A DISSERTATION '^ ON THE THEOLOGY OF THE CHINESE, WITH A VIEW TO THE ELUCIDATION OF THE MOST APPROPRIATE TERM FOR EXPRESSING THE DEITY, IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. BY W. H. MEDHURST, sen. PRINTED AT THE MISSION PRESS, SHANGHAE. 1847. 1 V? • '^ PREFACE. The following Dissertation, as the title imports, was written with the view of elucidating the views of the Chinese on the subject of theology, in order to ena- ble Christian writers, and translators of the Scriptures, to ascertain what would be the best term by which to express the name of God, in Chinese. To set the question in a true light, it was thought necessary to re- fer to the classical writings, and especially those of the Confucian school ; because these always have, and still do, exercise the greatest influence over the mind of China; and notwithstanding the additions of foreign religions, and (in the estimation of the Literati) here« tical notions, the classics must and will form the basis of thought and expression throughout China for ages to come. This method of conducting the argument has necessarily drawn attention to the identical opini- ons of Chinese philosophers ; and thus, independent of the discussion which called for the present essay, much is brought forward that will no doubt be interesting to the public in general, particularly to those who are en- quiring into the opinions and religious sentiments of so peculiar a people as the Chinese. Having been led to explain and discuss all the passages of their clagsics which bear on the subject of spiritual and invisible beings, as well as those which refer to Him whom we must denominate the Supreme God, the writer has been enabled to present to view the whole body of Chinese Theology, and those who wish to acquaint themselves IV with the standard and orthodox religion of China, will lind in these pages enouiih to gratify their curiosity and to assist them in forming a judgment. It will be seen that the Confucian age, though addicted to demonolatry, was tolerably, free from idolatry, or the worship of images ; while the classical writings then published contain various references to a Supreme Being, of whose attributes and perfections a tolerably complete scheme may be dratvn up, altogether extracted from the classics, which shows that the ancient Chinese were not entirely ignorant of natural theology. Of course their scheme will be found defective in every thing that is peculiar to revelation, and defective as it originally was, it has Ijeen stiK more corrupted by the admixture of super- stitions through the lapse of ages ; but ascribe it to what source we may, there we find the fundamental truths of natural religion, fully equal to what the Grecian or Roman sages indited, and sufficient to testify that God has not left himself without witness in this eastern world ; because " that which may be known of God js manifest in them ; for God hath shewed it unto them. For the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and godhead ; so that they are without excuse. Because that when they knew God, they glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful ; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Profess] ug them- selves to be wise, they became fools ; and changed the glory of the uncorrnptible God, into an image made like to corruptiljile man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things ; changing the truth of God into a lie, and worshipping and serving the crea- ture more than the Creator, who is blessed for ever. Amen.*' A DISSERTATION ON THE THEOLOGY OF THE CHINESE, WITH A VIEW TO THE ELUCIDATION OF THE MOST APPROPRIiTE TERMS FOR EXPRESSING THE DEITY, IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE, In translating the Sacred Scriptures, into the lan- guage of China, it is necessary for the translator to place himself in the position of a native of that coun- try, and to endeavour to ascertain how a Chinese would think and feel with regard to expressions in use aruong his countrymen. For, it is evident that the very best translation of a book into the langugage of any country would be one made by a native of that country, suppos- ing him to be well acquainted with the language from which he is translating, and the subject on which it treats ; the next best translation that could be made, would be one prepared by a foreigner, the most fami- liar with the terms and idioms of the language into which he is translating ; all other qualifications being suppos- ed to be equal, or nearly so. In a language like that of China, that possesses a varied aspect, ancient and mo- dern, concise and colloquial, it is necessary for a transla- tor to acquaint himself with the original uses of terms, as well as the changes which they have undergone ; to konw how they are used in philosophical writings, and in every-day conversation ; what they mean when used by one class of religionists, and what when em B ployed by another ; as well as all the phase>> which any given expression may be made to assume, according to the points of view in which it may be contemplated. In the following pages, we shall endeavour to point out the meanings attached, by the Chinese; themselves, to the different expressions employed, by Christians and others, for the purpose of expres8ing the Deity ; and after discussing various other terms, capable of being applied to the same object, we shall, with the knowledge thus obtained, turn to the Sacred Scriptures, and endea- vour to ascertain how a Chinese would render the term, supposing him to be acquainted with the religion and animated with the spirit of the Bible. In order to this, Ave shall commence with the writings of their standard philosophers, glance at t'le modifica- tions which the language has sustained through the ad- mixture of heterodox opinions, and endeavour to ascer- tain, what is the modern and current acceptation of terms, as the result of the above causes. Our first discussion shall be regarding the real mean- ing of the term jfj^ Shin, which both the early Roman Catholic, and first Protestant, writers imagined most suitable for expressing the idea of Deity. In order to know anything about j[($ shin, we must not fail to associate it with J^ kwei, with which it is very generally connected in the writings of Chinese philosophers, and to which it is the antithesis. The ^ 5J[^ kwei shin are commonly found in juxta-positiou in the Chinese classics, and must be understood as re- ferring to the theory of a dual system of the universe, entertained by the Chinese, in the same way as 5c ilfi t'hcen te, heaven and earth, |^ ^ yin \aiig. the male and female principle of nature, &,c. with which the ^ fif^ kwei shin will be found to be essentially connected. In endeavouring to define the terms employed by Chi- nese authors, we must also bear in mind their theory that /v ^ '^J'* ?C itfe ^'^^ ^^ ^ microcosm, or heaven and earth in miniature, The same things, therefore, which they suppose belong to a man, they are in the habit of applying to heaven and earth, and expressions must be sought, in rendering such terms into English, as would be applicable to such a double use. In some instances we may succeed, but certainly not in all, and our want of success ia this particular will constitute the appa- rent obscurity of our definitions, to readers unacquainted with Chinese metaphysics. Another suggestion we would throw out here, viz. their thorough materialism, which binds them down to sensible objects, and pre- vents their conceptions from rising to any thing that is spiritual ; in using terms, therefore, which have a spi- ritual meaning, we must not suffer ourselves to be car- ried away with the idea, that the Chinese have any no- tion of the soul, as we Europeans understand the terms, meaning, an intelligent, immaterial and indestructible spirit ; indeed the term ^ ^^ soul, used by European writers in Chinese, is not of native origin, but a colloca- tion invented by western writers, for the purpose of ex- pressing an idea, which the Chinese had no single term, fitted to convey. Having premised these few observa- tions, we shall preceed to give the definition of the word 1^ Shin, as it is explained in the Imperial Dictionary. Kan g he, in his Dictionary, after giving the sound of jjl^ shin, does not, as is usual with him, go on to ex- press the sense, by adducing a synonimous term, but quotes a phrase from the ^ "^ shwo wan, in which the word ^ shin occurs. The phrase is this, ^ ff^ 3! lU ^ ^ ^ -H^ t'heen shin yin ch'huh wan wdh chay yay. In order, therefore, to understand fne term in question, vre must endeavour to ascertaii) what is the meaning of the whole sentence in which it is found, and the purpose for which it is there employed. The sentence treats of the leading out of all things, and says, that the 5c ^^ t'heen shin do this. Here the term ^ ^^ t'heen ^hin are contrasted with the {{jj ^j^ te k'he, also called the ^ ^pjl te shin, which we find, by referring to the charaettir f(]5 k'he, i^ Ji} |?J .J^J # -f^ are those which bring up all thing-. Both these again are as- 4 sociated with the \ ^ jia kwei, according to the Chinese system of cosmogony, which sets forth the three powers of nature as 5'C itfe A t'heen te jin, hea- ven, earth, and man ; and according to the ^ |^ Chow le, which says, that ^ Rl^it^HlKAS^ those which belong to heaven are called the jjij shin, those which. belong to earth are called the ^ k'he, and those which belong to men are called the ^ kwei. Now we are pretty well informed by Chinese authors, what the ^^ kwei are, as referred toman, and reasoning from what we do know to what we do not know, Ave may be able to form some idea of the jf{^ shin and fl^ k'he, as referred to heaven and earth. In the definition of J^ Kwei the Chinese employ another term, nearly si- milar in sound, as also in the explanation of |^ Shin ; thus, ]^ kwei, they say, is ^ kwei, to revert, as |^ shin, is f^ shin, to expand. The ^ kwei or i^ pTh in man, is the grosser part of his spiritual nature, w^iich shrinks, shrivels up, and reverts at death to its origi- nal elements, and sinks to eaith ; while the jfi^ shin or 5^ hwan, is the more subtile part of his spiritual nature, which expands, diffuses itself and wanders about in space. In using the term spiritual nature, however, tl\e reader must not suppose that the Chinese have any idea of spirit, such as we conceive, but what they mean by it is a more subtile kind of matter, finely attenuated and expanded, it is true, but still essentiiljy matter. Thus by the 5^ fl^ t'heen shin, they understand the more volatile and elastic properties of the material heavens, as by the ^ jjjff te k'he, they understand the more evaporatory parts of the material earth. In both in- stances a sort of corporeal spirit, or spiritual body, is intended. Ikaring these things in view% we shall be better prepared to proceed to the interpretation of the passage above quoted by Kang-he, for the purpose of explaining or elucidating the word J^ Shin ; wherein he says, that '5fc |^§| }i!^i^# -fe, heaven's ex- panders are those which lead out all things. That we are not mistaken in this translation, is evident from what follows, in the same sentence, where the lexico- grapher goes on to say, ^ |P §j tfi^o expand, (taking the primitive of the character jfj^ Shin to indicate its general sense), means to lead forth ; for ^ ^ |^ ^ I^ M ^ J^ heaven's principal business is to send down its breath or energies in order to influence all things, ^ W '^l vj4 H ^ therefore it Js said, to lead forth ail things. In this definition of jj]^ shin, -which consti- tutes the first class of meanings to which the lexicogra- pher refers, we are not to suppose that the Shin are the powers that move and expand the heavens, but the pro- perties or energies em[>Ioyed by heaven in expanding all things. It is heaver, that sends down its ^ ener- gies to influence or lead f rth all things, and the Shin are the energies thus employed. Let not the European reader suppose that by ^ |||^ t'heen shin, in the above are quotation, the writer means angel, or by ^ 4^ t'heen choo, God, as these terms have sprung entirely from the inventions of Christians, and are not in such collocation and acceptance Chinese. We now pass on to the second definition of if(^ shin, given in the Imperial Dictionary, as follows ; 5^ ^ fl^ ^"jj^BA^WI^^M t'l^^en che shin tse boo jih, jin che shin tse hoo m.iih ; where we suppose the writer by the word f|^ shin to mean, "animal spirits," and would render the passage thus, " the animal spirits of the heavens dwell in the sun, as the animal spirits of the man rests in the eye ;" from which we under- stand the writer to mean, that, as by the vivacity or dul- ness of the eye we perceive the elasticity or depression of man's spirits, so, by the shining or withdrawing of the sun, we ascertain the expansion or contraction of the energies of uature. The third class of definitions given in Kang-he, to j]j^ shin, is that of jjj^ ^ shin ming inscrutably intelligent and clear. In elucida- ting which he quotes the ^ |^ Shoo-king, w^here ^ Yaou is said to be 75 1^ ^ )1^ s^g^ ^i^^ and inscru- tably intelligent. The Commentator, on tins passage, says, that speaking of his greatness and capability of reforming mankind, he is called sagtdike ; and speak- ing of his sagelike qualities, and of his being above common apprehension, he is called inscrutably intelli- gent. The lexicographer then quotes another work, saying that ^ ^ 19f ^ S flf ^'i^^ ^ 77 sagelike means understanding every thmg, inscrutably mysteri- ous, and not to be calculated on. In vJiich sentence 1^ shin is only brought in as a quality of the sage, and does not mean a separate divine power. Under the same head, Kang-he quotes another passasre, from the ^ II Yih-king, to the effect that |^ ^ ^ )il ;^ li # whatever is inscrutable in the male and female princi- ple of nature is called If shin. By the inscrutable here mentioned, however, is not meaat that which is mysterious in the ways of Providence, or above human comprehension in the divine procedure, but such things as are not distinctly referable either to the male or fe- male principle of nature, but seem to be a mixture of both ; as the Commentator says, ^^ ^ ^ M ^ M W W\ ^ -S J^> W 1^ ^^^^" things are settled to one point they may be scrutinized, and that which may be scrutinized is not worthy of being denominated |)]4 in- scrutable. Futher he quotes another_^work, saying )[i$ that which is inscrutable is the utmost point of change, it may be said to be more mysterious than all sur- rounding objects, and cannot be judged of by visible appearances. By ^^-{jpeen hwa in the above sen- tence, is meant a departure from the usual order of things, that cannot be definitely ascribed to one or the other principle of nature ; this is said to be mysterious and scrutable, and not to be judged of by usual ap- pearances. Under this head, the compiler of the Dic- tionary gives another quotation from ^ ^ Mencius, stating that |g ffR ^ ^ ^fl ^ H ^<^^ sagelike and not to ])e comprehended by other, is called inscrutably intelligeiit. la this connectiou the writer is describing; the different steps of attainment in virtue, such as ^ ^ood, f^ sincere, §^ excellent, -j^ great, ^ sagelike, and jji^ inscrutable ; the latter of which, however, is not to be considered a step in advance of the one preceding it, but only a nevyr feature of it. The Commentator on this passage says, that "sagelike and incom|;rehensible is the most mysterious quality of a sage, t]]?tt which people cannot fathom. It does not mean that above the sagelike individual, there is another class of men who may he called the inscrutably intelligent." In all this we do not see any thing supernatural or di- vine ; the inscrutable in nature, according to Chinese ideas is the mysterious departure from the usual order of things, but still that which nature produces, though out of its usual course ; and the inscrutable in human beings is the height of intelligence, but still that which man is capable of, unaided from above, and therefore not superhumam. In the next definition of |fj^ Shin, given in the Dic- tionary, we meet with j^ i]\^ kwei shin, under which the writer says, ^f^B^lMf^^^M ^^e more sul tile spiritual part of the male principle of nature ia called the J^ shin, and the grosser spiritual part of the female principle of nature is called the ^ kwei ; again, Jest we should suppose that any thing purely spiritual -was intended by the ^ hwan and j^ pth, he says, ^ Z.W^% tP W\ ^%% ^^^e expanding qualities of the energy of nature are called the ^ shin, and its contracting qualities the j^ kwei. The compiler of the Dictionary goes on to give the meaning of f)ijl shin, as found in epitaphs and posthumous titles, saying, that in such acceptance that which the people can find no proper name for is called jfjl^ shin ; hence .^,^ !^ He-ning, of M\Q ^ Sung dynasty, and ^ J^ Wan-leih, of the gQ Ming dynasty, were both called ^^ ^ Shin tsung ; not, it w^ould appear, on ac- count of their good qualities, for they were bad rulers, 8 but because their decendauts, in giving them posthu- mous honours, did not know how rightly to denominate them, and therefore called them by the above title, jjf^ Shin is also used as a surname. And when the sound is altered from shin to shin, it is the proper name of a sea god^as in the sentence quoted in the Dictionary W ^ ©l] M Stiin Shoo foo yen "may Shin and Shoo aid you." 'VhQ remainder of the article in Kang-he on the word j||J shin has merely reference to the diffe- rent sounds which nre given to the character to make it rhyme in poetry. From all this we do not perceive that the Lexicogra- pher gives the meaning of the Supreme Power to the word Shin ; before, however, proceeding to the absolute definition of the term, let us endeavour to as- certain what meaning is to be attached to it when found in the writings of Confucius. In the Xp ]^ Chung yung, Haypy medium, the compilation of which is as- cribed to one of the immediate disciples of Confucius, and in which the words of the sage are frequently quo- ted, we find a whole chapter on the su])ject of the J^ ^ kwei shin, as follows ; In the first section, '' Confucius said, How full and complete are the energies of the ^li fEf ^^ei shin !^* The commentator, Chin^ tsz^, tells us that the ^ 1$ kwel shin are the energetic operations of heaven and earth, and the traces of pro- duction and transformation, (or the exhibitions of nature's efforts ia bringing forth and changing the forms of things). The Commentator Chang-tsze says, that the J^ ^^ kwei shin are the energetic powers of the two principles oi nature ; upon which Choo-foo-tsze remarks : If you view them in the light of a double power, then the ^ kwei is the spiritual or vital part of the female principle, and the jflft shin, the spiritual or vital part of the male principle ; but if you coneider them as but one principle, then tiiat which advances and expands is the \^ shin, and that which returns and reverts is the ^ kwei ; in fact they constitute but one ^# thing. On the expression ^ ^, ener- gies, Choo remarks, that it is the same as to say, the result of the efforts of nature. The paraphrase on this section runs thus " Tsze-sze, (the compiler of the Chung yung, or Happy medium,) quotes here what Confucius says of the Kwei Shin, to show that the M tabu or 9 principle of reason, combines the jJ^difFnge, and ^^ the concealed, and includes both the small and the j^reat (in nature) ; hence he Bays, That betwixt heaven and earth, that which CQ-ntracts and expands, advances and recedes, is doubtless the jj^ breath or energy of the male and female principle of nature, and the most ^g efficac'ous part of that principle is called the Kwei Shin. Now the energies of the Kwei Shin arc at the extreme limit of nothing, and yet consti- tute the highest degree of existence ; are superlatively unsub^itantial, and yet thoroughly most real ; for they carry to the utmost the per- fection of fulness and pervasion. To the paraphrase are appended some critical remarks, as follows : " The Kwei Shin are merely TO W >C ^ the expand- ing and contracting energies of the male and female ])rinciple of nature ; and they are called Kwei Shin, contracters and expanders, simply because of their subtile character, and pervading quality. Ching- tsze, in his remarks, has alluded mainly to the visibility of their dis- play, and Chang-tsze, principally to the spontaneity of their opera- tions ; but these energies, though divided into two, are really but one in action ; therefore Choo-foo-tsze considers them as conjoined, and con- stituting one ^J energy ; if we unite the explanations of these two commentators, (Ching and Chang) we phall have a correct idea of the Kwei Shin. The text speaks of the f^ virtue or en ?r?y of the Kwei Shin, to show that they are not to be divided into two. The word f^ virtue merely refers to the ^f^ energy of the Kwei Shin» and their |@( sincerity is not here spoken of, to show that their energy is indeed their Rincerity, Their fulness and perfection may be seea in the following section, which treats of their embodying aH things without exception. Choo-foortsze h?s said, that there is not a single t^ing between heav»K and earth, in which there is not the Kwei Shin . Cot all the accessions of ^f\i energy belong to the male principle, and constitute the Shin, while all the subsidings of this energy belong to the female principle, and form th^. Kwei. Thus the day during the forenoon is Shin, and the afternoon Kwei ; the moon in its wax- ings is the Shin, and in its wanings the Kwei ; the sun and moon, when contrasted with each other, constitute, the former the Shin, and the latter the Kwei ; trees just budding forth are the Shin, and wh^n withering and drooping the Kwei ; man. from yontli to manhood, is in the Shin, and when old age creeps on that is the Kwei ; in the breath, the expirations are the Shin, and the inspirations the Kwei ; we may also say, that the ojii nervous fluid belongs to the Kwei, and the ^^ animal spirits tot he Shin. Human speech and action, being connected with the animal spirits, belong to the Shin, while the serum and blood, originating in the nervous fluid, may be referred to the Kwei ; indeed all displays of energy belong to the male principle of nature, and constitute the Shin ; but whenever these energies settle into quiescence, as they belong to the female principle of nature, they form the Kwei. Knowledge is Shin, and memory \n Kwei. 5C >1E /2 10 ^/l ffi " The energetic operations of heaven and earth" are the j^ fla 2S 32E ** exhibitions of production and change" observable in nature ; la ru "production" and '* change" refer to the action of j^eaven and earth; J^ " production" is the bringing of things from no- thing into being ; 'J-^l " change" is the altering of things from being to non-existence.* ^J] f\^ ^'Energetic operations", refer to the coming of heat and the departure of cold ; the setting of the sun and the rising of the moon, the buddings of spring, the growings of summer, are all actions of this kind ; mnd and rain, frost and dew, the sun and moon, day and night, these are the exhibitions referred to. The two ^^ energies, point to the ^ %\*^ energetic powers of the male and female principle of nature, meaning, that their advancings and recedings, expandings and contractings are spontaneous, without any disposition or arrangement. '* The exhibitions of production and change" refer to this expanding and contracting : *' the energetic pow- ers of the two principles," refer to their being able to expand and con- tract. Ching-tsz^ merely speaks of the exhibition of their expandings and contractings : but Chang-tsze talks further of their g^ efficacious- ness or vitality. Efficaciousness or vitality is merely the spontaneity of this advancing and receding, expanding and contracting, as if i were alive. The two ^^ energies, refer to the correspondency of the male and female principles of natur^; the one ^ energy to the movement of those principles. For the two energies are really one. Speaking of them as one, then, the energy just issuing forth has its expandings and its contractings, and this incipient expansion is the Shin of the Shin ; or expansion of the expanding principle ; after it has expanded fully, it is called the Kwei of the Shin, or the co/itrac- tion of the expanding principle ; when the energi es begin to contract, there are still some expansions and contractions, bat when it is fully contractftd, this entire contraction is the Kwei of the Kwei, contrac- tion of the contracting principle. The subseq^ient coming forth of the contracting principle is the Shin of the Kwei, expansion of the contracting principle. The ^^ -^ >Jn [^ <* invisible and inaudi- * The words 5W "f-j^ tsaou hwa, here translated "production and change," are not to be rendered " creation and transformation ;" for the Chinese have no idea of creation, as we understand it; viz. the bringing of this world into existence. It is true, the writer above quoted explains production by the bringing of somethinsr out of no* thing ; but by thot the Chine.se mean, the birth of animals, the springing up of plants, the advancin^r of the tides, or the blowing of the winds, where to all appcarajice nothing was beftH'e. They do not mean by it, the original formation of all things, but the constant production of things observable every day. This they ascribeto the enersries of the Kwei Shin, under the direction and by the aid of a superior power. , , . u ble" of the Kwci and Shin, is their 'j^ '[^ natural constitution. Their 11^,^8; " beinsr inherent in all things," is the ^ ^ result of their operations. ^ ^T ^i Tsae-heu-tsae says, that the one phrase *' embodying all things without exception" exhausts the subject : for since there really exists tf^ matter, then there really ex- ists this ^ energy of nature ; and since there is this energy, there must be the J^ fitness of things; and that which fills all between heaven and earth is the expanding and contracting, the advancing and r^-«d''ng of this one ^ ]5^ energetic mechanism of nature. This is \Yhat the ^B principle of order rests in, which is essentially inhe- rent in all things, and the samo throughout all time ; verifying the expression, that the one male and one female principle of nature con- stitute the |g[ eternal reason, which must not for a moment be lost sight of. In order to understand the preceding account of the KweiShiu,it will be necessary to advert to the Chi- nese theory of the existence of the universe. Accor- ding to the Confucian cosmogony, the ^ ^ Extreme Point produced the j^ ^ two figures, the diagram for one of which is an extended line — , and for the other a broken line ; they are also called f^ ^ yin yang, the male and female principle of nature ; as well as m ^ the two energies, and are synonimous wi^h ^ -^ heaven and earth, or the visible uni- verse. The ^ f^ two figures, produced the p^ f^ four forms, the diagrams for which are two extended lines ■■ -■ and two broken ones — --, with one ex- tended line over a broken one __^, and one bro- ken line over an extended one . These are se- verally denominated the ^s^ |^ great female, and jf^;; ^ the great male, with the ^Jj j^ small female, and ^ 1^ the small male principle of nature. The ^ f^ four forms are said to have produced the J\^ ^ eight diagrams, which are descii])ed by three sets of lines, having the divided and extended ones variously inter- spersed, so as to he all different. These /\ ^ eight diagrams are described as fg keen, which is J^ heaycn; j^ kwan, which is ^ earth ; ^ k'han, which is ')]^ water ; ^| le, which is jj^ fire ; ^ kan, which is ^\ 12 dry land ; ^ t'huy, which is ']^ sea ; ^ chin, which is g thunder ; and || sun, which is J^ wind. These will be found to inckide the grandest objects of nature, but merely inanimate nature ; nothing living appears amon^ the list. It was found necessary, therefore, to have something g vital, or efficacious, and the Chinese cosmogonists thought of the %^ jjl^ Kw^ei Shin, which are said to be the vital or efficacious part of the male and female principle ; also the active powers of the Ii::^ two energies of nature ; as well as the energetic opera- tions of heaven and earth, and the traces of pioduction and change. Further the Kwei Shin are described as performing their operations by a certain expanding and contracting power, which comes and goes, and in re- ference to which they may be called the contracters and expanders of nature. Yet it would not appear that the Kwei Shin are the authors of being, or the sources of existence, but only the machinery which agitates or clianges the face of nature. Themselves forming a part of that nature, a species of matter, (of which the expressions expanding and contracting are indicative,) but a very subtile one, a sort of extremely attenuated vapour, or the most volatile part of the breath of nature, going forth and returning in the production and trans- formation of inferior things. Hence the Chinese have the phrase ^ #1 ;^ ^ jflf the Kwei Shins of nature's mechanism, which they own is the same with ^ ^ ^^ ^\W '^^ Kwei Shins which are the objects of sacrifice, and A ^/ ti^t^ the Kwei Shins inherent in eve-' ry human bemg. The idea of expanding and contract- ing, advancing and receding, which the Chinese have at- tached to the Kwei Shin, has led them to look for a Kwei Shin in every thin^. Thus they find it in the iiternate changes of day and night, in the waxing and waning of the moon, in the blooming and drooping 3f plants and flowers, and in the increasing or decreas- ng vigour of the bodily frame. Indeed many things hat the Chinese say of the Kwei Shin, would lead us <) imagine that they intended thereby a sort of a7iima ^ndl, or soul of the world. Though in using the word 13 'fioul, ^m spirit, ill these discussions, we must protest a- gainst ^.he terms being understood in the European €ense of them, as the Chinese have no idea of soul and spirit, as we understand the words, but intend thereby a sort of highly volatilized and attenuated matter, which after all its evaporations is still essentially connected with matter, and is certainly not to be explained of pure, intelligent, immaterial, and immortal spirit, Confucius, in the second section, goes on to say, '' In endeavouring to observe (the Kwei Shin) we cannot see them ; in attempting to listen, we cannot hear them ; and yet they embody all things, without the possibility of any exemption." Here the Commentator remarks, " the Kwei Shin, have no form nor sound, and yet the beginning and end of things are invariably- brought about by the uniting and dispersing of the male and female principles of nature , therefore they constitute the substance of all Ihines, and there ii nothing that can exist without them. The ex- pression " embodying things" is similar to that which the ^ ^± Yih king uses about "thoroughly pervading things." The paraphrase on this section is to the following effect ; " How shall \N^\mb\v the fulness of the -energies of the Kwei Shin ? but by considering that the Kwei Shin have no form, and that by the most in- tense observation we cannot ps^rccive them ; also that they have no eound, and that by the most anxious listening we cannot discern them ; yet formless and soundless as they are, they really embo- dy the very centre of form and sound. When things are first produced, the ^^ breath, or animal spirit, daily advances and .-grows ; this is the advancing nnd expanding of the Shin. When things -have arrived at their fulness and perfection, the ^ breath or animal spirit, daily reverts to its original, and wandering about scatters ; this is the reverting and returning of the Kwei. For the Kwei Sliin ■embody all things, and there is nothing withou£ them ; how full and perfect, therefore, are the energies of the 5^ jf(^ Kwei Shin!" In a critical commentary on this passage we have the follow- ing remarks : " This section speaks of the fulness of the energies of the Kwei Shin ; the three sentences are connected together, but the whole stress of the section is laid on " the embodying of all things, without any exception." Having premised the first two sentences, the writer proceeds from the abstruse to the evident, in order to shew the perfection and fulness of the Kwei Shin. Their invisibility and inaudibility is exhibited in their embodying of things. The three sentences, refer only to one consentaneous effort, and must not be viewed as two gradations. Their embodying of things means, that they enter into the substance of things ; but not ithat'the things first existed, and afterwards the Kwei Shin, but 14 that the Kwei Shins first existed, and afterwards the things ; and when it was found that the things existed, it appeared that none of thenn could he divested of the Kwei Shin. In fact, the Kwei Shins are in the midst of tilings, and as it were constitute the bones of things. The Kwei Shins are the hosts, and things the guests, (meaning perhaps that matter is superinduced upon them.) Betwixt heaven and earth there is nothing so great as the ^J energy of na- ture ; that which enters into every fibre and atom is this male and female principle of nature, a-id that which incloses heaven and earth as in a net, is this same male and female principle of nature. When the J^ principle of order existed, then the ^^ energy of nature also existed ; and when this energy existed, then Jj^ forms also appeared. " The embodying of things" refers to the Kw-eiShin; the words " without exception," refer to the things embodied. The words beginning and end, used by the Commentator, are not to be ta- ken for life and death, but refer to the expirations and inspirations, the darkenings and brightenings, the changes and transformations of all things ; with the substitutions of day and night, life and death, and such like. The words Kwei and Shin are included in the words male and female principle of nature ; for the two energiea of nature are ori- ginally but one energy. The male and female principles uniting constitute the beginning of things, and these principles dispersing cause their end. Sometimes they disperse and again unite, thus after their termination they again commence, which constitutes the principle cf reproduction, going on spontaneously without intermis- sion ; we must not take the energies after tltey are contracted, and consider them in the light of newly expanding energies : an exemplification of this may be seen in breathing. The "invisible and inaudible," spoken of in this passage, constitute the abstruse povvers of nature ; the " embodying of all things without exception" constitutes their display ; thus this section includes both the abstruse and manifest ; the last section merely refers to their results." In this Sfction the Kwei Shin are represented as a sort of an im a inundi^ or ethereal substance, diffused through the mass of the world, invisible and inaudible to human senses, and yet thoroughly per- vading and embodying all things. The Kwei Shin would appear to have existed previous to the things they embody, and yet one might be led to suppose that their existence is only discoverable from the existence of those things, so that were there no matter, there could to our apprehension be no Kwei Shin. Also from their being inherent in all things, without the exception of any, we might infer their inse- parability from matter, and their partial identity with it. Their con- stituting the bones of things is a remarkable expression, and intimates thnt they form the inward strength and internal constitution of things. Their being the hosts, while things are only the guests, would imply that the Kwei Shin provide the entertainment which things come to partake of. And yet as in China, the host gives way to the guest, and yields to him the place of honour, so the Kwei Shin would seem here to yield the precedence to things, during their presence and contact. Tliese figures, however, arc not to be strained to 15 the utmost, and only the main Hea for w^ich they were cmploj'ed is ' to be dwelt upon. After all, the Kwei Shin seem to be nothing io corap^irisoii of the p^ energy of nature, still less when put in com- petition with the 5S fitness of things. Yet to this fitness of things they attribute no qualities, powers or personality, it is a mere princi- pk of (wder, according to which things spontaneously got into their present shape and form, and is not at all to be considered in the light of the author of nature, or the Ruler of the Universe. In the pas- sage under consideration the writer intimates that the energy of nature, the principle of order, and the forms of things existed consen- taneously, so that we might thence infer the eternity of matter, or^ at least that the Chinese knew nothing about the existence of anything prior to the forms of things. The beginning of things being produc- ed by the union of the male and female principle of nature, while their dispersing constitutes their end, does not refer so much to the origin and final termination of all things, as to the birth and death of men and animals, with the growth and decay of plants. The reproduc- tion spoken of does not refer to any life aftar death, and so to the im- mortality of the soul, but to the successive gt^nerationa of mankind, and the springing up of plants from former seeds. Confucius, in the third section of this chapter, ob- serves, *'Whilst causing each man in the empire to be properly adjusted and purified within, and arrayed in suitable apparel without, in order to offer the accus- tomed sacrifices, (the Kwei Shin) are expandingly spread abroad, as if over the heads, and on each side (of the worshippers.) " The commentator on this passage tells us, that to adjust means to put things even, and is the action by which we adjust that which was before uneven : pure, h« says, means clean ; and expandingly spreading abroad, conveys the idea of pervading and fillins; all things. He observes further, that (the Kwei Shin) being able to induce men to be reverential and respectful in presenting sacrifices, and thus plain- ly exhibiting and displaying themselves, is a proof of their embodying all things without exception. The Commentator then quotes a saying of Confucius, which he says conveys the same idea, to this efTect. that the energies of the Kwei Shin being displayed above, for the purpose of bringing to light theexhilirated or mournful feelings of the worship- pers, is an instance of the various things (\^hich are the objects of worship) possesing something ethereal, and of the manifestation of the Shin, (when sacrificed to.) The paraphrast on this passage says, Should any ask how we can shew that the Kwei Shin embody all thingrs without exception ? We Would try to prove it by a circumstance of easy comprehension. At the period of sacrificing, ^ jjjlp JcL^ the efficaciousness of the Kwei Shin is able to cause each man in the empire, whilst offering such sacrifices as are suitable to his station, to be adjusted and purified, in order to promote veneration within, and to be properly apparelled, in 16 order to shew re^spect without, and tlius come and offer his sacrifices^ at such time you may sec the subtile excellence of the Kwei Shin dis- played and manifested, expandini,'ly pervading- and filling all around, as if they were over the heads and on each side of the worshippfrs. In this we may see a proof of the Kwei Shin's being present wherever we may go, and embodying all things without exception. The critical commentator on this passage says, the expression " em- bodyinsrall things" in the former section, is very broad and comprehen- sive'. All the productions and changes of heaven and earth, such as the flourishino- and decaying of the blood and spirits of human life, the blooming and withenns: of plants and trees, with the living and dying of all kinds of things, are invariably to be ascribed to the Kwei Shin. In the present section, the wTiter goes on from the idea of embodying all things, and pio'jceds to that of sacrificing; for he was afraid lest people should take 5|H^ ^ /O ^ f ^^ ^^^ ^^^i ^^^^ ^^ the mechani; ;;i of nature, to be distinct from ^^ 5^ "jZ, J^ Wr the Kvvei Shin who enjoy sacrifices ; he therefore speaks of thieir extreme nearness and evident display, wishing men to understand that these two kinds of Kwei Shin are in fuct one. In the wor d causing," used in the text, we see their ^^ efficaciousness. Th^.'* sacrificinsr" spoken of, not only alludes to the sacrifices offered to the manes of departed persons, but to all sacrifices, whether of- fered to heaven and earth, to the hills and rivers, or to the five^ points, according to that which it is suitable for each person to sacrifice to ; only we must be sincere and respectful, in order to collect our JpJ fl^ animal spirits, and then the animal spirits of the Kwei Shin will also be collected, expansively pervading, and completely filling the eurrounding space, as if the Shin were actually present. The expres- sion "over head, and on each side," merely conveys the idea of filling up the surrounding space, and not that of unsettledness, (or jndefiniteness as to any given point.) Ancestors and descendants have one and the same ^ breath, or animal spirit ; and although our ancestors may be dead, yet as long as we are alive, the Shin, of our ancestors is certainly in existence. Therefore when we carry to the utmost our sincerity and respect, we may certainly influence them. When we sacrifice to the ^ flip outside Shins, (that is to the Shins of others, not our ancestors,) and cause them to enjoy our offerings, it is also ascribed to the same principle. When the Shins are such as '^ur stations require us to sacrifice to, then our minds are nearly allied to them ; when our minds conceive this mutual affiance, then the Shius approach us. The " extensive pervading (of the Kwei Shin) as if present," is brought about by the ssincerity of men's own minds; but that which causes n^en (to be thus sincere) and brings about this " extensive pervading as if present'' is the action of the Kwei Shins themselves. Their causing men te be thus sincere, shews that they '* embody all things ;" and men's minds of themselves being thus affected, is a proof that no single thing can divest itself of the Kwei Shin. Therefore ^:§*;^ ^ U the Kwti Shins of my own per- 17 -- , ^^nE^^W^'''^ Kwei Shins that are the object of sacri- fice, and the Kwei Shins that are the object of sacrifice are |p\^ ^ >2S Bon, arc ^ ^-j]!^ the Kwei Shins of the mechanisra of nature. Choo-foo-tszA has said, That this one section bein;^ inserted in the middle of this chapter, conveys the sam^ idea with that of the " hawk flying and the fish leaping" in the account of the Happy Medium. (That is, every thint? its place, and according to its nature, so as to avoid iorce and constraint, and to effect spontaneous action.) Wlien the efRcaciousness of the Kwei Shin is bright and illumined, this is being *' brilliantly displayed." When their ^ energies ascend upward and influ- ence men, this is the '* fragrant or exhilirated f(-eling ;" and when they cause men's animal spirits to be frigid and stiff, this is " the mournful feeling." At death, the contracti-ig principle prevails, but when spirit-j are influenced by sacrifices and induced to come, this is the expanding principle, hence it is said thai the Shins are manifested. To understand the above section, it is necessary to advert to the ideas of the Chinese regarding sacrifices. They imagine that every man has his peculiar object of sacrifice. The empen.r only should sacrifice to the heavens and earth, the princes of the empire to the hills and rivers, officers of government to the lares of the land and grain, while private persons may sacrifice to the manes of their ancestors and deceased parents. When such etiquette is observed, the sacrifices are said to be suitable to the station of the individuals, and then only can the Kwei Shin be supposed to be present, with their expanding influence. Another requisite to such presence is, the proper feeling and pure intentions, together with the suitable apparel, of the worshippers. These conditions being granted, the K^A'ei Shin are then imagined to be present, filling the surrounding s.pace and overshadowing the sacrificers. There are, however, two gratuitous suppositions in all this scheme, which wantinij proof, and being destitute of evi- dence, tlie whole theory br^^aks d)wn. First, the ima- i^ination that the Kwei Shin cause the worshippers to act thus suitably in their devotions ; and secondly, that the Kwei Shin are actually present when such suitable sacrifices are offered. The Chinese^ seem so certain of these two, that they wait for no evidence of the facts, and even adduce these as proofs of^ the existence and of the pcrvadii'i^ infiiiencc of the Kwei^ D 18 Shin. We have not, however, to do now with the just- ness of their ideas, hut only with their nature. And it would appear, from the above remarks, that they ima- gine the Kwei Shin to have much to do in inducmg certain dispositions, and thus exert an influence over men's minds; while they testify their approbation of such dispositions by being present at the sacrifice, and thus are supposed to possess a power to reward the good and punish the evil ; in all this the Chinese seem to hold that the Kwei Shin are a sort of spiritual beings, and such spiritual beings as might claim the veneration of mankind ; and yet they hold that the Kwei Shin of sacrifices are identical with the Kwei Shin of the me. chanism of nature, which we have found to be a sort of ethereal substance embodying all things, and something similar to the anima muudi of western philosophers. Confucius, in the fourth section of this chapter, quotes a passage from the ff ^ Book of Odes, which says : ** The approaches of the Shin cannot be ascertained, how th n can we tolerate negligence V The whole passage runs thus : "When I observe your associations with your virtuous friends, I perceive that your coun- tenance is placid and agreeable, (as if you were saying) how can I avoid falling into mistakes '? but let us look at your private abode, and see whether you can peradvan- ture avoid cause for blushing in your secret dwelling ; do not say that the things there enacted are not public, and that no one sees you ; for the approaches of the Shin are not to be conjectured ; how then can you suf- fer yourself to indulge indifference '?" The Commentator on this pas^a'^e merely explains the terms. The paraphrase runs thus : '' The fact of the Kwei Shin embodying all things, not only happens at the time of sacr ficing, but in tlie daily occurrences of life it is the same ; for the Ode says, When the _ Shin come down, their movements are not to be conceived of; so that in our own private dwellings, were we ever so sincere and respectful, we miijht still fear having cause to blush (before the Shin) ; how then can we be careless and disrespectful ? Looking therefore at the words of this ode, we may kno\r more perfectly that the Kwei Shin embody all things without exception." The critical commentary on th^. above passage says, that the coming above spoken of is an expanding effort ; hence the Nvriter 19 does not speak of the Kwei, or contracting, but only of the Shtn, or expanding principle. The Shins here spoken of, arc also the kind of Kwei Shins to wliom sacrifices are offered ; but the ode mereh' refers to the time of our dwelling in our private habitations, and does not refer to the season of sacrificing ; for althouirh the former section was sufficient to prove that the Kwei Shins embodied all things without ex- ception, yet fearing lest people should merely advert to the Kwei Shins at the period of sacrificing, and neglect them on common occa- sions, he refers to the Kwei Shin being every where present, even in our private dwellings ; thus the idea of their embodymg all things without exception, would be still more evident. This section refers mainly to the idea of the second section, regarding embodying all things ; and is not to be confined to the elucidation of the third section concerning sacrificing. In this passage the Shin are spoken of without the Kwei, but lest we should imagine that they are to be veiwed as distinct from the Kwei, the Commentator tells us, that the Shin only are mentioned here, because of the act of their |^ coming", which is an effort of the ^^ expanding principle, and he further informs us that the Shin here spoken of are the Kwei Shin present at the time of sacrificing, only we must conceive of them sometimes' "as present on common occasions. An ap- parent inconsistency is observable in the Chinese theo- ry at this point ; for if the Kwei Shin f a ^ ^ Si embody all things without exception, and are ^ i$ ^ ^ present wherever we go, how can they be said to ;|^ approach, and to be so inscrutable in their ap- proaches as not to be ^/^ fathomed '? But here again we must recur to the Chmese notion of the Kwei Shin, expanding and contracting, approaching and receding, like the heaving of the breath, or the interchange of light and darkness. Is not tbis another proof that in the most spiritual exercises of the Kwei Sbin, where they are thought to ap{)roach and take cognizance of human actions, they are essentially connected with matter, and act as if they were the mere pantings of nature, and not pure spiritual essences '? In the last section of this chapter Confucius says, " 1 bus it is that, in the manifestation of their abstruse- ness, (the Kwei Shins) whilst displaying their sincerity, are not to be concealed." 20' Tl»e rommentator says, That gincerlty here means, tliat which is true and free trom all deception. The collectini^s and scatterings of the male and ftinale principle of nature (to produce life and death) are invariably sincere, (or in exact accordance with the strict rule of right,) therefore their manifet^tations are thus unconcealable. The paraphrase on this section is as follows ; The invisible and inaudible property of the Kwei Shins may be called their abstruseness, whilst their embodying all things without exception is their manifesta- tion. But now can they be abstruse and at the same time manifest.^ In this way. In every single instance of the uniting of elements, to constitute living things, there is the principle of expansion present (or the Shin) ; and in every single instance of the separation of par- ticles to bring about their dissolution, there is the principle of contraction present (or the Kwei) ; both these are produced by the principle of truth and uncorruptedness decreed by Heaven. This is the wav in wiiich (the Kwei Shin) are thus abstruse and yet manifest, without any possibility of concealment. From this we may see how full and perfect are fig the energies of the Kwei Shin. The critical commentary on this passage runs thus, " the three first sections of this chapter all treat of the unconcealable manifestation of the abstruse principle ; in this section alone we have pointed out, its sincerity. fCT The abstruse is |^ the hidden, referring to what is above said about the invisible and the inaudible. |^ The manifest is -^ the widely-displayed, referring to what is above said of embody- ing all things ; these two, however, are not to be divided into separate times and circumstances ; it does not mean that the Kwei Shin pro- ceed from the abstruse to the manifest, but it conveys the idea of their possessing both at the same time, without any gradation being dis- tinguishable. |l/)( The sincerity spoken of in the text refers to the Jg prii>ciple of order, which rules in the midst of the ^ energy of na- ture. Hence Hoo-she has said, that the Kwei Shin are the uniting and scattering energies of t'le male and female principle of nature ; whilst ^ sincerity is the 3^ principle of order according to which such uniting and scattering of the male and female principles of nature are regulated. Between heaven and earth there certainly is this ^ principle of order, and so also there certaintly exist these ^^ energies; thus the contractings (of the Kwei) are real contractings, and the ex- pandings (of the Shin) are real expandings, but they all act according to this perfectly sincere and unadulterated principle of order, then of course they are brightly displaye'^, and cannot be concealed ; hence it is said, that when there is |5)( sincerity, there will follow 7J^ the existence of form. In its being unconcealable, we see that the ab- struse is necessarily accompanied by that which is manifest ; thus the abstruse and manifest are inseparably united in one, and not merely tacked together, from which we may infer their unconcealable character. This section speaks of the virtue of the Kwei Shiu being so complete, 21 mainly on account of their |Hc sincerity. It doe« not mean, that in- dependent of the Kwei Shin there is a 6ef)arate beini^ called tl& Sincerity. In this work, t';e Happy Medium, this"" is the first time that the word sincerity appears ; from henceforth the word occupies a prominent place in the volume. But this Sin- cerity is the result of ^ wide-spread greatness ; speaking of it accor- ding to the J|| principle of order, the word sincerity occuring in sub- sequent chapters seems to per\ade all principles and possess them in itself Speaking of sincerity in connection with f;^ virtue, this' word forms the pivot and hiuire of the whole work, but the writer has managed to bring it up when speaking of the Kwei Shin, that he might pass on from the root of productions and transformations, to the sincerity of the human heart, in which we perceive that the writer's idea is perfect and complete. Formerly he was led, from the obser- vation of the hawk and the fishes to spej.k of ^ right principles' which was to exhibit those principles from ^7^ ^ the forms of things ; now he is led from the consideration ©f the Kwei Shin to speakof right principles, which is to illustrate those principles irom *2l^ the energies of things. The invisible and inaudible con, s^ute Jg the hidden, the embodying of all things constitutes the -^ expansive, therefore the K^ve] Shin are said to unite the expan- sive and the hidden. The embodying of all things constitutes the greatness of the Kwei Shin ; after havin? spoken of this the writer merely refers to the presence of the Kwei Shin at sacrifices and in private dwellings, which is but the littleness of the Kwei Shin • hence this section is said to include the sm.ll and great ; thus in the midst oftheexpar.s,veand hidden, he includes the small and the ?reat To quote two things and speak of them together, is called unilin^ • to take this and add it to that, is called including. ' In order to understand the above remarks of the sa^e we must consider, th.it by the abstruse therein mention- ed, lb meant the hidden quality of the Kwei Shin, con- srstmg in their being invisible and inaudible to human senses ; and by the manifest, is meant the displays of their energy in embodying all things, and causing them to expand or contract, to grow or decay, as well as in their embodying of all moving things, causing them to advance or recede, to change or revolve. The word sincerity in the text is not to be applied, as mi^ht at first appear, to the sincere feeling of the wor«hrppers but to the sincere action of the Kwei Shin, who are supposed to do every thing exactly according to the rule of right, and to be real and unpretending in their 22 operations. To the readers of the Happy Medium, the word ^^ sincere, and ^ ;^!j^ perfectly sincere will be found to have a peculiar meaning ; it conveys something of the idea of ^ perfect intelligence and virtue, such as that which the sages possess and exhibit. The commentator tells us, that the energies of the Kwei Shin being so complete, is mainly on accouut of their =)j^ sincerity ; which is an inherent quality of these beings, and not a separate existence. Here then we have a moral quality applied to the Kwei Sliin. Let us endeavour to combine this with the original idea at- tached by them to the Kwei Shin, and in so doing w^e shall find that they are the contracting and expanding energies of nature, embodying all things and yet invisi- ble ; influencing men to otfer sacrifices aright, and then being present at such offerings ; coming down also in an inscrntable manner to observe human actions ; and then manifesting their abstruseness, in a sincere and in- telligent manner, so as to baffle concealment. In all this, we see a gradual advancement from the material to the spiritual, from the operative to the presiding, from the confined to the pervading, from the gross to the intelli- gent, until they become objects of worship and reve- rence ; yet we must remember that according to their system, they are based in matter, and essentially con- nected with it ; that they are dual in their arrange- ment, and plural in their nature, and themselves sub- ject to a controlling powder, such as ^ 1i^ the decree of heaven, and ^ the fitness of thin^s. The utmost we can assign to them, therefore, is the anima mundi, or soul of the universe, divided into an indefinite number of demons, or spirits, to whom is assigned the agitating and reviving of material things. In the 24th chapter of the Pf^ ^ Happy Medium, we have a casual reference to the ^^ Shin, which rnay tend to throw some light on the subject. The writer says, " The principles of the ^g ^ perfectly sincere enable them to foretell future events ; when a country is about to prv)sper, there will be propitious omens, and 23 when a nation is going to decay, there Avill he unfa- vourable prognostics. These may be seen in the straws and in the tortoise, (use I for divination,) and may he ascertained from the actions (of the prince.) When happiness or misery are at hand, whether <