^^^\Mji LIBRARY AT PRIMCETOW, N. J. liON^TIOX or SAM V Kl. AONKW, OK (• H 1 I. 1 II K I, P H I \. PA. Letter (J -Z, ^~ £~^ ~ ^ J? /*> (] Case, Division A. '|| Slu'tf. Section »! I """'■■' No_ f[ 4^£:<^^>€ -->^=a-C:C.<^=i^- c t^S>; e<^^Ge^^>0 ^ A CHRONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. A CHRONOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, BEING A NEW INQUIRY INTO THE TRUE DATES OF THE BIRTH AND DEATH OF (Bill' iLorlr antr ^abiour 3es(iisf €f)vi^t; AND CONTAINING AN ORIGINAL HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS, NOW FIRST AURANGED IN THE ORDER OF TIME. REV. SAMUEL FARMAR JARVIS, D.D. LL.D. HISTORIOGRAPHER OF THE CHURCH, MKMUKn OF THE AMEIIICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIfeTY OF PlI ILADELFUIA ; THE AMERICA?! ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENfUS OF BOSTON ; TUK AMEUICAN ANTiqUABIA>i SOCIETY OF WOHCESTEH, MASSACHUSETTS; THE IIISTOKICAL SOf lETIKS OF ?tEW YORK A K I) CONNECTICUT ; CUllU&SFOKi>IN G X MLMBfaR OF THE ^ATIO^AL INSTITUTE AT WASUIAOTON ; ETC. ETC. ETC. LONDON: W. J. CLEAVER, BAKER STREET, PORTJIAN-SQUARE. J'.DlCC.XLIV. LONDON : KICIIAUDS, I'ltlNTKR, 100, ST. MARTIN'S LANE, CIIAKING CROSS. ERRATA. Though the following work has been read with great care during its passage through the press, yet a number of inaccuracies, chiefly in the Greek accents, occurred, which it is hoped the learned reader will himself correct. The following are the most material errors affecting the sense : P. 34 for Manacius read Munatius 53, Table „ 2954 „ 3954 55, summary of Chapter III. after Macrobius dele Theodosius Junior 88, Calendar of Ancient Church, opposite April 25, above vi. insert the Golden Number xvii. 89, Calendar of Julius Cfesar, column 6, ./or Virgilise read Vergilise 91, Ibid, for September, /o/- 8pia Virginis read Spica Virginis 92, Ibid, for October and November, yor Virgiliae read Vei'gilise 98 for others read other 120, 1.22 from top 2967 3967 153, column of Var. Cen. , , fratrum „ fratrem 162, Var. Inscrip. ,, , Seganius „ Sigonius 169, 1. 18 from top , 334 354 „ I. 19 from top , 42' 12' 174, 1. 14 from top , , twenth -seventh „ twenty-seventh 189, summary of Chapter , , Consul „ Consuls 200, last line , 4586 „ 4686 257, 1. 22 from top , , I'elays „ supplies 264, 1. 17 from top , , miserable flock-bed „ mattress 268 , were ignorant „ was ignorant 272, years of Julius Ca?sar , 375 „ 275 279 Galba - Galba ' Pollione Pollion 280, Cassiodorus , Vespasianus vn. Vespasianus vi. Titus V. Titus V. 294, 1. 12 from top „ non nobis est „ non nostrum est 296, 1. 3 from bottom , Domitianus xii. „ Domitianus xiv. 299, 1. 5 from bottom life St. Clarus Part II. Hfe of St. Cletus 381, 1. 4 from bottom / or ther read their „ 1. 2 from bottom , , fifteenth „ fiftieth 383, note, 1. 23, column 2 , „ feternum „ fpternam 438, 1. 15 from top , „ convey „ convej's 447, 1. 3 from top , was not impossible „ was not possible 472, Jewish Comp. Sab. Great Paschal to be placed lower down, opposite Saturday 474, Sunday letter F omitted, October 20 525, 1. 19 from top for archbishop's read archbishop eliptical „ elliptical reson „ reasons 527 554 PREFACE. The immediate occasion and motives of the follomng work will be best shown by the annexed extracts from the Journals, for 1838 and 1841, of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The Introductory Chapter will also explain all that needed to be said at the beginning concerning its purpose and plan. It remains now, after the task has been accomplished, to give the reader a concise statement of the results. In the First Part, appertaining to ancient history in general, the following have been obtained : First. The ancient dates have been accurately adjusted to the modern, from the year 776 before to the year 238 after the received Christian ^ra; a period of 1014 solar or tropical years. Secondly. The supposed discrepancy of one year, be- tween the computations of Varro and the Fasti Capitolini, and other public records of the Roman government, has been sho"\vn not to exist. Thirdly. The consular chronology of Rome has been corrected. The computations of Bianchini, in opposition to those of Petavius and other moderns, have been proved to be the most correct ; while the untenable hypothesis of VI PREFACE. Bianchini, of a suppressed consulship at the close of the reign of Caligula, has been disproved ; and the consulship suppressed, not hy the ancients^ nor hy any act of autho- rity^ hut hy the moderns, in consequence of an error of computation, is shown to have been taken from the last year of the reign of Antoninus Pius. Fourthly. By a careful induction from the Greek and Latin historians of the Roman empire, aided by astrono- mical calculations, the true dates of the deaths of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius, are shown to have been each one year earlier than the dates assigned to those events by modern, in opposition to ancient, writers. Fifthly. The interesting subject of the three times in which the temple of Janus was shut by Augustus, is illus- trated by a careful comparison and examination of ancient historians ; and the truth of the facts recorded by Orosius and other Christian writers, established as distinct from the dates of Orosius, which are proved to be incorrect. Sixthly. The exact date of the associate or proconsular government of Tiberius is shown to have been so much earlier than his sole reign, as to make the nineteenth year of the one coincide partly mth the fifteenth year of the other. Seventhly. The chronology of the Roman emperors has been accurately adjusted by consulships, from the destruc- tion of the republic to the death of the Maximini, and the accession of the younger Gordian. That being the year in which Censorinus wrote, the correctness of his dates, and the exact series of the consulships herein given, are thereby confirmed and demonstrated. In the Second Part, appertaining to our Lord's personal history, the foUo^ving results have been obtained : I. That the ministration of John the Baptist began about the great day of Atonement, at the beginning of PREFACE. Vll Pilate's administration, the fifteenth year of the associate government of Tiberius, and the twelfth of his sole reign. II. That our Lord's ministry began with his baptism, in the fifteenth year of the associate government, and the twelfth year of the sole reign of Tiberius ; and was ended by his crucifixion, in the nineteenth year of that associate government, and in the fifteenth year of his sole reign. III. That our Lord was exactly thirty-three years and three months old at the time of his passion. IV. That the annunciation of his birth by the angel Gabriel probably took place in the very same month in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus the third time, in token of universal peace. V. That our Lord's birth most probably took place on the day in which it is now celebrated ; and that the con- fusion and apparent uncertainty with regard to this subject arises principally from the neglect of direct testimony, and from uncertain and even contradictory computations. VI. That the year of his birth preceded the common Christian tera six years, having taken place in the 747th year of Rome, the year silently adopted by the French Benedictines in their learned work on the Art of Verifying Dates. When it is recollected that the present work is strictly and truly written from original evidence, unbiassed by theory, and un trammeled by any previous investigation of modern writers, the fact that its results should be in such perfect harmony in various points with some of the most learned and laborious of modern computations, affords internal evidence of its truth, and is in itself a sufficient recommendation to public favour. In saying that it has been written from original evidence, the author must except the calendar of Julius Caesar, and that of the ancient Church, in the third chapter of the vill PREFACE. First Part, which he took from Blondel's " Calendrier Romain." On communicating this calendar, after it was in print, to a learned English friend, various objections were raised to the sixth column, in which the rising and setting of constellations and single stars are mentioned as occurring on certain days. It was further objected, that " Sirius" is never used for the constellation, but only for the brightest star in it ; and that Sirius and the Pleiades rise and set every day, but helincally only at one particular time. On the whole, the calendar has been pronounced to be a patch- Avork from Greek, Egyptian, and Chaldean fragments; showing plainly, if it be Caasar's calendar, that the Romans had no science of their own. And it has been earnestly recommended that the author should add a note upon the subject, if it be only to shelter himself from the imputation of ignorance. But to this he has been averse, for many reasons. That the sixth column is of Roman origin, is evident from the notices it contains of the festivals of the Roman religion, and the dates of political events, many of which relate to the reign of Augustus Ca3sar, and do not come down later. They were added, therefore, after the formation of the calendar, and before the reign of Tiberius. This affords strong internal evidence that the calendar is genuine; and the question whether the Romans were or were not correct, has no special bearing upon the author's purpose. His argument does not depend upon the accu- racy or inaccuracy of astronomical terms. For the benefit of the English reader, a literal translation is given, first, from the French of Blondel, who was no mean astronomer, and, secondly, from the Latin of Petavius, who has given the same calendar in substance as gathered from Ovid, Columella, and other Latin writers. Of what consequence is it whether oritur and occidit are translated "rises" and "sets," or "ascends" and "descends"? The latter may be more consistent with astronomical accuracy, in relation PEEFACE. IX to those stars which never sink below the horizon, but the purpose for which the calendar is inserted in the following work is not thereby affected. As far as the astronomical notices in the sixth column are concerned, that purpose was merely to show that the ancients were too observant of the movements of the heavenly bodies, to depart very materially from the true length of the tropical year. But the great use of the calendar, for which it was principally inserted in this work, is of a much higher and more useful nature. It exhibits, first, the origin of the Sunday from the nundinal series of letters; and, secondly, the pains taken by the ancients in arranging the golden numbers, so as to calculate the lunations of any given year. By the calendar of the ancient Church, the reader will be able to find the approximate new and full moons at any epoch of the Julian period. On account of the pr^ecession of the equinoxes, it will be only an approximation ; but even this will greatly assist his labours, if he wishes to arrive at astronomical accuracy. Any year of the Julian period divided by 19, will give him the golden number, and opposite to that number the new moon of each month, and the number of lunations in the given year. The same may be done by Cassar's calendar, if it be examined by Caesar's cycle. His reformation of the calendar having taken place 45 solid years before the common Christian sera, that number being added to any year of Christ, until the change of the Gregorian calendar, and divided by 19, mil give the golden number according to Caesar's arrange- ment. Opposite to that number is the day of the new moon. A difference of from one to two days will invari- ably be found between that and the Nicene computation ; but this, it is believed, only shows the progress which astronomical science had made between Caesar's time and the fourth century after Christ. b PEEFACE. Other suggestions have been made by English friends, principally with a view of meeting objections which may arise from the celebrity of modern writers, whose compu- tations or conjectures differ from the results obtained in the following pages. But to meet objections is always an odious as well as an endless task ; and the author can only repeat here in less quaint language, what he has elsewhere said, that if truth be established, error will fall of itself.* He venerates, for example, the labours and the name of Niebuhr; but that great historian, in his remarks on the Eoman computation of time, has committed mistakes ; principally from relying too implicitly upon the confident assertions of Scaliger, and neglecting in some cases his own canon, of always examining the original sources of evidence. This canon the author of the present work has endeavoured always to follow ; grateful for the aid of pro- found thinkers and clear writers, but never willing " jurare in verba magistri." Owing to his retired situation, he had not had the advantage of consulting Mr. CHnton's admirable "Fasti Hel- lenici," till he arrived in London ; and, during his residence there, the most learned " Ordo SaBclorum" of Mr. Browne was published. Both, however, have adopted the faulty arrangement of the Consular Chronology, probably from considering it as definitively settled ; and so far they differ from the present work. With this exception, the author has been happy to find a great deal of harmony between their inductions and his own: and it is very satisfying to perceive so many points of agreement among writers in * Allusion is here made to a note relating to Pagi, the learned commen- tator on Baronius. The concluding paragraph of that note is in bad taste, and the author intended to have cancelled it ; but in the haste with which a part of the work has been sent to press, he found to his mortifi- cation that it was printed before his correction was received. PREFACE. XI distant countries who are simultaneously pursuing like objects of inquiry. Mr. Greswell's learned and laborious work the author has had no opportunity to examine ; but if Mr. Browne's judgment of it be correct, the method pursued is the very reverse of that which has here been followed. It may here be proper to remark, that the author's anxiety to give his quotations accurately, has led to some apparent unsteadiness, and even contradiction in spelling, especially proper names. In his own writing he has en- deavoured to preserve correctness and uniformity; some- times, however, variations have occurred from inadver- tence; and sometimes where common usage is unsteady, one or the other practice has been indifferently followed. In order to render the present work more useful, the plan of a new harmony of the Gospels, the result of pre- ceding proofs and calculations, and a sjmoptical table of the hundred years from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius, have been added as the concluding chapters of the Second Part. According to the arrangements recom- mended in the first, the reader may easily arrange for him- self the Evangelical history ; and the last he will find of great use, if he keeps it before him, and at every step of his progress refers to it as he reads, whenever dates are mentioned, and the course of history is pursued. The author cannot close his preface without acknow- ledging, as he does most gratefully, the uniform kindness and encouragement which he has received, both in England and America, in the prosecution of his laborious work. His thanks are more especially due to the Rev. H. H. Norris of Hackney, Lis earliest English friend ; the Rev. T. Bowdler ; the Rev. T. H. Home ; the Rev. W. Palmer, the well known author of the Origenes Liturgicte, and other learned works; the Rev. W. Scott, of Christ Church, Hox- xii PREFACE. ton ; and the Rev. Lancelot Sliarpe. The two last-named have kindly aided in revising the press, and the author is greatly indebted to their critical acumen and accuracy. Among the laity of the English Church, Sir R. H. Inglis aided him much by his influence. To his beloved friend Mr. Faulkner of Phillippines, whose acquaintance he first formed in Italy, who then relieved him by his sympathy in hours of deepest anguish, and who has, ever since, been more like a brother than a friend, he wishes to pay this public tribute of regard, not only for his aid in the present work, but for all that he has done heretofore. The labour of superintending the press confined the author in London, and prevented his enjoying the delight of visiting the venerable Catholic remainder of the Scottish Church ; but her bishops have cheered him by their cor- respondence and kind encouragement. As to his own country, beside the sanction given to his work by the proceedings of the bishops, which will be found in the following extracts from the Journals of the General Convention, he is happy to say, not only that the mem- bers of the Protestant Episcopal Church generally, but many other intelligent and pious persons, who are not of his own communion, have evinced an interest in the under- taking highly honourable to their charity. But he is bound more especially to return his thanks to the friends who first suggested and counselled his voyage to England. To that suggestion and counsel he is ultimately indebted for one of the brightest periods of his clouded fife. But there is one, to whose open hand and generous heart an especial tribute is due. Others can bear like testimony for most efficient and vigorous assistance ; and indeed there is no one, and especially no American, whose labours tend to promote the cause of learning and science, and who has come within the reach of his influence, who will not join PREFACE. Xlll with the author in this tribute of heartfelt gratitude to Mr. R. K. Haight, of New York. And now having discharged what he deemed a duty towards his fellow- Christians, the author cannot conclude without humbly imploring the Divine blessing on the work now submitted to the public eye. Though a distinct work in itself, it is only the commencement of those labours which the office of an historiographer of the Church re- quires. But all depends on His will, " without whom nothing is strong, nothing is Holy." Vigour of body, and healthiness of mind — a discernment of truth amid conflict- ing opinions — a charity ever warm though dispassionate among angry assailants — an enduring patience under the fatigues of research, — all these are as much the gifts of the Holy Spirit now, as were those more expanded gifts which on the day of Pentecost were shed abroad on the infant Church. May the same Holy Spirit dwell in the author's heart, and in the hearts of all who shall read these pages. Extracts from the Journals^ of 1838 and 1841, of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church. House of Bishops, Saturday, \Qth September 1838. " On motion of the Right Rev. Bishop Hopkins, the two following resolutions were passed, and sent to the House of Clerical and Lay Depu- ties for concurrence. " Resolved, (the House of Clerical and Lay Deputies concurring), That the Rev. Samuel F. Jarvis, D.D., LL.D., be appointed Histo- riographer of the Church, with a view to his preparing, from the most original sources now extant, a faithful Ecclesiastical History, reaching from the Apostles' times, to the formation of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States." xiv KIEFACE. The second resolution had reference to the History of the Protestant Episcopal Church, by the Rev. Dr. Hawks. House of Deputies, Journal, p. 79. " A message was received from the House of Bishops, transmitting certain resolutions, appointing the Rev. Drs. Jarvis and Hawks to pre- pare an Ecclesiastical History. " Whereupon, on motion, the House concurred with the House of Bishops in passing the said resolutions." House of Bishops, Wednesday, October \Zth, 1841. " A letter from the Rev. Dr. Jarvis, Historiographer of the Church, accompanied by certain manuscripts, was read as follows : Right Reverend Fathers in Christ : — Having been honoured by the General Convention of 1838, with the appointment of "Histo- riographer of the Church," I think it my duty to report to the House of Bishops, with whom the resolution originated, the progress which has been made. It seemed to me that in order to effect the object proposed, it would be necessary, if possible, to settle several contested points, in such a manner as to satisfy both learned and unlearned readers. This could be done in no other way than by laying before them in English, that evidence which is now locked up in foreign languages, and scattered through a great number of volumes, and which, from the paucity of public libraries in our covmtry, is inaccessible even to persons who by their education are fitted to examine the original authors. It is obvious, indeed, that this cannot be done in the whole course of ecclesiastical history, without swelling the work to an enormous extent. It must be confined, there- fore, to points of great importance ; and with respect to the rest, much must be left to the fidelity and accuracy of the historian. But if he be found faithful, and accurate in the discussion of these important points, he will establish a character, both as a reporter and a judge, which wiU make his readers more ready to trust him when called upon to credit his assertions. The exact time of the birth and death of our Saviour, the key-stone by which prophecy as well as history must be sustained, seemed to be one of those important points. This I have attempted to ascertain ; and the attempt has succeeded beyond my most sanguine expectations. With no theory to sustain, and fearing to be misled by the theories of others, I have made use of modei'n writers, only so far as to be led by them to their authorities. In all cases where it was possible, I have gone back directly PREFACE. XV to ancient heathen as well as Christian authors, as being, in the language of your resolution, " the most original soui'ces now extant." Not only has every question been settled on their testimony, but the testimony itself has also been exhibited. "With regard to Latin writers, the original text has been generally subjoined. The fear of swelling the work too much and increasing the expense of publication, has prevented the addi- tion of Greek quotations ; an omission which I regret, but which I have endeavoured as much as possible to remedy by exact references. I have laboured hard to finish the work before the session of the present Convention ; but the cai'es of a parish, the necessary instruction of pupils, and domestic afflictions, have rendered it impossible to get it ready for the press. I am obliged, therefore, to lay it before you in an imperfect state, but it is sufficiently advanced to show its plan, its object, and its success. If it be honoured, Right Reverend Fathers, with your approbation, I propose, after it is published, to add some other dissertations which are nearly ready for the press, and then to go on with the Ecclesiastical His- tory, down to the great schisms by which the Catholic Church was rent in the fifth century. Whether I shall be able to accomplish this, or more than this, depends upon the will of Him, "to whom alone belong the issues of life and death." Being unable myself to attend the General Convention, I have re- quested my assistant, the Rev. John Williams, to proceed to New York, for the pui'pose of submitting my manusci'ipt to your venerable body. I have the honour to remain. Right Reverend Fathers, Your faithful son, and servant in the Lord, SAMUEL FARMAR JARVIS, Rector of Christ Church, Middletown. " Whereupon, on motion of Bishop Hopkins, seconded by Bishop Doane, it was resolved, that the letter and manu- scripts be referred to a committee of the House. " Bishops Hopkins, Doane, and Whittingham, were ap- pointed the Committee. " The Committee to whom were referred the letter and manuscripts of the Eev. Dr. Jarvis, reported as follows : — The Committee to whom were referred the letter and the manuscripts of the Rev. Dr. Jarvis, Historiographer of the Church, beg leave to report as follows : — That they regard, with great satisfaction, the progress which the XVI PREFACE. learned author has made, in preparing for the press the first volume of the series which his appointment as Historiographer was designed to bring forth : and consider it a duty on the part of the Church, to give all the encouragement in their power to its publication. It appears to them, as well from the synopsis of its contents, as from the best examination which their limited time would allow, to be a thorough and comprehensive analysis of all the evidence extant, whether sacred or profane, upon the most diflGlcult and important points in ecclesiastical chronology, namely, the precise years of the birth and death of our Saviour, the Lord Jesus Christ. And the Committee take pleasure in the acknowledgment, that notwithstanding their familiarity with the author's long-established repu- tation for deep and accurate learning, they were struck with the extra- ordinary research and exact fidelity exhibited in the work submitted to them, and hail its production as being calculated to reflect honour upon himself, and the body to which he belongs. With these views, the Com- mittee respectfully recommend the following resolution : — Resolved, That the House of Bishops receive with great satisfaction, the assurance that the first volume introductory to the Ecclesiastical His- tory of the Rev. Dr. Jarvis, their Historiographer, is now ready for publication. They have examined and approve the plan of the work, and commend it to the patronage of the Church. John H. Hopkins, G. W. DOANE. "W. R. Whittingham. " Whereupon, on motion of Bishop de Lancey, seconded by Bishop Onderdonk of New York. ^^ Resolved., That the resolution appended to the Report be adopted." INTRODUCTION. It is an old and familiar observation, that Chronology and Geo- graphy are the two eyes of History. Without a knowledge of both, no historian can write accurately, and no lover of history can read with complete satisfaction or profit. Yet it must be obvious to every one who has at all attended to sacred or profane history, that in both the above-named sciences many disputable points still exist. Among those of chronology are the precise dates of the birth and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. Not surely that any one who takes a Christian view of history can suppose for a moment that either of those events was in itself obscure. Both were predicted, even from the fall ; and a succession of prophecies, brighter and clearer as they advanced, prepared the minds of men for the coming of the Saviour. At the very time of our Lord's birth an intense expectation prevailed. Many were waiting for redemption in Jerusalem. It was revealed to the aged Simeon that he should not die till he had seen the Lord's Christ. Even among the heathen, as we learn from Virgil, Suetonius, Tacitus, and the Magi, rumours of this expected and extraordinary event had gone forth. The heavenly host announced the day and place to the shepherds ; and the providence of God so ordered, that a census was taken in Bethlehem, by command of the Roman em- peror, at the very moment in which the Virgin brought forth, and both she and her infant son were then and there enrolled. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. In like manner the death of our Lord took place under the cog- nizance and by the express permission of the Roman government. Any one who adverts to the jealous scrutiny of that government, and especially to the gloomy and suspicious character of Tiberius, must be convinced a priori that such an event would be noticed in the annual returns of administration sent to Rome. In a word, the birth and death of our Lord Jesus Christ are the centre around which all history moves. These events alone can unfold the operations of the Divine government from the beginning to the end of time ; and therefore they furnish the key to the civil as well as ecclesiastical history of man. No two events in history being then more certain, how comes it to pass that the generality of ecclesiastical historians have left almost unnoticed the chronology of our Saviour's life ? — have aban- doned the subject in despair, and pronounced it to be utterly impossible to ascertain the day of his birth, or the year of his cru- cifixion ? It may well be asked, whether this general abandonment does not proceed, either from an exaggerated estimate of former labours, or from a reluctance to engage anew in dry and laborious investigation. At the revival of learning, many illustrious men engaged with ardour and untiring effort in the attempt to reconcile the ancient with the modern computations of time ; and it may safely be said that no one applied himself to it without clearing up some diffi- culty, and adding something to the stock of general knowledge. But their labours were progressive. Errors were rectified. New discoveries took place. Inscriptions, coins and medals, were con- tinually found, which ascertained dates, and narrowed the grounds of controversy. Lost works were from time to time recovered, either in their original languages or in ancient translations. Even now the researches of the learned are often rewarded with valuable fruit, and the stores of antiquity are found to be yet unexhausted. The progress of astronomical science has shed light upon the dates INTllODUCTION. 6 of ancient history, by the more accurate calculation of eclipses ; and from time to time there have been some, though few, who have ventured, in opposition to the tendencies of the age, to investigate anew and with success the vexed questions of remote antiquity. Where an object, therefore, is of importance, there is no reason to despond, because men of great names have failed, or because much or all of the ground which they have trodden is to be gone over again, and the way is beset with thorns, and is difficult and tedious. If it be asked why the author feels himself called upon to under- take this task anew, the only answer is that he thinks it his duty. By the terms of his appointment he is required to prepare " from the most orio-inal sources now extant, a faithful Ecclesiastical His- tory." He could not meet this requisition fully without a new examination of the original evidence concerning the true time of our Saviour's birth and death. If he fails, he will only share the fate of far abler and riper scholars than himself. If he succeeds, he will be fairly entitled to the thanks of the Christian world. It is no presumption in him to say that the obscurity of the dates now to be made the subject of renewed inquiry, has arisen in great measure from the faulty methods of modern investigation. Some writers have had pre-existing theories to support, by which their judgments have evidently been biassed. Others have taken up the inquiry at wrong points. They have built on the founda- tion of ancient dates and epochs supposed to have been established by preceding writers. Where those writers are at variance, they have often, from various motives, decided in favour of one, without duly weighing the contradictory evidence advanced by others. In this way they have been led into untenable hypotheses ; and in- stead of untangling the mazes of controversy, have rendered the whole subject still more perplexed and intricate. Mistakes of this nature may be looked upon as floating lights in a passage of diffi- cult navigation, warning the cautious mariner to avoid the shoals and rocks which have occasioned former shipwrecks. 4 INTRODUCTION. There is another defect in the character of all former treatises on this subject, which it is important to avoid. They have been written only for the learned, and have referred to, but not produced their authorities. The author, on the contrary, writes for the un- learned as well as the learned ; and his object will be in every case to make his readers acquainted as fully as himself with the testi- mony on which the decision of every question must be founded. For this purpose the following work will be divided into two parts, — the first appertaining to ancient history in general, — the second, to the history of our Lord in particular. The first part, concerning ancient history in general, will be occupied in giving the evidence from original sources of the ancient methods of computing time, and exhibiting the certain laws by which they are to be connected with modern computations now in use. This has been neglected or erroneously stated by most of the writers who have attempted to determine the true dates of our Lord's birth and death. Yet the establishment of the one is abso- lutely essential to the due computation of the other. The first Is the foundation, — the second, the superstructure. Unless the foundation be strongly and firmly laid, the superstructure will be weak, and liable to be overturned. But if both are of solid mate- rials, the whole building will be fitly framed together, being com- pacted by that which every joint supplieth. In the prosecution of this plan, the rules which the writer lays down for his own guidance are the following : 1. To take nothing for granted. Every necessary question, from beginning to end, must be examined on its own merits, and decided by acknowledged authorities from history, verified, wherever the case allows it, by astronomical observations, and arithmetical computation. 2. With regard to all such questions, conjecture Is never to be allowed. In the adjustment of a series of events, where the truth is to be arrived at by approximation, and in the absence of positive INTRODUCTION. 5 testimony, probabilities are to be weighed. But in all cases they are carefully to be distinguished as probabilities only. The reader must be enabled to see where certainty ends, and where probability beo:Ins : so that even if the reasoning of the author be found in- conclusive on any point of this nature, the certainty of established facts will not thereby be weakened. The ordeal of criticism may consume the perishable, but cannot demolish the solid parts of the building. 3. No theory before examination is to be assumed. Testimony is to be followed, whithersoever it may lead. The two great objects to be constantly kept in view must be the investigation of truth for its own sake, and the lucid communication of that truth to others. 4. In the examination of testimony, the original author is, if possible, to be consulted. This inile is as necessary, in order to arrive at the truth of history, as it is in a court of justice to reject hearsay evidence. A fruitful source of error is the copying autho- rities from the works of modern writers on chronology. Each generally brings forward such testimony as he thinks adapted to sustain the point he wishes to prove. They are special pleaders arguing a case. Undoubtedly they are entitled, from their learning and ability, to great respect, and all they say is to be duly weighed ; but the judge notes down the authorities they offer, and then examines them for himself. 5. The testimony of the original witnesses is, as far as possible, to be laid before the reader in the very language of each witness. It has been usual, in writing for the learned, to give only a sum- mary of the ancient testimony, in the modern writer's own words, because it Is presumed that the learned will examine the authors referred to for themselves. But with the best Intentions, the modern writer may make mistakes ; and even if he quote correctly, the passage, separated from its context, may convey wrong Im- pressions to the reader. Nor to the reader can there be the same 6 INTRODUCTION. satisfaction in the mere statement of evidence, as there is in having the very language of the witness laid before him, with such account of the context as will show that no violent disruption takes place, and no perversion of the author's meaning. The present work being designed for the unlearned as well as the learned, literal translations are given in all cases ; and the original text is placed in the margin, or cited so accurately, that the reader who possesses the original may easily turn to it. The author's pains will be amply rewarded, if the subject be placed in so clear a light that any man of plain common sense, who reads his own vernacular tongue, may thereby be enabled to comprehend it. With such rules for his own guidance, the plan he has made for himself in the first part of the work is the following. The Olympiads, being the earliest certain measure of time among profane historians, are the first to be considered ; and their proper adjustment with the modern computations of time, the first question to be decided. The next subject of attention must be the age of Rome. The Latin historians often speak of events as occurring in such or such a year after the building of the city. Hence it is absolutely necessary to determine the connexion of that event, as far as pos- sible, with the Olympiads. After the expulsion of the kings, annual consuls were appointed, and their office became, in consequence, the measure of time. Events are said to occur in such or such a consulate ; and that consulate was understood as denoting a year. Therefore the consideration of the Roman method of computing their years becomes necessary. We must ascertain whether we can rely on their computations as denoting what we mean by the astronomical, solar, or tropical year. The Roman calendar, therefore, as it existed in the dif- ferent changes, from the building of the city to its reformation by Julius Csesar, must be carefully examined. As the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar became the basis of INTRODUCTION. 7 all our modern computations of time, the next ol)ject must be to state the methods taken by modern chronologers to create an universal measure applying equally to ancient and modern com- putations. Hence the formation of Scaliger's Julian Period, and its adaptation must be explained. The mode by which this most important arrangement was accomplished being ascertained, the next step must be to connect with it all the ancient computations of time necessary to our purpose. And, lastly, the verification of the whole must be subjected to a rigid examination of historical testimony, and, wherever it can ap- ply, of astronomical computation. This will occupy the remainder of the first part, appertaining to ancient history in general, and serving only as the foundation of the present inquiry. The second part, relating to the personal history of our Lord, until his ascension into heaven, and the descent of the Holy Ghost, with which great event the history of the Apostolic Church begins, will be arranged in the following manner. The reign of Herod the Great must, in the first place, be care- fully examined, and the date of his death determined as far as it can be, on the testimony of Josephus. This decides the latest possible date of our Lord's birth. The next step will be to determine the extreme limits within which the death of our Lord could have happened, by ascertaining the beginning and end of Pilate's administration. This being decided, the testimony of the Christian Church as to the year of his death must be laid before the reader. It will then be proper to enter into a careful examination of the Gospel history ; — first of his passion ; then of the duration of his ministry, which began from his baptism ; and, lastly, of his age at that time. These points being ascertained, we can then count back to the year of his birth, exhibit the evidence as to the month and day in 8 INTRODUCTION. which it took place, and examine the calculations of the learned, by which, on the supposition of its utter uncertainty, they have endeavoured to establish their respective opinions. Such is the plan which the author has formed for his own guidance, and which at the outset he thinks proper to lay before his readers, as a sketch or outline of his design, that they may, with the more satisfaction and confidence, accompany him in the arduous investigation on which he is now about to enter per lo cammino alto e silvestro. PART I. APPERTAINING TO ANCIENT HISTORY IN GENERAL. CHAPTER I. ON THE OLYMPIADS. Section I. Proposition to be solved. — Extract from Geminus to show the Grecian methods of computing time. — Direct proofs from Pindar and his scholiasts. — Inductions from Ptolemy, Diodorus Siculus, Thucydides, Plato. — Sect. II, Correct list of Olympiads, from the Armenian version of the long- lost Chronicon of Eusebius, part 1. — Sect. HI. Method of adjusting the Olympiads to the modern computation of time. I. Historical evidence ; Censorinus on the authority of Varro. n. Astrono- mical computation ; eclipses mentioned by Thucydides. — Calculation of these eclipses given by Petavius. § I. — The Olympic Games were celebrated from the eleventh to the sixteenth of the first month after the summer solstice, at the beginning of every fifth year. But before we attempt to prove this, or to show the connexion of the Olympiads as measures of time with other fixed and deter- minate standards of computation, it is necessary to our purpose to lay before the reader some evidence of the manner in which the ancient Greeks reasoned on the general computation of time. This we prefer to do, so far as a translation can represent the thoughts of the original, in the very language of a Greek philosopher who flourished about a hundred years before the Christian era. Geminus wrote an " Introduction to the Study of Astronomy," first printed at Altdorf, by Eno Hilderic, in 1590, and afterwards collated, and more accurately edited, by Petau, or Petavius, in his " Urano- logium." From this edition we here insert "Chapter VI — con- cerning Months." " A month is the time from one conjunction to another, or from one full moon to another. A conjunction takes place when the sun and moon come to the same place in the circle ; that is, about the Triacas [^ TplaKag] or thirtieth day of the moon. The full moon is so called when the moon is diametrically opposite to the sun ; and that is about the Dichomenia [»/ ^/x"A"J»'*"] or middle of 12 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. the month. The monthly interval consists of 29^ + 3^ days;* and in this monthly interval, the moon passes through the entire circle of the zodiac, and also that periphery which the sun passes over in the same monthly interval into the subsequent signs of the zodiac, or as nearly as possible one sign. In the monthly interval, therefore, the moon moves nearly through thirteen signs. The exact monthly interval, as hath been said, is 29^+^ days; but the monthly intervals, as they are generally taken for civil compu- tation, consist of 29^ days, and so the time of two months amounts to 59 days ; for which cause the civil months are computed alternately full [30 days] and hollow [29 days], because the two lunar months together make 59 days. " From these, the lunar year is computed to have 354 days ; for, if we multiply the 29^ days in each month by 12, the days of the lunar year will amount to 354. The solar year differs from the lunar. The solar, is the revolution of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, which takes place in 365^ days ; but the lunar comprehends only the time of 12 lunar months, which is 354 days. Since, then, neither the month, nor the solar year, consists of whole days, it became a question among the astronomers to find a period of time which might comprehend whole days, whole months, and whole years. " It was the purpose of the ancients to measure the months by the progress of the moon, and the years by that of the sun. For it was commanded, both by the laws and by the oracles, that the country rites required sacrifice to be made according to three par- ticulars : months, days, and years. All the Greeks agreed in the rule of measuring years by the sun, and days and months by the moon. To measure years by the sun, is for the purpose of offering the same sacrifices to the Gods at about the same seasons of the year ; the spring sacrifice continually in the spring, that of the summer in the summer, and in like manner that the same sacrifices should fall according to the remaining seasons of the year ; for this they conceived to be acceptable and agreeable to the Gods. But this could not otherwise be done, but by having the solstices and equinoxes arrive at about the same places. To measure the days according to the moon, consists in making the denominations * According to our method this would be equivalent to 29'' 12*' 43' 38" 10'" 54^"" £;HAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. IS of the days follow the illuminations of the moon ; for, from the illuminations of the moon, the denominations of the days are formed. •' The day on which the new moon shines, is called by the com- pound word vBonr]via, new-moon. The day on which it assumes its second phase, is called the second ; and that phase of the moon which takes place in the middle of the month, they called from the event itself dichomenia [Sixofxriyia] or middle-month. And generally, all the days they named from the illuminations of the moon. Wherefore, also, the thirtieth, or last day of the month, they named from the event itself triacas [rfiiaKao] i. e. Thirty-day." After quoting a passage from the poet Aratus, he thus proceeds : " That it is correct to measure days by the moon, is shown by the fact, that the solar eclipses always fall upon the Triacas, for then the moon is in conjunction with the sun ; and according to the same fixed law it is, that the eclipses of the moon take place in the night which precedes the dichomenia [^tx")u>/>'ta], for then the moon is diametrically opposite to the sun, and falls into the earth's shadow. When, therefore, the years are accurately computed according to the sun, and the months and days according to the moon, then the Greeks suppose that they sacrifice according to their country rites, that is, that the same sacrifices are offered to the Gods at the same seasons of the year." After a digression concerning the Egyptian method of comput- ing time, he proceeds to show how the Greeks attempted to recon- cile the motions of the sun and moon: 1st, by the Octaeteride, or period of eight years ; 2nd, by the Heccaedecaeteride, or period of sixteen years ; 3rd, by the Metonic period of nineteen years ; and 4th, by the Callippic period of 19X4, or seventy-six years. Octaeteride. — " The ancients, therefore, computed the months as having thirty days, and also the intercalary months in each year. But they soon found, for the truth was detected by the celestial phenomena themselves, that the days and months did not accord with the moon, nor the years with the sun. Hence they sought for a period which, as to years, might harmonize with the sun, and as to months and days, with the moon, and which might also con- tain within it whole months, whole days, and whole years. And fii'st they established the octaeteride, or period of eight years, which contains ninety-nine months, three being intercalary, 2,922 14 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART 1. days, and eight years. This octaeteride they established in the following manner: As the solar year consists of 365^ days, and the lunar year of 354 days, they found that the excess of the solar above the lunar year, was 11^ days. If, therefore, we measure the months in the year according to the moon, we shall want 11 1 days for the solar year. They sought, therefore, how often these days should be multiplied to make whole days and whole months ; and they found that, by multiplying eight times, the days and months became whole, — the days 90, the months 3. Since, there- fore, in each solar year we want 11^ days, it is manifest that, in eight solar years, we shall want 90 days, which are equal to three months. For which cause, in each octaeteride, are introduced three intercalary months, that the deficiency occurring in each solar year might be made up, and thus, when the eight years were accomplished, the festivals might be again adjusted to their proper seasons. When this was done, the sacrifices would be perpetually offered to the Gods at the same seasons of the year. " In the arrangement of the intercalary months, their object Avas to make them, as far as possible, equal. On the one hand, they ought not to wait till the monthly variation became perceptible ; nor ought they, on the other, to anticipate, by a whole month, the course of the sun. For this cause, they arranged the intercalary months so as to take effect in the third, fifth, and eighth years ; two months with two years falling between them, and one month with but one year intervening.* There would be no difference, however, if any one should make the same arrangement of inter- calary months in other years. The lunar year is reckoned as 354 days ; for which cause, they supposed the lunar month to be 29| days, and the time of two months 59 days. Hence, because the two lunar months consist of only 59 days, a hollow and full month are reckoned alternately, there being in a year six full and six hollow months, which, together, make 354 days. For this cause, therefore, they computed month by month, full and hollow. Heccwdecaeteride, or period of Sixteen years. — " If, then, it were * This will be better understood, if the Octaeteride, the horizontal lines the years years are represented by lines as follows : not intercalated, and the perpendicular the whole parallelogram representing the lines those which were. CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. l5 necessary for us only to agree with the solar years, it would have been sufficient, in using the aforesaid period, to agree with the celestial phenomena. But, since we must carry on, not only the years according to the sun, but also the months and days according to the moon, they [the ancients] considered how this end also might be accomplished. Wherefore, since the lunar month, by accurate computation, consists of 29|^ days and -g\, and there are in the octaeteride, with the intercalary months, 99 months, they multi- plied the days of each month, 29^ -f^, into 99 months, which produces 2,923^ days. Therefore, in eight solar years, there ought to be reckoned, according to the moon, 2,923| days ; but in the solar year there are 365^^ days, and in eight solar years 2,922 days, because the days of each year multiplied by eight, produce that number. Since, then, the days, according to the moon, amount in eight years to 2,923^, we shall fall short, in each Octaeteride measured by the moon, one day and a half; and in sixteen years we shall fall short, by the moon, three days. For which cause, in every heccjedecaeteride [or period of sixteen years], according to the course of the moon, three days are intercalated, that we may compute the years according to the sun, and the months and days according to the moon. " But this correction being made, there follows another error. For the three days intercalated in the sixteen years, according to the moon, in sixteen decaeterides [or 160 years], exceed the solar time thirty days, or a whole month. For this cause, in every 160 years, one of the intercalary months is subtracted from the octaeterides, so that instead of three months, which should be added in the eight years, only two are inserted ; and thus, beginning again, a month being subtracted, an adjustment is made to the moon with respect to months and days, and to the sun with regard to years. Ci/cle of Meton, or period of Nineteen years. — " But even when this correction was made, there was not an entire agreement with the celestial phenomena. For the result was that the whole octa- eteride was erroneous, both with regard to months and days and intercalations; for the monthly interval was not accurately taken. The monthly interval, when accurately taken, amounts to 29 days, thirty-one sixtieths of primes, fifty of seconds, eight of thirds, and twenty of fourths. Wherefore it would sometimes be necessary ia THE OLYMPIADS. [part I. in sixteen years to insert four for the intercalary days.* Whence in no period could the hollow and full months be equal, but the full months would exceed the hollow. For if the monthly interval were only 29^ days, it would be right to reckon the full and hollow months as equal ; but now there is a small but perceptible portion of time in the monthly interval which augments the daily magnitude, and for this cause the full months must exceed the hollow in number. Nor in the eight years are there three inter- calary months. For if the lunar year consisted of 354 days, the excess of the solar year would be ll^j days, and these multiplied by eight would make up the three intercalary months. But now the lunar year is accurately 354 days and about one third. If, therefore, we subtract 354j from 3651, there will remain 10|4^ days, and these multiplied by eight, will give as nearly as possible 87j days, which do not complete three months. For which cause we must be aware that in eight years there cannot be three inter- calary months. This is made manifest by the period of nineteen years (Ji IvytaKaicsKaeTepig). For in nineteen years there are seven intercalary months, and the period of nineteen years will accord with the progress of the months for a greater number of years. In eight periods of nineteen years there will be 56 intercalary months. But in the octaeteride there are reckoned three intercalary months. Therefore in 19 octaeterides, amounting to 152 years, there are 57 intercalations; whereas in the same time reckoned by periods of nineteen years, which accords with the celestial phenomena, there are but 56 intercalary months; so that the Octaeteride, or period of eight years, exceeds the period of nineteen years by one intercalary month. The Octaeteride, therefore, has not three intercalary months, and in this respect that period is faulty. * To make this computation intelligible course one prime, 24 minutes. Fifty se- to the English reader, it must be observed, conds would be equal to fifty sixtieths or that a day, consisting of 24 hours, was five-sixths of 24 minutes, that is, 20 mi- divided bj' the Greeks into 60 primes ; nutes. Petau, or as he is better known by each prime into 60 seconds ; each second his Latin name, Petavius, has shown tliis into 60 thirds, &c. It is manifest that 30 in the two following tables : primes would be twelve hours, and of 31 primes are equal to 50 seconds „ „ „ 8 thirds „ „ „ 20 fourths „ „ Total ... H ' " '" 12 24 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 3 12 0 0 0 8 12 44 3 20 12 hours are equal to 30 0 0 0 44 minutes „ „ „ 1 .50 0 0 3 seconds „ „ „ 0 0 7 30 20 thirds „ „ ,,000 .50 Total 31 50 8 20 CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 17 " The octaeterlde being found to be thus entirely erroneous, the astronomers Euctemon and Philip and Calippus constructed another period of nineteen years.* For they observed that in 19 years are contained 6940 days and 235 months, including those which are intercalary, and which in nineteen years are seven. According to them, the year consists of 365-iV ^^ys 5 and in the 235 months they arranged 110 hollow and 125 full months; so that the full and hollow months did not follow alternately one by one, but sometimes there were two full months in succession. This nature admits with regard to the moon's laws in the celestial phenomena, but it does not exist in the octaeteride. In the 235 months they arranged the 110 hollow months after this manner. Since there are reckoned 235 months in nineteen years, they first supposed them all to have thirty days, and the sum of the whole was 7050 days. Wherefore it was necessary to reckon 110 hollow, because in the period of 19 years there are accoi-ding to the moon 6940 days. As when all the months were reckoned at thirty days, the 7050 days exceeded the 6940, 110 days, therefore 110 months were reckoned as hollow, that in the 235 months might be completed the 6940 days of the period of 19 years. That the practical operation of the days to be retrenched might be made as equal as possible, they divided the 6940 days by 110, the product of which was 63 days. Every 63 days, therefore, it was necessary to retrench a day in the same period. The Triacas, or thirtieth day, was not always the day to be retrenched, but the day which fell after the 63 was called the retrenchable day. In this period the months seem to be well selected, and the intercalary months to be arranged in harmony with the phenomena. The yearly interval seems also to have been taken in harmony with the phenomena; for the yearly interval being observed for a great number of years, hath been found to harmonize because it has 365^ days. But the year as computed in the period of 19 years consists of 365t^ days, and these exceed 3651 one seventy-sixth part. For which reason the astronomer Calippus and his followers * It is surprising tliat Geminus has of that cycle are still called the Golden omitted the name of Meton, to whom the Numbers. Euctemon flourished about the invention of the cycle of nineteen years same time, and was his companion and is generally attributed. He flourished at friend. Who Philip was I am unable to Athens about B.C. 430 ; and his cycle was say. Calippus, the inventor of the Calippic considered so important that it was in- period, flourished about B. c. 330. scribed in letters of gold. Hence the years 18 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. corrected the excess of a day by establisliing the period of 76 years, composed of four periods of 19 years. These contain 940 months, of which 28 are intercalary, and 22,759 days. The same order of intercalary months is observed, and this period seems to accord better with the celestial phenomena than all the rest."* Long as this extract is, the reader, we trust, will not be dis- pleased with a document which shows the early progress of astro- nomical science, and clearly traces to a religious motive the original exercise of that pure intellect for which the Greeks were so con- spicuous. It became necessary to our purpose, as showing cleai'ly the basis on which the whole computation of the olympiads was constructed; a basis the more important, because from the first olympiad of Iphitus only, does profane history derive its definite form, and detach itself entirely from ti*aditional conjecture. That the Olympic Games were celebrated from the eleventh to the sixteenth of the first month, or, in other words, for five days preceding and including the dichomenia, or full moon, appears from several passages in the odes of Pindar, as illustrated by the ancient commentators. Thus, where Pindar says, " The moon of the dichomenia in her golden chariot Hath reflected the whole eye of Even, And together with the fifth year Hath established on the divine steeps of the Alpheus The sacred judgment of the great combats;"* one scholiast says, " The Olympic contest takes place at the full moon, and the decision of the judge is pronounced on the sixteenth day of the month;" and another states that "The contest takes place at one time after forty-nine months, at another after fifty months." All this is well explained by Geminus. The Octaete- ride, or period of eight years, contained, he says, ninety-nine months, three being intercalary ; and the intercalation was made in the third, fifth, and eighth years. As, therefore, one octaeterlde consisted of two olympiads, the first intercalation took place in the ' Gemini Elem. Astron. cap. vi. apud OiJKS Za^ioiQ inl Kpi]^ivo~tQ A\(pEov. Petav. do Doct. Temp. torn. iii. Antverp. OXvjutt. T. 35 — 39. 1703, fol. p. 18-23. See also the tenth Olympic Ode. Antist. * Six6fii]vie oXov xpv3ra\i.idv dure^Xtfe ^u)va, liast explains tvwTricoQ ^iXdvctg iparov avTiTpo;) was added, and Eurybatus [Gr. Hybato], the Lacedemonian, conquered. The Pentathlon was added, and Lampis the Lacedemonian conquered xix. Menus, Megarean Stadium XX. Atheradas, Lacedemonian Stadium xxi. Pantacles, Athenian Stadium xxii. The same, the second time Stadium xxiii. Icarius, Hyperessian Stadium Boxing was added, and Onomastus the Srayrnaean conquered. He also made laws for boxing xxiv. Cleoptolemus, Lacedemonian Stadium XXV. Thalpis, Lacedemonian Stadium The chariot with four horses {TsSrpiTrjrov) was added, and Paoron [Gr. Paton. Pausan. PagondasJ the Theban con- quered xxvi. Calisthenes, Lacedemonian Stadium Philimbrotus the Lacedemonian conquered in the Pentathlon at three olympiads. The carnia or contest of harpers first established in Lacedatmon xxvii. Eurybus [Gr. Euribotcs or Euribotas. Pausan.], Atheuiau Stadium CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 23 xxviii. Charmis, Lacedemonian, who lived upon dried figs Stadium The Pisaus conducted this olympia, because the Eleans were detained by a western war. [Greek reads " a war with the Dymeans or people of Dyme"] xxix. Chionis, Lacedemonian Stadium One of his leaps was 22 cubits [Greek reads ttocCjv feet] XXX. The same, the second time The Pisans revolted from the Eleans, and carried on this and the following 22 xxxi. Chionis, Lacedemonian, the third time Stadium xxxii. Cratinus, Megarean Stadium When also in boxing Comsus conquered three brothers xxxiii. Gygis, Lacedemonian Stadium The Pancratium was added, and Lygdamis the Syracusan, of enormous stature, conquered. He measured the Stadium with his feet, and made it only (iOO paces. The Celes (Race- horse) was also added, and Craxilas [Gr. Praxillas] the Thessalian conquered xxxiv. Stomus [Gr. Stomas], Athenian Stadium XXXV. SphiErus, Lacedemonian Stadium And in the Diaulon Cylon the Athenian conquered, who endeavoured to seize the supreme power. xxxvi. Phrynon, Athenian Stadium Who in the Island of Coos was slain in single combat. [Gr. who was slain in single combat with Pittacus] xxxvii. Euryclidas, Calonus Stadimn [Calouus must be a mistake for Laconus. The Greek reads, Lacon the Lacedemonian.] The stadium of boys was added, and Polynices the Elean conquered. The wrestling of boys was also added, and Hipposthenes the Lacedemonian con- quered; who having once failed, in the five succeeding olympiads conquered in the wrestling of men xxxviii. Olyntheus, Lacedemonian Stadium The Pentathlon of boys was added, and then they only con- tended. Deutelidas the Lacedemonian conquered xxxix. Ripsolaus [Gr. Ripsolkos], Lacedemonian Stadium xl. Olyntheus, Lacedemonian, the second time xli. Cleonthus [Gr. Cleondas], Theban Stadium The boxing of boys was added, and Philotas the Sybarite conquered xlii. Lycotas, Lacedemonian Stadium xliii. Cleon, Epidaurian Stadium xliv. Gelon, Lacedemonian Stadium xlv. Anticrates, Lacedemonian Stadium xlvi. Chrysomachus [Gr. Chrysamaxos], Lacedemonian Stadium And Polymnestor, Milesian, in the boys' stadium. While feeding his goats, he overtook a hare 24 THE OLY3IPIADS. [PART T. xlvii. Euryces [Gr. Eurycles], Lacedemonian Stadium xlviii. Glycon, Crotoniate. Stadium Pythagoras the Samian being admitted to the boys' boxing, and being laughed at as effeminate, goes forward, and com- pletely conquers all the men. xlix. Lyeinus, Crotoniate Stadium 1. Epitelidas, Lacedemonian Stadium The seven wise men, as they were called li. Eratosthenes, Crotoniate Stadium lii. Agis, Elean Stadium liii. Anon [Gr. Agnon], Peparethian Stadium liv. Hippostratus, Crotoniate Stadium Aregion, \_Gr. Arichion. Pausan. Arrachion] Phygalean, con- quering in the second Pancratiimi, dies of a broken skull. His dead body is crowned. His adversary, previously conquered, confessed that one of his feet had been broken by the victor.* Iv. The same Hippostratus the second time Stadium At this time Cyrus reigned over the Persians Ivi. Phaedrus the Pharsalian Stadium Ivii. Lagramus [Gr. Ladromos], Lacedemonian Stadium Iviii. Diognetus, Crotonian Stadium lix. Archilochus, Corcyrean Stadium Ix. Apellajus, Elean Stadium Ixi. Agatharcus, Corcyrean Stadium Ixii. Eryxias, Chalcidean Stadium In wrestling Milo the Crotoniate. He conquered in the Olympic games six times, in the Pythian six times, in the Isthmian ten times, in the Nemean nine times Ixiii. Parmenides, Camarinsean Stadium Ixiv. Menandrus [Gr. "Evandros], Thessalian Stadium Ixv. Anachus [Gr. Akochas Tarantinos.], Tarantinian Stadium The Oplites added, and Damaretus the Erean conquered. [Gr. rjpauvc- al- HpafcXti^i/e] Ixvi. Ischyrus, Imersean Stadium Ixvii. Phannas, Pellenian. He was the first who gained a triple victory, — in the stadium, — the diaulon, — the oplon Stadium Ixviii. Isomachus, Crotoniate Stadium Ixix. The same, the second time Ixx. Niceas, Opundian [Gr. Nicaistas. Opuntian] Stadium Ixxi. Tisicrates, the Crotoniate Stadium Ixxii. The same, the second time Ixxiii. Astyalus, the Crotoniate Stadium Ixxiv. The same, the second time * The story is told by Pausanias, Lib. viii. c. 40. CIIAF. I."l THE OLYMPIADS. 25 Ixxv. Ixxvi. Ixxvii. Ixxviii. Ixxix. Ixxx. Ixxxi. Ixxxii. Ixxxiii. Ixxxiv. Ixxxv. Ixxxvi. Ixxxvii. Ixxxviii. Ixxxix. xc. xci. xcii, xciii. xciv. XC7. xcvi. xcvu. xcviii. The same, the third time.* vScaraandrus, Mitylenian Daiidimis [Gr. Dandes], Argive Parmenides, Posidoniate Xenophon, Corinthian Turymmas, Thessalian In wrestling, Amesinas the Barcfean ; who, when feeding his herd, contended with a bull, and bringing the same to Pisa, he contended with it again. Polymnastus, Cyrenean Lycus, Larissean Crisson, Immesaeau. [Gr. Himeraean] The same, the second time. The same, the third time. Theopompus, Thessalian Euphranor, [Gr. Sophron] Ambraciote Thence the Pelopponesian war. Symmachus, Messenian The same, the second time. Hyperbius, Syracusan Exigentus, Agrigentian [Gr. Exagentos, Aciagantinos] The same, the second time. Eurotas, [Gr. Eukatos] Cyrenean Polydamas the Scotussajan, a man of immense stature, conquered in the Pancratium (or contest of all strength). He went to Persia, and in the presence of Ochus killed lions, and fought naked with armed men. — The Synoris [Gr. ffvvwple, Biga, or two-horse chariot] was added, and Evagrius [Gr. Euagoras] the Elean conquered. Crocinas, Larissaean Minon, [Gr. Menon] Athenian. Eupolemus, Elean The trumpeter [Gr. Sa\7ny)cr>;e] was added, and Timaeus the Elean conquered. — The Herald [Gr. Krjpv^] also was added, and Aerates [Gr. Krates] the Elean conquered. Tirinseus [Gr. Terinaios Eleios, the Elean] Sosippus, Delphian Aristodemus the Elean in wrestling; whom no one could seize by the waist [Gr. ov fikaa ovSelQ tXa€tv}. Dicon, Syracusian The pony [or more properly the colt] chariot [jiBpnnrov TTwXtKov] was added, and Em-ybasus [Evpv^dTag] the Lace- demonian conquered Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium * The Olympiads from the T.^th to the 119th are ftreserved in Diodorus Siculus (Lib. xi. — XX.) These the learned reader will find it useful to compare with the list here given by Eusebius. In the 75th Olym. Diodorus calls the victor, Asylus the Syracusan, — because Astylus, or Astyalus, though a Crotoniate, professed himself to be a Syracusan. See Pausanias, vi. 13. 26 THE OLYMPIADS. [part I. C. ci. cii. ciii. civ. cv. cvi. cvii. cviii. cix. ex. cxi. cxii. cxv. cx\4. cx^ni. cxviii. cxix. cxx Dioiiysodonis, Tarentinian Damon, Thui'ian The same, the second time. Pj'thostratus, Ephesian Phocides, Athenian This Olympic was ordered by the Pisans. Porus, Cyrenean The same, the second time. Micrinas, Tarentinian Polycles, Cyrenean Aristolochus, Athenian Anicles, [Anticles. Diod. Sic] Athenian. Cleomantis, Eclitorian. [Cleopantis Clitorius. Gr.] Eurylas, Chalcidian Alexander took Babylon and killed Darius. Clito, Macedonian Ageiis the Avgive in the Dolichus;* who going to Argos, announced there his own victory on the same day. Micinnas, Rhodian Alexander died; after whom, the empii-e being divided among many, Ptolemy reigned in Egypt and at Alexandria. Damasias, Amphipolitan Demosthenes, [Dinosthenes. Pausan. Dinomenes. Diod. Sic] Lacedemonian Pannenides, Mityleuian Andromenes, Corinthian Antenor, an Athenian or Milesian, TrayKpanov ukovtiov, ■jrspiocoviKtjQ, aXjjTTroc kv raie rpiulv riXiKiais. The Anneniau text, according to the edition of Milan: " Antenor Athe- niensis, aut Milesius, in pancratio, adversatus ciicumstan- tibus si victor extitit sine unctione tribus in aetatibus," The Armenian text according to the edition of Venice: " Antenor Atheniensis vel Milesius in certamine omnium virium, in congressu et circulo invictus et minime uuctus in tribus jBtatibus reperitur."f Andromenes, Corinthian , Pythagoras, Magnesian. [Greek reads, Magnes, and the Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium * AoXixoc, says Siiidas, with the accent on the antepeniiltima, is the name of a course ; with the accent on the last sylla- ble, 8o\ixbQ, it is an adjective, and signifies, long. The dolichus contains 24 stadia. He says in another place [voce Aiav\oQ'\ that there wore eight contests, the Stadium, the Diaidus, the Dolichus, the Oplites or heavy armed race, boxing, the Pancratium, wrestling, and leaping. + The Greek of this obscure and diffi- cult passage is laid before the reader, as well as the two versions from the Arme- nian. The Armenian translator seems to have read dvaXiiTZTOQ instead of dXij-rrroQ ; for this latter word, according to Suidas and Hesychius, signifies dKaToKtjTrrog, one who cannot be overtaken, i. e. in run- ning, or one who cannot be conquered. Maj' it not mean, that he was unconquered in boyhood, youth, and manhood ? CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 27 CXXl. cxxii. cxxiii. cxxiv. cxxv. cxxvi. cxxvii. cxxviii. cxxix. cxxx. cxxxi, cxxxii. cxxxiii. cxxxiv. cxxxv. cxxxvi. cxxxvii. cxxxviii. cxxxix. cxl. cxli. cxlii. Armenian adds ex Menandia, or ad Misandrum, according to the conjecture of Mai] In wrestling, Cerasus [Keras Gr.] the Argive, who tore off the hoofs of a bull. The same Pythagoras, the second time. Antigonus, Macedonian The same, the second time. Philomelus, Pharsalian Ladas, JEgean IdaBus or Nicator, Cyrenean Perigenes, Alexandrian SeleucuSj Macedonian Philinus, Coan The pony two-horse chariot was added, and Philistiachus the son of Macetus conquered. Gr. BiXinrixn yvvi), a-n-b Ttjg M-UKeSoviag ttjQ Itti SoXaffcry, ffvvutpiSi TrwXiKy kviKrjae. Olymp. cxxviii. The same Philinus, the second time. Ammonias, Alexandrian The pony single horse was added, and Hippocrates the son of Thessalus conquered. The Greek is very different. TXj/TToXtjUOf \VK10Q KEKtfTl TrO)\lK(^ TTpCJTOQ BVlKfjai. Xenophanes, ^tolian from Amphisia Simelus, Neapolitan The Parthians revolted from the Macedonians, and first Arsaces reigned, from whom the Arsacidse. Alcidas, Lacedemonian Eraton, jEtolian In boxing, Cleoxemis the Alexandrian, in the circle of vic- tory, unwounded. [Gr. irepioSoviKtjg drpau/iariToc.]* Pythocles, Sicyonian Menestheus, Barcylite Demetrius, Alexandrian Jola'idas, Argive Zopyrus, Syracusan f Dorotheus, Rhodian Crates, Alexandrian Carus, Elean, both in wrestling and in the Pancratium, con- Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium * This is the second time in which the word nepioSov'iKtjQ occurs, the first having been under Olym. 118. It is strange that I can find no notice of this word in Hesychius, Suidas, iEmilius Por- tus, or any other lexicographer I have been able to consult, excepting Hedericus. He defines it, " Periodical victor, or one who conquers in all kinds of games." Constan- tinus says more accurately (voce Trspiof og), " In gymnicis certaminibus ntpioSog dice- batur victoria quam quis in quatuor illis sacris certaminibus adeptus esset, qui ita vicisset periodum vicisse dicebatur." This explanation the Milan editors adopt. (Euseb. Chron. Can. lib. i. p. 152, note 5.) In the present case, Cleoxenus was not only victor in the contest of the ceestus suc- cessively in the Olympian, Pythian, Isth- mian, and Nemean games, but also escaped imwounded in all of them. 28 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. quers after Hercules, and is enregistered as the second from Hercules. [The Armenian reads, " in the stadium and the pancratium;" but this is a manifest error, since Crates con- quered in the stadium. Gr. kuI TrdXrjv kuI TrayK-pdnov] cxliii. Heraclitus, Samian Stadium cxliv. Heraclides, Salaminian Stadium [Armenian adds, " From the Island of Cyprus"] cxlv. Pyrrhias, ^Etolian Stadium In the boxing of boys, Torchus [Gr. Moschus] the Colopho- nian. The only victor in the circle of Boys. [Gr. Movog iraLSiKrjv TrepioSov.'] The Pancratium of boys was added, and Phjedimus the Alexandrian conquered, cxlvi. Micion, Boeotian Stadium cxlvii. Agemachus, Cyzicene Stadium In wrestling, Clitostratus or Clistostratus [Gr. KXtoarparog. Mil. Ed. KXfTroe. Venice Ed.] the Rhodian ; who conquered only by grasping or twisting the neck. [Gr. og rpaxri^iZMV dTTfXa/ifiaj'tj/] * cxhiii. Arcesilaus [Gr. AKtaiXaog], Megalopolitan Stadium cxlix. Hippostratus, Seleucian. [Armenian adds, from Pieria] Stadium cl. Onesicratus, Salaminian Stadium cli. Thymelus, Aspendian Stadium clii. Deraocrates, Megarean Stadium cliii. Aristandrus, Lesbian. [Armen. adds, ex Antissa] Stadium cliv. Leouidas, Rhodian, victor in the triple contest.f [Gr. rpiaarijg, rendered in the Milan version, triplici in certamine victor ; in the Venice Armenian Version, Triplicator] Stadium civ. The same, the second time Stadium clvi. The same, the third time Stadium Aristosenes [jNIil. ed. Aristoxenus] the Rhodian, the third from Hercules both in wrestling and in the Pancratium. The name of the victor is wanting in Greek, and vaXriv, wrestling, in the Armenian ; but both are obviously to be supplied clvii. The same Leonidas, the fourth tiuick This was the first and only one who received twelve Olympic crowns in four olympiads, clviii. Orthou, Syracusan Stadium clix. Alcimus, Cyzicene Stadium * Suidas quotes this passage, but does and smite the neck as the Pancratiastse not explain it. His editor, the learned were wont to do. Kuster, thinks it corrupt or mutilated, and + I infer from Suidas(voce rpiax^vvai), gives it, he says, the best interpretation he that rpiaorfiQ means, one who conquered can: "qui adversariorura colla obtorquere in all the three courses, the Stadium, the solebat" — who was in the habit of wrench- Diauhnn, aud the Dolichum— the course, ing the necks of his antagonists. Constan- the double course, and the quackuple tinus interprets it, "Cenicem caedere ct course, ferire, ut soleut Pancratiastse"' — to beat CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 29 clx. Anodorus [Gr. 'Avw^oKog], Cyzicene Stadium clxi. Antipater, Epirote Stadium clxii. Damon, Delphian Stadium clxiii. Timotheus, Trallian Stadium clxiv. Boiotus, Sicyonian Stadium clxv. Acusilaus, Cyrenean Stadium clxvi. Clirysogonus, Nicene Stadium clxvii. The same, the second time Stadium clxviii. Nicomachus, Philadelphian Stadium clxix. Nicodemus, Lacedemonian Stadium clxx. Simmeus, Seleucian from the Tigris Stadium clxxi. Parmeniscus, Corcyrean Stadium clxxii. Eudamus, Coan Stadium Protophanes the Magnesian in wrestling and the pancra- tium the fourth from Hercules. [Arm. adds, Magnesian ad Mseandrum Mil. ex Menandra. Ven.] clxxiii. Parmeniscus, Corcyrean, the second time Stadium clxxiv. Demostratus, Larissean. [The Greek is here wanting] Stadium clxxv. Stadium of boys, and Epsenetus the Argive conquered. For the men did not contend, because Sylla had called them all to Rome. clxxvi. Dion, Cyparissean Stadium clxxvii. Hecatomnus, Elean Stadium clxxviii. Diodes, Hypepenean Stadium Stratonicus, the son of Corovagus [Gr. Coragus] the Alex- andrian, in wrestling and the pancratium the fifth from Hercules. At Nemea, on the same day, he received four crowns of boys and bearded men.* [Thus far the Greek and Armenian ; but the Armenian adds a passage variously rendered in the two editions, and to me unintelligible. I therefore add them both without translation. The Venice Edition reads : " gymnicis peractis certaminibus sine equitatione; idque per gratias accidit, sive ad amicos, sive ad reges scribere; unde neque usum (vel equitationem) fieri arbitrati sunt." The Milan Edition renders the Armenian thus: " Et gymnica certamina sine equo peragens, gratia amicorum vel regum adsecutus est ut in Album referretur: quare nee egisse Olympiadem putabatur."] clxxix. Andreas, Lacedemonian Stadium clxxx. Andromachus, Lacedemonian [Gr. Ambraciote] Stadium clxxxi. Lamachus, Tauromenite Stadium clxxxii. Anthestion, Argive Stadium Marion the son of Marion, Alexandrian, in wrestling and the pancratium, the sixth from Hercules * Gr, a-ytvaojv, beardless. " Imberbium." 30 THE OLYMPIADS. [part I. clxxxiii. Theodorus, Messenian Julius Caesar became monarch of the Romans, clxxxiv. The same Theodorus, the second time. Augustus reigned over the Romans, clxxxv. Ai'iston, Thurian. [Arm. Thodensis] clxxxvi. Scamandrus, Alexandrian. [Arm. adds, from Troyj clxxxvii. Ariston, Thm-ian, the second time clxxxviii. Sopaler, Argive clxxxix. Asclepiades, Sicyonian. [Gr. Sidonian] cxc. Auphidius, Patrian [Gr. Harptvg^ cxci. Diodotus, Tyanean cxcii. Diophanes, jEolian cxciii. Artesidorus [Gr. Artemidorus], Thyatirian cxciv. Dimatrus [Gr. Demaratus], Ephesian cxcv. The same, the second time cxcvi. Pasenes [Gr. Pammenes] Magnesian from the Maeander cxcvii. Asiaticus, Halicarnassian cxcviii. Diophanes, Prusaean [Ai'm. adds, from Olympia] Aristeas, the Stratonician or the Majandriau, in wrestling and the pancratium, the seventh from Hercules. Tiberius reigned over the Romans. cxcix. jEschines the Milesian, the son of Glaucia The course of horses is renewed, and the four-horse chariot (rsSpiTTTTov) of Tiberius Caesar conquers. cc. Polemon, Petraean cci. Damas, Cylonian [Gr. Damasias, Cydoniates] ccii. Hennogenes, Pergamenian cciii. Apolloiiius, Epidaurian cciv. Sarapion, Alexandrian Nicostratis, Argian ['Apysarjje] in wrestling and the pan- cratium, the eighth from Hercules. After him there hath been no one from Hercules to our times, the Eleans having neglected to give the crown even to those who excel in strength. Caius reigned over the Romans, ccv. Eubulidas, Laodicean Claudius reigned over the Romans. ccvi. Valerius, Mitylenean ccvii. Athenodorus, ^giaean ccviii. The same, the second time Nero reigned over the Romans, ccix. Callicles, Sidonian ccx. Athenodorus, ^Egiaean ccxi. This olympiad was not celebrated, Nero having postponed it till he could be present. But it was celebrated two years after. In the stadium, Tryphon the Philadelphian con- Stadium Stadium Stadium StJidium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium Stadium CHAP. !•] THE OLYMPIADS. 31 CCXIU. ccxiv. ccxvi. ccxvii. ccxviii. ccxix. ccxx. ccxxi. ccxxii. ccxxiii. ccxxiv. ccxxv. ccxxvi. ccxxvii. ccxxviii. ccxxix. ccxxx. ccxxxi. ccxxxii. CCXXXIII. ccxxxiv. ccxxxv ccxxx vi. ccxxxvii. queied. Nero was crowned by the heralds, because he conquered the tragic and lyric poets, and in the race of pony chariots and the ten young coursers. Polites, Ceramite Stadium Vespasian reigned over the Romans. Rhodon, or Theodorus, Cyma^an Stadium Straton, Alexandrian Stadium Titus reigned over the Romans. Hermogenes, Xanthian Stadium Domitian reigned over the Romans. Apollophanes, who is also called Papes [Arm. Patis], Tarsian Stadium Hermogenes, Xanthian, the second time Stadium ApoUinus [Gr. ApoUonius], Alexandrian, or Heliodorus Stadium Stephanus, Cappadocian Stadium Nerva reigned over the Romans, after whom Trajan. Achilles [Arm. Chilleus], Alexandrian Stadium Theonas, also called Smaragdus, Alexandrian Stadium Callistus, Sidetes Stadium Horses again run. Eustolus, Sidetes Stadium Isarion, Alexandrian Stadium Adrian reigned over the Romans. Aristeas, Milesian Stadium Dionysius Samgeus [Gr. Aiovvaiog 'Oo-a/^svjuuc] Alexandrian Stadium The same, the second time Stadium Lucas, Alexandrian Stadium Epidaurus, also called Amnionius, Alexandrian Stadium Antoninus Pius reigned over the Romans. Didymus Clideus [Gr. AiSvjxoc ] Alexandrian Stadium Cranaus, Sicyonian Stadium Atticus, Sardian Stadium In the Pancratium enrolled by the Eleans, he was crowned by Dionysius, the sou of Seleucius. Such is the Armenian, but the Greek is very different. " Socrates in wrestling and the pancratium, being enregis- teredby the Eleans, was prevented from receiving the crown, or defrauded of the crown (Trape^pa/SfiiSj;) by Dionysius the Seleucian." The name of Socrates is omitted in the Arme- nian ; and after the name of Atticus, instead of Sardianus it reads Vardianus Demetrius, Chian Stadium Heras, Chian Stadium , Mnasibulus, Elatean, [Gr. 'EpaTtve] Stadium Verus and Antoninus reigned over the Romans. Aithales, Alexandrian Stadium Eudsemon, Alexandrian Stadium 32 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. ccxxxviii. Agathopus [Gr. Airivirne or Aiyivrjrric-, as corrected by Sca- liger], iEgineaii Stadium ccxxxix. The same, the second time. Comodus reigned over the Romans. ccxl. Anubion, also called Phidus, Alexandrian Stadium ccxli. Heron, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlii. Magnus, Lybian, Cyrenean. [Gr. Magnes Cyrenean.] Stadium ccxliii. Sidorus, called also Artemidorus [Gr. Isidorus], Alexandrian Stadium Pertiuax, and then Severus, reigned over the Romans, ccxliv. The same, the second time. ccxlv. Alexander, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlvi. Epenicus [Gr. Epinicius], the Cyzicene, who is also called Cynas Stadium ccxlvii. Saturninus, Cretian. [Gr. "^aropviog Ven. ^aropviXog Mil. Gortynian] Stadium Antoninus Caracallus, Ven. Antoninus Bassiauus, Mil. reigned over the Romans, ccxlviii. Heliodorus, who is also called Trosidamas, Alexandrian Stadium ccxlix. The same, the second time Thus far, we have found the Register of the Olympiads. § III. — Having thus shown at what period of the solar year the Olympic Gaines were celebrated, and given an authentic register of the olympiads, from the first to the two hundredth and forty-ninth, a period of 996 years, we proceed now, in the third section, to show the method by which these ancient dates are adjusted to the modern computation of time. This is done partly by historic tes- timony, and partly by astronomical computation. And first, as to historic testimony. A small book, written by the grammarian Censorinus, in the year of the vulgar a^ra 238, has come down to our times, in which, under the modest title of "The Birth-day," he discusses many points of great importance, and, especially, exhibits uncommon accuracy in the adjustment of dates. It was printed for the first time at Bologna, in 1497 ;* afterwards at Venice, by Aldus, in 1581 ; at Leyden, by Lindenbrog, in 1642, reprinted with additional notes at Cambridge in 1695 ; at Leyden, * In the library of Count Boutourlin, the type to have been printed at Venice, at riorence, there' is, or was, a copy of by Bernardinus de Vitalibus. See Cata- Censorinus, marked in the catalogue 684, logue de la Bib], de S. E. le Comte D. without date, which may possibly be older Boutoiurlin par IMr. Audin. Florence, than the Bologna edition. It appears from 1831. CUAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 33 by Havercamp, in 1743, reprinted, or with a new title page, in 1767 ; and, finally, at Nuremberg, by Gruber, in 1805. From this work we proceed to give a translation of the twenty-first chapter, according to the Cambridge edition. Caput XXI. Nunc vero id intervallura tera- poris tractabo, quod laropLKov Varro appellat. Hie enim tria discrimina temporum esse tradit. Primum, ab hominum principio ad cataclysmum priorem : quod propter ignorantiam vocetur alt}- XoK. secundum, a cataclysmo priore ad olympiadem primam ; quod quia in eo multa fabulosa referuntur, ^v^ikov nominatur : tertium, k prima olympiade ad nos, quod dicitur laropiKor, quia res in eo gestjB veris historiis con- tinentur. Primum tempus, sive habuit initium, sive semper fuit, certe quot annorum sit non potest comprehendi : secundum non plane quidem scitur, sed tamen ad mille circiter et do annos esse creditur, a priore scilicet cata- clysmo, quem Ogygium dicunt, ad Inachi regnum, anni circiter cccc. bine ad Olympiadem pri- mam pauUo plus cccc* Quos solos, quamvis mythici temporis postremos, tamen quia a memoria scriptorum proximos, quidam cer- tius definire voluerunt. Et qui- dem Sosibius scripsit esse cccxcv. Eratosthenes autem, septem et cccc. Timaeus ccccxvii. Are- tes Dxiiii. et praeterea multi di- I come now to treat of that interval of time which Varro calls historic. For he states that there are three divisions of time ; the first from the beginning of mankind to the former deluge, which on account of our igno- rance may be called obsctire ; the se- cond, from the former deluge to the first olympiad, which, because many fabulous things are related in it, may be called fabulotis ; the third, from the first olympiad to our days, which is called historic, because the transactions in it are contained in true histories. The first time, whether it had a be- ginning or was everlasting, certainly cannot be comprehended by us, as to the number of its years. The second, though not plainly known, is believed to have been about sixteen hundred years ; that is, from the former deluge, called the deluge of Ogyges, to the reign of Inachus, about 400 years, thence to the first Olympiad, a little more than 400.* These alone, though the last of the fabulous period of time, some have wished to define with greater accuracy, only because they were nearer to the memory of histo- rians. In particular, Sosibius hath written that they were 395 years, but Eratosthenes, 407; Timaeus, 417; Aretes, 514 ; and many others diffe- * The text is here evidently incorrect. 34 THE OLYMPIADS. [part I. verse, quorum etiam ipsa dissen- sio incertum esse declarat. De tertio autem tempore fuit quidem aliqua inter auctores dissensio, in sex septemve tantummodo annis versata. Sed hoc, quodcumque caliginis, Varro discussit; et pro c£etera sua sagacitate, nunc diver- sarura civitatium conferens tem- pera, nunc defectus, eorumque intervalla retro dinumerans, eruit verura, lucemque ostendit, per quam numerus certus non anno- rum modo, sed et dierura perspici possit. Secundum quam ratio- nem, nisi fallor, hie annus, cujus velut index et titulus quidam est, Ulpii et Pontiani consuhitus, ab Olympiade prima raillesimus est et quartus decimus, ex diebus duntaxat ajstivis, quibus agon Olympicus celebratur, a Roma autem conditii dccccxci, et qui- dem ex Parilibus, unde urbis anni numerantur. Eorum vero anno- rum, quibus Julianis nomen est, ccLxxxiii, sed ex die Kal. Jan. unde Julius Caesar anni a se con- stituti fecit principium. At eo- rum, qui vocantur anni Augus- torum ccLxv, perinde ex Kal. Jan, quamvis ex ante diem deci- mum sextum Kal. Februarii Im- perutor Cassar, D.F.* sententia L. Munatii Planci, a Senatu, CJBterisque civibus, Augustus ap- pellatus est, se vii, et M. Vipsa- nio Agrippa in. Coss. Sed -fli'igyptii, quod biennio ante in po- rently. The very disagreement of these writers shows that the matter itself is uncertain. Concerning the third period of time, there was also some disagreement among authors, tui'ning, however, upon six or seven years only. But this obscurity, what- ever it was, Varro dissipated ; and with his usual sagacity, at one time comparing the computations of time of different nations, at another, count- ing backward the eclipses and their intervals, he has detected the truth, and exhibited a light by which the certain number, not of years only, but also of days, may be clearly seen. According to which computation, if I mistake not, this year, of which the index and title is the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus, is the thou- sand and fourteenth from the first Olympiad, at least from the summer season in which the Olympic contest is celebrated ; from the building of Rome the 991st, that is from the pari- lia (April 21 ) whence the years of the city are reckoned ; but of those years to which the name of Julian is given the 283rd, reckoning from the first of January, which Julius Cajsar made the beginning of the year constituted by him. Of those years which are called Augustan, the 265th, com- mencing also with the first of Janu- ary, although the Emperor Csesar, the son of Julius,* on the motion of L. Manacius Plancus, received the title of Augustus from the Senate and the rest of the citizens on the 16th before * D. F. stands for Divi films, the Son of the God ; the Romans ha\ ing deified Julius Cresar. CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 35 testatem ditionemque Pop. Rom. venerunt, liabent hunc Augusto- rum annum cclxvii. Nam, ut a. nostris, ita ab -^gyptiis, qui- dam anni in literas relati sunt, ut quos Nabonnazaru nominant, quod a primo Imperii ejus anno eonsurgunt, quorum hie Dcccc. Lxxxvi. Item Philippi, qui ab excessu Alexandri Magni nume- rantur, et ad hunc usque pei'ducti, annos dlxh consummant. Sed horum initia semper a primo die mensis ejus sumuntur, cui apud -^gyptios nomen est Thoth. qui- que hoc anno fuit ante diem vii. Kal. Jul. cum abhinc annos cen- tum, Imperatoi'e Antonino Pio II, et Bruttio Praesente Coss. iidem dies fuei'int ante diem xii Kal. August, quo tempore solet canicula in -lEgjpto facere exor- tum. Quare scire etiam licet, anni illius magni, qui, ut supra dictum est, et solaria, et canicu- laris, et Dei annus vocatur, nunc agi vertentem annum centesi- mum.* Initia autem istorum annorura propterea notavi, ne quis eos aut ex Kal. Jan. aut ex alio aliquo tempore simili putaret incipere; cum his conditorum voluntates, non minus diverste sint, quam opiniones philosopho- rum. Idcirco aliis a novo sole, the kalends of February (Jan. 17) in the year when he the seventh time, and M. Vipsanius Agrippa the third, were consuls. But the Egyptians consider this as the 267th of the Au- gustan years, because they came under the power and dominion of the Roman people two years before. For among the Egyptians, as well as among us, certain years are used in their docu- ments as dates. Such are those which they call the years of Nabonnazar, because they begin with the first year of his reign ; of these this is the 986th. Also the years of Philip, which are counted from the death of Alexander the Great, and being brought down to this present year complete 562 years. But the begin- nings of these years are always taken from the first day of that month which the Egyptians call Thoth, and which this year was on the seventh before the kalends of July (June 25) whereas, a hundred years ago, when the em- peror Antoninus Pius the second time, andBruttius PrjBsens, were con^ suls, the same days were on the twelfth before the kalends of August (July 21), at which time occurs the rising of the dog-star in Egypt. Wherefore it is evident that the current year is the hundredth of that great year which is called, as before said, both solar and canicular, and the year of God.* I * Censorinus here refers to the follow- ing passage in the 18th chapter of his work: "Ad ^gyptiorum vero annum magnum luna non pertinet, quern Grace KvviKOv, Latine, Caniculareni vocamus, propterea quod initium illius sumitur, cum primo die ejus mensis, quern vocant ^■Egyp- tii Thoth, Caniculie sidus exoritur. Nam eorum annus civilis solos habet dies cccLxv, sine ullo interkalari. Itaque quadriennium apud eos uno circiter die minus est, quam naturale quadriennium; eoque fit, ut anno mcccclxi ud idem revol- vatur principium. Hie annus etiam j'/Xia- icds a quibusdam dicitur ; et ab aliis 6 Stow tpiavrog." In the present chapter he 36 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. id est a bruma, aliis ab sestivo have especially noted the beginnings solstitio, plerisque ab £equinoctio of all these years, lest any one should verno, partim ab autumno cequi- suppose them to begin on the first of noctio, quibusdam ab ortu vergi- January or other similar time; whereas liarum, nonnullis ab earum oc- the wills of the founders [of these ca- casu, multis a canis exortu, inci- lendars] were, in these matters, no less pere annus naturalis videtur. various than the opinions of philoso- phers. To some, therefore, the natural year seems to begin with the new sun, that is, from the winter ; to others, from the summer solstice ; to many, from the vernal equinox ; and to a part, from the autumnal equinox ; to some, from the rising of the Pleiads ; to others, from their setting ; and to many, from the rising of the dog-star [or constellation Sirius.] This passage is the more important, because the author founds his statement on the computations of Varro. Unfortunately, the works of Yarro are lost ; but the account which Censorinus here gives, plainly shows that Varro's computations were made with great care, by the collation of historic proofs, and the calculation of eclipses. Varro was the contemporary of Cicero ; and the praises bestowed upon liim by the great orator, show the high estimation he was held in by his countrymen for accuracy, integrity, and learning. "We were like travellers and strangers in our own city," he exclaims to Varro, " when your books brought us home, as it were, and showed us our place and origin. You have dis- closed to us the age of our country, the arrangement of times, the laws of our religion and priesthood, civil and military discipline, the position of places and countries, the names, the classifications, the operations, and the causes of all things, divine and human ; you have shed the greatest light upon our poets, and upon Latin lite- rature in general.'" Relying on the computations of such an author, Censorinus informs us, that the year in which he wrote, that is, the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus, was asserts that this pjreat Egyptian Canicular year in which he vrote was the hundredth year began on the 21st of July in the from that time. 3'ear when Antoninus Pius ii. and Brut- ' Cic. Acad. lib. i. 3. tius Fraesens were consuls, and that the CHAP. I,] THE OLYMPIADS. 37 First, reckoning from the summer solstice, when the Olympic Games were celebrated, the thousand and fourteenth year from the first olympiad of Iphitus ; in other words, the second year of the 254th olympiad. He says this expressly in the eighteenth chapter: " Now among them (the Greeks) the 254th olympiad is reckoned, of which this is the second year.'" Secondly, reckoning from the parilia, or the 21st of April, it was the 991st year of Rome. Thirdly, reckoning from the kalends, or 1st day of January, it was the 283rd year of the reformed Julian calendar, of which we shall speak hereafter. Fourthly, reckoning also from the 1st of January, it was the 265th year from that in which the title of Augustus was conferred upon the emperor by the senate and Roman people. Fifthly, the same year was, by the Egyptians, called the 267tli year of Augustus, reckoning from the 1st day of their month Thoth, because they dated from the year in which they became a Roman province. Sixthly, as the Egyptians computed according to the sera of Nabonnassar, reckoning from the 1st day of Thoth, it was the 986th year of that period. Seventhly, reckoning from the 1st day of Thoth, that year completed the five hundred and sixty-second from the death of Alexander the Great ; and the 1 st day of Thoth fell on the 25th of June in the year when Censorinus wrote. But, lastly, in the year when Antonius Pius ii and Bruttius Przesens were consuls, the 1st of Thoth fell on the 21st of July, and then commenced the great Egyptian period of 1461 years, of which the year then current was the hundredth. These particulars will serve as a key for the adjustment of ancient chronology ; but the application of it must be deferred until the several computations of time which he has thus compared have been considered. The remainder of this chapter will, there- fore, be occupied in showing the adjustment derived from astro- nomical computation. Diodorus Siculus states, that, when Pythodorus was archon at ' Et nunc apud eos ducentesima quinquagesima quarta olympias numeratur ej usque annus bic secundus. 38 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. Athens, and T. Quintlus and T. Menenlus Agrlppa consuls at Rome, the eighty-seventh olympiad was celebrated by the Eleans, in which Sophron, the Ambraciote, conquered in the stadium. He adds, in the same paragraph, that " Thucydides the Athenian, beginning his history from this time, wrote of the war carried on by the Athenians against the Lacedemonians, which is called the Peloponnesian."^ If the reader now turns to the preceding list of olympiads, he will see that the Greek text accords with Diodorus in the name of the victor, and that the commencement of the Peloponnesian war is there recorded. Thucydides himself states, that the war began " when Pytho- dorus had yet two months to remain archon at Athens, in the sixth month after the battle at Potidsea, and in the very beginning of the spring."^ The war commenced therefore, as I have before had occasion to remark, towards the close of the first year of the 87th olympiad. " During the same summer," he elsewhere observes, " on the first day of the lunar month, for then only does it seem to be possible, there was an eclipse of the sun in the afternoon. The stars appeared, and the sun, after becoming like a moon, recovered its splendour."^ All this is verified by astronomical calculation. The eclipse took place in the 4283rd year of the Julian period,* on Wednesday the third day of August ; and the moon changed at Athens one minute and three seconds after three o'clock in the afternoon. A little more than eight digits were covered by the shadow, and the eclipse continued two hours and eleven minutes. Eighty-six whole olym- piads, or 344 years, had preceded, and the first year of the eighty- seventh olympiad, ending about the last of June preceding the eclipse. Deducting, therefore, these 345 years from 4283, it brings the beginning of the first olympiad to about the first of July in the year 3938 of the Julian period. ' Biblioth. lib. xii. sect. 37. Ed. Wesse- of the Hebrew Bible. It was produced by ling, torn. i. p. 502. multiplying the lunar into the solar cycle, ' Hist. lib. ii. 2. and these again by the cycle of the indic- 3 lb. lib. ii. 28. tions, thus: 19 X 28 X 15 = 7980. The * The Juhan period is a fictitious aera, first year of Christ, according to the invented by Joseph Scaliger, to serve as a Dionysian or common asra, was the 4714th general measure of time, because it em- year of this period. A fuller account of braces a longer period than the duration the Julian period will be given in its of the world according to the chronology proper place. CHAP. I.] THE OLYMPIADS. 89 Thucydldes mentions another solar eclipse, which took place just at the beginning of the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war.^ This, by astronomical calculation, is found to have been on Wednesday the 21st of March, in the year 4290 of the Julian period. If the war began in the spring preceding the second year of the eighty-seventh olympiad, then the seventh year ended, and the eighth began, in the spring preceding the eighty-ninth olympiad ; and the solar eclipse, being on the 21st of March, was more than three months before the expiration of the fourth year of the eighty- eighth olympiad, that is (88x4=352) before the close of the 3D2nd year. This sum being subtracted from 4290, gives 3938 as the beginning of the olympiads. In perfect accordance with this computation, is the fact men- tioned in the fifth book of his history, that early in the twelfth year of the war, a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, was entered into by the Athenians, Argives, Eleans, and Mantineans. One of its articles was, that the Athenians should renew their oaths at Elis, Mantinea, and Argos, thirty days hefore the Olympic Games; and another, that the transactions should be recorded on a pillar of stone, and a brazen pillar be erected at Olympia, at the common expense, '0\vfnrioi<; toi<; vwl, during the Olympic Games now to take place. He then adds : " The Olympics were celebrated this summer, at which Androsthenes the Arcadian conquered the first time in the pancratium." ^ If the eighth year of the war began in the spring preceding the eighty-ninth olympiad, then the twelfth year of the war began in the spring preceding the ninetieth olympiad. Diodorus Siculus states, that " when Aristophulus was archon of Athens, and Lucius Quintius and Aulus Sempronius were consuls at Rome, the Eleans celebrated the ninetieth olympiad, in which Hyperbius the Syra- cusan conquered in the stadium."^ This agrees with the register given by Eusebius ; but, in that register, the Pancratian victor is not usually named, unless when, like Hercules, he had previously conquered in wrestling. Pausanias incidentally mentions Andros- thenes as having been twice the pancratiastes, or victor in the pancratium;'* and here Thucydides states that he conquered the ' Lib. iv. 52. * Lib. v. 40-49, " Biblioth. lib. xii. sec. 77. Ed. Wess. torn, i. p. 532. ■• Lib. vi. cap. vi. Lipsise, 1696, p. 465. 40 THE OLYMPIADS. [PART I. first time at the 90th olympiad. This olympiad then took place about four years and three months after the last mentioned eclipse, consequently at the end of June or beginning of July in the year 4294 of the Julian period. Eighty-nine solid olympiads, or (89 X 4) 356 solid years had preceded it. Deducting these from 4294, we obtain the same result, — that the first olympiad was celebrated the last of June or beginning of July a.j.p. 3938. Thucydides further mentions a very remarkable lunar eclipse In the nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian war. The Athenians, under Nicias, were preparing to embark by night, near Syracuse, when at the very moment of being ready to sail they were terrified, and induced to abandon their purpose, by an eclipse of the moon.^ The disastrous consequences of this delay to Nicias and the Athenians, caused Plutarch to make this eclipse the subject of much reflection in his life of Nicias. It is also mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, who places it in the fourth year of the 91st olympiad, when Cleocritus was archon of Athens.^ By the astronomical tables for that meridian, it began at Syracuse a little after ten o'clock p.m., lasted three hours and forty-eight minutes, and ended at nearly two o'clock in the morning of August 28th in the year 4301 of the Julian period. There were fifteen digits eclipsed; so that we need not wonder at the consternation it pro- duced, or the notice taken of it by ancient historians. If the first year of the Peloponnesian war coincided with the year 4283 of the Julian period, then, by adding eighteen solid years [4283 -J- 18=4301] we are brought to the 4301st year as being the nineteenth; and if it was in the fourth year of the 9 1st olympiad, then 90X4 + 3 = 363 will give the number of solid years which preceded it. These subtracted from 4301, give the year 3938 of the Julian period as the first year, reckoning from midsummer, of the first olympiad. And as the first of January of the year 4714 of the Julian period coincides with the beginning of the common Christian £era, by subtracting 3938 from that number, it appears that the first olympiad commenced in the 776th year before Christ, according to the com- putation of time now in use. I have been the more particular in exhibiting the proofs con- cerning the date of the first olympiad, because it is in fact, as ' Lib. vii. 50. '' Bibl. lib. xiii. sec. 12. Ed. T^'ess. torn. i. p. 551. CHAP. I ] THE OLYMPIADS. 41 Petavlus calls it, the torcli-light of ancient history. For the more complete satisfaction, therefore, of the scientific reader, I conclude the present chapter by copying fi-om Petavius the calculations of the several eclipses therein mentioned.* 0.15. Calculus Novilnnii ecUptici, quod contigit anno Per'wdi Juliana 4283, anni belli Peloponnesiaci, ut refert Tlnicj/d. lib. II. anno mundi 3553. Aureus JVumerus VIII. Ci/clus Salts XXVII. £. NoviluniuQi medium Lutetite contigit Augusti iii. feria iv. bora 8, 52' 40". Athenis hora 10, 44' 40" ad quod tempus aequales motus isti colliguntur. Longit. Solis. Anom. Solis. Anom. Lunie. Motus lalit. 4 6 14 0 1 2 5 18 52 S. G. , ,, S. G. , „ 2 19 55 3 1 5 22 34 42 Prosthaphferesis | g","^ ^ Jg' Jf ' ^ I Differentia 3 2' 24" Temp hor. 5 59' 26" . T (Luna'2 23 11' 1" Anomalia|g^j.^ 2 5 33 38 Prosth. 4 55' 13" >j3.^_3 ., ^j„ Prosth. 1 50 6 i Hora 6 4' 38" Novilunium verum Augusti iii. feria 4, hora 16, 49' 18" Athenis. Medius locus tempore verce conjunctio- nis, Sign. 4 6 28' 56". Verus locus Sign. 4 4 38' 50" Subtra- henda itaque 9' 28", ut sit novilunium ve- rum physico tempore hora 1 6 39' 38". Ascensio veri loci Sign. 4 6' 59" ad quse, quoniam novilunium Athenis meridie posterius est horis 4 40', gradus adjiciendi sunt 70. Ascensio recta meridianse sectionis Sign. 6 16' 59", in Libra; gradu 18 24'. Altitude solis 26 24'. Angulus longitu- dinis 42 44'. Latitudinis 47 16' Parallaxis CLongitudinem 34' 37" Athenis in I Latitudinem 37 27 Motus horarius verus 30' 8". Ita Scrupula 34' 30" conficit. Luna spatio horse 1 9' Apparens ergo Novilunium hora 17 48' 38". -r, „ . J ^ ,. fLongitudinis 36' 13" Parallaxis ad tempus apparentis ^ j^^^.|^j^ljjjjg ^^ 23 Differentia parallaxeon longitudinis 1' 36" auferenda de priore. Igitur Scrupula 33' 0" apparente motu Luna peragrat spatio unius horse, et scrup. 9'. Unde scrupula 35' 0" percurret intervallo hora, 1 13' 0", Novilunium visum Athenis hora 17 52' 38". Motus latitudinis persequatus ad tempus apparentis. Sign. 5 26 30' 35". Anomalia Lunre coeequata, 2 23 47' 45". Prosthaph. 4 55' 39" s. Verus motus latitudinis Sign. 5 21 35'. Latitudo vera 43' 37" borea. Deducta parallax! de vei-a latitudine, restat apparens 2' 15". Semidiametri Summa 28' 49" (Lunge 13'31") ^ I Solis 15 26 i Detracta apparent! latitudine de summa semidiametrorum restant 26' 34". Ergo, DIGITI ECLIPTICI 10 25. Quadratum semidiametrorum Solis et Lunse 2989441" 7 r)iffepentia 2971''16" 18225 ) Qaudratum latitudinis apparentis Radix quadrata 1722', sive 28' 42" quag sunt incidentiae scrupula. Parallaxis una circiter hora ante apparentem synodum est 34' 30". Sub apparentem vero, 36'. Differentia est 2' O", quoe deti-acta de motu horario vero, qui est 30' 8", relinquit mo- tum apparentem horarium 28' 0". Ergo tempus incidentije est horse i. fere. Parallaxis ad horam i. post apparentem minuitur, estque scrupul. 35'. Differentia r, quoad motum horarium verum adden- dum est : ut sit scrupulorum 32' 8" motus horarius apparens. Ita scrupula emersio- nis 27' 35", peragrantur hora 0 54' 15". ' See De Doc. Temp. Lib. viii. cap. 13, ed. Ant. 1703, fol. tom. i. pp. 491-3. 6 42 THE OLYMPIADS. [part I. Initium eclipsis visse Athenis, hora 1 6 53' 38" Medium .... hora 17 52 38 iPost mediam rinis hora 18 47 53 ) noctem. Duratio .... hora 1 54 15 Occidit Sol Athenis hora post meridiem 7. Ergo quadrante circiter ante occasum, Sol penitus emersit. Examen Novilun'd ecliptici. Distat apparens a vera syzygia hora 114' 0". 'Parallaxis ad tempus apparentis est 36' 13". Motus horarius verus est 30' 8". Igitur hora 1 14' dant scrupula fere 37'. 0 16. Calculus Novilunii ecliptici, quod incidit anno Periodi Jidiancc 4290, anno octavo belli Peloponnesiaci. Aureus Numerus xv. Cyclus Solis VI. G. Novilunium medium Lutetire coBtigit Martii xxi. fei-ia 4, hora post mediam noctem 21 5', Athenis hora 22 57'. Ad quod tempus hi motus sequales sunt. Longit. Solis. 11 22 59 17 Anora. Solis. Anom. Lunse. S. G. , II 9 21 57 21 s. G. , ,, 1 6 53 12 Motus latitu. 5 17 35 37 X. ^u 1, • ^ Solis 2 55' 17" Prosthaph^resis Jj^^^^^ ^ ^^ ^^ Summa 4 27' 34" Tempus horse 9 26' Anomalia \ -r s. G. ,^ „ 9 22 20 36 1 12 1 19 Prost. 1 52 0 A Frost. 3 15 42 s Summa 5 7 42 Horae 10 6 a Novilunium exactum Martii xxi. feria 4, hora 9 3' a media nocte. Medius Solis locus 1 1 23 24' 59". Solis locus verus in gradu 25 16' 59" Piscium. Ob tequationem dierum subtrahuntur scrupula 1 36', ut sit Novilunium hor.9 1'24". Ascensio recta veri loci, Sign. 1125 40' antecedit meridiem horis 3. Deductis ergo grad. 45, remanet ascen- sio meridianse sectionis in Sign. 10 10 40', id est Aquarii gradu 8 14' X) n - J i ( Lonjritudinis 15' O" Paxallaxis ad tempus verffij^atitudinis 44 30 Motus horarius verus est 28'. Itaque I Apparens conjunctio hora 8 29' 24", scrupula 15', exigunt hor. 0 32'. | post mediam noctem diei xxi Martii. Tj n • i t- • (Longitudinem 19' 17" ParaUaxis tempore apparentis m{j^^^j|^^^^.^^^ ^^ ^^ Differentia parallaxeon longitudinis ad I Ergo scrupul. 1 5' exigunt horam 0 44'. tempus verre et apparentis, 4'. | Novilunium apparens hora 8 17' 24'. 0" 48 14 ]\Iotus verus 5 19 35' 11". Latitude ■n 11 • 1 V tLon"itudinis 22 Parallaxis denuoIay [April 21st] in the third year of the sixth olympiad.^ That modern authors should differ, when the ancient are so much at variance, is not surprising. The extremes embrace a period of eighty-six years, from the thirty-eighth year before the first olympiad to the fourth year of the twelfth, or the forty-eighth year from the first. But as Dionysius, on Avhose testimony only we learn these computations of Timjeus and Lucius Cincius, has himself rejected them, they are universally abandoned by the moderns. There remain then to be considered, A J. P. 1 . The opinion of Velleius Paterculus, Plutarch and Eutropius, that Rome was founded April 21 Olym. vi. 3 3961 2. That advanced by Porcius Cato, according to Dionysius, and which he and Livy appear to have adopted, that Rome was founded Apr. 21 Olym. vii. 1 3963 3. The statement of Diodorus Siculus, as preserved by Eusebius, that Rome was founded Olym. vii. 2 3964 4. The opinion of Quintus Fabius, or Fabius Pic- tor, the most ancient of the Latin historians, that it was founded ■ Olym. viii. 1 3966 This last date of Fabius Pictor is assumed by archbishop Ussher, in the adjustment of his chronology. He assigns no reason for this preference, unless it be the antiquity of Fabius. But Fabius lived during the second Punic war ; and Livy, who often quotes his authority in other matters, has in this paid it no regard. The statement of Diodorus Siculus is founded on the same sources of ' Romanum Imperium — a Romulo exor- post Trojae excidium, ut qui plurimum dium habet Is cum inter Pastoresla- minimumque tradunt, trecentesimo nona- trocinaretur, octodecim annos natus, urbem j^esimo quarto. Eutr. Breviarium, Ed. exiguam in Palatino montc constituit, xi Vei'heyk. L. B. 1762, p. 1 — 5. Kal. Maji, olympiadis scxtie anuo tertio, 52 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. £PART I. computation as that of Dlonyslus of Halicarnassus, and may well be looked upon as the mistake of a year. Ascending, therefore, in our series, we come next to the compu- tation of Dionysius and Livy. This, it was observed, appears to have been that Rome was founded in the first year of the seventh olympiad. It is, however, only in appearance. In reality, both Dionysius and Livy meant that it was founded on that 21st of April which was near the end of the fourth year of the sixth olympiad. This we shall endeavour to show from their own computations. Plutarch, in his life of Camillus,* states that the battle on the Allia between the Romans and Gauls, by which the fate of Rome Avas decided, " was fought when the moon was at the full, about the summer solstice." Consequently the occupation of Rome by the Gauls was at the very beginning of an Olympic year; and according to Dionysius, that year was the first of the ninety-eighth olympiad. Hence ninety-seven solid olympiads, or (97 x 4) 388 Olympic years had preceded it. Dionysius further computes back 120 years to the first consuls, equal, he says, to thirty olympiads; so that they held their office in the first year of the sixty- eighth olympiad. He evidently means Olympic years beginning at the summer solstice. He did not advert to the fact that the consuls had been in office nearly six months when the sixty-eighth olym- piad began ; and hence that the 244 years of the kings, wliich he calls sixty-one olympiads, were not Olympic but Roman years. The whole ninety-one olympiads taken from ninety-seven, leave six solid olympiads or twenty-four years; but they are Olympic years, beginning and ending at the summer solstice, not Roman years, which began on the calends of January. The 244 years must be carried up to the twenty-first of April preceding the end of the sixth olympiad. Such also is the fair deduction from the speech of Camillus in Livy. " It is now, Romans, the 365th year of the city." This Avas spoken in the summer- The 364th year of the city had ended the preceding twenty-first of April; that is, the April preceding the 389th olympic year, more than two months before the end of the 388th olympic year. Deducting 364 years from 388, it will follow that Rome was founded, according to Livy, more than two months before the termination of the twenty-fourth year of Iphitus, or the fourth year of the sixth olympiad. ' Ed. Bryan, torn i. p. 304. CHAP. II.] YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. 53 All these discordant dates may, therefore, be fairly reduced to two, — the third year of the sixth olympiad, or April 21st, a.j.p. 3961, and the fourth year of the sixth, or April 21st, a.j.p. 3962. The whole confusion arises from the difference between the Roman and Olympic years — the last six months of the third, and the first six months of the fourth year of the sixth olympiad, and so aojain, the last six months of the fourth of the sixth, and the first six months of the first of the seventh, constituting each one Roman year. This will be seen and understood by the following table. =;• Olympiads. Olympiads. Olympiads, Home Founded. 3938 B.C. 776 3939 B.C. 775 3940 B.C. 774 3941 B.C. 773 3942 B.C. 772 3943 B.C. 771 3944 B.C. 770 3945 B.C. 769 Olym. I. 1 Olym. II. 1 3946 B.C. 768 3947 B.C. 767 3948 B.C. 766 3949 B.C. 765 3950 B.C. 764 3951 B.C. 763 3952 B.C. 762 3953 B.C. 761 Olym.ni. 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2954 B.C. 760 3955 B.C. 759 3956 B.C. 758 3957 B.C. 757 3958 B.C. 756 Olym.IV. 1 3959 B.C. 75. 3960 B.C. 754 3 3961 B.C. 753 3962 B.C. 752 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 Olym. V, I Olym. VI.] April 21st 4 April 21st Oly. VII. 1 — According to Vano,Plu- tarch, Eutro- pius, &c. — According to Dionysius and Livy. 54 YEAR IN WHICH ROME WAS FOUNDED. [pART I. ' We have seen, in treating of the olympiads, that Censorinus follows the computation of Varro, and that these computations were held in the highest estimation among the Romans, as appears from the praises bestowed on him by Cicero. According to these computations, the 991st year of Rome began the 21st of April preceding the 1014th year of Iphitus, which began at the summer solstice. The difference between 1014 and 991 is 23. Five com- plete olymjoiads, or twenty years, ended at the summer solstice. Consequently, twenty-three years would end at the summer solstice; and the foundation of Rome must be dated from the twenty-first of the preceding April, that is, in the third year of the sixth olympiad, or April 21, a.j.p. 3961. CHAP, iil] 55 CHAPTER III. THE ROMAN YEAR. Extract from Censorinus.— Three periods. 1. Year of Romulus ; disagreement as to its length; Censorinus, Solinus, Macrobius, Theodosius Junior, in favour of ten months ; Plutarch and ancient authors quoted by him in favour of twelve ; reason of this diversity, the destruction of ancient archives by the Gauls; reasons why pre- ference should be given to the opinion of Plutarch; probable that the Egyptian year was in use among the most ancient nations of Italy, and that Romulus improved it by intercalations. — 2. Year of Numa and the Republic, a modification of the Greek lunar year, but no improvement; explanation of cycle of 24 years mentioned by Livy; irregularities by which it was disturbed, their cause and duration; theory of M. De la Nauze, and of an anonymous author mentioned by Court de Gebelin; reasons for rejecting both. — 3. Year reformed by Julius Csesar; testimony of Latin and Greek authors; comparative table of the last year of confusion; calendar of Julius Caesar compared with the calendar of the Council of Nice ; use of the Nicene calendar abolished by Pope Gregory xin, but retained by the Church of England and the Protestants generally, though they have corrected the error of the old style. — ^Reflections on the science of the ancients. — General conclusion that from the beginning the Roman may be counted as solar years. We have been led to speak in the preceding chapter, of the Roman year as distinguished from the Olympic. For the full understand- ing of the subject, it becomes necessary to consider what the Roman year was, before and after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Cffisar. We begin with an extract from Censorinus, who has treated the subject with his usual accuracy and clearness. In his nineteenth chapter he defines what he calls the annus vertens, or annual period, to be the time in which the sun passes through the twelve signs, and then returns to that from which it departed. He then pro- ceeds to enumerate eight various opinions of ancient astronomers concerning the length of the solar year, ranging from 364| to 366 days. When there is such a difference, he observes, among the learned touching the natural year, it is not surprising that there should be among vai'ious nations a great diversity in their civil years. After this, he proceeds, in the twentieth chapter, to treat of the Roman year as follows: 56 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. Censorinus de Die Natali, Caput XX. Sed, ut hos annos mittam, caligine jam profuadae vetustatis obductos : in his quoque, qui sunt recentioris memorise, et ad cursum lunge vel solis instituti, quanta sit varietas, facile est cognoscere, si quis vel in unius Italige gentibus, ne dicam pere- grinis, velit anquirere. Nam ut alium Ferentini, alium Lavi- nii, itemque Albani vel Romani, habuerunt annum : ita et alia? gentes. Omnibus tamen fuit propositum, suos civiles annos, varie interkalandis mensibus, ad unum verum ilium naturalera- que corrigere. De quibus om- nibus disserere quoniam, longum est, ad Romanorum annum transibimus. Annum verten- tem Romte Licinius quidem Macer, et postea Fenestella, sta- tim ab initio duodecim mensium fuisse scripserunt. Sed niagis Junio Gracchano, et Fulvio, et Varroni, et Suetonio, aliisque credendum, qui decern mensium putaverunt fuisse : ut tunc Al- banis erat, unde orti Romani. Hi decem menses dies trecentos quatuor hoc modo habebant ; Martius xxxi Aprilis XXX Mains xxxi Junius XXX Quintilis xxxi Sextilis et September xxx October xxxi November et Decemb. xxx quorum quatuor majores pleni, casteri sex cavi vocabantur But, to omit these years now covered with the darkness of profound anti- quity, how great is the variety in those even of more recent date, and adjusted to the course of the moon or of the sun, may be easily known, if any one will search carefully among the nations of Italy alone, not to speak of foreigners. For as the Ferentinians had one year, the Lavinians another, and so likewise the Albanians or Romans, so was it with other nations. All, however, had the same purpose, which was, by months variously intercalated, to cor- rect their civil years by the one true and natural year. To speak of all these methods would be tedious, and we there- fore pass on to speak of the Roman year. Licinius Macer, and after him Fenestella, have written, that from the very beginning, the annual period of Rome consisted of twelve months. But we are rather to believe Junius Grac- chanus, Fulvius, Varro, Suetonius, and others, who have thought that it con- sisted of ten months, because such was then the year of the Albanians, from whom the Romans sprang. These ten months contained three hundred and four days, as follows : INIarch 31 April 30 May 31 June 30 Quintilis 31 Sextilis and September 30 October 31 November and December 30 Of these the four greater were called full, and the other six hoUow. After- CHAF. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR, 57 Postea sive a Numa, ut ait Ful- vius, sive, ut Junius, a Tarqui- nio duodecim facti sunt menses, et dies ccclv. quamvis luna duodecim suis mensibus cccliv. dies videatur explere. Sed, ut unus dies abundaret, aut per imprudentiam accidit, aut quod magis credo, ea superstitione, qua impar numerus plenus, et magis faustus habebatur. Certe ad annum priorem unus et quin- quaginta dies accesserunt : qui quia menses duos non implerent, sex illis cavis mensibus dies sunt singuli detracti, et ad eos additi, factique sunt dies quinquaginta septem : et ex his duo menses, Januarius undetriginta dierum, Februarius duodetriginta. At- que ita omnes menses pleni, et impari dierum numero esse coe- perunt, excepto Februario, qui solus cavus, et ob hoc c^eteris in- faustior est habitus. Denique, cum interkalarem mensem vi- ginti duum, vel viginti trium dierum alternis annis addi pla- cuisset, ut civilis annus ad natu- ralem ex^quaretur : in mense potissimum Februario,inter Ter- minalia et Eegifugium, interka- latum est. idque diu factum, priusquam sentiretur, annos ci- viles aliquanto naturalibus esse majores. Quod delictum ut corrigeretur, Pontificibus datum est negotium, eorumque arbitrio interkalandi ratio permissa. Sed horum plerique, ob odium, vel gratiam, quo quis magistratu wards, whether by Numa, as Fulvius says, or, as Junius says, by Tarquin, the months were made twelve and the days 355, although the moon in her twelve months seems to complete only 354 days. This excess of one day hap- pened, either through ignorance, or, as I rather think, from that superstition which accounted an unequal number as being full, and more fortunate. It is certain that one and fifty days were added to the former year ; and because these did not fill up the two months, a day was taken from each of the six hollow months, and added to the 51, so as to make 57 days. From these, two months were formed ; January, con- sisting of twenty-nine, and February, of twenty-eight days. Thus all the months became full and of an unequal number of days, excepting February, which alone was accounted hollow, and for that reason more unlucky than the rest. Finally, since it was determined that an intercalary month of twenty- two or twenty-three days should be added in alternate years, that the civil might be made equal to the natural year, the intercalation was made of preference in the month of February, between the Terminalia and the Eegi- fugium. And this was done a long time before it was perceived that the civil years were somewhat longer than the natural. To correct this error was made the business of the pontiffs, and the mode of Intercalation was left to their arbitrament. Most of them, how- ever, intercalated more or less wan- tonly ; from hatred or favour ; that one magistrate might sooner leave his 8 58 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. citius abiret, diutiusve fungere- tur, aut public! redemptor ex anni magnitudine in lucro dam- nove esset, plus minusve ex libi- dine interkalando, rem sibi ad corrigendum mandatam, ulti'O depravarunt. Adeoque aber- ratum est, ut C. Caesar Pontifex Maximus, suo iii. et M. JEmilii Lepidi consulatu, quo retro de- lictum coiTigeret, duos menses interkalarios dierum sexaginta septem, in mensem Novembrem et Decembrem interpoueret, cum jam mense Februario dies tres et viginti interkalasset, faceretque eum annum dierum CDXLV, simul providens in fu- turum, ne iterum erraretur. nam interkalario mense sublato, an- num civilem ad solis cursura formavit. Itaque diebus ccclv addidit x, quos per septem men- ses, qui dies undetricenos habe- bant, ita distribuit, ut Januario, et Sextili, et Decembri bini ac- cederent, cfeteris singuli : eos- que dies extremis partibus men- sium apposuit, ne scilicet religi- ones sui cuj usque mensis a loco suramoverentur. Quapi'opter nunc cum in septem mensibus diess inguli et triceni sint, qua- tuor tamen illi ita primitus in- stituti eo dinoscuntur, quod no- nas habent septimanas : ca^teri, quintanas. Praeterea pro quad- rante diei, qui annum verum suppleturus videbatur, instituit, ut peracto quadriennii circuitu, dies unus, ubi mensis quondam solebat, post Terminalia inter- office, and another perform its functions longer ; or that the farmer of the public revenues might gain or lose by the length of the year. Thus a matter en- trusted to them for correction was de- signedly and wilfully made worse ; and to such a degree had the error pro- ceeded, that when Caius Cjesar was Pontifex Maximus, in the year of his third consulship with Marcus -^milius Lepidus, he interposed, in order to cor- rect the error, two intercalary months of 67 days between November and De- cember, when he had already interca- lated 23 days in the month of February. Thus he made that year to consist of 445 days, providing at the same time that in future no error should again occur ; for taking away the intercalary month, he formed the civil year according to the course of the sun. To the 355 days, therefore, he added 10. These he disti-ibuted through the seven months which had only 29 days ; so that to January, Sextilis, and December, two were added, and to the rest only one. These days he annexed to the latter end of the months, that the religious rites of each month should not be re- moved from their place. AYherefore, since now in seven months the days of each are 31, those four which were ori- ginally instituted with that number are distinguished by having the nones on the seventh day of the month, while the rest have them on the fifth. As for that fourth part of a day which would complete the true year, a further ar- rangement was provided, that at the end of every four years one day should be intercalated after the Terminalia, where formerly there was an intercalation of CHAP. III.] TUE ROMAN YEAR. 59 ' kalaretur : quod nunc Bisextum a month, and this is now called Bissex- vocatur. Ex hoc anno, ita a turn. From this year thus arranged Julio Cajsare ordinato, cteteri ad by Julius Caesar, the rest down to our nostram memox-iam Juliani ap- time are called Julian years, and they pellantur, iique consurgunt ex begin from the fourth consulship of iiii Coesaris consulatu, qui, Caesar. These years, even if they are etiam si non optime, soli tamen not perfect, are at least the only ones ad annum naturaa aptati sunt, adjusted to the natural year. For the nam et priores alii, etiam si qui others which preceded, even those which decimestres fuerunt, nee Romte had ten months only, were corrected as modo, vel per Italiam, sed et far as possible, not in Rome merely, or apud gentes omnes, quantum throughout Italy, but among all nations, poterat idem, fuerunt correcti. Wherefore, when any number of years Itaque cum de aliquo annorum are here spoken of, it will be proper to numero hie dicetur, non alios consider them as no other than natural par erit, quam naturales acci- years. And if the origin of the world pere. Et, si origo mundi, in could come within the knowledge of hominum notitiam venisset, men, we should make that the begin- inde exordium sumeremus. ning of our dates. This extract from Censorlnus clearly shows that the Roman year is to be considered by us as it existed at three separate periods: first, under Romulus; secondly, under the succeeding kings and the republic; thirdly as reformed by Julius Ca3sar. I. The Roman Year under Romulus. It appears that Latin writers of eminence were not agreed, even in the most ancient times of their literature, on the ques- tion whether the year of Romulus consisted of ten or twelve months. To those who, with Censorinus, maintained that it con- sisted of ten months, may be added Solinus, his contemporary, and Macrobius, who lived under Honorius and Theodosius Junior, eai'ly in the fifth century.' The principal argument for this opinion is the fact asserted by these writers, that the year of the inhabitants of Alba Longa con- sisted of ten months, and that in this they were imitated by their descendants the Romans. Plutarch, on the other hand, seems strongly inclined to the opinion that there were twelve months in the year of Romulus; and that January and February, instead of being the first and ' Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xi. cd. Volpii, p. 218. 60 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. second months in the year, as afterwards in Numa's calendar, then constituted the eleventh and twelfth. He says that " the Romans in the time of Romulus had no idea of the anomaly between the courses of the sun and moon, but only laid down this position, that the year consisted of 360 days." He speaks also of Numa as alter- ing the order of the months ; making March the third, which had been the first ; January the first, wdiich had been the eleventh of Romulus ; and February the second, which had been the twelfth and last.^ Censorinus mentions Licinius Macer and L. Fenestella as holding the same opinion. When ancient authors are so widely at variance, there can be no certainty; more especially as there is reason to believe that the Latin writers themselves, whose opinions have been given by Censorinus, had no ground for them but conjecture. No docu- ments could have been extant in their day with regard to the year either of Alba Longa, or of the Romans under Romulus. Had there been, they would have appealed to them, and their judgments would not have been so contradictoiy. Indeed, Plutarch speaks of the diversity of historians even with regard to Numa's reign ; and, on the authority of some writer named Clodius in his emen- dations of chronology, most distinctly intimates, that when Rome was sacked by the Gauls, most, if not all of the ancient archives were destroyed.^ Such being the case, we are fairly at liberty to choose among conflicting opinions; and that of Plutarch seems the most rational. If we may believe Herodotus, the Greeks in the time of Solon had not yet adopted the lunar year. For in his first book he relates a conversation between the Athenian lawo-Iver and Croesus king of the Lydlans; in which, estimating seventy years as the term of human life, Solon says, " they [the seventy years] contain, with- ' Plut. in Numa, Ed. Bryan, torn. i. p. the dead at the end of the year," &c. A 155, 156. So also in his Paj^aV/ca, or foreigner, and especially a Greek like Questions on Roman affairs (Plut. Opusc. Plutarch, long resident in Rome, would be ed. Stephens, 8vo. torn. i. p. 478, sec. xix.) more likely to search into and record the noticing the opinion that the ancient customs of the Romans than the Romans year consisted of only ten months, and themselves. To him are we indebted for that December, the tenth month from the name of Numa's intercalary month, March, was the last of the j-ear, he adds, which is nowhere mentioned by any of the aXXoi^e (Vopovcri K.T.X. — " Others state the Latin writers whose works have come fact that December was the tenth from down to us. Plutarch says in one place IMarch, January the eleventh, and Febru- (Numa) that it was called IVIerkidinus, in ary the twelfth, in which purifications are another (Csesar), Merkedonius. used, and expiatory sacrifices offered for ' Numa, ed. Br^an, torn. i. p. 129. CUAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 61 out any intercalary month, twenty-five thousand two hundred days."^ This sum divided by 70, gives 360 as the number of days in a year.* The Egyptians had from time immemorial reckoned twelve months of thirty days, adding at the end of each year five supernumerary days, which on this account were called eirayo^israi, or complemental. Among the nations of Italy, the Etruscans, if they were not an Egyptian colony, at least rivalled the Egyptians, and greatly resembled them in the knowledge of arts and sciences. The Sabines and the Samnites were Grecian colonies. How, then, was it possible for the inhabitants of Alba Longa, or their descendants the Romans, to be so ignorant of astro- nomy as to make their year consist of only 304 days ? If the year of Romulus did consist of only 304 days, and there were no intercalations, it would have ended 61 ^ days before the solar year, as that year was then computed. Supposing that in the first year of his reign his first of March began, as Court de Gebelin asserts,^ at the vernal equinox, the next year the last day of December would be sixty-one days and a quarter before the vernal equinox; the year following, 122^ days; the third year, 183f days, or more than six months ; the fourth year, 245 days ; and the fifth year, 306:^ days. Thus every five years the ten months would have travelled backward through all the seasons. And when it is considered that all the religious rites of the Romans did not begin with Numa, — that festivals were, even in the rudest state of the nation, celebrated in honour of their Gods, as, for instance, the festival of Pales or the Palilia, on the twenty-first of April, the day on which Rome was founded, — it will seem next to an impossibility that such disorder should have been permitted to exist. Macrobius says expressly that the month of March was so called, because it was dedicated by Romulus to his father the god Mars ; that on the first of that month, as the beginning of the year, new fire was solemnly lighted upon the altars of Vesta, and old laurels exchanged for new, in the palace, the curite, and the ' Herod, lib. i. c. 32. Greek lunar year. I infer from this pas- * Herodotus, it is true, has given a con- sage, that the adoption of the lunar year fused account, by putting into Solon's of 354 days by the Greeks was later than mouth a computation of thirty-five inter- the time of Solon, and that Herodotus calations in the course of seventy years, himself had paid very little attention to amounting to 1050 days. This is one the subject. month of thirty days in two years, which ^ Hist. Civ. du Calendi-ier, art. ii. chap. is more than the intercalations in the 2. p. 148. 62 THE ROMAN YEAR. [pART I. houses of the Flamens ; that in the same month both public and private sacrifices were made to Anna-Perenna, &c.* Admitting all this to be vmcertain tradition, it shows at least that the Romans did not consider all their religion as commencing with Numa. These very celebrations required the observance of times and seasons. Another argument to prove that the division of time by Romu- lus must have been in accordance with the movements of the hea- venly bodies, is derived from the division of days in his calendar. Idus is not a Latin, but a Greek word {dhog). It means aspect or appearance, and was used to denote the full moon. The nones were always, as their name imports, the ninth day before the Idus. It is evident, therefore, that this whole system is founded on the change of the moon, the nones being the completion of the first quarter, as the ides are of the second.^ If the course of the moon thus governed the form and duration of the month, it is hard to tell why the apparent movements of the sun and moon together should not have regulated the year. The force of this argument will be best seen by the Table (given opposite) of The Year of Romulus, according to the opinions of Censorinus and Macrobius, and the authors quoted by them with approbation. By this table it appears that the four months which had thirty- one days, had their nones on the seventh, and their ides on the fifteenth ; while the other six, of thirty days each, had their nones on the fifth, and their ides on the thirteenth. This seems to have been so contrived, in order to adjust the civil, to the course of the lunar month ; for by counting the thirtieth and thirty-first days of the preceding, with the following civil month, the nones fall on the seventh or first quarter of the moon, excepting only September and December, because the preceding months consisted of thirty days. The rest of the month after the full of the moon or Idus, is ' Hsec fiiit Romiili ordinatio; qui pri- atque Flaminum domibus laurese veteres mum anni mensem genitori suo Marti novis laureis mutabantur. eodem quoque dicavit. Quern mensem anni primum fu- mense et publico et pi-ivatim ad Annam isse vel ex hoc maxime probatur, quod ab Perennara sacrificatum itur; ut annare ipso Quintilis quintus est, et deinceps pro perennareque commode liceat. Saturnal. nmnero nominabantur. Hujus etiam prima lib. i. cap. xii. ed.VoIpii, p. 218. die ignem novum Vestae aris accendebant : * See Plut. Opuscula, torn. i. ed. Steph, ut incipiente anno cura denuo servandi p. 480, s. 239. Lat. torn. i. p. 448. B. novati ignis inciperet. eodem quoque in- sec. xxiv. grcdiente mcnse tam in rcgia curiisque CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 63 Martius Aprilis Mai us Junius Quiutilis Sextilis Seplemb. October Novemb.j Decemb. 1 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 2 VI 2 IV 2 VI 2 IV 2 VI 2 IV 2 IV 2 VI 2 IV 2 IV 3 V 3 111 3 V 3 111 3 V 3 111 3 lU 3 V 3 lU 3 lU 4 IV 4 Prid 4 IV 4 Prid 4 IV 4 Prid 4 Prid 4 iv 4 Prid 4 Prid 5 6 111 5 6 Non 5 HI 5 Non 5 111 5 Non 5 Non 5 iii 5 Non 5 6 Non Prid viii 6 Prid 6 viii 6 Prid 6 viii 6 viii 6 Prid 6 viii viii 7 Noil 7 Vll 7 Non 7 vu 7 Non 7 VU 7 vu 7 Non 7 vu 7 Vll 8 Vlll 8 VI 8 via 8 VI 8 VUl 8 VI 8 VI 8 via 8 VI 8 VI 9 Vll 9 V 9 vu 9 V 9 vu 9 V 9 V 9 vu 9 V 9 V 10 11 VI 10 11 IV 10 11 VI 10 11 IV 10 VI 10 _ 11 IV 10 H IV 10 11 VI 10 IV 10 IV V iii V iii 11 V iii iii V 11 iii 11 iii 12 IV 12 Prid 12 IV 12 Prid 12 iv 12 Prid 12 Prid 12 IV 12 Prid 12 Prid 13 111 13 Idus 13 111 13 Idus 13 111 13 Idus 13 Idus 13 Ul 13 Idus 13 Idus 14 Prid 14 XVlll 14 Prid 14 xviu 14 Prid 14 XVUl 14 XVUl 14 Prid 14 XVUl 14 XVUl 15 16 Idas 15 16 XVll 15 Idus 15 16 xvu 15 Idus 15 xvu 15 xvu 15 Idus 15 XVU 15 XVU xvii xvi 16 xvii xvi 16 xvii 16 xvi 16 xvi 16 xvii 16 xvi 16 xvi 17 XVI 17 XV 17 XVI 17 XV 17 xvi 17 XV 17 XV 17 XVI 17 XV 17 XV 18 XV 18 xiv 18 XV 18 xiv 18 XV 18 XIV 18 XIV 18 XV 18 XIV 18 XIV 19 XIV 19 Xlll 19 XIV 19 xiu 19 XIV 19 xiu 19 XUl 19 XIV 19 XUl 19 Xlll 20 xni 20 xu 20 Xlll 20 xu 20 Xlll 20 21 xu 20 21 XU 20 XUl 20 xu 20 xu 21 xii 21 xi 21 xii 21 xi 21 xii xi xi 21 xii 21 xi 21 xi 22 XI 22 X 22 XI 22 x 22 XI 22 X 22 X 22 XI 22 x 22 X 23 X 23 IX 23 X 23 IX 23 X 23 IX 23 IX 23 X 23 IX 23 IX 24 IX 24 VUl 24 IX 24 VUl 24 IX 24 VUl 24 VUl 24 IX 24 Vlll 24 VUl 25 VUl 25 vu 25 Vlll 25 vu 25 Vlll 25 vu 25 26 Vll 25 26 Vlll 25 26 Vll vi 25 26 Vll 26 vii 26 vi 26 vii 26 vi 26 vii 26 vi vi vii vi 27 VI 27 V 27 vi 27 V 27 VI 27 V 27 V 27 VI 27 V 27 V 28 V 28 IV 28 V 28 IV 28 V 28 IV 28 IV 28 V 28 IV 28 IV 29 IV 29 iii 29 IV 29 iii 29 IV 29 Ul 29 111 29 IV 29 iii 29 Ul 30 111 30 Prid 30 HI 30 Prid 30 111 30 Prid 30 Prid 30 lU 30 Prid 30 Prid 31 Prid 31 Prid 31 Prid 31 Prid Total, 304 days. 1 reckoned backward from the first day of the succeeding month. In the four months of thirty-one days, the day after the ides is called the seventeenth before the calends, and In the six months of thirty days, the eighteenth before the calends, Quintilis is so called, as Macrobius states, because it was the fifth month, reckon- ing from March as the first.' This serves as a key to the grounds of the opinion that the year of Romulus consisted of only three hundred and four days, divided into ten months. It was founded on the presumption merely that December was the last month in the year, and that its etymology proved it to be also the tenth ' Quod ab ipso [viz. Martio mense] Quintilis quintus est. 64 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. month, as Quintilis was the fifth. But January and February- may as well have formed the eleventh and twelfth months of the year of Romulus, as March, April, May, and June, the first four. Even if, as Plutarch says, the year of Romulus consisted of three hundred and sixty days, there was still a deficiency every year of five-and-a-quarter days, which at the end of every four years would amount to twenty-one days ; and as the reign of Romulus, and the Interregnmn preceding the reign of Numa, con- tinued, according to Livy, thirty-eight years, we may estimate the difference between the civil and the solar year at the accession of Numa, if there had been no intercalations, as amounting to (38x5|^199^) nearly two hundred days, or more than six-and-a half months. If the first day of March in the first year of the reign of Romulus began at the vernal equinox, it would have tra- velled back in the last year of his reign, so as to have begun before the autumnal equinox. Such disorder would have been utterly inconsistent with the religious observances of times and seasons ; and if it did exist, would have been a suflficient cause for the changes introduced by Numa. But we have no evidence whether intercalations were or were not introduced in the time of Romulus. Macrobius says that *' there are various statements as to the time when intercalation was first practised by the Romans. Licinius Macer assigned its origin to Romulus. Antias maintained that it was invented by Numa ; Junius, that it was first practised by Servius TuUius." I omit other opinions mentioned by him, because they are only opi- nions, but insert the whole passage in the margin.' In this state of uncertainty, weighing well the account of Plu- tarch, and comparing with it the Calendar of Romulus as given by Censorinus and Macrobius, in which four months have each thii-ty- one, and consequently four additional days, I am led to the con- 1 Quando autem primo interkalatum sit, eosdem scribit auctores. Fulvius autem varie refertur: et Macer quidem Licinius id egisse Manium consulem dicit ab urbe ejus rei originem Romulo assignat. Antias condita anno quingentesimo sexagesimo libro secundo Numam Pompilium Sacro- secundo, inito mox bello ^tolico, sed hunc rum causa id invenisse contendit. Junius arguit Varro scribendo, antiquissimam Servium TuUium regem primum inter- legem fuisse incisam in columna serea a L. kalasse commemorat; a quo et Nundinas Pinario et Furio consulibus, cui mentio institutas Varroni placet. Tuditanus refert interkalai'is adscribitur. Haec de inter- libro tertio Magistratuum Decem\'iros, kalandi principio satis relata sint. Saturnal. qui decern tabulis duas addiderunt, de in- lib. i. cap. xiii. ed Volpii, p. 227-228. terkalando populum rogasse. Cassius CHAP, in.] THE ROMAN YEAR. elusion that his calendar was founded u2:)on the Egyptian, and was in fact an improvement of it. To render this plain, it will be proper to insert here the following supposed TABLE OF THE YEAE OF ROMULUS. Mart. 1. Vprilis Maius uiiius luint. Sext. Sept. Oct. 1 Nov. 1 Dec. 1 Ian. Feb. 1 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Kal 1 Ka 1 Ka 1 Ka]\ 1 Kail 1 Kal 1 Ka 1 Kal I 336 S vi 2 iv 2 vi 2 iv 2 vi 2 iv IV 2| vi 1 2 iv 2 iv 2 iv 2 a V 3 iii 3 V 3 iii 3 v 3 in ui V 3 iii ■■: iii 3 iii 3 338 339 340 4 IV 4 Prid 4 iv 4 Prid 4 iv 4 Prid 4 Pric 4 IV 4 Pri( 4 Prid 4 Prid 4 Pri( 5 6 III 5 Non 6 viii 5 iii 5 Non 5 iii ONon 6 viii 6 Non viii 5 C 111 5 Non 6 viii 5 6 Non 5 Non 5 6 Nou Prid 6 Prid 6 viii 6 Prid Prid viii 6 viii 341 342 343 344 345 7 Non 7 vii 7NoQ 7 vii 7 Non 7 VII 7 vu 7 Non 7 vii 7 vii 7 vii 7 vii H Vlll i vi 8 viii 8 vi 8 viii 8 vi 8 VI 8 Vlll 8 vi 8 VI *■ VI 8 vi t vu 9 v 9 vii 9 V 9 vii y v 9 V 9 VII 9 V 9 V 9 V 9 V 10 11 vi 1 V 1 0 iv 1 0 vi 1 1 V 1 0 iv 1 1 iii 1 0 vi 1 1 V 1 0 iv 1 ui 10 11 IV 10 vi 1 0 iv 10 11 IV iii 10 11 IV iii 10 ll' iv iii 1 iii 1 iii 11 V 1 1 iii 346 347 348 349 350 1? iv 1 2 Prid 1 2 iv 1 2 Prid 1 2 iv 1 2 Prid 12 Prid 12 iv 1 2 Prid 12 Prid 12 Prid 12 Prid i:i iii 1 3 Idus I 3 iii 1 3 Idus 1 3 iii 1 3 Idus i3 idus 13 iii 1 3 Idu.s 13 [dus 13 Idus 13 Tdns 14 Pridl i xviii 1 I Prid 1 4 xviii 1 1 Prid I 1 xviii 14 xviu 14 Prid 1 I xviii 14 XVlll 14 XIX 14 xviii 15 16 Idus 1 xrii U 5 xvii 1 5 Idus 1 5 xvii 1 5 Idus 1 3 XVll 15 16 XVll xvi 15 16 Idus 1 xvii 1 5 XVll 3 xvi 15 16 XVll xvi 15 IC XVIU xvii 15 16 xvii xvi i xvi 1 3 xvii 1 6 xvi 1 3 xvii 1 3 xvi 351 352 353 354 355 17 xvi I- ■ XV 1 7 xvi 1 7 XV 1' r xvi 1 7 XV 17 XT 17 xvi 1 7 XV 17 XV 17 -XVI 17 XV 18 XV l^ xiv 1 1 XV 1 8 xiv 1* i XV 1 3 xiv 18 xiv 18 XV 1 i xiv 18 XIV 18 XV IS xiv 19 xiv U xiii H ) xiv 1 9 xiii n ) xiv 1 i xiii 19 XIU 19 xiv 1 3 xiii 19 XUl 19 XIV 19 xiii 20 xiii 2f xii 2t xiii 2 a xii 2( xiii 2( ) xii 20 xu 20 xiii 2( J xii 20 XII 20 XIU So xii 21 xii 21 xi 2 xii 2 1 xi 21 xii 2 xi 21 xi 21 xii 2 xi 21 xi 21 xii 21 xi 356 357 358 359 360* 22 xi 22 X 2i xi 2 2 X 2S xi 25 X 22 X 22 xi 2. I X 22 X 22 XI 22 X 23 X 2.' ix 2; X 2 3 ix 23 X 2C IX 23 IX 23 x 2. i ix 23 IX 23 X 23 IX 24 ix 2- viii 2- ix 2 1 viii 24 ix 24 viii 24 VIII 24 ix 2- t viii 24 viu 24 IX 24 VUI 25 viii 25 vii 25 viii 2t ) vii 25 viii 25 Vll 25 VI 1 26 viii 2. ) vu 25 VII 25 VIU 25 VII 9(> vii 26 vi 26 vii 2( vi 2( vii 26 vi 26 vi 26 vii 2t 5 vi 26 vi 26 vii 26 vi 361* 362 363 364 365 97 !vi 27 V 27 vi 2- V 27 vi 27 V 27 V 27 vi 2- ■ V 27 V 27 VI 27 V 28 v 28 iv 28 V ■2i iv 28 V 28 IV 28 IV 28 V 2i i iv 28 IV 28 V 28 IV 99 iv 29 iii 29 iv 2i iii 29 iv 29 iii 29 111 29 iv 2' ) iii 29 HI 29 IV 29 111 30 31 iii 30 Prid Prid 30 31 iii 3C Prid 30 iii 30 Prid Prid 30 Prid 30 31 iii 3( Prid ) Prid 30 Prid 30 111 30 Prid Prid „ 31 Prid Total 365 davs. * The 360th day was the Teiminalia, the 361st the Regifugium. From an inspection of the foregoing table it will appear that the 360th day of the year fell always on the seventh before the calends of March. This was the end of the twelve months of the Egypt- ian year, which I suppose was the year in use among the inhabit- ants of Alba Longa, and the most ancient nations of Italy. It was, therefore, the festival of the Terminalia. Here the Egyptians, and consequently the nations which followed their usage, intro- duced the i-rrayoi-itvai, or five comj^lcmental days. Instead of this, Romulus distributed them through the year, by adding them to the five months March, May, Quintilis, October, and, if my con- jecture be correct, January. He thus, by a very simple method, improved the arrangement, though he did not correct the error, of 9 I. Januarius 29 V. Majus 31 148 rr, Februarius 28 57 TI. Junius 29 177 in. Martius 31 88 VII. Quintilis 31 208 rv. Aprilis 29 117 vin. Sextilis 29 237 66 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. the Egyptian computation. There would still be nearly one day in four years to be added, in order to make the civil, commensurate with the true solar year ; and this would have made a difference of about ten days, when Numa introduced his new arrangement. 2. The Roman Year under the succeeding Kings, and the Republic. We have seen from Censorinus, that the arrangement of Numa's year was evidently founded on the lunar year of the Greeks, con- sisting of 354 days ; but, having a superstitious dislike to equal numbers, which he considered as unlucky, he made his year to consist of 355 days, which were thus distributed : IX. September 29 266 X. October 31 297 XI. November 29 326 XII. December 29 355 February only was left with an equal number, and was considered as an unlucky month, being dedicated to the God Februus, who presided over lustrations, and the rites due to the Manes, or in- fernal Gods.^ Numa was a Sabine ; and the Sabines were, probably, either wholly or in part, a Grecian colony.^ Macrobius Intimates that the changes introduced by him in the calendar, were the result of his acquaintance with Grecian learning.^ We may add, that It was the effect of Irrational fondness for Greek usages ; for the calendar of Romulus being nearer to the solar year, it was no im- provement to substitute a system of intercalary months, arising from the imperfections of the lunar year. Be this as it may, the change was made, and the Roman became similar to the Grecian year. " The lunar year," says Macrobius, " being thus adopted by the Romans from the Greeks, they were obliged, like the Greeks, to institute an Intercalary month, because they found that the solar exceeded the lunar year, eleven days and one-fourth, which, in eight years, amounted to ninety days. The Greeks divided this number into three months of thirty days, but the Romans into four intercalations, in the alternate years, of twenty- ' Macrob. Saturnal. lib. i. c. xiii. ed. ^ Quia Graecorum observatione forsan Volp. 225. instructus est. * Dion. Halic. Antiq. Rom. lib. ii. 48, 49. CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 67 two and twenty-three days each. But as, for the sake of the unequal number, they had added one day to the Grecian year, on the eighth year they found an excess of eight days. To correct this error, at the end of the third eight, or twenty-four years, they so disposed the intercalated days as to make the whole intercalation, not ninety, but sixty-six days." ' This explains that passage in Livy, which Scaliger presumed to call absurd. Speaking of Numa's year as lunar, the historian says that, by intercalary months, he so adjusted it, as, in the course of twenty-four years, to make it agree with the solar year.^ The whole subject will be rendered perfectly clear, if we place side by side the opei*ation of the two systems. Twenty-four solar years, of three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days, amount to eight thousand seven hundred and sixty-six days. (3651X24=8766.) The Greek lunar year of 354 days, and the Roman lunar year of 355 days, with their respective intercalations, make up the same number of days in twenty-four years, as will be seen by the table at the head of the next page. ^ Cum ergo Bomani ex hac distributione Pompilii ad lunse cursum, sicut Graeci, annum proprium computarent ; necessario et interkalarem mensem instituerunt more Grsecorum. nam et Grseci, cum ani- madverterent, temere se trecentis quin- quaginta quatuor diebus ordinasse annum (quoniam appareret de solis cursu, qui trecentis sexaginta quinque diebus et quadrante zodiacum conficit, deesse anno suo undecim dies et quadrantem) in- terkalares stata ratione commenti sunt, ita ut octavo quoque anno nonaginta dies, ex quibus tres menses tricenum dierum composuerunt, interkalarent. id Grseci fecerunt, quoniam erat operosum atque difficile omnibus annis undecim dies et quadrantem interkalare. itaque malue- runt hunc numerum octies multiplicare, et nonaginta dies, qui nascuntur si quad- rans cum diebus undecim octies compo- natur, inserere in tres menses, ut diximus distribuendos, hos dies virsptaivovTac, menses vero iixtoXi/iovg appellitabant. Hunc ergo ordinem llomanis quoque imi- tari placuit, sed frustra ; quippe fugit eos, unum diem, sicut supra admouuimus, ad- ditum esse ad Grscum numerum in hono- rem imparls numeri. ea re per octennium convenire numerus atque ordo non poterat. sed nondum hoc errore comperto, per octo annos nonaginta quasi superfundendos Grsecorum exemplo computabant dies ; alternisque annis binos et vicenos, alternis ternos et vicenos interkalares expensabant interkalationibus quatuor. sed octavo quoque anno interkalantes octo affluebant dies ex singulis ; quibus vertentis anni numerum apud Romanos, supra Grsecum abundasse jam diximus. hoc quoque errore jam cognito, ha-c species emenda- tionis inducta est. Tertio quoque octennio ita interkalandos dispensabant dies, ut non nonaginta sed sexaginta sex interkalarent, compensatis viginti et quatuor diebus pro illis qui per totidem annos supra Grseco- rum numerum creverant. — Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xiii. ed. Volpii, p. 225-226. " Atque omnium primum ad cursum lunse, in duodecim menses describit annum, quern (quia tricenos dies singulis mensibus luna non explet, desuntque dies solido anno qui solstitiali circumagitur orbe) interca- laribus mensibus interponendis ita dispen- savit, ut quarto et vigesimo anno, ad metam eamdem solis, unde orsi essent plenis an- norum omnium spatiis, dies congruerent. Lib. i.cap. 19. 68 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. Greek Lunar year of 354 days. Eoman Lunar year of 355 days. XXIV. Gr. Lun. years amount to da ys 8496 XXIV. Rom. Lun. years amount to days 8520 1 i. 0\ 1 i. 0> 2 03 11. 0 2 o ii. First IntercaJ. days, 22 3 U iii. First Intercal. days 30 3 iii. [or Merkedon. min. 0 4 IV. 0 90 4 0) iv. Sec.In.orMerk.maj. 23 90 5 3 V. Second Intercalation 30 5 C3 v. 0 6 ^ VI. 0 6 vi. Thirdln.orMer.min. 22 / VII. 0 / vii. 0 8 9 viii. Third Intercalation 30' 8 9 viii. Fourth I. or Mer. maj. 23 ' 1. 0\ 1. \ 10 11. 0 10 '72 ii. Merkedonius minor 22 11 0) iii. First Intercalation 30 11 t- iii. 0 12 :0 IV. 0 ^90 12 iv. Merkedonius major 23 90 13 V. Second Intercalation 30 13 rt V. 0 14 o VI. 0 14 o ■\-i. Merkedonius minor 22 15 w vn. 0 15 vu. 16 17 viii. Third Intercalation 30 J 16 17 h-( viii. Merkedonius major 23' . 1. ^\ i. 0\ 18 ^' ii. 0| 18 'C ii. Merkedonius minor 22 19 ■g iii. First Intercalation 30, 19 u iii. 0 20 21 :| iv. O! 2 I V. Second Intercalation 30 | 20 21 "cS iv. Merkedonius minor 22 V. 0 -66 22 Ol VI. 0 0 30/ years 270 22 o ' vi. Merkedonius minor 22 23 w vii. 23 M vii. 0 24 " viii. Third Intercalation 24 " %dii. 0^ Total of Intercalary days in 24 Total of Intercalary days in 24 j'ears 246 Adjusted to 24 Solar years= =Days 8766 Adjusted to 24 Solar years=Days 8766 According to the Greek computation, the third, fifth, and eighth years of each octaeteride consisted of 384 days, and therefore were each 18f days longer than the natural year. According to the Roman comj)utation, there were in the cycle of twenty-four years, seven years of 377 days, and four years of 378 days, thus exceed- ing the solar year nearly twelve or thirteen days, as follows : Greek Computation. Roman Computation. I. Octaeteride. II. Oetaeteride. III. Octaeteride. Roman Cycle of three Octaeterides, or 24 years. 1 i. days 354 i. days 354 i. daj s354 i. day s355 ix. days 355 xvii. daj s 355 11. 354 11. 354 11. 354 11. 377 X. 377 x\aii. 377 111. 384 iii. 384 111. 384 111. 355 xi. 355 XIX. 355 IV. 354 iv. 354 IV. 354 IV. 378 xii. 378 XX. 377 v. 384 v, 384 V. 384 V. 355 xiii. 355 XXI. 355 vi. 354 \-i. 354 VI. 354 VI. 377 xiv. 377 xxu. 377 vii. 354 vii. 354 vn. 354 VU. 355 XV. 355 XXlll, 355 viii. 384 viii. 384 viu. 384 vm. 378 xvi. 378 XXIV. 355 2906 2922 2922 2922 2930 2930 2922 2930 2922 2930 Total 8766 Total 8766 CHAP. III.l THE ROMAN YEAU. 69 According to the Greek computation, the three intercalary- months in each octaeteride were introduced as a thirteenth month of the intercalated year. The Romans, on the contraiy, incoi'po- rated their intercalation between the twenty-third and twenty- fourth of February, making that month, with the Merkedonius minor, fifty, Avitli the Merkedonius major, fifty-one days long. The manner of doing this will be shown hereafter, when we come to speak of the reform introduced by Julius Cffisar. It is mentioned here, because it affords presumptive evidence that, in the calendar of Romulus, February, and not December, was the last month of the year. It was the custom of all nations, and must therefore have been a natural and obvious arrangement, to intercalate at the end of the civil year. Indeed Macrobius, in evident inconsistency with his former account, says, in speaking of Numa's changes, that the month of February was selected for every intercalation, because it was the last of the year} Numa therefore only transposed January and February ; and that he might not disturb any of the religious festivals as arranged by Romulus, he continued to observe the festival of the Temiinalia, the three hundred and sixtieth day of the year of Romulus, on the seventh before the calends of March, and there introduced his intercalary month. From this examination it appears to me, that the change of the Roman calendar introduced by Numa was far from being an im- provement. His year was not as near the solar time as the year of Romulus, nor as near the lunar time as that of the Greeks. His system of intercalation was not as regular as the Grecian, while its machinery was more complicated. It required a cycle of twenty-four years, to adjust the civil to the solar year, while the same thing was accomplished by the Greeks in the course of eight. Still, if the intercalations had been duly observed, there could have been at no period of the cycle any very inconvenient irregularity. But Numa had made it the duty of the pontiflTs to effect and to declare the intercalation; and they were often led by political favouritism, to lengthen the year of a friend, or diminish that of an enemy. By such irregularities, the agreement of the civil with the astronomical year was often disturbed. How long Numa's sys- tem continued to be faithfully observed, cannot now be ascertained ; 1 Omni autem interkalationi mensis Februarius deputatus est : quouiam is ultimus anai erat. — Saturnal. lib. i. c. xiii. 70 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. but, if the inferences which have now been built on the scanty statements of antiquity be well founded, we may safely conclude that, from the very foundation of Rome, the computations of time were nearly, if not perfectly, adjusted to the solar year, down to the expulsion of the kings, a period of two hundred and forty-four years, and possibly to the time of the second Decemviri, a.u.c. 304. Cicero incidentally remarks, that Virginius slew his daughter, to save her from disgrace and crime, the sixtieth year after the ex- jiulsion of the kings. ^ This fixes the epoch of the abdication of the Decemviri in the three hundred and fourth year of Rome ; and it agrees with the date assigned to that event in the Capitoline tables, of which we shall hereafter speak. It is very probable that, as this was a tumultuous period of the Roman commonwealth, the irregularities in the computation of time may have then begun. Certain it is, that a great irregularity did exist within the succeed- ing three hundred years. Livy states that in the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Scipio and Caius Laslius, "during the ApoUinarian games, the fifth day before the ides of Quintilis [July 11th], in the day time, when the sky was serene, the light was obscured by the passage of the moon over the sun's disc."^ This solar eclipse took place, by astronomical computation, March 14th, a. J. p. 4524.^ According to Numa's calendar, then in use, the intervening time from March 14th to July 11th, was one hundred and seventeen days, or, according to present computation, one hundred and nineteen days. Here, then, was a variation of nearly four months between the solar year and that of Numa. According to the Capitoline tables, the consulship of L. Cornelius Scipio and C. Lselius, was a.u.c. 563. Reckoning, therefore, from the Ides of Quintilis a.u.c. 304, to the Ides of Quintilis a.u.c. 563, there were two hundred and fifty-nine solid years; and if the intercalations had been regularly made during that period, there would have been but a trifling variation between the year of Numa and the solar year, as the following table will show : ' Tenuis L. Virginius, unusque e multis, diem quintum Idus Quinctilis, ccelo sereno, sexagesimo anno post libertatem receptam, A-ir- interdiu obscurata lux est, quum Luna ginem filiani, sua manu occidit, potius, sub orbem solis subisset. Liv. lib. xxxvii. quam ea App. Claudii libidini, qui turn c. 4, compared with c. 1. erat summo in imperio, dederetur. — De ^ The calculation may be seen in Peta- Finibus, lib. ii. cap. 20, ad fin. vius de Doctrina Temporum, torn. i. p. Per eos dies, quibus est profectus ad 509, 0 23. bellum Consul, ludis Apollinaribus, ante CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 71 259 Solar Years. Years. Days. 10 cycles of 24 years, or 240 = 87,660 4 solar years = 1461 clays X 4, or - - - 16 = 5,844 365i days X 3, or - - 3= 1,0953 Total number of days in 259 Excess of 259 years of Numa over 259 solar years . . . - - 94,599J 7t 94,607 259 Years of Numa properly intercalated. 8 = 2,930 Years. Days. 10 cycles of 24 years, or 240 = 87,660 1 1 th cycle 1 st period, con- taining four intercala- tions, or .... 2d period of four interca- lations, or - - - - 17th year of 11th cycle, I8th year of 11th cycle, intercalated - - . 19 th year of 11th cycle, 1 2,930 355 377 355 Total number of days in 259 = 94,607 Yet, in fact, there was a variation of one hundred and seventeen, or one hundred and nineteen days. This can be accounted for only from the Irregularities of Intercalation. An Ingenious attempt, however, was made by M. de la Nauze, in a memoir read before the French Academy, June 18th, 1754, to solve the difficulties of the Roman calendar, by an entirely different system.* He supposed that the civil years were consular, and had no relation to the solar year. The consuls always entered on the duties of their office about the beginning of winter, whatever might be the name of the month in the Roman calendar. He con- tends that, in consequence of the unwillingness of the second Decem- viri to resign their power, the consulship which immediately followed that decemvirate began on the Ides of December. In support of this opinion he quotes a passage in Livy,^ which, however, relates to a consulship twenty-six years later. He then asserts that the consular year thus began on the ides of December for 48 succes- sive years ; that it then leapt to the 1st of October, and so con- tinued 114 years; that by another leap it began on the 1st of July, and so continued 66 years ; then on the ides of March, 68 years ; and lastly, on the 1st of January, for 107 years, to the reformation of the calendar by Julius Csesar. Thus, in the course of 403 years, the commencement of the consular year leapt in retrogradatlon from December to October, from October to Quintills or July, from July to March, and from March to January. His whole theory turns upon the assumption that an alternate Intercalation of 22 and 23 years took place regularly on all the equal years, 304, 306, 308, 310, &c., for 279 years; that on the 280th year there * This memoir is in the 44th volume of I'Acad. Royale des Inscriptions et Belles theSvo. edition, p. 111-200, of Memoiresde Lettres, Paris, 1771. 1 Lib. iv. c. 37. 72 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. was an intercalation of twenty-five days ; that the succeeding year there was no intercalation, but in the 282nd there were twenty- three, in the 283rd forty-six, and in the 284th twenty-two days, being an intercalation of ninety-one days in three successive years; that, for the next tea years, the intercalations continued regularly on the equal years, and then there were two successive years with- out intercalation ; that in the 297th year the intercalations became again regular, and so continued for 91 years, but always on the unequal years, 601, 603, 605, 607, &c. ; and lastly, that from the 387th to the 403rd year, there was but one intercalation of twenty- two days, in the 398th year. He strangely takes not the least notice of the cycle of twenty-four years, in which the years of Numa were adjusted to the solar years. On the contrary, he seems not to have adverted to that fact ; for his whole system supposes that the Roman January passed successively through all the seasons, till at length there was an entire year of difference be- tween the calendar and the solar years. An anonymous French author, of whose unpublished dissertation M. Court de Gebelin has given an abstract, dissatisfied with this plan, has given a different conjecture. Being aware of the cycle of twenty -four years, and admitting, therefore, that the confusion of the calendar was the effect either of neglect or design, he main- tains that it was occasioned by the conspiracies to restore the Tarquins, a.u.c. 253 and 254. He thinks that the senate, in the last of those years, gave the pontiffs authority to abandon the use of Numa's cycle, in order to destroy the reverence of the people for their kings. From that time the alternate intercalations of twenty-two and twenty-three 'days were continued without any adjustment of the civil to the solar year. These intercalations fell on the unequal years ; and they were so arranged that the minor intercalation fell on the years which were afterwards called bissex- tile, and, consequently, the major intercalation on common years. The reformation of the calendar by Julius Cjesar fell upon an unequal year, a.u.c. 707 ; and, according to Censorinus, that year was entitled to an intercalation of twenty-three days.* ^ M. Court de Gebelin, Histoire Ci^'ile volume, is a work of immense research, du Calendrier, p. 160-164. Court de Ge- He was an original and learned, but fan- belin, the friend of our Franklin, was en- ciful writer. On the subject of the civil gaged with him, M. Robinet and others, history of the Calendar, he has given a in defending the cause of American inde- condensed view within a small compass of pendance. His Monde Primitif, of which the labours of his predecessors. See lib. i. i'Histoire du Calendrier forms the fourth § iii. art. ii. CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 73 As no authorities are given for this conjecture, no refutation need be attempted; but, taking his premises, let us examine the con- clusion to which they lead. The distance of time from a.u.c. 254 to A.u.c. 707, was 453 years, or 56 periods of eight years and five years over. The number of days in eight of Numa's years, with four intercalations, 2930X56=164,080. To these add five years of 355 days, with two intercalations, 22 +23=1820 days, and the whole 453 years of Numa so intercalated, would amount to 165,900 days. Take from these 165,458^, the number of days in 453 solar years, and there remain 44 If days, or one solar year and 76^ days, as the excess occasioned by over-intercalation. Thus a whole year would have been absorbed, and an encroachment made upon another year of nearly two months and a half. This would have obliged Julius Caesar to shorten, instead of adding, as he did, to the year in which he adjusted the calendar. It seemed necessaiy to notice these modern attempts to break through one of the most thorny subjects in chronology, that the reader might see what the difficulties really are. That these attempts have not succeeded, proceeds not from want of industry or critical acumen, but from the scanty assistance contributed by ancient authors. It would be presumption in me, therefore, to think of effecting what they have not accomplished. But this truth may be considered as clearly established, that as in the year of Rome 563 the civil exceeded the solar year 119 days, an excess of interca- lation had existed previously/ ; and that, as in the time of Ciesar the civil year fell short of the solar, there had been a previous toant of intercalation. This accords with the statement of Macrobius, that there was a time when, from superstitious motives, all intercala- tion was omitted.' One extreme naturally leads to another, and the excess occasioned the subsequent defect. We are led, there- fore, to consider 3. The Roman year as reformed hy Julius Cwsar. Suetonius gives the following account of this transaction : " He [Caesar] corrected the calendar, which had long been deranged, through the fault of the Pontiffs by unlawful intercalations, so that the holidays (feriae) of harvest did not accord with the summer, nor those of the vintage with the autumn. He accommodated the * Verum fuit tempus cum propter superstitionem iuterkalatio omnis omissa est. — Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xiv. ed. Volpii, p. 228. 10 74 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. year to the course of the sun, so that it should consist of 365 clays, and that, the intercalary month being abolished, one day should be inserted every four years. That the computation of time from the new calends of January should in future be more exact, he inter- posed two other months between November and December; so that the year in which these arrangements were made, consisted of fifteen months, including the intercalary month, which, according to custom, had taken place that year."^ So Dion Cassius : " The days of the years which did not agree well together (for even then the months were reckoned according to the periods of the moon), he [Caesar] regulated after the present manner, inserting 67 days, which were thought necessary to a complete computation. Some have said that more were inserted ; but the truth is as follows. By his residence at Alexandria, he learned that although they reckoned the months as consisting each of thirty days, they added to every year five days. These five days, therefore, Cresar fitted into the months, adding two other days which he had taken from one of the months. The one day, formed from four quarters, he introduced every fourth year, leav- ing only a small portion of their hours to be changed, so that it would be necessary to insert one day in the 1461st year."^ Plutarch speaks of the erroneous computations by which the Roman year had been disordered, ascribes the fault to the arbitrary intercalations of the priests, and praises the regulations made by ' Conversus hinc ad ordinandum reipub- dcrstand the subject. As they i-eckoned Here statum, fastos correxit, jam pridem only 365 daj's to the year, four of their vitio pontificum per intercalandi licentiam years would amount to 1460 days; while adeo turbatos, ut neque messium feriae four Jidian years amounted to 1461 days, jestati, neque vindcmiarum autumno com- Consequently 1461 of their years, would peterent. Annumque ad cursum solis ac- be equal to 1460 Jidian years. As the commodavit, ut trecentorum sexaginta solar annual revolution is performed in quinque dierum esset, et intercalario mense 365 days 5h. 48' 45^", and not in 365 days sublato, unus dies quarto quoque anno in- 6 hours, four solar years amount not to tercalarotur. Quo autem magis in pos- 1461 days, but to 1460d. 23h. 15' 2", thus terum ex kalendis Januai-iis novis tem- falling short of four Julian years 44' 58". porum ratio congrueret, inter Novembrem In the course of 400 years, there would ac Decembrem mensem interjecit duos be an excess in the Julian years of alios : fuitque is annus, quo h»c consti- 3d. 2h. 56' 40". This led to the reforma- tuebantur, quindecim mensium cum inter- tion of the Julian calendar by Pope Gre- calario, qui ex consuetudine in eum annum gory xrri, in March a.d. 1582, by the inciderat.— Sueton. Jul. Ctes. § xl. ed. suppression of ten days, and the provision "Wolfii, tom. i. p. 53-54. that one day shoidd be omitted every » Dion. Hist. Eom. lib. xliii. § xxvi. ed. 100th year, not divisible by four without a Reimar, tom. i. p. 359-360. What Dion remainder, i.e. that in all such years every Cassius here says of the 1461st year, must 25th bissextile should be counted as a com- refer to the great canicular year of the mon year. Egyptijins; but he evidently did not uu- CHAP. in.] TUE ROMAN YEAR. 75 Csesar ; but mentions no pai'ticnlars, excepting that he acted by the advice of the ablest philosophers and mathematicians.* Pliny says that he acted under the advice of Sosigenes.^ Macrobius devotes a whole chapter to this subject. After speaking of the superstitious omission of all intercalation and the favouritism of the priests, he says that Caius Caesar reduced this vague and uncertain change of seasons to a fixed arrangement, by the assistance of his secretary M. Flavins. Pie then proceeds thus : " C. Caesar being about to introduce the new arrangement, con- sumed all the days which could still cause confusion ; and thus it came to pass that the last year of confusion was extended to 443 days. Then imitating the Egyptians, who alone are acquainted with all sacred things, he resolved to regulate the year according to the number of the sun, which performs its course in 365 days and one fourth. For as the moon's year is one month, because the moon completes the circuit of the zodiac in little less than a month, so the sun's year is to be gathered from that number of days which he traverses till he returns again to the same sign from which he departed." This he says is called the annus vertens, and the word annus itself is derived from the obsolete an, signifying the same as circum. He then proceeds : " Julius Csesar, therefore, added ten days to the old computation, to make up the year of 365 days in which the sun passes through the zodiac ; and that the fourth part of a day might not be wanting, he decreed that every fourth year the priests who had charge of the months and days should interca- late one day, the intercalation being made in the same month and place as among the ancients, that is before the last five days of February. He ordered this to be called Bissextum. The ten days which, as we have said, were added by him, he distributed in this manner: in January, Sextilis (afterwards called August), and December, he inserted two days ; and in April, June, September, and November, one. To February he made no addition, that the worship of the infernal Gods might not be changed. INIarch, May, Quintilis (July), and October, he preserved as they were, because they already had the full number of thirty-one days." He then proceeds to speak of his continuing the old arrangement of the * See Plutarch's lives by the Lang- quartam Cajsar dictator, annos ad solis homes: Julius Ctesar. Tegg's Ed. Lond. cursum redigeiis singulos, Sosigene perito 1834. p. 515. scientise ejus adhilaito. — Hist. Nat. lib. ^ Ti-es autem fuere sectaj : Chaldaja, xxxviii. 25.ed.Brotier,tom. iii.p. 404.C.57. ^gyptia, Grseca. His addidit apud nos 76 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. nones, ides, &c., whicli I omit, because they will be best understood from an inspection of the calendar itself.' Solinus seems strangely to have misconceived the whole subject, unless the passage be corrupted by false readings. He speaks of an intercalation by Caesar of 21^ days, and of that year as con- taining 840 days, while the subsequent years had 365^.^ This last author alone excepted, the rest may easily be made to harmonize with what Censorinus has said in his twentieth chapter. The number ccccxliii. in Macrobius, may have been inadvertently written, or carelessly copied, instead of ccccxlv. The latter must be the true number, because it is the sum of 355+23 + 67. It was the duty of CiBsar, as Pontifex Maximus, to insert the inter- calary month in its proper place. This he did, and afterwards, between November and December, he inserted sixty-seven days, as Dion and Censorinus both affirm, divided into two months of thirty-four and thirty-three days ; and thus, as Suetonius states, he made the last year of confusion to consist of fifteen months. Censorinus says that this correction took place in Csesar's third consulship with Marcus Lei^idus. This, as we shall hereafter see, was subsequent to his return from Egypt. Macrobius says that he imitated the Egyptians ; and Pliny states that he was aided by Sosigenes, who was an astronomer of Alexandria. M. Flavius was also employed in the work. The following comparative table of the last year of confusion, will make the whole subject clear. The first column contains the number of days in that year. The intercalary month being the Merkedonius major, the year consisted of 378 days, to which 67 being added, the number became 445. Column A shows the Year of Numa in its confused state, occa- sioned by irregular intercalations. Column B contains the Year of Numa, as it would have been ii the cycle of twenty-four years had been strictly observed. Column C exhibits the last Year of Confusion, as it was arranged by Julius Cassar; and Column D is the new Julian calendar reckoned backward, com- monly called the Proleptic Julian Year. ' Sat. lib. i. c. xiv, cetero statuta ordinis sui tempora detinc- ' Itaque Caius Csesar universam banc, rent. Ille ergo solus annus trecentos incisa tomporura tm-batione, composuit, et quadraginta dies habuit ; alii deinecps ut statima certum prseteritus aceiperet sexagenos quinos et quadrantcm. — Solinus error, dies xxi. et quadrantem simul inter- Polyhistor, cap. iii. ap. Petav. Doct. Temp, calavit. Quo pacto regradati menses de torn. i. p. 160. Last Year of Contu- eion of 445 Days. A B C D 1 1 Jan. Kal, 23 Oct. X 1 Jan. Kal. 13 Oct. iii 2 2 iv 24 ix 2 iv 14 Prid. 3 3 iii 25 viii 3 iii 15 Idus. 4 4 Prid. 26 vii 4 Prid. 16 xvii 5 5 Noil. 27 vi 5 Non. 17 xvi 6 6 viii 28 v 6 viii 18 XV 7 7 vii 29 iv T vii 19 xiv 8 8 vi 30 iii 8 vi 20 xiii 9 10 9 10 V iv 31 Prid. 9 10 V iv 21 22 xii xi 1 Nov, Kal. 11 11 iii 2 iv 11 iii 23 x 12 12 Prid. 3 iii 12 Prid. 24 ix 13 13 Idus. 4 Prid. 13 Idus. 25 viii 14 14 xvii 5 Non. 14 xvii 26 vii 15 15 xvi 6 viii 15 xvi 27 vi 16 16 XV 7 vii 16 XV 28 V 17 17 xiv 8 vi 17 xiv 29 iv 18 18 xiii 9 V 18 xiii 30 iii 19 20 19 20 xii xi 10 11 iv iii 19 20 xii xi 31 Prid. 1 Nov. Kal. 21 21 X 12 Prid. 21 x 2 iv 22 22 ix 13 Idus. 22 ix 3 iii 23 23 viii 14 xvii 23 viii 4 Prid. 24 24 vii 15 xvi 24 vii 5 Non. 25 25 vi 16 XV 25 vi 6 viii 26 26 V 17 xiv 26 V 7 vii 27 27 iv 18 xiii 27 iv 8 vi 28 28 iii 19 xii 28 iii 9 V 29 30 29 Prid. 20 21 xi X 29 Prid. 10 11 iv iii 1 Feb. Kal. 1 Feb. Kal 31 2 iv 22 ix 2 iv 12 Prid. 32 3 iii 23 viii 3 iii 13 Idus. 33 4 Prid. 24 vii 4 Prid. 14 xviii 34 5 Non. 25 vi 5 Non. 15 xvii 35 6 viii 26 V 6 viii 16 xvi 36 7 vii 27 iv 7 vii 17 XV 37 8 vi 28 iii 8 vi 18 xiv 38 39 9 10 v iv 29 Prid. 9 10 V iv 19 20 xiii xii 1 Dec. Kal. 40 11 iii 2 iv 11 iii 21 xi 41 12 Prid. 3 iii 12 Prid. 22 X 42 13 Idus. 4 Prid. 13 Idus. 23 ix 43 14 xvi 5 Non. 14 xvi 24 viii 44 15 XV 6 viii 15 XV 25 vii 45 16 xiv 7 vii 16 xiv 26 vi 46 17 xiii 8 vi 17 xiii 27 V 47 18 xii 9 V 18 xii 28 iv 48 19 xi 10 iv 19 xi 29 iii 49 50 20 21 x ix 11 12 iii Prid. 20 21 X ix 30 Prid. 1 Dec. Kal. Last Year of Confu- sion of 445 Bays. A B C D 51 22 Feb. viii 13 Dec. Idus 22 Feb. viii 2 Dec. iv 52 53 54 23 vii 14 15 16 xvii xvi XV 23 vii 3 4 5 iii Prid. Non. 1 2 MAJOR iv 1 2 ^--o^^^/s-Kal. UAJOK IV 55 3 iii 17 xiv 3 iii 6 viii 56 4 Prid. 18 xiii 4 Prid. 7 vii 57 5 Noil. 19 xii 5 Noil. 8 vi 58 6 viii 20 xi 6 viii 9 V 59 7 vii 21 X 7 vii 10 iv 60 8 vi 22 ix 8 vi 11 iii 61 9 V 23 viii 9 V 12 Prid. 62 10 iv 24 vii 10 iv 13 Idus. 63 11 iii 25 vi 11 iii 14 xix 64 12 Prid. 26 v 12 Piid. 15 XV iii 65 13 Idiis. 27 iv 13 Idus. 16 xvii 66 14 xvi 28 iii 14 xvi 17 xvi 67 68 15 16 XV xiv 29 Prid. 15 16 XV xiv 18 19 XV xiv 1 Jan. Kal. 69 17 xiii 2 iv 17 xiii 20 xiii 70 18 xii 3 iii 18 xii 21 xii 71 19 xi 4 Prid. 19 xi 22 xi 72 20 X 5 Non. 20 X 23 X 73 21 ix 6 viii 21 ix 24 ix 74 22 viii 7 vii 22 viii 25 viii 75 76 23 vii 8 9 vi V 23 vii 26 27 vii vi 24 Feb. vi 24 Feb. vi 77 25 V 10 iv 25 V 28 v 78 26 iv 11 iii 26 iv 29 iv 79 27 iii 12 Prid. 27 iii 30 iii 80 81 28 Prid. - 13 14 Idus. xvii 28 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Mart. Kal. 1 Mart, Kal. 1 Jan. Kal. 82 2 vi 15 xvi 2 vi 2 iv 83 3 V 16 XV 3 V 3 iii 84 4 iv 17 xiv 4 iv 4 Prid. 85 5 iii 18 xiii 5 iii 5 Non. 86 6 Prid. 19 xii 6 Prid. 6 viii 87 7 Noil. 20 xi 7 Noil. 7 vii 88 8 viii 21 X 8 viii 8 vi 89 9 vii 22 ix 9 vii 9 V 90 10 vi 23 viii 10 vi 10 iv 91 11 V 24 vii 11 v 11 iii 92 12 iv 25 vi 12 iv 12 Prid. 93 13 iii 26 V 13 iii 13 Idus. 94 14 Prid. 27 iv 14 Prid. 14 xix 95 15 Idus. 28 iii 15 Idus. 15 xviii 96 97 16 17 xvii xvi 29 Prid. 16 17 xvii 16 17 xvii xvi 1 Feb. Kal. 98 18 XV 2 iv 18 XV 18 XV 99 19 xiv 3 iii 19 xiv 19 xiv 100 20 xiii 4 Prid. 20 xiii 20 xiii Last Year of Conl'ii- siiin of •)4ft \ B C D Days. lUl 21 Mart. xii. 5 F.ebr. Non. 21 Mart, xii 21 Jan. xii 102 22 xi 6 viii 22 xi 22 xi 103 23 X 7 vii 23 X 23 X 104 24 ix 8 vi 24 ix 24 ix 105 25 viii 9 v 25 viii 25 viii 106 26 vii 10 iv 26 vii 26 vii 107 27 vi 11 iii 27 vi 27 vi 108 28 V 12 Prid. 28 V 28 v 109 29 iv 13 Idus. 29 iv 29 iv 110 30 iii 14 xvi 30 iii 30 iii HI 112 31 Piid. 15 16 XV 31 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 April. Kal. xiv 1 April. Kal. 1 Feb. Kal. 113 2 iv 17 xiii 2 iv 2 iv 114 3 iii 18 xii 3 iii 3 iii 115 4 Prid. 19 xi 4 Prid. 4 Prid. 116 5 Non. 20 x 5 Non. 5 Non. 117 6 viii 21 ix 6 viii 6 viii 118 7 vii 22 viii 7 vii 7 vii 119 120 8 9 vi V 23 vii 8 9 vi V 8 9 vi V 1 MEBKE-'K'.,! DONIUS^*^'- 121 10 iv 2 .MAJOR lY 10 iv 10 iv 122 11 iii 3 iii 11 iii 11 iii 123 12 Prid. 4 Prid. 12 Prid. 12 Prid. 124 13 Idus. 5 Non. 13 Idus. 13 Idus. 125 14 xvii 6 viii 14 xvii 14 xvi 126 15 xvi 7 vii 15 xvi 15 XV 127 16 XV 8 vi 16 XV 16 xiv 128 17 xiv 9 v 17 xiv 17 xiii 129 18 xiii 10 iv 18 xiii 18 xii 130 19 xii 11 iii 19 xii 19 xi 131 20 xi 12 Prid. 20 xi 20 X 132 21 X 13 Idus. 2] X 21 ix 133 22 ix 14 xvi 22 ix 22 viii 134 23 viii 15 XV ■ 23 viii 23 vii 135 24 vii 16 xiv 24 vii 24 vi 136 25 vi 17 xiii 25 vi 25 v 137 26 V 18 xii 26 V 26 iv 138 27 iv 19 xi 27 iv 27 iii 139 140 141 28 29 iii Prid. 20 21 22 X ix viii 28 29 iii Prid. 28 Prid. 1 2 Mart. Kal. vi 1 Majus, Kal. 1 Majus, Kal 142 143 2 3 vi v 23 vii 2 3 vi v 3 4 V iv 24 Feb. vi 144 4 iv 25 V 4 iv 5 iii 145 5 iii 26 iv 5 iii 6 Prid. 146 6 Prid. 27 iii 6 Prid. 7 Non. 147 7 Non. 28 Prid. 7 Non. 8 viii 148 8 viii 1 Mart. Kal. 8 viii 9 vii 149 9 vii 2 vi 9 vii 10 vi Last Year of Confu- sion of 44b Days. A B C D 150 10 Majus vi 3 Mart, v 10 Majus vi 11 Martius v 151 11 V 4 iv 11 V 12 iv 152 12 iv 5 iii 12 iv 13 iii 153 13 iii 6 Prid. 13 iii 14 Prid. 154 14 Piid. 7 Non. 14 Prid. 15 Idus. 155 15 Idus. 8 viii 15 Idus. 16 xvii 156 16 xvii 9 vii 16 xvii 17 xvi 157 17 xvi 10 vi 17 xvi 18 XV 158 18 XV 11 V 18 XV 19 xiv 159 19 xiv 12 iv 19 xiv 20 xiii 160 20 xiii 13 iii 20 xiii 21 xii 161 21 xii 14 Prid. 21 xii 22 xi 162 22 xi 15 Idus. 22 xi 23 X 163 23 X 16 xvii 23 X 24 ix 164 24 ix 17 xvi 24 ix 25 viii 165 25 viii 18 XV 25 viii 26 vii 166 26 vii U) xiv 26 vii 27 vi 167 27 vi 20 xiii 27 vi 28 V 168 28 V 21 xii 28 V 29 iv 169 29 iv 22 xi 29 iv 30 iii 170 171 172 30 31 iii Prid. 23 24 25 X ix viii 30 31 iii Prid. 31 Prid. 1 2 April. Kal. iv 1 Junius, Kal. 1 Junius Kal. 173 2 iv 26 vii 2 iv 3 iii 174 3 iii 27 vi 3 iii 4 Prid. 175 4 Prid. 28 V 4 Prid. 5 Non. 176 5 Noil. 29 iv 5 Non. 6 viii 177 6 viii 30 iii 6 viii 7 vii 178 179 180 7 8 9 vii vi v 31 Prid. 7 8 9 vii vi V 8 9 10 vi v iv 1 2 April. Kal. iv 181 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 11 iii 182 11 iii 4 Prid. 11 iii 12 Prid. 183 12 Prid. 5 Nou. 12 Prid. 13 Idus. 184 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 14 xviii 185 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 15 xvii 186 15 xvi 8 vi 15 xvi 16 xvi 187 16 XV 9 V 16 XV 17 XV 188 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 18 xiv 189 18 xiii 11 iii 18 xiii 19 xiii 190 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 20 xii 191 20 xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 21 xi 192 21 X 14 xvii 21 x 22 V 193 22 ix 15 xvi 22 ix 23 ix 194 23 viii 16 XV 23 viii 24 viii 195 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 25 vii 196 25 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 26 vi 197 26 v 19 xii 26 V 27 V 198 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 28 iv 199 28 iii 21 X 28 iii 29 iii 200 29 Prid. 22 ix 29 Prid. 30 Prid. Last Year of Confu- sion of 443 A B C D Days. 201 1 Quint. Kal. 23 April, viii 1 Quint. Kal. 1 Majus, Kal. 202 2 vi 24 vii 2 vi 2 vi 203 3 V 25 vi 3 V 3 V 204 4 iv 26 V 4 iv 4 iv 205 5 iii 27 iv 5 iii 5 iii 206 6 Prid. 28 iii 6 Prid. 6 Prid. 207 208 7 8 Non. viii 29 Prid. 7 8 Non. viii 7 8 Non. viii 1 Majus, Kal. 209 9 vii 2 vi 9 vii 9 vii 210 10 vi 3 V 10 vi 10 vi 211 11 V 4 iv 11 V 11 V 212 12 iv 5 iii 12 iv 12 iv 213 13 iii 6 Prid. 13 iii 13 iii 214 14 Prid. 7 Non. 14 Prid. 14 Prid. 215 15 Idus. 8 viii 15 Idus. 15 Idus. 216 16 xvii 9 vii 16 xvii 16 xvii 217 17 xvi 10 vi 17 xvi 17 xvi 218 18 XV 11 V 18 XV 18 XV 219 19 xiv 12 iv 19 xiv 19 xiv 220 20 xiii 13 iii 20 xiii 20 xiii 221 21 xii 14 Prid. 21 xii 21 xii 222 22 xi 15 Idus. 22 xi 22 xi 223 23 x 16 xvii 23 X 23 X 224 24 ix 17 xvi 24 ix 24 ix 225 25 viii 18 XV 25 viii 25 viii 226 26 vii 19 xiv 26 vii 26 vii 227 27 vi 20 xiii 27 vi 27 vi 228 28 V 21 xii 28 V 28 v 229 29 iv 22 xi 29 iv 29 iv 230 30 iii 23 X 30 iii 30 iii 231 232 31 Prid. 24 25 ix viii 31 Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Sextil. Kal. 1 Sextil. Kal. 1 Jun. Kal. 233 2 iv 26 vii 2 iv 2 iv 234 3 iii 27 vi 3 iii 3 iii 235 4 Prid. 28 V 4 Prid. 4 Prid. 236 5 Non. 29 iv 5 Non. 5 Non. 237 6 viii 30 iii 6 viii 6 viii 238 239 7 8 vii vi 31 1 Prid. 7 8 vii vi 7 8 vii vi Jun. Kal. 240 9 V 2 iv 9 v 9 V 241 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 10 iv 242 11 iii 4 Prid. 11 iii 11 iii 243 12 Prid. 5 Non. 12 Prid. 12 Prid. 244 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 13 Idus. 245 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 14 xviii 246 15 xvi 8 vi 15 xvi 15 xvii 247 16 XV 9 V 16 XV 16 xvi 248 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 17 XV 249 18 xiii 11 iii 18 xiii 18 xiv 250 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 19 xiii 251 20 xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 20 xii 252 21 x 14 xvii 21 X 21 xi Jl Last Year • of Confu- sion of 445 A B C D Days. 253 22 Sextil. ix 15 Jun. xvi 22 Sext. ix 22 Junius, X 254 23 viii 16 XV 23 viii 23 ix 255 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 24 viii 256 25 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 25 vii 257 26 V 19 xii 26 V 26 vi 258 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 27 V 259 28 iii 21 X 28 iii 28 iv 260 261 262 29 Prid. 22 23 24 ix viii vii 29 Prid. 29 30 iii Prid. 1 2 Sept. Kal. iv 1 2 Sept. Kal. iv 1 Quint. Kal. 263 3 iii 25 vi 3 iii 2 vi 264 4 Prid. 26 V 4 Prid. 3 V 265 5 Non. 27 iv 5 Non. 4 iv 266 6 viii 28 iii 6 viii 5 iii 267 7 vii 29 Prid. 7 vii 6 Prid. Non. viii 268 8 vi 1 Quint. Kal. 8 vi 7 269 9 V 2 vi 9 V 8 270 10 iv 3 v 10 iv 9 vii 271 11 iii 4 iv 11 iii 10 vi 272 12 Prid. 5 iii 12 Prid. 11 V 273 13 Idus. 6 Prid. 13 Idus. 12 iv 274 14 xvii 7 Non. 14 xvii 13 iii 275 15 xvi 8 viii 15 xvi 14 Prid. 276 16 XV 9 vii 16 XV 15 Idus. 277 17 xiv 10 vi 17 xiv 16 xvii 278 18 xiii 11 V 18 xiii 17 xvi 279 19 xii 12 iv 19 xii 18 XV 280 20 xi 13 iii 20 xi 19 xiv 281 21 X 14 Prid. 21 X 20 xiii 282 22 ix 15 Idus. 22 ix 21 xii 283 23 viii 16 xvii 23 viii 22 xi 284 24 vii 17 xvi 24 vii 23 X 285 25 vi 18 XV 25 vi 24 ix 286 26 V 19 xiv 26 V 25 viii 287 27 iv 20 xiii 27 iv 26 vii 288 28 iii 21 xii 28 iii 27 vi 289 290 29 Prid. 22 23 xi X 29 Prid. 28 29 V iv 1 Oct. Kal. 1 Octob. Kal. 291 2 vi 24 * ix 2 vi 30 iii 292 293 3 4 V iv 25 26 viii vii 3 4 V iv 31 Prid. 1 Sextil. Kal. 294 5 iii 27 vi 5 iii 2 iv 295 6 Prid. 28 V 6 Prid, 3 iii 296 7 Non. 29 iv 7 Non. 4 Prid. 297 8 viii 30 iii 8 viii 5 Non. 298 299 9 10 vii vi 31 Prid. 9 10 vii vi 6 7 viii vii 1 Sext. Kal. 300 11 v 2 iv 11 V 8 vi 301 12 iv 3 iii 12 iv 9 V Last Year of Confu- sion of 445 Days. A B C D 302 13 Octob. iii. 4 Sextil. Prid. 13 Octob. iii 10 Sextil. iv 303 14 Prid. 5 Non. 14 Prid. 11 iii 304 15 Idus. 6 viii 15 Idus. 12 Prid. 305 16 xvii 7 vii 16 xvii 13 Idus. 306 17 xvi 8 vi 17 xvi 14 xix 307 18 XV 9 V 18 XV 15 xviii 308 19 xiv 10 iv 19 xiv 16 xvii 309 20 xiii 11 iii 20 xiii 17 xvi 310 21 xii 12 Prid. 21 xii 18 XV 311 22 xi 13 Idus. 22 xi 19 xiv 312 23 X 14 xvii 23 X 20 xiii 313 24 ix 15 xvi 24 ix 21 xii 314 25 viii 16 XV 25 viii 22 xi 315 26 vii 17 xiv 26 vii 23 X 316 27 vi 18 xiii 27 vi 24 ix 317 28 V 19 xii 28 V 25 viii 318 29 iv 20 xi 29 iv 26 vii 319 30 iii 21 X 30 iii 27 vi 320 321 31 Prid. 22 23 ix viii 31 Prid. 28 29 V iv 1 Nov. Kal. 1 Nov. Kal. 322 2 iv 24 vii 2 iv 30 iii 323 324 3 4 iii Prid. 25 26 vi V 3 4 iii Prid. 31 Prid. 1 Sept. Kal. 325 5 Non. 27 iv 5 Non. 2 iv 326 6 viii 28 iii 6 viii 3 iii 327 328 7 8 vii vi 29 Prid. 7 8 vii vi 4 5 Prid. Non. 1 Sept. Kal. 329 9 V 2 iv 9 v 6 viii 330 10 iv 3 iii 10 iv 7 vii 331 11 iii 4 Prid. 11 iii 8 vi 332 12 Prid. 5 Non. 12 Prid. 9 v 333 13 Idus. 6 viii 13 Idus. 10 iv 334 14 xvii 7 vii 14 xvii 11 iii 335 15 xvi 8 vi 15 xvi 12 Prid. 336 16 XV 9 V 16 XV 13 Idus. 337 17 xiv 10 iv 17 xiv 14 xviii 338 18 xiii 11 iii 18 xiii 15 xvii 339 19 xii 12 Prid. 19 xii 16 xvi 340 20 xi 13 Idus. 20 xi 17 XV 341 21 X 14 xvii 21 X 18 xiv 342 22 ix 15 xvi 22 ix 19 xiii 343 23 viii 16 XV 23 viii 20 xii 344 24 vii 17 xiv 24 vii 21 xi 345 25 vi 18 xiii 25 vi 22 X 346 26 V 19 xii 26 V 23 ix 347 27 iv 20 xi 27 iv 24 viii 348 28 iii 21 X 28 iii 25 vii 349 350 351 352 29 Prid. 22 23 24 25 ix viii vii vi 29 Prid. 26 27 28 29 vi v iv iii 1 2 3 Dec. Kal. iv iii 1 2 3 I. Inter. IT-., 1 Caesar of vi 33 Days. V Last Year of Confu- sion of 445 Days. A B C D 353 354 4 5 Dec. Prid. Non. 26 27 Sept. V iv 4 5 I. Inter. ;., M. of J. '■^ Cffisar. iii 30 1 Sept. Prid. Cct. Kal. 355 6 viii 28 iii 6 Prid. 2 vi 356 357 7 8 vii vi 29 Prid. 7 8 Non. viii 3 4 V iv 1 Oct. Kal. 358 9 V 2 vi 9 vii 5 iii 359 10 iv 3 V 10 vi C9 s 6 Prid. 360 11 iii 4 iv 11 V 3 7 Non. 361 12 Prid. 5 iii 12 iv 8 viii 362 13 Idus. 6 Prid. 13 iii ^ 9 vii 363 14 xvii 7 Non. 14 Prid. >. 10 vi 364 15 xvi 8 viii 15 Idus. ■B 11 V 365 16 XV 9 vii 16 xix ° 12 iv 366 17 xiv 10 vi 17 xviii 1 13 iii 367 18 xiii 11 v 18 xvii 1 14 Prid. 368 19 xii 12 iv 19 xvi 15 Idus. 369 20 xi 13 iii 20 XV ■o 16 xvii 370 21 X 14 Prid. 21 xiv ^ 17 xvi 371 22 ix 15 Idus. 22 xiii 1 > 18 XV 372 23 viii 16 xvii 23 xii 19 xiv 373 24 vii 17 xvi 24 xi o 20 xiii 374 25 vi 18 XV 25 X o 21 xii 375 26 v 19 xiv 26 ix •S 22 xi 376 27 iv 20 xiii 27 viii o 23 X 377 28 iii 21 xii 28 vii e 24 ix 378 379 29 Prid. 22 23 xi X 29 30 vi V 1 c 1 25 26 viii vii 1 Jan. Kal. 380 2 iv 24 Lx 31 iv .a 27 vi 381 3 iii 25 viii 32 iii 1 3 28 v 382 383 4 5 Prid. Non. 26 27 vii vi 33 Prid. 29 30 iv iii 34 1 II.In-lTal 384 6 viii 28 V 35 2 of Jul. yi Caesar of 34 J2 31 Prid. 385 7 vii 29 iv 36 3 days. ^^ a 1 Nov Kal. 386 8 vi 30 iii 37 4 iv c 2 iv 387 388 9 10 V iv 31 Prid. 38 39 5 6 iii Prid. 1 2 3 4 iii Prid. 1 Nov. Kal. 389 11 iii 2 iv 40 7 Non. c 5 Non. 390 12 Prid. 3 iii 41 8 viii 6 viii 391 13 Idas. 4 Prid. 42 9 vii "3 7 vii 392 14 xvii 5 Non. 43 10 vi 3 8 vi 393 15 xvi 6 viii 44 11 V ►H 9 V 394 36 XV 7 vii 45 12 iv 10 iv 395 17 xiv 8 vi 46 13 iii 11 iii 396 18 xiii 9 V 47 14 Prid. 12 Prid. 397 19 xii 10 iv 48 15 Idus. 13 Idus. 398 20 xi 11 iii 49 16 XX 14 xviii 399 21 X 12 Prid. 50 17 xix 15 xvii 400 22 ix 13 Idus. 51 18 xviii 16 xvi 401 23 viii 14 xvii 52 19 xvii 17 XV Last Year ■^*" ■~~" of Confu- ffion of 445 A B C D Days. 402 21 Jan. vii 15 Nov. xvi 53 20 II. In- .y,,; ca 18 Nov. xiv 4(/3 25 vi 16 XV 54 21 of Jul. XV Cssar of 34 XIV § 19 xiii 404 26 V 17 xiv 55 22 U 20 xii 405 27 iv 18 xiii 56 23 days. xin a 21 xi 406 28 iii 19 xii 57 24 xii s 22 X 407 408 29 Prid. 20 21 xi X 58 59 25 26 xi X >> >. a 23 24 ix viii 1 Feb. Kal. 409 2 iv 22 ix 60 27 ix 25 vii 410 3 iii 23 viii 61 28 viii >. 26 vi 411 4 Prid. 24 vii 62 29 vii K 27 V 412 5 Non. 25 vi 63 30 vi "z 28 iv 413 6 viii 26 V 64 31 V c 29 iii 414 415 7 8 vii vi 27 28 iv iii 65 66 32 33 iv iii 1 30 Prid. 1 Dec. Kal. 416 417 9 10 V iv 29 Prid. 67 34 Prid. " 2 3 iv iii 1 Dec. Kal. 1 Dec. Kal. 418 11 iii 2 iv 2 iv 4 Prid. 419 12 Prid. 3 iii 3 iii 5 Non. 420 13 Idus. 4 Prid. 4 Prid. 6 viii 421 14 xvi 5 Non. 5 Non. 7 vii 422 15 XV 6 viii 6 viii 8 vi 423 16 xiv 7 vii 7 vii 9 V 424 17 xiii 8 vi 8 vi 10 iv 425 18 xii 9 V 9 v 11 iii 426 19 xi 10 iv 10 iv 12 Prid. 427 20 x 11 iii 11 iii 13 Idus. 428 21 ix 12 Prid. 12 Prid. 14 xix 429 22 viii 13 Idus. 13 Idus. 15 xviii 430 23 vii 14 xvii 14 xvii 16 xvii 431 24 vi 15 xvi 15 xvi 17 xvi 432 25 V 16 XV 16 XV 18 XV 433 26 iv 17 xiv 17 xiv 19 xiv 434 27 iii 18 xiii 18 xiii 20 xiii 435 436 28 Prid. 19 20 xii xi 19 20 xii xi 21 22 xii xi 1 Mart. Kal. 437 2 vi 21 X 21 X 23 X 438 3 V 22 ix 22 ix 24 ix 439 4 iv 23 viii 23 viii 25 viii 440 5 iii 24 vii 24 vii 26 vii 441 6 Prid. 25 vi 25 vi 27 vi 442 7 Non. 26 v 26 v 28 V 443 8 viii 27 iv 27 iv 29 iv 444 9 vii 28 iii 28 iii 30 iii 445 10 vi 29 Prid. 29 Prid. 31 Prid. [By the 86 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. By the neglect of intercalations, the 1st of January had retro- graded, so that it fell on the 23rd of October, according to Numa's calendar, differing ten days from the corrected Julian calendar, if that had then been used, because 365 — 355=10. On the contrary, during the two hundred and fifty-nine years between A.U.C. 304 and A.U.C. 563, the 1st of January had advanced from 70 to 73 days. For the true 14th of March being reckoned as the 11th of July, the 1st of January would fall on the 15 th of March of the proleptic Julian year, or on the 13th of March according to Numa's calendar ; and, allowing the excess of 7 days in two hun- dred and fifty-nine years of Numa, there was in that time an excess of about three intercalations of 22 days each. Whereas, from A.u.c. 563 to a.u.c. 707, a period of one hundred and forty- four years, there had been a neglect of three intercalations : 22 + 23 4-22^67 days. It is evident, therefore, that the previous excess had been corrected by the omission of three intercalations ; and consequently, in the above-named period of one hundred and forty-four years, or six cycles of twenty-four years, there had been, by design and neglect, an omission of six intercalations. This proves too, as the reader will see by reverting to the tables in page 68, that the last year of confusion w^as either the eighth or sixteenth of the cycle of twenty-four years. For if the irregularity had taken place in the last eight years, only 66 days would have been wanting; whereas there were 67, beside the regular intercalation of 23 days belonging to that year. Each of the first eight years had 2930 days. But 2930—445=2485=355X7, or seven of Numa's common years. The amount of the confusion being thus ascertamed, we proceed to exhibit the Calendar of Julius Caesar, as it has been gathered by learned antiquai'Ies from remaining fragments of early Calen- dars, and the testimony principally of Ovid, Pliny, and the ancient Writers on agriculture. It is copied from Blondel's History of the Koman Calendar, and to it is annexed the Calendar of the ancient Church, as established by the Council of Nice. Though the latter is foreign from the main object of the present inquiry, it will be found useful in connecting the ancient with the modern computa- tion of time. CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 87 CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS C^SAR. Calendar of the Ancient 1 Church, establislicd bv 1 the Conn eil of N CP. Mi IS a a . JANUARY. Under the protection of the Goddess Juno. s . II z;j 5z OZ S'^ &'^ ^ a 0>5 M J A F I 1 Kal Sacred to Janus, Juno, Jupiter and Esculapius I Kal III A B F 2 iv Unlucky day, dies ateb 2 iv B C C IX 3 iii Cancer sets 3 iii XI C D C 4 Prid 4 Prid D E F xvn 5 Noil Lyra rises. Aquila sets in the evening 5 Non XIX E F F VI f) viii 6 viii VIII F G C 7 vii 7 vii G H C XIV 8 vi Sacrifice to Janus 8 vi XVI A A III 9 V Agonai.ia. 9 V V B B EN 10 iv Mid Winter 10 iv C C NP XI 11 iii Carmkntalia 11 iii XIII D D C 12 Prid Compitalia [through the city 12 Prid II E E NP XIX 13 Idus The pipers, dressed as women, make their purifications 13 Idus F F EN VIII 14 xix Dies vitios, ex Sen. C. 14 xix X G G 15 xviii To Carmknta, Porrima and Postverta 15 xviii A H C XVI 16 xvii To Concord. Leo begins to set in the morning 16 xvii XVIII 3 A C V 17 xvi The Sun in Aquarius 17 xvi VII C B c 18 XV 18 XV D C c XIII 19 xiv 19 xiv XV E D c II 20 xiii 20 xiii IV F E c 21 xii 21 xii G F c X 22 xi 22 xi XII A G c 23 x Lyra sets 23 X I B H c XVIII 24 ix Festi Sementini, or the feast of Seedtime 24 ix C A c VII 25 viii 25 viii IX D B c 26 vii 26 vii E C c XV 27 vi To Castor and Pollux 27 vi XVII F D c IV 28 V 28 v VI G E F 29 iv Equina in the Campus Martius. The Pacalia 29 iv A F F XII 30 iii Fidicula sets 30 iii XIV B G F I 31 Prid To the Dii Penates, or Household Gods 31 Prid III C FEBRUARY. H N IX 1 Kal Under the protection of Neptune. 1 Kal D To Juno Sospita, Jupiter, Hercules, Diana, the Lucaria A N 2 iv 2 iv XI E B N XVII 3 iii Lyra sets. The middle of Leo sets 3 iii XIX F C N VI 4 Prid The Dolphin sets 4 Prid VIII G D 5 Noil Aquarius rises 5 Non A E N XIV 6 viii 6 viii XVI B F N 111 7 vii 7 vii V C G N 8 vi 8 vi D H N XI 9 V Beginning of Spring 9 V XHI E A N 10 iv 10 iv II F B N XIX 11 iii Ludi Geniales, or Genialic games. Aicturus rises 11 iii G C N VIII 12 Prid 12 Prid X A D NP 13 Idus To Faunus and Jupiter. Defeat and death of the Fabii 13 Idus B E C XVI 14 xvi Corvus, Crater, and Anguis (or the Serpent) rise 14 xvi XVIII C F NP V 15 XV LUPERCALIA 15 XV VII D G END 16 xiv The Sun in the sign Pisces 16 xiv E H NP XIII 17 xiii UUIRINALIA 17 xiii XV F A C II 18 xii Foruacalia. Feralia to the Dii Manes, or Infernal Gods 18 xii IV G B C 19 xi 19 xi A C C X 20 X 20 X XII B D F 21 ix To the Goddess Muta or Larauda. Ferialia 21 i.x I C E C XVIII 22 viii The Charistiffi 22 viii D F NP VII 23 vii Terminalia 23 vii IX E 6 N 24 vi* Regifugium. The place of the Bissextile 24 vi F H C XV 25 V Arcturus rises atevening 25 V XVII G A EN IV 26 iv 26 iv VI A B NP 27 iii Equiria in the Campus Martius 27 iii B C C XII 28 Pii.l The Tarquins vanquished 28 Prid XIV C . As every fou rth y ear consisted of 366 days, the 24th of February, or sixth before t he k ilend s of Ma rch, was doubled. H ence t was called Bissextum or twice six, and the year itself received t he na meo " Bissex tile. 88 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part 1 Caleiular of the Ancicut 1 CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS C.BSAK. | Church, established by | 1 the Council of N ce. h l3 5 4 3£ c s OK E . a . MARCH. Under the protection of Minerva. 3 . ll CO .J D NP I 1 Kal Matroualia, to Mars. Feast of the Aucilia T Kal III D E F 2 vi To Juno Lucina 2 vi E F C IX 3 V The Second Pisces sets 3 V XI F G C 4 iv 4 iv G H C XVI I 5 iii Arcturus sets. Vindemiator rises. Cancer rises [priest 5 iii XIX A A NP VI 6 Piid TbeVestaliana. On this day Julius Caesar was created high 6 Prid VIII B B F 7 Non To Ve Jupiter in the wood of the Asylum. Pegasus rises 7 Non C C F XIV 8 viii Corona rises 8 viii XVI D D C III 9 vii Orion rises. The northern of the Pisces rises 9 vii V E E C 10 vi 10 vi F F C XI 11 V 11 V XIII G G c 12 iv 12 iv II A H EN XIX 13 iii The openinR of the Sea 13 iii B A NP VIII 14 Prid The second Equiria upon the Tvber 14 Prid X C B NP 15 Idus To Anna Perenna. The Parricide. Scoipio sets 15 Idus D C C XVI 16 xvii 16 xvii XVIII E D NP V 17 XV i LiBERALiA, or Bacchanalia. TheAgonalia. Milvius sets 17 xvi VII F E C 18 XV The Sun in the sign Aries 18 XV G F N xin 19 xiv QuiNQUATRiA of Miuerva for five days 19 xiv XV A G C II 20 xiii 20 xiii IV B H c 21 xii The Cret day of the Century. Pegasus sets in the morning 21 xii C A N X 22 xi 22 xi XII D B NP 23 X The TUBILUSTRIUM 23 X I E C QR XVI n 24 ix [Equinox 24 ix F D C VII 2.5 viii The Hilaria to the Mother of the Gods. The Vernal 25 viii IX G E C 26 vii 26 vii A F NP XV 27 vi On THIS DAY CSSAR MADE HIMSELF MASTER OF AlEX- 27 vi XVII B G C IV 28 v The Megalesia [andria 28 V VI C H c 29 iv 2'J iv D A c XII 30 iii To Janus, Concord, Salus, Pax 30 iii XIV E B c I 31 Prid To the Moon, or Uiana upon the Aventine 31 Prid HI F APRIL. C N IX J Kal Under the protection of the Goddess Venus. 1 Kal G To Venus with the flowers and myrtle. To Fortuna Vi- D c 2 iv The Pleiades set [rilis 2 iv XI A E c XVII 3 iii 3 iii B F c VI 4 Prid Megalesiajj Games to the mother of thp Gods for 4 Prid XIX C G 5 Non [eight days 5 Non VIII D H NP XIV 6 viii To Fortuna Publica Primigenia 6 viii XVI E A N HI 7 vii The birth of Apollo and Diana 7 vii V F B N 8 vi Games for Csesar's victory. Libra sets. Orion sets 8 vi G C N XI 9 V 9 v XIII A D N 10 iv Cerealia. Ludi Circenses, or the Circensian Games 10 iv II B E N XIX 11 iii [honour of Ceres for eight days 11 iii C F N VIII 12 iPiid The Mother of the Gods brought to Rome. Games in 12 Prid X D G NP 13 Idus To Jupiter Victor and Liberty 13 Idus E H N XVI 14 xviii 14 xvii XVIIT F A NP V 15 xvii Fordicidia or Fordicalia 15 xvi va G B N 16 xvi Algustus saluted Emperor. The Hyades set 16 xvi A C N Xltl 17 XV [the foxes 17 XV XV B 1) N II 18 xiv Eqciria in the Circus Maximcs. The burning ol 18 .xiv IV C E N 19 xiii Cerealia. The Sun in the sign Taurus 19 xiii D F N X 20 xii 20 xii XII E G NP 21 xi Palilia or Parilia. The Nativity of Rome 21 xi I F H N XVIII 22 X The second Agoniana or Agonalia 22 X G A NP VII 23 ix The first Vinalia to Jupiter and Venus 2:3 ix IX A B C 24 viii 24 viii B C NP XV 25 vii RoBlGALlA. Aries sets. Middle of Spring 25 vii C D F IV 26 vi The Dog Star rises. The Goat rises 26 vi VI D E C 27 v LatinEB Ferise on the Mons Sacer 27 V E F NP Xlt 28 iv Floralia during six days. TheGoatrises in the morning 28 iv XIV F G C I 29 iii The Dog Star sets in the evening 29 iii III G H F 30 Prid To Vesta Palatina. The fii-st Larentalia 30 Prid A CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 89 CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS C/ESAR. Ciili'iKlariirtl.c Vnri.'nt (•hun-l,,,-stal)lislie,l by llii-CiMMii-il(irNi< N F C C c c N F N C N" NP N C NP ¥ C C C c NP N NP Qrex C.F. 0 C c c c c c XIX V[II XVIII VII N F C C N N N N N N N N N Q.5T. D.F. C C c c c c c c c c c c c F F XIX VIII XVIII VII MAY. Under the protection of Apollo Prid Nou viii IV iii Prid Idus xvii xvi XV xiv Prid Non viii Prid Idas xviii xvii xvi XV xiv xiii Prid To the Hona Dea. To Laies Praestites. Ludi Florie for The Compitalia [three days The Centaur and the Hyades rise Lyra rises I'he middle of Scorpio sets The Virfiilife rise in the morning The Goat rises Lemuria at night for three days. Luminaria Orion sets. Unfortunate wedding day To Mars, the avkngkr, at the circus Lemuria. The Pleiades rise. The beginning of Summer To Mercury. Taurus rises To Jupiter. Feast of Merchants. Birth of Mercury. Lyra [rises The Sun in Gemini Agonalia, or Agoniana of .Tanus To Ve-Jupiter. The Dog-star rises The Feriije of Vulcan. The Tu bilustrium To Fortuna Publica. Aquila rises The Second Kegilugium. Arcturus sets The Hyades rise JUNE. Under the protection of Mercury. To Juno. To Moneta. To Tempestas. To Fabaria. Aquila To Mars To the Goddess Carna. The Hyades rise [rises To Hellona To Hercules at the circus To Fides. To Jupiter Sponsor, or Deus Fidius, Sanctus, To Vesta [ Semi Pater The Piscatorian days in the Campus Martius. Arcturus To Iktellectu.s at the Capitol [rises Vestaliana. Altar of Jupiter Pistor. Coronationof Asses Matralia. To Fortuna Fortis. The Dolphin rises at night To Concord. To Mother Matuta To Jupiter Invictus. The lesser Quiuquatrus. The begin- [ning of heat The carrying op dung out of the temple of Orion rises. [Vesta. The Hyades rise The whole Dolphin rises To Minerva on Mount Arentine. The Sun in Cancer To Summanus. Serpentarius rises (called also Ophiuchus) To Fortuua Fortis. The Summer Solstice The Girdle of Orion rises To Jupiter Stator and Lar To Quirinus on the Quirinal Mount To Hercules and the Muses. The Poplifugia XIX viii Prid Non IV iii Prid Idus xvii xvi .w xiv XVIII VIl Prid Nun viii Prid Idu^ xviii xvii ,xvi XIX VIII XVI XVIII VII 12 90 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part I. CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS CESAR. Calendar of the Ancient 1 Church, established by | the Council of N ce. ti ll s^ e ^ QUINTILIS, afterwards JULY. E . s. si >1M =3 ej F 5z N "3 5 1^ Under the protection of Jupiter. ¥ = >. oa II XTII 1 Kal Removing from one house to another 1 Kal XIX G G N VI 2 vi 2 vi viii A H N 3 V 3 V B A NP XIV 4 iv Corona sets in the morning. The Hyades rise 4 iv xvi c B N in 5 iii POPMFUGIUM [Feraiuina 5 iii V D C N 6 Prid LUDI APOLLINARES during eight days. To Fortuiia 6 Prid E D N XI 7 Noil Nona; Caprotiuse. Feast of Maid Servants. Romulus 7 Non XIII F E N 8 viii Vitulalio. The middle of Capricorn sets [disappeared 8 viii II G F EN XIX 9 vii Cepheus rises at night 9 vii A G C VIII 10 vi The Etesian winds begin to blow 10 vi X B H c 11 V 11 V C A NP XVI 12 iv Birth of JuLins C^sar 12 iv XVIII D B C V 13 iii 13 iii VII E C c 14 Prid To Fortuna Feminina. The Mkrkatus or Mercnrialia 14 Prid F D NP XIII 15 Id us To Castor and Pollux [during six days 15 Idus XV G E F II 16 xvii The foremost dog rises 16 xvii IV A F G 17 xvi The fatal day of the battle of AUia 17 xvi B G C X 18 XV 18 XV XII C H NP 19 xiv Lucaria. Games during four days 19 xiv I D A XVI 11 20 xiii Games for Cesar's vicroRy. " The Sun in Leo 20 xiii E B C VII 21 xii Lucaria 21 xii IX F C C 22 xi 22 xi G D XV 23 X Games OF Neptune 23 X XVII A E N IV 24 ix 24 ix VI B F NP 25 viii FuRiNALiA. Circensian games during six days. Aquarius 25 viii C G C XII 26 vii Canis minor rises [sets 26 vii XIV D H C 1 27 vi .iquila rises 27 vi III E A C 28 V 28 V F B C IX 29 19 29 iv XI G C C 30 iii Aquila sets 30 iii XIX A D c XVII 31 Prid 31 Prid B SEXTILIS, afterwards AUGUST. E N 1 Kal Under the protection of the Goddess Ceres. 1 Kal VIII C To Mars. To Hope F c XIV 2 iv Ferise, because C^sar subjugated Spain 2 iv XVI D G c III 3 iii 3 iii V E H c 4 Prid The middle of Leo rises 4 Prid F A F XI 5 Non To Salus on the Quirinal Mount 0 Non XIII G B F 6 viii To Hope. The middle of Arcturus sets 6 viii II A C C XIX 7 vii The middle of Aquai'ius sets 7 vii B U C VIII 8 vi To Sol Indigetes on the Quiriual Mount 8 vi X C E NP 9 V 9 V D F C XVI 10 iv To Opis and Ceres 10 iv XVIII E G c V 11 iii To Hercules iu the Circus Flamiuius. Lyra sets. Be- U iii VII F H c 12 Prid The Lignapesia [ginning of Autumn 12 Prid G A NP XllI 13 Idas To Diana in the Sylva Aricina. To Vertumnus. Feast of 13 Idus XV A B F II 14 xix The Dolphinsetsiu the morning [Slaves & Servant Maids 14 xix IV B C C 15 xviii 15 xviii C D C X 16 xvii 16 xvii XII D E NP 17 xvi PORTUMXALIA tO JSUUS 17 xvi I E F C XVI II 18 XV Consualia. The Rai)e of the Sabine Virgins 18 XV F G FP VII 19 xiv The last ViNAMA. Death of Augustus 19 xiv IX G H C 20 xiii Lyra sets. The Sun in Virgo 20 xiii A A NP XV 21 xii Vinalia Rustica. The Great Mysteries. Coxsualia 21 xii XVII B B EN IV 22 xi Viudemiator rises in the morning 22 xi VI C C NP 23 X Vui.canalia in the Circus Flaminius 23 X D D C XII 24 ix B^erise of the Moon 24 ix XIV E £ NP I 25 viii The OPicoNsiva; in the Capitol 25 viii III F F C 26 vii 26 vii G G NP IX 27 vi Vor.TURXALIA 27 vi XI A H NP 28 V To Victory in the Curia. Sagittasets. Theend of the 28 v XIX B A F XVII 29 iv [Etesian Winds 29 iv C B F VI 30 iii The Ornaments of the Goddess Ceres are shown 30 iii VIII D C F 31 Prid Andromeda rises at evening 31 Prid E CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 91 CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS CESAR. Calendar o Cimrch, c f the .\neicnt tablished hv the Council of IS' cc. „ ■^>s ll fa'i S-o e^ fl . SEPTEMBER. d fl . gl Is £ Under the protection of Vulcan. It fl Kal 23 £ :3 CZ D N XIV 1 Kal To Jupiter Maimactes. Feasts to Neptune 1 XVI F E N III 2 iv To the victory of Augustus Ferise 2 iv V G F NP 3 iii Dionysiaca or Vindemise 3 iii A G C XI 4 Prid Roman Games during eight days 4 Prid XIII B H F 5 Non 5 Non II c A F XIX 6 viii To Erebus, of a ram and a black sheep 6 viii D B C VIII 7 vii Capreola rises 7 vii .X E C C 8 vi 8 vi F D C XVI 9 v 9 V XVIII G E c V 10 iv The head of Medusa rises 10 iv VII A F c J] iii The middle of Virgo rises 11 iii B G N XIII 12 Prid The middle of Arcturus rises 12 Prid XV C H NP n 13 Idus To Jupiter. Dedication of the Capitol. Nail fixed by the 13 Idus IV D A F 14 xviii Trial OF Horses [Praetor. Departure of the swallows 14 xviii E B X 15 xvii Grand Circensian Games vowed during live days 15 xvii XII F C C 16 xvi 16 xvi I G D C XVIII 17 XV 17 XV A E c VII 18 xiv S])ia Virginis rises in the morning 18 xiv IX B F c 19 xiii The Sun in Libra 19 xiii C G c XV 20 xii Merkatus during four days. Birth of Romulus 20 xii XVII D H c IV 21 xi 21 xi VI E A c 22 X Argo and Pisces set 22 X F B NP XII 23 ix Circensian Games. Birth of Aogustds. The Centaur 23 ix XIV G C C I 24 viii Autumnal Equinox [rises in the morning 24 viii III A D C 25 vii To Venus, Saturn, and Mania 25 vii B E C IX 26 vi 26 vi XI C F c 27 V To Venus the Mother, and Fortuna Redux 27 V XIX D G c XVII 28 iv The end of Virgo's rising 28 iv E H F VI 29 iii 29 iii VIII F A F XIV 30 Prid A feast to Minerva. The Meditrinalia 30 Prid G OCTOBER. B N III 1 Kal Under the protection of the God Mais. 1 Kal XVI A C F 2 vi 2 vi V B D C XI 3 3 V XIII C E C 4 iv Bootes sets in the morning 4 iv II D F C XIX 5 iii The ornaments of Ceres are shown 5 iii E G C VIII 6 Prid To the Dii Manes 6 Prid X F H F 7 Non 7 Non G A F XVI 8 viii The bright star of Corona rises 8 viii XVIII A B C V 9 vii 9 vii VII B C C 10 vi Ramalia 10 vi C D XIII 11 v M KDiTRiNALiA. Beginning of Winter u V XV D E NP II 12 iv .•iUGOSTALlA 12 iv IV E F NP 13 iii FoNTiNALiA. To Jupiter Liberator. Games during 13 iii F G NP X 14 Prid [three days 14 Prid XII G H NP 15 Idus The merchants to Mercury 15 Idus I A A F XVIII 16 xvii Popular Games. Arcturus sets 16 xvii B B C VII 17 xvi 17 xvi IX C C c 18 XV To Jupiter Liberator. Games 18 XV D D NP XV 19 xiv Armit.ustrium 19 xiv XVII E E C IV 20 xiii The Sun in Scoi-jiio 20 xiii VI F F c 21 xii Games during four days 21 xii G G c XII 22 xi 22 xi XIV A H c I 23 X To Liber Pater. Taurus sets 23 X III B A c 24 ix 24 ix C B c IX 25 viii 25 viii XI D C c 26 vii 26 vii XIX E D c XVII 27 vi Games to Victory 27 vi F E c VI 28 V The Lesser Mysteries. Vigilise set 28 V VIII G F c 29 iv 29 iv A G c XIV 30 iii Feria: of Vertumnus. Games vowed .SO iii XVI B H c III 31 Prid Arcturus sets 31 Prid V C 92 THE ROMAN YEAR. [part CALENDAR OF CAIUS JULIUS CESAR. | Calendarof the Ancient Chvirch, established bv 1 1 the Covmcil of Ni 'e. -3 . =3 oj 3 3 1^ 0 . NOVEiAIBER. Under the protection of the Goddess Diana. II c . c ^ 5 *- Ki-; Qa a-^ PS^ 1 «" 02; to,J A IT 1 Kal Banquet of Jupiter. The Circensian Games. Head of kTi D B F XI 2 iv Areturus sets in the evening [Taui-us sets 2 iv XIII E C F 3 iii Fidicula rises in the morning 3 iii 11 F D XIX 4 Piid 4 Prid G E F VIII 5 Non Neptunalia. Games during eight days 5 Non X A F F 6 viii 6 viii B G C XVI 7 vii A show of ornaments vii XVIII C H C V 8 vi The bright star of Sconno rises 8 vi VII D A C 9 V 9 v E B C XIII 10 iv 10 iv XV F C C II 11 iii The shuttins; of the sea. The Virgiliae set 11 iii IV G l> C 12 Prid 12 Prid A K NP X 13 Idus Banquet cojimanded. Leclistemia 13 Idus XII B F F 14 xviii Trial of Horses 14 .wiii 1 C G C XVIII 15 xvii Popular Games in the Circus during three days 15 xvii D H C VII 16 xvi End of seed-time for wheat 16 xvi IX E A C 17 XV [tarius 17 XV F ♦ b C XV 18 xiv The Mebkatus during three days. The Sun iu Sagit- 18 xiv XVII G C C IV 19 xiii Supper of the PoutifTs in honour of Cybele 19 xiii VI A n C 20 xii The horns of Taurus set 20 xii B E C XII 21 xi The Liberalia. Lepus sets in the morning 21 xi XIV C F C 1 22 x To Pluto and Proserpina 99 X III 1) G c 23 ix 23 ix E H IX 24 viii Bruma or Brumalia during thirty days 24 viii XI F A c 25 vii Canicula sets at sunrise 25 vii XIX G B c XVII 26 vi 26 vi A C c VI 27 v Funeral Sacrifices to the Gauls dug up, and to the Greeks 27 V VIII B D c 28 iv [iu the Forum Boarium 28 iv C E c XIV 29 iii 29 iii XVI D F F 111 30 Prid 30 Prid V E DECEMBER. G N XI 1 Kal Under the protection of the Goddess Vesta. 1 Kal XIII F To Fortuua Femiuina H 2 iv 2 iv It G A XIX 3 iii 3 iii A B VIII 4 Piid To Minerva and Neptune 4 Prid X B C F 5 Xoii The Faunalia 5 N on C D C XVI 0 viii The raidille of Sagittarius sets 6 viii XVIII D E C V 7 vii .Vquila rises in the morning 7 vii VII E F c 8 vi 8 vi F G c XIII 9 V To Juno JugaUs 9 V XV G H c II 10 iv 10 iv IV A A NP 11 iii AooN'ALiA. The fourteen Halcyonian Days 11 iii B B EN X 12 Piid 12 Prid XII C C NP 13 Idus The Equiria or Horse Races 13 Idus 1 D D F XVIII 14 xix Brumalia. Ambrosiana 14 xix E E NP VII 15 xvii CoNSUALiA. The whole of Cancer rises in the morning 15 .wii: IX F F C 16 xvii 16 xvii G G XV 17 xvi The Saturnalia during 6ve days 17 xvi XVII A H C IV 18 XV Cygnus rises. The Sun iu Capricorn 18 XV VI B A NP 19 xiv 0 PA LI ANA 19 .\iv C B C XII 20 xiii Sigillaria during two days [with wine mixed with honey 20 xiii XIV D C NP I 21 xii Angeronalia. Ths Divalia. To Hercules and Venus, 21 xii III E D C 22 xi Compitalia. Feris dedicated to the Lares. Games 22 xi F E NP IX 23 x The Feria; of Jupiter. Larentinalia or Latrrnti- 2:3 x XI G F C 24 ix Juvenalia. Games [nalia. Capra sets 24 ix XIX A G C XVII 25 viii The end of the Brumalia. The Winter Solstice 25 viii B H C VI 26 vii 26 vii VIII C A C 27 vi To Phcebus dui'ing three days. The Dolphin rises in the 27 vi D B C XIV 28 V [morning 28 V XVI E C F III 29 iv Aquila sets in the evening 29 iv V F D F 31) iii Canicula sets in the evening 39 iii (i E F XI 31 Prid 31 Prid XIII A CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 93 In the preceding calendar, the first column contains the nundinal letters, from A to H, or eight letters in continual series from the first to the last day of the year. They were intended to regulate those assemblies every ninth day, in which the inhabitants of the country around Rome went to the city for information concerning the discipline of their religion and the administration of civil affairs. From this arrangement the Christians took their system of Sunday letters, substituting the series seven, from A to G, for the nun- dinal series. The second column denotes: 1. by the letter F, those days called Fasti, because it was lawful for the Prretor to hold his courts of justice, — " quibus fas esset jure agere" ; 2. by N, those days called Nefasti, in which it was not permitted to try causes, — " quibu» nefas esset" ; 3. by F P, or Fastus primo, those in which trials might be held in the moi'ning and not in the afternoon ; 4. by N P, Nefastus primo, in which trials might not be so held ; 5. by E N, or END, for Endotercisus, intersected, — those days in which courts might be held at certain hours and not at others ; 6. by C, for the days in which the people might assemble in the Campus Martins to hold the Comitia. Two days in the year (March 24th and May 24th), when it was not lawful to hold the Comitia, unless the Pontiff, called Rex, or king, were present, are marked Q. R. or Q. Rex C. F. for " quando rex comitiavit fas." Once a year (June 15th), the temple of Vesta was cleansed ; after which, and not before, it was lawful to transact public business. Hence it is marked Q. ST. D. F. for " quando stercus delatum fas." This column, of course, had no counterpart in the Christian calendar. The third column contains the lunar cycle of Meton, called the golden number ; and it is contained both in the calendar of Julius Caesar and in that of the ancient Church. The arrangement of the nineteen numbers is the same in both, with this difference, that in the calendar of Csesar, opposite to the 1 st of January is the golden number i, whereas in that of the council of Nice it is the number III. To explain this, we must enter somewhat into the method of arrangement of the ancient computists in both calendars. The golden numbers, from i. to xix. rej)resent a series of years, containing 235 lunations, and intended to mark the new moons in each year, on the days in which they were supposed to fall. Sosigenes, and probably other learned astronomers, employed by 94: THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. Caesar in this matter, finding that there would be a new moon eight days after the winter solstice, fixed on that day for the com- mencement of the new year, in order that the lunar and the solar year might commence together. Consequently the calends of January were marked with the golden number i., to show that it was the first in the series of the Metonic cycle. The first lunar month, from the conjunction of the sun and moon on the 1st of January, consisted of thirty days. The second lunar month, of twenty-nine days, began on the 31st of January, and ended on the 28th of February. The third lunar month, of thirty days, began on the 1st and ended on the 30th of March. The fourth lunar month, of twenty-nine days, began on the 31st of March, and ended on the 28th of April. The fifth lunar month, of thirty days, began on the 29th of April, and ended on the 28th of May. The sixth lunar month, of twenty-nine days, began on the 29th of May, and ended on the 26th of June. In like manner the remain- ing six lunations ended on the 20th of December, thus falling short eleven days of the solar year. The thirteenth lunation, consisting of thirty days, would end on the 19th of the following January. On examining the golden numbers, the reader will find that number one is jilaced opposite to the first day of each of these lunar months, and that on the 20th of January commences the number two, to denote that the first lunation in the second year of Meton's cycle commenced on that day. That lunation, being the fourteenth, consisted of twenty-nine days, and therefore would end on the 17th of February, and the second month of the second year would begin Februaiy 18th, consequently the number two is placed opposite to that day. Reckoning again thirty days, or eleven days in February and nineteen in March, we come to number two opposite to March 20 th, as the beginning of the third month in the second year. In this manner the twelfth lunation, which completes the second lunar year of 354 days, begins De- cember 10th and ends January 8th of the following solar year. On the 9th of January the third lunar year begins, and conse- quently the golden number three is opposite to that day. In the same manner the whole nineteen years were reckoned ; — and such was the arrangement of Csesar's calendar. The computists of the Council of Nice proceeded in a similar manner, but with a diflferent object. The precession of the equi- CHAP. ni.l THE ROMAN YEAR. 95 noxes had in the Interval of time shifted the cardinal points in the zodiac, so that the winter solstice had passed from the 25th to the 21st of December, and the vernal equinox from the 25th to the 21st of March. The object of the council was to determine the day of the paschal full moon ; and to establish a rule for the com- putation of Easter. They found that the first new moon after the vernal equinox, in the year of their session, fell on the 23d of March. They made it therefore the beginning of a new cycle of nineteen years, and consequently marked it with the golden number one. It is possible that in the ordinary course of the Julian calendar, the year of their session was the third of the Metonic cycle ; but whether that was or was not the case, the re- sult of placing the golden number one opposite to the 23d of March was as follows : 1. II. 1 Jan. 23 to Feb. 20 29 Jan. 12 to Feb. 9 29 Jan. 1 to Jan. 30 30 Feb. 21 to Mar. 22 30 Feb. 10 to Mar. 11 30 Jan. 31 to Feb. 28 29 Mai\ 23 to Apr. 20 29 Mar. 12 to Apr. 9 29 Mar. 1 to Mar. 30 30 Apr. 21 to May 20 30 Apr. 10 to May 9 30 Mar. 31 to Apr. 28 29 May 21 to June 18 29 May 10 to June 7 29 Apr. 29 to May 28 30 June 19 to July 18 30 June 8 to July 7 30 May 29 to June 26 29 July 19 to Aug. 16 29 July 8 to Aug. 5 29 June 27 to July 26 30 Aug. 17 to Sept. 15 30 Aug. 6 to Sept. 4 30 July 27 to Aug. 24 29 Sept. 16 to Oct. 14 29 Sept. 5 to Oct. 3 29 Aug. 25 to Sept. 23 30 Oct. 15 to Nov. 13 30 Oct. 4 to Nov. 2 30 Sept. 24 to Oct. 22 29 Nov. 14 to Dec. 12 29 Nov. 3 to Dec. 1 29 Oct. 23 to Nov. 21 30 Dec. 13 to Jan. 11 30 Dec. 2 to Dec. 31 30 Nov. 22 to Dec. 20 Dec. 21 to Jan. 19 29 30 Twelve Lunations 354 Twelve Lunations 354 Thirteen Lunations 384 This mode of computation continued to be generally used in the Christian Church until the year of our Lord 1582, when the reigning pontiff, Gregory XIII, published his bull abolishing the use of the calendar established by the Council of Nice, and sub- stituting that which has since been called the Gregorian. In this the golden numbers were discontinued, and the system of epacts, applied by Aloysio Lilio to the cycle of nineteen years, was adopted in its stead. Ten days were retrenched from the year on account of the precession of the equinoxes, to bring forward again the vernal equinox to the 21st of March, and the 5th of October was thenceforward to be counted as the 15th. In Spain and Portugal, and a part of Italy, the retrenchment took place on 96 THE ROMAN YEAR. [PART I. the same day as at Rome. In France the tenth of the following December was counted as the 20th. In Brabant, Flanders, Artois, Hainault and Holland, the 15th of December was counted as the 25th. In Germany, the provinces in communion with the pope received the new calendar in 1584, Poland in 1586, and Hungary in 1587. The Protestants in general continued to retain their old calendar until a. d. 1700, when they adopted a new calendar of their own ; but this being found inconvenient, the diet of Ratisbon, in the year 1774, at the instance of the king of Prussia, deter- mined that Easter should be celebrated in 1778, according to the Gregorian calendar. In England, the year had been reckoned as commencing on the 25th of March, the vernal equinox of the Julian calendar, until parliament enacted in 1751, that the year 1752, and all following years, should begin on the 1st of January of the Julian calendar, and that the 3rd of September, 1752, should be counted as the 14th of the same month. The Church of England, however, did not adopt the Gregorian calendar, but continued to use that of the ancient Church. The only difference made was to adjust that calendar to the modern retrenchment. Hence the golden number XIV, which in the Nicene calendar stands opposite to the 30th of March, was shifted so as to stand opposite to the 21st of that month. This will be seen by comparing the calendar in the Prayer-books published before the act of parliament of 1751, with those published subsequently. In the latter the golden number is omitted in the other months, and one cycle only is inserted from March 21st, as being the only one necessary for the calculation of Easter. The reader, it is hoped, will not be displeased with this digres- sion, because it connects more clearly the ancient and modern computations of time. Having done this, we return to the con- sideration of the calendar of Julius Cresar. The fourth and fifth columns require no comment. The fourth, containing the modern computation of days, is added merely for convenience ; and the fifth contains the Roman division of calends, nones, and ides, explained in common school-books, and therefore within the reach of every one. The same remark applies to the first and second columns of the ancient calendar of the Church. The sixth column only remains to be considered, and it is very CHAP. III.] THE ROMAN YEAR. 97 important to our subject, because it shows the religious festivals of the ancient Romans, and the accuracy with which they observed the movements of the heavenly bodies. We are apt to undervalue the science of the ancients. We ought rather to look upon them with respect and admiration. It is truly astonishing that, with their imperfect instruments, they arrived at so much accuracy in their astronomical calculations. The very want of instruments led to an intensity of observation much greater than ours. As the savage inhabitant of the forest, without a compass, marks his course through the pathless wilds with an accuracy far beyond that of the civilized man, so, at a very early period of the world's histor}^, did even barbarous nations learn, by the rising and setting of the constellations, to regulate the course of the year. However rude, therefore, the Romans under Romulus may have been, it was impossible for them to depart greatly from the tropical year ; because they watched the constellations, and connected with their rising and setting the seasons of agriculture and the times of their religious festivals. Any aberration would be quickly perceived, and the very observ- ances of a religion, the gods of which presided over their secular employments, served as a balance-wheel to regulate the movements of their chronology. Hence we infer with Censorinus, that from the very building of Rome to the time in which he wrote, the years mentioned by historians are to be considered as natural or solar: "Itaque cum de aliquo annorum numero hie dicetur, non alios par erit quam naturales accipere." 13 98 [part I. CHAPTER lY. OF THE JULIAN PERIOD. Why so named.— The Multiple of the Lunar and Solar Cycles, and the Indiction. — The Solar Cycle explained. — History of the Indictions ; and the several steps taken before the invention of the Julian Period, traced up to the Paschal Cycle of Vic- torias.— Abstract of his system. — jEraof Uionysius the Little. — Explanation of his scheme, from his letter to Petronius. — The lirst who dated from our Lord's Incar- nation. Not much noticed till the time of Bede; after which it was generally adopted. — The first two Cycles of Dionysiiis from Bede, given and explained. — Errors in B.^de's computation detected. — Method by which Scaliger connected the Julian Period with the Common or Dlonysian ^ra. — Advantages of the Julian Period, as a uniform measure of ancient time. The Julian period is a fictitious sera, designed to serve as a com- mon rule for all others jeras. It was so called by its inventor, Joseph Justus Scaliger, because it supposes the Roman year, as reformed by Julius Csesar, to be extended back, so as to be a general measure of time from the beginning of the world. It con- sists of 7980 years, — the product of the lunar cycle of nineteen solar years, or 235 lunations, the solar cycle of twenty-eight solar years, and the indiction, a period of fifteen years, multiplied into each other. The lunar cycle of nineteen years has been already explained. The solar cycle, or cycle of Sunday letters, is as follows : 123456789 10 1112 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2122 23 24 25 26 27 28 GEDCBGFEDBAGFDCBAFEDCAGFECBA F A C E G B D It is occasioned by the fourth of Caesar's years being bissextile, or consisting of 366 days. Hence it follows that every fourth year there must be two Sunday letters; the one continuing until the twenty-fourth of February, the other following that day for the remainder of the year. As the common year consists of 365 days, or fifty-two weeks and one day, it follows that the letter A, opposite, in the Christian calendar, to the first of January, marks not only the beginning of each of the fifty -two weeks, but also the beginning of the fifty -third week, and therefore falls on the last of December. If the first of January be Sunday, the last of December is also Sunday', and the CHAP. IV.] THE JULIAN PERIOD. 99 first of January of the second year is Monday. Consequently Sunday will fall on the seventh day, marked G, and that will be the Sunday letter. As the year commenced on Monday it will end on Monday; and the third year will begin with Tuesday, opposite the letter A. Consequently, Sunday will fall on the sixth of January, and the Sunday letter will be F. The fourth year will begin on Wednesday, ojjposite to the letter A; conse- quently, the Sunday letter will be E, the fifth of January. But this being a bissextile year, the letter F, which is opposite to the 24th of February, or the sixth before the kalends of March, is repeated. The letter E being the Sunday letter, the 23rd of Feb- ruary is Sunday; the 24th of February is jMonday; the 25th, the second F, is Tuesday; the 26th, or G, is Wednesday; the 27th, or A, is Thursday; the 28th, or B, is Friday; the 2yth, or C, is Saturday; and the first of March, opposite to the letter D, will be Sunday. Therefore D becomes the Sunday letter for the remain- der of the year. Thus it will be seen that the letters proceed in retrograde order from year to year; that in common years there is only one Sunday letter, and in the intercalaiy years two; and that the last of these letters in the natural order serves first, and the first last. This interruption of the bissextiles is the cause why the same order of Dominical or Sunday letters cannot return till the end of twenty-eight years. These twenty-eight years are therefore called the solar cycle, because the Lord's day is called Dies Solis or Sunday. The cycle of fifteen solar years, called the Indictlon, Is of very ob- scure and doubtful origin. The word Indictio was originally used in the sense of tax, tribute, or assessment. At least it is so employed by Ammianus Marcellinus, and in the Theodosian code.* Why it denoted also a term of years can only be conjectured ; and when it was first so used authors are not agreed. In the Chronicon Pas- chale, under the title "beginning of Indictions," it is asserted that " in the first year of Caius Julius Cassar — the consulship of Lepi- dus and Plancus — the indictions began to be used from the first of the month Gorpi^eus"^ (September). No example is or can be given of its use at that early period; and in the same work, the beginning of the Constantinian indictions is placed under that year ^ ladictionale augmentum. Am. Mar. lationique proficiat. Cod. Theod. Lib. xi. Lib. xvii. cap. iii. Id fiitiira; Iiidictionicon- tit. v. de Indictionibus. '^ Chron. Pasch, p. 187, ed. Paris. 100 TUE JULIAN PERIOD. [pART I. ill which Constantine Augustus iv. (it should be iii.) and Licinius III. were consuls, or a.d. 313.' Godefroy, in his table of twenty-four indictions of which express mention is made in the Theodosian code, places tlie first in the consulship of Constantius viii. and Julian, that is a.d. 356.^ Previous to the reign of Valentinian and Valens, he observes, the computation of the Indictions was the same in the eastern and western empire; but he thinks that from the time of those empe- rors there was a quadru2ile variety of indictions. First, the Italian indiction, beginning a.d. 312; secondly, the Oriental, from a.d. 313; thirdly, that of proconsular Africa, from a.d. 314; and fourthly, that of the African diocese, from a.d. 315.^ Why the indictions should not everywhere have the same beginning, does not appear. The first ecclesiastical writer who used this mode of computation was Athanasius. He speaks of an assembly of ninety Arian bishops at Antioch, in the presence of the impious Constantius, in the con- sulship of Mai'cellinus and Probinus, the 14th indiction.'* The consulship of Antonius Marcellinus and Petronius Probinus was A.D. 84 1 . This would be the fourteenth year of the second cycle of indictions, or the 29th year, reckoning from a.d. 313 as the first. But perhaps the dates of 312 and 313 may be reconciled by con- sidering the time of the year in which the indictions began. There are three dates in use among writers. The first is from the calends orfirstday of September. This date was used by the emperors of Constantinople, and occurs invariably in the Byzantine historians. The second is from the eighth before the calends of October, or September 24th. The chronologers ascribe its origin to Constan- tine the Great, and it is therefore called the Constantinian. This date is used by Bede.^ The third is the Roman or pontifical indic- tion, the commencement of which, as Ducange observes,^ is uncer- tain, but which, according to the learned Benedictines, began on the 25th of December or the first of January.^ We are concerned only with the two first; and it is very probable that the true date of the indictions is from the 24th of September ' Chron. Pasch. p. 281, ed. Paris. Beiied. torn. i. pars ii. p. 737. ' Constantii Imp. lex 2 de Legatis, data ^ Incipiunt autem Indictiones ad viii, ad Musoniamim P.F.P. xviii. Kal. Feb. Calendas Octobris, ibidemque terminantur. Med. Indictione xv. Bed. De Temp. liat. lib. c. 46. ^ Codex Theodosianus Jacobi Gotho- " Gloss. Lat. torn. iii. voce Indictio. fredi. Lips. 1736, torn. i. proleg. ccv-ccvii. ' L'Art de Verifier Ics Dates, torn. i. ■• Atlian. de Svnodis, 25. Opera, ed, xiv. § iv. Des Indictions. CHAP. IV.] THE JULIAN PERIOD. 101 A.D. 312. From this it was easy to reckon back to a.d. 1, which, it may be readily seen, would be the fourth year of the twenty-first proleptic cycle. Having thus shown the elements from which the Julian period was formed, w^e proceed to state the several steps taken to arrive at it. The first idea of providing for a general measure of time from the Creation, by means of a constantly recurring cycle of 532 Julian years, must, I think, be attributed to Victorius, a native of Aquitaine. He was at Rome during the pontificate of Leo the Great, and was requested by Hilary, then archdeacon of Rome, to reconcile the differences of the eastern and western churches in relation to the computations of the paschal full moon. This gave rise to his work, the object of which is explained in the preface. It is too long for insertion in this place; but the following abstract will show his plan : After speaking of the defects attending the paschal cycles of 84, 95, and 112 years, and the different modes of computing the paschal full moon in use among the Latins and Egyptians, he pro- ceeds to say, that by computation and consulting the w^orks of Eusebius, Jerom, and Prosper, he had adopted the following dates from the creation to the consulship of Constantinus and Rufus, A.D. 457. TEARS L From the Creation to the Deluge 2242 II. From the Deluge to the birth of Abraham, in the forty-second year of the reign of Ninus 942 III. From Abraham to Valens vi. and Valentinian ii. Coss. [a.d. 378] _ 2295 IV. From Ausonius and Olybrius Coss. [a.d. 379] toValentinianus Aug. vin. and Anthemius [a.d. 455], the year Victorius was in Rome '7 V. To Constantinus and Rufus, the then present Consuls [a.d. 457] 2 Being from the Creation of the World to a.d. 457 5558 * With these years, for the more certain investigation of the truth, he connected the bissextiles; that it might more clearly appear whether the ratio of the bissextile days Avould, by continual com- putation, harmonize, as well with the first days of the several Janu- aries, as with the eighth before the calends of April (the vernal ' The sum in the text is v.DCLvni. or here. The statement is correct of seven ty- 5,658 ; but unless there be a mistake in the seven years from Ausonius and Olybrius component numbers, there is an error to Valentinianus vui. and Anthemius. 102 THE JULIAN PERIOD. [PART I. equinox or March 25th), on which day, according to tradition, the world was created. When these were adjusted, it remained to inquire, whether the moon's reckoning, which on the fourth day of the world's age, i.e. on the fifth before the calends of April, (or March 28th) and therefore the full or fourteenth moon, arose, at the Creator's bidding, at the beginning of night, would, in the com- putation of so many centuries, agree, according to a uniform law, with past and present times. And it Avas found, in the consulship of Constantinus and Rufus, according to the Egyptian method of calculation, that on Tuesday (Feria iii.) the first of January the moon was twenty days old, and on Monday (Feria ii.) the eighth before the calends of April (March 25th) the moon was fourteen days old. Hence it was most evidently discovered that the cycle of nineteen years, extended in perpetual revolution, would measure this year and the first beginning with xx.* No doubt remaining that the days, moons, and bissextiles from the creation to his own time were in wonderful harmony, it remained, in order to accom- plish his task, that he should search into the time of the institution of the passover in Egypt, and also that time in which Christ our jjassover was sacrificed for us. Having compared the accounts of time, from the creation to the deliverance of the children of Israel by the blood of the Lamb, and the bissextiles being calculated, Victorius found that on Thursday (Feria v.), at the commencement of the evening, the ninth before the calends of April (March 24th), the 13th day of the moon's age, 3689 years were completed. Consequently, on Friday (Feria vi.), the eighth before the calends of April (jNIarch 25th), the 14th of the moon, at the beginning of the night, in the first month of the 3690th year, the Hebrews saci'ificed the lamb. For the passover was sacrificed at the beginning and not at the end of the year. By the same chronicles, it is shown that our Lord Jesus Christ suffered * To understand this intricate sentence, world's age (that is, according to Gen. i. it must be observed, that in the jear in 14-19, the day in which the sun and moon which Victorius wrote, the consulship of were made the measures of time) was the Constantinus and Hufus, or a.d. 457, the fifth before the calends of April, or March first of January, fell on Tuesday (Feria 28th ; and that the moon rose full at the in), that it was the twentieth day of the edge of the evening. Hence it would follow moon's age, that Easte^ Sunday fell on the that the first day of creation v.as the second before the calends of April, or eighth before the calends of April, or March 31st, when the moon's age was March 25, the vernal equinox; and that also twenty, and therefore that the full by reckoning the lunar cycle backward, it moon was on the eighth before the calends would be found to measure the first year of April, or March 25th. According to of creation, as well as that in which he his computations, the fourth day of the wrote. CHAP. IV.] THE JULIAN PERIOD. 103 when 5228 years were passed from the creation. That this took place at the beginning of the 29th year cannot be doubted, since it was in the first month, on the 14th day of the moon, the eighth before the calends of April, just as it began on the fourth day from the begin- ning of creation; and adding the bissextiles to this sum of 5228 years, it comes to Thursday (Feria v.) in the following 29th year. After speaking further of our Lord's crucifixion on Friday, and His resurrection on Sunday, he concludes this sketch of his system by remarking, that, to give a clear knowledge of the subject, it would be necessary to describe the days and lunar months from the beginning of the world. From this task he excuses himself, and says that he should begin only from the year of our Lord's passion, diligently noting the days of the calends of January, and the names of the consuls from the consulship of the two Gemini, Rufus (Fufius) and Rubellius, to the consulship of Constantinus and Rufus, for 430 years, with the moons and times; and thence- forward, without consuls, for 102 future years, that the whole sum might consist of 532 years. This sum embraces in its revolution a series of rules, according to which, by pursuing the same path, it will return to that from which it set out, and so revolving, will arrive continually at its pristine end.^ We shall have occasion hereafter to revert to the testimony of Victorlus concerning our Lord's passion. The analysis now given is introduced here for no other purpose but to show that he first conceived the grand idea of making the Julian year the uniform measure of time from the beginning of creation.* Victorius evidently supposed that at the end of 532 years the new moons would again fall on the same days of the week, and the same days of the month, and by the repetition of the cycle continue to do so for ever. And so they would, if 235 lunations were exactly equal to nineteen solar years. But that this supposition was in fact erroneous, may easily be made to appear. For taking the mean tropical year to consist of 365d. 5h. 48' 49", nineteen tropical years ^ Victorii Canon Paschalis apud Buche- then it will be found by reckoning back- rii de Doct. Temp. Comm. Antverp. 1634, wards that the nineteenth Proleptic Indic- fol. pp. 2 to 9. tion (19X15=285, and 312—285=27) * Victorius actually added the Cycle of began Sept. 24, a.d. 27, and ended Sept. the Indictions, making the year 28 of the 23, a.d. 28. With the exception, there- vulgar Christian aera, the consulship of the fore, of the difference from Sept. 24 to two Gemini, the first number of the Cycle. Jan. 1, or ninety-nine days, the computa- If the true commencement of the Constan- tion of Victorius was correct, tinian Indiction was Sept. 24, a.d. 312, 104 THE JULIAN PERIOD, [PART I. would amount to 6939d. 14h. 28' 21". In like manner, taking each lunation to be 29d. 12h. 44' 3" 2'", the 235 lunations in 19 solar years would amount to 6939d. 16h. 31' 52" 50"; so that in 19 years there would be a variation between lunar and solar time of 2h. 3' 3 1" 50'"; and this sum multiplied by 28, makes the differ- ence in 532 years amount to 2d. 12h. 2' 51" 20". From seventy to seventy-five years after Victorius, flourished Dionysius, surnamed Exiguus or the Little, on account of his diminutive stature. He was a Scythian monk, and he came to Rome about the year 525 of the sera which now bears his name. In his letter to a bishop named Petronius, he states that of the cycles of St. Cyril of Alexandria, whose computations of Easter had been for five lunar cycles of ninety-five years, there remained only six years unexpired. He therefore proposes to calculate Easter for another period of ninety-five years. St. Cyril's first cycle began with the 153rd year of Diocletian, and the last would terminate in the 247th year of that aera. Consequently, he pro- poses to begin his calculation with the 248th year of that tyrant; " but," he adds, " we have been unwilling to connect with our cycles the memory of an impious persecutor, and we have therefore chosen to date our years from the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ."' The sera of Diocletian, or of the martyrs, in use among the Egyptian Christians, began on the first day of their month Thoth, or August 29th, a.d. 284. Adding to this 152 solid years, we come to the 29th of August a.d. 436, as the beginning of the 153rd year of Diocletian, in which the first of Cyril's cycles began. Four of these cycles and thirteen years of tlie fifth cycle were ended, and six years yet remained, when Dionysius wrote. Conse- quently (19x4+13=89) by adding 89 to 436, we arrive at the year 525, when Dionysius wrote ; and the computations of Cyril would end in a.d. 531. To this sum add ninety-five years, for the new computation of Dionysius, and it brings us down to a.d. 626, as the end of his new calculation. It does not appear to have attracted much attention at the time ; for we find the fourth ' Quia vero Sanctus Cyrillus primum toris innectere, sed raagis elegimus ab cyclum ab anno Diocletian! clui ccepit, et Incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu ultimum in ccxlvii terminavit: nos a Christi annorum tempora pr.Tenotare. — ccxLViii anno ejusdem Tyranni potius Epist, Prima Dionysii Exigui apud Petav. quam Principis inchoantes, noluiraus cir- de Doct. Temp. torn. ii. Appendix, p. 498. culis nostris memoriam impii et persecu- CHAP, IV.] THE JULIAN PERIOD. 105 council of Orange, a.d. 541, solemnly adopting the cycle of Vic- torius, as the general rule for the computation of Easter. But early in the eighth century, the far-famed Anglo-Saxon monk Beda, commonly called the venerable Bedc, adopted the computations of Dionysius as the basis of his own, and extended them through eighty-six Metonic cycles, or 1634 years. His reputation for learning and sanctity, called the attention of the whole western Church to the labours of Dionysius, and led to the general adoption of the common Christian sera. "The practice of reckoning years by those of Jesus Christ," say the learned authors of the Art of Verifying Dates, "was introduced into Italy in the sixth century, by Dionysius the Little, and into France in the seventh century ; but it was not well established till towards the eighth, under the kings Pepin and Charlemagne. We have three councils, that of Germany in 742, that of Liptines, or Lestines, held in 743, and that of Soissons, celebrated in 744, which are dated by the years of the Incarnation. Since that time, and especially since Charlemagne, our historians have been accustomed to date the facts they relate by the years of Jesus Christ, but they do not all agree as to the beginning of the year." They then proceed to state, and to give examples of eight different manners of com- mencing the year among the Latins: 1. from March 1st; 2. from January 1st; 3. from December 25th; 4. from March 25th, or the Incarnation, commonly called the Annunciation. Some, 5. began the year nine months and seven days before the com- mon computation, e.g. the year 1000 from the 25th of March 999 ; others, 6. differed from the former a whole year, beginning the year three months and seven days later than we now do, reckoning as the year 999 until the 24th of March, that which we call 1000, beginning with January. Some, 7. began the year at Easter, on whatever day that might fall, about three months after the present usage ; and others, 8. though few in number, seem to have begun their year twelve months later than Ave do, reckoning, for example, that year as 1103, which we reckon as 1102.' The same writers affirm in a note, that Augustin the monk carried the Dionysian method of computing years into England, when he went to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, a.d. 596. > L'Art de Verifier les Dates, fol. Paris, 1783, torn. i. Diss, sur les Dates, § ii. 14 106 THE JULIAN PERIOD. [part I. If 80, we can easily account for the adoption of it by Bede, and the reflex operation of his labours upon the rest of Europe. We may also, if I mistake not, account for the national usage of beginning the year from the 25th of March, which prevailed in England until the year 1751. I proceed to exhibit the first two cycles of Dionysius, according to Bede's computation, as these are all that concern our present inquiry. I. — First Cycle. si ■3 c i II Fourteenth Moon. Easter Sunday. si" is '3 S

Do Doct. Temp. lib. vii. c. viii. torn. i. pp. 356-7. CHAP, v.] Ill CHAPTER V. OF THE REMAINING ^RAS MENTIONED BY CENSORINUS, WITH TABLES ADJUSTING THE WHOLE TO THE JULIAN PERIOD. I Section I. — 1. Augustan years. Testimony of Censorinus, Macrobius, and other ancient authors. Correction by Augustus of the error in inserting the Bissextiles, explained. Reflexions on this event — 2. Egyptian- Augustan years. Testimony of Censorinus and Dion Cassius. Date of the capture of Alexandria. Account of the ancient Egyptian year, how changed by introducing the Bissextile computation. — 3. JEra, of Nabonassar. Ancient form of the Egyptian year convenient to astrono- mers, and therefore adopted by Ptolemy. His canon, the ancient astronomical calculation adjusted by Hipparchus. Its correctness proved by modern computation of eclipses. Method of turning Egyptian into Roman or Julian years, and of ascer- taining in what day, month and year, of the Julian period, the first year of Nabon- assar began. — 4, JEra of Philip, why so called. A continuation merely of the aera of Nabonassar. Section II. Result of the present and preceding chapters shown in a series of Tables, from the first year of the first olympiad, b.c. 776, to the year when Censorinus wrote, a.d. 238, a period of 1014 tropical years. Section I. — The -iEras. Having, In the last chapter, explained the Julian period, It remains only, first, to notice as briefly as possible the remaining reras men- tioned by Censorinus, and, secondly, to exhibit the adjustment of the whole, to this exact and complete measure of time. I. THE ^RA OR YEARS OF AUGUSTUS. By reference to the third section of the chapter on the olympiads, it will be seen that Censorinus speaks of the year in which he wrote as the 265th of those called Augustan, commencing with the first of January in the seventh consulship of the emperor Caesar, and the third of Agrippa, when the title of Augustus was conferred on the former by the senate and Roman people. The same author states. In his twenty-second chapter, that the month which had been called Sextilis was, by a decree of the senate, called August, 112 THE REMAINING ^RAS. [PART I. in honour of Augustus, when Marcius Censorinus and Caius Asinius Gallus were consuls, in the Augustan year xx.' Macrobius gives the decree of the senate at full length.^ In his chapter on the reformation of the calendar, he states that after Csesar had by a public decree regulated the civil year, the priests introduced a new error from that very emendation ; for whereas the intercalation of the day formed from the four quarters ought to have been made at the end of the fourth, and before the begin- ning of the fifth year, they made the intercalation, not at the end but at the beginning of the fourth year. This error continued for six-and-thirty years, during which time an intercalation of twelve days took place, when it ought to have been of nine only. This error being at last detected, Augustus ordered that the next twelve years should pass without any intercalation, and that afterwards, according to the arrangement of Cassar, the intercalation should be made at the beginning of the fifth year. This order he caused to be engraved on brass for perpetual observation.^ Solinus, though confused in his account of Csesar's reformation of the calendar, is correct in what he says of the emendation by Augustus. " For whereas the precept was in the fourth year to intercalate one day, and it ought to have been observed at the end of the fourth year and before the beginning of the fifth, they [the priests] intercalated at the beginning, and not at the end of the fourth. Thus for six-and-thirty years, when nine days only would have been sufficient, twelve were intercalated. This Augustus detected and reformed. He ordered twelve years to run on without intercalation, so that restitution might thus be made of the three days which had been inconsiderately intercalated beyond the nine."^ Suetonius states the fact of this reformation, and then adds, that Augustus, on that occasion, called the month Sextilis after his own name, rather than the month of September, in which he was born, because his first consulship and his most brilliant victories had occurred in that month.^ ' Qui aiitem Sextilis fuerat ex S. C. Mar- postea negligentia conturbatum atque con- cio Censorino, C. Asinio Gallo Coss. in fusura, rursus ad pristinam rationem rede- Augusti honorem dictus est Augustus, git : in ctijus ordinatione Sextilem mensem anno Augustano xx. — De Die Nat. c. xxii. e suo cognomine nuncupavit, magis quam * Saturn, lib. i. c. xii. Septembrem, quo erat natus, quia hoe sibi ^ lb. lib. i. cap. xiv. ed. Volpii, p. 231. et primus consulatus et insignes victoriae " Solinus Poly h. ap. Petav. de Doc. Temp, obtigissent. — Suet. Octavianus, § 31, ed. lib. iv. cap. iii. tom. i. p. 163. Wolfii, Lips. 1802, 8vo. vol. i. p. 149. * Annum a D. Julio ordinatum, sed CHAP, v.] THE REMAINING .^RAS. 113 In his seventh consulship, as we shall show hereafter, the ein])e- ror offered to restore the republic, but was unanimously entreated by the senate to retain his authority. On that occasion they con- ferred on him the title of Augustus. From this time forth a perfect monarchy was established, and therefore Censorinus speaks of it as an asra. The detection of the error in the bissextile years was twenty years later, in the thirty-seventh year of Cesar's reformed calendar. We have seen in the last chapter, that the year preceding the first of the common Christian ajra was the ninth in the solar cycle, having DC for the Sunday letters. Being the year 4713 of the Julian period, it was, as Ave shall soon see by the computations of Censorinus, the 45th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Cffisar. Consequently it was preceded by forty-four solid years, or eleven periods of four years, and the first year of each period was bissextile. The year, therefore, which followed the last of confusion, or the first of the reformed calendar, consisted of 366 days. Undoubtedly Julius Cffisar, or the astronomers employed by him, saw that the intercalation took place rightly in February of that year. But on the 15th of the following March, as we shall see hereafter, Caesar was murdered ; and subsequent events diverting the public attention from the subject, the following inter- calations, instead of being made as they ought, in the 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, 21st, 25th, 29th, and 33rd years, Avere made by the priests in the 4th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 19th, 22nd, 25th, 28th, 31st, and 34th years. The result will appear from the following comparative table of the two computations. 15 114 THE REMAINING ^RAS. [part I. Correct Computation. Erroneous Computation. 1. B. 1. 366 1. B. 1. 366 2. 365 2. 365 3. 365 3. 365 4. 365 1096 1461 2. B. 4. 366 2. B. 5. 366 5. 365 6. 365 6. 365 7. 365 1096 8. 365 3. B. 7. 366 1461 8. 365 3. B. 9. 366 9. 365 10. 365 1096 11. 365 4. B. 10. 366 12. 365 11. 365 1461 12. 365 4. B. 13. 366 1096 14. 365 5. B. 13. 366 15. 365 14. 365 16. 365 15. 365 1461 1096 5. B. 17. 366 6. B. 16. 366 18. 365 17. 365 19. 365 18. 365 20. 365 1096 1461 7. B. 19. 366 6. B. 21. 366 20. 365 22. 365 21. 365 23. 365 1096 24. 365 8. B. 22. 366 1461 23. 365 7. B. 25. 366 24. 365 26. 365 1096 27. 365 9. B. 25. 366 28. 365 26. 365 1461 27. 365 8. B. 29. 366 1096 30. 365 10. B. 28. 366 31. 365 29. 365 32. 365 30. 365 1461 1096 9. B. 33. 366 11. B. 31. 366 34. 365 32. 365 35. 365 33. 365 36. 365 1096 1461 12. B. 34. 366 35. 365 Days 13,149 36. 365 1096 13,152 13,149 3 Excess of three days in the course of thi rty-six years by erroneous computation. To correct this error, Augustus ordered that the three next intercalary years, viz. the 37th, 41st, and 45th of the reformed CHAP, v.] THE REMAINING ^RAS. 115 calendar, or the years 4705, 4709, and 4713 of the Julian period, should be counted as common years. This correction took place nine years before the common Christian sera ; and by this simple method the supernumerary days were absorbed. After the year 4713 of the Julian period, the bissextile years became regular, and continued so for seventeen centuries.* The first intercalation took place in the year 49 of the Julian calendar, 4717 of the Julian period, and 4 of the common Christian sera, according to the com- putists of the Council of Nice. The solar cycle of that year was 13, the lunar cycle 5, the indiction 7, and F E were the Sunday letters ; but according to the reformed calendar of Caesai', the solar cycle was 21, the lunar cycle 11, and the Sunday letters C B. To the contemplative Christian it is interesting to observe, that among the arrangements of Divine Providence for the entrance of our blessed Lord into the world, that of the correct admeasurement of time seems to have been one. The system which prevailed through the whole Roman empire, on the authority of Augustus Csesar, was not brought to its greatest accuracy till the time had arrived in which the desire of all nations was to make His appear- ance among men. II. EGYPTIAN ^RA OF AUGUSTUS. Censorinus proceeds to state that the Egyptians reckoned the year in which he wrote the 267th of the Augustan years, because they were subjected to the dominion of the Roman people two years before that in which Csesar received the appellation of Augustus. There is a difficulty here which it will be necessary to explain. Dio, the accurate historian of that period, gives us the precise date of the naval engagement near Actium, between Antony and Cleopatra on the one side, and Octavianus Csesar on the other. It *I have said "for seventeen centu- one 130th part of a day, it follows that a ries," because, at the reformation of the day would be gained in about 130 years, or Julian calendar by Gregory XIII, it was three days in somewhat less than 400 ordered that the year of our Lord 1600 years. By considering one of these 400 should continue to be bissextile, but that years as bissextile, and the other three as 1700, 1800, and 1900, should be counted common, this encroachment would be as common years of 365 days. The rule, nearly remedied. Even this correction as I have before said, was to leave out leaves a small error, which in 4,000 years the intercalary day at the end of every will amount to one day and eleven-hun- century of years not divisible by four, dredths of aday; so that if the world shall As the mean tropical year consists of last so long, our posterity must then omit 1 1' 1 1" less than 365 days 6 hours, or nearly another bissextile. 116 THE REMAINING ^RAS. [PART I. took place on the second of September, in the year when Caesar, the third time, and M. Valerius Corvinus Messala were consuls. He then proceeds to state, that Caesar, in the middle of the follow- ing winter, when Caesar the fourth time, and M. Crassus, were consuls, went to Italy, but stopped at Brundusium, where he received the senate and a deputation of the Roman people without going to Rome. As this was in his fourth consulship, it was after the first of January ; and as mid- winter, according to the Roman calendar, was on the tenth of January, it was probably after the middle of that month. The thirtieth day after his coming to Italy he returned to Greece, and thence into Asia, with so much celerity, that Antony and Cleopatra heard of his departure and return at the same time. Several vain attempts at negotiation were made by Atitony and Cleopatra, which only consumed time, until at length Caesar arrived before Pelusium, which he appeared to take by force, when in reality it was surrendered to him by Cleopatra. In like manner, when he approached Alexandria, she secretly forbade the citizens to defend themselves, Avhile openly she exhorted them to meet the enemy. In this manner was Antony betrayed and conquered. His death speedily followed; and Cleopatra, find- ing herself deceived in the expectations which had led to her treachery, put an end to her own life. Then and thus was Egypt first reduced to be a province of the Roman empire, under the prefecture of Cornelius Gallus. Dio adds that, "the day in which Alexandria was captured was accounted fortunate, and thencefor- ward that year was reckoned as the beginning of their computa- tion." ^ If the reader will now turn to the calendar in the Chapter on the Roman Year, he will see that the sixth before the calends of April, or March 27th, was celebrated as the day in which Caesar rendered himself master of Alexandria, in his fourth consulship. And if the Egyptian Augustan years were reckoned from the capture of Alex- andria, then they would 'precede the first Augiistan year at Borne two years, nine months, and four days; for the Augustan year at Rome, as Censoriuus states, began on the first of January, in the seventh consulship of Caesar, and the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh con- sulships were in successive years. ' Dion Cassias, Hist. Eom. Ub. li. 1-19. X'Y- 442-457, b. Ed. Rcimar, torn. i. CHAP, v.] THE REMAINING .^RAS. 117 But from what Censorinus says soon after, we may infer that the Egyptians began their computation on the first day of their month Thoth, which fell in Caesar's fourth consulship, on the Slst day of August ; and in that case, the Egyptian Augustan years must have preceded the Roman Augustan, not two years only, but two 7/ears, four months, and one day. In considering, therefore, this computation of Censorinus, we must reckon by Egyptian and not Roman years. The ancient Egyptian year consisted always of 365 days only, divided into twelve months of thirty days and five supernumerary days. Every four years, therefore, the first month Thoth began one day earlier; thus receding continually, until, in the course of 120 years, the difference would amount to a month, and in 1460 years, to 365 days. Thus Thoth would travel back through all the months and seasons, and 1460 Roman years would be equal to 1461 Egyptian years. In the sixth year after the capture of Alex- andria, or A.J. p. 4689, the Roman system of inserting one day every four years appears to have been there adopted ; and thence- forth the first day of Thoth was made to coincide always Avith the twenty-ninth of Sextilis, orAugust, because in that year the first of Thoth coincided with that day. The Egyptian calendar then began to be reckoned in the following manner : 1 Thoth 29 August 30 2 Paophi 28 September 30 3 Athyr 29 October 30 4 Choiak 27 November 30 5 Tybi 27 December 30 6 Mechir 26 January 30 7 Phamenoth 26 February 30 8 Pharmuthi 27 March 30 9 Pashons 26 April 30 10 Paoni 26 May 30 11 Epiphi 25 June 30 12 Meshori 25 July 30 360 360 Epagomenai in common years .... 5 In bissextile years . . 6 365 366 But from Avhat Censorinus says, it is evident that the practice of the bissextile intercalation had not become general even in his 118 THE REMAINING .ERAS. [PART I. time ; for he states that in the year when he wrote, (the 283rd of Caesar's reformed calendar, and, as he computes, the 267th of the Egyptian Augustan years), the first of Thoth fell on the seventh before the calends of July, or June 25th. It had therefore receded from the 29th of August, sixty-five days, equivalent to a period of 260 years. The difference, however, may be accounted for by the error which had taken place in the Roman calendar, by the inser- tion of five intercalations instead of three, previous to the year in which Alexandria was conquered. These two days being added, the month Thoth had receded 67 days, equal exactly to the period of 268 years. We may therefore compute the Egyptian Augustan years as beginning on the 31st of August, in the fourth consulship of Cjesar. It will be seen hereafter that the battle of Actium took place on the second of September, in the year of the Julian period 4682. The capture of Alexandria followed, on the 27th of March, in the year 4683 of the Julian period, and the first Egyptian Augustan year began with the first of Thoth, or August 31st in the same year. Consequently the 268th year would terminate, according to the ancient computation, June 24th, or as adjusted to the Roman calendar, on the 28th of August, in the year 4951 of the Julian period, the year in which Censorinus wrote. III. ^RA OF NABONASSAR. The Egyptian year of 365 days was convenient to the ancient astronomers, because it avoided fractions of days ; and therefore Ptolemy made all his astronomical calculations by years of 365 days, from the jera of Nabonassar. Of that ?era we have, therefore, now to speak. Nabonassar is supposed to have been the son of Pul, king of Assyria, and the younger brother of Tiglath Pileser.* But, without entering into questions foreign to our purpose, it is sufiicient to observe, that Ptolemy, in his Canon, has given a series of reigns, from the first year of Nabonassar to the death of Alex- ander the Great, comprehending a period of 424 Egyptian years, or 154,760 days. The same philosopher has also transmitted to us the oldest astronomical calculations known, which, under the direction of Ai'istotle, had been transmitted by Callisthenes from * See the Appendix to Two Diseourses on Prophecy, by the author of the present ■work, New York, J. A. Sparks, 1843, pp. 107 and 140. CHAP, v.] THE REMAINING iERAS. 119 Babylon to Greece, and afterwards adjusted, by Hipparchus of Alexandria, to the Egyptian method of computing time. By means of these, we are enabled to ascertain the exact date of this ancient and most famous aera. Petavius has diligently compared these calculations with those of modern times, and has found them remarkably correct through the whole series. The following will serve as a specimen of the whole ; for all lead invariably to the same results : In Ptolemy's fourth book, he gives an account of three lunar eclipses, which took place in two successive years. The first happened when Phanostratus was Archon, in the year of Nabo- nassar 366, on the 27th of Thoth, six hours and thirty minutes from midnight at Alexandria. Modern computations show that It was on Tuesday, December 23rd, in the year of the Julian period 4331, lunar cycle 18, solar cycle 19, Sunday letter e. In the year 383 before the beginning of the Dionysian aera, a.j.p. 4714. The first step to be taken, is to turn the Egyptian into Julian or Roman years ; and this Is done by multiplying them by 365, to turn them Into days, then dividing them by 1461, the number of days in four Roman years, and multiplying the quotient by four. The re- mainder will be the number of days In the next Roman year. As Thoth Is the first month In the 366th Egyptian year, and the eclipse took place 6h. 30' after midnight on the 27th of that month, the sum must be stated thus : 365y. 26d. 6h. 30m. 1461)133,251(91 365 4 • Rem. 300 | 364 Days 133,251 6h. 30m. = 7?. F. 364. 300d. 6h. 30m. From the 1st of January to the 22nd of December, inclusive. In the year 4331 of the Julian period, were 356 days. Therefore from a.j.p. 4330 356d. 6h. 30m. Subtract 364 300 6 30 And there remain 3966 56 0 Fifty-six days are equal to January 31 and February 25. Conse- quently, the aera of Nabonassar began on the 26 th of February, In the year 3967 of the Julian period. Without mentioning the other two eclipses, which took place In June and December, a.j.p. 4332, we proceed to another remarkable eclipse of the moon, in the year of Nabonassar 547, the 16th of 120 THE RE3IAIXING .5:RAS. [pART I. Meshori, at 7 o'clock p.m. This eclipse, as calculated by Petavius, occurred a.j.p. 4513, on Friday, September 22nd, at 7h. 15' p.m., lunar cycle 10, solar cycle 5, Sunday letters B A. As it was a bissextile year, the number of days, from the 1st of January to the 22nd of September, Avas 266 ; and, according to the Egyptian calculation, from the 1st of Thoth to the 16th of Meshori, were 346 days. 546 solid Egyptian years and 346 days, amount to 199,636 days, which are equal to 546 Julian or Roman years and 210 days. Deduct that sum from 4512 years and 266 days, and there remain 3966 years and 56 days as before. Therefore, the 1st of Thoth in the first year of Nabonassar, coincided with February 26th, a.j.p. 3967. Censorinus says that the year in which he wrote, was the 986th year of Nabonassar, and Thoth began that year on the seventh before the calends of July, or June 25th. It was the 4951st year of the Julian period, lunar cycle 11, solar cycle 23, Sunday letter G. Being a common year, the number of days from January 1st to June 24th, inclusive, was 175. Nine hundred and eighty-five solid Egyptian years, ending June 24th, a.j.p. 4951, are equal to 359,525 days, or 984 Julian years and 119 days. Subtract that sum from 4950 years and 175 days, and there remain as before 3966 years and 56 days, or February 26th, a.j.p. 2967, for the commencement of the sera of Nabonassar. IV. YEARS OF PHILIP. It has been already stated, in speaking of the canon of Ptolemy, that the period of time, from the first year of Nabonassar to the death of Alexander the Great, was computed by him to be 424 Egyptian years. Subtract that sum from 986, and the remainder, 562, is the number of Egyptian years from the death of Alexander to the year when Censorinus wrote. In whichever way we reckon, whether forward 424, or backward 562, it will bring us, according to the method of calculation already explained, to the 12th of November, in the year 4390 of the Julian period, as the 1st day of Thoth after the death of Alexander. This is called by Ptolemy, and after him by Censorinus, the first year of Philip, from Philip Aridasus, a half brother of Alexander the Great, who succeeded him on the throne of Macedon. It accords with the first year of the 1 14th olympiad, in which Diodorus Siculus places the death of Alexander.^ ' Diod. Sic. Biblioth. lib. xvii. § 11.3-117. CHAP, v.] THE JIEMAINING .ERAS. 121 Section II. — The Tables. The several reras mentioned by Censorinus having been tlius examined, the result of the whole will now be exhibited in a series of tables, by which the accuracy of the 2)receding computations will be demonstrated. Column 1 contains the 1014 years of Censorinus, from Olym- piad I. year 1, to Olympiad ccliv. year 2. Column 2, the years of the Julian period, from January 1, 3938, to December 31, 4952. Columns 3 and 4, the several Olympiads, divided each into four years, and the victors in the stadium. Column 5, the years of Rome, reckoned backward from the year in Avhich Censorinus wrote, ^.e. as he says, the 991st from April 21. By this method it becomes evident that he followed the computation of Varro. Column 6 exhibits the ajra of Nabonassai', and the correctness of the computations of Censorinus ; for, by astronomical computa- tion, Thoth in the first year began Feb. 26, a.j.p. 3967, and, as Censorinus states, it began in a.j.p. 4952, when he Avrote June 20, and that was the 987th year of the ?era. Columns 7 and 8 contain the Julian and Augustan years ; and Column 9, the Dionysian or common Christian sera. It began with the last half of the 776th year from the first olympiad. Its first year coincided with the last six months of Olympiad cxciv. 4, and the first six months of Olympiad cxcv. 1, a.j.p. 4714, reformed calendar of Julius Ceesar 46. It Avas the 29th of the Augustan years, and not the 28th ; and thus the only mistake made by Censorinus is detected. It did not appear necessary to add a separate column for the years of Philip, because they are comprehended in the aera of Nabonassar. In all questions of ancient chronology, it will be required only to add or subtract, as the case may be, 45 for the years of Julius Ctesar, and 4713 of the Julian period, in order to connect the common Christian aera with the various seras in use in ancient times. A little practice will render this easy ; and thus, to repeat the lan- guage of Petavius, the reader will carry chronology about with him, instead of leaving it to lurk in books and papers. 16 122 THE TABLES. [part Olyra. years of Censo- JuUan Period. Olympiads Victors in the Stadium III ^ra Nabon. Olym. years of Censo- Julian Period. 01)-mpiad3 Victors in the Stadiiun. ill ^ra Nabon. 1- 2- 3- 4- 5- 6- 7- 8- 9- 10- 11- 12- 13- 14- 15- 16- 17- 18- 19- 20- 3938 - Ol. I. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol.ii. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -OL.m - ,. 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol. IV - „ 2 - » 3 - Ol. v. - ,, 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 CHOR^BDS ANTIMA- cnus ANDRO- CLUS I'OLY- OUARES aSCHINES 21- 22- 23- 24- 25- 26- 27- 28- 29- 30- 31- 32- 33- 34- 35- 36- 37- 38- 39- 40- 3958_ -Ol. VI _ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. vii - )i 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -O.vin - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. IX. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. X. - j> 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 oVboi.as DIOCLES or DiRCLES ANTICLES XENOCLES DOTADES 3939 3959 3940 3960 3941 3961 1 3942_ 3962_ 2 3943 3963 3 3944 3964 4 3945 3965 5 6 3946_ 3966_ 3947 3948 3967 Thoth 1 Febr. 26 7 3968 2 8 3949 3969 3 4 T. Feb. 25 9 10 11 3950_ 3970_ 3971 3951 5 3952 3972 3973 6 12 3953 4 13 3954^ 3974_ 8 T. Feb. 24 9 14 3955 3975 3976 3977 15 3956 3957 10 16 17 11 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES, 123 Olvra. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. ill m iEra NaboD. Olym. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. 1 ^ra Nabon. 41- 42- 43- 44- 45- 46- 4 7- 48- 49- 50- 51- 52- 53- 54- 55- 56- 57- 58- 59- 60- 3978_ 3979 - Ol. XI. - ,, 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. XII. - „ 2 - „ s - » 4 - Ol. XIII. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. XIV. ., 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XT. _ 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 LEOCHA- RES OXY- THEMIS D10CLE& DESMON OKSIP- PUS 18 12 T.Fel).2:i 61- 62- 63- 64- 65- 66- 67- 68- 69- 70- 71- 72- 73- 74- 75- 76- 77- 78- 79- 80- 3998_ - Ol. XVI. - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xvil - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. XVIII. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. XIX. - » 2 - » 3 - « 4 - Ol. XX. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 PYTHA- GORAS POTUS TULLHS or TELLIS MENOS ATHE- RADAS 38 39 32 T.Feb. 18 13 3999 33 19 3980 14 4000 34 20 40 3981 15 4001 35 21 41 3982_ 16 T.reb.22 4002 36 T.Peb.17 22 42 43 44 45 3983 17 4003 37 23 3984 18 4004 38 24 3985 19 4005 39 25 26 3986_ 20 T.Feb.21 4006_ 40 T.Feb.16 46 47 48 3987 21 4007 41 27 3988 3989 22 4008 42 28 29 23 4009 43 49 3990_ 24 T.Feb.20 4010 44 T.Feb.15 30 50 51 52 53 54 3991 25 4011 45 31 32 33 3992 26 4012 46 3993 27 4013 47 3994_ 28 T.Feb.19 4014 48 T.Feb.U 34 3995 3996 29 4015 49 35 36 37 55 30 4016 50 56 3997 31 4017 51 57 124 THE TABLES. Olyra. years of L'enso- liuus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Studium. Nabon. Olym. years ot Censo- Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Ill ^3i Nabon. 81- 82- 83- 84- 85- 8C- 87- 88- 89- 90- 91- 92- 93- 94- 95- 9G- 97- 98- 99- 100- 4018_ - Ol. XXI. - )! 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XXII. - „ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -OL.xxni. - » 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. xxiv. _ o - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. XXV. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PANTA- CLE.S I'ANTi- CLES.II. ICAEIUS C'LEOP- TOI.K- MUS niAi.pis 52 T.Feb. 13 101- 102- 103- 104- 105- 106- 107- 108- 109- 110- 111- 112- 113- 114- 11.5- 116- 117- 118- 119- 120- 4038_ - Ol.xxvi. - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xxvil _ o - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol.xxviii - ,, 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 - Ol. XXIX - )i 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XXX. _ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 CALTS- TUENES EURT- BUS, or EURIBO- TAS CHAR- MIS CUIONIS I IIIONIS II. 72 T.Feb. 8 58 59 60 61 62 63 78 4019 53 4039 73 79 80 4U20 54 4040 74 4021 55 56 T.Feb.l-2 4041 75 76 T. Feb. 7 81 4022_ 4042_ 82 4023 57 4043 77 78 83 84 85 86 87 4024 58 4044 64 65 4025 59 4045 79 402 6_ 60 T.Feb.ll 4046_ 80 T. Feb. 6 66 4027 61 4047 81 67 4028 62 4048 82 68 88 4029 63 64 T.Feb. in 4049 83 69 70 89 403.1 4050_ 84 T. Feb. 5 90 91 4031 65 4051 85 71 4032 66 4052 86 72 92 4033 67 4053 87 73 93 4034_ 68 T.Feb.y 4054 88 T. Feb. i 74 94 4035 69 4055 89 75 95 4036 70 71 4056 90 76 96 97 4037 4057 91 77 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 125 OljTIl. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. JEra Nabon. Olym. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period, Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. lii ^3o Mra. MabuD. 121- 122- 123- 124- 125- 126- 127- 128- 129- 130- 131- 132- 133- 134- 135- 136- 137- 13S- 139- 140- 4058_ - Oi-.xxxi. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. xxxn. 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol.xxxiii - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. XXXIV - » 2 - « 3 - ,» 4 - Ol.xxxv. _ J - „ 3 - „ 4 CHIONIS III. CRATI- NUS GYGIS STOMUS SPUJE- RL'S 92 T. Feb. -A 141- 142- 143- 144- 145- 146- 147- 148- 149- 150- 151- 152- 153- 154- 155- 156- 157- 158- 159- 160- 4078_ 4079 -Ol.xxxvi. - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -0. XXXVII. _ 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 -O.XXXVUI - ,, 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. XXXIX - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. XL. _ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 PII RT- NON Et3Ry- CLIUAS 01. VN- THEUS Rirso- i.Ai's, or RIPSOL- KOS OI.TN- THF.US. U. 112 T.Jan. 29 98 118 4U59 93 113 99 119 4060 94 95 4080 114 100 120 4061 4081 4082 4083 115 101 121 4062_ 96 T. Feb. 2 116 T.Jan.28 117 102 122 4063 97 103 123 4064 98 4084 118 119 104 124 4065 4066 99 4085 105 125 100 T. Feb. 1 4086_ 4087 120 T.Jau.27 106 126 4067 101 121 107 127 4068 102 4088 122 108 128 4069 103 104 T.Jan.31 4089 123 109 129 130 4070_ 4071 4090_ 4091 4092 124 T.Jaii.26 125 126 110 105 106 107 111 131 4072 112 132 4073 4074 4075 4076 4077 4093 127 113 133 108 T.Jan.sn 109 4094_ 4095 4096 4097 128 T.JaD.25 129 114 134 115 ■135 110 130 131 116 136 111 117 137 126 THE TABLES. [part I. 61- 162- 163- 164- 165- 166- 167- 168- 169- 170- 171- 172- 173- 174- 175- 176- 4098 4099 4100 4101 4102 4103 4104 4105 4106 4107 4108 4109 4110 4111 Olympiads. 4112 4113 177- 178- 179- 180- 4114 4115 4116 4117 - Ol. xli. o ») -^ » 3 „ 4 Ol. xlii. o )) •* „ 3 • ,. 4 Ol. xLiii. o )> — „ 3 ., 4 Ol. xLiv. o >? ■*- ■ „ 3 • » 4 - Ol. xlv. • „ 2 - „ 3 CLEON- THUS ANTI CRATES 138 Olym. years 139 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 132 T.Jan.24 133 134 135 136 T.Jan.23 137 138 139 140 T.Jan.2C 141 143 144 T.Jan. 21 145 146 147 148 T.Jan.20 149 150 151 181- 196- 197- 198- 199- 200 4118 182- 4119 183- 4120 184- 4121 185- 4122_ 186- 4123 187- 4124 188- 4125 189- 4126_ 190- 4127 191- 192- 4128 4129 193- 4130_ 194- 4131 195- 4132 Olympiads. Ol. XLvi. CHRYSO- MACHUS 4133 4134 4135 4136 4137 - „ 4 Ol. xlvii, ■ » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol.xlviii - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. xlix. o „ 3 „ 4 Ol. L. „ 2 » 3 „ 4 158 CHRYSA-" MAXOS 159 1.52 T.Jan.ig 153 EURT- CLKS 160 161 162 154 155 156 T.Jan.18 EPETE- HDAS 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 172 174 175 176 177 157 158 159 160 T.Jan. 17 161 162 163 164 T.Jan.16 165 166 167 168 T.Jan.15 169 170 171 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES, 12: Oljnii. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Ol3Tnpiads, Victors ill Stadium. Ill S4Jg Mm Naboii. Olju,. years of Censo- Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. III .Era Kabon. 201- 202- 203- 204- 205- 206- 207- 208- 209- 210- 211- 212- 213- 214- 215- 216- 217- 218- 219- 220- 4138 4139 - Ol. LI. - „ 2 - .. 3 - » 4 - Ol. lil - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. Liii. _ 2 - „ 4 - Ol. liv. _ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 - Ol. lv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 RRATOS- THENES AGIS ANON, or AGNON HIPPOS- TRATUS HIPPOS- TRATUS. 11. 178 172 T.Jan.H 221- 222- 223- 224- 225- 226- 227- 228- 229- 230- 231- 232- 233- 234- 235- 236- 237- 238- 239- 240- 4158_ - Ol. lvi. - » 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. lvii. - .. 2 - » 3 - >. 4 -Ol. Lviii. _ 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. lix. - „ 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. lx. _ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 PHS- DKUS LADRO- NIUS DIO- GNETHS ARCHI- LOCHCS APEL- hmvs 198 199 192 T. Jan. 9 173 4159 4160 193 179 4140 174 194 180 200 4141 175 4161 195 181 201 4142 _ 176 T.Jan.13 4162_ 196 T.Jan. 8 182 202 203 204 205 4143 177 4163 197 183 4144 178 4164 198 184 185 4145 179 4165 199 4146_ 180 T.Jan.12 4166_ 200 T.Jan. 7 186 206 207 4147 181 4167 201 187 4148 182 4168 202 188 189 208 4149 183 4169 203 209 4150_ 184 T.Jan.ll 4170 204 T. Jan. 6 190 210 4151 185 4171 205 191 211 212 4152 186 4172 206 192 193 194 4153 187 4173 207 213 214 4154_ 188 T.Jan .10 4174_ 208 T.Jan. 5 4155 189 4175 209 195 196 197 215 4156 190 4176 210 216 217 4157 191 4177 211 128 THE TABLES. [part I. Oh-ui. vea of Censo dnus. Julian Period. Olympiads. lii Victors in- 3 g Stadium. « o ^3o iEra Nabon. Jlym years 3enso- Julian Period. Olympiads. ^Ssfl jEra Nabon. 241- 242- 243- 244- 245- 246- 247- 248- 249- 250- 251- 252- 253- 254- 255- 256- 257- 258- 259- 260- 4178_ - Ol. lxi. - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxii. _ 2 - « 3 - ,, 4 - Ol.lxiii. - » 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxiv. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. lxv. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 AGA- THAR- COS ERTX- lAS PARME- NIDES MENAX- DRCS, or EVAN- DRAS AMA- CHDS, or AXO- CQAS 212 T. Jan. 4 261- 262- 263- 264- 265- 266- 267- 268- 269- 270- 271- 272- 273- 274- 275- 276- 277- 278- 279- 280- 4198_ - Ol.lxvi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ;, 4 -Ol. lxvil - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -Ol LX\Tii - .. 2 - » 3 - ., 4 - Ol. lxix. - ., 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxx. - „ 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 iscHr- RDS PHAN- NAS ISOMA- CHUS ISOMA- CHUS.II. NICEAS, or NICAIS- TAS 233 218 238 4179 4180 213 4199 4200 234 219 220 239 240 241 235 214 4181 215 4201 236 T.Dec.29 221 4182_ 4183 216 T. Jan. 3 4202_ 237 222 242 238 239 217 4203 223 248 4184 218 4204 224 225 244 240 T.Dec.SS 4185 219 4205 245 246 247 241 4186_ 220 T.Jan. 2 4206_ 226 227 242 243 4187 221 4207 4188 222 4208 228 248 244 T.Dec.27 4189 223 4209 229 230 249 245 4190_ 224 T.Jan. 1 4210_ 250 246 4191 225 4211 231 251 252 247 4192 226 4212 232 4193 BiBsext. 227 T. Jan. 1 228 T.Dec.31 4213 248 T.Dec.26 233 253 249 250 4194_ 229 T.Dec.31 4214 234 254 4195 230 4215 235 255 251 252 T.I>ec.2S 4196 231 4216 236 256 257 4197 232 T.Dec.30 4217 237 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 129 Olym. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. iEra Nabon. Jlym. Julian Period. Olympiads. I'ictors in Stadium. -il ^ra Nabon. 281- 282- 283- 284- 285- 286- 287- 288- 289- 290- 291- 292- 293- 294- 295- 296- 297- 298- 299- 300- 4218_ -OL.LXXI. - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. LXXII. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. lxxiii - » 2 - V 3 - » 4 -Ol. lxxiv _ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol.lxxv. _ 2 - « 3 - „ 4 TISI- CRATES TISI- C RATES. II. ASTYA- LUS ASTYA- LUS. II. A STY A- LUS.III. 258 253 301- 302- 303- 304- 305- 306- 307- 308- 309- 310- 311- 312- 313- 314- 315- 316- 317- 318- 319- 320- 4238_ -Ol.lxxvi. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -0. i.xxvit. - „ 2 - „ 3 - « 4 -O.LXXVIII - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxxix - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. lxxx - .) 2 - . 3 - „ 4 SCAMAN- OUOS DANDI- NDS, or DANDIS PARME- NIDES XENO- rilON TURYM- MAS 1 1 ! 273 278 4219 254 4239 274 259 279 4220 255 4240 275 260 280 4221 256 T.Dfec.24 4241 4242_ 4243 276 T.Uec.19 261 281 4222_ 257 277 262 282 4223 258 278 279 280 T.Dec.18 263 283 4224 259 4244 264 284 4225 260 T.Dec.'23 4245 265 285 4226 4227 261 424 6_ 281 266 286 262 4247 282 267 287 4228 263 4248 283 268 288 4229 264 T.Dec.22 4249 284 T.Dec.17 269 289 4230_ 265 4250 285 270 290 4231 266 4251 286 271 291 4232 267 4252 287 272 273 292 4233 4234 4235 268 T.Dec.21 4253 4254_ 288 T.Dec.16 289 290 291 292 T.Dcc.13 -B — 293 269 274 275 294 270 271 272 T.Dec.2() 4255 4256 295 4236 276 296 4237 4257 277 1 297 - 130 THE TABLES. [part 1. Olym. years of Censo- rinua. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. jEra Nabon Olym. years of Censo- Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mra Nabon. 321- 322- 323- 324- 325- 326- 327- 328- 329- 330- 331- 332- 333- 334- 335- 336- 337- 338- 339- 340- 'i258_ -OL.LXXXI. - » 2 - „ 3 - V 4 -Ol.lxxxii - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -O.LXXXIII - „ 2 - „ 3 - 1, 4 -O.Lxxxrv. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol.lxxxv _ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 POLTM- NASTUS LTCUS CKISSON CRISSON II. CRISSON III. 298 293 341- 342- 343- 344- 34.5- 346- 347- 348- 349- 350- 351- 352- 353- 354- 355- 356- 357- 358- 359- 360- 4278_ -O.LXXXVI. - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. - LXXXVII. - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - Lxxxvm. ~ )> 2 - ., 3 - » 4 -O.LXXXIX. - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. xc. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 THEO- POMPUS EU- PHRA- NOR, or SO- PHRON STMMA- CHUS SYMMA- CHUS.II. HVPER- BIUS 313 318 4259 294 4279 314 299 319 4260 295 4280 4281 315 300 320 4261 296 T.Dec.14 316 T. Dec. 9 301 321 4262_ 297 4282 317 302 322 4263 298 4283 318 303 323 4264 299 4284 319 304 324 4265 300 T.Dec.l2 4285 320 T. Dec. 8 305 325 326 4266_ 301 4286_ 321 306 4267 302 4287 322 307 327 4268 4269 303 4288 323 308 328 329 330 304 T.Dec. 13 4289 324 T.Dec. 7 309 4270_ 305 306 4290_ 325 310 4271 4291 4292 326 311 331 4272 4273 307 308 T.Dec.U 327 312 332 4293 4294 328 T. Dec. 6 329 313 333 4274_ 309 314 334 4275 310 4295 4296 4297 330 315 335 4276 311 331 316 336 337 4277 312 T.Dec.lO 332 T. Dec. S 317 . CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 131 Olym. years Censo- Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. !ll Mm Nabon. Olym. years of Ceuso- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. .Era Nabon. 361- 362- 363- 364- 365- 366- 367- 368- 369- 370- 371- 372- 373- 374- 375- 376- 377- 378- 379- 380- 4298_ 4299 - Ol. xci. - « 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. xcii. _ 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. xcin. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. xciv. _ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xcv. - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 EXl- GENTUS EXI- GENTUS II. EU RO- TAS, or EDKA- TOS CROCI- NAS MINON 338 339 333 381- 382- 383- 384- 385- 386- 387- 388- 389- 390- 391- 392- 393- 394- 395- 396- 397- 398- 399- 400- 4318_ - Ol. xcvi. - „ 2 ~ „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. xcvii. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -Ol.xcviii. - » 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. xcix. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. c. - ,, 2 - » 3 - ., 4 EUPO- LEMOS TIRI- Nfl:us SOSIP- Pt)S DirON DIONV- SODO- RUS 358 359 353 334 4319 354 4300 335 4320 355 340 360 4301 336 T. Dec. 4 4321 356 T.Nov.29 341 361 4302 337 4322_ 357 342 362 363 364 3G5 4303 338 4323 4324 358 359 343 4304 339 344 4305 340 T.Dec. 3 4325 360 T.Nov.28 345 4306 341 4326_ 361 346 366 367 368 4307 342 4327 362 347 4308 4309 343 4328 363 364 T.Nov.2? 348 349 344 T. Dec. 2 4329 369 370 4310_ 345 4330 365 350 4311 346 4331 366 351 371 372 373 374 4312 347 4332 367 352 353 354 4313 348 T. Dec. 1 4333 368 T.Nov.26 4314_ 349 4334 369 4315 4316 350 4.335 370 355 356 357 375 351 352 T.Nov.30 4336 371 372 T.N0V.2J 376 377 4317 4337 132 THE TABLES. [part r. Olym. years of Censo- rious. Julian Periotl. Olympiad 9. Victors iu Stadium. III Naboii. Olym ■ of Censo Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mm Nabon. 401- 402- 403- 404- 405- 406- 407- 408- 409- 410- 411- 412- 413- 414- 415- 416- 417- 418- 419- 420- 4338 - Ol. CI. - ,. 2 - » 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cii. - » 2 - ., 3 - » 4 - Ol. ciil - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. civ. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cv. _ ^ 0 - ,, 3 - M 4 DAMON DAJION. II. PTTHO- STRA- TOS PHOCI- DES PORUS 373 421- 422- 42.3- 424- 425- 426- 427- 428- 429- 430- 431- 432- 433- 434- 435- 436- 437- 438- 439- 440- 4358_ - Ol.cvi. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. cvii. - ,. 2 - „ 3 - « 4 - Ol cvm. - » 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. cix. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. ex. - M 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 FORDS. II. MICRI- NAS POLT- CLES ARISTO- LOCHUS ANICr-ES or ANTI- CLES 393 378 379 380 381 382 383 398 4339 374 4359 394 399 400 4340 375 376 T.Nov.24 4360 395 4341 4361 396 T.Nov.19 401 4342_ 377 4362_ 397 402 403 4343 378 4363 398 399 400 T.NoT.lS 4344 379 4364 384 385 404 4345 380 T.N0V.C3 4365 405 406 407 4346 381 4366_ 401 386 4347 382 4367 402 387 4348 383 4368 403 388 408 4349 384 T.NOV.C2 4369 404 T.Nov.17 389 390 409 4350 385 4370_ 405 410 4351 386 4371 406 391 411 4352 387 388 T.NOT.I) 4372 407 392 393 412 4353 4373 408 T.NOT.16 413 4354_ 389 4374 409 394 414 4355 4356 390 4375 4376 410 395 415 391 411 412 T.Nov.lD 396 416 417 4357 392 T.Nov.SH 4377 397 1 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 133 Olym. > V. ra Olympiads. 441- 442- 443- 444- 445- 446- 447- 448- 449- 450- 451- 452- 453- 454- 455- 456- 457- 458- 459- 460- 4378 4379 4380 4381 4382 4383 4384 4385 4386 4387 4388 4389 4390 4391 4392 4393 4394 4395 4396 4397 Ol. CXI. - „ 4 - Ol,. cxii. 2 ,. 3 „ 4 ■ Ol. cxiii. „ 2 „ 3 » 4 Ol. cxiv. „ 2 » 3 ., 4 Ol. cxv. « 2 ,. 3 CLEO- MANTIf E U KT- LAS 418 419 420 421 422 423 Olym. I years ' Julian Period. 413 461- 414 415 463- 416 T.Nov.14 417 418 425 426 42: 428 MICIN- NAS DAMA- SIAS 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 419 420 T.Nov. 13 421 462- 464- 465- 466- 467- 468- 423 424 T.Nov.l: 425 426 427 428 T.Nov.l 1 429 430 431 437 432 T.Nov.lO 469- 4398 4399 4400 4401 4402 4403 4404 4405 470- 471 472 473- 474- 475- 476- 477- 478- 479- 480- 4406 4407 4408 4409 4410 4411 4412 4413 4414 4415 Olympiads. 4416 4417 - Ol. cxvi. 2 - .. 3 - „ 4 -Ol. cxvii - » 2 - V 3 - ,, 4 -OL.cxvni 2 - „ 3 „ 4 ■ Ol. cxix. » 2 » 3 „ 4 Ol. cxx. „ 2 „ 3 DEMOS- THK- NES, DINdS- IHENES or DINO- MENES 438 439 440 433 434 435 441 436 T. Nov. 9 PA R M E - NIDES 442 443 444 437 438 439 ANDRO- MENES 445 446 ANDRO- MENES 447 448 449 450 451 452 440 T. Nov. 8 441 442 443 444 T. Nov. 7 445 446 PYTHA- GOKAS 453 454 455 456 448 T. Nov. 6 449 450 451 452 457 T.Nov. 5 I 134 THE TABLES. [part I. Olyra. years 481- 482- 483- 484- 485- 486- 487- 488- 489- 490- 491- 492- 493- 494- 495- 496- 497- 498- 499- 500- 4418 4419 Olympiads. 4420 4421 4422 4423 4424 4425 4426 4427 4428 4429 4430 4431 4432 4433 4434 4435 4436 4437 - Ol.cxxi. - » 2 - ,, 3 ,, 4 Ol. cxxii. ■ » 2 • „ 3 » 4 Ol.cxxiii. „ 2 ,, 3 » 4 OL.cxxn' » 2 ,, 3 „ 4 Ol.cxxv, „ 2 ,, 3 „ 4 GORAS. ANTI- GONUS ANTI- GONDS. PHILO- MELUS te.s 458 453 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 Olym. years Olympiajs. 501- 454 455 456 T. Nov. 4 457 458 459 460 T.Nov. 3 461 509- 462 463 464 T.Nov.i 465 466 467 468 T. Nov. 1 469 470 471 472 T.Oct.31 502- 503- 504- 505- 506- 507- 508- )10- 511- 512- 513- 514- 515- 516- 517- 518- 519- 520- 4438 4439 4440 4441 4442 4443 4444 4445 4446 -O. cxxviii 4447 4448 4449 4450 4451 4452 4453 4454 4455 4456 4457 Ol. cxxvi. - „ 2 NICA- TOR -OL.cxxvn » 4 OL.CXXIX. ,, 2 Ol-cxxx. » 2 „ 3 - ,. 4 PERI- GENES SELED- CCS PUILI- NUS PHILI- NUS. II, 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 49/ 473 474 475 476 T.OcUO 477 478 479 480 T. Oet.29 481 482 483 484 T. Oct.28 485 486 487 488 T.Oct.27 489 490 491 492 T. Oct.26 CHAP. V."l THE TABLES. 135 Olym. years of Censo- 521- 522- 523- 524- 525- 526- 527- 528- 529- 530- 531- 532- 533- 534- 535- 536- 537- 538- 539- 540- 1 Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mm NaboD. Olym. years of Censo- rinue. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. iEra Nabon. 4458_ -Ol.cxxxi. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -Ol.cxxxii - » 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -O.CXXXUl - ., 2 - :, 3 - » 4 -O.CXXXIV. - » 2 - ., 3 - ., 4 -OL.CXXXV - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 AMMO- NIUS XENO- I'HANES SIME- LUS ALCIDAS E RATON 498 493 541- 542- 543- 544- 54.5- 546- 547- 548- 549- 550- 551- 552- 553- 554- 555- 556- 557- 558- 559- 560- 4478_ -O.CXXXVI. - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -O.CXXXVIl - „ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. - CXXXVIII. - ., 2 - ,, 3 - „ 4 -O.CXXXIX. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. cxl. - „ 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 PYTHO- CLES MENF.S- THEDS DEME- TBins lOLAI- D4S zopy- RUS 518 519 513 4459 494 4479 514 499 4460 495 4480 515 500 520 4461 496 T.Oct.25 4481 516 T.Oct.20 501 521 4462 _ 497 4482_ 517 502 522 523 524 525 4463 498 4483 518 519 503 4464 499 4484 504 4465 500 T.Oct .24 4485 520 T.0ct.l9 505 4466 501 4486_ 521 506 526 4467 502 4487 522 507 527 4468 503 4488 523 508 509 528 4469 504 T.Oct.23 4489 524 T.Oct.18 529 4470_ 505 4490 4491 525 510 530 4471 506 526 511 512 513 514 531 532 533 534 4472 507 4492 527 4473 508 T.Oct.22 4493 528 T.Oct.l- 4474_ 509 4494_ .529 4475 510 4495 530 515 516 517 535 4476 511 512 T.Oct.21 4496 531 532 T.Oct.16 536 537 4477 4^97 136 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. vears of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. 'ictors in Sti-.dium. PI JEtSL Nabon. Slym years of :;enso- •inus. Juliau Period. Olympiads. Pi 'ictorsin*^-9 Stadium. £ . g Nabon. 561- 562- 563- 564- 565- 566- .-)67- 568- 569- 570- 571- 572- 573- 574- 575- 576- 577- 578- 579- 580- 4498_ - Ol. cxli. - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cxlu. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -Ol.cxliii. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ -i -Ol. cxliv. - ,, 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cxlv. _ 0 - •, 3 - „ 4 DORO- THEUS CRATES HERA- CLITUS HERA- CLIDES PYR- RHIAS 533 581- 582- 583- 584- 585- 586- 587- 588- 589- .590- 591- 592- 593- 594- 595- 596- 597- 598- 599- 600- 4518_ -Ol. cxlvi. _ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 -Ol. cxLvii - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 -0. CXLVIII - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol. cxlix - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 - Ol. cl. _ 0 - V 3 - ,. 4 MICION AGEMA- CHUS ARCE- SILAUS HIPPO- STRA- TUS ONESI- CRATUS 553 538 558 4499 534 4519 554 539 540 541 542 543 559 560 4500 535 4520 555 4501 536 T.Oct. 1[. 4521 556 T.Oet.lO 561 4502_ 537 4522_ 557 562 4503 538 4523 558 559 563 4504 539 4524 544 545 564 4505 540 T.Oct.14 4525 560 T. Oct. 9 565 566 567 4506_ 541 4526 561 546 4507 542 4,527 562 547 4508 543 4528 563 548 568 4509 544 T.0ct.l3 4529 564 T. Oct. 8 549 550 569 4510_ 545 4530_ 565 570 4511 .546 4531 566 551 571 4512 547 4532 567 552 553 572 4513 548 T.Oct.12 4533 568 T. Oct. 7 573 4514 549 4534 569 554 574 4515 550 4535 570 355 575 4516 551 552 T.Oct.ll 4536 571 572 T. Oct. 6 556 576 577 4517 4537 557 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 137 OljTn. years of Censo Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. S tig ^■30 JEra Nabon. Olj'm years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. Mn. IS'ubon. 601- 602- 603- 604- 605- 606- 607- 608- 609- 610- 611- 612- 613- 614- 615- 616- 617- 618- 619- 620- 4538_ - Ol. cli. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4- - Ol. clii. _ 2 - „ 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. CLin. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. cliv. - M 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. clv. - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 THTME- LUS DEMO- CKATES ARIS- TAN- DKUS LEONl- DAS LEONI- DAS. JI. 573 621- 622- 623- 624- 625- 626- 627- 628- 629- 630- 631- 632- 633- 634- 635- 636- 637- 638- 639- 640- i 4558_ - Ol. clvi. - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 -Ol. clvil - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol. cLvni. - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. clix. - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 - Ol. clx. - )> 2 - -, 3 - ,, 4 LEOM- DAS. III. LEONl- DAS. IV. ORTHON ALCI- MUS ANODO- RUS, or ANO- DOKOS 593 578 598 4539 574 4559 594 579 599 600 4540 575 576 T. Oct. 5 4560 595 580 4541 4561 596 T.Sep.30 581 601 4542_ 577 4562_ 597 582 602 4543 578 4563 598 599 600 T.Sep.29 583 603 4544 579 4564 584 604 4545 580 T. Oct. 4 4565 585 605 4546_ 581 4566_ 4567 601 586 587 606 607 4547 582 602 4548 583 4568 603 588 608 4549 584 T. Oct. 3 4569 604 T.Sep.2S 589 609 4550 4551 585 4570_ 4571 605 606 607 590 610 611 612 586 591 4552 587 4572 592 593 594 4553 588 T. Oct. 2 4573 608 T.Sep.l7 613 4554_ 4555 589 4574 4575 4576 609 610 614 590 595 615 4556 591 611 596 616 617 4557 592 T. Oct. 1 4577 612 T.Sep.2C 597 18 138 THE TABLES. [part I. Olyro. years Censo- JuUan Period. Olympiads. Victors in " Stadium. 2ii jEra Nabon. llym. years >nso- rinus. Julian Period. Olj-mpiads. '^^iS^lH g iic Nabon. 641- 642- 643- 644- 645- 646- 647- 648- 649- 650- 651- 652- 653- 654- 655- 656- 657- 658- 659- t;60- 4578_ - Ol. clxi. 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol. cLXii. - ., 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 -Ol.clxiii. - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol. clxiv. - , 2 - ., 3 - » 4 - Ol. clxv. 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 ANTI- l-ATEK DAMON TIMO- THECS BOlOTUS ACl'SI- LAtas 613 561- 562- 663- 664- 66.5- 666- 667- 668- 669- 670- 671- 672- 673- 674- 675- 676- 677- 678- 679- 680- 4598_ -Ol. clxvi. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol.clxvii - „ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -0. CLXvm - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. clxix. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. clxx - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 633 618 :hrtso- GONUS CHRTSO- GOXUS. II. NICOMA- CHUS NICODE- MDS SIM- MEUS 638 4579 614 4599 634 619 639 4580 615 4600 4601 635 620 640 4581 616 T.Sep.So 636 T.SepiX) 621 641 4582_ 617 4602_ 637 622 642 4583 618 4603 638 623 643 4584 619 4604 639 624 644 4585 620 T.Sep.24 4605 640 T.Sep.19 625 645 646 4586_ 621 4606_ 641 626 4587 622 4607 642 627 647 4588 623 4608 643 628 648 649 650 651 4589 624 T.Scp.23 4609 644 T. Sep.lS 629 4590_ 625 4610_ 645 630 4591 626 4611 646 631 4592 627 4612 647 632 652 4593 628 T.Sep.-:^2 4613 648 T.Sep.l" 649 633 653 654 4594_ 629 4614_ 634 4595 630 4615 650 635 655 4596 631 4616 651 636 656 4597 632 T.Scp.21 4617 652 T.Sep.16 637 657 CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 139 Olyin. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. * S a iEra NaboD. Olyni. years of Censo- rinus. Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. HI ii?ra ISabon. 673 681- 682- 683- 684- 685- G86- 087— 688- 689- 690- 691- 692- 693- 694- 695- 696- 697- 698- 699- 700- 4618_ -Ol. clxxi. - ,. 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -OL.CLXXII - » 2 - „ 3 - ., 4 -0. CLXXIIl _ 2 - » 3 - » 4 -O.CLXXIV. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol. clxxv - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 PARME- NISCUS EUDA- MUS PAKME- NISCUS. II. DEMOS- TRATUS EPMTiE- TUS 658 653 701- 702- 703- 704- 705- 706- 707- 708- 709- 710- 711- 712- 713- 714- 715- 716- 717- 718- 719- 720- 4638_ -O.CLXXVI. - „ 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 -O.CLXXVIl _ o - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - clxxviii. - „ 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -O.CLXXIX. - .. 2 - » 3 - .. 4 -Ol. clxxx _ 2 - ). 3 - ,, 4 DION IIECA- roMNUs DIOCLES AN- DIIEAS ANUBO- MACHUS 678 679 4619 654 4639 674 659 4620 655 4640 675 660 680 4621 656 T.Sep.15 4641 676 T.Scp.lO 661 681 4622_ 657 4642 677 662 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 4623 658 4643 678 679 663 4624 659 4644 664 4625 660 T.Sep.14 4645 680 T. Sep. 9 665 4626_ 661 4646_ 681 666 4627 662 4647 682 667 4628 663 664 T.Sep.l3 4648 683 668 669 4629 4649 684 T. Sep. 8 689 4630_ 665 4650_ 685 670 690 4631 666 4651 686 671 691 692 693 4632 667 4652 687 672 673 4633 668 T.Sep.l2 4653 688 T.Sep. 7 4634_ 669 4654 689 674 694 695 696 4635 4636 670 4655 690 675 676 677 671 672 T.Scp.U 4656 691 692 T. Sep. G 4637 4657 1 697 I^HIIII 14X) THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Censo- rinus. Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. JEth N'ab. Bef. Cal. of Julius Csesar. Olym. years of Censo- Julian Period. Olympiads. Victors in Stadium. P OJ t« yEra Nab. Rff. Cal. of Julius Caesar. /Era of Au- gustus. 721- 722- 723- 724- 72r,- 726- 727- 728- 729- 730- 731- 732- 733- 734- 735- 736- ',?37- 738- 739- 740- LAMA- CHUS ANTHES- TION TIIF.O- DOKUS THEO- DOEUS 11. ARISTON 693 741- 742- 743- 744- 745- 746- 747- 748- 749- 750- 751- 752- 753- 754- 755- 756- 757- 758- 759- 7G0- 4678_ CLXXXVI - » 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 Ol. clxxxvii. - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. CLXXXVIll - » 2 - » 3 - H 4 Ol. CLXXXIX - 5, ^ - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - cxc. - » 2 - „ 3 - ,, 4 SCAMAN- DRUS AETSTON II. SOPA- TKR ASCLE- PIADES AUPHI- DIUS 713 10 4658_ -CLXXXI - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. CLXXXII. - ,, 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Oi>. CLXXXIII - „ 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 Oh. CLXXXIV - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. -CLXXXV - » 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 698 699 700 701 702 718 719 720 4659 694 4679 714 11 4660 695 c' "5 1 s p p .J o 4680 715 12 4661 696 Sep.E. 4681 716 Aug.31 13 721 4662 4663 697 4682_ 717 14 722 723 718 698 4683 15 703 4664 699 4684 719 16 704 705 724 4665 700 Sop.4 4685 720 Aug.30 17 725 726 727 4666_ 701 4686_ 721 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 706 4667 702 4687 722 19 707 Year of 445 days. 4668 703 4688 723 20 708 728 4669 704 Sep.3 1 4689 724 Aug.29 21 709 710 729 4670 705 706 2 4690_ 725 22 730 4671 3 4691 726 23 711 731 732 733 4672 707 4 4692 727 24 712 713 4673 708 Sep.2 5 4693 728 Aug.28 25 4674_ 709 6 4694_ 729 26 714 734 4675 710 7 4695 730 27 715 735 736 737 4676 711 8 4696 731 28 716 4677 712 Sep.l 9 4697 732 Aug 27 29 717 CHAP. V.J THE TABLES. 141 Olym. Censo- Julian Periot Olyropiads, and Victors in Stadium. u *ra Nab. Ref. Cal. of Julius Caesar ^ra of Au- gustus Vuls. Christ /Era. Olvni years of Censo Juliat Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadiuai. Hi ill JEta Nab. Rcf. Cal. of Juliu Ca'sar ^ra of Au- - gUBtUS Vulg. Christ ^Era. 5 6 7 8 9 10 761- 762- 763- 764- 765- 766- 767- 768- 769- 770- 771- 772- 773- 774- 775- 776- 777- 778- 779- 780- 4698 - Ol. cxci. (Diodotus) - „ 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 -Ol. cxcii. (Diophanes) - „ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 -Ol-cxciii. (Artesidorus) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -Ol. cxciv. (Dimatrus) - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 - Ol. cxcv. (Dimatrus. ii.) - » 2 - ,. 3 - » 4 738 733 30 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 781- 782- 783- 784- 785- 786- 787- 788- 4718 -Ol. cxcvi (Pasenes, or Pammenes) - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol-cxcvii (Asiaticus) - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 -O.cxcvni. {Diophanes) - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 -Ol. cxcix. (^schines) - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol. cc. (Polemon) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 753 50 758 32 "" 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 4699 734 31 4719 754 51 739 759 760 4700 735 32 4720 755 52 740 4701 736 Aug.ac 33 4721 756 Aug.21 53 741 761 4702 737 34 4722 757 54 55 742 762 4703 738 35 4723 758 743 763 4704 739 36 4724 759 56 11 744 764 4705 740 Aug.25 37 4725 760 Aug.2n 57 58 59 60 12 13 14 745 765 4706 741 38 761 746 747 789- ^^^'^ 766 767 4707 742 39 790- 791- 792- 793- 794- 795- 796- 797- 798- 799- 800- 4727 762 4708 743 40 4728 763 42 43 15 748 768 4709 744 Aug.24 41 4729 764 Aug. 19 61 16 749 750 769 43 44 45 46 47 48 44 45 46 47 48 49 4710 745 42 n.l^- 4730 765 62 17 18 19 20 21 zu 770 4711 746 43 4731 766 63 64 65 66 751 25 2U 1 771 4712 747 44 4732 767 752 753 754 26'"" z; 772 4713 748 Aug.23 45 27 28 4733 768 Aug.18 773 4714 4715 749 46 28 29 1 4734 769 774 750 47 29'30 3031 2 4735 4736 770 67 49 50 22 755 775 1716 751 48 3 771 68 50 51 51 52 23 756 776 4717 752 \ug;.22 49 4 4737 772 vug.i; r 69 24 757 31 i2 777 1 142 THE TABLES. [part I. Olvm. ycavs of Cenio- Julian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. Isl Mm Nab. Ref. Cal. of J iilrus Cicsar jEra of Au- gustus Tulg. Clirist MrSi. 25 26 Olym years of Ccnbo J uliaii Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. III /Era Nab. Ref. Cal. of Juliu Ca?sa] ^ra of Au- gustus Vulg Christ ^ra. 801- 802- 803- 804- 805- 806- 807- 808- 809- 810- 811- 812- 813- 814- 815- 816- 817- 818- 819- 820- 4738 - Ol. cci. (Damas) - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. ccti. (Herniogeues) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. cciii. (Apollonius) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. cciv. (Sarapion) - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 - Ol.ccv. (Eubulidas) - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 773 70 . 821- 822- 823- 4758 - Ol. ccvi. (Valerius) - 5) 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol.CCA'II. (Atheuodorus) 0 - „ 3 - ,, 4 -OL.ccvin. Athenodorus. ii. - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 - Ol. ccix. (Callicles) - „ 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 - Ol. ccx. (Atheuodorus) - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 798 793 90 45 778 52 53 54 00 54 55 72 4739 4740 4741 4742 774 71 4759 794 91 73 74 74 46 779 799 775 72 27 4760 795 92 47 780 800 776 Aug.16 73 74 55 56 57 58 56 57 58 59 28 824- 82.5- 826- 827- 828- 829- 830- 831- 832- 833- 834- 835- 836- 337- S38- 339- 340- 4761 79-6 Aug 1 93 75 76 77 76 77 78 48 781 801 777 29 4762 797 94 49 782 802 803 4743 778 75 30 4763 798 95 50 783 4744 779 76 31 4764 799 96 78 79 80 79 80 81 51 784 804 4745 780 Aug. 15 77 59 60 61 62 63 60 61 62 63 64 32 4765 800 Aug.lO 97 52 785 805 806 807 4746 4747 4748 4749 781 78 33 4766 801 98 53 786 782 79 34 4767 802 99 81 82 83 82 83 84 54 787 783 80 35 4768 803 100 55 788 808 809 810 811 784 Aug.14 81 36 4769 804 Aug.9 101 56 789 4750 4751 4752 785 82 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 65 60 67 68 69 70 71 72 37 4770 805 102 84 85 86 87 85 86 87 88 57 790 786 83 38 4771 806 103 58 791 787 84 39 4772 807 104 59 792 812 813 814 4753 788 \ug.l3 85 40 4773 808 Aug.8 105 60 793 4754 4755 789 86 41 4774 809 106 88 89 61 794 790 87 42 4775 810 811 812 Aug.7 107 39 90 62 795 815 816 817 4756 791 88 89 43 4776 108 63 796 )0 )1 ^1 J2 4757 792 Aug.l2 44 4777 109 64 797 ■o^^aa ' L-1- : -' i LO.^ : CHAr. V. 1 THE TABLES. 143 Dl.vill. years uf Ccnso. Julian Period Olympiad!", and Victors iu Stadium. r i 3 Mr a Nab. Rcl. Cal. of Julius Caesttr. ^ra of Augustus. Vuls. Christ ^ira. Olyi.i. years of Ccnsn- Julian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. C i 3 «(S o Nab. Ref. Cal. of Julins Ca;sar. -Era of Augustus. VulK. Christ. ^Kra. 85 841- 842- 843- 844- 845- 846- 847- 848- 849- 850- 851- 852- 853- 854- 855- 856- 857- 858- 859- 860- 4778 -0. CCXI. ( — ) - » 2 - „ 3 (Tryphon.) - » 4 Ol. - CCXIL (Politesj - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXlIl. (Khodon, or TLeodorus) - „ 2 - ., 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCXIV (Straton) - „ 2 - ,, 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXV. Hcrmogenes - V 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 818 813 110 92 93 65 861- 862- 863- 864- 865- 866- 867- 868- 869- 870- 871- 872- 873- 874- 875- 876- 877- 878- 879- 4798 -O.ccxvi Apollophanes or Papes - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. -CCXVII. Hcrmogenes. 11. - ,, 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXVIII. (Apollinus.or ApoUonius) - ,, 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXIX (Stephanas) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXX. (AchiUes) - „ 2 - » 3 - „ 4 838 839 833 130 131 132 133 134 135 112 113 4779 814 111 93 94 66 4799 834 113 114 114 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 819 4780 815 112 94 95 67 4800 835 115 116 117 820 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 4781 816 Aug.6 113 95 96 68 4801 836 Aug.l 115 116 821 4782 817 114 96 97 69 4802 837 822 823 4783 818 115 97 98 70 4803 838 117 118 118 4784 819 116 98 99 71 4804 839 136 119 120 824 4785 820 Aug.5 117 99 100 72 4805 840 July 31 137 138 119 120 121 122 123 124 825 826 4786 821 118 100 101 73 4806 841 842 843 121 122 123 4787 822 119 101 102 74 4807 139 140 827 828 829 830 4788 823 120 102 103 75 4808 4809 4789 824 Aug.4 121 103 104 76 844 July3( 845 141 142 143 124 125 126 4790 825 122 104 105 77 4810 4791 1 105 106 78 4811 846 125 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 826 '~' I'^a 4792 827 124 106 107 79 4812 847 144 145 146 147 148 126 127 127 128 4793 828 Aug.3 125 107 108 80 4813 848 July £9 4794 829 126 108 109 81 4814 849 128 129 130 4795 830 831 127 109 110 82 4815 850 129 130 4796 128 110 111 83 4816 851 131 132 4797 832 Aug.2 129 111 112 84 880- 4817 852 July 28 149 131 1 - ■ ! • , _^_ 144 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Censo- rinus. Period iQ Stadium. 1 Hi 858 JEra Nab. Ref. Gal. of Julius Caisar .Era of Augustus. Vuls. CUrisi Mta. 105 Olym years ot Ccnso Juliar. Period Olympiads, and Victors iu Stadium. |li ^ra Nab. Kuf. Cal. of Julius Caesar ^raof Augustus. VulK. Christ ^ra. 881- 882- 883- 884- 885- 886- 887- 888- 889- 890- 891- 892- 893- 894- 895- 896- 897- 898- 899- 900- f 4818Uexxi. (Theonas, or 853 150 151 132 133 134 133 134 135 901- 902- 903- 904- 905- 906- 907- 908- 909- 910- 911- 912- 913- 914- 915- 916- 917- 918- 319- )20- 4838 -CCXXVI (Dionysius) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCX.WII Dionysius.il - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. ccxxviii (Lucas) - » 2 - ,, 3 - .. 4 Ol. -CCXXIX. Epidaunis.or Amnionius - „ 2 - ., 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCXXX. (Didymus) - „ 2 - » 3 - ,. 4 " 878 873 170 152 153 154 1.53 125 126 '1 ! 854 106 107 108 109 4839 4840 874 171 154 4819 4820 4821 4822 4823 4824 4825 4826 4827 - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXXII. (Callistus) - „ 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 Ol. -CCXXIII. (Eustulus) - „ 2 - ,. 3 - ,, 4 Ol. -CCXXIV. (Isarion) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. -CCXXV. (Aristeas) - „ 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 1 859 860 861 862 863 879 880 881 855 152 153 875 172 155 127 128 856 Julys; 135 136 137 136 4841 4842 876 July 22 173 155 156 857 154 155 156 137 877 174 156 157 158 159 160 161 157 129 882 883 858 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 110 4843 4844 4845 4846 878 175 176 158 130 859 138 139 111 112 113 114 115 116 879 159 131 132 133 134 864 865 884 860 July 26 157 158 159 160 880 July 21 177 160 885 886 887 861 140 141 881 178 161 866 862 4847 882 179 162 867 868 •4828 863 142 4848 4849 4850 4851 4852 4853 4854 4855 4856 4857 883 180 162 163 135 888 4829 864 July 25 161 143 144 145 146 147 148 884 July2l» 181 163 164 165 164 136 869 870 871 889 4830 4831 4832 4833 865 162 117 118 885 182 165 137 138 139 140 141 890 891 892 893 894 866 163 886 183 166 867 164 119 120 121 122 887 184 166 167 168 169 872 873 874 868 July 24 165 888 July 19 185 167 4834 4835 4836 869 166 889 186 168 870 871 167 149 150 151 890 187 169 170 142 875 895 896 897 J 168 150 151 123 124 891 188 170 171 143 876 4837 872 July 23 169 152 892 ulylS 189 171 172 144 877 ' CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 145 Olym years Censo rinus. JulUi Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. /Era Nab. Ret. Cal. of Julius Caesar ^raof Augustus. Vul;. Clirist jEra. Olym years of Censo rinus Julian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. Ml /Era Nab. Ref. Cal. of Julins Ciesar Mt&ot Augustus. ViUk. Christ. Mra. 165 166 167 168 921- 922- 923- 924- 925- 926- 927- 928- 929- 930- 931- 932- 933- 934- 935- 936- 937- 938- 939- 940- 4858 -CCXXXI (Cranaus) - ,, 2 - ,. 3 - „ 4 Ol. -CCXXXII (Atticus) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. ccxxxin. (Demetrius) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. CCXXXIV. (Heras) - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. -CCXXXV. Mnasibulus - ,, 2 - » 3 - „ 4 898 893 190 172 173 145 146 941- 942- 943- 944- 945- 946- 947- 948- 949- 950- 951- 952- 953- 954- 955- 956- 957- 958- 959- 300- 4878 CCXXXVI (Aithales) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. — CCXXXVII (Eudaemon) - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. ccxxxviii. (Agathopus) - „ 2 - M 3 - » 4 Ol. CCXXXIX. Agatliopus.ii - » 2 - ., 3 - » 4 -Ol.ccxl Anubion, or Phidus) - » 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 1 918 919 913 210 211 212 213 214 215 192 193 4859 894 191 173 174 4879 914 193 194 194 899 486C 895 192 174 175 147 4880 915 195 900 920 4861 896 July 17 193 175 176 148 149 150 151 152 4881 916 July 12 195 196 196 197 901 921 4862 897 194 176 177 4882 917 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 902 922 923 924 925 4863 898 195 177 178 4883 918 197 198 198 903 4864 899 196 178 179 4884 919 216 199 200 904 4865 900 July 16 197 179 180 4885 920 July 11 217 199 200 201 202 203 204 905 4866 901 198 180 181 153 154 155 156 157 158 4886 4887 921 218 201 202 906 907 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 4867 902 199 181 182 922 219 220 4868 903 183 4888 923 203 908 200 1 IB2 1 4869 904 July 15 201 183 184 4889 924 July 10 221 222 204 205 206 909 4870 905 202 184 185 185 4890 925 910 4871 906 203 186 4891 926 223 205 911 4872 907 204 186 187 159 4892 927 224 225 226 206 207 207 208 179 180 181 182 912 4873 908 July 14 205 187 188 160 161 162 163 4893 928 July 9 913 4874. 909 206 188 189 190 4894 929 208 209 914 t875 910 207 189 190 4895 4896 930 931 227 228 229 209 210 211 210 915 t876 911 208 191 211 183 916 4877 _ 912 ulyl3 209 191 192 1 164 4897 932 Julys 212 184 917 J 19 146 THE TABLES. [part I. Olym. years of Ceuso- Julian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. s .» m ^ra Nat>- Ref. Cal. of Julius Caesar. .Sraof Augustus. Vulg. Christ, ^ra. 185 186 Olym. years of Censo- Julian Period Olympiads, and Victors iu Stadium. III £03 o JEr& Nab. Ref. CaL of Julius Caesar. iBraof Augustus. Vulg. Christ. vEra. 961- 962- 963- 964- 965- 966- 967- 968- 969- 970- 971- 972- 973- 974- 975- 976- 977- 978- 979- 980- 4898 Ol.ccxli (Heron) - » 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXLII. (Magnus) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. -ccxLiri. Sidoriis, Isidorus, or Artemidorus - „ 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXLIV. Sidorus, Isi- dorus, or Ar- temidorus. n. - » 2 - .. 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCXLV. (Alexander) - ,, 2 - » 3 - » 4 938 933 230 981- 982- 983- 984- 985- 986- 987- 988- 989- 990- 991- 992- 993- 994- 995- 996- 997- 998- 999- 1000 4918 - CCXLVI. (Epenicus,or Cynas) ~ » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 Ol. -ccxLvn (Saturuiuus) ~ » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. ccxLviri. Hcliodorusor Trosidamas - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. -CCXLIX. Heliodorus, or Trosida- mas. II. - » 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 - Ol.ccl. ( — ) - ,, 2 - ,, 3 - » 4 953 250 205 212 213 958 232 2ciJ 4899 4900 4901 4902 934 231 213 214 214 4919 954 251 233 234 206 939 959 935 232 215 187 4920 955 252 234 235 207 940 960 936 July 7 233 215 216 188 4921 956 July2 253 235 236 208 941 961 937 234 216 217 189 4922 957 254 236 237 209 942 962 4903 938 235 217 218 218 190 4923 4924 4925 958 255 237 238 210 943 963 4904 939 236 219 191 959 256 238 239 211 944 964 4905 940 July 6 237 219 220 192 960 Julyl 257 239 240 241 212 945 965 966 967 4906 4907 4908 4909 4910 4911 4912 941 238 220 221 193 4926 961 258 240 213 946 947 942 239 221 222 194 4927 962 259 241 242 214 943 240 222 223 195 4928 963 260 242 243 215 948 968 969 970 944 Julys 241 223 224 196 4929 964 Jun.30 261 243 244 216 949 945 242 224 225 197 4930 965 262 244 245 217 950 946 243 225 226 198 4931 966 263 245 246 218 951 971 947 244 226 227 199 200 4932 967 264 246 247 219 952 972 973 974 4913 948 July 4 245 227 228 4933 968 Jun.'.29 265 247 248 220 953 4914 4915 949 246 228 229 201 4934 969 266 248 249 221 954 950 247 229 230 202 4935 970 267 249 250 222 955 975 4916 951 248 249 230 231 203 4936 971 972 Jun.2S 268 250 251 223 224 956 976 977 4917 952 Julys 231 232 204 4937 269 251 252 957 ' ,^__ CHAP, v.] THE TABLES. 147 years of Conso- rinus. Julian I'eriod Olympiads, ana Victors in Stadium. III s'Sl j£ra Nab. Ref. Cal. ol Julius Caesar. ^paof Augustus. Vulg. Christ iEra. lulian Period Olympiads, and Victors in Stadium. E" o Mta Nab. Ref. Cal. of Julius Caesar. Augustus, ^^'g" 1001- 1002- 1003- 1004- 1005- 1006- 1007- 1008- 1009- 1010- 1011- 1012- 1013- 1014- 4938 -0. CCLI. { ) - „ 2 - „ 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCLII. ( ) - » 2 - » 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCLIIX. ( ) - » 2 - » 3 - » 4 -O.CCLIV ( — ) - „ 2 978 973 270 252 253 225 4952 - » 3 - » 4 Ol. - CCLV. { ) - „ 2 - » 3 - ,, 4 Ol. - CCLVI. ( — ) - » 2 - „ 3 - „ 4 Ol. - CCLVII, ( ) - ,, 2 - „ 3 - » 4 992 987 284 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 239 4939 974 271 253 254 226 4953 988 Jun.24 285 240 979 993 4940 975 272 254 255 227 4954 989 286 241 980 994 4941 976 Jun.27 273 255 256 228 4955 990 287 288 242 981 982 995 4942 977 274 256 257 229 4956 991 243 244 996 4943 978 275 257 2.58 230 4957 992 Jun.23 289 983 984 997 4944 979 276 258 259 259 260 231 4958 993 290 245 998 4945 980 Jiin.26 277 232 4959 994 291 246 247 985 986 987 988 989 999 4946 981 278 260 261 233 4960 995 292 1000 4947 982 279 261 262 262 263 234 4961 996 Jun.22 293 275 276 248 1001 4948 983 280 235 1062 997 294 276 277 277 278 249 250 1002 1003 4949 984 Juu.25 281 263 264 265 264 265 266 236 1063 998 295 4950 985 282 237 1064 999 296 278 279 279 280 251 990 1004 4951 986 283 2.38 1065 1000 Jun.21 297 252 991 1005 , ^ 1 1 148 [part 1. CHAPTER VI. THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS CONNECTED WITH THE DATES NOW ESTABLISHED. Period chosen from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius ; and why. Section I. — Series of Consuls from Cicero and Antonius to Proculus and Nigrinus, how known. 1. By fragments of the Fasti Capitolini and other marbles. 2. The history of Dion Cassius. 3. The ancient lists of Consuls. 4. Incidental notices in Latin authors. — CoUation of these several authorities, showing the whole period to be one hundred years. Section II. Connexion of each Consulship with its proper year. — The whole difficulty grows out of the question as to the year of Caesar's war in Spain with the sons of Pompey. — This question decided: 1. By astronomical calculations, 2. By the testimony of historians and inscriptions. — Careful examination of this testimony with regard to the several years of the civil war, proving that the last year of Caesar's life was the Jirst of his reformed calendar, and not, as generally stated, the second. — The year of Cicero's consulship ascertained by reckoning backward. — That year rendered memorable by three great events ; the conspiracy of Catiline, the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey, and the birth of Augustus. — The testimony of Josephus concerning the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey considered. — General conclusion, that the consulship of Cicero and Anto- nius coincided with a.j.p. 4650, the sixty-fourth year before the common Christian fera. Our next step must be, to connect with the dates, thus established, the succession of consuls. As in the latter times, at least, of the republic, they entered upon their office on the 1st of January, and usually held it the whole year, it was sufficient, in order to designate any particular year, to name its consuls ; and such is the usual method of the Roman historians. It is essential, therefore, to our inquiry, that we should connect with the tables we have framed, the consuls who entered on their office on the 1st of January of each year ; and, that we may limit the inquiry within proper bounds, we shall take only that period which extends from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius. This interval includes all the dates which it is now important to establish, as connected with the subject of our Saviour's residence upon earth. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 149 The object of this chapter will therefore be two-fold : first, to give a correct list of the consuls within that period ; and, secondly, to connect each consulship with the year to which it properly belongs. SECT. I. THE SERIES OF CONSULS. Suetonius informs us (in Octaviano, § 5) that Augustus was born when Marcus Tullius Cicero and Antonius were consuls, on the ninth before the kalends of October (ix. kalendas Octobres) ; which, according to the calendar of Numa Pompilius then in use, was the 22nd of our September, or, according to that of Julius Ctesar, the 23rd of that month. Tiberius died, according to Suetonius and Tacitus, in the consulship of Proculus and Nigrinus. The object is now to show, by irrefragable evidence, the number of years which intervened between these two events. For this purpose, we are to examine the testimony of antiquity, as far as it has been saved from the ravages of time. This testimony may be divided under four heads : first, the fragments of inscriptions, principally on marble, which have been collected and preserved by modern care and industry; secondly, the invaluable history of the accurate Dion Cassius ; thirdly, three ancient lists of consuls, two in Latin, and one in Greek ; and fourthly, such incidental notices of the consuls of each year as occur in various Latin authors. Of the inscriptions which remain, unquestionably the most im- portant are, THE FASTI CAPITOLINI. The fragments of the Fasti Capitolini, or, as they were anciently called, the Fasti Consulares, which now cover the walls of the fourth chamber in the hall of the conservators at Eome, were dis- covered in the sixteenth century, near the church of Santa Maria Liberatrice, in the precincts of the Forum, and near the site of the ancient Comitium. It is reasonably believed, therefore, that they were exposed in the Comitium, and were perhaps affixed to the wall of the Roman Curia, or court of justice.^ They are evidently public records: and, if they were complete, there could be no appeal from their authority. Imperfect as they are, they extend ' Nardini Roma Antica, Roma, 1666, 4to. Nibby, Itinerario di Roma, 1827, 4to. p. 222. Veniiti Antichita di Roma, 8vo. torn. i. p. 150-L ediz, 3, torn. i. p. 73. Roma, 1824, 2 tom. 150 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. from the reign of L. Tarquinius Prlscus, the fifth king of Rome, to the death of Augustus. They are most perfect from a.u.c. 440, to A.u.c. 531. They designate the reigns of the kings, the suc- cession of the consuls, the appointment of dictators, with their magistri equitum, or generals of cavalry, the tribunes of the people, the censors, the triumphs and ovations, with the year of the city, and day of the month on which each was celebrated, and such other notices and dates as Were thought worthy of observation. They were first published by Bartholomew Marliano, at Rome, in 1549, 8vo ; next at Modena, in 1550; and afterwards by the Aldi, at Venice, in 1555, folio. The following year, a second edition was published by the same printers, enriched with the commentary of Sigonius.' They were reprinted in the first volume of the works of Sigonius, published by Philip Argelati, at Milan, 6 vols, folio, 1732. From that work, the extracts here made are taken. The capital letters exhibit the inscription in its present imperfect state; and the smaller letters, the part sujDplied by the industry and learning of the modern editors, taken either from other inscrijjtions relating to the same subject, or from the testimony of the Greek and Latin historians. The other inscriptions are principally taken from the commen- tary of Sigonius, and the Thesaux'us of Gruter. The history of Dion Cassius is our principal guide. He gene- rally names the consuls of each year ; and to the several remaining books of his history, the list of consuls during the period of time embraced in each book, is prefixed, with their names at full length, as they would be registered in public inscriptions and official docu- ments. This is of the greatest use, because it serves to harmonize the testimony of the various Latin historians and other writers, who speak of their public magistrates with more familiarity, and, when the consul had several names, sometimes use one, and some- times another. As Dion flourished about the year 229 of the common Christian sera, and was himself of consular dignity, his means of obtaining information were of the best character ; and, therefore, his testimony alone is of the greatest authority. But in addition to this, we have three ancient lists of consuls. ' Muratori Vita Sigonii, 'orefixed to the Imprimerie des Aides, ed. 2, Paris, 1825, collection of his works edited by Muratori, torn. i. pp. 400 and 408. and printed at Milan in 1732. Renouard, CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 151 The first is attributed to Idatius, a Spanish bishop, who flourished about A.D. 428. The second is by Cassiodorus, who was consul A.D. 514, and prime minister of Theodoric, king of the Gotha. After the subversion of the Gothic dominion, he retired to a monastery in Calabria, where he wrote his works. The third is in the Greek language, and comes down to the twentieth year of Heraclius, or a.d. 629. It was found in Sicily, and was first quoted by Sigonius and others under the title of Fasti Siculi. The work which contains it was subsequently called the Chronicon Alexandrinum, and more justly the Chronicon Paschale, under which title it forms one of the volumes of the Byzantine Collec- tion. The compiler of this latter work has endeavoured to con- nect with his list of consuls, the years of the olympiads ; but he has committed constant metachronisms, and in the names and arrangement of the consuls made many omissions and palpable blunders. Indeed, all these catalogues have suffered by the errors of transcribers. Their mistakes, however, often serve a valuable purpose, since they prove that they were derived from different and independent sources. In addition to these are given, in a separate column, the inci- dental notices of the consuls of each year as they occur in various Latin authors. These will be found to coincide so exactly with the professed catalogues, and with the fragments of inscriptions which time has spared, that no doubt can be entertained as to the accuracy of the whole series. From the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, or the year of the birth of Augustus, to the consulship of Proculus and Nigrinus, during which Tiberius died, there are, including both extremes, one hundred pairs of consuls, or one hun- dred years. This will be made apparent to the reader by the fol- lowing collation of these several authorities. 152 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years. Fasti Consulares seu Capitoliiii. Various Inscriptions. Chi-ouicon of Idacius, or Fasti Idatiani. 1 Cicerone et Anto- nino 2 Silano et Mura;na 3 Pisone Frugi et Messala Nigro 4 Afronio et Aletello Celere 5 c. ivLivs c.F. C.N. Caesar Decio Caesare et Bi- bolo 6 L. CALPVBNIVS, L.F.L.N. Piso CeB- [soniuus Pisone et Gabinio 7 p. coRNELivs, p.F. Lentulus Spin- [ther Lentulo et Metello Nepote 8 CN. coHNELiv . Leutulus Mar- . . . . [celliis Marcellino et Phi- lippo 9 Pompejo II et Crasso II 10 Ahenobarbo et Pul- chro 11 Balbino et Messala 12 Pompejo III et Me- tello Scipione CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 153 Dion Cassias. M. Tullius Cicero C. Antouius D.Junius M. F. Sila- nus, L. LiciuiusL.F.Mu- rtJBua M. Pupius Piso M. Valerius INIessala Nioer Lucius Afraiiius Metellus Celer C. J. Cfesar M. Bibulus L. Piso A. Gabinius P. Cornelius Lentu- lus Spinther Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos Cn. Corn. Lentulus Marcelliuus. L. Marcius Philippus Cn. Pompejus Mag- nus II M. Li cini usCrassus 1 1 Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus Appius ClaudiusPul- cher Cneius Domitius Calvinus M. Valerius Messala Pompejus III Quintus Cijecilius Metellus Scipio Cassiodorus. M. Cicero C. Antonius D. Silanus L. Mura;na M. Pupius M. Valerius Qu. Metellus L. Afranius C. CjEsar M. Bibulus L. Piso A. Gabinius P. Lentulus Qu. Metellus. Cn. Lentulus L. Pluli2)pus Cn. Pompeius M. Crassus App. Claudius L. Domitius Cn. Domitius M. Messala Cn. Pompejus Q. Metellus Vavious Authors M. Tullius Cicero, C. Anto- nius. Eut. vi. 15. SaUust. Bel. Cat. 25. D. Junius Silanus L. ]\Iurena Eut. vi. 10. M.Pisone ; M. Messala Coss. Plin. vii. If viii. || xxxiii. |. M.Messala et IM.Pisone Cos's. Cic. ad Att. i. Ep. 13. Marco Messala et Marco Pisone Coss. Cces. Gal. 1. Quinto Metello L. Afranio Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 123, Cic. ad Att. Lib. i. Ep. 18 C. Julius Caesar ; L. Bibulus Eutrop. vi. 17 Lucio Pisone, Aulo Gabinio Coss- Cces. de Bel. Gal. L. i. c. 6. Lentulus Spinther Metellus Nepos Valer. Maximus, ix. c. 14. Lentulo et Philippo Coss. Cic. ad Attic, v. Ep. 21 . Cn. Pompejus Magnus M. Licinius Crassus Eutrop. vi. 18. Cii. Domitio ; Appio Claudio, Coss Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 124 Domitius Messala Cic. ad Q. fratrum, iii. 8. Chronicon Pasclmle, lU' Fasti Siculi. Olympiad 178 15* Cicero and Antonius IG Silanus and Mureua 17 Piso and Messala 18 Afranius & Metellus Olympiad 170 19 Decius Cwsar and Bibulus 20 Piso and Gabinus 21 Lentulus and Mar- cellus 22 Marcellus ii and Philippus Olympiad 180 23 Pompeius S: Crassus 24 Aenobarbus & Pul- cher 25 Balbinus & Messala 26 Pompeius ii and Metellus * The compiler of the Greek list of consuls has inserted too man3^ The numbers prefixed to each consulship from t£ or 15 to X or 30, and then a or 1, 6 or 2, &c., till the indictions begin, are given here merely as proof that no subsequent interpolation has taken place in the Greek consecutive list, and therefore that the original compiler was in fault. 20 154 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part Xo. of Years. fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. Various Inscriptions. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. 13 Mur. Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 293. 1. SER. SVLPICIO ET COS. M. MARCELLO Rufo et Marcello 14 Marcello et Paulo 15 C. CLAAT)IVS, M.F.M.N. MAECELLTS L. COE EODEM AXNO C. IVLIVS C.F.C.N. CAESAE DIG. Leiitulo et Marcello 16 C. TVLITS. C.F.C.N. CAESAE. II Caesare et Servilio P. SEE Isaurico 17 C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. C«SAR II D ... M. ANTON lUS Jl.F.M.N. MA . EODEM ANNO Q. FCFIUS C.F.C.N. CALENUS P. VA Caleno et Vatiuo 18 C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. CiES.VE III M. A . . . . CsBsare in et Lepido 19 C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. C.ESAE III D Griiter. torn. i. pars. ii. p. ccxcviii. Csesare iv solo M. .^MILIUS M.F.Q.N. LEPIDUS MA . C. IVLIVS CAESAR IIII SINE. CON- EODEM ANNO LEGA. Die C. JULIUS C.F.C.N. C^SAB IIII SvF Q. FABIVS MAXIM. C. TRE- SINE C. BONIVS C.F. EODEM ANNO. C. CANINIVS. C.F. Q.FABIUS Q.F.Q.N. MAXIMUS IN M... ...VLIVS CAESAR. DICT. IV. MOBTUUS. EST. IN. EJUS. L... M. AEMILIVS. M. EQ. C. CANINIUS. C.F.C.N. EE... 20 C IVLIVS C.F.C.N. CAESAR V C. IVLIVS CAESAR V. M. ANTO- Caesare v et Auto- P. CO NIVS M.F. SvF P. CORNELIVS. P.P. nino 21 C. VIBIVS C. VIBIVS C. F. PANSA. A. HIR- Pansa et Hirtio IN MAGI TIVS. A.F. C. IVLIOS. C.F. POSTEA IMP. ^j p, C. IVLIVS <;. ,T- Q. PEDIVS. CAESAR ^ Q.F. EST ABD. IN C. CARRI- P. VENTI- NAS. C.F. DIVS. P.P. ...EMILIVS. M. ANTONIVS. IMP. CAESAR III VIR. R.P. EX A.D. V. K. DEC. AD PR. K. IAN. SEXT. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 155 Dion Cassius. M. Claudius Mar- cellus Serv. Sulpicius Eu- fus Caius Claudius Mar- cellus Lucius Aimilius Pau- lus Cornelius Leutulus Caius Claudius Mar- cellus C. J. Ca;sar ii P. Servilius Isauricus C. Julius Cajsar, Diet ir. at the close of the year. Q. Fufius Calenus P Vatiuius C. Julius Caesar in. M. iEmilius Lepidus C. Julius Csesar iv without a colleague, afterwards Quintus Fabius Caius Trebouius ; the last day of the year Caius Cauiuius C.Julius Caesar v. M. Antonius ; aft. the death of Ctes. P. Dolabella Aulus Hirtius C. Vibius Pansa; after their death, Octavianus Caesar Quintus Pedius M. Maroellus Serv. Sulpicius L. Paulus M. Marcellus L. Lentulus C. Marcellus. C. Jul. Caesar II P. Servilius Q. Fufius P. Vatinius C.Jul. Caesar III. M. Lepidus C.Jul.CsBsar IV. Fabius Maxi- mus C.JuL Caesar V, M. Antonius C. Pansa A. Hirtius Various Authors. Sulpicio et jNIarcello, Coss. Cic. ad Attic, v. Ep. 21. L. Paullo; C. Marcello;Coss. Jul. Ohseq. de prod. 125. M.Marcello, L. Lentulo Coss. Cic. ad Alt. viii. C. Julius Caesar iii M. iEmilius Lepidus Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 12G. Eutrop. vi. 23. C. Julius Caesar iv Eutrop. vi. 24. C. Caesare ; M. Antonio ; Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 127 M.Antonio; P. Dolabella; Coss. Jul. Obsequens de Prod. 128 Pansa, Hirtius. Eutr. vii. 1 Cajo Pansa; Hircio; Coss. Jul. Obseq. de Prod. 129. Kal. Oct. Caesar; Q. Pedius ; Coss. Veil. Paterc. ii. 65. Chronicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olympiad 181 27 Rufus & Marcellus 28 Marcellus ii and Paulus 29 Lentulus and Mar- cellus 30 Caius Julius Ca.'sar and Servilius Olympiad 182 1* Calinus & Vatinus 2 C. Julius Caesar ii alone 3 C. Julius Caesar in alone C. Julius Caesar iv alone Olympiad 183 1 Pansa and Hirtius * The numbers here begin anew, in order to denote, as it would seem, the years of Julius Cesar's supreme power; and the Greek compiler appears to have continued them after Cfesar's death, because the five years of the triuurvirate began with the consulship of Lepidus and PJancus. 156 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. Fasti Cousulares seu Capitoliui. M. AGIUPPA L.F. Various Inscriptions. ...mvnativs l.f. m.aemilivs. [m.f. ...antonivs p. svlpicivs cens. [LVSTR. N.F. ...ANTONIVS P. SERVILIVS P.F. CN. DOMITIVS M.F. C. ASINIVS. CN. F. ...VF L. CORNE- SvF. P. CA- LIVS. l.F. NIDIVS. P.F. Cell. Amit. Fof/gini. p. 113, CENSORIN. ET CALVIS. COS. Gruter p. 299, cited in Sigonius, torn. i. p. 558 L. SEMPEONIVS. L. SCRIBOXIVS K. J\1,. P. ^MILIVS C. MEMMIVS K. NOV. C. HERENXIVS Gruter, cited in Sigonius torn. i. p. 399 IMP. C^SAH II. L. VOLCATIVS K. IAN. L. ANTONIVS K. MAI. L. FLAVirS K. IVT. M. ATTILFVS C. FONTEJVS K. SEP. L. VINVCIVS K. OCTOB. L. L^ENONIVS Siyonius torn. i. col. 560 ON. DOMITIVS. C. SOSIVS K. JVl. L. CORNELIVS K. NOV. N. VAXERIVS IMP. CESAR III. M. VALERIVS K. MAJ. M. TITIVS K. OCT. CN. POMPEJVS Cbronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. Lepido et Piano Antonino Pietate et Isaurico G albino ii et Polli- iiione Rufo Censorino et Sabino Pulchro et Flacco Agrippa et Gallo Publicola et Neiva Cocceio Cornificio et Pom- peio ^lagno Antonino II etLibone Octaviano Augusto II et Paulo Octaviano Augusto 111 et Corbilio CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 157 Dion Cassius. M. AimiliusLepidus II Lucius Munatius Plaucus L. Autouius Pictas P.Servilius Isauricus Cn. Domitius Calvi- nus II C. Asiuius Pollio Lucius Marcius C. Calvisius Sabinus Ap. Claudius Pulclier C. Norbaiuis Flaccus M. Vipsanius Agrippa L. Caninius Gallus L. GelHus Poplicola M. Coccejus Nerva L. Coruuficius Sex. Ponipejus M. Antouius ii L. Scriboiiius Libo Cffisar II, L. Volcatius L. F. Tullus Cn. Domitius Aheno- barbus Caius Sossius C.CiEsarOctav. iii M. Valerius Messala Corvinus Cn. Domitius C. Sosius C. Ccesar ii M. Messalla Various Authors. M. Lepidus L. Plancus P. Seivilius ii L. Antonius C. Domitius C. Asinius L. Censovinus C. Calvisius App. Claudius C. Norbanus M. Agrippa L. Caninius L. Gellius M. Cocceius Sex. Pompeius L. Cornificius L. Scribonius L. Atracinus C Caesar and L. Volcatius M. ^Emilio Lepido; L. Mu- natio Planco; Coss. Suet. Tib. 5. Ohsequens 130. L. Antonius Cos. Eutrop. vii. 3. 184tli Olympiad. Caius Domitius Calvinus ii Caius Asinius Pollio Joseph. Antiq. xiv. c. 14. ISoth Olyinpiad. Marcus Agrippa Caninius Gallus Joseph. Antiq. xiv. c. IG. Antonius abdicated on the day of his election, and for him was substituted L. Sem- pronius Atratiuus, Dion Cass. xlix. 39. Octavius abdicated after a few hours, on the kal. of Jan. Suet. Octav. 26. Clnouicon Pascliale, or Fasti Siculi. C. Sosius et Cn. Domitius, Suet. Octav. 17. Cn. Domitio, C. Sosio, Coss. Nepos. Atticus, xxii. Ctesare et Messalla Corvino consulibus Vel. Pater c. ii. 84. 1* Lepidus & Plancus 2 Antonius &Isauricus 3 Albinus and Pollio Olympiad 184 4 Censorinus and Sa- binus 5 Pulcher and Flaccus 6 Agrippa & Gallus 7 Publicola and Erva [Nerva] Coccius Olymp. 185 8 Cornificius and Pompeius 2 9 Antoninus and Libo 10 Octavianus Augustus and Cicero 11 12 Octav. Augustus ii and Corvilius Olymp. 186 Octav. Augustus iii and Crassus Beginning of indictions from Sep. 1, according to the Chronicon Paschalc. See chap. iv. p. 99. 158 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years. Fasti Cousulares sen Capitolini. Various Inscriptions. Chronicon ofldatius, or Fasti Idatiani. 34 Inscr. cited in Sigoyiius torn. i. col. 563 IMP. C^SAK IIII. M. LICINIVS KAL. JVL. C. ANTISTIVS ID. SEPT. M. TVLLIVS K. NOV. L. S.ENIVS Octaviano iv et Crasso 35 IMP. C^SAU V. SEX. APPVLEJVS Octaviano v et Piilchro 36 IMP. C^SAR VI. M. AGEIPI'A II Octaviano vi et Agrippa 37 Octaviano vii et Agrippa ii 38 Octaviano viii et Tauvo II 39 CESAR D ST\'S Villi M. IVNI . . . SILANVS Octaviano ix et Silano 40 C^SAE DIVI r. C. N YSTVS X C. N. . . . FL.iCCVS Octaviano x et Flacco 41 CiESAR DIVI F. C. N. AVGVSTVS XI A. TE . . . CO MVEENA EST IN E. L. F. E. [Mortuus est in ejus loco f actus est'] VS CN. F. CN. N. PISO Grnter, p. 298. SvF. L. SESTIVS p. F. Octaviano xi et Pisone 42 NTH'S. LF. LN. [L. Airuntius lf. ln.] M. CLAVDIVS M. F. L.AR . . . L. MVNATIVS VA.VL. ^MILIVS jEsernio et Arnutio Celso et Hibevo 43 Q. iEMILIVS LEPID ... M. LO . . . Lollio et Lepido 44 M. APPVLEIVS SEX. F. P. SI . . . Apuleio et Nerva 45 C. SENTIVS SATVRN. Q. LV . . . SvF. M. VINVCIVS. P. F. Satuinino et Lucretio Ciuna 46 Griitcr, p. 298. p. CORNELIVS P. F. CN. C . . . Duobus Lentulis CHAP, VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 159 Dion Cassius. Ctesar iv M.Liciuius Crassus Coesar v Sextus Apulejus Cfesar vi M. Vipsanius Agrip- pa II Caesar vii Agiippa III CsBsar Augustus viii T. Statilius Taurus Augustus IX M. Juuius Silanus Augustus X C. Norbanus Flaccus Augustus XI Cn. Calpumius Piso M. Claudius Marcel- lus iEserninus liUcius Aruntius Marcus Lollius Quintus Lepidus M. Apuleius P. Silius Nerva C.Sentius Saturninus Q. Lucretius Vespillo Cn. Cornelius Lentulus P. Cornel. Lentulus IMarcellinus C. Cajsar iii ]M. Crassus C. Csesar iv Sex. Appuleius C. CsDsar v and M. Agrippa n C. Caesar vi M. Agrippa iii C.Aug. Cses.vii T. Statilius C.Aug. Caes.viii M. Silanus C.Aug.CaBsarix C. Norbanus C.Aug. Caesar X Cn. Piso M. Marcellus L. Arruutius M. Lollius Q. Lepidus M. Appulejus P. Silius C. Sentius and Q. Lucretius Cn. Lentulus P. Lentulus Various Authors. Caesar VI, Imp. iv, consul cum Marco Licinio Crasso Orosius,\ih.vi. de Antonio victo Lnp. Cses. Augusto, Lucio Appulejo Coss. Orosius vi. Iinj). Augustus Imp. Augusto Caesare vi INIarco Agrippa ii, Coss. Orosius vi. Jani Portas Julius Csesar Divi F. Imp. Augustus VII, M. Vip- sanius Agrippa, Coss. Censorinus de Die Natal. Clironicori Pascliale, or Fasti Siculi. Collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius Anno. Hor. Ep. lib. i. ep. 20. C. Sentio, Q. liUcretio, Coss. J. Frontinus de Aqued. Art. x. 13 Octav. Augustus IV and Crassus ii 14 ^nobarbus & Sosius 1 5 Octav. Augustus v and Apuleius Olymp. 187 1 Octav. Augustus VI and Agrippa 2 Octav. Augustus VII and Agrippa ii 3 Octav. Augustus viii and Taiu'us 4 Octav. Augustus ix and Silanus Olymp. 188 5 Octav. Augustus x and Flaccus 6 Octav. Augustus xi and Piso 7 Octav. Augustus xii and Aruutinus 8 Celsus and Tiberius Olymp. 189 9 Lollius and Lepidus 10 Apuleius and Nerva 1 1 Saturninus and Lu- cretius 12 Lentulus and Len- tulus 13 Olymp. 190 Lentulus ii and Cor- nelius 160 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. Fasti Cousularcb sea Capitoliui. RVF. ABDIC. IN E. L. F. E. C. F. C. N. REBIL. IN MAG. M.E. Various Inscriptions C. FVRNIVS. C. F. C. CL. DOJIITIVS. CN.F. P. CO SVF. L. TA , SI. DRUSVS L. F. M. LICINIVS. Jl. F. TI. CLAVDIVS. TI. F. M. VALERIVS. M. F. C. VALGrVS. C. F. SvF C.CANIMVS Ver. Flac. Cal. Foqgini Rom. 1779, p. 17. DRVSO ET CRISPING C... Mur. Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 297.4. C. ASINIO GALLO COS. C. MARCO CENSOR Ihid. same page, 6. D. LAELIO BALBO COS C. ANTISTIO VET. Ihid. p. 298. 1 . IMP CAESARE XII L. CORNELIO SVLLA Ciironicon of Idatius, or Fasti IJatiaiii. Fornicio et Silvano Domitio Scipione et Ahenobaibo Liboue et Pisone Ciasso et Leiitulo Nerone et Varo Messala et Quirino Robellio et Satuinino jNIaximo etTuberone Africano et Maximo Dmso et Crispino Censorino et Gallio Nerone ii et Pisone ii Balbo et Vetere Octaviano xii et Sylla Sabino et Rufino CHAP. IV.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 161 Dioii Cassius. C. Furuius C. Junius Silanus L. Domitius Aeiio- baibus P. Cornelius Scipio M. Drusus Libo L. Calpurnius Piso M. Licinius Crassus Cn. Cornelius Leu- tulus Tiberius Claudius Nero P. Quintilius Varus JNI. Valerius Messala Barbatus P. SulpiciusQuirinius Paulus Fabius Max- imus Quintus jElius Tu- bero Julus Antonius Q. Fabius Africanus Claudius Nero Dru- sus T.Quintius Crispinus C. Marcius Censori- nus C. Asinius Gallus Tiberius Claudius ii Cn. Calpurnius Piso D. Ltelius Balbus C. Antistius Veter Augustus XII Lucius Sylla C. Calvisius Sabinus II L. Passienus Rufus C. Fiu'uius C. Silanus L. Domitius P. Scipio M. Drusus L. Piso Cn. Lentulus M. Crassus Tiberius Nero P. Quiuctilius M. Messalla P. Sulpicius Paulus Fabius Quintus jElius Julius Antonius Afr. Fabius Drusus Nero L. Quinctius C. Asinius and C. Marcius Tib. Nero Cn. Piso D. Lffilius C. Antistius C.Aug. Caesar XI L. Sylla C. Calvisius L. Passienus Various Authors. Cajo Furnio, Cajo Syllano, Coss. Julius Obsequcns, 131. Paullo Fabio, Quinto JEA\o, Coss. Jul. Obseq liens Q. J^lio Tuberone, Paullo Fabio Maximo, Coss. Jul.FrontindeAqued.Art.9d. Julo Antonio, Fabio Africano, Coss. Sueton. Claud, c. 2. C. Marcio Censorino, C. Asinio Gallo, Coss. Censorinus de die Nat. Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. 47. Claudius Nero ii Calpurnius Piso, Coss. Dion Halic. i. 3. Divo Augusto XII Lucio Sulla, Coss. Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. Cbronicoii Paschale, or Kasti Siculi. 14 Fornicius & Silanus 15 Domitius and Aeuo- barbus 1 Libo and Piso Olymp. 191 2 Crassus & Lentulus 3 Nero and Clarus 4 Messala & Cyrinius 5 Rubellius and Satur- ninus Olymp. 192 6 ]\Iaximus & Tubero 7 Africanus and Max- im us II 8 Drusus & Crispinus 9 Censorinus & Gallus Olymp, 193 10 Nero II and Piso II 11 Balbus and Veter 12 Octavianus xiii and Sylla 13 Sabinus and Rufinus 21 162 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Ycai's. i'asti Consulares seu Capitolini. Various Inscri]itions. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. 61 Lentulo et Messalino 62 3Iur. Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 298-3. IMP. CAESABE XIII. M... Octaviano xiii et Silano 63 Ihid. COSSd COBNELIO L. PISONE C. Lentulo et Pisone 64 Ihid. C. CAESABE. L. PAVLO. COS. Caesare et Lucio Paulo 65 Vindicio et Varo 66 Lamia et Servilio 67 [JUlio Cato et Satur- nino] 68 Magno Pompejo et Valerio 69 Ihlcl.j>.29d-\. L. AEBVNTIO. M. LEPIDO. COS. Lepido et Ai'untio CsBsare et Capitone 70 Cretico et Nerra 71 M. FVEIVS P. F. P. N. CAMILL SEX. NONIVS L. F.L.N. QVIKCTILIAN Camillo et Quin- tiliano 72 C. POPP.EVS Q. F. Q N. SABINVS Q. SVLPICIVS Q.F. Q. N. CAMERINVS Camero et Sabino 73 P. COBNELIVS P.F.P.N. DOLABELLA C. IVNIVS C. F.M.N. SILANVS FI.AM. MAET. Inscr. quoted raSiqanitis, torn. i. c. 594 P. COBNELIVS P. F. DOLABELLA C. IVNIVS C. F. SILANVS FLAJJEN MAET. COS. Dolabella et Salino 74 . . . MILIVS Q.F. M.N, LEPIDVS Lepido et Tauro EX K. IVL. L.CASSIVSL.F. N.LON- GINVS CHAP. VI.J THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 163 Dion Cassius. L.Cornelius Lentulus M. Valerius Messala or Messalinus Cassiodorus. C. Lentulus M. Messalla V'ai'ious Authors Augustus XIII C. Aug. Cfes.xii M.Plautius Silvauus M. Plautius Cossus Cornelius Lentulus L. Calpuruius Piso C. CfEsar August! fil. L. Aimilius Paulus P. Yinicius or Minu- cius P. Alfenus or Alfi- nius Varus L. ^lius L. F. La- mia M. Servilius Sex. Aimilius Catus C. Sentius Saturni- nus L. Valerius Messala Valesus Cu. Corn. Cinna Magnus M. Aimilius Lepidus L. Arruntius A. Licinius Nerva Silianus Q. Csecilius Metellus Creticus M. Furius Camillus Sex. Nonius Quin- tilianus Q. Sulpicius Came- rinus C. Poppseus Sabiuus P. Cornelius Dola- bella C. Junius Silanus M. Aimilius Lepidus T. Statilius Taurus Cossus Lentulus L. Piso C.A.Cgesar xiii L. Paulus P. Vinicius P. Alphenus M. Servilius L. Lamia Sex. ^lius C. Sentius Cn. Cinna L. Valerius M. Lepidus L. Arruntius Q. Csecilius A. Licinius M. Furius Sex. Nonius Qn. Sulpicius C Poppseus P. Dolabella C. Silanus M. Lepidus T. Statilius M. Valerio Messala, Cn. Lentulo Coss. Sueton. Galba iv. P. Vinicio Vel Pat. ii. 103. M. Servilio, (L. Lamia) Coss. Valer. Max. i. c. 8. jElio Cato, Sentio, Coss. Velleius Pat. ii. 103. C. PoppsBo, Q. Sulpicio, Coss. Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. ||. Chroiiicon Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olymp. 194 14 Octav. Augustus xiv and Silvanus 15 Lentulus and Piso 1 Publius Caesar and Paulus 2 Indicius and Varius Olymp. 195 3 Lamia and Servilius 4 Magnus & Valerius 5 Lepidus and Plancus G Tiberius Caesar and Capito Olymp. 196 7 Cretius and Nerva 8 Camillus and Quin- tilianus 9 Camerinus and Sa- binus 10 Dolabella & Silanus Olymp. 197 1 1 Lepidus and Taurus 164 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part r. No. of Years. Fasti Consulares seu Capitolini. Various Inscriptions. From an iiisc. cited in Sigonius torn. i. c. 596 GEBMANICO CESAEE COS. C. FONTEJO CAPITONE Clironicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. 75 GEEMANICVS TI. F. AVGVSTI N. C. FONTEIVS C. F. C. N. CAPITO EX K. IVLIS C. VISELLIVS C. F.C.N. VAERO Germanico Csesare et Capitone 76 C. SILIVS P. F. P.N. L. MVXATIVS L.F.L.N. PLANCVS Mur. Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 300. C. SIL. L. MVN. COS. Flacco et Silauo 77 Cal. Amiter. Foggini, p. 113 SEX. AP^T.. SEX. POMP. COS. Duobus Sextis Pom- pejo Magno et ApiUejo 78 Ver. Flac. Cal. Foc/gini, Rom. 1779, p. 28. DRVSO ET NOEBANO. Bruto et Flacco 79 Tauro et Libone 80 Mur.ut Sup. p. 301-1. C. CAECILIO RVFO. COS. L. POMPONIO FLACCO. Crasso et Rufo 81 Tiberiano Ca;sar n et Druso Germanico ii 82 Silano et Balbo 83 Messala et Grato 84 Tiberiano Caesare in et Druso Gemiauico in 85 Agrippa et Galba 86 C. ASINIO. C. AXTISTIO. COS. Visconti Opera Varia. Lahus, torn. i. p. 80. PoUione et Vetera 87 Cethego et Varo 88 Agiippa n et Len- tiiJo Galva CHAP, vr.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 165 Dion Cassius. Various Autliors. Cliionicon Pascliale, or I'asti Siculi. Genuanicus Caes. f. Caesar C. Fontejus Capito L. Munatius Plaucus C. Silius Caecina Sex. Pompeius Sex. Apulejus Drusus Caesar Tib. fil. C. Norbanus Flaccus T. Statilius Sisenna Taurus L. Scribonius Libo C . Caecilius Nepos or Rufus L. Pomponius Flac- cus Tiberius Cajsar Aug. fil. Ill Genuanicus Caesar Tib. fil. II M. Junius Silanus L. Norbanus Flaccus or Balbus M. Valerius Messala M. Aurelius Cotta Tiberius Caesar Aug. fil. IV Drusus Julius Tib. fil. II Decimus Haterius Agrippa C. Sulpicius Galba C. Asinius Pollio C. Antistius Veter Sergius, or Sixtus, Cornelius Cethegus L. Visellius Varro M. Asinius Agrippa Cossus Cornelius Leutulus German. Caesar C. Fontejus L. Plancus C. Silius Sex. Pompeius Sex. Appuleius Drusus Caesar C. Norbanus Sisenna Sta- tilius L. Scribonius L. Pomponius C. Caecilius Tiberius Caesar German. Caesar M. Silanus O. Norbanus M. Valerius M. Aurelius Tiberius Caesar Drusus Caesar D. Haterius C. Sulpicius C. Asinius C. Antistius Ser. Cornelius L. Visellius M. Asinius Cos. Cornelius L. Planco, C. Silio, Coss. Suet. Octav. 101. Duobus Sextis Pompeio, Appuleio, Coss. Suet. Octav. 100. Tac. Ann. i. 7. Druso Caesare ; C. Norbano Coss. Tacit. An7i. i. 55. Sisenna Statilin Tauro, L. Libone Consulibus Tac. Ann. ii. 1. C. Caecilio; L. Pomponio Coss. Tac. Ann. ii. 41. Tiberius in ; Germanicus ii Coss. Tac. Ann- ii. 53. M. Silano ; L. Norbano ; Coss. Tac. Ann ii. 59. M. Valerius ; C. Aurelius Coss. Tac. Ann. iii. 2. Tiberius iv ; Drusus ii ; Coss. Tac. Ann. iii. 31. C. Sulpicius; D. Haterius Coss. Tac. Ann. iii. 52. C. Asiuio; C. Antistio; Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 1. Cornelio Cethego ; Visellio Varrone ; Coss Tac. Ann. iv. 17. Cornelio Cosso ; Asinio Agrip- pa ; Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 34. 12 Tiberius Caesar ii and Scipio 13 Flaccus and Silanus 14 Sextus and Sextus Olympiad 198 15 Pomi)ejus Magnus and Apuleius 1 Brutus & Flaccus ii 2 Taurus and Libo 3 Crassus and Rufus Olympiad 199 4 Tiberius Caesar iii and Rufus ii 5 [Silanus & Balbus] 6 Messala and Gratus 7 Tiberius Cajsar iv and Drusus Olympiad 200 8 Agrippa and Galba 9 Pullo and Veter 10 Cethegus & Varus 1 1 Agrippa ii and Len- tulus 166 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [part I. No. of Years Fasti CoDsulares seu Capitoliiii. Various Inscriptions. Chronicon of Idatius, or Fasti Idatiani. 89 Getulio et Sabino 90 Mtu: Nov. Thes. torn. i. p. 302. 1. M. CRASSO FRVGI COS. L. CAXPVEXIO PISONE Ciasso et Pisone 91 Silano et Nerva 92 Ihid. torn. i. p. 301. C. r\TIO GEMIXO COS. L. EVBELLIO GEMINO Rufo et Rubellione 93 Vinicio et Longino Cassio 94 Tiberiauo Caesaie iv solo 95 Aruntio et Alienobarbo 96 Ibid. torn. i. p. 303. 1. Galba Libolo L. SVLL. L. SVLP. et Sylla 97 Persico et Vitellio-Pulo 98 Gallo et Nonniano 99 Emiliano et Plautio 100 Ihid. p. 303. 2. CN. ACERRONIOET PONTIO NIGRO COS. Fahretti ap. Mur. ut sup. ON. ACERRONIO PROCVLO ^^^^ C. PETEONIO PONTIO M- Proculo et Nigrino [gkino. CHAP. VT.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 167 Diou Cassius. Cn. Lentulus GjEtu- licus C. Calvisius Sabinus M. Licinius Crassus L. Calpurnius Fiso Ap. Junius Silanus P. Silius Nerva L. Rubellius Gemi- nus C. Fufius Geminus M. Vinicius Quarti- nus L. Cassius Longinus Tiberius Augustus v L. iElius Sejanus Cn. Domitius Aeno- barbus Furius Camillas Scribonianus Serv.Sulpicius Galba L. Cornelius Sulla L. Vitellius Paulus Fabius Per- sicus C. Cestius Gallus M. Servilius Noui- anus Sex. Papinius Q. Plautius Cn. Acerronius Pro- culus C. Pontius Nigrinus Cassiodorus. C. Calvisius Cn. GaBtulicus L. Piso M. Crassus Ap. Silanus P. Silius C. Rubellius C. Fufius M. Vinicius L. Cassius Tib. Csesar v Vinicius Longrinus Sulpicius Silla Persicus Vitellius Gallus Nonianus Galienus Plautianus Proculus Nigrinus Vanous Authors. Lentulo Gaetulico; C. Calvisio Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 46. M. Licinio ; L. Calpurnio Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 62. Junio Silano; Silio Nerva Coss. Tac. Ann. iv. 68. Rubellio et Fufio consuli- bus quorum utrique Geminus cognomentum erat... Tac. Ann. v. 1. Cn. Domitius; Cam illus Scri- bonianus ; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi. 1. Ser. Galba; L.Sulla; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi. 15. Paullo Fabio ; L. Vitellio ; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi. 28. C. Cestio ; M. Servilio ; Coss. Tac. Ann. vi. 31. Q. Plautius, S. Papinius,Coss. Tac. Ann. vi. 40. Cn. Acerronio Proculo ; C. Pontic Nigrino ; Coss. Suet.Tib.73. Tac. Ann.yi.45 Chroiii('on Paschale, or Fasti Siculi. Olympiad 201 12 Getulicus iSc Sabinus 13 Crassus and Piso 14 Silanus and Nerva 15 Geminus & Geminus Olympiad 202 1 Rufus & Rubellinus 2 Vennicius and Lon- grinus 3 Tiberius Csesar v alone 4 Persicus & Vitellius Olympiad 203 5 Aruntius and Aeno- barbus 6 Galba and Sulla 7 Gallus & Nonnianus 8 Selianus & Plautus Olympiad 204 9 Proculus and Nigri- 168 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. SECT. II. CONNEXION OF EACH CONSULSHIP WITH ITS PROPER YEAR. We have now, without the possibility of gainsaying, a hundred connected links in the chain of time, which we are to apply to the general measure of the Julian period, and the other dates we have connected with it. If then we can fasten any one of these links to a given year, it Is evident that the whole will be connected. But here there is a difficulty growing out of the question, Avhether the war of Julius Ca3sar in Spain, which ended in the sub- jugation of the sons of Pompc}^, occurred during the year of confu- sion, or in the first year of Caesar's reformed calendar ? In other words: whether that war occurred in the years 4667 and 4668 of the Julian period, or in the year 4669 ? As it is universally agreed that Caesar was murdered on the 15th of March in the year which followed that war, the decision of this question, on whichever side it may turn, makes a difference of one year in the subsequent chronology. There are two methods of deciding this question, — the former by astronomical calculations, the latter by comparing and harmo- nizing the testimony of historians. . Wherever these two are com- bined, the evidence amounts to moral certainty. ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATIONS. On the first of January of the first year of Julius Cresar, there was, as we have seen, a conjunction of the sun and moon. This is evident from his calendar, which begins with the golden number one, according to the lunar cycle of INIcton. Instead of beginning his year as that of Numa's calendar began, at the Avinter solstice, he waited for the first new moon after the solstice, that the revolu- tions of the sun and moon might commence together. The new moon, then, having been on the 1st of January in the first year of the reformed calendar, we are to see whether by astro- nomical calculations we can decide the above-mentioned question respecting Caesar's war in Spain. Hirtius, or whoever was the author of the history of Ctesar's war in Spain, states that on the third before the nones of March, or, according to our computation, the otli of March, occurred the battle of Soricia ; that on the same day Pomj^ey removed his camp against Hispalis, and was followed by Caesar; but that before CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 169 Csesar commenced his march, the moon had risen about the sixth hour.^ The sixth hour, according to the Roman computation of time, was about midnight ; and that the moon coukl not have risen at that hour on the 5th of March of the first Julian year, will be made evident on the slightest calculation. It was new moon on the 1st of January ; and two lunations (29d. 12h. 44' x 2=59d. Ih. 28') ended early on the 1st of March. Consequently, on the 5th of INIarch, the moon was not five days old. It could not pos- sijjly, therefore, have risen about midnight. If, on the other hand, this event took place in the year of confusion, it will be seen, on consulting the third column in the foregoing table of that year,- that, according to the new arrangement of Ctesar, the 5th of March, in consequence of the intercalation, was the 85th day of that year; and therefore, (445 — 84) the 361st day, reckoning backward, from the 1st of January of the first Julian year. Twelve complete lunations, reckoning backward, from the new moon on the 1st of January, would amount to 29d. 12h. 44'xl2=334d. 8h. 48'. That sum deducted from 361 days, leaves 6d. 15h. 42' as the time wanting to complete a thirteenth lunation, which, being taken from 29d. 12h. 44', leaves 22d. 21h. 32' as the moon s age on the 5th of March in the year of confusion. Consequently, the moon must have risen that night about 59 minutes past 11 o'clock: "Luna hora circiter vi visa est." TESTIMONY OF HISTORIANS, AND INSCRIPTIONS. Let us now proceed to compare and harmonize the testimony of ancient authors. Under this head are to be included inscriptions as Avell as historians. Petavius justly observes, that " to ascertain with certainty the precise epoch of the Julian year, it is necessary to have a distinct ' " Servi transfugerunt, qui nunciave- pressions that the deserters who came to runt, a. d. in Nonarum Martii proelium, ad Caesar's camp spoke of the battle and the Soriciara quod factum est, ex eo tempore removal of Pompey's camp as having taken metimi esse magnum, et Attium "Varum place on a previous day ; but vFhether the circum castella prseesse. Eo die Pompe- battle took place, or the slaves gave the jus castra movit, et contra Hispalim in information, on the 5th of March, is doubt- oliveto constitit. Caesar priusquam eo- ful. In either case, howevei', the inference dem est profectus, luna hora circiter vi I have drawn holds good; for if the rising visa est." — De Bel. Hispan. c. xxvii. ed. of the moon at midnight was a day or two Oudendorp, torn. ii. p. 968. later than the fifth of March, the impossi- The language of the author is wanting bility is the same. in precision. 1 should infer from his ex- * See chap. iii. p. 78, Column C. 22 170 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. and accurate knowledge of the honours and offices of Julius Cassar." ^ For this purpose, we must review the last years of his life, from the beginning of the civil war. The ten years between Ccesar's first and second Consulship, from the restored Fasti Capitolini. All agree that ten years intervened between Caesar's first con- sulship, with M. Calpurnius Bibulus, and his second, with P. Servilius Isauricus. Thus far the arrangement of dates is easy. C. Julius C.F.C.N. Caesar. M. Calpurnius Bibulus. 1. L. Calpurnius L.F.L.N. Piso Csesoninus ; A. Gabinius A.F. 2. P. Cornelius P.P. Lentulus Spinther ; Q. Csecilius Q.F.Q.N. Metellus Nepos 3. Cn. Cornelius P.P. N. Lentulus MarceUinus ; L. Marcius L.F.Q.N. Philippus 4. Cn. Pompejus Cn. F. Sex. N. Magnus 11 ; M. Licinius P.F.M.N. Crassus II. 5. L. Domitius Cn. P. Cn. N. Ahenobarbus ; Ap. Claudius Ap.P. C.N. Pulcher 6. Cn. Domitius M.F.M.N. Calvinus ; M. Valerius Messalla 7. Cn. Pompejus Cn. P. Sex. N. Magnus III sine Conlega Primus ; Q. Caecilius Q.P.Q.N. Metellus Pius Scipio ex A. D. K. Sextil. 8. Ser. Sulpicius Q.F. Rufus ; M. Claudius M.F.M.N. Marceilus 9. L. Aimilius M.F. Paullus ; C. Claudius C.F.M.N. Marceilus 10. C. Claudius M.F.M.N. Marceilus ; L. Cornelius P.P. Lentulus Eodem anno C. Julius C.F.C.N. ; Caesar. Diet, sine Mag. eq. Comit. Hab. Caussa. C. JuUus C.F.C.N. Caesar. U; P. Servilius P.P. Cn.N. Vatia Isauricus. According to Ca3sar''s own account, with which all other his- torians agree, the civil war began in the consulship of C. Claudius Marceilus and L. Cornelius Lentulus, the tenth of this series. On the calends of January,'^ as those consuls entered upon their office, Caesar's letters were delivered to them by Curio, and read in open senate. On the 6th of January (a.d. viii. Idus Januarias), after a stormy debate for several days, Caesar was declared to be the enemy of his country.^ As soon as this decree was passed. Curio and the two tribunes of the people fled from Rome, and repaired to Csesar at Ravenna. Csesar crossed the Rubicon, occupied Ariminura, garrisoned Pisaurum, Fanum, and Ancona, and received or compelled the submission of all the other cities which were on his line of march. The greater part opened their gates to him. ' De Doct. Temp. lib. x. c. 59. see, coincided with Nov. 23, a.j.p. 4663. * This first of January, as we shall soon ^ Ctes. de Bel. Civ. lib. i. c. 5. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OP CONSULS. 171 On the arrival of this news at Rome, both the consuls fled to Pompey at Capua. As Caesar advanced into Apulia, Pompey retreated to Brundisium, and the consuls, with a large part of the army, sailed for Dyrachium, on the coast of Epirus.^ Dion Cassius says that it was at the close of autumn (}/^?j yap ek /ueroTrwpou ^r) when Pompey went to Brundisium.^ Cjesar wished to encounter Pompey before he left Italy ; but, on the return of the ships which had carried the consuls, Pompey also set sail, and arrived safely at Dyrachium. Csesar then went to Rome, took forcible possession of the public treasure, and, after various arrangements for his own security, set off for Spain. The siege of Marseilles, the submission of Pompey 's army in Spain, and the mutiny of Osesar's troops at Placentia, detained him till the time had approached for holding the Comitia. As both the consuls were absent, Avhose duty it was to preside at the elections, M. .^milius Lepidus proposed to the people that Csesar should be appointed dictator. This was his first dictator- ship. He held it only eleven days, during which he himself and Publius Servilius Isauricus were designated consuls for the ensuing year.^ Without waiting for the calends of January, to enter on his ofiice, he left the city, and went to Brundisium.^ Second Year of the Civil War. On the 4th of January^ Csesar set sail for Dyrachium, and the next day landed near the Ceraunian hills. The events of the war with Pompey followed, ending with the battle of Phar- salia, w^hich occurred, according to Plutarch, in midsummer.*^ As soon as the defeat and death of Pompey were known at Rome, the senate and people loaded Csesar with honours. He was ap- pointed consul for five successive years, tribune of the people for life, and dictator for a whole year, contrary to the law, which for- bade such an appointment for more than six months. Csesar was then at Alexandria; and Dion says, that, although out of Italy, he immediately assumed the dictatorship, and, contrary to established usage, took Antony as his master of the horse, though he had not ' Caesar de Bel. Civ. lib. i. c. 25. " Cses. de Bel. Civ. lib. iii. c. 2. ^ Hist. Rom. lib. xli. c. 10. ^ Bridie nonas Januarias, De Bel.Civ. lib. ' Caes. Bel. Civ. lib. iii. c. 1 and 2 ; Dion iii. c. 6. The first of January began Nov. Cassius, Hist. Rom. lib. xli. c. 36; Appian 13, a.j.p. 4664. The 4th of January was de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 48. therefore Nov. 16. 172 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. been prsetor. Making allowance for the time between the battle of Pharsalia and Caesar's receiving notice at Alexandria of his appointment as dictator, when he immediately assumed the office, we must fix the period of the appointment by the senate, at the close of August (Sextilis), or the beginning of September. Con- sequently, the second dictatorship would extend from about Sep- tember in his second consulate, to September of the next year. Appian states^ that Csesar remained at Alexandria nine months, which brings it to May or June of the following year, before he undertook his expedition against Pharnaces. Dion, therefore, says correctly, that the calends of January passed without any appointment of consul or prsetor. Third year of the Civil War. The first four or five months of this year, as we have seen, were passed by Csesar at Alexandria. He then set out on his expedi- tion against Pharnaces. The rapidity with which he conquered him, gave rise to his celebrated expression, " Veni, vidi, vici." The fifth day after his arrival in Pontus, and four hours after he came in sight of the enemy, he conquered.^ Receiving notice by express of a sedition in Rome, and that Antony, master of the horse, was stationed with a body of troops in the forum, he hastened to return. Plutarch tells us,^ that he arrived at Rome as the year of his second dictatorship was ex- piring; that is, if we ai'C correct, about the month of August (Sextilis), as the year was then computed. The sedition being suppressed, he caused to be appointed as consuls for the remainder of the year, Q. Fufius Calenus, and P. Vatinius. This was a manifest violation of the law. " He did these things," says Dion, "in that year in which, being dictator the second time, he possessed in reality supreme power." ^ Having made these arrangements, Csesar departed for Africa. He embarked in mid-winter, says Dion ; about the winter solstice, says Plutarch ; the 25th of December (a. d. vi. kal. Jan.) says Hirtius.^ The Greek historians did not consider the confusion of the Roman calendar. The 25th of December, as the year Avas then reckoned, must in reality have been about the 17th or 18th of October. c. 55. ' De Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 90. ' Hist. Rom. lib. xlii. = Suet. Vit. Jul. Ctes. e. 35. ^ Hirt. de Bel. Afr. c, ' In Vit. Jul. Css. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 173 Fourth year of the Civil War. On the calends of January ^ Csesar was encamped before Rus- pina, in Africa.'^ The African war occupied about six months, and was terminated by the death of Cato and of Juba. Caesar left Utica on the 13th of June (Idibus Jun.), and went to Sar- dinia, whence he sailed on the 28 th of June (ante diem iii. kal. Quinct.), but did not arrive in Rome, being detained by contrary winds and storms, till twenty-eight days after, or the 27th of July.^ He was now detained in Italy, conferring rewards u^jon his soldiers,* and celebrating four triumphs, over Gaul, iEgypt, the king Pharnaces, and Africa. But, before his arrival in Rome, that is, before the 27th of July, the senate had decreed so many honours, that Dion, weary of enumerating them, says he should confine himself to those only which C^sar accepted.^ Among these, he names the dictatorship for ten years. This was, there- fore, the third dictatorship, commencing in June or July. Among the various laws which Caesar enacted at the commencement of this dictatorship, Dion Cassius expressly mentions the reformation of the calendar.'' While the time of Csesar was thus occupied, the two sons of Pompey had gathered a formidable army in Spain. Repeated messages were sent to Italy by the cities which were opposed to Pompey, imploring aid.^ This delay, so contrary to Caesar's usual conduct, can be accounted for only in one way. His presence must have been necessary at home. Whatever may have been the cause of his detention, it seems that he remained in Rome till the close of the year. Both Plutarch and Appian agree with the Roman historians as to this point. " Being now consul the fourth time," says Appian, " he led his army {LarpciTEvtv) against the younger Pompey into Spain." * " These transactions being finished," says Plutarch, " and being designated consul the fourth time, {larpciTtvaev) he led his army into Spain, against the sons of Pompey." " Csesar," says Eutropius, " having returned to Rome, made himself consul the fourth time, and immediately set out for Spain, where the sons of Pompey, Cnseus and Sextus, had ' October 23, a.j.p. 4666. ' Hist. Rom. lib. xliii. c. 14. ^ Hirt. de Bel. Afr. c. vi. ad fin. " Hist. Rom. lib. xliii. c. 25, 26. ^ Hirt. de Bel. Afr. ad fin. c. 98. ' De Bel. Hisp. c. 1 ad fin. ' De Bel. Hisp. c. 1. ' Appian de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 103. 174 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. again prepared a mighty war." ' " C. Caesar," says the author of the history of his war in Spain, " being dictator the third time, and designated the fourth ,•"" that is, as Oudendorp justly under- stands it, designated consul the fourth time, when by rajaid marches he had come into Spain, &c.^ Dion says that Caesar, being then dictator, was created consul towards the close of the year, the people being assembled for that purpose by Lepidus, who was then master of the horse, calling himself so even in his consulate, con- trary to precedent.^ It cannot be doubted, therefore, that Caesar waited for the Comitia, which preceded the calends of January, and which occurred before the 13th of October, according to his reformed calendar. Fifth year of the Civil War. Appian states that he arrived in Sj)ain the twenth-seventh day from his leaving Rome ;^ performing this very long journey with a powerful army. It was in the ulterior province, near the Boetis and Corduba, — the modern Guadalquivir and Cordova. So great was his rapidity, says Dion, that he preceded the news of his comino;.^ The time when he left Rome cannot be exactly determined ; but he must have arrived in Boetica towards the close of January, or according to the correct computation of time, early in November. The formidable force of the sons of Pompey, the fears of his own army, and the conviction that this was the crisis of his fortunes, caused him to proceed with great caution, and even to incur the reproach of timidity.*^ Attegua was taken on the eleventh before the calends of March, or the 19th of the intercalary month Merke- donius, the 71st day of the year of confusion, and about forty or forty-five days after Caesar's arrival in Spain. The decisive battle of Munda was fought, according to Plutarch, on the day of the Liberalia, the sixteenth before the calends of April, or the seven- teenth of March, the ninety-seventh day of the year of confusion. After the battle, Caesar said to his friends that he had often fought for victory, but now the first time for his life.^ > Brev. lib. vi. c. 24. ^ jjigj -^^^ jj^. xliii. c. 33. * " C. Csesar dictator lu, designatus iv, * De Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 103. miiltis itineribus ante confectis, quum « H. Eom. lib. xliii. c. 32. celeri festinatione ad beUum conficiendum « Appian de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 103, 104. in Hispaniam venisset," &c. — De Bel. Hisp. ' Plut. in V. J. Cses. c. ii. ed. Oudend. torn. ii. p. 941, & note 3. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 175 After this battle, Corduba and Hispalis soon fell into the hands of the victor ; and on the twelfth of April/ the 123rd day of that year, corresponding with the twelfth of February of the proleptic Julian year, the head of the elder Pompey was brought to Hispalis. Dion states that the news of this victory arrived in Rome the evening before the Parilia ; that is, on the 20th of April, or the 131st day of that year. A triumph was decreed to Ctesar for con- quering Spain, and also to his generals Fabius and Pedius ; religious rites were appointed for fifty days; and the Parilia were celebrated, not as the birth-day of the city, but on account of Caesar's victory.^ Let us now consider these dates as they would have fallen in the several months of the first Julian year, and we shall see that it would have been morally impossible to have accomplished all in so short a space of time. That Caesar was in Rome on the first day of that year, is evident from the fact, that on the last day of December one of the consuls, C. Fabius Maximus, died, and Caesar substituted C. Caninius Rebilus as consul for the few hours which yet remained. Supposing, therefore, that he left Rome on the second of January, he would have arrived at the seat of war on the twenty-eighth of that month. Such an arduous and rapid march in mid-winter, as it must then have been, and not in October as in the year of confusion, would have required a few days' repose ; so that we cannot date the commencement of his operations earlier than the first of February. Yet on the eleventh before the calends of March, or the nineteenth of February, Attegua was captured. From the account of Hirtius, the supposed author of the history of the Spanish war, there must have been at least eleven days spent in the siege. It began, therefore, not later than the seventh of February, leaving at most from seven to ten days for all the previous operations of the war. And when the caution, not to say timidity, of Caesar's movements is taken into view, it cannot be supposed that he could have thrown supplies into Ulia, marched upon Corduba, and thus caused the siege of Ulia to be raised, crossed the Boetis, and, after various manoeuvres, have drawn out of his stronghold the army of the elder Pompey, in so very limited a space of time. In the year of confusion, on the other hand, there must have been from twenty-eight to thirty-three days spent in these operations. • Pridie Id, Aprilis, De Bel. Hisp. c. 39. ' Dion Cassius, H. R. lib. xliii. c. 42, 176 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. But to resume the thread of the narrative. No bounds were now set to the honours heaped upon Csesar. He was allowed to create all the officers of government — even those elected in comitia by the people, — to have sole power over the army, and entire control over the j^ublic treasury. He was saluted Pater Patrias, created dictator for life, and consul for ten years. ^ His statue was carried in procession with those of the Gods. Anotlier, inscribed "to the invincible God," was placed in the temple of Quirinus, and another at the capitol, with those of the kings and Bi'utus who expelled the Tarquins. This, as Dion states, was the chief circumstance by which Marcus Brutus was excited to conspire against him.^ According to Velleius Paterculus,^ Csesar returned to Rome in the month of October. But before he returned, says Dion, he accepted the consulship which had thus been conferred upon him by the senate for ten years. He did not, however, keep it till the end of the year, but on his return gave it to Quintus Fabius Maximus, who had been one of his generals in Spain, Avith Cains Trebonius for his colleague. Fabius died on the last day of his consulship, that is, on the 445th day of tliat year; and Cassar, to gratify Cains Caninius, appointed him to fill the vacancy for the few remaining hours. He designated himself and Antony, his master of the horse, as consuls for the ensuing year, and appointed Lepidus to be master of the horse in place of Antony, allowing him to administer the government of Spain — of which he was prsefect — by deputies.^ The last year of Cwsars life. On the first of January commenced his reformed calendar, and his fifth consulate. He was also dictator the fourth time, and that for life. He used his power with great moderation; passed an act of amnesty for all who had fought against him, recalled them from banishment, and restored them to their former rank; gave pensions to the widows, and a portion of their patrimony to the orphans. He employed himself in rebuilding or improving the cities of Italy and other parts of the empire. To gratify the wishes of the people, by avenging the defeat of Crassus and the loss of ' Appian de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 106; ^ Hist. Rom. lib. ii. 56. Pint. Vita J. Cebs. " Appian de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. c. 107. ^ Dion Cass. Hist. Eom. lib. xliii. c. 45. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 177 his army, he began to prepare for an expedition against the Par- thians, which he intended to command in person. To provide, during his absence, for the peace and tranquillity of the city, he appointed the officers of government for three years. Among these, Octavius, then a youth, was named master of the horse; Dolabella was to be consul in Caesar's stead; Antony was to retain his consulate; and Lepidus to have the command in Gallia Narbo- nensis and Hispania Citerior.' But a secret conspiracy was then forming against him, to which the servility of his flatterers, and his own want of caution and con- tempt of danger, added power. On the feast of the Lupercalia, the 15th of February, his fellow-consul oifered him a crown; and on the 15th of March he was assassinated. From this review of the honours of Csesar during the last years of his life it appears: — 1. That his first appointment as dictator was towards the close of the first year of the civil war, in the consulship of Marcellus and Lentulus; that according to law it could not exceed six months; but that he voluntarily abdicated it after having held it eleven days, his election as consul the second time for the ensuing year, with P. Servilius for his colleague, having first taken place. 2. That during the second year of the war, while he was consul the second time, he was appointed by the senate, about the begin- ning of September, dictator for one year and consul for five years. His second dictatorship began in September; but there having been no comitia, and consequently no election of consul or prjetor by the people, Cassar appears to have disregarded his appointment to the office of consul by the senate. 3. That during the third year of the war, no consuls having been elected in comitia by the people, the year could not be designated as usual by the names of the magistrates who entered upon their annual office on the first of January, but by the second dictatorship of CiBsar, which by its own term would not expire till September. It does not appear whether he summoned the comitia, or whether by his supreme power he appointed Q. Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius as consuls for the remainder of the year. It is probable that the forms of law were observed; but that CaBsar in reality appointed them, all agree. 1 Dion Cass. H. R. lib. xliii. 50, 51. 23 178 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. 4. That during the fourth year of the war, he was consul the third time, with M. ^milius Lepidus for his colleague; and that in the interval between the thirteenth of June and the twenty- seventh of Quintilis or July, the senate appointed him dictator for ten years. This was his third dictatorship. — That after that appoint- ment he celebrated four triumphs, and continued in Rome till the close of that year, waiting for the comitia, in which he was appointed consul for the ensuing year. 5. That in the fifth year of the war, which was the last year of confusion, he was consul the fourth time, but having been appointed dictator for ten years, and not having resigned that office, it was his third dictatorship; that his march into Spain and his war with the sons of Pompey occupied of that year 124 days, and the news of his victory at Munda, of March 17 th or the 97 th day, arrived in Rome on the 131st day; that the senate soon after created him dictator for life, and consul for ten years; that when he celebrated his triumph in Spain, he returned to the city in October, and abdicated his fourth consulship, appointing Q. Fabius Maximus and C. Trebonius, and on the death of Fabius, the last day of the year of confusion, he appointed for a few hours C. Caninius Rebilus ; that by virtue of his fourth or perpetual dicta- torship, he nominated himself and Marcus Antonius as consids for the next year. 6. That in the last year of his life, which was the first of his reformed calendar, he was consul the fifth time, and dictator the fourth, and so continued till he was murdered on the fifteenth of March. Testimony of the Fasti Capitolini. The following extract contains all the years in question, from the first of the civil war till the year after Caesar's death. The capital letters exhibit the inscription in its present mutilated state, and the smaller letters the parts supplied by modern learning and industry. C. CLAVDIVS. M.F.M.N. MAECELLVS L. CORneHus p.f. lentulus EODEM ANNO C. IVLIVS. C.F. C.N CAESAR DICt sine mag. eq. comit. hab. caussa C. IVLIVS. Cr.C.N. CAESAR II P. SERvilius p.f. en. n.' vatia isauricus CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 179 C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAE fi DICT M. ANTONIVS. M.r.M.N. MAG. equitum EODEM ANNO [q.] FVTIVS. Q.F.Q.N CALENUS P. VAtinius, p.f. C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR III M. AimiHus lepidus C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR UI Diet. M. AIINOLIVS. M.r.Q.N. LEPIDVS MAg. equitum EODEM ANNO C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR Im SINE conlega EODEM ANNO Q. FABIVS. Q.F.Q.N. MAXIMUS. IN Mag. MORTVVS. EST. IN EIVS Locum factus est C. CANINIVS. C.F.C.N. REbilus. [IDVS. OCT. Q. FABIVS. Q.F.Q.N. MAXIMVS COS EX HISPANIA AN. DCCVIH. HI Q. PEDIVS. M.F. PRO COS EX HISPANIA AN. DCCVIH. IDIB. [DEC. C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. Ctesar Eil. diet. M. AIMILIVS m.f.q.n. lepidus ii mag. equit. VT QVM m. aimilius lepiDVS PALVDATVs exisset iniret CN. DOMITIVS. M.F.M.N. CALVInus IN. INSEQVENTEM ANNum designatus ERAT NON. INIIT. C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR V. m. antonius. m.f.m.n. P. COrnelius p.f. dolabella C. IVLIVS. C.F.C.N. CAESAR. VL DICT.IHI. OVANS EX MONTE AL- [BANO AN DCCix. VH K. FEBR. DCCX. C. VIBIVS c.f.c.n. pansa a. hirtius a.f. IN. MAG. occis. e. in e. loc. fact. est. in mag. occis e. loc. fact. est. C. rVLrVS. C.F c.u. csesar qui q, pedius m.f. in mag. mort. est. in ejus locum factus est. POSTEA IMPerator csesar augustus appell. EST. ABD. IN ejus locum fact. est. c. carrinas c.f. p.ventidiusp.f. qui idem praetor erat, m. aimilius M.F.Q.N. lepidus^ m. antonius m.f.m.n. V iii viri r.p.c. ex a.d.v.k. dec. adpr. k.jan.sex. imp. caesar c.f.c.n. 3 L. MVNATIVS. L.F.L.N. PLANCVS. PRO. COS. EX. GALLIA. AN. [im. K. IAN. M. AIMILIVS M.F.Q.N. LEPIDVS. H. IH VIR. R.P. c. PRO. COS. EX. [HISPANIA. PRIDIE. K . . . . 180 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. Imperfect as these fragments are, they are sufficient, with the lights afforded by other inscriptions, historians, and the incidental notices of contemporaneous writers, to establish the facts respecting the honours paid to Caesar, and the true year of his death. For the accommodation of the reader, a line has been drawn to distin- guish the several years. The triumphs of Quintus Fabius Maxi- mus and Quintus Pedius, for their successes in Spain, are distinctly stated to have been on the third before the ides, or thirteenth of October, and on the ides, or thirteenth of December, in the year of the city 708. Consequently it was that year which from the first of January to the twenty -first of April was reckoned as the 707th year of Rome. By reckoning backward, therefore, it appears that the year when Claudius Marcellus was consul, or the first year of the civil war, was that which before the 21st of April was called the 703rd, and after the 21st of April, the 704th year of Rome. "In that same year" (eodem anno), it is said, Csesar was dictator — namely, the first time — and he retained the office eleven days, for the sake of promoting his election as consul for the ensuing year. This, as all agree, was his second consulship with Publius Servilius for his colleague. It was, therefore, the 704th year of Rome till the 21st of April, and the 705th after it. Ten years had elapsed since his first consulship, — the time required by law to intervene, in the purest days of the republic, before a person who had once been consul was again eligible. From this year, in which Pompey was defeated and murdered, Cassar became master of the republic, and all the established laws which did not suit his views or convenience were disregarded. The next year (a.u.c. 705-6) is therefore very properly marked, not by consuls, but by the name of Cffisar as dictator, and that of Marc- Antony as his master of the horse. The inscription is added, that " in the same year" (eodem anno) Fufius Calenus was consul, with P. Va[tinius] for his colleague; for though the abbreviation cos. be not added, the sense is plain, because the consuls for each year are always placed on one line, whereas the masters of the horse are named after the dictator in the line below. Thus, in the succeed- ing year (a.u.c. 706-7), C«sar was consul the third time, having M. uiEmilius Lepidus for his colleague. And hence Cassiodorus, in his list of consuls for these two years, names for the first Q. Fufius and P. Vatinius, and for the second C. Julius Caesar CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 181 and M. iEmilius Lepidus. The next year (a.u.c. 707-8), that is, the year of the war in Spain, is begun by naming Csesar as dictator, and M. ^Emilius Lepidus as his master of the horse ; for which reason his name is placed in the line below. And then it is added, "in the same year" (eodem anno), Caesar was consul the fourth time, without a colleague. By his dictatorial authority, "in the same year" (eodem anno) he substituted in his stead as consul Q. Fabius Maximus, who died on the last day of the year of confusion, and then Caesar appointed for a few hours C. Caninius Kebilus. The next year, — the first of the reformed calendar, and the last of Csesar's life, — (a.u.c 708-9), is begun by the names of Caesar as dictator, and M. ^milius Lepidus as master of the horse ; but there is a peculiarity which can be explained only by the history of that year. For after the name of M. ^milius follow the words, (ut quum M. Aimilius Lepidus paludatus) "that when M. ^milius Lepidus should put on the military garment," that is, should pub- licly march out of Eome on a military expedition, another might take his place. The inscription is lost; but this oilier^ as Dion Cassius testifies,^ was C. Octavius, afterwards better known under the name of Augustus. And as the Parthian expedition, for which Ctesar was preparing, was likely to continue three years, he nomi- nated for the following year Cn. Domitius Calvinus. He also nominated P. Cornelius Dolabella to be substituted for himself as consul after his departure for Parthia. For this reason, after the death of Csesar, Dolabella assumed the fasces as of right, without waiting for any confirmation of his authority by the senate or the people. Hence also in the inscription, after the name of Domitius Calvinus, occur the words, "in insequentem annum [designatus] erat non iniit" (he was designated or appointed for the following year, but did not enter upon his office). No notice is taken of the death of Cjesar, but immediately after his name as consul for the fifth time, follows the name of P. Co ... . i.e. P. Cornelius Dola- bella.^ Then follows the notice of Cassar's ovation. The number vi. after his name, denotes that it was his sixth triumph; and it is expressly said that he was dictator the fourth time.* From all this ' Lib. xliii. last section. * I say nothing about the year, because ~ See Appian de Bel. Civ. lib. ii. s. 122, I have suspicions that the date is mutilated ed. Schweigh. torn. ii. p. 344. or altered. As it stands in Sigonius, it is 182 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. testimony, it follows that Csesar was slain in his fifth consulship, his fourth or perpetual dictatorship, and in that year which, before the feast of the parilia, was designated as the 708 th, and after the parilia, as the 709th year of Rome. The combined evidence of astronomical calculation and historic testimony having so clearly established the fact, that Caesar's war in Spain in his fourth consulship was during the last year of con- fusion, and not in the first year of his reformed calendar, it may be proper, before we proceed further, to anticipate an objection which may possibly arise, that the preceding years were also years of confusion and irregularity. To some extent, this must be admitted; but if any error arise from this source, it is of small moment, and of short continuance. In the third section of the chapter on the Roman year, in speaking of the year of confusion, it was shown that in the course of the last 144 years, compensation had been made for past errors, excepting the neglect of three intercalations amounting to 67 days. This error, therefore, could not have operated more than eight or nine years. It may have shortened some of the preceding consulships, but the difference is too trifling to be noticed in the present adjustment. We proceed, therefore, to connect the preceding and succeeding series of consuls with the years to which they properly belong. The fourth consulship of Caesar began on the thirteenth of October, in the year 4667 of the Julian period. Supposing no intercalations to have taken place in the preceding period of eight years, and consequently that each consular year consisted of only 355 days, the result would have been as follows: The third consulship of Caesar with Lepidus beginning nomi- nally with the first of January, would have begun in reality October 23rd, 4666 of the Julian period. The first of January in the year when Caesar was dictator the second time, and as such appointed Q. Fufius Oalenus and P. Va- tiuius consuls, fell on the second of November, a.j.p. 4665. That year being bissextile, the first of January of the year in which thus: DCCix. But the year 709 began of the city were reckoned in the Fasti April 21, more than a month after Cffisar's Capitolini as if they began on the calends death, and nearly three months after his of January; if it was afterwards inserted, ovation. If ix formed a part of the ori- it is of no value as an authority. The day ginal inscription, it proves that the years of the mouth was vii. k. Feb. or Jan. 26th. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 183 Csesar was consul the second time, with P. Servillus, fell on the thirteenth of November, a.j.p. 4664. In the first year of the civil war, when Lentulus and Marcellus were consuls, the first of January fell on the twenty-third of November, a.j.p. 4663. In the preceding year, when Marcellus and Paulus were consuls, the 1st of January was on the 3rd of December, a.j.p. 4662. In the consulship of Marcellus and Sulpicius, the 1st of January was on the 13th of December, a.j.p. 4661, that being leap year. The 1st of January of the preceding year, the third consulship of Pompey the Great and Q. Metellus, fell on the 23rd of Decem- ber, A.J.P. 4660. In the consular year of Domitius Calvinus and Messala, the 1st of January of the year of Numa, coincided with the 2nd of January of the year 4660 of the Julian period. Here, then, are the eight irregular years, preceding the last year of confusion; and they bring us back to the true 1st of January, and show that the aberration was only for that limited number of years. The consulshi}) of Cicero and Antonius, was the tenth before the consulship last named, and, consequently, it coincided with the year 4650 of the Julian period. In the summer of that year was the 179th olympiad. It was rendered memorable by the conspiracy of Catiline, detected and punished, the capture of Jeru- salem by Pompey, and the birth of Augustus Caesar. Both Dion Cassius^ and Josephus,^ afifirm that Jerusalem was taken in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, and the latter adds, that it was Kara r>)v IvvctTriv Kai e(iSofii]Ko(Trfiv Kai EKaroGT^jv dXv^Trta^a, at the CpOch of, during, or upon the 179th olympiad. It was before the Parilia, the 689th, and after the Parilia, the 690th year of Rome ; the nine- teenth year before the reformed Julian calendar ; and the sixty- fourth before the Dionysian, or common Christian tera. But here it becomes necessary to speak of a diflficulty which has been raised concerning this testimony. Josephus, while he mentions in his Jewish Antiquities that Jerusalem was taken by Pompey in the 179th olympiad, and in the consulship of Antonius and Cicero, mentions, also, that it was on the fast day in the third month. A doubt has been raised as to the * Lib. xxxvii. sec. 10-15. * Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 4, sec. 3. 184 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. day and month here meant. The Jews began their ecclesiastical year, at or near the vernal equinox ; their civil year, at or near the autumnal equinox. The ecclesiastical year began with the month Abib, or Nisan ;^ the civil, with the month Tisri, or Ethanim. The third month of the one, was Sivan ; of the other, Casleu. In the con- sulship of Cicero, the equinoxes were nearly where they were at the time of Csesar's reformation of the calendar ; that is, on the 25th of March, and the 24th of September. Abp. Ussher supposes that Josephus meant the third civil month, or Casleu, the twenty- eighth day of which was a fast among the Jews, because Jehoiakim burned the roll on that day.^ Petavius, on the other hand, affirms, that it was the third ecclesiastical month, or Sivan, on the twenty- third day of which was the fust for Jeroboam's sin, in forbidding the ten tribes to worship at Jerusalem. Other critics have thought that because Josephus,^ in his history of the Jewish war, speaks of the temple being taken rp/rw — firjrl Tfjg TroXiopiciag, in the third month of the siege, he speaks also, in this passage, not of the third month of the year, but of the third month of the siege. Now I appre- hend that, in this passage, Josephus speaks of the capture of the city, aXovcrj?? rfjc irokstoQ, and in his work on the Jewish War, of the temple, which are two different events. We do not know exactly the time when Pompey approached the city, but it appears that it was delivered up to him, and that he entered it in the third month, on the fast day, and then laid siege to the temple, which held out much longer. As this question will hereafter be found to have an important bearing on the chronology of Herod's reign, it may be as well to examine it now. For this purpose, it seems expedient to connect the Jewish months with the Roman, not only in the year 4650 of the Julian period, but also in the jireceding year. By the use of the chapters on the Roman year and the Julian period, the reader will be enabled to examine these calculations, and judge for himself of their accuracy. 1 Exod, xii. 2 ; xiii. 4 ; Deut. xvi. 1. « Jerem. xxxvi. 22, 23, ' Jos. de Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 7. s. 4. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 185 Lunations of the year when Jerusalem was taken by Pompe}', the day of the fast, in the third month, in the 179th Olympiad, Cains Antonius and Marcus Tullius Cicero, coss., corresponding with a.j.p. 4650. Astronomical signs, as reckoned backward, from the first year of the vulgar sera, according to Dionysius Exiguus, and Bede, are 0 2, D 14, epact 23, Sunday Letter E ; and the calculations are made according to the calendar of the Council of Nice. Astronomical signs, as reckoned backward from the first year of Ca?sar's reformed calendar, are i^ 10, ]) 1, epact 0 ; and the calculations ai'e made by the Golden Numbers, as arranged in Caesar's calendar. Proleptic Vulgar iEra, and Cal. of Nice. Proleptic Eeformed ^ra of Julius Cse^ar, A.J.P. 4649, 01,]) 13. and the Golden Numbers as arranged Epact 12, Sunday Letters G. F. Bissextile. by him A.J.P. 4649, 0 9, D 19, Ep. 18, Bissextile. Jan. 11 Shebeth 30 Jan. 13 Shebeth 30 Feb. 9 Adar 29 Feb. 11 Adar 29 Mar. 11 Nisan 30 [14 d.of pasch. Mar, 13 Nisan 30 [14 d.of pasch. Apr. 9 lyar 29 moon Mar. 24 Apr. 11 lyar 29 moon Mar. 26 May 9 Sivan 30 May 11 Sivan 30 June 7 Tammuz 29 June 9 Tammuz 29 July 7 Ab. 30 July 9 Ab. 30 Aug. 5 Elul 29 Aug. 7 Elul 29 Sep. 4 Tisri 30 Sep. 6 Tisri 30 Oct. 3 Marchesvau 29 Oct. 5 Marchesvan 29 Nov. 2 Casleu 30 Nov. 4 Casleu 30 Dee. 1 Tebeth 29 Dec. 3 Tebeth 29 „ 31 Shebeth 1 354 355 +Epact if last year 12 — Epact of this year 12 343 366 + Epact of next year 23 366 A.J.P. 4650, 02,5 14, Ep. 23, Sun. Let. E. A.J.P. 4650, 0 10, ]) 1, Ep. 0. Jan. 1 Shebeth Jan. 30 Adar „ 31 Adar Feb. 28 Veadar Mar. 1 Veadar Mar. 30 Nisan [14 d. of pasch. ]) „ 31 Nisan [14 d. of pasch. J) Apr. 28 lyar Apr. 12 Apr. 29 lyar Apr. 13 May 28 Sivan [23 or fast, June 19 May 29 Sivan [23 or fast, June 20 June 26 Tammuz [Olymp. 179, I June 27 Tammuz [Olymp. 179, 1 July 26 Ab. July 27 Ab. Aug. 24 Elul Aug. 25 Elul Sep. 23 Tisri Sep. 24 Tisri Oct. 22 Marchesvan Oct. 23 Marchesvan Nov. 21 Casleu [28 fast, Dec. 18 Nov. 22 Casleu [28 fast, Dec. 19 Dec. 20 Tebeth Dec. 21 Tebeth It is evident that, according to the proleptic calendar of Julius Caesar, there were, in the year 4650 of the Julian period, thirteen lunations, and, according to the calculations of the Council of Nice, which differ one day, thirteen lunations, a.j.p. 4649. Hence it was necessary to insert the intercalary month Veadar, or the 24 186 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. second Adar, in a.j.p. 4650, in order to bring the puschal fvdl moon after the vernal equinox. Si van, the third month of the ecclesiastical year, began on the 28th or 29th of May, and the fast day, or 23i'd, on the 19th or 20th of June, seven days before the 179th olympiad began. Casleu, the ninth of the ecclesiastical, but the third month of the civil year, began November 21st or 22nd ; and the fast, on the 28th of that month, coincided with the 18th or 19th of December, which was only the thirteenth or fourteenth day before the consulsliip of Cicero and Antonius expired ; or, if the next year of Numa began on the 27th of January of the solar year, at most thirty-nine days before Cicero and Antonius went out of office. Hence, I see no reason for the opinion of Arch- bishop Ussher, but much to favour that of Petavius. 1. In all ecclesiastical arrangements, the ecclesiastical order of the months would be observed. In the passage of Jeremiah, where the burning of the roll by Jehoiakim is mentioned, it is expressly said, that " the king sat in the winter house, in the ninth months • This was the ecclesiastical order of the months. 2. Josephus says the city Avas taken rrj rii^ vt)^eiac rj^e'^j^t, on the fast day. The very force of the article, shows that it was a well- known, and very solemn fast day ; and, surely, the defection of the ten tribes, from the worship of the true God to the worship of idols, was a far more solemn occasion for a national fast, than the mad action of Jehoiakim. 3. The circumstances of the narrative, show that the capture of the city was in the third ecclesiastical month. In the chapter pre- ceding that in which the capture of the city is mentioned, it is stated, that, " early in the spring, Pompey brought his army out of winter-quarters, and marched rapidly upon Damascus." While there, he received deputations both from Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. This, as appears from the second chapter, was after the passover, which followed the murder of Onias. After some delay, occasioned by various artifices and negotiations, Pompey, being irritated, marched first to Jericho, and thence to Jerusalem. Aristobulus having been imprisoned by the Roman commander, the Jews of his faction entrenched themselves in the temple, destroyed the bridge which connected it with the city, and prepared to sustain the siege. ' Jer. xxxvi. 23. CHAP. VI.] THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. 187 The opposite faction delivered up both the city and the royal palace to Pompey. And then It follows, that the city was taken In the third month ; evidently the third ecclesiastical month, or Si van.' 4. It may be considered as an objection, that the fast day in Sivan was seven days before the 179th olympiad began, and eighteen days before the games were celebrated. But when the language of Josephus Is duly weighed, this circumstance corrobo- rates the fact, and shows the accuracy of the historian. His language on this occasion is peculiar. Usually in naming the olympiads. If It be not the year In which the games were cele- brated, he names the year In the dative and the number of the olympiad in the genitive case;^ or If It be the year of the games, he puts the number of the olymijlad In the dative.^ But here he uses the preposition xara governing the accusative, which, accurately rendered, signifies at, or upon, or during, or at the epoch of, the 179th olympiad. He says also that the cit^, not the temple, was taken on the fast day. The temple held out for some time longer; and it required great preparation of machinery, and very persever- ing efforts of Pompey, to take It. It Is probable, therefore, that lie was actually engaged in the siege of the temple during the very days in which the olympIc games were celebrated. Archbishop Ussher, and the critics quoted by Hudson In his note on the passage, make no distinction between the capture of the city and that of the temple. The archbishop's words are, " The temple was taken on the fast day, C. Antonius and M. Tulllus Cicero being consuls, in the first year of the 179th olympiad, on the solemn fast of the third month, which Is to be taken as the third month of the civil year, called by the Hebrews, Cisleu."^ He gives no reason for his opinion; but probably he considered It Impossible for Pompey to take the temple so early as the third month of the ecclesiastical year. This difficulty would have been obviated by adhering strictly to the language of Josephus. Dion Casslus says that Jerusalem was taken on Saturday, or the Jewish Sabbath; but he probably confounded the fast day with the Sabbath. If we take the Nicene cycle, which alone can be followed for the Sunday letters. In 4650, the 23rd of SIvan and the 28th of Caslcu both fell on Thursday. With the Jews, the Sab- bath was a festival, and would never be observed as a fast. ^ Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 2, § 2; comp. with c. 3. and c. 4. ' Ant. lib. xiv. c. 1. ;3. ' Ant. lib, xiii. c. 8. j3, ^ Usscrii Annales, ^tas Muncli vi. ad a.m. 3941. 188 THE SUCCESSION OF CONSULS. [PART I. To sum up the whole: The city was delivered up by the faction of Hyrcanus, and Pompey marched into it with his army on Thursday, the 19th or 20th of June a.j.p. 4650. He immediately carried on the siege of the temple with greater vigour, being assisted by Hyrcanus and his party, and at length took it by storm, soon after the celebration of the games of the 179th olympiad, and in the third month from the time in which he commenced the siege of the city. CHAP. VII.] 189 CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF OCTAVIANTJS C^SAR, AFTERWARDS NAMED AUGUSTUS, FROM THE DEATH OF JULIUS CiESAR TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. Prefatory remarks. — The younger Csesar with his uncle in Spain in his eighteenth year. — Appointed Master of the Horse, and sent into Macedonia. — Returned to Rome after his uncle's death. — The consul, Hirtius and Pansa killed, and Cssar appointed consul in his twentieth year. — Triumvirate from Nov. 27, a.j.p. 4670, to the end of December a.j.p. 4675. Its renewal for five years. — Total defeat of Sextus Pompeius, and abdication of Lepidus in July a.j.p. 4677. — Decree proposed in the senate against Csesar by the partizans of Antony in a.j.p. 4681. This brought on the war, which ended with the victory at Actium, Sep. 2, a.j.p. 4682, by which CiEsar became sole master of the Roman empire in his thirty-second year. In the last chapter, it has been shown, I hope to the satisfaction of the reader, that the year in which Augustus was born, the con- sulship of Cicero and Antonius, coincided Avith the year 4650 of the Julian period, the first year of the 179th olympiad, from the last of June, and the 690th year of Rome, from the twenty-first of April or the Parilia. It has also been shown, that between the consulship of Cicero and the fifth consulship of Julius Csesar, in \vhich he was murdered, there were eighteen pairs of consuls, and consequently eighteen years; thus bringing down the chronology to the end of the last year of confusion, or the end of the year 4668 of the Julian period, when the reformed calendar of CjBsar, and the accurate calculation of the solar year, began to operate. And having thus adjusted the list of consuls with the Julian period, the olympiads, the years of Rome according to Varro, the years of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and the Augustan years — as they are called by Censorinus, — we are prepared, and now only prepared, to examine with accuracy the ancient historians of the empire. For their dates are constantly reckoned by the olympiads, the consuls, or the years of Rome. "With regard to the latter, we 1 90 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CESAR. [PART I. can never be certain, unless we know whether the historian adopts or not the computation of Varro. But with regard to the olym- piads and the list of consuls, there cannot now be any mistake, unless the historian himself has committed an error. This may be the case sometimes, especially where the testimony is not con- temporaneous. But in general the Greek historians are very, accurate when they name the olympiads, and the Roman equally so when they name the consuls. Some of the Greek writers, Dion Cassius, for example, and Josephus, are remarkably accurate with regard to both. But of the first thirty-six books of Dion's history we have unhappily but small portions remaining. The work is perfect, however, with few interruptions, from tlie consulshiji of Cicero to the beginning of the consulship of Antistius Vetus and Laelius Balbus, or from a.j.p. 4650 to a.j.p. 4707, a period of fifty- seven pairs of consuls, or fifty-seven years. For the next ten years, the history has come down to us much mutilated; and the remainder, to the reign of Claudius, has been abridged by some unskilful hand. From that time, with the exception of a few fragments, the history is lost; and we are indebted for all we know of it to the more concise but better executed compendium of Xiphilinus. With these prefatory remarks, we proceed to the history of the Roman empire; and our object will be to connect the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius with the dates now established. The discussion of dates is of necessity dry and tedious; and to relieve the reader, as well as the writer, more perhaps of the history of the times will be introduced than logical precision may require. But what is lost in that respect will be more than counterbalanced by the conviction arising from the general harmony of the narrative. The first period will extend from the rise of Augustus to the battle of Actium, when he became sole master of the Roman empire; or from the eighteenth year of his age, a.j.p. 4668, to his thirty-second year, or a.j.p. 4682. Suetonius states that Augustus, or, as he was then called, Octa- vius, was prevented from accompanying Julius Caesar to Spain against the sons of Pompey, by severe illness; but that he followed him thither.' How soon after his uncle's departure he followed, is uncertain ; but Dio expressly asserts that he was present during ' Suet. lib. ii. c 8. CHAP. Vir.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C^SAH. 191 that period of the war winch comprised the capture of Attegua and the decisive battle of Munda.' At this time, according to Velleius Paterculus, he was seventeen years old.^ In attempting to show that the war of Cffisar in Spain occurred during the year of confusion, it was stated that Cnssar must have arrived in Boetica towards the close of January of that year; which, according to the correct computation of time, would have been early in November in the year of the Julian period 4667. Attegua was taken on the 11th before the calends of March, the seventy-first day of the year of confusion, and the nineteenth of the intercalary month Merkedonius, corresponding with the 22nd day of December a.j.p. 4667, as will appear by consulting the table of that year. The battle of Munda was fought, according to Plutarch, on the sixteenth before the calends of April, the ninety- seventh day of the year of confusion, or the 17th of January A.J.P. 4668. If then Augustus was born on the 23rd of Septem- ber in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, he must have com- pleted his seventeenth year on the 23rd of September in the con- sulship of Julius Ctesar iii and M. ^milius Lepidus, in the year of the city, according to the Capitoline tables, 707, being after the Parilia, and in the year of the Julian period 4667. Caesar returned to Rome, according to Velleius Paterculus, in the month of October.^ On consulting the table, it will be seen that October began on the 290th day of the year of confusion, and consequently 156 days before its termination. To these if we add the months of January, February and March, to the ides, in the first year of the reformed calendar, it will make the whole period from his return to his assassination about six or seven months and a half, or from about August a.j.p. 4668, to March 15th, a.j.p. 4669 ; and the ides of March being a little more than a month before the Parilia, it was during the 708th year of the city. Ctesar was now making preparations for the Parthian expedition ; and among the appointments for three years made in view of his absence, the young Octavius was named master of the horse. On account of his youth, however, he was sent to ApoUonia, on the ^ Dion H. E. lib. xliii. c. 41, com p. with ensismilitise, adsecutumse,posteacomitem cc. 38, 39, 40. habuit, &c. Vel. Pat. Hist. Rom. 1. ii. c 59. ^ Quem C.Ca5sar, major ejus avunculus, * Quippe cum mense Octobri in urbem educatum apud Philippum vitricum dilexit revertisset, &c. Vel. Pat. Hist. Rom. ii. 56. ut suum, natumque anuos xvii. Hispani- 192 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C.T.SAR. [PART I. Ionian sea, to pursue his studies, and practise, says Appian, the military art in company with a wing of the Macedonian horse.' He had been at Apollonia, according to the same author, about six months, when he heard of Ctesar's death. His friends in Rome differed in opinion as to the course he ought to take ; some ad- vising him to take refuge with the army in Macedonia, and, as soon as he should find that the conspiracy was not general, to avenge his uncle''s death ; and others, on the contrary, recom- mending his immediate return to Rome as a private citizen. He took the latter course, and landed at a little place called Lupia, not far from Brundusium, and out of the direct road. But finding the sympathies of the people to be in his favour, and the army at Brundusium ready to receive him as Ctesar's son, he took courage, assumed the name of Ctesar, and advanced towards Rome with a constantly increasing retinue.^ The date of this progress is ascer- tained from Cicero's letters to Atticus.^ Octavianus Cajsar, as he now called himself, came to Naples the 18th of April (14 cal. Maj) and the next day visited Cicero at his Cumrean villa. This fixes the date of his arrival at Rome not far from the 1st of May, when he was about eighteen years and seven months old. Consequently he was nineteen years old complete on the 23rd day of the follow- ing September, a.j.p. 4669. On the 1st of January of the second year of Caesar's reformed calendar, corresponding with the 1st of January of the year 4670 of the Julian period, the new consuls Hirtius and Pansa entered upon their office. Through Cicero's influence, the young Coesar was appointed to co-operate with them in the war against Antony. A letter of Galba to Cicero fixes the date of the battle of INIutina, in which both consuls fell. It was fought on the seventeenth before the calends of May, or April 15th ;^ and it thus left Caesar the sole commander, at the age of nineteen years, six months, and twenty-three days. His ambition was now to be appointed con- sul ; and in opposition to the will of the senate, and in violation of all the forms of law, he accomplished his purpose by the power of his army, and the favour of the people. Velleius Paterculus says that he entered on his consulship on the 22nd day of September, * App. de Bel. Civil, lib. iii. c. 7. ^ Lib. xiv. ep. 10, comp. with Epistles " Ibid.ut sup. lib. iii. c. 9-12. 5th and 7th. * Cic. ad Fam. lib. x. ep. 30. CHAP. VII.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIANLTS C.^SAR. 193 just as had completed his twentieth year.' But Velleius is cer- tainly mistaken as to the month, though not as to the year ; for Macrobius has preserved a decree of the senate, which expressly states that he entered on his first consulship in the month Sex- tilis f and the accurate Dio states that he became consul for the first time on the same day on which he died, — that is, on the nine- teenth day of August.^ In the 'meantime the junction took place between Antony and Lepidus, as we learn by a letter from Plancus to Cicero, on the 29th of May.^ The news of this junction so exasperated the senate, that on the last day of June they unanimously declared Lepidus an enemy of his country,'' Previous to this event, Cirsar, by the advice of the dying Pansa, had effected a reconciliation with Antony, but had conducted his designs so artfully, that the senate, ignorant of this fact, gave him the command of the army which was to march against Antony and Lepidus. Thus was the M'ay prei^ared for the formation of the Triumvirate. That event took place on a little island in the river Reno, between Bologna and Modena. Appian, who gives a minute account of the trans- action, states that Ca3sar was seated between Antony and Lepidus on account of his official dignity, and one of the articles of their covenant required, that Ccesar should, for the remainder of the year, resign the consulship to Ventidius. The government of the triumvirs was to be established for five years, to relieve the Bepi(l)Iic from its civil dissensions ."' The inscription found on the Palatine, in the Oolocci gardens, now known l)y the name of INIills, fixes the date of this event : ....EMILIVS M. ANTONIVS IMP. CAESAR IIIVIR. E.P.C. EX A.D.V.K. DEC. AD PR. K. IAN. SEX. That is, that by consent of the Roman people the triumvirs were to continue in office from the 27th of November (the fifth before the calends of December) to the day before the calends of the sixth 1 Consulatura iniit Ctesar pridie quam a.cl. iiii. kal. Junias. Ep. ad Fara. lib. x. viginti annos impleret x kal. Octobrescum Ep 2.3. collep;a Q. Pedio. Lib. ii. 65. * Lipidus— pridie kal. Qnintiles, senten- ^ Cum Imperatoi'Cresar Augustus meuse tiis omnibus, bostis a scnatu judicatus est. Sextili et primum consulatum inierit, &c. JM. T. Cic. C. Cassio. Epist. ad Fam. lib. Saturnal. lib. i. c. 12. xii. ep. 10. ^ Dion Cass. H. R. lib. Ivi. 30. '• Appian dc Bel. Civil. lib. iv. c. 2. * Lepidus— se cum Antonio conjunxit 25 194 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C^SAR, [PART I. year, — or, in other words, for five complete years from the last day of the following December. The Capitoline tables record two triumphs as belonging to the same year, which, according to their computation, was the year of Rome 710: L. MVNATIVS. L.F.L.N. PLANCVS PRO COS. EX GALLIA AN DCCX. [nil K. IAN. M. AIMILIVS M.F.Q.N. LEPIDVS IL III VIR. R.P.C. PRO COS. EX HIS- [PANIA PREDIE K. IAN. Plancus and Lepidus were designated consuls for the ensuing year ; and, for some trifling successes, both chose to triumph in the midst of proscription and slaughter, and attended by the jeers and stifled execrations of all Rome.^ Appian has preserved the form of the edict by which Lepidus, with the consent of his col- leagues in the triumvirate, decreed his own triumph. " May fortune be propitious ! Be it proclaimed to all men and women, to sacrifice and banquet on the present day. Whosoever shall not be seen doing these things, shall be among the proscribed." The historian adds that Lepidus conducted the triumphal pomp to the temples, attended by all, with the form of gaiety, but the inward feeling of malevolence.^ Plancus triumphed on the 29th, and Lepidus on the 31st of December, in the year of Rome 710, the second year of Caesar's reformed calendar, and the 4670th year of the Julian period. The next day commenced the first of the five years of ^the Trium- virate. It ended, therefore, by its own limitation, on the 31st of December of the seventh year of Caesar's reformed calendar, — that is, A.u.c. 715, and a.j.p. 4675, at the close of the consulship of Appius Claudius Pulcher and Caius Norbanus Flaccus. The next year, known in the Roman Fasti as the consulship of Marcus Agrippa and Lucius Gallus, and, according to the Cajiito- line tables, the 715th until the Parilia, and, after the Parilia, the 716th year of Rome, Antony and C?esar, accompanied by Octavia, met at Tarentum, the modern Taranto. This meeting, as Appian states, took place early in the spring ; and as the time of the tri- umvirate was expired, they decreed the continuance of their own power for another five years, without asking the consent of the ' Vel. Paterc. lib. ii. c. 67. ^ App. de Bel. Civil. lib. iv. c. 31. CHAP. VII.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CESAR. 195 people.' Die's account, though less ch-cumstantial, agrees with that of Appian : " They continued their government for another five years, the first having expired."^ Hence in the remaining fragment of the Capitoline tables, the names of the triumvirs are inserted a second time, immediately before the names of the con- suls for that year. Thus : M. AIMILIVS M.r.Q.N M. ANTONIVS M.F IMP. C^SAR DIVI M. AGRIPPA L F The great contest which ended in the total defeat of Sextus Pompeius, the destruction of his fleet, and the subjugation of Sicily to the power of Caesar, began, according to Dio, early in the spring of the next year, when Lucius Gellius Poplicola and Marcus Cocceius Nerva were consuls.^ Appian, with greater precision, and probably with more accuracy, states that Csesar and Lepidus, with their respective squadrons, and Taurus with the ships fur- nished by Antony, set sail for Sicily, by previous concert, on the first day of July. The conduct of Lepidus, who chose a most inauspicious moment to betray his jealousy of his powerful col- league, caused his soldiers to desert him, and led to his abdication of the triumvirate. On the return of Csesar to Rome, of the many honours offered by the Senate he accepted only an ovation, which is thus inscribed in the Capitoline tables : IMP. CAESAR DIVI. F. C.N. IL IIIVIR. R.P.C. 11. OVANS. EX SICILIA. A, [DCCXVII. IDIB. NOVEMB. The ides of November are the thirteenth of that month, and it was after the Parilia, in the year of Rome 717. Appian says that Csesar was then in the twenty-eighth year of his age, and that cities had enrolled him among their gods."* He had completed his twenty-seventh year on the 23rd of the preceding September. Suetonius remarks that nine years intervened between the first consulship of Oassar and the second, and one year between the second and third.^ The first being in the year of Rome 710 and the year 4670 of the Julian period ; the second, with Lucius Volcatius ' Appian lib. v. c. 93-95, ed. Scliweigh. ical eIkoov Kal avrbv ai ttoKhq toIq a^e- tom. ii. pp. 832-837. TtQoiQ Snolq crvviSpvov. App. de Bel. civ. ^ Dion lib. xlviii. at the end. Ed. Reimar, lib. v. c. 132. torn. i. p. 568. ^ Secundum consulatum post ix. annos, ^ Dio, lib. xlviii. end, corap. with xlix. I. tertium, anno interjecto, gessit. Suet. lib. ■* Kai ijv 6 KaiaaQ iruiv ig roTt okto) ii. c. 26. 196 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS C.^SAR. [PART I. Tulliis, commenced Jan. 1, 4680, the year of Rome 719, and after the Parilia 720. The third commenced Jan. 1, 4682, of Rome 721 vintil the Parilia, and after the Parilia 722. The intervenino; con- suls were Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Caius Sossius, both, as Dio tells us, partisans of Antony ; and on the very first day of their entrance upon their office, Sossius, being a rash and inexpe- rienced man, spoke in praise of Antony and disparagement of Csesar, and proposed a decree against the latter, which would have been carried, but for the opposition of Nonius Balbus the tribune. This evidently shows how strong the party of Antony was in the senate. Ctesar, under some pretext, but in reality for the purpose of gaining time, had left the city. On his return he assembled the senate, surrounding it with guards, and his friends having daggers concealed under their robes. He seated himself on his curule chair between the consuls, and with great moderation began his defence, accusing much both Sossius and Antony. Not one in the senate dared to utter a word in reply. He therefore appointed another day when he Avould bring before them written proofs against Antony. The consuls, not daring to speak, and not en- during to be silent, fled on the same day, and were followed by not a few of the senate.^ Thus began the contest which was termi- nated the following year by the victory of Actium. It was on the occasion of this victory, as we shall hereafter see, that by a decree of the senate the temple of Janus was shut the first time by Csesar, in token of universal peace. During the short reconciliation witli Sextus Pompeius, which took place in the year 4674 of the Julian period (a.u.c. 713-714), Osesar, and Antony in conjunction with him, had appointed con- suls for eight successive years, commencing with Appius Claudius Pulcher and Caius Norbanus Flaccus, a.j.p. 4675. Of this series Domitius and Sossius, and Csesar and Antony, formed the two last, as follows : 4675 Appiiis Claudius Pulcher and C. Norbanus Flaccus 4676 M. Vipsanius Agrippa and L. Caninius Gallus. 4677 L. Gellius Poplieola and M. Coccejus Nerva. 4678 L. Corniticius and Sextus Pompeius. 4679 L. Scribonius Libo and M. Antonius ii. 4680 Ca-sar ii. and L. Volcatius Tullus. 4681 Cn. Uoinitius Ahenubarbus and C. Sossius. 4682 Ciesar iii. and M. Antonius, for whom was substituted M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus. ' Dion H. R. lib. 1. c. 2. CHAP. VII.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIAKUS C^SAR. 197 Caesar therefore entered upon liis third consulship on the 1st of January in the year of the Julian period 4682 ; but Antony being now adjudged an enemy to his country, Valerius Messalla, a man whom both triumvirs had formerly proscribed, became consul in his stead. All authors agree that the battle of Actium was fought in the consulship of Ceesar and Messalla Corvinus ;' and Dio, who states that the day of this eventful action was the 2nd of Septem- ber, observes that he was so particular in mentioning the very day, because the whole sovereignty was then for the first time in Caesar's hands, and the years of his monarchy were counted from it.2 Thus have we, by this harmonized view of the Greek and Latin historians of Rome, ascertained the exact date of the battle of Actium; from which time Augustus, Avhen he had nearly com- pleted his thirty-third year, was, by the unerring providence of God, sole emperor and arbiter of the destinies of the world ! The date of this great event was September 2, a.j.p. 4682, a.u.c. 722, the first year of the 187th olympiad, and the 14tli of the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar. ^ Vel. Tat. lib. ii. c. 84. ■ Dion II. R, lib. li. c. i. 198 [part I. CHAPTER VIII. HISTOEY CONTINUED, FROM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM TO THE THIRD DECREE OF THE SENATE FOR SHUTTING THE TEJMPLE OF JANUS. Reason why this period is taken. — Proceedings of Caesar till the commencement of his fifth consulship, Jan. 1, a.j.p. 4684. — First decree of the senate to shut the gates of the temple of Janus passed that day. — Title of emperor given him that year. — Occasion of his receiving the title of Augustus in his seventh consulshiji, Jan. 1 7, A.J.P. 4686. — The peace of the empire undisturbed until a.j.p. 4688. — Revolt in Gallia Cisalpina, and Spain. When it was quelled, Augustus shut the temple of Janus the second time. — The testimony of Orosius considered. Correct as to his facts, but not as to his dates. — The temple probably shut the second time early in the eleventh consulship of Augustus, a.j.p, 4690.— Inscription at Merida. — Augustus appointed proconsul and tribune of the people for life. — Secular games, a.j.p. 4696, and Horace's ode on the occasion, proofs of continued repose. — New commotions in A.J.P. 4697. — Death of Agi'ippa, and adoption of Tiberius, a.j.p. 4701. — Barbarous nations subjugated towards the close of a.j.p. 4702. — Third decree of the senate to shut the temple of Janus, passed probably in Jan. a.j.p. 4703. Prevented from taking effect by a new insurrection. Probable reasons for believing that it was to have been carried into effect on the 30th of March following. The decree, therefore, may have been suspended in February a.j.p. 4703, in the 21st j-ear after the battle of Actium. We ai'e next to consider, and adjust to the modern computation of time, that portion of the reign of Augustus, which extended from the battle of Actium to the year in which it was decreed by the senate that the temple of Janus should be shut by him the third time. This period is taken, because we can ascertain, with some degree of precision, the dates of the first and second times in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus, and also the date of the decree for shutting it the third time ; but a very great difficulty arises, as to the precise time when that decree was carried into effect. On the decision of that question, indeed, as Ave shall here- after more distinctly see, depends one of the most essential points in our present inquiry. CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CiESAR. 199 After the battle of Actium, Caesar went first into Macedonia, and, during the remainder of his third consulship, was occupied chiefly in settling the affairs of Greece, and securing his position, with regard to the Asiatic auxiliaries. From Greece he went into Asia, intending, as we learn from Suetonius, to take up his winter quarters in Samos ; but, being disturbed by information that the soldiers he had sent back to Brundusium were in a state of mutiny, he suddenly and secretly departed for Italy. While in Asia, he had entered on his fourth consulship, with Marcus Licinius Crassus for his colleague, the 1st of January, a. 4683 of the Julian period. We have already had occasion to observe, when considering the EgyjJtian computation of the years of Augustus, that Ctesar returned to Italy " in the middle of that winter," to use the lan- guage of Dio. It will be seen, by consulting the calendar, that mid-winter was the fourth before the ides, or the 10th of January.^ The arrival of Cfesar at Brundusium may, therefore, be placed about the middle of that month. As he staid only thirty days, according to Dio, or twenty-seven, according to Suetonius,^ he must have returned to Greece not far from the middle of February. Causing his vessels to be transported across the isthmus of Corinth, in order to gain time, he passed rapidly into Asia, and thence, through Syria, into Egypt. Alexandria was taken on the 27th of March.^ After remaining some months in Egypt, he returned, through Syria, into Asia, and, according to his intention the pre- ceding yeai', established his winter-quarters at Samos. In the mean time, many decrees in honour of him were made at Rome. A triumph over Cleopatra was granted, and two triumphal arches ordered to be built, one at Brundusium, the other in the Roman forum. Both his birth-day, and the day on which the news of the victory was received at Rome, were to be religiously observed ; and that in which Alexandria was taken, was marked in the calendar as fortunate. On the other hand, all the honours which had been paid to Antony were rescinded, the day of his birth denounced as polluted, and no one of his family allowed thereafter to take the prsenomen of Marcus. From an inscription published by Sigonius, it appears that three consuls were substituted, in the course of this year, for Licinius ' Chap. iii. Roman year, p. 87. - Octavianus, c. 17. * See Calendar, p. 88. 200 HISTORY OF OCTAVIANUS CESAR. [PART I. Crassus, or for the emperor himself, viz. : the 1st of July, the loth of September, and the 1st of November. IMP. C^SAR mr. M. LICINIUS K. JUL. C. ANTISTIUS ID SEPT. M. TULLIUS K. NOV. L. S^NIUS. Marcus TuUius, who became consul on the ides of September, was the son of the great orator Cicero, whom Antony caused to be proscribed and murdered ; and Dio says it was remarked, as an instance of Divine retribution, that the news of the death of Antony was received at Rome in that part of the year in which the son of Cicero was consul.' It is evident, therefore, that the news of Antony's death arrived at Rome between the middle of September and the last of October, in the year 4683 of the Julian period. Eight consulships, from the fourth to the eleventh, were held by Cfesar in successive years. He entered on the fifth (a.j.p. 4684), in the island of Samos.^ His colleague was Sextus Appu- leius, to whom Orosius alone gives the prsenomen Lucius. On the 1st day of January, while he was at Samos, the senate passed many decrees in his honour ; but of all these decrees, says Dio, that hy loliicli the gates of the temple of Janus v^ere ordered to he shut gave him the most pleasure, as implying that, by his victories, all wars for them were at an end.^ This was the third time only of those gates being shut since the existence of the Roman people; " a huge argument," as Velleius Paterculus observes, " of their warlike character."'* In the same year (a.j.p. 4684, a.u.c. 723-4) he received the name of emperor (Imperator, AvTOKparwp), not in the sense in which it was anciently given, after victories achieved, for in that sense he received it, before and after, twenty-one times, but in that other sense, in which it had been decreed to Julius Csesar, as denoting supreme power.^ In his seventh consulship (a.j.p. 4586, a.u.c. 725-6), he proposed 1 Dion Cass, H.R. lib. li. 1-19. pp. 442- Manlio consule, tertio Augusto principe 457. Ed. Reimar, torn. i. p. 631-650. (certne pads argiimentum), Janus Gemimis * Sueton. Octavianus, c. 26. clausus dedit. Vcl. Paterc. H. R. lib. ii. » Dion. H. R. lib. li. c. 20, p. 457. c. 38. See also Livy, i. c. 19. * Imniane bellicas civitatis argumentum, '' Dion, II. R. lib Hi. c. 41, p. 493-4. quod semel sub regibus, iterum hoc T. CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 201 to the senate to lay down his imperial dignity, and restore the republic. From various motives, which are well detailed by Dio, the senate unanimously entreated him to retain his authority ; and their request was confirmed by the people. On this occasion, he made his adroit division of the provinces, by which a portion of authority was seemingly given to the senate, but by which, in reality, all power was kept within his own hands. ^ According to the accurate Censorinus, on the 17th of January, when Csesar was consul the seventh, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa the third time, he received the title of Augustus, proposed by L. Munacius Plancus, and decreed by the senate and Roman people.^ It is evident, from Dio's account, that this name was given at the time of his oflfering to resign the imperial dignity. He says that Csesar himself greatly desired to be called Romulus ; but, perceiving that he was, on that account, suspected of a design to restore the monarchy, he aspired to it no longer. The Romans hated the name of monarchy so much, that they would not suflfer their emperors to be called either dictators or kings. But, in reality, the whole power of the senate and people was transferred to Augustus, and, from that time forth, a perfect monarchy was established.^ The peace of the Roman empire appears to have remained un- disturbed until the year 4688 of the Julian period, the ninth con- sulship of Augustus with Marcus Silanus (a.u.c. 727-8), when the revolt took place of the Salassi, the Astures, and the Cantabri. The Salassi inhabited the deep valley covered by the Alpis Pen- nina and the Alpis Graia, or the Great and Little St. Bernard ; the Cantabri and the Astures occupied the modern Biscay and Asturias. Terentius Varro was sent against the Salassi, and Augustus him- self marched into Spain. More than 36,000 of the Salassi were publicly sold as slaves, and their lands given to a new colony, called Augusta Praetorianorum, the modern Aosta."* The Can- tabri and Astures made a more vigorous resistance, and were con- quered with great difficulty. Augustus himself fell sick from care and fatigue, and the war was brought to successful issue by Caius ' Dion. H. R. lib. liii. c. 1115, p. 503 6. sanio Agrippa tertium consulibus. Cens. * Ex ante diem decimum sextum kal. de Die Natali, c. 22. Februarii, sententia L. Munacii Planci, a ' Dion, ut sup. liii. c. 16-17. senatu cseterisque civibus Augustus ap- * Strabo, lib. iv. p. 206. pellatus est, sese septimum, et M. Vip- 26 202 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. [PART I. Antistius. The veterans were rewarded by the foundation of a new colony, called Emerita Augusta, which still preserves its name, with little alteration, in that of Merida. About the same time, Marcus Vinicius obtained a victory in Germany, for which the senate decreed him the honours of a triumph ; and Augustus again shut the gates of the temple of Janus, which had, on account of these wars, been reopened.* As Orosius has made some mistakes in his account of the first and second time in which Augustus closed the temple of Janus, as well as in that of his closing it the third time, which will be con- sidered in its proper place, and, as these mistakes have injured the credit of his testimony more than they ought, it may be as well to point them out here. He is, in general, correct as to his facU, but not as to his dates. For example, in speaking of the events after the battle of Actium, he says that, " in the year of Rome 726, when Csesar Augustus and Lucius Appuleius were consuls, Csesar, returning victorious from the east, entered the city in threefold triumph, on the 6 th of January ; and then first he shut the gates of the temple of Janus, all the civil wars being quelled and finished. On that same day he was first saluted by the name of Augustus."^ And again : "In the year 726 from the building of the city, the emperor Augustus Caesar being consul the sixth, and Marcus Agrippa the second time, Csesar, perceiving that little had been done in Spain for the last two hundred years, if he should permit the Cantabri and Astures, two powerful nations of Spain, to use their own laws, opened the gates of the temple of Janus, and marched in person with his army into Spain." "From the conquest of the Cantabri, Csesar obtained this honour, that then also he ordered the gates of war to be barred. Thus the temple of Janus was now shut for the second time by Csesar, and the fourth since the foundation of Rome."^ ' Dion. H. R. lib. liii. c. 25-26, p. 513- Marco Agrippa consulibus, Ctesar, parum 515, Vel. Paterc. lib. ii. 104. in Hispania per ducentum annos actum * Anno ab urbe dccxxvi. ipso impe- intelligens, si Cantabros atque Astures rante Cresare Augusto et Lucio Appuleio duas fortissimas gentes Hispauise suis uti consulibus, Cresar victor ab oriente i-ediens legibus sineret, aperuit Jani portas, atque octavo idus Januarii urbem triplici tri- in Hispanias ipse cum exercitu profectus umphoingressus est: ac turn primum ipse est Cantabricse victorise hunc hono- Jani portas, sopitis omnibus finitisque rem detulit Csesar : ut tunc quoque belli bellis civilibus clausit. Hoc die primum portas claustro cohiberi juberet. Itanunc, Augustus consalutatus est. secundo per Cajsarem, quarto post urbem ^ Anno ab urbe condita dccxxvi, im- conditam, clausus est Janus. Orosius, peratore Augusto Csesare sexies, et bis Hist. lib. vi. CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 203 Though the facts here stated are, in the main, true, they are, as to dates, jumbled confusedly together. The senate passed the first decree to shut the temple of Janus, on the 1st of January, in the fifth year of Csesar's consulship with Sextus (not Lucius) Appu- leius. But Csesar was then at Samos, and it was impossible for him to have entered Rome in threefold triumph on the 6th of January 1 He was saluted Augustus on the 17th of January, two years after ; and he marched into Spain two years later still. But to resume the narrative. Although Dio speaks of the temple of Janus being shut the second time, while relating the occurrences of the ninth consulship of Augustus, it is probable that it did not take place till his eleventh consulship, or a.j.p. 4690 ; for the emperor was detained by his illness, so that he had not yet arrived in Rome when his tenth consulship commenced (a.u.c. 728-9, A.J.P. 4689), on the calends of January, though notice had been given of his approach. The Cantabri and Astures again revolted, as soon as he left Spain, and were again subdued, though not without great difficulty, by the cruel measures of Lucius ^milius.^ That the temple of Janus was shut in the eleventh consulship of Augustus, appears from an inscription, discovered at Merida, which bears the date of that year : IMP. CiES. DIVI F. AVGVSTVS. PONT...X. MAX. COS. XL TRIBVNIC. POT. X. IMP. Villi. ORBE . MAPI ET . TERRA PACATO . TEMPLO lANI CLVSO.^ How long it continued shut we are not informed ; but in the very next year, in the consulship of M. Claudius Marcellus ^serninus 1 Dio, ut sup. c. 28-9, p. 516. and the ninth year of that name would be * I am indebted for this inscription to a.u.c. 731 -.32, a.j.p. 4692. Possibly Imp. a note in the Delphine edition of Horace, ix. may be dated from the battle of Ac- Carm. lib. iv. o. 15. But if it be there tium, a.j.p. 4682. In the ode to which correctly given, and I understand it, the the note is appended, Horace connects dates do not accord. Augustus was ere- the restoration of the standards taken at ated Pontifex Maximus on the death of the defeat of Crassus by the Parthians Lepidus, a.u.c. 739-40, a.j.p. 4700. He with the shutting of the temple of Janus; was consul the eleventh time, a.u.c. 729- "Et signa nostro restituit Jovi 30, a.j.p. 4690. His tribunicial authority Derepta Parthorum superbis began to be reckoned, according te the Postibus, et vacuum duellis Capitoline Tables, the next year, a.j.p. Janum Quirini clausit." 4691, and consequently the tenth year of But Phraates restoi'ed these standards to that power would be a.j.p. 4700. The Augustus, A.u.c. 732-33, a.j.p. 4693. title of emperor was given A.u.c. 723-24, 204 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. [PART I. and Lucius Arruntius, the Cantabri and Astures again revolted, and the former were either taken prisoners and sold, or perished rather than submit.' The severe illness by vehich Augustus was attacked in Spain, appears to have greatly injured his constitution;^ for, in his eleventh consulship (a.u.c. 729-30, a.j.p. 4690), he was again reduced so low, that no hopes were entertained of his recovery. He had made his will, and had named in it no successor, though Marcellus was then living. His recovery was attributed to the care and skill of Antonius Musa ; and, as soon as he was restored to health, he abdicated the consulship, substituting for himself Lucius Sestius, who had been the steady friend of Brutus. These evidences of moderated ambition, and subdued resentment, gave such general satisfaction, that the senate appointed him perpetual proconsul of the Roman empii-e, empowered him to assemble their order whenever he pleased, and made him tribune of the people for life, with all the immunities and privileges of that dignity. As this office was originally created to shelter the people from the power of the patricians, it was peculiarly accejDtable to Augustus ; and, although neither he nor any other emperor actually bore the name of tribune, yet they were careful to insert in the public records, among their other titles, the possession of tribunicial authority.^ In the consulship of C. Sentius Saturninus and Q. Lucretius Vespillo (a.u.c. 733-4, a.j.p. 4694), on account of the disturbances attending the consular election, the senate appointed Augustus consul for life, and decreed that he should always, and everywhere, be attended by twelve lictors, and should sit on a curule chair, between all the future consuls.'* We are still without any testimony as to the re-opening of the temple of Janus ; but, during that same year, such of the Cantabri as had been taken and sold, murdered their masters, and recovered their former possessions. The military skill they had acquired, during their servitude under Roman masters, and their despair of pardon If captured, rendered them a dangerous enemy. Agrlppa was therefore sent against them, by whom they were, with great loss, both of life and reputation, to the army, finally subdued, ' Dion. H. R. lib. liv. c. 5, p. 523-4. ' Dion. H. R. lib. liii. c. 32, p. 519. ' Suet, lib. ii. c. 81. * Dion. H. R. lib. liv. c. 10, p. 528. CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 205 and almost exterminated. Many of the Roman soldiers were dis- graced, and the whole Augustan legion, as a mark of ignominy, were forbidden to retain that name.' Possibly, the revolt of a few slaves, in a distant province, may not have been considered of sufficient importance to disturb the general tranquillity. Dio states, that Agrippa did not write letters to the senate concerning his successes, nor did he accept the triumph with which Augustus wished to honour him. That the next year, when the two Lentuli were consuls (a.u.c. 734-5, a.j.p. 4695), was a year of peace, may be inferred from the continual presence of Augustus and Agrippa at Rome ; the latter employed in em- bellishing the city, and promoting the comfort of its inhabitants ; the former, engaged in reforming abuses, and establishing whole- some laws. The following year, when Caius Furnius and Caius Silanus were consuls (a.u.c. 735-6, a.j.p. 4696), the secular games were cele- brated for the fifth time.^ Why celebrated then, we can only con- jecture. Augustus loved shows of this kind ; and the confusion of the civil wars, ever since the time of Julius Caesar, had probably caused them to be neglected. The " Carmen Sseculare " of Horace, was written for the occasion ; and the language of the poet leads us to infer that the empire was in repose : " Jam Fides, et Pax, et Honos, Pudorque Prisons, et neglecta redire Virtus Audet ; apparetque beata pleno Copia cornu." — Carm. Saec. v. 121-4. " Faith, Honour, Peace, celestial maid. And Modesty in ancient guise array'd, And Virtue (with unhallow'd scorn Too long neglected) now appear, While Plenty fills her bounteous horn. And pours her blessings o'er the various year." — Francis. The second period, therefore, in the reign of Augustus during which the temple of Janus was shut, extended probably from his tenth or eleventh consulship to that of Furnius and Silanus, — from the 729th or 730th to the 736th year of Rome, or from the year of the Julian period 4689 or 4690 to 4696 inclusive, a period of seven or eight years. 1 Dion, ut sup. c. 11. » Dion. H. K. lib. liv. c. 18, p. 533, c. 206 HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. [PART I. In the next year, when Domitius Ahenobarbus and Cornelius Sciplo were consuls (a.u.c. 736-7, a.j.p. 4697), new commotions arose, which continued with more or less violence for ten years. Agrippa was sent into Syria; and Augustus, confiding the govern- ment of the city, with all Italy, to Statilius Taurus, departed hastily into Gaul. Dion assigns other motives for his going, but says that he went ostensibly on account of the wars which at that time were set in motion.' The Vennones above the Lago di Como, and the Cammuni near the sources of the Ollius or Oglio, took up arms. The inhabitants of Noricum and Pannonia made an incur- sion into Istria. Tumults were excited in Dalmatia and Iberia. The Dentheleta? and the Scordisci ravaged Macedonia. The Sau- romatae advanced beyond the Danube. The Sicambri, UsipetaB Teuchteri, and other German tribes, crossed the Rhine, and were so formidable that Augustus went in person to the war. Tiberius and Drusus were actively engaged in repelling the inhabitants of Rhoetia and the other Alpine tribes.^ The commotions in Gaul, Germany, and Spain, being allayed, Augustus left Drusus in Germany and returned to Rome, in the consulship of Tiberius and Quintilius Varus (a.u.c. 739-40, a.j.p. 4700). Dion says, that on the news of his approach, the senate erected an altar in the very senate-house, to show by their suppli- cations, that while Augustus was within the Pomoerium they were without fear. The historian adds, that he would not accept of this idolatry to his own person; and he entered the city by night, to avoid being received by a public procession of the citizens.^ This year, occurred the death of Lepidus the former triumvir. He had been Pontifex Maximus, a dignity which was held for life ; and that office was now conferred by the senate upon Augustus.^ The date of this appointment is given in the ancient calendar of Verrius Flaccus, discovered in 1770 at Palestrina, the ancient Prseneste. In the table for March, is the following inscription : IMP. c. A PE. NP P. IMP. CAESAE. AVGVST. PONT. which means that Augustus was created Pontifex on the day before the nones, or the sixth of that month. As this was forty-seven 1 Dion. liv. 19. s j)ion ^t sup. c. 25. 2 Dion. H.E. lib. liv. c. 22, p. 536, c.d.e, * Dion. H.E. ut sup. c. 27 ; Suet. 1. ii.c. 31, CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. 207 days before the Parilla, it was towards the close of the 739th year of Rome,* In the following year, M. Valerius Messalla and P. Sulpicius Quirinus being consuls (a.u.C 740-1, a.j.p. 4701), Agrippa died. He had for five years shared with Augustus the tribunicial autho- rity, and was now appointed the second time for the same period. He was then sent into Pannonia, "with greater powers," says Dio, " than any other commander had ever possessed out of Italy."" On his return, he died in Campania, so suddenly, that Augustus, who hastened from the city on the news of his illness, did not find him living. The Pannonians, who had been frightened into submission by his presence, revolted again as soon as they heard of his death ; and Augustus, compelled by this event to adopt Tiberius, sent him against them. Drusus also was engaged in continual wars with the Cherusci, the Suevi, and the Sicambri. Other incursions took place of the barbarous nations in the Thracian Chersonesus and Macedonia, against whom Lucius Piso, who commanded in Pam- phylia, carried on the war, and after some reverses of fortune, succeeded in subduing them, and received the honours of a triumph. These events principally took place when Quintus ^l^lius Tubero and Paulus Fabius Maximus were consuls (a.u.c. 741-2, a.j.p. 4702). The senate, deceived by the apparent calm, now "decreed that the temple of Janus, which had been opened, should be shut, as if these wars had ceased." " Nevertheless,"''' says Dio, " it was not shut ; for the Dacians having passed the Ister (or Danube) on the ice, had ravaged Pannonia, and the Dalmatians, on account of the exactions on their property, had revolted." ^ From this account, two inferences may fairly be drawn ; first, that the news of the Dacians having crossed the Ister must have arrived after the senate had passed the decree, and before the day appointed for the solemnity, or it would have been carried into effect; and, secondly, that as the Dacians crossed in the winter season, it must have been that winter in which the consulship * Ovid alludes to this appointment of Quisquis ades, canaeque eolis penetralia Augustus in the third Book of his Fasti Vestte; V. 415, and assigns to it the same date: Cratera Iliacis turaque pone focis. Sextus ubi Oceano cUvosum scandit olym- Ccesaris innumeris, quern maluit ilk mereri, puDti Accessit titiilis Pontificalis honos. Phoebus, et alatis lethera carpit equis ; i Dion. H.K. lib. liv. c. 28-36, p. 541, c. to p. 546 D. 208 " HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAR. [PART I. of Tubero and Paulus Fabius ended, and the succeeding consul- ship of Julus Antonius and Quintus Fabius began; that is, in December of the year 4702 of the Julian period, or January or February of the year 4703. The emperor was in Rome, and in good health ; and however solemn may have been the ceremonies which attended the closing of the temple of Janus, there could have been no cause for much delay after the passing of the decree. Let us, then, consider in what month the ceremony of shutting the temple of Janus would be most likely to take place. From all that we know of the sacred rites of the Romans, it would seem most probable that some day sacred to Janus would be chosen. On consulting the calendar, we find five days in the year in which he was honoured : F Kal. Januar. Sacred to Janus, Juno, Jupiter, and Esculapius. C vi. Idus. Jan. or Jan. 8th. Sacrifice to Janus. C iii. Kal. Apr. or March 30. Sacred to Janus, Concordia, Salus, Pax. N.P. xii. Kal. Jun. or May 21. Agonalia or Agoniana of Jauus. N.P.xvi. Kal. Sept. or Aug. 17. Portumnalia to Janus. Macrobius says that Janus was invoked in their sacred rites under the names of Janus Geminus, Janus Pater, Janus Junonius, Janus Consivius, Janus Quirinus, Janus Patulcius and Clusivius. The reasons of these titles, he gives as follows : 1. Janus Geminus, because he represented the sun, who, when he rises, opens, and when he sets, shuts, the gates of heaven. 2. Janus Pater, as being god of gods — quasi Deorum Deum. 3. Janus Junonius, as holding the entrance not of January only, but of all the months, because all the calends were under the dominion (in ditione) of Juno. 4. Janus Consivius (a conserendo, id est, a propagine generis humani qu£e Jano auctore conseritur), because to him is ascribed the seed-sowing of the human race. 5. Janus Quirinus, as having power over wars, from the spear which the Sabines call Curis. 6. Janus Patulcius and Clusivius, because in war his gates are open, and in peace are shut.' Of these six titles, the second, third, and fourth, have no con- ' Macrob. Saturnal. lib. i. c. 9. CHAP. VIII.] HISTORY OF AUGUSTUS C^SAK. 209 nexion with the subject ; nor do we find the sixth title mentioned, though applicable to it. But the two remaining titles of Janus Geminus and Janus Quirinus seem to be used interchangeably. Dio and Velleius Paterculus speak of shutting the temple of Janus Geminus ; Suetonius, and Augustus himself, of shutting the temple of Janus Quirinus. The question now recurs as to the day. It is not likely that It was the first of January, for several reasons. That day was dedi- cated to Juno, Jupiter, and Esculapius, as well as to Janus ; and the only reason why his name is connected with theirs, seems to be that the month was named from him, that as he represented the sun, it was the beginning of another revolution, and hence that his double face was symbolical of past and future time. But there is another reason, which applies particularly to the present case. The ice could hardly have been strong enough for the Dacians to cross the Ister early in December, as they must have done, that the news of their incursion might reach Rome before the first of January. It is more likely, then, that the ceremony of closing the temple was to have taken place on the thirtieth of March. That day was dedicated to Janus, in connexion with the personified divinities, Concord, Peace, and the Safety of Rome (Salus publica) ; and all these ideas are more in accordance with the design and nature of the ceremony than any other. If, then, the decree of the senate Avas passed in the month of January, and the day of the solemnity was fixed for the thirtieth of March, there would be time for the news respecting the Dacians and Dalmatians to arrive in Rome during the preparations for the ceremony ; and the decree would be suspended merely, with a view of quelling these insur- rections as early as possible. We may, therefore, place the arrival of this news, and the suspension of the decree, in the month of Februar}^, at the beginning of the consulship of Julus Antonius and Quintus Fabius; in the year 4703 of the Julian Period, the eighth month of the first year of the 192nd olympiad, the 742nd year of Rome, being before the Parilia, the 35th year of Caesar's reformed calendar, and in the sixth month of the 21st year after the battle of Actium. 27 210 [part I. CHAPTER IX. INQUIEY WHEN THE TEMPLE OF JANUS WAS SHUT THE THIRD TIME BY AUGUSTUS. Testimony to the fact that it was so shut. — Suetonius. — The Ancyra Inscription. — Orosius. — Birth of Christ placed by him in the same year. — Dionysius Exiguus pro- bably governed by his dates. — These dates examined. — Execution of the senate's decree prevented in the winter of a.j.p. 4702-3. — Transactions of the subsequent j^ears examined. — Augustus went to Gaul, Tiberius into Pannonia and Dalmatia, Drusus into Germany. — The insurrections quelled, they returned to Rome a.j.p. 4703. — The next year Drusus died. — His body conveyed to Rome in the depth of Avinter. — The campaign in Germany renewed early in a.j.p. 4705. — Tiberius crossed the Rhine; expatriation of the Germans. — Tiberius received the supreme command of the army in place of Drusus, was designated consul for the next year, and tri- umphed.— The month Sextilis called Augustus, and the Julian calendar received its last correction in the twentieth year of Augustus. — Tribunicial anthority gi'anted to Tiberius, a.j.p. 4707. — The tribunicial authority of Augustus considered. — Tibe- rius retires to Rhodes. — The history of Dio defective for moi-e than three years, and exactly at the period in which the temple of Janus must have been shut the third time. — Inscription preserved by Pliny of this year, the seventeenth of the tribunicial power of Augustus, from which it is infen-ed that the temple of Janus was then shut the third time. — Proofs of profound peace from that year. — Augustus consul the twelfth and thirteenth times, to do honour to his grandsons Caius and Lucius. — Historj' of Caius considered. — His consulship, a.j.p. 4713. — Interesting letter of " Augustus, preserved by Aulus Gellius. — Return of Tiberius to Rome, in July a.j.p. 4714.— Death of Lucius, Aug. 21 following.— Death of Caius, Feb. 21, a.j.p. 4716. — Tribunicial authority conferred the second time upon Tiberius. — Chronology now exactly determined.— Augustus forbids the people to salute him by the title of Domi- nus, or Lord. — Agi'ippa Posthumus receives the toga virilis, a.j.p. 4717. — Extent and position of the Roman army. — a.j.p. 4718, an eventful year. Revolts of Germans, Dalmatians, and Pannonians. From this time forth continual wars till the death of Augustus. — Temple of Janus closed nearly twelve years, from a.j.p. 4707 to a.j.p. 4718. — Our Saviour born during this period. The question when the temple of Janus was shut the thu'cl time by Augustus, is now to be considered ; a question which it is the more important to answer, because our Saviour was born during that period. CHAP. EX.] THE TEMPLE OF JANUS. 21 1 Dio, as we have seen, expressly states, that the temple of Janus was shut twice by Augustus ; and that, by a decree of the senate, it was ordered to be shut the third time. He says, however, that it was not shut at that tiyne; and that part of his work is unfor- tunately lost in which he would have had occasion to mention the fact of its being shut afterwards. But Suetonius asserts that " the temple of Janus Quirinus, which from the building of the city had before the time of Augustus been shut only twice, he, in a much shorter space of time, shut thrice, peace having been obtained both by sea and land." ^ The celebrated Ancyra inscription, copied from the brazen tablets at Rome, and composed by Augustus himself, or in his name, accords perfectly with the historian, as far as it goes, but is, unhappily, mutilated.* Orosius, the friend and pupil of St. Augustine and St. Jerome, is the only historian who has mentioned any particulars respecting this third closing of the temple of Janus. I have before had occa- sion to observe that this author, though he generally states facts, is inaccurate as to his dates. He says : " In the year from the foundation of Rome 752, all nations from east to west, from north to south, and through the whole circle of the ocean, being quietly settled in unbroken peace, Ceesar Augustus himself shut, for the third time, the gates of the temple of Janus. That these, in this most quiet period, remained continually barred for nearly twelve years, was indicated even by their very rust; nor were they ever opened until, in the extreme old age of Augustus, they were beaten down by the sedition of the Athenians, and the commotion of the Dacians. The gates of the temple of Janus, therefore, being shut, he was desirous in peace to nourish and enlarge that empire which he had obtained by war. He therefore enacted many laws, by means of which the human race might, with voluntary reverence, become submissive to his discipline. As man, he declined the appellation of Lord; for when he was present at the public games, and an ^ Januni Quirinum semel atque iterum a peR . totvm . Imperium . popvli . ro- condita urbe, memoriam ante suam clan- mani . parta est terra mariqne pAX . cum sum, in multo breviore temporis spatio, a condita urbe [or post Romara conditam] terra marique pace parta, ter clusit. — Suet. lanum quiRinum bis . osinino . clavsvm . lib. ii. c. 22. ante me fuissE . prodatvr , raemorlAE . * The capital letters indicate those which ter . me . principe . clavdendvm . esse. remain; the smaller letters the conjectural decrevit Senatns. restorations made bv learned moderns : 212 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [ PART I. actor having uttered the words, O just and good Lord, all the spectators applauded, as if they were spoken of him, he immedi- ately repressed, by his gestures and his countenance, the indecorous adulation. On the following day, he censured it by a severe edict, and would never afterwards suffer himself to be called Lord, either in jest or earnest, by his children or grand-children. Therefore, in that time, that is, in that year in which Ctesar, by the command of God, established a most permanent and real peace, Christ was born."» Orosius, if I mistake not, is the only ancient writer, before Dionysius Exiguus, who places the birth of our Saviour so late as the year of Rome 752. I am inclined to think, therefore, that Dionysius was governed by his authority ; and, if so, the whole modern computation of time, from the sera of our Saviour's birth, is derived from the passage now under examination. It is the more important, therefore, that we should examine his dates by the light which more accurate writers throw on the events occurring in this part of the reign of Augustus. The revolt of the Dalmatians, and the incursion of the Dacians, which prevented the execution of the senate's decree to close the temple of Janus, took place, as we have seen, in the winter of A.J.P. 4702-3. We have now to examine the transactions of the several subsequent years. On receiving this news, Augustus went into Gaul, and stopped at Lyons, there to watch the progress of events. Tiberius, who had accompanied him, went into Pannonia and Dalmatia ; and Drusus engaged the Chatti, the Sicambri, and other German tribes. These insurrections being quelled, Tiberius and Drusus 1 Anno ab iirbo condita dcclii, Caisar mini appellationem ut homo declinavit. Augustus ab oriente in occidentem, a sep- Nam cum, eodem spectante ludos, pro- tentrione in meridiem per totum Oceani nunciatum esset a quodam mimo O Domi- circulum cunctis gcntibus una pace com- num. ccquum et bonum, universique, quasi de positis, Jani portas tcrtio ipse clausit. ipso dictum esse, exultantes approbavis- quas cevo per xii fere annos quietissimo sent, statim quidcra manu vultuque inde- semper obseratas ocio ipsa etiam rubigo coras adulationes repressit, et in sequenti signavit: nee prius unquam nisi extrema die gravissimo corripuit edicto, Dominum- scnectute Augusti pulsata? Athcniensium que se post hoc appellari ne liberis quidem seditione et Dacorum conmiotione patue- aut nepotibus suis vel serio vel jocopassus rant. Ch\usis igitur Jani portis, rempub- est. Igitur eo tempore, id est, eo anno licam (piam hello quresiverat, pace enutrire quo finnissimam verissimamque pacem atquc ampliticare studcns, leges pku'imas ordinatione Dei Ctesar composuit, natiis statuit, per qnas humanum genus libera est Christus. — Orosius, Hist. lib. vi. cap. reverentia disciplincC morom gcrcret. Do- ult. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 213 returned with Augustus to Rome, and there received triumphal honours. " These things were done," says Dio, " when Julus ( Julus Antonius) and Fabius Maximus were consuls ;" that is, A.u.c. 742-3, A.J.P. 4703.1 The next year, Drusus and Cx'ispinus being consuls (a.u.c. 743-4, A.j.p. 4704), Drusus himself died in Germany, at the age of thirty.'^ He had penetrated as far as the Albis, or Elbe, laying waste the whole country. Here a woman, says Dio, of more than mortal stature, met him, and said, " Whither, then, O insatiable Drusus, art thou hastening ? The Fates do not permit thee to see all these things. Be- gone ! for the end of thy deeds, and of thy life, is at hand." What- ever may be thought of an event which the historian has repre- sented as a prodigy, it shows clearly the awe created by this wild enthusiasm in the mind of a superstitious general, and the im- pression which the stern cruelty of Roman warfare had produced on the terrified, though brave inhabitants. Drusus immediately retreated, and had not reached the Rhine when his leg was frac- tured, by the falling of his horse upon it. He lingered thirty days, and then died.^ Augustus, who was two hundred miles distant, was soon informed of his illness, and sent Tiberius to him in haste.* The body was conveyed in funeral procession to Rome ; as far as the winter quarters of the army, on the shoulders of the centurions and military tribunes, and thence from city to city, by their most distinguished inhabitants, till it arrived in the metropolis. The exact time of the year when this procession took place, appears also from Tacitus ; for he states, that Augustus went, in the depth of winter, to Ticinum, to meet the body of Drusus.^ The most solemn and magnificent funeral rites were celebrated in the forum, and the senate passed a decree giving the name of Germanicus to Drusus and his sons.'^ " Augustus did not enter the city, on account of the death of Drusus," being prevented by religious ' Dion, H R. lib. liv. 36, p. 546, d.k. die longissimum iter vehiculis tribus Tibe- * Vel. Patcrc. lib. ii. 97. rium Neronem emensum, festinantem ad ' Liv. Epitome, lib. cxl. Drusum fratrem a?grotum in Germania : * We know the exact distance from a in eo fuerunt cc. millia passuum." — Nat. curious passage in Pliny's natural history, Hist. lib. vii. c. 20. What would Pliny which states that Tiberius performed the have thought of our railroads and loco- journey in a day and a night. Speaking motives ! of several wonderful instances of speed, he ' Tac. Ann. lib. iii. c. 5. says: " Cujus rei admiratio ita demum ^ Dion, H. K. lib. Iv, c. 1, 2, p. .548, A. to solida pervenict, si quis cogitet nocte ac .54'J, c. 214 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PAUT I. motives ; " but the next year," says Dio, " in which Asinius Gallus and Caius Marcius were consuls" (a.u.c. 744-5, a.j.p. 4705), "he made his entrance, and, contrary to usage, offered the laurel in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. But he did not celebrate any festival on that account, estimating his loss, in the destruction of Drusus, as far greater than the profit derived from his victories." ' It was common for the victorious general to lay his laurel wreath on the lap of Jupiter Capitolinus ; but, on account of the death of Drusus, Augustus would not enter the city in triumph till the year of the consulship of Drusus had expired ; and, even then, he varied from the general custom, in token of his grief. How early in this year the campaign in Germany was renewed, we cannot ascertain with precision ; but, from the expressions of Dio, we may infer that no time was lost. He tells us, that the new consuls, and the other magistrates of that year, had been accused of obtaining their offices by bribery ; and, though Augustus stifled inquiry, he made it a rule for the future, that all candidates should deposit a pledge before the election, to be forfeited on con- viction of unlawful practices. After this and other regulations, he again acce2)ted the imperial power for ten years, and then marched against the Celts, or Germans, with his army. The regulations of which Dio speaks, could not have taken up much time. Augus- tus himself did not advance beyond the Roman territory ; but Tiberius crossed the Rhine. Terrified by their force, all the bar- barians, except the Sygambri, sent their ambassadors to treat for peace. Augustus refused to grant it, unless the Sygambri would unite with them ; and afterwards, even when the Sygambri did send their ambassadors, these were so far from being able to effect any thing, that all of them, and many others of their most illus- trious men, perished ; for Augustus having seized and distributed them in certain cities, they could not endure the expatriation, and laid violent hands upon themselves.^ What this expatriation was, we learn from Suetonius : " The Germans beyond the river Albis he [Augustus] removed; of whom the Ubii and the Sygambri, who had surrendered themselves, he oaused to migi'ate into Gaul, and established them in the territories along the Rhine." And again : " In the German war, he [Tiberius] 1 Dion, II. E. lib. Iv. c. 5, p. 551, c. ^ Dion, II. E. lib. Iv. c. 5, 6, p. 551. CHAP. IX.] SHUT TUE THIRD TIME. 215 compelled forty thousand of those who had surrendered themselves, to remove into Gaul, and placed them in territories assigned to them along the bank of the Rhine."^ Dio adds, " that all these tribes, though they thenceforth re- mained for some time quiet, finally repaid the Romans for this heavy debt of suffering with lai-ge interest." What a wonderful instance is this of Divine retribution, which, sooner or later, over- takes guilty nations even in this world ! " Tiberius received from Augustus the supreme command of the army in the place of Drusus, was designated consul the second time, and graced with triumphal honours. In these Augustus himself would take no share ; but he permitted the perpetual celebration of equestrian games on his birth-day, enlarged the bounds of the pomosrium, and changed the name of the month, which had been called Sextilis, into that of Augustus. Others desired to give that name to September, because he was born in it; but he himself preferred Sextilis, because in that month he had first been made consul, and been victorious in many great battles."^ From these premises, we infer that the campaign in Germany extended probably from the month of March to that of August, inclusive, because the triumphal honours of Tiberius evidently preceded the birth-day of Augustus, or the 23rd of September. It appears also, from Dion's account, that in this year, the con- sulship of Censorinus and Gallus (a.j.p. 4705), the name of August was substituted for that of Sextilis in the Roman calendar. This year, therefore, was the twentieth of those called by the gramma- rian Censorinus the years of Augustus,^ as that accurate author has stated, and as we have already seen, in the fifth chapter of this work. It was a bissextile year ; and it was the duty of Augustus, as Pontifex Maximus, to regulate the intercalation. It was now found that an error had taken place by excess of intercalation ; and therefore, from this year forward, Augustus ordered the bis- sextile day to be omitted for the next twelve years. It was the thirty- seventh year of the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar. * Germanosque ultra Albim fluvium sub- cavit. — Ibid. lib. iii. c. 9. The very words movit: ex quibus Ubios et Sygambros de • here used (traduxit and trajecit) show denies se traduxit in Galliam, atque in that force was employed in the removal of proximis Rheno agris collocavit. — Sueton. these brave people. lib. ii. 0. 21. Germanico, quadraginta mil- * Dion, H. R. lib. Iv. c. 6, p. 5.51, b, c, d. Ha deditieiorum trajecit in Galliam, juxta- ^ De Die Natali, c. xxi. comp. with c. que ripam Rhcni sedibus adsignatis collo- xxii. 216 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I. The next year, Tiberius and Cneius Piso being consuls, (a.u.c. 745-6, A.j.p. 4706), soon after the calends of January, commotions having again arisen in Germany, Tiberius set out for the seat of war ; but nothing worthy of mention was done there during this year.^ The following year, when Caius Antistius Vetus and Lselius Balbus were consuls (a.u.c. 746-7, a.j.p. 4707), Augustus granted the tribunicial authority to Tiberius for five years, and sent him into Armenia, which had revolted.^ We have seen that the perpetual tribunicial authority was given to Augustus after he had abdicated his eleventh consulship, — an event which took place in the 730th year of Rome after the Parilia, and probably in the summer of the 4690th year of the Julian period. Authors seem not to be entirely agreed whether that year is to be included or not, in the computation of his tribu- nicial power. Tacitus, speaking of the eulogies on Augustus, pronounced after his death, mentions, among other things, his tribunicial authority continued for seven-and-thirty years.^ But the Fasti Capitolini reckon the year of his death as the thirty-sixth; for the last of the remainino- fraijments has the following : AVGVSTVS rONT. MAX. TR. POT. XXXV TI CAESAR AVGVSTI F. DIVI N. TR. POT. XIIII C. SILIVS. P.F.P.N. L. MVNATIVS. L.F.L.N. PLANCVS But the consulship of Caius Silius and Lucius Munatius Plancus, immediately preceded that of the two Sexti, in which Augustus died ; and, consequently, the last year of his life would be the thirty-sixth of his tribunicial power. Let the reader count the consulships backward from that of the two Sexti, and he will see that, to make thirty-seven years, he must include the eleventh consulship of Augustus. The Fasti Capitolini compute from the 1st of January of the following year. The discrepancy, therefore, is easily reconciled. The thirty-fifth year of the tribunicial autho- rity of Augustus, and the fourteenth year of that of Tiberius, coincide. Suetonius says, that Augustus chose his colleagues in that office by single lustra, or periods of five years.* He had twice ' roaavTa fih' tv rt^ 'irti tovt(i) eTrpdx- ' Continuata per septem et triginU an- Btj' kv ydp Sri ry Ftpjuav/^ ovctv d^iov nos tribunicia potestas. — Annal. lib. i. c. 9. Iiviiii7]g (Tuvie?;.— Dion. Iv. c. 8, p. 554, B. " Tribunitiam potestatem perpetuam re- - Dion, ut sup. p. 554, d. cppit : in qua semel atque iterum per sin- CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 217 before chosen Agrlppa in that mannei' ; and now Tiberius was appointed by him, in the seventeenth year of his own tribunicial authority. But, instead of being satisfied with this high honour, which, for a limited time, made him the equal of Augustus, " the second light and head of the republic,"" as his mean flatterer Vel- leius expresses himself,^ he disobeyed the order of the emperor to go into Armenia, and retired to the island of Rhodes. All the historians are utterly at a loss how to account for tliis strange conduct, and offer nothing but conjectures. Suetonius states, that Augustus complained in open senate of being deserted by him. He was deaf to all the entreaties of his mother, and, for four days, abstained from food, till he obtained permission to depart. When the term of his tribunicial power was ended, he solicited permission to return, assigning as the reason of his retirement, that he had wished to avoid all suspicion of rivalry with Caius and Lucius, the sons of Agrippa and Julia and grandsons of Augustus. His application was refused, and he remained in Rhodes, against his own will and as a private citizen, more than seven years.^ The commotion in Armenia, of which Dio speaks in the passage above cited, not being mentioned by the other historians, must have been quickly subdued. Unfortunately the history of Dio is defective from the consulship of Antistius Vetus and Lselius Balbus, to that of Augustus and Plautius Silvanus, a period of more than three years. And this is the more to be lamented, because it is precisely the period in which the temple of Janus must have been for the third time shut by Augustus. Pliny has preserved the inscription of a monument erected in honour of Augustus, by the senate and people of Rome, in the Alpine regions, recording the fact, that under the command and auspices of Augustus, all the Alpine nations, from the upper to the lower sea, — that is, from the Gulf of Venice to that of Genoa, — were brought under subjection to the Roman empire in the seven- teenth year of his tribunicial authority. Of these nations or tribes, Pliny enumerates forty-four ; and then adds, that he had not men- gula lustra collegam sibi cooptavit, — Suet, caput. — Vel. Paterc. lib. ii. c. 99. lib. ii. c. 27. ^ Suet. lib. iii. c. 10-14; compared with 1 Et vere alteram Keipublicae lumen et Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 99. 28 218 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS ' [PART I. tioned the Cottian cities, twelve in number, which had not been hostile.^ This monument was erected in the year which we are now con- sidering,— the consulship of Ltelius Balbus and Antistius Vetus, and the 4707th year of the Julian period. In itself it furnishes the most indubitable testimony of that peace which consists in victory. No historian gives any account of other wars carried on at this period ; and though Livy had ended his history before this time, and we are deprived of the faithful chronicle of Dio, yet the silence of Suetonius and Velleius Paterculus warrants the assertion that during the three succeeding consulships (a.u.c. 747-8, 748-9, 749-50), or from a.j.p. 4708 to a.j.p. 4710, the whole Roman empire Avas in a state of profound tranquillity. The following year (a.u.c. 750-51, a.j.p. 4711), Augustus him- self resumed the fasces, being consul the thirteenth time, with Marcus Plautius Silvanus for his colleague. His twelfth consul- ship, with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for his colleague, was in the year 4708 of the Julian period. " Seventeen years," as Suetonius says, *' had elapsed between the eleventh and twelfth, and two years between the twelfth and thirteenth."^ His object in both cases was to do honour to his two grandsons Caius and Lucius, by pre- senting to them in person the toga virilis, on the completion of their fifteenth year. On these two occasions, as we learn from the Ancyran marble, they were designated consuls by the senate and people of Rome, to enter upon that office at the expiration of five years, with permission to be present at the public councils from the day in which they were brought into the forum.^ While these ' " Imperatori Csesari Divi F. Aug. tuvi, Nementuri, Oratelli, Nerusi,Velauni, Pontifici Maximo Imp. xiiii. Tribunicife Suetri." — Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. iii. c. xxiv. Potestatis xvn. s.p.q.r. quod ejus ductu 20, ed. Brotier, tom. i. p. 302. auspiciisque gentes Alpinre omnes, quae a ^ Duodecimum magno, id est, septem- mari snpero ad inferum pertinebant, sub decim annorum intervallo, et rursus ter- imperium pop.Eoiu. sunt redactse. Gentes tiumdecimum biennio post, ulti'o petiit ; ut Alpinse devicta; : Triumpilini, Camuni, Cajum et Lucium filios amplissimo prae- Venostes, Vennonetcs, Isarci, Breuni, ditus magistratu, suo quemque tirocinio Genaunes, Focunates. Vindelicorum deduceret in forum. — Suetonius, lib. ii. gentes quatuor, Consuanetos, Eucinates, c. xxvi. Licates, Catenates, Ambisontes, Eugusci, ^ Inter filios megs. qvos. siNistra sors Suanetes, Calucones, Brixentes, Lepontii, mihi. eripvit. eorym. caivm. et. lvcivm. Viberi, Nantuates, Seduni, Veragri, Sa- c^sares honoris, mei. cavsa. se- lassi, Acitavones, Medulli, Uceni, Catu- natvs. popvlvsq^'e. romanvs. annvm. riges, Brigiani, Sogiontii, Brodiontii, qvintvm. et. decimvm. agentis. coxsv- Nemaloni, Edenates, Esubiani, Veamini, les. designavit. vt. evm. magistratvm. Gallitae, Triulatti, Ectini, Vergunni, Equi- inirent. post. QViNQVENNn^M. ET. EX. EO. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TI3IE. 219 lionours were conferrcil upon the sons of Jiilhi, she herself, for her infamous conduct, was exiled to the island of Pandateria, on the coast of Campania, now known by the name of Santa Maria. ^ Agreeably to this enactment, Caius became consul, with Lucius ^milius Paulus for his colleague, in the year of Rome 752-3, and in that of the Julian period 4713. Whether he was sent into Armenia in that or the following year, it is difficult to determine. Unhappily there is another chasm in the history of Dio, and the Latin authors are not equally precise in mentioning the consulships during which the several transactions occurred. A passage in the first book of Ovid de Arte Amatoria, evidently written while preparations were making for this expedition, com- pliments Caius upon his being appointed to command in the east at the same age in which his grandfather, Augustus, had first commanded; that is, in his twentieth year.* Caius was born (a.u.c. 732-3, a.j.p. 4693) when Marcus Appu- lelus and Publius Silius Nerva were consuls ; and from the connexion in which Dio speaks of this event, it appears to have occurred before the birth-day of Augustus, and after the dedication of the temple of Mars the Avenger, which took place, according to Ovid, on the twelfth of May.^ A decree was passed by the senate appointing a perpetual sacrifice on the day of his nativity ; and of this surely Ovid would have taken some notice if it had occurred as early as June, with which month the Fasti of that poet end. It may reasonably be inferred, therefore, that it took place after the first of July, and before the twenty-third of September.^ If, then, Caius was born in the summer of the year 4693 of the DIE. Qvo. DEDvcTi. svNT. IN. FORVM. VT. Auspiciis annisque patris, puer arma mo- INTERESSENT. consilIs. pvblicis. — Mon. vebis :. Ancyr. ad Calc. ed. Sueton. Wolf. torn. i. Et vinces annis auspiciisque patris. Lipsire, 1802. Tale rudimcntum tanto sub nomine debes ; 1 Dion, H. E. lib. Iv. c. 10, p. .555. Nunc Juvenum jjrinceps, deinde future * It is necessary to read the whole pas- senum. sage from line 177, " Ecce parat Csesar," It must be observed, however, that some &c. to line 225, " Hos facito Arinenios," copies read "Auspiciis unimisque pati'is" &c. in oi'der to see that it was written in the first of these lines, and " a/jm/s aus- during the preparations for this expedi- piciisque patris" in the second. If this tion, and that it can apply only to Caius, reading be followed, the foundation of the on whom, with his brother Lucius, the inference is destroyed. But the best en- title of " princeps Juventutis" had been tics prefer annis. See the note on the conferred by the senate. The lines to passage in Burmann's edit, of Ovid. torn, which especial reference is here made are i. p. 555, Amstel. 1727, 4to. the following : ^ Fasti, lib. v. 1. 575-598. 3 Dion, H. U. lib. liv. 8, p. 526. 220 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I. Julian period, he completed his nineteenth year at midsummer in the year 4712, and consequently was about nineteen years and six month8 old when he entered on his consulship, the first of January a.j.p. 4713. It is probable, therefore, that he was sent to Armenia in that year. That he was absent fi'om Rome, is clearly evinced by the fragment of a letter preserved by Aulus Gellius, written by Augustus to Caius, at the beginning of his sixty-fourth year: " On days like the present, my eyes look around for my Caius. Wherever thou hast been on this day, I hope thou hast celebrated joyfully and in good health my sixty-fourth birthday; for I have escaped, as you see, the common climacteric of all old men — my sixty-third year," &c. It was the grand climacteric of Augustus, supposed to be a critical period of human life. The expression, "Wherever thou hast been on this day," shows that Caius was far distant; and that it was in the year 4713 of the Julian period may be easily proved. The letter is dated on the eighth before the calends of October, or September 24th. Most probably it should be the ninth before the calends, as that was the emperor's birth-day, and a careless transcriber might easily write viii for viiii.* Augustus was born September 23 a.j.p. 4650 Add sixty -three solid years 63 And it brings us to the date of the letter, Sept. 23 4713 No war took place ; for Phraates, the king of the Parthians, as soon as he knew of the arrival of Caius in Syria, consented to evacuate Armenia, as a condition of peace. ^ On his way to the east, Caius stopped at Chios, according to Dio, or at Samos, accoi'ding to Suetonius, and Tiberius went from Rhodes to visit him. He -was received with the most mortifying coldness; and Caius, to whose pleasure the whole matter was * The reader will not be displeased to quartum et sexagesimum natalem meum. see the original letter. It is impossible, in nam, ut vides, KXijua/cr^pa communem a translation, to do justice to the expres seniorum omnium tertium et sexagesimum sions of endearment in this most interest- annum evasimus. deos autem oro, ut, quan- ing monument of parental tenderness : tum mihi superest temporis, id salvis vobis " VIII calend. Octobr. Have mi Cai, mens tradueere liceat in statu reipublicfe felicis- ocellus jucundissimus : quem semper me- simo dvSpayaOovvnov vfiiZi' Kal Siadtxo- dius fidius desidero quura a me abes ; fievwv stationem meam." — A. Gell. Noc. sed praecipue diebus talibus, qualis est Att. lib. xv. c. vii. He had soon the bitter- hodiernus, oculi mei rcquirunt meum Ca- ness of knowing that this last prayer was jum: quem, ubicumque hoc die fiusti, denied him. spero Isetum et benevalentera celebrasse ' Dion, H. K. lib. Iv. c. 11, p. 555, e. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME 221 referred by Augustus, permitted him to return to Kome, only on the express condition that he should take no share in the govern- ment.^ Velleius Paterculus accompanied Caius Cajsar in his eastern expedition, and was an eye-witness of the transactions which he recoi'ds. He states that Caius had his first interview with the king of the Parthians on an island in the Euphrates ; that after- wards, having entered Armenia, affairs went on prosperously during the first part of his progress; but that finally, in a conference in which he had rashly ventured himself, he was severely wounded by a person named Adduus, near Artagera. Disabled by this wound in mind and body, he chose to remain in the east ; and after long hesitation, he reluctantly set out for Italy, but died of disease at Limyra a city of Lycia. His younger brother Lucius had died about a year before at Marseilles, as he was on his way into Spain.'* Zonaras, from a portion of Dio's history now lost, or from some other source, states some particulars which further illustrate this narrative : " One Addo, commanding at Artagira, enticed Caius to approach the walls, as if to tell him a secret, and wounded him ; on which the city was attacked, and he was taken prisoner. But Caius fell sick from the wound, being otherwise of a feeble consti- tution. As his mind became weakened, and his health declined, he asked permission to lead a private life. Augustus being greatly afflicted at this, urged him to return into Italy, and there live as he pleased. He therefore sailed for Lycia in a merchant vessel, and there died. Lucius his brother had previously become extinct, dying suddenly of disease. On account of their deaths, both Livia and Tiberius, who had not long before returned from Ehodes to Rome, were suspected."^ Tiberius returned to Rome in the consulship of Vinicius and Alfinius Varus, A.u.c. 753-4, a.j.p. 4714." He had remained seven years at Rhodes, and returned in the eighth year after his departure; and Velleius expressly states that it was before the death of both the Caesars.^ ^ Suet. lib. iii. c. 13. 3 Zonaras Annales, lib. x. c. 36, ed. Par. ' Din deiiifle reluctatus, invitusqiie re- 1686, torn. i. p. 539, d. vertens in Italiam, in iirbe Lycife (Limyra ■• Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 103. nominant) morbo obiit ; cum ante annum ' Ante utriusque horum obitum, patre ferme L. Caesar, frater ejus, Hispania) pe- tuo P. Vinicio consule, Tiberius Nero re- tens, Massiliae dccessissct.— Vcl. Patcrc. versus Rhodo. — Septem Annos Rhodi H.R. lib. ii. c. 102. moratum.— Lib. ii. 99 and 103. Rediit 222 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I. Suetonius says that Augustus lost both Calus and Lucius in the space of eighteen mouths ; Caius having died in Lycia, and Lucius at Marseilles.^ These particulars enable us to fix the dates of the several events mentioned with tolerable precision. Tiberius could not have arrived in Rhodes before the month of June a.j.p. 4707. His seven years expired at that time, a.j.p. 4714; and if he returned to Rome in July of that year, it would be, as Suetonius states, in the eighth year after his departure. The condition of Caius being well known, Lucius only remained in the way of his ambition ; and shortly after his return, Lucius died suddenly on his way to Spain, not without strong suspicions of foul pi'actices on the part of Livia and Tiberius. We may place his death, therefore, as occurring towards the close of August a.u.c. 754, and that of Caius eighteen months after, in the month of February a.u.c. 755-6, a.j.p. 4716, when Sextus -<3^1ius Catus and C. Sentius Saturninus were consuls.* On the 27th of June in the same year, Augustus conferred the tribunicial authority again upon Tiberius, and adopted him and Marcus Agrippa his only surviving grandson.^ octavum post secessum anno." — Suoton. The second insci'iption, occasioned by lib. iii. c. 14. the death of Caius C»sar, expressly states ' Cajum et Luciiim in duodeviginti that he died on the ninth bcfor e the ca- mensium spatio amisit ambos; Cajo in lends of March, or February 2 1 ; and that Lycia, Lucio Marsilise defunctis. — Sueton. the news of his death an'ived on the fourth lib. ii. c. 65. before the nones, or, as we reckon, on the * Not having, nor being able to find in 2nd of April. It is very satisfactory to any of our libraries, the learned work of find that my inductive reasoning from the Cardinal Noris, I had written thus far Eoman historians was so accurate, before I saw the ancient inscriptions called ^ Perseveravit ut et tribunitia; potes- by him Cenotaphia Pisana. I have since tatis consortionem Neroni constitueret, found them in the second volume of an multum quidem eocumdomitum in Senatu Italian work entitled " Pisa illustrata nelle recusante, et eum JElio Cato, Sentio con- Arti del disegno da Alessandro da Mor- sulibus v kal. Jul. post urbem conditam rona," Livorno, 1812, p. 330-36. The au- anuis dcclvii abhinc annis xx\ii, adopta- thor states that he has corrected some ret — Adoptatus eadem die etiam M. mistakesof Noris, and has faithfully copied Agrippa, quern post mortem Agrippse them from the marble. The first inscrip- Julia enixa erat. — Veil. Paterc. H. E, lib. tion is a decree of the Pisan colony to ii. c. 103, 104, See also Suet. lib. ii. c. 65. honourthememory of their patron, Lucius There is only one manuscript extant of Caesar, by erecting an altar and sacrificing Velleius Paterculus, and that reads here, pviblicly and yearly to his manes on the " post iirbem conditam annis dccliiii." twelfth before the calends of September, This being evidently erroneous, modern or August 21. The decree is dated on the critics have amended the text according to thirteenth before the calends of October, their own opinions as to the year in which or September 19. The inference is, that Rome w.as built. The younger Aldus and Lucius died the 21st of August, and the Burmann read dcclvi. The Leipsic edition news of his death was received at Pisa of 1800, here copied, reads dcclvii. September 19 th. Ruhnken follows the ed. Princ. and the CHAP, IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 223 The chronology may now be very exactly detcrminecl. The preamble in the second decree of the Pisan senate states tliat Cains passed his consulshi]) prosperously, carrying on war beyond the farthest bounds of the Roman people.^ Pliny states incidentally that he went into Arabia, as far as the Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea.^ Orosius mentions, that having been sent by Augustus to set in order the provinces of Egypt and Syria, he passed through Palestine, and on his way showed his contempt for the true God, by refusing to worship in the temple at Jerusalem.'^ For this, Suetonius says that Augustus commended him ;"* but Orosius adds, that for this contempt Augustus was punished, by the severe famine with which Rome was subsequently visited.'^ This famine Dio mentions under the consulship of ^milius Lepidus and Lucius Arruntius, the fifth year after the consulship of Cains. From Syria, Caius proceeded to the Euphrates, where he had his inter- view with the king of the Parthians, and thence into Armenia, where he was wounded. Caius, therefore, went early in his consulship to the east, and while at Samos or Chios, gave permission to Tiberius to return to Rome ; but before Tiberius went he received his wound. Tiberius returned to Rome probably in the month of July a.j.p. 47 14 ; Lucius set out on his way to Spain, but died at Marseilles, August 21, A.J.P. 4714; Caius died just eighteen months after his brother, February 21, 4716. The news of his death arrived at Pisa the second of April, and probably, therefore, a few days earlier in Rome. Augustus being thus deprived of his grand- children, and obliged to take Tiberius again into favour, conferred upon him the tribunicial authority again, and adopted him as his son, but adopted also his only remaining grandson, the posthumous son of Agrippa, on the 27th of the following June. Dion adds, that Augustus gave him the tribunicial authority for ten years; but suspecting that he would on that account be too highly elated, and fearing lest he should attempt innovations, he compelled him, though he had a son of his own, to adopt Germani- cus, the son of his brother Drusus.^ manuscript. As the adoption was after * Hist. Nat. lib. ii. c. 67,an(ilib. vi. c. 27. the Parilia, it was in the year of the city ^ Ores, lib. vii. c. 2. DCCLVi, •• Octavianus, c. 93. ' POST . CONSVLATVM . QVEM . VLTRA. ^ OrOS. ut Slip. FINES . EXTREMAS . POPVLI . ROMANI . BEL- " DioH. H. K. lib. Iv. C. 13. p. 557. LUM . GERENS . FELiCITER . PEREGERAT. 224 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [PART I. Suetonius states that the tribunicial authority was given to him for five years. ^ This is the most probable statement; but as it was afterwards continued for five years more, the difference is not important. The Fasti Capitolini begin to enumerate this second period on the first of January of the following year, and not from the day of the appointment. In this year, Dion records the fact, that Augustus being saluted by the people with the title of Lord {cecnro-r]^) not only forbade any one to address him by that appellation, but forbade it under a severe penalty.' Suetonius mentions the same fact in the form of an anecdote, without specifying the time in which it occurred ; and Orosius, who has copied Suetonius neai-ly word for word, applies the transaction, as we have seen, to the year in which our Saviour was born ; thereby intimating that Augustus acted under a divine Impulse, in refusing a title which the sacred writers apply exclusively to our Lord Jesus Christ. We have had occasion before to observe, that Orosius is correct as to facts, but is inaccu- rate in his dates. He has here transferred to the year of the city 752, in which he supposed that Christ was born, a fact which Dion records in the year 756. A. u. c. 756-57, A. J. p. 4717. Cn. Cornelius Cinna Magnus, L. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, Cos. August: Trib. Pot. xxvii. Tiber; vi. In this year, Agrippa, surnamed Posthumus, the son of Agrippa and Julia, and now the only surviving grandson of Augustus, received the toga virilis, but with none of the honours which had been paid to his brothers.^ The Roman empire was still at peace, but there were evident signs of approaching commotions. The army amounted to twenty- three or twenty-five legions, without counting the auxiliaries, both infantry and cavalry, and the marines, of which Dio could form no estimate. These were dispersed over Spain, Gaul, Germany, Pannonia, Dacia, Britain, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Numidia.'' Such an immense force kept down opposition ; and nothing but the most cruel extortion, and the most galling injuries and provocations, could rouse even the bravest to opposition. It 1 Data rursus potestas tribunicia in ' Dion. lib. Iv. c. 22. quinquennium.— Suet. lib. iii. c. 16. '' Dion. H. R. lib. Iv. c. 23, 24. p. 563 ' H. R. lib. Iv. c. 12. to 565, c. CUAP. IX.] SHUT THE TniHD TIMR. 225 was the courage of hopeless bravery maddened by despair. Bato, the leader of the Pannonians, being afterwards asked by Tiberius why they had revolted from the Roman dominion, replied, " because you send wolves to guard your flocks, instead of dogs or shepherds."^ A. u. c. 757-58, A.J. p. 4718. M. Aomilius Lepidus, L. Arruntiiis, Cos. Augusti Trib. Potest, xxviii. Tiberii. T. Pot. vii. This was an eventful year. Difficulties with regard to the pay of the army had begun the preceding year, and great efforts were required to replenish the exhausted treasury. In addition to this evil, a very great famine prevailed at Rome, so that, by a decree of the senate, all the gladiators, supernumerary slaves, and all foreigners, excepting physicians and teachers of youth, were obliged to leave the city. Frequent conflagrations took place, which occasioned the establishment of a city watch ; and the people, oppressed by want, taxes, and the loss occasioned by incendiaries, were ripe for revolt. These troubles continued till the scarcity had ceased, and the gladiatorial shows were re-established.^ In this year Dio places the banishment of Archelaus. " Herod of Palestine, on account of some accusation by his brethren, was sent into exile beyond the Alps, and his territory confiscated."^ Josephus, a better authority on this particular fact, places it a year later. About this time ((c^V toIq IivtoIq tovtoiq y^povoiQ, in these very times), many wars took place. Robbers overran many regions, and not a few cities were in a state of insurrection ; but, as it would be useless to mention all, Dio confined himself only to the most important. The Isaurians, from pra?datory incursions, came at length to all the horrors of Avar, until they were finally subdued. The Gffitulians made so powerful an insurrection, that the subju- gation of them obtained for Cornelius Cossus Lentulus the honours of a triumph, and the surname of Gfetulicus. Tiberius and other commanders made expeditions against the Germans, advancing first to the Visergis, or Weser, and afterwards to the Albis, or Elbe. ■* Velleius Paterculus, who was himself in that campaign, states 1 Dion. H. R. lib. Iv. c. 3.3. p. 570 e, ^ Dion. 11. R. lib. Iv. c. 25-27, p. 565 d, and again, lib. Ivi. c. 16. p. 582. 567 b ^ Dion, ut sup. * Dion, ut sup. c. 28. 29 226 THE TEMPLE OF JANUS [pART I. that Tiberius, after his adoption, was engaged for three years in breaking down their strength.' The Dalmatians and Pannonians were again in arms. Velleius says, that the whole number which revolted were more than eight hundred thousand, and that their army consisted of nearly two hundred thousand infantry, and nine thousand horse.^ A part of this immense multitude, under their brave and skilful leaders, had determined to pour down upon Italy; and the mind of Augustus was so terrified, that he declared in the senate the enemy might appear in the sight of Kome in ten days.^ They were not reduced to sue for peace till the consulship of Furius Oamillus and Sextus Nonius Quintilianus (a.u.c. 759-60, a.j.p. 4720); nor was the war then terminated ; for it broke out again with greater violence, and with very doubtful issue, two years after, in the consulship of Dolabella and Silanus. Scarcely were they subdued, when Quin- tilius Varus and more than three legions were slain in Germany. On hearing of this misfortune, Augustus put on mourning, and never recovered his si)irits till the day of his death.^ It is evident, therefore, that from the year which we are now considering, the consulship of Lepidus and Arruntius, there was no period during the remaining life of Augustus, in which the gates of the temple of Janus could have been shut. Here, then, we fix the termination of that series of years, during which, as a sign of universal peace, the temple of Janus was closed ; and, counting backward from this year to the consulship of Balbus and Vetus, the seventeenth year of the tribunicial power of Augustus, the year when monuments of victory were erected by the Roman people, we find precisely a period of nearly twelve years, according to the language of Orosius, in which the empire was in a state of tranquillity.* As far, therefore, as concerns the fact, his com- 1 Lib. ii. c. 122. born in a time of universal peace, and that ^ Gentium nationumque, qufe rebella- it continued for twelve years. The fol- verant, omnis numerus amplius dccc milli- lowing passage occurs in one of the ser- bus explebat. cc fere peditum collige- mons on our Lord's nativity, ascribed to bantur, armis habilia ; equitum novem. St. Ambrose, but considered by his Be- ^ Audita in senatu vox Pi-incipis, de- nedictine editors as apocryphal: "Tanta cimo die, ni caveretur, posse hostem in quippe fuit Pax, Filio Dei apparente in urbis Romas venire conspectum. — Vel. Carne, per duodecim annos, ut omnes, se- Paterc. H. R. lib. ii. c. 110, 111. cundum Esaise vaticiuium, contunderent * Dion. H. R. ki. 18-22. — Vel. Paterc. gladios suos in aratra et lanceas suas in lib. ii. c. 117. falces." — Sermones Sancto Ambrosio hac- * Orosius is not the only writer who has tenus adscripti, serm. iii. torn. ii. Opera S. recorded the fact that our Saviour was Ambr. ed. Bened. appendix, col. 394. CHAP. IX.] SHUT THE THIRD TIME. 227 putation is correct, but not so as to his dates. He commences this period of nearly twelve years, in the year from the foundation of Kome 752. Consequently, its termination would be in the year 763, or three years before the death of Augustus. But it has now been shown, by the most indubitable testimony, that six of these years were passed in perpetual wars. His dates must, of necessity, be abandoned ; and, during the whole life of Augustus, no other period of peace for nearly twelve years can be found, excepting from the fifty-seventh to the sixty-eighth year of his age, or from the 4707th to the 4718th years inclusive, of the Julian period. What Orosius means, when he speaks of the gates of the temple of Janus being broken down by the sedition of the Athenians and the commotion of the Dacians, it is not easy to determine. There is no evidence on record of any sedition at this time among the Athenians, and the fierce Dacians could hardly be said to have been subdued by the Romans ; at least, never until the time of Trajan. There must either be an error in the text of Orosius, in the edition which I possess, which is one of the earliest (a.d. 1483), or the author must have strangely confounded the people whom he names with the Pannonians and Dalmatians.* It is universally admitted that our Saviour was born during the period in which the temple of Janus remained closed for the third time by Augustus. The decree to close it, was passed by the senate in the consulship of Tubero and Fabius Maximvis, but was hindered by continual commotions till the fifth year afterwards, in the consulship of Balbus and Vetus. The temple was then shut, and continued shut for nearly twelve years, until the consulship of Lepidus and Arruntius. During this period our Saviour was born. According to our calculation, the earliest date of this period was in the year of the city 746-7 ; and this is all that, in the pre- sent stage of our inquiry, it is important to determine. * The author, during his stay in Lon- that it agrees with the edition he has don, has examined at the British Museum quoted, excepting in a few slight verbal the accurate edition of Orosius by Haver- variations, which do not attiect the sense, camp (4to. Lugd. Bat. 1738), and finds 228 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PAUT I. CHAPTER X. ON THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS, AS COLLEAGUE OF THE EMPIRE. Asserted by Velleius Paterculus, Suetonius, Tacitus, and perhaps Dio. — Obscurity as to the year. — To be ascertained by tracing history from some established point of time. — Dio's testimony lost. — Tiberius adopted, June 27, a.j.p.4716.— His history traced from that date to a.j.p. 4720. — Suspected by Aug-ustus.^Germanicus sent to rein- force him. — Augustus hastens to Ariminum, to be near the seat of war. — Operations of the army in a.j.p. 4721, ending with the slaughter of Varus and his legions about the autumnal equinox. — Tiberius hastens to Rome. — Triumph postponed, on account of the general mourning. — Operations in Germany in a.j.p. 4722. — Defei-red triumph celebrated, Jan. 16, a.j.p. 4723. — Temple of Castor and Pollux dedicated, Jan. 27. — Not long after, Tiberius associated. — Probably in February. — The abbreviator of Dio at variance with Suetonius. — The latter preferred. — Tiberius and Germanicus went to Germany in a.j.p. 4723, and rctui-ncd to Rome after the birthday of Augois- tus, the same year. — Consulship of Germanicus, a.j.p. 4724. — Commendation of the Senate to Tiberius probably a difterent event from the association of Tiberius in the empire. — The associate reign of Tiberius, from Feb. a.j.p. 4723, to Aug. 19, A.J.P. 4726, or about three years and six-and-a-half months. There remains but one point more in the life of Augustus which it is important to our purpose to ascertain ; and that is, in what year he associated Tiberius with himself in the government of the empire ? As to the fact, we have the concurrent testimony of Velleius Paterculus, Suetonius, Tacitus, and possibly Dio. " At the request of his father Augustus," says Velleius, " the senate and people of Kome decreed that Tiberius should have an equal right with him in all the provinces and armies." ^ " Tiberius dedicated the temple of Concord," says Suetonius, " and also the temple of Castor and Pollux And, not long after, 1 Et senatus populusque Romanus, quam erat ipsi, decreto complexus esset. — postulante patre ejus, ut fequum ei jus in Veil. Paterc. Hist. Rom. lib. ii. c. 121. omnibus provinciis, exercitibusque esset, CtlAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 229 a law being proposed by the consuls that he should administer the government of the provinces in common with Augustus, and, at the same time, carry on the census, and celebrate the lustral purifi- cation, he departed into Illyricum."''" Tacitus, enumerating the honours conferred upon Tiberius, says that he was made colleague of the empire.'^ Dio merely says that Augustus, being now old, commended the senate to Tiberius.^ But, though the fact be certain, there is some obscurity as to the year when this took place ; whether during the consulship of -ZEmilius Lepidus and Statilius Taurus, or in that of Germanicus Ciesar and Fonteius Capito. To ascertain this, or, at least, to place before the reader the actual amount of testimony on the subject, we must, as we have before done, trace the history from some known and established point of time. We are unhappily deprived, in great measure, of the light which has formerly guided us ; for, as the learned editor of Dio remarks, the six books of his history, " from the 55th to the 60th, inclusive, are evidently an earlier abridgment than that of Xiphilinus." They want the clearness and precision of the original author ; and the narrative is oftentimes meagre and incoherent. Tiberius was adopted June 27th, in the consulship of ^"Elius, or iEmilius Catus and Sentius Saturninus, a.u.c. 755-6, a.j.p. 4716.^ Velleius Paterculus, himself an eye-witness, says that he was soon after sent into Germany, and remained there till the month of December.^ Early in the following spring, in the consulship of L. Valerius Messala and On. Corn. Cinna (a.u.c. 756-7, a.j.p, 4717), he left Rome, and returned to Germany, penetrated to the Albis, or Elbe, subdued the Langobardi, who dwelt between that river and the Viadrus, or Oder, and finally returning to his former winter-quarters, on the Lupia, or Lippe, which runs into the Rhine, hastened back to Rome.*^ 1 Dedicavit et Concordise sedem item censors tribunicise potestatis adsumitur, Pollucis et Castoris. Ac non multo omnesque per exercitus ostentatur. — An- post, lege per consules lata, ut provincias nal. lib. i. c. 3. cum Augusto commimiter administraret, ' Dion. H. E. lib. Ivi. c. 26, p. 587 b. simulque censum ageret condito lustro, in •• Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 103. Illyricum profectus est. — Sueton. lib. iii. ^ Anni ejus aestiva, usque in mensem c. 20-21. Decembrem perducta, immanis emolu- ^ Nero solus e privignis erat : illuc mentum fecere victoria\— Lib. ii. c. 10.5. cuucta vergere: filius, coUega imperii, " Vel. Fat. lib. ii. c. 105-107. 230 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. The next year, in the consulship of M. JEmilius Lepidus and L. Arruntius (a.u.c. 757-8, a.j.p. 4718), Tiberius determined to attack Maraboduus, the leader of the Marcomanni, who, from his position, the number and discipline of his forces, and his personal character, had become formidable. Maraboduus inhabited the country north of the Danube (the modern Bohemia), being divided by that river from Noricum and Pannonia. Tiberius had made preparations during the winter to cross the Danube, and had ordered Sentius Saturninus to advance with his forces from Illyricum, to act as a body of reserve in the intended expedition ; but the whole move- ment was checked by the sudden revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians, of which we have already spoken. This revolt, then, took place in the spring of the year 757-758 of the city, and 4718 of the Julian period, and occasioned, according to Suetonius, the most serious foreign war which had arisen since the Punic. It was carried on by Tiberius, with fifteen legions, and an equal number of auxiliaries, for three years. ^ To the consulship, therefore, in which it began, must be added the two following : A.J.P. 4719, A.u.c. 758-59, A. Licinius Nerva Silianus, Q. Csecilius Metellus Credcus. „ 4720, „ 759-60, M.Furius Camillus, Sex. Noiiius Quintilianus. This is corroborated by Dio, who says that Tiberius reduced the Pannonians and Dalmatians to sue for peace, in the consulship of Marcus Furius and Sextus Nonius.^ In the consulship of Nerva Silianus and Metellus Creticus, Augustus, suspecting that Tiberius was lengthening out the war from selfish motives, sent Germanicus with a reinforcement. Dio adds, that he sent Germanicus rather than Agrippa, on account of the low and vulgar propensities of the latter. Agrippa was now the only remaining grandson of Augustus. Being born after the death of his father, he was called Agrippa Posthumus. His father died, as we have seen, a.j.p. 4701 ; and he was adopted, with ' Sed nunciata Ulyrici defectione, tran- ultro cedentibus. Ac perseverantiae grande siit ad curam novi belli : quod gravissi- pretium tulit : toto Ulyrico, quod inter mum omnium externorum bellum post Italiam, regnumque Noricum, et Thra- Punica, per xv. legiones paremque auxilio- ciam, et Macedoniam, interque Danubium rum copiam, triennio gessit: in magnis flumen et sinum maris Adriatici patet, omnium rerum ditficultatibus, summaque perdomito et in ditionem redacto. — Suet, frugimi inopia. Et quamquam sapius lib. iii. c. 16. revocaretur tamcn perseveravit; metucns, '^ Dion. H. R. lib. Iv. c. 33, p. 570 c. ne vicinus et praevaleus hostis instaret CHAP. X.] TIBEniUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 231 Tiberius, after the death of his brother Caius, June 27, a.j.p. 4716, The next year (4717), he received the toga virilis ; but, in the consulship of which we now speak (a.j.p. 4719), he was degraded from his dignity, and banished, first to Surrentum, and afterwards to a small island near Corsica, then called Planasia, or Planaria, and now known by the name of Pianosa. The historians all agree as to his rough and clownish character, and that he was more remarkable for bodily than for mental vigour. Dio mentions that, in his fits of anger, he spoke disrespectfully of Livia, and even of Augustus ;' and Tacitus imputes his banishment to the influence of Livia over the mind of Augustus, as Agrippa had been guilty of no crime. These events, by depriving Augustus of every other support, prepared the way for the elevation of Tiberius, notwith- standing the utter want of confidence in him which Augustus constantly manifested. That the war in Pannonia and Dalmatia continued until the next consulship (a.j.p. 4720), is aflSrmed by Dio, or rather by his abbreviator. His words are : " When Marcus Furius and Sextus Nonius were consuls, the Dalmatians and Pannonians sued for peace, in the first place on account of famine, and next of disease, which followed it, occasioned by unwholesome food." Dio proceeds, in the next section, to state, that Augustus then permitted the senate to pass many acts without his presence, and he no longer made his appearance in the comitia. He nominated, however, the candidates for the different offices, annexing certain letters to the names of those whom he desired. He applied him- self also with great vigour to the affairs of the war, and hastened to Ariminum, that he might be nearer, for consultation, to the seat of war in Pannonia and Dalmatia. With these statements, he ends his 55th book. At the beginning of the 56th book, Dio proceeds to state, that Tiberius returned to Rome after that winter in which Quintus Sulpicius and Caius Sabinus were consuls.^ Augustus met him in the suburbs, and conducted him to an enclosure in the Campus Martins, called the Septa. Suetonius adds, that Tiberius entered the city clothed in the Praitexta, and crowned with laurel; and, being seated with Augustus, between the two consuls, he saluted 1 Lib. lv.32, p. 570. ^ Dion. H. R. lib. hi. c. 1, p. 572. 232 THE ASSOCIATION OF [pART I. the people. Qiimtus Sulpiclus Camerinus and Caius Poppseus Sabinus were consuls the next year after Marcus Furius Camillus and Sextus Nonius Quintllianus ; and it appears from the Capito- line tables, that they continued in office only six months. On the calends of July, M. Papius Mutilus and Q. Poppseus Secundus were substituted for them. There was, therefore, but one winter in which they were consuls, comprehending only the months of January and February, a.u.c. 760-1, a.j.p. 4721. Consequently, the earliest date which can be assigned for the return of Tiberius to Rome, is the month of INIarch in that year. Having inti'oduced the speech of Augustus to the married and unmarried senators and knights, Dio speaks of the law enacted for the encouragement of marriage, called the Papia-Popposa, because it was proposed by Marcus Papius Mutilus and Quintus Poppteus Secundus, in that part of the year in which they were consuls ; and then he adds : " While these things were transacted in Rome, the Romans under Germanicus, coming to Rhsetinum, a city of Dalmatia, received there a severe check." This must have hap- pened, therefore, in the interval between the return of Tiberius and the enactment of the Poppa^an law, or between the months of March and July inclusive. The historian adds, that " Sere- tium, which Tiberius had formerly besieged, but failed to take, was then subdued, after which some other places were easily added." But, as the rest resisted, the war being thus lengthened out, and a scarcity of provisions having been caused thereby in Italy, Augustus again sent Tiberius into Dalmatia. Finding the soldiers impatient of delay, and anxious to bring the war to a close at any hazard, and being fearful of a mutiny if they were kept together, Tiberius divided them into three parts. The command of one division he gave to Silvanus, and of another to Marcus (or Manius) Lepidus, while he himself, with Germanicus, at the head of the third, marched against Bato.' Velleius states that, " in the beginning of the summer, Lepidus having drawn his army from their winter quarters,'''' in order to join Tiberius, had fought his way through whole nations who had not as yet been engaged in war, and were therefore the more°savage and ferocious.^ These winter quarters appear to have been at ^ Dion. H. E.lib.lvi. c. 10, 11, 12, p.578 D. to 579 e. '^ Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 114. CUAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 233 Siscia. the modern Visuck or SIsseck, at the confluence of the Colapis and Savus, the Kulp and the Save.^ And hence Lepidus led his army into Dalmatia. From the difficulties which he had to encounter, his progress must have been slow. Velleius, the only 'author who has mentioned this march, speaks of the difficulty of places, the force of the enemy, the slaughter made by the Romans of those who resisted them, the country laid waste, its houses burned, and its inhabitants massacred. Even after the arrival of Lepidus, and the subsequent arrangement of the com- mand, Tiberius found himself in a very critical position. The Perustai and the Desitiates in the mountainous region which divided Pannonia from Dalmatia, by the ferocity of their character, their wonderful knowledge of the art of war, and more especially the almost impregnable narrow passes of their mountains, not only tested his skill as a commander, but his personal strength and prowess in fighting, sword to sword and hand to hand.^ Suetonius says that, " although he was often recalled, yet he persevered ; fearful lest a neighbouring and successful enemy might greatly harass a retreating army. His perseverance," he adds, " was sig- nally rewarded ; the whole of Illyricum lying between Italy and Noricum, Thrace and Macedonia, and extending from the Danube to the Adriatic, being entirely subdued."^ With these statements, the narrative of Dio perfectly accords ; and he gives a frightful picture of the devastation and carnage inflicted on the inhabitants, but which cost the Romans many men and nuich treasure.* At length Arduba having been stormed by Germanicus, and all the neighbouring strongholds having voluntarily surrendered, Bato himself offered to submit, if assured for himself and his associates of protection and impunity. This being promised, he presented himself at night before Tiberius ; and being again asked, as before, why he and his countrymen had rebelled and so lengthened out the war, again returned the same answer, that the Romans were in fault, because they had sent to guard their flock, not dogs nor ' Vel. Pat. H.R. lib. ii. c. 113. regnuraque Noricum, et Thraciam, et ^ lb. c. 115. Macedoniam, interqiie Danubium liiimen, ^ Et quamqiiam saepius revocaretur, et siiuim Maris Adriatici patet, perdomito tamen pei'severavit ; metuens, ne vicinus et in ditionem redacto. — Suet. lib. iii. et prasvalens hostis instaret ultro ceden- c. 16. tibiis. Ac perseverantiae grande pretium * Dion. H. E. lib. Ivi.c. 12-16, p. 579 e. tulit: toto Ill3'rico, quod inter Italiam 581 B. 30 234 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. shepherds, but wolves. Thus tlie war of Dahiiatia and Pannonia was brought to a second termination. Germanicus carried the news of this conquest to Rome, and the senate decreed the title of Iraperator again to Augustus and Tiberius;' but within five days after the war was ended, arrived letters from Germany announcing the slaughter of Varus and his legions.^ The date of the defeat and destruction of Varus and his army is nowhere expressly mentioned ; but Velleius Paterculus, describing the inert and fatal security of that commander, intimates that he attempted to be as rapacious in Germany as he had been in Syria, and con- ceived that men whom swords could not subdue were to be tamed by legislation. " With this intent, having advanced into the heart of Germany, as if he had been among men enjoying the sweets of peace and of good government, he dragged out the summer in acting according to the forms of law."^ From the expression of the historian, that he dragged out the summer, it must be inferred, I think, that his disaster took place early in autumn ; and as Tiberius was in the mountainous country now called the Tyrol, and, therefore, on the confines of ancient Germany, the news must soon have reached him. We may, therefore, place the event itself in September, and the arrival of the news in October, in the year known as the consulship of Camerinus and Sabinus, a.j.p. 4721. Dio mentions that a severe storm of wind and rain overtook the Romans in their march, rendering the ground slippery, especially round the trunks of trees, breaking down the topmost branches, and thus impeding and harassing their movements.'' This may have been the equinoctial storm, which in the country of the Cherusci and near the Visurgis or AVeser, where Varus was, would be early and violent. On receiving this intelligence, Tiberius hastened to Rome, where he found Augustus in the utmost sorrow and consternation.^ The news, however, raised the services of Tiberius to higher estimation among the people, because it was seen that if Illyricum had not been previously subdued, the victorious Germans would have ' Dion. H.R. lib. Ivi. 17, p. 582 b. ' Lib. Ivi. 20, p. 584. * Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 117, comp. with * His auclitis revolat ad patrem Caesar. Suet. lib. iii. c. 17, & Dion. H. K. lib. Ivi. —Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 120, comp. with Dion, c. IS, p. 582 c. H. E. lib. Ivi. c. 23, p. 585 b. » Lib. ii. c. 117. CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 235 formed a junction with tlie Pannonlans. A triumph was decreed by tlie senate to Tiberius, with many other honours. Some thought that he ought to receive the cognomen of Pannonicus, others of Invictus, the unconquered, and others wished even to give him the name of Pius, on account of his devotion to his father. But Augustus disapproved or was jealous of these flatteries; and Tiberius himself postponed the triumph, as inconsistent with the general mourning.' The grief of Augustus did not prevent his acting with his accustomed energy. Collecting as many soldiers as he could from the veterans and the freedmen, he sent them immediately, and with the greatest haste, into Germany, under the command of Tiberius.^ It is probable, from the language of Dio, that Tiberius left Rome in the same year; and I know not else how to reconcile his pro- gress with the fact subsequently mentioned by Suetonius, that he returned from Germany "post biennium,"'"' after the second year. Of this we shall soon have occasion to speak more particularly. As fears were entertained of the tranquillity of Gaul, Tiberius secured that on his way, arranged the troops to the best advantage, fortified the strongholds, and subjected the army to the strictest discipline.^ In this manner he crossed the Khine. Here he laid waste the country, burning houses, and slaughtering the inhabitants; and then returned, says Velleius, without loss and with great glory into winter quarters.^ This return to winter quarters must have taken place towards the end of the year of which we have been speaking, known in the Roman fasti as the consulship of Q. Sul- picius Camerinus and Popj^ffius Sabinus. Early in the next year, that is, in the year when Dolabella and Silanus were consuls, or in the year 4722 of the Julian period, A.U.C. 761-2, Tiberius advanced again from his winter quarters into Germany.^ " The same courage and the same fortune," says Velleius, "attended him now, as at the beginning.'"' By his naval and military expeditions, "classicis, peditumque expeditionibus," the strength of the enemy was broken down, and by restraint, rather than punishment, he subdued the rising dissensions of the Viennenses, and settled the weighty concerns of Gaul. Perceiving, ' Suet. lib. iii. c. 17. ' The woi'ds of Suetonius arc, proximo * Dion. II. Tv. lib. Ivi. c. 23. anno rcpctita Gurmania. ^ Vel. Pat. ii. c. 120. ■* Lib. ii. c. 121. * Vel. Pat. ii. c. 120,conip. Suet. iii. IS. 236 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. as Suetonius says, that the slaughter of Varus and his legions had arisen from the rashness and negligence of the general, he proceeded with more than ordinary caution ; and when about to cross the Rhine, would allow no more luggage to be forwarded than was absolutely necessary. Having crossed that river, he shared with his army all the fatigues, and hardships of the expedition, took his meals sitting upon the bare ground, and often passed his nights without any tent to cover him. A singular instance of superstition is here recorded by the historian ; that although Tiberius trusted little to fortune or chance, yet whenever, during his hours of watchfulness in the night, his light was suddenly, and without per- ceptible cause, extinguished, he considered it as a good omen, and engaged in battle. At one time, however, he narroAAdy escaped assassination.' The narrative of Suetonius adds one fxct which is very impor- tant to our purpose. Tiberius returned to the city from Germany after two years, and then celebrated the triumph which had been deferred.^ Vclleius mentions it as an cflPect of his moderation, that he cele- brated only three triumphs instead of seven.^ How early in the autumn or winter of the consulship of Camerinus and Sabinus he went into Germany, we cannot ascertain ; but the two years men- tioned by Suetonius necessarily Include a portion of that and the whole of the following consulship of Dolabella and Silanus, and perhaps the commencement of that which followed, namely, the consulship of M. yEmilius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus. The date of the triumph which had been so long postponed appears, from the Pmenestine calendar, discovered in 1770, to have been on the 16th of January, or the 17th before the kalends of February; that is, if our computation be correct, at the beginning of the con- sulship of M. ^milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus, or January 16, A.j.p. 4723. H . XVII C . TI . CAESAR EX PAnnoniis triumph A VIT. The 16th of January, as we learn from Ovid, was the festival of the goddess Concordia ; and the 27th of January, the 6th before the calends of February, that of Castor and Pollux.'* We see the ^ Suet. lib. iii. c. 18-19. egit. — Suet. lib. iii. c. 20. ' A Germania in urbem post biennium ' Lib. ii. c. 122. rogressus, triumphum qucm distulei'at ' P. Ovid. Fastoi'. lib. i. v. 640-705. CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 237 reason, therefore, why Suetonius, after speaking of the triumph, immediately adds, that Tiberius dedicated the temple of Concord, and also that of Castor and Pollux. In the Prjenestine calendar, the dedication of the latter temple is thus recorded : C . VI . C . AEDes Castoris et PoLLVCIS . DEDICAta est. The dedication of the temple of Concord is not recorded, because in the consulship of Dolabella and Silanus (a.j.p. 4722, a.u.c. 761-2) another temple, called the temple of Concordia Augusta, had been dedicated on the same day by Augustus. H . XVn . C . CONCORDIAE AVgustae aedes dedicatA EST . P. DOLABELLA C . SILANO COS. It appears, then, that Tiberius triumphed on the 16th of Jan- uary, A.J.P. 4723, and on the same day, dedicated the temple of Concord, because it was the festival of that goddess. He also dedicated, in the name of himself and his brother Drusus, on the 27th of January, the temple of Castor and Pollux, which he had erected with the spoils of his victories.' " And not long after,'''' says Suetonius, "a law being proposed by the consuls that he should administer the government of the provinces in common with Augustus, and at the same time carry on the census, and celebrate the lustra! purification, he dejDarted into Illyricum."^ Not long after the dedication of the temples of Concord and of Castor and Pollux, — that is, not long after the 16tli and 27th of January, — the law was enacted by which Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the government of the provinces. We may fairly assume, then, that this took place in February ; and thus we arrive at the point of difficulty, in adjusting the language of the historians. We have seen that Suetonius expressly says it was after the second year from the slaughter of Varus and his legions that Tiberius triumphed and dedicated the two temples. This language is at variance with that which occurs in the remaining text of Dio : " In the following year," says Dio — that is, in the year following the departure of Tiberius with the army raised by Augustus, after the disaster of Varus and his three legions, — " Tiberius dedicated the temple of Concord, and inscribed upon it his own name and that of his deceased brother Drusus." But ^ Dedicavit ct Concordire redem, item mine, de manubiis.— Suet. lib. iii. c. 20. PoUueis et Castoris, suo fratrisque no- ^ lb. c. 21. 238 THE ASSOCIATION OF [PART I. it was so far from being the following year, that it was not until the month of January in the second year. The language of the Latin historian is too precise to be disregarded. Velleius says nothing of the dedication of the temples, but connects with the return of Tiberius from Germany and Gaul, the decree of the senate, giving him equal authority with Augustus in the provinces and in the armies. He speaks, however, of his triumphs, and his singular moderation in being content with three Avhen he deserved seven. After this event, until the death of Augustus, both Velleius and Suetonius speak only in general terms of the manner in which Tiberius and Germanicus were employed ; but Dio, as far as we have his testimony, proceeds to state their occupation during the remainder of that year. "In the consulship of Marcus ^milius with Statilius Taurus, Tiberius, and Germanicus as proconsul, marched into Germany, and overran some parts of it, but were victorious in no engagement, and subdued no nation, because no one encountered tliem. Fearing, however, lest they should meet with some disaster, they did not advance far beyond the Rhine, but after they had remained there till autumn, and had celebrated the birthday of Augustus (September 23rd) and some equestrian sports had been exhibited on that occasion by the centurions, they returned." After mentioning various regulations by Augustus, Dio proceeds as follows : " Germanicus alter this received the con- sulate, not having been praetor, and retained the office for the whole year, but did nothing worthy of being recorded." And then he adds : " Augustus being now old, commended Germanicus to the senate, and the senate to Tiberius. He himself, however, did not read the document (for he was not able to speak loud), but Germanicus, as he had been accustomed."' This commendation of the senate to Tiberius has been supposed to mean the association of Tiberius with himself in the empire ; it being afterwards common, in settling the succession, for the empe- rors to commend their sons to the senate ; and commending the senate to Tiberius, seems, for the same I'eason, to mean the bestow- ment of imperial authority. If such be the meaning, then it Is plain that Dio places the association of Tiberius with Augustus, in the consulship of Germanicus, and not in that of Lepidus and Taurus. We must keep in mind, however, that we have not here ^Dion. H. R. lib. hi. c. 25, -20,11. 586 c,— 387 b. CHAP. X.] TIBERIUS WITH AUGUSTUS. 239 the perfect text of Dio. The narrative bears internal marks of being a disjointed abridgment; and in placing the consecration of the temple of Concord a year before the association of Tiberius with Augustus, it would contradict the express testimony of Sue- tonius, who tells us the decree of the senate was passed but a short time after the dedication of the two temples. I am Inclined to think, therefore, that the commendation of the senate to Tiberius was an event subsequent to that of associating him in the government of the empire. The first gave him equal authority with Augustus iii the provinces and armies, but not in Rome ; the second extended that authority, in consequence of the increasing infirmities of Augustus, so as to include the authority of presiding in the senate in his stead. After weighing all these difficulties well, the most satisfactory conclusion appears to be this : that the triumph, the dedication of the two temples, and the decree of the senate, took place in the successive months of January and February, in the year when M. -^milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus were consuls, or in the year of the Julian period 4723. As it was before the Parilia, it was in the 762nd year of Rome, and in the first year of the 197th olym- piad; in the 55 th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and the tenth year of the Dionysian sera of Jesus Christ. The first year of this associate empire ended in February a.u.c. 763, a.j.p. 4724, when Germanicus Caesar and 0. Fonteius Capito were con- suls; and in that year Augustus enlarged the authority of Tiberius by commending to him the senate. The second year ended in February a.u.c. 764, a.j.p. 4725, when Caius Silius and Munatius Plancus were consuls. The third year ended in February a.u.c. 765, a.j.p. 4726, when Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius were consuls. During their consulship Augustus died, on the 19th of August; which being after the Pariha, was in the 766th year of Rome, and being after July, was in the first year of the 198th olympiad. Tiberius was therefore associated with Augustus about three years, six months and a half, before he became the sole emperor. 240 [ PART I. CHAPTER XL FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS IN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCES, UNTIL HIS DEATH. Tiberius associated in the 73rd year of Augustus. — The reign of Augustus by Decen- nial periods. — Concise view of events till his death. — Total eclipse of the sun in that year, mentioned by Dio and Eusebius, but denied by Petavius. The subject ex- amined.— Proofs of a central eclipse in a.j.p. 4726, but none in a.j.p. 4727. — Lunar eclipse mentioned by Tacitus and Dio as occurring during the mutiny in Pannonia. — Question considered whether it was the eclipse of October 7, a.j.p. 4726, or Sep- tember 27, a.j.p. 4727. — Decided in favour of the former. 1. By testimony. 2. As- tronomical calcidations. 3. Necessary length of time after the death of Augustus. — The years in which Julius and Augustus Cresar died, two of the most important for the settlement of chronology. — The narrative continued. — Death of Agrippa Posthu- mus. — Germanicus suspected. — Poisoned, Nov. a.j.p. 473L — His ashes brought to Rome early in a.j.p. 4732. — Tiberius goes to Campania a.j.p. 4733. — Returns in consequence of Livia's illness, A.J.P. 4734. — Death of Junia, the widow of Cassius, in the 64th year after the battle of Philippi. — Drusus murdered, a.j.p. 4735. — Decen- nial games, a.j.p. 4736. — The next year constant proscriptions.— In a.j.p. 4738, Tiberius left Rome never to return. — In 4739, retired to Capreje, where he spent the i-emainderof his life. — a.j.p. 4741, the consulship of the two Gemini — Livia died, aged 86 years. — Her character. — From this time the career of Tiberius unbridled. — All the family of Germanicus destroyed excepting Caligula. — In 4743 Sejanus consul, and publicly executed Oct. 18. — Tibei'ius died in March, a.j.p. 4749. — His character, as given by Dio. If the foregoing calculations be correct, Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the government of the provinces, that is, in the government of the whole empire, excepting the city of Rome and its dependencies, in the montli of February, in the year 4723 of the Julian period, the 55th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Cfesar, in the sixth month of the 41st year after the battle of Actium, and in the seventy-third year of the age of Augustus. From this time, Au<2;ustus began to cast off the burthens of CHAP. XI.] THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS. 241 empire. His speech to the senate, in which lie commended Ger- manicus to them, and them to Tiberius, was read, not by himself, but by Germanicus ; and, assigning the war in Germany as an excuse, he requested them not to come to the palace to salute him, and not to be offended if he did not entertain them.* " Lucius Munatius and Caius Silius being designated consuls, Augustus," says Dio, "unwillingly took the fifth decennial govern- ment of the commonwealth, and again gave Tiberius the tribunicial power. To Drusus, the son of Tiberius, he gave the consulship for the third year, and permitted him to become a candidate for it before he had been prcetor."^ It must be distinctly observed, that Dio does not here say, as usual, when Munatius and Silius were consuls, but when they were designated consuls. They did not become consuls till the 1st of January, a.j.p. 4725, a.u.c. 764-5 ; but they were designated con- suls, by the vote of the people in the centuries, about the calends of the preceding August,* a.j.p. 4724, a.u.c. 763-4. It was, therefore, during the last six months of the year following that in which Tiberius was associated with Augustus in the empire, and a year earlier than it was usual for him to renew his decennial authority. This will be made evident, if we compare the several accounts which Dio gives of these decennial periods. His first statement is as follows : " Caesar, being desirous to lead the Romans oiF from the suspicion that he meditated anything monarchical, undertook the government of those provinces which were assigned to him, for ten years ; for he promised to reduce them within that time, adding, in the boasting manner of a young man, that if he could pacify them sooner, he would sooner give them up to the senate."^ This arrangement took place when Csesar was consul the seventh, and Agrippa the third time, A.u.c. 725-6, a.j.p. 4686. Shortly after, speaking of this arrangement, by which the provinces were divided between Csesar and the senate, Dio makes the following reflections : " These things, there- 1 D. Cass. H. R. lib. Ivi. c. 26, p. 587 B.C. following year were called Designati till " D. Cass. H. R. lib. Ivi. e. 28, p. 588 b.c. they entered upon their office ; but I have * " Magistratuum Comitia habebantur not been able to find any ancient authority circa Kalendas Sextileis." — Nieupoort de for the fact so confidently asserted by ritibus Romanorum, p. 84. It is evident modern writers, that the elections took from the titles of many of Cicero's Epis- place in July or August, ties, that the consuls thus created for the ^ Dion Hist. R. lib. liii. 13, p. 504 B.C. 31 242 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. fore, were, so to speak, tlius arranged at that time ; but, in reality, Csesar himself was always, and of all things, the absolute master, having the treasury and the army entirely at his disposal. When, therefore, this period of ten years was ended, another five years was voted to him, and then another five ; and, after this, ten, and again another ten the fifth time : so that he was monarch his whole life, by a succession of decennial periods. On which account, succeeding emperoi's, though inaugurated once for their whole life, and not for a limited time, celebrated, notwithstanding, a festival every ten years, as if they then renewed their government. And such," adds the historian, "is the practice even now."' The reader will recollect, that the first five years of the trium- virate expired, by its own limitation, on the 31st of December, in the seventh year of the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar, or on the last day of the year 4675 of the Julian period. It must also be recollected, that, in the following spring, Antony and Caesar renewed the triumvirate for five years longer, without asking the consent of the senate and people. But this usurpation, Cffisar, when he had obtained unrivalled authority, was very willing to bury in oblivion. He, therefore, artfully reckoned ten years, from the 31st of December a.j.p. 4675, to the 31st of December a.j.p. 4685, when his sixth consulship ended ; and, at the commencement of his seventh consulship, asked the senate and people to confer upon him supreme authority for another space of ten years, commencing the 1st of January a.j.p. 4686, and ending the 31st of December A.J.P. 4695, in which year the two Lentuli were consuls. Hence Dio, speaking afterwards of that year, says : " During the consulship of Publius and Cneius Lentulus, Augustus — first prolonged his own authority five years, since the decennial period was now expiring, and then gave Agrippa the tribunicial authority for the same space of time, having made him, in other respects, nearly of equal power with himself. For so much, he said, would then be sufficient for them both. Not long afterwards, however, he doubled the period of his imperial government, so that it be- came again ten years."- This second decennial period would expire, therefore, on the 31st of December a.j.p. 4705, when Caius Mar- cius Censorinus and Caius Asinius Gallus were consuls, that is, > H. B. lib. Uii. 16, p. 506 E. & 507. * Dion. H. E. lib. liv. 12, p. 529 B.C. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 243 A.u.c. 744-5, at the close of the fifteenth year, according to the Capitollne tables, or the first half of the sixteenth year, dating from the decree of the senate, giving him his tribunicial authority. Accordingly, we again find the narrative of Dio stating as follows: " The next year, in which Asinius Gallus and Caius Marcius were consuls, although he had resigned the government, as he said, because the second ten years were expired, he unwillingly, forsooth, took it again upon himself."^ This third decennial period would expire on the 31st of Decem- ber A.J.P. 4715, when Lucius ^lius Lamia and Marcus Serviliua were consuls, A.u.c. 754-5, at the close of the twenty-fifth year of his tribunicial authority. During that year, therefore, the his- torian says : " His third decennial period being fulfilled, he by compulsion, forsooth, undertook the government for the fourth time." 2 This fourth decennial period would terminate December 31st, A.j.p. 4725, A.u.c. 764-5, in the consulship of Caius Silius and Lucius Munatius Plancus, at the close of the thirty-fifth or be- ginning of the thirty-sixth year of his tribunicial authority, and, consequently, less than a year before his death. This, according to his usual practice, would have been the time to renew the decennial government ; whereas he, in fact, renewed it the year before, when Caius Silius and Lucius Munatius were designated consuls, but had not yet entered upon their oflfice. No reason is assigned for this change ; but it may naturally be accounted for, by the fact of his having the preceding year associated Tiberius in the empire, his weariness of the cares of government, and the rapidly increasing infirmities, which admonished him to provide for the peaceful transmission of his authority. A proposition was made at the same time by Augustus, and obsequiously assented to by the senate and people, which marks the wonderful hold he had either on their fears or their affections: " On account of his great age, by reason of which he very rarely met with the senate, he asked for twenty privy-counsellors, to be chosen annually ; for, before, he had associated with himself fifteen every six months.* Accordingly, a vote was passed that what- ' Dion. H. R. lib. Iv. 5-6, p. 551,c.E. for six months were chosen from the ' Dion. H. R. lib. Iv. 12, p. 556, c. senate by lot, to prepare beforehand the * Suetonius says that these counsellors business to be discussed in full senate. 244 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. soever might seem good to him, consulting with Tiberius and with them (i.e. the twenty), together with the consuls for the time being, those designated consuls, those adopted by him as his grand- children, and any others whom he might at any time add to them, should have the force of law, as if enacted by the whole senate."* This high-handed measure gave the finishing blow to Roman liberty ; and one knows not whether most to wonder at the un- blushing arrogance of the emperor, or at the rapid debasement, and utter servility, to which the nation had sunk in the course of a hundred years ! "At the celebration of his birth-day this year (September 23rd), a deranged person seated himself in the chair of Julius Ccesar, took his crown, and put it on his own head. This to Augustus seemed a portent of his own death, and such it truly was ; for, in the fol- lowing summer, in which Sextus Appuleius and Sextus Pompeius were consuls, Augustus went into Campania, and died at Nola. There was a total eclipse of the sun (6 re yap {jXioi ttoq e^eXnre) and a great part of the heavens seemed to be on fire, and blood-red comets {aaripEg Kojufjrai Kai atfiurwhig) WCrc secn."^ Livia was somewhat suspected of having hastened his death, because he had sailed to the island [sc. of Planasia, now called Pianosa], and had had a secret interview with Agrippa. Fearing that Augustus would raise his grandson to the monarchy, she conveyed poison to him in a fig. He died on the 19th of August, the day in which he first became consul, having lived seventy-five years, ten months, and twenty-six days ; for he was born on the 23rd day of September, and he had reigned alone, from the time in which he conquered at Actium, forty-four years, wanting thirteen days.^ Tacitus speaks of the suspicion resting on Livia ; and Pliny and Plutarch both allude to it.* Suetonius accords perfectly with Dio, as to the day and year of his birth and death, and the duration of his monarchy from the battle of Actium. And with the whole of these historians, our present computation harmonizes entirely. Of this we proceed to give a brief recapitulation. (Octavianus, c. 35). But this was only a * Dion. H. E. lib. Ivi. c. 29, p. 589. standing committee. Tlie subsequent ' Dion. H. R. lib. Ivi. c. 30, p. 589-90. measure superseded the action of the * Tacit. Anna!, lib i. c. 5. Plin. Hist, senate entirely. Nat. lib. vii. c. xlvi. 45. Plut. Trepi ' Dion. Cass. H. R. lib. hi. c. 28, p. 588. a^o\t(yx^<^S- ^d. Steph. torn. ii. p. 503. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 245 Augustus was born in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, in the year of the Julian period 4650, on the 23rd of September. From Sept. 23, a.j.p. 4650, to Sept. 23, 4725, are 75 solid years. From Sept. 23, a.j.p. 4725, to July 23, 4726, are 10 solid months. From July 23, a.j.p. 4726, to August 19, 4726, are in July (not including the 23i-d), days 8 in August (not including the 19th), days 18— 26 solid days. According to Dio's computation years 75. ms, 10. days 26 Again : The battle of Actium took place, as we have before seen (p. 197), in the third consulship of Csesar with Valerius Mes- salla Corvinus, on the 2nd day of September, in the year of the Julian period 4682. From September 2, 4682, to September 2, 4725, are 43 solid years. From September 2, 4725, to August 2, 4726, are n solid months. From August 2 to August 19, both included, are 18 solid days. 43 11 18 To which add 13 days, according to Dio's comp. 13 Making a total of 44 years 44 o 0 After the will of Augustus had been opened and read, Drusus read also in the senate four manuscripts ; the first of which con- tained the directions for his funeral ; the second, an enumeration of his actions, which he ordered to be inscribed on brazen columns placed before his mausoleum ; the third, a summary of the army, the revenues, public expenses, contents of the treasury, and other things pertaining to the government; the fourth, his injunctions and counsels to Tiberius and the republic.^ The assertion of Dio,^ that there was a total eclipse of the sun in the year when Augustus died, has been called in question by Petavius, and, on his authority, by other modern chronologers of ' Dion. H. R. Ivi. c. 33, p. 591, b. Sueto- tarum Divi Augusti, quibus orbem terra- mus mentions only the first three (lib. ii. rum imperio populi Rom. subjecit, et c. 101). The second is that of which there impensarum, quas in rempublicam popu- are fragments remaining, and of which lumque Romanum fecit, Incisarum in occasional notice has been taken in the duabus aheneis pilis qute sunt Rom£e present work. They were discovered by a positaj, exemplar subjectum." The work learned divine and antiquarian of the of Chishull I have seen in the British Church of England, the Rev. Edmund Museum; and the inscription itself, with Chishull, and were published by him the commentary of Isaac Casaubon, is an- under the title of " Monumentum Latinum nexed to the second volume of the works Ancyranum," annexed to his great work of Suetonius, edited by Fred. Aug. Wolff. Antiquitates Asiaticse, fol. 1728. The Lipsiae. 4 torn. 8vo. 1802. torn. ii. 369-400.' monument itself is entitled, " Rerum ges- ^ lj^, j^.j ^ gg. 246 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. note. It becomes necessary, therefore, to examine the grounds on which the rejection of such positive testimony has been founded. The following is a literal translation of the words of Petavius : "Eusebius states in his chronicon, at the 56th year of Augustus, the year of Abraham 2029, and the first of the 198th olympiad, that there happened an eclipse of the sun, when Augustus died. Dio likewise relates, in his fifty-sixth book, among the prodigies that preceded the death of Augustus, a total eclipse of the sun. But Eusebius has placed the death of Augustus one year too early ; for, according to the method,* by adding 2696 years to the number given by Eusebius, it will make the year of Abraham 2029 begin in the year 4725 of the Julian period; and hence it will make Augustus to have died in the year 4726, whereas he died in the year 4727. Mercator computes, that in the year when Augustus died — the consulship of the two Sexti, the sun was eclipsed in the jeRV of Nabonassar 760, the sun being in 6° 15' of Taurus. This was the year of Christ 13. But in that year there was no eclipse of the sun,' neither at Rome, nor in any of the provinces of Gaul or Spain. For the true new moon took place at Rome near the twentieth hour, that is, 19h. 49m. after midnight, on the 28th of April, being one hour after sunset. According to the Parisian tables, and the true motion of the sun, it had then arrived at 5° 44' of Taurus. Wherefore, since no eclipse of the sun was seen, neither in that year in which Augustus died [i.e., according to Petavius, 4727], nor in the year preceding, either Dio is false, or some unusual paleness and obscurity of the sun, furnished the spec- tators with the idea of an eclipse, such as happened, as we have before shown, at the death of Julius Caesar."^ This is a bold and sweeping way of evading testimony, especially of such writers as Dio and Eusebius ; and it must not be suffered to pass without careful scrutiny. Petavius acknowledges what he could not deny, that Eusebius places the death of Augustus In the year of Abraham 2029, which * This alludes to a perpetual method any given Eusebian year of Abraham, provided by Petavius (Doct. Temp. lib. you have the year of the Julian period in ix. c. 1) of tui'ning the Eusebian years of which it began. Abraham into years of the Julian period. ^ Neque Romse, neque in Galliis, aut He there shows that the first year of Hispaniis. Abraham, according to Eusebius, fell in ' Petav. de Doct. Temp. lib. xi. c. 6, the autumn of the year 2697 of the Julian tom. ii. p. 166. period. Hence by adding 2696 years to CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 247^ by his own showing, corresponds with the year 4726 of the Julian period, and the year 13 of the Dionysian sera; whereas he himself places it in the year 4727 of the Julian period, corresponding with the year 14 of the Dionysian sera. We trust we have shown to the satisfaction of the reader that Augustus died on the 19th of August, A.j.p. 4726 ; and consequently that Petavius was wrong and Eusebius right. Petavius acknowledges that Eusebius speaks of an eclipse of the sun in the same year in which Augustus died. The words are, as translated from the Armenian version, "Defectio solis facta, et Augustus mortuus est" — an eclipse of the sun takes place, and Augustus dies. St. Jerome, in his translation of Eusebius, and Syncellus, say the same thing. Petavius further acknowledges that this eclipse was calculated by Gerard Mercator, an astronomer of no mean reputation, and found to have taken place in the year of Nabonassar 760, when the sun was in 6° 15' of Taurus.' The sera of Nabonassar began February 26th, a.j.p. 3967; and 759 Egyptian years are equal to 758 Julian years and 176 days. The first of Thoth, or the beginning of the 760th year of Nabon- assar, was, therefore, the 20th of August in the year 4725 of the Julian period ; and as, according to Mercator''s calculation, the sun was in Taurus, the eclipse took place in the spring of the year 4726 of the Julian period, and the year 13 of the Dionysian sera. This Petavius admits ; but adds immediately, that in the year 13 there was no eclipse of the sun visible at Rome, or in the Gallic and Spanish provinces. What if there was not ? Does Dio say any- thing of Rome, or Gaul, or Spain ? Not a word. He merely says that the sun was totally eclipsed. Wherever seen, by any of the Roman soldiery, in any part of the world, such an event would be spoken of, and the superstitious would construe it into a prodigy. What, then, was the fact ? Petavius admits that the moon changed at Rome on the 28th of April in the year 13 of the Dion- ysian ^ra, 19 hours and 49 minutes after midnight, that is, at 49 minutes past seven o'clock in the evening of that day. In the great work of the learned Benedictines entitled " The art of verifying dates," there is a calculation of all the eclipses, both lunar and solar, visible in Europe, Asia, and that part of Africa known to the Romans, in every year from the first of the Dionysian sera to the year 2000, calculated by M. Pingre, and approved by a com- 248 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [pART I. mittee of the French Roj'^al Academy of Sciences. On turning to this table it will be seen, that in the year 13 there were three eclipses, two jiartial of the moon, and one of the sun. That of the sun is thus described : * 28 April at 7^ evening. Small part of Europe, to the west and north-west. Central^ in latitude 52. Annular. It ajipears, then, that on the 28th of April, the day on which Petavius mentions the change of moon, and nearly at the same hour (the difference being probably that of the meridians of Paris and Rome), there was an annular eclipse of the sun, seen only in a small part of Europe to the west and north-west, and in the 52nd degree of north latitude central. It was sufficiently near to a total eclipse to be so designated by the historians. A method of proving the truth of what has now been said is given in Gregory's Astronomy, chap, xix., which, in conjunction with the tables of eclipses here referred to, will show, we presume, to the satisfaction of the reader, that the historian is wrongly accused by the modern chronologer. It is as follows : " Since the nodes move backwards 1 9^" every year, they would shift through all the points of the ecliptic in 18 years and 225 days; and this would be the regular j^eriod of the return of the eclipses, if any complete number of lunations were performed in it without a fraction ; but this is not the case. However, in 223 mean lunations, after the sun, moon, and nodes, have been once in a line of conjunction, they return so nearly to the same state again, that the same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the beginning of these lunations, will be within 28' 12" of the line of conjunction when the last of these lunations is com- pleted ; and in this period there will be a regular return of eclipses, till it be repeated about forty times, or in about 720 years, when the line of the nodes will be 28' X 40 from the conjunction, and will consequently be beyond the ecliptic limits. This is called the Plinian period, or Chaldean saros ; it contains, according to Dr. Halley, 18 Julian years, lid. 7h. 43m. 20s.; or according to Mr. Ferguson, 18 years, lid. 7h. 42m. 44s. In an interval of 557 years, 21d. 18h. Um. 51s., in which there are exactly 6890 mean lunations, the conjunction or opposition coincides so nearly with the node, as not to be distant more than 1 1". If, therefore, to the mean time of any solar or lunar eclipse, we add this period, and CUAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 249 make the proper allowance for tlic intercalary days, we shall have the mean time of the return of the same eclipse. This period is so very near, that in 6000 years it will vary no more from the truth than 8:^ minutes of a degree.'" This rule we proceed now to apply to the eclipse in question. The eclipse is stated to have taken place a.d. 13, April 28th, 7^ P.M., and to have been central. From the first of January to the 27th of April at midnight, there are 117 days; and from midnight to half-past seven in the evening of the 28th, 19 hours and 30 minutes. The sum, then, may be thus stated : Y. D. H. M. s. January 31 12 117 19 30 0 February 28 the period of return 557 21 18 11 51 March 31 April 30 569 139 13 41 51 Mav 19 Or I\Iay 20th, a d. 570, as 139 days, the time for the regular return of the same eclipse. On examining the table of eclipses for the year of our Lord 570, it will be found that there were two partial eclipses of the moon and one central eclipse of the sun, and that the latter is thus described : * 20 May, 7h. 45m. evening, Europe to the N. W. central in 42" lat. Asia to the N.E. central in 17° lat. Annular. Again. Y. D. H. M. s. January 31 557 21 18 11 51 2 February 28 March 31 April 30 1114 43 12 23 42 May 31 12 117 19 30 0 June 10 Add 1126 161 7 53 42 161 days. Or June Uth, a.d. 1127, as the time of the second periodical return of the eclipse of A.D. 13. On examining the table, we find in a.d. 1127 two partial eclijjses of the moon, and one central eclipse of the sun, which is thus described: * 11 June, at 7h. evening, to the N.W. of Europe central, in 31" lat. Annular. Y. D. H. M. S. Y. D. H. M. S. Jan. 31 Again: 577 21 18 11 51 X 3 = 1671 65 6 35 33 Feb. 28 Add 12 117 19 30 0 Mar. 31 Apr. 30 1683 183 2 5 33 May 31 June 30 Or July 2, a.d. 1684. July 2 In the mean time the change of calendar had taken place, and ten days been omitted. Hence July 2, became July 12. 183 days. Cavallo's Philosophy, vol. iv. p. 261-2. 32 250 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. The table for the year 1684 exhibits, as before, two partial eclipses of the moon, and one central of the sun, described as fol- lows: * 12 July, 3 o'clock p.m. Europe, Africa, Asia, to the W. central in lat 42"— 18". The fourth periodical return of the eclipse of ad. 13 has not yet taken place. The calculations not being given in detail, but only the results, perfect accuracy could not be obtained. Sufficient however is shown by this mode of proof, to make it certain that in the year 4726 of the Julian [)eriod, which we have shown to be the year in which Augustus died, there was on the 28th day of April such an eclipse as Dio has described, and the other writers have mentioned. Petavius would not have accused Dio of falsehood, if he could have shown any solar eclipse such as the historian described in the year 4727 of the Julian Period, a.d. 14. In that year there were two total eclipses of the moon, but a very inconsiderable eclipse of the sun. I subjoin the tables of the periodical returns of the eclipses of that year, in order that the reader may see the negative as well as the positive side of the argument. A.D. 14 # 4 Apr, Ih. 30' morn. ^ 18 Apr. Oh. 30' morn. Asia n. and n.e. ^ 27 Sept. 5 morn. A.D. 571 ^25 Apr. 6h. even. >^ 9 May, 9h. even, to n.e. of Asia, ^ 18 Octob. llh. evening. A.D. 1128 % 16 May, 6h. SC morn. ^ 30 May, 8b. 30' even. Asia n.e. :j« 25 Oct. 5h. even. Europe to the w. © 8 November, 9h. even, almost central. A.D. 1685 ^16 June, 6h. even. >fc 1 July, at 8h. even. Europe to n. Asia, to N.E. jf; 26 Nov. at 7h. morn. Asia to N. ^ 10 Decemb. at llh. evening. Before we leave this subject it may be important to notice an eclipse of the moon which, according to Tacitus and Dio, took place after the army in Pannonia had heard of the death of Augustus and the accession of Tiberius. The first of these historians relates, that, on receiving this intelligence, Julius Bltesus, the general, granted a suspension of military duty. This relaxation of discipline led to a fierce and violent mutiny. After some days, a calm was produced, by sending the general's son to Rome, to obtain a redress of their grievances ; but the return of some detached companies from Nauportus, the modern Laybach, renewed the commotion, and redoubled its violence. As soon as Tiberius heard of these transactions, he sent his son Drusus, accompanied by Sejanus and two praetorian cohorts, w'ith CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 251 a body of cavalry and some otlier troops, to quell the insurrection. For some time, however, the arrival of Drusus only increased the violence of the mutiny; nor was it checked till the eclipse took place, an account of which we proceed now to give in the language of the historian : " That night, so threatening and ready to burst forth into crime, an accident mitigated ; for the moon, in a clear sky, was suddenly seen to grow dim. Ignorant of the reason, the soldier received that as an omen of present occurrences; and, assimilating the eclipse of the planet to his own difficulties, supposed that if brightness and clearness were restored to the goddess, there would be a prosjierous termination of passing events. Therefore a noise was made with the sound of brazen instruments, and the concert of trumpets and clarions ; as she became brighter or more obscure, they rejoiced or mourned ; and after clouds had arisen and snatched her from their view, they believed that she was buried in darkness. As minds once smitten with fear are easily moved to superstition, they lamented that never-ending labour was portended for themselves, and that their misdeeds had brought upon them the aversion of the gods. Csesar, thinking that he ought to avail him- self of this state of mind, and that what chance had presented should be turned into wisdom, ordered the tents to be surrounded." ' Dio briefly speaks of the revolt in Pannonia, and then adds, that on the arrival of Drusus with the i)rsetorian guards, the army were in great commotion, because he said nothing to them certain. Some of his retinue were wounded, and he himself was guarded by night lest he should escajie. In this situation, having their imagination excited by an eclipse of the moon, they became so dejected, that no mischief was done by them, and they again sent messengers to Tiberius.^ The only eclipse of the moon wliich happened a.d. 18 after August 19th, was on the seventh of October, at 7h. 45m. evening, and there were only three digits and a quarter eclipsed, or less than one third of the moon's disc. On the other hand, the eclipse in A.D. 14, on the 27th of September, took place at five o'clock in the morning, and was total. The question now is, to which of these eclipses had Tacitus or Dio reference ? ' Tac. Ann. lib. i. c. xvi.-xxviii. I do every body's hands, not give the Latin, because this part of ^ Hist. Rom. lib, Ivii. c. 4, p. 604. Ed, Tacitus is made a school book, and is in Keimar, torn. ii. 252 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. We might answer, that as Die evidently means the same year when he speaks of the solar eclijise as preceding, and the lunar eclipse as following, the death of Augustus, the proof given of the one, necessarily determines the question with regard to the other. But not to insist upon what might justly be deemed a corollary from a preceding demonstration, the very circumstances of the narrative, if I mistake not, show that it must have been the eclipse of October 7th, a.d. 13, and not that of September 27th, a.d. 14. In the first place, the eclipse of September 27th, a.d. 14, was in the morning; that of October 7th, a.d. 13, in the evening. Petavius has inserted in his work the calculation of the former. Beginning, 3h. 18' 32". Rliddle, 5h. 14' 32". End, 7h. 6' 32". Whole duration, 3h. 52', or nearly four hours. — Post meridiem, Septemb. xxviii. What Petavius means by saying p.m. September 28, I cannot tell ; for he had previously said that the true opposition in Pannonia was September xxvii. 5h. 14' 32"; and Brotier, in his note on the passage in Tacitus, refers to Petavius as his authority, and says : This eclipse of the moon happened in the morning, on the 27 th day of September, a.u.c. dcclxvii. j.c. 14. Its beginning Avas at 3h. 18' 32", its end, 7h. 6' 32". The table of eclipses in "The art of verifying dates," as we have seen, represents it thus : #27 Sept. at 5 morning. But whether morning or afternoon, it is equally at variance with the narrative. The 27th of September was but a few days after the autumnal equinox, and consequently the sun rose not far from 6 a.m. The middle of the eclipse was near the dawn, and the moon, hidden probably from the soldiery by tlie sur- rounding mountains, sunk below the horizon eclipsed. If the eclipse had been in the afternoon of September 28, from 18 minutes past three to 6 minutes past seven, it would have risen totally eclipsed ; and this would have been equally contrary to the narrative. On the other hand, the eclipse of October 7th, a.d. 13, is thus described by M. Pingre, in the "Art of verifying dates": > 7 Oct. at 7 and 3 qu. evening, greatness of the eclipse, 3 digits 1 quarter. As only the middle of the eclipses are mentioned, the beginning of the eclipse must have been not far from seven o'clock; and as that part of Pannonia was somewhere near Lat. 46° 30', and Long. 34", the sun must have set, and the moon have risen, on the seventh CHAP. IX.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 253 of October, about half-past five. The moon was, therefore, an hour and a half high when the eclipse began. The whole army was up and in action. Their passions were highly excited ; and not, as they would have been in the morning, lulled and tranquil. It may possibly be supposed that the total eclipse of a.d. 14 would accord better with the facts mentioned by Tacitus than the partial eclipse of a.d. 13. Let us proceed, therefore, to examine these facts, on the supposition that it was the partial eclipse. The moon being an hour and a half high, and the heavens ■ perfectly serene, the eclipse began on the eastern limb in the sio-ht of the whole armv. It increased for about three quarters of an hour, and then began to decrease. The superstitious soldiers, considering the moon as a divinity assailed by some calamity, with which she was struggling, thought to help her, and to fx-ighten away her enemy, by the noise of their instruments. Considering the event as ominous of their own destiny, they mourned as the eclipse increased, and rejoiced as it decreased. Their joy would have been complete, if they had seen the moon perfectly escaped from the eclipse, and restored to her brightness and clearness ; but, during the decrease, and in the midst of their joy and hope, black clouds arose, which hid her entirely from their view, so that she seemed buried. The night, at first so serene, became dark and dismal, and, to their terrified imagina- tions, portentous of Divine vengeance. All these circumstances are perfectly reconcilable with the partial eclipse in the evening, but, to me, do not appear to be so with the total eclipse in the morning. There is another argument, arising from the length of time between the death of Augustus and the date of the two eclipses, which it is proper to mention, but which I shall pass over as lightly as possible, because it amounts only to a collateral probability. If his death took place August 19th a.d. 14, there were only thirty-eight days between that event and the eclipse on the morn- ing of September 27 ; if in the preceding year, there were nearly forty-nine days to the evening of October 7th. Considering the course of events, which of these periods is the most probable ? " The death of Augustus," says Dio, " was not immediately made known ; for Livia, fearing lest there should be some innova- tion, because Tiberius was still in Dalmatia, concealed it until his 254 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. arrival. Such," he adds, " is the statement of the greater part of the historians, and of those most worthy of credit ; though there are some who say that Tiberius was present with him in his illness, and received from him certain injunctions." ' Tacitus speaks of it as a doubtful question.^ We may place the announcement on the 20th or 21st of August. "Tiberius," says Dio, "immediately sent letters from Nola, as emperor, to the several armies, and to all the jorovinces, but not calling himself emperor."^ The body of Augustus was carried to Rome on men's shoulders ; " borne," says Dio, " from Nola, by the principal inhabitants of each city in succession ; but, on its arrival at Rome, drawn into the city at night by horses. The next day the senate convened, the members being clothed in the garments of the equestrian order, and the presiding officers, without the prsetexta. Tiberius and his son Drusus, clothed in black forensic cloaks, offered sacrifice with incense, but without the flute player. The senators sat in their accustomed seats ; the consuls, not in the curule chairs, but lower down ; one in the seat of the prators, the other in that of the tribunes." The will of Augustus was read, and the other documents already mentioned.'* After this, the body was laid in state in the senate house. Dio describes the ceremonies, and gives a summary of the funeral ora- tion i^ronounced by Tiberius. The body was then carried through the triumphal gates, by the senators and knights, attended by all Rome, to the Campus Martins, and there placed on the funeral pile. Around it were ranged first the priests, then tlie knights, then the military, all of whom cast on the pyre the triumphal ornaments they had received from him as the rewards of their bravery. The centurions applied the torches, and an eagle was let loose, as the flames ascended, bearing the soul of Augustus, as it were, into heaven. The crowd departed ; but Livia remained on the spot five days, with the chiefs of the equestrian order, to collect his bones, and deposit them in the mausoleum. The mourning was, according to law, of the men, not many days ; of the women, a whole year. Dio adds, emphatically, " In truth, at that time not many, but finally all, mourned." ^ All these circumstances being duly weighed, it will not be con- ' H. R. lib. hi. c. 31, p. 590. < H. E. lib. Ivi. ut sup. * Ami. lib. i. c. 5. ^ Lib. Ivii. c. 2. * H. R. Ivi. ut sup. 34-43. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 255 siclered too large an estimate, if we allow seventeen clays, from his death to the end of the funeral ceremonies. At the most moderate calculation, Nola was 150 miles from Rome, and ten days must have been consumed in the funeral procession. The ceremonies in the senate, reading the will and other documents, the body laid in state, the funeral oration, the procession to the Campus Martins, and burning the body, could hardly have been crowded into a single day. Five days more were j)assed, before the ashes were collected and deposited in the mausoleum. In the meantime, the news of the emperor's death had been re- ceived in Pannonia, the mutiny had followed, and the younger Blsesus had left the army for Kome, a distance of at least seven hundred Roman miles. However expeditious he may have been, we cannot reasonably place his arrival there earlier than the ter- mination of the funeral obsequies. Several subsequent meetings of the senate are spoken of by Tacitus, before the subject of the mutiny is introduced. On hearing of the disturbances, Tiberius dispatched Drusus, with a powerful body of infantry and cavalry. How long would it take these heavy-armed troops to march seven hundred miles ? Would not twenty days have been an astonish- ingly rapid movement ? And yet they must have marched thirty- five miles a-day for that length of time, to arrive at the camp in Pannonia by the 26th of September.* If, on the other hand, the death of Augustus happened in the preceding year, where Eusebius places it, and where, by our calcu- lations, it ought to be placed, then the various events recorded by the historians as having occurred in the interval between his death and the lunar eclipse which followed it in that year, may easily have been performed. In that case, there would be at least forty- eight days, and that would leave a month for the march of Drusus and his Praetorian cohorts. To ascertain the years in which Julius Caesar and Augustus * Dr. Robinson, estimating the distance Western Asia, i. p. liv. as his authority, of the land of Goshen from the place and then adds: "I am informed by Prus- where the Israelites crossed the Red Sea, sian officers of rank, that the usual march observes that " the usual day's march of of their armies is three German miles a the best appointed armies, both in ancient day, equal to twelve geographical miles of and modern times, is not estimated at sixty to the degree. Forced marches are higher than fourteen English, or twelve reckoned at five German miles a day. In geographical miles." He refers to Major either case the whole army rests every Rennell's Comparative Geography of fourth day." — Bib. Res. vol. i. p. 75, and note 2. 256 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. died, is to settle two of the most important points in chronology. It was impossible, therefore, to avoid the discussion of the several questions relative to these eclipses, because there is no evidence more certain than the concurrent testimony of history and astro- nomical computations. I proceed now with the narrative. The death of Augustus left Tiberius sole master of the Roman empire. According to Suetonius, he was born at Rome, on the sixteenth before the calends of December, or November 16th, in the year when Marcus iEmilius Lepidus, the second time, and Lucius Munatius Plancus were consuls, after the battle of Philippi. Thus it is related in the Fasti and the public acts. He observes, however, that some writers place his birth in the preceding year, the consulship of Hirtius and Pansa, and others in that which fol- lowed, or the consulship of Servilius Isauricus and Antonius. Suetonius justly gives the preference to the public registers. In a preceding chapter, we have seen that the consulship of Hir- tius and Pansa began on the 1st of January of the second year of Caesar's reformed calendar, corresponding with the year 4670 of the Julian j)eriod. Consequently, the consulship of Lepidus ii and Plancus, began January 1st a.j.p. 4671, the third year of the calendar of Julius Csesar. Tiberius was born on the 16th of No- vember in that year. His early history, it is not necessary to our purpose to pursue ; and, in tracing the histoi'y of Augustus, we have had occasion to examine the dates of his political and military life, to his adoption as colleague of the empire. Where he spent most of his time, and w^hat he did after that adoption, is not very apparent, because both Velleius and Sueto- nius pass it slightly over, and the scanty abridgement of Dio adds but little to our information. He appears to have been much in Illyricum, as the principal seat of war, but going frequently to the city, and sharing with Augustus the councils of the empire. That he had recently gone to Illyricum when Augustus was taken ill at Nola, and that he was thence recalled in haste by Livia, we have seen in the present chapter ; and this clearly aj)pears from the nar- rative of Velleius and Tacitus.^ At the time of his accession to undivided emjiire, he wanted eighty-seven days, or nearly three months, of completing his fifty- 1 Vel. Pat. lib. ii. c. 123; Tac. Ann. lib. i. c. 5. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 257 fifth year. Previous to that time he appeared amiable and mode- rate, though he could never entirely deceive the penetration of Augustus. His first official act was a crime ; for, no sooner Avas the death of Augustus made public, than orders were sent to the island of Planasia to put the young Agrippa to death. These orders were written ; but, when the military tribune who had the charge of Agrip^ia, informed the emperor that what he had commanded was done, he received an answer, dictated by that deep dissimula- tion which marked all the subsequent life of Tiberius, that he had never commanded it, and that the tribune should render an account to the senate for his conduct.' The next year (a.j.p. 4727), Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius, and Caius Norbanus Flaccus were consuls ; and the following year (a.j.p. 4728), Titus Statilius Sisenna Taurus and Lucius Scribonius Libo. " For two whole years," says Suetonius, " after Tiberius had obtained the empire, he never set his foot out of doors ; and afterwards he was never absent, unless, very rarely, and for a few days, in some of the neighbouring towns, and, at the utmost, as far as Antium. He frequently pi'omised the provinces and the armies that he would revisit them ; and, almost every year, made preparations for departure, engaging carriages, providing relays (commeatibus), in the various municipia and colonies, and suffering prayers and vows to be offered publicly for his safe departure and return. This was so common, as finally to become a topic of popu- lar ridicule.^ Gerraanicus was in Gaul when Augustus died. He was the commander-in-chief of the two armies on the upper and lower Rhine; the former under Caius Silius, the latter under Aulus Ca?cina. A mutiny much more dangerous than that of Pannonia, broke out in the camp of Csecina. Germanicus hastened to quell it. He was the idol of the soldiers ; and they wished to march to Rome and proclaim him emperor. Faithful to Tiberius, he with great difficulty allayed the tumult, and, late as it was in the season, marclied against the independent Germans under Arminius, to avenge the slaughter of Varus and his legions. These transactions are fully detailed in the first book of the Annals of Tacitus. 1 Suet. Tiberius, c. 22. = Suet. Tiber, c. 38. 33 258 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I, Though the war was not yet ended, a triumph was decreed by the senate to Germanicus, in the consulship of Drusus and Norbanus (a.j.p. 4727). Agrippina accompanied her husband in this expedition, sharing all his fatigues and dangers, attending to the wants of the soldiers, distributing medicines to the sick and clothes to the indigent. The gloomy and suspicious temper of Tiberius took the alarm, and from this time forth he secretly determined to destroy Germanicus and his hated family. The disturbances among the Parthians, which began during the consulship of Statilius Taurus and Libo (a.j.p. 4728) afforded him a convenient pretext. He invited Germanicus to return to Rome and enjoy his triumph. The army being in winter quarters, and the Germans weakened and disheartened, Germanicus, after peti- tioning in vain to continue another year in command, reluctantly returned.^ In the following consulship of Caius Cajcilius Rufus and Lucius Poraponius Flaccus (a.j.p. 4729), on the seventh before the calends of June (May 26th), Germanicus thus publicly celebrated his triumph over the Cherusci, Chatti, Angrivani, and other nations of Germany, extending to the Elbe.^ It was the policy of Tiberius to load with honours those whom he sought to ruin. He therefore named Germanicus to be consul, and himself to be his colleague, for the ensuing year. This done, he laid before the senate the affairs of Cappadocia, Comagene, Cilicia, Syria, and Judea, and advised that the provinces beyond the Mediterranean should be put under the supreme command of Germanicus, with full authority over all other governors. He then appointed Cnelus Piso governor of Syria, while Plancina, the wife of the governor, had full instructions from Livia to mortify the pride of Agrippina.^ On his way to the east Germanicus paid a visit to Drusus, in Dalmatia. He then sailed along the coast of Illyrlcum, and through the Ionian sea, till he came to Nicopolis, the trophy of the victory at Actium. Here, on the 1st of January, a.j.p. 4730, he entered on his consulship with Tiberius ; the latter for the third time, the former for the second. From Nicopolis he went to Athens, and thence, by the island of Euboea, to Lesbos. Here ' Tac. Ann, lib. ii. 1-26. ^ Tac. Ann. lib. ii. c. 41. ' Tac. ut supr. c. 43. CHAP. Xl] until his DEATH. 259 Agrij)i3lnii was delivered of a daughter, her last child. After the delay which this occasioned, he proceeded along the coast of Asia Minor into the Euxine, and finally returned to lihodes. During his stay on that island he saved the life of Piso, by sending boats and galleys to his aid when he was shipwrecked. Piso, who knew no gratitude, proceeded on his way to Syria, there to plot against his benefactor, while Germanicus visited Armenia, Cappa- docia, and Comagene, everywhere re-establishing tranquillity.' Proceeding south from Comagene, he met Piso at Cyrrhus, the winter quarters of the tenth legion, about twenty-three or twenty- four Koman miles north of the modern Aleppo. In this interview their smothered resentments burst forth ; that of Piso in rude insolence ; that of Germanicus with the dignified moderation of an offended superior. With these transactions the year of his con- sulship ended. In the consulship of Marcus Junius Silanus and Lucius Nor- banus (a.J.P. 4731), Germanicus visited Egypt. Augustus had formerly, as a measure of state policy, prohibited senators and knights from entering that province without his express permis- sion. This could not apply to Germanicus, because in putting all the pi'ovinces beyond the Mediterranean, without exception, under his command, Egypt was of course included. But it was now con- sidered as an offence, and, as Suetonius informs us, complained of openly in the senate by Tiberius.^ The summer was spent in Upper Egypt, and he went up the Nile as far as the island of Elephantine. On his return to Syria, he found all his arrangements, civil and military, changed by Piso. The dissensions which this occasioned increased more and more, until Germanicus was suddenly taken ill, and this occasioned strong suspicions that he had been secretly poisoned. He died soon after at Epidaphne, but his remains were carried to Antioch and there burned. Agrippina collected his ashes in an urn, and with that and her younger children set sail for Italy. Suetonius speaks of the mourning, when the news first arrived at Rome, as having con- tinued during the December festivals f whence it may be inferred that Germanicus died in November. Agrippina's voyage was in the midst of winter. Slie landed at Bruudusium, and the funeral 1 Tac. lit sup. 53-56. ' Sui't. Tiber, c. 52; Tac. at sup. o. 53. ' Sia-t. Calig. c. 6. 260 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. procession along the Appian way moved slowly onward with mili- tary honours, attended by crowds of people, who wept as they walked. Drusus advanced as far as Terracina to meet his remains, and the new consuls, Marcus Valerius Messalla and Marcus Aure- lius Cotta, who had lately entered on their office, went out of the city for that purpose, with the whole senate and a numerous body of mourning citizens.^ It arrived, therefore, early in January, in the year 4732 of the Julian period. Dio remarks that the death of Germanicus occasioned great delight to Tiberius and Livia, but to all others the greatest grief.^ The public grief was especially manifested when the urn con- taining the ashes of Germanicus was deposited in the mausoleum of Augustus. Its universality, continuance, and sincerity may be inferred from the proclamation by which Tiberius sought to relieve himself from its manifestation. " The Megalesian games,"" he ob- served, " were at hand, and the people ought to resume their diver- sions,"^ By turning to the calendar, the reader will see that the Megalesian games continued for eight days from the fourth of April. Piso and Plancina, the tools of Tiberius and Livia, were now to be sacrificed to the popular cry for vengeance. They arrived in Rome, and the trial of Piso began. All the charges, except that of poisoning Germanicus, were fully substantiated. A call for papers was made, and refused no less by Tiberius than by Piso. They would have been produced, it was fully believed, but for the arti- fices of Sejanus, who flattered Piso by false promises, because they would have implicated the real authors of the tragedy.'* Piso put an end to his own life to avoid the disgrace of a public execution, and Plancina obtained a respite under the powerful protection of Livia. In the same year Tiberius commended to the senate Nero, the eldest son of Germanicus, requesting that he might be a candidate for the office of qusestor five years earlier than the law allowed. In like manner Tiberius himself had been made quaestor at the age of nineteen,^ which, according to Dio, was five years earlier than by law.*" In this manner we arrive at the age of this eldest son ' Tuc. Ann. lib. iii. c. 1, 2. ' Tac. ut suii. c. 14, 16, & Suet. Tib. 52. ' Hist. Rom. lib. Ivii. e. 18. * Vel. Paterc. lib. ii. c. 94. ^ Tac. Ann, lib. iii. c. 6. * H. R. lib. liii. 28. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL Ills DEATH. 261 of Germanicus. He was born in the consulship of Vinicius and Alfinius Varus, the year 4714 of the Julian period, and the first of the Dionysian sera. His marriage with Julia, the daughter of Drusus, soon followed ; and both events gave great satisfaction to the Roman people.* The next year (a.j.p. 4733) Tiberius for the fourth time, and Drusus for the second, were consuls. " Men," says Dio, " imme- diately predicted the destruction of Drusus, because whoever had been consul with Tiberius, (Quintilius Varus, Cneius Piso, and Germanicus), had died a violent death."^ In the beginning of the year Tiberius went into Campania for the alleged reason of re- cruiting his health ; " whether," says Tacitus, " gradually medi- tating a long and continued absence, or that Drusus, his father being no longer with him, might alone perform all the duties of the consulship."^ Decimus Haterius Agrippa and Caius Sulpicius Galba were the next consuls (a.j.p. 4734). In this year, Tiberius, by letters to the senate, desired that his son Drusus might receive the tribunitial authority. Livia was taken so alarmingly ill, that her danger occasioned the return of Tiberius to Rome. Tacitus adds, that hitherto the mother and son had lived together, either in sincere harmony, or in well-disguised hatred.'' Junia, the sister of Brutus and the widow of Cassius, died this year, " the sixty-fourth," says Tacitus, " from the battle of Philippi." That battle, as we have seen, took place in the same year in which Tiberius was born, and before his birth. The death of Junia must have beeu after his birth-day ; for if the consuls are counted from the consulship of Lepidus and Plancus to that of Haterius and Galba, they will be found to be sixty-four, both included. Tiberius commenced his sixty-fourth year on the sixteenth of November. Dio, or rather the abridgment of that author, speaks of the death of Drusus as taking place this year ; but as Tacitus places it in the next, the latter date is probably the most correct. In the consulship of Caius Asinius Pollio and Caius Antistius Vetus (a.j.p. 4735), the ninth year of Tiberius, all things were tranquil and prosperous, when a sudden reverse was occasioned, by ' Tac. Ann. lib. iii, c. 29. ' Tac. ut sup. c. 31. ^ Dio, Ivii. 20. * Ann. lib. iii. c. 64. 262 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. the treachery of Lucius ^lius Sejanus, the commander of the pr^- torian guards, and the prime minister and favourite of Tiberius. This man, influenced by revenge for an affront he had received, and by motives of personal ambition, determined to murder Drusus. He chose a poison which, by its slow and gradual advances, would have the appearance of an accidental disease. The draught was administered by the eunuch Lygdus, so secretly, that the fact was not discovered till eight years afterwards. Thus was Tiberius rendered childless. • Tacitus adds, that the mourning of the senate and people on this occasion was not real. In their hearts they rejoiced, because they now hoped that the house of Germanicus would again flourish. This hope was frustrated by their own exultation, the imprudence of Agrippina, the increasing boldness and villany of Sejanus, the inveterate hatred of the elder Livia, and the gloomy suspicion and cruelty of Tiberius. In the year of the Julian period 4736, the consulship of Corne- lius Cethegus and Visellius Varro, " Ten years of his empire being finished," says Dio, " he had no need of a decree to resume it, for he did not think it necessary to divide it into decennial periods as Augustus had done. Nevertheless," he adds, " decennial games were celebrated."^ During the consulship of Marcus Asinius Agrippa and Cossus Cornelius Lentulus (a.j.p. 4737), constant proscriptions and accu- sations, led to public executions or self-murder. Many of these were for words spoken against the emperor ; and Tiberius was often mortified in listening to the details of sarcastic language with which in private his character and conduct had been assailed. This led him to avoid the meetings of the senate ; and Sejanus had the craft to turn the disgust of the emperor to his own advantage. He affected to disrelish the noise and bustle of the city, and talked much of the pleasures of rural seclusion.^ This probably accelerated the determination which took effect during the next consulship (a.j.p. 4738), that of Cneius Lentulus Gsetulicus and C. Calvisius Sabinus. Tiberius set out for Cam- pania, with the ostensible motive of dedicating a temple to Jupiter at Capua, and another to Augustus at Nola, but, in truth, with a determination never to return to Rome. On his way, at Spelunca, ' Tac. Ann. lib. iv. 1-S. '' H. K. lib. Ivii. :.'4. ' Tac. Ann. lib. iv. c. 34 42. CHAP. XI.J UNTIL HIS DEATH. 263 a villa near Fundi, he narrowly escaped being cruslied to death by a falling wall. Sejanus, to protect his master, fell on his knees, and supported the incumbent weight. Thenceforth, his influence knew no bounds.^ During the next consulship, that of Marcus Licinius Crassus and Lucius Calpurnius Piso (a.j.p. 4739), Tiberius retired to the island of Caprese, the modern Capri. The solitude pleased him the more, because the sea which surrounded it was without harbours, it had few conveniences, even for vessels of the smallest size, and no one could land upon the island unobserved. In winter it was mild, and in summer open to the western breeze, and the prospect, before the burning of Vesuvius had changed the scene, was in the highest degree beautiful.^ There he principally passed the remain- der of his infamous life ; casting off all the cares of empire ; chang- ing none of the military tribunes or prsefects or presidents of the provinces ; leaving Spain and Syria for many years without consular legates; suffering Armenia to be occupied by the Parthians, and Moesia by the Dacians and Sarmatians, and the provinces of Gaul to be laid waste by the Germans, to the great disgrace and danger of the commonwealth.^ The loathsome narrative of his enormities is given by Tacitus with a freedom and accuracy suited only to the mind of a heathen. It is a shame even to speak of those things which are done of them in secret. In the consulship of Lucius Rubellius and Caius Fufius (a.j.p. 4741), both of whom bore the cognomen of Geminus, Livia died, at the advanced age, according to Dio, of 86 years. She possessed a masculine understanding, and great power of pleasing, with an implacable temper, a corrupt and wicked heart, entire self-control, and profound dissimulation. During the latter years of his life, she had ruled Augustus with well-disguised but absolute sway. " To one who asked how she had made him so subservient to her will, she replied, 'by the most scrupulous discretion and modesty, by cheerfully complying with what seemed to him good, by never officiously intermeddling with his affairs, and by never examining or appearing to know his secret and illicit pleasures.'"^ By such arts, she finally raised her son to empire; and having done so, she • Tac. ut sup. c. 57-59. ^ Suet. Tiber, c. 39-41. ' Tac. ut sup. c. 67. * Dio H. K. lib. Iviii. 2. 264 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [PART I. expected to rule him, not as she had ruled her husband, but as his mother and his benefactor. The jealous temper of Tiberius took the alarm, and he began to envy the influence and hate the power which overshadowed and restrained him. To this, as the principal cause, many attributed his retirement from Rome.' Certain it is, that he neither visited her in her sickness, nor was present at her funeral, nor did he permit the honoui's which the senate were ready to decree, and to which she was entitled. Her remains were de- posited in the mausoleum of Augustus.^ From this time may be dated the unbridled and headlong career of Tiberius and his favourite. All the arts which hatred and treachery could invent, were practised against Agrippina and her two sons Nero and Drusus, till they all perished : Nero, banished to the island of Pontia, there put himself to death, to avoid the executioner. Drusus, confined at Rome, in the lower part of the palace, after attempting to support life by eating the wool of his miserable flock-bed, was literally starved to death. ^Agrippina, treated with every indignity, deprived of one eye by a blow of the brutal soldier who guai'ded her, forced to eat when she sought to end her miseries by death, was at last starved in the island of Pandataria.'' Of the sons of Germanicus, Cains, surnamed Caligula, alone was left, to be, in the language of Tiberius, " a serpent to the people of Rome, and a Phaeton to the whole world." In the year 4742 of the Julian period, Tiberius began to suspect his favourite; and to remove him from his presence, and lull him into a false security, he determined to assume the consulship himself, for the fifth time, the next year, and to make Sejanus his colleague. Accordingly, on the first of January a.j.p. 4743, Sejanus entered on the duties and enjoyed the honours of the consulship ; and on the fifteenth before the kalends of November (Oct. 18th) in the same year, was publicly executed with every mark of infamy. The year of Nero's death is uncertain. Drusus survived Sejanus more than a year, having been put to death in the consulship of Servius Sulpicius Galba and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, in the year 4745 of the Julian period. Agrippina died on the eighteenth of October in the same year, the very same day of the month in which, two years before, Sejanus had been executed.^ » Tac. Ann. lib. iv. c. 57. " Suet. Tiber, c. 53. Tac. Ann. lib. \i. ^ Dio, Iviii. 2. Tac. Ann. lib. v. c. 1-2. e, 25. « Suet. Tiber, c. 54. ' Tac. Ann. lib. vi. 25. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 265 The next year, a.j.p. 4746, in which Tiberius completed the twentiethyearof undivided sovereignty, the consuls, Lucius Vitellius and Paulus Fabius Persicus, announced the decennial period, as if, according to the practice of Augustus, the senate were conferring the government again upon Tiberius. They therefore celebrated the festival, says Dio, and at the same time were punished ; for no accused person was then pardoned. Tiberius was at Albanum and Tusculum, but would not enter the city.^ In the next consulship, of Cains Cestius Gallus and Marcus Servilius Nonianus (a.j.p. 4747), Tiberius celebrated at Antium the nuptials of Caius Caligula.^ Tacitus places this event in the consulship of Galba and Sulla, two years earlier.^ In the course of the following year, the consulship of Sextius Papinius and Quintus Plautius (a.j.p. 4748), a dreadful fire laid in ruins the whole of the Aventine Mount. Tiberius paid the whole loss from the public treasury. Among so many crimes, it is cheer- ing to record a single act which has the semblance of a virtue. Public honours were decreed to the emperor; but it is doubtful whether he received or rejected them, as he was near his end. Restless, and unwilling to acknowledge to himself or others the decay of nature, he wandered from place to i)lace, and finally ended his life at a villa near the promontory of Misenum, on the seven- teenth, according to Tacitus and Suetonius, or, according to Dio, the seventh, before the calends of April, in the consulship of Cneius Acerronius Proculus and Caius Pontius Nigrinus. The latter date may be attributed to carelessness, and the former, being supported by two such eminent historians, is probably correct. We may therefore consider the sixteenth of March, and not the twenty-sixth of that month, as the day of his death, in tlie year 4749 of the Julian period ; in the third year of the 203d olympiad ; thirty-six days before the end of the 788th year of Rome; the 8 1st year of the reformed calendar of Julius Cfesar ; and the 36th year of the Dionysian or common Christian sera. As he was born on the six- teenth of November, a.j.p. 4671, he completed his 78th year on the sixteenth of November, a.j.p. 4748, and the fourth month of his 79th year on the day of his death. Dio, of course, makes his life ten days longer. If we date from February a.j.p. 4723, v/heu 1 Dio, H. R. lib. Iviii. 24. « Dio, lib. Iviii. 25. ^ Lib. vi. 20. 34 266 FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS [part he was associated with Augustus, he reigned twenty-six years, one month, and 16 days; if from the death of Augustus, August 19th, A.j.p. 4726, twenty-two years, six months, and twenty-six days ; or according to Dio, twenty-two years, seven months, and seven days. Clemens of Alexandria, who flourished at the end of the second and beginning of the third century, and was one of the most learned writers of his age, says that Augustus reigned 43 years, Tiberius 22, Caius 4, &c. And then he adds : Some compute the times of the Roman emperors thus ; Caius Julius Csesar 3 years, 4 months, 6 days ; after whom, Augustus reigned 46 years, 4 months, and 1 day; then Tiberius, 26 years, 6 months, 19 days. Caius Caesar succeeded him, 3 years, 10 months, 8 days, &c.^ "We shall have occasion hereafter to revert to this testimony, as to the double computation of the reign of Tiberius. The object of introducing it here is to show, that while it is correct as to the number of years, it is undoubtedly incorrect as to the months and days. If the period mentioned by Clemens were correct, then, by subtracting it from the date of the death of Tiberius, Ave should arrive at the date of his association with Augustus as colleague of the empire. Taking the two dates of his death given by the his- torians, we shall find that six months and nineteen days amount to exactly 200 days ; and that they lead back from the 16th of March to the 28th of the preceding August, and from the 26th of INIarch to the 7th of the preceding September, a.j.p. 4748; from which, subtracting 26 solid years, we arrive at the 28th of August, or the 7th of September, a.j.p. 4722, as the commencement of his associate reign. Mar 16 Mar. 26 05 ,Feb. 28 Feb. 28 rg Jan 31 Jan. 31 C c Dec. 31 Dec. 31 a Nov. 30 Nov 30 X Oct. 31 Oct. 31 m ^Sep. Aug 30 . 3 200 Sep. 23 200 Ace. to Tac. & Suet. /Aug. 28 to Sep. 27 \m. Sep. a Oct. g X Nov. f^ I Dec. Jan. Feb. 28 28 28 28 28 25 Oct. 27 1 Nov 27 1 Dec. 27 1 Jan. 27 1 Feb. 24 1 Mar. 16 19rf. 6 19 From Aug. 28, a.j.p. 4722 2i /Sep. Oct. NoA-. Dec. Jan. Feb. V Mar. According to Dio. to Oct. 6 „ Nov. 6 „ Dec. 6 „ Jan. 6 „ Feb. 6 „ Mar. 6 „ Mar. 26 Iwi 1 1 1 1 1 19d. 6 19 From Septemb. 7, a.j.p. 4722. 4748— 26=4722.— Aug. 28 or Sep. 7. But the year 4722 of the Julian period Avas, as we have seen in ' Strom, lib. i. 339. Eil. Potter, tom.i. p. 406. CHAP. XI.] UNTIL HIS DEATH. 267 the last chapter, the consulship of Dolabella and Sllanus ; and the narrative of Suetonius makes it certain tliat Tiberius spent the whole of that year in Germany. The decree of the senate associating him with Augustus, was passed not long after his triumph and dedication of the temples of Concord and of Castor and Pollux ; all which events, as we learn from the Prsenestine calendar, took place in the month of January, a.j.p. 4723.* The reign of Tiberius being now brought to a close, and all the dates important to our purpose examined and adjusted, I shall end the present chapter with the masterly delineation of his character by the Greek historian, to whose accuracy and fidelity I am so much indebted. "Tiberius," says Dio, "was of a patrician family, and well in- structed ; but his natural disposition was peculiar. He never said what he desired, and he never desired what he said. His words were always in direct opposition to his preferences. All that he longed for, he denied; all that he hated, he offered. When irritated to the least possible degree, he was in a passion ; and when he felt the greatest indignation, he seemed most moderate. He showed compassion for those whom he punished most severely, and he raged most against those Avhora he pardoned. The man whom he most hated, he treated, when he saw him, with the most familiarity; and towards him whom he most loved, he conducted himself as if he were the greatest stranger. To sum up the whole, he thought it unworthy of an absolute ruler to make manifest his thoughts ; for the discovery of them produced many and great mischiefs, while the concealment led to many more and greater advantages. If this, however, had been all, it would not have been necessary for those * Pagi assuming the computation men- out; audit obliged him to consider the tioned by Clemens to be correct, dates testimony of Velleius Paterculus and Sue- the decree of the senate from the fifth toniiis as contradictory, when in fact they before the kalends of September, or the are in perfect harmony. — See Pagi Critica 28th of August, in the year ten of the in Annales C. Baronii Antwerp. 1727, 4 Dionysian sera, a.u.c. 763, which he torn. fol. torn. 1, ad. ann. xi. J. C. p. 10. wrongly names the consulship of Dola- The object of the present work is not, bella and Silanus. The decree did indeed like that of Pagi, to attack error, but to take place in the tenth year of the Dio- establish truth. The former, by its almost nysian sera ; but being before the Parilia, interminable labour, would disgust and it was in the year of Rome 762, and in weary ; while the latter, though sometimes the consulship, not of Silanus and Dola- difficult, is always delightful. Let truth bella, but of Lepidus and Taurus. This be made conspicuous, and like the fabled mistake led the learned author into a goddess of wisdom be armed with her labyrinth of difficulties, which it would own ffigis, and she will always defend reqidre much time and labour to point herself and turn her enemies into stone. 268 THE ASSOCIATION OF TIBERIUS. [PART I. who came In contact with him to be on their guard ; for by taking all things in a sense precisely opposite, they would have judged equally, that he did not wish for that which he most ardently desired, and that he longed for that against which he declaimed most pointedly. But now, he was enraged, if any man showed that he comprehended his meaning : and he put many to death against whom he had no other cause of reproach, than that they did com- prehend him. It was, therefore, dangerous indeed not to under- stand him at all, as they mistook who assented to many things which accorded with his speech but not his will ; yet it was much more dangerous to understand him, because they were suspected of scrutinizing the habits of his mind, and, on that account, to such a mind, became luore odious. He alone, therefore, if I may so speak, lived through the danger (and such instances were extremely rare), who neither exposed his natural chai-acter, nor were ignorant of it. Such were neither deceived by believing him, nor hated by showing that they understood what he Avas doing ; for he manifested very great disturbance, whetlier any one opposed or assented to what he said. Whether, on the one hand, there was a desire to be sincere, or, on the other, to give a feigned opinion, he held such on either side to be entirely opposed to him; and, on this account, hated, the one for their truth, the other for their dis- simulation."' 1 Dio. JI. K. lib. Ivii. 1. CHAP. XII.] 269 269 CHAPTER XII. ADJUSTMENT OF THE CHRONOLOGY FROM THE DEATH OF TIBE- RIUS TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. The present chapter added in order to remove the difficulty occasioned by modern computations. — This done in twO ways : first, by examining and adjusting the lists of consuls; and, secondly, by computing the reigns of the emperors. Section I. List of consuls in inverted order from a.d. 238, the year in which Censorinus wrote, to A.D. 28, the consulship of the two Gemini, a period of 210 years. The list of Cassiodorus found to have 211 pairs of consuls, or one too many; the lists of Ida- tius and the Chronicon Paschale 208, falling short two.— The several lists compared, and each consulship adjusted to its proper year. In this manner, the error of the suppression of a consulship detected, a.d. 160; and this error the occasion of all the confusion. — Section II. Chronology of the emperors adjusted, from Caligula to the Maximini. Sum of the reigns exhibited in a comparative table, showing the same result as that obtained by the series of consuls. Thus the whole series of chronology is adjusted, from the birth of Abraham to the year when Censorinus wrote ; after which, dates in general are so certain as to give little or no occasion for dispute. The period of Roman history which It was proposed to consider, from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius, has now been carefully surveyed. Wliere facts are found to arrange themselves so harmoniously, without any effort to support a system, or to weave a theory, there must be truth. As a luxated limb moves Avlth pain and difficulty, but by a slight touch of the surgeon Is restored to ease and vigour, so is It with chronology. To prove that we are well, we have only to get up and walk ; and the truth of chronology must be tested by the ease with which the events of history fall Into their proper places. Nevertheless there Is one difficulty remaining, which has, in fact, been the source of almost all the other difficulties and errors on this subject by which the minds of the learned have been bewildered and perplexed. It relates. Indeed, to a subsequent period of history ; so that even if the difficulty were insurmount- able, it would not in reality affect the truth of what has already been established. But the reader will, of course, be more tho- roughly satisfied if the difficulty can be removed ; and that I shall now attempt. 270 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART T. In speaking of the Roman year after Romulus, under the kings and the republic/ it was stated on the admission of M. De la Nauze, that for at least one hundred and seven years before the reforma- tion of the calendar by Julius Csesar, or from a.u.c. 600, the consuls entered upon the duties of their office on the jBrst of January. The office was held for one year, and consequently expired the last day of December. Hence it became the annual measure of time ; and as the Roman writers in general speak familiarly of events as oc- curring when such and such persons wei-e consuls, it is impossible to state their course with accuracy until we have arranged and synchronized the series of consuls. But after the subversion of the republic, the consular office, which had been in fact an annual royalty, was degraded and cheapened. To the ambitious mind of Cffisar, it seemed a bauble, to be put on and off as convenience or caprice dictated. The practice of substituting consuls for a few months, and even, as in the case of Rebilus, for a single day, was introduced. The year, indeed, was always designated by the names of the consuls who came into office on the first of January, however short might be the term of their service. But the degra- dation of the office naturally led to neglect ; and the frequency of change caused the care of recording to be less faithfully obsex'ved. The public Fasti consulares ended with the death of Avigustus ; and after the death of Tiberius there was another change, which reached its height in the time of Claudius. The office was usually held only for two months ; so that there were often twelve consuls in the space of a single year. Hence events occurring in different months of the same year, might be mentioned as occurring under different consuls. Another source of error likely to affect modern critics, would be the possession of several names by the same consul, and the omission of one or other of these names by different writers, or by the same writer in different places. This the reader must have already observed in the series of consuls from the birth of Augustus to the death of Tiberius. With these preliminary observations, I proceed to compare the lists of consuls given by Cassiodorus, Victorius, Idatius, and the Chronicon Paschale. The list from Dion Cassius is discontinued, because it extends only seventeen years after the death of Tibe- rius ; and the list annexed to Xiphilinus appears to be the labour ^ Chap. iii. sec. 2, p. 71. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 271 of the modern editor, and therefore not of equal authority with the former. In lieu of it I insert the list of Victorius, which extends from A.D. 28 to A.d. 457, or from the consulship of the two Gemini to that of Constantinus and Rufus, the year In which Victorius wrote. According to the system hitherto pursued, I take a point of time, in the first place, concerning which there can be no dispute. Cen- sorinus states that " the index and title" of the year in which he wrote, was " the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus," and that it was " the thousand and fourteenth year from the first Olympiad," " the nine hundred and ninety first year from the building of Rome," "the two hundred and eighty-third of those years to Avhich the name of Julian is given, reckoning from the first of January which Julius Csesar made the beginning of the year con- stituted by him."' It has been shown by the tables (chap. v. sec. 2, p, 147), that the year in question coincided with a.j.p. 4951, A.D. 238. From that year, therefore, the four lists are here given in Inverted order, and are continued back not only to the consulship of Acerronius Proculus and Pontius Nigrinus, in which Tiberius died, but also to that of the two Gemini, which, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, corresponded with a.j.p. 4741, a.d. 28. In the list from the Chronicon Paschale, it has not been thought necessary to add the Olympiads therein given, because they are manifestly erroneous ; but the Indictions have been inserted, be- cause they show that the original order of the compiler has been preserved, and they enable us to ascertain the exact number of years in which the manuscript is defective. When these lists are thus laid before the reader, he will at once see the nature of the difficulties, and be enabled to appreciate pro- perly the critical remarks which will be then subjoined, and of which the object will be to reduce the whole series to Its true order. It may be proper here to observe, that as Cassiodorus was consul in a.d. 514, and Victorius wrote in a.d. 457, it is probable that Cas- siodorus was acquainted with the list of Victorius, and that both drew from the same sources. It will be perceived, on comparison, that the two lists generally agree, though there is sufficient difference to show that both are independent. ' Chap. 1, sec. 3, p. 34. 272 LIST OF COISISTJLS, [part I. 4951 4950 4949 4948 4947 4946 4945 4944 4943 4942 4941 4940 4939 4938 4937 4936 4935 4934 4933 4932 Years J.Cffis A.D. 283 238 282 237 281 236 280 235 279 234 278 233 277 232 276 231 375 230 274 229 273 228 272 227 271 226 270 225 269 224 268 223 267 222 266 221 265 220 264 219 Cassiodorus. Pius Proculus Perpetuus Cornelianus Maximinus Africanus Severus Quinctianus Maximus ii Urbanus Maximus Patemus Lupus Maximus Pompeianus Felicianus Gratus Seleucus Alexander iii Dio Modestiis Probus Albiiius Maximus Annianus Maximus Alexander ii Marcellus Fuscus Dexter Julianus Crispinus Maximus iElianus Alexander Augustus Cratus Seleucus Antoninus in Comazon Victorius. Ulpio Pio Proculo Perpetuo Corueliano Maximo al. Maxim ino Africano Severe Quintiano Maximo ii Urbano Maximo Paterno Lupo Maximo Pompeiano Feliciano Grato Seleuco Alexandre in Dione celebri Modesto Probo Albino Maximo Anniano Maximo Alexandre ii Marcello Fusco Dextro Juliano Crispino Maximo ^liano Alexandre Augusto Grate Seleuco Antonino iii Comazonte Pio Pontiano Perpetuo Corneliano jNIaximo iii Africano Severo Quintiano Maximo ii Urbano Maximo Paterno Lupo Maximo Pompeiano Peligiano Agricola Clemen te Alexandre in Dione Modesto Probo Albino Maximo Alexandre ii Marcello Fusciano Dextre Fabiane Crispino Maximo ii Ji^liano Antonino iv Alexandre Grato Seleuco Antonino in Comazonte Antonino n Sacerdote Chronicon Paschale. Ulpicio Pontiano Perpetuo Coruelio Maximo vi Africano Severe Quintiano Maximo v 1" Urbano Maximo IV Paterno Lupo Maximo in Pompeiano Pelegeniano Agricola Clemente Alexandre in Dione Modesto "^ Probo Albino Maximo n Alexandre n ^ Marcello Fusciano ^ Dextre , Flaviane Crispino . . Maximo '■* .Eliano „ Ant. Augusto II Alexandre -n Grato Seleuco ^ Antonino Comazonte ji^. Ant. Augusto VI Sacerdote CHAP. XII.] IN INVERTED ORDER. 273 Years J. Cajs 4931 4930 4929 4928 4927 4926 4925 4924 4923 4922 4921 4920 4919 4918 4917 4916 4915 4914 4913 4912 203 262 261 260 259 258 257 256 256 254 218 217 216 215 214 213 212 211 210 209 253 208 252 207 251 206 250 205 249 204 248 203 247 202 246 201 245 200 244 199 Antoninus II Sacerdos Antoninus Adventus Pnescns Extricatus Sabinus ii Venustus Lffitus Caerealis Messala Sabinus Antoninus iv Balbinus The two AsjJi'i Gentianus Bassus Faustinus Rufus Pompeianus Avitus Antoninus iii Geta III Aper Maximus Albinus iElianus Antoninus ii Geta II Gilo Libo Geta Plautianus Severus iii Antoninus Fabianus Mucianus Severus ii Victorinus Antonino ii Sacerdote Antonino Advento Prsesente Extricato Sabino ii Venusto Lceto Cereale Messala Sabino Antonino Balbino Duobus Aspris Gentiano Basso Faustino Rufino Pompeiano Avito Antonino iii Geta III Apro Maximo Albino jEliano Antonino ii Geta II Chilone Libone Geta Plautiano Severo iii Antonino Fabiano Mutiano Severo ii Victorino Antonino Advento Prassente Extricato Sabino Anullino LsDto Cereale Messala Sabino Antonino iv Balbino Duobus Aspris Gentiano Basso Faustino Rufino Pompeiano Avito Antonino in Geta III Apro Maximo Albino Emiliano Antonino ii Geta II Chilone Libone Plautiano u Geta Severo in Antonino jMuciano Fabiano Severo ii Victorino Anullino , Frontone Clironicon Pascljale. q Ant. Augusto v Advento Q Prajsente Extricato _ Sabino ii Auulino P Lentulo Cereali . Messala Sabino . Ant. Augusto IV "* Albino ., Apro II Apro ., Gentiano Basso , Faustino Rufino 15 Pompeiano Avito . . Antonino iii Geta lu ,„ Apro ^•^ Maximo 12 Albino jEmiliano . . Antonino ii Geta II 10 Chilone Libone p Plautiano Geta ^, Severo Augusto in Antonino „ Muciano Fabiano ^ Severo Augusto ii Victorino _ Anullino Frontone 35 274 LIST OF CONSULS, [part l A.J. p. Years J.Caes A.D. Cassiodorus. Victorius. Idatius. Clijonicon Paschale. 4911 243 198 Anmdinus Fronto Anulino Frontone Saturnino Gallo . Saturnino ^ Gallo 4910 242 197 Satuniinus Gallus Saturnino Gallo Laterano Rufino ., Laterano "^ Rufino 4909 241 196 Lateranus Ruffinus Laterano Rufino Dextro Prisco 2 Dextro Prisco 4908 240 195 Dexter Priscus Dextro Prisco Tertullo Clemente Tertullo Clemente 4907 239 194 Tertullus Clemens Tertullo Clemente Severo ii Albino , , Severo Augusto '^ Sabino 4906 238 193 Severus Albinus Severo Albino Flaccone Claro , . Flacco 14 Claro 4905 237 192 Falco Clarus Falcone Claro Commodo vii Pertinace .„ Com. Aug-usto VII Pertinace 4904 236 191 Commodiis vii Pertinax Commodo vii Pertinace Aproniano Bradua ,.-, Com. Augusto VI Septimiano 4903 235 190 Apronianus Bradua Aproniano Bradua Commodo vi Septimiano , , Fusciano ^^ Silauo 4902 234 189 Commodus vi Septiniianus Commodo vi Septimiano Duobus Silanis 10 g"|.^i""« ihliano 4901 233 188 The two Silaui Duobus Silanis Fusciano Silano (. Com. Augusto V Glabrione 4900 232 187 Fuscianus Si] an us Fusciano Silauo Crispino yEliano Q Materno Bradua 4899 231 186 Crispinus iElianus Crispino .iEliano Commodo v Glabrione _, Marcello Jilliano 4898 230 185 Commodus v Glabrio Commodo v Glabrione Materno Bradua ^ Com. Augusto IV Mctorino 4897 229 184 Maternus Bradua Materno Bradua Marullo ^Eliano - INIamertino Rufo III 4896 228 183 MaruUus .Sllianus Marullo iEliano Commodo iv Victorino . Com. Augusto III Vero 11 4895 227 182 Commodus iv Victorinus Commodo iv Victorino Mamertino Rufo „ Prffisente Gordiano 4894 226 181 Mamertinus Rufus Mamertino Rufo Commodo in Byrro ^ Com. Augusto II ^ Vero 4893 225 180 Commodus iii Byrrlius Commodo iii Byrrho Pra!sente Condiano , Orpbito IV ^ Rufo II 4892 224 179 Pra?sens Gordianus Prajsente Gordiano Commodo ii Vero , . Commodo ^^' Quiutillo CHAP. XII. J IN INVERTED ORDER. 275 4891 4890 4889 4888 4887 4886 4885 4884 4883 4882 4881 4880 4879 4878 4877 4876 4875 4874 4873 4872 Years J.CaiS 223 222 221 220 219 218 217 216 215 214 213 212 211 210 209 208 207 206 205 204 CassioJorus. 178 177 176 175 174 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 I Commodus 1 1 Verus II Orfitus Rufus Commodus Quinctillus Pollio Aper Piso Julianus Gallus Flaccus Severus ii Pompeianus Orfitus Maximus Severus Heremiianus Cetliegus Clarus Priscus Apolliuaris Aproniaiius Paullus Verus III Quadratus Pudens ii Pollio Orfitus Pudens Macrinus Celsus L. Ji^lianus Pastor Rusticus Aquilinus The twoAugusti Antoninus v Aurelius in Commodo ii Vero II Orfito Rufo C(jmmodo Quiuctillo Pollione Apro al. Aspro Pisone Juliano Gallo Flacco Severe ii Pompeiano Orfito Maximo Severo Terentiano al. Herenniano Cethego Claro Prisco ApoUinare Aproniano Paulo Vero IV Quadrate Pudente ii Pollione Orfito Pudente Macrino Celso Juliano al. L. ^liano Pastore Rustico Aquilino Duobus Augustis Antonino vi Aurelio iv al. I P.C. v et III Idatius. Orfito Rufo Commodo Quintillo Pollione Apro Pisone Jidiano Gallo Flacco Severo ii Pompeiano Orfito Maximo Severo Herenniano Cetbego Claro Prisco Apollenare Aproniano Paulo Vero III Quadrato Pudente Pollione Orfito Pudente Macrino Celso Laeliano Pastore Rufino jEquilino Antonino v Aurelio Caes.Duob.Au^ Bradua Vero Quintillo Prisco CInoiiicon Paschale. 14 Pollione Apro , q Orphito ^•^ Rufo 12 11 Gallo Flacco Severo ii Pompeiano 1^ Orpbito Maximo „ Severe Herenniano o Cetbego Claro _ Prisco Apollinari P Aproniano Paulo r Mar. Aur. Vero in Quadrato , Pudente n Pollione r, Orphito Pudente 2 Macrino Celso . iEliano Pastore Rusticio Aquilino Marco Aur. Vero Lu. Com. Aug. Ill Marco Aur. Vero Lu. Com. Aug. n Bradua Vero Quintillo Prisco TertuUo Sacerdote 15 14 13 12 11 10 276 LIST OF CONSULS, [part I. Years J.CiesI 4871 4870 4869 4868 4867 4866 4865 4864 4863 4862 4861 4860 4859 4858 4857 4856 4855 4854 4853 4852 A.D. Cassiodorus. 203 202 201 200 199 198 197 196 195 194 193 192 191 190 189 188 187 186 185 184 158 157 156 155 154 153 152 151 150 149 148 147 146 145 144 143 142 141 140 13!) Verus II Bvadua Quinctilliis Priscus TertuUus Sacerdos Baihatus Regulus Silvamis Augiirinus Verus Sabinus Commodus Lateranus Praesens Rufus Glabrio ii Homulus [Romulus?] Gordianus Maxim us Glabrio Vetus Orfitus Priscus Torquatus iii Julianus Largus Messalianus Antoninus iv Aurelius ii G ratus Seleucus Antoninus iii Aurelius Aviola Maximus Torquatus ii Herodes Rufinus Torquatus Antoniuo v Aurelio iii Vero II Bradua Quintillo Prisco Tertullo Sacerdote Barbato al. Barbaro Regulo Silvano Augurino Veto Sabino Commodo Laterano PrsBsente Rufino al. Rufo Glabrione ii Romulo al. Homiilo Gordiano Maximo Glabi'ione Vetere Orfito Prisco Torquato in Juliano Largo Messaliauo Antonino iv Aurelio ii Grato vSeleuco Antonino in Aurelio Aviola Maximo Torquato ii H erode Tullo Sacerdote Barbato Regulo Silvano Augurino Severo Sabiniano Commodo Laterano PraBsente Rufino Glabrione ii Humillio Gordiano Maximo Glabrione Vetere Orfito Prisco Torquato Juliano Largo Messalino Claro Severo .\ntonino iv Aurelio ii Avito Maximo Torquato Herode Rufino Quadrato Severo Silvano Antonino in Aurelio Antoniuo ii Prajseute Chronicon Paschale. Q Barbaro Regulo Q Silano Augurino „ Severo vi Sabiniano P Commodo Laterano , PrsBsente Rufino . Glabrione ii Jiimilio o Cordiano Maximo 2 Glabrione Vetere . Orphito Prisco , , Torquato n Juliano 14 Largo Messalino 13 - Severo v 12 11 Verino Ant. Augusto III Aureliano n Aviola Maximo .» Torquato Herode (J Rufino Quadrato Severo iv 8 Silano Ant. Augusto II 7 Marco Aur. Vero, lilio ejus ^ Ant. Augusto Prffisente . Camerino Nitrro CHAP. XII,] IN INVERTED ORDER. 277 Years J. Cxs 4851 4850 4849 4848 4847 4846 4845 4844 4843 4842 4841 4840 4839 4838 4837 4830 4835 4834 4833 4832 183 182 181 180 179 178 177 176 138 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 Cassiodorus. 175 130 174 129 173 128 172 127 171 126 170 125 169 124 168 123 167 122 166 121 165 120 1()4 119 Severus Sylvan us Antoninus ii PriEsens ii Antoninus Prsesens Camevinus Niger L. iElius Balbinus Pompeianus Commodus Pompeianus Atilianus Sergianus ii Verus Hiberus Silanus \uguvinus Sergianus Pontianus Rufinus Celsus Marcellinus Torquatus Libo Gallicanus Titianus Verus Ambiguus Asiaticus Quintus Glabrio Apronianus Paternus Tor(;[uatus Aviola Pansa Verus Au"iir Rufino Torquato Severe Sylvano Antonino ii Prsesente ii Antonino Pra;sente Camerino Nigro La;lio al. L. ^lio Albino Pompeiano ii Commotio Pompeiano Attiliano Sergiano ii Vetere al. Vero Tiberio al. Hi- berto Silano Augurino Sergiano Celso Marcellino Vetere Valente Torquato Libone Gallicano Titiano Vero Ambiguo Asiatico Quiuto Glabrione Aproniano Paterno Torquato Aviola Pansa Chroiiicon Paschale. Camerino Nigro Caesare ii Balbino Commotio Pompeiano Pontiano Aquilino Rufo Severo iii Varo Hibero Sisenna Auguriano Sergiano Pontiano Rufo Catullino Libone Alarcello Celso Torquato Libone Titiano Gallicano Vero III Ambigulo Asiatico Aquilino Glabrione Torquato Aproniano Panpino Aviola Pansa Vero II Augure vSevero ii Fulgo Hadriano iv Rustico 15 14 13 jEliauo Balbino Commodo Pontiano in Pontiano ii Aquilino Severo Varo Tiberio Sisinno Augurino Sergiano Pontiano Rufo 12 Catullino Libone ii 11 Marcello Celso ,^ Torquato Libone ^ Titiano Gallicano o Severo iii Amfigulo 7 Asiatico Aquilino P Glabrione Torquato , Aproniano ii Pampino . Aviola Pansa „ Severo ii Augurino .-, Severo Fulco , M\. Hadr. Au J.CiES A.D. 163 118 162 117 161 116 160 115 159 114 158 113 157 112 156 111 155 110 154 109 153 108 152 107 151 106 150 105 149 104 148 103 147 102 146 101 145 100 Catilius Fulvius Hadrian us ii Rusticus Hadrianus Salinator Clarus Alexander Nigfer Aprouianus jEinilius Vetus Messalla Pedo Asta Pi so Celsus Crispinus Trajanus VII Africanus Piso Rusticus Crispinus ii Solenus Africanus Crispinus Gallus Bradua Senecio iv Sura III Commodus Cerealis Candidus Quadratus Urbanus Marcellus Senecio iii Sura II Vero Augure Servilio(Catilio) Fulvio Hadriano ii SilianolRustico) Hadriano Rustico al. Salinatore Claro Alexandre Xigro Aprouiauo .F^niilio Vetere Messala Pedone Asta Pisoue Celso Crispino Trajano vii Africano Pisone Rustico Crispino Soleno Africano Crispino Gallo Bradua Senetione iv Sura III Commodo Cereale Candido Quadrato Urbano Marcello Hadriano Salinatore Aproniano Nigro Eliano Vetere Messala Podone t Malsa Volciso Celso n Prisciano ii Trajano vi Anfricano Pisone Juliano Orfito Prisciano Pal ma ii Tullo Gallo Bradua Syra iii Senecioue ii Commodo Cereali Candido ii Quadrato Suburano ii Marcello Trajano v Maximo Severiano Sirio Trajano iv Peto Trajano iii Pontino Chronicon Pasohale. .. Apronino Nigro 13 12 11 10 Eliano Vetere Messala Podone Malso Bulcisco Prisciano Celso g Trajano Augustov Africano ^ Pisone Juliano _ Orphito Prisciano ,, Palma ^ Tullo . Gallo Bradua . Syriano m Senecioue „ Commodo Ceretauo _ Candido Quadrato , Syriano ii Marcello iii , . Trajano Aug. iv Maximo , . Syriano ^^ Syrio ,„ Trajano Aug iii ^'^ Peto ,„ Trajano Aug. ii Pontiano 11 Palma Seuecione CHAP. XII.] IN INVERTED ORDER. 279 4812 4811 4810 4809 4808 4807 4806 4805 4804 4803 4802 4801 4800 4799 4798 4797 4796 4795 4794 Years J.CiL'S 144 143 142 141 140 139 138 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 130 129 128 127 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 Cassiodonis. 126 81 Trajamis vi Maxiinus Senecio ii Sura Trajan us v Orfitus Trajanus iv Fronto Senecio Palma Nerva in Trajanus iii Sabinus Antoninus Fulvius Vetus Nerva ii Rufus Domitianus ix Clemens ii Aspreuas Clemens Silvanus Priscus Domitianus vii) Saturninus Trajanus ii Glabrio Domitianus vu Nerva Flavins Trajanus Domitianus vi Rufus IV Domitianus v Dolabella Domitianus iv Rufus III Victorius. Senetione ni Sura II Trajano vi Maxino Senetione ii Sura Trajano v Orfito Trajano iv Froutone Senetione Palma Nerva iii Trajano in Sabino Antonino Flavio al. Fulvio Vetere Nerva n Rufo Domitiano ix Clemente n Asprenate Clemente Silvano Prisco Domitiano viii Saturnino Trajano Glabrione Domitiano vii Nerva Flavio Trajano Domitiano vi Rufino Domitiano v Dolabella Palma Senecio Nerva iv Trajano n Nerva in Rufo in Valente Vetere Domitiano xiv Clemente Asprenate Laterano Pompeiano Prisciano Domitiano xin Sturnino Grabrione Gralano Domitiano xn Nerva ii Fulvio Atratino Domitiano xi Rufo Domitiano x Saturnino Domitiano ix Dolabella Domitiano viii Fulvio Domitiano vii Sabino n Domitiano vi Rufo Domitiano v Sabino Galva Pollione Clironicoii I'asclialc jQ Trajano Augusto solo g Nerva Augusto Tito Rufo in o Valente Vetere _ Domitiano xiv Clemente n P Asprenate Laterano , Dom. Aug. xin Flavio Clemente , Pompeio Crispino 3 rispino Dom. Auff. XII Saturnino 2 ; Glabrione 15 Trajano Dom. Augusto x Nerva Fulvio II Atratino , < Dora. Augusto x Tito Rufo ,^ Dom. Augusto ix Saturnino j^ Dom. Augusto VIII Dolabella ^1 Dom. Augusto vn Fulvio ,Q Dom. Augusto vi Sabino o Dom. Augusto v ^ Tito Rufo g Dom. Augusto iv Sabino Galba PoUion 280 LIST OF CONSULS. [part L Years. J.CiES 4793 4792 4791 4790 4789 4788 4787 4786 4785 4784 4783 4782 4781 4780 4779 4778 4777 4776 4775 125 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 108 107 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 Domitianus in Sabinus Domitianus ii Rufus II Domitianus Messalinus Silvanus Verus Vespasianus ix Titus VIII Vespasianus VII I Titus VII Commodus Rufus Vespasianus vii Titus VI Vespasianus vii Titus V Vespasianus v Titus IV Vespasianus iv Titus III Vespasianus in Nerva Vespasianus ii Titus II Vespasianus Titus Silvanus Otho Italicus Turpilianus Capito Rufus Telesinus Appuleius Sylvanus Paullinus Domitiano iv Rufo III Domitiano lu Sabino Domitiano ii Rufo II Domitiano Messaliano Silvano Vero Vespasiano ix Tito VIII Vespasiano viii Tito vii Commode Rufo Vespasiano vii Tito VI Vespasiano vi Tito V Vespasiano v Tito IV Vespasiano iv Tito III Vespasiano in Nerva Vespasiano ii Tito II Vespasiano Tito Sylvano Othone Italico Tui'piliano Capitone Rufo Celsino al. Telesino 1 Apuleio Tito vn Domitiano iv Vespasiano ix Tito VI Vespasiano vni Domitiano in Vespasiano vn Titov Vespasiano vi Tito IV Vespasiano v Tito in Domitiano ii Messalino Vespasiano iv Tito II Vespasiano in Nerva Vespasiano n solo. Galba n Tito Rufino Italico Trabalo Capitone Rufo Telesino Paulino Helva Vestino Crasso Basso Rufo Regula Mario Gallo Lacio Turpiniano Chronicon Paschale. ^ Tito Augusto vn Domitiano in , Tito VI Domitiano ii . Vespa. Aug. vn ^ Tito V „ Vespa. Augusto vi •^ Tito IV n Vespa. Augusto v Tito III Domitiano Messalino , , Vespa. Augusto iv ^^ Tito II ,, Vespa. Augusto I II ^^ Tito ,„ Vespa. Augusto n ^^ Nerva 12 Vespasiano solo Galba 11 10 Tito Rufino Italico Trachano „ Capitone -^ Rufo CHAP. XII.] IN INVERTED ORDER. 281 A. J. p. Years J.CuJs A.D. Cassiudoriis. Victoi-ius. Iilatius. Clii-onicon Pascbale. 4774 106 61 Crassus Bassus Sylvano Paulino Nerone iv Lentulo 2 4773 105 60 Macrinus Galliis Crasso Basso Aproniano Capitone I 4772 104 59 Pius Turpilianus Macrino Gallo Nerone in Messal.Corvino 15 4771 103 58 Nero IV Cornelius Pio Carpiliano al. Turpiliano Nerone ii Pisone 14 4770 102 57 Nero m Messalla Nerone iv Cornelio Saturnine Scipione 13 4769 101 56 Nero II Piso Nerone ni jMessala Nerone Vetere 12 4768 100 55 Nero Vetus Nerone u Plsone Afarcello Aviola 11 4767 99 54 Marcellinus Aviola Nerone Vetere Silano Antonino 10 4766 98 53 Silanus ii Antoninus ii Marcellino Aviola Sylla Catone 9 4765 97 52 Silanus Otho Silano Antonino Claudio Orfito 8 4764 96 51 Tiberius iii Antoninus Silano Othone Vetere Nerviuiano 7 4763 95 50 Silvanus Silvius Tiberio iii Antonino Veriano Gallo 6 4762 94 49 Claudius Orfitus Sylvano Silvio Vitellio IV Publicola 5 4761 93 48 Vetus Servilianus Claudio Orfito Claudio IV Vitellio III 4 4760 92 47 Veranuius Gall us Vetere Neviliano Asiatico Silano o Asiatico Silano 4759 91 46 Vitillius II Publicola Verannio Gallo Vinitio Corvino 2 Vinnicio Corvino 4758 90 45 Tiberius ii Vitellius Vitellio II Publicola Crispo II Tauro , Crasso Tauro 4757 89 44 Asiaticus Cornelius Tiberio ii Vitellio Claudio III Vitellio , , Claudio Caesare v ^^ Vitellio 4756 88 43 Vinicius Cornelius Asiatico Silano Claudio II Larbo . . Claudio Cffisare iv Largo 36 282 LIST OF CONSULS [part I. A.J. p. Years T.Cebs 87 A.D. 42 Cassiodorus. Victorius. Idatius. Chronicon Paschale. 4755 Crispinus Taurus Vinicio Cornelio Csesare iv Antonino .„ ClaudioCEesareiii Antonino 4754 80 41 Tiberius G alius Crispo Tauro Caesare iii solo ,^ Claudio Caesare ii ^^ solo 4753 85 40 Secundus Venustus Tiberio Gallo Caesare ii Caesiano , , Claudio Caesare Cersiano 4752 84 39 Csesar ii Saturninus Secundo Venusto Juliano Asprenate .„ Juliano Asprenate 4751 83 38 Caesar Juliauus Caesare ii Saturnino Proculo Nigrino g Proculo Nigrino 4750 82 37 Publicola Nerva Caesare Juliauo Emiliano Plautio o Leliano ^ Plauto 4749 81 36 Julianas Asprenas Publicola Nerva Gallo Nonniano - Gallo Nonniano 4748 80 35 Proculus Nigrinus Juliano Asprenate Persico Vitellio Pulo f, Galba ^ Sulla 4747 79 34 Galienus Plautianus Proculo Nigrino Galba Libolo Sylla , Aruntio Aenobarbo 4746 78 33 Gallus Nonianus Gallieno' Plautiano Aruntio Ahenobarbo . Persico ^ Vitellio 4745 77 32 Persicus Vitellius Gallo Noniano Tib. Caesare iv solo o Tiberio Caesare v solo 4744 76 31 Sulpicius Silla Prisco Vitellio Vinicio Longino Cassio 2 Vennicio Longino 4743 75 30 Vinicius Longinus Sulpitio Sylla Rufo Rubellione J Rufo Rubellino 4742 74 29 Tib. Caesar v * * * Vinicio Longino Silano Nerva , . Geraino Gemino 4741 73 28 M. Vinicius L. Cassius C. Rubellius C. Fufius duobusGeminis Ruffino Rubellio Crasso Pisone Getulio Sabino , . Silano Nerva ,„ Crasso Pisone CHAP. XII.] PROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS. 283 If noAV we take a.j.p. 4741 from a.j.p. 4951, or a.d. 28 from a.d. 238, the difference is 210 years ; and consequently excluding the consulship of A,D. 28, and including that of A.D. 238, there ought to be 210 pairs of consuls. Censorinus calls the con- suls of A.D. 238, Ulpius and Pontianus; by Cassiodorus they are called Pius and Proculus ; by Victorius, Ulpius Pius and Pro- culus ; by Idatius, Pius and Pontianus ; by the Chronicon Pas- chale, Ulpicius and Pontianus. This diversity may be easily recon- ciled. Censorinus is certainly the best autliority for the names of the consuls in the year in which he wrote. Ulpius might easily be changed into Pius or Ulpicius ; and Proculus was probably the prsenomen of Pontianus. It has already been observed that the apparent discrepancy in the various lists of consuls often arises from this interchange of names belonging to the same individual. The consuls of a.d. 28, are rightly named by Cassiodorus, C. Rubellius, and C. Fufius. Both, as Tacitus asserts, had the cog- nomen of Geminus.* But for Fufius, several authors read Rufus ; and he is thus called by Idatius, and in the Chronicon Paschale. Victorius calls him Rufinus. Their consulship is familiarly called that of the two Gemini : " Duobus Geminis Coss." This has led the Greek compiler into the egregious mistake of making two con- sulships out of one, the former of which he calls Geminus and Geminus ; the latter, Rufus and Rubellinus. The extremes being now adjusted, we proceed to examine and compare the intervening series. Excluding the consulship of the two Gemini, we find, on count- ing the lists, that Cassiodorus has given 211 ; Victorius, 210 ; and Idatius, 208. The list in the Chronicon Paschale is unfortunately defective ; but by means of the indictions we are enabled to ascer- tain that exactly twenty years are missing. These, with the 171 preceding, and the 1 7 which follow to the consulship of Rufus and Rubellinus, make up 208. It is evident, therefore, that the num- ber in the list of Victorius is right ; that in the list of Cassiodorus there is an excess of one, and in the two other lists a defect of two consulships. Hence a critical examination is necessary in order to correct these oj)posite errors. The names for the first eight years of the ascending series, from ' Rubellio et Fufio Consulibus, quorum utrique Geminus cognomentum erat. — Tac, Ann. V. 1. 284 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.D. 238 to 231 inclusive, are so nearly alike, that no doubt can be entertained of their identity. In the ninth of the series, a.d. 230, Cassiodorus and Victorius have inserted the names of Gratus and Seleucus. This is probably an error which has crept into the text ; for in the nineteenth of the series occur the names Cratus or Gratus and Seleucus, corres- ponding with Gratus and Seleucus in the other lists. We must therefore take for A.D. 230 the names of Agricola and Clemens, or rather, according to JNIuratori,^ Clementinus. An inscription recorded by Gruter, p. 300, reads : L. VIRIO AGRICOLA ET SEXTO CATIO C INO COSS. For the next three years, A.D. 229, 228, 227, the three lists agree. The consulship of a.d. 229 was filled by the emperor M. Aurelius Severus Alexander the third time, and the celebrated historian Dio or Dion Cassius, whose labours have been so useful in the pre- sent work. He finished his history in this year. A.D. 226. Cassiodorus and Victorius insert Annianus and Maxi- mus ; a consulship concerning which all others are silent. Annia- nus may possibly have been a corruption of the preceding name, Albinus. Taking this out, and placing in its stead the consulship of the Emperor M. Aurelius Severus Alexander the second time, with C. Marcellus Quinctilianus, the four lists are again in accord- ance; and they so continue, with slight variations, to a.d. 222. In that year, the emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus Elagabalus Augus- tus the fourth time, and M. Aurelius Severus Alexander Cffisar, were consids. The four lists are thus easily adjusted. A.D. 221. The consuls were Gratus Sablnianus and Seleucus. The name Sablnianus occurs in a fragment of Dion Cassius. The lists are thus harmonized to a.d. 217, when C. Bruttius Prjcsens and T. JNIesslus Extrlcatus were consuls, A.D. 216. Venustus, on the lists of Cassiodorus and Victorius, may possibly have been one of the names of Anulllnus. Muratori states that according to an ancient inscription preserved by Fa- brettl, (p. 682), the names of the consuls were C. Atius Sabinus ii. and Cornelius Anulinus. For the next 53 years, A.D. 215-163, with some slight variations, occasioned, doubtless, by the carelessness of transcribers, Casslodo- ' Sigon. Op. torn. i. col. 737. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 285 rus, Victorius, and Idatius are in harmony. So also are Idatlus and the Chronlcon Paschale, with similar exceptions, for twenty-four years, A.D. 215-192. The Chronicon Paschale then omits the con- sulships of Apronianus and Bradua, and the two Silani, transposes those of Orfitus and Rufus, and Commodus and Quintillus, and omits altogether the consulship of Piso and Julianus. These cor- rections being made, the four lists are in harmony to A.D. 163 inclusive. A.D. 162. Cassiodorus and Victorius are right in naming the consuls Rusticus and Aquilinus, and not Rufinus or Kusticius and Aquilinus, as in the other lists. " This appears," says Muratori, " from an ancient inscription recorded by Gruter." ^ A.D. 161 — A.D. 160. The next two consulships in the ascending series, according to Cassiodorus, were, A.D. 161, the two Augusti; and A.D. 160, Antoninus v. and Aurelius in. Victorius, beside the two Augusti, has inserted the consulships of Antoninus and Aure- lius twice. Idatius has confounded the two consulships of the two Augusti, and Antoninus and Aurelius, blending them into one: " Antonino v. et Aurelio Cses. duobus Augustis." The Chronicon Paschale, on the other hand, distinguishes the two consulshijos, but confounds the persons; omitting the name of Antoninus, and sup- posing both to have been borne by Marcus Aurelius the philosopher, and his colleague Lucius Verus : "A.D. 161 Marco Aurelio Vero et Lucio Commodo Augusto iii. a.d. 160 Marco Aurelio Vero et Lucio Commodo Augusto ii." The modern critics, having mis- taken the year of Julius Caesar's war in Spain, and placed that war one year later than it ought to be, have been obliged to omit one of these consulships. They have therefore neglected the testimony of Cassiodorus, and by comparing Idatius with the Chronicon Paschale, have thought to correct both by representing thus the consulship of A.D. 161: M. Aur. Verus Antoninus Cws. iii. dictns Philosophus. L. u^lnis. Aur. Verus. Cws. ii. dictus etiam Commodus. They have therefore suppressed entirely the consulship of A.D. 160. Antoninus Pius Imp. Aug. f., and il/. JElius Aurelius CoBsar III., which are correctly stated by Cassiodorus. This important sufpression, hy ivJiich the whole consular chronology ' Gruter, p. 28G, vii. , and p. 131, ill. ap. Murat. Sigon. Op. 286 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. for more than two hundred years, from the time of Julius Ccesar to the end of the reign of Antoninus Pius, has heen thrown into dis- order, will be more clearly lllusti'ated when we come to consider the length of the several imperial reigns. In the meantime it may be well to insert here a passage from Spartian, in his life of -^lius Verus, the father of Lucius Antoninus Verus Coramodus : "His son was that Antoninus Verus who was adopted by Mar- cus. Verus certainly had an equal share with Marcus in the government of the empire. For these are they who first loere called THE TWO AuGUSTi, and I'^hose names are so enregistered in the con- sular fasti, that they are called not merely the two Antonini, hut the TWO AuGUSTi. The novelty and dignity of this thing had so much authority, that some of the consular fasti took thence the order of the consuls."^ A.D. 159. Cassiodorus, Victorius, Idatius, and the Chronicon Paschale have Verus as the colleague of Bradua. Some ancient inscriptions read Varus ; and on their authority, Muratori adopts the latter. The names in full are, as given by him : " Aj)p. Annius Atilius Bradua, and T. Clodius Vibius Varus.'''' The next four in the series, from Quintillus and Priscus to Sil- vanus and Augurinus, A.D. 158 to A.D. 155, occur in all the lists, with but slight variations. A.D. 154. The names of the consuls are written by Cassiodorus, Verus and Sahinus; by Victorius, Vetus and Sabinus ; in the other two lists more correctly, Severus and Sabiniamis. This appears from ancient inscriptions published by Panvinius and Gruter.^ The next eight years, from a.d. 153 to a-d. 146 inclusive, or from the consulshij) of Commodus and Lateranus to that of Largus and !Messalinus, occur in all the lists, with slight variations as to orthography, but in the same order. A.D. 145, Clarus and Severus by Idatius, are omitted by Cassio- dorus and Victorius, and written in the Chronicon Paschale, Severo v. et Verino. Peland, as quoted by Muratori, conjectures that the true names were Sexius Erucius Clarus and Cneius Clau- 1 Ejus filius est Antoninus Verus, qui hujus rei et novitas et dignitas valuit, ut acloptatus est a Marco. Verus certe cum fasti consulares nonnulli ab his sumerent Marco jequale gessit imperiuni. Nam ipsi ordinem Consulum. — ^lii Spartiani ^lius sunt qui primi duo Aiigusti appellati sunt: Verus, ap. Hist. Aug. Scriptores, ed. Sal- et quorum fastis consularibus sic nomina masius, Paris, 1620, fol. p. 16. prsescribuntur, ut dicautur non tantum duo ^ Sigon. Op. ed. Muratori, torn. i. col, G07. Antonini, scd duo Augusti : tantumque CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 287 dius Sevenis. Spartian, In his life of Severus, says that he was born "Erucio Claro bis, et Severe Coss.^^ A.D. 144. The consuls for this year were evidently Antoninus Pius Imperator Augustus iv. and Marcus ^lius AureliusCwsarii. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted again the names of Gratus and Seleucus. This must be an error ; for no such consuls are spoken of elsewhere as existing at this time. They have also evidently transposed the consulship of Antoninus iii. and Aurelius. These corrections being made, we may harmonize the lists as follows : A.D. 143. Avitus and Maximus. Cassiodorus, Victorius, and the Chronicon Paschale, read, Aviola and Maximus ; but this is proved to be an error, by an inscription transcribed by Montfaucon, and published in his Diarium Italicum, p. 389-90, which reads in two places, AVITO ET MAXIMO COS. The names at full length, according to other ancient inscriptions, are given by Muratori, on the authority of Panvinius and Gruter : P. Lollianus Avitus and C. Gavius Maximus. Others read, Claudius Maximus; but one ancient marble, as Muratori justly observes, is of more value than a hundred conjectures. A.D. 142. C. Bellicius Torquatus, and Tih, Claud. Attic. Herodes. In the inscription above referred to (Diar. Ital. p. 389) the consul- ship immediately preceding that of Avitus and Maximus is, TORQVATO ET ATTICO COS. A.D. 141. Coss. Rufinus and Quadratus. By an evident mistake (probably the reiteration of the preceding name by the copyist), the lists of Cassiodorus and Victorius read, Rufinus and Torquatus. An ancient inscription, given by Panvinius and Gruter, reads at full length, L. CUSPIVS RVFINVS ET L. STATIVS QVADRATVS. A.D. 140. Severus and Sllvanus. Muratori thinks that aU the three lists are here erroneous ; and on the authority of an ancient inscription given by Panvinius, and another by Gruter,^ prefers to read, M. Peducseus Byloga Priscinus and T. Hoenius Severus. A.D. 139. Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. in. and M. ^l. Aurelius Verus Cses. Coss. ' Gruter, p. 182, iv. ap. Murut. Sigon. Op. 288 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.D. 138. Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. ii. and Bruttius Praesens n. Coss. We have now a collateral proof of the accuracy of this arrange- ment afforded us by Censorlnus ; for writing in the year 238 of the Christian ^ra, he says that the first day of the Egyptian month Thoth, which that year was on the seventh before the calends of July, or June 25, fell on the twelfth before the calends of August, or July 21st, " a hundred years ago, when the emperor Antoninus Pius, the second time, and Bruttius Prajsens were consuls.^ Cen- sorinus made a mistake of one day in his calculations ; for in the year 138, the first of Thoth fell on the 20th of July; and it did not fall on the 21st of that month till a.d. 135, a.j.p. 4848, which was a leap-year. But this slight mistake does not affect the value of his testimony as to the fact that the consulship of Antoninus Pius II. and Bruttius Praesens coincided with a.d. 138. A.D. 137. Cassiodorus and Victorius put as the next in order Antoninus and Prassens, the first time ; but in this they are unsup- ported by any other authority. We follow, therefore, Idatius and the Chronicon Paschale, both of which put next in the ascending series to Antoninus Pius ii. and Bruttius Prsesens, the names of Camerinus and Niger. A.D. 136. Cass, and Vict., L. -^lius and Balbinus ; Idat. Caesar ii. andBalbinus; Chron. Pasch., ^lianus and Balbinus. All mean the same persons. Cejonius Commodus, called also iElius Verus, was adopted by Adrian, and received the title of Ctesar. Accord- ing to Spartian, he was first called Lucius Aurelius Verus, but being adopted by Adrian, he took the name of the emperor's family — tEUus. From this, ^lianus is derived ; as from Octavius, Octa- vianus. The names also occur in ancient inscriptions quoted by Panvinius, Gruter, and Fabretti, and, on their authority, are thus given by Muratori : L. jEUus Verus Csesar ii. and P. Caslius Bal- binus Vibulus. A.D. 135. Cass, and Vict., Pompeianus ii. and Commodus; Idat. Commodus and Pompeianus ; Chron. Pasch., Commodus and Pon- tianus iii. The prsenomina, nomina and cognomina of these consuls occur in several Inscriptions, and are thus given by Muratori: L. Cejonius Commodus Verus and Sextus Vetulenus Civica Pomjpei- 1 Cum abhinc annos centum Imperatore iidem dies fuerint ante diem xii kal. Au- Antonino Pio n et Bruttio Prsesente Coss. gust.— Cens. de Die Nat. cap. xxi. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 289 anus. L. Cominodus Vcrus was tliis year adopted into the ^Elian family, by Adrian. A.D. 134. Cass, and Vict., Pompeianus and Atilianus; Idat., Pontianus and Aquilinus Kufus ; Chron. Pasch., Pontianus ii. and Aquilinus. This diversity has given great trouble to modern chronologists. An ancient inscription produced by Fabretti' settles the question, so far as to one of the names of each : Pontianus and A tilianus A.D. 133. Cass., Sergianus ii. and Verus; Vict., Sergianus ii. and Vetus ; Idat., Severus iii. and Varus ; Chron. Pasch., Severus and Varus. They should be, C. Julius Servianus iii. and C. Vibius Varus. Bianchini quotes an inscription from Gruter, p. 108-7 and p. 431-9. Another in Ciampini de Sacris -^dibus, c. iv. p. SO ; and another in Fabretti Inscrip. 509. A.D. 132. Cass., Hiberus and Silanus; Vict., Tiberius al. Hibertus and Silanus ; Idat., Hiberus and Sisenna ; Chron. Pasch., Tiberius and Sisinnus. These may be easily reconciled. Bianchini pro- duces a marble inscription in the Albani museum, which reads, Antonius Hiberus Nummius Sisenna Coss, A.D. 131. Cass. Vict, and Chr. Pas., Augurinus and Sergianus; Idat., Augurianus and Sergianus. Pliny the younger^ speaks of Sentius Augurinus. The modern critics are divided in opinion concerning the second consul ; some following our lists, and others preferring Severianus. A.D. 130. Cass., Pontianus and Rufinus ; omitted by Victorius ; Idat. and Chron. Pasch., Pontianus and Rufus. Panvinius pro- duces an inscription which has, Ser. Octav. Lasnas Pontianus. M. Antonius Rufinus Coss. A.D. 129. Idat., Catullinus and Libo ; Chr. Pas. Catullinus and Libo II ; Cassiodorus and Victorius wholly omit this consulship. Two inscriptions produced by Panvinius from Gruter, p. 108, num. vi., and Fabretti, p. 503, read, Q. Fabius Catullinus. M. Flavins Aper. Coss. A.D. 128. Cass, and Vict., Celsus and Marcellinus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Marcellus and Celsus. Ulpian^ speaks of Q. Julius Balbus and P. Juventius Celsus, Coss. These names occur in an inscription produced by Panvinius, which contains also the names 1 P. 509, et de Col. Traj. p. 192. ^ Epist. lib. iv. 27. ^ Digest, v. tit. iii. 37 290 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. of the consuls substituted in that year. Among these are C. Neratius Marcellus and Cn. Lollius Gallus. The critics infer, therefore, that the consuls and the substituted consuls of this year have been partially confounded. Hence they prefer to desig- nate this year as the consulship of Q. Julius Balhus and P. Jumn- tius Celsus II. Victorius here Inserts " Vetus and Valens," in which he is sup- ported by no other authority. This being omitted, all the lists for the next two years are in harmony, a.d. 1 27, Torquatus and Libo. A.D. 126, Gallicanus and Titianus. M. Annius Libo, Cos. is men- tioned by Julius Capitolinus, in his life of the emperor Marcus Aurelius; and an ancient inscription^ gives the names of L. Non. Aspr. Torquatus ii. M. Annius Libo, Coss. Nothing is certain as to the consuls of a.d. 126, excepting the names Titianus and Galli- canus. A.D. 1 25. Cass, and Vict., Verus et Ambiguus ; Idat., Verus iii. et Ambigulus; Chr. Pas. Severus iii. et Amfigulus. On the authority of Cardinal Noris, and the inscriptions given by him, Muratori adopts, as the names of these consuls, 31. Annius Verus in. L. Varius Amhilulus. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of Pertinax, says that he was born in the consulship of Yerus and Bibulus.^ A.D. 124. Cass, and Vict., Asiaticus and Quintus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Asiaticus and Aquilinus. From three inscriptions given by Panvinius, Gruter, and Fabretti, it appears that the names of these consuls were, P. Corn. Scijpio Asiaticus ii. and Q. Vettius (or Vectius) Aquilinus. A.D. 123. Cass, and Vict., Glabrio and Apronianus ; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Glabrio and Torquatus. An inscription preserved by Panvinius has the prsenomen, nomen, and cognomen of both these consuls : JSP. Acilius Glabrio and C. Bellicius Torquatus. A.D. 122. Cass, and Vict., Paternus and Torquatus ; Idat., Apronianus and Pampinus ; Chr. Pas., Apronianus ii. and Pampi- nus. Cassiodorus and Victorius have interchanged the names of Apronianus and Torquatus with A.D. 123. In the two other lists, the name of Psetinus is corrupted into Panpinus or Pampinus. An inscription on baked clay, transcribed by Panvinius and Fabretti, ^ Gruter, p. 337 ; Fabretti, p. 510, ' Natus auteni Cal. Augiistis Vero et Bibulo Coss. — Hist. Aug. SS. p. 59. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 291 p. 503 and 509, and other inscriptions recorded by Gruter, p. 1079, No. X. and p. 1082, No. xvi., have corrected these errors. The real names were, Qiiintus Arrius Pastinus and C. Ventidius Apronianus. A.D. 121. All the lists agree in Aviola and Pansa. From an inscription in Gruter, p. 337, it appears that the names were, M\ (or Manius) Ac Urns Aviola and C. Cornelius Pansa. A.D. 120. Cass, and Vict., Verus et Augur; Idat., Yerus ii. et Augur ; Chr. Pas. Se verus ir. et Augurinus. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, says that he was born when his grandfather Annius Verus, the second time, and Ausur were consuls." It is the same Annius Verus who was consul the third time A.D, 125. The name of Augur, or Augu- rinus, has the name of Aurelius prefixed to it, in an ancient inscrip- tion in Cuper's preface to the Fasti Consulares of Almeloveen. The names, therefore, were, 31. or L. Annius Verus ii. and ...Aurelius Augur or Augurinus. A.D. 119, Cassiod., Catilius and Fulvius ; Vict., Servilius or Catilius and Fulvius ; Idat., Severus ii. and Fulgus ; Chr. Pas., Severus and Fulcus. Cassiodorus is most correct. Julius Capito- linus, in his life of the emperor Antoninus Pius, gives as his original name, Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Antoninus, and says that he was consul with Catilius Severus.^ To the latter, an inscription preserved by Gruter, p. 499, No. ix. gives the prtenomen Lucius. Muratori calls these consuls, L. Catilius Severus and L. Aurelius Fulvus. But the testimony of Julius Capitolinus is express, that the same pei'son who was afterwards emperor under the name of Antoninus Pius, was consul with Catilius Severus. I therefore feel constrained by that testimony to write the names as he has, L. Catilius Severus and T. Aurelius Fulvius Antoninus. A.D. 118, Cass,, Hadrianus ii, et Rusticus; Vict., Hadrianus ii. and Silianus al. Rusticus ; Idat., Hadrianus rv, et Rusticus ; Chr. Pas. ^lius Hadrianus Augustus II. et Rusticius. All the critics agree that it was the third consulship of Adrian with Q. Junius Rusticus. A.D. 117. Vict., Hadrianus and Rusticus al, Salinator. The other three lists agree in giving Salinator as the colleague of Adrian. His name was Tiberius Claudius Fuscus Salinator, as ' Plist. Aug. SS. p. 22. '^ lb. p. 17. 292 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Panvlnius gathers from an inscription in Fabretti, p. 677, No. 33, where his prsenomen, nomen, and cognomen, are given ; and also from the correspondence of Trajan and Pliny. The latter gives a high character of Fuscus Salinator.' A.D. 117. Clarus and Alexander are here inserted by Cassiodorus and Victorius, but ax'e not in the other lists. They were probably substituted, and not regular consuls. These being omitted, the four lists are in harmony. Cass, and Vict., Niger et Apronianus ; Idat., Apronianus et Niger; Chr. Pas., Apronianus et Niger. The prffinomen aud nomen of one, and the nomen of the other, are ascertained by three inscriptions.^ Quinct'ms Niger. C. Vipstanius Apronianus. A.D. 115. Cass, and Vict., ^milius et Vetus ; Idat., Elianus et Vetus ; Chr. Pas., Elianus et Vetus or Veter. Cardinal Noris shows from Phlegon, cap. 9 de Mirabilibus, that the consuls were, L. or L. ^lius Lamia and yElianus Vetus or Veter. A.D. 114. Cass, and Vict., Messalla and Pedo ; Idat. and Chr. Pas. Messala et Podo. It appears from Gruter,^ and from Cardi- nal Noris,"* that the names were, L. Vipstanius Messalla and M. Vergilianus Pedo. A.D. 113. Cass, and Vict., Asta etPiso; Idat.,Malsa et Volcisus ; Chr. Pas., Malsus et Bulciscus. All are corrupt. Panvinius pro- duces one, and Gruter (p. 214) another marble, from which it ap- pears that the real names were, Q. Ninnius Hasta and P. Maniliiis Vopiscus. A.D. 112. Cass, and Vict., Celsus and Crispinus; Idat., Celsus ii. and Priscianus ii. ; Chr. Pas., Priscianus and Celsus. An ancient inscription in the Farnese palace at Kome, given by Gruter, p. 214, enables us to correct the names thus : L. Publicius Celsus ii. and L. Clodius Crispinus. A.D. 111. Cass, and Vict., Trajanus vii. et Africanus ; Idat., Trajanus vi. et Anfricanus ; Chron. Pasch., Trajanus Augustus v. et Africanus. The name of the emperor Trajan is well known ; but it is not always easy to determine the number of times the same person was consul, because of the practice of substituting one set of consuls after another in the same year. Hence, as in the present instance, proceeds the frequent diversity of numbers. The prse- 1 Epist. lib. vi. 26. " Gruter, p. 578, No. 1 ; 1008, No. 7 ; 1009, No. 2. ^ Inscript. Antiq. p. 1066 and 1070. * Epist. Consul, p. 935, ed. Veron. CHAP. XII.J TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 293 nomen and nomen of Afrlcanus are given by Card. Norls on the authority of Griiter.' Muratori therefore states the names of both consuls as follows: M. Ulp. Trajan. Imp. Aug. vi. T. Sextius Africanus. A.D. 110. Cass, and Vict., Piso et Kusticus; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Piso and Julianus. 0. Calpurnius Piso is a name well known. With regard to his colleague, there is much diversity of opinion. From Gruter, Ins. Ant. p. 128, 163 ; Fabretti, Insc. p. Q9Q ; Boldet, p. 78, it is inferred that his name was M. Vectius or Vettius Bolanus. Rusticus may have been his cognomen. How Julianus has been substituted for Bolanus, it is in vain to con- jectui-e. A.D. 109. Cass., Crispinus ii. and Solenus; Vict., Crisplnus and Solenus ; Idat. and Chr. Pasch., Orfitus and Priscianus. A stone produced by Bianchini ad Anastas, torn. ii. p. 122, as then lately found near the Porta Capena at Rome, and some inscriptions on baked clay mentioned by him and by Fabretti, p. 508, give the names of these consuls thus : Ser. Salvidienus Orfitus and M. Peducaeus Priscinus. A.D. 108. Cass, and Vict., Africanus et Crispinus; Idat., Palma ii. et Tullus; Chron. Pasch., Palma et Tullus. The names recorded by Cassiodorus andVictorius were the consuls substituted on the first of March, A.D. 107, C. Julius Africanus and Clodius Crispinus. But of the consuls of this year, Palma, as we shall soon see, was consul for the first time a.d. 98. The name of the second consul is preserved in the life of M. Aurelius by Julius Capitolinus.^ where he is called Calvisius Tullus, and is said to have been twice consul. The consuls of this year are therefore called by Muratori, A. Cornelius Palma ii. and G. Calvisius Tullus ii. A.D. 107. All the lists agree in the names Gallus and Bradua. An inscription produced by Panvinius calls them, Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus and M. Atilius Metilius Bradua. A.D, 106. Cass. & Vict., Senecio iv. and Sura in.; Idat., Syraiii. Senecio ii. ; Chr. Pas., Syrianus ill. Senecio. Panvinius and Bian- chini cite ancient inscriptions for L. Licinius Sura in. and C. Sosius Senecio iv. A.D. 105. Cass. Vict, and Idat., Commodus and Cerealis; Chr. 1 Liscr. Antiq. p. 1029, No. 6. ' Hist. Aug. SS. p. 22, ed. Salmas. 294 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Pas., Commoclus and Ceretanus. The name of the first is given by Spartian in the life of -^lius Verus, and by Julius Capitolinus in the life of the emperor Verus, ^ Lucius Ceionius yElius Commodus Verus. The name of the other, L. Tutius Cerealis. A.D. 104. Cass. Vict, and Chron. Pasch., Candidus and Quadra- tus ; Idat., Candidus n. et Quadratus. Spartian mentions them in the life of Adrian, who was created tribune of the people in their consulship : Tribunus plebis factus est Candido et Quadrato iterum coss? The first of these consuls is named in an ancient inscription, Tiberius Julius Candidus. Critics ai-e not agreed as to the prse- nomen and nomen of the second. Bianchini calls him C. Actius Quadratus ; Spon., C. Antius Julius Quadratus. " Non nobis est tantas componere lites." A.D. 103. Cass, and Vict., Urbanus et Marcellus ; Idat., Subu- ranus ii. et Marcellus ; Chr. Pasch., Syrianus ii. et Marcellus. All agree as to Marcellus. The name of the other consul is uncertain. A.D. 102. Contrary to the other lists, Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted Senecio iii. and Sura ii. Omitting, or rather transposing these, the several lists are in harmony, excepting as to the number of the consulship of Trajan. Cass, and Vict., Tra- janus VI. et Maximus ; Idat., Trajanus v. et Maximus ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus iv. et Maximus. A.D. 101. Cass, and Vict., Senecio iii. Sura ii.; Idat., Severianus et Sirius ; Chr. Pas., Syrianus et Syrius. All these names seem to have been corrupted from those transposed by Cassiodorus and Victorius. The critics generally agree in the names of the consuls of A.D. 106 as being the consuls of this year, C. Soskis Senecio iii. and L. Licinius Sura ii. A.D. 100. Cass, and Vict., Trajanus v. et Orfitus ; Idat., Tra- janus IV. et Petus ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus ill. et Petus. Orfitus was substituted for Psetus on the first of March, as Pan- vinius conjectures ; for on the first of May, and again on the first of July, other consuls were substituted. Spartian, in his life of Adrian, (p. 2), speaks of the consulship of Trajan iv. and Arun- culeius. Tlie modern critics think that this should be Articuleius, and hence they write the consulship thus : M. Ulpius Trajanus Imp. Aug. iv., and Sextus Articuleus Peetus. 1 Hist. Aug. SS. ed. Salmas, pp. 16, 35. * lb. p. 2. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 295 A.D. 99. Cass, and Vict., Trajanus iv. et Fronto ; Idat, Tra- janus III. et Pontinus ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus ii. et Pon- tianus. M. Cornelius Fronto seems to have been substituted on the first of March fi^r the ordinary consul. Card. Noris has given very convincing reasons for believing that Pontinus and Pontianus are corruptions of the name of Frontinus, the well known author of the work on the aqueducts of Rome. The consuls, then, of this year were M. Ulpius Trajanus Imp. Aug. iii. and Sextus Julius Frontinus ill. A.D. 98. Cass, and Vict., Senecio et Palma ; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Palma et Senecio. A. Cornelius Palma. C. Sosius Senecio, Coss. A.D. 97. Cass, and Vict., Nerva iii. Trajanus, ill. ; Idat,, Nerva IV. Trajanus ii. ; Chr. Pas., Trajanus Augustus alone. M. Cocceius Nerva, Imp. Aug. iv. Ulpius Trajanus Ccesar ii. A.D. 96. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted the con- sulships of Sabinus and Antoninus, and Flavius or Fulvius and Vetus, unsupported by any other authority. Omitting these, and reading in the order of the other lists, we have, Cass, and Vict., Nerva ii. and Rufus ; Idat, Nerva in. and Rufus in.; Chr. Pas., Nerva Augustus and Titus Rufus iii. Julius Fontinus de Aquas- duct. Art. 102, represents this consulship thus : Imp. Nerva ill. et Verginio Eufo ill. Coss. A.D. 95. Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. make the next consulship that of Valens and Vetus or Veter. Cassiodorus and Victorius insert the consulship of Fulvius and Vetus between the third and fourth consulships of Nerva. But in this part of their lists, Cassi- odorus and Victorius are singularly incorrect. Dion Cassius calls these consuls, Caius Valens and Caius Antistius.^ Their full names, as appears by an ancient inscription produced by Bianchini, were, C. Antistius Vetus and C. Manlius Valens. A.D. 94. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus ix. et Clemens ii. ; Idat., Domitianus xiv. et Clemens ; Chron. Pasch., Domitianus xiv. et Clemens ii. Dion Cassius speaks of Titus Flavius Clemens, as being consul with Domitian, and put to death that year.^ He was a Christian. A.D. 93. Cass, and Vict., Asftrenas et Clemens ; Idat. and Chr. Pas., Asprenas et Lateranus. The critics are divided ; part folio w- 1 Lib. Ixvii. 14. ' lb. 296 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS ]_PART I. ing Casslodorus and Victorius, In making Titus Flavins Clemens the colleague of Asprenas ; part, on the authority of the other two, preferring Lateranus. A.D. 92. Cass, and Vict., Sllvanus et Priscus ; Idat., Pompeia- nus et Priscianus ; Chr. Pas., Pompeius and Crispinus. Tacitus, in his life of Agricola,' says that he died in the consulship of Collega and Priscus. Hence all the modern critics agree in calling the consuls, Pompeius Collega and Cornelius Priscus. A.D. 91. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus viii. et Saturninus; Idat., Domitianus xiii.et Saturninus; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus xii. et Saturninus. Cardinal Noris has shown that Volusius and Quinc- tius were the nomen and pra^nomen of Saturninus. The consuls of this year, therefore, were, Flavius Domitianus, Imp. Aug. and Q. Volusius Saturninus. A.D. 90. Cass., Trajanus II. et Glabrio ; Vict., Trajanus and Glabrio ; Idat., Grabio et Gralanus ; Chr. Pas., Glabrio et Traja- nus. Dion Cassius speaks of the consulship of Ulpius Trajanus and Acilius Glabrio.^ The consuls of this year were, therefore, M. Ulpius Trajanus. M. Acilius Glabrio. A.D. 89. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus vii. et Nerva; Idat., Do- mitianus XII. et Nerva ii. ; Chron. Pasch., Domitianus Augustus xi. et Nerva. The consuls, therefore, were, Fl. Domit. Imp. Aug. and M. Cocceius Nerva, who was afterwards emperor. A.D. 88. Cass, and Vict., Flavins et Trajanus ; Idat., Fulvlus et Atratinus ; Chr. Pas., Fulvius II. et Atratinus. AVhy Cassiodorus and Victorius should have written Flavins and Trajanus appears inexplicable. Titus Aurelius Fulvius is mentioned by Julius Capitolinus as the grandfather of the emperor Antoninus Pius ; and he says of him that he was twice consul. All the critics agree in naming this the consulship of Titus Aurelius Fulvius n. and A. Sempronius Atratinus. A.D. 87. Cass., Domitianus VI. et Rufus iv. ; Vict., Domitianus vi. et Rufinus ; Idat., Domitianus XI. et Rufus ; Chr. Pas., Domiti- anus Augustus X. et Titus Rufus. The testimony of Censorinus is explicit, that the consulship was Domitianus xii. and L. Minu- cius Rufus ; and that the secular games were celebrated for the seventh time in that year.^ But here a new difficulty presents 1 Sec. 44. = Lib, Ixvii. 12. ^ Septimos Domitianus, se xiv. et L. Minucio Kufo Coss. anno locccxLl. — De Die Nat. c. xvii. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 297 itself; for he says that it was in the year of the city 841. But that year, on his own calculations, as will be seen on examining the tables, chap. v. sec. 2, p. 143, began the 21st of April, a.d. 88; and if, as Suetonius asserts, they were celebrated on the day of the Circensian games,^ it must have been towards the close of that year of Rome, or April 10, a.d. 89. This cannot have been : and, therefore, I must think that there has been some conjectural emen- dation of the text of Censorinus as to this date. For if Censorinus be correct as to the consulship, and Suetonius correct as to the time of the year when the secular games were celebrated, they must have been at the close of a.u.c. 839, or April 10, a.d. 87. Censorinus enables us also to rectify the numbers of Domitian's consulships, so confusedly stated in the ancient lists. Suetonius tells us that hefore Domitian, no one held, and that Domitian did hold seventeen consulships.^ If, then, a.d. 87 was his fourteenth consulship, a.d. 89 was his fifteenth, and a.d. 91 and 94 the six- teenth and seventeenth. A.D. 86. Idat., Domitianus x. et Saturninus ; Chr. Pas., Domiti- anus Augustus ix. et Saturninus. We have placed in a.d. 91 the corresponding consulship of Domitianus Vlil. and Saturninus, recorded by Cassiodorus and Victorius, and it must therefore be omitted here, because Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. have one more consulship of Domitian and Saturninus than they have. In this, Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. are the more correct. Cassiodorus and Victorius are very confused, as we have before had occasion to observe, in this part of their list. The consulship of Q. Volusius Saturninus a.d. 91 was his second, and the present year his first. This correction made, the consulship of this year is, Flav. Domitianus^ Imp. Aug. xiii. Q. Volusius Saturninus. Muratori says, A. Volusius Saturninus; I know not on what authority. A.D. 85. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus v. et Dolabella; Idat., Domitianus ix. et Dolabella ; Chr. Pas. Domitianus Augustus viil. et Dolabella. Censorinus has preserved the accurate descrijDtion of this consulship, De Die Natali, c. xviii. where, speaking of the lustrum and the quinquennial games, he says that these capitoline ' Sueton. Domit. c. 4. ' Consulatus septemdeciin cepit, quot ante eum nemo.— lb. Domit. c. 13. 38 298 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. contests were first instituted by Domitian, in bis twelftb con- sulsbip with Servius Cornelius Dolabella.* Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. xii, Ser. Cornelias Dolabella. A.D. 84. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus iv. et Kufus iii; Idat., Domitianus viii. et Fulvius ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus vii. et Fulvius. Julius Capitolinus speaks, as we have seen under A.D. 88, of Titus Aurelius Fulvius, the grandfather of Antoninus Pius, as having been twice consul. This, therefore, was his first ; and the true record of it is, Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. xi. Titus Aurelius Fulvius A.D. 83. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus ill. et Sabinus ; Idat., Do- mitianus VII. et Sabinus li.; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus VI. et Sabinus. Bianchini produces an ancient marble which gives the names correctly : Fl. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. x. T. Aurelius Sabinus. A.D. 82. Cass, and Vict., Domitianus ii. Rufus ii. ; Idat., Domi- tianus VI. et Rufus ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus v. et Titus Rufus. Cardinal Noris, from Phlegon, cap. 24, de Mirabilibus, and a Greek inscription at Smyrna, gives the names thus : Fl. Domit. Imp. Atig. ix Q. Petilius Rufus ii. A.D. 81. Cass., Domitianus and Messalinus ; Vict., Domitianus and Messalianus ; Idat., Domitianus v. et Sabinus ; Chr. Pas., Domitianus Augustus iv. et Sabinus ; Cassiodorus and Victorius were probably misled by the fact, that in a.d. 82 C. Valerius Messallinus was substituted for Q. Petil. Rufus. The consuls for this year, from an inscription ap. Gruter, p. 68, No. 16, and p. 314, No. 3, were, Flav. Domitianus, Imp. Aug. viii. T. Flavins Sabinus. A.D. 80. Cass, and Vict., Silvanus et Verus ; Idat., Galva et Pollio ; Chr. Pas. Galba et Pollio. After a long contest among the learned, occasioned by contradictory testimony, Bianchini dis- covered two inscriptions on mai"ble, by which it was terminated. One of these was from the museum of Cardinal Alexander Albani, and had previously been published by Philip a Turre, pp. 99 and 387 of his work on the monuments of Ancient Antium. The names of the consuls were, L. Flavitis Silva Nonius, Asinius Pollio Verrucosus. A.D. 79. Idat, Titus vii. et Domitianus iv.; Chr. Pas. Titus Augustus VII. et ^^Domitianus ill. This consulship is omitted by 1 Quorum agonum primus a Domitiano institutus fuit duodecimo ejus et Ser. Cor- nelii Dolnbellre consnlatu. — Censorin. De Die Natali, c. xviii. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 299 Cassiodorus and Victorius. It is proved, however, by ancient inscri2:)tions,' and also by coins ; and is thus correctly stated : Titus^ Imp. Aug. viii. Fl. Domitianus Ccesar vii. A.D. 78. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus ix. et Titus viii.; Idat., Vespasianus ix. et Titus vi. ; Chr. Pas., Titus vi. et Domitianus ii. We have now come into the region of more accurate history. Vespasian died, as Suetonius informs us, in his ninth consulship.^ It was evidently the seventh consulship of Titus : T. Flav. Vespasianus., Imp. Aug. ix. Titus Caesar Vesp. F. vii. A.D. 77. Cass, and Vict., but transposed, Commodus and Rufus. These are omitted by Idatius and the Chron. Pasch. ; but an ancient inscription produced by Bianchini, from Spon. Miscell. Erud. sec, 2, art, 2, then placed in a villa called Montalto, and existing in the time of Muratori in the museum of Cardinal Albani, reads thus : C. Gejonius Commodus, D. Novius Priscus. Judging merely from the distance of time, I should infer that this Ceionius Commodus was the father or grandfather of him who bore the same name, was adopted by Adrian, and called -ZElius Verus Caesar.^ A.D. 76. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus viii. Titus vii.; Idat., Vesj^asianus Viii. et Domitianus ill.; Chr. Pas., Vespasianus Aug. VII. Titus V. They should be, T. Flav. Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. viii. Titus Cwsar vi. On the first of July they both abdicated, and for them were substituted, T. Flavius Domitianus Cwsar Vi. Cn. Julius Agricola. This accounts for the mistake of Idatius. A.D. 75. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus vii. et Titus vi.; Idat. Vespasianus vii. and Titus v. ; Chr. Pas., Vespasianus Augustus vi. et Titus IV. It should be, T. Flavius Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. vii. Titus Cwsar v. Both abdicated July 1, and the following consuls were substituted: T. Flavius Domitianus v. T. Plautius Silvanus ii. This last, however, is not certain. The evidence for Domitian appears in an ancient catalogue of bishoj)s in the life St. Cletus. A.D. 74. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus vi. et Titus v.; Idat., Vespas. VI. Titus iv.; Chr. Pas. Vespasianus Augustus v. et Titus III. It should be, T. Flavius Vespasianus, Imp. Aug. vi. Tit^is Ccesar iv. ' Gruter, pp. 172, 316. * See Spartian's Life of Adrian, Hist. ' Sueton. Vespas. c, 24. Aug. SS. ed. Salmas, p. 11. 300 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. On the first of July were substituted, T. Flavius Domitianus iv. and M. Licinius Mucianus ill. The latter is mentioned by Pliny. ^ He was consul the second time a.d. 69, and the first time a.d. 51, but in every instance substituted. a.d. 73. Cass, and Vict., Vespasianus v. et Titus iv. ; Idat., Vespasianus v. Titus ill.; Chr. Pas., Domitianus et Messalinus. There can be no doubt as to this consulship. Censorinus speaks of the first census and lustrum established by Servius, as being little less than 650 years before that which was the 75th in number, made when Vespasian v. and Cwsar lil. were consuls.^ Pliny speaks of this census as occupying four years.' On the first of July, Titus abdicated, and Domitian was substituted, it being his third consulship. A.D. 72. Idat. Domitianus ii. and Messalinus. The Chron. Pasch. transposes this consulship with that of the preceding year, Vespa- sianus Augustus IV. et Titus ii. Cassiodorus and Victorius have misplaced it after the last consulship of Vespasian. That this was its true position, appears from the Fasti Cassinatenses in the Al- bani Musseum, cited by Bianchini, and from Jul. Frontinus de Aqused. Art. cii. Flamiis Domitianus Caesar ii. M. Valerius Messalinus. A.D. 71. Cass, and Vict. Vespasianus iv. et Titus in. Idat. Vespas. IV. et Titus ii. Chron. Pas. Vespasianus Augustus in. et Titus. They should be T. Flav. Vospasianus Imp. Aug. iv. Titus Ccesar n. Pliny speaks of an eclipse of the sun and another of the moon, within fifteen days of each other, during the reign of the Vespa- sians, when the father was the third (it should be fourth), and the son the second time consuls.* The eclipses here referred to are marked as follows in the accurate tables of Pingre, A.D. 71. > 4 March, at 8 p.m., 4^ digits, * 20 March, at 9^ a.m. Eur. Afr. Asia central. Muratori cites Riccioli, from the astronomical tables, for an eclipse of the sun Feb. 8, and an eclipse of the moon Feb. 22, a.d. 72. But Pingre shows that there was no eclipse on the 8th of February ' H. Nat. lib. vii. c. 4. sidus quaereretur, et nostro revo accidit, * De Die Nat. c. xviii. imperatoribus Vespasianis, patre iii. filio ^ Lib. vii. c. 49. iterum Consulibus.— Nat. Hist. lib. ii x. * Nam ut quindeeira diebiis iitrumque 13, ed. Brotier, torn. i. p. 163. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 301 of that year. Consequently, the second consulship of Titus must have been a.d. 71. A.D. 70. Cass. Vict, and Idat. Vespasianus ill. et Nerva. Chron. Pas. Vespas. Aug. ii. et Nerva. On the 1st of March were sub- stituted Domitianus Caesar and Cn. Pedius Oastus. This appears from a decree of Vespasian apud Gruter. p. 573, No. 1. T. Flav. Vespasianus Imp. Aug. iii. M. Cocceius Nerva. a.d. 69. Cass, and Vict. Vespasianus li. Titus li. Idat. Vespa- sianus II. alone ; Chron. Pas. Vespasianus alone. Vespasian and Titus were elected consuls when both were absent. By a decree of the senate Titus and Domitian were proclaimed caesars. On the first of July were substituted M. Licinius Mucianus, P. Valerius Asiaticus. A.D. 68. Cassiodorus and Victorius have here inserted two con- sulships, where the other lists have but one. Vespasianus et Titus, Silvanus et Otho ; Idat. Galba ii. et Titus Kufinus ; Chron. Pasch. Galba et Titus Rufinus. This year is celebrated for the atrocity of its events, and for the multitude of its consuls. With this year Tacitus begins the first book of his history.' Brotier, in an ex- cellent note, has given the names and dates of the several ordinary and substituted consuls, with the authorities for each. Cal. Januar. Ser. Hidpicius Galba Aug. ii. T. Vinius Rufi^ius.'^ Both being slain, the following were substituted until the calends of March. M. Salvius Otho Aug., L. Salvius Otho Titianus.^ Cal. March until the calends of May, were substituted L.Ver- ginius Rufus, Pompeius Vopiscus.'* Cal. May until the calends of July, were substituted Csellus Sabinus, Flavins Sabinus.^ Cal. July, to the calends of September, T. Arrius Antoninus, P. Marius Celsus.*^ Cal. September, to the calends of November, 0. Fabius Valens, A. Alienus Oaecina.'^ Otecina being accused of treachery by Vitel- lius, and condemned by the senate, on the last day of October, for one day, Rosius Regulus was substituted.* Cal. November, to the calends of January, were substituted Cn. Csecilius Simplex, C. Quinctius Atticus.^ 1 Initium mihi operis, Ser. Galba ite- " lb. i. 77. ' lb. ii. 71. ' lb. iii. 37, rum, T. Vinius, consules erunt. " lb. ii. 60, iii. 68 and 73 ; Dio, Ixv. p. ^ Tacit. Hist. i. 1. ' lb. i. 77. 741; Brotier, Not£E et Emend, ed. Paris, * lb. i. 77. * lb. i. 77. 1771, 4to, torn. iii. pp. 397-8. 302 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Fifteen consuls in twelve months ! The mistake of Cassiodorus and Victorius can easily be accounted for. T. Flavins Sabinus was brother to the emperor Vespasian ; and Silvanus and Otho might easily be formed from Salvius Otho, and Salvius Otho Titianus. A.D. 67. Cass, and Vict. ; Italicus and Turpilianus ; Idat. Italicus and Trahalus ; Chron. Pas. Italicus and Trachanus. The names of the consuls of this year are given by Julius Froutinus de Aquae- ductibus, art. 102. C. Silius Italicus, M.Galerius Traclialm Turpilianus, a.u.c.dcccxix. It will be seen by our tables (chap. xii. p. 143) that the year of Eome 819 extended from A.D. 66, April 21, to a.d. 67, April 20, inclusive. Silius Italicus and Trachalus Turpilianus, therefore, en- tered, and could enter, upon their office, only on the first of January, A.D. 67. A.D. QQ. The four lists all agree in the names of Capito and Rufus as the consuls of this year. The names are given at full length by Bianchini from the marble Fasti Colonise Casinatis, preserved in tlie Museum Albani at Rome. L. Fonteius Capito, C. Julius Rufus, From this year for twenty years of the ascending series, the Greek catalogue of the Chronicon Paschale is defective. The chasm happens fortunately where there is abundant other testi- mony to supply its loss. A.D. 65. Cass. Telesinus et Appuleius ; Vict. Celsinus al. Telesinus et Apuleius ; Idat. Telesinus et Paulinus. Tacitus calls them, Caius Suetonius et Lucius Telesinus' ; Xiphilinus or Dion. Cass., Caius Telesinus and Suetonius Paulinus^ ; Frontinus, L. Telesinus and Suetonius PauUinus.^ Hence their names were Caius Lucius Telesinus and Caius Suetonius PaulUnus. A.D. 64. Cass, and Vict. ; Sylvanus et Paullinus ; Idat. Helva et Vestinus. Tacitus calls these consuls, Silius Nerva and Atticus Vestinus.* Velleius Paterculus speaks of A. Licinius Nerva Silianus the son of P. Silius.^ This change of name was according to the Roman law of adoption. The son of Silius being ado[)ted by A. Licinius Nerva, took the name of him who adopted him, and changed his father's name to Silianus. Thus the son of ' Ann. xvi. 14. ^ Lib. Ixiii. 1. * Ann. xv. 48. =• De Aquaed. Art. 202. ^ H.R. lib. ii. c. 1 16, 4. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 303 Paulus ^miliuswhcn adopted by Scipio Africanus became Scipio jEmilianus. Thus Octavius Thuriniis, when adopted by his grand-uncle, Caius Julius Csesar, became 0. Julius Ofesar Octa- vianus. Suetonius, as well as Tacitus, calls the second consul Atticus Vestinus.^ Quintilian calls him Marcus Vestinus.^ The names therefore were A. Licinius Nerva Silianus and Marcus Atticus Vestinus or Vesti- nus Atticus. A.D. 63. Cass. Vict, and Idat., Crassus et Bassus. Tacitus calls them Caius Lsecanius and Marcus Licinius.^ Frontinus, Crassus Frugi, and Lecanius Bassus.* Therefore, their names were, Marcus Licinius, Crassus Frugi. Caius Laecanius Bassus. They were consuls, according to Frontinus, a.u.c. dcccxv. which, by our tables, extended from April 21, a.d. 62, to April 20, a.d. 63. Consequently, their consulship began Jan. 1, a.d. 63. A.D. 62. Idat., Rufus et Begula. Cassiodorus and Victorius omit this consulship entirely. Tacitus names them Memmius Regulus and Verginius Rufus.^ Frontinus, Verginius Rufus and Memmius Regulus, a.u.c. 814. Their names were, L. Verginius Rufus and C. Memmius Regulus. As their consulship began in a.u.c. dcccxiv. it was on Jan. 1, a.d. 62. A.D. 61. Cass, and Vict., Macrinus et Gallus, Idat., Marius et Gallus. Tacitus,'^ Publius Marius and Lucius Asinius. Their names were, Publius Marius Celsus and Lucius Asinius Gallus. A.D. 60. Cass. Pius and Turpilianus ; Vict. Pius and Carpilianus, al. Turpilianus ; Idat. Lucius et Turpinianus ; Tacit.,^ Csesonius Pwtus and Petronius Turpilianus. A.D. 59. Cass, and Vict. Nero iv. et Cornelius ; Idat. Nero iv. et Lentulus. Suetonius says, that Nero held the consulship four times.^ Nero entered on his fourth consulship Avith Cornelius Cossus, says Tacitus.^ Cornelius Cossus are the well-known names of the family of the Lentuli. Nerone Claudio Csesare ilil. et Cosso Cossi F. Coss, A.u.c. Dcccxi. says Frontinus de Aquseduct. By our tables, A.u.c 811 began April 21, a.d. 58, and ended April 20, 1 Sueton. Nero, c. 35. ^ Ann. xy, 23. * Quinctil. Inst. Orat. vi. 3, ed. Burman, ^ Ann. xiv. 48. torn. i. p. 548. ' Ann. xiv. 29. ' Ann. XV. 33. * Sueton. Nero, c. 14. * De Aquseduct. art. 102. " Ann, xiv. 20. 304 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.D. 59. Consequently, on the 1st of January, A.D. 59, began the consulship of Nero Claud. Cees. Imp. Atig. iv. and Cornelius Cossus Lentidus. A.D. 58. Idat. Apronianus et Caplto. Omitted by Cassiodorus and Victorius. Tacitus,^ Caius Vipstanius and Lucius Fonteius. Consequently, the names Avere, Caius Vipstanius Apronianus and Lucius Fonteius Capito. A.D. 57. Cass, and Vict., Nero iii. et Messalla; Idat., Nero iii. et Messalla Corvinus ; Tacitus,^ Nero iii. and Valerius Messalla, the great grandson of Corvinus Messalla. The names, therefore, were, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. in. Valerius Messalla Corvinus. A.D. 5Q. Cass, and Vict., Nero ii. et Piso ; Idat., Nero ii. et Piso ; Tacitus,^ Nero II. et Lucius Piso. The name of the latter, it is well known, was Lucius Calpurnius Piso. The consuls, then, of this year were, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. ii. Lucius Calpurnius Piso. A.D. 65. Idatius, Saturninus et Scipio ; omitted by Cassiodorus and Victorius; Tacitus,^ Quintus Volusius et Publius Scipio. The latter name is well known, and both were, Quintus Volusius Saturninus and Publius Cornelius Scipio. A.D. 54. Cass., Vict., and Idat. agree in Nero and Vetus. Tacitus,^ Nero and Lucius Antistius, the well-known names of Vetus. The consuls were, therefore, Nero Claud. Imp. Aug. and Lucius Antistius Vetus, or Veter. A.D. 53. Cass, and Vict. Marcellinus and Aviola. Idat. Mar- cellus and Aviola. Tacitus,*^ Marcus Asinius and Manius Acilius. Suetonius,^ Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola. The names were, therefore, Marcus Asinius Marcellus and Manius Acilius Aviola. A.T). 52. Cass. Silanus li. et Antoninus ir . Vict, and Idat. Sila- nus et Antoninus. Tacitus,^ Decimus Junius and Quintus Haterius. The full names were, Decimus Junius Silanus, Quintus Haterius Antoninus. A.D. 51. Cass, and Vict. Silanus et Otho. Idat. Sylla et Cato. Tacitus,^ Faustus Sulla, Salvius Otho. Frontinus,^*' Sulla et Titianus, a.u.c. dccciii. The year of Kome 803, began April 21, ' Ann. xiv. 1. « lb. xiii. 34.1 = lb. xiii. 11. ^Vo. xii. 64. 3 lb. xiii. 31. ^ lb. xiii. 25. ' Sueton. Claudius, c. 45. ® Ann, xu. 58. ' Ann. xii. 52. '" De Aqused. art. 13. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 305 A.D. 50, and ended April 20, a.d. 51. Consequently, the consul- ship began January 1, a.d. 51. But the manuscripts vary as to the year of Rome. The names of the consuls, as Pighius has given them, were, P. Cornelius Sulla Faustus, L. Salvius Oilio Titianus. A.D. 50. Idat. Claudius and Orfitus. Transposed, and put by Cassiodorus A.D. 49, and Victorius A.D. 48. Tacitus,* Tiberius Claudius v., Servius Cornelius Orphitus. Several inscriptions of this consulship exist. A marble found at Antium, has the following : TI . CLAVDIO . AVGVSTO . V . ^^^ SER . CORNELIO . ORPHITO . A.D. 49. Idat. Vetus, or Yeter, and Nervinianus. Transposed by Cassiodorus to a.d. 48, and called Vetus et Servilianus ; by Vic- torius to A.D. 47, and called Vetus, or Veter, and Nevilianus. Taci- tus,^ Caius Antistius, Marcus Suillius. Therefore the names were Caius Antistius Vetus, or Veter, and Marcus Suillius Nervilianus. A marble in the Museum Albani, another in the Villa Mattel, and others preserved by Gruter and Fabretti, attest the same thing. The marble found at Antium, has C . ANTISTIO . VETERE . ^^g M . SVILLIO . NERVILINO . A.D. 48. Idat. Verianus et Callus. Transposed to A.D. 47 by Cassiodorus, and to A.D. 46 by Victorius, and called Verannius et Gallus. Tacitus,^ Caius Pompeius, Quintus Veranius. Frontinus" Q. Veranio, Pompeio Longo, Coss. An ancient inscription in Muratori,^ Q. veranio. a. pompeio. gallo. cos. The praenomen of Gallus may, therefore, have been Aulus, and not Caius. Some think that his name was Longinus Gallus, others Longus Gallus. The marble found at Antium, has Q. veranio. a. pompeio. gallo. COS. A.D. 47. Cass. A.D. 46, and Vict. a.d. 45, Vitellius n. et Pub- licola. Idat. A.D. 49, Vitellius iv. et Publicola. Tacitus,'^ Aulus Vitellius and Lucius Vipsanius. The names, therefore, Avei'e, Aulus Vitellius (afterwards emperor), and Lucius Vipsanius Poplicola. ^ Ann. xii. 41. ■* De Aqused. art. 102. * lb. xii. 25. * Tliesaur. Inscript. torn. i. p. 305. ^ lb, xii. 5. * Ann. xi. 23. 39 306 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I, A.D. 46. Cass. A.D. 45, Vict. A.D. 44, Tiberius ii. et Vitellius. Idat. A.D. 48, Claudius iv. et Vitellius iii. Tiberius Claudius Imp. Aug. iv. Lucius Vitellius iii.^ A.D. 45. Cass. Asiaticus et Cornelius. Vict., Idat., and Chr. Pas. Asiaticus et Silanus. Tacitus^ speaks of Valerius Asiaticus, as having enjoyed the honours of two consulships ; but his annals of that period are, unhappily, lost. According to Dion Cassius,* the consuls of this year were Valerius Asiaticus ii. and M. Silanus. Dion Cassius, Eusebius Aurelius Victor, Seneca, and Cassio- dorus, speak of an island which arose in the ^gean sea, near Thera ; and, on the same night, Victor tells us there was a re- markable eclipse of the moon.'' Seneca says, that the phenomenon occurred in the consulship of Valerius Asiaticus f Dion, in that of Claudius iv. and L. Vitellius. No eclipse of the moon can be produced, corresponding with these accounts, but that of December 31, A.D. 46. In A.D. 45, but one eclipse is mentioned by Pingre, and that was of the sun. In A.D. 47, there were two eclipses of the moon, but both were in the morning. That of December 31, A.D. 46, took place at half-past nine, p.m. and was central. A.D. 44. Cass. A.D. 43, and Vict. A.D. 42, Vinicius et Cornelius. Idat. and Chron. Pas. a.d. 46, Vinicius et Corvinus. Dion Cassius,^ M. Vinicius ii. and Statilius Corvinus. A.D. 43. Cass. A.D. 42, Crispinus et Taurus. Vict. A.D. 41, Crispus and Taurus. Idat. Crispus ii. et Taurus. Chron. Pas. Crassus and Taurus. Dion Cassius,^ C. Crispus ii. and T. Sta- tilius. From an inscription,^ Pagi, Tillemont, Bianchini, and others, call them, L. Quinctius Crispinus ii. and M. Statilius Taurus. A.D. 42. Cass. A.D. 41, and Vict. A.D. 40, Tiberius et Gallus. Idat. A.D. 44, Claudius iii. et Vitellius. Chron. Pas. a.d. 44, Claud. Cses. V. et Vitell. Dion^ speaks of this as the third consulship of Claudius, but he does not mention Vitellius. The modern critics generally suppose that it was the second consulship of Lucius Vitellius. Hence it is noted thus : Tiherius Claudius Aug. Imp. iii. Lucius Vitellius n. A.D. 41. Cass. A.D. 40, and Vict. a.d. 39, Secundus et Venustus. 1 Dion. Cass. Ix. 29. ^ Nat. Qutest. lib. ii. c. 26. « Ann. xi. I. « Ix. 25. ' Ix. 23. ' Ap. Xiphilinum, Ix. 27. * Ap. Gruter, p. 1041, No. 10. * De Caesaribus, c, 4, 14. =" Ix. 17. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 307 Icl.it. A.D. 43, Claudius li. et Ljirbus. Chron. Pas. A.D. 43, Clau- dius Csesar iv. et Largus. Dion Cassius,' Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus ii. C. Largus. The latter was his colleague for the whole year. He himself was consul only two months. Tih. Claud. Aug. Germanicus ii. C. Cwcina Largus. A.D. 40. Cass. A.D. 39, and Vict. a.d. 38, Csesar ii. et Saturninus; Idat. A.D. 42, Csesar iv. et Antoninus ; Chr. Pas. A.D. 42, Claudius Ciiesar et Antoninus. Dion"^ speaks of Pomponius Secundus as being consul when the emperor Caius Caligula was killed ; and that will probably account for the mistake of Cassiodorus in putting op[)osite to this year, in his series, the names of Secundus and Venustus. Suetonius says^ that Caius held his fourth consulship only until the seventh of January (vii. Idus Januarii), and that he was killed* on the 24th of January (ix. cal. Febr.). Josephus mentions Cneius Sentius Saturninus as one of the consuls,^ and Quintus Pomponius as the other consul.^ "We may infer, therefore, that after the abdication of Caligula (January 7), Quintus Pompo- nius Secundus was substituted, with his colleague Cneius Sentius Saturninus. If this inference be correct, the ordinary consuls of this year were. C. Cxsar. Caligula Aug. iv. Cn. Sentius Saturninus. A.D. 39. Cass. A.D. 88, and Vict. a.d. 87, Cajsar et Julianus ; Idat. A.D. 41, Csesar iii. alone; Chr. Pas. a.d. 41, Claudius Ctesar ii. alone. Dion'^ says expressly, that Caligula was consul the third time without a colleague. A.D. 88. Cass. A.D. 87, and Vict. a.d. 2.&, Publicola et Nerva; Idat. A.D. 40, Csesar ii. et Csesianus ; Chr. Pas. a.d. 40, Claudius Cjesar et Cersianus. Cardinal Noris^ has clearly shown that Lucius Apronius Csesianus, the colleague of Caligula, held office six months ; after which, were substituted M. Sanguinius Maximus ii. for Caligula, and Cneius Domitius Corbulo for Apronius Csesianus. It is, therefore, most unaccountable why or how Cassiodorus and Victorius could here insert the names of Publicola and Nerva. A.D. 87. Idat. and Chr. Pas. (a.d. 89), Julianus et Asprenas; Cass. (a.d. "SIq), Julianus et Asprenas; Vict. (a.d. 35), Julianus et Asprenas. Here, as to names, and as to the order of the series, Mx 2; compared with 10. " lix. 29. * Antiq. xix. 2, I. •= lb. xix. 4, .5. 3 Suet. Caligula 17. * lb. 58. ' lix. 2-1. » Epist. Consul, p. 877-879. 308 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. though not as to years, the four lists are in accordance. The names and dates are correctly given by Frontinus de Aquseduct.^ M. Aquillio Juliano, P. Nonio Asprenate coss, anno urbis conditse DCCLXXxviiii. The year of Rome 789, according to our tables, began April 21, a.j.p. 4749, Ref. Cal. of Jul. Ctes. 81, a.d. 36, and ended April 20, a.j.p. 4750, Kef. Cal. of Jul. Cas. 82, a.d. 37. Consequently the only calends of January in which these consuls could enter on their office was January 1, a.d. 37. M. Aquillius JuUanus, P. Nonius Asprenas. A.D. 36. Cass. (a.d. 35), Vict. (a.d. 34), Idat. and Chr. Pas. (a.d. 38), Proculus et Nigrinus. This was the year >in which Tiberius died. There is and can be no debate as to the consuls ; or that the death of Tiberius, and the accession of Caligula, took place A.J.P. 4749, 36 days before the end of A.u.c. 788, or March 16th, A.D. 36. Cii. Acerronius Proculus. C Pontius Nigrinus. The remaining consulships to that of the two Gemini have been heretofore considered, and shown to be unquestionable. Sextus Papinius, Quintus Plautius . . Tac. Ann. vi. 40 Caius Cestius Gallus, M. Servilius Nonianus . „ vi. 31 Lucius Vitellius, Paulus Fabius Persicus . . „ vi. 28 Servius Sulpicius Galba, L. Cornelius Sulla . „ vi. 15 Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Furius Camillus Scribonianus vi. 1 Tiberius Augustus v., L. iElius Sejanus M. Vinicius Quartinus, L. Cassius Longinus L. Rubellius Geminus, C. Fufius Geminus The consulships of a.d. 31 and a.d. 30 are omitted by Victoi-ius, in consequence of the insertion of two superfluous consulships, a.d. 1 59 and a.d. 68. Sect. II. — Thus, by the descending series of consuls from Cicero and Antonius to Proculus and Nigrinus ; and, again, by the ascend- ing series, from Ulpius and Pontianus to Proculus and Nigrinus ; we have found, by considering singly the evidence for each as we proceeded, and ignorant of the results till they unfolded themselves, an unbroken list of consuls for 302 years. We j^roceed now to test the accuracy of this adjustment by another process ; that is, by the history of the emperors, from the death of Tiberius to the year in which Censorinus wrote. If the exact length of each reign can be determined, in connexion Avith the consulships of each, and ^ De Aquaeduct. art. xiii. ed. Patav. p. 49. A.D. 35. .34. 33. 32. 31. 30. 29. 28. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 309 if the aggregate number of years corresponds with the number of the consulships, there can be no material error in the chronology. We begin with the emperor Caius CiESAR, surnamed Caligula. According to Suetonius, Caligula was born on the last day of August (Prid. cal. Septembris) in the year of his father's consulship with C. Fonteius Capito.* That consulship coincided, as we have seen, with a.j.p. 4724, Ref Cal. Jul. Caes. 56, a.d. 11. Being after the 21st of April, the birth-day of Caligula was the 11th day of the fifth month a.u.c. 764. The death of Tiberius took place, according to Suetonius, on the 16th, and according to Dion Cassius, on the 26th of March, in the consulship of Proculus and Nigrinus, A.J.P. 4749, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cses. 81, a.d. 36, towards the close of A.u.c. 788. Caligula was killed on the 24th of January (ix. cal. Feb.), when he had reigned, according to Suetonius, three years, ten months, and eight days, or according to Dion Cassius,^ three years, nine months, and twenty-eight days. The difference of the two accounts is ten days; the same difference which exists in their several accounts of the reign of Tiberius. Both therefore agree as to the date of Caligula's death, on the 24th of January, a.d. 40. Tiberius died, According to Suetonius, March 16, a.d. 36, or Add for Caligula's reign Y. M D. 3.5 2 16 3 10 8 39 0 24 According to Dion Cassius, March 26, a.d. 36, or Add for Caligula's reign Y. M. D. 35 2 26 3 9 28 39 0 24 That is, 39 solid years, and 24 days in the 40th year, or Jan. 24, a.d. 40. Clemens, Alexandrinus, and Eutropius, follow Suetonius ; and so does Casslodorus, neglecting only the eight days. Josephus, who has given the best account extant of Caligula's death, makes his reign four years within four months.^ Hence, probably, Theo- philus of Antioch computes his reign as being three years, eight months, and seven days. Aurelius Victor and the Chronicon Paschale say only, in round numbers, four years. But the truth lies between Suetonius and Dion Cassius ; and as we follow the Latin historian as to the day of the month in which Tibei'ius died, we must also follow him as to the length of Caligula's reign. The following is the list of consuls : ' Sueton. Caligula, c. 8, ' Lib. lix. 30. ^ Ant. Jud. lib. xix. 2. Y. M. D. 0 9 15 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 24 310 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. 4749 36 Proculus and Nigrinus from March 17 to Dec. 31 4750 37 Julianiis and Asprenas one year 4751 38 Cains Caligula ii. and Csesianus „ 4752 39 Caius Caligula ill. alone „ 4753 40 Caius Caligula iv, and Saturninus, from Jan. 1 to 24 3 10 8 As he was born on the 31st day of August, A.J. P. 4724, by deduct- ing the time before his birth from the date of his death, we learn his exact age. 4752y. Om. 24d. — 4732y. 7m. 30d. = 28y. 4m. 25d. ; so that he was, as Suetonius says, in the 29tli year of his age Avhen he was killed. According to the same author, he abdicated his fourth consulship (vii. Idus Januar.) on the seventh of January,^ or the eighteenth day before his death ; and Quintus Pomponius Secundus was then substituted, as may be inferred from the narra- tive of Dion.^ Pomponius Secundus and Sentius Saturninus wei'e, therefore, in the consular office at the time of his death, though the year was designated as his fourth consulship. Tib. Claudius Drusus C-^sar was born (cal. Aug.) on the first day of August, in the consul- ship of Julus Antonius and Fabius Africanus.^ This coincided with A.J.P. 4703, and was the twelfth day of the fourth month in A.u.c. 743. We may date his accession to the empire the day after the death of Caligula, Jan. 25, a.j.p. 4753, a.d. 40, two months and twenty-seven days before the close of a.u.c. 792. The length of his reign may be easily proved ; first by deter- mining his age when he died, and then by deducting from it the date of Caligula's death. It may be as well to observe here, that as Caligula and Claudius both died in months which had thirty-one days, we must, if we wish to be accurate, take that into account in our computation of the number of days. Clau- dius died on the 13th of October (iii. Id. October) in the consul- ship of Asinius Marcellus and Acilius Aviola,'' which coincided with A.J.P. 4766, a.d. 53, or as it may be expressed in solid years, months and days, 4765y. 9m. 13d. He was born August 1st, A.J.P. 4703 ; consequently 4702 solid years and seven complete months had preceded his birth. Hence 4765y. 9m. 13d. — 4702y. 7m. 0d.==63y. 2m. 13d. He lived two mouths and thirteen daj^s over sixty-three years, and died, as Suetonius says, in his ^ Sueton. Calig. 17. ' Dion. C. lib. lix. 29. ^ Sueton. Claud. 2. " lb. 45. CHAP. Xir.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 311 64th year. Again : Caligula died Jan. 24, a.j.p. 4753, a.d. 40. Therefore 4765y. 9m. 13d. — 4752y. Oni. 24d. == 13y. 8m. 20d.as the length of the reign of Claudius ; and this accords exactly with Dion's computation.^ It agrees also with the corrected list of con- suls, as we shall now proceed to show. CONSULS. Caligula IV. and Saturninus Claudius II. and Largus Claudius iii. and Vitellius ii. Crispinus ii. and Taurus Vinicius ii. and Corvinus Valerius Asiat. ii. and Silanus Claudius iv. and Vitellius in. A. Vitellius and Vipsanius Poplicola Veranius and Gallus Vetus and Nervilianus Claudius v. and Orphitus Sulla Faustus and Otho Titianus Junius Silanus and Haterius Antoninus Marcellus and Aviola Nero Claudius C^sar was born at Antium, December 15tli (xviii. cal. Jan.) in the con- sulship of Acerronius Proculus and Pontius Nigriuus,^ nine months after the death of Tiberius. His birth took place therefore A.J.P. 4749, Ref Cal. Jvd. Cses. 81, a.d. 36; and being in December, it was on the 25th day of the eighth month of a.u.c. 789. His reign is to be dated from the death of Claudius, though that death was concealed for a time. Nero therefore Y. M. D. Began to reign a.j.p. 4765. a.d. 52 9 14 or October 14th, a.d. 53. He was born a.j.p. 4748. A.D. 35 11 15 or Decemb. 15th, a.d. 36. A.J.P. A.D. 4753 40 4754 41 4755 42 4756 43 4757 44 4758 45 4759 46 4760 47 4761 48 4762 49 4763 50 4764 51 4765 52 4766 53 TIME. y. M. D. from Jan. 24 to Dec. 31 0 11 7 one year 0 0 » 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 lola „ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 minus „ 0 0 from Jan. 1 to Oct. 13 0 9 13 13 8 20 He was therefore 16 9 29 or wanting two months and one or two days to complete his seventeenth year. It is remarkable that Suetonius departs from his usual practice by not mentioning the day of Nero's death and the consulship under which it happened. He says only that " he died in the thirty- second year of his age, on the same day in which he had formerly killed Octavia."^ Authors, therefore, are by no means agreed as to his age at the time of his death, and consequently the duration of his reign. Eutropius says that he died in the thirty-first year ' Lib. Ix. 34. ^ Suet. Nero, c. 6. die quo quondam Octaviam interemerat. — ^ Obiit secundo tricesimo aetatis anno, Suet. Nero. 57. 312 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. of his age.* Dion Cassius says more accurately that "he lived thirty years and nine months, of which he reigned thirteen years and eight months/'^ Happily the last-mentioned historian has, in another place, furnished us with a clue, by which we can arrive at the day of Nero's death. " From the death of Nero to the reign of Vespasian, was one year and twenty-two days."^ Now Sue- tonius mentions'* that the legions were induced to swear alle- giance to Vespasian by Tiberius Alexander, prjefect of Egypt, on the first day of July, and that this was afterwards ob- served as the beginning of his reign.^ From the first of July, therefore, must we reckon back the period between his acces- sion and Nero's death ; and as that period was twenty-two days over a solid year, we count back twenty-two days from the first of July, and find, if we exclude both extremes, that Nero died on the eighth of June. If we exclude one of the extremes only, the death of Nero will fall on the ninth of June. Dion Cassius, as we have seen, makes his reign thirteen years and eight months ; Josephus, thirteen years and eight days f Sextus Aurelius Victor says that he reigned thirteen years ; Eutropius, fourteen ; Sueto- nius, a little less than fourteen.^ St. Theophilus of Antioch, 13y. 6m. 28d. ; St. Clemens Alexandrinus, 13y. 8m. 28d. ; Cas- siodorus, 13y. 7m. 28d. "With these authorities before us, we pro- ceed to examine the length of his reign by the consulships. A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M, D. 4766 53 Marcellus and Aviola from Oct. 14 to Dec. 31 0 2 18 4767 54 Nero and Antistius Vetus one year 0 0 4768 55 Saturninus and Scipio jj 0 0 4769 56 Nero II. and Calpuriiius Piso 9i 0 0 4770 57 Nero ni. and IMessalla Corvinus 0 0 4771 58 Apronianus and Capito >J 0 0 4772 59 Nero IV. and C. Cossiis Lentulus 99 0 0 4773 60 Pfetus and Turpilianus 0 0 4774 61 Mai'ius Celsus and Asinius Gallus J, 0 0 4775 62 Rufus and Regains 99 0 0 4776 63 Crassus Frugi and Lsecanius Bassus 0 0 4777 64 Nerva and Vestinus ,, 0 0 4778 65 Telesinus and Suetonius ,j 0 0 4779 66 Fonteius Capito and Rufus ,j 0 0 4780 67 Silius Italicus & Trachalus Turpilianus fr. Jan. 1 to Jii m. 9 0 5 9 13 1 27 ' Trigesimo et altero aetatis anno. — Bre- * " Tiberius Alexander, praefectus M- viai\ lib. vii. 15. Verheyk, his Dutch com- gypti, primus in verba Vespasiani legiones mentator, endeavours to force his author adegit Kalendis Julii : qui principatus into conformity with Suetonius, by main- dies in posterum observatus est." taining that "altero" means "secundo"! •* Bel. Jud. lib. iv. c. 9, sec. 2. ^ Lib. Ixiii. 29. ' Paullo minus quatuordecira aunos. — 8 Dion. C. Ixvi. 19. * Suet. Vesp. c. 6. Sueton. Nero. 40. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSOllINUS WROTE. 313 If then we add his age when he began to reign to the length of his reign, that is 16y. 9m. 29d. + 13y. 7m. 27d., we shall have his age at the time of his death, 30y. 5m. 26d., which is three months and four days less than the computation of Dion Cassius. If the date of his birth in Suetonius be correct, I see not how we can arrive at any other conclusion. Galea, Otho and Vitellius. Servius Sulpicius Galea was born December 24th. (Ix. cal. Jan.) in the consulship of M. Valerius Messalla and Cneius Len- tulus.^ He perished, according to the same author, in the seventy-third year of his age and the seventh month of his reign.^ Dion Cassius gives a different account. " Galba," he says, " lived seventy-two years, and reigned nine months and thirteen days."^ Eutropius follows Suetonius, both as to his age and the length of his reign. The other historians speak only of the latter. Cas- siodorus and the Chronicon Paschale say seven months. Tacitus puts into the mouth of Otho, exciting the soldiers against Galba, that seven months were then passed since the death of Nero.* St. Clemens Alexandrinus says, seven months and six days ; Josephus and Aurelius Victor, seven months and seven days; St. Theophilus of Antioch, two years, seven months, and six days, being misled probably by the erroneous accounts of Galba's age. Amid this discordance, we must have recourse to computation. The accuracy of Tacitus^ makes it certain that Galba was slain on the fifteenth of January (xviii. calendas Februarii) in the year of his second consulship with Titus Vinius Rufinus ; that is, as we have seen, a.d. 68, a.j.p. 4781, three months and six days before the end of a.u.c. 820. The death of Nero took place June 9th, a.j.p. 4780. The two sums, therefore, may be stated thus : — 4780 0 15 or Jan. 15, 4781. —4779 5 9 or June 9, 4780. 0 7 6 The difference is the length of Galba's reign, reckoning from the death of Nero ; and it accords with the computation of Clemens ' Sueton. Galba 4. '' Septem a Neronis fine menses sunt. — » Ibid. c. 23. Tac. Hist. lib. i. c. 37. 3 Lib. Ixiv. c. 5, * Hist. i. 27. 40 314 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. of Alexandria. The age of Galba at the tune of his death may be ascertained thus : he was born Dec. 24th, in the consulship of Messella and Lentulus, or a.j.p. 4710, the year in which Herod the Great died. Before his birth 4709 years 11 months and 23 days had elapsed. These deducted from 4780y. Om. 15d. the date of his death, give seventy years and twenty-two days as the exact term of his life, and not seventy-two or seventy-three years, as Dion and Suetonius asserted. M. Salvius Otho was born on the 28th of April, (iv. cal. Mail) when Camillus Arruntius, and Domitius Aenobarbus were con- suls.' He killed himself, on the same authority,^ " in the thirty- eighth year of his age, and the ninety-fifth day of his empire." In this statement Eutropius follows him. But "Otho lived," says Dion, " thirty-seven years, wanting eleven days. He reigned ninety days."'' Tacitus says that he died in the thirty-seventh year of his age.'* As to his reign,the Chronicon Paschale gives him six months ; St. Clemens of Alexandria, five months and one day ; St. Theophilus of Antioch and Oassiodorus, three months and five days, agreeing with Suetonius ; Josephus, three months and two days; and Aurelius Victor, three months or ninety days, as asserted by Dion. We must again have recourse to computation. The consulship of F. Camillus AiTuntius Scribonianus and Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, coincided, as we have seen, with a.d. 31, a.j.p. 4744. As Otho was born on the 28th of April, the year of Rome 784 began eight days earlier. He killed himself during the night after the day following that on which his army was defeated by Vitellius.^ His reign must be dated from the death of Galba, 4780y. Om. 15d. If we add three months and five days to this sum, it brings us to 4780y. 3m. 20d., or April 20, a.j.p. 4781, a.d. 68, which would be eight days before the completion of his thirty-seventh year. But as Dion says that he lived thirty-seven years wanting eleven days, his death may be placed in the night following the 17th of April; and consequently the battle took place April 16. Now, from 4780y. 3m. 17d. take 4780y. Om. 15d., the date of Galba's death, and it leaves three months and two days, according to the accurate computation of Josephus,^ as the utmost extent of Otho's reign. 1 Sueton. Otho, c. 2. tricesimo jetatis anno. — Hist. lib. ii. c. 50. 2 Sueton. Otho. c. 2. » Lib. Ixiv. c. 85. = Tac. Hist. ii. 45-50. * Hunc vitse finem habuit septimo et " Bel. Jud. lib. iv. c. 9, s. 9. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 3l5 AuLUS ViTELLius, the son of Lucius, was born, says Suetonius,' SeiDtember 24 (viii. cal. Oct.), as some say, or, according to others, September 7 (vii. Iclus Sept.), in the consulship of Drusus Caesar and Norbanus Flaccus. He perished, with his brother and his son, in the fifty-seventh year of his age.^ Tacitus also says, if there be no mistake in the text, that he had completed his fifty-seventh year.^ Dion Cassius, on the other hand, says that he lived fifty- four years and eighty-nine days, and reigned one year wanting ten days/ Other chronicles speak only of the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale says he reigned ten months ; Eutropius and Oassiodorus, eight months and one day ; Aurelius Victor, eight months ; Clemens of Alexandria, seven months and one day; Theo- philus of Antioch, six months and twenty-two days. That Dion's account is the most accurate, will appear from the statements of the Latin historians themselves. The consulship of Drusus and Norbanus Flaccus coincided with a.j.p. 4727, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cjes. 59. A.D.14. All agree that Vitellius was killed in the year known as the consulship of Galba ii. and Titus Vinius Rufinus, a.j.p. 4781, A.D. 68. According to Suetonius, he was born September 24, or September 7, a.j.p. 4727. The preceding time, therefore, was : 4726 8 23 or 4726 8 6 Add 54 2 28 54 2 28 4780 ] 1 21=Dec. 21, 4781, or 4780 11 4=Dec. 4, 4781. Again : if the length of his reign was one year wanting ten days, it was exactly eleven months and twenty-one days. These being deducted from the time of his death, Avill give that of the com- mencement of his reign : 4780 11 21 or 4780 11 4 Subtract 11 21 11 21 4780 0 0=Jan. 1, 4781, or 4779 11 13=Dec. 13, 4780. That he died on the 21st of December, and not on the 4th of that month, and consequently that his reign is to be computed from the 1st of January a.j.p. 4781, a.d. 68, will appear, if I mistake not, from the narrative of Tacitus. And if we take the testimony of Dion, as to the age of Vitellius, when he died, it will necessarily follow, that he was born on the 24th, and not on the 7th of September. 1 Sueton. Vitellius, c. 3. ^ lb. c. 18. annum explebat. — Hist. iii. 86. ^ Septimum et quinquagesiinuin aetatis ^ Dion. C. Ixv. c. 22. 316 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. According to Tacitus,' Galba sent Vitellins to take command of the legions of lower Germany. Suetonius says the same ; and adds, that he was sent contrary to Galba's own opinion, and under the influence of his colleague, Titus Vinius, who was secretly Galba's enemy. A month had hardly elapsed before the army under Galba's command saluted him as emperor, and he was soon after 23roclaimed by the army of Upper Germany.^ Galba, having heard of the German revolt, though nothing certain concerning Vitellius, determined to adopt Piso ; and this adoption he announced to the army (iv. Idus Jan.) on the 10th of January. On the 15th of January (xviii. cal. Feb.), Piso, in his address to the soldiers, said that it was the sixth day of his adop- tion.^ In another place Tacitus expressly says, that the fourth and twenty- second legions in the upper army broke the images of Galba on the 1st of January, and that the legions in Lower Ger- many, the first, fifth, fifteenth, and sixteenth, though less violent, were equally ready to revolt. In the night which followed the 1st of January, Vitellius, then at Cologne, was informed of the revolt of the upper army, and on the following day, through the prompt action of Fabius Valens, was saluted emperor by the lower army. To this the upper army acceded (iii. Non. Jan.) on the 3rd of January.^ All the discordant accounts of the other writers, arise from their assigning different dates to the beginning, and not the end of his reign. The time between the death of Nero, and that of Vitellius, was 4780 11 21 or Dec. 21, A.J.P. 4781. a.d. 68 —4779 5 9 or June 9, a.j.p. 4780. a.d. 67 1 6 12 or 18 months and 12 days. The sum of the reigns of Galba and Otho (7.6 + 3.2) were ten months and eight days; and 18.12 — 10,8=8.4. Those historians, therefore, who computed from the death of Otho to that of Vitel- lius, would call his reign eight months. All the incidental and intermediate dates accord with these arrangements of time. As soon as Vitellius heard of the death of Galba, he divided his forces, sending one body of them against Otho, while he advanced with the remainder.^ This movement ' Hist. i. 9. - Suet. Vil.ellius, c. 8. ' Tac. Hist. i. 55-57. = Tac. Hist. i. 14, 18,27-29. ^ Suet. Vitellius, % CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 317 was probably about the 1st of February. The decisive battle with Otho, near Belriacum or Bedriacum, in the uj^per part of Italy, took place, as Ave have seen, on the 16th of April. Vitellius heard of this, while he was in Gaul.' On the 1st of July, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alex- andria, by the legions in Egypt, under the influence of Tiberius Alexander; and before the 15th of that month, all Syria had declared in his favour.^ On the 18th of July (xv. cal. Aug.) Vitellius was in Rome, where he assumed the office of supreme pontiff.^ On the birth- day of Vitellius (Sept. 24) he was still at Rome, and gladiatorial shows were exhibited with unwonted parade.* The decisive battle of Cremona must have been fought on the 29th of October. It began about nine o'clock in the evening (tertia ferme noctis hora), and continued the whole night, " various, doubt- ful, atrocious." The sun rose upon them as they were fighting.^ Dion, who has given a most eloquent description of this battle, mentions a circumstance, omitted by Tacitus, which enables us to fix its date. " While this commotion existed in the army of Vitel- lius, it was greatly increased by an eclipse of the moon, which to their terrified minds seemed not only overshadowed, but to be black and bloody, and to emit other fearful colours. The soldiers, how- ever, did not on this account desist from their purpose ; but when Primus [the general of Vespasian's army] sent messengers, they sent others, exhorting him to submit to Vitellius. This brought on a severe battle, though the soldiers of Vitellius were without a gene- ral ; for Alienus [Csecina] was in chains in Cremona."^ At sunrise a panic seized the soldiers of Vitellius, and they fled to Cremona.^ By the tables of Pingre, it appears that a total eclipse of the moon took place a.d. 68, Oct. 29, at 6h. 30' a.m. The moon was then in the western horizon, and the approaching light of the sun in the east, and the exhalations in the west, pro- duced the variety of colours by which the soldiers were terrified. After the battle, Cremona was taken by storm, and burned to the ground, when it had existed 286 years.* 1 Suet. Vitel. c. 10. Tac. Hist. ii. 57. * lb. iii. 22-24. 2 Tac. Hist. ii. 79, 81. * Dion. Cass. Ixv. c. 11. 'Tac. Hist. ii. 91. ' lb. c. 14. ' lb. ii. 95. * Tac. Hist. iii. 33. 318 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. The 31st of October (Prid. cal. Nov.) Roslus Regulus was made consul for that single day.^ On the 18th of December (xv. cal. Jan.) Vitellius, having heard of the defection of the legion and cohorts who had surrendered at Narni, departed from the palace in a mourning dress, accompanied by his family, as if he would deposit the regalia in the temple of Concord, and thus abdicate. But he afterwards returned, en- couraged by the acclamations of the people present.^ He spent the night in quiet; but the next morning (Dec. 19) Sabinus, the brother of Vespasian, sent him a message complaining that he had acted with bad faith in not resigning.^ The capitol was burned by the fury of the soldiers ; but it is un- certain by which party ."^ Domitian, the son of Vespasian, made his escape ; while Sabinus and the consul Atticus were loaded with chains and conducted into the presence of Vitellius. Atticus was spared, but Sabinus cruelly put to death.^ These events must have taken place on the 20th of December. The army of Vespasian left iCarni on the festival of the Satur- nalia (Dec. 17), but did not arrive till the capitol was burned.^ Vitellius sent out the vestal virgins, with letters, asking a respite for one day ; but he received for answer, that the death of Sabinus and the conflagration of the capitol had precluded all parley.^ The city being taken by Vespasian's artoy, Vitellius was dragged from the privy in which he had concealed himself, and ignominiously put to death.^ It is evident from this narrative that Dion's calculations are scru- pulously correct, and that we must place the death of Vitellius on the 21st of December, a.d. 68. The reign of Vespasian, however, is not to be dated fi'om his death, but from the first of July, when he was first saluted emperor. The passage in Dion, to which allu- sion has before been made, says expressly " that one year and twenty-two days elapsed from the death of Nero to the reign of Vespasian." " I have written this," he adds, " that some should not be deceived, who make the calculation of time with regard to those who held the government. For they did not succeed one another ; but while another was living and still reigning, each be- lieved that he was emperor from the time in which he applied him- ^ Tac. Hist. iii. 37. ' lb. iii. 67, 68. ' lb. 74. ^ lb. iii. 78, 79. ' lb. 69, 70, " lb. 71, 72. ' lb. iii. 81. * lb. iii. 85. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 319 self to that thing. All the days of each are not to be reckoned as succeeding one another, but, as I have said, must be computed altogether, for the accurate adjustment of time." ^ T. Flavius Vespasianus was born (xv.'cal. Decemb.) in the evening of the 17th of No- vember, in the consulship of Q. Sulpicius Oamerinus and C. Pop- pseus Sabinus, the fifth year before the death of Augustus.^ This was a.j.p. 4721, Ref. Cal. Jul. Csesar 53, a.d. 8. He was pro- claimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, in the consul- ship of Serv. Sulpicius Galba ii and T. Vinius Rufinus, a.j.p. 4781, A.D. 68. While at Alexandria, he heard of the death of Vitellius.^ Dion says that he was created emperor by the senate, and his sons, Titus and Domitian, csesars ; that Vespasian and Titus received the consulship, the one being in Egypt and the other in Palestine ; and that while Vespasian was in Egypt, Mucianus and Domitian administered the affairs of the empire.* The consulship of which Dion speaks was that of A.J.P. 4782, A.D. 69, Vespasianus ii, Titus II. " In his ninth consulship," says Suetonius, " he attempted to go by easy journeys into Campania, but soon returned to the city, and went to his country seat at Cutilise, where he usually spent his summers. Here he died, on the 23rd of June (ix. cal. Jul.), having lived seven months and seven days over his sixty-ninth year,"^ He also affirms,^ that Vespasian and his two sons reigned the same number of years as the united sum of the reigns of Claudius and Nero. Dion says, that he lived sixty-nine years and eight months, and reigned ten years wanting six days.'^ Eutropius says, that he reigned nine years and seven days ; Clemens of Alex- andria, eleven years, eleven months, and twenty-two days ; Theo- philus of Antioch and Cassiodorus, nine years, eleven months, and twenty-two days ; Aurelius Victor, ten years ; and the Chronicon Paschale, nine years. As Suetonius mentions that he died in his ninth consulship, our computation of the length of his reign must first be made by the list of consuls. ' Dion Cass. lib. Ixvi. c. 17. * Annum gerens setatis sexagesimum ac * Suet. Vesp. c. 2. nonum, superque mensem ae diem septi- ' lb. c. 7. mum. — Suet. Vesp. c. 24. * Hist. Rom. lib. Ixvi. c. 1, 2. « C. 25. ' Dion C. Ixvi. c. 17. 320 FR03I THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS f PART I. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. Ser. Sulpicius Galba ii. & T. Vinius Eufinus, from Jul. 1 to Dec. 310 6 0 T. Flavins Vespasianus ii. and Titus Caesar ii one year 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus iii. and M. C. Nerva „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus iv. and Titus Caesar ii. „ 10 0 Domitianus ii. and Messalinus „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus v. and Titus Caesar ni. „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus vi. and Titus Caesar iv. „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus vn. and Titus Caesar v. „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus viii. and Titus Caesar vi. „ 10 0 C. Cejonius Commodus and D. Novius Priscus „ 10 0 T. F. Vespasianus ix. and Titus Caesar vn June 1 to June 23 0 5 23 He reigned therefore ten years wanting seven days, or 9 11 23 To ascertain his age, we must take tlie date of his birth from that of his death. Vespasian died 4790 5 23 or June 23 a.j.p. 4791, a.d. 78. Time preceding his birth 4720 10 16 or Nov. 16 „ 4721, ad. 8. A.J.P. A.D 4781 68 4782 69 4783 70 4784 71 4785 72 4786 73 4787 74 4788 75 4789 76 4790 77 4791 78 69 Suetonius is, therefore, right as to his age. Titus Flavius Vespasianus *' was born," says Suetonius, " on the third before the calends of January, of that year which was rendered memorable by the assassination of Caligula." ' I take the January here spoken of, to be that of the year in which Caligula was killed, and not of the year after; of a.j.p. 4753, a.d. 40, and not of a.j.p. 4754, a.d. 41. If this be correct, Titus was born December 30, a.j.p. 4752, a.d. 39. My reasons for this will be more apparent, when we come to compute his age. He succeeded his father June 24th, a.j.p. 4791, a.d. 78 ; and " he died," says Suetonius, " at the same villa where his father expired, on the ides of September (Sept. 13), two years, two months, and twenty days after he had succeeded his father, and in the forty-first year of his age." ^ There is but little diifei*ence among historians as to the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale says, merely two yeai's ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, two years and twenty-two days ; Cas- siodorus and Clemens of Alexandria, two years and two months ; Aurelius Victor and Dion Cassius agree with Suetonius, two years, ^ Natus est iii. calendas Jan. insigni anno Caiana nece. — Suet. Titus, c. 1. ' lb. c. 11, CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 321 two months, and twenty days. Eutropius alone has two years, eight months, and twenty days ; but this, I presume, is an error in his text, as he generally follows Suetonius. The computation by consuls is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4791 78 T. F. Vespasianus ix. and Titus Caesar vii. June 24 to Dec. 31 0 6 7 4792 79 Titus Imp. Aug. vm. and Fl. Domitianus Caes. vii. one year 10 0 4793 80 L. F. Silva Nonius & Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Jan. 1 to Sep. 13 0 8 13 2 2 20 His age at the time of his death is thus determined : Titus died 4792 8 13 or September 13, 4793, a.d. 80. Time before his birth 4751 11 29 or December 29, 4752, „ 39. 40 8 15 He wanted, therefore, three months and a half to complete his forty-first year. T. Flavius Domitianus was born October 24th (ix. cal. Nov.), when his father was de- signated consul, and was to enter on the dignity the following month.' As this consulship was substituted for the last two months of the year only, it does not furnish us with a date, as it would have done if his father had been the ordinary consul of that year. " He was slain," says Suetonius, " on the 18th of September (xiv. cal. Octob.), in the forty-fifth year of his age, and the fifteenth of his reign. "^ " Domitian lived," says Dion, " forty-four years, ten months, and twenty-six days, and reigned fifteen years and five days." The historians vary about the length of his reign. The Chronicon Paschale makes it sixteen years ; Clemens of Alexan- dria, fifteen years, eight months, and five days ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, fifteen years, five months, and six days ; Cassiodorus, fifteen years and five months ; Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, fifteen years. CONSULS. TIME. T. M. D. Silva Nonius and Asinius Pollio Verrucosus Sep. 14 to Dec. 31 0 3 17 Flav. Domitianus Imp. viii. and T. F. Sabinus one year 10 0 Fl. Domitianus Imp. ix. and Petilius Rufus ii. „ 10 0 Fl. Domitianus Imp. x. and T. Aurelius Sabinus „ 10 0 Fl. Domitianus Imp. xl and T, Aurelius Fulvius „ 10 0 Carried over 4 3 17 ' Sueton. Domit. c. 1. ^ lb. Domit. c. 17. 41 A. J. p. A.D, 4793 80 4794 81 4795 82 4796 83 4797 84 322 FROM THK DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. CONSULS. Brought over Fl. Domitianus Imp. xii. and S. Corn. Dolabella one j^ear Fl. Domitianus Imp. xin. and Q. Volusius Saturninus „ FI. Domitianus Imp. xiv. and L. Minueius Rufus „ T. Aur. Fulvius n. and A. Sempron. Atratinus „ Fl. Domitianus Imp. xv, and M. Cocceius Nerva „ M. Ulpius Trajanus and M. Acilius Glabrio „ Fl. Domitianus Imp. xvi. and Q. Volusius Saturninus „ Pompeius Collega and Cornelius Priscus „ Asprenas and Clemens or Lateranus „ Fl. Domitianus Imp. xvii. and T. Flavins Clemens ii. C. Antistius Vetus and C, Manlius Valens from Jan. 1 to Sep. 18 0 15 0 5 The date of his birth, and the length of his life, may be thus computed : he was born on the 24th of October, and was put to death September 1 8th, in the forty-fifth year of his age. He would, therefore, have completed his forty-fiftli year on the 23rd of Octo- ber, A.j.p. 4808, A.D. 95. Therefore, from 4807 9 23 or Oct. 23d. 4808 Subtract 45 A.J.P. A.D. 4798 85 4799 86 4800 87 4801 88 4802 89 4803 90 4804 91 4805 92 4806 93 4807 94 4808 95 3 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 18 4762 9 23 He was, therefore, born October 24, 4763, A.D. 50. His father Vespasian was then designated consul, and was to enter on that dignity the 1st of November. That was the year in which the emperor Claudius v. and Orphitus were the ordinary consuls. Now, from the date of Domitian's death, 4807 8 18 or Sep. 18, 4808, a.d. 95. Take the time before his birth 4762 9 23 or Oct. 23, 4763, „ 50. 44 10 26 and you have his exact age, just as it is stated by Dion Cassius. M. Cocceius Nerva. The lights of Tacitus and Suetonius being now withdrawn, and Dion Cassius known to us only through the meagre abridgment of Xiphilinus, we are left comparatively in the dark with regard to that peaceful and happy period of Roman history, which continued from the accession of Nerva to the death of the Antonines. Never- theless, we have light enough, from the feeble and glimmering rays of the later chroniclers, to pursue our way along the current of time. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WUOTE. 323 Nerva succeeded Domitian September 19tli, in the consulship of Caius Antistius Vetus and Caius Manlius Valens, a.J.p. 4808, A.D. 95. There is a difference of only two days in the most exact statements of the length of his reign. Dion Cassius, one year, four months, and nine days ; Eutropius, one year, four months, and eight days ; St. Theophilus of Antioch, St. Clemens of Alexandria, and Aurelius Victor, one year, four months, and ten days ; Cassio- dorus, one year and four months ; and the Chronicon Paschale, one year. We will take Dion's account as the mean. The one year was from September 19th, A.J.P. 4808, to September 18th, 4809. The four months were as follows : 1. From September 19, 4809 to October 18, 30 days 2. From October 19, „ to November 18, 31 „ 3. From November 19, „ to December 18, 30 „ 4. From December 19, „ to Jan. 18, 4810, 31 „ 122 From January 19 to Jan. 27, 4810 inclusive, 9 days 9 131 Therefore, Nerva died on the 27tli of January, a.j.p. 4810, a.d. 97 ; and Trajan succeeded him on the 28th of Jan. of that year. A.J.p. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. 4808 95 C. Antistius Vetus and C. Manlius Valens fr. Sep. 19 to Dec. 31 4809 96 Imp. Nerva ill. and Verginius Rufus in. one year 4810 97 M. C. Nerva Imp. iv. and Ulpius Trajanus Cses. ii. Jan. 1 to 27 As Nerva died on the twenty-seventh day of his consulship, it is easy to perceive why the Chronicon Paschale says Trajanus Augustus alone. M. Ulpius Trajanus. Trajan's sole reign began, as we have seen, January 28, A.J.P. 4810, A.D. 97. Sextus Aurelius Victor says that he reigned twenty, and the Chronicon Paschale, nineteen years. The other lists vary but little between these extremes. St. Clemens Alexandrinus says, nineteen years, seven months, and fifteen days ; but, as he agrees with the other lists, excepting in the number of the months, it is probable that some error has crept into his text. St. Theophilus of Antioch says, nineteen years, six months, and sixteen days ; Dion Cassius, Eutropius, and Cassiodorus, agree that Trajan reigned y. M. D. 0 3 12 1 0 0 0 0 27 1 4 9^ 324 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS ]_PART I. nineteen years, six months, and fifteen days. Assuming these numbers as the most probable, we arrive at the date of his death in the following manner : Nerva died 4809 0 27 or Jan. 27, a.j.p. 4810, a d. 97. Add for Trajan's reign 19 6 15 4828 7 11, or Aug. 11, a.j.p. 4829, ad. 116. The testimony given by the list of consuls, is as follows : CONSULS. TIME. Nerva Imp. Aug. iv. and Uln. Traj. Cses. ii. Jan. 28 to Dec. 310 A Cornelius Palma, and C. Sosius Senecio one year M. Ulp. Traj. Imp. Aug. lu. and S. Julius Frontinus in. M. Ulp. Traj. Imp. Aug. iv. and S. Articuleius Paetus C. Sosius Senecio iii. and L. Licinius Sura n. „ M. Ulp. Ti-aj. Imp. Aug. v. and Maximus „ Suburanus ii. and Marcellus „ Tib. Julius Candidus and C. Quadratus „ L. C. iElius Commodus Verus and L. Tutius Cerealis L. Licinius Sura iii. and C. Sosius Senecio iv. „ Ap. An. Trebonius Gallus and M. Atil. Metil. Bradua A. Cornelius Palma ii. and C. Calvisius Tullus ii. „ Scr. Salvidienus Orfitus and M. Peducseus Prisciuus C. Calpurnius Piso and M. Vettius Bolanus „ M. Ulp. Ti-aj. Imp. Aug. vi. and T. Sextius Africanus L. Publicius Celsus ii. and L. Clodius Crispinus „ Q. Ninnius Hasta and P. Manilius Vopiscus „ L. Vipstanius jNIessalla and M. Vergilianus Pedo „ L. ^Elius Lamia and — iElianus Vetus „ — Quinctius Niger & C. Vipstanius Apronianus Jan. 1 to Aug. 110 19 6 15 These calculations have been made independent of any other testimony than the several writers who give the length of Trajan's reign ; but that they are accurate, appears from Spartian's life of Adrian. That historian says, that Adrian, being legate of Syria, received letters of adoption on the ninth of August (v. Idus Aug.), and that on the eleventh, of August (iii. Idus Aug.) he received the news of the death of Trajan.^ The exact date of the death of Trajan was concealed. He died at Selinus, or Trajanopolis, in Cilicia, on his way to Rome, while Adrian was at Antioch. It did not take long, therefore, to convey the news of his death to Adrian, and the latter was immediately proclaimed emperor. iELius Hadrianus, or Adrianus, as his name is written with or without the aspirate by different 1 Hist. Aug. SS. ed. Salmasii, Paris, 1620. A. J. p. A.D. 4810 97 4811 98 4812 99 4813 100 4814 101 4815 102 4816 103 4817 104 4818 105 4819 106 4820 107 4821 108 4822 109 4823 110 4824 111 4825 112 4826 113 4827 114 4828 115 4829 116 y. M. D. 0 11 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [ 0 7 11 CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSOKINUS WROTE. 325 historians, was born at Rome, according to Spartian, on the 24th of January (ix. cal. Febr.) when Vespasian vil. and Titus V. were consuls, or a.j.p. 4788, a.d. 75. His age on the eleventh of August A.J.P. 4829, A.D. 116, when he was proclaimed emperor, was, therefore, a.j.p. 4828y. 7m. lid. — 4787y. Om. 23d. = 41y. 6m. 19d. Sextus Aurelius Victor makes his reign 22 years ; Eutropius, 21y. 10m. 29d.; the Chronicon Paschale, 21 years; Dion Cassius, 20y. 11m.; Clemens Alex., and Theoph. Antioch. 20y. 10m. 28d.; and Oassiodorus, 20y. 10m. 19d. Spartian says that he lived 72 years, 5 months, and 17 days, and reigned 21 years and 11 months. He states also that Adrian died at Baife, on the 10th of July.^ Dion, on the other hand, affirms that " he lived 62 years, 5 months, 19 days."^ According to Spartian's own testimony, he could not have been 72 years old; for if we add 21 years and 11 months, which Spartian says was the length of his reign, to his age when he began to reign, according to the same author's account of the year when he was born, it will produce the following result: 41. 6. 19. + 21. 11. = 63. 5. 19. This shows that the text of Spartian is corrupt. Instead of " Vixit annis Ixxii." &c., and "Imperavit annis xxi." &c., it should read, Vixit annis Ixii. — Imperavit annis xx. With this emendation, it nearly agrees with Dion, and will be found to harmonize with the list of consuls. A.J.P, A.D. CONSULS. TIME. 4829 116 Quinctius Niger and C.VipstAproniamis fr. Aug. 1 1 to Dec. 3 1 4830 117 ^1. Hadrianus Imp. and Tib. Claud. FuscusSalinator 1 year 4831 118 jEI. Hadr. Imp. Aug. II. and Q. Junius Rusticus „ 4832 119 L. Catilius Scverus and T. Aurel. Fulv. Antoninus „ 4833 120 Annius Verus ii. and Aurelius Augur „ 4834 121 Manius Acilius Aviola and C. Cornelius Pansa „ 4835 122 Q. Arrius Pastinus and C. Ventidius Apronianus „ 4836 123 M. Acilius Glabrio and C.Bellicius Torquatus „ 4837 124 P. Corn. Scipio Asiatic, ii. and Q. Vettius Aquilinus „ 4838 125 M. Annius Verus III. and L. Varius Ambibvdus „ 4839 126 Titianus and Gallicanus „ 4840 127 L. Non. Aspr. Torquatus II. and M. Annius Libo „ 4841 128 Q. Julius Ealbus and P. Juventius Celsus II. „ 4842 129 Q. Fabius Catullinus and M. Flavius Aper. „ 4843 130 Ser. Oct. Lrenas Pontianus and M. Antonius Rufinus „ 4844 131 .. Sentius Augurinus and .. Sergianus or Severianus „ 4845 132 .. Antonius Iliberus and .. Nummius Sisenna „ 4846 133 C. Julius Servianus iii. and C. Vibius Varus „ 4847 134 Pontianus and Atilianus „ 4848 135 L. Cejon. Com. Verus & Sex. Vet. Civica Pompeianus „ 4849 136 L. .^lius Verus Cass. ii. and P. Cselius Balbin. Vibulus 4850 137 Camerinus and Niger from Jan. 1 to July 10 Apud ipsas Baias periit die sexto Iduum Juliarum. — H. Aug. SS. 12. Y. M. D. 1 0 4 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) 0 6 10 20 11 0 2 Ixix. 23. 326 FKOM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. The clifFerence of two days between the amended text of Spar- tian and Dion's account of Adrian's age, may easily be accounted for from their different modes of computation. Adrian died on the 10th of July A.j.p. 4850, and was born on the 24th of January A.j.p. 4788. Therefore, from the day of his death, 4849 6 10 reckoning 30 daj^s to the month subtract 4787 0 23 the time before his birth. and it gives 62 5 17 as the length of his life, or 62 years, 5 months, and 17 days. Dion makes 19 days instead of 17, which is thus obtained. From the date of Trajan's death, 4828 7 11 reckoning 31 days to the month, subtract 4787 0 23 and it gives 41 6 19 his age when he began to reign, add 20 11 0 the length of his reign, and it gives 62 5 19 as his age. The difference is not great; but it arises from reckoning 31 days to the month in one case, and 30 in the other ; and from counting August 11 twice, — first, as the day of Trajan's death, and then as the commencement of Adrian's reign. Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius. It is among the most extraordinary facts in history, that such an emperor as Antoninus Pius should be one of those of whom least is known. Xiphilinus observes, " that the history of Antoninus Pius is not found in the copies of Dion. It would seem that his books have somewhat suffered ; so that almost the whole history concerning Antoninus is unknown." ^ Nothing can be more jejune than the life of this emperor by Julius Oapitolinus. All that we can do, is to gather up the scanty gleanings ; and the very discord- ancy as to the length of his reign, shows the ignorance of the writers. He was born, says Julius Capitolinus, in the consulship of Doraitian xii. and Cornelius Dolabella, on the 19th of September (xiii. cal. Octob.); and the same author says that he died in his 70th year.^ That this is a gross mistake, will soon be evident. Eutropius says that he died in the 73rd year of his age, and the 23rd of his reign.^ Xiphilinus says that he reigned 24 years ; ' Lib. Ixx. ^ Exiit anno septuagesimo. ' Obiit. . vitte anno lxxiii. imperii xxiii. CHAP. Xn.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 327 St. Clemens Alex. 22y. .3m. 7d. ; St. Theoph. of Antioch, 22y.7m. 6d. ; Aurelius Victor and the Chronicon Paschale, 23 years; Orosius, not full 23 years ; Cassiodorus, 2 1 years. It is impossible to recon- cile these conflicting statements ; and the only method of arriving at the date of his death, is to count back from the succeeding reigns. In this way, we shall soon be able to see that he died on the sixth of March A.D. 160. It will be seen by the list of consuls, that he did not live beyond that year; and, therefore, assuming for the present what I hope soon to prove, I proceed to give the evidence of the length of his reign which that list contains : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME 4850 137 Camerinus and Niger from July 11 to Dec 31 4851 138 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. II. and Bruttius Praesens II. one 4852 139 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. in. & M. ^1. Aurel. Ver. Caes. 4853 140 M. Peducaeus Syloga Priscinus and T. Hoenius Severus 4854 141 L. Cuspius Rufinus and L. Statins Quadratus 4855 142 C. BelKcius Torquatus and Tib. Claud. Herodes Atticus 4856 143 P. Lollianus Avitus and C. Gavins Maximus 4857 144 Antoninus Pius, Imp. Aug. iv. and M. ^1. Aurel. Cass. ii. 4858 145 Sex. Erucius Clarus and Cn. Claudius Severus 4859 146 Largus and Messalinus 4860 147 Torquatus m. and Julianas 4861 148 Orfitus and Prisons 4862 149 Glabrio or Gallienus and Vetus 4863 150 Condianus or Gordianus and Maximus 4864 151 Glabrio and Homulus 4865 152 Bruttius PriEsens [in. ?] and Junius Rufinus 4866 153 Commodus and Lateranus 4867 154 Severus and Sabinianus 4868 155 Silvanus and Augurinus 4869 156 Barbatus and Regulus 4870 157 Tertullus and Sacerdos 4871 158 Quintillus and Prisons 4872 159 App. Annius Atilius Bradua and T. Clodius Vibius Varus 4873 160 Anto. Pius, Imp. Aug. v.&M.^l. Aurel. Caes. HI. Jan.ltoMar.6 This computation, it will be seen, accords with St. Theophilus of Antioch as to the years and months, and with St. Clemens of Alex- andria as to the years. It differs from the computation given by Clemens, 4 months and 20 days, and from that of Theophilus, 21 days. Any one acquainted with Greek manuscripts knows that the omission of a letter, or the substitution of one letter for another, by the carelessness of transcribers, makes an important change in Y. M. D. 3ec31 0 5 21 year 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 » 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 )> 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 „ 0 0 5) 0 0 " 0 0 0 0 „ 0 0 Mar. 6 0 2 6 22 7 27 328 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. numbers. We may thus readily admit the supposition that the original text of Clemens read, k-/3. ^. ciC, and not k/3. y. ^ ; and that the text of Theophilus was *c/3. ^. ;:=:. In this case, there may have been a difference of one day in their computations. Theophilus lived in the reign of Commodus ; and Clemens, in that of Septimius Severus. They were, therefore, nearer to the reign of Antoninus Pius than any other writers on whom we have now to rely. They alone give the length of his reign with any precision. If we follow their text as it now stands, we arrive at the middle of February, A.D. 160, as the time of his death ; and this shows clearly, that the consulship of that year, which modern critics have suppressed, is absolutely necessary to the accurate calculation of his reign. Its length could not have been twenty-four years, as Xiphilinus has asserted ; for then his death would have taken place in the consul- ship of the two Augusti, that is, after the associate reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Vcrus had begun. Julius Capitolinus, in his life of Marcus Aurelius, expressly says, that "After the death of Pius, Lucius Aurelius Verus Commodus became the partner of Marcus in the empire, and that then, for the first time, the Roman empire began to have two Augusti," or, in other words, " two em- perors." ' On the other hand, the death of Antoninus Pius could not have occurred in the consulship of Bradua and Varus ; for then he would have reigned less than twenty-two years, contrary to the whole current of authority, with the exception of Cassiodorus, who, most inaccurately, makes his reign twenty-one, and liis age seventy- seven, years. His mistake is occasioned by placing the death of Hadrian too late in the consulship of Rufinus and Quadratus, and by other inaccuracies in the series of consuls, which will be best seen by comparing his list with the corrected list. The reign of Antoninus Pius being considered as terminating on the 6th of March, a.j.p. 4873, a.D. 160, and his birth having been on the 19th of September, in the consulship of Domitian Xii. and Dolabella, or a.j.p. 4798, a.d. 85, the difference of those dates gives his age, at the time of his death, as follows : ' Post excessum divi Pii a Senatu coac- dixit, atque ex eo pariter cceperunt rem- tus regimen publicum capere, fratrem sibi publicam agere. Tuncque pi-imum Eoma- participem in imperio designavit; quem num Imperium duos Augustos habere coe- Lucium Aurelium Veruni Commodum pit. — Hist. Aug. Scriptoi-es, ed. Salmas, appellavit, Csesaremque atque Augustum 1620, p. 25. CHAP. Xir.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 329 4872 2 6 or March 6, a.j.p. 4873 4797 8 18 or September 18, 4798 age when he died, 74 5 18 22 7 27 age when he began to reign, 51 9 22 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. There is only a diiference of one day in the statements of St. Theo- philus of Antioch, St. Clemens Alexandriniis, and Xiphilinus, as to the length of this emperor's reign. The narrative of Dion, not extant in the former reign, was found and abi-idged, as to this, by Xiphilinus. He states, therefore, on the authority of Dion, that Marcus died on the 17th of March (xvi. kal. April.) ; that he reigned, after the death of Antoninus, nineteen years and eleven days ; and that he lived fifty-eight years, ten months, and twenty- two days.* He was born at Rome, according to Julius Caj)lto- linus, on the 26th of April (vi. kal. Maias), when Annius Verus ii. and Augur were consuls,^ i.e. A.J.P. 4833, A.D. 120. This agrees perfectly with the computation of Dion Cassius ; for A.J.P. 4832. 3m. 25d. + 58. 10m. 22d.=4891. 2m. 17d. or March 17th, A.J.P. 4892, A.D. 179, as the day on Avhich Marcus Aurelius died. This date being obtained, by subtracting the length of his reign from it, we learn the date of the death of Antoninus Pius. Thus 4891. 2m. 17d.— 19. Om. lld.=4872. 2m. 6d. or March 6th, a.j.p. 4873, A.D. 160, the date of his death assumed in the computation of his reign. The length of the reign of Marcus Aurelius, as arranged by consulships, is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSOLS. TIME. T. M. D. 4873 160 Anton. Pius, Imp. Aug. v. & M. Aurel. Cses. in. Mar. 7 to Dec. 3 1 0 9 25 4874 161 The two Augusti, or M. Aurelius Antoninus, ^ Imp. IV. and L. ^lius Verus, Imp. n. [ ' one year 0 0 4875 162 ... Rusticus and ... AquiUnus j> 0 0 4876 163 L. ^lianus and . . . Pastor » 0 0 4877 164 ... Macrinus and ... Celsus n 0 0 4878 165 ... Orfitus and ... Pudens 0 0 4879 166 Servilius Pudens and ... PolHo >» 0 0 4880 167 L. Aurelius Verus ni. and ... Quadratus n 0 0 4881 168 ... Apronianus and ... Paulus n Carried over 0 0 8 9 25 1 Lib. Ixxi. 33, 34. * Avo sno iterum et Augure Coss. 42 330 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Brought over 8 9 25 4882 169 . Priscus and ... Apollinaris one year 0 0 4883 170 .. Cethegus and ... Clarus „ 0 0 4884 171 .. Severus and ... Herennianns 0 0 4885 172 .. Orfitus and ... Maximus 0 0 4886 173 .. Severus ii. and ... Pompeianus 0 0 4887 174 .. Gallus and ... Flaccus 0 0 4888 175 .. Piso and ... Julianas 0 0 4889 176 .. Pollio and ... Aper 0 0 4890 177 .. Commodus and ... Quinctillus 0 0 4891 178 .. Orfitus and ... Rufus 0 0 4892 179 . . Commodus n. and Verus n. from Jan 1 to Mar. 17 0 2 17 19 0 11 Eutroplus and Julius Capltollnus say that Marcus Aurellus died in the eighteenth year of his reign and the sixty-first year of his life. It is impossible to reconcile these conflicting dates ; for Julius Capitolinus having himself given the time of this Emperor's birth, Api'il 26, a.d. 120, if he lived to the sixty-first year of his age, the sixtieth year would have terminated April 25th, a.d. 180, and his reign would have been, not eighteen, but more than twenty years. Antoninus Commodus. A passage in Lampridius incidentally throws light upon our chronology ; Commodus, he says, " was born at Lanuvium, with his twin brother, thence called Antoninus Geminus, on the thirty- first day of August, in the year in which Ms father and his uncle were consuls.''''^ What consulship could this be, but that of the two Augusti, M. Aurelius Antoninus iv. and L. Aurelius Verus II. A.j.p. 4874, a.d. 161 ? — when Rome for the first time saw two equal partners of emjDire, both holding at the same time the consular dignity ? According to Dion,^ Commodus was nine- teen years old when his father died. He was poisoned and then suffocated, on the last day of the year, when he was thirty-one years and four months old, and when he had reigned twelve years, nine months, and fourteen days.^ If then we take from his age the length of his reign, as stated by Dion or Xiphilinus (31y. 4m. Od — 12y. 9m. 14d.) it will give as his age when his father died, 18y. 1 Ipse autem natus est apud Lanuvium, Aug. SS. p. 45, b. cum fratre Antonino Gemino, pridie Cal. * Lib. Ixxii. 1 . Septemb. patre patruoque Coss. — Hist. ^ lb. lib. Ixxii. c. 22. CHAP. XII.] TO TUE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 331 6m. 17d. But there is an evident mistake here of one year. Marcus Aurelius died March 17th, a.j.p. 4892, a.d. 179; and Commodus Avas born August 31, A.D. 161. birth, taken from the time of his father's exact age. 4891 2 17 — 4873 7 30 The time before his death, will show his 17 6 17 He was, therefore, in his eighteenth, not in his nineteenth year. Dion's account of the length of his life and the day of his death is correct. For if, to the time before his birtli, we add the length of his life, it will show that he died the last day of December: 4873y. 7m. 30d. +31y. 4m.=4904y. 11m. 30d, or one day short of com- pleting A.J.P. 4905, A.D. 192. We proceed now to show the same results from the list of consuls. 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CONSULS. TIME. Commodus ii. and Verus ii. from Mar. 18 to Dec. 31 Bruttius Prsesens ii. and Quintilius Condiaaus one year Commodus in. and Byrrhus „ Mamertinus and Rufus „ Commodus iv. and Victorinus „ Marullus and ^lianus „ Maternus aud Bradua „ Commodus v. and Glabrio „ 187 Crispinus and -351ianus „ Fuscianus and Silanus „ Junius Silanus and Servilius Silanus „ 190 Commodus vi. and Septimianus „ Aprouianus and Bradua „ Commodus vii. and Pertinax from Jan. 1 to Dec. 30 If, then, to his age at the time of his father's death, we add the length of his reign, as obtained by the Ust of consuls, it gives precisely the length of life stated by Dion, I do not see how there can be any error in this computation ; and yet all the old chronologers have fallen into Dion's error. Eutropius makes the reign of Commodus, 12y. 8m. ; St. Clemens Alexandrinus, who ends with his reign, 12y. 9m. I4d. ; Aurelius Victor and Cassiodorus, thirteen years, and the Chronicon Pas- A.J.P. A.D. 4892 179 4893 180 4894 181 4895 182 4896 183 4897 184 4898 185 4899 186 4900 187 4901 188 4902 189 4903 190 4904 191 4905 192 0 11 30 13 9 13 17 13 6 9 17 13 31 4 0 332 FBOM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART L cliale, twelve years. It is certain that if Commodus died on the last day of December, it must have been a.d. 192, because on the first of January of that year he was consul for the seventh time, havino" for his colleague Pertinax, who became his successor in the empire. PuBLius Helvius Pertinax, and Didius Julianus. As both were killed in the course of the next year, a.j.p. 4906, a.d. 193, Q. Sossius Falco and C. Erucius Clarus, consuls, we have only to determine the exact length of their reigns. Pertinax was informed of the death of Commodus in the night ; was reluctantly proclaimed by the Prastorian guard, through the influence of Lajtus, their pnefect, who was one of the con- spirators ; and was subsequently elected by the senate. Dion, who was a member of that body at the time, says that he came into the senate while the night was not yet joassed, and expressed his reluctance to accept the government. Whereupon, he adds, we heartily applauded him, and gave him our votes ; for his soul was excellent and his body robust.^ His reign commenced, there- fore, on the first of January. Pertinax was born, says Julius Capitolinus, on the first of August, in the year when Verus and Bibulus were consuls. He was slain on the 28th. of March, when Falco and Clarus were consuls. He lived sixty years, seven months, and twenty- six days. He reigned two months and twenty-five days.^ Dion, or Xiphi- linus says, on the contrary, that he lived sixty-seven years and four months, wanting three days. He reigned eighty-seven days.' The text of Julius Capitolinus must here again be corrupt, as to the number of years which Pertinax lived ; and from the dates which Capitolinus himself has furnished it may be corrected. The consulship of M. Annius Verus ill. and L. Varius Ambi- bulus, called by our author Bibulus, coincided with a.j.p. 4838, A.D. 125. That of Q. Sossius Falco and C. Julius Erucius Clarus was A.J.P. 4906, a.d. 193. The age of Pertinax, therefore, at the time of his death, March 28th of that year, may be obtained by subtracting the time previous to his birth. ' Lib. Ixxiii. 1. annis Ix. mensibiis vii. diobus xxvi. Im- ^ N.atus autem Cal. Augiistis, Vero et peravit mensibus ii. diebus xxv. — Hist. Bibulo Coss. Interfectus autem est v. Aug:. SS. p. 59, ed. Paris, 1620. kal. Aprilis, Falcone et Claro Coss. Vixit ^ Lib. Ixxiii. c, 10. CHAP. XII.] TO TUB YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 333 4905 2 28 4837 7 0 67 7 28 The text of Dion Is correct as to the years and days, but Incorrect as to the months ; while that of Julius Capitolinus is nearly cor- rect as to the months and days ; but for lx. it should read lxvii. years. The reign of Pertinax was eighty-seven days, as stated by Dion, and not eighty-four days, as stated by Capitolinus. This is evident from the latter historian's own testimony ; for he says that Pertinax was made emperor the last day of December (prid. cal. Januarias),^ and he Avas slain ( v. cah Aprilis) on the 28th of March. His text, therefore should read, " Mensibus II. diebus xxvill,'''' A.D. 193 not being bissextile, January 31 + February 28 x March 28=87 days, as stated by Dion. JElIus Spartianus, who wrote the life of DiDlus JuLiANUS, the successor of Pertinax, says that he lived fifty-six years and four months, and reigned two months and five days.^ Dion says that he lived sixty years four months and four days, of which he reigned sIxty-sIx days.^ If we Include in this computation the day on which Pertinax was slain, Spartian and Dion are In perfect harmony as to the length of his reign ; for From March 28 to 31 is 4 clays. The first month April 30 The second month May 31 And the fifth day, June 1 st, 1 66 days DIdlus Jullanus was slain, therefore, on the 1st of June A.D. 193. Septimius Severus. Spartian says, that when DIdlus Jullanus was slain, Severus, a native of Africa, obtained the empire. He was born on the 8th of April, In the year when Eruclus Clarus, the second time, and Se- verus, were consuls.'' The same author says that he died at York in Britain, after subduing the hostile tribes. In the eighteenth year of his reign, at an advanced age, and of a painful disease.^ Dion ' Hist. Aug. SS. p. 55. ^ Interfecto Didio Juliano, Severus ' Didius Julianus vixit annis quinqua- Africa oriundus imperium obtinuit. Ipse ginta sex, mensibus quatuor: imperavit natus est Erucio Claro bis et Severe Coss. mensibus duobus, diebus quinque. — Hist. vi. idus Aprihs. — Hist. Aug. SS. p. 64, b. Aug. SS. p. 63, E. ^ Pei'iit Eboraci in Britannia; subactis ^ Lib. Lx.xiii. 17. gentibus quae Britanniic videbantur in- 334 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. says that his disease was the gout ; that he died on the 4th day of February ; that he lived sixty-five years nine months and twenty- five days, having been born on the 11th of April; and that he reigned seventeen years eight months and three days.^ It must be -remembered tiiat Dion was his contemporary, Avhile Spartian wrote in the reign of Diocletian. About the tenth year of his reign, Dion retired from Rome to Capua, as he himself tells us, to write his history,^ The general accuracy of this historian, leads us to place greater reliance on his testimony ; and therefore, although a difference of three days is not very material, there is greater reason to believe that Severus was born on the 11th, than on the 8th of A pril. The consulship of Erucius Clarus ii. and Severus, coincided with A.J.P. 4858, a.d. 145. The time, therefore, before his birth was 4857 3 10 To this add the length of his life ace. to Dion 65 9 25 And it gives the date of his death 4923 1 4 or Feb. 4, 4924 From this subtract the length of his reign 17 8 3 And it gives the date of his accession 4905 5 1 or June 2, 4906. This, it will be seen, agrees with the date already established, of the death of Didius Julianus ; and it proves also that his reign was computed from the death of Julianus. Spartian, indeed, says, that Avhen the German legions had heard that Oommodus was slain, and that Julianus reigned, though hated by all, Severus was saluted emperor by the exhortation of many, but against his own will, at Carnutum (a town on the Danube, not far below Vienna), on the 13th of August.^ This was seven months and fourteen days after the death of Com modus ; and it may possibly account in some measure for the errors of Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Cas- siodorus, and the Chronicon Paschale, who reckon the interval from Commodus to Severus as from six to nearly ten months. Be that as it may, the reign of Severus must be reckoned, on the best testimony, from the 2nd of June a.j.p. 4906, a.d. 193. The com- putation by consuls is as follows : festae, anno imperii decimo octavo, morbo auditum est Commodum occisum, Julia- gravissimo extinctus jam senex. — Ibid. p. num autem cum odio cunctorum imperai-e, 71. multis hortantibus repugnans, imperator 1 Lib. Ixxvi. 15, 17. ^ Lib. Ixxvi. 2. est appellatus apud Carnutum, Idibus Au- ■ Dehinc a Germanicis legionibus, ubi gustis. — Hist. Aug. SS. p. 65. CHAP. Xir.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 335 A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4906 193 Sossius Falco and Erucius Clai-us trom June 2 to Dec. 31 0 6 29 4907 194 Sept. Severiis Imp. ir. and Albinus one year 0 0 4908 195 Tertiillus and Clemens 0 0 4909 196 Dexter and Priscus 0 0 4910 197 Lateranus and llufinus 0 0 4911 198 Saturninus and Gallus 0 0 4912 199 Annulinus and Fronto 0 0 4913 200 Severus Imp. Aug. iii. and Victorinus 0 0 4914 201 Mucianus and Fabianus 0 0 4915 202 Severus Imp. Aug. iv. and Antoninus 0 0 4916 203 Plautianus ii. and Geta 0 0 4917 204 Cilo and Libo 0 0 4918 205 Antoninus ii. and Geta rr. 0 0 4919 206 Albinus and ^milianus 0 0 4920 207 Aper and Maximus 0 0 4921 208 Antoninus ill. and Geta in. 0 0 4922 209 Pompeianus and Avitus 0 0 4923 210 Faustinus and Rufinus 0 0 4924 211 Gentianus and Bassus from Jan. 1 to Feb. 4 0 1 4 17 8 3 AuRELius Antoninus Bassianus, surnamed Caracalla, was killed, according to Spartian, on his birth-day, tlie 6th of April, during the Megalensian games, by the arts of Macrinus, the prsefect of the Praetorian guards, who usurped the empire.^ The same author adds, that Bassianus lived forty-three years, and reigned six years, leaving a son, who was afterwards called M. Antoninus Heliogabalus.^ According to Dion, Antoninus, surnamed Garacalla, the son of Septimius Severus, was slain by Macrinus on the 8th of April, as he was descending from his horse. Such was the end of Anto- ninus when he had lived twenty-nine years and four days (for he was born on the 4th day of April), and had reigned six years two months and two days.^ Eutropius says that he reigned six years and two months ; Au- relius Victor, six years ; Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale, seven years ; Orosius, not full seven years. Victor says that he lived about thirty years. Eutropius and Eusebius agree with ' Die natalis sui viii. Idus Aprilis, ipsis ^ Vixit autem Bassianus annis xliii. Megalensibus quum ad requisita naturae imperavit annis vi. Filium reliquit, qui discessjpset,_insidiis a Macrino prsefecto posteaetipse M.Antoninus Heliogabalus praetorii positis, qui post eum invasit impe- est dictus. — Ibid. p. 88, e. rium, interemptus est. — Hist. Aug. SS. p. ' Lib. Ixxviii. 5, 6. 87, B. 336 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. Spartian in giving him forty-three years, and the Chronicon Pas- chale even gives him sixty years ! It is impossible to reconcile these accounts ; but, happily, they do not affect the chronology, which must be computed only by the length of his reign. The computation by consuls is as follows : A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. T. M. D. 4924 211 Gentiamis and Bassus from Feb. 5 to Dec. 31 0 10 24 4925 212 The two Aspri one year 0 0 4926 213 Antoninus Imp. iv. and Balbinus „ 0 0 4927 214 Messalla and Sabinus „ 0 0 4928 215 Lpetus and Cjerealis „ 0 0 4929 216 C. Atius Sabinus ii. and Cornelius Anulinus „ 0 0 4930 217 C. Bruttius Praesens and T. Messius Extricatus Jan. 1 to Apr. 8 0 3 8 6 2 2 As Dion was a contemporary, I am inclined to receive his testi- mony ; to place the death of Caracalla on the 8th of April ; and consequently to make his reign six years two months and two days. Opilius Macrinus seized the throne on the 9th of April a.j.p. 4930, a.d. 217. He gave the name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenus. Both, accord- ing to Lampridius, were slain in the fourteenth month of their government.^ Eutropius and Aurelius Victor give them fourteen full months ; Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale, one year. From the fragments of the seventy-eighth book of Dion's his- tory, it appears that ISIacrinus having been defeated by the forces of Hellogabalus, on the 8th of June, sent his son to Artabanus, king of the Parthlans, while he himself went to Antioch. Thence he fled by night, and in disguise, into the upper provinces of Asia Minor, along the Black Sea, with a view of embarking for Rome. Being discovered, however, he was seized at Chalcedon, and his son having also been made prisoner, both were soon afterwards slain in Cappadocia. He wanted from three to five days, says Dion, of being fifty-four years old. He adds, that computing the time to the battle in which he was defeated, that is, till the 8th of June, he reigned one year and two months wanting three days.^ The computation by consuls is as follows : 1 Hist. Aug. SS. p. 100, A. ■' Lib. Ixxviii. c. 39, 40, 41. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 337 A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4930 217 C. BruttiusPraesensandT.MessiusExtricatus Apr.9toDec. 31 0 8 22 4931 218 Antoninus and Adventus Jan. 1 to June 7 0 5 7 1 1 29 The time from the death of Caracalla, to the battle in which Helioga- balus was victorious, was exactly fourteen months. Yet Dion, a con- temporary, a man of consular dignity, and a historian of great accu- racy, computes the reign of Macrinus as being three days short of one year and two months. If two days intervened between the death of Caracalla and the beginning of the reign of Macrinus, that cannot affect our chronology, as those days must all be reckoned. I, therefore, compute the time as one year one month and twenty-nine days, or fourteen months wanting one day. Before we leave this reign, it must be observed, that all the ancient lists agree in naming the consuls of a.d. 218, Antoninus and Adventus. The moderns substitute Opilius Macrinus for An- toninus ; but Opilius gave the name of Antoninus to his son Dia- dumenus. May we not believe, then, that Diadumenus was this consul, under the name of Antoninus ? What evidence is there that Macrinus assumed that name himself? Lampridius, in his life of Antoninus Diadumenus, has preserved two discourses pro- nounced by the father and son, from which it appears that Macri- nus reigned only in the name of his son.^ M. Antoninus Heliogabalus. We have seen that Spartian, in the life of Caracalla, speaks of Heliogabalus as being really his son. Lamprinus says that " Ma- crinus and his son Diadumenus being slain, the empire was con- ferred on Varius Heliogabalus, because he was said to be the son of Bassianus? Dion constantly speaks of him as an impostor, calling him Avitus, the pretended Antoninus, Tai-antus, the Assyrian, Sardanapalus, and Tiberinus, because his body was cast into the Tiber.3 Authors are very discordant as to the length of his reign. Eutropius and Aurelius Victor make it two years and eight months; ./Elius Lampridius expresses surprise that for nearly three years (prope triennio) no one could be found who would remove him 1 Hist. Aug. SS. p. 97. ' Hist. Aug. SS. p. 101. c. ^ Lib. Ixxix. 1. 43 338 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. from the helm of Roman majesty.' Cassiodorus and the Chronicon Paschale call his I'eign four years ; Dion, with his usual precision, three years, nine months and four days.^ He was the last who bore the name of Antoninus. The day after the victory over Macrinus, that is on the 9th of June, A.D. 218, he entered Antioch in triumph^ and sent letters to the senate and people of Kome, in which he gave himself the titles of Emperor, Csesar the son of Antoninus, and grandson of Severus, Pius, Felix, Augustus, joroconsul, and tribune of the people; " usurping these names," says Dion, " before they were decreed to him. The senate, struck with fear, decreed that Macrinus was to be accounted a public enemy, loaded him and his son with reproaches, and applauded Tarantus (Heliogabalus), whom they had often wished to denounce as an enemy, expressing the hope that Ms son forsooth might be like his father /" Having thus exposed the ser- vility of the senate, the indignant historian proceeds to say that the abominable impurities of this wretch " prospered for three years, nine months, and four days, during which he reigned, reckoning from the battle in Avhich he obtained his complete victory."^ We may then compute the reign of Heliogabalus as beginning on the 8th and not on the 9th of June ; in which case the time from the death of Caracalla to the 7th of June inclusive, would be one day short of fourteen months, and so would come within two days of the length assigned by Dion to the reign of jNIacrinus. Reckon- ing, therefore, from the 8th of June, a.j.p. 4931, a.d. 218, the result of Dion's computation will be as follows : 4930y. 5m. 7d. + 3y. 9m. 4d. = 4934y. 2m. lid. or the 11th of March, a.j.p. 4935, A.D. 222, as the day when Heliogabalus was slain. The arrange- ment by consulships is as follows ; A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4931 218 Antoninus [Diadumenus ?] and Adventus June 8 to Dec. 31 0 6 23 4932 219 M. Antoninus Heliogabalus and Sacerdos one year 10 0 4933 220 M. Antoninus Heliogabalus ii. and Comazon „ 10 0 4934 221 Gratus Sabinianus and Scleucus „ 10 0 4935 222 M. Aur. Anton. Elagabalus in. and M. Aur. I y i to Mar 11 0 2 11 Severus Alexander Cvos, j 3 9 4 With regard to these consuls, the Antoninus of a.d. 218 could ' Hist. Aug. SS. p. 113. 2 Lib. Ixxix. 3. ' Lib. Ixxix. 1, 2, 3. CHAP. Xir.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 339 not be the Antoninus of A.D. 219. It cannot be imagined that Heliogabalus, who probably was unknown at Rome until after the victory of June 8th, could have been the Antoninus of January 1st, A.D. 218: nor, on the other hand, that Antoninus Diadumenus who was slain in A.D. 218, could be the Antoninus of A.D. 219. Yet the ancient lists of consuls evidently confound them, and sup- pose Heliogabalus, or Elagabalus as sometimes written, to have been consul four times. This mistake the above list has rectified. The name of Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander was given by Heliogabalus to his cousin Bassianus, when he introduced him to the senate and adopted him as his son. Dion, who gives us this account, adds that afterwards Heliogabalus became jealous of Alexander and endeavoured treacherously to destroy him ; but the soldiers were attached to him on account of his excellent qualities, and because he Avas really and truly descended from the family of Severus ; and in the tumult Heliogabalus was slain, at the age of eighteen.^ As Alexander was made consul on the 1st of January, A.D, 222, it is probable that he was adopted and received the title of Csesar a.d. 221. M. Aurelius Alexander Severus. Varius Heliogabalus being slain on the 11th of March, a.d. 222, his cousin succeeded peaceably to the throue. -ZElius Lampridius, Avho gives a delightful picture of this virtuous prince, says that he was slain in Gaul, as he was on his way to Britain, having reigned thirteen years and nine days, and lived twenty-nine years, three months, and seven days.^ Eutroj^ius says that he reigned thirteen years and eight days; Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, and the Chronicon Paschale, simply thirteen years. An illustrious monument exists at Rome, to which we shall hereafter have frequent occasion to refer, and ?\vhich proves, by astronomical computations, that the first year of Alexander Severus coincided with the year 222 of the common Christian a^ra. It is the statue of St. Hippolitus, the author of the Paschal Cycle which bears his name. On the sides of the chair in which the bishop is seated, his calendar is inscribed ; and it is there asserted, that in the first year of the reign of the emperor Alexander, the fourteenth 1 Dion. lib. Ixvix. 17 — 20. annis xxix, mensibus ill. diebus vii. — Hist. " Imperavit annis xiii. diebus ix. Vixit Aug. SS. p. 135. B. 340 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [part I. day of the paschal moon fell on Saturday, the thirteenth day of April. Now this is found by computation to have happened in that year. The lunar cycle was 14 ; the solar, 7 ; and the Sunday letter F. Any one who will take the pains to calculate by these data, will find that they could not apply to any supposable year but the one now indicated. The date of the death of Heliogabalus being ascertained by adding to it the reign of Alexander Severus, we shall have the date of his death ; and by deducting from that result his age, as men- tioned by Lampridius, we ascertain the time of his birth. Thus A.j.p. 4934y. 2m. lld. + 13y. Om. 9d.=4947y. 2m. 20d., or March 20th, A.J.P. 4948, A.D. 235, as the day when he was killed in Gaul; and 4947y. 2ra. 20d. — 29y. 3ra. 7d. =4917y. 11m. 13d., or De- cember 13, A.J.P. 4918, A.D. 205, Antoninus ii. Getan. in the reign of Septimius Severus, as the day of his birth. His reign by con- suls is as follows : CONSULS. Antoninus Elagabalus and Alex. Severus Mar. Maximus ii, and vElianus Julianus and Crispinus Fuscus and Dexter M. Aur. Sev. Alex. Imp. ii. & IMarcollus Quinctilianus Albinus and Maximus Modestus and Probus M. Aur. Sev. Alex. Imp. in. and Dion Cassias ii. Agricola and Sex. Catius Clementinus Pompeianus and Pelignianus Lupus and Maximus Maximus and Paternus Maximus ii. and Urbanus Severus and Quinctianus from Jan. 13 0 9 The two Maximini. It is uncertain whether the elder Maximinus had any thing to do Avith the murder of Alexander Severus ; but as he was at the head of the legion of Tyrones by whom the emperor was slain, and immediately, without any decree of the senate, was proclaimed by the army in Gaul, and saluted by the name of Augustus, he was justly suspected of the crime. His son was associated with him in the empire by the army.* His reign was only a succession of A.J.P. A.D. 4935 222 4936 223 4937 224 4938 225 4939 226 4940 227 4941 228 4942 229 4943 230 4944 231 4945 232 4946 233 4947 234 4948 235 TIME. T. M. D. 12 to Dec. 31 0 9 20 one year 0 0 0 0 0 0 ianus,, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 to March 20 0 2 20 1 Hist. Aug. SS. p. 140. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 341 cruelties ; and finally the senate raised to the imperial purple, the proconsul of Africa, Gordianus, and his son. The letter of the senate by which the two Gordiani were proclaimed and Maximinus and his son denounced as enemies of their country, is preserved by Julius Capitolinus.' The two Gordiani were killed in Africa ; the son in battle, the father by his own hand. The senate then created Maximus Pupienus and Clodius Balbinus emperors ; to whom, at tlie instance of the soldiers and people, the young grandson of Gor- dianus was added and proclaimed Caesar.^ The republic was now supported in the struggle against Maxi- minus by three emperors. The tyrant advanced against, and be- sieged Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic ; but there his own troops finally killed both him and his son as they were reposing in their tents. Their heads were carried in triumph to Rome, and wherever they passed were received with exultation. The mes- senger sent from Aquileia to announce the tidings, went with such haste, says Capitolinus, by changing horses, that he arrived in Rome in four days. Nothing could exceed the joy of the senate and people. They decreed that for the then present year the name of Maximinus should be erased from the list of consuls ; that Balbinus should be consul ; and that the young Gordianus should be substituted for Maximinus.^ The date of the tyrant's death is not given by Julius Capito- linus ; but the same author, in his lives of the three Gordiani, says that the two elder, slain in Africa, reigned one year and six months. On the news of the death of the Gordiani, and the coming of Maximinus towards Rome, the senate assembled on the 26th of May (vii. cab Junii) during the Apollinarian games,'* and appointed Maximus Pupienus and Balbinus emperors. The people, not being pleased with the appointment of Maximus, de- manded Gordianus, who was thereupon made Caesar, at the age of fourteen. Maximus and Balbinus were both slain by the army, and the third Gordianus saluted emperor and Augustus. Julius Capitolinus observes that there Avas great uncertainty and contra- 1 Hist. Aug. SS- p. 143. ^ lb. p. 145. here; for the Apollinarian games were ^ Balbine Auguste, Dii te servent, prse- celebrated from the day before the nones sentem annum coss. vos ornetis. In locum to the day before the ides of July. Per- Maximini Gordianus suificiatur. — Hist, haps the author wrote vii. Idus Julii, or Aug. SS. p. 147. the ninth of July, instead of vii. cal. * There must be a anistake in the text Junii, or the 2Gth of May. 342 FROM THE DEATH OF TIBERIUS [PART I. diction in the several histories he consulted ; nor is he himself consistent ; for in one place he says that Maximus and Balbinus were slain in a military sedition when they had reigned two years,^ in another, one year, since Maximinus and his son reigned ; some say three and others two years.^ Eutropius asserts that Maxi- minus reigned three years and a few days.^ Aurelius Victor and the Chronicon Paschale count his reign in round numbers three years. Orosius says he was killed in the third year of his reign. Cassiodorus also computes his reign as being three years, and says that he was killed at Aquileia in the consulship of Pius and Pro- culus, the same consulship as we have seen, with the Ulpius and Pontianus of Censorinus. Considering then the exact date of the death of Maximinus as uncertain, we shall count his reign as three years. The death of Alexander Severus took j^lace on the 20th of March, a.j.p. 4948, a.d. 235. Therefore 4947y. 2m. 20d. + 3y. Om. Od.=4950y. 2m. 20d, or March 20th, a.j.p. 4951, a.d. 238. As Eutropius says that Maximinus reigned a few days over three years, his death must liave taken place at the latest before the end of that month. Censorinus evidently wrote after the 25th of June in the same year ; for he says that the first of the Egyp- tian month Thoth was in this year tlie 25th of June.'* He flourished, therefore, at the beginning of the reign of the younger Gordian. The consuls during the reign of Maximinus were as follows : ' A.J.P. A.D. CONSULS. TIME. Y. M. D. 4948 235 Severus and Quinctianus from Mar. 21 to Dee. 31 0 9 11 4949 236 C. Jul. Maximinus, Imp. Aug. and Jul. Africanus one year 10 0 4950 237 — Perpetuus and — Cornelianus „ 10 0 4951 238 M. Ulpius Crinitus and Proculus Pontianus Jan. 1. to Mar. 20 0 2 20 3 0 0 The third year of the Maximini, whatever may have been the date of their death, ended the twentieth of March, a.j.p. 4951, A.D. 238, Ref. Cal. of Jul. Ca3sar 283, and one month before the beginning of A.u.C. 991. The death of Tiberius, following the computation of Suetonius, took place March 16th, a.j.p. 4749, Eef. Cal. Jul. Ca3s. 81, a.d. 36, and one month and five days be- ^ Hist. Aug. p. 160. tios nomen est Thoth : quique hoc anno ^ Ibid. p. 171. ' Lib. is. 1. fuit ante diem vii. kal. Jul. — De die natali, * A primo tlie mensis — cui apud ^gyp- c. x.xi. CHAP. XII.] TO THE YEAR WHEN CENSORINUS WROTE. 343 fore the beginning of A.u.c. 789. The time between these two events was, therefore, 4950y. 2m. 20d.— 4748y. 2m. 16d.=202y. Om. 4(]. The following table Avill show the reader at one view the several accounts referred to in the course of this chapter, and also the corrected amount of the years, months, and days of each reign, obtained by careful comparison of testimony and arithmetical com- putation. On summing up the whole, the total in the column of days is found to be 280. As the period of time from Tiberius to the Maximini began and ended with the month of March, 275 days are taken as equivalent to the descending series of nine months. These being deducted, there remain five days to be set down in that column. Adding nine to the column of months, we find the whole 108, or precisely nine years. Adding these to the column of years, we find the whole 202. There is, therefore, a difference of only one day between the general and the special computation of time ; and even that difference may be avoided by stating the general computation thus: 4950y. 2m. 2 Id. — 4748y. 2m. 16d.=202y. Om. 5d, or, in other words, from March 16th, A.D. 36, to March 21, a.d. 238. There can, therefore, be no reasonable doubt that the problem is solved with regard to the ad- justment of the ancient and modern computations of time. By means of the Holy Scriptures, connected as they are, by the Canon of Ptolemy, with the sera, of Nabonassar, we may calculate, with unerring certainty, from the birth of Abraham to the year 238 of the common Christian seva.^ ^ For additional proof of the connexion James A. Sparks, entitled " Two discourses of the eera of Nabonassar with the dates of on Prophecy, with an appendix, in which the Holy Scriptures, and with the modern Mr. Miller's scheme, concerning our Lord's computations of time, the author begs leave Second Advent, is considered and refuted," to refer the reader to the appendix of his pp. 182, 12mo. smaller work, published at New York by 344 ^ 00 O ir^ oO'ooi^^coGO>ocooa (M (M ^ (M i-H r-H Ol Kj WJ (.'J UW -H(MO'^CO'-OOi o o CO CO CO r^ O O o o O O t- CO 1^ ^ Tti : o o o o o o o o O 05 (M o o o o CO ^ o o o o o o o o Oi — I CO Oi -H (M (M i-i o o o o o O (M 1:^ O O o o o o o o o O CO CO O o o o o 00 t^ o o o o o c o c Tf CO CO y. 3 O O O O Tfi -^ ^ -^ ^q^ u'j O t- o O t^ CO CO O O o o o 00 O o 05 CO ■^ o o ^ CO ■^ O t- o ^ o o t-H t- O (M 00 O 00 O 05 (M O 00 o ^ >0 1-H LO 05 ^ eg 05 ^^ o o O O O O O 00 00 o t- (MOO O O CO (M CO CO O 0 Ol O '^ LO lO O p-l CO >— I 05 O r-l (M O -H O O ^ 05 2 ^ 3 cS 5 .rt ^ .« to 1-2.2 5 •.^ (V) '^ — ^ S CO *S I 2 O G =3 5: PART 11. APPERTAINING TO THE PERSONAL HISTORY OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST. 44 CHAPTER I. THE REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. Prefatory remarks. — Division of the subject. — Section I. On the beginning of Herod's reign.— Rise of his father Antipater, a.j.p. 4644, and history of him and his sons till he was poisoned, a.j.p. 4671. — Herod becomes the friendof Antony, who makes him tetrarch. — Inroad of the Parthians.— They deprive H3'rcanus of the high priesthood, and give it to Antigonus. — Flight of Herod. — His arrival in Rome. — Made king by the Senate, probably in July a.j.p. 4673. — History traced till he becomes king de facto, by the capture of Jerusalem and the death of Antigonus early in June a.j.p. 4676. Section II. On the end of Herod's reign. — No uncertainty as to the year. — The month and day to be arrived at by induction. — Eclipse of the moon men- tioned by Josephus. — Lunations of the 3'ear by the tables. — Calculation of the eclipse. — Consequent calculation of the passover. — Herod dead and buried, and Archelaus proclaimed king before the passover. — Hy examination of the history, the probable date of Herod's death determined. — The whole question as to the date of our Savi- our's birth now confined within three years ; from the shutting of the temple of Janus, March 30, a.j.p. 4707, to Herod's death, March 21, a.j.p. 4710. In the first part of this work, the author has been exclusively occupied in settling questions which pertain to ancient history in general ; and no notice has been taken of the personal history of our Lord, the chief object at Avliich we aim, excepting only that in determining the year in which Augustus shut the temple of Janus the third time, in token of universal peace, the earliest limit has been determined, within which the birth of our Saviour could have taken place. For the testimony of all antiquity is perfectly uniform and consistent, that he was born in the latter part of the reign of Augustus, when the empire was in a state of entire repose. Coming now to the consideration of our principal subject, it is proposed, in the first place, to examine the reign of Herod the Great ; because the date of his death must, of necessity, be the latest limit of that period, within which the Incarnation of our Saviour could have taken place. The question concerning Herod's reign resolves itself into two ; 348 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [pART II. first, when it began, and secondly, when it ended. And the first of these is also two-fiald ; for there are two dates from which Jose- phus computes the beginning of Herod's reign : the first, when he was declared king of Judsea by the unanimous vote of the Roman senate ; the second, when he became king de facto ^ by the conquest of Jerusalem and the subversion of the Asmonjean dynasty. These two dates will be considered in the first Section. § I. Josephus states that Herod was the second son of an Idumfean, named Antipater ; a man of mean extraction, but of great abilities. Antipater was the friend of the Jewish high-priest Hyrcanus, in the war between him and his rival brother, Aristobulus. Hyrcanus began his high-priesthood, in the third year of the hundred and seventy-seventh Olympiad, when Quintus Hortensius and Quintus Metellus Creticus were consuls ; that is, in the latter half of the sixih year before the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, or between the months of July and December a.j.p. 4644.* The war between Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, led to the inter- vention of the Roman arms ; and Jerusalem was taken by Pompey the Great, on the day of the fast in the third month ; that is, as we have before seen, on the twenty-third of Sivan, corresponding, according to the Nicene or Julian methods of computing the luna- tions, Avith the 19th or 20th of June, in the one hundred and seventy- ninth Olympiad, when Caius Antonius and Marcus Tullius Cicero were consuls. That event, therefore, took place in the year of the Julian period 4650, about tlu'ee months before the birth of Augustus." After the death of Pompey, Antipater made himself very useful to Caesar in the Avar against Egypt ; and it was on this accoinit that Csesar confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood, and made Antipater procurator of Judoea. He also gave permission to Hyr- canus to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, which had been demolished by Pompey.^ The date of this permission, it is not difficult to ascertain. The death of Pompey took place after Midsummer a.j.p. 4665, and Cffisar remained in Alexandria till May or June in the following year. During that period he was assisted by Antipater. In the ' Joseph. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 1, § 2. the birth of Augustus to the death of Tibe- ^ Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 4, § 3. See rius, from ^. 183 to p. 188. part I. of this work, at the close of the sixth ^ Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 8, § 1, 3, 5. chapter, ou the successiou of consuls from CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 349 month of August or September he arrived at Rome, and in October embarked for Africa. After this he never went into Asia.* It follows of necessity, therefore, that he confirmed Hyr- canus in the high-priesthood, made Antipater procurator of Juda3a, and gave permission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, between Midsummer a.j.p. 4665, and August or September a.j.p. 4666. We may even narrow the period to the three months between May or June and August or September a.j.p. 4666, a.u.c. 706 after Csesar's return from Parthia, whither he had marched from Egypt, and his arrival in Syria hefore his departure for Romcf Antipater lost no time, but began to build the walls as soon as Caesar's permission was given : somewhere, therefore, about Mid- summer A.J.P. 4666. " And seeing," says Josephus, "that Hyrca- nus was slow and indolent, he appointed Phasael, his eldest son, commander of Jerusalem, and parts adjacent ; and to Herod, his next son, being a youth of only fifteen years of age, he committed the charge of Galilee."* The commentators on Josephus observe, that here is evidently a mistake ; because Herod died forty-four years after this event, and was then, according to the historian, nearly seventy years of age. But this will be rendered more apparent hereafter. It is probable that Josephus wrote ke or 25, and not le or 15 ; though all the copies extant read the latter number. If Herod had com- pleted twenty-five, and was in his twenty-sixth year, about Mid- summer A.J.P. 4666, he had completed his tenth, and was in his eleventh year, when Augustus was born, and consequently, was himself born before Midsummer A.J.P. 4640, though in what month is uncertain. After the death of Julius Caesar, and the formation of the Tri- umvirate, Brutus went into Macedonia, and Cassius into Syria, in order to attach those provinces to their interests. This took place when L. Munatius Plancus, and M. ^milius Lepidus the second time, were consuls, a.j.p. 4671, a.u.c. 710-11.^ Cassius, without * For proofs of these dates, the reader Cresar Consul the fifth time hath decreed is afjain referred to part i. c. 6, on the sue- that the Jews shall possess and build the cession of consuls, testimony of historians, walls of the city of Jerusalem, and that p. 171-2. Hyrcanus, the son of Alexander, the high t Hyrcanus afterwards sent ambassadors priest and ethnarch of the Jews, retain it to Rome, to obtain the formal ratification as he hath desired." &c. — Antiq. Jud. of Csesar's promises ; and this gave occa- lib. xiv. c. 1 0, § .5. sion to the decrees which Josephus has i Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 9, § 1, 2. preserved. One of them runs thus: "Caius ' Dion. H. R. lib. xlvii. c. 21. 350 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II. difficulty, secured the greater part of the troops in Syria ;' and, according to Josephus, whose narrative agrees perfectly with that of Dio, he received Herod with great favour. The army raised was entrusted to Herod, with the entire command of Coele-Syria ; and Cassius promised, that, after the termination of the war now begun with Antony and the young Caesar, he would make him king of Judaea.^ These honours, bestowed upon Herod, proved fatal to his father ; for Malichus, the artful rival of Antipater in the favour of Hyrcanus, being alarmed at the growing prosperity of his family, had him secretly poisoned. After the battle of Philippi, which took place that same year, Octavianus Csesar returned to Italy, and Antony went into Asia.' It was late in the autumn ; for Plutarch mentions (in Bruto) that " the autumnal rains had fallen heavy after the battle, and the tents of Csesar and Antony were filled with mire and water, which from the coldness of the weather immediately froze." We are thus brought to the close of the year 4671 of the Julian period, A.u.c. 710-11. The next year (L. Antonius Pietas, P. Servilius Isauricus ii. Coss.) was spent by Antony in Syria and Egypt. He had for- merly been the friend of Antii)ater, and he became so now of his sons. He confirmed both Phasael and Herod in their authority as tetrarchs ; but his servile passion for Cleopatra leading him to abandon himself to his pleasures, he departed into Egypt : the army in Asia being left under the command of Plancus, and the army in Syria under that of Saxa. This conduct gave occasion to many commotions. The Parthlans, under the command of Labi- enus, a partizan of Brutus and Cassius, who had taken refuge among them, and of Pacorus, a son of their king Orodes, rose against the Romans. By the persuasion of Labienus, they made an irruption into Syria, during w^hich Saxa Avas defeated and killed, and the whole province. Tyre excepted, reduced under their domi- nion. This being done, Pacorus invaded Palestine, deprived Hyr- canus of his government, and gave it to Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus,^ These transactions took place, according to Josephus, " in the ' Dion. H. R. Ub. xlvii. c. 28. " Dion. H. R. lib. xlviii. c. 26, p. 373, ^ Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 11, § 1-4. compared with Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. ^Dion. H. R. lib. xlviii. c.2 and 24, p. c. 13, § 3; and de Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 13, 358, B, 371, B. Appian de Bel. Civil, lib. § 1. V. c. 1. CHAP. 1.1 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 351 second year," that is, two years after the arrival of Antony. Dio, in perfect harmony with Josephus, places them under the consul- ship of C. Asinius Pollio, and Cn. Domitius Calvinus ii. ; that is, in the year of the Julian period 4673, A.u.c. 712-13. And Jose- phus enables us, with tolerable precision, to fix the month. He states, that Pacorus and the Parthians, with Antigonus and the Jews of his party, came unexpectedly upon Jerusalem by a sudden inroad ; that they had daily skirmishes with the party of Hyrcanus, Phasael, and Herod ; and that they lengthened out the contest, until the multitude, from whom they expected aid, should come out of the country to the feast of Pentecost, which was then near at hand} Now, if the year 4673, of the Julian period, be divided by 19, the remainder, 18, will be the golden number of that year, accord- ing to the Nicene computation ; and as it was the fifth year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, the golden number of his cycle was 5. Let the reader turn then to the two calendars as they are placed together in the chapter on the Roman year, and the luna- tions will be found for a.j.p. 4673, Ref. cal. Julius Caesar 5, as follows : Jewish Months. Niceue Calendar. Calendar of Julius Caesar. Shebet 30 d. January 16 January 17 Adar 29 February 14 February 15 Nisan 30 March .. 16 March .. 17 Jyar 29 April 14 April 15 Sivan 30 May 14 + 5 = 19 May 15 + 5 = 20 Tammuz .. 29 June 12 June 13 Ab 30 July .... 12 July.... la Elul 29 August.. 10 August 11 Tisri 30 September 9 September 10 Marchesvan 29 October.. 8 October.. 9 Casleu .... 30 November 7 November 8 Tebeth 29 December 6 December 7 It will, therefore, be seen, that in this year, as well as in a.j.p.4650, whether we use one or the other of these cycles, there is only the difference of a single day in computing the new moons. There cannot, consequently, be any great error; and we may safely assert, that the first day of Nisan fell on the 16th or 17th of March, the Paschal full moon, March 29 or 30 ; and the fifteenth of Nisan, 1 Jos. Ant. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 13, § 3, 4 ; and de Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 13, § 1 3. 352 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II. or the first day of unleavened bread, March 30th or 31st. As Pentecost Is usually calculated from the morrow after the first day of unleavened bread, which makes it fall on the sixth of Sivan, the earliest date, this year must have been the 19th or 20th of May. Hyrcanus and Phasael having been treacherously seized by the Parthians, Herod owed his safety to flight. The circumstances of the nai'rative show, that his flight must have taken place about, or soon after, the feast of Pentecost. He proceeded through Arabia into Egyj^t, sailed from Alexandria for Pamphylia, was driven by a storm upon the Island of Rhodes, and having remained there till he could equip a trireme or three-decked galley, sailed with two of his friends for Italy. At Rome he was received most courte- ously by Antony, on account of their former fi'iendship ; and by Octavianus Caesar, on account of the services rendered to Julius Csesar by Antipater. Caisar assembled the senate, and Herod was presented to the conscript fathers by Messalla and Atratinus, who gave them a full account of the merits of his father, and his own good will to the Romans. They further expatiated upon the hostility of Antigonus, as evinced by his alliance with the Parthians ; and this so irritated the Senate, that when Antony entered, and proposed to make Herod king of Judfea, a decree to that effect was passed by a unanimous vote. Thus did Herod obtain a kingdom, contrary to all his expec- tations, and ivas enalled to depart from Italy in the short space of seven days after his arrival in it. This great event, by which the sceptre departed from Judah, took place, according to Josephus, "in the one hundred and eighty- fourth olympiad, when Domitius Calvinus the second time, and Caius Asinius Pollio, were consuls." ' The flight of Herod cannot be placed earlier, nor much later, than the season of Pentecost a.j.p. 4673; and allowing two months for the various events which have been enumerated between that and his appointment by the Roman senate, — an allowance abundantly sufficient, when we consider his perseverance and indomitable energy, — we cannot be far from the truth if we place about the twentieth day of July, the important decree by which he became king of Judaea. Nothing can more excite the admiration of a devout mind, or lead to a more profound adoration of the Divine government of the 1 Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 14, § 5. CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 353 world, than the ease and rapidity with which the most mighty events are accomplished, or the most subtle schemes of human con- trivance frustrated. In the mean time, Antigonus had carried on the siege of the fortress of Massada, in which Herod had left his family, with about eight hundred soldiers, under the command of his brother Joseph. They had all other necessaries to sustain the siege but water; the want of which was so great, that Joseph had determined to make his escape, with about two hundred men, to the Arabians. This shows that it was in the summer season, and affords circumstantial evidence as to the accuracy of the foregoing computation. In the night preceding the projected escape, they were relieved by a sea- sonable rain, which filled all their cisterns. Herod, on his return from Italy, landed at Ptolemais, now St. Jean d'Acre, and imme- diately began to collect an army of Jews and strangers, with which he marched through Galilee against Antigonus. These preparations consumed the remainder of that year. Early in the consulship of L. Marcius Censorinus and C. Cal- visius Sabinus (a.j.p, 4774, a.u.c. 713-14), the short reconciliation took place between Sextus, the son of the great Pompey, on the one part, and the triumvirate on the other ;' immediately after which, as Plutarch states, Antony sent Ventidius into Asia, to stop the progress of the Parthians. So rapid were the movements of that able general, that he took Labienus by surprise, and utterly routed him, before he could form a junction with the main body of the Parthians. In a second engagement, Pharnapates, the legate of Pacorus, was slain, and the Parthians were finally expelled from Syria. Ventidius then occupied Palestine, and Antigonus, frightened into submission, was obliged to purchase peace with large sums of money.^ Antony wintered this year, according to Plutarch, with his wife Octavia, at Athens, and there learned the successes of Ventidius. In the consulship of Appius Claudius Pulcher and 0. Norbanus Flaccus (a.j.p. 4675, a.u.c. 7 14-15), while Antony was still at Athens, a decisive battle was gained by Ventidius over the Parthians, who had again invaded Syria ; in which battle, Pacorus, with the greater part of his army, was slain. This put an end to their power; and 1 Dion. H. K. lib. xlviii. c. 36, p. 378. ^ lb. lib. xlviii. c. 39-41, p. 380, &c. 45 354 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II. Ventldlus was able to turn, his arms against the insurgents. In the meantime, Herod had prosecuted the war with Antigonus and his party, had taken Joppa, liberated his family from the fortress of Massada, and reduced to his allegiance the greater part of Judsea, Samaria, and Galilee.' Josephus informs us, that Ventidius and his lieutenant Silo were bribed by Antigonus, so that the Avar was lengthened out by unnecessary delays. On the arrival of Antony, whose jealousy was excited by the successes of Ventidius, and who therefore reassumed the command, the affairs of Herod were greatly improved. Sossius was ordered to give him efficient aid ; and thus encouraged, he commenced the siege of Jerusalem. Their united forces consisted of 30,000 men, commanded by Herod ; and eleven legions and 6000 horsemen, with other auxiliaries, under Sossius. Even with this formidable force, it appears from another passage of Josephus, that the siege lasted six months. In a speech made by the historian, exhorting his countrymen to be at peace with the Romans, he enumerated the calamities they had suffered from war, and among the rest, the siege by Herod and Sossius : *' Herod, the son of Antipater, brought Sosius, and Sosius brought the Roman army. They were then encompassed and besieged for six months, until, as a punishment for their sins, they were taken and plundered by the enemy." ^ The siege began in the winter: "as the winter was ceasing or becoming milder," says Josephus.^ According to Dr. Russell, the climate of Aleppo resembles very much that of Judaea ; and he says, " that the natives reckon the severity of the winter to last lut forty days, beginning from the 12th of December and ending the 20th of January; and that this comjDutation comes, in fact, very near the truth." " The narcissus is in flower during the whole of this weather, and hyacinths and violets, at the latest, appear before it is quite over.""* It was the third year since Herod was made king at Rome, as Josephus, in both passages of the Antiquities and the Wars last quoted, expressly states; and the siege continued till the following summer. The city was at length taken by storm. Antigonus surrendered himself to Sosius ; was ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 15, de Bel. Jud. ^ Xt'j^avroQ Sk rov x£t/"^''oe.— Antiq. lib. i. c. 15. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 15. § 14. Xojfi'jaavrog Sk ^ Jos. de Bel. Jud. lib. v. c. 9, § 4. But roii x^'i^'^'^oc-— Bel. Jud. lib. i. e. 17, § 8. in lib. i. c. 18, § 2, he says they endured ** Harmer'sObservations.editedby Adam the siege Jive montlis. " Clarke, American edition, vol. i. p." 132. CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 355 treated with the greatest Insult and ignominy; carried in chains to Antony — scourged — bound to a cross (which no other king had suffered from the Romans) — and finally beheaded.^ " This disaster," says Josephus, " happened to the city of Jerusalem while Marcus Agrippa and Oaninius Gallus were consuls at Rome, in the 185th olympiad, in the third month, on the fast day, as if it were a peri- odical return of the calamity inflicted on the Jews by Pompey; for it was taken by him on the very same day, seven-and-twenty years before."^ In A.j.p. 4650, when Pompey took the city, in the consulship of Cicero and Antonius, the fast of the third month corresponded, as we have seen, with June 19 or 20. But in a.j.p. 4676, which was the consulship of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and L. Caninius Gallus, Sivan came earlier, because it was not an intercalary year. By turning to the tables,^ the reader will see that it was the eighth year of Julius Ceesar's reformed calendar. Consequently the golden number in his cycle Avas eight. Whereas, a.j.p. 4676 divided by 19, leaves two as the remainder or golden number, according to the Nicene computation. The comparative calendar in the chapter on the Roman year,'* exhibits the following lunations, according to both cycles ; and these are here connected with the Jewish arrange- ment of months : Jewish mouths. Nicene 5 2. Julius Caesar ])8. Shebet .... .. 30 January . . 12 January... 14 Adar .. 29 February 10 February 12 Nisan ,. 30 March . . . 12 Marcli . . . 14 Jyar . 29 April 10 April 12 Sivan .. 30 May 10 May 12 Tammuz ., ,. 29 June 8 June 10 Ab . 30 July 8 July 10 Elul . 29 August .. 6 August ... 8 Tisri .. 30 September 5 September 7 Marchesvan 29 October ... 4 October ... 6 Casleu .. 30 November 3 November 5 Tebeth.... .. 29 December 2 December 4 According to the Nicene computation, the new moon of Sivan fell on the tenth of May ; and, according to Csesar's cycle, on the twelfth ^ Comp. Dion. H. R. lib. xlix. c. 22, p. 405, with Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 16, de Bel. Jud. lib. 1. c. 18. * Jos. Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 16, § 4. ^ Part I. chap. 5, p. 140. * Parti, c. 3, oftheRomanyear,p.87-92. 356 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II. of May. Hence the fast of the third month, or the 23rd of Sivan, fell, according to these different computations, the former on the 1st, the latter on the 3rd of June. If, then, we date the beginning of the siege as early as the 1st of January, it must have continued nearly six Jewish months, or five full Roman months ; and, by the capture of Jerusalem on the 1st or 3rd of June, a.j.p. 4676, Herod became king of Jud«a, de facto ^ in the third year after^his appoint- ment by the Roman senate. That appointment could not have been earlier than the 1st or 3rd of June ; for, if it had, the cajrture would have been in the/o?/r^/i, not in the tliird year after it. We have before seen that, in all probability, he must have been ap- pointed by the senate not later than about the 20th of July ; and we now see, that it must have been after the 1st or 3rd of June. We have, therefore, by a comparison of the several dates of this accurate historian, given oftentimes incidentally in both his nar- ratives, ascertained the commencement of Herod's reign within two months ; and this, in the absence of positive and direct testimony, is a degree of success which could hardly have been anticipated. We proceed now to ascertain the date of his death. § II. Josephus, after giving an account of Herod's last wiU and tes- tament, adds : " Having done these things, on the fifth day after he had killed his son Antipater, he died, having reigned, from the time wlien he destroyed Antigonus, four-and-thirty years ; and, from the time when he was proclaimed king by the Romans, seven-and- thirty." The same account is given, with a few verbal alterations, in his narrative of the Jewish war.^ In both, also, the age of the king is mentioned. " Despairing of recovery, for he was about seventy years of age, he raged with the most unmitigated wrath and bitterness on all occasions."^ " His disorder now grew worse and worse, his maladies being aggravated by old age and sorrow ; for he was almost seventy years old, and he was so dejected in spirit, by the calamities brought on him by his children, that, even if he had been well, he could have had no enjoyment."^ As he was now " almost seventy," he must have been, at least, in the thirty-third year of his age, " when he was proclaimed king * Jos. Antiq. Jnd. lib. xvii. c. 8, § 1, ^ Antiq. lib. xviii. c. 6, § L comp. with de Bel. Jiid. lib. i. c. 33, § 8. ' De Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 33, § I. CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 357 by the Romans, seven-ancl-thlrty" years before. Consequently, when his father gave him the government of Galilee, seven years earlier, he must have completed his twenty-fifth, and not his fifteenth year, as the Greek copies now read. I have already men- tioned this in its proper place, and it is now mentioned again, to show that the remarks of the commentators are well-founded, who account for the mistake by the accidental substitution of the Greek numeral t or 10, for k or 20. As to the year of Herod's death, there can be no uncertainty. He was made king by the Eomans about July 20, a.j.p. 4673 From that time 37 complete years being added - - 37 "We arrive at July 20 as the latest possible date in a.j.p, 4710 But the month in which he died not being expressly mentioned, we can arrive at it only by induction. During his last illness, and evidently but a short time before his death, a sedition was excited by two of the Jewish rabbins, named Judas and Matthias, whose pupils, at their instigation, cut down the golden eagle erected by Herod over the great gate of the temple. The king ordered these two rabbins, and those who had actually committed the outrage, to be burned alive. This punish- ment was inflicted on the same day in which Matthias the high priest was deprived of his oflice ; and that very night there was an eclipse of the moon. This eclipse, being in the thirty-seventh year of Herod's reign, occurred between the two extremes, viz. July 20, A.J.P. 4709, and July 20, a.j.p. 4710. We need not trouble our- selves about the lunations in a.j.p. 4709, because it is evident, from the circumstances of the narrative, that the eclipse occurred in the spring, before the passover. We need, therefore, only to examine those of the first months in a.j.p. 4710. That year was the forty-second of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar. Its astronomical marks were, therefore, according to that cycle, solar 14, lunar 4, epact 3 ; while, according to the Nicene computation, they were, solar 6, lunar 17, epact 26. The result of both cycles, compared with the Jewish months, is as follows : 358 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [part II. A.J.P. 4710, A.u.c. 749-50, L. Cornelius Lentulus, M. Valerius Messalinus Cotta Coss. JEWISH MONTHS. BATS Shebet 30 Adar 29 Nisan 30 Jj'ar 29 Sivan 30 Tammuz 29 Ab 30 NICENE CALENDAR. New Moons. Full Moons. Jan. 27 Feb. 9- 10 Feb. 25 Mar. 10- -11 Mar. 27 Apr. 9- ■10 Apr. 25 May 8- -9 May 25 June 7- -8 June 23 July 6- -7 July 23 — CALENDAR OF JULIUS C^SAR. New Moons. Full Moons. Jan. 28 Feb. 10-11 Feb. 26 Mar. 11-12 Mar. 28 Apr. 10-11 Apr. 26 May 9-10 May 26 June 8—9 June 24 July 7—8 July 24 The following calculation of the eclipse is given by Petavius :' Golden Number xvii., Solar Cycle vi., Sund. Letter g. a. Jul. Per. 4710. Mean opposition took place at Paris on the twelfth of March, in the thirteenth hour, after midnight ; at Jerusalem 15h. 48', at which time the equal motions are thus gathered : — O Longit. I O Anomaly. | J) Anomal3\ | Motion of Lat. lis, 17° 55' 51" Is. 9s. 9« 42' 8" O Equation + 2oo;i5;;>g^^^ 53^4,55,, J) Equation — 3° 14 40 ^ 11° 44' "4" I 6s. 5° 43' 26" Time + lOh. 19' O Anomaly 9s. 10° 7' 33;' I Equation + 2o o; 2;') g , „ , Time+ llh. O' ]) Anomaly Is. 17° 21' 2" | Equation — 3° 35' 24") ' True full moon, March 13th, 2h. 48' after midnight. Sun's mean place in the time of the true opposition - - lis. 18° 22' 58" Sun's true place .----.. Us. 20° 23' 0" Therefore subtract, on account of the equation of days, from the time of the true full moon, scruples 3' 10", that it may agree with 2h. 45'. The mean motion of latitude in the time of the true opposition - 6s. 1 1° 47' 1 5" The true motion of latitude ~ - - - - 6s. 8° 11' 51" Latitude - - - - - - - - 42' 31" Semidiameter of the moon 16' 17") o rq/ 10'/ /■kq' m^"o-\ Semidiameter of the umbra 42' 58" j *"™ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ •-' From the sum of the semidiameters, the latitude being subtracted, there remain 16' 45" (16' 44".') Therefore a little more than vi. digits were eclipsed. The square of the sum of the semidiameters = 12,659,364" The square of the latitude - - - = 6,507,601" Difference 6,151,763 The root of the difference = 2478" == 41' 18" which are the scruples of incidence and emersion ; by which, from the true horary motion, the time is obtained by conver- sion Ih. 28'. The beginning of the eclipse at Jerusalem Ih. 17' Middle 2h. 45' End, after midnight 4h. 13' Whole duration 2h. 56' Moon's mean distance + 6s. 5° 35' 26" Moon's equation — Os. 2° 35' 24" Sun's true place — lis. 20° 23' 0" Kemainder, 6s. 0° 0' 0". Sun's mean place, lis. 18° 22' 58" Moon's mean place, 5s. 23° 58' 24" Moon's true place, 5s. 20° 23' 0" ' De Doctrina Temporum, Antv. 1705, fol. torn. i. p. 514-15. CHAP. I.] REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 359 By this calculation, it appears that the eclipse recorded by Josephus, took place in the night of the 12th and 13th of March, A.J.P. 4710, in the fourth year of the 193rd olympiad, being before the parilia, or 21st of April, A.u.c. 749, the forty-second year of the reformed calendar of Julius Caesar, the twenty-eighth year after the battle of Actium, the twentieth year of the tribunicial power of Augustus, in the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Marcus Valerius Messalinus Cotta, and in the 744th year of the aera of Nabonassar. If, according to this calculation, the true full moon took place at Jerusalem 2h. 48' after midnight, on the morning of the 13th of March, the next new moon would follow the vernal equinox, and, consequently, would be the beginning of Nisan, the first month of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. The full moon following, in the night between the 14th and 15th of Nisan, would be the passover, or paschal full moon. If, then, to the true full moon at the time of the eclipse, we add one lunation, it will give us the date of the passover that year as follows : D. H. , True full moon in March . . . . 12 2 48 + one lunation, containing . . . 29 12 44 Sum from midnight of the last day of February . . 41 15 32 From which take the month of March . . 31 0 0 And the remainder is the true paschal full moon in April 10 15 32 aft. midnight. That is, the moon fulled at 32' after 3 o'clock p.m. on the 11th of April ; and, consequently, the paschal feast would commence that evening at the going down of the sun, and the 12th of April would be celebrated as the first day of the feast. Now it appears, from the narrative of Josephus, that Herod was dead and buried, and Archelaus proclaimed king, before the pass- over. This will be rendered evident, by the induction of the fol- lowing facts ; for a more detailed account of which, the reader is referred to Josephus : Antipater, the eldest son of Herod, was then in prison, convicted of an attempt to poison his father ; and ambassadors had been sent to Rome, to obtain the advice and consent of the emperor as to his punishment. In the mean time, Herod went to the baths of Cal- lirhoe, whence he returned to Jericho, despairing of recovery. With a malignant fury, hardly conceivable, he commanded all the 360 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART 11. princij)al men of the Jewish nation to assemble there, on pain of death. A large number came, and were confined in the Hip- podrome. He then exacted a promise from his sister Salome, as he was about to die, that she would cause them all to be massacred, so that the whole nation might observe a great and solemn mourn- ing at his funeral. While he was giving these commands, letters arrived from his ambassadors at Rome, informing him that Csesar left the punish- ment of Antipater to be decided by himself. This pleased, and, for a time, seemed to give him bodily relief. But a new paroxysm was so painful, that he attempted to stab himself; and the tumult this occasioned, led to a report of his death. Antipater, believing it, attempted to bribe his jailer, in order to obtain his liberty ; and Herod, being immediately informed of the attempt, ordered his guards without delay to put Antipater to death. " The fifth day after he had thus killed his son, he himself died" at Jericho. The prisoners in the Hippodrome were immediately liberated, and Archelaus was proclaimed king. Herod was buried at Herodium, about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and two hundred stadia from Jericho ; that is, about seven and a half miles from the one, and twenty-five miles from the other. ^ In the description of the funeral ceremonies, Josephus states in one place, that the procession " went toAvards Herodium eight stadia ; for there, according to his own command, he was buried ;""^ whereas in another he says, describing the same procession, " the body was carried tivo hundred stadia to Herodium, where, accord- ing to his commands, he was buried."^ Whiston attempts to re- concile the two statements, by supposing that they went eight stadia, or furlongs, a day, and consequently that the funeral took up no less than twenty-five days. But this supposition appears to me incredible ; for, according to Reland, two hundred and ten stadia were an ordinary day's journey f and eight stadia, or two thousand cubits, constituted, according to the same author, a sabbath-day's journey.^ I am inclined to think, therefore, that they were obliged ' Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 13, § 9 ; from Jericho, where he died." — Bib. Res. de Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 33, § 9. Dr. Robin- vol. ii. p. 173. It is laid down in his map son has shown very satisfactorily, in his at about north latitude 31° 40', and longi- learned work on Palestine, that the spot tude east from Greenwich 35° 12'. called the Frank Mountain "is the site of ^"ILtaav Sk nrl 'HpuJ^iov TaSia oktw. — the fortress and city Herodium, erected by Antiq. lib. xni. c. 8, § 3. Herod the Great." " To the same place ' De Bell. Jud. lib. i. c. 33, § 9. apparently," he adds, " the body of Herod * Palfestina, tom. i. p. 442. was brought for burial two hundred stadia ^ lb. p. 397. CHAP. I.] IIEIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. 361 to hurry the interment, and consequently began their procession on the sabbath-day. Certain it is, that Archelaus had returned to Jerusalem before the passover, which, as we have seen, was cele- brated on the twelfth of April. For during that festival, as Josephus exjiressly states, that is between the twelfth and nine- teenth, which was its octave, occurred the sedition, occasioned by the irritated feelings of the multitude, on account of those who on the thirteenth of Mai*ch had been burned alive by the orders of Herod. During the conflict on this occasion between the people and the soldiery of Archelaus, three thousand men were killed. " Then," says Josephus, " did Archelaus make proclamation that all should depart to their own homes ; and thus, abandoning the festival, they departed.'" This shows that the paschal week was not yet ended. If then we take into account that, after the funeral, Archelaus continued the public mourning seven days; that the rejoicings at the accession of Archelaus then commenced ; that the religious rites on that occasion, the receiving of petitions, the redress of grievances, the largesses bestowed upon the multitude, and other acts of munificence usual at the beginning of a new reign, would consume several days, — it will not be deemed an un- reasonable allowance to place the conclusion of the funeral cere- monies about the end of March. And this being admitted, the following adjustment of dates will be considered as probable : A.J.P. 4710, A.u.c. 749, Eef. Cal. Jul. Cas. 42, Herod's reign, 37. The execution of Judas, Matthias, and their companions, took place the day preceding the night of the eclipse . . . March 12 The death of Antipater may be placed about . . . „ 16 The death of Herod on the fifth day after . . . „ 21 The ceremonies of the funeral, the interment, and the return of Arche- laus to Jerusalem, may well be included within the space of ten days from March 22 to 31 .... ,,22-31 The mourning for seven days from .... April I would end on the . . . . ,,7 Sacrifices and religious solemnities . . . . „ 8 Public rejoicings for the accession of Archelaus for three days . „ 9-11 The Passover, being just one month after the execution of Judas, Matthias, and others, would naturally excite the feelings of the people . . . . . . „ 12 These led to seditions and tumults, terminated by the slaughter of about 3,000 of the people .... „ 15 People, by proclamation, ordered to disperse . . . „ 16 Paschal week ended . . . . . „ 18 Immediately after the Paschal week, Archelaus sets out for Rome, to be confirmed in his kingdom by the empei-or Augustus. It is evident, from the narrative of the Evangelists, that our ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xvii, c. 9, §3. 46 362 REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT. [PART II. Lord Jesus Christ " was born in the clays of Herod the king ;" that he was " two years old, or under," when the massacre of the innocents took place at Bethlehem ; that, previous to the massacre, he had been carried into Egypt ; and that he returned, yet a small child, after Herod's death. ^ By ascertaining the date of Herod's death, therefore, we have arrived at the latest limit of that period in which his birth could have taken place. We had previously ascertained, in the first part of the present work,^ the earliest limit of the same period, by determining in what year Augustus shut for the third time the gates of the temple of Janus. The wiiole question now ranges between the spring of the year 4707, and the spring of the year 4710 of the Julian period, corresponding with the Julian years 39, 40, 41, and 42, or from the seventh to the fourth before the common Christian sera. We might proceed to consider such circumstantial evidence as would have weight in narrowing the limits of that interval still more. But the full force of such evi- dence will be much better perceived at a later stage of our inquiry. » St. Matth. ii. 1, 14, 15, 16, 19-23. * Part i. chap.ix. CHAP. IT.] 363 CHAPTER II. ON THE DATE OF PILATE'S ADMINISTRATION. Keasons why the exact date of our Lord's death should be examined first. — He suffered under Pontius Pilate. — The first step, therefore, is to fix the limits of Pilate's admin- istration.— Herod died March 21, a.j.p. 4710. — Archelaus banished probably in June A.J.P. 4719. — Coponius governor of the Jews. — Eeturns to Rome probably in May or June A.J.P. 4720, and Ambivius succeeds him. — He is followed by Annius Rufus, who was in office when Augustus died, Aug. 19, A. J p. 4726. — In his stead, Tiberius imme- diately sends Valerius Gratus. — His administration of eleven years ends at the beginning of the twelfth year of Tiberius Csesar, or after Augaist 19, a.j.p. 4737. — Pontius Pilate his successor. —Pilate's administration continued ten years, and there- fore ended after August 19, a.j.p. 4747. — Deprived by Vitellius, who sent Marcellus in his stead. — Vitellius himself goes to Jerusalem at the Passover. Question what Passover this could have been. Reasons for believing it to be that of a.j.p. 4748, which fell on the 9th or 10th of April. — Vitellius not only sends away Pilate, but deposes Ca'iaphas from the high priesthood. — Reflections. — Tiberius dies before the Passover of A.J.P. 4749. — Pilate arrives in Rome after his death. L^ads probably a life of insignificance, and perhaps remorse, and finally kills himself in the third year of Caligula, or a.j.p. 47-51, a.d. 38. In the nature of things the death of Christ would be a subject of more notoriety than his birth. It was, therefore, an event at the precise date of which we can arrive with much greater ease ; and when it is ascertained, we can compute backward to the time of his birth with far greater certainty than if we should attempt to reverse the process. Accordingly, such has been the usual method taken in previous investigations. For this purpose then, agreeably to the plan hitherto pursued, the first object will be to determine the extreme limits within which our Lord's death could have happened, and then, by accumulation of evidence, to approximate, as nearly as the nature of that evidence will permit, towards an unerring result. That our Lord "suffered under Pontius Pilate," is certain. The first step, therefore, must be to fix the date of his administra- tion, by ascertaining when it began and when it ended. 364 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part ii. After the death of Herod, which took place, as we have seen in the last chapter, on or about the 21st of March, a.j.p. 4710, Archelaus went to Rome to be confirmed in his kingdom by the emperor Augustus. Here he met with very considerable opposi- tion, but was finally appointed by Augustus, etJmarch of one half of his father Herod's dominions ; the other half being divided into two parts, and given, under the name of Tetrarchies, to his brothers, Herod Philip, and Herod Antipas. His eihnarchy in- cluded Judsea, Samaria, and Idumsea ; and it was given to him on the condition that if he reigned virtuously, he should receive the royal dignity.^ But the Jews having frequently petitioned to be annexed to Syria, and ruled over by its presidents as a Roman province, and fresh complaints having been made by the principal men of Judaea and Samaria, of the barbarous and tyrannical con- duct of Archelaus, the emperor first sent for him to Rome, and finally banished him to Vienna in Gaul, the modern Vienne. This occurred, according to Josephus, in the tenth year of his reign. ^ Computing the reign of Archelaus from the death of Herod, March 21, a.j.p. 4710, nine years would be fully ended, and the tenth would begin March 21, a.j.p. 4719. Cyrenius, or Quirinius, the governor of Syria (the same person mentioned by St. Luke, ch. ii. V. 2) was commissioned to confiscate the property of Arche- laus, and to impose a tax upon the nation. For this purpose Coponius, a Roman knight, was sent with him as governor of the Jews ; and this sale of the goods of Archelaus and completion of the census " took place," says Josephus, " in the thirti/seventh year^'' after the victory over Antony at Actium.^ Now the battle of Actium, as we have seen,"* was fought on the second of September, a.j.p. 4682 ; and consequently the thirty- seventh year from that victory ended on the first of September, a.j.p. 4719. As, therefore, the summons of Archelaus to Rome took place in the tenth year of his reign, which hegan March 21, A.J.P. 4719, and the confiscation of his property in the thirty- seventh year after the battle of Actium, which ended Sej^tember, A.J.P. 4719, it is evident that the banishment of Archelaus, the sale of his effects, and the levying of a tax on the nation, all took place within the space of five months. 1 Jos. Ant. lib. .wii. c. 11, § 4. ^ Jos. Antiq. x\iii. c. 1, § 1, comp. with 3 lb. lib. xvii. c. 13, § 2. c. 2, § 1. ^ See part i. chap. vii. p. 197. CHAP. II.] DATE OF PILATE's ADMINISTRATION. 365 Archelaus had a remarkable dream, in Avliich he saw ten full ears of wheat devoured by oxen, the interpretation of Avhich was that his government would end at the tenth harvest. Within five days after this vision he was summoned to Rome.^ I assign this event, therefore, to the month of June, soon after the wheat harvest, which in Judea generally occurs in that month, leaving time enough before tlie beginning of September for the acts of administra- tion assigned to Cyrenius.* The banishment of Archelaus, there- fore, must, in all probability, have taken place in June, in the con- sulship of Aulus Licinius Nerva Silianus, and Quintus Csecilius Metellus Creticus, A.u.c. 759, at the end of the first year of the 196th olympiad, in the 51st year of Caesar's reformed calendar, and the 753rd year of Nabonassar. I infer from the narrative of Josephus, that Coponius was not an efficient governor, and was, therefore, unacceptable to the nation ; for after mentioning in connexion with his name a very remarkable act of sacrilege committed by the Samaritans at the passover, the historian adds, that not long after Coponius returned to Rome, and Marcus Ambivius came as his successor in the government of Judtea.^ This must have been the passover fol- lowing the banishment of Archelaus and the confiscation of his effects; and as in a.j.p. 4720 there were thirteen lunations, and the paschal full moon fell on the eighteenth or nineteenth of April, we may place the succession of Ambivius in May or June of that year.t To Ambivius succeeded Annius Rufus, during whose administra- tion, says Josephus, occurred the death of Augustus, and the suc- cession of Tiberius ; that is, his succession to sole and unlimited authority, August 19th, a.j.p. 4726. During the life-time of Augustus, the deep dissimulation of Tiberius caused him to smother the resentments occasioned by the evident unwillingness of the former to trust him. But no sooner was all restraint and fear removed, than he hastened to show his hatred by reversing the appointments of his predecessor. Hence Valerius Gratus was 1 Jos. Ant. lib. xvii. c. 13, § 3. + The reader can easily make the calcu- * For the time of wheat harvest in Ju- lations, by means of the golden numbers daea, I refer to Dr. Kobinson's Biblical in the cycles of Caesar's calendar, or of the Researches, as one of the most accurate Nicene. According to the former, the and consequently most valuable works on Golden Number was xiv ; accordiu"- to the Holy Laud. the latter, viii. * - Jos. Ant. Jud. lib. xviii. c. 2, § 2. 366 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part ii. sent by him to replace Annius Rufus in the government of Judsea. Gratus, having spent eleven years in Judaea, returned to Rome, and " Pontius Pilate/' says Josephus, " came as his successor."' If then we add eleven complete years, we shall be brought to August 19th, A.j.p. 4737, the beginning of the twelfth year of the sole reign of Tiberius, as the earliest possible date of Pilate's ad- ministration. This computation accords with the view which Eusebius took of the same passage ; for he says in one place that Pilate was appointed procurator of Judaea by Tiberius in the twelfth year of his reign ; and in another that the fifteenth year of Tiberius was the fourth of the government of Pilate. He must, therefore, have considered the first of Pilate and the twelfth of Tiberius as beginning about the same time.^ This is all that we do or can know as to the beginning of Pilate's administration, Josephus being the only authority aj^pealed to by the early Christian writers. Its termination is related by the same historian in the following manner : " This tumvilt being quelled, the Senate of the Samaritans sent to Vitellius, a man of consular dignity who held the government of Syria, and accused Pilate for the slaughter of those who had perished ; because they had gone to Tirathaba, not to revolt from the Romans, but to escape from the outrage of Pilate. Where- upon Vitellius sent his friend Marcellus to take charge of the affairs of the Jews, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, and give an account to the emperor concerning the things of which the Jews accused him. AYherefore Pilate, when he had remained over Judcea ten years, departed for Rome in obedience to the commands of Vitellius, which he dared not resist. But before he arrived in Rome Tiberius was dead."^ We have seen that the earliest possible date of the beginning of Pilate's administration was Aug. 19, A.j.p. 4737. Consequently, ten complete years being added, the earliest date at which Vitel- lius could have sent Marcellus was after the 19th of August, a.j.p. 4747, the beginning of the twenty-second year of Tiberius. But Josephus says that Pilate had not yet arrived in Rome when Tiberius died; and his death occurred^ March 16th, A.J.P. 4749. The period of time, therefore, which elapsed between the dismissal • Jos. Antiq. lib. xviii. c. 2, § 2. ^ Jos. Antiq. lib. xviii. c. 4, § 2. - Euseb. H. E. lib. i. c. 2, comp. c. 10. * See part i. chap. xi. p. 265. CHAP. II.] DATE OF I^ILATE's ADMINISTRATION. 367 of Pilate from office and his arrival in Kome, must have been, at least, nearly one year and seven months. Josejihus says that he dared not resist the commands of Vitellius ; and his administration had been so odious to the Jews that he would not willingly remain among them as a private man. The difficulty then is, how to account for so long a period of time between the deposition of Pilate and his arrival in Rome. It is, in the first place, to be remarked, that because Josephus connects the arrival of Pilate in Rome after the death of Tiberius, with the end of his administration in Judaea, we have no right to infer that the one event speedily succeeded the other. It is no uncommon thing for an historian, when he is about to dismiss a subject of inferior interest, to say at once all he has to say about it, without reference to time ; and it is very probable that the mo- tive of Josephus, in mentioning the fact of Pilate's arrival after the death of Tiberius, was merely to intimate that he thereby escaped the punishment due to his nefarious conduct. In the second place, it must be observed that extortion and cruelty were not such crimes, in the estimation of Roman governors, as would lead them to punish an offender with great severity. There is not the least evidence that Pilate was sent as a prisoner to Rome, or that Vitellius was disposed to become his accuser. The presumption is quite to the contrary; and, although, from political motives, he might think it expedient to humour so tur- bulent a people by removing an obnoxious procurator, we have no reason to suppose that he treated Pilate with any personal severity. He would give him time enough to arrange his affairs, to secure his witnesses, and to prepare his defence against any accusations which the Jews might bring against him before the emperor. All this, I think, may be fairly inferred from the subsequent narrative. In the next section after the passage I have quoted, Josej^hus immediately adds, that " Vitellius, departing from Judsea, came up to Jerusalem in the time of their feast, which is called the Passover, and being received with great pomp and ceremony, he remitted to the whole inhabitants the tax upon provisions, and allowed the priests to have the care of the pontifical garments and ornaments laid up in the temple as they formerly had ;" a privilege of which they had been deprived by Herod. To gratify the nation, he also 368 DATE OF Pilate's administration. [part ii. removed Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, from the high-priesthood, and substituted for him Jonathan, the son of Ananus.' It is hardly possible not to interrupt the narrative here, for the purpose of remarking the visible signs of Divine retribution thus falling, at the same time, upon the iniquitous Roman governor and the wicked high-priest under whose administration our Lord was condemned to death. The cry, " Thou art not Csesar's friend," impelled Pilate to sin against the convictions of his own conscience; and " We have no king but Caesar," was the false exclamation of the high-priest to glut the purposes of his revenge. And now, by the authority of that same Csesar, both are degraded from their dignity. Josephus proceeds to state that Vitellius, having returned to Antioch, received letters from Tiberius, commanding him to enter into friendly relations with Artabanus, king of the Parthians ; but while these letters were sent to Vitellius, Tiberius was secretly endeavouring, by bribes, to excite the kings of the Iberians and the Albanians to make war upon Artabanus. The hostilities occasioned by these intrigues terminated in favour of Artabanus ; and Tibe- rius, having heard the result, thought proper to make new over- tures of friendship to Artabanus. This led to an interview be- tween Vitellius and the king ; and not long after, the latter sent his son Darius as a hostage to Tiberius. - It is unnecessary to pursue this history further, because what has now been said is sufficient to show at what passover Vitellius went to Jerusalem. Marcellus, as we have seen, was sent by him to supersede Pilate after the nineteenth of August, a.j.p. 4747 ; and Tiberius died March 16th, a.j.p. 4749. Now if the reader will take the pains to reckon the lunations of a.j.p, 4748 and 4749, by means of the tables given in Part i. chapters iii. and iv. he will find that the paschal full-moon for a.j.p. 4748 fell on the 9th or 10th of April, and the paschal full-moon for a.j.p. 4749 fell on the 29th or 30th of March, a fortnight after the death of Tiberius. When, there- fore, we take into account all the proceedings respecting Ar- tabanus \n\\\q\\ folloioed the visit of Vitellius at Jerusalem, and preceded the death of Tiberius, we cannot fixil to be convinced that ' Jos. Antii]. Jiul. lib. xviii. c. 4, § 3. ' lb. ut sup, § 4, .5, compaiv with § .3. CHAP. II.] DATE OF PILATE's ADMINISTRATION. 369 it was the passover of a.j.p. 4748. Consequently, as the feast of the passover continued eight days, Vitellius would not leave Jeru- salem on his return to Antioch till after the 17th or 18th of April. We may, therefore, place the departure of Pilate at the same time with that of Vitellius, not far from the beginning of May, A.J.P. 4748, at the beginning of A.U.C. 788, and in the 35th year of the common Christian sera. Where he spent the next eleven months it is in vain to conjec- ture. In reviewing the life of Tiberius, we have seen that his health had begun to decline before this period, and that, in the year of which we are now speaking, he roamed from place to place, like a wild beast tormented and furious. Pilate could not but be awai'e of the emperor's condition, and that, in all probabilit}^ his death was not far remote. As to his own personal safety, every- thing was to be gained, and nothing lost, by delay. He, therefore, contrived to lengthen out the time of his journey in every possible way, and did not arrive in Rome till Caligula was seated on the throne. He seems then to have remained in obscurity, unknown or disregarded, until at length, being weary of life, and perhaps tor- mented by the reproaches of his own conscience, in the second year of Caligula, according to Orosius, or the third, according to Euse- bius, he laid violent hands upon himself ' The third year of Caligula began on the 16th of March, a.j.p. 4751, in the 38th year of the vulgar sera. Such was the end of Pilate ! ^ Anno tertio Caii Caligiilse, Pontius Pilatns, in multas incidens calamitates, propria se manu interficit. — Euseb. Chron. 47 370 [part II. CHAPTER III. testimony of the latin church as to the date of our saviour's death. Reason for first examining the testimony of the Latins.— Care of the Romans about their archives. — Chain of testimony.— Public libraries — Resort of literary men. — Public records there preserved.— Not destroyed certainly till the fifth century. — Among these archives the acts of Pilate. — Testimony of Tertullian. — His character, and value of his testimony. — His statement as to the time of our Saviour's cruci- fixion.— Lactantius; character and testimony.— St. Augustine. — Sulpicius Severus. — Orosius. — Victorius of Aquitaine. — Liber Pontificalis. The testimony of the Latin church should first be examined, be- cause in Rome, and in Rome only, could such documents be found and consulted, as would establish facts and dates beyond contra- diction. It is well known that no nation was ever more careful than the Romans, as to monuments of all kinds commemorative of their own greatness. " Many," says Josephus, " disbelieve what is written concerning us by the Persians and Macedonians, because they are not deposited everywhere in places of public resort, but are kept more privately among us and some others of the barbarians. The decrees of the Romans, however, cannot be contested, since they are deposited in the most public places of their cities, and to this day are inscribed in the Capitol and also on pillars of brass.'" The pride and vanity of the nation were specially interested in the preservation of these monuments, and in rendering them easy of access. Hence they were kept with great vigilance in the places set apart for that purpose, but could be freely visited and con- sulted by all classes of persons. Here then was the common centre ; and even if we had no special and positive evidence, we ^ Jos. Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv. c. 10, § 1. CHAP. III.] DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH. 371 might infer, from the usual order of things, that the best informa- tion, concerning the affairs of the provinces, was to be obtained at the metropolis of the Roman world. But fortunately we have a chain of testimony remaining, with regard to the existence of these documents, and the places where they were preserved, for more than four hundred years, which in itself is extremely curious, and is especially important to our present purpose. According to the topography of Publius Victor, there were twenty-nine public libraries in Rome, of which the Palatine and the Ulpian were the principal.* Both Dio and Suetonius speak particularly of the foundation of the Palatine library by Augustus. The modern word palace is derived from the Palatine, because that mount was occupied principally by the residence of the Caesars. A portion of that residence having been struck by lightning, the haruspices declared that it was a sign from Heaven of the will of Apollo, that a temple should be erected there to his honour.^ This was done by Augustus, and the new structure was called the ApoUineum.^ With it he connected a library, in which, when he was old, he often held the meetings of the senate, and convened for revision the judicial courts. He completed and dedicated this temple with the area around it, and the lilrary in his sixth consulship with Agrippa II. (a.j.p. 4685, A.u.c. 724-5), the 29th year before the common Christian sera.^ So early as in the time of Julius Caesar, Varro was charged to collect and arrange as many Latin and Greek books as he could ; and Augustus in like manner gave it in charge to Pompeius Macer to arrange his libraries.* Such was the Palatine library; and that it continued to be im- proved and embellished by Tiberius, appears from a remark of Suetonius concerning the statue of Apollo Temenetes, which had been brought at the close of his reign from Syracuse to be placed * Of this -writer I can find no satisfac- desiderari a deo haruspices pronuntiarunt. tory notice ; but he appears to have des- Addidit portions, cum bibliotheca Latina cribed Rome as it was before the ravages Grsecaque ; quo loco jam senior S£epe committed by the Goths under Alaric, etiam senatum habuit, decuriasque judi- A.D. 410. I found it in the collection of cum recognovit.— Sueton. Octavianus, c. Boissard. The passage here referred to 29, ed. Wolfii, Lips. 1802, torn, i. p. 145-6. is as follows: Bibliothecse undetriginta ' Templum Apollinis, says Suetonius, publicse ; ex iis prsecipure duje, Palatina, KtvoXKoviiov, says Dion, Ub. liii. c. 1, p. et Ulpia. — P. Vict, de Region. Urb. Rom. 496, d. ap. Boissardi Antiq. Roman, torn. i. ^ Dion. H.R. ut sup. ^ Templum Apollinis in ea parte Pala- ^ Sueton. Jul. Caesar, c. 44 and 56, ed. tinae domus excitavit, quam fulmine ictam Wolfii, tom. i. pp. 61, 67. 372 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH [PART II. " in the library of the new teimple^'^ There was another library in the Campus Martius, built five years earlier with the spoils of the Dalmatians, in the consulship of Octavius Csesar ii. and Volcatius Tullus, or A.J.P. 46S0, a.U.C. 719-20, thirty-four years before A.D. 1, It was called Octaviana, in honour of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; and was entirely consumed, with its hooks, as Dion carefully informs us, in the consulship of Titus viii. and Domitian VII., or A.D. 79, one hundred and fourteen years after its founda- tion.^ The ruins, if I mistake not, still exist, in the Jews' quarter in Kome. The Ulpian library was founded by Trajan, as is proved by his coins, in the consulship of Trajan vi. and Africanus, A.D. 111. For all these references I am indebted to the learned editor of Dion Cassius. That these libraries were places of resort for literary persons. Is rendered evident by occasional remarks of Aulus Gellius. " As we happened to be sitting in the library of TrajavCs temple, and were searching for something else, the edicts of the old praetors fell into our hands, and we were allowed to read and study them."^ And in another place he says, " While Sulpicius Apollinaris and myself were sitting with some others, either his or my friends, in the library of the house of Tiberius^'' &c.^ Aulus Gellius lived in the second century, was a cotemporary of Justin Mai-tyr, and a little older than Tertullian ; for he died at the beginning of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. That the public recoi'ds relating to the reigns of the several em- perors were connected with these libraries, appears from various incidental notices, at various epochs. AVe have already seen that Aulus Gellius, in searching for some other documents, found the edicts of the old praetors. These were, in fact, the decisions of the judges ; and from what Suetonius says, in the passage already cited, that Augustus, when he was old, held the sessions of the senate and convened for revision the judicial courts (decurias judi- cum recognovit), in the library of the Apollineum, it is probable 1 In bibliotheca novi Terapli. — Sueton. incidissent,letjereatquecognoscere libitum Tiber, c. 74, ed. Wolfii, torn. i. p. 324. est. — Aulus Gellius Noct. Alt. lib. xi. 17. ^ Dion. C. lib. xlix. 43, compared with " Quum in domus TiberiancE bibliotheca se- lib. Ixvi. 24. deremtis, ego, et Apollinaris Sulpicius et ' Edieta veterum pra?torum, sedentibus quidem alii mihi aut illi familiares, &c. — forte nobis in bibliotheca templi Trajani, et Ibid. lib. xiii. c. 19. aliud quid requirentibus, quum in manus CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 373 that the public records of the empire were then deposited there for his convenience, were afterwards removed, in consequence, perhaps, of the great fire in Nero's reign, and in the time of Gellius were in the Ulpian library connected with the Temple of Trajan, in the forum which bore his name. Vopiscus, who flourished early in the fourth century, under Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus, mentions the offer of Junius Tiberianus to furnish him with the journals and other documents relating to the reign of Aurelian which were in the Ulpian library.^ The same author, in his life of the emperor Probus, tells his friend Celsus, that he had chiefly used the books from the Ulpian library, and also from the house of Tiberius ; both which collections were, in his time, de-posited in the baths of Diocletian.^ We may, I think, infer from these passages, that after Diocletian had finished the magnificent fabric which went under the name of his Thermae, — but which, in reality, brought together all that the arts and sciences could furnish, — the different libraries and collections of records were arranged there, under their ancient names, as the Ulpian library, the library of the house of Tiberius, &c. &c. We now arrive at the question, When were these records de- stroyed ? And here may properly be introduced an important ob- servation of Suetonius. He relates, that Domltian repaired the libraries which had suffered by conflagration, collected books from all quarters, and sent persons to Alexandria, to copy anew, or mend, those which had been consumed or injured. He adds, however, that Domitian himself paid no attention to history, or poetry, or other literature, and read nothing frequently, excepting the Com- mentaries and Acts of Tiberius Caesar.^ The fire here referred to, was probably that of which mention has already been made, as having taken place in the reign of Titus, ^ Ephemeridas illius viri scriptas habe- nana.— Hist. Aug. Scriptores, ut supra, p. mus, etiam bella, charactere historico di- 233. gesta, quae velim accipias, et per ordinem ' Liberalia studia imperii initio neglexit, scribas, additis quae ad vitam pertinent, quamquam bibliothecas incendio absump- Qufe omnia ex libris linteis, in quibus ipse tas impensissime reparare curasset, exem- quotidiana sua sci-ibi prseceperat, pro tua plaribus undique petitis, missisque Alex- sedulitate condisces. Curabo autem ut andriam qui describerent emendarentque. tibi ex Ulpia bibliotheca et libri lintei pro- Numquam tamen aut historise carmini- ferantur.— Vopisci Aurelianus, ap. Hist, busve noscendis, operam illam aut stilo vel Aug. Scriptores, ed. Salmas, Paris, 1620. necessario dedit. Praeter Commentarios et ^ Usus autem sum, ne in aliquo fallam Acta Tiberii Casaris nihil lectitabat. — charissimam mihi familiaritatem tuam, Sueton. Domitian. c. 20, ed. Wolfii, torn, praecipue libris ex bibliotheca Ulpia, cFtate ii. p. 299. mea, thermis Diocletianis, item ex domo Tide- 374 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH — [PART II. A.D. 79, by which the Octavian library was consumed. Dio, in his account of the calamities which befel the city of Rome, particularly notices all the fires, and what they consumed ; but he records none, before the great fire of Nero, which could have affected the public records. An ancient inscription, preserved by Gruter, mentions that conflagration as having continued nine days ; and Dion says, that the whole of the Palatine was burned.^ But the public archives would have been the first to be removed to a place of safety ; and the passage from Suetonius last cited, proves to us that the Commentaries and acts of Tiberius Caesar were saved. The libraiy, also, of the house of Tiberius, was seen, not only by Gellius, but also, at a much later period, by Vopiscus. In the reign of Commodus, the temple of Peace was burned ; but, while Dio men- tions the loss of much merchandize, he says nothing of books.^ These he certainly would have mentioned, if any had been lost ; much more would he have mentioned public records. His silence is the strongest evidence that no such calamity took place. Vo- piscus also lived long after the time of Commodus. The incidental notices now given, the more convincing because they are incidental, appear to me to prove clearly that the public records of the Roman empire were laid up in public buildings, as public records are at the present day ; that these buildings were libraries, like the Biblioth^que du Roi at Paris, or the British Museum in London ; that, as Rome had, and dreaded, no rival, all persons could freely go thither, to consult and take extracts from the archives ; that these consisted of diaries of events, collections of law, decisions of courts, acts of administration, letters, accounts, reports from the provinces, registers of every kind, and, in a word, all that pertained to the government of that mighty empire. There is also, as I think, the strongest presumptive evidence that they were guarded with the utmost care ; that they were not allowed to be destroyed by any of the great conflagrations by which the city was occasion- ally visited ; and, consequently, that, so long as Rome Avas safe from foreign foes, and independent of foreign masters, that is, until the conquest of the Goths, and other northern nations, or the fifth century of the Christian sera, they were in perfect preservation. With these preliminary observations, I pass on to consider the 'Quando urbs per novem dies arsit Neronianis temporibus. — Gruter, Ixi. 3. Dion. Cassius, Ixii. 18. * Dion. C. lib. Ixxii. 24. CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 375 testimony which has descended to us from the early Christian writers of the Latin Church, in defending the truths of the Gospel, against the attacks of their Heathen and Jewish adversaries. The limits of our subject, confine us to evidence concerning the time of our Saviour's birth and death. That Pontius Pilate transmitted to Rome an accurate account of that event, there can be no reasonable doubt. All the presidents and procurators of the Roman provinces, were required to report their proceedings annually. If, therefore, there were no direct testimony, the fact would be credible, that Pilate, in relating the events of that year, could not have omitted an occurrence so re- markable, and in which he himself had so eminent a share, as that of the crucifixion of Jesus. But we have the direct testimony of Tertullian, that Pilate did transmit such an account ; and, from the manner in which Tertul- lian gives this testimony, we may fairly infer, not only that this document still existed, but that it had been actually seen hy Mm in the Roman Archives. For in his defence of Christianity against heathenism, written about the year 198, and addressed to the rulers of the Roman Empire, (Romani Imperii Antistites), he says : *' As to his [Christ's] doctrine, by which the rulers and chief men of the Jews were convicted, they were so exasperated, chiefly because a great multitude had become his followers, that finally, when he was brought before Pontius Pilate, who, in behalf of the Romans was then a procurator of Syria, they, by the violence of their clamours, extorted that he should be delivered up to them to be crucified. He himself had predicted that they would do thus. But this would have had little weight, if the prophets had not before predicted the same thing. And yet, when crucified, he voluntarily gave up his spirit with a word, thereby anticipating the office of the executioner. At the same moment the meridian light was withdrawn, the sun hiding his orb. They who did not know that this was predicted concerning the Christ, thought that it was an eclipse ; and, reason not comprehending this, they denied it, although you have in your Archives the relation of that phenomenon.''^^ 1 Ad doctrinam vero ejus qua revince- parte Romana procuranti, violentia suffra- bantur magistri, primoresque Judsorum, giorum in crucem dedi sibi extorserint. ita exasperabantur, maxime quod ad eum Pi*a?dixerat et ipse ita facturos. Parum ingens multitudo deflecteret, ut postremo hoc, si non et prophetae retro. Et tamen oblatum Pontio Pilato Syriam tunc ex suffixus, spiritum cum verbo sponte di- 376 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH — [PART 11. Tertullian then proceeds to narrate the caution of the Jews, in placing a guard over the sepulchre, the resurrection of our Lord, the subsequent reports among the Jews that the body had been stolen by the disciples, and other events, ending with his commission to the apostles, and his ascension into heaven. After which he adds: " All these things concerning Christ, Pilate, who toas already inhisown conscience a Christian, then announced to Tiberius Caisar^^ To estimate properly the value of this testimony, it is important to consider the character of the witness. Tertullian is the earliest Christian writer among the Latins whose works have reached our times. He was probably born about the year 160 of the common Christian sera ; and was, therefore, not far from thirty-eight years old when he wrote the work from which the above extract is made. He speaks of himself in it as having been once a derider of the Christian faith. ^ As there were in those times of persecution no worldly motives for becoming Christians, but, on the contrary, every worldly motive to deter men from it, we can have no doubt that he acted from the fullest conviction and the purest motives. Was he then a man who would be easily swayed ? On the contrary, his character was inflexible, even to obstinacy. Was he ignorant and disposed blindly to adopt either systems of opinion or matters of fact ? So far from this, Eusebius tells us that he was a man most profoundly and accurately learned in the laws of the Romans, on other subjects eminent, and among the most illustrious at Rome.' " What Origen was among the Greeks," says Vincent of Lerins, " such was Tertullian among the Latins, acknowledged by common consent as the chief of our writers. What could exceed the learning of this man, or what greater experience than his in things divine and human?"'* raisit, praevento carnificis officio. Eodem * Haec et nos risimus aliquando. De momento, dies media orbem signante sole vestris fuimus. Fiunt, non nascuntur subducta est. Deliquium utique putave- Christiani. — c. xviii. runt, qui id quoque super Christo prsedi- ^ TfprouXXiavoc roi'c 'Pwfiaiwv vofiovg catum non scierunt; ratione non depre- ^lopigujKwc. dvijp,TaTi dWaiv^o^o^, Kai hensa, negaverunt, et tamen eum mundi ca- riZv naXiara Itti 'Pw/i>;c Xa^irpuiv. — Ec. sum relatum in arcanls [some read archivis^ Hist. lib. ii. c. 2, ed. Reading, torn. i. p. vestris habetis. 47. 1 Ea omnia super Christo Pilatus, et ipse * Sicut ille apud Graecos, ita hie apud jam pro sua conscientia Christianus Ccesari Latinos nostrorum omnium facile princeps turn Tiberio nunciavit. — Apologeticus ad- judicandus est. Quid enim hoc viro doc- versus Gentes, c. 21, Opera, ed. Rigaltii, tins, quid in di\-inis atque humanis rebus 1641, p. 22; ed. Semleri, torn. v. 58-60; exercitatius ? — Commonitorium, ed. Balu- ed. Havercamp. 1718, p. 207-8,210-11. zii, 1669, p. 345. CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 377 The ancients generally speak of him with admiration, as a man of wonderful abilities, possessed of great acuteness and vigour of thought, astonishing powers of memory, and the most profound and varied erudition. Such a man would not become a convert to the faith he once derided without the most patient and laborious investigation. What then were his means and facilities for investi- gation ? Though his father was not of very high rank, being only a proconsular centurion, yet being thus connected with the army, his son could not fail to have free access to all sources of informa- tion concentrated in the capital of the world ; of course he could have access to the Roman archives. It is somewhat doubtful whom he addressed under the title of Antistites of the Roman empire, whether they were the senate or officers appointed by the Emperor. Severus was then absent on his expedition against the Parthians ; and that, in all probability, was the reason why Tertullian, in writing an apology for the Christians, employed this unusual mode of address. But, whoever these persons in authority may have been, he would never have ventured to appeal to the Roman archives, or to assert that Pilate gave an account to Tiberius of the particulars he enumerates, unless he had himself examined the archives, and read this original document. What, then, is the amount of his testimony ? It is, that the extraordinai'y darkness which took place at the Crucifixion, and which some took to be an eclipse, till their reason taught them, that at the full moon there could be no solar eclijose, was con- tained in a narrative laid up in the Roman archives. And further, that all the particulars respecting the crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, of our Saviour, were communicated to the emperor Tibe- rius by Pontius Pilate, who was, in liis conscience, convinced of their truth. It is almost a necessary inference, that the document thus spoken of, was the identical document laid up in the Roman archives, and confidently appealed to by Tertullian, because he himself had seen and examined it. And now let us proceed to examine what Tertullian himself states as to the time of our Saviour's crucifixion. Speaking of the times predicted by Daniel, and commenting parti- cularly on the seventy weeks, and the expression, " after three-score and two weeks shall Messiah be cut off" (exterminabitur Unctio), he says, " The Messiah, in that passage, was cut off after the passion 48 378 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH — [PART Ilf. of Christ. For it had been foretold that the Messiah there should be cut oflP, as in the psalms of the prophets, They piei'ced my hands and my feet ;* which passion of this piercing (hujus exterminii), was finished within the times of the seventy weeks, under Tiberius Csesar, Kubellius Geminus and Fufius Geminus being consuls, in the month of March, in the season of the Passover, on the eighth day before the calends of April (March 2oth), on the first day of unleavened bread, in which it had been commanded by Moses that at evening they should kill the lamb."' The next Latin writer in the order of time, who was led by his subject to mention the date of our Saviour's death, and whose writings have come down to us, is Lactantius. His parents were heathens ; but as he himself studied rhetoric under Arnobius, it is very probable that by him he was converted to the Christian faith. From the beauty of his style, he is called the Christian Cicero. The emperor Diocletian having made Nicomedia his capital, v/as desirous to attract learned men thither, and among others, appointed Lactantius to the chair of Latin eloquence. While he was there, the persecution of the Christians began, by the demolition of their church, on the 23d of February in the year 303 of the common aera ; and it continued with the most frightful violence till the year 312. Lactantius appears to have remained at Nicomedia through the whole ; for in his Avork " On the deaths of the Persecutors," * It is somewhat difficult to convey to runt manus meas et pedes." Modem the English reader the full force of Ter- readers are in danger of not doing justice tuUian's reasoning, on account of the va- to the reasoning of the Fathers, by not rious modes of interpretation in ancient adverting to these differences of transla- and modern versions of different passages tion. What may appear to the English of Scripture. The ancient Latin version reader a non sequitur, was truly logical which TertuUian used, was, generally reasoning, when the premises are consi- speaking, taken from the Septuagint, and dered from which the inferences were diifered from the version of St. Jerome now drawn. used by the Latin Church. In the 26th ' Nam et Unctioillicexterminata est post verse of the 9 th chapter of Daniel, where passionem Christi. Eratenim prredictum, our translation reads, " Messiah shall be extermiu.ari illic Unctionem, sicut est in cutoff," and the modern vulgate " occi- psalmis prophetarum: ^.rter?n;««iieruM<7na- detur Christus," the Septuagint reads iS,o- mis meas et pedes. Quae passio hujus e.xter- \odptv6)](reTai Xpirrfia, and the ancient minii intra tempora Lxx. hebdomadarura Latin version " extei-minabitur Unctio." perfecta est sub Tiberio Cjesare coss. So in the 22nd Psalm, where our transla- Eubellio Gemino et Rufio [I. Fufio] Ge- tion reads, " They pierced my hands mino, mense Martio, temporibus paschee, and my feet ;" and St. Jerome's version, die viii. Calendarum Aprilium, die prima "Foderunt manus meas et pedes meos," azymorum, quo agnum ut occiderent ad TertuUian read, " Exterminaverunt ma- vesperam, a Moyse fuerat praeceptum. — nus meas et pedes." In this reading, how- Tert. adversus Judjeos Liber, c. 8 ; Opera ever, he was not constant, for he else- ed. Rigalt. 1641, p. 215, d; ed. Semleri, vol. where quotes the same text thus; "Fode- ii, p 300. CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 379 lie speaks as if lie had been a spectator of the outrages committed by Diocletian. In his old age, he was appointed by Constantino to superintend the education of his son Crispus Csesar. He was, therefore, held in high estimation, and undoubtedly could have easy access, by his connexion with the court, to all sources of information. In the treatise De Mortibus Persecutorum, to which we have already referred, he thus speaks of our Saviour's death : " In writings lohicJi ice have read it is recorded, that late in the reign of Tiberius Caesar, our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified by the Jews after the tenth day of the calends of April, the two Gemini being consuls.' Lactantius here appeals to some written account which he had read. What that was we can only conjecture. It may have been the original account of Pilate, which, as he wrote in Nicomedla, he may have quoted from memory, and therefore have quoted incorrectly.* In the fourth book of his Divine Institutes, speaking of the Jews after their restoration from the captivity, Lactantius says, "Thence- forward they had tetrarchs until Herod, [i.e. Herod Antipas], who was under the empii'e of Tiberius Caesar ; in whose fifteenth year, that is the two Gemini being consuls, the seventh day before the calends of April, the Jews affixed Christ to the cross."^ ^ Extremis temporibus Tiberii Cresaris Christum cruci affixerunt. — Lact. de vera ut scriptum legimus, Dominus noster Jesus Sapientia, c. 10; Opera ed. Walchii, p. Christus a Judseis cruciatus est jjost diem 435 ; ed. Du Fresnoy, Opera, torn. i. p. 295. decimum kalendarum Aprilis (some edi- For reasons wliich will be stated more tions read Apriliwn), duobus Geminis con- fully hereafter, I have followed the Aldine sulibus. — De Mort. Persec. apud Baluzii Lactantius of 1515, and the correct edition Miscellanea, torn. i. p. 2 ; Laetantii Opera, of Walchius of 1715, in reading "ante ed. Walchii, p. 1059 ; ed. Du Fresnoj Lut. diem septimam." Du Fresno}', indeed, on Par. 1748, 4to, torn. ii. p. 183. the authority of forty manuscripts, and * The unusual expression post diem x. four printed editions, reads *' ante diem kal. Apr. has occasioned the critics much decimam." He then endeavours to show, trouble. Some have supposed that it meant that "ante diem decimam," in this place, the tenth day after the calends of April, and "post diem decimum," in the passage and others, the tenth day ie/bre the calends before cited, both mean the same thing, of April. My own impression is, that it viz. the tenth day before the calends of means " after the tenth day before the April, or, according to our computation, calends of April, that is, after the the 23rd the 23rd of Marcii. The reasons he as- of March." This accords better with the signs were not satisfactory to himself; for Poman mode of computing time, and would he admits that it is difficult to reconcile naturally be used by a person quoting from these two modes of expression. He enu- memory, who had forgotten the exact day merates more than ninety manuscripts, of the month. and eighty-six printed editions, as having ^ Exinde Tetrachas habuerunt usque ad been collated in the formation of his edi- Hei'odem qui fait sub imperio Tiberii Cae- tion. It is to be presumed, therefore, from saris; cujus anno quinto decimo, id est his own statement, that more than fifty duobus Geminis consulibus, ante diem manuscripts, and all the printed editions, septimam calendarum Aprilium Judai except the four he has quoted, read " ante 380 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH — [PART HI. St. Augustine, the great doctor of the Latin church, was born at Tagaste, now Taj el t, a small town in Africa, on the thirteenth of November, a.d. 354 according to the common sera. He pursued his studies at Carthage, and afterwards at Rome, and was finally called to take the professorship of rhetoric at Milan. Here he re- ceived baptism from the hands of St. Ambrose in the thirty-third year of his age, returned that same year (a.d. 387) to Rome, and during the summer of the following year to Africa. In 390, he was ordained presbyter by Valerius, the aged bishop of Hippo ; in 395 was consecrated bishop-coadjutor with that prelate ; and at his death in 396 became his successor. He died August 28, a.d. 430, aged nearly 76 years.^ In many parts of his voluminous works he speaks of the date of our Saviour's birth and death, not as a subject of doubt or controversy, but as being well known. Of these I proceed to give a few examples. " It is evident under what consul and on what day the Virgin Mary brought forth Christ conceived of the Holy Ghost."^ Here it is asserted that the year and day of Christ's conception and birth were both evident. " When, therefore, Herod was reigning in Judaea, and among the Romans, the state of the republic being changed, Augustus Caesar was emperor, and by him the world was made peaceful, Christ was born."^ Here the birth of Christ is spoken of as having occurred in a time of universal peace effected by Augustus Caesar ; evidently al- luding to the time when the temple of Janus was shut the third time by that emperor. " That Christ was conceived and tliat he suffered in the same month, is shown by the observance of Easter, and the day of his nativity most certainly known by the churches. For he who was born on the eighth day before the calends of January (December 2otli) in the ninth month, was conceived surely about the eighth day before the calends of April (March 25th) in the first month, which was also the time of his passion."* diem scptimam," As Lactantus wrote his In Joh. Ev. c. vi. Tract xxiv. ed. Bened. institutos in Nicomcdia, and probably Antuerp. torn. iii. pars. 2, p. 348, d. quoted from memory, it is not difficult to ^ Regnaiite ergo Herode in Judsea, apud account for these variations in his phrase- Romanos autcm jam mutato reipublicse ology. statu, imporante Csesare Augusto, et per ' Tillcmont Hist. Eccl. torn. xiii. Mor- oum orbe pacato, natus est Christus.. — De celli Africa Christiaiui, torn. ii. p. 320-324. Civit. Dei, lib. xviii. c.46, Opera, ed. Bened. ' Apparct quo die conccptum de Spiritu torn. viii. p. 400, E. Sancto A^irgo jMaria pepcrit Christum. — ^ Illo autem mense conceptum ct passum CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 381 Many passages to the same effect might be adtluced ; but as they all concur in stating that the conception and passion of Christ took place on tlie same day, the 25 th of March, and his birth on the 2oth of December, I shall confine myself to one only, which occurs in his celebrated work on the city of God. He is confuting an absurd falsehood of the pagans, that the Christian religion was to endure only 365 years. A^'^hat better proof, he asks, can be sought for of its falsity than that the 365 years are already past ? Not to place the beginning at his nativity, because a child has no disciples, and because St. Paul says to the Athenians that God has assured all men of the appointed day of judgment by the resurrection of Chi'ist from the dead,' let us go on to the period of his passion and resurrection ; more especially because the Holy Ghost Avas given, and the new law went forth from Zion and Jerusalem,^ as the old law had proceeded from Sinai. Wherefore Christ himself appointed " that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem."'^ In Jerusalem, therefore, arose the worship of this name, and the necessity of belief in Christ Jesus, who had been crucified and had risen again. There this faith produced such a wonderful conversion of several thousands that they sacrificed their property and the'tr lives. Now if this was done Avithout any magic arts, why hesitate to believe that the same power can in like manner convert the whole world ? But if it was by the magic arts of Peter that in Jerusalem the very same multitude who had taken and crucified Christ, and derided him on the cross, were excited to worship the name of Christ, even then we must from that year begin the inquiry when the 365 years may be completed. He then proceeds in the following remarkable words : " Christ died, therefore, when the two Gemini were con- suls, the eighth day before the calends of April (]\larch 25th). He rose the third day, as the Apostles proved even by ther own senses. Then, forty days after, he ascended into Heaven, and ten days after, that is, on the fifteenth day after his resurrection, he sent the Holy Ghost. Then, at the preaching of the Apostles, esse Christum, et Paschje observatio, et Aprilis, quod tempus etiam passionis ejus dies ecclesiis notissimus nativitatis ejus fuit— Qusestiones in Exod. lib. ii. Opera, ostendit. Qui enim mense nono natus est torn. iii. p. 337, d, quaest. xc. octavo kalendas Januarias, profecto meuse ^ Acts. xvii. 31. * Isai. ii. 3. primo conceptus est circa octavum kalendas ' S. Luke xxiv. 47. 382 DATE OF oun saviour's death — [part hi. three thousand men believed on him. Then also arose the worship of that name, by the power of the Holy Ghost, as we have be- lieved, and as it Avas in truth, but as an impious vanity hath feigned or imagined, by the magic arts of Peter. A little while after, by the working of a signal miracle, when at the word of the same Peter a certain beggar, so lame from his mother's womb as to be carried by others and laid at the temj^le gate to ask alms, leapt up whole in the name of Jesus Christ, five thousand men believed ; and thenceforward the Church grew by one accession of believers after another. And by this is collected the very day from which that year took its beginning, viz. when the Holy Ghost was sent, that is on the ides of May (IMay 15th). From that time, by the enumeration of tlie consuls, three hundred and sixty-five years are found to have been completed at the same ides (INIay 15th) in the consulship of Honorius and Eutychianus [a.d. 398.] Moreover, in the following year, when Manlius Theodorus was consul, A.D. 399], when, according to that oracle of devils and figment of men, there ought to be no Christian religion, (what may have been done in other parts of the earth it may not be necessary perhaps to inquire, but what we ourselves in the mean time know), in that most noted and eminent city of Carthage in Africa, Gaudentius and Jovius, counts of the emperor Honorius, on the fourteenth before the calends of April, (March 19th), overturned the temples of the false gods, and broke down their images. From that time to the present, being almost thirty years, who does not see how much the worship of the name of Christ has increased ? Especially after many of those had become Christians who had been deterred from the faith by that divination, as if it had been true, and who saw, Avhen the number of years was completed, that the same was empty and ridiculous ? We, therefore, who are called, and are Christians, do not believe in Peter, but in Him in whom Peter be- lieved. AVe are edified by the discourses of Peter concerning Christ, not poisoned by his incantations. We are not deceived by his evil practices, but we are aided by his good deeds. The same Christ who was the master and teacher of Peter, is also our master and teachei*, in that doctrine which leadeth unto everlasting life."' Sulpicius Severus, a native of Aquitaine, a man of high cou- ^ Mortuus est ergo Christus dnobiis lis. Eesurrexit tertia die, sicut Apostoli Geminis consulibus, octavo kalendas Apri- suis etiam seiisibus probaverunt. Deinde CHAP. HI.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 383 nexions and noble birth, flourished about the year 401 of the com- mon sera, and wrote an abridgment of sacred history, with so much purity, that he has been called the Christian Sallust. In his second book, he speaks thus : " Then Herod, a foreigner, the son of Anti- pater the Ascalonite, sought and received from the Senate and people of Rome, the kingdom of Judaoa. He was the first foreign monarch whom the Jews had ; for as Christ was now about to come, it was necessary, according to the predictions of the prophets, that they should be deprived of their leaders, so that tliey might no longer expect Christ. Under this Herod, in the three-and- thirtieth year of his reign, Christ was born, Sabinus and llufinus being consuls, on the eighth day before the calends of January," (December 25th.) Excusing himself from pursuing the rest of our Lord's history, he adds : " Herod, after the nativity of the Lord, reigned four years ; for the whole time of his reign was seven-and-thirty years. After him Archelaus was tetrarch nine years, and Herod, twenty- four years. In the eighteenth year of his reign, the Lord was crucified, when Fufius Geminus and Rubellius Geminus were con- suls ; from which time to the consul Stilicho [a.D. 400] are 372 years."' We are at present concerned with the testimony of Se- post quadraginta dies adscendit in coelum : esse debuit religio Christiana, quid pci' post decern dies, id est, quinquagesimo alias terrarum partes forsitan factum sit, post suam resurrectionem die niisit Spiri- non fuit necesse perquirere. Interim quod turn sanctum. Tunc tria millia hominum scimus, in civitate notissima et eminen- Apostolis eum proedicantibus crediderunt. tissima Carthagine Africae Gaudentius ct Tunc itaque nominis illius cultus exorsus JoviuscomitesImperatorisHonorii, quarto- est, sicut nos credimus, et Veritas habet, decimo kalendas Aprilis falsorum deorum efficacia Spiritus-sancti; sicut autem finxit templa everterunt, et simulacra fregerunt. ranitas impia vel putavit, magicis artibus Ex quo usque ad hoc tempus per triginta Petri. Panlo post etiam signo mirabili ferme annos quis non videat quantum cre- facto, quando ad verbum ipsius Petri qui- vei'it cultus nominis Christi, prsesertim dam mendicus ab utero matris ita claudus, postea quam multi eorum Christiani facti ut ab aliis portaretur, ed ad portam templi, sunt, qui tamquara vera ilia divinatione ubi stipem petei-et, poneretur, in nomine revocabantur a fide, eamque complcto Jesu Christi salvus exsilivit, quinque eodem annorum numero inanem ridendam- millia hominum crediderunt: ac deinde que viderunt? Nos ergo qui sumus voca- aliis atque aliis accessibus credentium ere- raurque Christiani, non in Petrum credi- vit Ecclesia. Ac per hoc colligitur etiam mus, sed in quem credidit Petrus: Petri dies, ex quo annus ipse sumsit initium, de Christo sedificati sermonibus, non ear- scilicet quando missus est Spiritus-sanctus, minibus venenati ; nee decepti maleficiis, id est, per Idus Maias. Numeratis proinde sed beneficiis ejus adjuti. Ille Petri consulibustrecenti-sexaginta-quinqueanni magister Christus in doctrina, quae ad reperiuntur impleti per easdem Idus con- vitam ducit seternum, ipse est et magister sulatu Honorii et Eutychiani. Porro se- noster. — Aug. de Civ. Dei, lib. xviii. c. 54. quenti anno, consule Manlio Theodoro, Op. ed. Bencd. torn. vii. 407, 408. quando jam secundum illud oraculum ' Turn Herodes alienigena, Antipatri deemonum aut figmentum hominum nulla Ascalonitis filius, regnum judaene a senatii 384 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH [PART HI. verus only as to the date of onr Saviour's death, in which he agrees with the other writers of the Latin Church. It may be observed, however, in passing, that while he agrees with them in mentioning the 25th of December as the day of our Saviour's birth, his account of the year in which that event took place, is confused and contradictory. Sabinus and Rufinus were consuls in the year 4709 of the Julian period, and Herod died in March a.j.p. 4710. If, tlierefore, Christ was born in their consulship, on the 25th of December, it was less than three months before Herod's death ; whereas, in the very next sentence, Severus says that Herod lived after our Lord's nativity four years. But of this we shall have occasion to speak hereafter. Orosius, who comes next in the order of time, has been already mentioned as generally correct in his statement of facts, but inac- curate as to dates. He is so in the present instance with wonderful inconsistency ; for while, as we have seen, he places the closing of the temple of Janus and the birth of Christ so late as the year of the city 752, he speaks in the third chapter of his seventh book, of our Lord's passion and of the earthquake and su]iernatural darkness, as occuring in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, that is in the year when the two Gemini were consuls.' He agrees, therefore, with the rest of the Latin writers as to the year of our Saviour's death ; though, by so doing, according to his hypothesis as to the time of his birth, he contradicts the scriptures, in making him only twenty-eight years old. This appears to me to increase the value of his testimony as to the true date of Christ's death ; for, if it had not been received by common consent so that he could not depart from it, he would have acted as the moderns have done, and adjusted his fact so as to suit his theory. ct populo Romano petiit, accepitquc. Hunc iiii.; nam omno imperii ejus tempus, vii. primum Judsi externum re<;'em cffiperunt et xxx. anni faerunt, post quem Archelnus habere; etenim jam adventante Christo tetrarcha annis ix, Herodes annis xx ct iiii. necesse erat, secundum vaticinia propbeta- Hoc regnante, anno regni octavo et decimo, rum, suis eos ducibus privari, ne quid ultra Dominus crucifixus est, Fufio Gemino ct Cbristum exspectarent. Sub hoc Herode, Rubellio Gemino consulibus, a quo tem- anno imperio ejus tertio et xxx, Cbristus pore usque in Stiliconem consulem sunt natus est, Sabino et Rufino consulibus, viii. anni ccclxxii. — Sul. Sev. Hist. Sacr. lib. ii. kalendas Januarias. Verum base quae c. xxvii. Ed. de Prato Verona; 1754, 4to, Evangeliis ac deinceps Apostolorum Acti- torn. ii. p. 154-8. bus continentur, attingere non ausus, ne ' Deinde anno ejusdem (sc. Tiberii Cfc- quid forma prgecisi operis rerum dignitati- saris) xv, cum Dominus Cbristus Jesus bus diminueret, reliqua exsequar. Hei-odes voluntarie quidem se tradidit passioni, &c. post nativitatem Domini regnavit annos CHAP. III.] THE LATIN CHURCH. 385 The next author to be mentioned, is Victorius of Aquitaine. Being at Rome, in the year 455 of the common £era, when the question as to the true time of celebrating Easter was much agitated, and being a mathematician of no mean abilities, he was requested by Hilary the archdeacon to rectify the disorder. In the first part of the present work, I have had occasion to refer twice to Victorius ; first, in treating of the origin of the Julian period ; and, secondly, in giving the inverted list of consuls from a.d. 238 to A.D. 28. Referring the reader to the analysis of his preface in the former, and the observations on his Consular Chronology in the latter of these passages, I proceed now to exhibit the first of the twenty-eight cycles of 1 9 years contained in his Paschal Canon, as being his testimony concerning the date of our Lord's crucifixion. CRVCIFIXIO CHRI. CoSS duobus Ge- MINIsRuffi- no Rubellio VINICIO LONGINO SVLPITIO SYLLA PRISCO VITELLIO GALLO NONIANO GALLIENO PLAVTIANO PEOCVLO NIGRINO JULIANO ASPRENATE PUBLICOLA NERVA Days of the week on whicb the calends of Januarj' fell. Feria v Thursday Sabbato Saturday Domiu. Sunday Feria ii Monday Feria iii Tuesday Feria v Thursday Feria vi Friday Sabbato Saturday Domin. Sunday Pasch.e Dies, or Easter Day. V kal. Aprilis March 28 XV kal. Maii April 17 V Idus Aprilis April 9 VIM kal. Aprilis March 25 Idibus Aprilis April 13 Nonis Aprilis April 5 V kal. Aprilis March 28 IV Idus Aprilis April 10 kalend Aprilis April I S(a Corrected list of Consuls. CRVCIFIXIO CHRI. CoSS. duob.Gem.Fu^ fio et Rubellio Vinicio Longino Tiberio v Sejano Ahenobarbo Scriboniauo Sulp. Galba Corn. Sulla Vitellio Persico Gallo Noniano Papinio Plautio Proculo Nigrino 49 386 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR S DEATH — [part II. ]0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 C^SARE JVLIANO CiESARE II SATVRNINO SECUNDO VENVSTO TIBERIO GALLO CRISPO TAVRO VINICIO CORNELIO ASIATICO MLANO TIBERIO II VITELLIO VITELLIO II PVBLICOLA VERANNIO GALLO Days of the week on which the calends of January fell Feria iii Tuesday Feria iv Wednes. Feria v Thursday Feria vi Friday Domin. Sunday Feria ii Monday P'eria in Tuesday Feria iv Wednes. Feria vi Friday Sabbato Saturday C B A G F E April. XV. Ka. April. fi A G Hezekiah accord, to Daniel & Josiah. F E D C B Biss. Nones Em. April ' G F E T) Joshua aec. to Daniel. C B A vin. Kal. 8 D C B A G F E April. Ides of 9 C B A G F E D Em. April. IV. Nones 10 G F E D C B ^Exodus April. XII. XI. Kal. II. 11 D C B A G F E Biss. April. V. Ides 12 C B A G F E T) In the w-ilder- Em. April. IV. Kal. 13 G F E D C B A April. XV. Kal. 14 D C B A G F E April. Biss. Nones Em. April. 15 Q Exodus accord- ing to Daniel. B A G F E J) Ezra. vin. Kal. April. 16 G F Passion of Christ. E D C B A This table establishes several particulars of great importance. The inscription, which serves as its preface, states that the paschal full moon took place on the ides, that is, on the 13th day of April, CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 393 in the first year of the emperor Alexander Severus. Elagabalua was killed on the lltli of March ; and the connexion of that year with the 222d of the common Christian sera, is proved in the fol- lowing way : The coins struck during the reign of Alexander, exhibit a series of thirteen years ; those of Maximinus, three ; those of Gordianus Pius, six ; and those of Philip till his third consulship, four ; making a total of twenty-six years. In the third consulship of Philip, as the medals struck at that time indicate, the secular games of the year one thousand from the building of Rome, were celebrated with extraordinary splendour, at the feast of the Parilia or Palilia, April 21st. By deducting twenty-five solid years, (1000 — 25=975,) we come to the 21st of April, in the first year of Alexander Severus, as the commencement of the 975th year of Rome ; and by deducting from that number, 753 solid years pre- ceding the common Christian sera, according to the computation of Varro, we have as the remainder, A.D. 222. The paschal full moon being on the ides of April, preceded the Parilia eight days ; and was, therefore, at the close of the 974tli year of Rome, in the year of the Julian period 4935, the first year until the 1st of July of the 250th Olympiad, and the 267th year of the reformed calendar of Julius Cffisar. By examining the third line of the table, it will be seen that it is marked TL, translated biss, because it denotes that it was a bissex- tile or leap year. This proves, therefore, that the third year of the cycle, or a.d. 224, was a leap year, and consequently furnishes us with a clue, by which we can reckon the leap years, back to the reformation of the calendar. Thus we find that the year of the Julian period 4669, the first of Caesar's calendar, was a leap year, and every succeeding fourth year ought to have been so reckoned. The reader Avill also observe that the seven letters A, B, F, &;c. in the Greek, and A, B, C, &c. in the translation, are in inverse order, from right to left. The same order occurs in the first, fourth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, and sixteenth lines. The whole con- tains two octaeterides or periods of eight years, in which the Greeks, by embolismic months, adjusted their lunar to the solar years. Hence the order with regard to the age of the moon is re- 50 394 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH — [PART II. peated in the first and ninth, second and tenth, to the eighth and sixteenth lines. The arrangement of the letters, however, is different. But in the sixteenth line, where the paschal full moon is stated to be on the eighth before the calends of April, or March 25th, the same order of the letters occurs as in the first line, when the paschal full moon fell upon the ides of April. If then the letter Z in the Greek, or G in the translation, denoted Saturday, as the inscription leads us to infer, then it must also mean Saturday in the sixteenth line ; and S in tlie Greek table, or F in the trans- lation, must denote Friday. If this inference be just, Hippolytus has noted that the passion of our Saviour took place on Friday the eighth, before the calends of April, or March the 25th. Unhap- pily the treatise of Hippolytus is lost, which bears the title in- scribed on the chair, of "a demonstration of the times of the Passover, as in the table."" We cannot, therefore, state the year of the passion on his testimony ; but as he agrees Avith the other ancient writers in naming the 25th of March as the day, we have a right to infer that he agreed with them also in the year. There is indeed a Latin translation extant, the Greek original of which bears the date in the thirteenth year of Alexander Severus, A.D. 235, and which some have supposed to be the lost w^ork of Hippolytus. It is a chronicle, in the 12th section of which the author attempts to fix the dates of the several passovers mentioned in the table as follows : From the Exodus to the crossing of Jordan when Jesus [Joshua] celebrated the pass- over, are 41 years. Hezekiah celebrated the passover 464 yeai's afterwards. Josiah celebrated the passover 114 years after Hezekiah. Ezra celebrated the passover 108 years after Josiah. After Ezra, until the birth of Christ, the passover was celebrated 563 years. From the birth of Christ, thirty years after, the passover was celebrated when the Lord was crucified ; for he was the true passover. From the passion of the Lord to the thirteenth year of the emperor Alexander Csesar, the passover has been observed 206 years, being observed by us in commemoration of our Lord Jesus Christ.* * This ancient chronicle was first pub- the 418th and 419th pages of that work; lished by Canisius, at Ingolstadt. 1602. but Du Cange did not divide the chronicle Afterwjirds by Philip Labbe, Paris, 1657. into sections. It is reprinted in the works From Labbe's edition, it was inserted by of St. Hippolytus, edited by J. Albert Du Fresne Du Cange in the appendix to Fabricius, 1716, and is there divided into the Chronicon Paschale, Paris, 1688, p. sections. The passage here quoted is at 413. The passage here quoted occurs in the top of the 56th page. CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 395 As the author places the passion of our Lord in the thirtieth year of his age, lie follows the current of Greek writers, in assign- ing the fifteenth year of Tiberius as the true date of that event. This is also evident from his computation of 206 passovers ; since if from 234 solid years we subtract 206, there remain 28 as the year of the passion. Bianchini shows, however, that although this contemporary of Hippolytus agrees with him in the date of our Saviour's passion, he differs from him, and is far less accurate in his chronology of the passovers, especially from Joshua to Heze- kiah.' But to dwell longer on this subject would be foreign to our purpose, and I therefore proceed to the evidence offered by Julius Africanus. This Avriter was a contemporary of St. Hippolytus, and flourished, according to Cave, a.d. 220. Suidas calls him a philosopher of Libya. Eusebius, and after him Photius, say that he wrote a brief history from the Mosaic account of the creation till the coming of Christ, and thence till the reign of the emperor Macrinus (a.d. 217) where he closed his narrative.^ Eusebius made great use of his writings without giving him due credit. A few fragments re- main, preserved chiefly by Syncellus and the Chronicun Paschale» All these fragments, wherever dispersed, have been collected by the care and industry of the learned Dr. Routh, president of Mag- dalen College, Oxon. in the second volume of his Reliquite Sacrse, p. 107—195. St. Jerome, in his commentary on Daniel, has quoted a long pas- sage from Africanus, respecting the chronology of the seventy weeks. Speaking of the difficulties in that chronology, if we begin to compute from the first year of Cyrus, or from the time when Daniel saw the vision, or from the beginning of the captivity, he proceeds as follows : " For the kingdom of the Persians continued till the beginning of the Macedonian empire., two hundred and thirty years. The Macedonians reigned three hundred years ; and from that time to the fifteenth year of Tiber'ms ichen Christ suffered, are numbered sixty years, making together five hundred and ninety years, being an excess of one hundred years. But from the twen- tieth year of king Artaxerxes unto Christ, the seventy weeks are completed, according to the lunar computation of the Hebrews, ' ScthisDisst'i'lutiou S. lli|'p.()|>.p. 1 1"). - Euscb. 11. E. vi. c. 31. rhotiiis Bibl. Icct. xxxiv. cd. Kotliom. p. 20. 396 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUIl's DEATH [PAUT II. who reckon their months, not according to the course of the sun, but that of the moon. For from the one hundred and fifteenth year of the Persian dominion, when it was the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, and the fourth year of the eighty-third olympiad, to the second year of the two hundred and second olym- piad and the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cresar, are four hundred and seventy-five years, which make four hundred and ninety Hebrew years, as we have said, according to the lunar months."' Without entering into an examintation of the error as to the olympiad, or the opinion of Africanus concerning the computation of the seventy weeks, it is suflficient to observe that he held the pi'evailing opinion as to the duration of our Saviour's ministry. Whether he held the year of his passion to be the consulship of the two Gemini, or the year following, when Cassius Longinus and Vinicius Qnartinus were consuls, depends on our choice of the reading of St. Jerome or that of the Greek copies. Even if we prefer the latter, the crucifixion took place in the fourth year of the two hundred and first, and not in the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad ; and if the former, it was in the third year of the two hundred and first olympiad. Another contemporary of Hippolytus, though somewhat later, was Origen. He was born of Christian parents at Alexandria, in the year of the common sera 186. He studied first under St. Clemens of Alexandria, and afterwards under the philosopher Ammonius, the founder of the new Platonists. He became so renowned for his learning as to attract the attention of the mother of Alexander Severus, who sent for him at Antioch, and, as Eusebius informs us, retained him for some time near her person. He was admitted to the priesthood at the age of forty-three, and died at Tyre, a.D. 254, in the sixty-ninth year of his age.^ Origen's opinion on the subject in question is to be gathered only from incidental observations, dispersed through his writings. In ' S. Hieron, Opera ed. ]\Iartinnay, torn, thesixfeenth. Ithas been already observed, iii. col. 1110-11, Paris, 1704, fol. that the sixteenth year of TibeVius began St. Jerome was not quoted among the in August of the year when the Gemini Latin writers, because in his commentary' were consuls, and this would easily lead to on Daniel he gives the testimony of Greek errors in the copies. The crucifixion being authors, not his own. The original of this in the Spring, was in the first half of the passage is preserved by Syncellus, and year, and consequently the fifteenth of given by Dr. Routh; but I have chosen Tiberius. to give it from St. Jerome's translation, ' Euseb. H. E. lib. vi. c. 16, 19,21. Care, because he reads the fifteenth year of Hist. Lit. torn. i. p. 112. Tiberius, whereas the Greek copy reads CIIAP. IV.] THE GREEK CUURCH. 397 his thirty-second homily on St. Luke, which has come clown to us only in a Latin translation, he says : " To preach the accepted year of the Lord is, they say, according to its simple meaning, that the Saviour preached the Gosjjel one year in Judaea."^ So again, in the series of commentaries on St. Matthew (speaking of chap, xxvi. 15), " They covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver," he says, according to his favourite method of mystic in- terpretation, " they agreed to make him as large a gift as the Saviour had sojourned years in this woi-ld ; for, being baptized at the age of thirty years, he began to preach the Gospel, as Joseph, when he was thirty years old, collected corn for his brethren."^ So again, in his work tteoI apywr, he says that our Lord taught about one year and a few months.^ It is needless to confute the inconsistency of this opinion. All we are concerned with at pre- sent is the fact concerning his testimony. But there are two other passages in the works of Origen Avhere his testimony is still more to our purpose. The first occurs in his answer to Celsus. The philosopher had denied the truth of the assertion that God had punished the Jewish nation for having put Christ to death ; to which Origen replies : He might, if he pleased, have charged the assertion with falsehood, if the whole nation of the Jews had not been overthrown within one generation after Jesus had thus suffered ; "for there loere hut foriy-tico years, as I suppose, from the time when they crucified Jesus to the destruction of Jerusalem.'''"^ The second passage occurs in his fourteenth homily upon Jere- miah. Commenting on the Greek translation of Jer. xv. 15, con- cernino- the lono; sufferino; of God towards the Jewish nation, until O O o they crucified his Son, he says : " If you search out the times of the ' Prsedicare annum Domini acceptnm St. Luke, he again mentions it thus (c. iii. juxta simplicem intelligentiam aiunt uno v. 13): Ipse erat Jesus incipiens quasi anno Salvatorem in Juclsa evangelium annorum triginta. Joseph triginta anno- pi-sdicasse. — 0pp. ed. Bened. torn. iii. p. rum erat quando dimissus e vinculis et 970, col. 2, c. interpretatus somnium Pharaonis iEgypti * Tantani ei donationem constituentes eifectus est princeps, ubertatisque tempore quantos annos Salvator peregrinatus fuerat triticum congregavit, ut famis tempore in hoc mundo. Triginta enim annorum haberet quod distribueret. Ego puto quod baptizatus coepit evangelium prsedicare, triginta anni Joseph, in triginta annorum quasi Joseph factus triginta annorum ero- prsecesserint Salvatoris. — 0pp. tom. iii. p. garet frumenta fratribus suis. — 0pp. tom. 966, col. 1, A. iii. p. 895, col. 1, c. * iviavrbv yap ttov /cat ^liivac oXiyovg This idea that the age of Joseph was iSiSa^tv. — 0pp. tom. 1, p. 160. designed to adumbrate the age of our * Origen contra Celsum, lib. iv. c. 22. Saviour, appears to have been a favourite 0pp. tom. 1, p. 515, E. with Origen ; for in his 28th homily upon 398 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR S DEATH- [PART II. passion [of Chi'ist], and of the fall of Jerusalem and ruin of the city, and in what manner God forsook that people when they had slain Christ, you will see that he no longer exercised long suffering towards them. And if you are willing, hearken. From the fif- teenth year of Tiberius Caesar to the destruction of the temple, two-and-forty years were fulfilled ; for it Avas right that some little time should be granted for repentance, chiefly on account of those among the people who would be led to believe by the signs and wonders to be wrought by the apostles."' According to the belief of Origen, the crucifixion took place in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar ; and he followed his master St. Clemens in computing forty -two years from the death of Christ to the destruction of Jerusalem, — that is, from a.d. 28 to a.d. 70. We come now, in the order of time, to the celebrated historian Eusebius. In his Ecclesiastical History, book i. chap. i. he refers to his Chronicon as a work already published, in which he had given an epitome of the history. It has been already remarked (part i. chap. i. p. 21) in speaking of the olympiads, that the whole of this work had been preserved in the Armenian language, and that two rival translations of it appeared in 1818, one printed at Milan, the other at Venice. Both these editions are now before me. The latinity of Mai is more elegant, but I prefer that of Aucher, which has the Arme- nian text side by side : and though less polished, is more simple, and evidently moi*e literal. The following extract includes the whole interval from the birth to the death of Christ, according to the computation of our author. S= 01° 195 >•< II 42 43 44 751 Jksus Christ, the Son of God, is born in Bethlehem of Judah. The whole number of 3'ears, from Abraham to the nativity of Chi-ist, are mmxv. (2015.) Cains Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. 2015 2016 2017 .32 33 34 Quirinus, being sent by a de- cree of the senate into Judaea, makes a description of posses- sions and private dwellings (according to Mai's edition, of possessions and persons). Sextus (Jerome reads Xistus) is acknowledt^ed a Pythago- rean philosopher. Augustus adopted Tiberius and Agrippa as sons. 0pp. tom. iii. p. 217, a. CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 399 E V u.c. 760 u.c. 770 Herod, being informed of our Lord's nativity, slew the chil- dren at Bethlehem. Augustus constituted te- trarchs Herod, Antipater, Lysanias, and Philip, the brothers of Archelaus. There was so great a famine at Rome that of bread stuffs (ex cibariis) one modius (about a peck, or 525.696 cub. inches) was sold for 27§ denarii = 17s. 2id. ster. or 4^0% dlls. (Mai reads quinquemodii.) Pompey's theatre burned. DrususCffisar killed by poison. u.c. 780 The Athenians ceased from the arrogance of making a re- volution (res novas moliendi), the authors of the sedition being punished. Germanicus CiBsar triumphed over the Parthians. 5 a "si ><< Jl n 2018 45 35 196 2019 46 36 2020 47 37 Arche- 2021 48 Yrs.ix 1 2022 49 2 2023 50 3 197 2024 51 4 2025 52 5 2026 53 6 2027 54 7 198 2028 55 8 2029 56 9 Mon- arcb Emp. Tibe- Years Xilll. Herod Te- trarcli Years 2030 1 1 2031 2 2 199 2032 3 3 2033 4 4 2034 5 5 2035 6 5 200 2036 7 7 2037 8 8 2038 9 9 201 2039 10 10 2040 11 11 2041 12 12 2042 13 13 2043 14 14 202 2044 15 15 Judas the Galilaean, excited the Jews to rebellion. Herod, attacked by a severe dropsy, died, his whole body being eaten by worms. Augustus substituted Arche- laus, the son of Herod, as ethnarch of Judsa. Tibei-ius Csesar subdued the Dalmatians and Sarmatians. Athenodorus of Tarsus, was acknowledged as anatural phi- losopher [Physicus. Jerome reads Stoicus]. Archelaus, king of the Jews, held the ethnarchy nine years, and, being then exiled, was sent to Vienna (Vienne), a city of the Gauls. Sotio the Alexandrian, was acknowledged as a philoso- pher. Sebastus (sc. Augustus) held the census with Tiberius, and found the population of Rome to be 4,190,117. There was an eclipse of the sun, and Augustus died. Thirteen cities were destroyed by an earthquake, Ephesus, Magnesia, Sardis, Mostene, JEgx, Hierocaesarea, Phila- delphia, Tmolus, Temus, My- rhina, Apollonia, Dia, Hyr- cania. Tiberius made Drusus his associate in the empire. Philip the tetrarch, built Pen- nada (Jerome, Paneas) and Caesarea, which he called Philippi, and another city Julias. Pilate is sent by Tiberius as procurator of Judaea. Herod founded Tiberias and Libias (Livias, Mai). 400 DATE OF OUR SAVIOURS DEATH — [part II. John, the son of Zachariah, preached in the wilderness of the river Jordan, and announces to all that among them is the Anointed of God. Jesus also himself, the anointed of God ^Mes- siah or Christ] hence begins his saving and evangelical doctrine, proving to the beholders, by his good works and words, the strength of his divine virtue. From the second building of the temple of Jerusalem, which took place in the second year of Darius, king of the Persians, in the sixty-fifth olympiad, to this fifteenth year of Tiberius, the whole number of years are 542. But from Solomon and the first building of the temple, 1064 years. And from Moses and the departure from Egypt, 1540 years. From Abraham and the reign of Ninus and Serairamis, 2044 years. From the Deluge, 2986 years ; and from Adam, 5228 years. Jesus the anointed of God, OUR Lord, preached his sav- ing'doctrine to all, and per- formed the several miracles which are recorded. <- 3 6 It >•< P ^3 2045 16 16 2046 17 17 2047 18 18 203 2048 19 19 Jesus the anointed of God. OUR Lord, revealed to his disciples the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, and com- manded them to preach to all nations, conversion to the God of the whole world, and the conditions of his kingdom. Jesus, the Anointed of God, our Lord, according to the prophe- cies which had been made concerning him, came to his passion in the nineteenth year of the reign of Tiberius. About which time we have also found it related in other Greek commentaries in these words, that the sun was eclipsed, Bithynia shook by an earthquake, and a great part of Nice desti'oyed. And in agreement with these, are related the facts which haiDpened at the passion of our Saviour. Phlegon also, who has made a treatise on the olympiads from their very beginning, writes in his thirteenth book in the following words : " In the fourth year," says he, " of the two hundred and third olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the sun, a greater than which no one had ever known, so that it became night at the sixth hour [12 o'clock, M.], and stars were seen in the heavens. There was an earthquake in Bithynia, and a great part of Nice was des- troyed." So far the above-named author. This truly is a great argument that our Saviour suifered in that year, according to the testimony of the gospel of John, by which it is shown that there CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 401 was a period of three years of Christ's doctrine after the fifteenth year of Tiberius. About these times, Josephus also relates that in the days of Pentecost a commotion and noise attracted the attention of the priests, and then a sudden voice was heard from the Holy of Holies, saying, Let us depart hence. Let us depart hence. Josephus also relates another fact, that Pilate, the president at that time, ordered an image of Cffisar to be brought into the temple by night, where it was not lawful, and thus occasioned the beginning among the Jews of great disturbance and sedition, whence nume- rous misfortunes upon misfortunes happened to the Jewish nation. Flaccus Avilius being sent by Tiberius to Alexandria, as the pre- fect of Egypt secretly contrived many frauds against the Jewish nation."^ This extract, from the Chronicon of Eusebius, is so important from its nature, from the celebrity of its author, and the influence both have had upon succeeding ages, that it must be carefully scrutinized. Even a slight examination of it, by the light of tes- timony already laid before the reader, will be sufficient to show, that it contains many errors ; that its dates cannot all be made to harmonize with the truth of history ; and consequently, that the author was governed by his own computations alone, and not by any evidence, since lost, which gave him an advantage over us. But, as my object now is to give only a faithful statement of the testimony of the Grreek Church, such as it actually is, on the single point of the time of our Saviour's crucifixion, I shall defer all further remarks, till we come to compare and estimate the value of the whole. I pass on, therefore, to a remarkable extract from Epiphanius, with which I shall close this part of our subject. This writer is so diffuse and unskilful, that were I to attempt an exact translation, it would occupy much space, and convey but little information. I must attempt, therefore, to condense his narrative. In the second book of his great work on heresies, when speaking of the Alogi, he defends the Evangelists from the charges of contradiction and absurdity brought by Porphyry, Celsus, and others, against their history of our Lord. This he does by the general position, that the narrative of each is true, but that circumstances 1 Eusebii Pamph. Chronicon Bipartitum nunc primum ex Armeniaco textu in Lati- num conversum. — 0pp. J. B. Aucher. Ancjrani. Ven. 1818, 4to, pars. ii. p. 261 — 267, 51 402 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH — [PART II. omitted by one, are related by another ; and he therefore attempts to harmonize the whole, by assigning the dates of the several facts recorded. Thus, St. Matthew, after mentioning the birth of Christ, omits two years, and passes on to the visit of the Magi, the flight into Egypt, and the massacre of the children at Bethlehem. St. Luke speaks of the swathing-bands, the manger, and the cavern, • because there was no room for them in the inn.' The census and the Emperor's edict, had brought together a crowd which filled the place ; but, after the enrolment was completed, each person departed to his accustomed abode ; and, space being thus made, when the Magi arrived, they did not find Mary in the cave with its manger, but a star guided them until they came to ' the house' where the child was. That very night, two years after the nativity, the angel appeared, and commanded them to ' flee into Egypt.' Here they remained another two years, and then after the death of Herod, the angel again commanded them to return into ' the land of Israel.' " He then proceeds thus :' " The Lord was born, therefore, in the thirty-third year of Herod. In the thirty-fifth, the Magi came. In the thirty-seventh, Herod died, and was succeeded by his son Archelaus, who reigned nine years. Wherefore Joseph, having heard of Archelaus, went and dwelt at Nazareth, and thence every year went up to Jerusalem. Thenceforward Luke, again resuming the narrative, relates how, at the age of twelve years, He [Jesus] went up to Jerusalem ; and then, to give no place to those who maintained that He appeared to the world at once as a perfect man, speaks of His increasing in understanding, until He came to Jordan, unto John, beginning to be about thirty years of age. Chap. 13. — After the forty days of the temptation, having re- turned to Nazareth in Galilee, He again came to Jordan, where, John bare testimony that He was the Lamb of God. Chap. 14, 15. — After this, followed the calling of the apostles, the marriage at Cana, the miracles of Capernaum, the cure of the Avithered hand, the removal of the fever of Peter's wife's mother, the second return of Jesus to Nazareth, and the establish- ment of his abode in Capernaum. Chap. 16. — He was baptized, according to the Egyptians, on ' Alogi. chap. x. CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 403 the 12th of Athyr (November 8th), the sixth before the Ides of November, that is 60 clays before the feast of the Epiphany, when he was born. For such is the testimony of St. Luke : Jesus began to be about thirty years of age. He was twenty-nine years and ten months old when he came to baptism : thirty years old, but not fully. Wherefore, he says, beginning to be about thirty. For beginning thence, and computing forty days for the temptation ; a little more than two weeks in Nazareth ; the first and second days with John ; and again, tlie first and second days when Andrew and his companions followed him, and then Simon Peter ; and the other day, the calling of Philip and Nathaniel ; and finally, on the third day, the marriage in Cana of Galilee ; and the thirty years from his birth are completed. For, on the very same day on which he was born, as it is supposed, he wrought the first miracle. Passing over the J 7th chapter as foreign from our subject, and omitting from the 18th to the 21st inclusive, in which Epiphanius defends the Gospel of St. John from the imputations cast upon it by the Alogi, we proceed to Chap. 22. — They again accuse the Holy Gospel, saying, that John speaks of two passovers kept by our Saviour, whereas the other Evangelists speak only of one. These ignorant men do not know that the Gospels acknowledge, not only two but three passovers. For immediately from Jordan, as St. Luke says, Jesus was begin- ning to be about thirty years old. The Saviour was born in the forty-second year of Augustus, Emperor of the Romans, which was the twenty-ninth year of the connexion of the Romans with the Jews ; for Augustus reigned thirteen years before Judaea was per- fectly connected with the Romans. This period of 13+29=42, Epiphanius again divides. In utter defiance of all true history, into three other periods of 4 + 5 + 33 =42 ; four years of friendship, five years of tribute, and thirty- three years of the reign of Herod, making the forty-second year of the whole reign of Augustus, the ninth year of the procurator- ship of Antipater, the father of Herod. He then attempts to give a list of consuls for thirty years. In order to show the year in which our Saviour was thirty years old. By the side of his list, which I copy exactly, I have placed the true chronological series, that the reader may see at one glance the errors of the author. 404 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR S DEATH — [part II. 4711 4712 4713 4714 4715 4716 4717 4718 4719 4720 4721 4722 4723 4724 4725 4726 4727 4728 4729 4730 4731 4732 4733 Ol3'mp. CXCIV. „ 3 „ 4 cxcv. 1 2 „ 3 » 4 CXCVI. » 1 ,. 2 „ 3 „ 4 CXCVII. „ 1 » 2 „ 3 ,, 4 CXCVIII » 1 2 „ 3 cxcix. „ 1 „ 2 „ 3 „ 4 cc. 1 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 Correct Series of Consuls, 1 Imp. Caes, Divi F. Augustus xiu M. Flautius M.F.M.N.'Silvanus 2 Cossus Cornelius Cn. F. Lentulus L. Calpuruius Cn. F. Piso 3 C. Julius Aug. F. Divi N. Caesar L. ^milius L.F.M.N. Paullus 4 P. Vinucius M.F.P.N. P. Alfinius P.P. Varus 5 L. ^lius L.F. Lamia M. Servilius M.F. 6 Sextus JElius Q.F. Catus C. Sentius C.F.C.N. Saturninus 7 Cn. Corn. L.F.L.N. Cinna Magnus L. Valerius Potiti F.M.N Messalla [Volusus 8 M. ^milius L.F. Lepidus L. Arruntius L.F.L.N. 9 A. Licinius A.F. Nerva Silianus Q. Cfficilius Q.F.Q.N. Metellus Cre- [ticus 10 M. Furius P.F.P.N. Camillus Sex. Non. L.F.L.N. Quinctilianus 11 C. Poppaeus Q.F.Q.N. Sabinus Q. Sulpicius Q.F.Q.N. Camerinus 12 P. Cornelius P.F.P.N. Dolabella C. Junius C.F.]\I.N. Silanus 13 M. yEmilius Q.F.M.N. Lepidus T. Statilius T.F.T.N. Taurus 14 Germanicus Csesar Ti. F. Aug. N. C. Fontejus C.F.C.N. Capito 15 C. Silius P.F.P.N L. IMunatius L.F.L.N. Plancus 16 Sextus Pompeius Sex. F. Sextus Appuleius Sex. F. 17 Drusus Cijesar Tib. F.A.N. C. Norbanus Flaccus According to Epipbauius. 18 Statilius Sisenna Taurus L. Scribonius Libo 19 C. Cfelius Rufus L. Pomponius Flaccus Grsecinus 20 CI. Tiberius Nero. Aug. in Germanicus Casar ii 21 M. Junius Silanus L. Norbanus Flaccus Balbus 22 M. Valerius Messalla M. Aurelius Cotta 23 CI. Tiberius Nero Augustus iv Drusus Caesar Tib. fil. n 1 These things came to pass in the thirteenth Consulship of Octavius Augustus, and the Consul Silanus ; which con- sulship was followed bj' the consulships hereunder ar- ranged 2 Lentulus and Piso the second [time 3 Lucius Csesar and Paullus 4 Vinducius and Varus 5 Lammia and Serujulius Nom- [mius 6 Magnus Pompeius and Vale- [rius 7 Lepidus and Aruncius 8 Csesar and Capito 9 Creticus and Nerva 10 Camillus and Quintilianus 1 1 Camerus and Sabinus 12 Dolabella and Silvanus 13 Lepidus and Taurus 14 Flaccus and Sylvanus 15 The two Sexti 16 Pompeius Magnus &Apulejus 17 Brutus and Phlangcus (or [Flaccus) 18 Taurus and Libo 19 Cx'assus and Eufus 20 Tiberius Caesar second time, Drusus Germanus 2nd time 2 1 Silvanus and Balbus 22 Messala and Gratus 23 Tiberius Caesar third time, Drusus Germanus third time CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 405 A.J.P. Olyniii. A.II.C. 4734 9 774 4735 ,, 3 775 4736 4737 „ 4 CCI. 776 777 4738 778 4739 „ 3 779 4740 „ 4 780 24 D. Haterius Agrippa C. Sulpicius Galba 25 C. Asinius Pollio C. Antistius Vetus 26 Ser. Cornelius Cethegus L. Visellius Varro 27 M. Asinius Agrippa Cossus Cornelius Lentulus 28 C. Calvisius Sabinus Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Getulicus 29 M. Licinius Crassus L. Calpurnius Piso 30 App, Junius Silanus Silius Nerva According to Kpipbanius. 24 Agrippa and Balbus 25 Pollio and Vetus 26 Cethegus and Varus 27 Agi'ippa the second time and Lentulus Galbus 28 Getulicus and Sabinus 29 Crassus and Piso 30 Silanus and Nerva Chap. 23. — Here you perceive that there is a period of thirty years, I have, therefore, endeavoured carefully and accu- rately to give a list of the consulships, in order to show that nothing in the sacred doctrine of truth has been asserted contrary to fact. For who, when he reckons up this infallible succession of consuls, will not condemn those, who think that there is any dis- cordance in the number of years stated by the Evangelists? Epiphanius then speaks of the absurdities of those earlier heretics, who called these thirty years thirty seons. After which, he pro- ceeds thus : It is proved, that in the thirty-third year of his incar- nation, the only Begotten, being impassible from above, God the word, having taken upon him our flesh, vouchsafed to suffer for us, that he might destroy the handwriting of death, which was contrary to us. For, after that consulship designated in his thirtieth year, there was another consulship, called that of the two Gemini, then another consulship of Rufus and Rubellio ;* and thus, another consulship intervening after the consulship of Rubellio, finally came that of Vinicius and Longinus Cassius, so called, in which the Saviour suffered, on the 13th before the calends of April (March 20th). Thus the error of them all is detected, the doc- trine according to truth being clearly shown, that a period not only of two, but also of three passovers, is contained in the Gospels. * If thfi reader will turn back to the chapter on the succession of consuls, he will see the origin of this gross mistake. The consulship of L. Rubellius Geminus and C. Fufius Geminus, familiarly called that of the two Gemini, and by Tacitus that of Rubellius and Fufius, is called in the Fasti of Idatius, "RufoetEubellione," and in the Greek catalogue of the Chro- nicon Paschale is divided as Epiphanius has divided it, into two successive consul- ships, the one Geminus and Geminus, the other Rufus and Rubelliuus. 406 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUr's DEATH — [PART II. Chap 24.- — For, as he was born about the month of January, that is eight days before the ides of January (Jan. 6th) which is, according to the Egyptians, the eleventh of Tybi; according to the Syrians and Greeks, the sixth of Audynteus ; according to the Cypriots or Salaminians, the fifth day of the fifth month ; accord- ing to the Paphians, the fourteenth day of Julus; according to the Arabs, the twenty-first of Aleom ; according to the Cappadocians, the thirteenth of Atartas ; according to the Hebrews, the thirteenth of Tebeth; according to the Athenians, the sixth of Mamacterion; he passed through the aforesaid full twenty-nine consulships ; and in the thirtieth consulship, that is to say about the tenth month, he came to John, and was baptized in the river Jordan in the thirtieth year of his birth, in the flesh, that is, according to the Egyptians, the twelfth of Athyr (November 8th), six days before the ides of November, (November 13th); according to the Greeks, the eighth of Dios; according to the Salaminians or Constantians, the sixth of the third Choiak ; according to the Paphians, the six- teenth of Apogonistos ; according to the Arabs, the twenty-second of Angalthabaith ; according to the Macedonians, the sixteenth of Apellseus ; according to the Cappadocians, the fifteenth of Aratatas ; according to the Athenians, the seventh of Metageitnion ; accord- ing to the Hebrews, the seventh of Maresvan. As the holy Gospel according to St. Luke bears me witness, when it says, ' Jesus began to be about thirty years of age, being (as was sup- posed) the son of Joseph.' And beginning from this twelfth of Athyr (November 8th) he preached the acceptable year of the Lord as the prophet Isaiah had foretold.^ Chap. 25. — For he truly preached the acceptable, that is to say, the ungainsaid year. The first year after the thirtieth year of his coming in the flesh, he preached, and all received him with favour. Neither the Jews, nor the Gentiles, nor the Samaritans, spoke against him, but all heard him gladly. In this year he went up to Jerusalem, after his baptism, and passing through the forty days of his temptation, choosing his disciples, returning from his temp- tation to Jordan, crossing the sea of Tiberias, and going to Naza- reth, he went up openly to Jerusalem, and in the midst of the feast cried, saying, ' If any man thirst, let him come unto me and drink.'"^ In this manner he departed to Nazareth, to Judsea, to Samaria, and to the borders of Tyre. When this first year was * Cap. Ixi. 1,2. ' John vii. 37. CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 407 ended, he again went up to Jerusalem, and now at last they sought to take him at the feast, but were afraid. In respect to this feast it was that he said, 'I go not down to this feast.' He told no false- hood. God forbid ! For in the midst of the feast he came, says the Evangelist, and went up to Jerusalem. And they said. Is not this he whom they seek to take ? Yet behold he speaketh boldly. Have the priests indeed learned that this is the Christ ? But we know whence this man is. They knew not what he said, because he conversed with his brethren mystically and spiritually. For he said to them that he would not go up in that feast into the Temple, nor at that time unto the cross to perfect the economy of his pas- sion and the mystery of salvation, and to arise from the dead and ascend into Heaven. All which things he fulfilled by his own power. After these things, having completed the space of two years from his baptism and his birth, from the month of November and the month of January, or thereabouts, finally in the thirty- third year of his incarnate economy, after he had passed the two consulships of which we have spoken, namely, of the two Gemini, and of Rufus and Rubellio, in the third month of the third consul- ship, after January and February in the month of March, the Im- passible Word completed the mystery of the passion, having suffered in the flesh for us. And yet he remained in his impassi- bility, as Peter says. Being put to death in the flesh, but quickened by the spirit.' Chap. 26. — He suffered on the thirteenth, before the calends of April [March 20th], when they had passed over one evening, that is in the fourteenth midnight of the moon. For they anticipated and ate the passover, as the Gospel saith, and as we have often said, two days before the proper time of eating it, that is on the third day [Tuesday] at evening, whereas it ought to have been on the fifth day [Thursday] at evening. Thus the fifth [Thursday] was the fourteenth day of the moon. But it was taken together on the same third [Tuesday] at evening, which was the eleventh night of the moon, sixteen days before the calends of April. The fourth [Wednesday] was the twelfth night, the fifteenth before the calends of April. The fifth [Thursday] the thirteenth day and the fourteenth night, the fourteenth before the calends of April. The Prosabbaton or Parasceve [Friday] the fourteenth night, the ' 1 Pet. iii. 18. 408 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH — [PART II. fourteenth [thirteenth?] before the calends of Aj)ril. The Sab- bath [Saturday] the fifteenth day, the twelfth before the calends of April. The dawning towards the Lord's day, the fifteenth night, which was the illumination of Hades and of earth, and of Heaven, and of the night and of day, on account of the fifteenth of the moon and the course of the sun, and because the resurrection and the equinox were on the eleventh before the calends of April. By which (equinox) being deceived, they made a mistake of one day, as I have before said. Now there is a slight calculation of some hours, which in three years amounts to a diiference of one day. For after three hundred and fifty- four days, there are added in the course of the moon other four (eight ?) hours each year ; so that after three years they make one day. Wherefore in fourteen years are completed five embolismic months ; because, from the course of the sun of three hundred and sixty-five days and three hours is taken one hour, so that finally, by adding the hours, there are made three hundred and sixty-five days excepting one hour. Hence then fourteen years multiplied by six, make eighty-four years, and in the eighty-fifth year they insert one month. Thus there are thirty-one months in eighty-five years, when, according to accurate calculation, there are thirty-one months, twenty-four days, and three hours. Chap. 27. — On this account, making then a mistake, they intro- duced confusion, not only by anticipating the time, and eating the passover two days too soon ; but also, passing over one day, they made a mistake in every way. But the economy of the truth acted for our salvation most accurately in all respects. Whence the Saviour himself, having completed the passover, went out to the mountain after he had eaten, having greatly desired it,^ and there ate the passover of the Jews with his disciples, doing nothing else than what was equally done by others, that he might fulfil, and not destroy the law. Thus, when he had passed over thirty years, when he was baptized, and, after the thirtieth year, had preached, in the fullest manner the acceptable year of the Lord, no one opposing him ; and another year, in which he was opposed, and persecuted, and hated ; and after another year, exceeding from the the day of his nativity, that is, of the Epiphany, which falls on the 6th of January, the 11th of Tybi, according to the Egyptians, • St. Luke xxii. 15. CHAP. IV.] THE GREEK CHURCH. 409 seventy-four days in all, as I before said [Jan. 31 — 5=26, Feb. 28 March 20=74], unto the 13th before the calends of April, the 24th of Phamenoth, according to the Egyptians [March 20th], he com- pleted thirty-two solid years and seventy-four days from the Epiphany ; and rising, according to the Egyptians, on the 26th of Phamenoth [March 22], which was the equinox, the 11th before the calends of April, that all might be found liars who were not the sons of truth.' In condensing this testimony of Epiphanius, which, in the edition of Petavius, occupies more than twenty folio pages, I have endea- voured both to do justice to the author, and also to diminish, as much as possible, the weariness of the reader. The passage is in itself so remarkable, that I feared to omit any part even of those calculations in which he aj^pears to have been most inaccurate. I confess that I have not at all times comprehended his meaning. I am not sure, therefore, that my translation is correct, and am more especially doubtful with regard to the twenty-sixth and twenty- seventh chapters. They have been, according to the best of my judgment, literally translated ; and I have sought to render them more intelligible, by occasionally inserting between brackets, such explanatory words as seemed to me necessary to complete the sense. I cannot but think that some errors have crept into the numbers, which in the original text are represented by letters, from the care- lessness, or ignorance, or presumption, of transcribers. This will be made apparent by a slight calculation. Epiphanius makes the solar year to consist of 365 days and three, not six, hours. The lunar, he says, contains 354 days and four, not eight, hours ; which four hours, he further says, make, in the course of three years, one day. If he reckons twenty-four hours to the day, the number must be eight, and not four. But, not to dwell on this, if from the solar year, as stated by him, 365 days 3 hours, we deduct the lunar year, which, according to the present text, consists of 354 days 4 hours, there will remain a difference of 10 days 23 hours, or eleven days wanting one hour. This remainder multiplied by fourteen, gives an amount in fourteen years of 153 days and 10 hours. Five embolismic months, of thirty days each, according to the Greek mode of intercalation, amount to 1 50 days, leaving three ' Epiphan. Adv. Hser. lib. ii. Hser. xxxi. sen li. c. viii. — xxvii. Ed. Petav. Paris, 1622, fol. torn i. pp. 429 to 449. 52 410 DATE OF OUR SAVIOUR's DEATH. [PART H. days and ten hours to be provided for, in order to adjust his lunar to his solar year. In the course of eighty-four years, or 14 x 6, these three days and ten hours amount to twenty days and twelve hours. Add to these, for the eighty-fifth year, ten days and twenty- three hours, and you have thirty-one days and eleven hours. By adding another embolismic month of thirty days in the eighty-fifth year, there still remain one day and eleven hours, in order to adjust the lunar and solar reckoning. Consequently in eighty-five years, there would be, as Epiphanius states, thirty-one embolismic months ; but, according to the numbers of the text, as it now stands, there remain thirty-five hours only, and not twenty-four days and three hours, as there stated. With these remarks, I leave the subject to the consideration of others better informed than myself. Though in itself curious and interesting to those engaged in astronomical researches, it is not essential to the present inquiry, excepting in so far as it shows that Epiphanius was governed by his own astronomical computations, in his attemj:»t to fix the date of our Lord's passion. There is one passage more from the writings of this author, which it seems proper to quote. It occurs in the treatise on weights and measures. He is giving a chronological list of the Roman emperors. " Augustus Ivi. years, in whose forty-second year our Lord Jesus Christ was born according to the flesh. " Tiberius xxlii. years, in whose eighteenth year Christ was crucified."' ' Lib. de Ponder, et Mensur. Ed. Pctav. torn. ii. p. 169. CHAP, v.] 411 CHAPTER V. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. Why confined to Greek writers. — Their embarrassment as to the duration of our Lord's ministry i-enders their testimony as to his death more valuable. — Eusebius and Epiphanius the first of the Greek fathers who departed from the received opinion. — Eusebius governed by calculation, not testimony. — Ilis mistakes. — Epiphanius in like manner governed by computation. — Differs from Eusebius. — His errors. — Super- natural darkness at our Saviour's passion. — Phlegou. — The subject reserved for the next chapter. The Latin Christian writers being so perfectly accordant in their testimony as to the day, month, and year, of our Saviour's death, and the day and inonth of his birth ; it seems unnecessary to make any further remarks on them. Among the Greek writers, although their means of information were not as great as those of the Latins, thei'C is yet a surprising harmony as to the date of our Lord's passion. They were evidently embarrassed by what they consi- dered as a necessary consequence, that he began and terminated his ministry in the fifteenth year of Tiberius ; but this, in fact, renders their testimony the more valuable, because it was a reluc- tant submission to the traditive testimony of the Church Catholic. With regard to the date of our Saviour's birth, it would seem, from the language of St. Clemens Alexandrinus, that there was more vagueness of opinion ; although the Greek Church, from a very early period, appears to have celebrated the nativity, the adoration of the Magi, and the baptism of our Lord, as having all taken place on the 6th of January. "Whether the early practice of the Chal- dasan, and other eastern Christians, was the same, I am unable to say ; but certain it is, that the Greek Church, and the oriental Christians generally, at a later period adopted the ])ractice of the Latins, and celebrated the nativity on the 25th of December. As this is a subject which deserves to be more miriutely considered, I reserve it for a separate chapter, and i)roceed now to consider 412 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART II. the testimony of Eusebius and Epiphanlus, the first of the Greek fathers who departed from the received opinion, that our Saviour suffered on the 25th of March, in the consulship of the two Gemini. It has been ah'cady observed, that the calculations of Eusebius are evidently erroneous. Without dwelling upon the inaccuracy of dating by years only, without attending to months and days, it is to be observed, in the first place, that the eleventh year of Augustus, and the first of Herod, are made to synchronize. In counting the years of Augustus, Eusebius committed the error of considering the monarchy as established by Jvilius Csesar ; and, therefore, he computed the reign of Augustus from the death of his uncle. But Julius Caesar was killed on the 15th of March, in the year of the Julian period 4669, the first year of his reformed calendar, towai-ds the close of the 708th year of Rome, and in the third year of the 183d olympiad. Eusebius places that event in the second year of the 184th olympiad, which would bi'ing it down to Marcli a.j.p. 4672, the 711th year of Rome, and the fourth of Cresar's reformed calendar. He thus makes the date of that event three years too late. The first year of the reign of Augustus he makes coeval with the third year of the 184th olympiad, the 710th year of Rome, the 1974th year of Abraham, the eighth of Cleopatra, and the twenty- fifth of the Jewish high-priest Hyrcanus. Without considering the year of Abraham or the reigns of Cleopatra and Hyrcanus, which would lead to investigations remote from our subject, we will ex- amine only the other synchronisms. As to the year of Rome, he is not much out of the way. Though Augustus did not succeed Julius C?esar in the monarchy, he entered on his first consulship August 19th, A.u.c. 710, in the second year of Caesar's reformed calendar ; but this was at the beginning of the first year of the 184th olympiad, and not at the third, as stated by Eusebius. Counting from the 19th of August of that year, the eleventh year of Augustus would commence on the 19th of August A.u.c. 720, the twelfth year of Caesar's reformed calendar, and the 4680th year of the Julian period. This would be in the second month of the third year of the 186th olympiad ; whereas, according to Eusebius, it began in the first year of the 187th olympiad. It has been seen, that the appointment of Herod by the Roman Senate to be king of Jud»a, took place about the twentieth day of CHAP, v.] ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. 413 July, A.j.p. 4673, a.u.c. 713, just at the beginning of the fourth year of the 184th olympiad ; and that he reigned nearly thirty- seven years from that date, having died about the 21st of March, or one month before the close of the 749th year of Rome, a.j.p. 4710, and in the fourth year of the 193d olympiad. But Eusebius places the first year of Herod's reign in the 720th year of Rome and the first year of the 187th Olympiad ; and the last year of his reign, in the 756th year of Rome and the first year of the 196th olympiad. He, therefore, has brought down the whole reign of Herod nine or ten years too late on the scale of time. He has given correctly the greatest number of years of Herod's reign stated by Josephus, equally his authority and ours ; and yet, with the work of Josephus in his hands, has committed the unaccount- able oversight of not distinguishing the two epochs of that reign, so clearly established by the historian ; first, from his appointment by the Romans, and secondly, from the capture of Jerusalem and the death of Antigonus. Hence, he has placed the appointment of Ananelus as high-priest in the first year of Herod's reign, and the first year of the 187th olympiad. But Herod never appointed any high-priest, till, by the death of Antigonus, the Asmontean dynasty became extinct. According to Josephus, Anti- gonus was put to death in the month of June, A.j.p. 4676, A.U.C. 716, towards the close of the second year of the 185th olympiad ;' and in the course of a few months after that event, Herod invited Ananelus to come to him from Babylon, and conferred upon him the high-priesthood.^ Having thus placed the reign of Herod nine or ten years too late, making its thirty-seventh year to synchronize with the year of Rome 756, and the first year of the 196th olympiad, Eusebius supposes the first year of Archelaus to agree with the second year of the 196tli Olympiad and the 757th year of Rome. He, there- fore considers all obstacles removed, and places the birth of Christ in the year of Rome 751, which is too late, and in the thirty-second year of Herod, the sixth year before his death, which is too early, One error in computation leads to another. We shall find, if I mistake not, that this error as to the birth of Christ, proceeded from an error in computing the time of our Saviour's passion. Augustus died on the 19th day of August, the same day in ' Antiq. lib. xiv. c. 16, and lib. xv. c. 1. ' Jos. ut sup. lib. xv. c. 2, § 4. 414 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART II. which he entered on his first consulship ; consequently, from August 19th, A.u.c. 710, to August 19th, a.u.c. 766, were exactly fifty-six years, as reckoned by Eusebius. The only inaccuracy is that, in point of fact, the death of Augustus took place at the beginning of the first, and not at the end of the second, year of the 198th olympiad ; consequently, the accession of Tiberius took place at the same time, or about two years before the third year of that olympiad with which it is made coeval by Eusebius. The fifteenth year of Tiberius began on the 1 9th of August, A.u.c. 780, the second month of the third year of the 201st olympiad, and ended the 18th of August, the second month in the fourth year of the same olympiad. In like manner, the nineteenth year of Tibe- rius, in which Eusebius placed our Lord's passion, began August 19, A.u.c. 784, early in the third year of the 202d olympiad ; and, therefore, according to his hypothesis, our Saviour suffered at the Passover in the spring following, that is, towards the close of the year of Rome 784, in the consulship of Sulpicius Galba and Sulla Felix, in the seventy-seventh year of Cajsar's reformed calendar, and the 4745th year of the Julian period. Deduct from this, thirty-four years, and we are brought back to the year 4711 of the Julian period, or the 751st year of Rome after the Parilia, as the date of our Saviour's birth, according to the computation of Euse- bius. It is plain, therefore, that Eusebius pursued precisely the same method of computation which we are now pursuing ; that is, he established Avhat he conceived to be the year of oiu* Saviour's passion ; and this he did, first by counting forward four Passovers from the fifteenth year of Tiberius, because he took St. Luke's account of the year of our Lord's baptism to mean the fifteenth of the sole reign of that emperor, and by com^^aring the evangelists, he found that his ministry must have embraced three Passovers before that of his passion. He then counted backward thirty years from the beginning of his ministry to the year of his birth. A passage in the tenth chapter of the first book of his ecclesias- tical history, shows beyond a doubt that such was his method. After stating that Jesus, according to the evangelist, was bap- tized and began his ministry, in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, he quotes the expression of St. Luke, " Annas and Cai'aphas being the high-priests,"' as a proof that the ministry of our Lord ex- 1 Chap. iii. v. 2. CHAP, v.] ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. 415 tended from the high-priesthood of Annas to that of Caiaphas, which he makes to be somewhat short of four years. For the ordinances of the law having been abolished, the hereditary succession and preservation of the high-priesthood for life, was done away, and the Roman governors appointed one after another to the high- priesthood, allowing to each not more than one year. He then quotes Josephus, in proof of the fact that there were four high- priests in succession from Annas to Caiaphas. For Valerius Gratus having deprived Ananus (or Annas), Ishmael the son of Baphi was promoted. Soon after Eleazai', the son of the high-priest Ananus, was substituted for him. At the expiration of a year, Simon the son of Camithus received the high-priesthood. He also, not having held the dignity more than one year, was succeeded by Joseph, called Caiaphas. It is manifest, therefore, that the whole time of our Saviour's ministry, was of four high-priests in four years, from Annas to Caiaphas, and that Caiaphas was high-priest in the same year in which our Saviour suffered. The Scripture, therefore, he says, is in harmony with his preceding observations. Such beinor the origin of the whole scheme of Eusebius, let us now j)roceed to examine the passage of Josephus on which it is founded. It occurs in the eighteenth book of his Antiquities. Cyrenius, or Quirinius, having confiscated the treasures of Ar- chelaus, proceeded to depose the high priest Joazar, and to appoint in his stead Ananus, the son of Seth. This took place, Josephus says, in the thirty-seventh year after Caesar's victory at Actium ; and, being after the banishment of Archelaus, must have occurred in the months of July or August ; because, with the second of September, began the thirty-eighth from that victory. Ananus continued to hold the office during the remainder of the reign of Augustus, having been deprived of the pontificate by Valerius Gratus, who was appointed procurator of Judaea in the first year of Tiberius. Ananus, therefore, held the office nearly eight years. In the place of Ananus, Valerius Gratus appointed Ishmael, the son of Phabi; but a short time after deposed him, and appointed in his stead Eleazar, the son of Ananus. He held the office one year, when Valerius deposed him also, and gave the high-priesthood to Simon, the son of Camithus. At the expira- tion of another year^ Simon was deposed, and Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, appointed. Thus, between the deposition of Ananus, 416 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART II. and the appointment of Cai'aphas, less than three years intervened ; and it is impossible to assign a later date for the appointment of Caiaphas, than the autumn of the year 4730 of the Julian period, the close of the fourth or beginning of the fifth year of Tiberius. Cai'aphas continued to hold the office of high-priest during the whole of Pilate's administration ; for, it was not until Vitellius had come to Jerusalem at the passover, which immediately preceded the death of Tiberius, that we read the following account in Josephus : " He (Vitellius) removed the high-i)riest Joseph, who was called Cai'aphas from the high-priesthood, and appointed Jona- than, the son of Ananus the former high-priest to succeed him."' It is evident, therefore, that Caiaphas held the high-priesthood be- tween eighteen and nineteen years, from the 4730th to the 4748th year of the Julian period, or according to the common Christian sera, from a.d. 17 to a.d. 35. The basis on which the computation of Eusebius rested being thus taken away, the superstructure falls of course. The passage extracted from the Chronicon of Eusebius, contains a still more remarkable instance of careless quotation from Jose- phus. After speaking of our Saviour's ministry as extending three years after the fifteenth of Tiberius, so as to bring his crucifixion to the nineteenth year, he says : " About these times, Josephus relates that in the days of Pentecost, a commotion and noise attracted the attention of the priests, and then a sudden voice was heard from the Holy of Holies, saying, let us depart hence." About what times ? Surely not about the times of our Saviour's ministry or crucifixion. The words of Josephus occur in his ac- count of the destruction of the Temple by the Romans.^ If Eu- sebius observed this, the passage was irrelevant to his subject ; if he did not, and adduced it as a proof that our Saviour suffered in the nineteenth year of Tiberius, he has committed an anachronism of thirty-seven or thirty- eight years ; for the prodigies related by Josephus, occurred at the feast of Pentecost, in the second year of Vespasian. The fame of Eusebius as an ecclesiastical historian, has occa- sioned great deference to be paid to his authority ; but I have had occasion several times to speak of the difference between accuracy of facts and accuracy of dates. In common with other ancient his- ' Jos, Antiq. lib. xviii.c.2, § 1, 2,comp.with c. 4, § 3. ' De Bel. Jud. lib. \i. c. 5. CHAP, v.] ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. 417 torians, Eusebius has often committed errors, respecting the date of events preceding his own times, from the variety of teras used, and the imperfect state of astronomical and chronological science. In the present case, however, his errors both as to facts and dates, were occasioned not by conflicting authorities, but by erroneous computations. He departed from established authorities, in order to reconcile difficulties ; and by choosing a wrong way of doing this, increased the confusion. If Eusebius committed mistakes, it can occasion no surprise to persons conversant with the writings of Epiphanius, that he should be entangled in a still more inextricable labyrinth. His learning was greater than his judgment, and his honesty much stronger than his powers of conception or discrimination. Like Eusebius, he places the birth of Christ in the forty-second year of Augustus, that is in the fifteenth year before the death of that Emperor ; but he makes this to be the thirty-third year of Herod, whereas, Eusebius makes it the thirty-second year of that prince. He places the visit of the Magi in the thirty-fifth year of Herod, or two years later, and the return from Egypt two years later still. All this is evidently mere computation from the nar- rative of St. Matthew. It is liable to the same objections which have been already advanced respecting the computation of Euse- bius, and which need not therefore be repeated. His date of the baptism of our Lord, is, I think, peculiar to him. At least, I know of no Chi-istian writer, before, or after him, who supposes it to have taken place on the eighth of November. He differs from Eusebius as to the duration of our Lord's mi- nistry, which he makes to have been two years and seventy-four days, comprehending three passovers. The crucifixion, he says, was in the eighteenth year of Tiberius, while Eusebius places it in the nineteenth. His gross mistake as to the consuls, has been already pointed out. Our Lord's passion, he says, occurred on the twentieth of March, in the consulship of Vinicius and Longinus Cassius. But on referring to the tables, it will be seen that Lucius Cassius Longinus, and Marcus Vinicius Quartinus were consuls in the year which immediately followed that of Lucius Rubellius Geminus and Caius Fufius Geminus ; and consequently, was in the sixteenth, not the eighteenth year of Tiberius. He was embarrassed by the argument from prophecy of the 53 418 ON THE PRECEDING TESTIMONY. [PART II. older Greek writers, to prove that our Saviour's ministry was only for one year, because that was the acceptable year of the Lord. In order to escape from it, he invented the untenable hypothesis, that in the first year of his ministry no one opposed him ; that in the second he was opposed, persecuted and hated ; and that after seventy-four days of the third, he was crucified. To maintain this, he violates the testimony of St. John, referring chap. vii. 37 of his Gospel to a feast in the first year, and the 8th, 25th, and 26 th verses of the same chapter to a feast in the second year. His astronomical computations, by which he makes our Saviour rise on the day of the vernal equinox, are so extremely erroneous, that I do not think it necessary to take up the reader's time or my own in refuting them. I pass on, therefore, to speak of the supernatural darkness at the time of our Saviour's passion. In the extract given from the Chronicon of Eusebius, after speaking of the nineteenth year of Tiberius, as that in which our Lord came to his passion, the historian adds : " About which time, we have also found it related in other Greek commentaries, that the sun was eclipsed." He then quotes a passage from Phlegon, a heathen writer, whose testimony he produces for the purpose of fortifying his computation that our Saviour was crucified in that year. It is important, therefore, that we should consider this tes- timony ; and, as it is attended with some difficulties, it seemed proper not to give it a mere passing notice, but to reserve it to be treated of in a separate chapter. CHAP. VI.1 419 CHAPTER VI. PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. Who Phlegon was.— His work lost. — Extracts from it by Julius Africanus and Euse- bius. — Their works containing these extracts also lost, — All we know is from versions and later writers. — Collation of extracts as given by the Armenian version of the Chronicon of Eusebius, St. Jerome's Latin version, the Chronographia of Syncellus, and the Chronicon Paschale. — Extract by Syncellus from Julius Africanus. — Remarks upon it. — Testimony of Origen concerning Phlegon's account — of John Philoponus— St. Maximus — Malala. — Summary of the whole. — Amount of Phlegon's testimony not noticed by the learned and voluminous writers of the fourth and fifth centuries, when they speak of the darkness at our Lord's passion. — Dr. Lardner's judgment adopted. According to Suldas, Phlegon was a freedman of Augustus Ctesar, or, as others say, of Adrian. He wrote the Olympiads in sixteen books, containing an account of transactions everywhere, (or a universal history) down to the 229th olympiad, that is down to the middle of the year 137 of the common Christian sera. Pho- tius says decidedly that he was a freedman of Adrian, and that he brought down his Avork (as he himself says) to the times of that emperor. Photius adds that he had read to the 177th olympiad, or the first five books. ^ From these expressions it would seem that, even in the time of Photius, the remainder of the work was lost ; and now the Avhole, a few fragments excepted, is no longer extant. Julius Africanus and Eusebius made extracts from these other books ; and hence it appears that they must have perished between the fourth and the ninth centuries. The original text both of Julius Africanus and Eusebius have since shared the same fate. All that we know, therefore, is from versions and short ex- tracts made by later writers. These differ materially in their dates ; and that the English reader may have a clear view of these discre- pancies, and know the precise amount of testimony given, I shall place side by side translations from the Armenian and Latin ver- sions of the Chronicon of Eusebius, and the Greek text as exhi- bited by Syncellus, and the Chronicon Paschale. ' Biblioth. Art. xcvii. p. 266-7. 420 PIILEGON THE TRALLIAN. LPAET II. From the Armenian Text of the Chronicon of Eusebius. Phlegon also, who has made a treatise on the olympiads from their very beginning, writes, in his thirteenth book, in the following words: " In the fourth year of the cciii. olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the sun, a greater than which no one had ever known, so that it became night at the sixth hour, and stars were seen in the heavens. There was an earthquake in Bythj'nia, and a great part of Nice was destroyed. 1 From the Latin Version of St. Jerom of the Chronicon of Eusehius. Phlegon also writes concerning these things, the excellent calculator of the olympiads, saying thus in his thirteenth book : In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, a great eclipse of the sun took place, surpassing all which had happened before it. The day, at the sixth hour, was turn- ed into a very dark night, so that stars were seen in the heavens, and an earthquake in Bithynia overturned many houses in the city of Nice.' Extract from the Chronicon of Eusehius in the Chronographia of Syncellus. Phlegon also, the au- thor [calculator] of the olympiads, writes con- cerning the same things in his tliirteenth book, in these words: In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, happened an eclipse of the sun, greater than all which had been known before ; and night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that stars appeared in the hea- vens. A great earthquake also throughout Bithynia overthrew many parts of Nice.3 Account of our Lord's Passion I the Chronicon Paschale. The sun was darkened through the whole world from the sixth hour; con- cerning which darkness, Dionysius the Areopagite speaks, &c. And the pa- gan writers most un- doubtedly speak of this year, &c. especially Phle- gon the collector of the olympiads. For he says thus in his thirteenth book : In the fourth year of the ecu. olympiad, happened an eclipse of the sun, the greatest which had ever been known. And night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that the stars appeared in the hea- vens. A great earthquake also happened in Bi- thynia, and overturned many parts of Nice.* The Chronicon Paschale does not indeed expressly quote Euse- hius as the source from which the above extract is taken, but to any one who compares it with the extract in Syncellus, there can be no doubt of their identity. There is indeed no variation in sense, excepting that the Armenian version reads the fourth year of the two hundred and third olympiad, whereas the Greek text in Syn- cellus, and the Chronicon Paschale, and St. Jerome's version, all read the fourth year of the two hundred and second olympiad. The latter, therefore, is most probably the true reading. But on examining other writers, we find the testimony of Phlegon very differently represented. Syncellus has given an extract from the history of Julius Afri- canus, " concerning the events which accompanied the passion and resurrection of our Saviour,*" which I think it important to give somewhat at large. In order to shoAv the connexion of the testi- mony of Phlegon with his subject, and the use he himself made of it. * Euseb. Chron. ex Armen. textu, Yen. ' G. Syncellus Chron. ed. Paris, 1652, 1818, torn. ii. p. 265-6. p. 324, 325. * S. Hicronymi Opera, ed. Vallarsii, ^ Chron, Pasch. ed. Paris, p. 219, also torn. viii. par. 1, Eusebii Chronicon. p. 222. CHAP. VI.] PllLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 421 "A fearful darkness overspread the whole world. The rocks were rent by an earthquake, and many places of Judsea, and the rest of that region, were throAvn down. This darkness, Thallus, in the third book of his history, calls an eclipse of the sun ; but, as it appears to me, without reason. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the fourteenth of the moon ; and before the first day of the passover [Trpo Se fitdg rov Trncr-^a'] the events concerning the Sa- viour happened. But an eclipse of the sun takes place when the moon passes under the sun. It is impossible, therefore, that it should happen at any other time than between the first day [scil. of the moon] and the day before it, according to this conjunction. How then could it be accounted an eclipse, when the moon was diametrically opposite to the sun ? But admitting this, as being by the multitude assumed to be a fact, and that this world's wonder be considered, at least in appearance, as an eclipse of the sun, Phlegon relates that imder Tiberius Csesar, at the full of the moon, a total eclipse of the sun took place from the sixth to the ninth hour. Manifestly this very same. But what communication is there between an earthquake and an eclipse, between the rending of rocks and the resurrection of the dead, and all this movement of the world ? In a very long period of time, such a thing is never recorded to have happened. It was rather a darkness appointed of God, because the Lord underwent his suffering ; and reason re- quires that the seventy weeks in the book of Daniel reach down to this time."" Africanus then proceeds to comi^ute the seventy weeks of years as follows : " From Artaxerxes to the time of Christ, the seventy weeks are completed according to the Jewish computation. For from Nehemiah, who was sent by Artaxerxes to govern Jeru- salem, in the one hundred and tAventieth year of the dominion of the Persians, which was the twentieth year of Artaxerxes and the fourth year of the eighty -third olympiad, to these times, which were the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, and the sixteenth year of the government of Tiberius Caesar, are reckoned 475 years, which make 490 Hebrew years, because they compute their years according to the lunar month. This it is easy to show of 29^ days, because the revolution of the solar year, consisting of 365^ days, exceeds twelve lunar months by 11 1 days. On this account, both Greeks and Jews insert three embolismic months in 422 PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. [PART 11. eight years ; for eight times eleven and a quarter make three months. Four hundred and seventy-five years, therefore, make fifty-nine octaeterides and three months [years ?] ; so that in each octaeteride [or period of eight years] there being three embolismic months, the whole amounts to fifteen years ; and these being added to four hundred and seventy-five years, the seventy weeks are obtained."* After pursuing this train of calculation for some time, he finally sums up the whole as follows : " It appears, therefore, that from the twentieth year of the reign of Artaxerxes, which was, accord- ing to the Greeks, the fourth year of the eighty [third] olympiad, to the sixteenth year of Tiberius Csesar, which was the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, are summed up the afore- said four hundred and seventy -five years, which amount, according to the Hebrews, to four hundred and ninety years, that is seventy weeks, as the coming of Christ was foretold by Gabriel to Daniel."^ In this passage, Africanus maintains that the darkness at the crucifixion was supernatural, and that the events Avhich accom- panied it had not the remotest connexion with an eclipse. But even admitting it to have been an eclipse, you have Phlegon for a witness that it was at the fidl moon, and lasted three hours. Phle- gon, therefore, manifestly wrote of the darkness at our Saviour's passion in the sixteenth year of Tiberius and the second year of the 202d olympiad. In a former chapter, treating of the testimony of Africanus, the opinion was expressed that St. Jerome's version of this passage, which reads ihe> fifteenth and not the sixteenth year of Tiberius, was * Though the subject of the seventy Theremainder after dividing 475 years by weeks of Daniel does not come within the 8, is three years, not three months. His scope of our present argument, it may be position is, that 475 solar years are equal observed in passing, that the calculation to 490 lunar years. But its incorrectness of Africanus seems to be as follows: 59 may be clearly shown in another way. octaeterides multiplied by three, the num- Taking the length of the mean^ tropical borofcmbolismicmonths"in each, make 177 or solar year to be 365d. 5h. 48' 49", and the months. To these he added the three lunar year of 12 months of 29d. 12h. 44' 3" months which, as he says, remained in 475 = 354d. 8h. 15' 16", the difference between years over 59 octaeterides, and the sum 475 solar years and 490 lunar years will amounts to 180 months, or 15 years. But be as follows: this calculation is evidently erroneous. ^ ^^ 490 lunar years are equal to - - - 173,628d. 12h. 40^ 40^^ 475 solar years are equal to - - - - 173,490d. Ih. 27 56 Showing that 475 solar fall short of 490 lunar years 138d. lib. 12' 44" 1 Synccllus, cd. Pai-. p. 322-324; Routh's lleliquise, vol. ii. p. 183-190 CHAP. VI.] PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 423 to be preferred to the original text, as represented by Syncellus. To the reasons there given (see p. 395) I must now add, that as in most manuscripts numbers are expressed only in letters, the ignorance or carelessness of transcribers has often occasioned many mistakes and great uncertainty. Where a large number of copies of any work exist, the skilful critic is generally enabled to discover the true reading merely by collating them ; but those works of which there are but few copies preserved, often present inextri- cable difficulties, from which the timid critic shi'inks, and through which the bold critic cuts his way. In the passage under consideration, if, as is most probable, Afri- canus meant to assert that the testimony of Phlegon coincided with the consulship of the two Gemini, which would bring the eclipse he describes and the passion of our Lord to the spring of the fif- teenth year of Tiberius, then he erred in regard to the olympiad. For the months of March or April, in which alone the passion could have taken place, were in the third year of the 201st olym- piad. And even if we read the sixteenth year of Tiberius, there is still an insurmountable difficulty in his statement, because the spring of that year would be in the fourth year of the 201st, and not in the second year of the 202nd olymj^iad. If the words " at the full of the moon," and " from the sixth to the ninth hour," which Africanus has ascribed to Phlegon, were really his, we should all, I think, come to the conclusion of Afri- canus, that by his great eclipse of the sun, Phlegon meant the supernatural darkness of the crucifixion. A. writer on the universal history of eacli olympiad, a heathen, writing in the second cen- tury of the times of Tiberius Csesar, and a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, would certainly, if he had used such lan- guage, be considered as affording most triumphant testimony to the truth of the gospel history. And if his dates were erroneous or uncertain, from the causes which affect those of all ancient writers, we should not hesitate to adjust the dates to the facts recorded. But these words are wanting in the extract made by Eusebius, and are attributed to him only by Africanus. And what is still more to our point, — because it is not merely negative testi- mony,— Origen expressly asserts that Phlegon said nothing of his eclipse having taken place at the full moon. In his 35th tract on St. Matthew, he comments diffusely on chap, xxvii. 35; but the 424 PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. [PART 11. substance of his observations may be given in a few words. The calumniators of the Gospel deny the credibility of a universal darkness for three hours ; first, because there could be no eclipse of the sun at the full of the moon ; and, secondly, because it would have been noticed, not only by Christian authors, but by Greeks and barbarians, especially the Avriters of history. And even Phlegon himself, toho has toritten in his Chronicles that such an event did take place in the reign of Tiberius Cwsar, did not give us to understand that if took place at the full of the moon} To all this, Origen replies, that the evangelists say nothing about an eclipse of the sun, but mention only an extraordinary darkness ; and that this darkness, as Avell as the other prodigies at the time of our Saviour's passion, was over Jerusalem only, or at most, over the land of Judsea. We have not the original Greek, and the Latin translation is obscure and badly written ; but it is sufficient to show that Phlegon did not say, as Africanus, on the testimony of Syncellus, asserts, that the eclipse took place at the full of the moon. If such was the language of Africanus, he must have quoted his author from recollection, and under the strong persuasion that Phlegon meant to speak of the extraordinary darkness of the cru- cifixion. I proceed to mention other authors who have quoted this passage of Phlegon. John Philoponus, a grammarian of Alexandria, who flourished early in the seventh century, says thus of Phlegon, in his work on the eternity of the world : " He [Phlegon] says that in the second year of the 202nd olympiad, there happened an eclipse of the sun greater than all which had been known before ; and night took place at the sixth hour of the day, so that stars appeared in the heavens."^ There is no important difference in the quotation here made, from that in Syncellus, extracted from the Chronicon of Eusebius, except that Philoponus reads the second instead of the fourth year of the 202nd olympiad.* 1 Et Phlegon quidera in Chronicis snis from the same author, in which he sa3s scripsit, in principatu Tiberii Ctesaris fac- that the eclipse happened in the fourth turn, sed non significavit in luna plena hoc j-ear of the 202nd olympiad. Testimonies factum. — Origen, Op. ed. Ben. t. iii. p. 923. of ancient heathens, c. xiii. Not having ' Philoponus, lib. ii.de Mundi Creatione the work of Philoponus which is cited by cap. 21, apud Corderiura Annot. on S.Dion Fabricius as being on the eternity of the Areop. tom. ii. p. 93. world, I am unable to verify the quotations * But Lardner produces another passage above given. CHAP. VI.] PIILEGON THE TRALLIAN. 425 St. Maximus, Avho in the seventh century wrote scholia on the works of the pretended Dionysins the Areopagite, takes the follow- ing notice of Phlegon's work : " Phlegon also, the Gentile chrono- grapher, in the thirteenth book of his chronograpliy, at the two hundred and third olympiad, makes mention of this eclipse, saying that it happened in an unusual manner, but does not describe in what manner. Our Africanus also, in the fifth book of his chro- nographical writings, and Eusebius Pamphilus, in his Avork, make mention of the same eclipse."'^ John of Antioch, surnamed Malala, who flourished, according to Cave, early in the seventh century, says in his chronograpliy, " Our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified on the eighth before the calends of April, the 24th [25] of March, the moon being fourteen days old, at the sixth hour of the day, it being the day of prepara-^ tion [Friday] . The sun Avas darkened, and darkness was upon the world. Concerning this darkness, the most wise Phlegon, the Athenian, Avrote in his own narrative as follows : ' In the eighteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Csesar, there happened an eclipse of the sun, greater than any which had before taken place, and it was night at the sixth hour of the day, so that the stars appeared.' "^ On this testimony little need be said, Malala took the tradi-i- tional date of our Lord's passion, the eighth before the calends of April, the twenty-fifth, and not the twenty-fourth, of March. But this belonged to the fifteenth, and not the eighteenth, year of Ti- berius. Having rejected the idea of confining our Lord's ministry to one year, he placed his death in the eighteenth year of Tiberius, in the consulship, as he afterwards says, of Sulpicius and Sola. But Sulpicius and Sylla, or Sulla, as the name is differently written, were consuls in the nineteenth, and not in the eighteenth, year of Tiberius. How he could quote Phlegon as saying that his eclipse was in the eighteenth year of Tiberius, is not easy to con- ceive, unless we suppose that he quoted from recollection ; for the consulship of Sulpicius Galba and Sulla Felix Avas in the fourth year of the two hundi'ed and second olympiad. That he could not have read the Avork of Phlegon, is, I think, evident from the mis- take of calling him an Athenian. ' S. Maximi Scholia in S. Dionys, Areop. " Joan. Antioch, cognom. Malalae Histo- epist. vii. Opera, ed. Corderii,tom.ii. p. 97. ria Chronica, Oxon, 1691, 8vo. p. 309-10. 54 426 PHLEflON THE TRALLIAN. [PART 11. Having thus laid before the reader all that is known of Phlegon, I proceed to state in a few words the amount of our information. From the words of Photius I infer that in his time (cir. a.d. 858) no more of Phlegon's work was extant than to the 177th olympiad. He had read no further ; and such a man as he would not have omitted the remainder if he had possessed it. In giving an account of his author, he states that Phlegon brought down his work to the time of Adrian, but cautiously adds " as he himself says," which he would not have done could he have stated the fact on his own knowledge. All the quotations from Phlegon's thirteenth book, which have come down to us, relative to the eclipse, are by writers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, and they have evidently quoted at second hand. Some also have quoted inaccurately. Even the quotations themselves, from Africanus of the third, and Eusebius of the fourth century, diifer as to dates. The former, if I mistake not, meant to apply Phlegon's testimony to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, the latter to the nineteenth. In either case, to make the application correct, the dates of the olympiads must be adjusted. Phlegon must, in the former, have named the third year of the two hundred and first, not the second year of the two hundred and second olympiad, as the time of the supposed eclipse ; in the latter, the third year of the two hundred and second olym- piad. Yet some of the quotations carry it as low down as the fourth year of the two hundred and third olympiad, the year after that in which Tiberius died. But what, after all, is the amount of Phlegon's testimony ? He says that a very great and extraordinary eclipse of the sun hap- pened at the sixth hour, that is, when the sun was on the meridian of the place in which it was observed. He does not name that place ; but from his mentioning the earthquake as having happened in Bithynia, and that Nice, its principal city, suffered greatly, we are led to infer that the observation was made in that province. He mentions no circumstance which might not have taken place in a natural eclipse. In a total, or even annular eclipse, the stars would be visible at mid-day in a clear atmosphere. The earth- quake is only mentioned as a coincidence ; and, indeed, he does not say expressly that it was a coincidence. The earthquake may have happened before or after it. He does not mention the month or CHAP. VI.] PHLEGON THE TRALLIAN. 427 the season in which it happened. He says not a word of Judsea, and it is not reasonable to believe that he spake of its being at the full moon, or that he mentioned the darkness as continuing for three hours. No notice is taken of Phlegon or his eclipse by any'ancient Chris- tian writer, excepting Africanus, Origen, and Eusebius. Neither St. Jerome, excepting in his translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, nor St. Augustine, even when treating on the subject of the dark- ness at the crucifixion, nor St. Chrysostom, nor Theodoret, nor any other of the learned and voluminous writers of the fourth and fifth centuries, ever mention him. I am inclined, therefore, to adopt the judgment of the learned and candid Dr. Lardner. " This silence," he observes, " about Phlegon, in many of the most judicious and learned ancient Chris- tian writers, has induced me to think they did not reckon the pas- sage of Phlegon very material. If it had been reckoned by them clear and important, we should have seen numerous quotations of it, and cogent arguments upon it. Indeed, if it had been clear, it must have been important. But not being, as I suppose, reckoned by them clearly to refer to the darkness in Judfea at the time of our Lord's sufferings, they did not esteem it of much moment, and therefore did not allege it."' ' Lardner's works, ed. Kippis, Lond.1788, vol. vii. p. 385. 428 [part ir. CHAPTER VII. THE PASSION OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST. True date of the passion, March 25, in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. — Objection that this was Thursday considered. — Table for the first six months of that year, con- structed from the canon of Victorius. — True full moon shown to be on Friday, from the Parisian tables. — Roman and Hebrew computations of the day different. — Acts of the Roman government arranged according to the Roman, the narrative of the Gospels according to the Hebrew computation. — St. John enables us to fix the dates between the feast of dedication and our Lord's last passover. — Careful analysis of the whole week. — Our Lord arrived at Bethany on Fi-iday evening, and rested on the sabbath at Bethany.— Sunday, March 21, which was the tenth of Nisan, he entered Jerusalem in triumph. — Transactions of that day. — Of Monday, March 22. — Of Tuesday, March 23, when our Lord took leave of the temple. — Wednesday, March 24, spent in retirement. — Thursday, March 25, preparations for the passover, and celebration in the evening. — Institution of the Lord's supper. — Dedication of himself as the great victim. — Commencement of the passion. — Friday, March 26th, the cru- cifixion.— Considered by the high priests and sanhedrim as the fourteenth day of the paschal moon. — This subject considered. — Diversity of practice allowed, on account of the variations between the apparent and real time of the new and full moon. — Evidence of Divine arrangement, and proves the truth of these calculations. — This apparent design affords a reason why the Christian Church has always cele- bi'ated the Lord's supper in the morning.— Fulfilment of promise in a former chapter respecting the testimony of Lactantius. — Sum of the testimony. We have hitherto been occupied in considering the eyidence afforded by the ancient Church, as to the true date of our Saviour's death. We have seen that the eighth day before the calends of April, or the twenty-fifth of March, in the fifteenth year of the sole reign of Tiberius, is stated with great unanimity to have been the day of his suffei'ings. But, to this an objection has been raised, that by computation the eighth before the calends of April is found to have fallen that year upon Thursday ; whereas, the Evangelists with one accord represent the crucifixion as taking place on the Preparation, or day before the Sabbath. This has seemed to pre- CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 429 sent so formidable a difficulty, that some have even postponed the death of our Saviour to the twentieth year of Tiberius, in order to adjust the paschal full-moon to Friday, the sixth day of the week. But, as every departure from the truth renders its subject more intricate, so in this case, the rejection of plain testimony and the reliance upon computation only, have merely shifted the dif- ficulties, and made them still greater. For, as the death of Herod took place in March, in the 4710th year of the Julian period, and the twentieth year of Tibei'ius began August 19th A.J.P. 4745 ; our Saviour, according to this computation, must have been at least thirty-six, or thirty-seven years old when he was crucified ; which every one must allow to be an inadmissible con- clusion. But the difficulty with regard to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, is more apparent than real ; and the fact, instead of weakening, corroborates the Church's testimony. For, in the first place, the ancient writers who have mentioned our Lord's passion as com- mencing on the eighth before the calends of April, were perfectly aware that in the year of which they spake, it fell upon Thursday ; and secondly, this fact, and this only, can explain the difficulty respecting our Lord's eating the passover on Thursday evening. In reviewing the testimony of the Latin Church, the reader's at- tention was called to the paschal cycle of Victorius, formed about the year 455 of the common sera, and solemnly adopted by the fourth council of Orange [a.D. 541] as the rule for the computa- tion of Easter. Victorius began his cycle of 532 years with the seventy-third year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar, and commenced his computation of Easter from the passion of our Lord. An. Jul. Per. 4741, An. Ref. Cal. of JuUus Csesar, 73. CRUCIFIXION Year Bissex- Days of Age of Paschse. Age of Indic- OF CHRIST. of the tile years the cal. the Moon the Moon tions Consuls, the Two Period marked of on the Easter on I. Gemini, Ruffius of by the January, Cal. of day Easter (1. Fufius) and Victorius letter Feria v. January V. kal. day Rubellius. I. B. (Thurs.) XIX. April (Mar. 28.) XVI. In the preface to his computation, Victorius, speaking of the crucifixion of Christ as having taken place in the consulship of the two Gemini, says expressly, that "our Lord Jesus Christ suffered on the eighth before the calends of April, in the first month. 430 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [pART II. the fourteenth day of the moon, In the course of the evening on the fifth day of the week [Thursday].^ And again : " On the first day of unleavened bread, our Lord Jesus Christ being at sup- per with His disciples, after he had displayed the sacraments [or mysteries] of his body and blood, went, as the Holy Gospels tes- tify, to the Mount of Olives, and there, being betrayed by His disciple, was seized by the Jews. Then, on the following sixth day of the week [Friday], that is on the seventh before the calends of April [March 26th], He was crucified and buried ; and on the third day, that is on the Lord's day, the fifth before the calends of April [March 28th], He arose from the dead."^ It being plain, therefore, that when Victorius, and consequently, all the other ancient writers whose testimony agrees with his, spoke of the passion of our Lord as commencing on Thursday the twenty-fifth of March, they meant only that it began on that day, and was consummated by His crucifixion on Friday. That the whole subject may be made perfectly clear, I proceed to lay before the reader a table, constructed on the data aflforded by his calcula- tions, and including the first six months of the year 4741 of the Julian period. The months of April, May, and June are included, because with the month of June ended the fourth year of the two hundred and first olympiad, and because with the month of May the Evangelical history is brought down to the day of Pen- tecost, which may properly be considered as the birth-day of the Christian Church. The other notes of time are as follows : Being a bissextile year, the Sunday letter, according to the Nicene computation, until the 25th of February was D, and after that day C. It was the 780th year of Rome, until April 21st, and afterwards the 781st; the year of the reformed calendar of Julius Csesar 73 ; and of the Dionysian, or vulgar sera 28 ; of the associate government of Ti- berius, until February, 18; and after February, 19; of the sole government of Tiberius, 15; of Pontius Pilate, 4; Coss. Fufius Geminus, and Rubellius Geminus. ' Passum autem Dominum nostrum Je- evangelia sancta testantur, progi'essus, ibi- sum Christum, &c viii. kal. Aprilis, que detentus est a Judseis, tradente disci- primo mense, luna xiv. vespere procedente pulo. Dehinc sexta feria subsequente, id ....V. feria. est vii. kal. Aprilis, crucifixus est, et se- * Primo vero Azymorum die, Dominus pultus, tertia die, hoc est v. kalendas Apri- Jesus Chi'istus, coenanscum discipulis suis, lis, Dominica surrexit a niortuis. — Victor, postquam sui corporis et sanguinis sacra- Canon. Pasch. pp. 8-9, ed. Bucherii, Ant. menta patefecit, ad montem Oliveti, sicut 1634, fol. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 431 THE MODERN COMPARED WITH THE ROMAN AND JEWISH COMPUTATION OF TIME. Modem Roman D Jewish Modem Roman D Jewish Modem Roman D Jewish Computatiou. Comp. Age Computat. Computation. Comp. Age Computat. Computation. Comp. Age Computat. Jan. 1 Thur. Kal F. v 19 Mar.1 Mon. Kal F.ii 20 ' Mat 1 Sat. Kal. F.vii 22 Sab. V. 2 Fiid. iv vi 20 2 Tues. vi iii 21 c 2 Sun vi i 23 3 Sat. iii vii 21 Sab. 3 Wed. V iv 22 3 Mou. V ii 24 D 4 Sun. Pria i 22 4 Thur. iv V 23 4 Tues. iv iii 25 5 Moil. Non ii 23 5 Frid. iii vi 24 5 Wed. iii iv 26 6 Tues. viii iii 24 6 Sat. Prid vii 25 Sab. 6 Thur. Prid V 27 Ascension. 7 Wed. vii iv 25 c 7 Sun. Non i 20 7 Fiid. Non vi 28 8 Thur. vi V 26 8 Mon. viii ii 27 8 Sat. viii vii 29 Sab. VI. 9 Frid. V vi 27 9 Tues. vii iii 28 c 9 Sun. vii i J SiVAN. 10 Sat. iv vii 28 Sab. 10 Wed. vi iv 29 10 Mon. vi ii 1 D 11 Sun. iii i 29 1 1 Thur. v V i NiSAN. 11 Tues V iii 2 12 Mou. Prid ii i Shebet. 12 Frid. iv vi 1 12 Wed. iv iv 3 13 Tues. Id. iii 1 13 Sat. iii vii 2 Sab. 13 Thur. iii V 4 14 Wed. six iv 2 C 14 Sun. Prid i 3 14 Frid. Prid vi 5 15 Tljur. xviii V 3 15 Mon. Id. ii 4 15 Sat. Id. vii 6 Sab. VII. 16 Frid. xvii vi 4 16 Tues. xvii iii 5 C 16 Sun. xvii i 7 Pentecost. 17 Sat. xvi vii 5 Sab. 17 Wed xvi IV 6 17 Mon. xvi ii 8 D 18 Sun. XV i 6 18 Thur. XV V 7 18 Tues. XV iii 9 19 Mou. xiv ii 7 19 Frid. xiv vi 8 19 Wed. xiv iv 10 20 Tues. xiii iii 8 20 Sat. xiii vii 9 Sab. 20 Thur. xiii V 11 21 AVed. xii iv 9 c 21 Sun. xii i 10 21 Frid. xii vi 12 22 Thur. xi V 10 •2 22 Mon. xi ii 11 22 Sat. xi vii 13 Sab. 23 Frid. X vi 11 ^ 23 Tues. "5 24 Wed. X iii 12 c 23 Sun. X i 14 24 Sat. ix vii 12 Sab. ix iv 13 24 Mon. ix ii 15 D 25 Sun. viii i 13 .2 25 Thur. viii V 14 Passover. 25 Tues. viii iii 16 26 Mon. vii ii 14 S 26 Frid. vii vi 15 F.Un.Bd. 26 Wed. vii iv 17 27 Tues. vi iii 15 (^ 27 Sat. vi vii 16 Gr. Pas. S. 27 Thur. vi V 18 28 Wed. V iv 16 c 28 Sun. V i 17 Morrovpaf. 28 Frid. V vi 19 29 Thur. iv V 17 29 Mon. iv ii 18 Sabbath.* 29 Sat. iv vii 20 Sab. 30 Frid. iii vi 18 30 Tues. iii iii 19 C 30 Sun. iii i 21 31 Sat. Prid vii 19 Sab. 31 Wed. Prid iv 20 31 Mon. Prid ii 22 Feb.1 Sun. Kal i 20 Apr. 1 Thur. Kal V 21 JUN. 1 Tues. Kal iii 23 2 Mon. iv ii 21 2 Frid. iv vi 22 2 Wed. iv iv 24 3 Tues, iii iii 22 3 Sat. iii vii 2;1 Sab. I. aft. 3 Thur. iii V 25 4 Wed. Prid iv 23 c 4 Sun. Prid i 24 the gi-eat 4 Frid. Prid vi 26 5 Thur. Non V 24 5 Mon. .Non ii 25 Paschal 5 Sat. Non vii 27 Sab. 6 Frid. viii vi 25 6 Tues. viii iii 26 Sabbath. c 6 Sun. viii i 28 7 Sat. vii vii 26 Sab. 7 Wed. vii iv 27 7 Mon. vii ii 29 D 8 Sun. vi i 27 8 Thur. vi V 28 8 Tues. vi iii 1 Tammcz. 9 Mon. V ii 28 9 Frid. V vi ■29 9 Wed. V iv 2 10 Tues. iv iii 29 10 Sat. iv vii 1 Iyar. Sab 10 Thur. iv V 3 11 Wed. iii iv I AOAR. c 1] Sun. iii i 2 [II. 11 Frid. iii vi 4 12 Thur. Prid V 2 12 Mou. Prid ii 3 12 Sat Prid vii 5 Sab. 13 Frid. Id. vi 3 13 Tues. Id. iii 4 c 13 Sun. Id. i 6 14 Sat. xvi vii 4 Sab. 14 Wed. xviii iv 5 14 Mou. xviii ii 7 D 1-5 Sun. XV i 5 15 Thur. xvii V 6 15 Tues. xvii iii 8 16 Mon. xiv ii 6 16 Frid. xvi vi 7 16 Wed. xvi iv 9 17 Tues. xiii iii 7 17 Sat. XV vii 8 Sab. III. 17 Thur. XV V 10 18 Wed. xii iv 8 c 18 Sun. xiv i 9 18 Frid. xiv vi 11 19 Thur. xi V 9 19 Mon. .xiii ii 10 19 Sat xiii vii 12 Sab. 20 Frid. X vi 10 20 Tues. xii iii 11 c 20 Sun. xii i 13 21 Sat. ix vii 11 Sab. 21 Wed. xi iv 12 21 Mou. xi ii 14 D 22 Sun. viii i 12 22 Tlun-. X V 13 22 Tues. X iii 15 23 Mon. vii ii 13 Est.ix.1-28 23 Frid. ix vi 14 23 Wed. ix iv 16 24 Tues. vi „• iii 14 JPURIM. 24 Sat. viii vii 15 Sab. IV. 24 Thur. viii V 17 25 Wed. vi b; iv 15 c 2-5 Sun. vii i 16 25 Frid. vii vi 18 26 Thur. v V 16 26 Mon. vi ii 17 26 Sat. vi vii 19 Sab. 27 Frid. iv vi 17 27 Tues. V iii 18 c 27 Suu. v i 20 28 Sat. iii vii 18 Sab. 28 Wed. iv iv 19 28 Mon. iv ii 21 C 29 Sun. Prid i 19 29 Ihur. iii V 20 29 Tues. iii iii 22 30 Frid. Prid vi 21 30 Wed. Prid iv 23 * By consulting Levit. xxiii. 4-11, the reader will see the explanation of these feasts. Our Lord rose from the dead on the morrow after the great Paschal Sabbath, the day when the first fruits were offered in the temple. Hence the Apostle's beautiful allusion, 1 Cor. xv. 20. It appears then that the j^ear in Avhich the two Gemini were consuls, the 73rd of Caesar's reformed calendar, began on Thursday ; that the moon's age on that dav was 1 9 : and that it was a bissextile 432 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. or leap year. But it also appears, that if we follow the ordinary- method of computing each lunation as 29^ days, or two lunations as 59 days, the fact of its being a bissextile year, makes the new moon in March, with which the first Jewish month Nisan com- menced, fall on Thursday, the fifth before the ides, or the eleventh of Mai'ch ; and, consequently, the fourteenth day of the moon, the first day of the passover, would fall on Thursday, the eighth before the calends of April, or the 25th of March. The preparation day (St. John xix. 42), or Friday, the day of the crucifixion, was the seventh before the calends of April, or March 26th ; the Paschal Sabbath, the sixth before the calends of April ; and Easter Sun- day, as stated by Victorius, the fifth before the calends of April, or March 28th. But Victorius says also, that the age of the moon on Easter Sunday was sixteen, and, consequently, the fourteenth day of the moon must have been on Friday. To solve this diffi- culty we must have recourse to astronomical calculation. Not having the astronomical tables before me, I must again have recourse to second-hand testimony. " The calculations of the fourteenth paschal moon in the twenty-eighth year of the common fera," says the younger Bianchini, " are so clear, that they Avho have constructed tables on that subject for many centuries, nay, even for many thousands of years, ancient as well as modern, do not differ with respect to this year. The paschal canon of Vic- torius, which dates from that period, attributes the sixteenth day of the moon's age to Sunday, the 28th of March, and consequently connects the fourteenth day of the moon with Friday, the 26th of March, on which our Lord, by his death on the cross, finished the passion begun the preceding evening in the dedication of himself in the mystery of the unbloody sacrifice. For that evening, although according to the Roman mode of computation it belonged to the 25 th of March, which ended at midnight, was referred, according to the laws of the Hebrews, to the following day; Moses, or rather God himself, having commanded, ' From even unto even, shall ye celebrate your Sabbaths.'^ Among the moderns, father Francis Bordon, General of the third order of St. Francis, in his paschal tables, arranged from the year of our Lord's incarnation for 2,000 years, in the Julian year before the correction of the Gregorian, and in the Gregorian year after that correction, evidently by the same number, makes the epact [the 1 Lev. xxiii. 32. CHAP. vir.J THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 433 moon's age] sixteen, and the Christian passover [Easter day] on Sunday, the 28th of March, in the year 28 of the common cera."^ The facts stated by Biancliini appear to me to solve the whole difficulty. According to the Roman computation of time, the civil day began and ended at midnight; whereas, according to the Hebrew computation, the same day began and ended at evening. That the Roman day began and ended at midnight we have the express testimony of the elder Pliny, Aulius Gellius, Censorinus, and Macrobius. " The day itself," says Pliny, " has been differently reckoned by different people ; by the Babylonians, between the two sun risings, the Athenians, between the two sun settings, the Umbrians from midday to midday, all the vulgar from dawn to darkness ; but the Roman priests, and they who have defined the civil day, as well as the Egyptians and Hipparchus, from midnight to midnight.^ Aulus Gellius, who flourished under Adrian and Antoninus at Rome, his native city, in the second century, has preserved an ' Joseph. Blanchin. Demonstratio Histor. tracted by the same author from the Ecclesiast. Romae, 1752, torn. i. p. 103, fol. Tabula; Parisinse of De la Hire: I subjoin the following calculation, ex- Anai Chiisti. Sol ab Arietp Apop. Solis ab Ariete Lull, ab Ariete. Apog. I.uiiM ah Ariete. 9 8 43 48 2 9 5 2 4 15 18 9 9 11 4 38 o 0 0 9 20 20 30 4 13 34 0 3 3 50 51 Anni xx. 11 29 18 51 7 10 6 18 51 58 9 14 45 47 Anni vii. 1 29 8 19 10 2 10 35 1 0 9 41 54 Febr. Biss. 12 48 48 2 5 21 17 35 1 26 54 Dies XIII. 11 20 9 6 2 9 32 54 h. o. 42' 38". 11 19 36 43 10 8 49 14 "According to the mean motions" [of the sun and moon], continues Bianchini, " the Paschal new moon took place at Paris in the year 28 of the common Christian fera on the 14th of March, 42m. 38sec. post meridiem, but at Jerusalem, 3h. 17m.lOsec. P.M. [hora 3 17 10 Pomeridiana.] Where- fore the 14th day of the Paschal moon began on Friday the 26th day of March, at 3 o'clock P.M. [hora tertia post meridiem] while the Lord Christ expired upon the cross, completing by the place and time of his death the prophecies of the scriptures. Therefore he said, 'It is finished, and bow- ing his head gave up the ghost.'" — Bian- chini ut sup. p. 103. It will no doubt be as satisfactory to my readers as it has been to myself, to find that by the golden numbers according to the paschal cycle of the council of Nice, the lunations perfectly agree with the astronomical computations to which Bian- chini refers. The golden number of a.j.p. 4741, A.D. 28, was 10; and if the reader will examine the Nicene calendar in Part I. chap. iii. p. 87-92, he will find the lunations opposite that number as follows: Jan. 14 May 12 Sept. 7 Feb. 12 June 10 Oct. 6 Mar. 14 July 10 Nov. 5 April 12 Aug. 8 Dec. 4 According to Ca;sar's calendar for his year 73, the golden number was 16, which made the lunations two days later. The Nicene computations are therefore proved to be the most correct. " Sacerdotes Romani, et qui diem diffi- niere civilem, item ^gyptii, et Hipparchu.s, a media nocte in mediam. — Plin. Nat. Hist, lib. ii. §lxxix. 77, ed. Brotier, torn. i. 221. 55 434 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. extract from Marcus Varro, Avliich is very much to our purpose. He is answering an inquiry respecting those who are born at the third, or fourth, or any other hour of the night. Which should be held or called their birthday, the day which preceded, or the day which should follow that night. To this he replies, "Marcus Varro says that ' men who are born within the twenty-four hours from one midnight to the next midnight, are said to be born in one day." By which words," continues Gellius, " he seems to have so divided the observance of days, that for one who is born after sun- set and before midnight, the birthday is that which preceded the night ; and on the other hand, whosoever is born in the hours suc- ceeding the sixth hour of the night, must be considered as born in the day which should dawn after that night." He then states that " the same Varro, after speaking of the Athenian mode of computa- tion, from sunset to sunset, the Babylonians, from sunrising to sunrising, and the Umbrians, from midday to midday, shows, by many arguments, that the Roman people were accustomed to reckon single days from one midnight to the next."^ All the sacred rites are so reckoned ; the magistrates count the auspices in like manner ; and the tribunes of the people, who are never allowed to be absent from Rome for a whole day, are not considered as being so absent, if they leave it after midnight, and return to any part of it before the next midnight.^ The whole passage is too long for insertion in this place, but the substance of it has been given, and it clearly proves what was the Roman practice. Cen- sorinus abridges the same testimony, without naming his authori- ties ; and Macrobius has given the passage here translated from Aulus Gellius, with very slight verbal alterations.^ According to the Roman computation of time, would all the public acts and registers of that people be regulated. Conse- sequently all the acts of the Roman authorities in Judsea would be dated in this manner. All the events connected with our Lord's passion preceding midnight would be reckoned and i*ecorded in the acts of Pilate, as belonging to the eighth before the calends of April, or Thursday the 25th of INIarch ; and all events succeeding ^ Homines qui ex media nocte ad proxi- multis argumentis ostenditur. mam mediam noctem in his horis viginti- ^ A. Gellii Noct. Att. lib. iii. cap. 2, ed. quatuor nati sunt, una die nati dieuntur. Elzedr, Amst. 1551, p. 84, 85. * Populum autem Romanum ita, uti * Saturnal, lib. i. c. iii. de principio ac Varro dixit, dies singulos annumerare a divisione civilis dici. media nocte usque ad mediam proximam CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 435 that midnight woukl be reckoned and recorded as belonging to the seventh before the calends of April, or Friday the 26tli of jSIarch. With the Jews it would be different. Their day being from one sunset to another, all the events from sunset on Thursday to sunset on Friday evening, would be accounted as happening in one and the same day. Bearing these particulars in mind, we will proceed to consider in the order of time the various events which took place during the week of our Lord's passion. The gospel according to St. John enables us to ascertain with much precision the dates between the feast of the dedication and our Saviour's last passover.' The dedication of the temple, or, as Josephus calls it, the feast of lights,^ was celebrated on the 25th of Casleu, the ninth ecclesi- astical month, in commemoration of the cleansing of the temple by Judas Maccabseus. It occurred in December, and, therefore, St. John states that " it was winter." The violence of the Jews caused our Lord to leave Jerusalem, and to fix his abode " beyond Jordan, where John at first baptized." Thence he was sent for by the sisters of Lazarus ; and the signal miracle of restoring their brother to life, led to the council of the chief priests and Pharisees, in which it was decided to put Jesus to death.^ Our Lord, there- fore, retired from Judsea, and resided with his disciples in a city called Ephi-aim, which, according to St. Jerome, was about twenty miles to the north of Jerusalem. * Here he remained probably somewhat more than a month and a half, in as great retirement as it was possible for him to have, until " the Jews' Passover was nigh at hand," and the people were beginning to flock from all quarters of the country to the holy city, that they might " purify themselves," and thus prepare to celebrate their highest festival.^ The determination of the Jewish authorities to seize our Loi'd and put him to death, being well known, the public curiosity was greatly excited, and constant in- quiries were made concerning him. The chief priests and their adherents were all on the alert, watching for his coming. Anxious ^ John X. 22. Dominus Jesus cum discipulis suis * Antiq. lib. xii c. 7, § vi. vii. comp. villa prsegrandis contra septentrionem with 1 Mac. iv. 52-56, 2 Mac. ii. 16-19, x. in vicesimo ab vElia milliaiio. — Liber de 5, 6, 8. Situ et Nominibus Locorum Hebr. ed. ^ .John xi. 47-53. Bened. torn. ii. pp. 43a-439. '' Ephraim juxta desertumad quamvcnit ' John xi. 05. 436 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II, crowds were gathered together in the temple, and talking of nothing else. Doubts and conjectures were expressed, whether he who had never failed in his observance of the law, would now venture to do his duty in the face of such imminent peril. While all this agitation was going on and increasing in Jerusalem, our Lord, with his disciples, was advancing on his journey, and quietly and calmly approaching the scene of his passion. He ai-rived at Bethany, a village about fifteen furlongs from Jerusalem, and took up his abode at the house of Lazarus and his sisters, " six days before the Passover."' On examining the table, and counting backward from Thursday the 14th day of the month Nisan, it will be seen that he arrived on the 9th of that month, wliich was the sabbath; that is, as I conceive, he arrived on Friday night as the sabbath was commencing, and rested with his friends till it was ended, on the evening of the 20th of March, the thirteenth before the calends of April. It was the custom, as Dr. Lightfoot shows from Maimonides,^ to provide a more lil^eral supper at the going out of the sabbath, than at any other time.^ This, then, was the supper mentioned by St. John,^ where " Martha served," and " Lazarus was one of them that sat at the table with him." Probably that night, or early the next morning, Jesus sent two of his disciples to the adjoining village of Bethphage for the young ass whereon yet never man sat.^ Bethphage was within the suburbs of Jerusalem, on the slope of Mount Olivet. " ' Two thousand cubits,' says Maimonides, ' was the suburbs of a city ;'*^ and ' two thousand cubits were the bounds of a sabbath,' or sal)bath day's journey.'^ Bethpage was of this nature ; it was not a town upon Mount Olivet, as it hath been very generally supposed, and accordingly placed in most maps, but it was some buildings, and that space of ground that lay from Jerusalem Avail forward towards Mount Olivet, and up Mount Olivet to the extent of two thousand cubits from the wall, or there- about ; and hereupon it was reputed by the Jews of the same qualification with Jerusalem, as a part of it in divers respects.® He that days a thanksgiving sacrifice within, while the bread helong- ing to it is loithout the wall, the bread is not holy. What means I John sii. 1. » Matt, xxi.; Mark xi.; Luke xix. 30; ^ Schabh. cap. 29. John xii. 14. ^ Heb. and Talmud exerc. upon St. John, * Schabh. per. 27. ■works, vol. ii. p. 586. ' Talm. in Sotah, per. 5. * John xii. V. 2. » Talm. Bab. Ptsachin, fol. 63, fac. 2. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LOUD. 437 without the wall? R. Jochanan salth, Without the icall of Bethpage. The gloss there saith, Bethpage was an outer place of Jerusalem. And the same gloss useth the very same words again upon the same tract, fol. 91, fac. 1. And again in the same treatise, fol. ^5, fac. 2, the Mishna saith thus : The two loaves and the show-bread are allowable in the temple courts and they are allowable in Bethpage. Nay, the gloss in Sanhedr., fol. 14, fac. 1, saith, Bethpage tvas a place which was accounted as Jerusalem for all things. So that the place so called, began from Jerusalem, and went onwards to and upon Mount Olivet, for the space of a sabbath day's journey or thereabout, and then began the coast that was called Bethany. And hence it is that Luke saith, that Christ, when he ascended into heaven, led forth his disciples as far as Bethany,' which else- where he showeth was the space of a sabbath days journey,"^ which cannot be understood of the town Bethany, for that was fifteen furlongs, or very near two sabbath days' journey from Jerusalem, but that he led them over that space of ground which was called Bethpage, to that part of Olivet where it began to be called Be- thany ; and at that place it was where Christ began his triumphant riding into the city at that time,"^ Early then on Sunday morning, the 21st of March, or the twelfth before the calends of April, being the tenth day of the Jewish month Nisan, did our Saviour commence his triumphant procession at the entrance of Bethphage. " In the tenth day of this month," the whole congregation of Israel were commanded to " take to them every man a lamb, according to the house of their fathers, a lamb for an house."'' On this day, therefore, were the lambs selected which were to be slain for the Passover, and driven into Jerusalem, to be kept up until the fourteenth day of the month. And on this day did the true Lamb of God enter into Jerusalem to become the great victim for the sins of the world. As he descended Mount Olivet he stopped and we2)t over the blinded city, which was about to fill up the measure of its iniquities by killing the Lord of Glory.^ His triumphant entrance produced everywhere the utmost com- motion.*" It was no time to think of seizing him, when " the I Luke xxiv. 50. ^ Exod. xii. 3. Acts i. 12. * Luke xix. 41-44. ^ Lightfoot Harm. Works, vol. i. p. 252. * Matt. xxi. 10. to 438 THE PASSION OF OUIl LOUD. [PART 11. world" was " gone after him."^ He went immediately to the Temple as tlie king of Israel ; for the Temple was his Father's house, and he took jDOSsession of it as "the palace of the great King." He went also to the Temple, as " the high-priest of our profession ;" it being the practice, as Jewish authors testify, for the high-priest to be carried in solemn procession to the Temple, several days be- fore the great day of atonement.^ St. Matthew and St. Luke relate his cleansing the Temple as if it occurred on this day ; St. Mark, as if it occurred on the day following. The language of St. Mark is so precise, that if our Lord cleansed the Temple but once at this time, it could not have been on the first day of his entrance ; and accordingly, Macknight and Archbishop Newcome refer it to the second day. But the language of St. Matthew and St. Luke, though not so definite, convey the idea certainly that he cleansed the Temple the first day. Most of the Harmonists, therefore, suppose that our Lord drove out the buyers and sellers both days ; and this supposition seems on the whole to be rational and attended with fewest difficulties. *' It is probable," says Townsend, " that the repeated opposition of our Lord to the traffic which so much benefited the priests, by whose permission the merchants sat in the court of the Temple, contributed to his apprehension. It is not likely that one repulse from the Temple, would have been sufficient to banish them entirely from so lucrative an employment."^ Though it is foreign from the present design to enter minutely into questions of this nature, I may be jjermitted, I hope, to pro- pose an arrangement which seems to me to render the whole nar- rative more perspicuous. On arriving at the Temple, surrounded by a vast concourse of people, our Lord entered immediately into the court of the Israelites. Here he Avas present both at the morning and evening sacrifice ; and during the interval between them, and after these services were ended, " the blind and the lame came to him in the temple ; and he healed them."* His mi- racles and the Hosannahs of the children, excited the indignation of the chief priests and scribes, and our Lord reproved them, be- cause the hardness of their hearts made them silent, while even babes were perfecting praise. ^ John xii. 19. ^ jjg^ -p^gj arranged, &c. ed. Coit. 1837, ' Selden dc Synedriis and Bp. Patrick note 4, part vi. Comment on Leviticus. * Matt. xxi. 14. CHAP. VII.1 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 439 The humble Gentiles who had come up to worship at the feast, were excluded from the sight of these wonders, and could not see the person of Jesus, because they were not allowed to enter into the court of the Israelites. They were even crowded out from all accommodation in their own proper court by the contemptuous conduct of the Jewish rulers, in permitting it to be made a market- place for the animals which were to be offered in sacrifice. These Greeks or Gentiles being probably from Galilee, and therefore ac- quainted with Philip of Bethsaida, asked as a favour of him, that they might see Jesus. When this request was made known to Him by Andrew and Philip, our Lord condescended to go out into the court of the Gentiles. As he went, the voice from heaven was heard, and the conversation occurred, as recorded by St. John.^ Being thus in the court of the Gentiles, and seeing the sacrilege by which that court, designed as a place of prayer for all nations, was profaned, our Lord could not but have indignation. The voice from Heaven had struck his enemies with fear and awe, and inspired his followers with greater confidence and zeal. " When he had looked round about upon all things," says St. Mark. Dr. Lightfoot observes that the word TreptfjXexpa/Lin'og here used by St. Mark, signifieth not a bare beholding or looking upon, but " a look- ing upon with indignation, reproof, and correction." It implies the casting forth of the buyers and sellers, which the multitude would be ready to do the instant he ordered it. Having thus redressed the wrongs of the Gentiles, and vindicated the offended majesty of God, he retired as "the eventide was now come, and went out unto Bethany with the twelve."^ The transactions of Monday, the 2 2d day of March, were but few, and are clearly to be gathered from the narrative of the evan- gelists. Early in the morning (Trpwiac), as Jesus was returning to the city, he was hungiy. The Jews, however, never broke their fast until after the morning sacrifice. It is not likely, therefore, that our Lord would have broken his, even if the fig-tree had borne fruit. But this was, in fact, a parabolic action. The fig-tree re- presented the Jewish nation, which had remaimed unfruitful, not- withstanding all the means of grace. Consequently a barren fig- tree only could have answered our Lord's purpose. The awful malediction was pronounced, and before nightfall the tree was ^ John xii. 23-36. ' Mark xi. 11. 440 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. withered ; but the disciples did not observe it that night, because it was, probably, dark when they returned from the city. Having thus solemnly in figure devoted the city to destruction, our Lord entered it, and went immediately as usual to the temple. The buyers and sellers had returned to their unlawful gains ; and when our Lord reached the temple, they were all there again. Again, therefore, did he, by his authority, eject them from the court of the Gentiles ; and so strict was he, that during that whole day he would not suffer any man to carry any vessel through the temple.* This exercise of authority, and the sight of his power over the people, increased the determination of the chief priests and scribes, and princij^al men of the nation, to destroy him, but filled them with fear of him, and increased their caution. They did not, therefore, molest him ; and he passed the day, probably, as he did the preceding, in acts of Avorship, at the temple, and in teaching the people, who listened attentively, and were greatly im- pressed by his doctrine. When evening was come, he went out of the city, retiring doubtless, as he was wont, to Bethany. Tuesday, the 23d day of IMarch, the twelfth of Nisan, and the third before the passover, was filled with events ; for it was the day in which Jesus took his leave of the Temple, and the priests and scribes had determined on their mode of attack. Early in the morning,^ as he descended the mountain on his way to the city, the disciples noticed that the fig-tree was dried up even to the roots. On Peter's calling the attention of his master to the fact, our Lord made it an argument for the increase of his faith, and for greater diligence in prayer. When they had arrived at the Temple, and our Lord was walking about and teaching the people, he was met by a deputation from the Sanhedrim, who de- manded of him by what authority he acted. His wisdom was an over-match for the crafty wiliness which they had imagined ; and the perplexing question to them, whether the baptism of John was of divine or human authority, effectually exposed their hypocrisy before the people. Our Lord then related to them the parable of the man and his two sons, the one professing to do his fathei-'s will, but doing it not, the other refusing to obey, but afterwards repent- ing and obedient. Which of these, he asked, did his fiither's will ? They were compelled to answer to their own condemnation ; for ' Mark xi. 16. * Trpui, Mark xi. 20, CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 441 he Immediately applied the parable to the Pharisees, and the pub- licans and harlots ; to the Pharisees, who made loud professions of obedience, but did nothing which they were commanded to do ; and to the publicans and harlots, who had repented of their evil lives, and submitted themselves first to John the Baptist, and then, on his testimony, to Christ. He then added the parable of the vineyard let out to husbandmen, who murdered first the servants, and last of all the son, of their master ; adumbrating thereby the fate of the Jewish nation. The chief priests and Pharisees knew that these parables were spoken against them, and with difficulty restrained themselves from seizing him, through fear of a popular commotion. According to St. Matthew, our Lord added the parable of the wedding feast, from which the first Invited guests were excluded on account of their ingratitude.^ The coalition now took place between the Pharisees and the Herodians, to ensnare him in his talk ; and the political question concerning the tribute-money was asked, to destroy his favour among the people, or to render him obnoxious to the Roman government. When this failed, the captious question of the Sadducees was put, concerning the law of marriage and the future state. In their turn, the Sadducees were put to silence ; and then followed the conversation of our Lord with the scribe, concerning the greatest commandment In the law. He then asked his adver- saries a question which none of them were able to answer ; and this so disconcerted them, that they dared not " ask him any more questions." It was now the time to expose and denounce their wickedness ; and this he did with the most awful severity, and the most touch- ing sorrow. They had rejected their Saviour, and were now to be abandoned to their fate. Their house, the Temple of God, was henceforth to be desolate. The glory was departing. The Jewish nation was devoted to destruction. It was the last act of his ministry ; as a prophet sent to the lost sheep of Israel. Some of his disciples, as if to soften the dreadful Import of his words, spake, as they left the Temple, of its splendour and its trea- sures. Our Lord then predicted Its destruction ; and when he had ascended the Mount of Olives, from which he had a full view of ' Chap. xxii. 1-14. 56 442 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. the city and Temple, uttered that sublime prophecy, in which the downfall of the Jewish economy and the consummation of the world are blended. St. Matthew adds the parable of the ten vir- gins, that of the talents, and that of the final separation of the wicked from the righteous at the general judgement. These may well have been related while our Saviour and his disciples were on their Avay to Bethany. That night our Lord appears to have supped with Simon the Leper ; one of those probably whom he had cured of his leprosy. It was just two days, or forty-eight hours, before the feast of the passover ; this being on Tuesday, and that on Thursday about the same hour.^ In the meantime, the high-priests, and scribes, and elders of the people, w^ere assembled at the hall of Caiaphas, con- sulting how they might seize and put him to death.^ Wednesday, March 24th, seems to have been passed by our Lord entirely on the Mount of Olives, in Bethany, or in Beth phage; perhaps in the garden, whither he often resorted with his disciples.^ No particular act recorded by the Evangelists is expressly said to have taken place on that day ; unless it be the treachery of Judas. I am strongly inclined, therefore, to assign to this day the transac- tions recorded in the thirteenth and fourteenth chapters of St. John's Gospel. Dr. Lightfoot earnestly contends that the supper at which Jesus washed the feet of his disciples, was not the paschal supper on Thursday evening, but the supper on Tuesday evening at the house of Simon the Leper. Other harmonists, and those of great authority, suppose that it was the paschal supper. I cannot but think that both these suppositions are attended with insuperable difficulties. In the first place, St. John expressly says of this supper that it was 5rpo n^c eoprtjc tov izaaya, before the feast of the passover. This is a difficulty which the harmonists who contend for its being the last supper, in my judgment, evade, but do not meet. Doddridge and Macknight explain it as meaning " before Jesus began to eat the passover.*" But this produces a new dilemma ; for there must either have been two suppers, or the second verse instead of being translated " supper being ended," must be rendered " supper being come." Archbishop Newcome is evidently dissatisfied with this ' Matt. xxvi. 2; Mark xiv. I. ^ Matt. xxvi. 3, 4. ^ John xviii. 2. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 443 procedure, and therefore proposes to consider the words " before the feast" as meaning before the 15th of NIsan. But without dwelling on these forced constructions, what objection, let me ask, can there possibly be to consider this as the supper of Wednesday? Our Lord and his disciples must have supped somewhere ; and the Evangelist does not designate any place, nor, excepting in these general terms, any time. If it was on Wednesday evening, it supplies what is otherwise not mentioned, and makes the whole narrative easy and natural. There are other objections which apply to Dr. Lightfoot's hypo- thesis. St. John says not a Avord of any other persons being present but our Lord and his disciples. This alone is sufficient to exclude the idea that it was the supper at Bethany, in the house of Simon the Leper. Other reasons will occur, as we proceed in the narrative. Assuming, then, that this supper was on Wednesday evening, the 13th of Nisan and the 24th of March, it will appear that our Lord passed that whole day, the eve of his passion, with his dis- ciples. It may have been in the garden of Gethsemane ; for there is no reason to suppose that being in Bethphage, it was without a house or inhabitants. In this view of the time and place, how touchingly beautiful is the introductory observation, " Now before the feast of the Passover, when Jesus knew that his hour was come that he should depart out of this world unto the Father, having loved his own which were in the world, he loved them unto the end" ! This was the evening in which, as Lightfoot shows, the whole nation of Israel put away leaven out of their houses. The rule was at the entrance of the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, while yet there was some light. ^ The false and perjured traitor was now to be separated and put away, as the leaven of malice and wicked- ness. The devil had already put it into his heart to betray his Master.^ The immediate motive which led to this determination it is not eas}^ to discover. More than a year had elapsed since Jesus had said of Judas, " Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil ?"^ Some commentators have supposed that the rebuke he had received on the occasion of the anointing, had pro- duced in his heart a spirit of revenge. But that does not seem to ' Works, vol. i. p. 953. ' John xiii. 2. ^ John vi. 70, 71. 444 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. have been a sufficient motive. Is it not possible that our Lord's expressions in anticipation of his treachery, such as that now quoted, though unheeded by the other apostles, had stung his guilty soul, and wrought up a secret dislike, which at last amounted even to hatred ? How cutting must have been the expressions which our Lord used after washing the disciples' feet, and which to Judas were perfectly intelligible ! " Ye are not all clean." — " I speak not of you all : I know whom I have chosen. He that eateth bread with me hath lifted up his heel against me." — "Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me." The disciples looked at each other with doubt and amazement. At the instigation of Peter, John asked privately, " Lord, who is it ?" And Jesus re- plied as privately, " He it is to whom I shall give a sop when I have dipped it." Turning to the traitor and presenting the sop, he said, with a voice which we can well imagine sunk deep into a guilty conscience, " That thou doest do quickly." Some of the disciples imagined that by these words, Jesus meant " Buy those things that we have need of against the feast ;" the feast, namely, of the Passover, which would take place the following evening. But Satan had now entered into Judas :^ a diabolical possession, like that of the serpent when he tempted Eve. He who after the temptation of Jesus had " departed for a season"^ had now returned. " It was night ;" and, filled with malice and hatred, Judas hastened into the city, Avhich it will be recollected was not more than a mile, and perhaps not half a mile, distant.^ Here, with equal malice and hatred, the council of the Jewish nation were in constant session. We can imagine a detestation so deadly, as to engross every thought. Come at what hour he might, Judas would have found them gathered together, and ready and glad to receive his proposal s."* 1 John xiii. 27. sat down iinder one of the aged olive trees - Luke iv. 13. in this garden, and gave himself up to the ' Dr. Kobinson describes "the place fixed impressions of the moment. " Here, or at on by early tradition as the site of the gar- leaH not fur off, the Saviour endured that den of Gethsemane," as being "a plot of 'agony and bloody sweat' which was con- ground nearly square, enclosed by an or- nected with the redemption of the world." dinary stone wall. The N.W. corner is — Bib. Res. vol. i. p. 346-7. The distance 145 feet distant from the bridge," that is, of even half a mile from the city is, there- the bridge over the brook Cedron. " The fore, too large an estimate. — Since this note W. side measures 160 feet in length, and was written, Mr. Catherwood has informed the N. side 150 feet. There would seem," me that the garden of Gethsemane is not he adds, "little reason to doubt that the more than a quarter of a »n7e from the gate, present site is the same to which Eusebius * Matt. xxvi. 3-5; Mai'k xiv. 1,2; Luke alludes. Whetlier it is the true site, is, xxii. 1, 2. perhaps, a matter of more question." He CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 445 " They covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver"^ — thirty shekels or thirty half ounces of silver, equal in value to about fifteen dollars ! If it had been from covetousness merely, why take so small a sum ? They would have spared no expense to obtain their victim. How blind the fury of Judas, that it should overcome even his ruling passion ! " From that time," says St. Matthew, " he sought opportunity to beti^ay him." After he was gone out, our Lord told his disciples that he had but a short time to continue with them ; and then exhorting them to love one another, he proceeded to utter the consolatory language recorded in the following chapter. At the conclusion of it he said, " Arise, let us go hence ;"^ and then probably retired, as he was wont, to solitary meditation and prayer. According to the Jewish computation of time, the fourteenth day of the month Nisan, the day on which the passover lamb was to be slain, began at sunset on Wednesday evening, March 24th, and ended at sunset on Thursday, March 25th. Before sunset on Wednesday evening, all leaven was, as we have seen, put away from their houses. The first day of unleavened bread began there- fore on Wednesday at sunset, and continued till Thursday at sun- set. This period, three of the Evangelists describe with great accuracy. " On the first day of unleavened bread,*" says St. Mat- thew. "And the first day of unleavened bread, when they killed the passover," says St. Mark. " Then came the day of unleavened bread, when the passover must be killed," says St. Luke. The rule concerning the killing of the paschal lamb is thus stated :^ " Ye shall keep it [the lamb] up until the fourteenth day of the same month [Nisan] ; and the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill it in the evening." The Hebrew literally reads, " between the two evenings." The first evening was when the sun declined from the meridian ; the second, w^hen he sunk below the horizon. Hence Josephus says, that " at the passover they slay the victims fi'om the ninth to the eleventh hours ;""* that is, from three to five o'clock in the afternoon. The question now is, how did our Lord pass this fourteenth day of Nisan ? It must have been early in the morning of Thursday that the disciples came to Jesus, saying unto him, " where wilt thou that 1 Matt. xxvi. 15. ' Chap. xiv. 31. » Exod. xii. 6. ' De Bel. Jud. lib. vi. c. 9, § 3. 446 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. we prepare for thee to eat the passover ?"^ In reply to this inquiry he directed Peter and John to go into the city, and gave them a sign by which they should know the house in which he wished pre- paration to be made.^ From the tenor of the message, and the manner in which they were to accost " the good man of the house," it must be inferred that he was one of our Lord's followers. Dr. Lightfoot has fully shown that before the paschal lamb was slain, they first agreed and concluded upon the company that should eat him. They might not slay the passover hut for persons mimbered be/ore, or a number agreed on before for his eating. And this caution was not unwarrantably taken up, from that command in Exod. xli. 4 : Every man according to his eating shall make your count for the lamh. So that while the lamb was yet alive, it was to be certainly concluded who and how many would join together for his eating, and he might not be slain but for societies so agreed and numbered. If any of the society, after the number was agreed on, saw occasion to withdraw from that company and to go to another, he must do it before the lamb Avas slain, for after he might not.^ In perfect conformity with this statement, Josephus speaks of companies formed for each sacrifice, in which not less than ten, and sometimes twenty are assembled."^ It is clearly to be inferred, therefore, that the very perfidy of Judas obliged him to be present at the passover, and consequently at the institution of the Eucharist. For if he had Avithdrawn him- self it would have been necessary to make known his intention be- fore Peter and John had made the requisite preparations. But this he could not have done without creating susj)icions which would have rendered his designs abortive. " Peter and John, who were sent to prepare the passover, had," as Lightfoot remarks in another place, " this work to do. They were to get a room fitting : to that their master directs them by a sign. They were to get a lamb, and to bring him into the Temple, and there to have him killed, and his blood sprinkled, under the name of a paschal for thirteen persons. For no lamb could be eaten for a paschal wliose blood was not sprinkled at the altar, and that in the name of a paschal, and by count for such a number of per- sons as had agreed to be at the eating of him. Which shows that 1 Matt. xxvi. 17. ' Passover Service, chap. xii. § 4,"Works. - Luke xxii. 10-13. vol. ii. p. 956. * De Bel. Jud. vi. 9, 3. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 447 Christ ate his passover on the same day that the Jews did theirs, [which some, upon misunderstanding of John xviii. 28, have denied] ; nay, that it was not impossible otherwise, for how impos- sible was it to get the priests to kill a paschal for any upon a wrong day ? Having got the lamb thus slain at the Temple, they were to bring him home to the house where he was to be eaten, to get him roasted, and to get bread and wine ready, and what other pro- vision was usual and requisite for that meal.'" It is plain that all these preparations must have consumed nearly the whole day ; for, as the lamb could not be slain earlier than three o'clock in the afternoon, according to Josephus, that is not until the daily evening sacrifice was offered, they would have little time remaining before sunset to have it roasted and the table prepared. How our Lord was occupied in the meantime, the Scriptures do not inform us. He who " knew all things that should come upon him," and who " loved his own unto the end," could not be other- wise employed than in holy preparation of himself and of his sor- rowing disciples. After sunset on Thursday evening, the fifteenth of Nisan was begun. No special hour was appointed for eating the passover. The words of the law are : " And they [i. e. the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel, v. 6] shall eat the flesh in that night ; and ye shall let nothing of it remain until the morning; and that which remaineth of it until the morning, ye shall burn with fire."^ The victim was slain before the setting of the sun on Thursday, and might be eaten at any time after dark, and before the next morning. It is plain, therefore, that our Lord strictly fulfilled the law. He might have postponed it, if he had so pleased, till a later hour ; but much was to be done that night, and he therefore chose the earliest hour which the law allowed. " When the hour was come," says St. Luke, — " When the even was come," says St. Matthew. " In the evening," says St. Mark, " he sat down or reclined, and the twelve apostles with him." Dr. Lightfoot has shown in a very satisfactory manner, from Jewish authorities, that the third cup of wine drank at the passover was called " the cup of blessing."^ And as St. Paul says,^ " the cup of blessing which we bless is it not the communion of the blood of * Lightfoot's Harmony, Works, vol. i. p. 260. ^ Exod. xii, 8-10. ^ Passover Service, ut sup. * 1 Cor. x. 16. 448 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. Christ ? — The bread which we break is it not the communion of the body of Christ ?" — we cannot, I think, do otherwise than assign to that period of the paschal solemnity the institution of the Holy Communion. Previous to this time, and while eating the passover with the bitter herbs, our Saviour had again uttered the solemn warning, " Verily I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me" ; and when all uttered the anxious inquiry, and even the traitor himself last of all was compelled to ask " Is it I ?" our Lord exposed his hitherto secret design, by saying to him openly, " Thou hast said." At the institution of the Sacrament, as I apprehend, our Lord uttered what is recorded in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth chapters of St. John's narrative. He was then acting as the great High Priest of our profession, devoting himself as the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world. All the language of the j^rayer in the seventeeth chapter is sacerdotal and sacrificial : and hence St. Chrysostom, commenting on the 19th verse, "for their sakes I sanctify myself," asks the question ti kanv, ayia^u ifiavTuy, What means this expression, I sanctify myself? — And then he answers, Trpoaftpoj aoi Bvffiav. — I offer to thee a sacrifice. " All sacrifices," he adds, " are called holy (ayiai) ; and they which are devoted to God are eminently holy. For, as of old the sanctification was in the type, in the sheep [or lamb], so now it is not in the type, but in the truth itself. Wherefore he says ' that they may be sanctified through thy truth' ; for them also do I present and make here unto thee an offering."^ From the institution of the sacrament I date the commence- ment of our Lord's passion. As a priest, he was an agent; as a victim, he was only a passive sufferer. After they had sung the remainder of the great Hillel, that is, from the 115th to the 118th Psalms inclusive, they went out to the INIount of Olives.- It could not well have been later than eight o'clock in the evening. While our Lord and the other disciples were thus on their way to the garden of Gethsemane, the traitor went on his, to give notice to the High-priests, and obtain from the Roman authorities a war- rant for the apprehension of his Master. Here, then, must be placed the commencement of the Acts of ' Chrys. in Joan, hom, Ixxxii.ed. Mont- ^ Matt. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26; Luke faucon, torn viii. p. 484. xxii. 39 ; John xviii. 1. CHAF. VII.1 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 449 Pilate, sent by him to the emperor, and deposited, as Tertullian testifies, in the Roman archives. Notliing, it is true, is mentioned in express terms by the writers of the Gospel, of any interposition on the part of the Roman government, until our Lord was actually brought into the presence of the governor. But it must be evident, on a little consideration, that the Jewish authorities would never have dared to take so ex- traordinary a step, as that of sending an armed soldiery at night, out of the walls of Jerusalem, to seize our Lord, without a warrant first asked and obtained. The Romans were exceedingly vigilant for the preservation of their authority, especially among a people who submitted so reluctantly to their yoke. Judfea was one of those provinces which were considered as the most turbulent, and therefore placed by the adroit policy of Augustus, not under the senate, but solely under the emperor. It was, in fact, under military law ; and even the smallest disturbance, about the most common offender, a Theudas or a Judas of Galilee, could not have taken place without Roman cognizance and action. But our Lord was a person of too much eminence to be unknown by the Roman autho- rities. Herod had a long time desired to see him ; and the wife of Pilate had been impressed with veneration for his character. The Jewish rulers, therefore, must have known that any secret act of theirs would have excited the jealousy of the government, and effectually have defeated their design. It has been admitted, that nothing is explicitly said by the evan- gelists of so early an intervention of the Roman government ; but in saying this, it is not meant to admit that such an inference may not fairly be drawn from their language. On the contrary, St. John's account implies it : " Judas," he says, " having received a band."^ The language is Xa/Swv THN (TirHpav. The force of the Greek article shows that it was not a band in general terms, but THE band — the band, namely, appointed by the Roman govern- ment, for that special purpose.* The word (nreJpa, here translated band, was a term peculiar to Roman discipline. Polybius, in his 1 John xviij. 3. served ti'anquillity." It matters not whether * Bishop Middleton (Doct. Gr. Art. in it was a general or a special order. The loc.) ibllows Rosenmiiller, in supposing officer in command was obliged to report ; that this was "the particular cohort which and on his report the acts of Pilate would by order of the procurator attended on the rely for the date of every transaction. Sanhedi'ira at the great festivals, and pre- 57 450 THE PASSION OF OUll LORD. [PART II. account of that discipline, mentions, that a legion was divided into four classes, according to the age and condition of its members. If the legion consisted of four thousand two hundred men, one of these classes contained always six hundred, and consequently the other three of twelve hundred each. But sometimes the legion con- sisted of five thousand men, in which case, three of the classes contained four thousand four hundred men. Each class was divided Into ten splras or bands.' If, therefore, the same arrange- ment prevailed in the time of our Saviour, the spira could not have been less than sixty, or more than from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty men.* In the next member of the verse, Kal Ik tCjv apx'«p£<^»' ("^"t ^api- aa'nov vTrrjpirac, the forcc of the preposition k- Implies a selection of the attendants, or officers of the high-priests and Pharisees — picked men among the Jewish police. The whole passage, therefore, may fairly be thus paraphrased : Judas taking the company of Roman soldiers sent by Pilate, and also a chosen body of the officers in attendance on the Jewish rulers, came with lanterns, and torches, and weapons, to the place where he knew that Jesus was.f He was aware that our Lord had detected his design. He had also heard him speak of buying swords. There might, therefore, be an intention of making defence ; and it was thought advisable to send such a force as would put down all opposition. Hence, in order to show that defence might have been made, when our Lord met them, he caused them by his divine power to go backward and fall to the ground ; and hence the beauty and force of the contrast between twelve legions of angels, according to St. Matthew's account, and a single spira of Roman soldiers. Taking, therefore, all these considerations Into view, it must be inferred from the very language of St. John, that Judas and the Jewish authorities acted under a warrant from the Roman government, and conse- quently that an official record would be made of the transaction. If this reasoning be just, it will at once be seen that the records preserved in the Roman Archives would begin on Thursday 1 Polybii Hist. lib. vi.ed.Schweighaeuser, lybius, a spira was commanded by a cen- tom. ii. p. 498-9. Three spiras made a turion. cohort, accordinf? to Polybius, lib. xi. 23, + It appears from St. Luke (xxii. 52) ed. Schw. torn iii. p. 356. that the hij^h priests and elders went in * It was commanded, however, by a person to seize our Lord, so anxious were XtXi'apxoc (John xviii. 12) or commander they to secure their victim, of 1000 men, v/hereas, according to Po- CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 451 evening the 25th of March, which, according to the Roman com- putation of time, was the eighth before the calends of April. With regard to our Lord's arraignment and condemnation by the Jewish authorities, as well as the several cock -Growings and Peter's repeated denials, a fact related by St. John, seems to throw great light upon the order of events, and the time in which they were transacted. The other Evangelists speak only in general terms of our Lord''s being brought to the high priest's house ; but in St. John''s sup- plementary narrative, it is stated that the Roman spira, with their chiliarch and the officers of the Jews, led Jesus away to Annas, first ; and then he assigns as a reason for their doing so, that " he was the father-in-law of Cai'aphas, who was the high priest that year."' It appears from Josephus, that Annas, or Ananus, was a person of great note and authority among the Jews. He seems to have been appointed high-priest by Cyrenius, governor of Syria, soon after the banishment of Archelaus, and to have retained the office about six or seven years, until he was deposed by Valerius Gratus, A.j.p. 4726. Still his Influence was very great, nay, perhaps ren- dered greater with the nation on this very account. The same person who deposed him afterwards appointed Eleazar, one of his sons, and subsequently Caiaphas, his son-in-law ; and Josephus says that all five of his sons performed the office of high-priest.'^ Hence he was treated by Caiaphas and the whole Sanhedrim with the greatest deference ; and accordingly our Lord was conveyed first to his presence. It Is not said where Annas dwelt. The places on Mount ZIon, shown as the houses of Annas and Caiaphas, have no other sup- port than the fond desire of giving to every action and suffering of our blessed Saviour " a local habitation and a name."^ It Is more likely that the palace of the high-priest was contiguous to the Temple, if it did not in fact form a part of that vast edifice. For In our conceptions of the Temple, we must entirely divest our thoughts of all the associations derived from modern churches. Its area, according to Mr. Catherwood's survey, occupied more than a million and a half (1500 x 1000) of square feet.* It con- 1 John xviii. 12, 13. ' Maundrell's journey, Monday, April ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xx.c. 9, § l.comp. with 5, 1697. lib. xviii. c. 2, § 2. * A pretty exact measurement of this 452 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [part II. sisted, in fact, of a vast number of edifices, square within square. The residence of the high-priest very probably adjoined the council chamber, in which the sittings of the Sanhedrim were held, and was so extensive as to have numerous, but distinct, apartments, one of which might belong to Annas, and the other to Cai'aphas, and both might be approached by one common entrance. "We learn from Dr. Shaw the general arrangement of eastern houses. " Large doors, spacious chambers, marble pavements, cloistered courts, open to the sky and air, with fountains playing in the midst," are among their general characteristics. The following sketch taken from the plan of an eastern house in the travels of that learned author, and adapted to the present sub- ject, will convey my idea better than any verbal description. A A C c r- "^ ^ s A a Open Court, • G a with Cloisters. • C c • Open Court, • o • with Cloisters. • 11 • P im pp A. Apartment of Annas. — C. Apartment of Ca'iaphas. — H. Hall of the High Priests. — HH. Hall of the Sanhedrim. — P. Porch of the High Priests' palace, communicating with the apartments of Annas and Caiaphas through the open court. — PP. Porch lead- ing into the hall of the Sanhedrim, and so through the open court to S. the council chamber of the Sanhedrim, contiguous to the High Priests' apartment, and commimi- cating with it by a private door, I suppose then, that our blessed Lord was conducted to the great door leading into a large room, called by St. Matthew 6 irvX(i)y, and by St. Mark to TrpoaOXioy, the vestibule, or spacious antechamber, area is given by Dr. Robinson as follows : On the oast side, 1,528 English feet; the breadth at the south end is 955 feet. Neither the western side nor the northern end is accessible externally ; yet the latter may be measured approximately along the parallel street. Its length (i.e. the north- ern end) is thus found to be not fai- from 1060 feet. It is, therefore, more than 100 feet wider at the north than at the south end.— Bib. Res. vol. i. p. 419. Since I wrote this note, Mr. Catherwood has given me the following measurement from actual survey: East wall, 1520 feet; south wall, 940 feet; west wall, 1617 feet ; north wall, 1020 feet. CHAP, VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 453 which in sumptuous houses led into a still more spacious hall. As St. Mark has spoken of this hall,' or at least of that part of it in which Peter was, as being " beneath" iv rrj duXjj kutm, I suppose that the upper part was raised a few steps above the lower. In the lower part of the hall, the servants of the high priests had a bra- sier, as is practised to this day in Italy, and the warm countries of the East, filled with charcoal, so burned as to have lost its noxious qualities. This supposition is, I think, justified by the word avOpnuia, which St. John uses,^ and which our translation renders " a fire of coals." This is represented in the plan, by a dot in the centre of the lower hall, and around it some were sitting, and others standing. St. John being known to the high priest's house- hold, entered with our Lord ; but Peter stood without in the street, until John had spoken to the maid who kept the door, and induced her to admit him. As he passed in, she recognized him as being one of our Lord's disciples. While our Lord was conducted to the upper hall, and so, through the open court, to the apartment of Annas, Peter entered into the lower hall where the brasier was, and sat there to see what would be the issue. As the seizure in the garden could not have been later than ten o'clock on Thursday evening, so our Lord's appearance before Annas cannot well be placed later than eleven. By Annas, and not by Caiaphas, was he first questioned concerning his disciples and his doctrine. But as Annas was no longer high priest, and was called so only by courtesy, Jesus refused to answer his questions, and referred him to those who had heard him, whether in the Synagogue or in the Temple. This provoked one of the officers to smite him on the face with the palm of his hand ; upon which our Lord meekly reminded him that if he had spoken evil, there was a proper tribunal before which the officer could bear witness against him. He thereby meant, as I conceive, to convey the idea that Annas had no right to question him ; and Annas knowing that what he said was just, desisted from all further inquiry, and sent him bound to Caiaphas.^ 1 Mai-k xiv. 66. manuscripts; but this makes no difference ^ John xviii. 18. in the sense. If ovv be pjenuine, it is clearly ' John xix. 19-24. — This appears to me an inference from our Lord's answer; and to be the natural construction of St. John's if it be not, it must have crept into the language (xviii. 24), whether the particle text from some early marginal annotation, ovv be or be not considered as a part of occasioned by the clearness of such an the original text. It is omitted by Gries- inference. I see not why the aorist dntff- bach, on the authority of many good rtiXtv should be rendered in a pluperfect 454 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. During this arraignment before Annas, occurred the first denial of Peter. The door-keeper, who had recognized him as he entered, appears to have followed him into the lower hall, for the purpose of verifying her suspicions by a more exact scrutiny ; and having satisfied herself, she suddenly accused him, in the presence of the various attendants, of being a disciple of Jesus. In the confusion and fright which this sudden attack occasioned, Peter lost all pre- sence of mind, forgot the warnings he had twice received from our Lord, first on Wednesday, and last, as they were on their way that evening to Gethsemane, and told the base lie that he was not a disciple. Afraid now to continue among the company at the fire, he withdrew into the irpoavXiov or vestibule. It was now midnight and the cock crew. This circumstance is mentioned only by St. Mark ; and if his Gospel was written under the cognizance of St. Peter, the narrative acquires additional importance. Our Lord being sent by Annas to Caiaphas, was brought back through the open court to the upper part of the hall of the high priest, where he was kept standing, while the chief priests and the various members of the council were seeking for witnesses, by whose testimony he might be convicted of blasphemy. The attention of the attendants in the lower part of the hall being now attracted by these proceedings, Peter, impelled by curiosity, and hoping to es- cape notice, returned and stood warming himself by the fire. But the same maid-servant* seeing him again, began to say to the by- standers that he was one of our Lord's disciples. Another maid- servant^ said the same thing ; and so did a man in the company.^ On this, Peter denied his master a second time with an oath. This was probably between one and two o'clock on Friday morning. About an hour afterwards,^ several of the bystanders again affirmed with more vehemence that he was a disciple of Jesus, appealing to his Galilean accent in proof of their assertion ; and one of them, a kinsman of Malchus, had actually seen him with his master. Peter now uttered oaths and curses ; and immediately, while he was yet speaking, the shrill voice of the morning cock was heard. At this moment our Lord turned and looked upon sense — "Annas had sent him." This is i »/ wai^iaKi], Mark xiv. 69. only an accommodation to the preconceived * Matt. xxvi. 71. notion that our Lord was thus examined ' Luke xxii. 58. by Caiaphas, and not by Annas. * Ibid. 59. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 455 Peter ; and that look touched the soul of the guilty, perjured dis- ciple, and brought him to repentance. The fourth watch being now come, called 7rpw<; the morning watch, extending from three to six in the morning, the high priests and the whole council assembled in the council chamber of the Sanhedrim, and our Lord was brought before them. The high priest adjured him to answer if he claimed to be the Messiah, and this led to his condemnation as guilty of blasphemy, followed by the vile insults of their brutal menials. According to the law of Moses, when any person was guilty of blasphemy, it was the duty of the whole nation to put him to death by stoning.^ But as the Jewish rulers, by the advice of Caiaphas,^ had determined to give him over to the Roman power, that he might be crucified, they conducted him while it was still the fourth watch (jpui'i) to the prtetorium, or Roman court of justice. This was doubtless in the tower called Antonia, adjoining the Temple. And here is presented, by the language of St. John, the chief, and perhaps the only real difficulty attending the subject. The Jewish council, the high priests and scribes and elders of the people, — in a word, " the whole Sanhedrim,"^ who brought him and delivered him over to Pilate, would not enter the praetorium or judgment-hall, " lest they should be defiled ; but that they might eat the passover."^ It follows then, either that in their thirst for vengeance they had violated the law, or that they considered Friday as the fourteenth day of the paschal moon, and consequently were to kill the passover lamb from three to five that afternoon, and keep the feast after sunset, which would be the commencement of their sabbath. Now, according to the cycle of Victor, they were in fact right ; and that cycle is supported by astronomical calculation. The question then is. Did our Lord, of his own au- thority, depart from the practice of the Jewish Church, and eat a passover of his own appointment anticipating the legal passover ? — or. Was there a diversity of practice among the Jews at that time, so that the Jewish nation in general ate the passover on the night between Thursday and Friday, and a portion of them, including the high priests and elders, on the night between Friday and Saturday, the commencement of their sabbath ? The latter appears to me to be the only tenable hypothesis. 1 Lev. xxiv. 16-23. ' Mark xv. 1. ' John xi. 49-51, and xviii. 14. ^ John xviii. 28. 456 THE PASSION of our lord. [part ir. In considering this subject, we must keep in view a disturbing force which has biassed the judgment of the Eastern and Western Churches. The Eastern, almost without exception, use leavened bread in celebrating the Eucharist ; the AVestern, before the Re- formation, used unleavened bread. Since that event, the Latin Church, the Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, and some others, it is said,* continue to use unleavened bread, while the Re- formed or Calvinists use leavened. In the first prayer-book of Edward VI unleavened bread was prescribed; in the second, it was left indifferent ; but the practice has subsequently prevailed in the Church of England of using leavened bread. This practice seems to have derived its origin from the supposition, that our Lord in- stituted the sacrament befoi'e the first day of unleavened bread, and consequently that he anticipated the passover. Hence the Greek writers generally held to that hypothesis. The best ritual- ists of the Latin Church admit that the question is indifferent ; and hence among them, as well as among the Protestants, there is a greater diversity of opinion respecting the question of antici- pation. But keeping this extraneous subject entirely out of sight, let us attend only to the narrative of the evangelists. Our Lord came not to destroy, but to fulfil the law ; and if he anticij^ated the pro- per time of keeping the passover, he was as much a violator of the law, as the high priests and elders would have been in postponing it until the day after the proper time. This difficulty at the outset ajjpears to me insuperable. Enough has been said to show that Thursday was considered by our Lord and his apostles as the first day of unleavened bread. It began at sunset on Wednesday, and ended at sunset on Thurs- day. St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke, all speak of TO TTtto-xa, THE passover ; and the language of St. Mark, " When they slay THE passover ;" and of St. Luke, " When the passover nmst be slain ; " shows clearly that it was considered by the nation gene- rally as the legal time.^ Our Lord's expression is equally explicit; TTotw TO Tiaayci, I celebrate the, not a, passover.^ * In Hospinian's account of the liturgy mentato plenum. — Hist. Sacram. pars n. of the Church of Zurich, as it was insti- fol. p. 40. tuted by Zuinglius, it is stated that un- i Matt. xxvi. 17; Mark xiv. 12; Luke leavened bread was ordered to be used, xxii. 7. " Mensa in templo munda mappa insterni- ^ Matt. xxvi. 18. And to the same pur- tur. Huic imponitur canistrum pane i«/er- pose, Mark xiv. 14, and Luke xxii. H-15. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD, 457 The argument advanced by Lightfoot, that Peter and John could not have procured a lamb before the legal time, seems con- clusive ; but as the truth of the fact asserted by him has been con- tested, it is necessary to enlarge upon it. The law requiring the passover lamb to be slain at the Temple is express.' It was to be "in the place which the Lord should choose to place his name there.'" The history of the passovers celebrated by Hezekiah and Josiah,^ shows that the lambs were killed at the Temple, and that " the priests sprinkled the blood which they received of the hand of the Levites." The reason assigned^ for the Levites having the charge of killing the passovers, has led to the inference that the congre- gation, if sanctified, might perform that office ; and this is corrobo- rated by two remarkable passages in Philo. The first occurs in the third book of his life of Moses : " But in this month, on the fourteenth day, the fulness of the moon brings the passover, in our tongue called eoprt), in the Chaldee nacTxa, in which not only private persons bring sacrifices to the altar, and the priests oifer them, but by the arrangement of the law the whole nation becomes a priesthood : in that every one brings his own sacrifices and him- self slays them."'* The second is in his Treatise on the Ten Commandments, and is as follows : " The feast which the Hebrews call the passover, Trao-Ko, in which each one in the whole nation sacrifices for himself, not bringing his offerings to the priest ; the law having granted to the people, on this one day of the whole year, the priesthood, that they may sacrifice for themselves." ^ The two passages ex^^lain each other. The whole nation of Israel were allowed that day, and only that day, to sacrifice their own victims ; doubtless because there were so many to be slain, that the labour would be too great for the priests and Levites. But still they were obliged to bring their sacrifices to the Temple; and though they might slay the victims, the priests only could sprinkle the blood. Philo says nothing of sprinkling, which was always an essential act in offering sacrifice. We must therefore, I think, conclude that Peter and John were 1 Deut. xvi. 2. ■• Philo Trtpi /3iou Mw(t, ed. Princ. p. 467, ^ 2 Chron. xxx. 16, and xxxv. 10, 11. ° Philo Trtpi niv StKaXoy. ed. Princ. ^ Chap. xxx. 17. p. 523. 58 458 THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. obliged to take their lamb to the Temple, and present it before the altar. They might then, according to Philo, kill it in the j^resence of the priests, or one might kill, while the other caught the blood, and gave it to the priest to sprinkle. This the priests would not have suffered to be done before that day, which the nation in gene- ral believed to be the fourteenth of Nisan. There could be, therefore, no error on the part of our Lord. *' Neither his character, conduct, nor sentiments," as Mr. Townsend well observes, " will for a moment permit us to believe that he dis- obeyed, in the slightest degree, the ordinances of the Mosaic law." What then was the occasion of the diversity of his practice, and that of the high priests, and others among the Jews ? Various conjectures, more or less plausible, have been adopted. Macknight produces from Gerhard's supplement to the harmony of Chemnitius, the following fact in elucidation. The Jews in latter times carefully avoided the celebration of two Sabbaths in succession, for a reason mentioned in the Talmudlcal Books, viz., that in those warm climates, dead bodies and boiled herbs could not be kept without spoiling.^ As a farther proof of the Jews' practice in this matter, Gerhard cites the Seder 01am, from which he has translated as follows :^ " Rabbi Eliezer, who was greater than all the other men of the great synagogue, ordered that the feast of Purim should not be kept on the second, fourth, and seventh days of the week, nor the passover on the second, fourth, and sixth days,* &c. According to this precept of the elders, as two Sabbaths happened to follow one another, they omitted the first, performing all the services proper to it on the second, along with the services proper to the second. But this practice, though en- joined by the elders, was directly contrary to the institutions of the law. For which reason, Gerhard thinks our Lord never com- plied with it, but always observed the festivals on the precise day fixed for them by the divine appointment."^ But however satisfactory this solution may appear to those who, like Macknight, defend the anticipation, it does not solve the ^ Non faciraus duo continua Sabbata, sexto, &c. propter olera et propter mortuos. * That is, the passover should not be ^ Rabbi Eliezer, qui reliquis omnibus kept on Monday, Wednesdaj', and Friday, major erat, ordinavit diem sortium non but postponed till the next day. observari secundo, quarto, septimo heb- ^ Macknight's Harmony Chron. Dcss. vi. domadis die; nequepascha secundo, quarto, 2nd ed. 8vo, vol. i. p. 107. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LOUD. 459 difficulty, if our Lord kept the passover on the day observed gene- rally by the nation. For in that case, 'the high priests and their associates were the only persons who observed the traditions of the elders. How can it be accounted for, that the whole nation should act in opposition to the high priests, the scribes, and pharisees, and the whole sanhedrim ? Without supposing any such opposition, may not the whole difference be easily explained, if a diversity of practice icas allowed an account of the variation between the apparent and real time of the neic and fvll moon ? This is the solution afforded by the canon of Victorius. The 1st of January that year was the nine- teenth day of the moon's age ; and, according to the common method of computing lunar months, as consisting alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days, the 1-ith of Xisan would fall upon Thursday. But the real age of the moon on Easter Sunday, the 28th of March, was sixteen, and, consequently, the real 14th of Xisan was on Friday. It is a question which cannot now be determined, whether the Jews at that time were governed by any cycle. The probabi- lity is that they were not. Their own writers maintain that they fixed the time of the new-moon only by its appearance : and that the use of an astronomical cycle was introduced after the dis- persion. We have no necessity, therefore, of going into any conjectures on this subject We have only to take the fact of this diversity of practice, as it is stated by the Evangelists, and it corroborates our conclusion as to the date of our Lord's sufferings. It was, in reality, a part of that admirable arrangement of Divine Providence, by which the minutest events are adjusted and harmonized with the greatest. It was so arranged, that in the order of times and seasons, our Lord should keep the passover and institute the Sa- crament of the New Covenant while the whole nation were cele- brating their deliverance from Egyptian bondage, and yet that as the Sacred Victim for the sins of the whole world, he should ex- pire on the cross at that astronomical point of time in which, according to the law, the lamb ought to have been slain. And this apparent design suggests a reason why, from the beginning, the Christian Church, instead of celebrating the Lord's supper at night, has transferred it to the following morning. The Jewish passover was celebrated at night, because of their deliver- 460 THE I'ASSION OF OUR LORD. [PART II. ance at night from Egyptian bondage. It was the only time when our Lord could devote himself as a victim, and this could be done only by the substitution of a symbolic sacrifice. But the real sacrifice took place on the following day. It was, therefore, more suitable that the subsequent commemoration should be during those hours in which the Lamb of God actually suffered. On the great feast-day of the Christian passover our Lord burst the bonds of death and rose victorious over sin and hell, not in the night, but when the darkness was past, and the light was beginning to shine. The Jewish passover was in the night. The legal figures and shadows were of the evening and have passed away. The Christian passover, on the contrary, is of the morning, and its light and truth will shine more and more unto the perfect day. And when it is considered that our Lord spent the forty days between his resurrection and ascension, in " speaking " with the apostles " of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God,"^ that is, of the institutions to be observed in his Church, will it be considered as an extravagant supposition, that he, himself, gave directions for the transfer of the Sabbath, and of the memorial of his passion, to the day in which he rose from the dead ? Certain it is, that in no part of the Christian Church, has there ever been a contrary practice ; and this uniformity cannot be rationally accounted for unless the practice be derived from the apostles. While on this part of our subject, it is proper to fulfil a promise respecting the testimony of Lactantius, concerning the date of our Saviour's death, in the fourth book of his Institutes. It will be seen, on referring to that part of his testimony, that he speaks of " the seventh before the calends of April," as the day in which " the Jews afl&xed Christ to the cross ;" whereas the other Latin writers speak of our Lord's passion as having taken place on the eiphth before the calends of April. In this stage of our inquiry, we are enabled to see that what at first glance seemed to be con- tradictory, is in fact a surprising instance of harmonious testimony and accurate language^ Tertullian speaks of our Lord's passion as taking place on the eighth, but does not say that he was crucified on the eighth. Lactantius, on the other hand, aflfirms that our Lord was crucified on the seventh, but does not say that his passion commenced on the seventh. Both were right in point of fact, be- ' Acts i. 3. CHAP. VII.] THE PASSION OF OUR LORD. 461 cause our Lord's passion commenced on Thursday, and he was crucified on Friday. I would fain hope that we have now, to the satisfaction of the reader, established on a solid basis the true time of the death of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. We have seen, by a variety of details which it is unnecessary here to recapitulate, that he made his solemn entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday the 21st of March, which was the tenth day of the Jewish month Nisan ; that he was betrayed by Judas Iscariot on Wednesday evening the 24th of March ; that he celebrated the passover and instituted the sacrament of the Eucliarist on Thursday evening March the 25th ; that he was crucified on Friday March the 26th, and that he rose from the grave on Easter Sunday March the 28th. This great event took place in the 4741st year of the Julian period, in the ninth month of the fourth year of the 201st olympiad, in the last month of the 780th year of Rome, the 73d year of the Julian calendar, the 28th year of the modern Christian a;ra; in the 19th year of the associate reign of Tiberius, and the 15th year of his sole reign, when Lucius Rubellius Geminus and Caius Fufius Geminus were consuls. 462 [part II. CHAPTER VIII. THE DURATION OF OUR SAVIOUR's MINISTRY. Section I. St John's ministry. — Question proposed as to the time of our Lord's baptism. — St. Luke's testimony considered. — Table 1, of the commencement of St. John's ministry, constructed from the data afforded in the canon of Victorius. — Conjecture probable that St. John began his ministry on the great day of atonement, Sep. 29, A.j.p. 4737, in the first year of Pilate's administration. — No certainty as to the time of our Lord's baptism, but great probabihty that it took place on the sixth of January. — The opinion of Epiphanius the result of computation. — St. Chrysostom's opinion in favour of the Epiphany. — Question discussed as to the number of passovers during our Lord's ministry. — Opinion adopted that there were four. — Three tables, constructed for three years, on this hypothesis. — Explanation of the author's method. — His computation of Pentecost, and the reasons for it. St. Peter speaks, in the first chapter of the Acts, of " all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among" his disciples, as "beginning from the baptism of John"* Assuming then, as an established point, that the crucifixion took place on Friday the 26th of March, in the year 4741 of the Julian period, the ques- tion is now to be answered, How long a time must be counted back, according to the narrative of the evangelists, to our Lord's baptism ? St. Luke's testimony is, that " in the fifteenth year of the reign," or, more accurately (Gr. t-^c jjyE/uov/ac), of the government or ad- ministration "of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor (Gr. tjysnovevovroe) of Jud?ea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip being tetrarch of Ituraea, and of the region of Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene, Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came unto John, the son of Zacharias, in the wilderness."^ Augustus, as we have already seen,^ divided the dominions of Herod the Great soon after his death ; giving to Archelaus one half, with the title of ethnarch ; and to Herod Antipas and Herod Philip, each one fourth, with the title of tetrarch. To Herod 1 Acts i. 21, 22. ' Luke iii. 1, 2. ' Part il. chap. 2. p. 3C4. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 463 Antipas were assigned Persea and Galilee ; to Herod Philip, Ba- tansea, with Trachonitis and Auranitis, and some part of what was called the house of Zenodorus.^ "Philip died in the twentieth year of the reign («px^^) of Tiberius, having governed Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and Batansea, thirty-seven years.^ As he died without children, Tiberius annexed his government to the province of Syria. According to our calculation, Herod the Great died in March, A.j.p. 4710. That year being counted, the thirty-seventh year of Philip's government would commence in March, a.j.p. 4746, and the twentieth year of Tiberius would end on the 19th of August, of the same year. Philip therefore must have died be- tween March 21st and August 19th, in the seventy-eighth year of the Julian calendar, or the year 4746 of the Julian period, and about five years after our Saviour's crucifixion. As for Herod Antipas, he was deprived of his tetrarchy and banished to Spain, by Caligula, several years later. ^ Lysanias is once cursorily mentioned by Josephus, as having been tetrarch of Abila ;^ and the industry of Wetstein has col- lected all that is recorded of him elsewhere, without being able to throw any other light upon his history. It is plain, therefore, that the sovereignties of these three tetrarchs afibrd no chronological data, by which the commence- ment of St. John the Baptist's ministry can be determined. But with respect to the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and the government of Pontius Pilate, the statement of St. Luke will be found to be very important. If the associate government of Tiberius com- menced in the month of February, when M. ^milius Lepidus and T. Statilius Taurus were consuls, then it will be seen, by examining the list of consuls, that the fifteenth year of that go- vernment would begin in February, when M. Asinius Agrippa and Cossus Cornelius Lentulus were consuls ; and end at the same period in the following consulship of C. Calvisius Sabinus and Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Getulicus. In other words, it would extend from February a.j.p 4737 to February a.j.p. 4738. Again : we have seen in a former chapter that Valerius Gratus was sent to Judsea by Tiberius, on his accession to undivided sovereignty, and that he continued in office eleven years. He was ' Jos. Antiq. lib. xvii. c. 11, § 4. ^ Jos. de Bel. Jud. lib. ii. c. 9. * Ibid, lib. xviii. c. 4, § 6. * Jos. Antiq. lib. xx. c. 7, § 1. 464 DURATION OF CURIST S MINISTRY. [part II. then recalled, and Pontius Pilate was sent in his room. The sole reign of Tiberius dates from the 19th of August a.j.p. 4726 ; and eleven solid years being added, we are brought to the 19th of August A.J.P. 4737, the seventh month of the fifteenth year of his associate reign. We cannot possibly therefore assign an earlier date than the latter part of August of that year, for the com- mencement of St. John's ministry ; and this date, or even a month or two later, harmonizes perfectly with St. Luke's account, and with the circumstances of our Lord's baptism. The canon of Victorius, by ascertaining the day of the week, and the age of the moon, on the 1st of January of the year when our Lord suffered, enables us to adjust the Koman and the Jewish computation of time in the preceding years. We proceed there- fore to construct a table, from the 19th of August a.j.p. 4737 to the 1st of January a.j.p. 4738. Table I. — The Commencement of St. John's JIinistrt. From August 19th to Decembei- 3Ist. a.j.p. 4737 ; Olymp. cci. 1 ; a.u.c, 777 ; year of the reformed Julian calendar, 69; bissextile; year of the common Christian aera, 24: and therefore Sunday letters until February 25 B, and after February 25 a. The 15th year of the associate government of Tiberius ; the 12th year of his sole reign. The 1st year of Pilate's administration, M. AsiNius Agbippa.Cossus Cor- nelius Lentulus, Coss. Modern Roman D Jewish Computation Modem Roman T Jewish Computation Computation. Comp. Age. of Time. Computation. Comp. lAge. of Time. Vug 19 Sat. xiv F.vii' 28 Sab. Sep25 Mon. vii F. ii 6 A 20 Sun. xiii i 29 26 Tues. vi iii 7 21 Mon. xii ii i Elul. 27 « ed. V iv 8 22 Tues. xi iii 1 28 Thur. iv v 9 23 Wed. X iv 2 29 Frid. iii vi 10 Day of Atonement. 24 Thur. ix v 3 3U Sat. Prid vii 11 Sab. [Lev. xxiii. 27. 25 Frid. viii vi 4 26 Sat. vii vii 5 Sab. Oct. 1 Sun. Kal. i 12 A 27 Suu. vi i 0 2 Mon. vi ii 13 28 Mon. V ii 7 3 Tues v iii 14 29 Tues. iv iii 8 4 Wed. iv iv 15 Feast of Tabernacles. 30 Wed. iii iv 9 5 Thur. iii V 16 Lev. xxiii, 36. 31 Thur. Prid V 10 6 Frid. 7 Sat. Prid Xou vi vii 17 18 Sab. Sep. 1 Frid. Kal vi 11 A 8 Sun. viii i 19 2 Sat. iv vii 12 Sab. 9 Mon. vii ii 20 A 3 Sun. iii i 13 10 Tues. vi iii 21 4 Mon. Prid ii 14 11 Wed. V IV 22 Octave of the Feast 5 Tues. Non iii 15 12 Thur. iv V 23 of Tabernacles. 6 Wed. viii iv 16 13 Frid. iii vi 24 Lev. xxiii. 36. 7 Thur. vii V 17 14 Sat. Prid vii 25 Sab. 8 Frid. vi vi 18 A 15 Sun. Id. i 26 9 Sat. V vii 19 Sab. 16 Mou. .xvii ii 27 A 10 Sun. iv i 20 17 Tues. xvi iii 28 11 Mon. iii ii 21 18 Wed. XV iv 29 12 Tues. Prid iii 22 19 Thur. xiv V 1* Marchesvan. 13 Wed. Id. iv 23 20 Frid. xiii vi 14 Thur. xviii V 24 21 Sat. xii vii 2 Sab. 15 Frid. xvii vi 25 A 22 Sun. xi i 3 16 Sat. xvi vii 26 Sab. 23 Mon. x ii 4 A 17 Sun. -XV i 27 24 Tues. ix iii 5 18 Mon. xiv ii 28 25 Wed. viii iv 6 19 Tues. xiii iii 29 26 Thur. vii V 7 20 Wed. xii iv 1 TiSRi or Ethanim. 27 Frid. vi vi 8 21 Thur xi V 2 Feast of Trumpets. 28 Sat. vii 9 Sab. 22 Frid. X vi 3 Lev. xxiii. 24. A 29 Sun. iv i 10 1 23 Sat. ix vii 4 Sab. 30 Mon. iii ii 11 A 24 Sun. viii i 5 31 Tues. Prid iii 12 CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 465 Modem Roman D Jewish Computation Modern Roman D Jewish Computation Computation. Comp. Age. of Time. Computation. Comp. Arc. of Time. Nov. 1 Wed. Kal F. iv 13 Dec. 1 Frid. Kal F.vi 14 2 Thur. iv v 14 2 Sat. iv vii 15 Sab. 3 Frid. iii vi 1.5 A 3 Sun. iii i Ifi 4 Sat. Piid vii 16 Sab. 4 Mon. Prid ii 17 A 5 Suu. Non i 17 5 Tues. Non iii 18 6 Mon. viii ii 18 6 Wed. viii iv 19 7 Tues vii iii 19 7 Thur. vii V 20 8 Wed. vi iv 20 8 Frid. vi vi 21 9 Thur. V V 21 9 Sat. V vii 22 Sab. 10 Frid. iv vi 22 A 10 Sun. iv i 23 11 Sat ill vii 23 Sab. 11 Mou. iii ii 24 A 12 Sun. Prid 1 24 12 Tues. Prid iii 25 Feast of the Dedica- 13 Mou. Id. ii i5 13 Wed. Id. iv 26 tion of the Temple. 14 Tues. xviii iii 26 14 Thur. xix v 27 John X. 22. 15 Wed. xvii iv 27 15 Frid. xviii vi 28 16 Thur. .\vi V 28 16 Sat. xvii vii 29 Sab. 17 Frid. XV vi 29 A 17 Sun. XV i i h Tebeth. 18 Sat. siv vii 1 Casled. Sab. 18 Mon. XV ii 1 A 19 Suu. siii i 2 19 Tues. ,\iv iii 2 Octave of the Feast 20 Mon. xii ii 3 20 Wed. xiii iv 3 of Dedication. 21 Tues. xi iii 4 21 Thur. xii V 4 22 Wed. X iv 5 22 Frid. xi vi 5 23 Thur. ix V 6 23 Sat. X vii 6 Sab. 24 Frid. viii vi 7 A 24 Sun. ix i 7 2.5 Sat. vii vii 8 Sab. 25 Mon. viii ii 8 A 26 Sun. vi i 9 26 Tues. vii iii 9 27 Mou. V ii 10 27 Wed. vi iv 10 28 Tues. iv iii 11 28 Thur. V V 11 29 Wed. iii iv 12 29 Frid. iv vi 12 30 Thur. Prid V 13 30 Sat. A 31 Sun. iii Prid vii i 13 14 Sab. The foregrolnoj table has been constructed from the nineteenth of August, as being the earliest date at which the eleven years' admi- nistration of Valerius Gratus could end. As, however, there is only a possibility that Tiberius appointed him on the first day of his own accession to undivided sovereignty, so is it only possible that Pilate entered upon his office the very day that the eleven years expired. If we could fix the day when Pilate's administra- tion began, it would enable us to ascertain with some precision the commencement of St. John's ministry. But this is impossible. As St. Luke says that it was under the government of Pontius Pilate, and in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, — that is, of his asso- ciate government, — it could not be earlier than the last of August A.j.p. 4737, or later than January a.j.p. 4738. In the absence then of all positive testimony, I offer what ap- pears to me a probable conjecture. It has been seen by the pre- ceding table, that the great day of atonement, when the children of Israel were commanded to afflict their souls, ^ took place that year on the twenty-ninth day of September. How consonant would it be with the great object of St. John's mission that he should begin to prejpare the way of the Lord in that week ! perhaps, on that * Lev. xvi. 29. 59 466 DURATION OF CHRIST''s MINISTRY. [pART II. same great day when the High Priest entered the Holy of Holies! — An annual figure, as St. Paul assures us, of the atonement offered hy the great High Priest of our profession ! If this conjecture be probable, then the feast of Tabernacles which followed, from Wednesday the fourth to Wednesday the eleventh of October, in which the whole nation were required to go up to Jerusalem,' would furnish a convenient opportunity for all " Judiea,"" and all the region round about Jordan, as well as all the inhabitants of the city,^ to go out of Jerusalem, and be " bap- tized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins."^ The same oppor- tunity would be offered at the feast of the Dedication, from the twelfth to the nineteenth of December. The Evangelists furnish no evidence as to the time of our Lord's baptism. St. Matthew merely states, that *' he came from Galilee to Jordan, unto John to be baptized of him ;"^ and St. Luke, that " when all the j^eople were baj)tized, it came to pass that Jesus also being baptized and praying, the heaven was opened," etc.^ This last expression, " when all the people were baptized," does not mean, as some have supposed, that Jesus did not come to be bap- tized until the whole of the people had been baptized ; for the words in the original, eV 7« (iavTia^rivui d-n-arra tov \aov, imply only that he came with the rest. But as the number baptized by St. John ap- pears to have been very great, I see no reason why the time of our Lord's baptism may not have been as late as the sixth of January, according to the opinions of the followers of Basilides, mentioned by St. Clemens of Alexandria.^ The objection on account of the inclemency of that month is of little value ; for it is asserted by the best travellers, that in Judaea the days are often hot at that season.* ^ Dent. xvi. 13, 14, 15. ° Mark i. 5. I suppose "the ford five or six miles above ^ Matt. iii. 5, 6. '' Matt. iii. 13. Jericho" (Robinson ut sup. p. 265) to be * Luke iii. 21. ^ Strom lib. i. 340. the Bethabara of the New Testament. In * See Harmer's observ. ed. Clarke, vol. i. the time of Antoninus Martyr and Willi- p. 132, concei'ning the weather in the baldus, " the annual throng of pilgrims to Holy Land. " In the depth of winter it is bathe in the Jordan took place at the frequently warm, nay, almost hot, in the Epiphany." (Robinson ut sup. p. 270.) On open air." If this may be said in general, the 12th of May 1838, "the thermometer, it applies with peculiar force to the great atsunset, stood at 78" F;" and on "Sunday plain of Jordan. On the 29th of January ]May 13th, the excessive heat" gave Messrs. 1818, jSIr. Bankes crossed the Jordan at Robinson and Smith "an uncomfortable or near a ford lower than that near Beisan specimen of the climate of the Ghor," or (the ancient Bethshean or Scythopolis), valley of the Jordan (Ibid. p. 273). "In and found the stream flowing rapidly over traversing merelj' the short distance of a bed of pebbles, and easilj' fordable for five or six hours, between Jerusalem and the horses." — Buckingham, p. 315, quoted Jericho, the traveller passes from a pure by Dr. Robinson, Bib. Res. vol. ii. p. 261. and temperate atmosphere into the sultry CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 467 The opinion of Epiphanius that Jesus was baptized on the eighth of November, was clearly the result of computation. He supposed that our Lord was born on the sixth of January; and having ad- vanced the opinion that He was twenty -nine years and ten months old when baptized, he of course placed the baptism two months earlier. St. Chrysostom, on the other hand, in his homily on the baptism of Christ, asks " why the day in which he was baptized, and not the day in which he was born, is called the Epiphany ? For this is the day in which he was baptized, and in which he sanctified the nature of water." And he thus answers the question : " Because Christ was made manifest to all, not when he was born, but when he was baptized."^ It is not intended to attach an undue importance to this opinion ; but if the followers of Basilides held it, according to St. Clement of Alexandria, and the Church held it according to Chrysostom, there is some probability of its truth. Neither would be likely to re- ceive it on the testimony of the other, and therefore both must have derived it from some common source. There can be no im- propriety, therefore, in considering the sixth of January as the date of our Lord's baptism, when every departure from that date has proceeded from computation merely, and not from testimony. There is another question of far greater importance, and that is, how many passovers intervened between the baptism of our Lord and his crucifixion ? Whatever diversity of opinion there may be with regard to the other Evangelists, St. John, it is generally admitted, preserves the order of time. " John," says Chemnitz, as quoted by Abp. New- come, " had in view two objects in writing his history : First, to add what the other Evangelists had omitted ; second, to point out a method by which the order and sequence of the whole evangelical history might be searched out and apprehended." The Archbishop himself admits that he has neglected the true order of time, only in speaking of Mary's anointing the feet of Jesus f and even this exception I have not ventured to make, though I am fully sensible that the reasons on which it has been founded are forcible. There are four passages in St. John s history from which it is heat of an Egyptian climate. Nor is this sand feet lower than Jerusalem." (Ibid. surprising, when we consider that the cal- p. 282). dron of the Dead Sea and the valley of the » S. Chrys. Op. ed. Montf. torn. u. p. 369. Jordan he several hundred feet below the * Chap. xii. 2-8. level of the ocean, and nearly three thou- 468 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. inferred that our Lord was present at the same number of pass- overs during the interval between his baptism and his crucifixion : First, ch. ii. 13: "And the Jews' Passover was at hand, and Jesus went up to Jerusalem." Secondly, ch. v. i : "After this there was a feast of the Jews ; and Jesus went up to Jerusalem." Thirdly, ch. vi. 4: "And the passover a feast of the Jews was nigh." Fourthly, ch. xii. 1 : " Then Jesus six days before the passover came to Bethany." See also chaps, xiii. 1, and xviii. 28. The only doubt is with regard to the second, or that which is mentioned in the fifth chapter. If the article had been inserted, so that instead of A feast, it should be read THE feast of the Jews, there would have been no hesitation in admitting it to be the Passover ; for nothing was more common than to designate that as THE feast. On this subject Bishop Middleton, in his invaluable work on the Greek article, makes the following remarks : " If we could accurately ascertain what was the festival here meant, it would go far towards determining the much controverted question respecting the duration of Christ's ministry. It seems to be ad- mitted, that if the reading had been 'H kopn) (which, indeed, is found in several mss.) the festival here spoken of could be no other than the Passover ; and that then there were four Passovers, according to St. John, during our Saviour's ministry : otherwise, it is contended that some other feast, probably of Pentecost, is here meant, and that the Passovers of our Saviour's ministry were only three." After several critical remarks explanatory of the omission of the article, the Bishop sums up the whole subject as follows : " On the whole, I think it certain that the Passover may here be intended, and that the arguments against this supposition are not strengthened, as is commonly supposed, by the absence of the article. On the other hand, the opinion that the Passover is here meant, is somewhat favoured by the various reading.^ With these observations, I leave the subject for the present, and proceed to lay before the reader a series of tables for three years, constructed by means of the Canon of Victorius, and containing an adjustment of the modern, Koman, and Jewish computations of time. These will complete the jDcriod from the commencement of St. John's ministry, until the day when our Lord was taken up, and the Holy Ghost descended. ^ Doct. of the Greek article, pai't ii. in loc. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 469 TABLE 1. — First Year of our Lord's Ministry. Snnday Letter g; a.j.p. 4738; Olymp. cci. 1-2; a.u.c. 777-78; Ref. Cal. of Julius Caesar 70, a.d. 25; Associate Gov', of Tiberius, a, 15-16 ; Sole reign of Tiberius, a, 12-13 ; Year of Pilate, 1-2 ; C. Calvisius Sabinus, Cn. Cornelius Lentulus Geetulicus, Coss. Modern Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. o( Time. Ageol the ]) Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Ageof , . ^ „ .1,.. TV Jewish Computation Jan. 1 Mon. Kal. Fer. ii 15 Lasthalfof Tebeth. Mak. 1 Thur. Kal. Fer. V 15 2 Tues. iv iii 16 2 Fri. vi vi 16 3 AVed. iii iv 17 3 Sat. V vii 17 Sab. 4 Thur. Prid. V 18 0 4 Sun. iv i 18 5 Fri. Non. vi 19 5 Mon. iii ii 19 6 Sat. viii vii 20 Sab. 6 Tues. Prid. iii 20 0 7 Sun. vii i 21 7 Wed. Non. iv 21 8 Mon. vi ii 22 8 Tluir. viii V 22 9 Tues. V iii 23 9 Fri. vii vi 23 10 Wed. iv iv 24 10 Sat. vi vii 24 Sab. 11 Thur. iii V 25 G 11 Sun. V i 25 12 Fri. Prid. vi 26 12 Mon. iv ii 26 13 Sat. Idus vii 27 Sab. 13 Tues. iii iii 27 G 14 Sun. xix i 28 14 Wed. Prid. iv 28 15 Mon. xviii ii 29 15 Thur. Idus. V 29 16 Tues. xvii iii 1 Shebet. 16 fri. xv'ii vi 1 A BIB or NlSAN. 17 Wed. xvi iv 2 17 Sat. xvi vii 2 Sab. 18 Thur. XV V 3 G 18 Sun. XV i 3 19 Fri. xiv vi 4 19 Mon. xiv ii 4 20 Sat. xiii vii 5 Sab. 20 Tues. xiii iii 5 G 21 Sun. xii i 6 21 Wed. xii iv 6 22 Mon. xi ii 7 22 Thur. xi V 7 23 Tues. X iii 8 23 Fri. X vi 8 24 Wed. ix iv 9 24 Sat. ix vii 9 Sab. 25 Thur. viii V 10 G 25 Sun. viii i 10 26 Fri. vii vi 11 26 Mon. vii ii 11 27 Sat. vi vii 13 Sab. 27 Tues. vi iii 12 G 28 Sun. V i 13 28 Wed. V iv 13 29 Mon. iv ii 14 29 Thur. iv V 14 Passover, ^^ev. xxiii. 6. 30 Tues. iii iii 15 30 Fri. iii vi 15 Feast of unleavened bread. 31 Wed Prid. iv 16 31 Sat. Prid. vii 16 Sab. Paschal Sah Feb. 1 Thur. Kal. V 17 Apk.gI Sun. Kal. i 17 Morrow after tl.e sab- 2 Fri. iv vi 18 2 Mon. iv ii 18 bath. Lev. xxiii. 11. 3 Sat. iii vii 19 Sab. 3 Tues. iii iii 19 G 4 Sun. Prid. i 20 4 Wed. Prid. iv 20 5 Mon. 6 Tues. Non. viii ii iii 21 22 5 Thur. 6 Fri. Non. viii V vi 21 22 Last day of the feast ol uuleaveued bread. 7 Wed. vii iv 23 7 Sat. vii vii 23 Sab. 1. from the mor- 8 Tluir. \'i v 24 G 8 Sun. vi i 24 row after the sabbatlj 9 Fri. V vi 25 9 Mon. V ii 25 TO (TaSj3aTvi' Stv 10 Sat. iv vii 26 Sab. 10 Tues. iv iii 26 repoTrpwTOv- Luke vi.l. G 11 Sun. iii i 27 11 Wed. iii iv 27 12 Mon. Prid ii 28 12 Thur. Prid. V 28 13 Tues. Idus. iii 29 13 Fri. Idus. vi 29 14 Wed 15 Thur. 16 Fri. xvi XV siv iv V vi 1 2 A DAB. 14 Sat. G 15 Sun. 16 Mon. xviii xvii xvi vii i ii i 1 2 Iyar. Sab. II. from the morrow after the paschal sabbath. 17 Sat. xiii vii 3 Sab. 17 Tues. XV iii 3 G 18 Sun. xii i 4 18 Wed. xiv iv 4 19 Mon. xi ii 5 19 Thur. xiii V 5 20 Tues, x iii 6 20 Fri. xii vi 6 21 Wed. 22 Tliur. ix viii iv V 7 8 21 Sat. G 22 Sun. xi X vii i 7 8 Sab. III. from the mor- row after the paschal sabbath. 23 Fri. vii vi 9 23 Mon. ix ii 9 24 Sat. vi vii 10 Sab. 24 Tues. viii iii 10 G 25 Sun. v i 11 25 Wed. vii iv 11 26 Mon. iv ii 12 26 Thur. vi V 12 27 Tues. iii iii 13 Esther ix. 1-28. 27 Fri. V vi 13 28 Wed. Prid. iv 14 Purim. 28 Sat. G 29 Sun. 30 Mon. iv iii Prid. vii i ii 14 15 16 Sab. The second pass- over. Numb.lx.il. IV. from the morrow after the paschal sab. 470 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [part II. TABLE I. — First Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued.) Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp of Time. tlTe j Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Ccnip of Time. Age of , . , r. .1 V Jewislv Computatiou "^e ) of Time. May 1 Tues. Kal Fer. ii 17 July 1 Sun. Kal Fer. i 19 2 Wed vi iv 18 2 Mon. vi ii 20 3 Thur V V 19 3 Tues V iii 21 4 Fri. iv vi 20 4 Wed. iv iv 22 6 Sat. iii vii 21 Sab. V. from the mor- 5 Thur iii V 23 0 6 Sun. Prid i 22 row after the paschal 6 Fri. Prid vi 24 7 Mon. Non 11 23 sabbath. 7 Sat. Non vii 25 Sab. 8 Tues viii iii 24 0 8 Sun. viii i 26 9 Wed. vii iv 25 9 Mon vii ii 27 10 Thur vi V 26 10 Tues. vi iii 28 1 1 Fri. V vi 27 11 Wed. v iv 29 12 Sat. iv vii 2S Sab. VI. from the mor- 12 Thur iv V 1 Ab. G 13 Sun. iii i 29 row all. the pas. sab. 13 Fri. iii vi 2 14 Mon. Prid. ii 1 SiVAN. 14 Sat. Prid vii 3 Sab 15 Tues. Idus iii 2 G 15 Sun. Idus i 4 16 Wed. xvii iv 3 16 Mon. xvii ii 5 17 Thur xvi v 4 17 Tues. xvi iii 6 18 Fri. 19 Sat. G 20 Sun. XV xiv xiii vi vii i 5 6 7 Sab. VII. from the morrow [after the paschal sab. Penthcost. Morrow 18 Wed. 19 Thur 20 Fri. XV xiv xiii iv V vi 7 8 9 21 Mon. 22 Tues. xii xi ii iii 8 9 aft. tlie seventh sab. Xev. xxiii. 16. 21 Sat G 22 Sun. xii xi vii i 10 11 Sab. 23 Wed. X iv 10 23 Mon. X ii 12 24 Thur. ix V 11 24 Tues. ix iii 13 25 Fri. viii vi 12 25 Wed. viii iv 14 26 Sat. vii vii 13 Sab. 26 Thur. vii v 15 G 27 Sun. vi i 14 27 Fri. vi vi 16 28 Mon. V ii 15 28 Sat. v vii 17 Sab. 29 Tues. iv iii 16 G 29 Sun. iv i 18 30 Wed. iii iv 17 30 Mon. iii ii 19 31 Thur. !'rid. V 18 31 Tues. Prid. iii 20 June 1 Fri. Kal. vi 19 Aug. 1 Wed. Kal. iv 21 2 Sat. iv vii 20 Sab, 2 Thur. iv V 22 G 3 Sun. iii i 21 3 Fri. iii vi 23 4 Mon. Prid. ii 22 4 Sat. Prid. vii 24 Sab. 5 Tues. Non. iii 23 G 5 Sun. Non. i 25 6 Wed viii iv 24 6 Mon. viii ii 26 7 Thur. vii V 25 7 Tues. vii iii 27 8 Fri. vi vi 26 8 Wed. vi iv 28 9 Sat. V vii 27 Sib. 9 Thur. V V 29 G 10 Sun. iv i 28 10 Fri. iv vi i Elul. 11 Mon. iii ii 29 11 Sat iii vii 1 Sab. 12 Tues Prid. iii i Thammuz, G 12 Sun. Prid. i 2 13 Wed. Idus. iv 1 13 Mon. Idus. ii 3 14 Thur. xviii V 2 14 Tues. xix iii 4 15 Fri. xvii vi 3 15 Wed. xviii iv 5 16 Sat. xvi vii 4 Sab. 16 Thur. xvii V 6 G 17 Sun. XV i 6 17 Fri. xvi vi 7 18 Mon. xiv ii 6 18 Sat. XV vii 8 Sab. 19 Tues. xiii iii 7 G 19 Sun. xiv i 9 20 Wed. xii iv 8 20 Mon. xiii ii 10 21 Thur. xi V 9 21 Tues. xii iii 11 22 Fri. x vi 10 22 Wod. xi iv 12 23 Sat. ix vii 11 Sab. 23 Thur. X V 13 G 24 Sun. viii i 12 24 Fri. ix vi 14 25 Mon, vii ii 13 25 Sat. viii vii 15 Sab. 26 Tues. vi iii 14 G 26 Sun. vii i 16 27 Wed. V iv 15 27 Mon. vi ii 17 28 Thur. iv V 16 28 Tues. V iii 18 29 Fri. iii vi 17 29 Wed. iv iv 19 30 Sat. Prid. vii 18 Sab. 80 Thur. iii V 20 31 Fri Prid. vi 21 CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY, 471 TABLE I. — FiR.sT Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued.) Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Xge of tlie 5 Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Age of tbe]) Jewish Computation of Time. Sep. 1 Sat. Kal. Fer. vii 22 Sab. Nov. 1 ITiur. Kal. Fer. V 24 o 2 Sun. iv i 23 2 Fri. iv vi 25 3 Mon. iii ii 24 3 Sat. iii vii 26 Sab. 4 Tues. Prid. iii 25 0 4 Sun. Prid. i 27 6 Wed. Nou. iv 26 5 Mon Non. ii 28 6 Tlmr. viii V 27 6 Tues. viii iii 29 7 Fri. vii vi 28 7 Wed. vii iv 1 Casleu. 8 Sat. vi vii 29 Sab. 8 Thur. vi V 2 G 9 Sun. 10 Mon. 11 Tues. V iv iii i ii iii 1 2 3 TisRi or Ethanim. rFea.st of trumpets. |_Lev. xxiii. 24. 9 Fri. 10 Sat. G 11 Sun. V iv iii vi vii i 3 4 5 Sab. 13 Wed. Prid. iv 4 12 Mon. Prid. ii 6 13 Thur. Idus V 5 13 Tues. Idus. iii 7 14 Fri. xviii vi 6 14 Wed. xviii iv 8 15 Sat. xvii vii 7 Sab. 15 Thur. xvii V 9 G 16 Sun. xvi i 8 16 Fri. xvi vi 10 17 Mon. XV ii 9 17 Sat. XV vii 11 Sab. 18 Tues. xiv iii 10 Day of atonement. G 18 Sun. xiv i 12 19 Wed. xiii iv 11 [Lev. xxiii. 27. 19 Mon. xiii ii 13 20 Thur. xii V 12 20 Tues. xii iii 14 21 Fri. xi vi 13 21 Wed. xi iv 15 22 Sat. X vii 14 Sab. 22 Thui. X V 16 G 23 Sun. ix i 15 Fea.st of tabernacles. 23 Fri. ix vi 17 24 Mon. viii ii 16 [Lev. xxiii. 34. 24 Sat. viii vii 18 Sab. 25 Tues. vii iii 17 G 25 Sun. vii i 19 26 Wed. vi iv 18 26 Mon. vi ii 20 27 Thur. V v 19 27 Tues. V iii 21 28 Fri. iv vi 20 28 Wed. iv iv 22 29 Sat. iii vii 21 Sab. 29 Thur. iii v 23 G 30 Sun. Oct. 1 Mon. 2 Tues. 3 Wed. Prid. Kal. vi V i ii iii iv 22 23 24 25 Octave of the feast of tabernacles. Lev. xxiii. 36. 30 Fri. Dec. 1 Sat. G 2 Sun. 3 Mon. Prid. Kal. iv iii ■IT vii i ii 24 25 26 27 Sab. Feast of the de- dication of the tem- pie. John X. 22. 4 Thur. iv V 26 4 Tues. Prid. iii 28 5 Fri. iii vi 27 5 Wed. Non. iv 29 6 Sat. Prid. vii 28 Sab. 6 Thur. viii V I 2 Tebeth. o 7 Sun. 8 Mon. 9 Tues. Non. viii vii i ii iii 29 1 March ESVAN. 7 Fri. 8 Sat. G 9 Sun. vii vi V vi vii i 1 2 3 Sab. Octave of the feast of dedication. 10 Wed. vi iv 2 10 Mon. iv ii 4 11 Thur. v V 3 11 Tues. iii iii 6 12 Fri. iv vi 4 12 Wed. Prid. iv 6 13 Sat. iii vii 5 Sab. 13 Thur. Idus. V 7 G 14 Sun. Prid i 6 14 Fri. xix vi 8 15 Mon. Idus. ii 7 15 Sat. xviii vii 9 Sab. 16 Tues. xvii iii 8 G 16 Sun. xvii i 10 17 Wed. xvi iv 9 17 Mon. x^-i ii 11 18 Thur. XV V 10 18 Tues. XV iii 12 19 Fri. xiv vi 11 19 Wed, xiv iv 13 20 Sat. xiii vii 12 Sab. 20 Thur. xiii V 14 G 21 Sun. xii i 13 21 Fri. xii vi 15 22 Mon. xi ii 14 22 Sat. xi vii 16 Sab. 23 Tues. X iii 15 G 23 Sun. X i 17 24 Wed. ix iv 16 24 Mon. ix ii 18 25 Thur. viii V 17 25 Tues. viii iii 19 26 Fri. vii vi 18 26 Wed. vii iv 20 37 Sat. vi vii 19 Sab. 27 Thur. vi v 21 G 28 Sun. V i 20 28 Fri. V vi 23 29 Mon. iv ii 21 29 Sat. iv vii 23 Sab. 30 Tues. iii iii 22 G 30 Sun. iii i 24 31 Wed. Prid. iv 23 31 Mon. Prid. ii 25 472 DURATION OF CHRISt''8 MINISTRY. [PART II. TABLE II. — Second Year of our Lord's Ministry. Sunday Letter p; a.j.p. 4739; Olyinp. cci. year 2-3; a.u.c. 778-79; Ref. Cal. of Julius Csesar, 71 ; Dionysiait or Vulg ^ra, 26 ; Associate Gov*, of Tiberius, a. 16-17 ; Sole reign of Tiberius, 13-14 ; Year of Pilate, 2-3 ; M. LiciNiDS Crassus, L. Calpurnius Piso, Coss. Modern Comp. Roman Comp. Age of the > Jewish Computation iVIodem Comp. Eoman Comp. Age of the > Jenish Computation of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. Jan. 1 Tiies. Kal. Fer. iii 26 Mar 1 Fri. Kal. Fer. vi 26 2 Wed iv iv 27 2 Sat. vi vii 27 Sab. 3 Thur. iii V 28 F 3 Sun. V i 28 4 Fri. Prid. vi 29 4 Mon iv ii 29 6 Sat. Non. vii 1 Shebet. Sab. 6 Tues. iii iii 1 Veadar. F 6 Sun. viii i 2 6 Wed. Prid. iv 2 7 Mod. vii ii 3 7 Thur. Non. v 3 8 Tues. vi iii 4 8 Fri. viii vi 4 9 Wed. V iv 5 9 Sat. vii vii 6 Sab. 10 Thur. iv v 6 r 10 Sun. vi i 6 11 Fri. iii vi 7 11 Mon. V ii 7 12 Sat. Prid. vii 8 Sab. 12 Tues. iv iii 8 F 13 Sun. Idus. i 9 13 Wed. iii iv 9 14 Mon. xix ii 10 14 Thur. Prid. V 10 15 Tues. x-^'iii iii 11 15 Fri. Idus. vi 11 16 Wed. xvii iv 12 16 Sat xvii vii 12 Sab. 17 Thur. xvi V 13 F 17 Sun. xvi i 13 18 Fri. XV vi 14 18 Mon. XV ii 14 19 Sat. xiv vii 15 Sab. 19 Tues. xiv iii 16 F 20 Sun. xiii i 16 20 Wed. xiii iv 16 21 Mon. xii ii 17 21 Thur. xii V 17 22 Tues. xi iii 18 22 Fri. xi vi 18 23 Wed. X iv 19 23 Sat. X vii 19 Sab, 24 Thur. ix V 20 F 24 Sun. is i 20 25 Fri, viii vi 21 26 Mon. viii ii 21 26 Sat vii vii 22 Sab. 26 Tues. vii iii 22 F 27 Sun. vi i 23 27 Wed. vi iv 23 28 Mon. y ii 24 28 Thur. V V 24 29 Tues. iv iii 25 29 Fri. iv vi 25 30 Wed. iii iv 26 30 Sat. iii vii 26 Sab. 31 Thur. I'rid. V 27 F 31 Sun Prid. i 27 Feb. 1 Fri. Kal. vi 28 Apr. 1 Men. Kal. ii 28 2 Sat. iv vii 29 Sab. 2 Tues. iv iii 29 F 3 Sun. iii i i A DAK. 3 Wed. iii iv 1 Abib or NisAN. 4 Mon. Prid. ii 1 4 Thur. Prid. V 1 6 Tues. Non. iii 2 6 Fri. Non. vi 2 6 Wed. viii iv 3 6 Sat. viii vii 3 Sab. 7 Thur. vii V 4 F 7 Sun. vii i 4 8 Fri. vi vi 5 8 Mon. vi ii 5 9 Sat. V vii 6 Sab 9 Tues. V iii 6 F 10 Sun. iv i 7 10 Wed. iv iv 7 11 Mon. iii ii 8 11 Thur. iii V 8 12 Tues Prid. iii 9 12 Fri. Prid. vi 9 13 Wed. Idus. iv 10 13 Sat Idus. vii 10 Sab. 14 Thur. XVI V 11 F 14 Sun. xvii) i 11 15 Fri. XV vi 12 16 Mon. xvii ii 12 16 Sat. xiv vii 13 Sab. Esther ix. 1-28. 16 Tues. xvi iii 13 F 17 Sun. xiii i 14 Purira. 17 Med. XV iv 14 Passover. [Lev. x.xiii. 6. 18 Mon. xii ii 15 18 Thur. xiv V 15 Feast of unleavenedbread. 19 Tues. xi iii 16 19 Fri. xiii vi 16 Sab. Great Pascbal. 20 Wed. X iv 17 20 Sat. xii vii 17 Moirow after the sab- 21 Tliur. 22 Fri. ix viii V vi 18 19 F 21 Sun. 22 Mon. xi X i ii 18 19 halh. Sheaf of the first fi-uits waved. Lev. xxiii. 11. 23 Sat. vii vii 20 Sab. 23 Tues. ix iii 20 F 24 Sun. vi i 21 24 Wed. viii iv 21 25 Mon. v ii 22 25 Thur. vii V 22 26 Tues. iv iii 23 26 Fri. vi vi 23 27 Wed. iii iv 24 27 Sat v vii 24 Sab. I. from the mor- row after the sabbath. 28 Thur Prid V 25 F 28 Sun. iv i 25 Levit. xxiii. 15. ro 29 Mon, iii ii 26 adQ^arov livri- 1 30 Tues. Prid. iii 27 ponpwTov. Second firet sab. Luke vi. 1. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY. 473 TABLE II. — S£ coND Year of our Lord's JVl INISTRY (continued.) Modem Corap. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. ii;«of he > Jewish Computatipn of Time. Modem Comp. Rom.in Corap. of Time. of Time. Vgeof he> Jewish Computatiou of Time. May 1 Wed. Kal. Fer. iv 28 July 1 Mon Kal. Fer. ii 1 Tammuz. 2 Tlmr. vi V 29 2 Tues. vi iii 2 3 Fri. V vi 1 Iyar. 3 Wed. V iv 3 4 Sat. iv vii 2 Sab. 11. from the mor- 4 Thur. iv V 4 F 5 Sun. 6 Mon. iii Frid. i ii 3 4 row after the pasch. sabbath. 6 Fri. 6 Sat. iii Prid. vi vii 5 6 Sab. 7 Tues Non. iii 5 F 7 Sun. Non. i 7 8 Wed. viii iv 6 8 Mon. viii ii 8 0 Thur. vii V 7 9 Tues. vii iii 9 10 Fri. vi vi 8 10 Wed. vl iv 10 11 Sat. v vii 9 Sab. III. from themor- 11 Thur. v v 11 F 12 Sun. iv i 10 rovt' after the pasch. sabbath. 12 Fri. iv vi 12 13 Mon. iii ii 11 13 Sat. iii vii 13 Sab. 14 Tues. Prid. iii 12 F 14 Sun. Prid. i 14 15 Wed. Idus iv 13 15 Mon. [dus. ii 15 16 Thur, xvii T 14 16 Tues. xvii iii 16 17 Fri. xvi vi 15 17 Wed. xvi iv 17 13 Sat, XV vii 16 Sab. IV. from tlie mor- 18 Thur. XV V 18 F 19 Sun. xiv i 17 row after the pasch. 19 Fri. xiv vi 19 20 Mon. xiii ii 18 sabbath. 20 Sat. xiii vii 20 Sab. 21 Tues. xii iii 19 F 21 Sun. xii i 21 22 Wed. xi iv 20 22 Mon. xi ii 23 23 Thur. X V 21 23 Tues. X iii 23 24 Fri. ix vi 22 24 Wed. ix iv 24 25 Sat. viii vii 23 Sab. v. from tlie mor- 25 Thur. viii v 2o F 26 Sun. vii i 24 row after the pasch. 26 Fri. vii vi 26 27 Mon. vi ii 25 sabbath. 27 Sat. vi vii 27 Sab. 28 Tues. V iii 26 F 28 Sun. V i 28 29 Wed. iv iv 27 29 Mon. iv ii 29 30 Thur. iii V 28 30 Tues. iii iii 2 An. 31 Fri. Prid. vi 29 31 Wed. Prid iv 1 JiJN. 1 Sat Kal vii i SiVAN. Sab VI. from Aug. 1 Thur. Kal. V 2 F 2 Sun. iv i 1 the moiTow after the 2 Fri. iv vi 3 3 Mon. iii ii 2 pasch. sabbath. 3 Sat. iii vii 4 Sab. 4 Tues. Prid. iii 3 F 4 Sun. Prid. i 5 5 Wed Non. iv 4 5 Mon. Non. ii 6 6 Thur. viii V 5 6 Tues. viii iii 7 7 Fri. 8 Sat. vii vi vi vii 6 7 [row aft. the pas. sab. Sab. VII. from the mor- 7 Wed. 8 Thur. vii vi iv V 8 9 F 9 Sun. V i 8 Pentf.cost MoiTow 9 Fri. V vi 10 10 Mon. iv ii 9 after 7th sab. Lev. 10 Sat. iv vii 11 Sab. 11 Tues iii iii 10 xxiii. 16. F 11 Sun. iii i 12 12 Wed. Prid iv 11 12 Mon. Prid. ii 13 J 3 Thur. Idus. v 12 13 Tues. Idus. iii 14 3 4 Fri. xviii vi 13 14 Wed. xix iv 15 15 Sat. xvii vii 14 Sab. 15 Thur. xviii V 16 F 16 Sun. xvi i 15 16 Fri. xvii vi 17 17 Mon. XV ii 16 17 Sat. xvi vii 18 Sab. 18 Tues. xiv iii 17 F 18 Sun. XV i 19 19 Wed. xiii iv 18 19 Mon. xiv ii 20 20 Thur xii V 19 20 Tues. xiii iii 21 21 Fri. xi vi 20 21 Wed. xii iv 23 22 Sat. X vii 21 Sab. 22 Thur xi v 23 F 23 Sun. ix i 22 23 Fri. X vi 24 24 Mon. viii ii 23 24 Sat. ix vii 25 Sab. 25 Tues. vii iii 24 F 25 Sun. viii i 26 26 Wed. vi iv 25 26 Mon. vii ii 27 27 Thur v V 26 27 Tues. vi iii 38 28 Fri. iv vi 27 28 Wed. V iv 29 29 Sat. iii vii 28 Sab. 29 Thur iv v 1 Elcl. 1 F 30 Sun. Prid i 29 30 Fri. iii vi 2 1 1^^^^ 31 Sat Prid vii 3 |sab. 474 DURATION OF CHRIST S MINISTRY. [part II. TABLE II. — Second Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued). Modern Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Age of the ) Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time; Roman Comp. of Time. Age of the > Jewish Computation of Time. Sep. 1 Sun. Kal. Fer.i 4 Nov. 1 Fri. Kal. Fer.vi 6 2 Mon. iv ii 5 2 Sat. iv vii 7 Sab. 3 Tues. iii iii 6 F 3 Sun. iii i 8 4 Wed. Prid. iv 7 4 Mon Prid. ii 9 6 Thur. Nou. V 8 6 Tues. Non. iii 10 6 Fri. viii vi 9 6 Wed. viii iv 11 7 Sat. vii vii 10 Sab. 7 Thur. vii V 12 p 8 Sun. vi i 11 8 Fri. vi vi 13 9 Mon. V ii 12 9 Sat. V vii 14 Sab. 10 Tues. iv iii 13 F 10 Sun. iv i 15 11 Wed. iii iv 14 11 Mon. iii ii 16 12 Thur. Prid. V 15 12 Tues. Prid. iii 17 13 Fri. Idus. vi 16 13 Wed. Idus. iv 18 14 Sat. xviii vii 17 Sab. 14 Thur. -xviii V 19 p 15 Sun. xvii i 18 15 Fri. x^-ii vi 20 16 Mon. xvi ii 19 16 Sat. xvi vii 21 Sab. 17 Tues. XV iii 20 F 17 Sun. XV i 22 18 Wed. xiv iv 21 18 Mon. xiv ii 23 19 Thur. xiii v 22 19 Tues. xiii iii 24 20 Fri. xii vi 23 20 Wed. xii iv 25 21 Sat. xi vii 24 Sab. 21 Thur. xi V 26 p 22 Sun. X i 25 22 Fri. X vi 27 23 Mon. ix ii 26 23 Sat. ix vii 28 Sab. 24 Tues. viii iii 27 F 24 Sun. viii i 29 25 Wed. vii iv 28 25 Mon. vii ii 1 Casleu. 26 Tliur. 27 Fri. vi V V vi 29 5 [pew. Lev. xsiii. 24. TisRi. Feast of trum- 26 Tues. 27 Wed. vi V iii iv 1 2 28 Sat. iv vii 1 Sab. 28 Thur. iv V 3 F 29 Sun. iii i 2 29 Fri. iii vi 4 30 Mon. Prid. ii 3 30 Sat. Prid. vii 6 Sab. Oct. 1 Tues. Kal. iji 4 Dec. 1 Sun. Kal. i 6 2 Wed. vi iv 5 2 Men. iv ii 7 3 Tliur. V V 6 3 Tues. iii iii 8 4 Fri. iv. vi 7 4 Wed. Prid. iv 9 5 Sat. iii vii 8 Sab. 6 Thur. Non. V 10 F 6 Sun. Prid. i 9 6 Fri. viii vi 11 7 Mon. Non. ii 10 Day of atonement. 7 Sat. vii vii 12 Sab. 8 Tues viii iii 11 [Lev. xxiii. 27. F 8 Sun. vi i 13 9 Wed. vii iv 12 9 Mon. V ii 14 10 Tliur vi V 13 10 Tues. iv iii 15 11 Fri. V vi 14 11 Wed. iii iv 16 12 Sat. iv vii 15 Sab. Feast of taberna- 12 Thur. Prid. V 17 P 13 Sun. iii i 16 cles. Lev. xxiii. 34. 13 Fri. Idus vi 18 14 Mon. Prid. ii 17 14 Sat. xix vii 19 Sab. 15 Tues Idus. iii 18 F 15 Sun. xviii i 20 16 Wed. xvii iv 19 16 Mon. xvii ii 21 17 Thur xvi V 20 17 Tues. xvi iii 22 18 Fri. XV vi 21 18 Wed. XV iv 23 19 Sat. xiv vii 22 Sab. Octave of the feast 19 Thur. xiv V 24 [tion. John x. 22. 20 Sun. xiii i 23 of tabernacles. 20 Fri. xiii vi 25 Feast of the dedica- 21 Mon. xii ii 24 21 Sat. xii vii 26 Sab. 22 Tues. xi iii 25 F 22 Sun. xi i 27 23 Wed. X iv 26 23 Mon. X ii 28 24 Thur. ix V 27 24 Tues. ix iii 29 25 Fri. viii vi 28 85 Wed. viii iv 1 Tebeth 26 Sat. F 27 Sun. vii vi vii i 29 1 Sab. MiOlCHESVAN. 26 Thur. 27 Fri. vii ■vi V vi 2 3 [the dedication. Octave of the feast of 28 Mon. V ii 2 28 Sat. V vii 4 Sab. 29 Tues. iv iii 3 F 29 Sun. iv i 5 30 Wed. iii iv 4 30 Mon. iii ii 6 31 Thur. Prid. V 5 31 Tues. Prid. iii 7 CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 475 TABLE III. — Third Year of our Lord's Ministry. Sunday Letter e ; a.j.p. 4740; Olymp. cci. years 3-4; a.u.c. 779-80; Ref. Cal. of Julius Caesar, 72; Dionysian or Vulg. iEra, 27 ; Associate Gov', of Tiberiu.s, a. 17-18; Sole reign of Tiberius, 14-15 ; Year of Pilate, 3-4 ; Appius Junius Silanus, Silius Nerva, Coss. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Age of the > Jewish Computation of Time. Modem Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. Age of the ) Jewish Computation of Time. Jan. 1 Wed. Kal. Fer. iv 8 Mar. 1 Sat. Kal. Fer. vii 8 Sab. 2 Thur. iv v 9 E 2 Sun. vi i 9 3 Fri. iii vi 10 3 Mon. V ii 10 4 Sat. Prid. vii 11 Sab. 4 Tues. iv iii 11 E 5 Sun. Non. i 12 6 Wed. iii iv 12 6 Mon. viii ii 13 6 Thur. Prid. V 13 Esther ix. 1-28. 7 Tues. vii iii 14 7 Fri. Non. vi 14 PURIM. 8 Wed. vi iv 15 8 Sat. viii vii 16 Sab. 9 Thur. V V 16 E 9 Sun. vii i 16 10 Fri. iv vi 17 10 Mon. vi ii 17 11 Sat. iii vii 18 Sab. 11 Tues. V iii 18 E 12 Sun. Prid. i 19 12 Wed. iv iv 19 13 Mon. Idus ii 20 13 Thur. iii V 20 14 Tues. xix iii 21 14 Fri. Prid. vi 21 15 Wed. xviii iv 22 15 Sat. Idus. vii 22 Sab. 16 Thur. xvii v 23 E 16 Sun. xvii i 23 17 Fri. xvi vi 24 17 Mon. xvi ii 24 18 Sat. XV vii 25 Sab. 18 Tues. XV iii 25 B 19 Sun. xiv i 26 19 Wed. xiv iv 26 20 Mon. xiii ii 27 20 Thur. xiii v 27 21 Tues. xii iii 28 21 Fri. xii vi 28 22 Wed. xi iv 29 22 Sat. xi vii 29 Sab. 23 Thur. X V 1 2 Shebet. E 23 Sun. X i i Abib or NiSAN 24 Fri. ix vi 1 24 Mon. ix ii 1 25 Sat. viii vii 2 Sab. 25 Tues. viii iii 2 E 26 Sun. vii i 3 26 Wed. vii iv 3 27 Mon. vi ii 4 27 Thur. vi V 4 28 Tues. V iii 5 28 Fri. v vi 5 29 Wed. iv iv 6 29 Sat. iv vii 6 Sab. 30 Thur. iii v 7 E 30 Sun. iii i 7 31 Fri. Prid. vi 8 31 Mon. Prid ii 8 Feb. 1 Sat. Kal. vii 9 Sab Apr. 1 Tues. Kal. iii 9 E 2 Sun. iv i 10 2 Wed. iv iv 10 3 Mon. iii ii 11 3 Thur. iii V 11 4 Tues. Prid. iii 12 4 Fri. Prid. vi 12 5 Wed. Non. iv 13 5 Sat. Non. vii 13 Sab. 6 Thur. viii V 14 E 6 Sun. viii i 14 Passover. 7 Fri. vii vi 15 7 Mon. vii ii 16 Feast of unleavened 8 Sat. vi vii 16 Sab. 8 Tues. vi iii 16 bread. Lev. xxiii. 6. E 9 Sun. V i 17 9 Wed. V iv 17 10 Mon. iv ii 18 10 Thur. iv V 18 11 Tues. iii iii 19 11 Fri. iii vi 19 12 Wed Prid iv 20 12 Sat. Prid. vii 20 Sab. Paschal sab. 13 Thur. Idus. V 21 E 13 Sun. Idus. i 21 Morrow afterthe pasc. 14 Fri. 15 Sat. xvi XV vi vii 22 23 Sab. 14 Mon. 15 Tues. xviii xvii ii iii 22 23 sab. Sheaf of the first fruits waved. E 16 Sun. xiv i 24 16 Wed. xvi iv 24 17 Mon. xiii ii 25 17 Thur. XV v 25 18 Tues. xii iii 26 18 Fri. xiv vi 26 , 19 W^ed. 20 Thur. 21 Fri. xi X ix iv V vi 27 28 29 19 Sat. E 20 Sun. 21 Mon. xiii xii xi vii i ii 27 28 29 Sab. 1. from the mor- row after the paschal sab. Thesecoud first sabbath. 22 Sat. viii vii 1 Adar. Sab. 22 Tues. X iii 1 Iyar. E 23 Sun. vii i 2 23 Wed. ix iv 2 24 Mon. vi ii 3 24 Thur. viii V 3 25 Tues. V iii 4 25 Fri. vii vi 4 26 Wed. 27 Thur. 28 Fri. iv iii Prid. iv V vi 6 6 7 26 Sat. E 27 Sun. 28 Mon. 29 Tues. 30 Wed. vi V iv iii Prid. vii i ii iii iv 5 6 7 8 9 Sab. II from the mor- row after the pasch. sabbath. 476 DURATION OF CHRIST 8 MINISTRY. [part n. TABLE III. — Third Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued). Modern Comp. of Time. Roman Comp. of Time. .\geof tlie ) Jewish Computation of Time. !Modem Oomp. of Time; Roman Comp. 01 Time. li,„ \ Jewish Compulation "•= / of Time. Mav 1 Thur Kal. Fer.v 10 Jul. 1 Tues. Kal. Fer. iii 12 2 Fri. vi vi 11 2 Wed, vi iv 13 3 Sat. V vii 12 Sab III. from the mor- 3 Thur V v 14 E 4 Sun. iv i 13 row alter the pasch. 4 Fri. iv vi 15 0 Mon. Hi ii 14 sabbath. 6 Sat. iii vii 16 Sab. 6 Tues Prid. iii 15 E 6 Sun. Prid. i 17 7 Wed. Non. iv 16 7 Mon. Non. ii 18 8 Thur. viii V 17 8 Tues viii iii 19 9 Fri. vii vi 18 9 Wed. vii iv 20 10 Sat. vi vii 19 Sab. IV. from the mor- 10 Thur. vi V 21 E 1 1 Sun. 12 Mon, V iv i ii 20 21 row alter the pasch. sabbath. 11 Fri. 12 Sat. V iv vi vii 22 23 Sab. 13 Tues. iii iii 22 e 13 Sun. iii i 24 14 Wed. Prid. iv 23 14 Mon. Prid. ii 25 15 Thur. Idus. V 24 15 Tues. Idus. iii 26 16 Fri. xvii vi 25 16 Wed. xvii iv 27 17 Sat. xvi vii 26 Sab. V. from the mor- 17 Thur. xvi V 28 E 18 Sun. XV i 27 row alter the pasch sabbatb. 18 Fri. XV vi 29 19 Mon. xiv ii 28 19 Sat. xiv vii 2 Ab Sab, 20 Tues. xiii iii 29 E 20 Sun. xiii i 1 21 Wed. xii iv 2 SiVAN. 21 Mon. xii ii 2 22 Thur. xi V 1 22 Tues. xi iii 3 23 Fri. X vi 3 23 Wed. X iv 4 24 Sat. ix vii 3 Sab. VI. from the mor- 24 Thur. ix v 5 E 25 Sun. viii i 4 row after the pasch. sabbath. 25 Fri. viii vi 6 26 Mon. vii ii 5 26 Sat. vii vii 7 Sab. 27 Tues. vi iii 6 e 27 Sun. vi i 8 28 Wed V iv 7 28 Mon. V ii 9 29 Thur. iv V 8 29 Tues. if iii 10 30 Fri, iii vi 9 [row aflt. the pas. sab 30 Wed. iii iv 11 31 Sat. Prid. vii 10 Sab. VII. from the mor- 31 Thur. Prid. V 12 .luNE 1 Sun. Kal. i 11 Pentecost. AcG. 1 Fri. Kal. vi 13 2 Mon. iv ii 12 2 Sat. iv vii 14 Sab. 3 Tues. iii iii 13 E 3 Sun. iii i 15 4 Wed. Prid. iv 14 4 Mon. Prid. ii 16 5 Thur Non. V 15 6 Tues. Non. iii 17 6 Fri. viii vi 16 6 Wed. viii iv 18 7 Sat. vii vii 17 Sab, 7 Thur. vii V 19 E 8 Sun. vi i 18 8 Fri. vi vi 20 9 Mon. V ii 19 9 Sat. V vii 21 Sab. 10 Tues. iv iii 20 E 10 Sun. iv i 22 11 Wed. iii iv 21 11 Mon. iii ii 23 12 Thur I'rid. v 22 12 Tues. Prid. iii 24 13 Fri, Idus. vi 23 13 Wed. Idus. iv 25 14 Sat, xviii vii 24 Sab. 14 Thur. xix v 26 E 15 Sun. xvii i 25 16 Fri. xviii vi 27 16 Mon. xvi ii 26 16 Sat. xvii vii 28 Sab. 17 Tues. XV iii 27 E 17 Sun. x^-i i 29 18 Wed. xiv iv 28 IS Mon. XV ii 1 Elul 19 Thur xiii V 29 19 Tues. xiv iii 2 20 Fri. xii vi 1 Tammuz. 20 ^^■ed siii iv 3 21 Sat. xi vii 2 Sab 21 Thur. xii V 4 E 22 Sun. X i 3 22 Fri. xi vi 5 23 Mon. ix ii 4 23 Sat. X vii 6 Sab. 24 Tues. viii iii 5 E 24 Sun. ix i 7 25 Wed vii iv 6 25 Mon. viii ii 8 26 Thur. vi V 7 26 Tues. vii iii 9 27 Fri. V vi 8 27 Wed. vi iv 10 28 Sat. iv vii 9 Sab. 28 Thur. V v 11 E 29 Sun. iii i 10 29 Fri. iv vi 12 30 Mon. Prid. ii 11 30 Sat. E 31 Sun. iii Prid, vii i 13 14 Sab, CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. 477 TABLE III. — Third Year of our Lord's Ministry (continued). Modem Comp. Roman Comp. Asco the ) Jewish Computation WoJern Comp. Roman Cotap. .Agco Che ) Jewish Comnatation of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. of Time. Sep. 1 Mon. Kal. Fer. ti 15 Nov. 1 Sat. Kal. Fer. vi 17 Sab. 2 Tues iv iii 16 E 2 Sun. iv i 18 3 Wed. iii iv 17 3 Mon. iii ii 19 4 Thur Prid V 18 4 Tues. Prid iii 20 5 Fri. Non vi 19 6 Wed. Non iv 21 6 Sat. viii vii 20 Sab. 6 Tliur viii V 22 E 7 Sun. vii i 21 7 Fri. vii vi 23 8 Mon. vi ii 22 8 Sat. vi vii 24 Sab. 9 Tues V iii 23 E 9 Sun. V i 25 10 Wed. iv iv 24 10 Mon. iv ii 26 11 Thur iii V 25 11 Tues. iii iii 27 13 Fri. Prid vi 26 12 Wed. Prid. iv 28 13 Sat. Idus vii 27 Sab. 13 Thur. Idus. V 29 E 14 Sun. xviii i 28 14 Fri. xviii vi § Casleo. 15 Mon. xvii ii 29 15 Sat. xvii vii 1 Sab. 16 Tues. xvi iii h TiSRi. Feast of trum- E 16 Sun. xvi i 2 17 Wed. XV iv 1 pets. Lev. .xxiii.a4. 17 Mon. XV ii 3 18 Thur. xiv V 2 18 Tues. xiv iii 4 19 Fri. xiii vi 3 19 Wed. xiii iv 5 20 Sat. xii vii 4 Sab. 20 Thur. xii V 6 E 21 Sun. xi i 5 21 Fri. xi vi 7 22 Mon. X ii 6 22 Sat. X vii 8 Sab. 23 Tues. i.x iii 7 E 23 Sun. ix i 9 24 \Ved. viii iv 8 24 Mon. viii ii 10 25 Thur. vii V 9 [Lev. .xxiii. 27. 25 Tues. ^■ii iii 11 26 Fri. vi vi 10 The day of atonement. 26 Wed. vi iv 12 27 Sat, V vii 11 Sab. 27 Thur. V V 13 E 28 Sun. iv i 12 28 Fri. iv vi U 29 Mon. iii ii 13 29 Sat. iii vii 15 Sab. 30 Tues. Prid. iii 14 E 30 Sun. Prid i 16 Oct. 1 Wed. Kal. iv 15 Feast of tabernacles. Dec. 1 Mon. Kal. ii 17 2 Thur. vi V 16 [ Lev. xxiii. 34. 2 Tues. iv iii 18 3 Fri. v vi 17 3 Wed. iii iv 19 4 Sat. iv vii 18 Sab. 4 Thur. Prid. V 20 E 5 Sun. iii i 19 5 Fri. Non. vi 21 6 Mon. Prid. ii 20 6 Sat. viii vii 22 Sab. 7 Tues. Non. iii 21 E 7 Sun. vii i 23 8 Wed. viii iv 22 Octave of the feast of 8 Mon. vi ii 24 9 Thur. vii V 23 taberuacles. 9 Tues. V iii 25 Feast of the dedica- 10 Fri. vi vi 24 10 Wed. iv iv 26 tion. John X. -22. 11 Sat. V vii 25 Sab. 11 Thur. iii V 27 E 12 Sun. iv i 26 12 Fri. Prid. vi 28 13 Mon. iii ii 27 13 Sat. Idus. vii 29 Sab. 14 Tues. Prid iii 28 E 14 Sun. xix i 1 Tebeth. 15 Wed. Idus. iv 29 15 Mon. xviii ii 2 16 Thur. xvii V 1 Marchesvan. 16 Tues. xvii iii 3 Octave of the feast of 17 Fri. xvi vi 2 17 Wed. xvi iv 4 the dedicatinn. 18 Sat, XV vii 3 Sab. 18 Thur. XV V 5 E 19 Sun. xiv i 4 19 Fri. xiv vi 6 \ 20 Mon. xiii ii 5 20 Sat. xiii vii 7 Sab. \\ 21 Tues. xii iii 6 E 21 Sun. xii i 8 ^^ 22 Wed. xi iv 7 22 Mon. xi ii 9 23 Thur. X V 8 23 Tues. X iii 10 24 Fri. ix vi 9 24 Wed. ix iv 11 25 Sat. viii Wi 10 Sab. 25 Thur. viii v 12 E 26 Sun. vii i 11 26 Fri. vii %'i 13 27 Mon. vi ii 12 27 Sat. vi vii 14 Sab. 28 Tues. V iii 13 E 28 Sun. V i 15 29 Wed. iv iv 14 29 Mon. iv ii 16 30 Thur. iii V 15 30 Tues. iii iii 17 31 Fn Prid. vi 16 31 Wed. Prid. iv 1 1 18 478 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. The foregoing tables, being constructed according to the com- mon practice of computing twenty-nine and a half days to a luna- tion, do not pretend to astronomical accuracy. To effect that, it would be necessary to ascertain, in every case, the exact hour of the moon's change. They are sufficiently accurate, however, for the purpose we have in view, the utmost difference amounting in the three years to only one day, forty-five minutes, and forty- eight seconds. This the reader will perceive by the following cal- culation. The three years being common, amount to 1095 days. According to our computation, the first of the month Shebet, the first new moon in the year of the Julian period 4738, occurred on Tues- day the 16th of January; and from that time, thirty-six lunations, or three lunar years, were fully comj^lete, and ended on Saturday December 13th, in the year of the Julian period 4740. There were, therefore, fifteen days in January 4738, and eighteen days in December 4740, to be added, in order to make them equal to three solar years. But these thirty-three days are an excess of three and a half days over one lunation. Consequently it was necessary in 4739 to insert the intercalary month Veadar, which began on Tuesday the fifth of March in that year. The rule of the Jews was to insert this intercalary month whenever Adar ended so early as to bring the fourteenth day of the next moon before the vernal equinox. Thirty-six lunations, at 29| days each, amount to 1062 days ; to which the fifteen days in January 4738 and the eighteen days in December 4740 being added, complete the number of 1095 days. But as a lunation amounts really to 29cl. 12h. 44' 3", thirty- six lunations amount also in reality to 1063d. Oh. 45' 48", making a difference in three years of Id. Oh. 45' 48" as before stated. This will account then for slight variations in the computation of the three passovers which preceded the year of our Lord's crucifixion ; but the variation is too small to admit of any material error in the arrangement of our Lord's ministry. There is another variation, however, in these tables, for which, as it departs from common usage, the author of this treatise Is alone responsible, and which may possibly bring upon him the charge of presumption. He owes It to himself, therefore, as well as to the reader, to explain his motives. The variation referred to is in the calculation of Pentecost. Modern writers on the Jewish calendar, such as Calmet, Lamy, and Lightfoot, agree in counting J CHAP. VIII,] DURATION OF CHRIST'S MINISTRY. 479 from the sixteenth of the month Nisan, as being the day on which the first fruits of barley were presented in the Temple ; and con- sequently they make the day of Pentecost, or the feast of weeks, to fall invariably on the sixth of the month Sivan. Instead of this, Pentecost has been counted, in the foregoing tables, from the mor- roto after the Paschal Sabbath, on whatever day of Nisan that might occur. In the paschal week there was always a sabbath, the first which occurred after the fourteenth of Nisan ; and it was a day of great solemnity, being called by St. John' " a high day." The rule for calculating Pentecost, as given Levit. xxiii. 9-11, 15-16, takes effect, if I mistake not, from the morrow after that day. " And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying. Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, — when ye be come into the land which I give unto you, and shall reap the harvest, then ye shall bring a sheaf of the first fruits of your harvest unto the priest ; and he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord to be ac- cepted for you : on the morrow after the sabbath the priest shall wave it." "And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering ; seven sabbaths shall be complete : even unto the morroio after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days ; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord." The whole question turns on the interpretation to be given to the word sabbath in this passage. The writers whom I have mentioned affirm that it was the fifteenth of Nisan, the feast of unleavened bread mentioned in the sixth verse of this chapter. They maintain that in fact it was made a sabbath, because a holy convocation was commanded, and all ser- vile labour strictly forbidden. They appeal to the Septuagint, which, instead of " the morrow after the sabbath," reads rri iiravpiov Tj)z vpuTYiQ, the morrow after the first [sc. day] ; and to the Targum of Onkelos, which explains the text by ^<^9 ^9''' "''^?'? " after the good day." But this mode of reasoning appears to me very incon- clusive. All the feasts of the Lord were holy convocations, on which servile work was forbidden ; and among these, the seventh day is in the third verse specially distinguished as being ]'^'9^'^ ^^^ preeminently a sabbath of rest, or great sabbath. As to the Sep- tuagint, the various readings show that the inference attempted to be drawn is untenable. The Aldine text after r^e Trpwrj/e adds tCjv 1 John xix. 31. 480 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. «ra/3/3drwv, and this Schleusner thinks is undoubtedly the true read- ing.^ Two manuscripts quoted by Dr. Holmes in his edition of the Septuagint, as Nos. 29 and 83, support it. But with this ad- dition, it must be translated, " on the morrow of the first day of the week," or " on the morrow of the first day of the sabbaths." In either case, it would, I apprehend, favour my interpretation. The same may be said of the expression in the Targum ; the sab- bath, or seventh day, being always a day of rejoicing. I find no place in which the word Sabbath is unequivocally apjjlied to any other than the seventh day of the week ; and I can conceive of no reason why Moses should not have explicitly said the morrow after the first day of unleavened bread, if such had been his meaning. There is another consideration which has weighed strongly with me, and that is, that the method of computing Pentecost here pro- posed, afibrds an easy and natural solution of a difficulty which to many has seemed insurmountable. I allude to the expression used by St. Luke, ay )v aTrb rtHv Bavfidriov In Joan. Horn. 29. tj TaXtXaiav ^ Matt. iv. 15. £1(71 TToXtig Kai Kuifiai. — Vita, § 45. It can ^ Matt. x. 5. hardly be supposed that all the villages * A great cause of the embarrassment were visited by Him at each circuit, though in adjusting the chronology of St. Matthew CHAP. Vlir.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 503 Between the departure of the Apostles and then* return, must be phnced the death of John the Baptist. The wonderful fact that our Lord, not only in person, but by the ministry of others whom he had commissioned, had healed the sick, cleansed the lepers, cast out devils, and raised the dead, excited the curiosity and aroused the guilty conscience of Herod Antipas. He had put John to death, and he now thought that John had risen again to execute vengeance on his murderer. He may, therefore, have desired to see Jesus ' from motives of fear and policy, or with a view of getting the supposed John again into his power. These panic terrors would be strongest soon after the crime was committed, and our Lord would then be most disposed to retire from the observation of the jealous tyrant. We read, therefore, that " when Jesus heard" of the murder, " he departed thence by ship into a desert place apart ;"^ that is, as St. Luke explains it, he crossed the lake from CaiDernaum to a solitary place near Bethsaida.^ And then follows the account in all the evangelists of the miraculous feeding of the five thousand.* But it is evident that the apostles had previously returned and given an account of their ministry.^ The period of the year when Jesus crossed the lake and the five thousand were fed, is clearly stated by St. John.^ The Passover, by verse 4, was then nigh. But the Passover int he third year of our Lord's ministry, a.j.p. 4740, fell on Sunday, the 6th of April. Hence I infer that the death of John the Baptist took place early in March ; and that the apostles returned to our Lord about the same time, having been absent in the performance of their wonder- ful commission not far from two months. If the ministry of St. John began, as we have conjectured, on the to that of St. Mark and St. Luke, arises, I above described, are pi-obably no other apprehend, from St. Matthew's uniting- in than the site of the ancient Bethsaida of one narrative, the first choice of the Apos- Gaulonitis, afterwards called Julias ; which ties, and their subsequent commission. Tliny places on the east of the lake and According to our computation, there was the Jordan, and Josephus describes as a space of about eight months between situated in lower Gaulonitis, just above these two events; the Apostles being the entrance of the Jordan into the lake. chosen early in May a.j.p. 4739, and being This is doubtless the Bethsaida near commissioned to work miracles, and preach to which Jesus fed the five thousand, on the Gospel in Judaea, early in January the east of the lake; and probably also A.J.P. 4740. the same where the blind man was healed." ' Luke ix. 9, —Bib. Res. vol. iii. p. 308-9. ^ Matt. xiv. 13. " IMatt. xiv. 15-21 ; Mark vi. 34-44; Luke ' Luke ix. 10.— This was the Bethsaida ix. 12-17 ; John vi. 5-14. of Gaulonitis. I am glad to find that Dr. = Mark vi. 30; Luke ix. 10. Robinson has taken the same view of this " Chap. vi. 1-14. passage: " This Tell, and the iniins upon it 504 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. great day of atonement, which fell on the 29th of September, a.j.p. 4737, and it could not have begun much earlier, then the whole period from the commencement of his ministry until his death was a little less than two years and a half, more than fifteen months of which were spent in prison. Section IV. Our Lord's ministry heyond Jordan. — From the death of John the Baptist the chronological arrangement less difficult. — Our Lord retires from Galilee, in March a.j.p. 4740, and resides beyond Jordan. — Miracle of feeding the five thou- sand, March 27. — The region of Gennesareth. — Conversation at Capernaum, March 29. — Third Passover, April 6. — Question whether our Lord attended it considered. — Scheme of His several journeys at the gi-eat festivals. — Two mentioned by St. Luke only ; a third, by St. Matthew and St. Mark only. — The fourth to the last Passover, by all the Evangelists. — These correspond with the feasts of Pentecost, June 1st; of Tabernacles, October 1st; of the Dedication, Dec. 9th; and of the last Passover, March 25th, a.j p. 4741.— After the third Passover, our Lord, avoiding the dominions of Herod Antipas, goes into the region of Tyre and Sidon, crosses near the source of the Jordan, and comes down by Ctesarea Philippi and the Deca- polis to the lake. — Memorable confession at Csesarea Philippi. — Ti'ansfiguration on the same day of the Jewish ecclesiastical year as the subsequent Ascension, and consequently a figure of it. — Appointment of the seventy to visit Samaria and Galilee. — Our Lord's last circuit within the dominions of Herod Antipas. — Passes through Samaria on His way to Jerusalem for the day of Atonement, September 26. — Return about the middle of October. — The ten lepers. — Passes through Samaria and Galilee, crosses the lake, and remains beyond Jordan till it was time to set out for the feast of Dedication. — Events during that period.— Passes through Jericho. — Blind Bartiniffius. — Zacchaens the publican. — After the Dedication, retires beyond Jordan, where he remains till the death of Lazarus. — Connexion with the chapter on the passion. — Brief notice of the subsequent period to the Ascension and the day of Pentecost. From the death of John the Baptist, the chronological arrange- ment of the several evangelists becomes more uniform, and con- sequently the difficulties which now remain are fewer, and will require much less elucidation. After the miracle of feeding the five thousand, the enthusiasm of the multitude, who had no longer any doubt that our Lord was the Messiah, determined them to raise an insurrection, and pro- claim him king. To avoid this, he ordered the disciples to embark in the evening, while he retired alone to the mountain. They were to proceed to Bethsaida, where he was to join them, and then go across the lake to Capernaum. But the wind was contrary, and they had made but little progress (only about twenty-five or thirty CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 505 furlongs, says St. John, or between three and four miles) when. In the fourth watch of the night, — that is, between three and six the next morning, — he was seen by them walking on the sea. As soon as they had received him on board, the wind lulled, and im- mediately they arrived at the opposite shore. The place where they landed was in the region of Gennesareth,' a region thus des- cribed by Josephus : " Along the Gennesar [the lake of Tiberias] stretches the region of the same name, wonderful alike for its ferti- lity and beauty ; for on account of the richness of its soil, there is no plant which it will not produce. The salubrity of its atmos- phere fits it for the productions of colder as well as hotter cli- mates. Nature seems jealous of her prerogatives, and forces together, with friendly violence, plants of opposing qualities. To this salubrity of the air is added also an abundance of fountains, Avhich the inhabitants call Caphar Naum. The length of this region along the shore of the lake of that name is thirty stadia, and its breadth twenty.^ Capernaum (Dinj 13D, the village of mercy) was therefore the town, and Gennesareth the suburb or region annexed to it, between three and four miles long, and two and a half broad. '^ Our Lord having, by the touch only of his garment, healed the sick of this region who were brought to him, entered into Caper- naum ; and the day following, the people who had been seeking him on the other side of the lake, came across, and found him in the city. Then occurred the very remarkable conversation re- corded by St. John, in the sixth chapter of his gospel, concerning the necessity of eating his flesh and drinking his blood. As it was in the synagogue, while he was teaching, it probably occurred on the sabbath. I therefore place the miracle of feeding the five thousand, on Thursday the 27th of March; the embarcation of the disciples, the same evening ; the arrival in Gennesareth, early on Friday the 28th ; and the conversation in the synagogue of Caper- naum, on Saturday the 29th of that month. Immediately after ' Matt. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi. 53. as the region of Gennesareth." And " this " Jos. de Bell. Jud. lib. iii. c. 10, § 8. land of Gennesareth," he says in the next * I am happy to find that Dr. Robinson, page, " was no other than the fertile plain after actual survey, has thus confirmed my which we had just traversed, extending inferences: "From all these notices, it along the shore from el-Mejdel on the follows conclusively that Capernaum lay south to Khan Minyeh on the north."— on that part of the western shore known Bib. Res. vol. iii. p. 289, 290. 64 506 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. this our Lord commenced his journey for Jerusalem, where he arrived probably on Friday the 4th of April.^ The third Passover, Sunday April 6th, a.j.p. 4740, Harmonists of great note have been divided in opinion, Avhether our Lord went to Jerusalem at this Passover. Because St. John says :^ "After these things," namely, the things recorded in the sixth chapter, " Jesus walked in Galilee, for he would not walk in Jewry, because the Jews sought to kill him," Sir Isaac Newton thought that he did not celebrate this Passover at Jerusalem.' Archbishop Newcome also " considers John vii. 1 as a declara- tion that Jesus did not go up to the Passover, mentioned John vi. 4 ;" and, in connexion with this passage, he rests satisfied that the very silence of St. John affords proof " that Jesus dispensed with the observance of the law on this occasion.""^ Macknight, on the contrary, argues strongly from Deut. xvi. 16, compared with Numb. ix. 13, for our Lord's observance of the law ; and from the passage in question, John vii. 1, draws the contrary inference, that he had previously been in Jewry, and that an actual attempt had been made on his life at Jerusalem. He supposes that the disaffected disciples, who abandoned Christ on account of the discourse at Capernaum, went to the Passover, joined our Lord's enemies, and by their narrative and comments on his conduct, excited them to new fury,^ As I have already given my reasons for believing that our Lord was most scrupulously exact in fulfilling the law, it need only be observed here, that the arguments adduced by Macknight are, I think, strengthened by John vii. 10 ; for the evangelist there speaks of our Saviour as going up to Jerusalem at the subsequent feast of tabernacles, " not openly, but as it were in secret." It was per- fectly consistent with our Lord's general conduct, to use all prudent means of avoiding the malice of his enemies ; but it would not have been consistent, if, on that account, he had broken the law ; nor could he, in that case, have said, so boldly as he did say in the Temple, at that same feast of tabernacles, " Which of you con- vinceth me of sin ?"® 1 Matt. xiv. 22-36 ; Mark vi. 45-56 ; John * Harm, notes, § 65. vi. 15-71. ' Chap. vii. 1, » fj^j-m. note to § 63. ^ Obs. on Dan. and the Apoc. p. 155. * .John viii. 46. CHAP. Vlll.] DURATION OF CIIKISt's JIINISTRY. 507 With these remarks, I transcribe the following passage of Mac- knight's Harmony, as containing my own views on the subject : "Mark vi. 56: 'And whithersoever he entered into villages, or cities, or country, they laid the sick in the streets, and besought him that they might touch, if it were but the border of his garment : and as many as touched him were made whole.' It seems Jesus now made a long journey, in which he visited many different villages, cities, and countries. This could be no other than his journey to the Passover, which the evangelist John says was nigh when the miracle of the loaves was performed, John vi. 4.' As the fourteenth of Nisan fell that year on Sunday, the feast of unleavened bread began from Sunday night, and the paschal sabbath came as late as Saturday the 12th of April. According to our calculation, the morrow after the sabbath, on Avhich the first fruits were offered, was the next day, and that was also the octave of the Passover. The departure of our Lord, therefore, on his return to Galilee, may be placed on Monday the 14th of April. In chap. vii. 2, St. John says, " Now the Jews' feast of Taber- nacles was at hand." It came that year on Wednesday the 1st of October ; consequently, he has passed over in silence all the events which occurred for six months, from the beginning of April until the end of September. In chap. X. 22, 23, he says, that Jesus was present in the temple at the feast of Dedication. It began that year on Tuesday the 9th, and ended on Tuesday the 16 th of December. After this feast, St. John says,^ " that Jesus went again beyond Jordan, into the place where John at first baptized," that is,^ Bethabara, " and there abode. The word " again" implies that He had been beyond Jordan before. Hence it may, I think, be fairly inferred, that in coming from Galilee to .Jerusalem, to be present at the feast of the Dedica- tion, He had passed through the country beyond Jordan. From Bethabara He was sent for by the sisters of Lazarus to come to Bethany/ and from Bethany He retired to "a city called Ephraim,"^ where He continued with his disciples till He made his last journey to Jerusalem. No festival of this year is omitted by St. John, except that of Pentecost ; and he does not mention that, because it occurred durino; the six months concerning which he is wholly silent. • Mackn. Harm. § 63. ^ John i. 28. ' Chap, X. 40. * Ibid. xi. 3. * Ibid. xi. 54. 508 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. Let US now turn to the other Evangelists, and see if there be any notes of time in them, which will enable us to give a chrono- logical arrangement of their narratives. St. Luke mentions' a Journey from Galilee to Jerusalem through Samaria, concerning which St. Matthew and St. Mark are silent. He mentions another^ in the same direction, concerning which St. Matthew and St. Mark are equally silent. This, as we have before remarked, was the shortest and most direct course from Galilee to Jerusalem. A third journey is mentioned, both by St. Matthew and St. Mark, but concerning which St. Luke Is silent, in which our Lord " de- parted from Galilee, and came into the coasts of Judaea, by the farther side of Jordan."^ In this journey " great multitudes fol- lowed him.'""' The fourth journey is mentioned by all the Evangelists ; for it was that which was taken in order to be present at the last Pass- over, when our Lord was crucified.^ Now here are four journeys, corresponding with the four feasts, of Pentecost, of Tabernacles, of the Dedication, and of our Lord's last Passover. Of these journeys the thii-d could not have been to attend the feast of Tabernacles, because St. Matthew says that great multitudes followed Him ; whereas St. John, speaking ex- pressly of that feast, says^ that He went "not openly, but as it were in secret." The third journey was "by the farther side of Jordan ;" and as St. John says that after the feast of the Dedication our Lord " went away again beyond Jordan," ^ it must be inferred that he came to it from beyond Jordan. The second journey, mentioned by St. Luke,^ accords better with the circumstances under which he went to the feast of Tabernacles, being the nearest and most direct course " through the midst of Samaria and Galilee." It follows therefore, almost of necessity, that the first journey through Samaria, mentioned by St. Luke,^ was for the purpose of attending the feast of Pentecost, and indeed, could be on no other occasion. There are some objections to this scheme, 1 Chap. ix. 51-57. * Matt. xix. 2. * Luke xiii. 22, and xvii. 11 — The jour- * Matt. xx. 17 to xxi. 1 ; Mark x. 32 to ney mentioned in these two passages must xi. 1 ; Luke xviii. 31 to xix. 28; John xii. be one and the same; the first, while he 1-12. was still in Galilee, the last, when he « Cbap. vii. 10. arrived in Samaria. ' Chap. x. 40. ' Matt. xix. 1 ; Mark x. 1. » Chap. xvii. 11. » Q^jjp j^ 51 CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIS r's MINISTRY. 509 but they will be considered in their order ; and I therefore resume the narrative from the 14th of A[)ril, when, it is here supposed, our Lord, after the third Passover, left Jerusalem on his return to Galilee. The attempt upon his life during this passover not having succeeded, the Pharisees again sent their emissaries to follow him into Galilee, to watch his movements, weaken his influence, and if possible impeach his conduct. It is not said where they overtook him, but seeing his disciples eat with unwashen hands " they found fault," because they trans- gressed the tradition of the elders. The severity of our Lord's re- ply, and his calling the people around him and warning them not to mistake outward for inward purity, gave violent offence to the Pharisees, and alarmed the timid disciples.^ Instead therefore of going as usual to the lake of Tiberias, he left the dominions of Herod, turning towards the shores of the Mediterannean, and came into the region of Tyre and Sidon, belonging to Syria, and inhabi- ted principally if not wholly by Gentiles. Here " he entered," says St. Mark, " into an house, and would have no man know it, but he could not be hid." His fame had been spread abroad in that region ; his person was recognized ; and the poor Syro-Phenician mother, on account of her humility, per- severance, and faith, experienced for herself and daughter the ten- derness of his mercy and the wonders of his power.^ By leaving the dominions of Herod, he had probably relieved himself from the importunities of his enemies ; and, ha\'ing accom- plished this, he departed thence, and "came unto the sea of Galilee through the midst of the coasts of Decapolis.'" ' This region is mentioned three times in the New Testament and twice by Jose- phus. It was so called, from its containing ten cities, the principal of which was Scythopolis. All, excepting Scythopolis, were be- yond Jordan, and along the south-eastern shore of the lake of Tiberias. To any one therefore who examines the map of that country, it will be evident that after leaving the region of Tyre and Sidon, our Lord must have crossed the country to the south of Antilibanus near the sources of the Jordan, thus avoiding the do- minions of Herod Antipas, and came down on the eastern side of 1 Matt. XV. 1-20 ; Mark vii. 1-23. * Matt. xv. 21-28; Mark vii, 24-30. 3 Mark vii. 31. 510 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. the river to the lower extremity of the lake, near, if it was not in the very same place, where he had previously fed the five thousand. While passing through Decapolis, he cured the deaf and dumb man, mentioned by St. Mark ;^ and on his arrival near the sea of Galilee, he went up into a mountain, elg t6 opoq, into the mountain, namely, the mountain to which he retired to pray after he had fed the five thousand,^ and there received the multitudes who again flocked to him, making " the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to walk, and the blind to see."^ Here he wrought the miracle of feeding with seven loaves and a few small fishes the "four thousand men, besides women and children.'"'* On the occasion of feeding the five thousand, the enthusiasm of the multitude had shown itself in the design of shaking off the Koman yoke, and proclaiming Jesus as the king Messiah. To avoid a repetition of any such design, our Lord immediately entei'ed into one of the small vessels on the lake, and sailed, St. Matthew says, to the coasts of Magdala,'^ St. Mark, into the parts of Dalma- nutha.^ There is here no contrariety ; for Lightfoot has satis- factorily shown that jSIagdala and Dalmanutha were near each other, at the bottom of the lake, and not far from the point where the Jordan issues from it.^ Here He again encountered the Pharisees and Sadducees, who urged Him to Avork a miracle expressly for their gratification. " Deeply sighing" on account of their wickedness, "He left them," and " again departed to the other side," not of the lake, but of the place where he had fed the multitude ; for, as appears from St. Mark's narrative. He did not go to Capernaum, but to Bethsaida, which according to Josephus, was in Philip's dominions, at the head ' Chap. vii. 32-37. of Gadara, beyond or on the east of Jor- ^ Matt. xiv. 23. dan. Dr. Robinson, on the contrary, sup- ^ Ibid. XV. 29-31. poses the IMusslim village El-Mejdel, on * Matt. XV. 32-38; Mark viii. 1-9. the western shore, about three miles north * Chap. XV. 39. of Tibei-ias, to be the Magdala here spoken •^ Chap. viii. 10. of. He allows that it exhibits no marks ' Chorographical Decad. chap. 5, comp. of antiquity, but from the name, thinks with Chorographical Century, chap. 76, " there is little reason to doubt that this Works, vol. ii. pp. 70 and 308. place is the Magdala of the New Testa- Lightfoot infers this from the Rabbinical ment, the native town of Mary Magdalene." books, in which Magdala is spoken of as — Bib. Res. vol. iii. p. 278. May there not being near to Chammath, or the warm have been two Magdalas, one on the west- springs where the Jordan issues from the tern, the other on the eastern, shore.' and southern part of the lake, near Tiberias on the latter called, for the sake of distinction, the western shore; and yet in the region Magdala of Gadara? CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CIIRIST's MINISTRY. 511 of the lake, and on its eastern shore.* The disciples having forgotten to supply themselves with bread, our Lord turned this circumstance to a spiritual account, by warning them to beware of the leaven of the Pharisees, and of the leaven of Herod.' Landing at Bethsaida, He wrought the miracle recorded by St, Mark,^ of restoring sight to a blind man, but doing it privately, by leading "him out of the town," and charging him "neither" to "go into the town nor tell it to any in the town ; " and then proceeded along the eastern bank of the Jordan " into the towns of Csesarea Philippi." This expression means, as I conceive, the towns of Philip's Tetrarchy ; for the city had been called Casarea Philippi by Herod Philip, in honour of the emperor and himself, when he made it the capital of Trachonitis. Its original name was Paneas, and according to Josephus^ it was distant about a day's journey from SIdon. It was situated near the cave from which the stream of Jordan issues, and about 120 stadia, or 15 Roman miles, from the little lake Phiala, the true source of that river.'* During this journey, as our Lord "was alone praying," and "His disciples were with him,^ He asked them. Whom say the people that I am?" And then, in answer to the further inquiry, " Whom say ye that I am ? " St. Peter made the memorable confession, " Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God." It was doubt- less our Lord''s design, from the conviction wrought by his miracles, to lead his disciples to this declaration ; and this end accomplished. He began to disclose to them the great purpose for which He had come into the world. It forms an epoch in the history of our Saviour's ministry ; because from henceforth that truth which had been before but obscurely intimated, became the leading, may I not say, the all-absorbing subject of his doctrine. " From that time forth began Jesus to show unto his disciples how that He must go unto Jerusalem, and suffer many things of the elders and chief-priests and scribes, and be killed and be raised again the third day."^ If our calculations be correct, this memorable event * It is principally, I believe, on this ex- Lord had fed the multitude, the difficulty pression, " departed to the other side," is removed. compared with St. Mark, that D'Anville ] Matt. xyi. 1-12; Mark viii. 11-21. and other geographers have relied in pla- Chap. viii. 22-26. cing Bethsaida on the same side of the lake * Antiq. lib. v. c. 3, § 1. with Capernaum; but this is contrary to * Jos. Bel. Jud. lib. i. c. 21, § 3, and lib. the express testimony of Josephus. By iii. c. 10, § 7. understanding the expression of the Evan- ^ Luke ix. 18. gelist as relating to the place where our " Matt. xvi. 21. 512 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. could not have taken place far from the middle of May, in the third year of our Lord's ministry, the year 4740 of the Julian period. None of the discijoles, but more especially the ardent Peter, who had received so magnificent a promise that he should open the kingdom of Heaven, could relish a doctrine which put to flight their anticipations of temporal grandeur. In the surj)rise which our Lord's declaration occasioned, Peter forgot the reverence due to his Master, " and began to rebuke him, saying. Be it far from thee. Lord ; this shall not be unto thee."" Such presumption required the most severe reproof. Our Lord, therefore, addressed to him the same language that he did to the Tempter in the wilderness ; and then calling his disciples ai'ound him, warned them of the danger arising from a love of the world : " What shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul ?"^ Six or eight days after these events, occurred the Transfigura- tion, designed doubtless to convince Peter, John and James, not only of the real glories of the Messiah's kingdom, but also of the necessity of his sufferings and death. For Moses, by whom the law was given, and Elijah, the great and mysterious prophet of the legal covenant, appeared with Him indeed in glory, but spake In the hearing of his disciples " of his decease, which he should accomplish at Jerusalem."^ It was the living testimony of the law and the prophets ; and to this was added the testimony of God himself; for " a bright cloud overshadowed them," which St. Peter, one of these eye-witnesses, calls " the excellent glory ;^ and " a voice" proceeded from this glory, " which said. This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye him."* As at his baptism, so now the Heaven was opened. The bright effulgence of the Shechinah, the visible manifestation of the Almighty, and the Oracular voice which was formerly heard in the tabernacle and first Temple, demanded faith in his words, and obedience to his wilL " And as they came down from the Mountain, Jesus charged them, saying. Tell the vision to no man, until the Son of man be risen again from the dead."^ St. Mark adds,'' that while they obeyed his injunctions, they " questioned one with another what the rising from the dead should mean ;" so far were even these * Matt. xvi. 13-28; Mark viii. 27-38, ' 2 Pet. i. 17. ix. 1 ; Luke ix. 18-27. * Matt. xvii. 5. ^ Luke ix. 31. ^ Matt. xvii. 9. * Chap. ix. 10. CHAP. VIII.1 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 513 favoured disciples from then knowing the nature of his kingdom ! If it be asked why these three disciples only were permitted to have this foretaste of his glory, or why they only wei'e permitted to witness the last agony of the Sacred Victim, it may be answered that Peter and the two sons of Zebedee were men of such com- manding character, that their testimony, after our Lord's death and resurrection, would be sufficient to convince the great body of his disciples. The next day,^ on their descent from the mountain, at the com- mand of Jesus, the demoniac boy was healed whom the disciples, during his absence, had attempted in vain to cure. Elated as they had been, because the devils had been made subject to them, they were now taught a lesson of humility ; and the answer of our Lord to their inquiry why they could not cast out " the foul spirit,"" conveyed an oblique censure upon their worldly-mlndedness : " This kind goeth not out, but by prayer and fasting."^ St. Luke adds, that while they all wondered at the mighty power of God, as displayed in all that Jesus did. He immediately turned their atten- tion to his sufferings.^ This great subject, Avhich was henceforth to occupy every thought, being now brought fully before our Lord's disciples. He set out on his journey to Jerusalem. According to the common comj)utation, which places the feast of Pentecost invariably on the 6th of Sivan, it fell tills year on Tuesday the 27tli of May. Ac- cording to our computation, it fell on Sunday the 1st of June. St. Mark says, "they departed thence," (that is, from the Mount of the Transfiguration) ; and Trapen-opevovro ^la rrje YaXiXaiae, passed along, or (as some render the word Trapairopivta^cu celeriter, latenter, et quasi in cursu transire^) passed rapidly and privately through Galilee ; and he would not that any man should know It, " For he taught his disciples, and said unto them. The son of man is deli- vered into the hands of men, and they shall kill him ; and after that he is killed, he shall rise the third day. But they understood not that saying, and were afi*ald to ask him."^ St. Matthew merely says, " While they abode in Galilee."^ On their arrival at Capernaum, the demand was made of the 1 Luke ix. 37. ■* Macknight, § 72, note. ^ Matt. xvii. 1-21; Mark ix. 2-29; Luke * Mark ix. 30-32. ix. 28-42. ' Luke ix. 43-45. ^ Matthew xvii. 22-23, &0 514 DURATION OF CIIRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. half-shekel tax for the repairs of the Temple, of which St. Mat- thew speaks.^ And then also occurred our Lord's impressive act, mentioned by three of the Evangelists, of placing a little child be- fore the disciples, to reprove their worldly ambition.^ In connexion with this, St. Mark and St. Luke relate the re- proof to John, in particular, for having forbidden one who cast out devils in the name of Jesus. It was an unwarrantable presump- tion in John, and those who had acted with him, because the power itself proved the commission.^ St. Luke now mentions our Lord's entrance into Samaria on his way to Jerusalem : " And it came to pass, when the time was come that he should be received up, (h' tu rxvuTrXripoviT^ai rag yf^tpac Tfjg ava\r}\p((jjc alrov), he steadfastly set his face to go to Jerusalem."* I have already given my reasons for believing this to have been at the season of Pentecost. The dislocation of this passage by the harmonizers is any thing but satisfactory. The motive for it seems to have been the force of the word ara\{]\pig, "the receiving up," which " Schleusner, Doddridge, the ancient versions, and by far the greater majority of critics, assert, signifies the ascension into Heaven." Mr. Townsend has mentioned this ;'^ and it seems to have been the principal reason which led that judicious and ex- cellent critic to adopt Abp. Newcome's hypothesis. But with due deference, I humbly conceive that from the TRANSFIGURATION the time of his being received up had come. It was the very same season of the year. Twelve months from that time, He would indeed pass into the Heavens, realizing that glo- rious vision. I therefore adopt the words of Lightfoot, as convey- ing precisely the idea I would wish to give. " Moses and Elias had spoken of his departure out of this world ; that is, of his final departure when He took leave of it, at his ascension into Heaven : and from thence forward till the time should come wherein He should be received up, He steadfastly set his face towards Jeru- salem, resolving with himself to be present at all the feasts that should ijrecede his ai'a\{]\piv, his receiving up."^ If the Transfiguration and the Ascension took place, as there is reason to believe, on the same day of the Jewish ecclesiastical year, that is ten days before Pentecost, then, according to the common 1 Matthew xvii. 24-27. '' Luke ix. 51. ^ Matt. xviu. 1-6 ; Markix. 33-37 ; Luke * N. T. ed. Coit, note 26,*lp. v. 128*. ix. 46-48. " Heb. and Talm. Exerc. upon St. Luke, ' Mark ix. 38-40 ; Luke ix. 49-50. viii. 51, Works, vol. ii. p. 418. CHAP, viir.] DURATION OF cukist's ministry. 515 comjmtation, it was on Saturday the 17tli of May ; if according to that which I prefer, it was on Thursday the 22d of May. The cure of the demoniac boy and the journey to Capernaum would occupy the 23d. Our Lord would natui-ally pass the sabbath, or Saturday the 24th, at Capernaum ; and the following week, until Friday the 30th of May, might well be taken up in his journey to Jerusalem. During that period I place the events recoi'dcd in the remainder of the ninth chapter of St. Luke, and probably the con- versations and parables recorded, Matthew xviii. 7-35, and Mark ix. 41-50. It has been seen that from the time when Herod Antipas filled the measure of his crimes by the murder of John the Baptist, our Lord retired into the dominions of his brother Philip, and thence- forward Capernaum ceased to be his ordinary residence. No in- stance of his return thither is mentioned, save when He crossed the lake to the land of Gennesareth on his way to the third passover, and during his journey from Csesarea Philippi to attend the feast of Pentecost, of which we are now speaking. It is to be pi'esumed, therefore, that, if he did go thither again, it was only on his pas- sage to the other side of the Jordan. The appointment of the seventy or seventy-two disciples seems now to have been made as that of the twelve was, after the feast of Dedication at the end of the preceding December ; and that for the same reason. As He sent the Twelve two and two into Judaea when it was no longer safe for him to walk in Jewry, so now He sent the Seventy into Samaria and Galilee, *' two and two before his face, into every city and place whither He himself would come, because it Avas no longer safe for him to walk openly in Galilee.'"^ In this way his benevolence provided for the wants of the people, and at the same time, attention would be in some measure turned from himself, and He could travel more privately. St. Matthew and St. Mark are both entirely silent concerning any events which preceded the feast of Tabernacles. Neither of them says a word respecting the ap- pointment of the Seventy ; and St. Luke is almost equally silent with regard to that of the Apostles. The charge in both cases is nearly the same ; and the blasphemy of tlie Pharisees against the Holy Ghost, follows both very much in the same order. Yet the two commissions are clearly distinguishable, by the diversity of time ' Luke X. 1. 516 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. as well as of persons, and concurrent circumstances. Still this similarity may account for the dislocation of Luke xi. 14-54, which I have placed in connexion with Matthew xii. 22-45. With these observations, I proceed to consider St. Luke's narra- tive. Our Saviour having retired to the dominions of Philip, the Seventy, when they had performed their commission, returned be- fore the feast of Tabernacles, to give him an account of their pro- ceedings.^ The subsequent narratives, therefore, from chap. x. 25 to chap, xiii. 22, must all be referred to the period intervening between the return of the Seventy, and the commencement of our Lord's journey to Jerusalem. He appears now to have crossed the lake, and made his last circuit within the dominions of Herod Antipas ; for St. Luke says^ that " He went through the cities and villages,^ teaching and journeying towards Jerusalem" ; and that this was in Galilee, on the western side of the Jordan, is evident from chap, xiii. 31 : " The same day there came certain of the Pharisees, say- ing unto him. Get thee out, and depart hence ; for Herod will kill thee." Macknight justly remarks, that this apparent interest of the Pharisees was probably feigned, in order to induce him to hasten into Judaea, where they knew there was a design to put him to death ; and that the plot was with Herod's connivance.^ Hence our Lord sent a message by them to the tyrant, which shewed that He understood the motive of both, and was not ignorant of the designs against him. " Go ye, and tell that fox. Behold I cast out devils, and I do cures to-day and to-morrow, and the third day I shall be perfected."^ His time for doing mighty deeds was now short ; but a prophet could not perish out of J eru- salem. During this circuit, the various events recorded by St. Luke, from chap xiii. 22 to chap. xvii. 10, must have taken place. If we allow the months of June and July for the mission of the Seventy, and August and a part of September for our Lord's circuit in Galilee, it will bring him into Samaria not far from the great day of Atonement, the tenth of Tisri, or Friday the 26th of Sep- tember. His object was now to travel as rapidly and privately as ^ Luke X. 17-24. lages. — Josephus Vita, § 4,5. ' Liike xiii. 22. * Harm. § 91. ' Two hundrod and four cities and vil- * Luke xiii. 32-35. CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. 517 possible ; but it happened that " as He entered into a certain vil- lage, there met him ten men that were lepers.'" Although the language of St. Luke,^ "as he went to Jerusalem," seems to imply that he was then on his way thither, yet, as he says immediately after that Jesus " was passing through the midst of Samaria and Galilee," the order of place seems to require that he was then on his return from Jerusalem. 'Ev r^ iropeven^^ai avTov eiQ 'Iipov(Ta\i)fi, "as He went" or during His journey "to Jerusalem," may possibly have the more comprehensive meaning " during his journey' to and from Jerusalem." So the same Evangelist says,^ kv ru eyyi^eiv avTov etc 'Ifp^x*^' " ^^ He was come nigh unto Jericho ; " whereas St. Matthew says, speaking of the same fact,'* kcu eKTopEvojjiyujv avTiliy airo 'Itpt^w, " as they departed from Jericho ; " and St. Mark, very accurately,^ mi tpxovrat tig 'Itpi^w KCH EKTropEvojueyov avTov citto 'Ifpt^^w, " and they Came to Jericho, and as He went out of Jericho." As St. Luke only relates the cure of the ten lepers, we have not the same benefit of exposi- tion by the other Evangelists in the passage under consideration ; but I see not why we may not argue from analogy, that as St. Luke says in the one case, " as He was come nigh unto Jericho," meaning that " He came to Jericho, and went out of it," so in the other, " as he went to Jerusalem," may mean " during the journey to and from Jerusalem." If there be any force in this suggestion, it will remove all the difficulty which has so much embarrassed commentators, of account- ing for the collocation of Samaria before Galilee. In either case, as lepers were obliged by the law to keep at a distance from all towns or places of great resort, as may be inferred, I think, from Levit. xiii. 46, the circumstance of being met by them, shows that our Lord had left the highway for the purpose of being concealed the better from observation. If the cure of the lepers took place on his way to Jerusalem, it occurred in the last week of September ; if on his return from Jerusalem, it cannot be placed earlier than Wednesday the 15th, or Thursday the 16th of Octo- ber. For our Lord, though He had probably arrived in or near Jerusalem, did not appear in the Temple till " about the midst of the feast,"*^ and was also present " in the last day, that great day 1 Ibid. xvii. ] 1-19. * Matt. xx. 29, » Luke xvii. 11. * Mark x. 46. ' Luke xviii. 35. " John vii. 14. 518 DURATION OF CHRIST's MINISTRY. [PART II. of the feast.'" The feast of Tabernacles began, as we have seen, on Wednesdaj- the 1st of October: consequently its octave, " the great day of the feast," was on Wednesday the 8th of October. That night ^ "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives, and early in the morning," that is the morning of Thursday the 9th, " he came again into the Temple and taught the people." Then followed the case of the adultress,^ the conference with the Pharisees in the treasury,* and the subsequent conversation which ended in the attempt to stone him.^ All this may well be supposed to have oc- curred in the same day. The cure of the man born blind, related by St. John in the ninth chapter, took place, he expressly informs us,® on " the Sabbath-day." It may well have been therefore on the following Sabbath, or Saturday the 11th of October. The meeting of the Sanhedrim for the purpose of deliberating on the subject of this miracle^ took place probably the following day, and the examination of the witnesses, the consequent debates, and the final excommunication of the man,^ cannot have occupied less than the whole day. We may allow the next day, Monday the 13th of October, for our Saviour's interview with him, his confes- sion of Christ, the question of the Pharisees, and our Lord's answer ; ^ but the miracle and its results so exasperated the Jewish rulers that He cannot be supposed to have remained longer in Je- rusalem. I place his departure tlierefore on his return to Galilee through Samaria, on Tuesday the 14th of October. To reach Bethel, the frontier town of Judaea, He would have to travel only about twelve miles, and therefore might easily arrive in Samaria on Wednesday the 15th.* If then the expression of St. Luke'*^ admit of the construction here suggested, the cure of the ten lepers may have taken place about the middle of Octobei', on our Lord's return from the feast of Tabernacles. With this construction, the circumstances of the narrative would, it seems to me, harmonize much better than with any other ; for our Lord would be more 1 John vii. 37. elaborate work of Relaud. He has rifled ' Ibid. viii. 1, 2. the stores of antiquity with such accurate ^ Ibid. viii. 3-11. and extensive research, and has reasoned ■* Ibid. viii. 12-20. upon them with such good judgment, as * John viii. 21-59. to leave little or nothing to be done by ^ Ibid. ix. 14. those who have come after him. His Pa- ' Ibid. ix. 13. laestina is a noble monument of learning, " John ix. 15-34. and can never be superseded. See torn. i. "■' Ibid. ix. 35-41. p. 155-6, compared with p. 413 and torn. ii. * For these computations, I refer to the p. 636. '" Luke xvii. 11. CHAP. Vnr.] DURATION OF CriRIST"'s MINISTRY. 510 likely to charge the Jewish lepers to go and show themselves unto the priests, as the law of the leprosy demanded, after he liad left Jerusalem, than before He entered into it. His journey through Samaria, on account of the refusal of the Samaritans to receive him when on tlie preceding journey at Pen- tecost,^ was now, probably, rapid. On his arrival in Galilee, also, He appears to have merely passed thi'ough the midst of it, and having crossed the lake, went down on the farther side to that re- gion which St. Matthew and St. Mark both call rh opta rij? 'lovcaiag iripay rod 'lopMvov, " the coasts of Judaea beyond or by the farther side of Jordan."^ I infer this, because if He had crossed the Jordan at Scythopolis, He would not have come into Galilee at all, that being the frontier town. This region Is mentioned by Jo- sephus,^ and, probably, as Reland has shown, In Joshua xix, 34. It was bounded by Galilee, near where the Jordan Issues from the lake, and included the region of Hippo and Gadara."* Here our Lord passed about a month and a half, from his return in October till It was time to set out on his journey to Jerusalem, to attend the feast of the Dedication, which began that year on Tuesday the ninth of December. As the whole journey might be performed with ease in a very few days, we may place his arrival in Jericho during the week preceding the fourth sabbath in Casleu, or Saturday the sixth of December. In this Interval of a month and a half, we must, therefore, place the following events ; In the order of which, as far as each mentions them, all the Evangelists agree : 1. Our Lord's discourse with the Pharisees and his disciples, concerning the time and manner In which his kingdom should come.^ 2. His parable, that men ought always to pray, and not to falnt.^ 3. His parable of the Pharisee and Publican praying in the Temple.^ 4. His answer to the question of the Pharisees concerning di- vorce, and the subsequent conversation with his disciples about marriage.* 5. His receiving and blessing the little children.^ 6. The conduct of the young ruler ; our Lord's caution on the ' Luke ix. 52-56. « Ibid, x^-iii. 1 -8. * Matt. xix. 1 ; Mark x. 1. ' Ibid. xdii. 9-14. ^ Antiq. lib. xii. c. 5. * Matt. xix. 3-12 ; Mark x. 2-12. * Reland PaU-estina, torn. i. p. 33. ^ Matt. xix. 13-16; Mark x. 13-16 ; Luke 5 Luke xvii. 20-37. xviii. 15-17. 520 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. danger of wealth ; and his promise to all who forsake worldly things to become his followers.' 7. The parable of the labourers in the vineyard, hired at various hours from the first to the eleventh.^ The feast of Dedication being nigh at hand, our Lord commenced his journey with his disciples ; and then, as during the two pre- ceding journeys. He clearly predicted to them the ignominy He would have to endure, his sufferings, death, and resiu'rection : *' Behold we go up to Jerusalem, and all things that are written by the prophets concerning the Son of Man shall be accomplished.^ It deserves to be remarked, that from the confession of the dis- ciples' faith at Csesarea Philippi, which St. Matthew emphatically mentions'* as " that time," from which our Lord began to speak openly of his passion, his predictions continually increased in plain- ness and particularity. Yet in every instance, and never more so than on the present occasion, the disciples are represented as not understanding his words. It is a record, for our admonition, of the influence in the human mind of ivill over under standincf. They were unwilling to believe, and therefore could not comprehend.^ John and James, as if to dls^^el the mournful thoughts occasioned by his words, asked, through their mother, that He would give them the principal offices of government in his kingdom. This request was heard by the other ten with the greatest indignation ; and therefore our Lord rebuked them, by referring to his own ex- ample of humility and disinterestedness in becoming a servant to others, and giving his life a ransom for many.^ Having come to Jericho, a great multitude of people followed Him as He left that city on his way to Jerusalem.^ Two blind men, one of whom was surnamed Bartiraajus, sat by the way side ; and hearing the noise of so many persons passing, they asked what it meant. Being told that it was Jesus and his followers, they cried out for mercy, confessing their faith in him as the Son of David. Both were healed, and both joined themselves to the train who accompanied him.^ St. Matthew speaks of two blind men ; St. Mark and St. Luke 1 Matt. xix. 16-30; Mark x. 17-31 ; Luke ^ Luke xviii. 34. xviii. 18-30. * Matt. xx. 20-28 ; Mark x. 35-45. * Matt. XX. 1-16. ' Matt. xx. 29 ; Mark x. 46. « Matt. XX. 17-19 ; Mark x. 32-34 ; Luke « IMatt. xx. 30-34 ; Mark x. 46-52 ; Luke xviii. 31-33. * Matt. xvi. 21. xviii. 35-xix. I. CHAP, viir.] DURATION OF Christ's MINISTRY. 521 of one only. Here is no contrariety. " Le Clerc's maxim," says Archbishop Newcome, " is undoubtedly true : ' He who relates the greater number includes the smaller ; he who records the smaller, does not deny the greater.' Bartimseus may have been the more remarkable of the two, or more eminent for his faith."! The discrepancy between St. Luke and the other two Evange- lists, as to the time and the side of Jericho where the blind men were healed, is more real and more difficult of solution. St. Luke says the action took place as our Lord dreio near to Jericho, from beyond Joi'dau. And a few verses farther on,- that He entered and passed through Jericho, plainly on the road to Jerusalem. St. Mat- thew and St Mark are both very explicit in saying that it was after He had passed through Jericho, and was going fi'om it. The atten- tion of the reader has been already called to this diiference, as illus- trating the time when the ten lepers were cured. It is barely a conjecture ; but in the absence of certainty, probable conjecture is all that can be given or demanded. The narrative of Zacchreus, the rich but righteous chief-publican, occasions no difficulty, either as to place or time. It was on the road from Jericho to Jerusalem, and on the same day in which our Lord left the former city. If He spent the fourth sabbath in Casleu, or Saturday December the 6th, in Jericho, his visit to Zac- chaeus may have taken place on the Sunday or INIonday following. The parable of the nobleman who was going " into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and to return," was spoken while He was a guest in the house of the chief-publican ; after which He resumed his journey, and arrived probably at Bethany or Jeru- salem, on the eve of the feast.^ Nothiiio; is recorded of the transactions during the feast of Dedi- cation, excepting what is contained in the tenth chapter of St. John's Gospel. The violence offered to our Lord's person, caused him to escape beyond Jordan, to the place where John at first baptized.* There He remained till He was sent for to Bethany ; and after the resurrection of Lazarus He retired, to avoid the per- secution of the Sanhedrim, " unto a country near to the wilderness, ' Harm, notes, § 51, § 108. ' Ilntl. ^ix• ^-28. « Luke .\i.\;. I. * John .\. 39-42. 66 522 DURATION OF CHRISt's MINISTRY. [PART II. into a city called Ephraim." There He abode " with his dis- ciples," till the Passover was nigh at hand/ at which He was cru- cified. Having thus, in the present and preceding chapter, carefully in- vestigated the time, both of our Lord's ministry and the ministry of his Precursor, nothing remains, in order to complete this part of our subject, but to lay before the reader a very summary view of the remaining period. At the third hour, or nine o'clock in the morning of Friday the 26th of March, the seventh before the calends of April, the hour when the lamb of the daily morning sacrifice was offered in the Temple, our Lord was nailed to the accursed tree ; and at the ninth hour, or three o'clock in the afternoon, the moment in which the lamb of the daily evening sacrifice was offered in the Temple, He expired. About the eleventh hour, or five o'clock in the afternoon, his body was taken down from the cross, and deposited in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathsea. The difficulties in adjusting the narrative of the burial and re- surrection of our Lord, have been so fvdly explained by Doddridge, West, and Pilkington ; so accurately revised by Dr. Townson, Mr. Cranfield, and Mr. Townsend ; and the whole subject so ably summed up by Dr. Home, in his Introduction to the critical study of the Holy Scriptures, that to add anything here would be super- fluous. But the result of their labours will be followed in the out- lines of the chronological harmony which will form one of the subsequent chapters. It will be sufficient here to add, that on Sunday morning, the fifth before the calends of April, or the 28tli of March, about the beginning of the morning watch, or not far from thi'ce o'clock, our Lord rose from the dead. It Avas the morrow after the sabbath, when, according to the law, the first sheaf of the earliest ripe grain was waved in the Temple, by which the whole harvest was sanctified ; and Christ, the first fruits, rose from the dead, as a type and pledge of the future resurrection of his faithful followers. Counting forty days from the resurrection, we come to Thursday the 6 th of May, the day before the nones, as the day of our Lord's ascension ; and fifty days from the resurrection, to the Pentecost, ' John xi. 53-5:". CHAP. VIII.] DURATION OF CIIUIST's MINISTRY. 523 Sunday the 16th day of May, or the seventeenth before the calends of June, as tliat great day on which the Holy Ghost descended, fitthig the apostles for the great work of founduig the Church, and thus calling the world, by then- ministry, to tlie faith and knowledge of Jesus Christ. 524. [part II. CHAPTER IX. OUR lord's age at the time of his baptism. Question stated.— Greek text of Luke iii. 23.— Versions ancient and modern.— Four varieties.— Solution of the difficulty, not from pure Greek, but Hellenistic idioms. — Modern criticisms.— Bishop Pearce, Schleusner, Rosenmiiller, Kuinoel, Dr. Camp- bell, and Heylyn, Grotius and others. — Ancient commentators, except Epiphanius, consider our Lord as having completed his thirtieth year.— Irensus, Origen, St. Jerome, Theophylact, St. Chrysostom.— The judgment of the ancient Church, there- fore, accords with that of the best modern critics, that our Lord had passed the birthday which completed His thirtieth year when He came to His baptism. The year of our Loi'd's baptism being ascertained, a question now arises of considerable difficulty, and, as regards chronology, of great importance. St. Luke states^ that Jesus, at the time of his baptism, the receiving of which was the commencement of his mi- nistry, was dxTt'i trCjv TpicLKovTa apxof^iyoQ, which following the Greek order, may be literally translated thus : about thirty years heginning. The question at once arises, What is meant by the word Begin- ning ? Is it to be applied to his age, or to his ministry ? Was Jesus then beginning to be thirty years of age ? Or was He full thirty years of age, when He began to proclaim the Gospel ? In the one case twenty-nine solid years had elapsed from his birth to his baptism; in the other, thirty. The question, therefore, in- Yolves a difference of one whole year. On examining the Greek text, it appears that six manuscripts, two of which are in uncial letters, and one of these is the cele- brated Codex Vaticanus, 1209, invert the order thus : mt uvtuq ^v b IrjffovQ afi-^o/uivoQ wdEi tTuiv rpiaKovra. Three MSS. read Kai avrog 6 Irjaov^ fiv ap'^ofiEvoQ iwaL wael irojy TpiaKovra. With the exception of these nine, it is fair to infer that all read according to the ordinary > Luke iii. 23. CTIAP. IX.] OUR lord's AGE, AT TIIR TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 525 arrangement ; and therefore, although various readings are to be weighed, and not numbered, yet the balance, even of the best au- thorities, is greatly in favour of the received text. If we examine the versions, ancient and modern, we find four varieties. 1 . Some translate in the same order, and thus decide nothing. Of the ante-Hieronymian versions given by Sabatier and Bianchini, the Codd. Cantabrigiensis, Vercellensis, and Cor- bejensis, translate apyofjevoc by inapiens, but put it last in the sentence, rendering the whole passage thus : " Cod. Cantab. Erat autem Jesus quasi annorum xxx incipiens. Codd. Vercel. and Corbej. Et ipse Jesus erat fere annorum xxx incipiens." 2. On the other hand, some have considered the word up\6nevoQ as transposed and connected with ;]»/. Thus the Codex Veronensis reads, " Et ipse Jesus erat incipiens fere annorum " The MS. S. Germanensis I. and the Evangeliarium Forojuliense read: "Et ipse Jesus erat incipiens quasi annorum triginta." This arrangement St. Jerome adopted, and consequently the modern Latin Vulgate retains it. All the versions influenced by the Latin, such as the Arabic, Luther's German version. Archbishop's Cran- mer's, the Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Puritan, the received Eng- lish, all read, " And Jesus himself began to be about thirty years of age." The Rheims version reads : " And Jesus himself was beginning to be about thirtie yeres old." So the Bible de Martin : " Et Jesus commeiKj'oit d'avoir envii'on trente ans." And so Dio- dati's Italian : " E Jesu cominciava ad esser come di trenta anni ;" but he explains it in a note as meaning that our Lord had com- pleted his thirtieth, and had recently entered into his thirty-first year : " Come di. pare che il senso sia, ch' egli entrava recente- mente nel suo trentunesimo anno. Trenta ch'era Teta nella quale i sacerdoti entravano in servigio (Num. iv. 3, 35, 39, 43, 47) il che pare essere stato imitato dal Signore, gran sacerdote spirituale.'" 3. Some versions leave out apxofisvoe altogether. Thus the Pe- shito or ancient Syriac, x7x V X72: '^ " Now Jesus himself was about thirty years old," literally, " was, as it were, the son of thirty years." The Ethiopic, as repre- sented by the Latin in Walton's Polyglott, seems to convey ' Bibblia stnmpata in Geneva, pei- Pictro Chouct, mdcxli. 526 OUR lord's age, [part ii. the same meaning : " Et sufficlebat trigesimus annus Domino Jesu ;" the thirtieth year of the Lord Jesus Avas complete. So the Persian, as there transhited : " Et erat Jesus circiter triginta annos natus." Of the ante-Hieronymian versions the Codd. Brixianus and S. Martini Turonensis read, " erat fere annorum triginta." Of the modern translations, the Bible des Pasteurs de Geneve, Paris, 1805, omits upxaf^evog, rendering the passage thus: " Et Jesus etoit alors age d'environ trente ans." 4. A fourth variety of translations refers the word apx^jJitvoQ to some other subject tlian our Lord's age. Thus Le Maistre de Sacy, though professing to follow the Vulgate, translates as follows : "Jesus avoit environ trente ans lorsqu^il commen^a d'exercer sou ministere" ; referring it to our Lord's ministry. The author of " A Critical Examination of the Holy Gospel, &c." published in 1738, thinks that v»' apxo/uei'og signifies the same as in chap. ii. 51, r/y uTTorao-o-ojuejoC ; "for as ao;^£tj' signifies a governor, so apx6[Jiei'0Q here means one governed." Heylyn, and after him Campbell, adopt this suggestion ; the one rendeinng the passage in question, " Jesus himself had then lived in subjection about thirty years" ; the other, "Now Jesus was himself about thirty years in sub- jection." These are all the varieties of which I am aware ; and they serve to show the embarrassment which the construction of this sentence has occasioned to all who have sought a solution from pure Greek idioms. In vain have critics searched in classic authors for similar phraseology. In vain have the best Greek scholars tortured the con- struction into »'/»' up)^oyL/£»'oc eiyai and I'jy apyo/jtyog au', as a Substitute for i'lPX^'o w)'. In vain have they had recourse to conjecture, and substi- tuted kp^ofXEvoq for apxoiievuQ. Grotius, no mean judge on such a sub- ject, is obliged to confess that the true construction would be dp^ofxai trouQ rpiaKoarov, if it meant the commencement of the thirtieth year ;^ and Langius, as quoted by Bowyer, says, " Though we say T]p\fTo wv, yet »}»' apxofj.troQ wv is not Greek just as in English, He hegan speaking^ He hegan being, &c. ; but not, He teas heginning speaking^ He was heginning heing ; but He hegan to he. Whatever construc- tion the Greek will bear, it is not agreeable to sense in any language to say, Jesus began to he about thirty years old ; it is being precise and indeterminate at the same time."^ ' Aniiot. ad Luc. cap. 3, v. 23, Opera, ' Bowyer's conjectures on the N. T. in Theol. torn. ii.p. 362. loc. Loud. 1812, -ito, p. 197. CHAP. IX.] AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 527 If, instead of hunting for similar phraseology in classic authors, the critics had confined themselves to the Hellenistic idioms of the Septuagint, they would have succeeded better. The Hebrew expression ny^l} n^'^'p7U}']2 out of eight places where it occurs, is only three times rendered fully viuc t-wv rpiaKorra, the, son of thirty years, viz : 2 Sam. v. 4, 1 Kings xxii, 42, 2 Kings viii. 17. In the other five, viz: Gen. xli. 46, 2 Chron. xx. 31, xxi. 5, 20, xxiv. 15, it is rendered either iiv irCJv -piaKor-a, or uv IriLv rmauoi'-a. It is evi- dently an eliptical expression, vloq being understood ; and so it ought to be viewed in the passage we are considering. The Syriac, therefore, renders it most accurately, " Jesus was the son of thirty years, or thereabouts ; uali fA (Heb. ^""hJ How? Chald. and Rab. '^^'^) quomodo, sicut, quasi, tanquam circiter, being rendered, as it icere^ or about. The Evangelist means by this qualifying expression, as Grotius justly observes, that our Lord was not baptized on his birth-day. As far as the force of this word goes, it might have been a little earlier or a little latei". But this very force excludes the possibility of understanding the word a^y6\xtvo<: with regard to our Lord's age. " When," says Dr. Campbell, " we say, a man is about such an age, we are always un- derstood to denote, that we cannot say whether it be exactly so, or a little moi'c or a little less ; but this will never suit the expres- sion, hegaii to he, Avhich admits no such latitude. To combine, in this manner, a definite with an indefinite term, confounds the meaning, and leaves the reader entirely at a loss."^ There is, therefore, but one alternative left ; either with the Syriac interpreter and the other versions mentioned under the third variety, to consider apyoiievoQ as a pleonasm ; or with those mentioned under the fourth variety, to regard it as referring to a different subject. To prove that it is a pleonasm. Bishop Pearce has the following note : " The words apyj^^ieroQ uv (or, as I rather think that we should read, ehai) signify here he was, as in verse 8, ju>) ap^tjar^s Xiyeiv means do not say ; and Luke uses the word apxoiJiai after this man- ner in the following places : ch. v. 21, and xi. 29, and xli. 45, and xiii. 25, 26, and xiv. 9, and xxiii. 30. Acts i. 1, and ii. 4. Mark does the same in ch. x. 32, and so does Matthew in ch, xii. 1, ' Campbill's four Gospels translatcil, EtHri. 1812, vol. iii. p. 286. 528 OUR lord's age, Impart ir. compared with Luke vi. 1. The like use of the Avord ToX/jdi' is observed in note on John xxi. 12, and of ^ot^cif in note on Mark X. 42.1 There can be no doubt that the word is thus pleonastically used; but I jorefer, as the most natural solution, the opinion of Schleusner, Rosen nililler and Kuinoel, that it means here the commencement of our Lord^s ministry/. Notwithstanding all that Dr. Campbell has said in defence of the interpretation adopted by Heylyn and himself, no subsequent critic, as far as I can find, has ever embraced it. What possible connexion can there be between our Lord's subjection to Jose{)h and Mary, and his coming to baptism at the age of thirty ? The very idea is forced and unnatural. But on the other hand, Avhat remark more apposite, than that He began his ministry by coming to baptism when he was about thirty ? This was the age in which the pi-iests under the law entered upon their ministry : " From thirty years old and upward, even until fifty years old."^ No other anointing or consecrating to the oflSce of the Messiah is spo- ken of but this ; and the object of the Evangelist seems to have been to show that our blessed Lord conformed to the law of Moses even as to the particular age when He entered on his ministry. And this exact fulfilment of the law seems also to show that in this place waei means a little more rather than a little less, that He Was somewhat above thirty, rather than someichat under it ; because the rule was, "from thirty years old and ujyioard^ Hence Grotius, and the greater part of those critics who suppose a\iyJniivoc, to refer to our Lord's age, explain it as Diodati has in the note already cited, of his entering on his thirty-first year:^ "I begin now to be a person of thirty years of age, which is never said till the thirtieth year is comjilete; just as any one is said by the writers on the Roman law to be anniculus, one year old, not as soon as he is born, but on the three hundred and sixty-fifth day." And therefore in commenting on the force of the particle wah, he adds, " Significat ergo Lucas Christum non ipso natali die, sed aliquot post diebus venisse ad baptismum, quod ipsi auspicandi ' Pearce's Commentary, Lond. 1777, 4to, tricennrius, quod non dicetur nisi post im- vol. i. p. 321-2. pletiim annum tricesimum: sicut anniculus ^ Numb. iv. 3. quis dicitur Juris Eomani auctoribus non ' At dp\oi.int lov tTiov rptciKovTa \^inclpin statim ut natus est, sed trecentesimo sexa- esse annorum triginla\ est ineiijio jam esse gesimo quinto die. CHAP. IX.1 AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 529 muneris initlimi f'uit :" — Luke Intimates that Christ came to bap- tism, by which lie began the exercise of his office, not on his birth- day, but some days aftcr."^ That our Lord's baptism took place early in his thirty-first year, may, I think, be justly inferred from the language of the few ancient writers who have at all adverted to the subject. AVith the single exception of Epiphanius, whose computation and the motive leading to it have been already noticed,^ all speak of our Lord as having, at the time of his baptism, completed his thirtieth year ; which age they consider as the earliest limit of intellectual and bodily perfection. Such, if I mistake not, is the testimony of Iremeus, of which very inconsistent and even contradictory representations have been made by modern authors. It occurs in that part of his work in which he exposes the absurdities of the Valentinian heresy. In support of their wild imaginations concerning the existence of thirty a;ons, they alleged the authority of Luke iii. 23, giving it the arrangement and construction of some modern critics, that Jesus at the time of his baptism had completed his twenty-ninth, and was just entering on his thirtieth year. They maintained that his ministry continued during wdiat they called, by a perversion of Isaiah Ixi. 2, "the acceptable year of the Lord, and the day of ven- geance " or retribution. Hence they inferred that his ministry continued but one year, and that having been baptized in the first month, his crucifixion took place in the twelfth. To this Irenajus replies : " It is very wonderful that when they say they have dis- covered the deep things of God, they have not searched in the Gospels how many times the Lord went up to Jerusalem, after his baptism, at the time of the Passover, according to the custom of the Jews from every region, and in every year, to assemble at this time in Jerusalem and there celebrate the paschal feast-day."^ He then clearly recognizes four Passovers as mentioned in the Gospel : 1. After He had changed water into wane at Cana in Galilee,'* when many believed, seeing the miracles which He did. 2. When He ' Grotiusad Lucam, Opera, torn. ii. p. 362. Baptisma ascenderit in Ilierusalem, secun- ^ Part II. chap. iv. p. 403, and V. p. 417. diim quod nioris erat Jud;eis ex onini ^ Est aiitem valde udmirari, quonam rej;ione, onini anno, tempore hoc convenire modo profunda Dei adinvenisse se dicentcs, in Hierusalem, et illic diem festum Paschae non scrutati sunt in Evanoeliis, quoties cclebrai'e. secundum tempus Paschce Dorainus post ' John ii. 23. 67 530 OUR lord's age, [part ir. cured the paralytic who had been lying near the pool thirty-eight years, ordering him to take up his bed and walk: plainly referring to John V. 1-9. 8. When He went over the sea of Tiberias and fed the five thousand: referring as plainly to John vi. 1-14. And 4. When He had raised up Lazarus, had retired to the city of Ephrem, and thence, ' six days before the Passover, came to Bethany.'^ Having thus proved that our Lord's ministry conti- nued more than one year, to refute their supposition as to the month in which the crucifixion occurred, he adds : " They who boast of knowing all things, might, if they are ignorant, learn also from Moses, that the month in which the Passover is celebrated, in Avhich the Lord suffered, Avas the first and not the twelfth.^ It seems to have been the oj)inion of Irenseus that after our Lord's baptism, to which He came when He was thirty years old. He must have passed a number of years in retirement ; for he adds, that He came to Jerusalem when He had obtained the perfect age of a master.^ This perfect age Irenaus supposes to be between the fortieth and fiftieth year of a man's life ; " for thirty years is the first age of the youthful constitution, and it extends, as every one will admit, to the fortieth year ; but from the fortieth and fiftieth year it declines into the age of seniority.""* Then, on the authority of certain presbyters, who said they had it from St. John, and others who said they had learned the same thing from the other Apostles, and also from the expression of the Jews, ' Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?'^ Irenseus concludes, that our Lord, when He taught, had passed his fortieth and had not attained his fiftieth year. " To him who was but thirty they would have said. Thou art not yet forty years old.""^ — " For it is altogether unreasonable to suppose that they would falsely have added twenty years, in their wish to make him younger than the times of Abraham."^ Hence Irenseus concludes that He ^ John xii. 1. prima indolis est juvenis, et extenditur ' Et ipsura autem mensem in quo Pascha usque ad quadragesimum annum omnis celebratur, in quo et passus est Dominus, quilibet contitebitur; a quadrancsimo au- non duodecimum sed primum esse, qui tern, et quinquagesimo anno declinat jam omnia se scire jactant, si nesciunt, a Moyse in astatem seniorem. possunt diseere. = John viii. 57. ^ Triginta quidem annorum existenseum " Ei autem qui sit xxx annorum, dicere- veniret ad Baptismum, deinde magistri tur utique quadi-aginta annorum nondum aetatem perfectam habens, venit Hierusa- es. lom, ita ut ab onniibus juste audiret [ed. ' Irrationabile est cnim omnino, Alginti Oxon. audiretur] magister. annos mentiri eos, volentes eum juniorem * Quia autem triginta annorum £etas ostendere temporibus Abrahoe. CHAP. IX."] AT THE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 531 was not much short of fifty, and consequently that lie neither preached one year only, nor suffered in the twelfth month of that year. " For the time from thirty to fifty years (he sarcastically adds) would never be reckoned as one year, unless among the vEons their great years are so counted."' From this last expression one might infer, that Irenaeus sui)posed our Lord's ministry to have continued for nearly twenty years ; a supposition so extravagant, so solitary, so entirely unsupported by any thing contained in the Evangelical narrative, that it would be a waste of time and pains seriously to refute it. All that is essen- tial to the purpose for which this ancient and venerable author is here cited, is to show that he evidently considered our Lord as full thirty years old when he Avas baptized, and not at the beginning of his thirtieth year. Any moderns, who quote the authority of Irenreus in support of the latter opinion, mistake his argument. Its object was to confute this very opinion, because it was held by the Valentinians ; and the martyr, in his zeal to oppose it, runs into the opposite extreme, that our Lord exercised His ministry be- tween the ages of forty and fifty. Origen, in his Commentary on the Genealogy of our Saviour, speaks of his baptism as showing his generation from God, Mat- thew gives his carnal descent, whence he always uses the word " begat" ; whereas Luke says " being, as was supposed, the son of Joseph." In Matthew it is not written, " He began" ; but in Luke, because, instead of descent. He was about to ascend from His bap- tism, it is read in the Scripture, " Jesus was beginning." He then proceeds as follows : — " For when He was baptized and assumed the mystery of the second birth, that thou also mayest abolish (KUTapyiiatje dcstruas) the former birth, and ascend to the second by the regeneration (^Kal avajSijg devrlpav Eia rrJQ iraKiyyeveuiac) ; it IS then said that He began. And as the people of the Jews when in Egypt had no beginning of months, but on their leaving Egypt received the command ' This month shall be unto you the begin- ning of months, the first month of the year to you ;'2 so he who is not yet baptized is not yet said to have begun. Wherefore we ' Noil ergo anno nno prsedicavit, nee ex ordine resident, &e. — S. Irenaei contra duodecimo mense anni passiis est. Tempiis Iltereses, lib. ii. c. 22, cd. Benedict. Paris, enim a trigesimo anno usque ad quinqna- 1710, p. 146-148; ed. Oxon. 1702, lib. u. gesimum numquam erit unus annus, nisi c. 38, 39, 40, p. 159-162. si apud iEones eorum tarn niagni anni sunt ' Exod. xii. 2. deputati his, qui apud Bjthum in pier ornate 532 OUR lord's age, [part ii. must not imagine that ^^heg'mnmg,'''' the word which follows, is added without meaning (frustra) to what is before said, ' Jesus himself was' ; but we must take into consideration also the ex- pression ' about thirty years of age/ Joseph was thirty years old when, being released from chains and having interpreted the dream of Pharaoh, he was made Prince of Egypt, and in the time of plenty gathered together wheat, that he might have where- withal to distribute In the time of famine. I think that the thirty years of Joseph prefigured the thirty years of the Saviour.^ For this Joseph did not gather together such wheat as that Joseph did in Egypt, l)ut the true and heavenly wheat ; so that the wheat being gathered in the time of plenty, he might have wherewith to distribute when the famine should be sent upon Egypt ; not a famine of bread or thirst of water, but the famine of hearing the word of God.^ Our business is not with Origen's mode of interpreting the Scriptures, but solely with the fact that he understood apx6fj.eyoc, the heginninri of which St. Luke speaks, as aheginning of our LorcFs ministry, and his age as being at that time fully thirty. This, the whole force of his comment shows. Jesus was beginning, because when " He assumed the mystery of the second birth," it was typi- cal of the ascension of Christians, who, in the second birth of bap- tism, begin the Christian life. Jesus was^^beginning at the age of thirty, because being prefigured by Joseph, who at that age began to collect wheat into the storehouses. He also began to lay up wheat in the Apostolic gi'anary. The comparison with Joseph is a proof that he thouglit our Lord was full thirty years old at that time, St. Jerome held the sentiment of Irenteus, as to the com- mencement of the perfect age of man at thirty ; and that of Origen, that the age of Joseph, when he began his ministry, was intended to prefigure the age of the Messiah at the commencement of his. For in his commentary on Ezechiel i. 1, "Now it came to pass in the thirtieth year," &c. he says : " But in the higher sense, the Lord and Saviour is prefigured, who came to his baptism 'Ego puto quod triginta anni Joseph, of the original Greek, and the Latin trans- in triginta anuorum prsecesserint Salva- lation which has come down to us is but a tons. ^ poor representative. The whole passage ^ Origen in Lucam, Horn, xxviii. Opera, is too long for insertion, but the English ed. Bened. torn. iii. p. 965-6. translation here given conveys what ap- There are but few fragments remaining pears to me to be" the sense of the author_ CHAP. IX.] AT TTIE TIME OF HIS BAPTISM. 533 when He was thirty years old, which is the perfect age in man. Wherefore in the Book of Numbers, according to the Hebrews, it is contained, not as in the lxx, from the twenty-fifth year of their age, but from the tliirtieth, do the priests begin to minister in the Tabernacle. This was presignified by Joseph, when he bountifully bestowed corn on the famished people in Egypt ; and John the Baptist came to the streams of Jordan, and preached the baptism of repentance."' The age of the priests under the law, when they began to minister, was thirty years old and uptvard ; " and this," says St. Jerome, " was a prefiguration of the age of the Messiah, when at his baptism He entered on the ministry of the Gospel." So Thcophylact in loc. : " The Lord was baptized Avhen He was thirty years old, because that is the most perfect age ; and in that a man is" j) (okii^ioq i) ardw/joc, " either of tried merit, or after being tried, rejected as not abiding the proof."^ St. Chrysostom evidently considered the thirtieth year of our Lord's life, not as legun, but as completed, at the time of his bap- tism ; for^ he asks the question, t'ivoq 'Lvikev k. t. X. " Why, after thirty years, did Jesus come to baptism ?" And then he answers : " Because after his baptism He was about to annul or abrogate the law. On this account He continued fulfilling all things, even to that age which comprehends and is susceptible of all kinds of sin ; so that no one might say that He abrogated the law because He was unable to fulfil it. For all the passions are not laid uiion us all at once ; but in the first age there is much folly and imbecility ; in the next, excessive pleasure ; in the following, the cupidity of wealth. On this account, having continued during that whole age, and having fulfilled the law during the whole, thus He cometh to his bajjtism." These citations from the winters of the ancient Church are suflS- cient to show, that their judgment as to the meaning of the passage in question, accords perfectly w4th that of the best modern critics. 1 Secunclura ana^ogenvero pra^figuratur esurienti populo frumenta largitus est; et Dominns ntque Salvator, qui trig'intaannos Johannes Baptista venit ad tluenta Jor- natus venit ad baptismiim, qua- in homine danis, pra;dicavitque baptismum poeni- perfecta retas est Unde et in Numerorum tentise." — Com. S. Hieron. lib. i. in Ezecb. volumine juxta Hebrseos, non nt in lxx. Opera, ed. Bened. torn. iii. col. 699. continetur, a vicesinio quinto fetalis anno, * Tbeoph. Op. torn. i. p. 296, Ven. 1754, sed a tricesimo incipiunt Saccrdotes in fol. tabernacido ministi-are. In quod signum ^ In Matth. Horn. x. Opera, ed. Bened. pra?cessit et Joseph, quando in iEgypto torn. vii. p. 139-140. 534 OUR lord's age, etc. [part ii. We may safely therefore consider the point as decided by reason and authority, that our Lord came to his baptism when He had passed the birth-day on which He had completed his thirtieth year, and consequently that He was then in the thirty-first year of his age. We proceed now to consider the question, in what month, and on what day of the month He was born. But as this is a question on which, in modern times at least, there has been a great diversity of oi^Inlon, it will be proper to make it the subject of a distinct chapter. CHAP. X.] 535 CHAPTER X. THE DAY OF OUR LOED's NATIVITY. The Question to be considered in two ways, 1st, As history. 2nd, As computation. — As history, the inquiry limited by two dates. — 1. Epiphany, or Jan. 6. — Meaning of the word. — How applied in the Greek Church. — No evidence of a settled belief among the early Greeks that our Lord was born on that day. — Clemens Alexandri- nus — Justin Martyr. — Among the later Greeks, the custom of commemorating His birth on the Epiphany, made them take it for granted. — Testimony and practice of the western Church founded on the archives. — Tertullian's evidence about the enrolment. — St. Ambrose — St. Augustine. — His age when Rome was sacked by the Goths. — Practice of the western Church adopted by the eastern in the fourth century. Sermon of St. Chrysostom, Dec. 2.5, a.d. 386. — Observations on his testimony. — Practice general in the east before the council of Ephesus. — The whole question as a matter of fact turns on the testimony of the enrolment. The question considered as to computation. — Remainder of St. Chrysostom's sermon. — His computations inaccurate Taken from the supposed high-pi-iesthood of Zacharias. — Same error fallen into by St. Ambrose. — No evidence that others of the early Christian \vriters held this opinion. — Moderns have neglected testimony and followed computation. Their hypotheses, and the grounds of them, examined. — So contradictory, that no reliance can be placed on them. — Preference given to history. — And the date being taken of December 25, by reckoning back 30 years from his baptism, we come to his birth, a.j.p. 4707, six years before the common aera. The question as to the day of our Lord's nativity is to be consi- dered, First, as a matter of history, and, as such, depending upon testi- mony; Secondly, as a matter of computation, and, as such, the subject of probable conjecture and argument. In considering it as a question of history, our inquiry is limited to two dates only, the 25th of December and the 6th of January ; for whatever may have been the opinion of individuals, the Church, as a body, has not at any time, or in any part of the world, sanctioned any other. 536 DAY OF OUR LORD"'s NATIVITY. [PART II. Nor is there any evidence that tlie Oriental Church, at what- ever time the festival of the Epij)hany was instituted, meant by that act to pronounce a decided belief that our Lord's nativity hap- pened on the 6 th of January. The word Epiphany (iTri^aci/a) is used in the New Testament to denote the twofold manifestation of the Lord Jesus Christ ; the first, as the Saviour ; the second, as the Judge of the world. In the first of these senses it is used in 2 Tim. i. 10, and illustrated by Titus ili. 4-7 ; in the last, 2 Thess. ii. 8, 1 Tim. vi. 1-1, 2 Tim. iv. 1, 8 ; in both, Titus ii. 11-14. In all these texts it is rendered in the English version by the word "appearing," except in 2 Thess. ii. 8, where it is rendered " brightness." It means properly, the radiation of a luminous body ; and every instance of peculiar glory in the life of our blessed Lord would be such an appearing or manifestation. But the special incidents to which it was applied in the earl}'^ Church, were, the incarnation, the nativity, the mani- festation by the leading of a star to the eastern Magi, the baptism and its attendant glories, and the first miracle wrought at Cana. All these distant events wei'e alluded to, and in fact commemorated in the Eastern Chui'ch on the 6th of January. But it is plain from tlic testimony of St. Clemens Alexandrinus, already laid before the reader,^ that in the year 194 of the common a3ra no practice of the Church existed, which, in the opinion of that eminent and learned writer, defined tlie time of our Saviour's birth. For he calls those " over-curious persons who wish to fix, not only the year, but the day of our Saviour's birth, which they say was in the 28th year of Augustus, on the 25th of the Egyptian month Pachon [May 20] Nay, some of them say that He was born on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi."^ [April 19th or 20th.] In fixct the condition of the early Eastern Church was such, that it had no way of ascertaining these dates with precision. It is true that Justin Martyr, in the year 140 of the common sera, referred the Emperor Antoninus Pius and his successors, and the whole Roman senate, to the census made at Bethlehem, as a sure proof of the date of Christ's birth. " There is a certain village," he ^ Part II. chap. iv. p. 389. iiKcih vai fxtji' tivIq avTwi> ^acxl ^ Eici i^i 01 wepiipyoTepiiv ry jEviaei Tov (papfxov^i yeTti'}'i](J^ai ko' i] Ke. — Clem. SwTJjpoc 7)iiiov ov fiovov TO fToc, aWcL Kcii Alexand. Stroinatum, lib. i. 340, ed. Potter, Ttji' n'lfiepav TrpodTi^ti'TiC rjv ii. I to U ii. 12 22 ii. 23 2.') iii. 1 iii. 22 568 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS, [part II. Time. Place. April May to Sept. to Oct. Dec. Countiy of Judsea Country of Judsa Jerusalem Journey from Jerusalem to Sychar iu Samaria Journey from Samaria to Galilee A J. p. 4738, Kef. Cal. Jul. Ceesar 70, continued. Capernaum Near Ca- pernaum, on the lake of Tiberias Capernaum Ir the meantime John was baptizing at iEnon, near to Saliin, in the dominions of Herod Antipas. Our Lord's teaching and baptizing, causes a discussion between the Jews and John's dis- ciples, which leads John again to give his solemn testimony concerning Jesus. Our Lord and his disciples return to Jeru- salem at the feast of pentecost, May 20th ; and that ended, return into the country of Judaga, probably near Bethabara. They remain there until the middle of September, when they again return to Jerusalem, to be present at the great day of atonement, September 18th, and the feast of tabernacles, from the 23d to the 30th of September. On the 1st of October they return to the country, with the multitudes who had resorted to the feast, and continue there till the end of November. John the Baptist imprisoned by Herod about the end of November, his public minis- try having continued about fourteen months Our Lord and his disciples attend the feast of dedication, from Dec. 1st to Dec. 8th. The rising jealousy of the pharisees, and the im- prisonment of John, cause him, instead of returning to the country of Judaea towards Jordan, to go through Samaria to Galilee. Leaving Jerusalem about the 9th of Decem- ber, our Lord travels leisurely, and arrives near Sychar in Samaria, about the middle of the month. His interview with the Samaritan woman, occasions his remaining two days at Sychar. It was now about four months before the earliest harvest. After two days he departed thence, and went into Galilee, where he was favourably received, on account of the report of those who had wit- nessed his miracles ai the feast in Jerusalem. Our Lord arrives again at Cana, and there heals the son of the nobleman, then lying sick at Capernaum. This was his second miracle in Galilee. He proceeds from Cana to his own city, Na- zareth, where he suffers great violence, but preserves his life by a miracle. Leaving Nazareth he comes to Capernaum, which thenceforward becomes his stated resi- dence. His arrival at Capernaum may be placed at the close of December. Matt. Mark. Luke A.J.P. 4739, Ref. Cal. Jul. CcBsar 71, Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, soon after his arrival in Capernaum, calls from their nets Simon, Andrew, James, and John. He goes with them into Capernaum, and, on the first sabbath in Shebet, the 5th of Jan., 24 iii. 25 iii. 19-20 CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. ;g9 C'aiJeruaiuii A.J. P. 4739, Kef. Cal. .Jul. Ca;sar, 71, continued. April The otber side oftbe lake Galilee I. Circuit Capernaum The other side of the lake Capernaum Capernaum On the shore oftbe lake Journey to Jerusalem teaches iu the synagogue, to the astonishment of all who heard him. The sabhaths in Jan., February, and INIarch, were thirteen. How many of these he passed in Capernaum is uncertain. Cure of the man with the unclean spirit, perhaps on the same sabbath. This spreads ins fame throughout Galilee. From the synagogue our Lord entered into Simon's house, and cured his wife's mother. At the setting of the sun, when the sabbath was ended, great numbers of diseased persons and demoniacs were brought to him, and were healed by the laying on of his hands. All the city were gathered together at the door. Early on Sunday, Jan. 6, our Lord retired to the other side of the lake. It was the anniver- .saryof His haptism. The people followed, and urged him to stay with them ; but this he de- clined, because he must preach in other cities. Our Lord's first circuit in Galilee. During this circuit, in one of the cities, he heals a leper. \_St. Matthew, if he means to speak of any one discnurse, places here the sermon on the mount^ After his return to Capernaum, occurs the miraculous draught of fishes. Our Lord withdraws for private prayer into the wilderness ; probably a solitary place on the other side of the lake. After some days, he again entered into Ca- pernaum ; and, when it was made known, great crowds, from all parts of the country, sur- rounded the door. The paralytic man, let down from the house top before him, healed. Our Lord taught again by the side of the lake, and, as he returned, Matthew, otherwise called Levi, was called from the receipt of custom. As our Lord sat at meat in Levi's house, many publicans and sinners being present, the pharisees found fault, and were reproved. Our Lord's discourse concerning fasting, occasioned by the difference between the prac- tice of his disciples and that of St. John's. The parables concerning new cloth sewed into old garments, new wine put into old wine- skins, &c. Our Lord now prepares to go up to the second Passover which occurred during his ministry. The second Passover, Wednesday Apl. 17. The cure of the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda on the great Paschal Sabbath, the 20th of April. This occasions the persecution of Jesus; and his healing on the Sabbath day, and saying that God was his father, occasions an attempt to kill him. iii. 14- ij i. ic. 17 iv.23-o viii. 1 8 ix. 9 ix. 10 to 13 i.-.. 1 't- is ix. 10- 17 31 i.32 i.39 i. 40 to 4o 12 ii. 13- 14 ii. 21. 22 iv.33 to 37 iv. 38- »9 iv. 40- 41 iv. 42- 43 iv. 44 V. 12 15 T. 1 2G V. 27- 28 72 570 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. April May Journey from Jerusalem to Galilee Capernaum On his way to Jerusalem Jerusalem Sept. II. Circuit through Galilee A.J. P. 4739, Ref. Cal. Jul. Csesar 71, continued. The discourse of our Lord in the Temple on that occasion. Our Lord, therefore, left Jerusalem as soon as the feast was ended, that is, on Thursday the 25th of April. The next Sabbath (April 27th) was " the se- cond first Sabbath" mentioned by St. Luke, when the disciples plucked the ears of corn, that is, of barley. " Upon another Sabbath," perhaps on Satur- day the 4th of May, occurred the cure of the man with the withered hand. The pharisees are filled with such madness, that they take counsel with the Herodianshow they mifrht destroy him. Our Loi'd, therefore, withdrew, and went with his disciples to the lake of Tiberias. Thither he was followed by great multitudes. After this, he went up into a mountain to pray, and having continued all night in prayer, the next day he chose his twelve disciples. Here many harmonizers introduce the ser- mon on the mount (St. Matt.), or sermon on the plain (St. Luke). Probably on a level place on the side of the mountain. When he was come down from the moun- tain, he entered into Capernaum, and there cured the servant of the centurion. The day after be had cured the centurion's servant, our Lord went into the city of Nain, and there raised the widow's son. Being now on his way to Jerusalem, at the feast of Pentecost, he may have arrived at Nain about Friday the 31st of jNIay. The fame of his miracles, and of this espe- cially, led John to send two of his disciples to him. Our Lord's testimony to the character of St. John the Baptist, and reflections on the man- ner in which He and His forerunner had been received. He upbraids the cities which had witnessed his mighty works for their unbelief, and com- mends his meek and faithful followers. Our Lord arrives in Jerusalem, to attend the feast of Pentecost, on Thursday the 6th, or Friday the 7th, of June. During the feast, invited by Simon the pha- risee. His feet anointed by the penitent woman. On Monday, June 10th, our Lord leaves Jerusalem, accompanied by his disciples and several women whom he had healed, and who now gratefully ministered to his necessities. He takes his second circuit " throughout every city and village, preaching, and showing the glad tidings of the kingdom of God." No particulars of this circuit are recorded ; but it occupied the whole time till October. xii. 9 to 13 xii. 14 xii. 15 to 21 X. 1 to 4 V. 1 to vii. 29 viii, .5 xi. 2 to 6 xi. 7 to 19 xi. 20 to 30 Mark. Luke. John 28 iii. 1 iii. 13 to 5 vi. G to 10 vi. n to 49 vii. 1 to 10 vii. 11 to 17 vii. 18 to 23 vii. 24 to CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 571 I'lare. Oct. or Nuv. Jerusalem Capernaum A.J. p. 4739, Ref. Cal. Jul. Caesar 71, ccntinued. Lake or sea ofTiberias Lake or sea ofTiberias Capernaum On Friday the 4tli of October, our Lord arrived in Jerusalem. JNIoiiday the 7tb, was the day of Atonement ; and the feast of Talicr- nacles, falling that year on the Sabbath, con- tinued from Saturday the r2th to Saturday the 1 9th of October. Our Lord left Jerusalem on Sunday the 20th of October, and returned directly to Caper- naum. Such crowds inuncdiately assembled, that our Lord had not time to eat. A deputation of scribes sent from Jerusalem, by the Sanhedrim, to counteract his influence. On the occasion of his healing a l)liud and dumb demoniac, these scribes attribute the miracle to the power of Satan. Our Lord denounces eternal woe to these blasphemers of the Holy Ghost. He utters similar denunciations when they ask him to work a miracle expressly for them. His mother and bis brethren seek to see him, and he turns the circumstance to a moral use. Being invited by a pharisee to meet his enemies at dinner, he accepts the invitation, and boldly rebukes them for their hypocrisy and wickedness. The same day he went to the lake, and, en- tering into one of the vessels on it, taught the multitude, as they stood on the shore, in parables. The parable of the sower suggested by seeing a sower; it being now just seed time. Many other parables uttered by our Lord on the same occasion, suggested by surround- ing objects. Spent with fatigue, our Lord crosses the lake, and, lying down in the vessel, falls asleep. A storm arises, which, on his being roused from sleep, he calms by a word. He arrives in the country of the Gadarenes, or Gergesenes, " over against Galilee," and there is met by two demoniacs, whom he heals. The devils enter into the herd of swine. Being requested by the frightened inhabit- ants to leave their country, he again crossed the lake, and returned to his own city. The woman afflicted with the issue of blood healed ; and the daughter of Jairus, the ruler of the synagogue, raised from the dead. The cure of the two blind men, who followed him from the ruler's house, and came to him at Capernaum. As they went out, a dumb demoniac was brought to him, and cured. The pharisees repeat the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. Our Lord's second and last recorded visit to Nazareth. He enters into their synagogue on the Sabbath and teaches ; but could there do no mighty work, on account of their unbelief. :)7 .\ii. ys 4.5 xii.46 23 xiii. 24 to 52 viu. 23 to 27 viii. 28 to 34 ix. 1 ix. 32 to 34 iii. 20- 2! iv, 1-2 20 iv. 21 34 iv.3.5 41 V. 1 20 V. 21 Luke. xi. 29 to 32 viii. 19 to 21 xi.37 to 15 viii. 16 20 viii. 26 39 iii. 40 572 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Time Dec. Galilee III. Circuit tl] rough Galilee Machaerus Dominions ol Herod Philip beyond Jordan Gennesa- rfith A.J p. 4739, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ca;sar 71, continued. The feast of Dedication occurring this year on Friday the 20tb, and continuing till Friday the 27th of December, our Lord probably left Galilee about Sunday the 15th of that month, and left Jerusalem again, on his return, Sun- day the 29th of December. He did not arrive in Galilee, therefore, till the end of the year. A.J. p. 4740, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cccsar 72. Our Lord, having returned from the feast of Dedication, accompanied by great multi- tudes from Judasa, is moved with compassion on them, and sends his Apostles two and two into Judtea, giving them also miraculous powers. At the same time. He himself sets out on his third circuit through " all the cities and vil- lages" of Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and working miraculous cures. Early in March, about two months after the Apostles were sent forth, and during our Lord's third circuit, St. John the Baptist is put to death by Herod Antipas. Our Lord returns from his circuit; and, about the same time, the Apostles return, and give an account of their ministry. Having heard of the murder of John, and the crowds who were coming and going leav- ing them no leisure even to eat, our Lord thought it prudent to retire with his disciples to a solitary place on the other side of the lake, near Bethsaida. But the crowds, aware of their intention, went round the lake, and ar- rived before them. Moved with compassion, Jesus taught them, healed their sick, and then wrought the signal miracle of feeding the five thousand. This probably took place on Thursday the 27th of March. The multitude, inferring from this miracle that Jesus was the Messiah, determined to proclaim him king. Our Lord, therefore, sent away the disciples that same night, to go by water to Bethsaida, while he went alone to the mountain. The next morning (Friday March 28th), be- tween three and six o'clock, he walked to them on the sea, and, instead of going to Bethsaida, they arrived at the opposite shore. They landed in Gennesareth, a region of which Capernaum was the town. Immediately his coming was made known in the surround- ing villages, the sick were brought to him, and permission being asked to touch the border of his garment, as many as touched him were made whole. On the same day, the people whom he had fed on the other side, returned to CaiJernaum. to xi. 1 ix. 35 xiv. 13 33 xiv. 34 vi. 7 to 13 vi. 6 29 vi. 30 vi. 31 to 33 vi. 34 to ii vi. 45 to 47 VI. 48 to 52 vi. 53 Luke. John ix. 7 9 ix. 10 13 vi 14 to 16 vi 17 to 21 vi 17 CHAP. XI.] NEW UARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 573 Time. I Place. April April or May Capernaum Jerusalem Region of Tyre and Sidon Tetrarchy of Herod Philip beyond Jordan Sea of Galilee Magdala Bethsaida Caisaiea Philippi A..I.P. 4740, Kef. Cal. Jul. Casar 72, continued. Malt, i Mark. Luke. I Jolin. On Saturday tlie 2!Hh of March, the conver- sation occurred in the synajjogue at Caper- naum, \v!;ich caused many of his disciples to forsake him, and tried the constancy of the apostles. Immediately after this, our Lord commenced his journey for Jerusalem, where he arrived probably on the 4th of April. The third Passover, Sunday April 6th. The feast of Unleavened Bread being- ended on Saturday the 12th of April, and the First Fruits offered on Sunday tlie i;3th, our Lord left Jerusalem on Monday the 14th. The attack upon his life during the feast, alluded to John vii. 1, not having succeeded, the Pharisees again sent their emissaries after him, and these overtook him in his progress. They question him about eating with un- washen hands. The severity of his reply, and his warning the people not to substitute out- ward for inward purity, give them great offence, and alarm his timid disciples. To avoid them, our Lord left the dominions of Herod, and went into the region of Tyre and Sidon. Here He healed the daughter of the Syro- Phoenician woman. From the region of Tyre and Sidon, our Lord crossed the country near the sources of Jordan, and came down through Decapolis to the lower extremity of the lake of Tiberias. On his way through Decapolis, He cured a deaf man, who had an impediment in his speech. Having arrived at the sea of Galilee, He went to the same mountain where He had be- fore fed the live thousand, and there fed, in like manner, four thousand men, beside women and children. Fearing a repetition of the conduct of the five thousand. He straightway took ship with his disciples, and went to the parts of Magdahi or Dalmanutha. Here He again encountered the Pharisees, and with them the Sadducees, who urged him to work a miracle. He left them, and went to the other extremity of the lake, to Bethsaida. On the way, the disciples having forgotten to take bread, our Lord discourses with them concerning the leaven of the Pharisees and of Herod. At Bethsaida He cures a blind man, but pri- vately, that his arrival there might not be known. Ascending along the eastern bank of the Jordan, our Lord came into the region of Caesarsea Philippi, and during this journey occurred the memorable confession of St. Peter, 28 XV. 29 — 29 XV. :)il to 3S XV. 39 XV. 2 vii. 2 to to 20 2.3 XV 21 Tii.24 5 13 xvi. 6 viii. 14 to to 12 21 viii. 22 to 26 xvi. 13 viii. 27 to to 28 ix. 30 Tii. 31 vii. 32 to 37 viii. 1 to iii. 11 574 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II, May Place. Tetrarchy of Herod Philip near Cffisai-ea Philippi A.J.P. 4740, Eel". Cal. Jul. Cfesar 72, continued. Capernaum Journey from Jerusalem through Galilee to the other side of Jordan Tetrarchy of Herod Philip which forms an epoch in the history of our Saviour's ministry. It occurred about the middle of May. From this time forth He be- gan to speak of his approaching passion. On Thursday the 2'2d of May, eight days from Thursday the 16th of IMay, or six days excluding the extremes, ten days before Pen- tecost, and therefore forty days from the mor- row after the Sabbath of the first fruits, oc- curred the Transfiguration, exactly one year before our Lord's Ascension. On Friday the 23d of May, our Lord, on his descent from the mountain, healed the demoniac boy, whom his disciples, during his absence, had attempted in vain to cure. While all were amazed at the mighty power of God, our Lord again predicted still more clearly his approaching sufferings ; but his disciples would not understand, and feared to ask. He then departed, through Galilee, on his way to attend the feast of Pentecost, but would not that any man should know it. When our Lord and his disciples " were come to Capernaum," the half-shekel tax or didrachma was demanded, and paid by a miracle. The disciples during their journey having disputed which among them were greatest, our Lord reproved their worldly ambition by set- ting a little child before them. John is reproved for having forbidden one who cast out devils in the name of Jesus. Various conversations on the sacrifice of worldly affections, tenderness for those who have gone astray, forgiveness of injuries, and meekness toward the artless and the ignorant, occur during this journey, either going to or returning from Jerusalem. Our Lord, passing through Samaria, re- proves James and John for their vindictive spirit, because the Samaritans, in the bitterness of their zeal against Jerusalem, would not re- ceive him. He also reproved certain persons who were half inclined to follow him, but deterred by worldly occupations and interests. On Friday the 30th of May, our Lord ar- rived in Jerusalem. The next day was the Sabbath, and Sunday the 1st of June the day of Pentecost. Our Lord left Jerusalem on Monday the second of June ; and as He had not resided in Capernaum since the death of John the Bap- tist, He merely passed through Galilee and retired to the other side of Jordan, the do- minions of Philip. He now appointed the Seventy, and sent them two and two before his face into every 13 xvii. 14 to 21 xvii. 22 23 xvii. 24 to 27 xviii. 1 to xviii. 7 to 35 13 ix. 14 to 29 I ix. 30 to 32 John. 37 ix.38 40 ix. 41 39 ix 37 to 42 ix. 43 to 45 ix. 49 50 CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 575 liiiK'. 1 I'lace. June and July Aug. Ti-traix-hv of Herod Philip. Galilee IV. Circuit A.J. p. 4740, Kef. Cal. Jul. Cajsar 72, continued. city and place in Galilee, whither t\ e himself would come. He gave them a charge similar to that which he had given five months before to the Apostles, and endued them also with the like power of working miracles. During their mission occurred the following events : — 1. The parable of the good Samaritan. 2. His visit to Martha and Mary. Where is uncertain, as the evangelists are silent. If at Bethany, our Lord may have made a circuit at this time in the countiy beyond Jordan, and afterwards have crossed the country to Bethany. 3. He teaches his disciples to pray, as John taught his disciples. 4. His discourse, cautioning " an innumerable multitude of people " to beware of hypocrisy, the leaven of the Pharisees, and to remem- ber the all-searching and all-protecting cha- racter of God's power. 5. Our Lord's refusal to act as a judge in worldly matters ; his reproof of covetousness and an anxious spirit; his advice to be always ready, to be faithful an d wise stewards, and his predictions as to the effect of his doctrine upon a sinful world. 6. The discourse occasioned by the slaughter of the Galileans, and the death of the persons crushed by the fall of the tower of Siloam. 7. The parable of the barren fig-tree. 8. Our Lord's cure on the Sabbath of the wo- man who had an infirmity eighteen years. 9. The parables repeated of the grain of mus- tard seed, and of leaven hid in three mea- sures of meal. Allowing two months for the circuit of the seventy disciples, they return and give an ac- count of their mission to our Lord early in August. Jesus rejoices in spirit at their success, re- news their commission, and speaks of the pri- vileges his disciples enjoyed. Our Lord now commences his fourth and final circuit in Galilee, previous to his going to Jerusalem to attend the feast of Tabernacles. The facts recorded which probably took place during this circuit are : — I L Our Lord's reproof to one who asked if few I should be saved. 2. The stratagem of the Pharisees, connived at by Herod, to induce him to leave Galilee, that He might go to Jerusalem before the feast, and there be apprehended and put to death. 3. His being watched as He entered into the house of one of the chief Pharisees to eat bread on the Sabbath day, the cure of the Matt. Mark. Luke. Joliu. X. 2.0-37 X. 38 13 xii. 1 12 xii. 13 59 xiii. 1 to 5 xiii. 6-10 xiii. 11 21 X. 17 24 xiii. 32 30 xiii. 31 576 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. and Sept. Galilee IV. Circuit Jerusalem A.J. p. 4740, Ref. Cal. Jul. Caesar 72, continued. mau who had the dropsy, and the various parables and conversations which there took place. 4. His address to the great multitudes who fol- lowed hira, on counting the cost of becom- ing his disciples. 5. The parables uttered when the Pharisees and Scribes murmured, because all the pub- licans and sinners drew near to hear him : the lost sheep, the piece of silver, the pro- digal son. 6. The parable of the unjust steward addressed to his disciples. 7. The reproof addressed to the covetous Pha- risees who derided him, and the parable of the rich man and the beggar. 8. The woe denounced against those who cause offences, and the answer to the apostles' re- quest, that our Lord would increase their faith. Towards the close of September onr Lord left Galilee, and proceeded as privately as pos- sible on his way to Jerusalem. Previous to his leaving Galilee, He had sent forward his "brethren" and disciples, without disclosing to them his intentions. He then went up also, " not openly, but as it were in secret." The feast of Tabernacles began on Wed- nesday the 1st, and continued until Wednes- day the 8th of Oct. " About the midst of the feast," that is on the Sabbath, or Saturday the 4tJi of Oct. " Jesus went up into the Temple and taught." A cure wrought by him offended the Jews, because it was wrought on the Sabbath. Our Lord justified himself by appealing to the law. His enemies sought to apprehend him, but could not. The Chief Priests and Pharisees sent officers to take him. On the octave, the last and greatest day of the feast, Jesus cried. If anyman thirst, let him come unto me and drink, speaking of the Holy Spirit. Opinions are divided concerning him. The officers sent to apprehend him are charmed with his eloquence, and return to the Chief Priests and Pharisees without executing their commission. On the night of the 8th of October, our Lord retired to the Mount of Olives, and early the next morning came again into the Temple and taught. The Scribes and Pharisees bri.^g to him a woman taken in adultery. His conversation with the Pharisees in the treasury. A subsequent conversation with the Jews, which ended in the attempt to stone him. All xiv. 2.5 to 35 XV. 1 to 32 xvi. 1 to 13 xvi. 14 to 31 xvii. 1 to 10 CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 077 Oct. Oct. aud Nov. Jerusalem Jouniey li'om Jerusalem tbrou<,'h Samaria and Galilee Jttdata beyonJ Jordan A.J. p. 4739, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ciesar 7i, continued. these events may easily have occurred in the course of this one day, Thursday the 9th of Oct. On the following Sabbath, the twenty-fifth of Tisri, or Saturday the eleventh of October, as Jesus was passing by, going probably to the Temple, " he saw a man which was blind from his birth," and gave him sight, first anointing his eyes with clay, and then ordering him to wash in the pool of Siloam. The next day (Sunday, Oct. 12th), the man born blind is brought before the Sanhedrim and examined. His having been cured on the Sabbath day, creates a division in the coun- cil concerning the character of our Lord. The man's parents are examined, and the truth of the miracle is established ; but the party opposed to Jesus prevails, and as the man persists in confessing Jesus to be a pro- phet sent from God, he is excommunicated. The next day (Monday, Oct. 13th), our Lord found the man who had thus been cast out, and being, tlierefore, shunned by all who knew him, was alone and in distress. He re- vealed himself to him as the Messiah, and re- ceived his confession of faith. During that day, as our Lord was discours- ing on the subject of this miracle, and its ef- fect in hardening the hearts of those who wTre determined not to believe, occurred the ques- tion of the Pharisees, whether they also were blind, and our Lord's reproving answer. The Jewish rulers being so exasperated by this miracle and its results, it was no longer safe for our Lord to remain in Jerusalem. He therefore left it that night, or the next morn- ing, and on Tuesday, Oct. the 14th, set out on his way " through the midst of Samaria and Galilee." As his object was now to travel as privately as possible. He probably left the high road, and passed through by-ways and the smaller villa- ges. Here He was met by the ten lepers who cried to him for mercy. Jesus commanded them to go to Jerusalem, and shew themselves to the priests, and as they went they were cleansed. This event took place on Wednes- day the 16th, or Thursday the 16th of Oct., the last of Tisri, or the tirst of Marchesvan. Having passed rapidly " through the midst of Samaria and Galilee," our Lord crossed the liaiic, and went down " by the further side of Jordan,'' to " the coasts of Judaea beyond Jor- dan." Here He remained about a month and a- half, it being a region which He had rarely if ever before visited. During thja period we must place the following events : 73 578 NEW HARMONY OF TUE GOSPELS. [part II. Time. Place. Oct. and Nov. Dec. Journey to Jerusalem Judaea beyond Jordan A.J. P. 4740, Kef. Cal. Jul. Csesar 72, contiuued. .Tourney li'om .lericLo to Jerusalem 1. Our Lord's discourse with the Pharisees and his disciples concerning the time and man- ner in which his kingdom should come. 2. His parable that men ought always to pray and not to faint. 3. His parable of the Pharisee and Publican praying in the Temple. 4. His answer to the question of the Pharisees concerning divorce, and the subsequent con- versation with his disciples concerning mar- riage. 5. His receiving and blessing the little children. 6. The conduct of the young ruler ; our Lord's caution on the danger of wealth, and his promise to all who forsake worldly things to become his followers. 7. The parable of the labourers in the vine- yard, hired at various hours, from the first to the eleventh. The feast of Dedication being nigh at hand, our Lord commenced his journey with his disciples, and, as He had done during the two preceding journeys, but with still greater force and clearness, predicted his snfierings, death and resurrection. James and John ask, through their mother, to sit on his right hand and on his left, in our Lord's kingdom. The other ten Apostles hear the request with indignation. Our Lord re- bukes them by his own example. On Friday the 5th of Dec. our Lord arrived at Jericho. It is his first and only recorded visit to that city. He probably spent there the next day, the fourth Sabbath in Casleu, teaching, as his manner was, in their Syna- gogue, and working miraculous cures. On Sunday the 7th of December, " as He went out of Jericho with his disciples and a great number of ppople," on his way to Jeru- salem, two blind men, one of whom was the son of Tima?us, cried to him for mercy. Both received their sight, and followed him. As our Lord was passing along the highway, a rich, but righteous. Chief Publican, named Z^acehajus, being small of stature, had climbed up into a tree to see him. Jesus having come to the place, called him 1 y name to come down, and became his guest for the remainder of the day. At his house, "because he was nigh to Jeru- salem," and his followers " thought that the kingdom of God should immediately a])pear,". our Lord spake the parable of the " Noble- man" who was going " into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and to return." After this He resumed his journey, and ar- rived probably, at Bethany or Jerusalem, on the eve of the feast, Monday Dec. 8th. Mark. Luke. John. xix. 3 to 12 xix. 13 to 15 xix. 16 to 30 XX. 1 to 16 XX. 17 to 19 XX. 20 to 28 X. 2 to 12 X. 13 to 16 X. 17 to 31 to 34 X. 35 to 45 X. 46 xvii.20 to 37 xviii.l to 8 xviii. 9 to 14 xviii. 15 to 17 xviii. 18 to xix. 1 xix. 2 to 27 xix. 28 CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 579 Time. Place. Mar. Jerusalem Betliabara beyond J oidaii Belhauy A J. P. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Cssar 72, continued. The feast of Dedication continued eight day3, from Tuesday, Dec. 9U), to Tuesday, Dec. I(>th. Oui Lord's parahle of the good shepherd, ending with the application of it to himself, and the declaration that his Father loved him because He laid down his life willingly for his sheep, may have been uttered in the Tem- ple on the last Sabbath in Casleu, or Saturday Dec. 13th. The conversation in Solomon's porch, which ended in the attempt to stone him as guilty of blasphemy, may be assigned to the Octave, or last day, which was always of high solemnity. Having escaped from their violence, our Lord now went away again to Bethabara be- yond Jordan, where John at first baptized and there abode. Thither many resorted, and there many believed on him. Ephiaim, in Samaria Jouniey from Epbraim to J3etliauy Bethany A.J. P. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ccpsar 73. Our Lord passes the fourth anniversary of his baptism at Bethabara, where he was bap- tized, and enters there on the fourth year of his ministry. Having received a message from the sisters of Lazarus, that their brother was sick, the disciples endeavour to persuade him not to go into Judsea again, by the consideration that the Jews of late sought to stone him. (xi. 8.) The history of the resurrection of Lazarus, may therefore be placed at the close of Janu- ary, making our Lord's residence at Bethabara nearly a month and a-half. On being informed of this miracle, the Chief Priests and Pharisees called the Sanhedrim to- gether, and by the advice of Caiaphas, re- solved from that day forth to put him to death. This event may be placed at the beginning of February. Our Lord, therefore, walked no more openly among the Jews, but went within the borders of Samaria, to a city called Ephraim, where He continued with his disciples until it was time to go to Jerusalem to celebi-ate the Passover. His stay at Ephraim, must there- fore have been somewhat more than a month and a-half. After the great body of the people had gone out of the country to Jerusalem, our Lord left Ephraim and arrived at Bethany six days be fore the Passover, on the evening of Friday, March lyth. Having spent the Sabbath with Lazarus and his sisters, our Lord supped with them in the evening, and Mary anointed his feet. I\Iany of the Jews, knowing that He was there, came from curiosity to see not only him Mark. Luke. John. 21 X. 21 39 X. 40 40 xi. 47 to 53 xi. 54 xii. 1 xii. 2 to 8 580 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Time Place. Mar. Passion Week. Sunday Bethany Jerusalem Bethany A.J. p. 4741, Kef. Cal. Jul. Csesar, 72, continued. but also Lazarus. This led the chief priests to think of putting Lazarus likewise to death. On Sunday morning, the 21st of March, the 10th of Nisan, and therefore [Exod. xii. 2] the very day on which the paschal lambs were driven into Jerusalem, our Lord made his public and triumphant entry into the Holy city, and went immediately to the Temple. During the day, between and after the morning and evening sacrifice, the blind and the lame came to him and were healed. The Chief Priests and Scribes, seeing his miracles, and hearing the hosannas of the children, express their displeasure, and are reproved. Certain Greeks or devout proselytes of the Gentiles, who had come to worship at the feast, not being permitted to enter the court of the Jews, where our Lord was, re^u3Sted Philip to obtain for them an interview. Jesus grants their request ; and, as He goes out into the court of the Gentiles, predicts his glory in their future conversion, speaks of the necessity of his death, and prays to the Father. A responsive voice is heard from heaven. Being come into the court of the Gentiles, he looks around with indignation at the pro- fanation of that part of the Temple, and casts out the buyers and sellers and money- changers. Our Lord having appealed to the voice from heaven, and spoken of his death as drawing all men unto him, the people express their un- belief, and are warned that the light would soon depart from them. St. John here introduces his reflections on the causes of this general unbelief in the Jew- ish nation, and asserts that many of the Chief rulers did believe, but dared Pot profess their belief. The conversation of our Lord on this sub- ject of belief and unbelief may have been spoken probably in the presence of these rulers, either at this time or during the two following days. Grieved at their hardness of heart, our Lord leaves the Temple when eventide was now come, and retires to Bethany with the twelve. The transactions of Monday, the 22d day of March, are but few. Early in the morning, as our Lord was re- turning from Bethany to Jerusalerj, He saw a fig-tree bearing leaves but no fruit, and so- lemnly devoted it, as a symbol of the Jewish nation, to perpetual barrenness. Whereupon it withered away. Matt. Mark. Luke. John. to 11 xxi. 14 xxi. 15 iti xxi. 12 13 xxi. 18- 19 six. 45- 46 CUAP. XI,] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 581 Mav Passion Week. Mond. Jerusalem Temiile Our Lord's last day at the Temple A.J. p. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ctesar, 73, continued. On his arrival at the Temple, He found the buyers and sellers aj^ain in the court of the Gentiles, and cast them out a second time, not permitting- any one to carry any vessel through the Temple. This exercise of authority exasperated the Scribes and Chief Priests, so that they sought the more to destroy him, but filled them with fear and caution because the people were attentive to his doctrine. He was allowed therefore without molestation to pass the day in acts of worship, charity, and mercy. When even was come He went out of the city ; but as it was jirobably dark, the disciples did not notice that the fig-tree was withered. Tuesday, March 2;3d, the 12th of Nisan and the third before the Passover, was filled with events; for it was the last day in which our Lord appeared at the Temple, and his enemies had arranged their plan of attack. 1. Early in the morning, the disciples, on their way to the city, perceived that the fig-tree was withered to the roots, and this gave occasion to our Lord's conversation there- upon. 2. After their arrival at the Temple, as our Lord was walking about and teaching the people, a deputation from the Sanhedrim publicly demanded by what authority he acted. His answer, demanding of them whether John the Baptist acted by human or divine authority, exposed their hypocrisy. 3. The parable of the man and his two sons ; the one professing to do his father's will, but doing it not ; the other refusing to obey, but afterwards repenting and obedient. 4. The parable of the vineyard let out to husbandmen, who murdered first the ser- vants, and last of all the son of their master. The Chief Priests and Pharisees filled with rage at these parables, were deterred from seizing him by their fear of a popular com- motion. 5. The parable of the wedding feast, from which the first invited guests were excluded on account of their ingratitude. 6. The coalition now took place of the Phari- sees and Herodians, to entangle him in bis talk, by the political question concerning the tribute money. 7. This device having failed, the Sadducees came and put their question concerning the law of marriage and the future state. 8. The Sadducees being put to silence, one of the Scribes or lawyers among the Pharisees asked the question, which was the greatest commandment of the law, and xxi. 20 to 22 xxi. 23 xxi. 33 to 44 xxi. 4.5- 46 xxii. 1 to 14 xxii. 15 to 22 x.xii. 23 to 33 xxii. 34 to 40 xix. 47 48 XX. 20 to 26 sx. 27 to 38 XX. 39 40 582 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Time. Place. Mar Passion Week. Tuesd, Temp'e Mount Olivet A.J. p. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Ciesai- 73, continued. Mount of Olives. Roail to Bethany. was obliged to ackDowledge that our Lord's answer was right. 9. Our Lord, in his turn, asked how the Mes- siah, whom they acknowledged to be the Son of David, is in Psalm ex. called his Lord. Being unable to answer him, they ceased asking any more questions. 10. Having now silenced his enemies, our Lord turned to the people, and while He upheld the legitimate exercise of authority in them who sat in the seat of Moses, He exposed their corruption with awful severity. 11. As our Lord was sitting near the treasury of the Temple, at the time when the offer- ings were made. He saw a poor widow cast- ing in two miles, being the whole of her substance. He pointed her out to his dis- ciples, telling them that such a gift of a pious, faithful, and humble heart, was, in the sight of God, of more value than the most costly offerings of the rich. 12. The Jewish rulers had now rejected their Saviour, and were to be abandoned to their fate. The City and Temple of God were to be left desolate. It was our Lord's last act of his ministry, as a prophet sent to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. He therefore mourned over Jerusalem with the most touching sorrow. 13. As He was leaving the Temple, the dis- ciples, as if to soften the dreadful import of his words, spoke to him of its magnificence ; upon which our Lord foretold its destruc- tion. 14. Seated on the Mount of Olives, having the City and Temple full in view, our Lord, being asked when their destruction should take place, uttered his sublime prophecy of that event, as foreshadowing the final de- struction of the world. 15. On his way to Bethany, our Lord related to his disciples, a. The parable of the Ten Virgins, five of whom were wise, and five foolish. h. The parable of the Talents committed to the good and faithful, and to the wicked and slothful servants. c. The description of the day of judg- ment, and the different fates of the righteous and the wicked. 16. These discourses were ended just as the sun was setting, and therefore our Lord re- minded his disciples that it was then just two days, or forty-eight hours to the Pass- over, when He would be betrayed to be crucified. At the same time, the chief priests and Scribes were in consultation at the hall of Caiaphas. Matt. Mark. Luke xxiv. 1- 2 13 XXV. 14 x.w. 31 to 46 xii. S.') to 37 xii. .38 to 40 xii. 41 xiii. 1- 2 XX. 45 to 47 xxi. 1 CUA.P. XI. j NEW UAIUMONY OF TUE GOSPELS. 583 Time. Place. Mill-. I'ns io Mount Olivet, or ill the Gaviien of Gc'thse- maue, at its base. A.J. p. •1741, Kef. Cat. Jul. Caesar 7:j, continued. 17. That night was spent by our Lord in the house of Simon the leper, at Betlianj' ; and during supper, a woman anointed his head with ointment of spikenard. St. Luke sums up the whole of the transac- tions of this busy day, by stating that the peo- ple came early in the morning to the Temple, that our Lord continued there all day, and that at night only He abode in the Mount of Olives. Wednesday, the 24th of March, and the 13th of Nisan, the eve of his Passion, was, it is probable, entirely spent by our Lord on the Mount of Olives, in the Garden of Gethse- mane. That evening, "while yet there was some light," it was the practice of the nation of Israel to put away leaven out of their houses; and now the perjured traitor was to be put away as an unholy leaven from among the Apostles. According to Jewish computation, the first day of unleavened bread began on Wednesday at sunset, and continued until Thursday at sunset. On Wednesday therefore, after sunset, when the first day of unleavened bread was begun, and "before the feast of the Passover," our Lord was at supper with the twelve. The devil having now put it into the heart of Judas to betray him, our Lord rose from table, and washed the feet of his disciples. It is supposed that He began with Judas, and ended with Peter. Having taken liis garments again, and re- sumed his seat. He told them that one of their number would betray him. The disciples being amazed at this decla- ration, St. John, at the request of St. Peter, asked privately who it was; and Jesus re- plied as privately, "He it is to whom I shall give a sop when I have dipped it." He then gave it to Judas Iscariot, saying, " that thou doestdo quickly." The disciples in general ima- gined that by these words Jesus meant, " Buy those things that we have need of against the feast" of the Passover, which would be the next evening. A diabolical possession seized the traitor, and he immediately went out. It was night, and filled with malice he hastened into the city. The Jewish rulers were in session, and he covenanted with them to betray his Master for thirty pieces of silver. After the traitor was gone out, our Lord told his disciples that his time with them was now short, exhorted them to love one another, predicted to Peter that he would deny his Matt. Maik. xiv. 3 to xxi. .37 38 17 xiii. 18 to 21 xiii. 32 to 26 xiii. 27 xxn. U to 16 xiv. lo- ll 584 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Mar. Passion Week. Wedn. Garden of Gethse- maue. Mount of Olives. A.J.P. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Caesar 73, continued. Master, consoled his sorrowing- followers with the promises of his coming again, and his sending the Holy Ghost, and ended his dis- course by saying that He should thenceforth talk but little with them. He finally added, "Arise, let us go hence ;" and then probably retired, as He was wont, to solitary meditation and prayer Early in the morning of Thursday, the 25th of March, being until sunset "the first day of unleavened bread," the disciples enquired of our Lord where they should prepare to eat the Passover. In answer to this inquiry, he sent Peter and John to make preparation at the house of some one of his followers. This consumed nearly the whole day. At sunset on Thurday evening, March the 25th, began the 15th of Nisan. No special hour was appointed for eating the Passover. The victim must be slain on the 14th of Nisan, between the evenings, that is, before sunset, but it might be eaten at any time after dark and before morning. Our Lord chose the earliest hour which the law allowed. While they were eating the Passover, our Lord renewed the solemn warning that one of them should betray him. When all anxiously inquired, and even the ti'aitor last of all was compelled to ask " Is it I?" our Lord exposed his hitherto secret de- sign, by saying to him openly, "Thou hast said." At the time when the third cup of wine was drunk at the Passover, called the " cup of blessing,'' our Lord instituted the Holy Sa- crament. At this time He probably uttered what is recorded in the 15th, 16th, and 17th chapters of the Gospel according to St. John. He was then acting as the Great High Priest, devoting himself as the Lamb. All the lan- guage of the prayer (chap, xvii.) is sacerdotal and sacrificial. From the institution of the Sacrament, the commencement of our Lord's Passion must be dated; for thenceforth He was a passive sufferer. The mention of our Lord's kingdom led the Apostles to renew the strife, who among them should be greatest. This our Lord again con- demns. After they had sung a hymn, our Lord and his disciples went out to the Mount of Olives. It could not well have been later than 8 o'clock in the evening. At the same time Judas went to the High Priests, to obtain from the Roman authorities a warrant for the apprehension of his master. xxvi. 18- 19 16 xiv. 17 xxii. 8 to 13 xxii. 14 xxvi. 26 to 29 xxii. 19- 20 to 27 xvi. 1 to 32 xvii. 1 30 xxii. 39 CHAP, XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 585 Time. Place. Mar. Passion Week. From Jprusalem to the Garden of Getb.se- maue. Gethse- mane. A.J.l'. 47-11, Itef. Cul. Jul. CV.sar 73, coiitiniu'il. Jerusalem On their way to the Garden of Gethscmane, our Lord warned his disciples that the events of that night would shake their faith in him, as the ]Messiah, but that after his resurrection he would meet them again in Galilee. When Peter earnestly asserted that his faith would not fail, our Lord again predicted bis denial, but exhorted him after bis conversion to strengthen his brethren. On their arrival at the garden, which was not more than a quarter of a mile distant, began our Lord's bitter and inconceivable agony. He took Peter, James, and John apart from the rest, and desiring them to watch, retired from them about a stone's cast, in prayer. It may be inferred from our Lord's subsequent reproof, that the agony did not last more than an hour. Immediately after, while he was yet speak- ing with his disciples, came Judas with the band of Roman soldiers, and the chosen at- tendants of the chief priests. He advanced toward his master, and betrayed him with a kiss. To show that our Lord had power to escape from their hands, on his naming himself, the soldiers and the whole multitude " went back- ward and fell to the ground.'' Having required the condition that bis dis- ciples might be left at liberty, our Lord volun- tarily yielded himself up to them. Peter seeing them seize him, drew his sword and smote off the ear of ]\Ialchus, the ser- vant of the High Priest ; but our Lord res- trained and reproved him, and then replaced the wounded ear with a touch, restoring it to its former soundness. Tbe events thus connected with the seizure of our Lord could not bave occupied more than half an hour. Tbe band with their commander, and tbe officers of tbe Jews, having seized and bound Jesus, led him first to tbe bouse of Annas, or Ananus, tbe father-in-law of Caiapbas, fol- lowed by Peter and John. The latter being known to Annas, entered with Jesus into the ball of that High Priest, while Peter stood without. Through bis ac- quaintance with the door-keeper, John brought in Peter to tbe lower part of tbe ball where the attendants were warming themselves by a fire. Here, being charged by the door-keeper with being a follower of Jesus, be denied it in bis confusion and fright, and having done so, retired without into the porch, or vestibule. It was midnight and tbe cock crew. In the mean time, Annas inquired of Jesus concerning his disciples and bis doctrine ; but .Kxvi. 30 Malf. Murk. LuVe. .U,h xxvi. 55- 56 xxvi. 5J xxij.3i 38 xxii.40 xxii. 47- 4S 48 xxii to 52 xxvi. 69 70 53 xxii. 49 to xviii. 10 11 12 xviii. 3 xviii. 4 5 xviii. 13 74 586 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Time. Place. Mar. Passion Week. Thups. Friday Jerusalem Palace of the High Priests. Palace of the High Priests. Hall of Caiaphas. Jerusalem Council of the Sauhediim Tower of Aalouia. A.J. p. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Csesar 73, continued. as Annas was no longer High Priest, except- ing that he bore the title by courtesy, our Lord declined answering his questions, and referred him to those who had heard him. One of the officers smote him for this on the face; but our Lord mildly reminded him, that if the words he had spokeu were disrespectful, he could bear witness against him before the proper tribunal. Annas knowing in truth that what Jesus said was right, sent him bound to his son-in- law Caiaphas, who was the actual High Priest. Peter followed him thither, and entered with the crowd into the hall of Caiaphas. With these events, ended Thursday the •25th of March, or according to Roman com- putation, the eighth before the calends of April. On Friday the 26th of March, the seventh before the calends of April, occurred the events following : Our Lord being brought into the hall of : Caiaphas where the Scribes and elders of the people were gathered together, they and the whole Sanhedrim sought false witnesses against him, but could find nothing sufficient to con- demn him legally to death. Our Lord refusing to answer any of the false accusations thus brought against him, the High Priest adjured him to tell them whether He was indeed the Christ. Our Lord thus adjured, answered that He was, and quoted Daniel vii. 13 14 as finally to be fulfilled in him. This was made the pretext to condemn him to death as guilty of blas- phemy. While our Lord was standing in the upper part of the hall, occurred the second and third denial of Peter; the former between one and two, the latter between two and three in the morning, that is during the third watch, or cock-crowing. At the third denial our Lord turned and looked upon Peter, and at the same time the cock crew. The fourth watch being now come, called the morning watch, the Sanhedrim passed sentence upon our Lord, and he was given over to the brutal insults and cruel mockery of the coun- cil's officials. The punishment of blasphemy under the law being stoning to death, it was necessary, in order that our Lord might be crucified, to deliver him to the Roman power. For this purpose, the Sanhedrim conducted him bound to the house of Pilate, but would not enter it, because they had not yet eaten the Passover. Pilate therefore went forth, and having de- manded the nature of their accusation, and re- Matt. Mark. Luke. John. xviii. 22- 23 xxvi. 57- 68 xviii. 24 xxvi. 59 xiv. 55 to to 61 59 xxvi. 62 xiv. 60 to to 64 62 xxvi. 71 xiv. 09 xxii. 58 xviii. 25 to to to to 75 72 02 27 xxvi. 65 xiv. 63 xxii. 63 to to to 68 6.5 71 xxvii. 1- 2 XV. 1 xxiii. 1 xviii. 28 xxiii. 2 xviii. 29 to 32 CHAP. XI.] NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. 587 Time. Mar. Passion Week. Friday Tower of Autouia. A.J. P. 4741, Rtf. Cal. Jul. Coesar 73, continued. Palace of HeroJ Autipas. Tower of Antonia. ceived an evasive answer, gave them permis- sion to judge our Lord according to their hiw. On this they changed their charge of blas- phemy, and accused him of treason against the Roman Government. On Pihite's return to the judgment hall, where our Lord was standing in custody of the officers, he received a message from his wife, desiring him to do nothing against that just man. On examination, being convinced by our Lord's answers, that he had no designs against the Roman government, Pilate went out again to the Jewish rulers, and declared that he found no foult in him. On this, becoming more furious, they as- serted that from Galilee to Judtea, our Lord had excited sedition. Hearing that He was a Galilean, Pilate sent him to Herod Antipas,who had come to Jerusalem to keep the Passover. Herotl rejoicing to see our Lord, and hoping to witness some miracle, questions him, but receives no answer. He therefore treats him with the utmost scorn and contempt, and sends him back to Pilate, in the mock majesty of a gorgeous robe. On this, Pilate and Herod who had been enemies, are reconciled. Pilate goes forth again, declares the inno- cence of Jesus, but proposes to release him to them, according to the custom at the Passover, as if He were guilty of some offence against the government. The multitudes, instigated by their rulers, ask for Barabbas, and demand that Jesus may be crucified. Pilate now orders Jesus to be scourged, and in order to excite the compassion of the mul- titude, has him brought forth crowned with thorns, covered with blood, and arrayed in the robe sent by Herod. The multitude reject him as their king, and proclaim themselves subjects of the Roman Emperor. Pilate hearing from the Chief Priests that Jesus ought to die because he made himself the Son of God, is the more afraid, and returning to the judgment hall, again examines Jesus. Our Lord's conversation convinces him still more strongly of his innocence, and he seeks more earnestly to release him. Pilate wearied with their obstinacy, and fearing to be accused himself of disaffection to the Emperor, declares himself innocent of the blood of Jesus, and delivers him over to their fury. The multitude invoke the curse of his blood on themselves and their posterity. It was now about sunrise, or six o'clock, the end of the last watch. xxvii. 20 to 23 XV. 2 to Luke. xxiii. 3 II x.\iii. ]2 XV. l5 xxiii.23 Jobu. xviii.39- 40 six. I 12 &ix. 13 588 NEW HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. [part II. Mar. Passion Week. Friday Place. Tower of Antouia. Via dolo- rosa. Calvary. A.J. P. 4741, Ref. Cal. Jul. Csesar 73, continaed. Judas repenting of his treachery when he saw that his master was really to be put to death, solemnly declared his innocence to the Sanhedrim, cast down the money he had re- ceived, and went and hanged himself. Jesus being in the mean time delivered into the hands of the Roman soldiers, was taken back into the judgment hall, treated with scorn and mockery, and then conducted out of the city to be crucified. Having been now, nearly twelve hours, counting from his agony in the garden, under the severest suffering of soul and body, ex- hausted nature could endure no longer, and our Lord sunk under the burden of his cross. Simon the Cyrenian was therefore stopped by the soldiery, and compelled to bear it for him. A great company of people and of women fol- lowed, bewailing and lamenting him ; on which our Lord again predicted the calamities about to fall on the Jewish nation. At the third hour, or nine o'clock in the morning, the hour when the lamb of the daily morning sacrifice was offered in the Temple, our I< an iod. •s a o 13 S ■p. s >> 5 B o PS o U ■a a 'a c 1 Consuls. i ■s Si 1 2 3 4 Kemariable Evekts. 4650 O 2 3)14 Ep.23 E Jan. CLXXIX. 1 692 693 685 68G 687 6^ Sep. 7 Conspiracy of Cataline detected and punished. June 19 or 20.— Capture of Jci-u- salem by Pompey.— The Tem- ple taUen dxu*mg the Olympic Games— At this time Herod was probably 10 yeai-s old. Sep. 23. — Octavius, afterwards called Augustus, bom. Jan. 15 M. Tullius Cicero C. Antonius Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July _Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. DecT 4631 O 3 ])15 Ep. 4 D Jan. FibT Mar. Jan. 28 D. Junius M.F. Silanus L. Licinius L.F. Muraena Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4652 O 4 2>16 Ep. 15 C Jan. Jan. 18 M. Pupius Piso M. Valerius Messalla Niger Feb Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4653 O 5 517 Ep.26 BA Jan. F.-b. Jan. 30 Lucius Afranius Qu. Metellus Celcr Mar. Apr. May June July 1 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 595 Jul Per ian iod. 0 0 •0 'S. e >-> 0 S 0 0 >< c 0 c a a Consuls. 1 0 < 5 6 7 8 1 Rem\RK1.11LE EvEXTl'. 4654 ' Tin CLXXX. 1 6!M 69F '^ 697 690^ 692 06 2)18 Ep. 7 G "**-" Jan. 19 C. Julius C.F. C.N. CBEsar M. Calpurnius Bibulus Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4655 07 3)19 Ep. 18 F Jan. Feb. Jan. 31 L. Calpurnius L.F. L.N. [PisoCjesoninus A. Gabinius A.F. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4656 0 s 3) 1 Ep.O E Jan. Jan. 21 P. Cornelius P.F. Lentulus [Spinther Q. Caecilius Q.F. Q.N. Me- [tellus Nepos Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4657 09 5 2 Ep.Il DC Jan. Feb. Feb. 2 Cn. Cornelius P.F. Lentu- [lus Marcellinus L. Marcius L.F. a.N. Phil- [lippus Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. 1 Nov. 1 i Dec. 596 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Jul Per s a) an od. 1 a o 1 p. E >-, o S o « o i a a 0 a 0 Pi Consuls. EEMiSKABLE EVENTS. 4658 OlO 5 3 Ep.22 B Jan. CLXXXI. 1 egi" 699" Too ToT 9 10 11 12 693 694 695" 696 Sep. Jan. 22 Cn, Pompeius Cn.F. Sex.N. [Magnus 11. M. Licinius P.P. M.N. Cras- [sus II. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4659 OH 5 4 Ep.3 A Jan. Jan. 12 L. Domitius Cn.F. Cn.N. [Ahenobarbus Ap. Claudius Ap.F. C.N. [Pulcher Feb. Mar. Apr. .May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4660 012 D 6 Ep.14 G Jan. Jan. 2 Cn. Domitius M. F. M. N. [Calvinus M. Valerius Messalla Feb. Mar, Apr. May June July i Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 23 Cn. Pompeius C.F. Sex. N. rMagnus iii sine Lconlega Primus Q. Oaecilius Q.F. Q.N. Me- rtellus Pius Scipio Lex. A.D.K. Sextil. 46ei 013 5 6 Ep.25 FE Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. "m^ June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 13 Ser. Sulpicius ft.F. Rufus M. Claudius M.F. M.N. [Marcellus SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 597 Ju Pel >< ian iod. Xi c o .2 'p. a 5 H o Pi o u a >< ■a a "3 o a « a o Consuls. s < s ■< 13 H 15 16 1 2 KEMAKKiUI-E EVE.NTS. 4662 014 D 7 Ep.6 D Jan. Feb. Mar. CLXXXIl. 1 702 703 704 705 697 698 699 700 Sop. i Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 3 L. JEmilius M.F. Paullus C. Claudius C.F. M.N. Mar- [cellus 4663 015 D 8 Ep.i7 C Jan. Nov. 28.— Year ot Numa. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Nov. 23 C. Claudius M.F. M.N. [Marcellus L. Cornelius P.F. Lentulus Towards the end of the year C. Julius Caesar, Dictator, (his first Dictatorship, held 11 days.) Dec. 4664 016 D 9 Ep.28 B Jan. FebT Jan. 6.— Ca?sar declared by the Senate the enemy of his eoun try. Nov. 16.— Year of Numa, Jan. 4, Cxsar set sail for Dyrrachiuni. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Nov. 13 C. Julius C.F.C.N. Caesar ii. P. ServiliusP.F. Cn.N. Va [tia Isauricus About the beginning of Sep- tember, C. Julius Caesar II Dictator ii, appointed by the Senate for one year. Dee. 4665 017 2)10 Ep.9 AG Jan. Battle of Pharsalia about Mid- summer, followed by the death of Pompcy. Ca>!«ir at iUcx.-uidria, where he remained nine mout]i£. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Nor. 2 C.Julius Caesar, Dictator ii Dec. 598 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 018 Ep.20 Apr. May July CLXXXIII 1 466? 019 3)12 Ep.l E Aug. Sep. Apr. May July 4668 O20 2)13 Ep. 12 D Apr. May July Aug. Sep. July Aug. Sep. 706 707 Towards the close of Caesar's Se- cond Dictatorship, or about the bcsinnins of September, he caused to be elected as Consuls Q. Fuflus Q.F. Q.N. Calenus P. Vatinius P.P. C. Julius C.F. C.N. [Ceesar iii M. .^milius M.F. [Q.N. Lepidus of April, the Senate conferred on Caesar the Dictatorship for ten yeai's. Therefore C. Julius C.F. C.N. Caesar, [Dictator iii 708 709 C. Julius C.F. C.N. Caesar, [Dictator iii M. jEmilius Lepidus, Mas- [ter of the Horse. In the same year C. Julius C.F. C.N. Caesar riiii, Consul without a L Colleague. In the same re.ar, he substituted for himself as Consul Q. Fabius Q.F. Q.N. Maxi- [mus, with C. Trebonius. Fabius died the last day of the — year, and for him Caesar sub- stituted for a few hours only, honoris gratia, C. Caninius C.F.C.N. Rebi- [lus Kemabkable Events. 701 At the close of March, or begin- ning of April, Caesar's expedi- tion against Phamaces. — He returns to Rome about the month of Sextilis ; probably, therefore, about Midsummer. ■WTiile in Syria, he confirms Hyrcanus in the High Priest- hood, appoints Antipater Pro- curator of Judaea, and gives permission to rebuild the walls of Jei'usalem. Herod Governor of Galilee. Oct. 17 or 18. — Ca;sar embarked for Africa. On the Calends of Jan. or Oct. 23, he was encamped before Rus- pina. The .Wrican war lasted about six months, and w.is terminated by the deatlis of Cato and Juba. Ca-sar left Utica on the Ides of June, or true time April 1 ; and Sardinia, June '28, or April 16. He arrived in Rome July 27, or May U. At the commencement of Ca>sar's third Dictatoi-ship, ho en.icted tlie law for the reformation of the Calendar. Early in Nov. Caesar arrived in Boetica, 27 days after he left Rome. Attegua Laken Dec. 22, or the 11th before the Vol. of March, the 19th of the intercalary month. B 1 O 1 D 1 Ep. 0 GF C. Julius C.F. C.N. Csesar, [Diet. Perp. or nil M. yEmilius M.F. Q.N. Le- [pidus, Mast, of the Horse. C. Julius C.F. C.N. [Caesar V M. Antonius M.F. [M.N. Caesar being slain on the Ides of March, P. Cornelius P.P. Dolabella having been designated by Ctesar^as his substitute duiung the Parthian War, entered on the office, as of right, without waiting for the consent of the Senate and People. The Battle of Jlimda fought the 97th day of this year, or A.J.P. 4668, Jan. 17. Feb. 12, the 123rd day of this year, the head of the elder Pompey brought to Caesar at Hispahs. Mar. 15. — Ca-sar murdered. De- noted in the Roman Calendar as " The Parricide." SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 599 Julian 4670 0 22 J 15 Ep. 4 A 4671 0 23 319 Ep. 16 G Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Jan. Feb. LXXXIV. 1 Apr. 4672 024 317 £p.26 F May July Aug. Sep. OcU Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 4673 025 2)18 Ep. 7 ED Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 710 711 2 O 2 3 2 Ep.U E C. Vibius C.F. C.N. Pansa A. Hirtius A.F. ()cl;ivi- iuius Ca;«ur. 706 Aug. 19, Octavianus Caesar| Quintus Pedius J On the formation of the Trium- Tirato, Caesar abdicated liis Consulship, and for the re- mainder of the year, C. Carrinas C.F. P. Ventidius P.F. 3 O 3 D 3 Ep.2: D coss. coss. L. Munatius L.F. L.N. [Plancus M. .fEmilius M.F. Q.N. [Lepidus ii Hkmarkable £vE.sTa. 713 O 4 D 4 Ep.3 C L. Antonius M.F. M.N. P. Servilius P.F. C.N.Vatin. [Isauricus ii B 5 O 5 D 5 Ep.l3 BA C. Asinius Cn.F. Pollio Cn. Domitius M.F. M.N. [CalTJnus II Api-il IS.— Both Consuls killed the batUc of Mutlna auainst Antony, leavinR Octavianus Cacsiir sole Comniamdcr. Aug. 19.— Octavianus Cxsar Con- sul before he had completed his 20th year. Nov. 27.— M. jEmilius l Triumviri forflve M. Antonius > years from Jan. Imp. Caesar ) 1, a.j.p. 4671. Cassius ^oes into SjTia, where he secures the prcatcr part of the Army, receives Herod "with preat favour, pives him the command of CoDle-Syria, and S remises to make him King of udxa. Antipater poisoned by Malichus. Battle of Philippi ; after -which Antony goes into Asia. This year spent bv -Vntony in Syria and Epvpt. Having been tlie friend of Antipater, he cou- flmied his sons, I'hasjiel and Herod, as Tetrarchs. The Parthians invade Palestine about May 20. Pacorus, their Commander, deprives Hyrca- nus, and appoints Antigonus to the HiRh-Priesthood and Government of Juda>a. Flight of Herod to Kome. About July 20, the important de- cree of the Koman benate pas- sed, by which Herod, at the age of 33, is made King of 600 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Ju Pe ian lod. s a 0 1 s, 6 0 1 0 sar, An- tony and Octavia met at Ta- — rentum (Taranto), and renew- 1 ed the Tiium^'iratc for five years, without asking the con- sent of the Senate and People. 4 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4677 0 1 D 3 Ep.22 GF Jan. Feb. B 9 09 D 9 Ep. 28 DC L. Gellius L.F. L.N. Popli- ^ [licola M. Coccejus M.F. Nerva 28 7 ^ July 1.— Expedition against Scx- tus Pompeius, destruction of S his fleet, and subjugation of SicUy. Lepidas is forced to abdicate the Trium^-irate. Nov. 13— Caesar's ovation for the victory in Sicily. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 601 Julian Period. 1 1 ■3 a ■5. g 0 B 0 C5 0 S2 1 1 P Octavi anus Caesar Consuls. "5 11 Hci (Ml ye Creal i 1 ^ RZVUIX^SLE EVENT!-. 0 c 02 3) 4 Ep.3 E Jan. CLXXXVI. 1 713 714 715 716 Aug 31 10 010 ) 10 Ep.S B L. Cornificius L.F. ^ ; Sex. Pompeius Sex. F. J < 29 5 — 3 r Feb. Mar. Apr. 718 719 720 May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. ■ig;9 3 3 3) 5 Ep.l4 u Jan. 11 Oil 3) 11 Ep.20 A L. Scribonius L.F. Libo M. Antoniua M.F. M.N. 11 30 4 7 9 Feb. Mar. Apr. ■ ay June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4680 0 4 J 6 Ep.25 C Jan. 12 012 D 12 Ep. 1 G ~Fl3 0 13 3) 13 Ep. 12 FE Imp. Cxsar Divi F.C. N. 11 ^ L. Volcatius L.F. Tullus 1 31 5 a — Dec. 31.— The fifth year of the 0 second usurped Triumrirato ends. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July 1 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Cn. Domitius Cn.F. Cn.N. [Ahenobarbus C.SossiusC.F. T.N. 32 Jan. 1.— Socsius heinp a partiz.in of AntoivV, openly attacks l*- sar in the Senate, and thus the contest between Antony and CiEsar begins. The two ConsuU fled, followed — by not a few of the Senate. 6 T Antony ndjudsed an enemy of " his country, and Valerius Mc8- salla designated Consul in his stead. 11 4681 06 D 7 Ep.6 BA Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. M^ June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 76 602 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 722 CLXXXVII 1 Jan. Feb7 4683 O 7 J, 9 Mar Ep.2S Apr, F May June July Aug^ Sep. OctT Nov. De'cT 4681 OS 310 Ep.9 E 46S5 09 511 Ep. 20 DC Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. 717 718 724 719 720 Aug, Si I I Imp. I Her I Octa\-i- od y'' I Ciesar. 14 014 3)14 Ep.23 D 15 015 3)15 Ep.4 C 16 016 316 Ep.15 B B 17 017 317 Ep.26 AG Imp. Caesar DiviF. C.N. iii M. Valerius M.F. M.N. [Messalla Corvinus Imp. Caesar Divi F.C.N, iv M. Licinius M.F. M.N. [Crassus July 1 — C. Antistius substi- tuted. Sep. 13.— M. TuUius, son of the great Cicero, substi- tuted. Nov. 1. — L. Saenius substi- tuted. Imp. Caesar DiviF. C.N. v Sex. Appuleius Sex. F. Sex [N, Imp. Caesar DiviF. C.N. vi M. Vipsanius L.F. Agrippa [II Kemabeable E\'ENTS. Sep. 2.— Battle of Actium, fron which the yeai's of Csesar'; Monarchy ai'e counted. Mar. 27. — AlexandrLi conquered. The death of Antony and Cleo- patra soon followed. Decrees in honour of Caesar pas- sed by the Senate, and those winch had been passed in ho noiu* of Antony rescinded. Caesar established his winter- quarters at Samos. Jim. 1. — Decree of the Senate, by which the gates of the Temple of Janus were ordered to be shut, in token of Univei's;U Peace. — Tlie ceremony proha- "bly took effect March 30, a day sacred to Janus, Peace, and Concord. Ca-sar i-eceives the title of Em peror, as denoting supreme power. Dec. 31. — ^The tenth year ends from the expiration of the live years of the Triumvii-ate. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. (i()3 Ju Pel ill ian iod. a 0 T3 'p. s 0 0 a 1 "S 1 M Consuls. In (H Si, 37 38 39 40 : tip. Jilt 6^ 7 s Ai ar 1 2 3 4 e- H fJr p. )'■<■ •at 12 13 14 RtMlRKlULE EVKNTS. •1686 010 3)12 Ep. 1 B Jan. CLXXXTiii 1 726 727 '721 722 18 018 3)18 Ep.7 F Imp. Caesar Divi F. C.N. vii M. Vipsaniui L.F. Agrippa [III Jan. 1— The first Decennial period (li'ireed to Autojstua by the Sen.ite beciiis. Jan. 17.— Ciesar offered to re- sign tlie Imperial diRnity, but WH8 unaiiiinously re- quested to retain It. On tiii-s oe(a»ion, the title of Augustus was Riven to him by a decree of the BciuKC and I'eople. The Provinces divided Into Senatorial and Imperial. Feb. Mar. Apr. May V r. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4689 Jan. B21 021 3) 2 Ep.U C B Imp Ceesar Divi F. C.N. [Augustus X C. Norbanus C.F. C.N. [Flaccus Towards the end of tl:i9 year, orthelicsrinniiiRotthenext, Anijustus shut the Temple of Janus the second time. 013 Feb. 2)15 Mar. Ep.4 FE Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. I9j Dec. j 604 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Jul Per M an lod. 1 a 0 4 2 s 0 S 0 Bi 0 i 1 0 1^ Consuls. I < mp Ca A sa ug 1 od Gr eat 1 a Eemabkablb Events. 4690 3)16 Ep. 15 D Jan. CLXXXIX. 1 730 732 733 725 726 727 728 22 022 3) 3 Ep.22 A Imp. Csesar Divi F. C.N. [Augustus XI Cn. Calpurnius Piso Augustus abdicated, and Lucius Sestius was substituted. 41 42 43 44 9 10 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 3 s a H 0 !10 20 21 T2 23 18 19 20 21 T5 16 _ 17 18 Lucius Scstlus having been the steady friend of Brutus, the Senate, gratifletl by this act of Augustus, de- creed that the EDiperor should be Perpetual Pro- consul of the Republic and Tribune of the Feoi le for life. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4691 015 3)17 Ep.26 C Jan. Feb. 23 023 3) 4 Ep.3 G M. Claudius M.F. M.N. [Marcellus iEserninus L. Arruutius L.F. L.N. The Cantabri and Usturcs again revolted. The former perished rather than sub- mit, and the prisoiici-s ta- ken were sold as slaves. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4692 016 3)18 Ep. 7 B Jan. 24 024 3) 6 Ep. 14 F Q. iEmilius M.F. Lepi- [dus M. Lollius M.F. Feb Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. 11 Oct. 8 Nor. Dec. 4693 on 3)19 Ep. 18 AG Jan. B25 025 3)6 Ep.25 BD M. Appuleius Sex. F. [Sex. N. P. SiUus P.F. Nerva < Feb. Mar. Apr. 12 May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 005 Juli Peri S OS an od. a 0 1 ■3 a 'c. S 5 S 0 0 •s a go i Pi Imp. All, Ca'sar. Consuls. g, i ■s ■£ 0 = < cr. "^ t. ;. H■«-■ Great 1 ^ . Hem^bkablz EvZNTt. i il 4694 018 3 1 Ep.O F Jan. cxc. 1 ■734 I29 732" 26 026 D 7 Ep.6 C C. Sentius C.F. C N. Sa- ^ [turninus Q. Lucretius Q.F. Ves- [pillo — 13 45 C The Sen.itc appointed Augun- _g tus Consul for life. 0 The remaining Cantahrl a- Qj gain revolted, and killed be their nijwters. Agrippa was < — sent .icainst them. Thi>y tq were almost extenninati-d , - " and the general tranquility 5 „ was not disturbed. 24 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4695 019 D 2 Ep. 11 E Jan. 27 027 3 8 Ep.17 B P. Cornelius P.F.Cn.N. '<> [Lentulus Cn. Cornelius L.F. Len- [tulus Marcelliuus _14 46 A year of great peace. Au- gustuii reforms abuses, (and enacts wholesome laws. Agrippa employed in embel- lishing tlie city. 30 Dec. 31.— Thedecennial period ends decreed by the Senate to Augustus. He therefore asked the renewal for live — years, and made Agrippa 25 Ti-ibunc of the People for the same time. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 735 June 736 "737" July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4696 020 3 3 Ep.22 D Jan. Feb. 2S 028 D 9 Ep.28 A C. Furnius C.F. '^ C. Junius C.F. Silanus 47 Jan. 1.— The five years of au- thority a.sked arc e.Ttcnded to ten Tears. The second Decennial period decreed by the Senate begins. The fifth Sectilar games were — celebrated this year, for 21 which solemnity Horace — wrote his Carmen Ssceu- 7 94 lare. This an evidence of peace. 26 Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4697 021 ]) 4 Ep.3 C B Jan. B 29 0 1 310 Ep.9 GF 12 L. Domitius Cn.F. Cn.N. [Ahenobarbus P. CorneUus P.F. P.N. [Scipio 48 New commotions arising, the Temple of Janus is again opened. Agrippa sent to Syria ; Au- gustus goes into Gaul. ~ Tiberius and Drusus repel the _ 22 Alpine tribes. 27 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 606 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Jul Per £ m an od. o .2 'E. a S 0) i Pi o 1 if CONSULS. I mp. v. i _"■ 9 _18 0 _'9 1 _20 2 Av Ml- ti 13 14 IS 16 g- 'f D c i 9 10 11 12 3 ja 0 < 28 29 30 31 He 3d in i a 26 -7 28 2S r ye at i 23 24 25 26 Remarkable Events. 4698 022 1> 5 Ep.l4 A Jan. CXCI. 1 738 739 741 73? 735" Tie" .Vusf. 26 30 0 2 3 11 Ep.20 E M. Livius L.F. Drusus [Libo L. Capurnius P.F. L.N. [Piso 4 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4699 023 36 Ep.25 G Jan. 31 0 3 3 12 Ep. 1 D M. Licinius M.F. M.N. [Crassus Cn. Cornelius Cn.F. Len- [tulus 5 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4/00 024 5 7 Ep.6 F Jan. Feb. 32 0 4 3 13 Ep. 12 C T. Claudius T.F. Nero P. Quinctilius Sex. F. [Varus 5 Mar.6.— On the death of Le- pidus, Auijustus was cre- ated Pontifex Maximus by the Senate. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4701 025 3 8 Ep.l7 ED Jan. Feb. B33 0 5 3 14 ;^p. 23 BA M. Valerius M.F. M.N. rMessalla Barbatus LyEmilianus P. Sulpicius P.F. P.N. [Quirinus 1 In this year Agrippa died, and Au^stus was com* pelied by the revolt of the Panuonians to adopt Tibe- rius. Mar. Apr. May June was substituted 1 C. Valgius C.F. Saturui- July Aug. Lnus Kuius He abdicated, and for him " was substituted 5 C. Caninius C.F. C.N. [Rebilus who died in oflSce. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 607 Imp. Auk. Ca-SKir. Julian Period. ■1?02 026 3 9 Ep.28 C Feb. Alar Apr. May June Aug. Sep. Oct. 4703 027 310 Ep.9 B 4704 028 nil Ep. 20 A 4705 O 1 512 Ep.l GF Apr. May 742 July Aug. Sep. Dec. Jan. F^b7 Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. OcTT Nov. Dec. Apr. May July 737 738 744 34 OG 3)i:. Ep.4 G 35 or ])16 Ep. 15 F 36 08 1)17 Ep.26 E B 37 09 3)18 Ep.7 DC Q. jEHus Q.F. Tubero Paullus Fabius ft.F. [Q.N. Maximus Julus Antonius M.F. [M.N. Africanus Q. Fabius Q.F. Q.N. [Maximus Nero Claudius Ti. F. [Drusus Germanicus T. Quinctius T.F. Cris- [pinus C. Marcius L.F. L.N. [Censorinus C. Asinius C.F. Cn. N. [Gallus USMlBKiJILE EviJNTa Towards the close of thi.1 year, or the be^iniHE of the next, tlip decree of the Senate was passed to shut the Temple of Janus the third tiiue. Tlie susp(ii>ion of this decree, oC(.-:i*lwi.iil by the incursions u! thr Bacians and l)alni:iii;iiis, must have taken place in February. Au^stiis went into Gaul — Tiberius ijito Pannonia and Dalmatia-Di-usus into Ger- many. Tiberius and Drusus tri- umphed. Towards the close of thisjrcar occurred the death of Dru- sus. Augustus, by \-irtue of hi» office as Pontifex Maximus, rectitied the erroneous in- tercalation by the priests it! Julius Ca-siir's calendar. On this occasion, by a de- cree of the Senate, the name of the month Sextilis was changed to that of Au- gustus, or August- Tiberius receives the supreme command of the .(\riny in the place of Drtisus, and is designated' Consul the se- cond time. Dec. .11.— The second Decen- nial period expires. G08 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4706 O 2 3)13 Ep.l2 £ 4/07 03 J)U Ep.23 D 4/08 O 4 3)15 Ep.4 c 4709 05 3)16 Ep. 15 BA Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. DecT Feb. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dee. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Dec. 746 749 741 742 38 OlO 3)19 Ep. 18 B Ti. Claudius Ti. F. Ap. [N Nero ii Cn. Calpurnius Cn. F. [Cn. N. Piso II 39 on ]) 1 Ep.O A 40 012 3) 2 Ep.ll G B41 013 3) 3 Ep.22 FE D. Laelius D.F. D.N. [Balbus C.Antistius C.F.Vetus, Imp. Caesar Divi. F. [CN. Augustus XII L. Cornelius P.F. P.N. [Sulla C. Calvisius C.F. CN. [Sabinus L. Passienus Rufinus Her o. L,. odye Kemxhea^le Etenti!. Jan. 1. — Augustus re- news his authority for the Third Decennial period. In March of this year Augustus shuts the Temple of Janus the third time in token of Universal Peace, and the Angel announces to Mary the LXCAK NATION of the Prince of Peace. Tiberius Tribune of the people for five years he retires to Khodes about June. Dec. 25.— BIRTH OF OUR LORD Jan. 1. — Circumcision. Feb. 2. — ^Presentation of our Lord in the Tem pie. Third year of Universal Peace. Jan. 6. — Adoration of the Magi. Flight into Egypt. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 609 Julian reriocl. 4/10 O G 5 17 Ep.26 G Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 4711 O 7 ]) 18 Ep. : F Dec. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. 4712 08 519 Ep. 18 E Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. 4713 O 9 D 1 Ep. 0 DC 750 42 OH D 4 Ep.3 D Apr. May June July Aug : Sep. 745 746 752 747 L. Cornelius L.F. Len- [tulus M. Valerius M.F. M.N. [Messallinus Cotta 43 OI5 D 5 Ep.l4 C Imp. CeBsar Divi F. [C.N. Augustus xm M. Plautius M.F. [M.N. Silvanus Imp. Aug. Ciusiir. 10 I '^ 44 016 D 6 Ep.25 B Cossus Cornelius Cn. | [F. Lentulus : (afterwards sumamed [ GictuUcus) M. Calpurnius Cn. F. [Piso B45 017 D 7 Ep.6 AG 748 C. Julius Augusti F. [Divi N. Caesar (Son of M. Acrippa and Julia, adopted by Au- giistus.) L. iEmiliusL.F. M.N. [Paullus Her 0,1,. ody''i J. Groat, Xt. Fourth year of Universal Peace. March 12-13.— Eclip-so of the Moon preceding the death of Herod. Mar. '21— Death of Herod Accession of iU"clieluuii, Herod .iVntipas and H. Philip. Fifth year of Universal Peace. IlEMABKASLE EVENTS. nee. 23.— In the Consul sliip of Silvanus .accord inK to Alhimasius, our liord returned from Eirjpt when four years old. Sixth year of Univereal Peace. The fifth year of his Tri- buuitial povier cuded, Tiberius asks leave to return to Rome, but is refused. Seventh year of Univer- sal Peace. Early in his Consulship Caius went to the East and was treacherously wounded in Armenia. 77 610 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4714 010 D 2 Ep. n B 4715 Oil D 3 Ep.22 A 47I6 012 4 Ep.3 G 47J7 013 J 5 Ep. 14 FE Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Jan. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 754 755 757 I3 750 46 018 Ep.17 F Vinicius M.F. [P.N. Alfinius P.F. Va- [rus 47 O19 D 9 Ep.28 E L. jEUus L.F. Lamia M. Servilius M.F 43 020 510 Ep.9 D B49 021 2)11 Ep.20 CB Sex. Mlixis Q.F. Ca- [tus C. Sentius C.F. C.N. [Saturninus Cn. Cornelius L.F [L.N. Cinna Magnus L. Valerius Messalla [Valesus OurLd. Jesus Christ. ^ Kemxskible Events. •3 Tiberius returns to Rome about the monih of July. Lucius, the grandson of Augustus, diies sudden- ly at Marseilles, Au- gust 21, on his >vay to Spain. Ninth year of Universal Peace. Dec. 31.— The third De- cennial period expires Tenth year of Universal Peace. Jan. 1.— The fourth De- cennial period begins. Feb. 21. — Caius Cie»ar, the eldest grandson of Augustus, dies at Li myra in Lycia. June 27. — Tiberius Tri bune of the people the second time, and a- dopted by Augustus Marcus Agrippa adopt- ed at the same time. Agrippa Posthumus re ceives the Toga Viri SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Gil Julian Period. 47I8 OH ]) 6 Ep.25 D 4719 015 D 7 Ep.6 C 4720 016 1> 8 Ep.l7 B 4721 Ol7 ]) 9 Ep.a AG Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Nov. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Apr. May July Aug. Sep. 759 761 756 go I? rt 50 022 2)12 Ep. 1 A 51 023 313 Ep. 12 G 52 024 Ep.23 F B 53 025 3)15 Ep.4 ED Consols. M. jEmiliusL.F. Le- [pidus L. Arruntius L.F. [L.N. Licinius A.F. [Nerva Silianus Cscilius Q.F. [Q.N. Metellus LCreticus M. Furius P.F. P.N. [Camillus Sex Nonius L.F. [L.N. Quinctilianus C. Poppaeus Q.F. [Q.N. Sabinus Q. Sulpicius Q.F. [Q.N. Camerinus M. Papius M.F. [\1.N. Mutilus Q. Poppaeus Q.F. [Q.N. SecundusJ72 Our 1x1, JfSUS ClirUt. — JS — ,. •3 c ^ 0 u — ., 11 a. C < .4 ■a c p X 0 rt « j: 0 c i> ts «i a 12 3 Tho Kiiddrn revolt of thi I'aniKin'ana nnd I>nl iiuitii!! 8 in the KpriiiK ofthisycnrcaiw' lithe most 8 -I ioii.H fon-iurii war hime the I'unic. The TcmiJle of Janus was therefore opened. UrMARKUU EVINT*. June.— At the time of wheat har^'est chelaus deposed, and banished. CjreniiLs (Luke ii. 2) earries into etTeet the Censu-s COponius Governor of the Jews. Dec. 2').— Our Lord i; years old. Apr. 18. — Passover, at the end of which 25 — Our Ixird tar ried iK'hind, & 29 or 30, w.is found anionit the DiK't May or June. — Mareui* Ambivius sent a^ Go- vernor of Juda?a. In this year the Panno- nians and Dalmatians sued for peace. .\bout the month of March Tiberius turned to Home, but was sent txtck noi long after to Ualnu tia. The slaughter of Vara and Ills I.e^iona took place about the Au tumnal Kquinox, ai.d the ne»f arrived in Home in October of this year. 6J2 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Julian Period. 4722 018 2)10 Ep.9 F 4723 019 3)11 Ep.20 E 472'1 020 3)12 Ep. 1 D Apr. May July Aug. Sep. Dec. Apr. "^Tay July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dee. Feb. Mar, Apr. July Aug. 762 763 a I ^ 757 54 026 3)16 Ep.15 C 55 027 3)17 Ep.26 B P. Cornelius P.P. [P.N. Dolabella C. Junius C.F. M.N. [Silanus M. iEmilius Q.F. [M.N. Lepidus T. Stiitilius T.F. [T.N. Taurus 758 56 02s 3>is Ep.7 A Gernianicus Caesar [Ti.F. Aug. N. C. Fonteius C.F. [C.N. Capito B57 O 1 3)19 Ep. isl GF C. Silius P.P. P.N. L. Munatius L.F. [L.N. Plancus ■^ S Our Ld. Jesus gl Chriiit. Tiberius adranecd from his winter quarters into Ger- many, where he spent the whole of this year. Jan. 16. — Tiberius triumphed, and dedicated the Tcm pie of Concord. Jan. 27. — Tiberius dedicated tlie Tern pie of Castor and Pollux. Feb. — Decree of the Senate gii'ing Ti bcrius Proconsular power and making him Colleague of the Empire. After the next Con suls Here dcsigna ted, Augustus an- ticipating one year, took the fifth De- cennial govern- ment, and renew- ed the Trihunitlal power of Tiberius. Dec.31.— The fourth Decennial period expire.^. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 613 Imp. Aujf. Ca'flar. Aur Ld r= ' Clirbt. Julian Period. 4726 022 3)14 Ep.23 A 4727 023 315 Ep.4 G Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Jul7 Aug^ Sep. Jan. FibT Apr. May June 766 4728 024 )16 Ep. 15 F 4729 025 517 Ei..26 ED July Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Apr. July Aug. Sep. 767 H Consuls. 761 762 76S 769 58 02 3) I Ep. 0 E 59 03 3)2 Ep.ll D Sex. Pompeius Sex. [F. Sex. Appuleius Sex. [F. Drusus Caesar Tib. [F. Aug. N. C. Norbanus Flaccus 60 04 3) 3 Ep.2; c B6I O 5 D 4 Ep. 3 B A Statilius Sisenna [Taurus L. Scribonius Libo TlllEBUS' sole reign C. Cselius Rufus or Caecilius L. Pomponius Flac- [cus Graecinus Jan. 1. — The fifth IJcceniilal period begins. AURUstm diet Aug. 19— Valerius Ora- tus Governor of JudX'a. Oct. 7. — Eclipse of the Moon ; revolt of the Army in Paiuiunla. Agrippa I'osthumus put to death. 22 16 German icus recalled from Germany. Mar 26. —Triumph of Gimianicus ; af- ter which he is ap- pointed to the su- preme command of the Mediterra- nean provinces. Piso sent as Gover- nor of SjTia. 614 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. Jul Per >< lan iod. % o o 1 o o vi o 2 1 o 'A a 3 Consuls. Tibe c rill i 1 IS. o 1 i 1 U J C a 1 est liri! ! m >t. 3 Remarkable Events. 4730 0 26 3)18 Ep.7 C Jan. CXCIX. I 770" Jn m 7(J5 768 62 06 3) 5 Ep. 14 G 01. Tiberius Nero Aug. [III. Germanicus Caesar Tib. [f. II. 8 9 10 11 3 < 21 22 23 24 24 25 20 27 _ 24 25 26 27 17 18 19 20 Feb. Mar. Apr. .2 May 60 til 62 63 1 .2 -a > 5 6 7 8 June 20 5 July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4731 0 27 3) 19 Ep.18 B Jan. Feb. MTr. Apr. 63 O 7 3) 6 Ep.25 F M. Junius Silanus L. Norbanus Flaccus [Balbus Germanicus visits Egypt, and spends the summer in Upper Egypt. On his return to Syria, dif- ficulties arose with Piso, by whom it was supposed he was poi- soned. Germanicus died at Epi- dapluie. His remains carried to Antioch and tlicre biuTicd, probably in November. May June _ July 6 7 21 2? 23 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4732 028 2) 1 Ep.o A 4733 O 1 5 2 Ep. 11 GF Jan. 64 08 D 7 Ep.6 E M. Valerius Messalla M. Aurelius Cotti Early in Januaiy Aprip pina aiTives iii Uonie with the ashes of Gcr - manicus. — Viiivei-sal moiuiiing. Feb. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. B65 09 3) 8 Ep.l7 DC CI. Tiberias Nero Au- [gustus IV, Drusus Caesar Tib. F. ii. S In tnc beginning of this year Tiberius went into Campania. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 015 Julian Period. 4734 O 2 D 3 Ep.22 E Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. 4735 03 D 4 Ep.3 D Dec. Apr. July Aug. Sep. 4736 O 4 ]) 5 Ep. 14 C Apr. May July 4737 05 2) 6 Ep.25 B A 775 776 771 777 July Aug. Sep. Oct. 772 Aug § . 66 QIO D 9 Ep.28 B 67 Oil ])10 Ep.9 A C8 012 DU Ep. 20 G B 69 013 D12 Ep. 1 FE COMSULS. D. Haterius Agrippa C. Sulpicius Galba C. Asinius PoUio C. Antistius Vetus [or Veter Ser. Cornelius Cethegus L. Visellius Varro M. Asinius Agrippa Cossus Cornelius Len- [tulus I . Our Ia\ ~\ Oiriut. X 25 28 RCVUIKADLE K\EKTS. Death uf Junin, tlie sister of Hrutii>:uid «i aftrr the liallle of Philippi. DiTisus the sIay. — Early in the month He chooses his Apostles. Tiberius retires to the Island of Capri where he sjiends the remainder of his life. ;34— ! I 28 Early in March St. John the Baptist is put to death by Herod Antipas. .\pril Bth. — Third Passover of our Lord's ministry. Thui-s., May 22.— The Ti-ans figuration. Sund., June 1.— Pentecost. Tues., Dec. 9— Feast of De- dication. Its Octave, Dec. 16, the last day of the feast ; on that day the convei-sa- tion in Jolin x. 22. LAxia died this year at the age of b6. Fi'oni this tune tlie career of Tiberius un- bridled. Mar. 26. — Caticirixiox. „ 28.— Resc MayGjTlim-sday. — ^AscEssmx ,, 16, Sunday. — Pentecost. Descent of the Holy Ghost. SYNOPTICAL TABLE. 617 Jul Per an od. a 0 ■p. e 0 E 0 A 0 5 1 t •a » €■3 P4 Tiheri c c e f •; Consuls. § S. ! Ill Hi < 0. H J a c i c rl c«u iri« E A. » t. i: 3 .'9 ;)0 31 32 llEMinKADI.E EvKSTa. 4712 010 511 Ep.2o B Jan. ceil. 1 782" 783 "784" 778 "tso" 15 -4 018 317 Ep.26 F M. Vinicius Quartinus _ L. Cassius Longinua ^ 32 17 •< 0 K QJ 33 B 0 Oi 6 72 1 31 7 73 2 35 8 74 3 3C 9 36 37 38 3fl 36 37 38 39 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4743 on 312 Ep. 1 A Jan. 75 0 19 3 18 Ep.7 E Tiberius Ccesar Augus- tus V. - L. .^lius Scjanus ^ 33 18 Oct. 18.— Sejanus publicly executed. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July 3 Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4744 012 313 Ep.l2 G Jan. 76 020 3 19 Ep. 18 D On. Domitius Aheno- [barbus 7 M. Furius Camillus ■^ [Scribonianus 34 19 Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Tuly" Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4745 013 314 Ep.23 FE Jan. B77 021 3 1 Ep. 0 CB Ser. Sulpicius Galba L. Cornelius Sulla Felix 35 20 Dnisus the Son of Gcr- manincus starred to death. Oct. 18.— Death of Agrip- piua. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 78 618 SYNOPTICAL TABLE. .Tuli Peri u m tu an 1 od. 1 1 1 o 1 'p. B >> o S o Pi o 1- 1 o a a So •S3 1° Tiberius, fe o "5 3 _ P & "S o f o Z. Consuls. & ^ s f .£ 1 1 ° c x,'^ ^ < i . Our Ld. g Jesus = Clurist. ^ g-s g ^ -C <" ^ Eemaekable Events. 1 1 ri 4746 OH 3)15 Ep.4 D Jan. CCIII. 1 786 "787 788 "789 TsT 782 783 784 Aug 11 78 022 3)2 Ep.n A Paulus Fabius Persicus _ L. Vitellius ^* a : 36 1 — P^ 21 1( 7G c 33 < At the end of the twenti- eth year of Tiberius, the ) Consuls celebrated the Decennial games, and for this were put to death. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Jul>^ Aug, Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4747 015 D16 Ep. 15 C Jan. FebT Mar. 79 023 3) 3 Ep.22 G C. Cestius Gallus _ 25 M. Servilius Nonianus 22 77 ^"34 The Marriage of Caius Caligula placed by Dion „ Q — Cassius in this yeai'. 384, About Sept. 1, MarceUus sent by vitellius to su- persede Pilate. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. 4748 Ol6 317 Ep.26 B Jan. 80 024 D 4 Ep.3 F Sex. Papinius _ 2fi Q. Plautius 38 23 78 ''35 39 t; lApril 9 or 10.— Patsover. 1 Vitellius goes to Jeni- 1 salem. Caiaphas re 1 moved from the High- 1 priesthood. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. DecT 4749 on 3)18 Ep.7 AGr Jan. B81 025 3) 5 Ep.u ED Cn. Acerronius Proculus C. Pontius Nigrinus *2 36 ~ — March IG.— Tiberius dies '*" 43 at Mlsenum. 43 Feb. Mar. CiLIGrLi. 1 Apr. May June July Aug Sep. Oct. Nov Dec. KICHARDS, PEINTER, 100, ST. MAKTIN's LANK. K(/ V BS2421.4 .J38 A chronological introduction to the Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 1 1012 00057 6654 ■;|gl:iKli iPiiP mi > ? > n :; 1