I. no, iqoo jtibrar;!? of Che Cheolo^ical ^emmarj(» PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY Harainill Missionary Fund ■PLl lOT GRAMMATICAL STUDIES IN THE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE OF NOETHEEN CHINA, ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF MISSIONARIES, BY J. S. McILVAINE. ^ . Sr;. ' • • : jS SH-A^lSra^DEi-A.! = ^MERICAN J^RESBYTERIAN JAlSSION j^RESS. k 1880 . ip^ciE. One who observes the industrial arts of the Chinese is often surprised to see what simple apparatus may accomplish excellent results. And so in their speech, intonated monosyl- lables are dexterously and vigorously employed — clauses are subordinated or coordinated, prefixed or appended in such clear logical sequence, that the polysyllables, inflexions and many conjunctions of Western languages seem in comparison clumsy and absurd. That there are rules and principles govern- ing this language is self-evident, otherwise no two Chinamen could understand each other. Nor can we’ admit that the subtlety, of those principles shall baffle Western students. Probably few of us will ever talk as fast as the natives, but we are warranted in aspiring to a clear forcible and picturesque style of discourse. The English student especially is to be encouraged by the remark of Morrison, endorsed by Julien, that in not a few details of grammar the Chinese and English idioms agree. Yet it is obvious we should expect greater differences than we encounter in studying European languages. That there cannot be eloquent teaching in Chinese is a most fallacious scoff. Few missionaries but have seen spell-bound audiences hanging upon the lips of earnest preachers. Appreciation of rhetoric is a national trait. If we use their language well, we can both please and influence them. To them at least it may be made beautiful ; and not a few foreigners come to join in their enthusiasm. Nor is it in the literary style* alone that the Chinese has power. The colloquial which could be used by some of the greatest thinkers of the Sung Dynasty to express thein philoso- phic speculations, needs only a little attention to develop into a cultivated and elegant language. To command such a medium for delivering his message should be the study of every missionary. Moreover the disenthralment of China from its dead language seems to be an incidental part of the mission of 11 PRBPACB. Christianity. We should learn to write in a style intelligible to all who know letters, a style which will ultimately supplant the wen-li, as the vulgar dialects have supplanted Latin in Europe. The writer, after learning Chinese by rote for several years, began to have glimpses of general rules which might be enunciated and greatly facilitate the studies of new-comers. Special labor on this line for three years — the selection of materials from Marshman, Premare, Julien, and especially from Edkin’s compendious work, with the analysis of many sentences seen in books and heard in conversation has resulted in the volume now published. If any complain of a foreign air and other imperfections, the writer answers that he can carry his readers no further than he has gone himself. They must work out the rest for themselves. 'The subject of orthoepy has not been discussed. Mr. Wade has done a thorough work in that line, of which all students should avail themselves. Least of all does this grammar propose to supplant the native teacher. The author will be gratified if others enter upon these grammaticial investigations, and improve upon the crude work he has done. By all means may the day soon come when wise men shall not prattle like little children, nor the heralds of salvation be tongue-tied for several of the best years of life. Jasper S. McIlvainb. Tsi Ning-chow, Shantung, January^ 1880. C O 35T T E IT T S - Chapter I. Words and their Classification. „ II. Nouns — their Etymology. „ III. Number. „ lY. Auxiliary Nouns — Numeratives. „ Y. Numerals. „ YI. Syntax of Numerals and Numeratives. „ YII. The Possessive Case. / „ YIII. Attributives. „ IX. Apposition. „ X. Pronouns, Personal and Peflexive. „ XI. Demonstratives and Interrogatives. „ XII. Locative Nouns. „ XIII. The Predicate. Tenses and Moods. „ XI Y. Adjectives. „ XY. Adverbs. „ XYI. Qualified Nouns. Assimilants. Neuter Yerbs. „ XYII. Yerbs. „ XYIII. Further Pules of Syntax. „ XIX. Prepositions. , „ XX. Conjunctions. „ XXI. Interjections and Terminals. „ XXII. Euphony. „ XXIII. Peculiarities of Wen-li Style. r } , V' 'S' ' . sv. 'S ^iSTe'^arar'nxQD-,, ■ .a<>ii/i’ .ll)” T « ^_/iv •£ .. .r . . j ' - i .‘i ^tina..'.. .1. -- .>.*r/I — ^i..:o* /3i:iriAifA .7? j ,.-7S .'yfljiivmf A l*:n; A’ .,l/f ■ ni-^ )J'!^ .ItV j/:/7 .in V ... i> , iir;;v ' inju>/i I'L ./I ^ ■ - r >V ' 4 I 4 .'Bool/. B/r.'J ^.ofno;B'94^h'3(}^r''.i 1 1 - Sfh^iV' a'irfirm:{> ,1 ( A • ■,.'•• ■'• yA^AyJArrf: '■«p^ ■ •• -v^MT’ .Wi'JL • ^'.■arptlfiv^^, t<> ?MffiA*r>jH.‘fji'-i' .11 W ' ' ^ -.X ,1^ > C unir f .i.ZX’ ^ .x ;.. '■; .VrioiBi'fJ/f .1 LZX^ A" '.otviyi -> '-o*fi'-r*fU:;o->‘l .iri'XX v, ■ 'A'-x ' ? -r :j. a?* 'T rii: s - :ii v^•■ Y : ,. ^, » *►/ • r.in : A •A. rs . ( -.i- : o ■ -1^ ■# ..IL, GRAMMATICAL STUDIES IN THE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE OF ^N^ORTHERlSr CHINA. Chapter I . « Words and their Classification. The traditional belief that Hebrew was the original language of mankind, has of late been given up, partly through love for novelty, partly through enthusiasm for Sanscrit. But the Chinese now comes in to supply a missing link between later languages and the original. It appears that in the confusion of Babel, the ancestors of the Chinese contracted the triliteral words of the Hebrew into monosyl- lables. Other languages have combined such monosyllables to form new words, which have again been much reduced by contraction. A few examples may be given, the correctness of which is attested, not by mere resemblance of sound, but by historical identification. Eden_ becomes in Chinese ^ (Then); Adam becomes (Tan), Gedol (great) becomes (ta), Baal (Heb. Bang!) becomes ^ (hwang), Ahad (one) becomes — (old sound yat),. Such being the relation of Chinese to Hebrew, its relation to the later languages of the "West may appear from the following; — ^ ^ (Then Chu) becomes Sindu or Hindu, 5^ (Then Ilia) becomes Sinae or China. ^ ^ becomes Zewan or Zen, in the old Greek ZeFus, in the later Zeus. But that the languages of India lean much upon the Chinese is apparent from other words ; as for instance Vishnu, which is also written Beshan, and in Chinese means , simply northern mountain. Again ic — M A K (T^ai yat h^wang jen shih), the ancestral head of our race, according to the explicit statement of Chinese tradition, appears in the IVest as Saturnus, or Satiavarta, or Xisithrus, names which are evidently based upon the Chinese title just given. P^an Ku, or P'an Ku shih, becomes Manu in India, Bacchus in Italy. Other instances might he given to the same purport. To what extent the Chinese itself may have put together original words and contracted them again into monosyllables, remains to he ascertained by those who have leisure for this fascinating line of study. 'The Chinese being thus derived by corruption from an earlier language, it is evident that its monosyllables are not original linguistic roots, having an inherent power to express ideas, (such as we are often able to discern in Hebrew) but artificial signs, indicating ideas or things, just -as a, b, and c, stand for known quantities in Algebra. Yet with reference to the language itself, many words have a truly radical power, being used in different parts of speech as the connection may require, but without change of form. This feature of the language may be illustrated from the English, since the words form, hope, run, light, love and a multitude of others may be used both as verbs and as nouns, and some also as adjectives. So in Chinese, many words range through these three parts of speech. But the liability to interchange is even greater in Chinese. Adjectives blend with adverbs, verbs with con- junctions and prepositions. The power and plasticity resulting from^this feature of the language is very great, and no serious embarrasment will be found arising from it. As to classification of words, the Chinese make a distinction between the ^ i.e. the real words, and the the unreal. The former are the substantial words of the language, which denote real things and ideas ; the latter are the subordinate words used to indicate the relations of their stronger associates. The latter class is not limited to mere particles used for grammatical inflection or for rhythm. It includes also some prepositions and conjunctions with demon- strative adjectives and adverbs of degree. We cannot accept the distinction as marked out in all these details. Yet it is not to he ignored, since it attests the superior importance of one class of words, and common characteristics pervading that class, and warns us not to mingle together words from the two classes, as our Western grammar would do. ■ ■ A second valuable distinction made by native scholors, is the division of real words into and i.e. the living and the dead, or in general verbs and nouns. Verbs, nouns and particles are therefore the three great ■groups of words as distinguished by the Chinese. My own studies have led me to fall in, in the main, with this general division. I make therefore first, a group of Substantives, including nouns, pronouns, demonstratives, numerals and locatives ; second, a group of Predicates, including adjec- tives, verbs and adverbs ; third, a group of Particles, includ- ing prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and terminals. I shall blend Syntax with Etymology, enabling the learner to put into use at once the material which he acquires. 1st Group— substantives. Chapter II. Nmns — their Etymology, AltLough the root- words of the Chinese are mon syllables, the names of things, as current in the colloquial, are very largely dissyllabic, and sometimes reach three and four syllables. I. Though a single written character may fully describe the thing spoken of, there are many cases when a monosyllable would he an uncertain sound, or savor of pedantry. This difficulty is avoided by attaching another word to the real noun. (a) This word may he merely a conventionally used term- inal syllable.' is added to very many names of material objects, as a table, a chair, ^ a plate, the body ; also to a few abstract terms, as method, , a law, ^ is much used as giving familiarity, and sometimes a diminutive, sense, as * % 31 bird, flower, ^ picture, A3l a man (vulgar). In some combinations ^ is so constantly associated with a noun, that the omission of it would obscure the sense to common people ; yet a too frequent use of it tends to vulgarity. When and ^ are thus used they must he slurred in pronunciation,, otherwise they become independent words and are not intel- ligible. is used of things which have a blockish character, as ^ wood, ^ §§ sto7ie, po volume, 0 §§ the sun. (b) Some nouns, especially those indicating one^s relations, are duplicated, as ^ ^ Elder brother, am. S;, ^ One is reminded of our own Papa and Mama, which indeed are recognized by the Chinese in some parts as household words. (c) Often another noun approximately synonymous is ap- pended making a double-word, as 5^ ^ mei'it, BR Bfl, eye, A, friend. Suoli combinations are more elegant than [ 5 ] the appending of and *y*, so that as we rise from the vul- gar to a polished style, this kind of words takes the place of the first class mentioned, fruit gives place to child to ^ ^ -y* house to M M- II. In other cases there is no single word expressing the idea, and it must be provided for by combination. The ele- ments composing the term are then in some logical relation to each other. {a) Two terms may be complementary parts of one whole, as troojys, ^ feed. [If) Of two nouns the former may stand as a genitive or an attributive before the latter, as in English we join words by a hyphen ; as lamp-wick, ^ ^ master, ^ virtuous conduct, ^ P^'ofit, vehicles. So a man’s name and his title make one word, as Teacher Chang, ^ Brother Li. A word ordinarily classed as a verb may stand as an adjective before a noun making one word, as mA criminal, a Doctor of Letters, tw acquaintance. In many of these combinations the original force of each word is quite apparent, and it is optional whether we parse them as a compound or separately. (c) ^Some things are designated by phrases which state their characteristic quality. This may be done by an adverb preceding a verb, as Senior, expectant of office, sq:)y ; or by two verbs, as ^ ^ mercantile husines^j W(i ^ tailor, intercourse; or by other combinations ; as ^ i§. a customer, ^ ^ landlord. In parsing, these words cannot be taken otherwise than as compounds. (d) Composite adjectives are largely used as nouns to denote a person in such and such an occupation. They usually consist of a transitive verb with object, followed by the particle ; as ^ a cashier, gate-keeper, scholar. But we have also other kinds of com- pounds ; as P^ _h Boor -keeper of yamen, 0 ^ C 6 ] a yamen^clerh, &c., &c. To this class belong all terms formed by adding to a verb or adjective — ^ being in such cases the equivalent of ; as onessenger, a sage. (e) Words belonging to various parts of speech may be taken absolutely as nouns ; especially are adjectives and verbs taken to express abstract ideas. This sense must be brought out by the context, and therefore cannot be exemplified at the beginning of our studies. III. We must leave a margin for dissyllabic words, which cannot be analysed ; as ^ a ^ 5^ cough, sneeze. (The last two examples are onomatopoetic). We also find a few foreign words, as ^ hroad-cloth, ^ ^ grapes, m)r opium. C H APTER III, Number. ^ f It is necessary for the student to bear in mind that common nouns in Chinese as in English rather indicate the nature of an object than signalize its individuality. Hence the singular number as well as the plural must often be specially indicated. For the singular, if the sense be indefinite, the numeral — (one) or an appropriate numerative, but commonly the two united, correspond to the English article a or an. If the sense is definite, a desmonstrative adjective is used, -10A a man, that man. ■ ' For expressing the plural, when persons are spoken of, the syllable may sometimes be appended to the noun ; as women, Tffi soldiers. ^ is used in the same way in writing ; as your majasty’s servant's. But when sums up a list of persons or things, it should be regarded as in apposition to the nouns previously detailed. Hor can we regard ^ and ^ as plural suffixes in such expressions as ^ and ^ they being simply nouns of multitude. Yet they often answer the purpose of a plural. So also an appropriate classifier may he afiixed to form a noun of multitude ; as carts % /E pieces of clothy the people. A real plural is formed by prefixing to the noun some plural adjective, such as ^ or a numeral adjective, or some attributive term implying plurality; as A all living men. The repetition of an -appellative noun commonly gives the sense of each and every ; as AA all meiiy ^ ^ every day. There is an exception in the case of diminutives, which are intensified by repetition ; a,s ^ a very little. Certain numerative classifiers preceding nouns, may be repeated with the same effect as the repetition of the noun itself, ® "0 ^ every man^ ^ every affair y ## ^ But the repetition of the numerative is usually made after the noun on the principle of distributing its meaning previous to use in the sentence, ^ ^ ^ ^ every hent of the houses is new. The independent adjectives IP, % or other distributive words following the noun in the beginning of a sentence will also make it plural, ^ ^ ^ ^ rich people are mostly proudy AlP^Hiiiv all men have conscience. Finally, the plurality of a noun is sometimes so implied by the context that any formal statement is unnecessary. [ 8 ] ChapterIY. Auxiliary Nouns — Numeratives. Since, as has been said, common nouns in Chinese ordinarily indicate the nature of an object, rather than signalize its individuality, it follows that there must he a class of words by the use of which individual subsistence can be indicated. The English has the same idiom, though to a less extent. We say 100 head of cattle, not 100 cattle ; 20 of cloth, not 20 cloths. The Chinese puts the auxiliary noun im- mediately before its principal. The pigeon English has taken ^ X>iccee ’ as a universal numerative, but the Chinese are very discriminating in the use of these words, and the student of Chinese must give considerable- attention to this subject. Nor is there so much difficulty as might be feared, since the auxi- liaries used have usually a manifest reference to some charac- teristic of the object. Numeratives are of two kinds — nouns of unity, denoting individuals, and collectives, denoting groups. Into the same general class must be put nouns denoting quantity, since their idiomatic rules are the same ; as — jr ^ one catty of meat, ® -iF-- four ounces of silver. I therefore use the general term auxiliary nouns to cover the three species, nouns of unity, collectives and nouns of quantity. As to the first class, it should be remarked that 'j® denoting an individual is a common numerative which can be used generally of things whose specific character is not insisted upon. Yet he would be a very inelegant speaker who could not use appropriately most of the words which follow. [ 9 ] Nouns of Unity {taken with little change from Edhins.) an old word meaning a small cup ; numerative of lamps. a sheet ; num. of extended surfaces, as tables, beds, pictures, an old word for a carriage ; num. of sedan-cbairs. ^ an old word for a single bird ; num. of birds, ships, cattle candles, also of things in pairs, when one is individu- alized; legs, eyes, shoes, &c. a branch ; num. of slender things, as pencils, arrows, &c. ^ an axle; num. of pictures and maps on rollers. a place; num. of houses and (redundantly) of places. a club or stake ; num. of affairs. a bedstead; num. of bed-clothes. n an envelope ; num of epistles. a pole ; num. of muskets and balances. ^ a frame-support ; num. of bells, clocks and framed articles. U a root ; num. of things long, as clubs, ropes, masts, &c. P a mouth ; num. of men (considered as consumers of food) water- vessels, coffins, knives; a particular article; num. of men, boxes, occurrences and articles of dress. ^ a roll ; num. of books, rolls, &c. 'j@ an individual ; num. of men, boxes, loaves, cash, written characters, sheaves ; also used generally as above stated. ^ a little kernel ; num. of beads, pearls, &c. a little kernel; num. of trees. ^ the thigh ; num. of roads, walls and detachments of troops, on account of their branching. ^ a tube ; num. of pencils, fifes and other tubular things. ^ a piece ; num. of bricks, boards, dollars, &. a kernel ; num. of grains, also of beads, buttons, &c. ^ a pair of wheels ; num. of wheeled-vehicles. ^ a collar ; num. of things’ rolled over, as mats, straw- spreads, &c. a face ; num. of drums, mirrors and gongs. a grasp of the hand ; num. of fans, knives, chairs, brooms, &c. a root ; num. of books and documents, with allusions to branches from trunk. a mate ; num. of horses and asses. ^ a spread; num. of beds. ^ a fan ; num. of the leaves of doors and shutters. an inclosure ; num. of houses, court-yards, &c. iM! « 7'oad ; num. of rivers and bridges. a head; num. of cattle. a stcitch ; num. of things long and thin, dogs, dragons, snakes, items. a summit ; num. of hats, sedan-chairs. a cluster ; num. of flowers and clouds. ^ a seat ; num. of houses, temples, hills, tombs. honorable ; num. of cannon. 7 ^ alUemh'acing dignity; num. of monumental tablets. ^ an insci'iption ; num. of coins. a tail; num. of fish. a dignity ; num. of gentlemen, princes, &c. a head;, num. of leaves of books, doors, tiles. an eye; num. of fountains. Collectives or nouns of multitude are not peculiar to the Chinese, but there are many nice discriminations as to usage. Particular study given to this subject will be rewarded by fluency and elegance in speech, a travelling com- pany of cai'ts ; — ^ ^ a column of characters ; — ^ ^ ^ a suit of clothing ; — • § a pile of boohs ; are examples given at random. Nouns denoting weight, measure and quantity are construed [ 11 ] in the same way as numeratives, i.e. they stand as auxiliaries immediately before the principal noun. The word ^ meaning a hind may he construed in this way, or he put into the Genitive. We may say either mmA or ^ ^ ^ A- Further rules concerning the use of numeratives will be found below. Chapter V. Numerals. The Chinese numerals are very easily learned, and I think it best to treat of them while on the subject of number. They are invariably given in descending series as in modern English. No conjunctions are used unless there is a break in the series. If one or more cyphers occur, the fact is indi- cated by inserting as — ^ ^ ^ 1030 — * ^ # 10 10,003. Wheii a number is stated without noun or numerative following, the denomination of the lowest figure need not be mentioned, unless a ^ has just been used, leaving the position of the next figure uncertain. jE ^ — means 5,300, £ w zzi means 530. But in translating 5,030, we must say S. ^ ^ zn ; 5,003, is 3 l ^ ^ "O* In stating fractional amounts, ^ means a half; used of four-cornered things means one-fourth, but used of other things means one-tenth. It is the common word for a dime, and ^ are also used for the tenth part ,* as ^ eight-tenths of a harvest. If any other than a decimal division is meant, it should be specified. The more precise way of giving a fraction is first to give the denominator by stating the whole number of parts, and then state the number of parts taken. is the proper word for a party but is also much used in colloquial ; three-fourths f ZH. nz — tu'o- thirds. Fractions, except are attached to whole numbers by ' means of But inasmuch as all numeratives indicate Com- plete individuals, the fraction must follow the numerative ; — 10 ^ ^ ^ ' — , three and one-third, jE ^ ^ S Five years and five months. If the object spoken of is mentioned, the noun may either follow immediately after the numerative, or be put after the fraction. In the former case even must have S H -(0 ^ ^ and both mean 3J months. The words and although indefinite in sense, are so identified with numerals in syntax and usage, that we may designate them indefinite numerals. Approximate numbers are expressed by such forms as ^ IS; + Hi: 10 meaning something over ten. So — + 10 . (but not _ + 1^,) and #+ 10 meaning several tens; also by disjunctive phrases, as izi 0 10, ~ 3E. 10 a few individuals, “p fifty or sixty, wro A + about one-hundred, about five-hundred. can be appended to any round number which is followed by a numerative ; ^ more to any round number from twenty upwards, with or without numerative. i + over fifty, +5l$10 ; ^ excess or to round numbers above ten without numerative, over 400 ; so ^ and Ordinal numbers are formed by prefixing ^ to the car- dinals, ^ + the tenth. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. Years of a reign and months of a year are named according to numerical order, but without as m ^ third month, Fouth Year of Quang Seu. The days of the month also omit but from one to ten they prefix Again in giving one’s rank in a family of brothers, they say Se is the third (second or fifth) brother, without using f [ 13 ] The numerals have certain idiomatic uses which must be noticed, one often takes the place of the indefinite article, which is wanting in Chinese, — ■ a plan. When repeated in successive clauses, it has an alternative sense equivalent to one and another or the owe, and the other ^ — ' US ^ One good, the other had. — ■ is also used in many phrases to denote sameness, con- nection or completeness, — • ^ all the icay, — with one heart. Before verbs it has an adverbial force denoting that their action is immediately followed by something else, which is ex- pressed by an apodosis. ^ is used to denote diversity, mm of a different land. Large whole numbers express indefiniteness or universality, W ^ cf'd hinds of fruits, ^ all things. Small numbers are also used conventionally of certain things, to denote universality, i all hinds of grain, ^ all hinds of beasts, ^ ^ all the inembers of man^s body, ^ ^ the'affections and passions, ^ the four seas, ^ ^ ^ ^ SR Chapter YI. Syntax of Numerals and Numeratives. ' The general rule is that demonstrative adjectives and num- erals,, whether cardinal or ordinal, use a numerative before an appellative noun. We must however, guard this statement in various ways. {a) Of nouns denoting divisions of time 0,^, use no' numeratives ; while 0#M and take 10 ; ^ with cardinal numbers takes 10, with ordinals does not; three years, four hours, four months, the fourth month. £ 14 ] The strokes of a pencil in writing do not take numeratives, — ' t®i[ ^ backward stroke, — r- a horizontal stroke.. '{h) In colloquial speech m and ^ (read lia and sa) are much used instead of and zn Moreover takes the place of as a cardinal, except before and in phrases formed according to the Book-style without numera- tive ; as HI or A two persons, can never be used with a numerative; {c) The larger numerals and ^ are nouns as well as adjectives, (just as in English). Hence they may be used as collectives, doing away with other numeratives, — ■ UK, a myriad of men, a thousand taels of silver, Hi W hundred cash. {d) ^ and ^ appended to numbers displace 10 and often other numeratives before nouns, and can only be used when a number is stated ab- solutely, i.e. without accompanying noun ; of cash have over 200, i!) "P - H ^ « balance of over 200. (e) The use of nouns of unity has no place in Book lan- guage. Hence in all tendencies of the colloquial to a con- densed or elevated style these words disappear, zn 3LA a few persons. (/) In writing inventories or lists of articles, the appel- lative noun stands first, and the numerative after it, % =- 7B cloth three pieces. Words denoting the mutual relation between members of a family have a like idiom, which is current in the most familiar speech, father and son, — 10) brothers. When the object under consideration has already been mentioned the auxiliary nouns may be used independently like pronouns, I want three pieces. The repetition of a numerative has the same effect as a repetition of its principal noun ; viz, to give universality or individuality to the statement, m , everi/ one has ability. If a number is stated absolutely, it need not have a numera- tive, ^ ^ izi I am the third. When the number of objects is stated in a predicate, the verb and not is to be used, ^ zzi there are 3 , 000 . In any predicate a noun of unity may be used without numeral preceding, as a definite article, have a plan. But the language is often constrained, and an — ' bad better be prefixed. Chapter YII. The Possessive Case. Leaving the subject of number, we take up that of case. As in English the original form of the n6un serves in the nomina- tive, objective and vocative cases. We also find the noun used without change of form in an absolute case to express the sphere or the manner of an action. The possessive case alone has etymological peculiarities. The general rule is that the appending of to an appella- tive noun makes a possessive, just as adding ^s does in English; ^ man^s. The power of appended to any word is to make' a new conception, which includes all the surroundings of the original word or idea — everything belonging to it, or actuated by it. It therefore covers the ground of •several English terminations ; not only the possessive ’s, but the ad- jective endings an, ous, y &c., and even encroaches upon the adverbial ly. When attached to an unqualified noun, (i.e. a noun not preceded by a descriptive adjective) will always have a possessive sense, except when said noun denote a material. Then it wiU mean of such a material. In ^ earthen, golden and such terms, = en. If the possessive case of such nouns is to be expressed, they must he preceded by a numerative or demonstrative so as to indicate an individual object, — ■ ^ ^ belonging to a piece of cloth. '^^^len any noun is preceded by a qualifying adjective, the sense given to ^ following will be adjective rather than possessive, unless a numerative or demonstrative precede, means pertaining to an adult, SP 10 A A 6^. means that grown mards. Indeed the remark may be made generally, that we are only sure of a possessive sense, when the noun definitely designates some concrete object. When the word governing the possessive noun is expressed, it follows, as in English ; B9 Hi M the products of the soil. Thus standing in regimen the possessive noun may, under certain circumstances, omit the particle 1. When two successive nouns would he possessive, it is often possible to treat one of them as an adjective, A is better than ^ Yet the full form may be used if necessary for clearness, or desirable for emphasis. 2. A demonstrative following the possessive may do away with the learning 'of Mr. Wang's. 3. When the possessive noun is followed by an emphatic or caesural pause, is omitted, that man there, (his) contenance is very good, liijiB, 10^ donkey — his body is too stnall. The Wenli particle often occurs in Quan Hwa in place of 6^5 as a sign of the possessive. It is a relief, when - occurs very frequently, but there should be approximation to Wenli style in the immediate context. Otherwise a ludicrous effect will be made. Beginners had best use ^ only in quotations. [17 ] CnAPTERYIII. Attributives. Besides numerals there are certain adjectives used attributi- vely, which”quantify, so to speak, their nouns. They are ^ all, each, every, Jl with its compounds iK)i and JIW, meaning each and every, the tohole number of, ^ many, ^ very many, (interrogative) hoiv many ^ and when persons are respectfully spoken of, take the numerative my respected young friends so, Ik 'fe A- But before a monosyllable the single words only can be used. Hence we say ^ without disrespect. With these exceptions, the words mentioned do not use numeratives. The dissyllables ^ and ^ use the particle 1^; p, very many cattle. [Some of these words have other uses which may be men- tioned in passing, IK may he a noun meaning the multitude ; ^ and stand independently before verbs denoting every occasion or instance ; is also adjective meaning secular, and a noun meaning the world.'] We come now to speak of those attributives which ascribe qualities. Their etymological character is quite varied. Unqualified nouns and verbs, which can he used to denote qualities, become attributives by simply standing before a iioun, 'fH ^ a virtuous man, ^ love, affection, ^ mode of reading. The same is true of simple unmodified adjectives, a good man, an equitable plan. This last may seem an obvious remark, hut the point we are approaching is the use of the particle |^. When the nouns, adjectives and verbs used are themselves combined with other words either preceding or following them ' [ 18 ] SO as to form composite attributive terms, they may still stand ill immediate contact with the principal noun, i.e. without 1^* This is most apt to occur if both’ attributive and principal word are dissyllables, as ^ ^ ^ dark-hhie color clothing; or if a possessive in ^ has just been used (to avoid offensive repetition) ; or if one is writing in a high style of mandarin — such as is used in the Peking Gazette. But the general rule of the colloquial is that polysyllabic attributives shall append before nouns, superior hehaviour. In the forming of such phrases, nouns preceded by adjec- tives and followed by resemble in form possessive nouns, but it will be observed that the meaning expressed is of a different kind. In the possessive we have a term denoting an adjective thing — the possessor — where as in attributive adjec- tives a quality is denoted. Adjectives used as attributives may be duplicated in various ways, or modified by adverbs preceding them ; as a level easy highway^ the largest stone. This topic will be more fully treated under adjectives. Verbal attributives may be formed by appending a to any of the root-forms of the verb, (except that which we shall call anticipatary), the words spoken, the injured man. Not only may rudimentary forms of the verb be used, but these may be further expanded, by the addi- tion of a subject, an object, an auxiliary, a tense-sign or an adverb, and yet the appending of a |^, and often times mere location before a noun, is sufficient to make the whole clause become one composite adjective. lohat some one gave me last year. Long clauses may thus be made to do service as attributives many of which in English would have to be appended as relative clauses. The meaning of these verbal adjectives is apt to be passive [ 19 ] or intransitive if the verb is without an object, and active transitive if it has an object, J |^, sold or for sale, made to order, M ^ ^ ^ a floiver-shop. Yet the more general principal is simply that they mention a characteristic of the governing noun. Ilence in ^ a basin for face-washing, we have an exception to the preced- ing remark. This is also an instance of the freedom with which ^ may be omitted, when a single verb with’ an object constitute the composite attributive. So Frinting- house, M W Medical Fispensar^j. The Participial Pronoun & f - When a verbal adjective designates the object of an action^ the word ^Jf may stand before the verb in the composite term, the boohs which are read. This word is nearly equivalent to the English that which, and is the logical object of the verb following, — (except in the case of denoting existence). Probably the primary meaning of m was an enclosed place.” It thence came to mean the nontents of a conception or the scope of an action. In a verbal clause must be placed after the subject and any notes of time, but may have adverbs and auxiliaries intervening between it and the verb, , that ichich I certainly expected. If no subject precedes in the verbal clause, it will of course have a broader scope of meaning, and if emphasis is put upon m a universal sense will result, all the houses built are good ones. The verb to have, when used impersonally has only the force of affirming the existence of an object. If it be followed we have a phrase meaning some. If preceded by it means all some cidtivate the ground, W S'? medical boohs, being used in verbal attribu- tives, 1^ may still be retained, but becomes less essential. [ 20 ] The demonstratives may take its place, the words heard.. I Integral propositions in which the predicate is an adjective are also liable to use in the form of attributives ; as in ^ having great courage. The freedom with which composite adjectives can be formed is indeed one of the strong points of the Chinese language. The universal statement should be made that any group of words which expresses a suitable conception, may be used as an attributive. The student who fully apprehends this fact will get at one swoop a considerable part of Chinese Grammar. When two or more such adjectives are used to qualify a noun a single ^ at the end may -suffice for all, it fll 135 those xcho reared and taught you. If a demonstrative adjective is also used, it commonly precedes the attributive; but if the latter be a long phrase, the sentence runs easier with the demonstrative immediately before the noun, ^ ^ ® ^ ^ he xcho asked you to teach. In the latter case, the attributive has the full force of a relative clause. It has been given as a general rule that attributives stand before nouns. We have now to qualify that statement. (1) In the earlier part of a sentence, when two or more attributives are used, belonging to one class of ideas, they are apt to be put after the noun, on the principal of distributing its meaning, M ^ foreign, cloth j redy yellow and hluOy all on hand. Even simple adjec- tives if antithetical, can be so placed, the church memhex'Sy male and female have all come. It will bo noticed that the English has the same idiom. (2) In any part of a sentence, details may be given or a parenthesis inserted, by a very similar idiom, A. — ^ — ■ created man one male one female. ^ or preceding the adjectives makes the sense indiscriminate. [ 21 ] (3) Composite adjectives are often inserted parenthetically after their nouns, introduced by a demonstrative. The effect is to give a more special account of the person or thing, 6^ ^ SB ^ ^ native seholars who are studious. Often the parenthesis is not closed, and the composite adjective becomes the subject or prosthetic object of the prin- cipal verb of the sentence. In other words, a general class having been mentioned, a particular part of that class may be specified by a composite adjective, and a statement be made concerning such part. (4) Composite adjectives with |^, or containing without ^ 1^, can all be used substantively, that is, without nouns following; simple descriptive adjectives by adding j^, come into the same category. In consequence of this substantive character, such adjectives standing in the predicate must be introduced by a copula or a transitive verb, ^ 9 ood conduct is important. They have in themselves no predicative power. In this they are radically distinguished from simple adjectives; and may take an independent place among the “ dead words of the language. When verbal attributives with are used substantively, the 1^ may generally be dropped, ^ what is seen aud heard. The book-style uses ^ in place of |^, when composite attributives stand before a noun, but fails to fill the place of 1^, when the attributive is used independently. ^ is then to be substituted or another mode of expression chosen. / [ 22 ] Chapter IX. Apposition, — Independent Distributives. I. When nouns are in apposition, a descriptive designation precedes a proper name, H 6^ ^ HR Chang Third’ s father Chang Shun I. The descriptive term can only follow when it is of a parenthetical character, ^ Li Foiirth his gate-heeper . Titles attached to proper names do not fall under this rule, since the proper name becomes an attributive of the title, ^ ^ ^ A given name follows the family name as being more specific. II. An enumeration of parts may stand in apposition to a whole, the order of precedence being determined by the sense. If details are to be specified, they stand last. If a summing up is to be made, the whole follows. III. Independent distributives. By this term I wish to signalize a class of quantitative terms which stand after a subject or prosthetic object to indicate to what extent it is concerned in the action of the following verb. The adjectives thus used are -^5 m ^ # and example, the people have all come local customs each has peculiarities. ^ can only be regarded as a distribu- tive when standing before the impersonal Before other verbs it becomes an adverb. The other words also may refer back to an independent noun denoting circumstances, in such a way as to be very like adverbs in sense yet grammatically they are still adjectives, , a man in all circumstances, should exert himself. It should be remarked that while the English language has this idiom of using distributives, it is more prevalent and more essential in Chinese. A number of nouns having been men- tioned, there is danger that the statement about to he made will refer only to the last, unless some distributive is used. When distributives refer to a prosthetic, they are usually separated from it by the subject of the sentence, Wxm t tlmj he is shilled in all kinds oftcork. Should both subject and prosthetic object be plural, there is danger of ambiguity as to the reference of the distributive, but the presumption is in favor of the object. To distribute the subject also an additional distributive may be added, # A W X lis # are all able to do all kinds of ivork. Distributives are only separated from the verb by words modifying the latter. Even notes of time must precede them, 5^ ^ ^ ^ to-morrow all will he seen. The dissyllabic forms ^ ^ and are sometimes to be preferred as more emphatic, sometimes for the sake of rhythm. When the statement to be made is not universal, a partitive term may be used as distributive ; such as ^ A ^ 29 ^ ^ — &c., &c. Ex. :|[iAAAi«^A1®^. Northerners are mostly large. In this case the corresponding English idiom would not allow the distributive to be in apposition. It would put the partitive preposition of before the noun, making a genitive relation ; of Northerners the most part are large. The student should bear in mind this idiom of distributives as one of the prevailing characteristics of a Chinese sentence. [24] Chapter X. Pronouns, — Personal and Reflexive. The several kinds of pronouns known to Western Grammar, with the exception of the relative and correlative have good equivalents in Chinese. I. Personal pronouns. The current words of the Quan Hwa are for the three persons singular. The personality of the 3rd person 'ftfii is more decided than in English, so that one often feels the want of a good equivalent for the neuter it. m can he used to a great extent, hut hy giving personality to the object, tends to vulgarity. Happily the Chinese idiom often allows of the omission of subject or object; advantage may be taken of this to avoid m in the neuter. A demonstrative — a repetition of the noun — or in extreme cases a resort to the Wenli possessive ^ and objec- tive may also relieve this slight difficulty. In the Wenli M is an adjective meaning ot/ie?\ The presence or absence of a noun will usually distinguish the pronoun from the adjective. When two persons are spoken of, repeated in two succes- sive clauses will designate each one respectively — t/ie one and tAe other, Pif P -y, 'flfii M. llfii PE that couple — one drinks, the other smokes. This is one way of supplying the want of correlative pronouns. The plural of personal pronouns is formed by appending But the plural of the 1st person presents, in Shantung, two additional forms. (1) ^ has a narrowly selfish sense distinguishing the speaker and his class from all about him. (2) ^ which is also contracted into has a broader sense, admitting a larger fellowship, hut still implying an antithesis to another party. A native scholar tells me that ^ ffl is antithetical to jR, If -ffl to 'lift (3) Jl ff1 or is the broadest of all bringing all parties, speaker, bearer and bystanders into one friendly fellowship. The Pekinese uses to cover the sense of ^ . The possessive case of both singular and plural is regularly formed by adding j^, but not invariably, position before a noun being often sufficient to denote a possessive relation. 1. The omission of is frequent when one’s relatives are spoken of, my father^ jlfe his hrother, and quite allowable (if not ambiguous) before many other words, ^ ^Ij>, ^ 2. The insertion of- a demonstrative instead of using is more common after pronouns than after nouns, ^ fha^ house of his, n in ^0 this pen of mine. Except in well ascertained idioms it is best always to use j^, first because its omission savors of pedantry, and second, to avoid confusion with the idiom about to be mentioned. The appending of an explanatory noun-pbrase in apposi- tion to the pronoun is a common idiom in Chinese as in English, ^ we three. The Chinese however is more free to add such a term to the 3rd personal pronoun, iJj M A they Shansi people. The explanatory term is sometimes of a demonstrative character, Jh ^ you this wicked servant ; but caution is needed to avoid a possessive sense. All depends on the sense of the noun. a ia. K are fami- liar cases of apposition ; while n ia 10 10 0R- 9re as possessives. The book- word ^ is used to some extent in the colloquial as a 3rd sing, possessive It is much used with the locatives, as in in the midst of it, ^ _b., S ^ &c. II. Eeflexive Pronouns. The ordinary word is Q S* r 26 ] j.n Peking is common, in Shantung g ^ and 2i 10 In abbreviated expressions § and ^re used separately, perhaps with the distinction that § is more used in the nominative, & in the possessive and objective, gwaii' self injure self, Q ^ self -destroy , A ^ij e. , injure others and benefit oneself § may be qualified by the a'djectives and ^ g ^ is more beard in Peking than in Shantung. When joined to the personal pronouns the reflexives follow as in English, a g a I myself, I in person. The reflexive pronouns are more used in Chinese than in English, often occurring where we would merely use a per- sonal pronoun. Especially is this needed in the 3rd person, since lift used might direct the attention to some new party; flti ^ 7 m ^ n he hilled his father might mean some other man's father. If his own father is meant Q 2* is unambiguous. The terms and are often used in place of the reflexives. [27 J CHArXERXI. Demonstratives and Inter rogatives. ' I. Demonstratives, like the corresponding words in English, serve both as adjectives and as pronouns. In the Mandarin of Chihli and Shantung the words used are- and J|5* The hook-language uses ^ that and it this, which some- times appear in the colloquial, but are limited to a few set phrases, as itt ^ jtfc, itk all meaning at this place also 0 itfc- Aic Jit. and and ^ ^ the other \Jieavenhj'] shore. ^ is also used as a demonstrative. Its sense is nearer that of the article the, than that of either demonstrative. Jg, and may he used either alone or followed by a numerative, hut the latter is the more common idiom, especially in the objective case; this is a good one, is sufficiently common ; I want that, ^Ij come here are less used than ^ JR *10, S* The general numerative "O may he used more freely in pronouns than in adjectives, since in the latter it stands in immediate contact with the noun ; ia, I u'ill huy this, may he said of a book as well as anything else. But is much more ' elfegant than mn ia. Hence when demonstratives are used as pronouns ^ i@ and are the usual forms, while as adjectives they select numeratives appropriate to their nouns. The plural number of demonstratives may be indicated by a change in the numerative from a noun of unity to a collec- tive classifi'er. The most general collective is which may be regarded as the plural of "(Q- A. this man, ig ® A men. But we also hear the longer forms € '^10 and SB * Other collectives express of course more special [ 28 ] ideas ; that flock of sheep. The number of objects referred to, whether one or many, may be definitely specified by numerals following the demonstratives, the noun of unity being still used; ^ ^ ^ these few pencils, ^ ^ those ten bent of houses. The selection of an appropriate numerative whether singu- lar or plural, is proper whenever the principal noun is mentioned in the immediate connection, but not when the nature of the object is yet undefined ; ^ ^ that piece is substantial, implies that discourse, or at least, the attention of the speakers is directed to samples of cloth. The substantive character and definiteness given to demon- stratives by appending numerativcs enables the Chinese to omit the noun in many cases where the English would insert it, or use the word one. It also enables the demonstratives in rare cases to form a possessive case, by appending to the numerative; the father of that one. ig and of themselves cannot form a possessive case. It has already been implied that demonstratives stand before their nouns. They also precede any simple descriptive adjectives, just as in English ; ^ Q ichite stone. The greater independence of composite adjectives, especially when they contain verbs, allows the demonstrative to stand after them; dyed red — that sheet of paper. The composite then becomes an antecedent to the demon- strative. (or mm) may have a noun antecedent ; — ‘ "(0 ^ IS, 3JR ^ ^ The want of a definite article is usually supplied hy using the demonstratives, 0|5 or as in ^ ^ The antithesis between and ^ "(0 is made use of to express the correlative ideas — this and the other, or inde- finitely one and another. This is another way of supplying the want of a correlative pronoun. To express an indefinite correlative the words m, m fiif, # or # are put in [ 29 ] antithesis to the demonstratives. and are used either with nouns or independently ; have no other. and are used ydth monosyllabic nouns ; ^iJA, The Wenli demonstratives ^ and itfc used together give a reciprocal sense, hut the compound almost loses the charac- ter of a pronoun being only used in apposition to the subject or other leading word of a sentence ; they mutually have obligations, our mutual fri'enclship. This is the nearest expression the Chinese have to our reciprocal pronoun. The adverbs and s * prefixed to verbs give a very similar sense. II. Interrogatives. The demonstrave m, by being read in the Shang Sheng, becomes an interrogative meaning which. In writing, the distinction is indicated by a small circle at the left upper corner of the character ; ^j) — ■ 'f®, ivhich one The idoms of the word in this sense are in most respects the same as when used demonstratively. In the plural it appends ^ '(Q instead oi ^ "(Q tvhieh (few) of them. The use of ^|) “fQ in the sense of ivho is a Southern pecu- liarity ; but — ■ 10 which man, is current Quan Hwa. The English what ? has it equivalent in ® ft Jt, PM JS’ which are all equivalent and interchangeable, except that cannot stand at the beginning of a sentence ; tvhat thing ? I have never heard ff" but others probably have, is heard in some parts of Shantung, and Honan, ^ is generally used in Shantung in the objective case; ^ ^ ivhat are you huying ? ^ ^ is current everywhere, and is decidedly to be preferred. In the nominative and objective cases ® ^ &c., may stand independently as a pronoun ; but the appending of does not give a possessive sense. It inquires as to the material of which a thing is composed; ® J® of what is this paper made ? To gei; a possessive sense, a noun must be used with ^ ^ ; the dialect of what place ? The book-language has to mean what ? used without numerative either as adjective or pronoun. It is often heard in the conversation of educated and would-be-educated people, iS' ® fr A , tcho are you ? jN^either nor need any change for the plural. The Northern mandarin uses ^ as interrogative personal pronoun, with a possessive case formed by adding |^, but no distinction of singular and plural, tcho, whose. It differs from the other interrogatives in that it cannot be used as an adjective. As to syntax, it is not necessary to put the interrogatives at the beginning of the sentence as in English. They take their normal places as subjects or objects of verbs dr attributives to nouns; , what do you want ? nm u'hom do you seek ? When the verb is neuter, so that two subjects are used, the interrogative may be found either before or after the verb, but in the case of and @ with a distinction of sense. When used after the copula they call for a description or particular designation of the person or thing ; m, who is your father ? , what is that ? It win be seen that the order of words is reversed in the two languages. When used before the copula, these interrogatives convey the idea of indentifying the person or thing. A mis- taken identification may be implied ; icho is my mother ? mx icho is a servant ? (imply- ing that the person spoken of is not.) ^ and ^ as objects of verbs have an indefinite sense, if the verb is emphasized; he has gone to buy something. According to a general principle of correlation, any inter- rogative may be used in, an indefinite sense in the protasis of [31.] of a sentence, with the same or a definite term answering to, it in the apodosis ; (4 ii. ii ^ W Aii * whoever you call, can go. In a subordinate clause at the beginning of a sentence is indefinite; ^ W ^ ^ "4* ' '^^^loever has money may enter. When connected with a negative verb either as subject or object, all the iuterrogatives have a general sense; am not seeking any one, ^ knows. The indefinite object of a negative sentence if emphatic, will often go .to the head of the sentence according to the idiom of the prosthetic object. always takes this place, none (of these tables) is satisfactory. As in the last two examples, so generally, when interroga- tives stand at the beginning of a negative sentence, the conjunction is inserted to make the universal sense more distinct. The want of a relative pronoun makes so great a difference between Chinese and English idiom, that I here insert, for the benefit of more advanced students, some notes as to the man- ner in which this want is supplied. 1. A sentence may run on very much as in English, without anything to represent the relative. This is the common rule when the impersonal verbs ^ and ^ (corresponding to English “ there is ” and there is not) begin a sentence, and the relative clause contains the essential idea to be expressed. The sentence — “ there are men who think only of making money becomes in Chinese 2. The relative clause, when subordinate, may be made the protasis of a complex sentence ; W'W , is a good rendering of the man who is conscience- clear, need not fear.” 3. If the clause be introduced parenthetically, and preceded by a caesural pause, the 3rd personal pronoun may take the place of the relative ; X ■ [32] ^ m M“ a student whose mind is not on his work will not make progress.” 4. The place of the relative being vacant, the verb may he altered into a participle in ^ ^ A ^ “ there are men icho depend upon trickery for their living ^ The most common rule is that the relative clause he changed into a composite adjective, qualifying the noun which in English would be its antecedent. But we must distinguish three forms. {(i) If in English the relative pronoun be the subject of the clause, the composite adjective will have a verb without sub- ject; “ thorn who love me will keep my commandments” A demonstrative pronoun often heads such a phrase ; ^ ^ ^ &c. It has no numera- tive and becomes part and parcel of the composite word. {h) If in English the relative is the object of the clause, the compound adjective will have a verb without object; ^ 1 A’ ivork which I have done.’' The word is often introduced before the verb. It does not alter the sense, being only a fuller and more formal mode of expression. (c) When the noun qualified by a relative clause is at the beginning of a sentence, the constructive adjective may be brought in parenthetically after the noun, introduced by a demonstrative adjective or by the disciples whom he selected. 6. When in English descriptive clauses are appended to a sentence by means of a relative pronoun, it is necessary in Chinese to divide the sentence. The first sentence in the Epistle to the Hebrews is an example. See Mandarin Version. [ 33 ] Chapter XII . Locative XorNs. We have now completed our survey of the term^by which objects are designated. But time and space, though not sub- stances, are realities, and the Chinese treat the words which designate them as nouns, though differing in many respects from those hitherto mentioned. We must therefore make a special chapter for locatives, which will embrace much material commonly placed under adverbs of time and place. Location in time or space may be indicated in explicit terms by using the appellative nouns ® &c., for place, and x^, 0 ^ &c., for time. These words may be preceded by demonstratives and adjectives, of all kinds, either simple or compound ; ^ this timCy to-morrow the north, the vicinity, 5^ on the ground. They may also be duplicated or enter into other combinations ; ^ ^ every day, every instant, ^ everywhere. But in additional to appellative nouns, there is a peculiar class of words used to express relative location. They are called by some post- positions, by others locative nouns. They are the eight points of the compass, and such words as ±. ft- H- #. They are called post-positions because they stand after the noun, by reference to which they define situation ; the space about the door, ^ ^ in the house, ^ Jt on the table. The English syllable icards may be mentioned as analogous, eastward, heavenward &c. I will spe ak first of location in space. When separation from the object mentioned is implied, an may introduce the post-position. Thus §§ means on the head, §§ Jt means above the head. But with most post-positions the makes no difference. [ 34 J The amount of distance is expressed by noun-phrases foUow- iiig; three feet from the ground. All of the words mentioned except ^ may serve as locative adjectives qualifjdng El and such words. h , T. W, may also serve as adverbs before verbs; to ascend, ^|| to go foncard. But even these, with all the rest (except ^ ) when preceding verbs are apt to be intro- duced by ^^5 retaining their character as nouns. The demonstratives ia and may be made to indicate location in space by appending in general mandarin, % in Pekinese. The interrogative ^[) has the same power ; ^ here, mm there, where ? and W are also' appended, and (in Pekinese) ^ When location is determined by reference to a person, the noun denoting the person is followed by the demonstratives is ^ and &c., or by 0 ^ The English locative ichere, in its interrogative sense is exactly translated by but ^f) ^ like other interroga- tives, has also an “ indefinite sense (1) in negative sentences, (2) when followed by distributive (3) when used in the protasis of a complex sentence ; , no matter where, anywhere will do, . Where in its relative sense is wanting in Chinese. The same general sense may often be reached by using the An exact rendering is secured by changing the clause introduced by where into a composite adjective followed by ^ ^ 01* like word ; I saic the place where he lived. , ' Terms denoting relative time are lly and ^ appended to nouns to indicate precedence or sequence in time. They may be attached directly, or by means of ^ IS M Jt ^ of Kimig Sen. More frequently time is determined relatively by reference to some event. Precedence or sequence is indi- cated by appending or ^ to a clause mentioning the event ; after 'the Advent. and io sometimes require that the preceding verb be negative ; before I came. In such sen- tences there is often an implied contrast of some kind between the earlier and the later period, or an emphasis on the length of ' time. The amount of time intervening is expressed by noun-phrases which follow the post-position; zn ^ three daijs after starting. If the time is stated relatively to the present moment]|S*,^ and ^ need no noun preceding them, but cannot be used alone. Hence the dissyllabic forms, &c. Or the amount of time may be given either preceded or followed by the monosyllables and or The demonstratives. and ^5 denote coincidence , or difference of time by appending and t non\ then. The interrogatives are ^ P’g, The relative ^chen like other relatives, has no equivalent in Chinese. The lack is often supplied in the- same way as speci- fied concerning where, the word 9# ^ or some equivalent being put after the composite adjective. But very commonly when the English would have a subordinate clause introduced by when, the Chinese simply omits that word leaving the clause to stand absolutely as a note of time ; u'hen you go there you will see him. Such being the etymology of locative nouns, we proceed to consider their syntax-^for these terms whether they contain appellative nouns alone or add post-positions to them or take still more extended forms — , have their common idioms which bring them into one class. 1. They are used independently at the beginning of a sen- tence before impersonal verbs — especially to denote circumstances of time and place ; ^ ^ ^ in the city, there are good houses H ^ ® ; yesterday there passed one. 2. They stand as subjects to the neuter verb ; this is just the time ; South- \card the country is xcet. 3. When verbs with subjects are used, the time of action is still commonly indicated by a locative noun, used independently at the .bead of the sentence ; ^ that day I teas sick. Yet if a clause of some length is used to state the time, it may be introduced by a pre- position — by ^ or or if a later date is given, by ^Ij, ^ ^ ^ ^ P) during the time of Hien Feng ; coming down to the tune ap>pointed. 4. When the main verb has a subject, the terms denoting place, where are generally' introduced by a preposition — and mostly by A variety of senses is secured by the post- positions ; in the city I have two schools. 5. When circumstances of time and place (and not predica- tive ideas) are to be mentioned, it is a fixed rule that the terms must stand at the beginning of the sentence, but whether before or after the subject is not invariable. The controlling principle seems to be that the broader term should precede and the more specific follow. Thus if one is speaking in a biographic strain, the personal pronoun will take the lead of the sentence ; if in a descriptive or historic strain, the time or place will be mentioned first. 6. If circumstances of time and space are both given, the former generally precede ; the other day, on the street met him. [37] 7. Some of these terms may also stand between the subject and the verb, either limiting the former in its relation to the verb or as an adverb modifying the verb. In either case the terms are used without' prepositions ; he, in his menial treasury, has much learning. 8. All the locative terms which have been mentioned may he followed by forming a genitive or a constructive adjective ; the cap on his head; ^ in future events. 9. In the predicate the locatives are governed either by prepositions or verbs ; he lives outside the city; ^ 135 ^ ^ ^ ^ all my clothes pawned at Tsi Ning; talked right down to the present moment. 10. When verbs of motion have locative terms to indicate the direction of their motion, such terms are not usually governed by the verb, but are put before it governed by pre- positions ; he ivent East. Yet I have heard in Honan S whither are you going, and 1 ^ ® you do not go to the landing. [38] 2xd Group— LI VINa WORDS OR PREDICATES. Chapter XIII. The Predicate — Tenses and Moods. The common characteristic of the classes of words about to he discussed is that they ascribe qualities, actions, states and relations to their subjects. In other words, they are the living’’ as distinguished from the “dead words” of the lan- guage. In thus conforming to the nomenclature of the native Grammar, I accept what seems to me the only eligible analysis — one which leads us on without much repetition or confusion to a complete view of our subject. . We may distinguish at least seven kinds of predicates ; viz. adjectives, assimilants, verbs, adverbs, qualified nouns, integral propositions and phrases with the preposition These will he described in the sequel. But they all have common idioms for expressing mood and tense, I therefore introduce at this point a general account of, !Moods and Tenses. 1. The first distinction to be remarked is that effected by a terminal addition. The appendending of the verb to com- plete in the character of a particle, and usually read B^iJ, gives a completive ot perfect sense. We therefore have in the predicate either (1) a simple root- form which is the ■ un- changed word and speaks of the action or state as occurring or existing, or (2) a perfect root-form which speaks of it as consummated ; make — ftT made. 2. These two root-forms without fn ve as present and present -perfect t« . ' other notes of time preceding mnv r past or future. We have therefore six tense* ; Present ana perfect, past and past-perfect, future and future-perfect. [ 39 ] The. auxiliaries used to denote past tense are ^ and for the positive and ■ 1^’ foi* the negative. But, the two positive auxiliaries are limited in use to a literary style. Hence our dependence must be upon other notes of time preceding the predicate — such as §§ or some more definite statement, as, &c. The monosyllables ^ and 5(^ are used with monosyllabic predicates. 4. The auxiliaries of the future aie denoting simple futurity, mil and shall, with the compound forms m The negative has only — is often without auxiliary, as even the positive may be, the tense being determined by adverbs or other notes of time preceding. The notes of time are any words denoting future time, w^h ether general or giving a definite date, such as itl:# &c., &c. The auxiliary ^ cannot he used ill connection with these notes of time, but the others may and usually should. 5. Even in the present and present-perfect notes of time are often prefixed ; in the present because of a vagueness as to time, which is fitting when we speak of what is habitual, but should be dissipated when we speak of a special event, or emphasize the immediate present, just as we use the adverb note in English. In the present-perfect w^henever already would be proper in English, we may prefix the auxiliaries Ei? E ^ The words used with the present are iE, &c. 6. The term conditional mood may be, used of a group of forms obtained by using various auxiliary verbs denoting obligation — necessity — propriety — ability — inclination (corres- ponding to the English ?nay, can, must and ought). These words have so much of independence that they may be em- phasized by adverbs preceding them. [40] To express ability ^ and ^ are used ; for aequired ability ^ ; for inclination ® jp M> as 0 M . M M 7 • Often one is inclined to regard these as princi^l verbs with an infinitive following, hut they certainly serve the purpose of the auxil- iaries. The forms into which they enter have the range of all the tenses, which is effected by prefixing notes of time. Obtigation is expressed by. ® ^ 1®, ^ I®, propriety by or and necessity by These are of course limited to the present and future tenses. In all these forms of the conditional mood .it does not matter much whether the imperfect or the perfect root-form he used, yet the distinction mentioned above should not be forgotten. 7. Interrogative predicates are made either by giving a positive and a negative as alternatives — which can only be done when the predicate is brief — or by appending the inter- rogative particle /^. xls § ^ and ^ j§- 8. The Chinese has also a potential mood formed by appending ma is sometimes used) to the simple root-form. It denotes possibility or propriety. The negative using (or ^ T ) is more called for, than the positive. 9. The suggestive mood proposes or requires some action. It has all three persons — the second person being the impera- tive, if given with emphasis. This mood takes both imperfect and perfect root-forms. It is apt to append the particle ^ — originally a verb meaning to have done with a thing — or m- The auxiliaries and ^ may be used, and serve to soften the harshness of a command, but are not essential. -In the second person, i.e. the imperative, the subject is often wanting. Its negative uses ^ ^ contracted into m (or ^). The TVenli equivalents of are T^he negative of the first and third persons uses simply id no auxiliary verbs. [41] 10. Of the infinitive it need only be remarked that it takes both root-forms without auxiliary or inflection, except that in certain connections it is introduced hy ja- « is used for euphony after some monosyllables governing infinitives ; especially after the adjective ^ and the verb 11. The following blank paradigm may be of use. Indicative Mood. Present tense ror lE , Perfect "]f X • Past tense ^ ||y > Past-perfect T • Future Jense ^ ^ F uture-perf ect ^ T . Conditional Mood. Present . mm- -or X * Part. . . ^ ^ or f • Future. . or— T- Potential Mood. Positive Negative Suggestive Mood. 1st Pers. ^ H 2nd ^ or X H Infinitive Mood. or X * 12. Active transitive verbs have numerous forms not ex- pressed in this sketch. They will be added when we treat specially of verbs. [42] Chapter XIV. . Adjectives. • ' These are words ascribing some quality to a person or thing. They differ from the English descriptive adjectives in that they have a predicative as well as an attributive use. Hence their introduction here. I. They are primarily single words, as true, ^ high. 1. Two approximately synonomous words may be combined ^s"one adjective, as dnj-clean, ^)\ intelligent. Some four word groups are used, as 3E A ^ magnanimons, generous. There are also adjectives made up primarily from other parts of speech, as ^l] ^ violent, ^ equitable, ^ bustling, ^ centrally lomted, ^ ^ &c. These simple adjectives may he modified in meaning by words preceding or following. 2. Adverbs indicating degree may precede as urn very good, , very clear, ^ ^ very heavy, too small, Mk still larger, most delightful, extremely distinct. Adjectives may also be preceded by the names of things possessing the quality spoken of; ^ Q snoic- white, ice-cold. A noun-phrase may precede indicat- ing the degree or amount of the quality; ^ ^ three-feet high ; eight- tenths cooked. 3. Simple adjectives, when used as predicates, may he modi- fied by words following them, {a) The adverb m may he attached by means of the particle often pronounced as mniS: very high. The vulgar dialect uses mm in the same way; ^l] terribly deeq). Cases also occur in which a whole clause follows modifying the adjective ; so heavy that a man cannot lift it. {b) Other affixed adverbs are such as ^ X ’ ^ X’ supremely good, much more sub- stantial. Some dissyllabic Adjectives take ^ or ^ [43] (c) The particle with which we will become better acquainted under verbs, follows some adjectives with an intensive force, in the combination ^ as ^ # far-fav-aicay ; :fn ^ very austere, {cl) Noun-phrases denoting amount of difference and measure- ment may follow adjectives ; a little better ; (a more formal and bookish expression than ~R used when several dimensions are given.) 4. Adjectives are followed by infinitive verbs as in English; fair to look at ; ^ difpcult to manage. 5. One way of expressing a favorable comparison is to add a tk, M or to the adjective, 'after which the second term is introduced as an object; :A: ^ 1@ larger than that; better than mine. In these cases the second noun must be regarded as governed by the appended word; but sometimes no such word is used, and the adjective itself governs the second term. Tliis only occurs when successive objects of the same class are compared ; — ’ ^ ^ — ^ ecfch layer higher than the 2 ^revious. 6. Adjectives take to indicate that the quality has been acquired or increased ; ni has got well; X btyome clear. 7. They also take the future and conditional auxiliaries ; ^ ^ T 9^^ well; ^ 5 ilj^ ^ ^ tvill he a little more accommodating. 8. Examples of adjectives in the potential mood are, ^ cannot be dispensed ivith ; ^ X cannot be many ; in the imperative ^ ^ do not be silent ; ^c quieted ; while in cause me to become poor^ we have an accusative with an infinitive adjective. 9. Negative adjectives are formed by prefixing ^ and interrogatives by putting a negative after a positive word ; jtf ^ kit good r [ 44] II. .cUl the forms which have been mentioned have a predicative power and may stand immediately after the subject of a sentence ; this is large, &c., &c. In fact the distinction between adjectives and’ verbs melts away and we treat these adjective predicates very much as we would intransitive verbs. The insertion of a neuter verb as copula is often allowable and sometimes desireable for the sake of emphasis or euphony ; S your 2^'^^'pose is good. But in such a sentence it is more common to add making a substantive adjective. Instead of the neuter copula, we may use intransitive verbs with to introduce the adjective predicate, indicating how the subject came to have the quality ascribed to it ; ^ ^ the grass has grown tall. III. But adjectives have other uses besides that of making predicates. 1. The simple adjectives, together with all forms in which a modifying word precedes, can be used attributively. The forms mentioned in paragraph 3, in which the modifying word - follows are so essentially predicative that they can not be worked up as attributives. Those in paragraph 4, and onwards to 7, may form composite adjectives b}’ appending , an easily read bool'; ^ &f| A a stronger man than he. 2. The general rule for adjectives, as for other words, is that all polysyllables used attributively take ^ ; yet there are exceptions — as when a compound term has the character of a simple adjective, e. g. ^ ^ an honest man; ^ sincere words. A dissyllabic adjective before a dissyllabic noun may dispense with ^ '/ik. very deep pool. ^ often stands without 3. If a number of epithets are applied to one noun, they are given in series without conjunction, with closing up. K ^ it 6^ ii true and lasting g)^'omises. When the epithets are mutually exclusive a ^ intervenes and may I 45 J follow eacli terra ; a red or a dark-blue overcoat. 4. Should several qualifying adjectives be used in succession to enumerate several kinds in a class of objects, they should be summed up before the noun is added; red., yellow and rjreen fruits. If this is neglected only the last of the series of adjectives would be connected with the noun. Other general rules concerning attributives have been given under that heading. IV. A couplet of .antithetical adjectives may precede a predicate to indicate that the assertion about to be made has reference to certain qualities of the subject ; ^ these two pieces differ in size ; ^ ^ ^ what as to length ? Such couplets are also used as abstract nouns ; ^ ^ as regards length ; ^ ® ^ contest for superiority. Even single adjectives may be used as nouns abstract ; reject the false and turn to the true ^ B detest hypocrisy. V. Simple adjectives are prefixed to verbs modifying their meaning like adverbs, but practically forming compound verbs; to speak clearly. In fact, any word which denotes a mode as well as a quality is an adjective or an adverb accord- ing as its connection is with nouns or verbs. Still again adjectives are appended to verbs to indicate the tendency of their action ; to sj)eak clearly ; ^ U T dyeel red. When an accomplished result is affirmed, • they are connected to the verb by a explained clearhf, or else the combined phrase is followed by grown large. Remarks on Comparison. The Chinese have no set forms for comparative and superlative degrees, but expressions for these and many other degrees of comparison may be made out by application of the rules just given. [ 46 ] I. If the comparison is expressed Ly an attributive adjective, •we mav prefix for the comparative J still dearer ; still smaller. it is a book- word rarely used. For the superlative we prefix $6, or append ^ ^ ; TM ^ ^ the hifihest price ; ^ T' m J 15 severest punishment. ^ and mean vei'ij. means too. The vulgar dialect has also read twy for too. These composite forms all have a final |^, and therefore may be used independently and as substantives ; ^ m-km this also is very large. II. As to the expression of comparison when the adjective assumes its verbal power as a predicate, it should first be remarked that when two or more objects, or two or more states of the same object are under discussion, the ascription of any quality to one of them implies its surpassing all others in this respect ; this is the larger or largest. A slight amount of difference is expressed by appending ^ ^ ^ ® this {chair) is a little lighter ; a great difference by appending ^ X 5 ^ X much greater ; a definite amount of difference by definite expressions shorter by one inch many times larger. But the modif}dng adverbs mentioned above may also be used in the predicate his goods are the best. The conjunctions ^ and ^ before the adjective also imply comparison ; that article is still larger. III. In the examples we have given, the object or objects with which comparison is made have been understood not expressed ; but this second term of comparison may be brought plainly out in the middle of the sentence, being introduced by or and followed by the adjective predicate, or a verbal clause as the case mav be : ig 1® 5^ X* -tfe ^ m M this jjlan is better than that. can only be [ 47 ] used when the predicate is of considerable length so as to form a caosural pause by itself; ^ ^ ^ ^ JS ^ man compared with brutes is more intelligent. ii Jl is an integral proposition used as a predicate.] There is also the idiom already mentioned by which the adjective stands between the two terms, the particles and '^0, or the verbs and ^8 being affixed to introduce the second term. The idiom is very like our English. In comparing a succession of objects or circumstances of the same class, the adjective without suffix may stand between the two terms ; ‘ *10 3^ — each larger than his predecessor; — ^ ^ better everg dag. Inferiority is expressed by or before the second terms. Sometimes a simple adjective follows as predicate denoting in respect to what quality the inferiority is affirmed ; mutton is inferior to beef; iftn 515 4 ^ the present life is less important than the life to, come. For expressing a superlative, we may insert a universal distributive or in the first form mentioned in this paragraph ; ig. ^ ^ this hind is the dearest. Or the general class being first -mentioned, an assertion may he made as to a member of the class ; is, ^ # ^ or the whole class may he subordin- ated to an individual member -by using the verb ^ — the adjective predicate following ; 4> il A a ® ; or of all the Chinese he is the most intelligent. IV. Ideas and actions are compared in the same way as objects, ^ cultivating the soil is more reliable than mercantile life; IS hoeing is better than digging^ &c., &c.’ [ 48 ] Chapter XY. Adverbs. Under this title we must comprehend a multifarious class of words, some simple, some derivative. Some are primarily adverbs, while others are drawn from various parts of speech. For convenience I speak first of monosyllabic adverbs. I. Some monosyllables belong exclusively to this part of speech, as ft it^ &o. 2. Some are of the class before mentioned as rudimentary locatives, which from their anomolous character serve in vari- ous parts of speech as in to foreknow; ± in Jl M (imre, so ^ ^ &c. 3. Of appellative nouns some are made to serve as adverbs, as originally 2|C gyrimarily, m and 53 first. There are also many elliptical expressions which leave a noun to suggest the quality by which it is characterized heaven-h ig/i, earth-deep . 4. Some were primarily verbs and still used more or less as such ; 3^ to arrive at is used adverbially to denote the highest degree of any quality : so to cut short means decidedly^ to xoass means excessively, it to stop means only, to approach means at once, means again, &c. 5. Still more extensive is the use of adjectives as adverbs ; indeed the boundary between these two classes is not fixed, so that a word which before a noun is an adjective, before a verb becomes an adverb ; means a fast horse ; go quickly. §5, « breakfast ; to rise early, Nl# a co-partner ; to come with, &c. &c. II. The most common forms of polysyllabic adverbs are ; I. Repetition or combination of monosyllabic adverbs, as and just now. and are only longer forms of and ]§• The simple adverbs denoting degree can not be doubled. Indeed duplication only prevails [ 49 ] extensively among the adjective-adverbs, which are doubled for the sake of emphasis. The reason is that they cannot be themselves modified by another adverb ; ^ go slowly. If dissyllables they are usually separated in repetition as ^ ^ 2. Phrases consisting of adjective and noun, or of the numeral one with noun, adjective or verb, — or of verb and object, when used to modify verbs, may be regarded as composite adverbs ; still more carefullii. energetically entreat ; — i: ^ - 1^ 1^ m % &c. 3. The particle is very commonly attached to the duplicated adjectives, and the phrases just meutioiied; to explain cursorily; to ru) un in vam. This should be emphasized as a very characteristic form of adverbs and is capable of very extensive us, since by using we can coin any phrase we wish to modify a verb. 4. The syllable E meaning in this manner, (like the English by) has a more limited use being conventionally restricted to dissjdlabic compounds as vainly, mm unexpectedly, &c. The syllable occasionally appears as the last syllable of an adverb, as in absolutely cannot ; H ^ pj- &c. 5. Onomatopoetic words are used to represent sounds. ^ sound of beating ; ^ ^ sound of drums ; ^ sound of fifes. P§ eai u chirping of birds ; rushing of water; Pi^ sound of wind, (also written j^-) 6. The demonstratives form adverbs by appending the particles J|S ^ ^ or the noun ^ ; iE ISl so to speak; ^ ^ ^ to treat yn that manner. The book-word Imit is also often heard in the colloquial ; lit all are 60. [ -50 ] 'U’lth the same suffixes forms interrogative adverbs ; do you say ? The hook phrase is also used. ^ used interrogatively may append as ^ Jtoic large. 7. The higher kinds of adverbs may themselves he preceded by the simple adverbs denoting degree, and in this way degrees of comparison may be expressed ; more accurately. Adverbs have four general uses — to indicate the general char- acter of the sentiment to be expressed — to modify adjectives and verbs — to form predicates — and to express the co-relation of ideas. I. — Such adverbs as M ^ ^ ^ &c., stand at the beginning of sentences to state the general circumstances or general character of the thought. They may be called independent adverbs. II. — The words which modify adjectives are the simplest kind of adverbs, usually denoting degree ; all the better ; ^ snow white. A dissyllable is not impossible, as in many times better. when used with a dissyllabic adjective commonly takes ^ in order to make a symmetrical four- word phrase ; ® most comfort- able. The demonstrative adverbs may have an antecedent mentioning a noun to which they assert conformity ; iJR ^ ^ a-i a sheep ; — — ^ If a composite phrase ending with precede an adjective, qualifying the complex conception expressed by the second adjective and following noun ; a first-quality silver ingot. The negative ^ is often so united to adjectives and verbs as to form one negative conception, corresponding thus to the prefixed syllables in or an of the English ; ^ ^ not a few ; impossible. Such composite terms may be modified by other adverbs preceding 5 rery bad ; ^ qjositively nnqjropcr. On the other hand may negative a [ 51 ] modified word I will not go again. The utter negation of any idea is expressed by using a noun indicating a minimum followed by a negative adjective or verb ; ^ ^ not differing in the slightest degree ; r* utterly useless. Yerbs may take all kinds of adverbs. All except the inde- pendent adverbs stand between auxiliary and principal verbs,* when they modify the latter ; ^ ^ "fife tcill severely rebuke him. Yet the auxiliaries themselves may be modified by negative or intensive adverbs ; should not speak of it; ^ ^ by all means be careful.-. It is an important general rule that adverbs immediately precede the words which they modify. The English student will often find it necessary to invert the order of his words. The principle is the same as in putting adjectives before nouns. Yet adverbs sometimes have so much of a predicative form that they follow their principal word. {a) A few adverbs expressing degree may be appended to adjectives, either preceded by ^ or followed by X 5 ^ X extremely high ; ^ very expensive. {b) Yerbs indicating any disturbance or annoyance are fol- lowed by as ^ boisterous ; 0® ^ ^ sun- scorched. The compounds thus formed are probably best regarded as adjectives. (c) Adjectives which are capable of adverbial sense, as well as adverbs proper, are appended to verbs by means of the particle m (or 1^) to predicate something of the action mentioned ; ^ loved sincerely; nailed firmly. But when adjectives retain their proper descrip- tive character and indicate the * result reached by the action of the verb, they are attached immediately to the verb and followed by X 5 IS ^ X P'essed compact. III. — In the use of adverbs as predicates several idioms may be distinguished. [ 52 ] {a) The adverb may be the logical predicate, the logical subject action ; 2 punish him very severely', ® Jl he ivorhs carefully. I am much inclined to bring into this class the forms above mentioned where the adverb foUows Adverbs so used may be (1) modified and (2) conjugated to a certain extent. (1) ^ ^ icritten very well. (2) ® in punishing will he more severe, is a ^ A M future tense, X ^ ||f in loorking by all means he diligent, is an imperative. ^ '{^ ]|^ ® ® W( W(. serving him cannot do it cheerfully, is a conditional form, is sometimes attached, but it seems to be rather for euphony than for sense. if') The adverb itself may constitute the whole predicate ; ft ® m tfy on the boats everything is flurried. Such predicates have the range of all the moods and tenses, except it be the potential. ^ ^ 1^ will be furious, is a future. ^ ^ ^ ^ ® do not be quiet and sp)eechless, is an imperative. The potential form is probably inadmissable. (c) The neuter verb M may introduce an adverb predicate ; M ft iE ^ (d) The circumstances indicated by the adverb may be made the terminus ad quern of an action ; ^ ivhat are you projecting. Soafter the phrases This idiom' they have in common, with other predicates. (e) In consequence of the predicative power of adverbs, the protasis of a sentence may consist of a mere adverb, with, or even without conjunction preceding; although it is so ; ^ although (using) ten thousand schemes. if) instance of an adverbial predicate treated as a substantive in the sentence can he ie otherwise than heart-sick ? C 53 ] IV. Correlative adverbs are such as indicate the mutual relatious of two ideas. If the correspondence of two ideas is to be expressed, an interrogative adverb is used in the protasis, with the same or a demonstrative in the apodosis ; as it was formerly ^ so it is now ; if ^ IM will make it as large as you icant it. When a corresponding ratio of increase or diminution exists between two terms, they are both preceded by adverbs denot- ing increase ; the more the better ; m ^ the more you seekj the less you icill get. The adverb commonly used is ^ or the monosyllable or the dissyllable being used as rhythm may require. and ^ ^ are used in books, but probably will not be heard either in Shantung or Chihli. The correlation of actions may be indicated by the double adverbs — ’ ® ‘ ^ ^ and, — ■ ^ ‘ ^ J as in — ■ learning as well as teaching. Chapter XVI. Qualified Nouns. Assimilants. Neuter Verbs. These three kinds of predicates will give us material for a ‘ short chapter. I. — Nouns qualified by adjectives may form phrases denot- ing a quality or a mode of action; ^ social; careful ; united in hearty are instances. The use of such phrases as adverbs has already been mentioned. Of course it follows that they may serve as predicates. Yet I think it well to mention this fact under a special heading, in order to bring to view all kinds of predicates. Moreover the phrase is some- times an adjective rather than an adverb, as in 10 A5Fa this 7 nan is social. In the protasis we may either assume an ellipsis of the verb or regard [ 54 ] the clause as adverbial, depicting' the circumstances. These , qualified nouns can be conjugated like other predicates but want the potential form. In such expressions as and mE ■ti* a, that seems to be an ellipsis of the verb before the numerical predicate. In other cases we have a pictorial predicate which without copula gives the features of the subject described ; M A , that man has a hard heart and a fierce countenance. II. — Assimilants. The words like and unlike are an anomaly in English Gram- mar, but their Chinese equivalents are still more eccentric, I therefore put them by themselves. The words used are ^ ^ ^ ^ and by tolerance They take .either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or clauses as their objects, thus showing a power of defining mode as well as quality, and coming into relation with neuter verbs i — • 10 ^ IS like a • man’s form he seems to have a good purpose. and are all strong enough to assert likeness to their object, yet the last three are apt to use what is essential to ^ some assisting phrase, as — or m at the end of the clause, like him. ditto, as if about to repent. The negative, takes no final adjunct. may give a negative sense by using mm at the end. different from you. When these assimilants are used as predicates they may be modified by adverbs of degree ; this stone is exactly like the trunk of a tree ; still more like him. They may be preceded by notes of time and auxiliary verbs both future and conditional. These may introduce subordinate phrases or clauses denot- ing the manner of an action; I come 05 [ 55 J thief. Should these clauses follow the principle verb of the sentence, the words introducing them appear much like conjunctions ; fo>V‘ve me as I for give others. These words have also a peculiar use as introducing an antecedent before a demonstrative ; as white as snow. Sometimes when used to in- troduce a predicate, they so far give up their predicative power as to have a after them, becoming mere adverbs ; this hind is apparently good. Before other verbs, also they may merely have a modifying power. III. — Neuter verbs, 1. The primary meaning of m is affirmatory, so that and are -expressions of assent. When used as a copula or neuter verb it has no conjugation except conditional forms ; it ought to be this. The time to Which an assertion relates may be indicated by notes of' time preceding; he formerly icas a had man. 2. m may also be preceded by adverbs intensifying its meaning, as lE is precisely, Jft verily is, ^ ^ indeed is. Sometimes however the reference of the adverb is to a verb or adjective following ; is his best beloved. i 3. In general m is 'followed by subject nouns, simple or independent adjectives, adverbs, verbal clauses or propositions. A few idioms should be specially mentioned. 4. It is much used before active verbs in the predicate, changing them from a narrative to a descriptive sense, am about to go. The English student is apt to think this a redundancy, but it is grammatical and has the effect just mentioned. The whole clause following is made to express a quality of the subject. 5. Instead of being followed by a term equivalent to its subject sometimes brings in some quality ; ^ ^ [ 56 ] the sheep here all have large tails ; I am (of) Shantung. 6. IS incapable of use in tbe imperative, may take its place when a noun or independent adjective follows. Such English sentences as, be a true man may use 10 itf A. In the infinitive either or may be used. The latter may be followed by nouns simple and composite adjectives and clauses; called him Saviour. ^ is also quite freely used in the indicative, when ideas are being discussed ; lohat is conscience ? But this savors of pedantry if practiced to excess. 7. The copula is sometimes omitted leaving a substantive standing in the predicate ; H ^ ^ to-day is fine weather; ^ ^ my family name is Chang ; i&t izi — ‘ ^ he is thirty-one years old. 8. For an impersonal verb denoting existence the Chinese do not use * but the negative is There are houses hit no people. Chapter XVII. Verbs. 1. The rudimentary verbs are monosyllables, and a very large number are so used in the colloquial. In fact there is probably no verb but that in some connections, may stand alone. It would be superfluous to give examples. I will take up at once the compound verbs. 2. There are true verbs which have some word attached to them by conventional usage for the sake of distinction, or merely give fulness of expression. Thus ^ M is more satisfactory than a mere IB than and ^ than ^ and ^ 3. There are double verbs, which consist of two monosyl- lables approximately synonomous, used together for the sake of [ 57 ] emphasis, intelligibility or rhythm, as ^ M- 4. Two verbs may be combined, the former being more specific and modifying the latter. Thus ^ ^re all modifications of the idea expressed by II- So a, ^ ^ il, # SI ^ are all modifications of SI* On the other band is the common modifier of Tteverb appended to some verbs makes inceptives, as ifm to begin to work, ^ ® to begin to speak. There are some other combinations of verbs, but we must treat them as idioms, and not as etymological forms. Conjugation of the verb. ' 1. A continuative root-form is made by adding ^ to the primary root, as sitting. One is reminded of the English terminal ing ; but this form in Chinese is not a mere present participle. It can serve as a verb in any mood or Fense, except the potential, as easy to bind ; I will watch him ; he that day was driving a cart. Dyssyllabic verbs which denote a continuous action may take ^ as expecting, ^ ^ ^ watching. 2. Verbs have also a completive root-form, which appends to the simple verb some word — a verb an adjective or a a locative noun — to denote the outcome of the verb’s action. From the nature of the case completive forms are rarely used in the present indicative. But they have the range of the other moods and tenses. There must of course be a regard to fitness in the use of these terms, and we should know what combinations are current. Yet there is a large freedom in making new com- binations, which greatly increases the power and plasticity of the language. I give a few examples. The locative ± may [ 58 ] follow IS:, ^ M, % P, and many other words which involve elevation or addition. T follows 44:, liS, #J, ffi, ii, &c. &c. Amonpj verbs appended as completives, one of the most common is ^ , meaning to secure or reach to. It follows &c. ' {P denoting fixedness follows i^, 1^, JLLi &c. Mj follows verbs of Iierception and Meeting- as 5^, &c. ^ occurs as a completive to denote competence or ability, as well as the physical act of lifting — used after &c. : but used negatively after ^ and it gives the sense of indifference to, X besides its use as a sign of the perfect tense, enters freely into the class of completives, with the sense of completeness or being done tcitk, m m are a few of the words which commonly use X * fact about X > -t and X is especially to be noted — viz : that they can be used freely with the dyssyllabic verbs, which is not so true of the other completives. It should be remarked also that completives are most used in the potential mood. Many of the examples just given have reference to that mood alone. Some adjectives may serve as completives. But we must discriminate since many which approximate to that character, have not power to fill it. Examples of use as completives are after &c. after |§;, &c. after &c. 3. The potential mood of the simple root-form is usually made by adding and ^ ^ for the positive and negative respectively. ifW can he done; ^ cannot he spoken. The continuative root-form has no potential mood. The completive root-form inserts or between the verb and the completive word. cannot see ; can he attached. It is in this mood, and especially in negative phrases that the use of completives is most common. When [ 59 ] X is nsed as a completive in this mood, it takes ^ before it, according to the general rule. Yet X i^aygive a potential sense with out When the possibility of an action is the distinct topic of discourse, X appended to- the simple or completive root-forms will make an assertion of possibility ; J]S[, ^ X 9^ past; J X ^±1 can read. The negative however has only the regular fo>rm inserting M X' 4. Adjectives incapable of being completive may yet be appended as resultants, to specify the outcome of an action. Such words differ from adverbs preceding the verb in that the latter modify the verb, while these have to do with results. ^ and differ so much that in English we must use different verbs, to speak and to state, to translate them. This is according to the general principle that all words preceding the verb are preparatory, while all which follow are resultant. These adjectives might be classed with completives, the idioms being very similar, but that they cannot use the same potential forms. We cannot say ^ ^ ^ nor ^ ^ Resultants form the potential by using X * When occurs between a verb and such an adjective, it makes an affirmation of actual attainment and not of possibility ; nailed firm; mm hung high. 5. The rule is a general one, that after any form^ of the verb, except certain passives, (or 6^) may introduce a resultant adjective, or even a clause defining the result attained. The verb,, in this case,, makes- but half of the predicate leaving an open sentence, which is completed by the adjective or clause gSl X' ^ stated correctly^ Tlie great independence of the adjective in such connection is- evidenced by its taking adverbs and conditional or imperative auxiliaries ; %m^m^ you must icrite distinctly. To this idiom, by which the verb appends ^ or in order to- add a resultant term, we may give the name of “open pre*. dicate.'' I bave spoken chiefly of m as the connecting particle, but is often heard, especially among the common j people, and is capable of justification. It makes the following | word a definition of the manner of the action previously mentioned ; Hs frightened out of one’s wits. \ 6. In regard to the distinction of active and passive voice, transitive verbs have a remarkable power, which we must designate as “ invertibility.^’ The simple root-form without appendage is active in sense ; ^ I read. So too are the completive and resultant root-forms ; I nail fast; I despise him. But as soon as any other appendage is added, the verb may have either active or passive sense, either predicating the complex conception as an act of active subject , or predicating it as a state or experience of a passive subject. The simplest case is when the verb appends a prepositional clause ; he put on the table ; books are all put on the table. Again in the continuative root-form ; ftfij ^ ^ he is lighting the lamp ; lu7nps are all lighted. That the inverted sense is not strictly a passive, appears from it sdmetimes having an object, viz ; the means or instrument of the action ; stones paving the ground may be inverted into The simple completive and resultant root-forms all attain to invertibility by adding he tore down; the house ivas long ago torn ddicn. The various past, future and conditional auxiliaries, except partake in the general invertibility; ^ he has not ' decided ; the affair has not been decided. Even in the imperative, the forms with are used in both voices. The securing of an active sense in all these cases depends very much upon the verb’s having an object expressed or implied. It may also be observed that when a passive sense [ 61 ] i is expressed the connection of the passive subject with the verb is rarely immediate, some word, be it distributive, I adverb or prepositional clause, usually intervenes, especially I if the passive subject is a personal pronoun. Yet in some I forms the sense of the words alone determines which voice is I used ; you write well; j these characters are well written. When the separation of a I passive subject from the verb amounts to a caesural pause the I idiom blends with that of prosthetic object. 7. An exclusively active form is made by using a subor- dinate verb meaning to take with the object attached, before the principal verb, which must be a lengthened, with , or a completive, or a resultant, or a prepositional clause ; see through him ; take you into the house. This idiom has the advantages of (1) giving a decisively active sense, (2) bringing the object distinctly to view, and (3) leaving the principal verb free scope for full enunciation, or modification by words following it. This form of the verb can be used in all the moods and tenses ; but in the potential only interrogatively ; ^ ^ should be observed that X used after the principal verb may have nothing to do with the tense of the verb, hnce it is a characteristic of the idiom. I shall henceforth speak of this idiom as the anticipatory root- form, with reference to the subordinate verb’s taking ujy before- hand the object of the sentence. 8. The distinctly passive forms are three. (1) Experiential ; in which the agent not being mentioned, are prefixed to the simple or completive root-forms ; to he cast off; ^ to he disgraced; to endure heating. This form cannot append ^ and has no potential mood except it be an interrogative ending in Ih the suggestive mood it has the imprecative form prefixing IP ^ ^ yon he beloved. . (2) The ablative form [ 62 ] introduces the agent before the verb by means of ^ and Tbe last is used when a favor is received, iS^is most used ; WiA T to he indicted. Tbe vulgar dialect of Peking and Tengcbow also uses T killed by the long-haired rebels. Tbis class of forms is tbe exact coun- terpart of tbe active form with anticipatory verb. Tbe same root-forms are used. Tbe principal verb must almost invariably be a polysyllable. Tbe scope of moods and tenses is tbe same as in tbe experimental form. (3) Tbe neuter verb, witb> a passive participle is another indirect form of expression which may serve as a passive ; M to he used by him. The verbs ^ and ^ enter into a very similar idiom, though the may be omitted ; ^ € # to be under his governance. But we can hardly speak of these as passives. They, on the contrary, remind us that even the forms previously mentioned as passives are only idiomatic combinations of living words. Moods and Tenses of the Verb. It is necessary to make some additions to tbe discussion of moods and tenses given in tbe first chapter of tbis part. 1. As was said there, a strictly present sense is usually secured by prefixing a note of present time, unless tbe con- nection imply present time ; ie. # E he now cultivates the soil. Yet perhaps tbe idiom is not materially different from tbe English mm I wantj m m I say mMi thinks are distinctly present. Tbe verb is exceptional in forming its negative present by prefixing instead of In making an interrogative present, tbe repetition of tbe verb in a negative form presents a distinct alternative ; ' do you want it or no ? m appended makes inquiry as to the facts in tbe case ; itmm do you want it ? Tbe root form in ^ must take ^ [ 63 ] 2. In regard to tlie perfect, it sliould be remarked that when the completive forms are used, if Q or like note of time precede, the sense is complete without a final particle ; I have already seen. The same thing occurs when the verb has other appendages which exclude the T 5 ^ fl ^ ^ ^ ^ already read to the tenth chapter. The Chinese also use a historical present in narration. When the perfect root-form is preceded by past or future auxiliaries or notes of time we have words which may be called past and future perfects, i.e. they speak of the completion of the action at such a time. The student should not infer from the terminology that these tenses are equivalent to the pluperfect and future perfect of the English verb. Of the negative auxiliaries for the perfect and are most common in the north, and ^ in central China. is used with monosyllabic verbs ; future events. is rarely used in connection with these auxiliaries being contradictory to the negative sense. The interrogative perfect may append or J§, or the verb may be repeated with ^ ; and mmn are all equivalent expressions. 3. Verbs have a past tense formed by adding to the simple or the completive root-form. It should be carefully distinguished from the perfect in "J* , since one affirms the previous occurrence of an action, while the other affirms only its completion ; come once before, have arrived. The negative of this form prefixes or The interrogative affixes or 4. We get almost a new (cessative) tense by the uniting of the negative adverb to the perfect root-form. Yet the true analysis of such forms seems to be that the unites with the simple root-form as one negative tei'm. Thus in have ceased making, ^ is a negative verb and ’J affirms the not-making as a completed fact. [ 64 ] 5. The interrogative of the future tense uses the terminal unless the negative and repetition is called for to express a * ustrictly antithetical sense. In the 'latter case a m takes the place of the auxiliary before the negative verb ; xcill you buy or no ? 6. The auxiliaries of the conditional mood may effect a negative repetition independently of the principal verb ; as in ^ hIIS: can you tell? This idiom is more used in Tengchow-foo than elsewhere. 7. The suggestive mood, which proposes that something he done either by oneself or by another, may have a future tense without any auxiliary ; m I go ; let US talk. The English idiom is similar. With ^ following even perfect forms in "X will take a suggestive sense ; nif} T I throw it away. But the auxiliary 5^ is always allowable. 8. In the second person of the suggestive mood, we -have proper imperative forms. The omission of the subject makes an abrupt command ; * IW. ^ H. But both subject and auxiliary may^ be used ; ^ -y?: HI ^ come hack quickly. The abruptness of a command may be softened by prefixing as ^ you may read. Imprecations favorable or unfavorable may be expressed with- out either auxiliary or suffix ; may the Heavenly Father protect us; Yet whatever the person, a fervent desire in regard to a future act may be expressed be prefixing ; as come quickly ; 9. All the root-forms of the verb can be used in the imperative, but the passive and ablative forms only by prefixing The form in ^ anticipates a continuance of the action, that in "X completion, those with completives look to the attainment of the result. [ 65 ] 10. The negatife of the suggestive mood may reject the auxiliary from before the verb ; I tv ill not go. In the second person ^ ^ is contracted into m and The latter is used in Tengchow-foo Shantung, and in central Honan. The terminal is not always used with a neg- ative imperative. In book-style the negative imperative uses and 11. We have sometimes a blending of the conditional with the potential mood, as in may he said. 12. All the root-forms of the verb have place in the infinitive. 13. The root-form in ^ having the sense of continuance is in some cases equivalent to the English participle in ing^ hut it excels its English equivalent in being either active or passive according to connection. It also differs in that it cannot he used attributively, i.e. as an adjective qualifying nouns, unless like other forms of the verb, it have a appended making a composite adjective ; jjl a standing roch. Its uses as a participle are (1) when it stands before the principal verb of a sentence to indicate the method in which an action is performed ; he hastily does work ; (2) when it stands in the predicate after ^ I am sitting ; or other principal term 5 ^ ^ fetch him carrying on a hed. 14. The appending of to some root-forms in order to append a resultant has already been mentioned. We meet with it again inserted between a transitive verb and its object, giving emphasis to the object ; what have you bought ? hired a cart. The tense may be present but is generally perfect. The idiom is limited to the simplest forms of the verb. For the sake of a name we may call this a gerundive form. 15. All root-forms, and all forms of the indicative, con- ditional and potential moods may be followed by a final [ 66 ] to make verbal adjectives or participles. The sense of these adjectives is passive or intransitive if attaches immediately to the verb ; ^ ^ sold or for sale ; printed. The sense is active if an object is introduced to which is suffixed; M ^ one who sells flowers. This kind of words in respect to syntax belongs to the class of attributes, (where a fuller discussion has been given) and does not call for further remark here. Paradigm of the Verb. I sliall now endeavor to carry the verb through th e various forms which have been mentioned. I. Simple root-form |^* {a) Active voice. {h) Passive voice. , Indicative Mood. Pres. m ^ 5J5 fi- or Imp. Put. Pres. Ik (habitual) or ^ IE \k Imp. # # # ' ^ t tk Past. ^ \k Put. ^mi^'ik Conditional Mood. Pres. I r-^es. Appropriate notes of time prefixed will make imperfect and future tenses as — Imp. Put. Imp. # la TO 14 ^ MM- Put. M M- The other auxiliaries li:, tt #. iii' % be sub- tituted for M a’ [ 67 ] (a) Affirmative. (b) Negative. Potential Mood. Pres. ^ or ^ ^ 1 ^#- Pres. ^ 1^ ^ t#. Pres, 1^ or j| ^ t#- Pres. M, ^ # Here again notes of time may form pluperfect and future tenses. Pres. 1. ^ ■ rn;ne^.z^mi±m±- 3. MMB. Suggestive Mood. Pres. Open Predicate. Imp. or Past Perf . ) ^ Put. or „ Perf j Pres, or ) ^ Perfect, j neg, ^ % Imp. or ) llu 1^ W Past Perf. j Put. or ] ,% „ Perf. I Gerundive. Pres. ^B^ Imp. ^ ^ ta 1^ 6^ Put. wanting Infinitive. Pres. (Accusative with Inf.) ^ ^ 1^- (Object of verb) ^ i^. Pres. ,l| ^ B- J-' ■ ■J.J J. [ 68 ] Participles. I M fI5 II II Verbal Adjectives. B ^ A, 1^ S M mm li .11 |i .f| i5^, &c. &c. 1^ 6^. 5lf ^ IKI ,1^ &o. &c. or with subject, ^ tk M. fl # "Ib 1^ .^. or using m, ^ m m to ^Jt b 6^- II. Perfect Eoot-form. (a) Active Indicative Mood. Perfect. X ^ 14: T • Past Perf. ^ lU X • Fut. „ mmmBi- Conditional* Mood. 7 (5) Passive Perf. 14 T? Past Perf. ,^^^fc|o|47- Put. „ Pres. ^ tr Jal4 T- Pres. ,CW A5t |4 7 Other tenses formed by notes of time. Potential Mood./ Aff. ^ |4 7 'or ^ 14 7- Neg. a 14 7^ 7- Aff. ,H 14 W 7 of ,H 14 7- :^eg. 14 7^ 7- Suggestive Mood. Pres. 1. ^ 14 7 ^ 14 7 HI47llf^> T'^ 147.^1147- 3. 7 HI4 7 il- [ 69 ] Open Predicate. Perf. (or ^ &c. &c.) Past. Perf. P-it.’ p”erl ^ {If 511^ T «• &c. &c.] Past. Perf. Put. Perf. ,l|i|f|g| 7m^x- Ineintive. Perf. m >4 7- 1 Perf. M B B T Verbal Adjectives. 1 ^ 7 &C. &c. III. CONTINUATIVE EOOT-FORM, fa) Active ' ffi) Passive. Indicative Mood. Pres. ^ ^ Imp. Put. Pres, 1^ Imp. Put. Conditional Mood. Suggestive Mood. Open Predicate. Infinitive Mood. i m # a ^ Verbal Adjectives. I Bmm .i- IV. Completive Root-form Jt ^ ^ &c. Active. Passive. Indicative Mood. Pres. m±±ox^iE B±- Imp. ^ Jl- neg. 'M ^ B ±- Fut. ^ jliF ^ B-t.- neg. Perf. ^ 1^ Jl T or Si ^|4±-neg.i^^|^±. Past. Perf. ^ ±T- Fut. Perf. ^ ^ ^ I ±T- Pres, doubtful. Imp. i± ±. neg. B Fut. # g 1^ ±. neg. 1^ _h- Perf. il^ P T • neg. P- Past. Perf. ^ ^ -tl Fut. Perf. j!§ I ±T- Conditional Mood. Pres. ^ 1^ ± 1^ ±or T Pres, ^ 1^ JL or li±T- The appending of X makes no difference in the sense. It is not necessary to call the form perfect. So in the following moods. [ 71 ] Pres. li T' ±- Potential Mood. _L or Pre,. ,® ® li # ± liS±T- or Suggestive Mood. or ;; neg. ±; m T- 1. ^ n ± \ m r- II ±. 2. t± I4±T neg. ^ 3 li±7- The use of 7 is optional in the active, hut necessary in the passive. The open predicate needs no illustration. Infinitive Mood. ,m or ^ m t± ± ±7- Verbal ADJECTivtis. A; mm 1 ^ ± ^ 6 ^. m ± ^ m -, B # ± &c. fiJr m ± 1^ .ii -t 7 ^ 1^ ± W- -t 6^- &C. &c. V. Antcipatory Root-form (Active). Indicative Mood. Pres. ^ JE^ M B ±; ffe IE IB 1^ 7- Perf. a ^ # JE 7; # # ^ ±7&c. C 72 ] Fut. l± ±; # ® flj € 1^ Conditional Mood. ^^j^jeffiii±orii±T o4±nmm. Suggestive Mood. a JS m fI5 ?M H &c. &c. Open Predicate. Infinitive Mood. “flfc ^ ^ JL &c. &c. Verbal Adjectives. J2 #. ± iKr A- # S ffl m ± A- VI. — Experiential Root-form. (Passive). Indicative Mood. Fres. jE ^ ^ O'- ^ # Fut. Conditional Mood. mmMB- Suggestive Mood. B- Infinitive. ^ B- Verbal Adjectives. I t 73 3 VII.— Ablative Root-form (Passive)- Indicative Mood. Pres. 01- or T ' &c &c Pe,feef..M € 1^ ± T? &->• Fufnre. M ® |1 ±? &c- Conditional Mood. Suggestive Moou. ®