasrishtd para pata saravye brahma-saihsite \ jaydmitrdn pra padyasva jalny eshdm varam-varam md ’misham mochi kaschana | “1. May this prayer of mine be successful; may the vigour and strength be complete, may the power be perfect, undecaying, and victorious of those of whom I am the priest ( purohita ). 2. I fortify their kingdom, and augment their energy, valour, and force. I break the arms of their enemies with this oblation. 3. May all those who fight against our wise and prosperous (prince) sink downward, and be pros- trated. With my prayer I destroy his enemies and raise up his friends. 4. May those of whom I am the priest be sharper than an axe, sharper than fire, sharper than Indra’s thunderbolt. 5. I strengthen their weapons; I prosper their kingdom rich in heroes. May their power be undecaying and victorious. May all the gods foster their designs. 284 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY 6. May their valorous deeds, o Maghavat, hurst forth ; may the noise of the conquering heroes arise ; may their distinct shouts, their clear yells, go up; may the gods, the Maruts, with Indra as their chief, march forward with their host. 7. Go, conquer, ye warriors; may your arms be impetuous. Ye with the sharp arrows, smite those whose hows are powerless ; ye whose weapons and arms are terrible (smite) the feeble. 8. When discharged, fly forth, o arrow, sped by prayer. Vanquish the foes, assail, slay all the choicest of them; let not one escape.” The two following hymns from the same collection declare the guilt, the peril, and disastrous consequences of oppressing Brahmans, and robbing them of their property. The threats and imprecations of haughty sacerdotal insolence could scarcely be expressed more ener- getically. Atharva-veda, v. 18. 1. Naitdm te devdh adadus tubhyam nripate attave | md brdhmamsya rdjanya gam jighatso anadyam | 2. Aksha- drugdho rajanyo pdpah dtma-parujitah | sa brdhmamsya gum adyud “ adya jlvdni md svah” | 3. Avishtitd agha-vishd pridukur iva charmand\ via brdhmamsya rdjanya trishtd eshd gaur anddyd \ 4. Nir vai kshattraih nayati hanti varcho agnir drabdho vi dunoti sarvam | yo brdhmanam manyate annam ev a sa vishasya pibati taimdtasya \ 5. Yah enam hanti mridum manyamdno deva-piyur dhana-kumo na cliittut I sain tasya Indro liridaye agnim indhe ubhc enam dvishto nabhasi charantam | 6. JYd brdhmano hiihsitavyo agnih priyatanor iva \ Somo hi asya dayadah Indro asydbhisaslipdh | 7. S'atdpdshthdm ni girati turn na saknoti nihkhidam | annam yo brdhmanam malvah svadu admlti manyate | 8. Jihvd jyd bhavati kulmalam van nudikdh dantds tapasd ’bhidagdhuh | tebhir brahma vidhyati dcva-piyun lirid-balair dhanurbhir deva-jutaih \ 9. Tlkshneshavo bruhnandh hetimanto yam asyanti saravydm na sd mrishd | anuhdya tapasd manyund cha uta durud ava bhindanti enam \ 10. Ye sahasram arujann dsan dasa-satd uta | te brdhmamsya gain jagdhva Yaitahavydh parabhavan j 11. Gaur eva tdn hanyamdnd Vaitahavyan avatirat | ye Kesaraprdbandhdy as charamdjdm apechiran | 12. Eka-sataih tuh janatdh yah bhumir vyadhunuta | prajdm hiihsitvd brdhmanim asarn- bhavyam parabhavan | 13. Ecva-piyus charati marttyeshu gara-glrno bhavati asthi-bhuydn | yo brdhmanam deva-bandhum hmasti na sa pitri- ydnam apyetilokam | 14. Agnir vainah padavuyah Somo ddyuda uchyate | ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARYA-YEDAS. 285 han/abhisasta Indras tathd tad vedhaso viduh | 15. IsTiur ha digdha nripate pridahur iva g op ate \ sd brdhmanasga isliur ghord tagd vidhgati piyatah | “ 1. King, the gods have not given thee (this cow) to eat. Do not, o Rajanya (man of royal descent), seek to devour the Brahman’s cow, which is not to he eaten. 2. The wretched Rajanya, unlucky in play, and self-destroyed, will eat the Brahman’s cow, saying, ‘ Let me live to-day, (if I can) not (live) to-morrow.’ 3. This cow, clothed with a skin, contains deadly poison, like a snake. Beware, Rajanya, of this Brahman’s (cow) ; she is ill-flavoured, and must not he eaten. 4. She takes away his regal power, destroys his splendour, consumes him entire like a fire which has been kindled. The man who looks upon the Brah- man as mere food to be eaten up, drinks serpent’s poison. 5. Indra kindles a fire in the heart of that contemner of the gods who smites the Brahman, esteeming him to be inoffensive, and foolishly covets his pro- perty. Heaven and earth abhor the man who (so) acts. 6. A Brahman is not to be wronged, as fire (must not be touched) by a man who cherishes his own body. Soma is his (the Brahman’s) kinsman, and Indra shields him from imprecations. 7. The wicked (?) man who thinks the priests’ food is sweet while he is eating it, swallows (the cow) bristling with a hundred sharp points, but cannot digest her. 8. The priest’s tongue is a bow-string, his voice is a barb, and his windpipe is arrow-points smeared with fire. With these god-directed, and heart- subduing bows, the priest pierces the scorners of the gods. 9. Brahmans bearing sharp arrows, armed with missiles, never miss their mark when they discharge a shaft. Shooting with fiery energy and with anger, they pierce (the enemy) from afar. 10. The descendants of Vltahavya, who ruled over a thousand men, and were ten hundred in number, were overwhelmed after they had eaten a Brahman’s cow.77 11. The cow herself, when she was slaughtered, destroyed them, — those men who cooked the last she-goat of Kesaraprabandha. 12. Those hundred persons whom the earth shook off, after they had wronged the priestly race, were overwhelmed in an inconceivable manner. 13. He lives among mortals a hater of the gods; infected with poison he becomes reduced to a skeleton ; he who wrongs a Brahman the kins- 71 I am not aware whether any traces of this story are discoverable in the Puranas or Mahabharata. See the first verse of the hymn next to be quoted. 286 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY man of the deities, fails to attain to the heaven of the Forefathers. 14. Agni is called our leader; Soma our kinsman. Indra neutralizes imprecations (directed against us) ; this the wise understand. 15. Like a poisoned arrow, o king, like a serpent, o lord of cows, — such is the dreadful shaft of the Brahman, with which he pierces his enemies.” Atharva-veda, v. 19, 1. Atimdtram avardhanta nod iva divam asprisan \ Bhrigum hiihsitvd S'rinjaydh Vaitahavydh pardbhavan | 2. Brihatsd- mdnam Angirasam drpayan brahmanam jandh \ petvas teshdrn ubhayadam avis tokdny dvayat | 3. Ye brahmanam pratyashthlvan ye vd ’ smin suklam zshire J asnas te madhye kulydydh kesdn khddanta asate | 4. Brahmagavl pachyamund ydvat sa ’ bhi vijangahe | tejo rdshtrasya nirhanti na vvro jdyate vrishd | 5. Kruram asydh usasanam trishtam pisitam asyate | Icshlram yad asyuh piyate tad vai pitrishu kilbisham | 6. JJgro rdjd manyamdno brahmanam yaj jighatsati | para tat sichyate rdshtram brdhmano yatra jiyate | 7. Ashtdpadl chaturakshi chatuh-srotrd chatur- hanuh | dvyusyd dvijihvd bhutvd sd rdshtram avadhunute brahmajyasya \ 8. Tad vai rdshtram dsravati ndvam bhinndm ivodakam \ brahmanam yaira hmsanti tad rdshtram hanti duchchhund | 9. Tam vrikshah apa udhanti “ chhdydm no mopa gdh ” iti \ yo brdhmanasya saddhanam abhi Narad a many ate \ 10. Visham etad deva-kritam rdjd Varuno abravlt | na brdhmanasya gam jagdliva rdshtre jag dr a kaschana \ 11. Navaiva tdh navatayo ydh bhumir vyadhunuta | prajdih himsitvd brdhmamm asam- bhavyam pardbhavan | 12. Yum mritdydnubadhnanti kudyam pada- yopanun \ tad vai brahmajya te devuh vpastaranam abruvan \ 13. Asruni kripamdnasya ydni jitasya vdvrituh | tarn vai brahmajya te devah apdm bhdgam adhdrayan | 14. Yena mritam snapay anti smasruni yena undate | tarn vai brahmajya te devah apdm bhdgam adhdrayan | 15. Na varshaih Maitrdvarunam brahmajyam abhi varshati \ ndsmai samitih kalpate na mitram nayate vasam | “1. The S'rinjayas, descendants of Vitahavya, waxed exceedingly; they almost touched the sky ; hut after they had injured Bhrigu, they were overwhelmed. 2. When men pierced Brihatsaman, a Brahman descended from Angiras, a ram with two rows of teeth swallowed their children. 3. Those who spit, or throw filth (?) upon a Brahman, sit eating hair in the midst of a stream of blood. 4. So long as this Brahman’s cow is cut up (?) and cooked, she destroys the glory of the kingdom; no vigorous hero is bom there. 5. It is cruel to ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARYA-YEDAS. 287 slaughter her ; her ill-flavoured flesh is thrown away. "When her milk is drunk, that is esteemed a sin among the Forefathers. 6. "Whenever a king, fancying himself mighty, seeks to devour a Brahman, that kingdom is broken up, in which a Brahman is oppressed. Becoming eight-footed, four-eyed, four-eared, four-jawed, two-faced, two-tongued, she (the cow) shatters the kingdom of the oppressor of Brahmans. 8. (Buin) overflows that kingdom, as water swamps a leaky boat : calamity smites that country in which a priest is wronged. 9. Even trees, o Narada, repel, and refuse their shade to, the man who claims a right to the property of a Brahman. This (property), as king Yanina hath said, has been turned into a poison by the gods. No one who has eaten a Brahman’s cow continues to watch ( i.e . to rule) over a country. 11. Those nine nineties (of persons) whom the earth shook off, when they had wronged the priestly race, were overwhelmed in an incon- ceivable manner (see verse 12 of the preceding hymn). 12. The gods have declared that the cloth wherewith a dead man’s feet are bound shall be thy pall, thou oppressor of priests. 13. The tears which flow from a persecuted man as he laments, — such is the portion of water which the gods have assigned to thee, thou oppressor of priests. 14. The gods have allotted to thee that portion of water wherewith men wash the dead, and moisten beards. .15. The rain of Mitra and Yaruna does not descend on the oppressor of priests. For him the battle has never a successful issue ; nor does he bring his friend into subjection.” The attention of the reader is directed to the intensity of contempt and abhorrence which is sought to be conveyed by the coarse imagery contained in verses 3, and 12-14, of this last hymn. There is another section of the same Yeda, sii. 5, in which curses similar to those in the last two hymns are fulminated against the oppressors of Brahmans. The following are specimens : Atharva-veda, xii. 5, 4. Brahma padavayam brahmano ’ dhipatih | 5. Tam adadanasya brahma-gavim jinato brdhmandn kshattriyasya | 6. Apa krdmati sunrita vlryam punyd lakshmih | 7. Ojascha tejas cha sahas cha balarh cha vale cha indriyam cha iris cha dharmas cha | 8. Brahma cha kshattram cha rdshtram cha visas cha tvishis cha yasas cha varchas cha dravinam cha | 9. Ayus cha rupam cha ndma cha klrttis cha pranas cha apdnas cha chakshus cha srotram cha | 10. Fayas cha rasas 288 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY cha a/nnam cha annddyam cha ritarn cha satyafh cha ishtam cha purttaih cha prajd cha pasavas cha | 11. Tdni sarvuni apakrdmanti brahma-gavim udaddnasya jinato brdhmanam hshattriyasya | 12. Sd eshd lliimd brahma- gavi agha-vishd | 13. Sarvdny asydrh ghordni sarve cha mritya- vah | 14. Sarvdny asydm krurdni sarve purusha-vadhdh | 15. Sd brahma-jyam deva-piyum brahmagavl ddl yamdnd mrityoh padbise a dyati | “ 4. Prayer (brahman) is the chief (thing) ; the Brahman is the lord ( adhipati ). 5. From the Kshattriya who seizes the priest’s cow, and oppresses the Brahman, (6) there depart piety, valour, good fortune, (7) force, keenness, vigour, strength, speech, energy, prosperity, virtue, (8) prayer (brahman), royalty, kingdom, subjects, splendour, renown, lustre, wealth, (9) life, beauty, name, fame, inspiration and expiration, sight, hearing, (10) milk, sap, food, eating, righteousness, truth, oblation, sacrifice, offspring, and cattle; — (11) all these things depart from the Ivshattriya who seizes the priest’s cow. 12. Terrible is the Brahman’s cow, filled with deadly poison. ... 13. In her reside all dreadful things, and all forms of death, (14) all cruel things, and all forms of homicide. 15. When seized, she binds in the fetters of death the oppressor of priests and despiser of the gods.” A great deal more follows to the same effect, which it would he tiresome to quote. I subjoin some further texts, in which reference is made to brahmans. In xix. 22, 21 (— xix. 23, 30) it is said: Brahma-jyeshthd sambhritd virydni brahmugre jyeshtham divam dtatdna | bhutdndm brahma prathamo ha jajne tendrhati brahmand sparddhitum lcah | “Powers are collected, of which prayer (or sacred science, brahman) is the chief. Prayer, the chief, in the beginning stretched out the sky. The priest ( brahman ) was born the first of beings. Who, then, ought to vie with the brahman. A superhuman power appears to he ascribed to the brahman in the following passages, — unless by brahman we are to understand Brihaspati : — xix. 9, 12. Brahma Prajupatir Bhutd lohdh veduh sapta-rishayo ’gnayah | tair me hritaih svastyayanam Indro me sarma yachhatu brahma me sarma yachhatu | ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARVA-VEDAS. 289 “May a prosperous journey be granted to me by prayer, Prajapati, Dliatri, the worlds, the Vedas, the seven rishis, the fires ; may Indra grant me felicity, may the brahman grant me felicity.” xix. 43, 8. Yatra brahma-vido yunti dikshaya tapasd saha | brahma, md tatra nayatu brahma brahma dadhutu me | brahmane svdhd. “May the brahman conduct me to the place whither the knowers of prayer (or of sacred science) go by initiation with austerity. May the brahman impart to me sacred science. Svdhd to the brahman .” The wonderful powers of the Brahmacharin, or student of sacred science, are described in a hymn (A.V. xi. 5), parts of which are translated in my paper on the progress of the Vedic Religion, pp. 374 ff. And yet with all this sacredness of his character the priest must be devoted to destruction, if, in the interest of an enemy, he is seeking by his ceremonies to effect the ruin of the worshipper. v. 8, 5. Yam ami pure dadhire brahmdnam apabhutaye | Indra sa me adhaspadam tarn pratyasydmi mrityave \ “May the brahman whom these men have placed in their front (as a purohita ) for our injury, fall under my feet, o Indra ; I hurl him away, to death (compare A.V. vii. 70, 1 ff.). Sect. IV. — Opinions of Professor R. Roth and Dr. II. Uaug regarding the origin of caste among the Hindus. I shall in this section give some account of the speculations of Prof. It. Both and Dr. M. Haug on the process by which they conceive the system of castes to have grown up among the Indians. The remarks which I shall quote from Prof. Roth are partly drawn from his third “Dissertation on the Literature and History of the Veda,” p. 117, and partly from his paper on “Brahma and the Brah- mans,” in the first volume of the Journal of the German Oriental Society.73 He says in the latter essay : “ The religious development of India is attached through the course of three thousand years to the word brahma. This conception might be taken as the standard for estimat- ing the progress of thought directed to divine things, as at every step taken by the latter, it has gained a new form, while at the same time 78 The reader who is unacquainted with German will find a fuller account of this article in the Benares Magazine for October 1851, pp. 823 ff. 19 290 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY it has always embraced in itself the highest spiritual acquisition of the nation The original signification of the word brahma., as we easily discover it in the Yedic hymns, is that of prayer; not praise or thanksgiving, but that invocation which, with the force of the will directed to God, seeks to draw him to itself, and to receive satisfaction from him. .... From this oldest sense and form of brahma, (neuter) was formed the masculine noun brahma, which was the designation of those who pronounced the prayers, or performed the sacred cere- monies ; and in nearly all the passages of the Rig-veda in which it was thought that this word must refer to the Brahmanical caste, this more extended sense must be substituted for the other more limited one From this sense of the word brahma, nothing was more natural than to convert this offerer of prayer into a particular description of sacrificial priest : so soon as the ritual began to be fixed, the func- tions which were before united in a single person, who both prayed to the gods and sacrificed to them, became separated, and a priesthood interposed itself between man and God.” 79 Then further on, after quoting R.Y. iv. 50, 4 ff. (see above, p. 247), Prof. Roth continues : “ In this manner here and in many places of the liturgical and legal books, the promise of every blessing is attached to the maintenance of a priest by the king. Inasmuch as he supports and honours the priest, the latter ensures to him the favour of the gods. So it was that the caste of the Brahmans arose and attained to power and consideration : first, they were only the single domestic priests of the kings; then the dignity became hereditary in certain families; finally a union, occasioned by similarity of interests, of these families in one larger community was effected ; and all this in reciprocal action with the progress made in other respects by theological doctrine and religious worship. Still the extension of the power which fell into the hands of this priestly caste would not be perfectly comprehensible 79 In bis third Dissertation on the Literature and History of the Veda, Prof. Roth remarks : “ In the Yedic age, access to the gods by prayer and sacrifice was open to all classes of the community ; and it was only the power of expressing devotion in a manner presumed to be acceptable to the deities, or a readiness in poetical diction, that distinguished any individual or family from the mass, and led to their being employed to conduct the worship of others. The name given to such persons was purohita, one ‘ put forward ; ’ one through whose mediation the gods would receive the offering presented. But these priests had as yet no especial sanctity or exclusive prerogative which would render their employment imperative.” ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARVA-VEDAS. 291 from this explanation alone. The relation of spiritual superiority in which the priests came to stand to the kings was aided by other historical movements.” Professor Roth then proceeds: “When — at a period more recent than the majority of the hymns of the Rig-veda — the Yedic people, driven by some political shock, advanced from their abodes in the Punjab further and further to the south, drove the aborigines into the hills, and took possession of the broad tract of country lying between the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Vinclhya range ; the time had arrived when the distribution of power, the relation of king and priest, could become transformed in the most rapid and comprehensive manner. Principalities separated in such various ways, such a division into tribes as had existed in the Punjab, were no longer possible here, where nature had created a wide and continuous tract with scarcely any natural boundaries to dissever one part from another. Most of those petty princes who had descended from the north with their tribes must here of necessity disappear, their tribes become dissolved, and contests arise for the supreme dominion. This era is perhaps portrayed to us in the principal subject of the Hahabharata, the con- test between the descendants of Pandu and Kuru. In this stage of disturbance and complication, power naturally fell into the hands of those who did not directly possess any authority, the priestly races and their leaders, who had hitherto stood rather in the position of followers of the kings, but now rose to a higher rank. It may easily be supposed that they and their families, already honoured as the con- fidential followers of the princes, would frequently be able to strike a decisive stroke to which the king would owe his success. If we take further into account the intellectual and moral influence which this class possessed in virtue of the prerogative conceded to, or usurped by, them, and the religious feeling of the people, it is not difficult to com- prehend how in such a period of transition powerful communities should arise among the domestic priests of petty kings and their families, should attain to the highest importance in every department of life, and should grow into a caste which, like the ecclesiastical order in the middle ages of Christianity, began to look upon secular authority as an effluence from the fulness of their power, to be conferred at their will ; and how, on the other hand, the numerous royal families should 292 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY sink down into a nobility which possessed, indeed, the sole right to the kingly dignity, but at the same time, when elected by the people, required inauguration in order to their recognition by the priesthood, and were enjoined above all things to employ only Brahmans as their counsellors.” In order to render the probability of this theory still more apparent, Professor Both goes on to indicate the relations of the other castes to the Brahmans. The position which the three superior classes occupied in the developed Brahmanical system was one of gradation, as they differed only in the extent of their religious and civil prerogatives, the Ksliattriya being in some respects less favoured than the Brahman, and the Taisya than the Kshattriya. With the S'udras, on the other hand, the case was quite different. They were not admitted to sacrifice, to the study of the Yedas, or to investiture with the sacred cord. Prom this Professor Both concludes that the three highest castes stood in a closer connection with each other, whether of descent, or of culture, than any of them did to the fourth. The Indian body politic, more- over, was complete without the S’udras. The Brahman and Kshattriya were the rulers, while the Taisyas formed the mass of the people. The fact of the latter not being originally a separate community is confirmed by the employment assigned to them, as well as by their name Taisya, derived from the word Vis, a word which in the Yeda designates the general community, especially considered as the pos- sessor of the pure Aryan worship and culture, in contradistinction to all barbarian races. Out of this community the priesthood arose in the manner above described, while the Kshattriyas were the nobility, descended in the main from the kings of the earlier ages. The fourth caste, the S'udras, consisted, according to Prof. Both, of a race subdued by the Brahmanical conquerors, whether that race may have been a branch of the Arian stock which immigrated at an earlier period into India, or an autochthonous Indian tribe. In his tract on the origin of Brahmanism, from which I have already quoted (see above, pp. 11 and 14), Dr. Haug thus states his views on this question : “It has been of late asserted that the original parts of the Tedas do not know the system of caste. But this conclusion was prematurely arrived at without sufficiently weighing the evidence. It is true the caste system is not to be found in such a developed state ; ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARYA-YEDAS. 293 the duties enjoined to the several castes are not so clearly defined as in the Law Books and Puranas. But nevertheless the system is already inown in the earlier parts of the Yedas, or rather presupposed. The harriers only were not so insurmountable as in later times.” (p. 6). This view he supports by a reference to the Zend Avesta, in which he finds evidence of a division of the followers of Ahura ilazda into the three classes of Atharvas, B-athaesthas, and Yastrya fshuyans, which he regards as corresponding exactly to the Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and Yaisyas of India. The Atharvas, or priests, in particular formed a class or even a caste; they had secrets which they were prohibited from divulging ; they were the spiritual guides of their nation, and none but the son of a priest could become a priest — a rule which the Parsis still maintain. From these facts, Dr. Haug deduces the con- clusion that the nation of which both the Indo-Arians and the Perso- Arians originally formed a part had been divided into three classes even before the separation of the Indians from the Iranians; and he adds (p. 7): “From all we know, the real origin of caste appears to go back to a time anterior to the composition of the Yedic hymns, though its development into a regular system with insur- mountable barriers can be referred only to the latest period of the Yedic times.” I shall furnish a short analysis of some other parts of Dr. Haug’s interesting tract. He derives (p. 7) the word bruhmcina from brahman (neuter), which originally meant “a sacred song, prayer,” as an effu- sion of devotional feeling. Brahma was the “sacred element” in the sacrifice, and signified “ the soul of nature, the productive power.” The Brahmanic sacrifices had production as their object, and embraced some rites which were intended to furnish the sacrificer with a new spiritual body wherewith he might ascend to heaven, and others cal- culated to provide him with cattle and offspring (p. 8). The symbol of this brahma, or productive power, which must always be present at the sacrifice, was a bunch of kusa grass, generally called Yeda (a word alternating with brahma), which, at the sacrifice, was passed from one priest to another, and given to the sacrificer and his wife. The cor- responding symbol of twigs used by the Parsis was called in Zend baresma, which Dr. Haug considers to have been originally the same as brahma (p. 9). As it was essential to the success of these sacrifices 294 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY that every portion of the complicated ceremonial should he accurately performed, and as mistakes could not he avoided, it became necessary to obviate by an atonement (prayaschitti) the mischief which would otherwise have ensued ; and the priest appointed to guard against or expiate such mistakes, when committed by the other priests — the hotri, adhvaryu, and udgdtri — was called, “from the most ancient times,” the brahman (masculine), Jwho was a functionary pre-eminently supplied with brahma (neuter) or sacred knowledge, and thereby connected “with the soul of nature, the cause of all growth, the last cause of all sacrificial rites” (p. 10). The office of brahman was not one to which mere birth gave a claim, but had to be attained by ability and study. The descend- ants of these brahman priests were the Brahmans, and the speculations of the most eminent brahman priests on divine things, and especially on sacrificial rites, are contained in the works called Brahmanas (p. 12). Dr. Haug considers that no such a class as that of the brahman priests existed at the early period when the ancestors of the Hindus separated from those of the Parsis in consequence of religious differences. The few rites preserved by the Parsis as relics of the remotest antiquity closely resemble those of the Brahmans. Dr. Haug finds that in the Homa ritual of the former (corresponding to the Soma ceremony of the latter) only two priests, called Zota and Raspi or Rathwi, are required, whom he recognises as corresponding to the Hotri and Adhvaryu of the latter. So long as the rites were simple, no brahman priest was wanted ; but when they became complicated and multiform, the necessity for such a functionary arose. And it was only then that the sons of the brahmans, i.e. the Brahmans, could rise through the possession of sacred knowledge, derived from their fathers, to great power, and form them- selves into a regular caste. The development of these ceremonies out of their primitive simplicity into the complexity and multiformity which they ultimately assumed must, Dr. Haug thinks, have been the work of many centuries. This transformation must have taken place in the region bordering on the Sarasvati, where the expansion of the Brah- manical system, and the elevation of the Brahmans to full spiritual supremacy, is to be sought, before the Indo-Arians advanced south- eastwards into Hindostan proper (p. 14). The ascendancy of the Brahmans was not however attained without opposition on the part of the kings (p. 18). Dr. Haug concludes by relating the reception ACCORDING TO THE RIG- AND ATHARYA-YEDAS. 295 of Yisvamitra into the order of Brahmans, and by giving some ac- count of the rishis and the several classes into -which they were divided. As the question is generally stated by Dr. Haug in pages 6 and 12 ff., the difference between him and other European scholars is one of age and not of principle, for neither party admits any distinction of race or congenital diversity between the three superior castes or classes. 296 CHAPTER IV, EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. I proceed to give some legendary illustrations of the struggle which no doubt occurred in the early ages of Hindu history between the Brahmans and the Kshattriyas, after the former had begun to con- stitute a fraternity exercising the sacerdotal profession, but before the respective provinces of the two classes had been accurately defined by custom, and when the members of each were ready to encroach on the prerogatives claimed as their own exclusive birthright by the other. Sect. I. — ITanu's Summary of refractory and submissive monarchs. I shall begin with the following passage, which we find in the Institutes of Hanu, vii. 38 tf., regarding the impious resistance, as the lawgiver considered it, of certain monarchs to the legitimate claims of the priests, and the dutiful behaviour of others. 38. Vriddhams cJia nityafk seveta vipran veda-vidah suchin \ vriddha- sevi hi satatarn rakshobhir api pujyate I 39. Teblmyo ’dhiyachhed vina- yam vinltdtmd 'pi nityasah | vinltdtmd hi nripatir na vinasyati karchi- chit | 40. Bahavo ' vinaydd nashtdh rdjdnah sa-parichhaduh | vanasthdh api rdjydni vinaydt pratipedire | 41. Veno vinashto ' vinaydd Nahushas chaiva purthivah \ Sadcih Pajavanasso chaiva Sumukho Nimir eva cha \ 42. Prithus tu vinaydd rdjyam prdptavan Manur eva cha \ Kuveras cha dhanaisvaryyam brdhmanyath chaiva Gddhijah \ “ Let the king constantly reverence ancient Brahmans skilled in the Yedas, and pure in conduct ; for he who always respects the aged is honoured even by the Bakshases. 39. Let him, even though humble- 80 In support of this reading, see M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps’s and Sir G. C. Haugliton’s notes on the passage. CONTESTS BETWEEN THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 297 minded, be continually learning submissiveness from them : for a sub- missive monarch never perishes. 40. Through -want of this character many kings have been destroyed "with all their possessions ; whilst by humility even hermits have obtained kingdoms. 41. Vena perished through want of submissiveness, and king Vakusha, and Sudas the eon of Pijavana, and Sumukha, and Himi. 42. But through submissive- ness Prithu and Manu attained kingly power, Kuvcra the lordship of wealth, and the son of Gadhi (Visvamitra) Brahmanhood.” 81 Vena is again referred to in Manu is. 66 f. : Ayarh dvijair hi vid- vadlhih pasudharmo nigarhitah | manushydndm api prokto Vene rdjyam prasdsati | 67. Sa mahlm akhilam Ihunjan rajarshi-pravarah purd | varndnam sankarani chakre kdmopaJiata-chetanah | “ This custom (of raising up seed to a deceased brother or kinsman by his widow) fit only for cattle, was declared to be (law) for men also, when Vena held sway. This eminent royal rishi, who in former times ruled over the whole earth, having his reason destroyed by lust, occasioned a confusion of castes.” The legendary history of nearly all the kings thus stigmatized or celebrated can be traced in the Puranas and other parts of Indian literature. I shall supply such particulars of the refractory monarchs as I can find. It will be observed that Manu is spoken of as an ordinary prince ; and that even Kuvera, the god of wealth, is said to have attained his dignity by the same species of merit as the other persons whom the writer eulogizes. I am not aware whether any legends exist to the same effect. Something of a contrary tendency is found with regard to the deity in question in the passage of the Mahabharata, of which an extract is given above, in p. 140, note 249. 81 Kulluka remarks on this passage : Gddlii-putro Viivamitras' cha hshattriyah sants tenaiva dehenabrahmanyam pruptavan\ rajya-labhavasare brahmanya-praptir aprastuta ’pi vhiayotkarshartham ukta | i driso ’yam sastranushthdna-nishiddha-varjana-rupa- vinayodayena kshattriyo ’pi durlabham brahmanyam leblie \ “ Visvamitra, the son of Gadhi, being a Kshattriya, obtained Brahmanhood in the same body ( i.e . without being again horn in another body). The attainment of Brahmanhood by one who at the time held kingly authority, although an unusual occurrence, is mentioned to show the excellence of submissiveness. Through that quality, as exhibited in the observance of scriptural injunctions, and in abstinence from things forbidden, he, being a Kshat- triya, obtained Brahmanhood, so difficult to acquire.” 298 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN I have not met with any story of Sumukha’s contest with the Brahmans. Some MSS. read Suratha instead of Sumukha. The name of Sudas, the son of Pijavana, occurs in several parts of the Eig-veda. I shall return to him in relating the contest between Vasishtha and Visvamitra. I begin with the story of Vena. Sect. II. — Legend of Vena. According to the Vishnu Purana, i. 13, Vena was the son of Anga, and the descendant in the ninth generation of the first Manu, Svayam- bhuva ; the line of ancestors from the latter downwards being as follows: TTttanapada, Dhruva, S'lishti, Eipu, Chakshusha, the sixth Manu called Chakshusha, Uru, Anga (see Wilson’s Vishnu P. vol. i.). Yena thus belongs to a mythical age preceding by an enormous interval that of the descendants of Manu Yaivasvata mentioned in the preced- ing chapter of this volume; five Manvantaras, or periods of 308,571 years each, having intervened in the present Kalpa between the close of the Svayambhuva, and the beginning of the existing, or Vaivasvata, Manvantara. Yishnu Purana, i. 13, 7 : Pardsara uvdcha \ Sunithd ndma yd kanya Mrityoh prathama-jd 'bhavat | Angasya bhdryyd sa dattd tasydm Venas tv ajdyata \ 8. Sa mutdmaha-doshena tena Mrityoh sutdtmajah \ nisargdd iva Maitreya dushtah eva vyajdyata | 9. Abhishikto yadd rajye sa Venah paramarshibhih | ghoshaydmdsa sa tadd prithivydm prithivlpatih \ “na yashtavyam na ddtavyarh hotavyam na kaduchana | bhoktu yajnasya kas tv anyo hy ahaiii yajna-patih sadd | 10. Tatas tam rishayah sa/rve sam- pujya prithivipatim \ uchuh sdmakalam sarhyah Maitreya samupasthitdh | rishayah uchuh \ 11. “ Bho bho rdjan srinushva tvam yad vaddmas tava prabho \ rujya-dehopakdre yah prajdndm cha hitam par am \ 12. Blrgha - sattrena devesam sarva-yajnesvaram Harim ] pujayishydmo bhadrarh te tatrdmsas te bhavishyati | 13. Yajnena yajna-purusho Vishnuh samprinito vibhuh | asmdbhir bhavatah kdmdn sarvdn eva pradasyati | yajnair yajnesvaro yeshdm rashtre sampujyate Harih | teshdrh sarvepsitdvdptirh dadati rnripa bhubhujdm ” | Venah uvdcha | “ mattah ko 'bhyadhiko ’ nyo 'sti kas chdrddhyo mamdparah | ko 'yarn Marir iti khydto yo vo yajnes- varo matah | Brahma Janurdano Rudrah Indro Vdyur Ycuno Ravih | THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 299 Eu tailing Varuno Dhdtd Pushd Bhumir NAdkarah ] ete chdnye cha ye devdh sdpdnugraha-kdrinah \ nripasya te sarlra-sthdh sarva-devamayo nripah \ etaj jnatvd mayd ’ jnaptam yad yathd kriyatdih tatlid \ na dutavyam na hotavyam na yashtavyam cha vo dvijdh | 14. Bliarttuh sus- rushanam dharmo yathd strindm paro matah | mamdjnd-pdlanaiii dharmo bhavatdm cha tathd dvijdh” | rishayah uchuh \ “ dehy anujndm maha- raja md dharmo ydtu sankshayam | havishdm parindmo ’ yam yad etad akhilam jag at | 15. Dharme cha sankshayam ydte kshiyate chdkhilam jagat ” | Pardsarah uvdcha \ iti mjndpyamdno ’pi sa Venah paramar- shibhih | yadu daddti ndnujndm proktah proktah punah punah | tatas te munayah sane kopdmarsha-samanvitdh \ “ hanyataih hanyatdm pdpah ” ity uchus te parasparam \ 16. “Yo yajna-purusham devam anddi-ni- dlianam prdbhum | vinindaty adhamachdro na sa yogyo bhuvah patih” \ ity uktvd mantra-putais te kusair muni-gandh nripam | nirjaghnur nihatam purvam bhagavan-nindanddina | tatas cha munayo renum dadrikuh sar- vato dvija | “ kim etad ” iti chdsannam paprachhus te janam tada | 17. Akhydtam cha janais teshdm “ chauribhutair ardjake | rdshtre tu lokair drabdham para-svuddnam dturaih \ 18. Teshdm udlrna-vegdndm chaurdndm muni-sattamdh | sumahdn drisyate renuh para-vittdpalid- rindm ” | tatah sammantrya te sane munayas tasya bhubhritah | maman- thur urum putrdrtliam anapatyasya yatnatah | mathyatas cha samuttas- thau tasyoroh purushah kila | dagdha-sthundpratikdsah kharvdtasyo ’ tihrasvakah | 19. Kim karomlti tun sarvdn viprdn aha sa chdturah | nishldeti tarn uchus te nishudas tena so ’ bhavat | 20. Tatas tat-sambhavuh jdtdli Vindhya-saila-nivusinah \ nishdddh muni-sdrdula papa-karmo- palakshanuh \ 21. Tena dvdrena nishkrdntam tat pdpam tasya bhupateh \ nishudas te tathd jdtdh Vena-kalmasha-sambhavdh j 22. Tato ’ sya dak- shinam hastam mamanthus te tada dvijdh | mathyamdne cha tairdbhfd Prithur Yainyah pratdpavun \ dlpyamunah sva-vapushu sdkshdd Agnir ivojjvalan | 23. Adyam djagavam numa khdt papdta tato dhanuh \ sardA cha divydh nabhasah kavacham cha papdta ha | tasmin jdte tu bhutdni samprahrishtdni sarvasah \ satputrena cha jdtena Veno ’pi tridivam yayau | pun-ndmno narakut trdtah sa tena sumahdtmand | “7. The maiden named Sunitha, who was the first-born of Mrityu (Death)83 was given as wife to Anga; and of her Yena was born. 8. This son of Mrityu’s daughter, infected with the taint of his ma- 83 See above, p. 124, and note 230. 300 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN temal grandfather, was born corrupt, as if by nature. 9. "When Vena was inaugurated as king by the eminent risbis, he caused this pro- clamation to be made on the earth : ‘ Men must not sacrifice, or give gifts, or present oblations. Who else but myself is the enjoyer of sacrifices? I am for ever the lord of offerings.’ 10. Then all the rishis approaching the king with respectful salutations, said to him in a gentle and conciliatory tone : 1 1 . 1 Hear, o king, what we have to say: 12. 'We shall worship Hari, the monarch of the gods, and the lord of all sacrifices, with a Dlrghasattra (prolonged sacrifice), from which the highest benefits will accrue to your kingdom, your person, and your subjects. May blessings rest upon you ! You shall have a share in the ceremony. 13. Yishnu the lord, the sacrificial Male, being propitiated by us with this rite, will grant all the objects of your desire. Hari, the lord of sacrifices, bestows on those kings in whose country he is honoured with oblations, everything that they wish.’ Yena replied : ‘ What other being is superior to me ? who else but I should be adored ? who is this person called Hari, whom you regard as the lord of sacrifice ? Brahma, Janardana, Budra, Indra, Yayu, Yama, Bavi (the Sun), Agni, Yaruna, Dhatri, Pushan, Earth, the Moon, — these and the other gods who curse and bless are all present in a king’s person : for he is composed of all the gods.83 Knowing this, ye must 83 The orthodox doctrine, as stated by Manu, vii. 3 ff., coincides very nearly with Vena's estimate of himself, although the legislator does not deduce from it the same conclusions : 3. Rakshartham asya sarvasya rajanam asrijat prabhuh \ 4. Indranila- yamarkanam Agnes cha Varunasya cha \ Chandra- Vittesayos chaivamatrah nirhritya sasvatih \ 5. Yusmad eshdm surendranam matrabhyo nirmilo vripah \ tasmad abhi- bhavaty eslia sarva-bhutani tejasa | 6. Tapaty aditya-vach chaisha chakshuihshi cha mandmsi cha | na chainam bhuvi saknoti kaschid apy abhiviksliitum | 7. So 'gnir bhavati Vdyui cha so ’rkah Somah sa Dharmardt \ sa Kuverah sa Varunah sa Mahendrah prabhbvatah | 8. Balo ’pi navamantavyo “ manushyah” iti bhumipah | mahati devatd hy eslia nara-rupena lishthati \ “ 3. The lord created the king for the preservation of this entire world, (4) extracting the eternal essential particles of Indra, Vayu, Yama, Surya, Agni, Varuna, Chandra, and Kuvera. 5. Inasmuch as the king is formed of the particles of all these gods, he surpasses all beings in brilliancy. 6. Like the Sun, he distresses both men's eyes and minds ; and no one on earth can ever gaze upon him. 7. He is Agni, Va.yu, Surya, Soma, Yama, Kuvera, Varuna, and Indra, in majesty. 8. Even when a child a king is not to be despised under the idea that he is a mere man ; for he is a great deity in human form.” In another passage, ix. 303, this is qualified by saying that the king should imitate the functions of the different gods : Indrasyarkasya Vdyoscha Yamasya Varunasya cha | Chandrasyagneh Frithivyds ch a tejo vrittaih nripas' charel | This expanded in the next verses. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 301 act in conformity with my commands. Brahmans, ye must neither give gifts, nor present oblations nor sacrifices. 14. As obedience to their husbands is esteemed the highest duty of women, so is the obser- vance of my orders incumbent upon you.’ The rishis answered : ‘ Give permission, great king : let not religion perish : this whole world is hut a modified form of oblations. 15. When religion perishes the whole world is destroyed with it.’ When Vena, although thus admonished and repeatedly addressed by the eminent rishis, did not give his per- mission, then all the munis, filled with wrath and indignation, cried out to one another, * Slay, slay the sinner. 16. This man of degraded life, who blasphemes the sacrificial Wale, the god, the lord without beginning or end, is not fit to he lord of the earth.’ So saying the munis smote with blades of kusa grass consecrated by texts this king who had been already smitten by his blasphemy of the divine Being and his other offences. The munis afterwards beheld dust all round, and asked the people who were standing near what that was. 17. They were informed : ‘ In this country which has no king, the people, being distressed, have become robbers, and have begun to seize the property of others. 18. It is from these robbers rushing impetuously, and plundering other men’s goods, that this great dust is seen ? Then all the munis, consulting together, rubbed with force the thigh of the king, who was childless, in order to produce a son. From his thigh when rubbed there was produced a man like a charred log, with flat face, and extremely short. 19. ‘What shall I do?’ cried the man, in distress, to the Brahmans. They said to him, ‘ Sit down’ (nishlda) ; and from this he became a Nishada. 20. From him sprang the Hishadas dwelling in the Vindhya mountains, distinguished by their wicked deeds. 21. By this means the sin of the king departed out of him ; and so were the Nishadas produced, the offspring of the wicked- ness of Vena. 22. The Brahmans then rubbed his right hand ; and from it, when rubbed, sprang the majestic Prithu, Vena’s son, re- splendent in body, glowing like the manifested Agni. 23. Then the primeval bow called Ajagava fell from the sky, with celestial arrows, and a coat of mail. At Prithu’ s birth all creatures rejoiced. And through the birth of this virtuous son, Vena, delivered from the hell called Put 81 by this eminent person, ascended to heaven.” M This alludes to the fanciful derivation of putlra, “son,” from put + tra. 302 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN The Harivamsa (sect. 5) relates the same story thus, with little variation from the Vishnu Purana : Vaisampdyanah uvdcha \ Asid dharmasya goptd vai purvam Atri-samah prabhuh \ Atri-vamsa-samutpannas tv Ango ndma prajdpatih | tasya putro ’ bhavad Veno ndtyartham dha/rma-kovidah | jdto Mrityu-sutuydm vai Sunithuyum prajdpatih | sa mutumaha-doshena tena kdldtmajutmajah | sva-dharmun prishthatah kritvd kdmdl lohheshv avarttata | maryuddm sthdpaydmdsa dharmupetum sa purthivah \ veda-dharmun atikramya so ’ dhwrma-nirato ’bhavat \ nih-svudhydya-vashatkdrus tasmin rdjani sdsati | pruvarttan na papuh somaiii hutarh yajneshu devatuh | “ na yashtavyaih na hotavyam" iti tasya prajupateh | dslt pratijnd krureyaiii vindse samupasthite \ aham ijyas cha yashtd clia yajnas cheti kuruckaha \ “ may i yajndh vidhutavyuh mayi hotavyam ” ity api \ tarn atikrdnta- maryudam udadunam asumpratam | uchur maharshayah sarve Mari chi - pramukhds tadd | “ vayaiii diksham pravekshyumah samvatsara-ganun bahun | adharmam karu md Vena naisha dharmah sanatanah | anvaye ’ treh prasutas team prajdpatir asamsayam | ‘ prajds cha pdlayishye ’ ham ' iti te samayah kritah ” | turns tathd bruvatah sarvdn maharshin abravit tadu | Venah prahasya durbuddhir imam artham anartha-vit \ Venah uvdeha \ “ srashtd dharmasya kas chdnyah irotavyam kasya vu mayd | sruta-virya-tapah-satyair mayd vu kah samo bhuvi \ prabhavam sarva-bhutdndm dharmundih cha viseshatah \ sammudhdh na vidur nunam bhavanto mum achctasah | ichhan daheyam prithivim pldvayeyam jalais tathd | dyum bhuvaih chaiva rundheyam ndtra kdryu vichdrand ” | yadd na sakyate mohud avalcpdch cha purthivah \ anunetum tadd Venas tatah kruddhuh maharshayah j nigrihya tarn mahdtmdno visphurantam mahu- balam | tato ’ sya savyam drum te mamanthur juta-manyavah | tasmiihs tu mathyamdne vai rdjnah urau vijajnivdn | hrasvo ’ timdtrah purushah krishnas chdpi babhuva ha | sa bhitah prdnjalir bliutvd sthitavun Jana- mejaya | tarn Atrir vihvalaih drishtvd nishidety abravit tadd | nishuda- vamsa-karttd ’ sau babhuva vadatum vara \ dhivardn asrijach chdpi Vena- kalmasha-sambhavdn \ ye chdnye Vindhya-nilayds Tukhdrds Tumburds tathd | adharma-ruchayas tdta viddhi tun Vena-sambha/vdn | tatah punar mahdtmdnah pdnim Venasya dakshinam | aranim iva samrabdhuh maman- thur juta-manyavah \ Prithus tasmdt samuttasthau karuj jvalana-sanni- bhah | dipyamanah sva-vapushu sukshud Agnir ivajvalan \ “ There was formerly a Prajapati (lord of creatures), a protector of THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 303 righteousness, called Anga, of the race of Atri, and resembling him in power. His son was the Prajapati Vena, who was but indifferently skilled in duty, and was born of Sunitha, the daughter of Hrityu. This son of the daughter of Kala (Death), owing to the taint derived from his maternal grandfather, threw his duties behind his back, and lived in covetousness under the influence of desire. This king established an irreligious system of conduct : transgressing the ordinances of the Veda, he was devoted to lawlessness. In his reign men lived without study of the sacred books and without the vashatkara, and the gods had no Soma-libations to drink at sacrifices. ‘ Ho sacrifice or oblation shall be offered,’ — such was the ruthless determination of that Prajapati, as the time of his destruction approached. ‘I,’ he declared, ‘am the object, and the performer of sacrifice, and the sacrifice itself : it is to me that sacrifice should be presented, and oblations offered.’ This transgressor of the rules of duty, who arrogated to himself what was not his due, was then addressed by all the great rishis, headed by Haiichi : ‘ We are about to consecrate ourselves for a ceremony which shall last for many years; practise not unrighteousness, oVena: this is not the eternal rule of duty. Thou art in very deed a Prajapati of Atri’s race, and thou hast engaged to protect thy subjects.’ The foolish Vena, ignorant of what was right, laughingly answered those great rishis who had so addressed him : ‘ Who but myself is the ordainer of duty ? or whom ought I to obey ? Who on earth equals me in sacred know- ledge, in prowess, in austere fervour, in truth ? Ve who are deluded and senseless know not that I am the source of all beings and duties. Hesitate not to believe that I, if I willed, could burn up the earth, or deluge it with water, or close up heaven and earth.’ When owing to his delusion and arrogance Vena could not be governed, then the mighty rishis becoming incensed, seized the vigorous and struggling king, and rubbed his left thigh. From this thigh, so rubbed, was produced a black man, very short in stature, who, being alarmed, stood with joined hands. Seeing that he was agitated, Atri said to him ‘ Sit down ’ ( nishida ). He became the founder of the race of the Nishadas, and also progenitor of the Dhivaras (fishermen), who sprang from the corruption of Vena. So too were produced from him the other inhabitants of the Vindhya range, the Tukharas, and Tumburas, who are prone to law- lessness. Then the mighty sages, excited and incensed, again rubbed 304 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN the right hand of Yena, as men do the a/rani wood, and from it arose Prithu, resplendent in body, glowing like the manifested Agni.” Although the Harivamsa declares Yena to he a descendant of Atri, yet as the Prajapati Atri is said in a previous section to have adopted TJttanapada, Yena’s ancestor, for his son (Hariv. sect. 2, verse 60, TJttd- napddam jagraha putrarn Atrih prajdpatih) there is no contradiction between the genealogy given here and in the Yishnu Purana. The story of Yena is told in the same way, but more briefly, in the Mahabharata, Santip. sect. 59. After narrating the birth of Prithu, the writer proceeds, verse 2221 : Tatas tu prdnjalir Vainyo maharshlms tun uvdcha ha | “ susukshmd me samutpannd luddhir dliarm&rtha-darsini \ anayu kirn mayd haryyam tad me tattvena saiiisata \ yad mum bhavanto valcshyanti kdryam artha- samanvitam | tad aharn vai karishydmi ndtra kdryd vicharand ” | tarn uchus tattra devus te te chaiva paramarshayah | “ niyato yattra dharmo vai tvam asankah samuchara | priydpriye parityajya samah sarveshu jan- tnshu | kuma-krodhau cha lobham cha mdnafh chotsrijya duratah | yas cha dharmat parichalel loke kaschana munavah \ nigrdliyus te sva-buhubhyuih sasvad dharmam avekshatd | pratijndm chudhirohasva manasu karmand gird [ 1 pdlayishyumy aham bhaumam brahma ’ ity eva chusakrit | . . . . adandyah me dvijui cheti pratijdmhi he vibho \ lokaih cha sanlcardt kritsnaih trutdsmlti parantapa ” | Vainyas tatas tan uvucha devdn rishi-purogamdn J “ brdhmandh me mahubhdgdh namasyuh purusharshabhuh ” | “ evam astv ” iti Vainyas tu tair ukto brahmavudibhih \ purodhus chdbhavat tasya S'ukro brahmamayo nidliih \ mantrino Bdlakhilyus cha Sdrasvatyo ganas tathd | maharshir bhagavdn Gargas tasya suihvatsaro ’ bhavat \ “ The son of Yena (Prithu) then, with joined hands, addressed the great rishis : ‘ A very slender understanding for perceiving the prin- ciples of duty has been given to me by nature : tell me truly how I must employ it. Doubt not that I shall perform whatever you shall declare to me as my duty, and its object.’ Then those gods and great rishis said to him: ‘Whatever duty is enjoined perform it without hesitation, disregarding what thou mayest like or dislike, looking on all creatures with an equal eye, putting far from thee lust, anger, cupidity, and pride. Eestrain by the strength of thine arm all those men who swerve from righteousness, having a constant regard to duty. And in thought, act, and word take upon thyself, and continually renew, the THE BRAHMANS AND ASHATTRIYAS. 305 engagement to protect the terrestrial Brahman (Veda, or Brahmans? ) .... And promise that thou wilt exempt the Brahmans from punish- ment, and preserve society from the confusion of castes.’ The son of Yena then replied to the gods, headed by the rishis : 1 The great Brah- mans, the chief of men, shall he reverenced by me.’ ‘ So be it,’ re- joined those declarers of the Yeda. S'ukra, the depository of divine knowledge, became his purohita ; the Biilakhilyas and Sarasvatyas his ministers ; and the venerable Garga, the great rishi, his astrologer.” The character and conduct of Prithu, as pourtrayed in the last pas- sage presents a strong, and when regarded from a Brahmanical point of view, an edifying, contrast to the contempt of priestly authority and disregard of Vedic observances which his predecessor had shewn. In legends like that of Yena we see, I think, a reflection of the questions which were agitating the religious world of India at the period when the Puranas in which they appear were compiled, viz., those which were then at issue between the adherents of the Yeda, and the various classes of their opponents, Bauddha, Jaina, Charvaka, etc. These stories were no doubt written with a purpose. They were in- tended to deter the monarchs contemporary with the authors from tam- pering with those heresies which had gained, or were gaining, circu- lation and popularity, by the example of the punishment which, it was pretended, had overtaken the princes who had dared to deviate from orthodoxy in earlier times. Compare the account given of the rise of heretical doctrines in the Vishnu Purana (pp. 209 IF. vol. iii. of Dr. Hall’s edition of Professor Wilson’s translation), which the writer no doubt intended to have something more than a merely historical interest. The legend of Vena is told at greater length, but with no material variation in substance, in the Bhagavata Purana, iv. sections 13-15, See also Professor Wilson’s noto in his Vishnu Purana, vol. i. in loco. In ascribing to Vena an irreligious character and a contempt for the priests, tho Puranas contradict a verse in the Eig-veda x. 93, 14. in which (unless wo suppose a different individual to bo there meant) Vena is celebrated along with Duhslma, Prithavana, and Bama for Ilia conspicuous liberality to the author of the hymn (pro, tad Luhsime Prithavdno Vene pra Rdme vocham asure maghavaUw \ ye yuktvaya pancha into, amayu patha visrdvi e$htim ), The two other passages, 20 306 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN viii. 9, 10, and x. 148, 5, in which he is alluded to as the father of Prithu have been quoted above, p. 268. I observe that a Yena, called Bhargava (or a descendant of Bhrigu), is mentioned in the list of traditional authors of hymns, given at the end of Professor Aufrecht’s Rig-veda, vol. ii., as the rishi of R.V. ix. 85, and x. 123. Sect. III. — Legend of Pururavas. Pururavas has been already alluded to (in pp. 158, 221, 226, 268, and 279 f.) as the son of Ida (or Ida), and the grandson of Alanu Vaivas- vata; as the author of the triple division of the sacred fire; and as a royal rishi. We have also seen (p. 172) that in Rig-veda i. 31, 4, he is referred to as sukrite, a “beneficent,” or “pious,” prince. Rig-veda x. 95 is considered to contain a dialogue between him and the Apsaras Urvasi (6ee above, p. 226). In verse 7 of that hymn the gods are alluded to as having strengthened Pururavas for a great conflict for the slaughter of the Dasyus ( make yat tvd Pururavo ranuya avarcldhayan dasyu-hatydya devdh ); and in the 18th verse he is thus addressed by his patronymic : Iti tvd devdh ime dhur Aila yathd i.m etad bhavasi mrityubandhuh \ prajd te devun havisha yajuti svarge u tvam api mdda- ydse | “ Thus say these gods to thee, o son of Ila, that thou art indeed nothing more than a kinsman of death : (yet) let thy offspring worship the gods with an oblation, and thou also shalt rejoice in heaven.” It thus appears that in the Yedic hymns and elsewhere Pururavas is regarded as a pious prince, and 3Ianu does not include him in his list of those who resisted the Brahmans. But the 31. Bh., Adiparvan 3143 speaks of him as follows : Pururavas tato vidvun Iluydm samapadyata \ sd vai tasydbhavad mdtd pita chaiveti nah srutam \ trayodasa samudrasya dvipan asnan Purura- vuh | amdnushair vritah sarvair munushah san malidyasah \ vipraih sa vigrahaih dialer e vlryyonmattah Pururavdh | jahura dia sa viprdndnx ratndny utkrosatam api | Sanathimdras tam rdjan Brahna-lokud upetya ha I anudarsaiii tatas chakre pratyagrihndd na chdpy asau | tato mahar- shibhih kruddhaih sadyah sapto vyanasyata | lobhanvito bala-maddd nashta-sanjno narddhipah | sa hi gandharva-loka-sthun Urvasyd sahito virdt | dninaya kriydrthe ’ gnin yathdvad vihitdiiis tridhd j THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 307 “ Subsequently the wise Pururavas was born of Ila, who, as we have heard, was both his father and his mother. Euling over thirteen islands of the ocean, and surrounded by beings who were all super- human, himself a man of great renown, Pururavas, intoxicated by his prowess, engaged in a conflict with the Brahmans, and robbed them of their jewels, although they loudly remonstrated. Sanatkumara came from Brahma’s heaven, and addressed to him an admonition, which, however, he did not regard. Being then straightway cursed by the incensed rishis, he perished, this covetous monarch, who, through pride of power, had lost his understanding. This glorious being ( virdt ), accompanied by TTrvasI, brought down for the performance of sacred rites the fires which existed in the heaven of the Gfandharvas, properly distributed into three.” (See Wilson’s Yishnu Purana, 4to. ed. pp. 350 and 394 ff. with note p. 397.) I cite from the Harivamsa another passage regarding Pururavas, although no distinct mention is made in it of his contest with the Brahmans : Harivamsa 8811. Pita Budhasyottama-vlrya-karma Pururavuh yasya suto nri-devah \ prdnagnir iclyo 'gnim ajljanad yo nashtam sami-garbha- bhavam bhovatma | tatliaiva paschdch chakame mahatma purorvaslm ap- sarasdm varishthdm \ pltah purd yo ’mrita-sarva-deho muni-pravlrair vara-gdtri-ghoraih | nripah kusdgraih punar eva yas cha dhlmdn Jcrito ’ gnir divi pujy ate cha | “ He (the Moon) was the father of Budha (Mercury), whose son was Pururavas, a god among men, of distinguished heroic deeds, the vital fire, worthy of adoration, the generator, who begot the lost fire which sprang from the heart of the saml-wood, the great personage, who, placed to the west, loved TJrvasI, the paragon of Apsarases, who was placed to the east. This king with his entire immortal body was formerly swallowed up with the points of Kusa grass by the munis terrible with their resplendent forms ; but was again made wise, and is worshipped in heaven as fire.” Sect. IY. — Story of Nahusha. The legend of Nahusha,85 grandson of Pururavas (see above, p. 226), 85 The name of Nahush occurs in the Rig-veda as that of the progenitor of a race. 808 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN the second prince described by Manu as having come into hostile col- lision with the Brahmans is narrated with more or less detail in dif- ferent parts of the Hahabharata, as well as in the Puranas. ^ The fol- lowing passage is from the former work, Adip. 3151 : Ayusho Nahushah putro dhlmdn satya-pardkramah | rajyarn sasasa sumahad dharmcna prithivipate \ pitrln devan rishln viprdn gandharvo- raga-rdkshasdn | Nahushah pulayamusa "brahma Jcshattram atho visah \ sa hatva dasyu-sanghutdn rishln karam adupayat | pasuvach chaiva tdn prislithe vdhaydmdsa mryyavdn \ kuraydmdsa chendratvam abhibhuya divaukasah \ tejasd tapasd chaiva vilcramenaujasd tatlid | “ Nahusha the son of Ayus, wise, and of genuine prowess, ruled with justice a mighty empire. He protected the pitris, gods, rishis, wise men, gandharvas, serpents ( uraga ), and rakshasas, as well as Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and Vaisyas. This energetic prince, after slaying the hosts of the Dasyus, compelled the rishis to pay tribute, and made them cany him like beasts upon their hacks. After subduing the celestials he conquered for himself the rank of Indra, through his vigour, austere fervour, valour and fire.” The story is thus introduced in another part of the same work, the Yanaparvan, section 180. Yudhishthira found his brother Bhlmasena seized by a serpent in a forest (see above, p. 133). This serpent, it appears, was no other than king Nahusha, who on being questioned thus relates his own history : Nahusho numa rdjd ’ ham dsam purvas tavdnagha \ prathitah panchamah Somdd Ayoh putro narddliipa | kratulhis tapasd chaiva svddhydyena damena cha \ trailokyaisvaryam avyagram prdpto ’ ham vikramena cha | tad ccisvaryyam samdsudya darpo mum agamat tadd \ sahasram hi dvijd- tindm uvdha sivikdm mama | aisvaryya-mada-matto ’ham avamanya tato d/vijdn t imam Agastyena dasum dnitah prithivipate | . . . . aliarh hi divi divyena vimdnena charan purd | abhimunena mattah san kanchid ndnyam achintayam \ brahmarshi-deva-gandharva-yaksha-rdkshasa-pan- nagdh ] karun mama prayaclihanti sarve trailokya-vusinah \ chakshushd yam prapasydmi prdninam prithivipate \ tasya tejo hardmy dsu tad hi drishter lalam mama | maliarshlndm sahasram hi uvdha sivikdm mama | See above, p. 165, note 7, and pp. 179 f. Nahusha Manava is the traditional rishi of Rig-veda ix. 101, verses 7-9, and Yayati Nahusha of verses 4-6 of the same hymn. See list of rishis in Professor Aufrecht’s Rig-veda ii. 464 if, THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 309 sa mdrn apanayo rdjan bkramsaydmdsa vai sriyah | tatra hy Agastyah padena vahan sprishto mayd munih | Agastyena tato 'smy uJcfo dhvamsa sarpeti vai mshd | tatas tasmdd vimdndgrydX prachyutas chyuta-laksha- nah | prapatan bubudhe ”tmdnam vydllbhutam adhommltham | aydcham tam aham vipraih “ sdpasy unto bhaved” iti \ “ pramddut sampramudha- sya bhagavan Icsliantum arhasi” | tat ah sa mum uvdchedam prapatantam kripunvitah | “ Yudhishthiro dharma-rujah sdput tvam viochayishyati ” | .... ity uktvu ’; jagaram deliam muJctvd na Nahusho nripah \ divyam vapuh samdsthdya gatas tridivam eva cha | “ I was a king called Nahusha, more ancient than thou, known as the son of Ayus, and fifth in descent from Soma. By my sacrifices, austere fervour, sacred study, self-restraint, and valour, I acquired the undis- turbed sovereignty of the three worlds. When I had attained that dominion, pride took possession of my soul : a thousand Brahmans bore my vehicle. Becoming intoxicated hy the conceit of my lordly power, and contemning the Brahmans, I was reduced to this condition by Agastya.” The serpent then promises to let Bhlmasena go, if Yu- dhishthira will answer certain questions (above referred to in p. 133 ff.). Yudhishthira afterwards enquires how delusion had happened to take possession of so wise a person as their conversation shewed Nahusha to be. The latter replies that he had been perverted by Jfie pride of power, and proceeds: “Formerly, as I moved through the sky on a celestial car, intoxicated with self-conceit, I regarded no one but my- self. All the inhabitants of the three worlds, brahmanical rishis, gods, gandharvas, yakshas, rakshasas, pannagas, paid me tribute. Such was the power of my gaze that on what creature soever I fixed my eyes, I straightway robbed him of his energy. A thousand of the great sages bore my vehicle. That misconduct it was, o king, which hurled me from my high estate. For I then touched with my foot the muni Agastya who was carrying me. Agastya in his wrath cried out to me ‘Fall, thou serpent.’ Hurled therefore from that magnificent car, and fallen from my prosperity, as I descended headlong, I felt that I had become a serpent. I entreated the Brahman (Agastya), ‘ Let there be a termination of the curse : thou, o reverend rishi, shouldest forgive one who has been deluded through his inconsideration.’ He then com- passionately replied to me as I fell, ‘ Yudhishthira, the king of right- eousness, will free thee from the curse.’ ” And at the close of the 310 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN conversation between Yudhishthira and the serpent, we are told that “King Nahusha, throwing of his huge reptile form, became clothed in a celestial body, and ascended to heaven.” The same story is related in greater detail in the TJdyogaparvan, sections 10-16, as follows : After his slaughter of the demon Yrittra, Indra became alarmed at the idea of having taken the life of a Brahman (for Yrittra was re- garded as such), and hid himself in the waters. In consequence of the disappearance of the king of the gods, all affairs, celestial as well as terrestrial, fell into confusion. The rishis and gods then applied to Nahusha to be their king. After at first excusing himself on the plea of want of power, Kahusha at length, in compliance with their solici- tations, accepted the high function. Tip to the period of his elevation he had led a virtuous life, but he now became addicted to amusement and sensual pleasure ; and even aspired to the possession of IndranT, Indra’ s wife, whom he had happened to see. The queen resorted to the Angiras Yrihaspati, the preceptor of the gods, who engaged to protect her. Nahusha was greatly incensed on hearing of this inter- ference ; but the gods endeavoured to pacify him, and pointed out the immorality of appropriating another person’s wife. Nahusha, however, would listen to no remonstrance, and insisted that in his adulterous designs he was no worse than Indra himself : 373. Ahalya dkarshita purvam rishi-patm yasasvinl | jivato lharttur Indrena sa vah him na nivdritah | 374. Bahuni cha nrisamsdni kritdnmdrena vai purd | vai- dharmydny upadds chaiva sa vah hint na nivdritah | “ 373. The renowned Ahalya, a rishi’s wife, was formerly corrupted by Indra in her husband’s lifetime (seep. 121 f.) : Why was he not prevented by you ? 374. And many barbarous acts, and unrighteous deeds, and frauds, were perpetrated of old by Indra : Why was he not prevented by you ?” The gods, urged by Nahusha, then went to bring Indram ; but Yrihaspati would not give her up. At his recommendation, however, she solicited Nahusha for some delay, till she should ascertain what had become of her hus- band. This request was granted. The gods next applied to Yishnu on behalf of Indra ; and Yishnu promised that if Indra would sacrifice to him, he should be purged from his guilt, and recover his dominion, while Nahusha would be destroyed. Indra sacrified accordingly ; and the result is thus told : 419. Viihajya brahma-hatydni tu Vf iksheshu THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 311 cha nadlshu cha | parvateshu prithivyum cha strishu chaiva Yudhish- fhira | sa vibhajya cha bhuteshu visrijya cha suresvarah | vijvaro dhuta-papma cha Vdsavo 'bhavad utmavun | “Having divided the guilt of brahmanicide among trees, rivers, mountains, the earth, women, and the elements, Yasava (Indra), lord of the gods, became freed from suffering and sin, and self-governed.” Nahusha was by this means shaken from his place. But (unless this is said by way of prolepsis, or there is some confusion in the narrative) he must have speedily regained his position, as we are told that Indra was again ruined, and became invisible. IndranI now went in search of her husband ; and by the help of TJpasruti (the goddess of night and revealer of secrets) dis- covered him existing in a very subtile form in the stem of a lotus growing in a lake situated in a continent within an ocean north of the Himalaya. She made known to him the wicked intentions of Nahu ska, and entreated him to exert his power, rescue her from danger, and resume his dominion. Indra declined any immediate interposition on the plea of Nahuska’s superior strength ; hut suggested to his wife a device by which the usurper might be hurled from his position. She was recommended to say to Nahusha that “ if he would visit her on a celestial vehicle borne by rishis, she would with pleasure submit herself to him ” (449. Rishi-yunena divyena mum upaihi jayatpate | evafh tava vase prltd bhavishydmiti tarn vada). The queen of the gods accordingly went to Nahusha, by whom she was graciously received, and made this proposal : 457. Ichhumy aham athdpurvam vdhanam te surudhipa \ yad na Vishnor na Rudrasya nusurdndm na rukshdsum | vahantu tvdm mahd- bhdguh rishayah sangatdh vibho \ sane sivikayd rujann etad hi mama rochate \ “I desire for thee, king of the gods, a vehicle hitherto un- known, such as neither Yishnu, nor Eudra, nor the asuras, nor the rak- shases employ. Let the eminent rishis, all united, hear thee, lord, in a car : this idea pleases me.” Nahusha receives favourably this appeal to his vanity, and in the course of his reply thus gives utterance to his self-congratulation : 463. Na hy alpa-viryo bhavati yo vdhdn kurute mu- riin | aham tapasvl balavdn bhuta-bhavya-bhavat-prabhuh | mayi kruddhe jagad na syud mayi sarvam pratislithitam | . . . . tasmdt te vachanam devi Icarishydmi na samsayah | saptarshayo mum vakshyanti sane brah- marshayas tathd \ pasya mdhdtmyam asmdkaih riddhim cha varavarnini | .... 468. Vimdne yojayitvd sa rishln niyamam usthitdn | abrahmanya 312 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN halopeto matto mada-lalcna cha \ kdrna-vrittah sa dushtdtmd vdhayamdsa tun rishin \ “ He is a personage of no mean prowess who makes the munis his bearers. I am a fervid devotee of great might, lord of the past, the future, and the present. If I were angry the world would no longer stand; on me everything depends Wherefore, o goddess, I shall, without doubt, carry out what you propose. The seven rishis, and all the brahman-rishis, shall carry me. Behold, beautiful goddess, my majesty and my prosperity.” The narrative goes on : “Accordingly this wicked being, irreligious, violent, intoxi- cated by the force of conceit, and arbitrary in his conduct, attached to his car the rishis, who submitted to his commands, and compelled them to bear him.” Indram then again resorts to Vrihaspati, who assures her that vengeance will soon overtake Nahusha for his presumption ; and promises that he will himself perform a sacrifice with a view to the destruction of the oppressor, and the discovery of Indra’s lurking place. Agni is then sent to discover and bring Indra to Yrihaspati ; and the latter, on Indra’s arrival, informs him of all that had occured during his absence. While Indra, with Kuvera, Yama, Soma, and Yaruna, was devising means for the destruction of Nahusha, the sage Agastya came up, congratulated Indra on the fall of his rival, and pro- ceeded to relate how it had occurred : 527. S’ramdrttdscha vahantas tarn Nahusham pupakdrinam \ devarshayo mahdbhdgas tathd brahmar- shayo ’ maldh | paprachhur Nahusham devam samsayam jayatdm vara | yc ime brdhmanuh proktuh mantrdh vai prokshane gavdm \ etc pramunam bhavatah utuho neti Vusava | Nahusho neti tun aha tarnasd mudha-che- tanah j rishayah uchuh | adharme sampravrittas tvarh dharmafh na prati- padyase \ pramunam, etad asmukam purvam proktam maharshibhih \ Agastyah uvuclia | Tato vivadamunah sa munibhih saha Vusava | atlia mum asprisad murdhni pddunddharma-yojitah | ienubhud hata-tejus cha mhsrlkas cha mahlpatih \ tatas tarn sahasu vignam avocham bhaya-pidi- tam | “ yasmdt purvaih kritarn brahma brahmarshibhir anushthitam | adushtarh diishayasi vai yach cha murdhny asprisah padu | yach clidpi team rishin mudha brahma-kalpdn durusadun \ vuhun kritvd vdhayasi tena svargud hata-prabhah \ dhvamsa pupa paribhrashtah kshlna-punyo mahitalam \ dasa-varsha-saliasruni sarpa-rupa-dharo mahdn \ vichan- shyasi purnesliu punah svargam avdpsyasi ” | evam bhrashto durdtmd sa deva-rujyud arindama | dish(yd varddhumahe sakra hato brdhmana-kan - THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 313 falcah | tripisJito.pam prapadyasva pdhi lokdn saclilpate \ jetendriyo jitd- mitrah stuyamdno maharshilhih | “ Wearied with carrying the sinner Nahusha, the eminent divine-rishis, and the spotless brahman-rishis, asked that divine personage Nahusha [to solve] a difficulty: ‘Dost thou, o Vasava, most excellent of conquerors, regard as authoritative or not those Brahmana texts which are recited at the immolation of kine ? ’ ‘ No,’ replied Nahusha, whose understanding was enveloped in darkness. The rishis rejoined: ‘Engaged in unrighteousness, thou attainest not unto righteousness : these texts, which were formerly uttered by great rishis, are regarded by us as authoritative.’ Then (proceeds Agastya) disputing with the munis, Nahusha, impelled by unrighteousness, touched me on the head with his foot. In consequence of this the king’s glory was smitten and his prosperity departed. When he had instantly become agitated and oppressed with fear, I said to him, ‘ Since thou, o fool, contemnest that sacred text, always held in honour, which has been composed by former sages, and employed by brahman- rishis, and hast touched my head with thy foot, and employest the Brahma-like and irresistible rishis as bearers to carry thee, — therefore, shorn of thy lustre, and all thy merit exhausted, sink down, sinner, degraded from heaven to earth. For ten thousand years thou shalt crawl in the form of a huge serpent. When that period is completed, thou shalt again ascend to heaven.’ So fell that wicked wretch from the sovereignty of the gods. Happily, o Indra, we shall now prosper, for the enemy of the Brahmans has been smitten. Take possession of the three worlds, and protect their inhabitants, o husband of S'achl (Indrani), subduing thy senses, overcoming thine enemies, and cele- brated by the great rishis.” 88 Indra, as we have seen above, was noted for his dissolute character. The epithet “subduing thy senses,” assigned to him in the last sen- tence by Agastya, is at variance with this indifferent reputation. Is it to be regarded as a piece of flattery, or as a delicate hint that the god would do well to practise a purer morality in future ? This legend appears, like some others, to have been a favourite with the compilers of the Mahabharata ; for we find it once more related, though with some variety of detail, (which may justify its repetition in 88 Further on, in verse 556, Nahusha is called “ the depraved, the hater of brah- man, tho sinful-minded ( duracharas cha Nahusha brahma-clvit pupachetanah). 314 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN a condensed form), in the Anusasanaparvan, verses 4745-4810. "We are there told that Nahusha, in recompense for his good deeds, was exalted to heaven; where he continued to perform all divine and human ceremonies, and to worship the gods as before. At length he became puffed up with pride at the idea that he was Indra, and all his good works in consequence were neutralized. For a great length of time he compelled the rishis to cany him about. At last it came to Agastya’s turn to perform the servile office. Bhrigu then came and said to Agastya, ‘ Why do we submit to the insults of this wicked king of the gods ? ’ Agastya answered that none of the rishis had ventured to curse Nahusha, because he had obtained the power of subduing to his service everyone upon whom he fixed his eyes ; and that he had amrita (nectar) for his beverage. However, Agastya said he was pre- pared to do anything that Bhrigu might suggest. Bhrigu said he had been sent by Brahma to take vengeance on Nahusha, who was that day about to attach Agastya to his car, and would spurn him with his foot ; and that he himself (Bhrigu), “ incensed at this insult, would by a curse condemn the transgressor and hater of Brahmans to become a serpent ” ( vyutkrdnta-dharmam tarn ah a fit dharshandmarshito bhrisam \ ahir bha- vasveti ruslid sapsye pdpaih dvija-druham). All this accordingly hap- pened as follows : Athdgastyam rishi-sreshtham vdhandyujuhdva ha | drutam Sarasvati- kulut smayann iva mahdbalah \ tato Bhrigur mahutejuh Maitrdvarunim abravlt | “ niniilayasva nayane jatdm yuvad visumi te” \ sthunubliutasya tasyutha jatum prdvisad achyutah \ Bhriguh sa sumalidtejdh pdtandya nripasya cha \ tatah sa deva-rdt prd.pt as tarn rishim vuhandya vai | tato ' gastyah surapatim vdJcyam aha visdmpate | “ yojayasveti mum Icshipraiii ham cha desam vahdmi te \ yattra vahshyasi tattra tvdm nayishydmi surd- dhipa ” | ity ulcto Nahushas tern yojaydmdsa tarn munim | Bhrigus tasya jatdntah-stho babhuva hrishito bhrisam | na chdpi darsanaih tasya chahdra sa Bhrigus tadd | vara-ddna-prabhava-jno Kait ushasya mahdtmanah | na chuhopa tadd 'gastyo yuhto ’ pi Nahushena vai | tarn tu raja pratodena chodaydmdsa Blidrata \ na chuhopa sa dharrndtmd tatah pudena deva-rut \ Agastyasya tadu Jcruddho vdmendbhyahanach chhirah | tasmin sirasy abhi- hate sa jatdntargato Bhriguh | sasupa balavat kruddho Nahusham pdpa- chetasam 1 “ yasindt padd ’ hanah hrodhdt siraslmam mahdmunim | tasmdd dsu mahirh gachha sarpo bhutvd sudurmate ” | ity uktah sa tadu tena THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 315 sarpo Ihutva papdta ha | adrishtenutha Bhrigund hhutale Bkaratarsha- Iha | Bhriguiii hi yadi so ’ drakshyad Nahushah prithivJpate | sa na saldo ’ hhavishyad vai pdtane tasya tejasd | “ The mighty Nahusha, as it were smiling, straightway summoned the eminent rishi Agastya from the hanks of the Sarasvatl to carry him. The glorious Bhrigu then said to Haitravaruni (Agastya), ‘ Close thy eyes whilst I enter into the knot of thy hair.’ "With the view of over- throwing the king, Bhrigu then entered into the hair of Agastya who stood motionless as a stock. Nahusha then came to he carried by Agastya, who desired to he attached to the vehicle and agreed to carry the king of the gods whithersoever he pleased. Nahusha in consequence attached him. Bhrigu, who was lodged in the knot of Agastya’s hair, was greatly delighted, but did not venture to look at Nahusha, as he knew the potency of the boon which had been accorded to him (of sub- duing to his will everyone on whom he fixed his eyes). Agastya did not lose his temper when attached to the vehicle, and even when urged by a goad the holy man remained unmoved. The king of the gods, incensed, next struck the rishi’s head with his left foot, when Bhrigu, invisible within the knot of hair, became enraged, and violently cursed the wicked Nahusha: ‘Since, fool, thou hast in thine anger smitten this great muni on the head with thy foot, therefore become a serpent, and fall down swiftly to the earth.’ Being thus addressed, Nahusha be- came a serpent, and fell to the earth, through the agency of Bhrigu, who remained invisible. For if he had been seen by Nahusha, the saint would have been unable, in consequence of the power possessed by the oppressor, to hurl him to the ground.” Bhrigu, on Nahusha’s solicitation, and the intercession of Agastya, placed a period to the effects of the curse, which, as in the other version of the legend, Yudhishthira was to be the instrument of terminating. From several phrases which I have quoted from the version of this legend given in the Udyogaparvan, as well as the tenor of the whole, it appears to be the intention of the writers to hold up the case of FTahusha as an example of the nemesis awaiting not merely any gross display of presumption, but all resistance to the pretensions of the priesthood, and contempt of their persons or authority. 316 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN Sect. Y. — Story of Nimi. Nimi (one of Ikshvaku’s sons) is another of the princes who are stig- matized by Manu, in the passage above quoted, for their want of de- ference to the Brahmans. The Yishnu P. (Wilson, 4to. ed. p. 388) relates the story as follows : Nimi had requested the Brahman-rishi Yasishtha to officiate at a sacrifice, which was to last a thousand years. Yasishtha in reply pleaded a pre-engagement to Indra for five hundred years, but promised to return at the end of that period. The king made no remark, and Yasishtha went away, supposing that he had assented to this arrangement. On his return, however, the priest discovered that Nimi had retained Gautama (who was, equally with Yasishtha, a Brahman-rishi) and others to perform the sacrifice ; and being incensed at the neglect to give him notice of what was intended, he cursed the king, who was then asleep, to lose his corporeal form. When Nimi awoke and learnt that he had been cursed without any previous warn- ing, he retorted, by uttering a similar curse on Yasishtha, and then died. “ In consequence of this curse ” (proceeds the Yishnu Purana, iv. 5, 6) “ the vigour of Yasishtha entered into the vigour of Mitra and Yaruna. Yasishtha, however, received from them another body when their seed had fallen from them at the sight of UrvasI ” ( tach-chhdpdch cha Mitra-varunayos tejasi Yasishtlia-tejah pravisktarn | UrvasI- darsanad udbhuta-viryya-praputayoh sakdsdd Yasishtho deham aparam lehhe ).87 Nimi’s body was embalmed. At the close of the sacrifice which he had begun, the gods were willing, on the intercession of the priests, to restore him to life, but he declined the offer ; and was placed by the deities, according to his desire, iu the eyes of all living creatures. It is in consequence of this that they are always opening and shutting ( nimisha means “the twinkling of the eye”). The story is similarly related in the Bhagavata Purana, ix. 13, 1-13. A portion of the passage is as follows : 3. Nimis chalam idafii vidvdn sattram drabliatdtmavdn | ritviglhir aparais tdvad ndgamad ydvatd guruh \ sishya-vyatilcramam vllcshya nir- varttya gurur dgatah \ asapat “ patatud deho Nirneh pandita-mdninah ” | JYimih pratidadau sdparn guruve ’ dharma-varttine | “tavapi patatud deho 87 This story will be further illustrated in the next section. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTR1YAS. 317 lolliud dharmam ajunatah ” | ity utsasarjja svam deham Nimir adhydt- ma-lcovidah | Mitrd-varunayor jajne Urvasydm prapitdmahak \ “ Nimi, who was self-controlled, knowing the world to be fleet- ing, commenced the sacrifice with other priests until his own spiritual instructor should come back. The latter, on his return, discovering the transgression of his disciple, cursed him thus : ‘ Let the body of Nimi, who fancies himself learned, fall from him.’ Nimi retorted the curse on his preceptor, who was acting unrighteously : ‘ Let thy body also fall from thee, since thou, through coveteousness, art ignorant of duty.’ Having so spoken, Nimi, who knew the supreme spirit, abandoned his body : and the patriarch (Vasishtha) was born of TTrvasI to Mitra and Varuna.”88 The offence of Nimi, as declared in these passages, is not that of con- temning the sacerdotal order in general, or of usurping their functions ; but merely of presuming to consult his own convenience hy proceeding to celebrate a sacrifice with the assistance of another Brahman (for Gau- tama also was a man of priestly descent) when his own spiritual pre- ceptor was otherwise engaged, without giving the latter any notice of his intention. The Bhagavata, as we have seen, awards hlame impar- tially to both parties, and relates (as does also the Vishnu Purana) that the king’s curse took effect on the Brahman, as well as the Brahman’s on the king. Sect. VI. — Vasishtha One of the most remarkable and renowned of the struggles between Brahmans and Kshattriyas which occur in the legendary history of India is that which is said to have taken place between Vasishtha and Visvamitra. I propose to furnish full details of this conflict with its fa- bulous accompaniments from the Bamayana, which dwells upon it at con- siderable length, as well as from the Hahabharata, where it is repeatedly 83 On the last verse the commentator S'ridhara has the following note : TJrvasl- dars’anat shannam retas tabhydih humblie nishi/ctam | tasmdt prapitamaho V aiishtho jajne | tatha. cha srutih “ kwmbhe retail sishichituh samanam” iti | “Seed fell from them at the sight of UrvasS and was shed into a jar : from it the patriarch, Vasishtha, was born. And so says the s'ruti” (R.V. vii. 33, 13, which will he quoted in the nest section). 318 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN introduced ; but before doing so, I shall quote the passages of the Rig- veda which appear to throw a faint light on the real history of the two rivals. It is clear from what has been said in the Introduction to this volume, pp. 1-6, as well as from the remarks I have made in pp. 139 f., that the Yedic hymns, being far more ancient than the Epic and Puranic compilations, must be more trustworthy guides to a knowledge of the remotest Indian antiquity. While the Epic poems and Puranas no doubt embody numerous ancient traditions, yet these have been freely altered according to the caprice or dogmatic views of later writers, and have received many purely fictitious additions. The Yedic hymns, on the contrary, have been preserved unchanged from a very remote period, and exhibit a faithful reflection of the social, religious, and ecclesiastical condition of the age in which they were composed, and of the feelings which were awakened by contemporary occurrences. As yet there was no conscious perversion or colouring of facts for dogmatic or sectarian purposes ; and much of the information which we derive from these naive compositions is the more trustworthy that it is deduced from hints and allusions, and from the comparison of isolated parti- culars, and not from direct and connected statements or descriptions. It is here therefore, if anywhere, that we may look for some light on the real relations between Vasishtha and Visvamitra. After quoting the hymns regarding these two personages, I shall adduce from the Brah- manas, or other later works, any particulars regarding their hirth and history which I have discovered. The conflict between Vasishtha and Visvamitra has been already discussed at length in the third of Dr. Rudolf Roth’s “Dissertations on the literature and history of the Veda,” 89 where the most important parts of the hymns bearing upon the subject are translated. The first hymn which I shall adduce is intended for the glorification of Vasishtha and his family. The latter part relates the birth of the sage, while the earlier verses refer to his connection with ting Sudas. Much of this hymn is very obscure. R.Y. vii. 33, 1. S'vityancho mu dakshinatas-haparduh dhiyaffijinvaso alhi hi pramanduh \ uttishthan voce pari larhisho nrln na me durad avitave Vasishtliuh | 2. Durad Indram anayann d sntena tiro vaisantam ati pdntam ugram I Pusadyumnasya Vdyatasya somdt sutud Indro avri- nlta Vasislithdn | 3. Eva in nu ham sindhum ebhis tatura eva in nu ham 89 Zur Litteratur und Gesliichte des Weda. Stuttgart. 1846. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 319 Bhedam ebhir jaglidna \ eva in nu lcafh dasarajne Suddsam prdvad Indro brahmand vo Yasishthdh | 4. Jusliti naro brahmand vah pitrindm aksham avyayaih na kila rishdtha | yat sakvarlshu brihatd. ravena Indre sush- mam adadliata Yasishthdh | 5. Ud dyum iva it trishnajo ndthitdso adi- dhayur ddsardjne vritdsah \ Yasishthasya stuvatah Indro asrod urum Tritsubluyo akrinod u lokam | 6. Banda iva goajanusah dsan parichhin- nuh Bliaratuh arbhakdsah | abhavach clia pura-etu Yasishthah ud it Tritsundih viso aprathanta | 7. Trayah krinvanti bhuvaneslm retas tisrah prajdh dryuh jyotir-agrdh \ trayo gliarmdsah ushasam sachante sarvdn it tun anu vidur Yasishthdh | 8. Suryasya iva valcshatho jyotir eshdm samudrasya iva mahimd gabhlrah \ vdtasya iva prajavo na anyena stomo Yasishthdh anu etave vah | 9. Te in ninyam hridayasya praketaih sa- hasra-valsam abhi sam char anti \ yamena tatam paridhifii vayanto apsarasah ypa sedur Yasishthdh | 10 .Yidyuto jyotih pari sam jihdnam Mitru-varund yad apasyatdm tva \ tat tejanma wta ekaih Vasishtha Agastyo yat tvd visah djabhdra | 11. TJta asi Maitrdvaruno Yasishtha Urvasyuh brahman ma- naso ’dhijdtah | drapsam skannam brahmand daivyena visve devdli push- kare tvd 'dadanta \ 12. Sa praketah ubhayasya pravidvdn sahasra- dunah uta vd sadunah | yamena tatam paridhim vayishyann apsarasah pari jajne Yasishthah | 13. Satire ha jdtdv ishitd namobhih kumbhe retah sishichatuh samunam | tato ha Mdnah ud iydya madhydt tato jdtam rishim dliur Yasishtham | “1. The white-robed (priests) with hair-knots on the right, stimu- lating to devotion, have filled me with delight. Rising from the sacri- ficial grass, I call to the men, ‘Let not the Vasishthas (stand too) far off to succour [or gladden] me.90 2. By their libation they brought Indra hither from afar across the Yaisanta away from the powerful draught.91 Indra preferred the Yasishthas to the soma offered by Pasadyumna,92 the son of Yayata. 3. So too with them he crossed the river ; so too w ith them he slew Bheda ; so too in the battle of the ten kings93 Indra delivered Sudas through your prayer, o Yasishthas. 90 Sayana thinks that Yasishtha is the speaker, and refers here to his own sons. Professor Roth (under the word av) regards Indra as the speaker. May it not be Sudas ? 91 This is the interpretation of this clause suggested by Professor Aufrecht, who thinks Vaisanta is probably the name of a river. 92 According to Sayana, another king who was sacrificing at the same time as Sudas. 93 See verses 6-8 of R.V. vii. 83, to be next quoted. 320 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN 4. Through gratification caused by the prayer of your fathers, o men, ye do not obstruct the undecaying axle (?), since at (the recitation of the) S'akvarl verses 91 with a loud voice ye have infused energy into Indra, o Vasishthas. 5. Distressed, when surrounded in the fight of the ten kings, they looked up, like thirsty men, to the sky. Indra heard Vasishtha when he uttered praise, and opened up a wide space for the Tritsus.95 6. Like staves for driving cattle, the contemptible Bharatas were lopped all round. Vasishtha marched in front, and then the tribes of the Tritsus were deployed, 7. Three deities create a fertilizing fluid in the worlds. Three are the noble creatures whom light precedes. Three fires attend the dawn.96 All these the Vasishthas know. 8. Their lustre is like the full radiance of the sun ; their greatness is like the depth of the ocean ; like the swift- ness of the wind, your hymn, o Yasishthas, can be followed by no one else. 9. By the intuitions of their heart they seek out the mys- tery with a thousand branches. Weaving the envelopment stretched out by Yama, the Yasishthas sat down by the Apsaras. 10. When Mitra and Yaruna saw thee quitting the flame of the lightning, that was thy birth ; and thou hadst one (other birth), o Vasishtha, when Agastya brought thee to the people. 1 1 . And thou art also a son of Mitra and Yaruna, o Yasishtha, born, o priest, from the soul of TJrvasI. All the gods placed thee — a drop which fell through divine contemplation — in the vessel. 12. He, the intelligent, knowing both (worlds?), with a thousand gifts, or with gifts — he who was to weave the envelopment stretched out by Yama — he, Yasishtha, was born of the Apsaras. 13. They, two (Mitra and Varuna ?), bom at the sacrifice, and impelled by adorations, dropped into the jar the same amount of seed. From the 94 See R.Y. x. 71, 11, above, p. 256. 95 This is evidently the name of the tribe which the Vasishthas favoured, and to which they themselves must have belonged. See vii. 83, 4. The Bharatas in the next verse appear to be the hostile tribe. 96 In explanation of this Sayana quotes a passage from the S'atyayana Brahmana, as follows : “ Trayah krinvanti bhttvaneshu relah" ity Agnih prithivyamretah krinoti Vayur antarikshe AdiUjo divi | “ tisrah prajah aryydh jyotir-agrah ” iti Vasavo Jtu- drah Adilyas tasaiii jyolir yad asav Adityah | '•'■trayo gharmasah us has am saohante” ity Agnir Ushasaih sachate Vayur Ushasam sachate Adityah Ushasam sachate | (1) “ Agni produces a fertilizing fluid on the earth, Vayu in the air, the Sun in the sky. (2) The ‘ three noble creatures * are the Yasus, Rudras, and Adityas. The Sun if their light, (3) Agni, Vayu, and the Sun each attend the Dawn.” THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 321 midst of that arose Mana (Agastya ?) ; and from that they say that the rishi Vasishtha sprang.” 97 There is another hymn (R.V. vii. 18) which relates to the connection between Vasishtha and Sudas (verses 4, 5, 21-25) and the conflict between the latter and the Tritsus with their enemies (verses 6-18); but as it is long and obscure I shall content myself with quoting a few verses.93 11. V. vii. 18, 4. Dhenurri na tvu suyavase dudhulcshann upa Iralimdni sasrije Vasishthah \ tvum id me gopatim visvah alia a nah Indrah suma- ti>7i gantu acliha | 5. Arnumsi chit paprathdna Suduse Indro gddhdni 97 Whatever may be the sense of verses It and 13, the Nirukta states plainly enough v. 1 3 ; Tasyah darsanad Mitra-virunayoh retas chaskanda \ tad-abhivadiny esha rig bhavati \ “On seeing her (Urva^i) the seed of Mitra and Varuna fell from them. To this the following verse (R.V. vii. 33, 11) refers.” And Sayana on the same verse quotes a passage from the Brihaddevata : Tayor ddityayoh satire drishtyd ’psarasam Urvas'im | retas chaskanda tat kumbhe nyapatad vasativare | tenaiva in muhurttena viryavantau tapasvinau ] Agastyas cha Vasishthas cha tutrarshi sambabhu- vatuh | bahudha patitam retail kalase cliajale sthale | stliale Vasishthas tu munih samba- bhuvarshi-sattamah | kumbhe tv Agastyah sambhuto jale niaisyo mahadyutih | udiydya tato ’gastyo samya-mdtro mahatapdh | manena sammito yasmdt tasmeid Many ah ihochyatc | yadva kumbhad rishir jdtah leumbhenapi hi miyate | humbhah ity abhidlic- naih cha parimanasya lakshyate \ tato 'psu grihyamana.su Vasishthah puslikare sthi- tah | sarvatah puslikare tarn hi visve devah adharayan \ “ When these two Adityas (Mitra and Varuna) beheld the Apsaras Urvas'T at a sacrifice their seed fell from them into the sacrificial jar called vdsativara. At that very moment the tw7o energetic and austere rishis Agastya and Vasishtha were produced there. The seed fell on many places, into the jar, into water, and on the ground. The muni Vasishtha, most excellent of rishis, was produced on the ground ; while Agastya was born in the jar, a fish of great lustre. The austere Agastya sprang thence of the size of a samyd (i.e. the pin of a yoke ; see Wilson, s.v., and Professor Roth, s.v. mana). Since he was measured by a certain standard [mana) he is called the 1 measurable ’ [manya). Or, the rishi, having sprung from a jar ( kumblia ), is also measured by a jar, as the word kumbha is also designated as the name of a measure. Then when the waters were taken, Vasishtha remained in the vessel ( puslikara ) ; for all the gods held him in it on all sides.” In his Illustrations of the Nirukta, p. 64, Prof. Roth speaks of the verses of the hymn which relate to Vasishtha's origin as being a more modern addition to an older composition, and as describing the miraculous birth of the sage in the taste and style of the Epic mythology. Professor Max Muller (Oxford Essays for 1856, pp. 61 f.) says that Vasishtha is a name of the Sun; and that the ancient poet is also “ caRed the son of Mitra and Varuna, night and day, an expression which has a meaning only in regard to Vasishtha, the sun ; and as the sun is frequently called the offspring of the dawn, Vasishtha, the poet, is said to owe his birth to TJrvas'l ” (whom Muller identifies with Ushas). For M. Langlois’s view of the passage, see his French version of the R.V. vol. iii. pp. 79 f. and his note, p. 234. 98 See Roth’s Litt. u. Gcsch. dcs Weda, pp. 87 ff. where it is translated into German. 21 322 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN akrinot suparu | 21. Pra ye grihdd amamadus tvdyd Pardsa- rah S'ataydtur Vasishthah \ na te bhojasya sakhyam mrishanta adha surilhyah sudina vi uchhun | 22. Dve naptur Devavatah sate gor dvd rathd vadhumantd Suddsah | arhann Agne Paijavanasya ddnam hoteva sadma pari emi rebhan | 23. Chatvdro md Paijavanasya dundh smad- dishtayah krisanino nireke \ rijrdso md prithivishfhdh Sudusas tokaih tokdya sravase vahanti | 24. Yasya sravo rodasl antar urvl sirshne sirshne vilalhdja vibhaktu \ sapta id Indram na sravato grinanti ni Yudhyumadhim asisdd dbhike | imam naro Marutah saschatdnu Divo- ddsaih na pitaraih Suddsah \ avishtana Paijavanasya ketam dunusam kshattram ajaram duvoyu \ “ 4. Seeking to milk thee (Indra), like a cow in a rich meadow, Yasishtha sent forth his prayers to thee ; for every one tells me that thou art a lord of cows ; may Indra come to our hymn. 5. However the waters swelled, Indra made them shallow and fordable to Sudas. 21. Parasara," S'atayatu, and Yasishtha, devoted to thee, who from indifference have left their home, have not forgotten the friendship of thee the bountiful; — therefore let prosperous days dawn for these sages. 22. Earning two hundred cows and two chariots with mares, the gift of Sudas the son of Pijavana, and grandson of Devavat,100 I walk round the house, o Agni, uttering praises, like a hotri priest. 23. The four brown steeds, bestowed by Sudas the son of Pijavana, vigorous, decked with pearls, standing on the ground, carry me on securely to renown from generation to generation. 24. That donor, whose fame pervades both worlds, has distributed gifts to every person. They praise him as the seven rivers 101 praise Indra ; he has slain Yu- dhyamadhi in battle. 25. Befriend him (Sudas), ye heroic Maruts, as s0 Pardiara is said in Nir. vi. 30, which refers to this passage, to have been a son of Vasishtha horn in his old age ( Parasarah parailrnasya Vasishthasya sthavirasya jajne) ; or he was a son of S’akti and grandson of Vasishtha (Roth s.v.) 100 Devavat is said by Sayana to be a proper name. He may he the same as Divo- dasa in verse 25. Or Divodasa may be the father, and Pijavana and Devavat among the forefathers of Sudas. In the Vishnu Purana Sarvakama is said to have been the father and Rituparna the grandfather of Sudasa, Wilson’s V.P. 4to. ed. p. 380. At p. 454 f. a Sudasa is mentioned who was son of Chyavana, grandson of Mitrayu and great-grandson of Divodasa. 101 Professor Roth (Litt. u. Gesch. des Weda, p. 100) compares R.V. i. 102, 2, asya s'ravo nadyah sapta biblirati, “ the seven rivers exalt his (Indra’s) renown." These rivers are, as Roth explains, the streams freed by India from Vrittra’s power. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 323 ye did Divodasa the (fore)father of Sudas ; fulfil the desire of the son of Pijavana (by granting him) imperishable, undecaying power, worthy of reverence (?).” Although the Yasishthas are not named in the next hymn, it must refer to the same persons and circumstances as are alluded to in the first portion of R.Y. vii. 33, quoted above. R..Y. vii. 83, 1. Yuvaih nard pasyamdndsah dpyam prdchd gavyantah prithu-parsavo yayuh | eland cha vrittrd hatarn drydni cha Suddsam Indrd-varund ’vasa 'vatam | 2. Yatra narah samayante lerita-dhvajo yasminn dja lhavati Icinchana priyam | yatra bhayante bhuvand svar- drisas tatra nah Indrd-varund ’dhi vochatam | 3. Sam bhumyah antdh dhvasirah adrileshata Indrd-varund divi ghoshah druliat \ asthur jandndm upa mam ardtayo arvdg avasd havana-srutd dgatam \ 4. Indrd-varund vadhanubhir aprati Bhedam vanvantd pra Suddsam dvatarn | bralimdni eslidiii srinutaih havimani satyd Tritsundm abhavat purohitih | 5. Indrd- varundv abhi a tapanti md aghdni aryo vanushdm ardtayah | yuvaih hi vasvah ubhayasya rdjatho adha sma no avatam pdrye divi \ 6. Yuvaih ka- vante ubhaydsah djishu Indraih cha vasvo Varunaih cha sdtaye | yatra rdjabhir dasabhir nibddhitam pra Suddsam dvataiii Tritsubhih saha \ 7. Dasa rdjunah samitdh ayajyavah Suddsam Indrd-varund na yuyu- dhuh | satyd nrindm adma-sadam upastutir devdh eshdm abhavan deva- hutishu | 8. Ddsarujne pariyattdya visvatah Suddse Indra-varundv asileshatam \ svityancho yatra namasd haparddino dhiyd dhlvanto asa- panta Tritsavah | “ Looking to you, o heroes, to your friendship, the men with broad axes advanced to fight. Slay our Dasa and our Arya enemies, and deliver Sudas by your succour, o Indra and Yaruna. 2. In the battle where men clash with elevated banners, where something which we desire 102 is to be found, where all beings and creatures tremble, there, o Indra and Yaruna, take our part. 3. The ends of the earth were seen to he darkened, o Indra and Yaruna, a shout ascended to the sky; the foes of my warriors came close up to me ; come hither with your help, ye hearers of our invocations. 4. Indra and Yaruna, unequalled with your weapons, ye have slain Bheda, and delivered Sudas; ye heard the prayers of these men in their invocation ; the priestly agency 102 Sayana divides the Icinchana of the Pada-text into Jcincha na, which gives the sense “ where nothing is desired, but everything is difficult.” 324 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN of the Tritsus 103 was efficacious. 5. 0 Indra and Varuna, the injurious acts of the enemy, the hostilities of the murderous, afflict me on every side. Ye are lords of the resources of both worlds : protect us there- fore (where ye live) in the remotest heavens. 6. Eoth parties101 invoke you, both Indra and Yaruna, in the battles, in order that ye may bestow riches. (They did so in the fight) in which ye delivered Sudas — when harassed by the ten kings— together with the Tritsus. 7. The ten kings, who were no saerificers, united, did not vanquish Sudas, o Indra and Varuna. The praises of the men who officiated at the sacri- fice were effectual ; the gods were present at their invocations. 8. Ye, o Indra and Varuna, granted succour to Sudas, hemmed in on every side in the battle of the ten kings,105 where the white-robed Tritsus,100 with hair-knots, reverentially praying, adored you with a hymn.” From these hymns it appears that Vasishtha, or a Vasishtha and his family were the priests of king Sudas (vii. 18, 4f., 21 ff.; vii. 33, 3 f.) ; that, in their own opinion, these priests were the objects of Indra’s preference (vii. 33, 2), and had by the efficacy of their intercessions been the instruments of the victory gained by Sudas over his enemies in the battle of the ten kings. It seems also to result from some of the verses (vii. 33, 6; vii. 83, 4, 6 ; and vii. 33, 1, compared with vii. 83, 8) that both the king and the priests belonged to the tribe of the Tritsus.107 Professor Eoth remarks that in none of the hymns which 103 Compare verses 7 and 8. Sayana, however, translates the clause differently : “ The act of the Tritsus for whom I sacrificed, and who put me forward as their priest, was effectual : my priestly function on their behalf was successful ” ( Tritsunam etat-saujnanam mama yajydnam purohitir mama purodhanam satyu satya-phalam abhavat | teshu yad mama paurohityam tat saphalam jatam \ 101 According to Sayana the two parties were Sudas and the Tritsus his allies ( ubhaya-vidlidh Sudah-savjno raja tat-sahaya-bhutasTritsavas cha evaih dvi-prahdmh jandli). It might have been supposed that one of the parties meant was the hostile kings ; hut they are said in the next verse to be ayajyavah , “ persons who did not sacrifice to the gods.” 133 Dasarajne. This word is explained by Sayana in his note on vii. 33, 3, dasa- blii rajabhih saha yuddhe pravriltc, “ battle having been joined with ten kings.” In the verse before us he says “ the lengthening of the first syllable is a Vedic peculiarity, and that the case-ending is altered, and that the word merely means ‘ by the ten kings ’ ” ( dasa-sabdasya clihdndaso dirghah | v ibhakti-vyatyayali | dasabhi rajabhih .... pariveshtitaya). lu6 Here Sayana says the Tritsus are “ the priests so called who were Vasisktka’s disciples” ( Tritsavo Vasishtha-sishydh etat-sanjnah ritvijah). 107 See Roth, Litt. u. Gesch. des Weda, p. 120. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 325 he quotes is any allusion made to the Vasishthas being members of any particular caste ; but that their connection with Sudas is ascribed to their knowledge of the gods, and their unequalled power of invocation (vii. 33, 7 f.) In the Aitareya Brahmana, viii. 21, we have another testimony to the connection of Vasishtha with Sudas, as he is there stated to have “consecrated Sudas son of Pijavana by a great inauguration similar to Indra’s ; 103 in consequence of which Sudas went round the earth in every direction conquering, and performed an asvamedha sacrifice ” ( etena ha vat aindrena mahdbhishekena Yasiskthah Sudasam Paijavanam abhishishecha \ tasmud u Suddh Paijavanah samantam sarvatah prithivlm jay an party dya asvena clia medhyena Ije ). The following passages refer to Vasishtha having received a reve- lation from the god Varuna, or to his being the object of that god’s special favour : vii. 87, 4. TJvdcha me Yaruno medhiraya trih sapta ndma aghnyd bi- bhartti | vidvan padasya guhya na vochad yugdya viprah updraya sikshan | “Varuna has declared to me109 who am intelligent, ‘The Cow 110 possesses thrice seven names. The wise god, though he knows them, has not revealed the mysteries of (her) place, which he desires to grant to a future generation.” E.V. vii. 88, 3. A yad ruhdva Varunas clia ndvam pra yat samudram irayuva madhyam \ adhi yad apdrh snubhis chardva pra pra inkhe inkha- yuvahai subhe Icam \ 4. Vasishthaiii ha Yaruno navi a adhad rishim cha- kdra svapdh mahobhih | stotdrarh viprah sudinatve ahndih yad nu dyavas tatanan yad ushasah \ 5. Kva tydni nau saklvyd babhuvuh sachdvahe yad 108 Colebrooke’s Misc. Essays, i. 40. 109 Vasishtha is not named in this hymn, hut he is its traditional author. 110 Sayana says that either (1) Vach is here meant under the figure of a cow having the names of 21 metres, the Gayatri, etc., attached to her breast, throat, and head, or (2) that Vach in the form of the Veda holds the names of 21 sacrifices ; but that (3) another authority says the earth is meant, which (in the Nighantu, i. 1) has 21 names, go, gma,jma, etc. ( Vag atra gaur ucliyate | sd clia urasi kanthe iirasi clia laddhani gdyatry-ddini sapta clihandasam namani bibhartti | yadva vedatmika vag ekavimsati-samstlidnam yajndndih namani bibhartti [ dhdrayati \ aparah aha “ gauh prithivi | tasyds clia ‘ gaur gma jmd’ iti pathitany ekavimsati-ndmdni” iti ). I have, in translating the second clause of the verse, followed for the most part a rendering suggested by Professor Aufrecht. 326 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN avrikam purd chit | Irihantam mdnam Varum svadhuvah sahasra-dvdram jagama griham, te | 6. Yah upir nityo Varum priyah san tvdm dguiim krinavat sakhd te | md te enasvanto yakshin Ihujema yandhi sma viprah stuvate varutham | “ When Varuna and I embark on the boat, when we propel it into the midst of the ocean, when we advance over the surface of the waters, may we rock upon the undulating element till we become brilliant. 4. Yaruna took Vasishtha into the boat; by his mighty acts working skilfully he (Yaruna) has made him a rishi ; the wise (god has made) him an utterer of praises in an auspicious time, that his days and dawns may be prolonged.111 5. Where are (now) our friend- ships, the tranquility which we enjoyed of old ? We have come, o self- sustaining Varuna, to thy vast abode, to thy house with a thousand gates. 6. Whatever friend of thine, being a kinsman constant and beloved, may commit offences against thee ; — may we not, though sin- ful, suffer (punishment), o adorable being ; do thou, o wise god, grant us protection.” R.V. vii. 86 is a sort of penitential hymn in which Yasishtha refers to the anger of Yaruna against his old friend (verse 4) and entreats for- giveness of his offences. This hymn, which appears to be an earnest and genuine effusion of natural feeling, is translated in Professor Muller’s Anc. Sansk. Lit. p. 540. The passage which follows is part of a long hymn, consisting chiefly of imprecations directed against Rakshases and Yatudhanas, and said in the Brihaddevata (as quoted by Sayana in his introductory remarks) to have “been ‘ seen’ by the rishi (Yasishtha) when he was overwhelmed with giief and anger for the loss of his hundred sons who had been slain by the sons of Sudiis ” ( rishir dadarsa raksho-ghnam puttra-soka-pariplu- tdh | hate puttra-sate kruddhah Sauddsair duhkhitas tadu). I shall cite only the verses in which Vasishtha repels the imputation (by whom- soever it may have been made) that he was a demon (Rakshas or Yatu- dhana). R.Y. vii. 104, 12. Suvijnanam chikitushe janaya each cha asach cha vachasi paspridhate \ tayor yat satyam yatarad rijlyas tad it Somo avati hanti amt | 13. Na vai u Somo vrijinam hinoti na kshattriyam mithuyd 1,1 Professor Aufrecht renders the last clause, “ As long as days and dawns shall continuo.” THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 327 dhdrayantam \ hanti raksho hanti asad vadantam ubhdv Indrasya prasitau iaydte | 14. Yadi vd aham anrita-devah dsa moghaiii vd devdn api uhe Agne \ kirn asmabhyam Jdtavedo hrinlshe droghavdchas te nirrithaiii sachantdm | 15. Adya muriya yadi ydtudhdno asmi yadi va ayns tatapa purushasya \ adha sa vlrair dasabhir vi yuydh yo md mogham “ Ydtu- dhdna ” ity dim | 16. Yo md aydtufii “yatudhana” ity dha yo vd rakshdh “ suchir asmi ” ity dha | Indr as tarn Jiantu maliatd vadhena vis- vasya jantor adhamas padishta | “ The intelligent man is well able to discriminate (when) true and false words contend together. Soma favours that one of them which is true and right, and annihilates falsehood. 13. Soma does not prosper the wicked, nor the man who wields power unjustly. He slays the Eakshas ; he slays the liar: they both lie (bound) in the fetters of Indra. 14. If I were either a follower of false gods, or if I erroneously con- ceived of the gods, o Agni: — Why, o Jatavedas, art thou incensed against us? Let injurious speakers fall into thy destruction. 15. May I die this very day, if I be a Yatudhana, or if I have destroyed any man’s life. May he be severed from his ten sons who falsely says to me, ‘o Yatudhana.’ 16. He who says to me, who am no Yatu, ‘o Yatudhana,’ or who (being himself) a Eakshas, says, ‘I am pure,’ — may Indra smite him with his great weapon ; may he sink down the lowest of all creatures. In elucidation of this passage Sayana quotes the following lines : Hatvd puttra-satam purvarn Vasishthasya mahdtmanah | Vasishtham “ rdkshaso ’si tvam” Vasishtham rupam dsthitah | “ aham Vasishthah” ity evaih jighdmsuh rdkshaso 'bravit | atrottardh picho drishtah Vasish- theneti nah srutam \ “ Having slain the hundred sons of the great Vasishtha, a murderous Eakshasa, assuming the form of that rishi, formerly said to him, ‘ Thou art a Eakshasa, and I am Vasishtha.’ In allusion to this the latter verses were seen by Vasishtha, as we have heard.” We may, however, safely dismiss this explanation resting on fabu- lous grounds. The verses may, as Professor Max Muller supposes,112 have arisen out 112 “ Vasishtha himself, the very type of the Arian Brahman, when in feud with Vis'vamitra, is called not only an enemy, but a ‘ Yatudhana,’ and other names which in common parlance are only bestowed on barbarian savages and evil spirits. We 328 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN of Vasishtha’s contest with Visvamitra, and it may have been the latter personage who brought these charges of heresy, and of murderous and demoniacal character against his rival.113 Allusion is made both in the Taittirlya Sanhita and in the Kaushl- takl Brahmana to the slaughter of a son of Vasishtha by the sons or descendants of Sudas. The former work states, Ashtaka vii. (p. 47 of the India Office MS. Ho. 1702) : Vasishtho hataputro ’ kdmayata “ vindeya prajdrn abhi Saudusun bha- veyam ” iti | sa etam ekasmunnapanchdsam apasyat tarn dharat tenuya- jata | tato vai so ’vindata prajum abhi Saudusun abhavat | “Yasishtha, when his son had been slain, desired, ‘May I obtain offspring ; may I overcome the Saudasas.’ He beheld this ekasmdnna- panclidsa (?), be took it, and sacrificed with it. In consequence he ob- tained offspring, and overcame the Saudasas.” The passage of the Kaushltakl Brahmana, 4th adhyaya, as quoted by Professor Weber (Ind. St. ii. 299) is very similar : Vasishtho ’ kdmayata hata-putrah “ prajayeya prajayu pasabhir abhi Saudusun bhaveyam ” iti | sa etam yajna-kratum apasyad Vasishtha- yajnam .... tena ishtvu .... abhi Saudusun abhavat | “ Vasishtha, when his son had been slain, desired, ‘ May I be fruit- ful in offspring and cattle, and overcome the Saudasas.’ He beheld this form of offering, the Yasishtha-sacrifice; and having performed it, he overcame the Saudasas.” In his introduction to Rig-veda, vii. 32, Sayana has the following notice from the Anukramanika : “ Saudusair aynau prakshipyamdnah S'aktir antyarn pragutham ulebhe so ’ rdharche ukte ’dahyata | tarn putroktaih Vasishthah samupayata ” iti Sutyuyanaham \ “ Vasishtliasya eva liata-putrasya ursham ” iti Tundakam \ “ The S'atyayana Brahmana says that ‘ S'akti (son of Yasishtha), when being thrown into the fire by the Saudasas, received (by inspira- tion) the concluding pragatha of the hymn. He was burnt after he had spoken half a rich ; and Vasishtha completed what his son was have still the very hymn in which Yasishtha deprecates such charges with powerful indignation.” Prof. Muller then quotes verses 14-16 of the hymn before us (“Last Results of the Turanian Researches,” in Bunsen’s “ Outlines of the Philosophy of Univ. History,” i. 344. 113 See my article “ On the relations of the priests to the other classes of Indian society in the Vedic age,” in the Journal Roy. As. Soc. for 1866, pp. 295 if. THE BRAHMANS AND KSIIATTRIYAS. 329 uttering. The Tandaka says that ‘it was Vasishtha himself who spoke the whole when his son was slain.’ ” The words supposed to have been spoken by S'akti, viz. “ 0 Indra, grant to us strength as a father to his sons ” ( Indra kratum nah d lhara pita putrebhyo yatha ) do not seem to be appropriate to the situation in which he is said to have been placed ; and nothing in the hymn, appears to allude to any circumstances of the kind imagined in the two Brahmanas. Manu says of Vasishtha (viii. 110): Maharshilhis cka devais cha kdryydrtham sapathdh kritdh \ Vasishthas chdpi sapathaiii scpe Paiya- vane nripe | “ Great rishis and gods too have taken oaths for particular objects. Vasishtha also swore an oath to king Paiyavana.” The oc- casion on which this was done is stated by the Commentator Kulluka : Vasishtha 'py anena puttra-sntam lhakshitam iti Visvdmitrena dkrushto sva-parisuddhaye Piyavandpatye Suddmni rdjani sapatharh chakdra \ “Vasishtha being angrily accused by Visvamitra of having eaten (his) hundred sons, took an oath before king Sudaman (Sudas, no doubt, is meant) the son of Piyavana in order to clear himself.” This seems to refer to the same story which is alluded to in the passage quoted by the Commentator on Rig-ve'da vii. 104, 12. In the Bam ay ana, i. 55, 5 f., a hundred sons of Visvamitra are said to have been burnt up by the blast of Vasishtha’s mouth when they rushed upon him armed with various weapons ( Visvdmitra-sutundm tu sat am nana-vidhayudham | alhyadhdvat susankruddham Vasishtham japa- tdm varam \ hunkarenaiva tun sarvdn nirdadaha mahdn risliih). Vasishtha is also mentioned in Big-veda, i. 112, 9, as having received succour from the Asvins ( — Vasishtham ydhhir ajardv ajinvatam). Vasishtha, or the Vasishthas, are also referred to by name in the following verses of the seventh Mandala of the Big-veda : 7, 7 ; 9, 6 ; 12, 3; 23, 1, 6; 26, 5; 37, 4; 39, 7; 42, 6 ; 59, 3 ; 70, 6; 73, 3 ; 76, 6, 7 ; 77, 6 ; 80, 1 ; 90, 7 ; 95, 6 ; 96, 1, 3 ; but as no information is derivable from these texts, except that the persons alluded to were the authors or reciters of the hymns, it is needless to quote them.111 111 Another verse of a hymn in wliich the author is not referred to (vii. 72, 2) is as follows : A no dcvebhir upa yatam arvdk sajoshasha ndsatya rathena | yuvor hi nah sakhya pitryani samd.no bandlmr uta tasya vittam | “ Come near to us, Asvins, on the same car with the gods : for we have ancestral friendships with you, a common relation ; do ye recognize it.” Although this has probably no mythological 330 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN In the Atharva-veda, iv. 29, 3 and 5, Vasishtha and Visvamitra are mentioned among other personages, Angiras, Agasti, Jamadagni, Atri, Kasyapa, Bharadvaja, Gavishthira, and Kutsa, as being succoured by Mitra and Varuna (. . . . ydv Angirasam avatho ydv Agastim Mitrd- Va- nina Jamadagnim Atrirn \ yau Kasyapam avatlio yau Vasishtham .... yau Bharadvdjam avatho yau Gavishthirarh Visvdmilram Varum Mitra Kutsarn). And in the same Veda, xviii. 3, 15 f., they are invoked as deliverers : Visvamitro ’ yarn Jamadagnir Atrir avantu nah Kasyapo Vd- madevah | Visvamitra Jamadagne Vasishtha Bliaradvdja Gotama Vdma- dcva ... | “15. May this Yisvamitra, may Jamadagni, Atri, Kasyapa, Vamadeva preserve us. 16. 0 Yisvamitra, o Jamadagni, o Vasishtha, o Bharadvaja, o Gotama, o Vasmadeva.” The second passage at least must be a good deal more recent than the most of the hymns of the Eig-veda. Sudas is mentioned in other parts of the Eig-veda without any refer- ence either to Vasishtha or to Visvamitra. In some cases his name is coupled with that of other kings or sages, which appears to shew that in some of these passages at least a person, and not a mere epithet, “the liberal man,” is denoted by the word Sudas. E.Y. i. 47, 6. (The traditional rishi is Praskanva.) Suddse dasru vasu bibliratd rathe priksho vahatam Asvind \ rayiiii samudrud uta vd divas pari asrae dhattam puru-spriham | “ 0 impetuous Asvins, possessing wealth in your car, bring susten- ance to Sudas. Send to us from the (aerial) ocean, or the sky, the riches which are much coveted.” Sayana says the person here meant is “ king Sudas, son of Pijavana ” ( Suddse .... rdjne Pijavana-puttrdya). i. 63, 7. (The rishi is Nodhas, of the family of Gotama.) Tvarn ha tyad Indra sapta yudhyan puro vajrin Puruhutsdya dardah | harhir na yat Suddse vrithd vary anho rujan varivah Purave kah | “ Thou didst then, o thundering Indra, war against, and shatter, the seven cities for Purukutsa, when thou, o king, didst without effort hurl reference, Sayana explains it as follows : Vivasvan Varunas cha ubhdv api KasyapTid Adi ter fit au \ Vivasvan Asvinor janaJco Varuno Vasishthasya ity evarn samana-ban- dhutvam \ “ Vivasvat and Yaruna were both sons of Kasyapa and Aditi. Vivasvat was the father of the Asvins and Varuna of Vasishtha ; such is the affinity.” Sayana then quotes the Brihaddcvatu. to prove the descent of the As’vins from Vivasvat. Compare RW. x. 17, 1, 2, and Nirukta, xii. 10, 11. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 331 away distress from Sudas like a bunch of grass, and bestow wealth on Puru.115 i. 112, 19. (The rishi is Kutsa.) .... ydlhir Sudu.se uhathuh sude- vyam talliir u sliu utilhir Asvind gatavi | “Come, o Asvins, with those succours whereby ye brought glorious power to Sudas” [‘ son of Pijavana’ — Sayana].116 The further texts which follow are all from the seventh Mandala, of which the rishis, with scarcely any exception, are said to be Vasishtha and his descendants : vii. 19, 3. Team dhrishno dhrishatd vitahavyam prdvo visvdlhir utibhih Sudasam \ pra Paurukutsiih Trasadasyum dvah kshettrasdtd vrittraliat- yeshu Purum | “ Thou, o fierce Indra, hast impetuously protected Sudas, who offered oblations, with every kind of succour. Thou hast preserved Trasadasyu the son of Purukutsa, and Puru in his conquest of land and in his slaughter of enemies.” vii. 20, 2. Hantd Vrittram Indrah susuvdnah prdvld nu viro jari- tdrarn uti \ karttd Suduse aha vai u lokaih data vasu muhur u ddsushe ihut | “Indra growing in force slays Yritra; the hero protects him who praises him ; he makes room for Sudas [or the liberal sacrificer — kal- ydna-ddndya yajantdndya. Sayana] ; he gives riches repeatedly to his worshipper.” vii. 25, 3. S'ataih te siprinn utayah Suddse sahasram sarnsah uta rdtir astu | jahi vadhar vanusho marttyasya asme dyumnam adhi ratnam cha dliehi | “ Let a hundred succours come to Sudas, a thousand desirable (gifts) and prosperity. Destroy the weapon of the murderous. Confer renown and wealth on us.” (Sayana takes sudds here and in all the following citations to signify a “liberal man.”) 115 Professor Roth renders this passage differently in his Litt. u. Gesch. des "Weda, p. 132; as does also Prof. Benfey, Orient und Occident, i. p. 590. 116 In R.V. i. 185, 9, we find the word sudds in the comparative degree suddstara, where it must have the sense of “ very liberal ” : bhuri chid aryah sudastaraya | “ (give the wealth) of my enemy, though it be abundant to (me who am) most liberal.” In v. 53, 2, the term sudds appears to be an adjective : a etdn ratheshu tasthusliah kah susrava katha yayuh \ kasmai sasruh suddse anu apayah ilabhir vrishtayah saha | “ Who has heard them (the Maruts) mounted on their cars, how they have gone ? To what liberal man have they resorted as friends, (in the form of) showers with blessings i ” 332 EARLY COIs TESTS BETWEEN vii. 32. 10. JYaJcih Suddso rath am pari usa na riramat | Indro yasya avitd yasya Marufo gamat sa gomati vraje J “ No one can oppose or stop the chariot of Sudas. He whom Indra, whom the Maruts, protect, walks in a pasture filled with cattle.” vii. 53, 3 : TJto hi ram, ratnadheydni santi pur uni dydvd -prithivl Suddse | “ And ye, o Heaven and Earth, have many gifts of wealth for Sudas [or the liberal man].” vii. 60, 8. Yad gopdvad Aditih sarma bhadram Mitro yachhanti Ya- runah Suddse \ tasminn d tokam tanayaih dadhunuk via karma deva- helanam turdsah | 9 pari dveshobhir Aryamd vrinaktu ururh Suddse vrishanau u lokam \ “Since Aditi, Hitra, and Yaruna afford secure protection to Sudas (or the liberal man), bestowing on him offspring; — may we not, o mighty deities, commit any offence against the gods. 9 Hay Aryaman rid us of our enemies. (Grant) ye vigorous gods, a wide space to Sudas.” There is another passage, vii. 64, 3 ( bravad yatlid nah dd arih Su- ddse), to which I find it difficult to assign the proper sense. Yasishtha is referred to in the following passages of the Brahmanas : Xathaka 37, 17.117 Ilishayo vai Indram pratyaksham na apasyafns tarn Yasishthah eva pratyasham apasyat | so ’bibbed “ itarebhyo md rishi- bhyah pravakshyati ” itim | so ’bravid “ brdhmanam te vakshydmi yathu tsat-purohitdh prajdh prajanishyante \ atha md itarebhyah rishibhyo md pravocliah" iti \ tasmai etdn stoma-blidgdn abravit tato Yasislit ha-pur o- liitdih prajdh prdjdyanta | “ The rishis did not behold Indra face to face ; it was only Yasishtha who so beheld him. He (Indra) was afraid lest Yasishtha should reveal him to the other rishis ; and said to him, ‘I shall declare to thee a Brah- mana in order that men may be born who shall take thee for their puro- hita. Do not reveal me to the other rishis.’ Accordingly he declared to 117 Quoted by Professor Weber, Indische Studien, iii. 478. 118 The words from so 'bibhet down to iti are omitted in the Taitt. Sanhita, iii. 5, 2, 2, where this passage is also found. Weber refers in Ind. St. ii. to another part of the Kathaka, ii. 9, where Yasishtha is alluded to as having “seen ” a text beginning with the word purovata during a time of drought {“ Yurovdta ” Hi vrishty-apcte bhuta-grame Vasishtho dadarsa). THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTBIYAS. 333 Rim these parts of the hymn. In consequence men were bom who took Yasishtha for their purohita.” Professor "Weber refers in the same place to a passage of the Sata- patha Brahmana relating to the former superiority of Yasishtha’ s family in sacred knowledge and priestly functions : xii. 6, 1, 38. Yasislitho ha virdjam vidanchahdra tain ha Indro 'bliida- dhyau | sa ha uvdcha “ rishe virdjam ha vai vettha turn me Iruhi ” iti \ sa ha uvdcha “him mama tatah sydd” iti | “ sarvasya cha te yajnasya prdyaschittim bruydm rupaih cha tvd darsayeya ” iti | sa ha uvdcha “ yad nu me sarvasya yajnasya prdyaschittim bruydh him u sa sydd yam tvam rupaih darsayethuh ” iti | jiva-svarga eva asmdl lohut prey did ” iti \ tato ha etdm rishir Indrdya virdjam uvdcha “ iyaih vai virdd ” iti \ tasmud yo ’syai bhuyishtham labhate sa eva sreshtho bhavati | at ha ha etdm Indrah rishaye prdyaschittim uvdcha agniliotrud agre d mahatah uhthdt | tdh ha sma etdh purd vyuhritir Vasishthuh eva viduh \ tasmud ha sma purd Vdsishthah eva brahma bhavati | “ Yasishtha was acquainted with the Yiraj (a particular Yedie metre). Indra desired it ; and said, ‘ 0 rishi, thou knowest the Yiraj : declare it to me.’ Yasishtha asked: ‘"What (advantage) will result to me from doing so ? ’ (Indra replied) ‘ I shall both explain to thee the forms for rectifying anything amiss ( prdyascliitti ) 119 in the entire sacri- fice, and show thee its form.’ Yasishtha further enquired, ‘If thou declarest to me the remedial rites for the entire sacrifice, what shall he become to whom thou wilt show the form ? ’ (Indra answered) ‘ He shall ascend from this world to the heaven of life.’ The rishi then declared this Yiraj to Indra, saying, ‘this is the Yiraj.’ Wherefore it is he who obtains the most of this (Yiraj) that becomes the most eminent. Then Indra explained to the rishi this remedial formula from the agnihotra to the great uhtha. Formerly the Yasishthas alone knew these sacred syllables (r ydhriti). Hence in former times a Yasishtha only was a (priest of the kind called) brahman” Professor Weber quotes also the following from the Kathaka 32, 2. Yarn abrdhmanah prdsndti sd shannd dhutis tasyd vai Vasishthah eva prdyaschittam vidunchahdra \ “The oblation of which a person not a brahman partakes is vitiated. Y asishtha alone knew the remedial rite for such a case.” 119 See above, p. 294. 334 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN In the Shadvimsa Brahmana of the Sama-veda, quoted by the same writer (Ibid. i. 39, and described p. 37, as possessing a distinctly formed Brahmanical character indicating a not very early date), we have the following passage : i. 5. Indro ha Visvdmitrdya uktham uvdcha Vasishthuya brahma vug uktham ity eva Visvdmitrdya mano brahma Vasishthuya | tad vai etad Vdsishtham brahma | api ha evamvidham vd Vdsishtham vd brahmdnatn kurvlta | “ Indra declared the ulctha (hymn) to Visvamitra, and the brahman (devotion) to Vasishtha. The uhtha is expression ( vuk ) ; that (he made known) to Yisvamitra ; and the brahman is the soul; that (he made known) to Vasishtha. Hence this brahman (devotional power) belongs to the Yasishthas. Moreover, let either a person of this description, or a man of the family of Vasishtha, he appointed a brahman- priest.” Here the superiority of Yasishtha over Visvamitra is clearly as- serted.120 Vasishtha is mentioned in the Mahabharata, S'antip. verses 11221 ff., as having communicated divine knowledge to king Janaka, and as referring (see verses 11232, 11347, 11409, 11418, 11461, etc.) to the Sankhya and Yoga systems. The sage is thus characterized : 11221. Vasishtham sreshtham usinam rishinum bhdskara-dyutim | pa- prachha Janako rdju j nan am naissreyasam param \ param adhydtma- kusalam adhdtma-gati-nischayam | Maitrdvarunim usinam abhivudya kritdnjalih \ “King Janaka with joined hands saluted Yasishtha the son of Mitra and Varuna, the highest and most excellent of rishis, resplendent as the sun, who was acquainted with the Supreme Spirit, who had ascer- tained the means of attaining to the Supreme Spirit ; and asked him after that highest knowledge which leads to final beatitude.” The doctrine which the saint imparts to the king he professes to have derived from the eternal Hiranyagarbha, i.e. Brahma ( avdptam etad hi mayd sanutanud Hiranyagarbhud gadato narddhipa). I have already in former parts of this volume quoted passages from Manu, the Vishnu Purana, and the Mahabharata, regarding the creation 180 Professor Weber mentions (Ind. St. i. 53) that in the commentary of Rama- krishna on the Paraskara Grihya Sutras allusion is made to the “ Chhandogas who follow the Sutras of the Vasishtha family” Vas ishtha-sutranuchar man' chhandogdli). THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 335 of Vasishtha. The first-named work (see above, p. 36) makes him one of ten Maharshis created by Manu Svayambhuva in the first (or Sva- yambhuva) Manvantara. The Vishnu Purana (p. 65) declares him to have been one of nine mind-born sons or Brahmas created by Brahma in the Manvantara just mentioned. The same Purana, however, iii. 1, 14, makes him also one of the seven rishis of the existing or Yaivasvata Manvantara, of which the son of Vivasvat, S'raddhadeva,121 is the Manu ( Vivasvatah suto vipra Sruddhadevo makadyutih \ Manuk saiiivarttate dhlman sumpratam saptame ’ ntare .... Vasiskthah Kd- syapo ’tkdtrir Jamadagnik sa-Gautamak | Visvdmitra-JBkaradvdjau sapta saptarskayo ’bhavan). The Mahabharata (see p. 122) varies in its ac- counts, as in one place it does not include Vasishtha among Brahma’s six mind-born sons, whilst in a second passage it adds him to the number which is there raised to seven,122 and in a third text describes him as one of twenty-one Prajapatis. According to the Yishnu Purana, i. 10, 10, “Yasishtha had by his wife Urjja” (one of the daughters of Daksha, and an allegorical per- sonage, see Y. P. i. 7, 18), seven sons called Rajas, Gatra, Urddhva- bahu, Savana, Anagha, Sutapas, and Sukra, who were all spotless rishis” ( Urjjdyam ; clia Vasishtkasya saptdjdyanta vai sutdk | Rajo- Gatrordkhvabukuscka Savanas ckunaghas tatlid \ Sutapdh S'ulcrah ity ete sarve saptarskayo 'maldk). This must be understood as referring to the Svayambhuva Manvantara. The Commentator says these sons were the seven rishis in the third Manvantara ( saptarskayas tritiya- manvantare). In the description of that period the Y. P. merely says, without naming them (iii. 1, 9) that “the seven sons of Yasishtha were the seven rishis” ( Vasishtha- tamy as tatra sapta saptarskayo ’ bhavan ).m The Bhagavata Purana (iv. 1, 40 f.) gives the names of Yasishtha’s sons differently; and also specifies S’aktri and others as the offspring of a different marriage. (Compare Professor Wilson’s notes on these passages of the Vishnu Purana.) 121 See above p. 209, note 66, and pp. 188 ff. 122 In another verse also (Adip. 6638, which will be quoted below in a future section) he is said to be a mind-born son of Brahma. 123 Urjja, who in the Vishnu P. iii. 1, 6, is stated to be one of the rishis of the second or Svarochisha Manvantara, is said in the Vayu P. to be a son of Vasishtha. See Professor Wilson’s note (vol. iii. p. 3) on Vishnu P. iii. 1, 6. The Vayu P. also declares that one of the rishis in each of the fourth and fifth Manvantaras was a son of Vasishtha. (See Prof. Wilson’s notes (vol. iii. pp. 8 and 11) on Vishnu P. iii. ].) 336 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN In Manu, ix. 22 f., it is said that “ a wife acquires the qualities of the husband with whom she is duly united, as a river does when blended with the ocean. 23. Akshamala, though of the lowest origin, became honourable through her union with Yasishtha, as did also Sarangl through her marriage with llandapala ” ( Yudrig-gunena bhart- trd strl samyvjyate yathuvidhi \ tudrig-guna sd bhavati sarnudreneva nim- nagd | 23. Akshamala Vasishthena saiiiyuktd ’ dhama-yoni-ju | S'urangl Manddpalenajagdmubhyarhanlyatdm). Yasishtha’ s wife receives the same name ( Vasishthas chdkshamdlayd) in a verse of the Mahabharata (Udyogaparvan, v. 3970) ;m but in two other passages of the same work, which will be adduced further on, she is called Arundhatl.125 According to the Yishnu Purana (ii. 10, 8) Yasishtha is one of the superintendents who in the month of Ashadha abide in the Sun’s chariot, the others being Yaruna, Rambha, Sahajanya, Huhu, Budha, and llathachitra ( Vasishtho Varuno Rambha Sahajanya Hulmr JBudhah | Jlalhachitras tathd S'ulcre vasanty Ashadha-sanjnite ) ; whilst in the month of Phalguna (ibid. v. 16) the rival sage Yisvamitra exercises the same function along with Yishnu, Asvatara, Itambha, Suryavarchas, Satyajit, and the Itakshasa Yajnapeta ( sruyatam chdpare surye phdU gune nivasanti ye \ Vishnur Asvataro Rambhd Suryavarchus cha Sat- yajit | Visvdmitras tathd raksho Yajnupeto mahdtmanah). At the commencement of the Yayu Purana Yasishtha is charac- terized as being the most excellent of the rishis ( rishlndm cha varish- thdya Vasishthdya mahdtmane). It is stated in the Yishnu Purana, iii. 3, 9, that the Yedas have been already divided twenty-eight times in the course of the present or Yaivasvata Manvantara; and that this division has always taken place in the Dvapara age of each system of four yugas. In the first Dvapara Brahma Svayambhu himself divided them ; in the sixth Mrityu (Death, or Yama) ; whilst in the eighth Dvapara it was Yasishtha who was the Vyasa or divider ( Aslitdvimsatikritvo vai veduh vyastuh maharshibhih \ Vaivasvate 'ntare tasmin dvdpareshu punah punah | . . . . 10. Dvdparc prathame vyastuh, svayaih vedah Svayambhuvd | . . . . 11. . . . Mrityuli shashthe smritah prabhuh | . . . . Vasishthas chdshtame smritah). 124 Two lines below Haimavati is mentioned as the wife of Yisvamitra ( Eaimavatya cha Kausikah). 125 In the St. Petersburg Lexicon akshamala is taken for an epithet of Arundkati. THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 337 Vasishtha was, as we have seen above, the family-priest of Nimi, son of Ikshvaku, who was the son of Manu Yaivasvata, and the first prince of the solar race of kings ; and in a passage of the Mahabha- rata, Adip. (6643 f.), which will be quoted in a future section, he is stated to have been the purohita of all the kings of that family. He is accordingly mentioned in Vishnu Purana, iv. 3, 18, as the religious teacher of Sagara, the thirty-seventh in descent from Ikshvaku ( tat - kula-guruih Vasishtham saranam jagmufi) ; and as conducting a sacrifice for Saudasa or Hitrasaha, a descendant in the fiftieth generation of the same prince (Vishnu P. iv. 4, 25, Kdlena gachhata. sa Sauddso yajnarn ayajat \ parinishthita-yajne cha dclidryye Vasishthe nishkrunte ityddi). Vasishtha is also spoken of in the Ramayana, ii. 110, 1 (see above, p. 115), and elsewhere (ii. Ill, 1, etc.), as the priest of Rama, who appears from the Vishnu Purana, (iv. 4, 40, and the preceding narra- tive), to have been a descendant of Ikshvaku in the sixty-first gene- ration.128 Vasishtha, according to all these accounts, must have been possessed of a vitality altogether superhuman ; for it does not appear that any of the accounts to which I have referred intend under the name of Vasish- tha to denote merely a person belonging to the family so called, but to represent the founder of the family himself as taking part in the transactions of many successive ages. It is clear that Vasishtha, although, as we shall see, he is frequently designated in post-vedic writings as a Brahman, was, according to some other authorities I have quoted, not really such in any proper sense of the word, as in the accounts which are there given of his birth he is declared to have been either a mind-born son of Brahma, or the son of Hitra, Varuna, and the Apsaras Urvasi, or to have had some other supernatural origin. Sect. VII. — Visvamitra. Visvamitra is stated in the Anukramanika, as quoted by Sayana at the commencement of the third Mandala of the Rig-veda, to be the rishi, or “ seer,” of that book of the collection : Asya mandala-drashta 126 Rama’s genealogy is also given in the Ramayana, i. 70, and ii. 110, 6 ff., where, however, he is said to be only the thirty-third or thirty-fourth from Ikshvaku. 22 338 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN Visvdmitrah rishih | “ The rishi of this (the first hymn) was Visva- mitra, the ‘ seer ’ of the Mandala.” This, however, is to be understood with some exceptions, as other persons, almost exclusively his descend- ants, are said to be the rishis of some of the hymns. I shall quote such passages as refer, or are traditionally declared to refer, to Visvamitra or his family. In reference to the thirty-third hymn the Nirukta states as follows : ii. 24. Tatra itihdsam dchakshate \ Visvdmitrah rishih Suddsah Paija- vanasya purohito babhiivd . ... \ sa vittam grihitva Vipdt-chhutudryoh sambhedam dyayau \ anuyayur ita/re | sa Visvdmitro nadis tushtdva “ gd- dhdh bhavata ” iti | “ They there relate a story. The rishi "Visvamitra was the purohita of Sudas, the son of Pijavana. (Here the etymologies of the names Visvamitra, Sudas, and Pijavana are given.) Taking his property, he came to the confluence of the Vipas and S'utudri (Sutlej); others followed. Visvamitra lauded the rivers (praying them to) become fordable.” Sayana expands the legend a little as follows : Purd kila Visvdmitrah Paijavanasya Suduso rdjnah purohito babhuva \ sa cha paurohityena labdha-dlianah sarvam dhanam dddya Vipdt-chhutu- dryoh sambhedam dyayau | anuyayur itare | athottitirshur Visvdmitro ' gadha-jale te nadyau drishtvd uttarandrtham ddydbhis tisribhis tushtdva \ “ Formerly Visvamitra was the purohita of king Sudas, the son of Pijavana. He, having obtained wealth by means of his office as puro- hita, took the whole of it, and came to the confluence of the Vipas and the S'utudri. Others followed. Being then desirous to cross, but per- ceiving that the waters of the rivers were not fordable, Visvamitra, with the view of getting across lauded them with the first three verses of the hymn.” The hymn makes no allusion whatever to Sudas, but mentions the son of Kusika (Visvamitra) and the Bharatas. It is not devoid of poetical beauty, and is as follows : B.V. iii. 33, 1 (= Nirukta, ix. 39). Pra parvatdndm uSati upasthad osve iva vishite hdsamdne \ gdveva iubhre mdtard rihdne Vipdt Chhutudrl payasd javete \ 2. Indreshiie prasavam bhikshamdne achha samudram rathyd iva ydthah | samdrdne urmibhih pinvamdne anyd vdm anydm api eti iubhre j 3. Achha sindhum mdtritamdm ayusatn Vipasam urvlm THE BRAHMANS AND KSHATTRIYAS. 339 subkagdm aganma | vatsarn iva mdtard samrikdne samdnam yonim arm sancharanti \ 4. End vayarn payasd pinvamand arm yonim, deva-kritam charantlh \ navarttave prasavah sarga-taktah kiihyur vipro nadyo johavlti | 5 (= Kirukta, ii. 25). Ramadhvam me vachase somydya rituvarlr upa muhurttam evaik [ pra sindlium achha brikati manlshd avasyur ahve Kukikasya sunuh | 6 (= Kir. ii. 26). Indro asman aradat vajra-bakur apdkan Vrittram paridkim nadlndm | devo 'nayat Savitd supdnis tasya vayam prasave ydmah urvlh \ 7. Pravdckyarh sasvadkd vlryam tad Indrasya karma yad Akim vivrischat | vi vajrena parishado jagkdna ayann dpo ayanam ichhamandh \ 8. Etad vacko jaritar md 'pi mrisktah a yat te gkoskdn uttard yugdni j uktkesku kdro prati no juskasva md no ni kah puruskatra namas te | 9. 0 su svasarak kdraoe srinota yayau yo durud anasd ratkena \ ni su namadkvam bkavata supurd adkoakskah sindkavak srotydbkih | 10 (= Kir. ii. 27). A te kdro srinavama vackdmsi yaydtka durad anasd ratkena \ ni te namsai pipydnd iva yoskd marydya iva kanyd kasvackai te \ 11. Yad anga tvd JBkaratdh santareyur gavyan gramah iskitah Indra-jutah \ arskdd aka prasavah sarga-taktah a vo vrine sumatim yajniydndm | 12. Atdrishur Bkaratdh gavyavah sam alkakta viprah sumatim nadlndm | pra pinvadhvam iskayantih surddkdh d vakshanuh prinadkvam ydta slbkam \ “ 1. (Yisvainitra speaks) : Hastening eagerly from the heart of the mountains, contending like two mares let loose, like two bright mother- cows licking127 (each her calf), the Yipas and S'utudri rush onward with their waters. 2. Impelled by Indra, seeking a rapid course, ye move towards the ocean, as if mounted on a car. Running together, as ye do, swelling with your waves, the one of you joins the other, ye bright streams. 3. I have come to the most motherly stream; we have arrived at the hroad and beautiful Yipas ; proceeding, both of them, like two mother(-cows) licking each her calf, to a common receptacle. 4. (The rivers reply) : Here swelling with our waters we move forward to the re- ceptacle fashioned by the gods (the ocean) ; our headlong course cannot be arrested. What does the sage desire that he invokes the rivers ? 5. (Yisvamitra says) : Stay your course for a moment, ye pure streams, (yielding) to my pleasant words.128 With a powerful prayer, I, the son 127 Prof. Roth (Illustr. of Nirukta, p. 133) refers to vii. 2. 5 ( purvi sistim na ma- tara rihane) as a parallel passage. 128 Prof. Roth (Litt. u. Gesch. des Weda, p. 103) renders : “ Listen joyfully for a 340 EARLY CONTESTS BETWEEN of Kusika,129 desiring succour, invoke the river. 6. (The rivers answer) : Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt, has hollowed out our channels ; he has smitten Ahi who hemmed in the streams. Savitri the skilful- handed has led us hither ; by his impulse we flow on in our breadth. 7. For ever to be celebrated is the heroic deed of Indra, that he has split Yrittra in sunder. He smote the obstructions with his thunderbolt; and the waters desiring an outlet went on their way. 8. Do not, o utterer of praises, forget this word, which future ages will re-echo to thee. In hymns, o bard, show us thy devotion; do not humble us before men ; reverence be paid to thee. 9. (Visvamitra says) : Listen, o sisters, to the bard who has come to you from afar with waggon and chariot. Sink down ; become fordable ; reach not up to our chariot-axles with your streams. 1 0. (The rivers answer) : W e shall listen to thy words, o bard ; thou hast come from far with waggon and chariot. I will bow dowu to thee like a woman with full breast130 (suckling her child); as a maid to a man will I throw myself open to thee. 11. (Visvamitra says) : When the Bharatas,131 that war-loving tribe, sent forward, impelled by Indra, have crossed thee, then thy headlong current shall hold on its course. I seek the favour of you the adorable. 12. The war-loving Bharatas have crossed ; the Sage has obtained the favour of the rivers. Swell on impetuous, and fertilizing ; fill your channels; roll rapidly.” The next quotation is from the fifty-third hymn of the same third Mandala, verses 6 ff. : 6. Apuh somam astam Indra pra ydhi Jcalydnir jiiya suranarh grihe moment to my amiable speech, ye streams rich in water ; stay your progress ; ” and iulds in a note : “ I do not connect the particle upa with ramadhvam, as the Nirukta and Sayana do ; the fact that upa stands in another Pada (quarter of the verse) requires a different explanation. The most of those interpretations of the Commen- tator which destroy the sense have their ultimate ground in the circumstance that he combines the words of different divisions of the verse ; and any one may easily con- vince himself that every Pada has commonly a separate sense, and is far more inde- pendent of the others than is the case in the s'loka of later times.” In his Lexicon Roth renders ritavarl in this passage by “ regular,” “ equably flowing.” 129 “Kusika was a king ” ( Kusiko raja, babhuva. Nir. ii. 25). Sayana calls him a royal rishi. 130 This is the sense assigned hy Prof. Roth, s.v. pi to plpyanu. Sayana, following Yaska, ii. 27, gives the sense “suckling her child.” Prof. Aufrecht considers that the word means “ pregnant." In the next clause sasvachai is rendered in the manner suggested by Prof. A., who compares R.V. x. 18, 11, 12. 131