2 .. 3 . , It £ tip PRINCETON, N. J. Division . Section B F 15 ■T 4 7 %u3ac’s ©dental IRelujlons Series. VOL. III. heaven be ye banned! by earth be ye banned! ” 2 But the Assyrian exorcisms show a far more elaborate growth. Ea and Marduk are the two most powerful gods in Assyrian sorcery, the latter, as the son of Ea, being appealed to by the magician to act as intermediary with his father, who is learned in all spells. In numerous incantations it is recognized as a regular formula to repeat the legend of Marduk going to his father Ea for advice ; and this was such a common procedure that the later scribes abbreviated the incident by putting the initial words of the three principal phrases in the story: “ Marduk hath seen”; “What I”; “Go, my son.” The full recital is as follows :— “ Marduk hath seen him (the sick man), and hath entered the house of his father Ea, and hath said : ‘ Father, headache from the underworld hath gone forth.’ 3 Twice he hath said unto him, ‘ What this man hath done he knoweth not; whereby may he be relieved P ’ Ea hath 1 Budge, Histories of Rabban Hormizd , 474. ‘ To bind 5 is simply to lay under a ban. It runs through all Assyrian magic : it is said of the Sun-god sa suksura tapattar , “ him that is bound thou loosest ” (Gray, Samas Religious Texts , 18-19, 1. 17), and attama mudi riksisunu muhallik raggi mupassir nam-bul-bi- 6, “ thou knowest their bonds, destroying evil, making release” (IT.A./., iv, 17, rev. 14). 2 Christian priests in the Orient were capable of turning their power of ‘banning’ to practical account, as is clear from Jacob of Edessa, Qu. 47, “ Concerning a priest who writes a curse and hangs it on a tree that no man may eat of the fruit ” (Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 164). 3 This line is always varied, it being the first line of the tablet. xlviii PARALLELS PROM THE MALAYS. answered his son Marduk, ‘ 0 my son, what dost thou not know, what more can I give thee ? 0 Marduk, what dost thou not know, what can I add to thy knowledge ? What I know, thou knowest also. Go, my son Marduk ... ; and Ea then gives his son the prescription to be used in healing the patient. This method of quoting at length such an episode is merely the development of the Word of Power. 1 * Malay ceremonies are very similar in principle to those of the Babylonians. To make a ‘ neutralising ’ charm the magician must say— “Not mine are these materials, They are the materials of Kemal-ul-hakim ; Not to me belongs this neutralising charm, To Malim Saidi belongs this neutralising charm. It is not I who apply it, It is Malim Karimun who applies it.' 5 3 In an Assyrian medical text the parallel is complete— “(The sickness) will not return unto N., son of N. The Incantation is not invented of mankind, It is the Incantation of Ba’u and Gula, The Incantation of Nin-aha-kuddu, the lord of incantation ; It is they who have performed, And I have adopted.” 3 The story of Marduk going to his father Ea for a prescription is duplicated in Hermes Trismegistus, in 1 Jastrow says ( Religion , German ed., 275) that from the fact that Ea and Eridu are so often mentioned, the theory is suggested that we may ultimately trace many incantations to the temple of Ea that once stood in Eridu ; and that when Girru and Nuzku are mentioned the incantations must be referred to the authority of the priests of the temples of these gods. On the gods of the incantation see ibid., 289. 3 Skeat, Malay Magic , 427. 3 P.S.B.A., February, 1908. The text is from my copy in C.T., xxiii, 3, 13 ff., and 10, 20 ff. TREASURES GUARDED BY SACRED WORDS. xlix his dialogues with his son: “ In Hermes it is said, I am afraid, Father , of the enemy in my house : To whom he made answer, Son, take the Dog of Corascene, and the bitch of Armenia, and joyn them together etc. 1 In Egypt, as far back as 3500 b.c., it is stated in the Pyramid texts of Unas that a book with words of magical power was buried with him. In Egyptian lore a demon could do no more mischief to a man who called him correctly by name in the Underworld, and if the deceased named a gate it flew open before him. 2 It is only “ Open, sesame ” in another form. Treasures are kept locked by means of sacred words. It is said that Hermes Abootat built treasure-chambers in Upper Egypt, and set up stones containing magic inscriptions, which he locked and guarded by the charm of a certain magic alphabet “ extracted from the regions of darkness.” This story (with the alphabet) is given in the Ancient Alphabets of Ahmad ibn Abubekr. 3 In an Ethiopic work, The Magic Book of the Disciples , it is said: “ And everybody who believes and invokes and reads [the long list of names], by these names of Christ let him be saved from sin, and from all bad and wicked and treacherous men, and from all diseasefs] of soul and body, and from all demons and evil spirits.” 4 In late Hebrew charms the sorcerer calls on angels or other heavenly powers to help him : “ Ye holy, powerful angels, I adjure you, just as this pot is burnt in the fire, so shall ye 1 Salmon, Kalid , 1707 (in his Medicina Bract., 299). 2 Wiedemann, Realms of Egyptian Dead, 52. 3 Ed. Hammer, 1806, 6. It is curious to see the belief of the modern Arabs that the Jinn are guardians of a hidden treasure (see p. 62) 4 Littmann, J.A.O.S. , xxv, 26. d 1 KNOWLEDGE OF THE NAME IN MAGIC. burn in fire the heart of N., son of N. (to follow), after N., the son (or daughter) of N.” 1 In the Talmud there is a story of R. Joshua and R. Akiba, who, on going to the baths, saw a magician who uttered a magic word and held them prisoners. In return, R. Joshua pronounced the word of power that he knew, and immediately the door barred the way for the magician’s egress. 2 Enough has been said on this use of magical names as words of power ; the second component of the perfect charm was that the magician should know something, even if only the name, of the person or demon whom he hoped to bring into subjection. The origin of this would appear to have arisen in the beliefs about hair, rags, or nail- parings, which are collected and wrought into the charm as the connecting links between it and the victim. If these are wanting, then the name alone will be enough, for want of anything better ; in the case of a demon it is obviously the only emanation that the sorcerer can 1 See my article The Folklore of Mossoul, P.S.B.A. , 1907, 170, No. 9. This is particularly the case with the name iao (see Baudissin, Studien , 189). Hebrew magic was always respected by Gentile nations, as is testified to by the way in which the Hebrew divine names are used as words of power. In the Greek incantations this use is prevalent (see Leemans, Papyri Greed ), and even in Demotic Egyptian it is found. To prevent a shipwreck a Demotic papyrus prescribes the following : “ Ce nom, si tu l’invoques au-devant d’(une) tempete, elle sera sans naufrage, h cause des nomes des Dioskoros qui (sont) dedans, afin qu’il sauve tu crieras : Anuk, Adonai, la formule (est d’une langue) etrangere, il donnera une grande force (et) il n’y aura pas de desastre” (Groff, Etudes sur la Sorcellerie, memoires presentes d Vinstitut egyptien , Cairo, 1897, iii, fasc. iv). Groff sees in this Anuk Adonai a possible emendation for ♦rtK mx in Jonah. In the Greek papyri the Assyrian name Ereskigal has been found under the form EpecrxtyaX. This was pointed out first by Legge ( P.S.B.A. , February, 1901, 47). 2 Sanhedrin , vii (19). CEREMONIES. Ii obtain of him, and hence to learn the name came to be regarded as the equivalent of obtaining something more tangible. 1 This is the reason for the long catalogues of devils that the Babylonian wizard repeats in the hope that he may hit on the correct diagnosis of the disease demon, who will straightway come forth when he perceives that his name is known. “ Whether thou art an evil Spirit, or an evil Demon, or an evil Ghost, or an evil Devil, or ail evil God, or an evil Fiend, or sickness, or death, or Phantom of Night, or Wraith of Night, or fever, or evil pestilence, be thou removed from before me,” 2 or even longer catalogues of ghosts of people who have died unnatural deaths, or have been left unburied, who have / returned to torment the living that the rites necessary to give them rest may be paid. 3 The third and last part of the spell, as we have already mentioned, is the ceremony with water, drugs, amulets, wax figures, etc. The simplest form that this can take is pure water with which the demoniac is washed, plainly with the principle of cleansing lying underneath it. 4 When a man has fallen sick of a headache, the Assyrian magician takes water from two streams, at the spot where they run into one another, which, like the cross-roads, is always a place for magic. With this water he sprinkles the patient, adding due enchantments. 5 For some other form of disease the priest will cleanse him with water in which certain herbs have been steeped, 6 a custom still prevalent among the Malays. After childbirth among the Malays a part 1 This is more fully discussed in the chapter on the Atonement. 2 Devils and Evil Spirits, i, 16, 17, 11. 154 ff. 3 Ibid., xxx ff. 4 On the holiness of water see Baudissin, Studien, ii, 148. 5 Devils , ii, Tablet c P,’ 1. 65 ff. 6 Ibid., Tablet ‘ T, 5 1. 30 ff. lii THE INCANTATION OE ERIDU. of the ceremony consists in administering an extraordinary mixture, called in Selangor the ‘ Hundred Herbs/ but in Malacca merely ‘ pot-herbs/ which is concocted from all kinds of herbs, roots, and spices. The ingredients are put into a large vessel of water and left to soak, a portion of the liquor being strained off and given to the patient as a potion every morning for about ten days. 1 Another Assyrian spell is still more explicit—“ May all that is evil . . . [in the body] of N., [be carried off] with the water of his body and the washings of his hands, and may the river carry it away down-stream.” 2 The explanation of the phrase “ perform the Incantation of Eridu,” which is so often prescribed, must be some simple ceremony of this kind, for Eridu is the home of Ea, the sea-god. It is not probable, as an alternative explanation, that the doctors recommended a frequent use of the ceremony which begins “In Eridu groweth the kiskanu ,” 3 the possibility being that the scribe, as usual, refers to the spell by part of its first line. It is very elaborate, however, to be merely an adjunct to the main exorcism, and further, in this same text mention is made of an “ Incantation of the Deep,” which is probably a purification of a similar kind. The following treatment is interesting :— “ [Marduk hath seen :] ‘ What I ’; Go, my son, Against the (fever-)heat and cold unkindly for the flesh, Fill a bowl with water from a pool that no hand hath touched, Put therein tamarisk, mastakal , ginger (?), horned alkali, mixed (?) wine, 1 Skeat, Malay Magic , 347. 2 IF.A./., ii, 516, 11. 1 ff. For the evil influences washed away by water see footnote to p. 129. 3 Devils , i, Tablet ‘ K, 5 1. 183 ff. The Sumerian begins with the word nun-ki, i.e. Eridu. WATER IN MAGIC. liii Put therein a shining (?) ring, Give him pure water to drink, Pour the water upon this man, Pull up a root of saffron, Pound (?) up pure salt and pure alkali, Fat of the matku- bird, brought from the mountains put therein, and Anoint (therewith) the body of that man seven times.” 1 Elsewhere the rabisu- demon is thus washed away: 2 “ May Marduk, eldest son of Eridu, sprinkle him w T ith pure water, clean water, bright water, limpid water, with the water twice seven times; may he be pure, may he be clean ; let the evil rabisu go forth and stand away from him; may a kindly sS 'em. Eel., 178, 206. 2 Ibid., 208. 3 Sale, Koran, sect. i. 4 Loc. cit., 206. 5 Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, i, 99. 6 i, 33. 7 Baldensperger, P.E.F., 1893, 217. 8 xi. NAILING DOWN THE GHOST. 17 that if they ceased to offer sustenance to the souls of their ancestors they might render themselves liable to affliction or even possession by the hungry souls of the departed. But there are many other accidents which prevent a soul from entering into rest :— “ He that lieth in a ditch . . . He that no grave covereth . . . He that lieth uncovered, Whose head is uncovered with dust, The king’s son that lieth in the desert Or in the ruins, The hero whom they have slain with the sword.” 1 Among the modern Arabs the soul of a murdered man must be nailed down. If a man is murdered in Egypt his afrit rises from the ground where his blood has been shed, but it can be restrained by driving a new nail which has never been used into the ground at the spot where the murder was committed. 2 I met with such a case in Tripoli (Barbary). While I was waiting for my caravan to be made up for a journey round the inland districts, the proprietor of the little Italian locanda showed me a nail which had been driven into the paving of the porch floor. A few vears before, a native had been murdered close to the door, and immediately the neighbouring Arabs thronged thither with hammer and nail, and thus secured the freedom of the place from being haunted by the dead man’s soul. Some time after the proprietor attempted to remove the nail, but he was at once prevented, on the grounds that the ghost would thereby be released. 1 W.A.I ., ii, 17; Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, ii, 6. Cf. Num. xix, 16, “ And whosoever in the open field toucheth one that is slain with a sword .... shall be unclean seven days.” 2 Sayce, Cairene Folklore , Folklore , ii, 389. 18 NAILING DOWN THE SPIRIT. While on the subject of nailing down a demon, the method in vogue for curing a headache at Mosul is worth quoting. The shehh comes and lays his hands on the patient’s head and then drives a nail into the wall, thus obviously transfixing-the devil therewith. 1 Frazer, in the Golden Bough, 2 quotes other instances, notably two among the Arabs, one (from Leared) of a house in Mogador haunted by spirits and devils who threw stones about, but were finally laid by a holy man pronouncing an incantation and driving a nail into the wall. The second is mentioned by Lane, similar to the cure for headache that I met in Mosul; the people of Cairo suffering from migraine used to knock a nail into the great wooden door of the old South Gate. According to Baldensperger, 3 the Mared, a very tall Arab ghost, appears chiefly where people have been killed, and the Mohammedans use big iron or wooden pegs to prevent such ghosts appearing. A similar belief may be traced in the story of Babbi Isaac Luria when he was passing the great academy of Babbi Yochanan in Tiberias. He showed his disciples a hole in the wall, saying, “ In this stone there is a transmigrated soul, and it cries that I should pray on its behalf.” 4 But in addition to these ghosts we find that the souls of men and women who had died prematurely were compelled to haunt mankind until they were laid to rest. Among these we find mentioned in Assyrian spells— 1 See my article P.S.B.A., Feb. 1906, 80-1. 2 iii, 33-4. 3 P.E.F ., 1899, 149. On the Mared appearing where a murder had been committed, see G. Robinson Lees, Village Life in Palestine , 217. 4 Hershon, Talm. Misc., 327, quoting Kabbala, Emeli Hamelech , fol. 11, col. 2. GHOSTS OF THOSE WHO HAVE DIED PREMATURELY. 19 “ He that hath died of hunger in prison, He that hath died of thirst in prison, The hungry man who in his hunger hath not smelt the smell of (food), He whom the bank of a river hath let perish, and he hath died, He that hath died in the plain or the marsh, He whom the Storm-god hath submerged in the plain.” 1 “ A woman (that hath died) a virgin, A man (that hath died) unmarried.” 2 “ A (sacred ?) harlot (that hath died), whose body is sick, A woman (that hath died) in travail, A woman (that hath died) with a babe at the breast, A weeping woman (that hath died) with a babe at the breast, An evil man (that hath died).” 3 * This list is further elaborated by the details that it may be the ghost of a dead woman who was nursing 1 W.A.l. , ii, 17, 22 ff., and Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, ii, 22 ff. 2 Devils , i, Tablet IV, iv, 45-6. See the notes as to the actual meaning of ‘ virgin 5 and ‘ unmarried,’ which cannot be said to be absolutely certain, although the evidence is distinctly favourable to such a translation. Besides, in Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, i, 15, two other phrases describing ghosts, la mutir irti and idu nu-un-da-ri-a, seem to point to a similar meaning. According to Eustathius (ad. II. xxiii, 141, p. 1293), among the Greeks it was customary to place on the grave of those who died unmarried a water-jar called Loutrophoros, in token that the dead had died unbathed and without offspring (J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena , 622). 3 Ibid., v, 21 ff. ; Tablet V, i, 51 ff. For the ‘weeping woman’ I would suggest that her babe has also died. I venture to think the explanation that they are all ghosts of dead people to be a better one than that of M. Fossey : “ Enfin une personne ordinairement inoffensive peut, k certains moments, devenir dangereuse; telles sont la femme qui allaite, la femme morte d’un cancer au sein, et la femme enceinte. La prostituee est exorcisee comme un veritable demon ” (La Magie , 50). That it is not mentioned specifically that they are dead is no stumbling- block. It was, I think, clearly understood, and further, the ill-omened mention of death was in many cases thus avoided, just as it was among the Greeks : “ a purification for you to whom it is meet and right,” i.e. the dead (J. E. Harrison, loc. cit., 60). 20 WOMEN DYING IN CHILDBED. her child, whose breast was sweet, bitter, ulcerated, or wounded; 1 or of a woman with child, whose womb was healthy, loosened ( patru ), cast ( rummu ), or not healthy. 2 The untimely birth, again, seems to have been counted as a ghost. 3 JSTow this curious ghost, the woman who has died in childbirth, is universal. 4 Doughty relates how in Arabia he “ heard scritching owls sometimes in the night; then the nomad wives and children answered them with mocking again, ‘Ymgebas! Ymgebas! ’ The hareem said, ‘It is a wailful woman, seeking her lost child through the wilderness, which was turned into this forlorn bird.’ ” 5 Among the Malays, if a woman die in childbirth she is supposed to become a langsuyar, or flying demon, a female familiar. To prevent this, glass beads are put in the mouth of the corpse, a hen’s egg is put under the armpits,, and needles in the palms of the hands. This stops the dead woman shrieking, waving her arms, or opening her 1 Oefele, Zeits. filr Assyr., xiv, 360, explains museni/ctu sa ina mihis- tuli imut as one that has died of carcinoma. Among modern Arabs the bad milk of nurses is held to be one of the things (along with the poison of serpents, scorpions, mad dogs, etc.) against which a magical cup will be efficacious by its virtue (Reinaud, Monumens Musulmanes, ii, 340). 2 Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, i, 35. 2 Ibid., i, 13, ispu Jcubu sa . . . Jastrow ( Religion , German ed., 367) explains this as “ Fruhgeburt.” The sa . . . may be the beginning of a translation of the corresponding Sumerian itu nu-til-la, “ that which doth not complete the month (?). 5 ’ Cf. also the beginning' of Devils and Evil Spirits , Tablet IV : “ They are that which was spawned in the creation of Anu, children of the earth they were born;, they are that which a woman in travail [hath brought forth dead ? ?},. which an evil foster-mother [hath . . . ].” 4 See Frazer, Golden Bough , ii, 345. 5 Arabia Deserta , i, 305. WOMEN DYING IN CHILDBED. 21 hands. 1 The original langsuyar was supposed to he a kind of night owl, like the Lilith of Rabbinic tradition, and is similar, therefore, to the ghost of which Doughty speaks. Among the Arabs of Palestine, the Egyptian eagle owl is an enchanted woman, who possesses baneful influences over childbirth. Neither the name of the child nor the bird must be mentioned within a few days of the birth, as the sorceress (the owl) would take the child. 2 In more ancient Arabic lore the owl is a human incarnation, 3 and Laila took this form in flying from the grave of her beloved. 4 Among the modern Jews of Lemburg, if a woman dies pregnant, it is supposed to be undesirable for her sake and that of the congregation that the foetus should be buried with the body. The, corpse is therefore bathed at mid¬ night, and after half an hour the name of the dead is called seven times, and a shofar blown seven times in her ear. The corpse with many groans will then give birth to a dead undeveloped child. 5 The Sakai of Perak, when they make a necklace-charm, repeat this invocation :— ‘ ‘ OM ! Die, 0 Mati-anak, buried under the earth heaped up for the Roadway. What is the origin of thy existence ? Demon of the blood of a person dead in childbirth, That is the origin of thy existence. Mati-anak of the River-banks, return to the River-banks ; Mati-anak of the ‘ outcrop,’ return to the outcrop ; Pluck out with spells and neutralise again and again the demon Mati-anak. Descend, 0 poison of the Mati-anak ; Rise, 0 neutraliser of mine.” 1 Skeat, Malay Magic (quoting Sir William Maxwell), 325. 2 Baldensperger, P.E.F., 1893, 212. 3 Wellhausen, Reate, 157. 4 Ibid., 183. 5 Jewish Encycl ., article Superstitions. 22 WOMEN DYING IN CHILDBED. The magician then spits twice on the necklace, which must be made of plants pulled up, and not cut or dug up. 1 This latter rite brings it into connection with the tabu against pulling up plants. To quote one or two instances from other than Semitic nations, in the Banks Islands, Melanesia, the ghost of a woman who has died in childbed cannot go away to Panoi or ghostland, if her child lives, for she cannot leave the baby behind. In the Pelew Islands, when a woman has died in childbed, her spirit comes and cries, “ Give me the child ! ” 2 In India the same ghost appears. 3 There is a curious story current in Mosul about a woman who died and was buried before her child was born. 4 This story I heard in Mosul, and I learnt that it was also told in Baghdad when I was there, and curiously enough, when at Luxor some time after, an Arab boy told me that a near relation of his, his father or uncle, who was a native of Mosul, had also repeated it to him. The story goes that after the woman was buried in a tomb, her son was born and lived and grew up in that tomb for about ten years, when he was found by a man digging into the grave. The boy was taken out, fed and clothed, and lived to a good old age. It is therefore to be presumed that during his childhood in the tomb the boy was fed in some supernatural manner that would seem to imply the return of the mother’s spirit. 5 1 Skeat and Blagden, Fagan Races of the Malay Peninsula , i, 153. 2 Frazer, Golden Bough (quoting Codrington, and Kubary), ii, 345. 3 Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India , i, 269. 4 P.S.B.A., Feb. 1906, 82. 5 It is the custom among the Jews in Palestine, if a woman die in childbirth, to keep the husband out of the room (Masterman, Bibl. World , xxii, 249). Among the Greeks, the clothes of women who died thus were left at the grave of Iphigeneia in Halae (House, Greek Votive Offerings , 252). DEAD VIRGINS. ABORTIONS. 23 Dead virgins and men who die unmarried, we shall discuss later. Be it noted, however, that the Assyrian words used to describe such ghosts show that full-grown and marriageable people are intended, and not immature children, and, from all the evidence, it seems likely that they were supposed to be wedded to incubi or succubce , who claimed them after their death. The ‘ untimely birth ’ or abortion, if the restoration of the Assyrian text is correct, is an extremely probable ghost. According to Babbinic traditions, (t an infant cut or torn at birth, a miscarriage, or born alive at the eighth month, or born dead at the ninth—all the religious ceremonies do not apply to it.” 1 We may therefore infer that the Jews believed it to be the result of some ulterior cause. Again, it is laid down in the Talmud 2 that the dwellings of heathens must be considered unclean, because it was supposed that they buried their miscarriages in their houses. According to the legends of the later Jewish demonology, devils are not so much fallen angels as immature creatures or abortions. 3 Mohammed is said to have ordered prayers to be said over an untimely birth, when supplication should be made for the father and mother, for forgiveness and mercy. 4 1 Talmud, Ebel Rabbathi, ed. Rodkinson, viii, 2. ^ Pesachim, ed. Rodkinson, v, 14. 3 Horst, Zaubev Bibliothek , ii, 391. 4 Hughes, Diet, of Islam , 4. As a legend worth mentioning, the Arab belief about Eve’s first child is interesting. When Eve was pregnant the Devil came to her and asked her if she knew what she carried, and suggested that it might be a beast. He appeared again, and pretended that by his prayers he would obtain of God that it should be a son in Adam’s likeness, if they would call him Abdo’l-hareth instead of Abd Allah. When the child was born it died (Sale, Koran, note to Surah viii). In Malay ideas deformed children may be the result of violating certain animal tabus (Skeat, Malay Magic , 349). 24 CLAIM ON FRIENDS. Now if any one of these disembodied souls came back to earth for some reason, it might fasten itself on any mortal who had been in some way connected with him in this world, or had been brought either visually or by contact into relations with the corpse. The chance sharing of food, oil, or clothes 1 during life constituted an act which gave the spirit after death a claim to return to its friend or even casual acquaintance, to demand the rites which would give it rest. Nay, less, the mere act of eating, drinking, anointing, or dressing oneself in company with another person, without giving or receiving anything, was enough reason for the ghost to single out his victim and seize upon him until, perforce, the man was compelled to suggest that he would pay it its due rites if it left him in peace. The living man, thus tor¬ mented, makes no promises; he merely threatens that no offerings shall be made to the dead until the spirit leaves him free. Tablets IV and Y of the “ Evil Spirit ” series render this quite clear in Assyrian tradition, and the incantation seems worth putting in in full:— 2 “ Whether thou be one with whom on a day I have eaten, Or with whom on a day I have drunk, Or with whom on a day I have anointed myself, 1 Of. Tobit i, 16 : “And in the days of Enemessar I did many almsdeeds to my brethren ; I gave my bread to the hungry and my garments to the naked ; and if I saw any of my race dead, and cast forth on the wall of Nineveh, I buried him.” 2 Devils , i, Tablet IV, col. v, 34 ff. ; cf. Tablet V, col. i, 11. 58 ff. ; Haupt, A.S.Ii.T ., 11, ii, 16. On the question of vengeance of the dead, notice the story in Berakhoth, iii, 3 (ed. Schwab, 298) : “ Has not R. Papa related that someone having despised Samuel, a gutter fell on his head from above and broke his skull (was not this the vengeance of the defunct?). No, since it was the question of a great wise man, the Lord himself intervened in his favour.” DESCRIPTIONS OF GHOSTS IN ASSYRIAN. 25 Or with whom on a day I have clothed myself, Or whether thou be one with whom I have entered and eaten, Or with whom I have entered and drunk, Or with whom I have entered and anointed myself, Or with whom I have entered and clothed myself, Or whether thou be one with whom I have eaten food when I was hungry, Or with whom I have drunk water when I was thirsty, Or with whom I have anointed myself with oil when I was sore, Or with whom when I was cold I have clothed myself with a garment from (?) his loins, (Whatever thou be) until thou art removed, Until thou departest from the body of the man, the son of his god, Thou shalt have no food to eat, Thou shalt have no water to drink, Thou shalt not stretch forth thy hand Unto the table of my father Bel, my creator. Neither with sea water, nor with sweet water, Nor with bad water, nor with Tigris water, Nor with Euphrates water, nor with pond water, Nor with river water shalt thou be covered. If thou wouldst fly up to heaven Thou shalt have no wings ; If thou wouldst lurk in ambush on earth Thou shalt secure no resting-place. Unto the man, the son of his god, come not nigh, Get thee hence ! Place not thy head upon his head, Place not thy hand upon his hand, Place not thy foot upon his foot, With thy hand touch him not, Turn not round against him, Lift not thine eye against him, Look not behind thee, Gibber not against him, Into the house enter thou not, Through the fence break thou not, Into the chamber enter thou not, In the midst of the city encircle him not, Near him make no circuit ; 26 TABU ON SEEING CORPSE. By the word of Ea May the man, the son of his god, Become pure, become clean, become bright ! Like a vessel of lard may he be cleansed, / Like a vessel of butter may he be clean ! Unto Samas, chief of the gods, commend him, v Through Samas, chief of the gods, May his welfare be secured at the kindly hands of the gods. With, regard to the mere action of seeing a dead body, the whole is laid down clearly in a ritual tablet published by Zimmern :— 1 2 “ When a man looketh upon a corpse 3 * and the spirit ( edimmu ) seizeth upon him . . . Thou must sanctify the dwelling (?), lay down upuntu- meal . . . In the morning for nothing evil a sorcerer [and sorceress] . . . • • • • • * • •••••* Make . . . figures of the sorcerer and sorceress . . . Thou shalt cause to take ; with clothes for each day thou shalt dress them, with fine oil anoint [them] . . . Before the sun thou shalt sprinkle the kisar with pure water, thou shalt set clean seats for the god . . . Thou shalt spread out shining (?) garments, an altar [thou must place] for the god ... Three times a meal thou shalt set before Samas, Ea, and Marduk, Dates, ater-meal thou shalt pour forth, thou shalt set three adagur- vessels, Three censers of incense thou shalt set, thou shalt pour forth coi n of all kinds, 1 There are other ghosts mentioned in these lists less easy of explanation. ii One that hath been torn from a date-palm (Tablet I"\ , col. v, 1) may possibly be the origin of the belief in Pes. 111a, that it is dangerous to walk between two palm-trees. Boissier (Textes Ilelcttifs , 100) thinks that it refers to one that has fallen from it while climbing, a very probable explanation. 2 Ritualtafeln , 164. 3 Written ba-bad. Although this is an unusual expression, the translation appears to be correct. THE RETURNING SPIRIT. 27 For the ghosts of his family, on the left of the offerings thou shalt set a seat, For the ghosts of his family, on the left of the ghosts on the left a seat thou shalt set, For the ghosts of the family thou shalt pour libations and offer gifts.” It is unnecessary to point out the universal tabu, both among Semites and other races, on the dead body, but it is interesting to see these views on this subject. The dead body is, of course, in itself tabu ; the Hebrew 1 and Mohammedan 2 laws show this distinctly. Among the Arabs a woman in childbed must get up and go out of the house when a corpse is carried past, or death may ensue to both mother and child. 3 The Arab, again, must recite a prescribed formula of prayer on the passing of a funeral procession, and also on his seeing the firstfruits of the season and its flowers. 4 The dead, it is said, will hear his voice if, on crossing a cemetery, he cry aloud: “O ye people of the grave, may peace be with you, of both sexes of the Faithful.” 5 Among the Jews in Palestine a dead body is not for a moment left alone, it being thought that wandering spirits might take possession of it. After a death, for seven days a lamp must be kept burning all the time. Should it be accidentally extinguished, it is considered a bad sign. Near the lamp are placed a cup of water and a towel, as 1 Lev. v, 2 ; xxii, 4. 2 Sale, Koran , Prelim. Discourse , sect. iv. Cf. Burckhardt, jS otes on the Bedouins and Wahabis , i, 99. 2 Baldensperger, P.E.F. , 1894, 143. 4 It was interesting to see how anxious my Mosul servant was, just as we were leaving Baghdad in 1905, to get ahead of a funeral pro¬ cession which was about to cross our path. 5 Hadji Khan, With the Pilgrims to Mecca , 43. 28 SPIRIT TRANSFERRED TO WATER. it is supposed that the spirit comes to wash there. 1 2 As soon as a death has clearly occurred, all water in the house is poured out and all looking-glasses are turned to the wall, “ lest the spirit see itself reflected in the glass. This superstition of water may be connected with the idea in Numbers xix, 15 : “ Every open vessel which has no covering bound upon it is unclean ” when a man dies in a tent. It seems to have been an accepted belief that spirits might be transferred to water ; for instance, among the Assyrians we find an incantation for a sick man made over a little figure of dough thus :— “ Put water upon the man and Pour forth the water of the incantation ; Bring forth a censer (and) a torch ; As the water trickleth away from his body, So may the pestilence in his body trickle away ; Return this water to a cup and Pour it forth in the broad places ; That the broad places may carry away The evil influence which hath brought low (his) strength.” 3 Or in the Tablet of the Ban:— ‘ ‘ Like water may they pour it out, Like a goblet may they dash it in pieces, Like a tile may they break it.” 4 Or in one of the “Evil Spirit” texts:— “ The evil spirit (and) ghost that appear in the desert, 0 Pestilence that hast touched the man for harm, 1 Masterman, Biblical World , xxii, 256-7. 2 Ibid., 255. This fear of reflection is shown in the Shi’ah tradition if a Muslim gaze into a looking-glass before saying his prayers he will be guilty of worshipping his own likeness (Hadji Khan, With the Pilgrims to Mecca , 42). 3 Devils, ii, Tablet ‘ T,’ Rev. 1. 3 ff. 4 Ibid., Tablet ‘ V,’ 1. 60 ff. SPIRIT TRANSFERRED TO WATER. 29 The Tongue that is banefully fastened on the man, May they be broken in pieces like a goblet, May they be poured forth like water.” 1 * The idea of the magician in his exorcism is that the evil spirits have been transferred to the bowl of water, and that when the water has been poured away and the pot broken all the evil influence will he dissipated. This is the idea in the Maronite rite of baptism. The priest enters the church bearing the child, and, after various ceremonies, approaches the font and pours water into it, and, after lighting a candle, he adjures the evil spirit to depart from the water “ that it may be a fountain causing eternal life. ,, After several responsive sentences he drops three drops of tallow in the water, at the same time praying that the Lord may drive out every evil spirit and Satanic wile from the waters The Rabbinic idea of the soul of a murderer trans¬ migrating to water is the same. They say : “ The mystical sign of this is indicated in (Deut. xii, 16) ‘ Ye shall pour it upon the earth as water’; and the meaning is, he is continually rolling on and on without any rest. Therefore let no man drink (direct) from a running tap or spout, but from the hollow of his hands, lest a soul pass into him, and that the soul of a wicked sinner.” 3 To drink water drawn overnight is one of the things (along with sleeping all night in a cemetery or throwing one’s nail parings into the street) which cause a man to “ sin against himself.” 4 If a man drinks water at night he exposes i Ibid., i, Tablet ‘ C,’ col. ii, 1. 156. 3 Hershon, Talm. Misc., 328, quoting fol. 153, cols. 1, 2. 4 jYirldah , fol. 17, col. 1. Bliss, P.E.F ., 1892, 214. Kabbala, Emeli llamelech , 30 SPIRIT TRANSFERRED TO WATER. himself to the power of Shabriri, the demon of blindness. If he is with some one else, he should say, “ I am thirsty ” ; but, if alone, he must tap on the lid of the jug and address himself by his own name and the name of his mother, saying, “ Thy mother has bid thee beware of Shabriri, briri, riri, iri, ri, in a white cup.” 1 On the eves of Wednesday and the Sabbath one should not drink water except out of white vessels, and after having recited Ps. xxix, 3-9, or other magical formulae, for it is on those nights that Agrath bath Mahlath is abroad with her train of eighteen myriads of messengers of destruction. 2 The Jews of Galicia break a pot or dish in front of a child to drive away the demon of convulsions, 3 and among the Arabs, when any evil is apprehended from a person, it is customary to break a piece of pottery behind his back. 4 The Levitical laws for vessels rendered tabu by the touch of unclean beasts show a parallel; some are to be put in water, but those of earthenware are to be broken. 5 Now it is to this transference of evils that we must refer the peculiar custom in vogue at weddings in the East, and at the risk of diverging from the main subject of this chapter for the moment it is worth an examination. A jug of water is placed on the head of the bride at an Arab wedding in Palestine when she reaches the door of the new house, “ as a sign of complete submission to her husband,” and when she steps into the house she must call on the name of God as she passes over the lintel, 1 Abodah Zarah , fol. 12, col. 2, quoted Hershon, Talm. Misc ., 232. See Introduction. 2 Pes. f 3 a and 1126, quoted Jewish Encycl., sub Demonology . 3 Jew. Encycl.y xi, 600. 4 Lane, Manners and Customs , 324. 5 xi, 29-38. SPIRIT TRANSFERRED TO WATER. 31 because the Jan live below. The bridegroom strikes the jug as she passes, throwing it down and breaking it. He also holds a sword over her. 1 According to Spoer, who was present at a wedding at Siloain, the bride put a little leaven to her forehead and fastened some to the doorpost of the new house, and entered the room with a water-jar on her head, “symbolizing her future duties.” 2 Surely this is not the proper explanation for so peculiar a custom. The “ calling on the name of God,” the breaking of the pot by the bridegroom, and the prophylactic sword (i.e. iron) can only point to an ancient rite of exorcism over the devils who are always ready to attack newly wedded folk by transferring them to the bowl of water with a “ word of power,” and then dispersing them by the destruction of the pot. Among the Yezidis, for instance, the marriage customs seem to throw some additional light on this, for the bride on her arrival at the house of her betrothed is struck by him with a selala (small stone), symbolizing that she is under his power, and again by a loaf of bread, signifying that “ she should be compassionate on the poor.” 3 A remnant of the jar-breaking reappears in the Cairene custom of hanging large chandeliers in front of a bridegroom’s house and, by breaking a large jar, divert the attention of the spectators . . lest an envious eye should cause the chandelier to fall.” 4 In the tract Cctllah it is said by the Rabbis that whoever takes drink from the hand of a bride, it is as if he had drunk from the hand 1 Baldensperger, P.E.F., 1894, 136, 138. 3 Hans H. Spoer, Biblical World , xxvi, 13. 3 Chabot, Notice sur les Yezidis, J.A., vii, 1896, 127. Both of these actions can be referred to customs of driving demons away. 4 Lane, Manners and Customs , quoted Arabian Nights , vol. iv, note 44. 32 LAYING THE GHOST. \ of a harlot. He who receives a cup from the hands of a bride and drinks therefrom has no portion in the world to come. 1 There are special dispensations allowing fiancees to wash their faces on the Hay of Atonement. 2 There is another Assyrian tablet dealing with the laying of ghosts. 3 As usual, long formulae containing the descriptions of all possible apparitions are prescribed, in order that the magician may show that he knows the name of the haunting spirit—“ A brother’s ghost, or a twin, or one unnamed, or w T ith none to pay it rites, or one slain by the sword, or one that hath died by fault of god or sin of king” (col. i, 11. 6-8), or “the ghost of one unburied, or of a brother, or anything evil” 4 (col. i, 1. 23). The ceremonies appointed for the laying of the spirit are as follows: Seven small loaves of roast 5 corn, the hoof of a dark-coloured ox, flour of roast corn, and a little leaven 5 are necessary; then, after a libation, there is a spell— “ 0 ye dead folk, whose cities are heaps of earth, whose ... are sorrowful, why have ye appeared unto me ? I will not come to Kutha ! Ye are a crowd of ghosts : why do ye cast your enchantments upon me ? ” The flour and leaven are to he kneaded into a paste in the horn of another ox, and a libation poured into 1 Hershon, Tahn. Misc ., 236, Tract Callah . 2 See further, under Royal Tabus. 3 K. 2175 ; see my article P.S.B.A. , Nov. 1906, 219 ff. Compare also K. 2604, beginning : “ When the ghost of a man’s father appears,” and K. 1293 (Harper, Letters, No. 461): “The figure of the dead man in clay,” followed by the necessary rites. ^ It is also possible to translate here “or of an evil brother or sister.” But cf. Meissner, Ritualtafeln , 152, No. 45, 1. 9. 5 On this translation see the footnote, loc. cit., 224. LAYING THE GHOST. 33 a hole in the earth (just as Gilgamish pours his offering into the earth when asking a dream). Kutha, in this incantation, is the underworld ; it occurs in the story of the Descent of Ishtar, where the porter of Hades says, “Enter, 0 Lady, let Kutha he glad at [thee].” 1 After further ceremonies the leavened dough is to he placed in the hoof of the first ox, and another libation poured out, v with an incantation to Samas. In the same tablet is a prayer entitled “Prayer for when a dead man appeareth unto a living man for evil, to turn him back that he appear not.” The ceremony begins with the following directions:— “ Spin a variegated and a scarlet thread together, and tie seven knots in it; thou shalt mix together oil of cedar, spittle of the man, the leavened dough, earth from an old grave, a tortoise’s (?) mouth (?), a thorn (?), earth from the roots of the caper, 2 earth of ants; thou shalt sprinkle the knots with this. While thou tiest them, thou shalt repeat this incantation [ (and) bind it] on the temples [of the man]. Thus shalt thou tighten it, until the darkening 1 See King, Babylonian Religion , 180. 2 Compare the story in the Armenian version of the Life of St. Nino (F. C. Conybeare in Studia Biblica , v, 75) about the childless couple : “And a luminous man said to me (St. Nino) : ‘ Go into the garden, and from the root of a cedar (or pine) sapling by the rose-bushes thou shalt take earth, and give it to them to eat in the name of the Lord, and He will give them offspring.”’ Cf. also ibid., p. 23. With regard to the “earth of ants,” according to Bochart, it was a custom with the Arabs to place an ant in the hand of a new-born child, with a prayer that he might grow up wise and sagacious ( Encycl. Bibl ., i, 176). In late Hebrew magic “dust from an ant-heap” put into a written charm and hung up in the workshop brought prosperity in business (Folklore of Mossoul , P.S.B.A ., March, 1906, 103, No. 5). 34 LAYING THE GHOST. of the white part of the face and the whitening of the dark-coloured part of the face takes place ” 1 . . . The latter part of this incantation prescribes that figures of the dead man and the living person to whom the spirit has appeared be made, and libations made before both; then the figure of the dead man is to be buried in a grave, and that of the living man is to be washed in pure water, thus typifying the burial of the body of the ghost and the cleansing of the living man. The accompanying spell is to be recited :— “ 0 Sun-god, king of heaven and earth, judge of what is above and below, lord of the dead, ruler of the living, 0 Sun-god, the dead who have risen and appeared, whether the ghost of my father or of my mother, or the ghost of my brother, Or of my sister, let them accept this, and leave me free ! ” Then the following ceremony is to be performed. In the morning at early twilight the liisav must be sprinkled with pure water, and a censer lighted for the Sun-god, to await him at his rising, burning burasu- wood or gum ; a libation of sesame-wine must be made, and a libation of asses’ urine poured forth three times. Thus will the dead be stayed. Yet another method is given in the same tablet: “ When a dead man appeareth unto a living man . . . thou shalt make [a figure] of clay, and write his name on the left side with a stylus ; thou shalt put it in a gazelle’s horn and its face . . . and in the shade of a caper- bush or in the shade of a thorn-bush thou shalt dig a hole and bury it.” 1 For the difficult words in this passage see the whole article. The last passage is somewhat doubtful. OMENS FROM GHOSTS. 35 If a man is attacked by a ghost, 1 he is to he anointed with various substances, and “ the hand of the ghost ” will be removed. Even the fright from a ghost can be assuaged by certain prayers. 2 It is also among the charges brought against the hostile wizard in the Maklu- series, 3 that he has made a figure of the enchanted person (for whom the health-giving rites are being performed), and has delivered it to a corpse, or allowed it to look at it, or laid it near or on one, or in a grave, or he has put the sick man’s water by the side of or on a corpse. From these latter texts it will hardly be necessary to adduce further proof that the ancient Assyrians were firmly convinced that they might actually see ghosts, and that there was no doubt that this might happen to any man. Yet if any more evidence be needed, the omen tablet K. 8693 4 will furnish it. This text gives a list of the probable occurrences to be expected if a ghost appears in the house of a man. \ “ When a ghost appeareth in the house of a man there will be a destruction of that house ; When ditto speaketh and hearkeneth (for an answer), destruction of that house, the man will die and (there will be) lamentation. When ditto standeth over the bed, overthrow of the bed and house.” The same thing will happen if it is under the bed. We thus see that it was counted an evil omen, if an apparition * K. 4075. 2 K. 3398. For both see Bezold’s Catalogue of the Kouyunjik Collection. 3 Maklu, Tablet IV. 4 Compare also S. 392 : “ When a ghost gibbers in the house of a man in the middle watch,” or “in the morning watch.” 36 PARALLEL PROM MALAYS. showed itself in a house, either silent or gibbering in expectation of some answer; further, we now have evidence for the belief among the Assyrians in the ghost which walks at night and comes to the bedside, a universal tradition. There is an interesting parallel to these rites among the Dyaks or Malays of some of the western tribes of Borneo. If one of these natives falls to vomiting, he believes that one of his deceased kinsfolk is responsible, and he repairs to a wise-man or a wise-woman for help. This exorcist pulls out one of his hairs, and calls on the names of his dead relations ; the name at which the lock gives forth a sound is the name of the guilty one. The physician, generally an old woman, then says to the ghost: “ Go back to your grave: what do you come here for ? The soul of the sick man does not choose to be called by you, and will remain yet a long time in its body.” Then she puts some ashes from the hearth in a winnowing fan, and moulds out of them a small figure or image in human likeness. Seven times she moves the basket with the little ashen figure up and down before the patient, taking care not to obliterate the figure, while at the same time she says: “ Sickness, settle in the head, belly, hands, etc., then quickly pass into the corresponding part of the image,” whereupon the patient spits on the image and pushes it from him with his left hand. Next the beldame lights a candle and goes to the grave of the person whose ghost is doing all the mischief, and throws thereon the figure of ashes, calling out: “ Ghost, plague the sick man no longer, and stay in your grave that he may see you no more.” 1 1 E. L. M. Kiihr, Schetzen nit Borneo's Westerafdeeling , quoted by Frazer, Golden Bough , i, 267. THE EXTERNAL SOUL. 37 To return to our subject, the departed soul. Having seen to how great an extent the ancient Semites believed in the individuality of the soul after death, it now remains, as a corollary, to look into the question of a belief peculiar to savage races, the separation of the soul from the human being during life; that is to say, whether the Semites believed at all in the possibility of a man guarding his soul in some other place than his body. On this subject Frazer, in his discussion of this savage idea, quotes the story of Seyf el-Mulook in the Arabian Nights , l where the jinni’s soul is in the crop of a sparrow, which is in a box, in another box, within seven boxes, in seven chests in a coffer of marble, and as an Oriental parallel he compares the story of the Two Brothers in Egyptian. 2 For other examples among the Semites, we may mention a Syrian Arab story, 3 where a Princess Hisn says to a Jew : “ I beg of you, tell me where your soul is, so that I and it may be company for each other during the day.” He said to her: “In the wooden lock of the door.” She put a bunch of flowers on the door, and began to act as though she was talking with it. The Jew came in the evening, and saw the door decorated. He said to her. “ What! are you crazy ? ” She said to him : “ I beg of you, where is your soul ? ” He said to her: “ In the broom.” She began to laugh at him, so that he would think she loved him. The third day she said to him : “ I beg of you, tell me where your soul is ? ” He told her that his soul was inside some cotton in a little box in the foot of a lame gazelle. She said to him : “ How shall 1 Golden Bough, iii, 378. 3 Huxley, J.A.O.S ., xxiii, 287. 2 Papyrus D’Orbiney. 38 THE EXTERNAL SOUL. I get it ? ” He replied : “ By means of three hairs from my beard.” The story of Samson guarding his strength in his hair seems to have something in keeping with this belief, and another passage in the Old Testament, Ezek. xiii, 18, is noteworthy: “Woe to the women that sew pillows upon all elbows, and make kerchiefs for the head of persons of every stature to hunt souls.” According to Mohammedan tradition, the soul of Adam had been created thousands of years before the making of the clay body, and it at first refused to enter its human dwelling. At last God forced it violently through Adam’s nose, which caused him to sneeze. 1 In Assyrian there is an incantation directing the sorcerer— t ‘ ‘ Bind the head of the sick man, •And bind the neck of the sick man, And bind the soul (or life) of the sick man.” 2 The remark of an old Fijian chief that a newborn child is scarcely a human being, as its spirit has not yet come to it, is very suggestive in this connection. 3 We have now to turn to the second class of spirits, those that are entirely inhuman and supernatural. They exist in the fertile imagination of the Semites in countless hordes, and their names are legion ; and as it is impossible to compare accurately the roles of each separate demon in the respective Semitic languages, the best way will be to examine the characteristics of each successively. 1 Jewish Encyclopedia, 178. 2 Devils , ii, Tablet IX, 1. 80 ff. M. Fossey, in his La Magie Assyrienne , suggests that this is “ peut-etre . . . un euphemisme pour designer le membre viril.” 3 Fison and Howitt, Kamilaro and Kurnai , 190. THE TJTUKKU. 39 Again taking Assyrian as the base, the first matter that lies before us in the oft-repeated line Utukku Kmnu, alii Umnu , edimmu limnu, gallii limnu, ilu limnu, rabisu limnu, , “Evil Spirit, evil Demon, evil Ghost, evil Devil, evil God, evil Fiend.” The edimmu we have already dealt with, the alii belongs to the third class, being half human, and the “ evil God ” yields but little more than its self- contained idea, so that we have only to treat of the utukku , the gallii, and the rabisu. The utukku is, once at least, 1 used of the wraith of a dead man coming back to earth, but it is not easy to say wherein the difference lies between it and the edimmu. But from the fact that we find it only once, with certainty, taking the place of the edimmu, we shall probably be right in ascribing to it a far wider scope. It was certainly a spirit that lurked in the desert, 2 the common home of many Semitic devils, lying in wait for man, or it might have its home in the mountains, sea, or graveyard, 3 and evil would befall him on whom it merely cast its eye. 4 The following text describes the province of a spirit whose name is unfortunately lost, through a break in the tablet. It is possible, however, that it is the utukku . “ The evil Spirit 5 robbeth . . . and roameth over the land, The evil Spirit which shroudeth the land as with a garment, The evil Spirit which against the man angrily . . . The evil Spirit is a devil which heareth not, 1 The Gilgamish episode ; see King, Bab. Religion , 175. 2 Devils , i, Tablet III, 1. 28, p. 5. 3 W.A.l. , ii, 17, i, 3 ; and Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, i, 3. 4 Devils , i, Tablet ‘ C,’ 1. 179. 5 The Sumerian word is lost, and the Assyrian translation represents it by a ditto- sign. 40 THE RAB1STT. The evil Spirit is a devil which hath no shame, The evil Spirit is a devil which spawneth evilly, The evil Spirit which bringeth woe on the land, The evil Spirit which hunteth over the land, The evil Spirit which chaseth living beings, The evil Spirit is a pestilence which . . . the hand, The evil Spirit which fiercely hunteth the land, The evil Spirit which fiercely raiseth trouble in the land, The evil Spirit which receiveth not . . . The evil Spirit which draweth up the little ones like fish from the water, The evil Spirit which casteth down the elders . . . The evil Spirit which striketh grey-haired old men and women.” 1 The gallii is sexless. 2 3 It is a word used in classical Assyrian as a term of abuse, being used by Sennacherib to describe the hostile Babylonians in the phrase gcilli limnuti, ‘ evil devils/ 3 The rabisu, as its name implies, is a lurking demon which sets the hair of the body on end, 4 just as in Job iv, 15 : “ Then a spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my flesh stood up/’ This ‘ lurker ’ may be compared to the Syriac bar egara , a demon who sat on the roof and jumped on a man as he came out of the house, the man so afflicted being known as d’bar egara. 5 1 Ibid., ii, 127. 2 Devils and Evil Spirits , Tablet Y, col. iv, 1. 17. 3 G. Smith, History of Senn., 114, 1. 6. 4 W.A.I., v, 50 ; i, 51. I once heard a Suez Arab in the Sinaitic Peninsula explaining how he could always tell whether a black man was a demon or not; his hair would always stand up on end of its own accord if the negro whom he passed in the street were a supernatural visitant. 5 lr\^l r^> Payne Smith, Thesaurus , 31, “daemon lunaris qui quovis mensis lunaris initio luna exagitatur (lunaticus fit), necnon is, qui a luna ad lunam cruciabatur a daemone qui eum cruciabat.” THE LABARTU. 41 The labartu , labasu, and ahhazu are a triad frequently found together. Of the first-named, we find a whole series of incantations written against her. She is a female demon, the daughter of Anu, 1 2 and she makes her home in the mountains, or cane-brakes of the marshes. Children were particularly exposed to her attacks. It is curious to see how solicitous the Semites were in guarding their babes from the malign influence of such IciYtiicB. For instance, the spells against the Icibcu tu include an incantation to be written on a stone and hung round the child’s neck— “ ‘ Labartu, [daughter] of Anu/ is her first name ; The second, ‘ Sister of the [gods] of the streets 5 ; The third, ‘ Sword that splitteth the head ’; The fourth, ‘ Wood-kindler ’ ; The fifth, ‘ Goddess of awful mien 7 ; The sixth, ‘ The trusted, accepted of Irnina ’ ; The seventh, * By the great gods mayst thou be exorcised ; with the bird of heaven mayst thou fly away. 7 ” 3 Gaster 3 has published a Hebrew charm as follows: “If thou wishest to protect a young babe from an evil spirit and from the host of Mahalath, write these angels on a tablet of gold in Assyrian writing (Ashuri) 4 and carry it with thee, and thou needst not fear any evil eithei from (for) a big man or a small child.” In the Testa¬ ment of Solomon Obizuth is the name of the female spirit that visits women in childbirth, and if she is lucky she 1 Haupt, A.S.K.T., 11, iii, 59. 2 W.A.I., iv, 56, i, 1 ; Myhrman, Zeits. fur Assyr ., xvi, 155. a P.S.B.A., 1900, 340. 4 I.e. square character in Hebrew. 42 THE LABARTU. strangles the babe. 1 The Maronites have the same ideas about hanging prophylactic amulets on children. Bliss 2 describes a leaflet folded in a piece of leather and worn as a charm. It is inscribed with a prayer to St. Cyprian to preserve all who read it, wear it, or put it in their houses or on beasts, that they may be safe from the Evil Eye, from the shadows of night, from evil spirits lurking in things animate or inanimate, in food or drink. This is put on a child who is afraid of ghosts. Among the Arabs, if a child wish to be delivered from nightmare and its terrors, he must say to Allah, “ I take refuge in thee from the evil of Satan.’ 5 3 Their equivalent for the child-witch is called Umm-el-Subyan.* 1 Conybeare, Jewish Quarterly, xi, 30. On Byzantine amulets against female demons, see Schlumberger, Melanges d : Archeologie Byzantine, 117. Hanauer relates ( P.E.F., 1904, 266) the tale told by a Spanish Jewess about the spirit of La Broosha (a form of Lilith), who often takes the shape of a cat. It concerned her grandmother at the time that she gave birth to a child, the mother of this Jewess. It is a custom that for nine days after a birth neither mother nor child should be left alone in a room, but this precaution was temporarily omitted. The woman who was nursing the sick mother left the room, and when she returned the patient related a dream of a great black cat having come into the room and turned itself into ajar. A cat mewed in the street and the jar became a cat again. It came to the bed, took the baby and went to the window and said, “ Shall I throw ? ” “ Throw,” said the cat outside. This happened thrice with the same answer, and the cat then threw the baby out of the window and disappeared herself at the entrance of the nurse, who at once noticed the baby was not in the cradle. In order not to alarm the mother she explained that she herself had taken the child, and then dashed out of the house to see a cat crossing a field with a babe in its mouth. As she pursued she uttered a form of adjuration which forced the beast to drop the child. 2 P.E.F., 1892, 318. 3 Hadji Khan, With Pilgrims to Mecca , 44. 4 Zwemer, Arabia, 283. THE SEDU AND LAMASSU. 43 Doubtless the Dragon of Revelation, 1 which stood before the woman in travail, is to be placed under this head; at any rate, the Dragon of the Testament of Solomon has some of these characteristics: 2 “ There came before me a dragon, three-headed, of fearful hue. And I questioned him, ‘Who art thou?’ And he answered me, ‘I am a caltrop-like (t pt/SoAcuo?) spirit, whose activity is in three lines. But I blind children in women’s wombs and twirl their ears round, and I make them deaf and mute. Of the ahhazu , ‘ seizer,’ and the labasu practically nothing is known, unless the former is considered to be the same as that ahhazu described in the medical texts, where V V a man may be ‘ filled ’ by a disease of this name. 3 Two others are mentioned in the cuneiform magical texts, the sedu and lamassu. The former may be the name for either a guardian deity or an evil spirit. As a power of evil it is found in an invocation beginning “ Spirit ( sedu ) which minisheth heaven and earth, which minisheth the land; spirit which minisheth the land, of giant strength, and giant tread .” 4 It is also found in a list of spirits, before the Evil Eye’; 5 or is described as an ‘evil genius ( sedu ), 6 and the sixteenth tablet of the “ Evil Spirits begins i “ The evil gods are raging storms, Ruthless spirits (sddu) created in heaven s vault. It is exorcised by the sick man— “ 0 Spirit ( sedu ) that standest close at hand, At my cry go forth therefrom unto the street ! ! xii 4 2 Ed. Conybeare, J.Q., xi, 29. 3 Kuchler, Assyr.-Babyl. Medizin , 60, 11. 28, 30, 31, etc. * Devils, Tablet V, col. iv, 1. 8 ff. 5 Ibid., Tablet XVI, 1. 346. s Ibid., Tablet ‘ L,’ 1. 5. 7 I bid -. Tablet XVI, 1. 1. 44 THE SED1M. 0 Spirit that standeth near, At my cry go forth [therefrom unto the street].” 1 It also takes its place with the utukku and rabisu — “ The great genius ( sedu ), spirit and fiend, Which roam the broad places for men.” 2 “ The evil spirit hath lain in wait in the desert, unto the side of the man [hath drawn nigh], The evil genius (sSdu) for ever is rampant, And none can [resist him].” 3 “ The raging genius, the evil demon.” 4 It is in its quality as an evil spirit that the surrounding Semitic nations borrowed the word from the Assyrians. It occurs as nnw in Deut. xxxii, 17, and Ps. cvi, 37, and in Aramaic l?!* > in later times it is the T •* X subject of much discussion among the Fabbis. For instance, the sedim are said in the Talmud 5 to possess six quali¬ fications, three of which belong to man, and three to the angels, for though they eat, drink, multiply, and die as men do, they have wings, foreknowledge of the future, and can traverse the world from one end to the other, just like the angels. Indeed, according to some, they can assume any shape and form they like, being able to see without being seen themselves. Others say that they were begotten by two angels named Aza and Azael on Naamah, the daughter of Lamech, before the Flood. 6 1 Ibid., Tablet ‘ G,’ 1. 14. 2 Ibid., Tablet ‘ N,’ col. i, 1. 9. 3 Ibid., Tablet ‘ T,’ 1. 1. 4 Tallqvist, Maqlu , vii, 124. Cf. also i, 136. 5 Aboth , ed. hodkinson, i (ix), 123. 6 Sale, Koran (quoting Zohar), Prelim. Discourse , sect. iv. GUARDIAN ANGELS. 45 But, inasmuch as this became a generic term in late times for devils generally, it will be more expedient to discuss it further on under the broader view of super¬ natural beings. The sedu , however, to return to its Assyrian phase, was also looked upon as a beneficent spirit, thus approximating to the idea of guardian angels. "W ith the Icmyicissu , which appears always as a kindly spirit, it is appealed to at the end of invocations, both being frequently invoked to be present after the evil spirit has been cast out. The exorciser, for instance, will ban the evil spirit thus. “ May the god Dubsag-Unug-ki, the patron of Kullabi, For my life and health follow after me ; A kindly Guardian ( sedu ) marcheth on my right, A kindly Spirit ( lamassu ) marcheth on my left.” 1 “ When I draw near unto the sick man, When I lay my hand on the head of the sick man, May a kindly Guardian (sedu), a kindly Spirit ( lamassu) stand at my side.” 2 The gods perform the Incantation of the Deep “ That a kindly Guardian, a kindly Spirit, may stand at the side of the man, the son of his god.” 3 “ May the evil Spirit (utukku) which hath seized him (the sick man) stand aside, May a kindly Guardian (sSdu) stand at his head, May a kindly Spirit (lamassu) stand continually at his side. 1 Devils , i, Tablet III, 1. 88 fi. 3 Ibid., Tablet ‘ K,’ 1. 205. 4 Ibid., 1. 220. For other instances cf. ‘ N,’ iii, 1. 27 ; vi, 1. 15 ; xi, 1. 96. 2 Ibid., 1. 149. op. cit., ii, Tablet ‘ L,’ 1. 9 ; 1 46 GUARDIAN ANGELS. The magician ends his spell with a prayer to Ea— “ Oh that thou wert my guardian Genius ( sSdu ) And my guardian Spirit ( lamassu ).” 1 While on the subject of guardian spirits, it will here be fitting to look into the question of guardian angels, to see how far the Assyrian beliefs tally with those of the other Semites. The Rabbis maintained that every man had two guardian angels who accompanied him. 2 The Mohammedans say that two such angels attend on every man to observe and write down his actions; 3 according to the peasants of Palestine, one is on each shoulder, and they are greeted at the end of every prayer by turning towards them, right and left. They write down every deed accomplished during the daytime, or as long as the person is awake. 4 We have to consider, in relation to this, the two phrases which so constantly occur in cuneiform religious texts, “ the man, son of his god/' and “ his god and his goddess,” the latter occurring frequently in the so-called Penitential Psalms. The former is to be found in the incantations, and seems to be used to indicate that the man really has a god as his protector against the evil spirit who is being exorcised. Thus such phrases as: “ IJnto the man, the son of his god, come not nigh ” ; 5 “ Until thou departest from the man, the son of his god ” ; 6 1 Ibid., i, Tablet III, 1. 284 ff. 3 Hag., 16a, quoted Jewish Encyd. , sub Angelology. 3 Sale, Koran , Prelim. Disc., sect. iv. 4 Baldensperger, P.E.F. , 1893, 309. On the question of the relation of ‘messengers’ or ‘angels’ with evil spirits, see Jewish Encycl., sub voce. 5 Devils , vol. i, Tablet IV, vi, 3 ff. 6 Ibid., Tablet V, ii, 55 ; iii, 37. THE SEVEN SPIRITS. 47 “From the man, the son of his god, may they depart from his body,” 1 etc., are common, but tbe reference is doubtless to a particular god to whom tbe man bas attached himself either by local influence or family tradition, or, when we consider tbe extraordinary number of god- names used in composite personal names, we may perhaps assume that tbe man thought himself to be under the segis of such god as formed a component of bis name. It is more likely, if we are to see any reference to ‘ guardian angels’ in Assyrian literature, that we shall find it in the phrase “bis god and bis goddess.” “He that bath no god,” we are told in an incantation against Headache, 2 “Headache will seize on his body when be walketb in tbe street.” In addition to tbe Assyrian demons known by distinctive names, there are the 'Seven Spirits’ which combine in their persons almost all the traditional Eastern ideas of jinn , aghwaly and afcirit. “ Seven are they ! Seven are they ! In the Ocean Deep, seven are they ! Battening in Heaven, seven are they ! Bred in the depths of the Ocean ; Nor male nor female are they, But are as.the roaming wind-blast, No wife have they, no son can they beget; Knowing neither mercy nor pity, They hearken not to prayer or supplication. They are as horses reared amid the hills, The Evil Ones of Ea ; Throne-bearers to the gods are they, They stand in the highway to befoul the path ; 1 Ibid., iii, 47. 2 Ibid., Tablet IX, 194. 48 THE SEVEN SPIRITS. Evil are they, evil are they ! Seven are they, seven are they, Twice seven are they ! ” 1 “ Destructive storms (and) evil winds are they, 2 An evil blast that heraldeth 3 the baneful storm, An evil blast, forerunner of the baneful storm. They are mighty children, mighty sons, Heralds of the Pestilence. Throne-bearers of Ereskigal, They are the flood which rusheth through the land. Seven gods of the broad earth, Seven robber (?)-gods are they, Seven gods of might, Seven evil gods, Seven evil demons, Seven evil demons of oppression, Seven in heaven and seven on earth.” 4 ‘ ‘ Spirits that minish heaven and earth, That minish the land, Spirits that minish the land, Of giant strength, Of giant strength and giant tread, Demons (like) raging bulls, great ghosts, Ghosts that break through all houses, Demons that have no shame, Seven are they ! Knowing no care, they grind the land like corn ; Knowing no mercy, they rage against mankind, They spill their blood like rain, 1 Ibid., Tablet V, col. v, 1. 28. 2 Maury, La Magie , 102, quoting Clem. Alex., Stromat., vi (ed. Potter, ii, 754), says that pestilences, tempests, and hail regarded as the work of demons, and this superstition continued almost all the Christians of the Middle Ages. 3 Literally ‘ beholdeth.’ 4 Devils and Evil Spirits, i, Tablet V, col. ii, 1. 6o ft. THE SEVEN SPIRITS. 49 Devouring their flesh (and) sucking their veins. They are demons full of violence, ceaselessly devouringdblood.” 1 “ Warriors twice seven are they, That in a single (?) spawning in the creation of Anu were spawned ; They are the roaming wind-blast. No wife have they, no son do they beget; Sense they know not.” 2 “ From land to land they roam, Driving the maid from her chamber, Sending the man forth from his home, Expelling the son from the house of his father, Hunting the pigeons from their cotes, Driving the bird from its nest, Making the swallow fly forth from its hole, Smiting both oxen and sheep. They are the evil spirits that chase the great storms, Bringing a blight on the land.” 3 “ Through the gloomy street by night they roam, [Smiting] sheepfold and cattle-pen. The land [as with door and ?] bolt they [shut up], In the city like a snare they are set, Through the door like a snake they glide, Through the hinge like the wind they blow, Estranging the wife from the embrace of a husband, Snatching the child from the loins 4 of a man.” 5 “ They creep like a snake on their bellies, They make the chamber to stink like mice, They give tongue like a pack of hounds. 6 “ Rending above, bringing destruction below, They are the children of the underworld } Loudly roaring above, gibbering below, They are the bitter venom of the gods ; Ibid., col. iv, 1. 8. Ibid., Tablet IV, col. i, 1. 24 ff. Ibid., col. ii, 1. 12 fi. Ibid., col. iv, 1. 60 ff. Literally ‘ knees.’ Ibid., Tablet‘C,’ 1. 213 ff. 50 THE SEVEN SPIRITS. They are the great storms directed from heaven, They are the owls which hoot over a city, They are the children born of earth, That in the creation of Anu were spawned. Over the highest wall and through the thickest wall, Like a storm flood they can pass. Breaking through from house to house ; No door can shut them out, no bolt can turn them back.” 1 2 These Seven Spirits reappear in later times, both in Syriac and in Palestinian magic. The tradition of the Unclean Spirit in the Gospel of St. Luke (xi, 24) un¬ doubtedly echoes this Assyrian poem : “ The unclean spirit, when he is gone out of the man, passeth through waterless places, seeking rest; and finding none, he saith, I will turn back unto my house whence I came out. And when he is come, he findeth it swept and garnished. Then goeth he, and taketh to him seven other spirits more evil than himself.” But we have a still more curious tradition in Syriac which describes the Seven Spirits almost exactly as they were known to the earlier inhabitants of Mesopotamia. “ \_For~\ the fold of cattle? “‘ Seven accursed brothers, accursed sons ! destructive “ ‘ ones, sons of men of destruction ! Why do you creep “ ‘ along on your knees and move upon your hands P ’ 1 Ibid., Tablet Y, col. i, 1. 10. 2 What is evidently a similar charm in Assyrian for cattle is given in W.A.I., iv, 18, 6 “ The evil demon, the evil devil seek the resting-place (for sheep) in the desert, destroying the resting-place like nusu. The Asakku casteth down in the horses’ stable, It hath filled the mouth of the asses with dust, and estrangeth their matrix, THE SEVEN SPIRITS. 51 “And they replied, ‘We go on our hands, so that we may “ ‘ eat flesh, and we crawl along upon our hands, so that “ ‘ we may drink blood.’ As soon as I saw it, I pre- “ vented them from devouring, and I cursed and bound “ them in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy “ Ghost, saying: ‘ May you not proceed on your way, nor u ‘ finish your journey, and may God break your teeth, “ ‘ and cut the veins of your neck, and the sinews thereof, “ ‘ that you approach not the sheep nor the oxen of the “ f person who carries [sc. these writs] ! I bind you in “ ‘ the name of Gabriel and Michael, I bind you by that “ ‘ angel who judged the woman that combed (the hair “ ‘ of) her head on the eve of Holy Sunday. May they “ ‘ vanish as smoke from before the wind for ever and “ f ever, Amen.’ ” 1 Beliar sends seven evil spirits against man. 2 In Rev. xv, 6, The ass in foal, the ass that beareth, it maketh cast their young, The little ass yet unweaned it will not [let suck] the milk, In their fold it [bringeth] woe, A kindly spirit (?) in the pen hath passed (?) and ... to the side climbeth (?) Marduk, son of Eridu, . . . when he cometh, casteth a glance at this sheep-pen and Unto his father Ea, unto the house entereth and saith— ‘[Father], the Plague-god (?) roameth the desert like a hurricane. 5 [Ea hath answered him : ‘ What I,’ etc.] : ‘ Go, my son,’ . . . take the urigallu, . . . open the pen, . . ride ...” In Arab lore beasts are able to perceive the approach of spirits. Cocks crow and asses bray, and with this Wellhausen compares the story of Balaam’s ass ( Reste , 151). 1 H. Gollancz, Selection of Charms , 87. 2 Testament of Twelve Patriarchs , Reub. 2, quoted Charles, The Ascension of Isaiah , 7. 52 THE SEVEN SPIRITS. there is mention of “ seven angels that had the seven plagues,'” and we may surely see some echo of the seven evil spirits in “ These things saith he that hath the seven Spirits of God, and the seven stars ” ; 1 “ And there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, which are the seven Spirits of God.” 2 Again, between the seven Assyrian spirits and the seven devas or arch-demons of Zoroastrianism there must undoubtedly be some connection. 3 The curious description of these spirits as throne-bearers explains the tradition of the Hayyot, in the late Hebrew theology, who carry God’s Throne. 4 Moreover, there is a class of angels in Mohammedanism, called Throne-bearers, who are said to be at present four, but on the day of resurrection they will be strengthened by an additional four, who will then bear the throne of God above them. 5 Their predilection for human blood, as described in the cuneiform incantation, is in keeping with all the traditions of the grisly mediseval vampires. In an Etliiopic charm an invocation is thus made: “ Thus make perish, 0 Lord, all demons and evil spirits who eat flesh and drink blood: who crush the bones and seduce the children of men ; drive them away, O Lord, by the power of these thy names and by the prayer of thy holy Disciples, from thy servant.” 6 To the seven evil spirits was due the eclipse of the moon. The sixteenth tablet of the series “ Evil Spirits ” describes how the Seven Spirits attacked the Moon-god and 1 Rev. iii, 1. 2 Eev. iv, 5. Cf. also v, 6. 3 Encycl. Bibl., 1073. 4 On the subject of angels carrying the prayers of men to the Throne of God, see Tobit xii, 12, 15 ; Baruch, Apoc., Gk., xi. 5 Koran , Surahs xl, lxix. Cf. Klein, Rel. of Islam, 66. 6 Littmann, J.A.O.S ., xxv, 35. ECLIPSES. 53 dimmed his light, and there is little doubt that this was a popular explanation of such a phenomenon. Although it must be admitted that their attack is made against the crescent of the moon, as the Assyrian text runs, this is probably due to poetic licence, and is not a serious bar to the rational explanation of this text, which, after all, only reiterates the common savage belief. The modern Semite is as certain of this as were his ancestors, and it is a common custom nowadays for the township to turn out with every noisy kitchen implement they can lay hands on to drive away the spirits attacking the moon. Doughty , 1 while at Teima, saw the housewives making great clamour of pots and pans “ to help the labouring planet ” in its eclipse. In the Malay Peninsula the Besisi do the same , 2 and the Mohammedans of Macedonia, considering an eclipse a portent of bloodshed, meet it with reports of firearms . 3 From St. Maxime de Turin 4 it is evident that even the Christians of his time admitted that it was necessary to raise a hubbub during eclipses to prevent magicians hurting the moon . 5 1 Arabia Deserta , i, 289. On noise driving evil spirits away see Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 66, 91; Tylor, Primitive Culture , 4th ed., i, 329. The later Hebrews drove off the sedim at funerals by blowing a sAo/ar-trumpet (Yalk., Hadash , Mita, 47, quoted Jewish Encycl. , iv, 520). 2 Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races , ii, 298. 3 Abbott, Macedonian Folklore , 72. * Homil. (1618), 703, quoted Maury, La Magie, 182. 5 The belief in a dragon or fish that swallows the moon is curiously widespread. The Metawileh have this superstition (Fallscheer, P.E.F ., 1889, 130) ; so also the Peruvians ; and the South Sea Islanders hold that the Sun and Moon have been swallowed by an offended deity whom they induced by liberal offerings to eject the luminaries from his stomach (Tylor, Prim. Cult., 4th ed., 329 ff). When it is remembered that Jonah was swallowed by the “great fish” for three days (the period of the moon’s disappearance at the end of the month) the 54 ECLIPSES. The Assyrian text runs— “ The Evil Gods are raging storms, Ruthless spirits created in the vault of heaven ; Workers of woe are they, That each day raise their wicked heads for evil. To wreak destruction . . . Of these Seven [the first] is the South Wind . . . The second is a dragon with mouth agape, That none can [withstand ?]. The third is a grim leopard which carries off (?) young (?)... The fourth is a terrible serpent . . . The fifth is a furious beast (?) after which no restraint (?)... The sixth is a rampant . . . which against God and king . . . The seventh is an evil wind-storm which ... 1 These seven are the messengers of Anu, the king, Bearing gloom from city to city, Tempests that furiously scour the heavens, Dense clouds that bring gloom over the sky, Rushing wind-gusts, casting darkness over the brightest day, Forcing their way with the baneful wind-storms. Mighty destroyers are they, the deluge of the Storm-god, Stalking at the right hand of the Storm-god. In the foundation of heaven like lightning they [flash], To wreak destruction they lead the way. In heaven’s breadth, the home of Anu, the king, They take their stand for evil, and none oppose.” coincidence is worth considering. Jonah is the Hebrew woid foi ‘ dove,’ and it was at Harran, the city sacred to the Moon-god, that the dove was not sacrificed (Robertson Smith, Religion of Semites , quoting Al-Nadim, 294). 1 Compare the devils sent to St. Anthony in the Syriac Paradise of the Fathers (ed. Budge, 1907, i, 14) : “Now it is very easy for the Enemy to create apparitions and appearances of such a character that they shall be deemed real and actual objects, and [straightway] phantasms of this kind caused a phantom earthquake, and they rent asunder the four corners of the house, and entered therein in a body from all sides. One had the form of a lion, and another had the appearance of a wolf, and another was like unto a panther, and all the others were in the forms and similitudes of serpents, and of vipers, and of scorpions.” ECLIPSES. 55 The tablet goes on to relate how these seven spirits attacked the Moon-god, and Bel, hearing of the mischief they had done, sent his servant Nuzku to take counsel with Ea against them— “ 0 my minister, Nuzku ! Bear my message unto the Ocean Deep, Tell unto Ea in the Ocean Deep The tidings of my son Sin, the Moon-god, Who in heaven hath been grievously bedimmed.” Ea heard the message which Nuzku brought, and bit his lip in grief; he summoned his son Marduk and conveyed to him the tidings of the Moon-god. After this the tablet becomes mutilated for ten lines, and, when it recommences, it gives the directions for the sick man’s treatment. Evidently this connection of an eclipse of the moon with disease lends itself to the explanation that certain sicknesses were due, indirectly at least, to such phenomena, or at any rate that mankind was peculiarly susceptible to such attacks during the moon’s disappearance. Many indeed were the prayers made to avert the evil from an eclipse ; in certain of the “ Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand” we find the phrase “in the evil of an eclipse of the moon which in such and such a month on such and such a day has taken place, in the evil of the powers, of the portents, evil and not good which are in my palace and my land .” 1 The following is a prayer offered up by Samas-sum-ukin, the brother of Assurbanipal, against the evil of an eclipse of the moon, which has apparently been foretold from preceding events :— i King, Bab. Magic and Sorcery , xxv. 56 THE SEVEN SPIRITS. “ . . . 0 great lady, kindly mother, Amid the many stars of heaven Thou art mistress . . . I, Samas-sum-ukin, the king, servant of his god. Vicegerent of his god Marduk (and) his goddess Sarpanitum, Of the evils of the eclipse of the moon, fixed for the fifteenth day of Shebat, Of the evils of the signs and omens, evil, baneful, Which have occurred in my palace and my land, I am afraid, and I fear, and I tremble ! Let not these evils draw near to me or my house ! Accept the upuntu- plant from me and receive my prayer.” 1 There is a long tablet which gives more details of these seven demons which the Fire-god is supposed to relate to his friend Marduk— “ Those seven were born in the Mountain of Sunset, And were reared in the Mountain of Dawn, They dwell within the caverns of the earth, And amid the desolate places of the earth they live. Unknown in heaven and earth, - They are arrayed with terror, Among the wise gods there is no knowledge of them, They have no name in heaven or earth ; Those seven gallop over the Mountain of Sunset, And on the Mountain of Dawn they cry ; Through the caverns of the earth they creep, (And) amid the desolate places of the earth they lie. Nowhere are they known, in heaven nor earth are they discovered.” 2 In the Syriac Sayings of the Holy Fathers certain monks hear the voices of devils in the air as they are praying with the sounds of armour, horses, and many horsemen . 3 1 Scheil, Une Saison de fouilles, 96. 2 Devils and Evil Spirits , vol. i, Tablet ‘ K,’ 1. 84 ff. 3 Ed. Budge, The Paradise of the Fathers , 1907, ii, 208. 57 THE JINN. i The Jinn and kindred spirits of the Arabs have all the characteristics of the various demons of Assyrian times. They are corporeal beings, more like beasts than men, for they are ordinarily represented as hairy, or have some animal shape, such as that of an ostrich or snake..If a jinni is killed, a solid carcase remains, but they have certain mysterious powers of appearing, or of temporarily assuming human form , 1 and when they are offended they can avenge themselves- by sending disease or madness . 2 “They have, for the most part, no friendly or stated relations with men , 3 but are outside the pale of man s society, and frequent savage and deserted places far from the wonted tread of men. It appears from several poetical passages of the Old Testament that the Northern Semites believed in demons of a precisely similar kind, hairy beings 4 ( se'irim ), nocturnal monsters ( lilith ),° which haunted waste and desolate places in fellowship with jackals and ostriches.” They can eat, drink, and propagate their species, and are even subject to death , 6 so that they correspond to the Hebrew sedim in certain respects. 1 Inversely, the Sei c ar in Hadramaut, in time of drought, can change to were-wolves. Makrizi, De Valle Hadramaut , 19, quoted Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem ., 88. 2 Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites , 1894, 120. 3 But they do meet on certain grounds. See ibid., 128. 4 Compare the Mohammedan story of Bilkis, Queen of Sheba, who married'- Solomon. She had hair on her ankles and was thus shown to be a jinniyyah by descent ( Jewish Encycl. , i, 605). Maimonides, in his Guide to the Perplexed , says: u Some sects among the Sabeans worshipped demons, and imagined that these assumed the forms of goats, and called them therefore ‘ goats 5 ” (iii, xlvi). On the S’lrim see Baudissin, Studien , 137. 5 But see p. 66. 6 Klein, Religion of Islam , 67. 58 THE JINN. The demons of the Rabbinic tradition (sedhn or mazzikin) are said to have been created by the Almighty. “ He had created their souls, and was about to create their bodies when the Sabbath set in, and he did not create them .” 1 As to their numbers, it is said that Agrath bath Mahlath 2 haunts the air with her train of eighteen myriads of messengers of destruction on the eves of Wednesdays and Saturdays. After creating the earth God peopled it with Jinn before placing Adam there; “ He created them of fire clear from smoke,” 3 and among them was Iblis . 4 Half of the Jinn are good and half are malignant beings, and they inhabit the seven stages which form the edifice of the underworld , 5 just as the Babylonian demons lived in Ekurra . 6 Malignity of the soil is ascribed by the Arabs to the ground demons or earth- folk, so that husbandmen sprinkle new ploughland with the blood of a peace-offering; similarly, when they build they sprinkle blood on the stones, lest the workmen’s lives should be endangered . 7 Again, while still on the subject of sacrificing to Jinn, when the people of Kerak go into the harvest-fields they often occupy caves, but not until they have killed a sacrifice at the entrance to the spirits . 8 When the natives of Hamath repair the largest water-wheel there, they sacrifice a ram to the Afrit who inhabits the sluice, before re-starting it, in order to propitiate him. Otherwise, someone is sure to be 1 Bereshith Rabbet, vii. 2 Pesachim, 1126 (Jew. Encycl ., 516). 3 Koran, Surah lv. 4 Mas‘udi, Prairies d’or , i, 50. 5 Doughty, Arabia Deserta , i, 259. 6 Devils , ii, Tablet ‘ P.’ 7 Doughty, op. cit., i, 136. 8 Curtiss, Bill. World , xxi, 253. THE JINN. 59 killed by tbe wheel in the sluice-way. 1 Leviticus xvii, 7, has some bearing on this subject: “ And they shall no more sacrifice their sacrifices unto the he-goats (or satyrs, i.e. s’irim, Jinn), after whom they go a-whoring.” An Egyptian will commonly exclaim “ Destoor ” when pouring forth water or other liquids on the ground, thereby asking permission or craving pardon of any Jinn that mio-ht be there, 2 and this reverence is to be found among the Yezidis, who fear to scald the “ little devils.” 3 According to Palestinian tradition, a certain man was killed by the Jan because he passed water on their heads through a fissure in the field. 4 At Calirrhoe (Zerka Ma‘in) there is a jinui , who is also called a well , who lives below the ground to keep the fire going which heats the hot spring. 5 6 There is a rather different tradition concerning one of the hot springs in the Sinaitic Peninsula. This is the Hammam Faraun (‘ Pharaoh’s bath’), and the grumblings and muttermgs which can be heard at the mouth of the cavern neai the exit of the hot stream are the groans uttered by Pharaoh and his dead host writhing on the coals in the place of the damned. The Jinn ride on foxes, gazelles, and porcupines, but avoid the hare because it is supposed to menstruate. K When a herd of camels refuses to drink, the Arabs will sometimes beat the male beasts on the back to drive away the Jinn, 1 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel ., 198. 2 Lane, Manners and Customs , 1890, 203. 3 A. V. Williams Jackson, Persia , 12. 4 Baldensperger, P.E.F. , 1893, 205. • 5 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel ., 89, 198. 6 Sihah (quoted Robertson Smith, Kinship , 240). 60 THE GHOUL. who are riding them and frightening the females. 1 Eccentric movements of a dust whirlwind are supposed to be the visible signs of a battle between two clans of Jinn, 2 and in the Eastern Soudan, among the Bisharin, I have heard these tourbillons of dust called eructationes dcemoniim. The Bedouin of East Africa stab the centre of a dust-storm with their creeses in order to drive away the evil spirit which is believed to be riding on the blast. 3 Hughes says that the Arabs exclaim Hadicl! hadid ! “ Iron ! iron ! ” when doing this. 4 The Jinn may c possess ’ a person, and hence the word majnun , a madman; the Palestinian belief is stated in John x, 20: “He hath a devil, and is mad.” The ghoul is another Arab spirit. According to Doughty 5 her appearance is as follows :—“ A Cyclops’ eye set in the midst of her human-like head, long beak of jaws, in the ends one or two great sharp tushes, long neck; her arms like chickens’ fledgeling wings, the fingers of her hands not divided; the body big as a camel’s, but in shape as the ostrich; the sex is only feminine, she has a foot as the ass’ hoof 6 and a foot as an ostrich. She entices passengers, calling to them over the waste by their names, so that they think it is their own mother’s or their sister’s voice.” One of the Arabs had seen this beast, “ which is of the Jin kind, lie dead upon the land 1 Certeux and Carnoy, Id A Igerie /Traditionelle, quoted Frazer, G.B., iii, 129. 2 Yakut, iii, 478. 3 See Conybeare, J.Q., ix, 461. 4 Diet, of Islam, 136. 5 Arabia Deserta , i, 53 ; see the picture on 54. 6 Cf. Origen, quoted Conybeare, Jewish Quarterly , ix, 100 : “As many demons as live in dry places and have their bodies rather dry as are, they say, the demons with donkey’s legs.” / THE MARED. 61 upon a time when he rode with a foray in the Jeheyna marches.” This is rather like the picture of the Ethiopic devils in the Lives of Maba Seydn and Gabra Krestos (ed. Budge), p. xxxiii, which have horns, tails, and wings, their right foot being a claw and the left a hoof. According to the Hebrew tradition, demons proverbially had cocks’ feet. 1 “He who wishes to know about them must take sifted ashes, and sprinkle them by his bedside, and in the morning he will see marks as of cocks’ feet. He who wishes to see them must take the foetus of a black she- cat, itself a black one : a first-born, the daughter of a firstborn: and burn it in the fire, and pulverise it, and fill his eyes with it, and he will see them.” 2 The ashes of a black cat are a popular form of magicians’ stock-in- trade in the modern Arabic books on sorcery, and the directions run, to take a black cat, of deep blackness, without any white in it, and take nothing of it but its heart; then to take swallows, which are called ‘ birds of paradise/ and burn them until they become ashes. This ash will be of the greatest service in magic. 3 Of other Arab demons there is the Mared , a tall spirit which generally appears when someone has been killed. 4 To lay the Mared, dust is sprinkled by the manslayer over the blood of his victim. 5 It snatches away a bride, in the story of Abu Mohammed the Lazy, in the Arabian Nights. 1 Jewish Encycl ., article Asmodeus, ii, 218. 2 Berakhoth , 6 a ; see Blau, Das Altjiidische Zauberwesen , 11, where references are given for demons having cocks’ feet and no shadow. 3 MS. (modern) which I bought in Mosul. 4 Baldensperger, P.E.F., 1893, 206 ; ibid., 1899, 149. Robinson Lees, Village Life in Palestine , 217. 5 Lees, loc. cit. 62 THE KIRI) AND HAS SAD. The Kird is another spirit. One day it sat upon the shoulders of a man, and when he arrived at his village he was dumb. But by the Khatib of the village ordering him to perspire and read the pain away for seven days, he recovered his speech, but remained a stammerer. 1 The Rassad is generally the guardian of some treasure, and may take the form of a man, colt, cock, or chicken with young ; he haunts almost all caves. There is a story of a man in Safrie being told by an Algerian that a stone in his courtvard contained a treasure, but it could not be obtained without his wife’s blood. They resolved to kill her, but while she was killing a cock for supper she cut her finger over the stone, and, on the blood dropping thereon, the gold came forth. 2 The idea that devils are guardians of enormous treasure is yery prevalent among the Arabs, and I met with it at Mosul in this wise. My servant had lost three mejidis (about nine shillings), and, having found a Muslim sorcerer that understood what to do, obtained a charm from him. This was a piece of paper inscribed with various invocations and cabalistic figures, which was to be left near the place where the money had been lost. If the demons who inhabit the air had taken it to add to their treasure, they would return it at midnight; if it had been stolen by human hands, then would they write the name of the thief on the paper. 3 Doughty, 4 on this subject, says that on the landmark rock el-Howwara in the plain of 1 Baldensperger, P.E.F ., 1893, 206 ; ibid., 1899, 149. 2 Loc. cit., 1893, 206 ; ibid., 1899, 149. a See my article P.S.B.A., 1906, February, 81. 4 Arabia Deserta , i, 170. MONSTERS. 63 Medain Salih a great treasure lies, in the opinion of the Moors in the Kella, sealed in a turret-like stone chamber in the keeping of an Afrit. The * horseleach ’ of Prov. xxx, 15, is nothing more than a flesh-devouring ghoul; the Hebrew word is ‘aliikah , the equivalent of the Arabic ‘aulak , as was pointed out by Wellhausen. 1 To this class of beings we must add some peculiar forms of deities, whose description is fully portrayed in the cuneiform tablets. One, a sea-monster, a ‘ form ’ of Ea, is thus described: “ The head is the head of a serpent; from his nostrils mucus (?) trickles, his mouth being beslavered with water ; the ears are like those of a basilisk, his horns are twisted into three curls, he wears a veil in his headband; the body is that of a Siih fish, full of stars, the base of his feet are claws, the sole of his foot having no heel.’' 2 More important, from an anthropological standpoint, is the picture of Nin-tu, a ‘ form ’ of the goddess Mah. “ The head (has) a fillet and a horn . . . She wears a head ornament, she wears a fly (?). 3 She wears a veil; the fist of a man ; she is girt about the loins, her breast being open. In her left arm she holds a babe sucking her breast, inclining towards her right arm ; from her 1 Reste , 149. 2 Devils , ii, 149. The word translated £ form 1 appears to be fairly certain. 3 This word is lamsatu in the text, ordinarily a kind of fly, although what it means here is doubtful. That it means a fly of some kind is quite clear from the determination in its ideogram, and I think we shall not be mistaken in seeing its cognate in the modern Arabic , a mosquito, just as almattu in Assyrian = the Arabic and lamattu = <£L*J (see my note in P.S.B.A. , 1906, 226). 04 THE MOTHER-GODDESS. head to her loins the body is that of a naked woman; from the loins to the sole of the foot scales like those of a snake are visible: her navel is composed of a circlet.” 1 It seems extremely probable that we have here the model for the numerous little clay figures which have been found from time to time during excavations, possessing these characteristics, and we shall not he far wrong in considering them as votive offerings made by barren women who desired offspring. 2 JNin-tu doubtless occupied among the peoples of Mesopotamia the position which Hathor held among the Egyptians, and the Virgin Mary among Oriental Christians, a form of mother-goddess who plays such an important part in many mythologies. In Jewish demonology we find Keteb Meriri, a demon who reigns from 10 in the morning to 3 in the afternoon from the 17th of Tammuz to the 9th of Ab, described as having the head of a calf with one revolving horn in the middle, and an eye in the breast, the whole body being covered with scales, hair, and eyes ; 3 and the curious reader will see many points of similarity in Assyrian texts kindred to those that are quoted above. 4 The form of sea-monster seems to find a parallel in the Testament of Solomon 5 in the demon which has the 1 Devils , ii, 147. 2 Martin, in his Textes Religieux, 21, has published the translation of a text for a man desiring to know whether he will have male issue : “0 Samas, lord of judgment, Adad, lord of the vision . . . the lady N., his wife, who hath dwelt for long under his protection . . . hath borne only girls, and there is no male (issue) and his heart is sad.” I have translated sal-mes (i.e. sinnisdti) as ‘girls/ as preferable to Martin’s salmes, ‘ heureusement.’ 3 Jewish Encycl ., iv, 516. 4 See Devils , ii, 151, etc. 5 Ed. Conybeare, J.Q. , xi, 33. SEMI-HUMAN DEMONS. 65 shape of a horse in front and behind a fish, “ a sea-demon who creates a destructive wave.” But this rather looks like a plagiarism of a Greek sea-horse. And while on the subject of the mother-goddess, it seems very probable that we have one akin to the poly- mastoid Diana of the Ephesians in the Assyrian Queen of Nineveh, described (ostensibly by Nabu) in the prayer of Assurbanipal 1 —“ Thou wert the babe, O Assurbanipal, whom I left in charge of the Queen of Nineveh; thou wert the weakling, 0 Assurbanipal, whom I placed (?) at the breast (?) of the Queen of Nineveh; of the four breasts which were put to thy mouth, two thou didst suck, with two thou didst cover thy face.” We now come to the third class of spirits, those that are half human and half supernatural. From the stand¬ point of their peculiar existence, they must be accounted the most interesting of the three species, for it is not merely from the interest attaching to their nature that they are valuable, but the beliefs in their origin throw such light on primitive ideas as cannot be reckoned too highly. The evidence that they were a very popular form of phantom is so well-attested and convincing as to afford a firm base for certain theories on tabu that I hope to bring forward. Going back again for the third time to the Assyrian incantations, as the earliest systematised beliefs, we must first of all discuss an interesting triad of ghostly visitants— the Mil, Mitu , and ardat Mi. The second is obviously the feminine counterpart of the first, but it is difficult 1 See Martin, Textes Religieux , 29. The line in question runs irbi zizi sa ina pika sakna II tennik II tahallap ana panika. 66 LILITH. to discriminate accurately between tlie characteristics of the lilitu and ardat lilt. Both the latter are, however, female demons, the femininity of the ardat hh being especially emphasized by the word ardatu , which always has reference to the woman of marriageable age. The ardat lili seems to have had much closer relations with human beings than the lilitu , and she takes over the functions of the Lilith of the Hebrews, which is obviously the etymological equivalent of lilitu. These functions are no more nor less than that she becomes the ghostly wife of men, probably unmarried ones if there is anything in the comparative folklore of the Arabs, by reason of her desire which forces her to roam abroad until she find a mate. It is from this that we may find a derivation for the words Ulu and lilitu ; they are certainly not connected with the Hebrew lailali, night, as fhe^ either come from a Semitic root rbb, or from a Sumerian word lil. If it be the former, there is no difficulty in referring them at once to the words lalu, ‘ to be abundant/ and lulu, ‘lasciviousness, wantonness.’ 1 That the Rabbis should have compared pW?, ‘night,’ with ‘Lilith,’ was very natural, but in view of the Assyrian 01 Sumerian origin of the word this is now untenable. Let us now examine the evidence for the nature of this triad. In a list of phantoms we find the following mention made of two demons :— 1 This view is also held by Martin, Textes Relic/ieux , 2o. That an angel of lust was known to the Rabbis is apparent from Bereshith Rabba, lxxxv, quoted Maimonides, Guide to the Perplexed , ii, c. vi, in regard to the relation between Judah and Tamar : ‘ Rabbi Jochanan said that Judah was about to pass by [without noticing Tamar], but God caused the angel of lust, i.e. the libidinous disposition, to present himself to him.” LILITH. 67 “ The ardat lili that hath no husband, The idlu lili that hath no wife.” 1 The latter is merely the male counterpart of the first, occurring only here as far as I know, with stress laid on its masculinity, idlu being the word for a grown man of full strength. We have, therefore, four phantoms of this nature to discuss, the lilu, the lilttu , and the ardat lili, with a rare counterpart, the idlu lili. Leaving the last-named alone for the present, the ardat lili, the true equivalent of the Lilith, is the best known, and the Assyrian incantations are quite clear in their descriptions of her character. First, then, we find from the text quoted that she has no husband. This is amplified by the prayer to the Sun on behalf of a possessed man— ‘ £ He on whom an evil spirit hath rushed, He whom an evil demon hath enveloped in his bed, He whom an evil ghost hath cast down in the night, He whom a great devil hath smitten, He whose limbs an evil god hath racked (?), He the hair of whose body an evil fiend hath set on end, He whom ... [a hag-demon] hath seized, He whom [a ghoul] hath cast down, He whom a robber-sprite hath afflicted, He whom the ardat lili hath looked upon, The man with whom the ardat lili hath had union.” 2 1 Haupt, A.S.K.T ., 11, ii, 30. 2 W.A.I., v, 50, i, 41. The Assyrian of these two lines runs :— sa ardat lili ihirusu, idlu sa ardat lili ikrimusu. Another text gives the following amplifications :— ardat lili ina apti ameli izziJca ardatu la Hmta I » sa kima sinnisti la arihatu I » sa kima * W sinnisti la nakpatu (Sm. 49, Bezold, Catalogue , 1376). “ The ardat lili attacketh the man’s dwelling, a maid untimely dead (?), a maid that cannot menstruate (? cf. like a woman, that hath no modesty (?cf. like a woman.” 68 LILITH. The lilu and lilitu must have had something of the same character, although we know very little about them; the question then arises as to the idlu lili , which is, as far as I know, airaZ Xeyofjuevov. I was inclined to think at first 1 that the idlu lili was nothing more than an academic invention of the scribes, parallel to the ardat lili , inasmuch as this text in which it occurs is merely a grammatical composition made up of phrases occurring in cuneiform grimoires ; hut when it is remembered, first, that women in Semitic religion are liable to conceive through supernatural means, and that, secondly, these Assyrian incantations, as we have them, are written only from the male standpoint (doubtless verbally altered in exorcising sickness in women), there are the strongest possible grounds for the existence of a male counterpart of the avdctt lilt in the phantasmagoria of the Babylonians. At any rate, it is absolutely certain that whether we consider the fellow of the avdctt lili to have been called lilu or idlu lili , the fact remains that women, as much as men, were exposed to the possibility of marriage with Jinn and other invisible powers. In late Hebrew tradition Lailah is prince of conception. 2 That Jinn can intermarry with human beings is a well- attested belief of the Arabs. 3 Such folk are always solitary i Devils , I, xxxii, n. 1. 2 Jewish Encycl. , i, 588. 3 Compare the idea of the Greek Sirens, who are very similar (J. E. Harrison, Pfolegomeua^ 203). It was laid down by Martin Del Hio ( Disquisitiones, 1599, i, 178): u Axioma I sit, solent Malefici et Lamise cum dsemonibus, illi quidem succubis, hse vero incubis, actum Venerium exercere.” “ Axioma II potest etiam ex huiusmodi concubitu dsemonis incubi proles nasci.” About two hundred years later Francis Barrett published The Magus , in which (p. 23) the curious will see the beliefs current among those who held that magic was a true science, concerning the semi-human monsters, born of human and immortal parents. On MEN MARRIED TO SPIRITS. 69 and unmarried. Jallalo’ddin 1 explains that the advantage which men received from Jinn was their raising and the belief in succubi and incubi, see Horst, Zauber Bibliothek, vi, 116, who on p. 118 quotes a discussion about them in a book published a hundred years after Melancthon’s Pliysik (1550) on the theme that some think that “ Demons who have assumed human shapes can mingle and generate with human beings.” This the author of the book published in 1650 denies, on the ground that deest enim Dcemonibus semen. Sprenger ( Malleus Malejicarum , 1580) has a chapter headed An per deemones incubos et succubos detur hominum procreatio (p. 37), which he answers : “ Daemones non vivificant aliquod corpus, ergo nec semen poterunt movere localiter de loco ad locum ” (p. 39). See also Wier, Histoires , 288. Frangois de la Mirandole (quoted on p. 326 of Jean Wier’s Histoires, 1579) says : “ J’ay conu un homme nomme Benoist Berna, aage de septantecinq ans, du nombre de ces sacrificateurs que nous nommons prestres, lequel par l’espace de plus de quarante ans avoit couche avec un Daemon, qui lui estoit familier, et lui aparassoit en forme de feme.” Psellus (eleventh century), in his Dialogue on the Operation of Daemons (ed. Collisson, 30-32), relates of a con¬ versation with a monk in Mesopotamia, “ who really was an initiated inspector of daemonic phantasms : these magical practices he after¬ wards abandoned as worthless and deceptive, and having made his recantation, attached himself to the true doctrine, which we profess, and assiduously applying himself, underwent a course of instruction at my hands ; he accordingly told me many and extraordinary things about daemons ; and once on my asking if daemons were capable of animal passion, c Not a doubt of it,’ said he. Quemadmodum et sperma nonnulli eorum emittunt et vermes quosdam spermate procreant. At incredibile est, inquam excrementi quicquam daemonibus inesse, vasave spermatica et vitalia vasa quidem eis, inquit illi, hujusmodi nulla insunt, superflui autem seu excrementi nescio quid emittunt hoc mihi asserenti credito . . . ; And are there many descriptions of daemons, Marcus ? ’ I asked again. ‘ There are many ’ said he, ‘ and of every possible variety of figure and conformation, so that the air is full of them, both that above and that around us, the earth and the sea are full of them, and the lowest subterranean depths.’ ” Marcus then recounts the daemons which Thracian affects to despise, but quotes a species Leliurium , “ speaking in his barbarous vernacular tongue, a name which signifies Igneous.” On demons generally see Psellus, Hypotypose des anciens dogrnes des Chaldeens , ed. Chaignet (Damascius le Diadoque , Les Premiers Principes , iii, 229). Quoted Sale’s Koran , Surah vi. 70 MEN MARRIED TO SPIRITS. satisfying their lust and their appetites. The clan of ‘Amr b. Yarbu‘ was descended from a si‘lat, or she-demon, who became the wife of their human father. 1 Palgrave cites it also. 2 Sayce quotes as an instance that “ about fifteen years ago there was a man in Cairo who was unmarried, but had an invisible ginna as wife. One day, however, he saw a woman and loved her, and two days later he died. It should be added that in Egypt, where early marriages are the rule, bachelors who have reached the prime of life are believed to be married to ‘afarit or ginn.” 3 Another case, mentioned by Baldensperger, 4 was that of an epileptic servant who maintained that a female jinni was in love with him, and used to strike him half dead to the ground. At Mosul there was the same tradition, and I met with it while discussing Jinn and kindred subjects on the mound of Nineveh one evening, when incidentally (and entirely spontaneously) one of the men, Yakub, told me that he knew a man in Mosul who declared that he was visited at nights by a spirit in the form of a beautiful woman, who had already borne him three children, and he was so pleased with this menage that he scorned a conventional marriage. 5 Rabbinic literature is full of the doings of Lilith, who bore to Adam devils, spirits, and lilin (the Assyrian lilu). 6 Whoever slept alone in a room was likely to be beset by 1 Robertson Smith, quoting Ibn Doreid, Kited) al-ishtikdk , 139, Bel, Se?n., 50. 2 i, 33. 3 Cairene Folklore , Folklore , 1900, xi, 388. 4 P.E.F. , 1899, 149 ; cf. 1893, 205. s P.S.B.A. , Feb. 1906, 83. 6 Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judentum , ii, 413. LILITH. 71 her. 1 The Rabbis believed, too, that a man might have children by allying himself with a demon, 2 and although they might not be visible to human beings, yet when that man was dying they would hover round his bed, to hail him as their father. 3 At the funeral of a bachelor the Jews of Kurdistan cast sand before the coffin to blind the eyes of the unbegotten children of the deceased. 4 Similarly, the Assyrian demon alii owes its parentage to a human being. 5 Bar Shalmon, the legendary son-in-law of Asmodeus, the demon, after marrying his daughter, a princess, becomes the father of a son by her, but deserts her. The princess then pretends to renounce him, but begs a final kiss, which kills him. 6 Another demon of the same kind named Ornias is described as saying (in the Testament of Solomon) : “ Those who are consumed with desire for noble virgins upon earth . . . these I strangle. But in case there is no disposition to sleep, I am changed into three forms. Whenever men come to be enamoured of women, I metamorphose myself into a comely female, and I take hold of the men in their sleep and play with them/’ 7 In Palestine it is said sometimes that women find that their best gowns, which they had carefully put away in their bridal chests, have been worn by female spirits during 1 Sabbath, 1516, quoted Blau, Das Altjiid. Zauberw ., 12. Rabba relates how he saw Hurmiz, the daughter of Lilith. There is also a certain person or demon, it is unknown which, called Hurnim bar Lilith (Talmud, Baba Bathra , ed. Rodkinson, v, 203). 2 Eisenmenger, op. cit., 421. 3 Ibid., 425. This was their explanation of the ba’al Eri. 4 Jevnsh Encycl ., xi, 600. 5 Ahl sa ina maial must amelu ina sitti irihhil atta ( Devils , i, Tablet ‘ B,’ 18). 6 See Jewish Encycl ., 510. 7 Conybeare, Jewish Quarterly , xi, 17. 72 DEMIGODS. their confinement, because they did not utter the name of God in locking them up. 1 Presumably the female spirit bedecks herself with a wedding gown, when its proper owner is separated from her husband, in order to attract his attentions. Among the Jews in Palestine, Lilith (or the evil eye in general) is averted from the bed by hanging a charm over it consisting of a special cabalistic paper in Hebrew together with a piece of rue, garlic, and a fragment of looking-glass. On the first possible Sabbath all the relations assemble in the patient’s room and make a hideous noise to drive away evil spirits. 2 On the other hand, women are equally open to attack from demons. Whatever view may be held of the B’ne Eldhim , who took wives of the daughters of men 3 1 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., 115. 2 Masterman, Bill. World , xxii, 249. For pictures of Hebrew amulets hung up against Lilith, see Jewish Encycl., sub voce Amulets. See also P. D. Scott-Moncrieff, P.S.B.A., xxvii, 1905, 26, for a photograph of a Hebrew amulet (inscription) from Morocco. On Jewish Lilith- worship in Mesopotamia, see Z.D.M.G. , ix, 461 ft. The Jews of the present day write on the bed of the woman in childbirth, and on the four walls of the chamber: nhb pin rnni dik, “Adam and Eve, Get out, 0 Lilith ” (Buxt. Lex., 1140). 3 Cf. Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem., 50 : “ In one of the few fragments of old mythology which have been transplanted unaltered into the Hebrew Scriptures, we read of the sons of gods who took wives of the daughters of men . . . such a hero is the Izdubar of Babylonian myth.” Examples of such fabricated genealogies will be found in McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, ch. ix. To the subject of the B'ne Eldhim Horst ( Zauber Bibliothek, ii, 391) adds the so-called “ Scheiss-Teufel,” “welche ihr grosstes Vergniigen daran sinden, ihre Excremente an Orten abnulegen, wo man’s am wenigsten vermuthet, und dadurcli die Menschen in peinliche Yerlegenheit zu bringen.” Martin Del Rio (1599, bk. ii, 180) remarks, “vetustas obtrudit suos semideos, Hercules, Sarpedones, iEneas, Seruios Tullos ; Anglia, Merlinum ; Pannonia, Hunnos ex Arlunis strigibus Gothicis et Faunis natos,” etc. OFFSPRING OF WOMEN AND DEVILS. 73 (and it seems only reasonable to connect this legend with this form of superstition), Hebrew tradition undoubted^ shows an acceptance of this belief. The parentage of Isaac is but thinly disguised, 1 and there is a remarkable story in Ezek. xxiii, where Yahweh marries two sisters and begets children by them. “ This is an allegory. But when even a late prophet does not hesitate to introduce this conception as a figure of speech, it may be reasonably supposed that an earlier time found it only natural that Yahweh, as well as other gods, should have children by graciously visiting women of his choice.” 2 Again, it is the “ Angel of Yahweh” who foretells the birth of Samson. 3 According to Mohammedan tradition, it was Gabriel’s breath, which he breathed into the Yirgin Mary, that caused the conception. 4 In Pirke P.JEl. xxi, xxii, Cain’s real father was not Adam, but one of the demons. 5 In Assyrian mythology the amours of the goddess Ishtar with human beings are too well known to need repeating. In the Book of Enoch, 6 7 wicked spirits are said to have been born of women and the ‘holy watchers,’ and Justin Martyr says that demons are the offspring of angels who yielded to the embraces of earthly women.' 1 Encycl. Bibl, 4692 : Gen. xxi, 1, 2 : “ And the Lord visited Sarah as he had said, and the Lord did unto Sarah as he had spoken. And Sarah conceived, and hare Abraham a son in his old age. 2 See Encycl. Bibl., article Son of God, 4690. 3 Judges xiii, 3. 4 Sale, Koran , Surah xix, n. r. 5 On angel intermarriage with human beings see Jewish Encycl., sub voce Fall of Angels. 6 c. xv. 7 Apol. ii, 446 ; both these cases are quoted by Conybeare, Jewish Quarterly, viii, 597, 603. 74 THE STORY OF TOBIAS. In the Slavonic Book of Enoch Satan is the seducer and paramour of Eve. The very fact that ecclesiastics argue against this belief in their writings 1 shows how strong the belief in them must have been: “ Now see, my brother readers, and know that this ” (of angels having intercourse with mankind) “is neither in the nature of spiritual beings, nor in the nature of the impure and evil-doing demons who love adultery ; for there are no males and females amongst them, nor has there been even one added to their number since they fell. If the devils were able to have intercourse with women, they would not leave one single virgin undefiled in the whole human race.” In the Koran, too, Sale annotates the remark: “ They say, God hath begotten children; God forbid! ” with the explanation: “ This is spoken not only of the Christians and of the Jews (for they are accused of holding Ozair, or Ezra, to be the Son of God), but also of the pagan Arabs, who imagined the angels to be the daughters of God.” 2 Asmodeus, the demon, who first appears in the Book of Tobit, is made responsible for the danger in men marrying Sarah, the daughter of Baguel, and he must be “ bound ” before Tobias can wed his bride. 3 The phrase “for a devil loveth her,” 4 together with the whole 1 Bezold, Die Schatzhohle , 18. 3 Surah ii. Paul believed that demons could be warded off* and their influence repelled by the chalebi or headdress of the Jewish women. This, as Dean Farrar admits {Life of Christ , appendix viii) is the true meaning of Paul’s rule, that women should veil themselves in church “because of the angels” (Conybeare, J.Q., viii, 579). According to a tradition of Mohammed, everyone is touched at birth by the devil, except Mary and her Son, between whom and the evil spirit God placed a veil (Sale, Koran , note to Surah iii). 3 Tobit iii, 17. 4 Ibid., vi, 14. THE STORY OE TOBIAS. 75 story, shows how great a hold the belief had obtained. Dr. Gaster has published two hitherto unknown versions of the Tobit Legend 1 which relate that “ Tobiyah remembered the words of Raphael, and he took the heart of the fish and put it on a censer and burnt it under the clothes of Sarah. And Ashmedai received the smell and he fled instantly.” According to the Testament of Solomon Asmodeus is made to say, “I am called Asmodeus among mortals, and my business is to plot against the newly wedded, so that they may not know one another. And I sever them utterly by many calamities, and I waste away the beauty of virgin women, and estrange their hearts . . . I transport men into fits of madness and desire, when they have wives of their own, so that they leave them, and go off by night and day to others that belong to other men.” 2 He describes his own parentage as being from an angel’s seed by a daughter of man. 3 He was the counterpart of Lilith, as being dangerous to women. From this it seems apparent that the antagonism of Asmodeus towards the newly-wed arose primarily from the idea that he jealously guarded to himself some kind of jus primce noctis , and that he was always ready to attack anyone who should interfere with his possible harim. His functions are the same as those of a demon of some of the native tribes of Central Queensland, who is a noxious being called Molonga, who prowls unseen, and would kill men and violate women if certain ceremonies were not performed. 4 Azazel was familiar to the Rabbis as the seducer of men and women. 5 In the Testament of Solomon, one of the i P.S.B.A ., xix, 37. 2 J-Q; xi, 20. 3 Ibid., ch. xxi. ^ Roth, Ethn. Studies , 120 ff., quoted Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 94. s Tanna d. b. R. Yishma‘el, quoted Encycl. Bibl., ii, 366. 76 SPIRITS MARRIED TO WOMEN. demons is described as having the form of a dragon with the face and hands of a man. “ I am the so-called winged dragon, and I chamber not with many women, but only with a few that are of fair shape, which possess the name of xuli, of this star. And I pair with them in the guise of a spirit winged in form, coitum habens per nates. And she on whom I have leapt goes heavy with child, and that which is born of her becomes eros.” 1 In the Arabian Nights, in the story of the Second Royal Mendicant, the efreet says: “ 0 man, it is allowed us by our law, if a wife be guilty of incontinence, to put her to death. This woman I carried off on her wedding-night, when she was twelve years of age, and she was acquainted with no man but me.” Among modern Arabs the belief goes still further, that a dead husband may revisit his wife. It is said that a woman in Nebk took the bath of ceremonial purification, because she dreamed she had received a visit from her dead husband. A certain man in Nebk was currently believed to have been the offspring of such a union, and no reproach was ever cast upon his mother. 2 Cognate with this was the action of a barren woman who rushed up to the corpse of a man after he had been executed for murder. 3 * Somewhat similar to Asmodeus is the Arab spirit called Karina, a female demon accompanying every woman, and 1 Conybeare, JQ ., xi, 31. “But since such offspring cannot be carried by men, the woman in question breaks wind/ 5 2 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Bel., 115-16. 3 Ibid., 116. There is a tradition in some remote (Jewish) com¬ munities that a woman may be married to the dead (Jewish Encycl., xi, 599). On the superstitions of eating corpses of men executed see Bergemann, Die Yerbreitung der A nthropophagie, 21. THE KARINA. 77 having as many children as her counterpart. Just as Lilith took the place of Eve, evidently the Karina is intended, in one of her phases (that of bearing children), to do the same for each man. She is very dangerous to pregnant women and newly married people; that is to say, just as Asmodeus becomes jealous of interference with his rights, so does the Karina admit of no dallying with other women. She is said to destroy the creative power of men 1 and to make women barren, and to her is due epilepsy as the penalty for pouring water over the threshold of the door without naming God, on a Friday, or to quench the fire. She may appear as an owl, a Jewess, a camel, or a black man. There is a story that Solomon once met a singular-looking woman and asked her whether she was Jan or human. She answered that she was the Karina. “ I put hatred between husband and wife, I make women miscarry, I make them barren, I make men impotent, I make husbands love other men’s wives, women other women’s husbands; in short, I do all contrary to the happiness of wedded life.” 2 That barren women among the Semites believe in divine intervention to give them children is evident from the Old and New Testament, as well as from other sources. Indeed, so many of the stories point to a materialistic conception, that we must not suppose that the primitive origin of such a belief arose from any ideas of abstract 1 Presumably in the same way the Assyrian demons (Tablet ‘ K ) “ steal away desire (?) and bring to nought the seed.” Cf. Sprenger, Malleus Maleficarum (1580), about witches (p. 141) : “ Quod obstetrices maleficse conceptus in utero diversis modis interimunt, aborsum pro- curant, et ubi hoc non faciunt, DEemonibus natos infantes offerunt.” 2 See Baldensperger, P.E.F., 1899, 149 ; 1893, 206 ; 1906, 99. 78 DEMIGODS. answer to prayer. When Yahweh visits Sarah , 1 or Leah , 2 or the angel of Yahweh 3 comes to Samson’s mother , 4 we must surely see a remnant of tradition bearing on the divine origin of Isaac, and the sons of Leah, as well as the Nazarite Samson. Herodotus has handed down the belief which was current about the Temple of Bel at Babylon . 5 “ Ho man is suffered to sleep here, but the apartment is occupied by a female, whom the Chaldean priests affirm that their deity selects from the whole nation as the object of his pleasures. They have a tradition which cannot easily obtain credit, that their deity enters this temple and reposes at night on this couch. A similar assertion is also made by the Egyptians of Thebes; for in the interior part of the temple of the Theban Jupiter, a woman in like manner sleeps. Of these two women it is presumed that neither of them is ever introduced to the other sex.” The existence of the Assyrian kizriti, lihati , and harimati is worth mentioning in this connection. In a certain family in Nebk the wife, a perfectly respectable woman, apparently with the consent of her husband, considers it wrong to refuse a ‘ holy man.’ 6 1 Gen. xxi, 1. 2 “ And Yahweh saw that Leah was hated, and he opened her womb ” (Gen. xxix, 31). 3 Judges xiii, 3. 4 To this day Moslems at Hamath swear by Dei 'penis. In the village of Bludan, 25 miles west of Damascus, which is composed of Greek Christians of a very low type, the same oath is heard on the lips of women. Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., 113. 5 Bk. i, ch. clxxxi-clxxxii. 6 Note in Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel ., 150. On saints in India see Lyall, Asiatic Studies , 1884, 21 ff. BARREN WOMEN. 79 One Hanna Khizani of Hamath visited Tanta in Egypt, and saw the great annual festival of Seiyid Ahmed el-Bedawi, “ probably the most popular saint in Egypt,” when there were upwards of half a million persons present, including singers, dancers, jugglers, and showmen of every kind. It is at this festival that some of the honourable women vow the use of their bodies to the first one who happens to approach them . 1 Sexual excesses were practised down to quite modern times at the annual festival of the Prophet Elijah, within the enclosure of the monastery on the top of Mount Carmel . 2 What throws more light on this peculiar idea is the ubiquity of the belief among the modern Arabs. There is abundant evidence to show how persistently the childless women cling to the belief that a visit to a sanctuary (in its broadest sense) will remove the stigma. Punning water which has some sacred connection, either with a well, holy man, saint, or hero, is the most usual aim of these childless pilgrims. In some of the channels of the Orontes, the first night that the water is allowed to flow, there is a special virtue of procreation, and barren women stand therein, waiting for the onrush of the water . 3 At Kiriaten, at the so-called Baths of Solomon, is a famous shrine, called Abu Pabah, for women who desire children. They really regard 1 Ibid., 154. 2 See this and other instances, Curtiss, Bibl. World , xxiii, 327, and ibid, on temporary marriages. Sozomen speaks of an ancient custom of yielding up virgins to prostitution when on the eve of marriage to those to whom they had been betrothed, at Heliopolis, near Mount Libanus (Bccles. Hist., bk. v, ch. 10). . Herodotus speaks of the custom of the women devoting themselves to Venus among the Babylonians and Cyprians (i, exeix). 3 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., 117. 80 BARREN WOMEN. the well of the shrine as the father of children horn thus; they allow the hot air to stream np their bodies, saying— ‘ ‘ Oh, Abu Rabah ! To thee come the white ones, To thee come the fair ones, With thee is the generation, With us is the conception.” 1 There is a cave at Juneh, in which is a pool of water, to which the same power is attributed. 2 At the stream of Tell-el-kadi the barren women bathe with the same object, 3 and hundreds visit the shrine of Sa‘dadin at Jeba, appearing the following year, each with a child on her arm, and brino-in2* a sacrifice. 4 The shrine of Chidr at Beirut contains in its court a well of holy water (called deker , ‘ male ), and barren women bathe therein. If they conceive a child he is called Chidr. 5 In Palestine, a man who has not had a child promises a fedu if only he may receive the gift of one from a certain saint. -If it should be born, when it is several days old they put the blood of the sacrifice offered in payment of the vow on its forehead. 6 1 Ibid. 2 Ibid., 119. 3 Curtiss, Bill. World , xxiii, 100. .4 Ibid., 98. 5 Ibid., 332 ; see 336. 6 Prim. Bern. Bel., 201. Compare John v, 4. This story of the spirit which troubled the water bears analogy to the Assyrian text about the word of Marduk ( W.A.I., iv, 26, 4, 1. 6 ff. ; Hehn, Beitr. fur Assyriologie , v, 332):— Ana tdmti usarma tamtum si galtat Ana susi usarma surd idammum Ana agi Puratti usarma Amat ilu Marduk asurrakJcu idallah. “ Unto the sea it penetrateth, and the sea heaveth ; Unto the marsh it penetrateth, and the marsh groanetli; Unto the Euphrates flood it penetrateth, and the word of Marduk troubleth the river-bed.” . On other holy wells and springs, such as Zemzem at Mecca, Jidlal of Eslimunazar, Paneas, etc., see Baudissin, Studien , 104. THE ALU. 81 Again, to what class of beings are we to refer the Scorpion-men of the Gilgamish legend, and “ the people who had the bodies of birds of the holes (i.e. bats), men with the faces of ravens,” which the gods created ? 1 Are we to assume that these were formed out of clay or by some such handicraft, or are we to refer them to a more primitive period, when the connection of men and gods by way of totems was much closer than it srrew to he in after times P At any rate, there is no doubt whatever about the semi-human parentage of the Assyrian spirit alu? It is a demon which hides itself in dark corners and caverns in the rock, haunting ruins and deserted buildings, and slinking through the streets at night like a pariah dog. It lies in wait for the unwary, ready to rush out from its hiding-place “ to envelop him as with a garment,” or, coming into the bedchamber by night, it steals sleep away from men by threatening to pounce upon them, should they dare to close their eyes. 3 “The man whom an evil alu hath enveloped on his bed ” 4 shows the Babylonian belief in what the Arabs call the Kabus or Kabus en-nom, a nightmare “ which throws itself heavily on a sleeper, preventing him from moving or opening his eyes, and which disappears as soon as he awakes.” 5 1 Cuthsean Legend, King, Seven Tablets of Creation, , 143, 11. 10-11. Cf. Bev. ix, 7 : “ And the shapes of the locusts were like unto horses prepared for war; and upon their heads as it were crowns like unto gold, and their faces were as men’s faces.” 2 The incantations are explicit on this point, the line “ Whether thou art an evil alii which the man hath created on a bed of night in sleep ” bearing the same idea as the Babb is had of demons procreated through JcWi. 3 Devils, Tablet ‘ B.’ 4 W.A.I., iv, 50, i, 44. 5 Sayce, Cairene Folklore , Folklore , ii, 387. This was one form of the G 82 FEYER. Besides these actual demons various diseases were personified in the same way. Fever, Headache, and such like were all devils to be exorcised— “ Incantation :— The evil Fever hath come like a deluge, and Girt with dread brilliance it filleth the broad earth, Enveloped in terror, clothed with fear ; It roameth through the street, it is let loose in the road ; It standetli beside a man, yet none can see it, It sitteth beside a man, yet none can [see it]. When it entereth the house its appearance is unknown, When it goeth forth [from the house] it is not perceived.” 1 Or from one of the “ Headache ” tablets we learn— “ Headache hath come forth from the Underworld, It hath come forth from the dwelling of Bel, From amid the mountains it hath descended upon the land, From the ends of the mountains it hath descended upon the land, From the fields not to return it hath descended, With the mountain-goat into the fold it hath descended, With the ibex unto the Open-horned flocks it hath descended, With the Open-horned unto the Big-horned it hath descended.” 2 This peculiar idea of a personified disease having its home in the mountains reappears in a Syriac charm against lunacy —“ [0 Evil Spirit of Lunacy], you will needs go forth from the bones, from the sinews, from incubus which so exercised the minds of the mediaeval demonologists. Jean Wier (in his Histories, Disputes et Discours, des Illusions et Impostures des Diables, 1579, 284) says, on the illusion of the incubus, that there is in the art of medicine a malady called Incubus by the Latins, such that those who are attacked by it believe themselves to be supporting a burden in their sleep, which prevents their breathing, and consequently also their speaking. His is an interesting book on all sorts of discussions of this nature. 1 Devils, ii, 11. 2 Ibid., Tablet III, Series Ti’i. HEADACHE. 83 the flesh, from the skin, and from the hair unto the ground, and from the ground (passing) to iron, and from iron to stone, and from stone (you will pass on) to the mountain.” 1 A Metawileh charm, which is kept in a leather purse runs : “I have rested upon God. Away from me, 0 fever, from Abdallah the son of Hosein.” 2 The Ninth Tablet of the Series (e Headache ” is similar. “ Incantation :— Headache roameth over the desert, blowing like the wind, Flashing like lightning it is loosed above and below ; It cutteth off him who feareth not his god like a reed, Like a stalk of henna it slitteth his thews. It wasteth the flesh of him who hath no protecting goddess, Flashing like a heavenly star it cometh like the dew ; ^ It standeth hostile against the wayfarer, scorching him like the day. This man it hath struck, and Like one with heart disease he staggereth, Like one bereft of reason he is broken, Like that which hath been cast into the fire he is shrivelled, Like a wild ass . . . his eyes are full of cloud, On himself he feedeth, bound in death.” 3 Dimetu is another disease personified. 4 Namtaru, the Plague-god, is also addressed in the incantations. In the one in which the physician is directed to make a figure of his patient in dough, so 1 H. Gollancz, Selection 6f Charms , 91. 2 Fallscheer, P.E.F., 1889, 128. 3 Devils, ii, 65. 4 The question arises whether we are to see in dimetu (as connected with the Hebrew Hrl, a menstruating woman) merely the more general word for ‘ sickness, 5 or some more specific use of this word as the personification of menstruation, in accordance with the special meaning in Hebrew. On arihatu , connected with arhu, ‘month,’ possibly having this signification, see supra, p. 67. 84 NAMTARU. that the Plague-god may he induced to leave the man he is tormenting and enter his image, he is thus described :— “ Incantation :— % 0 Plague-god that devoureth the land like fire, Plague-god that attacketh the man like a fever, Plague-god that roameth like the wind over the desert, Plague-god that seizeth on the man like an evil thing, Plague-god that tormenteth the man like a pestilence, Plague-god that hath no hands or feet, that wandereth by night, Plague-god that teareth the sick man in shreds like a leek, That hath bound his members, That hath brought low his full strength [like a plant (?)] [At night] on his bed he cannot sleep. It hath subjected . . . It hath seized on his loins ; His god is far distant from him, His goddess from his body is afar. Marduk hath seen him (etc.). ‘What I’ (etc.). ‘ Go, my son (Marduk), Pull off a piece of clay from the deep, Fashion a figure of his bodily form (therefrom) and Place it on the loins of the sick man by night, At dawn make the atonement for his body, Perform the Incantation of Eridu, Turn his face to the west, That the evil Plague-demon which hath seized upon him May vanish away from him. 5 55 1 Among the Assyrians the custom existed of hanging up amulets of inscribed clay to guard the house from evil, just as is done to this day by many nations. In the British Museum are two tablets 1 2 inscribed with the legend of Ura, another spirit of pestilence. These have 1 Devils , ii, 99 ; cf. IF.A./., iv, 27, 4, 54. Namtaru rabu sa rasubbatu ramd, “ great Namtaru, girt with dread.” 2 L. W. King, Zeits. fiir Assyr ., xi, 50. URA. 85 a rectangular projection at tlie top which is pierced horizontally, by which it was evidently intended that the tablet should be hung up. This upper projection in one case is inscribed, very much after the irregular manner of the charms of the Middle Ages, thus:— and on the upper edge, above the word “ God ” : “ May the shrine of Assur and Melam (?) be over this house ! ” The inscription on the tablets is a quotation from the legend of TTra, the Plague-god, beginning— “ When Ura was appeased . . . The gods all of them . . . The Igigi, the Anunnaki, all those that went before him . . . Then Ura opened his mouth and unto . . . spake ; 1 Pay heed, all of you, to my words . . . 1 What this means is doubtful. For a tablet similar in shape compare Rm.2, 263 (Bezold, Catalogue ), which has the same projection for suspension, and contains an address to Ishtar: “To Ishtar, great lady, queen of the Igigi and Anunnaki, whose power the gods, her fathers, have increased . . . the destruction of mine enemies, the attainment of all my desires, with many gifts to Ishtar, dwelling in Arbela, my lady I present.” In the British Museum is a bronze plaque of a similar shape from Nimroud, with a mythological scene figured on it, and beneath this and on the reverse an inscription dedicated to Nabfi. by Assur-ristia in gratitude for the preservation of the lives of himself and other men, with a list of the offerings presented (houses, land, etc.), which these beneficiaries have given to the god (Nimroud Gallery, Case ‘ A/ No. 130). 86 THE ANGEL OE DEATH. That which I evolved in my former sin is evil, In my heart I was angry and the people I cast down.’ ” 1 The legend of Ura, the plague-spirit, contains an interesting chant— “Ura was angry, and determined To ravage the whole world, But Ishum, his counsellor, appeased him That he abandoned [his wrath] . . . And thus spake the hero Ura:— ‘ Whosoever shall praise this song, In his shrine may plenty abound . . . Whosoever shall magnify my name, May he rule the four quarters of the world ; Whosoever shall proclaim the glory of my valour, Shall have none to oppose him; The singer who chants it shall not die in pestilence, But unto king and noble his speech shall be well pleasing ; The scribe who learns it shall escape from the foe . . . In the shrine of the peoples where he cries my name continually His understanding will increase. In the house where this tablet is set, Tho’ I, Ura, be angry or the Imina-bi gods bring havoc, Yet the dagger of pestilence shall not approach it, Immunity shall rest upon it.’” 2 Now to how great an extent are we to compare the Kabbinic traditions of the Angel of Death (Sammael), Satan, and many of the other demons of this kind? The Angel of Death, in an Arabic Midrash, is described as a decrepit old man, when sent to take Abraham. In the Old Testament he is possibly to be seen in the Angel of the Lord who kills 185,000 of the Assyrians (2 Kings xix, 35), or “ the Destroyer” (Exod. xii, 23), and the angel in 2 Sam. xxiv, 16. The Kabbis found him in 1 See King, loc. cit. 2 King, First Steps in Assyrian , 219. SATAN. 87 Ps. lxxxix, 48, where the Targum translates “ There is no man who lives and, seeing the angel of death, can deliver his soul from his hand.” 1 Sammael, of frequent occurrence in Rabbinic writings, is generally supposed to be composed of DD ‘poison’ and ‘ God.’ This etymology is based on the belief that the Angel of Death puts an end to man’s existence by the infusion of a drop of gall or wormwood. 2 In late Syriac tales 3 the Angel of Death is often described. Satan (for which there is apparently no root in Assyrian, although in Arabic the root stn occurs, meaning ‘ to oppose ’) is a distinct personality mentioned only three times in the Old Testament (Zech. iii, Job i, ii, 1 Chron. xxi, 1), all of which are post-Exilic, the earliest being about 519 b.c. and the last 300 b.c. In Ps. cix, 6, and probably Ecclus. xxi, 27, it is a human adversary that is referred to. In Zechariah he is obviously (from the rebuke administered to him) in an inferior position; in Job the subordination is still clear; in Chronicles the independence of Satan has become as complete as it ever did. The ‘ tempter ’ is an advanced stage; even in Job, far less in Zechariah, the Satan is not in any distinct manner opposed to God. This, at the earliest, he becomes in Chronicles. 4 1 See Jewish Encycl. , i, 89. On the Angel of Death see Bender, J.Q ., vi, 331. 2 J.Q. , vi, 325 ; see also Franck, La Kabbale , 169. 3 Der Neu-Aramaisch Dialekt des Tur-‘Abdin , ed. Prym and Socin, 1881. In one of them a young man shares his bread with the angel (p. 298). 4 The whole of this description of Satan has been taken from the article in Cheyne’s Encyclopaedia Biblica , sub voce. See also Bender on Satan, J.Q., vi, 329, and the Jewish Encyclopaedia, sub voce. The whole question of Talmudic angels and demons is gone into carefully by Brecher, Das Transcendentale im Talmud , 1850. 88 THE EYIL EYE. The curiously persistent belief in the power of the Evil Eye for harm was as real in Mesopotamia among the Assyrians as it is among the modern Arabs. It is frequently mentioned in incantations among the possible causes which have rendered the patient sick, and it is described thus:— “ The roving Evil Eye hath looked on the neighbourhood, and vanished afar, Hath looked on the vicinity, and vanished afar, It hath looked on the chamber of the land, and vanished afar, It hath looked on the wanderer, And like wood cut for kindling (?) it hath bent his neck.” And the exorcism ends— “ Thou man, son of his god, The Eye which hath looked upon thee for harm, The Eye which hath looked upon thee for evil . . . May Ba‘u smite it with flax(?), May Gunura [smite it] with a great oar (?) Like rain which is let fall from heaven, Directed unto earth, So may Ea, king of the Deep, remove it from thy body.” 1 Belief in it is universal in Palestine. 2 It can throw down a house, break a plough, make persons sick or kill them, as well as animals or plants. The simplest cure for a stroke of the Evil Eye is to take a bit of clothing of the person that has had the bad quality, a rag or other object, and burn it below the person struck. Another method is to place pieces of alum, salt, incense, and tamarisk (if Mohammedans are concerned), or a piece of palm from 1 Devils , ii, Tablet ‘ U.’ On the whole subject see Elworthy, The Evil Eye ; J. Tuchmann in Melusine , iii. 2 Cf. Mark vii, 22, “lasciviousness, an evil eye, railing.” THE EYIL EYE. 89 Palm Sunday (for Christians), in a pan on the fire, and take the child round it seven times; as soon as something cracks in the pan the spell is broken. 1 If some European should pat the head of a child in the presence of a native nurse, the woman on reaching home will take the child into a room, place it on the floor, and then collecting some dust in a shovel from each, of the four corners will throw it on the fire, exclaiming, “ Fie on thee, Evil Eye ! ” 2 Charms in the shape of a silver eye are placed on the heads of children “ with sore eyes, or to prevent eye disease.” 3 It is rather a question, in such a case, whether this custom has not taken its origin in the idea of repelling the Evil Eye from the child. It is personified in a Syriac charm: “ The Evil Eye went forth from the stone of the rock, and the Angel Gabriel met her.” 4 In Arabia the possessor of the Evil Eye can strike down a bird flying with his glance. 5 In the Sinaitic Peninsula a young camel is protected from it by a hollow stone hung roung its neck. 6 Among the modern Jews of New York, the antidote is to take a handful of salt and pass it round the head of the bewitched child, throwing a little in each corner, and the remainder over the threshold. Another is for the mother to kiss her child three times, spitting after each kiss. 7 While I was riding from Aleppo to Der-ez-zor in 1 Baldensperger, P.E.F. , 1893, 211; 1899, 150. 2 G. Robinson Lees, Village Life in Palestine , 214. 3 Bliss, P.E.F., 1892, 319. 4 H. Gollancz, Selection of Charms , 93. 5 Doughty, Arabia Peserta, i, 548. 6 Jennings Bramley, P.E.F. , 1906, 205. 7 Jewish Encycl., sub voce Superstition. 90 THE HAUNTS OF DEMONS. 1904, the ombashi (sergeant) of my escort complained of an injured wrist, which he declared was probably due to a certain woman having cast an evil eye upon him while he was doing some work before he started. It is quite the usual thing in Mesopotamia to protect children from the Evil Eye by fastening small blue objects to their caps. Similarly, the owners of valuable mares will ward off evil by knotting small beads into the mane or tail. In the houses they suspend small bags of leather containing charms from the ceiling for a similar purpose. In Cairo “ it is a very common custom ... to hang an aloe-plant over the door of the house ” with the idea of securing good luck. 1 The usual haunts of demons are deserts, caverns, and ruins. 2 “ 0 thou evil demon, turn thee to get hence; 0 thou that dwelleth in ruins, get thee to thy ruins,” 3 voices the tradition of all peoples that have ever believed in ghosts. Maimonides speaks of the demons and ghouls that dwell in the wastes. 4 The old Arab belief is that the ghosts of the dead dwell in graveyards, ruins, and desert places 5 and the desert is full of spirits. 6 The modern Egyptian believes that the Jinn inhabit rivers, ruined houses, wells, baths, ovens, and even the latrine. 7 The ghoul of the Arabs lives in the desert, and appears to travellers in 1 Lane, Manners and Customs , 1890, 236. 2 The aborigines of Australia believe that every thicket, most watering-places, and all rocky places abound with evil spirits (Oldfield, quoted Frazer, G.B. , iii, 41). 3 Devils , i, Tablet ‘ B,’ 1. 55. 4 Quoted Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier , ii, 458. 5 Wellhausen, JReste, 157. 7 Lane, Manners and Customs , 203. 6 Ibid., 149. HAUNTED HOUSES. 91 a friendly guise in order to make them lose their way. 1 Christ goes into the wilderness and there meets the devil. 2 The Unclean Spirit of Palestinian tradition passes through waterless places. 3 In Rabbinic literature the particular spots haunted by demons are caper-bushes and spear- worts, where they dwell in groups of sixty; nut-trees, where they form in groups of nine; shady spots on moonlight nights, especially the roofs of houses, under gutters, or near ruins; cemeteries and privies; water, oil, and bread-crumbs cast on the ground. 4 Haunted houses are as common among the Arabs as with Western peoples, and anyone who has lived in Oriental towns will recall houses of which the rent was f 1 MasTtdi, Prairies d’Or, iii, 318. 2 Matt, iv, 1. 3 Luke xi, 24. 4 For authorities see Jewish Encyclopaedia, iv, 516. The Talmud tells a story that during a famine a pious man gave a dinar to a poor man on New Year’s Eve, and his wife scolded him so that he preferred to pass the night in a cemetery rather than at home. There he over¬ heard two spirits speaking to one another, and one invited the other to perambulate the world to learn what punishment is to be inflicted upon men. The second, however, said it could not leave the cemetery, because it had been buried in a bed of reeds ( Berakhoth , Talmud of Babylon , i, 3, ed. Schwab, 296). Maury (La Magie , 194) quotes the Rabbinic belief that demons lived in deserts or unclean places, dung- heaps, cloacae , and obscure places. Francis Barrett (The Magus, 1801, 102) explains in all seriousness that the best places for ghost-raising are churchyards, or, better still, where criminals have been executed or where a “ great public slaughter of men ” has taken place ; or even better than these, the place where some dead carcase that came by violent death which is not yet expiated, “for the expiation of those places is likewise a holy rite duly to be adhibited to the burial of the bodies, and often prohibits the soul returning to its body, and expels the same afar off to the place of judgment.” On graveyards as the haunt of ghosts, while the soul is in the next world, see Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, 2nd edition, 1902, 49. 92 HAUNTED HOUSES. down to the lowest pitch through suspicion of their being haunted. While in Mosul I was told the common tale of death by fright from imaginary ghosts, how a certain man was challenged to visit a haunted house at night, the belief being that the demon waited behind the door to spring out on any who should knock. The man set out one evening, and on his not returning, his friends went to see what had happened to him, and found him dead at the very door with his abba caught on a nail. 1 The same type of story is, I believe, told in English of the man who dies from fright because his clothes have got entangled in the coffin of a dead man. The belief that spectres inhabit ruins is universal in Semitic ghost stories. The Syriac legends are full of it; in one of the anecdotes in Thomas of Marga’s history, 2 the story is told that “ while a certain man was passing at night along the road by the side of a fire-temple of the Magians which had been a ruin for some time, devils sprang out upon him in the form of black ravens, and they entered into him and convulsed him.” In an Ethiopic magical prayer written for ’Ahita Mikael the same belief appears, for it prescribes certain glorious names, probably to be recited, “ at the front and at the doors if thou wouldst enter into a house which is old or in ruins or unclean.” 3 One of the reasons given by the Rabbis for not entering ruins is to avoid demons. 4 1 See my article, P.S.B.A ., 1906, 82. 2 Ed. Budge, ii, 599. Compare Rev. xviii, 2 : “ Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, and is become a habitation of devils, and a hold of every unclean spirit, and a hold of every unclean and hateful bird.” 3 Budge, Lady Meux MSS., Nos. 2-5, 216. 4 Berakhoth , i, 4, ed. Schwab, 227. / SUMMARY. 93 According to Origen, demons haunt the air and cause plagues, droughts, and bad seasons. 1 The localities most affected by their presence are temples and shrines, where incense is burned and blood-offerings made, 2 , the slaughter of victims being in itself enough to lure them to heathen temples. But even without this they can be attracted to a place and laid therein by the use of certain incantations. 3 We may therefore briefly sum up the contents of this chapter as follows:—First, the ghost or spectre of a dead man reappearing was and is as vivid in the minds of all Semites as in other peoples, and the character of such wraiths was markedly similar to most popular superstitions of this kind. A spirit might be raised from the dead; it might return of its own accord to haunt men ; it had the power to inflict harm or disease on those whom it attacked, in order to secure the payment of its dues; and, finally, the sorcerers, just like their confreres of later periods and other climes, believed that their exorcisms could ‘ lay ’ such perturbed spirits. Secondly, we have seen that the Semites believed in a wonderful phantasmagoria of spooks, goblins, demons, and fiends of hideous and horrid shape unsurpassed by the fertile imagination of the Middle Ages, which brought sickness on mankind. Thirdly, we must account as the most important class (in view of certain deductions to be made in succeeding chapters) those semi-human spirits, or semi-divine beings, born either of a human father or mother. This belief was universal among the Semites. That is to say, down to the present day they have believed in 1 C. Cels., i, 31, quoted Conybeare, J.Q., ix, 60. 2 Ibid., vii, 35, 64. 3 Ibid., iii, 34. 94 SUMMARY. a visitation from supernatural beings who could ally them¬ selves temporarily with a man or woman, and have children, in the former case to inhabit the ghostly, unseen world, and in the second to be born on earth. Instances of such alliances of gods and men in classic mythology are so well known as not to need mention. Further, throughout the whole discussion, it has been obvious that the Semitic idea of spirits differs hardly, if at all, from the superstitions of all other peoples. 95 / II. DEMONIAC POSSESSION AND TABU. In the preceding chapter we have seen how all forms of devils and spectres exist in the minds of the Semites, and the next step in succession is the question of demoniac possession in its relation to tabu. This latter word, borrowed by anthropologists from Polynesia, is used to define that peculiar ban which savages lay on certain actions or states, from an idea of either inherent holiness or uncleanness connected with them. That the principle of tabu actually existed among all the Semites in its full savage force at one time or another, requires no discussion, for its presence has long been recognized, not only in the literature of these ancient nations, but also in the customs of the modern nomad Arab tribes; it is obvious from a comparison between their laws and those of more savage races who have not attained that pitch of civilisation which admits of a veneer to cover over their primitive customs. But the reason why tabu existed demands the most searching scrutiny into the early records of folklore, and it may be that Semitic literature, despite its civilised polish, may help in places where the customs of savage races offer no clue to their origin. In the discussion of this question, the first point to be considered is the view that the Semites held of the origin of disease. The cuneiform tablets again, earlier than anything that we yet possess on this subject, at least in 96 SICKNESS AND DEMONIAC POSSESSION. a comparatively unedited form, afford the most valuable evidence of all, and we shall approach fundamentals more nearly through the Assyrian exorcisms than by other means. By gradual and successive pieces of evidence, drawn from all the series of cuneiform spells which were quoted in the Introduction, it will appear clear, I think, that the object of these incantations was to heal people suffering from disease, which will be seen to be only another name for spirit obsession in its widest sense, and that such people, by the very reason of their sickness, were presumed to have incurred a breach of tabu. 1 With the simpler literature of the cuneiform tablets before us, it should be possible to unravel the more elaborate mysticism of the later Semites, and hence the first task is to deduce therefrom such of the Semitic super¬ stitions about disease as will afford a base from which to go further afield. No one can read much of the incantation literature of the Assyrians without recognizing how sickness was ascribed to the attacks of Jinn or spirits of different forms : 2 1 On the universal belief that disease is due to spirits see Tylor, Primitive Culture , 4th ed., ii, 127. 2 Cf. Blau, Das Altjiid. Zauberw., 14. Naturally it is not only to demons that sickness is primarily due ; the gods of course are omni¬ potent An this respect. Ishtar curses Gilgamish after he slays her divine bull, and he is smitten with a sore sickness, doubtless in con¬ sequence (King, Babylonian Religion , 164), and, to quote one instance out of many from the medical texts, “when (a man) is smitten on his neck, it is the hand of Adad ; when he is smitten on the neck and his breast hurts him, it is the hand of Ishtar on the necklace ” (S. 951). Joshua the Stylite (ed. Wright, xxvi, 17) puts the matter quite tersely, referring to the year of Alexander, “ And as all the people had sinned, all of them were smitten with the plague.” Cf. Exod. viii, 19 : “ This is the finger of God.” It is apparent from this incantation to the star Mustabarru mutanu . SICKNESS DUE TO DEMONS. 97 “ Evil fiends are they, from the Underworld they have gone forth, They are the messengers of Bel, lord of the world. The evil Spirit that in the desert smiteth the living man, The evil Demon that like a cloak enshroudeth the man, The evil Ghost, the evil Devil that seize upon the body, The Hag-demon (and) Ghoul that smite the body with sickness, The Phantom of night (lihT) that in the desert roameth abroad, Unto the side of the wanderer 1 have drawn nigh, Casting a woeful fever upon his body. A ban ( mamit ) of evil hath settled on his body, An evil disease on his body they have cast, An evil plague hath settled on his body, An evil venom on his body they have cast, An evil curse hath settled on his body, Evil (and) sin on his body they have cast, Venom (and) wickedness have settled upon him.” 2 “ Incantation :— 0 MustabarrH mtUdnu, great lord, merciful god, That taketh the hands, the brave who looseth charms, the extolled that giveth life to the man, I, Samas-sum-ukin, servant of his god, Thy slave, mourn, groan, sigh, A violent sickness, a fire, the seizure of the god [Nergal ?], S An evil sickness, an TJtulcku- demon, fever in my body, A baneful disease . . . with me, On my couch of mourning ... I call to thee, Against some god known or unknown I have committed a sin, or have risen in rebellion ; I fear, I am afraid of the glory of the face of thy divinity, [thy] greatness. May the water of my grief reach thee, that the anger of thy heart be appeased.” (Scheil, TJne Saison de fouilles a Sippar, 95.) Even saints, in modern Arabic belief, can inflict sickness as a punish¬ ment. According to Curtiss ( Primitive Semitic Religion, 168) a woman appealed to a saint (Abbas), by shaking the pall on his tomb, that he should make her recalcitrant lover, for whom she had made her husband divorce her, return to her, and the saint visited him with sickness. The marriage ceremony was concluded at his shrine. 1 A frequent name for the sick man in texts of this kind. 2 Devils , i, Tablet III, 1. 23 ff. H 98 SICKNESS DUE TO DEMONS. One of the most important points to notice in this text is the use of mamit, 'the tabu/ 1 2 in parallelism to diseases. Again in the same tablet— O “ The sick man upon whom sickness hath seized, Fever (hath taken up) its seat upon him. When I (the magician) draw near unto the sick man, When I examine the muscles of the sick man, When I compose his limbs, When I sprinkle the water of Ea on the sick man, When I subdue (?) the sick man, When I bring low the strength of the sick man, When I recite an incantation over the sick man, When I perform the Incantation of Eridu, May a kindly Spirit, a kindly Guardian be present at my side. Whether thou art an evil Spirit or an evil Demon, ♦ Or an evil Ghost or an evil Devil, Or an evil God or an evil Fiend, Or Hag-demon or Ghoul or Robber-sprite, Or Phantom of night, or Wraith of night, Or Handmaiden of the Phantom, Or evil Pestilence, or noisome Fever, Or pain, or sorcery, or any evil, Or Headache, or Shivering, or . . . (?), or Terror, Or an evil man, or evil face, Or evil spell, or evil tongue, or evil mouth, or sorcery, or any evil, Be thou removed from before me ! The fourth and fifth tablets of the same series are entirely taken up with descriptions of demons or ghosts, which have attacked the man : “ From the man, the son of his god, may they depart from his body, and from his 1 The exact meaning of this word is discussed at length later in this chapter. 2 Ibid., iii, 178 ff. SICKNESS DUE TO DEMONS. 99 body may they issue forth! ” 1 The sixteenth tablet is destined to avert the evil which an eclipse, caused by the evil spirits, has apparently brought upon a man. 2 Tablet ‘ A 9 begins with a description of the demons 3 who “ like a flood are gathered together ”— “ (Until) this man revoltetli against himself, No food can he eat, no water can he drink, But with woe each day is he sated.” But devils in general are combated as sickness in the series Asakku (translated provisionally ‘ Fever’; at any rate it is the name of some disease), and they are exorcised so that they depart from the body of the sick man :— 44 Fever, unto the man, against his head, hath drawn nigh, Disease ( Namtaru ) unto the man, against his life, hath drawn nigh, An evil Spirit against his neck hath drawn nigh, An evil Demon against his breast hath drawn nigh, An evil Ghost against his belly hath drawn nigh, An evil God against his foot hath drawn nigh ; These seven together have seized upon him, His body as (with) a consuming fire they devour (?).” 4 As with Fever, so is it with Headache [tVu) y which is reckoned a demon coming forth from the Underworld; 5 Namtaru , another disease, is similarly considered personified, 6 -o 1 Devils, v, col. iii, 48 ff. 2 See preceding chapter, p. 52. 3 Labasu in 1. 7, and compare “ they spare not ” in 1. 5 ; cf. also 11. 33 ff. 4 Ibid., vol. ii, Tablet XI, 1. 1 ff. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed., 127, of New Zealand folklore: “We hear, too, of an idea -of the parts of the body—forehead, breast, stomach, feet, etc.—being apportioned each to a deity who inflicts aches and pains and ailments there.” 5 Ibid., Tablet ‘ P. 5 6 See Tablet ‘ R.’ 100 THE DEMONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. and the Spirit of the Evil Eye has been discussed elsewhere. 1 Even in medical texts, which are comparatively, although hy no means entirely, free from the black art, a man may he filled by ahhazu , some form of disease bearing the same name as one of the demons. 2 The vdbisu , too, was another devil which could bring disease, to be exorcised in the following terms:—“ May Marduk, eldest son of Eridu, sprinkle him (the sick man) with pure water, clean water, bright water, limpid water, with the water twice seven times, that be may be pure, be clean; let the evil rabisu demon go forth and stand away from him ; may a kindly sedu y a kindly lamassu, be present near his body.” 3 Leaving the period at which these cuneiform texts were edited (i.e., from the seventh century under the patronage of Assurbanipal until the decadence of the later bouthern empire), and descending to New Testament times and thought, the conceptions are of a similar nature. Conybeare gives a detail of his results in the examination of the demonology of this period as follows:—“ (1) The world is full of evil demons presided over by Satan. Without flesh or bones they hover in the air or haunt the earth, especially its waterless places and the neighbourhood of tombs. (2) They cause in man all sin and disease and death . . . To be sick is to have a devil inside one . . . (3) They are as a rule invisible ... (4) They will pass from one person to anothei, and from human beings into animals. (7) Before the advent 1 See p. 88. 2 Kiichler, Assyr.-Babyl. Mediziny 60,11. 28, 30, 31, etc. 3 Haupt, A.S.ICT.y 11, ii, 11. 73 ff. Simeon Lindinger {Be Ebrveorum veterurti arte medica , 73, quoting “ Stanlei hist, philos., 15, c. 16 ) remarks : “ Chaldeei vetustissimi jam opinati sunt, dcemones irrepere in ilia, creare furorem, et morbum sacrum.” THE DEMONS OE THE NEW TESTAMENT. 101 of the Messiah, the Jews knew names, at the naming of which over the possessed, the demons took to flight. But Jesus of Nazareth authorized his followers to use no name but his own.” 1 Take, for instance, the case of the epileptic son in Matt, xvii, 14, and Mark ix, 14: “ Master, I brought unto thee my son, which hath a dumb spirit; and whereso¬ ever it taketh him, it dasheth him down; and he foameth and grindeth his teeth and pineth away . . . And they brought him unto him: and when he saw him, straightway the spirit tare him grievously : and he fell on the ground and wallowed foaming. And he asked his father, How long time is it since this hath come unto him? And he said, From a child. And oft-times it hath cast him both into the fire and into the waters.” Then Christ rebukes the unclean spirit, saying, “ Thou dumb and deaf spirit, I command thee, come out of him, and enter no more into him. And having cried out and torn him much, he came out.” The old ideas of the Arabs are the same, trances, epilepsy, fever, epidemics, and madness being all ascribed to Jinn, 2 and the modern Jews of Jerusalem 1 Demonology of the New Testament , Jewish Quarterly , viii, 588. 2 Wellhausen, Reste, 155. According to the Mosul tradition, which was repeated to me by my servant Mejid, a certain monk of Der Mar Elia (a monastery about an hour’s distance) was appealed to by a woman who said she had been abandoned by a caravan and left on the road, and she prayed for leave to sleep there. He admitted her, and when night came he blew out his lamp, but hearing her approach softly he kicked her out of the monastery with one kick. Presently she came back in the guise of another woman, but this time he entirely refused her admittance. Then certain demons took counsel together and said : “ He will not sin with her, so we must go to the daughter of the Sultan, and one of us must enter her so that she become mad and make herself naked, and he will be defeated.” And so it fell out; but when the 102 THE DEMONS OF PALESTINE. are in no wise more advanced in their present treatment of snch diseases. When a Jew is afflicted with madness, the falling sickness, or the like, his room is cleaned and white¬ washed, all holy books being removed, and the patient may not pray or mention holy words. The witch-doctress prepares a little wheat, barley, salt, water, milk, honey, four or six eggs, and some sweetmeats or sugar, and, mixing all these together at midnight, she scatters some of the mixture round the sick bed, on the threshold, and in the four corners of the room, reciting in a whisper as follows: — “ My Lords, I beseech you to pity, compassionate, and have mercy upon the soul (or life) of your servant (or slave, if it be a woman), the patient (giving the name), the son (or daughter) of your maid (giving the mother’s name), and overlook his (or her) trespass; and if he (or she) have sinned and done any evil to you, forgive and pardon his (or her) sins ; give him (or her) life and restore his (or her) health and strength. (If to a barren woman, she adds) Open her womb and restore to her the fruits of her body. (If to those who lose young children) Give life to their sons and daughters, and let this honey (or sugar) be to sweeten your mouths and palates, the wheat and barley to feed your cattle and sheep, and the water and salt to establish peace, friendship, love, brotherhood, an everlasting covenant of salt between us and you.” Here she breaks the eggs and pours the Sultan sent his servants to fetch the monk, the holy man shut his eyes when he drew near and successfully exorcised the demon. When the demon came forth, the monk commanded that they should bring one of the large stones used for crushing burghul , and put it on the devil’s head. They did so and cut off his head. THE DEMONS OF PALESTINE. 103 same in the aforementioned places, kneels, and prostrates herself, kisses the ground several times, and proceeds with these words: “ Here I offer you life for life, in order that ye may restore the life of this patient.” 1 1 A. Goodrich-Freer, Some Jewish Folklore from Jerusalem , Folklore , 1904, xv, 2, 186. There is a peculiar form of so-called demoniac possession in Abyssinia :—“I had the satisfaction of seeing in Gaffat a case of houda. This term is given to a phenomenon of mental abstraction, which the natives explain as ‘ being possessed by a devil. 3 The case I am about to mention happened to a female in the service of one of the Europeans. Her symptoms began in a kind of fainting fit, in which the fingers were clenched in the palms of the hands, the eyes glazed, the nostrils distended, and the whole body stiff and inflexible. Afterwards she commenced a hideous laugh in imitation of the hyena, and began running about on all fours ; she was then seized by the bystanders, and a houda doctor having been called in, this individual began questioning her as to the person who had possessed her with this hyena devil. She said he was a man living in Gooderoo, south of Abyssinia, and also told how long the spirit would be in possession, and what was required to expel him. Great care must be taken of persons thus afflicted, as cases of this kind sometimes end in death. All their demands for dress, food, trifles of any sort, must be strictly attended to. In the height of the frenzy they will sometimes carry out the idea of their hyena identity to such an extent as to attack any animal that may happen to be in the way. One woman fancied she would like a little donkey-flesh ; so to satisfy her strange taste she seized hold by her teeth to the hinder part of one which happened to be near. Off went the astonished beast at a pace that nothing in the form of persuasion will lead him to adopt for the gratification of man. Off, too, clinging tight with her teeth to his haunches, went the frenzied girl. Only force would induce her to forego the tender morsel. “ They have several cures for this strange attack ; but the never- failing one is a mixture of some obscene filth, which is concealed in some part of the house, whereupon the woman is said to go directly on all fours to where it is and swallow it. This would seem incredible but thousands of corroborative facts, known to Abyssinian residents put it beyond a doubt. “ The power of possessing persons with the devil is attributed mostly to Jewish blacksmiths ; and women and children are terrified when they meet, in a solitary place, a blacksmith who is a Jew. These 104 THE DEMONS OF PALESTINE. Now the Arab belief shows how tenacious such super¬ stitions are in the East . 1 Curtiss 2 tells of a boy who had epileptic fits. “The boy felt the spirit coming up through sorcerers are also said to be endued with the power of changing the shape of the object of their incantations” (Dufton, A Journey through Abyssinia , 167). Stern describes the symptoms of the bouda —“ The possessed woman, as if struck by a magnetic wire, burst into loud fits of laughter and the paroxysms of a raving maniac. . . . She tried to bite, kick, and tear everyone within reach ; and when she found herself foiled in all those mischievous attempts, she convulsively grasped the unpaved wet floor, and in imitation of the hyena gave utterance to the most discordant sounds.” The cure was as follows. The exorcist “with one hand laid an amulet on her heaving bosom, whilst with the other he made her smell a rag, in which the root of a strong scented plant, a bone of a hyena, and some other abominable unguents were bound up ” (Wanderings among the Falashas , 154). In exorcising tigritiya , a form of possession allied to the bouda , after the devil has been driven out “ a sheep or a fowl is killed, boiled on the embers, and eaten with bread. The patient’s friends partake of this food when the devil goes out of her. The bones and remains of the meat are burned with fire, and the fragments of the bread buried in the ground. These are so left for the devil, that if he should come back to the place he may remain and feed, and not go on and bother the woman” (Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia , 300). All these quotations are taken from Hayes, The Source of the Blue Nile, 286. 1 It is interesting to read Lucian, Philopseudes , ch. 16, § 44 :— ’AUa Havre's iaaai t oi> 'SLvpov t ov etc t f)urrlfv, ovowi 7rapaXa(iuov KaTa7ri7nov7afvrfv ical Ttu bfOaXyu) biaarpeffiovTa? Kal a., iii, 224. 3 Masterman, Bibl. World , xxi, 277. 4 Guide to the Perplexed , iii, xlvii. See Ohwolsobn, Die Ssabier, ii, 483. 5 Darmesteter, Zend-Avesta, i, xcii. In the Talmud ( Yoma , viii, 1, ed. Schwab, vol. v, 247) it is the woman in childbed who is allowed to wear sandals on the Day of Atonement, “ lest she catch cold ” by leaving them off as other folks must. But the reason is probably from the danger to others who tread in her footsteps, as this passage from Maimonides clearly shows. On the other hand, it is a question whether this coincides with the admonition of Berakhoth (iii, ed. Schwab, 59), that one carrying a dead body should go without shoes, “for it may happen that a shoe be torn and he be interrupted in this religious duty.” 120 AMONG THE ASSYRIANS. the savage tabus on all circumstances connected with birth exist among the Arabs, Syrians, and Hebrews; it should therefore be no difficult thing to prove the same superstitions in Assyria. Indeed, the extraordinary thing would be if the law of the unclean tabu were not the same in all the Semitic tribes. With regard to the woman in her courses, the tablet, S. 49 1 throws some light on this tabu. It is a lexico¬ graphical text, evidently describing ghosts, and there are mentioned therein (a) ardat lili ina apti ameli izzika (b) ardatu la simta (c) ardatu sa 1dma sinnisti la arihatu (d) ardatu sa kima sinnisti la nakpatu. “ (a) The ghoul ('lilith ) works harm in the dwelling of a man, (b) the maid (who has died) before her time, 2 (c) the maid who cannot menstruate as women do, (cl) the maid who hath no womanly modesty (?).” The word in (c) is probably to be connected with arhu, ‘month.’ Now, although nothing is said of any tabu here, it is clear that in (a) a spirit is meant, and hence ( b ), (c), and (d) will all he ghosts of some kind. As a matter of fact they come into the same category as the ghost of the nursing mother, the sacred courtesan, and the others mentioned on p. 19; they are maidens dead through some peculiarity. Hence some mystical significance was clearly attached to the absence of this monthly function, or there would have been no mention of the girl in such a list of ghosts. There is, as a kind of cumulative evidence, the in¬ cantation that mentions the “ woman with unwashen 1 Text quoted Bezold, Catalogue , 1376. See also p. 67. 2 La simta appears to be an apocopated phrase. Simtu is ‘ destiny, 1 and there is a phrase ina um la simtisu urruhis imtut, “ he died before his time ” (see Muss-Arnolt, Lid., sub voce). TABU ON MARRIAGE IN ASSYRIA. 121 hands ” ; 1 it is clear at least that women particularly might in some fashion be unclean, if the text does not offer an ulterior meaning, after the fashion of Semitic euphemisms; further, in one of the ‘ Headache ’ 2 tablets it is laid down that it is to be an ‘ old woman ’ ( parsumtu ) who is to bray certain vegetables together with clean hands to make a medicament for the aching head of the sick man. This can only mean that she is past the age of risk from such tabus. On the other hand, it must be admitted that no limit is given as to the age of the ‘ wise woman ’ employed in spinning the magic cord. 3 In the Apocrypha 4 it is said of the Babylonian gods that “ the menstruous woman and the woman in childbed touch their sacrifices,” but there is no need to take this literally. It does show that the writer, who became thus patriotically abusive, was well aware of the uncleanness of suck a proceeding. How much reliance must be placed on this statement is consonant with the improbability of a woman in childbed having anything to do with sacrifices. The tablet K. 2389 prescribes the ceremonies with which the Assyrians cleansed themselves after marriage or the k'ri. They run as follows :—(1) \Enuma ina (?) na zikaru u sinnistu lu ina musi la ina nim mu si In . . . lu enurna ina maiali-su sinati-su [wssw] (2) siptu llu Samsu sar same(e) a irsitim(tim) inim-inim-ma enuma amelu lu ina sutti lu ina bari (?) lu mu - du - a lu la mu - du - u tulu-su u- ... ( 3) nam - bul - bi - hul zikari pl u sinni- sati pl suD pi ana a - ha - mis . . . “ jAVhen are in] cohabitation a man and woman either in the night, or in ... of the night, or . . . , or when 2 ix, 132. 4 Baruch vi, 29. 1 See p. 129. 3 Ibid., 75. 122 TABU ON CHILDBIRTH IN ASSYRIA. on his bed his urine [goes forth] ; Incantation ‘ 0 Sun- god, king of heaven and earth.’ Prayer for when a man either in a dream or in a vision (P), witting or unwitting, his breast ... A ceremony to free from evil, for distant (?) men and women who ... to one another ...” The restorations, which I have suggested, seem quite probable, and it is evident that both cohabitation and the k’ri were reckoned as unclean among the Assyrians as among other Semites. Moreover, the rt/w-demon may be created “ on a bed of night in sleep,” and this is good evidence for a tabu in such a case. 1 With regard to the cohabitation-tabu, Herodotus 2 adds additional proof to our tablet, by saying that among the Babylonians and Arabs every act of sexual intercourse was immediately followed by a fumigation and an ablution. For the tabu on childbirth, two tablets 3 seem to throw light on Assyrian beliefs. These give the various cere¬ monies and rites to be performed for women in such a condition. That such rites exist is enough to show that some supernatural evil had to he guarded against, and hence the fear of risk in childbirth was associated with ghostly dangers equally among the Assyrians as by other nations. Moreover, when it is remembered that one of the Assyrian ghosts is the woman who has died in giving birth to a child, it requires little acumen to deduce that a woman in such a state was held to be in close relation with demoniac influences. It is the same form of argument that holds good for the corpse; the dead man becomes 1 i.e., on the analogy of his Rabbinic traditions that the ba'al JcWi had had union with a restless spirit who would bear him children. 2 i, 198. 3 R. 2413 and K. 11647, see Bezold, Catalogue, 441 and 1183. THE MAMIT OR TABU. 123 a ghost, potentially malignant to those that meddle with the body, which is therefore held to be tabu. As it is now clear, I think, that the Semites in general considered a tabu to lie on corpses, childbirth, menstruation, issues, or marriage, we can now proceed to the discussion v of tabu as indicated in the Surpu -series by the word mamit. In the Assyrian religion the importance of the mamit (which may be both a ban and an oath) is one of the most conspicuous ideas presented. It is sung of particularly in a tablet beginning “ Ban! Ban ! Barrier that none can pass,” being the description of the holy defence which the gods are able to provide for the faithful against the powers of darkness, “ a snare without escape set for evil.” Water and flour appear to be used in the charm, 1 and the connection with the Holy Wafer or Host, used as a defence against vampires, is obvious. “ Ban ! Ban ! Barrier that none can pass, Barrier of the gods, that none may break, Barrier of heaven and earth that none can change, Which no god may annul, Nor god nor man can loose, A snare without escape, set for evil, A net whence none can issue forth, spread for evil. Whether it be evil Spirit, or evil Demon, or evil Ghost, Or Evil Devil, or evil God, or evil Fiend, Or Hag-demon, or Ghoul, or Robber-sprite, Or Phantom, or Night-wraith, or Handmaid of the Phantom, Or evil Plague, or Fever sickness, or unclean Disease, Which hath attacked the shining waters of Ea, May the snare of Ea catch it ; 1 “ The shining waters of Ea 55 and “ the net of Nisaba,” the corn-god. It seems to have been the custom to fence about the patient (or perhaps the magician) with a ring of flour or meal as a magic circle, just in the same way that the mediaeval sorcerers stood within a similar charmed ring when invoking spirits. See Introduction. 124 THE MAMIT OR TABU. Or which hath assailed the meal of Nisaba, May the net of Nisaba entrap it; Or which hath broken the barrier, Let not the barrier of the gods, The barrier of heaven and earth, let it go free ; Or which reverencetli not the great gods, May the great gods entrap it, May the great gods curse it ; Or which attacketh the house, Into a closed dwelling may they cause it to enter ; Or which circleth round about, Into a place without escape may they bring it ; Or which is shut in by the house door, Into a house without exit may they cause it to enter ; Or that which passeth the door and bolt, With door and bolt, a bar immovable, may they withhold it; Or which bloweth in at the threshold and hinge, Or which forceth a way through bar and latch, Like water may they pour it out, Like a goblet may they dash it in pieces, Like a tile may they break it ; Or which passeth over the wall, Its wing may they cut off; Or which [lieth] in a chamber, Its throat may they cut; Or which looketh in at a side chamber, Its face may they smite ; Or which muttereth in a . . . chamber, Its mouth may they shut; Or which roameth loose in an upper chamber, With a bason without opening may they cover it ; Or which at dawn is darkened, At dawn to a place of sunrise may they take it ” 1 Again, this word mamit occurs constantly in the Surpu- series, which is largely devoted to spells for its removal from the sick man who has appealed for release. The 1 Devils, ii, 119. THE MAMIT OR TABIJ. 125 value of these Surpu tablets in this matter cannot be overestimated, for we find in one tablet a list of one hundred and sixty-three transgressions of every possible kind of mamit , which the man may have incurred, 1 and Marduk can remove. This is the beginning of the third tablet:— “ The mamit of all kinds which hath seized on the man, Marduk, the priest of the gods, looseth.” 2 If these mamit be considered in detail it will at once be recognized that the Polynesian tabu is a near equivalent of the Assvrian word. To this end let us examine this and the other tablets of the same series which deal with the mamit. Some are obviously much older than others, at any rate in their present guise. Adultery, murder, and theft are all considered tabu, yet in the form in which they are exorcised they are not, according to modern convention, of the same class of ideas as those tabus against contact with unclean vessels. We may therefore begin with the latter, simpler ideas of uncleanness, which pre¬ sumably’ are in their earliest dress and are briefly and simply set forth. Of the simple, ‘ unclean ’ tabus, then, we find the following :— iii, 21. Mamit via kasi (?) la sariptum 3 me satil. il Tabu of drinking water from an uncleaned cup.” 1 Compare Plutarch (Be Superst., vii), “ describing the hapless plight of the man who thinks that affliction comes to him as a punishment for sin. 1 It is useless to speak to him, to try and Help him. He sits girt about with foul rags, and many a time he strips himself and rolls about naked in the mud ; he accuses himself of sins of omission and commission, he has eaten something or drunk something, or walked in some road the divinity forbade him ’ ” (J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena , 517). 2 Zimmern, Ritualt., 12. 3 Sariptu is literally 4 unrefined.’ 126 THE MAMIT OR TABU. 22. Mcimit rilieti nadanu u sa’alu. w “ Tabu of giving or asking the lees.” 1 2 114. Mamit ina usurti mahar ilu Samas aradu. “ Tabu of going before the sun when “Tixy.” 3 r 115. Mamit tam'd amelu lapatu. “ Tabu of touching a man, when one is ‘ banned.’ ” 3 116. Mamit tam'd katsu ana Hi u ilu Istar tarasu. “ Tabu of making prayer to god or goddess, when one is ‘ banned.’ ” 117. Mamit itti tami dababu. “ Tabu of holding converse with one under a ban.” 118. Mamit akale tami akalu. “ Tabu of eating the bread of one under a ban.” 119. Mamit me tami said. “ Tabu of drinking the water of one under a ban.” 120. Mamit rihiti tami sat'd. “ Tabu of drinking what one under a ban hath left.” 121. Mamit itti bel ami dababu. “ Tabu of holding converse with one who lieth under a sin.” 122. Mamit akali bel ami akalu. “ Tabu of eating the bread of one who lieth under a sin.” 1 Cf. Hughes, Diet, of Islam, 103 : “ When anyone eats he must not wash his fingers until he has first licked them ; whoever eats a dish and licks it afterwards, the dish intercedes with God for him ; whoever eats from a plate and licks it afterwards, the dish says to him : ‘ May God free you from hell as you have freed me from the devils licking me.’ ” 2 The translation of usurtu here, on which the sense of the line depends, is uncertain. It is not certain whether this is to be referred to the savage custom of preventing women in their courses and sick men from seeing the sun, or whether it is a prohibition against appearing in the Sun-temple when unclean. Samas is used in this tablet as we should use the word ‘sun’ (cf. 1. 23). Usurtu is the word translated ‘ barrier ’ in the second line of the Tablet of the Ban quoted above. Zimmern, in the Surpu , translates it Zauberkreis. I think, however, that it is quite possible to hold this other view. 3 i.e. ‘ unclean.’ THE HAMIT OR TABU. 127 123. Mamit me bel ami satd. “ Tabu of drinking the water of one who lieth under a sin.” 124. Mamit rihit bel ami satd. “ Tabu of drinking what one that lieth under a sin hath left.” 125. Mamit abut bel ar[ni sabat]u. “ Tabu of making intercession for one that lieth under a sin.” Or the sick man may be tabu from the following causes:_ ii, 99. Ana pan tami itesir. “ He hath gone before one under a ban.” 100. Tamil ana panisu itesir. “ One under a ban hath come before him.” 101. Ina ersi tami ittatil. “ He hath slept on the bed of one under a ban.” 102. Ina kussi tami ittasab. “ He hath sat on the chair of one under a ban.” 103. Ina passuri tami itakal. “ He hath eaten out of the dish of one under a ban.” 104. Ina kdsi tami iltati. “ He hath drunk out of the cup of one under a ban.” 1 From these primitive conceptions of tabu we can readily understand how the ordinary moral code of life arose. “ Breaches of social order are recognized as offences 1 See also Tablet VIII, 1. 44, Itti mamit kussi subti erE maiali u-tamd, From the tabu of chair, stool, bed, couch, and one under a ban (may they free him).” This tablet of the Surpu -series is paralleled by the description of a sorcerer of the Abipones (Jevons, Introd. to Hist, of Religion , 2nd ed., Ill, quoting Dobrizhoffer). In the case of private calamity, “ at his first coming the physician overwhelms the sick man with an hundred questions : ‘ Where were you yesterday ?’ says he, ‘what roads did you tread? Did you overturn the jug and spill the drink prepared from the maize ? What ? have you imprudently given the flesh of a tortoise, stag, or boar [totem gods] to be devoured by dogs ? ’ Should the sick man confess to having done any of these things, ‘ It is well,’ replies the physician, ‘ we have discovered the cau.sc of your disorder.’ ” 128 THE MAMIT OR TABU. against the holiness of the deity, and the development of law and morals is made possible, at a stage when human sanctions are still wanting, or too imperfectly administered to have much power, by the belief that the restrictions on human licence, which are necessary to social well¬ being, are conditions imposed by the god for the maintenance of a good understanding between himself and his worshippers.” 1 It is to this, therefore, that we must refer the reason for the heterogeneous tabus in the Surpu tablets, when we find side by side with contagious tabus of uncleanness what is to us the more moral side of holy tabus—adultery, murder, theft, and even the stirring up of strife. The very commingling of such tabus, which were all believed to be, in their breach, the reason for disease (else the Surpu would never have been written), throws much light first on the relatively high danger from unclean contagion, as from the ‘deadly’ sins, and secondly the conception of sin as it originated in the Semitic mind. 2 I have gone thus fully into this meaning of mamit that there may be no doubt as to the actual sense of the word; it is the savage tabu in all its power. In another tablet, although no mention is made of the mamit , the man (or more probably the priest, from 1. 10) has come under a tabu of uncleanliness— 3 1 Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem 154. 2 And incidentally the probability of the composite character of this list of tabus and the whole of the Surpu. 3 Devils , ii, Tablet ‘ AA.’ Line 10 rims : “ Father, his magician hath trodden in something poured out,” etc. Are we to consider any of this uncleanness due to ulterior causes, for which the scribes have employed euphemisms ? When the euphemistic synonyms frequent among other Semites are remembered (such as Isa. lvii, 8 (?), and n'bn THE MAMIT OR TABU. 129 “While he walked in the street, . . . while he walked in the street, While he made his way through the broad places, While he walked along the streets and ways, He trod in something that had been poured forth, or He put his foot in some unclean water, Or cast his eye on the water of unwashen hands, 1 Or came in contact with a woman of unclean hands, Or glanced at a maid with unwashen hands, Or his hand touched a bewitched woman, Or he came in contact with a man of unclean hands, Or saw one with unwashen hands, Or his hand touched one of unclean body.” frequently) it does not seem impossible. On the other hand, the closing ceremony of the Eighth Tablet of the Surpu (1. 72), for the man under the tabu, says : “ May (the tabu) be poured like the water of thy body and the washings of the hands.” The ka-luh-u- [da], a purification ceremony, probably the same as the tablet quoted above, which is the eighth tablet of the series luh-ka, is prescribed in K. 2519 (Martin, Textes Religieux, 1903, 220, 1. 9) as advisable if the god vouchsafes no answer in the omens which the seer is observing. 1 Evil could always be washed from the hands with water. According to Shabbath, 109a (Hershon, 43) “ it were better to cut the hands off than to touch the eye, or the nose, or the mouth, or the ear, etc. (i.e. the orifices by which a demon may enter, as is clear from p. 115), with them, without having first washed them. Unwashed hands may cause blind¬ ness, deafness, foulness of breath, or a polypus. It is taught that Rabbi Hathan had said, ‘ The evil spirit Bath Chorin, which rests upon the hands at night, is very strict; he will not depart until water is poured upon the hands three times over.’ ” When the fingers are washed in the morning they should be held downwards and extended, that the evil spirits which hover about man in the night-time may be washed off ( Jewish Encycl ., xi, 600). Shibbeta is a female demon, bringing croup to persons, especially children, who leave their hands unwashed in the morning (Hul ., 107&, Totan ., 20 b, Yoma , 77 b, quoted Jewish Encycl ., iv, 517). It is dangerous even to borrow a drink of water, or step over water poured out ( Pes . 111a), and in Galicia it is recom¬ mended not to leave a tank of water uncovered during the Passover, even while pouring water therein (which should be done through a cloth) (Jewish Encycl ., article Superstitions). Pilate washes his hands before the multitude, saying, “ I am innocent of the blood of this K 130 UNCLEAN TABUS. The evidence before us, then, shows that the primitive tabu on uncleanness existed as much among the Assyrians as among the Hebrews, Arabs, and other Semites. It is v quite clear that these mamit in the Surpu - series were written for people who had incurred a tabu, not merely directly, but by coming in contact with another person ‘charged’ with the contagion. Indeed, when this highly developed Assyrian system of contagion from tabu is taken into account with the universal similarity of such tabus in all parts of the world, it would be no great deduction to assume that primitive tabus were no more absent from Assyrian theology than they were from Hebrew, Arab, or other Semitic beliefs. But the basic righteous man ” (Matt, xxvii, 24) ; and in the J/aHw-series (Tablet vii, col. iii, 1. 143) the man under the ban says itturci Urn amsi kataia , S'wqm^-series, v-vi, Zimmern, 35. Meaning of the Assyrian word rather uncertain. 4 W.A.T., iv, 29*, 4, c. i, 15. PARTICOLOURED CORDS. 171 Another eye-charm, for amurrikanu or * yellowness/ pre¬ scribes binding “pure strands of red wool 1 which have been brought by the pure hand of . . . ” on the right hand. 2 A ritual against sickness runs thus :— “ Bind white wool doubled in spinning on his bed, front and sides, Bind black wool doubled in spinning on him, on his left hand, That there may enter no evil spirit, nor evil demon, Nor evil ghost, nor evil devil, nor evil god, nor evil fiend, Nor hag-demon, nor ghoul, nor robber-sprite, Nor incubus, nor succuba, nor phantom-maid, Nor sorcery, nor witchcraft, nor magic, nor calamity, Nor spells that are not good— That they may not lay their head to his, Their hand to his, Their feet to his, That they may not draw nigh.” 3 Elsewhere the priest is directed to say over a sick man “ Ea hath sent me ” three times, and to untie a knot which has been tied ; then the sick man is to go home without looking behind him. 4 1 Sonny {Arch. /. Rel ., 1906, 525) in his article Rote Farbe im Toten- kulte considers the use of red to be in imitation of blood. See also Yon Duhn, Rot und Tot , ibid., i. 2 Haupt, A.S.K.T. , 11, ii, 45. 3 Ibid., 55. 4 King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery , 58, 99 ff. It is curious to see how this prohibition against looking backwards recurs in ancient superstitions (see Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 104). One of the charms given to a Mekkan talisman-monger was handed to him with directions that a bit of paper, inscribed with a few words to the dead, should be borne to a neighbouring cemetery and buried near the entrance, the magician having to bring back a handful of the sand. “■ Be careful, on returning, not to look behind you, for if you do so you will be torn in a million pieces that will be distributed among those that lie there. Look ahead, and your life will be safe.” The story goes that he buried the paper and took up the sand, but immediately he heard thunder and the voices of the dead crying, “ 0 Abdullah-ben-Jafar, take not the 172 TYING KNOTS. The primitive Eastern court of justice is described in the cuneiform tablets in a way that seems to bear on these knots—“ When a man hath an enemy that bringeth an accusation against him, twisting his words, or uttering slanders, 01 backbiting, without making' a true charge enmeshing him with the magic of unknown evil sorcery. If god, king, lord, prince, and officers shall rise up and in the gate of the palace they are opposed to him and are angry with him for the accusation (?) ; then shall he loose the evil knot which he hath knotted,” 1 etc. A parallel to this tying of knots is the binding of evil spirits, or even the tongue 2 or other members of human sand away, else you will be cut in bits. Stop ! Stop ! Stop ! 55 and he shuddered and lost consciousness (Hadji Khan, With the Pilgrims to Mecca, 278). A similar idea was current in Mosul, my servant Mejid telling me that if a man desired a charm he was to take a dead hoopoe, with a piece of inscribed paper tied to it, to a cemetery, and lay it near a grave at night. He must then read some book, while the demons gather round, without turning to look round. If he should look round the demons will have power to attack him ( Folklore of Mossoul , P.b.B.A., 1906, 79). It is possibly also found in an Assyrian incan¬ tation : “ The angry, quaking storm [which if one] seeth, he turnetli not, nor looketh back again 55 ( Devils , ii, 13). 1 W.A.I., iv, 55, 2. 2 There is a Coptic charm which shows this clearly—“ In the name of God, etc. The tying of the tongue of (?) Ghartb, son of Sitt el-Kull; the speaker (?) shall not be able to speak. The tying of his tongue as against Thijar, daughter of my lady (?) by virtue of these names here. Amen.” ( The following magical signs would stand for the ‘ names.’) “ ^ od ’ who ka,th bound the heaven and bound the earth, He shall (or may He) bind the mouth and the tongue of Ghartb, son of Sitt el-Kull, that he be not able to move his lips and speak an evil word against Thy . . . (?), the (?Thy) daughter, the (? Thy) servant Thejir (sic), to her (?) in the presence of Ghartb, son of Sitt el-Kull. God, who hath confined the sun in the place of his setting, and confined the moon and confined the stars and confined the winds in the midst of heaven, Lord God, do Thou confine and bind the mouth and the HOMCEOPATHY. 173 beings. Many instances are quoted by Frazer (Golden Bough, i, 394), the most useful for our purpose being the belief in the Middle Ages in Europe that the consummation of marriage could be prevented by anyone who, while the wedding ceremony was taking place, either locked a lock or tied a knot in a cord, and then threw the knot or the cord away. He says that a net, from its affluence of knots, has always been considered in Russia very efficacious against sorcerers, and the connection of the Assyrian * ban ’ with a net or snare is in keeping with this. 1 Amat-ka saparra sini sa ana same u irsitim tarsat ( W.A.I ., iv, 26, 4, 44), “ Thy command is a mighty net spread over heaven and earth,” addressed probably to Marduk, shows the same idea. Besides w r axen figures and knots, there are endless forms of sympathetic magic which bear the stamp of homoeopathy. In the Sinaitic Peninsula an Arab will give his child burnt scorpion to swallow, in the belief that this form of sympathetic prophylactic will render him invulnerable to scorpion poison. 2 It is no different from the superstition tongue of Gh., son of S., that lie be not able to have power to speak an evil word against Thijar, daughter of my lady (?). I adjure thee, I conjure (you ?), by the voice which went up from the cross, until the seven broken seals, depart from him. I adjure you, I conjure you, that ye . . . " (Crum, P.S.B.A., 1902, 329). 1 Devils , ii, 119. 3 W. E. Jennings-Bramley, P.E.F ., 1906, 197. Nothing is too abominable to be drunk or eaten in magical charms. Burckhardt {Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, i, 262) says that he saw an Arab immediately on rising in the morning swallow whole draughts of camel’s urine because a physician (i.e. a barber) of Mekka had advised him to do so as a certain remedy for oppression in the breast. Another, in the last stages of consumption, was directed to eat nothing but the raw liver- of a male camel for a fortnight. 174 SUMMARY. in ancient Greece and Rome that fields sown with seed can be protected from mice by scattering the ashes of cats upon them, 1 or that the head of a dog burnt and reduced to ashes, and kneaded with vinegar, should be used by the Arabs for hydrophobia. 2 Talmudic medicine recommends the reticulation between the lobes of the liver of the doo* o for such a malady. 3 It is the old story of the “ hair of the dog that bit one.” Two reasons are given in this tractate for rabies; one is that an evil spirit passes into the beast, the other is that a neophyte learning to become a witch first practises her enchantments on dogs. 4 We need not, however, go further into the subject here. Enough has been said to show the principles of transmission by which the sorcerer expels the demon from his patient into some body which will give him control over it. For our purpose, such magic is principally important because of the bearing it has on one side of the atonement ceremonies. 1 Blau, Das Altjiid. Zauberw 35. 2 Ibn Zohr, quoted by Camussi, Z.A.', xi, 1888, 384. Dr. Leclerc adds that the canine tooth carried on the person is useful against hydrophobia. , 3 Toma, viii, 5. 4 Ibid., 6. THE ATONEMENT SACRIFICE. From the preceding chapters it will have been seen that tabus which are other than ‘ holy ’ in their origin are due to demoniac possession or obsession; that the operations of spirits and the technical ‘ uncleanness ’ of the tribesman are all inseparably connected; and that it is the priest-sorcerer’s part to remove these, and render the tribesman capable of taking his part again in the social life of his clan. From the illustrations of sympathetic magic in general, it is clear that the magician reckons among his most excellent treatments the transference of devils from such as are obsessed; in point of fact, from all sick people wdiose trouble is due to the initiative of some spirit. The next step is to employ these deductions in the elucidation of the Biblical system of Atonements which plays such a part in the Jewish religion. The word used in Hebrew for performing the Atone¬ ment ceremony is H&p kipper , the corresponding Syriac root meaning ‘ to wash away.’ 1 The word in Arabic i See Robertson Smith {0. T.J. a, 381). Cf. Koberle, Siinde und Gnade imrel. leben, 1905, 18, “ naeh Zimmern . . . soviel wie ‘wegwischen,’ und ahnliche Ausdrucke mehr.” He quotes also Schmoller, St. Kr ., 1891, 205, on this subject. On his views on sin as sickness see ibid., 20 ; on the ‘ kappara’ (whatever language this may be) see ibid., 317. For explanations of the rite of ‘atonement’ the following are noteworthy: “Dieser Suhnritus bedeutet keine Yerbiindung zwischen Gott und Mennschen im naiven Verstande des Alterthums, als Veranstaltung des gottlichen Willens bedeutet er ein Mysterium. Man empfand den Schauer des Unverstandlichen, wenn hier im Elute des Sundopfers die Beziekung zwischen Gott und A oik neu geknupft wurde. Abei w ie mit dem Siindopfer des Versohnungstages, so steht es mit jedem Sundopfer und uberhaupt dem gesammten Opferdienst. Eine pracise 176 KIPPER AND KVPPJJRTJ. for an ‘ atonement ’ of this kind is kaffarah 9 l or more Antwort auf die Frage, wie denn der Opferdienst auf Gott entwirke, wusste man schwerlich zu geben. Deutlich ist nur, dass der Gedanke der Communion mit der Gottheit im alten Sinne fur die Juden unmoglich geworden war. 55 —Smend, Lehrb. cl. Altt. Rel ., 1893, 323. “Auch Kiehm (Begriff der Siihne, S. 63 ff.) hat sich gegen die Satisfactionstheorie erklart, hat aber doch das Siindopferthier als Gegenstand des austilgenden Gottesfluches ansehen wollen : es werde durch den austilgenden Eifer Gottes vernichtet, tlieils durch das Essen, wozu die Priester yerpflichtet sind, theils durch das Yerbrennen ausser- halb des Lagers. Riehm beruft sich namentlich darauf, dass das SUndOpferfleisch etwas Grauenerregendes sei, und nur dann konne der Sunder sich der Wiederherstellung seines Verhaltnisses zu seinem Gott in yoiler Beruhigung freuen, wenn die Gefahr, damit in Beriihrung zu kommen, beseitigt sei. Aber wenn dem so ware, warum die For- derung, dass das Thier an reiner Stelle ausserhalb des Lagers verbrannt werden solle, wie konnte auch die Minha, als Stindopfer der Armen, dem Priester in derselben Weise zufallen wie jedes andere Speisopfer ? Yielmehr als Hochheiliges gefahrdet das Siindopferfleisch die Menschen, darum muss es fortgeschafft werden, entweder durch das Essen der Priester oder wenn dieser selbst an der zu erlangenden Siihne betlieiligt ist durch die Yerbrennung ausserhalb des Lagers. Ware diese Yer- brennung nocli integrirender Bestandtheil der Opferhandlung, so wiirde sie gewiss am Heiligtlnim vollsogen werden. 55 —Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebr. Arch., 1894, ii, 233. Moore, Encycl. Bibl., 4219, says of uncleanness: “Whereas originally it was a physical thing whose evil was in itself, it becomes in the national religion a pollution offensive to Yahwk ; it is incompatible with his holiness and the holiness which he demands of all that approach him ; its consequences are not only natural but penal ; it requires to be not merely purged but expiated. LTncleanness is in this light a moral wrong and involves guilt. On the other hand, a not inconsiderable class of what we regard as moral offences were included in the category of taboos requiring purifications. We have difficulty in realising that guilt was believed to have the same physically contagious quality as uncleanness—one man who had touched herein (Din) could infect and bring defeat upon a whole army (Josh. vii). Almost equally strange to us is the notion that guilt, like uncleanness, can be contracted without knowledge and intention ; and that the first intimation a man may have that he has offended God is that he suffers the consequences ( dsam ), with its converse, that misfortune is the evidence that he has offended without knowing how.” See also Knobel, Leviticus , ed. Dillmann, 1880, 417. 1 This occurs four times in the Koran (Hughes, Diet, of Islam 259). KIPPER AND KUPPURU. 177 commonly fidyah (fedu), and according to Curtiss, 1 who quotes one Derwish Hatib of Der Atiyeh, in the Syrian Desert, a lecturer who leads the mosque-service in that village, “ Fedou means that it redeems the other, in place of the other, substitute for the other. Something is going to happen to a man, and the sacrifice is a substitute for him. It prevents disease, sufferings, robbery, and enmity . . . Both repentance and the fedou cover.” From a passage quoted above on p. 84, the use of the word f atonement’ will have suggested that the Assyrians were in the habit of performing some ceremony akin to that of the Hebrews. The most striking coincidence is, first, the parallel use of the word kuppuru in Assyrian with the Hebrew kipper. In the Old Testament kipper is undoubtedly an old word, although in the distinctively priestly phraseology (Ezekiel and ‘ P ’) it becomes more technical than in its other occurrences. Its subject is then the priest or sometimes the offering. 2 In the cunei¬ form texts the word kuppuru is found in the incantations against disease, with a noun takpirtu from the same root. For instance, this latter word occurs in a cuneiform ceremony, thus:— “ [Cast] his takpirtu to the crossways, Leave his puliu to the kurpi (ash-heaps ?) of the land.” 3 1 Prim. Sem. Rel., 195. 2 Driver, Deuteronomy, 426, and also Robertson Smith, 0. T. in Jewish Church, 381. G. F. Moore ( Encycl . Bibl., 4220) says that this word “is not so common in old toroth as might be expected. It occurs with especial frequency in the old laws for trespass offering.” 3 Devils, ii, 3, Asakku Series, Tablet III, 1. 5 ff. On takpirati and the comparison of “l&J ( kipper ) with it, see Martin, Textes Religieux , 1903, xxii. From the parallelism of S. 747, r. 4 (Craig, Religious Texts , ii, 4), “May Ea pulcaa saukinnu . . . my puhu which he hath prepared N 178 ASSYRIAN AND ARAB ATONEMENTS. Now these Assyrian incantations, which may have had their origin among the Sumerians, are undoubtedly older than the Priestly Code in its present form, and the actual evidence of the tablets themselves from Assurbanipal’s Library show that such ceremonies existed in Assyria at least as early as 626 b.c. Hence it is certain that the Babylonians did not borrow the idea of the ‘ atonement ’ ceremony from the Hebrews during the Captivity. On the other hand, taking into account that scapegoats and other forms of ‘ atonements ’ are common all over the world, it is unlikely that the Hebrews borrowed much of this form of exorcism in Babylon, although perhaps they may have somewhat modified their views in accordance with the beliefs of their captors. The most reasonable explanation, especially when the Arab fedn or kaffarcih ceremonies are taken into account, is that all the Semites drew these beliefs from their common ancestry, and retained the primitive nomenclature (Ji-p-r) which shows how extremely ancient the custom must be. To remove an unclean tabu from a person by means of a substituted 4 atonement * animal is obviously a form of sympathetic magic, and as such the ceremony will easily be recognized as very primitive. (accept ?), may Marduk dinanua sa ibbanu lisamgir (?) make acceptable my dinanu which hath been made.” The lines preceding these refer to the mamit or ‘ ban 5 which the man has incurred. From Tablet N {Devils, ii), iii, 45, 46 {urisu dinanu sa ameluti , “ the kid is the dinanu for mankind ”) it is evident that dinanu has the significance of ‘ substitute,’ and if so, its parallel puhu will have a similar meaning, which will fit in with our context. Hence this translation may be offered provisionally :— “ [Cast] his ‘ atonement ’ to the crossways, Leave his ‘substitute’ to the ash-heaps (?) of the land.” DEMONS ENTICED OUT OF THE SICK MAN. 179 Robertson Smith maintains that in the Hebrew ideas “all atoning rites are ultimately to be regarded as owing their efficacy to a communication of divine life to the worshippers, and to the establishment or confirmation of a living bond between them and their god,” 1 and that “ the conception of piacular rites as a satisfaction for sin appears to have arisen after the original sense of the theanthropic sacrifice for a kindred animal was forgotten, and mainly in connection with the view that the life of the victim was the equivalent of the life of a human member of the religious community.” 2 1 Religion of the Semites , 439. 2 Ibid., 416. He points out here that “in the older literature, when exceptional and piacular rites are interpreted as satisfactions for sin, the oflence is always a definite one, and the piacular rite has not a stated and periodical character, but is directly addressed to the atonement of a particular sin or course of sinful life,” and “ in the Levitical ritual all piacula, both public and private, refer only to sins committed un¬ wittingly” (p. 423). For later views on the see Koberle, op. cit., 81. The recent views on Babylonian sacrifices given in the Encyclopaedia Biblica (4120) are those of Jeremias, who says :—“Here, of course, we must divest ourselves of all theological preconcej^tions, and put aside all such notions as that of an atoning efficacy attaching to the blood as the seat of life, or of a divine wrath that expends itself upon the sacrificial animal, or even of a ratio vicaria, when we speak of the idea of propitiation as underlying Babylonian sacrifices. ... At the same time it is significant and by no means accidental—it has its roots firmly planted in the very nature of the religious ideas involved—that every¬ thing offered with the object of averting evil of any kind whatsoever was associated with the notions of a propitiatory, cleansing, purifying efficacy.” Further on (4125) he says, “ Singular to say, however, that (the Babylonian cultus) shows not the faintest trace of dsam, hattdth ; we may assume that the sin and the trespass offering of the Hebrew Torah, although all that we know of their technique is wholly of post-exilic date, were entirely of Israelite growth.” I do not think, however, that this second statement can be upheld for a moment ; and the language of the former is so involved and peculiar that it is difficult to see how far the author has grasped his subject. 180 DEMONS ENTICED OUT OF THE SICK MAN. It is with the very greatest diffidence that I think, in view of the evidence which Assyriology brings forward, that this explanation cannot altogether be upheld. That the life of the victim was held to be the equivalent of a human member of the tribe would certainly appear to be true; but I cannot believe that there is any idea of communication of divine life or confirmation of a bond with the god. The trend of evidence seems to me to point to a primitive system of providing a substitute- victim 1 for the devil whose connection with the man has brought down a tabu. In every exorcism of demons, it is necessary to have some object into which the spirit may be attracted or driven, in point of fact a Leyden jar in which the malign influence may be isolated under control. It is all the same whether it is the devils who must be sent into the Gadarene swine, or the jinni corked up in the brass bottle by Solomon. They are safe so long as they can be enticed or forced by magic words into something which the magician can ultimately destroy or guard religiously. He may then either burn it in clean places where no spirit comrades can lend their aid, or cast it into the deep sea so that no meddlers can by chance free the evil demon. This point is emphasized by the study of the Assyrian exorcisms; that the disease demon must be gently or forcibly persuaded to leave the human body to enter the dead animal or wax figure which is placed near, and so be brought into subjection. 1 We are not now discussing the primitive redemption of the first¬ born. This has nothing to do with the trespass offering or similar atonements, and the two owe their origin to two distinct and separate practices. We shall return to the redemption of the first¬ born later on. ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW ATONEMENTS. 181 Koberle realizes the idea of the removal of sin by cleansing-‘ atonements ’ and exorcisms among the Baby¬ lonians, but he does not apply it to the Hebrew procedure. Apparently it is the blood-sprinkling which is his obstacle to any comparison between the two. 1 But it is hardly likely that the two are of different origin. 1 “ Aber mag es sich damit verhalten, wie es will, olme Zweifel ist die kultische Siihne in Babylonien bekannt. Sie hat dort nirgends den Zweck, den Menschen vor der Gottlieit zu schiitzen, vielmehr ist sie ein Reinigungs—, Heilungs — und Exorcismus-Akt. Doch weist die Eigenart der hebraisehen Siihneriten eher auf die primitiven ur- semitischen Opferformen hin, wonacli die Siihne durch Blutbestreichung (an Stelle des Blutgenusses) die gelockerte Gemeinschaft zwischen Gott und Mensch wiederherstelt ” (Siinde und Gnade im rel. leben des Volkes Israel , 1905, 318). “ Die unreinen Zustande gelten nun einmal als Dinge, welche Gottes Heiligkeit verletzen und ihm missfallig sind. Sie sind im Sinne des priesterlichen Gesetzgebers nicht Modifikationen menschlicher Schwache, sondern eher noch Modifikationen menschlicher und kreatiir- licher Yerderbnis . . . ; wenn auch nicht so deutlich wie sonst diese Korruption als Folge der Siinde hingestellt wird ” (ibid., 319). “ Siindig wird man durch Beriihrung Genuss u. s. w. von Dingen, die tabu sind ; wir selien hier hinein in die primitivsten Formen der religiosen Beurteilung der Siinde ; daneben finden wir auch den mehr sittlichen Masstab, wenn die Siinde als Emporung wider die Gottlieit, als Abweichung vom rechten Weg, als Ubertretung gottlicher Gebote gefasst wird ” (ibid., 20). Compare also Dillmann’s edition of Knobel’s Leviticus , 1880, 381, “War namlich der Zweck entweder die Suhnung einer bestimmten Siinde oder die Entsiindigung uberhaupt, so hatte das Siindopfer einzutreten, bestehend in einem mannlichen oder weib- lichen Yierfussler (verschieden je nach der Personen des Darbringers), meist aus dem Ziegenvich, ersatzweise in einer Taube (und nur im Notlifall in etwas Mehl) ; die Hauptsache dabei war die Suhnung durch das Blut.” Jastrow, in the German edition of his Religion of the Babylonians , xvi, 325, says : “ Man rechnete mit der Moglichkeit dass die Angriffe der Damonen eine Strafe fur irgend welche begangenen Siinden sein konnten. Auch hierfur bietet die Schurpu-Serie ein beachtens wertes Beispiel. Die zweite Tafel enthalt namlich eine lange • • Liste von Ubeltaten um derentwillen jemand in die Gewalt der Damonen oder Zauberer geraten konnte.” 182 ATONEMENTS AND SIN-OFFERINGS. If, then, we look into the specific cases for which the atonement, sin, and trespass offerings are prescribed in the Old Testament, it will be seen that they fall into five classes :— (1) The Periodic. The Feasts (Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles), the Day of Atonement, and the scapegoat (Lev. xvi, xxiii ; Num. xxviii, xxix). Cf. Ezek. xlv, 18 ff., 1 and the more vague Exod. xxx, 10, and the ‘ atonement 5 money of 15. (2) The Individual. (a) ‘ Leprosy, 5 and the house in which ‘ leprosy 5 breaks out (Lev. xiii-xiv). (■ b ) Touching anything unclean (Lev. v, 2 ; Num. xix, 17 ff.), a Nazarite touching a dead body (Num. vi, 9 ff.), a woman after childbirth (Lev. xii, 2 ff.), a man or woman with an abnormal issue (Lev. xv, 2 ff.). (c) Transgressing against the holy things or command¬ ments of Yahweh unwittingly (Lev. v, 15-17 ; xxii, 14), unwitting sin (Lev. iv, 1 ff, 27 ff ; v, 17 ; Num. xv, 27). (d) Oaths (Lev. v, 1, 4). (e) Lying, deception, robbery, etc., or finding lost things and lying about them (Lev. vi), or any sin (Num. v, 6). (/) Having intercourse with bondmaid promised to another (Lev. xix, 20 ff). (3) The Royal: ‘unwitting 5 sin of the ruler (Lev. iv, 22 ff). (4) The Priestly: initiation to ‘ consecrate 5 or ‘ cleanse 5 them (Exod. xxix, 1 ff ; Lev. viii, 1 ff. ; xvi, 5, 6 ; Num. viii, 6)'. Cf. Lev. iv, 3. As a corollary to these come the ordinances of Ezek. xliii, 18 ff. Cf. also the Nazarite, Num. vi, 13 ff. (5) The Tribal: ‘unwitting 5 sin (Lev. iv, 13 ff. ; Num. xv, 24). A plague is removed from the tribe (Num. xvi, 46 ff). Cf. Lev. ix. There are also the vague ‘ atonements ’ of Lev. i, which have possibly arisen from a confusion with the ordinary sacrifice. 1 On Ezekiel and the ‘ holy 5 laws see Klostermann, Per Pentateuch , 1893, 368 ff. SUGGESTED ORIGIN OF PIACULA. 183 Starting with the hypothesis that piacular offerings had their origin in the custom of providing a substitute to absorb the evil action of supernatural agency , we shall take each case separately and see how far it stands the test of com¬ parison with similar superstitions among savages. Take first that case of Periodic Atonement which is the most prominent instance in Hebrew folklore, that of the scapegoat. 1 Two goats are to be taken, and one of them 1 I have taken the liberty of giving the salient instances in resume which have been collected by Dr. Frazer in his Golden Bough (iii, 14). A Malagasy was informed by a diviner that he was doomed to a bloody death, but that possibly he might avert his fate by performing a certain rite. Carrying a small vessel full of blood upon his head, he was to mount upon the back of a bullock ; while thus mounted, he was to spill the blood upon the bullock’s head, and then send the animal away into the wilderness, whence it might never return (Ellis). The Battas of Sumatra have a ceremony which they call “ making the curse to fly away.” When a woman is childless, a sacrifice is offered to the gods of three grasshoppers, representing a head of cattle, a buffalo, and a horse. Then a swallow is set free with the prayer that the curse may fall upon the bird and fly away with it (Kodding). Among the Majhwar, a Dravidian race of South Mirzapur, if a man has died of a contagious disease, such as cholera, the village priest walks in front of the funeral procession with a chicken in his hands, which he lets loose in the direction of some other village as a scapegoat to carry the infection away (Crooke). Amongst the Burghers or Badagas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India, when a death has taken place, the sins of the deceased are laid upon a buffalo calf. A set form of confession of sins, the same for everyone, is recited aloud, then the calf is set free, and is never afterwards used for common purposes. “ The idea of this ceremony is that the sins of the deceased enter the calf or that the task of his absolution is laid on it. They say that the calf very soon disappears, and that it is never after heard of ” (Harkness). He gives the following examples also. Chickens daubed with vermilion, goats, or even pigs as a last resource, are driven away from cholera-swept villages in Central India, in the hope that the disease may depart (Panjab Notes and Queries , i, 48, § 418 ; Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 101). In 1886, during the smallpox, the people of Jeypur made puja to a goat, marched it to the Ghats, and let it loose 184 SAVAGfE CUSTOMS IN ATONEMENT. sacrificed as a sin-offering, and the other sent away into the wilderness for ‘ Azazel ’ to bear all the iniquities of the people into a solitary land. 1 Frazer has shown how on the plains (Fawcett, J.A.S., Bombay, i, 213 ; Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 102). In the case of the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru, the scapegoat was a llama (Forbes, J.E.S., London, ii, 237 ; Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 104). The periodic expulsion of evils is gone into at great length by Frazer, iii, 70 ff., who instances—(1) The Esquimaux of Alaska, who choose the moment of the sun’s reappearance to hunt the mischievous spirit Tuna from every house. (2) The Iroquois inaugurated the new year in January, February, or March, and on one day the ceremony of driving away the evil spirits from the village took place. (3) In September the Incas of Peru celebrated a festival called Situa, the object of which was to banish from the capital and its vicinity all disease and trouble. (4) The negroes of Guinea annually banish the devil from all the towns with much ceremony. (5) Among the Hos of North-Eastern India, the great festival of the year is held in January. An evil spirit is at this time supposed to infest the place, and has to be driven out by processions shouting. (6) In Bali, to the east of Java, the people have periodic expulsions, generally on the day of the ‘ dark moon ’ in the ninth month. (7) The Slians of Southern China annually expel the fire-spirit. (8) On the last night of the year there is observed in most Japanese houses a ceremony called “ the exorcism of the evil spirit.” (9) In Tonquin a general expulsion of malevolent spirits commonly took place once a year. (10) In Cambodia it takes place in March. (11) Among the heathen Wotyaks of East Russia on the last day of the year, or New Year’s Bay. He quotes many other instances. He goes on further to discuss scapegoats, and compares—(1) the embodied devils, i.e. men dressed as devils chased to the mountains, among the Pomos of California ; and (2) the Mandan Indians who chased a man painted to represent the devil at their annual festival. 1 Lev. xvi. According to the Mishna, the Hebrew scapegoat was not allowed to go free in the wilderness, but was killed by being pushed over a precipice ( Toma, vi, 6 ; De Dea Syria , lviii, quoted by Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem ., 418). The common people in hastening the departure of the scapegoat used to pull pieces of its hair to accelerate its pace ( Toma , vi, 4). On the Day of Atonement it is forbidden to eat, drink, wash, perfume, put on shoes, or cohabit with a woman ( Berakhoth , iii, 4). Note that pre-exilic worship knows no such day as is described in Lev. xvi ( Encycl . Bibl ., 384). SAVAGE CUSTOMS IN ATONEMENT. 185 this yearly atonement is a regular custom among many savage tribes, and this is ample proof that it was not peculiar to the Hebrews through some special revelation. Hitherto, however, this annual scapegoat has not been met with in the cuneiform inscriptions, as far as I know, but such negative evidence is naturally valueless to prove that the custom did not exist in Assyria. 1 The second class contains the remarkable rites in this Hebrew atonement system for cleansing the ‘ leper 5 or the house in which ‘leprosy’ has appeared. The origin of these spells is clearly to be found in the principle of sympathetic magic. The priest is to take two birds, cedar, scarlet, and hyssop, and after killing one of the birds in an earthen vessel over running water, he is to dip the remainder in the blood of the dead bird and in running water, and to sprinkle the man or the house seven times; but he shall let go the living bird out of the city into 1 M. Fossey (La Magie Assyrienne, 85) satisfactorily refutes Mr. Prince’s theory of the living scapegoat in Assyrian which he put forward in the J.A.O.S. (1900, xxi, 1-22), basing it on the cuneiform text published by Haupt {Akkad, u. Sumer. Keilschrifttexte , 104-5). Since then, however, Mr. Prince has put forward another article [Journal Asiatique, July- August, 1903, 133) maintaining his previous proposition from the same text, which he translates as follows :—“ Prends le bouquetin qui allege la douleur ; place sa tete sur la tete du malade ; du cote du roi, fils de son dieu (c’est-a-dire le patient), chasse-le ; que sa salive dans sa bouche coule librement (soit lachee) ; que le roi soit pur; qu’il soit sain.” M. Fossey has answered it in footnotes to the same paper, and, as he properly points out, ‘ chasse-le ’ is not the right translation for u-me-te- gur-gur, which should be rendered by the Assyrian equivalent, kuppir, 1 make the atonement for.’ Consequently there is nothing to show that the bouquetin was alive, and from a comparison of similar texts in which the animal has obviously been slaughtered (see pp. 203 ff.) it is plain that M. Fossey is correct when he says that it was killed {La Magie Assyrienne , 86). 186 EVIL CARRIED AWAY RY BIRDS. the open fields. 1 One of the so-called Penitential Psalms, which is, in fact, more probably a ceremony for cleansing a man from tabu when he wishes to see something in a dream, is very closely connected with this Levitical charm. The Assyrian suppliant prays to his god and goddess— “ That my iniquity may be loosed (and) my sin be blotted out, That my trespass be loosed, my bonds be cast off, That the seven winds carry off my bane ! Let me cast off my evil that the bird may fly up to heaven with it, That the fish may carry off my affliction, that the river may bear it away, That the creeping thing of the field may receive my iniquity (and) the flowing water of the stream wash me clean ! Let me shine forth as a golden . . . That I may be worthy in thy sight as a circlet (?) of diamonds ! Remove my guilt, keep safe my life, that I may keep holy thy temenos (?) 2 and stand before thee. Let my sin pass with my evil, 3 that I be safe with thee ! Vouchsafe to me to see a favourable dream, Be happy the dream that I see, be true the dream that I see ! Turn to fair omen the dream that I shall see. May Mahir, the god of dreams, stand at my head, Let me enter into E-sagila, the palace of the house of life.” 4 Birds are frequently used this way in Semitic magic. 5 1 The Talmud on Leprosy (xii, i) enlarges on this in the following way : “ All buildings receive uncleanness in leprosy except the buildings of foreigners. He who buys houses from foreigners must first inspect them. A round house, a three-cornered house, a house built on a ship or on a mast, or one built on four beams, do not receive uncleanness in leprosy. But if the house is square, even though it be built on four pillars, it receives uncleanness in leprosy.” 2 Lussur hisallaka. 3 Itti litmni sutika anni. 4 W.A.l ., iv, 59, 2, rev. 1. 10 ff‘. 5 Birds are used in later Hebrew magic in charms to make an enemy become a fugitive. A man had only to write certain words in a bird’s blood and bind them on the bird’s foot and let it fly in the open THE HOUSE IN WHICH LEPROSY APPEARS. 187 In Arabia, as has been mentioned elsewhere, a widow lets a bird fly away with the uncleanness of her widowhood. But there is a still closer parallel in Assyrian to this Levitical magic, found in an incantation prescribed for cleansing a house in which ‘sorcery’ (upsasu) has broken out, which runs as follows:—“ As the water of the Sun- god is borne from the roof (?) 1 when he goeth down, so shall the sorcery which hath appeared in the man’s house, destroying 2 the house, admit [its] bondage (?). 3 Pour upon the plaister-liquid wine, date wine, and beer from corn 4 . . . the vessel of the mixture (?) thou shalt overlay with thy feet and come (away ?) 5 . . . at sunset shall be cast into the river; the man that carrieth it 6 shall not enter the house for seven (?) days. 7 “ On the second day thou shalt cleanse the house with a vessel of pure water, binu (-tamarisk), ^7^-plant, ginger (?), dwarf-palm, skin of a great ox, ‘ strong copper,’ fields. If it flew away, this was a sign of the flight of the enemy ; if it returned, he would die ( Folklore of Mossoul , P.S.B.A. , 1906, 106, No. 23). Or, after drawing certain images and writing the name of the man and his mother, he might tie his charm to the wings of a dove or other bird, and say, “ I conjure thee, Qaphsiel, and thy whole host that thou drive away So and So, that he be wandering about, to and fro, in the same manner as the Lord drove Cain away,” etc., and then let it fly (Gaster, P.S.B.A ., 1900, 345). 1 Uru, 1 beam.’ 2 Susurat bUi. 3 gi-ga-tu GAR-tr/i, i.e. dupsikki isakan{an). 4 Cf. Lev. xiv, 42, “ and he shall take other mortar, and shall plaister the house.” The words in Assyrian are a-im-par, i.e. me gassi. 5 . . . karpati sa su-luh-ha ta-kat-tam ina sepd n -ka-ma titebbi. 6 Cf. Lev. xiv, 46, “ Moreover, he that goeth into the house all the while that it is shut up shall be unclean until the even." Num. xix, 10, “ And he that gathereth the ashes of the heifer shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even.” 7 The Assyrian number may be ‘ seven.’ Seven days is the limit in Lev. xiv, 38, for the priest to shut up the house until his return. 188 PARALLEL IN ASSYRIAN. a torch of eru (-tamarisk), the marrow of the palm, (and) birbirrida-covTL. 1 Thou shalt overlay the floor 2 of the whole house with bitumen, plaister, and oil of cedar ; at each door [of god 3 ] thou shalt set a censer (burning) cypress and cedar. That man he shall sprinkle with water, 4 and the man who dwelleth ... 5 nothing approach the man.” Then follows this spell:— “ Incantation :— Break the bonds of her who hath bewitched me, Bring to nought the mutterings of her who hath east spells on me, Turn her sorcery to wind, Her mutterings to air ; All that she hath done or wrought in magic May the wind carry away ! May it bring her days to ruin and a broken heart, May it bring down her years to wretchedness and woe ! May she die, but let me recover ; May her sorcery, her magic, her spells be loosed, v By command of Ea, Samas, Marduk, And the Princess Belit-ili. Perform the Incantation. Prayer when sorcery appeareth in a man’s house. Thou shalt wash in water ... 6 (and) offer 7 a black ox. Repeat this incantation seven times and the sorcery will be loosed.” 8 1 Cf. v. 52, “And lie shall cleanse the house with the blood of the bird, and with the running water, and with the living bird, and with the cedar wood, and with the hyssop and with the scarlet.” 2 Sippu. Why this ilu is in I cannot explain, unless the text should read bdb an /«-«». 4 Or, “ That man shall sprinkle water.” Cf. v. 51, “ and sprinkle the house seven times.” 5 I cannot translate su-um en-na ud-da al til-la satisfactorily. It may mean “ . . . until the day of his recovery.” 6 ki-dah-hi tu-sa-mah ? 7 tu-gar-rib ? or tu-sa-kal ? 8 W.A.I., iv, 59, 1. HOUSES IMMUNE EEOM MAGIC. 189 There is evidently something akin in this Assyrian upsasu (sorcery) to the Hebrew (‘ leprosy , ). 1 In Leviticus, the house may show a plague in its walls “ with hollow strakes, greenish or reddish,” which may or may not increase in seven days. This is clearly some form of damp or dry-rot. Evidently the early bouse - builders associated it with magic, and the Levitical account merely retains the primitive beliefs. The amplification in the Talmud (given in note 1, on p. 186) also hints that the origin is to be sought in hostile magic. The round house is immune, and this recalls the wizard’s circle. The three- cornered house is the same, doubtless from the magical number three, and we may also instance the pentacle in comparison with its angular shape. A ship, according to the Talmud, is always ‘ clean’ ( Sabbath , ix, 2), and hence cabins and fighting-tops will be also clean; the immunity of the house built on four beams is not so easy to explain, when it is particularized that a square house is not exempt. 2 We have seen, then, that the scapegoat atonement and the purification ceremony for the ‘ leper ’ and the ‘leprous’ house are ordinary savage magic. With this as an indication we may pursue our investigations into the other unclean tabus on the individual, taking first those which cannot be called ‘ sins ’ by any extension of 1 There is no evidence that leprosy in the modern sense of the word existed among the Jews at this period ; the comprised a number of cutaneous disorders, chief among which are vitiligo and psoriasis (Schamberg, Bibl. World , xiii, 1899, 162). This, however, does not apply to the house. 2 If, however, the ‘ beams ’ be understood as ‘ piles,’ the house will come into the same category as the ship, the water being the safeguard. 190 UNCLEAN TABUS. the word. Touching anything unclean or a dead body, a woman after childbirth, or abnormal issues, clearly represent the tabooed condition of one who not only rims the risk of danger from spirits, but may have given physical indication of the effects of their hostility. All these demand piacular offerings; the corpse may so infect a tribesman that he invites the return of the restless ghost to plague him with sickness. Similarly, that which is 4 unclean ’ will have latent potentialities for disease. The woman in childbed is infectious through the jealousy of spirits who are hostile because of the successful result of her marriage with a man, and she herself may even die from their attack, as in puerperal fever. Abnormal issues are, by their nature, diseases, and are clearly due to demons. It is to be noticed that the tabus against ordinary issues—those wherein the function is perfectly natural or regular—do not require an 4 atonement,’ but merely a purificatory ritual. This coincides entirely with our knowledge of the ostensible operation of the spirits; the ba'al k'ri and the woman in her courses are not supposed to be 4 possessed ’ by the lascivious demon, whose power is merely transient. There is no question of disease in these cases; the condition is a peculiarity to which any member of the tribe may be subject without resultant hurt, and the succuba or incubus leaves the person. To the savage mind this is a certainty, because no man or woman is permanently sick from such natural functions, nor do they die. Hence, after the lilu or lilith has departed, purification is the only rite demanded. But, on the other hand, abnormal issues come under the head of protracted possession (disease), and demand an elaborate atonement to drive out the demon, who intends remaining. UNWITTING SINS. 191 Similarly, eating ‘unclean’ beasts demands only puri¬ fication (Lev. xi, 40), and this can easily be traced to its primitive source. The ‘ unclean ’ beast is the totem-beast which it is nefas to kill or eat, except on great occasions, but there is often nothing inherently unclean or dangerous about its flesh to produce sickness. Hence, accidental experiment probably showed the savage that the spirit infection or divine wrath did not follow as a matter of course if he did eat it occasionally, and nothing more was necessary to cleanse him from this breach than puri¬ fication. Doubtless many things, without fins and scales, were capable of making him very sick at certain seasons, but there are obviously many totems which are absolutely innocuous. A most important question in these ‘ atonements ’ is the meaning of the ‘ unwitting sins/ and, as this seems the best point to discuss them, we must leave the explanation of the other special tabus until later. There are surely a hundred sins or breaches of tabu that a man may commit daily in all innocence without knowing that he has actually broken am^ of the tribal laws, notably in the matter of contagion. If he has done these ‘ unwittingly/ how will he know when to bring his piacular offering, and even then, what is the particular reason for the sacrifice P There must clearly be some physical and apparent result from his breach of tabu. This is certain, otherwise the Levitical law would never describe the action prior to the atonement as an ‘ unwitting ’ sin. Hence, by applying a hypothesis of the connection of demons with tabu and sickness, the obvious explanation is that the man falls sick and is at a loss to know what he has done that 192 CONNECTION BETWEEN SIN AND SICKNESS. should have brought down such a supernatural visitation. He therefore goes to the priest-physician for relief; he cannot remember all his previous actions, so that the priest may exorcise the particular form of demon which is troubling him, and hence the only diagnosis possible is that of an ‘ unwitting ’ sin or breach of tabu. This is clearly indicated in the Assyrian Surpu-series. The man has fallen sick, and the priest is to heal him with the treatment prescribed in these tablets. But, although it is perfectly clear from the internal evidence of the text that the man is ill, it is to a breach of the mamit or tabu that such disease is ascribed, and it is the particular ‘sin’ which the patient has committed which the priest is trying to cleanse. The possible tabus which the sick man may have broken are given in a hundred and sixty- three forms in the third tablet each under the title mamit. The fifth tablet begins with the line “ An evil curse (arrat) like a gallu -demon hath attacked the man,” and the aid of sympathetic magic is called in to drive it away, by shredding and burning garlic, dates, hair, and wool. The seventh tablet begins still more explicitly— “ Dimetu hath gone forth from the deep, Mamit hath come down from the heavens, An alihazu -demon hath covered (?) the earth as with grass ; Unto the four winds, overwhelming with dread, burning like fire, They smite the folk of all places, torturing their bodies.” It is therefore obvious that demons, tabu, and sickness were all held to be in close relation to one another, and that a breach of tabu rendered a man liable to attract the attention of a spirit, which might affect him with disease. The very fact that the sorcerer-priest, in treating v his patient according to the rules in the Surpu- series, UNWITTING SINS. 193 repeats a hundred and sixty-three tabus, shows that he does not know exactly what ‘ sin ’ the man has committed. Just as he will run through a long category of spirit names when he exorcises the demon from the sick man, so will he gabble off a string of trespasses, in any one of which the man may have been guilty. It is immaterial whether he knows which one it is ; provided that his diagnosis mentions the name of the demon in the one case, or the sin in the other, it is enough. We have, therefore, ample proof that the Surpu- series was written in order to provide the magicians with the means of cleansing sick men from the effect of 4 unwitting ’ sins. From this it is an easy step to understand that the 4 unwitting ’ sins of Leviticus were always followed by some physical manifestation in the unlucky man; or in¬ versely, sickness was held to be the result of an 4 unwitting* breach of tabu, which demanded an 4 atonement ’ to free the sick man from the demon he had attracted. 1 1 Here I should state the views of Koberle (Siinde undt Gnade, 1905, 24) on the Babylonian ideas : “ Wie Siinde, Krankheit und Yerhexung zusammen gehoren, so Vergebung, Heilung und kraftiger Exorcismus. Der Sunder ist Patient, die Heilsverwirklichung eine Kur. Gnade, Vergebung, Errettung, Befreiung, Losung des Bannes u.s.w. beziehen sich durchaus auf das aussere Ergehen des Betenden.” Cf. Morgenstern’s views in The Doctrine of Sin in the Babylonian Religion , 1905, 3 : “ In the Babylonian religious literature the expressions, sin, uncleanli¬ ness, sickness, possession by evil spirits, are pure synonyms. They denote an evil state of the body, the result of the divine anger 55 ; but he says, “ sin must originally have been purely ritual. Either the man had neglected to offer his sacrifice, or else had not offered it properly. . . . Before the layman could bring sacrifice, he had to be ritually clean. . . . Sin was thus originally merely the transgression of ritual laws, and as such appears throughout the Babylonian religious literature” (ibid., 2). If I understand rightly what is meant by c ritual, 5 I cannot agree with him. Many ‘ sins, 5 as we have seen, arose from the breach of unclean tabus ; the original idea was that a demoniac attack followed any o 194 THE BURNT-OFFERING AND THE ATONEMENT. The next point to discuss is the distinction which is made in ‘ offering ’ the sacrificial meal and the substitute, or in other words, tbe burnt-offering and the atonement. The burnt-offering is the direct descendant of the sacrificial feast to which the god, in common with all the tribe, was invited. In later times, however, it was entirely consumed on the altar. But the sin-offering is treated in several ways. Sometimes the directions are for the flesh, skin, and dung to be burnt outside the camp, while the fat, the caul, and the kidneys, etc., are to be burnt on the altar, 1 while the blood is to be sprinkled round about. Frequently, on the other hand, nothing is said of the consumption of the carcase; 2 sometimes the priests may eat it, 3 unless some of the blood has been brought into the tabernacle of the congregation, when the whole must be burnt. The best explanation of these apparent contradictions seems to be that there is a confusion of two systems, one of which is the more primitive method of cleansing the sick from their tabu. The uses of the blood and fat in these ‘ atone¬ ments ’ demand some research into their origin, and we must find some hypothesis for the reason why the beast was slaughtered instead of having its neck broken, and why the fat was burnt on the altar. meddling with, unclean persons. But, originally at least, such a Breach did not necessarily imply any immediate relations with a god, but were entirely distinct, and primarily concerned the danger to fellow- tribesmen. Doubtless an ‘ unclean 5 man came to be excluded from the worship, but ‘ritual 5 has nothing to do with the primitive ideas here. Again, his hypothesis that sin is due to a man not offering his sacrifice duly or properly needs little disproof if the Surpu -tabus be read with intelligence. At the same time he is quite correct, I believe, when he says, “ the curing of sickness, the expulsion of evil spirits, and the expiation of sin, are identical 55 (ibid., 6). 1 Exod. xxix ; Lev. iv ; Lev. viii (cf. ix). 2 Exod. xxx ; Lev. iv, xv, xxiii. 3 Lev. vi, xiv. BLOOD IN" THE ATONEMENT SACRIFICE. 195 The ‘ blood ’ question is, I think, to be explained thus :•— If we go back to the most primitive ideas, dissociating our views from the later (and probably corrupt) customs of the Old Testament, we find that the magician has to inveigle the demon out of the sick person into the substitute. Since he knows that evil spirits are particularly attracted by blood, he cuts the throat of the beast which is henceforth to be the receptacle of the demoniac influence. Throughout the whole conception of the Hebrew idea it is the shedding of the blood, that is the life, which effects the atonement. “For it is the blood which maketh atonement by reason of the life” (Lev. xvii, 11), which is amplified in Heb. ix, 22, “ and according to the law, I may almost say, all things are cleansed with blood, and apart from the shedding of blood there is no remission.” That to the Hebrews the blood was the life is shown in Lev. xvii, 14, and Heut. xii, 23, and it is worthy of remark, in this con¬ nection, that in the Assyrian creation-texts the gods arm their champion Marduk, saying, “ Go, and cut off the life of Tiamat, and let the wind carry her blood into secret places,” 1 and when Marduk creates man he does it with his blood. 2 Moreover, the Assyrian exorcisms describe the devils as “ ceaselessly devouring blood.” 3 There are two quotations from later writers which are worth considering, one from Maimonides : 4 “ Although blood was very unclean in the eyes of the Sabians, they nevertheless partook of it, because they thought it was the food of spirits; by eating it man has something in common with the spirits, which 1 King, Seven Tablets of Creation, 61 ; Tablet IV, 11. 31, 32. Cf. 11. 131, 132. 2 Ibid., 87. 3 See p. 49. 4 Guide to the Perplexed, iii, xlvi; Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier, ii, 480. 196 BLOOD IN THE ATONEMENT SACRIFICE. join him and tell him future events, according to the notion which people generally have of spirits. There were, however, people who objected to eating blood, as a thing naturally disliked by man; they killed a beast, received the blood in a vessel or in a pot, and ate of the flesh of that beast, whilst sitting round the blood. They imagined that in this manner the spirits would come to partake of the blood which was their food, whilst the idolaters were eating the flesh; that love, brotherhood, and friendship with the spirits was established, because they dined with the latter at one place and at the same time; that the spirits would appear to them in dreams, inform them of coming events, and be favourable to them.” The second is from Origen : 1 “The slaughter of victims is in itself enough to lure the demons to the heathen temples. But even without that, they can be attracted to a place and laid therein by use of certain incantations.” Are we to consider that these two writers are merely designating the gods of neighbouring worshippers as ‘ devils/ in accordance with local fanaticism, or must w T e here see some reminiscence of substitution to demons ? What must be recognized is that this slaughter is by no means a sacrificial meal; in the Assyrian texts the beast is shown not to be eaten. Frequently directions are given for it to be thrown away, as containing the evil influence, and as such unfit for food. Pursuing the analogy of the attraction that blood has for spirits, we should see in the custom of burning the fat on the altar some similar design. It seems quite logical to say that, just as the smell of newly-shed blood 1 Conybeare, J.Q ., ix, 61, quoting C. Cels., iii, 34. BURNT FAT PLEASING TO GODS AND DEMONS. 197 invites the presence of devils, so will the sweet odour of burnt fat act as a bait, just as it is a sweet savour unto Yahweh. “The fat is Yahweh’s,” 1 and this is to be paralleled from many savage tribes. 2 Devils can be re¬ pelled by an evil stench, as in the case of Asmodeus, and gods can be attracted by the sweet savour of sacrifice, as happened after the Flood, both in the Hebrew and Babylonian accounts. Further, melted fat is the only fluid, other than blood, that can be offered in a libation from the sacrifice, which should be taken into account in reckoning its holiness. We shall not be far wrong in ascribing the possession of a keen sense of smell to all the Semitic spiritual world, in agreement with their other rapacious appetites. Armed with the practical knowledge of the irresistible attraction of blood and pleasant savour, the sorcerer could wheedle the most recalcitrant devil from his patient. This, however, does not explain why, although the ‘ atone¬ ment * is so charged with demoniac influence, it occasionally became the priests’, or why the holy altar of Yahweh should have been the place for the sacrifice. I do not think, however, that it requires great acumen to see that the piacular offerings of the Old Testament are in an extremely confused state when they are compared with each other. Ordinances are given for the disposal of the ‘ atonement ’ sacrifices, which seem most arbitrary in their differences. Hay, in one case (in the first chapter of Leviticus), the ‘ atonement ’ idea is obviously confused with a sacrifice of 1 Lev. iii, 16. 2 Robertson Smith, Rel. &'em., 380 ff. On the burning of fat see ibid., 386. On his views of the viscera, kidneys, and liver being the seats of emotion, or more broadly, “ the fat of the omentum and the organs that lie in and near it,” see ibid., 379. 198 CONFUSION OF OFFERINGS. burnt - offering. One has only to compare the modern Semitic folklore to see how entirely the two rites, sacrificial feasts and piacular substitutes, have been confused with one another. The fact must be recognized that analogy, a process universally admitted by scholars, is responsible for this confusion, and that the Levitical injunction 1 “ they shall no more offer their sacrifices to devils ” indicates a natural desire to bring the ‘ atonement ’ sacrifices into accord with the ideas of dedication. We may therefore presume that later magicians perhaps learnt that the substitute, which was supposed to have 1 Lev. xvii, 7. Cf. 1 Cor. x, 20. On the contradictions in the different atonement ceremonies compare Wellhausen, Die Comjp. des Hexat. und Histor. Bucher des Alten Testaments , 1899, 136 : “ Ich will nur auf einen Punkt aufmerksam machen, namlich auf die Differenz in dem Siindopferritus, von der schon der Nachtrag Lev. 10,16-20, Akt genommen hat. In Lev. 4 wird das Blut beim gewohnlichen Siindopfer an die Horner des Brandopferaltars gestrichen, dagegen beim Siindopfer des Hohenpriesters und des Volkes in das Innere der Hiitte gebracht, an den Vorhang gesprengt und an die Horner des Raucheraltars gestrichen. Dieser Unterschied wird Exod. 29 und Lev. 9 nicht gemacht, vielmehr wird 29, 12. 9, 9. 15 auch beim Siindopfer des Hohenpriesters und des Volkes das Blut nur an den Opferaltar gestrichen. Es ist dies aber hier offenbar der solenne Ritus, denn es hat keinen Sinn anzunehmen, bei der Einweihung der Hiitte sei ausnahmsweise drei Male eine weniger feierliche Form beliebt worden, und ausserdem wird 29, 14. 9, 11. 15 das Fleisch grade so draussen vor dem Lager verbrannt, wie es nach Lev. 4 nur bei den heiligsten Siindopfern geschieht, deren Blut in das Innere der Hiitte gekommen ist. Also eine unleugbare und unauflosbare Differenz. Lev. 4 geht einen Schritt liber Exod. 29. Lev. 9 hinaus, die Steigerung erscheint auch darin, dass hier als Siindopfer des Volkes eine Farre gefordert wird, wahrend Lev. 9 (vgl. Kap. 16) nur ein Ziegenbock. Schliesslich scheint es nach der Unterschrift 7, 38, als ob die Uber- schrift 1, 1 erst spater zugesetzt worden sei, um Lev. 1-7 in die Stiftshiittengesetzgebung einzufiigen ; jedoch wird die letztere sachlich vorausgesetzt.’ 5 Of course, a god aided in the ‘ atonement 5 ; cf. p. 210, where a pig is killed “ before Samas.” THE CLEAN PLACE. 199 absorbed the demoniac influence, was not always so deadly as their ancestors had accounted it. An Oriental wizard, not too. well blessed with this world’s goods, is not unlikely to have been loth to let a good lamb be thrown away, and his surreptitious feast may perhaps have given rise to this alternative method of the disposal of the carcase. * Heathen ’ priests were always under suspicion of battening on the deity’s food unknown to the worshippers, as we learn from the apocryphal story of Bel and the Dragon, and there was probably not much to choose in the matter of accep¬ tance of perquisites between the priests of one nation or another ; out of this, as a corollary, a second explanation arises, which will also include the use of the holy altar, and that is, that these piacular offerings as we now have them had begun to be so confounded with the sacrifices of burnt- offerings, and the real significance of their origin so lost, that much of the atonement ritual had been brought into similitude with the traditions of the tribal sacrificial feast, although several of the salient features remained. We have next to settle what is meant by the ordinance which directs that the ashes of the piacular offering are to be taken to a “clean place where the ashes are poured out.” The Levitical phrase is exactly paralleled in the Assyrian Surpu- series, “let the tabu, its bond go forth to the desert, the clean place.” 1 There is, however, no reason to suppose with Haupt (and, following him, Meissner 2 ) that this is a euphemism for an unclean place. ‘ Unclean 1 Ed. Meissner, 33, Tablet V, 1. 165. Cf. Knobel, ed. Dillmann, Leviticus , 1880, 383 : “ jenes hatte man an reinen Orten (den Zehnten an jeglichen Ort) und im Zustand der Reinheit, dieses am heiligen Ort und natiirlich auch im Zustand der Reinheit zu geniessen.” 2 xix, 55. 200 THE BARREN YALLEY. places 5 are cemeteries, ruins, latrines, and the like, such as are inhabited by demons who would resent the approach of any mortal thus ill-treating one of their number, and would doubtless help the devil imprisoned in the ‘ atone¬ ment.’ The Rabbis considered that it was proper for a man, on going into an unclean place, to beg the two angels which accompanied him to wait until he should return. 1 Obviously the reason is that these angels were not strong enough to cope with the local devils, if they trespassed on their domain. This maintains in the spirit world the Semitic principle which compels a traveller to obtain a foreign shekh ’s permission previous to crossing his territory. In the rite of Deut. xxi, 1, the reason for the “ barren valley ” being chosen is, according to Dillmann, Ewald, and Keil, in order that the purifying blood may not be uncovered and lose its virtue; according to Robertson Smith, that it may avoid all risk of contact with sacrosanct flesh. 2 But it may be only in accord with the idea of the scapegoat which is sent into the desert. Jeremias 3 quotes Josephus as saying that the second scapegoat, before the burning, had to be brought to a very clean place (ec? fcadapcoTcnov Ant., iii, 10, 3). Again, are we to see in this deposition of tabooed articles outside the camp an explanation why, at the capture of Jericho (Josh, vi, 23), they put Rahab and her family * outside the camp/ the remainder of the inhabitants being ‘devoted’ P 4 / 1 Berakhoth , 60Z>, quoted Jewish Encycl. sub voce Angelology. 2 Encycl. Bibl ., 846. 3 Ibid., 4123. 4 In an Assyrian text (see p. 177) we find kurpi indicated as the locality for disposing of the ‘ substitute ’ after the ceremony. Suk irbitti , ‘ cross-roads,’ is apparently the place where the 1 atonement ’ is THE ATONEMENT EXORCISM. 201 After this rather lengthy digression on the ‘ unwitting ’ sins we may return to the other special cases of ‘ atone¬ ments/ For the moment we shall omit the ‘atonements’ for oaths and ordinary ‘ sin 9 (cases d, e) ; the ‘ unwitting ’ sin of the ruler (case 3) comes under two heads, that of to be put, but the text is mutilated. With regard to Jcurpi = ‘ ash- heaps,’ it is so purely conjectural that it affords no room for discussion. The word occurs elsewhere in Macmillan’s article in Beitr. fur Assyr., v, 534, ana mu-tu . . . Jcurpi Jcurpi usabri. The ‘ cross-roads,’ on the other hand, are difficult of explanation, for they are the resort of spirits ; Hecate is often to be found there, and in the Testament of Solomon (Conybeare, J.Q., xi, 26) the demon Envy says, c< In the cross- ways also I have many services to render” (see Frazer, Golden Bough, iii, 80 ; Maury, La Magie , 176). In Talmudic medicine, to heal an issue of blood, the patient was to sit at a parting of the ways with a cup of wine in her hand, and some one coming up behind her was to cry out suddenly, “Be healed of thine issue of blood” (Creighton, Encycl. Bibl ., 3006). Maimonides ( Guide to the Perplexed, iii, xxxvii) quotes the Talmud ( Chullin , 77a) as saying that the uterus of animals which have been selected for the sanctuary must be buried and not suspended from a tree or buried at the cross-roads, because “ this is one of the ways of the Amorite.” The suspension of placenta on trees occurs in savage anthropology. “In the Babar Archipelago, between New Guinea and Celebes, the placenta are mixed with ashes and put in a small basket, which seven women, each of them armed with a sword, hang up on a tree of a particular kind ( Citrus hystrix). The women carry swords for the purpose of frightening the evil spirits ; otherwise these mischievous beings might get hold of the placenta, and thereby make the child sick” (Riedel, Die sluiJc en fcroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, quoted Frazer, Golden Bough, i, 54). The Talmudic charm for the issue of blood is merely an instance of sympathetic magic ; the cup of wine represents the blood, and the sudden start caused by the unexpected cry will cause the person to spill it. This is, of course, typical of what will happen to the issue. Presumably the cross-roads have some particular influence on this ‘ atonement ’ (the wine is little more) in the same way as in the Assyrian text. The Phoenician inscriptions do not throw any light, as far as I know, on the ‘atonement’ system; in the text C.I.S., i, 237, 252, the parts of the sacrifice to be taken by the offerer are mentioned, but the meanings of the words for sacrifices are not entirely determined. 202 THE ATONEMENT EXORCISM. the Royal Tabu, 1 explained on p. 138, and the ‘ unwitting * sin of the individual, which has already been discussed. The Tribal ‘Atonement 31 (case 5) for ‘unwitting’ sin is of a similar nature. The Priestly ‘ Atonement ’ (case 4) is clearly to be accounted as a method of cleansing the priest-elect from any unknown breach of tabu which must be removed before he can be consecrated, and this must be the explanation of Hum. xxix, 1 ff. Our next step is to substantiate our theory from the Assyrian incantations. We have seen that the ‘atonement’ of the Hebrews in which the bird flies away with uncleanness is ordinary magic, and the transference of ills to waxen figures or animals is as common among the Semites as with other savages. In Assyrian folklore this was one of the commonest ways of exorcising a demon to go forth from the sick man, and, what is more, as we have already mentioned, the word in frequent use is kuppuru, radically the same as the word for ‘ atone ’ in Hebrew. The process is simple: the priest slaughters an animal, pig or kid, as a substitute for the sick man, so that he may thus, as Tylor says, coax the demon, threaten it, make offerings to 1 One of the Assyrian 1 atonements ’ published by Zimmern ( Ritual- tafeln , 137) gives the ceremony for purifying the king— “ Thou shalt make pure ‘ atonements 5 for the king, Bringing a censer (and) a torch to him, Washing him in a water bowl ; Fill [two] burzigalsar-\e ssels with water from the bowl, Putting cedar (and) cypress in the water, Put two ‘ atonement ’-vessels there ; The king shall hold one ‘ atonement ’-vessel on his right and his left hand.” The rest is mutilated. Unfortunately the preceding part of the tablet is lost, and we cannot tell why a purification is needed. But it certainly points to the principle of Royal Tabu. 6 ATONEMENT ’ FOR THE EVIL EYE. 203 it, entice or drive it out of his patient’s body, to induce it to take up its abode in some other. The connection between the Hebrew and Assyrian ceremonies will be obvious to anyone who reads the following quotations from the cuneiform tablets. They are all exorcisms for persons suffering from some sickness. For instance, in the case of the astf/c/tw-disease, Marduk is given the following advice by bis father Ea, and the priest follows it in healing the sick man :— 1 “ Take a white kid of Tammuz, 2 Lay it down facing the sick man, Take out its heart and Place it in the hand of that man ; Perform the Incantation of Eridu ; The kid whose heart thou hast taken out Is unclean 3 * food with which thou makest atonement for the man ; 1 Devils , ii, Tablet XI, 1. 73 ff. 2 Comparable with this is Xenocrates 5 dictum that the blood of the kid was useful against epilepsy (Ibn el-Be'ithar, Notices des MSS., xxv, 93). 3 Lulu or lit, for which see my article, P.S.B.A., Feb. 1908. As the word is important, the reasons for adopting the meaning ‘ unclean 1 or ‘ filthy 5 are repeated here. It may also have the meaning of ‘ excrement, 5 which is paralleled by the Syriac stercus , Brjb ‘ dross of iron. 5 Lu'u has the particular meaning of ‘ filthy 5 in regard to streets : ullila sidlisunu hCuti , £ I cleansed their filthy streets 5 (. B.A ., i, 10, quoted Muss-Arnolt, 464), and there is also a group har- TU-NA=fat- 5 -i* gi-ri-ti (Briinnow, No. 8596). A classical text (Sennacherib, vi, 16) gives ‘ the deluge of my fighting kirua li-e zumursun ishup swept away their bodies like dung 5 (Delitzsch, H. W.B., 374, refers, possibly, to another hi). It has to be some plastic material, for little magical figures are made from it : e.g., Maklu ii, 113, inim-inim-ma, mussaprata nadi (?) salam li kan, ‘ Prayer of uttering a chant (?) over a figure of It (i.e. dung),’ parallel hymns to this being recited over figures of bitumen, bronze, etc., in the same tablet. Compare also iv, 41 (, salmdni) lu sa idda \lii\ sa titu lu sa U , “ (figures) either of bitumen, 204 ‘ ATONEMENT ’ FOE THE EVIL EYE. Bring forth a censer (and) a torch Scatter it in the street; Surround that man with meal, Perform the Incantation of Eridu, Invoke the great gods That the evil Spirit, the evil Demon, the evil Ghost, The Hag-demon, the Ghoul, the fever or heavy sickness, Which is in the body of the man, May be removed and go forth from the house ! ” or clay, or It (dung).” Tallqvist translates ‘ honig,’ but this cannot be correct. In the grammatical text, K. 246 (i, 65, W.A.I , ii, 17), two ‘ unclean ’ substances are mentioned : It sa ina zumri kuppuru , paralleled by akcdu sa zumur ameli mussudu. The latter must be ‘ food which a man’s body has expressed 5 (less probably ‘ rejected,’ i.e. vomited), and hence the former must have a meaning, at least, in connection. Kuppuru is, as is now unnecessary to explain, ‘ to make atonement,’ and the It is constantly used in connection with it, and hence we may try a tentative translation : ‘refuse which has made atonement for the body of a man.’ The sense of this last passage becomes clear from the present text : ‘The kid, whereof thou hast taken out the heart, (becomes) fo’T-food (unclean), with which thou shalt make atonement for the man ; bring a censer (and) a torch, scatter it (the unclean food) in the street.’ Another such is Tablet ‘ T,’ line 38 (ibid.), Akala It ina kakkadi-su sukun-ma, ‘ set refuse-food at his head.’ An additional argument for the meaning ‘ excrement ’ is found in Maklu viii, 87, 88 : II kurummati Ita-a-an salam amelu kassapi u sal kassapti akal It epus-ma libbi kurummati suruh-ma. 1 Make two meals of dung, one each for the figures of sorcerer and sorceress, and make invocation over the food.’ Tallqvist translates ‘mache von leckerhafter Nahrung,’ but this seems less probable. Hostile magicians in effigy are not treated well, and the most abominable food is set before them to drive them away. Delicacies are more likely to attract them than to attain the desired object. The directions finish with an injunction to place these ‘ meals ’ right and left of them, repeat an incantation, and then give them to ‘dog and bitch.’ Cf. pp. 169, 207. In an incantation against rheumatism (P.S.B.A., Feb. 1908), the priest must put one ka of leaven on the shs?£r-reed, and put the sick foot thereon, and ‘ make the atonement ’ for the foot with the It (refuse) of the leaven. Again the use appears to be pregnant ; it will become ‘ refuse ’ when it has done its work. Kuchler, in treating of this word, shortly (in his Ass. Bab. Medizm) translates it by ‘dough,’ which seems less probable. PARALLEL PROM MALAY MAGIC. 205 The Evil Eye, which has smitten the patient, is thus exorcised :— “ The roving Evil Eye Hath looked on the neighbourhood and hath vanished far away, Hath looked on the vicinity and hath vanished far away, Hath looked on the chamber of the land and hath vanished far away,. It hath looked on the wanderer, And like wood cut off for kindling (?) it hath bent his neck. Ea hath seen this man and Hath placed food at his head, Hath brought food nigh to his body, Plath shown favour for his life ; Thou man, son of his god, May the food which I have brought to thy head— May the food with which I have made an ‘ atonement 5 for thy body, Assuage thy sickness (?), and thou be restored, That thy foot may stand in the land of life ; 1 Thou man, son of his god, The Eye which hath looked on thee for harm, The Eye which hath looked on thee for evil. «••••••••• May Ba’u smite [it] with flax(?), May Gunura [smite it] with a great oar (?), Like rain which is let fall from heaven directed unto earth, So may Ea, King of the Deep, remove it from thy body.” 2 A ceremony so similar as to be worthy of careful com¬ parison occurs among the Malays. Whenever a person is suffering from the influence of a waxen image, the Malay magician rubs him all over with limes in order to cast out the mischief. These limes must he of seven different kinds, and three of each kind are necessary. When they have been obtained he must fumigate them with incense, and repeat a charm overnight. Early next morning three thicknesses of birah -leaves must be laid 1 Cf. Jer, xi, 19. 2 Devils , ii, 113. 206 CEREMONY FROM THE SJZBPtf-SERIES. down for the patient to stand on during the lustration, and the limes are to be squeezed into a bowl and used partly for washing and partly medicinally. “ The ‘ trash ’ of the limes (after squeezing) is wrapped up in a birah - leaf at evening, and either carried out to the sea (into which it is dropped) or deposited ashore at a safe distance from the house.” 1 This ‘ trash* must be the hCu or akal IVi, 1 unclean food/ of the Assyrian incantations. In the case of headache, sympathetic magic forms the treatment; a hat (?) of reeds is to be put on the man, and the pain-demon will be absorbed in it. It is then broken and the baneful obsession is dissipated— “ Take a clean reed and Measure that man, and Make a reed-hat (?), and Perform the Incantation of Eridu ; and Make the atonement for the man, the son of his god, And break it upon him, That it be his substitute ; 2 That the evil Spirit, the evil Demon may stand aside And a kindly Spirit, a kindly Guardian be present.” 3 In another Assyrian text, which is the part of the Seventh Tablet of the Surpu -series hitherto wanting and unknown, seven loaves of pure dough form the medicine to remove the tabu. After various ceremonies with these the magician makes an ‘ atonement ’ for the man who has fallen sick, and puts his spittle on the * atonement/ The ‘ atonement ’ (i.e. the loaves) is then to be carried into the desert to a ‘ clean place/ and there, under one of the low thorn shrubs which are scattered over such places, it is to 1 Skeat, Malay Magic , 431. 2 Dinanu. 3 Devils , ii, Tablet VIII, col. i, 1. 20 ff. 6 ATONEMENT 1 WITH THE BODY OF A PIG. 207 be left. The 1 clean place 5 has already been recognized in the Hebrew ceremonies, but there is a still more curious survival of the Assyrian charm in the Hejaz at the present day. Zwemer tells of a tradition there, that if a child is very ill the mother will take seven flat loaves of bread and put them under its pillow. The next morning these are given to the dogs . 1 1 Arabia , 283. Other instances of casting bread to the dogs after a spell in Mesopotamia are given on pp. 169, 204. A parallel occurs in Exod. xxii, 31, “And ye shall be holy men to me : therefore ye shall not eat any flesh that is torn of beasts in the field : ye shall cast it to the dogs.” There is a theory that the “flesh that is torn” is the flesh mangled by wild beasts which were supposed to be forms of Jinn (see Robertson Smith, Rel. Sera ., 126). Hence the motive in both instances is practically the same ; the bread has absorbed the tabu of the sickness-devil, and the torn flesh has become contaminated (tabu) by the afrit of the j ungle or desert. With regard to the use of bread, there is a curious story told by Baldensperger (P.F.F., 1893, 209) about the stones called the Farde, north of Beit Nuba, which are traditionally a petrified procession. A woman was just putting her dough into the oven when a procession went by. She took up her child, and finding it dirty wiped it with a loaf of bread and threw the bread away. The sacredness of the bread turned the whole procession, man and beast, to stone. In Sale’s Koran ( Prelim . Disc., sect, i, Al J lostatraf) it is related that a lump of dough was worshipped by the tribe of Hanifa, “ who used it with more respect than the Papists do theirs,” presuming not to eat it till they were compelled to it by famine. Again (ibid., sect, ii), the sect of Collyridians in Arabia introduced the Virgin Mary for God, or worshipped her as such, offering her a sort of twisted cake called collyris ; compare the making of cakes to the queen of heaven in Jer. vii, 18. On the sanctity of bread cf. also C. T. Wilson, Peasant Life in the Holy Land , 54. Its use, especially in the form of paste or liquid, is frequent in the Assyrian inscriptions, particularly to make the circle which is tabu to evil spirits. It is almost unnecessary to quote the leavened and shewbread of the Old Testament: the influence of this is shown in the Talmud, in the directions for searching the house on the eve of Nisan 14 to see that no place contains any leavened bread ( Pesachim , i, 1, ed. Schwab, v, 1). On the sanctity of bread in Macedonia see Abbott, Macedonian Folklore , 103. 208 ‘atonement’ with the body oe a pio. The next cuneiform ‘ atonement ’ is one of great interest, as it goes into details much more fully— “ Marduk [hath seen; ‘What I’; ‘Go, my son, 5 (Marduk)]. 1 [Take] a sucking-pig [and] . . . [At] the head of the sick man [put it(?) and] Take out its heart and Above the heart of the sick man [put it], [Sprinkle] its blood on the sides of the bed [and] Divide the pig over his limbs and Spread it on the sick man ; then Cleanse thou that man with pure water from the Deep And wash him clean and Bring near him a censer (and) a torch ; Twice seven loaves cooked in the ashes against the shut door place, and Give the pig in his stead and Let the flesh be as his flesh, And the blood as his blood, And let him hold it; Let the heart be as his heart (Which thou hast placed upon his heart) And let him hold it ; , • • • • i • • • • • [That the] . . , may be in his stead . . . That the pig may be a substitute for him . . . That the evil Spirit, the evil Demon may stand aside, That a kindly Spirit, a kindly Guardian be present.” 2 The most remarkable parallel to this spell is contained in the New Testament story of the Gadarene swine . 3 The devils which possess the two men beseech Jesus Christ, if He cast them out, to send them into the herd of swine which is feeding close at hand. When the devils leave 1 On these abbreviations see Introduction. 2 Devils , ii, Tablet ‘N, J col. ii, 1. 41 ff. 3 Wellhausen points out ( Reste , 148) that the word ‘herd/ is used both of swine and demons. 4 PARALLEL TO THE GADARENE SWINE. 209 the men and take up their abode in the herd, the swine, according to the story, go mad and rush down the hill into the water, w 7 here they are drowned. The idea is quite in accord with savage beliefs; the disease-devil leaves the man at the command of a higher power, and is transferred to some beast which, either dead or alive, acts as a substitute. 1 From the Assyrian incantation it is easy to infer that the pig was not ‘ unclean ’ in the way that it is now held to be by Jews or Mohammedans. The latter believe that in extremities the flesh can be used as a medicine, and Zwemer relates that Arab patients would come to him for a small piece to cure one in desperate straits. 2 Swine fat appears to have been also used in Assyrian medicine, 3 and it is recorded in an astrological report that a sow farrowed with one of the piglets double, with eight legs and two tails. The monster was promptly conserved in salt. 4 In one of the hemerology texts 5 it is laid down that if a man eats flesh of swine on the 30th of Ab (i.e. when the moon is invisible) boils will break out upon him, or if he 1 Psellus’ monk Marcus of Mesopotamia explains that the devils entered the swine, not from hostile intention, but “from a vehement desire for animal heat” ( Dialogue on the Operation of Daemons, ed. Collisson, 1843, 35). 2 Arabia, 281. On the sucking-pig sacrificed among the Greeks, see Am. Journ. of Phil., 1900, 256 ; for other instances of pigs in magic, see Elworthy, Evil Eye , 333 ff. ; on their unclean or sacred character, see Frazer, Golden Bough , ii, 304; in atonement, see Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 193, note 2. 3 Kuchler, Assyr.-Bab. Medizin, 86. 4 Reports of the Magicians and Astrologers, ii, xci. Manetho makes mention of marvels such as this, i.e. the birth of an eight-legged lamb (Wiedemann, Religion, 265). 5 W.A.I., v, 48-9. Compare the views held about the pig in the Egyptian Book of the Dead, chapter 112. p 210 ‘ ATONEMENT ’ WITH THE BODY OF A KID. eats flesh of swine or oxen 1 on the 27th of Tisri various things will happen to him. The very fact that certain days are prohibited admits of the presumption that pork was lawful as food on other occasions. 2 3 There is yet another religious text prescribing V a pig in the ritual: “ Sacrifice a pig before Samas, (and) thou shalt imprison their sorceries in the body of the pig.” 5 Could anything be clearer ? In this next case, although the word kuppuru is not used, the ceremony is similar, and approaches closely to some of the Arab ritual quoted further on— “ Incantation :— An evil Fever rests upon the body of the man, It hath covered the wanderer as with a garment, It holdeth his hands and feet, It racketh his limbs. The great Prince Ea, lord of magic, Of Ea (?) . -. . Laid a kid at his head in front of him, Unto the Chieftain he spake (saying) : 1 It is interesting to see the ox also regarded as tabu as much as the pig. It is well known that among certain of the Semites the ox was one of the tabu-animals, as also was the camel (Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem,), and both these latter are still so in Mesopotamia. It is a great insult in Mosul to say that a man eats of their flesh. An Assyrian incantation shows some tendency towards the idea of paying respect to oxen, perhaps a reminiscence of an older totem-worship : “ the great ox, mighty ox, that treadeth pure fodder, hath come to the meadow, raising up plenty, sowing corn, making bright the field ; my pure hands pour libation before thee” (T V.A.I., iv, 23, 1, col. i). 2 Inanimate things, according to the Moslems, are all clean and do not defile, except wine and intoxicating drinks. Animals are all clean, except the dog and the pig. When dead, however, all animals are unclean, except man, fish, locusts, worms in apples, and insects like the fly and the beetle (Klein, Religion of Islam, 122). 3 K. 6172, Craig, ii, v ; Fossey, La Magie , 459. PARALLELS FROM THE ARABS. 211 ‘The kid is the substitute for mankind, .The kid for his life he giveth, The head of the kid for the head of the man he giveth, The neck of the kid for the neck of the man he giveth, The breast of the kid for the breast of the man he giveth, The ... [of the kid for the ... of the man] he giveth,’ 1 By the magic of the Word of Ea [ . . . the son of Eridu(?)], [Let the Incantation of the Deep of Eridu never] be unloosed.” 2 Among the Moslems of the present day this form of substitution still holds good. At the shrine of Abdu Khadir, the largest mosque in Baghdad, the Indian Moslems who come thither on a pilgrimage offer sacrifices there; “ they vow that if a man who is ill begins to recover he shall go to the shrine. He is stripped to the waist. Then two men lift a lamb or a kid above his head, and bathe his face, shoulders, and the upper part of his body with the blood. While the butcher kills the animal the sheik repeats the first sura of the Horan. They also wrap him in the skin of the animal.” 3 Among the Algerian Jews there is a custom somewhat similar. To cure sickness, they go with an Arab sorceress to a spring, kill a black cock, and smear with blood the chest, forehead, etc., of the patient. Then they light a fire and sprinkle fire and patient with blood. 4 In Palestine it is the same. “The very morning we visited the shrine of Nebi Yehudah a goat was killed for a woman of the Fudl Arabs who was suffering from fever. They put some of the blood on her forehead, and some on the 1 It is uncertain how many more of the lines ending “ he giveth were originally in the text. 2 Devils, ii, Tablet ‘N,’ col. iii, 1. 29 ff. 3 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel. (quoting Surur, a native of Baghdad), 205. 4 Benjamin II, Eight Years in Asia and Africa, quoted Jew. Encycl., xi, 600. 212 EXORCISM AGAINST HEADACHE. wall of the makam. The form of vow used for the restoration of a child who is ill is : ‘ 0 Nebi Yehudah, have mercy on this boy, my son.’ ” 1 The ninth of Tisri is called Ed el-jdj (i.e. Feast of Chickens) on account of the number of chickens slaughtered by the Jews throughout the land. “Every individual should provide himself with a chicken—its colour white, if possible—a cock for every male, a hen for every female, and for a pregnant woman a cock and two hens, that is, a hen for herself and one of each sex for the unborn child to make sure he or she is represented rightly . . . The head of the family must sacrifice the birds, first whirling each one three times around his head, exclaiming each time: ‘ Let this cock (or hen) he an atonement for me ; let it he my substitute; let the bird die ; but let life and happiness be to me and to all Israel. Amen.’ He then kills the bird, saying, ‘ I have deserved thus to die.’ The blood is poured out on the ground (as is always done when the Jews kill), and the chickens are eaten.” 2 At Musulleh, where is a shrine good for sore eyes, if a man sick with ophthalmia takes a cock and, after cutting off its head, puts a drop of blood in each eye and gives the cock to some poor person, he w T ill recover. 3 Another Assyrian exorcism against headache runs— “ Take a bundle of twigs (?) and At the confluence of two streams 4 take thou water and Perform thy pure incantation over this water, and With thy pure exorcism cleanse and With this water sprinkle the man, son of his god, and 1 Curtiss, Bibl. World , xxiii, 100. 2 Masterman, Bibl. World , xxiii, 27. 3 Curtiss, Prim. Bern. Bel., 141. 4 A locality often prescribed as holy for taking water ; cf. Devils , i, lx. PURIFICATION IN ASSYRIAN. 213 Bind . . . upon his head . . . When he eats, let him be sated, 1 At eventide cut it off and Cast it into the broad places That the sickness of his head may be assuaged, and That the headache, which like the dew hath fallen, may be removed.” 2 The “ bundle of twigs ” (the value of the translation is fairly well vouched for) occurs also in another incantation— “ Perform thy goodly incantation and Make perfect the waters thereof with priestcraft, and With thy pure incantation do thou cleanse (the sick man) and Take a bundle of twigs (?), Pour the waters thereof on it.” 3 The Malagasy, who consider all disease inflicted by an evil spirit, have recourse to a diviner who removes the sickness by means of a 4 faditra ’; this is some object such as a little grass, ashes, a sheep, a pumpkin, the water with which the patient has rinsed his mouth, and when the priest has counted on it the evils which may afflict the patient and charged the ‘ faditra 1 to take them away for ever, it is thrown away, and the malady with it. 4 The following is an excellent instance of the removal of a tabu by purification and fumigation, where the ‘ tabu ’ is expelled to ‘ a clean place ’ :— “ Incantation :— Pure water . . . Water from the Euphrates which in a place . . . Water which hath been kept aright in the deep, The pure mouth of Ea hath purified it, 1 Translation doubtful. 2 Ibid., ii, Tablet * P,’ 1. 63 ff. 3 Ibid., ii, series Luh-ka , Tablet VIII, 1. 53 ff. 4 Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed., vol. ii, p. 146, quoting Ellis. 214 PURIFICATION IN ASSYRIAN. The Children of the Deep, seven are they, They purify the water, cleanse it, make it limpid, Before your father Ea, Before your mother Damkina, May it be pure, be bright, be clean ; That the Evil Tongue may stand aside. Prayer : Repeat the incantation three times before the bowl of water. “ Incantation : — The River God, brightly shining, Before whom (is) the Ban, whose attack like a demon Bindeth all lands as the twilight doth the heights above, v v May Sam as, when he riseth, remove the darkness thereof, that it may not be held back in the house, That the Ban may go forth to the desert, a clean place. 0 Ban, by heaven be thou exorcised, by earth be thou exorcised ! Prayer for removing the Ban : fumigate him on the bank of a river. “ Incantation :— Eire-god, chief, high upon earth, Hero, son of the Deep, high upon earth, 0 Fire-god, by thy pure fire, Thou bringest light into the house of darkness, Thou settest a destiny to all things named, It is thou that meltest copper and lead, It is thou that purgeth silver and gold, It is thou that art the comrade of Ninkasi, It is thou that repelleth the evil that cometh by night. May the members of the man, son of his god, be cleansed, May he be bright as the heaven, May he shine like the earth, May he be resplendent as the midst of heaven ! May the evil tongue (?) [stand] aside ! Prayer for removing the Ban . . .” 1 1 W.A.I ., iv, 14, 2. ‘ WIPING AWAY ? A TABU AMONG THE MALAYS. 215 In the instances of purification by water we may perhaps see the original idea of ‘ wiping ’ tabu away, as in the Syriac k’phar. In the Malay ceremony already quoted (p. 205) the magician ‘ wipes away 9 the tabu with the limes. In Tonga, a person under a tabu caused by touching a chief cannot feed himself until the tabu has been removed by his touching the soles of a superior chief’s feet with his hands and then rinsing his hands in water, or (if water is scarce) rubbing them with the juice of the plantain or banana. When a Maori chief became tabu by touching the sore head of his child, he would on the following day rub his hands over with potato or fern root which had been cooked over a sacred fire. This was then carried to the head of the family in the female line, who ate it. 1 We can now return to the Levitical tabu on rash oaths. It is less clear what we are to understand as the real necessity for an atonement for this. Obviously it is absurd to suppose that the same offering would compensate for oaths involving undertakings of both extreme difficulty and extreme triviality; if this were so, a man need only admit that his oath was a rash one, and offer an animal to be exempt from the performance of any sworn act of devotion. From, the quotation from Lev. v given below, 2 it is plain 1 These are quoted from Frazer’s article Taboo , Encycl. Britannica. ~ “And if any one sin, in that he heareth the voice of adjuration, he being a witness, whether he hath seen or known, if he do not utter it, then he shall bear his iniquity : or if any one touch any unclean thing, whether it be the carcase of an unclean beast, or the carcase of unclean cattle, or the carcase of unclean creeping things, and it be hidden from him, and he be unclean, then he shall be guilty : or if he touch the unclean ness of man, whatsoever his uncleanness be wherewith he is unclean, and it be hid from him ; when he 216 OATHS AND VOWS. that such oaths are reckoned parallel to the unclean tabu of contagion for which similar atonements must be made to free the man from the ban ; does a man who swears to perform a rash act lay himself under a tabu until he shall have completed his task? Take the instances in Greek mythology, as Miss Jane Harrison, who recognizes the same difficulty, has collected them: “ It is less obvious at first why a^ayLa [offerings destroyed] were always employed in the taking of oaths ... In the ordinary ritual of the taking of oaths, the oath-taker actually stood upon the pieces of the slaughtered animal . . . Tyndareus sacrificed a horse and made Helen’s suitors take an oath, causing them to stand on the cut-up pieces of the horse— having: made them take the oath, he buried the horse . . . It was said Herakles had given an oath to the sons of Neleus on the cut pieces of a boar ...” Pausanias says, “ ‘ With the men of old days the rule was as regards a sacrificial animal on which an oath had been taken that it should be no more accounted as eatable for men.’ ” Miss Harrison explains the custom of standing on the fragments of the victim as pointing “ clearly to the identification of oath-taker and sacrifice. The victim was hewn in bits; so if the oath-taker perjure himself will he be hewn in bits.” 1 I venture with diffidence to put knoweth of it, then he shall be guilty : or if any one swear rashly with his lips to do evil, or to do good, whatsoever it be that a man shall utter rashly with an oath, and it be hid from him ; when he knoweth of it, then he shall be guilty in one of these things : and it shall be, when he shall be guilty in one of these things, that he shall confess that wherein he hath sinned : and he shall bring his guilt offering unto Yahweh for his sin which he hath sinned, a female from the flock, a lamb or a goat, for a sin offering ; and the priest shall make atonement for him as concerning his sin.” 1 J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena , 66. OATHS AND YOWS. 217 forward another explanation in view of the Biblical law. The oath-taker calls some supernatural power 1 to witness that he makes a promise ; he hereby renders himself tabu for some reason, as the Levitical parallels show. Consonant with the rules for other unclean tabus, he presents an * atonement’ to rid himself of this tabu, to admit of his continuing as an ordinary member of society in intercourse with his fellows ; it does not exempt him from the necessity of carrying out his vow, it merely (to the savage mind) removes the contagious tabu which he has incurred by the act of invoking divine power. It is a savage analogy, but I think a plausible explanation. The Greek instances are clear ; at the very moment the vow is taken the oath-taker kills the beast, which is not used as food, and hence cannot be considered as a feast shared with the god he has invoked. It is made away with as charged with dangerous influence, just as the ‘ unclean’ atonements are in the Hebrew law. Jevons’ remarks on oaths are distinctly pertinent here: “ Probably the earliest oaths are those of ‘ compurgation/ and the person thus freeing himself from the charge made against him does so by voluntarily making himself taboo, by ‘eating fetish’ or otherwise devoting himself to the god.” 2 Lastly, the sins committed * wittingly ’ (cases e and f) were all cleansed by an atonement. Both in Leviticus and the Surpu -series offences indicating more serious 1 The meaning of the Hebrew word for ‘ swearing ’is ‘to come under the influence of seven things’ (see Robertson Smith, Rel. &'em., 182 ; Wellhausen, Reste , 18fi), possibly to repeat a promise seven times (the magical number). Compare the Assyrian sibitti su ana pan ereb iht Samsi mamit su-ut-me (Martin, Textes Relig., 1900, 28). 2 Introduction to the History of Religion , 2nd ed., 1902, 64 ff. 218 PRESUMPTUOUS SINS. misdeeds than the mere infringement of a tabu are placed side by side with breaches of ‘ uncleanness/ Yet in the Assyrian series either is recognized as the possible cause of sickness in man, and in the Hebrew law both demand an ‘ atonement/ Some are undoubtedly the direct descendants of breaches of the demon-tabus, and others are clearly offences against holy things belonging to the tribal god. Two explanations are therefore open to us. One is that every breach of tabu was visited by demoniac possession, either directly or through the divine wrath which caused angels and ministers to inflict their plagues on men. The other is that as religious beliefs grew and the origins were forgotten, men brought ‘ atonements ’ for every breach of tabu, arguing by analogy that they could remove the risk of punishment by what ultimately was regarded as a piacular offering. The original object of the i atonement ’ was disregarded, and, as undoubtedly appears in the Old Testament, the carcases of beasts slaughtered as substitutes to attract the plague-devil became the offerings of men guilty of presumptuous ‘ sin.’ The last stage is reached when the carcase is eaten by the priests as though it were an ordinary sacrifice. Originally, then, we may presume, from the meaning of the word k’phar in connection with savage methods of cleansing tabu, that the 4 atonement' ceremony was intended to wash away a demoniac or ‘ sin ’ tabu in water. In other words, the demon was to be transferred to water and thus removed. In addition to this we have the ‘ sin ’ offering, which was originally a beast substituted for the man whom the demon had attacked, which was intended to receive the devil after he had been exorcised. 219 y. THE REDEMPTION OF THE FIRSTBORN. One of the most interesting problems in Semitic folklore is the question of the origin of the firstborn-substitution. Yahweh is related to have said: “ Sanctify unto me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel, both of man and of beast: it is mine.” 1 This is amplified elsewhere : 2 “ Thou shalt set apart unto Yahweh all that openeth the womb, and every firstling which thou hast that cometh of a beast; the males shall be Yahweh’s. And every firstling of an ass thou shalt redeem with a lamb; and if thou wilt not redeem it, then thou shalt break its neck : and all the firstborn of man among thy sons thou shalt redeem.” In Numbers 3 the law is thus laid down : “ Every thing that openeth the womb, of all flesh, which they offer unto Yahweh, both of man and beast, shall be thine (Aaron’s) : nevertheless the firstborn of man shalt thou surely redeem, and the firstling of unclean beasts shalt thou redeem. And those that are to be redeemed of them from a month old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, for the money of five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary (the same is twenty gerahs). But the firstling of an ox, or the firstling of a sheep, or the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they are holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood 1 Exocl. xiii, 2. 2 Ibid., 12 ff. 3 xviii, 15 ff. 220 TRADITIONAL ORIGINS OF REDEMPTION. upon the altar, and shalt burn their fat for an offering made by fire, for a sweet savour unto Yahweh.” One tradition (Jehovist) assigns the origin of this custom to the smiting of the firstborn in Egypt: “For all the firstborn are mine; on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and beast : mine shall they be: I am Yahweh.” 1 A second (Elohist) 2 * * legend of the substitution of a ram for the sacrifice of the firstborn is the more primitive story of Abraham and Isaac. As an additional story Jephthah’s vow may be cited, in which a female (firstborn) is dedicated. In this case, however, no redemption is spoken of, the statement being that he did with her according to the vow he had vowed. It is therefore clear that two different traditions, apparently of an academic nature, had sprung up at a very early time to explain what was a fundamental custom among the Hebrews. It was allowed to the tribe to substitute a firstborn beast for a firstborn child, which was clearly held to belong to the tribal god; what is more, from the passage in Num. xviii, 15, ‘ unclean ’ beasts were the ‘ property 5 of the deity, and had to be redeemed. When this passage is taken into account with the ass of Exod. xiii, 13, which was to be redeemed with a lamb, or be killed by having its neck broken, it seems clear that the passage about the ‘ unclean ’ beasts has descended from a time when such beasts (i.e. totems) were held 1 Num. iii, 13. 2 Gen. xxii, l ff. Yah well does not occur in the story except in the name of the place, Jehovah-jireh, its explanation, the “ ar.gel of Yahweh,” and the epilogue. SACRIFICE OF TOTEMS. 221 eligible for sacrifice. 1 Now this must have been before the idea of unclean came m, at a time when the various Semitic tribes regarded the tabu-beasts of the Old Testament laws as their totems. If this argument has any weight, the parallelism in the case of the firstborn babe is obvious ; it was a human sacrifice from those early times when the distinctions between the classes of life, beast or man, were not so finely drawn. 2 This is nothing new; Frazer has clearly demonstrated that the God of the Hebrews plainly regarded the firstborn of men and the firstlings of animals as His own, 3 and he says, 4 “we know that the Semites were in the habit of sacrificing some of the children, generally the firstborn, either as a tribute regularly due to the deity 5 or to appease his anger in seasons of public danger or calamity.” It is unnecessary to quote all the well-known instances of human sacrifice at length. 6 We may, however, mention 1 On the grave occasions when this was permissible. On the custom of killing the totem on occasions of grave stress see Frazer, Totemism , 7 ; he maintains that the totem sacrament has become a well-authenticated fact ( Golden Bough , 2nd ed., i, xix). There is no necessity to go into the details of this kinship between man and beast ; it is a well-recognized form of primitive belief, and shows itself in later ages in gods that are half beast, and in omens and tales of women bringing forth animals. Golden Bough , ii, 45. 4 Adonis , Attis, Osiris, 34. 5 On this compare Robertson Smith, Bel. Bern., 463 : “ Yet . . . it seems absolutely impossible that, at the very early date when the Hebrews and Arabs lived together, any tribute could have been paid to the god as chief or king ; and even in the form of the sacrifice of firstlings which is found among the Hebrews, there seem to be indications that the parallelism with the offering of first-fruits is less complete than at first sight it seems to be.” Nowack, however, in his Lehrhuch dev Hehr. Arch., 1894, ii, 255, says : “ Wie die Erstgeburt vom Vieh, so gehoren Jahve auch die Erstlinge von den Feldfruchten.” 6 Sir John Marsham, in the seventeenth century in his Chronicum 222 TRADITION OF THE ORIGIN OF MAGIC. some additional examples which may be of use in our argument. There is an interesting tradition in Bezold’s Schatzhohle , l how in the ninetieth year of Terah magic appeared on the earth in the city of Ur, which Horon the son of Eber had built. A rich inhabitant died, and his son made an image of gold to put over the grave, and posted a watcher. Then came Satan and took up Lis abode in the image, speaking to the young man as though it were his father; and one day thieves stole everything belonging to the young man, who came to (76-78, 300-304), mentions the instances of the Phoenicians sacrificing to Saturn one of the dearest of their people (Philo, Bib. ex Sanchon .), the Dumatii in Arabia who, Diodorus says, sacrificed a child e\ery year, and other cases of human sacrifices. He gives Porphyry’s story (p. 301) that Amosis abolished the law for the slaying of men at Heliopolis in Egypt, as Manetho bears witness in his book of Antiquity and Piety. They were sacrificed to Juno, and were examined, as were the pure calves that were also sealed with them ; they were sacrificed three in a day. In whose stead Amosis commanded that men of wax, of the same number, should be substituted. Another (p. 77), also from Porphyry, is the story of Cronus “ [whom the Phoenicians name Israel (it should be II)],” who had by a nymph named Anobret an only- begotten son, and he in dread of great dangers adorned this son with royal apparel and offered him in sacrifice. Whiston, in his Josephus (840 ffi), has collected the following passages bearing on human sacrifice in the Old Testament: Lev. xx, 2; Deut. xii, 30, 31 ; xviii, 18; 2 Kings xvi, 3 ; xvii, 31 ; xxiii, 10 ; Ps. cvi, 37, 38 ; Jer. vii, 30-32 ; xix, 3-5 ; xxxii, 35 ; Ezek. xvi, 20, 21 ; Wisd. xii, 4-6. See also Daumer, Le Culte de Moloch , 1842, ed. Ewerbeck, Qu'est-ce que la Bible , 1850, 2 : “ L’ancienne religion de Mo'ise, avant d’etre radoucie, ordonnait de tuer sans exception, en l’honneur du Moloch-Jehovah, les premices du sexe masculin parmi les animaux et a plus forte raison parmi les homines,” He is excellent in his anthropological comparisons of human sacrifice (p. 18, e.g., the eldest son in Florida, quoted from Majer, Diet, de la Mythologie, ii, 91), although his philology is at fault (pp. 24, 27). See also Ghillanys, 1842 (ed. Ewerbeck, ibid.), Les Sacrifices humains cliez les Hebreux , 207 ; especially among the Semites “ race anthro- pothyste par excellence” (p. 216). 1 p. 32. THE QUESTION OF HUMAN SACRIFICE IN ASSYRIA. 223 his father’s grave in tears. Satan thereupon promised that all should be restored if only the young man would sacrifice his little son, which he did. Then Satan came forth and entered into the young man and taught him magic, incantation, divinations, Chaldeeism, destinies, haps, and fates.” And from that time on men began to sacrifice their children to demons and to worship idols. There are also stories told of such sacrifice among the Sabians. 1 The existence of human sacrifice among the Babylonians and Assyrians is not easy to prove satisfactorily. Jeremias 2 considers it to be the probability that “the Babylonians practised human sacrifice secretly without formally taking it up into the recognised worship,” a remark which I must confess I am unable to understand fully. Is it meant to apply to those peoples at all periods of the four thousand years which we know of them? What should be their object in practising it secretly p The remark seems to be such a vague and unsubstantiated depreciation of the enemies of Israel that it is no help to any scientific investigation. In 18/5 Professor Sayce 0 published two texts which he considered proved the existence of human sacrifice amono- the Babylonians, but his views were combated and refuted by Ball 4 in 1892. One of these texts was from an 1 En-Nedhn , i, v, § 5, Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier , ii, 28. M. 0. de Percival (ii, 101, quoted Hughes, Diet, of Islam , 184) mentions a Ghassanide prince who was sacrificed to Venus by Munzir, king of Hira\ Psellus (eleventh century), in his Dialogue on tin Operation of Daemons (ed. Collisson, 1843, p. 25), speaks of the sexual orgies among the Euchitse and the Gnosti “ at the time when we celebrate the Passion of our Lord, 77 and how they sacrificed their unnatural offspring nine months later. 2 Encycl. Bibl , 4122. 3 p.S.B.A., iv, 1875, 29. 4 P.S.B.A., xiv, 1892, 149. 224 THE QUESTION OF HUMAN SACRIFICE IN ASSYRIA. omen tablet which Sayce translated “When the Air-god (is) fine, prosperity. On the high places the son is burnt.’’ This, however, is incorrect, and Ball’s translation, though not exact, was accurate enough to disprove the sacrifice theory—“The rain of Rimmon is violent; the sprouting gram on the ridges (or terraced slopes) is minished, is laid bare(P).” 1 The second text is that given in this book on p. 210, and Professor Sayce maintained as late as 1902 2 that his interpretation still held good as seeming to show that the firstborn of man was included among the sacrifices that were deemed acceptable to heaven. This depended on his translation of urisu, ‘offspring,’ which Ball (loc. cit.) in 1892 had challenged, and substituted « fatling ’ for it. Hence we have as yet no proof of human sacrifice from Assyrian ritual tablets. Again, a great deal too much stress, I think, has been laid on the witness of seal-cylinders. It is frequently very difficult to explain the subjects engraved on them, and the representation of the slaughter of human beings, even when a god is shown to be present, is not necessarily human sacrifice. It is doubtful whether the seal-cylinders published by Menant 3 or Ball 4 for the evidence of such 1 The text runs enuma ilu Adad pi-sit inadi se-gu-um ina kislah-mes isahhar (tur) a-ru-ur, and has therefore reference to thunder, not rain. The last word arur I should prefer to translate ‘ is scorched.’ Ball’s interpretation ‘is minished’ {isahhar) is perfectly correct, as it is a word frequently used in these texts in this connection. 2 Gifford Lectures , 467. Even were the meaning ‘ (human) offspring ’ possible, there would then he no support that it meant ‘firstborn.’ I think, however, no one, on reading the incantation, can now believe that there is any question of human sacrifice. 3 Recherches sur la Glyptigue Orieiitale , 150 ; Catalogue J)e Clencg , Nos. 176-82. 4 P.S.B.A. , xiv, 1892, 149. MODERN CUSTOMS OF REDEMPTION. 225 a custom can really be admitted as final proof. That many of them depict the slaying of men is quite clear; but that this can be shown to be sacrifice is quite a different matter. The fact is, human sacrifice goes out in proportion as civilization comes in, and probably by the time men are able to commit their religious ritual to writing human sacrifice has ceased to be a regular or periodic rite. It may appear sporadically, as an actual occurrence, in historic texts; but it will probably have been entirely eliminated from any written ceremonial which represents the belief of the majority. When a conqueror has himself portrayed hewing captives in pieces before his god, the reason is far more likely to be diplomatic than religious. At any rate, it is a far different form of sacrifice from a propitiatory offering of one’s own tribe, which was probably a custom descended from a cannibal feast. The more civilized the community the more abhorrent does human sacrifice become, and just as the Assyrians were the highest civilized of all the Semitic nations before our era, so in proportion will the fewest traces of this custom exist in their records. Hence it is extremely improbable that any ritual will be found describing human sacrifice, or any record that proves its existence except as a sporadic occurrence. From the ancient tradition we may turn to the modern customs. Among the Jews in Palestine the firstborn son is redeemed to-day as of old. A priest takes from his parents the price of this redemption, the sum being about eighteen shillings, after receiving which the priest holds the money over the head of the child, and says in Hebrew— “ This instead of that, this in exchange for that, this in 226 MODERN CUSTOMS OF REDEMPTION. remission of that. May this child enter into life, into the law, and into the fear of heaven ! May it be God’s will that whereas he has been admitted to redemption, so may he enter into the law, the nuptial canopy, and into good deeds ! Amen.” He then places his hand on the child’s head and gives the priestly blessing. 1 It is sig¬ nificant, by the way, that the modern Semites, while they do not lay their hands upon the head of the sacrifice in ordinary cases, yet they do lay their hands on it if someone else kills it. 2 At a shrine near Beirut sheep, goats, and bullocks are sacrificed in payment of vows. The formula used is “ I kill this sheep as a fedu for Abdullah.” The slayer dips his index finger in blood and daubs it on the forehead of the one for whom the vow was made, and he steps over the blood. 3 The modern Arab fedu ceremonies offer a close parallel. “The servant of the ‘Chair’ at Zebedani related the following: ‘ The mother of a boy, when she slaughters a sacrifice vowed on his behalf, takes some of the blood and puts it on his skin. They call the sacrifice fedou. Taking the blood from the place where the sacrifice is slaughtered is equivalent to taking the blessing of the place and putting it on the child.’ ” 4 Similarly, “ they go through the opening sura of the Koran, address the spirits (< el-Aktab ), and say, ‘ This is from thee and unto thee (God), and, 0 God, receive it from such an one, the son of such a mother, as a redemption {fedou) in behalf 1 Masterman, Bibl. World , xxii, 250. On putting blood on doorposts in Palestine see Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Ret ., 181, 188. 2 Curtiss, loc. cit., 149. 3 Curtiss, Bibl. World , xxiii, 332. 4 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel ., 200. MODERN CUSTOMS OF REDEMPTION. 227 of him/ This sacrifice is a sacrifice of thankse/vino’ o o looking backward/’ 1 In Arabia, if one sacrifice for health, the death of the ewe or the goat they think to be accepted in exchange for the camel’s life or his own life, life for life. 2 In Syria they kill animals 3 on behalf of the dead, for the spirit, calling them fedu. These sacrifices go before the deceased as light, to serve him in the next life as he approaches Gfod, becoming a kaff&rah for his sins. 4 The “ sacrifice between the feet” is made in Palestine on behalf of a pilgrim on his return from Mekka, Jerusalem, or for some one who has been a long way away from home. “The ceremony consists in a sheep or a goat being slaughtered for the one who returns. Just before he enters the door of the house he stands with his legs spread out so that there is room for the victim to be placed between them.” The victim’s throat is cut, and some of the blood is put on his forehead. If he is a Christian, it is marked in the sign of a cross. 5 1 Curtiss, Prim. Rem. Rel., 196. 2 Doughty, Arabia Deserta, i, 452. 3 At Rome, according to Ovid, each father of a family, as the festival of the Lemuria came round and all was still, arose, and standing with bare feet he made a special sign with his fingers and thumb to keep off any ghost. Thrice he washes his hands in spring water, then he turns round and takes black beans into his mouth ; with face averted he spits them away, and as he spits them says, “ These I send forth, with these beans I redeem myself and mine” (J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena, 35). There is a story told of Al-Nooman, surnamed Abu Kabfis, who in a drunken fit ordered two of his intimate companions to be buried alive. When he came to himself he was so grieved that he set aside two days, on one of which he sacrificed whomsoever he might meet, and sprinkled the blood on the monument he erected to them ; on the other, he that met him was dismissed with safety with magnificent gifts (Sale, Koran, Prelim. Disc., sect. i). 4 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., 178. 5 Ibid., 177. 228 THE FEDU, When a man finishes a house, he makes a sacrifice on the doorstep as a redemption for the building. “ Every house must have its death, a man, woman, child, or animal . 1 God has appointed a fedou for every building through sacrifice. If God has accepted the sacrifice, he has redeemed the house .” 2 According to an orthodox Moslem, on moving from house to house, or in occupying a new building, a man will kill the fedou the first night that he sleeps therein; “ the object is the bursting forth of blood unto the face of God. . . . It is for himself and family a redemption. It keeps off disease and the jinn .” 3 The sJiekh of Kafr Harib, above the Sea of Galilee, explained to Mr. Curtiss that the people sacrifice a victim on the threshold for the new house, “because every place, land, or spot on the earth has its own dwellers, lest one of the family die in this land. Because it is not theirs, they redeem the family by a fedou , one or all. 4 In Hums, if a man has bought a new house and its inhabitants had been unlucky, the owner will make some change, such as taking up an old stone on the threshold and laying a new one in its place. Then the sacrifice is offered on that threshold, the people calling it “ presenting a kaffarah .” 5 1 In Borneo there is a custom of making holes to receive the posts, and men are killed and placed therein, “ so that the house being founded in blood may stand ” (McLennan, Studies , 22). Compare Joshua vi, 26, “ With the loss of his firstborn shall he lay the foundation thereof, and with the loss of his youngest son shall he set up the gates of it.” The Malays sacrifice a fowl, a goat, or a buffalo in such a case (Skeat, Malay Magic , 143). . 2 Curtiss, loc. cit., 196. 3 ibid., 197. 4 Curtiss, Bibl. World , xxi, 253. 5 Ibid., 254. For the sacrifice for a tent see loc. cit., 253. On building rites generally see Gittee, Melusine , iii, 497; feartori, Das Bauopfer , Zeits. f ur Ethnol ., 1898, xxx, 1 ff. THE ’ AKIKAE . 229 According to Robertson Smith, 1 among the Arabs in the time of Mohammed it was common to sacrifice a sheep on the birth of a child, and then to shave the head of the infant and daub the scalp with the blood of the victim. This ceremony, called ’akikah, or ‘the cutting of the hair,’ was designed to avert evil from the child, and was evidently an act of dedication by which the infant was brought under the protection of the god of the community. Lane describes the ’ aJak ah' ceremony thus (the parallel with the Assyrian texts quoted on pp. 208, 211 being very striking) : “ The person should say, on slaying the victim, ‘0 God, verily this akeekah is a ransom for my son, such a one; its blood for his blood, and its flesh for his flesh, and its bone for his bone, and its skin for his skin, and its hair for his hair. 0 God, make it a ransom for my son from hell-fire.’ A bone of the victim should not be broken.” 2 In Nebk they offer sacrifice for a boy when seven days old without breaking bones, lest the child’s bones also be broken. 3 In Arabia Doughty noticed a custom that, when a man child was born, the father would slay an ewe, but would give nothing for a female. 4 Similar in idea to this is the custom in some localities (in Palestine) that only male animals should be used in sacrifices. The Nusairiyeh and Ismailiyeh consider females unfit for food or for sacrifice. 5 This is probably due to a natural economy, which holds the female more valuable than the male. 1 Religion of the Semites , 328. See Kinship, 152. See also on the akikah , Wellhausen, Reste Arabischen Heide nturns, 174. 2 Arabian Nights , chap, iv, note No. 24. 3 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., 178. 4 Arabia Deserta, i, 452. 5 Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Rel., p. 173, 230 SUBSTITUTION AMONG OTHER NATIONS. It was clearly not confined to tlie Semites. “ There was a sanctuary of Artemis at Munychia. A bear came into it and was killed by the Athenians. A famine followed, and the god gave an oracle that the famine should cease if someone would sacrifice his daughter to the goddess. Embaros was the only man who promised to do it, on condition that he and his family should have the priesthood for life. He disguised his daughter and hid her in the sanctuary, and dressed a goat in a garment and sacrificed it as his daughter.” 1 Among the Malays, “if the spirit craves a human victim a cock may be substituted.” 2 Finally, we may turn to a curious instance of sacrificial substitution closely allied to this. It is related in the royal annals of Sennacherib that, when that king went down to the Persian Gulf, he offered gifts to Ea, the lord of the sea— “ Before them at the side of the Gulf I stood and offered up pure victims Unto Ea, the King of the Deep ; With golden ships, a golden fish, a golden . . . Into the depths of the sea I cast, And then I sent my ships across speedily Against the city of Naglti.” 3 The offering of the Golden Ship is intended to propitiate Ea and satisfy the hunger of the sea for ships, thus paying toll beforehand that the real ships may pioceed on their way in safety. 4 1 J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena , 72. 2 Skeat, Malay Magic , 72. 3 W.A.I., iii, 12, 2. 4 For similar instances see Frazer, Golden Bough , ii. Xerxes, to give another royal parallel, after flogging the Hellespont offers sacrifices on the bridge and casts into the waters the golden bowl which he had SUBSTITUTION AMONG OTHER NATIONS. 231 From these instances it seems that the origin of the substitution has been forgotten by those that practise it. The reasons given for doing it are so many and various that it is obvious they are only attempts at an explanation for continuing the practice of an old custom among a conservative people. In the instance of Abraham, the ram is a burnt sacrifice to God; in the Numbers theory, the firstborn belongs to Yahweh, in memory of the passover; 1 the Arab sacrifices for the safe return of the pilgrim are a thankoffering, which may be referred to many causes; the redemption of buildings is clearly a substitution or atonement to avert evil, just as the sickness-devil is given the ‘ atonement 5 of a sheep. The ’aJdkah -ceremony is an act of dedication, according to Robertson Smith. We have therefore to decide on the balance of probabilities, and the questions to be debated on the origin of such a custom are three in number. The possibilities are that the sacrifice of the firstborn is due to (1) some theory, similar to that of the ordinary atonement for tabu, that future danger (tabu, sickness, \ used in libation, with a golden crater and a Persian sword (Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings , 311 ; Herodotus, vii, 54 ; for instances of gifts cast into a holy spring see Robertson Smith, liel. S'em., 177). Even at this day at Gaza they have a custom of throwing bread into the sea as an offering or vow to its inhabitants (Baldensperger, P.E.F ., 1893, 216), and the victims immolated to Suleiman Ibn Daud (the weli of two hot springs near the Dead Sea) are sacrificed in such a manner that the blood goes into the water (Curtiss, Bibl. World, xxi, 257). Among the Maronites the neck of the sheep is laid on the prow of a ship and the throat is so cut that the blood runs into the sea. The victim is then thrown into the bay as a sacrifice to St. George or Seyide (ibid., xxiii, 336). 1 Frazer gives what is probably the true origin of the Passover (Golden Bough , ii, 49). 232 SUBSTITUTION AMONG OTHER NATIONS. and ‘sin’) can be removed by such a sacrifice, either from the parents or the community; or (2) an idea that the divine proprietary right, so strongly insisted on particularly in the Hebrew laws, is due to the right of the gods to have connection with the women of the tribe, who thus bear semi-divine children; or (3) the idea that such a sacrifice of children was in primitive times as much a sharing of a meal with the deity as any other sacrifice, which, traced to its logical conclusion, would show the primitive Semitic savage to be a cannibal. To discover the meaning of such a peculiar custom, it is plain that we must go back to the very depths of savagery. The fact that the Hebrews, at an early period, were divided between at least two divergent hypotheses for the origin of the custom of vicarious dedications, probably neither of them correct, shows how old the real reason for such substitution must be; and if we go further and push this limit beyond the period when there was some more logical reason for the custom than the glorification of the piety of a tribal hero or the dis¬ comfiture of an ancient enemy, we are then only reaching back to the fringe of savagery. This is presumably a time when the savage is learning that a human being is of a higher economic, social, and rational value than an animal, and that animal life is not on the same plane as human in religious affairs. He therefore ceases to sacrifice his children as a regular custom, and substitutes beasts from the flocks in their place. Yet, although he forsakes the actual methods of his ancestors, he doubtless allows ‘ make-belie\e to enter somewhat into his procedure. By an ingenuous display of blood he cozens his god into believing that the highest SUBSTITUTION AMONG OTHER NATIONS. 233 form of meat has been provided for the feast. If we once admit that the offering was a sacrifice of the firstborn to the gods (such as reappeared at sporadic intervals in the later civilized communities in time of stress), and that a lamb or kid might take the place of the human being in a sacrificial meal, it is difficult to find an} other explanation save that the origin is to be sought in a cannibal feast to which the gods were invited. The story of Abraham, although probably affording little clue to the actual origin, at least points to a sacrifice of a foim similar to the sacrificial meal. What is more, in the cases in which a human being is in question, there is no idea of it being carried out in any other way except that of a bloody sacrifice by knife or fire. The redemption of the ass goes far to confirm this. If the ass is not redeemed, the throat was not to be cut, but its neck was to be broken. In the primitive sacrifice where the offering represents the communal meal, the throat of the beast is cut and the blood poured out, why, then, should the ass be different? Frazer concludes that a distinction was drawn between sheep, oxen, and goats on the one hand, and men and asses on the other; and he explains that because the Israelites did not eat the ass themselves, they concluded probably their god did not do so either ; and the price of the redemption was a lamb which was burnt as a vicarious sacrifice instead of the ass, on the hypothesis, apparently, that roast lamb is likely to be more palatable to the Supreme Being than roast donkey. Robertson Smith 1 seems to have found the same difficulty about 1 Rel. Sem 463. 234 SUBSTITUTION AMONG OTHER NATIONS. the ass: “ that some form of taboo lies also at the bottom of the sacrifice of firstlings, appears from the provision of the older Hebrew law that if a firstling ass is not redeemed by its owner, its neck shall be broken.” I w r ould offer the following as an explanation; the reason for sacrificing kids or lambs is that they are to be eaten, and the blood is therefore poured out on the ground, but the ass is a beast of burden, and not food, and as such was slain in such a way as to leave the body apparently perfect so that it might perform the deity’s work in the abode of the gods. Naturally the throat would not be cut, because it was not a sacrificial feast. From this the deduction is clear. If the beast is not ceremonially slaughtered and cooked, it will not be a sacrificial meal ; conversely, all offerings that are slain with a knife, and burnt, represent the communal feast. Just as the divine effigy was anointed after the manner pleasing to itching man, so were the appetites of the god satisfied. He intermarried with the tribe and fed at the same table off the same food. 1 Hence the lamb, which is substituted in more civilized times for the firstborn, and offered at the common table, represents the more primitive cannibal sacrifice. 2 Even in some of the modern fedu ceremonies the blood of the surrogate is daubed on the child, in which we may see an attempt to perpetrate 1 See Robertson Smith, Rel. Sem. 2 The soul of man, which is inseparably connected with the blood, does not descend to Sheol unless the body is buried. Hence, pre¬ sumably, while the body of the ass remained above ground, the c shade ’ doubtless served the tribal god. On the other hand, slaves who accompany their dead human lords to the netherworld are buried with them. However, we do not know what became of the carcase of the ass in primitive times. NOT PROPHYLACTIC ATONEMENT. 235 a very common religious fraud. The deity is deceived by the bloodstained appearance of the child, and at the same time he feeds on tbe carcase of the victim. There seems to be little difficulty in eliminating tbe first theory of prophylactic atonement. Every firstborn of man or beast is held to belong to the gods. Nay, more, the firstborn of sacred totem beasts are divine property for sacrifice. Now it is extremely improbable that a savage who owns large possessions in herds and wives will sacrifice not only a lamb or a kid from every fertile female in his flocks, but even his own firstborn to save himself from harm. This would, in the case of a rich man, entail an unlimited destruction of property to obtain a very problematic result. Still more is it unlikely that he will be allowed to kill the firstborn of the totem merely to preserve his individual life. Totems may be killed and eaten at solemn tribal meetings, but not by unlicensed units. Moreover, prophylactic atonement of this kind approaches the nature of the ‘ atonement foi tabu or sin-offering, such as has been described in the preceding chapter. The spirit causing the mischief changes its human abode for the animal into which it is driven after leaving the man’s body. But this, as we have seen, makes the animal really ‘ unclean,’ tabu, and uneatable, because it is filled with the spirit. So, if we return to our argument of the rich savage, such a slaughter of scores or hundreds of firstborn represents a corresponding waste, whicn is absuid. The second possibility, that of possession by reason of paternity, is unlikely. Although it be granted that the rights of tribal god or gods are recognized among the harim , and that totemism and animal-shaped gods give colour to a belief in intermixture between gods and beasts 236 NOT RIGHT OF PATERNITY. at a period of ignorance, the argument against such a hypothesis is clear. Heroic demigods have, for obvious reasons, never been sacrificed in babyhood, and yet they are clearly the result of tbe union between gods and women. Again, it is difficult to see how the law of the firstfruits of vegetables, etc., could be wrested into analogy. Furthermore, although this argument has little force by reason of its proposed explanation, demons as well as gods married the girls of the tribe; but in this case, it is quite likely that the offspring are the abortions, and especially those with physical disabilities who are excluded categorically from the priesthood. The third sacrificial theory has already been discussed, and seems the most probable. 1 Agreeing with Frazer, “ we can hardly resist the conclusion that, before the practice of redeeming them was introduced, the Hebrews, like the 2 other branches of the Semitic race, regularly sacrificed their firstborn children by the fire or the knife” (ibid., 49). He main¬ tains (p. 51) against Wellhausen ( Prolegomena , 3rd ed., 90) 1 Riehm’s theory is, I think, untenable : “ Sebstverstandlich sollte die menschliche Erstgeburt nicht geopfert werden ; vermoge ihres besonderen Angehorigkeitsverhaltnisses an Jehova galten die Erstge- borenen vielmehr ursprtinglich als die zum Dienst am Heiligtum verpflicliteten leibeigenen knechte Jehova’s” ( Handworterbucli des Bibl. Alt., 1893, i, 411). Isaac is obviously a burnt sacrifice. The Levites are chosen “from among the children of Israel instead of all the firstborn that openeth the matrix among the children of Israel ” (Num. iii, 12). Also the existence of the Nazarite class must not be forgotten. To this day in Syria women vow to give a son to God, who is regarded as a sort of Nazarite, and his hair is not cut until he comes of age (Curtiss, Prim. Sem. Pel ., 153, note). 2 In view of our having no evidence that the Assyrians sacrificed their firstborn, I should suggest the substitution of “ other ” for “ the other.” BUT PROBABLY INDICATING CANNIBALISM. 237 and Robertson Smith 1 (Eel. Sem., 2nd ed., 464) that this redemption is a modification of the sacrifice of the firstborn, and he quotes in support of this the customs of many savage tribes. In some parts of Hew South Wales the firstborn child of every woman is eaten as a religious ceremony; in Senjero, East Africa, many families offer up their firstborn as sacrifices. Among some tribes of South East Africa, when a woman’s husband has been killed in battle, and she marries again, the first child after her second marriage must be put to death. If it were not killed an accident would befall the second spouse, and the woman herself would be barren. 2 On this third hypothesis, that the dedication of the firstborn to the deity had its origin in sacrifice, we can proceed to examine the evidence for cannibalism at such a sacrificial meal. Robertson Smith certainly more than hints at such a proceeding. 3 * The probability of such 1 Robertson Smith says here : “ To conclude from this that at one time the Hebrews actually sacrificed all their firstborn sons is absurd.’ 5 2 He also quotes the heathen Russians as sacrificing their firstborn, with other instances. 3 “ Wherever we find the doctrine of substitution of animal life for that of man, we also find examples of actual human sacrifice, some¬ times confined to seasons of extreme peril, and sometimes practised periodically at solemn annual rites. I apprehend that this is the point from which the special development of piacular sacrifices, and the distinction between them and ordinary sacrifices, takes its start. It was impossible that the sacrificial customs should continue unmodified where the victim was held to represent a man and a tribesman, for even savages commonly refuse to eat their own kinsfolk, andjto growing civilisation the idea that the gods had ordained meals of human flesh, or of flesh that was as sacred as that of a man, was too repulsive to be long retained. . . . Whether the custom of actually eating the flesh survived in historical times in any case of human sacrifice is moie than doubtful 55 (Rel. Sem., 366). He tries to show from this repulsion that in any offering simulating 238 PREHISTORIC CANNIBALISM. a hypothesis will rest first on the evidence pro and con of the prevalence of cannibalism among prehistoric peoples and modern savages in general, and, secondly, in traditions of the Semitic nations in particular, and the local forces which might lead to such a custom, Tylor, in his article “ Cannibalism ” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, says: “ It has been well argued that had the men of the quaternary period been cannibals, we should find the bones generally cracked for the marrow like those of beasts, which is not the case (Le Hon, H Homme Fossile, p. 68) ; also, that as regards the ancient people of the shell-mounds, had they eaten their own species they would have thrown the human bones into the rubbish heaps with those of beasts and fishes (Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, p. 232). The discovery of some few ancient human remains, the state of w T hich seems to indicate that the flesh had been eaten, may perhaps be taken to show that prehistoric savages were in this respect like those of modern times, neither free from cannibalism nor universally practising it.” At the same time the evidence brought forward at the Congres Internationale pour les Etudes human sacrifice the sacrificial meal tended to fall out of use, and in the case of animal piacula the sacrificial meal is generally wanting, or confined to the priests (pp. 367-368). By his theory of piacula, his explanation of the reason for throwing the carcases outside the camp is rather forced. He maintains (pp. 369-376) that the substitution and human sacrifices closely parallel the burning of the flesh of the Hebrew sin-offerings outside the camp, and that there is hardly any doubt that originally the true sacrifice, i.e. the shedding of the blood, as in the Hebrew sin-offering, took place at the temple, and the burning was a distinct act. There is, however, by our theory of demoniac exorcism, no necessity to connect the sin-offering with the substitution of the firstborn. The rites take their origin from two widely distinct sources. PREHISTORIC CANNIBALISM. 239 Prdhistoriques in 1867 (2nd session, Paris) shows that prehistoric man at one period of his existence did certainly eat his fellow. 1 That cannibalism under stress of famine was recognized as a possibility among the Assyrians is proved by the tablet K. 4541, 2 which is described by Bezold in his Catalogue as a mythological legend, bearing mention of an ancient Babylonian ruler, during whose reign wars, discord, and slavery appeared on the earth, and giving an account of the origin of the Assyrian Empire. All the verbs, however, in the passage he quotes are in the present tense (and not past), and his proposed explanation is due to a blunder. The translation runs: “ That prince shall see woe, his heart shall be grieved; during his rule battle and strife shall not cease, in that reign brother shall eat his brother, men shall sell their children for 1 M. Spring proved cannibalism in the cave of Chauveau (p. 159); M. Schaaffausen in Ultz, Westphalia ; M. Messikommer in Robenhausen (evidence held indecisive) ; M. Clement in Saint-Aubin (human bones perforated) ; M. Roujou in Yilleneuve-Saint-Georges; M. Bouvet in Guyane; M. de Lastic in the cave of Bruniquel ; M. de Mehedin in Mexico. For other instances of prehistoric cannibalism in Europe and elsewhere, see Richard Andree, Die Anthropophagie , 1887, 2 ff. ; Bergemann, Die Verbreitung der Anthropophagie , 1893, 6 ft. For the literature on cannibalism see Gaidoz, Melusine, iii, 337. For an article with a plate showing prehistoric human bones split to extract the marrow, see Matiegka, Mittheil. d. Anthrop . Gesellschaft in Wien, xxvi, 129. Bergemann quotes many classical passages for certain forms of cannibalism, notably Herodotus (i, 216) for the Massagetse who killed people when they grew old, and the mythical stories of Tantalus, Atreus, and Polyphemus. 2 Rubu sd marusta immar , ul itab libbi&u , adi sarrdtUu tahazu u kabluiii id ipparrasu, ina pall suatu aku alvi&u ikkal nisi! mdresina ana kaspi ipaUaru , mdtdti istenis innUsd , idlu ardata \iz~\zib u ardatu izzib zdli , ummu eli mdrti bdbi-kc iddil , buhl Babili ana kirib su-edin-ki u mUu Assuri irrub. 240 CANNIBALISM AMONGST THE SEMITES. money; the lands shall be raised up one against another. The man shall desert the maid and the maid desert the man ; mother shall bolt her door against daughter. The property of Babylon shall come into Subarti and Assyria. It is clearly a text that threatens evil on the ruler of the land for some reason or other. There is another passage which points to human flesh being eaten by gods. This is from the Labcirtu-&QT\.Q &: 1 (t There came the daughter of Anu to Bel, her father, and said, ‘Bring me, 0 my father Bel, what I ask of thee: the flesh of men not good, the blood of men . . ” But this is an incantation, and no very great stress must be laid on it. The Arabs have been clearly shown to have eaten human flesh. 2 The existence of cannibalism among the Hebrews was maintained by Grhillanys 3 and Daumer 4 as far back as 1842. The latter says: “ De cette maniere, on n’immolait que des enfans de la noblesse ; ceux du menu peuple et les autres victimes humaines servaient apres leur mort a remplir de leur chair et de leur sang les plats du banquet religieux; on n’en jetait dans le feu que leurs os, qu’on avait eu soin de garder intacts et sans les endommager.” u La fete du Passah appartenait a 1 ancien culte molochiste; c’etait la grande fete universelle de l’immolation de la chair humaine, le banquet des 1 Myhrman, Z.A. , xvi, 175, 1 . 33 ff. 2 Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage , 1903, 291 ff. ; Goldziher, Uber Kannibalismus aus Orientalischen Quellen , Globus , 1896, lxx, No. 15. 3 Les Sacrifices Humains cliez les Hebreux , 1842. 4 Le Cidte du Moloch , 1842, 2 ff. CANNIBALISM AMONGST THE SEMITES. 241 cannibales mangeant la chair, buvant le sang des enfans sacrifies, et jetant dans le feu les os non brises des victimes.” Whether there remains enough evidence to show that the Hebrews of the more historical period did eat human flesh is doubtful; but that their traditions indicate that their Semitic forefathers did so is, I think, quite obvious. This is Bergemann’s view, and he says that it is clear from Hum. xxiii, 24, that the blood of enemies slain in battle was drunk in the most ancient period. Further, Hum. xxiv, 8, shows that their flesh was eaten. 1 The only difficulty that would arise about the eating of the firstborn is the prejudice that some savages have against eating kindred flesh. For this reason the wilder South American tribes, according to Cieza de Leon, bred children they might lawfully eat from wives of alien stock, the father being reckoned not akin to his children who follow the maternal line. 2 On the other hand, Steinmetz, in his Endokannibalismus , has attempted to bring all cases of cannibalism under the term ‘ endocannibalism/ or custom of eating relations and kindred. This is quoted by Deniker, 3 who says that the theory meets with the difficulty that certain Australian tribes avoid eating their relations (except young children) and exchange between the various tribes. If, however, the kindred children be admitted as eatable, there is no obstacle to our theory of the Semites eating their firstborn. The reason for the origin of cannibalism, if it existed among the Semites at an early period, as seems very 1 Bergemann, Die Verbreitung dev Anthropophagie , 1893, 12. 2 Andrew Lang, Perrault’s Tales , cviii. 3 Races et Peuples de la Terre , 1900, 176. R 242 CANNIBALISM AMONGST THE SEMITES. probable, is not far to seek. Arabia, the home of the Semites, at least before they split up into their various nationalities, is one of the most barren lands. “ Indeed, that the pressure of famine had far more to do with the origin of infanticide than family pride had, can be doubtful to no one who realises the fact—vividly brought out in Mr. Doughty’s travels—that the nomads of Arabia suffer constantly from hunger during a great part of the year.” 1 Necessity is one of the three reasons admitted for anthropo¬ phagy, the other two being gluttony and superstition ; and therefore we shall probably not be wrong in thinking that the early Semites were driven by force of hunger to devour their children, and at the same time reduce their numbers. Doubtless this scarcity of food was one of the chief factors in driving them to look for better and more fertile lands; and, as soon as they settled in the richer pastures of Mesopotamia, economic reasons would suggest the substitution of lambs and kids for the sacrifice of their own kin. Against this it may be urged that up to the present no trace of this form of substitution has been found in cuneiform. Yet it must not be forgotten that much of the Babylonian religion, as we know it, comes from the Sumerians, who inhabited these fertile valleys long before the Semites arrived. And hence we may assume that they had never been driven by famine to eat human flesh. Why the firstborn only should have been selected is not clear. There is nothing more appetizing about the first of a family than the second, and there is nothing peculiarly pure about them, for the pure beast in magic 1 Robertson Smith, Kinship , 294. SELECTION OF THE FIRSTBORN. 243 is the virgin. 1 It is, however, a custom which compels every mother to take her turn, and at any rate it secures a sure propitiation of the god. If the gods are admitted to have regular dues paid by the tribe, this is the surest way of attaining such a result. To defer the gift until a second crop might, by failure or unexpected barrenness, bring down the divine wrath. But so many things have to be taken into account, that it is difficult to evolve a satisfactory theory. Priestly or kingly influence doubtless had its effect on the tribute of rich tribesmen. We may reasonably consider, then, that the primitive Semite, long before historic times, was a cannibal, and devoured the firstborn of the tribe at a sacrificial meal. As time went on and the tribe grew richer in flocks, it became the custom to substitute a firstborn kid for the eldest child. Yet in times of great national stress the Semitic mind would revert to primitive tradition, perhaps instinctively, and the firstborn would be sacrificed to the god. The people of historical times had doubtless forgotten that human sacrifice represented a commensal cannibal meal, and regarded it either as a “ self-denying ordinance ” to offer their best, or else looked upon it as a surrogate for the whole people on the analogy of other substitutes. Yet the fact must never be lost sight of that the lamb brought as a sin-offering took its origin in the carcase of 1 But cf. Robertson Smith, Eel. Se?n., 464: “ In point of fact, even in old times, when exceptional circumstances called for a human victim, it was a child, and by preference a firstborn or only child, that was selected by the peoples in and around Palestine. This is commonly explained as the most costly offering a man can make ; but it is rather to be regarded as the choice, for a special purpose, of the most sacred kind of victim.” 244 SELECTION OE THE EIRSTBORN. the beast which was intended as a bait to inveigle the evil spirit out of the sick man. On the other hand, the substitution of the lamb for the firstborn arises, as we have seen, out of a primitive cannibal sacrifice. The origins of the two rites are absolutely dissimilar, whatever may have been the ultimate phase to which a process of analogy brought them. 245 APPENDIX. y I.—The Lists of Breaches of Tabu in the Subpu Series. Y As has been stated on p. 124, the Surpu Series contains a long list of the possible tabus which the sick man may have broken unwittingly. They may be grouped under the following heads :— (1) Of gods and their worship. II, 5. “ Hath he sinned against his god, hath he sinned against his goddess ? ” 32. “ Is it an unknown sin against a god, is it an unknown sin against a goddess ? ” 33. “ Hath he spurned a god, hath he slighted a goddess ?” 34. “ Is it against his god that his sin (is) or against his goddess his misdeed ? ” 74. “ Is it in anything that he hath slighted his god or goddess V’ 81. “ Hath he made god or his goddess angry with him ? ” 122. “ He seeketh of the gods of heaven, the shrines of earth.” 123. “He seeketh at the shrine of lord or lady.” Ill, 138-148. “ Marduk can loose the tabu of Ann, Anatu, Bel, Belit, Ea, Damkina, Sin, Ningal, Samas, Aa, Adad, Sala, Marduk, Sarpanit, Nabft, Tasmit, Ninih, Belit-Nippur, . . . Gula, . . . and Ba’u.” Cf. also IY, 9, “ Loose ... of sin against a god,” and II, 11, “. . . his goddess hath he despised?” Here also should come II, 128, “ He seeketh of the temple” ; III, 52, “ Tabu against passing the bounds of a god ”; probably III, 45, “ [Ban of angel ( sedu)\ and lamassu - genius ” ; III, 68, 69, “ Tabu of Ninib . . . ,” “ Tabu of shrine and temple” ; 71, “ Tabu of the god silakki . . .” ; 72-76, “Tabu of the god of (such-and-such) . . . ,” the latter part of the lines being mutilated. Cf. Old Testament, First and Third Commandments: Exod. xxii, 20 (“ He that sacrificeth unto any god, save unto Yahweh only ”); cf. also 28, but this is more probably to be put under the head of sedition. 246 APPENDIX. (2) Of offerings to gods. II, 77 — SO. ^ [Is it anything] he hath sanctified (or) he hath . • • , and then withheld ? Anything which he hath presented (?) . . . hut eaten himself ? Anything which he hath . . . and made a prayer ? Hath he abrogated a due offering ? ” III, 31. “ [Tabu] of destroying (?) an offering (?), of pouring a libation (?) away into water.” 54. “ Tabu of eating the flesh of an offering.” Here perhaps should be placed VIII, 39, “ From the tabu of . . . city, house, staff, rod, turtu, tabu, and making an offering ”; II, 86, “ Hath he incurred a tabu in making an offering ? ” See Robertson Smith, Rel. Sent., 450, etc., and compare Deut. xxiii, 21, “ When thou shalt vow a vow unto Yah well thy God, thou shalt not be slack to pay it.” The Egyptian Negative Confession, “I have not spoiled the bread of offering in the temples, I have not taken away from the bread of offering of the gods, I have not diminished offerings ” (Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians , 251). (3) Of relations and friends. II, 20-28. “ Hath he set son at variance with father, father with son, mother with daughter, daughter with mother, mother-in-law with daughter-in-law, daughter-in-law with mother-in-law, brother with his brother, comrade with his comrade, friend with his friend ? ” 35. “ Oppression against a bennu , hatred against an elder brother.” 36. “ Hath he despised father (or) mother, hath he reviled an elder sister ? ” III, 3-11. “ Tabu falling on a man through father, mother, grand¬ father, grandmother, brother, sister, the seven members of his father’s house, old or young, near or distant relatives, progeny or suckling, comrade or fellow, friend or com¬ panion.” Cf. also 156-158, 161, and IY, 37, which included some of these. VIII, 41, 42. “ From the tabu of a brother, companion, friend, fellow, partner, fellow-townsman (of protecting or being hostile to); from the tabu of elder brother, elder sister, father or mother (of protecting or being hostile to).” APPENDIX. 247 VIII, 51,52. “From [the tabu of slave or] handmaid, master or mistress (of protecting or being hostile to) ; from [the tabu of . . .] of princess, witch, harlot, courtesan (?).” 55. “ From the tabu of wife, concubine, (or) son (of protecting or being hostile to).” Under this head must come— II, 51-53. “ Hath he not spared a man miranussu , hath he driven forth the good man from his folk, hath he scattered a well-knit family ? ” 72, 73. “ Is it through a company which he hath scattered (that he hath incurred a tabu) ? Is it through a well-knit troop which he hath split up ? ” Here also must come III, 55, “ Tabu of being agreed with an adversary, and then being hostile ” ; 162, “ [Tabu from] kinsfolk (?) and relatives” ; and probably 163, “[Tabu from offspring] and suckling.” Cf. Old Testament, Fifth Commandment: Exod. xxi, 15 (“ And he that smiteth his father or his mother shall surely be put to death”); similarly, in v. 17, he that curses his parents; Lev. xix, 32; xx, 9; Deut. xxvii, 16. Here must be added— II, 29-31. “ Hath he not let a captive go free, hath he not let loose a prisoner, hath he not let one in prison see the light, hath he said of a captive ‘ Seize him ! 5 or of a prisoner ‘ Bind him ! ’ ? ” (4) Of murder. II, 49. “ Hath he shed his neighbour’s blood ? ” 87. “ Hath he incurred a tabu from life ? ” III, 34. “ Tabu of approaching (?) his friend (?) and slaying him.” Cf. Old Testament, Sixth Commandment. (5) Of adultery II, 48. “ Hath he approached his neighbour’s wife ? ” Cf. Old Testament, Seventh Commandment: Lev. xviii, 1 ff. ; xx, 10. (6) Of stealing and cheating. II, 42, 43. “ Hath he used a false balance, hath he taken a wrong price, hath he [not taken a righteous] price 45-47. “ Hath he set a false boundary, hath he not set a true boundary, hath he removed landmark, border, or boundaiy ? 248 APPENDIX. Ill, 56. “ Tabu of fixing border or boundary.” VIII, 34. “ From tlie tabu of . . . border, boundary, or landmark.” II, 47. •“ Hath he entered his neighbour’s house ? ” 50. “ Hath he stolen his neighbour’s garment ? ” 61. “ Hath he been insulting, robbed, or caused to rob ? ” VIII, 47-49. “ From the tabu of giving with a small measure, shekel, or mana, and taking with a large one.” 50. “From the tabu of using a false balance, of taking a wrong price from one under a tabu (?) ” Here also add II, 114, “He asketh of the BAR-measure, and the KA-measure.” Cf. Old Testament, Eighth Commandment: Exod. xxii, 1 ff. (“ If a man shall steal an ox ”) ; Lev. xix. 11 (“ Ye shall not steal”); xix, 35, 36 (“Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight, or in measure. Just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin, shall ye have”); Deut. xxv, 13 (“Thou shalt not have in thy bag divers weights, a great and a small ”). Cf. vv. 14, 15 ; Deut. xix, 14; and xxvii, 17 (landmarks). One of the great crimes of which the Midianites were guilty was the using of diverse measures and weights, a great and a small, buying by one and selling by another (Sale, Koran , quoting A1 Beidawi in D’Herbelot, Bill. Orient.). (7) Of lying or breaking promises. II, 6. “ Hath he said £ no ’ for £ yes,’ or ‘ yes ’ for ‘no’? ” 38, 39. “ Hath he said £ there is’ for £ there is not,’ or £ there is not ’ for £ there is ’ ? ” 55-57. “ Hath he been straight with his mouth but not true in his heart, hath his mouth said £ yea ’ but his heart £ nay ’; in anything hath he meditated unrighteousness ? ” 75. “ Hath he promised with heart and mouth (and) not given ? ” III, 51. “ [Tabu of] saying and denying.” VIII, 56. “ From the tabu of promising pleasure and joy, and then denying it and not giving it.” Cf. Old Testament, Ninth Commandment: Exod. xxiii, 1; Lev. xix, 11 ff. (8) Of speech. II, 8. “ Hath he spoken what is unholy . . . ? ” 12-14. “ Hath he spoken evil . . . ? Hath he spoken what is impure . . . ? Hath he let intrigue be discussed ? ” APPENDIX. 249 II, 41. “ Hath he spoken wickedness . . . ?” 63-65. “ Is his mouth loose (?) (or) foul, are his lips deceitful (?) (or) perverse, hath he taught what is impure, hath he inculcated that which is unseemly ? ” 82. “ Hath he stood up in an assembly and spoken what is not correct ? ” (9) Of bribery. II, 15. “ Hath he caused a judge to receive [a bribe (?)] ? ” III, 24. “ Tabu of giving a bribed judgment.” Cf. Exod. xxiii, 8, “ And tbou shalttake no gift; for a gift blindeth them that have sight, and perverteth the words of the righteous”; Lev. xix, 15, “ Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment: thou shalt not respect the person of the poor, nor honour the person of the mighty, but in righteousness shalt thou judge thy neighbour.” (10) Of sedition and the like. II, 19. “ . . . Hath he made its city turn ? ” 54. “ Hath he opposed one in authority ? ” 96-98. “Hath he wronged his city, hath he spread abroad a rumour against his city, hath he made evil the speech of his city ? ” III, 131. “ Ban of rebellion and revolt.” Cf. VIII, 53, “From the tabu of . . . prefect, officer, and judge.” Cf. Exod. xxii, 28, “ Thou shalt not revile Grod (margin, judges), nor curse a ruler of thy people.” (11) Various vague references to wrong. II, 37. “ Hath he given in small things, and refused in great ?” 44. “ Hath he deposed the rightful heir, hath he set up the wrong heir ? ” 58-60. “ Hath he transgressed the right, hath he offended (?), hath he abolished, driven away, destroyed, ?, ?, ? ” 62. “ Hath he set his hand to evil ? ” 66. “ Hath he followed after evil ? ” 250 APPENDIX. II, 67. “ Hath he passed over the hounds of right ?” 68. “ Hath he done what is not pure ? ” 70, 71. “Is it through any grievous harm that he hath done? Is it by the many sins which he hath committed ? ” 94, 95. Tapdd uktabis , [ arfica tapdi ittatallak (difficult of ex¬ planation). Ill, 12, 13. “ Tabu of right or wrong, heavy or light.” Here should come the mutilated lines III, 127-130, “Tabu of weak and . . . , sin and fever (P), of making a mistake (?), of sin and misdeed”; III, 160, “Tabu of . . . sin ... (12) Of water. Ill, 38, 39. “ Tabu of being asked for a runnel for one day, and refusing, of being asked for a ditch and refusing.” 53. “ Tabu of stopping a neighbour’s canal.” Here must come II, 117-119, “He seeketh of irrigation- machine, well, or river ”; III, 47, “ [Tabu of well P] and river,” and possibly 48, 49, “ [Tabu of] dam and ferry, . . . and bridge ” ; VIII, 35-37, “ From the tabu of runnel, canal, bridge, passage, way, or road, from the tabu of ship, river, dam, ferry, booth, and reed-hut (?), from the tabu of balihu, runnel, spring, watercourse, and fortress ” ; III, 59, “ Tabu of urinating into a river or vomiting into a river ” ; 133, “Tabu of . . . and Euphrates.” Cf. the Egyptian Negative Confession (Wiedemann, Eel. An. Eg ., 251), “I have not turned aside the water (from a neighbour’s field) at the time of inundation, I have not cut off an arm of the river in its course.” (13) Of fire. II, 110. “ Of the lighted coal-pan, of the torch, of the bellows he seeketh.” III, 15. “ Tabu of bellows and coal-pan.” 132. “ Tabu of fire and coal-pan.” VIII, 58. “ From the tabu of oven, flame (?), stove, coal-pan, . . . , and bellows.” Here, too, may come III, 16, “Tabu of pointing at the fire ” ; and 18, “ Tabu of casting fire in a man’s face.” APPENDIX. 251 All these tabus seem to have reference to respect paid to fire. Fire was not allowed to be kindled on the Sabbath by the Hebrews (Exod. xxxv, 3), and such nations as especially reverence fire show clearly how such tabus originated. For instance, the Parsees will not suffer a menstruous woman to see fire or even look on a lighted taper (Frazer, Golden Bough , iii, 224, quoting Gf. Hoffmann). Such tabus are based on local sacra ; in Homer (//., v, 499) the threshing- floor, the winnowing-fan, and meal are all held to be sacred. (14) Of weapons. Ill, 27-29. “ Tabu of bow or chariot, bronze dagger, or spear, lance, or bow.” VIII, 60. “ From the tabu of being banned by a bow, chariot, iron dagger, or lance.” Here also must come III, 67, “ Tabu of drawing a weapon in a company”; VIII, 46, “From the tabu of rending garments and drawing an iron dagger ” (cf. Ill, 36, “ Tabu of drawing a hukannu in a company ”); III, 57, “ Tabu of destroying a chariot and touching its riksu.” The explanation of this tabu on weapons may perhaps be sought in the consecration of warriors before battle: “ warriors are consecrated persons, subject to special taboos ” (Robertson Smith, Bel. Sem., 402). The ban on drawing a sword in an assembly is paralleled in later times by the mess-room law which forbids a weapon to be unsheathed. “ Rending garments and drawing a sword ” may be compared to the custom of the Arabs who cast down their turbans, symbolizing a fight to the death. (15) Of writing materials. II, 113. “ He seeketh of the tablet and reed-pen.” (16) Of mourning. VIII, 45. “ From the ban of rending one’s garments, breaking one’s breastpiece, and beating one’s breast.” Cf. Lev. xxi, 10, where the high priest is not to unbind his hair nor rend his clothes. 252 APPENDIX. (17) Of sorcery. II, 69. “ Hath he set his hand to sorcery or witchcraft ? ” Cf. note 2 on p. 126, to III, 114. Cf. Exod. xxii, 18, “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live ” ; Lev. xix, 26, “ Neither shall ye use enchantments, nor practise augury/’ Cf. also 31; xx, 6, 27 ; Deut. xviii, 11. (18) Of pointing with the finger. II, 88-93. “ Hath he incurred a tabu by pointing his finger at a person —the person of father or mother, elder brother or sister, friend or neighbour, god or king, master or mistress ? ” III, 16, “ Tabu of pointing at the fire.” Cf. II, 7, “ Hath he pointed his finger . . . ? ” (19) Of sunstroke. Ill, 23. “ Tabu from sitting on a seat in the sun.” (20) Of beasts. Ill, 30. “ Tabu against striking the young of beasts.” 42. “[Tabu] of asking a man for wild beasts at the side of a cattle-stall.” Here also add II, 115, 116, “He asketh of domestic and wild beasts,” and for want of a better place; VIII, 40, “ From the tabu of having found chance oxen (or) sheep belonging to men and taking them ” ; and III, 35, “ Tabu of slaughtering a sheep and touching its riksu (?).” Cf. Lev. xxii, 27, “ When a bullock or a sheep or a goat is brought forth, then it shall be seven days under the dam ” (before being sacrificed); Deut. xxii, 6, “ If a bird’s nest chance to be before thee,” etc. Cf. Sabbath , xix, 1, “If (on the Sabbath) one hunts a wild beast or a bird which one has on one’s domain, it is not a guilty act, but it is a crime to wound them.” Exod. xxiii, 4, “ If thou meet thine enemy’s ox or his ass going astray, thou shalt surely bring it back to him again ” ; Deut. xxii, 1, “ Thou shalt not see thy brother’s ox or his sheep go astray, and hide thyself from them.” APPENDIX. 253 (21) Of uprooting plants and reeds. Ill, 25, 26. “ Tabu of tearing up plants in the desert, of cutting reeds in the marshes.” VIII, 33. “ From the tabu of cutting canes, brakes, reeds, of tearing up plants or Jcankallu (some plant). 5 ’ Cf. Ill, 40, “ [Tabu of] uprooting plants (?) in a field” ; 65, “Tabuof . . . a reed in a bundle (P) ” ; VIII, 57, “From the tabu of uprooting the caper, the thorn, the tamarisk, (aud) the date-palm.” Here we must add III, 46, “ [Tabu of] tamarisk and date-palm.” Parallels for this tabu will be found in Robertson Smith’s Bel. Sent., 142, 145. Among the Sakai, before they fell trees in a forest, all tools are charmed to avoid accidents which might be brought about by evil spirits (Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, i, 345). (22) Of various tabus. Ill, 32. “ [Tabu] of laying . . . before (?) a man.” 33. “[Tabu] of food (?) and drink (?) . . . the way.” 37. “Tabu of tapalu and seal (?).” (Cf. also III, 85, 86.) (23) Of tabus on various places. II, 120, 121. “ He seeketh of ship, hinnu , boat, he seeketh of East and West.” 124-127. “ He seeketh of the exit and entrance of the city, of the exit and entrance of the main gate, of the exit and entrance of the house, of the street.” 129. “He seeketh of the road.” Ill, 61-63. “ Tabu of mountain and precipice, height and wady, pass and . . .” 66. “ Tabu from door and bolt . . .” VIII, 31. “ From the tabu of field, garden, house, street, path, dwelling, and chamber.” 54. “ From the tabu of house, . . . , city gate, field, garden, and resting-place.” 59. “ From the tabu of hedge, . . . , threshold, guard, door, bolt, and . . .” Compare the Talmudic ordinances concerning clean and unclean houses (p. 186); also the ’Orla, which says that 254 APPENDIX. trees planted on a public way, or by an idolater, or by a thief, or in a ship, or sprouting spontaneously are subject to the ’orla. (24) Of forms of oaths. Ill, 14. “ Tabu of raising a gis-mar and then swearing by a god.” 17. “ Tabu of raising fire and then swearing by a god.” 41. “ Tabu of taking an irrigation -machine and swearing by a god.” 43. “ Tabu of swearing (tamd, being banned (?)) by sunrise.” 44. “ Tabu of raising unwashen hands and swearing by a god.” VIII, 43. “From the tabu of breaking a dish, shattering a cup, and swearing by a god.” Cf. Lev. xix, 12. The story of Hector is pertinent here; he fears to pour the libation of dark wine with unwashen bands, nor may he pray to Zeus when bespattered with gore (Tylor, Primitive Culture , 4th ed., ii, 439). (25) Unclassified. Ill, 134-137. “ Tabu from . . . and assembly, from dead man or living man, from male destroyer or female destroyer (Zimmern says that these are demons), known or unknown.” These last two occur again in III, 164, 165. There are also forty-nine tabus mutilated or entirely destroyed. (26) Of the ‘ unclean ’ tabus. For the details of these see pp. 125 ff. Add here also— II, 106-109. “ He seeketh (to know whether his tabu cometh) from couch, seat, dish, or the offering of a cup.” Ill, 19, 20. “ Tabu from cup or dish, bed or couch.” (Here, too, perhaps comes 1. 58, “ Tabu of drinking water from a sarsaru VIII, 44. “ From the tabu of seat, stool, bed, couch, and being bound.” Perhaps also III, 22, “ Tabu of giving or asking the dregs.” APPENDIX. 255 (27) Various forms of tabu. II, 83-85. “ Whether by something loosed, which he knowetli not, he hath incurred a tabu, (or) by receiving (something) he hath incurred a tabu, (or) by . . . he hath incurred a tabu.” The particular point to be observed in this list of tabus is that many actions or states are omitted which are well known to be tabu. Notwithstanding the fact that forty-nine lines are so mutilated as to be untranslatable, it is distinctly noticeable that none of the primary unclean tabus are mentioned; childbirth, menstruation, the k’ri, marriage, touching a dead body (unless the brief mention in 25 be accounted evidence), although the 'holy’ tabus are included in comprehensive phrases. The reason for this is twofold ; either the unclean tabus are such that in their breach they do not result in sickness, but merely demand purification (such as menstruation and the k'ri) ; or, albeit they are of such a nature as to bring sickness, they are so obvious as to leave no doubt as to what has been the cause of the trouble (such as puerperal fever after childbirth). To say this is only a reiteration of the theory that the Surpu series is intended to deal with the ‘ unwitting 5 sins. On the other hand, it may be urged that although the primary unclean tabus are not mentioned, the secondary contagious tabus are quoted at great length; but the reason for this is clear. The primary tabus are in themselves, as we have said above, either innocuous (with regard to disease) or patent to the most heedless; but contagion from such is a very different matter ; for example, the lilith who regards herself as a spirit-wife brings no harm to her human husband, and yet will retaliate on any other who shall interfere with her. Hence this very point adds to our demonstration of the theory of the ‘ unwitting 5 sins. II. —On looking on a Corpse, p. 35. It is doubtful whether the translation of ana pagri ihinnnni , given on p. 35 in the sense of having allowed the wax-figure to look on a corpse, is valid. The passage is more probably 256 APPENDIX. to be rendered u tbey have looked upon me as a corpse, similar to 1. 13 on p. 152. But the tabu is certain, from p. 26. III.—On the meaning of gtjzalu, p. 52. gu-za-lal = guzalu , which has been translated ‘ throne- bearers, 5 for gis-gu-za —- • kussu , throne, and lal ncisiiy ‘ to bear. 5 This meaning is, however, challenged, although nothing satisfactorily definite has been suggested as an alternative. The comparison, therefore, between the Assyrian spirits and the 4 throne-bearers 5 of Hebrew and Mohammedan tradition rests on the evidence pro or con for the exact meaning of this word (see Muss-Arnolt, Diet ., 214). XY. _Additional Note to p. 76, on barren women touching the CORPSE OF A MAN EXECUTED FOR MURDER. “ The remedy for sterility was for the woman who wished to become a mother to step over the corpse of an executed criminal, or into a basin of water which had been used to wash his corpse, or to tread on a human skull, or walk between the tombs of a cemetery, or step over some antique resemblance of a cat or other relic of old Egypt (Lord Cromer’s Modern Egypt , ii, 505). y_ Additional Note to p. 53, on the connection between Jonah and the Moon. On the superstitions of Arabs concerning the swallowing of the moon, and the bearing of this on the story of Jonah,. see Gf. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets , 1899,. ii, 524; see also Hans Schmitt, Jona, 1907. 257 INDEX. Abbreviations: —A = Arabic; Ab = Abyssinian ; As = Assyrian; C = Coptic; E = Egyptian; Etb = Etbiopic ; G = Greek; H = Hebrew; I = Indian; L = Latin; M = Malay; Mac = Macedonian; Med = Mediaeval, Middle Ages; N.T.=New Testament; P = Persian ; Pal = Palestinian ; Phcen = Phoenician ; S = Syriac ; Sab = Sabian; Y = Yezidi. Aa, xlii, 245. Aaron, xviii, 219. Ab, month, in magic, As, 141, 209 ; H, 64. Abba Isaiah, 6. Abbas, 97. Abdu Khadir, 211. Abipones, 127. Abortions: as ghosts, A-, H, M, 23; As, 20, 23 ; not to be buried with body of mother, H, 21 ; as demoniac offspring, 132, 236. Abraham, xix, 73, 86, 220, 231, 233. Abramelin, xvii, lx, 170. Abu’d-Duhur, 158. Abu Kabus, 227. Abu Mohammed the Lazy, 62. Abu Rabah, 79, 80. Abu Zenna, 159. Abyssinia, passim. Adad (Storm-god), xxi, xlii, lxii, 19, 54, 64, 96, 224, 245. Adagur- vessel, xlv, 26. Adam, xx, 5, 23, 38, 58, 70, 72, 73. Adonai, 1. JElian quoted, xxxvi. JEneas, 72. Aeneze tribe, 158. JEschylus, 107. Africa, lxvii (see Moghrebi) ; East, 60, 237. Afrit , 17, 47, 59, 63, 70, 76, 132, 207 ; see Demons. Agrath bath Mahlath, 30, 41, 58. Agukakrime, xxii. Ahhazu- demon, 41, 43, 100, 192. Ahmad ibn Abubekr, xlix. Ahriman, 119. ’ Akikah , 229, 231. Alaska, 184. Aleppo, 89. Alexander, xxxviii, 96, 155, 157. Alfoors of Minahassa, 163. Algerians, 62, 211. Ali, 168. Alkali in magic, As, lii, liii. Allah, (xx), (lvi), lxi, (5), (23), (30), 42, (72), (74), (77), (83), (226), (228), (229), (236). Allamu, xxviii. Allegory of Yahweh begetting children ,73. Al-Nooman, 227. Aloe hung up, A, 90. Al-Sameri, 146. Altar, 26, 130, 157, 194, 197, 198, 199, 220 . ^4^-demon, 39, 71, 81, 122. l Alukah, 63. Alum in magic, A, 88. Amasis, 10, 222. Ameimar, 147. Amel-dispu , lix. America, South, 241. Amorite, 201. ‘Amr b. Yarbu‘, descended from she- demon, 70. Amulets, xviii, li, lxi; A, xxix, lxiii, 90, 106; Ab, 104; As, 41, 84, 154; Maronite, 42; against Lilith, 72. Amiirrikami , 171. s 258 INDEX. Anatu, 151, 245. Angels, lvi, lvii, 6, 52; H, 23, 160, 161 ; daughters of God, A, 74; guardian, 46, 200 ; intermarriage with human beings, see Demons. Angel of Death, A, xx, 86 ; H, 86, 87 ; S, 87. Angel of Lust, H, 66. Angel of Yahweh, 73, 78, 86, 220. Animal forms of demons, see Demons. Annual expulsion of demons, 157. Anobret, 222. Anointing as divine due, 133, 234. Ants in magic, A, As, H, 33. Anu, xx, xxii, xxiii, xxxix, xliii, xlv, 20, 41, 49, 50, 54, 55, 151, 152, 240, 245. Anuk, 1. Anunnaki, 85. Apep, 149. Apia, xxxvii. Arabia, Arabs, passim. Arafat, 16. Arameans, xxii. Arbela, 85. Ardat lili , spirit, 65 ff., 120. Ardatu emphasizes femininity, 66. Areca in magic, M, lviii. Ariel, 160, 161. Arihatu (‘menstruating’ F), 67, 83. Aristophanes, 107. Aristotle, 157. Arkat-ilani, xxxvii. Arluni, 72. Arm in magic, 164. Armenia, xlix, liii. Arrowheads as amulets, A, lxiii. Arsacid period, xxxviii. Arsacius, 107. Artemis, 230. Aruru, xx. Asafoetida in magic, M, lviii; Med, 149. Asakku (‘ fever’ ?), 50, 82, 99, 160, 203 (see Fever ); not asakku, xxxix ; Series, xli. Asam, 176, 179. Ash in magic, A, xxix, 61,174 ; As, 139, 208; Babar, 201; G, 174; H, lv, lvi, 61, 164, 187 ; M, lviii, 36 ; Malagasy-, 213; Tobit, lvii. Ash-heaps, As, 177. Ashdod, metempsychosis of unclean person into woman of, H, 4. ^4«z)?w-priests, xxiff. Asmodeus, 71, 74 ff., 77, 134, 197; born of angel and woman, 75 ; plots against newly wedded, 75, 134. Ass in magic, A, lxvi, 51, 60; As, xliv, 50, 51; H, 219, 220, 233, 234, 252; metempsychosis of unclean person into, H, 4; Y, 6; Balaam’s ass, 4, 51; asses’ urine as libation, As, 34 ; hoof, foot of ghoul, 60. Assur, xxxi, 85. Assurbanipal, xxxvii, xxxviii, 10, 55, 65, 100, 178. Assurnasirpal, xxii. Assur-risua, 85. Assyria, passim. Asterius, legend, 130. Astride, H, 164. Astronomy, xxxv ff. Atargatis, 141. Ater- meal in magic, xlv, 26. Athenians, xxxiii, 14, 230. Atonement, xvii, xli, xlvi, 114, 175 ff. ; As, xxiii, lvii, 84, 153, 159, 177-9, 181 ff.; H, 177-81, 182 ff.; not eaten, G, 216; contradictions between the atonement ceremonies (Wellhausen), 198; day of, 119, 141, 182, 184. Atonement-money, 182, 225. Atreus, 239. Augustus, xxxvi. l Aulak, 63. Australia, 90, 148, 241. Austria, 170. Aymara Indians, 184. Aza, 44. Azael, 44. Azarias, lvii. Azazel, 75, 184. Azbuga, 161. Baal, xviii. Ba'al k'ri (one unclean from nocturnal pollution), 71, 117, 122, 190; see Tabu. Babar Archipelago, 201. INDEX. 259 Babes, danger to (see Labartu), 164 ; H, 129; stolen by cats, A, 42; charm against losing, A, 102 ; mother dying with babe at breast becoming ghost, 19; new-born sprinkled, A, liii; Fiji ideas, 38. Babylon, xxi, xxii, xxxv, liii, 78, 79, 92, 178, 239, 240. Babylonians, passim. Bachelor-ghost, see Ghost ; married to spirit, 66 ft. Backwards, looking, in magic, 171; A, 171,172,226; As, 172 (?); Roman, 227. Badagas, 183. Baghdad, 22, 27, 211. Bags hung up as amulets, A, 90 ; cf. H, 146. Bahru-ixmt, 161. Bakhtashiyah, 169. Balaam, xxv. Balaam’s ass, 4, 51. Balak, xxv. Bali in Java, 184. Ban, Tablet of the, As, 28, 123, 126. Banana in magic, Tonga, 215. Banks Islands, 22. Banning evil spirits, see Binding. Baptism, liv, 29. Barbary, 1, 17. Bardesan, xxxv. Bdr-egara , demon, 40. Barley in magic, 102. Barnabas, Epistle of, 106. Barren valley, 200. Barren women desiring offspring, 76 ff. ; (charm against barrenness, A, 102,256; H, 102); figures offered by (?), As, 64 ; Sumatra sacrifice for, 183 ; S.E. Africa superstition, 237. Barrett, Francis, lx, 68, 91. Bar Shalmon, 71. Baru -priests, xxiff., xlv. Basket in magic, M, 36, 201 (cf. 163). Bat, metempsychosis of unclean person into, H, 4. Bat-men with raven faces, As, 81. Bath Horin, 129. Baths haunted, see Demons. Battas of Sumatra, 183. Battle-ritual, As, 157; A, H, P, 158 ; E (Eth), 155. Ba‘u, xlviii, 88, 205, 245. Beads in magic, A, 38 ; M, 28. Beans in magic, Roman, 227. Bear in magic, 230. Beard in magic, A, 38. Beasts in magic (see under different names), M, 162. Beating to drive away spirits, A, 60, 105 (cf. H, 161); Y, 31; Xerxes flogging Hellespont, 230. Bed in magic, 109; As, lix, 35, 127, 165, 166, 171, 208 ; H, 102, 164. Bee, Book of the, quoted, 6. Beelzebub, xlvi. Beer in magic, A, 210 ; As, xliv, 187. Beetle in magic, A, 210. Beirut, 80, 226. Beit Nuba, 207. Bekhten, Possessed Princess of, 107. Bel, xx, xxii, 25, 55, 78, 82, 97, 240, 245 ; selects woman, 78 ; Temple of, 78. Bel and the Dragon, 199. Bel-etir, xxxvii. Beliar, 51. Belit, xxvi, 245. Belit-ili, 188. Belit-Nippur, 245. Belly in magic, M, 36. Berossus quoted, xx. Besisi, 53. Betel-leaves in magic, M, 162, 163. Bilkis, 57. Binding a spirit, xxi; As, xlvii, 45,172 ; S, xlvii, 51; Tobit, lvii, 74; the tongue, C, 172. Bird in magic, xxxvi, 202 ; A, lxvii, 5, 135, 187 ; As, xxii, 41, 49, 81, 135, 186; Eth, lxvi; H, 185-8, 252; M, 162; N.T., 92; Sumatra, 183. See Bat, Code, Dove, Eagle, Owl, Paradise, Peacock, Pigeon, Raven , Sparrow, and Swallow. Bisharin, 10, 60. Bitch in magic, xlix, 204. Bit - Sola', incantation, xxxviii. 260 INDEX Bitumen in magic, As, lix, 154, 188, 203 ; G, 106. Black in magic, A, xx, 61, 107, 211; As, 154, 161, 165, 170, 171, 188; Barnabas, 106; H,lxv, lxvi, 61, 211 ; I, xxviii, iix; Lucian, 104 ; Roman, 227 ; S, 92. Black man, demon as, A, 40, 77 (ef. 107) ; Barnabas, 106. Blacksmiths, Jewish, accredited with magic in Abyssinia, 103. Blindness, H, 30, 129, 170 ; Test, of Sol., 43. See Ophthalmia. Blood in magic, 195 ff., 203 ; A, 5 ; M, 21; Sab, 148; sprinkled, 181; A, lxvii, 211; As, 208 ; H, lv, 194, 212; Malagasy, 183 ; dust sprinkled on, of murdered man, A, 61; on altar, 220 ; on house, A, 58, 228 ; H, 185, 188 (cf. footnote, 228) ; on door¬ posts, A, 226 ; on monument, A, 227; on ploughland, A, 58; on saddle, A, 158 ; unlocks treasure, A, 62 ; lures demons, see Demons', feeds ghosts, A, G, 16; of sacrifice, on forehead, A, 80, 226, 227; on skin, A, 226, 229 ; runs into water, A, 231; superstition about bleeding, lvi; H, 115; as seat of life, 179, 195 ; used in writing, H, 186 ; to create man, As, xx, 195. Blowing in magic, see Breath. Bludan, 78. Blue in magic, A, lxi, 90 ; Ab, 164 ; H, 164. B’ne Elohim, 72. Boar in magic, G, 216; M, 127. S eePiy. Body in magic, A, 211. Boils, 209. Bolivia, 184. Bone in magic, As, xx, xliii. Bone of hyena in magic, Ab, 104. Bones of frog in magic, H, lxiv. Bones removed, see Grave. Borhut, 5. Borneo, 36, 163, 228. Borsippa, xxxvii. Bottle in magic, A, 180. Bouda, demoniac possession in, Abyssinia, 103, 149. Bow in magic, H, 144. Box in magic, A, 37 ; As, xxvii, 161 (?); H, 144 ; Med, 149. Brain in magic, lxiv. Brazier in magic (see Censer), As, xlv, lix. Bread in magic, A, 169, 207, 231 ; As, xlii, xlv, 139, 157, 161,206, 208 ; H, xxxi, 91, 118, 139, 207; Mac, 207 ; Sab, 139 ; Y, 31. Breaking neck of animal, instead of sacrificing, H, 194, 220, 233; not breaking bones, A, 229. Breaking pot, etc., to dissipate demons, A, 30, 31; As, 28, 124, 206 (cf. 254); H, 30. Breast in magic, A, As, 211. Breath in magic, A, 73, 168 ; I, 162 ; Ibn Khaldun, 145 ; P, 168; cf. hot air of Abu Rabah, 80; foulness of, H, 129. Brickwork, god of, xlv. Bride, tabu against taking water from,. H, 31, 32 ; allowed to wash on Yoma, H, 32; washes her feet, A, 135; snatched away by Mared, 61; customs concerning, 30 ff., 135. Bridegrooms, customs concerning, 30ff., 135. Bridge in magic, As, 152 ; H, 117. Brimstone in magic, Med, 149; see Sulphur. Bronze in magic, As, 154, 203. Broom in magic, A, xxix, 37. Bruniquel, 239. Buffalo in magic, I, Sumatra, 183 ; M, 228. Building rites, 228 (see Blood ) ; As, xlv. Bukhara, 169. Bull, divine, 96. Bundle of twigs (?) in magic, As, 166,. 212, 213. Bunene, xlii. Burasu-wood, see Cypress. Burghers, 183. Burial of horse slaughtered, G, 216. Burning in healing, A, lxiv, 105 ; As, lxiv. Burnt-offering, 194 ff. (cf. lv). INDEX 261 Buro, 157. Butter in magic, As, xlii, xlv, 157, 158. Byrsa, lvi. Byzantine amulets, 42. Caaba, Stone of the, 116. Cain, 187. Cain’s father a demon, 73. Cairo, 18, 31, 70, 90. Calf in magic, A, 146 ; E, 222 ; H, 64. California, 184. Calirrhoe (Zerka Ma‘in), 59. Cambodia, 184. Cambyses, 10. Camel in magic, A, 16, 60, 77, 173, 210, 227; H, xx, 117; P, 167 ; Sab, 14; in metempsychosis, H, 4. Candle in magic, H, 119 ; M, 36 ; Maronite, 29. Cannibalism, 232 ff. ; eating corpse of man executed for murder, 76. Caper in magic, As, 33, 34, 253 ; H, 91. Captivity, 178. Carmel, 79. Carthaginian battle ritual, 158. Cat in magic, A, lxvff., 61, 256; G, 174; H, lxv ff., 61; carry off sleeping babes, A, 42. Cattle in magic, As, lix ; charm for, As(?), S, 50; perceive spirits, A, H, 51; attacked by demons, As, 49. See Ox. Caul in magic, H, 194. Caves haunted, see Demons. Cedar in magic, Armen., 33 ; As, xxii, xxxviii, 188, 202 ; H, lv, 185, 188 ; oil of, in magic, As, 33, 188. Celebes, 163, 201. Cemetery haunted, see Demons. Censer in magic, lviii; A, lvii; As, xli, xlii, xlv, lvii, 26, 28, 34, 158, 160, 188, 202, 204, 208 ; Tobit, 75, 134 (cf. A, 89, and the hot air of Abu Rabah, 80). Ceram, 156. Chair in magic, A, 138 ; As, 127. Chaldeans, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvi, 100. Challox in magic, 135. Chariot in magic, I, 158. Chauveau, 239. Chest in magic, A, 37. Chicken in magic, A, 62; Ab, 104; H, 212 ; I, 183; M. 228. Chidr, 80. Child, see Babes. Childbed, Childbirth, woman dying in, becomes ghost, A, 20, 22 (cf. 27) ; As, 19, 131 (cf. G, 22 ; H, 21, 22) ; I, 22 ; M, 20, 21; Melanesia, Pelew, 22; bewitched, Pal, 135; woman in, dangers to, 137; A, 169; charm for, I, xxviii, lx; M, li; must not see menstruating woman, A, 118 ; must rise when corpse is carried past, A, 27, 137 ; visited by Obizuth, Test, of Sol., 41; guarded by amulet, H, 72 ; wears sandals, H, 119 ; see Tabu. Virgin Mary assists at, 138. ‘ Children of the Deep,’ 214. Child-witch, A, 42; tabu on, 112. See Labartu and Owl. China, xliii, 157, 184. Christ, xxx, xlvii, xlix, lxvi, 9, (51), 74, 91, 101, 107, 208, 223 ; in Lucian, 104. Christian superstitions of the Middle Ages, xvii, lx, 48, 53, 68, 81, 91, 149, 173. Cigarettes in magic, M, 162. Cinnabar in magic, G, lxvii. Circle, Magic, lx If., lxviii, 189; As, xxiii, lvii ff., 123, 126 (?), 165, 204, 207 ; I, lix ; Pal, 102. Clay in magic, A, xx, 38; As, xx, xlv, 32, 34, 64, 81, 84, 150, 154, 159, 161, 204 ; H, xx, 144. ‘ Clean ’ man, H, lv. Clean place in magic, 180, 199 ; As, 165, 199, 206, 214; H, 199 (cf. 238); S, 115. Cloth in magic, A, 88 ; H, 146 ; I, 163 ; M, lviii. Clothes in magic, As, lviii, 26 ; G, 22 ; clean, As, 138. Coal in magic, H, lviii. Cock in magic, A, 51, 62, 211, 212 (cf. As, 63); H, xx, 61, 170 ; M, 230. Cocoanuts in magic, I, 163. 262 INDEX. Coffer of marble in magic, A, 37. Cohabitation, tabu on Wednesday and Friday, Y, 134; in bed in which child sleeps, H, 135. See Tabu. Coin in magic, M, 162. Collyridians, 207. Coloured threads or hairs in magic, As, 33, 165 ff.; I, 163, 164 ; M, 162; Roman, 164. Colt in magic, A, 62. Combing hair on Sunday, tradition, S, 51. Consecration of priests, H, 182. Consumption, remedy for, A, 173. Contagious tabu, see Tabu. Copper in magic, As, 187 ; H, lxvi. Coptic charm, 172. Corascene, xlix. Cords in magic, As, iviii, 121, 158, 164 ff.; H, 164, 170; I, 163; Ibn Khaldun, 145 ; M, 162 ; P, 168. See Coloured threads. Coriander in magic, H, 146. Corn in magic, As, 26, 32, 188 ; see Wheat. Cornelians as amulets, A, lxiii, lxiv. Corners of room in magic, A, 89, 135 ; As, 161; H, 89, 186; Pal, 102. Corpse, Arab beliefs about, 5, 137; tabu on, see Tabu ; looking on, tabu, As, 26, 35, 115, 131; H, 118; S, 114, but see Appendix, 255; when unburied, ghost returns, As, 8, 13, 17, 32 ; of murdered man, ghost returns, A, 61; touching, of man executed for murder, 76 (cf. 256); eating ditto, 76. Cotton in magic, A, 37, 115, 169 ; H, 115; I, 164. Court, Eastern, of justice, 172. Cow in magic, Pal, 135. Creeping things in magic, As, 186; H, 4. Crocodile in magic, E, 143. Cronus, 222. Cross in magic, lxi; A, 227. Crossways in magic, li, 177, 201. Croup, H, 129. Crow in magic, xxxi. Crumbs in magic, H, 91, 147. Cucumber (?) in magic, As, 165. Cup in magic, A, 20 ; As, 125, 127; H, 30, 32. Curses on desecrators of tomb, As, Phcen, 10; Nab, 11. Cutting up slaughtered animal in oath, G, 216. Cypress in magic, As, 34, 158,188, 202. Cyprian women, prostitution of, 79. Dama, 163. Damascus, 78. Damkina, xxiii, 214, 245. Daniel, xxxv, liv. Dark colour, Iviii, 32. Dates in magic, A, 107; As, xxiii, xlv, 26, 141, 157, 187, 192 ; H, 144. David, 231. Dawn in magic, As, 56, 84, 161, 165; see Morning. Days, lucky, xxx ff.; reckoning the day, xxxviii. Dead (see Ghosts) : raised, A, 9; As, 7, 9; G, 8, 9; H, 9; Med. Chr., 91; bones of, removed, see Grave; offerings to, A, 15, 16; As, 13 ff.; G, 16 ; H, 13 ff. ; Sab, 14; obligations to, S, 14, 15 ; greeting, A, 5. Dead Sea, 231. Deafness, H, 129. Death (see Mourning) : due to God, H, 118 ; angel of, see Angel. Deep, see Sea. Deer in magic, H, xxxi. Deformed children the result of violating certain animal tabus, M, 23 ; see Abortions and Imperfect men. Del Rio, Martin, quoted, xvii, xxv, lxii, 68, 72. Demigods, 132, 236. Democritus, xxxvi. Demons, names of, 1; ‘ Scheiss-Teufel,’ 72 ; classes of, 2 ; in N.T., 100. Assume any form, H, 44; animal forms, A, 57, 60, 62, 77 ; As, S, 54; H, Eth, 61 ; camels, A, 77 ; with cocks’ feet, H, 61 (cf. As, 63) ; with donkeys’ legs, A, 60; Origen, 60 ; dragons, As, 54 (?) ; Test, of Sol., 76 ; goat, Sab, 57 ; leopard, As, 54 ; INDEX. 263 lion, S, 54; ostriches, A, 57 (cf. 60); owls, A, 21, 77 ; As, 50; M, 21 ; panther, S, 54 ; raven, xxx; scorpions, S, 54 ; snake, A, 57 (cf. As, 12, 54) ; S, 54 ; wolf, S, 54; hairy, A, 57 ; assume human form, A, 57, 62, 77 ; Med, 69 ; Test, of Sol., 71; without shadow, H, 61; invisible, without flesh or hones, H, 44; N.T., 100. Eat, A, 58 ; Ab, 104 (lick dishes, A, 126); devour blood, 195; As, 48, 49, 195; Eth, 52; H, 44; Maimonides, 195; Origen, 93, 196 ff.; Porphyry, 106 ; S, 51 (cf. sacrifice, A, 58); flesh, A, H, 63 ; Eth, 52 ; S, 51; drink, A, 58 ; H, 44 ; smell, Origen, 93 (cf. Tobit, 75, 134, 197); intermarry with human beings, 236 ; A, 68-70, 74, 76; As, 65ff., 132; G, 68 ; H, 71, 73 ; Queensland, 75 ; S, 74 ; Test, of Sol., 75 ; Tobit, 74, 134 (Lilith attacks solitary sleepers, H, 70 ; Satan seduces Eve, H, 74 ; demon in form of woman as tempta¬ tion, A, 101, cf. Test, of Sol., 71 ; have power over woman without wedding ring, 137 ; dangerous to newly wedded, 134) ; propagate, A, 58 ; H, 44 (this denied, As, 49; S, 74); some sexless, As, 40, 47, 49; take away creative power, A, 77 ; As, 49, 77 ; die, A, 58, 61; H, 44. Fly, H, 44 (cf. Origen, 93; cf. 100); can pass all doors, As, 50, but not wax, A, 106 ; creep, As,*49, 56 ; S, 51 ; fight, A, 60 ; stink, As, 49 ; howl, roar, As, 49 ; ride,- A, 59, 60 ; have foreknowledge, H, 44; guard treasure, A, 62, 63 (cf. xlix; Y, 6) ; wear dresses of women, A, 71 ; write, A, 62 (cf. 46); mislead travellers, A, 60, 90. Bring disease, 2ff., 93; As, 48, 96 (cf. 181); Pal, 100; ‘Chaldeans,’ 100 ; death, A, 58, 59; dumbness, A, 62; plagues, droughts, and bad seasons, Origen, 93 (cf. 48); malignity of soil, A, 58 ; earthquakes, S, 54 ; storms, As, 43, 48, 49, 50, 54 ; Med, 48; dust-storms, A, Bisharin, 60; eclipses, As, 52 ff. Possession by demons, 93, 95 ; A, 60, 101, 104, 107 ; Ab, 103; G, 106, 107 ; H, 101; Lucian, 104; Maronite, 105; N.T., 100; Pal, 60, 101 ; Josephus, Porphyry, 106 ; S, 40, 92 (see Madness) ; apportioned to various members of the body, As, N.Z., 99 (cf. M, 36) ; enter body by orifices, A, H, 115 ; exit by toe, A, 105, 106 ; by nostrils, Josephus, 106 ; excluded by veil, A, N.T., 74 ; by wax, A, 106; driven away by noise, A, H, M, Mac, Med, 53 ; Orang Laut, 136; Pal, 72; fire, M, 137; beating, A, 60, 105; Y, 31 ; stench, Tobit, lvii, lviii, 75, 134, 197 (cf. Med, 149); thrown sand, etc., A, 159 ; Eth, 158 ; laid by incantation, Origen, 196; nailed down, A, 17, 18; ‘bound,’ M, 157; Med, 149; Origen, 93; S, xlvii, 51; Tobit, 74 ; summary, 93 ; can be transferred to figures, M, 162 ; from one person to another, and from human beings into animals, N.T., 100; to water, A, 31 ; As, 28 ; H, 29; Maronite, 29; can be recognized, A, 40; are offspring of human beings and spirits (cf. 2, 65, 93), As, 65, /l ; H, /0, 71; Kurd, 71 ; Book of Enoch and Test, of Sol., 75; tradition denied, S, 74; are immature creatures or abortions, H, 23. Earth-demons, A, Y, 59 ; fear of scalding them, A, Pal, Y, 59 ; come from Underworld, As, 97; seven spirits, As, 7,47 ff.; Pal, 50,52; S, 50, 51 ; Test. TwelvePatr., 51; Zoroaster, 52 ; throne-bearers, As, 47, 48 (?); A, H, 52. See Appendix. Haunt baths, A, 90 ; caper bushes, H, 91 ; caves, A, 58, 62, 90 ; As, 56, 81, 90; Maimonides, 90 ; deserts, A, 90; As, 28, 39, 44, 56, 84, 90, 97, 151; Eth, 92; H, 57, 91, 115; M, 157 ; Maimonides, 90 ; N.T., 91, 100 ; Origen, 60 ; Pal, 91; food and drink, 264 INDEX. H, 91; Maronite, 42; graveyards, 200 ; A (cf. 5,171, 172); As, 7, 39 ; H, 29, 91, 118 ; Med, 91; N.T., 100 ; houses, A, 91, 92 ; latrines, 200 ; A, 90 ; H, 91; marshes, As, 41 ; mountains, As, 39, 41, 82; S, 83; ‘Mountain of Sunset and Mountain of Dawn,’ As, 56 (cf. Arab superstition about Jebel Kaf); nut-trees, H, 91; ovens, A, 90; places of execution, etc., A, 61; Med, 91; rivers, A, 90 ; rocky places, Australia, 90 ; ruins, 200 ; A, 90, 92 ; As, 81, 90; Eth, 92; H, 91, 92; Maimonides, 90 ; Origen, 60 ; Pal, 91; S, 92 ; sea, As, 39 ; shadows on moon¬ light nights, H, 91 (cf. Maronite, 42); spearworts, H, 91 ; stone, S, 83, 89 ; temples and shrines where incense and blood are offered, Origen, 93 ; thickets and watering-places, Australia, 90 ; wells, A, 90, 115; H, 118. Der Atiyeh, 177. Der-ez-zor, 89. Der Mar Elia, monastery, 101. Descent of Ishtar, 3, 33. Desecration of graves, see Grave. Desert, xxvii, 165, 166; haunt of demons, see Demons ; see also 153, Clean place , Lady of the Desert , Plain-god , and Scapegoat. Destiny, A, H, 12 ; As, 11, 12. ‘ Destroyer,’ H, 86. Devil, the, see Iblis, Satan. Diana of the Ephesians, 65. Dilbat- plant in magic, 187. Dimetu, 83, 192. Dinanu, 178. Diodorus quoted, xxxvi, 222. Dioskoros, 1. Dish in magic, As, 127. Divinations, A, As, xxxi ; H, xxxi, 147. Dog in magic, xlix ; A, lxv ff., 169, 174, 207, 210; As, xliv, lxiv, 49, 161, 204; H, lxii, lxv, 170, 207; spirit of wicked transmigrating into, Y, 6 ; ‘Dog of the Witch,’ 14; casting bread to dogs, see 169, 204, 207 ; cf. 127. Donkey, spirit of wicked transmigrating into, Y, 6 ; see Ass. Door in magic, A, 90; As, xxviii, lix, 208 ; Eth, 92 ; H, 1, 161. Doorpost in magic, A, 31, 226 ; lock, A, 37 ; Med, 173. See Threshold. Dough in magic, As, xvii, 28, 33, 83, 160, 206, 207 ; H, 119, 207 ; I, 158 ; M, 159, 162. Dove in magic, H, xx, 181, 187 ; not sacrificed at Harran, 54. Dragon, As. 54 (?); of Revelation, 43 ; Test, of Sol., 43 ; swallows moon, A, Peru, South Sea, 53 ; demons in shape of, Test, of Sol., 76 ; Bel and, 199 ; As, 54 (?). Dream, xxxvi; A, lv; As, 9, 33, 186; Maronite, 42. Dregs in magic, As, 126, 254 (cf. Eth, 148); savage, 146. S qq Lidu, Refuse, and Tabu. Drinking magic writing, A, lxi; H, iv, lxi. Dubsag-Unug-ki, 45. Dumah, 4. Dumatii, 222. Dung in magic, As, 153 ff., 203, 204 ; H, 147, 194. See Lidu. Dungheaps haunted (see Demons in magic), H, 170; cf. As, 177. Dusara, 11. Dustin magic, 142 ; A, 89 ; Armen, 33 ; As, 33; II, liv, 33 ; (sand) Kurdistan, 71; sprinkled on blood of murdered man, A, 61 ; (gravel) cast against enemy, A, 158 ; (dust) H, 159 ; (sand against demons) Eth, 158; (stones) A, 159 ; equivalent of water in puri¬ fication, A, 117; food of spirits, As, 3 ; synonym of Underworld, H, 3; dust-storm caused by demons, A, Bisharin, 60; taken from cemetery (sand), A, 171; from grave, A, 147; As, 33; II, 146; from footprint, A, savage, 146; As, 153, 154; II, xxxii, 146, 164 ; mud from river, II, 164; from temple, As, 146 ; from floor of tabernacle, H, lv. Dyaks, 36. INDEX. 265 Ea, xxii, xxiii, xxvi, xxxviii, xliii, xlv, xlvii, xlviii, lii, liv, lix, 8, 26, 46, 47, 51, 55, 63, 88, 98, 123, 160, 162, 171, 188, 203, 205, 210, 211, 213, 214, 230, 245. Ea-bani, xx, 7 ff., 12. Eagle in magic, H, xx. Ear in magic, Test, of Sol., 43. Earth (see Clay and Dust), offering poured into, 9, 32, 33. Earth-demons, see Demons. Earthquake, xxxvi; see Demons. East in magic, As, xxvii, 253 ; H, 164 ; I, xxviii. Eating with friends, superstitions about, As, II, 15; eating carcase of sin- offering, 194 ; of atonement-offering, H, 212; eating magic writing, H, lxvi. See Tabu. Eber, 222. Eclipse (due to demons, see Demons ), xxxvi, As, xli, 99; sickness due to, As, 55 ; weddings must not take place during, A, 134. Ed-el-jaj, 212. Eden, S, 6. Edessa, xlvii. Edimmu (correct reading for ekimmu , 3), see Ghost. Eggs in magic, G-, lxvii; H, lxv, lxvi, 102,139; E. Indies, 156, 163; M, 20. Egypt, xviii, xlix, lvii, lxiii, lxv, 8, 10, 17, 59, 64, 70, 78, 79, 143, 149, 168, 220, 222, 246, 250, 256. Eight in magic, A, 52, 169 ; H, xxxi. Ekimmu (read edimmu , 3), see Ghost. Ekurra, see Underworld. Elam, 10. Elason, xxx. Eleazar, 106. Elephant in magic, I, 158. El-Hejr, lxi. El-IIowwara, 63. Elijah, xviii, 118; festival, 79. Elul, month, 138. Elymas, xxx. Emharos, 230. Emissions, seminal, see Ba’al k'ri. Encolpius, 164. En-dor, witch of, 9. Enemessar, 24. England, 72. Enmeduranki, xxi. Enoch, Book of, quoted, 73; Slavonic, 74. Enquiry, tabu on making, As, 139, 140. Entrails in magic, As, xxii; H, 197. Envy (Demon), 201. Ephesus, 65. Epilepsy, 108 ; A, 101,104 ff., 107 ; Gr, 107, 203; H, 102, 135, 136; N.T., 101; see Demons. Ereskigal, 1, 48. Eridu, xxiii, xlviii, lii, liii, 7, 51, 84, 98, 100, 159, 165, 166, 167, 203, 204, 206, 211; Incantation of, lii, 84, 98, 159, 166, 203, 206, 211. E-sagila, 186. Esarhaddon, xxii. Eshmunazar, 10, 80. Esquimaux, 184. Essenes, 139. Ethiopians, passim. Euchitse, 223. Euphemisms, 11, 19, 38, 115, 121, 128, 199. Euphrates, xxxv, liii, 25, 80, 144, 213, 250. • Euripides, 107. Eustathius quoted, 19. Eve, 23, 72, 74, 77, 118. Even numbers in magic, II, xxxi, xxxii. Evening in magic, As, 159, 161, 166, 213 ; H, 187. See Sunset. Evil Eye, xviii; A, 88ff.; As, 43, 88, 100 (cf. 39), 205; H, 89, 135; Maronite, 42; N.T., 88; S, 89; averted from bed, II, 72 ; by beads or headdress, A, 90 (on the Evil Eye among the Hebrews see Aaron Bxay s article in Ophthalmology , April, 1908, p. 427 ff.). Evil man as ghost, 19. Excesses, A, 79 ; Psellus, 223. External soul, see Ghost. Eye in magic, 89. Ezida, xxxvii. Ezra, 74. 266 INDEX. Face in magic, A, 211. Faditra, Malagasy magic, 213. ‘Fairy-women,’ I, 164. Fan in magic, A, xxix; M, 36. See Tabu. Farde, stones of, 207. Fat in magic, As, xxvii; H, 194 ff., 220. Fauns, 72. Feasts of the Hebrews, 182. February in magic, Iroquois, 184. Fedu, 80, 177, 178, 226ff. Feet in magic, A, 227 ; As, 171; Tonga, 215 ; bare feet, Roman, 227. Female in magic, A, 60, 227, 229 ; H, 4, 147, 216, 220. Fern in magic, Maori, 215. Fever, 101, 108, 210; As, lii, 82 (?), 99 (?); see Asakku ; charms against, A, 83, 168, 211; P, 167. Fifteenth day in magic, As, 56. Figs in magic, As, xliii. Figures of plastic material in magic, xli, xlvi, li, lix, lxi, 142ff., 173, 180, 202; As, xvii, xxvi, lviii, 28, 32, 34, 35, 83, 84, 115, 150 ff., 159, 161, 203, 255 ; E, 143, 149 (Etb), 156, 222; G, 143; H, 144 ; I, 158, 163 (cf. examples, 163); Ibn Khaldun, 144; M, 36, 145, 162, 205; offered by barren women, As, 64 ; of sorcerers in counter-attack, As, xxxix, 26,15o ff. Fibrist quoted, 116. Fiji, 38. Finger in magic, A, 226 ; Roman, 227 ; cf. tabu on pointing with finger, As, 252. Finger of God, H, 97 ; cf. ‘ band of God,’ As, 96. Fire in magic, A, lviii, lxiv, 77, 89, 105, 211 ; As, 140 ; H, xlix, lviii, lxiv, lxviii, 58, 119, 144, 160, 220; M, 137, 145; Med, 149. See Fire-god and Tabu. Fire-god (see Nuzku ), xxv, xxxix, 56, 152-4,184, 214. Firstborn in magic, 114, 180, 219 ff. ; H, 61. Firstfruits in magic, 180, 219 ff. ; A, 27; H, 221. Fish in magic (cf. 53), A, 210; As, 141 (cf. 63), 186 ; H, 135; Mac, lvii; S, 141; Test, of Sol., 65; Tobit, lvii, 75, 134. Five in magic (cf. pentacle), 189 ; H, liii. Flax in magic, As, 88 (?). Flood, 44, 197. Florida, 222. Flour in magic, see Meal. Flowers in magic, A, 37 ; I, 163. Fly in magic, A, 210 ; As, 63. Food in magic, As, 153, 204, 205 ; Eth, 148. See Demons and Ghost. Foot in magic, As, 165. Forehead receiving blood of sacrifice, A, 80, 211, 226, 227 ; ashes, A, xxx ; leaven, A, 31; water, A, liii. Foreigners in magic, H, 186. Forty in magic, H, 118. Forty-nine in magic, As, 138. Four in magic, A, 52, 89; As, xxxi, xlii; H, xx, xxxi, 102, 186. Fourteen in magic, As, 138 ; H, 207. Fowl in magic, A, lxiii; Ab, 104; M, 228. Fox in magic, A, 59 ; As, xxxi; H, xxxi. Friday in magic, A, 77 ; H, 15, 30, 58, 145; Y, 134. Fright from ghost, see Ghost. Fringes in magic, H, 169. Frog in magic, H, lxiv. Fruit in magic, Sab, 14. Fudl Arabs, 211. Fumigation, A, lvii, lxvii, 88, 107, 122 ; As, lvii, 122, 213, 214 ; G, lv; H, 107 ; M, 205 ; Mac, lvii; Tobit, lvii. See Censer. Funerals, see Mourning. Gabriel, xx, 51, 73, 89, 146, 158, 168. Gadarene swine, 180, 208. Gaffat, 103. Galicia, 30, 129. Galilee, Sea of, 228. Gall in magic, H, 87. Galloi priests, 114. Gallu , 39, 40, 192. Garlic in magic, As, 192 ; Pal, 72. INDEX. 267 Garment in magic, As, xix ; see Clothes. Gate in magic, As, xxvii, lvii, 154 ; E, xlix. Gaza, 107, 231. Gazelle in magic, A, 59. Gazelle’s horn in magic, As, 34; foot in magic, A, 37. Gentile, metempsychosis of unclean person into, H, 4. Ghadur, xxxii. Ghassanide prince, 223. Ghosts:— Edimtnu (not ekimmu), 3, 26, 39. Return, 2 ff., 24, 93 ; As, 3, 7 ; E, 8 ; G, 14; H, 8, 40 (?); in white, A, 105; from the grave, As, 7; Hadendowa, 10 ; Arabic beliefs, 5, 27 ; M, 36. Of persons untimely dead: Abortions (cf. 21), A, 23 ; As, 20, 23 ; H, M, 23. Bachelors, As, 19, 23 ; G, 19. Dead of hunger, thirst, drowning, in the desert, marsh, or storm, As, 19. Diseased women, As, 20. Dying by fault of god or sin of king, As, 32. Evil man, As, 19. Falling (?) from date-palm, As, 26. Harlots (?), As, 19, 120. Immodest (?) women, As, 67, 120. Murdered men, A, 5, 17; As, 17, 32; cf. H, 17. Virgins, As, 19, 23, 67, 120 ; G, 19. Women, 67, 120 ; at childbirth, A, 20, 22 (cf. 27) ; As, 19, 120 ; G, 22 ; cf. H, 21,22; 1,22; M, 20, 21; Melanesia, 22; Pelew Is., 22 ; with babe at breast dying also, As, 19 ; who cannot men¬ struate, As, 67, 120. The owl as ghost, A, M, 21. Restless ghosts: As, 13 ; of unburied body, 3 ; As, 8, 13, 17, 32. Unfed by descendants, 3 ; As, 7, 8, 13, 32, 116 ; E, 8 ; H, 13. Return to wash, H, 27 ; to sit, H, 15 ; to those with whom they had connection during life, As, 24, 25, 32, 116. Attack of ghosts, 93; As, 35, 109. Fright from ghosts, A, 92; As, 35 ; Maronite, 42. Dead husband returning to wife, A, 76 (cf. women married to dead, H, 76). Laying ghosts: By exorcism, 93 ; As, 24, 32 ; M, 36 (cf. Origen, 93) ; by nailing down, A, 17, 18. They feed on dust and mud, As, 3 ; drink water at tombs, A, 5, 16; eat dregs, As, E, 8 ; blood, A, G, 16 ; food and drink, As, 14 ; can speak, A, 171 ; pasture and drink, H, 4; thirst, E, 8; can sit (?), H, 15; cannot stand or sit, As, 7. Raising ghosts, 93 ; A, 9 ; As, 7, 9 ; G, 8, 9 ; H, 9 ; Med. Chr., 91. Ghosts, summary, 93 ; external soul, A, 37, 38 ; As, 38; E, 37; Fiji, 38 ; H, 38 ; transmigration, A, 5 ; H, 4, 18 ; Y, 6 ; binding the soul, As, 38, 166. £J!bst-food, As, 8 ; see Bead. Ghost-omens, As, 35. Ghost-worship in the East, 14 ; see Bemons. Ghosts of the family, As, 27, 32, 34. Ghoul described, 60, 90. Gilgamish, xx, xxvii, 7 ff., 12, 33, 39, 72, 81, 96. Ginger (?) in magic, As, lii, 187. Girru, xlviii. gis-mar, 254. Glands of fish in magic, Mac, lvii. Glass in magic, H, 144 ; M, 20. Gnosti, 223. Goat in magic, 57, 59, 233; A, 211, 226, 227 ; As, xliv, 82, 161 ; G, 230 ; H, 183, 198, 216, 219, 252 ; I, 183 ; M, 228. See Kid. Goat-beard in magic, A, xxxiii. 268 INDEX. God, Bukhara, 169 ; I, 164. See Allah and Yahweh. Gods attracted by sweet smell, As, H, 197; evil god, As, 39 ; fault of god, As, 32; gods of night, As, xxvii, 150; of the watch, As, xxviii; ‘son of his god,’ As, 25, 46 ff., 167, 206, 245 (cf. 84, 126) ; wise gods, As, 56. Gold in magic, 222 ; As, 230 ; G, lxvii; H, 41, 146; P, 230 ; S, xx. Gooderoo, 103. Goths, 72. Grass in magic, H, 164; Malagasy, 213. Grasshoppers in magic, Sumatra, 183. Grave in magic, 144 ; A, 256 ; sacred, Pal, 107 ; desecration of, As, Phoen, Nab, 10; removal of bones, As, E, H, 10 ; Mahdi’stomb, 11 ; dust from, A, 147 ; As, 33 ; H, 146 ; haunted, see Demons ; ghosts from graves, As, 7 ; Hadendowa, 10 ; bed of reeds prevents ghost rising, II, 91. Greece, xxxvi, 174. Greeks, passim. Green in magic, II, 189. Guardian angels, 46. Guiana, 239. Guilt-offering, 216. Guinea, 184. Gula, xlviii, 245. Gunura, 88, 205. Gutter (-shadow) haunted, H, 91. Hadendowas, 10. Hades, see Underworld. Hadhramaut, 5, 57. Hair in magic, xlvi, 1, 142 ; A, 38, 229, 236 ; As, lxiii, lxiv, 153, 161, 166, 170, 192; H, 38, 40, 146, 147, 170, 184; M, 36 ; P, 167; S, 51 ; Sab, 148 ; savage, 146 ; see Threads ; on legs, indication of jinniyah, A, 57 ; unbound, H, lv, 169. Haj superstition, 159. Halae, 22. Half-human spirits, 2, 65, 93, 132. Haltappan- plant, xxvi. Hamah, 5. Hamath, 58, 78, 79. Hammam Faraun, 59. Hammer in magic, H, 161. Hammurabi, xxi, xxv. Hanania, liv. Hand in magic, As, 165 ; M, 36 ; hand of God, As, 96 (cf. H, ‘ finger of God,’ 96); hand of ghost, As, 35 ; as amulet, lxii. Hanged, superstitions about men, 13, 76, and Appendix, 256. Hanifa, 207. Hare in magic, A, 59 ; metempsychosis of unclean person into, H, 4. Harimuti , 78. Harlots in magic, As, 247 ; H, 32; as ghosts (F), As, 19 (cf. 78). Harran, 54. Harut, lxv. Hasar Maweth , 4. Hat (?) in magic, As, 206. Hate-charms, lxi, lxivff. Hathor, 64. Hattath , 179. Haunted places, see Demons. Hawk in magic, G, lxvii. Hayyot (throne-hearers), 52. Head in magic, 226; A, 229 ; As, 33, 38, 161, 165, 166, 171, 205, 211, 213; H, xx, 38 ; M, 36; Maori, 215. Headache, 108; A, 18; (ti’u), xlvii, li, 47, 98, 121, 165, 166, 167, 206, 212, 213 ; coming from Underworld, xlvii, 82, 99; from mountains and deserts, As, 82, 83. Headdress warding off demons (Paul), 74 ; evil eye, A, 90. Heart in magic, A, 61; As, xliv, 161, 203, 204, 208 ; H, lxvi; Tobit, lvii. Heart-plant, As, xliv. Hebrews, passim. Hector, 254. Heifer in magic, A, lvi; H, lv, 187. Hejaz, 207- Hejra, 11. Hekate, 14, 201. Helen, 216. Heliopolis, 79 (in Syria), 222 (in Egypt). Hellespont, 230. INDEX. 269 Hen in magic, H, lxv, 212. Henbane in magic, A, xliv. Hercules, 72, 216. Herein , 176. Hermes Abootat, xlix. Hermes Trismegistus, xlviii, xlix. Herodotus quoted, 10, 78, 79, 122, 239. Hesychius quoted, 14. Hierapolis, liii. Hilarion, 107. Hindu magic, 158. ffinsa-fle sh, 158. Hippocrates, 107. Hira, 223. Hisn, Princess, 37. Hollow stone in magic, A, 89. Holy Gbost, 51. Holy tabus, see Tabu. Homer, see Odyssey and Iliad. Honey in magic, As, xlii, xlv, 157, 158 ; H, lxvi; Pal, 102. Hoof in magic, A, 37, 60 ; As, 32, 33 ; Etb, 61. Hoopoe, A, lxiv, 172. Hor, 143. Horace quoted, xxxvi. Horn in magic, As, 32, 34. Horon, 222. Horse in magic, A, lxvi, 146 ; As, 50 (cf. 47); Gr, 216; I, 158; S, 57; Sumatra, 183; Test, of Sol., 65; transmigration into, Y, 6. Horsehair (F) in magic, H, 144. Horseleach, 63. Horsemen of the air, S, 57. Horus, xlv, xlvi. Hos of India, 184. Hot springs, 59. House in magic, 228 ; As (cf. xxvii), 35, 235; H, 186, 189; I, xxviii; unclean, H, 23, 186, 253 ; leprosy breaks out, 182, 185 ff.; sorcery, As, 187; Pan- nonia, 72. Hulduppu , lix. Human sacrifice, 221 ff. Hums, 228. Hundred in magic, M, lii. Hunnoman, 163. Huns, 72. Hunting souls, H, 38 ; see Ghost. Hurmiz, daughter of Lilith, 71. Hurnim, son of Lilith, 71. Husband returns as ghost, A, 76 ; ex¬ cluded from room of wife dying in childbirth, A, 22. Hydrophobia, A, 174; H, lxii, 20. Hyena in magic, Ab, 104. Hyoscyamus muticus, xliv. Hyssop in magic, H, lv, lvi, 185, 188. Iamblichus, 117. Iao, 1. Ibex in magic, As, 82. Iblis, xxxiii, xxxiv. Ibn Khaldun quoted, lxvii, 144. Idlu lili, 67, 68 ; see Demons. Igigi, 85. Ignatius, xlvii. II, 222. Iliad, 251. Imina-bi, 86. Immaculate conception, 73. Imperfect (malformed) men, 132; M, 23. ‘ Incantation of Ea,’ 162 ; of Eridu, lii, 84, 98, 159, 166, 167, 203, 204, 206, 211, 212; of the Deep, As, lii, 45, 214. Incas of Peru, 184. Incense in magic, 133; A, lxvii, 88, 107 ; As, xli, 26, 214; M, 205 ; lures demons, Origen, 93. Incubus, 23, 68, 82, 136, 171. India, passim. ‘Individual’ atonement, 182. Infidel, 5. Infidels in Mohammedan religion, 5. Intermarriage of human beings with demons, see Demons ; with gods, 132 ; As, 73, 78 ; E, H, 78; with spirits, 234; A, 79. Invisibility, charms for, lxviff. Invoking Christ’s voice, C, 173 ; on invoking mighty names, see Names. Iphigeneia, 22. Irak, xxxvii, xliii, 1. Irkalla, 3, 33 ; see also Underworld. Irnina, 41. 270 INDEX. Iron in magic, A, 18, 31, 60, 107, 115 ; Babar, 201; Eth, 157; H, lxvi, 17, 146; M (?), 20; Psellus, 137; S, 83. Iroquois, 184. Irrigation-machine in magic, As, 254. Isaac, 78, 220, 236; as demigod, 73. Isaac, a certain Syrian, xx. Isaiah, xxxv, lviii. Ishmael, 4. Ishtar, 3, 33, 73, 85, 96,139, 154, 157, 165. Ishum, 86. Ismailiyeh, 229. Israel, xxv, lvi, 114, 146,179, 212, 219, 220, 222, 223, 233, 236. Israfil, xx. Issue of blood, H, 201. Iyyar, month, 139, 141. Izdubar (= Gilgamish), 72. Jackal in magic, A, 57. Jacob of Edessa, xlvii. Jaffa, 105. Jallalo’ddin, 69. Jamratu’l-Aqaba, 159. Jan, 31, 59, 77, 106. January in magic, I, Iroquois, 184. Japan, 184. Java, 184. Jeba, 80. Jeheyna marches, 61. Jehovah-jireh, 220. Jephthah, 220. Jeremiah, 10. Jericho, 200. Jerusalem, 11, 101, 156, 227. Jew in magic, 37, 103, 105, 168. Jewess, Karina as, A, 77. Jewish blacksmiths accredited with magic, Ab, 103. Jeypur, 183. Jidlal (Yidlal), 80. Jinn described, 57 ff. ; see Demons. Jonah, 53, 54, 256. Jordan, liv. Joseph, 10. Josephus quoted, lxiv, 106, 117, 139, 200 . Joshua the Stylite quoted, 96. Journey, days good for, xxxff. Judah, 11, 66. Juneh, 80. Juno, 222. Jupiter, 130; (Theban) selects woman, 78. Justin Martyr quoted, 73. Kabbala, 4, 18, 29. Kabus, or Kabus en-nom , 81. Kaffarah, 176, 178, 227, 228. Kafr Harib, 228. Kaisah, 11. Kaldu, xxxv. Ka-luh-u-\_d(i\, 129. Kaphsiel, 187. Karina, 76ff.; in animal form, dangerous to newly wedded and pregnant women, destroying creative power, 77. Karrhai, xx. Kasdim, xxxv. Kassaph, xxiv. Kassapu and Jeassaptu, xxiv. Kemal-ul-hakim, xlviii. Kerak, 58. Kerchiefs in magic, H, 38. Keres, 106. Keteb Meriri, 64. Kettu, xlii. Khamuas, 143. Kheybar, xxix. Kid in magic, xli, 202, 234, 235, 24:2 ; A, 211 ; As, lvii, 166, 167, 178, 203, 204, 210, 211; G, 203 ; H, 181, 233, 234. Kidneys in magic, H, 194, 197. Kipper, 175, 177. Kird, 62 ; renders dumb, ibid. Kiriaten, 79. Kiskanu, lii. Kismet, see Destiny. Kiss in magic, 71; H, 89 ; Pal, 103. Kitchener, Lord, 11. Kizriti , 78; cf. Temple-woman (?), 165. Kneeling in magic, Pal, 103. Knots in magic, A, 90, 168, 169 ; As, xxvii, 33, 166, 167, 170-3; H, 169, 170 ; I, 164 ; Ibn Khaldun, 145 ; M, 162; Med, 173; P, 168. Korban, Day of, A, 16. INDEX. 271 Kouyunjik, 168. K'phar, 215, 218. AT’n, nocturnal emission, 81, 122, 131, 132, 133, 255 ; see Ba'al k’ri. Kullabi, 45. Kunyit Crus (Malay), lviii. Kuppuru, 177, 185, 202, 204, 210. Kurdistan, 71. Kurpu, 177, 200 ff. Kusnrra-ftovit, lvii. Kutha, xxii ; (= Underworld), 32, 33. See also Underworld. Labartu , xli, 41, 136, 152, 161, 240; Series, xli. See also Child-witch , La Broosha, and Lamia. Labasu , 41, 43, 99. La Broosha (Lilith), 42. Lace in magic, As, 153. ‘ Lady of the Desert,’ 15, 151 ; cf. Maklu- series, Tablet IV. Lahabiel, 160, 161. Laila, 21. Lailah, not connected etymologically with Lilith, 66; as prince of con¬ ception, H, 68. Lamassu, liii, 43ff., 100, 245. Lamattu (= ant), 63. Lamb in magic, 234, 235, 242 ; A, 211 ; As, xlv, 167 ; E, 209; H, 216, 219, 220, 233, 234. Lamech, 44. Lamia, 41, 68, 136; A, Byzantine, Maronite, 42; H, 41. See also Child- witch, Labartu , and La Broosha. Lamp in magic, H, 27 ; N.T., 52. Lamsatu, 63. Land of No Return, 3, 12 ; see Under¬ world. Langsuyar, 20, 21. Latarag, lix. Latins, 82. Latrine haunted, see Demons. Laying hands on sacrifice, 226. Lazarus, 9. Lead in magic, I, xxviii; S, xx. Leah, 78. Leather in magic, A, 83, 90, 106; As, xxii; Maronite, 42. Leaven in magic, A, 31; As, 32, 33, 204 ; H, 207. Leaves in magic, I, xxviii, 162 ; M, lviii, 205. Lees in magic, As, 153 ; see Dregs. Left hand in magic, A, 46; As, xxiv, xxviii, lvii, lix, 27, 34, 166, 170, 171, 202 ; H, xxxi, 164; M, 36. Leg in magic, II, 170. Leliurium, 69. Lemburg superstition, 21. Lemon grass in magic, M, lviii. Lemuria, 227. Leo in magic, lxvii. Leopard, As, 54. Leprosy, H, liv, 182, 185 ff.; explana¬ tion of Biblical, 188. Leuconoe, xxxvi. Levites, 236. Libanus, 79. Libation, 139; poured out, As, 32-4, 161; into earth, As, 9, 32, 33. Lilin, 70. Lilith, 21, 42, 57, 66, 67, 71, 75, 77, 120, 133, 136, 190, 225 ; attacks solitary sleepers, 70 ; averted from bed, worshipped, 72; no etymological connection with Lailah, 66; counter¬ part of Asmodeus, 75 ; see La Broosha and Lamia. Lilitu, 65 ff. Lilu, 65ff., 97, 190. Lime in magic, As, lvii, lviii, lix. Limes in magic, I, 163 ; M, 25, 205, 206, 215. Lindinger quoted, 100. Lion in magic, As, lxiv; H, liv, 169; S, 54. Liver in magic, A, 173 ; As, xxii; H, 174, 197 ; Tobit, lvii. Llama in magic, 184. Loaves in magic, see Bread. Lock of door in magic, A, 37; Med, 173. Locust-men, N.T., 81; see Grasshoppers. Locusts in magic, 210. Loins in magic, As, 84, 159. Looking on a corpse tabu, As, 26, 35, 115, 131; H, 118; S, 114; but see Appendix, 255. 272 INDEX. Looking-glass in magic, A, H, 28 ; Pal. Jews, 72. Love-charms, lxi, lxii, lxivff. Lucian quoted, liii, 104, 114. Lugalgirra, xxviii, lix. Luh-Jca, 129. Lunacy charm, S, 82 ; see Possession by Demons in Demons. Lust, Angel of, H, 66. Lii'n, 203. Luxor, 22. Macarius, lxv. Macedonia, lvii, 51, 53, 158, 207. Madness, 108, 160 ; ascribed to demons, A, 57, 60, 101, 102; H, 102; N.T., 60. Magharhy, lxiii. Magians, 92, 119. Magic, distinction between, and religion, xvii. Magicians, see under Asipu, Baru , Mas- mam, Zammaru, and Priests ; muselA edimmu, ‘ Raiser of the departed spirit,’ As, 9. Mah, goddess, 63. Mah(a)lath, see Agrath. Malidi, 11. Mahir, 186. Maimonides quoted, 57, 66, 90, 119, 148, 195, 201. Maize-drink in magic, M, 127. Majhwar, 183. Makan, xliv. MaTclu- series, xxxix. Malacca, lii. Malagasy scapegoat, 183; atonement, 213. Malays, passim. Male in magic, A, 229 ; H, 219. Malim Karimun, xlviii. Malim Saidi, xlviii. Mamit, 97, 98, 123 ff., 178, 192; see Tabu. Mandan Indians, 184. Mandean superstition, 5. Mandrakes, lxiv. Manetho quoted, 209, 222. Manuthu, 11. Maoris, 215. Marah, xviii. March in magic, Cambodia, Iroquois, 184. Marduk, xix, xx, xxiii, xxiv, xxvi, xxviii, xxxviii, xl, xlii, xlv, xlvii, xlviii, lii, liii, lix, 12, 26, 51, 55, 56, 80, 84, 85, 100, 125, 138, 139, 151, 160, 165, 173, 178, 188, 195, 203, 208, 245. Mare in magic, S, lxv. Mared, 18, 61; snatches away bride, 61. Marga, Thomas of, quoted, 92. Maronites, passim. Marriage: dangertonewly wedded,30ff., 134, 135 ; A, 77, 134 ; Test, of Sol., 75; prevented, Med, 173 ; symbolic, with a cow, Pal, 135 ; discord between married folk, As, 49 ; H, 170. See Tabu. Marut, lxv. Masmasu , xxii, xxiv. Massagetoe, 239. Masta/cal- plant, xxvii, lii. Mati-Anak, 21. Matku- bird, liii. Mazzikin, 58. Meal or flour in magic, As, lvii, lix, 26, 32, 123, 139, 157, 165, 204; H, lv, 181 ; Sab, 139. Meat in magic, 139 ; As, 158 ; H, 135, 170, 207; Sab, 14. Medain Salih, 63. Mekka, 5, 80, 158, 171, 173, 227. Melam (F), 85. Melancthon quoted, 69. Melanesia, 22. Melito quoted, liii. Menstruation, As, 67 ; H, 83; theory of, explained as evidence of visit of evil spirit, 133. See Tabu. Mercury, 97. Merlin, 72. Mesaru, xlii. Mesopotamia, xxxvi, xliii, liii, 6, 50, 64, 72, 90, 209, 249. Mesopotamian superstition quoted by Psellus, 69. Metaab (Ibn Rashid), xxix. INDEX. 273 Metawileh, 53, 83. Metempsychosis, A, 5; H, 4; Y, 6. Mexico, 239. Mice prevented, 174; in magic, As, 49. Michael, xx, 51. Midday, As, 161. Middle watch in magic, As, 35 ; Pal, 102. Midianites, 248. Midwife, superstition about, H, 137. Milk in magic, A, 20; As, xlv; Pal. Jews, 102 ; human, E, xlv. Minahassa, 163. Minaeans, 116. Minhah, 176. Minsk, 137. Mirandole, Francois de la, quoted, 69. Mirzapur, South, 183. ‘ Mistress of the Desert,’ 15, 151. Moah, xxv. Moahih, 148. Modesty, lack of, resulting in ghost (?), 67• Mogador, 18. Moghrebi as magician, xxx, 62. Mohammed, 23, 74, 158, 168, 229. Mohammed el-Ghuffarv, liv. Moloch, 222. Molonga, 75. Money in redemption, 219, 225 ; cf. A, 16 ; E, 209. Monkir, 5. Monsters, As, 63, 81, 209 ; H, 64. Moon (see Eclipse),As, lxii; H,ll; S,40; in Scorpio unlucky for weddings, A, 134 ; beginning of month and waning moon favourable, H, lxvi ; end of month favourable, A, 134 ; Java, 184 ; unfavourable, As, 209 ; swallowed, 53, 256. Moon-god, xliv, 52, 54, 55, 155, 167 ; see Sin. Morad, 158. Morning in magic, As, 161 ; watch, As, 35. Morocco, xxxvi, 18, 72. Moses, xxxii, lxviii, 10, 169, 222. Mosul, xxxiii, xxxiv, xliv, lxiii, 18, 22, 27, 61, 62, 70, 92, 101, 106, 107, 144, 158, 161, 172, 210. Mother-goddess, 63. Mountain of Dawn and of Sunset, As, 56. Mountains, home of headache, As, 82; lunacy, S, 83. See Demons. Mourning customs, A, 27; H, 13 ; Pal. Jews, 27; S, 114; fear of funeral passing in front, A, 27 ; Kaddish for dead man, 15 ; demons driven away at funeral by noise, H, 53; Jews burn lamp seven days after death, pour out water, 27 ; turn looking-glasses to wall, 28 ; spirit returns after funeral to wash, II, 27 (see also Dead and Solwan) ; one who bears a corpse not to wear shoes, H, 119; burial by heaping up stones, S, 114. Mouth, filling the, in magic, As, 150, 151; H, 147. Mule, metempsychosis of unclean person into, H, 4. Munychia, 230. Munzir, 223. Murdered man as ghost, see Ghost ; superstition about grave of, H, 146. Murderers, 116, 256 ; A, lvi, 76; H, 29, 115. Mustabarru-mutanu, 97. Musulleh, 212. Myrrh in magic, A, lxvii. Naamah, 44. Naarnan, liv. Nabateans, 11, 144. Nablus, 105. Nabu, 65, 85, 245. Nagiti, 230. Nailing down spirits, A, 17, 18. Nail-parings in magic, xlvi, 1, 142; A, xxxi; As, 153; Eth, 148; H, 29, 147 ; M, 145 ; Sab, 148. Nakir, 5. Nahpatu, ‘modest’ (?), 67. Names in magic, 107, 142, 144, 148; A, 30, 42, 72, 77, 148; Ab, 148; As, 26, 158; Austr, 148; C, 172; E, xlix; E (Eth), 155; Eth, xlix, 52, 92, 148; H, lxviii, 144, 159, 160; M, 36 ; Maronite, 29, 42 ; N.T., xxx, 101 ; Pal, 107 ; S, 51; ink in which they are written to be drunk, T 274 INDEX. lv, lxi ff.; not to be mentioned, A, 21; knowing name of demon, xlvi, 1, lx; As, xli, 32, 149 ; E, 149; G, 106; Med, 149 ; Origen, 150; Test, of Sol., 150. Namtaru, 51 (?), 83ff., 99. Narudu, lix. Nativities, xxxv. Nazareth, 101. Nazarite ritual, 182 ; class, 236. Nebi Yehudah, 211, 212. Nebk, liv, 76, 78, 229. Nebuchadnezzar, liv. Neck in magic, As, 38, 96, 166, 211 ; E, 164; I, 163, 164 ; L, 164. Necklace-charm, M, 21, 22* Nectanehus, 155. Needles in magic (=iron?), H, 144; M, 20. Negroes, 184. Neilgherry Hills, 183. Neleus, 216. Nergal, xxiv, lviii, lix, 8, 97 (?), 157. Nestorians, 14, 114, 115. Net in magic, As, 123,173 ; Eussia, 173. New Guinea, 163, 201. New South Wales, 237. New things in magic, A, 17. New year in magic, Japan, Eussia, 184 ; H, 91 ; New York, 89. New Zealand, 99. Nicknames, Ab, 149. Niddah (menstruating woman), 118, 133. Nightmare,A,81; As,67,81; Maronite,42. Nimroud, plaque from, 85. Nin-aha-kuddu, xlviii. Nine in magic, A, 42, 168; As, 141; H, 91, 212 ; I, 162, 163. Nineteen in magic, As, 138, 139. Nineveh, xxxvii, lxii, 24, 65, 70, 169 ; Queen of, 65. Ningal, 245. Ninib, xxiv, 245. Ninkasi, 214. Nin-tu, 63, 64. Nisaba, lix, 123, 124. Nisan, month, xxxviii, 207. Nu kati- series, xxxix. Noah, 9. Noise driving away demons, see Demons. Noon in magic, As, 161. Nose in magic, A, 38 ; H, 164. Nur-ed-Din, 134. Nursing-women, danger to, 170. Nusairiyeh, 16, 229. Nuts in magic, H, 135 ; Sab, 139. Nut-trees in magic, H, 91. Nuzku, xlviii, lix, 55, 153 ; s zq Fire-god. Oar in magic, As, 88 (?)'. Oath on Dei penis , A, 78; Jephthah’s vow, 220. See Tabu. Obizuth, 41. Odysseus, 8. Odyssey, 16, 107. (Ethanes, xxxvi. Offerings, 53; As, 139, 157, 161; to dead, As, H, 13 ff.; Sab, 14; in gratitude, A, 169 (?) ; As, 85 ; poured into earth, As, 9, 32, 33; cast into sea, A, 231; As, P, 230. See also Sacrifices and Dead. Offspring, Semitic desire for, 13, 64. Oil in magic, As, xxii, xliv, xlv, 26, 33, 158, 188; H, 91, 135. Old woman in magic, As, 121. Olympias, 155. Omahas, 139. Omdurman, 11. Omens from ghosts, 35 ; observed, xxxi, 129; from monstrous births, 209, 221 ; eclipses, As, 55 ff. Onion in magic, H, 139 ; M, lviii. Ophthalmia, As, 141, 170, 171; H, 212. See Blindness. Oracles, 9, 223 ; see Enquiry. Orang Laut, 136. Ordeal by water, As, xxv; for adultery, H, lv. Orifices of body entrance of spirit, A, 115; H, 115, 129; cf. 132. (See Skeat, Malay Magic , 401.) Origen quoted, 60, 93, 145, 150, 196. Ornias, 71. Oroutes, 79. Osiers in magic, H, 170. Ostrich, form of Jinn, A, 57; ghoul, 60 ; in magic, A, 58. INDEX. 275 Ovens haunted, see Demons. Ovid quoted, 227. Owl as spirit, A, 20, 21, 77 ; As, 50; M, 20, 21. Ox in magic, 233 ; A, 210, 226 ; As, xliv, 32, 33, 49, 187, 188, 210, 252; H, 198, 219, 248, 252; Malagasy, 183; S, 51. Ozair, 74. Palestine, passim. Palm in magic, As, lviii, 26, 187, 188, 253 ; Celebes, 163 ; Pal, 88; H, 164. Paneas, 80. Pannonia, 72. Panoi = ghostland in Melanesia, 22. Paradise, S, 6 ; birds of, A, 61. Parchment in magic, A, lxiii; H, 160, 161 ; Med, 149. Parsees, 251. Passover, 129, 135, 182, 231, 240. Pausanias quoted, 216. Peacock in magic, H, xx. Peas in magic, xxxi. Pelew Islands, 22. Pentecost, 182. Perak, 21. ‘ Periodic ’ Atonements, 184; H, 182. Persia, Persians, lxii, 14, 167. Persian Gulf, 230. Persius quoted, 164. Peru, 53, 184. Petronius quoted, 164. Phaniel, 161. Pharaoh, xviii, 143 ; A, 59. Pharisees, xlvi. Philip of Macedon, 158. Philosopher’s stone, xx. Phoenicians, xxxvi, 10, 201, 221, 222. Physician prohibited from healing on Sabbath, As, 139. Pickling useless if done by menstruous woman, A, 119. Picture in magic, H, 160, 161, 187 ; Maronite, 105. Pig, spirit of wicked transmigrating into, Y, 6 ; in magic, xli, xliv, 202, 209; A, 209, 210; Abipones, 127; As, 161, 208 ff.; E, 209 ; G, 209 ; H, 115, 209; I, 183; N.T., 180, 208. Pigeon in magic, As, 49. Pilate, 129. Piles for houses in magic, H, 186, 189. Pillows in magic, A, 207 ; Eth, 148 ; H, 38. Pins in magic, M, 145. Pitch in magic, G, 14. Placenta in magic, 201. Plague removed, H, 182. Plague-god, As, 48 (?), 51 (?), 83 £f., 99, 159 ; see Namtaru and Ur a. Plain-god, xxviii. Planets, xxxv. Plantain in magic, Tonga, 215. Plants in magic, A, xxx ; Ab, 104 ; As, li, 12, 121,150-4; E (Eth), 155 ; H, 107 ; Josephus, 106 ; M, li, lii; pulled up, tabu, see Tabu. Plaque, magical, lxvii, 168. Plaster in magic, As, 187, 188; H, 187. Plutarch quoted, xxxv, 107, 125. Polynesia, 95, 125. Polyphemus, 239. Polypus, H, 129. Pomegranate in magic, 135. Pomos of California, 184. Porcupine in magic, A, 59. Porphyry quoted, 106, 130, 222. Pot in magic, As, xxvii; broken, A, 30, 31 ; As, (28), (29), (214) ; H, xlix, lv, (lvi), (lxii), (28), 30, 170, 185; I, 162, 163; M, lii (cf. 206); S, 196. Potato in magic, Maori, 215. Prehistoric man, 238. Priestly Code, 177, 178. Priests, xviii, xxiff., xlff., xlv; conse¬ crated, 182, 202 ; allowed to eat sin- offering, 194If.; when not allowed to make divination, As, 139 ; Galloi priests, 114. Prison, escape from, in magic, Ixvi. Prostitution of women, Babylonia, Cyprus, Heliopolis, 79 ; A, 78, 79. Psellus quoted, xxx, 69, 137, 209, 223. Pnhu, 177. 276 INDEX Pumpkin in magic, Malagasy, 213. ‘ Pure Abode ’ = Eridu, 7. Purple in magic, 135. ‘ Queen of Heaven,’ H, 207. 4 Queen of Nineveb,’ 65. Queensland, Central, 75. Rabba, 71. Rabban Hormizd, xlvi. Rabbi Akiba, xxx, 1. Rabbi Ashi, xx. Rabbi Hanina, xxxii. Rabbi Hyya, xx. Rabbi Isaac Luria, 18. Rabbi Jehudah, 135. Rabbi Joshua, 1. Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah, xxxiii. Rabbi Meir, 135. Rabbi Nathan, 129. Rabbi Papa, 24. Rabbi Pinchas ben Yair, 4. Rabbi Yochanan, 18, 66. Rabbit, metempsychosis of unclean person into, Kabbala, 4. Rabies, A, 20, 174 ; H, lxii, 174. A«fos»-demon, liii, 39, 40, 44, 100. Rag in magic, 1; A, 88 ; Ab, 104 ; As, 153. Raguel, 74. Rahab, 200. Rahabiel, 161. Rain-time in magic, 135. Raising dead, see Bead and Ghosts. Raisins in magic, 139. Ram in magic, H, 220, 231. „ Raphael, 75, 134, 160. Rassad , 62 ; guardian of treasure, A, 62. Rat in magic, A, lxvi. Ravens in magic, A, xxx ; H, xx ; S, 92 ; raven faces of bat-men, As, 81. Reading shema\ tabu on, 15. Red in magic, A, xx; As, 171; H, lv, lvi, 160; I, 183. S ee Scarlet. Redeeming the life, Pal, 102; the soul, A, 16; the firstborn, 180, 219 ff.; in Rome, 227. Reed in magic, As, 204, 206, 253 ; reed- bed prevents spirit leaving grave, H, 91. ‘Refuse’ in magic, As, 153, 204; see Lu'u. Reptiles, As, 186 ; H, 4. Resurrection, A, 16; S, 6. Rheumatism, As, lxiii, 204. Rice in magic, Borneo, Celebes, 163 ; E. Indies, 156. Right hand or side in magic, A, 46; As, xxiv, xxviii, lvii, lix, 157, 166, 171, 202; H, xxxi, 164. Ring in magic, As, lii ; H, lxvi; Josephus, 106; Pal, 135; Tyrol, 137. Rimmon, see Adad. Rio, Martin Del, quoted, xvii, xxv, lxii, 68, 72. River-god, As, liv, 214. Rivers, confluence of two, in magic, As, li, 154, 212 ; cf. H, 144 ; haunted, see Bemons ; carry away tabu, As, lii, 130, 186, 187 ; Pers, 168 ; clay from river-banks, H, 144, 164 ; in ordeal, xxv ; charm to dry up, H, lxviii. Robenhausen, 239. Rocky places haunted, 90. Rome, 174, 227. Roof (-shadow) haunted, H, 91. Roots in magic, H, 164 ; Josephus, 106 ; Pal, 107. Rope in magic, A, xviii. Round in magic, H, 186, 189. Royal Tabu, see Tabu. Ruala, battle ritual, 158. Rue in magic, Pal. Jews, 72. Ruins haunted, see Bemons. Running water in magic, see Water. Russia, 169, 173, 184, 237. Sabbath, lxviii, 15, 51, 58, 72, 119, 138 ff., 170, 252. Sabians, 14, 57, 119, 148, 195, 223. Sacred names invoked, see Names. Sacrifices, 80, 93, 121, 133, 139, 157, 194ff., 221 ff.; to dead, A, G-, 16; Phcen, 201 ; to demons, A, 58; H, 198 ; Sprenger, 77 ; human, A, 133; As, 223 ff.; H, 221 ff. See also under the names of sacrificial animals. Sa‘dadin, 80. INDEX. 277 V Sadunu, xxxvii. Sadur, xxxii. Saffron in magic, As, liii; H, 147, 161, 164. Safrie, 62. Saint-Aiibin, 239. Saints, A, 79 ff. ; inflict punishment, A, 97; in India, 78. Sakai of Perak, 21, 253. Sakilbir-^scvA,, xliv. Saknet Abu Darwish, 105. Sala, 245. Salt in magic, A, 88, 119 ; As, xxvii, xlii, liii; Borneo, 163 ; H, 89, 102 ; Pal, 102. Samaria, xxx. v Samas, xxi, xxii (Sun), xxiv, xxvi, xxxix, xlii, xliii (Sun), xliv (Sun), xlv, xlvii (Sun), lxii (Sun), 26, 33, 34, 64, 67 (Sun), 122 (Sun), 126, 152, 154 (Sun), 157, 158, 160 (Sun), 187 (Sun), 188, v 210, 214, 217, 245, 252 (Sun). Samas-sum-ukin, 10, 55, 56, 97. Sammael, 86, 87. Samson, 38, 73, 78. Samuel, 9, 24. Sandarach, lxvii. Sappan, xxvii. Sarah, 73, 78. Sarah, daughter of Raguel, lvii, 74, 75, 134. Sar-azag-ga , 160. Sarpanitum, 56, 138, 245. Sarpedon, 72. Satan, xxxii ff., 42, 74, 86, 87, 100, 222, 223; the Devil, 23 ; the enemy, 54. Saturday, A, xxxi; II, 15, 119. Saturn, 222. Saul, 9. Scapegoat, 178, 182 ff., 200; no proof of its existence in Assyria, 185. Scarlet in magic, H, lv, 185, 188; threads or hair in magic, see Red. Scents, Oriental desire for, 133. ‘ Scheiss-Teufel,’ 72. Scorpio, moon in, unlucky time for weddings, A, 134. Scorpion in magic, A, 20, 173 ; S, 54. Scorpion-men, 81. Sea in magic, 180; A, 231; As, xxiii, xlv, lii, liv, lix, 25, 55, 88, 159, 205, 208, 214, 230 ; E (Eth), 155, 156; M, 157, 206; P, 230; S, liii; haunted, 39 (cf. 47); see Incantation of the Beep. Sea-monster, 64 ff. Seals in magic, C, 173; H, lxii; of demon, 149. Seda, 44. Sedim, 44, 55, 56, 58; see Demons. Seda, liii, 43ff., 100, 245; see Demons. SePar change to were-wolve^, 57. Seiyid Ahmed el-Bedawi, 79. Selangor, lii. Semi-human spirits, 2, 65, 93; see Demons. Senecio vulgaris, xliv. Senjero, 237. Sennacherib, xxii, 12, 40, 230. Sephardim, 138. Sepher Raziel, lxviii. September in magic, Incas, 184. Seraph, lviii. Serpent, see Snake. Servius Tullius, 72. Sesame in magic, A, xlix ; As, xxvi. Sesame-wine in magic, As, xlii, xlv, 34. Seven in magic, A, xx, 5, 16, 37, 58, 62, 89, 166, 167, 169, 207, 229; As, liii, lviii, lix, 32, 33, 100, 138, 166, 167, 170, 187, 188, 206, 208, 214; Babar, 201; Borneo, 163; C, 173; H, lv, lxiv, 17, 21, 27, 144, 170, 185ff., 217, 252; I, 162; M, 36, 205; N.T., 52; P, 168; S, 114. See Demons, the Seven Spirits. Seyf el-Mulook, 37. Seyide, 231. Shabriri, 30 (see lxii). Shade of moonlight haunted, see Demons. Shadowless demons, II, 61. Shalameans, 11. Shammar, xxix. Shans of China, 184. Shaving in magic, A, xxxi, 229 ; As, 153 ; S, 114. Sheba, 57. Shebat, 56. 278 INDEX. Sheep, A, 16, 226, 227, 229, 231 ; Ab, 104; As, 49, 50 ff., 157; H, 219, 233, 252 ; Malagasy, 213; S, 51. Shem, 9. Shemal, 139. Sheol, 3, 4, 6, 9, 234 ; see Underworld. Shewbread, 207. Sbi’ab tradition, 28. Sbibbeta, 129. Ships in magic, 154ff.; A, 231 ; As, 230, 253; H, 186, 189, 254 ; E, 1. Sbitil, 5. Shoes worn by women in childbed, H, 119; but [not by one carrying corpse, H, 119; in magic, As, 153; H, 184. Shoulders in magic, A, 211; I, 163. Shroud in magic, H, 169. Sibylline books, xxxvi. Sickness due to demons (see Demons), As, 96; Celebes, 163; N.T., ‘Chal¬ deans,’ 100; to eclipse, As, 55 ; to saints, A, 97 ; to gods, 96; to breach of tabu, 96, 119, 191 ff., 218; to unwashed bands, 129; to eating fish or dates, 141; to crossing a river, 141. Si’lat, 70. Silk in magic, A, Ixvii; Ab, 164; H, xx; I, 164. Siloam, 31. Silver in magic, A, xxix, lxiii, 89; P, lxii. Simon of Samaria, xxx. Sin, xxiv, xxvi, xxxix, 55, 245 ; see Moon-god. Sin, 193 ; origin of, among Semites, 128. Sin-offering, 182ff., 194, 216, 218,243. Sinai, 117. Sinaitic Peninsula, xliv, lviii, lxiii, 40, 59, 89, 159, 173. Sin jar Hills, 6. Sippar, xxi, xxii. Sirens, 68. S’irim, 57, 59. Sisters, two marrying on the same day tabu, H, 135. Sitlamtaea, lix. Sit-napishtim, 12. Situa, 184. Six in magic, H, xxxi, 102. Sixty in magic, H, 91. Skimming-spoon in magic, H, 118. Skin in magic, A, 211 ; As, 187 ; Eth, 148. Skull in magic, A, 256. Sleep, A, xxx; magic does not work if sorcerer is asleep, A, xxxii. Smoke in magic, H, lxviii. Snake in magic, A, 20 ; As, 12, 49, 54, 63, 64; E, xviii, xix; H, xxxi; S, 54 ; form of Jinn, 57. Soda , Arab demon, 107. Solomon, 57, 77, 106, 150, 180, 231 ; Baths of, 79. Solwdn, 147. Son of God, 73, 74 ; see B'ne Elohim. Soudan, xxxvi, lxiii, 10, 11, 60. Soul, see Ghost ; hymn of, S, 5 ; beliefs concerning, 3 ff. ; transmigration of, see Ghost ; external soul, see Ghost. South Sea Islands, 53. Sozomen quoted, 79, 107. Spain (‘ ex Gagate’), lxii. Sparrow in magic, A, 37. Speaking with tabooed person renders tabu, Sab, 119. Spearworts in magic, II, 91. (repayla, 216. Spices in magic, H, 147 ; M, lii. Spinning in magic, As, lxiv, 166, 167, 171; P, 167. Spirit, see Demons , Ghosts ; spirit-wife, 66, 67 ; classes of, 2. Spitting in magic, Homan, 227. Spittle in magic, 33, 145 ; A, xv, 89, 107, 147, 168 ; As, 33, 153, 185, 206 ; Ibn Khaldun, 145 ; M, 22, 36 ; N.T., 147 ; Psellus, xxx. Sprenger quoted, xxx, lxiv, 69, 77. Spring in magic, A, 211. Square in magic, H, 186, 189. St. Anthony, 54, 105. St. Cyprian, 42. St. George, 231. St. John, liv. St. Maxime de Turin, 53. St. Nino, 33. St. Paul, xxx, 74. St. Peter, lxvi. INDEX 279 Stag in magic, Abipones, 127. Stench drives away demons, see Demons. Stick in magic, H, xxxi. Stolen money to be restored by magic, A, 62. Stone in magic, A, xxxiii, 89, 15Sff. ; As, lxiii; H, lxviii, 18, 207; I, lix ; S, 83, 89 ; Y, 31 ; Philosopher’s Stone, xx. Stones thrown by demons, A, 18. Storm-god, see Adad. Storms caused by demons, As, 43, 48, 54; Med, 48. Strabo quoted, xxxv. Street (market-place, broad places) in magic, As, 41, 43, 44, 47, 129, 160, 166, 204, 213. Suakin, xxxvi. Subari, xxiii. Subarti, 240. Substitutes in magic, 103, 163, 178, 180, 183, 195, 202, 218; A, 177, 229; As, 178, 206, 208, 211; G, 230; H, 212 (cf. 225, 226 ff.) ; M, 162, 230; N.T., 209. Succuba, succubus, 23, 68 ff., 171. Suez, 40. Sugar in magic, Pal, 102. Sulphur in magic, G, 106 ; M, lviii. See Brimstone. v Suma, xxxvii. Suma-ukina, xxxvii. Sumatra, 183. y /S^wtf-flesh, 158. Sumerians, 178. Summer in magic, 135. Sun (see Samas), Esquimaux, 184; H, 11; South Sea Islands, 53; unclean woman not allowed to see, 133 ; sun¬ rise in magic, A, 159 ; As, xxvii, xlii, 165, 254 ; sunset in magic, As, xxvii, 56, 187, 217 ; M, lviii. y u Surpu-series, xxxix. Surrounding with water, H, 107; with meal, As, 204 ; with lime, As, lvii ff. See also Circle. Swallows in magic, A, 61 ; As, 49 ; Sumatra, 183. Sweat in magic, Eth, 148. Sweetmeats in magic, Pal, 102 ; Sab, 14. Sword in magic, see Iron. “ Sword of Moses,” lxviii, 169. Sympathetic magic, 142ff., 173, 178. Syria, passim. Tabarjan, 14. Tabernacle, lv, 130. Tabernacles, Feast of, 182. Table in magic, As, xlii, 25. Tabu, xxi, xxii, xxxix, xl, liv, lxvii, 95ff., 108ff., 130 ff., 178, 180ff., 231, 245ff.; contagious, 30, 108, 125ff., 182, 190 ; H, Maori, 215 ; holy, 110, 245; unclean, 110, 254; touching herein , H, 176, 215 ; speaking with tabooed person, As, Sab, 119; cleansed, As, 186 ; overcome by magic, As, 165. — on adultery, 247. ’ — on beasts, 252; M, 23; passing under the rope of a camel, or under the camel itself, or betweeu two camels, H, 117. — on bribery, 249. — on cardinal sins, 125, 128 ; H, 182. See also under the names. — on clothes, etc. ; clean clothes, As, 139 ; wearing phylacteries, H, 15; putting on shoes, H, 119, 184. — on cursing, 139. — on dead bodies, 109, 112, 190; A, 27, 118, 210; As, 26, 27, 115, 131 ff., 254; H, lvi, 17, 27, 118, 182, 255 ; Iamblichus, 117; S, 114; Tobit, 114 ; passing odour of carcase, H, 117; sleeping in a cemetery, H, 29. — on dregs, As, 126, 254 (cf. 153). — on easing nature, A, 116 ; H, 132. — on families, 246, 247. — on fire, 250, 252 ; As, 140, 254; II, 139. (See also Skeat, Malay Magic, 319.) — on food, H, 184; eating with friends, H, 15; things cooked in fire (on Sabbath), As, 139 ; half-baked bread or meat taken with askimming-spoon, H, 118; bread cooked in ashes or cooked meat, As, 139 ; eating totems, 280 INDEX. 191 ; giving totems (animals) to dogs to eat, Abipones, 127 ; eating torn flesh, H, 207 ; upsetting maize drink, Abipones, 127; drinking vegetables (?), As, 140 (cf. 254) ; drinking water drawn overnight, H, 29; drinking from a graveyard well, H, 118. Tabu on lying, 248 ; H, 182. — on mourning, 251. — on murder, 257. — on murderers, 116. — on nail-parings being scattered, H, 29. — on oaths, 254 ; G, 216 ff.; H, 182, 215, 216 ff. — on offerings, 139, 246. — on perfume, H, 184. — on physician’s work, 139. — on plants, pulling up, 253 ; As', 140 ; M, 22 (cf. xxxi, 165). — on pointing with finger, 252. — on priestly tabus, As, 139 ; H, 182, 202. — on prisoners, 247. — on riding forth, 139. — Royal, As, 138 ff., 202 ; H, 182, 202; Tonga, 215. — Sabbath, 138 ; H, 252; speaking loudly, As, 139, 140 ; riding, As, 139 ; making enquiry, As, 139; cooking, H, 139 (cf. As, 139). — on sedition, 249. — on seeing the sun, 126. — on sexual functions (113, 116): marriage, 113, 134ff.; A, 116 ff.; As, 121 ff., 131, 255; H, 116ff., 184; Iamblichus, 117; Min, 116; cohabitation in bed where child sleeps, H, 135 ; two sisters marrying on same day, H, 135; intercourse with bond¬ maid promised to another, H, 182; menstruation, 113, 190; A, 116 ff.; As, 120 ff., 126, 131, 255 ; H, 116 ff., 136 ; P, 251 ; S, 116 ; issues, 113, 190; As, 121 ff., 131, 255; H, 117, 182; childbirth, 112, 113, 134 ff., 190; As, 122, 131, 135, 255; H, 136, 182. — on sorcery, 252. — on speech, loose, 249. Tabu on stealing and cheating, 248. — on strife, stirring up, 128. — on sunstroke, As, 252. — Tribal, 182. — on various places (253) : threshing- floor, winnowing fan (and meal), 251. — on vessels, 30. — on voice raised (cf. xxxi), 139, 140. — on washing, H, 14, 32, 140, 184 ; unwashed hands, 120, 129ff.; tabu removed by washing, H, 130. See also Washing. — on water, 250; on pouring out, H, 28 ; on the ground, A, Pal, Y, 59; on passing under a bridge over a dry watercourse, H, 117 ; from unclean, I, 163. See also, on Washing. — on weapons, 251. (See also Skeat, Malay Magic , 258, 259.) — on women : a woman passing between two men, or a man passing between two women (risk of menstruous tabu ?), H, 117 ; widowhood, A, 135. — on work, 138 ff. — on writing materials, 251. Tacitus quoted, liii. Tak-i-Bustan, lxii. Takpirtu, xxxviii, 177. Tallow in magic, As, xxvii, 154, 158 ; Maronite, 29. See Wax. Tamar, 66. Tamarisk in magic, A, 88, 253 ; As, xxiii, lii, lviii, 187, 188. Tammuz, 3, 203; month, 64, 139. Tanta, 79. Tantalus, 239. Taper in magic, M, 62 ; see Torch. Tasmit, 245. Tearing up plants in magic, As, 165 ; see Tabu. Teima, 53. Teiresias, 8. Tellal, xxix. T ell-el-kadi, 80. Temple, 93; of Bel, 78; of Ezida, xxxvii; of Hierapolis, liii; of Jerusalem, 117 ; of Samas, xxii ; of Theban Jupiter, 78; fire-temple, 92. INDEX. 281 Ten in magic, H, xxxi; M, lii. Tent, sacrifice for, 228. Terah, 222. Terebinth in magic, 139. Tertullian quoted, 9. Test of amulet, lxiii. Thabatha, 107. Theban Jupiter selects woman, 78. Theft (stolen money) to be restored by magic, A, 62. Thickets haunted, 90. Thigh, 158; of woman, swelling, H, lv ; of camel in magic, Sab, 14. Thirty in magic, As, 209 ; S, 114. Thirty-six in magic, As, xlii. Thomas of Marga quoted, 92. Thorn in magic, A, lviii; As, 33 (?), 34, 206, 253. Threads in magic, A, lxvii, 169 ; H, lxvii, 146 ; coloured or variegated (see Coloured and Cord), A, 169; As, 33, 165, 170; H, 146 ; L, 164; M, 162. Three in magic, A, lxvii, 37, 38, 42, 89 ; As, xxvi, xlii, xliv, xlv, Ixiv, 26, 34, 157, 161, 167, 171, 214; E, 222; H, 53, 89, 129,144 (?), 146, 186, 189, 212; I, xxviii, 163, 164 ; M, lviii, 162, 205 ; Maronite, 29 ; P, 168; Roman, 227; Test, of Sol., 43. Three hundred and sixty in magic, As, xlv. Threshold in magic, 135 ; A, 17, 30, 77, 227, 228; As, xxvi, lix, lxiv, 152, 188; H, 89, 170; M, lviii; Pal, 102; S, 115. Throne of God, A, 5, 52. Throne-bearers, 47, 48, 52; but see Appendix, 256. Thunder in magic, A, 171 ; bolt, As, lxii; stone, H, 161. Tiamat, xl, 195. Tiberias, 18. Tigris, xxxv, lvii, 25. Tigritiya, Abyssinian madness, 104. TVi- series, xli. Timarchides quoted, 130. Timor-laut, 156. Tisri, month, xxxviii, 14, 210, 212. Tobacco in magic, Borneo, 163; E. Indies, 156. Tobias, lvii, 74, 75, 134. Tobit, lvii, 114, 134; cf. 135 for similar story. Toe, place of exit for demon, A, 105, 106. Tomb, see Grave. Tonga, 215. Tongue in magic, C, etc., 172. Tonquin, 184. Tooth in magic, A, xliv, 174; As, xliii, xliv ; China, M, xliii. Torch in magic, As, lvii, 28, 160, 202, 204, 208 ; see Taper. Torn flesh, H, 207. Tortoise in magic, As, 33 (?); Abipones, 127. Totems, 191, 221, 235. .Touching corpse of man executed for murder, A, 76 (cf. Appendix, 256). Touching unclean things, see Tabu. Towel in magic, H, 27. Transference of spirits to water, see Demons ; to animals and wax figures, see Atonement. Transmigration, 4ff. ; H, 18, 29. Treasures, xlix, 62. Trees in magic, xviii, 201; H, xxxii; S, xlvii. Trespass offering, 177, 180, 182. Trinity, lx, 51. Tripoli, 17. Trumpet in magic, A, 5 ; H, 21, 53. Tuesday in magic, H, 30, 58. Tumru , 139. Tuna, Esquimaux spirit, 184. Turning seats upside down after death, H, 15. Twelve in magic, As, xlii, 161. Twenty in magic, As, xxxi, 141. Twenty-eight in magic, As, 138. Twenty-five in magic, As, xxxi. Twenty-one in magic, As, 138; I, 164. Twenty-seven in magic, As, 210. Twenty-two in magic, As, xxxi; I, 164. Twigs in magic, As, 166, 212, 213. Two in magic, A, lxvii, 46; As, xxxi, xlv, li, lix, 165, 166, 202, 204, 212; H, lxvii, 46, 144, 164, 200; M, 22 ; 282 INDEX. S, liii; see Coloured for two-coloured cords. Two Brothers, Tale of the, 37. Tyndareus, 216. Tyrol, 137. Uhuti, 78. Ultz (Westphalia), 239. TJmm-el-Subyan , 42. Unas, xlix. Unburied ghost, see Ghost. Unclean: beasts, 4, 191, 215If. ; food, 203 ; place, H, 91, 200. Underworld, A, 5, 58 ; As, xlvii, 3, 8, 12, 49, 82, 97, 99 ; E, xlix, 8 ; Eth, 6 ; H, 3, 4 ; Melanesia, 22 ; (Kutha), 32, 33 ; (Ekurra), 58, 82. See Sheol. Unguent in magic, A, xxx ; As, liii, 35, 152, 161 (?). Unripe things in magic, H, 135. Untimely birth as ghost, see Abortion. Untimely dead as ghost, see Ghost. Unwashed hands in magic, As, 120; see Tabu. 1 Unwitting’ sins, 182, 191 ff. ; cf. 255. JJpuntu- meal or -plant in magic, 9, 26, 56, 150, 158. Ur, 222. Ura, 84 ff. Urine, lxv ; of ass in libation, As, 34 ; of camel as medicine, A, 173. Urisu, 224. Urkarinnu-vtood , xxxviii. JJsurtu , xxiii, lviii, 126. Uterus of animals in magic, 201. JJtukkx limnuti , xl. Utukku, 8, 39, 44, 45, 97. Vampires, 52. Variegated threads or hair in magic, As, 33; see Coloured. Veils protect from demons, 74. Venus, lxii, 79, 223. Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, 239. Vinegar in magic, A, 174 ; H, 164. Virgin kid, As, 166, 167. Virgin lamb, As, 167. Virgin Mary, lxvi, 64, 73, 74, 138, 207. Virgin parchment, H, 160. Virgins as ghosts, see Ghosts married to spirits ; see Women. Viscera in magic, H, 197. Vomiting in magic, As, 153, 204, 250; M, 36. Wafer, Holy, in magic, 123. Waist in magic, I, 163. Washing in magic, A, 122, 126, 135, 256 ; As, xx, lii, 34, 122, 129 ff., 188, 202, 208, 212, 213, 254; G, lv, 130; H, 14, 28, 129, 140, 184, 187 ; I, 163 ; Roman, 227; S, 115; Tonga, 215. Watches of the night, As, xxvii; see Morning and Middle. Water in magic, li, lxi, 218; A, lxvii, 28-32, 77, 114, 117, 130, 135, 256 ; As, xxii, xxvi, xxvii, lii, liii, 25, 26, 28-32, 34, 98, 100, 123, 129ff., 152, 153, 157, 160, 161, 166, 187, 188, 202, 208, 212-14 ; E (Eth), 155; G, 28 ; H, xviii, lv, lviii, 27-32, 91, 129, 146 ; I, xxviii, 162, 163 ; M, lii; Malagasy, 213; Maronite, 28-32; Pal, 102, 107 ; S, lxv ; Tonga, 215. Running, A, 79 ; H, lvi, 29, 164 (cf. 117), 185, 188 (cf. As, 254). Spring, Roman, 227. Watering-places haunted, 90 ; give con¬ ception, 79, 80; troubled by spirit, 80. Wax in magic, xli, xlvi, li, 142, 159 ; As, 115, 150; E, 143, 149, 222 ; (Eth), 156; H, 144; M, 145, 205; impassable by demons, A, 106 (cf. wax dropped in water at Maronite baptism, 29). Weddings, A, 30, 134 ; H, 135 ; Y, 31. Wednesday in magic, Y, 134. Wells in magic, A, lxvii, 5, 168 ; II, 146 ; haunted, see Demons. West in magic, As, xxvii, 84, 159, 162, 253 ; E, 8 ; H, 164 ; I, xxviii. Westcar Papyrus, 143. Wheat in magic, As, xlii, xlv ; H, xxxi; Pal, 102. See Corn. ‘ Wheat-stones,’ lxiii ff. White in magic, A, xx, lv, 5, 105 ; As, 161, 165, 170,171, 203; H, 30, 212. INDEX. 283 Wicks in magic, lxiv. Widowhood unclean, A, 135, 187. Wier quoted, 69, 82. Willow in magic, H, 170. Wind in magic, As, 7, 8, 54, 60, 83; bears tabu, Sab, 119 (cf. As, 166); sorcery, H, 147. Wine in magic, A, 210; As, xlv, lii, 158, 187 ; H, 201. Wiping away a tabu, 215. Wise-woman, As, 121, 165, 166 ; Babar, 201 ; Borneo, 36, 163 ; I, 164. Witches, xxi, xxivff., 68, 77, 147, 150 ff., 166, 188, 252. «Witting ’ sins, 217. Wizards, 68 ; casting spell, xxiv ff., lxiv, 166; Ab, 103; wise-man, Borneo, 36. Wolf, S, 54. Wolves, were-, 57. Women married to spirits, 72 ; see Virgins (see also Barren and Ghosts) ; stepping over nail-parings, H, 147. Wood in magic, A, xviii, 8 ; As, xliii, 154; Borneo, 163. Wool in magic, A, lxvii; Ab, 164 ; As, 167, 171, 192; H, lxvii, 164. Word of power, xlviff., lx, lxvi, lxvii, lxviii, 31, 42. Worm in magic, A, xliv, 210 ; As, xliii. (On worms in teeth see Skeat, Malay Magic , 359.) Wormwood in magic, H, 87. Wotyaks, 184. Wrist in magic, A, 169 ; P, 168. Xenocrates quoted, 203. Xerxes, xxxvi, 230. Yaghuth, 158. Yahweh, xviii, lv, (lxvi), 4, (6), 9, (11), 12, 24, 29, (33), (38), (51), (52), (58), (66), 73, (74), 78, 86, (107), (118), 139, 140, (148), (149), (158), (172), 176, 182, 187, 197, 216, 219, 220, 222, 226, 231, 236, 246. Yellow in magic, I, 163. Yezidis, 6, 31, 59. Yuseph el-hagg, liv. Zammaru- priests, xxi ff., xlv (‘singer’) Zebedani, 226. Zemzem, 5, 80. Zerka Ma‘in, 59. Zeus, 254. Zoroaster quoted, 119 (cf. 52) Zu, 11. 285 LIST OF BIBLICAL QUOTATIONS. Genesis :— xxi, 1, 2 . xxii, 1 ff. xxix, 31 . xxx, 14 page 73, 78 220 78 lxiv Exodus :— iv . . . viii, 19 xii, 23 . . xiii, 2, 12 ff. xiii, 13 xiii, 19 . xv, 25 . . xvii, 6 . . xviii, 15 ff. xix, 15 xxi, 17 xxii, 1 . . xxii, 18 xxii, 20 . xxii, 28 . xxii, 31 xxiii, 1 xxiii, 4 xxiii, 8 xvm, xix 97 86 219 220 10 xviii xviii . 219 117, 247 . 247 . 248 xxix, 252 . 246 246, 249 . 207 . 248 . 252 . 249 xxix, Iff. 182 xxix, 12, 14 xxx. . . xxx, 10, 15 xxxii, 33 . xxxv, 3 ,194,198 198 194 182 12 139, 251 Leyiticus :— i.182 i, 1-7 . . . . 198 iii, 16 . . . . 197 iv . . . 194, 198 iv, 1 ff., 3, 13 ff. 182 iv, 22 . . 140, 182 iv, 27 ff. . . . 182 v .215 v, Iff., 15 ff. . 182 sviticus (cont '.— page Numbers:— page v, 2. . . . 27 i, 51 . . 13Q. vi . . . . 182 iii, 12 . . 236 vii, 38 . . . 198 iii, 13 . . 220 viii, Iff. . 182, 194 v, 1 . . 114 116 ix . . 182, 194, 198 v, 6 . . 182 ix, 9-15 . . 198 v, 11 ff. lv x, 1, 2 . . . 139 vi, 1 . . 114 x, 16-20 . . 198 vi, 9 ff. 182 xi, 29-38 . . 30 vi, 13 ff. . 182 xii, 2 . . . 136 viii, 6 . . 182 xii, 2 ff. . . 182 ix, 6 . . 114 xiii . . 182 xv, 24 182 xiv . . . 182, 194 xv, 27 . . 182 xiv, 38, 46 . 187 xv, 38 . . 164 xiv, 51, 52 . 188 xvi, 26 108 XV . . . 116, 194 xvi, 46 182 xv, 2 ff. . . 182 xviii, 15 ff. 219 , 220 xv, 16-18 . 117 xix, 1 ff. . lv xv, 19 . . . 136 xix, 10 187 xvi . . 182 184, 198 xix, 15 28 xvii, 7 . . 59, 198 xix, 16. 17 xvii, 11, 14 . 195 xix, 17 ff. 182 xvii, 15 . 130 xxii, 4 116 xviii, 1 ff. . . 247 xxii, 5 XXV xviii, 19 . . 118 xxiii, 24 . 241 xix, 11 . 248 xxiv, 8 241 xix, 12 . 254 xxviii . 182 xix, 15 117, 249 xxix, 1 ff. 182, 202 xix, 19 . lxvii xxxi, 19-24 116 xix, 20 ff. . 182 xxxi, 22, 23 lviii xix, 26, 31 . 252 xix, 32 . 247 Deuteronomy :— xix, 35, 36 . 248 xii, 16 • • 29 xx, 2 . . . 222 xii, 23 • • 195 xx, 6 . . . 252 xii, 30, 31 • • 222 xx, 9, 10 . . 247 xviii, 10 . • • xxix xxi, 10 . 251 xviii, 11 . • • 252 xxii, 4 . 27, 116 xviii, 18 . • • 222 xxii, 14 . 182 xix, 14 • • 248 xxii, 27 . 252 xxi, 1 . . • • 200 xxiii . . 182, 194 xxii, 1 . . • • 252. 286 LIST OF BIBLICAL QUOTATIONS. Deut. (cont.):— page xxii, 6 . 252 xxiii, 21 . . 246 xxv, 13-15 . 248 xxvi, 14 . . 14 xxvii, 16 . 247 xxvii, 17 . . 248 xxxii, 17 . • 44 Joshua : — vi, 23 . . . 200 vi, 26 . . . 228 vii .... 176 viii, 29 . . 13 Judges :— xiii, 3 . . . 73, 78 1 Samuel:— ii, 6 ... 9 iv, 7 . . . 158 xxviii, 7 . . 9 xxviii, 14 . . 4 2 Samuel:— xxiv, 16 . . 86 1 Kings : — xviii . . . xviii 2 Kings : — v, 10 . . . liv xvi, 3 . . . 222 xvii, 31 222 xix, 35 86 xxiii, 10 . . 222 1 Chronicles xxi, 1 . . . 87 Job : — i, ii . . . . 87 ii, 13 . . . 15 iv, 15 . 8, 40 vii, 10 . . . 3 x, 21 . . . 3 xi, 8 3 xvii, 16 . . 3 Psalms : — xxix, 3-9 . . 30 lxxxviii, 5 4 lxxxix, 48 87 cvi, 37. . . 44 , 222 cvi, 38. . . 222 cix, 6 . . . 87 Proverbs :— xxvii, 9 • • page 133 xxx, 15 • • 63 Ecclesiastes : iv, 12 . . • • 167 Isaiah :— vi, 6 . . lviii viii, 19 14 xiv . . . 4 xxxviii, 10 3 xxxviii, 18 4 xlvii, 12, 13 XXXV lvii, 8 . . 128 Jeremiah :— vii, 18 . . 207 vii, 30-2 . 222 viii, 1 ff. . 10 xi, 19 . . 205 xix, 3-5 . 222 xxxii, 35 . 222 Ezekiel : — iv, 1, 2 . 156 xiii, 18 38 xvi, 20, 21 222 xxiii 73 xxxii, 27 . 4 xliii, 7-9 . 114 xliii, 18 if. 182 xlv, 18 if. 182 Hosea :— ix, 4 14 J ONah : — i, 14 . . 1 i, 17 . . 53 Zechariah :— iii . . . 87 Matthew : — iii, 5 . . liv iv, 1 . . 91 vii, 22 . . xlvi viii, 28 ff. 208 xii, 24 . . xlvi xvii, 14 . 101 xxvii, 24 . 130 Mark :— v, 1 ff. . 208 vii, 22 . . 88 Mark (cont.):— ;page ix, 14 . . . . 101 ix, 38 . . . . xlvi Luke:— iv, 34 . . . . 149 viii, 26 ff. . 208 ix, 49 . . . . xlvi xi, 24 . . . 50, 91 John:— v, 4 . . . . 80 x, 20 . . . . 60 Acts :— viii, 9 . . . . xxx xii, 7 ff. . . . lxvi xiii, 6 . . . . xxx xvi, 16 . . . xxx xix, 13 . xxx xix, 19 . xxx, xxxvi 1 Corinthians x, 20 . . . . 198 Hebrews :— ix, 22 . . 195 Revelation :— iii, 1 . . . . 52 iv, 5 . . . . 52 v, 6 ... . 52 ix, 7 . . • . 81 xii, 4 . . . . 43 xv, 6 . . . . 51 xviii, 2 . 92 Tobit : — i, 16 . . . . 24 ii, 9 . . . . 114 iii, 17 . . . . 74 vi, 7 . . . . lvii vi, 14 . . . 74, 134 viii, 2 . . lvii, 134 viii, 3 . . . lvii xii, 12, 15 . 52 Wisdom : — xii, 4-6 . . . 222 Ecclesiasticus : xxi, 27 . . . 87 Baruch :— vi, 29 . . . . 121 ERRATUM. Page 163, line 12. For pot read foot. Date Due in u BF1591.T47 Semitic magic, its origins and Prin ceton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 1 1012 00000 0317