^ t\w 1 feeotogiaf PRINCETON, N. J. Purchased by the Hamill Missionary Fund. Division Section A G R A M M A R OF THE MODERN SYRIAC LANGUAGE, AS SPOKEN IN 1 O R o O M r A H, P E R S I A, AND IN KGORDISTAN. Rev. D. T. STODDARD, MISSJONARV OF THE AMERICAN BOARD IN PERSIA. LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY BY TRUBNER & Co., 12 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLV. new haven: PRINTED BYB. L. HAMLEN, Printer to Yale College. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pages. Introductory Remarks,.... 3-8 Orthography and Orthoepy,. 9-21 Tlie alphabet, 9 ; vowels, 12; modification of vowel-sounds, 16 ; some peculiarities of 2 , Cl, &, ** . and 18; talkana, 20; accent, 20; punctuation, 21; Nestorian manuscripts, 21. Etymology,.,. 22-144 Pronouns, 22-2*7 : personal, 22 ; demonstrative, 22 ; relative, 23 ; interrogative, 24; indefinite and distributive, 24; suffix, 25 ; reciprocal, 27. Verbs, 27-111: conjugation of Cl, 28 ; classes of regular verbs, 34; class first, conjugation of MhA , 35 ; verb with negative particles, 43 ; list of verbs of class first, 45 ; class second, 51 ; conjugation of >0:x4, 52; list of verbs of class second, 57 ; irregular verbs of class first: first radical 2 , 60 ; second radical 2 or mt; 63 ; second radical , 66 ; first or second radical ■* , 66: third radical 2 , 68; third radical &*, 72; verbs doubly irregular, 74; irregular verbs of class second: verbs of four radicals, 78 ; list of such verbs, 80; causative verbs, 87 ; second radical 89 ; third radical 2 , 90 ; third radical , 91; irreg¬ ular causatives, 92 ; synoptical table of irregular verbs, 94; pas¬ sive voice, 97 ; verbs with suffixes, 102 ; relation of modern to ancient verb, 107. Article, 112. 4 from the city attended. They all took their stand in a semi¬ circle around the manuscript card suspended on the wall, which Priest Abraham with my assistance had prepared; and as they learned their letters and then began to repeat a sentence of the Lord’s prayer, for the first time, with a de¬ light and satisfaction, beaming from their faces, equalled only by the novelty of their employment, I could understand something of the inspiration of Dr. Chalmers, when he pro¬ nounced the Indian boy in the woods, first learning to read, to be the sublimest object in the world .”—Residence in Persia, p. 250. In another connection, Dr. Perkins, speaking of the pre¬ paration of the cards for that missionary school, says: “There was no literary matter for its instruction and ali¬ ment, save in the dead, obsolete language. I therefore im¬ mediately commenced translating portions of the Scriptures from the Ancient Syriac copies, by the assistance of some of the best educated of the native clergy. We first trans¬ lated the Lord’s prayer. I well remember my own emotions on that occesion. It seemed like the first handful of corn to be cast upon the top of the naked mountains; and the Nestorian priests who were with me, were themselves inter¬ ested above measure to see their spoken language in a writ¬ ten form. They would read a line and then break out in immoderate laughter, so amused were they, and so strange did it appear to them, to hear the familiar sounds of their own language read, as well as spoken. We copied this trans¬ lation of the Lord’s prayer on cards for our classes. Our copies were few. We therefore hung up the card upon the wall of the school-room, and a company of children would assemble around it, at as great a distance from the card as they could see, and thus they learned to read. We next translated the ten commandments, and wrote them on cards in the same way, and then other detached portions of the Word of God; and thus continued to prepare reading mat¬ ter by the use of the pen, for our increasing number of schools, until the arrival of our press in 1840. This event was hailed with the utmost joy by the Nestorians, who had long been waiting for the press, with an anxiety bordering on impatience; and it was no less an object of interest and wonder to the Mohammedans. They too soon urgently pressed their suit, that we should print books for them also; and a very respectable young Meerza sought, with unyield- 5 ing importunity, a place among the Nestorian apprentices, that he too might learn to print. The first book which we printed in the modern language, was a small tract, made up of passages from the Holy Scriptures. As I carried the proof-sheets of it from the printing-office into my study for correction, and laid them upon my table before our transla¬ tors, Priests Abraham and Dunkha, they were struck with mute rapture and astonishment, to see their language in print: though they themselves had assisted me, a few days before, in preparing the same matter for the press. As soon as recovery from their first surprise allowed them utterance, 1 It is time to give glory to God,’ they each exclaimed, ‘ that we behold the commencement of printing books for our peo¬ ple a sentiment to which I could give my hearty response.” The first printing in the Nestorian character was an edi¬ tion of the four Gospels published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1829, the type being prepared in London from a manuscript copy of the Gospels obtained from Mar Yohannan, by the eccentric traveller Dr. Wolff, several years before, and taken by him to England for that purpose. This volume is all that has ever been printed in the modern language of the ISTestorians, otherwise than by the agency of our mission-press, with the exception of one or two small Papal tracts, published a few years since at Constantinople, with miserable type prepared under the supervision of the Jesuits in that city. Since the arrival of our press in 1840, it has been busily employed in printing books for the Nestorians, in both their ancient and modern language, mostly in the latter. Dr. Perkins has furnished the following list of our more important publications, arranged nearly in the order in which they have been issued from the press. The Psalms, as used in the Nestorian churches, with the Kubrics, in Ancient Syriac. 196 pp. 4to. Instructions from the Word of God, in Modern Syr¬ iac. (Extracts from the Bible.) 77 pp. 12mo. The Acts and the Epistles, in Ancient Syriac. 8vo. The Great Salvation, a tract in Modern Syriac. Sixteen short Sermons, in Modern Syriac. A Preservative from the Sins and Follies of Child¬ hood and Youth, by Dr. Watts, in Modern Syriac. Aids to the Study of the Scriptures, in Modern Syriac. 109 pp. 8vo. 6 Scriptural History of Joseph and the Gospel of John, in Modern S} r riac. 316 pp. 8vo. The Gospel of Matthew, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 12mo. Tracts on Faith, Repentance, the Hew Birth, Drunk¬ enness, and The Sabbath, by Mr. Stocking, in Modern Syriac. The Faith of Protestants, in both Ancient and Mod¬ ern Syriac, in separate volumes. 164 pp. 8vo. Scripture Questions and Answers, in Modern Syriac. 139 pp. 8vo. First Hymn Book. 10 pp. 12mo. The Dairyman’s Daughter, in Modern Syriac. 136 pp. 8vo. Useful Instructions, in Modern Syriac. The Four Gospels, in Modern Syriac. 637 pp. 8vo. The Hew Testament, in both Ancient and Modern Syr¬ iac, the translation being made by Dr. Perkins from the Pe- shito, with the Greek differences in the margin. 829 pp. 4to. Scripture Help or Manual, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 8vo. Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, in Modern Syriac. 712 pp. 8vo. Questions on Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, in Mod¬ ern Syriac. 99 pp. Second Scripture Manual, and a larger Hymn Book, in Modern Syriac. 131 pp. 8vo. The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, in Modern Syriac. 70 pp. 8vo. The Young Cottager, in Modern Syriac. 98 pp. 8vo. Smaller Arithmetic, in Modern Syriac. 24 pp. 8vo. Larger Arithmetic, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 8vo. By Mr. Stocking. A Geography, in Modern Syriac. 302 pp. 8vo. By Dr. Wright. The Lord’s Prayer, Ten Commandments and Cate¬ chism for Children, in Modern Syriac. 78 pp. 8vo. A Spelling Book, in Modern Syriac. 54 pp. 8vo. The Old Testament, in both Ancient and Modern Syriac, the latter being translated from the Hebrew by Dr. Perkins. 1051 pp. large 4to. Spelling Book, with Scripture Readings, in Modern Syriac. 160 pp. 8vo. 7 The Rays of Light, a monthly periodical, devoted to Religion, Education, Science and Miscellanies. Fourth vol¬ ume now in progress. In press, an edition of the New Testament in Modern Syriac, and Baxter’s Saint’s Rest. Ready for the press, Scripture Tracts, of the American Tract Society, and Green Pastures, an English work, con¬ sisting of a text of Scripture, with a practical exposition, for each day in the year. Our schools have been gradually increasing in number, till the present year. We now have about eighty village- schools and flourishing Male and Female Seminaries. Of course, the number of intelligent readers is rapidly on the increase, and the modern language is assuming a permanent form. It should still, however, be considered as imperfect. It is difficult to give in a precise manner either its orthogra¬ phy, its etymology or its syntax, because the language is not to-day just what it was yesterday, nor just what it will be to-morrow. Until the pul3lication of the Old and New Testa¬ ments, there was no standard of usage. It was difficult to say which dialect should have the preference. The same uncer¬ tainty in a measure still remains. If we assume that the dialect which is nearest to Ancient Syriac should be the standard, this will necessarily be unintelligible to a large portion of the people. We generally use the language in our books which is spoken on the plain of Oroomiah, unless there are obvious reasons for variation in a particular case. Rev. Mr. Holladay, one of our missionary associates, pre¬ pared a very brief, though excellent sketch of the grammar of the Modern Syriac, about the year 1840. He also aided much in translating works for the press. His health and that of his family obliged him in 1845 to leave us for Amer¬ ica, where he still resides, near Charlottesville, YaA Much time has been bestowed on the preparation of the following grammar ; although, as it has been written with indifferent health and amid the pressure of missionary duties and cares, it has not been subjected to so thorough revision as it would have been under other circumstances. The Syriac has been written by Deacon Joseph, our translator, * Mr. Holladay has kindly consented to superintend the printing of this grammar. Comm, of Publ. 8 who has had much experience in labor of this kind, and is perfectly familiar with the grammar of the Ancient Syriac. My design has been to trace up the language, as now spoken, to the Ancient Syriac, and I presume no reader will complain of the frequent references made to Hoffman’s large and valuable grammar. As some may find occasionally Ancient Syriac words written in a manner different from that to which they are accustomed, it may be well to sug¬ gest that the Syriac of the Jacobites, which has generally been the Syriac of European grammars, differs somewhat from the Syriac of old Nestorian books. The latter are of course the standard with us. It may seem unnecessary to some to link in the Hebrew with the Modern Syriac, and I have had myself many doubts about the expediency of doing it. But, considering how many Hebrew scholars there are in America, who would take pleasure in glancing over the following pages, and how few of them are at home in Ancient Syriac, it seemed to me not inappropriate to adopt the course I have. The refer¬ ences to Nordheimer’s Hebrew Grammar certainly add little to the size of the work, even if they do not at all increase the interest of the reader. Every thing serving to develop the Ancient Aramean of these regions is worthy of investigation. And it has occur¬ red to me, as not at all unlikely, that the Nestorians use many words, and perhaps grammatical forms, in their daily intercourse, which have never found their way into gram¬ mars and lexicons, and yet are very ancient, and owe their origin to the Aramean, which was once so extensively spo¬ ken in Persia and made even the court-language.—Ezra 4 : 7, 8. I at first designed to give in an appendix an outline of the Jews’ language as now spoken in this province. It is nearly allied to the Modern Syriac, and Jews and Nestorians can understand each other without great difficulty. But whether these languages had a common origin, within the last few centuries, or whether they are only related through the Ancient Syriac and Ancient Chaldee, we have not yet the means of determining. The discussion of this subject, which is necessarily omitted now, may be resumed hereafter. I). T. Stoddard. Oroomiah, Persia, July, 1853. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. THE ALPHABET. The letters of the alphabet are the same in number and bear the same names as in the Ancient Syriac, and generally have the same power. New forms, however, have been given to S^, 9 , A and X, as will appear by the following table. Initial. Medial. Final. Initial. Medial. Final. : 1 1* X •v 9 V $ Before final 2 ) O ( sometimes $ & V. 20 v. 2 ft m Jtt C 7 X o 4 9 £ t- 9 a m a ++ V tS- X X X X S Before final 2 ? $ sometimes $ The Estrangela is still employed by the Nestorians for the title-pages of books and other occasional uses. The letters 2, ft, 9 , £ and a, are never united with the succeeding letters. ©7 and d are occasionally written in * X is used in some manuscripts as initial, medial, or final. The same may be said of 2: but X can only be used as a final letter, or at the end of a sylla¬ ble ; never as an initial letter. % and 2 are used indifferently according to the fancy of the writer. a. l. h. o 10 connection with the next letter: c 1 with 2 and 6 ; o with 2, 3, to, & and X. 3, >, 3, X, are susceptible of aspiration as in the ancient language. A large point above the letter (daghesh lene of the Hebrew) which is often omitted, especially at the beginning of words, denotes that the letter is not aspirated in pronunciation. A similar point below shows that it is aspirated. It is to be noted, however, that unaspirated, is written without any point. When aspirated, it is writ¬ ten i|. Note.— It would not he an easy matter to lay down the rules by which these letters are aspirated in Modern Syriac. Nor is it neces¬ sary to attempt it, as the aspiration is indicated in nearly every case by the point below the letter. Wherever one of these letters is unaspirated in a verbal root, it is unaspirated throughout the conju¬ gation, and vice versa. 3, when aspirated, has nearly the sound of the English w, sometimes inclining to v, and can hardly be distinguished from d. The latter must, however, be regarded as the weaker consonant. Cases will be mentioned farther on, in which 3 coalesces with the preceding vowel and loses its power as a consonant. when aspirated, has the sound of gh (the Persian £), and is perhaps more deeply guttural than 3, which seems to a beginner to resemble it. . o * has the sound of the English j. Until the last two or three years, we used it also to express ch. See A. The aspirated 3 is not much, if at all, used in the province of Oroomiah. In the mountains of Koordistan, its proper sound is that of th in these, but it is said in one or two cases to have the sound of th in thin. C 1 has a more decided and full pronunciation than the English h, without approaching in sound to ** (hh). The latter cannot be distinguished in pronunciation from 3 . Their equivalent nearly is found in the German ch (Bach)'. Note. —The Nestorians pronounce 3. iy, etc., with much stress of voice, in consequence of which the sound of their language is at first unpleasant to an English ear. The Turkish of Northern Persia in this respect resembles the Syriac, and is very unlike the cultivated language of Constantinople. Whenever the Turkish is 11 referred to in the following pages, the reader will understand by it the rude Tatar dialect of this province, which has not even been re¬ duced to writing, and is therefore noted in the Syriac character. o, used for connecting words and clauses (the Hebrew * 1 ), is pronounced nearly like oo in hood, but with a more rapid enunciation. 9 or X is equivalent to z in azure, or s in pleasure. These characters are rarely used. A, unaspirated, has often the sound of k in kind, as pro¬ nounced by Walker, a y being quickly inserted after k. 3 has the sound of eh in cherry and rich. & is sometimes pronounced like &, when it precedes 3 or e. g. a store-room; to stagger; m . I ' ". ' . . ' lazy; to swagger, etc. So in Persian. So in Eng¬ lish in the words imbitter, impatient. & is also occasionally written instead of as ^ssoVi, sound being regarded more than derivation. X, 2 and ■#, are readily confounded by a foreigner in cer¬ tain connections, but are at once distinguished by a native. * * We may take as an illustration 2x*2, the hand, and 2aiX, a * $ , 1 <* feast; or 2a2x, a fig, and mud. The difference in these words may seem slight, but, unless the ear is trained to make nice distinctions, a foreigner will be often misunderstood, even if he does not fall into ludicrous blunders. j| has been used more or less to represent the fsaadph of other languages, but, as the Nestorians pronounce this sound with difficulty, and it never occurs in words truly Syriac, we have for some years past dropped it in our books. coa¬ lesces with certain vowels, as hereafter stated. —When this letter is used, the syllable fills the mouth, as it were, more than when J® is used. 3 .—A very hard k, which can be represented by no anal¬ ogy in English. X, when unaspirated, is equivalent to the English t. ^ is a harder t, and sounded farther back in the mouth, x, if aspirated, has the sound of th in thick. This aspiration, so common in the ancient language, is quite lost on the plain of Oroomiah, but is retained in Koordistan. 12 VOWELS. Names. Notation. P’tahha — %2Lb f Zkapa ~ Zlama (long) — / 2..JL0 lioX« Zlama (short) — Z-«03 R’wahha 2^33 Ik was a Hhwasa o & 9 Power, a in hat. a in father. j between e in elate ( and a in hate. i in 'pin. o in note, oo in poor. e in me. Note. —The names of — and — in Ancient Syriac grammars are just the reverse of those here given, but, as it seems more proper to call — hard, the Nestorians follow the usage noted above. P’tahha has generally the sound of short and close a. In the great majority of cases, when a consonant follows it (excepting 2 , Cf, X, and cases specified on pp. 10, 11), which has a vowel of its own, that consonant is doubled in pro¬ nunciation where i, and a are each doubled. e. g. W, these ; iAH, • i a wave / am' 1 ‘Vs?,5 true Note 1.—There is no doubt that at least the Eastern Syrians for¬ merly used the daghesh forte, though, as now, without any distin¬ guishing mark. Compare Hoffman’s Grammar of the Ancient Syriac, § 17, Annot. 1. Assemann states that in many cases is followed by a dagheshed letter, but this is not the usage now, except in and and then with questionable propriety. Note 2.—It is perhaps unnecessary to state that 2, 0 1 and ibt, are letters too weak to receive the daghesh. The usage is the same in the Hebrew. Unlike the Hebrew, however, the Modern Syriac may m i < double and a, and does so constantly, e. g. ^**.3, to envy; n i ,» i to make alive; pronounced respectively bahh-hhul , mahh-hhee. So 1 g d $ m 9 too to wallow; 29tA, deaf; pronounced garril , karra. n 9 9 \ 13 I i 's m m t first syllable) and 2a^9tX, derived from the ancient language, are exceptions to the above rule. The sound of — in these words is like that of and the following consonant is not doubled. v " Note 3.—A few words, such as P’tabba is lengthened, when followed by 2, Of or as in '/iii the second syllable of where -A is to be pronounced ''a f t la i I la like —. So in 2aoV3, light ; an arm; a serf. Sometimes the sound of in a mixed syllable, beside the cases hereafter specified, nearly approaches that of short u, '/a I e. g. 2a X2, pronounced uthra or utra. Zhajpa has properly the sound of a in father, but, in order to give uniformity to the spelling of like forms, occasional deviations have been made from this rule. Thus, we have I may heal; *OC7, I may be; *jJJ3, I may read or ' A V " call, although in the first — has nearly the sound of e in met, in the second, the sound of a in father, and in the third, the sound of a in ball. Note 1.—It will thus be seen that the Nestorians have what Hoff¬ man (§ 11, 3) properly calls the more elegant pronunciation of So far as we know, this vowel is never pronounced by them as long o. Note 2.—It may here be remarked, once for all, that several seri¬ ous difficulties are in the way of an orthography which shall per¬ fectly represent the sound of each word. Many words, as, for in¬ stance, OCf and Jcf, have a different sound from what they had formerly; and yet, for the sake of etymology, it is considered impor¬ tant to retain the original spelling. It is often a matter of much doubt how far we are permitted to go in defacing the escutcheon of words, and obliterating all traces of their ancestry. One who had not fully considered the subject, might often think we were arbitrary, where good reasons for a variation may be assigned; e. g. Anc. ftXS, Modern 'pJB. The difficulty is still greater in regard to words which have been transferred from other languages, the Turkish, the Persian, the Koordish, and the Arabic. Even if we were thoroughly acquainted with these languages, as we are not, the words derived from them in Modern Syriac are often completely disguised, and years pass before 14 we successfully trace out tlieir origin. Others are more or less cor¬ rupted, though not properly made over; and still others retain very much of their original form and sound. In the latter case, we intend always to refer to the language from whence they came, to ascertain the true spelling. The varieties in dialect present another obstacle not easily sur¬ mounted. As familiarity is acquired with the language spoken, in all the dialects, reasons are often found for changing orthography which was supposed to be definitely settled. Long Zlama .—The sound of is not exactly that of long e, nor of long a, but something between these sounds, ap¬ proaching a little nearer to that of e than of a. Short Zlama .—This vowel, though generally i, sometimes approaches in sound to e. When followed by X,, its sound resembles e. g. hear. The same rule which has been mentioned for the doubling * of a consonant after -J-, applies also to —. Thus in a hear; a hoof; smoke / the 3, ba and &, are re¬ spectively doubled in pronunciation. The fact that the daghesh must always, as in Hebrew, be preceded by a short vowel, needs no explanation. It may be well to state, under this head, that cf, M and X, occasionally admit of daghesh forte in the Ancient Syriac, after a short vowel, but not a. jR’wdhha. —This is long o, but is often undistinguishable in pronunciation from o, which has the sound of oo in jpoor, t but at times inclines also to the sound of long o. When precedes, & should follow; when -f- precedes, 6 should follow. Acte 1. —As the Nestorians generally use Q and d, especially in the neighborhood of Mosul, there is no doubt that the former corres¬ ponds to t in Hebrew, and the latter to «|. Note 2. —Unlike 1 in Hebrew, O is so far an essential part of the vowel, that the latter cannot be written without it. The same re¬ mark may be made of «> in hhwasa. Note 3.—Hoffman, § 13, 4, speaks of these vowels as sometimes but the Nestorians know no such usage. In the examples he adduces, ^ etc., the sound is as • t * given above. 15 Hhw&sa. —This is in sound like a very long e in English. The .* has sometimes belonging to it another vowel, in which case it performs the double office of a consonant (y) and a fulcrum for hhwasa, e. g. thought, pronounced / 9 hheyal; of us, pronounced deyan. The word &-*2, in // > which the etymology is preserved, is sounded thus: it. In the perfect participle feminine, 1st Class, we have, for ex¬ ample, braided, pronounced as if written 24^9^. I X // And so of similar cases. Note 1.—After —, «* is silent. This mode of spelling, adopted from the ancient language, has been in a great measure dropped. Thus, . I 1 '/ / « we now write ^O^OCf, you may be, for Of; » l' > I ^ J you may see, for etc. But and some other »• v *• » words transferred from Ancient Syriac, retain their original form. Note 2.—There is a sheva in common use, as in Hebrew, though without any distinctive mark. Sometimes there are two attached to two successive letters, e. g. that in his heart, pro- / // nounced d’bdibboo. In a few cases the mark called in Ancient Syriac $ y f m / lyJXi and placed above the line (Hoff. § 19, 1), has been used for this purpose, but it is now dropped, as it is of no practical use to ourselves or the natives. The ear soon becomes so trained that it instinctively gives the sheva where it is called for. No one who has spoken Syriac two months would think of pronouncing 2AXGL», fuel, / yaJcdana, but, as a matter of course, yelcdana. So tSQJS&w, yd- # cobh. Compare the Hebrew ijpsn . The sheva was no doubt employed by the Nestorians of old, though, so far as we can judge from the disposition of the vowels in the ancient language, with less frequency than in the modern. Those grammarians who, according to Hoffman (§ 15, Annot.), wish to class “ inter absurdos ” any who speak of a sheva in Ancient Syriac, should properly themselves be classed there. 1(3 MODIFICATION OF VOWEL • SOUNDS. The letters X, £ and jg, and, to a considerable ex¬ tent, also a, Ssa and a, modify the sound of some of the vow¬ els which are connected with them in the same syllable. The general tendency of these letters is to make the vowels joined with them somewhat like short u, though this is not the uniform effect. As it is essential to a correct pronun¬ ciation that this subject be understood, some examples will here be given to illustrate it. The sounds of course cannot be perfectly represented in English. Observe that a—a in hate ; a—a in saw; a, without a mark over it, =a in father ; a—a in hat; ee, at the end of words, = — • da some cases — may more properly be represented by simple e. e =*. 1. These letters with ~r, fifty, pronounced lihum- she; turtum, to murmur; ummdn, with us ; ir r V i ' m i'/ I $ t 3k4^ifi3£B, mustar, a ruler for parallel lines; ZA&, nukka, a whale. Also with So and a : mumte, let them cause to reach; >BL»9£9, Mur yam, Mary. 0 ^ 2. With —, hhudrit , thou mayest walk about; . '' m t butna , she may conceive; ►, ewukh, we are; Murya, the Lord ; kur'yana, a reader. These letters very often give — the sound of a. Thus we have hhatee, he may sin; tashee, he may con¬ ceal ; iSiAx, aloola, a street; sdpee, he may strain ; i* ^ ^ ^ ^0 ^ i3J9, kdree, he may read; Xte*, rdma, high. i 1 3. With —, no effect is generally produced. 4. With —, the vowel sound is in most cases u : (.Ax*, / // hhushle, I went; } palut, he may go out; usra, ten; Musreen, Egypt; p’kudlee, he com- 17 manded; , rumlee, lie rose; Z£C*i»oX, toomumma, com- i< // o i pleted. But following lengthens it into 5. i and o are affected rarely, if at all. 6 . + is in many cases unchanged. When, however, these letters are followed by ^ or ^ coalescing in the preceding vowel 4 ~ (see next section under .+ -7-), the vowel-sound is not generally a simple one, as in other cases, but resembles the sound of ei in height , e. g. teira, a bird; eina, a fountain, an eye ; Jceisa, a tree. So with -♦: Jceimat, a price ; teina, mud. FURTHER MODIFICATION OF SIMPLE VOWELS. 1. 3 - 7 -.—P’tahha followed by 3 has the sound of 0 , e. g. t 1 “ i! * U»f, zona, time; 2ab3tV,, gora, a husband. 2 . o -7-. —P’tahha followed by 6 does not often occur; never in our more recent books. But, wherever found, it has 1 1 nearly the sound of 0 , e. g. totishoon, search ye, now written ^ajs.'iua.v See 4 4 . // ! 3. w - 7 -. —This has in general the sound of ey in they, e. g. ZV* 2 , eyga, then; -*2, eyne, which of the two; beyta, a house ; leylee , the night; %sheyna, peace. Excep- 1 ' ' f '' L tions, for the sake of etymology, are where, pronoun¬ ced eka; = lit , there is not; ^-»2 = akh, as. / ^ 1 11 a capital city, is pronounced nearly peitahht. Compare also what is said above of etc., followed by ■*. 4. i| ! .—P’tahha followed by ^ has a sound varying be¬ tween ow in now, and 0 , e. g. b’nowshoo or b’no- shoo, b} r himself; NowtaU, Naphtali. 3 18 5. 3 --, a-*-.—Zkapa before 3 or A has the sound of 5, and * • « is not distinguishable in the modern from 3 -f, e. g. d-de, they may do ; wSkAJiL, o-re, they may enter; d 9 ■ n '/ '/ '' d'/ Yosip, Joseph; i-OOf, Aoyu, she may be; goza, a wal¬ nut; 2 aaa ? dora, a generation. 6 . w —Zkapa before .* has the sound of ey in they, and often does not differ from . — , e. g. OT, weyta, being; kreyta , reading. In such cases, .* may also have a vowel of its own, and be sounded like our y, e. g. I* k’seyyatee, covers. 7. 3 A ^- 7 ,-—Short zlama before 3, a, or 1|, has a sound nearly like that of ew in Lewis, e. g. honey, not exactly divsha nor doosha; Zv3X straw, not tivna nor foona; , i , ’ CJ3AAU3A2, the ocean; %*!**'!*a Cyrenian ; Cyprus; quick, etc. ■ // 8 . * —This has been alluded to in a preceding note. See under Hhwasa. 9. .—If a is followed by 4 the latter has either no / 9 effect on the syllable, or the sound is nearly that of ui in ruin, e. g. Usx&o'x a winnowing fan, pronounced rooshta (nearly). It may be stated as a general rule, that X and a, prefer the vowel -J-, as in the ancient language and the Hebrew. SOME PECULIARITIES OF 2, Cf, A, * AND 2.* —It has already been mentioned that 2 quiesces occasion¬ ally in 4-, and lengthens it. It quiesces far more frequently in —, as in the final syllable of liaV., great, and a multi¬ tude of other words. 2 may also quiesce in — as in the 19 last syllable of plurals, and in 0, —. When it follows the latter, it lengthens it into —! At times the 2 in such cases falls out, as in the preterite of verbs of final 2 , e. g. = kjJ^2aa, I poured. When 2 is preceded by a letter without a vowel, but has one of its own, it has a tendency to give its vowel-sound to t the preceding letter, and rest in it; e. g. XiXS, to be pro- 4 * •' > nounced not b’ennee, but bennee. So 2©fZ3 = baha. So in Hebrew (Nordheimer’s Grammar, § 88, 3). Compare also in regard to 2, Hoff. § 31, 3. Of.— In the suffix u»Cfa, neither ©f nor * is sounded. At the end of words ©f is generally quiescent, as in the Hebrew; and we often feel at liberty, e. g. in words introduced from other languages, to substitute 2 for it, as really a better rep¬ resentative of the sound. This may account for our writing the verb he is, she is, jJL. ,i i I ,ii i o .—This may be, and is rarely, the initial letter of a verbal root. It is found often as the middle radical, and sometimes at the end. Take, for example, to wail; *30 X, to .4 _ " / " repent; and to reprove; in all which cases it retains its full consonant power. In a oof, which is thus written for etymology’s sake, the final $ is not sounded, and the word is to be pronounced as if 2 ©Of. *.•—This letter, when following ©, does not flow into the vowel-sound, but has a sound of its own resembling short e, e. g. a wall, pronounced gooeda. Compare Hoff. § 12, 1, and and similar words in Hebrew. X may in certain cases be treated as a quiescent, the Mod¬ ern Syriac agreeing in this respect with the Ancient, though in such cases it affects the vowel-sound, e. g. ** iXo&x, I t n heard. Here, too, X admits a vowel which y cannot take in £ '/ Hebrew. So 2^3X3, doing. Some letters are otiant in Modern Syriac, being generally, if not always, those retained for the sake of etymology, e. g. wt in etc. 20 The representation given above of the sounds of the Syr¬ iac language differs from that often made in grammars of the Ancient Syriac, e. g. Hoff. § 12, 3. There is, however, reason to suppose that the Nestorians understand the pro¬ nunciation of their language better than it is possible for European scholars to understand it. The Ancient and the Modern Syriac are now pronounced nearly according to the same rules, and there has probably been no essential change in these rules, especially in Koordistan, for a thousand years. TALIANA. An oblique mark drawn over a letter, not under, as in the Jacobite Syriac, shows that a letter is not sounded, e. g. A* pronounced azin; pronounced m’deta. Oc¬ casionally, other diacritical marks are used, as in the words m ^9, ^9, which are explained in grammars of the ancient language. ACCENT. It is almost a universal rule, that the primary accent is on the penult, and the secondary accent on the pre-antepenult. So strong is the tendency in this direction that a beginner in English will come and ask for the Pee-po'v-day, meaning by this the little book called “Peep of Day.” It is, however, to be noted that, in the pronunciation of verbs, the auxiliary Za© 7 is considered, in the subjunctive mood, an essential part of the word, though written separately. Thus, in Zfi©7 /&l2, i* he might come , X&G! I might bless, the accent is respec¬ tively on the syllables IX and So too when the pro¬ nouns Z*2, etc., are suffixed, e. g. ill 2&L VlSS, I will see; ^2, if he seize him; where the accent is respec- »' " “ " , / * tively on the syllables 2f and wflUJ. Compare Zi2 &992 of An¬ cient Syriac, which takes the accent on & 99 . The auxiliaries TVOw, etc., do not follow this rule, e. g. H /' * ° // */ 21 I am ashamed, has the accent on the syllable as if were not written. PUNCTUATION. Our system of punctuation is imperfect, compared with that of the English. The only characters we have intro¬ duced, which are not found in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 23, 1), are the Greek semicolon inverted, as the sign of a question, the note of exclamation, and the parenthesis. NESTORIAN MANUSCRIPTS. Manuscript works among the ISTestorians are sometimes very beautifully written, and the best type can never ex¬ ceed, and perhaps not even rival, them in elegance. 22 ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 1. Separate Personal Pronouns. ut, I (m. and £). or Thou (in.). wVt*2 or *^fU2 Thou (f.). I HI ' o'er, He > u - w©f, She, it. w***2 or ' > / i'n-.i or t * uk&2, >*^ ■ >*2, "W e. f / 4k£0*tU#2, You. ■ # They. Note.— It will be observed that there is no distinction of gender in the second and third persons plural. Not so in the ancient lan¬ guage. These personal pronouns, with the exception of oof, u*Of and k*i2, are not used in the objective case. And these, especially the first two, are generally accompanied by the noun to which they refer. Compare the usage in the An- 9 cient Syriac with *^a 2 and t*&2 (Hoff. §41, 3), and in He- // ' i* // brew (Nordh. § 859, f note). m m Note. — O Of and k-*Of are sometimes spoken, both in the nominative 9 $ £ and objective cases, as if written *^®2 and t"*2. 2. Demonstrative Pronouns. These are lull, this (m. and £), oof, that (m.), wCf, that (£), • * 111, these (m. and £), and u*i2, those (m. and £). ,i • i 23 Remarks. I ' i 1. It is probable that 2*2 is a corruption of the ancient ,i i // > I t, r, ... w*iOf, and t*l2 of lr ^ACf, u*iOf. See, for the distinction made by the Maronites in these words, Hoff. § 41, Ann. 4. It will be remem¬ bered that some personal pronouns are also used for demonstratives in the ancient language. 2• In Teklioma, the people say XodCl for this, and 2C7i0O©7 for On the plain of Oroomiah, the first of these is used for that, * ' and the other for that yonder. In Bootan they say Xkli for these, > I and Xaia.il for those. Whenever Bootan is referred to, it may be be remembered that it is at the western extremity of Koordistan, and farther removed from us than any other district of the Nestorians. 9 The plural pronoun Xil is also sometimes prolonged in Koordis- 1 f $ $ ft f 4 4 tan, by the addition of 2 Of, 2&P, or Uop, into 2ou2 2ov*i2 or $ ( I* I* 9 ,1 9 $ 2&CV*&2, without a change of signification. 2oV&2 is heard at times •' // in Oroomiah. (• i< i There seems to be a natural tendency in language to make demon- 4 f u stratives as emphatic as possible. Compare in Anc. Syriac 2iOfOOf, in Hebrew trtfl, o duio? in Greek, derselbe in German, cet homme la in French, and this 'ere, that ’ ere in vulgar English. 3. It is worthy of note, that the ancient feminine {ft Of is some- times heard corrupted into wft2, and that too on the plain of Oroo- miah. We also sometimes hear y\2. Both t.*ft2 and u+X2 are . . ! . 1 t t 1 used with masculine as well as feminine nouns. 2 a Of is also used ''1' in such expressions as jU-* 2 ft Of, it is so account of this, etc. 4. OOf is pronounced sometimes with the sound of ow in now, (it is this) ; 2 ft Of on 9 and sometimes, and oftener, simply as long o. k^Of is pronounced sometimes with the sound of ay in aye , and oftener as a in fate. They have always, however, the sounds of o and a when used as demonstratives. 3. Relatives. ft is the only relative, and is of both genders and num¬ bers. So it is in the ancient language. The use of this rela¬ tive in grammatical construction will be explained in the Syntax. 24 4. Interrogatives. t ^ 0 These are or mO!b, who f (m. and f.) (ancient ^9); > * * whose t 1*9099. what f khlmtl, which of the two f (m. f / " 9 9 9 J ^ £ f $ and f.) (ancient to*2); and ^2Ad, how much, or how many t as in the ancient language. Note 1.—In one part of the plain of Oroomiah, in Salmas, in Ga- $ war, and perhaps other districts, is prononuced u&39. 4*9099 is very generally contracted in vulgar usage into 9039, Tl.099 or * r » > especially when preceding a noun. u&39 which of them ? 9 // 9 9 is vulgarly contracted into iminey. We hear also rarely 92 (m. and f.) instead of «*2 ; compare the ancient feminine form 2 0*2. In • • * > ' Bootan, for which of the two , they say **&39u2, which is no doubt a ' ' contraction of »*&39 *>*&**. it 9 9 Note 2. —^39 in the ancient language is sometimes applied to things. See Luke 8 : 30, ^C k3i ^39. So in the Hebrew ‘rjfap'fc ; but we find no such usage in Modern Syriac. * Note 3.—The ancient to, what , is retained in the common idiom k399 iao, what to thee from us ? i. e. what have we to do ' 9 // 9 with thee ? Of course we may substitute any other suffixes. So too we have in daily use such expressions as ^.*3 t* ^ tocr J99, what • i i» to me a house? i. e. of what profit to me? ^dk**Q2 td wO Cf >L39 •.« a- » ' > > X 30X, wTiaf mai/ be to us so many sheep ? In some parts of the moun- •' " ,, * ? 5 tains, 2cp0 is used to denote what , **9039 perhaps = u*92 >L39. 5. Indefinite and Distributive Pronouns. These are k^d, any one, every one (vulgar a ad, perhaps derived from 9kSj3); ^39 or ^99 tS»d, any one, every one; each one. We often hear also 20C79 ^d, whomever, .« or whatever, you please, literally, any one that may. Note. —It may be hardly necessary to state that tikd, as in the kindred languages, is written defectively, and is to be pronounced kool. 25 6. Suffix Pronouns. These are few in number and simple in their form, and are in general the same for verbs, nouns and prepositions. The following is a list of them. a. Personal Pronouns of the Objective Case. L* t me. , ka* us. thee (m.). 9 N 9 * z m thee (f.). • you. 07 a # him. • • s i \ , *^07, •»* f > 5 f r them. 070 her. , ‘-Cl— ) J Remarks. i ' The suffixes ^O and *^>C7 are confined to verbs. wCj— and / 5 ^ V <• are used only in Koordistan. is a common suffix in Bootan. It will be seen that the suffix of the first person singular, having a vowel, must always be sounded, unlike the corresponding suffix of the ancient language. The modern differs from the ancient (Hoflf. § 42, Annot. 1.) also in having verbal suffixes after the third person plural. Beside ^O , , we have wdiat is equivalent to a suffix in the forms given farther on, under the head of Verbs with Suffixes. b. Possessive Pronouns. These are the same in form with personal suffixes of the ; t objective case. Thus, for example, with 2^*3 a house: My house *-*Vu3 Thy house (m.) oYua Thy house (f.) ‘*3^1*3 His house w*©7ofru3 i i Her house 07 ofrus Our house i t \ • t v less frequently. Your house AaoVus Their house J)TU3 4 26 In the same way the suffixes are applied to the plural, e. g. JfcuftlS my houses, 4fkSSt* thy houses, etc. When the t t J l noun, as in this case, terminates in a vowel-sound, final 2 is dropped, to prevent the hiatus which would otherwise occur in the pronunciation. When the noun terminates in a con¬ sonant, no change is made by its reception of the suffixes. Note. —In our hooks we have often written Of as a noun-suffix for 3d pers. sing, masc., and Of for 3d pers. sing, fem., e. g. cha+3 his house , Of*\*23 her house. We now substitute tor these, in all nouns, k*OfO and CfO , in accordance with Oroomiah usage. 0^2, . *5 ' . ' *' " OVN.JV etc., retain the other suffixes. Of and ^OfO are both used m Gawar; the first only in Tekhoma and Tiary. In Nochea and Tekhoma, we find only Of ; but, on the other hand, this is not used at all m Gawar. In 1 ekhoma and Tiary, the suffix *■« Of-* is the I t 9 £ noun-suffix for 3d pers. plural. In Bootan, (m.) and (f.). ; ' *• We, however, employ now only u* as the noun-suffix of 3d pers. plural. We have also, in such expressions as ^X&2d O^OaJ, dropped the suffix which is employed both in Ancient Syriac and in Chaldee. (See Jahn’s Grammar, § 28.) It is not in accordance with present usage, and we now substitute 2 for the Of. The expression 1^0 Om will be referred to in the Syntax. Emphatic Possessive. Sometimes the suffix, for the sake of emphasis, is separa- ted from its noun by a preposition, e. g. ? Z2UI the father It 99 of me (and not of you), ^9 V&3 the father of thee, etc. Note 1.—Compare *^.*13 in Ancient Syriac. This form, which is always emphatical in the Modern, is by no means uniformly so in the Ancient Syriac. (IIotF. § 122, 6.) Note 2.—Such forms as John 4 : 34, / * »• V 2 Cor. 5 : 19, or kw? ^OVS, Matt. 3 : 1, cannot properly be admitted in the Modern Syriac. It may, how- 27 \ ever, be remarked here, once for all, that in the translation of the Old Testament from the Hebrew, and of the New Testament from the Ancient Syriac, idioms have been designedly more or less introduced which are not in accordance with vulgar usage. 7. Reciprocal Personal Pronouns. myself. or ourselves. i ^ i v i thyself (m.). thyself (£). himself. f herself. or _^ t yourselves. or themselves. The word soul (Persian qL>), which is thus con¬ nected with the suffixes, corresponds nearly to self in Eng¬ lish. It may indeed have two different significations in the same sentence; e. g. my own soul, thy own soul, etc. 1'x^i is also used in connection with the suffixes, but with t a different meaning. If we wish to express the ideas: “by myself,” “by thyself,” etc., receives the suffixes, and has the preposition 3 prefixed. Thus, by myself, declined like above. Compare the use of and j , i i >h0O£»0 in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 127,1), u;S3 and ith in Hebrew (Nordh. § 873), and u 3 d 3 , etc. in Chaldee (Jahn §15). VERBS. The roots of verbs in the Modern Syriac are in many cases identical with those of the corresponding verbs in the an¬ cient language; but the terminations and inflexions, and the general scheme of conjugation, are different. Indeed, it is interesting to observe how the Modern Syriac, like the Mod¬ ern Greek, and other languages, has broken up the original form of the verb, and employed new auxiliaries, both in the 28 active and passive voices. These changes will be discussed* hereafter. It is sufficient to remark, here, that they have been so great that it is useless to keep up the old distinc¬ tions of 50, O, etc.; and that the object will be better accomplished by classifying the verbs as now used, without any reference to the scheme of the verb in the ancient lan¬ guage. Without attempting a complete analysis of the modern verb, it is intended to give the paradigms of those classes and forms of verbs which commonly occur, both on the plain of Oroomiah and in the mountains of Koordistan. As the verb in its simplest form is alwa} 7 s found in the third person singular masculine of the future, this will be called the root or stem, and the other forms will be derived from it. For greater convenience, however, we shall begin with the present indicative, after giving the infinitive and participles. The auxiliary and neuter verb, the verb of existence Xo fal to be, is given below, inflected both positively and negatively. INFINITIVE, lloqr, 1.0 ©A to be. Present Participle, Being. Perfect Participle, %+OGl, 1) Having been. ) INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. / J' r®-- hi I am (m.). '' ' % I am (f.). « i i Thou art (m. 1 1 l Thou art (f.). iSw ocr »• > He is. flSL uC? She is. t, • • We are. / I V / * ou are. AW They are. 29 Present Tense, negatively . ^ Ui I am not (m.). , , , *4^* %ll I am not (f.). ' *' 1 1 We are not. Thou art not (m.). , JxlL Jnii Thou art not (f.). * ,i / X^ x^ o or He is not. »• i» ^ lX Jor She is not. •to ^ »to-i You are not. X'i* X^> They are not. Note. —In these forms, * has a vowel (hhwasa), whenever pre¬ ceded by a consonant; when preceded by a vowel, it receives talkana. OOf is an exception, as it is followed by Z^~. Otherwise, the rule seems to be universal. *' ' When w has talkana over it, it still comes in for its share in the pronunciation, changing the character of the vowel which precedes it. Thus, jQL* ill is pronounced as if written as if etc., the .* coalescing with the preceding (See previous remarks on the sound of a The auxiliary Zj® Cf is some¬ times written Zacr, and sometimes and the same remarks apply to this a also. ' In some mountain-districts, Z*-* is used for Zi-*, and inBootan through all the conjugation of the verbs. Thus, Z^* Z-^^^3 or Z^ry^^SI they are going out; Zl-* Z**XZ3 or a ’ // i< // « they are coming, etc. Imperfect Tense. Ui I was (m.). ? ^ ? > > " OOOf We Za©T ^ 2*2 I was (f.). JL0C7 Thou wast (m.). , . /, aWjStLjW You ZOCf wfclA* kJtiil Thou wast (f.). were. were. r / .5 X He was. i ZA07 w07 She was. QQ&f They were. 30 * / / %aci Imperfect Tense, negatively. I was not ' -'We were not. ( >n ')' ooor <_Ow 2^ I* - ■/ I was not (f.). ^ I* ^Sy-jd Thou wast 1 A * not(m ->-oo or J^^J>‘*i_i Youwere » l> fool JxixL. A J*l»2 Thou wast , , not(f.). 2.oo7 o©7 He was not. not. 2^007 wOT She 0007 ^ kU) They were not. was not. i* » There is generally an elision in the pronunciation of this tense, which is so very prevalent that we can hardly call it a vulgarity. The final 2 of the pronoun in the first per¬ son singular, and the letters Ow are not sounded. Thus, we have the pronunciation anin wa, anan wa. So when any other word which ends in a vowel precedes ; for exam- pie, 2.007 jLX>\ I was there, is pronounced tdmin wa . This elision is not confined to the first person singular. In the second person, the sound is atit wa, atdt wa, and in the first person plural dhhndnukh wa. Of the negative form, the first person singular is pro¬ nounced (ana) leyin wa, ley an wa; the second person, leyit tea, leydt wa; and the first person plural, leyukh wa. Preterite Tense. u^007 I was (m. and f.). • i* aoJSoot Viii Thou wast (m.). , , : * .« . iO07 Thou wast (f.). ,i # 2^007 007 He was. .» <• 2*0007 w07 She was. ^007 We were. » ' • > 0.00^007 Y ou were. ja^acr They were. i* < 31 Preterite Tense, negatively. The negative is formed by inserting Z^ (not Z^) between i 1 the pronoun and the verb, in all the persons and in both numbers, e. g. Z^OC7 OCT lie was not. I 1 I* Note. —When is not used as an auxiliary, it lias the sig¬ nification I became , I was born (comp, ylvoyai). A similar remark ap¬ plies to the perfect and pluperfect tenses. %OCl, thus employed, is conjugated as a verb with final 2, having for its present, l»*Cer.3 I am becoming; and for its imperfect, %AGl Z-> 6(7^3 I was be- n n coming. Perfect Tense. jitter Ui 1 have been (m.). ( , , , j We have been!™ // / . / Vo or lil I have been (f.). W jJooiW Thou hast // f Thou hast V 00r been (f.). )1* llcei ocr He has been. 1 been(m.). 'W , 'S You have » mu™. Z^w* J-*dCT Uk&£ I* > been. They have been. JJbw u*Cf She has been. i Perfect Tense, negatively. Z^ is to be inserted before *0^, and jlocf comes last in # l V // 9 order. We thus have jlocj ZV2. This is inflected * '« i> regularly, except that there is some elision, which has been spoken of under the Imperfect Tense. Pronounce leyin weya, etc. Pluperfect Tense. ******* w.u ~*-***«-« 32 Thouhadst Xaui TLXL* Uooi *W, been(m>)> * 'y. IVi i , „ 4 . , 1 „ , x T . \ ! ooor ^oicukocr low -Via- k-OW -Vui, Thou hadst tt $ been (f* j« You had been. / / X 10W 1-OW OW He had been. ^ They had low Js-oor Jw “ " ’ ' been. Pluperfect Tense, negatively. is to be inserted before ^0^, and iL&Zfl to be placed last. We thus have i*OC7 t&UI l^. The direct form is > v « ,i to be pronounced weyin wa, welan wa, weyit wa, wetdt wa, and the first person plural weyukh wa. The negative form is to be pronounced leyin wa weya, leyan wa weta, etc. Note.—I n Tekhoma, the people say %OC1 iocf, which corre- i' sponds in form nearly to the ancient pluperfect; but they use it rather as an imperfect. Future Tense. low Via ih I shall be (m.). > n n * // ^ooy Via U'i I shall be (f.). 1 Via We shall be. y. 'jL* V* ** Thou wilt ■now M ^ be (m .) ^ Youwillbe . Jh-owV« Jfti* T “ ■ * la& Via ocr He will be. wOCT V\3 They will be. zloor Via Jcr She will be. it Future Tense, negatively. 2 1 5 ' This is (AW U li}, inflected as above in the different per¬ sons and in both numbers. Note. —As this future in Syriac is rarely, if ever, used to express determination, but denotes only simple futurity, “shall” is employed to translate it in the first person, and “will” in the second and third. / will be, that is, I am determined to be, would be expressed by some intensive, as, e. g. Via 33 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. KOOf I may be (m.). V // 2 ^ • I may be (f.). Thou mayest be (m.). II fcJ^fl^OOT Thou mayest be (f.). 9 Zacr He may be. »• Z*OCf She may be. ✓ / «jCS! We may be. (&\.*0C 1 You may be. * _ wOC7 They may be. Note 1.—Tlie pronouns will hereafter be omitted before the dif¬ ferent tenses, and in all the paradigms. Note 2.—This tense with and is often very much clipped in pronunciation. Thus we hear ZoorjX, Zoor zX zloor ZX - i s L »’ ** I* Z*©07 Z-^, etc. »• Imperfect or Pluperfect Tense. laof a of I might be or might ; !" have been (m -'- OOor «OCT We might be, etc. ZjO© 7 ^*007 I might be, etc. (f.). lior W T “f est - . . , V *V The. mightest, ««« ^oVuoCT You might be, etc. ioor -n-oor etc . (f; = Zacr Zoor He might, etc. I* ZjO®7 JL*QU1 She might, etc. 000 1 kwOOf They might be, etc. IMPERATIVE MOOD. S I ^ ✓ »-»007 Be thou (m. and f.). *JO£©OOT Be ye or you. * i< General Remarks. The preceding verb not only may be an auxiliary to other verbs, but is sometimes an auxiliary to itself, e. g. in the imperfect, signi- 5 34 fying I was becoming—Xooi X^QCj.'S. So too in the expression Ju#OCf %&U1 XoVf X^ *2, if he should not be , or if he had not been , born. It may be difficult to account for the precise form of ' // i // i etc. It seems, however, pretty clear that they are made up of O, the principal letter in X&&I, the old verb of existence, or, better, of O of a the pronoun , which was used so much in the Anc. Syriac to ex¬ press the idea of existence, having the talkana on it (H. § 121, 2, c.), and fragments of the personal pronouns. See in this connection a very interesting statement of the relation of the corresponding pronoun £$!)i 77 to the corresponding verb in Heb. (N. §647), from which it seems certain that they had a common origin. It is not so easy to say whence comes the .* which precedes. In Bootan, they use for the second person plural present which gives us a It can hardly be doubted that 2^*-* and z* ■* are really and o£L. , J ff f f f J t i t t As to x'±>, it is probably a fragment of ^s2. Compare the an¬ cient with the modern Xi* k*3tl. The resemblance in sound is very striking, and the signification identical. CLASSES OF YE RE S. There are two great classes of verbs in the Modern Syriac, which are always distinguished from each other by their mode of inflection, and sometimes by their general signifi¬ cation. Each class embraces several varieties. These vari¬ eties might indeed be designated as distinct classes ; but it is thought best to enumerate only two classes, because the general resemblance to these leading forms is discoverable in all the other varieties. Class I. Regular Verb. The first and most numerous class of verbs has almost invariably but three radical letters, as a^JCD, the verbs which respectively denote “to go out,” “to finish,” and “to support” or “prop.” The peculiarity in the mode of conjugating runs through nearly all the tenses. Verbs of this class are usually, though by no means uniformly, intransitive. 35 Let us take as a model, (intransitive). , which signifies' to finish INFINITIVE, am to finish. // Present Participle,1UQX&3 ) Perf. Participle, Finishing. Having finished. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. I am finishing (m.). ' U ft X'jbi&s I am finishing (f.). // 'xucL* iai&s Thou art finishing (m.' // // Thou art finishing (f.) t H He is finishing. ,1 u iiL am She is finishing. We are finishing. ita aim You are finishing. The present tense of this class is always formed by prefix¬ ing the present participle to the present tense of the verb of existence, in its several numbers and persons. The pre¬ sent participle is formed by prefixing short zlama with 3 to the first radical, making zkapa the vowel of the second radi¬ cal and also of the third, and adding the quiescent 2 to the third radical. The present tense of any other regular verb of this class may be formed by precisely the same process. Note 1. —If the first radical he 3 or & , the sound of the pre- formative 3 in the present participle is scarcely heard, though always written, and in vulgar pronunciation it is entirely omitted. Indeed, in the rapid enunciation of the people, many other verbs, and especially $ $ those beginning with &), drop this S. Thus we have Xs*>Si!sX3 $ $ , // anointing, sounded ni’shahha, %2kSk^3 becoming meek, sounded 2 £ m // m’kakha, lx3&*3 doing , sounded wada, etc. • // Note 2. —This tense is often vulgarly contracted into prakin, pra- kan , etc., and the remark applies to any verb of this class. 36 Imperfect Tense. lac? ^ ia'x&a 1 w “ ® nish - lac? ^ &x*a “ ish ‘ l^V #S W- lac? i-VlA- iax&a finishing (f.). lac? idiAa » e ™ fin - She was fin¬ ishing. i-' ffi We were ©60 Lia©f. In the third person singular, iaof takes the place of , X^, instead of being added to them; and in the third person plural, OOOf takes the place of Note 1.—The elision spoken of in connection with the imperfect tense of the verb 2©Of to be, takes place here also. Thus, the *• first person singular masculine is pronounced biprakin wa, or prakin wa; the first person feminine, biprakan wa, or prakan wa ; the sec¬ ond person masculine, biprakit wa, or prakit wa ; the second person feminine biprakat wa , or prakat wa; and the first person plural, biprakukh wa, or prakukh wa. Note 2.—Instead of this form, we occasionally hear b* ^60? in which case b*^0 Of seems to he equivalent to 26Of 4 • / . " t*J^O0f may be thus used with the present participle of many verbs, i i 1 hut it is not necessary to allude to it again as a regular tense. Preterite Tense. b* kold I finished (m. and f.). Thou finishedst (m.). / i n Thou finishedst (f.). m II lW*£ He finished. »• « llaxa She finished. We finished. ' / n You finished. They finished. // 37 This tense has no preformative letter. A short zlama is inserted between the second and third radicals, and the fol¬ lowing terminations are subjoined: 1 sing. m. and f.; } 2 masc. sing.; , 2 fem. sing.; zA , 3 masc. sing.; ^ t 9 |l ZA, 3 fem. sing.; ^A,l plural; *iX.aaA, 2 plural; *©*A, 3 plural. Note 1 . —In Bootan, the third person plural (m. and f.) is Mt A .Ox A ; and so in all verbs. This usage is not confined to that district. We also have sometimes &A.0x£ for n m // Note 2.— When the last radical is & or a. the terminal A is dropped. Thus, from k^L to grind , we find the preterite , ; from £x&2,& to saw , we have the preterite u*3U£a.i. not When the final radical is A , this is not doubled in pronunciation. Thus, from ^ V B to kill, we have the preterite uA This t ft* rule applies to the preterite of all verbs of both classes. Perfect Tense. I have finished (m.). ^ // f I have finished (f.). Thou hast finished (m.) // / Thou hast finished (fi). t / ' »oYu *' > We have finished. You have finished. zA^ X&J&& He has finished. i 1 • She has finished. i* • They have finished. This tense, like the present, is a compound tense, and is formed by prefixing the perfect participle to the present tense of the verb of existence, exactly as the present parti¬ ciple is prefixed to it to form the present tense. The perfect participle, in all regular verbs of this class, is formed by inserting * after the second radical, and adding 2' to the last radical, if masculine, or 2X, if feminine. It will be noticed that the participle takes 2 in the plural. 38 Pluperfect Tense. ; d I had finish- I h ( Tfi' • h ®®® , iauxfi I'rir* k " V m i <4 I had finish- V ,, , J«cr »A~ fcB-xa ed (£)- % d Thou hadst ■ ~ finishedfm.). * * H k d You had *• -W «-*» S=K ~ • *** “ We had finished. i* • ^ Uhed. ad fin ' She had fin¬ ished. XqGI Sed? I> » This tense is formed by adding the auxiliary X&*j\ to the respective persons of the perfect tense; taking the place of and in the singular, and Xi* in the plural, as in the imperfect tense. Note. —In pronunciation, the same elision is made as in the im¬ perfect tense. Thus, we have prekin wa , prektan wa , etc. Future Tense. Vis I shall or will perish (rn.). ' // U VlS I shall or will perish (f.). > t! qhib Via We, etc. Vu3a.& Via Thou, etc. (m.). , . :. ^ . " ,oVuoi3 Via You, etc. JnVia Thou, etc. (f.). / // Via He, etc. // // Xaxh Via She, etc. Via They, etc. // / // To form this tense in regular verbs of this class, zkapa is almost universally used with the first radical, and the sec¬ ond radical is-included in the first syllable; but the third person singular masculine is an exception, as the first sylla¬ ble in this case is a simple syllable, not including the second radical. The terminations subjoined to the third radical are ? 1 ^ , 1 masc.; 1 fern.; X , 2 masc.; wX } 2fem.; the vowel -- between the second and third radicals of 3 sing. masc.; 4 ^1 pi.; , 2 pi.; and *-*, 3 plural. 39 Note 1. —In some parts of Oroomiah and Koordistan, is con¬ tracted to 3 . Instead of a', the termination 4^ is often vulgarly given to the first person plural, making it xS . Instead of the termination mt , we sometimes hear J»W , making the second person plural On the plain of Oroomiah, this person some villages pronounced which is probably a _ • * u ' (k2b On* JO . is in contraction for Note 2. —Instead of the personal pronouns being prefixed to this tense, we occasionally find them suffixed, thus : 1st si •• •• til laxb Vl3 1st sing. fem. n Xjoi& Via 2nd sing, masc // #< // itiii xh\& Vls 2nd sing. fem. sing. masc. 0 I 1st plural. Mil mJBxh Vl 3 3rd plural. We have rarely, if ever, written any of these forms, except for the first person singular. If <**£, as has been assumed, is a fragment of Mil they , it is often very improperly joined by the ignorant villag¬ ers to a verb in the singular, e. g. mi 2 1 he ivill finish. t o n The pronouns may in the same manner follow other tenses besides the future. Thus, in the present, we hear ill tjfki Zj0xZk3 I am finishing , JVlil thou art finishing. The accent 7 / // // coming before —, lengthens it. Pronounce biprakeyweena. The .* in kdOL* gives the preceding the sound of ey. ' // These remarks apply to all verbs. The similarity between the an¬ cient and modern language in respect to these forms is worthy of no¬ tice. Thus, in the ancient, we have 111 AiX or i&%k , ill X±3, 1 m »' *' »* I.U* etc. The relationship, however, of the ancient to the modern language in the inflection of the verb will be discussed far¬ ther on. 40 Second Future Tense. l A A1 L I shall have , * Z 7 , " finished(m,) Zi3L*^ 1st plural. Leer Vis 1st fem. *' t ' // iauk^ Vvocr 'ha 2nd masc. . , . . - " , " ifluiA JttL,ovi 'ha ?”*, wh»d« Via 2nd fem. ■’ ’ ' " P ' masc. Zaer VlS 3rd / • (i // Z-OCT 3rd fem. ZtiuSb^ «eer Via 3rd plural. This tense is formed in all verbs by prefixing the first future of the substantive verb to the perfect participle. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The Modern Syriac verb, as used in dependent clauses, resembles sometimes the subjunctive of the Latin, French, or German, and sometimes that of the English grammarian Murray ; but for the sake of greater brevity, not to say sim¬ plicity, these varieties will be considered together under the common title of Subjunctive Mood. The verb assumes the same form in the present tense of this mood as in the future tense, the auxiliary's being generally dropped and X &61 being added to form the imper¬ fect tense. Present Tense. I may finish (m.). 5 ? " , 1st plural. JhS 1st fem. 2nd masc. t , " { 2nd plural. 2nd fem. ' I jax£ 3rd masc. m , , " , iaJSXS 3rd plural. Xbx& 3rd fem. Though this tense is properly used in dependent and hypo¬ thetical clauses, by prefixing Z^ or w2 to it, it becomes a 41 generic present. The particle Z3 is used in Salmas and i' Oroomiah, while ^2 is the common prefix in Koordistan. We thus have / am in the habit of finishing; . ^ «. v » )• Z^ I am in the habit of going out, etc. This Z^> or w2 it •• i* * is used with all the persons and in both numbers. On the other hand, ^DLO, derived from the ancient 9 prefixed to this tense makes it a preterite, equivalent to e. g. >SU3 I finished. This is but little used 99 / ' // 9 out of Oroomiah, and is used there for the sake of euphony, in cases where the regular preterite does not readily take the suffixes. Thus, )BL£t I supported him, would be pre¬ ferred to €7J»^2 i* // / " // When Z^ (not Z^t) is prefixed to this tense, it is also a generic present, or a future, the idea being expressed nega¬ tively, e. g. ZS I am not in the habit of finish- l ,m I'l'' H »' ing quickly, or I shall not finish quickly. These statements apply to verbs of both classes and all varieties. Note 1.—In telling a story we sometimes hear a native vulgarly use the form Z* almost exclusively, as his “narrative tense.” It seems then to have the force of our English present, “ he goes,” “ he tells,” “he does so and so,” and to the mind of a Nestorian gives a sort of vividness to the story. Note 2.—Before verbs whose first radical is 2 or Z^ has the sound of Sk with a simple sheva, e. g. *^X2 Z^ , pronounced k?atm. // (' Second Present. /LOi&a _aer I may be finishing (m.). // // JjsiAa goer 1st fern. Z JBx&a Vlact 2nd masc. // // Xti'x&a JZuocr 2nd fern. // 9 tiax&a law 3rd masc. »• Z-*007 3rd fem. 1st plural. ^IVuoor 2nd plural. 3rd plural. 6 42 ® • • • • > > / This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, ^o 07 , £* 007 , etc., to the present participle. Imperfect Tense. Zj 007 I might finish (m.). ' n / ^ /. 2.007 £ 1st fem. %hui 2nd masc. II Zoo 1 JxihiM 2nd fem. I Zo 67 uojJI 3rd masc. II Z007 %kx& 3rd fem. 0007 1st plural. 000 7 2nd plural. I t x * *4 0007 >*13X3 3rd plural. With Zo or k*2 prefixed, this tense denotes a past action habitually performed, e. g. 2007 Zo he was in the habit of finishing quickly. So too with Z^t, the idea being »* expressed negatively. Perfect Tense. xk.a.4 .acr 1 may have 4 ' /i finished (m.). £*007 1st fem. ZtsL^ VtO07 2nd masc. / // 5^8w 3.^ *JZ\*007 2nd fem. I I Zoo? 3rd masc. i »• %*&&! 3rd fem. Z&*o£ 4fj007 1st plural. Z&*0»^ ^oVt^007 2nd plural. »• » » w007 3rd plural. $ This is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, £ 007 , etc. to the perfect participle. 43 Pluperfect Tense. ik.is ** j* ar Jji fa&f 1st fem. •' ' 7 pluraL , 9nd maSC - la -^ Ober ^ * ofural ;i»6f wVl-00T 2nd fem. '' ' ' P ibU3b£ ZAOf ZfiCT 3rd masc. , , o ■. / , X&As ©@©r k ^e©y 3^tiL3hd locf 2J©Cf 3rd fem. '* ' ' P I . $ ^ $ This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, ijaef *^07, etc. to the perfect participle. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Finish thou (masc.). hit Finish thou (fem.). Finish ye. The imperative is formed by inserting 4 between the sec¬ ond and third radicals, and giving the plural its appropriate termination. Note 1 .—Sometimes we have the following imperative : Xhx^tS be finishing , and the plural %£txj!L3 ; but this is not common. Note 2.— When the middle radical is 3, it is not ordinarily pro¬ nounced in the imperative; e.g. pronounced shook. When 0 the middle or final radical is Q , to avoid the coming together of two O’s, one is omitted in writing, e. g. the imperative of is ; ■ I L 3 . " 7. 3 - • 1, of it is etc. A VERB WITH THE NEGATIVE PARTICLE ^ OR iS. Only the first person singular of each tense will be given, as the other persons can be easily supplied by the learner. As every verb in the language makes its negative form pre- 44 cisely like after. , the subject need not be alluded to here- Xs'j&a f A-' ladr ^ iS // // (• f // ikA£ Jaw A / ' « |i fJ3 kOj.^ ^a.a lii ' /> i I am not finishing. I was not finishing. I did not finish. I have not finished. I had not finished. I shall not finish. I did not finish. Note 1.—For the pronunciation of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, see previous remarks on the elision of (b. Thus, the imper¬ fect is pronounced leyin wa bipraka , and the pluperfect ley in wa preka. Note 2.—It will he noticed that the future, in taking the negative, drops its preformative Sometimes, however, ^.0X2^ VtSI 1-& is used as an emphatic future, e. g. A&; Via %S,a Via XU ' // ® // 14 n neither unit I come , nor will I eat. -T » i* ' Note 3.—The proper negative of *pJ3 is given above, but t-0 X& ZS 'pJB is allowable. V " l 49 Note 4.—The subjunctive takes Z-^ before its different tenses, which are not inverted. Vulgar usage sometimes employs Z^ in- 49 ** stead of Z-^ with the subjunctive. Note 5. —Though the inversion of the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect indicative, as a general rule, takes place only with the particle zi> , sometimes the inversion takes place without that parti- cle. For example, \ why are you going out? VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY. The verb (as in English and French) takes no new forms in an interrogative sentence; and the interrogation is known only by the inflection of the voice or the sign 2 placed at the end of the sentence. 45 PASSIVE VOICE. This will be most advantageously considered, after we finish the paradigms of the Active Voice. VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE // It is to be understood that when a verb is marked “1 or 2 ,” the verb is either of the first or second class, its signifi¬ cation remaining unchanged. On the other hand, “ 1 and 2” denotes that the verb is conjugated in both methods, but with a change of signification. It is not to be presumed that all the regular verbs of the first class are given here, or that any of the following lists are complete. An effort has, however, been made to collect as many of the verbs in common use as possible. Although one meaning is placed opposite to each verbal root, this is by no means a dictionary. Frequently a verb is used in four or five or more significations. Only one, or at the most two of these are noted down. • $ axa 9 ti to become lean, to thrive. 1 and 2. to be scattered. 1 and 2. to scatter (seed). 1 or 2. $ to be or become useless l or idle. 1 and 2. to conceive. ( to be pressed (with busi- l ness). to bruise, crush. ( to vet well, be pleased, | 1 and 2. to be defloured. 1 and 2. 9*3 to diminish (intr.). 1 and 2. to dry (intr.). II m m ' 9b3 to kneel. II to lighten (flash). to be or become cooked. 1 and 2. to fashion; mingle. 9 1 ^ to marry. II to braid. II to blaspheme. 1 or 2. II to stack up. to move (intr.). % >• % 46 • i} , , to circumcise. to buy. ft ' // * 4 * (to laugh. The present is '' . . . , ^ to struggle (m fief lit). ( generally r A_ Zi^.^3. to conquer. to oppress. // • to lose the bark. 1 and 2. to fill (to the brim), to full (cloth). to look sullen. kXSSk\ to grasp firmly, wring. // to steal. ® ft e.^ to snatch. ?i.X to efface, scrape off. ?k to slip, to grind (in a hand-mill). to sing. n i. • k' to strip off (as leaves), be stripped off. // a to weave, knit, to become ready. 1 and 2. n to scratch (as a board). 3 // ^ - * to scratch (with the nails). ° ^ to rise (as the sun). to mix, confuse (tr. and intr.). ^ to shovel off, sweep away " l (asarivei). to confine, shut up. to slide. // r to draw. // to sacrifice. m // s s to seize or hold. a n * 9b99 to lock, to bar. a 7 // » ^ 9 6 9 to thresh. a n 's to lie down, to sleep. to start (with fear). "Y * ^ to walk (around). U • J to become white. // to pound, to beat. // to milk. 0 // to err. ^ // to dream. to squeeze; to escape. 1 and 2. to leak (as a roof). 1 or 2. to change (intr.). // * // to be seared. 1 and 2. a // * -3* // to touch. to lock; to set (as fruit). // // 0 S i J k X99 to argue. to bear, to be patient. / 47 to be or become sour. to be or become rotten, to putrify. to ask for. to sink down. 1 and 2. J3.W \ to choke, drown, etc. (tr. lJUO V to dip (tr. and intr.). „ ) and intr.). „ * r v 4 &&W to prohibit, keep back. drive away. to beat up (as eggs). to grow fat. to thrust in. t to wean. ft g ^ 3k&3u» to be deficient. ft u&Su, to embrace. ft 9b£L*» to dig. ft to reap. // bJ&J* to honor, praise. ft (.13 iw to spoil (intr.). • ft A^k*. to expend. 1 or 2. • 2 , n $£»*# to arrange in order. // to scoop out. ^ ft to be singed. 1 and 2. *' ft a $ , to grin. ft AsJ. to be or become sharp. ft to think. » // to be worthy. ft to thresh, pound up. ft to seal. ft m / to be boastful. tt -rr^-Sii to crush, break in pieces. tt ^ ^tiSy, to grind. ^ to migrate, remove from /„ \ place to place. fcSt*«uSk to anoint, to paint (as eyes). tt to be or become faint. //•t to seize by violence. x> « x, to split. // t ubk&Cfe to be or become mature, tt to sweep. tt to prune (vines). ft to fold. See AAk tt tt to be or become hungry. ' ft • ^ to deny (as one’s religion). ft 9 m £ to be or become angry, ft m 2 92 kS> to thrust through. tt t, _ <; to climb, to be evident. tt isVii* to write. * tt to tie a knot. n X. 48 'V.fSO "T, V m $ tea n sS to flash. // to put on (clothes), to be fitting, to beckon, wink, etc. n to lick. to peck up (food); to em¬ broider. to mix (liquids), to be found. 1 and 2. to be or become meek, to pluck. to rub off skin, to be bald. to be or become bitter. to scour, to be polished. to anoint. to stretch out to tell a parable. 1 or 2. to bark (as a dog). // ft lkt to reprove, to hew. // ■ £ to vow. m n .Soa to pine away. // • £ 30*1 to shy (as a horse). H • / 3A1 to abstain from meat, etc. // to sift. // .Sui to be or become ashamed. II to drop (as water). II* Tslwl to keep. //’ to pull or root out. n% 3£al to saw. // to blow (with the mouth). n to fall. // 1.3a to shake (as clothes). ^ // to plant. to be slender or thin. m n to peck. It .303.1 to peck at. // 9LdL& to drive (a nail). II tXflll to paint. 1 or 2. II A-xi to skin. ~ II & 3 * to drain off (tr. and intr.). n Jlxi to kiss. // 9bXl to make an onset. n a'fti to fall (as leaves). m . »_/ to trust. // / to worship. to fill up (tr. and intr.). to be or become quiet. 49 to plunder. it to redden, blush. it to support, prop. // to need. tt to rot. tt to become empty, land 2. // 3b 3 JO to wait. it to be or become weary of. to be beautiful. 1 and 2. to reproach, to deny. to bolt (as flour). // to scratch, trace. ^ // i33b£D to suck in. it a ^ b09JQ9 to comb. // sVub to undo, pull down. tt to do. m tt 90^ to pass. it to spin. it 'tl&L See under p. 63. to be baptized, to dwell. it 9lOLX to dig out. it wOabL to flee. "t to reflect. 1 or 2. to open out, become flat. to be or become crooked. ! to work. Present parti¬ ciple may be %A. ti to go out. 1 and 2. to be crooked, deceitful, to fight, to exult. to command. 1 or 2. to blossom. & a JCD^ to flee (as sleep), to fly. to tear, wear out. to rub, use friction, to burst out, to make burst, to cut. ^ to spread, as wings (tr. I and intr.). to separate (tr. and intr.). to rend. 1 or 2. HI, to stretch (out). ^ it *JL3& it U»X3 9J& (to be or become sorry. ^ 1 or 2. ( to be or become straight. ( 1 and 2. to melt (intr.). 1 and 2. to open. 1 50 to wind (tr. and intr.). tf to scorch, as food (intr,). to squat. " / ^ to be or become mad. ft v m i ,XXB to string (as peppers). ft J *ka..e to receive. 1 or 2. to complain, to bury. to joint together. to be or become holy. 1 and 2. A V < to put on (the outer gar- ) ment). to kill. to gather (grapes), to turn aside. to lose the bark (as a tree). 1 and 2. to be crushed, to crush, to twist, to pinch, to be wrinkled or puckered. ft X&Js to fold. 1 or 2. ft to partake of the sacrament. • ft to bite. o to win ; to overlay. ft to sweep, rake. 1 and 2. 3 * // Hi, A? >>i T ft » s to have mercy on. 1 or 2. tf ddL/a // to tremble, to stone, to be numb, to be broad, to run. • ft a ft m ^ xaa ft m', II to be far. C to ride. Future some- j . m ml m ( times *2*33 A3. 'ft • ft to be or become soft. to kick, stamp, to dance, to delineate, to boil. to let, let go. // to confuse, to be confused. ■ 2 2&X to leap. ft MaJS, to be or become warm. ^ ft to spread out. tr* to pluck. ,,Ay $ to strip off (as one’s \ clothes). 1 and 2. to be dislocated. 1 and 2. tf to be parboiled. 1 and 2. to break. to overflow (intr.). 1 and 2. 51 to be or become palsied. to perish. 1 and 2. " II kAx to level. 1 or 2. JO±k to perish, be lost. 1 and 2. v « // to be pleasing to. to spill (intr.). 1 and 2. ft 1/ Xe.x to take. to mould or be mouldy. 9XX | to a ^f < as an e SS)- 1 JtX4k to meet. 'ri&k to sneeze. to sag down. ^ n m a 's to partake. 1 or 2. a $ to eat out. n to transplant. 1 or 2. // kfifrlX to be or become silent. II 5 fcSX to be or become numb. ' II m ' to break. II * iA3U#X to thrust. II * * to remember. II to fall down (as a wall). to weigh (tr.). II i« ■ 2 to be reformed. 1 and 2. II • 's aax to crumb up. to be mended. 1 and 2. .3*// » ^ wfl>X to be buttoned. 1 and 2. to be or become thick. II to wither (intr.). // ^ * * to press out (juice). Note. —Some verbs of four radicals are included in tlie above list, as they are in every respect regular, except that the second radical takes — in preference to ~ (according to the analogy of the ancient language) in the present participle. Thus we have { 11 j » 5 , i ZSXj»\>**3 dreaming , withering, press- > n t, ing out. I II Class II. Regular Verb. Verbs of the first class are very often intransitive. On the other hand, the majority of verbs of the second class are transitive. A number of verbs, which, when conjugated according to the first class, are intransitive, when conjugated according to the second class, become transitive. For ex- 52 ample, , if it conform to the preceding paradigm, de¬ notes to go out ; but if it conform to the following paradigm, to bring out or to cause to come out. The same is true of : when conjugated as a verb of the second class, it denotes to finish , in a transitive sense, or to save. It is, however, to be remarked that a few verbs are used indifferently as verbs of the first or second class, without any change of signification. Thus , following either paradigm, is transitive, and means to command. More rarely a verb is intransitive in either conjugation, as to leak, which is properly of the first class, but used in some dis¬ tricts as if of the second class. Verbs of the second class have regularly three radicals. A is prefixed to the root in all its inflections by the peo¬ ple of Tiary, Tekhoma, Nochea, and the western slopes of the Koordish mountains, but is not heard on the plain of Oroomiah. It has been for a number of years omitted in our books. The rules for the formation of compound tenses being the same in all verbs, it is unnecessary to repeat them. The two conjugations do not differ in this respect, but in the form of the infinitive, the participles, the preterite, and the imperative. To form the present participle from the root, the first radical takes — when the root has —, and -f when the root has -f-. If is the first vowel, @ is inserted after the the second radical; and when -f- is the first vowel, ® is in¬ serted. The third radical takes — with final l. We will again take as the model. INFINITIVE to save. i* Present Participle. iooa.3 saving. Perfect Participle. %hi ad, oA having saved. n t 58 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense . Z>BOStS I am saving’ (m.). » *• JL isasA 1st fem. •• VvA-» %J3®'x£k 2nd masc. " »• 2nd fem. I <• 3rd masc. (• »< Z#©aJ& 3rd fem. i* Imperfect Tense . law J id0/ Z£©9^ 2nd •> i' ;bor u*Vu&»* 2nd fem. / i' Zatf Ztf©a& 3rd masc. <' Zi»or Z£©a& 3rd fem. Z^loaJl 1st plural. 4Vu Z£osJ 4 2nd plural. lL UfaaA 3rd plural. t - { XJQQ&& I was saving (f.). 1st plural. masc. OOOT ZJ36Sb^ 2nd plural. ©©or z.s©a>£ 3rd plural. The same elision takes place which has been repeatedly noticed. We are to pronounce parookinwa, etc. Notice this in the pluperfect. Preterite Tense. I saved (m.). S1JBZ6& 1st plural. * 9 it 9 a 9 2nd masc. / // / 2nd fem. ■ // / &oaa»d 3rd masc. i> n 1 1 XjAq& 3rd fem. // / it 9 2nd plural. 3rd plural. // . 9 This is formed like the corresponding tense in verbs of the first class, except that © is inserted after the first radical. 54 Perfect Tense. I have saved(m.). V 7 , . 7 XjbzqA 1st plural. 1 c?f fom •* * jheC UaiaA 2nd plural. Zj^ Z£ft&£ 3rd plural. 1st fem. // t YlAw zib©*^ 2nd masc. // / 2nd fem. / // / z^ %y*&& 3rd masc. i' > ;&w 3rd fem. // f The perfect participle is formed by inserting © after the first radical, and giving the last radical the vowel — with final 2. Note.— In some cases, — is inserted between the second and third radicals, as, for instance, having envied. This vowel n # always appears in the feminine participle. When the root takes —— instead of —, the perfect participle, with scarcely an exception, takes this — between the second and third radicals, and the same vowel appears also in the future; as *\2f I will envy. By inspecting the catalogue of verbs of this class, it will be seen that this usage is founded on the principles of euphony. For example, verbs whose second and third radicals are the same, take this vowel; and also verbs whose middle radical is O . If it should be objected that to repent , and similar verbs, with // radical ©, have ~ in the root and —- in the perfect participle, it may replied, that, although is written in accordance with the rules of the ancient language (Hoff. § 12, 1), the sound is that of - -. Thus d oJ£, • // // Pluperfect Tense. OOO l ZO*3Qi^ 1st plural. ^ i' i iflO? .a- 10**4 1 “ saved n Z©G7 1st fem. // / Z©cf %b*Q& 2nd masc. // t 2nd fem. i // / 3rd masc. / Zb 171 3rd fem. o ©cr *oVu z-aSo^ 2nd plural. 6©C7 XJGIZ&4 3rd plural. « i 55 Future Tense. I will save (m.). ^LOsJSl 1st plural. This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first class. Those verbs, however, which have - - in the root, or -- in the perfect participle, have the same vowels here also; e. g. to return (tr.), cause to turn ) has its perfect par- ticiple 2990^9, and its future *^&*9 L it t u H t n Second Future Tense. i I shall have laso-3 ,pa Tw saved(m .). &£ wao rVia 1st fem. // i ' // 2nd masc. I it n JVuOCTVlS 2nd fem. f // 3rd masc. » i< H ^J930J^ 3rd fem. 1st plur. »• > / // J&cuaor^na pl ^,. i* / 2J93&J& w+QC7 3d plur. «* * // f SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. I may save (m.). 1st plural. This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first class, and takes -J-, as well as between the second and third radicals, whenever the future takes them. Second Present Tense. X0O9& uOG7 I may be saving (m.). jLBOaJ^ 1st fem. 20OX& VljftC 1 2nd masc. , m , ,. ? 2nd plural. I - « 20O9t£ 1st plural. twfc\*0©7 2nd fem. i X0O9J& Zacr 3rd masc. 1 1 I 1 ZJSOsJ^ X*OGT 3rd fem. JLdiaJ^ w09T 3rd plural. 56 Imperfect Tense. %h&f I might save (m.). ddd/ 1st plural. This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first- class. Like the present tense, its vowels depend on the vowels of the future, to which they always conform. Perfect Tense. n ' f. 1st plural. masc. XJK&G& 0? 2nd plural. i* i Xxs'yoA twocr 3rd plural. %J3iO& h»*d©7 1st fem. II 9 ^ XbdeJ& Vio©y 2nd 9 It bJfa+Q&f 2nd fem. n 9 9 3rd masc. • *• 3*5*00 dd^ xLq&I 3rd fem. II 9 Pluperfect Tense. Uet Izt^r . , , . , . lst faioA XW ^ 1st fem. '' ’ P' UraU II 9 ' Us'yoA X&cf Vioer 2nd masc. „ , . , 0 • " deer oYUocr , , ^er kJtlldOT 2ndfem. '' ' ' P Ura * masc. zidd,^ ZdCT £O0T 3rd i i> XLaai 3rd fem. Xoo&j& do 9i wdor 3rd plural. IMPERATIVE MOOD. uaa.3 save thou (m.). * II k* a->& save thou (f.). save ye. It is to be particularly noted that the verbs marked i in the following table make the plural imperative by simply adding ^ to the singular. Thus, envy ye, , " % II 9 57 answer ye, etc. The second form given above, *£*39109^, i* may be used with other verbs, but is not so common, and is now omitted in our books. forms its imperative plural thus: . VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE wB9&. // Note.-— r, following a verb, shows that it conforms in every re¬ spect to h&kil; i, that it takes - — in the present participle, — in n the perfect participle, etc. Verbs are not repeated in this table which are used as verbs of either class, without a change of signifi¬ cation, and which have been given already in the first table. to strip off bark, r // t 9h^3 to cultivate, r "V a 2 3 .>3 to scatter (tr.). r U 0 / 3&3 to glean, i it t to envy, i to search, r to render vain or idle, r 'PJ&3 to heal, r It m £ 9J&9 to deflour, r It 0 £ to degrade (tr.). r 9J3J9 to ask a question, r // 0 / to bless, r to cook, r It to do skilfully, r u r aJ^i^to wrangle, r » -I. to answer, t to spy out. i // / 7, to tempt, r » v to wallow, i tt t to be dizzy, i ' it ! dSaA to look, r 13 to support, nourish, r // to lie. r n t^303 to sear, r to provoke, i i m { S3 Zft to make ready, r a 0 i 9 u*cr to help, i it t to believe, i a i h i, to beget, r 8 58 jm / to sell, r ' // 4» 0 *99 to join, i II to disturb, be disturbed, i s to find time ; to supply, r o 33*^3 to return (tr.). i 9 a H 9 B I t>£U*39 to love, i n 9 (to defile, or become defiled, / with milk, etc., during fast, i a £ 9*9 to prepare, r II 9 I // I to heat (tr.). i to incite, r II a > // I B ^ II I to become cold, r to ask after one’s health, r II ViJW* to renew, i to rule, r to wash, i II I Am to be or make strong, i ' II I mA**# to escape, r ^ n m $ to singe, r to play, r and i II ^ to indulge, i II to bury, r II * m * to drive away, r II to hem; to brush up. r II a '' to roll up. ?• fto carry (away), r j This root is also i " ^±28, or tikSU. " ■ 4< ^ " " to blot, t v // > to find, r "i, i to blacken (tr.). i to cover, shut, r I t.3b3t39 to bow (tr.). i II 9 f ^ ^ to pay a debt, i n 9 to teach, r II 9 to smell, i H 9 9 to nurse, i .% // f n 9 to apply (attention), i 3&J to cause to ascend, r II to cool (tr.). i n 9 □dSkSib to burn (tr.). r II 9 'pj&isa to raise, i II 9 a » xobo to chisel out. i // 9 9 to cool (tr.). i II 9 to cause to hit. i II 9 to lift up. r n a * §&>££25Q to kindle (tr.). i U 9 *sVi*o to place, r II 9 '’pn+i to raise (the dead), r 59 to empty (tr.). r Sxk to entice, r tt VLbUCO to ornament, r to maim, i // i to wonder, r //•i> ^ to vex or be vexed, i tt£ t tt I to gape, i to atone, r to muse, r to bring out. to cut out. r ti to gaze at. r *L> " \sJ& to stretch out. r 01X3 to translate, r It kzA to chew the cud, to digest, r It to be or become sober, i n AsL to refine, i 'Pba to anticipate, r tt 'y fcXXd to make holy, r n Js to promise, i it to happen, i tt a 40 to look, r m tt tSjk0 to peel, r It a ' to squeeze in. i S* ft I m 2 y0X to glorify, r * XX to be or become foolish, i ' 7t t a t a XX to send, r to long for. i to praise, r to strip, despoil, r to be or become quiet, i ft f tlk!kX to dislocate, r ft to parboil, r tt vXI&X to perform a burial service.?* It I fclX to be or become peaceful, i 'tt t k*»lkx to make overflow, r ft _ f to be acquainted with, i tt t * r to be partaker, r and i « ^ • to repent, i It b%kS> X to cause to perish, r tt d5t>\x to destroy, r tt I )&^iX to finish, t ft I u*&X to sigh, r tt s £ kXmx to prop, r tt Ak to spill, r tt C 2 $X to abandon, r tt e 2 to make, r S II • ^ <0aik to button, r 60 A verb of four radicals may follow this paradigm, e. g. to shed tears; X being regarded as a quiescent. A few of the above roots beginning with ia are really causa¬ tives, a weak radical, as, for instance, 2 in the case of , having fallen out. The rules for the formation and conju¬ gation of causatives will be considered hereafter. Irregular Verbs of the First Class. First variety. First radical 2. Root to eat. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. ails I am eating (m.). n • ,i 1st fem. ■ *• 2nd masc. // ■ |! 2nd fem. , « ,i 3rd masc. »* ■ »• 3rd fem. ; to bind. to cool (intr.). n n // The verbs ia? and h&l are entirely regular; i. e. they // // ” conform to the preceding paradigm. The same is true of , except in the future, where ^ is for the most part not sounded (see Hoff. § 27, 4, a), and in the imperative, which is in the singular, and in the plural. Compare // I* the imperative of the same verb in the ancient language, wA#, etc. In the modern, we often hear go thou, just as in the ancient, and in the He¬ brew. This suffix is used with the imperative of but few verbs; e. g. etc. The idiom will be referred to farther on, when the relation of the modern to the ancient verb is discussed. Future Tense of ±9i. n Vl3 I will go (m.). ^ n u 1st fem. Vi^$? Via 2nd // // Via 2nd i // Via 3rd masc. // // Xmiifl Via 3rd fem. masc. xem. Via 1st plural. oViAVi Via 2nd plural. Via 3rd plural. % 62 to Note 1.—Witli a negative preceding, 2 is not sounded in com¬ mon conversation (e. g. a &d tliree syllables are reduced ' n )• to two. Note 2.—In Bootan, we liave the following form of the future, which is well worthy of a place in our grammar, as it throws light on the relation of the ancient to the modern lano-nage. 1 sing. (m. and f.). t // Via 2nd masc. ^ Via 2nd fem. • n Via 3rd masc. »• // Via 3rd fem. l Vl3 1st plural. (• / // ViS 2nd plural. ■ // Via 3rd plural. Note 3. —On the plain of Oroomiah, the verb is generally used instead of in all the tenses of the indicative, except the . A * future, and in the imperative. The present tense is J f / V » H (in some villages X%**%Z3 ), the preterite , the perfect / { ^ a i' i a and the imperative . This is no doubt the an¬ cient to crawl , and, sometimes, to move one's self. We occa¬ sionally hear in the mountains the future V\3. It would ' U ms 11 have been better to write the preterite , and the perf. part. -X- f 4 I If , had the thing been originally understood. As to the drop¬ ping of S, compare %±L with the ancient , and the « i corresponding words in Hebrew. / / / In regard to kJ&l. dA£t>l, and there is some ques- tion whether they should stand here, or be classed with the second variety. If we regard the usage on the plain of Oroomiah only, it would seem that they ought to be con¬ sidered as verbs with medial 2 . The present participle is almost always spoken in this province as if written , zkl&a, and , i. e. like JX&3; and the " " " u\ futures are often ^^©Via, ^U^Via, h3U43 &3, i. e. like ii u '• ii h ' n a 63 On the other hand, the usage in Koordistan v,/ " . ... L * makes them regular verbs with initial 2, like . The £ f n ancient root of hJS>l is also 2M}. We have therefore pre- ferred to class them here. It should not be unnoticed that when *^*£0 etc. are not used in Oroomiah as the fu- tures of these verbs, we have instead SU&-* VlS , // // ' n n etc. Second Variety. Middle Radical 2 or . The middle radical in this variety inclines sometimes to 2 , and sometimes, especially in Koordistan, to the sound of .*. (See Hoff § 33, 3, b.) Kordheimer is probably correct in saying (§ 397), in regard to such verbs, that the root prop¬ erly consists of two strong immutable consonants, in which the fundamental idea of the verb is contained; and that between these a weak letter is inserted to complete the usual form. This falls out often, as will be seen hereafter, in the causative form, and always in the reduplicated form. For the sake of uniformity the roots are now all written with medial 2. Take for example to remain. L «• INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. I am remaining (m.). isuAs We are remaining. ' // n // This is regular, if we consider * the middle radical. Preterite Tense. I remained (m. and f.). We remained. i n 'ih Whether the second radical here be called 2 or *, it is not at all sounded, and instead of or we write I u l n Perfect Tense. I have remained (m.). ' a i We have remained, *• * 64 The participle, which would regularly be %X**& or uLiA, / / / is contracted into %X<&. the feminine of which is Future Tense. Jl VlS I shall remain (m.). ' // n VlS 1st fem. ' n \\x*& Vis 2nd masc. // U wVlX*il Vis 2nd fem. 1 // kXi'& Vis 3rd masc. it It %xJ& ViS 3rd fem. VlS 1st plural. ©VuxJl Vis 2nd plural. 3'ns 3rd plural. The vowel here forms a diphthong with the following , excepting in the third singular masculine. IMPERATIVE MOOD, remain thou. remain ye. Here the middle radical falls out, and we write as above, instead of or . VERBS FOLLOWING THE ANALOGY OF »• to make water. to sew. ’ n " T, n to judge. n '■si? to make fine or small. // to return. n m to tread. // “ to increase. // dZf to sw r ell. to curry (a horse). $ to be or become hot. U to bathe (of females). // %U+* to look. // * A* to venture. aia to invite. h %. 65 9* to scratch. n %• SlA to measure. tt to be or become black. it to bow. It " S '' 3Z3> to be alienated. - ^ kXJA to be paid (an account), to curse. V* ” // to blame. 9?3 to dawn. tt 9Vy3 (a) or (i b ). The preterite is ; the future, ; the imperative, . Some of these verbs have two forms of the present participle, marked (a k b), some only one. In Koordistan, the future is not V\3, but Via. "77 11 “ 7 / " Like , inflect W to sweat (a k b). to hew (a & b). to tremble (b). o n x // yt to taste (a & b). ^OLXB to shut (a). t&Xd to rouse (&). to bear (a & b). ^ to cough (a kb). to fold ( 0 ). »*» to darn (a). OiX j snd Third Variety. This variety is characterized by the transposition of .*, which is sometimes the first and sometimes the second radical. 67 Example, to learn. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. ' n / > 3 I am learning (m.). // ' We are learning. It will be seen that this tense is perfectly regular, except that * becomes the second, instead of the first, radical. Preterite Tense. u I learned (m»). hSvi& ikrf We learned. 9 99 ' 9 99 Here .+ becomes again the first radical, and is silent. Perfect Tense . mOw jL S uJ w I have learned (m.). > ^ I have learned (f.). i The only irregularity is that the first .» is not sounded. Future Tense. Vl3 I shall learn (m.). Vl3 We shall learn. We have learned. r t IMPERATIVE MOOD. Learn thou. It will be seen that the Learn ye. is not sounded here. Note. —In some villages, and perhaps districts, the future is spoken like the future of verbs with medial 2 or •*: thus, , etc. If this were generally the case, we should with propriety call this one of that class of verbs, its root being ax , its present partici- 99 pie, preterite, and perfect participle, being written like the correspond¬ ing forms of &X&. Indeed, there is no special objection to writing them so now, and considering the future irregular, as generally spo¬ ken. We should then have the preterite and the perfect * • " participle These remarks apply also to the verbs which follow. 68 to bring forth (young). to lengthen or be long. *r U to hasten. W to inherit. // n to be distressed. to sit. ^ // // to burn. // Fourth Variety. Third Radical 2. Example, to pour. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. I am pouring (m.). 4* Ob* We are pouring. This tense is regular, with the exception that, two alephs coming together, as in 22»!X3, according to the analogy of the ancient language, 2 is changed into .*. Preterite Tense. I poured (m. and f.). We poured. , • i ,m . The radical 2, when it becomes a medial instead of a final letter, as in this tense, ought, according to the analogy of the ancient language (see Hoff., paradigm of tfV), to be changed into *. This, however, is not the case. The 2 serves merely to lengthen the preceding — into —, and, being itself not heard, is not written. Thus, instead of iAjaa we have uAad. f u' I l> Perfect Tense. S 's * I have poured (m.). // // I have poured (f.). We have poured. ,< “i Instead of the regular perfect participle, which would be the first and second radicals take — and form one syllable, the 2 being changed into .*, as in the present par¬ ticiple. 69 Future Tense. Via I will pour (m.). // // wlaa Via I will pour (f.). ' " U ■ / > Vxa We will pour. The first syllable of this tense, in the masculine singular and the plural, is simple, not including the second radical; and the third radical 2 is dropped, except in the third per- \ to hate. »• %±e> to dip out (as water). 1 and 2. *• Jamb to be or become bad. ,1 I "V to be or become covered. 1 and 2. to be difficult. 1 and 2. 1 &\ 3 > ,i ( X cUIU A. Jama to be or become short Jam^ to rain. 1 and 2. (• <* 1 tjili 5 to be or become covered. ^ 1 and 2. to lap up. to devour greedily. x*± to lap (reg.). »• / to strike, to arrive. to search after. *• to separate (intr.). 1 and 2. i' > to be delivered. 1 and 2. ju* to burst out. »• lx£ to be lukewarm. i' » i\£ to be or become broad. 71 to descend. 1 and 2. a • > ^ to rend. to be or become clean. 1 nad 2. _ ■ * AA3 to be or become drunk. i* A&a to pour out, run out. MS to be or become loose. 1 and 2. • ' i ' ZSXi3 to gather (tr. and intr.). JAX to be like. 1 and 2. I* t I 1 9 to be or become hard. 7 to be spread. 1 and 2. »• •• 5 t0 , pa, i C Jl (aS COm) (intr - ) - i Vi to sag. ,, ^ 1 and 2. b i to scorch (intr.). i* i lua to gain. l±a to gripe. •• | t0 (b ^’ t0 be broken Jo* to drink. ZU to be or become quiet. »• Z*X to faint. 1 and 2. i* $ to loose, become loose. 1 ) and 2. ibJB to call, to read. * ? *' Zj>X to suspend, to be or become thick or »' hard. Zxa %ix to repeat. 1 and 2. to be or become weary. to stick (intr.). 1 and 2. I* • »• a a} $ to be pleased with. f3X to be or become wet. jVofe,s on the Preceding List. is quite irregular, and, were it not for its derivation, might perhaps better be written 20V1 • The present participle is ; the preterite, u-»0$£; the perfect participle, 7-*&A ; and the future, ae? Via, wouSia. W '// I // . The future feminine of this verb is either Vig or Solaai, iui, Zx&, Zius, Zasifl, andZis, all of which have - - in the root. £ This is sometimes, though vulgarly, pronounced in the present jgj MS , and in the preterite , as if from 72 to sack. The future, or rather the present subjunctive, with pre- ceding ( Vf** ), is generally pronounced kdm sin. Those of the preceding verbs which have medial O , make their f f f perfect participle irregularly, as from , except A**©?, the peculiarities of which were noted in the first paradigm. Fifth Variety. Third Radical X. Root to hear. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. / . 5, k <_ m J /> ,5 , l UX* X itt%a I am hearing (m.). A*X£AXa We are hearing. The present participle is only irregular in this, that the third radical, being a quiescent, coalesces with the preced¬ ing vowel, and * is then inserted, which takes the final 1'. We, however, often hear *X£xxa, and the infinitive Xaxx\ r in in which should not be considered a vulgarity, as it is nearer the ancient language than the ordinary form. Preterite Tense. I heard (m. and f.). ^ W e heard. Perfect Tense. kdOw ZaXSXX I have heard (m.). 9! '' s 3£.*X£0bX I have heard (f.). We have heard. The perfect participle takes — as the vowel of the first syllable, which includes the second radical. The X is not sounded, and the last syllable is )L. Future Tense. Via I shall hear (m.). " , < " Via We shall hear. Via I shall hear (f.). ^ 4 The peculiarity of the future consists in this, that the second radical is pronounced as if doubled, the first & be¬ longing to the first syllable and the second to the second syllable. The X affects the adjacent vowels, but is not sounded separately. This peculiarity is not found through¬ out Koordistan. IMPERATIVE MOOD. uJkdAX Hear thou. Hear ye. 9 II Like , conjugate to bore (a hole). to bubble up. // / II 9 to swallow. u i to be satiated. II / to assemble (intr.). land 2. . u 1 " 1 -' to step, march. biwixk. to shave. . ^ " • hMM* to crack (intr.). // 9 to fear. dkikil to recompense. II to sow. II 9 to ferment. // 9 to sink (intr.). 1 and 2. n r to adhere to. t ^ to be sick. Of four radi- » • cals but regular, except to make a breach, in the root. to dye // ^V 3 to brea II 9 Notes on the Preceding List. in the future feminine follows the paradigm of the fourth variet}^ thus: . The masculine lias not the peculiarity of sound of ^£9»X. All the preceding verbs except and even this in some districts of Koordistan, may in the II 9 same way take .+ in the future feminine. 10 i 74 The perfect participles of hSOU and have sometimes been j x ^ >» t ft written and )Ui*>90k£9, to express more exactly the sound ; > / but there is not sufficient reason for this deviation. Some of these verbs with final X are both of the first and second class, and some of the first class only, as noted above. Verbs of the First Class Doubly Irregular. One who has made himself familiar with regular verbs of the first class, and the different varieties already given, will have little difficulty in learning the conjugation of those verbs which are doubly irregular. Some of these have both initial and final l . Root & to curdle. »• XfiiVSt Present Participle. Preterite , 5 • y f n '' % -a*, fcai Perfect Participle. I t // $ * Future. Imperative. The future is sometimes Vl£J masc., mb Via fern. v/ in 'in to come , is inflected in the same way, except that the »• _ # # t imperative is in the singular, and in the plural. We also occasionally hear 2X for the imperative sin¬ gular. The ancient language has the same imperative, the initial 2 being dropped. In Salmas, Gawar, and perhaps other districts, the root of this word is corrupted into %*i : present participle J**3*3, preterite um, perfect participle or 2*,&l, imperative . In Tiary, X is substituted for X throughout the con¬ jugation : we thus have ZlxZS, iJk&j etc. Indeed, the i 1 ft substitution of X is not confined to this word: e. g. 2-3U3 75 a house, for Moreover, in some places we hear Au i A >• as the perfect participle, which is quite as near as any form to the ancient. Some verbs have initial * and final 2. Take for example to swear. // or Present Participle. Perfect Participle. Future. Imperative. .CkiaZ&lu ‘ i* Thus conjugate to lament, and ia- to hake. The pres- »' (• ent participle of the former is like the first form given, i. e. iAa . that of the latter is like either the first or the second form, i. e. or . In some parts of Koordis- tan, 1*1 and MSI are the roots, instead of and . I 1 £. • »' A !’ m »' »' Compare and 1-** in the Ancient Syriac. Somewhat different is the root to know. Present Participle. Preterite. m 9 // Via w ■ I ! Perfect Participle. Future. Note. —The 3 of the future is pronounced as if double (see the future of kitaiaX), and in Oroomiah is almost hardened into Many of the Nestorians lazily pronounce fcXX* what do I J ' M I I 76 know , or how do I know ? mood-ydn , there being little, if any, dif¬ ference, whether the speaker is a man or a woman. This tense is also habitually shortened in other connections by some of the people. The verb to live, is perhaps more regular in the mod- ern than in the ancient language (Hoff. § 76, Ann. 1), but has some peculiarities. It is thus inflected: Present Participle. , %*** Perfect Participle. Via ' u Preterite. Future. 6 * 4 * , ' l Imperative. ; > Like the preceding, inflect to make a fence; £*.0 to he i 1 i> t set on edge (as the teeth); the latter regular, except the The verb to search after, has been generally written in accordance with the usage in Koordistan, and is inflected as follows: Present Participle. Vis Vk3 Preterite. Future. Perfect Participle. ) , ' V Imperative. This, however, is very unlike the usage in Oroomiah. As here spoken, it is an anomalous verb of the second class, and is thus inflected: present participle (or jLaooJkiy); preterite ki\a perf. participle ; future ; imperative There are a few verbs of four radicals, besides those enu¬ merated with regular verbs, which in general conform to the verbs of the first class. i Take for example m to thirst. i-CTjgs Present Participle. Xef, k«(r ' n3 Perfect Participle. "^5 " Preterite. Future. Imperative. I 1 Like %*&l**, inflect to flame. »• •• * 9 As another example take to msA. s. ' XkSI3kl3 Present Participle. « Preterite. 9 tt Perfect Participle. " " J- Future, ' " ‘ Via b* Is v Imperative. // * i* 9 9 Thus inflect to bleat, to become smooth, Xa^q to m t i 1 i i 1 , >i> i 1 > churn, to graze, and X*^2L to plaster. 9 In regard to X *&&, it may be remarked that, while the present participle, as used in Koordistan, conforms to the preceding paradigm, on the plain of Oroomiah we generally hear it thus: . // As another example we may take X-*&^ to be or become weary. 78 3 Present Participle. T, " Preterite. rt { ' . ,, L X*X\, Perfect Participle. ", " V Future. ^ / * 2 , // 9 *1, 9 <2, *■1 w ' Imperative. j ^ y The root iSfeSSop to give, like its predecessor tSGP in the u * I Ancient Syriac (Hoff. §73, Ann. 4, and § 80), is singularly irregular. Being in constant use, it should, however, be made very familiar. X30,*3I Present Participle. tJkSCFk* Preterite. » / tun p0P &23 ) %Jk30p, Perfect Participle. ", , > Future. • ' ‘ pop *aj // o \ \ Imperative. ?) It should be remarked that the perfect participle resem¬ bles the perfect participles of the second class rather than those of the first, and the preterite is often pronounced as if written . In some districts the preterite is UhSfeSCP . I // Irregular Verbs of the Second Class. First Variety. Four Radicals. Yerbs of four radicals are far more common in the Mod¬ ern Syriac than in the Ancient or the Hebrew. Many of these, however, are produced by a reduplication of biliteral or triliteral roots, and are exceedingly expressive. The idea is often that of repetition, as in to bruise in pieces, t 9 H 9 f to trample , CM to grope, 2»9hil to whirl, 79 to creep, and numerous others. Still oftener, per- T> " *> » ...» haps, the idea is that of repeated sound, as in to roar with laughter, tS&S© to wail, £L**k.** to snore, t a fli dL O to II 9 it I it i cluck. The second radical is included in the first syllable of the root, as well as of all its inflections. / As an example, take to speak. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. s I 1st masculine. , ^ , iA Z»a*»CT 1st plural. *4^-* 1st fem. 7 *' ' ' ,i i t Zs»©£»er 2nd masc. n i» i i JhAw IteGteOtfi 2nd fem. i i > i i ziJ z*86a»dr 3rd masc. ,• , Ziw JJSa&fC 3rd plural. «• » »* » > The present participle has as the vowel of the first syllable, with its corresponding ® in the second. Preterite. t>A I spoke. Jjk%)%5QOGf We spoke. 1 II 1 ' / U / This differs from only in having one consonant f // / more in the first syllable, rendering it a mixed syllable. Perfect. w-fiw l£Q$i&QGl I have spoken (m.). ; x , " " We have spoken. I have spoken (f.). *' " ' // / Future. hiQlteQGl AS I shall speak (m.). AS We shall speak. Imperative. Speak thou. ^jOSSftlSeCT/ Speak ye. // 9 II 9 80 Like inflect tt / 3^4^ to be bashful. to foam up. // i 11° I * f to become cheap. ' n / to delay (tr. and intr.). to cree]). to be leprous, ^ // t to growl. // t to grow. 7- // % to enlighten, to become to whiz. liofht. to prick. Jf to drag (tr.). // t m 'i ' kJQ®3h^ ^ t0 eil ^ ar & e 0r tO en " to grow fat and be antic. ,/*",( larged. . VyjA^ . $ to make to wallow, to ,/ , \ wallow. , C to make to sing (as quin- kX^XXx ine does a sick man’s " ' ( head), to sing. to confuse or be confused, to twinkle, to dazzle or be dazzled, to crown, to bubble up. to scatter (tr. and intr.). // I bxA *3 to roar. // t m * m I 9b33t3 to assail. n to stir up // t to make bud, to bud. to tumble (tr. and intr.). to hum, coo. to abhor (with ^39 ). to rust (tr. and intr.). £tk ’LL S to be two-sided, ride kS^sa i the fence> to make trot, to trot. i to thin out, become i sparse. *ssAa to shel er, to find shelter. aaaa to make or be bloody. fc£?X3a to make fine or small. n "t * i / k^aa to wound or be wounded. ' // / d&aaa $ ma ^ e P’ ne awa y or ) to pine away. a©aa to rock (tr. and intr.). to make a clatter (of words). “//• tl. hk.ik ' *) to torment or be tor- T> ) mented. "i* >% kteaa to apply (remedies). ' n “i to become late. 81 Of to demolish. O 9 # 9 3 AW* to strut n 1 yBiCficf to neigh. 99 9 99 9 m m 9 SOTiCf to laugh aloud. II 9 t£u*S^u* to make faint, be faint 99 9 9 9O9O to buzz. • m 9 iASXm to push. 99 9 to wail. httsLrf to clasp. 99 9 // 9 ^0.10 to whisper (as the wind). to push. 99 9 m m 1 3030 to have a diarrhea. v*- — to gnaw. 99 9 2 ; ' {to make to gnash, 9 JCPOJQDO to make whine, to whine. ^T*rl gnash. m 9 3***to snore. t ^ $ to make subject, become 99 9 p*a»t // 9 liuf // 9 Stdaf // i It 9 // > v // 9 ■£»? subject. ^ to litter, be littered (as a \ room, a field, etc.). to become pale, to make tinkle, to tinkle, to tear off, be torn off. to ring (tr. and intr.). to swagger, to batter. ^ to defile ceremonially or ) be defiled. to make mighty, be mighty, to make yellow, be yellow, to bray. II 9 to injure,become injured. 7 / # S t° wash away, be wash- „ , I ed away. to excite fever, have fever. (AXm to reckon. - « ' i% •1. to tear (tr. and intr.). ta aa ia to clap. "a- ii. to make appear, to appear. XtSL'SQ to absta n from food. to make glitter, to glitter, to freeze (tr. and -intr.). 7/ i to make sprout, to sprout \l I )3aJS^a> to take a fine. // /» ■ i to mock, to forbe r, be reluctant to blister. It I %, "r 1 * 1 , to defile, be defiled, to rattle (in speech). •• i. to scream. " 2 . I t to have mercy. S fco & i g‘? le ^ ur g le ’ tomake « / l giggle or gurgle. - t to wither (tr. and intr.). to gather up. to wrap in a vail, to wrap one’s self in a vail. n I // / // /X. ( kXAM to scare away. // t to crack open (as the « , ( earth). to make glitter, to glitter. ■is >• -v' > to snuff around, to speak, to make lame, be lame. It 9 n 9 to gnaw. ■ m / to borrow or lend on usury. n 9 AkjaaSao to be laz . a ^ ^ to preach. // 9 to mak pant, to pant. // 9 to haste i (tr. and intr.). to constrain. to make green, to green. ^ikJQ3£b to make poor, be poor. » to rest (tr. and intr.). to reprove, to fix a price, to build. n* 9 rr t \ j to give one a start (on a , \ journey). 9 to listen. 83 V JtXiJtXi, / to be or become hushed. to make cloudy, be cloudy. to cry. to make wise, be wise. , i v ] to make wallow, to wal- to wrangle. low. j to cause chills, to have J j to make ancient, be an- ( chills. v „ , ( cient. to make bold, be bold. T , to whisper, to feel after. | It I ( to defile, to miscarry, to arrange in order, to sprinkle, to growl. to proclaim the gospel. j to make a Mohammedan 1 or become one. to grope (after), to whistle. i to make to sob, to sob. to groan, to be a stranger, to hesitate. to make stagger, to stag¬ ger. to laugh out. •VMM H I \ to lay waste, become waste. to beseech, to undo, destroy, to whirl (tr. and intr.). to crumb, be crumbed. // 9 /iiA j to make to escape, to / „ , ( escape. to twist tr. and intr.). // 9 to whisper. a i to gaze. . to pour or flow out. ! j to reconcile, become re- \ 3* ( conciled. h i to make to smart, to ~ . . .. t smart, to visit. / , . . .. k&V&e* to sob from pain, j to come down (from ,/ S ( father to son). i). to make totter, to totter. to cut up, to be cut up. to stun, be stunned. S to make light, be light 99 9 to scream. AmAsi to cluck. 84 „• Mto cause to approach, to ^^7 | approach. - ' to wrinkle, be wrinkled, to wrinkle, be wrinkled, to buffet, be buffeted. // 9 m ' to make or be ready. // i . . ' to caw. to gather up. to venture (intr.). // / 9 to rattle (as rain). to make smart, to smart, to empty out. * H* i t0 „ , \ clatter. to make to clatter, to aopnx to make proud, be proud. to make spout, to spout. II 9 X to guide. // * 9 tA3u*^X to pant for breath. // / X&&\x to disciple. U U 9 9 'pteos. to whine. •• I J^XlX to make tardy, be tardy. n t i to make smoky, be smoky. It 9 9 JGDX&X to sprinkle, be sprinkled. // > to chastise. II I kd\4x to stamp the foot. II 9 to search. II 9 9 to blacken, become black. »Av43X to make neatly. n I 9 to crush in pieces. UDIXfiX to knock. a t a i I m ■ 1 ( x*»& to soil, be soiled. ^2JiX j 7/ i v » > '■ g-^ ,% j ^°. s ^ a ^ e about (tr. and t ^^x to trim a candle. „ , ( intr.). // , to make faint, be faint \ II 9 C m * w&dX to make pale, be pale. ^n 9 m ml dxax to stitch together. to crawl. 1, H % I a m gk" 1 to brood. U 9 m ml kJBXJB* to make thin, be thin. II 9 m ml X3X3 to tremble violently. II 9 m m 9 MU** to alter (tr. and intr.). u 9 i«X to alter (tr. and intr.). to besmear with tallow, be besmeared. to make stumble, to stumble. to sob. II 9 t&xAx to glide (as a snake). U I tr , Notes on the Preceding List. As has a talkana over the OT, it may be considered as a verb of three radicals, following the paradigm of J93 l 9 , second class. 85 and 9t£h99t9 though having five radicals, differ so little n t u t from the preceding model, that they need no special illustration. may in some respects be considered as a verb of three radicals, having its perfect participle , and its future ' M it VERBS OF FOUR RADICALS WITH FINAL 2. Take for example ^9^ to understand. i* > %Q 0^9 9k^ Present Participle. ,i i i In Koordistan, instead of the above, we have . »• • • As to the substitution of o or ^ for 2, see Hoff. § 33, 3. Preterite. i »• • The 2 is here dropped, but lengthens — into —. Perfect Participle. it tt In this participle .* is substituted for 2, and takes, in ad¬ dition to its own appropriate vowel, the vowel --. Via * n t n Vls t u Here the 2 is dropped in the masculine singular and in the plural, but .* is substituted for it in the feminine singular, just as in the perfect participle. , \ \ Imperative. ,i i 1 Note.— This verb evidently has a relation to the ancient , t but perhaps a still nearer relation to the Persian pp • In Bootan we hear it thus: present participle, ; preterite, ; perfect participle, ; future, k£sdi^ A9; 3 having the sound t ' // a of/. | Future. 86 VERBS INFLECTED LIKE to paw, dig into. #• • to clean out, become clean. "• • to howl. »• to paw into. 7* • to go round, surround. “• i to switch, be switched. 9 to show favor (with b^O ). *< / ' m l> t, It, l'7, >1, to bedaub, be bedaubed. • j to howl; in Koordistan, «4 • ^7 { to glitter. 9 g to long after (with b!tt ). XJBSJi to snap (tr. and intr.). ,ii v • <• i m I m • to plaster. %X3*2i to fag out, tire out. •* % 9 1 9 X'Xl^Q to forget. X&ZX to nourish, be nourished. to despise. %XDQ JG9 to twitter, to peep. »• > to dece ve. 7* » l9±* to cut up. I> • to rinse, to search. to roll up or be rolled up. Note.— ^9t^9 , which is inserted in the above list, does not »* i , i differ in pronunciation from the others, which end in 2 instead of ; but the X is retained in writing out the different tenses. When o is the second radical, from a kind of necessit}^, one O is dropped in the preterite and perfect participle. Thus, if we take XioJl to beseech, the present participle is Xa&ioi : the preterite, (instead of kAaoai) ; the ,< x } • •• i f i »• / 7 perfect participle, (for £*i00a); the future masculine, the future feminine, bl&ol Via . From what has '// // S // been said in the Orthography, it will be evident why is here used in the present participle, instead of - -. s to chirp. I'l’ Like Xi &&, inflect to acknowledge. to mew. to yelp. I 87 CAUSATIVE VERBS. We are now prepared to understand the formation of Causative Verbs. Some of the simple verbs of three radi¬ cals already given may be used in a causative sense, as to strengthen, or to cause to become strong. Verbs of four radi¬ cals have still oftener a causative signification ; but the ordinary method of forming causatives is by prefixing ao to the three radical letters, and then considering the verb as one of four radicals, and inflecting it accordingly. Thus, , when of the first class, means to go out; when of the second class, to put out or bring out; and (which is t * tf 9 inflected like to cause to come out. ft 9 J The verbs which thus form causatives are very numerous, and comprise the majority of those of three radicals in the preceding lists. The mode of formation is quite regular, with the exceptions hereafter to be specified; and the mean¬ ing bears in almost all cases a close relation to the meaning of the first root. A few causatives have been placed in the 9 list of verbs conjugated like 'pf&oaf. These are either not // i t used in Oroomiah at all in their simple form, as to listen; or the signification of the simple form is much changed, as to accompany, or, better, to give a start to (a trav- 99 9 / eller), from to stretch out ; or the causative form, as " . » generally used, is neuter : e. g. to appear. Note.—« was inserted in the list of verbs inflected like r .—— if r 1 with the idea that it was not properly a causative of any » t m > verb in the Modern Syriac. But it may be the causative of mXO ^ m 9 99 9 (a verb of the second class) to squeeze in. Compare i n the Ancient Syriac, and y^p in the Hebrew, to tear asunder , “ to bite in malice.” When the last radical of the ground-form is 2, the caus¬ ative verb follows the conjugation of ibsats instead of 88 "Staler. Thus, from 23*3 to weep, we have 23*3 99 to came n i » i > i to weep ; and so of a great number of others. Verbs with final X do not differ in the causative form from verbs with final 2, except that X is retained in those tenses where 2 is dropped, and slightly modifies the sound, f i Thus from JkdAX we have *X9XX99 of which the present participle is 2-33*0*93X99 ; the preterite, ; the *• t , i i » * , . perfect participle, 2*393XA99 • the future, *393X99 T\3 , « L , i" • v » • // (masculine), **393X99 *13 (feminine). There has been perhaps an unnecessary irregularity in regard to verbs with initial 2. Thus, from *^*3i and 30), / ^ g f / // ^ // we have 3*3290 and 30299; while from dBM}, *XJtSi, and ^ // ✓ // 9 f f // // 9 JSDl , we have *9 1 0399, t X .flL3o, and 30939. As 2 is heard // // // f // # very feebly, if at all, it is best, for the sake of uniformity, to drop it altogether, and treat these causatives as verbs of three radicals, second class. The other verbs with initial 2 have no causative form. The future of 30239 though n t spelled regularly, is often pronounced morin. Verbs with medial 2 of the first class sometimes drop the 2 entirely, as 3 $99 from in which case the causative is ^ n i u inflected like a verb of three radicals, second class. But it is far more common, at least in Oroomiah, for * to be sub¬ stituted for 2, throughout the conjugation : e. g. X*$9o of which the present participle is j30**$99. Here the verb is (• > i i regularly conformed to the paradigm of ^3*9907, and no¬ thing more therefore need be said on the subject. Verbs with medial X, retain the X, and are conjugated like 'pVXUl. 99 9 Verbs with initial .», when used as causatives, are quite irregular. , XJfcl*, and *3x1, become respectively and are conjugated like verbs of the > m 99 9 89 t second class having three radicals. (toplace), however, • II I when it denotes to cause to sit, to locate, retains the + trans- 9 t 9 posed; thus, iXx- becomes and will be m II I , " I " ' i noticed farther on. becomes Z^aZso or thelat- ter conforming nearly to the Ancient Syriac. See under Z^oxa. , u*Suw, <*xi, Vlx*, transpose the .» and become respectively and ^3k5u, and are regular in conjugation. to understand, has for its causative , and is »' • m , i a i distinguishable from >EfxS£9 to cause to cut , only by a slight difference in pronunciation. OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS. VERBS WITH MEDIAL One of these, and perhaps more, is inflected as a verb of the second class, viz. X^** to revile. // J Present Participle. udftikdw Preterite. if 3r 9 n 9 -V X^m ) ", , . " V Future. Perfect Participle. ", , * ,St • a 7 , " , > Imperative. ~"x) is xXt*^9 to cause to revile. tl -3r // The causative of is U -Nr ti -V $ m 9 9 % Pres. Participle. Preterite. i' i -V i i i Lmi ''m i^XX^^3 i P erf .Participle, f . " V " ' " ’ fcilSO *\2J \ Future. • • " 12 90 Verbs of three Radicals: Third Radical 2. These are mostly inflected as verbs of the first class, but not all of them. As an example of the second class, we may take X&£D to deliver. Futu XooAjsp, Present Participle. Preterite. ,• / *• i , Via , %*J&Q JQD, Perfect Participle. , t ' V\S ? | Imperative. In Koordistan the present participle is ; and it is to be understood that in all verbs resembling this, * is there substituted for o. Like inflect i' 5 .21^ to select, collect. I* Xfi&SS to cover. to uncover. *' to cover. i* ISd to make pure. IVSO to weary. to liken. t to make alive. »• » to winnow. m . • ^ >.£li to prophesy. i* to meditate, to spell. •• to render difficult. XOC7 to narrate. »* 2 to patch. *• ,i£Ou* to keep (tr.). i* to divide (tr.). (* » to broil (tr.). 2 mJ£ to deliver (from). to conceal. aV ^ to pray. X&Ek to sear. i* 2 £ ^ to strain. 91 to parch (tr.). r Xfl's to throw. »• • Zax to liken. i* i Xax to spread. llX to depart. i* i XX to begin. Xl\ to tell. »< lAA to cause to adhere. Notes on the Preceding List. is a causative from Z«*ZV* to become weary. , a caus- l'V > ; *' >X, I 1 • ative from Z*** to live , and are irregular by having -* in »' i 1 • t . the perfect participle and the future feminine, thus: Z*VO50, Z*~&^9, ; and in the future, A3, f f 9 9 * 9 9 99 '9 9 99 A9. If we do not distinguish between )*+^Q in the future ' ! I // } l' I and subjunctive and to strike, we shall be likely (in prayer, i» for instance), when intending to say “ 0 Lord, revive (or quicken) me!” to say “ 0 Lord, strike me!” Z^2l in the perfect participle is often written as well as pronounced ZSOa, Verbs of three Radicals: Third Radical X. These verbs, when inflected as verbs of the second class, do not differ essentially from the paradigm of verbs with final 2. For example, to assemble (transitive). L n 9 %, J Present Participle. Preterite. a V ) Perfect „ ^ ,Padid P k -J^or ^**>3 ^ X ' It It, U ' % It 9 % Imperative. Fu¬ ture. It will be noticed that X is retained throughout, and that the perfect participle and future feminine singular (in one form) take — as the second vowel. 92 Like iJka&y,, inflect ^ 9 ^ 3 , a causative from to know; I » 'T " 'm • " - • M9 to make smooth ; kXlb to pasture, from to graze; / i « i I i> i 130 to cause to plaster, from to plaster. Hi l' t The irregular verb 2a2 to curdle, of the first class, has for , > t\ its causative 2 a to, and is thus inflected: and I* • Present Participle. Preterite. i• > i »• i - j- , %fm*$XA 5 )0 , X+z XASO Perfect Participle. , " \ " > Future. ' ' ' ' Jajao S t // , 1 m \ > Imperative. i* > So inflect from >L£u to bake. The verb ZSflu to swear, i* * besides the causative , already noticed, sometimes r # makes its causative in the same way. Thus we have XzoXn , inflected like 2aibo. i* t i* • The anomalous verb to cause to come, to bring, which i 1 > i is doubtless derived from the ancient 2\*9o, may also be classed here. As used on the plain of Oroomiah, it is thus inflected: t IaX* Present Participle. i* • »• i* • Preterite. tsa) , %-> ) &£ & Perfect Participle. " \ " v ' ' ' L** A3 ' l a J mZ* . Imperative. Future. As used in Koordistan, its root is V s ? , which is evi¬ dently from the Afel form of the ancient verb (Hoff. § 78, 8). It is thus inflected: 93 Z«*&V\a!30 j A A ' m ; V Present Participle. WkJ>*VA5>® Preterite. (Uo~Vn)) ' "" ' i | Future. AJ3 5^-TUOJ», Z-*VlA*> Perfect Participle. " \ , " . jVw* Via ' « i n wVuisa / , ' " { v Imperative. \ A bo j I* I caus- Tlie irregular verb X+C& to flame, lias 2o^S»^o for its ative, and is thus inflected : ZA00^*0 Pres. Participle. Preterite. e i i i ,< t &*ci±oao, £6&aao f er f l ’ ' ' (Participle. ^ ^ # i n , ' . \ \ Imperative. .oaacvi* Future. ative. I m I The irregular verb Z^a to ivish, has Z^Stoo for its caus- ° »• i i< i Xa£»A 3JZO Present Participle. **-^>30^0 Preterite. I* / t t It t ^aua'fta ) " )- Future. tlifcidsVia \ ' n I Ji ' U) Imperative. Note. — The verb of existence there is , aA there is not , is / $ used in the Modem Syriac differently from the idiom of the Ancient. It will be referred to again in the Syntax. 94 • m PQ '-V a f—I P r* - O ft P P O P ft ft ft ft ft ft O rjl rjl ft O ft ft cc ft • rH h3 a) •+■3 o ft ft ft P2 ft ft 03 P3 c3 TJ c3 CD ft £ © o o

^-H T5 G G cJ G w 5~< 0) P* -pp a? 0) p- G p-> G Ph M J n* Ft * ,*n '>01 "H "i| It ' F! ’ * ^ ra *>jl " Zi " JT , /I > O'- X>1 n= n = vrj ^ A‘^i ? 95 Vi »- \ •» -M 1 ii-ffl 5' 4= | * t -v v *r\ i n« ii' Fi5 fi 5 Fis Fji fi^ ii5 n? n? v * A M xi\ AS S A, A -3* i- 'in/ 4 1 i "1; ^ N b n* n* n A ^ fi 4 6 t i " i; ,*n. 3 AC H \fl n •3 J3 97 PASSIVE VOICE. The Passive Voice, especially as formed by the first method given below, is very little used in the colloquial dialect of the people of Oroomiah. This results probabty from the warmth of their feelings, which instinctively prefers a direct mode of expression. Where we should say “You will be delivered,” they say “(Such a person) will deliver you;” for “You will be beaten,” we generally hear the expression “They will beat you;” and so in a great number of cases. In the mountains, the passive voice is freely used in conver¬ sation ; and, as it is employed also in our preaching and our books, it is desirable to become well acquainted with it. This is, however, an easy task. There are three methods of indicating the passive voice, which will be in turn considered. Method 1 5 if. The passive voice of any verb may be formed by prefix¬ ing to its perfect participle the inflections of the root in its different moods and tenses. This root properly means to remain; but, when thus employed as an auxiliary, it is equivalent to the verb of existence. Let us take for exam- ample the passive voice of to strike, the perfect parti¬ ciple of which is , 1&++5G and the infinitive passive INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. (:r k // ' // 3*****b0 ^ 1st fem. 9 2nd masc. It ti 2nd fem. 9 9 A.- iklfl 3rd masc. // (• 3rd fem. !***& ixA ,• tt / i ' a We are struck. 2nd plural. »• » %***&} W-> %X*A 3rd plural. t* 19 \ 13 98 Wc have been accustomed to drop the a of the present participle of this auxiliary. Imperfect Tense. loot 1-6- ixla J™ sstruck Jem. iImM Iow'IloJ lxl4 9nd 6ocf ZxL^ W e were struck. %OGf kJtlJSt** u loot &* Zjfi’MMtai© ZiO C? JiXamI masc 2nd fem. 3rd masc. 3rd fem. * u~& door J&u ;k*4 2nd plural. !***» ^ plural. I* « (• 0^1 // z*< ,i « ,t // We were struck. 2nd plural. 3rd plural. Preterite Tense. Xk+*ao M I was struck (m.). // / // 1st fem. I I // Z***£& 2nd masc. %A 2nd fem. # m tl XhMhSO )1%& 3rd masc. // I* « 3§»***u0 )XL%& 3rd fem. t H Sometimes is used as the auxiliary, and we have Z**a£q uk^QCf etc. // » (i Perfect Tense. l.~ao **; £uA // v // , struck (m.). « ^ ' «" We have 2^» ^ 1st fem. *>** been struck. Z*~.* Via- Zx*£ 2nd masc. ^ , " " , ' Z***SO ZXa^ 2nd plural. 5^*** uuA 2nd fem. '* " » » > Z***a)9 Z^xx* ZXa^ 3rd masc. } " f ? ' Z***X> ZlL# ZX*J£Z 3rd plural. X&h**isQ ZZd*X*^ 3rd fem. 99 Pluperfect Tense. ■ r.-.y law aJ lkj^ 1 had , b , ee " , * ' struck (m.)-^ 'fa ^ lXlA Xa6j Jjk* 1st fem. *' " We had been struck. XkA&SO Zo©T %%t*£k 2nd masc. // it 9 ^***£8 X&C1 wVldOu* 2nd fem. *' " • i i X*~£q Zbcr 3rd masc. // f 5^.*a&SO Zb ©7 ^XaJS^ 3rd fem. Z*~Ao 00or *oVu ZXjJ^ »• f 2nd plural. Z***^0 0067 ZXa.5Z i* " i* < 3rd plural. Future Tense. In this tense either the future of the verb oXZ& or the future of the verb Zo ©7 may be employed. The significa- •• tion in either case is nearly or quite the same. < ^ k 1 sha11 be „ struck (m.). %»*+*& JL^Via 1st fem. t ^ it zl~09 VixJ£ Via 2nd masc. Z*~£o *,xJ£ Vl3 .1 n ^ // We shall be struck. it J*IXa& V\3 2nd fem. 9 9 it zli**» dtZ^Via 3rd masc. a a a i&***£& Zx Via 3rd fem. / it In the same way inflect zL*os wo© 7 Via z*.*d» <»bey Via. « ' // « ,• « / // Z*~aj *©VuxVia 2nd plural. ,i n Z*~sa t*xJ&Vis 3rd pi ural. ,• n Note. —There may possibly be, at times, a difference in the significa¬ tion of these futures, arising from the signification, on the one hand, of *XZ& to remain , and, on the other, of ZoOT to become. Thus : i* i' ZxaOuO &%'& \3 he will be or continue in a state of holiness. 9 |» a £ £ lxsoJt iocr as he will become sanctified. * / i* « 100 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Here either or +OU1 maybe used, as in the future tense. Thus we have, for the present, %k*+2ao or Z*j*2b ^0C7 ; // ' // // ' // for the imperfect, %*+*Zo %&61 or f, in a perfectly regular manner. It is to be particularly observed that, where a verb is used in both the first and second classes, with the same sig¬ nification, the shade of meaning in the passive will de¬ pend on which perfect participle is used in its formation. $ To illustrate : , as a verb of either the first or second H * t class, means to scatter seed, to sow. But 3L& means ' '' *' " i <4 it was sowed or scattered, as if by itself; while XSyxsZ^XS J 9 I 1 99 means it was sowed (by some individual). The signification is sometimes, however, such that this distinction cannot be kept up; e. g. and 1^*3^ he was X 9 ,• 99 9 ,1 99 grieved or sorry, there being in neither case reference to the agent causing the sorrow. &.Jlb ih.x.3 and 9 I* 99 9 l> 99 he was received, on the other hand, must both of them indi¬ rectly refer to the agent. Where the same word is used in both the first and second classes, with different meanings, of course there is a similar distinction in the passive; as, he was lost, he was destroyed. 9 l> 99 Note.— It lias been sometimes supposed that in the ex- pression Zk-S.3 iixfl, is a perfect participle. But as is m 9 9> 99 m' 99 of the second class, and such a participle does not belong to verbs of the second class, this expression should be translated, not, he was made blessed , but, he was a blessed individual , being an adjective. Note 2.— Sometimes the verb aZii is used as almost or quite equivalent to the verb of existence, although the perfect participle of 101 m ^ » another verb is not joined with it. Thus, AX3 ugtw 2X*£ / have remained in doubt , or / am in doubt, may be employed wherever m 5^X3 would be allowable, and vice versa. v " » ^// Method 2nd. There is a curious form of the passive, in daily use among the people, in which the verb n to come is employed as an auxiliary, and the infinitive active of another verb is joined with it in a passive sense. . We will take for illustra¬ tion as before the root £o to strike. // ' n i> ' U |> X^ // I i> u ' if 9 // ' H 9 I am struck. I was being struck. I was struck. I have been struck. I had been struck. I shall be struck. The subjunctive so much resembles the indicative, that it need not be written out. Sometimes this form, especially in Koordistan, is a pas¬ sive of capability, as, for example, 1x2 ^ if it can be struck, i. e. if it come into the position in which it may be struck. This is perhaps the primitive idea of this form. There is, however, another mode in Oroomiah of expressing the sentiment, viz.: %QG1 ^2 where %***& is used as »< " we should use strikable in English, if such a word were allowed. So jUjkx X&&1 ^2 —if it be takable . i* " Method 3rd. Instead of the form the perfect active // ' // 9 X is often used in a passive sense. Eor the preceding, we thus have hOb* I have been struck. The explanation of this ' n u A / r 102 probably is that tbe perfect participle is passive, as well as active, in its meaning, while ^0^ is merely a verb of exist¬ ence, I am .... having been struck. The pluperfect active is also frequently used in the same way for the pluperfect passive ; thus, 1&&1 £***& may signify I had struck, or I had been struck. YEEBS YVITH SUFFIXES. Although the suffix-pronouns of the Modern Syriac are few and simple, it requires much practice to use them readily and accurately in conversation. It will be desirable there¬ fore to examine the subject carefully. The verbal suffixes do not differ, except in one or two instances, from those used for nouns and prepositions. A list of them has been already given. It will now be shown how these pronouns are suffixed to the verb in its different inflections. Root to heal. // INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. a * 5 I ( m 0 am heal- ^' hee (m-) . ^ n t • ^ // I \ am heal¬ ing you. ' i • '' * { I am healing ^ * j i ( thee (f.). I am healing I am healing v T l ing them, her. When the person speaking is a female, we have the same J ^ forms as above, except that is throughout substituted for . ^ j Thou (m.) art .OOOAX3-, heAng'me. ‘ftA- SoaJBU . ^ . ! _ \ Thou art. hoa.l- " * ’ W wojftsoajsaa] Thouartheal // i ^ ing him. Thou art heal¬ ing us. Thou art heal- if; I 103 Here, as before, if the nominative be feminine, is to be substituted for XoS . • 4. ? / f »• I m zi^ wero^ooj&a i* » Z>w era^ooj&s i* » \ He is healing ^ me. ^ He is healing ^ thee (m.). (He is healing ^ thee (f.). ^ He is healing ^ him. ^ He is healing ) her. jJL* wSoojm He is heal¬ ing us. • 4 • '' • '' ( I* > m / He is heal¬ ing you. •4 ^ ^ ? Z^w u£OQhj&3 i* He is heal¬ ing them. If the agent is a female, Z^-* is to be substituted for ZiJ. i* , ^ j A^i^tai^Weareheal- ^»&JBas| ingthee(m0 . .1 ^ JL' We are heal- ^ ^ aA3 J ing thee (f.). “WA»OA»3) ing hjm . 1 ^ We areheal- j ing her. We are healing you. ojoaa 5 We heal * ^ ing them. w,: -*,1^ Ye are heal- t**- »aoo^s , ing me . ' S~ ^ \ Yeareheal- uC7O*0*to3| inghim< ' - (Ye areheal- *' 0fw Wft»o.aaa ■ ing her _ jl; kaa v rhe y are heal - ; / ing me. J They are heal- Z*»» 3..SX3 ^ i n g thee (m.). j L % */_ ' aam ^ Ye are heal- ^A-^soatt3 in „ us . u£90J&3 UA^) Ye ar « heal- ; mg them. * * Jj- kSOCJS&3^ The - yarehea1 ' / ^ t ( US. 1 > U- M Aj»ojaw^ h T re tV e f 1 ' M t ^ mg thee (f.). u- aaaja &«>,3 { They are hea1 ' mg you. Zi*^ k*CfO£OOhAl£! They are heal¬ ing him. i\' They are heal- ik. WftS00..fl»3] ing her. ii- -aoeLiaai 1 L f They are heal- l ing them. One who has familiarized himself with the preceding suf¬ fixes of the present tense, will have no difficulty in using the suffixes with the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and second future tenses. In every case the suffix is to be joined with the participle, and not with the auxiliary. Take 104 as examples %6Ul ^Ou# w©70£o&A3£l I was healing him, i / 5 " 1 s %jb** he has healed you, OO07 >*ibafl)Ck3 they i 1 > • ,' } a * ' had healed me, ©70h&3Lft>&SI Id©7 he will have healed her. Preterite Tense. The regular preterite, since its appropriate terminations so much resemble the suffix-pronouns, does not admit of their use except in a single case. In the third person singular masculine we may have he healed him , ©f being substituted for the terminal 1. When it is desirable to employ suffixes with the preterite, the form t»Ja&£a3 )sSJSi is much used in Oroomiah. While ' // t the suffixes of this tense are, in the main, like those of the present, imperfect, pluperfect, and second future, it takes in many cases a sliding letter ^, and uses for the suffixes of the third person singular ©7 and ©7', and of the third per¬ son plural ^ and *js©7. The future tense follows this form of the preterite in every respect, and so too those tenses of the subjunctive which resemble the future in their form, except that, where A 07 is used, the pronoun is placed after it, and always takes the sliding letter ^. ( I healed f } thee (f.). ,1 « I healed him. I healed her. I healed you. I healed them (more rarely). When the verb has a feminine nominative of the first person singular, we have, instead of the preceding form, 'pJS, etc. A pjs | 9 // 9 * ©A *£3J3 I ,1 // I ' C&> MO.J&3 7U3 ' ti 9 ' Thou (m.) healedst me. Thou heal¬ edst him. Thou heal¬ edst her. A Mojtoa 'pja | A©A ‘sui " » ► A &dOJQS£l tUJ „ ‘ 7 Thou heal¬ edst us. Thou heal¬ edst them (more rarely). 105 w pa , n i ZLS3UCD&3 She healed me. n i By a similar process, we have: A I healed thee (m.). kS ^ e / iea ^ e( ^ i n i ' i n i t th66. ZS He healed thee. , . . . , , ' \ The y healed ZS She healed thee. " ' ( thee ‘ n i I healed thee (f.). ^ ca i e ^ 111 ^iiit thee. ZS &3AJO&3 He healed thee. i* > • She healed thee. oA 'nsauBB^j J The y healed i it thee. I healed her. Thou (m.) heal¬ edst her. Thou (f.) heal¬ edst her. He healed her. She healed her. t \ Thou (m.) heal- m , , ( edst us. “I Thou (f.) heal¬ edst us. He healed us. She healed us. We healed her. You healed her. They healed her. You healed us. 0>k3,3aJCP0>3 \ The y h< - / / ( us. healed • • 107 I healed them. ^ ( Thou (m.) heal- ,4XCD “J edstthem. i Thou (f.). heal- { edst them. He healed them. She healed them. |We healed ( them. (You healed ( them. iA.aauaaa \ hei i ( them. healed GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES OF VERBS. It should be understood that all the suffixes given above may be used in precisely the same manner with verbs of both classes, whether regular or irregular. Some of these forms, however, are not in universal use among the peo¬ ple. For instance, in Tekhoma, instead of the expressions CWOOJM, we hear Cpf ' « I ' // / |< ' U l> » f ,, i 5 CV3 wA* ^0OJ63kS. Nor do any verbs there admit of the suffixes and ©7®. The form h fr ftfli a 'pJB is never used in the interior districts of Koordistan. In its place we may hear the form of the preterite last given, which includes the pronoun within itself; or, in case the idea could not be expressed by that, as “I healed you (pi.),” expressions such as would take its place. m // t U t There are other local peculiarities in the use of the suf¬ fixes, such as they saw him, on which it is unne¬ cessary to dwell. The usage in our books has of late years been quite uniform. It may, however, be remarked that the suffixes A;, etc., are found much oftener in / // t n the written than in the spoken Syriac of Oroomiah. RELATION OF THE MODERN TO THE ANCIENT VERB. Before dismissing the Verb, it will be interesting to refer briefly to the structure of the verb in the ancient language, and trace, if possible, some of the changes it has undergone. 108 And, first of all, it is obvious that regular verbs of three radicals of the first class bear a strong analogy in form and signification to the conjugation Peal. The imperative is in both precisely the same, except that in the modern is almost universally added to the plural. We do, however, * i 5 hear in one district, Nochea, ftltoX hear ye, come ye. The perfect participle of the modern is also the same with the passive participle of the ancient, except that it always takes the termination 2 , in accordance with the general usage of the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle is used in an active sense; e. g. , etc. So, much oftener, 9 9 m 9 the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle unites both $ significations in the same verb, as in the case of j So ordinarily the modern. It also seems easy to see how the modern infinitive is de¬ rived from the ancient, viz. being substituted for &, or, rather, & being dropped, the usual l 'being added, and the as a necessary consequence, being changed into We thus have . As to the preterite, when we find cnA 'pJB in the ancient, <• • meaning “he rose to himself,” i. e. he rose, who can doubt that this is nothing more nor less than ? So cX X#J x «• " I* ' I II in the ancient is equivalent to in the modern, . 4. ' i. " i* i to , CU kJBX& to and so on. Our mode, i* a i 1 i i* a 1 1 however, of spelling the preterite, more correctly represents the present pronunciation. In regard to the general idiom, see Hoff. § 123, 6, and Nordh. § 868. As to the future, it is verjr plainly derived from the pres¬ ent participle of the ancient language. Any one who will examine Hoff. § 57, 2, and compare the forms there given with the modern, will be satisfied at once. The present sub¬ junctive has of course the same origin. No trace remains of the ancient future. 109 As to tlie particle *fc\3, prefixed to the future of all verbs, it is barely possible that it is identical with bidi, which is employed in the same way in the Armenian verb. But / it is far more probable that it is a fragment of 2-^*3 to wish. In some parts of Koordistan the people use 2^3 for **13; e. g. , li.3 I wish to sing, literally, that I may sing. tt " tt But in Tal we find a mode of speaking which seems to be decisive as to the origin of &3, and also goes to show that tt it should have been written 3^3. Thus: . ? . * *3*#? I will sing (m.). { , " { \ 1st plural. 1st fem. ' ' •' » , { l I m f I 2nd masc. 2nd pi. masc. n m i< i i *• JhiaOf? u*&^k3 2nd fem. ^^ia 2nd. pi. fem. • • v i 1 » * ' »• 3rd masc. , ", ‘ _ , ui.9 X&a 3rd fem. ' ' or ^a 3 3rd plural. In the same way the verb to wish is used as an auxiliary in Persian, in forming the future, as . In English also, will and wish are in many cases identical; e. g. What will you ? which may mean what do you wish f So will in other languages: vouloir, volo, fiovhouai, which mean either to will or to wish. Compare also the modern Greek future &thio uvai , etc., I will write , I will be. So i i i too, from the ancient ao—33 we have the modern , ii , a i and from the ancient the modern . II I II I As to the present participle, the question may fairly be raised, whether the prefix 3 is not really a preposition, the present participle being in fact a verbal noun. If this idea be correct, may be literally translated I am in ''I' " S 15 5 (the act of) finishing ; J.Jk^i.3 I am in (the act of) eating. m J J / ■ The verb to laugh, which uses both forms and Va^3 in the present, the latter being clearly a noun, seems to throw light on this point. 110 On examining the second class of verbs of three radicals, we see a resemblance to the conjugation Pael. Take, for m ' m ? example, the verb (modern 5^3) 1° bless. In the an- ; in the modern, . The infinitive in the ancient is j, ) • ' • 'at 1 m $ ; in the modern, jLdoaJStao or the first form i • i ,< ,i being no doubt the more ancient one. Here the resem¬ blance in sound is very striking, and a transposition of the O will make the written forms not dissimilar. ■ ' u cient, the imperative is and the plural » , ; As to the present participle, e. g. lAOObSbo, this may be i* derived from the infinitive of Pael, and can be from nothing else. It is therefore to be considered primitively an infini¬ tive, though now used as a participle. The perfect participle is evidently from the participle of Pael. Thus, the ancient is ildisbo, ; the modern, . m 9 m 9 9 m 9 m 99 9 O has been inserted here, but the sound is not materially changed. The same remark applies to the preterite, which has a derivation similar to that of the preterite of the first class. Compare the ancient <*0*23 with the modern . As to the future, a single remark may be made. Since - - is the distinguishing vowel of Pael, it is not strange that this should be often preferred to -- in the modern. And so we find it, e. g. and many other verbs of 99 9 the second class. The -f- is also naturally preferred in the present participle. Yerbs of the second class often bear the same relation to verbs of the first class that Pael does to Peal, neuter verbs of the first class becoming transitive in the second class, as has been already shown (Hoff. § 59). The causative verbs, formed by prefixing bo to the root, are evidently connected, if not identical, with the participle of Afel, or, if any one prefers, with the conjugation of Mafel. • ' m ' Thus, from the ancient , we have dSOtSbo ; and from the modern we have also tfO O b^bo . So too, from an- - ' ' " - ' " \ cient 3&M>bo modern d&*hbO; from ancient t£LY«»bo, mod- " i it I 1 ern t&Y«*bo. n / Ill While the signification of any particular verb in the an¬ cient may not correspond to that of the same verb in the modern, the general usage in regard to Afel and the modern causative verb is the same. For instance, the Hestorians sometimes simply change the intransitive into a transitive. Thus, in the modern, from the intransitive f 3*3 to dry, we have to dry, i. e. to make dry. Sometimes they change the transitive verb into a causative, with an accusative of the person and another of the thing; thus, from kX£& it' " to put on {clothes), we have tX£&xaa to cause to put on: put clothes upon him. Sometimes these I* I X. »' 11 I a a / forms are used in an intransitive sense, as to freeze , t // > to rest; which, though they admit of a causative sig¬ nification, are oftener intransitive. Compare Hoff. § 60. We see also in the Modern Syriac traces of several of the rarer conjugations. For example, the reduplication of a single letter of the root; as , from , from z f / tt 9 tt t txVxx^, from kXXX^; or the falling away of one radical, and the reduplication of the other two; as (Palpel) hBXfla, from k-dia; AxAx, from kB^X; or the addition // i ft it I tt f of 2 to the root (in the ancient **); as (Pali) laoxB , from 2ax**, from ax**; 2xS***, from ; or the addi- H “ I " I* I t H , tion of *^to the root; as (Palen) «^xaa (ancient wXAJ*); tt mi I m I from kS*BX; from 2ac^3; or the prefixing of X; as (Shafel) A S »j»X , from kBlk*i,; or the prefixing of JCD ; as (Safel) xVxjb, from 9 probably J tt 9 tt tt l 1 J 0 H / ^ 0 0 J • t from 9 Xm ; or the prefixing of X; as (Tafel) , prob- ably from XSXV^ (XSvV/h): or, in a few cases, verbs of five radicals from verbs of three radicals, as in Hebrew, by reduplication; as *i*3*3, from kXftd. // ! 112 ARTICLE. The Modern Syriac has properly no definite article; but the demonstrative pronouns © " t* " little tooth, as of a watch-wlieel, etc. Some nouns ending in 2 are feminine; e. g. a mill, i ■ *• h • U* a hen-house, iil a kind of cradle, a manqer, XjCkS* a recess, a ford. Also the names of females, as I* 9 |* Z&**, 2?^. etc. This rule has frequent exceptions, and i 1 «• i 1 j is given with some little hesitation. A separate word is also used in some cases for the femin¬ ine; e. g. JaAs a male sparrow, ZxSwfLfiO a female sparrow ; plural (m. and f.); Z3*S a 7na/e ^05 a s/ie- wolf; a male cat, i C w a male buffalo, a female buffalo. Gender distinguished by signification .—The names of males, of nations, as Israel, Judah, etc., of rivers, mountains, and months, of artizans, traders, and professional persons, are masculine. So too, as in Hebrew, a multitude of material- 5 , . (. nouns, beginning with a body, such as those denoting • * 9 gold, silver, copper, and all the metals, excepting lead; wood, stone (sometimes feminine), wool, flesh, grass, dirt, glass, cotton, fire, lime, paper, spice, gall-nuts, copperas; also chair, table, book, lock, key, bread, etc. On the other hand, all names of females, whether belong¬ ing to the human race, or not; relations of woman, such as mother, wife, etc.; the names of villages, cities, provinces, countries, and islands, are feminine. The names of trees 15 S 114 and fruits are partly masculine and partly feminine. Nouns of capacity are generally feminine, but exceptions are not infrequent. Abstract nouns are also in the majority of cases feminine, beginning with spirit, and take for the most part their appropriate termination or When an article has two sizes, if the word denoting the larger is masculine, that denoting the smaller or inferior is naturally feminine ; e. g. the earthen vessels denoted respectively by and AaN and ; ZsaXx and I m t l m f * ^ l $ L $ $ the copper vessels and jAifcO; X&6&&JD a box, and kJYLJb*JO a little box, etc. and are both feminine, but the latter does not necessarily denote a small knife. The rule has, however, probably exceptions. The rule in Hebrew that “members of the body by na¬ ture double are feminine,” has in Modern Syriac some ex¬ ceptions, although the words used to express elbow, knee, heel, ear, hand, foot, thigh, shoulder-blade, eye, cheek, etc., are evidence of its existence. Some nouns are used by the people of one district as mas¬ culine, and by those of another as feminine: as X'ovi the air, or the weather. In the plural, there is generally no distinc¬ tion of genders. The above rules and suggestions may be of some use to the learner, and are the result, however unsatisfactory they may be, of full and careful investigation. But it should be understood that no foreigner can speak the language cor¬ rectly, without a thorough study of the subject for himself. NUMBER. There are two numbers, as in English, the singular and the plural. The plural, in the case of most nouns, is formed by changing —, which is ordinarily the vowel of the last syllable, into —, as XiOJD a part , X&J& parts, and placing over the word the two square dots now called X^OktJtD, • a • ^ but in the ancient language oftener uOS). In a similar $ tt 115 way, many nouns which do not in the singular terminate in 2 form their plural by adding 2 ; e. g. a people, plu- L' •» 11 ' ral . These nouns are mostly of foreign origin. I> I // Nouns ending in 2x form their plurals by changing that termination into IX* , and more rarely into 1X0 or 2XX. ' I 1 ' * m J si 1 I* Thus, fruit, fruits ; a cave , lX*3\^ caves ; l\5XXO a lip, 2\ft aX D fops; 2 XX. 3 a woman, l> I // // |< H ■ f 2XXA>3 women. In some cases, where the plural is formed l< m I f by adding 2 X 0 , the original X is retained, and especially *' J 4. if it forms a part of the root. We thus have, from a face, , and not :£oJa ; from a house, »' j 5 „ »' * l* f from IX** a sister, lXoX*i». Yet, in vulgar usage, X is sometimes dropped from ^jOX 09 , the plural of 2X50 « vil¬ lage. 1X00 a yard, forms its plural irregularly, thus, 2 X 00 . So a bride, lxS*£ • %>3L2L a week, 2 X 3 LX ; 1X0,A a Urn** J ^ ^ ^ ^ I* burden, 2XXX . 2X4 an ear retains the X, and has for its plural JaL'Hi. The class forming the plural in 2xl> is very I* (* numerous, and comprises the greater part of the feminine nouns in 2 X, and perhaps all in J^o . J^OOOVQS testimony has generally 1 X 000 ^X 0 , but admits a regular plural. »• In Koordistan, the plural termination of nouns of which the singular ends in IX is , 15^0 , or 2XX, m accordance ° m m m m with the usage of the ancient language. We thus have }j.oVu., etc. • min £ The plural termination is by no means confined to nouns of which the singular ends in 2 X. If a word terminate in 2 } the 2 may be dropped and added; e. g. a heart, 1XA3& ; 2*0 CU a river, /ifLoocv* . If the word terminate ,i // / i> 1 in 2 f , the 2 is dropped as before, and — is changed into — ; 116 e. g. 2ao2 a manger, /Sljoao2; ZADOAD a horse, ^JCLXDcZXD . * »* i 1 1 mJm j { } i mm { j i 1 i a recess has either 2X0or 2\A &. If the word i 1 i 1 i' terminate in a consonant, this takes —, and then the term¬ ination is added; e. g. Aft*. a pool, ; XX.flXV an <.,{} < t <* 4 1 'u! army, . But it is to be noted that aVASLX a l 1 1 ' I j. ; mercy does not take this but makes its plural J^jQXU& f&X. A very prevalent, but vulgar, pronunciation of plurals in 2X*, 2X0, or 2XX, is to change the sound of 2X final into i 1 i • *• . <* that of long e. Thus, the plural of ^ADOAD is pronounced *' 1 soosaivae; of , mawae , etc. A class of nouns by no means inconsiderable form the plural by changing the final 2 of the singular into 2x"; e. g. XAA2 a heel, J^AA2; 2 a roac?, ; luGukX a ^•** * <* »" * v * # cloud, /flfi«&*X. . i 1 * * { i j Another class change the singular termination 2 into 2 a ; ; } i 1 or, in case the singular does not end in 2 , add to it. Examples of the first are a field, HiLx 1*#; >LaJU# a vision, %i'6lu+: of the other, real estate, llA&0*Q : * J 7 " _ * .. ^ / wXAbD a thing, , Still another small class is characterized by the doubling in the plural of the consonant which precedes the final 2; e. g. jSoAx a skirt, ; XeaJl a nostril, . J .. «* ' " • «' » a knee, . " <• •> ,, im Some few nouns are reducible to no rule • e. g. 2xxS a daughter, Jj.i.3 ; JgAX a year, >LiX ; JA6X9 a son, 2A&&S ; s <• t> >• i ,i an egg, ; 2x3^ a husband, or 2xSX; i' »* i* * * i* * (• ■ / 5g*i»*XiO a city, Jj.i-*X3o ; 2XXX a church, 2XxX. Some / ,< i ,i ,i ■ ,i have Turkish plurals, with the Syriac termination added; e. g. 1*S. an island, So sometimes a master, 117 Some nouns have two or three plurals; as, a verb, l&So, ; tea-* ci day, tea** , lixa-*, ]^oL. i* // |* a i* I* <* It is noticeable, in regard to a number of these, that the sig- ; < nification changes with the form of the plural; e. g. mm * . { », » _ ' a grape, iJliX grapes (by the quantity), individual grapes ; % m a grain of wheat, wheat (by the quan- tity), V jV ; ; grains of wheat So a s/ioe, a 7>eac? ; 2 a boot, ,* // j» « (• (• // i> « i* > ^ XtojbkS , a grain, Jl?, . /T, f •• Some nouns are used only in the plural; e. g. 1*^8 water, life, mercy, etc. Some, such as names of metals, do not admit of any plural. The plurals of most nouns must be learned by practice, as, with the exception of those in , no certain rule can be given for ascertaining what form the plural assumes. The design has been in the preceding examples to give the plurals in most common use ; but, as every native we con¬ sult thinks, of course, the custom in his own village is the prevalent one, it is difficult to arrive at certainty. In this, and a great number of other cases, the forty pupils of our Seminary, who are from places widely separated from each other, have been questioned. CASE. CONSTRUCT AND EMPHATIC STATE. The termination of most nouns is not affected by a change of case. Their different relations are generally expressed by prepositions, as in English and many other languages. The construct state, a remnant of the ancient language, is also found in the Modern Syriac. Some forms, as, for instance, ^302 w»i3 the sons, i. e. people, of Oroomiah, are 1 * . j { in constant use. So, too, with the nouns ending in , in certain districts; e. g. a baker of bread, for . Moreover, to a limited extent, the first / 118 noun changes final l' into w when in the construct state. We thus have wVukd the how of our Lord, the rainbow, for *^*393 ; 2fc3w u>Vli the ear of a goat, for 5 J 5 ' " n > 2*^.3 . The ideas also conveyed by a large number of our adjectives are expressed by 2a£a , in the construct state, prefixed to a noun. Thus, 2xJ& 29*39 fore? or possessor of usefulness; 23*39 lord of wonder, i. e. wonderful; , m I l'V »' 2 3*39 lord of price, or valuable. Compare the usage of Anc. Syriac with 29*39 , *3*3*3, etc. 29*39 is sometimes omit¬ ted; e. g. iiL* 2^3*03 £ 2*#302 the road is (lord of) fear; ^ laa-\ 2cf*2 fozs 7s (fore? o/ 1 ) price, i. e. Aar. As the emphatic state in Anc. Syriac gradually lost its significance (Hoff. §109, 2), so in the Modern it has disap¬ peared altogether; or, rather, most nouns derived from the Ancient have assumed the emphatic form as their only form, thus virtually annihilating it. Thus, we have now only } I i I mm * Is- A3^k*39, etc. So, too, the plurals JLi3f and m t 9 9 the latter being in Koordistan < »• DERIVATION OF NOUNS. The great majority of purely Syriac nouns in the modern language are derived from the ancient form of the verb, and have continued in use from early times, without any material change. Such cases as the modern for the ancient need no explanation. As this subject of deriva¬ tion has been fully discussed by Hoffman, §§ 87, 88, it will be sufficient, here, to speak of it as affecting directly the signification of nouns. Derivation from Nouns and Adjectives. 1. Patriot Nouns. —These are formed from names of dis¬ tricts, countries, etc., by changing the termination into or *jL' ; or, in case the word ends in a consonant, by adding 119 one of these terminations ; l*i is the most common of them. Examples are 2 an inhabitant of Gawar, from 2**99 6t*#X an inhabitant of Tekhoma, from 299X*#X ; l*iXDOa a Russian, from *£909 ; 2-*X an inhabitant of Tiary, from 2x*^ ; 2*0Xi©T a Hindoo, from 9aOf, or, better, the ancient oaaof. See the same mode of formation in the ancient language (Hoff. § 89, 2). 2. Diminutive Nouns. —These are formed by changing the termination of the noun into 2*6, as in the ancient language. Thus, from 2^L> a boy, we have a little boy; from Xxfa a priest, 2*XX.d (a term of some disrespect) a priestling; ^ ^ f ^ from 23£D an old man, 2*0>3£9 a grandfather (literally, a lit- " 5 J * ; / • ; tie old man); from 23t3 a father, 2* 0^*3 a little father. So a little sister, 2$«*oVuX3 a little wife. and j I m I 2*6X3, which in Anc. Syriac denote, respectively, a little brother, and a little son, have now lost their signification, and are the most common terms for brother and son. The di¬ minutive terminations 2£06, 2*6£96, 2*X*6, seem now to i ii ii have become obsolete. 3. Abstract Nouns .—These are formed in a great number of cases from concrete nouns by changing the termination into ; e. g. from a witness, testimony; bJfnxoo 2 an artificer, 2>£X:ft\ADQ2 mechanical skill; from m f * < f * 5X*XCf a physician, ©f skill in medicine, or the prac¬ tice of medicine. Sometimes the termination is changed into } * , or, where the word ends in a consonant, this is added. 1 t t ; Thus, from *9XX9 an enemy, %.A*i.SR>*X9 enmity; from 299 ' n "/ / // u // a relative, relationship. 23903 forms its deriva- 1 " m m 1 . 1 Z ; • ■ tive in correspondence with *3x3, viz. . v // i i // # 120 N ote. —Sometimes these abstracts are derived from other parts of $ $ £ speech; e. g. from how much , ; from opposite, This general mode of deriving abstract nouns is probably admissible in a much greater number of words in the Mod¬ ern than in the Ancient Syriac, and is of great value for the introduction of new terms. In a very few cases, nouns of this termination are not abstract. Thus, a loom. Compare the same word in the ancient language, denoting a shop. Adjectives are changed in a similar manner into abstract nouns. Thus, from it&^great, we have greatness ; m * 1 { , I f * from 233^9 courageous , courage ; from 2303 high, 3a»A303 height , etc. Verbal Nouns. A noun expressing the agent is in many cases formed from regular verbs of three radicals, whether of the first or second class, transitive or intransitive, by giving the first radical —, or - - when the root has and adding 1*' for the termination. Take, for example, the transitive verb of the first class, meaning, to hold. From this we have XiAM a holder , or one who holds. Take the transi- tive verb 33^ of the second class, denoting to tempt. By the same mode of formation we have 1*33^ a tempter. When the verb is not transitive, the derived word partakes rather of the nature of an adjective than of a noun; e. g. from 9t^3 to be or become lean , we have Xia^k3 apt to become lean. From to sleep, comes one who sleeps. This may be used in construction with or without a noun ; e. g. X&A303 Xxil X* 0 sleeping man! or, without a noun to • $ ^ ^ / / / agree with it, 2^33 oi, Xs3393 a sleeper in the grave. 121 When a noun is derived from a verb used in both the first and second classes with different significations, the connec¬ tion only can determine the meaning of the derivative. Thus, .sV*'’ when conjugated according to the first class, means to squeeze, to escape ; and according to the second class, to save. The derivative may mean either a squeezer, one who escapes, or a deliverer. In the ancient language, derivatives of this form and ; j > termination have often an abstract signification, as Ua>s: • 9 destruction; but this is rarely, if ever, the case in the modern, from to rain , is, however, sometimes used as equivalent to 2\V,V» rain; e. g. liAX 2of2 X*2 ’ « I* » there is much rain this year. There may be other examples of this kind. When the verb is not a regular one, the derivative is in some cases slightly different from the forms given above. In verbs with medial 2 or *, as we have .* for the second radical, and the derived noun is has iia2a in Koordistan. In verbs with medial X, the deriva¬ tive may be either regular, as from orirreg- ular, as . In verbs with final 2, •* takes the place of 2, and the derivative is the same in form, whether the verb be of the first or of the second class. Thus from 2aa we have Zi-^aa , and from second class, llJ&JCO. Verbs I* with final X are generally regular in forming the derivative, when of the first class; but when of the second class, as JkJa&V, to assemble, the derivative retains the —. We thus have The derivative of the irregular verb , •• IT. or may be regular, but as spoken is ydttoc 1 and similar verbs are very regular; e. g. JLiabtoCf. and verbs which are inflected like it take *; e. g. 9 1G 122 ; 2c^*o makes makes 2i*>b8 , ii, i i i i i 1 i i makes X'&QlSo , kXi&30 makes iixt(b9. a i u I n I u i It should be mentioned that these nouns, nearly or quite all, form a feminine in 1 \; e. g. 2i^Xd, J^ihxd. The dis¬ tinction may be kept up in the plural. For instance, £x*xd inales who read, J$.A&-*xd females who read: But this is not l* the common usage. Care must be taken not to confound a yjorker, with SA work ; Irl&M one who commands, with 2ixdoJ& a commandment; XuakS one who saves, with salva¬ tion ; a learner, with learning ; ^ixdL* a burner, or one who burns, with fuel, etc. The noun expressing the agent is occasionally formed by giving — to each radical and adding a terminal 2. Thus, from to sing , is formed 2a^^ a singer ; from to braid, a braider ; from to reap, 2si£** a reaper; from Sta&J* to dig, 2x&** a digger. These nouns do not al- u low with their first radical, as sometimes in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 87, 11). They differ from those terminating in 1* by denoting the habitual action or condition of the agent. Thus 2*3^$ may mean, simply, one who sings on a particular occasion; while 2a>3Of denotes one who makes singing to some extent his business. Many verbs allow either form of derivative. Sometimes the noun denoting the agent is formed by in¬ serting © between the second and third radicals, and giving the first and last radicals —, with a terminal 2 . Thus we have, from to kill, a murderer ; ll*\2a slapjack, from to be broad; XhiiA a saviour, from to save; Z©© Xd a crower, a cock, from 2xfl to call. u n 123 No one verb, so far as recollected, admits of both the j i forms last given, although we find in Anc. Syriac and . This indeed is unnecessary, as, if both forms ex¬ isted, each would be the synonym of the other. These two kinds of derivatives in the modern language never have an abstract signification, and Hoffman, § 87, 12, probably is mistaken in saying that they have in the ancient, quoting XS&-G3^, etc., in proof of it. We, however, translate by in Acts 7 : 10, as there is here little, if any, practical difference between clistressers and dis- tresses. The form with & does not, in the modern, take — with its first radical; nor is there any such distinction as in the ancient between a father, and a child. / t Following the general analogy of the ancient language (Hoff. 87, 3), the modern forms many abstracts, from regu¬ lar verbs of the first' class, by giving the second radical and adding 2 ' for the masculine and 2A for the feminine termination. Thus, from to split, we have , splitting ; from to cut, cutting ; from to plunder, XkkjSQ , , plundering . Some verbs use either of these forms indifferently; as xkki&X, perishing , destruction, from ufilSk to perish; but one or the other is generally preferred. Thus, from to fight, we have fighting, but very rarely • from to marry, 2&»i^ marrying, but not so often 2jkad&^ . it m ^ ' m It is to be noted that, while the signification of the mascu¬ line and feminine forms, standing by themselves, is nearly or quite the same, their construction with other words is some¬ what different. Thus, &\3L xk and xk t t convey the same idea, viz., for drinking water ; and yet and cannot be interchanged in these expres¬ sions without doing violence to the idiom of the language. 124 In all cases the masculine form is the same with the infin¬ itive after it has lost its prefix. Thus we have, from to learn, ; from to hear, etc. A care- // I ful examination of the various uses of this derivative, which will be explained in the Syntax, leads us to suppose that it is properly the infinitive itself. Note.— This form is evidently traceable to the ancient infinitive. Sehultens and some other grammarians speak of the ancient infinitive as taking this form (Hoff., p. 172, foot-note 2), which, if true, may throw light on the question. Moreover, this form is used in trans¬ lating such expressions as (modern ), where is of course the infinitive. The infinitive is used in a t // way similar to the so-called verbal nouns in Turkish and Persian, which languages may be supposed to have exerted some, though perhaps slight, influence in moulding the Modern Syriac verb ; e. g. II for drinking (Turkish) ; for doing business (Persian). This will be farther discussed in the Syntax. From verbs of the second class, an abstract noun is formed, which, when regular, takes -k (or -k when the root has -k) on the first radical, and 4~ on the second radical (unless * fol¬ lows, when the vowel is —), with the termination lx. The derivative is of course feminine; e. g. from to de¬ stroy is formed %*\k the act of destroying ; while, as above, , from to perish, signifies the consequences of n * the act, i. e. destruction. From to save, to complete, is formed 2A-OX& the act of completing or saving ; while , 4 . ' » from to finish, denotes simply the end. From we have ; from from L , • i I 1 • I u IXxX £; from Z£ub, from to assemble (tr.), I 1 // !%. \ Jl ; from 2aJ», ; from >L*ii, ; from it, i 1 i i i< i i io&zo , also, in this, conforms to verbs ** i 1 a {/ < ^ j of the second class, and makes . 125 NOUNS FROM FOREIGN LANGUAGES. So many words have been introduced into Modern Syriac from the Turkish and Persian, the latter being often intro¬ duced through the Koordish, that at least an allusion should be made to them. Among these are nouns with the Turk¬ ish termination ( c >), denoting the agent or worker; e.g. , i $ * %• ’ m i } } i u£>aoaoa a blacksmith , from aa.9oa iron; a shoe- maker , from a shoe ; uAaA a mediator, from • i > % i an interval; a combatant, from wftXS a contest. So, too, with the Persian termination (^Ls); e. g. an artificer, from 92j\jCDOl a master workman ; a pen¬ itent, from Z30X repentance ; 9JaoV&&^ a criminal, from sLA a crime. Both these classes are employed as if genuine / Syriac nouns, and may form abstracts in . Thus, we have the business of a blacksmith ; iii- i repentance, etc. We find also occasionally the Persian termination aa ( b), denoting the keeper or possessor; e. g. aa£i&~ a treasurer, from or treasure; axSudlX, a wise man , from 4 4 4 ' m' 4 " • wisdom ; aaaoxia a merciful man, from mercy. As in Persian and Turkish, the termination signifies place. Thus, aJk A rob ia ; ^X£0Oa.i©7 India; Europe, or the place of the Franks. So too we find the Persian termination «^a ( . b), signify- ^ i £ £ 4f f ^ J J f ing a vessel; as A9oa.il a pen-case, a tea-pot, a coffee-pot, etc. There are other terminations more rarely heard, as in XXa$ a goldsmith; X&aoX^aa a rich man; a qarden- u . • , • • . , v ■ -*» er ; OaSu (Turkish) a native, from a«> a place. ii i x Perhaps it is not strange that in some instances the pre¬ ceding terminations should be connected with purely Syriac 126 words, as they are sufficiently numerous in the spoken lan¬ guage to create a habit of annexing them without discrim¬ ination. The following is an example : i*A*v**j^ a miller, instead of . The Persian words b not, and without, when prefixed to nouns and adjectives derived from that language, retain i ; their original signification; e. g. %i not well, unwell; / i.3 boundless. i •• Note 1.—It will he seen that, in some of the preceding termina¬ tions, 2 lias been dropped, as not being sounded in Syriac, has also generally been written Z3 rather than uSI. Note 2. —While many words taken from the Persian, Turkish, and perhaps other languages, have been barbarously mangled, some changes are made in them in accordance with the genius of the Syriac. Such are: 1st. The lengthening of the penult, which has always the accent; e. g. grace, Syriac . 2nd. The adding of 2 as a termination ; e. g. a 'picture , from the Per¬ n sian JjCii. 3rd. The euphonic changes of a vowel in consequence of this termination ; e. g. a melon-field , instead of * . // / 4th. The substitution of & for the f- sound wherever it occurs. Note 3. —Notwithstanding* the multitude of foreign words intro- duced into Modern Syriac (of which many more are nouns than verbs, as is the case in the ancient language, and as we should naturally expect), it is worthy of remark that the language has pre¬ served in a good degree its identity, and its own grammatical struc¬ ture. There are indeed cases where, for instance, the Turkish per¬ fect participle is dragged bodily into a Syriac sentence. Thus, ZSdC? he became injured. So, too, the Persian ,1 ,i n ,V n there is not , which the Nestorians use to express annihilation ; e. g. &J33U1 he became annihilated , or he vanished. These liber- «• i' > ties, however, are not very common ; and it may safely be affirmed that the Modern Syriac has in this respect fared better than the An¬ cient did at one period, from the influx of Greek idioms. We never find such a mingling of languages, to take an example from Sir William Jones, as “ The true lex is recta ratio, conformable naturae, which, by commanding, vocet ad officium, by forbidding, a fraude deterreat.” 127 Note 4. —We have been obliged to introduce a number of words from the English. We, however, first draw on the Modern Syriac, so far as in the current meaning of its words, or by accommodation, it will serve our purpose. In case we meet with difficulty there, we go to the Ancient, which has been very useful in furnishing us with scientific and other terms ; next, to the Persian or Turkish, the former having the preference, as being by far the more cultivated of the two ; and, last of all, to our own language. If this is not always the rule, it always ought to be. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. The Modern Syriac, like the Ancient and the Hebrew, does not favor the extensive nse of compound words. The influence which the study of the Greek by the Nestorians had on their language has long since passed away; and though some of the compounds formed in imitation of the Greek are still retained, there is no tendency to increase the number. As examples of the compound nouns now in use may be mentioned, JXV. ivory / an echo, lit- 1 1 ; > erally the daughter of the voice; a thimble, literally ',A the daughter of the finger ; ICS .SSsss.i> black-faced, i. e. guilty; white-faced, i. e. innocent. Compound nouns and adjectives have also been introduced somewhat from other . m m I > • m > languages; e. g. *3*13X3 bad color ; a boundary; and x ft ft a cellar ; all of which are from the Persian. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives undergo a change of termination, correspond¬ ing with the change of gender and number. GENDER. Adjectives which are purely Syriac, and indeed nearly all which end in form the feminine singular by changing this termination into 2x ; e. g. 2 beautiful, the feminine of which is 2X9 mAx; 2»oJ^f small, feminine 2xio*Xf. 128 A few adjectivesending in l' form their feminine by changing 2 into 2 . Thus, we have 2aA, feminine 2&d ; ft ^ t ft f ^ 2 blind, feminine 2a&£» dumb, feminine t m f m 9 t 9 9 bold, feminine 2»a£© ; JLdou*f energetic, fern. See what is said of Uai, etc., where the gender of nouns i* ^ is treated of. The masculine and feminine plural are the same. NUMBER. The plural of adjectives is generally formed, like that of regular nouns, by changing the vowel — of the last syllable into —, and writing the two dots called s’amee above the word. There are some adjectives which do not admit of varia¬ tion, either as regards gender or number; such as good, late, fO? straight, necessary or proper, ** t f u*i, etc. These are usually borrowed from other languages, and do not end in 2 . CASE. Adjectives in Modern Syriac undergo no change of case. COMPARISON. Adjectives are not compared by a change of termination, as in English, Persian, and many other languages. To ex¬ press in Modern Syriac the idea: u This is larger than that,” we use the phrase Z" 2n&V*OCfa x£o 2c?2 this from that is I* t ' m great. “ That is smaller than this,” is expressed by the words »• that from this is small; being used like than in English, as in other Shemitish languages. A comparison is also frequently made by prefixing or *XA3 to the adjective, when the idea is that of excess; as * x £ Lf i ; '/ 2i2 J am stronger than thou. So } { m f2©j2a fSp OC7, the literal translation of which is 129 and in Anc. Syr., and rarely in Hebrew. The superlative degree is expressed in several different methods : 1. By the article prefixed, when the connection shows what is intended. Thus, in speaking of a family, we may 4 * > ^ * say lx* OC7 OCJ he is the small one, i. e. the small¬ est. Compare the Hebrew (Hordh. §790). In the Ancient Syriac, even the article or pronoun may be dispensed with. See 1 Sam. 16 : 11, Gen. 42 : 13. So also rarely in the Mod¬ ern, as Matt. 22 : 36. 2. By the use of id , or m£ 99; e. s. ** lx* he is the best of them, literally, from all of them he is good. So for we may substitute , or for n* w»i99 ; e. g. 1^ khMi ^ Q&f from them he is good. This, it will be seen, is properly the comparative form. See an¬ cient usage in Matt. 13 : 32. 3. The superlative is sometimes formed, as in the cognate languages, when a word is repeated and put into what we may call the genitive plural; e, g. 2X30# tX£X0 Holy of holies ; l*iXfcX >a99,X heaven of heavens ; (anc. i i i* i* / k*XX9w 9wXX.) servant of servants ; lxifc99 (ancient '•» #*" n ' J t> i i ) King of Icings. 4. A kind of superlative is formed by adding or l3> { » £ I ; ^ to the positive; e. g. 1X*«> >BLX or l£L*9 139 very minute. I 1/ x i Sometimes both are used together, to increase the intensity; e. g. XflU? l32> /XX exceedingly minute. UX DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives are formed by changing the final 1 of nouns into 1& , or, when they do not end in 2 , by adding li ; e. g. 1*9>CV3 bright , from light; li*99 watery, from 1*99 water; lix*** powerful, from Ixj **+power ; 1&39? mighty, 11 130 from might; XifOS. dusty, from f OX dust. This class t of adjectives is very numerous. 2. They are formed by changing the termination 2 into 2 " or \»i ; e. g. from peace, peaceful; from ^*£CXX heaven, \*&h&XSL heavenly; from Z^Li2 earth, ZAxi2 earthly. i I 1 3. They are formed by changing the termination of adjectives into %*i. Thus, from Xboax® red, we have 1'hijBtMCkXD ruddy; from ZSOO..S black, ZAiBOA blackish. 4. Diminutives, which are often terms of endearment, are formed from adjectives in the same way as from nouns; e. g. £ m i /■ t ^ 0 i ZiooxXf, from 2ao.X9 small; Z&ox£lX, used as a noun, little beauty, from 2 XaJAx beautiful; jiOJSLa, from Zi**? minute, etc. 5. A great number of perfect participles, belonging to intransitive verbs of the first class, are used as adjectives in both genders and numbers : %$&*&£& decayed , from to decay; Z*X9£0 sick, from to sicken, be sick; X*XJQ " j i' > i " thick, stubborn, from ZXJ3 to be thick, stubborn; Z*M pure, from ^ fi * // ZA3 to be or become pure; sweet, from to be or »• ... " become sweet. So is it in Anc. Syr. to a more limited extent (Hoff. § 87, 10). Sometimes the adjective is distinguished from the partici¬ ple by taking ±~ over its first radical; e. g. 2 lean, from to be or become lean; while the participle is i'' i . 1 Z£A*£%3 pleasant, from to be pleasing to ; the parti- ciple is ; Ziwaa soft, from ^£0 to be or become soft; participle Z^*£i ; idle or vain, from to be or become idle or vain; participle **V> Compare, in Anc. Syr., and Z~A^ . 131 In both these classes of verbal adjectives, the signification sometimes differs from that of the root; e. g. , which often means slow, from wii to rest, be quiet H 6. Adjectives denoting quality are formed from verbs, just as one class of nouns denoting the agent, by inserting o between the second and third radicals and giving — to the first and last; e. g. apt to learn, from to learn; swift, from to run; Z3CXC passion- * m '' 1 9 1 ate, from to he or become angry; sour , from ^£ou» to be or become sour; 2d OCA skittish, from dCA to be or become skittish. The same word is frequently used both as a noun and an adjective; but this gives rise to no new forms, and it is easy to know in a particular case whether the word is used as an adjective, by the connection. NUMERALS. 1. Cardinals .—These are so nearly like the cardinals of the ancient language, that they may be readily recognised. A list of them is given below, as they are used in Oroo- miah, and printed in our books. 3m# Zmm one. m • ' 4 . • XJQ&XX*# eleven. i " > %L mXJSCX twenty-one 9 99 ml u3\ two. m 1 m XJ&XdX twelve. 9 H ml wdX oXXCX twenty-two, f three. XJ&xVl^X thirteen. 9 9 U k*A^X thirty. 9 £X3d2 four. 9 l2 fourteen. i i t w«X3X forty. 9 9 .2X£9Um five. f 3>tolX3flU fifteen. 9 9 9 nJtdflU* fifty. f f 5$*X2 six. // X&XX^CIX2 sixteen. 9 9 It i*ftX2 sixty. 9 O 2-XSlX seven. • i m 9 9 9 XJQxXSIX seventeen. 9 9 • 9 uX£&X seventy. 9 m 9 jU&±bX eight. B 9 . 1 SJQxX&doX eighteen. / 91 1 uAdOX eighty. 9 IXX nine. X. // XJQftXxX nineteen. t X, It w ninety. 9 %, II 2x&xX ten. wXA&X twenty. 22*0 one hundred, // 9 n 132 \ 2Z&3U3N two hundred. three hundred, four hundred. / 9 2X$0 ZX£0U* five hundred. 9 2Z* ^jc 2 six hundred. ^ » * 2ZiaJkxx seven hundred. 9 ■ f 2ZX> ZAiSoX eight hundred. 2Z*> nine hundred. r « faA; one tliousand. Note. —In the mountains of Koordistan the cardinals still more closely resemble those anciently used. From one to ten inclusive they have both the masculine and feminine genders; and in some of them, the same apparent anomaly exists as in the Ancient Syriac and the Hebrew (Hoff. § 99, 1, and Nordh. §611), of masculine numerals joined with feminine nouns, and feminine numerals with masculine nouns. A few are given as a specimen : Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. 2k~ m Z^ V\i2 // // n 2x‘i\ t t // Jkaxi // // i^sJim m $ xXx 9 It Z*X>X »• + ' '' • » i J^aa2 // f * ■ i Z^aa2 9 Zxx ♦' T « zkx r « * * 1 Zxasu* 23JQ&X // 9 9 // // // The expressions X-L, ?S>Sy3 X~, X ~, etc., like *-3*135-., X**, etc., in Anc. Syr., denote, re- l> m I I m ml I spectively, double, triple, quadruple, etc. So we have also 2a 01 Ax twice as much; 2a<7 1 three times as much. wax XL , >30 X~ , jlaai .» XL , etc., denote the ^ ^ ^ • 1 ^ 1 L fractions one half, one third, one fourth, etc. The words , { » * ZikSOa , etc., seem to have become obsolete. The Modern Syriac uses the Persian word 2©vV k (»H) time, to express once, twice, thrice, etc. Thus, le^xL, 2«&.wax, 2oii^Ziki^ J just as we find in the Ancient Syriac. »' 'm ' ' Sometimes the word hk&l a foot, is used; e. g. 2-», Z2if2 yi\. So in Hebrew £^20, So, too, aJ^JD (-&+*) 133 5 * a journey ; e. g. a Afl ) 2072 , time (lite* rally journey) I slept well. The Persian word XXA (o^) * s sometimes used in the same way. Note. —It has been supposed that the above mentioned use of the word foot in these languages is derived from the beat of the foot in music. This is probably a mistake. It is applied to travelling, and not to other things. Thus, we may say “I came two feet,” i. e. two times; but not “I read two feet.” So in the Turkish, they say “I came two roads,” with the same signification. xAjCD, as noted above, is used in a more extended sense. • . The cardinals also take suffixes; as, for example, or both of us; *^A3bhx, both of you: wbix, wVl&obx both of them; all three of us; oVllfvS».X r all three of you; all three of m i ir ' i ir them. Similar forms are used up to 2xflaX, inclusive, and are nearly the same in Oroomiah and Koordistan. It may be remarked here that all of us is expressed by or all of you, by , etc. 9 9 m m 9 Distributives, as in Anc, Syr., are formed bj^ a repetition of the cardinal numbers; e. g. *->aX w#aX two by two, etc., though they are now often connected with 3, as, wdX9 w»X. So in Hebrew (Nordh. § 947). 2. Ordinals. —The original termination, which, added to the cardinal, made it an ordinal, has been lost in Oroomiah, with a single exception. This is masc., fern., denoting first. Sometimes we use others, as in the gram, term third person; but they are taken from the ancient rather than from the current usage. The other ordinals are formed by prefixing a to the cardinal. Thus, the third village; 2xX&Xd iSkjj lik^the tenth line. This was also used in the ancient language: Matt. 16 : 21 . 134 The names of the days of the week are as follows: Sunday. Thursday. ,i »< • J.SXfl2*X Monday. Friday. »• • Tuesday. Saturday, (iaabt^aai) Wednesday. i it i* In Koordistan, Tuesday is . The names of the other days are the same. ADVERBS. The ancient termination *h-*2 of adverbs is still occasion- 9 ally retained in our books, and is heard more or less in Koordistan, but is not at all used in common conversation in Oroomiah. Many of the adverbs and adverbial expres¬ sions given below are identical with those in the Ancient Syriac, while many others are of more recent origin, or borrowed from other languages. An attempt is made to classify them; but such an attempt must always be some¬ what unsatisfactory, as the same adverb in one connection may be an adverb of place, in another, of time, etc. M. signifies that the adverb is used only in the mountains; p., that it is of Persian, T., that it is of Turkish, and K., that it is of Koordish, origin ; A., that it is from the Ancient Sy¬ riac ; Ar., that it is from the Arabic. As might be expected, many of these have been modified and corrupted. 1. Adverbs of Place and Order. « 5 $ where ? where. 9 > a. whither ? whither. # J whence ? whence. - K here. • 9 ► a. hither, here. lajao ft 9 - hence. below, beneath. downwards. 2X X n > 3 a. behind. $ a. backwards. 5 a. within. 9 this way. 135 laVo'oCS i* a. that way. j * k-sxo a. first. a f f a. without. V0L.9! // ( far. AoA&x $ f up, above. XtiL*a I // ' * ^ a. from afar. < i j >A. upwards. k**xa >xa i i> « a. headlong. 444 a. in the midst. * f N there, thither iaa e»a 9 a. near. > a. thither. 'p.B a. before. l&tok yonder. ^BU3LA a. forwards. , * V 1.?: 9 I 2aVi:*S xlz'Jo t 1 9* i-?2 v.a k» 9 ' ar 2. Adverbs of Time. fttil aiiiaiso ■ Vi 5 ana 2a cr aVia 2a cr anrtes now. until now. henceforth, henceforth, before now. after, after. > a. after. afterwards, afterwards. o~a2 a. to-day. then. // 9 9 Q AS last year, next year. ,i I > IsLz+a 2^**2 ] then. XSL\aS in the evening. ' ' l P *• 4-4 from that time. ^1.1 quickly. 4^] ( t P t thcn,thc ^ 2 ^;^} p - longago . a. to-night. kjt X. Oa behold me here. i« i '« <" ^u2] when? when. i^iaa late. A ’ _ • i . • how long ? aIjMT aa p. immediately. i ” is-*? m. now. k£(Ju2 kAcf ' • , ) XxxX *1*2 or *1*2^ (as vulgarly spoken) ► a. at what time? *acy k. m. slowly. / i* 136 1/ w p. never, ever. Aw a. until. Z^Cf P.j i^i©C7f • i ZXJBOf p. always. i kXC f A.-S ZixX w©f a. | zS~ c ,•" // 0.33J& // 99 * A. again* now, while as yet. first* while, while as yet. at that time, then. a, • again. ✓ /> 9 m. again. n k*vdS»X&£0 a. suddenly. $ // n p. & t. suddenly. Za. slowly. t * mm A? * t ( 2ci*V. Z33 a.&p. j I* l 1»30JJ A . jto-morrow, yes- i» * / ^ terday. A . ] to- m °rr° W ^ 7 ( (morning). a. before. y before. *32L0 kbO before. V m> S A. | h °f[ e " ften ’ as C?2 %L£I r>2& before now. there he is. a little (time). Z£fc** abfVSj presently. X*~ ^ many times, often. T • y ' i c 2cWk Zi60 %** a. & p. sometimes. •' y 16&.U.U. sometimes. a. at last. 2c*is. Z&o a. & p. j «* '• how often? how often. 5 J s a. at first. _ L ( when, while, SO a. j . ’ * , ( etc. 5 ? « HZ, Zxao£9 ^thS O JOiS at first. m. a little (while). 2Of23 ^ J before now, a »2 a. n e i t i r ii y ’ at dawn. i u | to-morrow. 3. Adverbs of Manner and Quality. Z^Z^d a. especially. *Ow2 only. ,i It I x, / Z^.02 so much. Sk**2 p. finally, in a word. Z3£9d2 t. topsy-turvy. 9 Aa 2 a. also. Zo~2 i* a. more, again, m. more, again. AiaA: t. (hand by hand) quickly. <1*2 a. as, like as. « i ^ * 187 t. only. 1, t t a Us j (when one is called) * ( here I am. j p | then, now then, , l o therefore, p. more. * xl3 p. doubtless. J^A4©Vl3*3 t. scarcely. > t l*ia p. perhaps. 9 k. m. freely. ZA%3 p. enough. -.3*3 | j ? Ip. together. u32sH vul £ ar t how ? like as. fOA t. evenly, correctly. Vijcoo'a? p. truly. I 2 Of a. yes ( ). i* v «• 5 * 00*3 Of p. in vain. ■ s * AOftMCf f. quietly, gently. 'PW p. also. t 2*i of k. m. so many. // ma*CDO f p. easily. f - 2 ' iO2!0f k.m. in vain, freely. 9 m 1 a Of p. exactly. 9 so, thus. » i , ? * ipOf p. more. k. m. certainly. // *4&***3 a. at last. a. at last. 2d^X*#j together. | together. t. freely, in vain, a little. •t » a very little. 2£*m39 5 * «. I I % • p. in short. // 4 ■> . / / 2aof * ? . « 2?6fU * * U. ^aof 5 J . } «,?ff 1— so, thus, so much, so, thus, so much. let it not be so. r A. let it not be so. 2L3**# a. badly. 99 m. why ? a. would that. yes (to a question , , , ( certainly (vul- ^ | put negatively). ^ garly 4* Of p. at all, not at all. e*- p - certainly, truly. ZiX* P. to wit, namely. 18 188 k. quite, completely. // not. I 7. 5** quite, completely. "7. A i ^° W mUC ^’ h° W l many ? a. no, not. •• let it be so. 9 p. truly. nv // m A f Z p. unless. 9 «.&Sucr*2& a. verily. ' H / M. how ? how. • tr 2 * 1*1 *&&&**«»& [ / I J ;ls together (vulgar 2?w&*9 ). 7* * quietly. A. uy& very quietly. a. badly, ill. II ik k. well. wh y ? aaxdj wl, y ? 9 Z-arf Ar. hard. 9 m. quite. 9 Via Ar. never, not at all. 9 's 's >!8&.0'2D) peradventure. j >33 a. much. W> p. with ease. 9 p. perfectly. 9 ioMil p. a. after a sort. t. would that. 9 iLohfr ll truly. i I . 2flLa^63i\3j in truth. I p. about, nearly. Remarks. The preceding list of adverbs and adverbial expressions might no doubt be extended, especially by noting down adjectives used in an adverbial sense, such as lightly , 2dOJ3L* heavily , etc. On the other hand, there are no doubt words in the preceding list which are not adverbs, and which are classed here, partly for convenience, and partly because other grammarians have placed them here. In¬ deed, without a most careful attention to derivation, one can hardly arrive at certainty on this point. We should not criticise a Latin grammarian for calling utinam an adverb, but we should hardly consider the corresponding would that as an adverb. The ancient tfiiu* (osj Tl) is no doubt a verb, and yet, as at present used, partakes more of the nature of an adverb. It is spoken, as given above, or 139 As to the derivation of these adverbs, it is by no means certain that they are all referred to the right source, and it would occupy much space if each one were to be discussed individually ; a few only will be alluded to. In the modern lang., we find ; in the ancient, . * / • t * In Koordistan, w T e often hear Za©7 Z*zi> just here ; with which com- pare Z*©7 007 (is ipse), etc., in the ancient (Hoff. § 45, Annot. 5). Again, in the modern, we find 33»£XuS; in the ancient, ; in the modern, in the ancient, . % I»a2 is in some parts of Koordistan pronounced 2©V*32, which probably throws I lI ' J } « light on its derivation. , Z-^A-k 32 may be Z^OOt-* *-*32, etc., <~a2 being used with masculine as well as feminine nouns, as stated previously. Z^->2 is no doubt ZcVV,*-*©/, a mongrel word, although is now pretty well naturalized in Syriac. In the modern, we find k30u2 ; in the ancient, kJZVao2. In the modern we find ZXX*9; v / j m i i • i // ,i in the ancient, Z**3 IU3 . We also now hear occasionally , e ' - *' Zxiioa rusi. •• »* J&wSi and Z^-*d might perhaps better be classed with verbs than adverbs. 03 is regularly inflected in all the persons and in both numbers, like *0** I am. Thus, V\jS*.*03 here thou ''' " 1 $ V* "• ' art; U-«» here they are. Sometimes Z^Z-^ is joined with it; e. g. X*%S> Z^63 here he is. referring always to distant ob- ■ » »• » i* t if $ jects, can be used only in the third person ; e. g. there she is; Zi-*o there they are. «,?er is probably a corruption of 2 3 ©7, and 23©7 in its turn of w32, 2307 ^SOCkJO is probably from 5 t 'll 1 LOJ3 to happen. YlXf, etymologically speaking, should be written // i with ^; but as the t is aspirated in some districts, it seems most proper to use X. It will of course be understood that these adverbs may many of them be combined to form a new adverbial expression. Thus, Ji©7 { I 5 ' i • ' until, and Zaw2 where , when combined (%£k+i u*©7), denote until • i • where , i. e. how far ? 140 The Nestorians have no adverbs for almost, too much, too far, etc. Almost is expressed by a circumlocution. Thus, if we wish to say “ he almost died,” we use the phrase , 1 fi¬ zz " i. I erally, a little remained that he should die. So if we wish to say “ too much,” we say ZiLa y'tt lie $ more than is necessary ox proper. Next, whether an adjective or adverb, is expressed indi¬ rectly, some additional words being supplied to give definiteness to the meaning. In hearing a class recite, if we wish to call on the next, we say Ctf that other. Next week is ZlV2a %slx. |f £ m t t the coming week. Last week is 2aL3Uk.5l the week that (just) passed. In the same way we can express last month, last year , etc.; t though for the latter there is the word Zi-*o*a. i* * > Some of these adverbs in common conversation are abbreviated, as is the case with words in all languages. Thus, iSC2a-2 where is he ? becomes henceforth (literally^ from now to after it) becomes 2&Lk^Z*0. So too, a »' » * > 2&nSQ thenceforth (literally, from then to after it). These might & with propriety be written with final Cf. A word of explanation is necessary in regard to the adverbial ex¬ pressions and and )dJo are properly prepo¬ sitions, and have the suffix-pronouns connected with them. Thus, to express the idea “ I am going backwards,” we should say Z^fZSj, literally, I am going towards after me, i. e. backwards. So we say I am going towards after you. The usage is the same in regard to ^3L0. It is only when the nominative and the suffix-pronoun refer to the same per¬ son, that the expression can be called adverbial. Compare the use of and 3&J&3 in the ancient language. (See John 18 : 6, Lam. 1 : 8, Jer. 1 : 24, etc.). Instead of using the suffixes, we have sometimes written and 23^; and these are heard more or less among the people. sometimes takes suffixes, as in the phrase uO lQJS%is he got wet until his here, i. e. up to a place indicated by • " > { l I the hand. So does XJ333 ; e. g. ttyoJOa enough for you. 141 PREPOSITIONS. It will be sufficient in this sketch of Modern Syriac gram¬ mar to give a list of the most common prepositions, and expressions equivalent to the prepositions of other lan¬ guages. They are as follows: according to. [>A. according to. m i! '' J 2 A. (equivalent to ( not much used). (S)lS2 La. around. i* t i *3 a. in, by means of, etc. X*3 in, by, etc. (?) * / (5) t*3 1*31 a. along by. Cft32 C»32 J m. along by. // // J 13 p. without. VlA31 about, con- , ' ).a. cerning. Lm XA3 J for the sake of. . ^ between, in the u**3 a. j rnidstof, includ- *' ( ing. JQ>13 \ in re » ard to ’ 1 ( concerning. (£) t. among. (a)JS0J3X3 a.p. over against. # / iffts(te)i mA3 AQ \ V m p. except. ' o m 111, a. inside of. (?)2AX. a. in the midst of. m. beside. I a a. of. m 1-i^ a. without. m (?) te* beside, by the side of. // (a) XAa'aa A . p. \ a f ainst > °pp os - v - ’ , 7 l ed to. ^ 5«r i from (pronounced ^ m ^ l ham). J* *C1 a. until. t t mm J (d)llOdX*# a. around. •» * l^y M. for. A. to. towards. JQ3& towards, up to, near. towards, up to, near. ^ j away from (French ( d'avec). * so —ViXiX a. under. • // // ►» laAo'cA a. to the other side. V • •* a. from (vulg. ivith). ^ * (?) Ar. instead of. p. except. 142 i' v ■ i (i^)l3S0J3 a. near. a. instead of. ' , ^DLO'l before. f j>A. (9) t9.2UQD p. on account of. VJB ( »j away from. on, upon, etc. (9) tX9 a. about, in regard to. • l A •* .Xi* j '5? ff from ’ awa y .» J303JS. except. • . j a. with. kbO except. I ^ ml* .bo a. above. Via«mX a. under. ^ • / t a. in the middle of. ^bO a. away from under. %ki for. Remarks. 9,9, and ^ never, as in the ancient language (e. g. XbaX9, iX , etc.), take a vowel. Several prepositions are frequently I > joined together, especially if one of them is ^50 . These prepositions, in accordance with the analogy of the ancient language, receive suffixes, and are also followed by the separable pronouns, as in the » m expression 0079 tbd ubObb I asked from (of) him. ' • 9 Hi A number of the prepositions, when joined with nouns, require 9, ^, or after them, and may be considered in such cases as hav¬ ing a doubtful claim to a place among prepositions. When they take suffixes, however, these are dispensed with; e. g. zga&s he rose against us; *^XbaX9 A&.B99 he ' / ; » //*>*»»// rose against Simon. In the last example, 9 is required. Those prepositions which occasionally thus employ 9, \, or *bO, have one of these placed after them in a parenthesis in the above list. VlA9 is connected wdtli its suffix by w9 as sliding letters; e. g. ^♦9 Vl.&9 on our account. So and tJQXbA, by ^ ; e. g. iUOJjaXb towards thee. // etc., are often pronounced ullit, minit, etc. The ^ m 9 following is probably the explanation of it. The Ancient Syriac 143 idiom lias been retained in the spoken language, though not intro¬ duced into our books, by which the preposition takes a suffix and a also ; e. g. quickly pronounced will be minit umma; I i> n CT3*V3 will be barit eshoo , etc. These remarks apply to quite a number of the prepositions. k*3 1*3 and &3l are no doubt reduplications of the pre- 9 9 it ft position <3. Thus, we have in the ancient language, e. g., )ni^3.a&3 ova. 9 9 9 Besides t*3 Z»3, we have in the modern such expressions as 9 9 G7&3&X Z3&X along with her , X&i along upon the 9 9 9 9 9 9 wall , along in the valley. With these compare , ii the ancient liWAX* pUs, CVS&X along with Jesus ; and similar ex- / i i< i pressions. Compare also IToffi § 123, 5, a, b. \\A3 is possibly formed from a and a , as we still find in Koor- distan an ancient form 9*^9 2X3 in regard to what he said , equiva- lent to the form used in Oroomiah, 2 9*53 2 X&3. If this supposi- i< a i tion be correct, Vl^»3 should be written 3&3. I I Jk*3 in Ancient Syriac is **&*3, Vtl*3 , or Vl*3 . il&JkJSxSf ill . I l i , m i m ,, , , and u^&Has , like Z>W2, may be partly Syriac and partly Persian, ' " m I * I a I ‘ l { the prepositions 9*3 and 3a being prefixed to 2mk*30*£l of the An- cient Syriac. xh takes its suffixes in so many ways, that they are worthy of special notice. Thus, to express in Modern Syriac for me , we may say , w*-*3XO , w*^*3 , and t*9*-*3XO . So, for thee , i i i“ i i • B i “ ^fXa, e*ka, . The same peculiarity is found in all persons and both numbers. In Koor- distan, the people say , etc. ; in Bootan, ; near Mosul, . / 144 bkXl p. if. 9 Aol a. also. 9 I ^^■+2 a. as. Zi-*2 but. CONJUNCTIONS. «CTt3 a. in that, because. ZASUmO** » i ? » ^D-3w3 nevertheless. or. either. p. then, therefore. p. because. ( that, in order that; 21 a. {(sometimes because , , , , I as John 4 : 22). Z->»2 a. but(a>Aa). Jl a. if. that not, lest. 2 a t. also. u fnot,un - " ( less. p. also. **32 a. although. © a. and. As Ar.T.! bu ‘> but . • • l y et * 2f k. also. «' » t. 2 i> « lajoo i* * a ZtJ j yet, but ( yet. a. than. p. because. t. although. j for that, in i order that INTERJECTIONS. It should be understood that these interjections are not all classical, and that some of them may be called vulgar. But they are most of them in every-day use, and it is well to be acquainted with them. why, pretty well! tX2 hush! 'pOl push on! // // \ * 9 ©72 not I! Oh! well done! tush! 9 ©fo2 alas! 9 wo2 woe is me ! w*d2 alas! 9 9 iw02 huzzah, hurrah! 9 w2 O! I * J i,w*&nwu, halloo! 9 9 m 9 OOh strange ! 9 woe is me ! L'y • m > ? ( bless, 0 God! ZjfcA3b2l-j (Ar.); (vulgar- 1 1 ( ly ,well done!). 2^ \ push on 1 ' ( away! up! 2erf 2a away with you! * * wZA ah me! 5 %jB9 wonderful! 2©7 behold! / m 2©7 ho! U o » *fO Lord! iL at} J^ nerall y — — /*"♦ * used as a se- * ! rious inter¬ rogative). well done ! k£OQj& silence! 9 05.3 poll! pshaw! 2 StX woe! •» 145 SYNTAX. It is by no means proposed here to reduce to a complete system the Syntax of the Modern Syriac; but merely to direct attention to some of its principal features. It may be stated, in general, that the relations in which words stand to each other are extremely simple, and present no serious obstacle to the acquisition of the language. The Nestorians rarely use long or involved sentences; and, indeed, the de¬ ficiency of their language in particles, compared with our own, almost precludes their doing so. While the structure of the language is thus unfitted for philosophical or mathe¬ matical precision, it is in many respects an excellent lan¬ guage for the business of every-day life, and we have no reason to complain that, as spoken by educated natives, it greatly lacks either dignity or force. It may also be added, that, considering the scantiness of its vocabulary, we are obliged to use circumlocutions less than would be expected. THE ARTICLE. It should be understood, as has been already intimated, that there is no emphatic state of nouns in the Modern Syriac, supplying in some degree the place of a definite article. Indeed, multitudes of nouns have taken the em¬ phatic state as their ordinary form, and there is a strong tendency to suffix 2" to all nouns which are derived from other languages ; e. g. Turkish [?] S', Modern Syriac AA a buffalo; Persian , Modern Syriac curdled milk; Arabic Modern Syriac poor. m m f In general, the pronouns OCf, and **&2 are used for the definite article, but with far less latitude than H in He¬ brew. They are also omitted in multitudes of cases where the is employed in English; e. g. i ©actf X^X %%±i i 1 *»; ; '* were (the) men of (the) village there f two * * z i* times in (the) day / ^0u2 when (the) world 19 i 146 / tempt me: - whence came youf }j.s-*:SwS9 from (the) city / i >LfiDO»XD *VA* uO^&jy\o>j have you brought him out (the) horse F Even in cases where the article in English denotes pre¬ eminence, as the sun, the shy, the world, etc., the Syriac omits it. The definite article may be prefixed to an adjective, when separated in construction from its noun, or referring to a noun understood. This is quite a common idiom. For example, 2a&V,<&®7 the great (man) came to-day. In such cases the adjective is really used as a noun. In the ordinary construction of a qualifying adjective, it never takes the article, whether the noun it qualifies has one or not. Such expressions as in Hebrew HD 1 )EH > rwn “pan could not be admitted. Note.— It need hardly perhaps be remarked that an adjective used as a predicate never takes the article. This is of course founded on the general principles of language, the predicate adjective being abstract and in some degree indefinite. Thus, in Hebrew, Greek and English it does not take the article; in Anc. Syriac it does not take the emphatic state (Hoff. § 118, 2); in German, Greek, etc. it is not necessarily inflected to agree with its noun. This is also true to some extent in Modern Syriac. Thus, we may say, for “ These men are free,” either 2 §m> 2 ZXi2 *i2 or %L ;&2 U2; in the latter " (• i< / i i> case the adjective being in the singular. i< > The suffix-pronoun sometimes in a manner supplies the place of the definite article in English; e. g. cvS*«2> all i t > i 1 of it (the) house, the whole house, while ^ denotes any house, every house. So in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 123, 4). See both constructions in Bom. 3:19, and ' I* $ ; The indefinite article X +*, 2&,*# is prefixed less frequently than our indefinite article, but more frequently than in the ancient language (IToiT. §109, 4). Take the following as an X^a®J3 fail 2-L a man rose l> » in the meeting. In the following example it would naturally example of its use: 147 be omitted : i X+AQXS %kil did you see (a i. e. any) i 'ii 1 man on the way f Sometimes the employment or omission of it is optional; e. g. X£t X++ he i* (• / i* I* • brought a horse to sell , literally, for selling, or Xa^XASso I m $ 5 (• l i* i* * Sometimes a thing is annexed to another noun f n with much the force of an indefinite article; for example, S Xisf&Zt, did you see a dog f We should sup¬ pose this to mean did you see a dog or any thing of the hind ? but the natives translate it as above. In accordance with English usage, general nouns denot¬ ing material, such as wood, silver, etc., abstract nouns, and nouns with a suffix pronoun, as my house, do not take the indefinite article. RELATION OF NOUNS TO NOUNS. The usages of the Modern Syriac in regard to apposition, the government of one noun by another, etc., are so simple that it is unnecessary to dwell on them. Two or three pe¬ culiarities only will be noticed. The noun side sometimes follows another noun in construction, to denote direction; e. g. to the S f s city-side, i. e. in the direction of the city; so d I m from the vicinity of the city. The word is also used figura¬ tively ; e. g. X3X. iiuA ,*> in respect to bread. I 1 I'm There is an elliptical mode of speaking in common use, which will be understood by one or two examples. Thus, Z&&2 , literally, a house, a man went, i. e. one from each house; a hoy, a pen he has, i. e. each one has one. It has been already mentioned that the construct state is still employed to some extent, though the tendency is to dispense with it altogether, and use a in its stead, as we use 148 the preposition of in English. This a is omitted in expres¬ sions such as Vxil u*30£9 what hind (of) man , not only • ; ; 1 &07X, but the general form, corresponding with the idiom of the Persian and Turkish. Though educated Nestorians generally speak with grammatical correctness, it may be worth while to note as an exception the almost universal • ^ I use of ui&9 as if it were the singular and not the plural; e. g. Zj*-* o ©7 he is a son (i. e. inhabitant) of f* • / I Degala. Nouns, as well as other words, are often repeated: (a.) to denote distribution or variety; e. g. 2s©7X 23 ©7 X hinds, / * mm 1 . »' •' hinds, i. e. different kinds; iXAS colors, colors i. e. dif- r > «•* > # 5 ? ferent colors ; so with numerals: one, one time , i. e. now and then ; so adverbs: slowly, slowly, i. e. little by little; ( b .) to give intensity; e. g. fragments, fragments, i. e., as we should say, a thousand frag¬ ments ; 2.3S exceedingly, very little indeed; (c.) 7. * T > j j to supply the place of each, each one ; e. g. >LXa2 ZX&2 man, man, i. e. each man. This last usage is rather borrowed from the ancient language than commonly heard, but we allow it a place in our books. In regard to the general idiom, compare the Ancient Syriac (IToff. §112, 2), and the Hebrew (Nordh. § 828). There is also a curious, though perhaps vulgar, repetition of nouns, which is common to the Persian, Turkish, Arme¬ nian, and perhaps other languages of the East. In the repetition & is substituted for the first letter of the word, if it begin with a consonant, or is prefixed, if it begin with a vowel. The idea is thus generalized; e. g. from £ £ $ Js-X dirt, we have dirt and every thing of that " , , " " , , / ’ f m * sort ; from minute, XO..30 itt-s every little thing, t »• 9 f« 1 ” ° e. g. 22.H-a 1$ do not •• i i 1 / > i ™ « / esteem, (literally, put a price on) the trifles of the world. 149 ADJECTIVES. A qualifying adjective in Modern Syriac, in the great ma¬ jority of instances, as in Ancient Syriac (Hoff. §118, 1), and { { ; j'' in Hebrew (Nordh. § 770), follows its noun ; e. g. 13X0 lx&2 old man, %.L* X3a beautiful city. The same rule holds where two or more epithets are joined to one noun : 13330 la&V. a large and high house. Also when the ' 1 '/ ' m ' noun has a suffix, as his firm law. So 9 9 9 9 in the ancient language (Hoff. § 122, 3). A few adjectives more naturally precede their nouns; e. g. las, ^ , tSo , etc., the latter being called an ad¬ jective, though in reality a noun (Nord. § 725, 1). Thus, 133 many horses, li^L»2 a good tree. In these cases 133 and u* i SJL: would be also allowable. An adjective may be placed before its noun to give in¬ creased emphasis; e. g. 1.&13 2a&V. 133 a very great stone. Another mode of giving emphasis, is to place the adjective at the head of the clause, and, after a brief pause, to repeat it; e. g. 1^*»* lx*3 : 13U3 lL*2 : 1^»«* li^&Sw z quick to learn, he is quick to learn; but wicked, he is wicked. A qualifying adjective in the modern language cannot be separated, as in the ancient (Hoff* § 118, Annot. 2), from its noun by words such as ^*307, **3, etc. »* ' (' An adjective used as a predicate is also almost always placed after the noun or pronoun to which it refers; e. g. Q3 ixi 1 007 that man is rich, i' iii* \ the bread is sour. The ancient language generally places the adjective before its substantive in such a case (Hoff. §118, 2). So the Hebrew (Nordh. § 772). An inversion of the ordinary 150 construction may, however, be employed for emphasis; e. g. O cf IZ&hZSk'Z very agreeable is he, Z^*-* Z^-a^S blessed is your house. In regard to the demonstrative adjective pronouns, when used to qualify nouns, they are always placed before their nouns; e. g. JsSa Ivfl this dog, 2 &.£©*** %ll these donkeys, 5 J J ^ J i ^ ' '* •' 1 lX*3 %Xll to this wicked man. When the construction t is different, we have followed the idiom of the Ancient Syriac or the Hebrew (Hoff § 118, and Nordh. § 881). Cardinals also uniformly precede their nouns; in which respect the Modern Syriac is unlike the Ancient (Hoff § 117, 1). In the latter language they sometimes precede, some¬ times follow. The Modern resembles more the Hebrew (ISTordh. § 935) and English. In this also we have at times changed the idiom, as Gen. 11 : 1. Such expressions as * I I f mm t 2&aV. sk** S*"** m the ancient language would not now m t ' I I t O O be at all allowable. SUBJECT NOMINATIVE AND VERB. In general, the verb agrees with its subject nominative in number and person. There are, however, constructions ad sensum, as in the Ancient Syriac and most other languages, the mere grammatical form being neglected (Hoff § 137). When the subject nominative is of different persons, the rule found in Latin, Greek, and other languages, has place, that the first person is preferred to the second, and the sec¬ ond to the third. Thus, 2 'AS ilia Vui you and I will go, GOlGYLii you and he came. Verbs are often used impersonally, and then the feminine gender is employed, as a representative of the neuter gender in other languages; e. g. wdX it drew (i. e. it occupied) two hours, tiL* Z2&-* it is bad, i. e. a bad thing, ^ Z* it is a fear to you, i. e. you are afraid (note, that is a vulgar and anomalous form of Z*X?f), 151 origin of the preterite tense has been correctly explained in the Etymology, we have in this example a curious redupli¬ cation, as will be seen by spelling with final 01 , £ . v 9 n The feminine is in such cases always preferred; and yet, when translating from Anc. Syr., which uses the mascu¬ line as well as the feminine verb impersonally (Hoff. § 138, 3), we have sometimes followed that, rather than the spoken language; e. g. Matt. 13 : 40. See the same use of the fem¬ inine verb as an impersonal in Hebrew (Nordh. § 737, 2). Indeed, this disrespectful use of the feminine gender for an indefinite thing, results from the ideas of Orientals. Note.— Sjocf , in which case the verb is used impersonally i* and in the masculine, is hardly an exception to the general rule, as it has almost lost its power as a verb, like if = gif=give, in English. In this connection may be mentioned such expressions as there became to me a heart, ^ // 9 |» ' 9 l* m f there came on us his joity, i. e. pity for him; where the verb seems first to be used impersonally, and then a masculine nominative to come in as an after-thought. This change of construction is not without its force, and may be at times preferable to the regular form. The nominative absolute is very common in Modern Syriac, sometimes used emphatically, and sometimes without any such design; e. g. QOf : Christ, he is mighty, 2 M3 kw* OIQX^l : your father , his hand will guide you, Jacob , he also will go. ooi * kg aJ s n Sw lull this 9/ 99 9 • 9 In these cases, it is emphatic; but it can hardly be considered so in the following example: l&of kJJioi : the rivers , their course would change, which is simply saying, ‘the course of the rivers would changed See the same idiom in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 119), in Hebrew (Nordh. § 866, 1, b.), and in other languages. 152 On the other hand, the nominative is omitted altogether, when regarded as indefinite; as, for example, when Zx*2 or 't y Z&2 might be supplied. This usage, not uncommon in the i 1 Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 138, 4), is far more common in the Modern, and is a substitute, as mentioned in the Etymology, for the passive verb; e. g. wS ZX men oppress us , i. e. we are oppressed. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. The proper place for the predicate nominative, with its qualifying words, is between the subject nominative and its verb; e. g. drunkenness is 9 9 9 great folly. The rule, however, is variable. We may say, with a kind of emphasis, / 9 |* 9 the change of the usual construction, as in other cases, giv- ing more force to the words. verb Zocr TO BE. »• This is rarely omitted, the Modern Syriac differing in this respect from the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 146, 3), and the Hebrew (Nordh. § 701, 1, b.). Yet we at times find such ex¬ amples as the following, some of them perhaps transferred by us from the ancient language, and others in universal use : Z*^&x£f^ our father that in heaven, Z*3XX that under heaven , Eph. 6 : 12, Z-^ (let there m ^ // / ® > / be) glory to God \ ©C l he (is) calling you, 2x0 (it is) necessary to read. Note. —The verb of existence is not omitted with the correspond¬ ing words and , nor always with A person, in assenting to a remark, often says <^©XSL* your ■ word, for Zi~*oxau> or Z^m ►- <%&X3L** . i 1 i f t I i> i / i i 153 OBJECT OF THE VERB. The objective is often denoted, as in the Anc. Syr., by S prefixed (vulgarly Aiw), and especially when intended to be definite; e. g. ocrxS uAfL* I saw (to) that man. [ i 1 / ft But in a sentence like the following: k** j- '9 9 n did you find a purse f it is neither needed nor allowed. In common conversation it is also often dropped, for the sake of brevity, where we should expect to hear it. Like n&fc in Hebrew (Nordh. § 835), ^ does not seem to be so much a sign of the accusative, as to be used for directing special attention to any subject. ^ may also denote, as in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 114, 1 ), the same relation as the dative in Western languages; e. g. mA I did service to the Khan; ' 9 II 9 " II ZSUObSL* O 0 f ©A Aactf give to him that apple. In this last example, wC lehxu for him would be perhaps more common. The idea may also be expressed without any preposition, as in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 122 , 1): A JLiSCfo.* he gave me a watch. Some verbs, as e. g. those of naming, clothing, anoint¬ ing, asking, commanding, feeding, teaching, telling, filling, etc., are often followed by two objects, of which one gene¬ rally, though not always, signifies a person. The noun denot¬ ing a person may have ^ prefixed, but the other noun very rarely takes it, if at all; e. g. AcA A* obA JIxsAoa 9 he put clothes on that boy; cv&£k.b wAdks lujl this M ° i m ,i n nil my son I will call him David; A A ©A Vl 3 A-tA the field ive will make it a vineyard. The ancient language has very nearly the same usage (Hoff. § 141, 4, 5). It may be well to remark that in many cases, where in English and other Western languages an object is viewed as direct, in Syriac it is regarded as indirect, and vice versa. 20 154 This leads to the employment or omission of prepositions, in a way very different from the usages of our own language ; e. g. %*£& XlVn you filled the vessel (with) water; where the Syriac also admits of 3 or 2ao2 he entered from (by) the door; u*070 M3 ^MON we told for him; $ 9 $ i J 9 2xda lie touched on us; lu&i if God '>// ,t // “ « i* • i " show favor from (to) you ; * Vl3 they will ascend (above) us; w!X-*2 kbo he hissed from my hand, i. e. he kissed my hand. The modern language is, however, no more unlike the English in these respects than the ancient. PRONOUNS. 5 * s' The nominatives %ii , M2, etc., are not generally ex¬ pressed before the verb, unless for the sake of specification or emphasis, as the terminations of the verb prevent all ambiguity in regard to number and person. When empha¬ sis is required, these pronouns are oftener placed after the { $ 5 verb than before it; e. g. t >L&2 wOMa what am I to '' i • '" • • do, I? i M2 X did you tell, you? Sometimes the pro- / i . ^ ,y 1 i noun both precedes and follows: 2 t£o2 ^->$2 ^x*#2 we will go , we too. The pronoun, used as a subject nominative, and indeed any nominative, is occasionally separated by an intermediate clause from its verb; e. g. 'pJb : t*&2 they , before you came , saw. The Modern Syriac, however, generally favors the simplest construction. The pronoun is often employed as an absolute nomina¬ tive, in the same manner as nouns; e. g., with the imper¬ sonal verb of existence, ** or Ui I. there 9 9 9 9 is not to me, i. e. I have not; VuixB ^ iIoctt lS> :Vl ii you , there will not he to you opportunity ; : O©7 155 i » i/ i I { he, his mercies are many; ^ %£k Z ^2 hut we, they blame us. See Matt. 26 : 11, and compare the ancient version. See also Hoff. § 121, 1. It is to be noted that the very common idiom of the an¬ cient language and the Hebrew, by which the pronoun takes the place of the substantive verb, finds no favor in the Mod¬ ern Syr., in Oroomiah at least, though it is said to be heard sometimes in Koordistan (Hoff. § 121, 2). Nor is dC 1 used pleonastically in the modern as in the ancient language (Hoff. § 123, 1); e. g. o % XwAa 1 Tim. 5 : 9. The governing noun in the modern as well as in the an¬ cient language (Hoff. § 122, 2), may take the suffix which seems more properly to belong to the noun which it gov¬ erns ; e. g. ^&*A>©2 your way of evil, or ; 2 your death of the body, or The latter forms are the more common. It is a universal practice to use pleonastically the suffix pronoun, followed immediately by the noun to which it ; ( • / ; refers. Thus, wC 1 I saw her, the woman; .} m > • " J,X*2 kt&i ive drove them away, the men. Com- »' * 1 ^ 1 m > pare the ancient OU&2 , and many similar expres¬ sions (Hoff. § 123, 3). The idea seems to be the same, whether the pronoun is used or not. In Hebrew, this has been considered an emphatic suffix (Nordh. § 866, 2, a), but we do not so regard it as used by the Nestorians. On the other hand, the suffix is entirely omitted when the meaning is sufficiently plain without it; e. g. 2^X2 he came and told (it) for me. i i> i> t The suffixes are in some cases used as reflexives; e. g. %L '*13 I will go and ash for me (for myself) a booh. See an example in both Ancient and Mod¬ ern Syriac, John 4 : 8. 15G As tlie relative particle p undergoes no inflection, many ideas, which we express directly in English, must in Mod¬ ern Syriac be expressed by a circumlocution. A few exam¬ ples will be given below. Examples of the same kind may be found in Hoff. § 125, Nordh. Chap. ix. and Kosen. Arab. Gramm. Syntax, xcviii. 1. T Vhom.—kA^ Xii I / t m i //'■// “I am Joseph your brother, that ye sold me,” Gen. 45 : 4; wO7&£0l3 ^^9^00 uip Xxil X^tJ 2 Of 2 this is the man that I / i o i |i spoke about him. 2 . Which .—ZjOCT aAV 3 to a garden that he had planted it; u*070w»3 Zi>to the spade that I worked with it. 3. Whose. — X^p X & oX s Xi^G^XO the Nes - // i i>" i> * i> » torians of the mountains, that (men) plunder their cattle. 4. Place where .— croeJ^ tAxxa a village that I un- packed (encamped or halted) in it; to A tocp? JlsAOa to a place that he was there. 5. Whither .—u 07 O£ to AA the vineyard that you went into it. 6. Hither. — X^X^ ZioVt to an ox that we • i v i I* # brought hither. 7. TEAence.—uC7&iio IaXQJS a well that i a i 1 i a m / they were drawn from it. 8. TFAew.—to©7 k«Oa* $O.X 2sto wC7 0**3^ too^ to a cZav that in it I was lord of business, i. e. busy. In some of the preceding cases, a may express the idea without the pronoun or adverb following. Thus, for “a day,” etc., we may say to07 tooJt 2atoo toow to, there being an ellipsis of w070*9. 157 As in the ancient language (Hoff. § 125,1, Annot.), it may denote the objective case of the relative. For instance, 2JL*0 every thing that he may see. The relative o may often be rendered definite, as in Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 125, 3) and Hebrew, by 4^X109 a $ J ' m /// thing, ^*o**90f a word, 1**2 a man, oof he, etc., prefixed: ZiXO Vl&i*o ZJS do not forget the thing that he tells: li- ZlViZao oof & ^ Vl-oJ zi t/ow cfo no£ know him (• i* I I n ,• ^ w/io 25 coming. In Hebrew (Hordh. § 907), as in English, and in Ancient Syriac to a very limited extent (Hoff. § 125, 4), the relative may be omitted; e. g. a house (which) he built two years ago. But a seems to be never omitted in Modern Syriac, except when used as a conjunction. It may be well to give a few examples to illustrate the use of the interrogative and indefinite pronouns, and the position they occupy in the sentence. We may say either i ud0*9 lull , or i 2of2 wdc**9 what is this ? i< • m i ,> i m i t iX. loll, or t loll JX- u.uo, who is this I ml ml I woman ? iVk.0^ Via.2, or, instead, lV\i2 V\aZ» 1 * 1*9 , or Hll I II I simply i V\.oJ 4 * 1*0 , ivho art thou f * 4*i*9a 2 aOX 2Of2, L J n I *• » or ‘ 20f2 fa OX, or ; 2 a ox 2of2 ^ 4*i*oa , »• # »• » whose ox is this f The interrogative pronouns may be used, as in Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 45, 2, Annot. 4) and Hebrew (Hordh. § 921), as indefinite pronouns. For example, in the expressions : Z^w 4*1*0 Z*X9t*£3 wXL* Z«V I do not know who he is, i> / i i v // »• 7 Zlx** 4 * 1*0 <«oJ^ i\yp Via OOf he will inform you who went, i* n i ' i 7i i u Zoof 4*1^2 xVjl*# zS he did not see which (of the two) it was. 11' Very often ZXi2 without the article is used where we should use, in English, any one, as in the Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 158 / // § 127, 4): ‘ fcab ftV, 1X42 X-2 is there any one in the village f Sometimes %xi 2 may be omitted, and yet the idea be clearly and idiomatically expressed; as ocfa ^*2 in the school there is not like him (his like). XXil is also now and then used to denote each one: as, Xxil *^J^ft33&3 „ ' ' Hi they scattered, man (each man) to his village. So in the ancient language (Hoff. § 127, 8). But generally, when thus used, it is repeated, as already mentioned. MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. Though the ordinary signification of the different moods and tenses was given in the Etymology, some additional remarks are necessary to illustrate their use. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. —This is sometimes used : 1. As a perfect; e. g. lix 1&* laA AJ 1-sAa he is reading here three I* ;/ » • i n // years. 2. As a future; e. g. 1—■ aft\3 lSfJ.3 we are going after a month. So in Gen. 6 : 17, where, in the modern language, we have the present tense, and in the ancient the active participle. Imperfect Tense. —This is sometimes used: 1. As a present; e. g. XoUj kXA3 it was (is) better that " " * I ^ I s LI '* you should preach. 2 . As a future; e. g. 5^93^3 %AG1 2A$l3 • »• he was going (intending to go) in the morning ; the implication being that he is now prevented. 8. As an imperfect sub- junc.; e. g. X&&1 VlA- X&-*x 3 : Iq&! \\jocf Xxil if you should be a good man, you were (would be) blessed. 4. As a pluperf. subjunc.; e. g. Xx*~ +IX&V kXAl I f an t y* t it was (would have been) better, if you had gone. Preterite Tense. —1. Used as a present; e. g., a man in dis¬ tress says I died, i. e. I am dead; I choked, 159 1. e. I am choked, or I am drowned. A boy in recitation, if confused, will say w* it lost on me, i. e. I have * i i it lost it. Ask a man how his business is to-day, and he may reply &X& 1&M71 907 it remained (remains) just so. Persons x . 1 * /1 coming to make a petition will tell us **30/ ^99 we poured (i. e. we now place) our hope on you. Compare Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 129, 4, b, c). Compare also Ps. 1:1, in the Ancient and the Modern. The expression in the Ancient, I ; i; a lauj ^9 , Matt. 12 : 30, may be considered equiva¬ lent either to a present indicative or to a present subjunctive. 5 5 f I So Deut. 1: 39, that did not (do not) know. 2. Used as a perfect; e. g. 2-*?2 2^X2 he came now , i. e. he has just arrived. This is the common mode of speaking. So too, %$> <*ot? && 2^ X$~x% blessed is he that never i> a f tt i * 1 2 ■ / heard (meaning, that has never heard). 3. Used as a pluper¬ fect ; e. g. XiQO$&&f 2^*0a ^&-*2 when he (had) finish¬ ed from speaking (Hoff. § 129, 3). 4. Used as a future; e. g. : 2£09OJ3 if y° u died to-morrow , ycm perished (compare with the use of the first verb Hoff. § 129, 8, c, and of the second verb, same section, 7); z'tlteoc1 +1 i { I 5 'y . I % " 1 " 13UQ 2»*s2 907 if you believe. Christ just now. 1. e. at this moment, received (will receive) you. This is no doubt an emphatic future. Compare Hordh. § 966, 1, c. 5. Used as a subjunctive present; e. g. X&0&1 2 & if it did not become , i. e. if it does not meet the case, equivalent to 2. wdOf Z-» *4 (see the ancient usage, Mark 12 : 25, as follows: , in which case the translation might ft | * m W |i ^ ^ ^ / / U have been literal); Vls z-ai ^2 y // » I ^» ~ // // you went out (set out) now, perhaps you will reach / .J: i&si ZX^»9a.2&& I am grop- 9 160 ing after God , if perhaps Ifound (him). Compare the ancient usage in Ecc. 6: 6, 2*L* X* , where 2**# expresses the idea of contingency. 6. Used as a subjunctive imper¬ fect ; e. g. 2 ^ Z^tCkX 1%CP although 0 ' // // ,< n 1 ! t> I the business did not finish (should not end), I shall go; %AC1 VlA* 43 07 QX if you destroyed (should destroy) were (would be) just. The preterite seems never to be used in the modern lan¬ guage for an imperative, as in the ancient (Hoff. § 129, 6). It will not be thought strange that it is employed in such a variety of ways in the spoken Syriac, when we consider what an important tense it was in the structure of the old verb. Many' of the idioms mentioned above give force and vivacity to the language. We are thus allowed to speak of events and actions which are present or future though definite, or future and contingent, as if they had actually transpired and were recorded in the past. On this account the preterite is often used in Hebrew in the language of prophecy. See also examples of its use in conditional clauses (Nordh. § 991, 1). The other forms of the preterite given in the Etymology, jXJB , ZUS304& , etc., have substantially the same meaning as the regular preterite, and may be used in the same way. The first named of these is ordinarily employed only when euphony requires it. See Etymology. Perfect Tertse. —This is used: 1. for the present; e. g. he has sat i. e. is sitting; *0.3 he has wept , ,1 • I ° ,l m „ - 1 7 i. e. (often) is weeping. This usage seems to be confined to a small number of verbs. 2. for the preterite; e. g. 2 x^V, ^39 we have come (we came) long ago. This is the usual mode of speaking. Compare what is said of the pre¬ terite Ho. 2. 3. for the perfect passive. See Etymology, Passive Voice. Ambiguity may sometimes arise, as to the question whether the verb is used in an active or passive sive sense; but the context generally determines. We may translate, e. g., 2^* ^*393* either he is asleep , he has slept , or 1 1 " l he has been asleep / they have sown , or they are sown. 161 Pluperfect Tense. —This is sometimes used: 1. for tlie im- perfect; e. g. 2a ©7 Ae was weeping, %QG1 he was sitting. 2. for the passive imperfect. This is very common. See Etymology. Future Tense. —Whatever is peculiar in the use of this tense will be noticed under the Present Subjunctive. The second future is not very much used, a form of expression being chosen which renders it unnecessary; e. g., where in English we might say “before you come, I shall have arrived,” a Nestorian would be likely to say I shall arrive before you. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. —It should be distinctly borne in mind that what has been called in the Etymology the present subjunc¬ tive, is nothing more nor less than the ancient present par¬ ticiple, with fragmentary pronouns suffixed. The old future having disappeared, this present participle, with pre¬ fixed, becomes a future in Mod. Syr.; with prefixed, i* it becomes a future, or a generic present, expressed nega¬ tively; with (ancient prefixed, it becomes a preterite; with 2A or wj prefixed, it becomes a generic present; and without a prefix, it inclines to retain its original present signification. Remembering these facts, and the further fact that both in Ancient Syriac and in Hebrew, the future was much used as a subjunctive or conditional (Hoff. § 130, 4; Nordh. § 993), we shall not be surprised to find these different meanings shading into each other in the Modern Syriac. The following examples will illustrate the very different uses of this tense. Question, am I going f or may I go f Answer, Vl2 : 2of yes, you are to go, or you may go. The question may thus be either a simple interrogatory, or a permission asked; and the answer is to be understood accordingly. If the answer is “you are to go,” it is really a mild imperative. Compare our English “you may go and do so and so;” when we mean “you must go.” This mode of speaking is very com- 21 162 mon, and in prayer is often interchanged with the imperative in the same sentence; e. g. V&XA 2x : 2cA2 Z-* ^ i n o » 0 Lord, come and abide with us! Compare in Anc. Sjr. 1 Kings 8 : 80. Comp, also the interchange of the future and imperative in Hebrew. let him find, i. e. allow him to find, or he is to find. "7. In this case, and very often to the third person, singular and ' ■ m 5 plural, t XA d* or kU&SX may be prefixed; e. g. let them read , where as above we may have the idea of per¬ mitting them to read, or of directing them, the circumstances and the connection determining what is intended. { ; $ $ i j let me tell you; i what can we do ? Z , m » 4 ' “ * ' . . " * »■ M* g may I die a youth, it is true (may I die young, if it be not true)—compare the Latin u ne sim salvus,” may I perish! The present subjunctive may be used to express a suppo¬ sition, particularly if a parable, a supposition , is pre¬ fixed ; e. g. : ^sLs&so supposition: he fin¬ ishes his business, or let him finish, or grant that he finish, or if he finish. Compare the Latin “vendat asdes vir bonus,” suppose, etc. So, too, without the word ; e. g. suppose you do not learn your lesson, you will not go out. We may in this case say, if we choose, that *^2 is omitted, as in Hebrew (Nordh. § 991, 8, a). The imperfect subjunctive allows the same idiom. The present subjunctive is used in prohibition, where the Ancient Syriac, the Hebrew, and the English would naturally use the future; e. g. thou shalt not steal; // * // thou shalt not lie. would mean thou wilt not steal, or you are not in the habit of stealing, and Vl3 would be an emphatic way of saying the same thing. See in Ety- 163 mology a notice of this last form. This distinction it is im¬ portant to observe; otherwise we may be led into ludicrous blunders. Thus, a man speaking to me about his son in my employ, says let him not be hungry ; to whom I reply, he will not be hungry (I will do well for him) or he does not go hungry. Note. —With the use of Z^ and Z^ in this tense compare X'b and of the Hebrew, oti and yy\ of the Greek, and non and ne of the Latin. It is evident, however, that the resemblance is only a general one, and in the indicative does not hold at all. It is to be remarked that we are not limited to the sub¬ junctive present for expressing prohibitions, as those using the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 130, 4, c.) and Hebrew (Nordh. § 1006) were limited to the future. The imperative may be freely employed for that purpose, as Z^ do not steal, 6 *. do not go down, etc. The present subjunctive may be used also in entreaty; e. g. Z^ I beg you not to lie; Z^ I beg you not to sell, etc. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether it. is a command or an entreaty, as, e. g., if I call to a man pursued by a bull, 'hSkA Zii do not stop. In familiar conversation the of the future is often u omitted, and then the form becomes that of the present sub¬ junctive; e. g. 2: 2 if you wish (that) I go, I (will) go. So Gen. 42:36, i and (will) you take Benjamin f So, too, Z3 or w2 is often omitted; e. tt. %.0'SVa & m jh wish (that) ° « i> i // x read, but it is not happening (coming about). Here a general desire is expressed to learn. With this we may compare the ancient present participle, which is also used for a ge¬ neric present (Hoff. § 135, 3), as in Ecc. 2 :14, where we must translate the ancient tSf 1 by 2 Z3 . So ^a£a2, Is. 3 : 2; and many other cases. Moreover, the anc. present participle 164 is used for tire future (Hoff. § 135, 3), which will account for such cases as that given above, viz. WJ>f2 : »Jt$2 ° ^ // ' // ot n 9 1*^.3 and perhaps some other verbs, in their ordinary use, *' t * m * retain the force of the ancient participle; e. g. J»*a2 SO 1 1 X V/ 9 9 9 exactly now I wish, where the idea is limited to the present moment. The present subjunctive is occasionally used for a preter¬ ite indicative, as was the present participle (Hoff. § 135, 3, b) from which it sprung; e. g. 3*392 and Jesus saying ^ 9/9 (said); they said. In these cases, the modern usage is 9 s almost a transcript of the ancient, 3*392 being written for 3*392 and w3*392 for ^3*392. It is not strange that these different idioms lead to ambi¬ guity, which no acquaintance with the language will fully remove; e. g. Xa SJ3 may be translated “our sweet voices let us all raise,” or “ we do all raise,” or “we will all raise.” The perplexity thus caused, however, is as nothing, compared with the puzzling expressions we often find in Hebrew. The usages are so simple in regard to what has been called the second present subjunctive, that no remarks need be made about them. In a multitude of instances, the indicative or subjunctive may either of them be used to express an idea; but the subjunctive will express it as more contingent, as is true of the German and other languages; e. g. w3*&39 id I* I // every thing that there may be, for which we may substitute 2^*3 . or ^\^2d . So >Lo ©1 ^1, I // >“>“// |» ■ t n or *^2 if he be here, or if he is here. ,1 m i h J Imperfect Tense .•—This is often used as an imperfect in¬ dicative, in accordance with the use of the ancient present participle, joined with %AU1 , from which it took its origin; { / m m I Is" { * e. g. ijttoy lAtfl 53**# and Jesus was walk - 99 $ 94 f ing about and preaching. 165 It is also used, as the imperfect subjunctive in Latin, for the pluperfect; and this is the common idiom in regard to a verb which follows a conditional clause, and which, in our language, would be in the pluperfect. We thus may say JjBC 1 JaxSt Z uuiloVl %aUf 'tk OCf if you had told me, I should not be (have been) angry; : X&G1 *_2 * W } 5 1 i 1 " '' " loot >2 'jJQI if he had heard, certainly he would (would have) come ; implying that he did not hear nor come. This tense is also used with a negative, to imply what ought not to be; e. g. %AC1 Xoc1 iSa Via* 1m t 1 |* 1 11 11 1m you have done a thing that should not be done. See Lev. 4 :13, 27, and compare the Ancient Syriac. Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses. —It is unnecessary to say any thing further of these tenses than that they are not much used in common conversation, the ISTestorians preferring to state their idea in another and more simple form, which they can in most cases readily do. When they are used, they correspond in general to the same tenses in the Latin. has sometimes been prefixed to the tenses of the sub¬ junctive in our books; but this is not in accordance with general usage in Oroomiah, and has of late been nearly or quite dropped. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. Much that might be said under this head has been virtu¬ ally anticipated in the numerous examples given in the pre¬ ceding pages. The principal particles which may take the subjunctive are: , X& *4 > Wkjl > ? , 2^? , a XO , a t*ou2, ii ii 1 ' # , a hdfc , a xLxo , a laoJL , a ikax, a Sui , etc. » v « i > • i * i i So that is expressed by a ZaVtof; when, by a u*OT, { * y * as well as by ^aou2; lest, by a X&G1 , i. e. let it not be that. As to the use of and 54 > , the question whether they are to be followed by the subjunctive or indicative present, depends on the degree of contingency in each individual case, 166 in the speaker or writer’s mind; e. g. wAO 1 +JL, or, instead, Z&ao*.d kfiw if I am reading to-morrow. with, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, implies the non-existence of the action or state of the verb; e. g. ^2 if you should sicken (implying that you are n f it , $ * ^ not sick now), Z*XJC9 ZACtf ti&df if you had come up (as you have not). As to the use of a , it is important to observe that, like ut in Latin, it is employed in a multitude of cases to denote the purpose, object, or result of the preceding clause, where in English and Hebrew (Nordh. § 1030) we should have the infinitive: X&&XD %Jta»a *vfth\h tell for him that he ft i ft t m t t * water the horse; 2$**3 Z^*X«# he went that he miqht see; uynASba VlioCff they drew trouble that they might find him (tried to find). Observe that it is immaterial, in this last, and many similar cases, whether we use the pres¬ ent or the imperfect subjunctive, each being alike contin¬ gent. The present would, however, be generally preferred as briefer and equally expressive, a is very often omitted after , Z*Xs, JsiAX , , uk , liL , ziL , n i> i n ii i , i i ii i iif, etc. For example, do you wish (that) you may learn f ZJL 'pbH it is necessary (that) u ° t* it, a i a ' ' you write guickly, wJSaLX Vl3 he will beg on (of) them (that) they flee. Compare the omission of a in the an¬ cient language (Hoff. § 130, 4, y ; § 149, 3, 5 ; § 134, 3, a), and also of ut in the Latin. The correspondence between the signification of verbs in that language which dispense with ut, and those in the Modern Syriac which are not followed by a , is quite striking. Sometimes a clause is interposed between a and the verb to which it refers ; e. g.: Z-aa uJL& : uJ&Za wfci Zsotoacya : Xxii uj>2a ii 7i i '« n i m ,> i m ''n i Z&**£0oa which literally reads I wish that those men that I have spoken about them be poured into prison. 167 ft %J0 for that (iva) is in general used like ft, but can only denote the purpose or object, not the result. It is not com* monly used in Koordistan, where ft supplies its place. There is the same distinction between the words ^^ft ^9du2 and ^LsoJ^ft ^ou2 that there is in Eng¬ lish between the expressions “when I pray” and “when I am praying.” The remaining particles need no illustration. and are identical in meaning, the former being used more / * in Koordistan, and the latter in Oroomiah. They corres¬ pond to the ancient >£a*hx2 and as used with the A n i future. Where several tenses of the same kind are connected by the conjunction O, if the first is preceded by the oth¬ ers may omit it. So if %2> is prefixed to the first, it is un¬ derstood with all. The same is often, but not always, true in regard to those tenses which terminate in ZjOOT ; e. g. fifths X&Gl kXf2 he was in the habit of going and preach’ » • ts"'' , - ' ing, where Zaof need not be repeated after f XfthSD . So in // / the ancient language. So in the English “I will go, and (will) call them, and (will) have a talk.” INFINITIVE. The absolute infinitive, joined with the finite verb, is used in the Modern as well as in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 133), and the Hebrew (Hordh. § 1017), to give intensity to the idea; e. g. John 9 : 9, where the ancient is ZSoft , and the modern he is very much like, he strongly resembles. Sometimes the infinitive is used in a man¬ ner different from the preceding. For example, ‘ZiaXftXX I* #7 did he not hear ? To this, the answer may be as follows : 168 X +Sl Ji*2 z li±S*!BJL hearing he heard, ,» ,> i i< // i but coming he did not come. W e have often prefixed to to this infinitive, in accordance with early usage, and indeed present usage among the mountains ; but it is not heard in Oroomiah. The infinitive with S is occasionally employed in the Mod. Syr., though the subjunctive with ft and ft Xh is gene¬ rally preferred. The following are examples of its use: wdbSto VuS there is nothing to sell; lL.1 Aii ,1 I 9 II 1 we poured hand to go, i. e. we set out; i did you come to hear ? In these examples, ft with the sub- junctive may also be employed, according to usage in Oroo¬ miah. In some parts of Koordistan, however, S is used much more than here in Oroomiah, and especially when, as in these cases, it has no object expressed after it. Thus, they say i ZJktoiX^ , but, with an object following, ‘ Vl^tobXft ^oS\2, did you come to hear preaching? In Oroomiah, in many cases, where we should expect , some other preposition is used with the infinitive. For ex- * ✓ ample, in the sentences above we may substitute Xh with equal propriety. As in the ancient lang., *to may be used before the infini- tive for the purpose of comparison (Hoff. § 134,2); but in the common usage without any ^. Thus, for VlsJj® 2a 2 Zacpa^ft ^to, in Ruth 1 : 12, we may translate ilocT ^to, or use, if we prefer, the subjunctive So too, for the clause in Gen. 11 : 8, ® ^ V ® *’ f r t . \+r ■> f . - f-e Uaftftift .to , we may write lAa .to. i ■ // , / v « _ " i \ m So we say J&ASg ^ ^to they ceased from pray¬ ing ; .Ixxl^Vitocrf ^to we finished from trouble-draw¬ ing, i. e. from being in trouble, or from taking pains; 169 ZAOAX kba A Aiio \y«^ ZA you cannot hinder me from telling. The infinitive is used in other connections without a pre¬ position ; e. g. XjOiSo ZA&** he went to bring, where in Koor- distan they would say Z^ZiaA . Here may properly be classed such cases as the following: Z^X> Z* Z*tf while not yet arriving, i. e. while the person had not yet arrived; 1 not at all seeing, the con¬ text determining who did not see. So also with suffixes : Z& jAtTf while not seeing him. The place of these may of course always be filled by the finite verb. ub&Ax AoT JSoiv, X3 they will increase in 9 I $ tutu wickedness until their perishing (Nordheimer, § 1030, 3) ; { , ) f ( 1 m' ; 2X3 f 333 Z*X3f 'pJQ before the sowing of the seed (Nordh. §1030, 4, a); i Zi-» Z** Z^OOJhaCfO 233LX are making thought (thinking) and speaking one (the same) ? (Nordh. § 1013, 1.1). So ^aaJi ZA Zaaxxsoa 2aiU* digging and watering (fields) I do not understand (Nordh. § 1013, II. 1); { ,j ; I }£ Z£a? Z*>o^3 ZixXs at the time of sun-rising (Nordh. §1030, 5 { < m 2, a); Z*i? ^2 Z^3.^ X*X there is nothing (so) bad as J ^ ' // • •> • , m , mm , committing adultery (N. § 1030, 2, b); 2»ob\ 13^3.3 nA9 -^7 i'r i i > for the purpose of making bricks (Nordh. § 1030, 6, a). Some of the above may perhaps be regarded by others as participles, the S of verbs of the first class being dropped; or simply as nouns. But it seems preferable, if etymology alone, or the analogy of the Turkish and Persian, as previ¬ ously noticed, is taken into account, to call them infinitives. However, it matters little; for what is the infinitive but a noun, expressing the abstract idea of the verb, without ref¬ erence to tense or number or person? The references above show that there is a striking similarity between these ex¬ amples and those adduced by Nordheimer to show the use of the infinitive in Hebrew. They might be farther multiplied. 22 170 PARTICIPLE. A participle, when repeated, sometimes denotes the repeti- ■ 1 » ' tion of the action, or its continuance; e. g. liOwa 2oo&&a rolling, rolling, i. e. continuing to roll. Participles are often thus used adverbially, to qualify a verb which follows; e. g. running, running, go, i. e. as fast as you can ; zk*\i zk-ka zk**^a laughing, laughing, he came, i. e. full of glee. Participles are sometimes used in the place of the infini¬ tive, as in the ancient language (Hoff. § 134, 3, b), after verbs denoting to begin; e. g. Zkk&a *^koOhX they began plucking. • tt i* 9 9 is not commonly prefixed to the participle in the Modern as in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. § 135, 5), and indeed never in Oroomiah, although we occasionally employ it thus in our books. For such expressions as wxak , 2c£za JxAk , • 99 if etc., the Mod. Syr. uses the nouns terminating in Z& ; e. g. Vila? tfisx, IcrAla . We retain, however, 1 iia oai and its plural, for want of any suitable term in the modern for hypocrite. VERB OF EXISTENCE. \+l and are both used, as in the Anc. Syr., to express the idea of possession, and that constantly; e. g. 6*1 I have, thou hast, etc., literally, there is to me, “est mihi.” When we refer to indefinite past time, Z-OC7 is to be inserted; as Zo©7 ClS there icas not to us. In order to v / i express future possession, we employ the future of the verb ZoC7 ; e. g. u* OC7 Via 2 f*Of Za5 much money will be to 171 m i J £ £ thee. So it is used for tlie conditional: Z* 607 if there n be to her, i. e. if she have. It may be mentioned in this connection that such forms as the ancient I am, it is not he, are not at ' ' > . all allowable in the modern language. Nor are *1*2 and joined with participles; as ^*X*2 ADVERBS. Adverbs in the Mod. Syr., as in the Ancient (Hoff. § 147, 2), are often repeated, like other parts of speech, to denote intensity. Examples have already been given. Care should be taken not to confound Zii**#2 used as an i* adjective, with the same word used as an adverb. Thus, J©£ wli means bring the other girl, while the expression Z&&*»2 wZ& means bring the girl i* again. Two negatives are very often used in Modern Syriac to increase the force of the negative; e. g. f i s i 1, v > i' i » ' " we saw nothing; Z«* I do not at all know ; there is none at all. This differs from ancient usage (Hoff. § 147, 4), but corresponds to that of the Turk¬ ish and the Persian. As an example of the latter take OJ-o he sees nothing. When there are several negative propositions in the same sentence, each verb should properly have its own negative; e. g. X&O Z^ they did not rise and go out. Still, if the second verb be not at all emphatic, the second may be omitted. PREPOSITIONS. The most important peculiarities of these have been noted in the Etymology. They are used very much like the cor¬ responding prepositions in the ancient language. 172 The phrases , etc., which are in common use, deserve notice. We may literally trans¬ late them: between me to myself, between thee to thyself, i. e. with¬ out any advice or help from others. Compare the ancient wCfaLhS. The modern ^3 also conforms in »' • > t ii •• ^ • • other respects to the ancient ; e. g. ancient modern between thee and him. la, how- ,i a ^ i ,i ever, in the modern lang. is more usually repeated; thus, between me and thee. See both construc- tions with *p3 in Hebrew (Nordh. § 1041,1, a, b). It may also be remarked that sometimes means including ; e. g. including all of them; 13L&2 includ¬ ing men and women. CONJUNCTIONS. In the Modern Syriac is often omitted; e. g. xxii JStx two (or) three men. So in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. § 149,1, b). So in the Turkish. On the other hand, it is often j * • a x ' > repeated at the head of successive clauses; e. g. 2*2 ^ ^ either I or you. Compare O2 . O 2 in Ancient Syriac. In the same way we repeat k&oi. LfO 2 J f I 9 t f I 9 both the king and vizir (Hoff. § 149, 2). So with which corresponds to ^02, and is more used by the people. Sometimes o is omitted; very often, indeed, in common conversation, a is also vulgarly substituted for o in such expressions as w*2a f o.*X Iwaz and they, i. e. Iwaz and his companions. PHRASES. It will be useful to learners, and not without interest to those who would compare the Modern Syriac with its cog¬ nate dialects, to give a small collection of the peculiar 173 idioms and phrases with which the language abounds. Many have indeed already been given in the examples used to illustrate the Syntax. Those which follow are noted down as they occur, without any attempt at system. xLsoXa Via his business will qo upon the ' " " » m • . , j ^ road, i. e. will prosper; u*#ao2 ukX OOCT they were looking on my road , i. e. awaiting my arrival ; Jhkja laS J^Lacu // ' > // // we gave heart for them , i. e. comforted them; Z&*d *i*d2 Vl3 6C1 I i s (' I n n he will eat sticks, i. e. be beaten; w»a32 I ate care, i. e. took t I n / . /*✓ pains, or had trouble; ocv3 2 sw2 ^a2* X*ss>a lam pouring (putting) hand to that business, i. e. I am beginning. This idiom is even used as follows: Z^aottocV^ 2b»*2 X^>ss • 5 ml '2 ' ' ' “ he poured hand to speak. ls*+2 %£& XL3 he will throw off hand from us, i. e. will withdraw countenance or support; XwJB S Zxa the head of the nest, applied to the oldest child ; ZJ*aoZS ^aS .^4 they fell to the road, i. e. they set out; Z^dl vix Z3 kX id every sheep on his own legs, i. e. every man on his own responsibility; wC70X*2.S> it arrived to his hand, i. e. it reached him; wCTOX*23 Zi^Ai it fell to his hand, at times used for what comes accidentally. Sometimes we say wS^Z^ &&L id it will not fall to my hand, i. e. I cannot (do so and so). }&xs\ xas it drew x , n much, i. e. it took much time; he is black faced, i. e. he is guilty or disgraced; he is white-faced, i. e. he is innocent; jX Com wojAxi his head is hard, >• i i ,i 7 i. e. he is obstinate; Z^OJC OCT? pJB *»c>2 **sb Z^ I can- • » XJ 5> »• not enter before that business, i. e. I cannot undertake it; y, £ £ ^3err 2ali 3 /am doing hope from you, i. e. I ex¬ ercise hope in regard to you; ocra wcrrojta ^ v • ^ •• <• # *• /ws head does not go out from that business, i. e. he does 174 not understand it, is unable to accomplisli it; u 070*3 ve* ^ L * t l 11 " , I cannot with him , i. e. cope with; X*** X*\& the fruit has arrived , i. e. is ripe; »-*0roh&ft 2A&X wSo lAftSX %sb\ii he did thus from the root of his ear, i. e. from necessity; lA u* 07 Oft 007 Azs understanding does not cut, i. e. he ft I* ' { } ^ » 1 } / ; rn does not understand; XXil oop pour peace on that man, i. e. salute him kindly; 2* bo he went out, i. e. he turned out, a drunkard ; 2*t*&3ft3 2**# *13 I strike back on Christ, i. e. I will take refuge in, I will go to for support; iA* > i. e. forgive us; 007ft tfto b Aftfl i t X± I do not break fi " V • , •• i i , // that man, i. e. I do not cower before him; i • n ' » n heart opened, i. e. we became happy; ^OJftA your heart remained, i. e. you were not hearty (in the business), or you were displeased; 2 ft.* 2 yXO it is before the hand, i. e. at hand; 3lA^ jjjpuftft i*070JB&i his breath is ridden, i. e. is quick, as of a dying man; ^Afttt* wCyo i sA his heart burned, often in the sense of compassionating another, as, my heart burned for him. So the Nestorians speak of the heart as boiling, cooling, freezing, etc. The meaning of these figures is obvious. Aft wcraftAfta his knees l> H I II stopped, i. e. he is wearied out; ffifto J JL* Of a Ad 2 rom our are 175 her foot is heavy, i. e. she is pregnant; uiOcnA it fell to my understanding, i. e. I comprehended; toaC7 VtS»X3 cook your words , i. e. speak with deliberation; %XOO S O the horse is coohed, i. e. he is hardened to heat and cold, etc.; mm J ^ ^ XvX licxx %xl these how many years, i. e. these many years ; (•" I* / ^ iLabow lx A&X, X** a few c?ays, i. e. ten days; ow yowr neck, i. e. the responsibility is on you. So the phrase “ on your head.” /iiSa ZsuJU* a seer of face, i. e. a time¬ server ; XaTxa 1^ 2aLo2 he has entered upon years , i. e. he is *' /; I 1 t } {^45 growing or has grown old; Xi* X*—X*3 they are strik¬ ing swimming, i. e. they are swimming; 2iaJ&0^ XSi^ scmc- &yd/ table, i. e. ask a blessing; ^OAOby you have gone out from your mind, i. e. as we say, you are out of your head; wCfOAOe^ ^AiOCf your under- standing do not put on his understanding, i. e. do not compare yours with his. SALUTATIONS. A few of the more common will be given below. It will be seen that some of them are rather Oriental than peculiar to the Nestorians. One who first speaks to another says peace to thee, to which the reply is ftJ&An2 Xv*X3 in peace thou hast come, or, simply, X&*X9. On taking leave, one says ; ; i < (of uncertain derivation), equivalent to good-bye. Instead of this, we also hear Xi*X3 remain in peace. At evening, a common salutation is (may) your evening (be) blessed. After a death or some calamity has befallen a house, a visitor says to the inmate 4 4 4 a X20Ufi&3 Xacr 4 j^XXa may your head be comfortable, or com¬ forted. When a man puts on a new coat, his friend says to 176 him ffiixAfl J_0 6l may it be blessed. On receiving a favor, » < { ; < { 55 one replies ZaauJQ*3 XLaoT where Z*&*®*3 seems to be ^ t , n t nearly equivalent to may you be happy or blessed. After dinner, the guest says to his host 2cO>2 may God increase you. If one enters a field, he says to the laborer VtAAJS 2 2 may God give you strength. At the commencement of a feast or a wedding, the invited person says may yoar ^eastf (or wed¬ ding) be blessed. If a host wishes to be specially polite, he says to his guest kXd the head of my eyes, you have come. If one inquires about another’s circumstan¬ ces, the reply often is yU«* ^0 from your wealth (or bounty) my condition is good. Sometimes he says “from the bounty of God and yours.” An inferior, when asked by a superior about his health, often gives no reply except your servant. A person wishing to abase himself before another, says ^ Av a i ft .0 may 1 be your sacrifice. One, on seeing something wonderful, often exclaims ic&j\ %~Q JUt'il glory to God! When he wishes ' " .5 5 5 to commend another, he says may your soul be sound, equivalent to bravo. POETRY. We have made some attempts, and, as we think, not un¬ successfully, to introduce sacred poetry into the Modern Syriac. The language is sufficiently flexible and sufficiently imaginative, and we have already quite a collection of hymns, both original and translated. The following is a translation of Cowper’s beautiful hymn, “ There is a foun¬ tain filled with blood,” which seems to have lost none of its beauty in this strange dress. 177 -2*XPO^»0 t n 2 : ted te Vu2 zifcX : 1^^3 lAtXlf t 5 ?? $L.V** t M 2^as iacr *so / ’ 'a a “/ t 1 H .iLiflSS C7oJkS A.3 : l^iu* 1 l*S* uoA I* I* I I 1- Z %Lm %a6i 2&*3*i* X3 // t a t 2^**XD ‘^Loo.XJucftS #• |l ▼ 3r / JSr f / ; /> .2*30 2^00T UIQ&ZOO 7/ ,i ,i 2. * O- f i z > »* *xJ» 2&2 j£o2 wO lOmtb Aial ' // / > I “ ^ » :2ic^0 2* • »• * kMjQO u>C7&»*0 ^2 2L*2 -*v* * ^ *? 0 m : 4^0390 : 2cv^20 202^ 2^ : £*V~ 23 2^0X0 : 5^303X3 2^ 2&O39OT0 u*2 .. I ,! / { ? ? .2^ 23CVa3 u\0 I* * ■ 23 178 07 :^o*A 3L3 b'auft laoo* 007 ? :^LoofluJ5x3 w3ov? it • • z^AuJxk* liA A Aooj I H “ II I l > e JSbuka ibk JsVuL Via 9 9 0 // // :lAo V \3 MJtt&k o // # :2&af uai^Zi-2 ' i a i i .lAx Ao :ia 2 A07 i» * » John Chapter VII. As some who may read the preceding grammar will have no access to our books, it is not out of place to transcribe a few verses from the seventh Chapter of John. They are a simple and familiar translation of the corresponding verses in the Ancient Syriac. Oikxo = AAik. oik, loo7 2oL*3 1*2? 0*\3 i i " n i' I m tsuua z ?oov oi^ 2V0A loo7 1*00*3 A? m 1 1 n i> |i .u*07O^A»flA 0007 uk*£*3 X*?OOV? 9^0 9 9 fl" 9 * m A* A / •» x . 2 ffl * A / . / y/ . / 1 ■ % jOO*&ZO .V?O0V? 10?90? 2?lx 1007 1*30030 // (• < I* /t, I* « I 2 fo :lote A uA : A k*uidtiAio*Jl t i " 1 ' • 1 1 1 „*XlOu 203 ^ 3 ? 1*IA4 :oooA 1*00030 lO.aA.3 wOiO® 00 X? 1**2 YlA? A3JU :^Ow 2 *ii 3 1*2 . 2 aAxl 3 1007 ? cA 2 3 « I* / u 179 oodr ^ ucyoViAio^i w£o2» idub ^oaA, or Act Mao Z&3f : >6 >ax.» uA2 x3o"2 .i^j x& j>3 Z&3ooo 7 o III a I t II II I t > II I zixx i i a *^AOwO Zv3f ZL2 AL^9 zA- zA zl?2 m l“ ml I ” « |» I 1 I mA2 ZX-*2 z OkiiuOzA Z3 xAx 2k*zb zA .zA^ 200007 f I II I m II -P l* i' » ViA3 J^oaoUO hOu Z3cp3 Zi2a idub : Zsjb Zx ♦ I * ' H m i «• I* * ' ^ 1 V— « ./ /- •* »* 5 1 4 +ABA&2 *oiU*2 .Z^ ZXa 3 wcro.L-AS? *070*0 ** » l' » » // f » kSLSUO : 2oZA 2or2xA ^ttU»2 zA Z-a2 Z&2 .2oZX 2ctf2xA 1, zAx£o 2X392 z &2 .Z39A9oVl zAJ zA zAor uwSl ^3»a »• // |I // |i » ll l »' I* » » a » : 2oZAA uoroVixCio—Z ^Aajod xx zL2 .zAAA, oA, ^ l* # iiiii .ZAxApo » # wx39Zo : 2aZAa woro&d ooor i^JkA Z-aoou ZL2 Z- » i* » *’»•"/ * oA,Z007^2 Z30 AxAiLo ‘ 0*07 ZA* Zx*2 ooor £U » a i< * U*£ r 0 0007 mX392o^ 20 XXP : * 070*0 VuX3 Zxax ZA^ lA> o>A»«.y> zA 2 : zA : 0007 *x©2 Ux~Zo : zA* *• 1'^ 1 1 a 1 ,1 ,1 ,< * 070*0 Vias Zodr 'pfBQGi xkil zA Z »-»2 .zk^VA A* 1 i m 1 a 1 1 a ™ » .Z*OOOPO J$AoOf w39 :2xAxZ3 tioZL zAiUCO: 2aZAo Z&>A*a ZAAjS zAoor xA zL*2 x* < 1 1 « *»•"*• m * 1 11 1< “ 1 1 ZxAoJk 0007 ZxJ^SO .Z 007 *AAbo ZAiwcA op l‘ T, I II ll I :Z3*i\x 2072 ZA^ Z*Ax*a ^x 2 a : *x3oio :Z-oodp ■ I* / # / a I (' " I :2xzoZo JAox* ZliooA. t Z^uAJ zAJ zA xA o* i* « 1 i> a 1 %. 1 1* (• * 1 A 9 .Ziooxxo 0070 zA 2 : ZA~ zA usAAx- 9 ^ V i'///* * /# / # “ ,' r' » 1 * 180 2X>XiX ZX * fc*C7CL*f ft XSXXft CfU^ XXft£A3ft « » i» # *• inn •* .ueL* X*oo£»c 7 k *&SL> %!>fa ao X *2 J> ia&i &> '// |i / it m ' « ' # i* # ' • // ihJBU* z'ptzovi u*©reJLL#a X^fft ^9ft *£ **- : eraftoxa aera ZxfiU X*±*aa 0*07 xL *2 : X*£*a Xx I* n 1 m //)•/“ 1 *• » i* Xx6 X^ -ViA wcro.xS oJk. tHoSj* : X^ ‘V* Xx*2 zSo ‘Xj® xax* ^Axctfia X^ae%* Xxoxoa ' a |* // // 1 * I xi&*ia wftoxxil .Xttoxx* ^ 2xil*a <% I n 1 m |i ’ // m n ' X^Owd i u»ax>Zx Xx&x i uS»S^ifcx\ Xx Sail, Uaooi^ ‘ jki ^da uddo : <«aA 1 i 1 nii, ' 1 * n »• 1 n 1 ' i %£*& ^oxaioo : tAspttt Xwk& X^ : w& 2aXoZa » in n n i* // ^xafeu? ftzsf?** X£&» Icri'iz Vuxa .xaJkxx ^Vu aa * |* // // j* I " I |» 7 , I ►»ft xSl: X&2 X&Ato itsucb Xacr X^ : iLoVuoJS .Xxixs&^iflu® ^oVuxail xx ^xao .xS*L yoska *^x xir : x&>x*a Viiejo Zx^stk *su§ Xxaxa *Xx / » / m 1 m n 1 ' n Ax sXx-xsaa XJBoxoi X^xx >xJ& X^a (• < r' 1 1 «• 1 * n n & t %sx% l»a*3 i»Vaa«>tt3 3*4*3 e£d» .oVu / » // » / 1 * * wBc* oLa XL.2 :x3ia i&ikaxa xiixa ^^.00 xx » ' < 1 i> 1 *11 m n 1 .^wos APPENDIX. A A It is stated on page 45 of this Grammar, that some effort had been made to note down as many verbal roots in com¬ mon nse as possible, but that most, if not every one, of the lists of verbs given were probably still incomplete. During the past year more than a hundred new verbs have been collected, which will be found classified below. Many of these verbs we have hitherto been unacquainted with, and ever} 7- succeeding year will of course add to their number. We may thus hope to approximate in time to a complete catalogue of the verbal roots in the Modern Syriac. It would be a very interesting and profitable study to trace the roots already written down to their primitive source, so far as it can be ascertained, and I had intended to make such an examination. But want of leisure com¬ pels me to relinquish the idea. This I regret the less, as every oriental scholar has the means of making the examin¬ ation for himself. No doubt many of these roots have been employed in daily intercourse from remote antiquity, and yet, as intimated on page 8, may perhaps now be written down for the first time. An opportunity has been afforded me of reading eighty- eight printed pages of the Grammar and furnishing for them a table of errata. The printing is beautiful, and much ad¬ mired by us, as well as by the Nestorians, and the errors of the press are in general unimportant. The wonder is that, under the circumstances, they are not of a more serious character. It should have been stated in the “Introductory Re¬ marks,” that the matrices for the Syriac types with which the Grammar is printed were prepared by Mr. Breath, one of my missionary associates, who has from the first superin¬ tended our press, and cut with great taste and skill all our fonts of Syriac type, except in a single instance.* D. T. Stoddard. Oroomiah, Persia, May, 1855. * See note at the end of this Appendix. • comm, of publ. 23 a VOL. V. 180b VERBS INFLECTED LIKE fc£9bS, 1ST CLASS. to come to nought, fade J away (as stars before the 11 7 “** sun). ■ , to reduce to pulp, become ; pulp. $ to reduce to ruins, to be- \ come a ruin, to reduce to pulp. See &&S3 to abrade. & ^ $ to cave in, as a roof of earth (also causative). *■** i^OkA^to split (tr. and intr.). ■2> » ©kl, to starve (intr.). // to stop one’s mouth (intr.), \ to become silent. to cement(cracked vessels). " // to floor (an antagonist). A It 7 , It 7 , " r. ( equivalent to ( See p. 81. to invert. ( equivalent to t. I See p. 82. iStojsEW . // I 4 $ to be courageous, to as- l sail. 1 & 2. to be quiet, to be faint, to prick, to pierce. to make to squint, to squint. ^ to slip out of place, to dis- ^ charge a gun, to tear. to suck in (as a leech), to blow. to split (tr. and intr.). to fade, bleach (intr.). to stick, adhere. Like l&k, p. 71. VERBS INFLECTED LIKE 2ND CLASS. // 9 t _to hiccup. equivalent to t See p. 80. 'p\pi to be still. It* I U I Hi, i to touch, feel of. equivalent to u See p. 82. " ' , C to make damp, be damp. ' // 90 oGG .V-’ to incite (to a contest). to saddle. ' ( equi valent to &AW&. See *“* ( n fil "* & 4--5 " ,z ’ 1 * • to go on foot. " r . i it I to reprove, to be courageous. J to forsake (as a bird for- „ l sakes her nest). S 1° make clean, become » , \ clean. / 130 c VERBS INFLECTED LIKE ai &, p. 64. n x ifj% & to fill to the brim. to dissolve (tr.). 7, // to perceive (by the eye). to stand on end (as the hair). // ” ' n kSf%£i \ snap, make to roll (as to be or become green. ) n marh fi . ° a, marble). "M p. 51. d&%2b ^ t° thrust. See kSSSuo+X, to roost. j to repent. See , // c p. 59. LIKE , p. 66. to go out, be extinguished. VERBS INFLECTED LIKE J . p. 69. <• , . . , , . . ^kSto be rooted out; when of to indent, make a depression. ^£,£2 ’ i< i* l sr to castrate. X& to groan. (* / 2 nd class, to root out. to bound back (as a ball). ? ^ t to stray, run away. »• > r VERBS INFLECTED LIKE p. 80. n t 1 to benumb, be benumbed. to be pleased or gratified. ‘TP* !/ t // / Ji 07 to button, be buttoned. // / to chew. // f ^ to fix immovably (as a „ , l nail), to be fixed. . . , C to make small, to make , w1u1 v„, 1w .m round, to become small \ See p. 81. " ' ( or round. ' ^ to cause to cave in (as to bark, to croak. „ Yy a mine), to cave m. to make or become muddy. ' // t t ' 5 equivalent to kXOAXOQ. to trample. to embolden, be bold. Van 2 5 to tear ( c l°th) (tr. and intr.). it ! 5 t0 incite 5 t0 mor tify (as „ / <> a diseased part). » to make to hesitate, to to laugh immoderately. . 7 at hesitate. JtSbiO? ! 180d hj&SkiDf to dazzle. 7 , " 7 , // ^ to put out (leaves); to l break out (as sores). to spill (tr. and intr.). ( to dig into, to pick the l teeth. ^ to mix up in confusion, ^ be mixed. ( to tick (as a clock), to ring ■< (as metals). Also used ( in a causative sense. , r to mix up, etc., as f // / to beat with a switch, to smart (as if from such a blow). to pant from heat, to sob. S7* "7* I7, I to be curved or bent. to clank (as chains). //* !%, IT, to make a hedge. to tickle, be tickled. til&A 5 to interweave, be inter- «.< ' // l woven. to lick up. ^ to loosen (as a pin in its l socket) (tr. and intr.). to trample down, to make firm, confirm, to gather (as pus). n i S to reconcile, unite in *** „ , \ friendship. I i.aaa.2^© to be a wanderer. to piick up (the ears). ^ n t i *4*3**& to make to pant, to pant. O t ^ to make damp, become \ damp. to graft, to be or become l grafted. ( to dam up and swell (as \ water). ^ to breathe hard (through ^ the nose). to wedge in. be wedged, to snort to be or become consoli¬ dated. 1 to pave (with stone, etc.). j to cause fair weather, to l become fair. ve i U g to have darting pains. ' ( to place upright, to stand > I upright. to cackle. U m j to arch, bow down (with /7“v / l age) (tr. and intr.). j to reduce to powder, be 1 reduced to powder. to have colic. to heave with emotion. to shiver with cold. hM-nfrT iT ^ t0 ma ^ e musty, become \ . ( musty. ( to beautify, become ( beautiful. 2bX to beat with a switch. " I VERBS INFLECTED LIKE %IQ &, p. 86. i* = Seep. 86. LBO .O to howl, as ^@9 > P* 86. [JVofe.—To Mr. Stoddard’s acknowledgments to Mr. Breath, with which we are happy to unite our own, it is proper to add a word of re¬ cognition of the labor and skill bestowed by Mr. S. S. Kilburn, type- cutter attached to the Type and Stereotype Foundry of Messrs. J. K. Rogers & Co., Boston, in recutting several of the letters and points, and making some important additions to the font. COMM. OF PUBL.] 180f CORRECTIONS. Page 5, lines 21-22, for modern language, read written character. ll 7, “ 6, for Scripture Tracts u Scripture Facts. ll 12, “ 15, “ pp. 10, 11 u p. 13, Note 3. ll it a !7, “ n a “ last line, “ 2 Shfil 9 ll • 9 u 13, line 1, “ 9 9 ll Xi®Xl. 9 9 it 17, “ 9, “ X&*3 t it xb,jJs. 9 a u it 13, « 2aa^ ll 1 . • / a 18, “ 8, “ ll ycL&JB . it a u 15, « XlhoM • it ll ar it u 21, “ i, « xL ll w. a 23, “ 14, “ 2^a&2 ll 2^1&2 . t i ✓ 24, lines 20-21, for what to me, ll what may be, etc. it “ line 23, place a period after what. u u u 28, for that may, r ead that may be. u 25, “ 6, “ ^ ti a ll ll io, “ cy tl ©7 . u 27, “ n, “ ll ti 29, “ 24, “ XLkXs ll u 32, “ 12, “ weta ll weta. u 35, “ 3,4, “ ZSat&S, ic&Aa // 99 read it it it 39, “ 17, “ t*&2 reac? 9 *>*£2. 9 * The vowel — should never be placed on final 2, and wherever printed thus in the Grammar, it must be understood to be a slip, and the _i_ must be placed on the preceding consonant. 180g Page 30, line 22, for coming before read coming upon. (( 48, tt 19, “ “ a * a u 49, a 20, “ kX%& , p. 63, “ // p. 66. tt 50, tt 5, “ to string, as peppers, read to sting (as pepper does the mouth). tt 54, tt 25, “ may replied, read may be replied. tt 55, tt 16, “ tt tt tt 22, erase the comma after as well as —. tt 58, tt 15, for read tt 61, tt 15, “ if “ // 6- »• tt 63, tt 20, “ « tt 64, tt 19, “ r tt tt <( tt near the bottom , q/2er insert to be worth. // ■ // ^ a 67, line 1» for read // it tt 75, tt 7, “ // tt tt tt 16, “ tt teia. tt 76, near the middle, for read . tt 78, line 3, for read • i. / T, tt tt tt 7, “ 'i90^ “ « / > / a 79, tt 26, “ it ^0^900 1. it i tt 81, tt 18, “ x a i m . ' .33#. X it t it tt ' T, m ' last line but one, for read . tt 82, line 1 6, /or -V// 9 a 83, tt 3, “ ^ /y / a tt tt 20, “ £< // t // i * In a number of cases S appears without its point, it having been broken off, probably, in printing. This, however, is of little consequence, unless it lead to a confusion of d and ) . The former seems always to have its point. 180 h Page 84, line 6, for 9.XV.A. // t read b,5£lk. n / a 85, “ 22, V . BrV ICMv I* 1 •* » it CX QO 4, U ,1 > u (< it u u 11, a 1* t- 1 a n ^ t u “ last line a , u it “ at the bottom, r " add to the list of verbs : 2# a? to howl. *)S i to howl; also, as used in Koordistan, ,, (to glitter. “ 88, first line, for read . “ “ line 17, “ The future, “ The 1st pers. future. DATE DUE GAYLORD #3523PI Printed in USA I - h 4 > } * - f t / P> « • - i iHi;