^^ Stem i^c feifirati? of (J)rofe66or ^ifftam ^cnxT^ &xun t^e feifitari? of (princeton C^eofogicaf ^emindrg I1 "I k. ^ ■i «#^ ^> -k5 1 ^p ■r>t« M m ■ ILLUSTRATIONS '"'^ * -MAY 27 ictfi.; BIBLICAL LITERATURE, EXHIBITING THE HISTORY AND" FATE OF THE FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT CENTURY; INCLUDING BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF TRANSLATORS, AND OTHER EMINENT BIBLICAL SCHOLARS. / .. ^ BY THE REV. JAMES TOWNLEY, Author of '•'■Biblical Anecdotes.''' VOL. II. LONDON PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1821 Crompton, Printer, Hury, Lancashire. Ww^lraliOM^^ OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. PART SECOJVD COJ>>rTINUED. CHAPTER XII. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. State of Society. Council of Vienne. Libraries. Fi^ench Ferslon. Raoul de Presles. Jean de Flgnay. Men- dlcant Friars. Alcholas de Lyra. Petriis Bercho- rlus. Petrarch. Germany, Swedish Version. St. Bridget. Polish Version. Hedwlge. Danish Ver- slo7:i. Learned Greeks. Persian Gospels. Irish New Testament. Richard Fltzralph. Richard de Bury. Scripture Paintings. Old English Versions. John de Trevlsa. IVicllf'. THE state of society at the commencement of the fourteenth century, was peculiarly unfavourable to the cultivation of Sacred literature, and the study of the Scriptures. Pride and luxury reigned among all or- ders of the clergy, and induced universal ignorance and profligacy. Their vices were the subject of satire in every country in Europe. In Italy^ Petrarch exposed the de- pravity of the papal court : and in England, Chaucer satirized, with equal severity, the corruptions of both laity and clergy. Of Avignon, the residence of the Roman pontiff, Petrarch writes in an epistle to a friend, "In this city there is no piety, no reverence or fear of God, no faith or charity, nothing that is holy, just, equitable, or hu- mane. Why should I speak of truth, where not only the houses, palaces^ courts^ churcheS; and the thrones of popes Vol. II. A *J BIBLICAL LITERATURE, and cardinals, but the very earth and air, seem to teem with lies. A future state, heaven, hell, and judgment, are openly turned into ridicule, as childish fables. Good men have of late been treated with so much contempt and scorn, that there is not one left amongst them to be an object of their laughter."* The poems of Chaucer abound with invectives against the vices of the clergy, particularly the Plowman's Tale, in which he charges them with ignorance, cruelty, cove- tousness, simony, vanity, pride, ambition, drunkenness, gluttony, and lewdness: an example or two will suffi- ciently discover the tenor of the poem. ''Such as can nat ysay ther crede, With prayer shul be made prelates; Nother canne thei the gospell rede, Such shul now weldin hie estates," ****** ''They use horedome and harlottrle. And covetisc, and pompe, and pride, And slothe, and wrathe, and eke envie, And sewine sinne by every side. ****** As Goddes godenes no man tell might, Ne write, ne speke, ne think in thought. So ther falshed, and ther unright, Maie no man tell that ere God wrought." 2 Wiclif, who wrote about the same time, says, there were "many unable curates that kunnen not the Ten Commandments, ne read their Sauter, ne understond a verse of it."^ Edward III. king of England, addressed a strong remonstrance to the pope, against his encroach- ments, in which he represented that "the encouragements of religion were bestowed upon unqualified, mercenary fo- reigners, who neither resided in the country, nor understood its language ; by which means the ends of the priesthood were not answered, his own subjects were discouraged from prosecuting their studies, the treasures of the king- (1) Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, VIII. p. 361. (2J Chaucer's Works, by Urry, pp. 179.— 189, fol. (3) Lewis's Hist, of the Life, &Cj of John WicUffe, D. D. p. 38. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. ti dom were carried off by strangers, and the jurisdiction of its. courts baffled by constant appeals to a foreign autho- rity, «^c."* Lewis Beaumont, bishop of Durham, was one instance, among many, of the necessity of Edward s remonstrance. He was a veiy lame and illiterate French nobleman, so incapable of reading and spelling, that he could not, although he had studied them, read over the bulls announced to the people at his consecration. At the word ^'Metropoliticce^' he paused, tried in vain to re- peat it, and at last said, "Soit pour dit!"^ Then he csime to '* Li yEnigmate,'' this puzzled him again; ''Par St. Louis," said he, "il n est pas courtois qui a escrit cette parole ici."' -f At this period, robbery was the reigning vice in al! the nations of Europe ; and the robbers, protected by the barons, who shared their booty, plundered all who came in their way, without distinction. A troop of these plun- derers, commanded by Gilbert Middleton, and Walter Selby, assaulted two cardinals, who were escorted by our illiterate prelate, and his brother Lord Beaumont, attend- ed by a numerous retinue of gentlemen and servants, near Darlington. The cardinals they robbed of their money and effects, and then permitted them to proceed on their journey ; but carried the bishop and his brother, the one to the castle of Morpeth, and the other to the castle of Mitford, and detained them till they had paid certain sums, as ransoms. The same unfortunate prelate had his palace afterwards plundered even to the bare walls, by Sir Joselin Deinville.® Injurious as such a state of society must necessarily have been to the promotion of religion and learning, vari- (4) Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, VIII. p. 55. * ''Suppose that said." + *'By St. LquisI It could be no Gentleman whonvrote tliis staiT." (5) Andrews' Hist, of Great Britain, f. p. 425. Loud. 1794^ 4to, (6) Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, VIII. p. 386, Andrews' Hist, of Great Britain, ut sup^ 4 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, ous instances occurred, which proved that in an age of strife, and ignorance, and depravity, there were, never- theless, some who duly appreciated the Sacred Writings, and were convinced of the advantages resulting from the study of the Oriental languages. In 1311, the Council of Vienne passed a decree, directing that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic languages, together with the Greek tongue, should be taught in the college of Rome, and in the universities of Paris, Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca. Schools or academies wxre also erected at Cologne, Or- leans, Cahors, Perusia, Florence, and Pisa; and opulent persons founded, and amply endowed, particular colleges in the public universities, in which, beside the monks, young men of narrow circumstances were educated in all the branches of literature. Libraries were also collected, some of which were successively augmented by the gene- rous patrons of literature, and became eminent for the number and value of the books which they contained.^ Sir Richard Whittington built the library of the Grey Friars, now called Christ's Hospital, in London, which was one hundred and twenty-nine feet long, and twelve broad, (Pennant says thirty-one) with twenty-eight desks, and eight double settles of wainscot; and was also ceiled v/ith wainscot. In three years it was filled with books to the value of ^556 ; of which Sir Richard contributed ^400, and Dr. Thomas Winchelsey, a fi-iar, supplied the rest. About the year 1430, one hundred marks were paid for transcribing Nicholas de Lyra's Commentary on the Bible, in 2 vols, to be chained in this library. Leland (Script. Brit, p. 441. et Collectan. iii. p. 52,) relates, that Thomas Walden, a learned Carmelite friar, who went by order of Henry V. to the council of Constance, and died approved in 1430, bequeathed to the same library as many MSS. of authors, written in capital-roman characters, as (7) Fabricy, Titres Primitifs, II. p. 150, Mosheim's Eccles« Hist. III. p. 305*' FOURTEENTH CENTUftY. 5 were then estimated at more than two thousand pieces of gold ; and adds, that this library, even in his time, ex- ceeded all others in London, for multitude of books, and antiquity of copies.® About the year 1320, Thomas Cobham, bishop of Wor- cester, began to make preparations for a library at Oxford, but dying soon after, little progress was made in the work, until 1367, when his books were deposited in it, and the scholars permitted to consult them on certain conditions, A dispute arising between the university and Oriel College, it was not finally completed till about the year 1411. It appears to have been the first Public Libra- ry in that university. It was at first called Cobham s Library, but in 1480, the books were added to Duke Humphrey's collection ;' of which some account will be found in the succeeding chapter. Another public library was established at Oxford, in Durham (now Trinity) College, by Richard of Bury, or Richard AuNGERViLLE, bishop of Durham, in the time of Edward III. who bequeathed his books to the students of this college. According to the practice of those times, these books were preserved in chests, till the year 1370, when Thomas Hatfield, who succeeded Richard of Bury in the see of Durham, built the library.'^ In France, Charles V. might justly be considered as the founder of the King's Library, now deemed one of the finest in Europe. This prince, who was fond of read- ing, and to whom a book was an acceptable present, commenced his library with twenty vohunes, left him a^ a royal legacy by his father!* These he afterwards aug- (8J Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, I. pp. 291. 292. Pennant's Account of London, p. 198, Lond. 1791, 4to. (9) Chalmer's Hist, of the Colleges, &c. attached to the University of Oxford, II. p. 458. Oxford, 1810, 8vo. (10) Ibid, ut sup, * In the British Museum there is a beautiful MS. on vellum, of a French translation of the Bible, which was found in the tent of Ring John, father of Charles V. after the battle of Foictiers, iu which he had b BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ merited to nine hundred, '^a very large number for a time when the typographical art was not invented." They con- sisted of books of devotion^ astrology, physic, law, his- tory, and romance; a very few ancient authors of the classic ages, amongst which there was not a single copy of Cicero's works ; of the Latin poets only Ovid, Lucan, and Boetius. To these were added some French transla- tions of the Bible, of Augustin's City of God, of Livy, of Valerius Maximus, 8^c, Many of the volumes were most superbly illuminated by John of Bruges, the best artist in miniatures of that time. The whole were depo- posited in three chambers, in one of the towers of the Louvre, from thence called La Toure de la Libraire, the Tower of the Library. The rooms designed for their reception, were, on this occasion^ wainscotted with Irish oak, and ceiled with cypress curiously carved. The win- dows were of painted glass, fenced with iron bars and copper wire. The English became masters of Paris in 1425, and the Duke of Bedford, regent of France, sent into England the principal part of the books, valued at two thousand two hundred and twenty-three livres." A saying related of Charles, deserves to be remembered: Some persons having complained of the respect he shewed to men of letters, who were then called clerks; he replied, "Clerks cannot be too much cherished; for, so long as we honour learning, this kingdom will continue to pros- per ; but, when we begin to despise it, the French monar- chy will decline." ^^ A new and more accurate translation of the Bible into French, was also undertaken by order of the same prince. The versions prior to that period had generally been been taken prisoner by Edward, the Black Prince. Wartori's History of English Poetry^ III, p. 204. (11) Henault's Chronological Abridgment of the Hist, of FrancCj tran- slated by Nugent, I. sub ann. 1380. p. 268, Warton's Hist, of Engligh Poetryj I. Diss. 2. (12) Henaalt. ut sup^ FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 7 made from Comestor s Historia Scholastica, the chief of which was by Guiars cles MouUns, canon, and after- wards dean, of St. Peter of Air, begun in June^: 1291, and completed in February 1294. King John had also enjoin- ed John de Sy to translate the Scriptures into French, and to add an Exposition of them, but he seems to have completed only Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Five Boohs of Solomon, Charles, therefore, with that wisdom which characterised his reign, formed the design of a new trans- lation of the Sacred Scriptures. Christina de Pisan, =^ a female poet and historian, patronised and pensioned by that prince, informs us that he "was fond of books, and by his liberality procured translations of the best authors into French ; especially the Bible, which he caused to be translated in a threefold manner, first the Text itself; then the Text accompanied with a Gloss; and lastly an Allegorical Exposition ^ ^^ This version has frequently been attributed to Nicolas Oresme, bishop of Lisieux, in Normandy, who died in 1382. Francis Grude, Sieur de la Croix du Maine, is the earliest writer who speaks of Oresme as the person de- puted by the king of France to translate the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue. In his "Bibliotheque des Auteurs <^c." printed at Paris in 1584, fol. he affirms "II a traduit la Bible de Latin en Frangois;" He trans- lated the Bible out of Latin into French. Le Long has however proved that Raoul de Presles, and not N. * In the British Museum, among the Harleian MSS. No. 4431, there is a large volume, containing part of the works of this celebrated female. It is a velluna MS. written in a small Gothic letter, in double columns. On the recto of the first leaf, in a large hand, is the following autograph : Henri/, Duke of Neu: castle his booke, 1676. The illuminations are by various hands : a beautiful sketch of a portion of the principal one is copied in Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron^ p, cxxxv, which repre- sents the authoress presenting her book to the queen of France. About the period of the composition of her poems, or Balades, the Duke de Berry gave her not less than 200 crowns for a set of them. See Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron^ I. p. cxxxiv. (13) Le LoDgj Biblioth. Sacra. I. cap, iv. pp. 321. 324. Paris, fol. 8 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Oresme^ was the author of this translation ; and accounts for the error which has been so generally adopted^ by sup- posing that La Croix du Maine misunderstood a passage in the Recueil General des Rots, et des affaires de France jusqii a Louis XIIL by Jean du Tillet, bishop of Meaux, in which he says, "Nicolas Oresme, a learned man, whose council and advice was particularly followed by King Charles V. translated the works of Aristotle and Cicero, and many others out of Latin into French. For the king greatly loved and admired letters and literary men. He also commanded the holy books of the Bible to be diligently and truly translated, S^cr But though Bishop Oresme, and the Bible, ai*e both mentioned by Du Tillet, he does not speak of Oresme as the translator.^' On the other hand, there is indubitable evidence that Raoul de Presles engaged in a translation of the Scrip- tures, at the request of the king ; since in a beautiful illu- minated copy upon vellum, in folio, of an old French trans- lation, we meet with the following Prologue, or Preface. 'To the most excellent and mighty Prince Charles V. 'king of France; I Raoul de Praelle, your unworthy 'servant and subject : "When my most dread and sovereign Lord directed me to translate the Bible into French, all that I could do, Avas to deliberate whether I ought to undertake it, or de- cline it. On the one hand, I considered the greatness of the work, and my own slender ability ; and on the other, that there was nothing I either could or ought to refuse you. I, moreover, regarded my age, and my unfortunate disor- der, and the different works I had already composed, namely, the Translation and Exposition of St. Augustin s City of God, the book entitled Compendium Historiale^ another called Musa, and various Epistles. But whilst I debated with myself, I recollected having read, that hu- man nature, (like iron which is valuable when in use^ (14) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I. cap.iy. p. 320. • FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 9 but if disused rusts and spoils,) sustains less injury in every way by labour, than by indolence, I judged it bet- ter to be exhausted by exercise, than consumed by idleness; for according to the Wise Man's saying, leisure without letters is death. Let me therefore entreat your Majesty graciously to accept my labours. As to the method to be pursued in my translation ; where I conceive abridgment is necessary, I shall give the substance of the whole ; and where I perceive a repetition of the same thing as in Chronicles, and the Second Book of Esdras, and else- where, I shall retrench ; I shall also leave out many names of persons and places where they would be unedifying S-nd wearisome to the reader ; and where they would scarcely know whether they were proper names of per- sons, or of their fathers, or ancestors, or of towns or cities; acting in these things according to your command. I intend also to prefix prefaces, explaining what is necessary respecting the design of the books ; and summaries at the beginning of the chapters, that the sense of them may be more easily comprehended ; and to distinguish what is not in the Text, by a line drawn underneath ; for without explanations the Text is in many places exceed- ing obscure, particularly to the laity, who are not versed in Holy Scripture. And let nothing that I have under- taken be imputed to pride, but let your command be my apology in all and every thing." "Finally, I intreat all those v/ho may see this work, when they discover inaccuracies, to bear with my defects; and whatever they find in it that is excellent, to ascribe it to our Lord, from whom cometh evey thing that is good ; and farther, in every thing relative to faith, I sub- mit to what is dictated by the (true) faith and to what is held by our holy-motlier Church."^* From this very rare translation, Le Long, in his "Bib- liotheca Sacra, has given considerable extracts.^^ Neither (15) Le Long, ubi sup. (16) Ibid. p. 319, 10 of the two manuscripts, from which the extracts are made, is perfect ; both of them terminating" Avith the Proverbs of Solomon ; and the first leaf of the former, which originally belonged to John Duke of Berry, brother to King Charles V. having been torn away, probably for tlie sake of its ornamental decorations ; and the latter being v/ithont the Prologue. Raoul de Presles, the translator, was the illegimate son of Raoul de Presles, secretary to Philip the FaiVy to Louis X. and Philip V. and who founded the college at Paris which bears his name. He embraced the profession of the law, and became celebrated for his various and learn- ed writings. One of his earliest works was that which was denominated JMusa, written in Latin, and dedicated to Charles V. It is an ingenious fiction, on the means of remedying the disorders of the age. About the year 1369, he composed a Dissertation on the Oriflame, or Royal Banner of the Kings of France, in their wars against the infidels.* In this discourse the author dwells less upon the ancient banner, than upon the necessity of imploring aid from Heaven, when engaged in warfare. About the year 1379, he was employed by the king to translate Au- gustin's City of God, into French, and had a considerable * The Orifiame was anciently the chief standard borne by the kings of France, in war. Our author thus defines it : "L' Oriflambe, c' est a savoir, un glaive (uiie lance) tout dore, ou est attachee banniere ver- meille ;" "The Orifiame is a gilded iance, to which a vermilion, or flame coloured banner, is affixed ;" hence the appellation Auri-flamma, from whence the corrupted terms On fiambe, Olifiamma^ &c. It was originally the ensign of the abi^ey of St. Denis, and borne by the counts of Vexin, who held that earldom as a fief of this abbey, with the obligation of lead- ing its vassals to war, and defending its lands and privileges, under the title of Advocate. In peaceable times it was placed on the tomb of St. Denis, but when called for, to be borne to battle, it was delivered into the hands of the advocate, by the abbot himself, who accompanied the delivery of the standard, with certain prayers. Vexin being ia process of time united to the crown, the sovereign became the advocate of St. Denis, the standard was accounted sacred, and borne as the royal banner. The ancient cry of war, by the French in battle, Mont joie St. De?2i/s^ took its rise from this circumstance* See Du Cange, Gloss. Lat. v. Aurifiamma* Advocati Eccksiarum, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 11 pension allowed him for that purpose. This translation he commenced in 1371, and completed, with the addition of a Commentary upon it, in 1375. He also translated into French, a book entitled the Pacific King, supposed to be an hfstorical and political work, probably the same as the Compendium Historiale ; another of his works was an Abridgment of the Somnium Vij^darii, or Dream of the Orchard, containing a dispute betwixt the ecclesi- astics, the temporalists, and seculars. But his greatest and most important undertaking was the Translation of the Holy Scriptures, out of the Latin into the French, which appeared about A. D. 1377. La Croix du Maine saw a MS. containing De Presles' translations of the City of God, and of the Compendium Historiale, in two large volumes, on parchment. The former of these, accompanied with the Commentary upon it, was printed at Abbeville, in 1486, in 2 vols, fol. and again at Paris, in 2 vols. fol. The Abbeville edition is ex- tremely scarce, and is said to have been the first book printed in that city, though Marchand cites the Somme Rurale of Bouthellier, which was printed in the same year, as the first work which proceeded from the press at Abbeville. La Croix du Maine likewise notices a MS, copy of the Abridgment of' the Somnium Viridarii, written on vellum, and preserved in the library of the President Fauchet, at Paris. Of the Translation of the Bible, the indefatigable bibliographer Le Long never had seen more than the two copies from which his extracts are taken. Raoul de Presles was made Attorney General, in 1371 ; and Master of Requests, 1373 ; He died in 1382, aged about 68 years." The dissemination of the Scriptures appears to have been a favourite object with Charles V. of France. For (17) R. de Juvigny. Les Bibliotheques Francoises de La Croix du Maine, etdeDu Verdier, &c. II. pp, 347-^350, Paris^ 1772, 4to. 12 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^^ before Raoul de Presles was engaged in the new transla- tion of the Bible, many transcripts had been made, by his order, of the version of Guiars des Moulins. Several of these, some of which are richly illuminated and adorned with exquisite miniature paintings, and formerly belonging to the king, and his brother John Duke of Berry, are still preserved in the King's and other libraries of France. Amongst which particular mention is made of a large Bible in two volumes, which Charles used constantly to carry with him}^ Molinseus, or according to his French name, Charles du Moulin, in his work on the Origin and Progress of the French Monarchy, says, "He caused the Bible to be translated into French, and not only into the dialect of Paris, but also into the dialects of Picardy, Nor- mandy,and the other provinces of the kingdom, that every one might have the Scriptures in his maternal language, many of which old translations are still extant, with the inscription ^'By the command of Charles the Fifths Anthony Du Verdiers says the same, and adds, "I possess one of these copies, written on parchment, in the dialect of Picardy."*® It is probable that most of these transla- tions, made by the king's order, were corrected copies of the version by Guiars des Moulins, since none appear in the provincial dialects, in the list of MSS. given by Le Long, except those of that version. In the Cottonian Library, in the British Museum, among other old French MS. copies of the whole or parts of the Scriptures, is one of an uncertain date, with the title, "L' Evangel translate de Latine en franceys, in usum Laicorum:" "The Gospel translated from the Latin into French, for the use of the laity."^" An earlier translation than that of Raoul de Presles had been made of the Gospels and Epistles, contained in the Missal, by Jean de Vignay, or Du Vignes, at the (IS) Lehowg^ut sup. (IQMJsseriiHist.Dogmat. p. 158. Le Long, ut sup, (^20) Le Long, Lp318. POURTEENTH CENTURY. 13 request of Jane of Burgundy, queen of King Philip of France/^^ Jean de ViGNAv/orDu Vignes, who flourished about A. D. 1306, was an hospitaller of St. James of Haut-Pas, and the translator, as has been already noticed, of De Voragine's Golden Legend, and De Riga's Speculum Ec- clesice. There is also a translation by him, of The game of Chess moralized. Queen Jane also ordered several of the early Latin Christian writers to be turned into French, and for this purpose commissioned the archbishop of Rouen to under- take the task. But finding that this dignitary did not understand Latin, she employed a Mendicant Friar to ac- complish her design. For at this period the Mendicant orders had risen to considerable celebrity, by their learn- ing and diligence .^^ The Mendicants owed their rise about the beginning of the thirteenth century, to the luxury and indolence of the Monastic Orders, which rendered it necessary to adopt measures for remedying the disorders created by their dissipation and licentiousness. For this purpose a new order of religious fraternity was introduced into the church, the members of which, being destitute of fixed possessions, might restore respect to the monastic institu- tion, and recover the honour of the church, by the seve- rity of their manners, a professed contempt of riches, and an unwearied perseverance in the duties of preaching and prayer. The four Orders of Mendicant, or Begging Friars, es- tablished by a decree of the second council of Lyons, in 1274, were the Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines, or Austins. The Franciscans were often styled friars-minors, or minorites, and grey-friars ; the Dominicans were generally termed friars-preachers, and (^1) Rigoly de Juvitrny, Les Bibliotheques FrangoiseSj I. pp. 605, 606, (22) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, II. p. UU 14 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, sometimes black-friars: the Carmelites bore the name of white-friars : and the Austins, of grey-friars. The Domini- cans and Franciscans were the most eminent. The popes, among other immunities, allowed them the liberty af travelling wherever they pleased, of conversing A^ith per- sons of all ranks, of instructing youth and the people in general, and of hearing confessions, without reserve or restriction: and as on these occasions, which gave them opportunities of appearing in public and conspicuous si- tuations, they exhibited more striking marks of gravity and sanctity than were observable in the deportment and conduct of the members of other monasteries, they were regarded with the highest esteem and veneration through all the countries of Europe. In the mean time, they acquired the most extensive influence, by the extraordinary assiduity and success with which they cultivated the various branches of literature then pursued. Most of the theological professors in the university of Naples, founded in 1222, were chosen from among them. They were the principal teachers of theolo- gy at Paris ; and at Oxford and Cambridge, respec- tively, all the four orders had flourishing monasteries. The most learned scholars in the university of Oxford, at the close of the thirteenth century, were Franciscan friars : and long after that period, the Franciscans appear to have been the sole support and ornament of that university. Their diligence in collecting books was proverbial ; and every mendicant convent was furnished with what was considered as a great and noble library, ("grandis et nobilis libraria.") They were the revivers of the Aristotelian philosophy, and obtained the merit of having opened a new system of science; which too soon degenerated into mere scholastic disputes, and unintelli- gible jargon. The Dominicans of Spain applied them- selves to the study of the Oriental languages, and Rabbi- nical literature ; and were employed by the kings of Spain, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 15 in the instruction and conversion of the numerous Jews and Saracens who resided in their dominions. To literary- pursuits they joined the arts of popular entertainment, and were probably the only religious orders in England who acted plays. The Creation of the World, annually performed by the Grey Friars, at Coventry, is still extant. Gualvanei de la Flamma, who flourished about the year 1340, has the following curious passage in his Chronicle of the ViCECOMiTES of Milan. "In the year 1336," says he, "on the Feast of Epiphany, the first feast of the three kings was celebrated at Milan, by the convent of the friars freachers. The three kings appeared crowned, on three great horses, richly habited, surrounded by pages, body- guards, and an innumerable retinue. A golden star was exhibited in the sky, going before them. They proceeded to the pillars of St. Lawrence, where king Herod was re- presented with his scribes and wise-men. The three kings ask Herod, where Christ should be born: and his wise-men, having consulted their books, answer him, at Bethlehem. On which the three- kings with their golden crowns, having in their hands golden cups filled with frankincense, myrrh, and gold, the star still going be- fore, marched to the church of St. Eustorgius, with all their attendants ; preceded by trumpets and horns, apes, baboons, and a great variety of animals. In the church, on one side of the high altar, there was a manger, with an ox and an ass, and in it the infant Christ, in the arms of his mother. Here the three kings oflfer their gifts, §c. The concourse of the people, of knights, ladies, and eccle- siastics was such as never before was beheld." During the same century a religious drama was performed at Eisenach^ in Germany, so singular in its design, and so fatal in its eflfects, that it well deserves to be noticed. The mysteiy of the Five Wise and Five Foolish Vir~ GINS was exhibited before the Margrave Frederick. The wise virgins were represented as St. Mary^ St, Catharine, 16 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, St. Barbara, St. Dorothy, and St, Margaret. The fool- ish virgins applied to them for oil, which the actor inter- preted to mean, prayers offered to them, to intercede with God in behalf of the suppliants, that they might be ad- mitted to the marriage supper, i. e. into the kingdom of heaven : but the Wise refused to give them of their oil. The Foolish Virgins were now thrown into an agony of distress, they knocked, they wept, they intreated, but all in vain, oil was denied them, and they were commanded to go and buy for themselves. The scene, and the doc- trine it insinuated of the inutility of praying to the saints, alarmed the prince, and threw him into the greatest con- sternation: "Of what use," exclaimed he, "is our faith, if neither Mary nor the other saints can be obtained to pray for us? To what end so many meritorious actions and good works, that by their intercession we might ob- tain the grace and favour of God ?" His alarm produced apoplexy, which in four days terminated his life. He was buried at Eisenach. (Adami Vit. Gobelin. Person, p. 3.) The buildings of the mendicant monasteries, especially in England, were remarkably magnificent. These frater- nities being professedly poor, and by their original insti- tution prevented from receiving estates, the munificence of their benefactors was employed in adorning their houses with stately refectories and churches. Persons of the highest rank bequeathed their bodies to be buried in the friary churches, which were esteemed more sacred than others, and were consequently filled with sumptuous shrines and superb monuments. In the noble church of the grey friars in London, finished in the year 1325, but long since destroyed, four queens, beside upwards of six hundred persons of quality, were buried, whose beautiful tombs remained till the dissolution. These interments imported considerable sums of money into the mendicant societies, so that it is not improbable but that they deriv- ed more benefit from casual charity, than they would FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 17 have gained from a regular endowment. The Franciscans indeed enjoyed from the popes the privilege of distrihut- ing indulgencies, which produced a valuable indemnifica- tion for their vokmtary poverty. For the space of nearly three centuries, two of these Men- dicant institutions, the Dominicans and Franciscans, ap- pear to have governed the European church and state, with an absolute and universal sway. During that period, filling the most eminent ecclesiastical and civil stations, teach- ing in the universities with an authority which silenced all opposition ; and maintaining the disputed prerogative of the Roman pontiff against the united influence of pre- lates and kings, with a vigour only to be paralleled by its success ; and being, before the Reformation, exactly what the Jesuits have been since.^^ At the time, therefore, when Queen Jane of France employed a Mendicant friar to execute the translations of certain Christian writers, that order ranked high in literary attainments, and produced in different countries of Europe, learned men, whose writings acquired them a just celebrity. This was Petrus de Bruniquello, bishop of Civita Nuova, an Austin friar, and a native of France, who wrote a work, in which all the Histories of the Old AND New Testaments were reduced to Alphabetical order; and compiled a Commentary on the Old Testament. ®* Nicholas de Lyra also, who illustrated this period by his learning and writings, particularly claims our regard. He was born of Jewish parents, at Lyre, a town in Nor- mandy, in the diocese of Evreux. After having been inst^-ucted in the Hebrew tongue, and in Rabbinical learn- ing, he embraced Christianity, entered among the Francis- cans at Verneuil, and afterwards studied at Paris, where he obtained the degree of Doctor, and taught in the univer- (23) See Warton's Hist, of Enj^lish Poetry, I. pp. 288—294. from which the above account of the Mendicants is principally extracted. (24) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, II. p. 900. Vol. II. B 18 BIBLICAL LITERATURE sity with great credit. By his merit he rose to the highest offices in his order, and gained the esteem of the great. Queen Jane, wife of Philip of France, appointed him one of her executors, in 1325. He died at a very advanced age, October 23rd. 1340.'* He is particularly celebrated for his Latin Postill^e, or brief comments on the whole Bible, which are allowed to be very judicious. The following is the judgment of a learned foreign critic: " The Commentaries of De Lyra not only manifest industry, but display considerable erudition, and deservedly place their author in the first rank of the Biblical expositors of his day. They discover the writer to be skilled in the Hebrew tongue, and to be well acquainted with Rabbinical writings ; but his know- ledge of the Greek not being so extensive as that of the Hebrew, his commentary on the New Testament does not equal that on the Old, in felicity and accuracy. Amongst the Jewish writers, he generally follows R. Solomon Jarchi ; and frequently applauds him in his notes. In explaining the literal sense of the Holy Scriptures, he excelled most of his contemporaries. On those passages of the New Testament which derive illustration from Jewish antiquities, he has thrown considerable light. Un- shackled by the authority of the Fathers, he thought for himself, as his works sufficiently discover ; though he was not without defects, for he is sometimes inaccurate in what he attributes to the Jews ; and sometimes rashly and incorrectly adopts the Aristotelian philosophy .^^" The Notes of De Lyra were appended to an edition of the Latin Vulgate, printed at Rome, in 1472, in 7 vols, fol. and were ihe^rst comment ever printed. They were also often joined to the Glossce Or dinar ice, or a Comment of Walfridus Strabus, or Strabo ; the Additions of Paul, bishop of Burgos; and the Replies of Matthias Do- (25) Jewish Heposifory, III, p. 41. Lond, 1815, 8vo. Simon, Lettrps Choisies, IV. p. 213. De Juvigny, V. p. 128. (26) Walchius in LeLong, Bib. Sacra, edit. Masch. pt.ii. sec. 3. p, 357, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 19 ringh^ or Thoringk ; and printed with the Vulgate, or Latin Bible. The best edition is that of Antwerp, 1634, 6 vols. fol. They are incorporated in the Biblia Maxima, edited by Jean de la Haye, Paris, 1660, 19 vols, fol. A French translation was published at Paris, loll and 1512, 5 vols. fol. De Lyra was also the author of a Disputation against the Jews, published by Bratheringius, at Frankfort, in 1602 ; and translated into English from a copy prefixed to the Basil edition (1506, torn. 7) of Lyra's Commentary, by a Fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge, and printed in the Jewish Repository for 1815, Lond. 8vo. Another work written by him, and subjoined to his Biblia, is a Treatise against a particular Rabbi who made use of the New Testament to combat Christianity. Besides which Le Long (tom. 2,) mentions a Treatise entitled Liber different iariim Veteris et Novi Testamenti cum expUca- tione nominum Hebroeorum, an edition of which was very early printed at Rouen, in 8vo. It appears to have treated of the difference of the various translations from the Hebrew, S^e. Other writings still remain unpublish- ed; and Cave (Hist, Lit, J notices a small tract or two printed with the works of others. Both Wiclif, and Luther, were considerably indebted to the PosTiLL^ of Lyra. The author of the Prologue vLsuaily attributed to Wiclif, says, that our English Reformer con- sulted Lyra's Commentary, in his translation of the Bible; and of Luther it has been affirmed. Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lutherus non saltasset. *' If Lyra had not harped on Profanation, Luther had never plannsd the Reformation." 27 The writings of our author exhibit him as a defender of the Novelty of the Hebrew voivel points, in opposi- tion to the Rabbinical opinion of their antiquity. "The (27) Lewis's Life of Wiclilte, p. 73. ^ Dr, A. Clarke's Commentary, Gen, Pref, p. ?ij. 20 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Points," says he," are not an essential part of the letters,' nor were they in being when the Scriptures were written, but were invented a long time afterwards, to assist in read- ing, hence the rolls, which are read in the synagogues^ are without points." They also inform us of the im- pious conduct of the Jews towards the Christians, and the Gospel. Speaking of the reasons why the Jews do not embrace Christianity, he observes, "Many turn away from the faith of Jesus for a threefold cause. One is, on account of the fear of temporal penury, for they are always avaricious ; and in their law an abundance of tem- poral things is always promised ; therefore above measure they abhor poverty. Another cause is, because from their cradle they are nursed in hatred to Jesus ; and they curse the Christian Law, and the worshippers of Jesus , in their synagogues every day. But those things to which men are accustomed from their youth, become as it were a second nature-, and consequently, they turn the judgment of the understanding from the truth which is contrary to them. The third cause is, on account of the difficulty and depth of those things which are proposed to be believed in the Christian faith ; as by experience they know, who fre- quently confer with them on these subjects.^^ Another Franciscan friar of note, was Petrus Aure- OLUs or Oriel, a native of France, and archbishop of Aix, in Provence. He was called the Eloquent Doctor. He taught publicly in the university of Paris, from A. D. 1318 to A. D. 1321, when he was removed to the archiepiscopal see. In 1345, he wrote Breviarium Bih- liorum, or Compendium of the Bible, printed at Paris, 1508, 8vo. He also wrote Commentaries on the Four Books of Sentences, and other works. He died on the 27th of April, but in what year is uncertain.^ (28) »ody, De Bibl. Text. Orig. lib. iii. pars. ii. p. 433, Jewish Repository, III. p. 324. (29) Cayei Hist. Lit. App. p. 22. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 21 Montfaucon, in his Journey through Italy, gives us another instance of the attention paid to learning by the Mendicant friars. At Bologna, he was shewn a very ancient Hebrew Bible, with this inscription prefixed: ^This Hebrew Bible was given by brother William ^of Paris, of the order of Brother-preachers, confessor Ho the most illustrious king of France, to the monas- 'tery of Bologna, for the common library of the brethren, 'in honour of St. Dominic, ann, 1310, the day before Hhe ides of February. Whosoever reads in it is desired Ho pray for him. Amen.'^® But learning, though principally cultivated by the Mendicants, was not entirely restricted to thcfn; tiiere were some belonging to the other monastic orders, who devoted themselves to study. Of this Petrus Bercho- Rius, or Pierre Bercheur, was an instance. He was a native of Poitou, and a monk of the order of St. Benedict. His learning was various and extensive, and his memory so tenacious, that he is said to have been able to quote texts and authorities from the Bible, on all subjects, without any other assistance. He became prior of the convent of St. Eloi, at Paris, where he died, and was bu- ried in 1362. Of his writings, which are voluminous, some are lost, the most important, however, remain, and are, 1. Reductorium Morale utriusque Testamenti ; 2. Re- pertoriuni Morale, seu Dictionarium Morale; and 3. The Gesta Romanorum, He is also known to have been the translator of Livy, by order of John, king of France; and in that office to have invented and introduced various words, which are now of good authority in the French language. A MS. of this translation is preserved in the Sorbonne, at Paris .^* The Reductorium Morale is divided (30) Montfaucon's Journey through Italy, p. 438. (31) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, II. p. 634. Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, III. Dissert, on the Gtsta Romanorum^ pp. i. — vi. Ixxxvi. Ixxxvii. Lempriere's Universal Biography. Lond. 1808, 4to. 22 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ into two parts ; the first of which contains thirty-four books, and consists of allegorical expositions of differ- ent passages of Scripture^ selected, according to their order, from the historical and prophetical books of the Old and New Testament, and the Apocrypha. The fol- lowing brief extract from the Exposition of Genesis i. may give an idea of the work: "/;z the heginning God cre- ated the heavens and the earthy 8^c. — "It appears, that as God exercised himself in the creation of the great world, so he continually exercises himself in the creation of the little world, man, and in the formation of the moral man, I say, therefore, that the light is faith, the firma- ment is hope. The waters above (the firmament) are trou- bles sent by God ; the waters under (the firmament) are temptations arising from the carnal nature. The earth is the body; herbs and trees are good works ; fruits and seeds are virtues and meritorious deeds. Lights signify discretion; the sun is divine wisdom, the moon worldly knowledge. Fishes, which are always in water, signify devotion; but birds, divine contemplation; cattle, the help and assistance of the poor; reptiles, compassion for the sufferings of others ; beasts signify devils, and evil thoughts. Man, made in the image of God, designates the formation of the moral man, and the moral perfec- tion of the mind. Paradise denotes final blessedness, and the consequent glory. This I say, therefore, that in the little world, that is, in the morally perfect man, the first thing necessary is the light of faith, to illuminate the mind, and to discover the truth; and to dissipate and confound error and darkness: hence it is said. Acts ix. ^ There shined round about him a light from heaven." The 2nd part of the Reductoriwn Morale treats "De rerum proprietatibus," (Of the properties of things,) and is a curious compendium of pneumatology, natural history, ^^c. It is divided into 24 books, in which every sub- ject is allegorized after the inanner of the preqeding FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 23 exposition or commentary; the following is an example: ^^Of Britain." ^^Britain, i. e. England, is a large island, surrounded by other islands. Near it is one called Sllura,'^ the soil of which is so obnoxious to serpents, that it will kill any ser- pent introduced into it; and the inhabitants extraordinary, for they wholly discard money, and the use of it, bartering one thing for another, procuriiig necessaries rather by ex- change than purchase, and revealing to men and women the knowledge of future events. By that island I under- stand religion, especially the Mendicant orders; by the soil which yields sustenance to them, the knowledge of the Scriptures, which opposes, kills, and destroys serpents, i. e. vices and temptations i they are also accustomed not to value money, but to seek necessaries by exchang- ing, that is, by begging, and to think of nothing but futurity: Wisd. viii. "She knoweth things of old, and conjee tureth aright what is to come." "According to Solinus, there was formerly in Britain, a temple dedicated to the goddess Minerva, where the per- petual fires never whitened into ashes, but when suffered to go out were transformed into globes of stone. Say, therefore, if you please, that the goddess Minerva is the Blessed Virgin, whose temple is the conscience of a righ- teous man, in which, without doubt, the fire of perpetual charity ought to burn, and never be lost in the ashes of sin- ners, but transform itself into the stone of perseverance." The Repertorium, or Dictionarium Morale, is the most valuable of the works of Berchorius. It is a voluminous theological dictionary, in which all the words of the Vul- gate version of the Bible are alphabetically arranged and explained; and discovers extensive theological knowledge, and uncommon acquaintance with the Scriptures. The following article, selected for its brevity, will serve as a specimen of the work: * One of the Scilly isJes, 24 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, "Proverbium. (Proverb.) An enigma, or parable, i. e. an obscure speech, or a common saying, promulged as a law or rule, A proverb is used for An allegorical proposition ; An authentic declaration; A prophetic enunciation; A scornful expression. It is taken for an allegorical proposition, and is thus used John xvi. where it is said, "Now speakest thou plainly, and speakest no proverb." Also, for an authentic declaration, and is so used, 1 Sam. xxiv. "As saith the proverb of the ancients: wickedness proceedeth from the wicked." Again for a prophetic enunciation, as Eccles. xxxix. "He will seek out the secrets of grave sentences, {Vulg. Proverbiorum,) and be conversant in dark para- bles." Also, for a scornful expression, and is thus used 1 Kings ix. "Israel shall be a proverb, and a by-word among all nation s."^^ These works have been repeatedly printed; the edition from which the above translations have been made, is in two ponderous folio volumes, printed at Cologne, 1620. The Gesta Romanorum is a singular compilation of romances, apologues, and stories. It was one of the most favourite books of that period; and seems to have been "compiled from the obsolete Latin chronicles of the later Roman, or rather German story, heightened by ro- mantic inventions, from legends of the saints, oriental apo- logues, arid many of the shorter fictitious narratives which came into Europe with the Arabian literature, and were familiar in the ages of ignorance and imagination. The classics are sometimes cited for authorities; but these are of the lower order, such as Valerius Maximus, Macrobius, Aulus Gellius, Seneca, Pliny, and Boethius. To every tale a Momlizat'ion is subjoined, reducing it into a Christian, or moral lesson. Most of the oriental apologues are (32) Berctorii Opera, 1, pp, 1, 906; et II. p, ^59, Colon. Agrip. 1620, foU FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 25 taken from the ClerkaLls DiscipUna, or a Latin dialogue between an Arabian philosopher, and Edric his son, ne- ver printed, written by Peter Aiphonsus, a baptized Jew, at the beginning of the twelfth century, and collected from Arabian fables, apothegms, and examples. Some are also borrowed from an old Latin translation of the Cali' lah u Damnah, a celebrated set of Eastern fables, to which also Aiphonsus was indebted." This popular work was one of the very early printed books, several editions hav- ing been published before A. D. 15U0; and was translated into Dutch, in 1484. Wart on has prefixed a learned "Dissertation" on the Gesta Romanorum, to his "History of English Poetry," vol. IIL from which the preceding remarks are taken. In Italy, classical learning began to revive, principally by the exertions of Francis Petrarch, who, as an elegant writer has said, "rescued his country's name from obscu- rity, and rendered it the admiration of Europe; who sought the society of learned foreigners, and was among the first to promote the cultivation of the Greek tongue; who, himself a philosopher, historian, orator, poet, and philologist, encouraged, by his example, every liberal pur- suit."^^ And who, had he not disgraced his moral cha- racter by an infamous passion for Laura, the wife of Hu- go de Sade, lord of Saumane, must have claimed the un- reserved applause of every friend to literature and genius. Yet with all his ardour and enthusiasm for the cultiva- tion of literature, Petrarch remained so ignorant of the Greek, that when a Greek Homer was sent him from Constantinople, he lamented his inability to taste its beauties. But his defective knowledge of that copious tongue was occasioned by the deplorable darkness of the age in which he lived, and not by his own indifference or neglect. For such was the lamentable indifference to the study of the Greek, that not one scholar versed ia (33) BeriDgton's Literary Hist, of the Middle Ages, p. 410. 26 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, that language, was to be found at Rome. It was reserved for his friend Boccaccio, or Boccace, to enjoy the plea- sure, and obtain the honour, of introducing to public no- tice and consequent remuneration, Leo, or Leontius PiLATUs, the first Greek lecturer at Florence. This was about the year 1360. He had been detained at Florence, when on his way from the East to Avignon, by the advice and hospitality of Boccaccio, who lodged the stranger in his house, and prevailed upon the magistrates to elect him a member of their academy, and to settle on him an annual stipend. The appearance of the lecturer was disgusting. He was clothed, says his disciple, (De GeneaL Deorum. lib. xv. cap.vii.) in the mantle of a philosopher, or a Mendicant ; his countenance was hideous ; his face over- shadowed with black hair ; his beard long and uncombed ; his deportment rustic ; his temper gloomy and inconstant; nor could he grace his discourse with the ornaments, or even the perspicuity, of Latin elocution. But his mind was stored with a treasure of Greek learning; history and fable, philosophy and grammar, were alike at his command. The inconstancy of his disposition led him to return to Constantinople, after having filled the profes- sor s chair only three years. Still unsettled, he deter- mined to revisit the country he had left, and for that purpose embarked on board a vessel destined for Italy, but as they approached the shore, the ship was assailed by a tempest, and our unfortunate teacher, who had lashed himself to the mast, was stricken dead by a flash of lightning.^* The Theological writers in Italy, at thi^ period, were few, and their writings in general unimportant. The chief of those who employed their pens on subjects of divinity, attempted by allegorical and mystical comments, to illus- trate or explain the Sacred Writings ; but nothing appears -^ — — ^ — ___ — . — . — ___ — _ — »—— — • (34) Berington's Literary History of the Middle Ages, B. y'u pp. 434-^36. FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 27 to have been published worthy of notice^ unless, perhaps, the Margarita Biblica of Guido de Pileo^ a Domi- nican friar, bishop of Ferrara, who died in 1331 ; in which the author has endeavoured, in hexameter verses, to give an epitome, and allegorical exposition of the Old and New Testament. An edition of it, without place or date, was printed in the very infancy of the typographical art.^^ In Germany, Joannes Rusbrochius, a native of Bra- bant, and prior of the monastery of the priory of Viridis Vallis, who died A. D. 1380, wrote a number of mystical works, amongst which was one in the German tongue. On the Tabernacle of Moses, in which he, in his way, explains many parts of the books of Exodus, Numbers, and Leviticus, The whole of his works have been twice print- ed at Cologne; first in 1552, in fol. and again in 1609, 4 to. In these editions his German works are translated into Latin. About the year 1300, a prose version of the Scriptures was made into Dutch, but the author is not known.^® If we turn to the North of Europe, the chief occurrences that interest the Biblical scholar, are private translations of the Scriptures into the vernacular language of Swe- den, and Poland, one of them executed at the request of a princess, whose name has been deservedly transmitted to succeeding ages ; and the other translated by the no less illustrious princess whose name it bears. St. Birgit, or Bridget, was the daughter of Birger, or Birghes, a prince of the royal blood of Sweden, and of Ingeburgis, daughter to Sigridis, a lady descended from the kings of the Goths, and was born A. D. 1302. She married Ul- pho, prince of Nericia, in Sweden, who died in 1344, in the monastery of Alvastre. After the death of her hus- band, she founded a religious order, called from her the (35) Le Long, 11. p. 906. (36) Cavei Hist. Lit. App. p^ 57. « Acta Eruditorum. An, 1733. p. 62, 4to, 28 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Order of the Brigittim, or Brigetthis; and built the great monastery of Wastein, in the -diocese of Linco- pen, in Sweden. At her request, Matthias, or Mat- thew of Sweden, her confessor, and canon of Linco- pen, translated for her use, she being ignorant of Latin, the Bible into Swedish, accompanied with short learn- ed annotations. The translator, who was also called Matthew of Cracow, in Poland, probably from being a na- tiv^e of that city, was afterwards raised to the see of Worms, where he died in 1410.* He wrote on several theological subjects, such as the mass, eucharist, ^c. Some of his MSS. are said to be still preserved in diffe- rent libraries. St. Bridget died July 23rd, 1373. Her pretended Revelations have been repeatedly printed, at Lubec in 1492^ at Nuremberg, 1521, with cuts, much es- teemed; at Rome, 1521, Dr. A. Clarke's Comnent. i*62.yw/?. (48) Le Long, Bihlioth. Sacra. I. p. 133. * A curious MS. original of the New Testament, (one Gospel, St, Mark, wanting,) found walled in Loddington church, in Northampton- shire, was in the possession of Bishop More, who had borrowed it from the Rev. George Tew, the rector, but never returned it ; and is supposed to be now in the Public Library at Cambridge, among the collection of books purchased at the death of the bishop for ^6000, by King George L and presented to that university. Nichols's Liter anj Anecdotes j IX. p. 612* (49; Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 156, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. . 37 the doing of this Armachanus ;" and adds, that this was ^' testified by certayne Englishmen, which are yet aly ve, and have sene it." Richard Fitzralph, or Fitzraf, ^^a man, worthy, for his Christian zeal, of immortal commendation," was brought up at Oxford, under John Bacon thorpe, who was called the resolute doctor. His abilities recommend- ed him to King Edward III. by whom he was promoted, first to the archdeaconry of Lichfield, then to the chan- cellorship of Oxford, and afterwards to the archbi- shopric of Armagh, in 1347. He was the severe and pro- fessed opponent of the Mendicant friars, who, by their ar- rogance and encroachments on the rights of the clergy, had created very general disgust. Being cited by them to appear before Pope Innocent IV. he defended him- self in the presence of the pontiff, in an oration, the substance of which is preserved in Fox's Actes and Monumentes, vol. I. pp. 505 — 510. In this discourse he observes, that the Mendicant friars entice and delude so many of the young scholars who are sent to the uni- versities, to enter their order, that " laymen, seeing their children thus to be stolen from them, refuse to send them to their studies, rather willing to keep them at home to their occupation, or to follow the plough, than to be cir- cumvented and defeated of their sons at the university, as by daily experience doth manifestly appear. — For w^iereas, in my time," saith he, "there were in the univer- sity of Oxford, thirty thousand students, now are there not to be found six thousand." And thus notices the decay of learning occasioned by their monopoly of books. "These begging friars, through their privi- leges obtained of the popes to preach, to .hear confes- sions, and to bury ; and through their charters of impro- priations, grow thereby to such great riches and pos- sessions by their begging, craving, and catching, and intermeddling in church matters^ that no hook can stir. 38 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, of any science, either of divinity, law, or physic, but they are able and ready to buy it up. So that every convent having a great library full stuffed and furnished with all sorts of books, and there being so many convents within the realm, and in every convent so many friars increasing daily more and more, it thereby comes to pass, that very few books, or none at all, remain for other students:" of which he gives this instance, "that he himself sent forth to the university, four of his own priests or chaplains, who sending him word again that theij could neither Jind the Bi- ble, nor any other good profitable book of divinity, meet for their study, therefore were minded to return home to their country;" and .adds further, that "he was sure^ one of them was by this time returned." The opposition of the good archbishop to what he con- sidered to be the reigning abuses of his day, brought much trouble and persecution upon him. Our martyrologist tells us, that in a certain confession or prayer, composed by Fitzraiph, and of which he himself had a copy, he relates the particulars of his many providential deliver- ances out of the hand of his enemies, and almost the whole history of his life, especially "how the Lord taught him, and brought him out of the profound vanities of Aristotle's subtlety, to the study of the Scriptures of God." The beginning of the Prayer in Latin, as given us by Fox, deserves to be translated. "To thee be praise, and glory, and thanksgiving, O Jesus, most holy, most powerful, most amiable, who hast said, ^I am the way, the truth, and the life; — a way without deviation, — truth without a cloud, and life without end. For thou hast shown me the way ; thou hast taught me the truth ; and thou hast promised me the life. Thou wast my way in exile ; thou wast my truth in counsel ; and thou wilt be my life in reward." — After this quotation, every pious character will regret that the honest martyrologist did not execute the design he had formed of publishing the whole confession. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 39 Fitzralph remained some time in banishment, and died at Avignon, about A. D. 1360 ; yet such was the charac- ter he had maintained, that on hearing of his death, a certain cardinal openly declared, ^^A mighty pillar of Christ's church was fallen." ^^ In England, one of the principal promoters of learn- ing was Richard de Bury, or Aungerville, bishop of Durham, who was born in 1281, and died in 1345. A man singularly learned, and so devoted to literature that he kept transcribers, binders, and illuminators in his palaces ; and expended the whole of his ample income in purchasing scarce and curious manuscripts, for which purpose he employed agents not only in England, but in Italy, France, and Germany. Beside the fixed libraries w^hich he had formed in his several palaces, the floor of his common apartment was so covered with books, that those who entered were in danger of trampling on them. By the favour of Edward III. he gained access to the libraries of the principal monasteries, where he shook off the dust from various volumes, (all MSS. as must necessarily be the case at that period,) preserved in chests and presses, which had not been opened for many ages ; and while chancellor and treasurer of Eng- land, instead of the usual presents and new years' gifts appendant to his office, he chose to receive those perqui- sites in books. ^^ The account given of him by honest John Stow, in his Annales, is too interesting not to be transcribed in his own words. "Richard Bury," says he, "is somewhat to bee remembred for example to other. He was borne neere Saint Edmundshury. By his father. Sir Richard Angaruill, knight, and his uncle. Sir John WiLLOWBY, his gouernour, he was first set to grammer schoole, and after sent to Oxford, from whence hee was called to teach Ed. of Windlesore, then prince : afterward (50) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. pp. 502— 5U. Lond. 1570. fpl, (51) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, I, Diss. 2, 40 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, this Richard was made principall recieuer to Edwarde the second in Gascoigne, at such time as yoong Edward with his mother fledde to Paris, whose expenses beginning to faile, the said Richard came to them priuily with a great somme of money, for the which cause he was pur- sued to Paris, where hee lay hid in a steeple by the space of seuen dayes. After this hee was made cofferer to Ed- ward the third, then treasurer of the wardrobe, then clarke to the priuie scale by the space of fine yeeres, in the which time twise hee went to Pope John. In the sixe and fortieth yeere of his age he was consecrated bishoppe of Durham, then was hee made treasurer of England, and after chancellour, since the which time hee was sent thrise to the French king, to claim the kingdome of France, and after that, to Antwerpe and other places in Brabant, in embassage by the space of nine yeeres. He was greatly delighted in the company of clearkes, and liadde alwayes many of them in his family, among whom were Thomas Bradwardine, afterward archbishoppe of Canterbury, Richard fitz Ralph, archbishoppe of Arma- cham, Walter Burley, John Manditt, Robert Hol- COT, Richard Kilwington, all of them doctors of diui- nitie, Richard Wentworth, or Beniworth, byshoppe of London, and Walter Segraue, byshoppe of Chiches- ter. Euery day at his table, hee was accustomed to haue some reading : and after dinner daily hee would haue disputation with his priuate clearkes, and other of his house, except some vrgent cause hadde let him. At other times hee was occupied, either in seruice of God, or at his bookes. Weekely he bestowed for the reliefe of the poore, eight quarters of wheat made into bread, besides the ordinary fragments of his house. Moreouer, in com- ming or going from Newcastle to Durham, hee bestowed sometimes twelue markes in almes, from Durham to Stockton eight markes, from Durham to Aukland fine jnarkes, from Durham to Middleham an hundred shil- FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 41 lings, &c. Hee was so delighted in bookes, that he hadde more (as was thought) then all the byshoppes of Englande besides. Hee bestowed many rich ornaments on the church of Durham. Hee builded an hall or house in Oxford, induing it with reuenues needefiill for his schol- lers. And also prouided in a library great store of bookes,* for the vse of the whole universitie, as the said bishop writeth himselfe in his booke entituled 'Philobiblos,' and appoynted the maisters of the hall to assigne five scholers for keeping of the common library ."^^ Yet such was the influence of the general contempt in which the laity were held by the clergy, that, whilst this great man was lamenting the total ignorance of the Greek language among his clerical brethren, he did not scruple to affirm, "Laici omnium librorum communione indigni sunt:" "The laity are unworthy to be admitted to any commerce with books!" A sentiment which suffi- ciently discovers the profound ignorance which must have reigned among all ranks of society, the clergy excepted. With very different feelings will the reader of the present day peruse his opinion of boohs, when he says, '' Hi sunt magistri qui nos instruunt sine virgis et ferula, sine verbis et colera, sine pane et pecunia. Si accedis non dorniiunt ; inquiris non se abscondunt; non remurmiirant si obeiTes ; cachinnos nesciunt si ignores :" "These are teachers who instruct us without rod or ferula, without severe expres- sions, or anger, without food, or money. When we come to them, they are not asleep ; when we enquire for them, they do not secrete themselves ; when we mistake them^ they do not complain ; if we are ignorant, they do not despise us." The treatise from which these passages are selected, was written with reference to the library which he bequeathed to the university of Oxford. It is entitled Philobiblos, or Philobiblion, is written in Latin, in a * See p. 5. of this volume. (S2) Stow's Annales, or Generall Chronicle of England, pp. 240, 241. Loud. 1615, fol. 42 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ declamatory style, and is divided into twenty chapters. In this work he laments that good literature had entirely ceased in the university of Paris, which he calls the Para- dise of the World ; and says, that he purchased there a variety of invaluable volumes in all sciences, which yet were neglected and perishing. This learned prelate died in 1345, at his palace at Auckland. ^^ In lieu of books, the laity appear to have been presented with Paintings, and Theatrical Entertainments. Henry III. who was a most munificent encourager of the fine arts, kept several painters constantly in his service. One chamber in the palace of Winchester was painted green, with stars of gold, and the whole History of the Old and New Testament, In one room in the palace of Westminster, and in another in the Tower of London, the history of the expedition of Richard I. into the Holy Land was painted. The coronation, wai-s, marriages, and funeral of Edward I. were painted on the walls of the great hall, in the episcopal palace in Lichfield, A.D. 1312, by order of Bishop Langton. The principal churches and chapels were furnished with representations of the Virgin Mary, the apostles, and other saints ; and the walls of some of them almost covered with Scriptural, moral, and allegorical paintings, Friar Synieon, who wrote an Itinerary in 1322, thus describes a series of paintings in the royal palace at Westminster : "Near this monastery" (of Westminster) "stands the most famous royal palace of England, in which is that celebrated chamber, on whose walls, all the warlike histories of the whole Bible are painted with inexpressible skill, and explained by a regu- lar and complete series of texts, beautifully written in French over each battle, to the no small admiration of the beholder, and the increase of royal magnificence." And Falcondus, the old historian of Sicily, relates, that at an earlier period, (about A. D. 1200,) the chapel of the (53J Savage's Librariauj III. pp. 38^40. Load. 1809, 8yo. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 43 royal palace at Palermo, had its walls decorated with the History of the Old and NeiC Testament, executed in beau- tiful Mosaic work.^* The Theatrical Entertainments of this period, especially those intended to represent the Miracles and Mysteries of Scripture, have been already noticed; it is therefore unnecessary to add any thing more, except to remark, that even on such occasions as the triumphant en- try of a king or queen into any celebrated city, the pageants were almost always Scriptural or religious exhibitions. Under these circumstances. Biblical studies were but seldom pursued, particularly during the former part of this century. Archbishop Usher, indeed, assigns a trans- lation of the whole Bible into English, to the close of the preceding century, and supposes several copies of it to be preserved at Oxford. But others have regarded these copies either as genuine^ or corrected ones of Wic- lifs version, or of that said to have been made by Trevisa . Dr. James in his Treatise of the Corruption of Scripture, conjectures that a version of the English Scrip- tures existed long before the time of Wiclif.^^ These, however, are mere suppositions; nor have we any decisive proof of any considerable portion of the Scriptures being translated into the modern English, earlier than about the middle of this century; unless the old Glossed Bible, which the Rev. Dr. Adam Clarke possesses, and of which he has given several specimens in the General Preface to his Commentary, should be considered of older date. Some translations indeed seem to have been made of the Psalter, the Church Lessons, and Hymns^ and of some of the books of the New Testament, but they do not (64 j Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, VIII. pp. 297—^99. Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, II. pp. 216, 217. (^bb) See Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 157. and Whartoni Auctarium, p. 424. James's Corruption of Scripture, p. 74. aad -Baber^S Accouat of English Versions, p. UyU 44 appear to have been published, being in all probability made for the translators' own use, or that of their imme- diate connexions. The date of these partial translations cannot be accurately ascertained, since, from the circum- stance of being anonymous, the only way of judging of their age, is from the writing and language, which must necessarily render precision impossible.*^ With respect to the copy in the possession of Dr. A. Clarke, the follow- ing important communication, with which I have been obligingly favoured, will afford ample information. " Of my large MS. English Bible, about which you in- quire, I can only say, that I have reason to believe it to be earlier than the time of Wiclif. I reason thus from the latfguage, which is of an older cast, and likewise the orthography and construction of the sentences. In many respects the New Testament in it, is dissimilar from the copies I have seen ascribed to Wiclif. Whether these have been amended, corrected, and altered, in later times, and mine is one of those which has undergone no revisal, but is just as Wiclif originally made it, I cannot say. This is merely a possible case ; and if the supposition be founded, that mine is IFicllf's translation, it must neces- sarily follow, that all those which I have seen, and which Lewis has collated, have been consido^ahli/ altered; and that there is not so old a copy of Wiclif remaining as my own. I am led to think that some of those copies exa- mined by Lewis, are not Wiclifs; else those which he has principally followed, are much altered from the origi- nal. My conclusion, however, is simply this. Either mine is before Wiclif's time, because it differs so much from the copies generally ascribed to Wiclif; and from the text published by Lewis in 1731 : or that text, and these from which it is taken, have been revised and alter- ed from Wiclif s original, and mine is one of those which has not undergone such a revision." (56) Lewis's Hist, of the English Translations of the Bible, p, 17» FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 45 ^^In what year my MS. was written, I cannot tell: — the writing and orthography are old enough for at least fourscore years before Wiclif, who began his translation in 1378, but that mine could not be written twenty years later than that, is absolutely evident from this circum- stance, that it most evidently appears to have been illu- mhiated for Thomas of IVoodstoch^ brother of John of Gaunt, and Edward the Black Prince; and youngest son of Edward III. as it bears his arms in a shield at the be- ginning of Proverbs : arms which appear on his monu- ment in Westminster Abbey; the singular hordure of which was never, so far as I can find, worn by any after his time. Now this Thomas of Woodstock was smother- ed between two feather beds, at Calais, by Thomas Maw- bray, earl marshal of England, September 8th, 1397, at the command of Richard II. this prince's nephew. How long before 1397 this book was written, I cannot tell; but it must have been, in the nature of things, several years before this time." ^^I am^, yours truly, A. CLARKE." The earliest translator of any part of the Scriptures into English, in the fourteenth century, with whose name we are acquainted, was Richard Rolle, an hermit of the order of St. Augustin, who resided in or near Hampole, in Yorkshire, whence he is sometimes called Richard of Hampole, or Richard Hampole. He wrote seve- ral Latin theological tracts, both in prose and verse. His Stimulus Consclentlce, or Pricke of Conscience, was writ- ten first in Latin prose, and afterwards translated into English rhyme. Warton (Hist, of English Poetry, y6\. I. pp. 256 — 266,) has given several specimens of this work, so celebrated in its day, but which, he remarks, "has no tincture of sentiment, imagination, or elegance." Rolle was also the author of Annotations, or Commentaries, on die Psalms-, the Hymns of the Old Testament, used in the 46 BIBLICAL LITRATURE, services of the church; part of the book of Job; the Song of Solomon ; the Lamentations of Jeremiah ; the Revela- tion; the Lord's Prayer; and the Athanasian and Apos- tles Creeds; beside several other theological works." Some of the annotations are more properly poetical pa- raphrases, than commentaries. His principal work was an English version of the Psalms. To this he prefixed a prologue, in which he thus speaks of the nature of his undertaking: "In this werke I seek no straunge Ynglys, bot lightest and communest, and swilk that is most like unto the Latyne: so that thai that knawes noght the La- tyne be the Ynglys may com to many Latyne wordis. In the translacione I felogh the letter als-mekille as I may, and thor I fyne no proper Ynglys I felogh the wit of the wordis, so that thai that shalle rede it them thar not drede errynge. In the expownyng I felogh holi doc- tors. For it may comen into sum envious mannes bond that knowys not what he suld says, at wille say that I •wist not what I sayd, and so do bar me tille hym and tille other."^^ The Rev. H. H. Baber, in his Historical Ac- count of the Saxon and English Versions of the Scriptures, prefixed to his edition of Wiclifs New Testament, has selected the xxiii. Psalm as a specimen of this translation, from a MS. in the British Museum. ^•Our Lord gouerneth me, and nothyng to me shal wante: stede of pasture thar he me sette. In the water of the hetyng forth he me brougte : my soul he turnyde." "He ladde me on the stretis of rygtwisnesse : for his name." "For win gif I hadde goo in myddil of the shadewe of deeth : I shal not dreede yueles, for thou art with me." "Thi geerde and thi staf : thei haue coumfortid me. Thou hast greythid in my sygt a bord : agens hem that angryn me." ^ (57) Cavei Hist. Litt. A pp. p. 33. Le Long, II p. 932. (58) Lewis's Hist, of the English Translations of the Bible, p, 13. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 47 ^^Thou fattide myn lieiid in oyle ; and my chalys drun- kenyng what is cleer." ^^And till mercy shal folewe me : in alle the dayes of my lyf." "And that I wone in the hous of oure lord in the lengthe of dayes.'' The Commentary on the Psalms, if we must judge of it from the following extract given by Levris, was excessive- ly dry and insipid: — Psalm ii. 1. '^IVhi gnastlde the folke? and the jniple thoughte ydil thoughtisP The prophete snybbyng hem that shulde turmente crist seith, ivhiP as hoo seith, what enchesun hadde thei ? sotheli none but yuel wille for he contrariede her ivele ly wing in werk and word, the folke thei were tha knyghtis of rome, that crucified crist, thei gnastide aghen hym as bestis wode without resoun: and the puple that was the iuwes. thoughte in ydel that is, in vayne was ther thoughte whan thei wend have holde crist evere deed that thei myghte not doo for thi in vayne thei trauelide as eche man doth that thoruh — pryde and ypocrisye weneth to hude cristis lawful ordenaunce." • The Translation is evidently made from the Latin Vul- gate; and the gloss, or comment, formed after the model of the mystical and allegorical expositions of that age.^® An extract, translated from his tract De Emendatione Peccatoris, will give a more favourable idea of his theolo- gical writings : "If you desire," says he, "to attain to the love of God, and to be influenced with the desire of heavenly joys, and to be brought to the contempt of earthly things, be not negligent in reading and meditating the Holy Scriptures, and especially those parts, of them which inculcate mora^ lity, and teach us to beware of the snares of the devil; where they speak of the love of God, and of a contempla- tive life; but leave the more difficult passages to dispu- (59J Lewis, ut sup^ 48 tants, and ingenious men, who have been long exercised in sacred doctrines." "This method assists us greatly to improve in what is good. In these we ascertain our failings and our improve- ments; in what things we have offended, and in what we have not; what we should avoid, and what we should practise. They discover most skilfully the macliinations of our enemies; they inflame us to love, and move us to tears ; and thus prepare for us a delicious feast, if we delight in them as in all riches. But let us not be urged to a knowledge of the Scriptures by any desire of the honour or favour of men, but only by a design of pleasing God, that we may know how to love him, and that we may teacli our neighbour the same, and not that we may be considered as learned by the people. Nay, we ought rather to conceal our learning than to exhibit it to our own praise, as says the Psalmist : 'Thy Word have I hid in my heart,' (that is, from vain exhibition,) ^that I might not sin against thee.' Psalm cxix. 11. Therefore let the cause of our speaking be the glory of God, and the edifi- cation of our neighbour, that we may fulfil that Scripture, 'His praise shall be continually in my mouth;' Psalm xxxiv. 1. which is done when we do not seek our own praise, nor speak contrary to his glory." ^" The piety of the author caused him to be regarded as a saint ; and on the termination of his mortal sufferings, in 1349, he was buried in the convent of Hampole. At a later period, Henry Parker, Lord Morley, a nobleman and poet, who died an old man in the latter end of the reign of Henry VHI. and who has been mentioned by Bishop liale, as the author of certain Tragedies xmd Comedies, by which was probably meant Mysteries and Moralities, gave a proof rather of his piety, than taste, by presenting to the Princess Mary, as a new year's gift, Hampole's Commentary on the Seven Penitential (OO) Biblioth, Pat, XXVI. cap. ix, p, 614. '■ ■ FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 49 Psalms. This MS. with his Epistle prefixed, is still preserved among the Royal MSS. in the British Museum.*'* John de Trevisa, who flourished towards the close of this century, has also been enumerated among the first translators of the Bible into English. He was born at Caradoc, in the county of Cornwall^ and educated at Oxford. His learning and talents gained him the patron- age of Earl Berkeley, who appointed him his chaplain, and presented him to the vicarage of Berkeley, in Glou- cestershire. He was also canon of Westbury, in Wilt- shire. Warton, in his History of English Poetrij, vol. I. p. 343, speaks of him as having been a great traveller ; and Ant. Wood (Antiq. Oxon.) says, "He was a man of extensive erudition, and of considerable eloquence; and one of the first who laboured to polish his native language, and rescue it from barbarism." At the request of his munificent patron, he engaged in the translation of several Latin w^orks into English, particularly "Hig- dens Polychronlcon',''' " Bartholomaius De Proprleta- tlhus Rerumr " Vegetius De Arte Mdltari ;'" and "i^gidius Romanus De Reglmlne Prhiclpumr beside some others of inferior note. The most complete collec- tion of his writings is in a ponderous MS. folio volume, written upon vellum, and preserved among the Harleian MSS. No. 1900, in the British Museum. This volume contains several Tracts, of which the following have been mentioned : \. A Dialogue between a Soldier and a Cler- gyman, (viz. Lord Berkeley and the author Trevisa.) 2. A Translation of a Latin Sermon of Radulf, or Fttz- Rauf, archbishop of Armagh, Nov. 8th, 1357, against Mendicant friars. 3. The Booh of Methodius Patarensls, ^'of the begynnyng of the world and the Rewmes bitwixte, of Folkis, and the end of Worldes— which the noble man Syent Jerom F his werkes prysed." 4, 5. Two Alpha- betical Indexes to the Poli/chronlcon. 6. Dialogue^ (61) Wartou's Hist, of Eoglish Poetry, ill. p. 85. Vol. II. D 50 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ Translations. This Dialogue, between a Clergyman and his Patron^ (viz. Trevisa and Lord Berkeley) discusses the Utility of Translations in general, and of that of the Polychronicon, to which it was first prefixed, in particular. The following extract from it will exhibit his mode of reasoning: "The Clerke. The latyn is bothe good and fayre; therfore it nedeth not to haue an Englysshe translacyon. "The LoRDE. A blere eyed man but he were all blynde of wytte myght se the solucyon of this reason. And though he were blynde he myght grope the solucyon. But yf his feelynge hym fayled. For yf this reason were ought worthe, by suche maner arguynge me myght proue that the threscore and thyne interpretours and Aquyla, Symachus, Theodocion, and Origines, were lewdli* occu- pyed whan they translated holy wryte out of hebrewe into grece, and also that Saynte Jherome was lewdly occupyed when he translated holy wryte out of hebrewe into latyn. For the hebrewe is both good and fayre and I wryte by inspyracyon of the holy goost. And all these for theyr translacyons ben hygely preysed of all holy chirche." Also holy wryte in latyn is bothe good and fayr. And yet for to make a sermon of holy wryte all in latyn to men that can Englysshe and noo latyn, it were a lewde dede, for they be neuer the wiser. For the latyn but it be tolde them in Englysshe what it is to mene. And it maye not be tolde in Englysshe what the latyn is to mene with- out translacyon out of latyn into Englysshe. Thenne it nedeth to haue an Englysshe translacyon, and for to kepe it in mynde that it be not forgeten it is better that suche a translacyon be made and wryten than sayd and not wryten and so this forsayde lewde reason shol de- mene no man that hath any wytte to leve the makyng of Englysshe translacyon." *********** * Lewd, ignorant; hence^ perhaps, /etiod-maW;, a layman, + Probably the works attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 51 ^^Also at prayenge of King Charles Johan Scot trans- lated denys bokesf- out of greke into latyn, and then out of latyn into frensshe, then what hath Englysshe trespac- ed that it myght not be translated into Englysshe. Also kyng-e Alurede that founded the vnyuersyte of Oxonford translated the best lawes into Englysshe tongue. And a grete dele of the Psalter out of latyn in to Englysshe. And caused Wyrefryth bysshop of Wyrcetre to translate saynt Gregoryes bokes the Dyalogues out of latyn into Saxons. Also Cedmon of Whytley was enspyred of the holy goost and made wonder Poysyes into Englysshe nyghe of all the storyes of holy wryte. Also the holy man Beda translated saynt Johan's gospell out of latyn into Englysshe. Also thou wotest wher the Apocalypsys is wryten in the walles and roof of chappell bothe in latyn and in frensshe. Also the gospell and prophecye and the ryght fayth of holy chyrche muste be taught and preched to englisshe men that can=^ noo latyn. Thenne the gospell and prophecye and the right fayth of holy chyrche must be told them in englysshe, and that is not done but by Englysshe translacyon^ for such Englysshe prechynge is ve- ry translacyon, and suche Englysshe preching is good and nedefull, thenn Englysshe translacyon is good and nedeful." '•The Clerke. Yf a translacyon were made that myght be amended in ony point. Some men it wolde blame." "TheLoRDE. Yf men blame that is not worthy to be blamed thenne they by to blame. Clerkes know e well ynoughe that noo synfull man dothe soo well that it ne myght do better, ne make so good a translacyon that he ne myght be better. Therfore Origines made two transla- cyons. And Jherom translated thryes the Psalter." ^^ On the subject of Trevisa's Translation of the Bible, writers are divided in their opinions. For whilst some have strenuously maintained that he was the author of a translation of the Bible, others have obstinately denied * Can, know, (62) Polychreniconjlib, i. Dialogue Fo. ii. 52 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, the claim, and have asserted that he did no more than translate certain sentences, which were painted on the chapel-walls, in Berkeley castle. The affirmative opi- nion was first taken up by Bale and Pits, from a loose assertion of Caxton, in the Proheme of his edition of the Polychronicoii ; but on what authority our printer asserted it, or if he saw such a translation, why he did not think it at least as deserving of publication as the Poly- chronicon, are questions which may be thought to press hard upon the probability of its existence. The learned Wanley, the compiler of the catalogue of the Harleian MSS. has the following pithy observations upon it : "As to the Bible's being wholly translated by our author Trevisa, I perceive it mentioned by Caxton, and from him by Bale and Pits, who give the beginning of the preface thereunto ; from Bale, Primate Usher takes the notion ; and at length Mr. Wharton believes it may still be extant. I shall say no more but this : I shall be very glad to see one of them." Harl Cat. 3ISS, No. 1900.'^ The Rev. T. F. Dibdin, whose extensive bibliographical researches are universally known and acknowledged, has given some novel and interesting information respecting Trevisa's translation, in his Typographical Antiquities, vol. I. p. 142. "It happened," says he, "on the second course of Lec- tures on Ancient English Literature, which I delivered at the Royal Institution, having occasion to examine the literary character of Trevisa, and being very solicitous to obtain the minutest information relating to this Bible, I wrote to my friend the Rev. Mr. Hughes, who was (63) Dibdin's Typographical Antiquities, I. Account of books printed by W. Caxton, p. 140. Lond, 1810, 4to. * The writer of the present work cannot permit the opportunity to pass, without publicly acknowledging his obligations to the ingeni- ous and laborious editor of the Typographical Antiquities ; who, on the solicitation of a stranger, gave him, in the most handsome manner, per- mission to "avail himself of any portion of his works, which he was disposed to think might be of the least importance to his pursuits.'^ FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 53 resident in the earl of Berkeley's family, at Berkeley Castle. His reply to my queries, with his permission, I lay before the reader ; from a conviction that it may afford him some satisfaction on so interesting a subject. Berkeley Castle^ Nov. 1th, 1805. ^I take the earliest opportunity of answering your's, hav- ing been here but a few days. I have made every inquiry and search respecting the information you want, and am sorry to say it is not in my power to remove the uncer- tainty you labour under respecting Trevisa's translation of the Bible ; notwithstanding I have the strongest rea- son to suppose, from circumstances I have met with, that such a translation was made, and was even made in the English language, and that it existed in this family so late as the time of James II. The book translated by Trevisa, was given, as a very precious gift, by the lord of Berkeley to the prince (I suppose) of Wales, and the prince's letter, thanking the lord of Berkeley for his gift, I have read : he does not say positively that it was the Bible, but as he hopes (as far as I recollect) to be able to make good use of so valuable a gift, there is reason to suspect that he meant the Bible. The letter is still extant among the archives of the castle. Lord Berkeley (of whom I have made inquiries in order to ascertain what you wanted, if possible) has informed me, that the book given by his ancestor, is at present, as he has reason to believe, in the Vatican at Rome : when he was there several persons had mentioned their seeing such a book written by Trevisa, but he had not an opportunity to go and examine it himself, therefore cannot ascertain that it was the Bible. The only vestige of Trevisa remaining here now, are a few frag- ments of board, with nearly obliterated words of Latin, not sufficient to make out what was meant : the roof of this chapel was said by him to have had the Apocalypse written upon it, and I suspect these fragments to be the remains of it. The beams and wall-plates of the chapel 54 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, are still remaining', and after removing several coats of lamp-black, <^c. four lines were discovered upon each, written in the old English character, which are alternately Norman-French, and Latin. By removing also several coats of whitewash from a part of the chapel wall, a great deal of writing in the old English character was discover- ed ; it was in a great state of decay, but I could make out that part of it was in Norman French, and part in Latin ; this is also thought to be of Trevisa s day : but not one certain vestige of him remains here, nor is even his grave in the church known, though he is said to have been buried in the chancel. I suspect all his translations both from French and Latin, were into English, but suspicions won't do for you. I wish it were in my power to give you more certain information. Yours very sincerely, John Hughes.'* In reply also to what has been urged against Caxton's assertion of a translation having been made by Trevisa, it is sufficient to remark, that the danger attending the printing of an English Bible, in Caxton's time, was such, that it would have required the utmost religious intrepi- dity to have attempted it ; and that it is therefore highly probable, that whatever preference our printer might have for the Scriptures, he would not place his life in jeopar- dy for its publication. Sir Thomas More, (Dyaloges, Fol. 49, Col. 1. Ed. 1529) thus defends the printers of that age. ''That on account of the penalties ordered by Arch- bishop Arundel's constitution, though the old translations that were before WyclifTs days remayned lawful and were in some folkys handys had and red, yet he thought no. prynter would lyghtly be so bote to put any byble in prent at hys owne charge, whereof the loss should lie wholly on his own necke, and then hange upon a doubtful! tryall whyther the fyrst copy of his translacyon was made before WycliflTs dayes or synnes. For yfF yt were FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 55 made synnys, yt must be approued by fore the pryntyng.* But such an approbation, Sir Thomas intimates, was not then to be had.^* Trevisa finished his translation of the Polychronicon in 1387; and is said to have died in the year 1412, at a very advanced age. But whatever judgment may be formed as to the trans- lation by Trevisa, all are agreed that Wiclif, the Morn- ing Star of the Reformation, engaged in a translation of the whole Bible into English, which he completed A. D. 1380. The opposition made by this great reformer to the tyranny of papacy, and the vices of the friars, drew down upon him the thunders of the papal hierarchy, and sub- jected him to all the virulence of irritated ecclesiastics. His protests against their domination were declared to be the consequence of disappointed ambition ; and his senti- ments respecting the eucharist, were denounced as hereti- cal. To combat the arguments of his adversaries, and to defend himself against the attacks of power, and learning, and interest, he flew to the Word of God, and found it '^a strong hold in the day of trouble." Skilled in all the niceties of school divinity, in which he is said to have reigned without a rival, he was able to expose the sophis- try of the subtilest of his enemies : but only the Sacred Scriptures could furnish him with a system of truth, and with the plain and lucid arguments by which that truth is best defended. The more powerful that his opponents became, and the greater the difficulties which he had to encounter, the more precious became the Bible, the more diligently did he study it, and the more strenuously did he recommend it to general attention, and universal perusal. Of the necessity that existed for an English translation of the Bible, arising from the ignorance of both clergy 64) Dibdin's Typog rapWcal AutiquitieSj Life of Caxton, p. cxiL 56 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, and laity, the writings of Wiclif afford ample proof. I» his Great Sentence of Curse expounded, he assures us, that in his time there were "many unable curates that kunnen not the Ten Commandments, ne read their Sauter, ne understond a verse of it." Nay that it was then "notorious that too many of even the prelates were isinners, in their being ignorant of the Law of God, and that the freres supplied, for the bishops, the office of preaching, which they did in so false and sophistical a manner, that the church was deceyved instead of being edified." In his tract entitled the JVichett, he says the clergy affirmed, "It is heresy to speake of the Holy Scrip- ture in English; and so they woulde condempne the Holy Goste that gave it in tongues to the apostles of Christe, as it is written to speake the Worde of God, in all languages that were ordayned of God under heaven, as it is wrytten:" and again in the Husbandman s Prayer and Complaint^ he complains, "Thilk that have the key of conning have y lockt the truth of thy teaching under many wardes, and y hid fro thy children."^* The views which this great man entertained of the dis- tinction betwixt the Canonical and Apocryphal writings, and of the qualifications requisite for an expositor of Scrips to-e, discovjBr the correctness of his judgment, and prepare us for receiving him as adistingushedand intelligent trans- lator of the Sacred Writings. "I think it absurd," says he "to be warm in defence of the Apocryphal Boohs, when we have so many which are undeniably authentic. In order to distinguish canonical books from such as are apocryphal, use the following rules : I . Look into the New Testament, and see what books of the Old Testament are therein cited and authenticated by the Holy Ghost. 2. Consider whether the like doctrine be delivered by the Holy Ghost elsewhere in the Scriptures." And speaking of an expositor of Scripture, he observes: "1. He should (65) Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, pp. 38. 67. l^URTEENTH CENTURY. 57 be able by collation of manuscripts to settle well the Sacred Text. 2. He should be conversant in logic. 3. He should be constantly engaged in comparing one part of Scripture with another. 4. The student should be a man of prayer, and his disposition should be upright. 5. He needs the internal instruction of the Primary Teacher:" remarking, in another part of his writings, that "some are enlightened from above that they may explain the proper, literal, and historical sense of Scripture, in which sense all things necessary in Scripture are contain- ed."^® Probably intending by this last remark, to guard his readers against the fantastic and allegorical method of expounding the Scriptures, which had been so preva- lent in the church since the time of Origen, whose ardent and sportive imagination had indulged itself without restraint in figurative and fanciful interpretations of the Divine Oracles. This anxiety, that expositors should give the just sense of Scripture, led him to urge the necessity of seeking illumination from the inspirer of the Sacred Word ; hence the direction to the student to be ^^a man of prayer ;" and hence also his observation, that *^ Sanctity of life promotes this illumination so necessary for understanding the revealed Word ; to continue which in the church is the duty of theologians, who ought to remain within their proper limits, and not invent things foreign to the faith of Scripture." ^^ Under the influence of these views of the nature and importance of a faithful and perspicuous Translation op THE Holy Scriptures, into the vernacular language of the nation, our reformer entered upon the vast under- taking. In this work Wiclif appears to have been assist- ed by other learned men, whose religious opinions were similar to his own ; though it is not now possible to say to what extent they rendered him assistance. The Rev. (66) See Milner's Hist, of the Church of Christ, IV. pp. 132—134. (67) MWner^ ut sup. 58 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, H. H. Baber, in his "Historical Account of Saxon and English Versions of the Scriptures/' says, that in a MS.. of Wiclif's Bible, in the valuable library of Mr. Douce, explicit translacionem Nicholay cle Her ford, is written at the end of a portion of the book of Baruch, (viz. the two first chapters, and part of the third) and adds, that "this remarkable notice is subscribed by a different hand and with a less durable ink, than that used by the transcriber of the MS. and if not written by Herford himself, was probably done by one who had good authority for what he thus asserted by his pen." This Nicholas de Her- ford, or Hereford, was of Queen's College, Oxford, and -a strenuous asserter of Wiclif's doctrines. On this account he was cited to appear, with John Aston, priest, and Philip Rampingdoji, or Repingden, two of the reformer's disciples, before Archbishop Courtney, at his court held at the Preaching Friars, London, in 1382. The answers which he and Dr. Repingdon gave in writing to the court, being adjudged insufficent, heretical, and deceitful, they were ordered to appear again eight days afterwards, but not then appearing, they were declared contumacious, and excommunicated with all their adherents. After- wards he recanted his principles, but did not escape per- secution ; for Archbishop Arundel, who was jealous of his principles, threw him into prison, and never afterwards released him from imprisonment.^^ The MSS, of Wiclif's version are numerous, and are to be found in most of the public libraries of the United Kingdom, and in some of the valuable libraries of private individuals. At the end of some of these copies are tables of the portions of Scripture appointed to be read, or selected, for the "Pistlis" and Gospels, throughout the service of the year. Sometimes we find these lessons transcribed at length, and in some instances of a different translation from that to which they are annexed. An edi- (68) Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, pp. 208—212, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 59^ tion^ consisting of only 140 copies^ of Wiclif 's New Testa- ment, was published in 1731, in folio, by the Rev. John Lewis, Minister of Margate, in the county of Kent, who prefixed a "History of the English Translations of the Bi- ble:" printed separately, with additions, in octavo, in 1739. Another edition of this translation of the New Testament accompanied with '^Memoirs of the Life &c. of John Wiclif, D.D." an excellent "Historical Accomit of the Saxon and English Versions of the Scriptures, previous to the opening of the Fifteenth Century," and a Portrait of our great Reformer, was published by the Rev. Henry Hervey Baber, M. A. an assistant-librarian of the British Museum, and an assistant-preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1810, beautifully printed in 4to. by R. Edwards, Lon- don. These are the only editions yet published of any part of this translation, and we have still to lament that the larger portion, the Old Testament, of a work so inte- resting to the theologian and philologist, hitherto remains in MS. without a single printed edition, notwithstanding the last-mentioned editor, with an highly creditable zeal, thus expresses himself in the Preface to his edition of the New Testament: "I would gladly have extended my labours, by giving to the world Wiclifs version of the Old as well as of the New Testament, (a work which no man hath yet had the courage to attempt,) and hence have wiped away a reproach which a learned foreigner* hath, with too much reason, cast upon England ; but as my fortune is by no means commensurate with my zeal, I must, I fear, rehnquish even the most distant hope of ever engaging in such an honourable employment." This translation was made by Wiclif from the Latin Bibles then in common use, or which were at that time * Fabricius, after mentioning Wiclifs version of the Bible, thus expresses himself; '^mirum vero est, Anglos eam [versionem] tarn diu neglexisse, quum Tel linguae causa ipsis in pretio esse debeat." Bibl: LaL et inf, cetatis. V^p. 321. edit. 1754. 60 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, usually read in tlie church ; the reason of which seems to have been, not that he thought the Latin the original, or of the same authority with the Hebrew and Greek text, but because he did not understand those languages suffi- ciently to translate from them ; few at that time possessing an extensive or critical acquaintance with them. He also translated word for word, as had been done before in the Anglo-Saxon version, without always observing the idioms of the different languages, which renders this translation not very intelligible, in some places, to those who do not understand Latin. This was probably done, as is said in a prologue to the Psalter of this translation, that "they who knew not the Latin, by the English might come to many Latin words." ^' No sooner had Wiclif completed his translation, and made it public, than he experienced the most violent opposition. The translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue was accounted heresy, and regarded as a measure fraught with the direst ills. Henry de Knygh- ton, a canon of Leicester, and cotemporary with Wiclif, thus declaims against the translation, in his work De Eventis Anglice: "Christ committed the Gospel to the clergy and doctors of the church, that they might minis- ter it to the laity and weaker persons, according to the exigency of times, and persons, and wants; but this Master John Wiclif translated it out of Latin into English, and by that means laid it more open to the laity, and to women who could read, than it used to be to the most learned of the clergy, and those of them who had the best understanding: and so the Gospel pearl is cast abroad and trodden under foot of swine, and that w^hich used to be precious to both clergy and laity is made, as it were, the common jest of both; and the jewel of the church is turned into the sport of the laity, and what was before the chief talent of the clergy and doctors of the (69) Lewis's Hist, of English Traaslatiqns, p. 19. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 61 church, is made for ever common to the laity .'^ William Butler, a Franciscan friar, in a tract written against this translation, pursues the point so far as to assert, that '^the prelates ought not to suffer, that every one at his pleasure should read the Scripture translated (even) into Latin ; because, as is plain from experience, this has been many ways the occasion of falling into heresies and errors. It is not therefore politic, that any one, w^heresoever and whensoever he will, should give himself to the frequent study of the Scriptures."'^ Wiclif himself, in an homily on Matthew xi. 23, thus complains of the severe usage he met with on account of translating the Holy Scriptures. "He, Antecrist," says he, "hath turned hyse clerkes to covetyse and worldely love, and so blynded the peple and derked the Law of Crist, that hys servauntes ben thikke and few ben on Cristes syde ; and algates they dyspysen that men shulden knowe Crystes lyfe, for thenne priestes schulden schome of hyre lyves, and specially these -hye prestes, for thei reversen crist both in worde and in dede. And herfore on gretbyschop of englelond^ is yuel payed, that Godde's (70) Lewis's Life of VVicliffe, p. 67. (71) Ibid. p. 71. * By one great Bishop of England, is probably meant John Bokyn^ ham, or Bukkingham, at this time bisliop of Lincoln, in whose diocese Wiclif was promoted, and by whom, it seems, he was summoned and prosecuted for translating the Scriptures into English. By another priest^ he seems to intend IVylliam de Si^yndurby, a priest of Leicester, in this diocese, and a favourer of the sentiments of VViclif. Knyghton tells us, that *nhe common people called him William the Hermit, from having formerly adopted that mode of life, and that at his first coming to Leicester, he conformed to the usual habits of life, and conversed with the people, but beginning to 'preach against the faults, and particularly the pride of women,' they were so incensed against him, that they pro- posed to stone him out of the place, till he changed his subject, and preached against the rich, and against their pride, and vanity, and excessive love of this world. Afterwards he directed his declamations against the clergy and the church, affirming that the clergy 'lived lewd lives, and did ill receive the goods of the church, and spend them worse;' and preaching that ' parishioners were not obliged to pay their tithes and offerings to the clergy, if they did not live chastely, and in all other respects as became the priests of God j or if they did not stay in 62 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, lawe is written in englysche to lewede men, and he pursu- etli a prest for he wryteth to men this englysche, and sompneth hym and traveleth hym that hyt is harde to hym to route. And thus he pursueth another prest by the help of the pharyses, [i. e. the friars] for he precheth cristes gospel frely withouten fables. O men that ben th?ir parishes, and spend the goods of the church where they received them ; or if they were unskilled in, or not ready in speaking the language in which they were to preach, so that they could not duly or sufficiently instruct the people." <■' Ue preached likewise," adds Knyghton, that "men might, consistent with charity, ask those who owed them money for what they were indebted to them, but might by no means sue them, or imprison them for debt ;" and that '^no one who lived contrary to the Law of (iod was a priest, notwithstanding he might have been ordained by the bishop." By these, and similar doctrines, the same author informs us, Swyndiirbij captivated the affections of the people, so that they declared they had never seen nor heard any one who so well explained the truth to them, and *^ reverenced him as another god." When Bishop Bukkyngham heard of his proceedings, he immediately suspended him from all preaching in any chapel, church, or church-yard, within the diocese of Lincoln; and inhibited the people that none of them should presume to hear him preach, nor favour the preacher, under the penalty of excommunication, Swyndurby, however, was not to be deterred; but on hearing the interdict of the bishop, made himself a pulpit on two millstones, which stood in the High-street, near the cha- pel he had formerly occupied, where he called the people together, and preached to them many times, saying "He could and would, in spite of the bishop's teeth, preach in the king's highway, so long as he had the good will of the people." Then you might see, si:ys Knyghton, throngs of people from every part, as well from the town as country, double the number that there used to Ibe Avhen they might hear him preach much more lawfully, pressing to hear him preach after this inhibition and thunder- ing out the sentence of excommunication, which had been denounced ia the abbey and many other churches. The bishop therefore cited him to appear in the cathedral of Lincoln. Knyghton says, that being convict- ed, he abjured his errors, but afterwards relapsed, and went to Coventry, where he was expelled the diocese, with shame and contempt, by the diocesan and clergy. This account, hoAvever, can scarcely be admitted; for it is not probable, that if he had been convicted of heresy and error, and had publicly adjured, and afterwards relapsed, he would have been so gently dealt with. Walsingham's acccount is therefore more proba- ble, who says, that "when the bishop of Lincoln had made preparations to correct this man, and to take away from him his license to preach, the mad multitude raged in such a manner as frightened the bishop, and deterred him from proceeding against him." What became of him after- wards is unknown : Fox, in his Ades and Monumentes^ conjectures that he was burnt in the foUowiug reign. See Lewis's Life of WicliffCy pp, 222—228, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 63 of cristes half, helpe ye nowe ageyns Antecrist. For the perelouse tyme is comen that crist and poule [Pciul] tolden byfore. But on conmfort is of knyghtes^ that they saveren muche the gospel^ and have wylie to rede in englysche the gospel ofcrisfs lyf " '^ But our reformer, who had long and zealously vindicat- ed the propriety of a translation of the Bible into the English language, was only the more convinced, by the opposition of his enemies, and by the weakness of their arguments, of the importance and utility of such an undertaking. The following extracts will exhibit the manner in which this great man defended the right of the people to read the Scijiptures, and to have a translation of them into their mother tongue. "The Scripture," he observes, "is the faith of the church, and the more it is known in an orthodox sense, the better; therefore, as se- cular men ought to know the faith, so it is to be taught them in whatever language is best known to them. Be- sides, since the truth of the faith is clearer, and more exact, in the Scripture, than the priests know how to ex- press it; and that, if one may siiy so, there are many prelates who are too ignorant of Scripture, and othei's who conceal what is contained in it ; it seems useful, that the faithful should themselves search out, or discover the sense of the faith, by having the Scriptures in a language which they know and understand. Moreover, according to the Apostle, Hebrews xi. the saints by faith overcame kingdoms, and chiefly by the motive of faith hastened to their own country: why, therefore, ought not the foun- tain of faith to be made known to the people by those means, that will enable a man to know it more clearly? * ''The soldiers, with the dukes and earls, were the chief adherents and favourers of this sect. They were their most strenuous promoters, and boldest combatants; — their most powerful defenders, and their invincible protectors.'' Knyghton, De Event, quoted by Lewis in his History of English Translations, p. 22, note. (72) Lewis's Hist, of the English Translations, pp, 21, 22. 64 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, He who hinders this, or murmurs against it, does his en- deavour to cause the people to continue in a damnable and unbelieving state. So the laws which are made by prelates are not to be received as matters of faith; nor are we to believe their words or discourses, any farther than they are founded on Scripture, for, according to the constant doctrine of Aiignstin, 'the Scripture is all the truth.' A translation of the Scriptures, therefore, would do this good, that it would render priests and prelates unsuspected as to the words of it, which they explain. Christ and his apostles converted men, by making known to them the Scripture in a language which was familiar to the people; and for this purpose the Holy Spirit gave , the apostles the knowledge of tongues. Why then ought not the modern disciples of Christ, to collect fragments from the same loaf; and as they did, clearly and plainly open the Scriptures to the people, that they may know them ? Besides, since, according to what the apostle teaches, all viiist stand before the judgment-seat of Christy and be answerable to him for all the goods with which he has entrusted them, it is necessary that all the faithful should know these goods and the use of them, that their answer may then be ready. For an answer by a prelate, or an attorney, will not then avail, but every one must answer in his own person ."^^ Our renowned reformer, John de Wiclif,^^ it is sup- posed, was born about the year 1324, ia the parish of Wiclif, a village near Richmond, in Yorkshire. He was first a commoner of Queen's College, Oxford, then newly founded by Ptobert Eagleslield, chaplain to Queen Philip- pina, consort of Edward III. From thence he was soon removed to Merton College, which was at that time es- (73) Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, ch. v. p. 69. * This mode of spelling our reformer's name, I have adopted from Baber, who remarks, that ''it is so spelt in the oldest document in "which his name is known to appear, viz. in the instrument which nomU nated him one of the embassy to meet the pope's delegates, in 1374.. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 65 teemed one of the most famous seminaries of learning in Europe, where he was a probationer, and afterwards fel- low. Here Wiclif availed himself of the high advantages he enjoyed, and by the native vigour of his mind, united to uncommon application, rose to the first rank of literary eminence. He is said to have committed to memory the most intricate part of the writings of the Stagyrite; and to have been an unrivalled disputant in the theology of the schools. He was excellently versed in the knowledge of civil and canon law in general, and of our own muni- cipal laws in particular. But the Holy Scriptures were his principal study and chief dehght, which was probably what gained him the title oi Doctor EvangeUcus, the Evan- gelic Doctor. Next to the Scriptures, he esteemed and studied the works of Augustin, Jerom, Ambrose, and Gregory. He was also a great admirer of the writings of Bishop Grosseteste, and of Archbishop Fltzralph,* His defence of the university against the encroachments of the Mendicant friars, gained him veiy general approbation ; and in 1361, he was advanced to the dignity of Master of Baliol College, and four years afterwards to that of Warden of Canterbury Hall. From this office he was ejected in 1367, by Archbishop Langham, with circum- stances of great injustice. Wiclif appealed to the pope, who for some years artfully suspended the decision, but in 1370 confirmed the ejection, owing, as has been con- jectured, partly to the pope's partiality for the Mendi- cants, and partly to Wiclifs defence of King Edward III. against the homage demanded by the pope. In 1372, Wiclif began to read public lectures on divi- nity, in the university. At first he gently and covertly attacked the reigning abuses of the friars, and the general corruptions of papacy ; but finding he gained the attention of his hearers, he openly and boldly exposed whatever he ■ III I ■ ' ' ~ * See Yol. I. p, 463, and vol. II. p. 47, of thU work, Vol,. IL E 66 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, deemed erroneous in the habits of the ecclesiastics, or the doctrines of the church. His intrepidity increased his fame, and he was ahnost every where regarded as the great defender of liberty and truth ; except by the minions of the pope, who never ceased to pursue the object of their hate with every species of malignant rage. In 1374, he was sent by the king, in conjunction with the bishop of Bangor and others, upon an embassy to the pope, to treat concerning the liberties of the church of England; and in the same year was presented by Edward to the valuable rectory of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire. Afterwards, in 1375, he was confirmed in the prebend of Auste, in the collegiate church of Westbury, in Gloucestershire ; and is said to have been again employed in a diplomatic character, being delegated with several barons of the realm to the court of the duke of Milan. The embassies in which our reformer was engaged, and the extensive opportunities he thus possessed of exa- mining the haughty claims of the Romish pontiff, and of marking the universal degeneracy of the papal hierarchy, roused his indignation, and sharpened his invectives, against those who palliated or defended the gross depra- vities of the monks and friars, or the shameless oppres- sions of the papal court. Stung by the keenness of his censures, the Romish clergy rallied their forces, selected from his works nineteen articles of complaint and accu- sation, and dispatched them to the pope. Bull after bull was transmitted by his holiness to England, to demand the trial of the arch-heretic^ and the condemnation of his writings. These the government and university long treated with contempt; and though the university of Oxford at last yielded to receive the papal mandate, they refused to lend the least active assistance against Wiclif, But the archbishop of Canterbury, and the bishop of London, the resolute advocates of the papacy, cited him to appear before them on the thirtieth day after the FOURTEENTH CENTURV. 67 notice. Wiclif immediately placed himself mider the protection of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, who had long known and esteemed him. By the advice of this nobleman, who accompanied him in person, he obeyed the citation ; where the haughty and insulting expressions of the bishop of London to Lord Percy, so irritated the duke, that he treated the bishop with contumely and contempt; the court broke up in tumult and confusion; and Wiclif was dismissed with an admonition not to repeat his obnoxious doctrines, either in the schools or the pulpit. The death of the duke of Lancaster emboldening the English prelates, they again cited the heretic to appear before them, in 1378, when he was again rescued by the populace, and the authority of the queen dowager, widow of the Black Prince. The same year their commission ceased, by the death of the pope, Gregory XL A double election ensued, the rival popes assuming the respective names of Urban VI. and Clement VIL though Urban at last proved the successful candidate. This event was noticed by Wiclif, in a tract Of the Schism of the Roman Pontiffs; and shortly after he published another. Of the Truth of the Scripture, In the latter he contends for the translation of the Scriptures into English ; and affirms, that God's will is plainly revealed in two Testaments; — that Christ's Law sufficeth by itself to rule Christ's church; — that a Christian-man, well understandingit,may thence gather sufficient knowledge during his pilgrimage here upon earth ; — and that, whereas all truth is contain- ed in Holy Scripture, whatever disputation is not origi- nally thence to be deduced, is to be accounted profane. The extraordinary exertions^ and the harassing perse- cutions, which Wiclif underwent during the year 1378, occasioned a fit of sickness, that brought him almost to the point of death. Immediately on hearing of it, the Mendicant friars selected four grave doctors from their 68 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, four orders, and after certain instructions, sent them, with four respectable citizens, aldermen of the wards, to the afflicted reformer. These commissioners found him lying in his bed, and are said, first of all, to have wished him health and recovery from sickness. After some time, they reminded him of the many and great injuries he had done to the Mendicant friars, by his sermons and writ-r ings, and exhorted him, that as he was now near death, he would, as a true penitent, bewail and revoke, in their presence, whatever he had said to their disparagement. But Wiclif, immediately recovering strength, called his servants, and ordered them to raise him a little on his pil- lows. This being done, he said with a loud voice, "I SHALL NOT DIB BUT LIVE, AND DECLARE THE EVIL DEEDS OF THE Friars." On hearing this, the doctors and their associates left him in great confusion ; and the sick man soon recovered according to his prediction. The year after his recovery from this sickness, this de- fender of the truth seems to have completed and publish- ed his Translation of the Bible, A. D. 1380; and soon afterwards commenced a public attack upon the doctrine of Transuhstantiation, This he did in the lectures which he delivered at Oxford, in the summer of 1381. Violent « and various were the measures adopted against him, in consequence of this opposition to the favourite doctrine of the church of Rome. The prelates again summoned him to appear before them ; the parliament, to which he ap- pealed, rejected his appeal; and, at the instigation of his great adversary Courtney, formerly bishop of London, but now archbishop of Canterbury, passed an act against his "Conclusions," or opinions on the subject; his patron, the duke of Lancaster, advised submission ; and he was^ at length dismissed from the chair of the divinity-profes- sor, which he had, for so many years, filled with unequalled applause. But although compelled to quit the university, and FOURTEENTH CENTURr. 09 retire to the rectory of Lutterworth, he pursued his stu- dies, and continued his endeavours to promote the re- formation of the church. Among* the writings which distinguished his retirement, was a tract on the causes fVhy pm^e priests have no benefices; written in defence of his followers. The reasons he assigns for their being without benefices, or not accepting them, are, l.The fear of simony: 2. The fear of mispending poor mens goods : 3. The fear of being prevented from better occu- pation, or greater usefulness to the church, by being re- tetricted to a single cure or parish. In the chapter on simony, he thus describes the nefarious practices v/hich then existed. "Some lords to colouren their symony Wole not take for themselves, but kenerchiefs for the la- dy, or a palfray, or a tun of wine. And when some lords wolden present a good man, and able for love of God, and Christen souls, then some ladies ben means to have a dancer, or tripper on tapits, or hunter, or hawker, or a wild player of summers gamenes, for flattering and gifts going betwixe." The contest between Pope Urban YI. and the French, who were the friends of his rival, occasioned the pontiff to determine upon war. With this view, and to enable him to raise an army of sufficient force, plenaiy indulgencies and pardons were promised to all who would afford personal or pecuniary aid. A bull to this effect was sent to Hen- ry le Spencer, bishop of Norwich, who readily entered in- to the views of the pope, and obtained numerous contri- butors; so that even women presented their jewels, neck-laces, rings, dishes, plates, and spoons, hoping to obtain absolution for themselves and their friends. Wiclif was not a silent spectator of such a violation of the religion of peace: he severely censured the rival par- ties, and in one of his tracts pointedly inquired, "Why wole not the proud priest of Rome grant full pardon to all men, for to live in peace, and charity and patience, as 70 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, he doth to all men to fight and slee Christen men T The exasperated pontiff cited Wiclif to appear before him ; but his feeble state of health was offered as an apology, for not undertaking so long and perilous a journey. He had alrea- dy had one attack of palsy, and his debilitated frame sunk under a second attack of the same disease, two years afterwards. His last seizure was during the time of divine service, in the church of Lutterworth ; which, on the third day terminated the valuable life of this great and intrepid reformer, December 30th. 1384. His body was buried in the chancel of his church, and there lay till 1428, when his bones were disinterred and burnt, and his ashes thrown into the Swiff, a neighbouring stream^ at the command of Pope Martin V. by Richard Flemyng, bishop of Lincoln, according to a decree of the infamous council of Constance, passed in 1415. The most elaborate Life of Wiclif is that by the Rev. John Lewis ; but the most correct list of his Works, and one of the best written lives, will be found prefixed by the Rev. H. H. Baber to his excellent edition of Wichf's New Testament. The opposition which was raised against Wiclifs trans- lation, proceeded so far, that in 1390, (13. Ric. 11.=^) a bill was brought into the house of lords, for the suppres- sion of it. On this occasion, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancastei', and uncle to the king, defended a vernacular translation, saying, "We will not be the dregs of all men; seeing other nations have the law of God, which is the law of our faith, written in their own language." Declaring, at the same time, in the most solemn manner, *'That he would maintain our having this law in our own * A Latin Psalter, ornamented with the most beautiful miniatures, and richly illuminated, for the use of this monarch when a youth, is pre- served in the Cottonian Library. It has a calendar, and various tables, beside hymns, and the Athanasian creed. The king is represented, in different places, on his knees, before the Virgin Mary, who has i\x^ iaf^nt Jesus in her arms. Le Long, IV. p, 245, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 71 tongue against those, whoever they should be, who first brought in the bill." The duke was seconded by others, who said, that "if tiie Gospel, by its being translated into English, was the occasion of men s running into error, they might know, that there were more heretics to be found among the Latins, than among the people of any other language. For that the decretals reckoned no few- er than sixty-six Latin heretics, and so the Gospel must not be read in Latin, which yet the opposei^ of the Eng- /M translation allowed." The consequence of this firm- ness in WicHf's patron and friends^ was, that the bill was thrown out.'* It was probably this event which encouraged some of Dr. Wiclifs followers to review his translation, or rather, to make another, not so strict and verbal, but more according to the sense. The MS. copies of this translation are more rare than the others, but are to be met with in the Bodleian and other public libraries. One of these is said to have belonged to Bishop Bonner, of persecuting memory; who in his book Of the Seven Sacraments, (A. D. 1555) observes, that he-had "a Bible in Engh/she translated out of Latyne in tyme of heresye, almost eight- score yeare before that tyme," (i. e. about 1395) "fayre and truly written in parchement."^* From a MS. copy of this translation, in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, being inscribed with the name J. Pervey, it has been concluded that John Purvey, or Purney, was the author of it. Knyghton (De Event. AngUce) says, "He was a chaplain or curate, having no benefice of his own ; — of a grave aspect and behaviour, affecting an appearance of sanctity beyond the rest of his fellows. In his clothes and dress he went as an ordinary man ; and little regarding his own ease, was unwearied in studying, by travelling up an3 down, (74) Lewis's Hist, of English Translations, p, 28, {75) Ibid. p. 25; 72 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, to persuade the people^ and to bring them over to bis sect. Being an invincible disciple of his master John JVicl^, he conformed himself to his opinions, and fearlessly con- firmed them in every respect like an able executor. For having boarded with his master when he was alive, and thus having drank more plentifully of his instructions, he had more abundantly imbibed them, and always, even to his dying day, as an inseparable companion followed him and his opinions and doctrines, being unwearied in his labours and endeavours to propagate them." After Dr. Wiclif's death he used to preach at Bristol, till he was apprehended and imprisoned by Thomas Arundel^ archbishop of Canterbury, in Salt wood castle, in Kent, a seat belonging to the archbishop. Here he was dreadfully tortured, and at last consented to recant, which he did at Paul's Cross, A. D. 1396. He was afterwards promoted by the archbishop to a benefice, as is said, about a mile from the castle, which seems to intimate as if it were St. Mary's, Hythe, or perhaps the rectory of Ostinhanger. But wherever the place was, he did not long continue in it, but quitted his benefice, and embraced his former opinions. After Arundel's death, he was again imprisoned by Archbishop Chichley, A. D, 1521 ; after which it is uncertain what became of him; though it is not improba- ble that he died in prison. Thomas of Walden, a zealous writer against the Lollards, or followers of Wiclif, gives him this character, that ^'hewas the library of the Lollards, and Wiclif's glosser; an eloquent divine, and famous for his skill in the law," or a notable canonist,^® But whoever was the author of the translation in ques- tion, it was most probably made by the same person who wrote the Elucidarium Bibliorum, or Prologue to th^ iramlationof the Bible; a work frequently, but erroneously, ■ — — ■ ■ I. ■! I'.a (76) Fox's Actesand Monuraentes, I. p. 649. fol. X570. Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, pp. 218—221. Lewis's Hist, of English Translations, pp. 34, 35.^ FOtrni^EENTH CENTURY. 73 cattfibuted to Wiclif himself. The design of the Prologue, which is in English, is to give a summary of the books of the Bible, with certain declarations of their use and , authority. It was printed by John Gowghe in 1536, in 12mo. under the title of The Dore of Holy Scripture, Another edition, in 12mo. was published in 1550, by ^Robert Crowley. The title of it was, The pathway to iperject knoivledge, the true copye of a prologue, wrytten about two hundred yeares paste hy John WycMyffe (as .maye justly he gathered hi that, that John Bale hath vjryt- ten of him in his Boke entitled, the summarie of famouse writers of the He of Great Britaine) the original whereof fis found written in an olde Englishe Bible betwixt the Olde Testament and the New e, PVhich Bible remaineth mow in the Kyng hys Maiesties chamber. In this Pi^ologue, rwhich Lewis, (Hist, of English Translations,) and Baber, (Life of Dr. WicUf) have incontrovertibly proved to have been written after the reformer's death, the author (gives the following account of his own translation of the Bible into English : " He, with several others who assist- jed him, got together," he says, "all the old LatynWiAe^ Ihey could procure: these they diligently collated, and corrected what errors had crept into them, in order to make one Latin Bible some deal true ; since many Bibles in Latin were very false, especially those that were new. Then they collected the doctors and common glosses, especially Lyra, with which they studied the text anew, in order to make themselves masters of the sense and meaning of it. Next they consulted the old grammari- ans and ancient divines as to the hard words and senten- ces, how they might be best understood and translated; which having done, they set about the translation, which they resolved should not be a verbal one, but as clearly as they could to express the sense and meaning of the text ; for," says he, "it iS to know that the best translating out of Latin into English, is to translate after the sentence, and 74 BIBLICAt LITERATURE^ not only after the words. So that the sentence be as open (either opener) in English as in Latin, and go not far from the letter." He adds, that "where the Hebrew, by witness of Jerom, of Lyra, and of other expositors, discordeth from our Latin Bibles, he had set in the mar- gin, in manner of a gloss, what the Hebrew hath, and how it is understood in some other place. And that he did this most in the Psalter, that of all of our books discorded most from the Hebrew. In translating equivo- cal words," he remarks, "there might be some danger,, since, if they were not translated according to the sense and meaning of the author, it was an error. Lastly," he tells us, that, "to make this translation as compleat and perfect as he could, he resolved to have many good fel- lows, and hwini/ng, to correct it."^^ A MS. copy of this work is in tlie British Museum, Harl. MS. 1666. It is imperfect at the end. The uncertainty and obscurity in which the author of the translation before us is involved, is not peculiar to himself; in numerous other instances it will appear that translators of different versions of the Sacred Writings ar« unknown. This has probably arisen from different causes ; sometimes from that humble and self-diffident disposition, which has led the pious mind to retire from public view, and to aim only at the approbation of him who "searches the heart;" and sometimes from a fear of persecution and suffering. For, although many in our day will be disposed to regard the man who first produc- ed a translation of the Scriptures into the language of his country, as her greatest benefactor, and entitled to eminent rank in the annals of her moral improvement, it must be acknowledged, that these have not been the views of past ages; nor has history, in general, been con- structed or written under the influence of such impres- (77) Lewis's Hist, of Englisli Translations, p. 37 » Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, p. 70* FOURTEENTH CENTURY. /O sions. Unfortunately, these co-operating causes pre- vent the possibility of ^n authentic biographical work being written, which should embrace the lives of all ori- ginal translators of the Sacred Volume ; all that can be done, is to collect, from various quarters, such intimations as remain, respecting these valuable men, and their im- portant labours. "The lives of such persons, it may be said, could not have furnished many remarkable incidents; but we can- not tell : for although they did not ail meet with similar treatment, to some of them, at least, the following lines are but too appropriate : They lived unknown^ Till persecution draojg'd them into fame, And chas'd them up to heaven. Theit ashes flew — — No marble tells us whither. With their names No bard embalms and sanctifies his song ; And history, so warm on meaner themes, Is cold on this,*' "'^ (78) See Anderson's Memorial on behalf of the Native Irish^ pp. 12, 13, 76 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ CHAPTER XIIL rfs«^r^>/sr^^^ FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Lollards. Bishop ArundeVs Canon against Translations, Value of Boohs, Episcopus Puerorum, Learned Englishmen. Libraries. Henri/ VL John Huss, Jerom of Prag ue, Hussites, Invention of Printing , WICLIFS followers were called Lollards, from a German term, signifying to sing hymns to God; and increased so rapidly, that a contemporary writer af- firms, "A man could not meet two people on the road, but one of them was a disciple of Wiclif."* The vehemence with which they declaimed against the vices of the clergy, and the constant appeals which they made to the Holy Scriptures, in defence of their opinions, drew down upon them the anathemas of their mitred ad- versaries, and occasioned the most severe laws to be enacted against those who should embrace their senti- ments, or dare to read the Word of God without ecclesi- astical permission. In 1396, Thomas Arundel, archbi- shop of York, was translated to the see of Canterbury, and soon discovered by his conduct, that he designed to employ against the Lollards, all the additional power he had acquired by bis promotion to the primacy. No sooner had Henry IV. gained possession of the throne of England, than Arundel, who had supported him in his pretensions to the crown, applied, with his clergy, to the parliament that met at Westminster, to obtain the sanc- tion of the legislature to his cruel and iniquitous mea- sures. In this he was unfortunately successful, and a severe law was passed against the dangerous innovations^ (1) Knyghton.— See Lewis's Life of WicUffej ch. x.p. 175, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 77 as they were called, of the Lollards. By this law, made A. D. 1400, the bishops were authorized to imprison ail persons suspected of heresy, and to try them in the spiri- tual court ; and, if they proved either obstinate or relapsed heretics, the spiritual judge was to call the sheriff of the county, or the chief magistrate of the town, to be present when the sentence of condemnation was pronounced, and immediately to deliver the condemned person to the secu-^ lar magistrate, who was to cause him to be burnt to death, on some elevated place, in the sight of all the people. The first person who suifered under the writ De hoeretico comburendo, was Sir William Sawtre, rector of St. Oswyth, London. One of the charges brought against him was, "That he had said he would not worship the cross on which Christ suffered, but only Christ that suffered upon the cross." Another of the charges was, "That he had declared, that a priest was more bound to preach the Word op God, than to recite particular sei-vices, at certain canonical hours." For such, alas! was the genius of the reigning superstition, that to worship the cross, and attend to customary formalities, was regarded as of more importance than to worship the Saviour, or to preach his gospel 1^ In 1408, the archbishop held a convocation of the whole of the clergy of his province, at Oxford, the ob- ject of which was to frame certain constitutions against the Lollards, By the 5th constitution published in this convocation, it was ordained that "No book or treatise composed by John IViclify or by any other in his time, or since, or hereafter to be composed, be henceforth read in the schools, halls, inns, or other places whatsoever, with- in the province aforesaid ; and that none be taught ac- cording to such [book,] unless it have beein first examined, and upon examination unanimously approved by the mil- (2) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. p. 615. Henry's Hist of Great Britain, X. B. t. ch» ii. p, 3. 78 BIBLICAL LITERATURK^ versity of Oxford, or Cambridge, or at least by twelve men chosen by the said universities, or by one of them, under the discretion of us, or our successors ; and then afterwards, [the book be approved] expressly by us, or our successors, and delivered in the name, and by the authority, of the universities, to be copied and sold to such as desire it, (after it has been faithfully collated,) at a just price, the original thenceforth remaining in some chest^ of the university for ever. And if any one shall read any book, or treatise of this sort in the schools, or elsewhere, contrary to the form above written; or shall teach according to it, let him be punished according as the quality of the fact shall require, as a sower of schism, and a fautor of heresy." Another Constiiution of the convocation was formed expressly agaimt the translation of the Scriptures into jEnglish, "VII. It is a dangerous thing,-}- as the blessed Jerom testifieth, to translate the text of the Holy Scrip- tures out of one language into another, because it is not always easy to retain the sense of the original in a trans- lation, as the samxC blessed Jerom confesseth, that although inspired,:}: he frequently erred: We therefore enact and ordain, that no one hereafter do by bis own authority translate any text of Holy Scripture into English, or any other tongue by way of hook, libel, or treatise; and that no one read any such book, libel, or treatise, now * The books in the pttblic libraries were, at that period^ all kept in chests. + Jerom's words, to which the constitution refers, are to be found in his Letter to Pope Damasus, who had desired him to determine which of the various readings, in the Latin copies, agreed most correctly with the Greek text ; and to which he replies, that it was very hazardous to decide: *^'For who is there," says he, *' whether he be learned or unlearned, when he takes the Bible into his hands, and sees, that what he reads differs from what he has been used to, who will not immediately clamour against me, as a falsifier and sacrilegious person, for daring to add, alter, or correct, any thing in books so ancient." See Lewi&*s History of English Translations, p. 44. % Jerom never pretended to inspiration FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 79 lately set forth in the time of John Wiclif, or shice, or hereafter to be composed, in public, or in private, in whole, or in part, under pain of the greater excommuni- cation, until the said translation be approved by the diocesan of the place, or, if occasion require, by a provin- cial council. Let him that acteth contrary be punished as a fautor of error and heresy." ^ In the 2nd year of the reign of Henry V. A. D. 1415,. a law was passed, by which, in addition to the former, laws against heresy, all Lollards, or those who possessed or read any of Wiclifs books, or entertained his opinions, were declared to be guilty of treason, and their goods ordered to be confiscated.* This law was considered as particularly directed against those who read the New Testament in English of JVidlf's translation. Our old writers thus express themselves respecting it: "In the said parliament" (held at Leicester) "thekinge made this most blasphemous and cruel! acte, to be a laAv for euer. That whosoeuer they were that should rede the Scriptures in the mother tong, (which was then called Wicleu's lerning,) they should forfet land, catel, body, lif, and godes, from theyr heyres for euer, and so be condempned for heretykes to God, ennemies to the crowne, and most errant traytors to the lande. Besides this, it was inacted, that neuer a sanctuary, nor priiiihged grounde within the realme shulde holde them, though they were still permitted to theues and murtherers. And if in case they wold not gyue ouer, or were after their pardon relapsed, they shulde suffer death in two manner of kindes; that is, they shulde first be hanged for treason against the kinge, and then be burned for heresy against God, and yet neither of both committed."^ (3) Ubbei S. S. Concilia, XI, pt. ii. p. 2095. Paris, 1671, fol. (4) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, 1. p. 678, (5) Complete CollectioD of State Trials, I. p. 49. Lond. 1730,2nd edition^ fol. 80 B3LICAL LITERATURB, But violent as were the measures pursued against those- who read the Scriptures in English^ there were some: found, who at every hazard sought wisdom from the book of God. These, to promote the more general circu- lation of the Scriptures, caused select portions of fVic- llf's Translation to be written in small volumes, that the poor might purchase them, printing being unknown, and writing tedious and expensive. Lewis, the author of The History of the English Translations of the Bible, possessed one of these copies in 24mo. which contained St, Johns Gospel, the Epistles of St. James, St. Peter, St. John, St, Jude, and the Apocalypse.^ The bishop's registers often mention these little books, or libels, as they were called, and notice them as being prohibited. Persons who were detected reading them, or even having them in possession, were prosecuted, and sometimes were burnt with them hanging about their necks. In 1429, Nicholas Belward, of South Elmham in Suffolk, was accused of having in his possession a New Testament, which he had bought in London, for four marks and forty pence, ^2. 16s. 8d. a sum equivalent to more than ^40. at present; an asto- nishing price to have been paid by a labouring man, for such Belward appears to have been: William Wright deposing that he "had wrought with him continually by the space of one year ; and studied diligently upon the said New Testament." In the same year an accusation was brought also against Margery Backster, in which it was deposed, that she had desired Joan, the wife of one Cliffland, and her maid, to "come secretly in the night ta her chamber, and there she should hear her husband read the Law of' Christ to them ; which Law was written in a book that her husband was wont to read to her by night ; and that her husband was well learned in the Christian verity." Many other depositions, of a similar nature, were made by the enemies of the Lollards, in consequence (6) Lewis, p. 39. ' FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 81 of which, the followers of Wiclif were subjected to yarious penances and imprisonments. Against Pucbard Fletcher of Beccles, it was alledged, "He is a most perfect doctor in that sect, and can very well and perfectly expound the Holy Scriptures, and hath a book of the New Law in English^ Against Sir Hugh Pye, priest, it was deposed, that lie had "bequeathed to Alice, servant to William White, a New Testament, which they then called the book of the New Law, and was in custody of Oswald Godfrey of Colchester." Even the ability to read was enumerated amongst the crimes of this sect, by their vio- lent persecutors, for it is remarked in the deposi- tions, that "William Bate, tailor, of Sy thing, and his wife, and his son, which can read English very well, is of the same sect ;" that "the daughter of Thomas Moone is partly of the same sect, and can read English;' and that "John Pert, late servant of Thomas Moone, is of the same sect, and can read well, and did read in the presence of William White." ^ The disciples of WicHf, however^ were not satisfied with knowing the truth, and themselves only reading the Scrip- tures; they were animated by more generous principles, and laudably anxious to place the Bible in the hands of others, as a powerful means of enlightening the mind, and influencing the heart. In the prosecution of this pious design, these early reformers were materially assisted by the zealous co-operation of Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, who expended considerable sums in collecting, transcribing, and dispersing the works of Wiclif; and in maintaining a number of itinerant preachers, who were employed in spreading the doctrines of our English re- former in different parts of the country, particularly in the dioceses of Canterbury, London, Rochester, and Hereford. Bale says, that he caused all the works of Wiclif to be copied by desire of John Huss, and to be (7) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. pp. 786--788, Vol. IL F 82 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, sent into France^ Spain, Bohemia, and other foreign countries. The support afforded the Lollards by this nobleman, and his zeal in the diffusion of evangelical truth, rendered him the object of the most cruel persecu- tion. He was accused of heresy^, condemned and impri- soned in the tower of London, from whence he found means to escape, but being retaken, in 1417, by Lord Powis, was suspended alive in chains, upon a gajlows, and burnt to death.® The excessive dearness of booh) prior to the invention of printing, is a sufficient proof that the Lollards must have been countenanced and assisted by persons of wealth and influence, in spreading extensively the works of Wiclif, especially his Translation of' the New Testament, Several instances of the exorbitant prices of books, about this period, have been already adduced; the following will render the evidence still more decisive. In 1424, two Antiphonars, books containing all the invitatories, responsories, verses, collects, and whatever was said or sung in the choir, except the lessons, cost the little mon- kery of Crabhouse, in Norfolk, Twenty-six Marks; and the common price for a Mass book was Five Marks, equal to the yearly revenue of a vicar, or curate, which, about this period, was fixed at Five Marks, {^3. 6. 8.) or Two Marks, and his board.® At an early period of this century, Pierre Plaoul^ bishop of Senlis, bequeathed a large quarto Bible, fairly written on vellum, to the house of the Sorbonne, at Pafis; on the last leaf of which there was a Latin note, to the following effect: "This book, the value of which is fifteen pounds of Paris, be- longs to the poor masters of Sorbonne, bequeathed to them by the reverend father in Christ, Pierre Plaoul, formerly bishop of Senlis, and an eminent professor of Holy Scripture, of the society of the aforesaid house; (8) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. p. 664, &c. British Biography, I. p. 138. Lond. 1773. 8vo. (9) Johnson's Ecclesiastical Laws, &c. II, A.D. 1222. 1305. 1362. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 83 who died, April llth, 1415, and was buried in the church of St. Marcellus, near to the famous and me- morable master Peter Lombard, bishop of Paris. May his soul rest in peace!" '^'^A similar printed Bible,'' says Chevillier, ^Svould not have cost six francs." In 1491, Bernard's Homilies on the Canticles were pawn- ed for Twenty Shillings; and a few years earlier, A. D. 1471, when Lewis XI. of France borrowed the works of the Arabian physician Rhasis, from the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only deposited, by way of pledge, a quantity of valuable plate, but was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed, by which he bound himself to return it, under a considera- ble forfeiture.'^ Henry V. of England possessed so scanty a library, that he borrowed several books, which were claimed by their owners, after his death. The Countess of Westmoreland presented a petition to the privy coun- cil, A. D. 1424, praying that an order might be given under the privy seal, for the restoration of a book, bor- rowed of her, by the late king, containing the Chronicles of Jermalem, and the Expedition of Godfrey of Boulogne; which was granted with great formality. Another peti- tion was presented by the prior of Christ-Church, Canter- bury, stating, that the late king had borrowed from the priory, the worhs of St. Gregory, which by his testament he had directed to be restored, but which had been with- held by the prior of Shine. After serious deliberation, the council issued an order to the prior of Shine, either to deliver up the book, or to appear before the council, and assign the reasons of his refusal." Nor will it per- haps be deemed impertinent to add, that literature in general, and Sacred Literature in particular, was still far- ther discouraged, by the almost universal preference of {\0) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, I. Diss. 2. Chevillier, De V Origine de V loiprimerie de Paris, pt. iv. ch. t. p. 371. Paris, 1694, 4to. (llj Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, X. B. v. ch. iv. pp. 115; 116. 84 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, entertainment to instruction. The minstrels were more amply remunerated than the clergy ; and the feast of the Episcopus Puerorum, or Boy-bishop, more numerously at- tended than the most solemn festivals of the church. During many of the years of the reign of Henry VI. par- ticularly in the year 1430, at the annual feast of the ho- ly cross, at Abingdon, a town in Berkshire, twelve priests each received four-pence for singing a dirge; and the same number of minstrels were each rewarded with two shillings and four-pence, beside diet and provender for their horses. In the same year, the prior de Maxtock gave six-pence for a sermon, to an itinerant doctor in theology, of one of the Mendicant orders, who went about preaching to the religious houses. In a very mutilated fragment of a Computus, or annual accompt roll of St. Swithen's cathedral priory, at Winchester, under the year 1441, a disbursement is made to the singing-boys of the monastery, who, together with the choristers of St. Elizabeth's collegiate chapel, near that city, were dressed up like girls, and exhibited their sports before the abbess and nuns of St. Mary's abbey, at Winchester, in the pub- lic refectory of that convent, on Innocents day. Ano- ther fragment, of an accompt of the cellarer of Hyde ab- bey, at Winchester, has the following entry, under the year 1490: "In larvis et aliis indumentis puerorum vi- sentium dominum apud Wulsey, et constabularium castri Winton, in apparatu sue, nee non snbinstrantium omnia monasteria civitatis Winton, in ffesto Nicholai." That is, ^' In furnishing masks and dresses for the boys of the con- sent, when they visited the bishop at Wulvesey Palace, the constable of Winchester castle, and all the monasteries of the city of Winchester, on the festival of St. Nicho- las."'^ In many churches it was a common practice to elect a boy on St. Nicholas's or Innocents' day, to as- sume the garb, and perform the functions of the bishop, (12) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, II. pp, 105, 106 j lIL p. 334. PIPTEENTH CENTURY. 85 who was therefore denominated episcopiis ptierormn, or boy-bishop, and sometimes the chorister-bishop. This was particularly the case in England, in the church of Sarum, The learned John Gregory, of Oxford, wrote a tract, published after his decease, expressly on this cus- tom of the church of Sarum, the title of which is, "Epis- copus Puerorum in die Innocentiiim: or a discovery of an ancient custom in the church of Sarum, making an anni- versary bishop among the choristers." In this work, it is said, "The Episcopus Choristorum was a chorister-bi- shop, chosen by his fellow-children, upon St. Nicholas's day. Upon this day rather than any other, because it is singularly noted of this bishop, (as Paul said of his Ti- mothy,) that he had known the Scriptures of a child, and led a life sanctissime ah ipsis incunahilis inchoatam. The reason is yet more properly and expressly set down in the English Festival:" "It is sayed that his fader hyght Epiphanius, and his moder Joanna, S^c, And whan he was born, <^c. they made him christen, and caled him Nycolas, that is a mannes name, but he kepeth the name of a child, for he chose to kepe vertues, meknes, and simplenes, and with- out malice: also we rede while he lay in his cradel, he fasted Wednesday and Friday: these dayes he would souke but ones of the day, and therwyth held him plesed: thus he lyued all his lyf in vertues with his childes name. And therefore, children don him worship before all other saints." Lib. Festivalism die S. Nicolas, fol. 55. "From this day till Innocents Day, at night, (it lasted longer at first,) the Episcopus Puerorum was to bear the name, and hold up the state of a bishop, answerably ha- bited with a crosier, or pastoral staff in his hand, and a viitre upon his head: and such an one too some had as was multis episcoporum mitris sumptuosior, (saith one,) very much richer than those of bishops indeed." "The rest of his fellows from the s^me time being were 86 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ to take upon them the style and counterfeit of prebend^; yielding to their bishop, (or else as if it were,) no less than canonical obedience." ''And look what service the very bishop himself, with his dean and prebends, (had they been to officiate,) was to have performed, the mass excepted, the very same was done by the chorister-bishop and his canons, upon the eve^ and the holy -day ^' "In case the chorister-bishop died within the month, his exequies were solemnized with an answerable glori- ous pomp and sadness. He was buried, (as all other bi- shops,) in all his ornaments. In the cathedral of Sarum, there lieth a monument, in stone, of a little boy habited all in episcopal robes, a mitre upon his head, a crosier in his hand, and the rest accordingly." Our author adds, that all the ceremonies were perform- ed "with that solemnity of celebration, and appetite of seeing, that the statute of Sarurn was forced to provide. Suh poena majoris excommunicationis, ne quis pueros illos 4n prcefata processione, vel alias in suo ministerio^ premat aut impediat quoquo modo^ quo minus pacifice valeant face- re et exequi quod illis imminet faciendum, S^c. That no person whatsoever, under pain of Anathema, should in- terrupt, or press upon these children, at the procession, or in any other part of their service, in any ways, but to suffer them quietly to perform and execute what it con- cerned them to do."*^ As to the divine service being performed on these fes^ tivals by children, not only was it celebrated by boys, but also hy girls ; for there is an injunction given to the Benedictine nunnery of Godstowe, in Oxfordshire, by Archbishop Peckham, in the year 1278, that on Inno- cents' day, the public prayers should not any more be said in the church of that monsistery, per parvulas, that is, by little girls. And so far back may a similar custom b^ (13) Gregory's Works, Posthuma, pp. 95, 113^117. Lond. 1671, 4tp, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 87 traced, that at the Constantinopolitan synod, held in the year 867, at which 373 bishops were present, it was found to be a solemn custom in the courts of princes, on certain stated days, to dress some laymen in the episcopal apparel, who should exactly personate a bishop, both in his ton- sure and ornaments; and also to create a burlesque pa- triarch, who might make sport for the company. This scandal to religion was anathematized by the good bi- shops, but without complete success, the temporary check serving only to alter its direction, and increase its ener- gy." In 1274, the council of Saltzburg forbade any one to assume the office of boy-bishop, who was more than sixteen years of age, great enormities having sometimes been committed in the churches, by those who had en- gaged in those Ludi, or plays.'^ And the council of Ba- sil, in 1435, condemned them, though they continued to be practised for centuries afterwards/^ There flourished, however, at the conclusion of the former, ancl commencement of this century, several illustrious characters, who, notwithstanding the supersti- tion and bigotry of their church, deserve to be recorded among the promoters of Sacred Literature and knowledge. Adam Eston, or Easton, an Englishman, educated at Oxford, became a Benedictine monk of Norwich, and successively filled the sees of Hereford and London. He was eminently skilled in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and appears to have been the ^rst of the moderns who at- tempted a TRANSLATION OF THE OlD TESTAMENT, imme- diately from the Hebrew. This work he is said to have completed, except the Psalms, Robert Wakefield, (who died in 1538,) says, in the tract which he wrote on the Purity of the Hebrew Text^ that, for some time, he had (14) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, III. p. 324, (15) Da Cange, v. Episcopus Puerorum. (IQ) Du Tilliot, Memoires pour servir a V Hist, de la Fete des Foux, pp. 58—73, Bd BIBLICAL LITERATURE, tlie work in his possession, but that at length it was sto- len. In the preface to his translation, he defends the integrity of the Hebrew original, against Nicholas de Lyra, and others, who supposed it to have been cor- rupted by the Jews. He was created a cai-dinal, by Urban VI. but was afterwards thrown into prison, with five other cardinals, by the same pontiff, where he remained for five years ; after his release he wrote an account of his imprisonment. He died at Rome, A. D. 1397.^^ John of Whethamstede, abbot of St. Albans, in the reign of Henry VI. was an eminently studious and learn- ed writer. A MS. life of him in the Cottonian Library, enumerates more than fourscore separate treatises, given to the abbey, many of which were written by himself. H^e ex- pended large sums in beautifying and enriching his monas- tery ; among other things, he adorned the roof and walls of the Virgin Mary's chapel with pictures, at an expense of forty pounds ; and gave an organ to the choir of the church. He built a library at Oxford, and enriched it with books. To familiarize the history of his patron saint, to the monks of his convent, he employed Lydgate, then a monk of Bury, in Suffolk, to translate the Latin legend of his life, into English rhymes. For the transla- tion, the writing, and the illuminations, he paid one hun- dred shillings; and expended on the binding, and other exterior ornaments of the MS. upwards of three pounds. It was placed before the altar of the saint, in the abbey church, Whethamstede having adorned the altar with much magnificence. During his abbacy, a grand tran- script of the PosTiLLA of Nicholas de Lyra^ on the BiBLE,f was begun at his command, with the most splendid or- naments and hand-writing. The monk who records this important anecdote, lived soon after him, and speaks of this great undertaking, then unfinished, as if it were some (17) Bibliotheca Sacra, edit Masch, pt. ii. vol. III. cap. iii. sec. i. p. 432.; Hodyj De Bibl. Text. lib. iii. pt. ii. p. 440, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. , 89 magnificent public edifice. "God grants" says he, "that this work in our days may receive a happy consummation!" Some of Whethamstede's tracts, MS. copies of which often occur in our libraries, are dedicated to Humphrey, duke Of Gloucester, who was fond of visiting the abbey, and em- ployed our abbot to collect valuable books for him. A fine copy of his Granarium, an immense work, was presented by the duke, to the library then lately erected by himself, at Oxford. A beautiful MS. folio, of Valerius Maximus, enriched with the most elegant decorations, with a curi- ous table, or index, made by Whethamstede, is still pre- served in the Bodleian Library. He was the author of a Chronicle, embracing a period of twenty years, from 1441, to 1461, inclusive. It contains many original papers, and gives a very full account of some events, particularly respecting his own abbey. He was ordained a priest A. D. 1382, and died 1464, being above a hundred years of age, eighty-two of which he had been in priest's orders.^^ John Capgrave, another learned Englishman, was born in the county of Kent. Fie entered into the monas- tery of Angus tin monks, at Canterbury, and after he had taken his Doctor's degree, at Oxford, became Provincial of his order. He was the confesssor, and intimate friend of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In the library of Oriel College, at Oxford, there is a MS. Commentary on Ge- nesis, written by Capgrave, who was reputed eminent as a theologian. It is the author's autograph, and is dedi- cated to the duke. In the superb initial letter of the de- dicatory epistle, is a curious illumination of the author, humbly presenting his book to his patron, who is seated, and covered with a sort of hat. At the end is this entry, in the hand-writing of the duke himself: "Ce llvre est a moy Humphrey due de Gloucestre du don defrere Jehan Capgrave, quy le me Jit presenter a mon manoyr de Pen- (18) Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, J I. pp. 45—47. 53. Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, X. B. v. p. 132. 90 sherst le jour de Van MCCCXXX VIII." [pro- bably MCCCCXXXVIIL] i. e. "This book belongs to me, Humphrey^, duke of Gloucester, the gift of brother John Capgrave, who presented it to me at my manor of Pen* shurst, the day of - - - in the year 14.38." Beside this Commentary on Genesis, and others on Exodus and Kings, presented also by the duke to the Library at Ox- ford, he was the author of Commentaries on almost all the books of the Old and New Testament; as w^ell as of a Catalogue, or Legend of the Ejiglish Saints, printed at London, by Caxton, 1516. fob; a Biography of illus- trious men, who flourished under the Henries of England; and many other works, chiefly historical: He was de- cided in his attachment to the church of Rome, but op- posed and thundered against the depraved practices of the ecclesiastics of his day. He died at Lynn, in Norfolk, August 12th, A. D. 1464; or, according to Pitts, A. D. 1484.^^ But the most munificent patron of general literature, was the good Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. To him the Bodleian Library, as it has been since called, was indebted for an extensive and princely donation of books, containing 600 volumes. These books are called Novi Tractatus, or New Treatises, in the university Register. They were the most splendid and costly copies that could be procured, finely written on vellum, and elegant- ly embellished with miniatures and illuminations; 120 of which were valued at more than ^1000. The magnifi- cent copy of Valerius Maximus, the Index of which was made by Whethamstede, was one of them. As he pa- tronized, in a particular manner, the abbey of St. Albans, many of the abbots paid their court to him, by sending him presents of books, beautifully executed, and adorned with the most exquisite paintings, which seem to have : I I ■* (19) Cavei Hist. Litt. saec. xv. Append, p. 132. Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, II. p. 46. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 91 constituted a part of his gift to the library at Oxford.^ Humphrey was brother to Henry V. and the duke of Bed- ford; and uncle to Henry VI. during whose minority he occasionally administered the affairs of the kingdom^ as regent. The Library of Baliol College, Oxford, was also found- ed in the early part of the fifteenth century. It was ori- ginally built in two parts, the lower, or west part in 1427, by Dr. Thomas Chace; and the upper, or east part about the year 1477, by Mr. Robert Abdy, both some time masters. William Lambert, who w^as master in 1406, and Robert Thwaites, who attained the same honour in 1451, gave many valuable MSS.; and William Wilton, a fellow, and afterwards chancellor of the university, was also a contributor of books, in 1492. Grey, bishop of Ely,; in 1454, proved a most noble benefactor, not only in money for the building, but in adding to the collection about 200 MSS. many of them richly illuminated, which he had purchased in England and Italy. In the latter country he employed transcribers and illuminators, as appears by some of his MSS. still in this library. The illuminations were chiefly executed by Autonius Marius, an ^^ exquisite painter," of Florence, during the bishop's residence in that city. On most, if not all of the MSS. the donors' arms were fastened, painted on vellum, and covet^ed with pieces of thin horn, to prevent their being torn off, or defaced. "But, with great resentment let it be spoken," says A. Wood, "divers of them which smelled of superstition, or that treated of school divinity, or of geometry, or astronomy, were taken away in that igno- rant time of Edward VI. wherein people, under pretence of reformation, pilfered, and made havoc of those things which posterity hath since much desired to see."^* (2D) Warton, ubi sup. (21) Chalmer's Hist, of the Colleges, &c. attached tp the University of Oxford, I. p. 55. Oxford, 1810, 8vo. Wood's Hist, and Antiq. of Oxford^ed. Gutch. p, 89, 4to. 92 BIBLICAL LITERATUR'^, The countenance which the study of the Sacred Scrip- tures derived also from the devotional habits of two royal personages^ ought not to be forgotten. These were Ann OF Bohemia, and Henry VI. The former of these illus- trious characters was the beloved queen of Richard II. daughter of the Emperor Charles IV. and sister to Win- ceslaus, king of Bohemia, and emperor of Germany. She was married to King Richard A. D. 1382. Wiclif, in his book Of the threefold bond of love, thus speaks of her : "It is possible that the noble queen of England, the sister of Caesar, may have the Gospel written in three languages, Bohemian, German, and Latin, and to here- ticate her on this account, would be Luciferian folly." Archbishop Arundel, in his sermon preached at her fune- ral in 1394, highly commends her, that "although she was a stranger, yet she constantly studied the Four Gospels in English, and explained by the expositions of the doc- tors ; and that in the study of these, and reading godly books, she was more diligent than even the prelates themselves, though their office and business required it."^^ Of the attachment of King Henry VI. to the Holy Scriptures, and his regular habits of piety, the following account has been left by John Blackman, a Carthusian monk, and an intimate friend of the monarch himself: "He was incessantly occupied either in prayers, or in reading the Holy Scriptures, or chronicles, from which he derived many passages for his own spiritual consolation, as well as that of others. He was also accustomed to send to certain clergymen, hortatory epistles, full of heavenly mys- teries and salutary admonitions, to the astonishment of many. On ordinary days he spent his time not less dili- gently, in treating of the affairs of his kingdom with his council, according to the exigency of the case ; or else in reading writings or chronicles. Hence Richard Tunstall, ■ ■ — — — - — I ^ ; (%1) Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 161, Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, pp. 197, 198; FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 93 formerly his faithful chamberlain, has given testimony con- cerning him, both verbally and in his writings, saying, 'his delight was in the Law of the Lord both day and night.' In confirmation of the same thing, the king himself heavily complained to me in his palace at Eltham, when I was with him there alone, engaged with him in his holy books, and listening to his salutary admonitions, and the breathings of his profound" devotion, for being interrupted by a knocking at the royal gate, by a certain powerful duke of the realm; the king said, 'They so disturb me, that I can scarcely snatch time to refresh myself either by day or night, with the reading of any sacred doctrines, without being interrupted by some noise or other/ Some- thing of a similar kind once happened also in my presence at Windsor." ^^ Yet such was the inconsistency of this monarch, that whilst he himself read the Scriptures con- stantly, and regarded them as an inestimable source of instruction and consolation, his subjects were persecuted, imprisoned, and burned alive, for reading, or hearing, or pursuing the dictates of those very Scriptures! The opinions of Wiclif, which had continued to spread in England, were now extended to the continent, and found in Bohemia, in particular, many who advocated the doctrines of the reformer, and zealously endeavoui-ed to give them publicity and establishment. The attend- ants of Ann of Bohemia, queen of Richard IL on their return to their own country, had carried with them some of Wiclif s writings, and communicated the knowledge of his sentiments to the circle of their acquaintance;^* but the principal agent in introducing Wiclifs works was a youug Bohemian nobleman, named Faulfisch. This gen- tleman had been a student at Oxford, where he had embraced the views of the English reformer, and had brought to Bohemia several of his works, among which (23) Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 171. C24) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. p. 701. 94 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, were his books De Realihus Universalihus ; De dwersis qucestionibus contra Clerum; Dialogus; Trialogus; Super Evmigelia sermones per circulum anni, &c.^* These were read with avidity by the celebrated John Hubs, a native of Bohemia, who, by his genius and industry, had risen from obscurity to the honourabie office of rector of the university of Prague, which was then in a flourishing condition, and crowded with students from various parts of Germany. He had also been nominated, A. D. 1400, one of the two preachers of Bethlehem, a great church dedicated to Matthias and Matthseus, which had been erected and endowed by an opulent citizen of Prague, for the purpose of having the Word of God taught to the people in the vulgar tongue, both on festivals and ordi- nary days. Huss was soon joined by many of the clergy, and several of the nobility; in particular by Jerom of Prague, a man of superior talents and address, who had visited England for the sake of his studies, and brought from thence various writings of Wiclif. The adherents of our reformer, however, met with a violent and bigotted opponent in Subinco, surnamed Lepus, archbishop of Prague, a prelate of illustrious extraction, but so illiterate, that he only acquired the knowledge of letters after his advancement to the archbishopric. This determined enemy of the Hussites, as they were called, commanded that all the books of Wiclif should be brought to him in order to be publicly burnt. The episcopal mandate was partially obeyed, and more than two hundred volumes finely written, and richly ornamented with costly covers and gold bosses, were committed to the flames.^® But the rage of Subinco and his party was not to be assuaged by the mere destruction of what were deemed heretical works; the teachers were still more the objects of their (25) iEneae Sylvii Historia Bohemica^ cap. xxxv. p. 65. Francofurt, 1687, 12mo. Lewis's Life of Wicliffe, ch. ix. p. 143. (26) /Eneae Sylvii Hist. Bohem. cap. xxxv. pp. 66—69. ^idderi De Eruditione Historia^ cap. i. p, 40. Rotterd, 1680. FIPTfiENTH CENTURY. 95 direst enmity. John Huss was driven from Prague^ and obliged to take refuge in the village from whence he de- rived his name. In this retreat ^'he spent his time/' says a catholic historian, "in translating certain books of the Old and New Testament into the vulgar tongue; to which he added commentaries, and gave thereby to women and tradesmen means of disputing with the monks and clergy." The council of Constance being as- sembled, in 1414, he was cited to appear before it, and contrary to the expectations of his enemies, acted with that noble decision that marked his character, and fear- lessly presented himself on the first day of its sitting, un- der the protection of the Safe-conduct, or passport, of the Emperor Sigismund, which required all the subjects of the empire, "to suffer him to pass and repass secure; and, for the honour of his imperial majesty, if need be, to provide him with good passports." But the Safe-con- duct was perfidiously violated, and Huss was condemned, and burnt at the stake, A. D. 1415. His friend, and fel- low-sufferer, Jerom, followed him through the flames the ensuing year, i^neas Sylvius, a cotemporary cardi- nal, and afterwards pope, under the name of Pius II. says, "They bore their sufferings with constancy, going to the stake as to a feast, and suffering no expression to escape, which could indicate uneasiness of mind. As the fire kindled, they began to sing hymns, which even the flames and crackling of the fire could scarcely interrupt."^' Thus, by the death of these two upright and excellent men, eternal infamy was attached to a council, which, whilst it professed to be assembled for the reformation of the church, decreed the martyrdom of those who dared to oppugn its superstitions and errors, violated the most so- lemn engagements, supported the Teutonic knights in their enormities, refused to punish the advocates of regi- (27) iEneae Sylvii Hist. Bohem. cap. xxxti. p. 73. Earber)''s Pretended Ueformers^ p. 49. 96 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, cide, and amused itself with the buffooneries of the most ridiculous dramatic entertainments. (See vol. I. p. 420.) ^^ Irritated by the death of their teacher and his friend, the Hussites flew to arms, and under the conduct of the intrepid Zisca, a Bohemian nobleman, commenced a fierce and bloody war, which terminated first in the death of Zisca, and then in the division of the Hussites into Calixthies and Tahorites; the former contending for the use of the cup (calix) to the laity, in the eucharist, and the latter, who derived their name from a mountain denominated Tabor, to which they had fled, insisting upon a more general reformation, and the establishment of a purer doctrine and discipline. During the thirteen years war, carried on by the Hussites, the most de- structive measures were too frequently adopted ; and it must ever be lamented, that those who seceded from the Romish church, on account of its unscriptural doctrines and practices, were hurried by their violence to depreda- tions unworthy the character they claimed. On one occasion they destroyed a church and monastery, adjoin- ing the king s palace, the largest and most beautiful in ail Bohemia, and the burying places of its sovereigns. The church was magnificent; the altar was decorated with gold and silver, the- ecclesiastical robes were inter- woven with pearls, and the windows were large and glazed. The dormitory of the monastery was capable of containing eight hundred monks ; the offices were magni- ficently constructed; the cloister enclosed an extensive garden, and on its lofty walls the whole of the Old and New Testament was inscribed, in characters rendered sufficiently legible, by increasing in magnitude in pi*opor- tion to their distance and height.^^ (28) See Fox's Actes and Monumentes, I. p. 701—756; Milner's Hist. of the Church of Christ, IV. pp. 209; and Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, I. p. 242. (29) Mnede Sylvii Hist. Bohem. cap. xxxvi. pp. 74, 75. Earbery's Pretended ReforraeiS, B. ii. p. 10» FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 97 The Calixtines, having" obtained the use of the eucha- ristical cup by papal permission, soon began to persecute, in their turn, the Tahorites; who in many points resembled the Waldenses, and who having laid aside their martial principles, were become more moderate, and more deeply pious. Various sorts of torture were inflicted on them, numbers were barbarously murdered, and many died in prison; the sick were thrown into the open fields, where many perished with cold and hunger ; and others were ex- pelled from the cities and villages, with the forfeiture of all their effects. Thus driven from their homes, they were obliged to hide themselves in mountains and woods ; and to escape detection by the smoke, to kindle no fires, except in the night, when they met to pray, and read the Woro OF God. In 14S0, they received a great increase of their numbers, from the accession of Waldensian refugees, who escaped out of Austria, where their bishop, Stephen, had been burnt alive, and where a dreadful persecution had been raised against them. From these Bohemian refugees, the Moravians, or United Brethren, are descend- ed, deriving the former term from the country they inha- bited, and the latter from their brotherly union in the plan of discipline, &c. formed in 1457, by Gregory, the founder of the unity .^'' Such were the noble struggles for the truth, and for the Holy Scriptures, as the grand rule of faith and prac- tice, made by these ancient worthies: but the papal authorities knew too well, that their deeds could not bear the light, and therefore sought their safety in darkness. A striking instance of this occurred in 1418, when Eric, of Pomerania, requested permission from Pope Martin V. to found a university at Copenhagen, and only obtained it, on the express condition, that the Holy Scriptures should neither be read nor explained in it, but (30) Milner's Hist. otth« Church of Christ, IV. Cent, xv, ch. Vn. passim. Vol. 1L G 98 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, that the lectures should be confined to profane lite- rature ! ^^ Other difficulties^ also, beside those arising from papal opposition, presented themselves to such as were desirous of reading the Scriptures, for copies of them were rare, and expensive, and could seldom be obtained but by the wealthy; except when the indefatigable advocates of Gos- pel purity happened to have the opportunity, possessed the ability, and submitted to the labour of transcribing. Even those who had acquired the important art of writ- ing, obtained with difficulty the materials requisite for transcription or epistolary correspondence.^^ Happily about this period the noble and important Art of Printing was discovered, and the sources of knowledge soon became comparatively easy of access. Our honest martyrologist thus enumerates the advanta- ges resulting from this incomparable invention : " Hereby tongues are known, knowledge groweth, judgment in- creaseth, books are dispersed, the Scripture is seen, the doctors be read, stories be opened, times compared, truth discerned, falsehood detected, and with finger pointed, and all through the benefit of printing. Wherefore, I suppose that either the pope must abolish printing, or he must seek a new world to reign over; or else, as this world standeth, printing doubtless will abolish him. Both the pope, and all his college of cardinals, must this understand, that through the light of printing, the world begin neth now to have eyes to see, and heads to judge. He cannot walk so invisibly in a net, but he will be spied. And although, through might, he stopped the mouth of John Huss before, and of Jerom, that they might not preach, thinking to make his kingdom sure : yet, instead of John Huss, and others, God hath opened (31) X)r. Henderson's MS. Hist, of Danish Versions^ in which he refers to Pontoppidan's Annal. Eccles. Dan. II. p, 521, (32) Beckmaa's History of Inventions, II. p. 223. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 99 the press to preachy whose voice the pope is never able to stop, with all the puissance of his triple crown. By this printing, as by the gift of tongues, and as by the sin- gular organ of the Holy Ghost, the doctrine of the Gos- pel soundeth to all nations and countries under heaven: and what God revealeth to one man, is dispersed to many, and what is known in one nation i§ opened to all. "^^ (33) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, 1. p. 837, 100 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, PART III. FROM THE INVENTION OP PRINTING, CHAPTER I. FIFTEENTH CENTURY CONTINUED. Invention qf Printing. Early Printers. First printed Bibles. Booh Censors. Indices Expurgatorii. Li- censers qfthe Press. PRINTING appears to be indebted for its origin to the art of engraving on wood, which was probably borrowed from the Chinese^ among whom it was in use from the remotest periods. The first attempts at block- printing, in Europe^ were made about the commencement of the fifteenth century, by the manufacturers of playing cards, w^ho, after having employed blocks, or wood-en- gravings for their cards, began to engrave on wood, the Images of the Saints, which the clergy distributed on cer- tain occasions to the people. Prints of this description, of the same size as the playing cards, representing diffe- rent subjects of Sacred History and devotion, with a text analogous to the subject, opposite to the figure, are preserved in the library of Wolfenbuttel. But that they also engraved images of a larger size, is proved by the very curious wood-cut of St. Christopher, found by Ba- ron Heinecken, in the convent of the Chartreux, at Bux- heim, near Memmingen, and now in the superb collec- tion of Earl Spencer; ayac-5zm?7e of which is given in Dibdin's splendid Bihliotheca Spenceriana. From the inscription engraved and printed, at the foot of FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 101 the print, it is proved to have been executed A. D. 1423.^ To the images of the saints succeeded histo- rical subjects, chiefly Biblical or devotional, gene- rally denominated Boohs of Images, with a text or explanation engraven on the same tablet, the full- est account of which is given by Baron Heinecken, in his Ided Generate dhine Collection comrpleite d'Estampes, avec^tme dissertation sur V origine de la Gravure, et siir les, premiers Livres des Images. Leipsic et Vienne, 1771, 8vo. A judicious abridgment of this work, so far as refers to Books of Images, with corrections and notices of re- cently discovered works of this description, is contained in the appendix to Home's Introduction to the Study of BihUography, and is accompanied with ^^ facsimile of the first plate of the Speculum Hiimance Salvatioms, sup- posed to have been executed between the years 1440 and 1457; and another of the Bihlia Pauperum, suppos- ed to have been executed between A. D. 1420 and 1425. Se\era\ facsimiles of works of this nature, are en- graved from rare copies in the possession of Earl Spencer, in the Bibliotheca Spenceriana, with bibliographical de- scriptions by the ingenious editor. Of all the XylograpMc works, that is, such as are printed from wooden tablets, the Biblia Pauperum, and the Speculum Salvationis, are the most celebrated. The Biblia Pauperum, which consists of 40 plates of Biblical subjects, with analogous extracts and sentences, is unquestionably a very rare and ancient book. The few copies of it which are now extant, are, for the most part, either imperfect, or in a very bad condition ; which ought not to excite surprise, when it is considered that this work was executed for the use of young ^ persons and common people, (whence its name, the Bible oj the Poor,) who were thus enabled to acquire at a low price a knowledge of some of the events recorded in the Scrip- succeeded to the office. Butler, {Lives of the Sohifs, vol. IV.) however, says, he was general of the Carthu- sians at the time of his death. In the year 1412, the states of Arragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, being divided about a successor to the crown of Arragon, they agreed to choose nine commissa- ries, three for each kingdom; when Boniface, his bro- ther Vincent, and Don Peter Bertrand, were chosen for the' kingdom of Valencia. They met at the castle of Caspe, in Arragon. Ferdinand of Castile was unani- mously declared to be the lawful heir; and Vincent Ferrer, haranguing the foreign ambassadors and people present, the decision was received with acclamation. Boniface died April 29th, 1419.*' The exact period when Boniface's -translation of the Bible was made, cannot perhaps be ascertained, but as Vin- cent was recalled to Valencia by King John II. in 1410, by whose command the version is by some said to have been made, and as he continued there about two years, it was probably commenced, if not completed, at that time. About the year 1450, Alphonsus V. king of Arragon, is supposed to have translated the Proverbs of Solomon, into his native tongue. He is also said to have read the whole Bible fourteen times, w^ith glosses and commenta- ries; and to have become so expert in the Scriptures, as not only to relate the substance of them, but to repeat many parts of them correctly, from memory.'® It is, nevertheless, to be deplored, that the study of (18) Antonii Biblioth. Hisp. Vet. IL lib. x. cap, iii. p. 140. Butler, V. ubi sup. (19) Usserii Hist, Dogmat. p. 172. 148 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ the Scriptures was far from being general; and that the most profomid ignorance reigned amongst the major part, even of the clergy. Few of them, comparatively, were acquainted with the Latin, though constantly used in the offices of the church; whilst feasting, and debauche- ry, are declared to have been their ordinary occupations. This occasioned the councils of Madrid and Arenda, in 1473; and various decrees were passed in them, designed to remedy the disorders and ignorance of the ecclesias- tics of all ranks. The bishops were forbidden to ordain or promote those who were ignorant of Latin; the Scriptures were ordered to be daily read at the tables of the prelates themselves ; the clergy, in general, were for- bidden to wear gay apparel, to be clothed in silk, to walk in white sandals, or red or green buskins, or to put on mourning ; they were also commanded not to play at dice, or fight duels ; and those who died of the wounds received in a duel, were ordered to be deprived of eccle- siastical burial. Other canons were framed against simony, clandestine marriages, ecclesiastical concubinage, dramatic exhibitions in churches^ &c.^^ But these injunctions were not succeeded by the refor- mation so necessary to the religious welfare of the church ; for in 1499, Pope Alexander VI. found it requisite to send an epistle to the Spanish bishops, respecting the ignorance of the clergy ; urging them to adopt measures for the promotion of study and discipline among thern.^* Some attempts, however, were made, notwithstanding the almost universal depravity and ignorance which pre- vailed, to communicate a knowledge of the Sacred Writ- ings, to those who were acquainted only with their mo- ther tongue. Le Long mentions a version of the Bible, (20) D' Aguirre, Col lectio Maxima Concil. Hisp. III. pp. 672—677. Romae, 1693—94 fol. Dictionnaire Portatif des Conciles, pp. 39. 302, 479. (21) D' Aguirre, ut sup. III. p. 689, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 149 in the dialect of Catalonia, written in the year 1407, of which an imperfect copy was preserved in the Coibertine Library; he also notices an edition of the Psalter, in the dialect of Castile, printed, as he su}>posed, before A. D. 1500.-^ Fred. Furius, who wrote a Treatise on the Sacred Scriptures, printed in 1556, says, that at the close of the fifteenth century, the Scriptures had not only been translated into his native dialect of Valencia, but into almost all the other dialects of Spain. ^^ These transla- tions were prevented from being circulated, by the esta- blishment and influence of the inquisition, and the edict of Ferdinand and Isabella, (called also Elizabeth,) v/hich enacted, that "No one should translate the Scriptures into the vulgar tongue, or have them in their possession, under pain of the severest punishment."^* Fred. Furius adds, that "this prohibition extended only to those who were originally Jews, and not to others." He further remarks, that the Lessons from the Gospels, read in the churches, during the whole year, had been faithfully and elegantly translated, and permitted to be printed; and that he had seen and read the Epistles of St. Paul, translated into Spanish verse, in the dialects of both Castile and Valencia^ Conrad Gesner, another author who flourished in the sixteenth century, notices these vernacular versions, but remarks, that, in his day, nearly all the copies of them had been burnt. ^^ In January, 1492, the Spaniards took Granada, and extinguished the empire of the Moors in Spain, where they had been settled more than 700 years. Ferdinand de Talavera, a man of ^reat learning, and exemplary piety, was nominated archbishop of Granada. His disposition was mild, pa- (^2) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I. pp. 362. 369. edit. 1723. (23) Ibid. I. p. 362. (24) Le Long, ut sup, p. 361. Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 175, (25) Simon's Crit. Hist, of tlie Versions of the N. T. pt. ii. ch, ii, p. 18; and ch. xli. p. 344. Usserius, ut sup; i.26) Le Long, L p, 362, 150 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, tient, and charitable, without ambition, and without jea- lousy. He, therefore, consented, that the archbishop of Toledo, the celebrated Ximenes, should possess equal authority with himself, in his diocese. The two arch- bishops concerted measures for the conversion of the Mohammedans, thus placed under their care; and mutu- ally agreed, that the safest, and most successful plan would be, to gain over the Alfaquis, or priests and doc- tors, of that sect. With this design, they convened an assembly of them in the palace, addressed them famiHarly, and after having exhorted them to renounce their errors and receive baptism, presented some of them with pieces of silk, others with scarlet caps, which were held by them in great estimation ; and sent them away, well pleased with the condescension of the prelates, and the presents they had received. By these means many of the priests were led to profess Christianity, and to per- suade the people to a similar profession; and so gi'eat was the success of these measures, that on the 18th. of De- cember, 1499, four thousand Moors received baptism. The refractory Moors, Ximenes endeavoured to conquer, sometimes by inquisitorial treatment, sometimes by gen- tler and milder usage. Having, at length, subdued the more intractable of his opponents, particularly Zegri, a noble and valiant Moor, and conciliated the Mohamme- dan doctors, he ordered all the copies of the Koran, and every book that contained its doctrines, to be brought to him, and consigned 5000 volumes publicly to the flames. Neither illuminations, nor rich bindings, nor , other ornaments of gold and silver, were suffered as a plea for their preservation. The only works exempted from the common flame were some treatises on medi- cine, for which the Moors had been famous, and which were transmitted to the library of the college of Alcala.^'' (27) Flechier, Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes, I. liv. i, pp, 136 — 143. Amsterdam, 1693, 12mo. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 151 The Moors having professed Christianity, it became a subject of discussion between the archbishops, which was the best method of instructing their new converts in the religion they had embraced. The dispositions of these prelates discovered itself in the diiference of their views. Ferdinand de Talavera, in order to direct their attention to the divine offices, had ordered tti. daily Lessons of the Old and New Testament to be recited in the vulgar tongue; and permitted the Books of the Mass, and espe- cially the Epistles and Gospels, to be translated into Arabic, and printed. Ximenes entirely disapproved of this procedure, and urged the impropriety of placing the Sacred Oracles in the hands of these half converts, affirming that weak minds always revered most v/hat \vas concealed and mysterious; and contending that, since the Old and New Testaments contained many passages that demanded much intelligence and attention to understand them, it was best to leave them in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, the three languages consecrated by the inscrip- tion placed over the head' of the dying Saviour. But whilst he strenuously contended against the Scriptures being translated into the vulgar tongue, he allowed the propriety of distributing, in the language commonly spo- ken, catechisms, prayers, and edifying narratives, and other books of religious instruction. The archbishop of Granada reluctantly submitted to the unyielding temper of Ximenes, and the Book of God was withheld from the people.'^ The expulsion of the Jews speedily followed the con- quest of the Moors ; for in March of the same year, (1492j Ferdinand and Isabella banished the Jews out of Spain; by which eight hundred thousand persons were forced to quit the kingdom, and seek asylums in more favoured regions. In the number of those who were exiled, were several eminent Rabbis, particularly R. Isaac Abrabanel, (28) Flechier, Hist, du Card. Ximenes, I. liv. i. pp. 154, 155. 152 the author of valuable Comnientaries on several parts of the Old Testament, and other esteemed works; R. Meir^ author of a Commentary upon Joh-, and R. Abraham, the compiler of the chronological work called Juchassln.^^ Through the instructions of Vincent Ferrer, the terrors of the inquisition, and the dread of poverty and exile, many Spanish Jews were induced to make profession of the Catholic religion, some few of them sincerely, but most of them deceptively. Among the sincere converts from Judaism, during this century, in Spain, Solomon de Levi holds the chief place. He was a native of Burgos, and embraced Christianity from reading the works of Thomas Aquinas, or Aquino. At his baptism he took the name of Paulus de Sancta Maria, or Paul of Burgos. After the death of his \\dfe, he embraced the ecclesiastical state, and by his merits obtained places of trust and honour. He was preceptor to John II. king of Castile; and was successively archdeacon of Trevigno, bishop of Cartha- gena, and then of Burgos, where he died August 29th, 1445, aged 82. Some authors relate that he was patri- arch of Aquileia. He wrote, 1. Scriithnum Scrlpturarumy printed at Mantua, 1474, in fol.; Mentz, 1478; Paris, 1520; Burgos, 1591. 2. AdcUtiones ad Postlllam Magls- fri Nicolai de Lyra super Blhlias; generally printed with the Postils of De Lyra. In this work the author freely censures and corrects the Notes of DeLyra, particularly where he differs from Aquinas, whose defence Paul univer- sally tindertakes. In his emendations of De Lyra, he is often successful in what relates to philosophy and Hebi*ew antiquities ; but in his criticisms of the Greek, he more frequently fails. Fie is also considered as paying too im- plicit deference to the Fathers, and the scholastic writers. 3. Qucestiones XII. de Nomine Tetragrammato ; published with notes, by J. Drusius, Franeker, 1604, 8vo. His three sons were baptized at the same time with (29) Basnage's Hist, of the Jews, B. vii. cb.xxi. pp. 692, 693. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 153 him, when he became a Christian convert ; and all distin- guished themselves by their merit. The eldest, Alphonso, who succeeded his fat/ier as bishop of Burg-os, wrote an Ahridgment of Spanish Hlsfori/; the second, Gonsalvo, became bishop of Placentia; and the third, Alvarez, who married into an illustrious family, published an History of John II. king of C as tile. ^^ Another learned Spaniard of this period, was Jacobus Perez, bishop of Christopolitanus. He was a native of Valencia; and became an hermit of the order of Augustin. He died in 1491. He was the author of various works, par- ticularly of a Commentary on the Psalms; and a Treatise against theJews,^v\\\te6 atLyons, 1512. Heis chieflynoted for his singular opinions respecting the invention of the Hebrew Vowel Points, and the compilation of the Talmud. He says, " That the Rabbis perceiving that^ after the conversion of Constantine the Great, multitudes of both Gentiles and Jews embraced Christianity, and that their influence and revenues were consequently lessened, they convened a general meeting at Cairo, in Egypt; where they, with as much secrecy as possible, falsified and cor- rupted the Scriptures; invented five or seven points to serve instead of vowels; and forged the Talmud. (Prolog, in Psalmos Tract, G.)^^ It may also be deemed interesting to observe, thatPrmf- ing was introduced into Spain at an early period after its invention. Valencia is conjectured to be the city where printing was first exercised in that kingdom ; and where a press was established in 1474. The earhest work printed there, of which the date has been ascertained, was Obres, o Trobes les qiiales tracten de las hors de la Sacr^a- (30) Lempriere's Universal Biography. Lond, 1808, 4to. Cavei Hist. Litt. saec.xv. p. 92. Append. Le Lon£r, Biblioth. Sacra, edit. Masch. pt. ii. vol. III. cap. ii. sec. 3, p, 363. (31) Hody, DeBibl. Text. Oug. lib. iii.pt. ii. p. 442, Cavei Hist. Litt. saic. xv. p. 149, Append. 154 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ tissima Verge Maria, %c. 1478, 4to. The number of books printed in Spain, during the fifteenth century, was 310. These appeared chiefly at Barcelona, Burgos, Salamanca, Saragossa, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia ; and were prin- cipally executed by Germans.^^ If from Spain we turn to France, we find but little that claims our attention, relative to Biblical litera- ture. The establishment of the ncAvly invented art of printing in several cities of France, has been noticed already; and the editions of the Scriptures which were printed, were chiefly those of Comestor, or Guiars des Moulins. The following are the principal ones: A French version of the Old and New Testament, printed at Lyons, without date, but supposed, with considerable probability, to have been published in 1477. The editors were Julian 3Iacho, and Peter Farget. San- tan der says, this was the^r^^ French version; but Le Long speaks of it merely as a revised edition of the translation of Guiars des Moulins. The following is Santander's bib- liographical account of this and another rare edition of the Scriptures. " The Old Testament, translated into French. Lyons, printed hy Barth. Buyer, (about the year 1477; injoir "The exact conformity of the characters of this most rare edition, with those employed by Barth. Buyer, in the impression of the A'ew Testament, noticed in the fol- lowing article, proves, I think, that they were printed at the same press ; and that Julian Macho, and Peter Farget, were also the editors and correctors." "The work is printed in two columns, in Gothic let- ters, and without signatures. Five leaves, which contain the table of rubrics, with this title, Cy commencent les ruhriches de ce present livre, precede the text, at the end of which, on the reverse of the last leaf, are these words: (32) Home's Introduction to Bibliography, f. p. 475, Clarke's Bibliographical Miscellany, II. p. 127. FIFTEENTH CENTDRY. 155 *'^ Cy finit ce present livre." A copy was sold at the sate of Gaignat, in 1769, for 80 livres, 1 sol; and at the sale of La Valliere, in 1783, for 99 livres, 19 sols." "The New Testament revised and corrected by Julian Macho and Peter Farget. Lyons, Bartholomew Buyer, without date (about the year 1477,) hi foiy '' An exceedingly rare edition, and the first translation of the New Testament into French. It is printed in the same Gothic characters as the Old Testament mentioned in the preceding article, and which it was probably designed to accompany." The pages of this volume are in two columns, without figures or signatures. It begins with a table which occupies 20 leaves, which ends thus : "Cy finist la table du nouueau testament ensemble la declaration dieeluy faicte et compassee p nenerable per- sone frere iuUia docteur en theologie de 1' ordre saint August! demourant au couuet de lyo sus le rosne. loue soit dieu Amen." ^' Then follows the text^ at the end of which, on the recto of the last leaf, is this subscription : ^Cy finist I'apo- calypse et semblablement le nouueau ueu et corrige p uenerables persones freres iullien macho et pierre farget docteurs en theologie de Tordre des Augustins de lyo sus le rosne Imj)rime en la dicte uille de lyon par Barthol- omieu Buyer citoien du dit lion." " There is also another impression of this book, by the same printer, in the same characters, with the same number of leaves, and the same subscription, differing only in being printed in long lines, and the sheets having signatures; it is, however, considered as being equally ancient, and is equally esteemed." " At Gaignat's sale, the former edition sold for 90 livres, and that with long lines for 211 livres: and at La Valliere's, the former edition sold for 99 livres, 19 sols; the edition with long lines for 90 livres." Julian Macho was an Augustine monk, and Doctor 156 in Divinity, of the convent of Lyons. Beside the French New Testament, noticed above, he was joint editor with John Bathalier, of a French Supplement to the Golden Legend, printed at Lyons, by Earth. Buyer, 1477, in fol. Peter (Pierre) Farget, sometimes erroneously called Falget, Ferget, and Sarget, was also a monk of the order of Augustin, and Doctor in Divinity, residing in the convent of the order, at Lyons. Beside the revision of the New Testament, Farget published, in 1482, a French translation of the Speculum Humance Vitue, under the title of Miro'ir de la vie humaine; printed at Strasburg, with Gothic characters, in small folio. lie also translated out of Latin into French, a work entitled, " The Consolation of poor sinners,'' in the form of a dialogue, between Belial and Jesus Christ; beside other works of minor importance. ^^ Le Long mentions an edition also in quarto, in the Go- thic type, executed at Paris, about the year 1 478, which he conjectures to have been corrected from the Historia Scholastica of Peter Comestor, by William le Menand; and either this, or the one which will be subsequently noticed, is, probably, the translation of which John Lam- bert speaks, in his answer to the bishop's articles, A. D. 1538. Lambert's w^ords are; "You" (the bishops) "ask, whether I believe that the heads, or rulers, by necessity of salvation, are bound to give unto the people Holy Scripture, in their jiiother-language? I say, that I think they are bound to see that the people may truly know Holy Scripture, and 1 do not know how that may be done so w^ell, as by giving it to them truly translated in the mo- ther tongue, that they may have it by them at all times, to pass the time godly, whensoever they have leisure thereto; like as they have in France, under the French king's privilege, and also the privilege of the emperor, (33) Santander, Diet. Bibliographique, 2cle partie, pp. 197 — 199, De Juvigny. Bibliotheques Fran9oises, II. pp. 277, 278. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 157 and so do I know they have had it these Jifh/-four years in France^ at the least, and it was translated at the re- quest of a king", called, I trow, Louis, as appeareth by the privilege put in the beginning of the book." The king here mentioned was Lonis Xl.^* Another French version of the B'lhle has been attributed to Jean de Rely, made by order of Charles VIII. M. de la Monnoye says, "This pretended translation of Jean de Rely, is nothing more than that which was made by Guiars des Moulins, in 1294, from the Historia Scholas- tica of Peter Comestor, and which Jean de Rely, who was canon of Notre-Dame, and was made bishop of Angers in 1491, revised by order of Charles VIII. It was printed in 1495, and again in 1538, by Antoine Bon- nemere." To this the editor of the BibUotheques Fran- coises subjoins as a correction of the above: " The oldest edition of the French translation, by Jean de Rely, appears to be that cited in t\\Q Catalogue of the printed Books in the Kings Library, Tom. I. No. 156. ^La Bible Historiale, oi^ sont les Histoires Scholastiques, ou les Livres Hystoriaulx de la Bible, translates de Latin en Francois, en la maniere que les maitres out traduit ez Histoires Scholastiques de Pierre le Mangeur, par Guyart des Moulins, revue par Jean de Rely, Pretre et Chanoine de S. Pierre d' Aire, de F Archeveche de Tresves, par le commandement de Charles VIII. roi de France; Paris, pour Antoine Verard, in fol. 2 vols, vers 1' an 1487.' It was afterwards reprinted in 4to. in 1515, and 1535; and again in fol. in 1538. According to the same catalogue, in the edition of 1538, the editor, Antoine Bonnemere, says, ''that the first edition was printed in 1495, after having been corrected."^* (34) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I. p. 325. Foxe's Actes and Monumentes, IL p. 415. Lond, 1641, fol, (35) De Juvigny, Bibliotheques Francoises, IIL Du Verdier, Art; '« Bibles." pp. 267—270, 158 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ England next claims our regard. Wiclif and his followers had detected many of the errors, and exposed many of the superstitious practices, of the church of Rome at this period ; but the clergy obstinately refused to abandon either their errors or superstitions, and per- secuted, with the most unrelenting cruelty, all who attempted the smallest reformation. " In a word," says an accurate historian, "ignorance, vice, and superstition, seemed to have gained ground, — though the revival of learning, and the reformation of reUgion, Avere at no great distance."^^ A singular instance of incompetency in a clergyman is related by Warton, in his History of English Poetry. In 1448, Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, on the presentation of Merton Priory, in Snrrey, instituted a rector to the parish of Sherfield, in Hampshire. The rector, however, previously took an oath before the bishop, that on account of his insufficiency in letters, and default of knowledge in the superintendence of souls, he would learn Latin for the tw^o follow^ing years; and that at the end of the first year he would submit himself to be examined by the bishop, concerning his progress in gram- mar ; and that, if on a second examination he should be found deficient, he v/ould resign the benefice/^ The intro- duction of men into the sacred office, through the influ- ence of rank, who were destitute of competent abilities, is further exemplified by an anecdote related of Erasmus : ^^ At this time, (A. D. 1496,) I suppose," says his biogra- pher, " he refused a large pension, and larger promises, from a young illiterate Englishman, who w^as to be made a bishop, and who wanted to have him for a preceptor. This youth seems to have been James Stanley, son of the earl of Derby, and son-in-law to Margaret, the king's mother, and afterwards made bishop of Ely by her inte- rest. However, it appears that the young gentleman, (3G) Henry's Hist, of Great Britain, X. p. 42. (37) Warton's Hist, of Enolish Poetry, ll. p. 429, note z. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 159 though ignorant, had a desire to learn something, and to qualify himself, in some measure, for the station in which he was to be placed." ^® So far were the clergy, in general, from attempting to circulate the Scriptures, or instruct the people in the knowledge of their contents, that except such portions of them as were recited in the offices of the church, there was scarcely a Latin Testament in any cathedral church in England, till the time of the learned John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, in London, though the Latin wus the only authorized language for the Scriptures and service books. Instead of the Gospel of Christ, the spu- rious Gospel of Nicodemus was affixed to a pillar in the nave of the church; which Erasmus says, he had himself seen with astonishment in the metropolitan church of Canterbury .^^ It is remarkable that Theodoret, (Hceret. Fab. lib. i. cap. xx.) in thejifth century, complained of a similar practice existing in his day. Tatian, says he, '^com- posed a gospel which is called Dia Tessaron [Of the Four] leaving out the genealogies, and every thing that shews the Lord to have been born of the seed of David accord- ing to the flesh : which has been used not only by those of his sect, but also by them who follow the apostolical doctrine; they not perceiving the fraud of the composition, but simply using it as a compendious book. I have also met with above two hundred of these books, which were in esteem in our churches : all which I took away, and laid aside in a parcel, and placed in their room the Gospels of the Four Evangelists."**^ The Gospel of Nicodemus, or Acts of Pilate, above mentioned, is a work supposed to have been forged, to- wards the close of the third century, by Leucius Charinus. It treats chiefly of the Crucifixion and Resurrection of our (38) Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. p, 5. Lond. 1808, 8vo. (39) British Biography, J. Life of Bean Colet, p. 377. (40) Lardner's Works, II. p.' 138. Lond. 1788, 8vo. 160 Lord, and of his Descent into Hell. It contains many trifling, silly, and ludicrous relations, such as, the stan- dards or colours bowing- to Christ, as he passed: Jesus appearing to Joseph of Arimathea, after his resurrection, wiping his face from the dew, kissing him, and com- manding him to remain in his OAvn house for forty days ; and a supposititious narrative of the events attending Christ's descent into hell, by Lentius and Charinus, two saints raised from the dead, at the resurrection of the Sa- viour. The following extracts from this impudent forgery, wall enable the reader to judge of the kind of instruction afforded by these substitutes for the Gospel of Christ. The relation of Christ's descent into hell, is introduced by Joseph of Arimathea, addressing Annas and Caiphas, who were astonished to hear that Jesus w^as risen from the dead; and that others were risen with him; "We all," says he, "knew the blessed Simeon, the high-priest, w^ho took Jesus, when an infant, into his arms, in the temple. This same Simeon had two sons of his own, and we were all present at their death and funeral. Go, therefore, and see their tombs, for these are open, and they are risen; and behold, they are in the city of Arimathea, spending their time together, in offices of devotion. Some, indeed, have heard the sound of their voices, [in prayer] but they will not discourse with any one, but they continue as mute dead men. But come, let us go lo them, and be- have ourselves toward them with all due respect and caution. And if we can bring them to swear, perhaps they will tell us some of the mysteries of their resurrection." Annas, Caiphas, Nicodemus, and Gamaliel, proceed to Arimathea, they find Charinus and Lentius, at their devotions, and adjuring them by the Law, to relate what they had seen, they tremble, look up to heaven, make the sign of the cross upon their tongues, and then calling .for paper, write the account of what they profess to have seen. "When we were placed with our fathers, in the FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 161 depth of hell," say they, "in the blackness of darkness, on a sudden there appeared the colour of the sun like gold, and a substantial purple coloured light enlightening (the place.) Presently upon this, Adam, the father of all man- kind, with all the patriarchs and prophets, rejoiced and said, 'That light is the author of everlasting light, who hath promised to translate us to everlasting light.' And while we were all rejoicing, our father Simeon came among us, and congratulating all the company, said, 'Glorify the Lord Jesus Christ .' " Afterwards there came forth one like a little hermit, and was asked by every one, 'Who art thou?' To which he replied, 'I am, the voice of one crying in the wilderness John the Baptist.' But when the first man our father Adam heard these things, that Jesus was baptized in Jordan, he called out to his son Seth, and said, 'Declare to your sons, the patriarchs and prophets, all those things which thou didst hear from Michael the archangel, when I sent thee to the gates of pa- radise, to entreat God that he would anoint my head when I was sick.' Then Seth said, - -'I Seth, when I was praying to God at the gates of paradise, behold! the angel of the Lord, Michael, appeared unto me, saying - - - - '1 tell thee Seth, do not pray to God in tears, and entreat him for the oil of the tree of mercy, wherewith to anoint thy father Adam, for his head-ache, because thou canst not by any means obtain it, till the last day and times." A dialogue then ensues between Satan, the prince and captain of death, and Beelzebub, the prince of hell, in which they are interrupted by suddenly hearing a voice, "as of thunder and the rushing of winds, saying, 'Lift up your heads, O ye princes ; and be ye lift up, O everlasting gates, and the King of glory shall come in." This is succeeded by the appearance of the King of glory enlightening the regions of darkness, and throwing the devils into confusion. "Then the King of glory trampling upon death, seized the prince of hell, deprived him of all Vol. ir. L 162 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, his power, and took our earthly father Adam with him to his glory." A quarrel takes place between Satan and Beel- zebub, in which the prince of hell reproaches the prince of death, with being the occasion of the ruin of his kingdom, by urging the Jews to the crucifixion of Christ. Jesus then places Satan under the power of Beelzebub; and delivers the saints out of hell. On the entrance of the saints into paradise, they meet Enoch and Elias, and after a conversation betwixt the liberated saints and them, the narrative proceeds, ''^Behold there came another man in a miserable figure, carrying the sign of the cross upon his shoulders. And when all the saints saw him, they said to him, * Who art thou ? For thy countenance is like a thief's; and why dost thou carry a cross upon thy shoulders?' To which he answering, said, *Ye say right, for I was a thief, who committed all sorts of wick- edness upon earth. And the Jews crucified me with Jesus; and I observed the surprizing things which hap- pened in the creation at the crucifixion of the Lord Jesus, and I believed him to be the Creator of all things, and the Almighty King, and I prayed to him, saying, ' Lord remember me when thou comest into thy kingdom.' He presently regarded my supplication, and said to me, ^Verily, I say unto thee, this day thou shalt be with me in paradise.' And he gave me this sign of the cross, saying, 'Carry this, and go to paradise; and if the angel, who is the guard of paradise, will not admit thee, shew him the sign of the cross, and say unto him, Jesus Christ, who is now crucified, hath sent me hither to thee/ When I did this, and told the angel, he presently opened the gates, introduced me, and placed me on the right hand in paradise, saying, 'Stay here a little time, till Adam, the father of all mankind, shall enter in with all his sons, who are the holy and righteous [servants] of Jesus Christ, w^ho is crucified." The relation concludes with the thanksgivings of the patriarchs; and Charinus FIFTEENTH CENTURY. lb.i and Lenthius, after professing* to have revealed all they werepermitted, each deliver in a separate account, written on "distinct pieces of paper," which, on examination, "are found perfectly to agree, the one not containing one letter more or less than the other." Charinus and Len- thius immediately change "into exceeding white forms," and are seen no more. Joseph and Nicodemus afterwards relate the account to Pilate, who enters it in the public records, and going to the temple, summ.ons ail the rulers, and scribes, and doctors of the law, and says to them, " I have heard that ye have a certain large book in this temple; I desire you, therefore, that it may be broaght before me." And when the great book, carried by four ministers, [of the temple,] and adorned with gold and precious stones, is brought; Pilate adjures them to de- clare whether the Scriptures testify of Christ. Annas and Caiphas dismiss the rest, and then avow their convic- tion that " Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and true and Almighty God." *' — Such is the nature of a work, which v/as deemed of sufficient merit and importance, to be translated into various languages, to be one of the earliest specimens of typography; and to be placed in the church- es for the edification of the people! In the universities and cathedral churches, it was, at this period a general custom for the public lecturers to read up- on any book, rather than upon the Scriptures. "Their read- ings," says Dr. Knight, {Life of Colet,) "were ushered in with a text, or rather a sentence of Scotus and Aquinas ; and the explication was, not trying it by the word of God, but by the voice of scholastic interpreters, and the intricate terms of what they call logic ; which was then nothing but the art of corrupting human reason, and the Christian faith. It is true, divinity lectures had been read in Latin within many cathedral churches, for the benefit (41) Jones's New and Full Method of settling the Canonical authority of the N. T. II. pt. iii. ch. xxviii. p. 262, &c. Oxford, 1798, 8vo. 164 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, of the priests and clerks belonging to them. But the subject of them (as of all sermons ad clenim in the two universities, and in all ordinary visitations of the rural clergy) was commonly a question in scholastic theology, running into frivolous doubts, and elaborate resolutions out of the oracles of Scotus, and his puzzling interpreters ; not to edification, but to a confounding the thoughts of God and religion." On one occasion, the learned Grocyn gave a singular instance of candour and ingenuousness. He read in St. Paul's cathedral a lecture upon the book of D'wnysius Areopagita, commonly called Hierarchia Ecdesiastica. In the preface to his lecture, he declaimed with great warmth against those who either denied or doubted of the authority of the book on which he was read- ing. But after he had continued to read on this book a few Aveeks, and had more thoroughly examined its authen- ticity, he entirely changed his views of it, and openly declared that he had been in an error; and that the said book in his judgment was spurious, and never writ- ten by that author, who is in the Acts of the Apostles, called Dionysius the Areopagite}^ Occupied as the clergy were, in scholastic disputations ; and the nobility, in pursuit of pleasure and martial ho- nours ; they were generally inattentive to the interests of literature and science. The Latin language declined in its classical purity; and the Greek was almost unknown. The mathematical sciences, though not entirely neglected, were chiefly studied by the pretenders to astrology: and when we find learning at so low an ebb among those of high rank, and of the ecclesiastical profession, we may just- ly conclude that the common people would be almost total- ly illiterate. We accordingly learn that "it was not till the i-eign of Henry IV. that viileins,=^ farmers, and mechanics, (42) British Biography, I. pp. 328. 372, 377. * Villeins were those under the feudal system, who were liable to be sold with the land they occupied, but diifered from Slaves^ by paying a fixed rent for the farm, to which they were attached. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 165 were permitted by law to put their children to school, and long after that, they dared not to educate a son for the church, without a license from their lord."*^ Cornelius Vitellius, an Italian, was the first who tauglit Greek in the university oW.vford; and from him the famous Grocyn learned the first elements of it, which he afterwards perfected in Italy under Demetrius Chal- condyles, a learned Greelv, and Politian, an Italian, pro- fessor of Greek and Latin at Florence. In Cambridge, Erasmus was the first who publicly taught the Greek grammar; though even Erasmus himself, when he first came into England in 1497, had so incompetent an acquaintance with that language, that our countryman, Linacre, \vho was just returnedfrom Italy, perfected him in his knowledge of it. Dr. Thomas Linacre, or Lynacer, above named, was an eminent and most learned English physician, by whose extrtions the College of' Physicians was founded and incorporated, of which he held the office of president. In the decline of life, he resolved to change his profession for that of divinity, entered into holy orders, and was col- lated on the 23rd of October, 1509, to the rectory of Mer- sham; and obtained afterwards several preferments. An anecdote is related of him, which proves, that however accurate and extensive his grammatical knowledge of Latin and Greek might be, his ignorance of the Scriptures was so great, as to render him totally unfit for the sacred functions he assumed. Being ordained priest, at an age when his constitution was broken by study and infirmity, he, for the first time, took the New Testament into his hand, and having read the fifth and sixth chapters of St. Matthew's Gospel, threw away the book, swearing, "Either this is not the Gospel, or we are not Christians!"** This, however, will appear the less extraordinary, when (43) Henr>'s Hist, of Great Britain, X. B. v. p, 128. (44) British Biography, I. pp. 326, 330. 332. Sir E. Brydge's Restituta; No. 3. p. 159, 166 it is remarked, that the study and use of the Scriptures was at that time so low, even in the university of Oxford, "that the being admitted a bachelor of divinity gave only liberty to read the Master of the Sentences, (Peter Lom- bard;) and the highest degree, that of doctor of divinity, did not admit a man to the reading of the Scriptures."" The newly invented Art of Printing, which, towards the close of this century, was established in this kingdom by Caxton and others, was chiefly employed in printing translations from the French, made by Earl Rivers and Caxton ; and multiplying legends, and devotional works of a legendary nature. Two of these deserve particular notice, viz. the Liber Festivalis, or Directions for heep- in g Feasts all the Yere; and the Quatuor Sermones; both of them printed in folio, by William Caxton ; and frequently bound together. Of the first, Hearne observes, that "it consists of a course of homilies, in which are many odd stories; that it goes by no other name than that of Festivals, among curious men, who are very inquisitive after copies of it." (Robert Gloc. Chron. vol. IL p. 739.) Oldys adds, "that some of these odd stories are such, that the papists are now ashamed of them." (Biog. Brit. vol. III. p. 369, note O.) " The fact is," says Mr. Dibdin, "whatever be the nature of these stories, all ^carious' theological scholars may be well inquisitive after the Liber Festivalis, as it is the origin or substratum of the English Common Prayer Book." The prologue tells us, that " For the help of such clerks, this book was drawn to excuse them for default of books, and for siuipleness of cunning, and to shew unto the people what the holy saints suffered and did for God's sake, and for hi§ love; so that they should have the more devotion in God's saints, and with the better will come to church to serve God, and pray the saints of their help." That it was principally taken from the Legenda Aurea, or Golden (45) British Biography, I. Life of Cokt, p. 372, note. ^^^ FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 1G7 Legend is proved by the prologue of an ancient edition, in which the writer states, "this treatise is drawn out of ^Lefenda Aurea/ that he that list to study therein, he shall find ready therein of all the principal feasts of the year, on every one a short sermon, needfnl for him to teach, and for them to learn; and for that this treatise speaketh of all the feasts of the year, I will and pray that it be called Festival." Then follow, says Lewis, sermons on nineteen snndays and ferials, beginning with the first Sunday in advent, and ending with Corpus Christi day. Next are discourses or sermons on forty-three holy-days. Then follows a sermon De decUcatione Ecclesicv, or on the church holi- day. The following extracts will afford an idea of the style and nature of the work : The Lord's Prayer. "Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name: thy kingdom come to us: thy will be done in earth as in heaven: our every day's bread give us to-day; and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from all evil sin. Amen." The following specimen is from the " Festival of Saint Michael:" "De Festo scti Michaelis." "Good friends, such a day ye shall have Saint Michael's day the archangel: that day all holy church maketh mind and mention of all angels for the great succour, comfort, and help, that mankind had of angels, and espe- cially of St. Michael. And for iij prerogatives he be had: for he is wonderful in appearing; for as Saint Gregory saith, when Almighty God will work any wonderful deed, then he sendeth for Michael his servant, as for his bannerer: for he beareth a shield or sign of his arras — - wherefore he was sent with Moses and Aaron to Egypt to work marvels: for though the sign was in Moses, the 168 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, working was done by Michael : for he departed the red sea, and kept the waters in ii parts, while the people of Israel went through, and so passed ; and led them forth from Jordan, and kept the water like an hill on each side of them, while they passed safe and sound to the land of behest. Also Michael is keeper of paradise, and taketh the souls that be sent thither."*® The QuATUoR Sermones, which was a translation from the Latin, was most probably the Roman Catholic formulary of the day, respecting the religious topics of which it treats, namely, " The Lord's Prayer," "Belief," Ten Commandments," and "Articles of Faith." In the translation of the creed, which we have in the first sermon, the fourth article is thus expressed, " I byleve, that he suifered payne under Ponce Pilate, &c." the translator un- derstanding Pontius to be the name of some place where Pilate was either born, or lived, or governed. Accordingly the book contains this silly tale: "The emperor, by counsel of the Romans, sent Pilate into a country called Pounce, where the people of that country were so cursed, that they slew any that come to be their master over them. So when this Pilate come thither, he applied him to her manners; so what with wiles and subtilty he over- came them, and had the mastery, and gat his name, and was called Pilate of Pounce, and had great domination and power." According to this mannei* of writing*, excepting sometimes Ponce for Pounce, was this article of the creed expressed in English, from the fourteenth century down to A. D. 1532, when in the Primer of Salisbury use, it was altered to Pontius Pilate, which was followed by Archbishop Cranmer, in his notes on the King's Book, 1538.*' Another celebrated production of Caxton's press, was his translation, from the French, of the Legenda Aurea, (46) Dibdin's Typot^raphical Antiquities, I. (47) Ibid, I, pp. 170—172, pp. 161—167, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 169 Of this work, some mention has been ah*eady made.* Caxton's translation, under the title of the Golden Legende, was printed at Westminster, in 1483, fol. A story from the English translation may entertain the reader. " There was a man that had borrowed of a Jew a sum of money, and sware upon the altar of saint Nicholas, that he would render and pay it again as soon as he might, and gave none other pledge. And this man held this money so long that the Jew demanded and asked his money. And he said that he had paid him. Then the Jew made him to come before the law in judgment, and the oath was given to the debtor, and he brought with him an hollow staff, in which he had put the money in gold, and he leaned upon the staff. And when he should make his oath and swear, he delivered his staff to the Jew to keep and hold whilst he sware, and then sware that he had delivered to him more than he owed to him. And when he had made the oath he de- manded his staff again of the Jew, and he nothing know- ing of his malice delivered it to him. Then this deceiver went his way, and laid him in the way, and a cart with four wheels came with great force and slew him^ and brake the staff with gold, that it spread abroad. And when the Jew heard this, he came thither sore moved, and saw the fraud. And many said to him that he should take to him the gold. And he refused, saying, but if he that was dead were not raised again to life by the merits of saint Nicholas, he would not receive it. And if he came again to life he would receive baptism and become a Christian. Then he that was dead arose, and the Jew was christened."*® Caxton bequeathed thirteen copies of this work to the church of St. Margaret, Westminster ; from which it appears probable, that parts of it, like those of the Fes- J48) Bejoe's Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce Books, II. p. 447, * See Yol, I. pp. 400. 448, of this work. 170 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, TivAL, were read as homilies in the churches ; and the mnltiplicity of editions by subsequent printers, seems to strengthen this conjecture. Herbert supposes, that if not used in this manner, "they might be only placed in some convenient part of the church, as Fox's Book of Martyrs was at the beginning of the reformation."'® None of our English printers, during this century, attempted to print the Bihle, either in the Latin, or the vernacular tongue. In the application of printing to the purposes of sacred literature, the palm must be yielded to Germany, which as it had the honour of the invention of printing, so it was the first to apply it to the diffusion of Biblical knowledge. For not only were numerous editions of the Latin Bible, and several of the German version printed there, but editions also were published in the Saxon and Bohemian dialects. The Bohemian Bible was printed at Prague, in 1488, fol. and again at Kattenberg, in 1489, fol.*" i^neas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II. bore a noble testimony to the Scripturaiknovvledgeof the Bohemians, in a work of Ills on the "Acts and Sayings of Alphonsus, king of Spain," in which he declared, "That it was a shame to the Italian priests, that many of them had never read the whole of the New Testament, whilst scarcely a woman could be found among the Bohemians, (or Taborites,) who could not answer any questions respecting either the Old or New Testament."^' He died in 1464. A copy of the Bo- hemian Bible, printed in 1488, is preserved in the public library at Dresden. Lambecius, in his Cojnment. de Biblioth. Cces. Vindoh, notices a magnificent MS. copy of the German Old Testa- ment, preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna. It was executed about A. D. 1400, for Wenceslaus, emperor (49) Dibdin's Typofirraphical Antiquities, I. p. 193, (50) WaUhii Biblioth. Theolog. IV. p. 3 30. Clarkp's Bibliographical Miscellany, II. p. 107. (51) Usserii Hist. Dogmat. p. 170. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 171 of the West, and king of Bohemia. It is in large folio, ornamented with numerous paintings, richly illuminated ot some of which Lambecius has given engravings. The most frequent of the marginal paintings, is an orna- mented W. in which fVenceslaus is represented in prison and sometimes as attended by a woman, supposed to represent Susannah, the mistress of the bath, who aided his escape in a boat from the prison where he had been confined by his barons, and who afterwards became his favourite concubine. His second wife, who possessed jjow- ers far superior to the emperor, was Sophia, the daughter of John, duke of Bavaria ; the celebrated John IIuss was her confessor.^^ Dibdin has copied several of the paint- ings in the Bible of Wenceslaus from the fac-similes of Lam- becius, in his splended Bibliographical Decameron, vol. I. A Bible was printed in the dialect of Lower Saxony, according to Walch, at Cologne, in 1490, fol.^^ Another edition was published at Lubeck, in 1494, in 2 vols. fol. It is accompanied with notes, said to be those of De Lyra, but more probably composed, at least in part, by Hugo de St. Victor, and other early commentators. From Seelen's Selecta Lifteraria, pp. 241, 242, says Mr. Dib- din, "it would appear that the intrinsic value of this impression is very considerable. In former times the Low German language was the usual vehicle for a verna- cular version of the Scriptures ; so that the present text is no trivial help for the understanding of some of the earlier editions of Luther's Bible; and although some parts of the commentary may not bear the test of severe critical investigation, yet there are others not void of propriety and sound sense; and considering the age in which it was probably composed, it breathes a spirit of liberahty not usual in the ancient times of papacy."^* (52) Lambecii Coiiment. de Bibl. Lags. Viodob. lib. ii. cap. vUi. pp. 749—756- Vindob. 1669, fol. (53) Walchii Biblioth. Theolog. IV. p. 96. (54) Dibdia's Biblioth, Spencer. I, p. 57. 172 The purity of its text is said to be equal to the rarity and beauty of the work. This edition, says Vogt, is in great estimation, as well on account of its rarity, as of its whimsical gloss or com- mentary. The following is given as an instance of its sin- gularity. In the 3rd. chapter of Genesis, v. 16, where Eve is told she shall be henceforth under the power of her hus- band, the commentator remarks: "not only under his controul, but under his severe discipline: subject to be beaten and bruised by him!" An interpretation too ab- surd for refutation .^^ About the year 1475, appeared the ^r*^^ separate edi- tion of the New Testament in Latiiv, in a small quarto form; for the convenience of general readers. Prefixed to the epistle of St. Jerom, which precedes the Sacred Text, is a notice, in Latin, by the printer, explaining the cause of the publication, of which the following is the sub- stance: "It is the general cry, that every believer, who professes to have any knowledge of letters, is bound to have an acquaintance with the Holy Scriptures, and more particularly with that part of the Bible, called the New Testament. It is certain, however, that but few persons have the means of procuring the whole of the Bible, and that many, even of the rich, prefer portable volumes. Induced by these considerations, as well as by the influence of my superiors, professors of sacred theology; and overcome by the zeal of certain monks and secular clergy, I have attempted, I hope, under fa- vourable auspices, to print the present convenient vo- lume, containing the whole of the New Testament, with a view to the glory of God ; and shall be satisfied, if it afford benefit to any one." It is printed in double co- lumns, with a delicate Gothic type. To the New Testa- ment is subjoined, "Liber haymo de christianarum rerum memoria prolog."^^ Haymo, the author, was the (55) Dibdin's Bibl, Spencer, ubi sup, (56) Ibid. I. pp. 32, 31, JNote. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 173 disciple of Alcuin, in the ninth century, a monk of Ful- da, and afterwards bishop of Halberstadt. The work itself is an abridg-ment of ecclesiastical history.*' In 1475, an edition of the Dutch Bible was printed at Cologne, in 2 vols, fol.; at Delft, in 1477, 2 vols. fol. and also in 4to. Another at Goudo, in 1479. These translations are said to have been mixed with many fabu- lous narratives ; and were probably made at an earlier period than that of their being printed. They are sup- posed to have been preceded by an edition of the Four Gospels, printed in 1472.** Le Long also mentions a Polish version of the Scrip- tures, which from the colophon of a MS. copy upon vellum, appears to have been made about the middle of this century: "This Bible was executed by the com- mand, and desire, of the most Serene Queen Sophia; translated by Andrew de Jassowitz; and transcribed by Peter de Casdoszitz, August 18th, 1455, during the wi- dowhood of Queen Sophia, and the reign of her son Ca- simir Jagellon." This Sophia was queen of Uiadislaus IV. Andrew de Jassowitz flourished about A. D. 1410.*^ In the year 1470, a curious work was printed by Scho- effer at Mentz, and by Helyas Helye, alias de Loulfen, at Beraum, in fol. entitled "Mammotrectus." It con- tains, 1. An exposition of the phrases of the Bible, and of the Prologues of St. Jerom. 2. Two little treatises of orthography and of accents. 3. A short declaration of the months, festivals, &c. and of the Jewish priests. 4. An explanation of ancient words and terms, in respon- ses, hymns, homilies, &c. 5. A declaration of the rules of the minor friars. The author of the work is supposed to be John Marchesinus, a priest of the order of minor fri- ars, or of St. Francis, and a native of Reggio ; who cora- (57) Cavei Hist. Litt. seec. ix. p. 5JU, (58) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I, p. 409. fol. 1723. Gentleman's Magazine, Jan. 1814. p. 30. C59) Le Long, Biblioth, Sacra, I. p, 439. et Index, Audorum^ p, 5C3. 174 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, posed it in 1466, for the use of the less instructed in his own profession. It was printed more than twenty times in the Jifteenth century .^^ During this century, and especially towards the close of it, Germany and the neighbouring states produced several eminent men, who endeavoured to create an attention to literature in general, and laboured to promote an acquaintance with the original languages of the Sacred Scriptures. Amongst these, Matthias Doringk, or Thoringk, Wesselus, Regiomontanus, and Reuchlin, particularly merit our esteem. Matthias Doringk, or Thoringk, the celebrated au- thor of the " Replies" to Paul of Burgos's " Additions" to the Commentary of De Lyra, was born at Kiritz, in the marcbe of Brandenburgh, and when young became a monk of St. Francis. After studying philosophy and theology with distinguished success, he rose to eminence, not only as a preacher, but as a lecturer on the Scriptures, and professor of theology. Whilst professor of theology at Magdeburg, he undertook the defence of De Lyra's Postils, or Commentaries, against the strictures and ob- jections of Paul of Burgos. His defence is generally found appended to the printed editions of De Lyra's work, along ^vith the "Additions" of Paul of Burgos. In 1431, he held the office of minister of his order in the province of Saxe, and received letters from the landgrave of Thuringia, requesting him to introduce some reform among the Franciscans of Eisenac. About the same time, he was sent as one of the deputies to the council of Basil, (one object of which was the reformation of the church,) by that party of his order who adhered to that council. Either at that time, or afterwards, he was raised to be general of the order. The close of his life was spent in retirement, in the monastery of Kiritz, where (60) Dibdin's Biblioth. Spencer. I. pp. 154. I57. Home's Introduction to Bibliography II. App. p. hi. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 175 lie wrote the greater part of his works. The time of his death is disputed; some placing it in 1494, others, with more probability, in 1464. Beside the work already mentioned, he was the author of others, and amongst them of a "Chronicle," in which he treated the characters of the popes and cardinal with such freedom, as has led to the supposition that he was the writer of the Nurem- berg Chronicle; which, however, appears to be a mistake, as his work remains in M8. in the library of the univer- sity of Leipsic.^* JoH\ Herman Wesselus, of Groningen, was born about the year 1419. He studied at Zwoll and Cologne, and afterwards at Paris, and was so celebrated for his talents and attainments, as to be denominated The Light of the World. His extraordinary religious knowledge, and truly Christian spirit, were so indisputable, and liis views of Gospel doctrines so clear, that he has justly been called The Forerunner of Luther, So astonished was that great reformer when he first met with some pieces writ- ten by Wesselus, that he wrote a preface to the Leipsie edition of his works, printed in 1522, in which he says, " It is very plain he was taught of God, as Isaiah prophe- sied that Christians should be: (Is, liv. 13.) and as in my own case, so with him, it cannot be supposed that he received his doctrines from men. If I had read his works before, my enemies might have supposed that I had learnt every thing from Wesselus, such a perfect coincidence there is in our opinions." Wesselus not only studied the Greek language, by the help of the Dominican friars, who about this time passed over to the West, from Constantinople, after its subjection to the Mohammedan government, but obtained from cer- tain learned Jews, a knowledge of the Flebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic tongues. Having been early instructed in the scholastic disputes, and having by his industry, ac- (61) Chalmers' Gen. Biog, Diet. XIX. pp.272— 274. Lond. 18i3. 176 quired an uncommon share of Biblical learning, he taught philosophy and philology with great applause, at Gro- ningen, Paris, Cologne, Heidelberg, and especially at Basil, where he had the famous Reuchlin for a hearer. His opposition to the Romish errors, and the prevalent subtilties of scholastic disputations, subjected him to considerable danger, but his reputation for learning and piety was so great, and his protectors were so powerful, that he escaped uninjured by the storm. On the advancement of Cardinal Francis de Rovere to the papal chair, imder the name of Sixtus IV. he sent for him to Rome, and promised to grant him whatever he would ask: Wesselus answered, "Holy father, and kind patron, I shall not press hard upon your holiness. You well know I never aimed at great things. But as you now sustain the character of the supreme pontiff, and shepherd on earth, my request is, that you would so discharge the duties of your elevated station, that your praise may correspond with your dignity, and that when the great shepherd shall appear, whose first minister you are, he may say, Well done, good and faithful servant, en- ter into the joy of thy Lord:' and moreover, that you may be able to say boldly. Lord, thou gavest me five ta- lents, behold, I have gained five other talents." The pope replied, "That must be my care: But do you ask some- thing for yourself." "Then, rejoined Wesselus, "I beg you to give me out of the Vatican Library, a Greek, and an Hebrew Bible." "You shall have them," said Sixtus, "but foolish man, why don't you ask for a bishop- rick, or something of that sort?" "For the best of rea- sons," said Wesselus, "because I do not want such things?" The Hebrew Bible thus presented, was long afterwards preserved in his native city of Groningen. He died in 1489, aged 70. His works have been several times printed, but the most complete edition was published in 1614, 4to. with FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 177 a short account of his life by Albert Hardenberg*.^^ John Muller, commonly called Regiomontanus, from his native place^ Mons Regius, or Konigsberg, a town in Franconia, was born in 1436, and became the greatest astronomer and mathematician of his time. Having first acquired grammatical learning in his own country, he was admitted, while yet a boy, into the academy at Leipsic; from whence he removed at only fifteen years of age, to Vienna, to enjoy the superior advantages afforded to his pursuits, by the learned pro- fessors in that university. After some years the Cardi- nal Bessarion arrived at Vienna, and soon formed an acquaintance with the youthful astronomer, who, in order to perfect his knowledge of the Greek tongue, accompa- nied the cardinal to Rome, where he studied under Theodore Gaza, a learned Greek. In 1463, he went to Padua, where he became a member of the university. In 1464, he removed to Venice, to meet and attend his pa- tron Bessarion.^^ He returned the same year with the cardinal to Rome, where he made some stay, to procure the most curious books : those he could not purchase, he took the pains to transcribe, as he wrote with great faci- lity and elegance; and others he got copied at a great expense ; for as he was certain that none of these books could be had in Germany, he intended on his return thither, to translate and publish some of the best of them. It was, probably, at this period, that he tran- scribed, in the most beautiful manner, the whole of the New Testament with his own hand, a labour which he undertook from the ardour of his attachment to the (62) Milner's Hist, of the Church of Christ, IV. pp. 295, 296. 302. Enfield's Hist, of Philosophy, B. vii. ch. iii. p. 383. Hody, DeBibl. Text. Orig. pt. ii. lib. iii. p. 446, * Among other curiosities in the library of Louvain, there is a MS. Bible, given to the doctors of the university, by Cardinal Bessarion, in grateful acknowledgment of their hospitable treatment of him , Home's Jntrod. to Bibliog. II. p. 594. Vol. II. ^ 178 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Divine Volume, and which he is said to have rendered familiar to him by constant perusal. Having- procured a considerable number of MSS. he returned to Vienna, and for some time read lectures; after which he went to Buda, on the invitation of Mat- thias, or Mattheo, king of Hungary, the great patron of learned men. The breaking out of the war occasioned his withdrawing to Nuremberg, where he set up a print- ing house, and printed several astronomical works. In 1474, he was prevailed upon by Pope Sixtus IV. to return to Rome, to assist in reforming the calendar. He arriv- ed at Rome in 1475, but died there a year after, at only forty years of age, not without suspicion of being poisoned.®^ John Reuchlin, who assumed the name of Capnio, was born at Pforzheim, a town of Suabia, in the electo- rate of Baden, A. D. 1454. Being trained up among the choristers of the church of his native town, he was no- ticed by the margrave of Baden, who took him under his care, and afforded him the opportunity of acquiring a liberal education. He afterwards studied at Paris, and Basil; and in 1481, obtained the degree of doctor of law, at Orleans. On his return to Germany he accompanied Eberhard, count of Wirtemberg, to Rome; and afterwards was sent on embassies to the Emperor Frederick HI. and the papal court. His extraordinary attachment to the Hebrew language discovered itself on both these oc- casions: at Rome he engaged a Jew to perfect his knowledge of that tongue, for which he paid him the enormous sum of a piece of gold an hour; at the court of Frederick, instead of receiving the usual presents of richly caparisoned horses, or golden cups, or other valuable gifts of a similar nature, he requested and obtained ^ very ancient Hebrew Bible. (63) Chalmers' Gen. Biog. Die, XXII. p. 506. I^nd. 181% &c. 8vo. Hody, De Bibl. Text. Orig, pt. ii. lib. iii. p. 447. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 179 Though eminently learned in the Latin and Greek lan- guages, he appears to have been chiefly occupied with the Hebrew, of which he composed a Grammar, the first that had been written of that tongue by a Christian. He was also the author of an Hebrew Lexicon, and of several other works relative to that primeval language. He is justly regarded as the restorer of Hebrew and Greek learning, in Germany ; though his singular erudi- tion, and active promotion of literature, subjected him at that time to the most virulent opposition, from the super- stitious and ignorant inquisitors and monks. One of the most formidable disputes in which he was involved, arose out of his extensive knowledge of the rabbinical writings. John Pfeffercorn, a famous converted ^ew, had long petitioned the Emperor Maximilian, to burn all the Jewish books except the Bible; as tending only to encourage superstition and impiety, and prevent the conversion of the Jews to Christianity. The emperor, partially yielding to his petition, sent orders tP Uriel, archbishop of Mentz, to nominate some university, to which, along with the inquisitor James Hochstrat, and John Reuchlin, the decision of the question might be referred. Reuchlin, in reply to the inquiries of the arch- bishop, remarked, that the Jewish works might be di- vided into three classes, historical, medical, and talmu- dical, which although mixed with many fabulous and ri- diculous fictions, were useful in the refutation of their errors and antichristian opinions. This decision he sent sealed to the archbishop; but Pfeffercorn, learning the sentence, immediately published a work against Reuchlin, calling him the champion and patron of the Jews ; this was followed by a similar publication from Hochstrat. The opinion of Reuchlin was also condemn- ed by the universities of Paris and Cologne, and the book which he had written in defence of it publicly burnt. On the other hand, the archbishop of Spire ap- 180 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, proved of Reuchliu, and gave judgment in his favour, in the cause brought before him by Hochstrat and his ad- vocates. The dispute was ultimately carried to Rome, where Hochstrat remained for three years, but finding the delegates appointed by Pope Leo X. favourable to Reuchhn, he returned to Germany, where he afterwards became active in comn«itting some of the early Luthe- rans to the flames, and where he died at Cologne, about A. D. 1527. Towards the close of life, Reuchlin devoted himself to teaching the Hebrew and Greek languages, in the uni- versity of Ingolstadt, till being incapacitated by the jaundice, he retired to Stutgard, where he died in 1521, aged 67. Beside the works already mentioned, he published se- veral others on Hebrew literature; a Translation from He- brew into Latin of the VII. Penitential Psalms, printed in Hebrew and Latin, at Tubingen, 1512, 8vo.; a treatise De Arte Cabal istica, dedicated to Leo X.; an Abridgment of the History of the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, 8^c.^^ The munificent patronage afforded to literature by Mattheo Corvini, king of Hungary and Bohemia, who died of an apoplexy in 1490, also merits particular notice. He succeeded his father to the throne of Hungary in 1457, and extended his reputation as a soldier throughout Europe, by the captures of Vienna and Nieustadt. But his love of literature, and patronage of learning, have transmitted his name with more tranquil and delightful recollections to posterity, than any warlike feats could possibly have done. Animated by an ardent thirst for knowledge, he became a most diligent collector of books, and during the last thirty (64) Cavei Hist. Litt. saec.xv. Append, p. 183. Sleidan's History of the Reforiration, by Bohnn,lib. ii. pp. ^9,30* Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. pp. 60, 61. 122. 379. Hody, De Bibl. Text. Orig, lib. ill. pt. ii. pp. 447, 448. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 181 years of his life spared no expense in the acquisition of a library, which placed him among the most illustrious patrons and guardians of literature. He purchased innu- merable volumes of Greek and Hebrew writers at Con- stantinople, and other Grecian cities, at the period of the conquest of the Eastern empire by the Turks ; and as the operations of the typographical art were yet but slow and imperfect, and the number of books hitherto printed but few, he maintained four learned transcribers at Flo- rence, to multiply the copies of such classics as he could not procure in Greece. He erected three libraries in the citadel of Buda, in which he placed 30,000, or, accor- ding to others, 50,000 volumes. The principal one, in which the chief part of his magnificent collection was placed, was a sort of vaulted gallery, divided into three parts: a fourth part forming a kind of convenient appen- dage for the reception of visitors. In this fourth part were two stained glass windows, and two doors ; one of the doors opening immediately into the library, the other leading to the monarch's private apartment. In these libraries he established thirty amanuenses, skilled in writing, illuminating, and painting, who, under the di- rection of Felix Ragusinus, a Dalmatian, consummately learned in the Greek, Chaldee, and Arabic languages, and an elegant designer and painter of ornaments on vellum, attended constantly to the business of transcrip- tion and decoration. The librarian was Bartholomew Fontius, a learned Florentine, the writer of several phi- lological works, and a professor of Greek and oratory, at Florence. The Boohs were placed upon shelves ac- cording to their classes; and in this manner were cover- ed with silk curtains, or hangings, adorned with silver and gold, or brocaded. The lower recesses next to the floor, were appropriated to something like cupboards, which contained MSS. too large for their proper places, or of a character not easily admitting of classification. 182 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, The exterior of this lower division, or probably the cup- board-doors were skilfully and curiously carved. The books were chiefly Vellum MSS. bound in brocade, and protected by krjobs and clasps of silver, or other pre- cious metal; and were ornamented or marked with the device or insignia of the owner, which was that of a Black Crow with a ring in his mouth, in allusion to the etymon of his name, Corvus, a crow, or raven. The li- brary was likewise celebrated for the magnificent celes- tial globe \t contained, and for the silver and marble fountains which pLiyed in the adjoining gallery, or court. When Buda was captured by the Turks, under Solyman II. in 1526, Cardinal Bozmanni offered for this inestima- ble collection 200,000 pieces of the imperial money, but without effect, for the barbarous besiegers defaced or destroyed most of the books, for the sake of their splen- did covers, and the silver bosses and clasps with which they were enriched. Those which escaped the rapacity of the Turkish soldiery, were thrown into a sort of sub- terraneous vault, there to moulder or perish, as it might happen. In 1666, Lambecius, the learned librarian of the Imperial Library at Vienna, was sent to Buda, for the purpose of recovering the remains of the Corvinian Library. He found there, in a crypt of the citadel, barely lighted with one window, and ventilated with one door, about 400 volumes in number, lying upon an earthen floor, and covered with dirt and filth. Three ma- nuscript copies of the Fathers were all that he was permit- ted to carry away. But in the year 1686, Buda was captured by the Austrian arms, when the remainder, though com- paratively of little value, were removed to Vienna. Some of the most valuable volumes formerly belonging to this library, have been discovered in the Imperial Library at Vienna, in the Wolfenbuttel Library, and in that of Morelli, the learned librarian of St. Mark's, at Venice. In the Public Library of Brussels, there are FIFTEENTH CENTURY. -183 two exquisitely finished MSS. which once graced the library of Corvinus. The first is a Latin Evangelista- RiuM, written in letters of gold, upon the most beautiful vellum, and not inaptly called the Golden Book. It had become the property of Philip II. of Spain, who kept it in the Escurial Library, under lock and key; and is said to have been formerly shown to strangers with great ceremony, and by torch light! The other is a magnificent Missal, highly illuminated. Alexander Brassicanus, who saw the library at Buda before it was dispersed, noticed^ amongst an immense number of other valuable works, the whole of the writ- ings of Hyperides, the Grecian orator, with valuable schoha; a large book of the apostolical canons; the com- mentary of Theodoret on the Psalms; the works of Chrysostom, Cyril, Nazianzen, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Theophanus, &c.^^ During this century flourished also R. Isaac, or Mor- DECAi Nathan, a celebrated Jew, and the Jirst who en- gaged in the laborious work of compiling a Hebrew Concordance, which he began in 1438, and completed in 1448, after ten years wearisome toil. His book was published at Venice, 1523, but with considerable defects, many words and places being wholly omitted. A second edition was printed at Basil, 1531, by Ambrose Froben, in which some of the faults of the Venice edition were corrected, but without altering the form, or supplying the defects. A splendid edition, by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar, was published at Rome, in 1621, in 4 vols. fol. to which were added, 1. A Latin translation of R. Nathan's explanation of the several roots, with the author's own enlargements; 2. The Rabbinical, Chaldee, (65) Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron, II. pp. 455 — 462; Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, II. pp.417, 418. Lomeier, De Bibliothecis, cap. ix. p. 204. Home's Introduction to Bibliography, II. p. 595. 184 Syiiac, and Arabic words, derived from, or agreeing with the Hebrew root in signification; 3. A literal vei-sion of the Hebrew text; 4. The variations of the Vulgate and Septuagint; 5. The proper names of men, rivers, moim- tains, &c. Afterwards John Buxtorf, the indefatigable propagator of the Hebrew language, undertook to cor- rect and reform the preceding editions, and happily suc- ceeded, by casting it into an entirely new form. This was printed after his death, by his son, at Easily in 1632, fol. The Rev. W. Romaine published an improved edition of Calasio's work, in 1747, at London, in 4 vols, fol. "But in point of usefulness this is vastly inferior to *The Hebrew Concordance, adapted to the English Bible, disposed after the manner of Buxtorf, by John Taylor, D. D.' London, 1754, 2 vols. fol. which may be justly styled the sixth edition of R. Nathan's Concordance^ for it has been the ground work of the whole." Dr. Taylor's "work was published under the patronage of all the Eng- lish and Irish bishops, and is a monument to their honour, as well as to the learning and industry of the editor." ^^ The time of R. Nathan's death is uncertain. Besides the oriental and Biblical scholars who have been already noticed, there were several, who, towards the close of this century, prosecuted similar studies with success; among these may be enumerated Marcus Lypo- MANNUs; Laurentius Valla ; Baptista Mantuanus ; John Picus, earl of Mirandola; Rodolphus Agricola; and John Creston. Marcus Lypomannus, a counsellor and patrician of the Republic of Venice, eminently skilled in Hebrew, Greeks and Latin, flourished in the early part of this century.*^' Laurentius Valla, a Roman patrician, doctor of divi- nity, and canon of St. John of Lateran, was one of the (66) Taylor's Hebrew Concordance, Prefiice, sec i. toI. I. Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionary, II. p. 113, (67) Hudy, De Bibl. Text, Grig. lib. iii. pt. ii, p. 440. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 185 ebief restorers of the beauty of the Latin language. His work " On the elegance of the Latin language/' has been frequently printed. He was also the author of Annotations on the New Testament, edited by Erasmus^ who wrote in defence of them. Valla had a design to translate the New Testament into Latin ; but being forbidden by the pope, he could only write notes upon the Vulgate, cen- suring the bad latinity, and the inaccuracy of this ver- sion. F. Simon is perhaps too severe upon him as a critic, and says, that as he was a mere grammarian his remarks are inconsiderable. His "Annotations" were favourably received by Pope Nicholas V. who recalled him from Naples, whither he had fled, to avoid the per- secution of the inquisition. He died in 1457, in the 52nd. year of his age.^^ Baptista Mantuanus, a monk of Mantua, of the or- der of the Carmelites, after being chosen six times Vicar General^ was constituted General of the order. To polite literature he added the knowledge of the Hebrew, as well as of the Greek and Latin languages. He wrote a tract entitled De Causa Diversitatis inter Interpretes S. Scrip- turce, in which he defended the Vulgate version against the Jews. His works were printed at Antwerp, in 1607, in 4 vols. 8vo. He died in 1516.^^ John Francis Pic us, or Pico, earl of Mirandola, was born February 24th. 1463. He lost his father early, but he found in his mother a most attentive guardian; and the care which she took of his education, was repaid by the most astonishing improvement. It is said, that when he was only eighteen years of age he understood twenty-two different languages. In 1491, he gave up his estates, and retired to one of his castles, that he might devote himself entirely to theological studies, and (68) Hody, ut sup. Jortia's Life of Erasmus, I. p. 20. (69) Hody, ut sup. p. 443. Le Long, Biblioth, Sacra, II, p. 624. Paris, 1723. 186 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, especially to the study of the Scriptures. In this retire- ment he died, in 1494, at the age of thirty-one. He wrote against Judicial J Urology, combating the cabalis- tic opinions of the Jews; and defended the Septuagint version of the Psalms; and was the autlior of an Exposi- tion of the Lord's Prayer, and many other works."^® After he had withdrawn from the pomp and ambition of the court, he thus expressed himself in a letter to a friend: "Many think it a man's greatest happiness in this life to enjoy dignity and power, and to live in the plenty and splendour of a court; but of these, you know, I have had a share: and I am persuaded the Caesars, if they could speak from their sepulchres, would declare Picus more happy in his solitude, than they were in the government of the world: and if the dead could return, they would choose the pangs of a second death, rather than risk their salvation a second time in public stations."*^ RoDOLPHUs Agricola was a learned German. Towards the close of life he devoted himself entirely to the study of the Scriptures, and of the Hebrew tongue, which he had only begun to learn at forty; but in which he made such improvement, that with the assistance of his teach- er, he made a translation of the Psalms. He died in 1485, aged forty-three.'^^ John Creston was an Italian Carmelite monk and doctor, of Placentia. He published an edition of the Psalms, in Greek, with a Latin translation, or rather corrected edition of the Vulgate, printed at Milan, 1481, in small folio, or quarto, at the expense of Bonaccursius Pisanus.'^ (70) Hoc\>, pp 445, 446. Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionary, V. p. 215. Lp Loi'o,II. p. 905. (71) Butlei's Livps, IX. p. 71. (7'2) Hody, p: 446. Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. p, 76. (73) Hody, p. 4 46. Le Long, edit. Masch, pt, ii. toL U. sec, 1. p. 311. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 187 CHAPTER III. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. JEncoiiragement of Literature in Italy. George of Amba- sia. Leo X. Profligacy of the Papal court. Poly- glotts. Aug. Justinian. Complutensian Polyglotf. Cardinal Ximenes. Mozarahic Liturgy. Editors of the Complutensian Polyglott. Sanctes Pagninus. Learned Italians. Spanish Councils. Hebrew Lite- rature. State of Biblical Literature in France and England. Persecutions in England. Biblical Scho- lars. Low state of Biblical Knowledge in Germany. Astonishing Ignorance of many of the Clergy. Ger- man Scholars. Erasmus. THE commencement of the Sixteenth Century was marked by a rapidly increasing ardour for classical pursuits, and by the publication of various important and magnificent Biblical works, which displayed both the erudition and munificence of those who projected and executed them. In iTi^LY, the court of Rome, with sin- gular inconsistCiiCy, lavished its favours on men of learn- ing and scientific acquirements, regardless of the moral turpitude of their character, and the infidel profligacy of their opinions and habits. Incredible pains were taken to collect books from every quarter, at immense expense; and the jmpal thunders were directed against any persons who should purloin or disperse the volumes belonging to the libraries attached to the various monastic institutions. A curious proof of this fact is afforded by an epistle, addressed by the cardinal legate, George of Ambasia, to the canons of Bruges, from whom he had borrowed Hilary on the Psalms, 188 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, "George of Ambasia, presbyter of Saint Sixtus, car- dinal of Ptouen, legate of the apostolic see, to his dear friends the venerable the fathers, the canons, and chapter, of the sacred chapel of Bruges ; wisheth peace." "Having been informed that in the library of your sacred chapel, there was an ancient copy of Hilary of Poitiers upon the Psalms ; and taking great delight in literary pursuits, especially those which regard our holy religion, so far as our weak abilities will permit ; we requested from your paternal kindness the loan of that book for a few days, to which you courteously acceded, notwithstanding the Pontifical Bull, which forbade any books being taken away from the library under pain of excommunication." "Wherefore, having read the book with considerable pleasure, we have resolved to have it copied ; for which purpose it will be requisite to have it in our possession for some months, though we intend, after it has been transcribed, to return it uninjured to your paternal care. We, therefore, absolve you from whatever censures or punishments you might incur by lending the book ; and, by the authority with which we are invested, do hereby pronounce and declare you absolved, notwithstanding any thing to the contrary, contained in the aforesaid bull, or in any other." "Given at Bruges, the third day of March MDVII. George, cardinal-legate of Rouen."* The election of the young Cardinal John de Medici, to the pontifical chair, in 1513, proved favourable to the general interests of literature, but increased the licentious- ness of the papal court, and spread a baneful influence over the whole of the Romish hierarchy. The celebrity of this pontiff, who assumed the title of Leo X. and the intimate connection of his pontificate with the Reforma- tion by Luther, may justify us in detailing at some (1) Voyages Litteraires de deux Keligieux Benedictias, I. p. 29, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 189 length, the more prominent traits of his life and character. John, or Giovanni de Medici, was a native of Flo- rence, the second son of Lorenzo, styled the Magnificent, and grandson of Cosmo the Great. From his infancy he was destined to the church, and received an education suited to the high rank and ambitious views of his father, which produced a correspondent gravity of deportment at so very early an age, that his biographer says, "he seems never to have been a child." At seven years of age he was admitted into holy orders, and about a year afterwards, was appointed abbot of Fonte Dolce, by Louis XL of France, who also conferred upon lilm the abbacy of the rich monastery of Pasignans. Yet we are assured that at this early period he "was not more distinguished from his youthful associates, by the high promotions which he enjoyed, than he was by his attention to his studies, his strict performance of the duties enjoined him, and his inviolable regard to truth." He, however, bore "his blushing honours thick upon him," for when he was only thirteen years of age, he re- ceived the dignity of a cardinal, from Pope Innocent VIII. and Pope Julius 11. employed him as legate. On the 11th. of March 1513, being then only thirty-seven j'cars old, he was elected supreme head of the church, on the decease of Julius, and assumed the name of Leo X. The commencement of his pontificate seemed to realize the high expectations which had been formed of it, parti- cularly by a general amnesty published at Florence, his native city, respecting those who had been the occasion of the violent civil commotions which had taken place in it-; and by the recall of the banished citizens to their country. With considerable address and perseverance, he sur- mounted the difficulties which had prevented the enjoy- ment of peace between Italy and France ; and composed the troubles v/hich the ambition of the surrounding- sovereigns^ or the misconduct of his predecessors, had 190 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, occasioned. Unhappily, however, the hopes that were entertained respecting him, and the excellency of his pon'^ifical government, were never realized ; his ambitious projects being accomplished, by his advancement to the tiara, he became indolent and voluptuous; his assumed gravity gave way to the lowest buffoonery; his munifi- cence degenerated into prodigality; and his attachment to truth was lost in the insincerity of his political engage- ments: even in his literary pursuits^ profane was generally preferred to sacred literature ; and his disposal of ecclesi- astical dignities was frequently regulated by the aid afforded to his pleasures. He conferred the archbishoprick ofBari on Gabriel Merino, a Spaniard, whose chief merit consisted in the excellence of his voice, and his knowledge of church-music; and promoted another person named Francesco Paoloso, for similar qualifications, to the rank of an archdeacon. "It seems to have been his intention," says one of his biographers, "to pass his time cheerfully, and to secure himself against trouble and anxiety by all the means in his power. He therefore sought all oppor- tunities of pleasure and hilarity, and indulged his leisure in amusement, jests, and singing."^ An elegant writer thus characterizes the court of Leo: "While Leo, with equal splendour and profusion, supported the character of a sovereign prince, he was too prone to forget the gravity of the pontiff. He delighted in exposing to public ridicule, those characteristic infirmities of some of his courtiers, which his own penetration easily discovered. — But these were venial aberrations from de- corum, in comparison with those excesses which Leo's example sanctioned, or at which his indifference conniv- ed. The few who, amidst this more than syren fascination, still retained any sense of decency, were constrained to (2; Roscoe's Life of Leo X. vol. IV. p. 486 ; and Life of Lorenzo de Medici, 11. pp. 178— 106 j 379—383. Lend, 1806, 8vo. and Lend. 1800, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 191 blush ofl beholding ecclesiastics mingling, without reserve, in every species of pleasurable dissipation. The younger cardinals especially, many of whom were junior branches of royal or illustrious houses, exulted in the free partici- pation of indulgences, to which the most sacred charac- ters were no restraint. Rome frequently saw her court, with a multitude of attendants, and an immense appara- tus, accompany the supreme pontiff to partake of the sports of the field. Under the direction of the ingenious Cardinal Bibiena, whose versatile talents appeared to equal advantage on serious, festive, or ludicrous.occasioas, the spacious apartments of the Vatican were metamor- phosed into theatres. The pontifical tables teemed with luxurious viands, that realized the refinements of Apicius: and particular seasons afforded a sanction to the free- doms and buffooneries of the ancient Saturnalia. Jovius acknowledges, that Adrian, a man of a frugal character, could not examine, without shuddering, the particulars of those enormous disbursements, which marked the domes- tic establishment of his predecessor."^ Leo has been accused of treating revelation with contempt^ and of advancing principles of an atheistical tendency. Old Bishop Bale, in his Pageant of Popes, (p. 179,) printed 1574, relates this anecdote: "On a time when Cardinal Bembus did move a question out of the Gospell, the pope gave him a very contemptuous answere, saying. All ages can testifye enough how profitable that fable of Ckriste hath ben to ns, and our companies* The authenticity of this anecdote has been denied by a late biographer of this pontiff, who calls it, "a story which it has justly been remarked, has been repeated by three or four hundred different writers, without any authority whatsoever, except that of the author above referred to;"^ (3) (xreswell's Memoirs of Aiigelus Politiaaus, &c. pp. 141, 143. 145, Manchester, 1801, 8vo. (4) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. ch. xxiv. p. 479. (5) Ibid. p. 480. 192 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, But that this assertion is incorrect, appears by a quotation, containing the same anecdote, made from an old Spanish writer, by Greswell, in his Memoirs of An- gelas Politianus, Actius S'lncerus Sannazarius, Petims Bemhus, S^c. p. 135, where, after observing that several circumstances are recorded by the earlier retcrmed wri- ters, "which reflect much on Bembo's character, and that of Leo X. his master," he adds, in a note, "The following is the bold language of an old ISpaaish writer, with regard to Leo X. "Fue un hombre atheista, que ni penso aver cielo, ni infierno despues desta vida: y assi se murio sin recebir los sacramentos. Sanazaro dize que no los pudo recebir porque los avia vendido.^ Veesse tambien claramente su atheismo por la respuesta que dio al Cardenal Bembo, que le avia alegado cierto passo del Evangelio: al quid dissolutamente respondio Leon estas palabras: Todo el mundo sabe quanto provecho aya traydo a nosotros, y a nuestra compania aquella fabula de Christo, &c." '^Dos Tratados: el prima es del Papa y de su auforidad; et el segimdo es de la Missa. 2nd. ed. 8vo. 1599. The preface dated 1588, and subscribed C. D. V."** On the first day of August in every year, Leo was accustomed to invite such of the cardinals as were among his more intimate friends, to play at Cards with him, when he distributed pieces of gold to the crowd of spec- tators who were permitted to be present at this entertain- ment. He was also a thorough proficient in the game of chess, though he is said to have always reproved the playing with dice."^ (6) Greswell's Memoirs of Angelus Politianus, &c. p. 135. * The following is the epigram ?lluded to above : " In Leonem X. Pont. Max. Sacra sub extrema si forte requiritis hora Cur Leo non potuit suraere, — vetidid^'rat^^* [Greswell, ut sup, p. 104t (7) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. ch, 24. pp. 486, 487. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 193 Other gratifications in which Leo indulged were of the lowest and most disgusting nature ; such as his entertain- ing in his palace, a mendicant friar, called Father Martin, whose chief merit consisted in eating forty eggs, or twenty capons, at a meal, and such like feats of voracious glut- tony; and the pleasure he derived from deceiving his guests by preparing dishes of crows and apes, and si- milar animals, and seeing the avidity with which the high seasoned food was devoured. Yet brutish as were these sources of diversion, they have found an apologist in a celebrated writer, who regards them when associated with Leo's literary pleasures, as serving "to mark that diversity and range of intellect which distinguished not only Leo X., but also other individuals of this extraordi- nary family!"^ It must however be acknowledged, that his own meals were generally of the most frugal nature. The profuse expenditure of Leo involved him in em- liarrassments, which led to the adoption of expedients, to supply the deficiency of his income, which for a while effected their purpose, but in the end became the means of limiting the pontifical authority, and of producing an ecclesiastical revolution, infinitely serviceable to the in- terests of religion and truth. Among the schemes which he adopted, to drain the wealth of the credulous multi- tude, was the open sale of Dispensations and Indulgences for the most enormous and disgraceful crimes, under pre- tence of aiding the completion of the magnificent and ex- pensive church of St. Peter, at Rome. In Germany, the right of promulgating these indulgences was granted to Albert, elector of Metz and archbishop of Magdeburg, who employed a Dominican friar named Tetzel, as his chief agent for retailing them in Saxony ; who, executing his commission with the most shameless effrontery, roused the indignation of Luther against such flagrant abuses of the papal authority, and created such a feeling ageiinst (8) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. p. 491, Vol. IL N 191 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, the infamous measure, as terminated, by the gracious control of Divine providence, in the glorious Reforma- tion from popery.® The most illustrious trait in the characterof Leo, was his munificent patronage of learning and the fine arts. He was himself well versed in the Latin language, and possessed a competent knowledge of the Greek, accompanied with sin- gular proficiency in polite literature, and extensive ac- quaintance with history in general. In the attention paid by him to the collecting and preserving of ancient M88. and other memorials of learning, he emulated the example of his father, and by his perseverance and liberality at length succeeded in restoring to its former splendour the celebra- ted Laurentian Librari/, which had been commenced by Cosmo de Medici, but had been afterwards dispersed by the troops of Charles VIII. of France, on the expulsion of the haughty Piero di Medici from Florence. It was removed by Leo to Rome, from whence it was re-trans- ferred to Florence, by his cousin and successor Clement VIII.; who, by a bull, dated December 15, 1532, made pro- vision for its future security. Among the learned who were patronized by Leo, are enumerated, TeseoAmbrogio; Sante Pagnini; Agostino Giustiniani; Agacio Gui- DACERio; and particularly Erasmus, between whom and the pontiff' an epistolary correspondence occasionally sub- sisted, and who dedicated to Leo, his edition of the Greek and Latin New Testament. But his patronage of Ori- ental and Biblical scholars was certainly very far inferior in its remunerations, to that which was bestowed upon the cultivators of the fine arts and more modern litera- ture.^^ The two celebrated historians of the council of Trent, are agreed as to his preference of profane to sacred (9) Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, II. ch. x. pp, 383, 384. Robertson's Hist, of Charles V. vol. II. B. ii. pp. 91—95. (10) Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, IL ch. x. pp. 387—390. Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. ch. xxiv. pp. 474—476; and IL ch. xi. pp. 396—404. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 195 literature; Fra. Paolo, (Cone, di Trent, lib.i. p. 5.^ thinks he might have been deemed "a perfect pontiff," if to his other ^^ accomplishments he had united some knowledge of religion, and a greater inclination to piety ; to neither of which," says the historian, "he appeared to pay any great attention ;" and Pallavacini, the opponent of Fra. Paolo, acknowledges (Cone, di Trent, lib. i. cap. iii. p. 51.) that this defect '^was more apparent, when being instituted at thirty seven years of age the president and chief of the Christian religion, he not only continued to devote him- self to the curiosity of profane studies, but even called into the sanctuary of religion itself, those who were better acquainted with the fables of Greece, and the delights of poetry, than with the history of the church, and the doctrines of the Fathers."^* His indifference to reli- gion and religious duties, is farther confirmed by his conduct respecting the discourses delivered in his pre- sence. "In the year 1514, he ordered his master of the palace, on pain of excommunication, to see that the sermon delivered before him did not exceed half an hour; and in the month of November, 1517, being wearied with a long discourse, he desired his master of the ceremonies to remind the master of the palace, that the council of the Lateran had decided, that a sermon should not exceed a quarter of an hour at most. In consequence of which remonstrances there was no sermon on the first day of the year 1518; the master of the palace being fearful that the preacher would exceed the prescribed limits."'^ This celebrated, but irreligious pontiff, died after a short illness, on December 1st. 1521; not without suspi- cion of having been poisoned ; but most probably from a fever, brought on by excess of joy, at the unexpected success of the papal armies against France. (11) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. pp. 468, 469. See also Jortia's Life of Erasmus, I. pp. 237. 261. Lond. 1808, 8?o. (12) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, IV. ch. jutiv.p, 489, note. 196 The impression and publication of the Polyglott Psalter of GiusTiNiANi, or Justinian, and theCoMPLu- TENSiAN Polyglott Bible of Cardinal Ximenes, which were respectively dedicated to Leo, eminently distinguish- ed his pontificate. On this subject, the learned author of the Succinct Account of Polyglott Bibles has the following remarks: "The taste that prevailed early in the sixteenth century, for the cultivation of literature, was partly the cause of, and partly owing to, the publication of the Sacred Writings in different languages. Certain men, in whom were providentially united a taste for sound learn- ing, together with ecclesiastical influence, and secular opulence, determined to publish, firsts parts, and then the whole of the Sacred Writings, in such languages as were esteemed the learned languages of the universe. These were, principally, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac; others of less importance were added to them. Such publications attracted general at- tention, and became greatly studied. Hence the taste, not only for Sacred literature, but universal science, became widely diffused; and the different nations of Europe seemed to vie with each other in the publication of those works, which have since obtained the denomi- nation of Polyglotts, i. e. ^ books in many languages, ''^^ The first in order of publication was the Polyglott Psalter of Giustiniani, or Justinian, bishop of Nebbio, or Nebio, in the island of Corsica. The title of his work was, '^Psalterium, Hebraicum, Gr.ecum, Arabicum, et Chaldeum,cum tribus Latinis Interpretationibus et Glossis; and we learn from the colophon, that it wasprint- edat Genoa, 15 16, by Peter Paul PoiTus,in the house of Ni- colas Justinian Paul. It is in folio. A preface is prefixed, dated Genoa, Cal. Aug. 1516, addressed by Justinian to Leo X. It is divided into eight columns, of which, the (13) Dr. \. Clarke's Succinct Account of Polyglott Bibles, IntrocL Uverpool; 1802, 8vo. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 197 1st. contains the Hebrew; the 2nci. Justinian's Latin Translation, answering word for word to the Hebrew; the 3rd. the Latin Vulgate; the 4th. the Greek; the 5th. the Arabic; the 6th. the Chaldee Paraphrase in Hebrew characters; the 7th. Justinian's Latin translation of the Chaldee Paraphrase; the 8th. Latin scholia, or notes.^* On the 19th. Psalm, v. 4. "Their words are gone to the end of the world," Justinian has inserted, by w^ay of commentary, a curious sketch of the life of Columbus, and an account of his discovery of America, with a very sin- gular description of the inhabitants, particularly of the female native Americans; and in which he affirms, that Columbus frequently boasted himself to be the person appointed by God, to fulfil this prophetic exclamation of David. But the account of Columbus, by Justinian, seems to have displeased the family of that great naviga- tor, for in the life of Columbus, written by his son, (see Churchill's Coll. of Voyages, &c. vol. II. p. 560,) he is accused of falsehood and contradiction ; and it is even added, ^that considering the many mistakes and false- hoods found in his history and Psalter, the senate of Ge- noa has laid a penalty upon any person that shall read or keep it^* and has caused it to be carefully sought out in all places it has been sent to, that it may by public de- cree be destroyed, and utterly extinguished."^^ After all, the mistakes of Justinian most probably arose, not from design, but from incorrect information. The Arabic in this Psalter was the first that ever was printed; and the Psalter itself, the first part of the Bible that ever appeared in so many languages. Justinian undertook this work with the expectation of considerable gain, hoping thereby to assist his indigent (14) LeLong, Biblioth. Sacra, ed. Masch, pt. i. cap. iii. sec, 25. p. 400. (15) Beloe's Anecdotes of Literature and Scarce Books, I. pp. 109 — 111; ^nd III. pp. 69. 76, 77. * Qu. The History or F Salter ? 198 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, relatives, but was miserably disappointed. His original intention, he informs us, in the account of himself pre- fixed to his Annals of Genoa, was to give to the public a similar Polyglott edition of the whole Bible. "I had always imagined," says he, "that my work would be eagerly sought after, and that the wealthy prelates and princes would readily have afforded me every as- sistance necessary for printing the rest of the Bible, in such a diversity of languages. But I was mistaken, every one applauded the w^ork, but suffered it to rest and sleep; for scarcely was a fourth part sold, of the 2000 copies which I had printed, exclusive of 50 more copies printed upon vellum, which I had presented to all the kings in the world, whether Christian or Pagan." He, nevertheless, completed the MS. of the New Testament^ a great part of which he wrote with his own hand ; Sixtus Senensis says he had seen the Polyglott MS. of The Four Gospels thus written, and also decorated by him- self. After completing the MS. of the whole of the New Testament, he engaged in a similar compilation of the Text and Versions of the Old Testament ; conceiving, as he said, "that his time could not be better employed, than in the study of the holy Scriptures."'® AuGusTiN Justinian, or according to his Italian name, Agostino GiusTiNiANi, was born at Genoa, 1470. He entered at an early age into the order of St. Dominic, and enjoyed the advantages of good masters, and an ex- cellent library. For many years he devoted himself entirely to study, except what time was occupied in the duties of instruction, from which he obtained permission to retire, in 1514, that he might apply solely to the pre- paring of the Pentaglott Bible for the press, and to the studies necessarily connected with so important a design. (16) Simon, Lettres Choisifis, III. pp. 109. 111. Amsterd, 1730^ 12mo, Fabricy, Titles Primitifs, I. p. 194. Sixt. Senens. Biblioth, Sanct. lib. Iy. p. 251. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 199 He published his Pentaglott Psalter, as a specimen of the work, in 1516, but being disappointed in the patron- age he had too ardently expected, relinquished the pro- ject o^ printing the rest of the Bible. Leo X. promised him greater promotion than the bishoprick of Nebbio, to which he had been previously raised, but never fuliiiied the engagement. Happily, about the same time Francis L king of France^ to whom the bishop of Paris had recom- mended Justinian, as a man of learning and merit, invited him to Paris, and bestowed on him a pension of 300 crowns, with the titles of counsellor, and almoner. He remained live years at the court of Francis, and during that period published various works; and visited England and Flanders, returning by way of Lorraine, where he was received, and liberally entertained^ by the reigning duke Anthony, and his brother the cardinal. Whilst at Paris, he taught the Hebrew language, as pro- fessor; and also published a Latin translation of the Moreh Nehochim of Maimonides, which he dedicated to his friend and patron Stephen Poncher, bishop of Paris. A copy of this work is in the possession of the present writer. It is a beautiful thin folio, printed by Jodocus Badius Ascensius. The title-page is inclosed in a curious ornamented border, and decorated with the vignette-device of the printing- press of Ascensius. The running title is executed with a beautiful Gothic type; the text is in the Roman charac- ter ; and the capital letters with which the chapters com- mence, are fine specimens of the initial letters on dotted grounds, especially the large R and D with which Justi- nian's dedication, and Maimonides's preface, respectively begin. The dedication and colophon both bear date A. D. 1520. This translation has generally been consi- dered as the work of Justinian himself; but F. Simon says, he merely edited an old version which had been long in existence, and to which Aquinas and Bradwar- dine have referred, and of which he himself had seen a copy, written in a neat hand. 200 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, From Paris, Justinian returned into Italy, to visit his diocese, but with the intention of revisiting France, the king having promised him a rich benefice. These hopes were, however, blasted by the war breaking out between Leo and Francis. After his return to Italy he compiled his Annrili di Genova, or Flistory of Genoa, in Italian, to which he prefixed the account of his life, particularly of his publication of the Pentaglott Psalter. He likewise, with the permission of the pope, presented his valu- able library to the republic of his native city. This collection contained about a thousand volumes of the most valuable and rare works, obtained from the most distant foreign parts, forming, at that time, as he assures us, a library almost without a parallel in Europe. In the accumulation of these literary treasures, he had been greatly aided by the commercial facilities afforded by the maritime city of Genoa. Among the works thus presented to the republic, was included the 3IS. of his Polyglott New Testament, written with his own hand. From a letter addressed by the Abbe Poch to Gabriel Fabricy, we learn that the MS. is probably still preserved. This very learned Dominican perished in a storm at sea, together with the vessel which was conveying him from Genoa to Nebbio, in the year 1536.'' The famous Complutensian Polyglott, published subsequently to Justinian's Psalter, was commenced in 1502, under the auspices of Cardinal Ximenes, archbi- shop of Toledo, who spared no expense, either in procur- ing MSS. or in recompensing the editors for their trouble. Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nismes, in his Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes, gives the following account of this important edition of the Holy Scriptures: " The archbishop seeing the great corruption of man-. — , — _ — ^^ (17) Simon, Lettres Choisies, III. pp. 107—111. Sixt. Senens. Bibliotlu Sanct. lib. iv. p. 251. Fabricy, litres Primitifs, II. p. 294, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 201 iiers that reigned even among the chief ministers of the church, dreaded the attempts of enemies to spread false doctrines, by captious interpretations of the Old and New Testament, which, whilst they dazzled the simple, might appear unanswerable to the learned. For this reason, he undertook a new edition of the Bible, containing, for the Old Testament, the Hebrew Text, the Vulgate Latin, the Greek of the Septuagint version, with a Latin trans- lation, and the Chaldee Paraphrase, with a similar Latin interpretation; — for the New Testament, the Greek Text, and the Vulgate. To these was added a volume, ex- plaining the meaning of Hebrew words and idioms, highly esteemed by those who are intimately acquainted with the language.'' '^ This most difficult undertaking required the influence and perseverance of a patron like the cardinal. He immediately procured the assistance of the most eminent scholars, Demetrius of Crete, a Greek by birth, Anthony of Nebrissa, Lopez Stunica, and Ferdinand Pintian, pro- fessors of the Greek and Latin languages; Alphonsus, a physician of Alcala, Paul Coronel, and Alphonsus Zamo- ra, noted for their skill in the Hebrew tongue, having formerly taught that language among the Jews, but who having renounced Judaism, and embraced Christianity, had given proof of extraordinary erudition and genuine piety. To these he explained his design, promised to bear the whole expense, and granted them liberal pen- sions. He urged upon them the necessity of diligence: ' Hasten, my friends,' said he, 'lest I fail you, or you fail me, for you need a protection like mine, and I need assistance like yours.' By these, and similar exhorta- tions, and by the liberal encouragement afforded them, they became assiduous in their labour, and incessantly applied to the work, till the whole was completed." " He caused diligent inquiry to be made for manu- script copies of the Old Testament, in order that the 202 faults of former editions might be corrected, corrupted passages be restored, and obscure and doubtful expres- sions be explained. Pope Leo X. favoured him with MSS. from the Vatican Library, frequently praised his magnificence and generosity, and even consulted him in the most important occurrences of his pontificate. For fifteen years the work was continued without interrup- tion; and it is equally astonishing, that neither the long and tedious application wearied the constancy of the learned editors, nor that the oppressive cares which devolved on Ximenes, relaxed either his zeal, or his affection for this undertaking." "He obtained seven Hebrew MSS. which cost him four thousand crowns of gold, independent of the Greek MSS. sent him from Rome ; or the Latin ones in Gothic charac- ters, brought from foreign countries, or procured from the principal libraries of Spain, every one of which was at least eight hundred years old. The whole charge of the work, including the pensions of the editors, the wages of the transcribers, the price of books, the expense of jour- neys, and the cost of the impression, amounted, accord- ing to the calculations that were made, to more than fifty thousand crowns of gold." "This great work, which had occasioned so much care and expense, being at length completed, Ximenes dedica- ted it to Leo X. either to testify his gratitude, or, because all w^orks which regard the explanation of Scripture, are suitably inscribed to the sovereign pontiflf. When the last volume was brought him he hastened to receive it, and suddenly raising his hands and eyes to heaven, ex- claimed "I thank thee my Saviour Jesus Christ, that before I die, I see the completion of what I most earnestly desired." Then turning to some of his friends who were present he said to them ; " God has favoured me with suc- cess in things which to you have appeared to be great, and which probably have contributed to the public good; but SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 203 there is nothing on which you ought to congratulate me so n^ uch^as this edition of the Biole, which opens those sacred sources from which a purer theology may be drawn, than from those rivulets, from whence,in general, it is sought."'® This Bible is divided into six parts, and comprised in four volumes folio. The Neiv Testament was printed in 1514, as appears from the following subscriptio a at the end of the Revelation, transcribed from a copy in the Col- legiate Library at Manchester: '^Ad perpetuam laudem et gloriam dei et domini nostri iesu christi hoc sacro- sanctum opus novi testamenti et libri vite grecis latinisq; characteribus noviter impressum atq; studiosissime emen- datum : felici fine absolutu est in hac prseclarissime Co- plutensi vniversitate : de mandato et sumptibus Reueren- dissimi in christo patris et illustrissimi diii fratris Fran- cisci Ximenez de Cisneros tituli sancte Balbine sancte Ro- mane ecclie presbyteri cardinalis hispanie Archiepi tole- tani et Hispaniai\ primatis ac regnor. cas telle archicancel- larii: industria et solertia honorabilis viri Arnaldi gulielmi de Brocario artis impressorie magistri. Anno domini Millesimo quingentesimo decimo quarto. Mensis ianu- arii die decimo." This was succeeded in the month of May, in the same year, by a Hebrew and Chaldee Vocahulary, and other tracts, designed for the assistance of the student in the oriental tongues. The Old Testament was printed in 4 parts, and completed in 1517, but the cardinal dying soon after the work was finished, and doubts being start- ed by the church of Rome, whether it was proper to bring it into general circulation, it did not receive the permis- sion of Leo X. for its publication, until the 22nd. of March 1520; and the copies were not distributed to the world at large before the year 1522.'^ (18) Flechier, Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes, I. liv, i. pp. 175 — 179, Amsterdam, 1693, 12mo, (19) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, edit. Masch, pt. i. cap. iii. pp. 337, 338, Marsh's Michaelis, II. pt. i. ch. xii. sec. 1, p, 432, 204 A small number^ (it is thought not more than four,) were printed on vellum. One of these is said to be in the Vatican Library; another in the Escurial; and a third was lately purchased at the sale of the Mac-Carthy Li- brary, by Mr. G. Hibbert, for ^640.'^ The rest of the copies, of which only six hundred were printed, were upon paper. The price affixed to the work, by the bishop of Avila, by order of the pope, was two golden du- cats and a half; or ^bowi forty Uvres of French money; a considerable sum at that period. ^^ Francis Ximenes de Cisneros, the munificent pa- tron of the Com pkitensian edition of the Bible, and the most celebrated statesman of his day, was born at Torre- laguna, an obscure town in Spain, in 1437. At his bap- tism he received the name of Gonsalez, but on entering the order of St. Francis, exchanged it for that of the founder of the order. He received the first rudiments of his education at Alcala, and afterwards studied the civil and canon law at Salamanca, and made such proficiency in it, that in a short time he was able to support himself by teaching it to others. He did not, however, suffer his legal pursuits to interrupt his course of general study, but continued his application to science, and especially to sacred literatui-e, till he had acquired the usual accom- plishments of the students of that period. He then returned to his father ; but to avoid being chargeable to bis parents, resolved to visit Rome, and endeavour to obtain ecclesiastical promotion. He was twice robbed by the way; and was detained by his misfortunes, at Aix, in Provence, where he exercised the office of consistorial advocate, by which means his great abilities became partially known, and his prospects brightened. Hearing, however, of the death of his father, and the consequent distress of his mother and family, he determined to return (20) Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron, III. p. 169. (21) Calmet, Diet, de la Bible, p, iv. Paris, 1722, fol. SIXTEENTH CENTURW 205 into Spain. Having secured the papal bull to take pos- session of the first vacant benefice, he returned home, and was scarcely arrived, before the archpriest of Uceda died, and he entered upon the living*. But his right to the benefice was contested by the archbishop of Toledo^ who designing- it for one of his ahnoners, threw Ximenes into prison. At length he was liberated, at the request of the countess of Biiendia, and permitted to enjoy liis ecclesiastical preferment; but unwilling to be under the influence of a prelate who had treated him with so much severity, he exchanged his present situation for one in the diocese of Siguenza. Cardinal Gonzales de Mendoza, the bishop, appointed him to the office of grand vicar, and distinguished him by the confidence lie reposed in him. Whilst at Siguenza, he gained universal approba- tion and respect; and by his influence with John Lopez de Medina, archdeacon of Almazan, persuaded him to found a university at Siguenza. Whatever time he could pos- sibly spare from tlie claims of official engagements, he dedicated to literary occupation : he learned the Flebrew and Chaldee tongues; and diligently devoted himself to the study of the Scriptures. At this period he appears. to have laid the foundation of that Biblical knowledge, for which he was afterwards so eminently distinguished; and so deep was the impression made upon him by the perusal of the Inspired Volume, that he lost all relish for the acquisition of other science, so much so, that he used to say to his friends, that he would willingly exchange all his learning in the law, for the explanation of a single passage of Scripture. The anxieties of office, and the embarrassments of secu- lar affairs, becoming insupportable, he resolved to assume the monastic habit. This he did by entering among the Franciscans, at Toledo. After passing through the usual course of exercises, he made a profession in 1483, in his forty-sixth year^ and was admitted a member of the order* 206 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, By the permission of his superiors, he withdrew to a small convent in the neighbourhood of Toledo, called Castagnaj^ from being situated in the midst of a grove of chesnut trees. Here he practised extraordinary austerities, and generally passed part of the day in the wood, studying the Scriptures, sometimes on his knees, and sometimes prostrate on the ground; at other times he spent several days together in a cabin, raised with his own hand, on the top of a mountain covered with trees. His devotion and talents attracted the attention of the most illustrious characters of his country, and, recommended by the Car- dinal de Mendoza, the queen, Isabella, chose him for her confessor, in the year 1492, and the 55th of his age, to v/hich he reluctantly yielded, on condition of never removing with the court. By common consent the chap- ter of his order elected him provincial; and after refusing for six months, he, by order of the pope, occupied also the archbishoprick of Toledo. On his elevation to this dig- nity, instead of displaying a love of pomp and grandeur, he continued the austere and simple habits of monastic economy, yet discovering such a knowledge of public affairs, and exercising such prudence and decision in the regulation of his extensive archiepiscopal govern- ment, as rendered the fame of his wisdom equal to that of his sanctity. He provided for the poor; visited the churches and hospitals; estabhshed parochial registers, in which were entered the names of all the children bap- tized, of their fathers and godfathers, of those who were present at the baptism, with the year, month, and day, on which the ceremony was performed ; reformed abuses ; degraded corrupt judges, and placed in their room, per- sons distinguished by their probity and disinterestedness. He ordained, that on every Sunday and holiday each curate should, after high mass, explain the Gospel, in a plain, instructive manner, and in the evening after Com- plin, teach the principal articles of the Christian doctrine. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 207 prov'ding them, for this purpose, with Catechisms, and other helps for instruction. With the design of promoting the religious education of youth, and of introducing into the churdi, pious and we\i disciphned characters, he founded the college of St. Ilde- pboasus, at Alcala de Henarez, (anciently called Complu- turn.) This academy, or university, erected about A. D. 1500, soon became famous: and the celebrated Complu- tensian Pohjglott Bible, which issued from it, under the patronage and at the expense of the founder, has rendered its fame perpetual. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain, and the endea- vour to convert the Mohammedan inhabitants who re mained, called forth the vigorous talents of the archbishop, who laboured with success to subject them in profession to the church of Rome; though his refusal to permit ver- nacular translations of the Scriptures, was undoubtedly a prejudice to the sincerity of their conversion. During his residence at Toledo, he repeatedly visited the library of his cathedral, in which many MSS. were deposited, venerable from their antiquity, and valuable from their contents. Among the number which he exa- mined, in order to obtain assistance in his designs, he met with several ancient volumes, written in Gothic let- ters, which led him to re-establish the Gothic, or Mo%a- rabic offices, or liturgy, which had formerly been held in the highest veneration in the kingdom of Castile. He employed Dr. Ortiz, a canon of the church of Toledo, and two others of the same city, to publish an edition of the Mozarabic Breviaries and Missals, and dis- tributed among the ecclesiastics and churches a vast number of copies, and even founded a magnificent chapel, in the cathedral of Toledo, that the Mozarabic liturgy might be constantly used.=^ * The history of this liturgy is curious. lo the sixth century, the Visigoths occupied almost all Spain, under the empire of Honorius. As 208 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, In 1506, he was appointed regent of the kingdom of Castile ; in 1507, Pope Jnlius II. created him cardinal of Spain, and soon afterwards received the office of inquisitor general, the inquisition having been established in the kingdom, in 1477, by F. Thomas de Torquemada, of the order of St. Dominic, and prior of the convent of Saint- Croix, in Segovia. An excellent liistorian has thus drawn the character of Ximenes, as the regent of Castile : " His they were Arians, they created confusion in the public worship of the kingdom, associating nov^el with ancient practices and forms. But this na- tion having abjured their heretical opinions, and embraced the orthodox faith, through the instructions of Leantler, archbishop of Seville, it was ordained by the fourth council of Toledo, that all the churches should adopt the same forms of prayer, missals, and public Psalters , and St. Isidore, the successor of Leander, was charged with the care of carrying the decree of the council into eifect. This practice continued for about 120 years, till the Moors, having ravaged the country, and defeated the Spanish army, became masters of the kingdom. In this general cala- mity, the royal city fell into the hands of the barbarians, who permitted the Christians to retain their profession, and allowed theii six churches for the maintenance of their public worship. Many of the catholics fled from their native country, rather than submit to the yoke of foreign authority, but others cf them remained, and were denominated, from he'iQg mixed \'v{t\i the Arabs or Moors, Mistarabes ; or Mozarabes, from Moza, the name of the Moorish general. These continued the use of St. Isidore's offices for near 400 years, not only in the royal city itself, but in other cities of the kingdoms of Toledo, Castile, and Leon. Alphonsus VI. having, after a long siege, expelled the Moors from Toledo, ordered the Roman missal to be adopted, instead of the ancient one of St. Isidore, in all the churches where the latter had been in use. This was opposed by the clergy, nobility, and people, who urged the antiquity of their liturgy, and the authority by which it had been esta- blished. The dispute became so warm that, at last, it was agreed, according to the genius of the age, to terminate the contest by single combat I The king chose one knight, as the champion of the Roman Office ; and the people and clergy another, as the defender of the Toldan Missal; the combatants met, and the latter proved victorious. But Alphonsus refused to submit to the decision, and another mode of divin- ing the intention of heaven was suggested. Fasts, and public processions were appointed, a great fire was kindled, and whilst the king and people repeated their prayers, a copy of each of the missals was thrown into the flames, the Toletan escaped, and the Roman was burnt! The king then yielded permission to use the Toletan Missal, in those ancient parishes of the kingdom of Toledo, where the inhabitants had preserved their attachment to Christianity, under the government of the infidels, but forbade it in all others. See Flechierj Histoire du Card. Ximenes^ I. llv. i. pp. 182. 186. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 209 political conduct, remarkable for the boldness and origi- nality of all his plans, flowed from his real character, and partook both of its virtues and its defects. His extensive genius suggested to him schemes vast and magnificent. Conscious of the integrity of his intentions, he pursued these with unremitting and undaunted firm- ness. Accustomed from his early youth to mortify his own passions, he shewed little indulgence toward those of other men. Taught by his system of reiigion to check even his most innocent desires, he was the enemy of every thing to which he could affix the name of elegance or pleasure. Though free from any suspicion of cruelty, he discovered, in all his commerce with the world, a severe inflexibility of mind, and austerity of character, peculiar to the monastic profession, and which can hardly be conceived in a country where that is unknown." ^^ His political engagements did not, however, divert his mind from that which lay near his heart, the prosperity of the university of Alcala. He invited the most learned men from different parts of Europe ; appointed them as professors of diiferent sciences ; richly endowed the whole establishment ; made ample provision for its future pros- perity ; provided for the education of poor scholars ; repaired the church of Alcala ; and founded an extensive hospital and infirmary; in a word, he omitted nothing that might conduce to the welfare of the students, or promote the interests of religion and Sacred literature. After exercising the high office of Regent, with a vigour and capacity, seldom or never equalled, for about twenty months, leaving it doubtful whether his sagacity in coun- cil, his prudence in conduct, or his boldness in execution, deserve the highest praise, he died after a short and vio- lent illness at Bos Equillos, as he was hastening to meet the newly proclaimed king Charles, at Valladolid. His death occurred on Sunday, the 8th. of November, 1517, (22) Rebertson's Hist, of Charles V. vol. II. B. i. p. 30. Vol. II. O 210 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, in the 81st. year of his age; but whether occasioned by poison, or the ingratitude of the young king, is dis- puted. His dying words were, "In thee, O Lord, have I trusted, let ine never be confounded. "^^ After this outline of the life of the munificent patron of the Polyglott of Coraplutum, or Alcala, the reader may justly expect some notice of the learned editors of thework. Demetrius Ducas was by birth a Greek, a native of Crete, and a teacher in the university of Alcala. He published an edition of the " Greek Liturgies of Chry- sostom, Basil the Great, (^^c." Rome, 1526.'* Anthony of A^ebnssa, (^or Lebrixa), a town of Spain, was born in 1444. After having laid the foundation of learning by the knowledge of grammar and dialectics, he studied mathematics, physics, and ethics, at Salamanca, where he continued for five years; from whence he passed into Italy, and acquired the knowledge of the Greek, Latin, and Hebrew languages. In 1473, he returned into Spain, aud was patronized by Alphonsus Fonseca, bishop of Seville, under whose auspices he opened a school for the restoration of the purity of the Latin tongue, which for nearly a thousand years had been obscured, or corrupted, by the conquests of the Vandals and Moors. He resided in the family of his patron during the three years that he governed the school. On the death of the bishop, he removed to Salamanca, and obtained a double stipend as lecturer on both grammar and poetry, being the first to introduce the rules of art in the composition of the vernacular poetry of Spain. Whilst he was thus studiously endeavouring to raise the standard of the lite- rary attainments of his countrymen, he met with violent opposition from the adherents to scholastic subtilties, and barbarous modes of instruction; he therefore quitted Sala- (23; J^lechier, Uistoire riu Card. Ximenes, |3r/5*m. Barrett's Life of Cardinal X.\n\enes, passim. Lond. 1813, 8yo. (2^) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra. Index. I. Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionary, IV^ p. 276» SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 211 manca in 1488, irritated by disrespect, and wearied with the fatigues of a laborious profession; and accepted a pro- posal from John Stunica, the military prefect of Alcantara, to come and reside in his family. A handsome salary was allowed him, and during the period of his residence with the prefect, he employed his leisure in composing a Spa- nish and Latin Dictionary, and various grammatical works. In the mean time, one of the professors of the univer- sity of Salamanca dying, Anthony was chosen to succeed him, almost without a competitor. In this situation he remained till 1504, when King Ferdinand, who highly esteemed him, sent for him to court, and employed liim as the historiographer of his reign. He was afterwards employed by Cardinal Ximenes, in the correction and arrangement of his Polyglott Bible; and chosen as the first professor of the university of Alcala, where he resided till his death, which happened suddenly, by apoplexy, July 2nd. 1522, in the 78th. year of his age. Beside the Spanish Dictionary, printed at Alcala, (or Complutum) 1532, and frequently since; and the 3Ie- moirs of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, printed at Granada, 1545; he was the author of several theological, critical, and grammatical works, most of which have been printed.^^ James Lopez Stunica was a learned Spaniard, emi- nently skilled in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. On the publication of Erasmus's edition of the Greek Testament, accompanied with a Latin translation and notes, Stunica wrote violently against them, and stre- nuously defended the Vulgate, even its corruptions and barbarisms. As he began to write against Erasmus whilst Cardinal Ximenes was living, the cardinal wisely advised him to send his remarks first, in manuscript, to Erasmus, that he might suppress them if Erasmus (25) Antonii Biblioth. Hispan. h pp. 104—109. Cavei Hist, Lit. saec. xy. App. pp. 174^ 175. 212 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, gave him satisfactory answers. But Stunica was too vain and haughty to listen to the conciliatory counsel of his patron; and happening one day to find some person reading the New Testament of Erasmus, he Sciid to him in the presence of the cardinal, that he wondered how he could throw away his time upon such trash, and that the book was full of monstrous faults. The cardinal immediately replied; " Would to God that all authors wrote such trash! Either produce some- thing better of your own, or give over prating against the labours of others." This rough, and probably unexpected answer, made Stunica suppress his work till after the death of the cardinal ; when he published a book against the Annotations of Erasmus; who replied to it. Afterwards he drew up another work, more severe and virulent than the former, which he called The Blasphemies and Impieties of Erasmus. Leo X. to whom Erasmus had dedicated his New Testament, forbade Stunica to publish any thing defamatory and scurrilous against his antago- nist ; and after the death of Leo, the cardinals, and Adri- an VI. laid the same commands upon him. Yet the book was secretly printed, and then published. This also was answered by Erasmus. Some time after, Stunica attacked him again; and Erasmus replied in 1529; and in 1530, Stunica died. He also wrote against Jacques le Fevre, usually called FaberStapulensis,who had published aLatin version of the Epistles of St. Paul, accusing him of mistranslations, and defending the Vulgate against his remarks and corrections. Beside these works, he published an Itinerariiim, or account of his journey to Rome from Alcala. He died at Naples.'^ FERDINANDNoNNIUS,Or NUNNES DE GUSMAN PiNTIAN, a learned Spaniard, noted for his skill in the Oriental lan- (26) Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. pp. 246, 247. Lempriere's UnLversal Biography, art. '' Stunica*'* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 213 ^uages, was professor of Greek and Latin in the univer-^ sity of Alcala, and a knight of the military order of St. James of Compostella. He died in 1552.'' Of Alphonsus, a physician of Alcala, all that is known is, that he was a converted Jev/, possessing an accurate and extensive knowledge of the Hebrew tongue.'^ Paul CoROiNEL was a converted Jew of Segovia, in Spain. Before he embraced Christianity, he had taught Hebrew amongst those of his own nation, and was learned not only in the Oriental, but also in the Greek and Latin languages. His learning and abiUties, united to his know- ledge of Christian theology, recommended him to the notice of Cardinal Ximenes, who employed him in his celebrated Biblical work, and of which he is said to have written the Hebrew Lexicon, that accompanies it. He is also reputed to have written Additions to Nic. de Lyra's book, De differ entiis translationem ; but which were never printed. Prior to his residence at the university of Alcala, he had filled the important situation of professor of the Holy Scriptures, in the university of Salamanca, He died at Segovia, September 30th, 1534.^^ Alphonsus Zamora was born at Zamora, of Jewish parents, and educated in the knowledge of every kind of Hebrew and Rabbinical learning. Previous to the expul- sion of the Jews from Spain, by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492, he governed their public schools. After em- bracing the Roman Catholic system of Christianity, he was selected by Cardinal Ximenes as a suitable person to be employed in editing his celebrated Bible, who for this purpose granted him a handsome stipend. In thi^ work he was employed during fifteen years. In the catalogue (27) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I, p. 11 ; et Index Judar, p. 573. (28) Le Long, ut sup. (29; Antonii Biblioth. Hispan. IL p. 127. Colomesii Italia et Hispania Orientalis, p. 218. Hamburg, 1730, 4to. Woim Biblioth. Heb. L et III. No. 1813. JIamb. et Lips. 1715. 1727, 4to. 214 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, of works written by Alphonsus, Nic. Antonio mentions' the following: Vocahularium Hehraicum atque Chaldaicum veteris Testamenti; to which are annexed, Interpretationes He- hralcorum, Chaldeorian, Grecorumque nominum veteris ac novi Testamenti. Catalogus eoriim, qiice in utroque Testamento aliter scripta sunt vitio scriptorum, quam in Hebrceo et Grceco in quihusdam Bibliis antiquis. Introductiones Art is Grammaticce Hehraicoe. These form one of the volumes of the Complutensian Polyg'lott; and were the second volume that was printed. But Colomesius (Ital. et Hispan. Orient, p. 218) quotes a work of Stunica's against Erasmus, (in cap. vii. Ep. ad Hebraeos,) in which he attributes the Vocabulary, or Lex^ icon, to Paul Coronel. Alphonsus was also the author of several other eru- dite grammatical and philological works, particularly, a shorter, easier, and more lucid Hebrew Grammar, than the one annexed to the Polyglott, begun under Cardinal Ximenes, and completed under Alphonsus Fonseca, suc- cessor to the cardinal in the archiepiscopal see of Toledo. It was printed at Alcala, by Michael de Eguia, 1526, 4to. with the title, Artis Grammaticce Hebraicce Introductiones. He translated into Latin, the Chaldee Paraphi^ases of Onhelos on the Pentateuch; Jonathan on Joshua, Judges, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and' the Twelve minor Prophets; and R.Joseph, the Blind, and others, on Job, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations. Le Long also mentions him as the author of a Hebrew version of the Epistle to the Hebrews, accompanied with a Latin translation ; but Marsh remarks, that it was only an epistle written by himself to the Jews, in Hebrew and Latin, to confute their sentiments, and to convince them of the truth of Christianity; which agrees with the list SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 215 of the works written by Alphonsus, given by Nic. Antonio ill the Blhliotheca Hispana, in which we find no notice of any translation of St. Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, but only of an Hebrew and Latin Epistle to the Jews residing at Rome: " Epistola, qaam misit ex Regno Hispanise ad Hebreeos, qui sunt in Urbe Romana ad reprehenduni eos in sua pertinacia, hebraice olim scripta^ hie tamen Hebra- icis Latina interpretatione iuterlineaii adjuncta." He died in 1530.'" Beside the editors already named, Alv^arez Gomez, who wrote the life of Ximenes in 1560, says that John de Vargara, a learned Spaniard, doctor of divinity and pro- fessor of philosophy in the university of Alcala, was engag- ed in preparing for the press, the books termed Libri Sapi- entiales, viz. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus." Vargara died in 1557.^^ Such was the patron, and such were the editors, of the femous Complutensian edition of the Scriptures ; a work which, if defective, from the imperfect state of sacred criticism at that period, deserves, nevertheless, the high- est praise, as a noble attempt to create attention to the Original Texts of the Divine Oracles; and may justly be regarded as the parent of those more perfect and immense compilations, which have been made since, of tlie origi- nal texts and most important versions. Another great and important work, sanctioned and patronized by Pope Leo X. was the Latin translation of the Bible, by Sanctes Pagninus. This was the Jirsf version of the Scriptures from the Original Texts, after the revival of literature in the West. Pagninus, in the preface to his Bible, informs us, that Leo being made ac- quainted with his design of translating the Old and New (30) Antonii Bibli-oth. Hisp. l. p. 45^ Rom, 1672, fol. Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I. pp. 83. 303, 304. 462. 465. PariSj fol. 1723. Ibid, edit iVTasch, pt. ii. toI. I. sec. 1. p. 13. (21) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, L pp. 11. 310. et Index, Audor, 216 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals, he sent to him, and requested to be allowed the inspection of his work. After examining several sheets, he was so sa- tisfied with it, that he immediately ordered that the whole should be transcribed at his own expense, and gave di- rections that materials should be provided for printing it. A part of it was accordingly executed, but the unexpected death of the pontiff retarded its completion. After the decease of Leo, he removed, first to Avignon, and then to Lyons, where the work was first printed, in 1528, in 4to.by Anthony du Ry,at the expense of his kinsmen Fran- ciscus Turchus, and Dominicus Bertus, citizens of Lucca, and Jacobus de Giuntis, a bookseller of Florence. "This version was the work of twenty-five years, and has been greatly extolled both by Jews and Christians, particularly the Old Testament, as the best Latin version that ever was made from the Hebrew, that of Jerom not excepted;" yet some critics have considered the translation to be too literal, and chiefly useful as a grammatical glossary, and illustrative of the Hebrew idiom. In the transla- tion of the New Testament he was les^ successful than in the Old, and has too generally adopted the Jewish modes of expression. Though finished in 1518, it was not printed, as we have seen, till 1528, when it was published with the approbation of the Pope ; and with the bulls of Adri- an VL and Clement VH. prefixed to it. To the transla- tion of the Bible, he added a Table of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Greek names, contained in the Scriptures, with their derivations and meanings. This was the first Latin Bible in which the verses of each chapter were distin- guished and numbered. ^^ Sanctes Pagninus, or according to the Italian, (32) Hody, DeBibl. Text. Orig. lib. iii. pt. ii. pp. 473—480, Fabricy, Titles Primitifs, Tf. pp. 132—156. Geddes's Prospectus, pp.. 74, 75. Whittaker's Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Interpretation of the Heb. Scriptures, p. 19. Camb. 1819, 8vo. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 217 Sante Pagnini^ was born at Liicca^ in 1466, and after- wards became an ecclesiastic of the order of St. Dominic. He was accurately skilled in the Latin, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Chaldee tongues; yet was supposed to excel particularly in the Hebrew. He diligently applied him- self to a comparison of the Vulgate Bible, with the origi- nal Texts, and believing it either not to be the translation of Jerom, or greatly corrupted, undertook to form a new version, which he effected with great credit, producing a translation, which has been, in a great measure, the model of all succeeding Latin versions. Beside the translation of the Bible, Pagninus was the author of several other valuable works; the following are particularly deserving notice : "Thesaurus Linguae Sanctae, seu Lexicon Hebraicum, printed at Lyons, 1529, fol." '' Instlhitiones Lmgitce Hehraicoe ; Lyons, 1526, 8vo." "Isagoge ad mystkos S. Scripturce seiisus; Lyons, fol. 1536." In this work he explains cabalistically, the principal part of Job, and Solomon's Song, and the whole of the 7th. chapter of the 1st. Epistle to the Corinthians. ^'Catence Jrgentec^r or commentaries compiled from the Fathers and others, on the Pentateuch and Psalms. He died at Lyons, in 1541, (or according to Le Long, in 1536,) and was buried there. A marble monument was raised to his memory, in the choir of the church of the Dominicans .^^ Sacked Literature revived with the general cultiva- tion of science and letters; the Oriental languages were more extensively known and studied ; and the Holy Scrip- tures began to be regarded as the purest source of theo- logy and ethics ; and though profound ignorance, and depravity, of manners still reigned generally in the church, many of the clergy deemed it their duty to acquaint (33) Sixt. Senens. Eiblioth. Sanct. lib. iv. p. 375. Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, U. pp. 890. 1178, 1188. Paris, 1723. 218 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, themselves with the original languages ; and several rose to considerable eminence as Biblical critics and exposi- tors. The pursuits of Oriental and Sacred learning extend- ed to the laity, and there were not wanting scholars among them, whose extent of information, and critical rcsearcJi, placed them in the foremost rank of theologi- cal students and authors. To the names of learned Italians already noticed^ we may add those of Cardinal Cajetan; Theseus Ambrosius; Felix Pratensis; and Aldus Manutius. Cardinal Cajetan, whose proper name was Thomas DE Vio, was born in 1469, at Cajeta^ a town in the king- dom of Naples, from which he assumed the surname of Cajetan. Entering into the order of St. Dominic, he rose successively to be general of his order, archbishop of Pa- lermo, and at length cardinal and legate. He was em- ployed in various negociations with foreign powers ; but is chiefly distinguished by his opposition to Luther; and by his translation of the principal part oj the Bible. Sent by Leo X. to suppress the rising influence of Luther and his friends, he displayed all the subtilty and imperi- ousness of the Romish legate; so that even Erasmus des- cribed him as a furious, imperious, and insolent ecclesi- astic. We are, therefore, not surprised to learn that his legatiue authority proved utterly inadequate to silence the intrepid reformer, or to stop the progress of the Re- formation. But whilst we detest his unhallowed conduct as the legate of . the pope, we regard him with respect, when, as the minister of the sanctuary, we find him stu- dying the Sacred Volume, and labouring to transfuse the invaluable truths of Scripture, into a literal translation of the Word of God. Of this version of the Scriptures into Latin, Dr. Geddes gives the following account: "The famous Cardinal de Vio Cajetan, who, amidst a multiplicity of state affairs, found means to devote a part of every day to serious study, left behind him, among other SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 219 laborious productions, a translation of a great part of the Bible. As he was totally ignorant of the Hebrew, he employed two learned persons, a Jew and a Christian, as his interpreters; and having a sound judgment, and discerning taste, he succeeded much better than could be expected. But his version was formed on this erro- neous principle, that a ti-ansiation of the Scripture can- not be too literal; should it even for that reason be unintelligible. This prepossession made him judge un- favourably of the Vnlgate, which he often censures with- out reason; for which cause some zealots have unjustly taxed him with heresy. His translation has much the same faults with that of Pagninus ; and may be of much the same use to the Hebrew student. It was printed with his Commentary^ at Lyons, in the year 1639." The books of Scripture contained in this translation, were those of the Pentateuch, Joshua^ Judges, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah,Joh, the Psalms, Proverbs, and the three first chapters of Isaiah. These, with his commentary, form five volumes in folio. The Psalms were printed sepa- rately, at Venice, 1530, fol. accompanied with the Vulgate version. At the commencement he explains his mode of translation. A list of the rest of his works may be found in Freher s TheatrumVirorumEruditione Clarorum, pars I. pp. 27, 28, Noriberg. 1688, fol. He died August 10th. 1534.'* Theseus Ambrosius, or according to his Italian name, Teseo Ambrogio, one of the first oriental scholars of his day, and regular canon of the Lateran, was of the noble family of the Conti d' Albonese, and born at Pavia, in 1469. He visited Rome in the year 1512, at the open- ing of the fifth session of the Lateran council, which com- menced under Julius II. and was continued under Leo X. (34) Freheri Theatrum, pt. i. pp. 27, 28. Geddes's Prospectus, p. 78. Jortia's Life of Erasmus, f. p. "IQO. Le Long, edit, Masch, pt, ii. yoL III. cap, iii, sec. 1. pp. 490. 528. 220 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, till 1517. In the eighth session of this council, a decree was passed against those who denied the immortality of the soul; and the fourth canon ordained, that "all those who were in holy orders, after the time employed in grammar and logic, should spend five years more in studying philosophy, without applying themselves to divinity, or canon law." In the tenth session it was decreed, that "for the future, no books should be printed at Rome, nor in any other city or diocese, under pain of excommunication, without being first examined; at Rome, by the vicar of his holiness, and the master of the sacred palace ; and in the other cities, by the bishop of the diocese, or some doctor of divinity nominated by the bishop; and being signed by them as approved." The great number of ecclesiastics from Syria, Ethiopia, and other parts of the East, who attended the council, afforded Ambrogio an opportunity of prosecuting his stu- dies with peculiar advantage; and at the request of the cardinal, Santa Croce, he was employed as the person best qualified to translate from the Chaldee, or Syriac, into Latin, the liturgy of the Eastern clergy, previously to the use of it being expressly sanctioned by the pope. After having been employed by Leo X. for two years, in teaching Latin to the sub-deacon Elias, a legate from Syria, whom the pope wished to retain in his court; and from whom Ambrogio received, in return, instructions in the Syriac tongue, he was appointed by the pontiff to the chair of a professor, in the university of Bologna, where he delivered instructions in the Syriac and Chaldee lan- guages, for the first time that they had been publicly taught in Italy. He is said to have understood at least ten different languages, many of which he spoke with the ease and fluency of a native. In the commotions which devastated Italy, after the death of Leo X. he was despoiled of the numerous and valuable Eastern MSS. which he had collected at great SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 221 expense, and by the industry of many years, and also of the types and apparatus which he had prepared for an edition of the Psalter in the Chaldee, which he intended to have accompanied with a dissertation on that lan- guage. This, however, did not dispirit him so as to cause him to lay aside his studies, for in the year 1539, he published at Pavia, an "Introduction to the Chaldee, Syriac, Armenian, and ten other tongues; with the alphabetical characters of forty different languages ;" which is considered by the Italians themselves, as the earliest attempt made in Italy, towards a systematic acquaintance with the literature of the East. This work was printed with the types, and at the expense of Ambro- gio, as appears from the title of the work: Introductio in Chaldaicam Unguam, Syriacam, atque Armenicam, et decern alias linguas. Characterum differentium Alpha- beta circlter quadraginta, S^c^ 1539, 4to. ^'Excudehat Papice, Joan. Maria Simonetta Cremon, in Canonica Sancti Petri in Ccelo aureo, sumptihus et typis author is Uhrir'' Felix Pratensis, a native of Prata, in Tuscany, was of Jewish extraction. After his conversion to Christia- nity, he entered the order of Hermits of St. Augustin. For many years he was successfully employed in instruct- ing, and preaching to the Jews, which occasioned him to be denominated the scourge of the Hebrews. In 1515, he translated and edited an edition of the Psalter, from the Hebrew, published by the celebrated Dutch printer, Daniel Bomberg, printed at Venice, in 4 to. and dedicat- ed to Pope Leo X. From the preface to this Psalter we learn, that this work formed but a small portion of the design expressed to Leo, by Felix, who meditated a translation of the whole of the Old Testament. But the (35) Roscoe's Life of Leo the Tenth, Jl. ch. xi. pp. 396. 399. Dicdonnaire Portatif des Conclles, pp. 275. 284, Colomesii Italia et Hispania OrientaliS; pp. 37, 38. 222 design does not appear to have received the approbation of Leo, for whose inspection, and with whose consent, this portion was printed; it was, therefore, most probably dropped, though Wolfius says, he translated Job, and some other books of the Bible. Tlie version of the Psalms he completed in only fifteen days. He was also employed by Daniel Bomberg, in editing the Rahhlnical Bible, printed at Venice in 1518, fol. This Bible contained not only the Hebrew Teat, but also the Commentaries of several of the most eminent Jewish rabbis, the Chaldee Paraphrases, the Masora, Tables of the Sections of the Law, &c. and tracts on the Various Readings, &c. This Bible was dedicated to Leo X. A more complete edition of the Rabbinical Commentaries was afterwards given to the public, by the same printer, but by another editor, R. Jacob ben Chaim. Felix died at Rome, November 5th, 1539, at nearly a hundred years old, and was buried in the church of St. Augustin.^^ The Aldi were a family of eminent printers, who flou- rished in Italy, at the close of the fifteenth, and during the greatest part of the sixteenth century. Aldus Pius Manu- Tius, frequently called the elder Aldus, (to distinguish him from his grandson of the same name, who was also a cele- brated printer,) and the first of these illustrious printers, was born about the year 1447, at Bassiano, a small town in the duchy of Sermonetta, in the vicinity of the Pomptine Marshes. His youth appears to have been spent at Rome, where he studied under the most eminent profes- sors; and acquired that extensive information, which rendered him afterwards so admired as a Greek critic and grammarian. About the year 1488, he settled at Venice, with the view of establishing a printing office. (36) Colomesii ItaL et Hist. Orientalis, p. 19. Wolfii Liblioth. PJeb. I. et 111. No. 1835. Hody, De Bibl. I ext Orig. p. 461. Le Long, edit. Maschj pt. i. ch. i. sect. ii. pp, 96 — 99, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 223 He it was, who, observing the many inconveniences arising from the vast number of abbreviations, which were at that time in use among the generahty of printers^ first con- trived an expedient whereby these abbreviations were entirely removed, and yet books thereby but little in- creased in bulk. This he performed by introducing what is now called the Italic letter, though formerly the Aldiney from tie name of its inventor; and sometimes Cursive, from its form. The senate of Venice, and the Popes Alexander VI. Julius il. and Leo X. granted him the exclusive use of his newly invented character for fifteen years; but the Lyonnese printers disgraced themselves by their endeavours to counterfeit his invention, and by the publication of pirated editions of the classics edited by him. " He combined the lights of the scholar with the industry of the mechanic," so that while he gave the most sedulous attention to his printing office, he carried on a very extensive correspondence with the literati of Europe, explained the classics to a numerous auditory of students, and also found time to compose various works, which are characterised by profound learning and critical skill. Conscious that his single labours were inadequate to the diffusion of literature, he assembled round him a circle of the most learned men of the age, some of whom lived in his house, and were entirely supported by him. Among other works which he projected for the benefit of literature, was that of a Polyglott Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin ; of which, however, he executed only one specimen page in folio, which is now preserved in the Royal Library at Paris. The first printed edition of any part of the Greek Testament, was executed by him at Venice, in 1504. It contained the first six chapters of St. John's Gospel; and was appended to an edition of the " Poems of Gregoiy Nazianzen." He also procured MSS, and made preparations for an edition of the Old AND New Testament in Greek, but was prevented from 224 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, completing his design by his death, which happened in 1515, or 1516. It was afterwards printed in 1518, in fol. min. by his father-in-law and partner, Andrea Tur- resano d' Asola. He was succeeded by his third son, Paulus Martutius, born in 1512; whose younger son Aldus, born in 1547, carried -on the business till his own death, in 1597; when the family of these learned printers termi- nated, after having been, for more than a century, the glory of literature and typography. To the elder Aldus alone, the world is indebted for the edit'wnes prmcipes, or ^rsf printed editions, of twenty-eight Greek classics; beside which, there are few ancient authors of note, of** whom he did not publish editions of acknowledged accu- racy, and (as far as the means of the art, then in its infancy, permitted) of great beauty ; yet his modesty was such as led him to say, that, far from regarding the flat- teries of such as praised his works, he could not himself affirm, that he had published so much as one book, with which he saAv cause to be satisfied. To his zeal and taste in publishing the works of the best Greek authors, must chiefly be attributed the preference which has long been shewn to the study of Greek literature.^^ Of the success of Biblical Literature in Spain, at the com- mencement of this century, some notice has been already taken, in the account of the Polyglott Bible of Cardinal Ximenes. To what has been there stated, it may be added, that in 1512, the Epistles and Gospels for the whole year, as read in the churches, were published in Spanish, by Ambrose de Monte sin, a Spanish Franciscan friar, bishop of Sardinia. They were reprinted at Antwerp, 1544, in 8vo.^« (37) Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionary, I. p 48. Home's Introduction to Bibliography, I. p. 242—244. 249. and II, App. No. Tii. p. Ix. — Ixxx, Le Lonof, edit. Masch, IL pt. ii. sec. i. p, 265; and App, Supp; and Emend, p. 8. (38) Le Long, I, p. 363; et Index, Jucfor. 571. Paris, 1723. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. ''I\Liy In the same year (1512,) the archbishop of Seville, D. Didaco Deza, held a provincial council, or synod, in which it was ordained, that "the parish priests should instruct their parishioners in the mysteries of the holy Catholic faith ; and should place in each of their churches, tables containing the Articles of the Christian belief, and the Ten Commandments." It was also further enjoined, that "they should persuade the people to practise the seven works of mercy; explain the dominical lessons; admonish their parishioners to acquaint themselves with the ge- neral confession, and the ecclesiastical prayers, as the Pater-Noster, Credo, and Salve Regina; and enforce the repetition of those prayers in the church. And all eccle- siastical and secular persons were forbidden to instruct their scholars in other things, or to teach them to write, under pain of excommunication, unless they first knew the prayers and contents of the tables."^® The Constitutions of Cardinal Mendoza also decreed, that the care of transcribing missals should be commit- ted to the sacrist, and that five missals should be written every year for the respective chapels, on account of the great deficiency which then existed of those liturgical works, and for which an annual stipend should be allowed to the sacrist under whose directions and at whose cost, the missals should be copied.*® Archbishop Deza, who summoned the synod, was a Spaniard by birth, and a friar of the order of St. Domi- nic. He was the author of a "Defence of St. Thomas (Aquinas) against the replications of Matthias Dorinck ;" and of a "Monotessaron," or Harmony of the Evangelists. He died in 1525." In 1513, the book of Job, with the Morals of Gregory (39) Collectio Maxima Cone, Hisp, IV. p. 3. (40) Ibid. IV. p. 31. (41) LeLong, II. p. 699, Vol. II. P 226 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ the Great, were translated out of the Latin into Spanish^ by Alphonsus Alvarez, of Toledo.*^ The dreadful persecutions which had been raised against the Jews,, and the edicts in 1492 and 1496, by which 600,000 persons were expelled from Spain and Portugal, drove many of the refugees to Constantinople, where they established a printing office, from which several Hebrew works of importance afterwards issiied. In 1505, the Pentateuch was printed in Hebrew and Chaldee, accompanied with Rabbinical Commentaries ; and again in 1506, in fol. or 4to. The Jews also established a press at Thessalonica, at which the book of Job in Hebrew, with a Striae commentary written in 1506, was printed in 1517; as the Pentateuch and Targum with Rabbi- jiical commentaries had been the preceding year. Other portions of the Hebrew Scriptures, were likewise in differ- ent years printed at each of these places.*^ Pteturning to examine the state of Sacred literature in France at this period, the Biblical labours of Jacobus Faber Stapidensis are particularly deserving of notice. This learned man published in 1509, in fol. a Quintuple Latin Psalter, containing, beside the four versions, called the Italic, Roman, GalUcan, and Hebraic,^ a fifth, or amended edition of the Gallican. This edition of the Psalter appears to have been a wojk of considerable at- tention and labour, since we find that for the old, or Italic version, he made use of a most valuable MS. copy written with gold and silver letters upon purple parchment, in uncial characters, in folio; supposed to have been part of the spoils of the city of Toledo, obtained by Childebert I. king of the Franks, about A. D. 542, and afterwards to (42) Le Long, 1. Index. Audor. p. 542. (43) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, edit. Masch. pt. i. cap. u sec. 2. p. 123.* Append. Supp. pp. 8 10, 11. De Rossi, De Ignotis — Editionibus; cap. x. xi. xiii. &c. A pp. Erlang. 1782. * See Yol, I. p. 367; of this work. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 227 have been made use of by St. German us, bishop of Paris, who died in 576.** Faber accompanied the Psalter with short notes, which, from the sentiments expressed in them, subjected him to the suspicion of being tainted with heretical pravity ; and occasioned the Psalter, which was more than once reprmted, to be placed in the Index Expurgatorius, or list of prohibited books.*^ He is also supposed to have been the author of a French version of the Psalms, printed in 1525, in 8vo. at Paris, by Simon de Colines; * to which were subjoined the contents or Arguments, in which he is said to have introduced his peculiar views of religion, similar to those of the Refor- mation; and is farther mentioned as the French translator of the Song of Solomon, though with less certainty. He likewise published Commentaries on the Four Gospels, and the Epistles of St. Paul. To the latter was prefixed an Apology, intended to prove that the Latin translation, every where read, was not that of Jerom. His Commen- tary on the Four Gospels, was printed at Meaux, in 1522, in fol. His method is to exhibit, first the Latin Text of this edition, and then to explain it, correcting at the same time those passages which he believes to be incorrectly translated. As he principally takes the Greek for his guide, he has added asterisks and obelisks to mark what is redundant, or what is wanting, in the Latin, after the example of Origen in the Greek. His Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul was written in the abbey of St. Germain des Prez, and printed in folio, 1512. The Vulgate being authorized throughout all the Western churches, he printed it with this commentary, but annex- (44) Le Long, I. p. 243. Paris, 1723, fol, (45) Le Long, edit. Masch, pt. ii. vol. IIL cap. i. sec. 9. p. 13. * The following prices affixed to works priuted by this printer, may shew the value of books at the time : '' Vetus Testamentum, minora forma, 1525, 12mo.— 24 sous. Novum Testamenturo^ min. form. 1525, l2mo. — 6 sous. [Dibdio's Bibliog. Decameron, IL p. 7^^, 228 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, ed a new translation from the Greek. A Commentary on the General Epistles was published by him in 1527, printed at Basil, in fol.; and Frisius has noticed a Com- mentary by him, on Ecclesiastes.^^ But undoubtedly his greatest and most important work was the translation into French of the whole of the New Testament, printed at Paris in 1523, in 8vo.. by Simon de Colines; the Gospels in June; the Epistles OF Paul, the Catholic, or General Epistles, and the Acts of the Apostles, in October; and the Revelation, in November. The work was published without the translator's name; but with a prefatory epistle, defending the translation. Another edition was printed in two volumes, 8vo. by Simon de Colines, in 1524; — a third was published the same year, but without the name of the printer, or the place where it had been printed; a fourth in 1529, &c." The publication of the Psalter, and especially of the New Testament, caused a violent persecution to be raised against Faber, by the doctors of the Sorbonne, so that after having been expelled from the faculty of theology at Paris, he was obliged to fly from France ; and for some time resided at Strasburg, under a feigned name. F. Si- mon says, that he was encouraged in the publication of his work, by certain powerful friends at the court of Francis I. The Prefatory Epistle was prefixed to the second vo- lume, or part of the New Testament, under the title of Epistre exhortatoire a tons les Chrestiens et Chrestiennes, In this epistle he praises Jean de Rely,, dean of St. Mar- tin of Tours, and bishop of Angers, for his revision of Guiars des Moulins' translation of Comestor s Historia (46) Le Long, I. cap. iv. pp. 333. 335; et II. p. 719. Paris, fol. Simon's Critical History of the Versions of the f»j. T. pt, ii, ch. xxi, p. 178. (47) Le Long, L pp. 335, 336. Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. p. 90. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 229 Scholastica, in 1487; but complains that the French Bibles which had preceded his version of the New Testament, were full of faults, and corrupted by additions and re- trenchments. The follomng is a specimen of his reason- ing in defence of his translation : " Who is there, therefore, but will esteem it proper, and conducive to salvation, to have the New Testament in the vulgar tongue? What is more necessary to life, whether temporal or spiritual ? If in the different reli- gious orders, they ordain, that if any one be ignorant of Latin, he shall have the Rules of his order in the vulgar tongue, carry it about him, and commit it to memory; and in their respective Chapters frequently explain their Rules to them; with how much more reason ought the unlearned among Christians to possess the Word of God, the Scripture full of grace and mercy, which is their rule, and which alone is necessary, for only one thing is needful. This Holy Scripture is the Testament (last Will) of Jesus Christ, the Testament of our Father con- firmed by his death, and by the blood of our Redeemer ; and who is he that shall forbid the children to have, and see, and read their father s will? It is, then, highly expe- dient to possess it, and read it, and hear it, not only once but often, in the chapters of Jesus Christ, which are the churches, where all the people, unlearned and learned, ought to assemble, to hear and honour the Word of God. And such is the intention of our gracious king, who in heart as well as name, is Most Christian, in whose hand God has placed so noble and excellent a kingdom, to the glory of the Father of mercy, and of Jesus Christ his Son ;— ^a design which ought to inspire all in the kingdom with courage to advance in true Christianity, by follow- ing, understanding, and beHeving, the quickening Word of God. And blessed be the hour when it shall be accom- pHshed; and blessed be all those, both male and female, who shall procure it to be carried into effect, not only in 230 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, this kingdom, but through all the world."*^ The great objection against Faber s translation was, that it promoted the Reformation in France, which had been begun by Luther in Germany; and which was cha- racterized by the partizans of popery, with the epithet of Novelties. "These Novelties,''' says F. Simon, "were agreeable to the taste of some lords and ladies of the court. J. LE Fevre, (Faber,) who edified the world by his exemplary life, gave great influence to these Novel- ties. His erudition was very great for the time in which he lived; and his amiable manners gained him the esteem and love of every one. Almost the only enemies he had, were his own confraternity, the doctors of Paris. The famous Noel Beda, the sworn enemy of the Belles Lettres, openly declared himself against him and Erasmus; and the faculty of theology at Paris was at that time so op- posed to vernacular translations of the Bible, that in the same year, (1523,) they censured this proposition, ' Om- nes Christiani, et maxime clerici sunt inducendi ad studium Scripturse sanctce, quia alise doctrinae sunt hu- manse, et parum fructuosse:' ^ All Christians, but espe- cially the clergy, ought to be persuaded to study the Holy Scriptures, because other learning is human, and productive of but little good.' This permission, said this faculty, would renew the errors of the Poor Men of Lyons, (Waldenses,) which had been already condemned. The following are the express terms of the censure, taken from the registers of the Sorbonne: "Haec propositio secundum primam partem, laicos quoscumque ad studium sacrae Scripturfe et difficultatum ejusdem esse inducendos sicut et clericos, ex errore pauperum Lugdunensium de- ducetur." This decree was afterwards authorized by an edict of parliament in 1525, confirming a censure of tliese theologians, against a French version of the Office of the Holij Firgin. In this edict, it is expressly afliirmed, (48) SimoD;, Lettres Choisies^ IV* Lettre xv. p. 95. SIXTEENTH CENTUHY. 231 that it is neither expedient nor useful for the Christian public, that any translations of the Bible should be permit- ted to he printed; but that they ought rather to be suppress- ed as injurious, considering the times. The terms in which the faculty of theology expressed the censure were these: " Post maturam omnium magistrorum deliberati- onem, fuit unanimi consensu dictum et conclusum, quod in sequendo conclusiones dudum per ipsam factas, neque expediens est neque utile reipublicse Christiance, imo visa hujus temporis conditione potius perniciosum, non solum translationem Horarum, sed etiam alias translationes Biblicee, aut partium ejus, prout jam passim fieri viden- tur, admitti, et quod illee quae jam emiss(s sunt supprimi magis deberent." These doctors designed this censure to be retrospective, and to extend to those versions of the Scriptures which had been previously published ; and as no French version had yet been published by the French Calvinists, these different edicts, when speaking of the unhappiness of the times, can only refer to what was regarded as the heresy of Luther. On this very account, the parliament of Paris, in a decree against the doctrine of Luther, made in 1525, subjoins these words: "The said court has ordained, and does ordain, that it shall be enjoined by the king s authority, that all persons who have in their possession the books of the Song of Solomon, the Psalms, the Revelation, the Gospels, the Epistles of St. Paul, and other books in the Old and New Testament contained in the Holy Bible, which have been lately translated out of Latin into French, and printed; and also a printed book, containing the Gospels and Epistles for Sundays, and other solemnities for the whole year, with certain Exhortations in French; shall bring them and deliver them up within eight days from the publica- tion of this decree." This last work was supposed to be the production of Faber and his disciples; and the Exhor- tations were every where filled with declamations against 232 any thing being preached to the people but the Gospel. The work was designed for the use of the churches at Meaux.*^ The exile of Faber, which had been occasioned by ^he persecution of the doctors of the Sorbonne, did not con- tinue long; for although Francis I. was captive in Spain, he was informed^ by his sister Margaret^ of the treatment which Faber had received, and wrote in his favour to the parliament of Paris, by which means he was enabled shortly after to return again to France.^^ This great man, who is usually called Jacobus Faber Stapulensis, latinizing his name and the place of his birth, Jacques le Fevre of Estaples, was born about A D. 1435. He travelled into foreign countries in quest of knowledge, and is said to have '^seen not only Europe, but also Asia, and a part of Africa." Being chosen pro- fessor of the belles lettresand philosophy, in the university of Paris, he endeavoured, with some success, to introduce into the schools, something more solid than the trifling studies of the scholastic doctors, especially an acquaint- ance with the learned languages. In 1517, he had a dispute with Erasmus, respecting the quotation from the second Psalm, in Hebrews. iL 7, which Erasmus had translated Thou hast made him for a little time lower than the angels; but which Le Fevre contended ought to be translated, according to the Hebrew, Thou hast made him a little lower than God. As they were friends, the debate was carried on with some civility, and soon drop- ped; leaving their fi^iendship undiminished. In 1523, he left Paris and went to Meaux, where William Brigonet, the bishop, a patron of learning and of learned men, chose him for his grand vicar. This prelate being suspected of favouring Lutberanism, and persecuted on that account, Le Fevre was obliged to quit his service, for fear of being (49) Simon, Lettres Choisios, IV.Let. xv. pp. 95 — 107. " (50) Sleidaii's il^^U of the Reformation, B. y. p. 98. Lond, 1689, foU SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 233 involved in the same calamity. After having spent some time in Germany, he returned to Paris, and became pre- ceptor to Charles, duke of Orleans, the third son of Francis I. Margaret, queen of Navarre, sister to Fran- cis I. honoured him with her protection, and invited him to Nerac in 1530, where he died in 1537. Like Erasmus and some others, he continued in com- munion with the Church of Rome, whilst he seriously disapproved of her doctrines and practices. He is even said to have taken a journey to Strasburg by the queen of Navarre's order, to confer ^dth Bucer and Capito, con- cerning the doctrines of the reformers. Some remarka- ble circumstances relative to his death, which have been told by Catholic historians and others, ought not to be omitted. On the day of his death, being apparently as well as usual, while dining with the queen and some learned men whom this princess frequently invited to spend the day with her, Le Fevre appeared pensive and melan- choly, and was observed to shed tears. The queen de- sired to know what was the cause of his sadness; he answered, "I am distressed because of the enormity of my crimes. I am now a hundred and one years of age; and though I have lived a chaste life, and have been pre- served from those excesses into which many are hurried by the violence of their passions, yet I have been guilty of this heinous offence — I have known the Truth, and have taught it to many who have sealed it with their blood, and yet I have had the weakness to hide myself in those places where the crowns of martyrs are never distributed." Having said this, he dictated his will viva vo- ce, went and lay down on his bed, and died in a few hours !^^ The translation of the New Testament into Fremh, by Le Fevre (Faber,) was made from the Latin, and was the first Catholic French translation, in which the Sacred (51) Clarke's Bibliog. Diet. III. pp. 226—228. Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I, pp. 90. 391 ; aad IT. p. 240. 234 Text was purely given, former ones being generally made, not from the Text, even of the Vulgate, but from Comes- tor s legendary Historia Scholastica. Le Fevre's trans- ' lation was several times reprinted, and from the opposition of the Catholic doctors, was sometimes printed without either the authors or printer's name. Le Long sup- poses that the anonymous translations placed in the Index L'ihrorum prohibiforum of 1551, were Le Fevre's. The titles are thus given under the head of French books, ab mcertis auctorihus :• "Les saintes Evangiles de Jesus Christ; — et au com- mencement une Epistre exhortatoire qui sent la doctrine de Luther. '' Les saintes Evangiles de Jesus Christ ; — au com- mencement il y a une Epistre Lutherienne." Both his French Psalter and New Testament were prohibited so early as 1528, by the provincial synod of Beziers, in France, in the following terms: '^ Moreover, this Synod decrees, that no books of the Lutheran heresy, or sectaries, nor any of the books of Scripture which have been translated out of Latin into the vernacular tongue, either of late, or eight (or rather five) years ago, shall be sold or bought, except they have been examined by the ordinary of the place, under pain of being panished as offenders."^^ Such were the efforts of the Galilean clergy to prevent the circulation of the Word of God, in the language of their countrymen; and such las been the general policy of the Romish hierarchy, and such is still its practice, While truths on which eternal things depend. Find not, or hardly find, a single friend. At this dark and melancholy period, England presents a )icture equally dreary with that of France. In a Ca- tdogue of the books belonging to Leicester abbey, in 1492, aid which included what was, for that day, an extensive {^) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, L cap. iv. p. 335. Paris, 1723. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 235 library; the following are the only copies of the Scripture which are noticed : "BiBLiE, defect' et usit'. Each book of the Old Testament glossed. Evangelia glossata. Historiae de Biblia in Gallico. 5 Psalteria abbreviata. Psalterium." On this scanty list, the learned and indefatigable histo- rian of Leicester excellently remarks, that " from this catalogue it seems rather doubtful, whether in the library of this religious house, there might be any one complete collection of all the Holy Scriptures. Supposing Blhlie, in the first article, to have included both the Old and the New Testaments, it was a tome defective and worn. The second consisted of each book of the Old Testament only; and the third of the Gospels, without any mention of the Acts of the Apostles, of the Epistles, or of the Apocalypse. There is, however, a separate mention of "Actus Aplor' gloss', Apocalyps' gloss', Eple Pauli^ gloss', Eple Canonice," and among the last occurs the "Canticus Canticorum." Perhaps there might b,e some of those Augustin monks, to whom the Divine Oracles in the learned languages would have been of little use; and yet to these was not indulged a translation, there being in the consistorial acts at Rochester, the minutes of a rigid process against the Precentor of the priory of that cathe- dral, for retaining an English Testament,- in disobedience to the general injunction of Cardinal Wolsey, to deliver up these prohibited books to the bishops of the respective dioceses." " A. 1528, Jan. 15. In palatio Roffens', coram ipso reverendo patre, comparuit personaliter Dr. Will. Mafel- cle, monachus et precentor in eccles' Castr' Roffens' nota- * *' No other of the Epistles of the New Testament occur, save those of St. Paul." 236 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, tus, quod, post publicationem factam in civitate predicta quod unusquisque sancta Dei Evangelia in idioma nos- trum translata apud se servand' eidem reverendo patri inferrent, et traderent, sub pcenis in literls reverendi patris cardinalis contentis, idem Wilius hujusmodi libros post tempus per eunde rev' patre limitat' apud se serva- vit et retinuit, &c."" In the dioceses of London and Lincoln many persons suffered on account of tbeir attachment to the Scriptures, and to the cause of truth. At Amersham, in Buckingham- shire, in the year 1606, thirty persons were burnt in tbe right cheek, and made to bear faggots by way of penance. " The cause was, that they would talk against supersti- tion, and idolatry; and were desirous to hear and read the Holy Scriptures."" The register of the London dio- cese, during the episcopate of Richard Fitzjames, fur^ nishes many other instances of persecution against those who were called Lollards, or followers of Wiclif. In 1511, Thomas Austy, Joan Austy his wife, Thomas Grant, John Carter, Christopher Ravius, Dionysia his sister, and Thomas Vincent, Lewis John, Joan John his wife, and John Web, were brought before the bishop, and accused of having "read and used certain English books, repug- ning the faith of the Romish church ; as the Four Evan- gelists; Wiclifs Wichet; a book of the Ten Command- ments of Almighty God; the Revelation of St. John; the Epistles of Paul and James, with other like." The per- sons thus accused were imprisoned, and through fear were led to abjure what were deemed their errors. In the same year, and by the same bishop, William Sweeting, and James Brewster, were burnt in Smithfield, in one fire, as relapsed heretics, having been formerly accused, and abjured; the first charge'm the examination of Willianj (53) Nichols's Hist, and Antiq. of the County of Leicester, I, Append* No xvii. pp. 101 — 108. . Lond. 1795, fol. (54) Fox's Actesand MonumenteSj I. p. 918. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 237 Sweeting was, that he had had "much conference with one WiUiaoi Man, of Boxted, in a book which was called Matthew ;" and James Brewster was charged with "hav- ing a certain little book of Scripture, in English^ of an old writing almost worne for age, whose name is not there expressed;" and also with having "been five times with William Sweeting, in the fields, keeping beasts, hearing him read many good things out of a certain book. At which reading were also present, at one time, Woodroofe, or Woodbinde, a net-maker, with his wife: also, a brother-in-law of William Sweeting: and another- time, Thomas Goodred, who heard, likewise, the said William Sweeting read." As James Brewster "could nei- ther read nor write," his possessing a book of Scripture, that others might read to him out of it, was no small proof of his love to the Word of God, when it was prohi- bited under pain of such dreadful punishment." A still more atrocious act of villainous cruelty was exercised against Richard Hume, a merchant-tailor, of London, in 1514. Being brought before Bishop Fitz- james, he was examined on the charge of heresy, when among other articles of accusation, it was urged against him, that he had "in his keeping, divers English books, prohibited, and damned, by the law; as the Apocalypse, in English; Epistles and Gospels in English; Wiclif's damnable TVorhs ; and other books containing infinite errors, in the which he hath been long accustomed to read, teach, and study daily." After his examination he was remanded to the prison called the Lollard's tower; where, two days afterwards, he was found hanging, having been murdered by the chancellor, the sompner, or summoner, and the bell-ringer, as was fully proved before the coroner. But, to prevent, if possible, the discovery of the murder, and to blacken the character of the de- ceased, certain articles were selected from the Prologue (55) Fox, 11. pp, 10. 30, Lond. 1641, fol, '. * 238 to his Bible, and ordered by the bishop to be read at Paul's cross ; the last of which was, that in the Prologue, '^ he defendeth the Translation of the Bible and Holy Scripture into the English tongue, which is prohibited by the Jaws of our most holy church." After which a pro- cess was instituted against him, though already dead, in the bishop's court : and a definitive sentence of heresy given sixteen days after his death, by which his body was ordered to be burnt, which was accordingly done, in Smithfield, on the 20th. day of December, that same year.^® Persecution continuing to rage against those who read the Scriptures in English, and opposed the superstitions of the church of Rome, several were burned at the stake ; others confined to monasteries, and condemned to live upon bread and water ; and many sentenced to bear a faggot at the market cross, to be burned in the cheek, to repeat every Sunday and Friday what was called "Our Lady's Psalter," and " every one of them to fast, bread and ale only every Friday, during their life ; and every Even of Corpus Ckristi, every one of them to fast, bread and water during their life, unless sickness unfeigned let the same." The honest martyrologist. Fox, who was indefatigable in his endeavours to obtain authentic information relative to these sufferers for the sake of the Gospel, has given a long list of the names of persons accused before John Longland, bishop of Lincoln, in 1521, with the charges brought against them, extract- ed from the bishop's register. An enumeration of a few of the charges, will exhibit their nature. Parties accused. "Agnes Well, detect- ed by her brother." Crimes objected against them. '.'For learning the Epistle of St. James, in English, of Thurstan Littlepage." "J. Jennings, ser- "These were detected for carry- (56) Fox, 11. pp. 13—25, SIXTEENTH CENTURY- 239 Parties accused. > vant to James Morden; George, servant of T. Tochel; Thomas Grey, servant of Roger Ben- net." "Agnes Ashford, of Chesham, detected by James Morden." Henry Milner.' Crimes objected agdinst them. ing about certain books, in Ei lish." this Agnes "The cause laid to was, for teaching this James the words following: 'We be the salt of the earth; if it be putrified and vanished away it is nothing worth. A city set upon an hill may not be hid. Ye teend not a candle and put it under a bushell, but set it on a candlestick, that it may give a light to all in the house. So shine your light before men, as they may see your works, and glorify the Father which is in heaven. No tittle nor letter of the law shall pass over till all things be done.' And five times he went to the foresaid Agnes, to learn this lesson: It on. that the-^ said Agnes did teach him to say this lesson: 'Jesus seeing his peo- ple, as he went up to a hill, was set, and his disciples came to him; he opened his mouth, and. taught them, saying: Blessed be the poor men in spirit, for the kingdom of heaven is theirs. Blessed be mild men, for they shall weld the earth.' =^ And twice he came to her to learn this lesson." "Counted for a great heretic, and learned in the Scripture." * These quotations are evidently made from PVidif^s Trattsiation, notwithstanding some trifling variations, bee Baber's edition of Wiclif'8 New Testament^ ch, v. 240 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Parties accused. "The Wife of Ben- net Ward and her daughter." John Phip." *^John Phip." "John Butler," peached by his brother) (im- ovvn "John Barret, gold- smith of London, Joan Barret his wife, Joan his servant." "Durdant,by Stanes; Old Durdant; Isabel, wife of T. Harding; Harrop, of Windsor; Joan Barret, wife of John Barret, of Lon- don; Henry Miller, S til- man. Tailor." " John Littlepage, Alice, wife of Thurstan Littlepage." Crimes objected against them. "For saying that Thos. Pope was the devoutest man that ever came in their house, for he would sit reading in his book, to midnight, many times." "He was very ripe in the Scrip- ture." " He was a reader, or rehearser, to the other." "For reading to him," (his bro- ther,) "in a certain book of the Scripture, and persuading him to hearken to the same." "Because he was heard in his own house, before his wife, and maid, there present, to recite the Epistle of St. James : which Epis- tle, with many other things, he had perfectly without book." "Also because Joan, his wife, had lent to John Scrivener, the Gospel of St. Matthew and Mark: which book he, (Scrivener,) gave to Bishop Smith." "All these were accused, be- cause at the marriage of Durdant's daughter, they assembled to- gether in a barn, and heard a certain Epistle of St. Paul read : which reading they well liked, but especially Durdant, and com- mended the same." "Because he was said to have learned the Ten Commandments in English, of Alice, Thurstan s I wife, in his father's house." SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 241 Parties accused, *^^Robert Collins, and his wife; John Collins, and his wife." "The Father of Ro- bert Collins." "Alice Coll of Richai'd Collins ns, wife ^^John Heron." Crimes objected against them^ "For buying a Bible, of Sta- cey, for Twenty Shillings^ ^ " This father Collins had been of this doctrine, from the year of our Lord 1480." " This Alice, likesvise, was a famous woman among* them, and had a good memory, and could recite much of the Scriptures, and other good books : and therefore when any conventicle of these men did meet at Burford, com- monly she was sent for, to recite unto them the declaration of the Ten Commandments^ and the Epistles of Peter and James.''' (Also,) "For teaching Joan Steventon, in Lent^ the Ten Com-- mandmentsT " Item, for teaching her the first chapter of St. John's Gospel." " For having a book of the Ex- position of the Gospels J fair writr- ten in English," ^^ These are but a few of the many instances adduced by Fox, from the register of Bishop Longland, of persons accused and suffering, either in one way or other, for pos- sessing, or reading, or hearing the Book of God ; and for whose accusation husbands had been suborned against * We may form some judgment of the price of this Bible, by observ- ing, that in 1514, the daily wages of a master carpenter, mason, brick- layer, tyler, or plumber, were 6d. per day, without diet, from Easter to Michaelmas; other labourers 4d. per day. In 1513, oats were 2s. 4d. per quarter. In 1 533, beef was ^d. per lb. mutton |d. per lb. fat oxen were sold for 26s, 8d. each : a fat lamb for Is. (Chronic. Precios. pp. 116, 117. 162. 164. {bl) Fox, II. pp. 33—51; 242 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, their wives, wives against their husbands ; children against their parents, and parents against their children ; brothers against sisters, and sisters against brothers. "But the fervent zeal of those Christian days," remarks the honest writer, " seemed much superior to these our days and times, as manifestly may appear by their sitting up all night, in reading and hearing ; also by their expenses and charges in buying of books in English, of whom, some gave Five Marks, some more, some less, for a book; and some gave a Load of Hay, for a few chapters of St. James, or of St. Paul, in English." Beside these worthies, who embraced the sentiments of Wiclif, there were many learned men who continued in strict communion with the church of Rome, who, by their strenuous exertions in the cause of literature, and their preference of the Inspired Writings to the works of the scholastic writers, laid a foundation for the subsequent diffusion of Sacred truth, among the higher, and more erudite classes of society. Three of these, William Gro- CYN, William Latimer, and especially John Colet, deserve particular notice. William Grocyn was born at Bristol, in the year 1442. He was educated in grammar learning at Win- chester; and made perpetual fellow of New College, in 1467. In 1479, he was presented by the warden and fel- lows of that college, to the rectory of Newton-Longville, in Buckinghamshire. But as he still resided chiefly at Oxford, the society of Magdalen College made him their divinity-reader. In 1485, he was made a prebendary of Lincoln ; and in 1488, quitted his reader s place, at Mag- dalen College, in order to travel into foreign countries. He was stimulated to this by the low state of learning in this kingdom, and by an ardent desire of higher at- tainments. In pursuance of this design he visited Italy, where he perfected himself in the Greek and Latin lan- guages, under Demetrius Chalcondyles, a native of SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 243 Athens, and Angelo Politian, professor of the Greek and Latin tongues, at Florence. Grocyn having completed his studies abroad, "returned to England, and fixed himself at Exeter college, Oxford, in 1491, where he took the degree of bachelor in divinity. He was professor, or public teacher of Greek, at Oxford, about the time when Erasmus was there. Soon after, he removed to London, and then to the college of Maid- stone, in Kent, where he was master. Erasmus owns great obligations to this man, who, by his generosity to his friends, reduced himself to straits, and was forced to pawn his plate to Dr. Young, master of the rolls, but the doctor returned it to him again, by his will, without taking either principal or intei'est. Erasmus represents him as one of the best divines and scholars of the Eng- lish nation; and in several of his epistles speaks of him in a manner, that proves he cherished the most sincere regard for him, and entertained the highest opinion of his abilities, learning, and integrity. An instance has been given, in a preceding chapter, of his candour and ingenuousness, in avowing the spurious- ness of the Hierarchia Eccleslastica, attributed to Dio- nysius, the Areopagite. Afterwards, when Dean Colet had introduced the custom of reading lectures, at his cathedral, upon some part or other of the Scriptures, he engaged Grocyn, as one of the most learned and able men he could meet with, to carry his design into effect. He died at Maidstone, in the beginning of the year 1522, aged eighty, of a stroke of the palsy. He was bu- ried in the /ihoir of the church, at Maidstone. Dr. Lina- cre was the executor of his will, and residuary legatee; and his godson, WilHam Lily, the grammarian, had bequeathed by it, a legacy oi five shillings !^^ William J^atimer became fellow of All Soul's Col- (58) British Biography, I. pp. 326—329. - Jortin's Life of Eragmus, I. p, 6, &c; 244 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ lege, at Oxford, in the year 1489. Afterwards he tra- velled into Italy, and settled for a time at Padua, where he greatly improved himself, particularly in the Greek tongue. Returning to England, he was incorporated master of arts, at Oxford, in 1513; and soon after had for his pupil, Reginald Pole, who hecame cardinal, and archbishop; and by whose interest, he is said to have obtained the rectories of Saintbury and Weston-under- edge, in Gloucestershire, and a prebendary of Salisbury. When Erasmus was at Oxford, Latimer was serviceable to him in the study of the Greek tongue; and when he was preparing the second edition of his Greek Testament for the press, he begged his assistance, knowing him to be accurate in the language. 'We have nothing extant of this learned man, he being, as we have his character by Erasmus, a man of more than virgin modesty, under which was veiled the greatest worth. He died very aged, and was buried in the chancel of the church of Saintbury. He was considered as one of the greatest men of that age ; a master of all sacred and profane learning. Leland celebrates also his eloquence^ judgment, piety, and generosity .^^ John Colet, the great and excellent dean of St Paul's, and whose history is intimately connected with that of Sacred literature, was born in London, in the year 1466. He was the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet, knt. who was twice lord mayor. His mother was a woman of great worth, and exemplary piety. " I knew in England" says Erasmus, " the mother of John Colet, a matron of singular piety. She had by the same husband eleven sons and eleven daughters; all of whom were torn away from her by death, except her eldest son ; and she lost her husband far advanced in years. She herself, though arrived at her ninetieth year, looked so smooth, and was so ■ — — — , _ — ___ _ — . — , , — - — — > — ^ (59) British Biography, I. pp, 328, 329. Jortin's Life of JErasmuSj L pp. 6. 9. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 245 cheerful^ that you would have thought she had never shed a tear, nor brought a child into the world; and if I mistake not, she survived her son, Dean Colet. Now that which supplied a woman with such a degree of for- titude, was not learning, but 'pleti/ towards God."" To her instructions and example, her son, probably, was indebted for those religious impressions, which gave an early bias to his mind, in favour of a devout and holy life. . In 1483, our student was sent to the university of Oxford, where he spent seven years in the study of logic and philosophy, and then took his degrees in arts. He was well acquainted with the writings of Cicero; and read with great diligence the Latin translations of the works of Plato and Plotinus, the Greek not being at that time taught in any of our grammar schools; he also made considerable progress in the mathematics. Having resolved to enter the church, he was presented, when but nineteen years of age, and only in the order of an acolythe, with the rectory of Denington, in Suffolk, by Sir William Knevit, knt. and his lady. He was also in- stituted to the rectory of Thyrning, in Huntingdonshire, on the presentation of his father, in 1490 ; which he re- signed before the end of the year 1493. In order to acquire a knowledge of the Greek language, and to improve and extend his acquaintance with the languages and sciences which he had already studied, as well as to enlarge the circle of his literary friends, he visited France and Italy. At Paris he associated with the celebrated Budseus, and with Deloine, and Robert Gaguinus, the historian. In Italy he contracted an inti- macy with several learned foreigners, and several of his own countrymen, particularly Grocyn, Linacre, William Latimer, and William Lily. He was, also, during the time of his travels, presented to the prebend of Botevant, in the cathedral church of York ; to this were added^ a 246 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ canonry, in the church of Saint Martin's Le Grand, Lon- don, and the prebend of Good Easter, in the same church. He appears to have returned from his travels in 1497; and on the 17th of December the same year, was ordain- ed deacon, and priest a short time afterwards. He did not long continue with his friends in London, before he withdrew to Oxford, in order to prosecute his studies with greater success. In this situation, however, he was neither inactive nor useless. He gratuitously read public lectures in the university, by way of Exposition on the Epistles of St. Paul: and although he had not taken any degree in divinity, yet there was not, we are told, a doctor in divinity or law, nor abbot, nor any other digni- tary in the church, but came gladly to hear him, and brought their books along with them. Others followed the example, and Dr. Knight assures us, that about this time it became "almost a custom, for men of distinguish- ed parts and learning in that university, to set up volun- tary lectures, by way of exposition and comment on some celebrated writer: to which the students would repair, more or less, according to the opinion they had of the men, and their performances. Among others, we are certain Mr. Thomas More read upon St. Austin's book De Civitate Dei, while a very young man, to a very great auditory. This exercise was also set on foot at Cam- bridge. We are told by a learned author, that Dr. Warner, afterwards rector of Winter ton, in Norfolk, and who assisted Bilney at the stake, read there publicly. George Stafford read also a lecture in the same place, upon St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans; being probably induced thereto by the example more especially of Dr. Colet." About this time Erasmus visited England, with whom Colet soon formed an intimate friendship; which he endeayoured to improve to a more accurate and critical knowledge of the Scriptures. With this design^ he pro- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 247 posed to Erasmus some doubts and queries, rela^ we to certain obscure and difficult passages in th Epistles of 8t. Paul; but Erasmus, with that timid caution which so strongly marked his character, replied, "Since it is dan- gerous to dispute openly of these matters, I had father reserve them for our private conversation, as fitter for word of mouth than writing." Colet also informed Eras- mus, that it was his determination to banish, if possible, the wrangling of the scholastic divines, and restore those theological studies which were founded upon the Scrip- tures, and the primitive Fathers; and that for this end he had in Oxford publicly expounded the Epistles of St. Paul; and earnestly pressed him to undertake a similar public exposition of some part of the Old Testament, while he himself was employed in the New. Erasmus, however, declined the undertaking, but exhorted Colet to perse- vere in his laudable design, assuring him, that when he was conscious to himself of a sufficient degree of strength and ability, he would readily lend him assistance. This friendship was maintained to the close of life, and the correspondence of these two great men serv^ed to animate them in the pursuit of Biblical learning, in which they met with frequent and violent opposition, especially from the scholastic doctors, who were so enraged at any at- tempts to promote the study of the Gr^eeh tongue, that they could not forbear uttering invectives against it from the pulpit; and strove to suppress it by the cry of "He- resy." Hence the proverb, Cave a GRiECis, ne fias H^RETICUS; FU'GE LITERAS HeBR^AS, NE FIAS JuD^O- RUM siMiLis; "Take care of Greek, lest you be- come an Heretic: avoid Hebrew, lest you become LIKE Jews." Standish, bishop of St. Asaph, and provin- cial of the Franciscans, in a declamation against Eras- mus, styled him Gr^culus iste ; which became for a long time afterwards the phrase for an Heretic^, or one suspected of "heretical pravity." 248 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, This aversion to the study of every thing that tended to lessen the authority of the schoolmen, or to spread an acquaintance with the original Scriptures, obtained, dur- ing the whole of the reign of Flenry VII. and the begin- ning of the reign of Henry VIII. About the latter period, a preacher at Oxford declared openly, at St. Mary's, against the pernicious innovation of the Greek tongue ; and raised such a ferment about it among the students, that the king, who was then at Woodstock, having been correctly informed by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Thomas More, and the learned Richard Pace, of the true cause of the com- motion, sent his royal letters to the university, to allow and encourage that study among the young men. Not long after this, a divine, who was preaching at court, declaim- ed and railed violently against Greek learning, and New Interpretations of the Scripture. Richard Pace, (who afterwards succeeded Colet, as dean of St. Paul's,) was then present, and cast his eyes upon the king, jto observe how he was affected with the discourse; and the king smiled upon Pace, in contempt of the invectives of the preacher. After sermon, Flenry sent for the divine who had preached, and appointed a solemn disputation, at which he himself proposed to be present, for the purpose of debating the matter between the preacher opposing, and Mr. Thomas More defending, the use of the Greek tongue. When the appointed time came. More began Avith an eloquent apology, in favour of that copious and ancient language. But the divine, instead of replying to the arguments of More, fell upon his kness, and implor- ed pardon of the king, for the offence he had given in the pulpit, endeavouring to excuse himself by saying, that "what he had done was by the impulse of the Spirit." "Not of the Spirit of Christ," rejoined Henry, "but of the spirit of infatuation." The king then asked him, whether he had read the writings of Erasmus, against which he had declaimed. To this he answered in the SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 249 negative. ^^Why then," said the king, *^'^yoii are a very foolish fellow, to censure what you have never read." "I have read/' said he, "something they call Mori a," (Morice Encomium, the Praise of Folly.) "Yes," replied Pace, "may it please your highness, such a subject is fit for such a reader." At last, the preacher, to bring him- self off, declared that he was now better reconciled to the Greek tongue, because it was derived from the Fle- brew. Upon which, the king, who was amazed at the ignorance of the man, dismissed him ; but with an express charge, that he should never again preach at court. In 1502, Colet was made prebendary of Durnesford, in the church of Sarum; and on the 20th of January, 1503 — 4, he resigned his prebend of Good Easter. In 1504, he took the degree of doctor in divinity. On the 5th of May, 1505, he was instituted to the prebend of Mora, in the cathedral church of St. Paul; and m the same year, and in the same month, Mdthout the least solicitation of his own, w.is raised to the dignity of dean of St. Paul's, on which occasion he resigned the vicarage of Stepney. Dr. Colet soon began to distinguish himself in the important station to which he was now advanced. He re- stored and reformed the decayed discipline of his cathedral church, and commenced, what was there a novel practice, by preaching himself upon Sundays and solemn festivals. In this course of preaching, he did not restrict himself to single texts from the Gospel or Epistle for the day, but selected more general subjects, as the Gospel of St. Mat- thew, the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles Creed, and continu- ed a series of discourses upon them till he had completed the discussion of the doctrines they maintained. His audience was usually crowded, and among his hearers were the principal courtiers and citizens. He also call- ed in to his assistance other divines of learning and ta- lents, amongst whom Avas William Grocyn, and John 250 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Sowle, a Carmelite friar of an unblameable life, and a great admirer and preacher of the writings of St. Paul. The frequent preaching of Dean Coiet, in his own cathedral, stimulated some others to follow his example, particularly Dr. CoUingwood, at Litchfield, who introduc- ed the practice of preaching every Sunday, being the first and only preacher among all the deans of that cathedral. Before Dr. Colet reformed the practice, it had been usual, both in the universities and in the cathe- dral churches, for the public lecturers to read upon any other book than the Scriptures; hut after in had i.iiyseif read lectures upon St. Paul's Epistles, both in the univer- sity of Oxford and in St. Paul's cathedral, and retained several learned men, successively, to read these theolo- gical lectures in his church, for which he made them a generous allov/ance, he at last procured a settlement at St. Paul's for a similar lecture to be constantly read there, three days in every week. These divinity lectures, and Dr. Colet's method of ex- pounding the Scriptures, raised among the people an inqui- ry after the Sacred Writings, sunk into neglect by the me- taphysical disputants, and the superstitious and ignorant clergy. This, together with the contempt which the dean expressed for the religious houses or monasteries, and the display which he made of their abuses, doubtless contribut- ed to prepare the minds of the people for the Reformation, which, by the gracious Providence of God, soon afterwards took place. It is therefore no wonder that the bigots to popery considered him as an enemy, and attempted to stir up persecution against him. The ecclesiastics were stung to revenge, and a prosecution was commenced against him for heresy, in which Dr. Fitzjames, bishop of London, was the principal agent. The main charges exhibited against him to Archbishop Warham, were three; ihe^rst of which was, that he had taught that images were not to be worshipped; the second, that he had SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 251 preached against the temporal possessions of the bishops; and the third, that he had preached against the cold and unaffected manner in which some men read tiieir ser- mons, which was understood to reflect upon the bishop himself. But the archbishop, who knew and valued the integrity and worth of Colet, became his advocate and patron, and dismissed him without giving him the trouble of a formal answer. Tyndal, in his Reply to More, adds, that the bishop of London would have made Colet an heretic, for translating the Pater Noster into English, had not the archbishop of Canterbury defended him : and Bishop Latimer, who was at the time a young student at Cambridge, remembered the noise occasioned by the prosecution of Colet for heresy, and says expressly, that " he was not only in trouble, but should have been burnt, if God had not turned the king's heart to the contrary." The enemies of the dean were not easily repulsed. Disappointed in their accusation of heresy, they attempt- ed to fix upon him a suspicion of sedition, or treason. In this they were equally foiled; for the young king (Henry VIIL) sent for him, and in private advised him to go on, reproving and reforming a corrupt and disso- lute age, nor suffer his light to be extinguished in times so densely dark ; assuring him that he was sensible of the good effect of his excellent preaching and life, and promising that no one should injure him with impunity. The dean thanked the king for his royal protection, but begged that no one might suffer on his account, for he would rather, he said, resign his deanery, and live in privacy. Another attack was made upon the dean, of a similar nature, but which was equally unsuccessful; the king dismissing him with marks of affection, and promises of favour. After this the dean continued his constant course of preaching, though he seems never to have recovered his character for orthodoocy, with the bi- gots of his church. 252 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, In the mean time, his father, Sir Henry Colet, dying, in 1510, he sncceeded to a very considerable estate* He, therefore, delivered his church revenues to his stew- ard, to be expended in house-keeping, and hospitality; and employed the annual prodace of his paternal estate, in acts of piety, beneficence, and generosity. Having no very near, or poor relations, he founded the Grammar School of St. Paul's, in London, which he endowed with lands and tenements, for the support of a head-master, a second-master, or usher, and a chaplain, for the instruc- tion of 153 boys, in the Greek and Latin languages; and placed it under the care of the company of mercers. The dean also appointed William Lily to be first head- master of his school.* * The celebrated grammarian, William Lily, or Lilye, was bora at Oldham, in Hampshire, about 1466. At the age of eighteen, he was admitted a demy-commonor of Magdalen college, Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of arts, he left the university, and tra- velled to J*(rusalem. On his return, he resided a considerable time in the island of Rhodes, where he studied the Greek, under the learned men who had fled thither for protection, after the taking of Constanti- nople. From thence he proceeded to Rome, where he further improved himself in the Latin and Greek languages, under John Sulpitius and Pomponius Sabinus. On his arrival in England, in 1509, he settled in London, and taught grammar, poetry, and rhetoric, with good success ; and is said to have been the first who taught Greek in that city. When Dr. Colet founded St. Paul's School, he was appointed head- master. He had been twelve years in that laborious and useful situation, when he was seized with the plague and died, in 1522- He was a married man at the time of his appointment to the school. His two sons, George and Peter, were both learned men. The eldest of them published the Jirst exact Map that was ever drawn of this island. Mr. Lily had also a daughter named Dionysia, who v.^as married to John Ritwyse, usher, and afterwards successor to him in the mastership of St. Paul's school. Lily had the character of an excellent grammarian, and a successful teacher of the learned languages. He published several small Latin pieces, principally poems and orations. His principal work, or at least that by which he is best known, is Brevissima Institution seu ratio grammatices cognoscenda^ ; Lond. 1513; commonly called Lily's Latin Grammar. This was a very excellent work for its time. Bishop Wet- tenhall's Grammar, the Eton Grammar, and multitudes of others, are but abridgments of it. The English Rudiments of it were written by Dr. Colet J the Preface by Cardinal Wolsey j the Syntax chiefly by SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 253 In loll, at the opening of the convocation of the pro- vince of Canterbnry, Archbishop Warham appointed Dean Colet to preach the Latin sermon on that occasion. In this sermon, which is still extant, he attacked the cor- ruptions of the church and clergy, in the most warm and spirited manner. His text was from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, ch. xii, v. 2. "Be not conformed to this world, but be ye transformed, (^^c." In treating of co7i- formity to the world, he explained what was meant, under four heads; devilish pride; carnal lusts; worldly cove- tousness ; and secular business. " These," said the dean, ^'are in the world, as St. John witnesseth, who says, that all that is in the world is either the lust of the Jlesh, tlie lust of the eye, or the pride oj life. And these same things do now so reign in the churchy and amongst eccle- siastical persons, that we may, in a manner, truly say, all that is in the church is either the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eye, or the pride of life." He then pro- ceeded to discuss, in the most bold and spirited manner, the different topics he had proposed; and concluded by a pointed address to the bishops, pressing the necessity of reformation, and of an immediate and firm exercise of discipline, agreeably to the canons of the church, which he proposed should be read in that convocation. His honesty and zeal against the corruptions of the clergy increased the number of his enemies, but pro- tected by the king, he escaped that degradation and martyrdom, which with a less powerful patron he would probably have suffered; and under the sanction of royalty, succeeded to other preferments beside those which have already been mentioned. He was rector of the fraternity, Erasmus; and the other parts by other hands; so that, although it bears Lily^s name, he probably had not the largest share in the work ; and therefore, during his life, modestly refused the honour of having- it ascribed to him. It has since been greatly improTed, and has passed through innumerable editions. See BriL Biog, I. pp. 384, 385 3 aud piarke's Bibliog, Diet. IV. p. 19. 254 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, or Gild of Jesus, in St. PauFs chui'ch, for which he pro- cured new statutes; and also chaplain, and preacher in ordinary, to King Henry; and, if Erasmus were not mis- taken, one of his privy-council. About his fiftieth year, he formed a resolution to withdraw from active life, and spend the rest of his days in retirement; but he was pre- vented by death: for being- seized with the sweating sick- ness,^'he retired to the lodgings he had built in the monastery of the Carthusians at k?>heen, near Richmond, in Surry; when, having spent the little remainder of his days in devotion, he surrendered up his last breath to him that first gave it, on the 16th of September, 1519." His body was afterwards carried to London, and buried in the cathedral church of St. Paul, with an humble monument, that he had several years before appointed and prepared, with only this inscription on it, Joannes COLETUS. The dean, as to his person, was tall and comely; and his mien and carriage graceful. His learning was consi- derable; and his piety, exemplary. As a preacher, he was eloquent and nervous. lo his goods, furniture, enter- tainment, apparel, and books, he was neat and clean; but despised all state and magnificence : and whilst the higher clergy were generally clothed in purple, his dress was always black, and plain. Frugal at his meals, it was his custom for many years to eat but one meal, that of din- ner. As soon as grace before meat was said, some boy, with a good voice, read distinctly a chapter out of one of St. Paul's Epistles, or out of the Proverbs of Solomon; and from thence the dean took occasion to introduce grave and im- proving conversation, by which means his guests were re- freshed in mind as well as body. At other times, when he had no agreeable companion, one of his servants read some part of the Holy Scriptures. " In his journeys, he would sometimes make me," says Erasmus, "his companion, when no one could be more pleasant; yet he always carried a SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 255 bool< With him; and his conversation was all about Christ." He loved little children, and compared them, like Jesus, to angels, for innocence and simplicity. To glorify God, and to be useful to men, appeared to be the great aim of his life, which occasioned Erasmus to say when he heard of his death, " I know his state is happy; he is now delivered iVom a troublesom.e and wicked world, and enjoys the presence of his Redeemer Jesus, whom he loved so affectionately in his life."^® Such was Dean Colet, a man who, amid the darkness of the age, shone as a iigiit in a benighted land; and who deserves to be ranked among those who were essentially serviceable in the spread of Scriptural knowledge; an honour to his country; a blessing to posterity. An increasing attention began now to be paid to the Greek tongue, as the original language of the New Tes- tament; and such was the veneration of some persons for it on this account, that although they did not understand the language itself, yet because it was the Original Text, they caused it to be interlined in their copies of the Vul- gate. Dr. Hody mentions a MS. of this kind, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi college, Oxford, executed in the most beautiful manner, on parchment, in two volumes, in folio. The Lafm is written with black, and the Greek with red ink.^* Thus was Divine Providence preparing the way for the reformation of his church, and for the revival of Sa- cred literature from that state of profound ignorance, into which it had been sunk for ages. Many instances of that general disuse of the Holy Scriptures, among the clergy, and members, of the church of Rome, which pre- ceded the age of Luther, and of the necessity of some powerful interposition to break the fetters of the most (60) British Biography, I. pp. 361—402. Jortin's Life of Kiasmns, III. Append. No. ii. pp. 14 — 25. (61) Hody, De Bibl. Text. Orig\ lib. iii. pt. ii, tap. xii. p. 45§. 256 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, slavsih superstition, and to rescue the Sacred Volume from the bondage in which it was detained, have been ah'eady adduced; and if we again pass to the Continent, and examine the state of those countries wher£ the great deliverance was first effected, it must add to our grati- tude, for the gracious and energetic interposition of that God whose word is Truth. Several of the German monasteries had no public li- brary for the use of the monks ; and in some of them, not a single copy of the Scriptures could be found. Prior to the publication of the Greek Testament, by Erasmus, not a copy could be procured in all Germany; so that Con- rad Pellican was obliged to obtain one from Italy. In some churches Aristotle s Ethics, and similar works, were read, instead of sermons; a practice which in some pla- ces had subsisted from the time of Charlemagne; in others, the works of Aquinas were explained; and in some, lectures on the Heathen Poets were delivered, where the Word of God ought to have been preached. The origi- nal languages of the Scriptures were not only generally neglected, but the study of them was despised. Conrad Heresbachius relates, that he heard a monk declaiming in a church, who affirmed, '^ A new language is discover- ed, called Greek, and is the parent of all heresy. A book written in that language is every where got into the hands of persons ; and is called the New Testament. It is a book full of daggers and poison. Another language has also sprung up, called the Hebrew, and those who learn it become Jews." Even Latin^ the common lan- guage of their religious services, was so little understood by the monkish clergy, that the most ridiculous mistakes were made by them, both in the performance of their offices and in their writings: an instance is related of one, who, in- stead of the usual form in baptism, was accustomed to say, "Baptizo te in nomine Patria, et Filia, et Spiritus Sancti;" ©f another, who^ when he had received letters of recom- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 257 mendation for orders, couched in these terms, "Otto Dei gratia, rogat vestram clementiam, ut veiitis istum cieri- cum conducere ad vestrum Diaconum;" and was ordered to read the epistle, which was considerably abbreviated in the writing, was so totally ignorant of the Latin, as to form the abbreviations into the following unmeaning words : " Otto Dei gram, rogat vestram clam, ut velit istum clincum clancum, convertere in vivum Diabolum;" and of a third, who for "famulus Dei," constantly repeat- ed "mulus Dei."'' The grossest ignorance of the Scriptures prevailed, not only amongst the laity, but also amongst many of the clergy. Degrees in divinity were conferred upon those who had scarcely ever read the Bible; and numbers of divines were far advanced in life before they had even seen one! In the year 1510, the university of Wittem- berg registered in its acts, Andrew Carolostad, afterwards one of the reformers, as being siifficlentissimus, fully qua- lified for the degree of doctor, which he then received ; though he afterwards acknowledged, that he never began to read the Bible till eight years after he had received his academical honours. Albert, archbishop and elector of Mentz, having accidentally found a Bible lying on a table, in 1530, opened it, and having read some pages, exclaimed, " Indeed, I do not know what this book is ; but this I see, that every thing in it is against us." Ge- rard Listrius, in his Note on the Morice Encojnium of Erasmus, says, " I have known many doctors in divinity, as they were called, who have candidly acknowledged that they were fifty years of age before they had read the Epistles of St. Paul:" and Musculus aflirms, (Loc. Com,) that prior to the Reformation, " many priests and pastors (62) Lomeier, De Bibliothecis, cap. viii. pp. 155. 180. Hody, DeBibl. Text. Orig. pt. ii. lib. iii. pp. 464, 465, Hottingeri Analecta Historico-Theologica: Diss, i. Be Necessitate Reformationis, pp, 12. 52. Tigurin. 1652, 12ino. Vol. IL R 258 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, had not so mucli as seeii a Bible." Those who devoted themselves to the study of the Scriptures were objects of derision, and treated as heretical; whilst the advocates of the Aristotelian philosophy were regarded as the ora- cles of wisdom, and the only true theologians. The divines of Cologne published one work, entitled De Salute Aristotelis, ''Aristotle on Salvation;" and another, illus- trated with theological notes, bearing the title of De vita et morte Aristotelis, "Aristotle on Life and Death;" and concluding with this sentence, " Aristotle was the fore- runner of Christ in the kingdom of nature, as John the Baptist was in the kingdom of grace." Even the, Bible itself was disregarded, or contemptuously noticed. John Faber, canon of Leutkirch, and suffragan of Constance, and afterwards bishop of Vienna, impiously declared that men "might live peaceably and amicably together, with- out the Gospel;" and Cardinal Hosius daringly affirmed, that "it would have been better for the church (of Rome,) if the Gospel had never been written." ^^ This view of the degraded state of Sacred literature, previous to the Reformation, is further confirmed by the following extract from the learned historian of The Helvetic Confederacy : " The generality of the priesthood did not scruple to acknowledge their deficiency in the most elementary parts of learning. The canons of the collegiate church of Zuric having to notify an election to the bishop of Con- stance, confessed that they transmitted it in the hand- writing of their notary, because several of them could not write. In the examination for holy orders, it was deemed amply sufficient that the candidate could read, and tolerably comprehend what he read:=^ even after the (63) Hottingeri Analecta, Diss. 1. pp. 1 — 82. Lomeier, De Bibliothecis, cap. viii. pp. 166, 167; Hody, vt sup. * ^^The report of the examination of Leonard Brun for priest'* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 259 Reformation had made some progress, the people firmly believed, and the priests confirmed them in the persua- sion, that the bells travelled every passion-week to Rome to receive fresh baptism; and that the exorcisms of priests could effectually dispel swarms of locusts, and all manner of insects. When, at an assembly of the clergy in the Valais, mention was made of the Bible, only one of the priests had ever heard of such a book : and several, on other occasions, did not scruple to declare, that it would be an advantage to religion if no Gospel were extant ; and that the study of the Greek and Hebrew languages greatly savoured of heresy." ''Had the clergy, however, in this unpardonable state of ignorance," continues the writer, " maintained a deco- rum in their conversation and manners, they might still have preserved a degree of respect and influence, which would probably have somewhat retarded the progress of the Reformation. But the profligacy even of the heads of the church, had arrived at a pitch which it was no longer possible to tolerate, or palliate. Without dwelling on the many flagrant instances of depravation, which are not disguised even by the ecclesiastical writers of the Romish church, all men must feel a painful conviction when they learn, from the charges that were brought by the citizens of Lausanne, against their clergy; that the priests used often, even in the churches, and in the midst of divine service, to strike the persons to whom they bore ill-will, some of whom had actually died of their wounds; that they walked the streets at night, disguised in mili- tary dresses, brandishing naked swords, and insulting the peaceable inhabitants; and that the frequent rapes, violences, and insults they committed, were never pu- nished, or even restrained. The following are the words of the 18th article: 'We have also to complain of the orders, not long before the Reformation, was " Bene legit, competenter exponit et seatentiat; computum ignorat, male cantat— Fiat admissio.'^ 260 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, canons, that they reduce the profits of our town brothel, several of them carrying on the traffic of prostitution in their own houses, which they throw open to new corners of all descriptions.'* It is no small corroboration of the merited clamours raised against the clergy, that their own zealous advocate and protector, Charles V. publicly declared to them, that if their lives had been less re- proachable, they would never have had to contend with a Martin Luther."'* From such an awful detail of depravity, the conse- quence, principally, of that universal ignorance of the Word of God, which had been studiously induced by the inhibitory mandates of the papal power, and the re- strictive measures of the Romish clergy, we turn with satisfaction, to notice a few instances of a very different, and more enlightened nature. For amid the general gloom some characters were found, whose pursuits, and studies, threw rays of sacred light across " the palpable obscure." Jacobus Faber, of Daventer; Joannes Fro- BENius, the celebrated printer; but especially Deside- Rius Erasmus, deserve to be remarked for their promo- tion of Biblical learning. Jacobus Faber, of Daventer, was born in the year 1472. His preceptor was Alexander Hegius, who was also the instructor of Erasmus. In 1499, he published an heroic poem. Afterwards he became the reader of the second class of Daventer, and edited the works of his master; part of which he dedicated to Erasmus, in 1503. In the year 1511, he edited "Cato's Distichs," with additions. About the same time Jacobus Faber 8tapulensis, (Jacques Le Fevre, of Estaples,) presented him with a copy of his Quintuple Psalter, printed in 1509. * "^ These charges consist of twenty-three articles, and are given at length in Ruchat's Hist, de la Reform, de la Suisse, I. p. xxxii. They are of the year 1533." (64) Planta's History of the Helvetic Confederacy, II. B. ii, ch. vie pp. S58— 363. Lond. 1807, 8vo SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 261 Many MSS. in the hand-writing of Jacobus Faber of Daventer, are still extant in the library of that city, among which, are Latin translations of the Greek canons and menology. He appears to have been an indefatiga- ble transcriber of Biblical MSS., for on the first page of a MS. formerly belonging to Faber, J. C, Wolfius, of Hamburg, has made the following note. "I have a Hebrew MS. of Genesis and Exodus, with Faber's name written at the beginning and end." The same learned person possessed also a MS. of the Greek New Testament, transcribed by Faber, which was afterwards purchased by Wetstein, out of Wolfius's library, and col- lated for his Greek Testament. It contains the follow- ing books of the New Testament, in this order, John, Luke, Matthew, Mark; the Epistles of St. Paul; the Jets; and the Catholic (or General) Epistles: the Epis- tle of Jude is written twice, and from two different co* pies. Jacobus Faber copied it from a MS. written at Mount Athos, in 1293, by Theodore, the writer also of a Greek MS. of the Four Gospels, preserved in the library of Christ Church, in Oxford. The ancient MS. which Faber copied, or with which he collated his transcript, was one which had been presented from the Vatican Li- brary, to John Herman Wesselus, of Groningen, by Pope Sixtus IV.=^ Faber's copy is on paper, in 2 volumes, 4to. At the beginning is a note, of which the following is the purport: "I have collated the Four Gospels more than once, with great care and labour, with an ancient MS. on vellum, formerly belonging to J. Wesselus, of Gronin- gen. The labour it has occasioned me, I cannot easily tell, as I have met with no one to assist me in the colla- tion." He was living in 1517. The time of his decease is uncertain. ^^ * See p. 175 of this Volume. (65) Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. p. 104, note. Marsh's Michaelis, II. pt. i. ch. viii. p. 360. 262 John Frobenius^ or Froben, was one of the most cele- brated printers of his day. He was a native of Hammelburg", in Franconia. He received his education at Basil ; and after having made great progress in literature, com- menced the business of a printer, in that city. He selected the works of the best authors for publication; and spared no expense to obtain perfect MSS. He employed 5)er- sons of the highest literary merit, as the editors, and correctors of the press, in proof of which it is sufficient to name Sigismimd Gelenius, the learned author of a *^Greek, Latin, German, and Slavonian Lexicon;" and John CEo- lampadius, or Haivksheim, one of the principal reformers, and author of several Latin translations of the Greek Fathers. The respectability of Froben s character, and his con- stant care of never printing any thing offensive to morals and religion, procured him both celebrity and opulence. In the publication of the works of the Fathers, particularly of Jerom, he was joined by John Amerhach, a pious and wealthy printer, who had educated his three sons in the study of the Greek, and Hebrew, and Latin tongues, to qualify them for editing the works of this his favourite author. In 1514, he contracted an intimate friendship for Eras- mus, who came to reside at Basil, principally with the de- sign of publishing the works of Jerom, for which he had made considerable preparations, where he found Froben and Amerbach engaged in a similar undertaking, who committed to him the direction of the work. But what gave the greatest celebrity to Froben, was his printing the Greek New Testament, which was edited by Erasmus. This was the ^first published edition of the Greek Testament after the invention of printing; for although the Complutensian edition was first printed, it was not published till 1522, whereas this was published in 1516. The design of publishing this edition origin- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 263 ated with Froben, who engaged Erasmus as the editor; for Beatiis Rhenanus, who was for some time one of the correctors of Froben's press, in a letter addressed to Erasmus, dated April 17th, 1515, makes the proposal, in the following terms ; "Petit Frobenius abs te Novum Testamentum, pro quo tantum se daturum pollicetur, quantum alias quisquam:" "Froben requests you to undertake the New Testament, for which he promises to give you as much as any other person." During the time he was employed upon it, Erasmus lodged in the house of Froben, as appears from the subscription at the end of the first edition, which is, "Basiliee, in sedibus Johannis Frobenii Hammelburgensis, Mense Februario, anno MDXVI." Froben also commenced an edition of the works of AugListin, in 10 volumes; and had formed the design of printing the works of all the Greek Fathers, when his life was terminated by a universal palsy, supposed to be the consequence of a dreadful fall, some years before. He died, universally lamented by all who knew him, at Basil, in 1527.^ Erasmus, who occasionally assumed the praenomen of Desiderius, was born at Rotterdam, about A. D, 1467; and received the early part of his education at an illus- trious school, at Daventer, where Alexander Hegius was his master, and Adrianus Florentius, afterwards Pope Adrian IV. was his school-fellow. At the age of thirteen, he lost his parents ; his mother by the plague, and his father by grief for her death. The three guardians to whose care he was left by his father, proved dishonour- able and base; and in order to rob him of his patrimony, determined to make him a monk, for which purpose they forced him into a convent of friars, at Balduc, in Brabant ; from whence he was removed to another, at Sion, near (66) Jortin's Life of Erasmus, I. pp. 58. 393. Marsh's Michaelis, 11. pt. i. ch. xii. p. 443; and pt. ii. p. 854 264 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Delft, and thence to a third, at Stein, near Torgau. His aversion from the monastic state induced him to resist their attempts for some years ; but at length, overcome by their unwearied endeavours, he entered among the regular canons, and made his profession in 1486. He did not, however, remain long in the monastery, for in 1490, he was received into the family of Henry a Bergis, archbishop of Cambray ; and subsequently ob- tained leave from Julius H., and then from Leo X., to lay aside the habit of the order, and to quit the monastic profession. From the time that Erasmus quitted his convent, to the period when he published his New Testament, he resided chiefly in England and France, and occasionally visiting Italy. In every country he indefatigably pursued his studies, obtaining a precarious subsistence from the generosity of his literary friends, the emoluments of instruction, and the publication of several of his minor productions. For several years his mind was occupied with a design of publishing the works of Jerom, but especially of printing an edition of the Greek Testament^ with notes. Early in 1515, he received proposals from Froben, the celebrated printer of Basil, to reside in that city, and become the editor of a Greek Testament. The proposal according with his own previous intention, he removed to Basil, and edited both the Greek Testament^ and the Works of Jerom; which respectively appeared in the year 1516. This edition of the Greek Testament, Erasmus ac- companied with a Latin Version; and Various Readings, selected from several MSS. the works of the Fathers, and the Vulgate. It was printed in folio, in two columns, with the notes at the end; and reprinted in 1519, 1522, 1527, and 1535. The publication of the New Testament raised a host of enemies against Erasmus, some of whom censured his temerity, whilst others laboured to affix the SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 265 Stigma of inaccuracy and heresy upon him; and one of the colleges at Cambridge forbade it to be brought within its walls! Many of his adversaries strove to have it placed among the prohibited works, but the Dedication to Leo X. with the approbation of it expressed by that pontiff, and especially his Brief annexed to the later editions, prevented, for a time, the accomplishment of the malicious intentions of the Spanish, and other monk- ish divines. His edition of Jerom, and several of his other works, met with a severer fate, and were not only placed in - the Indices Expiir gator ii, as works to be cor- rected and purged, but, in some instances, were condemn- ed to the flames. The liberal and enlightened manner in which Erasmus, in the prefatory discourses prefixed to his New Testa- ment, recommended and defended vernacular transla- tions, and the universal perusal of the Sacred Volume, placed him amongst the warmest advocates for the circu- lation of the Scriptures. His Preface, Paraclesis, and Apologia, deserve to be read and studied by every lover of the Bible, and probably greatly aided the Refor- mation, and subsequent diffusion of Scriptural truth. The following brief extracts w^ill give an idea of his man- ner of reasoning: " I differ exceedingly from those who object to the Scriptures being translated into the vernacular tongues, and read by the iUiterate: as if Christ had taught so obscurely, that none could understand him, but a few theologians; or as if the Christian religion depended upon being kept secret. The mysteries of kings ought, perhaps, to be concealed, but the mystery of Christ strenuously urges publication. I would have even the meanest of women to read the Gospels, and Epistles of St. Paul; and I wish that the Scriptures might be translated into all languages, that they might be known and read, not pnly by the Irish and Scots, but also by Saracens and 266 Turks. Assuredly, the first step is to make them known. For this very purpose, though many might ridicule, and others might frown, I wish the husbandman might repeat them at his plough, the weaver sing them at his loom, the traveller beguile the tediousness of the way by the entertainment of their stories, and the general discourse of all Christians be concerning them, since what we are in ourselves, such we almost constantly are in our com- mon conversation." ''^Letters, written by those we love and esteem, are preserved, and prized, and carried about with us, and read again and again ; and yet there are thousands of Chris- tians who, although otherwise learned, never once, in the whole of their life, read the books containing the Gos- pels and Epistles. Mohammedans violently defend their opinions ; and Jews, from their infancy, learn the precepts of Moses; but why are we not equally decisive in fa- vour of Christ? They who profess the Institute of Bene- dict, adopt, and learn, and follow a Rule written by a man nearly illiterate. They who are of the order of Augustin, are well versed in the Rule of its author. The Franciscans adore the traditions of Francis, possess themselves of them, and carry them with them to every part of the world, nor ever think themselves safe, but when they have the book in their bosom. And why should they attribute more to Rules written by men, than Christians in general to Rules which Christ has delivered to all; and into which all have been equally initiated by baptism."®^ Soon after the publication of his Greek Testament, Erasmus commenced a series of Paraphrases on the New Testament, forming an extensive supplement to the notes accompanying the Greek. His Paraphrase of St, Paul's Epistle to the Romans was dedicated to Cardinal Dominic Grimani, who was himself a man of eru- (67) Erasmi, Nov. Test. Parac^e«^. Basil, 1516, fol. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 267 clit^on, and translated into Italian, a treatise of St Chrysostom : his library, next to that of the pope, was at that time the most considerable in Rome; and contained 8000 volumes. The dedication is dated A. 1517. In 1519, he dedicated his Paraphrase of St. P aid's Epistles to the Corinthians, to the Prince Cardinal de Marca. In the same year he dedicated his Para- phrase of St. PauVs Epistles to the Ephesians, PhilippianSy Colossians, and Thessalonians, to Cardinal Campegius; and his Paraphrase of St. PauTs Epistles to Timothy, to Titus, and to Philemoji, to Philip of Burgundy, archbishop of Utrecht. His Paraphrase of the Epistles of' St. James and St. John, and of the Epistle to the Hebrews, he dedi- cated, in 1520, to Cardinal Matthew, who had exhorted him to undertake the paraphrase of these Epistles. In 1522, he dedicated his Paraphrase of St. Matthew, to Charles V. and closed his dedication with an excellent admonition to this young emperor, in which he reminds him, that "all wars, however justly undertaken, or how- ever moderately conducted, are always followed by a train of calamities and sufferings." In his preface to this paraphrase, he exhorts the laity and the common peo- ple, to read and study the Scriptures, which ought, as he says, to lie open to all well-disposed people, and to be translated into all modern languages. In 1523, Erasmus dedicated his Paraphrase of St. Luke, to Henry VIII. king of England. He tells the king, that Charles V. and Ferdinand, and Christiern of Denmark, and Queen Catharine, were readers of the Holy Scriptures. He also draws an argument for the truth of Christianity, from its successful propagation, and its salutary effects. The Paraphrase of St. John was dedicated to Fer- dinand, brother of the Emperor Charles V. In the dedication, Erasmus gives Ferdinand a great charac- ter; and exhorts him to persevere in his good dis- 268 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, positions, and offers him excellent advice. At the end of the paraphrase is an epistle to the reader, recommending to him piety, and dissuading him from superstition. The Paraphrase of the Acts of the Apostles, Erasmus de- dicated to Pope Clement VII. in 1524. The Paraphrase of St. Mark, which, in 1521, he had inscribed to Cardinal Matthew, he dedicated in 1533, to Francis I. king of France. In his dedication he exhorts Christian princes to peace, and pacific dispositions ; and observes, with pleasure, what a demand there was for the New Testa- ment, and how many thousand copies ivere sold every year. The Paraphrase of the Epistles of St. Peter and of St. Jude, he dedicated to Cardinal Wolsey; and after com- plimenting the cardinal, informs him that he has no fa- vours to solicit, besides the cardinal's countenance and approbation. The Paraphrase of St. Paul's Epistles to the Galatians appears to have been published without any particular dedication. Erasmus published no para- phrase of the Revelation. These paraphrases were after- wards collected, and published, together with his other works. The best edition is that by Le Clerc, printed at Leyden, 1703, 11 vols. fol. Beside the paraphrase of the New Testament, he also published paraphrases^ or dis- courses, on some of the Psalms. His discourse on the First Psalm was dedicated by him, in 1515, to Beatus Rhenanus, a learned and pacific man, one of the correc- tors of Froben's press. In the dedication he exhorts all persons to read the Scriptures, which, (as he afterwards affirmed in his other writings,) ought to be translated into vulgar tongues, and put into the hands of the vulgar: he also exhorts the common people not to have an implicit faith in their teachers, nor to suffer themselves to be led by the nose like bears. The bold and satirical manner in which Erasmus attacked the corruptions of the Romish church and clergy, not only in his Biblical works, but in his numerous other SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 269 writings, exposed him to the hatred, and malicious machi- nations of a host of enemies, who regarded him as one of the most dangerous and powerful opponents of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and doctrines. His works were exclaimed against as disseminating heretical opinions, and placed in the Indices Expurgatorii as dangerous to be read; and himself only escaped the punishment of heretical pravity, by the influence of his friends, and the cowardly dissimulation of some parts of his conduct. For though possessed of an enlightened mind, a correct judgment, and uncommon learning, he unfortunately had neither piety nor firmness enough to become a martyr to the truth; nor to meet the fiery zeal of his adversaries with the intre- pidity of a reformer. It was this fear of suffering which most probably occasioned his opposition to Luther, with whom the monks ranked him, for "Erasmus," said they, '^aid the e^^, and Luther hatched it." Erasmus continued writing and publishing to the very close of his life, occasionally satirizing the monks, exposing the absurdities of many of the doctrines of his church, and defending the advocates of reformation and truth. In the last year of his life he published his dis- course, or Commentary, on the XIV, Psalm, which he entitled. Of the purity of the Christian Church, consist- ing of allegorical interpretations, and moral reflections upon the text. He also republished his Letters, adding several received from the emperor, and other princes, and from men in the highest stations ; and remarks, that whilst revising them, he had found that within the space of ten years, many of his best friends, and old correspon- dents were dead, which caused him to meditate on the shortness and uncertainty of human life. He intended to have revised and printed the " Works of Origen," add- ing a few short notes ; but before it was completed he was called away by death ; and the work was published after his decease, with a preface, by Beatus Rhenanus. 270 About a month before his death, he was seized with a dysentery, which his feeble frame, already weakened by disease, was unable to sustain, and which proved mortal on the 12th of July, 1536. The last of his days were spent in constantly imploring the mercy of Almighty God, and of Jesus Christ, without speaking of those Catholic ceremo- nies, which he had so frequently blamed in the monks. He was buried in the cathedral church of Basil, or as it is generally called, Basle. In his person he was low of stature, well shaped, of a fair complexion, cheerful countenance, low voice, and agreeable elocution; neat and decent in his apparel; and a pleasant companion .^^ The unprecedented circulation of the anti-monastic writings of Erasmus, and the repeated editions of his New Testament created universal interest, and essen- tially aided the progress of truth, by exposing the vices of the monks, and causing the vast superstructure of superstition to tremble to its foundation ; but the far more difficult labour of establishing the doctrines of the Gospel on an immoveable basis, was reserved for the intrepid and illustrious Luther, who, with a fearless independency of spirit, embraced, defended, and propa- gated those evangelical and important doctrines, which, by the gracious providence of God, induced and confirm- ed the happy event of the ever-memorable Reformation. (68) Jortin's Life of jErasmus, passim. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 271 CHAPTER IV. SIXTEENTH CENTURY CONTINUIBD. Luther. German VersiGn. Duke of Wurtemhergs Li- hrary. Melancthon. Bugenhagen. Jonas. Cruciger. Aurogallus. Rorarius. Forster. Ziegler. Emsers Catholic New Testament. Dietenbergs Bible. Other German Versions. Attempts to suppress Luther s Version. Low-Saxon, Swedish, Icelandic, Hungarian., and Dutch Versions. Potkens Ethiopic Editions. Progress of the Reformation. Zuingle. Latin Ver- sion's. Munster. Leo Judce. Bibliander. Cholin. Gualter. Bullinger. PelUcan. German-Swiss and German Versions. THE ^eat Saxon Reformer, Martin Luther, wag born at Eisleben, in the county of Mansfeld, and electorate of Saxony, in the year 1483. His father was employed in the mines, and rose by assiduity and inte- grity to the possession of property, and the office of magistrate. His mother, who appears to have been a woman of exemplary piety, devoted considerable atten- tion to the tuition of her infant son ; and to her pious instructions he was probably indebted for the early devo- tional bias of his mind. After receiving a liberal edu- cation in the schools of Magdeburg and Eisenach, he repaired to the university of Erford or Erfurt, and com- menced master of arts, at the age of twenty. In 1505, he retired to the Angus tinian monastery in that place, under the influence of religious impressions, occasioned by the awful death of a friend, and his own providential deliverance from a tremendous storm of thunder and lightning. "In this university of Erford," says Fox, " there was a certain aged man in the convent of the 272 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, Augustines, with whom Luther, being then of the same order, a Friar Augustine, had conference upon divers things, especially touching the article of the Remission of Sins; the which article the said aged father opened unto Luther after this sort ; declaring, that we must not generally believe only forgiveness of sins to be, or to belong to Peter, to Paul, to David, or such good men alone; but that God's express commandment is, that every man should believe, his sins particularly to be forgiven him in Christ ; and further said, that this interpretation was confirmed by the testimony of St. Bernard, and shewed him the place, in the ^ Sermon of Annunciation/ where it is thus set forth : But add thou that thou believ^ est this, that hy him thy sins are forgiven thee. This is the testimony that the Holy Ghost giveth thee in thy heart, saying, Thy sins are Jorgiven thee. For this is the opinion of the Apostle, that man is freely justified hy faith. By these words Luther was not only strengthened, but was also instructed of the full meaning of St. Paul, who repeateth so many times this sentence, fFe are justified hy faith. And having read the expositions of many upon this place, he then perceived, as well by the purpose of the old man, as by the comfort he received in his spirit, the vanity of those interpretations which he had read before, of the schoolmen. And so reading, by little and little, with conferring the sayings and examples of the prophets and apostles, and continual invocation of God, and excitation of faith by the force of prayer, he perceived that doctrine most evidently."* It was about the same time that Luther either received from one of the monks, or accidentally found in the library, a neglected copy of the Latin version of the Bible, bound in red morocco. To his great surprize, he discovered that there were many parts of the Scripture which were never read to the people in the public service of the . , , .1 — — ^• (1) Fox's Actes and Monumentes, II. pp. GO, 61. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 273 church. He therefore studied the Sacred Volume with such constancy and diligence^ that he was very soon able to refer with ease and promptitude to any particular pas- sage. Many portions of it he committed to memory; and sometimes spent the whole day in endeavouring to gain the true sense of one sentence. The incredible ardour with which he applied himself to the study of the Scriptures, gradually enlightened his mind, and produced those important views of Christian doctrine, experience, and practice, that eventually led to the astonishing results which took place in the Christian church, and spread the pure light of the Gospel in every direction. Luther also became a Biblical, or Scriptural Bachelor, (Baccalaureus Biblicus,) whose duty it v/as to read lec- tures upon certain portions of Scripture. The Biblical Bachelors were, however, considered as inferior to the Scholastic Bachelors, (Baccalaurii Sententiarii,) or those who read lectures on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the works of other scholastic divines, and, therefore, their degree was regarded merely as a preparatory one in divinity. But it is worthy of notice, that at the time when Luther entered the order of the Augustinians, it was the only one capable of furnishing a Biblical bachelor to the university of Paris ; for, at the reformation of the theological faculty, or college, at Paris, towards the begin- ning of the sixteenth century, the Augustin monks were selected to furnish the college of divinity, once a year, with a Biblical bachelor, from which it is natural to con- clude, that the Dominicans, Franciscans, and other men- dicant orders, had entirely neglected the study of the Scriptures, and especially, as by the original decree of the theological faculty, prior to the reformation of the college, each of the mendicant orders was enjoined to pro- vide annually a Biblical bachelor, yet in the reformation of the college, none but the Augustinians were able to Vol.. II. S 274 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, satisfy that demand.^ Melancthon was a Biblical Ba* chelor of the same order as Luther. In his Augustine superior, Staupitius, or Staupitz, Luther found a zealous adviser of the study of the iSerip- tures, in preference to any other pursuit. In the techni- cal language of the times, Staupitz recommended him to become a good Textualis et Localis, by which he meant, the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of the texts of Scripture, and an expertness in quoting them. In 1507, he was ordained; and the next year was called by Stau- pitz, to the professorship of logic, in the university of Wittemberg. In 1510, he was sent on special business to Rome, and after his return was created doctor in divi- nity ; and exchanged the philosophical for the theological chair, of the same university.* He now comuieneed lectures on the Epistle to the Romans, and tiie Psalms-; he also diligently applied to the study of the Hebrew and Greek languages, for the purpose of obtaining a more perfect knowledge of the Scriptures. "Such," says Melancthon, "were the employments of Luther at the time when those prostitute Indulgences were first proclaimed by that most impudent Dominican, Tetzel. Burning with the love of every thing that was godly, and irritated by Tetzel's shameful discourses, he published some propositions concerning the nature of indulgences. The Dominican, in return, publicly burnt Luther's propositions, and menaced the heretic himself with the flames. In a word, the outrageous conduct of Tetzel and his associates, absolutely compelled Luther (2) Mosheim's Eccles. Hist, by Maclaine, IV. p. 218, note. Du Cange, Glossar. Lat. v. Haccalariu * The learned readpr will find Lather's views of the duty of a Chris- tian divine, delineated in a summary, extracted from Melchior Adam's Life of the German Reformer : " Tria faciunt theologum, dixit : wedi' tatio, oratio, tentatio: et tria verbi ministro facienda : evolvere Biblia; orare serib ; et semper discipulum manere* Optimi ad vulgus hi sunt concionatores : qui pueriliter^ trivialiter, popufariter, et simpltcissim4 docent. (M. Adami Vit^ Germ, Theolog. .; 16d. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 275 to discuss the subject at length, in support of the cause of truth." In this manner began the controversy, in 1517, be- tween the reformers and the papists. At first, Luther had to contend almost alone, against a host of powerful and violent enemies; but as his doctrines became more generally known, and his character and views more per- fectly understood, he was joined by other worthies, in the sacred cause, and the Reformation spread wider daily, and daily gathered strength. As the Reformation advanced, Luther became more fully convinced of the necessity of furnishing the people with vernacular trans- lations of the Scriptures. In 1521, after having attended the diet of Worms, in order to vindicate the doctrines he taught, he was, on his return, seized and confined to the castle of Wartburg and its vicinity, by Frederic, elector of Saxony, proba- bly to protect him from the violence of his enemies, and of the emperor in particular. In this retirement, which he used to call his Patmos, he first began to apply himself to the great undertaking of a ncAV Translation of the Bible into German. For the purpose of engaging in this impor- tant labour, he had previously devoted some time to the study of the Hebrew and Greek. His skill in German is~ universally admitted. With such assiduity did Luther devote himself to the work, that before he left the castle of Wartburg, in March 1522, he had translated the whole of the New Testament, from the Greek, which, after his return to Wittemberg, was submitted to the critical revision of Melancthon. Of the different books of the New Testament, St. Matthews Gospel was published first, then St. Mark's^ and the Epistle to the Romans. The other books soon followed, so that the whole came out by September 1522. With a view to extensive cir- culation among the lower orders, Luther took care that the form of the edition should be cheap, and by publishing 276 the different books of the New Testament separately^ sold them at a very low rate. And such was the rapid sale of this translation, that a second edition was print- ed before the conclusion of the same year. Of the labour bestowed upon this translation, and the essential assist- ance afforded by Melancthon, we may judge by the fol- lowing circumstances. In a letter which Luther ad- dressed to Spalatin, secretary to Frederic of Saxony, after returning from Wartburg, he says, "I translated not only John's Gospel, but the whole of the New Testament, in my Patmos ; but Melancthon and I have now begun to revise the whole of it, and it will, by the blessing of God, do us credit. We sometimes need your assistance to direct us to suitable modes of expression. Prepare yourself therefore, but supply us only with such words as are simple, and avoid all that are confined in their use to the camps or court. We wish the book to be distinguish- ed for the simplicity of its style. To accomplish this, in one difficult passage, we beg you will furnish us with the names, colours, and if possible, a sight, of the precious stones mentioned in Revelation xxi." This request had reference to the elector s collection of gems. Spalatin complied with the wish of his friends, and transmitted to them the precious stones in question, which, after due examination, they sent back. Again, in a letter which Melancthon addressed to the celebrated physician, George Sturciad, dated the 5 th of May 1522, he speaks of the whole version being in the hands of the printers; and states that he had paid particular attention to the differ- ent kinds of money mentioned in the New Testament; and had also consulted with many learned men, that the version might express them with the utmost accuracy. He begs his correspondent to give his opinion, and to consult Mutianus, as being profoundly skilled in the knowledge of Roman antiquities ; and entreats him to attend to this application, from a regard to the general good, and to da SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 277 it immediately, because the work was in the press^ and printing" with great expedition. After his return to Wittemberg, Luther proceeded to the translation of the Old Testament. On the 2nd of November 1522, he thus expressed himself in a letter to a friend: "In my translation of the Old Testament, I am only in Leviticus. It is inconceivable how much writing- letters, business, conversation, and many other things, have interrupted my progress. I am now deter- mined to shut myself up at home, and to use dispatch, so that the Five Books of Moses may be sent to press by January. We shall print them separately: after that we proceed to the historical parts of Scripture, and lastly to the Prophets. The size and price render it necessary to make these divisions in the publication." In accomplishing this translation, Luther had to encoun- ter various difficulties, not only from the different idioms of the Hebrew and German languages, but from the proper names of the animals mentioned in the Pentateuch, and the parts of them noticed relative to the Jewish sacrifices. In a letter to Wenceslaus Lincus, he exclaims, "How difficult and laborious the task, to force the Hebrew writers to speak German, which they resist, like the nightingale refusing to quit its delightful melody to imitate the coarse notes of the monotonous cuckow!" And in ano- ther to Spalatin, he writes, "We find so much difficulty in translating Job, arising from the sublimity of his style^ that he appears much more impatient of our translation, than of the consolation of his friends, or he would cer- tainly have sat for ever on the dunghill. Unless, per- haps, the author meant that his book should never be translated. This has caused the delay of the press in this third part of the Bible." By the friendly aid of Spalatin, he obtained much in- formation respecting diflferent species of Insects and Reptiles, as well as of Wild Beasts, and Rapacious Birds. 278 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, He also employed butchers to dissect different animals y at his own house, that by examining their different parts, he might accurately express the sacrificial terms. But Luther was not satisfied with inquiries only of this na- ture, for he wisely called in to his assistance in this great work, several singularly learned, and pious professors of divinity, that each might contribute towards the perfection of the whole. Their method was to assemble from time to time, when each came prepared, by having previously studied the particular parts of the Bible then under consi- deration. Some of the professors excelled in an acquaint- ance with the Chaldee paraphrases, or Targums ; others in the Rabbinical writings ; while others brought various lights from the Greek Septuagint, and the fragments of the Greek translations of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theo- dotion. Luther, who presided, had always before him the Hebrew Bible, the Latin Vulgate, and his own manu- script version; Melancthon brought the Greek, and Cru- ciger the Chaldee, and the other professors the Rabbinical writings. Thus they proceeded to examine the whole, sentence by sentence, till after sufficient deliberation, it was agreed, either to confirm, alter, correct, or im- prove the translation, as occasion required; and so de- sirous were they of producing a correct translation, that they sometimes returned fourteen successive days to the 7^ econsi deration of a single line, or even a word! The Old Testament was published in parts as well as the New, but the writers who have written concerning Luther's version, differ considerably respecting the times at which they appeared; the following is the statement of Walch, which, from the dates afhxed to copies of some of the portions in the library of the king of Wurtemberg, seems to be tolerably correct. The Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, appeared in 1523; the book oi Joshua, and the rest of the Historical Books, except Job, in 1524; and later in the same year^ Joh, the Psalms^ Proverbs, Eccle- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 279 siastes, and Solomoiis Song. In 1526, were printed the Prophecies of Jonah and Hahahkuh; in 1528, Zechar'mh, and afterwards Isaiah. In 1529, the Book of IFlsdom was published; in 1530, the Prophecy of Z)aw/e/, and dur- ing the same year the remainder of the Apocryphal Boohs, In 1531, Luther published anew and more liberal trans- lation of the Psalms: and in 1531, and 1532, completed the rest of the Prophets.^ In 1534, the Bible was first published complete: the Psalms in this edition wereld^pse of the translation of 1531. The eagerness with which copies of this translation were sought after, called for nu- merous editions, so that beside several printed at Nurem- berg, Strasburg, Augsburg, and other places in Germany, editions were printed under the inspection of Luther, and his learned coadjutors, at Wittemberg, in 1535,1536,1538, 1539, 1541, 1543, 1544, and 1545; which was the last edition that Luther superintended, his decease occurring in 1546. After his decease, editions of the German Scriptures were multiplied so rapidly, that betwixt the years 1534, (when John LufFt, of Wittemberg, printed the first edition of the Bible,) and 1574, a hundred thou- sand copies were issued from the office of one printer only!* The king of Wurtembergs library, at Stutgard, contains many of the rarest editions of Luther's Bible, among which we notice the following in folio, viz.; the New Testament, without date, but known to be the first edition of 1522; two editions of the Pentateuch, ztv'M- out date, said to be of the year 1523; Joshua and Es- ther, without date, but printed according to the cata- logue, in 1523; the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, EccLEsiASTEs, and SoNG OF Solomon, 1524 ; the Pro- phets, 1532; the first edition of the whole Bible, 1534; (3) Walchii (J. G.) Bibliotheca Theologica, IV, cap. viii. p. 82. Jenae, 1765, 8?o. Adleri Bibliotheca Biblica, olim Lorckianaj pars iii. pp. 7 — 18, Altons, 1787, 4to. (4) Walch. ut sup. p, 86. 280 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ (the third part of the Old Testament wanthig;) seve- ral other of the rarest editions, viz., 1535, 1536, 1539, 1541, 1543, 1545,' all printed at Wittemberg, by John (Hans) Lufit. There are also in the same valuable col- lection, three editions of the Prophecy of Habakkuk, all dated 1526, 4to., but differing from each other in the trans- lation ; two of Jonah, of the same date, in 4to. differing from each other in the translation; one of Daniel, 1530, 4to.; and also Jonah and Habakkuk, 1526, 4to.; beside many other rare editions of the whole, or parts of Luther's German translation of the Bible, printed during his life.^ (5) A'dleri Bibliotheca Biblica serenissimi Wurtembergensium Ducis, olim Lorckiana, sec. xxviii. pt. iii. pp. 7 — 2^, The following anecdotes, relative to the king of AVurtemberg's Library, %viil be interesting to the Biblical student. In 17G8, Charles, the late duke of Wurtemberg, who was distinguished for his knowledge and love of books, began to collect for his library at Stufgard, which in 1804 contained upwards of 100,000 volumes, and was every day increasing. The duke travelled into various countries, and purchased books at very high prices. The collection of Bibles is unique, and comprises upwards of 9000 different editions; and 3000 more were said to be wanting- in 1804, to complete the collection. In 1784, the duke went to Copenhagen, where he purchased the collection of Bibles which had been made by a clergyman of the name of Lorck, amounting to more than 4000 editions ; and shortly after bought M. Panzer's col- lection, consisting of 1645 volumes. Of that part of the Biblical collec- tion which the duke purchased of the Rev. Mr. Lorck, Adler printed the above-mentioned catalogue, comprising notices of 5155 articles, in 4to. at Altona, in 1787. Bishop Marsh pronounces it "a catalogue of great merit, and great utility." As it is become rare, even on the Continent, an analysis of it from one now before me maybe acceptable to the reader. The First Part, containing the Hebrezc, Greek, and Oriental versions, has the following list of dialects and editions, comprehending 998 articles: Editions of the nbule, or distinct parts of the Bible. Ko. of editions. No. of editions, Ethiopic 13 Persian. 7 Turkish 6 Coptic 1 Armenian 5 Tamul 13 Ilindoostanee 6 Malayan 14 Cingalese 1 Jewish-German 35 Polyglott Bibles, &c 119 Hebrew 267 Greek 346 Modern Greek 8 Hebrew Versions 17 G.eek, (Old Testament).... 51 Chaldee 22 Samaritan (Fragments).... 4 Syriac 35 Arabic 28 SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 281 An edition of Luther's German translation of the Bible, so far as had then appeared, including- the whole, except the Prophets^ was printed at Nuremberg, by Peyp us, in 1 524, fol. A copy of this early edition is in the magnificent library of Lord Spencer. Dibdin (Biblioth. Spencer, vol. I. p. 62) The Second Pait contains the Latin and its dialects ; including 1157 articles, viz, No. of editions. No. of editioir!. Latin Bibles, &c, , 790 Portuguese IS Spanish. 15 [(alian 43 French 29'! Rhaetian 1 The Third Part exhibits the Teutonic, or German versions, and con- tains 1158 articles, viz. Ancient German, 23 Luther's German version, edited during his life.... 124 after his death .. . 657 Catholic versions 46 Germnn Reformers.,. 43^ Heterodox, as Socinians, &o. 55 Orthodox 95 Saxon Bibles 115 Bohemian 21 Wendish, or Sorabic IQ Polish 20 The Fourth Part includes the other European dialects, and the American, comprising 774 articles, viz. English 215 Dutch 274 Danish 116 Icelandic 14 Greenlandish 3 Creole 2 Fanteic, or Acraic 1 Swedish 45 Finnish 6 J.apponic 3 R ussian 8 Croatian 3 Lithuanian Lettonian. . Esthonian., 6 7 4 Hangarian 7 5 1 1 2 Welsh Irish Cantabrian, or Basque... North- American Indian. . Portuguese Italian.. . . French 104 German., 105 English , 33 Dutch 84 Danish 21 The Appendixes, which comprise 1045 articles, contain in various languages, Apocryphal Books Ill Poetical l*araphrases,chiefly Psalms Polyglott 1 Greek 55 Latin 201 Spanish 4 I Bohemian Polish Malay Erse Hungarian. 2 Harmonies of the Bible 73 Concordances of the Bible... 29 Histories of the Bible 39 Books of Images, or Figures . 168 282 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, observes, "they are a magnificent production ; being print- ed in a large type, with jet-black ink, upon stout excellent vellum, and having a great number of capital initials, spiritedly cut in wood, which contain historical or other subjects, treated of in each chapter. They have signa- tures, catch-words, and paginary numbers." — Respecting the edition of 1539, Luther wrote to his friend Pontanus on the 20th of September, of that year, in which he thus expresses his desire: " I hope the An halt noblemen and gentlemen will take care that there be at least three copies of this edition printed upon vellum ; for each of which it may be necessary to procure 340 calves-shins, formerly to be procured for 60 florins, but now indeed at four times that price." See Seckendorf's Com, lib. i. pp. 203, 204 : lib. iii. p. 254.^' Of the later editions, that of 1541 was the one upon which Luther bestowed the greatest care in revising and correcting. It was printed in 2 vols, folio, and orna- mented with wood-cuts. An unique copy upon vellumy of this edition, was in the possession of the late James Edwards, Esq. of Manor House, Karrow-on-the-HilL At the sale of his rare collection of books, it was pur- chased by George Hibbert, Esq. for ^89. 5. 6. The ac- count of it iii the catalogue of Mr. Edwards' library, must interest every Biblical scholar in its fate : it is there described as " the first edition of Luther's translation of the Bible, after his final revision. His own copy ivhich he used till his decease. This copy," it is added, "must always excite the deepest interest and most lively emo- tions, in the breast of every Protestant. The Manuscript Notes, prefixed to each volume, seem to introduce us to the The Supplement cox\i2i\w?>., beside Commentaries on some of the Canon- ical Books, and Poetical Paraphrases of the Psalms, 1 Syriac version of the Gospels; 1 Tamiil version of the Old Testament to Job inclu- sive ; 1 Cingalese version of several portions of the New Testament ; 1 Malay version of the New Testament; Books of Prints, &c. (6) Dibdin's Bibliographical Decameron, I. p. 164, note* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 283 closest acquaintance with a bright assemblag-e of reform- ers. We find Luther exhibiting in the privacy of retire- ment, the same unshaken confidence in the Deity under the persecutions he was suffering, as he nobly evinced in public. In a manuscript note in the second volume, he transcribes the [4th] verse of the xxiii. Psalm, ^ Etiam quum ambularem per vallem lethal! s umbrae, non time- rem malum, quia tu mecum es;' and then adds a passage strongly indicative of his own exalted ideas of faith. He appears to have bequeathed this copy to Bugenhagen, who, on the 19th of May, 1556, wrote in it a pious dis- tich, and some religious sentiments, in which he denies the necessity of profane learning. The illustrious Me- lancthon was its next possessor. He writes a remarkable passage relative to the final consummation of all things, and intimates his belief, that the end of the world is not far distant, adding, ' May Jesus Christ, the Son of Almighty God, preserve and protect his poor flock. Scriptum manu Philippi, 1557.' The same year it passed into the hands of George Major, another reformer, who has writ- ten in it a compendious exposition of his faith, signed with his name. In this version Luther omits the con- tested verse relative to the three heavenly witnesses T * 1 John V. 7 J It is a singular coincidence, that in the library of the king of Wurtemberg, there is a copy of the edition of 1545, in which the same reformers, Luther, Bugenhagen, Melancthon, and George Major, have like- wise written manuscript notes.^ Different opinions have been formed of the style and correctness of Luther's version, and it might be expected that his adversaries would endeavour to depreciate his version, yet even the papal historian, Maimbourg, acknow- * Walch says, the first edition of Luther's translation, in which this verse was inserted, was the Wittemberg edition of 1596. See VValchii Biblioth. Theolog. IV. cap. viii. p. 86. (7) Gentleman's Magazine, LXXXV. p.284. Bibliotheca Edvsardsiana. (8) Adleri Biblioth. JBiblica, &c. sec. xxviii. p. 12. 284 ledges, that Luther's translations of the Old and New Testament were remarkably elegant, and in general so much approved, that they were read by almost every bo- dy throughout Germany. Women of the first distinction studied them with indefatigable diligence, and steadily defended the tenets of the reformer against bishops, monks, and catholic doctors.^ The dialect of the trans- lation became the literary language of the most elegant German writers, and has m.aintained its superiority to the present time. Of this last instance of the popularity of the important version of Luther, a modern grammari- an thus expresses himself: "There existed, about the time of the Reformation, three grand divisions of the German language, viz, the Upper German, (Ober Deutsch,) the Low German, {Nieder Deutsck, or Piatt DeiitschJ and lastly the High German (Hoch Deidsch), Before that era, every literary production which was com- posed in the German tongue, was written in the Upper German ; this was the vehicle of literature in that coun- try. The High German was the native dialect of Luther, and by the influence of his example, it began to rise up into competition with the former idiom, and was soon spread throughout the whole nation. The Bible, and other works of great interest at that period, published in this dialect, and the number of protestant divines which issued from the electorate of Saxony, tended to make it known even in the remoter parts of the country. It was read and understood every where, and by degrees culti- vated as the general language of all Germany. It drove the Upper German from that preeminence which it had hitherto occupied, and in its stead, possessed itself of the fields of literature and science." '" The chief coadjutors of Luther in the laborious task of translation, and in the subsequent revisions, were (9) Milner's Hist, of the Church of Christ, V. ch. xvi. p. 84. (10) Noehden's Grammar of the German Language, Introd. pp. 3, 4. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 235 Philip Melancthon; John Bugenhage.v or Pome- RANUs; Justus Jonas; Casper Cruciger; and Mat- thew AuROGALLUs. The corrector of the press was George Rorar, or Rorarius. The amiable and profoundly learned Philip Melanc- thon, (or according- to the German name, Schwart- zerde,) was born at Bretten, a small town in the Palatinate of the Rhine, in the year 1497. His early- proficiency in learning' was such, that at twelve years of age he became a student at the university of lieidelber^^-; he afterwards removed to Tubingen, where he was admitted. in 1513, to a master's degree. He immediately began to give lectures, as a public tutor, on Virgil and Terence, the latter of which occasioned him some labour; for so low was the state of literature at this period, that the text of that poet had actually been printed in the manner of a prose writer, and of course the versification had been wholly destroyed. Melancthon first pointed out to the students the diversified Iambic measure, employed by Terence, and then proceeded with great labour and per- severance, to restore the whole text to its metrical arrange- ment. He afterwards delivered lectures on select parts of Cicero's works; and on the first six books of Livy's history: he also edited different classical authors.^ At the age of twenty-oyie, he was chosen professor of Greek in the university of Wittemberg, at the instance of the celebrated Reuchlin, to whom he was on several accounts under peculiar obligation. In the midst of his classical and scientific engagements. * A beautifully executed Variorum copy of Cicero De O^aV.?, is in the possession of the writer of the present work, with the Notes of Melancthou amongst others, printed by Thomas Richards, Paris 1550, 4to, Ciimprivi- legio Regis. 'Y\\U rare edition has also the works De Settectufe, De Jmici-* till, De Somnio Sa'pionis, by the same printer, and of the same date; and Pnradoxa, by John L, Tiletan, 1546, Paris. The Tex/ of the works printed by Richards, is in a well defined open Roman type, and the Kotes in a small neat Italic; the Greek c^uotations are qlear and good. 286 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, the mind of Melancthon had been early imbued with a knowledge and love of the Scriptures. When but a boy, Reuchlin had presented him with a small Bible, printed at Basil, at the press of Frobenias. This he carried about with him continually, and read it with eagerness wherever he came, so that from the attention he paid to it at church, he was suspected of reading profane authors, instead of repeating the offices of devotion. In the margin of his Bible he inserted such explanatory hints as occurred to his own reflections, or appeared to be of sufficient importance in the authors which he perused. Thus his mind became prepared for receiving the doctrines of Luther, with whom he was associated in the university of Wittemberg. In 1520, Melancthon delivered a course of lectures on the Epistle to the Romans, which Luther afterwards pub- lished without his knowledge. But so rare was the word of God, and so seldom to be obtained, especially in the Original languages, at the time he began to proclaim the Truth, that he was obhged to print select parts of the Greek Testament, for the use of the students in the university who attended his lectures. The Epistle to the Romans was edited by him in 1520; the^r^^ Epistle to the Corinthians in 1521 ; the second Epistle separately, the same year; and also the Epistle to the Colosslans.^^ In 1527, John, elector of Saxony, appointed Melancthon, in conjunction with other grave and learned divines, to visit and reform the churches throughout that electorate. Afterwards he was employed to draw up the Augsburg Confession, in which it is allowed he has represented the sentiments of the reformers with great elegance, perspi- cuity, and strength ; and which received its name from being presented, in 1530, to the emperor, at the diet held in that city, as the confession of faith of those who from having protested against the decree of the diet of Spires, (11) Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionaiyj VI, p. 134, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 587 in 1529, had received the honourable denomination of Protestants. After powerfully contributing by his talents, learning, and influence, to the spread of truth and the reformation of religion, this great and good man was called to his eternal rest, on the 19th of April, 1560; and his remains were interred in the presence of multitudes of real mourn- ers, in the church of the castle at Wittemberg. His works were collected by his son-in-law, Casper Peucer, and printed at Wittemberg in 1601, in 4 vols, folio. »^ John Bugenhagen was a native of Pomerania, from whence he was sometimes called Pomeranus. He was born June 24th, 1485. He made considerable progress in learning, and became distinguished as rector of the school at Treptow. When Luther's treatise on the "Ba- bylonish Captivity" came out in 1521, and he had read only a few pages of it, he exclaimed, "The author of this book is the most pestilent heretic that ever infested the church of Christ." After a few days he read it more carefully, and was induced to read it again and again, with the closest attention, and at length ingenuously recanted his opinion in the following strong terms: "The whole world is blind, and involved in Cimmerian dark- ness; and this man alone sees the truth." From this time he embraced the doctrines of Luther, and became the strenuous advocate of Justification by faith. " I am convinced," says he, "that the Holy Ghost is with Luther; he is a man of an honest, holy, firm, and invin- cible spirit." During many years he had been much given to prayer and the study of the Scriptures. At the age of thirty-six he removed to Wittemberg, was chosen parochial minis- (12) Melchior. Adami Vitae Germ. Theolog, pp, 327—361, Fraoco- furt, 1653. Cox's Life of Melanctbon, pp. 28, 29. 288 ter of the great church, and with much piety and useful- ness discharged the duties of his station for thirty-six years. After the translation of the Scriptures into the German language had been completed, in which he had been one of Luther's active coadjutors, he annually celebrated the day on which it was finished, by inviting his friends to partake of a feast conducted with cheerful gravity, and designated The Festival of the Translation of the Scriptures. His piety, judgment, and intrepidity, caused him to be frequently employed in regulating and reforming different churches throughout Germany. Christian^ or Christiern III. king of Denmark, invited him to Copenhagen, where Bugenhagen crowned the king, and afterwards ordained the seven superintendants of the Danish church. Henry, duke of Brunswick, also appointed him, with others, to inspect and regulate the churches under his government. The last year of his life he was too feeble to sustain the labours of public preaching, he nevertheless visited the church daily, and commended it and himself to God by prayer; and, when necessary, attended the pastoral delibe- rations. In April he became too weak to leave his bed, and on the 20th of that month, in the year 1558, calmly resigned his spirit to God Avho gave it, frequently repeat- ing, " This is life eternal, that they might know thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent." He retained his mental powers in their full vigour to the close of life, evidencing the most ardent attachment to the doctrines of the Reformation. He was the author of Commentaries on several parts of the Old and New Testament, and of some smaller works.^^ (13) M. Adami Vit. Germ. Theology pp. 311—319. Miluer's Hist, of the Church of Christ, V, p. 568, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 289 JoDOCUS, or Justus Jonas, was the intimate friend of Erasmus, Luther, and Melancthon. He was born at Northausen, in Thuringia, June 5th, 1493. He applied himself first to the law, but soon quitted it for the study of divinity, by which means he became one of the zealous friends and disciples of Luther. In 1521, he was made president or principal of the college of Wittemberg*. To this presidentship belonged the profession of the canon law; but as Jonas chose to employ his time in studying the Scriptures, and reading lectures in divinity to the students every day, he insisted upon giving up a portion of his salary to a lecturer in the canon law, and re- fused to accept the presidentship on any other terms. He wrote Annotatiotis upon the Acts of the Apostles, printed at Basil, 1525, 8vo. He was also the author of a Dejence oj the Marriage of Priests, and several other tracts. He died October 9th, 1555.'* Caspar Cruciger, whose extensive and multifarious learning rendered him the able advocate of the Lutheran doctrines, was a native of Leipsic, where he was born January 1st, 1504. His native city was the scene of his first studies. After having acquired a knowledge of Latin and Greek, he repaired to Wittemberg, and not only perfected himself in those languages butgained an accurate acquaintance with the Hebrew, so that he is said to have possessed a fluency in them all, equal to that of his mother tongue. At the diet of Worms he attended in the capacity of notary; and was on other occasions so indefatigable a scfibe, that it was to him the public owed copies of the chief part of the expositions and sermons delivered by Luther, in the university and church of Wittemberg. He was appointed rector of the school of Magdeburg, and gave great satisfaction in the discharge of the office; but a thirst for information induced him to return to Wit- (U) iM. Adami Vit. Germ. Theolo^. pp. 258—261. Milner's Hist, of the Church of Christ, IV, p. 627. Vol. II. T 290 temberg. The same passion led him to add the study of the mathematics, and even of medicine, to his theolo- gical labours. For several years in the latter part of his life, he held the station of rector in the univefsity, and filled the office with eminent prudence, diligence, and success; but his incessant application and exertions probably hastened his end, since he died in 1548, when only in the forty-fifth year of his age/^ Matthew AuROGALLus, a native of Bohemia, was a divine of Wittemberg, eminent for his knowledge of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew tongues. He died in 1543. He was the author of a work on the Hebrew names of countries, cities, rivers, mountains, S^c. mentioned in the Old Testament, printed at Wittemberg, 1526, 8vo. and again with improvements, at Basil, 1539, 8vo.; and of a Compendium of the Hebrew and Chaldee Grammar, Wittemberg, 1525, 8vo.; Basil, 1539, 8vo.'' George Rorar, or Rorarius, the learned corrector of the press at Wittemberg, born October 1st, 1492, was a clergyman of the Lutheran church, ordained in 1525. He not only carefully guarded against typographical er- rors, in the editions which he superintended, but after the decease of Luther, added several Marginal Notes to his translation ; and wivh the knowledge and consent of the Wittemberg doctors of divinity, made some alte- rations in the translation itself. He also enlarged Cas- par Cruciger s edition of Luther's Exposition of St. Peters Epistle, from discourses which he had heard deli- vered by Luther; and assisted in editing other works of the Great Reformer. On the removal of the public libra- ry from Wittemberg to Jena, he was appointed libra- rian. He died on the 24th of April, 1557, in the 65th (15) M. Adami Vit. Germ. Theolog. pp. 192—199. Bower's Life of Luther, App. pp. 443,444. Lond. 1813, 8vo. (16) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, II. p. 620. Paris, 1723, fol. Chalmers, III. p. 196, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 291 year of his age. He had been amanuensis to Luther." Luther was likewise occasionally assisted in his transr lation by John Forster, the intimate friend of Reuch- lin, and author of a valuable Hebrew Lexicon, printed at Basil, 1557, fol. Forster was born at Augsburg in 1495. He taught Hebrew at Wittemberg, where he died in 1556.»« Bernard Ziegler also contributed his aid to the same great work. He was a native of Misnia, professor of theology at Leipsic, and an able supporter of the doctrines of the Reformation. He died in 1556, aged CO. He was the author of some theological works, now almost forgotten.'^ The publication of Luther s German version of the Scriptures roused the Catholics to the most virulent opposition, and every measure was adopted that was likely to disparage the translation, and prevent its circu- lation amongst the people. Jerom Emser, one of the counsellors of George, duke of Saxony, and professor of the canon laws at Leipsic; and John Cochl^eus, chaplain to the duke, and afterwards dean of the collegiate church of Frankfort, attacked it in terms of calumnious severity. Emser, affirmed, that the heresies and falsehoods of the translation amounted to fourteen hundred; Cochlaeus estimated them only at a thousand ! But critical notes were not deemed adequate to the exigency of the case; Emser therefore, under the patronage and sanction of George of Saxony, and two bishops, produced what was 1526, 1529, 8vo. by Bugenhagen.^* The Swedish translation was commenced under the sanction of the king Gustavus Vasa. This excellent and patriotic monarch, the son of a Sv/edish nobleman, had been raised to the throne in the place of Christiern, king of Denmark, who had usurped the sceptre, and exer- cised the most revolting severities upon the nation he had conquered. During the usurpation of Christiern, Gustavus bad been in prison and in exile, and at one period had entered among the miners, and wrought as a slave under ground. Whilst an exile at Lubeck, he had gained some information respecting the doctrines of Luther, which he afterwards embraced, and on obtaining the throne, deter- (33) Walchii Biblioth, Theolog. IV. p. 95. (34) Adleri Biblioth. Biblica,— olim Lorckiana^ sec. 33* pp. 203. 207' 2U8,209. 302 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, mined to support. His first object was the dissemination of the Scriptures throughout his dominions. To effect this, he ordered them to be translated into Swedish. This was begun in 1523, by Laurentius Andreas; who is said to have completed the version of the New Tes- tament, which was printed at Stockholm, in 1526, fol. The translation was afterwards carried on, and the whole revised and finished, by Laurentius and Olaus Petri, and printed at Upsal, 1541, fol. On the occasion of the translation of the New Testament, Gustavus exhibited a rare instance of equity and candour, for though he ordered this translation to be made according to the Luthemn version, he at the same time enjoined Johannes Goth us, the archbishop of Upsal, to prepare another ver- sion, suited to the doctrines and views of the church of Rome ; that by a careful comparison of both translations with the original, an easier access might be opened to the truth ; urging, among other reasons, that almost all other nations had the New Testament in the vulgar tongue; that without it the common people could not easily discover the errors which then afflicted the church ; and that even the ignorance of many of the priests rendered such a step necessary to enable them to feed their flocks with wholesome food, without which they could not justly be regarded as pastors. For some time the archbishop resisted the royal mandate; but at length, fearing the displeasure of the king, he distributed the New Testament, in various portions, among the fathers of the cathedral churches, and the different orders of monks, to be translated into Swedish by the 8th of Sep- tember following. (1525.) This translation does not ap- pear to have been completed ; though it is said, a Catholic doctor, called Peter Benedict, prepared a version of the New Testament ^di\&e6^ by an old translation, supposed to be the one made by Matthias of Lincopen or Lindkoping, for St. Bridget, The archbishop, however, preferring a volun-* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 303 tary exile to an adoption of the measures of the monarch, secretly quitted the kingdom ; but returned from Italy to Dantzic in 1534. He died at Rome, March 22nd, 1544.'^ Laurentius Andreas was a native of Sweden, and a priest of the church of Strengnas. Afterwards he became archdeacon of Upsal; and at length was chosen to be chancellor by Gustavus I.^^ Laurentius and Olaus Petri were brothers, born in Nericia, a province of Sweden. They both studied at Wittemberg, where they imbibed the doctrines of the Reformation from the lectures of Luther himself. Olaus was the herald of the reformed religion in Sweden, in which he was powerfully seconded by the brave and public-spirited Gustavus. Under the auspices of the monarch a public disputation was held at Upsal, between Olaus, in support of Luther's system, and Peter Galle, as defender of the papal dogmas. In this contest Olaus obtained a signal victory, which contributed greatly to confirm Gustavus in his views of the Lutheran doctrines, and to spread them more generally through the nation. The Reformation being established in Sweden by the pru- dence and firmness of Gustavus, aided by the counsels of Olaus, this eminent reformer, who had been one of the pastors of the church, was appointed Secretary of Stock- holm. In this elevated situation, he applied himself with vigour and discretion, to the promotion of religion, and the dissemination of Scriptural truth. At his instance, in the year 1529, a new Ritual was published in the Swe- dish language, in which the official rules for marriage, baptism, burial of the dead, and the administration of the Lord's supper, were much cleared from Romish supersti- (35) Mosheim's Ecclcs. Hist. IV. pp. 79, 80. Acfa Eruditor. An. 1704. p, 341. Walchii Biblioth, Theolog. IV, p. 97. Messenii Scondia lUustrata, I. torn. V. pp. 23, 24 ; et II. torn. XV. pp. 101. 109, 114. Stockholm, 1700, fol. (36) Acta Eruditor. ubi sup^ 304 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, tions and incumbrances : he also published a more distinct explanation of the important Christian doctrine of "Jus- tification by Faith.'* Protected and encouraged by his sovereign, Olaus continued his labours for the good of the rising church till called to his great reward by death. His brother Laurentius, who had been raised to the archbishoprick of Upsal, revised and printed several books of Scripture of the Swedish translation, separately, in a smaller form^ viz. Job, the Psalms, Proverbs, Eccle- siASTEs, Canticles, Isaiah, Wisdom, and Ecclesias- tic us, but the first translation was retained in the public services of the church. Laurentius Petri died in 1573.^^ In Denmark, a partial attempt to remove the vail from the Holy Scriptures, and to present them to the public in the vernacular tongue, was made by Christie rn Pedersen, the learned editor of Saxo Grammatims, who, in 1515, published a Danish version of ''All the Epistles and Gospels which are read on every Sunday through the year, with their interpretations and glosses." In this volume, which was printed at Paris, there are many things which mark the legendary credulity of the church of Rome, whilst other passages bespeak a mind possessed of considerable information, and steadily advocating the truth it had discovered. In the preface, the author deli- vers a decided testimony in favour of the reading of the Holy Scriptures by the common people. "Our Lord himself," says he "commanded his blessed apostles to go throughout the world, and preach and teach the Holy Gospels to all men, adding: He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved ; but he that believeth not shall be damned eternally. Now as none can believe the Gospels unless he understands them well, it is both useful and (37) Milner's Hist of the Church of Christ, V. pp. 133— -142, and App. p. 574. Acta Eruditor. An. 1704. p. 341. Le LoD^, I, Index^ SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 305 necessary that they should be translated into plain Danish^ for the sake of common laymen who are not acquainted with Latin, and but very seldom hear any sermon. For what doth it profit plain country people to hear the Gospels read to them in Latin, if they be not afterwards repeated to them in their own tongue ? Our Lord says, in the holy Gospel, ^If thou wouldst attain to the kingdom of heaven, keep the commandments of our Lord;' but how can any keep them, if he does not know the Gospels in which the holy Evangelists wrote them from our Lord's own mouth? And St. Luke declares, in the second chapter of the Acts, that the Holy Spirit came from heaven, on the day of Pentecost, in the shape of fiery tongues, and fell on the Apostles, and other disciples of our Lord; and they were all filled with the same bless- ed Spirit, and immediately spoke all languages, to the intent they should preach the Gospel to all men through- out the world, in that language which each of them understood. St. John the Apostle and Evangelist, and St. Luke wrote Gospels to the Greeks in Greek, in order that they might fully understand them. St. Matthew wrote Gospels in Hebrew to those who spoke Hebrew; and St, Paul the Apostle wrote Epistles both in Greek and Hebrew to those who spoke these languages. If any of them had written Gospels to the kingdom of Denmark, they would assuredly have written them in plain Danish, that all might have understood them ; for every one ought to be able to read them in his native tongue. Let not any one imagine that they are more sacred in one lan- guage, than what they are in anotlier. They are just as good in Danish and German, when properly translated, as they are in Latin. Therefore none can say that it is improper or inconvenient to translate them into Danish. But certain it is, that without them, and the holy faith, none can be saved." After the Title follows an IndeXy directing the reader to Vol. II. U 306 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, the page where the different Epistles and Gospels are to be found ; which is succeeded by a short prologue, on the ad- vantages resulting from the remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, in which some of the modes prescribed in the Romish church for the expiation of sin are set forth, in ra- ther a disadvantageous point of view; and the necessity of seeking refuge in the death of Christ is strongly enforced. The body of the work is divided eiccording to the order in which the portions of the Vulgate were read in the churches. 1st, The Epistle for the day. 2dly, The Gospel. 3rdly, An exposition or short sermon : and lastly, a Jertegn, i. e. a fictitious miracle, or a fabulous story of certain occurrences which were supposed to con- firm the truths taught in the portions of Scripture that had been read. From this latter part, the work has obtained the name of Pedersens Jertegns PostiL ' The translation itself is very paraphrastic, especially in the Epistles; and as it was not till the following year, (1516,) that the first edition of the Greek New Testament was published, Pedersen must have made his version either from the Vulgate Bible, or which is more probable, from an authorized breviary, in which all the Epistles and Gos- pels were arranged to his hands. In some instances our author gives his opinion very freely of certain scandals and abuses, in which even the pope himself and his cardi- nals were implicated. At other times he inculcates the most devoted obedience to the Roman see. Some of his Jertegns contain credible accounts of events which tend to elucidate and corroborate the truths taught in the Scriptures; but most of them are "lying wonders, and old wives' fables," unworthy of the erudition which Peder- sen otherwise displays, but quite congenial with the religious taste of the communion of which he was a member. This inconsistency he afterwards acknowledg- ed, and loudly expressed his gratitude to God, who had called liim "out of darkness into his marvellous light/* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 307 and delivered him from the intellectual darkness of which he had been the subject. " I would here/' says he, in his preface to the New Testament, which he published about fifteen years afterwards, " I would here acknowledge the great delusion under which I laboured, when I composed the miracles and fables, published in Paris, which are mere- ly the inventions and dreams of men,teaching us that we should live as the saints have done, and thus merit hea- ven by our own good works; than which nothing can be more false, for Christ alone hath made satisfaction for our sins, and merited the kingdom of heaven for us, by his sufferings and death. I therefore request all to reject those fables and miracles, and not give any credit to them, but adhere strictly to God's own true Word and Gospels. God be eternally praised, for having of his mercy brought me out of my error, and given me grace to learn and understand his Holy Word better than I did before, when I was involved in darkness." A second edition of this work was, however, soon called for, and in 1518, it was reprinted, at Leipsic, in fol. by Melchior Lotther, a printer who afterwards became renowned, for his impressions of such writings as advocated the cause of the Reformation ; and with Dr. H. we may pleasingly indulge the hope, that, "though the rays transmitted through this medium were but few and feeble, they [never- theless] served to conduct many a weary pilgrim through the dangers and temptations of this transitory scene, "To better worlds on high." The place of Christiern Pedersen's birth is not known with certainty; but he received the first rudiments of his education from Simonsen, in Roskilde, and studied at the academy of Paris, where he took his degree in the Belles Lettres, In 1505, he was canon in Lund, as appears from an ancient document which he has sub- scribed, bearing that date. Some have supposed, that he was also amanuensis to the archbishop; but this is, not 308 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, unlikely, a mistake which has arisen from confounding him with Adler Pedersen, who sustained that office in 1518. He was in great favour with Christian II. who frequently consulted him on state affairs, and at last made him his historiographer. Nor was he wanting in attachment to his royal patron, for he accompanied him in his flight to Holland, and assisted in planning mea- sures for his restoration to the crown. During his stay in that country, he published several works, some of which will be hereafter noticed. He was also engaged in preparing the first Danish Bible. He died A. D. 1554, at Ilelsinge, near Slagelse, in Zealand, where he is said to have been the first Lutheran clergyman. The first Danish version of the lohole of the New Testament was made by Hans Mjkkelsen, who is sometimes called John MichaeUs. For this treasure Denmark was indebted to the patronage and generosity of Christian II. "a prince," says Dr. Henderson, " whose character earlier writers have depicted in the blackest colours, but whom posterity, though not blind to his faults, yet cooler in its judgment, and more impartial in its decisions, seems on the whole inclined to favour." The bold and unprecedented measures which this mo- narch adopted, in order to abridge the overgrown power of the priests and nobles, to restore the rights of the peasants, and other private citizens, and to introduce the Lutheran Reformation, irritated the papal hierarchy, and produced a faction, which being strengthened by the nobles, broke out into open rebellion in 1523. To escape the rage of his rebellious subjects. Christian, with a few confidential friends, fled to Holland, where he hoped to find shelter under the protection of the Emperor Charles V. It was while in this expatriated state that he promoted the publication of the New Testament, thus imitating the example of its blessed Author, who hath ordered it to be SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 309 disseminated among his rebellious subjects^ with a view to the promotion of their present and eternal welfare. The person whom Christian II. employed in the execution of this important undertaking was Hans Mikkelsen, originally mayor of Malmoe, in Scania, and afterwards secretary to his majesty. From the proximity of his residence to Lund, the papal metropolis of the North, Mikkelsen had ample opportunities of becoming acquainted with the evils of the reigning system ; and it is likely that the early part which the inhabitants of Malmoe took in the Reformation, was the result of his secret, but well-plan- ned opposition. His unshaken attachment to his sove- reign was proved by his sacrificing his private connections and interests, and voluntarily accompanying him into a state of exile. That his character stood high, even in the estimation of his master's enemies, appears from their allowing considerable estates, belonging to him in Scania, to remain untouched for the space of two years, and their sending him several pressing invitations to return to his native country; and it was not till they saw that all hopes of his return were vain, that his property Avas con- fiscated. His zeal in the cause of the Reformation excited the jealousy and resentment of the Catholics in the Netherlands, and he was at last necessitated to sepa- rate from his royal friend, and retire to Harderwick, in Guelderland, where he died, about eight years after his translation of the New Testament left the press. The designation, or title, of Mikkelsen's version is, ^'Thette ere thz Noye testamenth paa danske ret effter latinen udsatthe. M.D.XXIIII." i.e. "The New Testa- ment in Danish, properly translated according to the Latin." It is inserted within the space described by a large portico, at the foot of which there is a representa- tion of Christ on the cross, and of a multitude of angels contemplating, in attitudes of wonder and surprise. At the end there is a notification stating it to have 310 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, been printed at Leipsic, by Melchior Lottber, tbe Mon- day preceding St. Bartbolomew's day, A. D. 1524. It forms a small quarto volume, and is divided into tbree parts: the first containing- the Four Gospels, and the Acts of the Apostles ; and the second comprising all the Apostolical Epistles ; to which the third, which contains the Apocalypse, is added, by way of appendix. To the first part are prefixed three Prefaces ; the first and second of which are merely translations of those published by Luther, and are designed to give the reader some previ- ous idea of the Gospel, and to point out to him the principal books of the New Testament. The translator has not even hesitated to adopt the harsh judgment of the reformer, respecting the Epistle of St. James, calling it "a proper Epistle of straw," compared with the other Epistles. In the third, which is wholly the translator's own composition, '^he praises the goodness and mercy of God, in having conferred upon them his Holy Gospel in their own language, and thus enabling them to be- come acquainted with his eternal bounty, revealed in and by Christ Jesus ; complains that the New Testament had been long concealed, and that many had erred, not knowing the Scriptures, with which, he justly maintains, all ought to be acquainted ; ascribes the present publica- cation, under God, to the king, and the assistance of other good Christians ; and requests all candid teachers that if they should m.eet with any oversights in the ver- sion, either through the fault of the printer, who was ignorant of the language, or arising from the difficul- ties which the language itself presented, or from the little assistance that could be procured in the execution of it,^ they would, for the sake of public utility, correct * As the initials H. S, are printed at the end of the Testament, it is supposed, with a good degree of probability, that Henry Smithy a native of Malmoe, and the corrector of several of Christiern Pedersen's works, was employed in correctiDg the proof-sheets. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 311 ■whatever they found needful in point of orthography^ punctuation, or diction. Then foUows an explanation of a number of words made use of in the New Testament, such as bishop, priest, deacon, church, cross, sacrifice, saint, &c. which, from the perverted explication of them by the papists, the translator thought necessary previously to elucidate, lest the common people should imagine they found their errors confirmed, rather than reprobated, by Scripture; and the preface concludes with the specifica- tion of a few errata, which had found their way into the Gospels. The Address prefixed to the second part is directed to all the inhabitants of Denmark, and exhibits the most unequivocal proofs of the abhorrence in which the trans- lator held the corruptions of the church of Rome, and his anxiety to have the attention of his countrymen fixed on the superlative importance of the Scriptures of truth. At the same time it is to be deplored, that he should have introduced any thing of a political nature into it, as it could not fail to create prejudices against it in the minds of many who might otherwise have given it an attentive perusal. The address may be found at full length, both in English and Danish, in the first part of the Rev. Dr. E. Henderson's Dissertation on Hans Mihhelsens Trans- lation of the New Testament, 4to. Copenhagen, 1813; a copy of which is deposited in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in London. This address is stated at the end to have been written at Antwerp, in Brabant, tlie year after the birth of Christ, one thousand five hundred and twenty-four ; audit is not unworthy of notice, that this Danish version appeared two years before the first English edition of the New Testament, by Tyndall; and that the place where the preface was written, was the very spot selected by Tyndall, for the execution of his translation. Beside the above-mentioned prefaces and address. 312 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, there is a preface to each Epistle, as also one to the Apo- calypse, but they are all literal translations of Luther's. At the beginning of the second part there is a register, showing the order of the books, and the number of chap- ters contained in each. To some copies of his transla- tion, Mikkelsen added a letter, addressed to the burgo- master of Dantzig, in which he endeavours to vindicate Christian II.; and exhorts the inhabitants of Denmark, to receive him back again into the kingdom. The rea- son why it is found in some, and not in others, seems to be, that Mikkelsen ultimately regretted his having pub- lished it ; and fearing lest it should injure the circula- tion of the New Testament, left it out of the remaining copies. The order of the books in this translation is the same with that observed by Luther; the Epistle to the Hebrews, and those of James and Jude, being placed after the rest, on account of the doubts entertained by the reformer respecting their authenticity. Several wood-cuts are inserted in the work, exhibiting the Danish arms, the portrait of Christian II., and the insignia of the Apostles prefixed to their writings. The initial letter of each chap- ter is also ornamented with a w^ood-cut. The books are only divided into chapters and paragraphs; the division of the New Testament into verses not being introduced till nearly thirty years afterwards. In the Gospels and Epistles almost the only points used are, a stroke cut- ting the line transversely, from right to left, and the sign of interrogation. In the Acts of the -Apostles, how- ever, besides these, both the colon and full-stop are fre- quently introduced. It is printed on good strong paper, and the type, which is the black, or German character, though small, is uncommonly clean and distinct. From a laborious and accurate collation of this trans- lation with the Latin version of Erasmus, and the Ger- man version of Luther, Dr. Henderson concludes, that in translating the Four Gospels, Mikkelsen chiefly availed SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 313 himself of the Latin version of Erasmus, but that in the Acts of the Apostles, and the rest of the New Testament, he generally followed the German version by Luther. Indeed, this distinction seems not unequivocally to be hinted in the title, in which, the first part is said to be done "exactly according to the Latin;" whereas, in the designation of the second, no mention is made of the Latin at all, but it is said to have been "translated with due discrimination and interpretation." The most pro- bable reason of this difference is, that the king's plan em- braced only the Four Gospels, and the Acts of the Jpos- ties, and that as he had frequently conversed with Eras- mus, in Flanders, in 1521, upon the most eligible means of eradicating the dominant ecclesiastical corruptions, he directed Mikkelsen to translate the Gospels, and Acts of the Apostles, into Danish, from the Latin version which Erasmus had published along withhis editions of theGreek Testament. In this case the translation would be begun before the first edition of Luther s version had left the press. But in the translation of the Epistles voluntarily under- taken by Mikkelsen, he preferred the version of the bold and spirited reformer, which had by that time been pub- lished, to that of the indecisive and timid Erasmus. "In the Gospels and Acts," says Dr. H. "the Latin idiom frequently predominates; and in the Epis- tles, not only the construction of sentences, but the very composition of the words bears marks, at times, of German extraction. The use of these foreign idioms has certainly given a considerable degree of stiffness to many parts of the translation, and also occasioned some obscurity ; yet it must be evident to every one who exa- * ''Paul ELiiE, a native of Warberg, in Sweden, was originally one of the Carmelite friars in Elsinore, from which place he went to Copen- Jiagen, and was constituted prior of the new Carmelite convent in that city. Having read some of Luther's writings, he acknowledged the truth of his principles ; and after he was promoted to the divinity-chair, in the university of Copenhagen, he assisted in the attempts that were 314 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ mines it with impartiality, that Paul Elise* uses the exag-- gerated language of prejudice, when he affirms that, 'did not the reader understand Latin, it would not be the reading of Mikkelsen's translation that would make him wise/ On the contrary, whatever imperfections may have crept into the execution of it, it indisputably con- tains an intelligible representation of the truths of Pivine Revelation. There is not a doctrine or a duty inculcat- ed and taught, in this important portion of the Sacred made to introduce the Reformation, by interpreting the German dis- courses which were held to the people by Reinhard, who had been brought to Denmark for the express purpose of disseminating the truth in the capital. It was not long, however, before he turned his back upon the reformers, and went to the Catholic party: on which account he obtained the nickname of Paul Fendekaabe, or Paul Turncoat. It has been allodged, that this change of sides was owing to his being pre- ferred to a good canonry, in Odense, by the bishops of Roskilde and Aarhus, who were anxious to prevent the friends of the truth from reap- ing any advantage from his literary abilities. As the circulation and perusal of the New Testament could not fail to elucidate many things, which it must have been the earnest wish of the clergy to keep concealed, it necessarily filled them with hatred and resentment; and in order the more eflectually to counteract its opera- tions, they prevailed on Paul Eliae to take up his pen against it. This hie did in a pamphlet, to which he gave the title, A brief and becoming B.epli/ to the heretical and inconsiderate Letter^ which the impudent herC' tic, Hans Mikkelsen, published along with the New Testament^ that King Christian caused to be translated in his tyrannical manner, and not to the glory of God. It bears the date of Odense, 1527. In this Reply^ Elise charges the version with obscurity; and declares that it was made sometimes from the Latin, and sometimes from the German, and so completely literal, that the Danish had no meaning to one who did not understand Latin. Had Mikkelsen, he says, done it, as those do who translate from Greek into Latin, according as the genius of the languages admitted, and published the bare i^xt, without any of the poisonous prefaces and heretical glosses, he would have been entitled to thanks. He states that he had no objection to every person's understanding so much of the Scriptures as concerned his salvation ; but to uaaintain that the common people ought to know the whole of the Bible, was to main- tain what was impossible^ even supposing it to be seemly. He is very severe upon Mikkelsen, for having copied Luther in the judgment he passed on the respective merits of the different books of the New Testa- ment; and accuses him of political views in publishing it: — clothing Luther in the same, and thus sending him into the kingdom to do all the mischief he could. The whole breathes a spirit of wounded pride and party-zeal. See Worm's Lexicon over Lwrde Mcend-^ and Oliva-^ rius de Vita et Scriptis Pauli Elice Carmelitoey SIXTEENTH CENTURY. olo Volume, but what is here expressed in terms which the generality of those who were at all acquainted with let- ters must, on the whole, have understood."* Instead therefore of meriting censure, this version claimed the respect and veneration of the inhabitants of the northern kingdom, for wiiose benefit it was executed, and to whom it became the means of emancipating their minds from the fetters of ignorance and error, and of communicating to them the most satisfactory information on those topics, which, as responsible and injmortal crea- tures, it most concerned them to know. Its object was not merely the ameUoration of their external and tempo- ral condition, but the advancement of their intellectual and everlasting happiness; and this end it answered to a very considerable extent. Copies were transmitted by sea from Antwerp to different parts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, and were joyfully received by numbers who longed for the treasure, and who exerted themselves to impart it to their neighbours. Having thus gained admittance, "it darted its beams across the gloom with which the Northern horizon was beclouded, and ushered in a brighter and happier day." In the letter referred to in the preceding note, its enemies, three years after its publication, are compelled to bear testimony to the efficiency of its operations. "In this kingdom," say they, "there are many who now doubt more than ever they did before, especially since th.e New Testament came into their hands." It was the poh'cy, therefore, of the adversaries of the Reformation, to prevent, if possible, its distribution among the people. The coun- sellors of the kingdom, in company with the bishops, * '^When Christiern Pedersen'^alludes to this subject, in the preface to his version of the New Testament, he does not maintnin that Mik- kelsen's language Avas unintelligible: he only says that *' mafiy com- plained they could not understand it/* which Avas a very good excuse for the publication of his, though the complaiuers may mostly have been of the same party with Paul Eliae." 316 among other measures which they resolved to adopt in order to put a stop to the spread of the new heresy, unani- mously determined to "interdict new and dangerous BOOKS WHICH ARE DAILY IMPORTED FROM ANTWERP AND OTHER PLACES."^® This prohibition, however, produced but little effect, and the Word of God continued to be more or less read by the inhabitants of Denmark and its dependencies. Four years after the publication of Mikkelsen's Danish New Testament, a version of the Psalms was printed in the same language, at Rostock. The title of it was "David's Psaltere, &c." i. e. "The Psalter of David translated into Danish by Francis Wormord, Carmelite friar, with a few annotations on such places as needed them, together with an excellent register at the end, pointing out the use, virtue, and power of each Psalm. Cum gratia et privilegio Regiee 71/." It is in quarto, and is stated at the end, to have been printed by the friars in St. Michael's convent at Rostock, on the 5th of Sep- tember, 1528. It is dedicated to Sir Andrew and Lady Bilde of Sioholm, to whose importunate intreaties, the author ascribes its publication. In the preface he points out the excellency of the Psalms, and the great utility attending the study of them ; specifies the different trans- lations of which he had availed himself; and combats the arguments of those who opposed the publication of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongues. His version ap- pears to have been made immediately from the Hebrew, though at the same time the author consulted the ren- derings of the different translations of the Psalter which he had at hand. These he states in the preface to have been Psalterium GalUcanum, or the old Italic ; Psalterium Romamim, the version of Jerom; two German transla- tions, the one German proper, and the other Dutch ; and the two more recent Latin versions of Felix Pratensis, (38) Pontopp. Annal. Eccles. Diplomat, III. p. 789, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. ' 317 and Conrad Pellican. It was a dictate of prudence to suppress the reformer's name, yet he had, evidently, Luther's at hand, not only in specifying the contents, but in forming the version. The language is very un- polished. Indeed, Wormord himself acknowledges, in the preface, that he had considerable difficulty in ex- pressing himself in Danish, • both on account of the dissonance between the Hebrew and Danish; and the intrusion of his native language, the peculiarities of which it was hardly possible for him to elude. That his version is not more unpolished, is ovring to the assistance he received from his old master. Lector Paul, who, he says, on being desired, assisted him in this point with more rea- diness, than many of his enemies were willing to believe. This is the same Lector Paul, (Paul Eliae,) of whom an account has been given in a preceding note. His parti- cipation in this work, cannot fairly be construed into a proof of his having changed his mind, in regard to the sentiments expressed in his letter to Hans Mikkelsen. He had declared in that letter, that " he had no objec- tion to every person's understanding so much of the Scrip- tures as concerned his salvation;" and it is likely he considered the Psalms in this light. Besides, they .rere not so liable to be adduced in opposition to the anti- christian system of which he was a zealous abettor, as the New Testament was, and therefore he could not be under any alarm at their being put into the hands of the laity. A translation of Athanasius's Treatise on the virtue and excellence of the Psalms^ by Paul Elise, is appended to the work; together with a Royal Privilege, which Wormord was careful to procure, in order to prevent the enemies of the translation from throwing any obstructions in the way of its circulation. To each Psalm a short Summary is prefixed, and compendious notes are interspersed, with a view to illustrate the more difficult passages. Francis Wormord, the translator of this version of 318 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ the Psalms, v/as born at Amsterdam, in the year 1491, but came, when young, to Denmark, and entered the Car- melite monastery at Eisinore. He was one of the first of the monks who embraced the doctrines of the Refor- mation, and was so distinguishingly zealous in propagat- ing and defending them, that he procured to himself the name of Luther Frank. In 1526, he was driven from one of the pulpits in Copenhagen, amid the clamours and hissings of the canons, who felt themselves galled by the pointed manner in which he delivered the new views he had obtained of the Gospel. In these circumstances, it was natural for him to look around him, for men of similar sentiments with himself, and to settle in some place where he would be more unshackled in his endeavours to disseminate the truth; and where, by this means, he would be more likely to be useful to his fellow-men. He accordingly crossed to Malmoe, the inhabitants of which town had already discovered a disposition to favour the cause he had espoused. He could not, however, be prevailed on to preach, till he had applied for permission to XhQ archbishop of Lund. This prelate, on Wormord's promising to preach nothing but the pure truths not' on'*' granted him liberty, but made him a present of some florins, on his leaving him: but it was not long before Lis sermons made it manifest, that his ideas of pure truth differed widely from those entertained by Achon, and that the evident tendency of his doctrines was to alienate the minds of the people from the Roman see. Yet he was allowed to proceed without much molestation ; was soon employed as theological tutor in the High School, which had recently been established at Malmoe ; and, in 1530, we find him called to take part in the pub- lic theological Colloquium, held at Copenhagen, for the purpose of discussing the merit of the questions at that time pending between the Catholics and Protestants, in Denmark. In 1537, he was elected the first Lutheran SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 319 bishop of Lund^ which office he has the testimony of having filled with great credit and ability. He died in 1551. Le Long (Biblioth. Sacra, torn. I. p. 416) mentions, on the authority of Aslacus, that an edition of the Psalms was published at Malmoe also, in 1528. This Dr. Hen- derson conceives to be an error; the following are his words : "As I had not found any traces of such an edi- tion, in any of the Northern writers 1 consulted, 1 was the more anxious to see what Aslacus said on the subject, but on turning to his book, I found nothing further than what is in Le Long, and am persuaded he has been misled by a Danish Psalm-book, which was first printed at Mal- moe, 1528, and has mistaken it for the Psalms of David. It was composed chiefly of Psalms translated from the Ger- man by Tonlebinus, who, along with Spandernager, was zealous and successful in his attempts to introduce the principles of the Reformation into Malmoe. This Psalm- book was republished in 1529, and 1534; but no copies are known to be now extant." Christiern Pedersen, who has been already noticed as the author of the Jertegns Post II, published a transla- tion of the Psalms in Danish, with the title, " Dauidz Psaltere, &c." i. e. " David's Psalter, which the Holy Spirit himself made by the mouth of David. It is a suitable book for all Christians, for it shews us how we ought to believe in, serve, and love God, with our whole heart, and how we may be saved. It may, indeed, be called a little Bible, seeing it contains, in a few words, what is contained in the Bible." At the end is added, " This Psalter is translated into Danish by Christiern Pedersen, who was canon in Lund, and printed at Ant- werp, the year after the birth of God, 1531." But it may be doubted whether this was the date of the^r**^ edition, as Le Long says an edition was printed in 1528; and Dr. Henderson (MS. Hist.) remarks, that the copies which he has seen (evidently meaning beside this) have 1529. 320 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, In the Preface, the translator, whose mind was now opening to the truth, complains how sadly the Psalms had been neglected; that their place had been occupied by Passionals and Legends of saints; and that books of imitation, which were full of fictitious miracles and fool- ish dreams, had been preferred before them. He points out their excellency and superiority, not only in compari- son with the best books of human composition, but even with the rest of Scripture itself, — ^as they furnish us with the most eligible expressions for carrying on our correspond- ence with God, teach us the right way to heaven, and contain the most lucid prophecies of the sufferings and death, the kingdom and glory of Christ. He insists on the necessity of humble prayer to God, for light and direction, in order to our interpreting the Scriptures properly; and ascribes the accomplishment of the present work to the Father of Lights, who had conferred grace upon him proportioned to the arduousness of the task he had undertaken. — A brief description is also given of the different instruments of Hebrew music that are mention- .ed in the Psalms; and several observations are made respecting the genius of the Hebrew language, such as the frequent changes of person, tense, &c. which shew that the translator was versant in that tongue. At the close there is an address, in which he repels the objections made to the reading of the Holy Scriptures by the laity; and apologizes for any imperfections which might be found in his translation. " It ought," he says, "properly to have been all in verse, for the ori- ginal Hebrew is in verse; but the Danish language does not admit of that flexion and ease which are requisite in such a performance." In another part of the same address, he defends the liberty he had taken in not rendering word for word, but giving what appeared to him to be the meaning of the writer: "If," he declares, "I had translated exactly according to the Latin of St. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 321 Jerom, none would have understood my Danish; nor would it have either head or tail, as every one must per- ceive from the other versions which have been made of the Psalter, of which all complain that they are unintel- ligible, a necessary consequence of their having been verbally translated, and the sound having been followed, rather than the sense." " He that translates," he adds, " from Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, must do it so as to be understood by all who speak the language into which he translates; otherwise it were better for him to abstain from the undertaking, for those who read his translation will soon get weary of what they do not understand, and thereby grow careless about reading the Word of God.'* The translation is considered by competent judges as being frequently too paraphrastic, and the expressions too generally accommodated to Christian sentiments for a Jewish writer, but it is remarkably pure in its language, considering the time when it was executed; and the learned Bishop Mlinter (Den Danshe Reformations historie, II Deel. p. 73) assures us, that the works of Pedersen are worthy of a place among the Danish classics, A still more important work was completed by the same author, in a translation of the New Testament into Danish, published at Antwerp, A. D. 1529. The title of it is, " Det Ny Testament, &c." i. e. " The New Testament, containing the very words and Gospels which Jesus Christ himself preached and taught here on earth, and which his holy Apostles and Evangelists afterwards wrote, — now translated into proper Danish, and correct- ed, to the praise and honour of God, and the service and benefit of the common people, 1529." The form is small quarto, the paper better than that on which Mik- kelsens translation was printed, and a considerable improvement is observable in the typography. The punc- tuation is nearly the same, only, what is rather singular, there is seldom any full-stop to be met with. The Vol. II. X 322 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, parallel passages are referred to in the margin, by the specification of the chapter. It is entirely exempt from marginal glosses and observations: what the translator deemed necessary to add by way of explanation, he has inclosed within a parenthesis, or expressed paraphrastic caliy in the version itself. la the preface, which occupies eleven pages, he calk the inhabitants of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, to thankfulness to God, for having sent them his holy and unadulterated Word, in their own language ; adverts to its perversion by the priests and monks, and is very severe upon them for having kept it back from the com- mon people; shewing them, in this respect, to be worse than the Jewish doctors and scribes themselves, who did not hinder Christ, when only twelve yeai^ of age, from asking them questions out of the book of the Law. His expressions are not quite so harsh as those made use of by Mikkelsen, in his Address ; but the following extracts will shew the reader with how very little ceremony he treated the clerical order, and how zealous he was for the dissemination of Divine Truth, among all classes of men. " There are many proud clerks," says he " who have a high idea of themselves, and imagine that they have much Scripture-wisdom, and who foolishly main- tain, that it is not lawful for any who do not understand Latin, whether they be noblemen, knights, or yeomen, peasants, handicraftsmen, women, or girls, to have the Gospels in their own language, or even so much as to see them. But which all good Christians now know to be an egregious falsehood; for Christ suffered death for the meanest clown or maiden, equally as for the most exalted emperor, king, pope, bishop, or prelate, that ever lived; and it is his pleasure that they should all be saved, the one as well as the other, for with him there is no respect of persons." — " They assert that the keys of the kingdom of heaven are committed unto theiiij, and that they have SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 323 the exclusive right of binding and loosing; but Christ addresses them thus : ' Wo unto you, scribes and phari- sees, hypocrites ! for ye shut up the kingdom of heaven against men: for ye neither go in yourselves, neither suffer ye them that are entering to go in. Wo unto you, for ye devour widows' houses, and for a pretence make long prayers ; therefore ye shall receive the greater damnation !* Matt, xxiii. 13, 14. And again, ' Wo unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye pay tithe of mint, and anise, and cummin, and have omitted the weightier mat- ters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith: these ye ought to have done, and not to leave the other undone.' ver. 23. And St. Paul warns all to beware lest they should be deceived by the philosophy of such clerks ; for they always oppose the Word of God, just as the scribes, Pharisees, and hypocrites, the bishops and prelates, Caia- phas and Annas, opposed the word and preaching of Christ. Agreeably to the doctrines he taught, his disci- ples were not to aspire after worldly honom'S, riches, or power; and when he sent them out, he commanded them to teach gratis, saying, ' Freely ye have received, freely give.' Nor did he himself neglect the common people, but, on the contrary, preached to them in the fields, deserts, and woods, to which many thousands flocked to hear him, and generally women, girls, and clowns, rather than clerks and others of a similar description." To the preface is annexed a list of the Gospels and Epistles, as appointed to be read in the churches. The lives of the Evangelists are prefixed to their writings, and the contents of each book are briefly stated. The order in which the books are placed is nearly the same as in Luther s German version, except that the Epistle to the Hebrews is inserted between the Epistle to Philemon, and those of Peter, instead of following the Epistles of John, as in the editions by Luther; and although Peder- sen has not altered the position of St. James's Epistle, 324 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, he has very strongly expressed his disapprobation of the manner in which Luther and Mikkelsen had spoken of it. " I cannot conceive/' says he, in the preface, "how any should have the assurance to call this Epistle an Epistle of Straw, as if it were of no more value. Yet every Christian well knows that he was an Apostle of Christ, and spake by the Holy Spirit. But what the spirit is by which such speak, is best known to God, from whom nothing can be concealed, and by whom all are to be judged." The version itself appears to have been raised on the foundation laid by Mikkelsen, though the translator has greatly improved the style, and been careful to ba- nish all foreign words and idioms, and has introduced a superior system of orthography. But notwithstanding the excellencies of this translation, it is allowed to be sometimes too paraphrastic, and in some instances to be disfigured by the adoption of modern terms and phrases, inconsistent with the manners of the age in which the New Testament was written: thus Matt, xxvi. 17. is rendered "Sker Torsdag," "Maundy Thursday ;" and xxvii. 6. xop^amv (Eng. " Treasury") is translated, "Thirken's-block,"— ."The church-block," i. e. a block of wood stuck into the ground, the upper end of which is hollowed out, so as to form a box, and firmly secured with iron, leaving a small opening at the top, through which alms are deposited for the poor. This kind of poor-box is very common all over the north of Europe, and is placed either at the church-door, the entrance to the church-yard, or at the road side adjoining to the church. Bastholm has adopted the same word ia his translation of 1780. The way having been paved for its reception by a four years circulation of Mikkelsen's version, this improved translation of Pedersen's was welcomed with joy, and read with the utmost avidity. In less than two years a SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 325 new edition was called for ; and the translator accord- ingly republished it, along with his version of the Psalms, at Antwerp, 1531, but without any alteration; and to the light diffused over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, by means 6f these different editions of the New Testament, mere than to any other cause, is doubtless to be ascribed, the early and extensive progress which the Reformation made in those kingdoms. In 1533;, Jacob Hansen published a Danish translation of Schmaltzing's German version of the Psalms. It was printed in Magdeburg, in 16mo. A second edition ap- peared in 8vo. Copenhagen, 1570, which Hieimstierne, by mistake, says, was done by Palladius ; (See Bogsamling pt. ii. p. 538;) and a third at the same place, in 12mo. 1616. As this publication does not contain a direct translation of the Psalms of David, but is composed of prayers, or pious ejaculations drawn from the text, it might have been entirely passed over, had it not been liable to be confounded with the real versions. The publication of the Danish New Testament, by Christiern Pedersen, was soon followed by a Danish ver- sion of the Pentateuch, by Hans Tausen, bearing the title ; "De fem Moses Boger, &c." i. e. "The Five books of Moses faithfully and diligently translated into Da- nish, by Hans Tausen, A. M. preacher in Copenhagen." At the end it is said to be "printed at Magdeburg, by Michael Lotther, the year after the birth of God, 1535." It is printed in a small octavo size, on tolerably good paper, with a type similar to those employed in printing the other Danish translations of the Scriptures. The ver- sion is without note, comment, or marginal reference. The chapters are divided, as was usual at that time, only into paragraphs, and are marked by their beginning a new line. In his address to the Christian reader, Tausen states the necessity of our having access to the sacred, living, and all-powerful Word which lies concealed in the 326 writings of the Prophets and Apostles^ seeing we are de-? prived of their personal ministry: and he declares the Holy Scriptures to be of such importance, that their con- tents deserve '^to be painted on every wall, written on ever}^ corner, and translated into every language, that the rising generation may be exercised in them betimes." This address is followed by a list of the books of the Old Testament, and a translation of Luther's excellent pre- face. With respect to the diction. Dr. Woldike observes (Kiohenhavnske Selshahs Skrifter I Deel, p. 9,) that greater attention has been paid to the purity, propriety, and perspicuity, of the Danish language, in ttiis version, than in any cotemporary publication, if we except the writings of Christiern Pedersen. "In making this version," says Dr. Henderson, "Tau- sen has neither implicitly followed the Vulgate, nor Lu- ther, but has had the Hebrew text itself before him, the meaning of which he has, in certain passages, more happily expressed than either of them ; and even in those instances in which he leaves them without having himself apprehended the meaning, it is evident that his mis- take has arisen from the different light in which he viewed the Hebrew expressions." That this translation of the " Five Books of Moses" was well received, appears from the fact, that it was found necessary to prepare a new edition in the course of the following year. This edition was likewise printed at Magdeburg, by Michael Lotther. On the title-page is the date 1536, which shews that it was begun in the course of that year; and at the end, 1537, the year in which, it left the press. It corresponds, in every respect, with the former edition; only, instead of "The Five Books of Moses," the translator has substituted " Det Gambe Testamente;" " The Old Testament;" which must have arisen from his design to publish the whole of that part of the Sacred Volume, at a future opportunity. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 327 Le Long mentions the latter edition, but appears to have been unacquainted with the former. Tausen actually set about completing his design, and, in 1543, obtained a royal privilege from Christian III. permitting him to print his translation, and interdicting its republication and sale by others, for the space of four years: but, owing to some unknown cause, it never made its appearance. Hans Tausen, who has obtained the name of The Danish Luther, from his activity and zeal in promoting the Reformation, was born A. D. 1494, at Birkinde, an obscure village in the vicinity of Kierteminde, in Funen. Even while a child he discovered an uncommon inclina- tion to study, and his parents, though poor, sent him to the cathedral-school of Odense, where he was initiated into the elements of science, supporting himself with what he received for chanting before the doors of the inhabitants, — a practice at that time gTcatly in vogue. After spending some time also in the school at Viborg, under the tuition of the famous Borup, he entered, about the year 1515, the Cross-Friar convent at Anderskov, in Zealand, and soon gained the esteem of Eskild, the prior, who not only took particular pains in the direction of his studies, but, flattering himself with the hopes that his pupil would one day prove an able advocate of the Catho^ lie faith, resolved to send him to some of the foreign uni- versities, where he might prosecute his researches after knowledge to greater advantage, than he could possibly do at home. This proposition was exceedingly welcome to Tausen, who had already gi-own weary of the manners of the convent, and accordingly, in 1517, he proceeded to Holland, after having come under an obligation, not to visit Wittemberg, and on his return to Denmark, to re-enter his convent. The first university he visited was Louvain ; but he was soon disgusted at the dry scholastic lectures of the professors, and went to Cologne, where he found, to his mortification, that the lectures were equally 328 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, insipid. Here, however, he met with several of Luther's publications, which increased his abhorrence of the pre- dominant ecclesiastical abuses, and led him to resolve, notwithstanding the obligation into which he had entered with the prior, and which he ought to have kept faith- fully, to visit Wittemberg, that he might hear and con- verse with the reformers. He accordingly repaired thither, and after spending upwards of a year there, in secret, he returned to Denmark in 1521. Having been created master of arts at Rostock, on his way home, he was called to hold theological lectures in the university of Copenhagen ; but his popularity with the students, and the purity of his doctrine, are supposed to have excited the hatred and jealousy of the clergy, who prevailed on Eskild to recall him to the convent. Here he kindled a flame not to be extinguished. In his sermon on Good- Friday, 1524, he discussed the following doctrinal propo- sition: That a penitent sinner obtains the Divine J avour, the pardon of his sins, and life everlasting, of mere grace, solely in virtue of the atonement oj Christ, without any worth or merit of his own: which so exasperated the prior, that he ordered him immediately to be put in confine- ment ; thoug afterwards he released him, at the instance of some of Tausen's fi lends, on condition that he should leave Zealand and Funen. Our reformer now went to Viborg, where he gained over iiany friends to the truth, but, at the same time, created himself many enemies, whose rage ultimately grew to such a height, as to cause him to be again impri- soned. This discouraging circumstance only served to add fresh vigour to his zeal, and though restrained from propagating the doctrines of the Gospel in the same public way in which he had begun, he still did what he could, by preaching through the windows of his prison, to such as collected before them. The God whom he served was^ however, able to deliver, and did deliver hiui^ SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 329 for he was not only liberated by royal authority, but nominated chaplain to Frederick I. and allowed to preach in the church of Viborg, to the no small mortification of Friis, bishop of the diocese. 80 embittered was this pre- late against Tausen, that he even ventured, in spite of the royal protection, to forbid him the use of the church ; but Tausen, who had learned that God was not confined to temples made with hands, mounted a grave-^ stone in the church-yard, and proclaimed the glad tidings of salvation to numerous audiences. Nor ought it to be concealed, that the magistrates were at last obliged to obstruct the passage, leading from the bishop's residence to the place where Tausen preached, with iron chains, to prevent the haughty dignitary and his horsemen from molesting him I Determined, if possible, to stop the mouth of such an audacious heretic, Friis sent for the bishops of Ribe, Borglum, and Aarhuus, who, after con- sulting together on the subject, wrote to the lamoiis Eckius, requesting him to come and silence Tausen by argument; but Eckius, who had already found how diffi- cult it was to dispute with the reformers of Germany, de- clined the task; on which they applied to Cochleeus, who, having advised with Erasmus,=^ also refused to undertake the journey; and Tausen was permitted to preach, with- out interruption, at Yiborg, till 1529, when the king appointed him preacher of the church of St. Nicolas, in Copenhagen. Here he entered on a new and more * The advice of Erasmus is too remarkable not to be inserted here : f' Iter perlongum est, et gens fera dicitur, et instat hiems. Si Episcopi pugnarent pro Regno Christi, non pro suo^ alacrioribus atiimis capesse- remus hanc railitiain. Quare nihil in isto nej^otio possum consulere, nisi ut spectetur non hominura sed Christi negotium, magisque iis intentus servandis hominibus, quam puniendis."' "'J he journey is long; the people are said to be of a savao;e disposition, and winter is at hand. If it were the kingdom of Christ, the bishops were contending for, and not their own, we should be more ready to join in the contest. The only advice I ran therefore give in the matter, is, that you regard it as the cause of Christ, and not that of man, and that you be more intent oa the salyatioD, than the punishment, of men.'* S30 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, extensive field of usefulness. The church was crowded when he preached; and the animation and perspicuity with which he delivered the doctrines of the Reformation, were productive of the best effects on the minds of his hearers. The Catholics, grieved to see their cause grow- ing into disrepute, were so importunate with the king, that he was necessitated to call a meeting of the States at Copenhagen, in the year 1530, that the differences be- tween the Catholics and Reformers might be settled by public disputation. The former sekcted the most learned and acute of their party; but fearing lest after all they might be worsted, they hired some able disputants in Germany to come and assist them. Tausen came forward as the champion of the reformers. He had prepared forty-three articles as a confession of faith, which were signed by himself and his brethren. Two of these were, That the Holy Scriptures are the only standard of salva- tion; and That a Christian needs no other rule but these Scriptures, separate from all human appendages. In op- position to these, the other party composed twenty-seven articles; and nothing now prevented the commencement of the disputation, but the settling of the following preli- minary questions: l."In what language it slwuld be b^ld?" Tausen and his brethren maintained, that as they had begun to write on the m.atter in Danish, it ought to be carried on in that language, and the rather, as it was the language of the common people, whose interest was at stake, as well as their own. The Catholics, on the eon- trary, contended that it should be held in Latin, that being the language of the church. — '2. "Who was to be arbiter of the controversy?'" The Catholics would only admit the Bible, as interpreted by the Fathers and coun- cils, to be the standard; and maintained that the pope, as head of the church, and the vicar of Christ, was the only legitimate judge: whereas the reformers insisted that the Scriptures were, in themselves, the only standard by SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 331 which they would submit to be judged; and chose the king, the councilj and states of the reahn, for their judges. Tausen, knowing the weakness of his enemies' cause, encouraged his friends, on leaving the hall that day, with the words of the prophet: "The Egyptians are men, and not God." Isaiah, xxxi. 3. Finding that they were not likely to gain their cause, the Roman clergy attempted to get clear of the business, by publishing, that as the Lutherans were heretics, they would not dispute with them; on which Tausen drew up thirteen additional articles, in defence of himself and his brethren ; and full liberty was granted them to preach when and where they pleased. No sooner, however, did Tausen lose his royal pro- tector, who died in 1533, than his enemies exerted their influence against him, and occasioned him to be sum- moned to appear before the states of the kingdom. Here he was accused in the bitterest manner; and although he defended himself with great ability, the prelates sen- tenced him to lose his life, honour, and goods. This sentence the council refused to confirm ; though he was ordered to leave the island, and never appear more either in Zealand, or Scania. But the citizens, having been apprized of the manner in which he was treated, assembled before the chamber, and demanded that he should be delivered to them safe and sound. An amiable trait in Tausen's character displayed itself on this occasion. The populace were so exasperated at Bishop Ronnow, whom they regarded as the author of the prosecution, that they were detei-mined to wreak their vengence on him as he returned to his residence. Tausen, however, calmed their fury, and conducted his enemy by the arm, through the mob, to the door of his house. Having weathered the storm, he continued to labour unmolested in Copenhagen, till the year 1537, when he was appointed lecturer on divinity in Roskilde. In 1542, he was created bishop of Ripen, which station he occupied 332 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, till his death on the 9th of November, 1561, aged 67. (SMagraphia Luther I Danici, sive Bwgraphia Primi in Dania Restauratoris Doctrince Sance Magistri Johannu Tausani, Auct. P. Ron, Hafnioe, 1757, 8 vo.) After Tausen's version of the Pentateuch, the next portion of Sacred Scripture published in Danish, was a translation of the Book of Judges. The author, Pedeti Tide MAN, was cieri^^yman of the parishes of Hersted Os- ter, and Hersted Vester, in Zealand; and published several other works, mostly translations, among^which was his version of the Apocryphal books, Jesus Slrach, and the PFisdom o/'ASo/omo??, Magdeburg, 1541, 8vo. which LeLong improperly ascribes to Hans Tausen. His version of the Book of Judges is considered as one of the scarcest in the Danish language; "No mention," says Dr. Henderson, (MS. Hist.) "is made of it in hork'' s Blbliotheca Biblica; and the only copy I have fallen in with is that in the Royal Library at Copenhagen ; but it is defective, begin- ning near the end of the vith, and ending near the con- clusion of the XX th chapter. The following note is written by an anonymous hand, on the first clean leaf: ^A fragment of an old Danish translation of the book of Judges, with a preface, written by Peter Tideman, and doubtless, translated by him. Printed in Copenhagen, 1539, and not 1532, as Resen Bibl. p. 126, and Moller Hypon. I have seen a complete copy in Peter Ewertsen's collection, but this piece I purchased at the auction of the late Dr. Woidike.' It is in 12mo. on middling pa- per, and the type is coarser than that with which the preceding translations were printed. It is inferior also^ in point of language; and in different parts of the version, several obsolete and foreign words are observable. The translator sometimes follows the rendering of the Vulgate, and sometimes that of Luther." Hitherto the Danes had been chiefly indebted to the indefatigable zeal of private individuals, for those por- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 333 tions of the Holy Scriptures which had been translated into the vernacular language; but the first edition of the whole Bible owed its publication to the munificence of their monarch, Christian III. The attempts which had been begun by Christian II. to introduce the principles of the Reformation into Denmark, were continued with greater prudence and success, under the following reign. Frederick I. granted perfect liberty of conscience to all his subjects, shortly after his accession to the throne; afforded the Lutherans the same protec- tion and security as the Catholics ; cut off* the dependence which the bishops had on the papal see; and retained for himself the right of confirming their election, after they had been chosen by the chapters. These advances to- wards an entire emancipation, which he effected at the diet of Odense, 1527, were accelei-ated by that of Co- penhagen, 1530; after which period the cause of the re- formers was espoused by the greater part of the nobility, and received accessions of strength and influence daily. But it was reserved for Christian III. to bring to per- fection what his royal predecessors had commenced ; to break in pieces the hierarchical yoke; to establish the Protestant doctrine as the religion of the state; and ta adopt measures for securing its purity and perpetuity. A new form of ecclesiastical government and discipline was drawn up, and introduced; important regulations were made for the conducting of the schools ; the privileges of the university were renewed and extended ; and the great- est care was taken to promote the illumination both of the clergy and laity. Of all the steps, however, that were taken in order more fully to establish, and completely to secure, the safety of Protestantism, in Denmark, none tended more directly, or more rapidly, to the attainment of this impor- tant end, than the translation of the Bible into the vul- gar tongue. Detached portions of it had already been 334 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, published at different times; but no edition of the whole had yet appeared. This defect was pointed out to the king, by the famous Bugenhagen, whom he had invited to Copenhagen, to assist in the reformation of ecclesias- tical abuses, and who possessed no ordinary degree of his confidence and esteem. While he expatiated to his majesty on the glorious effects resulting from the gene- ral diffusion of the Word of God, in Germany, he did not fail to notice the excellencies of Luther's version, and to recommend it as the text from which the Danish trans- lation ought to be made. To this, it is probable, he was induced, not from any depreciating idea of the abilities of the Danish professors, for some of them had received distinguished academical honours at Wittemberg itself, but with a view to prevent a construction being put upon certain passages of Scripture, that might be supposed to favour the Zuinglian opinions, to which, it was suspected, some of them at that time were partial. The execution of the work was committed to the theological faculty, which was at that time composed of Peter Palladius, Olave Chrysostom, John Synning, or Siuneson, and John MACCHABiEus, or Mac alpine. The early impressions of the Danish Scriptures were almost all executed abroad. There had, indeed, been a printing office established in Copenhagen as early as 1493 ; but the influence of such as were hostile to the translation of the Word of God, was too great to admit the first vernacular versions to be printed at home; and though the press had received several improvements and enlargements subsequent to its first erection, it was, never- theless, found to be inadequate to so stupendous a work as that of printing the whole Bible. The Copenhagen divines were therefore obliged to procure a foreign printer, who might be able to execute it satisfactorily; and ultimately fixed on Lodowich Dietz, of Rostock, who had rendered himself celebrated by his masterly executioa of Luther's SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 335 Bible, in the Low-Saxon language. Some have supposed that he was sent for at the instance of Bugenhagen, but Dietz himself, in his appendix to the Low-Saxon New Testament, which he printed in 1553, mentions Dr. JMac- chaba3us as his particular friend and patron. It also ap- pears from the same appendix, that Dietz was well re- warded by the king, for his pains, for which he tiiere thanks him, and praises his laudable undertaking. In 1546, the paper destined for the work arrived^ (most probably from Holland,) at Elsinore, and in order to meet the expenses of it, together with those connected with the printing, a tax of two rix- dollars was levied on every church in Denmark. It was not, however, till 1550, that the Bible was completed. The title of it is, "Bib- LiA, det er den gantske, &c.'* "Biblia, i. e. the whole of Sacred Scripture translated into Danish. ^The Word of God abideth for ever.' Isaiah xl. Printed in Copen- hagen, by Ludowich Dietz, 1550." This is inserted in the middle of a cut, representing the giving of the Law^ the eating of the forbidden fruit, and its consequence, death; the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ; and at the foot, two men, one of whom has a Bible under his arm, are shewing a wretched sinner to Christ on the cross. The same cut is inserted at the beginning of the prophets, and New Testament. On the inside of the title-page is the portrait of Christian III. The two following pages present us with a paradisaical scene, and the Danish arms, with the inscription: Insig- nia ChRISTIANI TERTIf DANORUM REGII, &C. aUUO MDL. together with the royal and most Christian motto of this monarch : unica spes mea Christus. C. R. D. It forms a middle sized foho, consisting of 1090 pages, and is tolerably well printed on good strong paper. It is divided into five parts : the first, containing the Pen- tateuch; the second, the rest of the historical books, and the Hagiography; the third, the writings of the Pro^ 335 phets; the fourth, the Apocrypha; and the fifth, the New Testament. A royal patent is prefixed stating the de- sign of the translation to have been, to furnish such as were unacquainted with the Latin and German languages, with the Word of God in their own tongue, that they might reap that advantage from it, which it was calcu- lated to afford, having been previously revised by learned men in Denmark, and particularly by those in the uni- versity ; — a declaration which seems to intimate, that it had gone through several hands before it was referred to the professors, and that the principal concern they had was its final revision : after which the royal patent con- cludes with a prohibition, forbidding any one to reprint this Bible, or publish any edition of the Scriptures, with- out the king's permission. Then follows an excellent preface, written by Bishop Palladius, in which the advan- tages of Revelation are forcibly pointed out ; the Holy Scriptures enforced as the source of religious truth, and the standard by which the Fathers, councils, &c. are to be judged; the quaHfications necessary to a profitable reading of the Bible specified; and the means to be em- ployed in order to understand it in Its proper meaning clearly explained. The chapters are divided into para- graphs, sometimes longer and sometimes shorter, but generally more compendious than the Parashahs of the Hebrew Scriptures. The more remarkable passages are printed in a larger type than the rest of the text; and the term "Herre," when used for Jehovah, is always printed with capitals. The lines proceed along the whole breadth of the page. Several wood -cuts, illustrative of the Sacred History, are copied from those in the German Bibles; and the notes and references of Luther are printed in the margin. The version itself, agreeably to the advice given by Bugenhagen, follows that of Luther, except in a few instances, in which the translators have mistaken the meaning of the German. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 337 The number of copies printed of the Danish Bible, amounted to three thousand. When they were ready, a bookbinder was procured from Lubeck, who engaged to deliver 2000 copies bound in whole leather, with clasps, within a year and a day, for two marks Danish per copy, beside lodging, as appears from a royal brief given at the Royal Palace, Copenhagen, on the 8th of July, 1550. The price at which copies were sold was 3 rix-doUars each. Of the impression, 257 copies were sent to the diocese of Scania; 110 were appropriated to the churches in Zealand; 123 were sent to Ribe; 320 to Aarhus; 200 to Viborg; 150 to Vendsyssel; 96 to Norway; 108 to Laaland, Falster, and the adjacent islands ; 33 to Gul- land, and 3 to Iceland. (Lcesendes Aarhog for 1800, pp. 13, \A.) The remaining copies were sold to individu- als who had a desire to read the Word of God, and were in possession of means sufficient to meet the expense connected with the purchase of it. The names of those members of the theological faculty who were engaged in this important undertaking havei been already mentioned. The following biographical notices of them, will enable the reader still more fully to appreciate their character and labours. Peter Palladius, to whom the chief care of the translation was committed, was born at Ribe, in 1503. Here he laid the foundation of his knowledge of the learn- ed languages ; and after spending some time in Copen- hagen and Odense, visited Wittemberg, where he was indefatigable in his application to the study of theology, and unremitting in his attendance on the public lectures of Luther, Melancthon, and Justus Jonas. The progress he made during his stay at that university was so con- spicuous, that when Christian III. consulted the Wittem- berg divines, in regard to a fit person for carrying on his views relative to church -affairs, in Denmark, they unani- mously recommended Palladius to him; on which he Vol. iU Y 338 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, took his doctor's degree, and returned, in 1537, to Copen- hagen, where he was immediately made professor of divinity. In this situation he so gained the esteem of the king, and of the other professors and divines, that on the 2nd of September, in the same year, he was install- ed, as the first Lutheran bishop, into the see of Zealand. In 1545, finding the discharge of the duties connected with both posts greater than he was able to bear, he relinquished his professorship, and confined his attention exclusively to his episcopal charge. Beside his vigilant superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs, he wrote much for the elucidation and defence of the truth. Zwergius enumerates 27 works of his, which have been printed, exclusive of a number of MSS. in Latin and Danish. Many of his publications consist of Commentaries on the Sacred Scriptures. One of his works, now before me, which was printed at Frankfort, by Peter Brubach, 1558, small 8vo. is intituled "De Bibliis Sacris et Libris Vete- ris et Novi Testamenti." It is an excellent analysis of the different books of the Bible, and is accompanied with an exposition of Christ's Prayer, contained in the 17th chapter of St. John's Gospel. He thus distinguishes the canonical and apocryphal writings. 1st. "The Canonical Boohs are those by which the authority of the doctrines of divines is confirmed. 2nd. The Apocryphal, or doubt- ful, are those, the truth of which is uncertain, and which only serve for the edification of the people, and not for the confirmation of ecclesiastical doctrines; such are the books of Judith, IVisdom, Tohit, Jesus Sirach, Baruch^ Maccabees, and the fragments of Esther and Daniel. All the rest are canonical, or authentic, on which ac- count the Scriptures are termed the canonical, or authen- tic Scriptures, and they who read or interpret them are called Canons r^^ Palladius departed this life in 1560. Olaus, or Olave Chrysostom, was a native of Vend- (39) Ji'alladius, De Bibliis Sacris^ p. 5, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 339 syssel, in Jutland, and one of the first and most zealous defenders of the doctrines of the Reformation in Denmark. He was for some time professor of the Belies Lettres, in Malmoe, and afterwards received the appointment of Hebrew professor, and preacher of Lady-church, in Copenhagen. In 1542, he was rector of the university, and ordinary professor of divinity; and two years after- wards took his doctor s degree. He was highly esteemed by his colleagues, but the students were by no means partial to him, which was probably the cause of his being removed to another situation. This happened in 1549, when he was nominated to the see of Aalborg, where he died, in 1553. John Synning, or Siuneson, was also a native of Jutland. In 1544, we find him filling the divinity-chair, in Copenhagen, and shortly after officiating as preacher of the church of the Holy Ghost, (Freherus says, of the church of St. Hospitius.) This latter office he afterwards gave up, and applied himself solely to his academical functions. He died in 15^77. (Worm's Lexicon, art. Siuneson.)*" John Macchab.eus, or M'Bee, was a nativ^e of Scot- land, and descended from an ancient and noble family. His true name was Macalpine, of the celebrated clan Alpine. From his infancy he discovered a strong pro- pensity to learning, which was encouraged by his parents, who provided him with the most learned teachers they could procure. Having embraced the principles of the Reformation, he was obliged, in 1532, to flee into Eng- land, where he was entertained by Bishop Shaxton, and also gained the esteem of Lord Cromwell. Here he married a lady of Scotch extraction, whose name was Agnes Machison. From England he passed over to the Continent, and for some time resided at Wittemberg, (40) Henderson's MS. See also Freheri Theatrum, pt. i. pp. 172. 181. 340 where he formed an intimate friendship with Luther and Melancthon, the latter of whom gave him the name of Macchahceus, from the similarity between his character and circumstances, and those of the ancient Jewish champions. He also spent some time at Strasburg, where several English refugees then resided. He was afterwards invited to Denmark, by Christian HI. who employed him in the great work of aiding the establish- ment of the reformed religion in his dominions; and made him a professor in the university of Copenhagen. He was highly esteemed by, the Danish monarch, who, at his request, wrote to Queen Mary of England, in be- half of his brother-in-law, Miles Coverdale, bishop of Exeter and the venerable translator of the Bible, who was released from prison through his importunity. Macchahceus was well acquainted with the Danish and German languages, which, added to his general charac- ter for piety and learning, occasioned his appointment as one of the translators of the Danish Bible. He was the author of various works designed to support and spread the principles of true Christianity. After labouring for many years in the cause of truth, he was called to his eternal reward, December 6th, 1557. By his wife Agnes Machison, he left a son. Christian, born at Wittemberg, 1541, who became president of the college of Sora, in Zealand, and canon and archdeacon of Lunden." It would also appear from a royal receipt, dated Feb. 13th, 1557, that Hemmingius, professor of Hebrew; Peter Tideman, whose translation of the book of Judges has already been described; and Hans Henrickson ; had each his share in the execution of the translation, for which certain sums are there stated to have been paid them. A certain allowance was also paid, out of the funds appropriated to the publication of the Bible, to (41) M' die's Life of Knox, I. pp. 357—359. Edinb. 1814, 8vo. Freheri Theatrum, pars i. pp. 174, 175. 305. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 341 Christiern Pedersen, the author of a former version of the New Testament, for writing out a fair copy from the several translations which w^ere made by those ap- pointed to the work. (Langehekiana, pp. 295, 297.) Though far distant from the seat of the Reformation, the island of Iceland also soon experienced its happy effects. A translation of the New Testament, into the Norse or Icelandic idiom, was completed in 1539, by Oddur Gottshalkson; and printed in 1540, in 12mo. at Roschild, in Denmark, by Hans Barth. The title-page of this edition is ornamented with a cut, emblematical of the spread of the Gospel. The translation is made from the Latin, with some emendations from the German version of Luther; and is said, "in point of language, to bear the palm from all the succeeding versions." The circumstances under which Oddur undertook and prosecuted his invaluable work, exhibit a striking proof of the difficulties with which many of the first translators of the Scriptures had to encounter. At the time of com- mencing his translation, Oddur was engaged in the service of Ogmund, bishop of Skalholt, the determined enemy of the Reformation, and its doctrines. Of this enmity the following instance is given: Gisle Jonson, the rector of the cathedral, having imbibed certain Lutheran principles, was one day reading the German version of Luke, in an obscure corner of the church, when he was unexpectedly surprised by the bishop, who instantly demanded what book he was reading? The panic-struck priest could make no reply. Enraged at his silence, the bishop coarsely exclaimed, "Show it me, thou son of a ." The New Testament was immediately delivered to Ogmund, who no sooner opened it, than he condemned it as full of Lutheran heresy, and threw it with violence into the court, before the church. To avoid detection by so formidable and avowed an enemy, Oddur was obliged to employ every precaution that pru- 342 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, deiif'e could dictate. With this view, he retired to a small cell in a cow-house. In this humble apartment, he was occupied in transcribing ancient ecclesiastical statutes and constitutions ; and on showing his progress to the prelate, obtained those supplies of paper, and writing materials, which enabled him to prosecute his favourite design. But he had only advanced in this translation, to the end of Matthew, when he was obliged to quit the episcopal see, probably through information lodged against him, on account of his principles. On quitting Skalhoit, he leased the farm of Rei/kium, in the district of Olves, and there completed his translation. In order to have it printed, he sailed the same year to Denmark, and obtained for it the patronage of his Majesty Chris- tian III. who, on its being approved by the university, issued an edict, authorizing its publication: and it was accordingly printed the ensuing year, to the great joy of Oddur, and his friends, and the general benefit of the inhabitants of Iceland ; and was the Jirst Icelandic New Tistament. This eminent translator, Oddur Gottshalkson, was the son of the bishop of Holuni. In his sixth year, he was committed to the care of his uncle Guttorm, a law- yer, in Norway, by whom he was sent to the school of Bergen, under the pious and learned Magister Petraeus. Whilst at Bergen, the doctrines of the Reformation at- tracted his attention, and at length created in him the utmost anxiety of mind. At a loss to decide what was truth, he sought wisdom of God. For three successive nights he prostrated himself, half naked, upon the floor of his apartment, and besought the Father of Lights, to open the eyes of his understanding, and show him the truth. The result was a firm conviction that the cause of the reformer wq,s the cause of God. From Bergen he proceeded to Germany, and heard the sermons of Luther and Melancthon. On returning to Iceland^ he entered SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 343 into the employment of Ogmimd, bishop of Skalholt. Here he associated with Gisle Jonson, the rector of the cathedral mentioned above; Gissur Einarson, the bishop s secretary; and his steward, Oddur Eyolfson; all of whom used to meet at the house of the latter, in order to read the Scriptures, and the works of Luther. Beside the New Testament, he also translated the 53rd chapter of Isaiah, into his native tongue. He added to it short ex- pository notes, and got it printed at Copenhagen, in 1558. All his translations which were made public by him, were printed at his own expense. In 1554, he was made lawyer of the northern division of the island, an office which he filled with great credit till 1556, when he lost his life in the river Laxd, in the Kiosar district.*^ Prussia, as well as Iceland, received at an early period, the principles of the Lutheran Reformation. In 1523, Luther sent John Brisman, a Franciscan doctor of divinity, into Prussia ; and also, in less than a year after, Paul Sperat, who, for preaching the Gospel in Moravia, had been condemned to a noisome dungeon at Olmutz, by the persecuting bishop of that city, but had providentially escaped to Wittemberg. These laborious and excellent men were joined by John Poliander, and George de Polentz, bishop of Samland. Of this prelate, Luther speaks with triumphant satisfaction and delight. "At length," says he to Spalatinus, "one bishop is come for- ward, and with a single eye, has given himself up to the cause of Christ and his Gospel, in Prussia. 1 mean the Bishop of Samland, who listens to the fostering instruc- tion of Brisman, whom we sent there after that he had cast off the monkish habit." So much, indeed, did this bishop distinguish himself by his evangelical exertions, that he may truly be called the Father of the Reformation in that country; and appears to have been the first prelate (4a) See the " Historical View," appended to Dr. Henderson's Icelandi a work to which this account is entirely indebted. 344 BIBLICAL LITERATURE, who ventured to recommend to his clergy the study of Luther's writings. " Read," said he, " with a pious and diligent spirit, the translation of the Old and New Tes- tament by that most famous divine, Dr. Martin Luther. Read his tracts on Christian liberty, and on good works, also his explanations of the Epistles and Gospels, and of the Magnificat and the Psalms." In the same public advice to his clergy, he lamented the ignorance of the peopk, and exhorted them to perform the baptismal service no longer in Latin, but in the language of the country; adding, that "it was the will of God that the promises of the Gospel should be explained in intelligible language." *"* The advice of the good bishop to his clergy to read the Explanations of Scripture by Luther, leads us to remark, in the words of a celebrated ecclesiastical historian, that " The first and principal object that drew the attention, and employed the industry, of the reform- ers, was the exposition and illustration of the Sacred Writings, which, according to the doctrine of the Luthe- ran church, contain all the treasures of celestial wisdom ; all things that relate to faith and practice. Hence it happened, that the number of commentators and exposi- tors among the Lutherans, was equal to that of the eminent and learned doctors that adorned that commu- nion. At the head of them all, Luther and Melancthon are undoubtedly to be placed; the former on account of the sagacity and learning discovered in his explications of several portions of Scripture, and particularly of the Books of Moses; and the latter, in consequence of his commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul, and other learned labours of that kind, which are abundantly known. A second class of expositors, of the same com- munion, obtained also great applause in the learned world, by their successful application to the study of the Holy Scriptures, in which we may rank Matthias Flacius, (43; Miiaer's Mist, of the Churcii of Urist, V. pp. 178, 179, " ' SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 345 whose Glossary, and Key to the Sacred PTritings^ is extremely useful in unfolding the meaning of the inspired penmen; John Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, Andrew Osiander, and Martin Chemnitz, whose Harmonies of the Evangelists are not void of merit. To these we may- add Victor Strigelius, and Joachim Camerarius, of whom the latter, in his Commentary on the New Testament, ex- pounds the Scriptures in a grammatical and critical manner only; and laying aside all debated points of doctrine and religious controversy, unfolds the sense of «ach term, and the spirit of each phrase, by the rules of criticism, and the genius of the ancient languages, in which he was a very uncommon proficient." ''All these expositors and commentators abandoned the method of the ancient interpreters, who, neglecting the plain and evident purport of the words of Scripture, were perpetually torturing their imaginations, in order to find out a mysterious sense in each word or sentence, or were hunting after insipid allusions, and chimerical applications of Scripture-passages, to objects which never entered into the views of the inspired writers. On the contrary, their principal zeal and industry were employ- ed in investigating the natural force and signification of each expression, in consequence of that golden rule of interpretation inculcated by Luther, That there is no more than one sense annexed to the words of Scripture, through- out all the hooks of the Old and New Testament.^ It must, however, be acknowledged, that the examples exhibited by these judicious expositors were far from being univer- sally followed. Be that as it may, all the expositors of this age may be divided, methinks, with propriety enough, into two classes, with Luther at the head of the one, and * " The Latin titles are Glossa Scripturce Sacrce^ and Clavis Scrip- turce Sacrce,^^ + *'This golden rule will be found often defective and false, unless several prophetical, parabolical, and figurative expressionSj be excepted Ja its ap plication." Note bi/ Translator^ 346 BIBLICAL LITERATURE^ Melancthon presiding in the other. Some commentators followed the example of the former, who, after a plain and familiar explication of the sense of Scripture, applied its decisions to the fixing of controverted points, and to the illustration of the doctrines and duties of religion. Others discovered a greater propensity to the method of the latter, who first divided the discourses of the Sacred Writers into several parts, explained them according to the rules of rhetoric, and afterwards proceeded to a more strict and almost a literal exposition of each part, taken separately, applying the result, as rarely as was possible, to points of doctrine, or matters of controversy."** The zeal displayed by the early reformers, in trans- lating, circulating, and explaining the Scriptures, ex- tended its influence to Hungary, and occasioned the translations of several parts of the Sacred Writings. Le Long notices a translation of the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, into the Hungarian tongue, made in 1541, by John Sylvester, an Hungarian, and dedicated to Ferdinand and his son Maximilian. This translation was never printed. — ^The same learned bibli- ographer mentions the Epistles of St. Paul, in the Hungarian tongue, printed at Cracow, 1533, 8vo.; the Four Gospels, translated by Gabriel Pannonius Pes- tinus, printed at Vienna, 1536, 8vo.; the Four Gospels, the Epistles of St. Paul, and the Revelation, printed in 1541, 4to. ; and the whole of the New Testament, printed at Vienna, in 1574, 4to.*^ The New Testament, and the Book of Psalms, were also translated into the Finnish language, by Michael Agricola, a native of the province of Nyland, pastor and afterwards bishop of Abo, in Finland, who had embraced the Lutheran sentiments. This version, which (44) Mosheim's Eccles. Hist, translated by Dr. Maclaine, IV. pt, il sec. 3, pp, 304—306, (45) Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra, I. p, 446. Paris, 1723* SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 347 was made from the Swedish, was printed at Stockholm, in 1548, 4to. Agricola died in 1556.*^ Nor ought we to omit the mention of the Biblical labours of John Potken, Prepositiis or bishop of the cathedral-church of St. George, at Cologne. Induced by the desire to furnish the Ethiopians who visited Rome, with an impression of the Psalms, and some other parts of the Scriptures, in their native tongue, and its appropriate characters, he applied himself to the study of the Ethiopk language, and by the assistance of an Ethiopian or Abyssinian monk, acquired sufficient know- ledge to print an edition of the Psalms, and of the Song of Solomon, in 1513, in 4to. To this work he subjoined the Ethiopic Alphabet, and a brief Introduc- tion to the reading of the Ethiopic tongue. It was printed at Rome, by Marcellus Silber, or Franck; and was the first book printed in Europe with the Ethiopic character. In 151